Exercise Program Design
for Structural Firefighters
Mark G. Abel, PhD, CSCS*D, TSAC-F*D, USAW,1 Thomas G. Palmer, CSCS, ATC,2 and Nick Trubee, MS, CSCS1
1
Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky; and 2School of Human
Services, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
ABSTRACT
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STRUCTURAL FIREFIGHTING IS A
PHYSICALLY DEMANDING AND
HAZARDOUS PROFESSION THAT
REQUIRES SUFFICIENT LEVELS OF
PHYSICAL FITNESS TO ENHANCE
OCCUPATIONAL PREPAREDNESS,
SAFETY, AND HEALTH. A COMPRE-
HENSIVE EXERCISE PROGRAM
SHOULD BE IMPLEMENTED TO
ACHIEVE THE REQUISITE PHYSICAL
FITNESS. A NEEDS ANALYSIS IS
PRESENTED TO ENSURE THAT AN
EXERCISE PROGRAM ADDRESSES
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOME-
CHANICAL DEMANDS OF OCCU-
PATIONAL TASKS. IDENTIFYING
SPECIFIC NEEDS WILL PROMOTE
ENHANCED WORK EFFICIENCY
AND A DECREASED RISK OF
FIRE GROUND INJURIES AND
CHRONIC DISEASE. IN ADDITION,
THE FIREFIGHTING OCCUPATION
PRESENTS INHERENT CHAL-
LENGES TO DEVELOPING AN
APPROPRIATE TRAINING PRO-
GRAM. PROGRAMMATIC TRAINING
STRATEGIES ARE PRESENTED TO
OVERCOME THESE CHALLENGES.
irefighting is a physically demand-
F ing and hazardous profession. To
effectively prepare firefighters for
occupational demands, an appropri-
ate exercise program must be designed.
The exercise program parameters should
be based on information generated from
a needs analysis. A needs analysis pro-
vides the practitioner with critical infor-
mation regarding physiological and
biomechanical demands of job tasks,
8 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2015
commonly incurred injuries, chronic dis-
eases, and an assessment of the fire-
fighter’s physical ability. This article
provides a description of a needs analysis
and presents training strategies to
improve work efficiency and reduce the
prevalence of injuries and chronic disease
among structural firefighters.
NEEDS ANALYSIS
A needs analysis evaluates the physio-
logical and biomechanical requirements
of occupational tasks, common injuries
incurred, and an assessment of each fire-
fighter’s ability to meet these diverse
physical requirements. Collectively, this
information provides feedback, which
can be used to implement assessment
and training practices specific to the
needs of a fire department. Furthermore,
practitioners can use the needs analysis
data to track trends in individual work
efficiency, injury and disease occurrence,
employment lost time, and training per-
formance outcomes.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
A physiological analysis involves identi-
fication of occupational tasks (i.e., job
task analysis) performed and the pri-
mary energy system(s) that these tasks
use. Figure 1 provides a sample of a phys-
iological analysis for structural fire-
fighters. In brief, firefighters perform
a variety of fire ground tasks that use
each energy system. These tasks may
involve advancing a charged hose line
toward a burning structure (i.e., phos-
phagen energy system), dragging a vic-
tim from a burning structure (glycolytic
energy system), and performing salvage
tactics to reduce water damage (oxida-
tive energy system). An effective training
Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
program must strategically apply exercise
stimuli to address these varied metabolic
demands. A discussion of appropriate
training strategies to enhance work effi-
ciency is presented in the Periodization
section.
BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS
A biomechanical analysis is used to eval-
uate the primary movement patterns
critical to occupational tasks. The practi-
tioner must identify the primary planes
of motion, the muscles, joints, and types
of muscle contraction used to complete
a given task. A sample biomechanical
analysis and appropriate training exer-
cises are provided in Table 1. It is impor-
tant to note the similarities and novelties
of movement patterns across fire ground
tasks. For instance, many fire ground
tasks are performed in the sagittal plane
and require isometric contractions to sta-
bilize the torso while performing unilat-
eral extension of the ankle, knee, and hip.
Per the specificity training principle,
exercises should mimic movement pat-
terns specific to those of fire ground tasks.
Specificity practices will assist in the pro-
motion of enhanced task performance
and decrease risk of injury (29).
INJURY ANALYSIS
Because of impending occupational
hazards, firefighters are at risk for
a vast number of musculoskeletal injuries.
Annually, firefighters incur approxi-
mately 80,000 injuries, which cost billions
of dollars in treatment and lost time from
employment (19,40). Researchers are
KEY WORDS:
exercise; resistance training; strength and
conditioning; tactical

Figure 1. Physiological analysis for structural firefighters.
focusing on evaluating intrinsic physical
fitness characteristics to understand how
firefighters should prepare for the often
unpredictable extrinsic environment of
fire operations (33). As a result, research
has analyzed common risk factors of
musculoskeletal injuries and proposed
occupational safety recommendations
and exercise training practices focused
on the prevention of musculoskeletal in-
juries (2,32). For instance, greater aerobic
capacity has been found to be associated
with a reduced risk of injury in fire-
fighters (33).
Firefighters perform physically demand-
ing tasks in often unusual and hazardous
environments, which challenge both the
cardiovascular and musculoskeletal sys-
tems. Performing high-intensity tasks
under load while breathing through a res-
pirator is a common practice for a fire-
fighter. Fire ground operations are often
accompanied with slippery and/or
unstable surfaces, space limitations, and
limited visibility. Firefighters must be
reactive and prepared to exert unpredict-
able degrees of strength, power, agility,
and mobility at any time. Many tasks
require whole-body-kinetic chain move-
ments, which result in unpredictable
loads and load transfers, resulting in mus-
culoskeletal injury. Such circumstances
leave firefighters prone to overuse and
traumatic musculoskeletal injuries.
INJURY MECHANISMS AND TYPE
Because of the impending risks and
potential hazardous work environments,
musculoskeletal injuries are often associ-
ated with mechanisms related to 1 or
a combination of the following: direct
trauma, falling episodes, being struck
by an object, carrying heavy objects/
patient transport, overexertion, physical
training, fire operations, or idiopathic
(19,40). These indirect barriers increase
the potential for compromised move-
ment patterns, which result in potential
overload to the musculoskeletal system.
Volunteer versus full-time employment,
age, obesity, and years of experience have
also been linked to an increase in muscu-
loskeletal injuries (18,19,32). Younger fire-
fighters and those with less experience
typically suffer ailments related to exhaus-
tion, whereas older firefighters suffer
musculoskeletal injuries (40). Thus, it
seems appropriate for fire departments
to provide specific strength, conditioning,
and mobility components in a program
to address the needs of diverse demo-
graphics within a fire department.
Thirty-four percent of moderate-to-
severe injuries incurred on the fire
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
ground are classified as a sprain or
strain (19). Strains and sprains predom-
inately occur to the lower extremity,
trunk/lumbar spine, and the shoulder
(32). Recently, Poplin et al. (32) re-
ported that “lifting” efforts (e.g., patient
transport, physical exercise, and train-
ing drills) were among the primary
contributors to 76% of all sprains and
strains, which occurred exclusively to
the lower leg and lumbar spine. Addi-
tional research has reported similar
findings, which indicate that the lum-
bopelvic region is a primary area of
interest when preparing firefighters
for work related stressors (29).
Deficits in muscular strength, mobility,
and neuromuscular control have been
reported to contribute to musculoskele-
tal injury risk (20,24,29). Deficits are
often linked to a lack of regular exercise
and specificity of training routines (29).
Research has demonstrated that achiev-
ing an adequate physical fitness level has
been associated with a decreased injury
occurrence (33). Although the efforts to
improve musculoskeletal deficits are
well documented in the literature, these
efforts are often limited in a practical
setting due to lack of monetary resources
to support the hiring of qualified fitness
professionals and availability of adequate
training facilities (32). In a recent report
among firefighters, a majority of the
musculoskeletal injuries resulted from
physical training (32). Although not
explicitly stated by the authors, these
findings are likely attributed to the
potential deficits in the management of
fitness training programs. The impend-
ing threat for musculoskeletal injury and
reported cases of training injuries calls for
the need of professional guidance and
well-managed programs by qualified
strength and conditioning professionals.
It has been reported that faulty move-
ment patterns may predispose individu-
als to injury and are the result of poor
neuromuscular control, muscle weak-
ness, and/or muscle imbalances (20,29).
Improper movement patterns have been
surmised to create unnatural stressors on
the kinetic chain resulting in poor bio-
mechanics and inefficient load transfers
(24,29). Furthermore, occupational tasks
9
Program Design for Firefighters

Table 1
Biomechanical analysis of fire ground tasks

Taska Muscle and joint action Plane of motion Exercise

Stair climb with  Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis, obliques, and  Sagittal  Lunge with unilateral
hose pack transversus abdominis kettle bell
 Static scapular retraction  Step-up with unilateral
kettle bell
 Static shoulder abduction and elbow flexion
 Unilateral hip/knee/ankle extension
Hose hoist  Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis, obliques, and  Sagittal  Upright unilateral cable/
transversus abdominis kettle bell row
 Hip/trunk flexion and extension  Frontal  Good morning
 Scapular protraction and retraction  Transverse  Glut-ham
 Unilateral horizontal shoulder abduction and elbow flexion
Walking hose pull  Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis, obliques, and  Sagittal  Sled pull
transversus abdominis
 Static scapular retraction and elbow flexion  Split squat
 Unilateral hip/knee/ankle extension  Plank
Kneeling hose  Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis and transversus  Transverse  Kneeling unilateral cable
pull abdominis row
 Scapular protraction and retraction  Hip hinge
 Horizontal shoulder abduction and elbow flexion  Back extension
 Isometric contractions of the hip and knee
Equipment lift  Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis and transversus  Sagittal  Farmer’s carry
and carry abdominis
 Static scapular retraction  Deadlift
 Unilateral hip/knee/ankle extension
Ladder raise  Hip flexion and extension  Sagittal  Turkish get-up
 Static scapular retraction  Lunge with unilateral DB
shoulder press
 Shoulder flexion with elbow extension
Forcible entry  Dynamic contractions of rectus abdominis, obliques, and  Transverse  Wood chop
transversus abdominis
 Static scapular retraction  Sagittal  Sledge hammer swing on
tire
 Hip and shoulder rotation with elbow extension
Search  Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis and transversus  Sagittal  Quadruped progression
abdominis
 Contralateral shoulder/hip flexion/extension  Frontal

10 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2015

 Table 1
(continued )
Victim drag  Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis, transversus  Sagittal  Tire drag
abdominis, and erector spinae
 Static: scapular retraction, shoulder flexion, elbow flexion  Split squat
 Unilateral hip/knee/ankle extension  Reverse lunge with kettle
bell
Breach and pull  Isometric contractions of rectus abdominis, transversus  Sagittal  Lat pulldown
abdominis, and erector spinae
 Shoulder flexion/extension  Frontal  DB front raise
 Extension and flexion of ankle/knee/hip  Back squat
DB 5 dumbbell.
a
Photographs of these tasks can be found in Abel et al. (3).

often require detailed movement charac-
teristics, which facilitate potential overuse
mechanisms and/or temporary faulty
patterns predisposing firefighters to injury
(20,29,32). In addition, firefighters may be
required to perform fire ground tasks in
awkward positions, which compromises
movement efficiency and potentially in-
creases the risk of injury. In theory, efforts
to balance muscle deficits and mimic
proper occupational movement patterns
may reduce the risk of injury and pro-
mote better management practices. For
instance, Peate et al. (29) reported a 42%
reduction of injury and 62% decrease in
time lost due to injury in firefighters after
an intervention that targeted flexibility
and strength exercises for the proximal
muscles that support the pelvis, spine,
and trunk. The authors concluded that
improving mobility and strength at these
proximal segments likely improved the
firefighters’ ability to function and adapt
to awkward and unpredictable body po-
sitions associated with occupational haz-
ards (29). Table 2 summarizes exercise
selection to reduce injury risk. Given
the importance of functional movement
for firefighters, it seems logical to use
functional movement tests for prescreen-
ing or monitoring occupational prepared-
ness. These tests are discussed in the
Firefighter Assessments section below.
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE RISK
Although not considered an acute occu-
pational injury, cardiovascular disease
(CVD) is a significant concern that pro-
duces fatalities within the Fire Service.
Approximately, 100 deaths occur among
on-duty firefighters each year (10). Forty-
five percent of these deaths were due to
CVD (10). Most of the reported cardiac
events were associated with a clustering
of CVD risk factors, such as hyperten-
sion, diabetes, dyslipidemia, obesity, and
a sedentary lifestyle (4,8,9,34). A compre-
hensive list of CVD risk factors and asso-
ciated thresholds is provided elsewhere
(30). Many firefighters possess elevated
CVD risk profiles leading to on-duty
cardiac events and in some cases,
early retirement (4). Although there
are numerous wellness strategies to
decrease the risk of CVD (e.g., smoking
cessation, dietary modification, etc.), the
focus of this section is on the relationship
between firefighter physical fitness and
CVD risk, and the physical activity rec-
ommendations for health benefits.
CARDIORESPIRATORY FITNESS
AND CARDIOVASCULAR
DISEASE RISK
Sufficient levels of cardiorespiratory fit-
ness are necessary to safely perform fire
ground tasks and maintain cardiovascular
health (4). Specifically, several essential
fire ground tasks require an energy expen-
diture of at least 42 mL$kg21$min21 (i.e.,
12 metabolic equivalents [METs])
(25,41). Interestingly, Baur et al. (4) exam-
ined the cardiorespiratory fitness levels
among a cohort of over 900 firefighters
and found that only 44% exceeded a 12-
MET aerobic capacity. Furthermore,
Baur et al. (4) evaluated the relationship
between cardiorespiratory fitness and
CVD profiles among firefighters. The re-
searchers reported that firefighters who
had an aerobic capacity greater than 12
METs possessed favorable triglyceride,
cholesterol, and fasting glucose levels
compared with firefighters who did not
achieve 12 METs. Moreover, epidemio-
logical research in the general population
suggests that improving maximal aerobic
capacity by 1 MET is associated with
a 15% reduction in CVD risk (21). Thus,
it is important to enhance firefighters’
cardiorespiratory fitness to improve occu-
pational physical ability and reduce the
risk of cardiovascular disease.
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
RECOMMENDATIONS
Physical activity recommendations to
reduce CVD risk consist of accumulat-
ing (.10 minutes bouts) 30 minutes
per day of moderate-intensity (.64%
of maximum heart rate) physical activ-
ity on at least 5 days per$week (5).
Durand et al. (9) investigated the phys-
ical activity in a sample of over 500
firefighters. Greater than 75% of the
firefighters engaged in less than the
recommended amount of physical
activity (9). In addition, this investiga-
tion demonstrated that an increase in
exercise frequency had the most bene-
ficial effect on reducing CVD risk (9).

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 11

Program Design for Firefighters

Table 2
General injury prevention exercise summary

Exercise category Purpose Exercise

 General kinetic chain flexibility  Posterior kinetic chain flexibility
 Dynamic mobility
 Isolated muscular endurance
of the proximal segments
 Total body strength
 Perturbation/neuromuscular
control
 Plyometrics for strength and
power
 Shoulder/hip, upper/lower
extremity mobility
 Promote kinetic chain
intersegmental dependency/
synergy
 Lumbopelvic control
 Promote kinetic chain stability/
synergy
 Lumbopelvic isometric muscular
endurance
 Postural stability
 Promote muscular strength
 Rotational uniplanar strength
 Kinetic chain intersegmental
dependency, lumbopelvic control
 Rotational incremental stability
 Kinesthetic awareness
 Promote explosive power in
multiple planes
 Ankle dorsiflexion, hip flexion/extension, rotation,
shoulder overhead, and thoracic spine mobility
 Overhead squat
 Walking in-line lunge
 Lateral/prone/supine planks
 Isometric postures; tall kneeling, in-line lunge
 Isotonic exercises
 Olympic-style lifts
 Kettlebell lifts
 Elastic band resistance
 Sling training
 BOSUTM/swiss ball
 Wobble board
 Eyes open/closed
 Ball toss/upper extremity
 Jump training
 Chop and lift

Other studies have also demonstrated
that enhanced physical fitness and
physical activity levels facilitate a reduc-
tion in CVD risk factors (4,9,21,34).
Obesity, a positive risk factor for CVD, is
of particular concern in the Fire Service.
Obesity is often assessed using body mass
index (BMI). However, it is important for
practitioners to understand that BMI is
limited by its ability to identify the com-
position of tissues and the distribution of
fat mass. Therefore, alternative assess-
ments are recommended to evaluate
body composition and fat distribution,
such as skinfold and waist circumference
measures, respectively. Regarding obesity
in the Fire Service, Durand et al. (9) re-
ported that nearly 90% of the participat-
ing firefighters in the study were classified
as overweight or obese. Increasing fat loss
through exercise and dietary behaviors is
important to reduce the risk of CVD
because some research seems to refute
the notion that individuals can be “fit,
but fat.” Specifically, Farrell et al. (11)
demonstrated that possessing a high car-
diorespiratory fitness level did not
decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease
mortality among overweight and obese
individuals. Therefore, the physical activ-
ity recommendations to manage body
weight and prevent gradual unhealthy
body weight gain in adulthood include
performing at least 150 minutes per week
of moderate-intensity physical activity
(7). Performing greater than 250 minutes
per week of moderate-intensity physical
activity is associated with clinically signif-
icant weight loss (7). In summary, 1 effec-
tive strategy for improving CVD risk
factors among firefighters is through reg-
ular participation in a comprehensive
exercise program.
FIREFIGHTER ASSESSMENTS
It is important to regularly assess the
physical fitness, functional movement,
and occupational physical ability of

12 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2015

each firefighter. These assessments
provide critical information regarding
occupational preparedness, potential
for injury, efficacy of current training
practices, and evaluation of training
objectives. The physical fitness assess-
ments should include valid, yet practi-
cal measurements of occupationally
relevant physiological outcomes. For
structural firefighters, these measure-
ments should include tests for strength,
power, muscular endurance, anaerobic
threshold, and aerobic capacity. Table 3
provides a summary of suggested tests
to evaluate these outcomes. Currently,
there are no physical fitness standards
for incumbent structural firefighters in
the United States. However, it is rec-
ommended that structural firefighters
possess a minimum aerobic capacity
of 42 mL$kg21$min21 (25). Data col-
lected in assessments should be used to
evaluate physical fitness levels across
the fire department, establish personal
goals, design an appropriate exercise
prescription, and evaluate progress for
each firefighter.
Functional movement assessments
should be performed to identify muscular
imbalances, muscular weakness, and
faulty movement patterns. The functional
assessments should be multifactorial to
encompass static, dynamic, linear, and
multiplanar movement patterns that are
specific to the occupational demands of
firefighters. Establishing a baseline per-
formance before being assigned duty
responsibilities will enable practitioners
to monitor overall, developing, and/or
declining performance variables pertinent
to the safety of firefighters. Examples of
commonly used assessment tools are
provided in Table 3.
An assessment of occupational physical
ability should also be conducted. Testing
should be developed in collaboration
with subject matter experts (e.g., fire
department training officer) and com-
posed of simulated fire ground tasks
commonly performed by a given fire
department (see sample of tasks listed

Table 3
Summary of general needs assessments
Performance construct Targeted measure Assessment

 General mobility/  Posterior kinetic chain flexibility  Sit and reach

flexibility
 Shoulder/upper-extremity mobility  Shoulder internal/external rotation
 Dynamic movement  Kinetic chain balance  Functional movement screen
 Intersegmental dependency  Y-balance test
 Lumbopelvic control
 Muscular power  Dynamic upper- and lower-body power  Overhead medicine ball toss
 Vertical jump
 Standing long jump
 General muscular  Dynamic upper- and lower-extremity strength  1 or multiple RM bench press, squat
strength capabilities
 General muscular  Dynamic kinetic chain muscular endurance  Push-up, curl-up tests
endurance
 Isometric lumbopelvic muscular endurance  Lateral, prone, supine planks
 Anaerobic threshold  Lactate threshold  400-m run
 Blood lactate test
 Cardiorespiratory  Aerobic capacity  Graded exercise test
endurance
 12-min test
 Beep test
 Body composition  Percent body fat  Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA)
 Fat-free mass  Skinfold
 Fat mass
 Occupational  Work efficiency  Occupational physical ability test (composed of
performance critical job tasks)
RM 5 repetition maximum.

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 13

Program Design for Firefighters
in Figure 1 and Table 1). These tasks may
be timed and performed continuously or
discontinuously in the order for which
they are typically performed on the fire
ground. It is important to note that the
occupational assessment described herein
is not intended to be used for punitive or
promotional purposes, but strictly to esti-
mate firefighters’ ability to perform com-
mon fire ground tasks.
PROGRAM DESIGN FOR
FIREFIGHTERS
Firefighting is a dangerous profession
that requires maximal physical exertion
to complete occupational tasks. Specifi-
cally, performance of fire ground tasks
requires sufficient levels of several fitness
attributes, including power, strength,
muscle endurance, anaerobic endurance,
and aerobic endurance (13,36). As a prac-
titioner, it is important to design strength
and conditioning programs that enhance
these attributes as well as any deficiencies
identified for a given firefighter by the
needs analysis assessments.
There are numerous variables that serve
as a foundation to designing strength and
conditioning programs for firefighters.
These variables include exercise selection
and order, training frequency, and exer-
cise session parameters. Exercises should
be selected based on task-specific move-
ment patterns identified in the biome-
chanical analysis (Table 1). In general,
exercises that are functional and use
major muscle groups and multiple joints
should take precedence in the training
program (i.e., core exercises). Examples
of core exercises for firefighters include
the deadlift, lunge progressions, unilateral
row, and shoulder press. It is generally
recommended that power and other core
exercises are typically performed before
assistance exercises (26).
From an injury reduction standpoint,
recent literature has identified the
muscles that support the spine, pelvis,
and trunk to be critical in preventing
injury and improving performance
outcomes (23). The incremental stabil-
ity provided by the spinal musculature
is said to provide a proximal base of
support, which allows the hips and pel-
vis to absorb, transfer, and develop
14 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2015
forces (23). The adjacent segments of
the spine, pelvis, and trunk are interseg-
mentally dependent on 1 another and
should be trained synergistically to
mimic the mobility and stability needs
of common ground fire tasks (23). The
spinal stabilizers are traditionally trained
with low-load isometric muscular endur-
ance tasks, such as planks. However,
more recent literature suggests that addi-
tional strength and power training
should be incorporated for the muscles
supporting the proximal segments to the
specific needs of one’s activities (23).
Combining low-load static stability exer-
cises targets the spinal stabilizers,
whereas heavier loads will prompt in-
creases in strength and power of all
the muscles that support the spine, pelvis
and trunk. Thus, training kinetic chain
mobility in sequence with endurance,
strength, and power movements specific
to occupational demands seems neces-
sary. Adding unstable surfaces, such as
foot discs or stability platforms will cause
perturbation moments, which can help
enhance the muscular control for the
lumbopelvic region and trunk necessary
when completing fire ground tasks
(20,23). Strength and power movements
with plyometric and/or multiplanar
stimuli at low and high speeds will assist
in promoting strength/power gains nec-
essary for completing rotational de-
mands. At a minimum, performing
mobility, strength, and neuromuscular
control training exercises that mimic
occupational requirements seems to be
appropriate in maintaining prepared-
ness and reducing risk of injury (29).
Training frequency depends on numer-
ous factors including the firefighter’s
training status and the periodization
scheme. It is recommended that begin-
ners perform 2–3 resistance training ses-
sions per week, intermediate lifters
perform 3–4 sessions per week, and
advanced lifters perform 4–7 sessions
per week (26). The training frequency
of some firefighters may be dictated by
a given fire department’s policy for on-
duty physical training and the depart-
ment’s work schedule (e.g., on-duty
every 3 days). This may mean that fire-
fighters may only be on-duty 2–3 days
per week. A practitioner must consider
how to make efficient use of this time
and whether to “assign” exercise during
off-duty days.
Improvements in select fitness attributes
(e.g., power, strength, endurance) are
achieved based on the composition of
the exercise stimulus. The exercise stim-
ulus is produced by the combination of
the training intensity, volume, and
recovery parameters used in an exercise
session. These parameters are summa-
rized in Table 4. Training intensity is crit-
ical as it dictates which fitness attributes
will be improved. Training volume is the
product of load, repetitions, and sets.
Periodization of training intensity and
volume should be systematically manip-
ulated over a macrocycle to achieve the
desired fitness and functional outcomes
(see Periodization Strategies section).
PROGRAMMATIC CHALLENGES
There are several challenges that prac-
titioners face when designing appro-
priate exercise programs for structural
firefighters. First, unlike many athletes,
firefighters do not have the luxury of
training within the framework of des-
ignated seasons (e.g., off-/in-season),
and therefore must continuously be
prepared to perform at sufficient levels.
Second, the practitioner is responsible for
maximizing the capacity of competing
fitness attributes required for the perfor-
mance of fire ground tasks (e.g., muscular
strength versus aerobic endurance). This
presents a challenge because research
demonstrates that concurrent training
of competing fitness attributes may pro-
duce an “interference effect,” thus reduc-
ing improvements in 1 or both of these
fitness attributes (12). Third, it is impor-
tant to understand how to appropriately
train firefighters on- and off-duty to
maximize occupationally specific physio-
logical adaptations, while minimizing
residual fatigue that may negatively affect
subsequent fire ground performance and
risk of injury. This article reviews theo-
retical concepts and empirical data to
elucidate appropriate training strategies
to overcome the inherent challenges of
developing effective training programs
for structural firefighters.
 Table 4
Resistance training parameters based on training goals and corresponding fire ground tasks

Parameter Power Strength Hypertrophy Muscle Endurance

Intensity (% 1RM) 75–100 $85 67–85 #67
Repetitions 1–5 1–6 6–12 $12
Sets 3–5 2–6 3–6 2–3
Recovery period 2–5 min 2–5 min 30 s-1.5 min # 30 s
Fire ground tasks  Hose line advance  Lifting/lowering objects  Ladder raise  Load carriage
 Forcible entry  Victim rescue  Victim rescue  Stair climb
 Confined space maneuver
 Salvage
 Overhaul
Data from reference 26.

RM 5 repetition maximum.

PERIODIZATION STRATEGIES
Periodization is a methodological strat-
egy used to manipulate training inten-
sity, volume, and specificity within
defined cycles of a training program to
optimize performance and minimize
the risk of overtraining (26). Periodized
training programs have been shown to
be superior to nonperiodized programs
to improve strength and power in a wide
variety of populations (35). There are
many periodization strategies available.
A brief review is provided of commonly
used periodization strategies and a dis-
cussion of which strategies may be most
appropriate for structural firefighters.
These training strategies include linear,
nonlinear, block, conjugate, circuit, and
concurrent.
Linear periodization is characterized by
a progressive change (increase or
decrease) in training intensity and vol-
ume throughout a macrocycle or
annual cycle (duration: 1 year) and is
generally considered most appropriate
for lesser trained individuals. Although
there are different interpretations of mi-
crocycle construction (e.g., heavy day
versus light day) within the framework
of linear periodization, the overall trend
typically represents an increase in train-
ing intensity and decrease in volume
for targeting strength/power and
decreased intensity and increased vol-
ume for targeting endurance outcomes
(37). Empirical data indicate that con-
current linear periodization of aerobic
and resistance training is effective at
improving firefighter aerobic capacity
and muscle endurance after 16 weeks
of training (38).
Nonlinear periodization (i.e., “undulat-
ing”) is characterized by large daily or
weekly fluctuations in training intensity
and volume (26) and may be more
appropriate for trained individuals
given that the training stress is typically
greater than linear periodization. Non-
linear periodization may include training
the upper body for strength/power and
lower body for muscle endurance during
the first exercise session of a microcycle
(duration: ;1 week); followed by train-
ing, the upper body for muscle endur-
ance and lower body for strength/
power during the second exercise ses-
sion. One investigation compared the
effects of linear versus nonlinear perio-
dized programs on simulated fire ground
performance (31). This study demon-
strated that although both training
groups improved simulated fire ground
performance compared with baseline,
the nonlinear periodized program
yielded superior performance on the
simulated fire ground test.
Block periodization has been used for
decades to train Olympic athletes in
European countries. Block periodization
is characterized by a high concentration
of training workloads with a focus on
a minimal number of fitness outcomes
within a single training phase. The train-
ing phases or “Blocks” (i.e., mesocycles)
are classified as accumulation, transmuta-
tion, and realization. The entire cycle of
these blocks lasts about 5–10 weeks. The
accumulation phase (2–6 weeks) serves
as a general preparatory period and is
characterized by moderate training inten-
sity, high volume, and moderate move-
ment/metabolic specificity. The focus is
typically on improving aerobic endur-
ance and/or basic strength because these
outcomes may have longer training re-
siduals (16). The transmutation phase (2–
4 weeks) is similar to the specific prepa-
ratory period and represented by high
training intensity, moderate/high vol-
ume, and high movement/metabolic
specificity. The focus is on anaerobic
and muscular endurance, which possess
slightly shorter training residuals (16).
The realization phase (1–2 weeks) is sim-
ilar to the competition period and is char-
acterized by high training intensity, low

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 15

Program Design for Firefighters
volume, adequate recovery between
exercise sessions, and high movement/
metabolic specificity. The focus is typi-
cally on power and speed, given their
short training residuals (16). Although
limited, empirical evidence seems to sup-
port the use of block periodization to
improve anaerobic and aerobic outcomes
in athletic populations (28,39). Its effec-
tiveness has not been evaluated among
firefighter populations. The use of block
periodization for firefighters may be ben-
eficial because unlike nonlinear periodi-
zation, it tends to focus on minimal target
outcomes during a training block, thus
reducing an “interference” effect. In addi-
tion, the utilization of short training
cycles facilitates the maintenance of non-
targeted fitness attributes and allows for
frequent evaluation of occupationally rel-
evant physiological adaptations.
The conjugate sequence system was
developed for power lifters as a method
to enhance strength and power. The
conjugate system is a training strategy
centered on 3 distinct methods, includ-
ing maximal effort method, dynamic
effort method, and repetition method.
The goal of the maximal effort method
is to enhance basic strength and is char-
acterized by high training intensity (load
$90% 1 repetition maximum [RM]) and
low training volume with adequate
recovery. The goal of the dynamic effort
method is to improve power output
using high contraction velocities, which
are facilitated by low/moderate training
intensities (50–60% 1RM) and high vol-
umes. Finally, the repetition method is
used to enhance metabolic efficiency
through circuit-based training. These
methods are typically combined within
a microcycle. Although frequently used
in athletic and power lifting popula-
tions, there is limited published research
on the effectiveness of the conjugate
sequence system.
Circuit training is typically composed
of performing 1 set of multiple exer-
cises in sequential order. The training
parameters commonly include the use
of submaximal loads (e.g., #85% 1RM),
multiple repetitions per set (e.g., $6
repetitions), and brief interexercise
recovery periods (e.g., #60 seconds).
16 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2015
Circuit training seems to be a viable
training strategy for structural fire-
fighters given that it simulates the aer-
obic and anaerobic demands of fire
ground tasks (1).
Concurrent training is characterized by
the simultaneous development of
strength and endurance outcomes. This
method of training seems beneficial for
firefighters given that fire ground tasks
require these fitness attributes. How-
ever, research has demonstrated that
concurrent training for strength and
endurance may inhibit the development
of either outcome (15,22,27). This unfa-
vorable training effect is commonly
referred to as the “interference phenom-
enon” (12). The presence of an interfer-
ence effect is supported by applied
concurrent training interventions and
basic research indicating that there
may be incompatible cellular responses
that produce muscular hypertrophy (i.e.,
peripheral strength adaptations) versus
mitochondrial biogenesis (i.e., periph-
eral aerobic adaptations; (14)). Garcia-
Pallares and Izquierdo (12) presented
several empirically based training strat-
egies to minimize the interference effect.
A brief description of these strategies is
provided. First, use highly concentrated
training loads focusing on 1 strength
and 1 endurance outcome per micro/
mesocycle. Second, to minimize an
interference effect of concurrent training
on strength/power adaptations, do not
perform more than 3 resistance training
sessions per week. Third, avoid perform-
ing concurrent resistance training focused
on hypertrophy/local muscular endur-
ance (i.e., 75–80% 1RM) with high-
intensity aerobic training (i.e., 95–100%
V̇ O2max), as these “noncompatible” stim-
uli produce conflicting peripheral
muscular adaptations. Alternatively,
it is recommended to incorporate
compatible training stimuli, such as
strength/power training with low-
or high-intensity aerobic training; or
hypertrophy/muscle endurance resis-
tance training with low-intensity aerobic
training. Fourth, performing aerobic and
resistance exercises on the same day may
produce residual fatigue that will nega-
tively affect strength performance. Thus,
it is recommended to perform the resis-
tance training exercises first, followed
by aerobic exercise or separate the
exercise sessions by at least 8 hours.
Finally, during concurrent training, it
may be more effective to not perform
resistance training exercises to failure to
improve strength and muscular power
compared with training to failure (17).
Consistently performing resistance
training exercises to failure increases
training intensity and volume and may
induce greater muscle damage and resid-
ual fatigue that negatively affects the
quality of subsequent resistance and aer-
obic training sessions. More research is
necessary to more clearly understand the
effects of these concurrent training strat-
egies for firefighters.
APPLICATIONS OF TRAINING
STRATEGIES FOR FIREFIGHTERS
Periodized training strategies de-
signed for intermediate-to-advanced
firefighters should be directed at (a)
optimizing occupational preparedness
throughout the year, (b) minimizing
the interference effect of (essential)
competing fitness attributes, and (c)
prescribing training parameters (on-
and off-duty) to maximize physiological
adaptations while minimizing acute
residual muscular fatigue that may
impair subsequent fire ground physical
ability and increased injury risk.
To optimize occupational preparedness
throughout the year, it would seem that
block periodization would be effective
given the repeated short training cycles
(5–10 weeks) and focus on a minimal
number of fitness attributes during each
training block. Thus, proper sequencing
of training targets will enhance the tar-
geted attributes during stimulation,
while not spending extensive time away
from stimulating any single fitness attri-
bute. A sample block periodization
scheme is presented in Figure 2. Note
that the training targets focus on fitness
attributes proposed to have longer train-
ing residuals during the accumulation
block (i.e., strength and aerobic endur-
ance), attributes with moderate training
residuals during the transmutation
block (i.e., anaerobic endurance), and
attributes with short training residuals
Figure 2. Sample of a periodized training program for structural firefighters who are classified as intermediate or advanced lifters.
in the realization block (i.e., speed/
power). Furthermore, the conjugate
method was selected to develop
strength and power during the accumu-
lation block to provide a maximal effort
day to focus on strength development
and a dynamic effort day to reduce the
training stress and focus on power
development (note: the repetition
method was omitted during this train-
ing phase to minimize the number of
targeted fitness attributes). During the
transmutation block, a circuit-based
resistance training strategy was selected
to improve anaerobic and muscular
endurance. An example of specific rec-
ommendations for circuit training pa-
rameters for firefighters is provided
elsewhere (3). Finally, during the reali-
zation block, task-specific tactical
training would be performed using
firefighter equipment. This exercise
training may take the form of an obsta-
cle course composed of simulated fire
ground tasks.
Given that muscular strength and aero-
bic endurance are essential to firefighter
performance, we chose to concurrently
train these outcomes during the accu-
mulation and transmutation blocks.
To minimize the interference effect of
simultaneously improving strength and
endurance outcomes, it is recommen-
ded to perform resistance exercises first
during an exercise session. Furthermore,
it is recommended to use compatible
resistance and endurance training loads.
Therefore, during the accumulation
phase, we combined high-intensity
resistance training with moderate- and
high-intensity endurance training. Dur-
ing the transmutation block, the
resistance training focus is on local
muscular endurance; therefore, the
compatible endurance training inten-
sity is below anaerobic threshold.
The strength and conditioning program
described above assumes that the fire-
fighter has some resistance training expe-
rience (i.e., intermediate or advanced)
and a requisite physical fitness level.
However, the reality is that many fire-
fighters are unfit and/or overweight or
obese, thus not prepared for the physical
demands of this type of training pro-
gram. Therefore, in these cases, practi-
tioners should use the progression
principle regarding resistance and aero-
bic training exercises and focus on
weight management. Thus, it may be
more appropriate to initially implement
a linear periodized training program to
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
develop a physiological foundation
and focus on improving body compo-
sition. Individual firefighter’s perfor-
mance and health needs, as identified
by the needs analysis’ assessments,
should be addressed on a case by case
basis. For example, specific mobility
deficiencies may be addressed after
the exercise session, whereas addi-
tional aerobic exercise may be pre-
scribed during off-duty days.
Finally, although the goal of exercise
training is to produce specific physio-
logical adaptations to enhance work
efficiency, it is important to under-
stand how acute muscle fatigue
induced by on- and off-duty training
may impair subsequent fire ground
physical ability and risk of injury. For
instance, Dennison et al. (6) demon-
strated that simulated fire ground work
efficiency decreased by 10% immedi-
ately after a circuit training exercise
session. At this time, it is unknown
how other modes and intensities of
training may affect subsequent fire
ground performance. However, it is
logical to suggest that firefighters train
on-duty during low-volume emer-
gency call times or at the end of a shift
to reduce the probability of responding
17
Program Design for Firefighters
to a call while substantial fatigue has
accumulated. Likewise, when exercising
off-duty, consideration should be given
to how the exercise session may pro-
duce muscle soreness and residual
fatigue that could negatively affect on-
duty physical ability. Exercising at an
appropriate intensity to produce physi-
ological adaptations without excessive
soreness and fatigue requires that fire-
fighters use the progression principle for
training intensity and volume, and con-
servatively introduce novel exercises.
Regardless of when training is performed,
it is paramount that the practitioner com-
municates with each firefighter to deter-
mine how they responded to a given
exercise stimulus and modify the pro-
gram parameters accordingly.
SUMMARY
Practitioners face inherent challenges
in developing appropriate exercise
programs for structural firefighters.
Conducting a needs analysis and im-
plementing appropriate periodization
strategies may help to overcome these
challenges and improve firefighter
preparedness, safety, and health. Gen-
eral training recommendations should
target movement patterns and energy
systems, which mimic specific fire
ground tasks, and additional aerobic
endurance training may be necessary
to reduce the risk of chronic disease.
Applying these programmatic strate-
gies will protect the most valuable
piece of equipment in the Fire Service,
the firefighter.
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:
The authors report no conflicts of interest
and no source of funding.
Mark G. Abel is
a former fire-
fighter and cur-
rently an
Associate Profes-
sor and Director
of the Exercise
Physiology Labo-
ratory in the
Department of
Kinesiology and Health Promotion at the
University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY.
18 VOLUME 37 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2015
Thomas G.
Palmer is an
Assistant Pro-
fessor in the
Athletic Train-
ing Education
Program in the
School of
Human Services
at the University
of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH.
Nick Trubee is
a PhD student in
Exercise Physiol-
ogy in the
Department of
Kinesiology and
Health Promotion
at the University
of Kentucky,
Lexington, KY.
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