Received: 1 June 2019 Revised: 2 November 2019
DOI: 10.1002/er.5033
REVIEW PAPER
Limitations, challenges, and solution approaches
in grid-connected renewable energy systems
Muhammad Abdul Basit | Saad Dilshad
Syed Muhammad Sami ur Rehman
Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, COMSATS University,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Correspondence
Muhammad Abdul Basit, Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering,
COMSATS University, Islamabad,
Pakistan.
Email: ab_basit007@hotmail.com
Funding information
Higher Education Commission, Pakistan,
Grant/Award Number: 2EG2-034
Int J Energy Res. 2020;1–31.
Accepted: 18 November 2019
| Rabiah Badar |
Summary
In the modern world, only conventional energy resources cannot fulfil the
growing energy demand. Electricity is a fundamental building block of a tech-
nological revolution. Today, most of the electricity demand is met by the burn-
ing of fossil fuels but at the cost of adverse environmental impact. In order to
bridge the gap between electricity demand and supply, nonconventional and
eco-friendly means of energy generation are considered. Renewable energy
systems (RESs) offer an adequate solution to mitigate the challenges originated
due to greenhouse gasses (GHG). However, they have an unpredictable power
generation with specific site requirements. Grid integration of RESs may lead
to new challenges related to power quality, reliability, power system stability,
harmonics, subsynchronous oscillations (SSOs), power quality, and reactive
power compensation. The integration with energy storage systems (ESSs) can
reduce these complexities that arise due to the intermittent nature of RESs. In
this paper, a comprehensive review of renewable energy sources has been pres-
ented. Application of ESSs in RESs and their development phase has been dis-
cussed. Role of ESSs in increasing lifetime, efficiency, and energy density of
power system having RESs has been reviewed. Moreover, different techniques
to solve the critical issues like low efficiency, harmonics, and inertia reduction
in photovoltaic (PV) systems have been presented. Unlike most of the available
review papers, this article also investigates the impact of FACTS technology in
RESs-based power system using multitype flexible AC transmission system
(FACTS) controllers. Three simulation models have been developed in
MATLAB/Simulink. The results show that FACTS devices help to maintain
the stability of RESs integrated power system. This review paper is believed to
be of potential benefit for researchers from both the industry and academia to
develop better understanding of challenges and solution techniques for REs-
based power systems and future research dimensions in this area.
KEYWORDS
climate change, CO2 emissions, energy storage, FACTS, grid-connected system, hydropower,
renewable energy systems, SMES
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/er © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 1
2 BASIT ET AL.
1 | INTRODUCTION
Since the inception of human life on earth, the socio-
economic development has remained an integral part of
human nature. Humans have the exceptional ability to
harness natural energy resources for daily life improve-
ment. In medieval, human and animal muscles were used
to fulfil the energy requirements; however, the first indus-
trial revolution in the 18th century introduced coal as fuel.
After the second industrial revolution in the 19th century,
petroleum resources were much exploited to produce mas-
sive energy far beyond what could ever be achieved by the
animal or human muscles. Industrialisation utilised non-
renewable sources for 200 years, having undesired side
effects on natural environment. Extreme use of petroleum
and coal led to the uncontrolled emission of carbon diox-
ide (CO2) and other toxic gasses, responsible for global
warming.1 Oil crises2 of 1973 and Middle East war3 in
1991 depleted the geographic occurrence of petroleum
products due to which scientist and researchers started to
think about alternative sources of energy.
One of the most significant transitions of global
energy system is the decarbonisation and development in
energy quality. A significant shift in energy usage has
been observed in the history of humankind from wood to
coal, coal to oil, and then towards harnessing the green
energy using renewables.4 In the third quarter of the 20th
century, energy extraction from atom gained the atten-
tion of scientists. Meanwhile, political and nuclear safety
problems were raised.
Referring the British Petroleum (BP) statistical report
of 2019, the global primary energy demand increased to
2.9%. It was the fastest growth since 2010 led by natural
gas and renewable energy.5 Now, the critical challenge is
to meet increasing global energy demand to sustain
industrialisation and fulfil domestic energy requirements
without using traditional resources. It is projected that
the demand for electricity in 2050 will be more than dou-
ble, and by the end of this century, it will become three-
fold.6 Gielen et al7 have presented a road map and
analysed the economic and technical aspects to accelerate
energy transitions by 2050. They proposed that the share
of renewable energy systems (RESs) will rise from 15% in
2015 to 63% in 2050.
The burning of fossil fuels has resulted in environ-
mental concerns for humankind. Thanks to RESs for
their environment-friendly nature. By definition renew-
able energy sources, often called alternative sources, are
those that can be used again and again to produce
energy, eg, wind, solar, geothermal, or biomass.8 The
total installed power generation using RESs is almost
2378 GW by the end of 2018.9 However, the integration
of RESs with conventional power system brings several
new challenges due to their intermittent nature. Some of
them, eg, biomass, hydropower, and geothermal operate
in the same way as traditional power plants do, but most
of the available RESs like solar and wind are less predict-
able and more time variant.10
Electricity is generated and consumed at the same
time. Therefore, the surplus electricity must always be
generated to meet varying demand. Power system stabil-
ity and power quality of both AC and in high-voltage DC
(HVDC) transmission systems may get affected in unbal-
anced situations between demand and supply.11-13 More-
over, seasonal and daily fluctuations of RESs further
entangle the situation. In order to encounter these diffi-
culties, the use of long- or short-term energy storage is
considered as one of the prominent solutions. There are
many types of energy storage systems (ESSs). It reduces
the demand of system upgradation and enhances the
plant efficiency by allowing the distribution and trans-
mission networks to operate near their thermal limits. It
may also help the network to withstand peak demand.
They are also useful in smoothing out voltage sags and
swells.14
RESs pose significant challenges to conventional grids
such as frequency variation, voltage fluctuation, and har-
monics. It is because of the stochastic and random nature
of RESs and may cause problems in future if left
unaddressed. Therefore, this survey also reviews the liter-
ature about RESs integration in the conventional grid.
In literature, many researchers have focused on the
challenges and problems associated with the RESs inte-
gration and presented different solutions for it.15-22 John-
son et al15 presented an investigation of rotational inertia
of RESs integrated power system. They proposed that
rotational inertia can be directly related to grid reliability.
Manditereza and Bansal18 gave an overview of hidden
challenges of distributed renewable generation from pro-
tection perspective. The main technical issues arising in
the power system are the system stability, distributed
generation, interfacing requirements, protection, and
islanding. They suggested changes in protection strategies
for faults occurrence due to nontraditional sources like
new relay characteristics and identification of faults and
their location.
Stram20 has discussed the key challenges in expan-
ding renewable energy in context of power quality issues
of solar and wind integrated grids. The author has also
presented an overview of recent trends in photovoltaic
(PV) systems with power electronics equipment. Sen and
Ganguly19 presented a discussion on opportunities,
issues, and barriers in renewable energy development.
They pointed out issues in terms of the development of
RESs like market failures, information and awareness
concerns, and socio-cultural barriers. This study also
BASIT ET AL.
presents the development stage of RESs technology in the
continents and emphasises on global investment needs
and strategies for RESs.
The critical issues related to PV systems are their low
efficiency and unreliability. The future opportunities to
establish high-efficiency thin-film PV cells, use of ESSs,
and enhancement in PV inverter technology with wide
band-gap devices are essential for fast development and
commercialisation of PV systems. The grid integration is
also being explored in developed and developing coun-
tries; however, some issues like low inertia, harmonics-
related issues, and the placement of different protections
(short-circuit, lightning protection) to integrate it with
the distribution grid need to be resolved.
Bajaj and Singh23 presented a review of power quality
issues with a grid-connected distributed generation. They
have simulated a PV-based distributed generation system
to demonstrate power quality challenges and presented
some mitigation techniques for such issues. Olowu et al24
studied the penetration issues of PV integration with the
grid. They concluded that problems arise due to complex-
ity in protection coordination, feeder losses, thermal
limits of the grid, and at the point of interconnection.
Neetzow et al25 presented modelling coordination
between grid and renewables. Authors have discussed the
policies to mitigate distribution grid constraints using resi-
dential PV battery systems. Sinsel et al21 reviewed the chal-
lenges and solution for the integration of variable RESs.
Nazir et al26 presented the impact of RESs on environment
in terms of atmospheric pollution-related problems.
Power quality problems in wind integrated power sys-
tem were analysed by Sugirtha and Latha.16 They used
grid-connected dynamic voltage restorer (DVR)-based
wind farm to study voltage issues (sag, swell, and har-
monics) and reactive power compensation. DVR is
mostly utilised in distribution systems at the point of
common coupling between the supply and critical load
feeder. The results revealed that the introduction of DVR
has improved power factor and stabilised the power sys-
tem voltage. It has also decreased the feeder losses and
current on the line.
The intermittent wind speed affects power generation
by wind generator. The availability of the economically
feasible wind speed is mostly in a remote area which adds
extra transmission infrastructures. The power quality
issues that appear at grid due to the connection of wind
electric generators are voltage transients, frequency and
voltage variations, voltage imbalance, and voltage har-
monics. Similarly, reactive power compensation, current
harmonics, and injection of fluctuating power are some
of the issues related to squirrel cage induction generators
(SCIGs) and doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs),
normally used in wind power generation.16
3
Abdelwahab et al27 discussed the improvement in
penetration of renewable energy and its efficiency in the
smart and green community. Blaabjerg and Ionel17 pres-
ented a comprehensive review of RESs, opportunities,
research, future trends, and their challenges. They found
that the challenges related to offshore wind farms are
foundation issues, high maintenance cost, and the inter-
connection between onshore and offshore wind farms.
Harmonics, uncertainty due to dependency on nature,
and stability are the key concerns with both onshore and
offshore wind farms.
The major disadvantage of self-excited induction
generators used in wind farms is that they absorb the
reactive power for their regular operation.16 This creates
a voltage stability issue in the system. The most com-
mon types of induction generators used in wind farms
are SCIGs and DFIGs. The reactive power compensation
is supplied from the grid by the source of capacitor
banks in parallel with the stator terminal of the genera-
tor. Hence, there is always a need for dynamic reactive
power compensation devices to stabilise the voltages
and supply reactive power at SCIGs/DFIGs interface
bus. Power electronics-based flexible AC transmission
systems (FACTS) devices are considered an effective
solution for reactive power compensation and bus volt-
age regulation.
In literature, researchers are applying various
approaches to enhance the performance of RESs inte-
grated power system. Researchers have investigated dif-
ferent FACTS devices for improvement of power quality
and stability of RESs integrated power systems like static
VAR compensator (SVC) for PV-based power system
stability,28 SVC for transient stability and power quality
improvement,29 voltage source converters (VSCs) to
improve grid reliability,30 static synchronous compensa-
tor (STATCOM) for increasing the grid transmission
limit,31 STATCOM to facilitate the wind farm,32 and uni-
fied power flow controller (UPFC) to attenuate sub-
synchronous resonance (SSR) in wind farm.33
This paper presents a detailed literature review on
extensive utilisation of main RESs along with the limita-
tions and challenges originated due to their integration
with the grid and possible solutions. Moreover, a discus-
sion on the advantages and importance of ESSs with
RESs technology is presented precisely. The impact of
FACTS controllers on RESs integrated power system has
also been investigated using MATLAB-based simulations.
Three test systems with occurrence of various fault events
have been simulated to test multitype FACTS controllers.
The results depict that FACTS devices are efficient in pro-
viding reactive power support and enhance the stability
of the power system undergoing any contingency
conditions.
4 BASIT ET AL.
The paper is mainly divided into four parts. The first
part (Section 2) presents comprehensive review of RESs
and prominent technologies used to harness renewable
energy including their current statistics and upgrading
potential from all around the world. In the second part
(Section 3) of the paper, limitations and constraints of
large-scale integration of RESs with the conventional grid
and their proposed solutions in literature are reviewed.
In the third part of the paper (Section 4), the impact of
ESSs with RESs is discussed. In the last part (Section 5), a
simulation study on RESs integrated power systems is
done to show the effectiveness of FACTS controllers in
RESs integrated power system.
2 | R ENEWABLE ENERG Y I N THE
WORLD
Hydroelectric power, wind, solar, geothermal, biomass,
and marine energies are most prominent RES.34 Table 1
presents main RESs along with their usage. During last
three decades, a considerable percentage growth of RESs
in comparison with lignite and coal energy has been
observed; however, it is still behind the natural gas. The
year 2017 was record breaking for RESs not only in terms
of the most significant increase in power capacity but also
for decrease in cost, enabling new technologies and
investments.35 In 2018, almost 181 GW new RESs were
installed in the world which was slightly more than the
previous year installations. The rapid rise of RESs usage
is due to increased access to finance, emerging economy,
demand in electricity, and human and environmental
health. Moreover, local governments in some countries
are becoming leaders in RESs due to energy shortage
issues. Many developed and underdeveloping countries
have dedicated a suitable investment in the deployment
of infrastructure for new RESs technologies.
In 2017, the total share of fossil fuels, RESs, nuclear,
and biomass in energy production was 79.7%, 10.6%,
2.2%, and 7.5%, respectively. About 4.2% of the total
energy generation share was obtained from biomass,
solar, and geothermal energy followed by the 3.6% of
hydropower.9
In the years 2017 and 2018, worldwide installed
RESs-based power capacity have seen an increase of
more than 9% and 8%, respectively, as compared with
previous years. In 2018, new RESs installations of solar,
wind, and hydro were 55%, 28%, and 11%, respectively.9
The share of RESs in total power generation capacity
grew to over 33% in 2018. In the year 2018, more solar
PV power generation was added in the system than
other RESs. Percentage of electricity generated through
renewable and nonrenewable sources is around 73.85
TABLE 1 RES technologies and their applications
RES Application of RES
Hydro Electrical power generation
Wind Windmill, water pump, and electrical power
generation
Solar Solar PV, solar thermal (flat plate, evacuated
glass tube, parabolic, etc), solar-based cookers,
heat pumps, dryers, and cooling
Biomass Gasification, pyrolysis, and electrical power
generation
Geothermal Hydrothermal, urban heating, and electrical
power generation
Abbreviations: PV, photovoltaic; RES, renewable energy system.
and 26.2%, respectively.9 During last 10 years, RES power
capacity has been almost doubled. Moreover,
nonhydropower RE increased more than sixfold. Consid-
ering RESs generation, without hydropower, China is a
leading country following the USA, Germany, and India.9
Carfora et al36 have studied the relationship between eco-
nomic growth, energy consumption, and energy prices of
Asian developing countries. In this regard, the Philip-
pines, Indonesia, India, and Thailand were investigated
broadly for their economic growth with the consumption
and costs of energy. It covers data from more than
40 years of economic and energy history of these coun-
tries. Sahouane et al37 performed an investigation of the
energy and economic efficiency of the PV system in Alge-
rian desert conditions.
RESs contribute almost 18.1% in total final energy
consumption around the world as calculated in 2017. It
includes 10.6% modern renewables and 7.5% traditional
biomass. The share of fossil fuel is still high, causing an
increase in greenhouse gasses (GHG) emissions.9,35,38
A turning point in efforts to restrict climate change
by a global agreement was the Paris Agreement. It came
into force on 4 November 2016 when 55 countries ratified
this agreement. It was decided to limit the average global
temperature to rise less than 2
C by the end of this cen-
tury and to proceed further efforts to restrain it even
below 1.5
C.39,40 In 2019, the United Nations
(UN) climate change summit was held to check and fur-
ther increase the effort for the climate. It was found that
although parties are trying to fulfil their promises and
accomplish their nationally determined contributions;
however, achieving the temperature below 2
C or 1.5
C
is not looking to happen with current efforts.41 Therefore,
some more adequate efforts are necessary from developed
countries in addition to the use of climate-friendly tech-
nology for developing countries to retain capacity. Mean-
while, efforts towards environmental improvements are
BASIT ET AL.
becoming more famous and gained political acceptance
internationally.42-45
2.1 | Types of renewable energy
resources
This section reviews the most prominent RESs technolo-
gies like hydropower, wind, solar, biomass, and geother-
mal energy used for the extraction of energy. These
technologies are reviewed one by one with their latest
statistics and countries having large infrastructure of
these technologies.
2.1.1 | Hydropower
Hydropower is one of the oldest technologies used for dif-
ferent purposes. Energy is harnessed by flowing water
coming from higher elevation side to the lower. More
than 2000 years ago, the kinetic energy of flowing water
was used to grind wheat.46 Hydropower for electricity
generation was introduced in the 19th century. Now,
hydropower technology is used by more than 160 coun-
tries globally.47 Top countries producing electricity from
hydropower are shown in Figure 1.
In the 21st century, hydropower is technically a
mature technology with its components used for multiple
purposes, eg, electricity generation, irrigation, flood, and
drought management.48 There are two basic configura-
tions of hydropower electric generation. Dam with reser-
voirs and run-off-the-river plants without reservoirs.
Dams are further categorised as large and small dams
with storage, small dams with pumped storage.46 Mega
dam projects required a large amount of investment, long
lead time for development and construction.49,50 Run-off-
the-river plants have relatively small-scale, eco-friendly,
power generation as they do not interrupt the natural
FIGURE 1 Top nations producing hydel power9 [Colour
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
5
flow of the river. These projects are often distributed gen-
eration to feed far and remote areas.51 Pump storage pro-
jects have two reservoirs at different elevations. Water is
allowed to flow from higher reservoir to the lower
through the turbine to generate electricity during peak
demand. During off-peak hours, excess electricity is used
to operate the pump and water is pumped back to higher
reservoir. The energy conversion efficiency of recently
installed pump storage system is more than 80%.51 Hydel
power electricity added in 2018 is shown in Figure 2.
2.1.2 | Wind power
Wind exists everywhere on this earth, and harnessing of
power from the kinetic energy of blowing wind is called
wind power. Wind power is now considered as a mature
technology used commercially for the generation of electric-
ity since 1990s around the globe. The trend of wind technol-
ogy is increasing in those countries where energy demand is
fulfilled by burning of fossil fuels.52,53 Wind power has prac-
tical applications for power requirements in remote areas;
however, it should be used in aggregation with the primary
grid for continuity, maximum stability, and flexibility.54
There are two categories of wind farm depending on
their location: onshore (land) and offshore (sea) wind
farms. Onshore wind farms are usually grouped near grid
stations on landscapes or mountains, mostly near coastal
areas, whereas offshore wind farms are installed deep
into the sea. Offshore technology is slowly adopted in the
last few years due to higher uniform wind speed in deep
oceans.55,56 Offshore wind farms usually have more
nameplate capacity ratings than onshore farms.
The maximum power coefficient (Cpmax) is
16/27 = 0.5926, known as Betz criterion. It states that
one can only convert maximum of 59.26% energy from
available kinetic energy of the wind through the wind
turbine. Real-life wind turbines have an efficiency range
of 40% to 50%, only.57,58
Moreover, the world's megacities are mostly located
in coastal areas; therefore, long-distance transmission is
avoided. Wind power added during 2008-2018 has linear
behaviour. As shown in Figure 3, the global wind power
electricity reached to 591 GW mark in 2018. Figure 4
shows the leading countries in wind power installation,
where China added 21.1 GW wind power into the system
in 2018 following USA (7.6 GW) and Germany (3.1 GW).
2.1.3 | Solar power
Sun is the most inexhaustible free source providing
energy for billions of years. Sun provides nearly four
6 BASIT ET AL.
million exajoules of energy to earth annually.59 Solar
radiation received by the earth in 1 year is 10 000 times
more than the annual global energy demand of modern
life.60 Moreover, one-fourth of the total radiations that
fall on the earth's paved area is enough for the global
energy requirements.
Solar energy has a remarkable potential to fulfil entire
world energy demand if scientists develop technical
equipment for the generation of electricity through it.61
Light and heat are two forms of solar energy which reach
to the earth. PV technology uses sunlight to produce elec-
tricity. Electricity generation is dependent on the concen-
tration of sunlight rather than any influence of heat,62
whereas concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) uses
both the heat and light of the sun to generate electric-
ity.63 There are subcategories of CSP including solar dish,
solar central receiving systems, and parabolic solar
through. Solar energy systems other than PV have some
technical disadvantages due to rotating machinery and
maintenance.
Moreover, they are economically expansive. In com-
ing years, it is expected that production and installation
cost of CSP will be reduced up to 50% to 60% through
technical research in this field.64 On the other hand, solar
PV technology is well-established technology now and
uses the photoelectric effect to generate electricity with-
out any rotating components. Advanced power electron-
ics equipment is involved in PV electricity generation
which is now cheap and readily available. A lot of
research is being carried out on this technology for fur-
ther efficiency improvement since 2002.65 Nowadays,
solar PV technology has an efficiency of 25.5%, claimed
by the researchers of Hong Kong,59 whereas peak effi-
ciency is nearly 30% and the average efficiencies of CSP
are recorded as 20%.66
During 2008-2018, solar PV addition has been raised
exponentially all over the world as shown in Figure 5.
Annual addition in 2018 was recorded as 100 GW in this
F I G U R E 2 Top nations add hydel power
in 2019 (Data Source: REN21 2019 Report)
[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
field, out of which 45 GW was installed in China. USA
(10.6 GW) and Japan (6.5 GW) has also introduced a con-
siderable amount of solar PV in their systems, as depicted
in Figure 6.
2.1.4 | Bioenergy
Bioenergy is a vital source of energy extracted from agri-
cultural waste and animal's husbandry residue which can
be used as biodiesel for electricity generation.67 Bioenergy
has all possible characteristics to face challenges related
to increasing use of fossil fuel and minimising the emis-
sion of GHG.68 Bioenergy resources all over the world are
3 to 4 times more than the total human energy require-
ments.69 It is estimated that 35% of global energy (ie,
190 × 1018 Jy−1) can be extracted from bioenergy
potential excluding dense forest, crop land, wilderness,
and infrastructure.70 Currently, 9% of the world energy
demand is fulfilled by bioenergy.71 Just like conventional
fuel, biofuel also exists in solid, liquid, and gaseous states.
Bioenergy is considered as a renewable energy source but
not as cleaned energy. Most of the studies reveal that bio-
fuel emits comparatively fewer GHG than conventional
fuels, but some studies show that biofuel has a more neg-
ative impact on climate change.72 The efficiency of bio-
mass electricity plant is around 20%.73 Figure 7 shows
bioenergy produced in different regions of the world for
the period 2008-2018. Overall global bioenergy trend is
increasing slowly; however, in some of the areas, bio-
energy production is reduced than in previous years.
2.1.5 | Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy means the energy naturally stored in
the interior of the earth. Massive amount of geothermal
energy reserves is present between earth crust and core
BASIT ET AL. 7

F I G U R E 3 Wind power capacity and

addition 2008-2018 (GW) (Data Source: REN21
2019 Report) [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

F I G U R E 4 Top nations producing wind

power (GW) (Data Source: REN21 2019 Report)
[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

F I G U R E 5 Solar photovoltaic
(PV) capacity and addition 2008-2018
(Data Source: REN21 2019 Report)
[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

in the form of heat or steam. These reserves are unevenly
distributed, rarely concentrated, and at some places pre-
sent at reasonable depth to exploit mechanically by dril-
ling.48 History of geothermal power generation is over a
century ago, and the first commercial power plant was
installed in Italia in 1914.74 Among the renewable
resources share of geothermal is about 1.5% and overall
0.3% of global power generation.75 Three types of power
plants are used depending upon the temperature, state of
fluid, and depth of well.76 Dry steam power generators
are used in which the hydrothermal reservoir is vapour
dominant with high temperature. Flash steam power
generators are used where the hydrothermal reservoir is
liquid dominant. Binary cycle plants are used mostly
based on Rankine or Kalina cycle with temperature of
the reservoir less than 150
C.77 Other possible
8 BASIT ET AL.
technologies to increase the percentage share of geother-
mal energy are discussed by Bruhn.78
Estimated geothermal energy is 84.8 TWh according
to 2017 survey. The cumulative capacity has reached to
13.3 GW of geothermal electric power in 2018.9,79 Indo-
nesia and Turkey are the most significant contributors of
geothermal electricity followed by Iceland and USA, as
shown in Figure 8. Enhancement of renewable resources
is essential to meet the global climate goal without reduc-
ing economic growth and decelerating welfare.
3 | LIMITATIONS A ND
CONSTRAINTS O F RENEWABLE
INTEGRATION
Apart from all advantages and worldwide availability of
RESs, there are also some constraints and limitations for
their use. Intrinsic characteristics of different renewable
sources are responsible for slowing down their develop-
ment. Insufficient geographic sites all over the world nat-
urally limit the hydel power and geothermal
generation.80 Biomass requires large space to store natu-
ral source. Under these constraints, wind and solar PV
installation can be opted as better choice.
On the other hand, these sources have intermittent
nature. Electricity generated from wind is dependent on
the nature of the turbine, density, and speed of the wind.
If the wind speed is low (<2.5 m/s), it is unable to gener-
ate electricity, or if the wind speed is so high (>25 m/s),
turbines are shut down for safety purpose. In contrast,
solar PV generation depends on the intensity of light at
that location which varies hour to hour and season to
season and additionally affected by clouds. Thus, making
uncertain these two mostly available primary sources.
High penetration of solar PV and wind system can
lead to critical and overall system stability challenges; the
F I G U R E 6 Top nations
producing solar photovoltaic
(PV) power (Data Source: REN21
2019 Report) [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
main reason behind it is the low inertia or non-existent
inertial response of RESs. For example, solar PV units do
not offer any inertia to the power system. Moreover, vari-
able wind turbines are connected to power electronics-
based converter which effectively decouples the wind tur-
bine inertia from mitigating system transients. Other
RESs technologies are not installed on a large scale to
provide considerable inertial support to power system.81
Therefore, the replacement of conventional power plants
with RESs will reduce the inertia of the entire power sys-
tem. It has been predicted that power system inertia
would be reduced up to 70% in the United Kingdom
between 2014 and 2034.82,83 The main technical issue
that arises in these new RESs is frequency and overall
system stability due to less generating units and small
inertia constant.
Another problem in the integration of RESs with the
conventional grid is related to power quality issues.
Power quality challenges include frequency fluctuation,
flickers, unbalance voltage and current harmonics, and
voltage variations.84 These challenges arise due to
switching components (firing angle control) used in
power electronics devices which are now an essential
part of RESs technology.85 Strength of these issues in case
of solar PV depends on the location of PV module, dis-
tributed system configuration, and solar PV penetration
level. In case of wind, it depends on the type of turbine,
density, and speed of wind.86 It has been found in litera-
ture that power quality issues can occur at distribution,
generation, and transmission side in all RES integrated
grids.55 Intermittent characteristics of solar PV appears
due to rapid alterations between sunshine and clouds
which cause voltage fluctuation and unbalance, whereas,
varying wind speed affects the wind power generation.87
Voltage flickers caused by the impact of machines vary
inversely with the fault level at point of common cou-
pling which impose significant impact on grid. Voltage
BASIT ET AL.
F I G U R E 7 Capacity and addition
of bioenergy in different regions
2008-2018 (Data Source: REN21 2019
Report) [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
F I G U R E 8 Top nations
producing geothermal energy (Data
Source: REN21 2019 Report) [Colour
figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
fluctuation affects the lifetime of sensitive electronics and
electrical equipment.88
Harmonics generation is another unwanted phe-
nomenon that occurs due to switching control in
power electronics-based power systems. According to
current techniques and practices, inverter inherits non-
linearity results in harmonics being injected in the
main AC supply.89 Harmonics are considered as a
cause of losses in the form of heat. In variable wind tur-
bines, force commutated power converters not only
produce harmonics but also produce interharmonics.84
In the solar PV system, DC power is converted into AC
to inject the power to the grid which may cause har-
monics in the plant.90
Generation of subsynchronous oscillations (SSOs) is
one of the emerging problems that has been seen in wind
power-connected grids. Power system stability problems
are concerned with the generation of SSOs.91,92 This phe-
nomenon in conventional plants is originated due to
9
subsynchronous interaction of mechanical shaft of turbo-
generator with active control of transmission lines or com-
pensated transmission lines.93 Extensive literature has
been studied and documented for mitigation of SSOs in
conventional power systems.94 However, in wind power-
connected grids, SSOs are found because of induction gen-
erator with a series-compensated transmission line. More-
over, different types of wind controls play an essential role
to make the issue of SSOs more complicated in wind con-
nected system as compared with conventional plants.95
The problem of SSR occurs in PV parks instead of
only in wind farms. Khayyatzaden and Kazemzadeh
proposed a control algorithm to investigate the effect of
SSR in IEEE second benchmark model aggregated with
the wind farm. Mathematics for two different types of
SSR in power system is given as an induction generator
effect.96 Subsynchronous current is also included
with a compensated series line with an electrical
frequency:
10
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X LðeqÞ
fs =fn , ð1Þ
Xc
where fs and fn are the nominal and natural frequencies,
respectively. XC and XL(eq) are the series capacitor
and line reactance w.r.t. transformer and generator,
respectively.
fs =fr +fn ð2Þ
At this frequency, the slip is given as
f n −f r
s= : ð3Þ
fn
The lower value of natural resonance frequency “fn”
then the electrical frequency “fr” leads to negative slip
values.
Slip becomes negative since the natural resonance
frequency “fn” is less than the electrical frequency
corresponding to generator rotor speed. Therefore, at sub-
synchronous frequency, the magnitude of equivalent
rotor resistance “(Rr/s)” becomes negative. The generator
rotor torsional oscillations with frequency “fm” induces
armature voltage components at the frequency given as
f nðindÞ = f s  f m : ð4Þ
When the subsynchronous frequency component of
“fe(ind)” comes in close vicinity or matches with any of
the electric resonance frequency “fe,” the torsional oscil-
lation and electrical resonance reinforce each other
resulting SSR.
3.1 | Solution approaches
In practice, various devices are being used to solve spe-
cific problems on the grid either caused by renewable
integration or from other sources. Some solutions to
tackle the problems caused by RESs integrations are
explained below.
3.1.1 | Variable synchronous machines
Variable synchronous machines (VSMs) were proposed
to counter the stability issues that arise due to frequency
fluctuation and voltage reduction in RESs connected
grids. This power electronics-based technique was intro-
duced in 2007 by Beck and Hesse.97 The key idea behind
BASIT ET AL.
VSMs is to correlate the modern dynamics of power elec-
tronics devices with static and dynamic properties of the
conventional synchronous machine. The aim is to control
grid-interface converter of distributed generation in such
a way that it behaves like a real synchronous machine.98
Yu et al99 has discussed the detailed modelling of VSMs.
As VSM behaves like a genuine synchronous machine,
therefore, it can handle active and reactive power in both
directions. Properties of the synchronous machine like
rotating mass, transient reaction, and remote power dis-
patch are modelled in a new way for interaction between
grid and generator.100 The critical aspect of VSMs is vir-
tual inertia. Virtual rotational inertia can be produced by
adding short-term energy storage at a distributed generat-
ing unit along with intelligent control interface to a con-
ventional grid.101 The efficiency of VSMs depends on PI
control-based current source inverter. Malla et al102 has
proposed an adaptive dynamic programming-based sup-
plementary controller for performance enhancement of
the system. A VSM connected to solar- and wind-based
hybrid power system is shown in Figure 9.
3.1.2 | Superconducting magnetic energy
storage
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) is a
method other than VSM to control the fluctuating fre-
quency of wind farm.103 DC current flowing through sup-
erconducting coil stores energy in the magnetic field
which then released or absorbed in response of fluctua-
tion of wind power. Other features of SMES include sta-
bility, output voltage, and power regulation. SMES offers
an advantage of minimal actual specific energy (Wh/kg).
The actual specific energy of SMES is around approxi-
mately 1 to 2 Wh/kg, whereas batteries have 10 to
200 Wh/kg, approximately. The specific power of SMES
and battery energy storage is approximately 10 to 10 000
and approximately 0.001 to 10 kW/kg, respectively.104
They can store very large amount of power in small space
as compared with conventional batteries. The schematic
diagram of SMES is given in Figure 10.
3.1.3 | Converter control for harmonics
Kalair et al106 have reviewed the inverter harmonics, its
modelling, and mitigating techniques. In research and prac-
tice, different harmonics mitigation techniques are widely
adopted. These techniques are active power filter (APF),107
passive power filter (PPF),108 linear reactors, dynamic
voltage regulators, isolation transformers (TFs),
multilevel inverter, k-factor TFs,109 low and tuned filters,
BASIT ET AL.
F I G U R E 9 A typical virtual synchronous machine (VSM) connected to renewable energy systems (RESs)-based hybrid power system
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
multiple-pulse converters, phase shifting TF,110 etc. Single-
pulse half-wave, two-pulse full-wave, and three-pulse three-
phase half-wave rectifier produce all odd and even except
triplen harmonics although the increase of converter pulses
reduces harmonics. Hence, a multiple-pulse converter pro-
vides effective mitigation of harmonics.106 Prasad et al108
have used a passive harmonic filter for mitigation of current
harmonics in PV integrated system. Different harmonics
compensation and mitigation methods have been consid-
ered and proposed in previous studies.107-110
A comprehensive review is presented by Li and He111
for compensation of harmonics by using converter con-
trol in distributed RES units. Three control strategies for
harmonics compensation are discussed including voltage
control method (VCM), current control method (CCM),
and hybrid control method (HCM). Summary of these
control strategies is given in Table 2.
3.1.4 | Filter technologies (APF)
Power system problems like harmonics and reactive
power can effectively be solved by using APF.112,113 The
APF is used in three different configurations: series APF,
shunt APF, and hybrid APF. The schematic diagram of
the APF is presented in Figure 11. The inverter parame-
ters, control strategies, and current detection methods
determine the execution of APF filter.114 In order to miti-
gate SSO, a control algorithm is proposed in addition to
stator and rotor side control of DFIG-type wind
farm.115,116 This control technique uses dq components of
rotor and stator current as the input of proposed control.
Another control technique based on the Schur method is
proposed for mitigation of SSO.117 It uses state feedback
design and a washout filter at rotor side converter to
11
diminish the effects of SSO. Some other harmonics com-
pensation and mitigation methods have been considered
and proposed in previous studies.106,111,118
3.1.5 | Virtual impedance control
Another method named virtual impedance control
(VIC) is a smart way to shape a dynamic profile of con-
verters used in RESs.119 The VIC loop can be embedded
as an additional degree of freedom for disturbance
reduction and active stabilisation. Furthermore, it is
employed as a command reference generator for the
converters to offer auxiliary services. Applications of
VIC include power flow control, stabilisation, fault ride
through, harmonic, and unbalance compensation.
Figure 12 shows the classification of VIC based on their
functions. He and Li120 have proposed and implemented
a design of VIC for power electronics-based distributed
generations.
As discussed earlier, the immense integration of
RESs with traditional grids may lead to transient or volt-
age stability issues. Furthermore, long-distance trans-
mission from RESs integrated grid to load centre is
more likely to become unstable due to lack of reactive
power support.121 These issues are also addressed by
incorporating FACTS devices such as static synchronous
series compensator (SSSC), STATCOM, and UPFC with
renewable integrated power grids. These FACTS devices
provide reactive power support and voltage stabil-
ity.22,122 The reactive power compensation in RESs-
based grid is reviewed in Sarkar et al.123 Some other
researchers also investigated the impact of FACTS con-
troller for stability in conventional and RESs integrated
grid.29,124
12
FIGURE 10 Superconducting magnetic energy storage
105
(SMES) schematic
3.1.6 | STATCOM in smart grid control
STATCOM is a widely used FACTS controller, well known
for its efficient reactive power compensation capabilities.
Marine Current Turbine (MCT) driven marine current gen-
erators integrated with large offshore wind farms guarantee
a large-scale renewable generation of electricity.125 Tran-
sients in this system disturb the stability of the main grid;
therefore, efficient control system is required to cope with
such conditions. In order to damp out the oscillations of
one machine infinite bus system connected with this inte-
grated offshore wind farm and marine current farm,
STATCOM is proved to be an effective addition to the grid
control.126,127 In this modern age of rapidly improving tech-
nologies, SCIGs wind turbines are in common use owing to
their more straightforward design and lower cost. However,
following a voltage drop in transient conditions, SCIGs slow
down the voltage restoration leading to system voltage and
rotor speed instability.128 STATCOM incorporation along
with artificial neural network-based self-tuning PI control-
ler resolves this issue. It can work effectively under extreme
conditions, such as uneven loading, faults, and weakened
grid support resulting in efficiently controlled voltage and
rotor speed to maintain them within limits.129 DFIGs are
modern edition of generators with wide application circle
due to their higher efficiency.130 Moreover, DFIGs have an
additional capability of decoupled control of active and
reactive power to ensure better grid integration.126 How-
ever, DFIGs are extremely vulnerable and sensitive to the
grid faults. Different studies have been carried out to find a
potential solution to cater for this problem.131,132
STATCOM introduction into DFIGs-based wind power sys-
tems ensures smooth steady state and transient voltage con-
trol.133 The efficiency of STATCOM can be enhanced
further by incorporating fuzzy logic into control system.
Fuzzy controllers can be added as main or supplementary
controllers of STATCOM. Main controller being used for
AC bus voltage regulation and supplementary controller for
DC capacitor voltage control.134 Type-II NeuroFuzzy-based
controllers are widely used for enhancing the power system
stability using STATCOM.135,136 These control schemes fur-
ther enhance the transient stability of integrated smart or
conventional grid.
BASIT ET AL.
TABLE 2 Harmonic compensation schemes111
VCM HCM VSM
Local load Yes Yes Yes (without
harmonic good damping)
compensation
DC line current Yes Yes Yes (indirect
harmonic current control)
rejection
Grid impedance Insensitive Insensitive Sensitive
variation
Standalone Yes Yes Yes
operation with
voltage control
Abbreviations: HCM, hybrid control method; VCM, voltage control method;
VSM, virtual synchronous machine.
3.1.7 | SSSC in smart grid control
SSSC is another FACTS controller being effectively utilised
for stability enhancement of conventional and RESs inte-
grated grid.137,138 As discussed earlier, large-scale integra-
tion of wind farms into electricity grid causes grid
instability issues owing to the intermittent nature of
wind.139 Moreover, it badly affects the grid during contin-
gencies especially during sequential faults occurrence.
Voltage and rotor angle instability of wind generators in
transient conditions can even cause system shutdown
resulting in severe blackouts. SSSC connection to the con-
trol system can effectively damp out system oscillations in
such conditions through efficient reactive power sup-
port.140 Solar and wind farm inverters can be modelled
and functioned as SSSC in grid-connected RESs. Operation
of these inverters as SSSC can offer active and reactive
power compensation. It can enhance the steady-state
power transfer limit of the line in the event of increased
load demand. Besides this, it can also be utilised to miti-
gate SSR and power oscillations.141,142 The capability of
SSSC to work in both inductive and capacitive mode is
very handy for power oscillation damping and rotor angle
stability.143 Therefore, SSSC is gaining vast utilisation in
smart grid applications installed with RESs.
3.1.8 | UPFC in smart grid control
RESs mostly have an uneven and intermittent nature
which disturbs the normal functionality of smart electric-
ity grid. Power consumption management along with the
mostly discussed stability issues of grid is a prominent
issue to be effectively resolved.144,145 An efficient power
consumption management model is introduced by
Aghaebrahimi et al.146 This model proposes a technique
BASIT ET AL.
FIGURE 11 Schematic diagram of active power filter107
FIGURE 12 Classification of virtual impedance control (VIC)
to control the peak load reduction in smart grid using
UPFC. This model decreases losses and controls over-
loading in the transmission line as well as reduces the
generation costs during peak demand hours. This model
works with maximum possible efficiency. PV integration
with smart grid ensures a clean renewable addition to the
grid, but it does have certain connection issues which
need to be resolved. Grid synchronisation with PV and
13
ensuring a stable connection between grid and PV system
even during contingencies is a demanding task.
Kumkratug147 has proposed a UPFC model for calculat-
ing transient stability of a multimachine system stocked
with a grid-connected PV system. In addition to this, a
simulation technique for evaluation of critical clearing
time of a multimachine system is also provided. UPFC
has also shown its effectiveness in controlling wind farm-
14 BASIT ET AL.

T A B L E 3 Improvement of power quality in RES integrated T A B L E 4 Features of distributed flexible AC transmission

power system by using FACTS system (D-FACTS) controller

FACTS D-FACTS Controllers Features

Controllers Result/Conclusion
Distributed TCSC System voltage control
SVC28 Power system stability improvement having (D-TCSC)149 Reduction of real power (P) losses
a solar PV system Development of a cyber-secure
SVC29 Transient stability and power system quality control scheme for the stability
improvement of the system

VSC30 Improve the penetration of green energy and Distributed Static Series Reduction of real power (P) losses
system reliability. Compensator Cheaper and smaller than
(D-SSC)150 conventional FACTS controller
STATCOM Increase in grid transmission limit for a PV
Active power flow control of line
solar farm integrated31
STATCOM facilitate the wind farm Distributed Static Reactive power control
connection with conventional grid32 Compensator Current harmonic compensation
(D-STATCOM)151,152 Voltage regulation
UPFC They are suitable to attenuate the SSR in
Uninterrupted power supply when
wind farms
using an energy storage device
Abbreviations: FACTS, flexible AC transmission system; PV, photovoltaic; Distributed Switched Mitigation of total harmonic
RES, renewable energy system; SSR, subsynchronous resonance; STATCOM, Filter Compensator distortion (THD) at buses
static synchronous compensator; SVC, static VAR compensator; UPFC,
(D-SFC)152,153 Power factor improvement
unified power flow controller; VSC, voltage source converter.
Voltage stabilisation
Distributed Green Plug DC bus voltage stabilisation
connected smart grid, even during fault occurrences. SSR
SFC (D-GPSFC)154 Voltage regulation
often occurs in series-compensated lines, severely damag- Fewer power losses
ing the stability of the system even causing mechanical
erosion of the generators. Offshore wind farm integration
with the electricity grid often suffers from SSR.148 UPFC
is found very effective and valuable to attenuate SSR in plants, power extraction from different RESs is not
wind farm integrations.33 UPFC outperforms other adjustable according to the energy demand. Power is
FACTS devices in dealing with SSR due to its dual capa- directly harnessed from RESs as their peak production
bility of series and shunt compensation. Power quality time may not match the power requirement. In result,
improvement by implementation of FACTS controller is the system may face large fluctuations in output power in
summarised in Table 3.124 annual or even monthly cycles.
Similarly, power demand varies from season to sea-
son. Therefore, energy storage is a crucial factor in
3.1.9 | D-FACTS controller making these sources fully reliable to use them as a
primary source of energy. The idea is to store energy
Distributed FACTS (D-FACTS) is a new term used explic- when it is abundant and release when energy produc-
itly for distributed RESs power plants. It is cost-effective tion is less than demand. That is why energy
power flow solution.208 D-FACTS devices and their fea- storage becomes an integral part of reliable RESs
tures are summarised in Table 4. Most of the problems technologies.14
like voltage fluctuation, voltage sag and swell, and har- In this section, some mature, developed, and com-
monics associated with microgrids/smart grids are mercially available energy storage techniques are over-
addressed by D-FACTS devices. viewed. They are dissimilar in working principles and
The comparison of solution approaches due to problems their underlying technologies. Energy storage is consid-
associated with renewable integration are summarised in ered handy system and has better potential to improve
Table 5. the reliability of the power system.155 This activity pro-
vokes the intentions of RESs integration with power sys-
tem to control the issue of energy deficiency while ESS is
4 | S I GN IF IC AN CE O F ESS s U SED not another source of energy. Leading economic players
WITH RESs in this field are China and the United States. They are
investing a considerable amount in adding ESSs to their
There are many indisputable advantages of RESs; how- network. In China, 22.85 GW of ESSs were successfully
ever, they have few challenges. Unlike traditional power installed in 2015. Meanwhile, the US ESS market grew
BASIT ET AL. 15

TABLE 5 Comparison of solution approaches in grid-connected RESs

Converter Control
Problems SMES VSM VIC D-FACTS APF for Harmonics STATCOM SSSC UPFC
Low inertia ✓ ✓
Power flow control ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
SSO ✓ ✓ ✓
Stability ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Fluctuating frequency ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Harmonics ✓ ✓ ✓
Reactive power compensation ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Fault ride through ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Transient voltage control and ✓ ✓ ✓
problems due to DFIG
Abbreviations: APF, active power filter; DFIG, doubly fed induction generator; D-FACTS, distributed flexible AC transmission system; SMES, superconducting
magnetic energy storage; SSO, subsynchronous oscillation; SSSC, static series synchronous compensator; STATCOM, static synchronous compensator; UPFC,
unified power flow controller; VIC, virtual impedance control; VSM, virtual synchronous machine.

up to 243% in 2015 and predicted to reach 1.5 GW by
2020.156
4.1 | Types of ESSs
Reliability of power system and energy efficiency are the
critical aspects of electrical ESSs. Usually, electricity can
be stored in different forms like kinetic, potential, or elec-
tromagnetic energy. Most prominent ESSs technologies
with a brief description are gathered in Table 6.
The exploitation of RESs can be utilised to its maxi-
mum by using ESSs which not only enhance the capabil-
ity of RESs but also mitigate the issues in utility grids by
reducing the effects caused by intermittent nature of
RESs. ESSs have multiple applications ranging from
transmission to distribution systems.158
4.1.1 | PHE storage
Pumped hydel energy (PHE) is the mature technology
among the currently available ESSs. According to Ibrahim
et al,159 PHE has an efficiency range of 65% to 85%. Due to
recent technological development, PHE can be hybridised
with wind and PV systems to establish a hydel-wind pumped
storage (HWPS) and hydel-PV pumped storage (HPVPS).
During peak demand, electricity is produced by flowing
water from higher potential to lower potential and pumped
back to higher altitude by using wind or PV power.160 On
the other hand, pumped storage needs a suitable site with
significant capital cost. Table 7 summarises some of the oper-
ational PHE storages across the world.161-163
4.1.2 | Compressed air storage
Like PHE, compressed air storage (CAS) is also a highly
developed technology with low investment and opera-
tional cost. However, its installation is limited due to geo-
graphical constraints. It works on mechanical principles
to store the compressed air using low-cost energy and
release this compressed air during discharge to run a gas
turbine.164 Table 8 summarises the information of two
operating CAS.
4.1.3 | Batteries
Electrochemical process is used to store chemical energy
in the battery and release electrical energy when
needed.166 Battery storage is widely used among the
power system applications. Batteries power ranges from
some kilowatts to megawatts. Moreover, the battery sys-
tem is advantageous because of its power converters like
those of solar PV and wind turbine. The advantages of
batteries are high efficiency, fast response, and zero
harmful emission.166
The significant disadvantages of batteries include
environmental concerns like recycling and explosion
danger and some other technical issues like protection,
ageing, solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), memory effect,
and lithiation.167 The lead-acid battery has the recycling
problem due to toxic nature of lead and its compounds. A
long-term exposure to these compounds may lead to kid-
ney and brain problems. Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batte-
ries also have a recycling problem due to toxic nature of
cadmium. They also have a limitation of memory effect
16 BASIT ET AL.

TABLE 6 Summary of different energy storage technologies157 TABLE 7 Pumped hydel storage (PHS) operational sites161-163

Energy Storage Plant Name Country Capacity, MW Established Year

Techniques Description
Pumped hydel It works on the principle of potential
energy energy stored in the water. Stored
energy depends on a gravitational
height between higher and lower
reservoirs. Around 96% of the ESS
installed capacity in the world.157
Thermal energy Heat energy from any source can be
storage stored in the form of thermal
energy stored in a medium with
sensible, latent, and
electrochemical reactions storage.
Compressed air Electrical energy is stored in the form
storage of compressed air in the caverns
which is used in future as
compressed air for a steam turbine.
Batteries Chemical energy is stored in cells
made up of different materials.
Flow batteries
Hydrogen storage Reverse electrochemical reaction is
and fuel cells used to produce electricity. Stored
H2, O2, and air are used as fuels to
produce DC voltage through fuel
cells.
Flywheels Mechanical energy is stored as
rotational kinetic energy in the
flywheels.
Supercapacitor There is no energy conversion in
energy supercapacitor as electrical power is
directly stored in the form of the
charge stored between the two
plates.
Superconducting Energy is deposited in the form
magnetic energy electromagnetic field in a
storage superconducting magnet.
Abbreviation: ESS, energy storage system.
in which it only takes a full charge after series of full dis-
charges. The gassing phenomenon, common in lead-acid
batteries is the primary cause of their explosion. The low
cycle life of some batteries is also a problem like 500 to
1000, 2000 to 2500, and 2500 cycles for lead-acid, NiCd,
and sodium sulphur (NaS) batteries.157
Moreover, in the lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery, after
few charging cycles, the SEI layer formed with the depo-
sition of electrolyte causes cell degradation and lowers
the capacity.168 Li-ion batteries also suffer from a loss of
lithium during the first cycle due to SEI layer growth.169
This problem is solved by prelithiation of Li-ion batteries.
Various prelithiation techniques are developed for
addressing this issue.170,171 Prelithiation strategy is now
Bath country USA 3003 1978
Huizhou China 2448 2011
La Muela Spain 2000 2013
Grand'Maison France 1800 1987
Ikaria Island Greece 2.655
Okutataragi Japan 1932 1998
Srisailam India 1670 1981
Mingtan Dam Taiwan 1602 1994
also applied in capacitors to reduce the initial capacity
loss. Apart from these disadvantages, batteries offer a
compact, portable and easy to use option for energy stor-
age through RESs. The recent development and research
on metal-air battery is underway. It has very high energy
density (500 to 1000 Wh/kg) but low-efficiency range.
These batteries with improved efficiency can be used in
future for large-scale applications as they occupy minimal
space.157
Another option is to reuse the batteries (capacity
reduced by more than 20%) obtained from automotive
industries. The automotive battery pack becomes unfit
when it loses its capacity more than 20% or even 15% for
some electric vehicles.172 The reduced cost of these
reused batteries can present an excellent approach for
energy storage of RESs like wind, PV, and pumped hydel
storage (PHS). The largest display of repurposed batteries
was installed in 2018 at Johan Cruyff Arena, Amsterdam.
It consists of 3 MW power and 2.8 MWh capacity of ESSs
having 340 new and 250 reused batteries. The reused cells
are obtained from 24 kWh electric vehicle pack having a
present capacity of less than 20 kWh.173 Ahmadi et al174
has discussed the environmental aspects of the reused
batteries from electric vehicles. Some examples of ESSs
are presented in Table 9 along with their applications.
4.1.4 | Flow batteries
A flow battery is another type of electrochemical devices
in which two electrolytes are used with one dissolved in
the other.177 The significant advantage of these batteries
lies in the fact that their capacity is not affected with time
like the secondary cell batteries with the material depos-
iting on the electrodes. The typical efficiency range of
vanadium redox battery (VRB) and zinc-bromine battery
(ZBB) is about 60% to 85% and 60% to 75%, respectively.10
Only VRB is a mature technology, and all other types of
BASIT ET AL. 17

TABLE 8 Operational compressed air storage plants165 its low round trip efficiency (50%) and high catalyst cost.
It makes this device expensive in terms of USD/kW.
Efficiency, Capacity,
Name, Country % MW However, molten carbonate and solid oxide-based
fuel cells have operating temperature in the range of
Kraftwerk Huntorf, 42 290
600
C to 700
C and 600
C to 1000
C, respectively.57
Germany
The high-temperature solid oxide-based fuel cells are
McIntosh, Alabama, 54 110
getting attention due to their application in micro com-
United States
bined heat and power systems to provide heat and
power; however, their proper commercial availability
lacks due to high operating temperature of the cell, and
T A B L E 9 Applications and location of certain battery storage research is underway to reduce the operating tempera-
system162,175,176 ture by investigating different materials to be used in
micro combined power systems.181,182 They also have
Cites Application Capacity, MWh
promising applications in aircraft and railway
California Load levelling 40 industries.183
Berlin Frequency control 8.5
Hawaii Power management 3.75
Puerto Rico Spinning reserve 1.4 4.2 | Role of ESSs in RESs applications

Although RESs possess tremendous benefits of

flow batteries are still under research and development
stage with few commercial applications. Different appli-
cations of flow batteries are surmised in Table 10.
4.1.5 | Fuel cells
Fuel cells are quite similar to batteries but vary in their
mode of operation. A fuel cell is an electrochemical
device using hydrogen as the primary fuel to generate
electricity.178 Hydrogen can be stored in tanks in the
form of hydrides or using electrolyzes. It is becoming
famous due to its clean, highly efficient and cost-effective
energy. They also have a high dynamic response, longer
storage duration, and longer life than batteries. However,
similar to batteries, fuel cell has a high investment cost
due to emerging technology.179
Fuel cells can be categorised in different types on the
bases of used electrolyte. They include phosphoric acid
(PA), alkaline, polymer electrolyte membrane, molten
carbonate, and solid oxide-based electrolyte. The poly-
mer, PA, alkaline, and direct methanol (DM) fuel cells
work at low temperature. PA is a mature low-
temperature fuel cell technology used residentially and in
distributed grids. The operating temperature of this fuel
cell is around 150
C to 200
C.57,180 Alkaline, polymer
electrolyte, and DM fuel cells are also low-temperature
fuel cells with an operating range of 90
C, 40
C to 60
C,
and 50
C to 150
C, respectively.57 The efficiency of these
fuel cells is around 20% to 50%. DM fuel cell is used in
transportation and portable devices as well. However, the
catalyst (platinum) cost is a significant issue for its devel-
opment. The major limitation in fuel cell development is
harnessing free energy from nature, however, its depen-
dency on nature is another constraint for using this free
energy.157 RESs mainly focused on getting power from
nature with very high installation costs still lack to cope
with the peak demands. Sometimes, fluctuations in
power output are daily, and hence, they cannot be con-
sidered as primary energy resources. The dependency
on nature can be somehow alleviated by employing the
RESs with ESSs.167,184 A report published by Interna-
tional Energy Agency (IEA) revealed that global
warming temperature can be reduced up to 2
C if the
growth of ESSs rises from 140 000 MW in 2014 to
450 000 MW in 2050.185 The heat energy from sun can
be stored in the form of thermal energy. There are three
types of storage techniques available based on their
working principles: sensible, latent, and electrochemical
reactions. They are mainly involved in storing the heat
energy. Phase change materials (PCMs) are used in con-
centrated power plants,186 solar water heating,187-190
solar air heaters,191,192 hybrid electric vehicles,193,194
electronic cooling,195,196 solar thermal cooling, and air
conditioning applications.187,197 PCMs are not directly
used to store electrical energy or with the grid due to
thermal energy storage. However, they greatly assist the
electric utilities in heating and cooling applications and
the form of concentrated power plants. Their integration
with solar cooling and heating applications is common
now, and research on finding new PCMs received great
attention.198 Nazir et al199 have reviewed recent devel-
opments of PCMs for thermal energy storage. However,
the selection of suitable technology to cope with the sev-
eral issues of RESs using ESSs is another major area of
research.
18 BASIT ET AL.

TABLE 10 Applications and location of some flow battery

storage system

Application and Capacity,

Cites Battery Type
Astana, ZBB
Kazakhstan
Mississippi Polysulphide bromide
(PSB)
Hokkaido, Japan Substation, all
vanadium
Hokkaido, Japan Wind farm, all
vanadium
Liaoning, China Wind farm, all
vanadium
Abbreviation: ZBB, zinc-bromine battery.
4.2.1 | Power quality improvement
with ESSs
The flywheel, batteries, SMES, and supercapacitors are
used for power quality improvement in the RESs grid
keeping in view the fact that power quality improvement
requires very high cycle stability with short duration and
high-power output. These devices have swift response time
which can be divided into three types: (a) milliseconds,
(b) seconds to minutes, and (c) several minutes.
The applications related to improve electric power
quality require very fast response time. The electrochemi-
cal batteries provide a power rating of up to 50 kW, and
their energy densities are also high which makes them
suitable for backup, primary regulation, and electric sup-
ply reserves.
However, ESSs like SMES and supercapacitor offer
high-power ratings up to 10 MW, yet their energy ratings
are very low as 0.1 and 0.01 MWh for SMES and super-
capacitor, respectively. This makes them unsuitable for
long-duration storage and feasible only for short-term
power quality improvement. Figure 13 shows the use of
ESSs in grid with reference to their usage and storage time.
4.2.2 | Development status
PHS is the only mature technology which works on
both RE and energy storage principle. ESSs other than
PHS include batteries like lead-acid and Lithium-ion
batteries. They are suitable for providing backup power
with vast grid-connected applications.
Other batteries like sodium sulphur, nickel cad-
mium, vanadium redox, and ZEBRA batteries along
with flywheel applications are also developed with few
MWh
1000
120
60
F I G U R E 1 3 Energy storage systems (ESSs) with their
duration and time of use200 [Colour figure can be viewed at
6
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
10
grid-connected applications. Flow batteries like PSB and
ZBB are still in their development stages. The metal-air
battery has a promising feature of very high energy den-
sity among all other batteries and needs further research
and development (R&D). The development of SMES
technology is also in R&D phase with some commercial
projects available up to 10 MW in the world. There is
still a potential to increase up to 2000 MW in future.201
The supercapacitor is still in R&D stage with very few
commercial grid-connected applications are present in
the market.
4.2.3 | Efficiency, lifetime, and energy
density of ESSs employed with RESs
The typical characteristics of some ESSs operated with
RESs are given in Table 11. PHS is ubiquitous in the
world with around 169.557 GW of installed grid-
connected capacity.157 Flywheels offer excellent effi-
ciency of storing the energy at high costs (USD/kW) and
low energy rating (MWh). The energy density of the fly-
wheel system is high which makes them suitable for
compact devices. The Ragone plot between energy den-
sity and power density of different energy storage
devices is given in Figure 14. SMES and supercapacitor
both have very high-efficiency range and similar costs.
However, they lack due to their low energy density for
high-power applications and can be used for very short
duration to control the fluctuated frequency of wind
farms. Batteries have wide range of applications from
toys, mobile, computer, vehicles to distribution, and
RESs around the world for backups. The electrical
energy is converted in the form of hydrogen and oxygen
gas through electrolyser, later stored and utilised in a
fuel cell to produce electricity. Research is underway for
solar hybrid hydrogen generation and combine micro-
power systems as they offer both heat and power as
output.204,205
BASIT ET AL. 19

4.2.4 | Cost analysis of ESSs
The PHS, flywheel, batteries, flow batteries, and fuel
cells possess high cost (USD/kW). However, PHS,
SMES, supercapacitor, CAES, and metal-air batteries
are in low range in terms of cost ($/kW). The high
energy density of batteries makes them compact in size
and more suitable to be used with PV and wind
farms. The molten salt and PCMs are mostly used with
thermal energy storage; however, they possess few
environmental effects. The reuse of expired batteries
from EVs can play a significant role in lowering the
cost of batteries for making a battery ESSs to be used
with RESs.

TABLE 11 Technical characteristics of energy storage systems (ESSs) suitable with renewable energy systems (RESs)

Power Power Energy

Efficiency, Lifetime, Cost, Ratting, Energy Density, Density,
Name % y USD/kW MW Ratting, MWh W/L Wh/L References
10,157,185,202,203
PHS 65-85 30-60 600-2000 100-5000 1000+ 0.5-1.5
157,185,202,203
CAS 40-95 20-40 400-1000 5-300 1000+ 3-12
157,185,202,203
Flywheel 75-95 15-20 1000-5000 0.1-10 0.01-5 1000-2000 20-80
157,185,202,203
SMES 90-95 15-20 200-350 0.01-10 0.0001-0.1 1000-4000 0.2-2.5
157,185,202,203
Supercapacitor 90-95 10-20 100-360 0.001-10 0.000001-0.01 10 000+ 10-30
Batteriesa 75-95 5-20 300-3500 0-50 100 ~500 157,185,202,203

57,157,185,202,203
Fuel cell ~50 5-15 10 000+ 0-50 500-3000
Abbreviations: CAS, compressed air storage; PHS, pumped hydel storage; SMES, superconducting magnetic energy storage.
a
All batteries and fuel cell offer different characteristics; only overall ranges are presented in this table.

F I G U R E 1 4 Power density vs energy

density graph (Ragone plot) [Colour figure can
be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

FIGURE 15 Test system 1: Wind farm connected with grid [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
20 BASIT ET AL.

In the following section, the impact of FACTS con-
trollers in RESs integrated grid has been demonstrated
via simulations. Second-generation FACTS are consid-
ered for simulation studies with wind farms subjected to
different large faults.
5 | SIMULATIONS STUDY ON RESS
INTEGRATED POWER SYSTEMS
In this section, a brief appraisal of the impact of FACTS
controllers in a grid-connected wind farm is presented.
For this purpose, simulations are performed on three dif-
ferent systems in MATLAB/Simulink. SCIG- and DFIG-
based wind farms are used in simulation work. SCIG,
known as first-generation induction generator, is easy to
maintain and economically cheap. Mathematical model
of SCIG is given below206:
5.1 | Test system 1
The first system is composed of a 9 MW wind farm con-
nected with 120 kV power grid through 25-km-long trans-
mission line. STATCOM of 3 MVA rated capacity is
connected in parallel to the wind farm. Single-line dia-
gram of the system is shown in Figure 15. At time
t = 15 seconds, a 0.1-second fault appears on one of the
wind turbines. After fault clearance, system comes back to
its original state. Result of grid side active and
reactive power is shown in Figure 16. It is seen from
the figures that wind farm as a significant part of power
system underwrites to maintain the stability of the system.
After fault clearance, wind turbine experiences a
swing due to sudden drop in reactive power and does
not come back to its actual state because of generator
inertia. STATCOM installation provides it the required
reactive power compensation during and after fault to

2 3 2 32 3
vqs r s + d=dt ðLs Þ 0 d=dtðLms Þ 0 iqs
6v 7 6 r s + d=dt ðLs Þ
76 7
d=dt ðLms Þ 76 ids 7
6 ds 7 6 0 0
6 7=6 6 0  0 0 76 0 7
76 i 7 ð5Þ
4 0 5 4 d=dt ðLms Þ −ωr Lms r r + d=dt Lr −ωr Lr 54 qr 5
0 0  0 0
0 ωr Lms d=dtðLms Þ ωr Lr r r + d=dt Lr idr

DFIG is referred as second-generation induction gen- maintain system stability. Due to non-linear control of
erator for wind power generation. Its mathematical STATCOM, active and reactive powers reach to their
model is given below206: stable states.

2 3 2 323
vqs r s + d=dt ðLs Þ 0 d=dt ðLms cosθr Þ − d=dtðLms sinθr Þ iqs
6 7 6 76 7
6 vds 7 6 0 r s + d=dtðLs Þ d=dtðLms sinθr Þ d=dt ðLms cosθr Þ 76 ids 7
6 0 7=6   76 0 7, ð6Þ
6 v 7 6 d=dt ðLms cosθr Þ d=dt ðLms sinθr Þ r 0 + d=dt L0 0 76 i 7
4 qr 5 4 r r 54 qr 5
0 0  0 0
vdr −d=dt ð Lms sinθ r Þ d=dt ð Lms sinθ r Þ 0 r r + d=dt Lr idr

0 0
Where rs, Ls, Lms, r r , Lr , and θr are stator resistance, self-
inductance, magnetizing inductance, rotor resistance
w.r.t. stator, self-inductance of rotor w.r.t. stator, and
0 0
rotor angle, respectively. vqs, vds, vqr , and vdr is the dq
component of stator and rotor voltages, respectively.
Detailed modelling of the SCIG and DFIG wind
system is presented in Rashad et al.207 The modelling
of test system 3, having two-machine system with
STATCOM, can be found in Badar and Dilshad.126
5.2 | Test system 2
In this test system, 9 MW wind farm is connected to
120 kV grid through 30-km-long transmission line. A
3 MVA rating SSSC is connected between buses 2 and
3, as shown in Figure 17. A three-phase fault is applied to
the transmission line for half a second duration. In
response of applied fault huge oscillations appear in the
grid side active and reactive powers. Results for active and
BASIT ET AL.
reactive power flows are shown in Figure 18. It can be
seen in the figure that the impact of fault without SSSC is
significantly large. In case of presence of SSSC in the sys-
tem, the system quickly restores its original state.
5.3 | Test system 3
In this test system, a wind farm of 9 MW is installed in
two-machine system. Rating of machine M1 is
1400 MVA and machine M2 is 700 MVA. Transmission
line between M1 and M2 is 500 km, whereas the length
F I G U R E 1 6 Test system 1: A, Active power and B, reactive
power [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
F I G U R E 1 7 Test system 2: Wind farm connected with grid with static series synchronous compensator (SSSC) [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
21
of transmission line connecting M1 and wind farm is
10 km long. A STATCOM of 100 MVA rating is
installed at the centre of the transmission line. Single-
line diagram of the system is shown in Figure 19. This
system is used to demonstrate the impact of STATCOM
in suppressing low-frequency oscillations in the wind
connected power system. At time t = 0.1 second, three-
phase fault is applied on a transmission line near bus
2. The system regains its original state after 12 cycles.
Simulation results of rotor speed deviation, rotor angle
deviation, and power on bus “m” are shown in
Figure 20. The results reveal that power system without
STATCOM becomes unbalance after the application of
fault, whereas the system with STATCOM stabilises the
operation efficiently. Huge chattering is seen in the
power line having no STATCOM, but in the case where
STATCOM is active, system becomes stable after
experiencing some oscillations.
Simulation results of all three cases show the sta-
bility of whole system when FACTS controller of any
type is switched in the system. Dominancy of FACTS
in power system is observed at different faulty condi-
tions. This demonstrates that use of these controllers
helps to maintain power system stability and provides
better reactive power support in unusual scenarios.
6 | CONCLUSION
Energy accessibility is considered as the basic block to
sustain industrialisation and economic growth. Primary
sources of energy fulfil the needs at the cost of low effi-
ciency and environmental concerns. In order to meet the
growing demand of energy, RESs are considered as alter-
native sources with almost zero environmental impacts.
This article starts with an overview of different types of
RESs and their adoption across the world. It has been
found that investment and installation of RESs is increas-
ing exponentially as federal and local governments are
22
seriously committed to limit the climate change
according to Paris Agreement. China is a leading country
in terms of investment and developing infrastructure in
this emerging field.
F I G U R E 1 8 Test system 2: A, Active power and B, reactive
power [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
F I G U R E 1 9 Test system 3: Wind farm connected in two area systems with static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) [Colour
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
BASIT ET AL.
On the other hand, RESs also have some constraints
like suitable sites and vast area for dams and geothermal
plants. Low inertial response and intermittent nature are
the limiting factors for high penetration of RESs in large
grids. Moreover, power electronics equipment used for
RESs integration causes harmonics and SSOs in power
system. These issues further lead to problems in power
system like instability, voltage flickers, voltage fluctua-
tion, and cascaded fault events.
Based on the recent literature review, many solutions
have been proposed in this paper to overcome these chal-
lenges. VSM, a power electronics-based machine having
properties of synchronous machine, has been rec-
ommended to provide virtual inertia to the power system.
SMES is proposed to avoid the frequency fluctuations in
wind farms. The problem associated with harmonics,
generated due to inclusion of power electronics-based
converters, is resolved practically using converter control
of harmonics, filter technologies (APF and PPF), line
reactors, isolation, and k-factor TFs. APF is broadly used
to improve the power quality. They are also used to miti-
gate the current harmonics in the system.
The dynamic profile of the converter used in RESs
can be managed by using VIC. VIC additionally provides
power flow control, stability, and unbalance compensa-
tion. The transient voltage control in wind farms and
problems associated with DFIGs can be solved using
SMES and FACTS devices. The issues related to SSOs,
stability, and reactive power support can be resolved by
BASIT ET AL.
F I G U R E 2 0 Test system 3: A, Rotor
speed deviation; B, rotor angle deviation;
and C, power at bus Bm [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
incorporating VIC-based FACTS controllers. Second-
generation FACTS controllers have broad applications in
solar and wind farm integrated grids. Moreover, D-
FACTS are introduced for distributed networks. D-
FACTS are cheaper option to address voltage sag and
swell issues and suppress the harmonics in the system.
The impact of FACTS devices is also investigated for
RESs integrated power system.
23
A simulation study is performed to evaluate the per-
formance of FACTS devices with grid integrated renew-
able applications using three test cases. It is observed that
presence of FACTS provides reactive power support and
improves overall system stability after the appearance of
fault. Furthermore, it is seen that FACTS controllers are
also capable of damping low-frequency oscillations in the
system.
24 BASIT ET AL.

Electricity demand and generation gap also produces PSB polysulphide bromide
many problems. Short-term and long-term energy storage RESs renewable energy systems
is used to bridge the gap between demand and supply. SCIG squirrel cage induction generators
The flywheel, batteries, SMES, and supercapacitors can SMES superconducting magnetic energy
support RESs not only in terms of storage capacity but storage
also for power quality improvement of the grid. Power SSO subsynchronous oscillations
quality and low inertial issues of RESs connected grid SSR subsynchronous resonance
can be resolved using these ESSs, thus maintaining the SSSC static series synchronous compensator
overall system stability. STATCOM static synchronous compensator
In future, the simulated RESs will be used along with SVC static VAR compensator
adaptive NeuroFuzzy controllers to enhance the stability TFs transformers
of the renewable integrated power systems. The stability THD total harmonic distortion
analysis of wind integrated power system is an encourag- UPFC unified power flow controller
ing future work. The testing of PV system for harmonic VCM voltage control method
analysis and investigation of new techniques to reduce VIC virtual impedance control
the harmonics is also an interesting dimension of future VRB vanadium redox battery
work. Energy storage requirement puts a major con- VSC voltage source converter
straint on utilisation RESs. R&D of new storage solutions VSM virtual synchronous machine
and rectification of already existing technology will fur- ZBB zinc-bromine battery
ther broaden the application of horizon of RESs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The financial support from the Higher Education Com-
NO MEN CLATU RE mission (HEC) Pakistan, under PhD Fellowship for 5000
Scholars PIN No. 2EG2-034 is deeply acknowledged for
APF active power filter conducting this research.
BP British Petroleum
CAS compressed air storage ORCID
CCM current control method Saad Dilshad https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7894-3509
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How to cite this article: Basit MA, Dilshad S,
Badar R, Sami ur Rehman SM. Limitations,
challenges, and solution approaches in grid-
connected renewable energy systems. Int J Energy
Res. 2020;1–31. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5033