Chapter 13 OSCILLATIONS 13-1 Oscillations -- Vocabulary One of the most interesting phenomena in all of physics is motion which repeats itself at equal or regular intervals of time. Such motion is called periodic motion, The same laws of mechanics with which you are familiar apply here also, but there are some new definitions and vocabulary which you must learn. Periodic Motion -- Any motion of a system which repeats itself at regular equal inter~ vals of time. Periodic motion is often called harmonic motion. Periodic Functions -- Functions which repeat their values at equal intervals of their ‘arguments. Some examples are sin wt, cos. wt, etc. They are used to describe periodic motion. Oscillatory or Vibratory Motion -- The name given to periodic motion of a particle which moves back and forth over the same path. Damped Harmonic Motion -- Motion which is harmonic but traces out less and less of its full path due to dissapative or frictional forces. Period -- The time interval between one configuration of a system undergoing periodic motion and the next identical configuration. A configuration is specified by the coordinates and momenta of all parts of a system, The period is also the interval of repetition; it is usually denoted by T. Frequency -- The number of times the configuration of a periodic motion system repeats itself per unit time. The reciprocal of the periods it is usually denoted by L vel, - ; (13-1) Cycle -- A complete repetition from one configuration to the next identical one. The frequency 1s the number of these cycles per unit time, Hertz -- The MKS unit of frequency; a cycle per second. 13-2 A Particle in Harmonic Motion -- One Dimension For a particle undergoing harmonic motion one needs the vocabulary Equilibrium -- that position at which no net force acts on the particle; Displacement -- the distance of the oscillating particle from its equilibrium position. Since the particle mst return to a given locati, tum (hence kinetic energy) a6 tt had when {t was there before, Shai doree hess Sree te rvative. That is, Fuestions tees + the force must be derivable from a potential energy Scanned with CamScannerFe. gu a! (13-2) ition occurs at the mint The equilibrium pos minima of the potential energy (dU/dx = 0} also, the force must tend to return the particle to the cqditin epee xu possible potential energy is shown in Fig, 13-13 the equilibrium position has been chosen as the origin. Ue) Figure 13-1, Illustration of po- tential energy U(x) versus x; the E total mechanical energy is the x) Key horizontal solid line and the kinetic energy K(x) is shown. Ke) The limits of oscillation x, and Xp are also shown, The possible values which the displacement may have are determined by the total me- chanical energy E = K+ U(x) = constant (13-3) where K is the kinetic energy. If we draw a line parallel to the x axis representing the function E(x) = constant as shown in Fig. 13-1 the difference between E(x) and U(x) is K(x) which must be positive. The limits are then given by U(x) = E (13-4) and are indicated by x) and xp. At x2, F(x) is negative (dU/dx > 0) so a particle re- leased there is accelerated toward the origin at which point it has acquired kinetic energy K= E - U(0). Note that U(0) need not be zero. At x = O the particle con- tinues against the retarding force (F >0) until it reaches x) where again it has zero velocity. It is then accelerated toward the origin and eventually returns to xp having completed one cycle of the periodic motion. For a general potential energy function (or briefly potential) apart from the periodicity, the particle motion would be quite complicated. For this reason one studies the simple harmonic oscillator potential. 13-3 Simple Harmonic Oscillator -- Simple Harmonic Motion The simple harmonic oscillator potential in one dimension is = b kx? (13-5) so the restoring force is = - We Fe-Qec kx, (13-6) which clearly tends to return the particle toward the et i i quilibrium position which is the origin. A particle noringith thts Potential is called a simple harmonic oscilla- tor s motion is called simple harmoni, 4 Positions are equally spaced from the origin at Se ee a make sing Scanned with CamScannerAaa = 2B, (13-7) The differential equation of metion of the SHO is obtained from Newton's second law: ay. 2 i ig idoe Fe - kx = ma, =m me and therefore 2 Syikxeo. (13-8) at’ In_any physical situation governed by an equation of this form one speaks of SHM. Examples occur In acoustics, optics, electrical circuits, atomic and nuclear Physics in addition to mechanics. Since Eq. (13-8) is a second order differential equation its general solution contains two integration constants.* A general solution is written as x = Acos (wt + 6) (13-9) where (13-10) This solution is verified by substitution into Eq. (13-8). In Eq. (13-9) A =the amplitude of the SHM wt + 6 = the phase 6 = the phase constant w = angular frequency; w = 2n/T = 2nv where v is the frequency. The amplitude, A, and phase constant, 6, are determined by the initial conditions or by conditions equivalent to them. Note that w is independent of the amplitudes this is characteristic of SHM. The amplitude may be related to the total mechanical energy. From Eq. (13-9) xpax Occurs when wt + 6 = 0, + 27, + 47, etc. and the minimum value which is - Xa, occurs at wt += 4, 4 3m, 4 5, etc. These are the ximits of Eq. (13-7) and Since the amplitude is taken as intrinsically positive A= 2 : (13-11) Two SHM may have the same amplitude and frequency and differ in phase constant. If x 1s one SHM and xp another and if x, = A, cos (wt + 6) *Recall one dimens{onal, constant acceleration, kinematics. Then ax = constant = d@x/dt®, In that case x(0) and v. i. integration constants. 0) (0): reste, tio Scanned with CamScannerwhile 2 +649), Xp = Ay cos (wt + 6 +9) one says that x» leads x; in phase by @. It is not necessary that the amplitudes be the same for thts statement to have meaning. The statement means that xo reaches a given value (relative to its maximum) sooner than x, does. > Example 1. Consider SHM x = A cos wt and show that the velocity leads the dis- placement by 7/2 in phase and that the acceleration leads the velocity by /2 in phase. Since x = A cos wt, the velocity is v= & =~ wh sin ut = wh cos (wt + 7/2) so it leads x by 1/2'in phase. Next, a = Y= ~ A cos ut = uA cos (ut + 2) ale which leads v by 1/2 ang x by ™. An easy way to see this phase relationship is to graph x/A, v/wA and a/u2A versus wt and watch the location of the first maxima past the origin. This is done in Fig. 13-2, The values of wt are indicated as well as Figure 13-2. A graph of displace- ment, velocity and acceleration divided by their respective maxi- mum values for SHM illustrating that a leads v by m/2 which in turn lead x by 1/2 in phase. the values of T, The introduction of a phase constant would merely shift the origin one way or the other, but would not alter the phase relationships. «<<< 13-4 Energy Considerations in SHM If the displacement is given by x = Acos (wt + 6) the velocity is given by = See 6). y= wA sin (wt + 6) Scanned with CamScannertime as The Kinetic energy may be expressed as 2 function of ? sin? 3-12a) a 6) Qa | k= dav? = # mua? sin? (wt + 6) = BRA sin” (wt + 6) | | ir funetion of position as ee 3 BELO. oi pee 2 as (13-12b) K= bmi (a> - x) = ERA - x Similarly the potential energy as a function of position is is 2 13-132 U=t ke i and as a function of time is U=4 kA? cos (wt +6) « (13-13b) The total mechanical energy is given by E=K+U=$ kA? (13-14) as in Eq. (13-11). Fig. 13-3a shows K, U and E as functions of x and in Fig. 13-3b ‘they are shown as functions of time, For simplicity 5 was taken as zero. ENERGY, (a) (b) Figure 13-3. Energies of a simple harmonic oscillator: (k), potential energy (U) and total energy (E) as functio: Kinetic energy ns of time (a) | and as functions of position (b). 7° Example 2. A particle of mass 1 gm executes linear § t = 0 it is at the origin with velocity - 5 m/s later. Find the amplitude, frequency, angular frequ Since the motion is SHM the displacement as HM about the origin, At It returns to the origin 1 second lency and displacement at any time. function of time has the form x= Acos (wt + 6) and the velocity is v= el x * GE 7A sin (wt +6) At t = 0 we have x = 0, so Scanned with CamScanner———_—_—_ 175 x(0) = Acos 6=0 which implies 6 = + 1/2, (Note that the phase constant can have the range -mto 7.) At t = 0 the velocity is - 5 m/sec, so - 5 m/sec = - wA sind. Since w and A are intrinsically positive we must have 6 = 1/2. Now, a particle in SHM returns to a given position twice each period, once going one way and once in the other. Thus since it returns in 1 second we have that 1/2 = 1 sec so 2 sec. The frequency is sisi = bod nertz and the angular frequency is w = Quy =m radians per second . Finally since wA = 74 = 5 m/sec, the amplitude is A= 5/m meters . << >>> Example 3. A 40 gm block rests on a horizontal frictionless table and is attached to a spring. It is pulled + 8 cm from equilibrium and given a velocity of +16 cm/sec. Its maximum displacement is 12cm, Find the spring constant, angular frequency and displacement for arbitrary t. Initially the kinetic energy is K = $v? = & (40)(16)? The amplitude is 12 em, so from Eq. (13-12b) we have & (40) (16)? = & (12? - 8%). The spring constant is 128 dyne/em . The angular frequency is then given by we /* = 128 = se radians/sec « Now, the displacement has the form x = A cos (ut + 6) and the velocity is Vy = 7 wA sin (wt + 6) At t= 0, x= Acos 6 and v, = - WA sin 6, But v, is positive at t = 0 so 6 must be Scanned with CamScannernegative. Then eI and 5 = - 48.29 + «<< 13-5 Combination of Two SHM at Right Angless Relationship of SHM to Uniform Circular Motion If two SH having the sane frequency. are combined at right angles the resultant motion traces out a path which is in general an ellipse. For simplicity take x= Ay cos wt (13-15a) Y Ay cos (wt +a) - (13-15) To find the path one needs to eliminate t between the equations. To do so, expand Eq. (13-15b) to Y= Ay cos wt cosa - A, sin wt sina or 5 = cos wt cosa = sinut sina. (13-16) From Eq. (13-15a) cos wt = % and if we square both sides of Eq. (13-16) we have 2 2 (Fees aw)” = sin? wt sin®a = (1 - cos? wt) sin2a = (1 - 2%) sint?a, x x A x Therefore the path is x? | y? _ 2x cosa 2 +h - x = sin’ a, (13-17) Wee Ray which is that of an ellipse. Ifa = 0 the ellipse degenerates into a straight Line through the origin and having slope tan (ay/Ay) as shown in Fig. 13-4a. In other yy y tan“ay fay. ay * Ax * a= (a) (b) (c) Figure 13-4. Combinations of SHM at right angles. In (a) the phase differ- ence is 0, in (b) it is 7/2, and in t indicates the Girection of notion of « particles (©) ft £8 9/4. The arrow Scanned with CamScanner— Ww —— he x,y axes depends ultant 4s an ellipse whose orientation relative to the x, Upon the phase difference a. In Fig. 134b we show the case a = 1/2 and tn Fig, 13-4¢ the casea = 1/4, In the Wend case =~ 1/2 with A, = A, A, the resultant 1s a circle X= A cos wt (13-18a) y = Acos (wt - 1/2) = A sinwt . (13-18b) If a particle has these as components of its position vector, then with 8 = ut we see from Eq. (10 angular velocity w. aa pegtte combination along perpendicular Lines of two SHM having the sane ampli- tude and frequency and a phase difference of a/2 is equivalent to uniform circular mo- Hon. Conversely, the projected motion onto any dtatter of uniform circular motion Ag SHM. The circle for the equivalent uniform slreular notion ie ‘a SHM problem is often called the reference circle. -6) that the particle moves in a circle of radius A with constant 13-6 Programmed Problems 1, Let us begin this chapter by reviewing the gen- eral objectives of mechanics and the basic strategies we employ to accomplish those objec- tives. Position. The basic idea is to find the of an ob- ject as a function of time. 2, In the main you have solved problems involving motion with constant velocity or constant accel- eration, For example, the problem of a‘block sliding down a frictionless plane is a case of constant acceleration. Make a qualitative plot of the position of the mass mas a function of time. RY x The familiar parabola. A 3. What is the force which produces the accelera- tion of the block down the plane in the pre- Vious frame? Write the algebraic expression mg sin @ for this force, Scanned with CamScanner4a Be the x-axis Write the equation of motion along (along the incline) for the diagram of frame Thus we see that the acceleration a g sin 6 is a constant for a given 0. From kinematics we have : X =X + Vot +b ayt where Xy =_0 and v, = 0 for this particular problem. If we plot x as a function of t for the equation x= #(g sin 9) +? we obtain the curve shown in the answer of frame 2. The general strategy then is to find the resul- tant force. This will in turn allow the calcu- lation of the acceleration using Newton's 2nd law and in principle one can then find the position, GO TO FRAME 6, Fy = may ng sin 0 = ma, No answer. Here is a similar case. The frictional forces are still zero, Draw the forces acting on m at the three points shown, 3 The curve is a circle of radius R, 3 mg Note that the surface forces N are always 1 to the surface. Scanned with CamScanner179 the answer to frame 6 7. In the No (see answer of frame No (because of answer a). Because the force, (and thus the acceleration) “is not constant this problem is a little more formidable in terms of using Newton's 2nd law. For that reason this Problem was solved in a Previous chapter using en- ergy conservation, There is a classification of non- constant forces, however, which can be handled using the equation of motion. a. Is the net force on m constant? (Yes/No) b. Is the acceleration of m constant? (Yes/tio) by 8. Now consider a mass connected to a spring, The A surface is frictionless, 5 no: force : B. B. bere Rye Xa a 5 92 3 4X5 D. 5 Hy XD 3 4 XS XL 2 *3 4 %5 5] On the diagrams above draw vectors showing the force exerted by the spring on the mass m. De Show specifically the directions and relative magnitudes. In A the spring is relaxed. Note that the vector. in C is larger than in B be- cause the spring is stretched farther. This is clearly a case of a force which is not con- stant. Scanned with CamScanner180 Be 28 The position x3 at which wee the spring exerts no force is called the equ Librium position. Using xg as the origin draw 4 im displacement vectors in- Sect % 2% X4%5 %6 — dicating the position of 2% aX m in diagrams B, C and D. i CG —f E x. X3X 4X. X, 1 *2 *3%4% %6 1D 9% 4% XG De a + mi rape ato 1 729 *4%5 *6 10. What is the relationship between the force E = - kx , ive. oppositely directed and proportional. vector and the displacement vector in the answers of the two preceding frames, 1. In this diagram note the relabeled axis. Answer the following questions: A. If each displacement is 0.1 meter and the spring constant k is 20 <— force nt/m the magnitude of bwin the force is 7 ym Ox, ke B. What is the sign of — displacement the force? CG. If the object's mass is 0.5 kg, what is the magnitude and direction of its acceleration at this instant? Ae 4.0 nte El = ilxl Minus, negative (oppo- site to the displace- ment which is positive). 2.0 ni 5 a, = 8.0 m/sec to the left or minus direction, As usual the acceleration is in the direction of the force. 2 Sal Scanned with CamScanner12. 13, Having looked at the characteristics of the force acting on min this example we can try to solve Newton's 294 law F, = may. Writing a, as d2x/dt2 we have x =m ate Before writing the answer look again at the answer of frame 10. As stated in the first frame of this chapter the object of mechanics is to find X = some function of time. For example: A. x = v,t with v, = constant B. x= vot +4 gt? with v, and 9 constant. The equation of motion for the mass on the end of a spring is or Be at? where k/m is a constant. Note that except for the - k/m this last equation says that the function we seek, x = some function of time, is equal to its own second time derivative, -k zx Do examples A and B meet this criteria? Do not guess. Perform the differentiation. a 14, Try x = xq cos wt as a solution of the equa~ tion 2, m 3 =o kk. Here Xo and w are constants. Ae dx/dt = B. d2x/dt? = ___. As =x, sin wt, B. - wx, cos wt. Scanned with CamScanner15. Substitute the assumed solution and its second time derivative in 2, 2x noge- wm. at n = Sire = mute, cos ut =~ by cos ut 16. The equation in the answer of frame 15 will be true provided k If you missed this just look at the equation above. 17. We have then as a condition that x = x9 cos wt be a solu- tion of the equation of motion for this prob- lem. What are the units of w? A. khas the units . B. mhas the units C. Sow has the units . As nt/n = kgm/see? B. kgm 2 c. ‘kam/sec® Kase | sec"? 18. From frame 17 the quantity 1/w is a unit of time in seconds as is 1/u, 2n/u, etc. Fill in the table below and plot the values accordingly. Connect the data points by a smooth curve. Remember our solution can be written as x/x, = cos wt. Xe t [ot [eos ot [7m] 10 Ay Wa] Os. Ve za o t eG Vu] | ras Bre — 1.04 Each time scale unit. is n/2v. Xk os} Tf you were tempted to draw straight lines then you Should convince yourself that this ‘ts correct by using times intermediate to the ones given, Scanned with CamScanner19. Our job of describing the motion of the mass shown to the left is complete. We have a graph of the Position as a function of time as well as know- ing the form of the func- tion, i.e., x = xgcos wt. Of course it could be made more complicated by starting the motion differently or by starting the clock when the mass is at some position other than equilibrium or maximum excursion. We will look at a further example to elucidate these complications. GO TO FRAME 20, No answer. 20. Study the plot below of x as a function of t. ‘A. 30 em (maximum dis- for an oscillator. placement from equili- 5 brium). 2 Be 1.2 sece Unit of time = c. v= de 1 goles , 0.1 sec Fs T sec | oF st Note that this is veri- Unit of length = -1 fied in the diagram. 10 om -2 In one second the oscil- 7 lator does not quite complete one full cycle. De w= amy = 2 rad | Ae What is the amplitude of this oscillator? 1,2 sec B. What is the period of this oscillator? E. Neither will work. At C. What is the frequency of this oscillator? t=0, D. What is the angular frequency of this sin tte 20 oscillator? 0 E. Is the position of this object at time X= Xp cos wt © 30 cm. t = 0 described by either x = x, sin ut or x = Xo cos wt where x. is the amplitude Neither is what the of oscillation? Explain. graph shows at t = 21, Still referring to the diagram of the previous A. 15 om frame B. a. 30cm A. What is the initial position, i.e.) what b. 2 zad e is x at t = 0? “ kite { B. If we write the oscillating function as ce Zeros x = xq cos (ut + 8) a. What is Xo? b, What is w? c. What is wt initially? 4G. In view of answer A above, what mst 6 be? d, x = xq cos 6 x/xq = cos 8 1.5/3 = cos 6 6 = 60° or 0/3. Scanned with CamScanner184 22, 6 is called the phase constant. Let's cal- culate x at some arbitrary time and compare the answer to the graph. Using x " X » 6 : ey x= cos (St +H) x= calculate x at t = 0.5 sec. DON'T LOOK AT THE GRAPH YET. x= 0 Cheek the curve at t sece 23. The spring force in our problem is a conserva~ tive one so we can use energy conservation. That means that K (kinetic energy) plus U (po- tential energy) is a constant of the motion, 3, oe ives, E = K+U = constant. U = kx,* cos” wt As you know for a spring - ox, sin wt 2 U =k kx’ = wx,” sin? ut and for a moving mass Keb us,? sin? wt K=2 mv, If x = xq cos wt is our function, what are K and U.as functions of xj, w and t? Hint: v = dx/dt. 24. So we have a i k+u i F 2 2 E= 4 mi’xo sin’ wt +4 kxy cos ut See frame 16. But 25. Making this substitution E = £ key? sin? wt +4 kxg? cos? ut E = $ kx,“[sin® wt + cos? wt) « What is the value of the bracketed term? Scanned with CamScanner26. Finally the total energy is E E =} kxy? This is constant because k and x, are constant. 27. Now a quickie problem. A 100 gm mass on a spring of spring constant 5.0 dyne/em oscil- lates with a total energy of 1,000 ergs. A. What is the amplitude of oscillation? B. What is the maximum velocity of the mass? C, What is the angular frequency of the oscillator? A. 20 cm B. V2 cm/sec. 1 rad cy wee Scanned with CamScannerChapter 16 WAVES IN ELASTIC MEDIA 16-1 Wave Classification Waves in elastic or deformable media are mechanical waves originating in disturb- ances of the media from its normal equilibrium position, Waves of this sort transmit energy by transferring it from one portion of the medium to another; the medium as a whole does not move, but various portions execute oscillatory motion about their nor- mal equilibrium positions. The speed with which a disturbance moves through a medium is determined by the elasticity of the medium which provides a restoring force against the disturbance, and by an inertia property of the medium which dictates how the me- dium responds to this restoring force, Elastic or mechanical waves are classified by their spatial and temporal proper- ties. The spatial classification depends upon the direction in which the particles of the mediummove relative to the wave direction. There are two extremes: 1, Transverse waves: particles of the medium move perpendicular to the wave direction -- example, waves in a string (see Fig. 16-la)s 2. Longitudinal waves: particles of the medium move parallel to the wave direction -- example, waves in a coiled spring (see Fig. 16-1b). displacement wave —+ direction —+ displacement (a) (b) Figure 16-1. (a) Illustration of a transverse wave in a strings (b) Illus- tration of a longitudinal wave in a spring. fication also includes whether the waves are in one, two or three oat eeeoneal or stlne property depends upon how the particles in the me- moves through the medium. Waves may bet The spatial dimensions. The temporal dium behave in time as the wave single wave -- each particle of the medium remains lse or Tees pulse arrives, is disturbed, and then returns to at rest until the puls its equilibrium positions 2. A wavetrain -- more than a single pulse, rticless 3 see tbate tealn =- each particle of the medium undergoes periodic sitions the simplest case of this would be simple periodic motion secociated with a simple harmonic wavetrain. ae ee usually a continuous disturb- Scanned with CamScannerae — a For waves in three dimensions there exists the concept of wavefronts which are found by constructing the surface which passes through all points undergoing a similar disturbance at a given instant. In time, the surface moves and perhaps distorts, show- ing how the wave propagates. For periodic waves there exist families of surfaces (they have a common normal == 1,e. a conmon direction perpendicular to the wavefronts). For ‘a homogeneous, isotropic medium the direction of propagation is perpendicular to the wavefront and the normal direction 1s called a ray. An isotropic medium {s one which “Looks" the same in all directions. 16-2 Traveling Waves -- One Dimension arse displacement of a If y is the disturbance of a wave (e.g., the transvi coiled spring) and if stretched string, the displacement from equilibrium of a yef (xivt +9) (16-1) where f denotes some functional dependence, then Eq. (16-1) represents a wave traveling to the right (minus sign) or left (plus sign). In Eq. (16-1), # is an arbitrary con- stant. The actual shape of the wave is dictated by the functional form symbolized by f. The argument of the function (x 4 vt + p) is called the phase. The phase velocity is the velocity with which a point of constant phase of the wave moves. Thus x £ vt +P = constant so the phase velocity is geet. (16-2) The displacement of a simple harmonic traveling wave has the form y = Yy sin a (x-vt +). (16-3) The functional form, the f of Eq. (16-1), is a sine or cosine function, The amplitude of the wave is yy; it is intrinsically positive and gives the maximum positive value of y. The phase is a (x - vt +9) and A is the wavelength, which is the distance between two adj. i , jacent points of the wave- aad having the same phase at the same time. Alternatively the wavelength is defined Y y (x + mAyt) = y (xt) 5 = 05142) vee (16-4) The period, T, is the time required for the wave to travel one wavelength, so Ae. (16-5) An alternative definition is y (xt +NT) = y (xt), N= 0,1,2,. . (16-6) The wave number k is defined by 2n Wait (6-7) Scanned with CamScannerTe frequency, ¥, of the wave is ty 1 (16-8a) and the angular frequency, w, is ie ae a i (16-8) The phase velocity may thus be written as. vee a (16-9) so the simple harmonic traveling wave displacement may be written as Y = yy sin (kx - wt +9) (ags10) where the phase constant has been writt, = amb/r. Fig. 16-2 how Eq. (16-10) together with the thie vaLieoe, Was ole omaaliae names of the various parts. wave angular phase number) frequency feonstant = Yr sin(kx ¥ wt +$) inf tude phase Ne form displacement Figure 16-2. The parts of a standard description of a simple harmonic trav= eling wave in one dimension; the minus sign in front of w is for wave prop- agation in the positive x axis while the positive sign is for wave propaga- tion in the negative x direction. >>> Example 1. A transverse wave in a string has the form y = 5 cos m(0.02x + 3.00t) where y and x are expressed in centimeters and t is in seconds. (a) Write the equa- tion in "standard" form and find the (b) amplitude (c) frequency (d) period (e) wavelength (f) phase constant (g) wave propagation direction and (h) maximum trans- verse speed of a particle in the string. (a) To reduce the equation to "standard" form we need to write Y= yy sin (kx + ut +¢)- We identify, k = .021, w = 3.07 and write y = § sin (,027x + 3.0nt + 9) = 5 sin 7(0.02x + 3.00t) cos @ + 5 cos 7(0.02x + 3,00t) sing. Thus sin g = 1 and cos @ = 0, so (f) the phase constant is p= 7/2, and the "standard" form is y = 5 sin 7(0,02x + 3,00t + 0.5) « By comparing this with Eq. (16-10) we see that Scanned with CamScanner(b) the amplitude = 5 cm, (c) w= amy = 3.007 , v= 1,50 sec (4) T= 1/v = 2/3 sec. (e) k= 2n/X= .027 , A= 100 cm (g) The wave propagation direction is along the negative x direction which is evident since x and t have the same sign. (h) The transverse velocity is & = (3m) 5 cos 1(0.02x + 3.00t + 0.5) which has a maximum value of 15m cm/sec. << 16-3 Superposition Principle -- One Dimensional Wave Equation -- Interference The propagation of mechanical waves (indeed all waves) is governed by a differ- ential equation which relates certain space and time derivatives (see Example 2). This differential equation is called the wave equation. The wave equation is said to be linear if it has the property that if y is a solution and yz another then Ayy) + Agy2 is also a solution where A) and Ap are arbitrary constants. ‘In particular, if y, is the displacement of a portion of the medium due to the wave numbered one and y2 that of wave two, then the total displacement, yey ty2 is also a solution of the wave equation, This is known as the superposition principle. Physically this means that two or more waves can traverse the medium independent of one another. One important consequence of the superposition principle is that when it holds, a complicated wave can be expressed and analyzed as a linear combination of simple harmonic waves with varying wave numbers, amplitudes, and phase constants. For elastic media, the superposition principle holds when the ampli- tude of the disturbance is sufficiently small so that the restoring force is proportional to the displacement. >>> Example 2. Show that the wave equation for transverse waves in a string of ten- sion F and mass per unit length p is 2 2 oy u2¥-o (16-11) axe F ae? for small displacements, Figure 16-3. Example 2, A small segment of a transverse wave in a string with tension F. First of all, the amplitude must be sufficiently small so that the tension does Scanned with CamScanner=Ssa= ma not change. Then, in Fi ; . J+ 16-3 we show a small segment of the string. The tension is Susseradatsngentl ally to the string and so the x component of this force at x + dx is hed wees S See is ae a 9. The amplitude must be sufficiently small so that ind ® ee, 8 anc 4 only in the y direction. In ee eal) in order that the string segment be accelerated sin @ = tan @ and singax tang. But tan @ is the slope at x and tan @ that at x + dx, so a sin d= (34), and 3 sine Oy 4 ae where ( ), means evaluated at x and simil: i x similarly for The total force in the y direction is for (De + ox - F sing - F sind=F [2,40 - @ - Now we process the term’on the right side of the equation. If G is a function of x, the definition of a derivative is G (x + ax) = G (x) = (BD), ax for small Ax. Here G (x) is dy/8x so we have (Dy + ax - Dx bd. ax. This is the bracketed term in our original equation and therefore the net force in the y direction is ay FG), oe ex From Newton's second law this is equal to the mass of the segment times the acceleration which is x x a ax a mass acceleration Thus Newton's second law yields FY ax = pax ax at 0 the wave equation is Scanned with CamScanner| 222 =e ax? F >>> Example 3. For the one dimensional wave equation above show that the wave speed is BGe << ole, t (16-12) =A ve ci The velocity does not depend upon the wave form so let us use a simple harmonic wave y = yy sin (kx - at +) + Then we - wt + SL = kyy cos (kx 9) and 2 By yy sin (kx - ut +) => KY + ax? Similarly 2, aye wy. at? Substituting these results into the wave equation we have - Ky + Bay =0. There fore «<< >>> Example 4. One end of a rope of length 4m and mass 12 kg is moved up and down a distance of 1 cm four times per second. If the tension in the rope is 1000 nt what is the speed of propagation characteristic of this rope? This problem is typical of what you'll often see -- it contains a lot of extra- neous information! To find v we need only the tension and mass per unit length. The mass per unit length is = 12 ko kg we Sta 7 18 p and the tension is given as 1000 nt. Thus = jEe 1000 _m_,, a ve Ve +03 See ~ 182 Seq + ss Interference is 2 physical effect of superposition. Of particular importance is ‘the case of two traveling waves having the same frequency but different amplitudes and Scanned with CamScannerSa zs a phase difference, rf Y= A) sin (kx - wt - 9) and Yq = Ay sin (kx - wt) then the resultant 1s y = y, + yo. and we write this as Y= ¥) + p= Asin (kx - wt =a) and find that the resultant amplitude is given by A224 2 +2 Airy cose. (16-13) This resultant amplitude is a maximum of A, + Ap when y = 0 or an even multiple of m5 the waves are said to interfere constructively. If @ = 7 or any odd multiple of m, | the resultant is a minimum A = |A, - Ag] and the waves interfere destructively. Often, two wavetrains originate in a common source but a phase difference occurs { because they follow different paths to the point of interference. A path difference 4x results in a phase difference kax since the phase is kx - wt +. If this phase difference is an odd multiple of m the waves interfere destructively and if it is an even multiple of 7 they interfere constructively. If there are no other sources of Phase difference then this condition may be expressed in terms of the path difference: 2m Kbpath = Fo Spath = (2a + 1) | destructive * = +1) interference (16-14a) { path” ~ 2 = 2 . 4 Kopath = Y Spath * (2n) j constructive fieray | oe interference i oath = = 0)1)2) sees and no other sources of phase difference. | 16-4 Power and Intensity in Wave Motion | transports energy ‘tted by a wave is the rate at which the wave tho eee ea efor /a string in winich there is. transverse wave. We inagine that the string is divided into two parts, and then ask what is the rate at which en- ergy is transmitted from the left part of the string to the right part. At a = tal) division of the string the transverse force exerted on the right portion of the string by the left portion is (see Example 2) FR be |. The transverse velocity is dy/dt. Since power may were F is she string fenctens The oop at which the eft postion tranemes enesay to the right portion is ; p--FUS, Scanned with CamScannerna Sere For a simple harmonic wavetrain moving in the + x direction, Y = ¥y sin (kx F wt +) and 2 2 P= + Fhuyy” cos” (kx Fut +9) « This oscillates with time and one often wants the average over one period T which is t4T P dt at ye? . L iT or e x direction) and there- If the wave moves to the In other The + sign occurs when the wave moves to the right (positiv fore the left portion is doing work on the right portion. left (minus x direction) the right portion does work on the left portion. words, power is transmitted in the direction of wave propagation. In three dimensions, the wave intensity is the average power unit area perpendicular to the wave propagation direction. transmitted per 16-5 Standing Waves, One Dimension -- Resonance Consider two simple harmonic wavetrains of the same amplitude and frequency trav- eling in opposite directions. Suppose they have the forms A sin (kx - wt) ye Yo = Asin (kx + wt) . The resultant displacement is Y= ¥, +¥o= 2A sin kx cos wt (16-15) which is not a traveling wave since the x and t dependences are separated, This is a standing wave. All portions of the medium simultaneously execute simple harmonic mo- ton with an amplitude that depends upon position. The amplitude of the SHM at x is Ac = 2A sin kx (16-16) which is a maximum at the antinodes given by kx = Mtl, positions of or antinodes (16-174) . x= tl, N= 05152) eevee Also, Ay 18 zero at the nodes given by of hoc = or positions of nodes (16-17b) x= a n= 0,12, ween — Scanned with CamScanner225 There is no trans port of energy in a standing wave because of the nodes; the en- ergy remains standing, being sometimes kinetic and other times potential.” For standing waves in a string, a fixed end mist be a node and a free end an antinode. If the standing wave is regarded as an incident traveling wave and a re- flected one (such as we started with above) , 1) at a fixed end the incident and reflected waves must differ in phase by ii) at a free end the incident and reflected waves must be in phase. If a system, which is capable of oscillating, is driven by a periodic force it oscillates at the frequency of the driver. In general, no matter how hard it is driven it doesn't oscillate with much amplitude. If, however, the frequency of the driver approaches a natural frequency of the system, it becomes easier for the system to os- cillate and the amplitude becomes relatively larger for a given driving force ampli- tude. When the driver frequency approaches a natural frequency of the system, we speak of resonance. PPI natural frequency, system, pe The natural, proper, or eigen-frequencies of a string fixed at both ends are those frequencies such that the corresponding standing wave has nodes at each end. Since two successive nodes are separated by 4/2, (see Eq. (16-17b)) the string length 4 must be an integral multiple of \/2 ua _ tank , fixed ends (16-18) where n is the number of nodes less one (i.e., the node-at one end is not counted). Thus the natural or eigen-wavelengths are 2 n ? fixed’ ends. (26-19) The corresponding eigen-frequencies are determined from X by the tension and mass per unit length since = v/v = 1/v (/F/u). Therefore the eigen-frequencies are a | N= 1,253 eoee Y= 2 Vu? fixed’ ends. (16-20) >>> Example 5, What are the natural wavelengths of a string fixed at one end and effectively free at the other? A node and an antinode are separated by 1/4 wavelength (see Eqs. (16-17)). Since the fixed end must be a node and the free end an antinode, the length of the string is related to \ by Thus n= 0,1,2. one free end. (16-21) << Scanned with CamScanner26 16-6 Programmed Problems 1. As usual we wish to describe physical phenom- ena in mathematical terms. The next few frames will attempt to convince you that a particular functional form, i.e. f(x - vt), is correct for traveling waves. We can think of the familiar "bump" that propagates along a rope when you flip one end. We will begin by choosing the function 4a yee™ to describe the y coordinate of portions of a rope located at various x's. In other words, at t= 0 this equation tells us what the shape of the rope is over all its length. We need some data to sketch the rope. Complete the table below. Included at the left is a table to help you. a ofa 1 | 0.37 2 | 0.14 3 | 0.05 4 | 0.02 5 | 0.007 6 | 0,002 7 | 0.001 8 | 0.0003 9 | 0.0001 This table relates the y coordinate of a portion of the rope at various posi- tions x along the rope. =x? 2. Plot y =e” from the data of the previous frame. What does the rope look like? y 10} os} This is the "bump" on the rope at t = 0. Note that vis Practically zero for all values of x 1. than + 3, eee Scanned with CamScanner27 The rope has a bump. We seek an expression which will cause the bump to move (propagate). If we write fe 7 (xevt)® y this wil at least be correct at t= 0, te. y= e™*", Experience indicates that the speed v is constant for a given rope configuration. Complete the table below to determine the shape of the rope at t = 2 sec. Assume v= 2n/sec. Refer to the "help" table of frame 1 as required, (x-vt)? We include only the values of x as shown because all other x's result in a y of essen- tially zero. 4, Plot the data of the previous answer on the graph below. Included here is the shape of vt the rope at t = 0. & The bump has moved to the right!! Also the peak "phase" of the bump has moved a distance 2m/sec x 2sec= 4m Scanned with CamScanner228 6. We could continue the above process for t = 3 sec, t = 4 sec, etc., but let us presume that our equation is correct for a "bump" traveling to the right. Suppose we started with the slightly different function grbetve)? Describe verbally the behavior of this dis- turbance. Perhaps you are now slightly convinced that the variables x and ¢ must occur only in the com- bination (x ¢ vt) where v is constant. One more example is in order. Above we show a very long rope attached at one end to a spring. Having attached the rope to m at x = 0 makes the description of y at that point particularly easy. If we lift the spring up and then release it y (0,t) = + Here we mean the motion of that part of the rope at x = 0, Same as the previous one, but traveling to the left. You can check this yourself by sketching the curve again as in frames 2 and 4. The motion of a mass on the end of a spring is Y= Yq 608 wt or Y= Yp 608 2mvt since w = 2mv; v is a con- stant depending upon the mass and the spring. Of course, the ropé is attached to the mass at x = 0 so the end of the rope receives a transverse harmonic dis- placement, y (0,t) = y,_ cos mvt « Wiggling the end of the rope in this harmonic fashion will cause a disturbance to propagate along the rope. We want to generalize our ex- pression in the previous answer so that it describes the rope at all x including x = 0. For any traveling wave then (including an har- monic one) the equation involving the variables x and t must be of the functional form yf ( ). y= £ (x - vt) We can surely guess that our equation will be the cosine of something in- volving x and t. The be- havior at x = 0 provides this clue. Scanned with CamScanner229 8. To write a more general expression for the traveling wave we need to adhere to two con- ditions: 1. x and t are related in the form (x - vt) 3 where v is the constant wave speed. The general expression must reduce to ‘ Y = Ym C08 2vt at x = O a coefficient of t is Another way of stating condition one is: “coefficient of t = - v times the coefficient of x". From 2 above what do we require as the co- efficient of t? 9. One more step remains. We require that the om = ~v (- 20), coefficient of t = - v times coefficient of S x, or Qmy = - v times coefficient of x. The coefficient of x must be - 2m/v. The coefficient of x must be . 10, So our expression to satisfy the functional form is » (-%) eI t- = (amv - 2% Y = Yq cos any v be Note that at x = 0, ¥ Y = Ym COS 2mvt as required. am (t -¥) + Also x and t are related correctly. Can you now write the complete expression for the harmonic traveling wave? y (xt) + i v = cycles/sec = sec”! ll. There are a variety of ways to rewrite Y = Yq 008 2mv (t - ¥) eaiajsee v sec! _ For example, we can factor v and write v m/sec = y= Ym cos ar & (vt - x) We write v/v = 1/A where X Also since cos (- @) = cos 8 we can reverse the order of the terms in parenthesest Y = Yq cos an ¥ (x - vt) « What are the units of the constant v/v in MKS? is the wave length or dis- tance between two points having the same phase. Lambda (A) has the units of length and is a constant for specific rope configura tions. Scanned with CamScanner230 12, Using the constant A we have a Y Yn F008 (x= vt) Moye 7 The period T is the time required for the wave the speed of the wave. to travel one wavelength, thus Ae . Ges BE (x - ty 13, Substitute for v from the previous answer into ¥ # Ym cos F ss the traveling wave expression on where we can put back in- ¥ = Yq 008 SE (x - vt) side the parentheses yield- ing y=y, cos 27 (__d» = ¥ = Yq eos a7 %- $) another form of the harmonic traveling wave function. mae 14, In frame 11 we had vew sy ved z bed. joo ke The frequency v.was that of the mass spring v is the number of cycles oscillator which drives the end of the rope. per second while T is the In frame 12 we had number of seconds per cycle. Nag As a check we note that eveles | _1 From these two equations write an equation sec oe relating v and T. cycle is dimensionally correct. 15. Using the answers of frames 13 and 14 write Ym = 0203 m the specific equation for a traveling wave a moving in the + x direction if the mass on elel coc. the end of the spring vibrates with an ampli- v~ 60 tude 0.03 m at 60 cycle/sec. The wave speed is 30 m/sec. v= — A= vI = 30 m/sec x gy see = 2.0m. Y = ym cos 2n (F - » y = 0.03 cos 2m (2x - 60t) + Scanned with CamScanner16. For traveling waves on ropes (or strings, etc.) we seek some way to determine the wave speed. Experience shows that the speed v depends upon the following: 1. The tension F in the rope i.e. force; 2, The linear density » of the rope, i.e. mass per unit length. The unit of force in the MKS system is the new- ton which we can write as kg m/sec? (good old "“F= ma"), The linear density w has the units kg/m. Show by dimensional analysis that the equation oh has the right units for the wave speed. 231 2 E ‘sec’ ve [E- | s-aleee* - jee * Veec2 ~ Sec which results in the proper units for speed. This di- mensional analysis does not prove the equation, but it is correct. in Consider our original rope to be 10 meters long with a mass of .050 kg. One end of the rope is given a transverse motion with a fre- quency of 10 sec™l, If the tension in the rope is 200 nt, what is the wave length of the resultant waves? Assume the rope to be long enough to ignore what happens at the far end, Begin by calculating the wave velocity. ve 5 Obtain a numerical result. 18. We already have seen that the wave, say the peak of one bump, will move a distance A as the driving force oscillates through one pe- riod, Ts A= vT Az me Obtain a numerical result. A= VT eh Teg 1 A= 200 a/see x dy see A= 2m. Scanned with CamScanner fC estilieainndbeasans19, (m gf ss ce Set Adding an identical mass-spring oscillator to the other end of the rope, we have the situa~ tion shown above, By defining two quantities & = & (wave nunber) and w = 2 (angutar frequency) we can write our traveling wave equation y= ¥q cos ar (f- #) in still another forms ¥ = Yq cos (kx - wt) - Lifting and then releasing both masses, each will generate a traveling wave. Y_ = —____» due to left oscillator. Yr = ; due to right oscillator. Use the new form of the traveling wave equa~ tion, Vp = Ym 608 (kx - wt) Yp = Ym cos (kx + wt) Note the plus sign with a wave traveling to the left or - x direction. You will find that the situ- ation in the diagram to the left is slightly different from a rope fixed at both ends. The ideas are the same however. 20. The superposition principle states that the resultant displacement of the rope will be the sum of the displacements due to the sep- arate waves. Y=Y¥pt YR Y = Yq {cos (kx ~ wt) +005 (kx + wt)} Use the trigonometric identity cos (a + A) = cosa cos B¥ sina sin B to expand the bracket term. merely expand. Do not simplify, ye . Ym {608 kx cos wt + sin kx sin wt + cos kx cos wt - sin kx sin wt} . Scanned with CamScanner233 21. Now simplify the previous answer. sin kx sin wt ys , - sin kx sinwt = 0. Y= 2 Yq cos kx cos wt . 22, Does the previous answer représent a traveling No. It is not of the form wave? Why? #(x = vt) 23. We can interpret this non-travel in: amplitude times an oscillating term °°” Y= 2y_ 608 kx cos ut pe ee Amplitude Oscillating term x 4 SA (DA 4 [a |a| a Recalling that k = 2n/A, what is the amplitude at the fixed values of x listed in the table Be |e) | se) we Le x 2|2[2|2 cos 2x JoJo|o|o x A/4 | 3/4 | 52/4 | 7/4 x pa %q cos Zx)o}o || 0 ay x 20 cos x 2n Pq cos Bx 24, The previous answer implies that y = 0 at par~ No. ticular x's no matter what the value of the oscillating term. These points are permanently at rest and are called nodes. All other points on the rope will have displacements which de- pend both upon their position x and the time t. Will all non-node points oscillate with the same amplitude? The amplitude depends upon the particular value of x. Y= 2yYq 00s kx cos wt a Amplitude Oscillating term Scanned with CamScanner234 25. The amplitude term can have a maximum value of Be + 2yq when cos kx 1s $1. xno, hr, Bare | y= 2y,, cos kx For examples Yt2y_ when coskx=il. cos kx = cos 2 | Using k = 2n/X, which of the following will re- when x = /2- sult in a maximum displacement? cos 2 A= cosm=-1 AA Da, Dd BD, x2 x= 0, Fo Sr Pr Ae Tae a or gr hr G 4 soy=-2Y_s Encircle those that result iny = 2 ype 26. These points of maximum displacement are called Now antinodes. All nodes are permanently at rest. drasiteement depends Are ali antinodes permanently at their maxinun os Rene BAe giana iisplacenent? ve Y= 2 Yq cos wt ‘Antinodes execute simple harmonic motion about the quilibrium position. 27. The waves on the rope described by the equa~ tion ¥ = 2 Ym 60s kx cos wt are called standing waves. We could produce standing waves in the rope stretched between two fixed end points as, shown above by plucking the string at the centers ‘According to the equation above the ampli- ‘tude of the left end of the rope at t = 0 is y= Since cos wt = 1 at t and cos kx = 1 at x = 0, Y= 2 yp at x= 0, t = 0, This is by definition an antinode, but physically the fixed ends of the rope must be nodes. Scanned with CamScannera j 236 i 28. Obviously our equation a: loes not apply to thi We require y = 0 at x = 0 | new situation. We could use PY *° “™* METAL antoenera) | eb SCO Coe ti y = 2 ym sin kx cos wt + i which would be correct pr Ovid niQiak the rope satisfied the equation oma” °F Pb ar eee a = be Fh ahs Late, sin kx = sin 22 Reo A 2 4 Show that both ends will be nodes for a rope at x = Oat | of length 4 = 3)/2. Us. of em ts fe the equation at the both ends. 29. y ° x a A SN) SN ON 4.2 4 4 2 For the rope above our equation requires that both ends be nodes. Earlier in this program we defined A as the distance between points of Both ends are nodes. Points i a wave having the same phase. Sketch on the of equal phase are one wave \ diagram above what you think the rope might length apart. Also, note look like at some instant t. that adjacent nodes (as well as antinodes) are \/2 apart. I Your diagram might have a different amplitude or even t be upside down. | 30, y i Nie ag vel Either will do. Note the nodes are the same, Other parts of the rope are exe- cuting SHM at the frequency we Superimpose on the diagram what you think the rope might look like at some later time t. Make it a very short time later. Scanned with CamScannerChapter 17 REVIEW AND PREVIEW pechanical waves} most exanples and iLlustra- Eisaa death Cheks the. waravorse eaves found on e'vieating.atring. TAsthis chapter you ‘only 2 little new Wil deal with on example of Longitudinal waves) nanely sound "aves. 4 that of the Doppler shift and that of vocabulary is introduced and two new phenomena, beats. GOALS AND GUIDELINES In this chapter you have three major goals: In the previous chapter you studied perties of sound waves. Basically this means learning ‘Hons to pressure variations, sound waves anc Learning the special proj to relate position varia Understanding the phenonena of standing ence of sound waves which produce beats. restning and understanding the Doppler shift. Pay particular attention to the Siferecce in the cause of the effect depending upon whether it is source or observer which moves. \d the temporal interfer- Scanned with CamScanner| Chapter 17 SOUND WAVES 17-1 Frequency Range of Longitudinal Waves Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves which may be propagated in solids, | Liquids and gases. “What one usually calls sound waves are audible soued waves. and j these comprise only a small fraction of the frequency range possible for longitudinal mechanical waves. This range together with the appropriate names and some typical sources is shown in Fig. 17-1. The upper limit of 6 x 108 cycles per sec (cps) should fot be taken as fundamental, but merely reflects the present upper limit of man's ef- | forts in this area. In all cases the generator of the wave compresses and rarefies | the medium in (and opposite to) the direction of the wave propagation. | infrasonic audible ultrasonic } 20 bps 20,008 Asati ! 000 cps i garth musical instruments vibrations of crystals © * 10° ops if quakes human voice f Figure 17-1. Present frequency range of longitudinal mechanical waves to- gether with the names applied to certain ranges and typical sources. 17-2 Longitudinal Traveling Waves -- Wave Speed The speed of a longitudinal wave is related to an inertial property of the medi- un, its density, and to a restoring force property of the medium which is called the bulk modulus of elasticity, B. This relationship is a B v VE (7-1) wh the normal density of the medium. One must realize that the longitudinal waveraatezpitely compresses and rarefies the medium so that its density fluctuates about the nommal velue, pgs but it is this normal value that determines the wave speed. The bulk modulus of°elasticity relates the change in pressure (due to the wave) to the corresponding change in volume by 2-42 5 Bc Y* (a7-2) For a gas one can show that Bin 7Po (17-3) 237 Scanned with CamScanner238 where po is the normal pressure (undisturbed by the wave) andy is a constant typical Of the gas (see Chapter 20). lfy sete ‘the displacement, from equilibrium (along the direction of wave propagation), then a simple harmonic traveling wave can have the form y = yy sin (kx - wt + 0) + (17-4) For these waves one usually wants the pressure variations rather than displacements, From Eq. (17-2) ap = ~ B AV/V is the change in pressure. It is usual to denote this change in pressure from the equilibrium value by p rather than dp. Thus we use p= -Bal , p= pressure variation. Now, if a layer of the medium has pressure Poy thickness Ax and cross section A, its volume is Adx. As the pressure changes, the volume changes by Ady, so AV. Ady V ~ Aax or in the limit (the partial derivative must be used since y is also a function of time.) Therefore one has a pr-Baye Thus we may say that if the position displacement is y = yy sin (kx - wt + 9) the pressure displacement p is Pp = ~ Byyk cos (kx - wt + 9) per ed ei emmmammmmmmnnes Nar hi . = py sin (kx = wt + @ - 0/2) (17-5) where the pressure amplitude py is a, Py = Bhyy = vPokyy + (17-6) i Notet i) the total pressure is p + Poi ii) the pressure displacement 1s out of phase with the displacement by 90° so that when y = + yy p= 0 and when y = 0, p= + py >>> Example 1. Show that the average intensity t: ies cceuerte Le chonsteet 9 ty transmitted by a simple harmonic | za PA, Potty? 25 2 Scanned with CamScannerwave propagation direction. The net force on that segment is F= pA where p is the pressure displacement. Therefore, the power transmitted is the force times the velocity or P= pad PASE and since intensity is power per unit area From Eq. (17-4) which is an adequate form for a simple harmonic longitudinal wave & = - ayy cos (kx = wt + 9) 239 Consider an element of the medium of cross sectional area A perpendicular to the ot This is to be averaged over one period, so aI 1 = ayy veg 008” (kx = wt +9) + tT Bes f I dt = w'yy vag(s) « 2 t But from Eqs. (17-6) and (17-1) together with k = 0/v Pu YM = Vpgw ? s 2 2 a _ wp _ Pal Py! ee Tr 2 ep mu? 2 sound wave in air has an average intensity of ra eee (a). pressure amplitude and (b) displace- ‘e amplitude and (d) displacement amplitude at simple harmo Tee Bart , what is 3, (c) pressur >>> Example 2+ 5 x 1073 joule per sec ment amplitude at 20 cp: 20,000 cps? js about 330 m/sec and normal air density is about i in air is a The velocity of sound 1.2 kg/m, Therefore See = 2(330)(1+2)(5 x 107°) 2p so from Eq. (17-5) we have I = aysByyk cos? (kx - wt + 0) or from Eq. (17-1) 1 = wyy2kv%p, cos” (kx - wt +) » But k = w/v, so : BE a Scanned with CamScanner240 or it = 1.99%. Pu. ne This is independent of frequency, so it is the answer to both (a) and (c). The dis- placement amplitude follows from Eq. (17-6) as PM Yu" Sua MM” Dap yy or gx 1074 yy 7 SBS where v is in cps. For (b) v = 20 cps and Yy = 4.x 10 while for (d) v = 20,000 cps and therefore «« yy 4x 10% me 17-3. Standing Longitudinal Waves -- Sources of Sound ‘All sources of sound consist of some object which vibrates. These vibrations cause pressure variations in the surrounding medium (usually air) resulting in sound waves at the same frequency. In other words, the frequency of the sound is determined by the source and the corresponding wavelength of the sound wave is determined by the velocity of sound in the medium and the frequency. The wavelength of the associated Wave in the source is determined by the velocity of waves in the source and need not be the same as that of the sound wave. This is illustrated in Fig. 17-2 in which vs de- notes the frequency of the waves in the source, A, their corresponding wavelength and Vg the velocity of waves in the source. Similarly, v, X and v denote the frequency, wavelength and velocity respectively of sound waves in the medium, Figure 17-2. Schematic indication of a sound source in which the waves of frequency V, produce yj sound. They have velocity vg which is characteristic of the Us sources the corresponding wave- length in the source is X= v./Vs- In the medium, the sound waves have frequency v = v, and travel with velocity v which is character- istic of the medium; their wave- length is d = v/v. ‘Sound Source Asids%s » As far as the source is concerned, the waves in it are approx: waves -- the eigenfrequencies. Apart from percussion tieteeente tines tat the Laid) musical instruments are broadly classified as wind instruments or stringed instruments. Wind instruments are basically a vibrating membrane coupled to a vibrating air column and as such are, in the simplest sense, distorted organ pipes. The then Veen system Scanned with CamScanner241 js such an instrument. Stringed instruments consist of a vibrating string coupled to 4 resonant air chamber, but in the simplest sense one can consider the string only. At the introductory level then one considers as sources of sound 1) standing longitudinal waves -- the vibrating air column -- ives, the organ pipe 2) standing transverse waves in a string. If one has standing longitudinal waves in.a tube there will be nodes and anti- nodes for both displacement and pressure, We tabulate these in Table 1. TABLE 17-1 End of Tube Pressure Displacement Closed antinode node Open node antinode Table 17-1. Tabulation of pressure and displacement nodes and antinodes for a longitudinal wave in a pipe. Organ pipes are examples of such tubes for longitudinal waves. The waves in such a pipe are approximately standing. If they were exactly so, no sound would emanate. Organ pipes resonate at their natural frequencies. If such a pipe is open at both ends then there must be displacement antinodes or pressure nodes at the ends. Since succes- sive nodes or antinodes are separated by one-half wavelength (see Eqs. (16-17)), the pipe length must be an integral multiple of a half wavelength. Thus if L is the pipe length 17-7; N= 1,2,3 save (era) pipe open at x both ends : zn (17-7) where v is the speed of sound in air. The lowest value of vy is called the fundamental frequency and the others are called overtones. Overtones whose frequencies are int gral mitiples of a fundamental together with the fundanentel are said to form @ har- ric cetios. The guality of sound produced by a musical instrunent is dictated by the honor ef overtones and their relative amplitudes. The fundamental and first three Overtones are illustrated in Fig. 17-3a for an organ pipe open at both ends, Tf the organ pipe is closed at one end, the closed end must be a displacement node or pressure antinode. Since a node and the next antinode are separated by 1/4 wavel COL T6ci7)) and successive nodes are separated by 1/2 wavelength, the waveli Eqs. Tae te ay orga pipe closed at one end is related to the wavelength by bended 80 the eigen-wavelengths and eigenfrequencies are Se eee Scanned with CamScanner242 4 (17-89} Gen f= 051)2 sere ) pipe closed at - one end. (17-80 v2 ap (td) ) eben ab) ate yee gee oe Nat cS a ae a T a 5 T N N N A A A 4 N : A N x A A H A N N A N A N A N A N N 5 A N § A N N A A A A A A i e (a) () Figure 17-3. (a) Fundamental and first three overtones for an organ pipe open at both ends. (b) The first four modes of vibration of an organ pipe Closed at the upper end. The letters A and N indicate the positions of the displacement antinodes and nodes respectively of the standing longitudinal wave. Pressure antinodes occur at displacement nodes and vice versa. The fundamental and first three overtones are illustrated in Fig. 17-3b for an organ pipe closed at one end. It is important to notice that_an organ pipe open at both ends hae all harmonics whereas a pipe open at only one end has only odd harmonics. Closed end organ pipes therefore have a different quality or character to their sound from open-ended ones. For standing waves in a string the eigenfrequencies are (see Eq. (16-20) ) , n= 1,23. xr / » standing waves (17-9) in a string where 4 is the string length, pis mass per unit length, and F the tension in the string. The corresponding wavelengths of the transverse waves in the string are 2 Ain string ~ (17-10) whereas in the medium adjacent to the string the longitudinal sound waves have wave- lengths x Yin medium (7-11) ‘in medium ~~ vy, * Te Supdamental and first three overtones for waves in a string are illustrated in Fig. . a Scanned with CamScanner243 aaa A= a/2 Figure 17-4. First four modes of vibration of a string fixed at both ends. r= 2/3 v= u/s >2> Example 3. (a) What length organ pipe will produce sound in air of frequency 440 cps as a fundamental frequency if the pipe is open at both ends? (b) What length organ pipe closed at one end will produce this same tone as its first overtone? (c) If a violin string is 50 cm long and has mass 2 gm, what must be its tension to pro- duce this note as its fundamental? (d) What is the wavelength in the string which produces this note; compare it to the wavelength of the sound in air. (a) Since the organ pipe is open at both ends Eq. (17-7b) applies with n= 1 (fundamental) and thus taking the velocity of sound in air to be approximately 330 m/sec we have (b) For a pipe closed at one end Eq. (17-8b) applies. Since we want the first overtone, n = 1, and we have = 68.8 om. (c) For a violin string Eq. (17-9) applies and since we want the fundamental frequency, n= 1. Thus 2,22 4 (29m -1)2, 2 Fs 4py*t* = 4 (55 St) (440 sec )“(50 cm) = 7.74 x 107 dyne = 7.74 x 10? nt (a) The wavelength of the transverse wave in the string depends only upon the mode (i.e., on n) and the length via Eq. (17-10). Thus since n= 1 Yin string “1 ™ whereas in air the compressional sound wave has wavelength given by Eq. (17-11) «<<< Scanned with CamScanner244 17-4 Beats Ath rin Standing waves are the result of interference in space. ae se TEMIy alfitne ciple also allows interference in time which ofctre ee as ent frequency travel through the same region at the sar 2 be Let the displacement at some point x due to traveling wave number one yy = Ay sin (kyx = unt +) and let that due to traveling wave number two be 1p Sin (Kgx - Wot +p) + = this choice does not alter Take the special case x = 0, @, = @) = 7) and Ay = Ap= A (t i the capeees Bot eiteatiiee Hee inthomtleaye hai ‘fhe resultant displacement is = a [sin wt + sin wot] +Y¥9 or =u w, + y= 2&cos +52 t sin—z— t which for w) = Wg (but not exactly equal) is a vibration with frequency (Ww, + Wo)/2 whose amplitude Varies with a frequency (w) - W2)/2. A beat is a maximum of amplitude without regard to sign and this occurs twice in each cycle of the amplitude. The beat frequency is Weat = 1 - (17-128) or - (17-12) Ybeat Note that if wo is greater than wj, then Wheat = tl - Wy. 2 1 eat, 1 17-5 Doppler Effect Whenever a source of sound and an observer are in relative motion the frequency at the observer is different from that emitted at the source, This is known as the Doppler effect. Let v = frequency at the source v” = frequency at the observer v = speed of sound in medium (usually air) Vo = speed of the observer relative to the medium v, = speed of the source relative to the medium uy = speed of the observer relative to the sound wave Us = speed of the source relative to the sound wave. _ Then, for motion along a line joining source and observer we have yay ve (17-13) Scanned with CamScanner245 If the observer moves toward the sound wavefronts Uy =V+tVo » observer toward wavefronts; (17-14a) the observer intercepts more wavefronts per unit time than he would if he were station- ary with respect to the medium. The frequency at the observer increases. If the ob- server moves away from the sound wavefronts, fo» observer away from wavefronts; (17-14) the observer intercepts less wavefronts per unit time and the frequency decreases. If the source moves into the sound wavefronts, - Vg» source into wavefronts; (17-15a) the wavelength is decreased and the frequency increases above what it would be if the source were stationary with respect to the medium. If the source moves away from the wavefronts, =V+vV,~ , source away from wavefronts; (17-15b) the wavelength increases and the frequency decreases. Although the cause is different for source motion than for observer motion, the walitative effect is the same: If source and observer have relative motion (toward/ away from) one another, the frequency at the observer (increases/decreases). >>> Example 4. If a source of sound moves to the right at 100 ft/sec and an observer moves also to the right at 50 ft/sec, what is the frequency detected by the observer if the source frequency is 1000 cps? Assume the observer is to the right of the source initially. The air is still. Since the observer is on the right of the source, the source is moving into the wavefronts which reach the observer and thus (1100 - 100) ft/sec . The observer is moving away from the wavefronts which reach him, so (1100 - 50) ft/sec . Thus 1050 v” = 1000 cps 7555 = 1050 cps <<< i d on a vehicle (A) >>> Example 5. A source of sound of frequency 20,000 cps is mountes which moves at a speed of 44 ft/sec (30 mph) toward a second vehicle (B) which is mov- ing toward the first. Also mounted on (A) is a detector and the beat frequency between the signal reflected from (B) and that direct from the source is 4,400 cps. What is thi f (B)? . etree first of all the source on (A). It is moving into the wavefronts which reach (B) which is also moving into the wavefronts it receives. Thus the fre- Quency received at (B) is Now (B) acts as a "passive" source of sound waves of frequency v” by reflection. Also, Scanned with CamScanner246 ‘emits and (A) moves into the wavefronts sent back at (A) is vtva (8) moves into the wavefronts it passively to it from (B), so the frequency received yeu’ The beat frequency is v” - vy or 4) vt v5 We let a/v = 6, solve for vg and find bv (v - vq) - 2%q eee ‘B v (2+ 6) - Ov, (0222) (1100) (1056) = (2-0)(1100)(44) ft (1100) (2.22) = (0.22)(44) sec aw 65 ft/sec = 45 mph « << 17-6 Programmed Problems 1. The phenomena of beats resulting from the super- position of two simple harmonic sound waves has as its displacement the form Amplitude variation Uj eve vy +. y = [qos 2m ( ) t] cos ar (2%) te vy = Ye, As was the case with standing waves in the pre- vious chapter we can interpret this equation as Oscillation frequency an amplitude times an oscillating term. pe (htt The amplitude varies in time at a frequency Pad The oscillating term varies with a Frequency . From the equation of the previous frame what Amplitude is will be the amplitude of the sound when the beats are eliminated, ise. (v) - Vo) = 07 yn 2_ 00S 2m 4a) t or 2m cos 0 = when (v) - vp) = 0. This is true no matter what t ise Scanned with CamScanner3. When we say that we eliminat. @ the beats between we mean that the id frequency (¥) + ¥9)/2 has a constant coplitudes When ¥; # Yo the amplitude will vary. the eoond frequency oy + ¥9)/2 will get Loud then soft c. then loud, etc. fe know th: anplitude goes as at the variation in two sources Y) and v. cos 2m.t . Also the period of the amplitude variation is Fill in the table below and sketch - tion in amplitude. seen che Verte The units of time are given in fractions of a pe~ riod, e.g. t/T = 1/4 means t = 1/4 = 1/av,. 247 oO 0 1 tig 4 2 Q aL: 3 7 -al a] x 4 2 a a or iL 3] on 4 4 o a g 4 4 Over one cycle, say from t = T tot = 5/4T in the sketch of the last answer, how many times is the amplitude a maximum? Twice. At t = 1/2 T and tet 5 how Over one cycle of the amplitude variation many times will the sound be loud? Each ampli- tude maximum is called a beat. Twice, corresponding to the two amplitude maxima. Two beats per one cycle of Vas Scanned with CamScanner248, 6, Two sound sources vy = 450 cycles/sec and V2 = 440 cycles/sec produce beats. 1, The frequency of sound you will hear is cycles/sec. 2. ‘The number of beats per second is : te Mt V2 _ ggs Sycles re. sec * ¥1 - "2 _ 5 cycles 2 sec There will be two beats per cycle of V, so there will be 10 beats per second, A tug boat is moving perpendicular to a cliff. The skipper wishes to use his fog horn and knowledge of the Doppler effect to assure the safety of his crew. For simplicity we assume the air is still. Obtaining a physical inter- pretation of the Doppler effect is a good way to begin this problem. Assume a fog horn of frequency 60 cycles/sec, a tug speed of 22 ft/ sec (15 mph) and the speed of sound 1100 ft/sec. A = ee Above we represent the wave length X of the fog horn for a boat at rest. The vertical lines re- present wave fronts of similar pressure varia- tions. What is the particular name given to the time between the emission of these wave fronts? The period T.of the horn, How far will the boat move during one period? d= Express the answer algebraically. where v, is the speed of the boat (source). Scanned with CamScanner% With the tug moving at speed v, in the direc- tion of propagation, the wave length will be shortened by the distance the tug moves dur~ ing the period of the horn. MEA . 249 10, Even though the wavelength of the emitted sound will appear shorter to a fixed observer, the velocity of propagation, v, is independent of source of observer motion. The wavelength, velocity of propagation and frequency are re~ lated by X= v/v. For the boat in motion the wavelength is X’. Use the answer of frame 9 So " =A- ve viv 1 pips & v to find an expression for v’. ves ‘ 11. Obtain the numbers from frame 7 and calculate r the frequency that would be heard by a fixed observer as the tug moves toward that observer. = 61.2 cps Notice that the shorter wavelength means @ higher frequency + 12, By the way, what will the horn on the tug sound like to the captain, ise., what will the frequency be? “Scanned with CamScanner 60 cycles/sec all the time. =250 13, Back to the problem. The sound at 61.2 cycles/ More « Sec strikes the cliff and is reflected back to- Thus the réflected sound ward the tug. The captain 1s now an observer will appear to have a high Moving toward a fixed source. Because the cap- er frequency than 61.2 cy- tain is moving toward the source his ear will cles/sec. intercept (fewer/more) waves per second than if he were at rest. 14. The frequency for the case of the captain (ob- server) moving toward the cliff (source) is given by vty, ab NE Ng 3 OF ie v 2) w= ¢ dv with vy = speed of observer toward source, and (1100+ 22) S16, is v” = frequency of the reflected wave from ($51 61.2 ops cliff. What will be the frequency of the re- 1100 seg flected sound that the captain will hear? ws cycles Uv” = 62.4 cycles/sec. sec Obtain a number. 15. As the captain blows his horn he will hear Beats. both the 60 cycles/sec and the 62.4 cycles/ Bere sec. The superposition of these two sound beats . waves will result in his hearing 2.4 per second, beats _ sec 16. If the tug is moving parallel to the cliff, None. how many beats will he hear? No motion toward the cliff means no Doppler shift. Scanned with CamScannerit In practice it might be hard for to detect the slightly higher mane 62.4 cycles/sec which tells him that he is moving toward the cliff. He should be able to hear the beats which say that his fog horn is being Doppler shifted. Suppose he detects the 2.4 beats/sec and decides to reverse his direction. We know that his fog horn sound will now be Doppler shifted to a longer wave length as it is reflected by the cliff. We use eae V+ Vs yy to calculate this lower frequency. v cycles —— “sec v’ is the frequency of the sound 4 will strike the cliff. ei 251 58.8 cycles/sec « 18. This sound wave will be reflected from the cliff, but its wave length will be lengthened since now the captain (observer) is moving away from the cliff (source). vey, v= ( Vv" = 57.6 cycles/sec » 19. How many beats will the captain hear/per sec- ond? beats/sec = 2.4. 20, Well, it is too bad that the number of beats per second is the same as before. He cannot tell by listening to the beats whether he is going toward or away from the cliff. This is not fundamental, but occurs here because the speed of the boat is small in comparison with that of sound. In either case he had better turn 90° left or right just to be safe and eliminate those beats. Incidentally one could turn this problem around and by knowing the horn frequency and the number of beats deter- mine the speed of the boat. GO TO FRANE 21. No answer. Scanned with CamScannerA favorite demonstra~ tion concerning sound resonance is depicted to the left. A iong hollow tube (the one I saw looked like a piece of sewer pipe) is cov~ ered at the top with a flap and a Bunsen burn- er is placed at the bottom. After heating the air in the column, lifting the flap will cause the column to resonate as the best fog horn you ever heard. For an open ended pipe both ends must be (nodes/antinodes)? As in the case of stand- ing waves with vibrating strings antinodes are spaced one-half wave- length apart. What is the minimum number of half wavelengths that one can have in this pipe? A denotes a dis~ placement antinode. Antinodes. The air is free to be dis- placed at both ends. One. x t ye " Nodes (N) must exist adja- cent to antinodes (A). 23. Indicate by the addition of appropriate node (N) and antinode (A) points a situation in which one would have three half wavelengths in the pipe. hone Ee ey Note that an adjacent node and antinode are separated by 1/4. Scanned with CamScannerhe The wavelength of the sound emitted from the pipe as shown in answer 22 is (longer/shorter) 253 than that shown in answer 23 for a given pipe pale length 4. Longer wavelengths correspond to (higher/ Lower, lower) frequencies, 26» The lowest or fundamental frequency at which the pipe can resonate is that depicted in answer to frame 22, What will be the wave- length of the sound if 4 is 10 ft? From the diagram of answer frame 22 M2=4 A= = 20 ft. Using 1100 ft/sec as the velocity of sound in air, what is the fundamental frequency of this 10 ft pipe? < ic y = 1100 ft/sec 20 ft y = 55 syeles sec This is a "fog horn" type frequency. It sounds about like the hum one hears in record players, radios, etc. only louder. 28. Terry eet TTY Suppose we had not lift- b) ed the flap after heat- ing the air column, The bottom would be an anti- node still, but the top is now a node. How is the wave length here re- lated to the pipe length at the fundamental fre- quency? Distance between adjacent nodes and antinodes is \/4. L=r/4. Scanned with CamScanner254 29, What is the resonant frequency of this closed Pipe if it is 10 ft long? Sv give Ca aw y = 1100 ft/sec 40 ft v = 27.5 cycles/sec « Most people cannot hear this, so that's why the flap is used. Scanned with CamScanner aqChapter 33 ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATIONS 33-1 Single Loop Le Circuits In'the single loop Ic circuit shown below, q denotes the charge on the capacitor © and i the current in the inductor L, Both of these will be functions of time a(t), 1 = a(t). We may obtain an equation for this circuit by summing the potential differences around the loop. (Vg - Vp) + Wp - Vg) = 0 (L di/at + (q/c) = 0. For q and i defined as shown, we have 1 = + da/dt. Then di/dt = d@q/dt? and L d2q/at? + g/o = 0. (33-1) >>> Example 1. Derive the differential equation for the LC circuit using energy con siderations. The energy stored in the circuit is Us Fs seursetae. Since for this circuit there is no loss of energy (the circuit contains no resistance), the stored energy U must be a constant. We have du/dt = 0 a 2 2/5) = fr (BLY +B a“/c) = 0 Li di/dt + (a/c) dq/dt = 0. Using 1 = dq/dt and cancelling the common factor of i we find L dq/dt? + a/c = 0. « Equation (33-1) is a differential equation for q as a function of t. Since it is of second order, its general solution will contain two arbitrary constants. Accord- ing to (33-1), q 4s proportional to the negative of d2q/dt2s we are therefore led to try a solution of the form q(t) = A cos (wt + @) where A, w, @ are constants, Substi- 470 Scanned with CamScannerr an ution shots that this satisfies (33-1) provided that w = WI7iC. alt) = Acos (ut +9) , w= AZ. (33-2) ne two remaining constants, A and @, axe arbitrary. Their values may be determined for any particular problem if we know the initial conditions (q and-d/dt at t = 0). fhe behavior of q a8 8 function of tine 1s shown in Figure 33-1. q(t) = A cos(wt + ¢) Figure 33-1. Behavior of q as a function of time for an LC cir- cuit. The period T = 2n/w = an Vic. Equation (33-2) says that the circuit (ise. q and i = dq/dt) oscillates according to simple harmonic motion (SHM) with an angular frequency w= Vi/LC. The student should nov review the basic concepts concerning SHM. Of particular importance to oscillating circuits are: . w, the angular frequency (radians/time) 5 vy the frequency (cycles/time) 5 T, the period (time/cycle). These are related by v = w/2n, T = 1/v. The argument (such as wt +) of any trigono- metric function which appears in SHM is always understood to be expressed in radians.* >o> Example 2. In the LC circuit shown, C=lpf. With C charged to 100 volts, switch § ts suddenly closed at time t = 0 The circuit then oscillates at 10° cycles per second. (2) Calculate w, Te (b) Express q as @ function of time. (c). Calculate the inductance L. (4) Calculate the average current during the first quarter cycle. 6428 x 109 sec, (a) w = 2ny = 2n(10? seo) T = 1/v = 1/(109 sec“) = 1079 sec ‘The familiar differentiation formulas such as d(sin 6)/d8 8 4s expressed in radians. ‘os @ are valid only if Scanned with CamScanner472 | (b) In general, q(t) = Acos (ut + )« In th{s problem,p = 0 (since 1 = da/dt t¢ zero initially). ana - initial charge = CV = (10™ 5 + (102 volt) = 1074 coul. Thus alt) = (10° cout) cos ((6.28 x 104 sec") t) « (c) we Vic 1 1 pedis ei = w% an2v%— an(102 seo*)2(10°° #) = 2.53 x 10 4 Thus (d) During the first quarter cycle, q changes from 10~4 coul to zero. dq = - 10-4 coul. also, it 1/4 = 0.2 x 1079 sec. The average current during this time is then Lgy = ta/at = (~ 1074 cour)/(0.25 x 10° sec) Jay = - 04400 amp . Remark: The instantaneous current at the end of the quarter cycle is i = dq/dt = - wa sin (w(T/4)) = - wa sin (1/2) = = wa = - (6.28 x 109 seo“) + (10-4 coul) = - 0.628 amp « < 33-2 Single Loop LCR Circuits We may obtain an equation for the single loop LCR circuit shown below. by summing the potential differences around the loop. ag pc 8 (Va - Vb) + (Vp - Ve) + (Ve - Va) = 0 — q (L di/dt) + (ik) + (a/c) = 0. For q and i defined as shown, we have 1 = + dq/dt. Then L dq/dt? + R da/dt + a/o = 0. (33-3) >>> Example 3. Derive the differential equation for the ICR circuit using energy con- siderations. The stored energy in the circult is UU th =FLirsd ge. In this circuit there is an energy loss due to Joule heating in the resistor. The rate of this energy loss 4s the power dissipated by the resistor (i2R). Thus the rate of change of the stored energy in the circuit is au/ét = - 172 (the minus sign arises since 12a is the rate of energy loss) Scanned with CamScanner473 a 2 2 Se (hut? + 02/c) = - 1?n Li di/dt + (a/C) da/dt = - 12R. ysing 1 = dg/dt and cancelling the common factor of 4 yields L d@q/dt? + R da/dt + q/o = 0. < The general solution to the second order differential equation (33-3) is alt) = Ae F*/2L cos (w't +9), wl = a/li/ic - (wat? . (33-4) qhe LGR solution (33-4) has certain properties which should be compared with the IC solution (33-2) (a) Both contain the two arbitrary constants A and 9. These may be deter- mined for any particular problem if we know the initial conditions (q and dq/dt at t = 0). (b) Both contain an oscillatory term, For the LCR circuit the angular fre- quency is w’ = V/(1/tc) - (R7atye, for the LC circuit it 1s w = Wi/ic In many problems R is small enough so that these two expressions are essentially equal. (c) The LCR solution contains a damping term e~*+/2L, The LC solution is of course undamped. In summary, the presence of the resistance R has the following two effects: (i) It lowers the angular frequency of oscillation slightly from w = i7LC tow! = V(a/tc) - (R/2L)2. (44) Tt introduces a damping term e~Rt/2L, The behavior of q as a function of time is shown in Figure 33-2. q(t) =A eT Rt/Zl cos (u't +9) Figure 33-2, Behavior of q as a function of time for an LCR cir- cuit. The period T = 2n/w/ = 2nf/(A/tc) - (R/2L)2. The enve- lope (dotted curve) is given by the damping term e-Rt/2L, >>> Example 4. An oscillating LCR circuit has R= 1 ohm, C = 1 wf, L = 0.01 henry. (a) Calculate the periods (b) After how many cycles will the stored energy be reduced to one half its initial value? = (afte) - (R/2L)* (a) Scanned with CamScanner474 1 i 1 ohm (1072 henry) (10°6 £) 2x 1072 henry = who? - 2.5 x 109 sec“! = 104 (radtan)/sec « Note that the "R/2L" term was negligible. The period 4s given by 4 T= 1/v = 2n/w! = 2n/(104 sec“) = 6.28 x 10 sec « “Rt/2L, Therefore both q? and 12 wit) b) Both q and 4 contain the damping term ewRt/2L, cease agin term (eokt/B ye Geni, ais stated enenpyil= FU? +4 G2/6 wait then exhibit damping according to the term e-At/L, To calculate the time at which this term is equal to one half its initial value we write oth pnb. Taking natural logarithms, ~ Rt/L = In ($) t = 0.69 L/R = (0.69) (10-2 henry)/(1 ohm) = 6.9 x 1073 sec . > In (2) = - 0.69 To find how many cycles this time represents, £- 6.9 x10 see = 1) cycles. T 6.28 x 1074 sec/cycle «« 33-3 Forced Oscillations in LCR Circuits Suppose that an alternating source of emf €(t) = &q cos (wt) is applied (in series) to an LCR circuit. Here w” is the angular frequency of the source (this is an independent quantity, not related to the values of L, C, R). The constant €y is the “strength” of the source, The differential equation for this circuit is L da/at? + R dg/at + a/C = ey cos (u"t) « (33-5) The general solution to this second order differential equation is a(t) = (€,/6) sin (w"t - 9) + "transient" . (33-6) The "transient" term, which becones negligible after a while, has the form of equation (33-4); it contains two arbitrary constants. The constants G and » appearing in (33-6) are not arbitrary, they are given by Gea" Vf Wt i/cj2+ 2, (33-72) 9 = cos" (pu“/c) (33-7) The relations (33-7) can easily be remembered by referring to the geometric construc- tion shown in Figure 33-3, Ignoring the "transient" term, the important features of the solution (33-6) are? (a) The circuit oscillates with the same angular frequency, w’, as the Scanned with CamScanner476 sources this 1s known as a forced oscillation. (b) These oscillations are undanped. (c) For a given source strength &, the amplitude of the oscillations depends upon the angular frequency, w’, of the source. There 1s ‘a resonance (large current amplitude) when w” approaches »/1/1 This resonance {s "sharp" If Ris small, “broad” if R 4s large. Figure 93-3. This geometric con- struction is a method of remem- bering equations (33-7). Consid- er three vectors: a vector of y magnitude wL in the + y direc- tion, a vector of magnitude 1/u'C in the - y direction, a vector of magnitude R in the + x direction. x The magnitude of their vector sum R is Vat = 1/a'c)2 + R= G/u". ‘Also, the angle between this vec- tor sum and the + x axis is @ = cos"! (rw“/6). Note that all the vectors in the figure have the units of "ohms". w"L 33-4 Displacement Current Previously we have applied Ampere's law, $B + d= tol, to steady state situa- tions. There is an inconsistency in this law for the non-steady state case, The cause of this can be seen in the following example. Suppose a capacitor C is being charged by the current I as shown in Figure 33-42. p c MA | ] et ae HI IF (a) (b) (c) Figure 33-4, (a) Capacitor C is being charged by the current I. The left hand side of Anpere's law, $B + dl, is to be applied to the closed path L. (b) The plane circular area Is bounded by the path L. The current cross- ing this surface (to the right) is i= I. (c) The hemispherical surface is bounded by the path L. The current crossing this surface (to the right) is i= 0. We may apply the left hand side of Ampere's law to the closed path “L" shown. On the right hand side of Anpere's law, "i" is the current crossing any open surface "S" whose boundary is the path L. (Refer to SG Chapter 29 for the sign convention.) If as in Figure 33-4b we choose a plane circular area for S, then i = I, On the other hand if We choose the hemispherical surface shown in Figure 33-4c for S, then i = 0 (for there 4s no current crossing this surface). This is a contradiction: the right hand side of Anpere's law should not depend upon which surface we choose for $ (provided merely that $ have the path L for its boundary). hy Scanned with CamScanner476 Obviously the trouble here 4s that the current 1s not cont inuoust At ends abrupt. Ly at the left plate of the capacitor and storta ogoin at tho right plate. To take care of the lack of current betwoon the capacitor plates Anpore's law te modified by having an extra term added to its right hand side. This extra term te choson to be wold where fg = 0 d(dg)/dt « (33-8) Here tq (whoge unit 1s the anpere) 1s called the displacement current. ‘Ampere's law Row becomes $B + dé = uo(i + tg) or rey fz + dL = ol + Moto dig )/dt » (33-9) In the right hand side of (33-9), 1 1s the current crossing the surface S and #p = J E+ 4S ds the flux of E through this same surface S. >>> Example 5. A parallel plate capacitor C is being charged by the current I as Shown below. Show that the displacement current crossing the plane P) to the right is equal to the current crossing the plane P2 to the right. p, | ech ei “I Using Geuss' law we find that the £ field between the plates is directed toward the right. Its magnitude is given by lE| = /eo , (= charge per unit plate area) = q/éoA , (A= area of each plate) « The flux of £ through Py (to the right) is ee ee Here we have made use of the fact that (a) E is parallel to dS, and (b) E is uniform over the area A, zero outside this area. The displacement current crossing P, (to the right) is ig = €9 d(ap)/dt = 5 d(q/eg)/dt = dq/dt . From the diagram we see-that dq/dt = + I. Thus igeI. Clearly I is the current crossing Py (to the right). Remark: The quantity (i + 1g) is therefore continuous. Note that we obtain the correct result with the correct sign. This justifies the choice of sign in iy = "+" ¢ d(&)sts < Scanned with CamScanner