UNIT-IV CONCEPTS AND THEMES IN SOCIOLOGY 

(i):  Sociological concepts and perspectives; Sociological Imagination.

(ii)  Society, Institution, Groups, Community, Culture and Socialization.

KEY CONCEPTS OF SOCIOLOGY

 Society
 Community
 Institution
 Culture
 Socialisation
 Stratification
 Gender
 Norms and Value

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
There is debate in the field of sociology as to what are the major theoretical orientations that
guide the discipline. These debates merit attention to those within the field, however,
sociologists would generally state that the discipline is primarily focused on three theoretical
orientations. These three theoretical orientations are: Structural Functionalism, Symbolic
Interactionism, and Conflict Perspective.

To understand a theoretical orientation in any discipline it is critical to understand what is

meant by the term theory. Simply stated, “A theory is a statement of how and why specific
facts are related” (Macionis 2006: 11).

1. Structural Functional Approach: this theoretical orientation views society as a

complex interconnected system of parts that work together in harmony. “… This
approach points to the importance of social structure, any relatively stable pattern of
social behavior. [Secondly], this approach looks for any structure’s social function,
the consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole”
(Macionis 2006: 12-13). Structural Functionalists approach society from a macro-
level perspective; they view society and its pieces as a whole. Major sociological
theorists or contributors to this theoretical approach include: Auguste Comte
 (considered the founder of sociology); Emile Durkheim; Herbert Spencer; Talcott
Parsons; and Robert Merton.
2. Symbolic – Interaction Approach: this theoretical orientation is considered a micro-
level approach, which is an individual level approach. In symbolic interaction society
is viewed as an ongoing, ever changing event or drama. The primary focus in this
approach is communication and exchange of ideas using symbols. In this approach,
“society is nothing more than the reality people construct for themselves as they
interact with one another” (Macionis 2006: 14). Major sociological theorists or
contributors to this theoretical approach include: Max Weber; George Herbert Mead;
Charles Horton Cooley; Erving Goffman; George Homans; and Peter Blau.
3. Conflict Approach: this theoretical orientation is considered a macro-level approach
that focuses on inequality. Society is composed of unequal distribution of desired
resources that benefit a minority at the expense of the majority. This unequal
distribution of desired resources causes conflict within a society. Those that have the
resources develop structures and methods to maintain these resources. Those that do
not have the resources are always creating new ways to acquire resources; hence this
approach views society in constant conflict. Major sociological theorists or
contributors to this theoretical approach include: Karl Marx; W. E. B. DuBois; C.
Wright Mills; and Ralf Dahrendorf

SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION
The Concept of Sociological Imagination 

The father of sociological imagination, C Wright Mills, founded this field of thinking in the
mid-20th century. At the time he wrote, “Neither the life of an individual nor the history of a
society can be understood without understanding both.” Just the same, it’s also important to
put Mills’ theories into context. 

Mills’ contemporaries in sociology tended to focus on understanding systems rather than

exploring individual issues. (For example, structural functionalism.) But Mills argued that
thinking of society as just a series of systems was not quite accurate. And equally important,
it ignored the role of the individual within those systems.
He believed that looking at a balance between systems and the individuals within them was
essential to understanding their collective relationship, as well as the social structures that
arise out of conflict between various groups. This perspective also helps enable sociologists
to do more than observe, but to expose social injustice, and act and change the world.

And that’s important because without sociological imagination, all of our common sense
ideas are drawn from our limited social experiences. Sociological imagination is a framework
for viewing the social world that exceeds those limitations; an ability to develop
understanding how biography is the consequence of historical processes, and unfolds within a
bigger context in society. As such, sociological imagination requires us to separate ourselves
from the familiar reality of our personal circumstances, and view social issues from a broader
context. 

Troubles vs Issues 

As part of explaining his conception of sociological imagination, Mills made an important

distinction between “personal troubles” and “public/social issues.” In our personal lives, we
make decisions that impact our family, friends, coworkers, and other communities where
we’re involved. Personal troubles involve an individual’s private problems in relation to
others.

By contrast, public/social issues are forces which are outside of the personal control of an

individual. For living in an environment where there is pervasive poverty, racism, sexism,
etc. Mills notes that personal troubles can become social issues once they’re pervasive
enough, i.e. once the problems people face in their lives are common among their
community, those problems can become a societal issue.

Sociological Imagination & History  

Mills also believed studying history was an important element in sociological imagination.
Because historical events have helped our shape contemporary society, and the lives of every
living person. As such, learning history can help us view our lives within the context of
others, based on past experiences. That provides us a better basis for understanding our own
actions, and the actions of our community as a result of systems used throughout history,
which can be valuable in viewing our own lives and in explaining the world to others.

Why is Sociological Imagination Useful? 

Arguing that you can only understand yourself if you can understand your circumstances,
Mills believed sociological imagination is not merely a practice for professors of sociology.
Rather, it’s something everyone must attempt, because it allows people to better understand
their own personal experiences and within the context of society at large.

He further argued the advantage of sociological imagination is connecting “personal troubles

to public issues.” Because the things we do are influenced by the circumstances where we
find ourselves our values, the behavior of the people in our environment. And sociological
imagination prompts us to examine these and their interrelationship towards outcome. 

Lacking in sociological imagination, we’re vulnerable to apathy: accepting the beliefs,

actions, and traditions around us are natural and unavoidable. We’re also vulnerable to moral
insensibility as the result of a simple rationalization process. For instance, when people carry
out terrible acts as part of their role in an organization, not guided by a person’s individual
consciousness, but the commands issued by an external body. 

In summary, sociological imagination is an ability to see the context which shapes your
individual decision making, as well as the decisions made by others. But the reason why it’s
useful is because it allows us to better identify and question various aspects of society, as
opposed to passively living within it. Essentially, someone who can exercise sociological
imagination is better equipped to make smarter personal choices.

SOCIETY
Definition: “Society is a system of usages and procedures of authority and mutual aid, of
many groupings and divisions, of controlling human behaviour and liberties. This ever-
changing complex system, we call Society. It is web of social relationship. And it is always
changing” – MacIver and Page
  Differentiation between society and community was done by Ferdinand Tnnies.
Gesselschaft (Society) and Gemein Schaft (Community).
 Associated term to society is group. ‘Sociology is the study of social groups.
 “Society is a web of social relationships.” – MacIver & Page (in their book:
Society: An introductory analysis)
 ‘A society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of
behaviour which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or
who diff er from them in behaviour’. —Ginsberg
 Society is never made up of one person.

Characteristics of society

1. Network of individuals: group of people who are connected/related to each other.

2. Relationships: Classification of relationships done by C.H. Cooley. Primary
relationships (e.g. family) and Secondary relationships (like office relations)
3. Society is concrete rather than abstract: can be expressed through beliefs and
practices.
4. Commonality
5. Constraint: society exerts pressure on individuals to act in particular manners which
are acceptable to the society.

Elements of Society

(a) Likeness: It is an essential prerequisite of a society, as MacIver says, ‘Society means

likeness’. Th e sense of likeness was focussed in early society on kinship. In modern
societies, the conditions of social likeness have broadened out in the principle of nationality
or ‘one world’.

(b) Interdependence: In addition to likeness interdependence is another essential element to

constitute society. Th is fact of interdependence is very much visible in the present world.
Today, not only countries but also continents depend on one another. Th e world has shrunk
to such an extent that if communications are interrupted at one end, it makes all ends suff er.
With the growth of the area of interdependence, its forms also multiply manifold. Th e
NATO, SAARC, and UNESCO testify to the growing interdependence of the people of the
world. (
c) Co-operation: Lastly, co-operation is also essential to constitute a society. Without co-
operation no society can exist. Unless people co-operate with each other, they cannot live
happily. For want of co-operation, the entire fabric of society may collapse.

Brief: A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through
persistent relations, or a large social group, sharing the same geographical or virtual territory,
subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies
are characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals who share a distinctive
institutions and culture. A given society may be described as the sum total of such
relationships among its constituent members. In social sciences, a society invariably entails
stratification and hierarchy. A society helps its members benefit in ways not possible had the
members existed individually. It consists of like-minded people governed by their own values
and norms. Within a society one almost always founds smaller cultures or sub societies with
their own idiosyncratic set of rules.

Broadly, a society may be described as a social, economic and industrial infrastructure made
up with varied kinds of people. A society may constitute of different ethnic goups, a nation
state or a broader cultural group.

ORGANISMIC THEORY/Analogy

Given by Herbert Spencer.

Organismic theory is another vital theory about the origin of human society. Great
philosophers, namely Plato, Aristotle, Herbert Spencer and Novicow were the exponents of
this theory. However, Spencer occupies a unique place. This theory states that society is
never man-made. It is a natural creation and has started through the process of evolution.
Spencer conceives society as a biological system, a greater organism alike in its structure and
functions, exhibiting the same kind of unity as the individual organism, and subject to similar
laws of development, maturation and decline. Thus, the basic assumption is society is like a
biological organism and the only difference is in the size. Spencer tries to draw analogy
between the organism and the society on the basis of the following points:

 Evolution: Evolution or development is the basic characteristic of a biological organism.

Society, like an organism, grows or develops gradually. As an organism passes through the
laws of development, maturation and decline, so does society.
 Systems: The biological organism consists of different systems such as the circulatory,
nervous, respiratory, and so on, which correspond to similar systems in society. For instance,
the circulatory system corresponds to the system of transport and communication in the
society, the nervous system corresponds to the government of the state, and so on.

 Structural differentiation and function integration: In both society and biological

organisms, there exists close integration or interdependence of parts. The institutions are parts
of the society. Just as different parts of an organism are mutually dependent, so are the
individuals mutually dependent upon each other. If any part of the structure is affected, the
entire system is paralyzed.

 Cellular formation of both society and individual: The individual or organism is made
up of cells; similarly, the society is also composed of cells and people are the cells of society.
Thus, Spencer concluded that society is like an organism. Spencer observed the following
differences between the organism and the society:

 In organic growth, nature plays a dominant role and the organism grows naturally,
while social growth may be checked.

 An organism is composed of many cells, whereas a society is composed of a

collection of individuals.

 Society is abstract, whereas organism is concrete.

 The units of society are not fixed, like those of an individual organism

Criticism: The analogy was helpful but never perfect. The cells of an organism are rigidly
fixed in their mutual relations, completely subordinated to the organism and too specialized
to be called members of the society. They are not spatially detached and independently
mobile. So the organism is not, strictly speaking, a society of cells. The organism possesses a
consciousness, which no society possesses.

[NOTE; Types of societies (Pre-industrial, industrial, post-industrial) mentioned in the

SOCIO NOTES pdf]

COMMUNITY
Definition:

‘A group of people residing in a definite geographical territory and who share a common way
of life.’ – Given by sir
Community is ‘a group of social beings living a common life including all the infinite variety
and complexity of relations which result from that common life which constitutes it’. –Morris
Ginsberg

[Note: community is never made up of just one person,}

Characteristics of a community

 Collectiveness
 Residence in a definite geographical area
o The usage of hindu “community”/ muslim “community” is wrong. A
community has to have a definite geographical boundary. Asian Community
is correct.

Essentials for community (the four ‘I’s)

1. Interaction:
2. Inter-relationship
3. Identity:
a. We-feeling: This is the feeling that leads men to identify themselves with
others so that when they say ‘we’, there is no thought of distinction and when
they say ‘ours’, there is no thought of division
4. Integration

Elements of a community

Th e following are the elements on the basis of which we can decide whether a particular
group is a community or not:

(a) Group of people: Community is a group of people. Whenever the individuals live
together in such a way that they share the basic conditions of a common life, we call them
forming a community.

(b) Locality: Th e group of people forms a community when it begins to reside in a defi nite
locality. A community always occupies a territorial area. Th e area need not be fi xed for
ever. Th e people may change their area of habitation from time to time just as nomadic
community does. However, most communities are now well settled and derive a strong bond
of solidarity from the conditions of their locality. Among the village people there is unity
because they reside in a defi nite locality. Although due to the extending facilities of
communication in the modern world the territorial bond has been weakened, yet the character
of locality as a social classifi er has never been transcended.

(c) Community sentiment: Community sentiment means a feeling of belonging together. It

is ‘we feeling’ among the members. In modern times, this sentiment very much lacks among
the people occupying a specifi c local area. For example, in big cities, a man does not know
even his next-door neighbour. Mere neighbourhood does not create a community if
community sentiment is lacking. Th erefore, to create a community the sentiment of common
living must be present among the residents of a locality.

(d) Permanency: A community is not transitory like a crowd. It essentially includes a

permanent life in a defi nite place.

(e) Naturality: Communities are not made or created by an act of will, but are natural. An
individual is born in a community.

(f) Likeness: In a community, there is a likeness in language, customs, mores, etc. According
to Green, ‘A community is a cluster of people living within a narrow territorial radius, who
share a common way of life’.

(g) Wider ends: In communities, the people associate not for the fulfi lment of a particular
end. Th e ends of a community are wider. Th ese are natural and not artifi cial.

(h) A particular name: Every community has a particular name. In the words of Lumley, ‘It
points identity, it indicates reality; it points out individuality; it often describes personality
and each community is something of a personality’. For example, people living in Punjab are
called Punjabis, whereas those living in Kashmir are called Kashmiris.

(i) No legal status: A community does not have a legal status. It cannot sue, nor can it be
sued. In the eyes of law, it has no rights and duties.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A COMMUNITY AND A SOCIETY

Th e following are the points of diff erence between a society and a community:

(a) Community sentiment: A community, as discussed above, is a group of people who live
together in particular locality and share the basic conditions of a common life. To constitute a
community the presence of common sentiment is necessary. On the other hand, there is an
element of likeness in society, but it is not necessary that likeness should include the people
in oneness; enemies can also be included in society.
(b) Defi nite locality: Society has no defi nite boundary or assignable limits. It is universal
and pervasive. Society is the name of our social relationships. Community, on the other hand,
is a group of people living together in a particular locality.

(c) Community a species of society: Community is the species of society. It exists within a
society and possesses its distinguishable structure that distinguishes it from other
communities. Small communities exist within greater communities; the village within a town,
the town within a region, the region within a nation.

INSTITUTIONS
According to Sir’s ppt an institution is:

• A society or organization founded for a religious, educational, social, or similar

purpose.

• An organization providing residential care for people with special needs.

• A custom, practice, relationship, or behavioral pattern of importance in the life of a

community or society: the institutions of marriage and the family.

• Established and prevalent social rules that structure social interaction. Example-
Language, Law, Money

Institutions have been defined by McIver as the ‘established forms or conditions of procedure
characteristic of a group activity’.

According to Cooley, ‘An institution is a complete organisation of collective behaviour

established in the social heritage and meeting some persistent need or want’.

H. E. Barnes holds that ‘Social institutions are the social structures and machinery through
which human society organises, directs and executes the multifarious activities required for
human need’.

Characteristics of Institution

Th e following characteristics may be noted in the concept of an institution.

(i) Institutions are the means of controlling individuals.

(ii) Institutions depend on the collective activities of men.
(iii) Th e institution has some proceedings that are formed on the basis of customs and
dogmas.
(iv) Institution is more stable than other means of social control.
 (v) Every institution has some rules that must be compulsorily obeyed by the
individuals.
(vi) Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of men. It has social
recognition behind it.

Brief: Socially established ways of doing things are called institutions. Generally, the term
‘institution’ refers to a group of people who have some specific purpose. However, the
sociological understanding is quite different from common usage. Every society is
characterized by certain social norms. These norms are very important in interactive social
systems. In fact, they are institutionalized, i.e., they are widely accepted among members of
the society. In this context, it can be said that an institution is neither a building, nor a people,
nor an organization. An institution is a system of norms aimed at achieving some goal or
activity that people feel is important. It focuses on major human activities. Institutions are
structured processes through which people carry on their activities.

Institutions have been defined by MacIver as ‘established forms or conditions of

procedure characteristic of group activity’. So, it can be said that social institutions
are the social structures and machinery, through which the society organizes, directs
and executes multiple activities that are required to fulfil human needs. An institution
is an organized system of social relationships which embodies certain common values
and procedures and meets certain basic needs of the society (Horton and Hunt,1984)

Every organization is dependent on certain established norms that are accepted and
recognized by the society. These norms govern socio-cultural and interpersonal relationships.
They are institutions in different forms such as marriage, family, economy, polity, religion,
and so on. These institutions govern social life.

Features of Social Institutions

A social norm is said to be institutionalized in a particular social system when three

conditions are fulfilled:

(i) Many members of the social system accept the norm.

(ii) Many of those who accept the norm take it seriously. In psychological terms, they
internalize it.
(iii) The norm is sanctioned. This means that certain members of the system are
expected to be guided by the norm in appropriate circumstances.
 CULTURE
Definitions:

‘Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom,
and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society’. —Tylor

"A culture is a configuration of learned behaviors and results of behavior whose component
elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society" - Linton, R.
(1945). The Cultural Background of Personality. New York.

" Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and
transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including
their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i. e.
historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems
may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, and on the other as conditioning
elements of further action." - Kroeber, A.L., & Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A critical
review of concepts and definitions. Harvard University Peabody Museum of American
Archeology and Ethnology Papers 47.

"By culture we mean all those historically created designs for living, explicit and implicit,
rational, irrational, and nonrational, which exist at any given time as potential guides for the
behavior of men." - Kluckhohn, C., & Kelly, W.H. (1945). The concept of culture. In R.
Linton (Ed.). The Science of Man in the World Culture. New York. (pp. 78-105).

From the above definitions it is clear that in sociology, culture is used in a specific sense that
is different from the one we have in common parlance. People often call an educated person a
cultured man and regard an uneducated person as uncultured. In sociology, we use the word
to denote acquired behaviours, which are shared by and transmitted among the members of
the society. It is an accumulation that a new generation inherits. It is a heritage into which a
child is born. Thus, to a student of sociology, a person lacking in culture is an impossibility
because individuals share the culture of their group. The essential point in regard to culture is
that it is acquired by man as a member of society and persists through tradition. These points
of acquisition and tradition have been emphasized by Tylor and Redfield in their definitions.
The essential factor in this acquisition through tradition is the ability to learn from the group.
Man learns his behaviour, and behaviour which is learnt denotes his culture. Singing, talking,
dancing, and eating belong to the category of culture. Moreover, the behaviours are not one’s
own, but are shared by others. Behaviours are transmitted to a person by someone; be it his
school teacher, his parents, or friends. It is the product of human experience, that is, it is man-
made. It is the sum of what the group has learnt about living together under particular
circumstances, physical and biological, in which it has found itself. Thus, culture is a system
of learnt behaviour, shared by and transmitted among the members of a group. Man begins to
learn it since his birth. By picking up the culture and by tapping the heritage of his past, man
becomes distinctively human. Man has, therefore, been called the culture-bearing animal.

Characteristics of culture

a) Culture is an acquired quality: Culture is not innate. Traits learnt through socialization,
habits, and thoughts are called culture. Culture is learnt. Any behaviour which is socially
acquired is called learnt behaviour.

(b) Culture is social, not individual heritage of man: Culture is inclusive of the expectations
of the members of the group. It is a social product which is shared by most members of the
group.

(c) Culture is idealistic: Culture embodies the ideas and norms of a group. It is a sum total of
the ideal patterns and norms of behaviour of a group. It is the manifestation of human mind in
the course of history.

(d) Culture is the total social heritage: Culture is linked with the past. Th e past endures
because it lives in culture. It is passed from one generation to another through traditions and
customs.

(e) Culture fulfi ls some needs: Culture fulfi ls those ethical and social needs of the groups
that are ends in themselves.

(f) Culture is an integrated system: Culture possesses an order and system. Its various parts
are integrated with each other and any new element that is introduced is also integrated.

(g) Language is the chief vehicle of culture: Man lives not only in the present but also in the
past and future. Th is is made possible because of language that transmits to him what was
learnt in the past and enables him to transmit the accumulated wisdom to future.

(h) Culture evolves into more complex forms through division of labour: which develops
special skills and increases the interdependence of society’s members.

Functions of culture
We may consider the functions of culture under two categories: (a) For an individual (b) For
a group

Importance for an Individual

Culture has got a great value for an individual. It forms an important element of his social
life. Th e following advantages of culture for an individual may be pointed out.

(a) Culture makes man a human being: It is culture that makes the human animal a man,
regulates his conduct, and prepares him for group life. It provides to him a complete design
for living. It teaches him what type of food he should take and in what manner, how he
should cover himself and behave with his fellow beings, how he should speak with the
people, and how he should·cooperate or compete with others. An individual abstracted from
culture is less than human; he is what we call a feral man. Th e individual, to be truly human,
must participate in the cultural stream. Just as it is necessary for fi sh to live in water, it is
necessary and natural for man to live within a cultural framework. In short, the qualities
required to live a social life are acquired by man from his culture. Without it he would have
been forced to fi nd his own way, which would have meant a loss of energy in satisfying his
elementary needs.

(b) Culture provides solutions for complicated situations: Culture has so thoroughly infl
uenced man that often no external force is needed to keep him in conformity with the social
requirements. Actions in certain situations become automatic; for example, forming a queue
when there is rush at a booking window or driving left in busy streets. In the absence of
culture, there would have been confusions even in the simplest of situations; for example,
there would have been numerous problems even in deciding what food to eat. Today, there is
no need to go through a trial and error process to learn everything. A readymade set of
patterns is known for all the matters, which only needs to be learnt and followed. Horton and
Hunt write, ‘From before he is born until after he is dead, man is a prisoner of his culture. His
culture directs and confi nes his behaviour, limits his goals, and measures his rewards. His
culture gets into his mind and shutters his vision so that he sees what he is supposed to see,
dreams what he is expected to dream, and hungers for what he is trained to hunger. He may
imagine that he is making choices, or that he rules his destiny, but the choices of the normal
person always fall within a series of possibilities which the culture tolerates’.

(c) Culture provides traditional interpretations to certain situations: Th rough culture, man
gets traditional interpretations of many situations according to which he determines his
behaviour. If a cat crosses his way he postpones the journey. If an owl is seen at the top of the
house, it is regarded inauspicious. It may, however, be noted that these traditional
interpretations diff er from culture to culture. Among some culture, the owl is regarded a
symbol of wisdom and not a symbol of idiocy.

Importance for a Group

(a) Culture keeps social relationships intact: Culture has importance not only for man but also
for the group. Had there been no culture there would have been no group life. Culture is the
esign and the prescription, the composite of guiding values and ideals. By regulating the
behaviour of the people and satisfying their primary drives pertaining to hunger, shelter, and
sex, it has been able to maintain group life. Indeed, life would have been poor, nasty, brutish,
and short if there had been no cultural regulations. People behave the way in society because
their behaviour does not meet with social disapproval. Culture has provided a number of
checks on irrational conduct and suggestibility. Cultural aids such as schooling or scientifi c
training lessen the chances that a man will behave irrationally or irresponsibly. Th e members
of the group characterized though they be by a consciousness of kind, are at once competing
with one another for the good things of this life and for status. Th ey are held in line by
constraints prescribed by culture. So, it is culture that has kept social relationships intact.
Group solidarity rests on the foundation of culture.

(b) Culture broadens the vision of the individual: Culture has given a new vision to man by
providing him a set of rules for the co-operation of the individuals. He thinks not only for his
own self but also for others. Culture teaches him to think of himself as a part of the larger
whole. It provides him with the concepts of family, state, nation, and class and makes
possible the coordination and division of labour. Culture creates esprit de corps in man.

(c) Culture creates new needs: Culture also creates new needs and new drives; for example, it
leads to a thirst for knowledge. It satisfi es the aesthetic, moral, and religious interests of the
members of the group. In this way, groups also owe much to culture. Any change in cultural
valuations will have wide repercussions on the personality of the individual and structure of
the group. To conclude, the Indian culture is composite in character that exhibits a synthesis
of Hindu and Islamic traditions. India has witnessed one of the most extensive experiments in
cultural cross-fertilization spanning over fi ve millennia. Th e Hindus visit Muslim shrines
and likewise the Hindu places of pilgrimage are visited by Muslims. Th e Sufi s drew
Muslims and Hindus to their fold with their message of love, compassion, and brotherhood.
Th e Indian culture transcends narrow religious and sectarian attitudes as is evident in music,
literature, and art. Despite increased communal polarization, India’s composite culture has
not lost its vitality.

SOCIALISATION
According to sir’s ppt:

‘continuing process whereby an individual acquires a personal identitycontinuing

process whereby an individual acquires a personal identity and learns the norms,
values, behavior, and socialcontinuing process whereby an individual acquires a
personal identity and learns the norms, values, behavior, and social skills appropriate
to his or her social position’

‘Socialization is the process of learning social norms in a given culture. This can be
gender roles, or rules of what is expected in society whether they are moral or not.
Socialization is not the actual acquisition of rules and roles of a culture, rather is the
process in which a person accepts and implements those expectations. Socialization is
not solely determined by the environment, but results from the interaction of an
individual's genetic make-up, personality, educational experience, and environmental
influences.’

Definitions:

According to well-known sociologist Robert Morrison Maclver, ‘Socialization is the process

by which social beings establish wider and profounder relationships with one another, in
which they come closer to each other and build a complex structure of association.’

According to American sociologist Kimball Young, ‘Socialization means the process of

inducting the individual into the social and cultural world of making him a particular member
of a society and its various groups and inducing him to accept the norms and values of that
society. Socialization is definitely a matter of learning and not of biological inheritance.’

Importance of socialization

A new born individual (human infant) comes into the world as a biological organism with
animal needs. He/she is gradually moulded into a social being and learns the social ways of
acting and feeling. Without this process of moulding, neither the society nor the culture
would exist, nor would the individual become a social person.
Processes of Socialization

Once we study socialization, we tend to question about the processes. As we know, every
man tries to adjust himself to the conditions of his social environment. The process of
adjustment itself is socialization. Socialization is the process of transforming a biological
being to a social being. Direct socialization begins only after birth.

Socialization is a continuous and unending process. It is a process of inducting an individual

into the social world. It consists of learning cultural values and norms which he/she must
learn and share. Socialization is social learning.

The fundamental process of socialization is the emergence and gradual development of the
‘self’. It is in terms of the self that a personality takes shape and the mind begins to function.
The notion of self begins to arise as a child learns about the feeling of sensation. According to
eminent sociologist Harry M. Johnson, the ‘self might be regarded as the internalized object
representing ones own personality’. Self is an internalized object that includes ones own
conception of ones abilities and characteristics, and an evaluation of both.

Agencies of Socialization

Th e process of socialization is operative not only in childhood but throughout life. It is a

process that begins at birth and continues unceasingly until the death of the individual. It is an
incessant process. Th e chief agencies of socialization are the following:

(a) Th e family: Th e parents and family are the fi rst agency of socialization for the child. Th
e child learns speech and language from parents. In the family, he learns a number of civic
virtues. Th e family is rightly called the ‘cradle of social virtues’. Th e child gets his fi rst
lessons in cooperation, tolerance, self-sacrifi ce, love, and aff ection in the family. Th e
environment of a family infl uences the growth of a child. Th e psychologists have shown
that a person is what he becomes in a family. In a bad family, the child learns bad habits,
whereas in a good family he acquires good habits.

(b) Th e school: Th e school is the second agency of socialization. In the school, the child
gets his education which moulds his ideas and attitudes. Education is of great importance in
socialization. A well-planned system of education can produce socialized persons.

(c) Playmates or friends: Playmates and friends are also an important agency of socialization.
Th e relation between the child and his playmates is one of equality. From them he acquires
co-operative morality and some of the informal aspects of culture such as fashions, fads,
crazes, modes of gratifi cation, and forbidden knowledge.

(d) Th e church: Religion has been an important factor in society. In every family, religious
practices are observed on diff erent occasions. Th e child observes his parents going to the
temple and performing religious ceremonies. He listens to religious sermons, which may
determine his course of life and shape his ideas.

(e) Th e State: Th e state is an authoritarian agency. It makes laws for the people and lays
down the modes of conduct expected of them. If they fail to adjust their behaviour in
accordance with the laws of the state, they may be punished. Th us, the state also moulds our
behaviour.

(f) Books: In literate societies, another important agency of socialization is the printed word
in books and magazines. Experiences and knowledge of the cultural world, values and
beliefs, superstitions and prejudices are expressed in words. According to American
sociologist Robert Bierstedt, ‘Words rush at us in torrent and cascade; they leap into our
vision as in newspaper, magazine and text book.’ Textbooks are written by authors. They join
the teachers, the peers and the parents in the socialization process of every young individual.

(g) Mass media: Apart from newspapers which carry printed words, the two other mass
media, viz., radio and television, exercise tremendous influence in the socialization process.

One of the reasons for the increasing crime in society is the failure of the socializing
agencies to properly and adequately socialize the child. Today, modern families face a crisis
and suff er from parental maladjustment, which adversely aff ects the process of
socialization. Th e educational system is full of drawbacks. Th e school is no longer a temple
of education. It is a place where boys and girls learn more about drugs and alcohol and less
about cultural heritage. Th e onslaught of urbanization has abolished the neighbourhood
system and snatched playmates from the child, who now plays with electronic games than
with the neighbourhood children. Similarly, religion has a lesser hold in an urban society and
state authority is more disobeyed than obeyed.

It need not be said that in order to have socialized beings these agencies should function in
an effi cient manner. Th e modern society has to solve several problems of socialization, and
for that purpose it has to make these agencies more active and eff ective.
 STRATIFICATION
Definitions:

Eminent sociologist Frank P. Gisbert says, ‘Social stratification is the division of society into
permanent groups of categories linked to each other by the relationship of superiority and
subordination.’

According to American sociologist William J. Goode, ‘Stratification is the system through

which resources and rewards are distributed and handed down from generation to generation.

Melvin M. Tumin: Social stratification refers to arrangement of any social group or society
into a hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, social evaluation
and/or psychic gratification.

Raymond W. Murry: Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into high and
lower social units.

The attributes of social stratification as follows:

 Unequal distribution of power, privileges, prestige, resources and rewards

 Rank-status groups based on the criteria by which power, privileges and prestige are
distributed

 The notion of high and low positions in the interaction and relations between these groups

 Prevalence of step-wise social inequality among different social groups in a given society

Brief: Differentiation is the law of nature. This is true in the case of human society. Human
society is not homogeneous but heterogeneous. Men differ from one another in many
respects. Human beings are equal so far as their bodily structure is concerned. But the
physical appearance of individuals, their intellectual, moral, philosophical, mental, economic,
religious, political and other aspects are different. No two individuals are exactly alike.
Diversity and inequality are inherent in society. Hence, human society is everywhere
stratified. All societies assign their members to roles in terms of superiority, inferiority and
equality. This vertical scale of evaluation and placement of people in strata, or levels, is
called stratification. Those in the top stratum have more power, privilege and prestige than
those below.

ocial stratification is ubiquitous. In all societies, population is socially differentiated on the

basis of age, sex and personal characteristics. The roles and privileges of children differ from
those of adults; and those of good hunters or warriors differ from those of the rank and file. It
is not customary to speak of a society as stratified if every individual in it has an equal chance
to succeed to whatever statuses are open. Strictly speaking, there are no purely equalitarian
societies, but only societies differing in degree of stratification. Even Russia which dreamt of
a ‘classless society’ could not, any more than any other society, escape the necessity of
ranking people according to their functions. The criterion of rank has changed along with
values of society. P. A. Sorokin wrote in his Social Mobility that an ‘uncertified society with
real equality of its members is a myth which has never been realized in the history of
mankind’.

Characteristics of Social Stratification

(i) It is social: Stratifi cation is social in the sense that it is not biologically inherited
but socially accorded. Biological traits such as intelligence, strength, and sex do
not determine social superiority or inferiority until they are socially recognized
and evaluated. Further, it is governed by social norms and sanctions and is
intimately connected with other systems of society such as political, religious,
economic, and other institutions.
(ii) It is ancient: Th e stratifi cation system is quite old. No society has ever been
without it.
(iii) It is universal: Th e stratifi cation system is universal. It is a worldwide
phenomenon. Social diff erences are visible everywhere. According to Sorokin, all
permanently organized groups are stratifi ed.
(iv) It is in diverse form: Th e stratifi cation system has never been uniform in all the
societies. Th e ancient Roman society was stratifi ed into patricians and plebeians.
Th e Aryan society was divided into four varnas—Brahmins, Khatriyas, Vaishyas,
and Shudras. Class, caste, and estate are the general forms of stratifi cation.
(v) It is consequential: Social stratifi cation leads to two important consequences—
life chances and life styles. Life chances refer to mortality, longevity, illness,
marital confl ict, and divorce. Life styles include matters such as the mode of
housing, living, one’s education, mode of recreation, and relation between parents
and children.

Principles of Social Stratification

 Social stratification is a trait of society, not of an individual: Social stratification reflects
social traits and not individual traits. For example, irrespective of individual traits, children
born into wealthy families enjoy better health, better schooling, better career opportunities
and improved life chances vis-à-vis those children who are born in poor families.

 Social stratification continues from generation to generation: The division of society into a
hierarchy is not a one-generation affair; it continues from generation to generation. People
who are in higher strata of society pass on their land, properties and titles to their inheritors.
There could be upward and downward mobility in their status, but they are viewed with
respect in the society. In contrast, neo-rich families are not given the same respect.

 Social stratification is universal but varies from society to society: Social stratification is
found in all societies but the basis of stratification may vary. In primitive society, social
stratification was carried out on the basis of physical strength. However, in industrial society
and socialist society, the basis of stratification are wealth and power, respectively.

 Social stratification includes not just inequality but beliefs: Social stratification not only
stratifies society on the basis of inequality but also establishes beliefs and norms among the
people. People who are in the lower strata of the society believe that they are in the lower
position and behave according to their class position.

Importance of studying social stratification

The study of social stratification is extremely important for sociologists. The importance of
studying social stratification can be summed up as follows:

 It helps in understanding the type of life people live. Knowing what type of life individuals
in a given social group or stratum live is very important for sociological analysis.

 It helps in understanding the basis on which a society is stratified.

 It helps in understanding the kind of interaction and relationship that exist between
individuals of different strata.

 It assists in investigating the relationship between individuals or groups belonging to the

same hierarchy.

 It helps in understanding which type of social system gives rise to a particular type of
hierarchy. It implies that the type of social stratification varies across cultures, times and
types of social systems.
FORMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social stratifi cation assumes the form of class divisions in society. In the course of history,
various social classes have existed at diff erent periods. Th us, the slaves and slave masters,
vassals and feudal lords, capitalists and workers have been the prominent classes. In western
countries, the common form of social stratifi cation is class system, whereas in India class has
assumed a peculiar form in caste.

Since social stratifi cation means division of society into social classes, now we shall
examine the idea of a ‘social class’.

GENDER
Working Definition:

Expectations of the social, cultural and psychological traits and behaviour regarded as
appropriate for the members of a particular society.

Origins of the Concept

Gender was a largely neglected subject in sociology until a body of empirical and theoretical
feminist studies from the 1960s onwards drew attention to gross inequalities between men
and women, even in modern societies. Classical sociology took the existing, male-dominated
gender order very much for granted, with functionalism, for instance, theorizing that gender
differences were rooted in the functional needs of society, such as the ‘expressive’ roles
played by women in the household compared to the ‘instrumental’ ones played by men in the
formal economy. Feminist studies challenged this apparently natural inequality, showing that
male dominance was much more akin to class domination. Nonetheless, some theorists used
existing sociological concepts and theories to explain gender inequality, such as socialization
and a version of conflict theory. In recent years the very concept of gender has been seen as
too rigid, with some suggesting that ‘gender’ is a highly unstable concept that is always in the
process of change.

Meaning and Interpretation

In sociology, there has long been a distinction between sex (anatomical and physiological
differences between male and female bodies) and gender (the social and cultural differences
between the expected behaviour of men and women). Most sociologists argue that there is no
evidence of the mechanisms which would link biological forces with the complex and diverse
social behaviour exhibited by humans, which means that gender is a complex social
construction.

Some sociologists see gender socialization – learning gender roles through social agencies
such as family, school and mass media – as helping to explain observed gender differences.
Socialization processes in the family, peer groups and schools tend to promote gendered
forms of self-identity which children internalize, and in this way gender differences are
culturally reproduced and men and women socialized into different roles.
Genderdifferentiated toys and clothes and stereotypical roles in TV, film and video games are
all examples of the cultural encouragement to conform to gender expectations. More recent
studies argue that gender socialization is not a simple or one-way process, as people actively
engage with it and can reject or modify expectations, which makes socialization inherently
unstable and open to challenge.

The basic distinction between gender and sex is also rejected by some sociologists as
misleading, implying that there is a biological core which culture then overlays with gender
differences. Rather than seeing sex as biologically determined and gender as culturally
learned, some now see both sex and gender as social constructions. It is not just gender
identity, but the human body itself, that is the subject of shaping and altering social forces.
People choose to construct and reconstruct their bodies almost as they please, from exercise,
dieting, piercing and personal fashions to plastic surgery and sex-change operations. Gender
identities and sex differences are inextricably linked within individual human bodies, and it
has become almost impossible to extricate biology from culture.

Continuing Relevance

The concept of gender has become increasingly important in sociology, partly as a result of
feminist research, but more recent research on sexuality, including so-called queer theory, has
also made extensive use of the concept and in the process transformed it. Butler (2004)
argued that gender is ‘performative’ – that is, people’s gender is not thing-like, something
inhering within the body, but is more like a continuous performance or a work in progress.
This means that gender is an unstable social category that can accommodate many variations
and can change quite radically. Take, for example, the new performances of transgender,
bisexuality and lesbianism that emerged in the gay liberation movement. What gender is and
how we understand it is dependent on how people perform their gender, and this can change
quite rapidly.
Gender inequality is an established fact in most societies, though the extent of that inequality
differs. Hadas Mandel (2009) looked at the gender order and public policies in fourteen
developed countries to compare the impact of different state interventions aimed at reducing
gender inequality. She argues that some regimes paid women to mother children while others
provided benefits to ease work and family tensions. However, both were rooted in traditional
gender roles and did not end women’s economic disadvantage. Policies aimed at enabling
more women to move into paid work appear to have more to offer, but Mandel suggests that
these cannot work in isolation and require changes to the ideology which places the burden of
care on women. Hence, the introduction of parental leave policies may be the first practical
steps in shifting the burden of care onto a more equal basis.

For feminism and types and feature: https://revisesociology.com/2017/02/03/feminist-theory-

summary-sociology/

NORMS AND VLAUES

Search “Norma and values” in Vidya Bhushan

In vidya Bhushan:

Social structure: refers to how things are organised or related to one another. Social structure
though ordinarily invisible to us, plays a vital role in our lives. It provides part of the
background information on which we base our descisions. We depend on its familiar rhythms
to know where we fit and ultimately who we are.

Social system