CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

The ductility and shearing capacity of the traditional Reinforced Concrete

beam (RC) were enhanced with the existence of conventional vertical stirrups.
However, RC beams were suffered from diagonal shear cracks and flexural-
shear cracks under bending, Anandavalli, N. et al., (2016). The lacing shear
reinforcement was considered an alternative to traditional stirrups in concrete
structural elements to reduces these cracks and enhance the integrity of
structure which exposed to dynamic loads such as blast and earthquake.
Moreover, the cost of Laced Reinforced Concrete (LRC) constriction
technique is higher than conventional stirrups. LRC elements contain an
equal steel reinforcement on both faces (tension and compression) and tied by
cross rod with continues inclined shear reinforcement, which has a role in
transferring forces and holding the lacing in position as shown in Figure (1.1).
The lacing which are connected to the top and bottom bars by the cross rod
will be in tension or compression, and the resistance to compression is also
provided by concrete strut as shown in Figure (1.2), Thirumalaiselvi A. et al.,
(2013).

Figure (1.1): Lacing Reinforcement, UFC 3-340-02, (2008).

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

Figure (1.2): Strut and Tie Model of (LSCC) System,

Thirumalaiselvi et al., (2013).

1.2 The Advantages of the use of LRC Technique in Structural elements.

The advantages of lacing reinforcement system contributions in the

structural element are listed in the following points, UFC 3-340-02, (2008):

1. Fully development of the strain hardening zone and ductility of the

flexural reinforcement.
2. Maintenance of concrete integrity between the flexural reinforcement
layers despite a lot of cracking.
3. Restriction of compression reinforcement from buckling.
4. Controlling the speed and quantity of material fragmentation in post-
failure and limited fragmentation after yield range.
5. Large support rotation can be obtained than the traditional stirrup
reinforced concrete elements.
6. High shear resistance rather than conventional stirrup reinforced
concrete elements under transient blast loading.
7. Structural integrity is also enhanced by using lacings.
8. Linking the two principal reinforcement mesh together leads to improve
the performance of LRC beam in the large–deflection zone.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

1.3 Reinforced Concrete Beam under Fatigue Loading

Concrete is considered a hybrid and complex material and the response of

material subjected to fatigue loads are different depending on the material
hardness and the conditions of experimental work. Fatigue can be defined as
the progressive process of internal permanent changes in the materials
subjected to fluctuating cyclic stress. Abrupt failure will occur when these
change caused an increase in the growth of cracks, whether the fatigue load
applied for a short or long time. The fatigue failure loads occur on the level of
stress is much less than the yield strength of material subjected to static loads
due to rapidly crack growth at flaws located on the surface of concrete which
have a high concentration stress and formed from shrinkage, hydration and
other causes, Broek, (1982), or fatigue failure caused by fracture of cement
paste, aggregate or failure of bond between them. Another authors such as
Fathima and Kishen (2015), reported that the specimen under the influence of
low cycle fatigue loads, which has a few cycles of loading and high stress
levels lead to appear a continuous mortar cracks, while specimen under the
effect of high cycle fatigue loading, which has a large number of cycle loads
and low stress levels, preform bond cracks in a gradual and slow process.
Fatigue of reinforcement steel bar define as the appearance of fatigue crack at
the long side especially at the connection area with one of stirrups (transverse
lugs) as shown in Figure (1.3a), ACI Committee 215 (1974). The behavior of
metal under cyclic loads could be soften, harden, stable or mix behavior
depending on the strain level, Bannantine, et al. (1990). Furthermore, ACI
Committee 215 (1974) and Maringa (2016) reported that the fatigue strength
of steel depending on many variables such as:

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

1. Bar diameter, it was noticed that the fatigue limit decreases with increase
in bar size), Tilly and Moss (1982).
2. Welding, it was found that the fatigue strength of bars connecting with
stirrups by welding was about (1/3) less than bars attached by wire link,
Burton and Hognestad (1967).
3. Minimum stress, many investigations made by Rehm (1960), Fisher and
Viest (1961) and Pfister and Hognestad (1964) and there are available in
ACI Committee 215 (1974) revealed that the fatigue strength decreases
with increasing the ratio of changing minimum stresses level to tensile
strength of the reinforcing bars.
4. Bar surface geometry, which means that the deformation on rebar and refer
to a good bond between the concrete and the rebar's. This deformation
appears in the points represent the concentration of stresses that lead to
fatigue fracture as shown in Figure (1.3b).

(a) (b)

Figure (1.3): Fatigue Failure test, (a): Fatigue Fracture, (b): Fracture
Surface of steel reinforcement, Soltani et al. (2012).

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

1.3.1 Fatigue Terms

The common thirteen terms used in the fatigue loading test were defined
and illustrated in the histogram below, Naik, T. R. et. al., (1993):

1. Maximum Stress ( )
It is the highest stress value in a cycle, where the tensile stress was
considered as a positive and the compressive stress was considered as
negative.
2. Minimum Stress ( )
It is the lowest stress value in a cycle, where the tensile stress was
considered as a positive and the compressive stress was considered as
negative.
3. Stress Range ( )
It represents the difference between the higher and lower stresses in the
cycle.

4. Mean Stress ( )
It is define as the rate of the maximum and minimum stress in a cycle.

5. Stress Ratio (R)

It represents the minimum stress to maximum stress ratio in the cycle.

6. Life of fatigue ( )
It is represents the cycles number that could be withstood the condition
of experimental work until failure.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

7. Fatigue Strength ( )
It is defined as the maximum stress range can be repeated and withstand
the given number of cycles without failure occur.
8. Fatigue Limit or Endurance Limit ( )
It is represents by the maximum stress in a cycle that could be
withstood without failure occur.
9. Amplitude Stress ( )
It is expresses by the average difference of the highest and lowest
stresses in the cycle.

10. S-N Curve or Wohler Curve

It is a non-dimensional curve representing the relationship between the
applied load and fatigue life. (Stress level ( ⁄ ).
11.Stress level (S)
It is defined as highest stress to static material strength ratio, which can
be the compressive strength of concrete ( or the tensile strength
( Arthur et al., (2014).
,

12.Loading history
It was divided in two types:
 Constant amplitude loading as shown in Figure (1.4).
 Variable or stepping amplitude loading as shown in Figure (1.5).

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

𝜎𝑎

𝜎𝑟

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜎𝑚

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛

Figure (1.4): Constant Amplitude Loading, Chen, Y. et al. (2010).

Figure (1.5): Stepping Amplitude Loading, Chen, Y. et al. (2010).

13. High and Low Cyclic Loading

The differences between low and high cyclic loading illustrated in Table
(1.1).

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

Table (1.1): Comparison between Low and High Cyclic Loading, Liu et
al. (2008).

Low Cycle High Cycle

Few cycles <102 High cycles (103, 106 and 109)
High stress level Low stress level
The stress-strain relationship of The stress-strain relationship of
materials change from elastic to materials still within elastic range
inelastic range
Structure subjected to seismic and Airport pavement, bridges, highways,
high wind loadings railway bridges, highway pavement,
mass rapid transit structures and sea
structures.
Long fatigue test period Short fatigue test period

1.4 Ductility of Laced Reinforced Concrete

Ductility is known as the member's ability to deform without obvious

loss of its strength. Use the ductility factor method to determine the amount of
ductility. It was expressed by the ultimate to the yield deflection ratio, Park
and Paulay, (1975). One of the methods used in expression of ductility index
is the displacement ductility factor ( , is defined by Eq. (1.1).

…. (1.1)

Where:

The mid span deflection at ultimate load, (mm).

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

The mid span deflection when yield is first reached, (mm).

Another authors such as Park (1991), Sheikh and Khoury (1993) and
Rodrigues et al. (2013), proposed a method to calculate the yield deformation
and it's correspond to the deformation of 75 present of the peak load. The
ultimate displacement value is equivalent to 85% of the maximum strength
and it's located beyond the yield region. Figure (1.6) shows the proposed
method to fixing displacement ductility factor µ.

Figure (1.5): Ductility Index (µ), Rodrigues et al. (2013).

The flexural ductility of an RC beam is dependent mainly on the failure mode,

which in turn, is governed by the reinforcement details. If the beam is under-
reinforced, the tension reinforcement will yield before the concrete is crushed
and the beam will fail in a ductile manner. If the beam is over-reinforced, the
tension reinforcement will not yield even when the concrete is totally crushed
and the beam will fail in a brittle manner, Ho et al., (2004). On other hand, a
beam without compression reinforcement is very poor in ductility. A section
can be designed to be very ductile by maintaining an under-reinforced section,

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

adding compression reinforcement, and utilizing lacing bars to prevent

buckling of the compression reinforcement. For a laced section, the
reinforcement is stressed through its entire strain-hardening region, that is, the
steel reaches its ultimate stress and fails at its rupture strain, UFC 3-340-02,
(2008).

1.5 Objective of this Study

The principal aims of this research are summarized as follows:

1. In general, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of the

lacing steel bars on the behavior of reinforced concrete beam under
static and fatigue loading with different parameters such as diameters of
lacing bar (4, 6, and 8mm), angles of lacing (30, 45, and 60 degree with
the beam axis) and lacing steel ratio.
2. Investigating the effect of lacing reinforcement on the ductility and
support rotation of laced reinforced concrete beams under static loading.
3. To compare the responses of the LRC beams with changing the above
parameters between themselves under static and fatigue loads.
4. To simulate and predict the response of the laced reinforced concrete
beams under static and fatigue loading.

1.6 Layout of the Thesis

The present study consists of seven chapters, as follows;

Chapter One: presents a general introduction to the laced reinforcement

techniques, the benefit of the use of laced shear reinforcement in structural
elements, the behavior of the material under fatigue loading and the ductility

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

of the reinforced concrete member. Also, the objective of the current study is
presented in this chapter.
In Chapter Two, some of previous researches (theoretical and
experimental studies) performed on laced reinforced concrete members under
various loads and concrete elements under cyclic loads have been reviewed.
Chapter Three deals with the properties of materials as well as the
experimental work program such as devices detail and manufacturing, support
conditions, loading conditions, and instrumentation.
In Chapter Four includes the experiential results such as the ultimate load,
crack pattern, failure mode, deflection, strain at steel reinforcement, ductility
factor and support rotation are measured for specimens subjected to static
loading. In addition, crack patterns, deflection and steel strain at each
specified cycle for the specimens subjected to fatigue loading are recorded.

In Chapter Five includes a numerical analysis using the finite element

method. Comprehensive presentations of the elements that are used in the
analysis and the procedures that are adopted in the solution, the computer
program ABAQUS has been used to perform the analysis, and also
comparison between the experimental work and the numerical results which
are obtained from the finite element analysis for the specimens in both static
and cyclic loading are presented in this chapter.
In Chapter six, includes parametric study to investigate the effect of some
effective factors on the behavior of Laced Reinforced Concrete (LRC) beams
under static loading (compressive strength, Diameter bars of flexural
reinforcement, and Dilation angle).

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION PhD Thesis, Hayfaa Dhumad Hasan

In Chapter Seven, conclusions drawn from the experimental tests and the
analytical model are presented. Discussion of the main observations is also
presented in this chapter. Finally, recommendations and suggestions for future
works will be given.

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