Government of Western Australia

Department of Mines and Petroleum

RECORD 2013/7

REVISED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR REGOLITH

IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA, AND THE RECOMMENDED
APPROACH TO REGOLITH MAPPING

Geological Survey of Western Australia

 Government of Western Australia
Department of Mines and Petroleum

Record 2013/7

REVISED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR

REGOLITH IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA, AND
THE RECOMMENDED APPROACH TO REGOLITH
MAPPING

Perth 2013
MINISTER FOR MINES AND PETROLEUM
Hon. Norman Moore MLC

DIRECTOR GENERAL, DEPARTMENT OF MINES AND PETROLEUM

Richard Sellers

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA

Rick Rogerson

REFERENCE
The recommended reference for this publication is:
Geological Survey of Western Australia 2013, A revised classification system for regolith in Western Australia, and the recommended
approach to regolith mapping: Geological Survey of Western Australia, Record 2013/7, 26p.

National Library of Australia Card Number and ISBN 978-1-74168-485-8

Grid references in this publication refer to the Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 (GDA94). Locations mentioned
in the text are referenced using Map Grid Australia (MGA) coordinates, Zone 50. All locations are quoted to at least
the nearest 100 m.

Published 2013 by Geological Survey of Western Australia

This Record is published in digital format (PDF) and is available online at <http://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/GSWApublications>.

Further details of geological products and maps produced by the Geological Survey of Western Australia
are available from:
Information Centre
Department of Mines and Petroleum
100 Plain Street
EAST PERTH WESTERN AUSTRALIA 6004
Telephone: +61 8 9222 3459 Facsimile: +61 8 9222 3444
www.dmp.wa.gov.au/GSWApublications
 Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................................1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................1
Classification system ..............................................................................................................................................2
Landform codes (primary codes) ....................................................................................................................3
Landform code qualifiers (landform element or pattern) .........................................................................7
Regolith age .............................................................................................................................................7
Compositional codes (secondary and tertiary codes) ......................................................................................9
Assigning secondary codes ....................................................................................................................10
Duricrust ...............................................................................................................................................................10
Regolith narratives on geological maps ...............................................................................................................12
Map symbology.............................................................................................................................................13
Ordering of regolith units on geological maps..............................................................................................13
Named lithostratigraphic units ......................................................................................................................13
Regolith mapping workflow .................................................................................................................................13
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................18
References ............................................................................................................................................................18

Appendix
Glossary .................................................................................................................................................................19

Figures
1. Diagrammatic relationships of regolith units in Western Australia, showing primary regolith codes .........9
2. Selection of secondary codes .....................................................................................................................11
3. Selection of secondary codes for exposed regolith derived from igneous and high-grade
metamorphic rock.......................................................................................................................................12
4. Examples of orthophotographs...................................................................................................................14
5. Landsat images from the Mount Sandiman map sheet ...........................................................................15
6. Examples of Landsat images used to generate regolith–landform coverage .............................................16
7. Recommended workflow for compilation of regolith–landform maps ......................................................17
8. Example of alluvial plain ...........................................................................................................................19
9. Pedogenic calcrete ......................................................................................................................................20
10. Groundwater calcrete, Gascoyne area ........................................................................................................20
11. Three different generations of colluvium ...................................................................................................20
12. Colluvial fan, Glacier National Park, USA
13. In situ ferricrete at the top of a regolith profile, Gascoyne region. ............................................................21
14. Floodplain deposit adjacent to alluvium ....................................................................................................22
15. Cracks developed in gilgai overlying the Carson Volcanics, west Kimberley ...........................................22
16. Lacustrine deposits and relationship to adjacent sheetwash and sandplain, Minigwal. .............................23
17. Deflation lag, Gascoyne area. .....................................................................................................................23
18. Position of saprolith in a typical regolith profile. .......................................................................................24
19. Regolith and regolith profile, Gascoyne, showing relationship of saprolith, saprock and saprolite ..........24
20. Silcrete, Gascoyne area. .............................................................................................................................25
21. Sheetflow deposit, eastern Yilgarn Craton..................................................................................................25
22. Tiger bush pattern, Gascoyne area .............................................................................................................26

Tables
1. Definition of regimes in the RED scheme, adapted from Anand et al. (1993).............................................2
2. Primary regolith codes for GSWA maps ......................................................................................................3
3. Landform (primary) code qualifiers .............................................................................................................4
4. Secondary codes and qualifiers for regolith composition ............................................................................7
5. Tertiary codes and qualifiers for parent rock or cement type .......................................................................8
6. Example of recommended order of regolith units on regolith–landform and geological maps .................13
7. Resolution and availability of datasets commonly used for regolith-landform mapping in GSWA ..........14
8. Landsat ratios commonly used for generation of regolith–landform maps in GSWA ...............................15

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GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia

Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia,

and the recommended approach to regolith mapping

Abstract
This Record is a revised version of the Geological Survey of Western Australia’s regolith classification scheme, and a discussion of
the recommended approach to regolith mapping in GSWA. The revision has preserved codes from previous versions of this Record,
added new codes, and provided recommendations on suitable code usage. Thus, it can be used for both existing and new maps.
The GSWA scheme classifies regolith using a set of 11 primary codes. Qualifiers can be used with each primary code for a more
precise definition of landform elements. Optional secondary codes and qualifiers can be used for regolith composition, whereas
tertiary codes and qualifiers are used to denote parent rock or cement type. A series of numeric qualifiers previously used to denote the
relative age of regolith are now used to indicate the degree of regolith induration or cementation. The combined primary, secondary,
and tertiary code approach is hierarchical, meaning that this regolith classification scheme can be applied regardless of scale.
In addition to code revision, this revised Record includes a recommended approach to regolith mapping, and a more comprehensive
glossary. It also discusses the importance of regolith classification and mapping in relation to mineral exploration and bedrock
mapping.
KEYWORDS: Cenozoic, deposition, regolith, regolith mapping, residual deposits, stratigraphy

Introduction composition and distribution is often the only guide to

Eggleton (2001, p. 101) defined regolith as ‘the entire
unconsolidated or secondarily re-cemented cover that
overlies more coherent bedrock, that has been formed by
weathering, erosion, transport and/or deposition of older
material’, and ‘includes fractured and weathered basement
rocks, saprolite, soil, organic accumulations, volcanic
material, glacial deposits, colluvium, alluvium, evaporitic
sediments, aeolian deposits, and groundwater.’ This
definition emphasizes the diversity of material that makes
up regolith, and the wide range of geological environments
in which it is found. Thus, any regolith classification
scheme must be comprehensive, flexible, and scale-
independent. Furthermore, in order to compare regolith
maps, there must be a logical approach to describing and
coding regolith regardless of terrain, and the choice of
code should rely on observation not interpretation.
The importance of regolith in Western Australia can
be assessed using several criteria. In terms of extent,
outcropping rock accounts for only 563 846 km2, or
approximately 22% by area, of the 2 526 418 km2 land area
of the State, the remainder being regolith (Marnham and
Morris, 2003). In terms of economic importance, regolith-
hosted mineralization (principally iron ore, coal, bauxite,
gold, mineral sands) accounted for 82% of the State’s
mineral production by value in 2010–11, worth more than
$63 billion (Department of Mines and Petroleum, unpubl.
data).
An understanding of regolith is important for other
reasons. In areas of thick and contiguous cover, regolith
the composition of the underlying bedrock, as regolith
results from the interaction of geology, topography, and
climate. Thus, understanding the distribution and age of
different regolith types can provide important information
on landscape evolution and climatic change (e.g. Pillans,
1998, 2005; Krapf, 2011). Regional geochemical
surveys used to search for bedrock-hosted mineralization
commonly use regolith as a sample medium. The
interpretation of the resulting geochemical data relies on
an understanding of regolith composition and whether
regolith units are genetically related to the underlying
bedrock. Exploration for mineralization at depth has
highlighted the importance of identifying suitable sample
media that are capable of ‘seeing through’ thick, often
transported, regolith. Alternative media to regolith have
been used (e.g. water, Gray et al., 2009; vegetation, Reid et
al., 2009), although they are not always available, meaning
that there is a continuing role for regolith as a sample
medium (Morris, 2011).
Provision of a regolith layer on a geological map, coupled
with information from regional drilling programs, provides
important information to the resources industry. This can
include identification of in situ vs transported regolith
(i.e. whether or not regolith is genetically related to the
underlying bedrock), the depth to the regolith–bedrock
interface, and identification of dispersion pathways
for target and pathfinder elements and their spatial
relationship to regolith minerals. This knowledge of
the regolith may help in determining whether or not
transported regolith completely masks the geochemical
signature of underlying mineralization.

1
Various approaches can be used to classify regolith,
including material type and properties, depositional
characteristics, landform morphology, formational
processes (e.g. chemical and physical weathering), and
relative or absolute age. Anand et al. (1993) described
and classified regolith according to its composition
and position in an idealized landscape profile, and
differentiated three major regimes: residual, erosional, and
depositional (RED scheme; Table 1). Their classification
was formulated in the arid interior of Western Australia
where an extensive, deeply weathered mantle above
bedrock has been subsequently modified by erosion and
deposition to form a variety of regolith types. Fundamental
to their approach was the recognition of regolith–
landform mapping units, which are areas characterized
by a particular association of regolith materials, bedrock
geology, and landforms. The GSWA classification extends
the approach of Anand et al. (1993) by expanding the
depositional regime into its constituent categories (e.g.
lacustrine, sandplain), and specifies compositional and
provenance attributes using optional secondary and tertiary
codes.
The GSWA regolith classification scheme relies on the
recording of compositional information about regolith
and placing it in a landform context. The scheme has been
revised several times (Hocking et al., 2001; Hocking et
al., 2005; Hocking et al., 2007), and this version of the
Record revises existing codes and presents some new ones.
It also provides a framework to produce more consistent
and uniform regolith layers (especially for 1:100 000-scale
geological maps) by establishing standards for regolith
interpretation and mapping, while maintaining flexibility
to account for differences in geological terrains and
climatic zones. Examples are presented of regolith types
commonly found in WA, and a recommended regolith
mapping workflow is provided that is based on remotely
sensed data and ground truthing.
Classification system
The regolith layer on a geological map should result
from the synthesis of an interpreted regolith coverage
(derived from remotely sensed data) and ground
observations. Remotely sensed data commonly used
to generate interpretive regolith maps include aerial
photographs, orthophotographs, derivative products (e.g.
digital elevation models, or DEM), satellite-based and
hyperspectral imagery such as Landsat and advanced
spaceborne thermal emission and reflection (ASTER)
radiometry, and geophysical data such as aeromagnetics
and radiometrics. The balance of direct observation and
remotely sensed data varies according to data availability
and quality, and the allotted time for data interpretation
and field checking.
A regolith classification scheme for geological maps
should be objective, simple, and logical, but also flexible
enough to allow a detailed regolith subdivision when
required. It should be capable of being applied regardless
of geological terrain, climatic zone, or scale. Any revisions
to an existing scheme must offer some compatibility with
coding used on published GSWA maps, and complement
established formal lithostratigraphic nomenclature applied
to named rock units.
Major considerations in terms of coding regolith are the
landform setting in which regolith is found, the processes
responsible for its formation (physical and chemical),
whether the material is in situ or transported, the degree
of consolidation, the extent of weathering, and regolith
composition. This information is presented using a
primary landform code letter (Table 2), which can be
subdivided using a series of subscripts (Table 3). An
optional secondary code can be used to designate regolith
composition (Table 4), and an optional tertiary code
indicates either parent rock or cement type (Table 5). Both
secondary and tertiary codes can be further subdivided
using a set of qualifiers.
The primary, secondary, and tertiary codes summarize a
broad range of environments and processes in addition
to compositional information. More detail or greater
precision is available through subscript qualifiers. For the
idealized code:
A1xbycz
each subscript qualifier (x, y, and z) has a fixed position
in the code string, which relates only to the preceding
primary, secondary, or tertiary code (A, b, and c in the
above example). Thus, any regolith code could have a
maximum of six letters (three of which are subscripted)
plus a numeric qualifier (now indicating the degree of

Table 1. Definition of regimes in the RED scheme, adapted from Anand et al. (1993)

Regime Characteristics Examples

Residual or Relict Reworked, or degraded materials derived from, Sand above granitic plateaus, duricrust-capped mesas,
and situated on, an ancient weathered land surface and siliceous cappings on the edges of breakaways
(residual), or representing the remnants of a more
extensive landform (relict)
Erosional Areas of erosion and removal of material to a level Rock outcrops, areas of poorly sorted stony debris
where the mottled zone, clay zone, saprolite, or bedrock
are exposed, concealed beneath thin soil, or concealed
beneath locally derived, associated sediments
Depositional Widespread sediments that are increasingly reworked Sheetwash plains, colluvial fans, saline playas,
and redistributed relative to the residual or erosional sandplain, and drainage channels
source. Depositional deposits can be many metres thick

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GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia

Table 2. Primary regolith codes for GSWA maps

Primary
landform Environment and process
code
R Residual or Relict
X Exposed
C Colluvial
W Sheetwash
A Alluvial/fluvial
L Lacustrine
E Eolian
S Sandplain
B Coastal (wave-dominated)
T Coastal (tide-dominated)
M Marine
Higher level categories
V Valley
K Coastal
D Depositional
Notes
Remnant material overlying an ancient land surface. Residual material is derived by in situ
weathering of the underlying rock, the regolith; therefore, it shows no evidence of having
undergone significant transport. Relict material includes deposits of uncertain origin, either
transported or residual, or a combination of both. Transported material may represent remnants
of previous landforms
Used for rock and weathered rock. Includes bouldery lag
Proximal mass-wasting deposits grading into sheetwash with a significant to perceptible slope
Distal slope deposits (including sheetflood) where the gradient is minimal, and drainage is not
clearly defined
Alluvium in channels and floodplains. Includes deltaic deposits
Inland lakes, dune and playa terrain, and some coastal lakes. Includes saline and freshwater
playas and claypans, and minor eolian deposits directly associated with the lake system (e.g.
fringing gypsiferous dunes)
Dunes, interdune areas, and sandplain resulting from wind action
May be of mixed origin, including residual, sheetwash, and eolian sands
Beaches, beach ridges, barrier bars and lagoons, and back-beach dunes, coastal cliffs and
other erosional features (e.g. blow-outs)
Intertidal and supratidal flats and channels, estuaries, and mangrove flats
Offshore marine deposits such as coralgal reefs, shell banks, and sea-grass banks
Lacustrine, alluvial, floodplain, sheetwash, and colluvial units
All wave-dominated and tide-dominated units
All depositional units

consolidation rather than the relative age, as discussed
below). Only the primary code, describing the broad
environmental setting or process, is compulsory. The
primary, secondary, and tertiary codes, and many
qualifiers, are predefined (Tables 2–5). A tertiary code
cannot be used without a secondary code. Note that the
number following the code A is explained in the section
‘Regolith age’ below.
GSWA produces an increasing number of products in
digital form, and digital databases have taken on more
importance. As such, databases cannot store certain
character attributes (including subscripted codes and
italicized characters), and some codes are used in both
regolith and lithostratigraphic nomenclature (e.g. ‘A’ as
a primary regolith code, and an Archean age qualifier in
lithological coding). Therefore, it has been necessary to
develop a system for unambiguous database storage of
map codes. In Tables 2–5, each code is shown with its
equivalent database code. To distinguish a regolith code
from a lithostratigraphic code, the former is prefixed by an
underscore (‘_’), and non-subscripted codes are prefaced
by a hyphen (‘-’). Codes qualified by a subscript are not
separated. For example, iron-rich alluvium (Af) has the
database code _A-f, whereas an alluvial fan deposit (Af)
has the database code _Af. An Archean felsic volcanic
rock is coded as Af.
The GSWA Code Builder, a standalone desktop
application, has been developed by GSWA (Riganti et al.,
2013) to construct bedrock and regolith codes for GSWA’s
hardcopy and digital products. The application can be
downloaded from the DMP website at <http://www.dmp.
wa.gov.au/datacentre>.
Landform codes (primary codes)
The primary landform code (Table 2) specifies the
environment (landform position) and/or process
responsible for the formation or deposition of the regolith
(e.g. alluvial/fluvial, lacustrine, or eolian). This is
determined by identifying the slope, shape, and expression
of the landscape, and the material present. Following from
this is an assessment of whether the regolith reflects the
current (active) climatic regime or is a relict feature of
an older regime (Fig. 1). Most but not all relict features
have undergone and continue to undergo erosion. Patterns
on aerial photographs and satellite images, remotely
sensed and geophysical data, and DEMs can assist field
observations in mapping these features.
Eleven primary code letters identify the dominant
environment or process, ten of which are used for
description and coding of the regolith (Table 2). These
are R (Residual or Relict), C (Colluvial), W (Sheetwash),
A (Alluvial/fluvial), L (Lacustrine), E (Eolian), S
(Sandplain), B (Coastal wave-dominated), T (Coastal
tide-dominated), and M (Marine). The eleventh code,
X (Exposed), is used to designate areas of outcrop.
Amalgamations of these codes can be used to create higher
level categories such as Valley, Coastal, and Depositional
(Table 2).

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 Table 3. Landform (primary) code qualifiers

Primary code qualifiers

Primary code Element Map code Database Usage
Residual or Relict Undivided R _R Commonly used at interpretive stage
In situ (residual) Ri _Ri Requires field checking
Duricrust (residual or relict) Rr _Rr Use more specific coding if possible (e.g.
calcrete, Rk); common at interpretive stage
Sand (residual or relict) Rs _Rs Requires field checking
Transported (relict) Rt _Rt Requires field checking
Exposed Exposed bedrock X _X
Badlands Xb _Xb
Escarpment Xe _Xe
Hill (>90 m relief) Xh _Xh
Low hill (30–90 m relief) Xl _Xl
Rise (9–30 m relief) Xr _Xr
Erosional plain (<9 m relief) Xp _Xp
Colluvial Undivided C _C
Colluvial fan Ca _Ca
Cliff-foot slope Cc _Cc Rarely used
Pediment Ce _Ce Rarely used
Footslope Cf _Cf
Rejuvenated pediment Cj _Cj Rarely used
Landslide Cl _Cl Rarely used
Pediplain Cp _Cp
Scarp-foot slope Cs _Cs Rarely used
Talus Ct _Ct
Sheetwash Undivided W _W
Transitional zone between pediment We _We Rarely used
and transported regolith
Sheetflood fan Wf _Wf Rarely used
Playa, pan Wp _Wp
Scarp-foot slope Ws _Ws Rarely used
Sheetwash plain with tiger bush Wt _Wt New code
pattern
Alluvial/fluvial Undivided A _A
Alluvial plain Aa _Aa
Stream bed Ab _Ab Use channel (Ac) instead
Stream channel Ac _Ac
Drainage depression/swale Ad _Ad
Delta Ae _Ae Rarely used
Floodplain Af _Af
Gravel bar Ag _Ag Rarely used
Channel bench Ah _Ah Rarely used
Floodplain with numerous claypans Ai _Ai
Stream bank Ak _Ak Rarely used
Levee Al _Al Rarely used
Meander plain Am _Am Rarely used
Backplain An _An Rarely used
Anastomosed plain Ao
Playa, pan Ap _Ap
Stream bar Ar _Ar Rarely used
Sand bar As _As Rarely used

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GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia

Table 3. continued

Primary code qualifiers

Primary code Element Map code Database Usage
Terrace At _At
Superficial channel Au _Au Rarely used
Fan/Flood-out Av _Av
Swamp Aw _Aw
Oxbow Ax _Ax Rarely used
Ovoid depression in Eolian sandplain Ay _Ay
Lacustrine Undivided L _L
Fringing dunes Ld _Ld
Freshwater lake deposits Lf _Lf
Fringing bedded deposits Lg _Lg
Halophyte-bearing flats Lh _Lh
Freshwater lake, excluding fringing Ll _Ll
deposits
Dune and playa terrain Lm _Lm
Playa Lp _Lp
Saline lake Ls _Ls
Swamp deposits around lakes Lw _Lw
Subcropping bedrock in lakes Lx _Lx
Eolian Undivided E _E
Parabolic dunefield Ea _Ea Rarely used
Blow-out Eb _Eb
Dunefield Ed _Ed
Dune Ee _Ee
Deflation basin Ef _Ef
Interdune flat Ei
Mobile dune Em _Em Rarely used
Longitudinal dunefield El _El
Net-like dunefield En _En
Sand and playa terrain Ep _Ep
Eolian sandplain Er _Er
Sandplain overlying alluvial-playa Es _Es Use Et preferably
terrain
Eolian veneer over colluvium and/or Et _Et
alluvium
Lunette or fringing dune Eu _Eu
Interdune pavement Ev _Ev Include gibber plain areas and deflation
lag between dunes
Swampy swale Ew _Ew
Stabilized dune Ez _Ez
Sandplain Undivided S _S Use for deposits of unknown origin
(residual or relict) or mixed origin
Blow-out Sb _Sb Rarely used
Dune Sd _Sd Use Ee
Gravel deflation pavement Sg _Sg Use for deflation lag or gibber plain
Longitudinal dunefield Sl _Sl Rarely used; use El
Net-like dunefield Sn _Sn Rarely used; use En
Sand and playa terrain Sp _Sp
Undulating sandplain Su _Su
Coastal (wave- Undivided B _B
dominated)

5
 Table 3. continued

Primary code qualifiers

Primary code Element Map code Database Usage
Beach (foreshore and backshore) Bb _Bb
Cliffs Bc _Bc
Foredune Bd _Bd
Foreshore Bf _Bf
Backshore Bk _Bk
Back-barrier lagoon Bl _Bl
Mobile dunes Bm _Bm
Boulder beach Bo _Bo
Beach ridge plain Br _Br
Storm beach gravels Bs _Bs
Coastal (tide- Undivided T _T
dominated)
Tidal bar, in channel Tb _Tb
Tidal channel (subtidal base) Tc _Tc
Tidal delta Td _Td
Estuary Te _Te
Tidal flat (intertidal and supratidal) Tf _Tf
Chenier plain Th _Th
Intertidal flat Ti _Ti
Tidal lagoon Tl _Tl
Mangrove flat Tm _Tm
Superficial channel (intertidal) Ts _Ts
Supratidal flat Tu _Tu
Marine Undivided M _M
Coral reef/bioherm Mc _Mc
Reef flat, backreef or rock flat Mf _Mf
Shell bank Ml _Ml
Plain, nearshore Mn _Mn Rarely used
Plain, offshore Mp _Mp Rarely used
Rocky reef Mr _Mr
Shoreface Ms _Ms
Talus slope or footslope Mt _Mt Rarely used
Relict channel Mv _Mv Rarely used

The choice of primary code is largely determined by the
amount and type of information available, especially for
the primary code ‘R’, which is used for both residual and
relict material. ‘Residual’ is used where regolith results
from in situ weathering, and is therefore genetically
related to the underlying bedrock. ‘Relict’ is used where
no genetic relationship has been established between
bedrock and the overlying regolith (i.e. the regolith has
been transported) or the regolith is of uncertain origin
(i.e. either transported or residual). Thus, ‘relict’ is
commonly used at the interpretive stage of regolith map
compilation, where the genetic relationship of an R unit
to the underlying bedrock cannot be reliably established.
An example is an indurated capping on top of a mesa,
which would initially be coded as relict. Subsequent field
checking may indicate the capping results from in situ
weathering of the underlying bedrock, and in this case, the
unit would be re-coded as residual. However, if the unit
represented the eroded remnant of a previously extensive
sheet, formed from transported material that has been
subsequently cemented (i.e. is the remnant of a previous
landform), the term ‘relict’ would be retained. Even when
the original process of formation can be determined, the
unit should still be classified as either relict or residual,
as the identification of the original process is interpretive,
and the GSWA regolith classification scheme is based on
observation. For example, a dissected portion of an old
alluvial terrace should be classified as relict, even though it
may contain information indicative of an origin by alluvial
processes.

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GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia

Landform code qualifiers (landform Table 4. Secondary codes and qualifiers for regolith
composition
element or pattern)
Secondary Composition Composition Database
Optional subscripts can be used to achieve greater code qualifier code
discrimination or precision for primary codes. The
c clay -c
meaning of a subscript is set by its associated primary
black soil or gilgai -cb
code (Table 3). The original set of primary code qualifiers
from previous versions of this Record has been preserved, chlorite -cc
although infrequently used codes are designated ‘rarely glauconite -cg
used’, and should be carefully considered before being illite -ci
applied; they are not commonly found on GSWA maps. kaolinite -ck
Unless a particular landform can be clearly identified,
montmorillonite -cm
subdivision of the primary code into a landform element
should be undertaken with caution. Subdivision of slope smectite -cs
deposits (i.e. C and W) in particular should be undertaken d undivided -d
with care; instead, subdivision of these units should e evaporite -e
emphasize composition and degree of consolidation using anhydrite -ea
appropriate codes. By maintaining the original list of
gypsum -eg
landform codes and qualifiers, published GSWA maps
can be interpreted using this version of the Record. The halite -eh

addition of comments to the code tables provides some f ferruginous -f

guidance for more correct and appropriate usage when gossan -fg
compiling new maps. hematite -fh
limonite -fl
The landform code qualifier also means textural
information (in particular related to grain size) can be goethite -fo
included. This is important where this type of information g quartzofeldspathic -g
is specific to a certain landform and process, such as h heavy mineral -h
alluvium in channels (Ac) or on floodplains (Af), which can apatite -ha
be designated in terms of both their morphology and grain
garnet -hg
size. Some code subscripts are based on McDonald et al.
(1990), whereas others are from Pain et al. (2007). ilmenite -hi
leucoxene -hl
magnetite -hm
Regolith age monazite -ho

Western Australia has a diversity of regolith types and rutile -hr

regolith landforms, most of which are of presumed zircon -hz
Cenozoic age. On early GSWA maps, most unconsolidated k carbonate -k
regolith was designated as Quaternary, and relict or aragonite -ka
residual materials (or deposits known or inferred to
calcite -kc
include a significant thickness of both Quaternary and
older Cenozoic material) were grouped as undivided dolomite -kd
Cenozoic. magnesite -km
l heterogeneous -l
There are few indications of actual regolith age (although
m ferromagnesian -m
see Pillans, 1998, 2005) due to the paucity of material
suitable for dating, and the limited number of reliable q quartz -q
dating techniques for regolith materials. Thus, most r carbonaceous/organic -r
regolith ages are relative, and are based on the position of coal -rc
the unit in the landscape, its stratigraphic position, degree humus -rh
of induration, and the extent to which it has been dissected
peat -rp
by more recent processes.
pyritic -ry
Because of the poor constraints on the absolute age of t lithic (rock fragments) -t
many regolith units, if precise age data are available, they u ultramafic -u
are shown in the map reference, although not included as
w weathered -w
a code letter in the map polygon label. This allows units
to be assigned a specific age where this is known, or given x other mineral -x

an age range where dating is less precise. aluminous/bauxite -xa

mica -xi
In previous versions of this Record, the relative ages of
manganese -xm
more than one undated regolith unit were shown by a
z siliceous -z
whole number after the primary landform code letter,
with 1 being the youngest. For example, A1, A2, and opaline -zo

7
Table 5. Tertiary codes and qualifiers for parent rock or Table 5. continued
cement type

Tertiary Parent rock or Qualifier Database Tertiary Parent rock or Qualifier Database
code cement code code cement code
a aluminous cement -a u ultramafic rock -u
c chemical or -c dunite -ud
biochemical
komatiite -uk
sedimentary rock
peridotite -up
chert -cc
pyroxenite -uy
dolomite -cd
serpentinite/talc -us
iron formation -ci
rock
limestone -cl
talc carbonate -ut
diatomite -ct
v volcanic rock -v
g glacial deposit -g
andesite -va
f iron/(ferruginous) -f
basalt -vb
cement
dacite -vd
ferricrete -ff
rhyolite -vr
k carbonate -k
(cement) trachyte -vt
groundwater -kg volcaniclastic -vv
calcrete
felsic -vf
pedogenic calcrete -kp
mafic -vi
l heterogeneous -l
w weathered rock -w
m metamorphic rock -m
gneiss -mn
saprolite -wp
pelite -mp
saprock -wr
psammite -mm
z silica cement -z
quartzite -mq
schist -ms
granofels/hornfels -mf
amphibolite -ma A3 denote increasingly older alluvium. However, this
o fossiliferous rock -o
approach has limitations, in that it was applied locally or
at the map sheet level, and therefore had little validity over
p plutonic rock -p
a wider area. For example, A1 on one map sheet may not
alkali granite -pa be equivalent to A1 on either the adjoining map sheet or
diorite -pd the adjacent tectonic unit. In addition, A1 and C1 on one
dolerite -pl map sheet may not represent the same period of regolith
formation.
gabbro -pr
granite -pg In this revision of the Record, a revised usage for numeric
monzogranite/ -pm code qualifiers is introduced. For a single regolith-
monzonite landform type, 1 indicates unconsolidated material; 2
granodiorite -po indicates weakly consolidated, cemented or indurated
syenogranite/ -ps
material; and 3 indicates consolidated, cemented or
syenite indurated material. This usage offers some consistency
tonalite -pt
with that of previous versions of the Record, in that
in many cases, increasing degrees of consolidation or
felsic -pf
cementation can be correlated with increasing age,
mafic -pi although this may not always be the case (Krapf, 2011).
r
In mapping regolith units, 1 is usually assigned to the
duricrust -r
youngest deposit, as it is usually the most widespread
s siliciclastic -s and easily recognized. At the interpretation stage or in
sedimentary rock
the early phases of field mapping, it may be difficult
conglomerate -sc to recognize and code older deposits. Assigning values
mudstone, -sm greater than 1 requires field observation, and is almost
siltstone, shale impossible to justify using remotely sensed data alone.
sandstone, arenite, -ss
wacke

8
GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia


     

          


  


           




 





 
Figure 1. Diagrammatic relationships of regolith units in Western Australia, showing primary regolith codes
In areas where more than one generation of a regolith–
landform unit can be identified, a code number should
not be used for unassigned units. For example, if three
generations of alluvium can be identified (and coded
accordingly as A1, A2, A3), the code letter A should be
used for alluvium that cannot be confidently assigned to
any one of these three generations.
There is no implied correlation between different regolith
units with the same numerical qualifier. For example, an
alluvial unit labelled A2 may have a different degree of
consolidation (and a different age) from a colluvial unit
labelled C2.
9
In order to avoid generation of excessively complex codes,
designating the relative degree of consolidation of regolith
is restricted to the primary regolith code. For example,
Ld1 and Ld2 can be used to indicate variably consolidated
dune deposits fringing a lake system. This approach may
mean the deposits are of a different age. Alternatively,
L1d and L2m indicate that a more consolidated dune and
playa terrain is found with less consolidated fringing
dune deposits. Two residual or relict carbonate units of
different degrees of consolidation are coded R1k and R2k,
respectively.
Compositional codes (secondary Map Database Narrative
code code
and tertiary codes) Xl dw _Xl-dw low hill or rise of (undivided) weathered
In order to maximize the value of the regolith layer on rock
geological maps (e.g. for planning geochemical sampling X b gpw _Xb-g-pw badlands composed of weathered
campaigns, or indicating the likely extent of underlying granite
bedrock units) it is strongly recommended to assign Xr dwp _Xr-d-wp rise of (undivided) saprolite
secondary and if possible tertiary compositional codes Xgwr _X-g-wr quartzofeldspathic saprock
to regolith units (Tables 4 and 5). At the interpretive
stage of map generation, compositional information for
regolith–landform units may be determined using various Assigning secondary codes
satellite images and available bedrock geology exposures.
During fieldwork it is essential to ground truth these Secondary codes are assigned in a hierarchical fashion.
interpretations. The most common approach is shown in Figure 2,
although where there is a need to assign a regolith
As with landform codes, the secondary and tertiary codes composition to Exposed (X) igneous or high-grade
consist of a limited number of categories. A subscript metamorphic rocks, the classification system in Figure 3
qualifier may be used to give greater discrimination and should be used. This approach is intended for use in
precision or to extend the available information (Tables regolith mapping, where a representation of the overall
4 and 5). No list of this sort will ever be complete (e.g. composition of the bedrock is required rather than its
the ‘other mineral’ category of Table 4 could contain a specific lithology.
multitude of entries). However the aim is to cover most
of the compositional variation seen to date in Western The secondary code ‘d’ (undivided) is used to indicate that
Australian regolith. the composition of the regolith is unknown, a common
situation before field checking has been undertaken. The
Examples of the use of secondary and tertiary qualifiers secondary codes ‘d’ (undivided) and ‘l’ (heterogeneous)
(with the appropriate database codes) are given below: are occasionally interchanged, although they are included
in the GSWA scheme for specific reasons. The ‘l’ code is
Map Database Narrative used where the regolith has a heterogeneous composition.
code code Thus, Cl is used for colluvium derived from a variety
Acl _Ac-l heterogeneous alluvium in a fluvial of rock types, such as material found downslope from
channel interbedded chemical and siliciclastic sedimentary rock
Af c _Af-c clay-rich alluvium on floodplains intruded by dolerite dykes. Similarly, Rl would be used
Suq _Su-q quartz-rich undulating sandplain for a residual or relict unit composed of both siliceous and
ferruginous duricrust.
L2gc _L2g-c consolidated clay-rich fringing bedded
playa deposits
Riff _Ri-f-f iron-cemented in situ ferricrete

Rtfi _Rt-f-f iron-cemented transported ferricrete Duricrust

Cfgi _C-fg-i iron-cemented colluvium with gossan Calcrete, ferricrete, silcrete, and other duricrust types (see
fragments
glossary) are of particular interest in regolith mapping,
Akk _A-k-k carbonate-cemented calcareous as they can be mineralized (e.g. nickel laterite, uranium-
alluvium
bearing calcrete). As some are residual, they may help
Cz _C-z silcrete-rich colluvium with bedrock mapping, and some have been used as
A pc _Ap-c claypan in alluvial system sample media in regional geochemistry programs. In
Bhz _B-hz zircon-rich beach deposit
previous versions of this Record, only simple regolith
coding has been used for these units, imparting relatively
Leg _L-eg gypsum-rich lacustrine deposit
little information. For example, calcrete has been
Amvb _A-m-vb alluvium derived from ferromagnesian coded _R-k, relict ferruginous material of either local
volcanic rock or transported origin (‘laterite’) as _R-f, and silcrete as
_R- z. Primary code qualifiers can be used to indicate if
The qualifier ‘w’ can be used in conjunction with tertiary the material is residual (i, in situ) or relict (t, transported),
codes, and as a secondary and tertiary code alone, to and secondary and tertiary codes can be used to impart
indicate weathering. The predominant usage of ‘w’ as a compositional information. In most cases, whether the
subscript is in areas of erosional regolith. duricrust is in situ or transported, and information about its
When regolith coverage is generated as a complement composition, only become evident after field inspection.
to bedrock mapping, ‘X’ (i.e. Exposed) is replaced by Modifications to the regolith scheme introduced here
lithological codes. However, for regolith-only maps, allow for more detailed coding of some regolith units. For
areas of exposed rock can be coded using the regolith example, an undifferentiated calcrete is coded as _Rr-k-k
classification scheme. Examples of codes are given in the (literally, relict carbonate-cemented carbonate), although
next column. a valley-fill carbonate (i.e. relict groundwater carbonate)
can now be coded as _Rr-kc-kg. Similarly, pedogenic

10
GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia


 
  

1

 
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3
   
 
    






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45


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3 # $
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Figure 2. Selection of secondary codes (Y = yes, N = no)

11
  
     
    
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Figure 3. Selection of secondary codes for exposed regolith (X) derived from igneous and high-grade
metamorphic rock

carbonate can be coded as _Rr-kc-kp. Relict opaline presented to provide additional information to that
silcrete is coded as _Rr-zo-z, and silica caprock developed contained in the regolith code. However, there should be
over granite as _Ri-z-pg. some level of consistency in narratives, in order to allow
comparison of regolith codes among different map sheets.
Residual regolith, such as lag (Carver et al., 1987) and The following style guide for narratives is introduced here:
pisolitic laterite (Cornelius et al., 2007) are commonly
used sample media in geochemical exploration, in that For regolith-landform unit only (qualifier, if appropriate,
the process of lag or laterite formation can involve then primary code):
the sequestering of ore or pathfinder elements to
mineralization. Thus, maps showing the extent of in situ
regolith units are useful in planning regional geochemistry Examples
programs. At the interpretive stage of regolith map Unit Narrative
generation, it is often not possible to determine if the
unit is in situ (i.e. residual) or transported (i.e. relict), A (_A) Alluvium
and regolith units should be coded as relict at this stage. Su (_Su) Undulating sandplain
In order to provide the most useful type of information
to support regional geochemical exploration, separating Where composition is indicated by a secondary code
which units are residual and which units are relict (and (secondary code, and qualifier, if applicable, then primary
modifying the regolith map layer accordingly) should be code):
an essential part of subsequent fieldwork.
Examples
Unit Narrative
Regolith narratives on Aq (_A-q) Quartz-rich alluvium
geological maps Suk (_Su-k) Carbonate-rich undulating sandplain

An issue not discussed in previous versions of this Record

is the preferred narrative for regolith units on GSWA Where a tertiary code is used (composition then primary
maps. These maps contain a wide variety of different code then parent material or cement type):
narrative content and style, in part due to the opportunity

12
GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia

Examples The ordering of these codes is alphabetic based on the

secondary (and if necessary) tertiary codes. The least
Unit Narrative consolidated code is listed in the first line, with more
Aqpg (A-q-pg) Quartz-rich alluvium derived from granite consolidated regolith units listed below, and the ordering
Aqk (A-q-k) Quartz-rich alluvium, carbonate-cemented of units within any one regolith-landform type.

The above examples are simple code combinations, and it
is anticipated that consistency in narratives will be difficult
to attain as codes become increasingly complicated.
Map symbology
In some cases, regolith (especially depositional regime
units) may preserve information on conditions of
sedimentation or neotectonic activity. This encompasses
planar (e.g. folding, and different bedding structures
like graded or overturned) and linear features (e.g. flute
casts, sole marks). On GSWA maps, these features are
shown using symbology used for bedrock, although
symbols associated with regolith are shown in purple.
Where regolith is developed in situ as a residual unit, it
is possible that features of the underlying parent rock
are preserved in the regolith, including evidence for
deformation. Recording and displaying this information
is important, especially in areas of extensive regolith
cover, where the only information on the composition
and geological history of the bedrock is preserved in the
regolith. Accordingly, for residual regolith units only, map
symbology used for bedrock can be used for regolith,
although regolith symbols are displayed as purple.
Ordering of regolith units on
geological maps
The ordering of regolith units on geological maps involves
the listing of primary codes, in the order Alluvium,
Sheetwash, Colluvium, Lacustrine, Eolian, Sandplain,
Coastal (wave-dominated), Coastal (tide-dominated),
Marine, and Residual or Relict. Within each primary code
division, the simplest code is listed on the left, and the
codes become more complex from left to right (Table 6).
Table 6. Example of recommended order of regolith units on
regolith–landform and geological maps
Named lithostratigraphic units
Formally named lithostratigraphic units of Cenozoic age
are common near the coast, and are also scattered through
the interior of WA. For these, the conventions for coding
lithostratigraphic rock units should be followed. The age of
most of these units is reasonably constrained. Previously,
Quaternary Q and Tertiary T, or less commonly Cainozoic
(now Cenozoic) Cz, have been used to specify age. In
keeping with current IUGS recommendations <http://
www.stratigraphy.org>, Tertiary is typically no longer
used. Instead, Quaternary, Neogene, and Paleogene are
used where a more precise age than Cenozoic is possible.
The series is used after an ‘N’ or ‘G’ prefix to further
proscribe the age; thus Q (Quaternary), Np (Pliocene),
Nm (Miocene), Go (Oligocene), Ge (Eocene), and Gp
(Paleocene). The mnemonics for named units follow the
scheme presently used for rock units on GSWA maps and
datasets, with a two-letter capitalized code for a group,
followed by a single-letter code for a constituent formation
(e.g. QKWt-kl on the map face, Q-KWt-kl in the database
for the Tamala Limestone of the Kwinana Group), or a two-
letter code preceded by an underscore for an ungrouped
formation (e.g. Qro-kl on the map face, Q-_ro-kl in the
database for the Roe Calcarenite), and a trailing code
separated by a hyphen for lithology, as shown above.
Regolith units derived from named rock units are locally
distinguished on GSWA maps. In such cases, the code
letter used for the formation can be used as the tertiary
code, analogous to the ‘parent rock or cement’, to indicate
the specific named derivation. For example, colluvium
derived from the Pallinup Formation (itself coded as
Ge-PLp-sl) could be coded as _C-t-PLp (data code) and
Ct-PLp (map code) if composed of fragments or C-d-PLp
and Cd-PLp if a more general code was sought. Limonitic
wash from the Robe Pisolite (NM-_rb-cip) could be
_W-fl-_rb and Wfl-rb. Potential ambiguity is avoided
by the description in the map reference, and in the
corresponding narrative field of the database.

Regolith mapping workflow

Alluvium A Ac Af c Af cz Generation of a regolith map layer involves interpretation
A1 of remotely sensed datasets followed by field checking and
A2 refinement of interpreted regolith–landform units. Datasets
for generating an interpretive regolith map include aerial
Sheetwash W1 W1t photographs, orthophotography, satellite-derived remotely
Colluvium C Cf Cgwp Cq sensed data (Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM5), Landsat
C1l C1q ETM7, ASTER, and Spot), Google Earth imagery,
DEM and shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM) and
C2l C2kk C2vb
derivative products, existing 1:250 000 geological map
Lacustrine Ll1 coverage, previously recorded field data, and geophysical
Ll2 data (airborne electromagnetic (AEM), magnetic, gravity,
Ll3 and radiometric data). The resolution and availability of
remotely sensed data are summarized in Table 7.

13
Orthophotographs provide high-resolution imagery Table 7. Resolution and availability of datasets commonly
from which regolith polygons can be directly drawn. used for regolith–landform mapping in GSWA
Enhancements, such as hill shading (Fig. 4) provide an
indication of relief. However, in some cases, the lack of Dataset Resolution
colour contrast means that the composition of different Aerial photography High but variable
regolith units is difficult to determine.
Orthophotography High but variable
Landsat TM5 data can be enhanced to distinguish Landsat TM5 30 m
different regolith units in terms of composition (Fig. 5). Landsat ETM7 15 m
The three most useful combinations for regolith map
ASTER 15 m
generation are the AGSO ratio, the Gozzard ratio, and
the 754 decorrelation stretch (RGB754_DCS; Table 8). Digital elevation models Resolution
(DEM)
However, the relationship between colour and mineral
composition may vary at the 1:250 000 scale for various SRTM 90 m
Landsat TM5 schemes, so field checking is essential. Altimeter derived DEM Typically 15 cm
Various Landsat ratios in particular have proven to be Topographic derived DEM Variable
useful in distinguishing regolith composition (Fig. 6).
DEM derivatives Variable
The AGSO ratio (Fig. 6a) depicts clay in shades of red,
whereas green indicates more iron-rich areas, and blue is Google Earth Variable — continuous
improvement
more siliceous material. The Gozzard ratio (Fig. 6b) uses
bands 5/7 to show clay, hydrothermally altered rocks, and Airborne gamma spectrometry Resolution varies depending on
line spacing
vegetation as red; green (bands 4/7) depict iron and clay;





 
 

Figure 4. Examples of orthophotographs: a) High-resolution colour-enhanced

orthophotograph; b) same image as a) with hill shading to enhance relief

14
GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia

 

 

 
 

Figure 5. Landsat images from the MT SANDIMAN map sheet (1949). Width of image is approximately
50 km: a) Landsat TM5 321 RGB; b) Landsat TM5 741 RGB; c) Landsat TM5 742 RGB; d)
Landsat ETM7 742 RGB

Table 8. Landsat ratios commonly used for generation of regolith–landform maps in GSWA

AGSO ratio Red layer, depicting clay comprises principal component 2 of band ratios 4/3 and 5/7
Green layer, depicting iron, is a ratio of bands 5/4
Blue layer, depicting silica, is a composite of bands 1+7
Gozzard ratio Red layer is a ratio of bands 5/7 depicting clays, hydrothermally altered rocks, and vegetation
Green layer is a ratio of bands 4/7 depicting iron and clay
Blue layer is a ratio of bands 4/2 depicting iron and vegetation
PC1 Principal components from bands 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7 displayed as a single image
RGB741 Red layer, band 7, responds to iron-rich minerals
Green layer, band 4, responds to vegetation
Blue layer, band 1, responds to water
RGB754 Used to differentiate rock types
RGB754_DCS As for RGB754, but decorrelation stretch (DCS) gives sharper colour definition

15
 

 

and blue (bands 4/2) iron and vegetation. These and other
Landsat images (e.g. RGB754_DCS; Fig. 6c) should be
interpreted in conjunction with one another and verified
by field checking, as there may be some variation in the
relationship between Landsat colours and composition
among 1:250 000-scale images.
Potassium–thorium–uranium (KTU) data from radiometric
coverage is useful for distinguishing relict, sheetwash,
and sandplain units. Gozzard (2006) provides a summary
of KTU image usage in regolith mapping. In the usual
composite image, potassium is shown in red, thorium in
green, and uranium in blue. Potassium is largely found
in labile minerals such as feldspars and micas. During
weathering, these minerals tend to break down, releasing
K, which forms clay minerals. Thorium is usually
found in resistate minerals and is therefore less likely
to be redistributed during weathering, and may be more
common in residual or relict units. Uranium is also found
in resistate phases such as zircon and monazite, although
it can be leached from labile minerals under oxidizing
conditions.
16

Figure 6. Examples of Landsat images used to
generate regolith–landform coverage.
Width of image is approximately
7.5 km. See Table 8 for description.
a) AGSO ratio; b) Gozzard ratio;
c) decorrelation stretch (i.e. RGB754_
DCS)
A workflow for compilation of a regolith layer (Fig. 7)
covers pre- to post-fieldwork. Pre-fieldwork involves
selecting which of the available datasets (Table 8) are
the most suited for the scale and extent of the regolith
layer, and the composition of regolith. Google Earth is an
increasingly important application that allows 3D viewing
and continuous updating of images.
When the interpretive regolith map is completed, selected
sites should be identified for field checking. At each site, a
GSWA site information WAROX point should be recorded,
and as well as description of the regolith, a photograph
should be taken and recorded in WAROX. Particular
attention should be paid to sections where regolith profiles
are exposed, as these can provide important information
on the extent of weathering, and whether relict units are
truly relict or residual and may be suitable for collection
of samples for dating (Pillans, 2008). Landsat patterns, the
extent and type of vegetation, and the degree of incision
of drainage can be related to the degree of consolidation
or cementation, which can be validated by field checking.
In other cases, field checking can be useful in terms of
GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia


 



             
    
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Figure 7. Recommended workflow for compilation of regolith–landform maps

17
constraining regolith composition. In many of these cases,
it is not necessary to visit all occurrences of a particular
regolith–landform unit, as sufficient information may be
learned from one or two examples and extrapolated to
other units.
Following field checking, regolith polygons and codes
should be revised if necessary, and an exported version of
the regolith layer should be draped over Google Earth and
viewed in tilted 3D to check for quality.
Conclusion
This version of the GSWA approach to classification of
regolith has involved a revision of code usage, suggestions
on approaches to classification, a compilation of useful
datasets, and an expanded glossary. This third revision
reflects the increased importance of regolith in not only
understanding the geology of Western Australia, but also
how regolith can be used to increase the prospectivity
of the State. The regolith classification is not restricted
by terrain, geology, climate, or scale. This revision of
the scheme reflects the increased level of knowledge
about regolith, the wider availability of remotely sensed
datasets, and the need to continually assess how regolith
is classified and how regolith–landform map layers are
compiled.
References
Anand, RR 2005, Weathering history, landscape evolution and
implications for exploration, in Regolith landscape evolution across
Australia, edited by RR Anand and P de Broekert: CRC LEME, Perth,
Western Australia, p. 2–40.
Anand, RR, Churchward, HM, Smith, RE, Smith, K, Gozzard, JR,
Craig, MA and Munday, TJ 1993, Classification and atlas of regolith-
landform mapping units, Exploration perspectives for the Yilgarn
Craton, Australia: CSIRO Division of Exploration and Mining,
Restricted Report 440R (unpublished).
Carlisle, D 1980, Possible variations on the calcrete-gypcrete uranium
model: Open file report, US Department of Energy, GJBX-53 (80), 38p.
Carver, RN, Chenoweth, LM, Mazzucchelli, RH, Oates, CJ and Robbins,
TW 1987, "Lag" — a geochemical sampling medium for arid regions:
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Cornelius, M, Robertson, IDM, Cornelius, AJ and Morris, PA 2007,
Laterite geochemical database for the western Yilgarn Craton,
Western Australia: Geological Survey of Western Australia, Record
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Eggleton, RA (ed.) 2001, The regolith glossary: surficial geology,
soils and landscapes: Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape
Evolution and Mineral Exploration (CRC LEME), Canberra,
Australian Capital Territory, 144p.
Gozzard, JR 2006, Regolith–landform mapping: a classical approach
using new imagery, in GSWA 2006 extended abstracts: promoting
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Australia, Record 2006/3, p. 5–7.
18
Gray, DJ, Noble, RRP and Reid, N 2009, Hydrogeochemical mapping
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Hocking, RM, Langford, RL, Thorne, AM, Sanders, AJ, Morris, PA,
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Hocking, RM, Langford, RL, Thorne, AM, Sanders, AJ, Morris, PA,
Strong, CA, Gozzard, JR and Riganti, A 2005, A classification
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Strong, CA, Gozzard, JR and Riganti, A 2007, A classification system
for regolith in Western Australia (March 2007 update) (3rd edition):
Geological Survey of Western Australia, Record 2007/8, 19p.
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Marnham, JR and Morris, PA 2003, A seamless digital regolith map
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McDonald, RC, Isbell, RF, Speight, JG, Walker, J and Hopkins, MS
1990, Australian soil and land survey field handbook (2nd edition):
Encarta Press Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Australia, 198p.
Morris, PA 2011, Fine-fraction gold chemistry of regolith from the East
Wongatha area, eastern Yilgarn Craton, in GSWA 2011 extended
abstracts: promoting the prospectivity of Western Australia:
Geological Survey of Western Australia, Record 2011/2, p. 24–26.
Pain, C, Chan, R, Craig, MA, Gibson, D, Kilgour, P and Wilford, J 2007,
RTMAP regolith database field book and user's guide (2nd edition):
Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape Evolution and Mineral
Exploration (CRC LEME), Open File Report 231.
Pillans, B 1998, Regolith dating methods: a guide to numerical dating
techniques: Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape Evolution
and Mineral Exploration (CRC LEME), Perth, Western Australia,
30p.
Pillans, B 2005, Geochronology of the Australian regolith, in Regolith
landscape evolution across Australia, edited by RR Anand and P de
Broekert: CRC LEME, Perth, Western Australia, p. 41–61.
Reid, N, Hill, SM and Lewis, DM 2009, Biogeochemical expression
of buried gold mineralization in semi-arid northern Australia:
penetration of transported cover at the Titania Gold Prospect, Tanami
Desert, Australia: Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis,
v. 9, p. 267–273.
Riganti, A, Wallace, DJ, Fadadu, BC, Canham, DM, Gavni, KKR and
Hocking, RM 2013, GSWA Code Builder — constructing and
unravelling GSWA geological codes: Geological Survey of Western
Australia, Record 2013/8, 19p.
Schwarz, ML 2005, Encyclopedia of Coastal Science, Encyclopedia of
Earth Science Series: Springer.
Scott, KM and Pain, CF (eds) 2008, Regolith Science: CSIRO
Publishing, Melbourne, Victoria, 461p.
Tooth, S 1999, Floodouts in central Australia, in AJ Miller and A Gupta
(eds), Varieties of fluvial form: John Wiley and Sons, New York,
p. 219–247.
GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia

Appendix 1

Glossary

No glossary is exhaustive, and only a selection of items 

is presented here. The following list contains information
on regolith-related topics discussed in this Record.
References include Anand (2005), Eggleton (2001), Scott
and Pain (2008), Carlisle (1980), Tooth (1999), Schwartz
(2005), and the following websites:
http://www.arroyorain.com
http://www.college.cengage.com/geology/resources/
geologylink/glossary/a.html
http://www.crcleme.org.au
http://www.esglo.com/
http://www.geology.com/geology-dictionary.shtml
http://www.webref.org/geology/geology.htm


Alluvium
Unconsolidated detrital deposit formed in a stream or
floodplain; deposited by a stream or running water.
Alluvial fan — fan-shaped deposit formed where a fast-
flowing stream flattens, slows, and spreads, typically at the
exit of a canyon onto a flatter plain.
Alluvial plain — a level, gently sloping, or slightly
undulating land surface produced by extensive deposition
of alluvium, typically adjacent to a river that periodically
overflows its banks. Characterized by frequently active
aggradation by overbank stream flow and erosion by
channelled stream flow. It may be situated on a floodplain,
a delta, or an alluvial fan (Fig. 8).

Beach  
 

The unconsolidated material at the shoreline that covers
a gently sloping zone, typically with a concave profile,
extending landward from the low-water line to the
place where there is a definite change in material or
physiographic form, or the line of permanent vegetation.
At the shore of a body of water, formed and washed by
waves or tides, usually covered by sand or gravel.
Blow-out
Usually small, open or closed depression excavated by
the wind.
Figure 8. Example of alluvial plain: a) Orthophotograph;
b) Landsat TM5 RGB741 image
Pedogenic calcrete — calcrete resulting from
accumulation of carbonate in the soil moisture zone
(Carlisle, 1980) by movement of percolated rainwater and/
or soil water, or as a product of biological activity such as
a root respiration (Fig. 9).
Groundwater calcrete — calcrete resulting from the
accumulation of Ca2+ and HCO3–, transported laterally by
groundwater flow (Fig. 10).

Calcrete Caprock
Regolith carbonate accumulations, consisting of variably
Duricrust on top of a hill or upper slope, protecting it from
cemented aggregates largely composed of calcium
erosion; for example, silcrete derived from weathering of
carbonate, although can include dolomite or magnesite.
dunite.

19
 Cemented
Indurated, having a hard, brittle consistency because
the constituent particles are held together by cementing
substances such as humus, calcium carbonate, or the
oxides of silicon, iron, and aluminium. The hardness and
brittleness persist even when wet.

Colluvium
Heterogeneous material of variable particle size (soil
with or without rock fragments) accumulated on slopes.
Transported by gravity, creep, sheetflow, rainwash,
mudflows, or solifluction. Compared with alluvium,
colluvium lacks bedding, is more variable in grain size,
 
  and contains mostly locally derived material (Fig. 11).
Figure 9. Pedogenic calcrete Colluvial fan — a fan built by the deposition of colluvium
(Fig.12).






 



Figure 11. Three different generations of colluvium



 



 


Figure 10. Groundwater (valley-fill) calcrete, Gascoyne area:
a) Overview; b) close view. Red book is 21 cm high.
Figure 12. Colluvial fan, Glacier National Park, USA
<http://www.arroyorain.com>

20
GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia

Consolidated
With regard to regolith, has such firmness and coherence
that a tool is needed to take a sample from the outcrop
or the material remains coherent after extraction from a
coring device.

Drainage depression
Level to gently inclined, long, narrow, shallow, open
depression with smoothly concave cross-section, rising
to moderately inclined side slopes, eroded or aggraded by  
 
sheetwash. Surface may be reworked by modern eolian
Figure 13. In situ ferricrete (‘lateritic duricrust’) at the top of
processes.
a regolith profile (white box), Gascoyne region

Dune
A low mound, ridge, bank, or hill of loose, wind-blown
granular material (typically sand, in some places, volcanic
ash), either bare or covered with vegetation, capable of
being moved from place to place by wind while retaining
a characteristic shape.
Lunette dune — an elongated, gently curved, low ridge
built up by wind on the margin of a playa, typically with
a moderate, wave-modified slope towards the playa and a
gentle outer slope.
Dune swale — a linear, level-floored open depression
excavated by wind, or left relict between ridges built up
by wind.
Coastal dune — a sand dune on low-lying land recently
abandoned or built up by the sea.
Transported ferricrete — iron-cemented (ferruginous)
transported material (e.g. alluvium, colluvium).
Delta
The low, nearly flat, alluvial tract of land at or near the
mouth of a river, commonly forming a triangular or
fan-shaped plain of considerable area, crossed by many
distributaries of the main river. It may extend beyond the
general trend of the coast as a result of the accumulation
of sediment supplied by the river in such quantities that is
not removed by tides, waves, or currents.
Eolian
Transported and deposited by wind.

Duricrust
Regolith material indurated by a cement, or the cement
only, found at or near the surface, or as a layer in the
upper part of the regolith. The various cement types
include siliceous (silcrete), ferruginous (ferricrete, lateritic
duricrust), aluminous (alcrete), gypseous (gypcrete),
manganiferous (manganocrete), calcareous (calcrete),
dolomitic (dolocrete), salty (salcrete), or a combination
of these.
In situ duricrust — duricrust developed in the upper part
of an in situ regolith profile.
Estuary
A semi-enclosed coastal body of water that has a free
connection with the open sea and within which seawater
is measurably diluted with freshwater from land drainage.
Floodout
The area where a river becomes unconfined at its terminus.
‘A site where channelized flow ceases and floodwaters
spill across adjacent alluvial surfaces’ (Tooth, 1999).

Transported duricrust — duricrust representing

transported (redeposited) material, which has subsequently Floodplain
been cemented.
A land area adjacent to a stream or river that is subject to
recurring inundation (Fig. 14).
Ferricrete
An indurated material formed by the in situ cementation Fringing lakebeds
of regolith by iron oxyhydroxides, mainly goethite and/
or hematite. The fabric, mineralogy, and composition of Commonly, bedded deposits along a lake or playa margin.
the cemented materials may reflect those of the parent
(regolith) material.
Gilgai
In situ ferricrete — found in the upper part of in situ
regolith profile (also known as ‘lateritic’ duricrust) A landform of small basins and knolls or valleys and
(Fig. 13). ridges on a soil surface. It is produced by expansion and

21
contraction following wetting and drying of clayey soils Gossan
that contain smectite (Fig. 15).
The weathered expression of rocks that contained
substantial sulfide mineralization. Gossans derived
from iron-bearing sulfide assemblages typically consist
largely of iron oxides and oxyhydroxides and are a
 form of ironstone. However, gossans formed from the
 weathering of iron-poor sulfides (e.g. carbonate-hosted
Pb–Zn deposits) give iron-poor gossans. Such gossans
may be siliceous or have high manganese content. Gossans
commonly exhibit a box work fabric derived from that of
their sulfide precursors.

Halophyte flats
Mud flats or salt marshes with abundant salt-tolerant
(halophytic) plants near a lake or playa.

Indurated
A rock or soil hardened or consolidated by pressure,
  
 cementation, or heat.

Figure 14. Floodplain deposit (Af) adjacent to alluvium (A/A1).

Ac is alluvium in drainage channel <http://www. Lacustrine
google.com>.
Pertaining to, produced by, or formed in a lake. It can also
mean a region characterized by a lake (Fig. 16).
Freshwater lake — a freshwater body of considerable size
that is surrounded by land.
Saline lake (salt lake) — an inland body of water situated
in an arid or semiarid region, having no outlet to the sea,
and containing a high concentration of dissolved salts
(principally sodium chloride).

Lag
A usually thin deposit of fragments larger than sand size,
spread over the land surface. Most commonly represents
the coarse material left behind after fine material has been
removed by wind or, less commonly, sheetflow.
Deflation lag — Gravel deflation pavement (gibber plain)
(Fig. 17).

Pedolith
 

Upper part of the regolith profile, above the
pedoplasmation front, that has been subjected to soil-
forming processes resulting in the loss of the fabric of the
Figure 15. Cracks developed in gilgai overlying
the Carson Volcanics, west parent material and the development of new fabrics.
Kimberley. Coin (centre of image)
is 20 mm diameter.
Pisolite
A sedimentary rock made up chiefly of pisoliths cemented
together.

22
GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia




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Figure 16. Lacustrine deposits and relationship to adjacent sheetwash and sandplain, MINIGWAL (SH51-7).
 

 
Figure 17. Deflation lag, Gascoyne area: a) Gibber plain;
b) detail of a), showing subangular to subrounded
quartz-rich metasedimentary rock clasts
Pisolith
A spherical or ellipsoidal body resembling a pea in shape
and which is limited to about 2–64 mm in diameter. May
have a concentric internal structure, although concentric
lamination is not diagnostic. Most pisoliths have an outer
cortex or skin (cutan) composed of gibbsite, boehmite,
hematite, maghemite, goethite, and anatase with or
without quartz.
Playa
A desert basin with no outlet that periodically fills with
water to form a temporary lake. A vegetation-free, flat area
at the lowest part of an undrained desert basin, underlain
by stratified clay, silt, or sand, and commonly by soluble
salts; dry most of the time.


Relict regolith
Material that results from transportation and deposition,
and is therefore genetically unrelated to the underlying
material. It can include deposits of uncertain origin
(i.e. either in situ or transported or a combination of both).
Such units may represent remnants of an ancient surface.
Residual regolith
Material derived by in situ weathering and showing no
evidence of having undergone significant transport.

Sand plain
A level landform pattern with extremely low relief
(typically lacking stream channels) aggraded by active
wind deposition and rarely active sheetflow.
Saprolite
Weathered bedrock in which the fabric of the parent rock
is retained. Compared to saprock, saprolite has more than
20% weatherable minerals altered.
Saprolith
Typically lower part of the regolith that has retained the
fabric of the parent rock. It consists of the saprock and
saprolite. The definition may include weathered rocks in
which only larger structures including bedding, schistosity,
veining, or lithological contacts are preserved. The
presence of these fabric elements implies that weathering
has been essentially isovolumetric, pseudomorphic, and in
situ (Figs 18 and 19).
23
  
 

Figure 18. Position of saprolith in a typical regolith profile

 

 
 
Figure 19. a) Regolith; b) regolith profile, Gascoyne, showing relationship of saprolith, saprock and saprolite

Saprock
Compact, slightly weathered rock with low porosity. Less
than 20% of weatherable minerals are altered.
Silcrete
Strongly silicified indurated regolith, typically of low
permeability, commonly having a conchoidal fracture with
a vitreous lustre; a type of duricrust (Fig. 20).
Sheetflow
An overland flow or downslope movement of water taking
the form of a thin, continuous sheet over relatively smooth
soil or rock surfaces and not concentrated into channels
larger than rills. Unconfined and found in areas of minimal
slope (Fig. 21).
Sheetwash
Material transported by sheetflow.

24
GSWA Record 2013/7 Revised classification scheme for regolith in Western Australia

 







 
 

Figure 20. Silcrete, Gascoyne area

Shoreline
 
 
The intersection of a specified plane of water with the
shore or beach. Shoreline is a boundary line (a line has Figure 21. Sheetflow deposit, eastern
length but no breadth) between water and land (Schwartz, Yilgarn Craton. a) Typical
2005). sheetflow material. Leaf
material indicates direction
of water flow; b) and c)
Superficial channel Fine-scale sedimentary
structures in sheetflow
A not-well-defined surface channel, mainly found on sand deposits
or sheetwash plain.

Swamp
Almost level, closed or almost closed depression with a
seasonal or permanent watertable at or above the surface,
commonly aggraded by overbank stream flow and
sometimes biological (peat) accumulation.
Tiger bush pattern
Banded vegetation pattern separated by bare ground,
which is oriented roughly parallel to contour lines. Found
on gently sloping (sheetflow) plains (Fig. 22).

Terrace
Tidal channel
A level, typically narrow, plain bordering a river, lake, or
the sea. Some rivers are bordered by terraces at different A major channel followed by the tidal currents, extending
levels. from the offshore into a tidal flat.

25






 
 

Figure 22. Tiger bush pattern, Gascoyne area. a) Pattern is not

easily visible at ground level b) banded vegetation
pattern roughly parallel to slope contours

Unconsolidated
Primary property of looseness of the constituents, which
allows it to be crumbled or deformed with the fingers.

26
 RECORD 2013/7
REVISED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR REGOLITH IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA,
This Record is published in digital format (PDF) and is available as a free
download from the DMP website at
<http://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/GSWApublications>.

AND THE RECOMMENDED APPROACH TO REGOLITH MAPPING

Further details of geological products produced by the
Geological Survey of Western Australia can be obtained by contacting:

Information Centre
Department of Mines and Petroleum
100 Plain Street
EAST PERTH WESTERN AUSTRALIA 6004
Phone: (08) 9222 3459 Fax: (08) 9222 3444
http://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/GSWApublications