CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter reviews the earlier studies and research contributions in

relation to temperature and rainfall. The contributions are presented in a

chronological order which is collected from various journals and research

works. The collected reviews which indicates the inter linkages of climate

and its changing scenario in India as well as the global level. Hence, the

reviews highlights the correlation of climate especially Temperature and

Rainfall with Human health, Food security, Agricultural activities,

availability of portable water, Income and poverty etc. The scholarly reviews

have been collected and presented from 1986 to 2017.

Rao (1986)1 has analyzed in the past Independence development scene

in India, the agricultural sector presents a curious paradox. The sector has

witnessed some startling break through in production described as the green

revelation, particularly heartwarming has been the growth in production of

food grains to enable the young nation to put an end to the frequent

visitation of famines by making the history of Indian economy until the

1
RaoV.M and R.S.Desph Pande (1986) “Agricultural Growth in India: A review
of experience and prospects”. “Economic and Political Weekly”, Vol.21, No 38/39,
pp.A.101-112.
 73

middle of the century. This paper examines the shifts in the sources of

growth since the sixties from an increase to improvements in yields growth

in irrigation and the use of modern inputs and takes a brief look at the recent

changes in the agricultures term of trade, against this back ground that the

authors pose the complex question of the relationship between agricultural

growth and the welfare of the rural masses and identify three major frontiers

which need to be crossed to push agricultural growth beyond its present

limits. It is difficult to strike a net balance between the positive and the

negative influences that prepare the ground for constructing a medium term

scenario for agricultural growth. At the changing sectoral composition of

Indian Economy and its implications for agricultural growth policies.

Warrick (1988)2 pointed out that in their study higher ambient levels

of carbon dioxide can affect crop directly or indirectly through changes in

climate variables .It is investigated through several approaches like crop

impact analysis, marginal partial analysis and agricultural system analysis.

The Investigation suggests that for the core mid latitude cereal region in an

average warming of 2 degree Celsius may decrease potential yields by 3-17

2
Warrick.R.A.(1988), “climate Change and Agriculture”, “The geographical
Journal”, Vol.154, No.2, pp.221-231.
 74

percent changes in climate at the margin of crop production could result in

shift in geographical location of potential crop regions perhaps the order of

several hundred kilometers per degree Celsius change in the mid and high

latitudes. The result of controlled experiments consistently shows that the

higher carbon dioxide increase dry matter production largely by stimulating

photosynthetic response decrease transpiration and thus improving water use

efficiency yields of crops .For instance, it could increase by 10-50 percent

for a doubling of carbon dioxide concentration .It is suggested that to large

extent the potential adverse effects of climatic change could be observed or

avoided through agronomic policy and market feedback mechanism such

results are only tentative it is not yet possible to predict what the combined

net effect of both higher co2 and climatic change will be of global

agriculture.

Wang Fu tang (1995)3 pointed out that the potential for major change

is lower when environmental factors such as soil and management are

consistent red in addition to climate. The potential for change is also reduced

3
Wang fu tang and Zhaozaong-ci (1995), “impacts of climate Change on
agriculture on natural vegetation in china and its implication for agriculture”, “Journal of
Biogeography”, Vol.22 No.4/5.Terrestrial Ecosystem interaction with global
change,Vol.2. pp.651-664
 75

when vegetation is considered as a whole rather than an individual species

basis due to both in to specific international and interaction environmental

factors acting. Scenarios due to human activity in East Asia and climate

change by 2050 have been estimated by means of a simple global socio

economic climate impacts model combined with seven general circulation

models (GC SM).These climate change scenarios show that the annual mean

temperature might increase about 1.4 degree Celsius and annual total

precipitation might increase by above 4% over the whole of China in

comparison with the present climate the change in precipitation might be

much smaller than that of temperature The potential impacts of human

activity induced climate change on natural vegetation in China were

estimated by using the vegetation climate model developed particularly for

Chinese vegetation type and different climate scenarios derived from seven

GCMS for 2050forAll scenarios suggest a large change in natural

vegetation although details of predicated types vary between the scenarios .

There will be a north ward shift of vegetation types. With the increase in the

area extent of tropical rain forest and decrease of cold China has a high

population. During the historic development, several thousand years a large

areas of forest and gross land had been converted to unusable us land. At
 76

present agriculture is a very important element of vegetation cover

Consequently considering all these changes and situation especially in

combination with the probable negative balance between precipitation and

evapor transpiration that is increase of moisture stress ,the possible influence

of climate change on Chinese agriculture are assessed briefly in this paper.

As a result of the above described analysis it is extremely difficult to draw

general conclusions of the potential implications of climate change for

Chinese vegetation because of scientific uncertainties both of investigation

of climate change and of its vegetation response.

Joan Reilly (1995)4 discussed it was also experimented with different

combination of changes in crop variety. The study says that the levels of

fertilizer and irrigation to find are significant strategies to limit yield losses

to be found. The model used by rp(Amount or billion) also includes an

equation that relates food prices production and income to the number of

people at risk of chronic hung and they found that the number of potentially

hungry people increased by 40 million (GISS) 300 million (VKMO) under

the case with adaptation and the direct effect of co2. It also concluded that

4
Joan Reilly (1955), “climate change and agriculture: recent findings and issue”,
“American journal of Agriculture Economics, Vol.77.No.3, pp. 727.-733
 77

considerable progress is made in evaluating the potential effects of climate

change on global agriculture but significant uncertainties remain. Since

existing evidence indicates that global effects are manageable, and its

concern has shifted to regional effects.

Singh (1997)5 has traced the historical analysis of agriculture in India

and Pakistan from 1947-1997.The study reveals that at the time of partition,

Pakistan was inherited to 55% of the population, 62% of the area,

70%percent of the canal irrigation and 70 percent of the income. Over all the

exchange of people was almost equal; 4.3 million coming to India against

4.2 million coming to Pakistan. Of which 1.7 million was irrigated

0.9million perennially, there were only 1.9million hectares were offered to

them of which 0.53 were irrigated, barely 0.216million perennially. In

addition to, 40 percent of agriculturists who came to India in August

1947had become refugees at the time of partition so India was deficit in food

grains by 35000 tones. Since most of the holdings were small and marginal,

poverty on the India inside of the international border was all pervading.

This led to the farm population mostly younger one, either to seek career

5
SinghI.J (1997) “Agriculture situation in India and Pakistan”, “Economic and
Political Weekly,,Vol.32,No.26, pp.90-91.
 78

their fortunes abroad. After the partition India is made concerted efforts to

increase agriculture production through various agricultural developmental

programmes supported by responsive administration. This led to the

speculation increase in crop productivity, crop production, fertilizer

consumption, irrigated area and real percapita GDP in India as compared to

Pakistan. These developmental efforts in the farm sector also lowered down

the rate of population growth in India than in Pakistan.

Duck worth et al (2000)6 assessed the sensitivity of calcareous grass

land vegetation to climate change and to indicate the most probable direction

of change. The study area was a region of Britain, Ireland, France and Spain,

centered on the Bay of Biscay, which was defined to use a land classification

based on climatic criteria .The use of study by most of methods vegetation in

the field, with additional data collected on soils, climate management and

land cover. The vegetation samples were ordinate by de trended

correspondence analysis in order to explore the main gradients percent and

as a basis for modeling changes. Environmental data were summarized by

ordination technique s with the scores generated used to predict with the
6
Duckworth.R.G.H. Bunce and A.J.C. Mallock (2000) “Modeling the potential
effects of climate change on calcareous grass land in Atlantic Europe”, “Journal of
Biogeography Vol .27, No.2 .pp. 347-358.
 79

current vegetation score on the first two ordination axes by multiple

regression. The model was then manipulated to represent 2degree Celsius

increase in temperature and resulting shifts in the vegetation samples in

terms of their species of composition assessed, so there was a good general

agreement between the original vegetation ordination axis score and those

predicated by model the latter, which were based on environmental data

alone. Following 2 degree Celsius increase in temperature the predicated

changes in the ordination space were demonstrated to be subtle consisting of

small shifts to wards vegetation associated with warmer condition

representing distance 100 km or less on the ground .This study concluds that

the model are simple but nevertheless provide a useful basis for investigation

of potential vegetation change and the shifts in the ordination space

represent more minor changes than these predicated in previous.

Dayanantha Jay (2003)7 considered the relationship between rural and

urban incomes in widening poverty and starvation is going down but rural

agricultural livelihoods are losing ground .The important statement and

regulation on land forest chemical and effluents is ground water test. The

7
Dayanantha Jay (2003) “Policy Drifty in Agriculture”. “Economic and Political
Weekly, Vol 38, No47, Pp.4947-4948.
 80

study area is European Union and the United States where there is no

capacity of will to discriminate or priorities. This study paper is found that

the increasing agriculture growth and environment do not pollute the

economy.

Michael Thompson (2003)8, he has examined to the cultural theory

offered on approaches for understanding and resolving the disputes that

characterize environment policy .his fourfold typology of terms of social

solidarity is able to make explicitly the different social construction of nature

physical and human, on which environment debate is premised. This study

applies cultural theory to the ‘policies stories’ around climate change and

makes the case for ‘clumsy’ institutional arrangement that forgo elegance to

accommodate the diversity of social solidarities, harnessing contestation to

constructive such as cost benefit analysis, probabilistic risk assessment,

quality adjusted life years, general equilibrium modeling and policy precepts

on a single agreed definition of the problem the clear separation of facts and

values ,and the focus on optimization are similarly fla wed.

8
Michael Thompson (2003) “cultural theory climate change and clumsiness”.
Economic and Political Weekly”, Vol No 38,pp.5107-5112.
 81

Reins Borough (2003) 9 examined the relationship between climate

change and agricultural land value in Canada .From these relationship

agricultural costs of climate change scenarios are estimated to this study

motivated partly by evidence of potential agricultural benefits of climate

change from a similar analysis of the United states by Mendelssohn, Nor

has and ,Shaw and partly by the void of Canadian studies. Furthermore it

extends that analysis to non-uniform climate change scenarios .There is a

slightly positive upper bound on the agriculture benefits from climate

change within a wide margin of error is motivation for further analysis . This

study found that climate change will likely to have a large impacts on U.S

agriculture but the same effects do not appear to hold for Canada .The

relationship is found between farm on weighting scheme to the other and

over all the effects of climate change are estimated to be unremarkable even

with in the large margin of error, Hence, the estimated impacts are neither

catastrophic nor miraculous.

9
Michelle. Reins borough (2003), “A Ricardian model of climate change in
Canada”, “The Canadian journal of economics”, Vol. 36, No.1, pp.21-36.
 82

Kumar, et.al (2004)10 presents a detailed analysis of the association of

agricultural output with monsoon rainfall where two indicators of El Nino

Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Sea Surface temperatures

(SST) are measured. The study considers aggregate food grains, cereals,

pulses and oilseeds, rice, wheat, sorghum, groundnut and sugarcane by

season at national and at particular regions within India. The study uses all-

over India and state-level agricultural statistics (area, production and yield)

available from 1949–50 to 1997–98 for individual crops (rice, wheat,

sorghum, groundnut, oilseeds and sugarcane) and for combined cereals,

pulses and food grains. The rainfall pattern data from 1871 to 1991 was

studied. Through the findings we see the kharif growing season coincides

with the south-west monsoon therefore here the correlation between

monsoon and crops is particularly strong. While analyzing crop-climate

association at a regional scale we see that since production varies from one

region to another within India, we used monsoon rainfall data from

meteorological subdivisions to study local scale climate influences on crop

production — kharif food grains, kharif and rabi rice, total wheat, kharif

10
Kumar, K. K., K. R. Kumar, R. G. Ashrit, N. R. Deshpande and J. W. Hansen
(2004) Climate impacts on Indian agriculture. International Journal of Climatology. 24,
pp.1375-1393.
 83

sorghum, and kharif groundnut production — in individual states. Crops

grown in both the (kharif ) monsoon (except sorghum) and the (rabi) post-

monsoon seasons (except rice and sorghum) respond significantly to the

summer monsoon All the kharif crops except sorghum are strongly

associated with ENSO conditions. However, none of the rabi crop indices

showed this relationship the significant correlations with the Indian Ocean

SST anomalies suggest that kharif crop production indices (except sorghum)

have some predictability at a long lead time. Although rabi groundnut,

oilseed and sorghum production indices are related to the Indian Ocean SST

anomalies, such a relationship for annual total production is evident only for

rice, groundnut, oilseeds and food grains.

The results of this study provides evidence that crop response to

monsoon rainfall has some predictability, even before the start of the

growing season. This type of analysis, at a finer spatial scale, could provide

useful information forwards targeting interventions.

Easterling et al. (2004)11 the concepts of vulnerability and adaptation

in the context of climate change is explained. It illustrates selected successes

11
Easterling, E.W., B. H. Hurd and J. B. Smith (2004) Coping with Global
climate change: The Role of Adaptation in the United States. The Pew Center
 84

and failures of reactive adaptation to analogous changes in environmental or

socioeconomic conditions, and it explores the challenges and potential

benefits of deliberately stoking the nation‘s adaptive capacity with proactive

policies in anticipation of climate change. The report also sites a few case

studies relating to Crop Translocation of Winter Wheat in the United States;

Resource Substitution in Response to Scarcity by Dry land for Irrigated

Agriculture in the Great Plains and Sea Level Rise Analogue of The Rising

Great Salt Lake. The case study of translocation of crops demonstrates that

the agricultural sector can expand the range of certain crops to include

climates that are as different as the levels of climate change projected to

occur over the next few decades. The Great Plains example shows that

adaptations can happen in response to resources becoming limited. The

Great Salt Lake example shows that society can, to some degree, address

immediate and vital problems brought about by a changing climate.

The report also suggests the methods of reactive and proactive

adaptation techniques. It concludes that adaptation and mitigation are

necessary and complementary for a comprehensive and coordinated strategy

that addresses the problem of global climate change but the regions and

people will suffer some losses which are unavoidable.

 85

12
Gupta (2005) projects the future emission scenario of India

highlighting the extent of India‘s vulnerability to climate change and also

critically analyses the initiatives undertaken in India to mitigate greenhouse

gas emission. The author expresses concern that India is vulnerable to

climate change impacts, as a vast population depends on climate sensitive

sectors like agriculture, forestry and fishery for livelihood and increase in

the events of flood and drought would pose a threat to food-security and

livelihood. The paper mentions agriculture and food security, forestry,

coastal areas and human health as the areas of concern. Domestic efforts to

mitigate green house gas emissions can be done in the fields of Pollution

Control, Energy Conservation and Energy Efficiency; Forestry; by

institutionalizing climate change research; regulating population growth and

urban agglomeration; promotion of renewable sources of energy;

participating in the global declarations. The author suggests that India should

be alert, active and assertive in its global participation and enhance its

adaptive capacity.

12
Gupta, V. (2005) Climate Change and Domestic Mitigation Efforts. Economic
and Political Weekly, 40, pp.981-987.
 86

Vijay Gupta (2005)13 has focused that The United Nation frame work

Convention on climate change (UNFCCC)in 1992, in which global

negotiation had paid greater attention to the minimizing of the cost

mitigating green house gas(GHS) emission ,which obscured the importance

of the vulnerability of natural and human system in weaker economics and

their adaptation to such changes against .This back ground, this study

projects the future emission scenario in India, highlights the extent of

India’s vulnerability to climate change and critically analyses the initiatives

undertaken at home to mitigate GHS emission. The best fit analysis indicates

that these exists a greater correlation between malaria incidence and

temperature (R2 =0.8) and that between malaria incidence and

precipitation(R2=0.6)as given due to the condition of humidity. This

indicates that other than the climatic parameters, socio economic condition

such as poverty irrigation agricultural practices, urban settlement, land use

change etc. The study area was Kerala. The precipitation effectiveness index

was linked to the net primary productivity of teak plantation. The data is

used for the study of both as primary data and secondary. In the absence of

13
Vijay a Gupta (2005). “Climate Change and Domestic Mitigation Efforts”,
“Economic and Political Weekly”, Vol.40, No.10 , pp.981-987.
 87

adaptation and mitigation strategies climate change can seriously damage

agriculture water resources, forest, coastal area and health, etc. in this Indian

economy also the impact of vulnerability is not only decided by the extent of

climate change but also by the robustness of the developmental process in

the economy. The quality of development would provide an insurance

against the impacts of climate change and increase adaptive capacity. India

has realised that more our rig in efforts today might avoid its reduction

commitment to the next commitment in period of the Kyoto protocol and it

has therefore initiated domestic efforts for enhancing adaptive capacity and

mitigating G.H.G emissions.

Rathore et al. (2006)14 in an article mention the observations that have

been made since the beginning of 21st century, reporting that changes have

been observed in surface temperature, rainfall, evaporation and extreme

events, global mean sea level had risen etc. these observations had been

made in India as well. The writers stress that warmer climates accelerated

the hydrological cycle, which ultimately affect the groundwater level

negatively. The attempt is to study the possible impacts of climate change on

14
Mall, R. K., R. Singh, A. Gupta, G. Srinivasan and L. S. Rathore (2006) Impact
of Climate Change on Indian Agriculture: A Review. Climate Change, 78, 445–478.
 88

surface and groundwater resources in India. It explains the relation between

rainfall, food production, population and freshwater needs. Rivers, snow, ice

and glaciers had been while talking about the surface water resources. The

Impacts of events of flood and drought too had taken into consideration

while studying the surface water resources. It is mentioned that the ground

water is exploited unmindfully and it had become the main provider to meet

the rising need at the domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors, hence it is

declining rapidly

Projections had been made in regard to climate change during the next

century over India and the impact they would have made on water resources.

It is also discussed that the ground water management in India had become

an has important point now but it is still in a very initial stage. The study

advocates that there should be an increase on changing climatic patterns

which impact the hydrological cycle and which are leading to depletion of

water resources.

Helm Eid et al (2006)15, developed and estimated Ricardian model to

assess the potent impacts of climate change on agriculture in Egypt, to used

15
Helmy M. Eid, Samia, Samina Aqua (2006), Assessing the economic impacts
of climate change on Agriculture in Egypt: A Ricardian Approaches, Soil, Water and
Environment Research Institute (SWERI) “The Geographic Journal” Vol.32.No, 4.
pp.1-8.
 89

the estimated model to predict the range of impact on the agriculture sector

under various climatic change scenarios and evaluated alternative course of

action in terms of policies and strategies that could help to mitigate the likely

climate change impacts on agriculture in Egypt. This study is used with

primary and secondary data. It is adapted Cross sectional farm household

survey, so, it is found that crop rotation should practice so as to use high

revenue crops with low water needs such as all season vegetables and fruits.

This could be done by improving both technical water application efficiency

and agromic water use efficiency.

Brien et al (2006)16 revealed that most European assessments of the

climate change impacts had been carried out on sectors and ecosystem, by

providing a narrow understanding of what climate change really means in

society. Furthermore, the main focus has been on technological adaptation,

with less attention paid to the process of climate change adaptation .So this

article the findings from recent studies on climate change impacts,

Vulnerability and adaptation in Norway, with the aim of identifying the

wider social impacts of climate change. Indirect effects may be more

16
Karen O.Brien,Siri Eriksen,Linda Sygna and Lass Otto Naas(2006),Questioning
climate change impacts ,Vulnerability and Adaptation in Norvey”, springer”
,Vol.35,No.2 pp.50-54.
 90

important than the direct sect oral effects may be more important than the

direct, sect oral effects highly sensitive sector regions and indirect effects

and high national levels of adaptive capacity mask, of particularly, European

countries regarding climate change impacts and adaptation. It is argued that

greater attention needs to be placed on the social context to climate change

impacts, processes shaping venerability and adaptation.

Chann et al (2006)17 has stated that potential health effects had been

hypothesized to result either directly or indirectly from global climate

change in the prevalence and spread of infectious disease are some of the

most widely cited potential effects of climate change and could have

significant consequences from human health as well as economic and

societal impacts. These changes in disease in which incidence would be

mediated though biological sociological and epidemiologic processes that

interact with each other and which may themselves be influenced by climate

change although hypothesized infectious disease effect had been widely

discussed there have not yet been through quantitative studies addressing the

processes or mechanism that all other aspects of climate issue. It also aspects
17
Nathan Y. Chan, Kristie L. Ebi, Fraser Smith, and Thomas F. Wilson and Anne
Nesmith,(2006), “An integrated Assessment Frame Work for Climate Change and
Infectious Disease”, “Environmental Health Perspective”, Vol.107,No.5,pp.329-335
 91

results out the difficulty including the multitude of changing determinants of

these diseases always. This paper proposes a framework for an integrated

assessment of the impacts of climate change on infectious disease, so the

frame work allows identification of potentially important indirect interaction

mechanism, identification of important research gap, and a means of

integrating targeted research from a variety of discipline in to an enhanced

understanding of the whole system.

Kavi Kumar (2007)18 has given “first approached for assessing the

economic impact of climate change .The agronomic, economic and the

Ricardian physical impact are taken of in the form of yield changes and or

area changes. This study is used with both data primary and secondary data.

The existing tools are used for impact assessment may be useful. The impact

assessment shows that inter farmer communication has a significant

influence on climate sensitivity. It is also suggested that the agriculture

production rises and climate change is automatically reduced.

18
Kavikumar.K.S (2007) “the Concept of Climate Change Studies in Indian
Agriculture”, “Economic and Political Weekly”, Vol 42. No.45/46, pp.13, 15-28.
 92

Poona panda and Karpal Ackermann (2007)19 have focused on the

potential of traditional adaptation measures being practiced by small farmers

through sustainable management of agriculture and natural resources

management. It is carried out on communities in the states, namely,

Rajasthan Uttarkand and Maharashtra. The study is adapted quantitative

methods to collect data. These three states face a general problem of water

availability, reduced farm productivity due to erratic and un timely rain fall,

soil fertility loss, soil erosion problem and intensified practices lead to an

overall decrease income of small scale farmer. The required relevant entry

points may be categorized in to three broad domains like the support in the

farm of policy, regulation infrastructure facilities and efficient derivers.

Analgesia’s et al, (2007)20 have analysed climate change is a seal

concern for the sustainable development of agriculture, both globally and

locally within the economic condition, although agriculture is a complex and

highly evolved. This study on adaptation to climate change in the European

19
Poonampanada and Karpal Ackermann(2007) “Adaptation of Small Scale
farmers to climatic risks in India”, “India environment portal”, pp.9-98

20
Analgesia’s, Keesje Auis, Magnus, Benzie, Paul Fisher, Adaptation to climate
change in the agriculture Sector”, “AEA energy and Environment the Gemini building
Fermi Avenue Hartwell International Business center”, (2007),Vol.1.pp.1-115.
 93

Commission with an improved understanding of the potential impact of

climate change and adaptation option for European agricultural activities in

the 27 member states .It also aims to assist policy makers as they take up the

adaptation challenge and develop measure to reduce the vulnerability of the

sector to climate change .The study is comprised a series of steps

representing a logical progression from an assessment of climate change

impacts through an analysis of risks and opportunities and identification of

adaptation option to potential integration in to the gap. It is concluded that

climate change, in general, higher temperature and overall greater

precipitation in some regions are likely to result in an increased spread of

weeds, pests and diseases.

Srivastav (2008)21 discusses the strong link between agriculture and

rainfall and examines how strongly both the impact of the agricultural

production and the state of farmers in India. The article also mentions that

there are 177 districts where agriculture is completely rain-fed. The author

also cites a study conducted by TERI in Chhattisgarh by showing the impact

of climate change on cropping pattern. The article mentions that the

frequency of droughts is also likely to increase due to climate change as

21
Srivastav, R. (2008) Need to Buffer Rainfed Agriculture. Gene News. 3, 8.
 94

pointed out by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The

declaration of UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in regard the

need to increase the resilience of the world‘s food systems to climate change

especially for the developing nations is also cited here. The article impresses

on the fact that the Indian agricultural system should put in place an apt

coping mechanism timely to save the farmers and the production; else it

could witness a drastic fall in production.

Sahai (2008)22 talks about the negative impact that the global climate

change will have on the crops around the world as it will impact the key

cropping factors i.e. temperature and rainfall. The article also points out that

simulation of crop response models are usually limited to important crops.

The impact of higher temperatures, increased carbon dioxide, rising water

stress and increased crop pests are also discussed. The article mentions the

possible benefits of global warming which can be good for agriculture -

enhanced Carbon dioxide assimilation, longer growing season, and increased

precipitation.

22
Sahai, S. (2008) Climate change and Agriculture: Reinventing the Crop Cycle.
Gene News, 3, 2-3.
 95

The author suggests that the best remedy to this problem is ‗Climate

Proofing‘ the crops. Where crop management practices should be changed

by the farmers, grow tougher plant varieties and prepared for constant

changes in the way they operate.

Malone et al. (2008)23 discusses about their study conducted in 2005,

in which they assessed the current resilience of India and Indian states to

climate, using Vulnerability Resilience Indicators Model (VRIM). Through

this approach we learn about the differing sources and levels of vulnerability

and resilience of the Indian states. In this study the future scenario of

Resilience Assessment is also done. VRIM is a four-tier hierarchical model

uses 17 proxies (relating to Sensitivity and Adaptive Capacity), each

contributing to the overall Resilience Index. The projections utilized two

IPCC‘s SRES based scenario of rapid growth scenario‘ and delayed growth

scenario‘. A comparative study of Orissa & Punjab has been done as to show

what kind of data can be obtained from VIRM. The outcomes of this model

can be used by policy makers and this model also applied elsewhere for

resilience study.

23
Malone, E, L and A. Brekert 2008 Uncertanity in resilance to Climate Change
in India and Indian States, Climate change 91. 451-476.
 96

Akermann et al. (2009)24 gives a glimpse of the major problems with

which the semi-arid Rajasthan is suffering prolonged drought periods,

reoccurring in short intervals as 80% of annual rainfall between June to

September and rest nine months remain dry. The irrigation coverage is also

low. According to few farmers rainfall in past a few decades has become

even more erratic and untimely, the number of rainy days has also decreased

as most of the agriculture is rainfall dependent and therefore the farmers

abandon their fields and work in nearby cities as their adaptation strategy.

Here, the author also mentions the remarkable work done by an NGO

namely, Cecoedecon (Centre for Community Economics and Development

Consultant Society) in a village-Bhipur, Rajasthan. Due to its specialized

assistance through seed conservation and grain storage and water harvesting

and controlling were done which resulted in increased crop yield and soil

moisture and even barren land could be put under agriculture. More heat

adapted and less water demanding variety of crops like-millets, green-gram,

pulses and mustard are introduced and locally made pesticides e.g. of neem

are used which reduce the input cost as well. Local seed banks are also

established. With this article the author shows one of the successful

24
Akermann, K., L. Herberg and A. Kalisch (2009) How do Small Farmers
Respond to Climate Change in Rajasthan?. Rural 21. 24, 30-32.
 97

adaptation practices from local communities but also stresses on the fact that

it was all due to the co-operation of the locals.

Kumar (2009) 25 focuses on two aspects of global environmental

change: Groundwater and depletion of stratospheric ozone. It has chapters

dealing with the concept of Global Warming, its causes; Relation of climate

change and groundwater; Population Growth; Current Sea Level Rise;

Environmental Pollution and ground water; Protection of Ozone Layer; and,

Greenhouse effect. Out of these the chapter highlighting the relation of

climate change and ground water is crucial. The author in the chapter points

out that the importance of glaciers as an important indicator of climate

change. Glacial erosional features, landforms products and deposits, and

types of glaciers, formation of glacial ice, changes in glacier size and

movement of glaciers have been used as an indicator. The author includes

effect of carbon dioxide, plate tectonics, solar variation, orbital variations,

volcanism, human influences, fossil fuels, aerosols, cement manufacture,

land use and livestock as an indicator of climate change. The author

indicates that interplay of the above factors is very crucial. The book also

highlights that modification of climate change event can be done through

25
Kumar, A. (2009) Global Warming, p. 279, Sonali Publications, New Delhi.
 98

geo-engineering techniques like-Solar radiation management by albedo

modification, green house gases remediation by carbon sequestration and

hydrological geo-engineering.

Helm (2009)26 divided his book in twenty-two chapters contributed by

various authors. The chapters cover various topics like climate change

policy: why so little has been achieved?; The global deal on climate change;

climate treaties and the imperatives of enforcement; The implications of

rapid development for emission and climate change mitigation; The

behavioural economics of climate change; climate change and Africa; India

and climate change mitigation; EU climate change policy: a Critique;

climate change mitigation from renewable energy: its contribution and cost;

The global climate change regime : a defense. The book examines the

economies of climate change and the incentives of the main players i.e.

United States of America, China and European Union and considers the

policies that governments can put in place to reduce greenhouse gas

emission and ultimately shift our economies onto a low-carbon path. It looks

into the international framework for a climate change agreement which is to

26
Helm, D. and Cameron Hepburn (2009) Economics and Politics of Climate
Change, p. 576, Oxford University Press, New York.
 99

review as the initial Kyoto Protocol comes to an end in 2012. In this regards,

it also deals how there is much enthusiasm from political and environmental

groups but the underlying economics and politics remain highly

controversial.

Adger et al. (2009) 27 considered that the previous analysis about

adaptation have been done from a narrow stand point predominantly-

ecological, physical, economic or technical. Here they have articulated four

prepositions around ethics, knowledge, risk and culture as these will open up

the limits of adaptation to climate change. These limits are endogenous and

emerge from ‗inside‘ the society. These four prepositions are evaluated by

four statements and it is suggested that these elements inherit in any society

contribute to limiting the successful adaptive response of society. The role of

ethics can have both a positive impact; greater knowledge of future impact

and the risk it can pose leads to early adaptation; undervaluing of cultures

limits the range of adaptation actions. The ability to adapt depends on

availability of technology, capacity of learning and their ethical and cultural

backgrounds.

27
Adger, W.N., S. Dessai, M. Goulden, M. Hulme, I. Lorenzoni, D. R. Nelson, L.
O. Naess, J. Wolf and A. Wreford (2009) Are there social limits to adaptation to climate
change?. Climatic Change. 93, 335–354.
 100

Priyanga Prima Devi (2009) 28 revealed that the potential of wide

spread application of organic agriculture to alleviate climate change impacts

on agriculture. The study is undertaken by both primary and secondary data.

This paper is found that organic agriculture also has capability to mitigate

climate change. It has good potential to implement organic agriculture

system to overcome climate change impacts.

Bhuiyan et al. (2009)29 in the paper examines the spatio-temporal

variations in aquifer-recharge in response to erratic monsoon rainfall, high

heat flow and increasing demand by analyzing GIS-based time-series. On

this basis, the zones with declining trend of water table have been

demarcated. The study area for this is located in Rajasthan between latitude

23o30‘N to 26o18‘N; longitude 72o24‘E to 74o39‘E covering about 25000 sq

km of the Aravalli range. This area has a very few surface water bodies and

lies in the semi-arid climatic zone. The data used for study deals with 38

years of rainfall since 1966 to 2003 and the data for ground water level since

1984 to 2003 i.e. 20 years for comparison with water level fluctuations and

28
Priyanga Prima Devi, “Climate Change on Tropical Agriculture and the
potential of Organic Agriculture to overcome these Impacts”. “Economic and Political
Weekly”, 2009, .pp.14-16.
29
Bhuiyan, C., W. A. Flügel and R. P. Singh (2009) Erratic monsoon, growing
water demand, and declining water table. Journal of Spatial Hydrology. 9, 1-19.
 101

rainfall patterns and their variations are studied for two decades during

1984-2003. The ground water levels fluctuate differently in the pre-monsoon

and post-monsoon period. The fluctuation was represented by using water

index WFI which was developed to quantify recharged deficit. It was found

that the monsoon period recharge, exceeds and withdraws and vice-versa for

non-monsoon period. In the decadal observations are a symmetric response

of water table to monsoon rainfall is seen. The inter-annual variability of

rainfall follows no deficit trend or pattern. Through this study we come to

know that the monsoon rainfall has improved to some extent in the last

decade in the south-western part but decreased in the central Aravalli.

Significant change in aquifer-recharge is observed in the later decade in

comparison to earlier decade and the GIS-based time-series analysis is found

advantageous in monitoring spatio-temporal variation of ground-water

recharge.

Arora et al. (2010)30 mentions that climate change is expected to lead

an intensification of the global hydrological cycle and can have major

impacts on regional water resources affecting both surface and ground water

supply. Due to these factors water stresses will be seen on drinking water

30
Arora, Manohar, R. D. Singh and R. Kumar (2010) Impact of Climate Change
on Water Resources. Yojana. 54, 36-40.
 102

and sanitation and also crop yield. The authors also cite that

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has specifically

designated several of India‘s low-lying coastal river deltas-the Ganges, the

Godavari, the Krishna and the Mahanadi- as particular ―hotspots‖ of

climate change vulnerability. The amount water availability data and the

National Water Mission in the country are also mentioned. The authors

reveal that India has witnessed climatic anomalies but is still under-prepared

to face climate change impacts. So for these adaptation strategies aiming at

sustainable development and management of water must be promoted;

policy changes must be made; more studies should also be done in this field

and appropriate models must be adopted.

Dhaka et al. (2010)31 discusses about the importance of agriculture in

India and climate change as the key component influencing and it highlights

its impact on food production and overall economy. The core area of study is

how climate change related disasters like drought, flood, cyclone, hail storm,

high-wind and extreme temperature affecting agriculture production, food

security, water resources, bio diversity which all perceived by farmers and

31
Dhaka, B. L., K. Chayal and M. K. Poonia (2010) Analysis of Farmers’
Perception and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change. Libyan Agriculture , Research
Center Journal International. 1, 388-390.
 103

what adaptation strategies they adopt. For the same study it is conducted in

the Bundi district of Rajasthan where 500 farmers were personally

interviewed on the above issue. Descriptive statistics were used to

characterize farmers‘ perception and various adaptation measures. The

findings suggest that- most farmers believed that the temperature distribution

has undergone a significant shift in addition to an overall increase in

temperature; the rainfall levels have decreased; more occurrences of

drought; late onset and early withdrawal of monsoon is observed. Uneven

distribution and unpredictable behavior of the rains is also seen. When the

factors influencing farmers‘ perception to climate change noted and that they

were of age, experience, innovativeness, environmental consciousness and

exposure of mass media. The adaptation strategies undertaken were

integrated farming system (most important adaptation technique), adjusting

cropping sequence, rain water harvesting etc.

It was observed that the farmers taking up adaptation measures were

of more age and experience, were receipt of extension, advice, level of

education, larger farm or showed environmental consciousness.

 104

Leman (2010)32 explores the relationship between population change

and adoptive capacity through detailed examination. Canada is currently

experiencing the combination of changes in local climatic conditions, rapid

demographic changes caused by the migration of urban retires and out of

migration of young educated people. His article describes and analyses the

impact of population and demographic changes in and out with variability.

The climate pattern has placed as increased stress on local social networks

that have long been critical to climate adaptation in that region.

Thomson Kalinda (2011) 33 analysed that the actors involved in

promoting conservation agriculture have often not taken in to account. The

perception of small holder of farmers viewed the climate change and

conservation agriculture is considered an adaptation strategy. The study is

indicated that 6.0%of the respondents had adapted conservation agriculture

by the third year of CAP (Conference) implementation. It is suggested that

the existence of other important reasons for practicing conservation

32
Robert MC Leman “Impacts of Population Change on Vulnerability and the
Capacity to adapt to Climate Change and Variability: a Typology based on lesson from a
hard country(2010)”, “Population and environment , Special Issue on Climate Change
Understanding Anthropogenic Contribution and response”, Vol.31,No.5,pp.286-316.
33
Thomson H.Kalinda (2011), “Small Holder Farmers Perception of Climate
Change and conservation Agriculture Evidence from Zambia”, “Journal of Sustainable
Development”, Vol.4.No.4 pp.73-75.
 105

agriculture than adaptation to climate change policy implication of the study

as conservation agriculture projects should not only a focus on technical

approaches to increase adaptation at rate but also consider social aspects

such as perception that are equally important in conservation agriculture, It

is concluded that communication to facilitate exchange of climatic

information which concludes to enable small holder farmer related to

conservation agriculture as an adaptation strategy.

Guhathakurta et al. (2011)34 suggests that a large amount of variability

of rainfall is related to the occurrence of extreme rainfall events and their

intensities. So the study of spatial variability of extreme rainfall events over

different parts of the country would help to identify zones of high and low

values of extreme rainfall events. For this study, the daily rainfall data was

collected from 1901-2005 from 2599 stations. To detect the trend the non-

parametric Mann-Kendell Test was used. Through the help stations with the

significant increasing and decreasing trend in frequency of rainy days were

marked. The result talks about all the 36 meteorological sub-divisions of

India. Every Annual normal rainy days vary from the low value of 10 over

34
Guhathakurta, P., O. P. Sreejith and P. A. Menon (2011) Impact of climate
change on extreme rainfall events and flood risk in India. Journal Earth System Science.
120, 359–373.
 106

extreme western parts of Rajasthan to the high frequency of 130 days over

northeastern parts of the country. This study reveals that the noticeable

changes in the extreme rainfall events that occurred over India in the past

century. The flood risk is also increased significantly all over India. The

flood risk was more in the decades 1981–1990, 1971–1980 and 1991–2000

over the eastern coast, West Bengal, east Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Konkan

region.

Perry Sheffield and Androgen (2011)35 have pointed out that global

climate change will have multiple effects on human health. It examined the

projected impacts of climate change on children’s health the pathways

involved in these effects and prevention strategies. This paper is based on

data primary with the data climate change is increasing the global burden of

disease and in the year 2000 we response for greater than 1,50000, deaths

world wide of this disease burden 8.8% fell upon children .It documented

health effects including changing ranges of vector borne diseases, such as

malaria and dengue, increase diarrheal and respiratory disease increase in

morbidity and mortality from extreme weather changed exposure to toxic

35
Perry E. Sheffield and Phillip J. L Androgen (2011). “Global Climate Change
and Children’s health: Threats and Strategies for prevention”, “Environmental Health
Perspectives”, Vol.119, No.3 , pp.291-298.
 107

chemicals. Worsened poverty food and physical insecurity and threats to

human habitation heat rebated health effects for which research is emerged

to include diminished school performance of ,increased rate pregnancy

complications and renal effects in stark variation . Prevention strategies to

reduce health impacts of climate change which includes reduction of

greenhouse gas emission and adaptation. This paper is concluded that

quantification of the effects of climate change in children’s health is needed

globally and also at regional and local levels through enhanced monitoring

of children’s environmental health and by tracking selected indicators

,Climate change preparedness strategies need to be incorporated in to public

health programs.

Michael et al (2012)36 have stated that Climate change is projected to

cause by substantial increase in population movement in coming decades.

Previous research has considered the likely casual influences and magnitude

of such movements and the risks to national and international security .There

has been little research on the health of people who have. In this paper, it is

to explore the role that health impacts of climate change on population

36
Celia M.C Michael, Jon Barnett and Anthony A.MC Michael (2012) “An III
wind? Climate Change Migration, and health”, “Environment Health Perspectives”,
Vol.120.No.5 .pp.646-654.
 108

movements and to examine the health implication of three types movements

likely to be induced by climate change like forcible displacement by climate

impacts, resettlement schemes, and migration as an adaptive response. The

risk assessment draws the climate change related migration is likely to result

in adverse health outcomes, both for displaced and for the host population,

particularly in situations of forced migration. However where migration and

other mobility are used as adaptive strategies, health risks to be minimize

and in some cases there will be healthy gains .This paper is found that

purposeful and timely policy intervention can facilitate the mobility of

people, enhance wellbeing and maximize social and economic development

in both places of origin and places of destination. Nevertheless, the

anticipated occurrence of substantial relocation of groups and communities

will underscore the fundamental seriousness human induced.

Ashalatha et al (2012)37 have analysed the specific objectives such as

are to assess the impact of climate of drought on the yield of rain fed crops,

to identify the level of awareness on the change and to identify the factors

influencing in decision making on the coping mechanism to mitigate the

37
Ashalatha K.V., Munisamy Gopinath and A.R.S.Bhatt.(2012). “Impact of
Climate Change on rain fed agriculture in India”. “International Journal of
Environment” Vol.3.No.4, pp.368-371
 109

impact of climate change . In order to assess the impact of climate change

multistage random sampling design was employed for the selection of the

sample respondent and the needed information for the study was collected

by using pretested questionnaire .The analytical tools such as compound

growth rate, instability index and of log model were act to be employed to

analysis the data on rain fed farmers of the research study revealed that the

climatic variation as occurrences of drought have significant impacts on the

production of rain fed crops the small and medium rain fed farmers were

highly vulnerable to climate change and to a large extent the small medium

rain fed farmers adopted coping mechanism of climate change compared to

large farmers. It is suggested through the identification day by day it should

be addressed through policy perspective at the earliest to avoid short term

effect such as yield and income loss and long term effect such as quitting

agricultural professions by rain fed farmers.

Vasanta (2013) 38 considered the impacts of climate change on

agriculture being witnessed all over the world. But countries like India are

more vulnerable in view of the huge population dependency on agriculture.

38
Vasanta.K (2013), “Impacts of Climate Change on Wheat and rice production”.
“Economic Quarterly Affairs Journal of Economics”, Vol 58, No 2, pp.89-95.
 110

Mon soon are changing more frequently, drought floods tropical, cyclones,

and heat waves are such negative impacts on agriculture production. The

increasing glacier melt in Himalayas may affect the food production in

future .Impacts of climate is comparatively more significant as compared to

the past due to increasing global warming, natural calamities and this may

result fluctuation in yield of many crops. Climate change may alter the

distribution and quality of India’s natural resources and may adversely affect

the livelihood of its people. It is concluded that the immediate problems that

our farmers face relate to seasonal variability of rainfall, extreme event and

unseasonal rains, these observations cause heavy losses to our crops every

year. There is therefore an urgent necessity for the economy to speed up

efforts to evolve climate resilient crop varieties, cropping pattern and

management practices.

Nagarajadve (2014)39 has pointed out that the ocean water and land

rise by .3.5% over the past 40 years in keeping with the 0.5 degree Celsius

warming at that time .The data used for study was secondary data. This

39
Nagarajadve.N (2014) “Global Warming Inter-governmental panel on Climate
Change on Global Warming is alarming” “Economic and Political Weekly”, Vol.22 No2
Jan 11,pp.12-14.
 111

paper is discussed that the ice free arctic in September month is the lowest

ice extent per annum.

Balasubramaniyan (2014)40 focused the effects of climate change on

agriculture, water resources, coastal fisheries and coastal safety which are

likely to increase. Often significantly, as global warming climbs from

present level of 0.8 degree Celsius over pre industrial times by mid century

and continues to become 4 degree Celsius warmer by 2100.In this paper

most of the secondary data was used .This paper is found that environmental

safeguards must be sincerely and voluntarily taken on by motors of projects

because best practices will ultimately benefit them in terms of lowered risk

and control of losses due to ecological disasters.

Vaibhav Chaturvedi, (2015)41, India has emphasized the inclusion of

adaptation as a part of Intended Nationally Determined Contributions

(INDC). For understanding adaptation requirements, we need to understand

and value climate change impacts first. This preliminary assessment tries to

estimate the cost of global climate change impacts in India. The study aims

at estimating first order costs for loss in agriculture productivity and impact
40
Balasubramaniyan.M(2014) “Climate Change, Uttarakand and the World bank
message “Economic and Political Weekly”, Vol XLI No1,pp,65-67.
41
Vaibhav Chaturvedi, “The Costs of Climate Change Impacts for India”, A
Preliminary Analysis, New Delhi, India, March 2015.
 112

on higher power generation requirement with increasing temperatures within

a long term global integrated assessment modeling framework. The study

also attempts to put a value on the health impacts from temperature rise.

The analysis highlights some important results. Climate change will

result in significant economic losses for India across sectors. Production

losses in rice, wheat and maize alone could go upto 208 Bn US$ and 366 Bn

US$ in 2050 and 2100 respectively (all prices are in 2010 US$). Additional

power generation could require incremental capital investment of 33 Bn US$

and 123 Bn US$ in 2050 and 2100 respectively for meeting higher cooling

energy needs of India. Health impacts should be best measured in terms of

deaths due to higher incidence of diseases. Diarrheal deaths will decrease

with increasing incomes, deaths due to higher spread of Malaria will

increase significantly to 5000 in 2050 to 19500 in 2100. Deaths related to

Dengue will also increase. If disease related deaths are valued at life time

earnings, then loss of economic output will be 2.5 Bn US$ and 21 Bn US$ in

2050 and 2100 respectively. Even with a fairly limited inclusion of sectors,

and linear representation of cost of impacts, we arrive at a range of 0.45% -

1.19% of India’s GDP and 0.59% - 1.17% of India’s GDP in 2050 and 2100

as the cost of global inaction at mitigating climate change. When non-linear

 113

impacts at higher temperatures are included and other sectors are also

valued, the present estimate of cost of inaction is bound to multiply many

folds. This analysis intends to provide a solid basis for informed discussions

around this issue in India as well as a ground for more detailed and

insightful studies on costs of climate impacts in India.

Saravanakumar,V (2015)42, This study uses panel data for 39 years

and 13 districts to estimate the yield sensitivity of major food crops to

climate change in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. We first estimate

the marginal impacts of climate variables on crop yield using Panel

Corrected Standard Error (PCSE) models. These estimates are then used to

identify yield sensitivities in the future based on projected climate variables

from the Regional Climate Model version 4 (RegCM4). Empirical results

show a quadratic (inverted U shaped) relationship between rice and sorghum

yield and climate variables. As temperature and rainfall increase, crop yield

initially increases up to a threshold level, and then decreases. Following the

RegCM4 projections that observed warming and anomalies in rainfall will

continue, this could result in a significant loss in crop productivity.

42
Saravanakumar, V, “Impact of Climate Change on Yield of Major Food
Crops in Tamil Nadu, India SANDEE Working Papers, ISSN 1893-1891, 2015.
 114

Projections suggest that there may be a 10 percent decline in rice yield and 9

percent decline in sorghum yield by the end of the 21st century relative to

average yields during 1971-2009. This indicates a need for new seed

varieties that are less sensitive to rainfall and temperature thresholds, and,

adaptation practices such as adjustments in sowing time.

Climate Change and Sustainability Committee, (2015)43, Actuaries are

becoming more aware of the combined impact of climate change and

limitations of resources—two separate and very significant issues—putting

at risk the sustainability of the current socio-economic systems that support

our way of life. Although actuaries do not claim professional expertise in

environmental issues, they can be guided by the growing body of knowledge

publicly available from reliable scientific sources. Being particularly

qualified to deal with modelling financial consequences of risks and

uncertainties, the actuarial profession has a duty to provide training and

education on climate change and sustainability so that its members are

qualified to contribute to the well-being of the society as a whole. In

undertaking this exercise, the actuarial profession needs to be cognizant of

43
Climate Change and Sustainability, “Committee Climate Change and
Resource Sustainability An Overview for Actuaries.”, Canadian Institute of Actuaries
August 2015 .
 115

the fact that even within the climate change science community which are

differing views on the nature and amplitude of the risks and the profession

should be aware of these differing views

Climate change is more than global warming. The rise in average

temperature is only one indicator of broader changes also translating into

extreme temperatures, drought, flooding, storms, rising sea levels, impacts

on food production, and infectious diseases. Although the scientific

community has been aware of the link between greenhouse gases (GHGs)

and climate change for many years, world leaders have been slow to react

and implement measures to mitigate the risks.

Key sources of information on climate change are synthesised by the

successive reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC) created by the United Nations and the World Meteorological

Organization in 1988. The prevalent view is that there is a significant

anthropogenic contribution to the increase in atmospheric CO2 and other

GHGs resulting from fossil fuels emissions and deforestation. Unless new

policies are implemented, global warming will exceed the threshold of 2°C

agreed to by the parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate

Change
 116

Mitigating resource scarcity entails adopting new approaches such as

a “circular economy”. This refers to an industrial economy that is restorative

by definition. It aims to rely on renewable energy; favors recycling;

minimizes, tracks, and hopefully eliminates the use of toxic chemicals; and

eradicates wastes through careful design. The mitigation strategy can be

guided by a new paradigm defining a planetary boundary framework

providing a science-based analysis of the risk that human overuse of

resources will destabilize the earth system at the planetary scale

Shadananan Nair, K (2016) 44 , Freshwater resources of India are

getting fast degraded and depleted from the changing climate and pressure of

fast rising population. Changing intensity and seasonality of rainfall affect

quantity and quality of water. Most of the rivers are polluted far above safety

limits from the untreated domestic, industrial and agricultural effluents.

Changes in the intensity, frequency and tracks of storms salinate coastal

aquifers. Aquifers are also under the threat from rising sea level.

Groundwater in urban limits and industrial zones are far beyond safety

limits. Large-scale destruction of wetlands for industries and residential

44
Shadananan Nair, K 2016,”Impact of climate change and anthropogenic
pressure on the water resources of India: challenges in management”, Nansen
Environmental Research Centre (India), Kochi-682016, Kerala, India, 17 October 2016.
 117

complexes has affected the quality of surface and groundwater resources in

most parts of India. Measures to maintain food security and the new

developments schemes such as river linking will further deteriorate the water

resources. Falling water availability leads to serious health issues and

various socio-economic issues. India needs urgent and appropriate

adaptation strategies in the water sector.

Malancha Chakrabarty (2016) 45 , Climate change has added to the

enormity of India's food-security challenges. While the relationship between

climate change and food security is complex, most studies focus on one

dimension of food security, i.e., food availability. This paper provides an

overview of the impact of climate change on India's food security, keeping

in mind three dimensions availability, access, and absorption. It finds that

ensuring food security in the face of climate change will be a formidable

challenge and recommends, among others, the adoption of sustainable

agricultural practices, greater emphasis on urban food security and public

health, provision of livelihood security, and long-term relief measures in the

event of natural disasters.

45
Malancha Chakrabarty, “Climate Change and Food Security in India”, ORF
issue brief September 2016. SEPTEMBER 2016
 118

Eshita Gupta et.al (2016)46, We develop a simple two-sector (food

and non-food) general equilibrium model for studying the long-run impact

of climate change on food prices and the distribution of welfare in India. We

found that food prices were 4 to 8 percent higher and the real income of the

landless was 2.4 to 4.8 percent lower in 2009 relative to a counterfactual

without climate change and pollution (over the past three decades). Contrary

to popular belief, nearly all farmers lose from climate change that causes

higher food prices. In 2030, if agricultural productivity is 7% lower

compared to a scenario without further climate impacts, then food prices will

be 3.6 to 10.8 percent higher and the real income of the landless 1.6 to 5.6%

lower. The lower numbers are obtained in open economy scenarios and the

higher in closed economy scenarios, showing that trade is very important in

protecting the poor. If the economy is closed, then improving the

productivity of the agricultural sector has the greatest impact on the welfare

of the poor. In contrast, if the economy is open and there are no barriers to

labor movement out of agriculture, then the non-agricultural sector plays a

46
Eshita Gupta_ and Bharat Ramaswamiy and E. Somanathanz ”The
distributional impact of climate change: Why food prices matter Indian Statistical
Institute, Delhi Economics and Planning Unit S. J. S. Sansanwal Marg, New Delhi
110016, India, November 3, 2016.
 119

bigger role in driving out the welfare of the poor than mitigation of climate

change.

Narayanan, k and Santosh K. Sahu (2016) 47 It is imperative to

understand the effects of climate change on household members and the

vulnerability level in and across agricultural households in India in general,

and for eastern coastal part of the country in particular. This study covers

primary data from 150 households from 2 blocks of Kendrapara district in

Odisha. The household level unit of analysis is policy driven and follows the

IPCC model on Vulnerability Analysis and Climate Change Adaptation

Research. The model is expanded to include the livelihood strategies of the

households, in order to empirically assess their vulnerability and adaptive

responses. This study uses an econometric model on household vulnerability

and adaptive capacity of rural households. The results imply that access to

credit facilities and experiences of the households in farming are important

factors to improve farmers’ adaptation to climate change.

47
Narayanan, K and Santosh K. Sahu2, “Effects of climate change on
household economy and adaptive responses among agricultural households in
eastern coast of India, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute
of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076, India
 120

Sjoukje Philip, et.al, (2017)48 A widely-reported very lethal heat wave

occurred in the southeast, in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, killing

thousands of people. In both cases it was widely assumed that the probability

and severity of heat waves in India are increasing due to global warming, as

they do in other parts of the world. However, we do not find positive trends

in the highest maximum temperature of the year in most of India since the

1970s (except spurious trends due to missing data). Decadal variability

cannot explain this, but both increased air pollution with aerosols blocking

sunlight and increased irrigation leading to evaporative cooling have

counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases up to now. Current climate

models do not represent these processes well and hence cannot be used to

attribute heat waves in this area.

The health effects of heat are often described better by a combination

of temperature and humidity, such as a heat index or wet bulb temperature.

due to the increase in humidity from irrigation and higher SSTs these indices

have increased over the last decades even when extreme temperatures have

not. The extreme air pollution also exacerbates the health impacts of heat.

48
Sjoukje Philip, Sarah Kew, Michiel van Weele, Peter Uhe, Friederike,
“Extreme heat in India and anthropogenic climate change”, Natural Hazards Earth
Systum, 2017.
 121

From a health impact point of view, the severity of heat waves has increased

in India. For the next decades we expect the trend due to global warming to

continue, but the cooling effect of aerosols to diminish as air quality controls

are implemented. The expansion of irrigation will likely continue, though at

a slower pace, mitigating this trend somewhat. Humidity will probably

continue to rise. The combination will give a strong rise of the temperature

of heat waves. The high humidity will make health effects worse, whereas

decreased air pollution would decrease the impacts.

Samuel S. Myers, et.al, (2017) 49 Great progress has been made in

addressing global under nutrition over the past several decades, in part

because of large increases in food production from agricultural expansion

and intensification. Food systems, however, face continued increases in

demand and growing environmental pressures. Most prominently, human-

caused climate change will influence the quality and quantity of food we

produce and our ability to distribute it equitably. Our capacity to ensure food

security and nutritional adequacy in the face of rapidly changing biophysical

conditions will be a major determinant of the next century’s global burden of

49
Samuel S. Myers, Matthew R. Smith, Sarah Guth, Christopher D. Golden,
Bapu Vaitla, Nathaniel D. Mueller, Alan D. Dangour, and Peter Huybers, “Climate
Change and Global Food Systems: Potential Impacts on Food Security and Under
nutrition” PU38CH13-Myers AR, 6 February 2017.
 122

disease. In this article, we review the main pathways by which climate

change may affect our food production systems—agriculture, fisheries, and

livestock—as well as the socioeconomic forces that may influence equitable

distribution.

Jifin D. Tsojon, (2017)50 the purpose of the study was to determine the

impact of climate change on agricultural production by farmers in Taraba

State, Nigeria. A survey research design was adopted for the study. Five

research questions guided the study. The study was conducted in Taraba

State, Nigeria. The population of the study was all farmers in Taraba State.

The sample for the study was 290 farmers who were drawn by multi-stage

sampling technique. The instrument for data collection was a structured

questionnaire tagged “climate change and agriculture production

questionnaire” (CCAPQ). The instrument was validated by three experts.

After trial testing a Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient of 0.89 was

obtained of indicating that the instrument was reliable to elicit data for the

study. Two hundred and ninety copies of the questionnaire were

administered on the respondents. The farmers were not aware and have no

50
Jifin D. Tsojon, “Impact of Climate Change on Agricultural Production
Farmers in Taraba State, Nigeria”, International Journal of Entrepreneurial
Development, Education and Science Research Hard Print: 2360-901X Online: 2360-
9028 Vol. 4, No. 1 January 2017.
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knowledge of climate change but so far have been experiencing the impact

of climate change as it affected their agricultural production. The study also

showed that the impact of climate change has also affected the education of

the families of the farmers. The farmers adapted only the few mitigation

strategies they know. The study recommended, among others, that State and

Federal Governments should organize seminars and workshops for farmers

and for the extension agents also who can educate the farmers in the rural

areas to improve their level of awareness and knowledge on climate change

in Taraba State, Nigeria.

Ana Bedmar Villanueva, et,al, (2017)51 Climate change is one of the

biggest threats to food production worldwide. Recently, an increasing

number of initiatives have embraced the concept of climate smart agriculture

to respond to climate change adaptation and mitigation challenges. A central

component of this approach is the use of agricultural biodiversity at the

genetic, species and ecosystem levels for increasing productivity,

adaptability and resilience of agricultural production systems. This paper

analyses the extent to which the use of agricultural biodiversity is included

51
Ana Bedmar Villanueva, Michael Halewood, Isabel López Noriega ,
Agricultural Biodiversity in Climate Change Adaptation Planning, European Journal of
Sustainable Development (2017), 6, 2, 1-8 ISSN: 2239-5938.
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in the National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) developed by

50 least developed countries to guide their actions in relation to climate

adaptation. The results of the analyses indicate that in the majority of the

NAPAs, agricultural biodiversity has not been incorporated in a

comprehensive manner and that increased efforts can be done at national and

international levels for effectively making agricultural biodiversity work for

most vulnerable countries’ adaptation to climate change.