Earthquakes and

Related Hazards
GEOL 430: ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY

University of Southeastern Philippines

College of Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Geology Program
Bo. Obrero, Davao City
Outline
 How earthquakes occur
 Seismic Waves
 Measuring Seismic Waves
 Locating Earthquakes
 Intensity and Magnitude Scales
 Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics
 Seismic Waves and Human Structures
 Natural Vibration Frequency and Resonance
 Factors that affect Ground Shaking
 Secondary Earthquake Hazards
 Earthquake Precursors
 Long-term Predictions
 Reducing Earthquake Risks
How do Earthquakes occur?
 Earthquake is defined as a trembling or shaking of the ground caused by the
sudden release of energy stored in the rocks beneath the earth’s surface.
 Prior to modern science, many people believed earthquakes were random
events; some even thought they were punishment by gods for evil or immoral
behavior.
 Scientists have developed a theory based on the elastic properties of rocks that
explains how earthquakes occur. Recall that;
 when rocks are subjected under a force, also called stress, they can become
deformed and have a corresponding change in their shape (distortion) or volume
(dilation), a process known as strain;
 rocks are also considered to be elastic, meaning that if the force (stress) is removed
they will return to their original shape (imagine how a rubber snaps back to its original
shape when force is removed);
 All elastic materials have what is known as an elastic limit, which is the maximum
amount of strain they can accumulate before either fracturing or undergoing plastic
deformation;
 When brittle materials reach their elastic limit they undergo permanent deformation by
fracturing, whereas ductile materials deform by flowing plastically.
Cont’d.

Two Types of Earthquake:

1) Volcanic – due to volcanic activity (eruption or rising magma under a volcano)
2) Tectonic – due to movement of rocks past one another along faults.
- when a rock breaks, waves of energy are sent out or produced, known as seismic
waves, causing earthquakes.
Both iron and wooden rods will deform and return to their original shape as
long as their elastic limit is not exceeded. When an iron rod exceeds its elastic
limit it deforms permanently by bending. When a wooden rod exceeds its limit
it will suddenly break by fracturing, releasing energy in the form of vibrational
waves. Note that when the fractured rod breaks the separate pieces rebound
and become straight again
When a rock body accumulates strain (A, B) and reaches its elastic limit, it will fail at its
weakest point, called the focus. As the strain is suddenly released (C), waves of vibrational
energy begin radiating outward in all directions from the focus, causing the ground shaking
known as an earthquake. After the earthquake, the rock body becomes displaced (D) on
opposite sides of the fault, but is no longer deformed because the strain has been released. (i)
Buckled fence is evidence that the underlying rocks are accumulating strain. (ii) Displacement
of rows in a farm field along a fault is evidence of a recent earthquake and that strain has
been released.
How Earthquakes occur cont’d.

 Based on the relationship between stress and strain and the deformation of
rocks, earth scientists have developed the elastic rebound theory that explains
the occurrence of earthquakes.
 As illustrated in Figure 5.4, this theory holds that earthquakes originate when a
force (stress) acts on a rock body, causing it to deform and accumulate strain.
Eventually the rock reaches its elastic limit, at which point it ruptures or fails
suddenly, releasing the strain it had accumulated. This sudden release of strain,
lasting anywhere from several seconds to a few minutes, is transformed into
vibrational wave energy that radiates outward and causes the ground to shake
in what is called an earthquake.
 The release of energy generally begins at a point called the focus/hypocenter
whereas the point on the earth’s surface directly above the hypocenter is
termed as epicenter.
Cont’d

 When rocks become more ductile (less brittle) they tend to accumulate less
strain, and instead undergo plastic deformation. This is the reason why
earthquakes do not occur deeper than 435 miles (700 km) below the surface
because the higher temperatures cause the rocks to become so ductile that
they deform only by plastic flow, hence do not rupture

 Rocks in tectonically active areas usually contain numerous faults and the
sudden release of strain along one fault can alter the distribution of strain on the
other faults. This redistribution of strain commonly produces a series of smaller
earthquakes called aftershocks, which may continue to occur for days or weeks
after the primary earthquake, sometimes called the main shock.
Seismic Waves
 refer to vibrational waves that travel through solid earth materials which
may be magmatic, tectonic, or artificial in origin.
 Can be classified into two types:
 Body Waves - travel trough the earth’s interior, spreading outward from the
hypocenter in all directions (like sound in air). It is subdivided into;
 Primary (P)-Waves- compressional waves; parallel to direction the wave is travelling,
causing rocks to alternately compress and decompress as successive waves pass
through.
 Secondary (S)-Waves-- transverse/perpendicular to direction of wave propagation
 Surface Waves - travel on the earth’s surface away from the epicenter (like
ripples on water); slowest wave (typically at a speed that is 10% slower than S-
waves), can cause more property damage compared to body waves. Surface
waves have two basic types:
 Rayleigh waves- also known as ground roll, spread to the ground as ripples, similar to
rolling waves on the ocean; move both vertically and horizontally in a vertical plane
pointed in the direction in which the wave is travelling;
 Love waves- move the ground from side to side in a horizontal plane but at right angles
to the direction of propagation.
(A) Parallel wave propagation of Primary (P)-Waves and (B) perpendicular wave propagation of
Secondary (S)-Waves
 P-Wave S-Wave

Very fast at speeds of 4 to 7 km/sec. Slow, at 2-5 km/sec.

First wave to arrive at a station Arrives at a later time than P-wave

does

Can pass through solid and liquid Can pass through solid but not liquid
Measuring Seismic Waves
 Seismometer – the instrument used to detect seismic waves. A heavy
suspended mass is held as motionless as possible, suspended by springs or
hanging it as a pendulum. When the ground moves, the frame of the
instrument moves with it. The inertia of the heavy mass keeps it from moving
and act as a point of reference in determining the amount of ground
motion, but does not record the motion.
Cont’d.
 Seismograph – a seismometer with a recording device that produces a
permanent record of earth motion, usually in the form of wiggly line drawn
on a moving strip of paper. There are numerous seismograph stations all
over the world.
Cont’d
 Seismogram – the paper record of earth vibration. The different waves
travel at different rates, so they arrive at seismograph stations in a definite
order: first P waves, then S waves, and finally, the surface waves. Analysis of
seismograms can reveal the location and strength of the earthquake.
Locating Earthquakes
1. P and S waves start out from the hypocenter.
2. As they travel, they gradually separate because of their different speeds.
3. The interval of the time of arrival between P and S waves increases with
increasing distance of the seismic stations from the focus and epicenter;
the longer the time, the greater the distance is.
Cont’d.
 The interval of arrival between S and P waves is used to calculate the
distance of the seismograph station from the earthquake source. The
increase in P-S interval increases with distance so a travel-time curve can
be constructed from earthquake records.
 Cont’d.
 A single station can record only the distance, not the direction to a quake.
The location of an earthquake is determined by drawing circles on a map
(or globe) with the seismograph stations distributed in different parts of the
globe as the centers and the corresponding distances from the earthquake
as the radii. The intersection of the three circles pinpoints the location of the
earthquake.

The depth of focus is determined in a

similar procedure, and is used to
classify earthquakes as:
1) Shallow – 0-70 km
2) Intermediate – 70-350 km
3) Deep – 350-670 km
Measuring the Strength of Earthquakes

 Intensity Scale
In 1902 an Italian seismologist named Giuseppe Mercalli developed a
means of comparing both modern and historical earthquakes through the
use of firsthand human observations during earthquakes. He created what
is known as the Mercalli intensity scale, whereby earthquakes are ranked
based on a set of observations most humans could report objectively,
particularly the type of damage sustained by buildings.
A modified version of Mercalli’s rankings and standardized observations. Note how the
intensity scale ranks earthquakes from I to XII, with XII representing total destruction.
 The way in which the intensity scale is
employed for any recent earthquake is
basically the same as taking a survey.
Immediately after an earthquake, people
throughout the region are asked to read
the list of observations from the scale, and
then pick the classification which best fits
their experience. The individual rankings
and locations are then plotted on
a map and contoured such that similar
rankings are grouped together.
Mercalli intensity map of the 1925 Charlevoix
Kamouraska earthquake along the St.
Lawrence River, in Quebec, Canada. Note the
individual intensity rankings from the original
survey.
 Philippine Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
- is a seismic scale used and developed by the Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) to measure the intensity of an
earthquake. It was developed as a response to the 1990 Luzon Earthquake
(magnitude 7.7) and was adopted in the Philippines in 1996 replacing the
Rossi-Forel Intensity Scale (one of the first seismic scales developed by Michele
Stefano de Rossi and Francois-Alphonse Forel in the late 19th century, to reflect
earthquake intensities and was used for about two decades by some
countries until the introduction of the Mercalli Intensity Scale in 1902).
- Intensity scale ranges from I to X, with X classified as completely
devastating.
Magnitude Scales
- magnitude scales are useful because they quantify the amount of
ground motion during an earthquake, and the energy that was released when
the rocks ruptured. Below are the commonly used magnitude scales:

 Richter Magnitude Scale (named after the seismologist, Charles F. Richter)

- rates earthquakes based on the size of their seismic waves, as
measured by seismographs; governed by amplitude (wave height) and
distance
- However, as the number of seismograph stations around the world
steadily increased, scientists eventually realized that results obtained using the
Richter magnitude scale were not always consistent with one another,
particularly for large-magnitude earthquakes.

 Moment Magnitude Scale

- based on similar types of seismogram measurements as Richter’s, but
is more accurate over a wide range of magnitudes and geologic conditions;
based on the total amount of energy released and is determined by
measuring the surface area of the ruptured fault and how far the land moved
along the fault.
 Graphic illustration of the exponential
nature of the Richter magnitude scale where each
increase represents a 10-fold increase in ground
shaking. Here a magnitude 8.0 quake has 10 times
greater ground motion than a 7.0 quake, 100 times
greater than a 6.0 quake, and 1,000 times greater
than a 5.0 quake.
 As can be seen in the exponential graph in Figure
5.11, the Richter scale magnitudes are the logarithms
of the values for ground motion found on the vertical
axis. In other words, the magnitude numbers are
simply the exponents of the ground motion values.
Notice on the graph that a magnitude 5 earthquake
causes 105 (100,000) micrometers (0.1 meter) of
ground motion, whereas a magnitude 8 represent
108 (100,000,000) micrometers (100 meters) of
movement.
 Although a unit increase on the magnitude scale
represents a 10-fold increase in ground motion, this
corresponds to about a 30-fold increase in energy
released at the focus—recall that the release of
stored elastic energy is what causes the shaking in
the first place.
cont’d.
To give you a better appreciation of what this
all means, we will compare the two largest
earthquakes in the San Francisco area in
modern times, namely the 1989 Loma Prieta
earthquake and the great earthquake of
1906.
 Since magnitude represents the exponent
on the value for ground motion, we take
10 and raise it to the 0.9th power (10 0.9),
which comes out to an eight-fold
difference. In other words, the ground
shaking in the 1906 earthquake was eight
times greater than in the 1989 quake.
 We can take our example one step
further and compare these two
earthquakes to the 2004 Indonesian
earthquake that was responsible for the
tsunami that took nearly 230,000 lives.
With a moment magnitude of 9.1, the
Indonesian earthquake was one of the
most powerful ever recorded.
* An earthquake’s Richter’s rating and moment magnitude rating are not always the same. The table
above shows the ratings on both scales for some earthquakes. Note how magnitude itself is not
necessarily a good predictor of death toll—compare the 1989 Loma Prieta and the 1995 Kobe
quakes for example.
*Despite the preference for the moment magnitude scale within the scientific community, the Richter
scale is still widely used by the media when reporting earthquakes.
  Earthquakes are also divided into several classes based on their
magnitude;

Class Magnitude
Great 8.0 or more
Major 7.0-7.9
Strong 6.0-6.9
Moderate 5.0-5.9
Light 4.0-4.9
Minor 2.0-3.9
Microearthquake 1.0-1.9
Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics

 Recall that rocks are much stronger under a compressional force compared to
a tensional force. This means that at convergent boundaries where compressive
forces dominate, rocks are able to accumulate much more strain before
rupturing than at divergent boundaries where tensional forces are dominant.
Rocks can also accumulate considerable amounts of strain under the shear
forces found along transform boundaries.
 The other key factor in the ability of a rock body to store strain is the frictional
resistance of the faults. In areas where tensional forces dominate the friction
along faults is naturally low, allowing them to slip in an almost continuous
process known as fault creep. When a rock body experiences fault creep it
obviously cannot build up much strain, which helps explain why large
magnitude earthquakes generally do not occur at divergent boundaries.
 Cont’d.

 Transform Plate Boundaries

> An example is the San Andreas Fault which is a right-lateral
(dextral) transform fault that separates the Pacific and North
American Plates. It is often referred to as a fault zone due to
the network of interlocking faults located on either side. This
means that as tectonic forces cause strain to accumulate
along the boundary, some of the strain is distributed among
the different
faults within the fault zone.
> As indicated by the location of epicenters in the right
figure, not only does the San Andreas fault occasionally slip,
generating a strong earthquake, but other faults within the
fault zone do so as well. Moreover, due to the interlocking
nature of the fault zone, strain relieved along one fault can
disrupt the delicate balance of relationships within the fault
zone, triggering additional earthquakes.

Location of magnitude 6 and 7 earthquakes along the San

Andreas fault zone in California between 1800 and 1994. This
transform fault is a boundary between the Pacifi c and North
American plates, but also contains a network of interlocking
faults (inset). Fault creep occurs along the blue segment of
the main fault, which greatly limits the chance of earthquakes
greater than magnitude 7.
 Cont’d.

 Convergent Plate Boundaries

➢ In northern California where the San Andreas fault moves
offshore the boundary of the North American plate changes
from a transform (shear) setting to one of convergence
(compression). At this point the North American plate starts
to override a series of relatively small oceanic plates along
what geologists call the Cascadia subduction zone. This
subduction zone not only produces the volcanic arc known
as the Cascade Mountain Range, it also generates
subduction zone earthquakes, which form when an oceanic
plate is overridden by another plate.
➢ Subduction zones are important to our discussion because
they are capable of generating extremely powerful and
devastating earthquakes. For example, of the ten largest
earthquakes ever recorded, nine were subduction zone
earthquakes, and of these, four were magnitude 9 or higher.
The Cascadia subduction zone along the Pacific
Northwest is not only responsible for the volcanic
activity in the Cascade Mountain Range, but also for
considerable seismic activity—note the position of
epicenters. Subduction zones are notorious for
generating powerful earthquakes because of the
way the plates lock and the ability of the rock to
accumulate large amounts of strain.
 Cont’d.

The reason subduction zone earthquakes are capable of releasing unusually large
amounts of energy is partly due to (1) the way the overriding plate buckles and
becomes locked, as shown in Figure 5.14. Another key factor is that (2) the surface area
over which the slippage or rupture occurs can be quite large compared to that in other
plate settings. Equally important is the fact that (3) the descending oceanic plate is
relatively cool, which makes the rocks more brittle and capable of accumulating more
strain before rupturing. Finally, in addition to the intense ground shaking, (4) some of this
energy can be transferred to the ocean, creating tsunamis that reach heights of 100
feet (30 m) as they crash into coastal areas.
Cont’d.

 What is particularly worrisome about the Cascadia subduction zone is that the
last major earthquake to occur there was in 1700, which means that over the
past 300 years strain may have accumulated to dangerously high levels. Recent
studies have also found ample evidence that a large tsunami was associated
with this event.
 This unfortunately has resulted in relatively few buildings having been designed
to withstand the shaking associated with seismic waves.
 Therefore, this leaves us with the frightening prospect of a magnitude 9
earthquake occurring in a populated area, whose buildings and other
infrastructure are relatively unprepared for such an event.
 Cont’d.
 Intraplate Earthquakes
- earthquakes that occur far from a plate boundary or active
mountain belt and are generally believed to be related to tectonic
forces that are being transmitted through the rigid plates. These
forces cause crustal rocks to slowly accumulate strain, which is then
released along buried fault systems, producing earthquakes in the
interior of continents.

> Of considerable interest in the United States are the New Madrid
and Charleston seismic zones because they have a history of
producing powerful intraplate earthquakes. In 1886 a strong
earthquake occurred about 50 miles (80 km) outside of Charleston,
South Carolina, causing 60 deaths and extensive property damage
throughout the city and surrounding region. Despite the fact this
region is far from a plate boundary, geologists believe the crust is still
accumulating strain, which is then periodically released along buried
faults.
>Today, of course, the New Madrid seismic zone is highly developed,
including the nearby metropolitan areas of Memphis and St. Louis.
Unfortunately, should a powerful earthquake occur again, people The clustering of epicenters (most too small to be felt) shows
living in this region face the same danger as those in the Pacific the area of high seismic activity within the New Madrid
Northwest in that relatively few buildings have been designed to resist seismic zone. Other geologic data define an ancient rift
the ground shaking. system that coincides with the seismic activity. Geologists
believe that compressional forces within the continental plate
cause strain to build within the rift, which eventually slips and
causes earthquakes.
Cont’d.

 Lack of preparedness is a common problem in areas where powerful

earthquakes occur infrequently, lulling people into a false sense of security.
Perhaps the best example of the phenomenon is the 1976 Tangshan
disaster. This strong intraplate earthquake (Mm 7.5) occurred in a heavily
populated area, which was totally unprepared largely because the people
had no memory of a large earthquake ever occurring in the region. The
250,000 to 650,000 people that perished provide a sober lesson for cities
located in areas with large but infrequent earthquakes.
Seismic Waves and Human Structures
There is a common saying among
seismologists that “EARTHQUAKES
DON’T KILL PEOPLE, BUILDINGS DO.”

 Structural failure i.e., failure of

buildings and other manmade
structures, is the leading cause of
death and property damage in
most earthquakes.
 The right photo shows one of the
structure among the estimated
5.4 million buildings that collapsed
during the magnitude 7.9
earthquake in China in 2008, in
which nearly 70,000 people died.
Most victims in collapsed buildings
die from being crushed, but some
manage to survive in small void
spaces within the pile of rubble.
Cont’d.

 When engineers design a structure they take into account the fact that the
structure must be able to withstand a range of different forces, with
GRAVITY being the most important. Because all structures have mass, at a
bare minimum they must be strong enough to support their own weight
against the force of gravity.
 Gravity works in the vertical direction, structures are usually the strongest in
the vertical direction.
 Engineers also design for horizontal (lateral) forces such as wind, but this is
usually a minor consideration compared to the vertical load or weight.
 In most places of the world this lack of structural strength in the lateral
direction is not a problem, but it becomes one of critical importance in
areas where strong earthquakes occur.
Cont’d.
Construction Design
Recall that when rock ruptures and
releases its strain, both body (P
and S) and surface (Rayleigh and
Love) waves are produced. Of
these, surface waves are the most
destructive due to the fact they
cause the ground to vibrate in a
lateral direction, and at the same
time, roll up and down like an
ocean wave.

During an earthquake, buildings are subjected to lateral shear stress due to

the horizontal ground motion and their own inertia. This lateral shear force
causes structures built on slabs (A) to become skewed after an
earthquake. Buildings with crawl spaces (B) or large open areas on the
ground floor are inherently weak and prone to cripple-wall failure.
Cont’d.

 The most dangerous types of homes are those constructed of unreinforced

masonry (walls are usually constructed of brick or stone bound together
with mortar, as opposed to reinforced walls with internal supports of wood
or steel) because they offer very little resistance to lateral shearing motion.
 Some of the highest death tolls from earthquakes have occurred in regions
where homes were largely built of stone or brick. For example, most of the
deaths in the 1976 Tangshan earthquake were attributed to homes being
built with unreinforced masonry walls.
Cont’d.
 With respect to multistory buildings, many of
which are nonresidential, construction usually
involves an interior skeleton made of steel or
steel-reinforced concrete.
 Under normal conditions the entire weight of
the building is easily supported by its vertical
columns as shown in the figure.
 However, during an earthquake the strong
lateral forces will cause the structure to sway.
In some cases this swaying motion may
become so great that some of the floors within
the building become detached from the
columns, leaving the floors to fall freely.
 Once a floor becomes free, it naturally falls
onto the one below, which can cause
additional floors to fail in a cascading manner
that engineers call pancaking.
 The result is either a total or partial collapse of
the structure in which few people survive.

Floors in a multistory building can become detached from

the supporting columns as the building sways due to
lateral ground motion. This can lead to a total collapse,
where survival is extremely remote. In the photo from the
1985 earthquake (M 8.0) in Mexico City, note how the
vertical column punched through the cascading floors as
they fell.
Cont’d.

 Another important type of structural failure in

earthquakes is the sudden rupture of steel
reinforced concrete columns, as shown in the
right figure.
 Such columns are widely used for supporting
highways, bridges, and buildings. However, they
can fail when the swaying motion of a structure
becomes so great that the concrete columns,
which are quite brittle, reach their elastic limit and
literally explode.
 Once the concrete shatters, the entire structure
can collapse since the steel-reinforcing rods
alone are not capable of supporting the weight
of the structure.

Brittle failure of steel-reinforced concrete columns occurs

when swaying motion causes the columns to reach their
elastic limit. Note that the steel rods themselves are not
strong enough to support the weight of the structure. Photo
from the 1999 earthquake (M 7.6) in Taiwan.
Natural Vibration Frequency and
Resonance
 Natural vibration frequency – refers to the vibration of a structure/building
at a fixed frequency; frequency is the number of times the motion is
repeated in a set amount of time.
 A key point here is that as building height increases, the natural vibration
frequency decreases—similar to how lengthening a guitar string will
produce a note with a lower or deeper pitch (i.e., frequency).
 Therefore in a city with multistory buildings of different heights, some
buildings will have a relatively low vibration frequency and others will have
a relatively high frequency.
Cont’d.
 The problem occurs during an earthquake when the natural vibration
frequency of a given building matches that of the seismic waves. The
matching of frequency then leads to the phenomenon called resonance,
whereby the amplitudes of the individual waves combine as shown in the
figure below.

When a building’s natural vibration frequency matches

the frequency of seismic waves, resonance can occur,
causing a building to sway more violently. Because
vibration frequency varies with height, not all multistory
buildings will experience resonance.

*Buildings around 10–20 stories high are most

susceptible to resonance since they tend to have
natural vibration frequencies that match that of seismic
waves. On the other hand, tall skyscrapers are unlikely
to experience resonance as their vibration frequency is
beyond the frequency range of most seismic waves.
Factors that affect Ground Shaking
 Focal Depth and Wave Attenuation
- energy of the resulting seismic waves steadily decreases as they travel away from the focus, a
process referred to as wave attenuation.
- This explains why the most dangerous earthquakes tend to be those with a combination of
large magnitude and shallow focal depth. Keep in mind that it is quite possible for a relatively
shallow, low-magnitude quake to generate greater ground motion than a deep, high-magnitude
quake.
- Seismic waves experience different amounts of wave attenuation, depending on the types of
geologic materials the waves pass through;
1. Loose materials and rocks of lower density will absorb more energy from passing seismic
waves compared to rocks that are more rigid and dense
2. On areas of rigid rocks, seismic waves are able to retain more of their energy as they travel
farther. Because the waves undergo less attenuation, they therefore have the potential to cause
damage farther from the focus. A good example of this phenomena is the series of magnitude 8
earthquakes that hit New Madrid in 1811-1812 wherein seismic waves from these earthquakes were
able to retain enough energy to ring church bells as far as way as Boston, Massachusetts due to the
rigid rocks throughout this region.
Cont’d.

 Ground Amplification
- When seismic waves travel through
weaker materials, they slow down and lose
energy at a faster rate. This, in turn, causes
wave amplitude to increase, creating a
phenomenon known as ground
amplification.
- Moreover, weaker materials can
begin to vibrate at the same frequency as
that of the seismic waves.
As
As seismic
seismic waves
waves travel
travel from
from bedrock
bedrock into
into materials
materials of
of lower
lower
density,
density, their
their velocity
velocity decreases,
decreases, which
which can
can cause
cause the
the
waves
waves to amplify. Resonance
to amplify. Resonance in in loose
loose sediment
sediment (A)
(A) often
often
leads
leads to
to ground
ground amplification
amplification and
and isis most
most severe
severe where
where the
the
sediment
sediment is thicker. Ground amplification is also more severe
is thicker. Ground amplification is also more severe
in
in weaker
weaker materials
materials (B),
(B), which
which offer
offer less
less resistance
resistance to
to seismic
seismic
waves
waves ..
Cont’d.
 Ground amplification in sedimentary basins (depressions in the crust filled
with sediment and sedimentary rocks)can occur when seismic waves enter
a basin and begin to amplify since they are forced to slow down in the
sedimentary material.
 Such areas may have an extended duration of ground shaking and
subsequent increase in the likelihood of structural failure as seismic waves
can become trapped within a basin and undergo internal reflection
creating a reverberating effect.
 Also, the convex shape of a basin can cause waves to refract and merge,
focusing their energy into localized areas which then experience more
intense shaking.
 Secondary Earthquake Hazards
Although the primary hazard associated with earthquakes is the failure of human
structures, intense ground shaking often produces secondary hazards such as fires,
landslides, and saturated ground that suddenly turns into a liquid (liquefaction). In
addition to shaking-related hazards, the displacement of lithospheric plates along
subduction zones can generate devastating tsunamis.

1. Liquefaction – compacted sand-rich layers of sediment that are normally in

contact with one another behave as fluid as a result of the shearing motion of
S-waves that increase the water pressure within the pore space of the
sediment, thereby preventing the vibrating sand grains from making contact
with one another. As soon as the shaking stops, the sand-rich material will
again behave as a solid as the individual sand grains are able to make
contact with each other.
The increased water pressure within the saturated sediment can also cause
geysers of liquefied sand to erupt onto the surface, creating what are called sand
blows. Although sand blows do not present a hazard, they are important since
they can be overlain by new sediment and become part of the geologic record.
Buried sand blows have provided geologists with a valuable tool for dating
ancient earthquakes associated with the New Madrid and Charleston seismic
zones discussed earlier

Liquefaction (A) occurs when ground shaking causes an

increase in water pressure within sand-rich sediment. As
individual sand grains lose contact with one another, the
material behaves as a fluid and loses its ability to support the
weight of overlying materials. This lack of support causes
structures (B) to sink or topple over. Photo from the 1964
earthquake (M 7.5) in Niigata, Japan.
Cont’d.
2. Ground displacement- rocks on either side of a fault move way from each
other horizontally and/or vertically. Because of the potential for displacement,
critical structures like dams, nuclear power plants, underground pipelines,
hospitals, and schools should not be built across known faults

3. Ground Fissures- are large open cracks that typically develop close to the
surface in loose sediment where there is little resistance to the rolling and
stretching motion associated with surface waves. . Unlike ground
displacement that occurs directly along the fault trace, open fissures have the
potential to affect a greater number of structures because they occur over a
much broader area.

4. Earthquake-induced mass wasting- earthquakes provide one of the basic

triggering mechanisms for the downslope movement of earth materials due to
gravity such as landslide (debris slump), rock falls, and mudflows.
Ground fissures damaged this
highway during the 1964 Alaskan
earthquake (M 9.2). Open
fissures occur in unconsolidated
sediment and can cause serious
damage to transportation links
and various surface structures as
well as underground utilities
Cont’d.
5. Fires
- underground gas lines are easily broken when surface waves roll through
a city and are likely to be ignited by sparks from countless electrical shorts in
damaged buildings and downed power lines.
- Gas-fed fires can be extremely difficult for fire crews to extinguish,
especially when blocked or damaged roads limit access to the fire. To
compound the problem, once a crew gets to a site, broken water mains may
mean there is no water available to fight the fire.

Fires are a common secondary hazard

associated with earthquakes. Aerial
panorama (A) of San Francisco showing
the extensive damage caused by the
fires that swept through the city after
the 1906 (M 7.8) earthquake. Photo (B)
showing a gas-fed fi re caused by
a broken underground gas line. The
spark for this fi re probably came from
the nearby electrical lines.
Cont’d.
6. Tsunamis
- a series of ocean waves that form when
energy is suddenly transferred to the water by an
earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide, or
asteroid impact. The majority of tsunamis,
however, form during subduction zone
earthquakes when crustal plates abruptly move
and displace large volumes of seawater.

Tsunamis form at subduction zones when a

buckled plate suddenly slips, displacing a
large volume of seawater. Kinetic energy
from this movement is transformed into wave
energy, which then travels outward away
from the subduction zone. As the waves
approach shore they slow down, which
causes an increase in wave height.
Earthquake Precursors
Despite the considerable knowledge of how earthquakes occur when a rock body accumulates
strain beyond its elastic limit, seismologists are still unable to predict just when the rock will rupture.
Short term predictions, therefore, are not yet a reality. However, foreshocks(small earthquakes)and
other precursors sometimes occur prior to the main shock which are as follows;
1. Increase in foreshocks—microcracks forming prior to complete rupture, or main shock.
2. Slight swelling or tilting of the ground surface—microcracks increasing the rock volume.
3. Decreased electrical resistance—water entering new void spaces that is more conductive
than surrounding minerals.
4. Fluctuating water levels in wells—water entering new cracks causes water levels to lower;
levels rise when voids close again.
5. Increased concentration of radon gas in groundwater—new cracks allowing the gas, a
radioactive decay product of uranium, to escape from rocks and enter wells.
6. Generation of radio signals—caused by changes in rock strain or movement of saline
groundwater.

* One of the difficulties in using these precursors as a predictive tool for earthquakes is a lack of
consistent and reliable data. For example, with the exception of foreshocks, all of the precursors
just listed can result from things other than the buildup of strain. Another problem is that the
triggering of earthquakes is a highly complex process involving the interaction of many different
factors, or variables.
Long-term Predictions
Scientists have been successful in predicting earthquakes on a long-term basis using statistical
probabilities. Such long-term predictions are similar to weather forecasts in that they give the
probability that an earthquake will occur within a given time period.

 In seismically active areas, large

earthquakes are more likely to occur as
the amount of time increases since the
last major event.
 Sections of an active fault where strain
has not been released for an extended
period of time are called seismic gaps
which can be useful in predicting what
areas are most likely to experience a large
earthquake.
 Another is the use of statistical approach
which involves the creation of seismic
hazard maps which incorporate
information on past seismic activity,
magnitudes, and displacement rates on
faults.

Map showing the location of seismic gaps along the Alaskan

subduction zone. Note how the gaps represent areas where little of
the strain along the plate boundary has been released by major
earthquakes in modern times. Therefore, the next major earthquake
is likely to occur in one of these seismic gaps.
 Reducing Earthquake Risks
1. Seismic Engineering
(a) provide greater structural strength
with respect to the shear forces generated
by lateral ground motion and a structure’s
own inertia; and
(b) reduce the actual amount of shear
force that can develop on the structure.

Ex. Addition of cross-bracing and shear

walls, base isolation, wrapping of columns
with a steel jacket, and spiral wrapping
technique on vertical reinforcing rods

Seismic engineering involves adding elements to structures

that reduce risk of damage during an earthquake. The
addition of cross-bracing and shear walls give the skeleton
greater strength against lateral shear forces, whereas base
isolation reduces the amount of shear that will act on the
structure
Lateral motion during an earthquake can cause steel-reinforced concrete columns to flex such that they
reach their elastic limit, resulting in failure (A). One solution is to wrap the columns with a steel jacket (B)
and use a spiral wrapping technique on the reinforcing rods, thereby reducing the chance of failure.
Cont’d.

 Although seismic engineering

techniques have proven to be highly
effective, there are many structures in
earthquake-prone areas that had
been built with outdated designs, or
worse, built without any seismic
controls.
 A somewhat expensive, but viable
option is to retrofit existing buildings
with seismic controls as shown in the
right figure.

Existing buildings can be strengthened against

lateral shear by adding an external skeleton (A),
whereas the amount of shear force can be
reduced using base isolation (B).
Cont’d.
2. Early Warning Systems
- The basic idea behind an early warning system is to take advantage of this time
lag and the fact that P-waves do very little damage. The first P-wave then is simply used
as an alert that the highly destructive S-waves and surface waves will soon follow.
- Depending on the distance back to the epicenter, the warning time may range
from a few seconds to around a minute (beyond one minute the epicenter will be far
enough away that damage should be minimal).
Examples:
(1) Only seconds are needed for preprogrammed systems to close valves on gas lines,
thereby reducing the risk of uncontrolled fires.
(2) Trains can be programmed to automatically stop.
(3) Electric utilities can also shut down critical control systems on electrical grids and at
power plants.
This not only prevents damage to the systems themselves, but allows electrical service to
be restarted much more quickly
Cont’d.
3. Planning and Education
- The first step is to determine the level of severity of risk in a given area by
conducting hazard assessment and subsequent construction of hazard maps.
- Based on the hazard assessment, government agencies will develop
building codes that require appropriate levels of seismic engineering in buildings
and other structures.
- Raising of awareness on what to do before, during, and after an
earthquake on all levels of society, from school-aged children up to emergency
management officials.
- Regular earthquake drills
Some questions to ponder:

 Are earthquakes important to the evolution of life? Why?

 What are the dynamics between earthquakes and the exponentially
growing human population?
 What are the possible factors that increase earthquake hazard risks?
Keep safe everyone! May God bless you all!