Received: 10 August 2020 Revised: 24 September 2020 Accepted: 29 September 2020

DOI: 10.1002/ett.4155

S U R V E Y PA P E R

Review of optical and wireless backhaul networks and

emerging trends of next generation 5G and 6G technologies

Teena Sharma1 Abdellah Chehri1 Paul Fortier2

1
Department of Applied Sciences,
University of Quebec in Chicoutimi
(UQAC), Chicoutimi, Québec, Canada
2
Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, Laval University, Québec,
Québec, Canada
Correspondence
Teena Sharma and Abdellah Chehri,
Department of Applied Sciences,
University of Quebec in Chicoutimi
(UQAC), Chicoutimi, QC G7H 2B1,
Canada.
Email: teena.sharma1@uqac.ca (T. S.) and
achehri@uqac.ca (A. C.)
Abstract
Mobile Backhauling provides an interface between radio controller and base
stations, mostly realized with a physical medium such as optical fibers or
microwave radio links. With the huge mobile traffic due to an increase in mobile
subscribers as well as deployment of 4G and 5G cellular network technologies,
better solutions for capacity and coverage should be provided in order to enhance
spectral efficiency. For 4G cellular networks, mobile backhaul networks deal
with capacity, availability, deployment cost, and long-distance reaches. In addi-
tion, mobile backhaul networks based on the 5G network incurs additional
challenges that include 1 ms or less ultralow latency time requirements and
ultra-dense nature of the network capabilities. Therefore, for 5G technolo-
gies, latency delay, QoS, packet efficiency, noise suppression, and mitigation
techniques, efficient modulation schemes, and packet network timing synchro-
nization are some aspects that are to be dealt with while designing efficient
backhaul approaches (wired/wireless). Current backhaul systems typically use
cost-effective solutions (eg, -Wi-Fi and WiMAX)-based packet-switched tech-
nologies, especially Ethernet/Internet technologies and high-speed optical fiber
links.

1 I N T RO DU CT ION

The mobile industry has evolved significantly due to the utilization of advanced technologies and multiple services and
applications. Mobile backhaul plays an important role, and it is defined as part of the network that interconnects the Base
Stations (BSs) and with the Base Station Controllers (BSCs), which is further connected with the core mobile network
in cellular systems.1 These have mainly relied upon physical mediums such as copper, microwave radio link, and optical
fibers based on specific applications. Ninety percent of backhaul networks are Leased T1/E1 copper lines, while the rest
6% is with microwave links, and 4% with optical fiber in North America.2 Initially, mobile backhauls implementations
were time-division multiplexing-based but due to trans-receiver synchronization issues as well as latency delay and heavy
growth in mobile traffic, the packet-based network is inevitable.3
Further, packet-based backhaul architecture optimizes cost to a much greater extent. Over the last decade, there is a
change in mobile backhauls applications from human-based traffic to machine-based traffic but also voice-dependent to
data-dependent due to the huge developments in mobile devices resulting in increased bandwidth consumption.4
The second generation (2G) services usages fall due to the availability of next-generation services. The 3G services are
frequently deployed on a regular and steady basis.5

Trans Emerging Tel Tech. 2020;e4155. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ett © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1 of 16
https://doi.org/10.1002/ett.4155
2 of 16 SHARMA et al.

Backhaul networks based on 3G and 4G networks are not able to meet the requirements of gigabits of data rates due
to heavy traffic load, and these are lacking in terms of latency, capacity, cost efficiency, energy, and availability. How-
ever, due to the advancement in technologies, backhaul networks are capable of supporting ultrahigh definition video
streaming, high-quality image transfer, cloud resources, and live video games with multimedia and advanced computing
features.6
Mobile traffic growth will reach 82% at the end of 2021 and up to 995 by 2021 in North America as per the Cisco
forecast of mobile traffic density. Moreover, traffic expected growth would reach 24.3 Exabytes each month by the end of
the year 2020, which was only 25 Exabytes each month in the year 2014.7 In this respect, next-generation mobile networks
with 5G are expected to interconnect billions of smart devices with good quality and high-speed data services with high
security and privacy. Recent studies and standardization work has focused on radio perspective analysis such as network
densification, inter-cell interference suppression techniques, new spectrum allocation, multiple-input multiple-output
(MIMO) antenna, and coordinated multipoint signal processing.8
It is more challenging to handle increased complexity by using simple communication models statically, simply,
and rigidly in higher generations. Every technology is expected to provide efficient and effective wireless communica-
tions architecture to support services. These services include augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), graphics, high
audio/video streaming, and holographic telepresence, pervasive connectivity in smart environments, eHealth and well-
ness applications, industry, and massive robotics and huge unmanned mobility in 3 dimensions (3D). With the fast and
efficient deployment of 5G communication networks, 6G mobile networks’ role has gained much attention from indus-
tries, academia, and government organizations. This section presents state of the art on 6G techniques, opportunities,
applications, and challenges and briefly discussed the identification of critical drivers, technological innovations, and
system performance requirements. 6G will prove not only intelligent but also provide full broadband services capabili-
ties compared with 5G. Several parameters such as rate, degree of intelligence, energy consumption, delay, interaction,
coverage, and reliability are important aspects in measuring 6G performance.9
The extremely fast development of novel services, such as Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X), AR, holographic communica-
tions, massive connectivity, and VR, has been possible due to the enormous advancement of 6G communication networks.
Each service has various requirements and supports several features.
This progress is in terms of ultra-reliable and low-latency communications, enhanced mobile broadband connectivity,
and massive machine-type communications. However, the restricted high-quality spectrum resources, various services,
and constraints on the number of antennas to support the booming and new technologies are essential to enable 6G
communications to solve traditional network challenges in efficiency, flexibility, and security.10
Further, there is a requirement of near-instant, reliable broadband connectivity, which must be provided by the 6G
wireless networks to achieve massive data exchange at various frequencies. One solution is the usages of intelligent
devices in the IoT, which can support highly reliable, resilient, efficient, and secure connectivity. In the future, to imple-
ment 6G technology, several challenges need to overcome, which include new spectrum allocation, network densification,
inter-cell interference suppression, and distributed massive MIMO antenna technology.11
In 6G, data exchanges will support exchanging information, knowledge, and experience and the data’s past, present,
and potential future properties with pure data exchanges. We can easily anticipate that more significant amounts of data
will be transferred through future wireless communications networks.
With the emerging applications such as extended reality (XR) and haptics, 6G and beyond technologies must sup-
port high spectral efficiency, sufficient reliability, and low latency. Therefore novel modulation techniques will be based
upon effective transmission designs (eg, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing with subcarrier power modulation
[OFDM-SPM]). For future 6G wireless communication systems, low-latency, and less-complex architecture with high
spectral-efficient data transmission can be provided by such modulation Schemes.12
Besides, the Intelligent Transport System has gained immense popularity in smart cities. Google, Uber, Toshiba,
and Apple are some of the global automotive stakeholders currently working in the connected autonomous vehicles
domain. In connected AVs, AVs’ interconnection will be based on novel electrical/optical sensors, Wi-Fi, LiDAR, RADAR
technologies, and global positioning system (GPS) for road traffic management.13
For wireless virtualization in large-scale MIMO systems, a machine learning-enabled smart beam scheduling
approach is presented. The machine learning approach is used to schedule the beams in large-scale MIMO.14 For
future wireless networks, large-scale MIMO is termed a novel technology that can provide enhanced data rate wherein
wireless virtualization is an efficient paradigm. Furthermore, the radio frequency (RF) spectrum can be efficiently
utilized by subleasing RF slices of wireless infrastructure providers to mobile virtual network operators. Table 1
SHARMA et al. 3 of 16

T A B L E 1 Capacity requirements of wireless networks

Spectral Spectral Data Voice Total
efficiency in efficiency in spectrum spectrum bandwidth
Standards bits/Hz (Voice) bits/Hz (Data) (MHz) (MHz) (Mbps) T1 Sectors

GSM 2G5 0.52 1 2.3 1.2 1.3 1 3

GSM/EDGE 2.75G5 0.52 1 2.3 1.2 6.1 4 3
HSDPA 3G6 0 2 5 0 21.0 14 3
LTE 4G14 0 3.8 5 0 39.9 NA 3
LTE 5G15 0 3.8 10 0 79.8 NA 3

demonstrates the required capacity of existing and emerging technologies in spectral efficiency for both voice and data
services.
Moreover, 5G networks will incorporate intelligent network capabilities and highly efficient differentiated services
such as the Internet on Things (IoT) that can extend the wireless connectivity from medical equipment to household
appliances and personal belongings. These user qualities of experience (QoE) or also described as IoT, lead to devel-
oping new radio access standards (advanced Long Term Evolution) to further enhance wireless network capacity and
significantly low latency by modified Internet Protocol (IP)-based architecture and new processing techniques. To further
increase throughput and small cell-based networks with multi-technology heterogeneous access architectures increases
data transmission rates with enhanced spectrum spatial reuse.
In combination with existing and new technologies, such as High-speed packet access, HSPA long term evolution
(LTE), advanced LTE and Wi-Fi, distinct cell sizes with dense cell deployment and various physical locations, all supported
by different solution providers (ie, a multivendor environment) will provide spatial reuse of spectrum and increased spec-
tral efficiency.14 Moreover, 5G-based services will enable additional services such as remote sensing as well as real-time
monitoring of numerous varieties of smart devices, supporting machine to machine (M2M) traffic (eg, moving robots,
connected office and home and sensors).
5G cellular systems, with IoT as a connectivity tool is presented with enabling features as scalable, ubiquitous, reliable,
and cost-efficient is presented in architecture based on IoT in 5G technologies with the IoT connectivity landscape model,
5G enablers for the IoT, and business model between IoT and 5G for operator and vendors ecosystem.15
Considering all the above benefits of 5G, support for smart devices for the human and IoT, extreme broadband delivery,
ultralow latency, and highly robust backhaul networks are the major requirements for 5G networks. Fiber as a strong
candidature remains backhaul choice due to huge bandwidths greater than 10 GHz and minimum latency in micro/s.
However, in rural areas and mountains, laying fiber in order to connect core with small cells is not physible because of
the absolutely huge deployment cost and availability problem, or it is time-consuming. Therefore, in such cases, wireless
backhaul networks (eg, millimeter-wave and microwave links) could provide an effective solution and secured data with
already deployed architectures for base stations.
Multipath propagation and adverse weather conditions are a few factors, which can affect transmission performance.
Optical backhaul solution with a hybrid of millimeter wave is presented in which a novel software-defined radio approach
is utilized in order to enhance the capacity of backhaul networks in an efficient way to get better QoE.14 Another solution,
which is a combination of millimeter-wave radio and optical laser in a free space optics (FSO) environment, is presented
with features such as extended reach, affordable cost, high capacity, and high capacity.16
Optimal deployment and smart management is another challenge in managing 5G wireless backhaul networks.
Cost-efficient optimization methods using Bellman-Ford and shortest path are proposed in Reference 17. In mobile wire-
less backhaul networks, full-duplex communication can be effectively utilized by using self-interference (SI) cancelation
schemes with a QoS-based FD scheduling concurrent algorithm.18 Advancement in mobile network standards with each
decade and their countless applications are shown in Figure 1.
This paper is structured as follows: Section 2 discusses 5G Backhaul requirements and challenges, Section 3 stud-
ies both conventional and recent backhaul technologies such as leased T1/E1 copper, optical fiber, FSO, microwave,
millimeter-wave, Wi-Fi, WIMAX, and satellite with their associated challenges, implementation issues, and their merits
and demerits are demonstrated. In Section 4, the 6G technologies related to advancement and recent technological trends
are discussed. Conclusion is given Section 5.
4 of 16 SHARMA et al.

FIGURE 1 Mobile technology

evolution

2 5G BACKHAUL REQUIREMENTS AND CHALLENGES

The small cell concept provides increased throughput and also efficiently reduces the energy consumption in cellular
networks. The short wavelengths millimeter Wave (mm-wave) communications are expected to provide higher transmis-
sion bandwidth; therefore, for 5G mobile communication, mm-Wave is a very important backhaul solution.19 In order to
achieve seamless coverage, multiple numbers of small cells are being deployed densely for 5G technology. As a result, the
cellular network based on ultra-dense is the main characteristic of 5G cellular networks. However, ultra-dense cellular
networks have some limitations in terms of cellular densification and network architecture, and there is a requirement
to deal with this in on-going research. Moreover, MIMO technology can increase the spectrum efficiency of 5G tech-
nologies based on mobile systems. In addition, there is a requirement of advanced cellular densification and network
architecture-based techniques investigations for next-generation 5G cellular networks.
Another key requirement of 5G is increased data rate radically, to almost 1000 times than the present 4G technology.
Network densification is the most preferred technique in order to get much higher data rates.
Based on the study, major challenges regarding 5G networks are mainly categorized into six different points:

1. Network capacity: Increased traffic volume density and connectivity leads to large scale mobile connected-based soci-
ety. 5G networks will interconnect multiple smart devices while supporting different services, mainly M2M services
and IoT, to other mobile connections. Therefore high capacity requirement from the transport network to the core is
a major challenge in the 5G cellular network.20 5G network standards such as LTE/LTE-A require increased capacity
backhaul links for each cell site and need to support tens of Gbps.
2. Ultra-dense network: In ultra-dense networks, network densification is done by enhancing the density of small base
stations (SBSs), which supports an increased number of users in a particular geographic region. In principle, the
density of SBSs can be increased until there is only one user-supported per SBS with its transmission and backhaul
connections.21 This extreme densification raises a variety of challenges that include determining the appropriate cell
associations, managing intra-tier and inter-tier interference, and providing high-capacity backhaul connectivity to
SBSs at the same time
3. Frequency: Due to the usage of the radio access network frequency band in 5G, the cell site reach will be very less
when compared to present’s cell sites (ie, micro or macro cell). Further, Cell site capacity cannot be increased by 1000
times. In this case, dense small cell deployment is one of the possible and efficient ways to support 1000 time increase
in capacity in the 5G network. However, small cell dense nature limits the frequency reuse capability. The proposed
scheme can effectively utilize wireless backhaul spectrum and unrivaled requirements for cell site synchronization.22
SHARMA et al. 5 of 16

For 5G, three times higher accuracy from 1.5 μs to will be demanded than LTE-A 5G network will require higher
accuracy requirements approximately three times than LTE-A.23
4. Availability: For wireless backhauls, especially in mm waves and microwaves, due to adverse weather conditions
and multipath propagation, backhaul links are affected, which further leads to the availability of links. Adaptive
modulation schemes are utilized to lower the line rates in order to eliminate such problems. Therefore main-
taining availability is crucial to achieving new services and for many machines to machine applications for 5G
networks.16-24
5. Ultra-low latency: Achieving ultralow latency (lesser than 1 ms) and denser small cell deployment is another big
challenge in establishing 5G network connectivity. Moreover, cost efficiency and network reliability in case of huge
demand play an important role while designing such networks.
6. Network energy consumption: Energy efficiency is a global parameter that includes a reduction in carbon footprint,
energy bills, and extended terminal battery life. In the case of 5G-based cellular devices, it is expected to provide
increased capacity without an increase in energy consumption. Fifty percent more rise in energy consumption
is occurred due to growth in small cell density, blossoming of HetNets, and generation of ultra dense networks.
Therefore, energy consumption is also an important aspect of solving backhaul energy-related bottlenecks.
7. Deployment cost: To provide increased network capacity approx. 1000 times higher than existing, dense small cell
deployment is a major technique in 5G networks. In this scenario, a cost-effective backhaul solution for the dense
cell is a big issue. An application-based traffic-engineering system is required to be developed to fulfill the customer
demands by service vendors.
8. Coverage: Long haul reach has certainly been a big challenge in terms of additional equipment and installing cost in
wireless and wired backhaul networks (eg, Fiber backhaul deployment cost is proportional to the fiber distance). The
distance between a cell site to the core network that can be supported by backhaul while maintaining the required
value of QoS. Generally, all the cell sites are connected, which creates a hierarchical mesh, and traffic is transported
to an aggregation point (also called supercell). At the supercell, traffics reaching from cell sites is aggregated and at
last transported towards the core network. In 5G networks, the main disadvantage of dense small cell deployment
is massive backhaul traffic at the supercell, which leads to congestion, and it may result in collapsing the backhaul
networks.24 Therefore, in recent years, coverage is one of the challenges for backhaul networks based on 5G.

3 MOBILE BACKHAULS T YPES AND KEY CHALLENGES

Several backhaul solutions are available for the mobile operators and these options should be selected based on differ-
ent parameters such as economical for particular deployment scenario. Further, small cells’ location depends on latency,
target QoS, traffic load intensity, and cost factors. Therefore different backhaul technology is adopted for different atmo-
spheric conditions eg, good line of sight (LOS) connectivity or fiber connectivity is not available for every desirable place.
Backhaul solutions suitable for 5G networks are discussed in detail in this section.

3.1 Wired backhaul solution

T1/E1 lines and optical fibers are available as wired solutions. Optical fiber backhaul networks are most preferred due
to its improved Bit Error Rate performance and huge bandwidth, increased capacity and coverage, and data rates. It also
allows longest reach before any signal needs to be resend. Problems encountered with fiber connections are its deployment
is time-consuming and is not possible to lay fibers at highways, mountains, rivers and under buildings. Initial deploy-
ment cost is another factor which affects its usages adversely including splicing, cable cost, and trenching. Optical fiber
transport and aggregation cost is another influencing factor.

3.1.1 Leased lines

Internet Service Provider (ISP) rented connections (fixed bandwidth and dedicated paths) are referred as Leased lines.
These lines have characteristics such as symmetrical, uncontended, and point to point. They are classified as Fiber Eth-
ernet (fiber line), Ethernet Broadband (copper line), and Ethernet over fiber-to-the-curb (fiber and copper) out of which
6 of 16 SHARMA et al.

Fiber Ethernet is used extensively for cellular network backhaul due to reduced provisioning time and cost. Configuration
overhead reduces while increasing the fineness of the bandwidth and maintains service management qualities.24
For all the current and future leased-line offerings, Ethernet-based connectivity increasing dominating standard in
leased lines case. In number of cases, leased T1/E1 copper leased lines coming out from different sites, which are fur-
ther combined using a multiplexer that multiplexes T1/E1 connections at lower data transmission rates in optical fiber
connections with increased data rates. Their examples are STM-16 at 2.4 Gbit/s, STM-1 at 155.52 Mbit/s and STM-4 at
622 Mbit/s data rates. Moreover, mobile operators do not require maintaining self-infrastructure, and there is no require-
ment to take care of underlying technologies and mobile evolution. Over radio links and optical fibers (point to point),
the telecommunication mobile standards (eg, Synchronous Digital Hierarchy [SDH], Synchronous Optical Networking
[SONET]) are defined and used as standardized protocols utilized for multiplexing as well as for sending digital streams
over links such as fibers and radio.
Further, their operators section may vary with different performance matrices parameters. In optical fiber networks,
SDH/SONET plays an important role. Using add/drop multiplexer in several topologies, it can be realized that ring topol-
ogy is mostly preferred. Add and drop multiplexer merges many several lower data bit streams into only one beam of
light.25

3.1.2 Digital subscriber line backhaul

Main type of typical backhaul option is T1/E1 copper cables, which provides a connection between the two network
points: BSC and Base Transceiver Stations. Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy permits time division multiplexing by com-
bining different voice channels from multiple base stations. Further, it transmits voice channel signals to the BSC in
various time slots. Such lines are based upon legacy time division technology therefore suffer from timing measures such
as bit slips, jitter, wander, and high cost at different traffic interfaces in time-division multiplexing networks.25 T1/E1
copper cables suffer from poor bandwidth granularity, which comes with increments of E1 or T1. Therefore, recently,
effective cost solutions such as digital subscriber line (DSL) are mainly used as cellular traffic backhaul solution. Sym-
metrical (S-DSL) can replace traditional leased lines for long distance miles access and increase data rates. Further, it
received much attention due to its reduced delay sensitivity. DSL applications lie in residential broadband especially in
5G femtocell (a home BS) and in other cellular data applications with no service-level guarantee.

3.2 Wireless backhaul solutions

Wireless backhaul is in use worldwide due to its viability, and cost-effectiveness. Likewise optical fibers, its deployment is
based on various parameters such as traffic intensity, propagation conditions, cost factor, site locations, and interference
conditions. Microwave and millimeter wave as wireless backhaul medium provides end to end control of the network to
the operator. These two backhaul networks give optimal solutions in case of 5G and are discussed in detail:

3.2.1 Millimeter wave

Millimeter wave (mmWave) is mainly used for small cell backhaul solutions due to enormous spectrum (Extremely high
frequency in the range 30-300 GHz). 6 GHz to 60 GHz band is also utilized for RF mmWave backhaul networks. Therefore
smaller wavelengths in its spectrum can integrate multiple antennas in an easier configuration and small cells resulting in
Massive MIMO in non-LOS or LOS applications. mmWave-based backhaul techniques provide high data rates (1-2 Gbps)
with shorter reach when compared to microwave RF. Still, typically, mmWave RF provides increased data transmission
rates (up to 1-2 Gbps) but with the disadvantage of shorter reach than the microwave RF. Small reach is high propagation
loss at millimeter wave.20-26 Fading due to rain, absorption, and multipath propagation are the main reasons for propa-
gation loss in this scheme. Mainly performance is adversely affected by water molecules due to rainfall.27 Typically, the
mmWave has narrow beams leading to alignment problems and can be solved by placing mm wave RF equipments in a
solid structure.22
The mmWave communication is an emerging trend in 5G mobile communication systems as a wireless backhaul
solution for small cell networks. However, in this scenario, RF components of transceivers (modulation schemes and
SHARMA et al. 7 of 16

beam forming) and the antenna array are considered as an important study.22-28 An effective beam alignment tech-
nique based upon hierarchical beam codebooks and adaptive subspace sampling was proposed for small cell networks
implementation.29 Further, for wireless backhauling, the effectiveness of short- and medium-distance links at mmWave
wavelengths is observed and the transceiver architecture and related technologies requirements provided.

1. Directional communication and range: Omnidirectional free space path loss varies with the square of the frequency as
per Friis’ transmission law. For equal size of antenna, larger antenna gain corresponds to small wavelength provides
by mmWave. Therefore, high frequency (HF) waves cannot be affected by propagation loss in space. In this case,
antenna area is constant and directional transmission is possible.
2. Shadowing: Long reach millimeter wave-based backhaul networks becomes susceptible to some factors such as rain
and humidity. Outdoor materials can attenuate the signal (attenuation ranging in between 40 and 80 dB). Human
body also can attenuate (20-35 dB) as it is reflective, therefore in such cases loss level will be very high and significant
scattering of millimeter wave can be observed in this case. However, rain and humidity factors create no signal fades for
long-reach cell frameworks. Significant scatter for millimeter wave propagation and many different types of outdoor
materials are very reflective.30
3. Intermittent connectivity and rapid channel fluctuations: In the carrier frequency, channel coherence time is straight
for a given portable distance, meaning that the value is low in the millimeter wave. For example, the Doppler spread
at 60 GHz at 60 km/h is greater than 3 kHz. Henceforth, the channel can shift considerably faster than today’s cell
frameworks at the request of several microseconds. Often, irregular shadowing due to various obstacles can result in
significant numbers of drastic path-loss swings which means cell association and the relative path losses can change
rapidly. In such scenario, mmWave systems can implicitly work on small cells efficiently.
4. Power consumption: Utilization of multi antenna results in to huge consumption of power. Power consumption is an
important indicator in scaling sampling rate. It increases exponentially in the quantity of bits per tests,31,32 which
causes increased determination quantization at high data rate transmissions and increases in number of antenna
limits for low cost gadgets and low-control.

3.2.2 Free space optics (FSO)

FSO uses Invisible light spectrum of LED and LASER for data transmission with much higher bandwidth in the
range of 300 GHz to 1 THz. It supports data transmission rates upto 10 Gbps over a few kilometers.30-33 FSO also pro-
vides ease of deployment, high directivity, free from electromagnetic interference, and unlicensed frequency band with
low power consumption due to usages of low power-based devices in FSO with demerits such as scattering, inter-
ference due to ambient light, physical obstructions, and fading due to fog with small coverage area. Also, its QoS
performance and link availability is influenced by weather and atmospheric changes such as fog but less affected
by rain. However, FSO scheme can be one of the possible solution for 5G backhaul due to its high throughput,
increased flexibility, and scalability features with low latency. However there are few challenges regarding FSO link
availability issues and diversity schemes available which can be efficient solutions for achieving high data rates are as
follow:

1. Group velocity dispersion: this phenomena affecting available link is group velocity dispersion (GVD) which causes
longitudinal pulse widening and modify its characteristics.
2. Longitudinal narrow Gaussian pulses: are used in FSO as message signals therefore system performance falls in case
of signal fading resulting in significantly poor signal detection.34
3. Pointing error: signal degradation at the receiver is caused by pointing error resulting from misalignment between
transmitter and receiver. Strong wind, vibrations due to earth quakes, thermal expansion, and building sways are the
main reasons behind pointing error/misalignment .35
4. Beam scintillation: Eddies will act like lens that will focus and de-focus the incoming beam if eddy size is of the order
of beam size. This phenomenon leads to spatial and temporal irradiance fluctuations in the laser beam. Therefore,
FSO system performance is degraded due to this issue.

Several copies of the same signal are received or propagated to enhance the system’s efficiency with improved
transmission state. It is divided into temporal, spatial, and wavelength domain.
8 of 16 SHARMA et al.

T A B L E 2 A comparison of mmWave radio and free space optics20,22,25-38

Performance parameter mmWave radio link Free space optical link

Beamwidth 2◦ 1◦
Transmitter technology MMIC amplifiers LER or Laser
Regulatory constraint Light licensing Not Required
Path length at 99.99% availability 1.5 km 500 m
Path length at 99.9% availability 5 km 1 km
Precipitation impairment Heavy rainfall (6 in/h 50 dB/km Thick Fog (75 m visibility 100 db/km)
Data rate 1 Gb/s, synchronous transfer module (STM-4) 1 Gb/s, synchronous transfer module (STM-4)
Clear air atmospheric loss <1 dB/km <1 dB/km
Mounting stability Moderate High

1. Spatial technique: More than one transmitter and receivers are deployed in FSO system creating multiple copies of
same signal received at the receivers therefore reduced bit error probabilities.36
2. Temporal diversity schemes: Same signal is repeatedly sent at various time slots between one trans/receiver structure
pair, therefore reducing the probability of fade and outage.37
3. Wavelength technique: Many trans/receivers and signals are transmitted with different wavelengths at same time
Therefore, multiple copies of signals transmitted at appropriate wavelengths is received at the receiver.38

FSO and mmWave radio both support gigabit transmission rate but there are some other differences in both the
technologies based on certain parameters (please see Table 2).

3.2.3 Satellite and TV white spaces (TVWS)

White Space is referred as unused broadcasting frequencies in the wireless spectrum also referred as holes in the spectrum
which leave space for deploying new wireless services. TV white spaces (TVWS) are those spectrum bands that are geo-
graphically interleaved to avoid interference between neighboring broadcasting stations. TVWS shared spectrum might
be considered a clear opportunity for future 5G mobile networks for using shared and dynamic spectrum access tech-
nologies and avoid spectrum scarcity. On the other hand, and due to its attractive characteristics, the TVWS spectrum is
also considered an ideal candidate to enable smart grid networks via cognitive radio paradigm.
Unlicensed TV white spaces and as backhaul network solutions for carrying Internet traffic are also popular in areas
where no pre-existing wired infrastructure is available. Innovative technologies such as cognitive radio are used based
on many spectrum policy proposals. Different satellite technologies (eg, DVB-RCS) are utilized strategies which provide
backhauling for terrestrial mobile radio networks, such as GSM, WiMAX, TETRA, and Wi-Fi.39,40 Maximum data rate
supported by these two schemes is generally less than 1 Gbps with high latency requirements.
White space access technology faces various challenges such as driving investment, ensuring security, protecting the
incumbent, and enabling appropriate standards, policies, and rules. Therefore, there are many ways that white space
systems could be enablers of 5G through such important aspects as backhaul and/or M2M spectrum. Backhaul is a key
application of TVWS in recent years and Figure 2 describes TVWS as backhaul link.

FIGURE 2 TVWS as a backhaul technology41

SHARMA et al. 9 of 16

TV spectrum presents new opportunities for wireless access applications and technologies such as femtocell networks.
In utilization of TV white spaces in femtocell networks, major challenge is achieving capacity and energy efficiency. The
capacity and energy efficiency for the femtocell network are developed for TV white spaces reuse and power allocation
scheme to maximize the energy efficiency achieved by a femtocell network, while keeping the interference to the primary
receiver and macro receiver at an acceptable level.42 Simulation results reveal that the femtocell can have a considerable
capacity and energy efficiency improvement by using the TV channels.
Spectrum sensing techniques are mainly classified into three categories: matched filtering, energy detection, and sig-
nal feature detection, mainly dependent on primary transmitter detection. These methods placed all together can be
used to achieve improved results in terms of signal classification, sensitivity, and computational time and cost.43 Similar
two-stage spectrum sensing methods are proposed in Reference 44.
White spaces use digital terrestrial television bands, necessities for reliable and faster signal classification and identi-
fication methods. Such a two stage identification method is presented for the signals in white spaces utilizing combined
energy detection and feature detection.41 Discrete Wavelet Packet Transformation is used to divide band of interest
in sub bands in which signal power is calculated. Further, signal transmission model is presented based on Motion
JPEX XR to evaluate and explore application of indoor applications such as multimedia signal destitution over white
spaces.
Optimization in terms of spectrum usages and primary users’ protection is an important measure regarding TV white
spaces. Dynamic spectrum access is one of the mainly utilized techniques which allocates spectrum dynamically in place
of fixed access of spectrum. Novel strategies are presented to be adopted by geo-location database operators to find high-
est adaptive allowed power for the secondary devices.45 This is fixed as per the allowed levels of interferences into the
television primary system (digital terrestrial).

3.2.4 TVWS backhaul networks for rural areas

With the spectrum scarcity crunch, harvesting TVWS spectrum is generating a lot of excitement. The TVWS could
provide a suitable solution to bridge the broadband networks to remote rural areas and northern communities. Tradi-
tional links such as multi-hop microwave terrestrial backhaul or fiber links do not provide economical viable solutions
for telecommunication service providers to connect these regions. Furthermore, utilization of the White Spaces per-
mits efficient reuse of spectrum in different frequency bands. Also, due to superior propagation and penetration
characteristics, TVWS is suitable for long distance mobile communication. Further, TVWS is best suited for differ-
ent Wireless ISPs (WISPs), provided that the networks are the same in rural areas with increased TVWS channels
availability.
TVWS also supports increased power, improved propagation characteristics, lower range when compared to Wi-Fi
backhaul network. However, for municipalities, fixed or mobile broadband providers, campuses and big venues problem
of sending traffic from base stations or access points to a central point occurs. Cost is another factor including purchasing,
deploying, and maintaining the construction cost of cable for the backhaul networks.
In other way, to avoid interference between neighboring broadcasting stations, the spectrum bands are geographically
interleaved, which is known as TV white spaces (TVWS).

3.2.5 Microwave

Microwave bands are utilized as backhaul frequency bands with a maximum reach of 30 miles. Data handling capac-
ity up to 500 Mbps, which can be enhanced up to 10 Gbps for medium and long haul communications by adopting
ultrahigh spectral-efficiency schemes (eg, MIMO, LOS), advanced modulation Schemes (4096 QAM and higher), and
much wider channel gaps (eg, for traditional microwave bands 4-42 GHz channel spacing of 112 MHz) is considered.46,47
Over worldwide, 50% of mobile backhaul traffic uses microwave RF technology in the majority. Microwave radio
deployment requires single time capital cost, including power/space maintenance and rental. The advantages of
microwave RF usages are lower deployment time and cost-efficient. However, its performance is adversely affected
by weather conditions and propagation environment. Sometimes, the data transmission rate is lowered to meet
the availability requirements, and by using low-frequency bands, the reach can be extended, but it results in data
congestion.48,49
10 of 16 SHARMA et al.

3.2.6 IEEE 802.11s standard

IEEE 802.11s standard (known as Wi-Fi) backhaul has emerged as a successful technology as the Wi-Fi link supports
larger distance coverage as well as higher throughput. However, Wi-Fi shows certain drawbacks such as low QoS guar-
antees, low packet efficiency, and poor accurate synchronization mechanisms. Wi-Fi backhaul for a three-hop Wi-Fi link
can support up to 80 km distance and 38 km for a single-hop Wi-Fi link, and this distance increases with the number
of multi-hop in the mesh. Various channel utilization methods in Wi-Fi mesh are presented in Reference 50. Product
vendors such as Reference 51 provide proprietary Wi-Fi backhaul mesh in mobile operators’ case. In the development
of Wi-Fi mesh networks, IEEE standardization bodies also contributed by proposing 802.11s standard, which eliminates
current drawbacks such as exposed and hidden terminals and unfairness problems in multi-hop environments presented
in IEEE MAC protocol standard 802.11.52
In this concern, Mesh Deterministic Access (MDA) is another optional MAC scheme, which defines medium reser-
vation for QoS. However, just like enhanced distributed channel access (EDCA), MDA cannot offer the best QoS for
Wi-Fi single hops. Research is ongoing in getting guaranteed QoS in this area, such as resource reservation protocol-like
techniques.51-53 Per-neighbor basis synchronization is carried out in the IEEE 802.11s standard when compared to optimal
global synchronization utilized in other Wi-Fi networks standard.

3.2.7 WiMAX (worldwide interoperability for microwave access)

WiMAX guarantees QoS and provides much accurate network synchronization. WiMAX mesh can provide higher
reach via multiple hops54 just like Wi-Fi mesh. Since nodes are fixed in WiMAX, the WiMAX 802.16-2004 standard
can be used by nomadic and fixed access in cellular backhaul related applications. Moreover, WiMAX supports mesh
and Point-To-Multiple Point (PMP) topologies both. In WiMAX mesh mode, there are a variety of scheduling schemes
(centralized scheduling, centralized scheduling, and combination of both, also called hybrid scheduling) are available
which provide efficient data transmission scheduling between various communicating nodes.55 Due to the no collision
transmission, centralized scheduling algorithms give improved QoS and find its applications in cellular backhaul appli-
cations. Further, it provides increased bandwidth utilization and also eliminates hidden terminal issues.55,56 Apart from
the scheduling mechanism, there is no service class concept feature available in this standard for the mesh node and
keeps the relationship between interference between mesh nodes and the scheduling on the designer’s selection and
research.57,58
Further, a common timing source supported by either GPS or IEEE WiMAX is required by mesh network synchro-
nization. Moreover, synchronization in both modes Time Division Duplex (TDD) and Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)
is required in the Point-To-Point (PTP) WiMAX network. In the TDD mode, an accurate clock reference can coordinate
simultaneous transmissions on different links in allover the mesh. In both Wi-Fi and WiMAX mesh networks, both timing
and synchronization related challenges are ongoing research.
WiMAX outperforms Wi-Fi in many features such as accurate network synchronization, when compared to rudi-
mentary synchronization mechanisms in Wi-Fi, guaranteed QoS. Positioning services (eg, GPS) is used by 802.16-2004
standard for network synchronization purpose. In this, GPS as a feasible solution is adopted in Wi-Fi backhaul.
However, considering the cost point of view, implementation of IEEE 1588 PTP in both cases: WiMAX and Wi-Fi is
still not a cost-efficient option. Therefore, active research is going on the backup timing reference in BSs deployed with
GPS receivers. Due to unlicensed spectrum usage and mass level production, Wi-Fi provides a cost-effective solution.
Further, WiMAX undergoes a licensed spectrum fee. The standardization drives the overall cost low. However, the main
challenges still lie in the fields such as resource reservation, integrity, and authenticity, network availability, QoS, billing,
confidentiality, timing and synchronization, security, and so on.59-61
In case when Wireless mesh network is administered by third parties, then relevant security challenges includ-
ing authenticity, network availability, integrity, confidentiality while aiming to efficient Billing models and accounting
mechanisms needs to be done. An accounting mechanism and bandwidth management solution are proposed enabling
intrusion detection, secure routing, and trust and key management, allowing BSs or radio network controllers to release
bandwidth dynamically in the mesh network based on the observed network. The standard mechanisms are also
presented for the reservation of resources in the network.60
Based on the literature study, in Table 3, all the existing wireless backhaul technologies are summarized based on
features such as throughput, latency, implementation cost, and distance.
T A B L E 3 Performance comparison of wireless/wired backhaul technologies
Throughput Coverage Deployment cost Latency Options QoS
Parameters
technology Uplink Downlink
SHARMA et al.

Leased T1/E1 E1 = 2.048 Mbps E1 = 2.048 Mbps No additional requirement Reduced CAPEX (existing already); High LOS requirement Guarantees QoS
Copper2 T1 = 1.544 Mbps T1 = 1.544 Mbps Increased OPEX (with increased
leasing price);
Cost and capacity and distance is
directly proportional factors

Optical fiber24,25 51.84 Mbps 155.52 Mbps No additional requirement Installation cost is high; cost and Low LOS requirement Guaranteed QoS
distance is directly proportional

FSO22,27,30-33 10 Gbps 10 Gbps 1-3 km Low Low LOS Guarantees QoS

Microwave 1 Gbps 1 Gbps 2–4 km Medium ≤1 ms/hop PtP Guarantees QoS

PtP14,28,29,46-49 high CAPEX Upfront;
spectrum fee (Licensed);
maintenance and installation cost is
high

Microwave PtmP48 1 Gbps 1 Gbps 2–4 km Medium ≤1 ms/hop PtmP Guarantees QoS
high CAPEX Upfront;
spectrum fee for Licensed band;
maintenance cost increased

TVWS20 18 Mbps/ch 18 Mbps/ch 1–5 km Medium 10 ms NLOS Guarantees QoS

39-45
Satellite 15 Mbps 50 Mbps All-pervading Higher 300 ms LOS Propagation delay problem
Much more expensive compared to Extremely flexible
other choices coverage

MmWave 60 GHz 1 Gbps 1 Gbps 1 km Medium 200 μs LOS Low throughput affects
channel reliability

MmWave 10 Gbps 10 Gbps 3 km Medium 65-350 μs LOS Its critical to attain maximum
70-80 GHz31,35,38 quality of service

Sub-6 GHz 150-450 Mbps 150-450 Mbps 250 m Medium 2–20 ms NLOS Uniformly high QoS
2.4, 3.5, 5 GHz28

Sub-6 GHz 170 Mbps 170 Mbps 1.5-2.5 km urban, 10 km rural Medium 5 ms single NLOS High QoS
800 MHz-6 GHz29 hop

Wi-Fi50-53 11 Mbps (802.11b) 600 Mbps (802.11n) 80 km over three hop Medium ≤2 ms LOS/NLOS (supports EDCA (802.11e) provides
54 Mbps (802.11 g) Link 38 km for single hop link: unlicensed spectrum and mass multi-hop for longer service classes no guarantee
Supports multihop for longer production therefore low cost distance) QoS
distance

WiMAX54-61 75 Mbps (single 350 Mbps Supports multihop for longer Spectrum fee due to Licensed band; 50 ms Non-LOS and LOS Supports guaranteed QoS in
channel) (multi-channel) distance: 50 km Cost decreases due to standardization support; PMP Mode
Multi-hop for long
11 of 16

distance is possible
12 of 16 SHARMA et al.

From Table 3, it is clear that that for 2G GSM backhaul, leased T1/E1 copper lines used to be deployed and are more
due to its perfect timing reference and guaranteed QoS. However, for the UMTS 3G system supporting both high-speed
traffic data and voice, leased T1/E1 copper is not a cost-effective solution as cost and capacity have a directly proportional
relationship. Nevertheless, optical fiber technologies provide increased capacity with guaranteed QoS required for 3G and
4G mobile technologies but with the increased cost of maintenance and installation. In addition, an increase in capacity
depending on the medium at significantly lower cost can be obtained by Packet switched (Ethernet and IP) networks, but
there is an issue of low packet efficiency and timing synchronization with low QoS in the case when voice payloads are
carried out. Table 2 also demonstrates that FSO with ambient light cancelation methods at the receiver supports the best
throughput and very less latency and is the most suitable solution for 5G backhaul. There is relaxation in using a wireless
connection when compared to wired backhaul in terms of infrastructure installations and the requirement of availability
of wired connections. Timing authorized licensed, and best QoS can be assured by synchronous transmission techniques
(SDH) or T1/E1-based microwave technologies.

4 6G: D RIVING EMERGING TRENDS A ND PERFORMANCE METRICS

Pervasive intelligent endogenous 6G wireless systems: prospects, theories, and key technologies-based study are presented
in which a forward-looking, comprehensive and in depth analysis and technology identification of 6G is carried out.62
A framework is presented which addresses the 6G issues of cellular networks related to Internet of things (IoT), (infor-
mation transmission, data aggregation, energy supply, and information transmission).63 The framework integrates energy,
computation, and communication (ECC). In order to overall enhance performance of ECC, a joint beamforming design
algorithm for the IoT devices and BS is presented. In this model initially the BS charges massive IoT-based devices simul-
taneously via wireless power transfer (WPT) in the downlink. Furthermore, the IoT-based devices with the harvested
energy completes the communication task as well as computation task in the uplink over the same spectrum. Finally,
simulation results validated the usefulness of the proposed algorithm in 6G cellular IoT networks. Table 4 presents 6G
enabling technologies, opportunities, applications, and encountered challenges.18,53,64,65

4.1 Machine learning in 6G wireless communication networks

In 6G wireless communication networks, machine learning is an efficient and robust tool with features such as ubiqui-
tous, reliable, and near-instant wireless connectivity for humans and machines. A computing system or trained model
which learns characteristics of any system (which cannot be represented by explicit mathematical model) is referred
as ML model. A number of tasks are carried out by ML models such as classification, interactions of an intelligent
agent with external environment and regression. These tasks can be performed by using basic arithmetical calcula-
tions. Further, ML models contain three paradigms: supervised learning (input samples are presented to the ML model
and their known associated outputs), unsupervised learning (no output labels, model learns to classify samples of
the input), and reinforcement learning (agent interacts with an environment and learns mapping of any input to an
action).56,66

T A B L E 4 6G enabling technologies, opportunities, applications and encountered challenges

New enabling technologies Opportunities and applications Technological challenges

High Speed Tbps, Sensor fusion Increased interference from new

Low latency sub-ms, Sending and Localization for future devices
AI and Machine learning, eHealth Dark spots and blockage
Dense Arrays Lower power directional transmission High hardware power consumption
High accuracy AR/VR/MR Short rage at THz
Smart metasurfaces Joint communication and radar Heat problem due to hardware and
New frequency bands Bid data analysis miniaturization of THz elements
Quantum technology Robot localization Limitation in hardware
Edge-cloud assisted cellular networks
(C-Ran, MEC)
SHARMA et al. 13 of 16

4.2 6G: driving emerging trends

Trend 1—Convergence of Control, Communications and Computing (3C), Localization, and Sensing (3CLS): However,
evolution of enables a convergence of various functions such as control, communications, computing sensing, and local-
ization. Example of jointly providing sensing function is 3D mapping of the radio environment across various frequencies
supported to the subscribers. 6G built a multi-purpose system to deliver a number of 3CLS services for applications such
as DLT, XR, and CRAS.65
Trend 2—Cyber Robots and Autonomous Systems: The 6G system will offer large-scale deployment of autonomous
systems, (eg, unmanned aerial vehicles mail delivery systems, drones), network robots as well as application of self-driving
cars.67
Trend 3—New Smart City: Millions of sensors have been equipped into roads, houses, vehicles, buildings, factories,
and other facilities to build a smart city. To complete data-oriented activities, 6G will be the reliable wireless high-speed
communication which will support applications that will collaborate and integrate with each other.68
Trend 4—High Speed Internet Access in the Air: Air network services have two modes: satellite transmission and ground
base stations. In case of ground base station mode, the air network suffers issues such as Doppler frequency shift due to
the rapid movement of the aircraft, large cross-border range, high maneuverability, frequent handovers, and narrow base
station coverage.29
Trend 5—Increased Bits, Increased spectrum, Higher Reliability: Most of the driving applications of 6G require higher
bit rates than 5G. For applications such as XR (AR and VR) and brain computer interface (BCI), 6G will be able to support
yet 1000 times increase in data rates with expected data rates of 1 Terabit/second.
Trend 6—Global Emergency Communication Rescue: It is expected that, by 2030, ubiquitous connectivity or huge seam-
less network coverage system in all regions such as deserts, blind spots, deeps seas will going to be the main functions
of 6G networks. With integration of unmanned aerial networks, features such as wide coverage, flexible deployment,
ultra-low power consumption, and high precision will be supported by 6G communication network.69
Trend 7—Energy Efficiency and from Areal to Volumetric Spectral: Evolution regarding high spectral and energy effi-
ciency (SEE) started from 2G (bps) to 3G (bps/Hz), then 4G (bps/Hz/m2) to 5G (bps/Hz/m2 /J). Therefore, an evolution
towards XR/BCI devices occurs due to this 3D nature of 6G systems as well as 6G systems must provide SEE constraints
which is measured in bps/Hz/m3 /J.
Trend 8—Emergence of Smart Surfaces and Environments: Utilization of environments for wireless communications
incorporating smart large intelligent surfaces will carry forward the 6G architectural evolution. Cellular systems used
base stations for transmission which are of various forms and sizes in current and existing scenarios.
Trend 9—XR Based on Holographic Communication: With evolution in 6G, potential trend can be noticed in develop-
ment in AR/VR technology due to which freedom of users and their mobility (users will not be restricted by location) as
well as holographic communication will be no longer be restricted by location and time.69
Trend 10—Massive Availability of big data to Small Data: 6G systems must handle both small datasets as well as big data
sets across their infrastructure to support new services and improve network functions. Various new machine learning
tools will be developed due to this trend to go beyond big data analytics. Therefore, revolution in data will persist in the
coming future and move from big data (centralized), small data (massively distributed).
Trend 11—Human Digital Twin: A digital twin is a virtual model or replicas of a products, processes, or any other
physical devices and services in which sensors collects data which corresponds to physical asset. Due to the rapid growth
in IoT, data analytics and AI digital twin technology has moved beyond manufacturing and provides enhanced network
capacity.70
Trend 12—From Self-Organizing Networks (SON) to Self-Sustaining Networks: SON has only been scarcely integrated
into 4G/5G networks due to a lack of real-world need.71
Trend 13—Wireless Tactile Network: The traditional Internet is only used for the interaction of data and information
but the tactile Internet will not only responsible for the remote transmission of information, but will also contain remote
control and response behavior that will correspond to the transmission of data and information.54
Trend 14—End of the Smartphone span: In 6G, wearable devices incorporating applications such as BCI and XR will
take place of Smartphones centered in 4G and 5G with enhanced functionalities. The new devices integrated with these
applications will range from wearables to smart body implants and integrated headsets which can take signals from direct
sensory inputs of human senses, results an end to smartphones and potentially driving a majority of 6G use cases. Figure 3
highlights the possible potential trends offered by 6G technology.54
14 of 16 SHARMA et al.

FIGURE 3 Possible trends and technology innovations in 6G

5 CO N C LUSION AN D FU T U RE WORKS

This study conducts a state-of-the-art survey of backhaul networks (wireless/wired) and 5G and 6G systems with their
recent trends, research opportunities, and associated challenges. Based on the above discussion, mainly the mmWave
communication and massive MIMO antenna-based technologies are emerging trends in the 5G cellular network. Besides,
for 5G ultra-dense cellular networks, the distributed network architecture is recommended. However, in an ultra-dense
cellular network utilizing distributed network structures, constraints, and performance restrictions, specific parameters
such as increased data rate and transmitted power level are still there. Moreover, in 5G mobile networks, deployment of
how a dense small cell is feasible before the performance deteriorates needs to be still investigated.
Further, the study presents a brief overview of 6G that focuses on core techniques, applicable scenarios, prospects and
development, various potential trends, and challenges. This paper discusses the upcoming research area in 6G. In the next
generation, 6G era wireless communication networks mainly focus on communication between intelligent objects and
individuals and industries. It is very much machine to machine-centric, unlike 5G, which is human to machine-centric.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

REFERENCES
1. Ahamed M. M, Faruque S. 5G Backhaul: Requirements Challenges and Emerging Technologies. England: IntechOpen; 2018:43-58. https://
doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78615.
2. Ahamed M, Faruque S, Gaire SK. Laser Radio: Backhaul Solution for 5G Networks. Vol 9979. San Fransisco: Proc.SPIE; 2017:1-10 https://
doi.org/10.1117/12.2237952.
3. Akyildiz IF, Wang X, Wang W. Wireless mesh networks: a survey. Comput Netw. 2005;47:445-487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2004.
12.001.
4. Al-Dabbagh Rasha K, Al-Raweshidy Hamed S. 64-GHz millimeter-wave photonic generation with a feasible radio over fiber system. Optical
Engineering. 2017;56(2):026117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.oe.56.2.026117.
5. Alawieh B, Zhang Y, Assi C, Mouftah H. Improving spatial reuse in multihop wireless networks – a survey. IEEE Commun Surv Tutor.
2009;11:71-91.
6. Alheadary WG, Park K, Alouini M. Optik Performance analysis of multihop heterodyne free-space optical communication over general
Malaga turbulence channels with pointing error. Optik. 2017;151:34-47.
7. Tang F, Kawamoto, Y, Kato N, Liu J. Future intelligent and secure vehicular network toward 6G: machine learing approaches. Proceedings
of the IEEE. 2019;108(2):292-307.
8. Asadi A, Sciancalepore V, Mancuso V. On the efficient utilization of radio resources in extremely dense. Wireless Network.
2015;53(1):126-132.
9. Huq KMS, Rodriguez J. Backhauling/Fronthauling for Future Wireless Systems. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons; 2016.
10. Balaji KA, Prabu K. Performance evaluation of FSO system using wavelength and time diversity over malaga turbulence channel with
pointing errors. Optics Commun. 2018;410:643-651.
SHARMA et al. 15 of 16

11. Ahmed Ouameur M, Lê Duong Tuan A, Massicotte D. Model-aided distributed shallow learning for OFDM receiver in IEEE 802.11 channel
model. Wirel Netw J, Springer Nature. 2020;26:5427-5436.
12. Hamamreh JM, Hajar A, Abewa M. Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing with subcarrier power modulation for doubling the
spectral efficiency of 6G and beyond networks. Trans Emerg Telecommun Technol. 2020;31(4):e3921.
13. Gupta R, Kumari A, Tanwar S. A taxonomy of blockchain envisioned edge-as-a-connected autonomous vehicles. Transactions on Emerging
Telecommunications Technologies. 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ett.4009.
14. Sapavath NN, Safavat S, Rawat DB. On the machine learning-based smart beamforming for wireless virtualization with large-scale MIMO
system. Trans Emerg Telecommun Technol. 2019;30(9):e3713.
15. El Rharras A, Saber M, Chehri A, Saadane R, Hakem N, Jeon G. Optimization of spectrum utilization parameters in cognitive radio using
genetic algorithm. Paper presented at: 24th International Conference on Knowledge-Based and Intelligent Information & Engineering
Systems; 16–18 September 2020: Verona, Italy.
16. Chehri A, Mouftah HT. New MMSE downlink channel estimation for sub-6 GHz non-line-of-sight backhaul. Paper presented at: 2018
IEEE Globecom Workshops (GC Wkshps); 2018; Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates:1-7. doi:10.1109/GLOCOMW.2018.8644436.
17. Chehri A, Mouftah HT. PHY-MAC MIMO precoder design for sub-6 GHz backhaul small cell. Paper presented at: IEEE 91st vehicular
technology conference (VTC2020-spring); 2020; Antwerp, Belgium:1-5. doi: 10.1109/VTC2020-Spring48590.2020.9128733.
18. Chowdhury M Z, Shahjalal Md, Hasan MK, Jang YM. The Role of Optical Wireless Communication Technologies in 5G/6G and IoT
Solutions: Prospects, Directions, and Challenges. Applied Sciences. 2019;9 (20):4367. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app9204367.
19. Condoluci M, Dohler M, Araniti G, Molinaro A, Zheng K. Toward 5G DenseNets: architectural advances for effective machine-type
communications over femtocells. IEEE Commun Mag. 2015;26:134-141.
20. Dehos C, González JL, De Domenico A, Kténas D, Dussopt L. Millimeter-wave access and backhauling: the solution to the exponential
data traffic increase in 5G mobile communications systems? IEEE Commun Mag. 2014;14:88-95.
21. Ding W, Niu Y, Wu H, Li Y. QoS-aware full-duplex concurrent scheduling for millimeter wave wireless backhaul networks. IEEE Access.
2018;3536:1-9.
22. Du H, Fu S, Shi G, Li W, Tian LI, Meng Y. Performance evaluation for the two-stage cooperative spectrum sensing scheme in cognitive
radio. WSEAS Trans Signal Process. 2016;12:68-73.
23. Fadda M, Murroni M, Perra C, Popescu V. TV white spaces exploitation for multimedia signal distribution. Signal Process Image Commun.
2012;27:893-899.
24. Slalmi A, Kharraz H, Saadane R, Hasna C, Chehri A, Jeon G. Energy efficiency proposal for IoT call admission control in 5G network.
Paper presented at: 2019 15th International Conference on Signal-Image Technology & Internet-Based Systems (SITIS); 2019; Sorrento,
Italy:396-403. doi:10.1109/SITIS.2019.00070.
25. Fletcher S, Telecom NEC. Cellular architecture and key technologies for 5G wireless communication networks. IEEE Commun Mag.
2014;52:122-130.
26. Gao B, Yang Y, Roy S. A taxonomy of coexistence mechanisms for heterogeneous cognitive radio networks operating in TV white spaces.
IEEE Wirel Commun. 2012;19(4):41-48.
27. Ge X, Cheng H, Guizani M, Han T. 5G wireless backhaul networks: challenges and research advances. IEEE Netw. 2014;28:6-11.
28. Ge X, Member S, Tu S, Mao G, Member S, Vincent KN. Cost efficiency optimization of 5G wireless backhaul networks. IEEE Trans Mobile
Comput. 2018;1233:1-18.
29. Gui G, Liu M, Tang F, Kato N, Adachi F. 6G: Opening New Horizons for Integration of Comfort, Security and Intelligence. IEEE Wireless
Communications. 2020;1-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mwc.001.1900516.
30. Slalmi A, Chaibi H, Saadane R, Chehri A, Jeon G. 5G NB-IoT: efficient network call admission control in cellular networks. Concurr
Comput Pract Exp, John Wiley and Sons. 2020;5:2020.
31. Hadi MS, Member GS, Lawey AQ, El- TEH, Elmirghani JMH, Member S. Patient-centric HetNets powered by machine learning and big
data analytics for 6G networks. IEEE Access. 2020.85639-85655.
32. Chehri A, Jeon G. Real-time multiuser scheduling based on end-user requirement using big data analytics. Concurrency and Computation:
Practice and Experience. 2018;e5021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cpe.5021.
33. He J, Yang K, Guild K. Application of IEEE 802.16 mesh networks as the backhaul of multihop cellular networks. IEEE Commun Mag.
2007;45:82-90.
34. Hewa T. The role of blockchain in 6G: challenges, opportunities research directions; 2020:4-8.
35. Hiertz GR, Zang Y, Max S, et al. IEEE 802.11s: WLAN mesh standardization and high performance extensions. IEEE Netw. 2008;22:12-19.
36. Höyhtyä M, Member S, Mämmelä A, et al. Spectrum occupancy measurements: A survey and use of interference maps. Surv Tutor.
2016;18(4):2386-2414. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2016.2559525.
37. Hoymann C, Dittrich M, Goebbels S. Dimensioning cellular multihop WiMAX networks; 2007:150-157.
38. Hur S, Member S, Kim T, et al. Millimeter wave beamforming for wireless backhaul and access in small cell networks. IEEE Trans
Commun. 2013;61:4391-4403.
39. Jaber M, Member S, Ali M, et al. 5G backhaul challenges and emerging research directions: a survey. IEEE Access. 2016;4:1743-1766.
40. Katz M, Matinmikko-Blue M, Latva-Aho M. 6Genesis flagship program: building the bridges towards 6G-enabled wireless smart society
and ecosystem. Paper presented at: 2018 IEEE 10th Latin-American Conference on Communications (LATINCOM):1-9.
41. Letaief KB, Chen W, Shi Y, Zhang J, Zhang YA. The roadmap to 6G: AI empowered wireless networks. IEEE Commun Mag. 2019;57:84-90.
42. Kim II, Korevaar E, Street R. Availability of free space optics (FSO) and hybrid FSO/RF systems; 2001, 4530:84-95.
43. Kumar A. Evolution of mobile wireless communication networks: 1G to 4G. Int J Electron Commun Technol. 2010;7109:68-72.
16 of 16 SHARMA et al.

44. Chehri A, Mouftah HT. Autonomous vehicles in the sustainable cities, the beginning of a green adventure. Sustainable Cities and Society.
2019;51:101751-101773. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101751.
45. Li H, Fang F, Ding Z. Joint resource allocation for hybrid NOMA-assisted MEC in 6G networks. Digital Communications and Networks.
2020;6(3):241-252. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dcan.2020.05.005.
46. Li X, Zhou R, Angela Zhang Y-J, Jiao L, Li Z. Smart vehicular communication via 5G mmWaves. Comput Netw. 2020;172:107173.
47. Li Y, Liu J, Cao B, Wang C. Joint optimization of radio and virtual machine resources with uncertain user demands in Mobile cloud
computing. IEEE Trans Multimed. 2018;20:2427-2438.
48. Saber M, El Rharras A, Saadane R, Chehri A, Hakem N, Kharraz HA. Spectrum sensing for smart embedded devices in cognitive networks
using machine learning algorithms. Paper presented at: 24th International Conference on Knowledge-Based and Intelligent Information
& Engineering Systems; 16–18 September 2020; Verona, Italy.
49. Lu Y, Zheng X. 6G: a survey on technologies, scenarios, challenges, and the related issues. J Ind Inf Integr. 2020;19:100158.
50. Chehri A, Mouftah HT. Exploiting multiuser diversity for OFDMA next generation wireless networks. Paper presented at: 2013 IEEE
symposium on computers and communications (ISCC), Split; 2013:000665-000669. doi:10.1109/ISCC.2013.6755024.
51. Mahmood NH, Alves H, López OA, Shehab M, Osorio DPM, Latva-Aho M. Six key features of machine type communication in 6G. Paper
presented at: 2020 2nd 6G Wireless Summit; 2020:1-5.
52. Malik S, Sahu PK. Free space optics / millimeter-wave based vertical and horizontal terrestrial backhaul network for 5G. Opt Commun.
2020;459:125010.
53. Manogaran G, Rawal BS. Blockchain based integrated security measure for reliable service delegation in 6G communication environment.
Computer Communications. 2020;161:248-256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comcom.2020.07.020.
54. Mourad A, Yang R, Lehne PH, de la Oliva A. Towards 6G: evolution of key performance indicators and technology trends. Paper presented
at: 2020 2nd 6G Wireless Summit (6G SUMMIT); 2020:1-5.
55. Narlikar G, Wilfong G, Zhang L. Designing multihop wireless backhaul networks with delay guarantees. Paper presented at: Proceedings
IEEE INFOCOM 2006. 25th IEEE international conference on Comput Commun; 2006:237-254.
56. Nawaz SJ, Sharma SK, Wyne S, Patwary MN, Asaduzzaman M. Quantum machine learning for 6G communication networks:
state-of-the-art and vision for the future. IEEE Access. 2019;7:46317-46350.
57. Nistazakis HE, Tombras GS. On the use of wavelength and time diversity in optical wireless communication systems over gamma-gamma
turbulence channels. Optics Laser Technol. 2012;44:2088-2094.
58. Palattella MR, Dohler M, Member F, et al. Internet of things in the 5G era: enablers, architecture, and business models. IEEE J Selected
Areas Commun. 2016;8716:1-17. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSAC.2016.2525418.
59. Park J, Lee E, Chae C, Member S, Model AS. Impact of pointing errors on the performance of coherent free-space optical systems. IEEE
Photon Technol Lett. 2016;28:181-184.
60. Slalmi A, Chaibi H, Chehri A, Saadane R, Jeon G, Hakem N. On the ultra-reliable and low-latency communications for tactile Internet
in 5G Era. Paper presented at: 24th International Conference on Knowledge-Based and Intelligent Information & Engineering Systems;
16–18 September 2020; Verona, Italy.
61. Tipmongkolsilp O, Zaghloul S, Jukan A. The evolution of cellular backhaul technologies: current issues and future trends. IEEE Commun
Surv Tutor. 2011;13:97-113.
62. Saad W, Bennis M, Chen M. A vision of 6G wireless systems: applications, trends, technologies, and open research problems. IEEE Netw.
2020;34:134-142.
63. Qi Q, Chen X, Zhong C, Zhang Z. Integration of energy, computation communication 6G cell Internet things. IEEE Commun Lett.
2020;7798:1-5.
64. Zhang L, Liang Y, Niyato D. 6G visions: Mobile ultra-broadband, super Internet-of-things, and artificial intelligence. China Commun.
2019;16:1-14.
65. Zhou Y, Liu L, Wang L, . Service-aware 6G: An intelligent and open network based on the convergence of communication, computing and
caching. Digital Communications and Networks. 2020;6 (3):253-260. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dcan.2020.05.003.
66. Tang F, Kawamoto Y, Kato N, Liu J. Future intelligent and secure vehicular network toward 6G: machine-learning approaches. Proc IEEE.
2020;108:292-307.
67. Sim MS, Lim Y-G, Park SH, Dai L, Chae C-B. Deep Learning-Based mmWave Beam Selection for 5G NR/6G With Sub-6 GHz Channel
Information: Algorithms and Prototype Validation. IEEE Access. 2020;8:51634-51646. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.2980285.
68. Latif S, Afzaal H, Zafar NA. Intelligent traffic monitoring and guidance system for smart city. Paper presented at: 2018 International
Conference on Computing, Mathematics and Engineering Technologies (ICoMET); 2018; 1-6.
69. Saad W, Bennis M, Chen M. A Vision of 6G Wireless Systems: Applications, Trends, Technologies, and Open Research Problems. IEEE
Network. 2020;34(3):134-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mnet.001.1900287.
70. Viswanathan H, Mogensen PE. Communications in the 6G era. IEEE Access. 2020;8:57063-57074.
71. Ziegler V, Yrjola S. 6G indicators of value and performance. Paper presented at: 2020 2nd 6G Wireless Summit (6G SUMMIT); 2020:1-5.

How to cite this article: Sharma T, Chehri A, Fortier P. Review of optical and wireless backhaul networks and
emerging trends of next generation 5G and 6G technologies. Trans Emerging Tel Tech. 2020;e4155. https://doi.org/
10.1002/ett.4155