Feeding Guide

by Mike Hutjens
Third edition
FEEDING GUIDE
by Mike Hutjens
Third Edition
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Raised on a dairy farm near Green Bay, Wisconsin, Mike Hutjens was
active in both 4-H and FFA. Named top graduating senior at the University
of Wisconsin, he earned bachelor’s, masters, and doctoral degrees there,
with the latter in dairy science and nutritional science. His graduate paper
was awarded first place by the American Dairy Science Assn.
From 1971 to 1979, Dr. Hutjens was extension dairy specialist at the
University of Minnesota. Since 1979, he has held this position at the
University of Illinois. He annually speaks at close to 100 meetings in the
midwest, and has spoken at conferences worldwide. He has authored hun-
dreds of technical and popular articles, co-authored a text on dairy science,
edits several dairy reports and is a regular columnist in HOARD’S DAIRY-
MAN magazine.
Dr. Hutjens has served as official judge for the HOARD’S DAIRYMAN Cow
Judging Contest, at World Dairy Expo, and at 16 state fairs. Award recogni-
tions include the National DeLaval Extension Worker Award, ADSA Applied
Nutrition Award (1992), Young Extension Scientist Award ( College of
Agriculture, Illinois), Carlisle Extension Award (Animal Science Dept.), Midwest Regional Young Extension
Award (sponsored by ASAS), Paul A. Funk Outstanding Faculty Award (College of Agriculture), Outstanding
Extramural Instructor (University-wide award), two citations from the Minnesota Board of Regents, PDCA
1990 Superior Service Award, 1990 Dairy Person of the Year (Illinois Milk Producers Assn.), and Minnesota
Holstein Assn.’s Person of the Year Award. He was elected to serve as vice-president followed by the presi-
dency of American Dairy Science Assn. (ADSA) in 2003-2005. In 2007, ADSA awarded him the Purina Mills
Undergraduate Teacher award, and he is World Dairy Expo’s 2008 Service Person of the Year.
Dr. Hutjens resides in Savoy, Illinois, with his wife Carol, three sons and two daughters.

DEDICATION

HOARD’S DAIRYMAN has offered a book on feeding to its readers for over 60 years. In a 1936 edition,
feeding information was provided for poultry, horses and swine, along with dairy cattle. Of course, much
has changed in animal nutrition since then. The editors of HOARD’S DAIRYMAN who authored previous
editions as well as DAIRYMAN columnists who guided the three most recent editions have endeavored to
provide the very latest and best information on feeding dairy animals. With the 1998 and 2003 editions and
in this revised 2008 edition, we remember and pay tribute to the efforts of two former columnists: the late
James Crowley, leading authority on dairy cattle feeding with the University of Wisconsin Extension, and
the late Marshall E. McCullough, consulting nutritionist and emeritus professor of animal nutrition at the
University of Georgia.

Copyright © 2008 by W.D. Hoards & Sons Company

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or used in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any informa-
tion or storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Address inquiries to
W.D. Hoard & Sons Company
Book Department
P O Box 801
Fort Atkinson WI 53538-0801 USA
fax 920/563-7298; e-mail <hdbooks@hoards.com>

ISBN 0-932147-53-4
Printed in the United States of America

2
 Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Chapter 1 Feeding a ruminant; Dairy cow physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Digestive tract anatomy; Rumen dynamics; Rumen fermentation of nutrients; Protein and
nitrogen metabolism; Fat metabolism; Minerals and vitamins; Optimizing rumen digestion;
Rumen pH effects.

Chapter 2 Feed nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Carbohydrates; Fiber; Fat and oil; Protein; Minerals; Vitamins; Water.

Chapter 3 Optimizing dry matter intake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Chapter 4 The gestation-lactation cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Phase one; Phase two; Phase three; Phase four; Phase 5; Phase 6; Body condition scoring.

Chapter 5 Feeds for dairy cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Forages; Grains; By-product feeds; Protein supplements; Feed additives.

Chapter 6 Feeding systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Forage systems; Grain systems; Mineral systems.

Chapter 7 Ration formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Hand calculated rations; Ration analyzer computer formulation; Ration balancer computer
formulation; Least cost balancer computer formulation; Profit maximizer balancer
computer formulation; Rumen computer formulation models.

Chapter 8 Purchasing and valuing feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Pricing forages; Pricing by-product feeds; Pricing concentrate feeds.

Chapter 9 Feeding disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

Acidosis; Bloat; Displaced abomasum; Ergot; Fatty liver syndrome; Hardware disease; Grass .
tetany; Ketosis; Lameness; Milk fever, hypocalcemia; Moldy feed; Nitrate poisoning; Prussic acid
poisoning; Udder edema; Urea toxicity.

Chapter 10 Calf feeding guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Liquid diet choices; Calf starter; Water; Electrolyte use; Forage sources; Additives.

Chapter 11 Heifer feeding systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Monitoring growth; Risk of fatty udder development; The late pregnant heifer; Contract
raising heifers
.
Chapter 12 Dry cow management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Dry cow stages; Anionic salts.

Chapter 13 Special feeding challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Feeding and BST; Energy considerations; Ration adjustments for BST; Economics of
BST and feed needs; Selecting cows for BST use; Feeding during hot weather; Strategies
for heat stressed cows; Mineral relationships; Feeding with three-times-a-day milking.

Chapter 14 Using Dairy NRC 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76

Appendix tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79

3

T
HREE factors determine
the amount of milk a cow
produces:
1. inheritance,
2. management and environ-
ment conditions,
3. feeding program.
The number of dairy cows
needed to feed the world has
declined along with the number
of dairy farmers. This is largely
due to the incredible success of
dairy farmers’ and researchers’
combined efforts to maximize
dairy cow production by improv-
ing the above three factors.
In the U.S. from 1985 to 2007,
the number of dairy cows
declined from 10.9 million to 9.13
million; the average milk yield
Introduction
increased over 35 percent, from
13,024 lbs. to 20,267 lbs.; total
milk produced increased to 185.6
billion lbs. Meanwhile, the U.S.
farm price remained below
$12.76 in 1985 and less than $13
in 2006. After this book goes to
press in 2008, prices very well
could hit $19 – but there are no
guarantees.
This story is not over, as the
world record cow recently pro-
duced over 70,000 lbs. of milk in
one year. Herd averages exceed-
ing 22,000 lbs. of milk per cow is
common, with elite herds averag-
ing over 30,000 lbs. of milk per
cow. Genetic technology (cloning
and sexing semen), improving the
cow's environment (heat stress
4
reduction and vaccines), comput-
er aids, and feeding improve-
ments (amino acid balancing and
rumen manipulation) will contin-
ue to “raise the production bar”.
This booklet will address the
feeding factor and provide practi-
cal feeding guidelines and recom-
mendations to increase the prof-
itability of the dairy farm.
Dairying can no longer be consid-
ered just a way of life; it is a high-
ly competitive business. There
will always be a dairy industry –
the question is who will compete
and survive.
Mike Hutjens
July, 2008
 Chapter 1
Feeding a
ruminant
Dairy cow physiology

R
uminants are blessed with ticles, breaking them down and ing the dry period). Increasing
the ability to digest com- producing volatile fatty acids the rumen-available energy con-
plex carbohydrates of (VFA) as an energy source for the tent of the diet (starch) will stim-
plants that are unavailable to dairy cow. ulate papillae growth; this in turn
single-stomached animals. A The inside of the rumen wall is improves rumen absorption of
major portion of a ruminant’s lined with papillae, small, finger- volatile fatty acids into the blood-
feed is digested through a fer- like projections, which increase stream.
mentation process. It is control- the rumen’s absorptive area. The reticulum is the second,
ling and optimizing this process Volatile fatty acids, ammonia and pouch-like compartment of the
that becomes our job in feeding water move through the rumen stomach. It is located forward of
the dairy cow. wall directly to the bloodstream. the rumen and toward the bottom
Rumen papillae will shorten, of the body cavity. Because only
DIGESTIVE TRACT ANATOMY decreasing the rumen’s inner a fold of tissue separates the
The cow’s digestive tract surface area, when a cow is fed a rumen and reticulum, this region
includes the mouth, esophagus, low energy diet (for example, dur- is commonly referred to as the
a four-compartment stomach,
small intestine and large intes- ❚ ❙ FIGURE 1.1. THE RUMINANT’S STOMACH.
tine. The unique four-compart-
ment stomach (not four stom- Beginning of
achs) allows the dairy cow to duodenum
convert low quality feedstuffs into
Esophagus
high quality dairy products.
Each compartment of the rumi-
nant stomach (Figure 1.1) is dis- Reticulum
cussed below.
The rumen is located on the
Rumen
left side of the adult dairy cow
and constitutes over 65 percent
of the total stomach volume. It Omasum
can hold over 30 gallons (132
liters) of material containing 10 to
20 percent dry matter. A com-
mon descriptive term for the
rumen is the fermentation vat, as
it serves as a reservoir of feed and
supports an active microbial fer-
mentation. Abomasum
The bacteria attach to feed par-

5
rumino-reticulum area. Both
regions support microbial fer-
mentation with a pH of 6 for opti-
mal microbial growth. The tissue
in this section resembles a honey
comb.
The omasum is a globe-shaped
structure containing layers or
folds of tissue. The common name
is the "many plies" because it
appears like pages in a book. The
omasum absorbs water and some
nutrients. As the feed moves
between these plies of tissue, the
digesta becomes drier. Excessive
intake of mineral or low quality
fiber (such as sunflower hulls) can
cause compaction of the omasum.
The abomasum is commonly
called the “true stomach”
because it has a glandular lining
that secretes digestive enzymes
needed to break down complex
feeds. This compartment has the
characteristic stomach shape
found in non-ruminants and
humans. The pH of the digesta is
below 3 due to secretion of
hydrochloric acid. Displaced
abomasum (DA) or twisted stom-
ach occurs when this area of the
stomach moves from the lower
right side of the cow to the left
and top side of the cow.
The small intestine consists
of three distinct sections: the
duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
Most of the digestive enzymes are
secreted in this area. Complex
feeds are broken down to amino
acids, simple sugars and fatty
acids. Nutrients are absorbed
across the intestinal lining
though villi (small finger-like pro-
jections to increase surface area)
for transport in the blood and
lymphatic systems. Few digestive
problems occur in this area. The
large intestine is the last section
of the digestive tract. Bacterial
fermentation of undigested fiber
and starch occurs and leads to
lower fecal pH measurements
(under 6). Water and volatile
fatty acids can be absorbed in the
large intestine, but this fermenta-
tion is not as effective, as no
digestion or absorption of micro-
bial protein occurs, and it is
excreted.
RUMEN DYNAMICS
The rumen of healthy cows will
have over two contractions per
minute. This mixes the rumen
contents, brings bacteria and
feed into contact, moves material
out of the rumen if it is dense and
short, and brings long particles to
the top surface for rumination to
occur. The cow spends from 8 to
over 10 hours a day ruminating
(chewing her cud). The rumina-
tion cycle consists of four func-
tions. Regurgitation occurs when
the area around the esophagus is
stimulated with coarse material
(scratch effect). A handful of
coarse material is regurgitated to
the mouth by a reverse peristalsis
movement. Once the coarse feed
is in the mouth, the second phase
(rechewing) occurs, grinding the
feed to a smaller size which will
allow it to pass out of the rumen.
The third phase is resalivation.
Saliva contains buffers, which
mixed with the regurgitated
material will stabilize the rumen
pH. A cow produces as much as
20 gallons (88 liters) of saliva a
day when proper rumination
occurs. The fourth phase is when
the cow reswallows the cud. If
the coarse material has been
mechanically reduced through
chewing, the material should
sink in the rumen and move to
the reticulum. Feed leaves the
rumen when the particle size is
dense (heavy) and short. Long
particles will float in the rumen,
forming the forage or hay raft in
the top of the rumen and stimu-
late additional rumination time.
If material is too coarse, such as
straw, too much time is needed to
rechew the feed, and this reduces
overall dry matter intake.
When feed is fermenting in the
rumen, large amounts of me-
thane, carbon dioxide, and other
gases are formed and must be
expelled (from 30 to 50 quarts [28
to 47 liters] per hour). Under nor-
mal conditions, distension from
6
CUD CHEWING
THUMB RULE
1. When cows are resting
(not eating or being milked),
over 60% of the cows should
be ruminating;
2. A cow should chew each
cud at least 50 times before
reswallowing. This indicates
adequate long fiber.
gases will stimulate the cow to
have a rumen contraction, which
will clear the esophagus region
and allow the gas to be belched or
eructated. If this area can not be
cleared or gas forms a froth, the
cow may bloat.
RUMEN FERMENTATION OF
CARBOHYDRATES.
On the average, carbohydrates
contribute 70 to 80 percent of the
diet dry matter while protein, fat
and minerals make up the
remaining portion. Carbohy-
drates are the primary energy
source for rumen microbes. Two
carbohydrate categories occur in
feeds: nonstructural carbohy-
drate (sugar and starch) and
structural carbohydrate (cellu-
lose, hemicellulose, and pectin).
Sugars are found in the cells of
growing plants and in feeds such
as molasses or whey. Starch is
the storage form of energy in
cereal grains and roots.
 Structural carbohydrate pro-
vides rigidity and strength to the
plant. Lignin is not a carbohy-
drate, but is grouped with struc-
tural carbohydrate analytically.
Various carbohydrate fractions
are summarized in Table 1.1.
Nonstructural and structural
carbohydrate are digested (con-
verted from complex structures to
simple sugars) and fermented to
volatile fatty acids by rumen
microbes (Table 1.2). These
volatile fatty acids provide 60 to
80 percent of the energy required
by the cow. Fat, carbohydrate
not degraded in the rumen, and
protein provide the remaining
energy. Volatile fatty acids are
absorbed from the rumen into the
bloodstream and transported to
the liver, mammary gland, fatty
tissue deposits, and other tis-
sues. When production and
ratios of individual volatile fatty
acids are altered, yield and com-
ponents of milk change. Ruminal
degradation of carbohydrate
varies depending on maturity of
forages, source of carbohydrate
(nonstructural or structural),
and processing such as grinding
of grain or chopping of forages.
PROTEIN AND NITROGEN
METABOLISM
Protein is essential for mainte-
nance, growth, reproduction and
milk production. The protein
requirement of a dairy cow is the
sum of amino acids needed for
each of these biological functions.
The amino acids are supplied by
the intestinal digestion of micro-
bial protein and feed protein that
escapes microbial degradation in
the rumen. Approximately 60 to
70 percent of dietary protein is
degraded by microbes to pep-
tides, amino acids, or ammonia,
which are used by the microbes
as nitrogen sources (Table 1.2).
Rumen microbes incorporate
ammonia into microbial protein.
Unincorporated ammonia is
absorbed across the rumen wall
and into blood, converted to urea
in the liver, and recycled in saliva
or excreted in urine and milk
(Figure 1.2).
Herds having milk urea nitro-
gen (MUN) concentrations over 18
mg/dl may indicate rumen pro-
tein inefficiency due to two condi-
tions: excess ammonia in the
rumen and/or a deficiency of
rumen available energy which
limits microbial growth. Three
categories of protein can be used
to describe the fate of dietary pro-
tein in the rumen and define pro-
tein requirements of the dairy
cow (Appendix tables 2,3).
Soluble protein (SP) is the frac-
tion of feed protein that is rapidly
degraded in the rumen. Urea or
casein are examples of feeds that
are quickly degraded to ammo-
nia, peptides, or amino acids that
could be used by rumen mi-
crobes. New York and Penn-
sylvania researchers have devel-
oped a rumen model system
which predicts microbial protein
yield based on protein sources,
rumen fermentable carbohydrate,
rumen turnover, and rumen pH.
In this model, SP is referred to as
the A fraction (Appendix table 1).
Rumen degradable protein
(RDP) is the fraction of feed pro-
tein that can be degraded in the
rumen (includes SP and more

❚ ❙ TABLE 1.1. VOLATILE FATTY ACIDS (VFA) PRODUCED FROM MICROBIAL DIGESTION
Category of Type Rumen Digestion VFA
carbohydrate rate extent (%)
Nonstructural Sugars very fast 100 propionate
Starches fast 70-90 propionate
Structural Lignin very slow 0 none
Cellulose slow 30-50 acetate-butyrate
Hemicellulose moderate 70 acetate-propionate
Pectin fast 70-90 acetate-propionate

❚ ❙ TABLE 1.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROBIAL GROUPS

Class Substrate Nitrogen Main VFA pH range Time to
preference needs produced double (h)
Fiber digesting Cellulose Ammonia Acetate 6.0-6.8 8-10
bacteria Hemicellulose Butyrate

Starch and sugar Starch Ammonia Propionate 5.5-6.0 0.5

dig. bacteria Sugar Amino acids Lactate

Protozoa Starch Amino acids 6.2-7.0 15-24

Sugar

7
slowly degraded sources). About
half of ration RDP should be in
the form of SP. In the New York-
Pennsylvania model, the interme-
diate rate of degraded protein or
B1; the slower sources of degrad-
ed feed protein or B2; and the A
fraction are included in RDP
(Appendix table 1). Other terms
used in the field to describe RDP
include rumen-available nitrogen
or protein. The ration must con-
tain sufficient RDP to provide 3 to
5 mg/dl ammonia in rumen fluid
for optimal synthesis of microbial
protein.
Rumen undegraded protein
(RUP) is the portion of feed pro-
tein that is not degraded in the
rumen and remains intact as it
passes to the lower tract. RUP
includes the portion available for
lower gut digestion and absorp-
tion (also called escape protein or
bypass protein) and the portion
that is not digested and is excret-
ed in feces (also called bound pro-
tein, heat damaged protein, acid
detergent fiber insoluble nitro-
gen, or ADF-N). In the New York-
Pennsylvania model, available
RUP is referred to as the B3 frac-
tion and unavailable RUP portion
is the C fraction. See Figure 1.3.
As computer models continue to
refine prediction of microbial and
cow protein requirements, and
laboratory techniques evolve that
can distinguish various fractions,
additional protein fractions may
be defined.
The nutritionist’s goal for
amino acids nutrition is to maxi-
mize rumen synthesis of the
microbial amino acids (50 to 70
percent of total protein required)
and complement the microbially
produced amino acids with a bal-
anced source of RUP containing
the needed amino acids to meet
the cow’s amino acids re-
quirement. Appendix tables 2 and
3 list the ration protein guidelines
for meeting the requirements of
high producing cows.
FAT METABOLISM
Fat is present at modest levels
(2 to 3 percent) in diets commonly
fed to dairy cattle. When cows
are in negative energy balance
during times of peak milk pro-
duction, supplemental fat can
increase energy content of the
diet by increasing total fat levels
up to 6 percent of the diet dry

❚ ❙ FIGURE 1.2. PROTEIN AND NONPROTEIN NITROGEN USE IN THE RETICULO-RUMEN.

Some of the protein consumed by the cow escapes
breakdown in the rumen. The extent of breakdown
depends on solubility of the protein, resistance to break-
down and rate of feed passage through the rumen.
Many rumen microorganisms require ammonia (break-
down product of protein) for growth and synthesis of
microbial protein. Ammonia also may be provided from
NPN sources such as urea, ammonium salts, nitrates and
other compounds. Rumen microbes convert the ammo-
nia and organic acids into amino acids that are assem-
bled into microbial protein. Excess ammonia is mostly
absorbed from the rumen into the bloodstream, but small
amounts may pass into the lower digestive tract and be
absorbed. Feed protein (that escapes breakdown in the
rumen) and microbial protein pass to the abomasum and
small intestine for digestion and absorption.

8
 rumen fermentation because the
❚ ❙ FIGURE 1.3. CATEGORIES OF PROTEIN. fatty acids are partially hydro-
genated prior to feeding (harder
Escapes rumen; fat), made into calcium salts, or
Rapid Intermediate & slow
some breakdown in encapsulated or protected
rumen rumen
breakdown breakdown intestines, and a fraction through special processing.
is unavailable Rumen inert fats are more expen-
sive compared to animal and
oilseed sources and are accept-
SP RDP RUP able sources of fat for use in dairy
Soluble Rumen Rumen
degradable undegradable cow rations. Limit to 1 lb. (454 g)
protein
protein protein per cow per day.

MINERALS AND VITAMINS

Minerals are needed by rumen
A A + B1 + B2 B3 C
microbes for growth, and should
fraction fractions fraction fraction
be mixed and fed with forages and
N Y- PA M O D E L

concentrates. Water-soluble B vit-

Bypasses rumen and breaks down

Intermediate rate of

amins can be synthesized by

rumen breakdown

rumen breakdown

Completely unavailable – is
Rapid rumen breakdown

Slow rate of

rumen microbes to meet the

passed in the feces

in small intestine requirements of the dairy cow.
Cobalt is needed for rumen micro-
bial synthesis of B12. Sulfur is
needed by rumen microbes to syn-
thesize sulfur-containing amino
acids with a desired ratio of nitro-
gen to sulfur in the diet of 10 to
12:1.
matter if dry matter intake is not To minimize negative effects,
decreased. Fatty acid composi- one of the following amounts of OPTIMIZING RUMEN
tion and inertness of fats and oils fat-containing feeds can be fed DIGESTION
in the rumen are important char- (not additively): Volatile fatty acid production.
acteristics that can impact the • Added fat from oilseeds Microbial fermentation in the
rumen environment and dry mat- should be limited to 1 to 1-1/4 rumen produces volatile fatty
ter intake. lbs. (454 to 567 g) per cow per acids, a main source of energy for
Dietary fat and oil are con- day. Feed oilseeds whole (cotton the dairy cow. The primary
sumed either as triglycerides and sunflower seed) or coarsely volatile fatty acid is acetate, a
(three fatty acids attached to a processed (soybean and canola two-carbon volatile fatty acid rep-
glycerol molecule) or as free fatty seeds) to minimize exposing resenting 55 to 70 percent of the
acid. Rumen microbes hydrolyze rumen microbes to high levels of total production of volatile fatty
triglycerides to fatty acid and unsaturated fatty acids. acids. Acetate or acetic acid (the
glycerol (used by rumen microbes • Limit fish oil to 0.1 to 0.2 lb. acid in vinegar) is produced from
as a minor source of energy). The (45.4 to 90.7 g) per cow per day. the digestion of structural carbo-
fatty acids in feeds can be classi- • Restrict extracted or free oil hydrates and is used by the
fied as saturated or unsaturated. (such as corn or soy oil) to 1/2 lb. mammary gland to synthesize
Rumen microbes partially (227 g) per cow per day. fatty acids for milk fat. Acetic
hydrogenate unsaturated fatty • Blend fat with other feeds acid is an energy source for tis-
acids, forming more saturated and avoid slug feeding (large sue. (Table 1.1.)
fatty acids with similar carbon amounts eaten per meal) of fat Propionate or propionic acid is
length. Fatty acids (such as those sources. a three-carbon volatile fatty acid
in soybeans or fish meal) can • Animal fat (tallow and grease) produced from starch, sugar, and
interfere negatively with rumen is higher in saturated fatty acids, pectin-digesting bacteria. The
fermentation and lower fiber making these fat sources more level of propionate varies from 15
digestibility. Unsaturated fatty desirable for use in dairy cow to 30 percent of the total volatile
acid can be toxic to fiber digesting rations. Limit animal fat to 1 to fatty acids production. Lactic
bacteria and coat fiber particles, 1-1/2 lbs. (454 to 680 g) per cow acid is produced in the rumen.
thereby reducing bacterial per day. The liver uses propionate to syn-
attachment and fiber digestion. • Rumen inert fats do not affect thesize glucose, thus sparing

9
❚ ❙ FIGURE 1.4. RANGE IN pH BASED ON ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY.

pH

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Increasingly acid Neutral Increasingly alkaline

amino acids. Synthesizing glu-
cose from the carbon skeletons of
amino acids is metabolically
“expensive” because the nitrogen
must be captured in the form of
urea and excreted, which
requires energy. Glucose is used
to synthesize milk lactose.
The third major volatile fatty
acid is butyrate or butyric acid, a
four-carbon volatile fatty acid
produced from the breakdown of
structural carbohydrate and sug-
ars that makes up 5 to 15 percent
of the volatile fatty acids pro-
duced. Butyrate is used as an
energy source by tissue and for
milk fat synthesis. Other volatile
fatty acids are produced in the
rumen (valerate, iso-valerate, and
iso-butyrate), but the amounts
are small compared to the three
major volatile fatty acids.
The ratio of acetate to propi-
onate (A:P) in rumen fluid (for
example, 60 percent acetate:20
percent propionate or 3:1) can
indicate characteristics of the
overall rumen fermentation.
Under optimal conditions, the

EVALUATING MUN LEVELS

Levels of milk urea nitrogen (MUN) are available from milk plants and DHI, either from bulk milk or
individual milk samples. MUN is that fraction of milk protein derived from blood urea nitrogen
(BUN). If MUN levels are outside optimal normal range, you will want to look at ration balancing,
milk components and nutrient balance. Key is changes within your herd or within a group of cows,
since MUN varies from herd to herd.

In Illinois, the optimal MUN value can range from 9 to 14. You should determine the normal value
for your farm and then monitor changes in MUN by 3 points up or down.

Low MUN levels signify possible reductions in amino acid and energy levels that the cow needs
because rumen bacteria growth and yield is down. Reduced microbial growth can negatively impact
milk production.

High MUN values may mean that the

herd is wasting feed protein. An
example of a 1,500 lb.-Holstein with a
MUN of 15 compared to that cow with
a MUN of 10 represents a loss of 1 lb.
of dietary protein, or 2.2 lbs. of soy-
bean meal equivalent plus the added
environmental risks of disposing of
excess nitrogen in the urine.

Note that milk plant and DHI values

can vary for the same farm. And the
minimal group size for MUN testing
is 8 to 10 cows. You should also be
careful in evaluating abnormal MUN
values that may occur for high SCC
cows, fresh cows and cows with
abnormal milk components.

10
A:P ratio should be greater than
2.2 to 1. Production of propionic
acid is energetically efficient and
provides needed glucose precur-
sors for high-producing cows.
High levels of acetate relative to
propionate point to rations high
in fiber and low in starch. High
levels of propionate relative to
acetate may indicate reduced
fiber digestion and acidosis.
Analysis of volatile fatty acids in
the field is not routinely avail-
able, but would be a useful tool to
evaluate rumen fermentation and
digestion.
RUMEN PH EFFECTS
The pH of fluids in the body is
critical to normal chemical and
health conditions of the cow. In
the rumen, the pH can vary from
5.5 to 6.8 with an optimal level of
6.0 to 6.3 (neutral is 7). See
Figure 1.4. Growth of fiber-
digesting bacteria is favored with
pH from 6.0 to 6.8 while growth
of starch-digesting bacteria is
favored by a pH from 5.5 to 6.
Thus, the rumen must maintain
a pH near 6.0 for optimal growth
of both bacteria populations
resulting in favorable yields and
proportions of individual volatile
fatty acids. Factors which impact
rumen pH are discussed below.
1. Forage to concentrate ratio.
High forage rations favor pH over
6 and stimulate higher rates of
saliva secretion. Saliva contains
bicarbonate which buffers the
rumen and increases acetate pro-
duction. The main carbohydrates
in forage (cellulose and hemicel-
lulose) are not fermented as
rapidly by the rumen microbes as
carbohydrates in con-
centrates (starch and
sugar). High rumen
pH favors acetate pro-
duction, a high A:P
ratio (over 3), and
higher milk fat per-
centage. Feeding ex-
cessive amounts of
concentrate increases
propionate produc-
tion, decreases pH
(under 6), reduces feed
intake, reduces micro-
bial nutrient produc-
tion, and leads to milk
fat depression (al-
though milk protein
percentage increases
while milk fat percent-
age decreases).
2. Physical form of
feeds. Grinding, pellet-
ing, chopping or over-
mixing in mixer wagons RUMENOCENTESIS
change the size of the Rumenocentesis is a technique used
feed particle. If forage in the field to determine rumen pH and
particle size is too short volatile fatty acids concentrations from
(cows consuming less intact cows. The process was developed
than 5 lbs. [2.3.kg] of by the University of Wisconsin Veteri-
particles over 1 inch nary College. In rumenocentesis (also
[2.5 cm] in length), a for- called a rumen tap), a needle is passed
age mat in the rumen is through the body wall and into the
not maintained, fiber cow’s rumen. The needle is used to
digestion is decreased, remove a small amount of rumen fluid,
and rumen pH is low- which is analyzed for pH and VFA. The
ered. Saliva production cow receives a local pain blocking
also is reduced due to agents and remains standing during the
less cud chewing time. procedure. Rumenocentesis pH values
Cows typically spend typically are 0.2 to 0.3 pH units lower
over 8 hours of chewing than pH values of fluid sampled
time per day, or 10 to 15 through a rumen fistula, because the
minutes of chew time sample is taken from the lower portion
per pound (.45kg) of dry of the rumen and from the liquid phase.
matter. When resting,
60 percent of the cows
11
should be chewing their cuds.
If concentrates are finely
ground, starch is exposed to
increased microbial fermenta-
tion. Rumen pH decreases and
production of propionate and lac-
tate increases, which lowers milk
fat percentage, increases milk
protein percentage, and lowers
milk yield. Steam flaking, pellet-
ing or grinding cereal grains will
disrupt starch granules and
increase their rumen availability
and potential to support growth
of rumen microbes, but also may
increase the risk of rumen acido-
sis.
3. Feed intake. As feed intake
increases, especially when
rations contain large amounts of
fermentable carbohydrate, rumen
pH can decrease because more
substrate is available for micro-
bial uses. With higher intake of
dry matter, there is more sub-
strate available for bacteria to fer-
ment or live on. Fermentation is
extended, increasing volatile fatty
acid production. The amount of
saliva produced also increases,
but at a relatively slower rate
compared to the higher intake of
feed, so the buffering effect of the
saliva is cancelled out, allowing
an overall drop in pH, and
increase in acidity.
4. Moisture content of the
ration. Wet feeds can reduce
rumen pH because less saliva is
needed to wet the feed for swal-
lowing. Also, if the moisture of
the total ration exceeds 55 per-
cent, dry matter intake can be
reduced.
5. Feeding unsaturated fats
and oils. Unsaturated fatty acid,
such as fatty acid in vegetable
and fish oils, can reduce fiber
digestibility, be toxic to fiber
digesting bacteria, and coat the
fiber particles, reducing fiber
digestion. Processing of oilseeds
(such as grinding or extruding)
can rupture the cell wall of the
seed and release the oil into the
rumen, allowing similar negative
effects to occur in the rumen.
6. Method of feeding. Feeding
total mixed rations (TMR) or com-
plete rations has real advantages:
it stabilizes rumen pH, provides
RDP and fermentable carbohy-
drate at the same time, increases
dry matter intake, and minimizes
feed selection. If concentrates are
fed separately, limit the amount
to 5 lbs. (2.27 kg) of dry matter
per meal, avoid large amounts
that contain high starch levels,
and minimize feeding of finely
processed grains.
These factors illustrate the
dynamic state of the rumen envi-
ronment. Changing one feed can
lead to several rumen changes.
For example, feeding more corn
silage decreases forage particle
size, increases fermentable car-
bohydrate, lowers feed pH, and
increases ration moisture.
12
 Chapter 2
Feed nutrients

I
n this chapter, we will look at 3. Pectin is found in the cell these complex glucose bonds to
the role played by feed nutri- wall of the plant. It is the most volatile fatty acids. Hemicellulose
ents in sustaining growth and rapidly fermented portion of the can make up 10 to 15 percent of
milk production. cell wall. It is found in high levels the ration dry matter.
Plant cell contents include in beet pulp, citrus pulp, and 5. Cellulose is a major struc-
starch, sugars, soluble ash, pro- legumes. Pectin produces more tural carbohydrate and gives
tein, and oils (Figure 2.1). The cell acetic acid when fermented in the rigidity to the plant wall. Simple
wall includes pectin, hemicellu- rumen compared to the cell con- stomach animals (such as a pig)
lose, cellulose and lignin. tents. can not digest cellulose, while
4. Hemicellulose is also found rumen bacteria can break down
CARBOHYDRATES in the cell wall with a digestibility these complex carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are the major of 70 percent. Bacteria convert Digestibility of cellulose is
source of energy in the diet for
dairy cattle. Carbohydrates
make up nearly 70 percent of the ❚ ❙ FIGURE 2.1. A PLANT CELL SHOWING CELL WALL STRUCTURE.
diet and consist of six different Source: Pioneer
types, depending on the feed.
1. Sugars are found inside the
cell of immature growing plants
and in feeds such as molasses
and whey. Sugars are rapidly fer-
mented in the rumen by bacteria.
The level of sugar in dairy cattle
rations is low (2 to 5 percent of
the ration dry matter).
2. Starch is also found inside
the plant cell and is highly
digestible (75 to 95 percent). It is
the major plant energy reserve in
the seed portion of the plant. It
ferments rapidly in the rumen if
processed (ground finely or steam
flaked). Barley and wheat starch
also tend to ferment rapidly, while
corn, milo, and coarsely processed
grains ferment more slowly.
Starch can make up 20 to 30 per-
cent of the ration dry matter.

13

SUGGESTED LEVELS FOR CARBOHYDRATE FRACTIONS ON A
DRY MATTER BASIS FOR A HIGH PRODUCING COW
CARBOHYDRATE LEVEL NUTRIENT GROUP
FRACTION (% DM)
Organic acids 0 to 4 NSC fraction
Sugar 2 to 4 NSC fraction
Starch 26 to 30 NSC fraction
Soluble fiber 2 to 5 NFC (NSC + soluble fiber)
Hemicellulose 10 to 12 NDF (ADF + hemicellulose)
Cellulose 17 to 19 ADF fraction
Lignin 2 to 4 ADF fraction
lower at 30 to 40 percent. Mature
forages are higher in cellulose.
Cellulose can make up 15 to 20
percent of the ration dry matter.
6. Lignin is not a true carbohy-
drate but is part of the cell wall.
When plants become mature and
produce seed, lignin content
increases. Digestibility of lignin
is zero, and lignin can bind with
other nutrients, lowering di-
gestibility of the entire cell. Lig-
nin levels are low (2 to 4 percent
of the ration dry matter).
When balancing rations, these
six types of carbohydrates deter-
mine intake potential of a feed
and its energy content.
Non-fiber carbohydrates (NFC)
consist of organic fermentation
acids, pectin, starch, and sugars
which ferment in the rumen and
are highly digestible (over 80 per-
cent). To calculate NFC, use the
following formula (all nutrients
must be expressed on a 100 per-
cent dry matter basis).
NFC = 100 - (% crude protein +
%NDF + % fat + % mineral)
For example, corn gluten feed
would have a value of 24% NFC.
100 - (20% protein + 50% NDF +
1% oil + 5% mineral) = 100-76 =
24%.
Recommended levels of various
types of carbohydrate at different
stages of lactation and gestation
are in Appendix tables 2 and 3.
FIBER
Two types of fibers are used to
describe fiber content of feeds.
Acid detergent fiber (ADF) con-
sists of cellulose, lignin and ligni-
fied nitrogen components (also
called heat damaged protein, or
ADF-nitrogen). ADF can be
chemically analyzed by mixing
feed with an acidified detergent
solution and heating.
Equations to predict energy
content of feeds are usually
based on ADF content (as ADF
increases, energy content
declines).
Neutral detergent fiber (NDF)
consists of ADF (cellulose and
lignin) and hemicellulose.
Another term for NDF is cell wall
content. NDF represents the total
fiber content of a feed.
NDF is used to predict feed
intake and is related to rumina-
tion time. When referring to NDF,
two definitions can be used.
Chemical NDF refers to the
amount of NDF determined by
mixing feed with a neutral deter-
gent and heating.
A second NDF term is effective
NDF (also referred to as eNDF)
which measures the physical
form or length of the feed. Values
for eNDF are determined by siev-
ing feeds or using screens to sep-
arate forage particle size (Penn
State Forage Separator or
Wisconsin Forage Screens). Feed
particles over 0.75 inch (2 cm)
contribute to the forage mat in
the rumen, cause the cow to
chew her cud, and maintain nor-
mal rumen movements. Cows
need to chew a minimum of 500
to 600 minutes a day to maintain
normal rumen pH (5.9 to 6.5).
14
Fiber values of feeds are listed in
Appendix tables 5, 6 and 7.
Another fiber term and analy-
sis is crude fiber. Crude fiber
(CF) was the standard fiber test
and is still required on feed tags
along with ADF values. Crude
fiber testing is not an accurate
estimate of total fiber because
boiling feed with dilute acid and
alkali results in some lignin and
hemicellulose being dissolved
and measured as sugar and
starch – this is incorrect.
FAT AND OIL
While fat and oil are used
interchangeably, fats are solid at
room temperature and are usual-
ly from animal sources. Examples
are tallow and grease. Oils are
liquid at room temperature and
are usually from plant sources
such as soybeans, corn and cot-
tonseed. In this book, fat will
refer to both fat and oil energy
sources. The energy content of
fat is 2.25 greater than carbohy-
drate and protein because of the
higher ratio of carbon to oxygen
in fats. Calves will consume diets
containing 10 to 30 percent fat as
they need more concentrated
sources of energy. Fats are
added to dairy cow rations as a
source of energy, to improve
palatability, and to reduce dusti-
ness and fines in feeds. Too
much fat can depress dry matter
intake, reduce fiber digestibility
and increase feed costs.
Strategies for using fat sources in
lactating dairy cattle rations are
outlined below.
1. Add the first pound (454 g)
of fat from oil seed sources (such
as cottonseed, soybeans or
canola seeds) because these fat
sources are less costly per pound
of oil – 10 to 20 cents per pound
when other nutrients in the seed
are considered such as protein
and minerals.
• Fuzzy cottonseed can be fed
as whole seed because the fiber
(linters) causes the seed to float,
get caught in the rumen forage
mat, and be rechewed by the cow.
Limit the amount to 5 to 7 lbs.
(2.3 to 3.2 kg) per cow per day.
• Soybeans can be fed whole or
processed. The finer the seed is
processed, the more degradable
the protein. Heating the soybean
increases protein undegradabili-
ty. Extruded soybeans should be
fed at lower levels because the fat
is removed from inside the plant
cell and is “free oil” that can
reduce rumen pH and fiber diges-
tion. Suggested feeding levels of
soybeans are listed below.
Raw soybeans: Maximum of 4
lbs. (1,8 kg) per cow per day (due
to reduced protein digestion
related to plant enzymes such as
trypsin inhibitor);
Extruded soybeans: Maximum
of 4 lbs. (1.8 kg) per cow per day
(due to free oil in the rumen);
Roasted soybeans: Maximum
of 7 lbs. (3.2 kg) per cow per day
(due to total amount of unsatu-
rated fats);
Canola seed must be processed
(limit to 2 to 3 lbs. [0.9-1.4 kg]);
Sunflower seeds can be fed
whole (limit to 2 to 3 lbs. [0.9 - 1.4
kg]).
2. The second increment of fat
can be animal fat such as tallow
or grease (not recycled restaurant
fat blends). These fats are more
saturated (fewer double bonds in
its chemical structure). Animal
fats can be fed at the rate of 1/2
pound (227 g) plus 1 pound (454
g) of vegetable oil, or 1 to 1-1/2
lbs. (454 to 680 g) as the only
added fat source. Animal fats are
typically twice as expensive as
vegetable oils (20 to 30 cents per
pound). Animal fats are difficult
to handle on the farm, requiring
heating to melt the fat for uni-
form mixing.
3. Inert fats are the third type
of fats that are commercially pro-
duced. These products are inac-
tive in the rumen (not affecting
rumen pH or fiber digestion).
Commercial processes include
hydrogenation (making the fatty
acids more saturated), forming a
calcium soap, and encapsulation.
These fat sources are twice as
expensive compared to animal
sources. These products are
added at the rate of 1/2 to 1
pound (227 to 454 g) per day and
are more convenient to handle as
they are dry products.

PENN STATE PARTICLE BOX

Forage particle length is becoming an
increasingly important issue in ruminant
nutrition. Two of three separator boxes of a
Penn State particle box are shown at right –
the fourth, bottom box has no holes and col-
lects the particles that fall through the top
three.

The four boxes are stacked, with the box

with the largest holes on top. Place forage or
TMR in the top box. Shake the separator five
times, and then rotate the unit a quarter
turn. Shake and rotate a total of eight times,
then weigh the material remaining on each of
the two screens and the bottom box. Screen distribution
Percentages of different particle lengths can Wet feed Amt Top 2nd 3rd Bottom
then be figured (wet basis). ------------- % (wet basis)------------
TMR .75 lb. (340 g) > 10% 40-50% < 35% < 20%
It is recommended that at least 10 percent of Hay silage .5 lb. (227 g) > 20% > 40% < 30% < 10%
a TMR remain on the top box. Note the fol- Corn silage1 lb. (454 g)
lowing guidelines. Unprocessed
(3/8” [1 cm] TLC*) < 5% > 50% < 30% < 10%
PHOTO COURTESY OF NASCO
Processed
(3/4” [2 cm] TLC*) > 10% > 60% < 20% < 5%
*TLC – Theoretical Length of Cut

15
 rumen microbial growth. rumen or animal cells builds up
POLYUNSATURATED FATTY 3. Legume-based rations will in the blood. The liver converts
ACIDS (PUFA) AND be generally low in lysine. the blood ammonia to urea,
REPRODUCTION 4. Corn silage and grass-based releasing it back in the blood as
PUFA are long chain polyun- rations can be low in methionine BUN (blood urea nitrogen). The
saturated fatty acids (such and lysine. kidneys remove excess BUN and
as linoleic, linolenic and 20- 5. Generally, selecting feeds excrete it in the urine as a waste
carbon fatty acids) found in high in RUP with the desired product. Another route of excre-
some vegetable and fish oils. amino acids is the first source of tion of BUN is to recycle it
Feeding PUFA to cows before needed amino acids. Commer- through the rumen and in milk.
and after calving can improve cially protected amino acids are Because milk is produced from
reproductive performance by more expensive than feed-based nutrients in the blood, high levels
increasing serum levels of sources (1 to 3 cents per gram of of BUN results in elevated levels
progesterone and inhibiting protected amino acid). of MUN. See the sidebar on page
prostaglandin release. Field When evaluating amino acid 10 for guidelines.
studies reported improved changes in rations, monitor milk
fertility and conception rates yield and milk protein changes. MINERALS
when PUFA were supple- Milk urea nitrogen (MUN) test- Minerals are needed for regula-
mented. ing is commercially available tory and structural functions in
through DHI labs. If excess animals. Two categories of min-
ammonia is produced in the erals must be fed. Macro miner-
PROTEIN rumen and is not captured by als include calcium, chlorine,
Protein is needed for growth, rumen microbes, or if excess pro- magnesium, phosphorous, potas-
fetal development, replacement of tein is fed, the ammonia from the sium, sodium and sulfur. Macro
cells and enzymes (maintenance),
and milk production.
acids are the basic building
Amino ❚ ❙ TABLE 2.1. LYSINE AND METHIONINE REQUIREMENTS
FOR HOLSTEIN COWS.
blocks needed to meet protein Milk yield Lysine Methionine
needs. Review Chapter 1 for the lbs.(kg)/day grams/day % of EAA grams/day % of EAA
fate of protein in the rumen. 60 (27) 104 16.3 33 5.1
Amino acids are provided to the 100 (54) 151 16.3 48 5.1
dairy cow from microbial protein 140 (64) 198 16.3 63 5.1
sources and feed proteins not Source: New Hampshire
degraded in the rumen (by-pass
or rumen undegradable protein,
RUP). The protein requirements ❚ ❙ TABLE 2.2. LYSINE AND METHIONINE AS A PERCENT
and composition of feeds are listed OF ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS (EAA).
in the appendix. Several comput- Item Lysine Methionine
er-based models calculate the (% of total EAA)
amino acids provided by microbial Animal products
and feed sources. Generally, ly- Milk 16.0 5.5
sine and methionine are consid- Lean tissue 16.3 5.1
ered first limiting amino acids Rumen microbes
Bacteria 15.8 5.2
(Tables 2.1 and 2.2).
Protozoa 20.6 4.2
The following guidelines can be Feeds
considered when balancing ra- Alfalfa 11.1 3.8
tions for amino acids. Corn silage 7.5 4.8
1. Microbial protein is the Barley 9.6 4.5
highest quality, balanced to meet Corn, shelled 7.0 5.0
the dairy cow needs, and most Oats 10.0 4.3
economical source of amino Sorghum 5.6 4.3
acids. Maximizing microbial pro- Corn, distillers 6.2 5.2
Cottonseed meal 9.6 3.8
tein yield is a primary goal.
Soybean meal 13.7 3.1
2. Predicting microbial protein Sunflower meal 8.6 5.4
yield is difficult, as feed intake, Blood meal 15.7 2.1
the rumen environment and pH, Fish meal 17.0 6.3
feed form and processing, and Source: New Hampshire
feed sources all will impact

16
minerals are supplemented as
grams per cow per day and
expressed as a percent of the
ration dry matter. Table 2.3 lists
the function, deficiency signs,
and common supplemental
sources of macro minerals.
Sodium, potassium, chlorine
and sulfur are strong ions and
impact the acid-base balance in
cows. Chapter 12 describes man-
aging this acid-base balance (the
dietary cation-anion difference,
or DCAD) in the rations of close-
up dry cows.
Trace or micro minerals in-
clude cobalt, copper, iodine, iron,
manganese, selenium and zinc.
These minerals are added as mil- COMMON MINERAL RATIOS
ligrams per day and expressed as TO AVOID IMBALANCES
parts per million in the ration dry Zinc:copper 4:1
matter. Table 2.4 lists function,
deficiency symptoms and com- Iron: copper 40:1
mon supplemental sources of Potassium: magnesium 4.5:1
micro minerals.
A third group of minerals are Zinc: manganese 1:1
required by dairy cattle, but not Copper: molybdenum 6:1
supplemented at this time.
Chromium, fluorine and molyb- Potassium: sodium 3:1
denum are examples of these Nitrogen: sulfur 10:1
minerals. Additional research
will be needed before routinely

❚ ❙ TABLE 2.3. MACRO MINERALS IN DAIRY RATIONS.

Function Deficiency Mineral Mineral
signs relationships sources
CALCIUM (Ca) Bone & teeth formation, Rickets, slow growth Phosphorus, Limestone,
blood clotting, smooth bone fractures, lower magnesium Ca chloride,
muscle contraction milk yield, milk fever Ca propionate,
hypocalcemia dicalcium & mono-
calcium phosphate

PHOSPHORUS (P) Bone & teeth formation, Rickets, poor growth, Calcium, Dicalcium & mono-
energy metabolism, impaired reproduc- iron, calcium phos-
part of DNA tion, depraved aluminum, phate, bone meal,
appetite magnesium monoammonium
phosphate

SODIUM (Na) Acid-base balance, Abnormal eating Potassium, Salt (NaCl), &
muscle contraction, behavior, urine licking, chloride, Na bicarbonate
nerve transmission, poor appetite, lower sulfates
osmotic pressure, milk production
blood pH

CHLORINE (Cl) Regulate osmotic Loss of appetite, Sodium, Salt (NaCl),

pressure and acid- weakness, craving for potassium potassium Cl,
base balance, manu- salt, blood alkalosis calcium Cl
facture of hydrochloric
acid

POTASSIUM (K) Osmotic pressure, acid- Loss of hair glossiness, Sodium, K bicarbonate,
base balance, nerve decreased feed in- chloride, K chloride,
transmission take magnesium K sulfate,
K-Mg sulfate

MAGNESIUM (Mg) Enzyme activator, bone Muscle hyper-irritability, Calcium, Mg oxide,

and muscle, muscle salivation, convulsions, phosphorus, Mg carbonate,
contraction grass tetany potassium, Mg-K sulfate
nitrogen

SULFUR (S) Sulfur-containing amino Reduced microbial Copper, Ca sulfate,

acids, B-vitamins, cellu- growth, poor appetite molybdenum, ammonium
lose digestion, acid- nitrogen sulfate,
base balance Na sulfate,
K-Mg sulfate

17
supplementing these minerals.
Appendix tables 5, 6 and 7 list
macro mineral levels found in
feeds. Appendix tables 2 and 3
list the mineral requirements for
dairy cattle. Requirements for
calcium and phosphorous are
listed in Appendix table 8.
Minerals can be supplemented
as inorganic (such as sodium
chloride) or organic mineral (zinc
proteinate). Inorganic minerals
are the most common form
because they are less expensive
and more concentrated than
organic minerals. Organic miner-
als are added as a complex (zinc
methionine would be an example)
or chelate (copper proteinate
would be an example). Organic
trace minerals typically cost 10 to
20 times more per milligram of
added trace mineral. Organic
minerals may be fed with the fol-
lowing conditions:
• Close up dry cows;
• Cows that are open (first 120
day after calving);
• Donor and recipient cows
used with embryo transfer;
• Cows stressed by disease,
environment, heat or other
causes.
VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic com-
pounds needed in small
amounts. They do not provide
significant sources of energy, but
function in chemical reactions.
Two classifications of vitamins
are used.
1. Fat soluble vitamins:
Vitamin A, D, E (these are usu-
ally supplemented),and K.

❚ ❙ TABLE 2.4. MICRO MINERALS IN DAIRY RATIONS.

Function Deficiency Mineral Mineral
signs relationships source
COBALT (Co) Synthesis of vitamin B12 Poor appetite, anemia, None Trace mineralized (TM)
by the rumen microbes rough hair coat (vitamin B12) salt, Co carbonate,
Co chloride
organic Co

COPPER (Cu) Enzyme activation, Rough hair coat, Sulfates, TM salt,

blood synthesis, nervous change in hair color molybdenum, Cu carbonate,
system (grey or reddish) iron Cu sulfate,
diarrhea, immune organic Cu
system impairment,
mastitis

IODINE (I) Synthesis of thyroxine Goiter, big neck in None Calcium iodate,
(hormone) calves, reduced meta- EDDI (ethylene
bolic rate, poor repro- diamine dihydro-
ductive performance iodide),TM
salt, K iodide

IRON (Fe) Part of blood hemo- Anemia Copper TM salt,

globin, enzyme systems, ferrous sulfate
immune system function

MANGANESE (Mn) Growth, bone formation, Impaired growth, poor Calcium, zinc, TM salt,
enzyme activation reproduction, skeletal iron, phos- Mn carbonate,
abnormalities phorus Mn sulfate, organic Mn

SELENIUM (Se) Enzyme formation (gluta- Reproductive dis-, Calcium, Sodium selenite,
thione peroxidase), orders,mastitis, sulfur sodium selenate,
protect cell membranes, immune system organic Se
immune function disfunction, white
muscle disease,
retained placenta

ZINC (Zn) Enzyme activation, Parakeratosis of the Iron, copper, TM salt,

repair of damaged skin, elevation in manganese Zn sulfate,
tissue, immune system, somatic cell count, Zn carbonate,
teat keratin formation mastitis, hoof disfunc- organic Zn
tion, stiff joints

18
❚ ❙ TABLE 2.5. FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS FOR DAIRY CATTLE
Function Deficiency Sources
signs
VITAMIN A Normal vision, maintain Night blindness, skin problems, Beta carotene,
epithelial linings, immune mastitis, weak calves, repro- synthetic vitamin A,
system ductive problems vitamin premixes

VITAMIN D Normal bone growth Rickets, osteomalacia, Synthetic vitamin D2

and development, milk fever, hypocalcemia (plant) and D3 (animal
calcium & phosphorus sources), vitamin pre-
metabolism mixes

VITAMIN E Antioxidant, associated White muscle disease, mastitis, Synthetic vitamin E,

with selenium oxidized milk flavor vitamin premixes

VITAMIN K Blood clotting Hemorrhaging, associated Synthetic vitamin K,

with sweet clover disease vitamin premixes

2. Water soluble vitamins: in fat soluble vitamins. WATER

Vitamin B complex (niacin,
biotin, and thiamine may be sup-
plemented) and C (not supple-
mented).
When feeds have been stored
or fermented, fat soluble vitamins
may need to be supplemented.
Fat soluble vitamins are added as
international units (IU). One IU
is equal to one USP unit (United
States Pharmacological). Fresh-
cut forages and pasture are high
Niacin (vitamin B-3) is supple-
mented at 6 grams before calving
and 12 grams after calving to
minimize ketosis.
Thiamine is added if rumen
synthesis is interrupted. Biotin
(20 mg) is added for foot health
and higher milk yield.
Table 2.5 lists fat soluble vita-
min functions and deficiency
symptoms.
Water is a nutrient required in
the largest amount by the animal.
The amount (expressed as gal-
lons/liters per day) depends on
the size, milk production, tem-
perature, feed intake and mineral
intake. Table 2.6 lists the
amount of water needed by dairy
animals at different stages of lac-
tation, gestation and tempera-
ture.
Water quality is critical to

❚ ❙ TABLE 2.6. WATER INTAKE FOR DAIRY CATTLE — gallons(liters)/day

Temperature
Weight Milk (lbs.) 40°F (4°C) 60°F (16°C) 80°F (27°C)
Heifers and below
200 lbs (91 kg) ––– 2.0 gal (8.8 l) 2.5 gal (11.0 l) 3.3 gal (14.5 l)
400 lbs (181 kg) ––– 3.7 gal (16.3 l) 4.6 gal (20.3 l) 6.1 gal (26.9 l)
800 lbs (363 kg) ––– 6.3 gal (27.8 l) 7.9 gal (34.8 l) 10.6 gal (46.7 l)
1200 lbs (544 kg)* ––– 8.7 gal (38.3 l) 10.8 gal (47.6 l) 14.5 gal (63.9 l)

Dry cows*
1400 lbs (635 kg) ––– 9.7 gal (42.7 l) 12.0 gal (52.9 l) 16.2 gal (71.4 l)
1600 lbs (726 kg) ––– 10.4 gal (45.8 l) 12.8 gal (56.4 l) 17.3 gal (76.2 l)

Lactating cows**
1400 lbs (635 kg) 20 lbs (9 kg) 12.0 gal (52.9 l) 14.5 gal (63.9 l) 17.9 gal (78.9 l)
60 lbs (27 kg) 22.0 gal (96.9 l) 26.1 gal (115.0 l) 30.7 gal (135.2 l)
80 lbs (36 kg) 27.0 gal (118.9 l) 31.9 gal (140.5 l) 38.7 gal (170.5 l)
100 lbs (45 kg) 32.0 gal (141.0 l) 37.7 gal (166.1 l) 45.7 gal (201.3 l)
* Maintenance and pregnancy
**Maintenance and milk production

19
❚ ❙ TABLE 2.7. WATER QUALITY GUIDELINES FOR DAIRY CATTLE
Analysis Acceptable range Problems from high levels
pH 6.0-8.0 Reduction in water intake.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 0-1000 ppm Above 3000 ppm temporary diarrhea
Total Soluble Salts (TSS) may occur. High levels cause water
Salinity refusal and persistent diarrhea.

Hardness 0-120 ppm Generally no problems.

Iron 0-3000 ppm Reduced intake due to taste.

Nitrate nitrogen 0-100 ppm Reproductive problems

Nitrite nitrogen 0-10 ppm

Sulfate 0-500 ppm Reduced water intake, diarrhea.

Total bacteria 0-1000/ml General health and disease problems.

Coliform bacteria 0-50/100 ml

SOURCE: Feeding the Dairy Herd, NCR Pub. 235

encourage adequate intake.

Cows need a waterer for every 20
cows, or one foot (0.3 meter) of
tank space per 20 cows. A large
supply of water should be avail-
able as soon as cows leave the
milking parlor and when cows
consume large amounts of dry
matter. Water should not contain
bacteria, and levels of nitrate,
sulfates and salt should be moni-
tored. See Table 2.7.
ESTIMATING WATER INTAKE
University of Illinois researchers developed the following equa-
tion to estimate the gallons of water a dairy cow/herd could con-
sume based on dry matter intake, milk yield, sodium content in
grams per day, and minimum daily temperature in degrees F.
Gallons of water per day = 4.22 (constant) + (lb of DMI x 0.189) +
(lb of milk x 0.108) + (grams of sodium x 0.0132) +
(minimum temperature degree F above 50 x 0.176)

20
 Chapter 3
Optimizing
dry matter
intake

D
ry matter intake is the CALCULATING OPTIMAL DAILY
first limiting factor in DRY MATTER INTAKE – POUNDS
most dairy rations and the Milk cows: (0.018 x body weight) + (lb 4%FCM x 0.305)
“key factor” to increasing energy. Dry cows: 0.018 x body weight
Dairy managers can try to 1.)
Increase dry matter intake, or 2.) An example for an Ayrshire cow weighing 1,400 lbs. producing
Increase energy concentration 80 lbs. of milk with a 4 percent fat test is illustrated below.
per unit of dry matter consumed.
The limitation with increasing Milk cow:(1,400 lbs. x 0.018)+(80 lbs. x 0.305)=(25.2) + (24.4) =
energy content in a ration is that 49.6 lbs. of dry matter intake
cows require a minimum level of
forage (physical fiber), and a min- CALCULATING OPTIMAL DMI – KILOGRAMS
imum level of fiber (chemical Milk cows: (0.018 x body weight) + (kg 4% FCM x 0.305)
fiber) to maintain rumen health Dry cows: 0.018 x body weight
and rumen microbial fermenta- See boxed item on next page for 4% FCM equation
tion. And to avoid acidosis, there
is a maximum amount of grain
yield. The time of this dry matter (Holstein cows) more milk can be
that can be fed. If excessive levels
intake lag depends on transition supported if nutrients are used
of fat and oil are fed, rumen func-
diets (shifting dry cows to high for milk production. If the milk
tion is compromised. The follow-
production cow ration) and meta- response is less than 2 to 2-1/2
ing relationships can assist man-
bolic disorders such as milk fever lbs. (0.9 to 1.1 kg), cows may be
agers in evaluating dry matter
or ketosis. Increasing the level of gaining body weight or growing,
intake in their herd.
fermentable carbohydrate three as with young cows.
1. Dry matter intake is based
weeks before calving can stimu- 4. Feeding high levels of fat
on body weight of the animal and
late the rumen papilla surface (over 5 percent) immediately after
the level of milk production.
area (improves volatile fatty acid calving may reduce dry matter
Table 3.1 lists NRC estimates for
absorption from the rumen), intake. To meet energy needs,
dry matter intake. Milk produc-
increases rumen physical capaci- just-fresh cows mobilize body fat.
tion is more important than body
ty, and minimizes ketosis at calv- This is hormonally controlled,
weight in determining dry matter
ing. Wisconsin workers reported and enters the blood as non-
intake.
that cows with the highest dry esterified fatty acids (NEFA) to be
2. Dry matter intake is lower in
matter intake one week before transported to body cells.
early lactation with first lactation
calving had higher dry matter If the cow also is fed high levels
cows significantly lower than
intake three weeks after calving. of dietary fat, this may elevate
mature cows (Table 3.2). The time
3. For each additional pound blood fat levels over what is
to reach peak dry matter intake
(.45kg) of ration dry matter con- required. The cow’s response in
can take 5 to 10 weeks longer
sumed, 2 lbs. [0.9 kg] (Jersey early lactation is to reduce her
than the time to reach peak milk
cows) to 2-1/2 lbs. [1.1 kg] blood fat levels by eating less

21
rather than to stop mobilizing
body fat. The result is reduced
dry matter intake. Feeding fat
later in lactation won’t depress
intake, as the cow does not mobi-
lize body fat as she does right
after calving.
5. Dairy cows typically con-
sume 0.9 percent of their body
weight as forage neutral deter-
gent fiber (NDF). So lower forage
quality means reduced dry mat-
ter intake.
6. After injecting recombinant
bovine somatotropin (BST), the
cow’s increased dry matter intake
lags behind increases in milk
yield by 3 weeks (first lactation
cows) to 5 weeks (older cows).
This intake lag is similar to dry
matter intake lags in early lacta-
tion. If rations are balanced and
feed bunk management is excel-
lent, BST -injected cows will
increase dry matter intake to
meet nutrient needs and increase
body condition score. (See
Chapter 13.)
7. When total ration moisture
from fermented feeds exceeds 55
percent, dry matter intake can
decline 3 to 5 percent. This
includes silage, high moisture
corn, and fermented by-product
feeds (not pasture).
8. If cows are restricted or
removed from feed for more than
four hours a day, dry matter
intake may be limited – the cows
just can’t consume enough in the
remaining time that feed is avail-
able. Examples are cows kept in
a holding area for 2 hours each
milking, feed bunks empty for
extended periods, or cows seek-
ing shade during hot weather
rather than standing at a feed
bunk with no shade.
Wisconsin researchers indicate
that cows stop eating when one
or more of the following factors
impact the cow:
• Physical fill limits the cow
from eating more dry matter
because the digestive tract is full.
Diets high in fiber, low quality
CALCULATING 4% FAT CORRECTED MILK
Lbs. 4% FCM = (lbs. of milk x 0.4) + (lbs. of fat x 15)
Kg 4% FCM = (kg. of milk x 0.4) + (kg fat x 15)
An example is illustrated for a cow producing 100 lbs. of milk
with a 3% milk fat test.
4% FCM =
(100 x 0.4) + (100 lbs. milk x 0.03 = 3 lbs. fat) x (15)
= (40) + (3 lbs. fat) x (15)
= (40) + (45)
= 85 lbs. of 4% FCM
See also Appendix table 4, p .82
Lbs. 3.5% FCM = (0.4324 x lbs. milk) + (lbs. fat x 16.216 )
Lbs. of ECM (energy correct milk) = (lbs. of milk x 0.323) +
(lbs. of milk fat x 12.82) + lbs. of true protein x 7.13)
forages, or slow rates of feed pas- ammonia could be examples of
sage would be examples of fill fac- chemical messengers.
tor limitations. • Non-nutritional factors also
• A chemical signal, such as limit dry matter intake. Examples
high levels of blood metabolites, include sore feet restricting cow
“tells” the cow to stop eating. movement, heat stress, empty
This satiety center is located in feed bunk and moldy feeds.
the brain. High levels of blood Use the following points to
fat, change in blood pH, high lev- optimize dry matter intake:
els of volatile fatty acids, or blood 1. Forage quality should
FEED EFFICIENCY (FE)
Dairy managers can evaluate the efficiency of converting dry matter
to milk. Feed efficiency (FE) is the pounds of 3.5% fat corrected milk
divided by the pounds of dry matter consumed. For large breed
cows, FE values under 1.3 are considered poor, 1.3 to 1.5 desirable,
and over 1.5 excellent. For example, a herd averaging 75 lbs. (34 kg)
of 3.5% fat corrected milk consuming 50 lbs. (23 kg) of dry matter
would have a FE of 1.5. Some factors that can impact feed efficiency
are listed below.
• Herds with fresh cows or fewer days in milk will have a higher FE.
• Herds with more young cows may lower FE as young cows divert
nutrients to growth.
• High milk production group can have a higher FE than lower milk
production groups.
• Cows losing body weight favor higher FE (nutrients do not have to
be consumed). Cows gaining weight will lower FE as nutrients are
stored as body weight instead of used for milk production.
• Hot or cold weather and cows walking to pasture will have lower FE
as more nutrients are diverted to maintenance.
• Rumen acidosis will lower FE as feeds are lower in digestibility.
• High quality forage increases FE.
22
exceed 0.60 mcal of NEl/pound of
D.M. (1.32 mcal NEl/kg).
❚ ❙ TABLE 3.1. ESTIMATED DRY MATTER INTAKE.
2. Ration ADF should range Milk yield Body weight Lbs.- Kg. DM/cow/day
from 19 to 21 percent. lbs./kg. 880 lbs. 400 kg 1100 lbs. 500 kg 1320 lbs. 600 kg 1540 lbs. 700 kg
(4% FCM)
3. Ration NDF should range
44/20 32 14.6 35 15.9 38 17.3 40 18.2
from 28 to 33 percent. 66/30 39 17.7 43 19.6 46 20.9 49 22.3
4. Adjust forage NDF intake to 88/40 48 21.8 51 23.2 53 24.1 55 25.0
0.9 percent of the cow’s body 110/50 NA NA 59 26.8 62 28.2 63 28.6
weight. 132/60 NA NA NA NA 71 32.3 74 33.6
5. Non-fiber carbohydrate
should range from 33 to 38 per-
cent of total dry matter.
❚ ❙ TABLE 3.2. ESTIMATED DM INTAKE AFTER CALVING FOR 1200 LB.
(546_KG) HEIFERS AND 1400 LB. (636 KG) MATURE COWS.
6. Prevent cows from separat- Week First calf heifers Mature cows
ing and selecting out preferred ------ Lbs.(kg) D.M./cow/day--------
feed ingredients. 1 31 (14.1) 36 (16.4)
7. Consider feeding TMR with a 2 35 (15.9) 42 (19.1)
2 to 4 percent weigh back of 3 38 (17.3) 46 (20.9)
uneaten feed. 4 40 (18.2) 49 (22.3)
8. Total ration dry matter 5 41 (18.6) 52 (23.6)
should range from 40 to 55 per-
cent. PREDICTING FORAGE DM INTAKE
9. Limit fat and oil to 4.5 per- If hay contains 40 or 60 percent NDF, the following forage
cent in the ration for fresh cows. intakes would be predicted.
10. Limit fat and oil to 6 per-
cent in the ration for high pro- Forage intake of 1,000-lb. (454 kg) Jersey cow X 0.009 (0.9%) =
ducing cows. 9 lbs. (4.1 kg) of forage dry matter intake
11. Dry cows should not have
body condition scores above 4. Good hay: 9 lbs. (4.1 kg)/.40 (40%) = 22.5 lbs. (10.2 kg) forage DM
12. Keep feed in front of cows
for 20 or more hours a day. Poor hay: 9 lbs. (4.1 kg)/.60 (60%) = 15.0 lbs. (6.8 kg) forage DM
13. Feed a transition ration 21
days before calving and a fresh
cow ration 7 to 21 days after calv-
ing. THE THIRTEEN POUND RULE
14. Increase feeding frequency
if feeding more often results in For large breed cows, the 13 pound (6 kg) rule represents the
dry matter intake increasing by pounds of dry matter needed daily to meet nutrient needs for
two or more pounds (> 0.9 kg) per maintenance. For example, a herd consumes 53 lbs (24 kg) of
cow per day. dry matter a day minus 13 lbs (6 kg) for maintenance equals 40
lbs (18 kg) of ration dry matter remaining for productive func-
tions (such as milk yield, growth, weight gain, and/or reproduc-
tion). If the herd converts the remaining 40 lbs (18 kg) of dry
matter to milk (2 lb [0.9 kg] of milk per pound [.45 kg] of dry
matter), the herd could support 80 lbs (36 kg) of 4% fat corrected
milk. Most herds can not achieve this target value as young and
late lactation cows will reduce nutrients available for milk yield
(target 5 to 7 lb [2.3 to 3.2 kg] less milk below the calculated
value). For Guernsey and Jersey herds, use the 10 pound (4.45
kg) rule instead of 13 pound (6 kg) rule.

23
 Chapter 4
The gestation-
lactation cycle

I
n terms of nutrient require- Table 4.1 lists production the ratio is 75 percent (60 lbs./80
ments, stage of gestation and guidelines for Jersey and lbs. times 100). If the ratio is less
lactation will impact the feed- Holstein cows at various times than 75 percent, first lactation
ing program. Figure 4.1 illus- and phases in the lactation curve cows are not peaking relatively
trates four key factors that (no BST used). Peak milk should high enough compared to older
change as the cow moves through occur 40 to 60 days after calving. cows. If first lactation cows peak
the six phases of the gestation- First lactation cows should over 75 percent of older cows,
lactation cycle. These four fac- reach peak milk levels 75 percent heifers are peaking higher rela-
tors are discussed below. or greater than that of the peak tive to older cow peak milk (good
Factor 1. Milk production milk of older cows in the herd. news) due to genetics, health,
curve. Milk production drives For example, if first lactation and/or heifer rearing programs,
nutrient needs for dairy cows. cows average 60 lbs. (27 kg) of or older cows are not peaking
Peak milk sets the lactation curve peak milk while older cows aver- high enough (bad news).
for cows. age 80 lbs. (36 kg) of peak milk, Factor 2. Milk fat and pro-
tein curve. Milk fat and protein
❚ ❙ TABLE 4.1. MILK PRODUCTION PROFILES FOR HOLSTEINS AND JERSEYS. levels will vary by breed (Table
4.2). If milk fat test is below milk
PHASE
protein test by 0.2 points (for
Milk yield Lactation Peak milk 3 4 5 6
lbs. (kg) (No.) lbs. (kg) <50 days 50-100 101-200 201-300 example 2.7 percent milk fat and
HOLSTEIN ------------- lbs. (kg) milk/day ----------- 3.0 percent milk protein), rumen
27,000 (12,258) 1 85 (39) 72 (33) 83 (38) 80 (36) 72 (33) acidosis could be occurring.
2 111 (50) 99 (45) 105 (48) 92 (42) 73 (33)
3+ 120 (55) 101 (46) 110 (50) 98 (45) 77 (35)
23,000 (10,455) 1 75 (34) 64 (29) 72 (33) 69 (31) 61 (28)
2 97 (44) 86 (39) 90 (41) 79 (36) 62 (28)
3+ 104 (47) 89 (40.5) 95 (43) 85 (39) 65 (29.5) MILK YIELD
19,000 (8,626) 1 64 (29) 56 (25) 61 (28) 57 (26) 49 (22) POTENTIAL
2 82 (37) 73 (33) 76 (34.5) 66 (30) 51 (23) To estimate total lactation
3+ 88 (40) 76 (34.5) 80 (36) 70 (32) 53 (24) yield potential, multiply
JERSEY
peak milk by 200 (called the
19,000 (8,626) 1 61 (28) 54 (24.5) 59 (27) 55 (25) 48 (22)
2 77 (35) 68 (31) 72 (33) 65 (30) 51 (23)
200 rule).
3+ 81 (37) 70 (32) 74 (34) 68 (31) 52 (23.5)
16,500 (7,500) 1 53 (24) 52 (23.5) 54 (24.5) 48 (22) 45 (20.5) For example, a Brown Swiss
2 67 (30) 65 (29.5) 59 (27) 55 (25) 45 (20.5) cow peaks at 95 lbs. (43 kg)
3+ 72 (33) 72 (33) 68 (31) 59 (27) 45(20.5) of milk times 200 results in
14,800 (6,727) 1 50 (23) 44 (20) 48 (22) 44 (20) 39 (18) a estimated milk production
2 62 (28) 57 (26) 57 (26) 52 (24) 43 (19.5) of 19,000 lbs. (8,634 kg).
3+ 65 (29.5) 58 (26) 60 (27) 54 (24.5) 43 (19.5)

24
❚ ❙ FIGURE 4.1. LACTATION AND GESTATION CYCLE PHASES WITH CHANGES IN MILK PRODUCTION, MILK FAT
PERCENT, MILK PROTEIN PERCENT, DMI INTAKE AND BODY CONDITION SCORES FOR HOLSTEINS (21,000 LBS. MILK)

Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Phase 6 Phase 1 Phase 2

100 104

90 95
89
Milk (lbs./day)

80 85

70 75

60 65

50 55
50
40

5.0%
5.0%

4.6% Fat
Percentages

Protein
4.2% 4.0%
3.86%
3.8% 3.6% 3.6%
3.5%
3.4% 3.1% 3.2%
2.9% 3.0%
3.0%

56 54
52 51 51
52 49
DMI intake, lbs./day

48 46
44 42 42
40
36
36
32 28 28
28 24
24 24
20
Body condition score

4.0
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
3.5 3.2
3.0
2.5
2.5

2.0
0 3 4 10 16 20 32 44 48 52
Weeks of lactation

25
 If milk protein test is below
breed average, or if it shifts dur-
ing various phases, consider the
following reasons for low milk
protein production:
• Low levels of fermentable car-
bohydrate lowers microbial pro-
tein synthesis and amino acids
for milk protein synthesis;
• Low levels of dry matter
intake reduce the supply of nutri-
ents available for the rumen
microbes and cow;
• Protein shortage and/or
imbalance of amino acids;
• Use of fats and oils as energy
sources – fat is not a source of
rumen fermentable energy.
Factor 3. Dry matter intake
curve. Increasing the cow’s dry
matter intake after calving can
avoid metabolic disorders, mini-
mize weight loss, and improve
reproductive performance. Chap-
ter 3 contains guidelines for man-
aging dry matter intake.
Factor 4. Body weight loss
and gain curve. Monitoring
weight changes in dairy cows pro-
vides valuable information on
energy status of cows. High-pro-
ducing cows will lose weight to
provide the high energy levels
needed in early lactation. Body
condition scoring is a field
method to monitor weight
changes. The following guide-
lines can be used to access
weight status:
• One body condition score
(using the 1 to 5 system) is equal
to 120 lbs. (54.4 kg) of body
weight;
• Cows should not lose more
than 1 to 1.5 body condition
score points (120 to 200 lbs.
[54.6 to 90.9 kg] of weight);
• The maximum weight loss is
2 lbs. (.90 kg) per day to avoid
negative effects on reproduction
and metabolic disorders;
• Cows should be at the opti-
mum body condition score prior
to drying off (3.25 to 3.75). If dry
cows are too thin, limit weight
gain to one-half body condition
score – for example, shifting dry
cows from 2.75 to 3.25, which is
60 lbs. (27.3 kg) in 60 dry days, mammary gland involutes (dries
or one pound (.45 kg) per day. up and appears as a collapsed
By evaluating these four fac- structure), the calf is increasing
tors during the lactation and ges- in size and developing, and body
tation cycles in dairy cows, six weight gain can be occurring. To
different feeding phases or avoid metabolic disorders, limit
rations can be developed. On weight gain to one pound (.45 kg)
some farms, top dressing differ- per day or one half of a body con-
ent grain mixtures can achieve dition score increase (say, from
the six phase approach. On other 3.0 to 3.5).
farms, several groups of cows Dry matter intake will vary
may be needed to meet their from 1.8 to 2.5 percent of the
nutrient needs. cow’s body weight. The amount
of grain will vary from 2 to 7 lbs.
PHASE ONE (0.9 to 3.2 kg) per day. At the 2-
Phase one begins at drying off pound (0.9 kg) level, the grain
time to 21 days before calving. serves as a carrier of minerals
This period is also referred to as and vitamins. Do not depend on
the traditional dry cow period. free choice consumption to meet
These cows must be in a separate the mineral and vitamin needs for
group (not with the lactating the dry cow and developing calf.
herd). A balanced dry cow feed- Higher levels of grain are needed
ing program can increase milk if cows are thin; if cows are young
production by 500 to 1500 lbs. and still growing; if there is envi-
(227 to 682 kg) more milk in the ronmental stress (cold weather);
subsequent lactation. Thus, and/or if low quality forage is fed.
phase one or the dry period actu- Feeding 15 to 25 lbs. (6.8 to 11.3
ally begins the next lactation. kg) of corn silage (as-fed basis), or
During this phase, the cow’s 5 to 8 lbs. (2.3 to 3.6 kg) dry mat-
DRENCHING FRESH COWS
Two types of drench approaches are available:
1. Small volume treatments with a caulking gun-type unit
administering 50 grams to 500 milliliters (calcium chloride gel
or propylene glycol are examples)
2. Large volumes with a power drench unit administering 5 to
15 gallons (22 to 66 liters) of water containing nutrients and
fluids.
Commercial products can be purchased varying in price from
$2 to $8 per treatment. An example drench mixture is illus-
trated below that can be drenched immediately after calving in a
volume of 5 to 15 gallons (22 to 66 liters) of warm water.
• 1 pound (454 g) of calcium propionate
• 300 milliliters of propylene glycol
• 0.25 pound (113 g) of yeast culture or yeast
• 0.25 pound (113 g) of potassium chloride
• 0.25 pound (113 g) of magnesium sulfate
• 0.10 pound (45.4 g) of salt
Dairy managers may add rumen fluid (if the cow is off-feed),
probiotics, and/or alfalfa leaf meal. A second drench in a
smaller volume of liquid is recommended if cows have not
responded to the initial drench or treatment. Other managers
will offer two 5-gallon pails of warm water immediately after
calving to rehydrate the cow and add nutrients.
26
ter basis, can provide additional
energy from forage, lowers calci-
um and potassium levels, and
improves ration palatability.
Appendix tables 2, 3 list the rec-
ommended level of nutrients for
phase one dry cows. Suggested
strategies for the far-off dry cow
(phase 1) ration are listed below:
• 12 to 13 percent crude pro-
tein;
• 60-80 grams of calcium (15
percent lower for Jersey
cows);
• 30 to 40 grams of phospho-
rous (15 percent lower for
Jersey cows);
• Limit salt to 1 oz. (28 g);
• Force feed trace minerals and
vitamins;
• Provide one-third of the
ration dry matter as corn
silage.
PHASE TWO
Phase two refers to the close-up
dry cow period, 21 days prior to
calving. It is critical in this phase
to prepare for lactation by adjust-
ing the rumen environment and
also to prevent metabolic disor-
ders. Increasing the level of grain
Conducting a ketone test can head off ketosis as well as help diag-
nose a left displaced abomasum: recent studies show cows with sub-
clinical ketosis are at major risk. Milk ketone tests may be in the form
of a powder or a test strip.
shifts rumen microbes to the type
that can ferment high energy diets
and stimulates rumen papillae to
elongate and increase papillae
surface area. During this period,
dry matter intake begins to drop.
At calving, dry matter intake may
be 15 to 30 percent below phase
one dry matter intakes. The
unborn calf is rapidly growing
requiring more nutrients. Body
weight loss can be starting and
ketosis risk increases due to fat
mobilization. Fatty liver develop-
ment and higher levels of non-
esterified fatty acid (NEFA) can be
occurring. Appendix tables 2, 3
provide nutrient guidelines for
phase two. Suggested strategies
during the close up dry period
(phase two) are:
• Increase grain to 5 to 8 lbs.
(2.3 to 3.6 kg) of dry matter;
• Increase crude protein to15
to 16 percent using sources of
rumen undegradable protein
(RUP);
• Limit added fat to 1/3 to 1/2
pound (151 to 227 g) per day;
• Feed 6 lbs. (2.7 kg) of hay or
2 lbs. (0.9 kg) wheat straw
daily;
27
• Consider feeding 7 to 10 lbs.
(3.2 to 4.5 kg) dry matter
basis from the high group
TMR (has RUP, fat, grain, and
higher quality forages);
• Remove supplemental salt;
• Remove any buffers;
• Add anionic salts to prevent
low blood calcium;
• Add yeast culture (10 to 120
grams per day, depending on
the product selected);
• Add niacin (6 grams per day);
• Drench with propylene glycol
(1/2 pound [227 g]) five days
before calving or feed calcium
propionate (1/3 pound [151 g]).
PHASE THREE
Phase three is the fresh cow
phase from calving until 2 to 3
weeks after calving. The key
management factor is the ability
to monitor and observe these
cows to insure they are healthy
when they are moved to the high
production group or are chal-
lenged with higher nutrient-rich
diets. Individual cow manage-
ment occurs in this phase,
requiring lock-ups or stalls. The
following evaluations should be
made each day to assess the
cow’s status.
• Monitor feed intake – watch
how aggressively the cow con-
sumes or “attacks” fresh feed.
Record the amount or develop
a scoring system (1 = little, to
5 = all consumed).
• Take daily body temperatures
until temperatures drop
under 102.5° F (39.2° C).
• Listen for rumen movements
with a stethoscope (cows
should have 1 to 2 rumen
movements per minute).
• Observe uterine discharges
for abnormal odors or charac-
teristics.
• Conduct a ketone test on the
cow’s urine or milk to assess
energy status.
The fresh cow ration should be
intermediate between the close-
up ration and the high group.
Wisconsin workers suggest a
shift in a ration should not
change by more than 10 percent
(for example, changing from 0.70
NE-lact by 10 percent would be
.07 unit shift in the next ration or
a .77 Mcal NEl). Maintain a
“healthy” level of fiber and avoid
high starch levels leading to off-
feed risks. Appendix tables 2, 3
list recommended nutrient levels
for this phase. The following
strategies can be considered for
fresh cows (phase 3):
• Feed 5 lbs. (2.3 kg) of long
hay to maintain rumen fill and
function;
• Consider a fresh cow top-
dress mixture containing
rumen undegraded protein
(RUP) and digestible fiber
(such as soy hulls or citrus
pulp) as an energy source;
• Increase the ration nutrient
concentration to allow for the
lower feed intake;
• Limit added fat;
• Supplement yeast culture to
stimulate fiber digesting bacte-
ria;
• Adding a buffer pack can sta-
bilize rumen pH;
• Provide 12 grams of niacin to
minimize ketosis;
• Drench propylene glycol (1/2
lb. [227 g]) or feed calcium
pro-pionate (1/3 lb. [151 g]) to
raise blood glucose.
PHASE FOUR
Early lactation rations are pro-
vided to cows from 14 to 70 days
after calving. Cows are achieving
peak milk production, weight loss
is occurring (providing an addi-
tional source of energy), and dry
❚ ❙ TABLE 4.2. PROTEIN/FAT RATIOS FOR VARIOUS DAIRY BREEDS.
Breed Milk fat Protein
% % % protein/% fat %fat/%protein
Ayrshire 3.8 3.1
Brown Swiss 4.0 3.3
Guernsey 4.5 3.3
Holstein 3.7 3.0
Jersey 4.6 3.6
M. Shorthorn 3.6 3.1
Source: 2006 official DHI herd averages
matter intake is lagging. Protein
type and level are critical to reach
peak milk production. Limit the
amount of supplemental fat to
avoid lower total ration dry mat-
ter intake. Appendix tables 2, 3
list nutrient guidelines. Feeding
strategies for early lactation cows
(phase 4) are listed below:
• Feed high quality forage to
improve dry matter intake;
• Provide sources of rumen
undegradable protein (RUP)
with balanced amounts of
lysine and methionine;
• Increase grain energy gradu-
ally (maximum of one pound
per day);
• Allow for adequate feed bunk
space.
PHASE FIVE
Cows will have achieved peak
milk production in phase five.
Peak dry matter intake has also
occurred with no weight losses
occurring. If milk production
and/or components are declining
too quickly, nutrient needs are
not being met. The time period
can range from 70 days after to
calving to 200 days or until the
cow dries off. If BST is used, it
will be initiated in this period
(stimulating milk production and
increasing nutrient needs and
dry matter intake). The key to
success in this phase is optimiz-
ing dry matter intake. Appendix
tables 2 and 3 list nutrient guide-
lines for this phase. Feeding
strategies for mid-lactation milk
cows (phase 5) are listed below:
• Optimize dry matter intake;
Ratio
.82 1.23
.82 1.21
.73 1.36
.81 1.23
.78 1.28
.86 1.16
28
• Begin replacing lost body
condition;
• Review the need for feed addi-
tives.
PHASE SIX
Some herds will not reach
phase 6, or tail-end lactating
cows. These cows are pregnant,
gaining weight, and milk produc-
tion is declining. This phase may
begin at 200 to 250 days after
calving and ends when the cow
dries off. Cow should be gaining
body weight (1 to 1.5 lbs. [.45 to
.68 kg] per day) and young cows
should be growing if they have
not yet reached their mature size.
Appendix tables 2, 3 provide
guidelines for phase six. Feeding
strategies for tail-end cows
(phase 6) are listed below:
• Increase the proportion of
forages in the ration;
• Supplemental sources of
rumen undegraded protein can
be reduced;
• Remove supplemental fat
sources;
• Eliminate feed additives;
• Replace lost body condition;
• Target body condition scores
of 3.25 to 3.75 at dry-off time;
• Reduce feed costs per cow per
day.
In summary, if the dairy man-
ager understands the four factors
that impact nutrient needs (milk
yield, milk components, dry mat-
ter intake, and weight loss), sev-
eral feeding phases can be devel-
oped. All dairy farms may not
need six phases, but they must
manage for these changes and do
it economically – milk yield must
be weighed against feed cost.
Remember, phase one starts with
dry cows, not lactating cows. If a
dairy manager can “control” tran-
sition feeding programs (dry cow
phases through fresh cow phase),
few metabolic problems will occur
and milk production can be opti-
mal.
 Body condition scoring
Body condition score (BCS) 1. Individual vertebrae
are distinct along the topline; ends of short ribs are
prominent and give a shelf-like appearance. Hips and
pin bones are sharp; severe depressions show between
hips and pins, and between hooks. A deep “V”-shaped
cavity is below the tailhead and between the pin bones.
BCS 2. Short ribs can be seen, and the “shelf” is still
visible. While hips and pins still are prominent, individ-
ual vertebrae along the topline are not distinct to the
eye. The depression around the tailhead and pin bones
is more “U”-shaped.
BCS 3.The short ribs appear smooth with no shelf
effect. The backbone is a rounded ridge; individual ver-
tebrae are not visible. Hip and pin bones are rounded
and smooth; the area between pin bones and tailhead
has smoothed out.

BCS 4. Short ribs are smooth and rounded; no shelf effect. The chine
photos courtesy of
region is rounded and smooth; loin and rump appear flat. Hips are
rounded and flat in-between. There is a rounded appearance over the
tailhead and pin bone area, with evidence of fat deposit.
BCS 5. The backbone is covered with a thick layer of fat, as are the
short ribs. Hips and pins are not apparent, and the areas between them
are rounded; the tailhead is surrounded by fat.

29
 Chapter 5
Feeds for
dairy cattle

F
eeds are generally classi- FORAGES baled hay should be less than 22
fied as forages, concen- The vegetative part of the percent moisture to avoid mold-
trates or supplements. growing plant, forages are more ing and heating. Large round
Let’s look at these classifica- fibrous and bulky. These feeds bales need to be less than 20
tions. are lower in energy and stimu- percent moisture because of less
1. Forages (also called late rumen digestion and fer- surface area and more forage
roughage): Feeds over 20 per- mentation. Forages can be har- weight per bale: they are more
cent ADF (18 percent crude fiber) vested, stored and fed in prone to heat and mold during
and less than .70 megacalories different forms. the curing process. If hay is too
NE-lactation (M-cal NE-l) per Hay is forage that has been wet, adding propionic acid or
pound of dry matter (1.54 Mcal allowed to dry down to be stored salts of propionic acids can mini-
per kg). as a dry feed. Conventional mize molding. Table 5.1 lists
2. Grains: Feeds under 20 per-
cent ADF and over .70 Mcal NE-l ❚ ❙ TABLE 5.1. DRY MATTER LOSSES IN FORAGE HARVEST AND STORAGE.
per pound (1.54 Mcal per kg) of Dry matter losses
dry matter. Harvest Storage Total
3. Protein supplements: Method % % %
Feeds over 25 percent crude Hay
protein. Conventional bale,
4. Mineral supplements: field cured
Rained on 33 4 37
Feeds over 75 percent ash or
Average 25 4 29
mineral. No rain 17 4 21
5. Fat supplements: Feeds Large packages
over 20 percent fat/oil. Field cured 25 14 39
Using these guidelines, some Acid treated 15 11 26
feeds can fit in several groups. Conventional bale
By-product feeds are feed- Heat dried 13 2 15
stuffs from which some nutri- Hay-crop silage
ents are removed (such as sugar, Moisture %
70 or more 2 21 23
starch or oil) for human use and
60-69 5 10 15
which have nutrients remaining under 60 12 8 20
for dairy cattle. Corn silage
Additives include feedstuffs Moisture %
added to a ration for a non-nutri- 70 or more 4 13 17
ent reason, such as rumen 60-69 5 6 11
buffer, ketosis control or rumen under 60 16 6 23
digestion improvement.
Source: Pennsylvania Extension Special Circular 223.

30
losses associated with forage
harvest and feeding.
Hay silage is forage that is
wilted to higher moisture levels
than dry hay and allowed to fer-
ment in storage. Fermentation
produces organic acids (primari-
ly lactic acid) which drops the pH
below 4.5 and “pickles” or pre-
serves the forage. The level of dry
matter in silage depends on the
type of silage and storage
method:
• Conventional upright silos,
oxygen limiting: 50 to 60 per-
cent dry matter (DM);
• Conventional upright silo,
concrete: 40-50 percent DM;
• Bags, bunkers, and piles:
30-40 percent DM.
Corn silage is typically ensiled
at 30 to 36 percent dry matter
while legume grass forages are
drier (40 to 60 percent dry mat-
ter). Typical losses are listed in
Table 5.1.
Green chop is directly harvest-
ed as standing forage and fed
fresh to animals. No wilting
occurs, which avoids harvest
and weather damage losses.
However, forage quality is chang-
ing daily, and weather can limit
when harvesting can occur.
Direct cut forages can contain
over 80 percent moisture.
Pasture allows animals to
harvest forage directly, eliminat-
ing harvesting time and expens-
es and manure handling.
Trampling can be a problem,
resulting in losses of 30 to 60
percent of the available dry mat-
ter. Forage quality changes daily
and must be managed. Several
pasture systems can be used.
• Rotation grazing: Two to
four paddocks are rotated every
week to 10 days. Forage quality,
plant selection and trampling are
difficult to control while labor is
minimal.
• Strip grazing: An electric
wire is moved every day or 12
hours, allowing the desired
amount of pasture to be con-
sumed. Feed control is excel-
lent, but this method requires
more labor and management. Small grain forages (such as
• Intensified grazing: Nu- oats, barley, wheat, rye and triti-
merous paddocks (10-30) are cale) are annual crops which can
rotated to maintain pasture provide an early source of forage.
quality and avoid trampling. A Winter small grain forages allow
paddock is pastured for 12 double cropping, a source of pas-
hours to 2 days, with milking ture, and soil cover during the
cows consuming the new forage winter. Spring small grain for-
and dry cows and/or heifers fol- ages can be used as a cover or
lowing to finish harvesting the nurse crop to establish legume-
paddock. In spring, several pad- grass forage. For dairy cows,
docks are harvested to develop a small grain forage should be har-
staggered growth pattern and vested in the boot stage for high-
provide stored winter feed. er protein and energy content. If
Pastures are initially grazed at 8 harvested in the milk to dough
to 10 inches (20 to 25 cm) of
length down to 2 inches (5 cm).
The remaining 2 inches (5 cm) of
KERNEL PROCESSING
pasture allows plants to regrow
Plant processing of corn
while maintaining forage quality.
silage, also called kernel
The following forages can be
processing, is a new tech-
fed to dairy cattle. Nutrient com-
nology. New corn silage
position is listed in Appendix
choppers have two added
table 5.
rollers with 1- to 2-mm,
Legumes such as alfalfa,
adjustable openings that
clover, soybeans and birdsfoot
run at different speeds,
trefoil, are excellent sources of
rolling corn silage after it is
crude protein, calcium and min-
chopped and before it’s
erals. Because of a tap root sys-
blown into the wagon or
tem, legumes can tolerate dry
truck. Particularly for late
conditions. Winter kill can be a
chopped corn silage, this
problem if freezing and thawing
process breaks the kernel,
occurs in northern regions.
which lowers whole seed
Grasses, such as bermuda,
passage and loss in the
timothy, brome, orchard and
manure. It also reduces the
warm season grasses, are low in
cob to pea size, making it
calcium, protein, energy and
more difficult for the cows
lignin. The root system is shal-
to sort out. And by shred-
low and may become dormant
ding the corn stalk, this
during hot, dry weather. Winter
process increases fiber
kill is less of a problem than with
digestibility.
legumes, and grasses can sur-
vive grazing conditions more
Milk production increases
effectively compared to legumes.
vary from 1 to 3 lbs. (.45 to
Corn silage contains 40 to 55
1.4 kg) more milk per cow
percent grain on a dry matter
per day. This technology
basis. The forage is high in ener-
allows longer chop length
gy, palatability and in dry matter
(3/4-inch [2 cm] TLC), result-
yield (6 to 10 tons per acre [0.4
ing in more functional fiber.
hectare]). Crude protein, calci-
The added economic bene-
um, and other minerals are low
fits are $3 to $4 per ton,
compared to legumes.
while custom operators typ-
Sorghum can be used for
ically charge an extra $1 per
silage in areas where dry weath-
ton for processing, due to
er can limit corn silage yield.
the cost of added rollers
Sorghum silage is lower in quali-
and power required.
ty and dry matter intake poten-
tial compared to corn silage.
31
stage, dry matter yield can dou-
ble, but protein and energy levels
drop dramatically. Peas and
bean seed can be planted with
small grains to increase protein
content and quality. Small grain
forages are difficult to be make
into hay because of high mois-
ture content when harvested in
the boot stage.
Straw (oats, barley, wheat and
corn stover) is low in protein and
energy content. Mineral levels
are also low, requiring higher
mineral supplementation. The
amount of straw should be limit-
ed because of its low quality and
slow rate of passage. Straw can
provide functional fiber, howev-
er, and cows may crave it if
rumen acidosis is occurring.
GRAINS
The seed portion of a plant is
considered grain. Grains con-
tribute energy to the ration along
with variable amounts of oil, pro-
tein and minerals. Grain should
be processed to break the seed
coat. If grain particle size is too
coarse, digestion is reduced and
undigested grain appears in the
manure. If feed is processed too
finely, rumen acidosis and
laminitis can occur. The optimal
particle size of grain will depend
on whether a total mixed ration
is fed, forage particle size and
the level of grain fed.
The following grains can be fed
to dairy cattle depending on soil
type, climate and growing condi-
tions. Feed values are listed in
Appendix table 6.
Barley is a good source of
energy and protein. It can make
up to 100 percent of the grain
mixture, but it must not be
ground too finely. Barley starch
is rapidly degraded in the rumen
due to its starch structure.
Adding 25 to 50 percent to the
grain mixture is recommended if
it is economical.
Ear corn, or corn and cob
meal consists of the cob (20 per-
cent) and grain portions (80 per-
cent). It is relatively high in
GRAIN PROCESSING
Mechanical changes
• Dehulling removes outside seed coat
• Extruding forces seed through a small die, generating
heat
• Grinding reduces grain particle size with a hammer
mill
• Dry rolling cracks or crushes the seed to flat particles
• Crimping or steam rolling involves steam treatment
following rolling
Heat treatment
• Micronizing is dry heating by microwaves from
infrared burners
• Popping is exploding or puffing grain due to rapid
heating
• Roasting heats and tempers grain to improve nutrient
availability
• Exploding swells grain by putting it under pressure,
then releasing it to the air
• Flaking improves nutrient availability by starch gela-
tinization through modified steam rolling
• Pelleting forces finely ground feed through a die to
shape for easier handling
• Crumbling further processes the pellets through
crushing
Moisture treatment
• Drying removes moisture for proper storage and to
avoid heating
• High-moisture grain is harvested early as immature
seed
• Reconstituted grain is dry grain with moisture added
followed by storage to improve digestion
• Soaking involves adding water several hours before
feeding to soften feed or lower the dust level
energy, palatable, and contains • Two to three weeks earlier
fiber, helping to reduce acidosis. harvest;
The cob should be processed to • Less field loss;
pea size to avoid sorting by the • Fits automated feeding sys-
cow. A common ratio is 50 per- tems;
cent ear corn and 50 percent • No drying costs;
shelled corn in the midwest. • Increased palatability;
Adjusting combines to save half • Higher energy content on a
of the cob allows more rapid har- dry matter basis.
vest compared to corn pickers. If wet corn is stored in conven-
Shelled corn is the most com- tional silos, bags or bunkers, the
mon grain in the North American corn should be processed going
continent because of its high into storage to improve fermen-
yield, energy content and tation and lower air entrapment.
because it is an economical Propionic acid can be used to
source of energy. It must be “pickle” wet corn to prevent
processed to avoid whole seed molding and maintain quality.
passage through the digestive Oats is 15 percent lower in
tract. Corn (shelled or ear) har- energy compared to shelled corn.
vested as high moisture corn (25 Its popularity has declined due
to 35 percent moisture) has sev- to lower yield (compared to corn
eral advantages: or barley) and higher cost per
32
pound. Oats adds bulk and fiber
to the grain mix. Limit the
amount to 25 to 33 percent of
the grain mix.
Sorghum grain or milo can be
used to replace corn. The energy
content is 90 percent of corn and
the grain must be processed.
The small round seed will pass
through the cow’s digestive tract
if the seed coat is not broken.
Wheat is not commonly used
in dairy rations because the cost
is higher than corn, barley or
oats. Limit the amount to less
50 percent in the grain mixture
because wheat is rapidly fer-
mented. Wheat must be
processed prior to feeding to
avoid whole seed passage.
Rye is another small grain
crop that is similar to oats. It is
less palatable and should be lim-
ited to 25 percent of the grain
mixture.
BY-PRODUCT FEEDS
By-product or co-product
feeds are produced when a por-
tion of the feed is removed for
human consumption or use
(such as ethanol production).
By-product feeds may be higher
in protein, fat, and/or mineral
compared to the original grain.
Nutrient composition of by-prod-
uct feeds is listed in Appendix
table 6.
Beet pulp is produced when
sugar is removed from sugar
beets. Beet pulp can be fed as
wet or dry forms, and with or
without added beet molasses.
The dry form can be fed in pellet
or shred forms. Beet pulp is high
in pectin which is rapidly fer-
mented in the rumen. Limit the
amount to 33 percent of the
grain mixture.
Cottonseed is usually fed
whole with fuzz or linters
attached. The fuzzy seed con-
tributes to the fiber mat in the
rumen and is high in oil, protein,
and fiber. De-linted cottonseed
(no linters) is fed because of
improved handling and flow
characteristics. Limit the
amount to 5 to 7 lbs. (2.3 to 3.2
kg) per cow. Acid de-linted seeds
should not be fed.
Corn gluten feed is popular in
the midwest, a by-product of
starch and corn syrup used for
human food and fuel. The feed is
produced from wet milling of
corn. It is low in oil, high in
digestible fiber, and moderate in
protein. It can make up 50 per-
cent of the grain mixture.
Hominy feed comes from the
manufacture of pearl hominy,
hominy grits or table meal from
corn. Similar in appearance to
ground corn, it has slightly more
energy and protein, and similar
feeding characteristics.
Hominy should be analyzed
for its fat content, which can
vary considerably due to the type
of manufacturing process. As fat
content drops, so does TDN.
Hominy is palatable and can be
included in the grain mixture at
high levels.
Molasses (cane and beet) sup-
plies energy while improving
palatability. The wet form is
more effective in reducing dusti-
ness and minimizing grain fines.
Limit the amount to 5 to 7 per-
cent of the grain mixture. Higher
levels of liquid molasses can
affect feed flow (sticky) and lower
rumen digestion of fiber and pH.
Screenings are produced when
seeds are screened to remove
broken kernels, fines and weed
seeds. These products can be
economical, but variable in
nutrient content. Mycotoxins
can be concentrated in this frac-
tion if seed damage has
occurred. Whole weed seeds
may pass through the animal’s
digestive tract, causing weeds to
emerge in clean fields.
Soybean hulls or soybean
flakes are an excellent source of
digestible fiber and energy.
Limit the amount to 33 percent
of the grain mixture.
Wheat mill run feed can con-
tain wheat bran, midds, germ,
and/or shorts which are bulky
and moderately high in
33
digestible fiber. Limit the amount
to 20 percent of the grain mix-
ture.
Whey (dried or liquid) can be
fed to dairy cattle. Dried whey
can be added to the grain mix up
to 10 percent if economical.
Adding 20 to 50 lbs. (9 to 23 kg)
of dry whey to a ton of wet silage
can stimulate bacterial growth
and acid production. Liquid
whey can contain 94 percent
moisture, depending on the
process and concentrating
method. Fresh whey should be
discarded after 24 hours be-
cause it will be acidic and affect
teeth. Offer both whey and water
at all times. Introduce liquid
whey gradually to dairy cattle to
avoid over-consumption, bloat
and rumen acidosis. Flies are
attracted to liquid whey.
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS
Bloodmeal is dried blood from
slaughtered animals. Spray-
dried bloodmeal is superior to
ring-dried because less heat
damage occurs. It is high in RUP
and lysine. Limit the amount to
1/2 to 1 lb. (.23 to .45 kg) per day
to avoid reducing dry matter
intake.
Brewers grain is produced
from brewing beer. Wet brewers
grain can vary from 70 to 85 per-
cent moisture and should be
evaluated on a dry matter basis.
If the wet form is fed in summer,
it should be bagged or fed up in
4 to 7 days to avoid molding,
deterioration and lower feed
intake. Dry brewers grain is a
good source of RUP, but dusty to
handle. Brewers grain can be
incorporated up to 25 percent of
the total ration dry matter.
Avoid rations containing more
than 50 percent moisture.
Canola meal is more widely
used in the northern regions of
the U.S. and Canada. It is pro-
duced from the crushing of
canola seeds for oil. New vari-
eties of canola seed are low in
anti-nutritional factors (old vari-
eties were called rapeseed meal).
Canola meal can be the only pro-
tein source, but some nutrition-
ists recommend half canola and
half soybean meal.
Corn gluten meal, like corn
gluten feed, is produced from
milling corn for starch and corn
syrup. It can contain 40 or 60
percent protein, is high in RUP,
and a source of methionine. The
golden feed should be limited to
half of the protein mixture or 4
lbs. (1.8 kg) per day.
Cottonseed meal is fed in
southern areas of the U.S. and is
produced when oil is extracted
from cottonseed. It contains
gossypol, which is concentrated
when the oil is removed.
Gossypol is toxic, with effects
that include gastroenteritis and
embryo death in cows, to weight
loss and weakness in calves. In
high enough concentrations, it
can cause death. Limit the
amount of total cottonseed prod-
ucts to 8 to 10 lbs. (3.6 to 4.5 kg)
per cow per day (cottonseed meal
and whole fuzzy cottonseed).
Distillers grains (DG) can be
fed as dry or wet forms with or
without solubles added back.
Solubles increase palatability
and nutrient value. Corn, bar-
ley, and milo DG are fed in the
U.S. and Canada. It is a good
source of RUP, but low in lysine.
If the color is dark brown to
black, it may be heat damaged,
lowering digestibility. Oil levels
can vary depending on type and
processing of DG.
Feather meal is hydrolyzed
poultry feathers. It is high in
protein and RUP, but does not
have a balanced amino acid pro-
file. Half blood meal and half
feather meal overcomes amino
acid limitations. Feather meal is
unpalatable, should be gradually
introduced in the ration, and
should be limited to 1/2 to 1 lb.
(.23 to .45 kg) per day.
Fishmeal is an excellent
source of protein, especially
methionine, with high RUP
value. Limit the amount of fish-
meal to 1 lb. (.45 kg) per cow per
day. Fish oil is unsaturated and
the level varies related to type of PROPER HEATING
fish processed. Fish oil should OF SOYBEANS
be limited to 50 to 60 grams Optimal heating of soybeans
(one-tenth lb.) to avoid negative is critical if dairy managers
rumen effects. Introduce gradu- want high levels of rumen
ally in the ration, as fish meal undegradable protein (RUP).
has a strong and disagreeable Commercial labs can test
odor. heated soybeans using a test
Linseed meal is produced from developed at the University
flax when the oil is removed. It of Wisconsin.
is palatable and can replace
other protein sources if economi- Protein dispersibility index
cal. (PDI) measures the solubility
Malt sprouts consist of dried of the heated soy protein. A
sprouts and rootlets produced PDI value of 9 to 11 is opti-
when barley is sprouted in mak- mal; values over 14 indicate
ing beer. It is similar to brewers incomplete heating. A urease
grain in protein, RUP and energy enzyme activity test also is
content. Malt sprouts is bitter conducted and should be
and should be limited to 3 to 5 less than 0.02 pH unit rise
lbs. (1.4 to 2.3 kg) or 25 percent (more important for swine,
of the protein mixture. poultry and calf rations).
Meat and bone meal must be
produced from swine, poultry or Excessive heat also must be
horse sources for dairy cattle. IT avoided because it can lower
IS ILLEGAL TO FEED RUMI- digestibility in the small
NANT SOURCES OF MEAT AND intestine.
BONE MEAL TO DAIRY CATTLE.
Swine meat and bone meal is an anti-protein factors in raw soy-
economical source of protein, beans such as trypsin inhibitor.
RUP, fat and phosphorous. Heating soybeans destroys
Limit the amount to 1 to 2 lbs. these negative protein factors
(.45 to 0.9 kg) per day or half of and can increase RUP levels
the protein mix. from 20 to 60 percent RUP. The
Soybeans are an excellent pro- soybean must reach an internal
tein source with a balanced temperature of 290 degrees F
amino acid profile. Raw soy- (144° C) and be steeped for 45
beans should be limited to 4 to 5 minutes to get proper heating.
lbs. (1.8 to 2.3 kg) per day due to Time and temperature relation-
DISTILLERS GRAIN FRACTIONS
As ethanol plant managers improve bio-fuel yields and recover
value-added products (such as corn oil), new corn by-product
feeds may be available. A potential list and nutrient profiles are
outlined below. Request nutrient test results before purchasing
and feeding: you need to determine nutrient levels to avoid
milk losses due to nutrient changes.
Corn germ Corn bran Corn high protein feed
Protein 15% 5% 40%
Oil 21% 1% 6%
TDN 90% 77% 95%
Starch 15% 18% 6%
DNF 16% 64% 22%
34
ships are important. Overheating
can destroy protein quality and
amino acids.
Soybean meal is the primary
and economical protein source
in the world. The amino acid
profile is excellent. Several types
of soybean meal can be pur-
chased including dehulled soy-
bean meal (48 percent protein),
hull-containing soybean meal
(44 percent protein), heat and
chemically treated soybean meal
(44 percent) and expeller soy-
bean meal (44 percent protein
with 5 percent oil).
Sunflower meal ranges in pro-
tein from 28 to 34 percent
depending on if the seed is
dehulled and the processing
method. Check fiber levels before
purchasing. Palatability can be
a limitation. Sunflower meal can
make up half of the protein mix.
Urea is synthetic feed contain-
ing 46 percent nitrogen.
Because it is nonprotein nitro-
gen (NPN), it must be converted
to microbial protein by rumen
microbes. It has a crude protein
equivalent of 287 percent (46
percent nitrogen times 6.25).
Add urea when the SP levels are
low (such as high corn silage, all
hay, or low quality legume-grass
forage-based rations).
Limit urea to 0.2 to 0.4 lb.
(90.7 to 181.4 g) per cow or 10
lbs. (4.5 kg) of urea per ton (0.9
metric ton) of wet corn silage.
Urea is not palatable and should
be gradually introduced to the
diet. Adding a source of fer-
mentable energy will allow bacte-
ria to incorporate urea into
microbial protein.
FEED ADDITIVES
Feeds additives are feed ingre-
CONJUGATED LINOLEIC
dients added to a ration in a non-
ACID (CLA) IMPACT ON
nutrient role that result in a
MILK FAT TEST.
desired animal response.
CLA (unsaturated fatty acid
Additives are used for the fol-
containing two unsaturated
lowing responses.
bonds at trans-10 and cis-12
1. Increase milk yield (peak
positions) can be a potent
milk or persistency);
inhibitor of milk fat synthe-
2. Increase milk fat or protein
content; sis. Soybean and other vege-
3. Increase dry matter intake; table oils contain high levels
4. Maintain desired rumen pH; of unsaturated fatty acids.
5. Stimulate rumen microbial
synthesis of protein and/or Cows fed 30 to 50 grams of
VFA; CLA had lower milk fat test
6. Change the rate of feed percentage (13 percent lower)
passage; and higher milk yield (6.6 lbs
7. Improve nutrient digestion or 3 kg). Two areas of applica-
in the rumen; tion are to lower the amount
8. Stabilize the rumen environ- of energy needed in early lac-
ment; tations (does not necessarily
9. Improve growth; happen, as cows produce
10. Minimize weight loss; more milk while producing
11. Reduce heat stress; less milk fat, resulting in
12. Improve health (such as similar energy needs) and
less ketosis or acidosis). lower fat test without nega-
Profitability is a key factor tively affecting milk yield or
when deciding if and when an health.
additive should be added. As a
guideline, a return of two dollars
or more for each dollar invested
in an additive is recommended.
Milk price, percent of cows
responding, stage of lactation or
gestation, and non-productive
responses should be considered.
Table 5.2 lists dairy feed addi-
tives. Each additive is outlined
with its function, level of use,
cost, benefit-to-cost ratio, feeding
strategy and recommendations.
Recommendations in the table
include “recommended”, “addi-
tional research needed”, and “not
recommended at this time”.
35
 ❚ ❙ TABLE 5.2
AS MILK production in our herds climbs higher and
higher, interest in feed additives will continue to grow.
Herd owners and managers and their consultants will
have to sort through new research results, company pro-
motion, and expected returns to evaluate additives for
their situation.
Additives are a group of ingredients that can cause a
How and when feed additives
desired response such as shift rumen acidity, enhance
growth, or modify metabolism. Most are not nutrients,
although some also contain nutrients such as the sodium
in sodium bicarb.
In this table, function describes how the additive may
impact your cattle. Level is the recommended amount
that should be fed to obtain the desired result (don’t cut

Additive Function Level

Anhydrous ammonia Source of nonprotein nitrogen (nutrient role),
extends corn silage fermentation increasing
lactic acid levels, reduces mold growth,
improves corn silage stability on the face of
bunker silos and in TMRs, and improves fiber
digestibility in low-quality forage
8 lbs. (3.6 kg) per ton of corn silage (as-fed
basis), 1 percent to baled hay (mold inhibition),
or 2 to 3% as gas under plastic (straw &
low-quality grass hay to improve fiber digestion)

Anionic salts/products Cause the ration to be more acidic, raising
blood calcium levels by stimulating bone
mobilization of calcium and calcium
absorption from the small intestine
and hydrochloric acid treated feeds
Reduce DCAD to between -5 and -10 meq per
100 g dry matter using chloride sources
(calcium chloride, ammonium chloride), Bio
Chlor, Soy Chlor, Nutri-Chlor,

Aspergillus oryzae Stimulate fiber-digesting bacteria, stabilize 3 g per day

rumen pH, and reduce heat stress

Biotin Improves hooves by reducing heel warts, 10 to 20 mg per cow per day for six
claw lesions, white line separations, sand months to one year
cracks, and sole ulcers

Beta-carotene Improves reproductive performance, immune 200 to 300 mg per day

response, and mastitis control

Calcium propionate Increase blood glucose and calcium levels 120 to 225 g

Choline (protected) A methyl donor used to minimize fatty liver 15 g per day
formation and to improve fat mobilization

Decoquinate Prevent coccidiosis in calves and heifers 22.7 mg per 100 lbs. (45.4 kg) of body
(Deccox brand name) weight

Enzymes (fibrolytic) Improve fiber digestibility (cellulase and Enzymatic units per unit of feed dry matter
xylanase enzymes) and dry matter intake are not clearly defined

Essential oil compounds Improve rumen fermentation by reducing 0.5 to 1.5 grams per cow per day (higher
(cinnamon oil, clove oil, protein de-animation, increase propionate levels may have a negative impact)
and/or garlic oil) production,increase feed efficiency and/or
improve hydrogen status

Lasalocid An ionophore for calves and heifers which 60 to 200 mg per head per day (based
Bovatec brand name) shifts rumen volatile fatty acid patterns, on body weight)
lowers methane production, improves feed
efficiency, and controls coccidiosis in calves

36
may or may not pay
corners). Cost is the price paid in central Illinois in the
spring of 1999. Benefit-to-cost ratio is the value of the
additional daily milk or growth compared to the daily
additive cost. Feed strategies are situations when the
additive may provide a profitable response.
Status is classified in the following ways:
• Recommended: Included as needed for a specific prob-
lem or situation.
• Experimental: Additional research is needed but
looks favorable.
• Evaluative: Caution, research results vary.
• Not recommended: Lacks economic responses
(based on current research).

Cost
Varies by location and source
Benefit to
cost ratio Strategy Status
Favorable Apply to corn silage prior to ensiling (avoid Recommended if needed
wet silage due to seepage losses and dry to improve silage stability,
silage due to nitrogen losses and poor boost nitrogen intake, or
fermentation) in bunker silos if soluble treat high-fiber forage
protein is needed. DO NOT apply to alfalfa-
grass silage. Use as a mold inhibitor in wet
hay if practical and safe. Consider treating low-
quality straw and hay if safe and feasible.
Is very DANGEROUS to handle and apply.

60 to 80 cents per dry cow 10:1 Feed to dry cows two to three weeks before Recommended to prevent
per day depending on product calving. Adjust dietary calcium levels to 150 low-blood calcium or milk
g per day (50 g inorganic). Raise fever problems
dietary magnesium level to 0.4 %.

3 cents per cow per day
6 to 8 cents per cow per day
6:1 Use with high-grain diets, acidic rumen Evaluative
conditions, and under heat stress (cows)
and calves receiving a liquid diet
4:1 Herds with chronic foot problems may require Experimental
supplementation for six months before
evaluation. Company recommends
beginning supplementation at 15 months of age.

30 cents per cow per day Not In early lactation and during mastitis-prone Not recommended
available time periods

$1 per lb. Not Feed 7 days prepartum to 7 days post- Recommended for
available partum or until appetite responds (unpalatable) transition cow problems

30¢ per day 2:1 Feed dry cows two weeks before calving and Rumen protected
to cows experiencing ketosis and weight loss choline is recommended

2 cents per head per day Favorable Add to milk or milk replacer and/or calf Recommended to prevent
starter coccidiosis

15 to 25 cents per cow per day 3:1 Apply to forage 12 hours before feeding to Experimental
(Canadian data) improve fiber digestibility, spray-on product
more effective when applied to dry diets,
and may be diet specific

Varies from 5 to 8 cents 7:1 Improve rumen propionate production (important Experimental
per cow per day (Wisconsin data) source of blood glucose for transition cows ),
and improve feed efficiency (all stages of lactation).
Function may be similar to an ionophore; being
used in countries where ionophores/antibiotics not fed

1 to 2 cents per head per day 8:1 Feed to calves (to prevent coccidiosis) and Recommended to improve
all growing heifers (to improve growth and growth and feed efficiency
feed efficiency)

37
 Additive Function
Magnesium oxide Alkalinizer (raises rumen pH) and increases
uptake of blood metabolites by the mammary
gland, raising fat test
Methionine hydroxy Minimizes fatty liver formation, controls ketosis,
analog and improves milkfat test
Monensin (Rumensin An ionophore for calves, heifers, dry & lactating
brand name) cows, it shifts rumen volatile fatty acid patterns,
lowers methane production, improves feed
efficiency, and controls coccidiosis in calves
Niacin (B3, nicotinic Is coenzyme in biological reactions,
acid, and nicotinamide) improves energy balance in early-lactation
cows, controls ketosis, and stimulates
rumen protozoa
Probiotics (bacterial Produce metabolic compounds that
direct-fed microbes) destroy undesirable organisms, provide
enzymes improving nutrient availability,
or detoxify harmful metabolites
Propionic acid (salts Mold inhibitor and preservative for high-
of propionic acid) moisture corn, wet hay, and hay silage
Propylene glycol Source of blood glucose stimulating an
insulin response, reducing fat mobilization
Silage bacterial To stimulate silage fermentation, reduce
inoculant dry matter loss, lower ensiling
temperature, increase feed digestibility,
improve forage surface stability, and raise
VFA (lactate) production
Sodium bentonite A clay mineral used as a binder, shifts VFA
patterns, slows rate of passage, and
exchanges mineral ions (may tie up
mycotoxin)
Sodium bicarbonate/ Improves dry matter intake and stabilizes
sodium sesquicarbonate rumen pH
(buffer)
Yeast culture/yeast Stimulates fiber-digesting bacteria, stabilizes
rumen environment, and utilizes lactic acid
Yucca extract Decrease urea nitrogen in plasma and milk by
binding ammonia to the glycofraction extract
of Yucca shidigera plant improving nitrogen
efficiency in ruminant animals
Zinc methionine Improves immune response, hardens hooves,
(organic zinc) and lowers somatic cell counts
Table adapted from the proceedings of the 1999 Four State Applied Dairy Nutrition and Management Conference.
38
Level
45 to 90 g per day
30 g
50 to 200 mg per heifer per day (based
on body weight) and 160 to 400 mg for
lactating cows (depending on ration composi-
tion and feeding system); 300 mg for dry cows
6 g unprotected to dry cows, 12 grams unpro-
tected for early lactation cows, or 3 grams
of rumen protected niacin for close-up and
early lactation cows
Not clearly defined
0.5 to 1.5 percent (as-fed basis)
8 to 16 oz (227 to 454 g) per cow per day
90 billion colony forming units (CFU) per ton
of wet silage. Recommended bacteria include
Lactobacillus plantarium, Lactobacillus
acidilacti, Pediococcus cereviseai, Pediococcus
pentacoccus, and/or Streptococcus faecium
450 to 700 g per day (rumen effect),
110 g for mycotoxin effect
0.75 percent of dry matter intake
10 to 120 g depending on yeast culture
concentration
800 mg to 9 g per day (depending
on source)
300 mg of organic zinc
 Benefit to
Cost cost ratio Strategy Status
21 cents per lb. (.45 kg) Not With sodium-based buffers (ration of 2 to 3 Recommended to stabilize
available parts bicarb to 1 part magnesium oxide) rumen pH (with bicarb)

10 cents per cow per day 2:1 Feed to cows in early lactation receiving Recommended as a
($1.60 per lb. [.45 kg]) high levels of concentrate and limited as a
dietary protein source of methionine)

Varies from 2 to 5 cents 6 to 10:1 Control coccidiosis in calves, improve growth Recommended to improve
per head per day in heifers, control ketosis & DA in transition growth and feed efficiency
(depending on amount added) cows, improve feed efficiency in lactating cows;
component-fed cows require lower level

7 to 15 cents per cow per 6:1 High-producing cows in negative energy Evaluative for
day (depending on level (6 g balance, heavy dry cows, and ketotic-prone transition cow problems
and form) level) cows fed two weeks prepartum to peak feed
intake (also 10 to 12 weeks postpartum)

5 to 15 cents per cow per day Not To milk-fed calves, cows at calving, and Experimental for cows;
available during stress conditions recommended for milk-fed
calves

50 to 75 cents per lb. (.45 kg) Not Apply to wet forages and high-moisture Recommended if needed
available, corn to improve preservation and minimize to preserve high-moisture
but favorable mold formation and heating. Can be sprayed grain or silage
on bunker faces and mixed with TMRs to
control secondary fermentation and molds

$1.50 per pint or lb. Not Drench cow starting at one week prepartum Recommended for
(.55 l or .45 kg) available (preventive role) or after calving when transition cow problems
signs of ketosis is observed (treatment role).
Feeding does not lower NEFA levels

60 cents to $2 per treated
ton of silage
6:1 Apply to corn and hay silage (over 60 percent Recommended to ensure
moisture), high-moisture corn, and silage favorable fermentation
harvested under unfavorable ensiling conditions
(first and last cut legume/grass silage, weather
damage, frost, or drought)

14 cents per lb. (.45 kg) Not With high-grain diets, loose manure, presence Evaluative
available of mold, low fat test, and dirt eating

8 cents per cow per day 4:1 Feed 120 days postpartum with diets that are Recommended to stabilize
(bicarbonate at 22 cents per high in corn silage (over 50 percent of total rumen pH
lb.; sesquicarbonate at 20 DMI), wet rations (over 50 percent moisture),
cents per lb. [.45 kg]) lower-fiber rations (less than 19 percent ADF),
little hay (less than 5 lb.s [2.3 kg]), finely chopped
forage, pelleted grain, slug feeding of grain,
and heat stress conditions

6 to 8 cents per cow per day 4:1 Two weeks prepartum to 10 weeks postpartum Recommended to ensure
and during off-feed conditions and stress good rumen health

2 to 4 cents per cow per day Not To cows with high BUN and MUN levels Evaluative
available

3 to 7 cents per cow per day 14:1 To cows experiencing foot disorders, high Recommended to prevent
somatic cell counts, and cows exposed to hoof- and high-cell-count
wet foot environments problems

39

A
n optimal feeding system
must meet the following
goals:
• Deliver the needed nutrients;
• Provide these nutrients to
each cow;
• Support the optimum
amount of milk and milk
components;
• Provide needed nutrients at
the correct time of the lacta-
tion and gestation cycle;
• Deliver the ration economi-
cally.
No one system is correct for all
farms. Herd size, milk production,
existing facilities, milk price, for-
age alternatives and available
feeds will dictate which system is
right.
FORAGE SYSTEMS
Hay systems have been the tra-
ditional approach to feeding for-
ages on most farms. But hay is
declining in popularity because of
field losses and weather-related
harvest problems. Typical dry
matter losses for dry forage sys-
tems are listed in Table 5.1. The
use of acid preservatives can allow
wetter hay to be baled (22 to 28
percent moisture). Drying agents
(salts) are applied at cutting which
speed up drying time by dissolving
waxy stem coats and acting as a
desiccant (remove water). Cost of
the salts, need for large amounts
of water for application, and cost
of specialized equipment have lim-
ited field use.
Haylage minimizes field and
harvest losses because one to two
fewer days are needed to dry the
forage down. Dry matter levels
vary depending on the type of
storage unit:
• Bunker silo, piles, baleage
and bags, 60 to 70 percent mois-
ture;
• Conventional upright silos, 50
to 60 percent moisture;
• Oxygen-limiting structures,
40 to 50 percent moisture.
Comparisons of storage costs
are listed in Table 6.1. Silage inoc-
ulants are recommended for
silage, especially if the harvesting
conditions are not optimal (rain
❚ ❙ TABLE 6.1. COSTS FOR STORING 770 TONS OF SILAGE DRY MATTER.
Capital cost DM loss Annual cost
Type of storage ($)
Steel tower, new 230,800
Steel tower, used 143,600
Cast-in-place, O-L 143,600
Stave, tower 105,900
Bunker, above ground 79,000
Packed pile 31,100
Bagger 40,700
Wrapper 29,400
Source: University of Wisconsin
40
Chapter 6
Feeding
systems
damage, cool temperature, wet
silage and poor ensiling tech-
niques).
Compaction in silage is critical
to exclude oxygen, speed silage
fermentation, and avoid sec-
ondary losses during feeding-out
periods. In conventional silos, ver-
tical pressure from additional
silage achieves density guidelines.
Feed companies and consultants
can use a 2-inch drill to take sam-
ples at various levels (top, middle,
and bottom areas) to check for
optimal densities. Guidelines sug-
gest over 15 pounds of dry matter
per cubic foot. Bags tend to be
lower at 12 to 14 pounds per
cubic foot while bunkers and piles
can vary from 12 to 20 pounds per
cubic foot.
(%) ($/ton DM/yr)
6 60
6 41
6 41
10 36
13 37
18 32
10 32
13 32
 BALEAGE
Baleage is haylage using con-
ventional balers to produce
round or big square bales.
The wet legume/grass forage
is rolled up containing 40 to
55 percent dry matter,
wrapped in six to eight layers
of plastic or placed in a plas-
tic sleeve, and allowed to fer-
ment. This system allows for
smaller amounts of haylage
to be harvested and stored
with no field chopper, wag-
ons, or complex storage sys-
tem. To improve quality, add a
research-based forage inocu-
lant, wrap bales as soon as
possible after rolling up, and
seal tightly. If bales are too
wet, water can collect at the
bottom of the bale (rotting
can occur). If bales are too
dry, molding and poor fer-
mentation can occur. Baleage
can be processed in TMR mix-
ers (before mixing or during
mixing) or fed in conventional
bale feeders. Over- consump-
tion can be a problem as
baleage can be very palatable.
BUNKER COVERS
As dairy managers continue to strive for lower dry matter loss-
es and improved silage quality with bunkers and piles, use of a
cover becomes more important. For bunkers, plastic from the
base of the bunker can line the bunker walls, with excess plastic
temporarily draped over the wall. This excess is then pulled over
the silage from the sides, overlapping with two layers of plastic
(overlap 4 or 5 feet) on top to reduce oxygen penetration and
reduce spoilage. An oxygen-impervious layer (either as a sepa-
rate thin layer or bonded to the plastic cover) can reduce dry mat-
ter losses. The price per square yard is higher, but is economi-
cally justified when considering feed quality and losses. Placing
perforated drainage pipes along the inner walls can remove
excess moisture along the wall. Bunker floors and tops should
drain forward to prevent water from running into the silage.
Bags filled with pea gravel or sand and tied together with rope, or
half tires keep plastic tight against silage. Gravel bags on the
edge of the plastic at the feeding face keep air from penetrating
under the plastic. Covers made of edible products continue to be
studied (made from salt, sugar, and other feed sources).

(Pictured at right). Bunker silo facers,

or shavers, use teeth on a rotating
drum to remove silage, as the drum is
drawn down the face of the silage in a
bunker or pile. Compared to a front-
end loader, the facer leaves a smooth-
er surface that reduces air exposure
and spoilage. These dry matter losses
can approach 10 percent, which can
justify the cost of a bunker silo facer.

41
 Silage moisture, length of chop,
pressure (number and weight of
tractors on bunkers or pile), and
type of crop (corn silage compared
to legume-grass silages) will
impact compaction.
Green chop is direct cutting
and feeding of legume or grass,
with no storage involved.
Advantages include no harvest
loss or trampling of the forage.
Forage quality changes daily and
must be managed by strategic
cutting to maintain a steady sup-
ply of quality forage. Labor inputs
are high, as forage must be har-
vested once or twice a day, espe-
cially if the direct-cut forage heats
and deteriorates.
Pasture systems allow the ani-
mal to directly harvest the forage
based on her needs, appetite and
forage availability. Intensive graz-
ing is the ideal approach. A daily
allocation is provided by moving
electric wires or changing pad-
docks (small pasture area).
Varieties of grass and legumes
must be selected to maintain the
stand and to survive grazing pres-
sure. Lactating cows are put in
paddocks when the forage is 8 to
10 inches (20 to 25 cm) tall and
allowed to graze the forage down
to 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7 cm). If the
forage is too long, selective grazing
and waste will occur. If the forage
is grazed too short, forage recov-
ery is slow due to reduced leaf
surface for photosynthesis.
GRAIN SYSTEMS
Individual cow grain systems
usually require the cow to be
housed in a stanchion or tie stall
barn. Table 6.2 compares the rel-
ative advantages and disadvan-
tage of each system. The major
plus is to be able to feed each cow
exactly the amount and type of
nutrients needed. The major dis-
advantage is the high labor
demand, as each cow is fed sepa-
rately (2 to 4 feedings per day with
1 to 5 different supplements, such
as an energy source, protein
source, fat source, mineral and
vitamins, and/or additive pack).
Mechanized feeding carts or feed
drops can reduce the drudgery
and time needed.
Parlor feeding systems allow
cows to consume grain in the
milking parlor as the cow is being
milked. One advantage is that
grain encourages cows to enter
the parlor.
But there are disadvantages.
The same amount of grain is fed
each cow, regardless of individual
need. Cows consume 0.4 to 0.8 lb.
(181 to 363 g) per minute, and the
amount of time in the parlor does-
n’t allow many animals to eat the
desired amount. Finally, feeding
over 5 lbs. (2.3 kg) of grain dry
matter per meal is slug feeding.
This can have undesired effects
on the rumen, as discussed in
Chapter 1.
Some parlor systems allow the
milker to deliver a predetermined
amount of grain based on the
cow’s milk yield and other needs.
But this is more labor intensive
and may divert attention away
from proper milking procedures.
Magnetic grain feeders were
popular in the 1970’s when free
stall housing systems were in-
creasing in use. A cow would wear
a magnet or chain around her
neck. When the cow entered the
grain dispensing stall, a motor
would turn on, dispensing grain
at 1/2 to 1 lb. (227 to 454 g) per
minute. The cow would continue
to receive grain as long as she
42
stood in the stall activating the
feeder. This system resulted in
free choice grain for selected cows.
Magnetic feeders provided extra
grain to cows when parlor grain
feeding limited intake. Rumen aci-
dosis, feed waste, and a lack of
grain control (higher feed expens-
es) were drawbacks. Initial invest-
ment ($1000 to $3000) is low.
Electronic grain feeders re-
placed magnetic feeders in the late
1970’s due to more individual
control over feeding grain to cows.
Each cow carries an identification
tag and a predetermined amount
of grain is fed. Initially, only one
grain supplement could be fed.
But as technology has improved,
two to four different mixtures can
be fed to individual cows including
grain, protein supplement, micro-
nutrient pack, and/or a fat
source. Electronic feeders can be
used in conventional barns, car-
ried on a rail around the barn, or
in loose housing in a feeding stall.
Advantages of electronic feeders
are listed below.
1. A daily record of when and
how much grain was dispensed
can be printed and used for man-
agement decisions.
2. The system can identify cows
not consuming their grain, pin-
pointing sick and off-feed cows.
New technology also allows com-
bining grain intake information
with milk production, milk con-
ductivity, body temperature and
pedometer data (amount of walk-
ing) to detect estrus and health
problems.
3. The amount and frequency of
grain supplements can be varied
over a 24 hour time period (2 to 8
feedings per day with a carry-over
feature for grain not consumed
the previous day, if desired).
 4. A warning signal alerts you m a x i m i z e d
when a blockage or malfunction because cows are
has occurred in the equipment. not restricted on
Feeding stalls must be designed intake. They don’t
to avoid problems. A slope helps have to consume
them remain dry to avoid slipping, their grain before
but it should be gradual. Animals they leave the
should have protection from boss milk parlor.
cows. • Feed diges-
Cows should consume 90 per- tibility improves
cent or more of the programmed as the rumen
amount of grain supplements. If microbes receive
this target is not achieved, review the optimal bal-
the number of cows, cow traffic, ance of fermen-
stall design, and feed characteris- table nutrients;
tics. rumen pH is sta-
Check grain dispensing rates bilized.
monthly or when the grain mix- • Unpalatable
ture changes in composition to feeds can be in-
insure proper dispensing rates. cluded, as silage Feeding a TMR can maximize dry matter intake.
Pelleted feeds can be consumed at dilutes undesir-
the rate of 3/4 to 1 lb. (340 to 454 able taste and
g) per minute. Average to finely dusty character-
ground grain will drop to 1/2 lb. istics. can increase 0.1 or more percent-
(227 g) per minute. • TMRs are made in specialized age point.
The initial cost to purchase an mixers, which can reduce drudg- • By knowing dry matter intake
electronic grain feeder can vary ery and feeding time. per cow, rations can be adjusted
from $15,000 to $25,000 per • Milk production can increase to deliver the desired amount of
farm, depending on herd size and 3 to 5 lbs. (1.4 to 2.3 kg) per cow each feed ingredient.
feeder use (all grain or top dress per day, and milk components
strategy). Ohio researchers report-
ed that electronic grain feeders
can reduce feed costs by 10 to 20
percent (strategic grain feeding
and grain savings) while increas-
❚ ❙ TABLE 6.2. COMPARISON OF VARIOUS FEEDING SYSTEMS.
ing milk yields by 2 to 5 lbs. (0.9 to
Systems Advantages Disadvantages
2.3 kg) per cow per day. The initial
Individual/topdress Low cost to use Labor intensive
investment can be paid off in less Individually feed each Slug feeding possible
than 2 years. cow based on need
Total mixed rations (TMR) or
complete rations are increasing in Grain in the parlor Easy to mechanize Slug feeding occurs
popularity as herd sizes increase Encourages cows to Limit on time to eat
and milk production climbs. In enter the parlor More manure in parlor
this feeding system, all forages Low labor inputs Cost of equipment
and concentrates are blended
Electronic grain Custom feed each cow Expensive system
together, formulated to a specific
feeder Monitor grain consumed Daily adjustment of grain
nutrient concentration, and Use of automated feed Feed must be palatable
offered free choice. The advan- charts to adjust feed High level of management
tages of TMR are listed below. Electronic ID of cows
• Cows consume the predeter-
mined ratio of forages and concen- Total mixed ration More control of ration Expensive equipment
trates, and are unable to pick out Higher milk yield Need to group and move
feeds based on palatability. Higher milk components cows during lactation
• The risk of digestive upsets is Measure dry matter Feed costs are higher
intake Overfeed tail-end cows
reduced, as there is no slug feed-
ing of grain or over-consumption
of one feed ingredient.
• Dry matter intake can be

43
 One disadvantage of TMR is the
expensive mixing and weighing
equipment (varies from $10,000 to
$60,000) depending on TMR
mixer size and features. Smaller
mixing carts can be used to mix
and deliver TMR in conventional
barns. Cows must be grouped
according to production, and
rations must be carefully moni-
tored and adjusted when dry mat-
ter intake, milk production or feed
changes occur.
Feeding long hay can be diffi-
cult as some mixers may not han-
dle and mix it properly (especially
if the hay is average quality and
contains grass). Overmixing can
also occur.
Consider the following guide-
lines for feeding TMR.
Guide One. Group the herd
into a minimum of four milk pro-
duction groups plus two dry cow
groups.
1. Fresh cow group (0 to 14
days after calving)
2. High producing group (50 to
60 percent of the milk cows)
3. First lactation group (30 to
40 percent of the milk cows)
4. Late lactation group (10 to 20
percent of the milk cows)
5. Far off dry cow group (75
percent of the dry cows)
6. Close up dry cow group (25
percent of the dry cows)
The use of BST allows cows to
remain in the high or first lacta-
tion group for the entire lactation
as milk production is increased
and excess weight gain from this
ration can be minimized (see
Chapter 13).
Guide Two. Balance the
group’s TMR with a lead factor:
this is based on the current
group’s milk yield average. The
following lead factors can be used
based on the number of produc-
tion groups.
1. TMR for one group: 30 per-
cent above the group milk yield
average;
2. TMR for two groups: 20 per-
cent above the group average;
3. TMR for three groups: 10
percent above the group average. ing in days in milk (late lactation
For example (using a two group cows).
TMR approach), if the high group Cows should not be moved to a
averaged 70 lbs. (31.8 kg), balance lower production group until body
for 84 lbs. (38.2 kg) of milk (70 lbs. condition scores are over 3 and
time 1.20). If the low group aver- fat/protein corrected milk yield is
aged 50 lbs. (22.7 kg) of milk, bal- below the lower group balanced
ance for 60 lbs. (27.3 kg) of milk milk yield. When cows are moved
(50 lbs. times 1.20). between groups, milk production
First lactation cows could can drop even though the ration is
receive the high group TMR, or balanced above their current level
calculate using a lead factor of 30 of milk yield because dry matter
percent. First lactation cows are intake drops due to social interac-
put in a separate group because tions (fighting and time away from
these cows will eat more dry mat- the feed bunk).
ter and meals per day if they do Several management options
not compete with larger and more can minimize these drops:
aggressive older cows. Lead fac- • Move groups of cows (not one
tors can be adjusted down if feed cow);
costs increase, milk prices de- • Move cows at active feeding
cline, or if most cows are increas- times;
KNOW DRY MATTER LEVELS
Monitoring moisture levels in wet feeds and TMRs is critical to
mixing and delivering consistent rations. Silage and TMR
should be checked on the farm every week to correct the ration
if moisture levels have changed, especially in bunkers and piles
where precipitation can increase moisture levels. Four systems
can be used.
1. A microwave oven ($25 used, to $100 new) and an accurate
scale ($40) can provide accurate results in 10 to 15 minutes.
The oven should be monitored as feed can scorch or catch fire,
so drying rates must be observed. Dry matter results are most
accurate with this method as the sample is cooked completely
dry.
2. Koster commercial tester ($300 with scale) uses forced dry
air to remove moisture. This method takes more time (about 30
minutes), but it does not require close monitoring, as the sam-
ple will not burn. Results are 1 to 3 points higher than a
microwave oven because humidity in the air does not allow for
complete drying.
3. Electronic moisture tester ($200-$300) uses battery current
and resistance to estimate moisture levels with calibration
charts. This method is the fastest, but requires more care in
using the equipment. Because this tester is more dependent on
operator skill, results are less accurate.
4. A food dehydrator ($30 to $50) is an inexpensive, but slow
method to check dry matter content. A wet sample is placed in
the unit and allowed to dry for 24 to 36 hours depending on
sample size and moisture content. The approach is simple,
easy to run, and does not require monitoring (no fire or power
risks).
44
 dry matter. The weigh back
should test 16 to 18 percent pro-
MINIMIZING SORTING WITH TMR
tein, 18 to 22 percent ADF, and 57
to 63 percent dry matter using wet
Cows can sort TMR by selectively consuming more palatable
chemistry analysis.
feeds, resulting in rations that are not balanced and other cows
having to consume the remaining feed. Several methods can be
MINERAL SYSTEMS
used to minimize feed sorting.
Minerals should be force fed by
• Add 5 to 15 lbs. (2 to 7 liters) of water at the time of mixing.
blending with forage, grain mix, or
• Reduce the amount of hay in the TMR.
TMR.
• Increase the quality and palatability of added hay.
Offering mineral free choice
• Feed the TMR more frequently each day with smaller
depends on the cow’s ability to
amounts per feeding.
select the correct amount and
• Add 2 to 3 lbs. (0.9 to 1.4 kg) of molasses or commercial
type of mineral. Cows have a
molasses-based product.
“learned appetite” for salt and
• Push up TMR more frequently and mix with sorted TMR.
possibly phosphorous. Cafeteria
• Increase the amount of TMR, resulting in more weigh backs.
mineral feeding systems offer 5 to
15 different minerals free choice
All approaches have limitations, by adding labor or increasing
and depend on the cow to con-
feed costs; but sorting can lead to lameness that costs $301 per
sume which minerals she needs.
treated case.
Minnesota workers reported cows
would overconsume mineral by 50
to 60 percent of needed mineral.
Rations should deliver the
• Move cows on a regular microwave oven or Koster tester. needed mineral for the cow
schedule (every month); Guide Four. Cows should have (Appendix tables 2,3). If additional
• Increase the grain by 3 to 5 access to TMR for 20 hours a day mineral is offered free choice,
lbs. (1.4 to 2.3 kg) for a week (including milking time). Weigh monitor the intake and consump-
until cows have adjusted; backs (feed refusal) should be tion patterns. Free choice mineral
• Move cows before peak dry monitored daily and weighed. If should not contain carrier feeds
matter has occurred (prior to the weigh back is less than two that increase palatability (such as
60 days after calving). percent of the total offered (for molasses or grain by-products).
Guide Three. Rations should example, cows are fed 4,000 lbs. The following minerals can be
be reformulated when dry matter [1,818 kg] of wet TMR a day and offered free choice in addition to
intake per cow increases or weigh back is less than 80 lbs. balanced minerals that are force
decreases by more than 2 lbs. (0.9 [36.4 kg]), dry matter intake can fed.
kg) per day. If dry matter intake be limiting. Visually evaluate the • White salt (heat stress and
drops, the ration should be weigh back to see if it appears to electrolyte balance);
increased in nutrient concentra- look like the original TMR (fuzzy • Bentonite (for cattle craving
tion. If dry matter intake increas- cottonseed, whole soybeans, and soil);
es, milk yield should increase or pelleted feeds are good markers to • Sodium bicarbonate (fresh
cheaper feeds can be incorporated look for). If the weigh back is long and off-feed cows);
in the TMR, reducing feed costs. forage and/or sorted feed, feeding
If a wet feed ingredient changes more TMR may be warranted.
by 5 percent dry matter or more Testing weigh back is another
(for example hay silage increasing approach to evaluate if more TMR For more information on feed-
from 40 to 45 percent dry matter), is needed. The weigh back should ing systems, TMRs, grouping for
reformulate the TMR as the be within one percent protein, two TMRs, please refer to Successful
amount of water (which adds percentage points of ADF, and Feeding Systems for Dairy, by
weight) changes nutrient concen- three percent of dry matter of the Mike Hutjens, available from
tration. Dry matter levels in wet original TMR (referred to as the 1- Hoard’s Dairyman Books for $9.
ingredients (silages, high moisture 2-3 rule). For example, the origi- Shipping and handling extra.
grains, and wet by-product feeds) nal TMR was 17 percent protein, Available at the on-line Bookstore
should be checked weekly with a 20 percent ADF, and 60 percent at www.hoards.com

45

R
ation formulation provides
needed nutrients using a
balance of feed ingredi-
ents as economically as possible.
As dairy managers build their
rations, they should follow a logi-
cal series of decisions to arrive at
a balanced and economical solu-
tion.
• Determine which feed ingre-
dients will be used based on
inventory, crops raised on the
farm, good buys and experience.
• Decide the target level of
nutrients based on milk produc-
tion, age, stage of gestation,
growth, body weight gain and
environmental conditions.
• Select a method to conduct
the calculations.
Several methods are discussed
below. The user should be knowl-
edgeable and skilled in the basic
methods before moving up to a
more technical method.
HAND CALCULATED RATIONS
An individual should be able to
balance a ration by hand before
using computer-assisted aids.
The following steps can be fol-
lowed using the format in Figure
7.1. Feed amounts and nutrient
levels are expressed on a 100 per-
cent dry matter basis.
Step 1. Calculate the nutrient
requirements using Appendix
table 8. Target levels of body
Ration
formulation
weight, milk yield, and milk com-
ponents are needed (taping sever-
al cows, reviewing culled cow
weights, milk test results, DHI
records and bulk milk shipments
can be used). Review the discus-
sion on lead factors on page 43.
Step 2. Estimate the amount
of forage fed per cow based on
weighed forage intakes, inventory
disappearance, counting the
number of bales or scoops, or
other approaches. Cows will con-
sume two percent of their body
weight as forage dry matter. A
1300 lb. (590 kg) cow would eat
26 lbs. (12 kg) of dry matter a day
(1300 lbs. times .02 = 26 lbs.).
Maximizing forage intake will
result in lower feed costs in most
cases. Use forage test results to
accurately assess farm forage
nutrient content.
Step 3. Subtract the nutrients
provided by forage from calculat-
ed requirements (see hand-bal-
anced work sheet, Figure 7.1).
Solve for the amount of grain
needed to meet energy shortages.
In the example, energy required
(36.7 Mcal) minus energy from
forages (18.0 Mcal) results in a
shortage of 18.7 Mcal. Shelled
corn contains 0.92 Mcal per
pound (2.02 Mcal/kg) of dry mat-
ter which results in 20 lbs. (9 kg)
of grain dry matter needed to bal-
ance energy needs (18.7 Mcal
46
Chapter 7
short / 0.92 Mcal per pound of
shelled corn dry matter).
Step 4. Subtract the protein
provided by forages plus shelled
corn from the required amount of
protein. If protein is deficient, you
will need to build a grain mixture
using 44 soybean meal (50% pro-
tein on a dry matter basis) and
shelled corn (10 percent crude
protein on a dry matter basis). In
this example, crude protein
requirement is 7.93 lbs. (3.60 kg)
minus the 4.05 lbs. (1.84 kg) pro-
tein provided by forage = 3.85 lbs.
(1.75 kg) from corn and soybean
meal.
To determine the level of pro-
tein in the mix, divide the short-
age of protein which is 3.85 lbs. by
20 lbs. (1.75 kg by 9 kg) of grain
dry matter determined in step 3.
Use the box or Pearson square
method to solve for the correct
proportions of shelled corn and
soybean meal (see page 48).
Step 5. Once we have solved
for the proportion of shelled corn
and soybean meal, enter the
amounts in the work sheet. If the
cow consumes the amount of feed
offered, we have balanced the
ration of these two nutrients.
Additional steps can be added to
solve for phosphorous, calcium,
and other nutrients using similar
approaches.
Ration balancing by hand
becomes a laborious effort, as
changing one feed ingredient ❚ ❙ FIGURE 7.1. BALANCED RATION WORK SHEET*
shifts the balance and amount of Cow Data: Weight, lb. 1300 Milk lb./day 80 Fat, % 3.5 Age,
other nutrients and requires care mos.48
to avoid math mistakes. But until Days in Milk 120 Weight gain, lb./day 1
the user can see where the num- Requirements Crude Net
bers come from and knows how protein energy
to balance properly, no computer Maintenance .89 9.6
should be used. Gestation ..... ....
Growth-heifers .... ....
RATION ANALYZER COMPUTER Production 6.72 24.8
FORMULATION Weight gain .32 2.32
The next step in ration formu- Total 7.93 36.72
lation technology is a computer-
based program that quickly and Feed
accurately performs all mathe- Kind of feed lb . feed x %DM = lb. DM
matical calculations. A ration Hay 20 .88 18
analyzer does not have balancing Corn silage 25 .40 10
functions and does not have Corn, HMSC 20 .75 15
“dairy nutrient knowledge”. The Protein suppl (SMB) 6.5 .90 5.8
user has to make decisions on
which feeds to add or change to Nutrients provided (Appen. tables 1,2, 6, 7)
achieve a desirable ration. No Column A x Column 1 = Crude protein (CP)
nutrient or dry matter edits are Column A x Column 2 = Net energy Mcal (NE)
involved, which can result in
unbelievable and incorrect ra- A 1 2
tions. But until users can drive DM CP CP NE NE
the computer and understand Feed _lb. % lb.. Mcal/lb. Mcal
the answers, they should work Hay 18 x .18 = 3.2 .61 =11.0
with a simple analyzer program. Corn silage 10 x .085 = 0.85 .70 = 7.0
Corn 15 x .10 = 1.5 .92 =13.8
RATION BALANCER COMPUTER
SBM 5 x .50 = 2.5 .84 = 4.9
FORMULATION
Mineral .5 x 0 = 0 0 = 0
A ration balancer program
combines feeds to meet the nutri- TOTAL 8.05 36.7
ent requirement of the target ani- Difference from +.12 0.0
requirements (+,-)
mal or group. Someone has pro-
grammed the computer to select * Example based on NRC -1989 requirements
feeds based on cost, feed avail- to use crude protein instead of metabolizable protein
ability, nutrient composition or
other factors which the user does
not control. The user can lock in LEAST COST BALANCER COM- accurately reported.
certain levels of feed ingredients PUTER FORMULATION A break-even price is calculat-
This type of software program ed for feeds not used and indi-
based on inventory or personal
is the most common. The major cates when that feed will enter
bias. The user typically locks in
driving factor is to build the the ration based on price. An
forages (actual amounts, mini-
ration as economically as possi- opportunity price indicates a
mum, maximums or ratios), and
ble while still meeting nutrient price range in which a feed ingre-
allows one grain energy source,
requirements. The computer does dient remains in the ration solu-
one protein supplement, and one
not consider if a feed is palatable, tion.
mineral vitamin mixture to be
if it could limit feed intake, or if it
used by the computer. The com-
makes logical, nutritional sense.
puter can solve for 6 to 30 nutri-
Feed costs must be carefully and
ents simultaneously.

47
 THE PEARSON SQUARE PROFIT MAXIMIZER BALANCER
The Pearson Square or box method can be used to solve for a COMPUTER FORMULATION
desired level of a nutrient using two feed ingredients that bracket These programs formulate
(one higher and one lower) the target level of nutrient. In our exam- rations that result in the maxi-
ple, we are solving for 19 percent crude protein using shelled corn mum profit for the user based on
and 44 percent soybean meal. Follow the steps below and refer to milk price, feed prices and least
the box. Remember, all nutrients must be entered on a 100 percent cost balancing. The difference
dry matter basis: that’s why 44% soybean meal is entered as 50%, with this approach is maximum
as 44 divided by 90% dry matter = 50. milk production may not result.
Least cost balancing considers
1. Write the desired protein percentage of the grain mix in the only feed prices.
middle of the box. Determine this percentage by dividing the
amount of protein needed by the estimated amount of grain DM. RUMEN COMPUTER
Example: 19% FORMULATION MODELS
2. Write the protein percentage (DM basis) of the grain and pro- Interactive models predict
tein supplement in the left corners of the square. rumen microbial synthesis of
Example: 10 and 50% nutrients (energy and protein)
3. Subtract diagonally and write differences in right corners. and digested nutrients in the
These numbers are parts or proportions. lower digestive tract. These pow-
Example: 19-10 = 9 AND 50-19=31 erful models consider various
4. To convert to a percentage for each ingredient, add the parts fractions of protein and carbohy-
and divide the total into each individual part or proportion. drates, effect of rumen pH, parti-
Example: 31+ 9 = 40 cle size of feedstuffs, and effective
Percent SBM is 9 ÷ 40 x 100 = 23% fiber.
Percent corn is 31 ÷ 40 x 100 = 77% In the future, these models will
5. Multiply the size of the batch mix (2,000 lbs. [909 kg] DM in allow the user to balance nutrient
this example) times the percentage of each ingredient to get the needs at the tissue level, provid-
pounds of DM necessary. The pounds of DM must be divided by the ing for milk production and
percent DM of the ingredient to convert to an as-fed basis. growth (amino acids, glucose and
Example: 2000 x 23% = 460 lbs. of SBM DM (209 kg) fatty acids for example). The
100 Cornell-Penn-Miner (CPM) Net
460 x 100 = 500 lbs. as fed ( 232 kg) Carbohydrate and Protein Models
90% DM are examples of this technology.
Several companies and coopera-
tives also have similar models
Shelled corn 31 available.
10% CP The following two figures show
(Step 3) examples of the Dairy NRC 2001
Model (Figure 7.2), and the
Spartan Dairy Ration Evaluator
(Step 1) from Michigan State University
19% CP (Figure 7.3).
(Step 2) (Step 4)

(Step 3)

50% CP
SBM 9

Total parts 40
(Step 4)
Percentage shelled corn = 31/40 x 100 = 77%
Percentage SBM = 9/40 x 100 = 23%

48
❚ ❙ FIGURE 7.2. NRC MODEL OUTPUT

ANIMAL INPUTS

Animal Type – Lactating Cow Milk Production: 80.0 lbs./day

Age: 48 months Days Pregnant: 120
Body Weight: 1200 lbs. Breed: Holstein
Milk Fat: 3.50% Milk True Protein: 3.00%
Days In Milk: 180

Diet Nutrient Balances

NEl MP Ca P K
Requirements (Mcal/day) lbs/day lbs/day lbs/day lbs/day

Maintenance 9.0 1.663 0.038 0.049 0.333

Pregnancy 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Lactation 25.2 3.582 0.098 0.072 0.120
Growth 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Total Required 34.2 5.245 0.136 0.121 0.453
Total Supplied 34.2 5.223 0.084* 0.115* 0.589*
Balance 0.0 -0.022 -0.052 -0.006 0.137
*Note that these mineral supplied values are total absorbable supplied.

Animal Performance Protein Values

DMI - Actual: 47.1 lbs/day RDP Required: 4.713 lbs/d
DMI - Predicted: 50.8 lbs/day RDP Supplied: 5.242 lbs/d
RDP Balance: 0.529 lbs/d
NEl Allowable Milk: 80.0 lbs/day
MP Allowable Milk: 79.5 lbs/day RUP Required: 2.988 lbs/d
RUP Supplied: 2.961 lbs/d
Milk Production: 80.0 lbs/day RUP Balance: -0.027 lbs/d

Days to gain one condition score: >305 MP - Bacterial: 2.564 lbs/d

MP - RUP: 2.437 lbs/day
Daily Weight Change due to Reserves: 0.0 lbs/day MP Endogenous: 0.222 lbs/d

CP - Diet: 17.4 % DM
CP - RDP: 11.1 % DM
CP - RUP: 6.3 % DM

Diet Concentrations Target Diet Concentrations

NDF: 37.7% DM NEl: 0.67 Mcal/lb
Forage NDF: 31.2% DM MP: 0.1033 lbs/lb
ADF: 23.7% DM
NFC: 37.9% DM Ca: 0.0027 lbs/lb
Undiscounted TDN: 74% DM P: 0.0024 lbs/lb
ME: 1.15 Mcal/lb DM
NEl: 0.73 Mcal/lb DM
NEg: 0.53 Mcal/lb DM
Ca: 0.4% DM
P: 0.4% DM
Ether-Extract: 4.2% DM
DCAD: 78 mEQ/lb
Diet Summary lbs/day DM lbs/day As-fed % DM
FEED NAME
Corn silage, immature 23.25 98.94 49.40
Corn grain, ground hi m 9.00 12.53 19.12
Soybean meal, solv. 48% CP 3.00 3.35 6.37
Legume forage hay, immat. 5.81 6.90 12.35
Corn dry distillers
grain+sol 3.00 3.33 6.37
Soybean, seeds, whole,
heated 3.00 3.30 6.37

49
❚ ❙ FIGURE 7.3. SPARTAN DAIRY RATION EVALUATOR
Lactating HOLSTEIN cow
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Age: 42 months Lactation #: 2
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE Body wt.: 1350 lbs Avg. gain: 1.0 lbs/day
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE Milk prod: 80 lbs/day DIM: 120 days
Milk Fat: 3.8% Milk Protein: 3.3%
Condition Score: 2.6 Temperature:

__ _____ ___ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ __ __ ____ _ ____ _ _____ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __

O F F I C E S H E E T DAIRYMAN DAN

DAIRYMAN DAN
File: C:\DAIRYP-1\SPARTD2\DRT\494CLASS.DRT 2/22/98
Mix Feed AsFed Lbs DM DM NEl CP UndegP NDF EfNDF ADF
% Mcal/lb. %DM %CP %DM %DM %DM
Alf sil erly blm 38.42 17.29 45.0 0.61 18.0 22.0 42.0 42.0 31.0
Corn sil 50% grn 42.86 15.00 35.0 0.73 8.1 30.0 42.0 42.0 22.0
Corn grn cracked 12.56 11.05 88.0 0.84 10.0 55.0 9.0 2.3 3.0
Soybean meal 44 8.36 7.44 89.0 0.88 49.0 30.0 15.0 3.8 10.0
Dical phosphate 0.32 0.31 97.0 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Salt-trace min 0.15 0.15 99.0 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
ADE Premix 0.20 0.20 98.0 0.00 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 0.0
lbs. lbs. % Mcal/d lb./d lb./d lb./d lb./d lb./d
Totals by weight 102.88 51.44 50.0 37.33 9.1 2.8 15.8 14.1 9.7
Requirements 51.24 0.0 38.08 8.4 2.9 14.3 10.8 9.7
—differences— 102.88 0.20 50.0 -0.75 0.7 -0.1 1.4 3.3 0.0

==================================DIET SUMMARY==================================
Nutrient(unit) Total Reqt Nutrient(unit) Total Reqt
CP(%DM) 17.65 16.34 K(%DM) 1.51 1.00
UndegP(%CP) 30.30 31.63 Na(%DM) 0.19 0.18
DegP(%CP) 69.70 52.45 Cl(%DM) 0.36 0.25
AbsP(%DM) 11.13 11.37 S(%DM) 0.22 0.20
SolP(%CP) 30.41 26.23 co(ppm) 0.12 0.10
BndP(%CP) 6.96 cu(ppm) 11.61 10.00
NEl(Mcal/lb.) 0.73 0.74 Fe(ppm) 93.93 50.00
NEm(Mcal/lb.) 0.74 I(ppm) 0.58 0.60
NEg(Mcal/lb.) 0.47 Mn(ppm) 45.14 40.00
TDN(%DM) 70.50 0.00 Se(pPm) 0.29 0.30
ADF(%DM) 18.92 19.00* Zn(ppm) 43.91 40.00
NDF(%DM) 30.66 28.00* VitA(KIU/lb.) 1.90 1.81
EfNDF(%NDF) 89.34 75.00* VitD(KIU/lb.) 0.57 0.45
NFC(%DM) 41.85 0.00 VitE(IU/lb.) 11.43 6.80
Starch(%DM) 34.86 0.00 Cost($/lb.) 0.C4
FermSt(%Starch) 56.78 0.00 Cost($/day) 3.63
Lipid(%DM) 3.05 0.00 Cost($/lbDM) 0.07
Animal(%Lipid) 0.00 0.00 AbsP(lb./d) 5.73 5.82
Veg(%Lipid) 100.00 0.00 se(mg/d) 6.74 6.97
Inert(%Lipid) 0.00 0.00 VitA(KIU/d) 98.00 92.97
Ash(%DM) 6.79 0.00 VitD(KIU/d) 29.40 23.24
ca(%DM) 0.72 0.65 VitE(IU/d) 588.00 348.63
p(%DM) 0.41 0.41
Mg(%DM) 0.24 0.25

=============================RATIOS & RELATIONSHIPS=============================

% Forage in diet DM: 62.8% DMI / Body Weight : 3.8%

Intake NDF/Body Weight: 1.2% Forage NDF / Required NDF : 94.5%
Cation-Anion(meq/100g DM): 36.2 Ca / P : 1.76
$Feed / 1001b Milk(Target):$4.53 $Feed / 1001b Milk(Actual) :$ 5.31
Actual Milk Prod (lbs/d): 65 Actual DMI (lbs/d) : 49.0

50

A
dairy manager must
decide the value of all
feeds raised or purchased
on the farm. Even if the feed is
raised, it is not free: it should be
valued. Several methods are list-
ed for comparing feeds.
PRICING FORAGES
Using Relative Feed Value
(RFV). Relative feed value of
legumes and grasses is based on
dry matter intake and digestible
dry matter content of the forage.
Hay auctions can determine the
value of a relative feed value point.
For example, if all lots of high
alfalfa hay sold for an average of
$128 a ton with an average RFV of
160, an RFV point was worth 80
cents ($128 divided by 160). Thus,
hay with an RFV of 120 could be
valued at $96 a ton (120 times
$0.80). Protein content is not used
when calculating RFV.
Using Feed Constants. In the
1960’s, F.B. Morrison developed
equations to value feeds based on
shelled corn as an energy base
and soybean meal (44%) as a pro-
tein base. Iowa State specialists
updated these constants and
these are listed in Table 8.1. To
calculate the dollar value of a feed
in Table 8.1, follow these steps.
Step 1. Multiply the current
price of corn ($/ton) by the energy
constant for the feed listed.
Chapter 8
Purchasing
and
valuing feed
Example for oat hay: price per ton for all four steps. Be
Energy value: +0.221 (energy sure all prices are on the same
constant) X $100 (value one ton weight basis (ton, cwt, or pound):
shelled corn) = $22.10 do not mix price per bushel with
Step 2. Multiply the current price per ton. In the example, a
price for soybean meal 44% ton of oat hay would be worth:
($/ton) by the protein constant for $22.10 + (-$56.10) + $72.96 =
feed listed. Example for oat hay: $38.96
Protein value: -0.187 (protein Pricing corn silage. One
constant) X $300 (value one ton approach is to consider standing
soybean meal) = $ 56.10 corn to be harvested as silage or
Step 3. If the feed is a forage, grain. The formula is listed to cal-
multiply the current price for culate a ton of corn silage on an
average quality hay ($/ton) by the as-fed or wet basis (35% DM):
fiber constant for the feed. (6 times $/bu of shelled corn)
Example for oat hay: + ensiling costs/ton
Fiber value: 0.912 (fiber con- The number 6 is based on the
stant) X $80 (value for one ton of relationship that one acre of
average forage) = $ 72.96 standing corn will yield 100
Step 4. Add the values from bushels of corn or 16 tons of corn
steps 1, 2, and 3 together (if a silage (on an as-fed or wet basis).
value is negative, subtract it from Adjust the constant based on your
the positive numbers). Note that corn silage and grain yields. An
in the above example, we’ve used example is listed below using
USING RELATIVE FORAGE QUALITY (RFQ)
University of Wisconsin workers developed a new method to pre-
dict forage quality based on forage species, NDF in vitro
digestibility, summative equations and an updated dry matter
intake equation. Relative Forage Quality, or RFQ, can replace
Relative Feed Value, or RFV. The advantage of this approach is to
assess NDF digestibility resulting in correct value for grass-
based forages. RFQ values will be similar to RFV values (80 to
200), but require the users to accurately report forage type as
different equations will be used to predict RFQ by forage testing
labs.
51
❚ ❙ TABLE 8.1. FEED EVALUATION FACTORS FOR ESTIMATING DOLLAR $3/bu corn and harvesting costs
of $7 per ton (custom harvest
VALUE OF FEEDS BASED ON ENERGY (CORN), PROTEIN (SOYBEAN MEAL),
AND FIBER (ALFALFA HAY - PRICES ON AS-FED OR WET BASIS* rate). (6 x $3/bu) + $7 = $25 per
ton for wet corn silage
FACTORS Another approach is to multiply
Soybean Alfalfa
Feed DM meal Corn hay** the price of shelled corn on a
DRY FORAGES: bushel basis by 9 or 10. For exam-
Alfalfa —Prime 89 0.191 0.057 0.742 ple, if shelled corn is priced at
Grade 1 89 0.045 0.067 0.879 $3/bu, corn silage would be
Grade 2 89 0.000 0.000 1.000 priced at $30 a ton ($3/bu x 10). If
Grade 3 89 -0.071 -0.080 1.146
Grade4 91 -0.090 -0.122 1.106 shelled corn prices range from $2
Bromegrass —late veg. 89 -0.116 0.191 0.932 to $3 a bushel, both methods
late bloom 89 -0.280 -0.065 1.352 result in similar answers.
Clover —red—average 89 -0.019 0.053 0.963
Com —cobs 90 -0.279 0.149 0.982
stover 87 -0.276 0.079 1.059
Oat hay —mature 91 -0.187 0.221 0.912
Orchardgrass—average 89 -0.168 0.038 1.127
Sorghum-sudan —3 ft 89 -0.068 -0.090 1.207 SELECTING CORN SILAGE
dough 89 -0.174 0.046 1.141 Dairy managers have choices
Soybean stover 88 -0.365 -0.147 1.498
Straw —oat/wheat 89 -0.355 -0.066 1.400 when selecting corn hybrids
Sweetclover hay 87 -0.001 -0.063 0.880 for corn silage as commercial
Timothy —immature 89 -0.085 0.141 0.929 companies have expanded
mature 89 -0.233 -0.014 1.237 choices. Select corn silage
SILAGES hybrids that produce the
Com—well eared 35 -0.059 0.190 0.263
average, 40-60 bu/a 35 -0.054 0.156 0.269 most desired nutrients per
few ears, 5-20 bu/a 35 -0.050 0.113 0.282 acre which includes quality
stunted 35 -0.046 0.091 0.282 and yield (growing heifers
NPN added 35 -0.024 0.116 0.296 compared to lactating cows),
Forage sorghum 26 -0.079 0.055 0.321 starch levels (over 30 per-
Oats —boot 30 -0.013 0.010 0.330
dough 32 -0.073 -0.003 0.432 cent), desired nutrients per
Sorghum-sudan —3 ft 30 -0.023 -0.030 0.407 ton of dry matter (energy for
dough 30 -0.059 0.016 0.384 high producing and early lac-
GRAINS & BY-PRODUCTS: tation cows), and agronomic
Barley 89 0.113 0.835 characteristics (stacked
Brewers grains —dry 92 0.473 0.324
wet 24 0.123 0.085 genes for insect, disease, and
Corn, shelled 89 0.000 1.000 weed control). Two comput-
Corn, ear 87 -0.001 0.882 er-based systems can be used
Corn gluten feed —dry 90 0.316 0.592 to assist in the selection
wet 43 0.146 0.309 process: Milk 2006 by the
Corn screenings 90 0.184 0.700
Cottonseeds 93 0.307 0.870 University of Wisconsin and
Cottonseed meal 93 0.949 -0.042 Corn Picker by the Michigan
Distillers -dry gr/sol. 92 0.514 0.531 State University.
Linseed meal 91 0.773 0.122
Molasses, cane —dry 96 -0.108 0.974
wet 75 -0.085 0.761
Oats 89 0.110 0.751
Sorghum/milo 88 0.068 0.847
Soy hulls 91 0.081 0.821
Soybean seed 90 0.785 0.320
Soybean meal —44% 89 1.000 0.000
Sunflower meal —28% 93 0.638 -0.325
Wheat —grain 89 0.110 0.849
bran 89 0.239 0.603
midds 90 0.251 0.667

** Hay grade 2; 36-40% ADF, 47-53% NDF, 15-18% CP

52
 of 1 lb. of crude protein using soy-
bean meal would be $0.34 per
INTERPRETING NDFD FORAGE VALUES
pound ($15 per cwt/ 44 lbs. pro-
Higher forage digestibility increases feed efficiency, milk yield,
tein per cwt). Once a base protein
and dry matter intake as cows convert more fiber to meet animal
value has been calculated, other
requirements. The “new” forage measurement is NDFD (neutral
protein sources can be compared.
detergent fiber digestibility) which reflects cell wall digestion as
Similar approaches can be done
a source of rumen fermentable carbohydrate. In the lab, rumen
for mineral and fat nutrient com-
fluid is mixed with forage and incubated for a time period mea-
parisons. Several factors should
suring the percent of NFD that is digested. For each one per-
be considered when pricing nutri-
centage point increase in NDFD, milk yield can increase 0.5
ents, especially with commercial
pound and dry matter intake increases 0.33 pound. Guidelines
supplements.
are listed below for 48 hour in vitro tests.
• Commercial supplements
contain other nutrients besides
Forage Target Value Range Value
the calculated nutrient (protein
-----------------% DM ------------------
for example). Added minerals and
Corn silage NDFD > 55 44 to 72
vitamins also increase economic
Legume / grass hay NDFD > 50 38 to 75
and nutrient value. By-product
Legume / grass silage NDFD > 50 32 to 79
feeds such as fuzzy cottonseed
have multiple sources of nutrients
Another factor to consider is the length of time the in vitro test
(protein, fat, phosphorus and
was conducted. Three time periods can be reported: 24 hours,
effective fiber).
30 hours, and 48 hours. The 24 hour test can be used with corn
• Commercial products have
silage as starch degradation is more rapid and forage particle
other factors that add value
size is shorter. The 30-hour test period reflects the normal for-
besides nutrients (such as bag-
age retention time in the rumen. The 48 hour test period
ging, delivery, processing, ration
reflects the maximum fiber digestibility and is most repeatable.
balancing and feed testing).
The difference in NDFD values between 30 and 48 hours can be
• All nutrients are not equal in
5 to 8 percentage points. The use of NIR-based NDFD tests is
value. Protein has more value
cheaper, quicker, and useful for field applications.
depending on its amino acid pro-
file, by-pass characteristics, and
palatability. Most dairy farmers
PRICING BY-PRODUCT FEEDS PRICING CONCENTRATE FEEDS purchase some feed supple-
Computer programs are avail- One method is divide the price ments. Feed tags list guaranteed
able to price by-product feeds. A of a feed by the amount of nutri- level of nutrients which are
popular series of spread sheet ent in the feed. For example, soy- expressed on an air-dry or 90
programs called Feed Val were bean meal at $15.00 per 100 lbs., percent dry matter basis. Convert
developed by the University of a protein source, would contain the feed tag values to a 100 per-
Wisconsin. Break-even feed prices 44 lbs. of crude protein. The value cent dry matter basis by dividing
listed in Table 8.2 were based on
shelled corn as an energy base, ❚ ❙ FIGURE 8.1 SAMPLE FEED TAG
44% soybean meal as a protein
ABC FEED
base, tallow as a fat base
($29/cwt), dicalcium phosphate
as a phosphorous source d analyses . .36.0%
($22/cwt), and limestone as a cal- Guarantee no le s s than . . .
cium source ($7/cwt). If you can Crude pro
tein
o t m o r e than 11.5%
des n
purchase a feed below the break- (This inclu ein
even price in Table 8.2, it is an uivalen t crude prot en)
eq rog
economical source of nutrients protein nit . . . . . . .3
%
from non- . . . . . . .
if all the nutrients are needed ..... ........
.6%
by the dairy cow. Crude fat . . . . . . .
r ..
Feed constants in Table 8.1 Crude fibe
can also be used to price by-prod-
uct feeds using the same method
as forages, but no fiber constants
are used.

53
by 0.90. For example, a 36 per-
cent protein tag feed would be ❚ ❙ TABLE 8.2. BREAK-EVEN FEED PRICES USING FEED VAL 3.
entered as 40 percent on a 100 Various prices for shelled corn ($5 and $6 per bushel) and soy-
percent dry matter basis (36% bean meal ($300 and $400 a ton); tallow @ $30/cwt; dicalcium
protein feed tag value divided by phosphate @ $30/cwt; limestone @ $7/cwt.
0.9 equals 40% protein on a
100% DM basis). Protein by-product feeds (corn @ $6/bu)
If urea or other sources of non- -----$/ton-----
protein nitrogen was added to the Price of SBM (44%) 300 400
commercial feed, it will be listed Price of SBM (48%) 310 425
on the feed tag under crude pro-
tein with this type of statement Blood meal 647 1061
(Figure 8.1): Brewers grain, dry 256 333
Canola meal (34% CP) 234 297
“ABC FEED: This includes
Corn gluten meal 489 739
11.5 percent equivalent crude Corn distillers grain 316 392
protein from non-protein nitro-
gen.” Fish meal 647 958
This example feed (ABC Feed) Pork meat and bone meal 667 924
does not contain 11.5 percent Soybeans, heated (55% RUP) 424 580
urea. To convert to urea, divide Heat treated soybean meal 406 583
11.5 by 287: Because urea con-
tains 46 percent nitrogen, multi- Energy by-product feeds (soybean meal @ $400/T)
plying the percent nitrogen times -----$/bushel-----
Corn (base energy feed) 5.00 6.00
6.25 converts urea to crude pro-
tein equivalent, 287 percent. Beet pulp 151 188
This feed would contain 4 per- Corn gluten feed 202 234
cent urea (11.5 X 100 divided by Corn hominy 193 230
287). If a cow consumes 4 lbs. Fuzzy cottonseed, whole 322 335
(1.8 kg) of supplement ABC Feed, Molasses 89 126
she’s consuming 0.16 lb. (72.6 g) Oats 130 159
of urea a day. Soy hulls 153 189
Limit the level of supplemental Wheat midds 185 212
urea for dairy cows to less than
0.4 lb. (181 g) per cow per day.
Feed tags must list feed ingre- CORN DIGESTIBILITY
dients used in manufacturing Processing corn grain to an optimal particle size, heat treat-
feed. Some companies will list all ment, and/or high moisture content can increase rumen fer-
individual feeds used while oth- mentation and availability. Energy content of shelled corn
ers companies will list collective related to processing effect is listed below.
groups outlined below:
• animal protein products Corn process Mcal / lb dry matter
(such as blood meal); Cracked corn (2200 micron) 0.84
• forage products (such as Ground corn (1500 micron) 0.89
alfalfa meal); High moisture corn (over 26% moisture) 0.93
• grain products (such as bar- Steam flaked corn (24 lb bu weight) 0.93
ley); Finely ground corn (1000 micron) 0.96
• plant protein products (such
as soybean meal); Correctly processed corn can increase energy content and
• processed by-product (such rumen fermentation. Optimizing rumen fermentation can
as citrus pulp); improve total starch and ration digestibility. Favorable rumen
• roughage products (such as pH (over 5.8), microbial VFA pattern (over 2.2 parts rumen
corn cobs). acetate to 1 part propionate), and low levels of lactic acid can
By using collective terms, feed improve microbial yield and cow performance. Use of rumen
companies can use different feeds buffers (0.75 percent sodium bicarbonate), yeast culture,
(usually based on least-cost for- direct fed microbials, mycotoxin binders, and ionophores can
mulations) without changing feed be beneficial.
tags. Other companies will lock in
or guarantee feed ingredients

54
 CHARGING FOR SERVICE
A dairy manager may pay for nutritional service several ways.
Be sure you do not pay more than once.
Each approach results in 10¢/cow/day.
Method 1: 10¢ per cow per day
Method 2: $40 to $80 per hour of time spent
Method 3: Built into feed costs:
Complete grain mix (20 lbs./cow): Add $10 per ton;
Protein supplement (5 lbs./cow): Add $40 per ton;
Mineral supplement ( 1 lb./cow): Add $200 per ton
Trace mineral/vitamin premix (0.25 lb./cow):
Add $800 per ton.

regardless of price to maintain energy compared to carbohy-

feed consistency and palatability
from different batches of feed
delivered to the farm.
No energy value appears on
most feed tags. The following for-
mula may be helpful when esti-
mating an energy value for a
commercial supplement.
TDN (as-fed DM basis) = 80
minus (crude fiber - 2) minus
(mineral content - 2) plus ([fat -3]
times 2.25)
These adjustments reduce
energy as fiber content increases
(less digestible feeds were used),
decrease energy as mineral or
ash increases (no energy in min-
eral), and increase energy with
more fat (fat is 2.25 greater in
drates). This formula is based on
shelled corn. An example for an
18 percent protein complete grain
mix containing 8 percent crude
fiber, 4 percent fat, and 5 percent
ash (contains added salt, miner-
al, and buffer) is calculated
below.
TDN = 80 - (8- 2) - (5 - 2) +
([4 - 3] x 2.25) =
80 - 6 - 3 + 2.25 = 73
The TDN value for this supple-
ment is on an air dry basis.
Convert this value to 100% DM
basis if used in a computer pro-
gram by dividing by 0.9, which
equals 80 (73/0.9).

55

M
etabolic disorders vary in
their frequency from
herd to herd. But any
frequency means a loss in pro-
duction along with related health
care costs. The result is losses in
profitability. So a goal should be
to minimize the occurrence of
these problems.
Often the cause can be traced
to some deficiency in the feeding
program or management. Ration
adjustments, daily inspections of
animals, and consultation with
your veterinarian can correct
these problems.
The following list of feed related
disorders with a typical frequency,
a description of the condition, and
possible approaches to prevent
the disorder are outlined below.
ACIDOSIS
Occurrence: 10-33%
Description: The rumen pH
drops below 6 for extended time
periods. A common field term is
SARA (subacute rumen acidosis).
Animals’ feed intake declines,
manure can become runny, lami-
nitis can occur 4 to 6 weeks later,
and hardship lines or grooves
form on the face of the hoof. Milk
fat test may drop 0.2 points below
the milk protein test. A vet-
erinarian may conduct rumen-
ocentesis on several cows to mea-
sure actual pH (cows below pH 5.5
would be indicative of SARA). In
severe cases when pH drops below
5, acute acidosis can occur,
resulting in dehydration, sunken
eyes and sick cows. Immediate
veterinary intervention is needed.
Prevention: Avoid rations that
can lead to low rumen pH (see
Chapter 1). High energy feeds,
reduced feed particle size, feeding
unsaturated oil, and slug feeding
can lead to acidosis. Feeding 0.75
percent of the ration dry matter as
sodium bicarbonate can stabilize
rumen pH above 6. Free choice
sodium bicarbonate may be con-
sumed by cows with acidosis.
Increasing the feeding levels of
long forages can also improve
rumination and saliva flow.
BLOAT
Occurrence: Less than 1%
Description: An excessive accu-
mulation of rumen gases is
trapped in the rumen due to com-
paction, formation of a foam-trap-
ping gas, or lack of eructation
(belching). The animal becomes
distended on the left side (bal-
loons out), breathing is difficult,
and death can occur. Feeding
legume-based pasture can
increase the foam-trapped gas
while slug feeding of grain can
lead to a gaseous bloat.
Prevention: For legume-based
bloat, introduce animals to lush
56
Chapter 9
Feeding
disorders
pasture gradually, provide 5 to 10
lbs. (2.3 to 4.5 kg) of long forage to
stimulate rumination and eructa-
tion, and supplement with a bloat
prevention additive (such as
poloxalene or anti-foam agents).
Do not turn cattle out on pasture
when they are hungry, as this
may lead to over-consumption.
To minimize grain bloat, adjust
cattle to the diet and the amount
to 5 lbs. (2.3 kg) of dry matter per
meal. If a severe bloat occurs,
immediate veterinary intervention
is needed. Some animals develop
a chronic or continuous bloating
condition and may warrant
culling.
DISPLACED ABOMASUM
(TWISTED STOMACH OR DA)
Occurrence: 3-5%
Description: The fourth com-
partment of the stomach moves
from the lower right side to the left
side. This left-sided displacement
or LDA is most common, and
makes up 80 to 90 percent of all
displacements. A right side dis-
placement (RDA) occurs when the
abomasum twists or turns on the
right side, cutting off the blood
supply: immediate surgery is
needed.
Symptoms of a displacement
include a drop in feed intake and
signs of ketosis. Diagnosis can be
done by listening with a stetho-

ECONOMIC IMPACT OF METABOLIC DISORDERS
Cornell workers have calculated the cost of each disorder
including lost milk, veterinary cost if needed, added farm labor,
drugs and treatment costs, culling, and death losses (if it
occurs).
• Displaced abomasums
• Ketosis
• Lameness
• Milk fever
• Retained placenta
scope to the “pinging” sound made
when the veterinarian taps the
cow’s left side. If the LDA is
enlarged, it can be seen on the left
side toward the top of the cow.
Displacements often occur near
calving (one week before to three
weeks after calving).
Prevention: Developing a transi-
tion phase feeding program (see
Chapter 4) can minimize dis-
placed abomasums. Feeding 5 lbs.
(2.3 kg) of long forage helps main-
tain rumen fill. Gradually increase
grain to avoid gas formation in the
abomasum. Low blood calcium
(hypocalcemia) can reduce stom-
ach movements. If cows go off-
feed near calving, ketosis and DA
can result. Control metabolic dis-
orders and diseases to maintain
health and feed intake.
ERGOT
Occurrence: Very low
Description: A fungus infects
the flower of cereal grains and
grasses, forming a large purple to
black abnormal growth. Ergot tox-
icity is caused by alkaloids that
reduce blood flow to feet and tail;
the switch can drop off, and foot
disorders may occur. Ergot also
triggers abortion, and reduces
milk flow by affecting the cow's
hormonal balance. Animals may
act abnormally.
Prevention: Avoid feeding cereal
grains containing over 0.05 per-
cent damaged grain (5 kernels in
10,000). Clip pasture to remove
seed heads of mature grass.
Dilute suspected feed; do not feed
intake prior to calving using a
close-up dry cow ration higher in
nutrient content. Anionic salts
can maintain blood calcium which
influences smooth muscle con-
tractions in the digestive tract. A
gradual transition to the early lac-
tation ration can minimize meta-
$340 bolic disorders. Use of 12 grams of
$145 niacin (slows body fat mobiliza-
$301 tion), drenching with one pint
$334 (one-half liter) of propylene glycol
$285 (source of blood glucose), and
buffers (maintain a favorable
rumen environment) can be effec-
to pregnant animals; watch for
tive.
toxicity signs.
GRASS TETANY
FATTY LIVER SYNDROME
Occurrence: Low
Occurrence: Low
Description: Cows consuming
Description: If fresh cows don't
lush pasture high in nitrogen and
consume sufficient energy after
potassium can lead to low magne-
calving to satisfy energy needs,
sium absorption. Affected animals
they will mobilize body fat. The
can develop tetany, walk stiffly,
cow uses fatty acids for milk fat
become disoriented, convulse and
synthesis, but her liver takes in
die. Blood levels of magnesium are
fatty acids. The more fatty acids
low.
are mobilized, the more the liver
Prevention: Supplement ani-
absorbs.The liver can not handle
mals with a source of magnesium
the extra non-esteri-
fied fatty acids (NEFA)
Left-sided displaced abomasums occur far
and they are stored in
more commonly than displacements on the
the liver, where they
cow’s right side.
interfere with impor-
tant liver cell activities.
Fatty liver syndrome
cows often die.
Most high produc-
ing cows and close-up
dry cows will have ele-
vated levels of NEFA. If
fat infiltrates the liver
causing enlargement
and high levels of fat
(over 25 percent), the
cow can experience
reduced feed intake,
ketosis, and impaired
immune system func-
tion. These cows are
also often those with
breeding problems in
the previous lactation
and have had long dry
periods.
Prevention: The key
to prevention is to
maintain dry matter
57
(magnesium oxide or magnesium
sulfate).
HARDWARE DISEASE
Occurrence: Less than 1%
Description: Wire, nails and
metal can get caught in the retic-
ulum due to its low location in
the body cavity, leading to hard-
ware disease. Sharp metal objects
puncture the reticulum causing
irritation and fluid leakage.
Animals will stop eating, move
slowly and walk hunchbacked.
Pressure on the bottom of the
rumen will cause pain. Body tem-
perature may increase due to
infection.
Prevention: Take care to keep
nails, wire or metal out of feed.
Place a magnetic bar in the feed
processing equipment to remove
metal prior to feeding. If a cow
magnet is given orally, it will
remain in the reticulum due to
the weight of the magnet. The
magnet traps and holds metal
objects (nails or wire), avoiding
irritation and damage to the
stomach lining.
KETOSIS (ACETONEMIA)
Occurrence: 2-4%
Description: Ketosis occurs one
week before calving to 8 weeks
after calving when energy balance
is negative. Primary ketosis is
caused by an energy deficiency,
especially blood glucose. The cow
mobilizes body fat which is in-
completely metabolized, leading to
ketone formation. Cows become
thin, milk yield drops, and an ele-
vated level of ketones appears in
blood and milk. Acetone may be
smelled on the cow’s breath.
Secondary ketosis occurs when
another disease or disorder caus-
es the cow to go off feed. If the sec-
ondary disorder is prevented,
ketosis will not develop.
Prevention: Maximize dry mat-
ter intake prior to and immediate-
ly after calving. Top quality forage
will improve nutrient intake.
Review the additives discussed in
the fatty liver section. Severe keto-
sis leads to fatty liver formation.
LAMENESS
Occurrence: 5 to 35%
Description: Dairy cattle can
exhibit sole ulcers, white line sep-
aration, hairy heel warts, foot rot,
laminitis and other foot disorders.
Contributing factors include
rumen acidosis, shortage of zinc
and copper, and poor cow comfort.
The appearance of hardship
grooves on the front of the hoof
often can be observed.
Prevention: Avoid rumen aci-
dosis (note section in this chap-
ter), add 300 mg of organic zinc
and 60 mg of organic copper,
replacing inorganic sources of
zinc and copper, and add 20 mg
of biotin, a B vitamin (see addi-
tives, page 36).
MILK FEVER (PARTURIENT
PARESIS); HYPOCALCEMIA
Occurrence: 4-6% (milk fever)
10-66% (hypocalcemia)
Description: Milk fever occurs at
calving and is caused by low blood
calcium (below 5mg/dl). Blood
magnesium levels can also be low.
The first sign is staggering, then
difficulty in rising, followed by the
cow going down with her head
turned toward her udder. If not
treated, the cow will die. Hypo-
calcemia is more widespread.
These cows are borderline low in
blood calcium (less than 8 mg/dl),
which affects dry matter intake
and uterine contractions that
expel the placenta and fluids after
calving. Hypocalcemia may make
the cow more susceptible to dis-
placed abomasum.
Prevention: Feed dry cows a bal-
anced mineral program, especially
controlling potassium, calcium,
phosphorous, magnesium and vit-
amin D levels (see Appendix tables
2,3). Adding anionic salts will
58
reduce hypocalcemia and milk
fever, especially in diets high in
potassium (see Chapter 12). Oral
calcium gel products can tem-
porarily raise blood calcium levels.
MOLDY FEED
Occurrence: Variable
Description: When fungus and
mold grow on feed, they can pro-
duce toxic substances (such as
aflatoxin, vomitoxin, T-2, and
zearalenone) which can negatively
impact rumen microbes, cause
liver degeneration, reduce fertility
and milk yield, and impair the
immune system. Feeds that are
stored too wet or do not ferment
properly can result in mold dam-
age.
Prevention: Damaged or suspect
feed should be tested to determine
the level in feed and diluted with
good feed down to safe levels. Do
not feed moldy feed to young or
pregnant animals. If aflatoxin in
the total ration dry matter is over
20 parts per billion, the levels in
milk may exceed FDA maximum
allowable guidelines (0.5 ppb).
NITRATE POISONING
Occurrence: Very low
Description: Nitrates are con-
verted to nitrites which bind with
blood hemoglobin. The blood
appears dark brown, can not
carry oxygen, and the animal will
labor to breathe. Acute cases
result in death. Feed and water
levels of nitrates and nitrites are
additive, and can combine to
reach toxic levels.
Prevention: Avoid feeding
stressed forages (drought or frost
damaged) and weeds that can be
high in nitrate content. Test your
well water. Levels below 1,000
parts per million of nitrate nitro-
gen or 4,400 parts per million of
nitrates in total ration dry matter
are considered safe to feed. Dilute
out the high nitrate feed or fer-
ment it to reduce the level.
 PRUSSIC ACID POISONING
Occurrence: Very low
Description: Drought- or frost-
stressed sorghum and sudan
grass can produce hydrocyanic
acid, which is toxic to animals.
Plant content also is increased
under heavy nitrogen fertilization,
wilting, trampling and plant dis-
ease. Affected animals will breathe
rapidly, act depressed, convulse
and may die.
Prevention: Avoid feeding
young, succulent plants that are
less than 24 inches (60 cm) in
height, or plants under the condi-
tions described above. Pasture is
more dangerous, as selective graz-
ing occurs. Harvesting the forage
as dry hay or ensiling it can
reduce the risk of poisoning.
UDDER EDEMA
Occurrence: 5- 15%
Description: Edema is an excess
accumulation of fluid (lymph)
under the skin in the udder, espe- released in the rumen. Blood
cially in springing heifers. It is absorbs excess ammonia, which
more prevalent in older heifers must be detoxified by the liver.
and damages the ligaments in the The animal can exhibit muscle
mammary gland. tremors, salivation, and labored
Prevention: Limit the amount of breathing leading to death.
sodium and potassium to cows Prevention: Limit the amount of
close to calving (avoid free choice supplemental urea to 0.4 lb. (181
salt). Remove sodium-based g) per cow per day, and calculate
buffer products from close-up dry the amount of soluble intake pro-
cow rations. High grain feeding tein ( see Chapter 2).
can also increase the severity of
udder edema on some farms.
Massaging the udder, prepartum
milking (increases blood flow
through the udder), and use of
diuretics (under the guidance of a
veterinarian) can reduce udder
congestion.
UREA TOXICITY
Occurrence: Rarely occurs.
Description: If too much urea is
fed at one feeding, or animals are
not adjusted to urea, excessive
amounts of ammonia can be

MYCOTOXIN GUIDELINES
One approach is to test the suspect feed for mycotoxins.
Accurate sampling must occur. The following values (expressed
as levels in the total ration dry matter) can used as guidelines.

a. DON (vomitoxin) < 6.0 ppm (parts per million)

b. Fumonisin < 6.0 ppm
c. Aflatoxin < 20 ppb (parts per billion)
d. T-2 toxin < 100 ppb
e. Zearalenone < 300 ppb

The alfatoxin level is for lactating dairy cows to avoid milk lev-
els over 0.5 ppb (maximum allowed by FDA). These toxin values
are for lactating dairy cows and young heifers. Older animals can
tolerate higher levels.

Mycotoxin binders are feed additives than can tie up mycotox-

in, allowing it to pass out of the animal and not be absorbed.
Clay-based compounds such as bentonite, zeolite and calcium
aluminosilicate can bind aflatoxin. The level of added binders
varies from 2 to 8 ounces per cow per day. Yeast cell wall extracts
(also call MOS and glucomannans) are effective when dealing with
T-2 toxins, DON, and zearalenone. A typical feeding rate is 10
grams per cow per day. Activated clay has been fed.

59
 Chapter 10
Calf feeding
guidelines

C
olostrum, the first milk
produced by the fresh cow,
is the first food needed by
the newborn calf: the sooner the
better, and in ample quantity.
Colostrum is rich in protein, fat,
minerals and antibodies (Table
10.1). Colostrum must be fed im-
mediately after birth for several
reasons.
1. Newborn calves have no dis-
ease protection, as blood antibod-
ies can not cross the placental
barrier from the dam to the calf.
And calves are exposed to infec-
tious bacteria as soon as they are
born: in the calving pen or by
nursing dirty teats, for example.
Colostrum is high in antibodies
(immunoglobulins) secreted by
the cow the last two weeks prior to
calving.
2. Intact antibodies (large pro-
tein molecules) are absorbed
across the calf's intestinal lining
until closure occurs: at this point,
the intestine can not absorb pro-
tein molecules. Closure can start
6 to 12 hours after birth and is
completed 12 to 36 hours after
birth. So if you wait from night
until the next morning to feed the
calf colostrum, much of the anti-
bodies in the colostrum may not
be absorbed.
3. From the time of the calf's
birth on, as the calf's ability to
absorb colostral antibodies dimin-
ishes, so too do the nutrient con-
tent and antibody levels in
colostrum decline (Table 10.1).
Calves should receive colos-
trum in an amount equivalent to 8
to 10 percent of their body weight
within the first 12 hours after
birth: so a 90-pound (41 kg) calf
times 10 percent equals 9 lbs. of
colostrum, or at least a gallon (4
l.). A minimum of 2 quarts (2 l.), or
4 lbs., should be removed from
the cow, checked with a
colostrometer for quality, and fed
to the calf within 30 minutes of
birth to insure desired intake has
occurred.
Some veterinarians and nutri-
tionists recommend feeding one
gallon of colostrum to large breed
calves immediately after birth (use
of an esophageal feeder may be
needed) to build high levels of
blood antibodies. Calves may not
consume much colostrum in the
next feeding (do not force feed if a
gallon [4 l.] was fed at the first
feeding).
English researchers reported
that calves allowed to nurse the
cow had more sickness and death

❚ ❙ TABLE 10.1. COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF COLOSTRUM, WHOLE MILK AND RECONSTITUTED
MILK REPLACER (1 LB. POWDER + 7 LBS. WATER [454 G + 3.3 LITERS).
First Second Second Third Whole Reconstituted
Item milking milking day day milk milk replacer
Specific gravity, g/ml 1.056 1.040 1.034 1.033 1.032
Total solids, % 23.9 17.9 14.0 13.6 12.9 12.5
Fat, % 6.7 5.4 4.1 4.3 4.0 2.5
Nonfat solids, % 16.7 12.2 9.6 9.5 8.8 11.25
Protein, % 14.0 8.4 4.6 4.1 3.1 2.8
Lactose, % 2.7 3.9 4.5 4.7 5.0 variable
Immunoglobulins, % 6.0 4.2 1.0 — — 0
Source: Feeding the Dairy Herd

60
loss compared to calves fed known
amounts of colostrum from a bot-
tle or pail. When the calf nurses,
you never can be sure how much
it has consumed.
Colostrum from Johnes-free
cows should be fed to all calves:
cows should be tested and colos-
trum should not be pooled from
several cows unless they are
Johnes-free.
Excess, high-quality colostrum
that has been measured with a
colostrometer can be frozen for
future use (up to one year), refrig-
erated (one month), or fed to older
calves. Thaw frozen colostrum
gradually to avoid protein (espe-
cially antibodies) breaking down.
Use a warm water bath or low
power setting with a microwave.
Surplus colostrum fed to older
calves should be diluted to avoid
high levels of dry matter that may
lead to digestive upsets. Target the
final liquid mixture to contain 12
to 15 percent dry matter (two
parts colostrum and one part
warm water).
Another alternative is to store
excess colostrum in a plastic bar-
rel and allow it to ferment, form-
ing soured colostrum. The pH of
the soured colostrum will drop to
4 and remain stable when stored
at barn temperatures as a “pick-
led” colostrum milk. Stir the fer-
menting colostrum daily to main-
tain a uniform product. Mix two
parts soured colostrum to one
part warm water and feed. Adding
several tablespoons (30 to 60 ml)
of sodium bicarbonate can
improve palatability and accept-
ability by raising pH just prior to
feeding (it will foam up, but does
not affect calf acceptance). Adding
one percent propionic acid (1 cup
per six gallons [250 ml per 24 l.] of
colostrum) to fresh colostrum will
“pickle” it without fermentation.
Colostrum supplements are
commercially available with guar-
anteed levels of antibodies. These
products are extracted from
whey, colostrum from immune-
stimulated cows, or monoclonal
antibody technology. Research
studies indicate these products
are not equal to the cow’s
colostrum, but can be effective if
no colostrum is available – for
example, if the cow has milk
fever, if colostrum is from a
Johnes-infected cow or colostrum
is poor quality.
LIQUID DIET CHOICES COLOSTROMETER
About 40 percent of calves are Similar to a hydrometer used
fed whole milk. Whole milk is to test auto batteries, the
higher in protein and fat com- colostrometer is a practical
pared to milk replacer (Table way to measure colostrum
10.1), but it is more expensive. quality. The colostrometer
Whole milk can cost $1 to $1.50 shown is calibrated with a
per day while a high quality milk green, yellow and red scale.
replacer costs 70 cents a day. On The level at which the
the other hand, if soured colos- colostrometer floats indi-
trum is available, feed costs are cates the amount of immune-
minimal. Another consideration is producing substances in the
the possibility of milk exposing colostrum milk. Green is
the calf to Johnes disease. superior, yellow is moderate
Milk replacer (Table 10.2) can and red is inferior.
PHOTO COURTESY OF NASCO
vary in the level of nutrients and
quality of ingredients used.
Review the feed tag to evaluate Crude protein levels should be 20
feed sources. Young calves (less percent or higher with a minimum
than two weeks) should receive a of 10 percent fat. Fat content
milk-based ingredients replacer. should be 15 to 20 percent when

ACCELERATED CALF FEEDING PROGRAMS

Cornell University and University of Illinois
have reported an approach in increasing the
rate of frame growth (not fattening) in young
replacement heifers. The following changes
result in replacement heifer calve gaining 2 to 3
lbs. (1 to 1.5 kg) per day prior to weaning.
• Milk replacer contains 26 to 28 crude pro-
tein and 15 to 20% fat (depending on environ-
mental stress).
• Calves are fed 2 to 3 lbs. (1 to 1.5 kg) of
powder per day in a more concentrated solution
(14 to 17 percent solids).
• Calf starter contains 20 to 22 percent
crude protein to maintain growth after weaning.
The accelerated program will increase calf feed
costs prior to weaning, but heifers can be
raised faster and freshen at an earlier age based
on the faster initial growth.

61
calves are exposed to cold weather
or stress conditions. Milk replac-
ers have several advantages com-
pared to whole milk:
• Fortified with mineral and vit-
amins;
• Antibiotics can be added to
control disease;
• Coccidiostat can be added to
prevent coccidiosis;
• Mixed when needed;
• Avoid the risk of Johnes dis-
ease.
Mastitic milk or waste milk can
be used as a liquid feed for calves.
Waste milk can be fed at the same
level as whole milk or milk replac-
er. Bloody or watery waste milk
and first milk after treating for
mastitis should be discarded.
Waste milk may not ferment if
antibiotics are present. Do not sell
calves as feeders if they’ve been
fed waste milk, as a drug residue
can appear in the meat. Mastitic
milk should not be fed to calves
under two days of age, as the
intestine may not have closed
completely.
If female calves can not suck
themselves or other female calves,
the risk of mastitic organisms
from waste milk becoming estab-
lished in the immature female
calf's udder is minimized.
Feeding guidelines for liquid
diets are 8 to 10 percent of the
calf's body weight as milk or milk
replacer (100-pound calf times 8
percent equals 8 lbs. of milk
replacer or 1 gallon). Feeding
calves twice a day is recommend-
ed to monitor health and appetite.
Once-a-day feeding can be suc-
cessful if management is excellent
and the liquid diet is concentrat-
ed. Water should be available at
all times, especially as the calf
increases in age or weather is
warm.
CALF STARTER
The first dry feed a calf con-
sumes is a calf starter which con-
tains grain and protein supple-
ments designed to develop the
calf's rumen and provide an eco-

❚ ❙ TABLE 10.2. RECOMMENDED NUTRIENT CONTENT OF DIETS FOR DAIRY HEIFERS (DRY MATTER BASIS).
Growing heifers
Calf Pregnant
milk Calf months of age 2 months
replacer starter 3-6 6-12 12-24 before calving
Body Weight lbs. (kg) 100 (45) 150 (68) 440 (200) 660 (300) 990 (450) 1250 (568)
Dry matter intake lbs. (kg) 1.5 (.68) 4.5 (2.0) 11 (5.0) 16 (7.2) 25 (11.4) 24 (10.9)
Energy
ME (Mcal/lb) 2.16 1.49 .93 1.03 .82 0.72 (NEl)
ME, (Mcal/kg) 4.75 3.28 2.05 2.27 1.80 1.59 (NEl)
TDN, % of DM 95 80 67 65 65 70

Protein, Fat, Fiber

Crude protein,% 22 22 16 14 12 15.0
Met. protein, % NA NA 7.7 7.0 5.3 9.7
ADF, % — 11.6 20 22 23 25
NDF, % — 12.8 30 32 33 35
Ether extract, % 20 3 2 2 2 3

Minerals
Calcium, % 1.00 0.70 0.41 0.41 0.37 0.48
Phosphorus, % 0.70 0.45 0.28 0.23 0.18 0.26
Magnesium, % 0.07 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.40
Potassium, % 0.65 0.65 0.47 0.48 0.46 0.62
Sodium, % 0.40 0.15 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.14
Chloride, % 0.25 0.20 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.20
Sulfur,% 0.29 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20

Iron, ppm 100 50 43 31 13 26

Cobalt, ppm 0.11 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11
Copper, ppm 10 10 10 10 9 16
Manganese, ppm 40 40 22 20 14 22
Zinc, ppm 40 40 32 27 18 30
Iodine, ppm 0.50 0.25 0.27 0.30 0.30 0.40
Selenium, ppm 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30

Vitamins
Vitamin A, lU 4000 8000 24,000 24,000 36,000 75,000
Vitamin D, lU 270 1200 - 6,000 9,000 13,500 20,000
Vitamin E, IU 100 100 240 240 360 2,000
Adapted from Feeding the Dairy Herd, NRC 2001 and NRC 1989

62
 PASTEURIZING WASTE MILK

Commercial pasteurizers can heat milk to kill
harmful bacteria (such as staph, strep, salmonel-
la, and mycoplasma organisms). Pasteurizing
waste milk (mastitis-treated cows, surplus
colostrum, or treated cows) reduces disease
risk. Regular batch pasteurizing (63°C/145.4°F)
for 30 minutes appears to kill Johne’s organ-
isms, according to recent research. The process
requires added time, labor and top-notch
management.
Pasteurizing colostrum can be difficult, as it is
a thick liquid that may not heat uniformly.
Pasteurization also destroys immunoglobulins:
IgG levels in colostrums are reduced about 25
percent after pasteurization, so it is helpful to
start out with highest quality (60 mg/ml of IgG)
colostrum prior to heating, and to keep heating
time at the minimum while still being effective.
Colostrum also makes cleaning equipment
more difficult. Because of the challenges, pas-
teurization of colostrums may be considered a
last resort when frozen colostrum or colostrum
replacer are not feasible alternatives.
Key items to remember are:
1) start with high quality colostrum (60 mg/ml
of IgG)
2) maintain strict sanitation of colostrum and
pasteurization equipment
3) chill colostrum pre- and post-pasteurization
if it is not used immediately
4) monitor the time and temperature of pasteur-
ization and cleaning processes
5) test bacteria levels (before and after pasteur-
ization) periodically

nomical source of nutrients. A
pound of calf starter can cost 15
to 20 cents while 1 pound of milk
replacer will cost 70 cents a day.
The goal is to get calves weaned
(removed from the liquid diet) to
lower feed costs, reduce the risk of
digestive upsets, and develop the
rumen.
A quality calf starter will have
the nutrient characteristics listed
in Table 10.2.
When the calf is consuming 2
lbs. (0.9 kg) or more calf starter, it
can be weaned. A complete calf
starter (contains added fiber) is
recommended. Free choice forage
fed with a starter can result in
over- or underconsumption of for-
age, which can unbalance the calf
starter. If fiber is provided in the
starter (from oats, barley, soy
hulls or other grain fiber sources),
rumen papillae and muscle devel-
opment will occur.
Once the calf is consuming 3
lbs. (1.4 kg) (small breed calf) or 4
to 5 lbs. (2 to 2.3 kg) (large breed
calf) of calf starter, provide hay or
haylage. Calf starter can be pellet-
ed or fed as coarse grain to stimu-
late palatability. Adding 5 to 10
percent molasses can reduce fines
and dust while stimulating intake.
The calf starter should contain a
coccidiostat.
WATER
Calves must have access to
water to insure adequate liquid
intake, when heat stress is occur-
ring, if fever develops to avoid
dehydration, and to encourage
calf starter intake. Researchers
have reported calf starter intake
was restricted if water was not
available.
The water should be fresh and
clean, and offered starting at 4
days of age. If a calf overconsumes
(leading to water belly calves),
limit the amount, but do not
remove. Monitoring typical water
consumption may provide an
early indicator of disease. Some
calf managers will mark the water
line on the pail to determine if a
calf is drinking more water (possi-
bly due to a fever).

63
 ELECTROLYTE USE
If a calf begins to scour, large
quantities of fluid and minerals
are lost. Feeding an oral elec-
trolyte IN ADDITION TO THE
NORMAL LIQUID DIET can return
fluid balance. Feed one quart (one
liter) of electrolyte 15 to 30 min-
utes or more after each feeding of
milk or milk replacer. Weak calves
may require use of an esophageal
feeder. The calf receives four liquid
feedings a day. Once scouring
subsides, reduce the volume of
electrolyte.
Commercial electrolytes can be
purchased and should be avail-
able on the farm to be used as
soon as diarrhea occurs. If no
commercial product is available,
the following mixture can be used
until a commercial package is
purchased:
1 package of MCP pectin (mak-
ing jelly) – fiber source;
1 teaspoon (5 ml) of low sodium
salt – mineral source;
2 teaspoons (10 ml) of baking
soda – adjusts pH and minerals;
1 can of beef consomme – nutri-
ents and minerals;
Make up to 2 quarts (2 liters)
with water – replaces lost fluids.
FORAGE SOURCES
Calves may pick at hay as early
as one week of age, but they do
not consume significant amounts
until 4 to 8 weeks after birth. If
calves eat hay instead of calf
starter, energy and mineral intake
will be low. Once the calf is con-
suming 3 to 5 lbs. (1.4 to 2.3 kg) of
calf starter, good quality hay or
haylage can be offered (legume or
grass).
Avoid extremely high quality
forage as it can cause bloat in
some calves. Haylage over 60 per-
cent moisture, pasture and corn
silage should not be offered to
calves less than 3 months of age.
Fresh haylage must be fed each
day to avoid mold formation and
to encourage consumption.
ADDITIVES
All calves should receive a coc-
cidiostat in their liquid feed
and/or calf starter to control coc-
cidiosis. Be sure calves receive
enough additive to control the
protozoa. Ionophores will improve
feed efficiency and prevent coc-
cidiosis. Check with your veteri-
narian or feed supplier for optimal
additives with coccidiostat control
and the level needed.
Probiotics (direct-fed microbial
products) can be fed to calves
receiving a liquid diet to stimulate
calf starter intake and growth.
Ask for research on the product as
results have been variable. Yeast
culture can also be beneficial.
IN SUMMARY
The goals of a successful calf
rearing system is to have a
healthy calf ready to move into the
heifer growth phase, with no dis-
ease damage (lung or small intes-
tine) to impair growth, and with a
well-developed rumen. Rate of
gain in calves is not important as
compensatory growth can occur
during the heifer rearing phase.
64
 Chapter 11
Heifer feeding
systems

O
nce the calf has been suc- can be considered when building • ALL heifers should be force-
cessfully weaned and heifer rations. fed a balanced mineral and vita-
reaches 3 months, she is • Do not feed corn silage, wet min package (not free choice)
ready to graduate to the heifer haylage (over 60 percent mois- mixed with forage or grain.
feeding system. The following ture), and pasture to heifers • ALL heifers should be fed an
groupings of heifers can optimize under 3 months of age. ionophore.
growth and costs. Reasons for • Groups 1 and 2 need supple- • Trace mineral salt and a min-
seven groups include nutrient mental grain (3 to 5 lbs. [1.4 to 2.3 eral can be offered separately on a
and dry matter intake differ- kg]) for energy, and a protein sup- free choice basis (does not replace
ences, competition and size dif- plement (1/2 to 1 lb. [226 to 454 g]). force-fed levels). Monitor intake to
ferences, A.I. breeding, and ges- • Groups 3 and 4 may need avoid luxury consumption and
tation needs. supplemental grain (1 to 3 lbs. higher feed costs.
Based on Table 11.1, three dif- [.45 to 1.4 kg]) depending on for- Environmental factors can
ferent rations should be developed age type and quality. increase energy requirements be-
and delivered to growing heifers. • Groups 5 and 6 may not need yond normal needs. For example,
The age in each group can be additional grain or protein supple- a 600-pound (273 kg) heifer
shifted, depending on number of ment beyond forage sources. requires 9.1 lbs. (4.1 kg) of TDN
heifers, facilities, and age at • Group 7 rations can be simi- per day. If the heifer is housed in
breeding and calving. Nutrient lar to group 5 and 6, but supple- open housing in winter, add .30
guidelines are listed in Table 10.2 mented with higher levels of trace lb. (136 g) TDN, or if she has heavy
and 11.2 for three heifer feeding minerals,vitamins and nutrients body mud coverage, add .38 lb.
groups. The following suggestions for the unborn calf. (172 g) of TDN. If both conditions
occur, the heifer needs an addi-
tional .75 lb.(340 g) of grain or the
❚ ❙ TABLE 11.1. GROUPING HEIFERS FOR FEED RATIONING. heifer’s growth rate will be
reduced.
Group Age Strategy for the group
(months)
MONITORING GROWTH
1 3 to 4 • Ration 1, smaller groups for
Every dairy manager that raises
2 4 to 6 competition (2 mo. age spread)
replacement heifers should be
3 6 to 9 • Ration 2, smaller group for measuring and monitoring heifer
4 9 to 12 competition (3 mo. age spread) growth. Most dairy farmers can
quickly relate their rolling herd
5 12 to 15 • Ration 3, breeding group average or milk yield per day. Few
6 15 to 21 • Ration 3, bred and/or clean-up bull managers know heifer average
daily gain, weight at breeding,
7 > 21 • Dry cow ration, adjust for growth wither height at calving, or body
condition scores. Heifer growth is

65
❚ ❙ TABLE 11.2. DAILY NUTRIENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GROWING HEIFERS (Adapted from Dairy NRC 2001)
Small breeds

Weight ADG DMI TDN CP RDP RUP Ca P

Lb (kg) lb (kg) lb (kg) -----------(% of DM) ------- ----(g/day)---

220 (100) 1.1 (0.5) 6.8 (3.1) 61 15.0 9.3 5.7 21 10

220 (100) 1.5 (0.7) 6.8 (3.1) 65 17.7 10.0 7.7 28 12

440 (200) 1.1 (0.5) 11.2 (5.1) 62 12.6 9.6 3.0 26 13

440 (200) 1.5 (0.7) 11.4 (5.2) 65 14.2 10.4 3.9 32 15

660 (300) 1.1 (0.5) 15.4 (7.0) 61 11.3 9.6 1.7 28 15

660 (300) 1.5 (0.7) 15.6 (7.1) 65 12.5 10.4 2.1 34 17

880 (400) 1.1 (0.5) 21.1 (9.6) 60 12.4 9.2 3.2 45 23

880 (400) 1.5 (0.7) 21.1 (9.6) 65 13.4 9.9 3.5 50 25

Large breeds

440 (200) 1.8 (0.8) 11.0 (5.2) 64 14.2 9.7 4.5 34 15

440 (200) 2.2 (1.0) 11.0 (5.2) 67 15.8 10.3 5.5 40 18

660 (300) 1.5 (0.7) 15.4 (7.0) 62 11.7 9.4 2.3 33 16

660 (300) 2.0 (0.9) 15.6 (7.1) 65 12.9 10.0 2.9 38 18

880 (400) 1.5 (0.7) 19.1 (8.7) 62 10.9 9.4 1.4 35 18

880 (400) 2.0 (0.9) 19.4 (8.8) 65 11.8 10.0 1.8 41 20

1100 (500) 1.3 (0.6) 25.1 (11.4) 61 12.9 9.3 3.6 52 27

1100 (500) 1.8 (0.8) 24.9 (11.3) 65 13.7 9.9 3.8 57 28

the “report card” on the heifer
rearing enterprise.
A new challenge for dairy man-
agers is accelerated growth for
heifers, as rearing costs continue
to increase. Heifer rearing costs
are second highest after dairy
herd feed costs. Large breed
heifers should gain 1.8 to 2.2 lbs.
(0.8 to 1.0 kg) per day after wean-
ing while small breed heifers
should gain 1.1 to 1.5 lbs. (0.5 to
0.7 kg) per day (Table 11.2).
Body condition scores should
remain under 3 until heifers are
bred to avoid fattening. Table 11.3
lists growth guidelines for differ-
ent breeds and ages of heifers.
Once heifers have achieved the
proper size, they should be bred,
as gestation is a fixed period
which can delay return on invest-
ment. Large breed heifers should
weigh over 1200 lbs. (545 kg) (82
percent of mature body for the
herd) after calving with a body
condition score of 3 to 3.25. If
large breed heifers grow more
than two inches during the first
lactation, these cows may direct
nutrients from milk production to
growth. One hundred pounds (45
kg) of growth during the first lac-
tation can reduce milk yield by
600 lbs. (273 kg) of milk. Poor
quality forages will not allow for
accelerated growth programs to be
successful. If heifers calve three
months earlier (24 vs 27 months

66
❚❙ TABLE 11.3. BREED COMPARISON FOR STANDARDS OF WEIGHT AND HEIGHT FOR HEIFERS.
Holstein-B. Swiss
Age Weight Height
(Mo) lb (kg) in (cm)
6 371 (169)
12 666 (303)
18 924 (420)
24 1200 (545) 52.0 (132)
of age), heifer costs decrease by
$180, and you’ll require fewer
replacement heifers to maintain
current herd size.
RISK OF FATTY UDDER
DEVELOPMENT
Research clearly demonstrates
that high energy rations with
marginal protein intake produce
over-conditioned heifers with
decreased mammary gland devel-
opment and reduced milk pro-
duction. Hormonal shifts (lower
levels of bovine somatotropin and
other mammogenic hormones)
lead to this negative effect. The
critical time is during the pre-
pubertal development phase (4
to 10 months of age) when the
mammary gland, secretory ducts,
and parenchyme cells develop.
New York research has indicated
if nutrient levels are balanced
and body condition scores are
❚ ❙ TABLE 11.4. HEIFER RAISING
COSTS.
Feed $684
Labor & mgt. $244
(paid & unpaid)
Variable costs* $233
Fixed costs** $162
$1,323
$2.04 per day; $1.13 per
pound of gain. (1.8 lbs. per day).
*Bedding, veterinary, breeding,
fuel, electrical, interest of 8%
** Housing, equipment
Based on survey of 44 Wisconsin
operations
Guernsey-Ayrshire Jersey
Weight Height Weight Height
lb (kg) in (cm) lb (kg) in (cm)
39.4(100) 365 (166) 40.4 (103) 258 (117) 35.9 (91)
46.4 (118) 575 (261) 44.8 (114) 471 (214) 42.1 (107)
50.1 (127) 863 (392) 50.1 (127) 638 (290) 45.2 (115)
1012 (460) 51.3 (130) 789 (359) 47.8 (121)
within acceptable ranges, mam- CONTRACT RAISING HEIFERS
mary development (measured by As dairy farms increase in size,
milk yield) is not compromised. dairy managers may raise heifers
for other operations or contract to
THE LATE PREGNANT (THIRD have someone else to raise their
TRIMESTER) HEIFER heifers. Wisconsin workers sum-
The last heifer group is the marized the cost to raise heifers
springing heifer. Besides gaining depending on starting weight
1.5 to 1.6 lbs. (.68 to .73 kg) of (Table 11.4). These prices provide
true frame, she must also provide returns to labor, management
nutrients for a rapidly growing and capital. A signed contract or
fetus. During the last trimester of agreement must be completed by
pregnancy, fetal and related tissue both parties outlining rate of
gains account for 1.0 to 1.5 lbs. gain, monthly payment schedule,
(.45 to .68 kg) per day of weight payment based on average daily
gain. Thus, the springing heifer gain or cost per day, death losses,
should gain over 2.5 lbs. (1.13 kg) breeding program, veterinarian
of scale weight per day. These heif- charges, duration of the contract,
ers also need additional trace min- and management practices
erals and vitamins for the unborn (dehorning, parasite control, dis-
calf and immune system and to ease control, overcrowding, iden-
minimize metabolic disorders. tification, and foot care).
HEIFER CONTRACTS
As more dairy managers concentrate resources and labor on
the milking herd, heifer raising can be contracted out, freeing
up space, feed inventory and labor. A signed contract should be
developed (with input from a lawyer) and signed before starting
this system. The contract should specify the following and
each party’s responsibilities (owner or calf raiser).
• Death loss (3 percent may be the action level when
cost/loss responsibilities shift from owner to raiser)
• Health treatment (who decides and pays for veterinary
treatment)
• Breeding (when to breed, sire selection,
rebreeding costs, and determining infertility)
• Payment (monthly, per day, and/or per unit of gain)
• Ownership (retained, sold to raiser, or first option to buy
back)
• Health program (vaccination and co-mingling with
heifers from other farms)
• Policy to return unthrifty and unhealthy heifers to the
owner
67

T
he transition cow period is
critical to health, produc-
tion and reproduction. An
optimal transition cow program
can increase milk yield by 600 to
1500 lbs. (273 to 682 kg) per cow
per lactation. Dairy managers
must focus on this critical 50- to
70-day period. Goals for this peri-
od are listed below:
• Involute (dry up) the mamma-
ry gland, avoid new mastitis infec-
tions, and regenerate the u d d e r
prior to calving;
• Provide added nutrients to
meet needs of the unborn calf;
• Adjust body condition score, if
needed, while maintaining pos-
itive energy balance;
• Stimulate the immune system
to minimize disease;
• Stimulate rumen bacteria and
papillae;
• Minimize metabolic disorders.
DRY COW STAGES
The length of phase 1 (far-off
dry cow) must be a minimum of
30 days to allow for complete invo-
lution of the udder. Phase 2 (close-
up dry cow) must be a minimum
of 15 days to allow for mammary
gland regeneration and colostrum
formation, which is hormonally
controlled.
If the dry period is longer than
70 days, metabolic disorders can
increase, feed costs are higher, and
milk production is reduced. Phase
2 should be 3 weeks long to insure
cows will have a minimum 10 days
receiving the transition diet.
If the transition diet is started
10 days before the cow’s due date,
4 percent of the cows will calve
early and miss the entire transi-
tion diet, and 18 percent will calve
early and receive it for less than 5
days (over a fifth of the cows). The
rumen must be stimulated by a
higher energy diet to stimulate
rumen papillae elongation. This
increases the surface area to
absorb volatile fatty acids. Rumen
microbial changes must occur as
cows receive high energy diets
after calving.
Chapter 3 discusses feeding
strategies for phase 1 and 2 dry
cows. Appendix tables 2,3 list rec-
ommended nutrient guidelines for
dry cows. Springing heifers should
also be fed these dry cow phase
rations plus growth allowances. If
optimal dry cow rations and tran-
sition feed management occurs,
dry matter intake can be main-
tained and metabolic disorders
minimized. The following levels of
metabolic disorders should be
monitored:
• Milk fever – less than 3%;
• Hypocalcemia – less than
15%;
• Ketosis (primary) – less than
2%;
68
Chapter 12
Managing
transition
cows
• Retained placenta – less
than 8%;
• Displaced abomasum – less
than 5%.
ANIONIC SALTS
Hypocalcemia, or low blood cal-
cium (less than 8 mg/dl), can
cause lower feed intake, retained
placenta and displaced aboma-
sum. Feeding acidogenic diets
with anionic salts during the
close-up dry period reduces milk-
fever and hypocalcemia.
Anion and cation are terms
used to describe minerals in a
ration. Whether a mineral element
is an anion or cation depends on
its electrical charge. Anions have
a negative charge, while cations
have a positive charge.
Important ration anions in-
clude chloride, sulfur and phos-
phorus. Ration cations include
sodium, potassium, calcium and
magnesium. Cation-anion differ-
ence is calculated by subtracting
the equivalent weight (molecular
weight divided by the ion charge)
of anions from the equivalent
weight of the cations.
Rations high in cations relative
to anions or having a higher or
positive cation-anion balance are
considered alkaline rations. On
the other hand, rations low in
cations relative to anions or hav-
ing a low or negative cation-anion
balance are considered acidic, or
negative.
Alkaline rations tend to cause
milk fever, while acidic rations
tend to prevent milk fever. The
main benefit of feeding acidic
rations is increased mobilization
of calcium from bone and para-
thyroid hormone function.
Anionic salts improve blood cal-
cium levels for two reasons. The
salts promote bone mobilization of
calcium (bone acts as a buffer by
exchanging calcium), and in-
crease vitamin D metabolites and
parathyroid function.
If the calcium control is “turned
on”, cows can respond to sudden
calcium demands at calving and
in early lactation. The potential of
a diet to be acidogenic can be cal-
culated by DCAD (dietary cation-
anion difference).
First, all feed must be tested for
sodium, potassium, sulfur and
chlorine using wet chemistry
analysis (no NIR tests). Next,
DCAD equivalence is calculated
by determining the sum of sodium
plus potassium minus the sum of
chloride plus sulfur. These must
be converted from percent to mil-
liequivalents per kilogram
(meq/kg) of feed. Factors to con-
vert from percent to meq/kg are:
Element Factor
Sodium (Na) 434
Potassium (K) 256
Chloride(Cl) 282
Sulfur (S) 624
After finding the percent of
these elements in the ration, and
multiplying percent by the factor
to obtain meq/kg, the DCAD is
found by this equation:
(Na + K) - (Cl + S)
Here is a sample calculation of
the DCAD of a ration:
Percent of elements, dry matter
basis:
Na = 0.20%; K = 1.0%;
Cl = 0.20%; S = 0.20%
Na: 0.20 X 434 = 87
K: 1.0 X 256 = 256
Cl: 0.20 X 282 = 56
S: 0.20 X 624 = 122
The DCAD for this example would
be (87 + 256) - (56 + 122) = +165
meq/kg. The recommended
DCAD to maintain blood calcium
is -50 to -150.
69
(Note that DCAD may be
expressed as meq per kg or meq
per 100 g: the above would then
be expressed as +165/kg, but
+16.5 per 100 g. Both values are
equal and must be used correctly.)
To lower DCAD, adding anionic
salts can lower the high positive
value. Anionic salts and feeds used
in the field include magnesium
sulfate, calcium sulfate, magne-
sium chloride, calcium chloride,
ammonium sulfate, ammonium
chloride and hydrochloric acid-
treated feed.
Build your anionic salt mixture
following these steps.
Step 1. Select feed ingredients
with low dietary cation-anion dif-
ference (DCAD), especially forages
low in potassium (K). The goal in a
dry cow ration is to provide an
excess of anions, mainly Cl and S,
compared to cations, mainly Na
and K.
Step 2. Balance ration magne-
sium at 0.4 percent using magne-
sium sulfate or magnesium chlo-
ride.
Step 3. Raise ration sulfur to
0.4 percent using calcium sulfate.
Step 4. Balance DCAD (-50 to
-150 meq/kg) using a chloride
source.
Step 5. Raise ration calcium to
100 grams using calcium carbon-
ate or calcium propionate (20 to
25 grams from inorganic sources).
Step 6. Check ration phospho-
rous (40 to 50 grams) using dical-
cium phosphate if needed.
Avoid phosphorous levels over
60 grams as it can interfere with
vitamin D conversion in the kid-
ney. Close-up dry cows will expe-
rience a drop in urine pH when
DCAD goals are achieved. The
cow attempts to correct the meta-
bolic acidosis by excreting hydro-
gen ions in the urine, lowering
urine pH. Normal urine pH is
over 8. If an optimal DCAD is fed,
urine pH should drop to 6.0 to
6.5 (Jersey cows need to be 5.5 to
6).
 If urine pH is near 5, kidney
damage could occur due to over-
acidification. Check urine pH after
4 days of feeding anionic salts on
several cows to determine if the
cows are eating the ration and
DCAD is optimal. Collect urine
samples 2 to 4 hours after feeding
anionic salt-containing feed. Use
of a pH meter or pH paper pro-
vides satisfactory results.
A typical close-up dry cow
ration with anionic salts and cal-
culated DCAD is shown below.
Na: 0.2 percent x 434 = 87
K: 1.0 percent x 256 = 256
S: 0.4 percent x 624 = 249
Cl: 0.7 percent x 282 = 197
DCAD with anionic salts added:
(87 + 256) - (249 + 197) = -103.
Shifting the DCAD from +165 to
-103 should increase blood cal-
cium and lower urine pH.
Anionic salts will increase close
up dry ration costs by 50 to 70
cents per cow per day, but the
benefit to cost ratio is favorable at
10:1. These salts are unpalatable
and must be diluted with 5 lbs.
(2.3 kg) of grain. It may be better
to mix the anionic salts with the
grain just before feeding during
summer. If late dry cows are fed a
TMR, you can add the anionic
salts directly to the mixer without
any additional carrier, and feed
the TMR just once daily. Some
commercially formulated prod-
ucts are pelleted to reduce separa-
tion of feed ingredients and to
improve handling.
Chlorine salts will drop urine
pH more than sulfate salts on an
equal equivalent basis. A second
generation of anionic products is
commercially available using
hydrochloric acid instead of salts
as the acidifying agent (BiochlorTM
or SoyclorTM products, or by
unique processing such as
AnimateTM).These are more palat-
able and can improve dry matter
intake. Cows should consume an
anionic ration for a minimum of
10 days. Bring dry cows up to the
full feeding rate of the anionic
salts mixture gradually over a
three-day period. Udder edema is
not increased when feeding anion-
ic salts.
Attempts to use anionic salts to
prevent hypocalcemia sometimes
fail. If dietary calcium concentra-
tion and intake are not raised to
recommended amounts for pre-
fresh cows, the expected respons-
es to anionic salts may not occur,
even when the DCAD is low or
negative.
Watch ration total NPN (non-
protein nitrogen) if ammonium
sulfate or ammonium chloride are
used. If rations contain consider-
able soluble nitrogen or rumen
degraded protein, use ammonium
salts carefully. Rumen degradable
protein should not exceed 70 per-
cent of total crude protein. Finally,
avoid providing milking cows
anionic salts and negative DCAD’s
under any circumstances. After
calving, switch cows to a ration
with a positive DCAD (+200 to
+400 meq/kg dry matter) for high-
er intake and production.

MEASURING URINE PH
You can check urine pH of close-up dry cows on anionic salts
using commercial pH strips. They come 100 to 200 strips per box,
with a pH range 6 to 8.1, optimal for urine checking.To collect a
sample of urine, try tickling the cow below the vulva, especially if
the cow was lying down and has just stood up. Catch a small
amount of the urine midstream in a plastic cup. Dip a pH indicator
strip or paper in the urine and read the color change. The typical
cost is 10 to 12 cents a strip. Strips are available from lab supply
companies. Two sources are listed below:
Fischer Scientific 800/766-7000
Whatmans Lab 800/942-8626

70

T
here are many conditions
that present special feeding
challenges to dairy farm-
ers. Three that will be addressed
here are use of BST in dairy cows;
overcoming heat stress; and
milking three times daily.
FEEDING AND BST
In February of 1994, FDA
approved the use of BST (bovine
somatotropin) for lactating dairy
cows. By 1998, approximately 25
percent of the U.S. dairy cows
were receiving BST. High produc-
ing cows produce more natural
BST which increases milk yield.
The bacteria-produced rBST
(recombinant BST) stimulates
milk yield by 5 to 15 lbs. (2.3 to
6.8 kg) of milk (similar to cows
milked three times a day).
Many nutritional studies were
conducted prior to FDA approval
to assist dairy farmers and nutri-
tionists in feeding higher produc-
ing, BST-injected cows. The fol-
lowing characteristics should be
considered when using BST tech-
nology.
1. Milk yield increases within
days after the initial BST injec-
tion. Several injections may be
needed before maximum milk
response occurs (called ramping
up).
2. Dry matter intake will begin
to increase three to five weeks
Special
feeding
challenges
after injecting BST (Figure 13.1).
This dry matter intake lag is simi-
lar to the lag observed in fresh
cows. Nutrients needed for higher
milk yield should be provided in
the current dry matter intake.
3. Milk composition (percent
fat, protein, lactose and minerals)
will not change if extra nutrients
are provided. If milk components
shift, this change is a signal to the
dairy manager or nutritionist to
reformulate the ration or check
feed bunk management.
4. Feeding efficiencies do not
change with BST technology. NRC
nutrient requirements apply to
the added nutrients needed for
the milk increase: Maintenance
needs do not change, and feed
digestibility is the same.
ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS
The response to BST is greater
when cows are in positive energy
balance. The biology of the cow
prevents higher milk yields if the
cow is in negative energy balance.
Cows should be in positive energy
balance prior to BST use allowing
for the increase in milk yield to be
met by the current energy balance
(Figure 13.1).
If cows return to a negative
energy balance due to the extra
milk produced, body weight loss
can occur and affect reproductive
performance. Approved label
71
Chapter 13
directions indicate cows can be
injected in the ninth week of lacta-
tion for optimal response. Cows
injected later in lactation may not
respond economically.
If a balanced ration is fed, ade-
quate bunk space exists, and cow
comfort is optimal (shade in the
summer or no foot problems, for
example), dry matter intake will
increase to take in the added
nutrients needed, and body condi-
tion will increase in later lactation.
Peak dry matter intake will occur
6 to 8 weeks after BST injections
have been initiated.
With optimal ration and feed
bunk management, BST-injected
cows should not dry off at low
body condition scores. If dry cows
are low in body condition scores,
replacing one pound (.45 kg) of
body weight per day during the
dry period is recommended (see
phase feeding in Chapter 4).
RATION ADJUSTMENTS
FOR BST
When a ration is short of need-
ed nutrients, milk response to
BST will be improved by increas-
ing nutrient concentration or dry
matter intake. In rations short of
required nutrients, researchers
have reported higher milk produc-
tion responses when undegrad-
able protein (RUP), concentrate,
❚ ❙ FIGURE 13.1. EFFECT OF BST ON MILK PRODUCTION, DMI AND ENERGY BALANCE.

A – Lowest level of negative energy balance (2-3 wks. after calving)

B – Cow dry matter intake meets requirement (4-5 wks. after calving)
C – Experimental cows were injected with BST (9 wks after calving)
D – Energy drop due to 10-15 lbs. (4.5 - 6.8 kg) more milk because of BST (cows do not go into negative
energy balance)
E – BST-injected cows catch up to control cows on energy status while still producing more milk.
F – BST cows consume extra dry matter to gain weight while producing more milk

72
fat, or buffers were added to
rations. But if the existing dry
matter intake and ration compo-
sition will support the increase in
milk yield, no change in the
ration is needed. Increased dry
matter intake can meet addition-
al nutrient needs.
In herds that are component
fed (grain is fed separately from
forage), do not increase the
amount of grain immediately after
milk increases because total dry
matter intake has not increased.
If an additional 3 to 5 lbs. (1.4 to
2.3 kg) of grain are fed, rumen
acidosis and cows going off feed
could occur because the ration is
unbalanced with more starch. In
TMR herds, keep the BST injected
cows in the high group for 6 to 8
additional weeks until milk pro-
duction and body condition
changes can be assessed. Move
cows to a less nutrient-dense
ration if warranted.
ECONOMICS OF BST
AND FEED NEEDS
On well managed dairy farms,
the added profit from BST use
can vary from 35 cents to over
$1 per cow per day. The follow-
ing assumptions can be used to
assess economic response.
• BST will cost 42 cents per
cow per day (14 day injection).
• One pound (.45 kg) of dry
matter will be needed to sup-
port two pounds (.9 kg) of
milk.
• Labor to inject BST and har-
vest more milk, cost of elec-
tricity and wear on milking
equipment can add 1 to 3
cents/cow/day.
Based on these assumptions
and a milk price of $14 per cwt.,
the added income would be
$1.40 (10 lbs. of milk) while
increased expenses would be 85
cents (42 cents for BST, 40 cents
for 5 lbs. of increased dry matter
intake, and 3 cents for labor.)
The net profit could be 55 cents
per cow per day or nearly $110
more profit per lactation per cow.
ECONOMIC IMPACT OF rBST WITH THE
FOLLOWING COSTS AND RESPONSES.
Income: 10 lbs. more milk @ 17 cents per lb. per day = $1.70
Expenses: Cost of rBST product per day
($5.88 per 14 day injection) = $0.42
Added feed costs (11 cents per lb @ 5 lb of feed DM) = $0.55
Labor to inject the product and milking time per day = = $0.05
$1.02
Profit (per cow per day) = $0.68
Annual profit (260 days of product use @ $0.68 per day) = $177
If the milk response is 15 lbs. of increased milk yield for 3 to 5
milk, the profit margin increases weeks until increased dry intake
an additional 50 cents to $1.05 occurs.
per day. Profit drops 10 cents per 2. Heifers should be well grown,
day to 45 cents if feed prices which will reduce the nutrients
increase 20 percent. needed for growth in the first lac-
Dairy managers must calculate tation. For large breed heifers,
their economic responses based they should weigh 1200 lbs. (545
on their input costs and milk kg) or higher after calving (exclud-
price. If cows do not respond eco- ing the calf, fluids and fetal mem-
nomically, dairy managers, veteri- branes).
narians and nutritionists should 3. Body condition score should
evaluate if a health or manage- not be a major factor as cows will
ment limitation exists on the farm. gain weight when injected with
BST if the ration is balanced and
SELECTING COWS there is optimal feed bunk man-
FOR BST USE agement.
Each dairy manager should 4. Cows that are not healthy
develop a criteria when cows will should not be injected with BST:
be placed on the BST and an • Cows with sore feet or lame-
approach to evaluate cow ness;
response. The following points • Cows with somatic cell counts
may be useful. over 400,000;
1. Cows should be in positive • Cows with loose manure;
energy balance with adequate • Thin cows that are not gaining
nutrient intake to support the weight;
❚ ❙ TABLE 13.1. RELATIVE CHANGES IN MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENT
AND DRY MATTER INTAKE (DMI) FOR 1300 LB. COW PRODUCING
60 LBS. (27 KG) OF 3.7% FAT MILK AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES.
Temp Main req. DMI req1 Expect DMI 2 Expect Milk 3
°F (°C) (% at 68°F/20°C) lb(kg)/day lb(kg)/day lb(kg)/day
68 (20) 100 40.0 (18.1) 40.0 (18.1) 60.0 (27.2)
86 (30) 111 41.6 (18.9) 37.4 (17.0) 51.0 (23.1)
95 (35) 120 42.2 (19.1) 36.7 (16.7) 39.8 (18.1)
104 (40) 132 44.4 (20.1) 22.4 (10.2) 26.0 (11.8)
1. Dry matter intake needed to maintain 60 pounds (27 kg) of milk plus increased
maintenance requirements.
2. Predicted DMI consumed under heat stress conditions.
3. Expected milk yield is based on expected DMI.
73
 • Cows with metabolic disor-
ders or infectious diseases.
BST technology is another tool
for managers to manipulate the
lactation curve and improve cow
profitability.
FEEDING DURING
HOT WEATHER
Heat stress in dairy herds can
be a serious problem. Milk pro-
duction may decline 20 percent or
more, milk fat and protein test
may drop, reproductive efficiency
declines and metabolic disorders
can be life-threatening. Two key
factors related to heat stress must
be considered:
Factor One: Dairy cows experi-
encing heat stress will require
increased energy to reduce heat
load (expressed as an increase in
maintenance requirement). The
additional pounds of dry matter to
support this increase in energy is
calculated in Table 13.1.
Factor Two: Dry matter intake
drops as heat stress increases.
Table 13.1 illustrates the
amount milk production drops
due to both factors.
Farm managers must reduce
heat load on dairy cows through
housing, shade, air movement
and cooling cows. Check with
your housing specialists to get the
latest guidelines and ideas on how
to lower heat stress.
STRATEGIES FOR HEAT
STRESSED COWS
Several nutritional challenges
occur when cows are under heat
stress.
1. Feed intake can decline 10 to
30 percent due to the heat incre-
ment related to
feed digestion.
Strategy: Use all
“tricks of the
trade” to main-
tain feed intake.
R e m o v e
unpalatable feed
such as animal
p r o t e i n s ,
improve feed
bunk manage-
ment or use
higher feed qual-
ity. Try adding
feed additives
such as buffers
or yeast culture.
Check with your
housing special-
ists to get the
latest guidelines To maintain dry matter intake, provide maximum air
an ideas on how movement through housing or shades for dairy cattle.
to lower heat
stress through
supplemental fat to reduce the
housing, shade, air movement
heat associated with digestion.
and cooling cows.
5. Avoid secondary fermenta-
2. Blood flow is reduced to the
tion in the feed bunk. Strategy:
digestive tract as cows attempt to
Provide shade over the feed bunk;
dissipate heat. Strategy: Improve
include corn silage in the ration to
feed digestibility by using high
lower feed pH and retard heating;
quality feed ingredients.
consider a mold inhibitor such as
3. Cows will eat during cooler
a propionic acid-based additive;
times of the day resulting in vari-
feed at night; and add water to the
able intake patterns. Strategy:
dry rations to increase feed
Pasture cows at night and provide
intake.
more of the feed at night. Measure
6. Rumen acidosis is a risk due
feed intake to maintain adequate
to shifts in eating patterns.
feed supplies and challenge the
Strategy: Maintain constant feed-
herd at night.
ing times, meet minimum func-
4. Heat is generated internally
tional and chemical fiber levels,
when feed is digested. Heat incre-
avoid slug feeding of grain (over 5
ment increases and adds heat for
lbs. [2.3 kg] of grain dry matter per
the cow to dissipate. Strategy:
meal), and keep cows from sorting
Feed high quality forages, more
feed (use a TMR).
digestible energy sources and

❚ ❙ TABLE 13.2. MINERAL EFFECTS ON DMI, MILK YIELD, AND MILK FAT UNDER HEAT STRESS CONDITIONS.
Sodium Sodium Potassium
bicarb chloride
fed as % of D.M.
0 1 0 .73 1.3 1.8
DMI: lb (kg)/day 39.8 (18.1) 40.3 (18.3) 39.4 (17.9) 40.7 (18.5) 38.9 (17.7) 40.9 (18.6)
Milk yield: lb (kg)/day 42.2 (19.1) 44.0 (20.0) 42.0 (19.1) 44.0 (20.0) 42.2 (19.1) 44.0 (20.0)
Milk fat (%) 3.4 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.6

74
 7. Add fat as an energy source
carefully. Oilseeds (such as soy-
beans or cottonseed) can increase
the amount of unsaturated fatty
acids, reducing fiber digestibility.
Inert fats decrease the risk of neg-
ative rumen effects.
MINERAL RELATIONSHIPS
Higher levels of sodium (from
0.18 to 0.5 percent) in the total
ration dry matter are beneficial
under heat stress (Table 13.2).
Sodium is excreted in urine
while potassium losses occur due
to sweating. Maintain a ratio of 3
parts potassium to 1 part sodium
(for example, 1.2 to 1.5 percent
potassium and .4 to .5 percent
sodium). Magnesium also should
be increased from .25 to .35 per-
cent of the ration dry matter with
higher levels of potassium.
Higher cationic rations (from
+180 to +350 meq per kg) can
increase dry matter intake based
on the equation: (meq sodium +
meq potassium) - meq chlorine
Add 0.75 percent of the total
ration dry matter as sodium bicar-
bonate or sodium sesquicarbon-
ate (50 lbs. DM times .0075 = 0.37
pound of bicarb per cow per day
[22.7 kg x .0075 = .17 kg]). Adjust
buffer intake based on total dry
matter consumption. Supplement
a buffer under the following condi-
tions, especially when heat stress
is occurring:
• Total ration ADF below 19%;
• Total ration NDF below 28%;
• Forage NDF or effective NDF
below 21%;
• Feeding more than 5 lbs. (2.3
kg) of grain per meal;
• Feeding more than 2% of the
cow’s body weight as grain dry
matter.
When a buffer pack is added,
monitor dry matter intake to
assess its effectiveness. Offer
sodium bicarbonate free choice (in
addition to force-fed levels listed
above) for cows that crave more
buffer – this can be an indicator of
acidosis.
Sodium bentonite and salt can
also be offered free choice, but
they should be offered separately.
Recommended amounts of buffer
and salt should be force fed
through the TMR or grain mix-
ture.
Dairy managers must manage
heat stress. Hoping for a cool
summer is not a sound strategy.
Heat stress management and
ration adjustments can maintain
milk yield and components result-
ing in 50 cents to over $1 added
profit per cow per day.
FEEDING WITH THREE-
TIMES-A-DAY MILKING
Milking cows three times a day
(3X) is another way to increase
milk yield and income. Maryland
researchers summarized 19 stud-
ies and reported that milk yield
was 7.7 lbs. (3.5 kg) higher com-
pared to cows milking 2X, regard-
less of current milk production or
75
lactation number. Milk fat test
declined 0.14 percent (3.65 per-
cent to 3.51 percent). Milk protein
test declined 0.05 percent (3.10
percent to 3.05 percent).
In California studies, feed
intake increased 4 to 6 percent,
but this did not meet the higher
nutrient needs associated with the
higher milk yield. First lactation
cows did not increase their dry
matter intake as much as older
cows milked 3X. Cows did not
gain as much weight prior to dry-
off when compared to 2X cows.
Consider the following strategies
when switching to 3X or 4X; com-
parisons to BST strategies are
noted:
1. Nutrient content of the ration
should be increased to meet high-
er nutrient needs of the higher
producing 3X cows. This strategy
is different than cows injected
with BST: dry matter intake does
increase 3 to 5 weeks following
BST injection.
2. Similar to BST-injected
cows, monitoring milk compo-
nents of 3X cows can indicate if
nutrient needs are not being met.
3. Body weight changes with 3X
must be evaluated and rations
adjusted if weight gain is not
achieved. Lower body weight can
affect reproductive performance
and future milk production. BST-
injected cows do not experience
weight reduction if management is
optimal.
4. If cows dry off at low body
condition scores, add weight dur-
ing the dry period. Both 3X and
BST may need this strategy if dry
cows are thin.
5. Feed bunk management
must be optimal, as with BST use,
to allow cows to consume more
feed. With 3X, cows may spend
more time waiting in the parlor
holding area and standing on con-
crete, which adds stress.
 Chapter 14
Using Dairy
NRC 2001

I
n the spring of 2001, after sev-
eral years of committee review
and writing, the seventh
revised edition of the Nutrient
Requirements of Dairy Cattle
(referred to as Dairy 2001 NRC in
this publication) was released by
National Research Council. The
382-page book summarizes the
most current research to deter-
mine the nutrient requirements
of dairy cattle, describe nutrients,
and list the nutrient composition
of dairy feeds. The book includes
a CD-ROM with computer soft-
ware. Here we summarize
changes and applications that
dairy managers, nutritionists,
consultants and veterinarians
should be aware of and how these
changes will impact field results
and recommendations.
PROTEIN APPLICATIONS
A new protein term is metabo-
lizable protein (MP), representing
the amount of amino acids from
rumen microbial synthesis and
rumen undegraded protein (RUP)
sources. The term RUP also
replaced undegraded intake pro-
tein (UIP). Protein requirements
in the appendix tables include
the amount and/or percent of
MP, rumen degradable protein
(RDP), RUP, and crude protein.
Crude protein recommenda-
tions in Dairy NRC 2001 are
based on metabolizable protein shorter time and less microbial
needs. Generally, crude protein degradation will occur. When
recommendations using Dairy using the model, users can adjust
NRC 2001 will be about 0.5 per- the rate of protein degradation
cent lower than Dairy NRC 1989. (expressed as percent per hour),
But do NOT directly compare or and intestinal RUP digestibility.
interchange these values since The model calculates the amount
they are calculated differently. of amino acids available for
In the NRC feed tables, unde- absorption in the small intestine,
graded protein values change as but no amino acid requirements
dry matter changes. Higher dry are included. A ratio of three
matter intake will increase RUP parts lysine to one part methion-
as feed remains in the rumen for ine is a desirable amino acid bal-
PROTEIN VALUES FOUND IN DAIRY NRC 2001
Several protein variables for soybean meal and corn distillers
grain are described, illustrating protein fractions and nutrients
that are digested and used by the dairy cow. The number of
samples and standard deviation refer only to the percent crude
protein value listed.
Description Soybean meal, Corn distillers
solvent, 48% grain
Crude protein 53.8 % 29.7%
Number of samples 549 879
Standard deviation +/- 2.1 % +/- 3.3%
Percent degraded
per hour in the rumen 7.5 % 3.6%
RUP (2% BW intake) 31 % 42%
RUP (4% BW intake) 43 % 51%
Digestibility of RUP 93 % 80%
Lysine (% CP) 6.29 % 2.24%
Methionine (% CP) 1.44 % 1.82%

76
ance (these two amino acids are
considered first limiting). No sol-
uble protein values are listed for
feeds or requirements included.
ENERGY CHANGES
The method for calculating
energy content of feed is now
based on a summative equation
to estimate TDN at one-time
maintenance. Truly digestible
NFC, crude protein, fatty acids
multiplied by 2.25, and NDF were
used in the equation. As cows
consume more dry matter, energy
values are reduced due to shorter
time in the digestive tract lower-
ing digestibility. Energy content
of feeds is changed based on mul-
tiples of maintenance.
The computer model adjusts
values for intake and energy lev-
els in the base ration. Processing
adjustment factor (PAF) allows
the user to adjust for NFC (pri-
marily starch) availability due to
processing or heat treatment
(such as steam flaking or plant
processing corn silage). Energy
requirements for each milk com-
ponent are calculated indepen-
dently as the user enters percent
milk fat, lactose, and total or true
protein.
Maintenance requirements for
cows on pasture are increased for
the distance walked (miles or
kilometers), frequency of trips per
day (milking and pasture fre-
quency), and topography (slope).
Pregnancy requirements begin
when pregnant cows and heifers
reach 190 days in calf and
increase up to 279 days as the
fetus requires more nutrients (no
adjustment for twins is included).
Energy needs for body condi-
tion changes vary based on body
composition changes (percent
protein, fat, ash, and water) and
shifts in body condition score
(changing from 2 to 3 requires
less energy compared changing
from 3 to 4). Heifer requirements
are adjusted for cold stress, hair
length, and matting of the hair
coat. No adjustment for feeding
an ionophore (improves energy
balance) is included.
MINERAL UPDATE
True mineral availability in
feeds and inorganic supplements
is calculated to target mineral
requirements and avoid excessive
mineral supplementation. Phos-
phorous availability is increased
from 50 percent (Dairy NRC
1989) to 70 percent for concen-
trates and 64 percent for forages
in Dairy NRC 2001, reducing the
amount needed. With higher dry
matter intakes and phosphorous
availability, ration phosphorous
levels drop to 0.38 percent.
In the feed composition table,
each feed has an average mineral
content, a standard deviation
(reflects the variation in the min-
eral content), and number of
samples used to calculate the
data (if number of feed samples is
low, less accuracy may occur and
on-farm testing may be warrant-
ed). Ration phosphorous, calci-
um, and manganese levels
dropped while the remaining
mineral requirements and ration
recommendations did not greatly
change.
DRY MATTER INTAKE
Dry matter intake guidelines
are based on published research
studies including over 17,000
cows, rather than calculating
from energy balance and require-
ments based on body weight and
milk yield equations. Dry matter
intake increased 3 to 4 pounds (2
kg) for high producing lactating
cows (both for small and large
breeds). Top managers with high
quality feed and excellent feed
bunk management can reach

MINERAL VALUES LISTED IN DAIRY NRC 2001

The corn silage example illustrates the average of three mineral values, number of samples used
to calculate each value, and standard deviation of that mineral (a larger value as calculated for
copper below indicates copper variation in corn silage was larger than the copper average).

Example of corn silage (32 to 38% dry matter)

Mineral Value No. of samples Standard Deviation
Phosphorous 0.26% 1033 +/- 0.04 %
Chlorine 0.29% 468 +/- 0.10 %
Copper 6 ppm 912 +/- 7 ppm

The second example is a partial list of magnesium supplement sources, average level of magne-
sium in each source, and absorption coefficient or AC (reflects the true availability of the miner-
al). A higher AC is desirable as less is needed to meet the animal requirements.

Example of magnesium
Mineral Level of Mg Absorption Coefficient
Magnesium oxide 56 % 70 %
Magnesium sulfate 10 % 90 %
Magnesium carbonate 31 % 35 %

77
these higher values. Nutrient con-
centrations in Dairy NRC 2001
are based on higher dry matter
intakes. If your cows do not eat at
these higher levels, nutrient con-
tent will need to be adjusted. Dry
matter intake for cows fresh less
than 14 weeks are adjusted down
based on days in milk. Dry matter
intake for first lactation and
mature cows are different, based
on week of lactation when using
the model. No reduction in dry
matter intake is included for
rations over 50 percent moisture.
OTHER ITEMS OF INTEREST
• Higher levels of vitamin E are
recommended for transition
cows.
• Water intake equations and a
list of potentially toxic contam-
inants and nutrients are listed.
• A chapter on transition cow
feeding research and recom-
mendations is an excellent
addition.
• Calf feeding requirements are
based on metabolizable energy
and apparent digestible protein
to improve muscle (frame)
growth.
• A complex discussion on
growth reflects tissue deposi-
tion and gain, gut fill and tar-
get growth rates.
THE MODEL
The CD-ROM included with the
book features a user-friendly
software program that calculates
nutrient requirements, levels of
nutrients provided, adjusts for
dry matter intake (such as RUP
and net energy value of each
feed), predicts microbial amino
acid synthesis and rumen pro-
duction, and develops reports. To
customize each report, animal
description (size, breed and milk
components), feed selection and
nutrient content based on feed
test results, actual dry matter
intake (this is critical), and
amounts of each feed ingredient
fed must be accurately entered.
Changing one feed or nutrient
value shows the user the impact
of that specific change. The fol-
lowing reports are available:
• Nutrient summary report
• Energy and protein supply
based on ration specifics
• Duodenal amino acid supply
• Dry matter intake
• Growth requirements
• Mineral requirements and
sources in the ration
• Several heifer and growth
requirement tables
The program does NOT balance
rations. If protein or mineral lev-
els are not balanced, the user
must add feed(s) or change the
amount to correct for the imbal-
ance. The model’s ability to
adjust energy values, RUP and
RDP levels, and mineral availabil-
ity can improve performance
and/or reduce feed costs. Each
ration is unique since dry matter
intake, feed selection and animal
performance will impact the
results. It is an excellent tool to
fine-tune rations.

ORDERING DAIRY NRC 2001

A copy of the booklet and CD-ROM can be purchased from Hoard’s
for $45 plus $3.50 shipping for U.S. orders. Wisconsin, include
5.5% tax; California, 7.5%. Outside the US: $13 shipping to Canada,
plus $2.25 GST; $20 shipping to Mexico; $24 shipping to all other
countries. Contact Hoard’s Dairyman Books, P O Box 801, Fort
Atkinson WI 53538-0801 USA; tel 920-563-5551; fax 920-563-7298;
or shop our Bookstore on-line at www.hoards.com

78
APPENDIX TABLE 1. NUTRIENT LEVEL IN COMMON FEEDSTUFFS.

Feedstuff Protein Carbohydrate Fat

SP RDP RUP NFC ADF NDF fNDF eNDF
A A+B1+B2 B3 (%) (%) (%) (%NDF) (%NDF) (%)
(% CP)
Legume/grass
Hay 30 70 30 25 35 46 100 92 3
Silage, long 35 76 24 25 35 46 100 70 3
Silage, fine 35 76 24 25 35 46 100 30 3
Corn silage 50 70 30 36 26 48 100 65 3

Barley 20 75 25 56 7 26 0 50 2
Blood meal 5 30 70 6 0 0 0 0 1

Corn, shelled
Dry, rolled 12 40 60 75 3 9 0 70 4
Dry, ground 25 50 50 75 3 9 0 20 4
High moisture 45 60 40 75 3 9 0 40 4
Corn gluten feed 50 70 30 19 10 45 0 33 2
Fish meal 12 20 80 2 0 0 0 0 10
Soybean meal (44) 20 72 28 29 10 12 0 10 1

Soybean seed
Raw 40 80 20 20 10 13 0 50 19
Heated 10 52 48 20 10 13 0 50 19
Urea 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

SP = Soluble protein; the A fraction in the NY-PA model

RDP = Rumen degradable protein; A+B1+B2 fractions in the NY-PA model
RUP = Rumen undegradable protein; the B3 fraction in the NY-PA model
NFC = Non-fiber carbohydrate
ADF = Acid detergent fiber
NDF = Neutral detergent fiber
fNDF = NDF derived from forages expressed as percentage of total NDF
eNDF = NDF contributes to cause cud chewing expressed as percent of total NDF

79
 APPENDIX TABLE 2. FEEDING GUIDELINES FOR HOLSTEIN CATTLE AT VARIOUS AGES,
LEVELS OF PRODUCTION, AND GESTATION EXPRESSED ON A 100 PERCENT DM BASIS
(ADAPTED FROM DAIRY NRC 2001).

----------------------- Cows---------------------------
Item Dry Close Fresh Early Mid Late
(Far off) (Close up)
Body wt in lbs (kg) 1500 (680) 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500
DMI – lbs (kg) 32 (14) 22 (10) 34 (15) 66 (30) 52 (24) 45 (20)
Milk – lbs (kg)* - - 77 (35) 120 (55) 77 (35) 55 (25)

C.P. (%) 9.9 12.4 19.5 16.7 15.2 14.1

RDP (%) 7.7` 9.6 10.5 9.8 9.7 9.5
RUP (%) 2.2 2.8 9.0 6.9 5.5 4.6
Met Protein (%) 6.0 8.0 13.8 11.6 10.2 9.2

NE l –mcal/lb (kg) 0.60 (1.32) 0.65 (1.43) 1.01(2.22)** 0.73 (1.61) 0.67 (1.47) 0.62 (1.36)
NDF (%) 40 35 30 28 30 32
ADF (%) 30 25 21 18 21 24
NFC (%) 30 34 35 38 35 32

Calcium (%) 0.44 0.48 0.79 0.60 0.61 0.62

Phosphorous (%) 0.22 0.26 0.42 0.38 0.35 0.32
Magnesium (%) 0.11 0.40 0.29 0.21 0.19 0.18
Chlorine (%) 0.13 0.20 0.20 0.29 0.26 0.24
Sodium (%) 0.10 0.14 0.34 0.22 0.23 0.22
Potassium (%) 0.51 0.62 1.24 1.07 1.04 1.00
Sulfur (%) 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20

Vitamin A (IU) 80300 83270 75000 75000 75000 75000

Vitamin D (IU) 21900 22700 21000 21000 21000 21000
Vitamin E (IU) 1168 1200 545 545 545 545

Trace mineral added to ration (expressed as ppm)

Cobalt: 0.11 Copper: 10 to 18 Iodine: 0.3 to 0.4 Iron:13 to 30 Manganese: 14 to 24
Selenium: 0.30 Zinc: 22 to 70

* Milk components: 3.5% fat, 3.0% true protein and 4.8% lactose
**These cows will lose body weight (values over 0.82 not feasible)

80
APPENDIX TABLE 3. FEEDING GUIDELINES FOR JERSEY CATTLE AT VARIOUS
AGES, LEVELS OF PRODUCTION, AND GESTATION EXPRESSED ON
A 100 PERCENT DM BASIS (ADAPTED FROM DAIRY NRC 2001).

-------------- Cows----------------
Item Fresh Early Mid Late

Body wt –lbs (kg) 1000 (454) 1000 1000 1000

DMI – lbs (kg) 26 (12) 52 (23.5) 48 (22) 40 (18)
Milk –lbs (kg)* 55 (25) 88 (40) 77 (35) 55 (25)

C.P. (%) 21.1 17.6 17.1 16.1

RDP (%) 10.5 9.7 9.8 9.7
RUP (%) 10.6 7.9 7.3 6.4
Met Protein (%) 15.1 12.6 12.0 11.2

NE l – Mcal/lb(kg) 1.06 (2.33)** 0.76 (1.68) 0.73 (1.60) 0.70 (1.54)

NDF (%) 30 28 30 32
ADF (%) 21 18 21 24
NFC (%) 35 38 35 32

Calcium (%) 0.80 0.63 0.54 0.54

Phosphorous (%) 0.40 0.36 0.35 0.33
Magnesium (%) 0.27 0.20 0.19 0.18
Chlorine (%) 0.36 0.27 0.25 0.24
Sodium (%) 0.31 0.20 0.20 0.20
Potassium (%) 1.19 1.04 1.03 1.02
Sulfur (%) 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20

Vitamin A (IU) 49900 49500 49500 49500

Vitamin D (IU) 13600 13500 13500 13500
Vitamin E (IU) 363 360 360 360

Trace mineral added to ration (expressed as ppm)

Cobalt: 0.11 Copper: 10 Iodine: 0.34 to 0.4 Iron: 15 to 21
Manganese: 12 to 21 Selenium: 0.30 Zinc: 47 to 60

* Milk components: 4.2% fat, 3.6% protein and 4.8% lactose

** These cows will lose body weight (values over 0.82 not feasible)

81
APPENDIX TABLE 4. CONVERSION FIGURES FOR FAT CORRECTED MILK.

Actual Milk (Ibs.)

% BF 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0 65.0 70.0 75.0 80.0 85.0 90.0 95.0 100.0
- 4% FCM -
3.0 29.8 34.0 38.3 42.5 46.8 51.0 55.3 59.5 63.8 68.0 72.3 76.5 80.8 85.0
3.1 30.3 34.6 38.9 43.3 47.6 51.9 56.2 60.6 64.9 69.2 73.5 77.9 82.2 86.5
3.2 30.8 35.2 39.6 44.0 48.4 52.8 57.2 61.6 66.0 70.4 74.8 79.2 83.6 88.0
3.3 31.3 35.8 40.3 44.8 49.2 53.7 58.2 62.7 67.1 71.6 76.1 80.6 85.0 89.5
3.4 31.9 36.4 41.0 45.5 50.1 54.6 59.2 63.7 68.3 72.8 77.4 81.9 86.5 91.0
3.5 32.4 37.0 41.6 46.3 50.9 55.5 60.1 64.8 69.4 74.0 78.6 83.3 87.9 92.5
3.6 32.9 37.6 42.3 47.0 51.7 56.4 61.1 65.8 70.5 75.2 79.9 84.6 89.3 94.0
3.7 33.4 38.2 43.0 47.8 52.5 57.3 62.1 66.9 71.6 76.4 81.2 86.0 90.7 95.5
3.8 34.0 38.8 43.7 48.5 53.4 58.2 63.1 67.9 72.8 77.6 82.5 87.3 92.2 97.0
3.9 34.5 39.4 44.3 49.3 54.2 59.1 64.0 69.0 73.9 78.8 83.7 88.7 93.6 98.5
4.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0 65.0 70.0 75.0 80.0 85.0 90.0 95.0 100.0
4.1 35.5 40.6 45.7 50.8 55.8 60.9 66.0 71.1 76.1 81.2 86.3 91.4 96.4 101.5
4.2 36.1 41.2 46.4 51.5 56.7 61.8 67.0 72.1 77.3 82.4 87.6 92.7 97.9 103.0
4.3 36.6 41.8 47.0 52.3 57.5 62.7 67.9 73.2 78.4 83.6 88.8 94.1 99.3 104.5
4.4 37.1 42.4 47.7 53.0 58.3 63.6 68.9 74.2 79.5 84.8 90.1 95.4 100.7 106.0
4.5 37.6 43.0 48.4 53.8 59.1 64.5 69.9 75.3 80.6 86.0 91.4 96.8 102.1 107.5
4.6 38.2 43.6 49.1 54.5 60.0 65.4 70.9 76.3 81.8 87.2 92.7 98.1 103.6 109.0
4.7 38.7 44.2 49.7 55.3 60.8 66.3 71.8 77.4 82.9 88.4 93.9 99.5 105.0 110.5
4.8 39.2 44.8 50.4 56.0 61.6 67.2 72.8 78.4 84.0 89.6 95.2 100.8 106.4 112.0
4.9 39.7 45.4 51.1 56.8 62.4 68.1 73.8 79.5 85.1 90.8 96.5 102.2 107.8 113.5
5.0 40.3 46.0 51.8 57.5 63.3 69.0 74.8 80.5 86.3 92.0 97.8 103.5 109.3 115.0
5.1 40.8 46.6 52.4 58.3 64.1 69.9 75.7 81.6 87.4 93.2 99.0 104.9 110.7 116.5
5.2 41.3 47.2 53.1 59.0 64.9 70.8 76.7 82.6 88.5 94.4 100.3 106.2 112.1 118.0
5.3 41.8 47.8 53.8 59.8 65.7 71.7 77.7 83.7 89.6 95.6 101.6 107.6 113.5 119.5
5.4 42.4 48.4 54.5 60.5 66.6 72.6 78.7 84.7 90.8 96.8 102.9 108.9 115.0 121.0
5.5 42.9 49.0 55.1 61.3 67.4 73.5 79.6 85.8 91.9 98.0 104.1 110.3 116.4 122.5

Actual Milk (kg)

% BF 15.9 18.2 20.1 22.7 25.0 27.3 29.6 31.8 34.1 36.4 38.6 40.9 43.2 45.5
- 4% FCM -
3.0 13.6 15.5 17.4 19.3 21.3 23.2 25.1 27.1 29.0 30.9 32.9 34.8 36.7 38.6
3.1 13.8 15.7 17.7 19.7 21.6 23.6 25.6 27.6 29.5 31.5 33.4 35.4 37.4 39.3
3.2 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 38.0 40.0
3.3 14.2 16.3 18.3 20.4 22.4 24.4 26.5 28.5 30.5 32.6 34.6 36.6 38.6 40.7
3.4 14.5 16.6 18.6 20.7 22.8 24.8 26.9 29.0 31.1 33.1 35.2 37.2 39.3 41.4
3.5 14.7 16.8 18.9 21.1 23.1 25.2 27.3 29.5 31.6 33.6 35.7 37.9 40.0 42.1
3.6 15.0 17.1 19.2 21.4 23.5 25.6 27.8 29.9 32.1 34.2 36.3 38.5 40.6 42.7
3.7 15.2 17.4 19.6 21.7 23.9 26.1 28.2 30.4 32.6 34.7 36.9 39.1 41.2 43.4
3.8 15.5 17.6 19.9 22.1 24.3 26.5 28.7 30.9 33.1 35.3 37.5 39.7 41.9 44.1
3.9 15.7 17.9 20.1 22.4 24.6 26.9 29.1 31.4 33.6 35.8 38.1 40.3 42.6 44.8
4.0 15.9 18.2 20.5 22.7 25.0 27.3 29.6 31.8 34.1 36.4 38.6 40.9 43.2 45.5
4.1 16.1 18.5 20.8 23.1 25.4 27.7 30.0 32.3 34.6 36.9 39.2 41.6 43.8 46.1
4.2 16.4 18.7 21.1 23.4 25.8 28.1 30.5 32.8 35.1 37.5 39.8 42.1 44.5 46.8
4.3 16.6 19.0 21.4 23.7 26.1 28.5 30.9 33.3 35.6 38.0 40.4 42.8 45.1 47.5
4.4 16.9 19.3 21.7 24.1 26.5 28.9 31.3 33.7 36.1 38.6 41.0 43.4 45.8 48.2
4.5 17.1 19.6 22.0 24.5 26.9 29.3 31.8 34.2 36.6 39.1 41.6 44.0 46.4 48.9
4.6 17.4 19.8 22.3 24.8 27.3 29.7 32.2 34.7 37.2 39.6 42.1 44.6 47.1 49.6
4.7 17.6 20.1 22.6 25.1 27.6 30.1 32.6 35.2 37.7 40.2 42.7 45.2 47.7 50.2
4.8 17.8 20.4 22.9 25.5 28.0 30.6 33.1 35.6 38.2 40.7 43.3 45.8 48.4 50.9
4.9 18.1 20.6 23.2 25.8 28.4 31.0 33.6 36.1 38.7 41.3 43.9 46.5 49.0 51.6
5.0 18.3 20.9 32.6 26.1 28.8 31.4 34.0 36.6 39.2 41.8 44.5 47.1 49.7 52.3
5.1 18.6 21.2 23.8 26.5 29.1 31.8 34.4 37.1 39.7 42.4 45.0 47.7 50.3 53.0
5.2 18.8 21.5 24.1 26.8 29.5 32.2 34.9 37.6 40.2 42.9 45.6 48.3 51.0 53.6
5.3 19.0 21.7 24.5 27.2 29.9 32.6 35.3 38.1 40.7 43.5 46.2 48.9 51.6 54.3
5.4 19.3 22.0 24.8 27.5 30.3 33.0 35.8 38.5 41.3 44.0 46.8 49.5 52.3 55.0
5.5 19.5 22.3 25.1 27.9 30.6 33.4 36.2 39.0 41.8 44.6 47.3 50.1 52.9 55.7

82
 APPENDIX TABLE 5. NUTRIENT VALUE OF COMMON FORAGES.
Net Energy
Milk Gain
DM CP RUP RDP SP ADF NDF NFC TDN Mcal/lb Mcal/lb Fat Ash Ca P
Forage % %DM %CP %CP %CP %DM %DM %DM %DM DM DM %DM %DM %DM %DM

Alfalfa, hay
-early vegetative 90 23.0 25 75 30 28 38 24.8 66 .68 .42 4.0 10.2 1.80 .35
-early bloom 90 18.0 30 70 29 31 42 27.4 60 .61 .34 3.0 9.6 1.41 .22
-mid-bloom 90 17.0 33 67 28 35 46 25.3 58 .59 .31 2.6 9.1 1.41 .24
-full bloom 90 15.0 40 60 26 37 50 24.1 55 .56 .26 2.0 8.9 1.25 .22

Alfalfa haylage
-early bloom 65 18.0 24 76 35 31 42 27.4 60 .61 .34 3.0 9.6 1.41 .22
50 18.0 22 78 40 31 42 27.4 60 .61 .34 3.0 9.6 1.41 .22
30 18.0 16 84 55 31 42 27.4 60 .61 .34 3.0 9.6 1.41 .22

Alfalfa (1/2)-grass (1/2)

-early 50 17.0 29 71 28 33 49 21.9 64 .64 .39 2.8 9.9 .86 .30
-late 50 13.0 35 65 25 40 60 15.5 53 .54 .25 2.2 8.4 .78 .22
Barlage, average 45 9.0 25 75 25 33 60 21.4 63 .64 .26 2.1 7.6 .21 .30
Birdsfoot trefoil,
-early bloom 90 18.0 30 70 29 33 43 29.5 63 .64 .32 2.1 7.4 1.75 .22
Bromegrass
-pasture, spring 25 24.0 20 80 45 30 55 9.0 72 .74 .47 2.6 9.4 .40 .37
-late bloom 90 10.0 40 60 20 43 68 11.3 59 .60 .32 2.3 8.4 .30 .35

83
Clover, alsike,
-average 90 14.9 40 60 26 35 46 27.4 58 .59 .31 3.0 8.7 1.29 .26
Clover, ladino
-pasture 20 22.0 15 85 35 32 36 29.2 65 .67 .44 2.7 10.1 1.35 .31
Clover, red
-average 50 16.0 25 75 40 36 46 26.7 55 .56 .26 2.8 8.5 1.53 .25
Corn silage
-high in grain 35 8.1 35 65 45 22 42 42.3 72 .73 .47 3.1 4.5 .20 .22
Corn silage
-average in grain 35 8.5 30 70 50 26 48 39.5 70 .70 .43 3.0 5.0 .20 .22
Corn silage
-low in grain 35 9.0 30 70 55 30 52 33.4 62 .64 .36 3.0 7.2 .34 .19
Corn silage,
-average in grain,
with 10 lb urea/T 35 12.0 25 75 65 23 44 39.5 70 .70 .43 3.0 5.0 .23 .22
Cornstover 90 5.9 35 65 55 39 67 18.6 50 .50 .19 1.3 7.2 .57 .10
Oatlage
-boot 45 14.0 25 75 50 35 58 15.5 61 .59 .34 4.1 8.4 .34 .24
-dough 45 9.0 30 70 45 44 74 5.9 53 .54 .24 4.2 6.9 .37 .17
Orchardgrass
-boot 90 15.0 25 75 45 34 61 12.5 65 .67 .40 2.8 8.7 .27 .34
-headed 90 8.4 30 70 40 45 72 6.1 54 .55 .25 3.4 10.1 .26 .30
Peas and oats 50 18.0 28 72 50 30 46 23.5 58 .57 .29 4.0 8.5 .34 .28
 Net Energy
Milk Gain
DM CP RUP RDP SP ADF NDF NFC TDN Mcal/lb Mcal/lb Fat Ash Ca P
Forage % %DM %CP %CP %CP %DM %DM %DM %DM DM DM %DM %DM %DM %DM

Quackgrass 90 11.0 40 60 45 48 79 0.0 52 .48 .20 1.8 8.0 .34 .28

Reed canary grass 90 11.0 35 65 40 39 68 11 54 .55 .28 2.7 7.3 .37 .21
Sorghum, silage 30 7.5 30 70 45 38 63 17.8 60 .61 .34 3.0 8.7 .35 .21
Sorghum-sudan grass,
silage 30 10.8 30 70 45 42 68 8.6 56 .56 .26 2.8 9.8 .46 .21
Soybean, silage 40 18.2 24 76 35 34 46 23.3 53 .54 .25 2.6 9.9 1.32 .44
Straw, oats 90 4.4 30 70 25 47 70 15.6 50 .50 .19 2.2 7.8 .24 .06
-wheat 90 3.6 30 70 25 54 85 1.8 44 .44 .10 1.8 7.8 .18 .05
-barley 90 4.3 30 70 25 59 80 6.7 49 .49 .24 1.9 7.1 .30 .07
Sweet corn silage,
-process residue 30 7.7 30 70 50 34 61 21.2 67 .69 .43 5.2 4.9 .30 .90
Triticale silage, boot 40 17.5 28 72 45 31 55 17.0 60 .61 .34 2.5 8.0 .56 .56
Wheat silage 40 11.9 25 75 45 41 68 10.1 55 .55 .25 2.5 7.5 .27 .27

Values were derived from Feeding the Dairy Herd, NCR Publication 235.

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 APPENDIX TABLE 6. NUTRIENT VALUE OF ENERGY CONCENTRATES (GRAINS, BY-PRODUCT FEEDS, AND FAT)

Net Energy
Milk Gain Maximum
CP RUP RDP SP ADF NDF NFC TDN Mcal/lb Mcal/lb Fat Ash Ca P %
%DM %CP %CP %CP %DM %DM %DM %DM DM DM %DM %DM %DM %DM of DMI
Barley 14 25 75 20 7 26 56 84 .88 .64 2.1 2.6 .05 .37 55
Beet pulp, plain 10 45 55 30 33 54 31 78 .81 .57 0.5 4.4 .69 .08 30
Corn, ear 9 50 50 16 11 28 58 80 .83 .56 3.7 1.9 .05 .26 60
Corn, HM ear 9 40 60 30 11 28 58 80 .83 .56 3.7 1.9 .05 .26 60
Corn, shelled, ground 10 50 50 12 3 9 75 88 .92 .64 4.3 1.6 .02 .31 55
Corn, HM shelled 1 10 40 60 45 3 9 75 88 .92 .64 4.3 1.6 .02 .31 55
Corn, cobs 3 65 35 18 35 89 6 47 .46 .11 .7 1.7 .12 .04 10
Corn, gluten feed 26 30 70 50 10 45 19 82 .85 .58 2.4 7.5 .10 .82 25
Cottonseed, fuzzy 24 35 65 35 26 37 11 96 1.02 .74 23.9 4.5 .15 .73 15
Fat 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 177 2.65 2.65 100.0 0 0 0 3
Hominy 12 50 50 19 13 25 55 92 .96 .68 7.7 3.1 .06 .58 60
Molasses, cane 4 0 100 100 0 0 82 72 .74 .54 0.9 13.3 1.19 .11 10
Oats 13 20 80 53 15 32 46 76 .79 .52 5.4 3.4 .07 .39 25
Rye 14 19 81 50 4 9 73 80 .83 .56 1.7 1.9 .07 .36 25
Sorghum (milo) 12 53 47 12 3 9 74 83 .85 .59 3.3 2.1 .05 .35 55
Soybean hulls 12 30 70 20 50 67 14 77 .85 .55 2.1 5.1 .49 .21 10
Wheat 14 20 80 73 8 13 69 88 .92 .64 2.0 1.9 .06 .41 25
Wheat bran 17 29 71 30 15 51 21 70 .77 .44 4.4 6.9 .12 1.32 15
Wheat middlings 19 25 75 40 10 37 34 83 .87 .55 4.9 5.2 .12 1.00 15

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Whey 14 10 90 95 0 0 76 81 .90 .60 0.7 9.8 .98 .81 5

Values were derived from Feeding the Dairy Herd, NCR Publication 235.
 APPENDIX TABLE 7. NUTRIENT VALUE OF PROTEIN CONCENTRATES.
Net Energy
Milk Gain Maximum
CP RUP RDP SP ADF NDF NFC TDN Mcal/lb Mcal/lb Fat Ash Ca P %
%DM %CP %CP %CP %DM %DM %DM %DM DM DM %DM %DM %DM %DM of DMI
Bloodmeal 87 70 30 5 0 0 6 66 .69 .42 1.4 5.8 .32 .26 2
Brewers grains, dry 25 53 47 3 24 46 18 66 .69 .42 6.5 4.8 .33 .55 25
Brewers grains,wet 26 45 55 8 23 42 21.3 78 .81 .55 6.5 10.0 .33 .55 25
Canola meal 41 23 77 28 16 27 23 69 .73 .45 1.8 7.5 .67 1.04 *
Corn gluten meal 67 55 45 4 5 14 13 89 1.00 .69 2.4 3.4 .08 .54 5
Cottonseed meal (41) 46 22 59 20 19 26 20 76 .83 .55 1.3 7.0 .22 1.21 *
Distillers grain, corn 25 60 40 15 18 44 16 88 .99 .68 10.3 4.8 .15 .71 25
Feathermeal 85 70 30 9 10 10 0 68 .69 .41 3.2 4.0 .49 .33 2
Fishmeal 67 80 20 12 0 0 2 73 .79 .50 10.5 20.8 5.65 3.16 4
Linseed meal 38 35 65 20 19 25 29 78 .85 .56 1.5 6.5 .43 .89 *
Malt sprouts 28 53 47 48 18 46 20 70 .72 .45 1.5 4.8 .26 .74 5
Meat and bone meal 50 60 40 15 0 0 6 68 .71 .44 13.7 30.4 12.01 5.82 5
Soybeans, raw 43 20 80 40 10 13 20 91 1.03 .71 18.8 5.5 .27 .65 10
Soybeans, heated 43 48 52 10 10 13 20 91 1.03 .71 18.8 5.5 .27 .65 15
Soybean meal (44) 50 28 72 20 10 12 29 84 .84 .64 1.5 7.3 .30 .68 *
Soybean meal (48) 55 28 72 20 6 9 26 87 .86 .65 1.7 8.0 .33 .73 *
Sunflower meal (28) 31 24 76 30 33 40 20 58 .60 .36 1.2 8.1 .23 1.03 10
Urea 287 0 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

*Add the amount needed to balance and meet protein needs.

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Values were derived from Feeding the Dairy Herd, NCR Publication 235.
APPENDIX TABLE 8. NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR VARIOUS BODY
WEIGHTS, DAYS PREGNANT, AND MILK COMPONENTS
(ADAPTED FROM DAIRY NRC 2001).

Body Weight NE lact Metabolizable Protein Calcium Phosphorous

lb kg (Mcal) lb kg (lb) (g) (lb) (g)
900 409 7.3 2.26 1.03 0.029 13 0.068 30
1000 454 7.9 2.26 1.03 0.032 15 0.068 30
1100 500 8.4 2.27 1.03 0.035 16 0.068 30
1200 545 9.0 2.27 1.03 0.038 17 0.069 31
1300 591 9.6 2.28 1.03 0.041 19 0.069 31
1400 636 10.1 2.28 1.03 0.045 20 0.069 31
1500 682 10.7 2.29 1.04 0.048 22 0.069 31

Days Pregnant
(1400 lb/636 kg cow) grams
220 2.9 0.527 239 0.010 5 0.007 3
240 3.2 0.615 279 0.014 6 0.009 4
260 3.5 0.703 319 0.018 8 0.011 5
270 3.6 0.748 340 0.021 9 0.011 5
279 3.7 0.787 359 0.022 10 0.012 5

Milk Production (per pound of milk)

(% fat / % true protein)

3.0 / 2.8 0.288 0.042 19 0.00104 0.47 0.0009 0.41

3.5 / 3.0 0.314 0.045 20 0.00113 0.51 0.0009 0.41
3.5 / 3.2 0.319 0.048 22 0.00113 0.51 0.0009 0.41
3.7 / 3.0 0.322 0.045 20 0.00117 0.53 0.0009 0.41
4.0 / 3.2 0.340 0.048 22 0.00122 0.55 0.0009 0.41
4.0 / 3.4 0.345 0.051 23 0.00122 0.55 0.0009 0.41
4.5 / 3.4 0.366 0.051 23 0.00131 0.59 0.0009 0.41
5.0 / 3.6 0.393 0.054 25 0.00140 0.64 0.0009 0.41

Body weight change during lactation – nutrients per lb. (0.45 kg) change
NE l Crude Protein
Weight loss 2.49 (5.47) 0.07 lb (68g)
Weight gain 2.83 (6.23) 0.07 lb (68 g)

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