1

FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &

CULTURAL IDENTITIES

First Generation Latinx Women in Higher Education: Navigating Racial and Cultural
identities

Diana Rea Flores

Department of Educational Leadership, California State University, Fresno

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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
CULTURAL IDENTITIES
First-Generation Latinx Women in Higher Education: Navigating Racial and Cultural
Identities

Introduction

Today in the United States, more women aspire to higher education. Precisely, Latina

students are showing an increasing presence in higher education (Kompare, 2014). Though this

is a positive trend, Latina enrollment is amongst the lowest when compared to other ethnic

groups. While more Latinas are graduating from college than in earlier years, these rates are not

keeping up with the growing population (Kompare, 2014). The discrepancies between

enrollment and graduation rates may be explained by stressors that many Latina college students

experience (Cano & Castillo, 2010). Culture is an imperative aspect for these women. For

instance, Latina college students may have to negotiate between the traditional gender-role

expectation of family caretaker for the pursuit of a college education (Cano & Castillo, 2010).

Besides, sex-role restrictions and the oppressive effects of socioeconomic status account for the

low participation of Latinas in postsecondary education (Vasquez, 1982). Similarly, racial and

cultural identities hinder the advancement of Latinas in higher education. The campus racial

climate of the institutions and the racial microaggressions targeted to first-generation Latina

college students is damaging to their educational journey. The alienation and isolation that

Latinas experience because of not being able to “fit” in and lack of support from the institution

and the college environment can also discourage participation for this group (Vasquez, 1982).

Plus, the absence of diversity in faculty and staff is important to communication as this plays a

big role on how first-generation Latina students perceive college.

The purpose of this research is to analyze and evaluate the different racial and cultural

identities first- generation Latina women must navigate across to flourish in higher education.

This research will analyze how race and culture continue to be important characteristics in
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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
CULTURAL IDENTITIES
determining first-generation Latina women educational attainment and achievement in higher

education (Sólorzano, 2005). Additionally, this research seeks to determine the cultural factors

that can impact the process of academic persistence and overall satisfaction for Latina college

students to then help inform interventions to decrease the educational attainment gap that still

exists for Latina women in college (Ojeda, 2014). This group of students is one of the fastest

growing racial and ethnic groups in American higher education, yet, it is also one of the least

studied populations in the field (Sólorzano, 2005). It is important to understand the impediments

Latina women maneuver around on their journey to higher education because every day, more

Latina women are breaking the labels set to them by their culture. Institutions need to understand

the needs to better serve this growing minority. Exploring the impact of culture, values, race, and

gender-role salience helps to inform student affairs practitioners of college student retention,

student development, and career preparation (Storlie et al., 2016).

Theoretical Framework

Critical Race Theory

This research attempts to analyze this minority group by utilizing the framework of

Critical Race Theory (CTR). To help us understand the structures, practices, and policies that

have led to dismantling educational levels for first-generation Latina women, critical race theory

will aid in interpreting this (Sólorzano et al., 2005). Critical race theory critiques the apparent

neutrality of social institutions by focusing discussions on the history and continued dominance

of racial oppression in higher education institutions (Pyne & Means, 2013). In education, critical

race theory explores and challenges dominant structures, policies, and practices that

disadvantage people of color, meritocracy, and perpetuate racial and ethnic educational

inequality (Sólorzano et al., 2005). It also recognizes the combination of racism with multiple
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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
CULTURAL IDENTITIES
target identities that include socioeconomics and gender (Pyne & Means, 2013). The frameworks

of critical race theory allow us to see the disparities Latina women face concerning gender,

ethnicity, and culture. Through the lens of critical race theory, CTR allows us to expose some of

the ways racism has become more subtle but no less pervasive to this population (Yosso et al.,

2009).

LatCrit Theory

To further expand on this research, the research will also integrate the framework of

Latina/o Critical Race Theory (LatCrit). LatCrit is an outcome of the critical race theory

movement that challenges the Black-White binaries in the United States to understand systemic

challenges facing Latina/o individuals (Pyne and Means, 2013). LatCrit addresses issues often

ignored by critical race theorists such as language, immigration, ethnicity, cultural identity, and

phenotype (Solorzano & Bernal, 2001). Furthermore, LatCrit interprets Latina women’s

multidimensional identities and addresses the intersectionality of racism, sexism, classism, as

well as other forms of oppression. The application of LatCrit will help guide the research by

addressing the concerns first-generation Latinas college students face considering both internal

and external relationships and with the worlds that have marginalized them (Solorzano & Bernal,

2001). Integrating LatCrit will also assist in conceptualizing how Latinas navigate through their

multiple issues and identities.

Intersectionality

Lastly, to further understand and analyze the different identities Latinas hold, the

framework of Intersectionality will be incorporated. Drawn from critical feminist and womanist

theories, Intersectionality seeks to examine how prevailing forces bend to treat race and gender

as one exclusive category (Pyne & Means, 2013). The intersectionality framework also argues
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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
CULTURAL IDENTITIES
that individuals with numerous oppressed identities can experience multiple types of

discrimination that can turn to have a negative impact on their everyday lives (Nadal et al.,

2014). The framework of Intersectionality helps us critically understand why Latinas evidently

report higher incidents of microaggressions because of the different identities they hold such as

race, gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and cultural identity. Significantly,

intersectionality further examines how more than one of these two identities intertwine.

Literature Review

To better recognize and understand the impediments and barriers Latina women face on

their journey to reach a higher education, the literature reviewed focuses on five main themes

that heavily affect Latina women as they navigate higher education through their racial and

cultural identities: (1) effects of culture and growing up a woman in a Latin household, (3) the

role of machismo and marianismo (3) campus climate and the influence it has on Latina students

(4) the impact socioeconomic status has on Latina students as they pursue higher education, and

(5) the lack of diversity in faculty and staff and how it affects Latina students.

Effects of Culture on First-Generation Latina Women

Latina women tend to be raised in households with high values and traditions. Values

such as respect, collectivism, having good morals, and belief in authority have all been found to

be of high importance to Latino families (Gomez, 2010). More precisely, the [typical role] that

Latina women acquire while growing up is the role of marianismo, a role that leads Latinas to

become good daughters by being passive, helping with chores around the house, as well as

becoming good wives and mothers, and being present and nurturing to the family (Gomez,

2010). It can be difficult for Latina women to attain full family support to pursue a higher

education while growing up in a traditional family. Uncertain expectations, decreased self-

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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
CULTURAL IDENTITIES
esteem, lower efficacy, and less encouragement from parents to attend college can be daunting

and demoralizing (Hahs-Vaughn, 2004; as cited in Storlie, 2016) which creates more career

barriers for Latina college students. Even before entering college, the dissonance between

culture, life roles, and family values among first-generation Latina students might promote the

alarming high school dropout rates among Latina high school students (Storlie, 2016). All this

prevents Latinas to fully focus on their academics as they must do household chores, and fulfill

other traditional family duties (Gomez, 2010). This makes it challenging for Latinas to choose

education as their perception of college is heavily impacted by their experiences at home.

The Role of Machismo and Marianismo

Another factor Latina women face is the role of machismo and marianismo. Arciniega et

al. (2008) states how in the Latino culture, machismo is often viewed as a term that continues to

be associated with the negative characteristics of sexism, hypermasculinity, and chauvinism.

Marianismo is often defined as the ideology that women are “morally and spiritually superior to

men and, therefore, better to endure suffering” and expected to be submissive and self-sacrificing

(Torres et al., 2002). These predetermined identities follow both Latino men and women.

Moreover, following machismo ideologies, Latino parents are often seen as

overprotective, though this is more accurate with women. In the trajectory of reaching higher

education and becoming independent, Latina women face the challenge of occasionally being

overprotected by their parents. For these women, education may not be a role they are expected

to fulfill (Gomez, 2010). Additionally, Latinas are often expected to stay closer to home to

support their families, giving them a sense of responsibility to follow their family duties and help

their families because, in a Latina/o family, family always comes first, and the individual comes

second (Contreras et al., 2002). Further Gomez (2010) describes how research shows and point
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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
CULTURAL IDENTITIES
out at mothers of Latina women being equally or more supportive than fathers of Latinas toward

obtaining a college degree.

Nevertheless, education is very important for Latino families to rise the social ladder.

More recently and as Latino/a households begin to acculturate to the “American” culture and

way of living, more Latina women are being encouraged and motivated by their families to reach

higher academic achievement and to become independent. Traditional gender roles are evolving,

and women today are more active in the labor force and conversely, men are also more active in

the family (Gomez, 2010).

Campus Racial Climate

First-generation Latina women that achieve a higher education often find themselves

adopting and adhering to the unfamiliar environment of college. A campus climate where

diversity is welcomed and valued is significant to the success of first-generation Latina college

students. Campus racial climate can potentially foster outstanding academic outcomes and

graduation rates for all students, nevertheless, too often it also contributes to poor academic

performance and high dropout rates for Students of Color (Yosso et al., 2009). Perhaps the most

subtle, yet pervasive barrier to participation and persistence in college for first-generation Latina

women is the experience of institutional marginalization (Rodriguez, 2000). While Latinas are a

diverse group, “Latina women share commonalities based on historical influences including

language, socioeconomic status, bilingualism, educational level of their parents, ethnic self-

identification, biculturalism, and the experience of oppression” (Rodriguez, 2000, pg. 520).

Because the institution’s culture reflects White or American values and beliefs, first-generation

Latina students may undergo an acculturative process while they adopt the culture’s behaviors

and beliefs needed to succeed in college (Ojeda, 2014).

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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
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Individual perceptions of the campus climate heavily affect student adjustment as well as

persistence and success in college (Hurtado & Ponjuan, 2005). Hurtado and Ponjuan (2005) also

expressed how, particularly, first-generation Latina students who perceive a hostile climate

regarding diversity on campus also expressed more difficulty adjusting academically, socially,

emotionally and expressed more difficulty building a sense of attachment to the institution.

Undeniably, interaction with diverse faculty and staff is central to the success of Latina women

in higher education.

Microaggressions

Microaggressions or subtle and yet striking racial assaults have been part of the campus

racial climate at institutions (Yosso et al., 2009). Latina women are highly prone to be targeted

with racial microaggressions. Microaggressions are directly associated with subtle acts of

discrimination. Discrimination has been reconceptualized to include chronic stressors and

everyday experiences with discrimination that can take a significant toll on the individual’s

psychological health (Nadal et al., 2014). Racial microaggressions are defined as “brief and

commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, and environmental indignities, whether intentional or

unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults to the

target person or group” (Sue, Capodilupo, et al., 2007, p. 273; as cited in Nadal et al., 2014).

Microaggressions have been found to be pervasive to marginalized groups, particularly

first-generation Latina women in higher education. At predominately White institutions, Latina

women experience feeling intellectually inferior compared to their counterparts. Latina women

have also reported receiving subordinate treatment than their White counterparts (Nadal et al.,

2014). This underrepresented group is also targeted by their characteristics of speech, where

Latinas are invalidated because of their accents. Additionally, first-generation Latina women are
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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
CULTURAL IDENTITIES
isolated and alienated, where Latinas are presumed to be foreign-born or “not American enough”

(Nadal et al., 2014). All these are forms of racial microaggressions that can hinder the racial

identity development of Latina students.

Socioeconomic Status

In the United States, 27% of Latino families live below the poverty level (Rodriguez et

al., 2000). Such disparities in socioeconomic status create a negative effect on the educational

attainment of first-generation Latinas. Moreover, Latinas are more likely to feel financial stress

compared to Latino men, White women and men and are more likely to feel an urgency to

financially support their family (Rodriguez, 2000). These socioeconomic conditions also give

rise to one of the first obstacles that are faced by first-generation Latina students within the

educational system. As a cause, Latina women are the most segregated ethnic and racial group in

the nation which maintains a clear relationship between school segregation and low college

matriculation rates (Rodriguez et al., 2000). Latina/o families are more likely to attend school in

an urban, segregated, poorly financed area which has shown to not offer the same courses that

higher-income suburban schools offer and can lead to low achievement, high drop-out rates, and

inadequate college preparation (Rodriguez et al., 2000).

Similarly, the curriculum taught in these schools may affect the decisions first-generation

Latina women make on college enrollment (Gomez, 2010). Generally, segregated and poorly

financed schools lack the college preparation courses, extracurricular activities, and college

counseling needed for first-generation Latina students to successfully enter college (Rodriguez et

al., 2000). All this may leave first-generation Latina students not prepared for entering college

and feeling overwhelmed by the curriculum which can lead to less college satisfaction and a

bigger possibility for not successfully completing college. After entering college, first-generation
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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
CULTURAL IDENTITIES
Latina college students feel a sense of fear for student loans and also have a difficult time

navigating and understanding financial aid offered to them (Rodriguez, 2000).

Diversification of Educators

Roughly, only 3% of all faculty at degree-granting institutions are Latina women

(National Center for Education Statistics, 2020). Even when research has demonstrated the

importance of having diversity in faculty and staff, there are still gaps to close. Student-faculty

interactions are crucial in developing students’ academic self-efficiency and improving their

motivation and achievement (Komarraju et al., 2010). Komarraju et al. (2010) notes that there

are findings that reveal students who speak and interact more frequently with faculty of their

same ethnicity outside of the classroom reported significantly higher academic self-confidence.

Additionally, students who have role models and support from mentors of their same

ethnicity feel more encouraged to continue with their education (Gomez, 2010). The

diversification of higher education faculty and staff has not followed the same trend with the

diversification of the growing population of diversity in students (Stout et al., 2010). These

disparities in diversity at institutions leave no space for first-generation Latina women to see

themselves reflected on role models or mentors. The number of faculty and student affairs

educators of color is a concerning low number that needs to increase. Hence, there is a need to

improve the diversity of faculty of color at higher education institutions for the growing number

of Latina students in higher education.

Implications for Redefining First-Generation Latina’s Educational Pathway

More than ever, Latinas are choosing to pursue a higher education. Traditional gender-

roles are evolving and more first-generation Latina women are deciding to enter the work force.

Many of them split their time between family and personal growth. Because of the value of
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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
CULTURAL IDENTITIES
familism and the importance culture and family for first-generation Latina women, there needs to

be an understanding of the practices and norms from student affairs practitioners to better serve

this population. Faculty, academic advisors, and other educators need to be aware of the

commitments (i.e., family, work, personal) of first-generation Latina students and be willing to

formulate a timely and flexible program for this minority group (Rodriguez et al., 2000). At the

institutional level, there are a myriad of initiatives that can be adopted to acclimatize the campus

racial climate to enhance the experience of first-generation Latina students and support them in

feeling welcomed. Also, understanding the impact of racial microaggressions that institutions

foster even when they are [overlooked] is significant to create a safe and secure atmosphere for

first-generation Latina students.

The oppression, segregation, and marginalization in education that comes with

socioeconomic status is unfavorable to first-generation Latina women desiring to pursue a higher

education. The segregation of schools profoundly underserves this population and does not

prepare them academically for a college education. Socioeconomic status should not be a tool to

dictate whether first-generation Latinas will or will not attend and persist in college.

Additionally, there is an emerging need in diversifying the faculty and staff at universities so that

Latinas and other minority and underrepresented student groups can form relationships and

creating mentoring opportunities.

Conclusion

Collectively, the is a need to minimize the challenges faced by first-generation Latina

college students. There is also a need for research in this particular area for future inquiry to

deepen student affairs practitioners and educators’ understanding of and ability to support the

career development while understanding the racial and cultural identities of Latina first-
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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
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generation college students (Storlie et al., 2015). Specifically, scholars should consider focusing

on polices and regulations across institutions that affect first-generation Latina women’s

education and how important are those impediments in their pursuit of higher education (Gomez,

2010). Institutional campuses must collaborate by hiring more Latina faculty and staff so that

these first-generation Latina students can have a figure in which they can see themselves

reflected on. In essence, reaffirming an institution’s commitment to diversity can better

encourage success for first-generation Latina college students. Because the Latino population is

growing and attending college rapidly, more specifically, first-generation Latinas, it is important

to learn about this population, their goals, and ambitions (Gomez, 2010). Until further research is

done, first-generation Latina students will continue to meet resistance and paradoxes as they

fight their way through higher education even with their multiple marginalities and identities.
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FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
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CULTURAL IDENTITIES
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Solorzano, D. G., & Bernal, D. D. (2001). Examining Transformational Resistance Through a

Critical Race and Latcrit Theory Framework: Chicana and Chicano Students in an Urban

Context. Urban Education, 36(3), 308–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085901363002

Sólorzano, D. G., Villalpando, O., & Oseguera, L. (2005). Educational inequities and Latina/o

undergraduate students in the United States: A critical race analysis of their educational
16
FIRST-GEN LATINX WOMEN IN HIGHER ED. NAVIGATING RACIAL &
CULTURAL IDENTITIES
progress. Journal of Hispanic higher education, 4(3), 272-294.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1538192705276550

Storlie, C. A., Mostade, S. J., & Duenyas, D. (2016). Cultural trailblazers: Exploring the career

development of Latina first‐generation college students. The Career Development

Quarterly, 64(4), 304-317. https://doi.org/10.1002/cdq.12067

Stout, Rebecca, Archie, Cephas, Cross, David, & Carman, Carol A. (2018). The relationship

between faculty diversity and graduation rates in higher education. Intercultural

Education., 29(3), 399–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2018.1437997

Torres, J. B., Solberg, V. S. H., & Carlstrom, A. H. (2002). The myth of sameness among Latino

men and their machismo. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72(2), 163-181.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.72.2.163

Vasquez, M. J. T. (1982). Confronting Barriers to the Participation of Mexican American

Women in Higher Education. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 4(2), 147–165.

https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863820042002

Yosso, T., Smith, W., Ceja, M., & Solórzano, D. (2009). Critical race theory, racial

microaggressions, and campus racial climate for Latina/o undergraduates. Harvard

Educational Review, 79(4), 659-691.

https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.79.4.m6867014157m707l