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FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER

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 Based on the new syllabus of Bachelor’s Degree in Engineering
TU-IOE, KU, PU, MU, FU and Other Engineering Exainations

FUNDAMENTALS OF
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER

Mahesh Chandra Luintel

Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus
Institute of Engineering,
Pulchowk, Lalitpur

HERITAGE PUBLISHERS & DISTRIBUTORS PVT. LTD.

Bhotahity, Kathmandu, Nepal
FUNDAMENTALS OF
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
Authors : Mahesh Chandra Luintel

Publisher/Distributor : Heritage Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.

Bhotahity, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel: 01-4221291, 4216538, 4229770
Email: hpdbooks@ntc.net.np
hpdbooks@gmail.com

Edition : 2016

© : Author
(All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means like electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, without the
prior permission in writing from author and publisher.)

Computer : Heritage Desktop

ISBN : 978-9937-2770-4-

Price : Rs. 375/-

Printed in Nepal
 FOREWORD
It gives me great pleasure to write a foreword to this excellent book on “Fun-
damentals of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer” written by Mahesh Chan-
dra Luintel.
Focusing on the need of a first level text book for the undergraduates and a
professional reference book for practicing engineers, the author of this book
has brought forth this volume using his extensive teaching experience in
the field of Engineering Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer in Institute of
Engineering, Tribhuvan University.
This book has come out just in time for the benefit of several teachers like
me who have desired to use it in teaching for a long time ago. For me, this
would have been just the required text book for my young engineering stu-
dents and engineers in the field of thermal science. The style of the book
reflects the teaching culture of Institute of Engineering, since a vast topic has
to be covered in a comprehensive way in a limited time.
The title of this book not only defines the content of the engineering ther-
modynamics but it is also explanatory of the subject matter in general. This
book provides a very concise and clear presentation of classical thermody-
namics and basics of heat transfer including many examples to provide in-
stant illustration and applications of the results obtained. Each chapter is pre-
sented with elegant simplicity requiring no special prerequisite knowledge
of supporting subjects. Self-explanatory sketches, graphs and tables have
been generously used to curtail long and wordy explanations. Numerous il-
lustrated examples, exercises and problems at the end of each chapter serve
as a good source material to practice the application of the basic principles
presented in the text. SI system of units has been used throughout the book
which is not so readily available in the currently-used books.
I congratulate the author, Mahesh Luintel on bringing out this excellent book
for the benefit of students in engineering discipline. While many a student
will find it rewarding to follow this book for his class work, I also hope that
it will motivate a few of them to specialize in some key areas and take up re-
search as a career. With great enthusiasm, I recommend this book to students
and practicing engineers.

Prof. Bhakta Bahadur Ale, PhD

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering
Kathmandu, Nepal
 PREFACE

The knowledge of engineering thermodynamics and heat transfer is essen-

tial for engineering students of any discipline and researchers working in
the field of energy technology. As thermodynamics deals with energy, its
importance is increasing due to the current global problem of energy crisis.
During my initial stage of academic career, I had to collect so many litera-
ture books to prepare the lecture notes and assignments for the students. I
also experienced the lack of text books which perfectly match the curricu-
lum of Bachelor of Engineering. So, I have tried to present my experience
in the form of book.

The arrangement of the contents is based on the revised curriculum of Insti-

tute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University. Each topic has been arranged in
a way which makes the beginners very clear. Selected problems have been
solved to make the fundamentals more clear and to demonstrate the reader
the problem solving approach. Review questions and sufficient numerical
problems have also been included at the end of each chapter. Answers to all
the problems are also provided so that students can evaluate themselves. For
competitive exam preparations, objective questions with answers are also
included for each chapter.

I hope this book will be helpful to all the students and faculties. Suggestions
for the improvement of the book will be highly appreciated.

I am thankful to Prof. Dr. Bhakta Bahadur Ale who gave his precious time to
go through the book and gave suggestions for the improvement of the book.

2072, Phalgun
Mahesh Chandra Luintel
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus
Institute of Engineering
 CONTENTS
1. Introduction ................................................. 1 - 32
1.1 Definition and Scope of Engineering Thermodynamics ................ 1
1.2 Value of Energy to Society ............................................................ 2
1.3 Microscopic versus Macroscopic Viewpoint ................................. 7
1.4 Concepts and Definitions................................................................ 7
1.4.1 Thermodynamic System, Surroundings,
Boundary &Universe ....................................................... 7
1.4.2 Thermodynamic Property ................................................ 10
1.4.3 Thermodynamic Equilibrium ........................................... 11
1.4.4 Thermodynamic State ...................................................... 11
1.4.5 Thermodynamic Process .................................................. 13
1.5 Some Common Properties.............................................................. 16
1.5.1 Specific Volume................................................................ 16
1.5.2 Pressure............................................................................. 17
1.5.3 Temperature...................................................................... 18
1.6 Equality of Temperature and Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics ........................................................................... 18
1.6.1 Equality of Temperature....................................................... 18
1.6.2 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics ......................................... 19
Solved Examples ............................................................................ 20
Objective Questions ....................................................................... 24
Review Questions ........................................................................... 28
Numerical Problems ....................................................................... 29

2. Energy and Energy Transfer ....................... 33- 63

2.1 Energy and its Meaning .................................................................. 33
2.2 Stored Energy ................................................................................. 33
2.2.1 Internal Energy..................................................................... 33
2.2.2 Potential Energy.................................................................... 34
2.2.3 Kinetic Energy .................................................................... 34
2.2.4 Total Energy......................................................................... 34
2.3 Energy Transfer............................................................................... 34
2.3.1 Heat Transfer..................................................................... 34
2.3.2 Work Transfer .................................................................. 35
2.4 Expressions for Displacement Work Transfer ................................ 37
2.4.1 Constant Volume Process ................................................. 37
2.4.2 Constant Pressure Process ............................................... 38
2.4.3 Constant Temperature Process ......................................... 38
2.4.4 Polytropic Process ............................................................ 39
2.5 Power .............................................................................................. 41
Solved Examples ............................................................................ 41
Objective Questions ....................................................................... 49
Review Questions .......................................................................... 58
Numerical Problems ....................................................................... 59

3. Properties of Common Substances .......... 64 - 110

3.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 64
3.2 Pure Substance and State Postulate.................................................... 64
3.2.1 Pure Substance .................................................................. 64
3.2.2 State Postulate ................................................................... 66
3.3 Ideal Gas and Ideal Gas Relations...................................................... 66
3.3.1 Boyles Law ....................................................................... 66
3.3.2 Charles Law ...................................................................... 67
3.3.3 Equation of State .............................................................. 67
3.4 Two Phase (Liquid and Vapor) Systems............................................. 68
3.4.1 Saturation Curve for Two Phase Mixture on T-v Diagram 68
3.4.2 Saturation Curve for Two Phase Mixture on P-v Diagram 71
3.4.3 Terms Used in Two-Phase Mixture System ..................... 73
3.5 Properties of Two Phase Mixtures ..................................................... 75
3.5.1 Quality ................................................................................. 77
3.5.2 Moisture Content.................................................................. 78
3.5.3 Specific Properties of a Two-Phase Mixture ....................... 79
3.6 Development of Property Data .......................................................... 79
Solved Examples ............................................................................... 81
Objective Questions ........................................................................... 99
Review Questions .............................................................................. 104
Numerical Problems .......................................................................... 105

4. First Law of Thermodynamics .................. 111- 159

4.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 111
4.2 First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Mass ...................... 111
4.2.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Mass .................... 111
4.2.2 Conservation of Energy for a Control Mass ................. 112
4.2.3 First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Mass
Undergoing Cyclic Process .......................................... 113
4.3 Applications of First Law of Thermodynamics for Non-flow
Processes ........................................................................................ 114
4.3.1 Constant Volume (Isochoric) Process .......................... 114
4.3.2 Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Process ........................... 114
4.3.3 Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas ...................................... 115
4.3.4 Constant Temperature (Isothermal) Process for an
Ideal Gas ...................................................................... 116
4.3.5 Polytropic Process for an Ideal Gas ............................. 117
4.4 First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume ................. 117
4.4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume ................ 117
4.4.2 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume ............. 120
4.5 Control Volume Analysis ............................................................. 123
4.5.1 Steady State Analysis ................................................... 123
4.5.2 Unsteady State Analysis................................................ 124
4.6 Control Volume Applications ....................................................... 125
4.6.1 Steady State Work Applications.................................... 125
4.6.2 Steady State Flow Applications.................................... 127
4.6.3 Unsteady State Work Applications................................ 129
4.6.4 Unsteady State Flow Applications ............................... 130
4.7 Other Statements of the First Law ................................................ 131
Solved Examples .......................................................................... 132
Objective Questions ..................................................................... 145
Review Questions ......................................................................... 151
Numerical Problems ..................................................................... 152

5. Second Law of Thermodynamics ........... 160 - 214

5.1 Limitations of the First Law (Necessity of the Second Law) ......... 160
5.2 Second Law of Thermodynamics for an Isolated System .............. 162
5.3 Reversible and Irreversible Processes ............................................ 163
5.4 Entropy Relations ........................................................................... 168
5.4.1 Entropy Relations for an Ideal Gas ...................................... 169
5.4.2 Entropy Relation for an Incompressible Substance ............. 169
5.5 Control Mass Formulation of Second Law of Thermodynamics ... 170
5.6 Control Volume Formulation of Second Law of Thermodynamics 174
5.7 Control Volume Formulation of Second Law of Thermodynamics 175
5.7.1 Isentropic Relations for an Ideal Gas .................................. 176
5.7.2 Isentropic Relation for an Incompressible Substances ........ 177
5.7.3 Isentropic Efficiency of Steady Flow Devices ..................... 178
5.8 Carnot Cycle, Heat Engine, Heat Pump and Refrigerator .............. 179
5.8.1 Carnot Cycle ........................................................................ 179
5.8.2 Heat Engine, Heat Pump and Refrigerator .......................... 181
5.8.3 Clausius Inequality .............................................................. 186
5.9 Classical Statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
and their Equivalence ..................................................................... 187
Solved Examples ............................................................................. 189
Objective Questions ........................................................................ 197
Review Questions .......................................................................... 204
Numerical Problems ....................................................................... 206

6. Thermodynamic Cycles ......................... 215 - 257

6.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 215
6.1.1 Classification of Practical Cycles ........................................ 215
6.1.2 Common Features of Power Cycles .................................... 217
 6.2 Brayton Cycle .............................................................................. 217
6.3 Rankine Cycle ............................................................................. 221
6.4 Internal Combustion Cycles ......................................................... 225
6.4.1 Operation of Four Stroke Engines ..................................... 225
6.4.2 Air Standard Analysis ....................................................... 227
6.4.3 Air Standard Otto Cycle .................................................... 228
6.4.4 Air Standard Diesel Cycle ................................................. 232
6.4.5 Mean Effective Pressure .................................................... 235
6.5 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle ..................................... 235
Solved Examples .......................................................................... 237
Objective Questions ...................................................................... 246
Review Questions ......................................................................... 250
Numerical Problems ..................................................................... 252

7. Introduction to Heat Transfer ................ 258 - 301

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 258
7.2 Modes of Heat Transfer ............................................................... 258
7.2.1 Conduction ........................................................................ 259
7.2.2 Convection ........................................................................ 259
7.2.3 Radiation ........................................................................... 260
7.3 One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction through a Plane Wall 260
7.4 Radial Steady State Heat Conduction through a Hollow Cylinder 261
7.5 Heat Conduction through Composite Structures ......................... 263
7.5.1 Composite Plane Wall ....................................................... 263
7.5.2 Composite Hollow Cylinder ............................................. 164
7.6 Electrical Analogy for Heat Transfer and Thermal Resistance ... 266
7.6.1 Heat Transfer through a Composite Plane Wall Using Electric
Analogy Approach ........................................................... 267
7.6.2 Heat Transfer through a Composite Cylinder Using Electric
Analogy Approach ............................................................ 268
7.6.3 Application of Electric Analogy Approach ....................... 269
7.7 Combined Heat Transfer and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 270
7.7.1 Plane Wall Subjected to Convective Medium on both Sides 270
7.7.2 Hollow Cylinder Subjected to Convective Medium on both Sides 272
7.8 Nature of Convection: Free and Forced Convection ................... 275
7.9 Introduction to Radiation Heat Transfer ...................................... 275
7.9.1 Nature of Heat Radiation ................................................... 275
7.9.2 Radiation Surface Properties ............................................ 277
Solved Examples ......................................................................... 278
Objective Questions ..................................................................... 287
Review Questions ........................................................................ 288
Numerical Problems .................................................................... 292
ANSWERS ................................................................................... 302
APPENDICES ............................................................................. 308
Appendix 1 Gas Constants for Common Gases .......................... 308
Appendix 2 Property Tables for Water ........................................ 309
Appendix 3 Property Charts for Water ........................................ 338
Appendix 4 Property Tables for Ammonia .................................. 340
References .................................................................................... 358

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