Urdu Texts and Contexts The Selected Essays of C.M. NaimPreble by 1.28 Onford Aparement 11, LP. Extension, ‘ath 110092 Disribted by Bangsote Bhopal Bhubaneshwar Chandigarh (Chennai Ermaalam Guwahati Hyderabad Jaipur Kolkata Locknow Mambsi New Delhi Pans ‘Copyright © 2004 CM. Nain ISBN 81-7924.075.0 “Typeset by CM. Nain Prine by Pals Press, New Delhi 10020, Binding by Saku To ‘THREE EXEMPLARY TEACHERS ‘NazIR AHMAD. SyeD EHTISHAM HUSAIN RIZAVI ALE AHMAD SUROORHow Bibi Ashraf Learned To Read And Write’ ical patre ce exist ony few documents of an atobograp tha tone he fe some oe o a A ptt tenis. Rue ioe by 0 om Tha se Shad mae he acon of Baca Sina vale ow, What os fo bo nord ne iy. may an pig. amd he mowing tha er docaton mony cane stout dough er ove fs Wie rer wear bane women Baa crema ar he myo ASE cnentn minced cnr Non nd they si ane anf ag nti, the fo jong tee scons coms «Hapa seh oh ‘ihrer antation of her ucbiogrpmesl mca dcatin of only two ofthe many span Biographical Account um. In clng fal ne was Astin Boum naling ber Bo al we follow Ui uample ORE Ropraper Muhammadi Begum, and express. both our * Revise. Originally published in Amma! of Und Saale, #6 (1987) Te ogg ndi Begum, Haydt-i Asraf Te pp wt ton Men ea, (ue nt on cu ae Hw wn Signe coy ov ned po-npe BIBI ASHRAF 203, eet, She was bom on September 28, 1840, ina family of Cia Seeds in Baherap small rural community in Binor Niar Pradesh. Babnera'must have been a smal gasbar tor even in 1901, according to the District Gazetteer te total Population was 2, 582, of which the Muslims accounted for 1, 56; its main feature was @ weekly market? fsrandfather owned land in Bahnera and the family lived cone, {ortably on the income from it. Nevertheless. Bibi Ashore {ater Syed Fatch Husain, left Bahnera and moved to Agre, and then Wwalfor, some 250 miles away, where he took UP the profession ofa lawyer, This development was mach te the disgust of Fateh Husan’s father, who couldn't undestarg Inky his Son wanted to “work” when he, the father already pad, “thanks to God's kindness, enough to feed ten servante ef When Fateh Husain went to Galion, he did't take his ful with hin—that was aul atthe Une een kes Bahnera with his father. Bibi Asa was only che ye on sen her mather passed away, she and hey tabs geod then brought up by thei loving grandmas ati ee loving ant and uncle Soon afer he birth, Bibi Ashra was engaged to be mared Jo. Sond cousin, Syed Alamdar Husain. who ves then aioe In 1859, "Alamdae 2 the famous is marriage, had een a {nda (New Deli 1998), pp. 110-12. art Caster ofthe United Paves of Agr and Oath, Vo. XV, Binor (Allahabad, 1938), p. 04204 URDU TEXTS & CONTEXTS deputy inspector of schools in Jalandhar District in the Pun- jab. When that position was terminated for some reason, he returned to Bahrera, but after the mariage he took his wife to Lahore where he taught Arabic at a school. In 1865, Alamdar Hiusain was hired as the Assistant Professor of Arabic and Per sian at Government College, Lahore, which had been extab- ished only the previo ue The young couple Bd Toure deen oT WHOMTTWO—a boy and a gitl—died very young. Alam- dar Husain himself was consumptive and succumbed to the dis- cease in 18703 leaving the Bibi Ashraf to fend for herself and the two surviving daughters in Lahore. By then Bibi Ashraf's grandparents were dead; then, just a few months later, her father too passed away. ‘Alamdar Husain was well regarded by his superiors as well as by the gentry of Lahore, nd many of them now tried to help the bereft family. The Director of Public Instruction in the Punjab, Captain W. R. M. Holroyd, at the recommendation of local notable, feed Bibi Asha smal eshig ob and the girls scholarships of Tve rupees per_monih. BibT Ashraf Ealhed yor peeing To suppor er family on the litle she could earm ‘from sewing clothes—a skill she had been taught at home in Bahnera—and making lace—a skill she had Jeamed from a neighbour at Lahore. She accepted the scholar- ships, however, and had her daughters enrolled in a. gis School. But there were alvays too many mouths to feed, for Bibi Ashraf had several children of her many relatives staying with her while geting their schooling in Lahore, Eight years Tater, when she was again offered a teaching positon, she ac- ‘cepted, and began to teach at Victoria 8 seni government primary school. Her starting salary was Re_15,00. Pam. (Her formally educated husband's starting salary at the Bovernment school at Lahore had been twice as much.) She 4 Alaméer Hosin became seriously il in August 1869, and died on May 14, 1870, When. Alamdar Husain weot on sick leave, his. temporary replacement war none other than Muhammad Husain Azad, the autor of (Abi ay, who was ater made permanent at sary of Rs 130- per month (Aslam Farah Muhammad Husain dd: Hoyt our Tasdnf (Karachi, 1965), pp 212-2130, 5 "The founding patton of ‘son-decaden” Urdu poet BIBI ASHRAF 205 worked hard and evenunlly Became the schools senior ‘che, witha slay cease often np Bie aa ee sore pote te sho ston ui, 2 eventually saw it raised to the level of a middle school, She Sontnued work unl he dic aloning na sain fd lloving' show ‘esse iB Ans nia find addon. By 3 time she wat thy he haat and. mothe vo OPRETTOU ChIme, he Risen, and he ther eh the two romanng caught pecs hee oe eg in er out uomaric, he oe ving Sands ey Se 10 t00 didn’t survive long. Muhammadi Begum writes that ‘Ra ob Ass i a state shel the tw daughters of Ustnt eh (Bibi Asha) fad sendy died. She wae wal ae fected, and constantly shod teas romenberee te” Se Would pit pie of eot'on ber fc onde te oning os tte would teach her tears soaked into the cloth ‘When that ce would bene een ya ‘it back on her face.6 she would suceet ry and put Bibi Asa was aoa very gene and caring person, gener ous to fiends and strangers alike. She adored her studenes aed feted over thm. Atte same ine, he sensed fot hs pendence, Though she observed sce peak she eee ‘ough to pt the burden o er neds on abn Sn ene ine ply and independently She wa ates oc ee person, dovaed to her Shah fal Which eae eS through ber ginddon ie Every year dee feet Malian, se observed the eel mournee oho eye dom of olin rele mali et hose, ah want anag pst Sa so diigo ang poor” Muhanad Begum tls te fs os oe incident at one such majlis: "um tlk : * touching Once during Mahara, she vas dsvibuting the sabar ruk—[in this case, breads that had been blessed inthe S Mutamenadi Begum, Hayat,» 32, 2 Majlis pl of mais lit, a gathering), reer io the Shi'sh este of South Asia to gatherings that formally corimemorte the waged ext a y he wagedy of Kaba206 URDU TEXTS & CONTEXTS. ajls|—16 soll crowd of pooe women gure sound fet. Some of the women ft they had nt rested theit Peer dare and knocked her down opt wih te basket Frat Some eacn ate hitig he When tof het ty ten oft monks seo ths eae, ad She ak nt ter ot ns ple. She aed Manan Bop Smt Nin’ case of eles plnering effets to spread dean tnd ne Wess song Bin ome Mautnd eum nro many ances tts ove lng allow Sh ldo a het reves“ uncle became very angry wit waned eal ne on ive mean mach promi never to we ay, sre cnet om nove wt oy a Keg ta psig fora Yen og ean ake Sly in the ease ofthe edior of Talet-e Nisan (ne. Muhammad Be. fun, Others, never wrote to any mared woman tnd i Sims's need aes I hd eer one af my salen oF ‘someone else write for me."? wieder wekly_maas Wien Meiunmasy Sopam sated her weekly magain, fi Asha conte seer poems and ose cad ‘most moving account of how, asa litle gil, she taught herself and we, The orginal Ur essay appeared 10 I Stns te oes dated March 23 and, 189. Translation “How I Leamed to Read and Write’! It had long been customary in my family to teach the girls how to read—teaching them how to wre, however, ws skely forbidden, The gs were taught only to vocalize the Arabic of the Qur'an and read a bit of Urdu so that they cou § suhammadi Begum, Hoyt, pp 6465 9 Bip. 56 "© tid. pp 5-20. My transition closet the eign, hough aot overly itera tt BIBI ASHRAF 207 sain some knowledge of their faith andthe rules of prayer and fasting. We were six girls aliogether,of different ages in our family Our grandfather, may God grant him paradise. had bived a lady teacher [ust for us. She lived with us and received ten Bees per month plus her food and clothes. The thee older Birks and the daughter of a maidservant had slready finehed the Quran, while {was reading the seventh section [sipehe] and the other two girls the eighth. A score or so af other aie who were our kin [biddar} would alo join ws In this manner you might say, a litle school had stared, Our teachers may God grant her paradise—didn’t know Urdu,!! though she be- longed by race [qawm} to a high-born [sari] Pathan famil The elders of my family had tried hard to find a lady teach ho could tach us Ur, but none was found. Our teacher would give us a holiday on Fridays. I well re- member how every Friday all the girls would bring her's litle flour, some rice, and a few pennies from their tomes. Thos they’ would jointly cook whatever she asked. She wouldve them to make roi, gorma and kabdb, adding to that list sometimes puldo and other times zarda, sometimes jin! acd ater times some savoury snack. She frequently asked them re ‘200k other dishes too. She also taught them needlesraft | wes then quite young, so the teacher woul ask me to do ouly the easier chores. But even at that tender age | was most carer tS do every ‘kind of work. avidly watched whatever was being done and putin work beyond my capacity. For several years our teacher taught us with much affection and care, never even taking a day off. Then suddenly one day, her mother came to our house and said, It would bs » se favour to me if you would allow my daughter to come Kee fora fortnight. There is some important Busines to take core of She took her home, and there she had her maried to a Syed. ' have heard it said that our teacher had been eleven at the time of her fist marrige, and fifteen when she became Ui teake i that sbe spoke some local diet, and not standard Urdu and ‘hat she knew only to vocize the Arabic of the Qur'an by ts of tone208 URDU TEXTS & CONTEXTS. ‘widow. Twelve years had passed before she was matried again ‘And during that entire time she had lived with utmost modesty ‘and propriety—may God bless her soul! She was full of virtue ‘and piety, and remained devoted to prayers and fasts till her dying day. The second marriage, which was clearly her relig- iousy allowed privilege (hagg--shar‘], was not in fact some- thing she had wanted—she had merely given in to the pressure mounted by her mother. Be that as it may, my grandfather was shocked when he heard the news, Out of his sense of shame, he didn’t step out ‘of the house for a whole month. Everyone reasoned with him: “Why must you feel so bad? She was only a hired teacher in your household; she wasn't, God forbid, a kin." My grandfa- ther always replied, “She was, nevertheless, the tutor to my girls. It shames me greatly if my girls’ tutor should marry a Second time. When I think of it I want to hide my face from the world.” He sent word to our teacher never to ctoss our threshold again. He also wouldn't allow the Syed who had married her to ‘come before him; he kept that vow as long as he lived. When we girls leamed of these developments, we were all very grieved. Much worse, however, was the condition of our teacher, for she loved us very much—just as we loved her. ‘There was nothing, however, that we could do except resign ourselves tothe situation ‘Then several members of the family suggested that another woman should be hired who could teach us Urdu as well as the Qur'an. But my grandfather didn’t agree. He said, ‘No, can't bear even the thought of having an outsider (gair] in the house teaching my girls. I absolutely forbid it. Compared to such an education, it would be better if the girls remained ilit- crate.” “Modesty was such an int lue for my grandfather that he would have prefered that he gis didn't = io their own fathers and brothers. He used to say, ‘Talking to her male relatives makes a girl disrespectful” What chance was there then to have some male relative teach us? There were, 1no doubt, several poor and widowed women among the Syeds, but none dared to-ask them. Thus, in short, stopped all formal instruction of the girs. BIBI ASHRAF 209 ud wih heir mothars. But my moe, a my i few in, and herself knew how to recite a marsiya.!? Even as she Cade tae or ae wa ra enedictory poems [mujre-saldm]. Woe, a thousand times as sick for one whole year before she bade Trewel 1 tie Tmt tne passed away. | thought of het dy and night T would way Et cat Sanka earns rocee fanaa armaenms ieee an after my mothers den, T kept paying afer the. aly ita go eae a farsi, Ui, an elegy in Und, by isl, i refers to the elegies that ommemorte Shi'sh marys. Marsiya-tvdm a profesional elect Majré and salém,shoner benditory poems that honour the Propet end the Shah marys. See he ey, “The Art of the Urdu Marsa” in th210 URDU TEXTS && CONTEXTS, 10 how tas aly ye wl mae ter cone ‘us and passed on. [When he was a little older] 1 taught bim to sagen When ae ea St Sp iy alo er oes Meter unten lpn tice natin cee seepore Secon ena op a Be he ee id ee Sep we wet Ce time, My’ days were distracted and my nights sleepless. After the fortieth day observance of my mother’s: hen fea) cota eh emer a, 0, Sedan eae oes serra tn Benatar Gal aa sae ere fen er rh sie Tet teapot n,n at se ee sa mee, ok ie i a a ee a verte ston sections ofthe Quan (tht You have Kare to a re aca nL a oat ee te og ei my me com BIBI ASHRAF 2u Cipher new matt, and began to read forward on my own. In {ENT Hanner—hrough Gal's favour aad ae ee finished the Quran in jst one year, and hada mays Te ta ‘brate-THe occasion. = cou a yn fm Ud, 1 wef a na, 4 a se irre] cu ica meg en IM we ies en oe ie tc cng seen int ii Se Gree 2S ay ne iyo taps ese fe it ly nt tr ik Zoe ea Sy oy ee lah hme i oor Sea he TE ha ry son tow anes amebtaey fa iat fo nat Ho fot Recl a sass hts, Chl22 URDU TEXTS & CONTEXTS ‘mother, who knows what your tears will do next. Don’t come near us. Go, ery somewhere else! You only make us fear for the future." ‘Those remarks totally devastated me, and my tears just poured out. Then the ladies said: "For God's sake, girl go away! If your grandmother sees you crying she would just assume that we must have said something nasty to her darling ‘granddaughter Only my God knows how | felt when I heard those words. My parents had brought me up with much love. They had al- ways used gentle language in my presence, never saying a harsh word to anyone. That is why I was not accustomed to hearing such cruel remarks. The words of those ladies were like salt to my wounded heart. | wiped my tears and walked away. When I was by myself, 1 prayed to God: ‘Most Be- nevolent God, show me mercy and guide me across this dread- ful chasm to my goal, If ever I get to lear how to read, 1 shall, God willing, teach that skill to anyone who desires it and even foreibly to those who may not want to lear, for I __ Shall never forget, so long as live, the anguish I feel right Later, one night, as I was beset with similar thoughts, it oc- ‘curred to me that ifLhad a saldm or a mujrd, | could myself fur ow the weeds HE SEATS WIT WES hcl about that! After all, [already knew the letters of the alphi bet. What did I care if no one wanted to teach me? That thought so enhanced my courage and hope that the very next morning | sent a maid to all my friends with this message: “I ‘need some saldim and some mujre. Please let me borrow some from you. I shall have them copied and then retuned." May God ever keep them happy, forall of them sent me some. But who was there t0 copy them for me? I used the same ‘excuse again, and said to my grandmother, “Please get me Some paper. I shall ask Uncle to copy these poems for me.” She immediately sent someone to the market and got me some paper. Now the question was, how should | make copies, and where should | hide myself as | do that? For it would have been disastrous for me if anyone even suspected that 1 was tying to wtite, I had no mother to cover up for me, and ‘writing was strictly forbidden to girls. How was | then to reach BIBI ASHRAF 213 my aol and also hep it secret? My y aunt was andy frou she would cll me tasty names fr reading the Gute as She ed 10 ay. “Thank God is Ga Rent ancy Anything else there se mou hae ee ay all.’ God knows what she would have said if she had en me writing! “en me cM thinking ove these mates at length, 1 decided that on, en everyone was esting. T ed ae ee at withthe cing om de eleve me that is cncty what 1 blacking from the kitchen. the clay. id of ne ot ct Some Saony 1 fat is so innocent! No had I copied « few words than I felt | had already won the bal. Before retunng downs, | broke he iad id and tre aay the pete That was the sou Piha {ox many days sing a fesh lid every dat make he ea Tete wild ind he war pt at nd gee the wretch who seals the fd every de break her arms for doing tha.” she Movery dey? May Got fl so ashamed and so very scare 1 as afd so Sound ou ow ba had end welll raving the sense to consider my misplace ‘I ing the see fo Sensi myspace nes sh When couldn't make any endure ‘tin. Then God found me ateacay | “ONE sls started ne moming, as Twas reading the Qur'an, the ‘grandmother's sister came by. He hat soing an ; esa what T'was doing a ‘asked, “Sister, can you read the Qur'an?” I was doing and Yes, can T replied,214 ‘URDU TEXTS & CONTEXTS He said, “I would be ever so grateful if you could help me learn my lessons. I have difficulty memorizing the daily as- signments, and consequently get thrashed by the teacher, ‘You willbe doing me a big favour” “Don't call it @ favour,’ T replied. “Tl be happy to teach you every day. That made him so happy that he pulled up his shirt, and showed me his back. It was covered: with wels. My heart welled up for him, and from that day on 1 would not only go through his day's assignment with im, but also help him pre- pate the text ahead. He never got a thrashing again, “That boy's coming to me for help was how God took pity ‘on my despair, and my fortune took a tur for the better. It happened this way. One day a book fell out of the boy's bag. 1 | picked it up and began to ip its pages. The writing had no critical marks (0 indicate the correct pronunciation. I asked him, “What book is this? The seript looks like thet of a mar- siya. Here, read me some of it” The boy did. I liked the book's contents, and my hope was revived. I said to him, “I would cherish your kindness all my life if you would teach me to read this book.” He flatly refused. “I don't have the time,’ he sid. “Also, the book is very difficlt—you will never learn to read i” { replied, ‘ll work very hard to memorise the lessons. You need only consent to teach me” “No, I ean't” he ssid, "I don't think 1 can teach you this book.” Tas very hurt when he sai that. “I you won't teach this book feoreds “vont help yates Then sared to weep. ‘My words made him recall the beatings. ‘Don’t get angry,” te quickly responded. “Here, ead.” ; ‘How relieved | felt! Wiping my tears, I recited the “Bis mill,” and began to study with him every day. But T hadn't finished even three pages when his father sent him away to study at Delhi, I wat so depressed when he lef. He was jist @ Child, what could he teach? He never showed me how fo syle Iabity words, nor did he explain the meaning ofthe text—but ven the lite that be di was lotto me. BIBI ASHRAF 215 Once agin | lint despaic.1went around around begging evry- 6 Bch me, but no one di. Finally T sted sey doe eo my own weld ook at ew words and iP ‘zed any familiar lees in them I would pu then ees lowly in tha piecemeal manner, began ofp osteo words and radon, half ght hal wrong, Todd che Wehr king ne to sony set fm dierent boas Onl fy et sie ir Tes ie fon meats, et Roe few thin my er wrk a gern Ga my Beit aunt pated anys my far had ng ae AE sein iy aha ey coe andy eo ofr an oo i, my father didn't marry or ait be ae rother to remarry. A great many’ proposals came nes sponsor on rete, iy aero ao rey wage sae" na ne ciety ee chien We ye Sgn! we Imroer otto, tan ey Hea ote Ssaeeer eee Beet a ote eas et "em nt et Bra nd joined my it, the ft tat could wate was doses eae tga fe ow ing el ea nea tatty en se oar Sai el ot women aig ei ea, red Dat wing open. Non Spel ee extn216 URDU TEXTS & CONTEXTS. my skill at writing was viewed as a novelty by my relatives, fand also by others. Whenever any woman had the need to send a letter, she would come fo me to get it written. On my part, I gladly transcribed, any which way I could, whatever was, Gictated to me. During the process, the women would disclose to me their innermost secrets; they would tell me things that they would never speak of in front of anyone. And their let~ ters brought replies. I could understand, however, only a tenth part of what was dictated to me. ‘Another thing. T knew only one way to address someone {algab) in a leter, and I used that one form all the time, re~ fardless of the age or relationship of the addressee. One lady hhad me write leters to her husband. This is the way 1 ad- dressed het husband on her behalf: ‘Dear young man, light of my eyes, comfort of my life, pupil of my eye—may your life be long!" 1 used these words in all her letters. Finally the husband wrote, “I can fully understand your letters, for their Janguage is just like your own speech. But tell me this, where did you find this strange scribe who knows only one way to address people? Do tell him kindly not to use these words to address me.’ That day onvard, whenever that lady would ask ime to write a letter she would say, ‘Write only this at the be- ginning: "Let the father of Muhammad Husain know. ..."" "When the Mutiny occurred [in 1857] it stopped all ex- changes of letters. Consequently, for nearly eighteen months, wwe received no letter from my father, nor could we write to him. All of us were teribly worried about each other. Finaly, when some peace returned, my father sent a man to Bahnera to ect our news. When he was ready to retum to Gwalior, my srandmother gave the man a letter that she had her brother ‘rite for her.l too gave him a leter—a letter that 1 had writ- ten myself—containing all that I had seen or heard of the Mu- tiny. Yes, even in that letter to my father and my uncle, T ‘wed those same words: "Dear young man, light of my eyes, comfort of my life. 13 -Barkurdir, nir-gam, rate, quran, fla “wmraka’—a9 clegan and most appropiate ay t0 ar Teter, but to someone much Sounger—a 2, for example BIBI ASHRAF 207 My fuer was delighted when be read i eso le he read my Teter He wro ‘omy ganar, The eter writs by Une a ae news of ony te imei member af he Take ean about he ote tates, Nor dl he eau events ofthe Mutiny. The ltr ftom the gi, howevee ine i wen hm. Sh te waste hah ler leer gave me the please I get ftom a newapajer ory book of history. I read her letter every day. But do tell me, who ‘taught her to write?” at mes y grandmother wrote bck: No one evr tay has lee through her own effin, and ont of ey Se ip Tist I Wte my ihr te whole tary—ow I had ered so wi on ssn my own meses eel by sending me an xpenve comfoner and socal a or clot es, having had them sewn for me in Gwalior. But m in clay Gad want hin pace we Yoy gy ea he erage Mio aS at is the sory of ow I leared to read via read and writ, is fished. With much tal and stugaet eae 1managed to obiain a litle skill rest contest wth ead thank God for His kindness. ai and Diseussion Reading Bibi Ashraf's narrati ng Bi ive I couldn’t help being re- tonal heres reed by some contemporaries, men like Naz 1830-1 nd ale ‘aC usin Hal 837-1019. bo wee in the free oF the eto movement among tndan Maslin duos he aiff he nineteenth century and wee aso pean ah of Musin women, Bot Nac Ak, ‘nadand Hal Dit sme of tr wetng moun eek Seer geen ora cag nd eles Sey ih several ies tht find mention is Se fas sory I my be instctve o ake sock at eae ites, comparing Bib Ass scout he Hali and Nazir Ahmad’s more famous fictional heroines. “218 URDU TEXTS & CONTEXTS ‘We learn from Bibi Ashraf that several women in her fam- ily knew how to read the Qur'an, but without understanding the Arabic; they could also read religious writings in Urdu, and ‘were fairly informed concerning the regulations and conven- tions that governed their lives as Muslim women, We are told that the ladies in the house didn’t normally teach their daugh- ters themselves; the girls were taught by a woman teacher—usually some poor widow—who lived with the fam- ily, But, ft ever became necessary, the girls could study with their mothers. The male members of the family never offered to play the role of a teacher. Some of them, in fact, opposed female education, ‘Turing to the fictional heroines—Zubaida Khatun of Hali's Majilis-al-Nisé (1874)! and Asghari Khanam of Nazir ‘Ahmad’s Mirdt-alAnis (1869) and Bandt-al-Na’s (1873),!5 ‘we find that neither was educated by her mother. Zubaida was taught by a woman teacher and by her own father—it was the latter, in fact, who taught Zubaida how to write. About Asghari’s education we leam nothing except that her father ‘wrote her edifying letters which she could answer on her own, and that her mother was not terribly smart even in the tradi- tional sense. Asghari, of course, was smart, almost overbear= ingly, The two male wrtersreformists created fictional fa- thers who took exceptional interest in the education of their ‘daughters. For them and for the patriarchal society for which they were writing any initiative for reform and improvement hhad to come from the fathers if it had to have any effect. As for Bibi Ashraf, her father—somewhat of a rebel_him- self—could have helped her if he had been living at home, though perhaps only after the death of the domineering ‘grandfather. He at least rejoiced in her success in educating 4 See Gail Mist, Voices of Silence (Deh, 1986), pp. 31-137, for & translation, Also et, “Hals Majlis Un-Niss:Purdah ana Woman Power in Nineteenth Century Indi’ flame Society and Culture, ds. Milton [eee nd NK, Wage (New Dell, 1983), pp 38-89. 1 The English translation of Mirdeal"Aris by. E Ward . The Bride's ‘Mio (Lando, 1903) is now avaible again: Nici Abad, The Bride's Mirorsitiat al aa: a tole of if in DeIN a hundred years ago (Sew Det, 200) See the esa, “Pie-Wianing Ada," inthis bok, a This matter “of there being = Sr pe Against writing, as against reading, is not brought out in he tr ei’ is et ee that Hal's heroine, Zaid, was tah wetng not by bey wn daa a el sy i Scere Aa ry re ‘dation, but maks Su pa mes tg an apa ut fe cr statts—without referring to any stricture againsl = me 7 be beeause both Halland Nazir Ahmad Were nat coer with eraey alone; they wished to emphasize womes's eae in general andthe practical benefits tha coud Seen from it to both men and women of Muslim elite families 18 =e smerhtcear er gre pains & Saar en ‘aught writing. The Oabis Nima of Kalas Yon lekende bleman Spmpose 'd for the benefit of his son;!? it is a major Known thot einai not, eke ae ‘pinging of Sons, its author bas few bet Temas eoee nth hp devotion toe cate of he a offence, Ho ‘Abad wre miei. 304 Ama an, cope i oo coe on tat mite te et sre aon of Mi nen Syn ei he * Makirim-al-Akidg (1891), devoted one-fifth of the book to. lec tet we i Kandarian Ania Ab a Badavi (Teheran, 1963), 1 was RE eter, 196). was gaan of Abr wh bd ead220 URDU TENTS & CONTEXTS “Do not teach her wing, ceming daughters to, including, ‘Do not a for therein lies great anger™® More than a century ate, ‘isiuddin Tt i far ove famous book, A8lg--Nasr, ocho si “Teach he gi er cag nor wt ing"? Tunis book easily read for cemines and its infisence on the tnking of Sout Asian Msi site cannot te overeaimated Pi to te intoduction of English edu: thon South Asa, paccally every edueated Maslin male scabs bok at some sg i dcaion, ° " "* ming othe move reent tes, we may note some com nents of Matlan Asha Ai Tranavi (1863-1943), one of ih mot nea veligoe ac ond So mater he ut cei South Ash A prolife wer, he ote count Ws boc iting Bi Zar wl of Para) te fat Book fab exlsely for women, wih was for Secs sacha pat ofan etd Mastin gs Sy copy of the Qur'an, MatianaThanaw wat not averse ‘Shing ween how tee ced che om Shing ihe book ed eran reservation 28 Say on Women’s edocation that be wrote separately in 1913, foc then reprinted in a subsequent eiton of the book, the Miao cnc ssn pes long gut fe tin preceding dacsson wa concernod wth te tater o ti aon sig te we hee {Shing wrong wth tat except in cases whee you get the apron that the. ge might be somewhat brazen neared. ‘of the twentieth century, it a orca a whomacmsness teens (Berkeley, 1990), Two more complete English transations—by ra A BIBI ASHRAF 21 Writing is needful for domestic life, But if there is any fear of impropriety (on the part of the girl}, itis more important to Protect yourself from iniquity than to seck a thing that might be usefil but is in fact not obligatory. Under such circum: stances, don’t let the girl be instructed in the art of writing, and do not let her write on her own either. This is the concle: sion to which wise men have come conceming the question: hhow is writing for women?2! Later day readers of Hali and Nazir Ahmad—tike my- self—can get some sense of the severe hardships education. seeking women had to face only when they come across first. Berson accounts such as Bibi Ashrafs. It may, incidentally, be Pointed out that, given the times, Bibi Ashrars family seems to have been quite ‘progressive’; her father left his ancestral hhome and developed a new profession for himself, and her hhusband-to-be, a much younger first cousin of her father, went to Delhi for education, as did the young boy who helped her ‘with her first Urdu book. Apparently, by the 1850s, institu. tional education that led to professional careers in the new colonial system had become desirable forthe sons in Bibi Ash. ‘af’ family; the education of the daughters, however, was still too controversial an issue. It is indeed remarkable that Bibi Ashraf, by no stretch of imagination a ‘brazen’ person, ac- tively sought to educate herself and, when circumstances re- ‘uired it, didn't hesitate to take up a career Bibi Ashraf might have been just a few hours old when she was engaged to be married to a second cousi—such engage- ments were atthe time more the rule than exception. She was nineteen when the marriage itself took place. Eleven years later, at the age of thirty, she became a widow, and had to lake care of herself and her two surviving daughters. She stayed on in Lahore, far from her ancestral village in Bijnor, and eventually became a primary school teacher, Apparently, there never arose the possibility of a second marriage for her, We, of course, remember the fierce reaction of Bibi Ashrat's Syed grandfather to the remarriage of her Pathan teacher. But 2 Thana222 URDU TEXTS & CONTEXTS. ‘we should also recall that it was a Syed youth who had married the Pathan widow. ‘Widow remarriage was a major issue for the Muslims of ‘South Asia durin infact ‘encourages, remarriage of Widows, elite of South Asia rematrig lexiromely “Fa and usually when dicated By some worldly gain. The frst per- son to take up this issue and work for the removal of this per- nicious custom was Syed Ahmad of Rae _Bareli (1786-1831) 22 who belonged to the tradition of Shah Wali- tullah and led’a ‘jad’ against the Sikhs on the Northwest Frontier, but died fighting the Pathans. He married the widow of his older brother, Syed Ishaq, in 1819, and declared the prevailing prohibition un-Islamic. A charismatic person, he had an extensive following among the Muslims of ‘North In- dia, and his example was emulated by those who followed him, His influence was particularly strong among the Pathans of UP. and Rajasthan. Itis possible thatthe family of Bibi Ash- raf's female teacher had come under the influence of Syed ‘Ahmad Shahid and his followers, and also the Syed who mar- tied the widow.23 ‘Nazir Ahmad and Hali too were concemed with the isue of ‘widow remarriage: the former wrote a novel, Aydmd, devoted to this subject, while the latter wrote a long poem, “Mundjar-i Beva.’ Hal's poem, written in 1884, contains 448 rhyming couplets; a work of great paths, itis inthe form of a widow's prayer to God The widow, though resigned to her fate, is yet bold, or desperate, enough to question God as to why such a terrible fate was assigned to her, a woman. In other words, she complains on behalf of herseif and also on behalf of the ‘entire womankind, ‘What profit lay in my existence?” she asks, ‘Why id you create me? Then, later: “If peace and 2 Muhammad Hedayatalah, Snyod Almad (Lore, 1970), pp. 106-109; M.Majeb, The Indian Mains (London. 1967), pp. 396-97. 2 syed Ahmad’s teachings had song. ant-Shi'ah elements; be was ‘equally cttical ofthe unorthodox or popular manifestations of mystical int. 2 ata Husain Hall, Mesnaviat.rHal, ed Murtsza Hussin Fail (Lahore, 1966), p. 154-178. There ied, “Bev Mf Mun, | Bib ASHRAF m3 Comrt ad been ob sae 1! You would ot ave creat ‘omkind” The poem resto het ar i vec het sued vaya ge an on he ies he the ans! admirer cameo te parca hac 804 yet come ito lom i Bat hn neon a Homes the asin (anit) as resin ne a at th ca of te oom, the to Sy Gas 9 Sunn fo youset fhe woman fse sarge andthe woman together or eh Gos, cena at from the earth 1! which has caused’ all lov ’ fi the cath 1h used all love (0 perish here wi way aE 8 Px man; be cond his. poem fill her heart with His love suffered enough, appetite. Nir Ahad's heroine ic a the i ee on het painful death she gues together her relasnes and eee Bours and gives them long sermon, She dese ee the custom tat prohibited the mmarage of oes examples her own life andthe ives af some oi ain ae Also questions the logi of hase who Tole in ‘Widow who reared, when nil widows coat noes Shit oe te enue aulana Thana, too, denounced the prevailing custom, bat ouch Mle ekchsey i liga tom Be a women of being contemprus toward the ea ie Female, and tld his female readers. Your fa eat Mah unleis you regard fist and second maine a The Prophet has declared,] “Those who revive some Practice of mine wl ceive steward equal o he toning eat ‘one hundred martyrs.” Consequently, anyone whe caves © eps rs wlan id we wey Order o gain the Prophet's approval wil ve ne tee rewards that accrue one Mined marys nn amd 25 Thana, ii 9.423,204 URDU TEXTS & CONTEXTS sduntere ome Sacer ‘her own determination and efforts peeve she taught heel tse rai randoms Peat Torte nde of the ler cdtcaon chtoring to srr Ea ca antaciae rtenct te ded ca nos ered Siatiatie einaeerenaracr at te eee Sh eo Soa iriaeaeaes emo sais Oceana pha cee ee ace ae Popular Jokes and Political History: The Case of Akbar, Birbal, and Mulla Do-Piyaza* One bitter winter night, Akbar and his boon companion Bisbal were ajoying the comforts ofthe fort at Agr, when a pootbrakmin was ushered in. He described his abject poverty and asked for help. Alias said“ understand brahmins can perform amazing feats; Can you Wal into the Jamuna fll the water reaches your ches, then stand there all night? Ifyou do that without any help, I'l give you every ‘hing you want Next day, when the court had assembled, Akbar asked about the brahmin, He was told that the man was’ waiting for his reward ‘Bring him in. {would like to question him, he ordered: When the bahmin was brought in, Akbar sad, "Tell me honestly, how did you ‘manage to say war all night” “Sir the brahmin replied, "ae 1 Sood in the ver under the palace T noticed & light in ene of the windows. 1 fined my eyes on it—that kept me warm. ‘Aha,’ exe claimed Akbar. ‘So you warmed yourself with the help of 2 light fom my palace! That's not how you were supposed todo it" And’he had him thrown out. As the brahmin was leaving the fort he ra inte ‘Birbsl, When Birbal learned what Akbar had said, he gave the bral ‘min some instructions then himself went into attend upon the Ear peor. Later that day, the Emperor and his close companions rode out to ‘hun inthe forest nearby. Suddenly they saw a column of smoke ris, ing in the ai. They rode over to investigate and found that a neon {Revises Originally appeared in Economic and Polticel Weety, 30:24 (Gane 17, 1993), pp. 1436-1466. The paper bepan at srcopone ‘28 "Coutts and Kings tthe Anmial Conference on Soul Ass, Uric, ‘gy of Wisconsin, Madison, November 1986. A longer version ise ne, Sented athe Univesity of Toronto a the 1987 Avie Atmad Menor for, ture. dedicate the essay tothe late novelisistoron who eal neo ei ‘many joke, Sheldon Pollock, Harons Molhis, and Ravine Russe wee ‘ery bef with comments