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Critical Thinking Chapter 2

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"A fact is a thing that is occurred, to exist, or to be true."

 Tell who, what, when, where, or how much.

 Have a verifiable truth value.

 Can be quantified and is specific.

 Are supported by evidence.

Fact = việc, sự việc, sự kiện, thực tế 3

An opinion is a view about a particular issue. It is what the

person believes or thinks, and is not necessarily the truth.

• Tend to be vague.

• Are personal beliefs or value judgments.

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• Fact = Can be proved or disproved

• Opinion = Personal Belief

Fact Opinion

Hanoi is the capital of Hanoi is the best city in

Vietnam. the world.

IU is a University in I love studying at IU.

Vietnam.

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• A definite or clear expression of something in speech

or writing.

• A statement is a sentence that can be viewed as

either true or false.

• A statement is a sentence that makes good

grammatical sense when it is prefaced with the words
"It is true that…" or "It is false that…“.

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Four things should be noted about statements.

1. First, a sentence may be used to express more than
one statement.
Example: Roses are red and violets are blue
This sentence expresses two distinct statements (“roses
are red” and “violets are blue”).
Each of these is a statement because each is capable of
standing alone as a declarative
sentence.
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Four things should be noted about statements.

1. First, a sentence may be used to express more
than one statement.
Example: Roses are red and violets are blue
This sentence expresses two distinct statements
(“roses are red” and “violets are blue”).
Each of these is a statement because each is
capable of standing alone as a declarative
sentence.
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Second, a statement can sometimes be

expressed as a phrase or an incomplete clause,
rather than as a complete declarative sentence.
Example: Considering Ian's near-perfect SAT scores,
he should be able to get into an Ivy League college.

• The phrase "considering Ian's near-perfect SAT scores" is a

dependent clause;
• The intent of the speaker or writer is clearly to defend one
claim on the basis of another;
• It is important to recognize that there are two statements in this
passage, rather than one.
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Third, not all sentences are statements, that is, sentences

that either assert or deny that something is the case.
• What time is it? (question)
• Hi, Dad! (greeting)
• Close the window! (command)
• Please send me your current catalog. (request)
• Let’s go to Paris for our anniversary. (proposal)
• Insert tab A into slot B. (instruction)
• Oh, my goodness! (exclamation)
None says, in effect, “This is a fact. Accept this; it is true.”
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Finally, statements can be about subjective matters of

personal experience as well as objectively verifiable matters
of fact.
If I say, for example, I feel a slight twinge in my left knee

This is a statement because it is either true or false (I might

be lying, after all), even though other people may have no
way of verifying whether I am telling the truth.

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• Rhetorical questions are sentences that have the

grammatical form of questions but are meant to be
understood as assertions.
• “Alyssa, you should quit smoking. Don’t you realize how
bad that is for your health?”  “smoking is bad for your
health”
• Not to ask for information, but to make a positive
assertion that the speaker or writer expects at least some
of his readers or listeners to agree with.
• For that reason, rhetorical questions should be treated
as statements rather than as questions.

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• Ought imperatives should be regarded as statements.

• They have the grammatical form of imperatives but are

intended to be understood as “ought statements”:
express a judgment about what ought to be done.

• Example: “Do not read beauty magazine. They will only

make you feel ugly.”

• It is an advice or value judgments, not a command.

• Implication  “You shouldn’t read beauty

magazine.”

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More tricky statement examples

• Don’t you know smoking will kill you?
 Smoking will kill you.
• How am I supposed to do that?  I can’t do that.
• Don’t blow dry your hair in the tub!
 really means “You should not blow dry your hair in
the tub.”
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Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences
are or are not statements.

Can’t you see that pornography demeans

women?

Ans: Statement

Why?

 Rhetorical question: Everybody knows that

pornography demeans women.

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Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences
are or are not statements.

Please print your name legibly.

Ans: Nonstatement

Why?

 request

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Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences
are or are not statements.

What will it profit a man, if he gains the whole world

and forfeits his life? (Matt. 16:26)
Ans: Statement

Why?

 rhetorical question

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Argument : some kind of quarrel or shouting match???

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Argument - A form of thinking in which certain statements-

reasons are offered in support of another statement - a
conclusion.

Arguments are composed of one or more premises and a

conclusion. Premises are statements offered as reasons for
accepting another statement. A conclusion is a statement
supported by reasons.

A Claim Defended with Reasons.

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• Lawyers earn a lot of money. (Premise)

• I want to earn a lot of money. (Premise)

• I should become a Lawyer. (Conclusion)

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With indicators
• Look for premise indicators that provide clues when
premises are being offered.

Examples: because, since, for, given that, as, judging

from, and seeing that.

• Look for conclusion indicators that provide clues when

conclusions are being offered.

Examples: therefore, thus, hence, so, as a result,

accordingly, consequently, and which shows that.

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If the passage contains no indicator words, try these

two strategies:

• Ask yourself, "What claim is the writer or speaker

trying to prove?" That claim will be the conclusion.

• Try putting the word "therefore" before each of the

statements in turn. The statement it fits best will be
the conclusion.

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Trong tiết học đầu năm, cô giáo tiểu học yêu cầu mỗi học sinh kể
một chuyện và rút ra bài học từ câu chuyện ấy.
Câu chuyện 1:
“Ba em là chủ trang trại. Hàng tuần nhà em cho trứng gà vào rổ
mang ra chợ bán. Một hôm bị đụng xe, trứng vỡ sạch.”
Bài học là: Đừng để tất cả trứng vào chung một rổ
Câu chuyện 2:
“Trong chiến tranh, máy bay chở chú của em bị bắn hạ. Ông nhảy
dù xuống một hòn đảo xa, trên người chỉ có một chai whisky nhỏ. Bị
12 tên địch vây bắt, ông uống hết nhẵn chai rượu rồi xông tới tiêu
diệt cả 12 tên bằng tay không.”
• Bài học rút ra là gì?
• "What claim is the writer or speaker trying to prove?“ 
conclusion
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1. No one under eighteen-years-old can vote.

2. Jen is under eighteen-years-old.

3. Therefore, Jen cannot vote.

Therefore is a conclusion indicator

 statement 3 is the conclusion

 statements 1 and 2 are premises

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Make a will. Otherwise, the state will determine who gets your
stuff.

(Andrew Tobias, "Isn't It Time You Faced the Future?" 2001)

Identify the premise(s) and conclusion in this argument.

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Premise: If you don't make a will, the state will determine who
gets your stuff.
Conclusion: You ought to make a will.
• The word otherwise often functions as premise indicator.
• Notice that both the premise and the conclusion have been
rephrased slightly.
• The premise has been rephrased in order to make it a
complete sentence.
• The conclusion has been restated in order to make clear that it
is intended as a statement rather than as a command.
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Notice three important things that follow from this definition:

• Arguments consist of statements: non-statements cannot
be parts of arguments.
• An argument always consists of at least two statements.
• One statement follows from one or more other statements
in the passage.

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Reports A statement or group of statements intended simply to convey

information about a subject.
Unsupported Is a statement or set of statements in which the speaker or
statements of belief or writer expresses his or her personal opinion, but offers no
opinions reasons or evidence to back up that opinion.
Illustrations Is a passage intended to provide examples that illustrate or
support a claim, not to provide convincing evidence that the
claim is true.
Conditional Is an if-then statement. It is an assertion that such-and-such
Statements is true if something else is true.
Explanations Is a statement or set of statements that seeks to provide an
account of why something has occurred or why something is
the case.

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Reports: statements made to convey information.

• “More people moved to the south this year.”
• “Oil prices dropped today, thus so did gas prices.”

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Unsupported Assumptions: when someone puts forth what

they believe but does not intend for any of their statements
to support another.
• People aren’t afraid of dying; they are afraid of not
living.
• People like this course because of the professor.
 Notice the presence of a premise indicator, but not a
premise.
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Conditional (“if-then”) statements: If A then B

• If it rains then the picnic will be cancelled.

• Antecedent: it rains

• Consequent: the picnic will be cancelled

But conditionals don’t always have “if” or “then”

• In the event of rain, the picnic will be cancelled.

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Conditionals are not arguments, but they can look like

them.
• Conditional: If I was taller I would play basketball.
• Argument: I am tall, so I would make a good
basketball player.

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If the cost of rental accommodation increases disproportionately to

income, then less people will be able to afford private housing.
If less people can afford private housing, there will be more people who rely
on public housing.
If there are more people who rely on public housing, the current public
housing allocation will be insufficient to meet demand.
If the current public housing allocation cannot meet demand, there will be
more people who cannot access public housing.
If there are more people who cannot access public housing, then there will
be more people who do not have fixed accommodation.
If there are more people who do not have fixed accommodation, there will
be an increase in the number of people experiencing homelessness.

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Illustrations:
• Many wildflowers are edible. For example, daises
and day lilies are delicious in salads.
Be careful. Some arguments can look like illustrations
because they use “counter examples.”
• Many people think that all Star Trek fans are zit
faced nerds. But that is not true. For example,
Christian Slater is a Star Trek fan and he is not a zit
faced nerd.

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• Explanation: tries to show why something is the case (not argue

that it is the case).
• Usually offers up a causal explanation for something that is
already accepted as true.
Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg. (explanation)
 Capital Punishment is wrong because it is murder.
(argument)
“I ski because I think it is fun.” (explanation)
“You should ski because it is fun.” (argument)
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The Common-Knowledge Test

 If it points at something that is common knowledge, it is
probably an explanation.
 Most people don’t present arguments for things people already
believe.
 Example: “TV is very influential in society because most people
watch it.”
The Past-Event Test
 If it points at a past event, it is probably an explanation.
 Usually people don’t argue “X occurred.”
 Example: “The US entered WWII because of Japan’s attack on
Pearl Harbor.”
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The Author’s Intent Test: Ask if the person making the

statement is trying to “prove” something or explain why
something is true.
 You want a college degree because you want a better
life.
The Principle of Charity Test:
 interpret generously: a bad argument  assume it
is not an argument.
 The Test: If you have a choice between interpreting a
statement as a “bad argument” or an “unsatisfactory
explanation,” do the latter. A bad argument is a
worse mistake.

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1. Distinguishing Fact = Can be proved or disproved

Opinion = Personal Belief
Fact & Opinion
2. What is an Argument? An argument is a claim defended with reasons.

3. Identifying Premises Look for premise indicators that provide clues when
premises are being offered (e.g. because, since, for).
& Conclusions
Look for conclusion indicators that provide clues when
conclusions are being offered (e.g. therefore, thus,
hence, so).
If the passage contains no indicator words, try these two
strategies: 1) Ask yourself, "What claim is the writer or
speaker trying to prove?" That claim will be the
conclusion. 2)Try putting the word "therefore" before
each of the statements in turn. The statement it fits best
will be the conclusion.
4. What Is Not Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused
with arguments are: Reports, Unsupported statements
an Argument? of belief or opinions, Illustrations, Conditional
Statements, and Explanations
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EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

1.When the universe has crushed him man will still be

nobler than that which kills him, because he knows that
he is dying, and of its victory the universe knows
nothing.
(Blaise Pascal, Pensées)

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EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

• Premise 1: Man knows that he is dying.

• Premise 2: Of its victory the universe knows
nothing.
• Conclusion: When the universe has crushed him
man will still be nobler than that which kills him.

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EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

2. Rights are either God-givenor evolve out of the

democratic process. Most rights are based on the ability of
people to agree on a social contract, the ability to make
and keep agreements. Animals cannot possibly reach such
an agreement with other creatures. They cannot respect
anyone else’s rights. Therefore they cannot be said to have
rights.
(Rush Limbaugh, The Way Things Ought to Be)

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EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

• Premise 1: Rights are either God-given or evolve out of

the democratic process.
• Premise 2: Most rights are based on the ability of
people to agree on a social contract, the ability to make
and keep agreements.
• Premise 3: Animals cannot possibly reach such an
agreement with other creatures.
• Premise 4: Animals cannot respect anyone else's rights.
• Conclusion: Animals cannot be said to have rights.

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EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

3. You’d better shape up, ’cuz I need a man, and my heart is set
on you.
(Olivia Newton-John, Grease)

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EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

• Premise 1: I need a man.

• Premise 2: My heart is set on you.
• Conclusion: You’d better shape up.

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EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

4. Since moral responsibility presupposes free-

will, since this freedom is not compatible with
universal causal determinism, and since universal
causal determinism appears to be the case, it
seems evident that—contrary to what most
people believe—human beings are not morally
responsible.
(stated but not endorsed in William H. Halverson, A Concise
Introduction to Philosophy, 4th ed. [adapted])

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EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

• Premise 1: Moral responsibility presupposes free-will.

• Premise 2: This freedom is not compatible with
universal causal determinism.
• Premise 3: Universal causal determinism appears to be
the case.
• Conclusion: Contrary to what most people believe,
human beings are not morally responsible.

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EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

• 5. Our faith comes in moments; our vice is habitual. Yet

there is a depth in those brief moments which constrains us
to ascribe more reality to them than to all other
experiences. For this reason the argument which is always
forthcoming to silence those who conceive extraordinary
hopes of man, namely the appeal to experience, is forever
invalid and vain.
• (Ralph Waldo Emerson, “The Over-Soul”)

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EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

• Premise 1: Our faith comes in moments.

• Premise 2: Our vice is habitual.
• Premise 3: There is a depth in those brief moments which
constrains us to ascribe more reality to them than to all other
experiences.
• Conclusion: The argument which is always forthcoming to
silence those who conceive extraordinary hopes of man, namely
the appeal to experience, is forever invalid and vain.

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EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

1. I ate because I was hungry.

2. He must be home. His car’s in the driveway.

3. I’m trading in my Ford Explorer for a Toyota Corolla because they’re

more reliable and get better gas mileage.

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