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Reservoir rocks saturated with hydrocarbons are

complex on both a macroscopic and
microscopic scale.
The complexity of both rock and fluid
properties controls:
• The initial quantity and distribution of
hydrocarbons
• The rate of flow of these fluids within the
reservoir
• The volume of hydrocarbons recovered.
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A sample (core) can be taken to recover a
portion of the reservoir rock, so that it may be
examined firsthand and tested in the
laboratory.
Such direct physical measurements furnish
both geological and engineering
information and guide the decisions
affecting both the cored well and subsequent
wells in that area.

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 • Core analysis is the name given to the test
procedures and data collected on core samples.
• A variety of information and data may be obtained
via measurements of physical and chemical
properties, visual observations, and photo-graphs.
• The two major categories of core analysis are
Conventional Core Analysis, with associated
complementary data, and Special Core Analysis

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Conventional core analysis yields the most basic data
about a reservoir, such as:
• the presence or absence of hydrocarbons;
• the storage capacity (porosity), the flow capacity and its
distribution (magnitude and profile of permeability);
• the lithology and texture of the formation.
These data, and complementary measurements made on
request, can be available for use within hours or days
after a core is recovered, since laboratories are normally
close to the area where the cores are cut.

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 • Special core analysis tests are more complex and the
data furnished are of wider diversity. Typically, they will
require longer core preparation and testing times and
more specialized and expensive equipment. Large
quantities of data are captured on the more
sophisticated tests, and computer assistance is routinely
used to calculate results. The increased time factor
should be recognized and accounted for when planning
a project.
• Special core analysis tests may be divided into:
• Static and
• Dynamic measurements.

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• When cores are removed from the reservoir environment
they are subjected to alterations of pressure and
temperature.
• These alterations cause changes in bulk and pore
volume, reservoir fluid saturations, and, in some
cases, reservoir wettability (preference of the rock for
water or oil).
• In conventional core analysis (with the exception of
unconsolidated rock where overburden pressure effects
are included) these effects are normally ignored. In
many of the special core analysis test sequences, both
pressure and temperature are important, and laboratory
equipment and techniques are designed to simulate
reservoir conditions.

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 2.Objectives of a Coring Program
• Coring has both engineering and geologic
objectives, and these should be carefully defined before
coring commences.
• In some cases the objectives conflict, and it is
impossible to satisfy all requirements on a given well.
• The objectives that are established will affect the
selection of both the coring fluid and the coring device
to be used.
• The decision will also affect the choice of a suitable core
handling and preservation technique and will define
most measurements required.

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2.1.Engineering Objectives
· Defining areal changes in porosity, permeability, and
lithology-the data needed for estimates of reserves and
mathematical models;
· Defining reservoir water saturation (this requires the use of
coring fluids that are oil base or that do not invade the rock,
and that the core be taken from above the water transition
zone);
· Assisting in the definition of reservoir net pay;
· Providing information for calibrating downhole logs as well as
the measured values of electrical properties that will be used
to improve log-calculated water saturations;
· Acquiring data on the magnitude and distribution of reservoir
residual oil saturation (this is normally needed in enhanced
oil recovery studies and utilizes either a pressure or sponge
core barrel);
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Engineering Objectives (cont.)
· Providing core material from which petrographic studies can
be made to define clay type and distribution; these yield
subsequent guidance in selection of nondamaging drilling,
coring, and completion fluids;
· Acquiring rock samples for special core analysis studies,
including relative permeability, capillary pressure, and
formation wettability tests;
· Providing data on porosity, as well as on horizontal and
vertical permeability distributions, for use in the design of
well-completion programs to ensure that oil is not isolated
and left behind the pipe.

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2.2.Geologic Objectives
· Defining GOC, GWC and OWC, formation limits, and type of
production expected;
· Providing core data from which the depositional environment
can be deduced, including grain size and grain size sequences;
vertical sequence of facies; sedimentary structures (ripples-dợn
sóng, cross bedding); biogenic structures (root zones, burrows);
diagenetic alterations (cementing, secondary porosity, secondary
mineralization);
· Permitting a visual study of the frequency, size, strike, and dip of
fractures. This requires that fracture studies be undertaken and
may require the availability of an oriented core;
· Retrieval of oriented cores so that directional permeability trends
can be ascertained; this applies to both fractured and to
nonfractured samples; acquisition of samples of nonreservoir
rock in exploration areas so that source rock studies can be made.

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Coring Types
 Barrel Cores
 Sidewall Cores

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Coring: Barrel Coring Types
 Conventional – coring system with a outer and inner
steel barrels
 Containerized or Sleeved – utilizes disposable inner
tubes/liners to improve core recovery and quality; core
is not removed from its sleeve

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Limitations of Conventional Coring
 Acceptable recoveries are made only in consolidated
rock
 Core damage (fracturing, contamination) is more
pronounced because of the recovery process

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Advantages of Sleeved Coring vs.
Conventional Coring
 Decreased exposure of the core to the atmosphere
 Elimination or limitation of induced fracturing of the
core during retrieval ops
 Easy stablization of the core by resin injection or
freezing
 Easier core handling and transportation at surface

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Coring: Barrel Coring Tools
 Core bit: An annular
(doughnut-shaped)
diamond bit to cut the
core
 Core catching devices:
hollow barrel/s to catch
the core

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 Coring: Barrel Cores
1. Coring tool
2. Core sample: on ave.: 60’
long and 4” in diameter
3. Indication concerning
height of beds
4. Clues concerning rock
types

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Coring: Barrel Cores
 Barrel coring is done on fewer than 10 percent of
all wells cored, since it is costly and time-
consuming
 Also, removing the core is sometimes dangerous
since it is possible to swab the well and cause a
blowout

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Coring: Core Sample

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Coring: Sidewall Cores
 A sidewall-coring gun is lowered on wireline to the
formation chosen for sampling and a bullet is fired
 The bullets are attached to the gun by cables so
that they may be pulled out, with the sidewall
cores inside them, and retrieved with the gun

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Sidewall Core Samples
 The core samples, or
plugs, are usually less
than 1 inch in diameter
and up to 4 inches long

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Sidewall Cores: Advantages
 Sidewall coring is a quick, inexpensive way to sample a
selected formation

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Sidewall Cores: Disadvantages
 Since sidewall plugs are small and may also have been
crushed somewhat, they are not as good as barrel cores
for determining porosity, permeability, or fluid
saturations

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3.Core Alteration During Recovery
There are a number of causes of core alteration during
recovery, three of which are discussed below.
 Filtrate Invasion

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 Core Alteration During Recovery (Cont.)
• Fluid Expansion and Expulsion
The saturations seen at the surface are different from
those downhole (Fig 01), the magnitude of saturation
changes that occur from reservoir conditions to surface
conditions when a core is taken with a water-base
mud.
When oil or oil-base mud is used to core a well
penetrating a homogeneous reservoir (Fig 02) the
measured values of water saturation will approximate
reservoir saturations

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 Fig 01-Saturation changes that occur during
coring and recovery with water-based coring fluid

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 Fig 02-Saturation changes that occur during coring
and recovery with oil-based coring fluid
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• Damage to the Rock

One of the major objectives of coring is to recover

representative, nondamaged samples of the reservoir.
Damage to the core must be minimized. This is
difficult to achieve with the percussion sidewall coring
procedure where the core is subjected to high-impact
stress as the hollow projectile is fired into the
formation from an explosive charge

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4.Selection of Coring Fluid
• Coring fluids can be divided into two major categories
that relate to the filtrate lost: water-base muds (which
tend to flush the core with water) and oil-base muds
(which tend to flush the core with oil).
• Other less frequently used coring fluids include both
water-in-oil or oil-in-water emulsions, gas or air, and
foam. The latter is now used successfully in special
applications. Common fluids used and filtrate loss are
presented in Table 01., below.
Compatibility with Coring Objective Coring fluids
must be compatible with the objectives of the core
analysis program.

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 Coring fluids Filtrate Effect on core saturations
Water Hydrocarbons

Water loss fluids

Water-base Water Increased Decreased1

Oil emulsion Water Increased Decreased
Foam* * * *
Oil loss fluids

Oil base Oil No change2 Replaced

Inverted oil Oil No change2, 3 Replaced
emulsion

Gas loss fluids

Gas (hydrocarbon) Gas No change2,4 Replaced

Air Uncertain Uncertain5 Decreased

Table 01. Coring fluids, filtrates, and saturation alteration effects

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Water-Base and Oil-Base Fluids

Fig 03
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Foam
• Foam coring fluids are now receiving considerable
attention. They offer the advantages of allowing a low
coring fluid pressure at the formation face: in addition,
preliminary data suggest that minimal or no invasion
of the foam into the core occurs.
• Unlike other coring fluids, which remain in circulation
during the operation, coring with foam is a once-
through process. Foam is generated, then vented at the
surface after a one-time use. This fluid has been used
in both conventional coring and in the recovery of
pressure cores, as discussed by Sparks (1982).
• The technology of foam coring requires that the
process be monitored by computer and variables
adjusted to assure proper quality foam during coring.
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5.Coring while drilling

An Overview

Fig 04
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Conventional Core Assembly

Fig 05
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Core Point Selection
Correlation of
sonic and drilling
exponent logs in
order to select a
coring point

Fig 06
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6.Laboratory Sampling
Core Sampling
• In some cases wellsite sampling is performed, but it is
preferable to preserve and transport the entire core to
the laboratory for sampling under more controlled
conditions.
• When the entire core reaches the laboratory, it should
be placed in depth order on a layout table.
• After the core is refitted, the natural gamma activity of
the core can be logged and photos of the native rock can
be taken. A detailed core description should then be
made.

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6.Laboratory Sampling
Core Sampling
• Two basic approaches exist in sample selection.
• One is a statistical approach, in which cores are sampled
from the top or middle of each foot of rock, independent
of the lithology.
• The second approach requires that the analyst secure a
representative sample, regardless of its location, from
each foot.
The actual approach will depend upon company philosophy
and the formation characteristics.

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 Laboratory Sampling (Cont.)
Conventional (Plug) Analysis
• In homogeneous formations a core segment of
approximately 4 inches (10 cm) in length or less taken
from every foot of core is sufficient for core plug analysis.
If the core has great lithological variations, however,
samples should be obtained more frequently.
• It is important that the samples be representative-core
data have been skewed by improper sample selection.

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Laboratory Sampling (Cont.)
Full Diameter Analysis
• If a full-diameter analysis is to be performed, samples 6
inches (15 cm) or longer are prepared in the form of right
cylinders from each foot of core, using a diamond saw.
The core ends are sometimes used for saturation
determinations.
• It is important that the lubricant selected for the saw
blade corresponds to the filtrate of the coring fluid, so
that additional extraneous fluids are not added.

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  Rubber, Plastic, and Fiberglass Cores
 Pressure Cores
 Sponge Cores

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7.Coring Devices
 Wireline Core Gun
 Rotary Sidewall Corer
 Sidewall Core Slicer
 Core Point Selection

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Sequential core processing by two geologists working together

Fig 07
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8.Types of core Analysis

8.1.Plug (Conventional) Analysis

 Consolidated Formations
This technique is normally restricted to homogeneous
formations that can be characterized with plug-size
samples. Typical plug size is 01 inch (2.5 m) in diameter,
and 01 inch (2.5 cm) long. Cylindrical samples (Figure
08),
 Unconsolidated Formations

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Fig 08
Core sample for conventional analysis with properly and improperly
selected horizontal and vertical plugs
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8.2.Full Diameter Analysis
Routine Analysis
Full diameter analysis was introduced to allow testing of
rocks with complex lithology, such as heterogeneous
carbonates (Figure 09, Heterogeneous carbonate
requiring full diameter analysis) and fissured, vugular
formations unsuitable for plug analysis
• Samples in the form of a right cylinder up to 10 inches
(25 cm) long and approximately 5 inches (12.5 cm) in
diameter are often used.

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8.2.Full Diameter Analysis
Routine Analysis
• Data generated include Boyle's law porosities, utilizing
helium as the saturating medium. Two horizontal
permeability values are determined.
• When fractures or vugs are present, one of the
permeability measurements is visually oriented through
the more permeable section, and the second
permeability is at right angles to this measurement. In
this manner, the effect of vugs or fractures on horizontal
permeability is indicated. Vertical permeabilities are also
frequently determined.

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 Fig 09 Heterogeneous rock (carbonate) requiring full
2022
diameter analysis 47
 Property Plug data Whole core data
Air permeability, md. 0.1 69
Porosity, % 10.3 11.3
Residual oil,% pore 14.7 17.1
space
Total water, % pore 24.6 37.7
space

Table 2. Comparison of plug and whole-core data on micro fractured oil-productive

sandstone samples
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 A method for differentiating between matrix
properties and full diameter data affected by fracture
or vug porosity is to drill and test plugs selected from
the more uniform matrix.
 A comparison of such data using this type of test is
shown in Table 02. The difference is significant.
 Matrix properties are important because they control
initial water content and, hence, matrix hydrocarbon
saturation.

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8.3.Sidewall Core Analysis
 Sidewall samples are used extensively in softer sand
areas.
 The sidewall cores are normally coated with drilling
mud, which is removed prior to analysis.
 In areas of high API-gravity (light) oils, sidewall cores
are often smaller than 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter. In
areas of low API-gravity (heavy) oils, samples are often
larger.

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8.3.Sidewall Core Analysis
 Permeabilities measured on percussion samples
rarely yield true in situ values. For hard, low-
permeability formations, permeability values are
too high due to impact fracturing, while
unconsolidated sands are usually compacted and
yield erroneously low values.

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Sidewall Core Analysis (Cont.)
 Data show that porosities measured on sidewall
samples approach conventional analysis values in
formations having true porosities ranging from 32% to
34%. In hard formations, sidewall porosity values are
normally higher than conventional plug values.
 Porosity in hard, well-cemented rock is increased by
grain shattering during bullet impact, and these
alterations in properties limit sidewall sample
usefulness in reservoir engineering evaluations.
However, sidewall cores are excellent indicators of
lithology, furnish data on the presence or absence of oil
and gas, and are valuable for interpretation of probable
production. They also furnish samples suitable for
petrographic work.

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 9.Core preparation
 Cleaning
 Drying
Property Oven dried @ 240° F Humidity Dried*

Bulk volume: cm3 10.0 10.0

Pore volume: cm3 2.6 2.27

Porosity: % 26.0 22.7

Grain volume: cm3 7.4 7.73

Dry weight: g 19.61 19.94

Grain density: g/cm3 2.65 2.58

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10.Measurement of Porosity
• Porosity is a measure of the reservoir storage
capacity.
• It is defined as the void volume (pore volume) of a
sample divided by its bulk volume. It enters most
equations as a fraction and is reported in core analysis
studies as a percent.
• It varies from less than 10% to greater than 40% in
sandstones and from 5% to 25% in limestones and
dolomites. Porosity can be greater than 25% in some
vuggy or moldic limestones or dolomites. In some
diatomaceous earth deposits, porosities approach 65%.

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Definition of Porosity

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10.Measurement of Porosity (Cont.)
• 10.1.Boyle's Law Technique
• 10.2.Summation-of-Fluids Technique
• 10.3.Resaturation Technique

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10.1.Boyle's Law Technique
The Boyle's law method of measuring porosity is a gas
transfer technique that involves the compression of gas
into the pores or the expansion of gas from the pores of a
clean, dry sample.
Either pore volume or grain volume may be determined,
depending upon the instrumentation and procedures
used.
It is an accurate technique when performed properly; it is
fairly rapid for the majority of samples encountered, and
it yields cores that can be used for further testing. It is
essential that the samples be clean and dry, otherwise
you will obtain erroneously low porosity values.

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 • BULK VOLUME: The measurement of bulk volume is
critical when pore volume is being calculated from the
difference between bulk volume and grain volume. A good
technique utilizes Archimedes' principle of
displacement.
One of two applications of this principle is typically used.
The first application requires that the sample be saturated
with a liquid and then weighed. The sample is then
submerged in the same fluid, and its submerged weight
taken. The bulk volume is the difference between the two
weights divided by the density of the fluid with which the
core is saturated and in which it is immersed.
The second application also requires that the sample be
saturated with water or other suitable liquid. Water is
typically used, because it can be easily vaporized from the
core after the test is complete.

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  GRAIN VOLUME: Measurement of grain volume is
easily completed using a type of Boyle's law apparatus
illustrated in Figure 10 (Grain volume determination
using Boyle’s law porosimeter).

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Figure 10-Grain volume determination using Boyle’s law porosimeter
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2022 61
 PORE VOLUME:
• Pore volume is often determined indirectly by
calculating the difference between measured values of
bulk volume and grain volume.
• It can also be measured directly by using Boyle's law
equations. In order to do this it is necessary to alter the
sample holder from the configuration illustrated in
Figure 10.
• The sample must be placed in a holder that has no void
space around the periphery of the core and on the ends.
An apparatus suitable for this measurement is referred
to as a Hassler holder or a hydrostatic load cell. The
hydrostatic load cell is illustrated in Figure 11
(Hydrostatic load cell for direct measurement of pore
volume ).

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 Figure 11 -Hydrostatic load cell for direct
measurement of pore volume
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 Inadequate
Parameter Properly dried
drying*

Porosity 6.7 7.8 (+ 16.4%)

Grain density 2.62 2.64 (+ .02 g/cm3)

Permeability 0.03 0.06 (+50%)

Table 03. Example of errors in porosity, grain density, and

permeability as a result of inadequate core drying
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10.Measurement of Porosity (Cont.)
• 10.1.Boyle's Law Technique
• 10.2.Summation-of-Fluids Technique
• 10.3.Resaturation Technique

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10.2.Summation-of-Fluids Technique
• Porosity determination by summation-of-fluids has
been used extensively. The technique measures gas,
oil, and water in the pore space of fresh core of
known bulk volume. These volumes are summed to
yield the pore volume and hence the porosity.
• This is the most rapid technique known, and, when it
is used in suitable rock types with proper oil and water
calibrations, it yields valid porosity values.
• The technique is well suited for routine laboratory work,
and it allows porosity and saturations to be
determined on the same sample.

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 Figure 12
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The determination of porosity requires measurements
on two portions of a core.
One portion is approximately 100 g in weight, and is
crushed to fragments approximately 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) in
diameter. These are placed in a cylindrical metal holder
with a cap on one end ( Figure 12, Schematic of
summation-of-fluids retort). Extending from the opposite
end of the holder is a long, steel condensing tube,
approximately 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) in diameter.

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Each sample holder contains material from a single
sampled depth, and multiple sample holders are placed in a
retort and heated simultaneously.
Water and oil contained in the pores are vaporized, move
down through the stainless steel tube, and are
subsequently condensed into calibrated glassware. The
volumes of oil and water are read and recorded for future
calculations. A schematic of the retort is shown in Figure
12.

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• A second portion of rock weighing approximately 30 g
is obtained by shaping a piece of core to a roughly
cylindrical size. The sample is weighed and then placed in
a device in which its bulk volume is determined by
mercury displacement. The sample is then immersed in
mercury and pressure on the mercury is raised to
approximately 1000 psi (6895 kPa). At this pressure,
mercury enters the sample and compresses the gas, filling
the unoccupied pore space. With suitable calculations
this furnishes the gas volume as a percent of the bulk
volume of the sample.

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• Knowledge of the bulk volume and weight of the
fresh sample into which mercury is injected allows
computation of the natural density of the rock. This
in turn is used to convert the 100 g to be retorted into
an equivalent bulk volume.
• The oil, water, and gas volumes are each reported as
a fraction of the bulk volume of the rock from which
they came, and the three are summed to yield the
porosity.

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• This is not a suitable technique for core samples that
have been exposed to the atmosphere and in which
residual oil and water have evaporated. Fresh cores
contain residual oil and water in the finer pore
spaces, and any injected mercury only fills the larger
spaces occupied by gas.
• In cores in which all liquids have evaporated, the
mercury will not penetrate the smaller gas-filled
pores at the 1000 psi (6895 kPa) pressure imposed,
and the resulting porosity value will be erroneously
low.

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OIL VOLUME DETERMINATION
The oil and water contents of a sample are determined
by high-temperature retorting at temperatures of up
to 1200º F (650 º C). Some oil is lost within the system
because of cooking and cracking of oil contained
within the pore space. This results in an observed oil
volume in the condensing glassware that is less than
that actually present in the core.
A correction is made to increase the observed oil
volume prior to the calculation of a summation-of-
fluids porosity. This correction is based on calibration
curves that had been made previously using oils
similar to those from the area from which the core
was recovered.
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OIL VOLUME DETERMINATION
In those cases where no oil is available, a standard
correction has generally proved adequate. The
correction curve is essentially independent of the API
gravity, primarily because of the high temperatures
induced during the analysis. A typical oil correction
curve is shown in Figure 13 (Retort oil correction
curve).

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 Figure 13
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WATER VOLUME DETERMINATION
 During retorting, the recovered water volumes are read at
a point that distinguishes pore water from mineral water
of crystallization. A plot of water recovered from
individual cores as a function of time is shown in Figure
14 (Retort water recovery versus time). These are
cumulative-water-recovered curves and most are
distinguished by a plateau that represents water held
within the pore space by capillary forces.

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 Figure 14 Retort water recovery versus time
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 • Hensel (1980) documented the idea that data could be
improved if the water value were read after subjecting
the cores to a temperature of 350ºF (193ºC) for a
minimum of 30 minutes. This effectively extends the
plateau, and improves the differentiation between
capillary-held water and that formed by breakdown of
minerals present.
• Figure 14 (Summation-of-fluids porosity (water read at
350ºF/177ºC) versus Boyle’s law (helium) porosity)
shows the difference in measured porosities between
those obtained with Boyle's law procedure and those
obtained in retorting when a constant temperature of
350ºF (193ºC) and a plateau technique were used to
determine formation water volumes.

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POROSITY: Validity of the summation-of-fluids technique can be roughly checked by a balance (Hensel 1980) to yield grain density as illustrated in the following equations:

POROSITY: Validity of the summation-of-fluids technique can be roughly checked

by a balance (Hensel 1980) to yield grain density as illustrated in the following
equations:

(1)

(2)

and
Vg = Vb- (Vu + Vo + Vw) (3)
Where:
rw= rock grain density, g/cm3
ro= oil density, g/cm3
rg = water density, g/cm3 (assumed 1.00 for water collected)
W1= weight of crushed rock in retort less weight of contained fluids, g
W2 = weight of crushed rock in retort, g
Vg = grain volume, cm3
Vo = volume of oil collected, cm3 (corrected for vapor losses, coking, etc.)
Vw = volume of water collected, cm3
Vs = volume of unoccupied pore space, corrected based on retort sample weight,
cm3
Vb = bulk volume of sample used to determine unoccupied pore space, corrected
based on retort sample weight, cm3
2022 79
 • Boyle's law procedure on adjacent plugs. This comparison
requires that the plug used for Boyle's law be properly dried.
Excessive drying will dehydrate clays and yield an
erroneously high helium porosity that may agree with the
erroneous summation data.
• When troublesome clays are encountered, combination
analysis techniques using (1) oil and gas volumes developed
from summation-of-fluids and (2) porosity from helium
injection on a properly prepared core together will yield
water saturation by difference calculations.
• Table 04, below, which presents data generated on a shaly,
dirty sandstone, illustrates the error in porosity that is
possible if rocks are improperly analyzed. The example
quoted is an actual field case, but the magnitude of porosity
differences shown here is unusually high. These rocks
contained up to 30% montmorillonite, an amount not
normally observed.

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Combination Analysis*
Saturations, % Pore Space

Porosity Oil Water Gas

34.0 45.8 33.8 20.4

36.4 47.3 30.2 22.5

28.2 53.5 27.7 18.8

34.9 51.0 28.7 20.3

37.9 60.2 25.3 14.5

Table 04
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Summation of Fluids Analysis**
Saturations, % Pore Space

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Porosity Oil Water Gas

43.4 34.2 48.4 17.4

44.1 39.2 42.4 18.4

35.8 42.3 43.1 14.6

40.3 44.2 38.2 17.6

47.9 47.7 40.9 11.4

* Correct technique.
** Technique was unsuitable for this rock which
contained hydratable clays.
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10.Measurement of Porosity (Cont.)
• 10.1.Boyle's Law Technique
• 10.2.Summation-of-Fluids Technique
• 10.3.Resaturation Technique

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10.3.Resaturation Technique
 The resaturation technique requires that the samples be
clean and dry prior to measurement. A dry weight of the
core is taken and the sample is then evacuated and
pressure saturated with either water or a light
hydrocarbon.
 The difference between the saturated and dry weights
yields the grams of fluid in the pore space. Dividing this
value by the density of the saturating fluid yields the
pore volume. The procedure is slow and fairly difficult
and requires that fluids used to saturate the rock wet,
but do not react with, the rock surfaces. Incomplete
resaturation will cause erroneously low porosity values.

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10.3.Resaturation Technique (Cont.)
 The advantages of this method include the possibility of
using the samples for further testing, although the core
must be recleaned if oil is used to saturate the rock. When
done properly, the technique is accurate; however, the
results are sensitive to preparation. The samples must be
clean and dry prior to the initial weighing, otherwise an
erroneously low porosity will be measured.
 The resaturation method is commonly used as a quality
control check in special core analysis tests, as many
measurements require resaturation of core samples.
Comparison of the resaturation-measured porosity with
an originally measured Boyle's law value for the same
sample pinpoints problem areas when the two do not
agree.
2022 85
Precision of Measurement
 The Boyle’s law, summation-of-fluids and resaturation
techniques for porosity measurement have been accepted as
yielding values accurate within ± 0.5 porosity points when the
limits imposed on each method are properly observed.
 In some cases -where the summation-of-fluids data have
been found to yield high porosity values because of the
presence of clays, and yet where information is required with
rapid turnaround for completion or decision purposes -both
summation and Boyle's law data have been determined. The
summation-of-fluids data furnish rapid information for the
completion decision. The plugs to be used for permeability
measurements are cleaned, dried, and subsequently used for
a Boyle's law porosity value comparison. This yields more
accurate data for application in reservoir engineering
calculations.

2022 86
Overburden Pressure Effects
 Rocks analyzed at surface conditions have usually been
relieved of downhole confining pressures. Well-cemented,
elastic rocks do not undergo any major change in volume
when their environment is changed from reservoir to
surface conditions. For this reason porosity is normally
determined with minimal or no confining pressure.
Unconsolidated and poorly consolidated rock, however,
often expands when released from its natural confining
stresses. Porosity should be measured on samples of this
type under a confining pressure approximately equivalent
to reservoir conditions.
 A hydrostatic load cell used for simulating downhole
stresses is shown in Figure 15 (Hydrostatic load cell for
direct measurement of pore volume).

2022 87
 Figure 15
2022 88
  The loading imposed on the core sample is referred to
as hydrostatic pressure, or hydraulic loading, because
pressures are equal in all directions. A schematic of
reservoir loading on a core sample and the concept of
net overburden pressure is shown in Figure 16
(Reservoir versus laboratory overburden pressure
loading).

2022 89
 Figure 16 Reservoir versus laboratory overburden pressure
2022 loading 90
  Figure 17 (Porosity reduction with net overburden
pressure) illustrates the reduction in porosity observed
for samples of varied levels of cementation
2022 91
 Exercise
 1/ Given the following true values for a core sample:
 BV = 12.45 cm3
 GV = 9.89 cm3
 Dry weight = 26.21 g
 Calculate the porosity and specific gravity of the rock.
 If, however, the value of bulk volume had been
erroneously measured as 12.39 cm3 and the grain volume
erroneously measured as 9.83, calculate the error in
porosity and grain density that would obtain.
 Estimate the errors on both an absolute and a percent
basis.

2022 92
2/ Given the following data for a core analysis, calculate the
porosity and the saturations of oil, gas, and water.
Gas volume sample
1. Bulk volume: 15.34 cm3
2. Weight: 31.86 g
3. Gas vol: 1.56 cm3
4. Computed natural density = weight/BV = _______ g/cm3
Retort Sample
5. Weight: 125 g = W2
6. Bulk volume = Sample weight/natural density = Vb =
______cm3
7. Recovered oil 2.1 cm3
8. Corrected oil: 2.5 cm3 = Vo
9. Initial water: 8.3 cm3 = Vw
10. Final water: 9.2 cm3

2022 94
2/ Given the following data for a core analysis, calculate the
porosity and the saturations of oil, gas, and water.
11. Fluid densities:

= 0.85 g/cm3

=1.0 g/cm3

Porosity and saturations

OB WB GB
12. Oil % BV + Water % BV + Gas % BV = Porosity fraction
(8) ÷ (6) + (9) ÷ (6) + (3) ÷ (1)

13. Porosity (percent) = porosity fraction x 100 =

14. Oil saturation % pore space = [(8) + (12) (6)] 100 =
15. Water saturation % pore space = [(9) + (12) (6)] 100 =
16. Gas saturation =
2022 95
 3/ Using the following data, calculate the grain density of the retort sample.
= grain density = grain weight/grain volume
Compare calculated grain density with expected grain density based on the lithologic
description of the core and then decide—
Does the data appear to be accurate?
Why?
Gas volume sample
1. Bulk volume: 15.34 cm3
2. Weight: 31.86 g
3. Gas vol: 1.56 cm3
4. Computed natural density = weight/BV = 2.08 g/cm3
Retort sample
5. Weight: 125 g = W2
6. Bulk volume = Sample weight/natural density = Vb = 60.1 cm3
7. Recovered oil 2.1 cm3
8. Corrected oil: 2.5 cm3 = Vo
9. Initial water: 8.3 cm3 = Vw
10. Final water: 9.2 cm3
11. Fluid densities: = 0.85 g/cm3 =1.0 g/cm3
Porosity and saturations
OB WB GB
12. Oil % BV + Water % BV + Gas % BV = Porosity fraction
(8) ÷ (6) + (9) ÷ (6) + (3) ÷ (1)
0.042 + 0.138 + 0.102 = 0.282
13. Porosity percent = porosity fraction x 100 = 28.2
14. Oil saturation % pore space = [(8) + (12) (6)] 100 = 14.8%
15. Water saturation % pore space = [(9) + (12) (6)] 100 = 49.0%
16. Gas saturation = 100 - 14.8 - 49.0 = 36.2%
2022 97
11.Measurement of Permeability
 The ability of a formation to transmit fluids is termed
permeability; its unit is the darcy (µm2). This unit has
been subdivided into 1000 smaller units, called
millidarcies, and these units are used in reporting core
analysis measured values.
 A darcy has been defined as that permeability which
permits a fluid of one centipoise viscosity to flow at a rate
of one cubic centimeter per second through a porous
medium with a cross-sectional area of one square
centimeter under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere
per centimeter.
 Its value is determined in the laboratory.

2022 99
 Definition of Darcy

2022 100
11.Measurement of Permeability (Cont.)
 Dry gas has been selected as the standard fluid for use in
permeability determinations because it minimizes fluid-rock
reaction and is easy to use. In the laboratory, air is caused to
flow through a clean and dry sample of measured length and
diameter (API-RP-27).
 The pressure differential and flow rates are measured and the
permeability is calculated from the Darcy equation. In the
linear flow system, the Darcy equation for noncompressible
fluids can be used to calculate permeability to a compressible
gas of the rate of flow in cm3/s of the gas is expressed as the
mean pressure existing within the core sample. This
conversion of a volume at atmospheric pressure to the volume
existing at mean pressure is accomplished by using the
following equation (1), (2)
 *In SI units a permeability of one meter squared will permit a
flow of 1m3/s of fluid of 1 Pa.s viscosity through an area of 1m2
under a pressure gradient of 1 Pa/m.

2022 101
 Noncompressible Fluid Flow (Liquid)
µ
(1)

Thus:
Compressible Fluid Flow (Gas)
2000

Where:
q = liquid flow rate, cm3/s
qa = gas flow rate at atmospheric pressure, cm2/s
µ = viscosity of fluid flowing, centipoise
L = sample length, cm
A = sample cross-sectional area, cm2
p1 = upstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
p2 = downstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
Pa = atmospheric pressure, atmospheres absolute
k = permeability, md
2022 102
Permeameter

PLUGS:
A schematic
of the principle
involved in
permeability
measurement

Fig 18 Schematic flow diagram of permeameter

2022 103
 K
ϕ
Q In Q Out

2022 104
FULL DIAMETER
CORES: Full
diameter core
measurements are
normally
restricted to
carbonates and
formations
containing vugs
and fractures.

Fig 19
2022 105
Vertical permeability
on a full diameter
sample is easily
measured using a
Hassler-type core
holder.

Full diameter horizontal and vertical permeability

Fig 20 measurement apparatus
2022 106
  SIDEWALL CORES: When sidewall samples have
been mounted in thin-walled jackets, permeability
is determined using techniques similar to those
employed for normally drilled plugs

2022 107
 Factors Affecting Measured Values
 Air permeabilities measured in a routine core analysis
laboratory on rock samples from nonfractured reservoirs
will give higher values than the actual reservoir
permeability. This difference is dependent upon the
magnitude of permeability as well as the pore geometry.
The higher laboratory values are thought to be caused by:
 gas slippage (the Klinkenberg effect),
 relative permeability,
 reactive fluids, and
 overburden pressure effects.

2022 108
THE KLlNKENBERG GAS SLIPPAGE EFFECT:
 The flow of gas through porous media was
investigated by Klinkenberg (1941):
 The permeability of a core sample was not
constant, but varied with the gas used to make
the measurement, as well as the mean (average)
pressure existing in the core at the time of
measurement.

2022 109
THE KLlNKENBERG GAS SLIPPAGE EFFECT (Cont.):
Investigations indicated that at low mean
pressures-for example, at atmospheric
pressure-the gas molecules are so far apart
that they slip through the pore spaces with
little friction loss, and yield a higher value of
permeability.

2022 110
THE KLlNKENBERG GAS SLIPPAGE EFFECT (Cont.):
At higher mean pressures-for example, 1,000
psi (6,895 kPa) or greater-the gas molecules
are closer together and experience a friction
drag at the side of the pore walls.
This increases as higher mean pressure
increases, with the gas acting more and more
like a liquid.
This means that the measured value of
permeability decreases as reservoir or
laboratory mean pressure increases.

2022 111
THE KLlNKENBERG GAS SLIPPAGE EFFECT(Cont)
 Experiments show that a plot of gas permeability versus
the reciprocal mean pressure existing at the time of the
gas permeability measurement forms a straight line that
can be extrapolated to infinite mean pressure.
 This extrapolated value of permeability, referred to as
the Klinkenberg permeability or equivalent liquid
permeability, is lower than the measured gas
permeabilities and is comparable to the permeability
that would be obtained if the core were saturated with a
nonreactive liquid such as oil. Figure 21 (Klinkenberg
permeability determination) shows an example of this
relationship for a low permeability sandstone.

2022 112
 Fig 21 Klinkenberg permeability determination
2022 113
 Steady-state permeability measurements were made at
each of the four points shown at each given net
overburden pressure.
 The Klinkenberg value (kL) can be correlated with the
value of permeability determined with air at the mean
pressure normally used in the laboratory measurements.
Table 05, below, offers examples of the relationship
between the air permeability and Klinkenberg-corrected
values for some sandstones.
 The correction, on a percentage basis, is greater in low
permeability sands and becomes progressively smaller as
permeability value increases.

2022 114
 Table 05. A comparison of noncorrected and Klinkenberg-
corrected air permeability for some sandstones

Noncorrected Klinkenberg corrected

permeability (md) permeability* (md)
1.0 0.7

10.0 7.8

100.0 88.0

1000.0 950.0

*Air permeability that has been corrected for gas slippage. The
Klinkenberg value is the equivalent liquid permeability assuming
no reaction between the rock and the fluid.
2022 115
  In early core analysis reports, measured air
permeability was corrected to the Klinkenberg
permeability value, using correlations such as those
presented in Table 1., above. These corrections have
been found to be good approximations for
sandstones and some intergranular Limestones.
The correction is usually applied to plug-sized
samples but should not be applied to full diameter
permeability measurements because the
heterogeneity of most full diameter cores renders
the correlations unreliable. If the need exists,
Klinkenberg permeability values should be
determined on individual samples.

2022 116
  The nonsteady-state permeameter allows the
calculation of Klinkenberg permeability values on
plug-sized samples and provides a second factor
related to the pore geometry and expressed as "b."
Equation relates air permeability to Klinkenberg
permeability; knowledge of the Klinkenberg value
and the "b" factor from the nonsteady-state tests
allows calculation of the air permeability at any
mean pressure desired.

2022 117
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND REACTIVE FLUIDS EFFECTS:
 When a second fluid phase is present in a reservoir,
the permeability to each phase is referred to as the
effective permeability. In an oil or gas reservoir, the
second phase present in the pore space is interstitial
water.
 The effective permeability to the hydrocarbon phase
in a reservoir with interstitial water present will be
less than the measured permeability to air after
correction for Klinkenberg effects (absolute
permeability).

2022 118
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND REACTIVE FLUIDS EFFECTS (Cont.) :

 In high permeability rock with relatively low values

of interstitial water, the presence of water reduces
the gas or oil effective permeability only a minor
amount below the absolute permeability.
 As the permeability of the rock decreases (a
condition that is normally associated with a
reduction in pore size), the presence of water has an
increasingly important and detrimental effect on the
effective permeability to oil or gas.

2022 119
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND REACTIVE FLUIDS EFFECTS (Cont.):

 Clays line the pore spaces of many formations and

sometimes react with coring, drilling, or other fluids
injected into the reservoir. This reaction commonly
results in a reduction in permeability that can vary
from minor to catastrophic.

2022 120
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND REACTIVE FLUIDS EFFECTS (Cont.):
 Two types of damage mechanisms can result:
 One is a dispersion of clay particles and/or a physical
tearing loose of clay platelets that subsequently block
pore throats and reduce permeability.
 A second type of reaction involves clay swelling,
which causes an increase in clay volume and
subsequent reduction in cross-sectional area open to
flow within the pore throats.
Because of the difference in the mechanisms, each
demands a different treatment for correction, but the
effect of both is to cause reservoir permeability to be
lower than that measured in the laboratory.

2022 121
OVERBURDEN PRESSURE EFFECTS:
 Samples tested when making routine core analysis
measurements usually have no net overburden
pressures applied to them.
 When simulating reservoir conditions in the
laboratory, it has been found that the application of
overburden pressure reduces permeability (Table 06).
 Reduction in permeability of as little as 7% to as much
as 100% has been reported for overburden pressures up
to 5000 psi (34475 kPa). (McLatchie, Hem-stock, and
Young 1958; Vairogs et a. 1970.)

2022 122
OVERBURDEN PRESSURE EFFECTS (Cont.):
 As was noted in porosity measurements, the unconsolidated
materials show the greatest percentage reduction in value with
increasing overburden pressure.
 Generally, the reduction in permeability with the application of
net overburden pressure is greater than the reduction seen in
porosity.
 An experiment with flowthrough capillary tubes, as described
by the physicist Poiseuille (1797-1869), indicates that the
quantity of fluid flowing through a capillary varies with the
fourth power of the radius. Because the value of air permeability
is directly proportional to flow rate, small changes in pore radii
caused by the application of overburden pressure result in
correspondingly large reductions in permeability.

2022 123
 Table 06. Permeability reduction with increasing overburden
pressure

Rock type Permeability at net overburden pressure: % of original

200 psi 1000 psi 3000 psi 5000 psi 7000 psi

Sandstone 100% 96% 91% 86% 82%

(well indurated)

Sandstone 100% 72% 44% 35% 30%

(unconsolidate
d)

Chalk 100% 97% 93% 60% 30%

2022 124
 In any given reservoir, the effects of gas slippage,
reactive fluids, and overburden pressure may be great
or small, depending on pore geometry. Laboratory
results indicate that these factors become more
important as absolute permeability of a rock
decreases.
 In some low permeability gas reservoirs, a high
interstitial water level causes a significant reduction in
effective permeability, with further reductions caused
by an increase in net overburden pressure and the gas
slippage effect.

2022 125
 It represents data on a sample with an initial air
permeability of .28 millidarcies. hen a nonmobile,
interstitial water saturation of 53% of pore space was
introduced, the original air permeability determined
on the dry core was reduced to an effective
permeability of .051 millidarcies.
 These measurements were made with a minimum net
overburden pressure of 200 psi (1379 kpa), to prevent
air bypassing the core and flowing down the sample's
sides.

2022 126
 The Klinkenberg permeability value, obtained from
the extrapolation of four measured air permeabilities
at different mean pressures, showed a further
reduction in effective permeability, to .035
millidarcies.
 An increase in overburden pressure from 200 to 6000
psi (1380 to 4137 kPa) resulted in a final effective
permeability of .003 millidarcies. This is
approximately a 100-fold decrease in permeability.
Similar magnitudes of reduction have been observed
by Jones and Owens (1979) for tight gas reservoirs.

2022 127
2022 128
Averaging the permeability

2022 129
Averaging the permeability

2022 130
Summary: Averaging of core or formation data

2022 131
 Fundamental Volumetric and Recovery
Equations
Hydrocarbons-Initially-In-Place (HCIIP)

2022 132
Accuracy of Measurement (1)
 The accuracy of the permeability value
measured in the laboratory is approximately
5% of its true value when the permeability is in
the range of 10÷500 md. As permeability
decreases to the <1.0 md, accuracy may
decrease to 20% of true value. Above 500 md,
the accuracy of measurements is typically 10%
of true value.

2022 133
Accuracy of Measurement (2)
 Horizontal permeability values determined by
core analysis yield the vertical distribution of
horizontal permeability at the wellbore. They
provide a measure of permeability variation, which
may be used in subsequent reservoir engineering
calculations.
 Other reservoir evaluation tools, such as buildup
pressure tests, provide interwell permeability
values, but supply only an average value for the
formation permeability and not the distribution of
permeability. Both types of data have a place in
formation evaluation.
2022 134
 Accuracy of Measurement (3)
 Slippage, relative permeability, reactive fluid,
and overburden pressure effects can all be
measured in the laboratory. They require
additional testing time and are usually not
measured at the time that a conventional core
analysis is run.
 The conventional data are adequate to describe
permeability distribution profiles, to indicate
formation productivity, and to serve as a guide
for selecting samples to be used in more
complex special core tests.
2022 135
Exercise
Given:
µg = 0.018 cp
A = 5.06 cm2
I = 2.54 cm
pa = atmospheric pressure = 1.0 atmosphere
p1 = upstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
p2 = downstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
qa = volumetric gas flow rate at atmospheric
pressure, cc/sec
And Darcy's equation for flow of gas in a porous medium:

Calculate the air permeability and the liquid permeability

(Klinkenberg) values.
2022 136
 qa p1 p2

3.75 1.50 1.00

5.56 2.25 1.75

10.48 4.25 3.75

25.20 10.25 9.75

2022 137
SOLUTION
To do:
1. Compute ka (millidarcies) at each of four flow rates.
2. Plot ka versus 1/pm and extrapolate to find equivalent
liquid permeability kL where 1/pm = 0 (Figure 22).
3. kL from plot equals 44.2 millidarcies.
qa p1 p2 ∆p pm ka 1/pm

(p1 - p2) (p1 + p2)/2

3.75 1.50 1.00 .5 1.25 54.2 0.80

5.56 2.25 1.75 .5 2.00 50.2 0.50

10.48 4.25 3.75 .5 4.00 47.4 0.25

25.20 10.25 9.75 .5 10.00 45.5 0.10

2022 138
 Fig 22
2022 139
12.Core Analysis Report

2022 140
Plug (Conventional) Analysis
Figure 23 (Conventional core analysis for the CAD No. 1
well, of the Louisianna Gulf Coast)

Fig 23
2022 141
 Fig 24
2022 142
Full Diameter Analysis

Fig 25
2022 143
 Sidewall Core Analysis

Fig 26
2022 144
Fracture panel

2022 145
13. Special Core Analysis
Special core analysis tests on homogeneous
formations are normally made on 1 or 1 1/2
inch (2.5 to 3.8 cm) diameter cylindrical plugs
approximately 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 7.5 cm)
long.
Samples are selected to cover the permeability,
porosity, and rock-type range.
For heterogeneous formations, tests are
made on full diameter cores.
2022 146
13.Special Core Analysis (2)
Certain measurements are made on fresh,
preserved cores that are not extracted and
leached prior to the laboratory tests. In other
cases, samples are extracted, leached, and
dried.
After porosity and permeability are
determined, the samples are restored to the
desired saturation conditions.

2022 147
13.Special Core Analysis
13.1 Rock wettability
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
13.3 Electrical Properties
13.4 Relative Permeability

2022 148
13.Special Core Analysis
13.1 Rock wettability
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
13.3 Electrical Properties
13.4 Relative Permeability

2022 149
13.1 Rock wettability
 Other than when storage of rock has caused
deterioration, the primary factor that may
affect the soundness of the results of special
tests is rock wettability.
 It is complex in theory, but a simplified
illustration of the concept of wettability as a
function of contact angle is shown in
Figure 27 (Contact angle as an indication of
wettability).
2022 150
 Fig 27: Contact angle as an indication of wettability
2022 151
Wettability of a Fluid

2022 152
2022 153
Wettability and Capillarity

2022 154
2022 155
13.Special Core Analysis
13.1 Rock wettability
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
13.3 Electrical Properties
13.4 Relative Permeability

2022 156
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
Measurement Techniques
Three commonly utilized techniques for measuring
capillary pressure data are:
· the restored state cell technique (Bruce and Welge
1947);
· the centrifugal technique (Slobod, Chambers, and
Prehn 1951);
· the mercury injection technique (Purcell 1949).

2022 157
  Figure 28 (Schematic of restored state capillary pressure cell) is a
schematic of the restored state capillary pressure cell.
2022 158
 The pressure imposed on the sample in the
laboratory is equivalent to the pressure
difference that exists between the wetting and
nonwetting fluid phases.
 This in turn is proportional to the pressure
difference between the wetting and nonwetting
phase in the reservoir, which is related to the
height of a given saturation above the original
water-oil level and the oil and water hydrostatic
gradient. Figure 29 (Pressure differential (PC)
between water and hydrocarbon versus height and
water saturation) illustrates this concept.

2022 159
  Figure 29 Pressure differential (PC) between water and
hydrocarbon versus height and water saturation
2022 160
  As the hydrocarbon column increases in height,
the buoyant force of the hydrocarbon column
increases.
 Water saturation is therefore pushed from the
pore space and reduced to lower values as the
height above the free water surface increases.
 In Figure 30 (Capillary pressure curves
representing different depositional environments)
we see examples of capillary pressure data for
rocks that represent three different depositional
environments.

2022 161
 Reservoir rocks are
composed of many
capillaries of varying sizes.
Capillary pressure is the
phenomenon by which
water or any wetting liquid
is drawn up into a capillary.
 The smaller the capillary,
the higher the liquid rises.
 Due to the variety of
capillary diameters, the
water saturation existing
within a rock above the
water table varies (Figure
9).

2022 162
 The permeability of a rock is determined by the size of
the capillaries in the rock. These capillaries also define the
irreducible water saturation, which is the water saturation
that exists above the transition zone.
 The transition zone is the zone which displays a change in
the water saturation with height.
 Most often it is considered the region in which both water
and oil (or gas) flow. The more small capillaries there are,
the higher the water saturation, and the longer the
transition from irreducible water saturation to all water. The
larger the pore spaces, the fewer the small capillaries, the
transition zone is shorter.

2022 163
  Figure 30 Capillary pressure curves representing different depositional
environments
2022 164
Water Saturation versus Height
 Three Equations (below) may be used to correct
the laboratory measured capillary pressure to
an equivalent height above the free water level in
the reservoir.
 The free water level is defined as the depth
where the capillary pressure is zero; for
practical purposes, it is the depth at which a high
permeability and porosity reservoir rock
would show no residual oil saturation as the
zone of 100% water saturation is approached.

2022 165
 (1)

or

(2)

But
(3)

Therefore

2022 166
Where:
 h = height above free water table, ft or m
Pc = capillary pressure, psi or kPa
s = interfacial tension, dynes/cm
f = contact angle, degrees
ρw = density of brine, g/cm3
ρh = density of hydrocarbon, g/cm3
g = gravity term used to convert density to fluid gradient
R = subscript used to indicate initial reservoir
conditions
L = subscript used to indicate laboratory conditions

2022 167
 System Contact Cosine θ Interfacial Tx
angle θ Tension T Cosine θ

Laboratory Air-water 0 1.0 72 72

Oil-water 30 0.866 48 42

Air-mercury 140 0.765 480 367

Air-oil 0 1.0 24 24

Reservoir Water-oil 30 0.866 30 26

Water-gas 0 1.0 50* 50

Table 07. Typical interfacial tension and contact angle values

for a water-wet system
2022 168
 The equations require knowledge of the interfacial
tension of the fluids, both in the laboratory and in the
reservoir. Some estimate must also be made of the
contact angle in the reservoir. For water-wet systems,
the values reported in Table 07 may be used as an
approximation for those two variables if no further
information is available. Schowalter (1976) discusses
the importance of capillary pressure and presents data
that may be used for estimating the parameters
required in the three equations.
 Examples of conversions of capillary pressure to
reservoir height have also been presented by Keelan in
the manual published by Core Laboratories, Inc.,
entitled Special Core Analysis.

2022 169
Pore Throat Distribution
Capillary pressure
data obtained
from mercury
injection tests
can be converted
to equivalent
pore radius,

Figure 31 Cumulative pore throat distribution for different depositional

environments

2022 170
Capillary pressure force

Capillary Pressure is the excess pressure in the non-wetting phase,

required to overcome the Capillary Force acting at the capillary tube
surface for that radius

At equilibrium (static)
2022 171
𝑷𝑷𝒄𝒄 in terms of height of the fluid column
𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 (due to there is no capillary pressure across a horizontal
interface)
𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = 𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 but 𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 = 𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 + 𝒉𝒉. 𝝆𝝆𝒘𝒘 . 𝒈𝒈
Therefore: 𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 − 𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 = 𝒉𝒉. 𝝆𝝆𝒘𝒘 . 𝒈𝒈
Since: 𝑷𝑷𝒄𝒄 = 𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 − 𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 then 𝑷𝑷𝒄𝒄 = 𝒉𝒉. 𝝆𝝆𝒘𝒘 . 𝒈𝒈

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o 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 = 𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 (because no capillary exists across any interface that is
horizontal).
o 𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 = 𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 + 𝒉𝒉. 𝝆𝝆𝒘𝒘 . 𝒈𝒈
o 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 = 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 + 𝒉𝒉. 𝝆𝝆𝒐𝒐 . 𝒈𝒈
o Then 𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 + 𝒉𝒉. 𝝆𝝆𝒘𝒘 . 𝒈𝒈 = 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 + 𝒉𝒉. 𝝆𝝆𝒐𝒐 . 𝒈𝒈
o Therefore: 𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 − 𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 = (𝝆𝝆𝒘𝒘 −𝝆𝝆𝒐𝒐 )𝒉𝒉. 𝒈𝒈
o That is: 𝑷𝑷𝒄𝒄 = 𝝆𝝆𝒘𝒘 − 𝝆𝝆𝒐𝒐 𝒉𝒉. 𝒈𝒈

Oil-water system

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13.Special Core Analysis
13.1 Rock wettability
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
13.3 Electrical Properties
13.4 Relative Permeability

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13.3 Electrical Properties
 Electrical measurements made in the laboratory
on cores define, for a given formation, the
parameters that are used in electric log
calculations of water saturation.
 The measured properties include the resistivity of
the core at 100% water saturation (Ro), at other
saturations (Rt), and the resistivity of the brine
(Rw). The relationship between rock properties and
water saturation is as follows:

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 •Sw = formation brine saturation, fraction
(1)
•Rw = formation brine resistivity, ohmmeters
•Rt = true formation resistivity, ohmmeters
•Ro = true resistivity of 100% brine-saturated
(2)
rock, ohmmeters
•F = formation resistivity factor Ro/Rw
(3) •f = measured porosity, fraction
•a = intercept on F versus f plot
•n = saturation exponent, slope of RI versus
Sw plot
•m = cementation exponent (slope of F versus
f plot)

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 Formation Factor versus Porosity
 The formation factor (F) has been defined (Archie 1942)
as the resistivity of a 100% water saturated rock (Ro)
divided by the resistivity of the saturating brine (Rw).
When the measured formation factor is plotted against
measured porosity, the slope of the resulting line yields
the cementation exponent (m). This is illustrated in
Figure 32 (Plot of formation factor versus porosity,
illustrating variation in intercept "a"), along with limits
observed in laboratory tests.

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 Figure 32 Plot of formation factor versus porosity, illustrating variation in
intercept "a"
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Resistivity Index versus Water Saturation
 As water saturation decreases in a given sample,
the true resistivity rises. This occurs because less
water and subsequently fewer ions are available to
conduct electricity.
 The resistivity index (RI) is defined as the true
resistivity (Rt) at any saturation divided by the
resistivity at 100% saturation (Ro).
 Figure 33(Plot of sesistivity index versus water
saturation for range of measured values of the
slope"n") shows a typical plot of the resistivity index
versus water saturation over a range of laboratory
measured data.
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Figure 33 Plot of sesistivity index versus water saturation for range of measured
values of the slope"n"
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Clay Effects
 The presence of clay can suppress rock resistivity,
and yield lower m and variable n values. The water
saturation equation that was developed to
accommodate the presence of clays that conduct
electricity becomes more complex than that given in
Equation 3.
 The saturation equation that incorporates measured
cation exchange capacity effects caused by clays is
given by the Waxman-Smits-Thomas equations
(1968,1974):

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 Where:
 F*= Fa (1 + Rw B Qv) (5)

F* = formation resistivity factor independent of clay

conductivity = a*/ m*
 n* = saturation exponent independent of clay conductivity
 B = specific counterion activity, 1/ohm-m/equiv/liter
 Qv = quantity of cation exchangeable clay present, meq/ml
of pore space
 CEC = cation exchange capacity, meq/100 gm
 rma= grain density of rock matrix, g/cm3
 a = equation coefficient associated with m*
 m* = cementation exponent (slope of F* vs f plot)
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13.Special Core Analysis
13.1 Rock wettability
13.2 Capillary Pressure Tests
13.3 Electrical Properties
13.4 Relative Permeability

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13.4 Relative Permeability
Definitions
 Relative permeability is a dimensionless
term that has importance when two or more
fluids move through the pore spaces-for
example, oil and water.
 Specific or absolute permeability is the
permeability of a porous medium to one fluid
at 100% saturation.

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13.4 Relative Permeability (2)
Definitions
 Effective permeability is the permeability to a given
phase when more than one phase saturates the
porous medium. The effective permeability, then,
is a function of saturation.
 Relative permeability to a given phase is defined as
the ratio of effective permeability to the absolute or,
in some cases, a base permeability. Relative
permeability, then, is also a function of
saturation.

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Relative Permeability (Cont.)
Definitions
 In data that were generated prior to 1973, the specific
permeability to air was often used as the base
permeability.
 Since that time, the common base has been the hydrocarbon
permeability in the presence of irreducible water.
 For an oil-water reservoir, this would mean the base
permeability would be effective permeability to oil at
irreducible water.
 For a gas reservoir, the base permeability would be that to
gas in the presence of irreducible water. Figure 34 (Gas-water
relative permeability curves) illustrates gas-water relative
permeability data when water displaces gas.

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 Figure 34 (Gas-water relative permeability curves) illustrates gas-water
relative permeability data when water displaces gas.
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‘Residual’ Saturation Distribution

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 WATER-WET OIL-WET

Air
OIL Oil OIL
θ
θ

θ WATER θ WATER
θ < 90°
WATER WATER θ > 90°
SOLID (ROCK) SOLID (ROCK)
FREE WATER

OIL
GRAIN GRAIN

OIL
RIM

BOUND WATER FREE WATER

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Ayers, 2001
Example of
water-wet and Water-Wet System
oil -wet
systems in a
capillary
opening. If the
water is forced
Oil-Wet System
to move, it
displaces the oil
in the water-wet
system but
advances over
the oil in the oil-
wet system.
Effect on waterflood of an oil reservoir?

From Levorsen, 1967

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Factors Affecting Relative Permeability

 Initial Saturation
 Geology (pore structure)
 Wettability
 Consolidation (and stress conditions)

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Oil Relative Permeability:
a Function of Initial Saturation Carbonate
from Middle East

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Relative Permeability Example:
Function of Pore Structure (1)

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Relative Permeability Example:
Function of Pore Structure (2)

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Effect of Consolidation
on Relative
Permeability:
Water-Wet Rock
(Oil-Water)

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  Relative
Permeability of
Sandstone Cores
as a Function of
Wettability

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Effect of
Wettability
On Water-Oil
Relative
Permeability

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Drainage and Imbibition

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 Imbibition versus Drainage
 The terms imbibition and drainage are also employed
when discussing relative permeability tests. Their
meanings simply what is happening in the pore space to
the wetting phase as relative permeability tests are
measured.
 If the wetting phase is decreasing, that phase is
draining and the curve is called a drainage curve.
 If the wetting phase is increasing or being imbibed
during the test, the curve is referred to as an
imbibition curve (Figure 34).

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 Imbibition versus Drainage (2)
 For a water-wet reservoir, the drainage curves apply
during the time that water is draining from the
reservoir and hydrocarbons are accumulating.
 Once the reservoir rock or laboratory sample has
attained an equilibrium water-saturation value and the
water is subsequently increased by natural water
influx or the introduction of coring or test fluids, the
imbibition curves apply. (In oil-wet rock, a reduction
in the oil phase by water flooding would be referred to
as a drainage curve.)
 These data are required in many reservoir engineering
calculations, and the laboratory tests that develop them
should follow the same saturation history as that in the
reservoir.

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Laboratory Methods for Measuring Relative Permeability
Two major laboratory methods have evolved to
measure relative permeability.
These are referred to as the steady-state and
nonsteady-state techniques.

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Laboratory Methods for Measuring Relative Permeability (2/3)
STEADY STATE:
 The steady-state test, the older of the two methods, is
made at low flow rates, and the test apparatus contains
upstream and downstream mixer heads to remove
capillary end effects.
 Most research groups prefer data obtained from this
test.
 Two fluids are injected simultaneously into a core
sample and the water saturation is increased slowly. This
simulates the slow increase in water saturation that
would occur in the formation between the injection and
producing wells. Saturation increase is monitored by
measuring the gain in weight occurring in the sample or
by X-ray technique.
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Laboratory Methods for Measuring Relative Permeability (3/3)
NONSTEADY STATE:
 The nonsteady-state technique uses a viscous oil and is
normally made at a higher flow rate than that present in
the reservoir.
 It is this higher rate that sometimes yields pessimistic
estimates of recovery from rocks of intermediate
wettability.
 Heaviside and Black (1983) have analyzed the two
techniques and presented recommendations on the
most appropriate way to measure water-oil relative
permeability depending upon the wetting
characteristics of the rock.

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 Wettability Effects
 The natural preference of a porous medium, which
causes one fluid to adhere to its surfaces rather than
another, is referred to as wettability.
 A water-wet porous medium causes water to adhere to
its surfaces.
 The wettability of a rock has a dramatic influence on
relative permeability curves. It is therefore necessary
that the core samples tested in the laboratory reflect the
actual formation wettability, and that initial water
saturation in the test sample be of the same magnitude
and have the same spatial location as it has in the
reservoir.

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 Wettability Effects
 This need has led to the recovery of "native state" cores.
These are cores taken with crude oil or with other oil-
base fluids that do not alter the wettability or water
saturation present in the recovered core.
 Figure 35 (Effects of wettability on water-oil relative
permeability: imbibition data for Torpedo sandstone)
illustrates the effects of core wettability on water-oil
relative permeability measurements (Owens and Archer
1971).

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Figure 35 (Effects of wettability on water-oil relative permeability: imbibition data
for Torpedo sandstone)
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 These data indicate that as the rock becomes more
oil-wet, the relative permeability to oil decreases and
the relative permeability to water increases at any
given saturation. This results in unfavorable recovery
efficiency.
 It also indicates that the residual oil saturation in
intermediate to oil-wet rocks is a function of the
volume of water that flows through the core sample,
and that the relative permeability to water existing at
floodout will be much higher for the oil-wet
formation.

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 An interesting observation is that the
reduction of capillary retentive forces in the
oil-wet rock allows a lower residual oil
saturation to be achieved in the oil-wet rock if
economics would support continued water
injection.

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 Wettability may be estimated from shapes of
relative permeability curves; however, it
should be remembered that a similar shift in
the relative permeability curves can also be
caused by changes in other rock properties.
This was documented by Morgan and Gordon
(1970).

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 Exercise

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