BRITISH STANDARD. Code of practice for Foundations — (Formerly CP 2004) BS 8004:1986 of ifBS S004:1986 Committees responsible for this British Standard “The preparation of thie Inti Standage was entrusted the Cis Engineering nd isieing Strstores Standart Commitee (CSB) to Techn Comonter CSB upon wich te alowng betes wre Concrete Sosiety Department of the Environment, Housing and Construction Industries Department of the Exvironment, Propetty Sersioes Asay Department of Traneprt. Highways Federation of Civil Engineering Contractors Health and Safety Exeutive Insertion of Civil Engineers Insertion of Structural Engineers Royal Insite of Beto Atieste Cooted members ee Amendments fsued since publication Sea Se we sce Ad. No. | Date afisoue | CommentsBS soou:1986 Contents Page ‘Committees responsible Tsidefomt cover Forewoed| vi Section 1. General Li Scape 1 Deftnons 1 Selim & Design of foundations 21 General ® 211 Characieristie a ‘Ground movement s Groundwater 10 Fling n ‘Ground considerations n ‘Ground exploration and tests n Allowable heating pressure on various types of groin Bb ‘Structural consierations 2% General 2 Ttendependence of ground, substruetue and superstructure 28 ‘Typenef foundation a Exclusion of ground meistre Design in elation to construction poceduse 2 General 2 ‘Strength of partially completed structures = Proteston ofthe fosnation ei » Tolerances 2 Extra cover in sinfored concrete when cast aginst sseavated round 3 246 Retnining walle 3 Section &. Shallow foundations 21 General ss 32 Design considerations 321 General = 3.22 Allowable beaping pressure and setlement characterises s 323. Selection of types of shallow foundation 3s 224 Pad oondations » 22 Strip foundations » 226 Raft foundations 6 327 Shor piling au 3.28 Shrinking and swelling of lay colle. a 329. Other fetes eausing ground movement as 3.210 Chemical attack 2° 8.211 Ground movements * Section 4. Deep and suboquecns fomdatons 41 General » 42 ‘Typesof deep bundation ” 43° Choice of tye of deep foundation % 431 General » 452 Deep pad or step foundations » 429 Baveuent or hollow boxes 2BS S004:1986 Page 434 Calssone “ 455 Cylinders and pees 2 426° Piles 2 Peripheral walle 2 Mixed funations om non-uniform sites 2 (Ground movements within and around deep excavations 2 441 General 2 S42. Hesse, swell and uphi “4 442. Perimeter and external ground movements 6 444 Reduetion of ground movements " 4S) Design considerations s 451° General Ps 452, Presumed bearing values +s 454 Ultimate bearing capacity as 454 Allowable beaving pressure and setlement 6 455 Shoring of vertical lond between the sides and base of deep foundation 2” 456 Etec setling ground and downdrag ees ” {L587 feet of unbalanced excavation: 2 458 Distbutin ofload in pled basement foundations » ‘ectlon 5. Cofferdame and ealasons 51 General s 5.11 Introduction 3 6.12 Preliminary investigations 33 2 Materials aud tresses s Quality s Timber 39 Beinforsed comets 33 Steel 38 Design considerations 4 Choe terre cofferdanss and eassons a Determinatin of presses s Coffs 3 Caissons 6 Safey precautions e Seelon 6 Gootechnical procasen groundwater worn ‘routing and other methods of changing the eround ‘Sarsctevisties insta 61 General 62 Site uvessgatons 0 621 Feliminary investigations ~ 522 Detnled investisntions 70 63 Choi of geotechnical process fr control of groundwater snd ground defrmaticn 70 631 General : 632 Avoidance of groundwater 7° 63. Exclusion of water fom excavations 2 634 Removal ef water 2 635 Ground treatment to change the physical properties of the ground ~ 64 Methods of dewatering excavations a643, ea 652, 65a 654 BS soou:1986 Tetroduetion GGraty drainage Pumping ftom inside the exemetion Lisering the grounder Iva sng imps wells oF ‘well plats cuside che excavation Special methods for excluding water um excavations Une of compressed air [Belting water from exeovations by freezing the strrounding sound Cast ns diaphragm walls ‘sv of injection mothods to form an impervious wall around the excavarion Methods of improving the physical properties ofthe ground General Shallow compaction esp compaction by vibration {Ground improvement by vibeo-dieplcement and ‘bre eplacement Deep compaction by easy tanning Use of vertical drsine leet ostosis (Ground teatment by inection of route General Investigation ofthe ground prior to injection treatment General feates of grovtine Methods of grouting (Operational techniques Grouting philosophies Site contol Safety precautions Work in compressed air Working with tsi chemical outs ile foundations Genseal Preliminary investigations Grand investigntons rb structure Preliminary ples Design considerations (General Choise of sp Strength of ies Piles in groups | Ground conditions Negative skin eion Pile caps actors of safety ‘Types of ple amber plex recast reinforced conerete piles Prestrosced concrete ples Driven eastan-place ples 101 10. 102 10 103 103 108 108 os 100 109 10 ne ut ns 1 13Page oved castle ples 1 Steel bearing plex 130 Bearing expacity and test londing 1 Bearing eapacity ofa pile re Calculation by dynamic pie formulae 1 (Caleulation fom sil ets 1 Loading tests on piles 1 Pile ading test using maintained loads Be Pile lading test ata constant rate of penetration 1 place ies rs ‘Section & Tie work, underwater concreting and diving a1 Tide work 0 811 General 10 Matevisle 10 CConsteton 1 Underwater concreting 1 Applications ae Construction we Diving ws General me Safety precautions as Section 0. Ste proparation for foundation work 91 Preliminary eonsierations 6 811 General 6 212 Archacologial finds on construction sites 6 9.2 Design of foundations 6 983 Stability 146 84 Drsinage uw 925 Work preliminary to demolition. shoving and underpinning ofesing structures Notice to adjining owners Site sures 3 Nuisance Denoition Shoring General Adjacent buildings Location of shoring — Tree Maintenance Types of shoving Underpinning General Intl precautions Types of underpinning Design ‘Traditional underpinning procedure Mateviale Garren developments 5 6BS soou:1986 Section 10, Durabily of tbe, metal and concrete structures we 21 1022 22 waa 25 1026 w27 war waz was 1036 wos war was was General Tymber Genera Wood-lsteoying organ Fungi Termites Marine bosers Protection of wood "Temporary work Advisory bodes Metals General (Corrosion between i Bacterial corsosion Stony electri current corrosion (Corrosion of mild steel ‘Stoel with opper or eter Tow alloy content General Sulphate attack Aci attack, Cote content Indnsteial tps Frost aac Corrosion of relnfrvement Unstable aggreeates 2TH Safety precautions General Statutory requirements Precnttions Environmental hazards Pome from welding an lame cutting [Bxenvationsasrointed with foxndations Cofferaune ad eissone General Land cotferdams (Coffea water (Csisons in compresed ie Bleticty shine work Fire Exel water ftom exeasations Use of eomproseed air Precautions when excluding water from excavations Dy heezing the surrounding ground Chemical gronte Pe foondstons Generat Deven ples Bored piles lar metals ase 132 ase ase 158 158 14 155 100 160 101 161 161 162 102 183 163 168 188 165 168 164 106BS S004:1986 115 Tide work 115.1 Statutory requicemente 11.52 Workoverragcent to water 6 Diving 1261 General 1162 Selection of diving services 1LT Safety precautions connected with demotion, shoring and underpinning naz Detobion 1172 Use of explosives 1173_Unverpiaming Appendis A Deration of chavs forthe determination af allowable bearing pressures on Weak and broken rocks Appendix B Bibliography “Appenulx C Further reading ‘Appendix D Recommendations and statutory requirements iMfecting the safety, well and health of persons at Worl: Index [igure 1 — Allowable bearing presnures square pad folndatios bearing on fock (or setlement not ‘ceeding 03% of foundation wth) Figure 2— Cofferdane igure 3 —Cofferdam showing depth of cut-off ohesionles eis) igure 4 — Approximate guide to application of various tetechnizal processes to Soll Figure 5 —Nodes of scurence of groundwater igure 6 — Perseability and drainage characteriate of sil igure T—Types of gaeland drain Figure 6 —Collape of excavation eaused by seepage fom steep slopes ‘igure 9— Stable excavated slopes resulting fom at gradient and provion of doepeainago trench Figure 10 — Reduetion of water levels below an excavation by bored wel goundvater lowering system. Figure 11 — Multistage nll point system for deep excavation FPigune 12 — Redton of srvnd level before installing ell, pin system Figure 18 — Design rules for fers Figure 14 — Types of pile Figure 15 — Relationship of oad, setdeent and tein ple Iouding test using maintained loads Figure 16 — Penetration in constant rte of penetration tet Table 1— Presumed allowable bearing values under static loading ‘able 2— Clansfication and presumed bearing wales fr high porosity calle Table 3 — Weathering scheme snd presumed bearing values for Reaper Mar! ‘Table 4— Grouping of weak and broken rocks Table 6 — Classification of ands and gravel by standard penetration test Table 6— Unirsined (muds shear stsength of oesive sue ‘Table 7— Grades, pevformance, nae and ponible constretion forbasements Table 8— 8S grade timber grade stresses m ne 181 a aBS soou:1986 Page ‘Table 9— Minimum values for depth of eu-of for cohesoness ss wher thre en sgn riage extra Table 10— Types of gout 01 able 11 — Groat teste 1 ‘Tae 12 — Cement eontent and cube stent of cones for reeset reinfoned concrete pes 12 Table 13 — Curing periods fo use inthe absence of entrl cubes or Seam caring ra Table 14 — Suggested stump detail for typsal conereting cituations forcast in place pls 125 Table 15— Nominal ple diameters 1s ‘Table 16— Resistivity and redo potential values 186 ‘Table 17 — Conevet exposed to sulphate attack 130 Publications vonred to Tse bak overBS S004:1986 Foreword ‘This British Standard, having een prepared under the diction of the Ci Enpinering apd Building Structures Standards Commitee supersedes (CP 20041082 which ie withdrawn ‘The oignal Civil Engineering Cale of Practice No 4"Foundations” was prepared 1 commitee eanvened Wythe lasituon of Cl Engineers on behalf f the {Codes of Brstee Committe for Cit Ensinseting, Pe Works, Bung 2d (Construction Work, under the aces of the former Ministry of Works. far ‘publication inthe Civil Engineering al Publc Works Series, In 1949 the responsibility fr the preparation aissue of Coes of Practice of the Givi Engineering and Public Works Series se handed ove tothe following for roesstnal Engineering Ineiucone: he institution of Chil Engineers, the Inetivtion of Monisipal Engineers, the Insietion of Water Enginesre ad the Tnstiution of Structural Engineers and che arrangements forthe preparavon and publation of these codes were made by the Creal Enginecrng Cotes of Practice Joint Comittee constiited ty these instnition. The revised Code of Practice No-4Foundations was published by the Intittion of Cll Engineers Jn 1054 or the Joint Committe. The responsibility of the Joint Commitee passed in 1061 fo the British Standards Iasteaton, ‘The knowledge galned fom the structural behaviour of high-luanlns cement concrete during 1073 and 1074has omsiderably alfred the understanding ofthe Sehaniourand sensi ofthe use ofthis material i trutnes. As aroult of ‘oth esearch ad experience there i ot at this tine. the consensus of pinion -ecoscary for agreement on recommendations forthe use of this material (Consequently. an engineer wishing to spely concrete ade With hig alumina cement has to rly entirely om hie own engineering judgement, based on his own, fsperiene inthe ue ofthis particular cement Without guldance om this ode af ‘There has always been come controversy in the matter of rock classfeaton ‘While this code has heen uplated te arguable aso whether goes faz enough in respec of allowable bering capacities. consequence of this, appends D ha ‘nen ntocad in odes to exp this see. ST nits aw used throughout this code, Howeves, having vegan to the many ‘ountees in Euope andthe nest ofthe world where the coe may be read, ad ‘where metric units or imperial units ae muse tho committee condoned it scent to neue imperil units andr etbet met nits alongside St Uns ‘wherever necessity to fcitate the west understaniing of he ee [Attention is dren to the Health aad Safty at Work et. Act which came into {boven 1074 andthe sseoriated Construction Regulations, made wher the FFacares Act 1061, The health ad safety of persons engaged in earring out the ‘works to which this codo refer ie tho conearn of everyone aesocitod wit tho ‘Esign and construction of the Works. Additional references are made to the ‘anus pbeations that complement the Construction Regulations and that in Somecases, offer anexplanstary text pertaining to statutory requirements These ‘lcaente are essential ending t effect the sesenaney atte of mind whic fenstres safety in construction operations, These publietions andthe Statutory Tastrment ae given in appends D.BS 004:1986 "This revision of CP 20041072 has ben prepared by practising foundation rgneers, Tt atempts to tae int aesaneeoneeneti pions on the often wide ange of solutions to the day toda prvble that face Mowe having to cake ‘scsi on the foundation worker Groxnd being am aneoeropi messy needs tion which n practi is mete ft at than sine. This aspect erossnd featteas the ate the ue ofthe ode to take ning or grted ad ‘wor from comionsense principles to provide’ dat bare pon whic bec ousier the most appropriate and cost effective solution fr the satsactory completion of the Works ‘Tho revision doesnot attempt nor iit the purpose ofthe cde, tobe a manual of flundation engineering but provides soutees of iornaion on ome othe was and means whereby workin the ground ean ake advantage ofthe scope of Sewiavle aleraiives There are several standards which have ekewanee to {Buuvlacion work and cared regard should be given by the user to te ‘ronu-efreies in this ole oeusre that hie uae i agua or his Although this revision ie based on the apliation of established practice {echnclogial advances in desig and eonstruchon methods relevant to each Section shouldbe assesed by the use to enstne that the atest proven methods fare given adequate consideration, "The code has bres read with the help of many professional engineers fom academia esearch and industry ‘The fl it of nganizations who have taken part in the work ofthe Technica (Conualttee ie gven on the back cover The Chaieaaa ofthe comics MeMW [Leona and the folowing have mace a ebstantial contibton isthe drating eae ade Me R W Cooke Me D W Disall MeCK Haswell es Latte Me DJ Palmer Me Pagers ‘Mr MJ Tomlinson ‘Ths roesion hae given particular emphasis to safety in foundation works and a new section covering safety precautions has been introduced In particu the ‘eviston omit the allowance previtsly made ta the option of neeaned ‘reste in temporary works, Particular acknowledgement fe tae othe ‘nopetor ofthe Hesih and Safety Executive for thet sssstane In peparing this seetion ABritich Standard dove not purport to include all tho necessary provision of outact, Users of Brush Standards are rosponsile for their crzet application lance with « British Standard does not of itself confer immunity legal obligations Summary of pages "This doeumentcompatses a hunt cover. a inside font cover, pages to ages Io 186, an nedo back cover and aback ever ‘This ctandard bas been updated see copyright date) and may have ad Ammendiments incorporated. Ths Wl be laleted inthe amendnent tale on the iid font ever.bankBS soou:1986 Section 1. General 1.1 Scope ‘This Briss Standard cde of practice gives recommendations fr the design and constretion of {burvdations fo the nora range of budings ad ‘Seetion two covers the general principles of design: ‘eins tive, fy, ie and seen ate concerned with more detalled considerations ofthe design and Intallation of the main pee of foundations, ‘Scetons si eight and nine relate tite operations {nd construction processes mvlved in fovation gineering and section ten descres the fata Stleting the dural of the varius materials ‘seein onindatonstactares Seton eleven evens Safety precautions The standard dees nt cover foundations for special structures 1.2 Definitions Por the purposes of this British Standard the {ollowing dfinions appl 131 Adjoining owner the feebolde, owe, lessee, tenant ot authori oteupier ofan adining property aaa sir Tooke ‘chamber used in comprescod-ai work, having one door tote open ar and nother fo the Space under ‘ompreseed ar Teoaybe filled wth compressed it trrednced to atmosphere presse to enable men Snider waters tobe passed to of Bum the omprosee-air space while maintaining presewe in the leer 13a Allowable load the lod that mas'he aly applied toa ple after {aking ito account te tate beating capac begative fiction pil spacing. overall beariog spac of te ground low the ples and llowable eteumnt aad allowable net bearing pressure ‘the maximum allowable net oading intensity atthe ‘aoe ofthe foundation, taking into accu the ‘ultimate bearing capacity the amount and nd of ‘ethno expected sid the ability of the strate {assomutodate thie setement 128 anvil the part ofa poner-opersted hammer which reefves the blow of the ram sud transmit tote pile 126 Iavretten syste of piling involring the excavation of large ectangilar patel under beouite Spacinasner Dearing pile pile driven o formed in the ground for fbansuitng the weight ofa structure tothe soilby the resistaner developed a the pile point or base ‘and by fietion along ts surface NOTE. the pe recpnre tind ait een espe i unre eed mo ae Sie gem nvism anes suere setae 13s bentonite suspension/turry a mintae of bentonite and water 129 boiling the phenomenon f the sil being forced wp from the bass ofan excavation bythe upward flow of eater cr oro the sul being foreed up fom the toe of a Smbankment due tothe pressure of water retained bythe embankment OTE. Ths ponortnis mation led ovine Tao Dored eastAn-place pile ple formed with or withont casing ty exeavating fe toring hole in the ground and subsequently ‘ing iwi pain or reinfrced concrete tain box pte ‘ple una of lle steel sactions welded together to form a bellow pile rai bracing the internal system of walings, struts, and other embers hich enable eofledan ta rest external pressesSection 1 aaa building owner person having the right construct. demolish or Ioayablding plano other structure by vie legal owneratip or oer legal story iit caisson structure chat issue through ground water fr {he purpose of excavating ad placing work atthe proceed depth and which sbeeasentl Becomes ‘E integal part of the permanent monk Las box exisson ‘cnison whichis closed atthe baton ut open to ‘eatmspere atthe tp 1216 ‘compressed air caisson. ‘caisson witha working chamber in which the air {S maintained above atmosphere pressure to prevent the ety of water and sri tothe 27 ‘a exison open both a the tp and atthe hotom 1218 ceased pile apileforaed with» permanent sell or easing fled ‘rth onset a pereussian boring tal used i lay sls 1.2.20 cleat bracket or joining pisee fixod to prevent movement ta seat or wali 1221 cofferdam structure, usually temporary built forthe purpase kescluding water ort sulin to pees onstruction to prosed without excess pumping Sind to suppore he surrounding ground ide cellar cofferdam ‘a cuflerdam consisting ofa series of lle els of ‘Sree or otber shape i plan 12a Aore-wallcofferdam ‘cofferdam enclosed by a wall consisting of wo pvallel ines of sheeting ted together with ling Eotveen them and which i svallyseifrupperting seainet external presstge 1234 contiguous bored piling system of eaining wall construction in whieh bored pues aro inetaled in single or double rows co that dey ave oushng oF in lve proximity each stier 1235 ext slayer of timber o tel in ether one oF 180 Aizection placed beneath a column, shore, post, sil for soleplate forthe purpose of spreading te lad 12a cnoff evel the press slevtion a mich the tp of ple ‘it This may be above or below ground lve 1237 exlinder amaltemative name fran open caisson or monoita steplndvea for 1238 end shore vertical strut supporting a horizontal member (Gee lieadtaee which i earring the wall or other iad fran above 1239 depth oteuroft the depth nesehed by the see piling or eofedam ‘lls Blow exeavation level 1230 lap nrogmn wall ‘system of construction in whic a bentonite slurry Emloyed to maintain a prestie ed nd Stabilize a trench being formed with basa or frabbing equipment, When the required depth has been reached te tench is eonereted ron the bottom uptard spacing the slumy for remesal Laat Aisplacement piles piles formed by displacement of the slo ron hough Which they ane driven ‘\cishion of hardwood or other material paged on fopafthe driving ep or helmet to reeive the Hows te haberSection L BS soou:1986 1aaa lowndrag (negative skin friction) a downardsfietional force applied to the shaft of 4 pile eatsed by the consobdaton of compressible Siinaceg under ect place fal OTE Dead tate nth pea isa Aeiven eastin-place pile pile installed by driving a permanentor temporary asin. a fling the holes formed with plan or einforeed conerets 123s diven pile apie driven into the ground by the blows ofa Ibammer of ya sibrator 1336 Aeiving eap ‘temporary sto ap placed ontop of sto ie to ‘Astabute che bow verte crows Seton and to minimize damage tothe pile head during deine iat delving shoe ‘soe ot ite to the tipo pile or dving {ube tofaeitate te penetration iaae arop hammer ‘weight usualy of metal. vised by a winch and ‘owed co fall under geavty 1239 Arop or stroke the distaice which the hamaney or rau allowed to ‘all 12.40 enlarged base ‘anenlargenvent of the base aren a pile, formed ithe 3) witha hase lager tha the hale of pretorimed ple oF > in si, by driving » plug of concrete into the surrounding ground o¢ sit, by underouting (underreaming the fail atthe bass of «bored pil aa Inctor of safety the ratio ofthe ultpate bearing capacity to the Invensity ofthe applied bearingptessue onthe ato fie wknate la othe pple lend ase ton temporary overhead protetive sereen projecting fiona srutee and etveted for the purpose of protecting persons from alin material 12a fight auger ‘an open sere-ype rotary boring tol with 2 ‘cally arranged cuting edge ta = fying shore ‘satu or serie of struts in the same vertical pane fbaued toothor to provide a horizontal restraint between two walls to prevent lateral movement of foe or both wale towaeds each othe No pate of {lpg shore takes’ bearing on the ground 1245 follower ‘removable extenslon that transit the hamuner blows te the ple when the pile head is tobe dicen ‘dwn below the leaders an out af teach of the amoer OTE These cat eg T2i6 foundation ‘that port ofthe structure designed and constructed {oben recteontnct wth and stanemiting into the greund 1247 grow loading intensity fhe intensity of vertical lading on the ground atthe Toe level of foundation def allow above tat vel 12as stround beam, beam ina cubstructure transmitting Jad) toa Pie, pd or other foundation 1249 Aoublesacting hammer ‘hammer operated by steam. compressed air or {nternal combustion the eneray at blows being derived mainly fom the souee of motive power and ot um aay 1.2.50 single-acting hammer ‘hammer raizod by steam, compressed air cr fnternal combustion aid allowed to fall oe 1251 hrendtree ‘horizontal member placed immediately on the ade of dead shoresBS S004:1986 Section 1 ase hneawe the upward displacement of round a a result of operations wathin 1353 eles temporary ate cap placed on top of precast oncrets ple to asiniloe damage to he ple ead. tuning azving 1254 pile ste] wide-lange column o other section often roles with a inifrm thickness nr an ange 1258 Jiseked pile Ape usually in short sections which sfored into lice by jacking it against 5 ears soc the ‘weight of the stuctine 1256 Jetting the use ofa sulcent quantity of water under precnre atthe pint os dren ple a ato ple penetration 12st Keely bar the sliding shaft ona boring rig which tansmits the Ariens force or tergue to Ue borin tol fo 3 ‘riven rotary tabi 1258 Kentledge material used to ad temporary loading toa rveture ef the top of eiszons to asec in Sing o a deadweight ina loading test 1359 acing ‘system of ies connecting one setting of walngs or Site to anor 12.0 Tenders steel channels or tubes use for locating ad siding {hehanmer and ple dung desing either orang part of pile frame, or suspended from the yb of ‘odie crane cr supported on a mobile base ot Standing om the groune secured by guy ropes 1201 Keg support in an underpinning forming part of the ‘permanent work 1.262 ronatith an open caisson of heavy mass concrete or masonry fenstruction, cntaining one or more Wells fr 1268 smudding-in the technique of sting bentonite powder and ‘water using aa auger ino granlarsl to falitace {he mstllation of temporary easing 1264 neclle member inserted into or through a wall to give femporary or permanent support NOTE Avil wed emuooa neha peering Sgro storie pant eg eee ‘lb aad othe wallo uo en abner Tass recite ‘ml dinmeter, nst.n-pace, reinforced concrete ples formed by ding though exzting Enondations ad the servoing no lender, fila tel tbe or bar installed ty ing, bth ‘ed i underpinning operations 1266 net loading intensity the inte ace or decrease in intensity of vertical Tending tthe hase level of fsa de to tsravation anor the weight of the ne structare Including earthvorks Gang), Usually the Aerence between the gross loading intent before building operation are comonood andthe ros loading intensity afer he structure Is opts an lls Ted 1267 packing pad of renient material contained between the elie andthe top ofa enforced conerete pie fo ‘miniige damage tote lle head during deving 1268 pad! foundation ‘an isolated foundation to spread a concentrated ad 1269 penetration. ‘he total depth below external ground level eaehed bya catseon or the sheet ples ofa cofferdam 1270 peninanent set fhe net distance hy which driven pile penetrates Into the ground a each blow ofthe haminerSection L BS soou:1986 aaa pile cap concrete block east onthe head af ple ora gro pls to transmit the load fom the structure © the pile or group af piles 123 pile ame ‘locale ste or tuber structure fo ivng piles {nthe conret position and allgntent bys hater operating nthe leaders of tho frame 1273 piled raft ‘foundation formes of piles anda raft acting together 2S ubennier beastie isi pipe pile pile consisting ofa Yength of steel pipe, driven ‘ther open-ended or th a shee 1278 poling board ‘flat member supported by walings in contact wit {he ound and supporting the fae or sides af an cxsavation, anally 1 to 1 on 1376 preboring ‘removal, by boring. of soll hat may cause heave fing pie driving. The ples placed inthe rebored Hole and driven as ual 177 recast pile ‘areinforod or prettresse conerete il cast before dnwving 18 preliminary pile pile installed before the commencement ofthe Tuan pling works for the purpose of establishing the aultabligy of the chosen type of ple std for confirming the design dimonsions ad bearing apaats (ee alo tet ple) 1379 restimed bearing value the net lading intensity considered appropiate to the particular ype of ground fr preliminary design proses 1.280 roof Yond ‘ond applied to a elected working let confirm thor eve suicle forthe al athe Setement syenfed NOTE Ayton eee 10 te rast ppuncheons ‘vertical struts transmitting the weight f the bracing tothe eseavated ground surface inside a ‘ofterdam ora clat er vetial str fanning the weg of 3 bracing fate to the frau below 1282 ‘aft foundation ‘foundation continuous in two directions, ually fovering a area equal to or greater than th bace ‘ten of e strucare 1282 raking pile ‘pile insted a an inelination tothe serial NOTE, Tas issonime rede heer rast raking shore i none stator series of tr inthe same ‘ental plane peed against a wall to vestea it ‘pom lateral movement Tepper end ate aginst needle and it lower ond ears pom a solepats {ually contact wich the ground the whole the eres of sets being braced laced together 1286 the rising and fling pat ofthe hammer which Astivers the blow 1286 rock socket the portion of the pile boring which penetests into Shand formation Beneath less competent reroute 1287 a vertical member supported by walings used to Support theses fee ofan exeneation and progressively driven o lowered as the excavation Proceed ie ered bang kept below the baton tthe excavation 1288 serew pile pile consisting esentaly ofa chaft provided with ‘eli or bello arts base and screed into the ronne|Section 1 1289 secant piling 1 system of etining ll eonstrastion normally proving better waterbghtness than contiguous [ore pling in which alternate pls ane bored pad coneeted at oer spacings than contiguous pling ‘The intermediate piles are then bored between the piles previously installed anda greove chiseled Alon the shafts ofthe earl piles o that. when the oncrete i poured. fully iterlocked wal ‘sine 2.90 Segmental piles precast concrete shaft unite which ean be formed Into bearing pies ofany desired longi by moans of Specal souplings 13.01 eet pile ‘ne fa row of ple diveno forme inthe sro ‘ijacent to one another ma continuous wall each seneraly provided with 3 connecting joint of Ibterock ually designed to resist mail lateral forces and tree seepage it maybe vertical ost Snincinstion 2 sel) a percussion bring tol with a elack valve at its Tower end used in water-beating granay sil 2 preformed tubular element in steel or concrete {hats driven int tn grou and subseqently ‘led wih sonanete 129 sillor coleplate ‘member usually n contact with tho round, ‘laced under the fot ofa shore for the purpose of istration 1295 isin fretion the ftom resatane ofthe surrounding sl on the surge of oem oe eaeson walls, an ple Shae 1.2.96 slip layer ‘layer inomally bituminous coating applied to {he shafe hat wl shear under the dawawand force ofthe etling sil thereby reding additional ad being shed onto the pile soldier 4 vertical member supporting horizontal poling oats o> walinge 1298 strip foundation » foxnation providing «contin lonsttnal round bearing 1299 structural ember in compression. e.g supporting he walings of cued 12.100 substructure thot part ofan structure Gasiting iltns 098 Pnsfay or eaehwor) whieh i below natural or tifa ground level In ge thi ineles pens fad abutments (and wing wall), wheter below round level or not wich support the Fuperstruture 12101 tension plle alle that is designed o resist tensile force 12.02 test pile apie to which a load is applied to determine the Inadostlement characteris of the pile and the strong groin (ee also preliminary ile) 12108 structural member in tension 1208 treme pipe ‘pipe formed of muber of lengths wie fulceelease couplings by wich coneete can be Placed in a controlled manner through slurry oF Irate atthe bottaun ofa tench or borehole 12.105 imate bearing eapacity the value ofthe gros bain intensity fora Dancer fourdatin a which the resistance f the Feiltodsplacenent of the undatlon i fly robin’ 12106 walling a prizontal beam resisting the Jod fom a fotferdam wall agomst external pressure 12107 wal piece vertical member (esi timber placed in direet Contact with a wal to dstaite the thrwe om Sone or shoves 12.108 ‘working Yond ‘he Jad which the ple is design to carey (see alo allowable lad")Section L BS soou:1986 12.109 ‘working pile one ofthe piles forming the foundation of the 4 suspension in which the particles do aot axe ‘cate they respond to meleewar movement nthe ud 1am. AsAloceulants agents to promote the dispersion of oes, or sald particles hich ae snleseed into Inver rove rane instomers ‘a material with rubbertke properties, ease of Aleformation sad rap and complete covery ais nnusion, dispersion of disrete patcles or droplets of one ‘terial in continuous phase or another mater sn twhich tient eae aaa ‘ntllslon breaker an agent wien promates ealescence of small Atoplets and separation of the gud an let ear ‘epoxide (epoxs) ‘thermosetting plastics in whieh chain is formed ‘by reatons af polyivai aleohl and picatorkyain ius filler ‘finely vided old wih, while talking no past in the chemical traction ina system. modifies ts low properties and subsequent mechanical be int Dltenoplastic thermosetting plastics based on phenols (eg resoenal) aus polysnecharides farbohirates which ae alin to starches ‘Shgars ad are found naturally as slates Lan polyester thermosetting pasties ith along din formed ‘Hom the reaction ofan organi aid and an alcool 120 sotvecostients in a system in which chemi eatin ae tang place naa finely divided solid matter dispersed in alg 12a water soluble precondensates water soluble constituents of «condensation fm in lor the condenentam process Tiegey arrested and which when a suitable catalyst ‘Sade, i ceupleted 12iss Diowing down ‘he means of using a pneumatic caisson to snk by {eccing the nr presse nthe working chamber {here inerensing the effective weight which acts feovertone skin ction revstancem the eet ‘walls a esstarc in end esng the cating leeBS S004:1986 Section 2. Design of foundations 2.1 General ‘Seidel opting rl 2.11 Characteristics ‘The eharactersties fell and rocks used in this code are given in Tablo 1 and 2.2.2, 2.12 Ground movement 2.1.21 Genora. Foundation design should ensure {hist foundation movements are within ts that fan be teerated bythe proposed structure without Impating its functions, ince the cepacty of Mitcturet io secommedate movements varies che desig ef the structure should be inarelted tots ‘ounation Burland et al 1077, Tnaddition to knowledge of the engineering properties ofthe underlsing rock or sls aswell ac ‘Toundwater conditions, foundation design requtes Sn uinerstaning ofthe lal rology and history of {iesite eee 22.12), Foundation moveuneuts ocur fom the appirstion rrewevaleflaador ground movement independent bf load (20 21.24) and, aswell ar afeting the Srurute, may act external conseetions such a Pipe o rains an the strictures relationships > ‘djacent structures Burland and Wroth 1973) Forsinple strctres especially those not sensitive tomoveenent simple design et ae wally seqate 2.1.22 The foundation and the ground os an nore oytem. Eevrs ave ely to eu ‘undo attention i given to refinement an Calculation o oa pevcular aspect of foundation Alesign a the expense of minting a overall understanding othe bebiariou ofthe foundation ‘id supporting ground This understanding ‘eles the meshaniema and baton of fe {round and the way in which the diferent part of fhe groin, the foxmdaton stricture and water (ohether fee to flow on abserved ss pote water Dress) form interdependent system (Berlana 1975. Jin adaition to considering the ground and foundation ogether asa system, tis elpfltohave ‘rough pete of how the individual ements of She ground respond to changes in dre! or shear "tresses, he volts, the water content andthe ‘Soength The way in Which element of ground act, as system is beet perceived in the light of the Suaroundng stratiraphs. the groloeeal history. Spproprinte tests on snopes and the pineple of ‘Mfetve sess. The response ofeach spsteu Stange of oad o overeat ar water eoutent ‘Suge ebay tobe tedependent toa peater or esse dezoe Te sbould be remembered that the ground, before escavaton begins may already be subject to ‘movement and pressure changes, though these ‘Suunges ay be small nna and tang place oth Such changes may be due t nearby fonetruction works, ground conselidating under its fn weight changes in greundtater lve othe oneaiatin of esos place fil (we 212-9 ‘he constroron svethd is a mttaer fnflseneng movesente nd lads dang ed folowing te works ‘The engineer, when considering the Likely effects on the stuctue, should endeavour to asses only roughly. the kind of movement or pressure change tr water pressure change which could be expected in the ground, an the orders of magnitude of such ‘Sages, Detaled design and calculations show fly proceed in the lt of this general Stndetstanng of hom the grown eels to "eopou to the excavation and foundation Works AU this stage conaideration should be given ‘whether the foundation or superstructure isin any Tespect saeco structural sensitivity A system ot ‘etetr estructural senate when st eps ‘isproportnsatts to foros or enronmenta effete (Gruiage and Bratehell 1079) ‘Where deta design and caleulations depend on, or result in predictions ofthe ameunt of eats ‘ovement. the engineer ay Usefull eer to che ‘rsordeef earth menements wc ave taken place fad aso to publications suchas Lambe 1973) Satisfactory crzlations have been chalned between theoreieal nt sbstved movements sing fomputer-baved Brite element methods and a ‘rable elaetic mode Before sing these faleultions the designer should consider whether the ground data ae sufficenely accurate and representative to justify uch aera of Caleultion, and whethey the acuraey ofthe results Setusefl These emsidersions shou ake sesame the proposed method of constuction.Section 2 BS soou:1986 ‘Careful consideration should be given to monitoring the movement ofthe etortare a he son Hy stating system of measurement dling and Sifter construction to give anurane iat dene ‘assumptions are being adequately realized, 21.2.3 Movements due to application of toad 2.1.2241 Gore. Application ofan ineeased load ‘through the undations of structure results Aleforstion ofthe grounds settlement ‘Settlements sre vied nt avedint wtlement, ‘whlch tales pce ae load ie applied nd lng-terah Setlement, which may coninte fr come tage afer pplieation of load In racic its difaeult to SSfarae the to bene some ofthe nga Settlements may oseur quite rapid in the oaaty Stags of foundation Medlin. One type af angen etlement on sie known a2 eoseniation Sctlement ands due to expulion of rand water fom roids inthe sol resulting in vam redtion ‘Melay sos, this process may take fears to each an ‘qullibrium condition, after Which no farther Setlementoecurs,Longterm coop or secondary [eteunent may also ootur especially in peaty ef ‘reani cls Ifthe fasta of safety ss imadonsate overstrestngof ‘the ground results in plastic deformation of the {round below the foundation, lending to movement ft the foundation greater than the setlemente preious Uiseused.Inestete eases sear fallixe ‘nll acer (ese 2.12.32). 2.2312 Shoar deformation and failure 21.28.81 Bearing csparity Inanier to guard ‘agains the poesia ef shea lah or sbstantial ‘ar deformation, the foundation preseure used i design chould have an adequate factor of safety ‘when compared with the utmate bearing eapacicy forthe founaton, ‘With uniform ground conditions, the ukimate ‘bearing capacity wl increase with the depth of ‘hobedient ofthe foundation Us the grou. This Inerease i estate not ony with te effects of confinement of the ground and the inareaced ‘rerinrien pressure at fovmvation lee, bi l= ‘vith shear trees that ca be mobilized hetweet the “Hes the fundation ata the gn. Where {ounations ae dep, abi the ease of Jeep ‘asements pes elindes or cassons. he contbuton tothe ultimate bearing capacity by the ‘har fees onthe sides ay be latge ‘Methods or estimating the allowable net beaning reser for fundatonsareotlined in 222 [ny ‘Table presumed bearing values or foundations on ‘Various pes of ground are given, Te should, however, be realized that existence ofa adequate factor of safety against sear fata will tot naceestiy ensue that foundation setlesoets tilbesucenty sal To partican the ‘Mlowable bearing proscurefor alge foundationon franular sol may have tobe mueh smaller than the “ltumate bearing capacity divided bya conventional factor of safety of 0" 3 Loaing tests on an individual est plate. footing. ple plerorcaeson may give the uliate being Eapacty of the soll staessed bs che single structural ‘lement atthe particular leat tested: but the cults may not be seprecentative ofthe bearing ‘harseteristies ofthe complete foundation nor ofthe Ste nea wale. Inctensed settlements or even Alepeseated flues due to the combined Toads of umber af oundations may eu ths should be ‘Shecked Teshould be noted that ae setleimente ‘econo in connection with nding vests wl rasty five an indication of the settlement ofthe ful sale ‘When a foundation is requited to carry eoventrc or Incline! loads the altinate being capacity ssl etinated avindinuel maa eteor e247 2.12.82 Soft layers below foundation. When soft lagers le below the proposed foundation evel, the boating presses will eed tobe ajustod 0 that the stieses in the sft aver dnt lead toexcesaive plas deformation ste 22.2.8) Attention wil Blzo need tobe pa tn possible set tment ine fot ape. 2128.28 Fer of adjacont cuttings, exeavatiansor loping ground. Catinge, exensations or sloping round near foundations may increase the possiblity of shen fare the gov sspporting {he foundations In sone aeas the natural grout inthe slopes and cuttings may et be elose to Timing egitim a fem ites connote avoided steps may have tobe taken to increase the {geneva stably f the st before new structures fre erected, in all cases the posable eet of hopes {ind exeavations on foundation stability should be nelly investigated ane 222.62) 21.2424 Inlined trate, lchnedo jointed strata In whieh the bedding ot jin planes dip towards an ‘eavaton o natural depression inay present ‘abit probloms, a faire en eeu on the ‘intaces of weaknces along the bedding ofa Tt say be necessary to improve the resistance ofthe ‘rata ee section ort carey foundations dsp ough to prevent sliding on these suraces of ‘reniessBS S004:1986 Section 2 2.1.2.8 Seulement, The magnitude of tae cement that wil ove hen fxn loads fre applied tothe ground depends onthe rgiy of {hestructure, the fype ad duration of loading ad the defortioncharacenctis ofthe ground (Gee2120) Insite a lays snsoidaion Seftiement may eontie fr ang period afer the Struct is completed because the ate at hich {hewate ends fm the voi under the infltence ofthe applied stvsces is slow: allowance ‘vil owed tobe sade fr ths slow eonsedation Settlement In beds ofcrgani sols setement ay be prolonged almect indetintels duo oa ‘phenomenon known aa exeep or scondary neal, and il eed epoca consideration IMtsands an gravele and mest rocks however, the Sectetent Is Hey tobe substantially comple by the ond ofthe constriction period. ‘The magnitude and rats of settlement tobe expected may be gaged by the study ofthe behaviour efsimar structures Having esentally the same foundation ain one base of strstueal oition Sd any available setdement records yan analysis ofthe settlement based on measured sol properties andthe stresses applied tothe ground by tho structure Te shouldbe appreciated that new conctruction may Tada aia setement of adjacent structures ‘The design of the fexndations shox taketh possbiy into account Gee 28:2.) 2.124 Movements independent of applied foundation aad Maventonte ay rest from eases bt connected ith the lads apie Wythe Hundations (Cookie and Ward 104) The causes of ‘round and frundation movement areas flows: a) seasonal changes or the eet of vegetation Feading to shanking and swelling of lay sll frst heave: 6) the application of artificial heat or cold to the Supporting ground 1) changes in groundwater lve resulting fom, ‘designed or unfoessenble drainage, ot ‘modification ofthe groundwater reine by fenstretion, or by natural causes: sa of ground due ro erosion neluding ;nemaleroson) or sluion by perolating water, fd loss of nes by pumping operations ‘changes in the state of trees inthe god de fonjaceat excnvatons devdging. scar or ‘reson by streams o Moods oss of suppor) or Ale tothe eretin of adjunng structures continuing settlement of watual deposits or fi 0 1 sol creep o& Landslides on slopes !)movement of ground resulting fom sink cr ‘nll les of nvieravosnd workings ‘Gluing mining and tunneling) _) wbrationsineluding seismic disturbances ' deterioestion of made ground o il 2 deterioration of the subateactre ioe sn alteration ofthe properties of the ground de ‘o natural or artificial causes 1) coast erosion Inthe design of fundatons the possibility of ‘overnente uneoneeted with the splleaion of Jead sho be considered and, when necssar. ‘eps sould be taken to tine any damage Eat ray rel from these eee. 21.25 Influence of ype of foundation and structure Tn assessng round movernents and the hmiting ‘les which ean be acepted consideration eels {ode given tothe capacity afte proposed structure {e accomodate foundation noveseate and tothe ity ofthe pe of foundation choc to meet the pavlcular site conditions encountered ‘Although foundations exist in considerable vanity. ‘he may be broadly groupe into three main types: Shallow foundations subaqueous and deep foundations; pile fountatons. (General design considerations relating tothe the tain pe of font ae ven in 23.3, 24.26 Infuence af onstruction procedure, eatation and foundanin installation. The fonetrston procedure required otal fonnations nay have an aenee eet othe epporting properties of the subs or om mad ‘movetentsbsquent to construction Subsequent fensucton operations even onan adjacent le, say alfot existing operation. Detalls ot fensrustion procedures usolved in foundation frgineering ae given in sections 108 General design conserations arising from fustructon procedures and foundation installation sregivenin 2d 2.13 Groundwater 3.1.3.1 The presence of groundwater frequently faust difetty duningeonstruton or neompleted Stork Section 6 gives reomientathans on the nova of water from work daring contraction Informacion onthe excision of water fous completed strctures sever in 2-34 and CP 102Section 2 BS soou:1986 2.1.8.2 In he design of foundation. the effect of {roundsntr hon aways eats considered. Buring construction, water eves ay be seasonally at low level or they may beats lowered CConstretion mat alter the grountertor rie (ver aiwide area by. for example, the clearance of ‘vegetation. the modifiestion of exacting drainage Talites or basement construction, The ‘onstretion sunyinesione with the sara ‘rounder flow casing ie on fallin the water ‘le, Subetructuse should be designed tobe sable With any groundater level that kl to our ‘Where i> noceecary for tho tracts tobe ‘waterbght Ie should be made waterbght toa Suffent height to guard against capillary action nd toallow for asubsequent rise nthe water table, ‘The eects of groundwater are dealt, sri sn 23.27.3243, and seein Some naturally occurving materials. reek cat and some limestones) a5 well az some atl! ‘Shemiel contaminants are soluble. Expert adeice Should be sought where there is an Helinod of Sich materials being present 21 Flooding “The effet of fonds bath during constriction an on the completed stricture. should be considered 2.2 Ground considerations 22:1 Ground exploration and tests 29.1.1 General Before foundations are designe land method of construction determine. te ‘eset cam out alt exploration to aecertaln the character and waaay othe stata Uundenping the ste ofthe proposed structure. Ia particulars neeessary fo assess these properties ‘hich may affect the performance afte srctare {Ind the eae of method of eonstrucion. Site vestigations should be catid aut generally ‘in scorns with BS 6020. In thi cote 8S $004, ‘het ference 1s made onl to pouut of particular lmportance n foundation desig. 2.2.12 Callectionofaailable information. Aaa preliminary or aenntagen leet Infimation relating tothe sit prior to commencing its exploration. The geology shouldbe investigated. Details that ate avilble fom sorte an maps elatiag te gelogelinfrmaton should be studied and advantage shoul be taken of existing local nowledge The stuy of serial photographs of sromorpholbgy may prove valuable Engrs [bout ear tes ofthe site may reveal whether ‘here have been underground workings o fled in (quandes, beckons ete A preliminary sual ‘samination ofthe ae and surrounding eountry tay lao give an indication ofthe grounder Level ud the drainage and looting coitions to which {he site muy’ be subjected. Local observation my Sls lnaleate whether the sie susceptible to Tani ort local subsidence arising trom mining ‘operations os swallow holes. The inepection cf Dulings in the neighbourtoed. particulary for St of settlement and the neience of cracking. smay yield valualeinformation when strocturen ola Siler nature are proposed Local authority ftehives and eter ocorde may be wef Eaaahn oo. 2.2.1.3 Type of exploration, The exploration af site foram important structure requires the exploration ‘ud sapling of all strata Lis tobe sgniianty fected by the structural oa. The extent of his txploration Will vary withthe site and structure. Ty bulltup areas where experience of sll strutures and sulfiient quantitative informations Svalabl for a stiafactory design exploration ms be mited to checking that the ground conditions sre those expected in the neizhbourood existing {nfoemtion eno suliient ort inconelasve the site should be explored in detail to obtain a Knowledge ofthe ype consistene. thickness, ecuence,dssurintes and dip ofthe strata and [novledze of th groundwater emditione. For examination tofany shallow depths, where enaitions are suitable, trial pits have the ‘tvantage tht the shes ofthe pean be inspeted ft alllevels Where "made" gro is encoustved {Gil pts enable eo be Identified and nay enable its probable bearing capacity toe aeosee. For ‘leper explonstons were the groubd is unsuitable for til pts, borees or dil les ate reasine?BS S004:1986 Section 2 Samples oe rock coes shouldbe procured fr the rps of dentfiontion fromench stratum, Where “nproprite undisturbed sil samples should be ‘alent tate canbe cua o tem to sees bearing capacity, ori ncescary tcamry out a Secement anaes. Cantinuous sampling may be eared to estas minor variations in stata ‘hich could have an important effect on for ‘uamiple. drainage (one 622) In certain conditions, In situ ects will ore eadiy prove the uscesrary {itornaton or may be the only avallable wean of [estigation An inestigation may require both ampling and in ctu teeing: the cheice of method Should be eazeily related fo the ype of mateval ‘nontered at varios levee he borehole or est Dit There ate other method of vestigation, sch 2s probing and geoplisial exploration Which wa provide wsefulcupplementary information 2.2.14 Number and deposition of tral its, Brinse ‘and drillings. Tae dsponiton and spacing of the {tal pits borings or delings shold te stich as to ‘reveal any major changes in tices, dep or [Properties of te sent: The nue of tral pte Songs or eiings required wil vary with the size and pe of structure, the general nature of the site ‘nd the completeness or atherviceoflcal geological nd geotechnscl ecards. Iie sometines dul fo {ive deine iniheatione in aac, ad the ‘rogramine should therefore be exe and allow {Er odiescons as nfrmation obtained. If these fs ieagrooment between tho teeords a the Doteholes or del hela a ery detailed exploration say be necessary to give a lear petre ofthe pattern of sbsurfae trata, Supplementary teste Suh as prabings may be partieulrly useful for his purpose Exploratory boreholes, dil holes and tral pits Should be positioned and restated as far as ‘oseble,n ish awn ae to minimize nterference ‘ih construtian work: their postions and depths Shot all be fll esorded at taken acu Planning constriction work 2.2.18 Dipth of exploration. Exploration shouldbe (ale to dept Which tnchude all strata ly to ‘bo sigiieanrly affected bythe structural Toad and the construction operations The depth af "exploration wl depend on te treo trots, the Ste shape and disposition afte Toad areas and the utube ofthe strata, While the uature othe Stratum on which the fondation iets ‘onmally f moot buportance i determing the Allowable bearing presse, special consideration Should be given to deeper stata which have smaller llowsble bearing presnure (eee 92236) Precautions ae necessary to ensure chat boulders are not mistaken for bedrock. particulary on ites ‘where borings ane made through placa naevial or Aleeply weathered rc Tin deciding the depth exploration, attention Should ako bo given to che effet ofthe ground endieions on construction methods for example, if ‘works fo be done ina calferdam, the possi of eaching an impervious afer with sheet ples © provide a colf ul be exploned he wpper strata are soft pled fonndation may ‘be consseved in which exe th ground willis ‘eesoed tan appreciable depth below the lets Wis therefore necessary tonew the charactor ofthe Underlying strata, and it maybe necessary to caer bits anal of etlement of the strate sulting from consoldation ofthe deeper layers Teneath the ple toes. 2.2.16 Groundwater (eal section 6). Owing to the low permeability of many sols the water levels in borsoles or abservation wells nay take a fonserable tune to reach equinus with the froundwater. Spr readings of the wate level in etc may therfore give an xtoneou Impression ofthe cru groundwater level Readings Sotld be mae in pezometers or sie Standpipes ver accent porod of tine in order to obtain a proper ascessmont of ntuations inthe [vomeater level Water test nl oles euch Se packer tests see BS S050) may sive valle iniemstion Seasonal vatation nthe lve ofthe water table tay alco be important, Where dep exenetion equied levels of water bearng strata should be Atetermined with particular care, and he water level fad presse m each stratum shouldbe observed 50 that necessary precautions nay be taken Outing ‘On sites ible to be waterlogged in wet weather. it {Sdasrable wo determine the coutour of the water fable relative fo the ground eurface inorder to Indicate the dieetion ofthe natural drainage, This Willette the design of intercepting drains to prevent he fof groundwater inthe ite fom Higher grout Tmcertain lacalites the groun2vater, sll or rock say contain eoneitvnts in amounts lint to ie damage fo conerete, buried metal cr pasties (Gee section 10)-In such eases wil be desirable to thtaa chemical analsis of samples ofthe {roundtwater sol or oek to asess the necessity of petal precnstons Te x esental that the freundater samples should not be ded by ‘rater added to aos dviing ofthe boreholes {zee precautions wil be needed where roe. Atling uses water cr md Ts,Section 2 BS soou:1986 et loading and in itu tat. Test loadings ‘age asl made on bearing plates or ple. The fact {hava smal foolated area af ground ora single est pile willearsy a hea lead without excessive Setlement isnot necessary proof that a much larger area ara group of ples Will cary load proportionally. pariculaniy where a stronger layer ttsol overlies a weaker-ane ee BE 5050), 23.18 Responsibility for exploration and Interpretation of reall Owing to the le dependence of the design of he structure onthe ol ‘dition, t is esental thatthe exploration be ‘adequately cupervisod and thatthe interpretation tte results ahold be eosly elated to the design land construction operations as a whole 2.2.2 Allowable bearing pressure on varions types of ground 2.221 General, Computation of moment, thrusts And shears. andthe deign ofsectons toesit thet, Should in general follow principles set out for ‘Rierstructnes To oats masini strength and conony. the foundations, substruetie and Superstrtane shots sti ae «woe, ‘The design of the permanent and temporary works should be considered together modification of the design of eter may be necessary wt the best ‘Son te otained ‘The foundations and substructure should have an adequate factor of safety under al conditions that ‘nay coeur during any stage ofthe construction of the entice work The construction procedure should ‘bo arranged to avoid endangering the strength cr stability ofthe patally completed structure. Possible extensions or alterations shouldbe borne in ‘nine particulars when designing fxnatons for Industrial ple ‘atatons ofthe strata in oviontal dinetion (Gee222.8)arelikely tobe parieularly important {br buildings: Where portions ofthe foundation ae ‘derlais by oof materials ox whee the layers of ‘Such soft materials vary in thickness over the area tthe ite the sesesunent ofthe allowable Resin Dreseure ay require asetelement lyst 2.2.2.2 allowable bearing pressure and rested allowable bearing ale 22921 Geral Universally applicable values of allowable bearing pressure cannot be given, Factors ffeting bearing eapaclty have bven iscussed in 1.2 and thoy show that for ang important ‘Seuetue, the allowable bearing pressure anno be asses it taking into acnunt the elt of “etiement. However, foundation design isa present posible onl by taal and error methods, so that tie desirable to nee come si or preliminary design sscumpelons. Therefore, the foneep of resumed bearing values i used inthis ene Tis emphasio! tat the presumed besting ale should be used by the designee only or preliminary fosnsaion design parposee an in all ‘Eisen he should then evi and, scent, fend his ret design This wil frequent entail [Mestinate of setlement, 2.2.2: Presumed allowable bearing value Forte purpose of assigning presumed bearing values Toeke su ule have toon divided into ie fegares category Locks ‘ktegory 2 napeohesive sols Stegry hese ale ‘Satebory 8 fade gone orf Presumed bearing values f ategories are given in Table © 222.8 Charncteristis of various types of [ground and allowable bearing pressures 221 Allowable bearing presse on rooks 2.22.81.1 Generl Rocks generally havea igh lowable bearing pressure which may be reduced bythe presence of weak lnyerm dlacontinuiies or ‘where the rocks ste weathered, decompoeed, Teal shatered or steeply dipping. Boe ease wil eed tobe considered individually The effet of Joints, tasures. other dseotinutes aad of a {alliage stent ery portant ae sould be fahen into account. Dangerous colitis may develop with strated rocks, jae cd shear ‘nace i thes dip towards cuttings or deep basen, ‘Tae allowable beaving pressure depends cm the ompresitlity and tenth ofthe rock mes ne the permissible settlement ofthe structure. ‘methal of determining allowable bearing pressures fn weak rocks from an aeeement of these properties elven in 2.228.112 ofthese 8BS S004:1986 Section 2 ‘The compressibility ofthe eck mass isrelated othe tuninal compressive strength ofthe itact eck, the ihology. the fequeney nature and orientation the distant in te ack tes The Compress ofintactorkis alco dependent upon {he degaee of decomposition a disttepration 262 reall of weathering or alteration these effect a Teflected nthe ual compressive strength. Massive rcke inthe fecvo slighty weathered State gouerally have a high allowable bearing DProreure that feduoce with nereae inthe dogs of ‘Weathering and jolstng Attention is draw to the possible existe ‘eneath an apparently sound farmation of ayer of after materials ineuing clay weaker rocks, oo Tin stnfaces on which westhering developed and lwhlch were subsequent) covered by younger emadons 2.22.12 Fld meosuremente, The ccs of ‘ethod sd locaton of Held testa fe determined by the sie and uatur of the proposed structure. the {ype and contiton ofthe vosks underlying the site {Belding the degree extent and variably of ‘weathering and the spacing opening and satare of {he disonticnitien, and by the groundwater conditions. ‘The condition ofthe oss ascssed by inzpection in ‘tial pits and by examusation of dil coves taken in 4 suitanle manner It usally neessars to Concentrate field sn Inboratry testing on he ‘tonker or more ferred zones of ayers sino these tay conta te design. These 2onceo avers ae {hate sn which core reoovery may be poor or even ber, In cove ezeunstances where iri essential to ‘ecoverunsamaged core fom highly fractured rock {negra samyling Gn which the previously groated ek is vercored) ie sometnies tanfel. Choc fare Size, typeof ore Darel and bit andthe Nushing ‘edith shouldbe related to the Tock tye ad Condition: Ipger diameter core bares andor Special core barrels eg triple tubs) maybe ‘Feguired in por rock conditions Cores shoud be preserved their natural water content fo detailed {ogglng and testing Some very weak weathered eke may be better explore by oot ground boring nd standaed penetration testing, Reference sod ‘bemade to BS 5890 fer euidanee onthe appropriate metho u Tock strength the major actor the assessment of allowable beaving vate. ic generall estimated {hetieldby hammering and scratching specimens of fhe rock. Whe calculating sloee bearing reese with rock strength determined by these dean, a conservative approach i desirable. ‘unercal estimate of compressive strength can be ‘hte nthe ld a Laboratory by the pi oad tr unonfined compression teength test (Eran. ‘and Boch 1972, Plate Joaing tests in tial pts and adits area usual ‘method of arcessing the modulus and stresitraln ‘harncorsties ofthe rock mest onsideratons ‘feost may lat the depths at whith these teste tay be done. Seem eartion n association ith ther methods may be used to assess the characer ff the rock mass on a ver Large sale! seine ‘hooting between botcholer at selected depts fnables the horizontal dynamie modulus othe rok to be determined on a salle eae, The vertical Ayam moduli chtaned by upoleordownbole Stanie shooting n breoles.Section 2 BS soou:1986 ‘Table 1 — Presumed allowable hearing values under statte loading (ce 12.8 and 1.2.4) ‘The horizontal moduli on a very small scale eantbe Aeteraied a seleted depths in barebles by ‘nea of tho preccurencter. ilatometer or Uorehole jack The tghtuess of the rock mas is customarily investigated n boreholes by eareying fou water injection teste between packers. The [permeablliyor Lugeou value eousetion wi the inonstyof tho natural disontnuitis een in the coves fom the test ane ives 9 use ‘qualitative indication ofthe sverage aperture of Aiseotinaties but elogeing with debs may our In some probs the foundation performance will Ihedaminated bys posse mode lure iovlvng ‘movement along sue joist surface, fissure o Weak {Byer winuna general tong rok spetems. In ueh ‘oe it is necessary to lavestigate te strength ad Suowvistraincharacerstis of the Jn. Gssure of [ayer Insitushear tests are sometimes attempted but i reguestly more antnactory to carey ou lage sear tees in the laboratory on Bcks bead fom tal pits ar on large ameter dil oes oF using a portale doce chearapparats (Hook snd Bray 2977. [ten tad foe depth of euindnen oie undaten ive LES Pend BLA) aap ademas ft a ae ee Sa ey a To Sp frond fol ocmuen ao tomo | [inom eee feat renter ce apa smo [oo [frmenn meted lieadeestat Jbroken rock. ine eS aa area se — pe fT eee soma 2m6 [Estee a Fee gaeccrwsesamtantge esto [ea sumed te et ot owe et emt [emo fee eran oe edt dene sand Tow wo | tea pena Pe toes jon rn (eaten Tepe nea obese Seg ater geminata [Aan Neo Pima waa tar ara Hasse |ises jupiescanione : ae eae [Very soft clays and silts [Not applicable eres: sega apie [ere 3 eee 223.18 Laboratory measurements Sng and Aetormation charactors ane obtained frou tuna fst on represntative rock coos. The ‘quanty of testing ould be related to the ‘arabs ofthe reck or ork types present and the ‘neo the fodaton, Rack cones shoul he protected against loss of moisture immedlately on fxtaction from the ground and should bo eactod at tHe natural ater content, Deed ou or partially (ried au ack should not be tesaurated. Strain ‘measurements shoul be made by electrical. Fesistance stain gauges boided onto the roek ‘Slinders or ty teataducers between eth clamps iessurement of tain betes en expe il {ieresimatethe modulus of the sk Fr this and biter rnsons oedometer tests ae nt suitable for {ssesing the compressibility of rocks excep the ‘move highly weathered stateBS S004:1986 Section 2 22.28.14 Strongigneous and gucssc roc Sind condition. The allowable bearing presse on {hove rocks ao high tha onlin yry ate eases {he full spacty ely tobe uted. Te possiy of foundation fale i very remote, proved thats corain tha the tek not une a dpe or eter Sal inrnsion, 22.23.15 Strong lincetonesand strong eondetanes In general, these orks when massvel bedded ae ronger than good quality concrete [a snsening {he allowable easing pressure, acount should be {shen ofthe nature, spacing a dreton of any joins. there is any doubt about the hardness of the inact ose the eeushing strength of representative specimens shoul be determined ‘ie regan beng pa fo being (Gerais 222.318) “Limestone, ineludng doles and chalk, are partcueyy suseptibe to solution by groundwater fontaning disaved eavbon dioxide owing slong Joins, The joints become enlarged and may range in ‘ae fom esutes several miletres wie to lags (evatees nd caves In places these are onmected {Ste murace by swallow holes sinkholes) whic ‘nay beled with much softer material or masked by surface deposits, Solution ma alo produce as extromely irepular surface tothe rock whith may Se buried under superfial deposits Abandoned ‘dergronned workings may exist in some limestone landcare, (Great car is needed in imestone and chalk aeasto ‘hue that ste selected fr eonstreton is uly Invetigted for those feature. 2.2.2..1.6 Shists and alte, Shictsand slates axe ‘examples of metamorphic rocks in which the ‘roperties have been ttfed by Satense presse Endo beat In the uuweathered state these ane Ine socks with pronounord cleavage Isebeds ate shactred or steeply ielned. a redution in he ‘aluesin Table Tahouldbe nade Spe on eeavage planes may cause trouble if there are cuttings Daseients close ta the foundations, Misia is particularly semtive to tovement lang dese 22.23.17 Strong shales, trong mudstones and ‘trong siltstone Strong shales strong mudstones Sind etrongltstones have been formed fom lage rsitydapeits by intone natural compaction and. 1 some cacea by cementation, and have afiny high allowable bearing preseur. Uncemented sHtles and mudstones may soften in contact ith ‘water or on exponur, and allowance shouldbe made {br this Gee also 22.23.19), 6 2228.18 Chalk. The Upper and Midie Chall onset of ean pare ale cobonate The more etmmon chal ic higly porous, having a porosiey renter th 35%, ad i white a fable A leas oto chal which 3c considers stronger canbe {Ustingulshed from the more common chal by the face that does not rub offen the fingers. The Lower {Chale contans varying amounts flay. has aide Fins poronty sn termediate in trent {Gobet Healy 1979) ‘Aconvenient elassiiaton for high porosity chal (Qiaed etal 1965) sven in Table Within any ‘roe the bearing vale elected could depend {pon the ightness and spacing of the june and "pon the sine ofthe fxndaton: the larger he {ounlatio the Tower the pressure, particulary in ‘he poorer grades of chalk ‘he presumed bearing values of grades V and VI ‘hal, te shal that has ls te erste teh ‘eworking moulding), solitucon o fost Shattering, should be determined by means of tests {ed fr eabesive sal or by eld loading test povienany ite cha soft If rode W chal is Entel well above the water talesnd ‘ousparatvey iy, the valves give i Table 2 may be ed fora preliminary assessment te poorer sredes ofchal aro thinor shallow in relation te the ‘Sze of the foundation, higher values than those ten in Tnble 2 may be ued it likey setement Should bs esinated, the joints in low porosity pare cha and inthe dlajey hall ofthe Lower Chalk are pet (oe Table 2 tho procumed bouring vale of grades and TV etal may be taken oom the table ite Joints are tight, Figure Ifa) may be used forte low [posit pure chal. Figure 10) fr the less ley Tower Chall and Piguer ie) fo tse more ley Tower Chalk. Strong chal rock may be regarded as slmestone sce 22.23.15) For important structures the modulis and strength rfles ofthe chalk should be asessed by [optopnace init and aborstry testing methods Shab tmediste and creep steed fcusidered in deteaizing the allowable bearing pressure 222.8:1.9 Keypor Mor. The strong red brown, audstones and cong argllaceou eitstonc of this {Gomation in the weathered sate have a fatiy high allowable baring pressure which abe determined fron Table 1 Generally the ststnes trl havea higher bearing espacty than the midetesSection 2 BS soou:1986 ‘Table 2 — Classifcntion and presumed enting values for high porosity ehalle Trade Bie deserion Ferner ale a Feld tests, Simple methods of estimating the foussteny of lays the Gel ae given in ‘Table and RS s0a0. The shear strnge of soft ents cole my bo mosexsed yin sit rane tests ce BS 8030). Isl with an appreciable stone content such Ascernin boner slays and where nds Supling and testing are impracticable loading {ate may sometimes be eeploped wth ‘Advantage. Loading teste ae discussed in 2.2.1.7 {IMI BS S00, Penetration teste are stmetines ‘ed in thee sll: to compare consistent The Imitation of auch ests shouldbe fly appreciated (se BS 5200), ©) Laboratory teats In assessing the engineering ‘haviour of eesive ols ts useful oben Wales of he go and plate ts aed te a Sita water content Geo BS 1377). Teis wonnal racic dateruine the sear strength and osolidaion characters of undisturbed nmoplesn order to evtte the aloe Tearing pressure. Methods of easing the shear strength consoldation eharactersatioe of undisturbed samples of okosive cals ae Alosenbed in appends H of BS 0302081 and Bs Litt Jn Table 1 lays and stare classified on the basis sfconssteney whichis felared tothe comesponding lundraiped shear strength asin Table 6 (Gee BS 3950). common practice to arses the shear strength of stiffssured ae by ndraied taal teste, but ‘afl consideration shouldbe given to the eects tf disturbance and stress changes in sapling the sults of such teste may be misleading When pple io stuations where etree inthe ground Stedecreased asa resultofexcavation either during enstruction or subsequently, 222.888 Ulimote dering eapociy, The ultimate boating capacity of foundations ou cbesive oie depend on the shear strengh of the sll and the fepeh and shape ofthe fosdations (Skenpton 1961. Skempton and Bjerrum 196 Tete To) Wheve sll conditions are uniform, dhe timate bearing capacity does not vary appreciably trith he width the foundation The sea Seength may be determined from the revs of Iinaed shear teats rin situ wae tests 8 mentioned 2.22929 Inthe ear oft a Increase in sero during consruction em ote, Ueallowed, On cay soils, mbaukavents ae usually fcustusted ouenty slowly to pertain lowanee of come inereased erent dng the onstruction periodBS S004:1986 Section 2 ‘Table 6 Undrained (immediate) shear strength of cohesive soils Consinener Tada mei zi Ea Wwerystit —|very str |i or very tough \Geeater than 190| Greater than 15 lor hand sar Sot Cannot he meat ae TOT STITT lnogere "a sie Tao —forswrs iy Fs [Combe moulin the agers by 601075 loswors strong pressure ‘Soko wea nawos = Sot [Essie moulied i te Rages | 20040 nzeo4 Terao Vers [Ede between the fnger® [Less than 30 Less than when squeezed the Get 2.2.2...4 Sitloment For cohesive olitralwnve ‘heessary to ensue thatthe foundation a safe evins shee fale by taking a presumed tearing ‘alueno greater than the tate bearingeapacty ‘lve ta sultable factor a efey, conventionally the onder of 10 3 When a layer of softer clay ones at some depth el a foundation, the posi of plate deformation of this laser needs to be checked The hetinereabe of presse nthe soft eay afer defo the foundation loading sold be evaluates Te ‘et iperease of pressure wl have tobe imited to a Value which wil provide an adequatefactorefeaaty again sheer lure in the sot aver eis alco necessary to ensure that tho total and Alferentia setuements a the proposed oundations fare pot too great. After the presumed bearing valve Inne been ascend, he setement under this [reser estimated, and if sto great the foundations mill ned to be ees ethos by eduaing the bearing pressure ar by tang the foundations drs to lower esl at hich ese ‘Serlemment wall ona When founding s struct on pest or organic soli unnwotdable, should be “precited thatthe secondary consolation efrredta ln 3.1.25 givesrseto considerable and Inge setloments whieh ons be prolonged Andee. Specialist advice shouldbe seught in thestuaton ‘Tho nate of stmt in cohesive sols e srussed in 2.128. Ittsdependent onthe bearing reste. the compress of he =a the {imensions ofthe foundation, bainely depth, width Shd shape: As with noneolesve sll for the same bearing pressure wio foundation esti more than nay foundations and. in general, he allowable beating presi on ide fonndatons wl be “alert on narrow foundations order to itep the setlewente within acceptable Lite ‘ae magnitudenof the xtelement of foundations on cobenve soils ay be estimated fom the eslte of laboratory tests in which the easaldaton ‘haractosties and Young's module are ‘termined (erzaght 1043 Skenpton 1061: Ciboon Sid Lamb 1955). Values of elastic constant ‘tated from in sit tests rein many ences preferable tote obtained fou laboratory tet ‘Theconventional method of estimating settlement fs hase on stand oedometer ees a fovstetston of one-dimensional eoncelidation (Terengh 104 Sempton 1951: Gibson ane Tab 1933) Tals method Reguenty overestimates fherate of cttlessent, partially onl ing 3 hovizmtal permeability greater than the Vertical Tach eases nore elaborate laboratory testing wil besnonsrey, together witha thove-imensonal shaljsis ofthe consoldation Schufaan eta. 196).Section 2 BS soou:1986 2.2.2.8 Peat ond organo sil, Peat and organic sails are material witha high proportion of ibous lr spongy eeatred vegetable matter formed by the (ieny of plants mined with varying proportion of {ibe sand, sito lay. All these soe ae highly compressible, and even lightly loaded foundations ‘wll be subject to considerable settlements over a Ting perio if placed on ther. Fon tis reason these se teu for earning ne lode one Important struetures, Lowering othe growwater also produce a couiderabe and peslnged Seti Ingenoral. ie mecscars to cary foundation dwn ‘though peat and organic sll to relable bearing “rata below (Cares necessary wit series in such ground, particulrly where they enter the strotire 22.2.8. Mode ground and fil. All made ground Should be treated a suspect becane of he Iiteinoo ofextree variably. proposal to foun aster on made ground should be investigated wit extreme cae, Made ground may ‘be meanitary ar may contain injurious eric Sd toic a amenable gases Intel waste oF {even refuse may sill bein state of chews ett, snd Wate often igtes and bunss below ‘round Loading teste mas bo completly Iisleadingbeeause of the Vania ef such deposits Where fling operation i adequatelyeonrslled by placing selected suitable fill material inefficiently {hin layers, propels compacted, then the metals Aleceribed in this code maybe used to asoss the Allowable beans pressure Sulable fl mater ‘nel rostered nati gral terials ad ‘Coven waste materials sh aa slected elliery ‘waste and pleried fe ash, Some cesive Tiateriale say be stable ot nganie mati Ibave tobe exeloded (Skempton 1065, 2.22.86 Non uniform ste conditions 2.2.2.3.6.1 General, Nonuniorm condone nstude layers of softer materia, norlevel sites ane etrata cf varyng thks. Variations ean be velatively ‘Systematic or random, They are related toa number tf facors, inching both broad snd minor ‘Variation in deposton condone, subsequent {ectoncofecte and the development of significant Ibregulanties in topography. ‘Aa example would be the ceumence of imegular Insc of soft lay within a deposit of allel gravel Inglcal deposits lenses of fir laminated clays hr cur thin depute of wey lf te ly "Ketle oles" may ones, led with softer deposits than thas immediately surrounding 2.2.2.4 Non-e0el sitet. On sloping ground on ‘day sas there is always atendeney for the upper lagersofsoilto move dowahily the extent depending fon the typeof othe age of slope, groundwater ‘egme and climatie conditions. Tn some eases the [neven surface ofa slope on virgin ground wil Indicate that the area subjet to stall ands, fd therefore will bviously necessitate special retautionsifuerd nea ulding site In ther eases {here maybe aroep ofthe surface layers ofthe sal ‘heindleations being cured te trunks eed ence post, ted boundary Walls, et Ths inf Imoveinent may occur on slope ho steeper {han Tin 10, parbeulary were the subsol isa day ofthe sift steed spe. The moving ane may vary ftom Tess than a metre to several metre in dept Any site showing recent landslp op instaity wil ‘armas beavatded, butts poble at asboping ‘Ste may alread he very eee to instability before bullding operations begin. and smal adstion to or alterations ofthe natural Toacing may precipitate fase Instability may develop even afer long vid of apparent stability ican in til Esnned a oeneoncalidatet sla sil Clay futinge in such materiale have lipped after eqaining appaeenty stable for some 60 sears and harral (Skemptan 1904) [Now works mas interfere with te existing natural frarieal drainage ofthe ground id adversaly fet the stabi Lani ainage may ao require special usieraton. particu athe phil ide ofa bling to divert the natural fw of ener aor fiom the foundations: exeavation involves cut {ross esting led denn, hey shuld be ‘arefly diverted into the round-drainage system. (Cuttings and excavations advining foundations Teahuce stability and ieteave the Mkelbood Aigerentinl setiement. Their effect sion be Investigated not only when the cucung or exeavation fst already but alo whe there ea pone {hart they may be made subsequently (se 23.27. ‘ere the structure le tobe placed on sloping round, sitional eomplicaione ae introduced, ‘The ground tot pansiclany iff clay. may be subject to ereepo other forms of insta, which day be exaggerated ifthe strata dip the same Alection asthe round surface Ifthe slope of the ‘ron ie argo, te omelet ofthe slope and Ethsteucune mag be afectad. These aspects shuld carefully investentes,BS S004:1986 Section 2 2.2.2.6 Strata of varying thichnes. Steata of ‘orvin thickness even when at appreciate depth ‘nag inerease differenti! setement. Wheve ‘petecny,cleuatons should be made of the ‘Setiement expected from te diferent thicknesses tt straca, and the structure shouldbe designed accordingly. Inextreme cases ofchange mhaeeness soft stata the stably of foundations nay be ected Site vestigations should sway Sufienty extensive to ensure that signet ‘aviation in eratathekeas are dette 2.2.2:.64 Layersof soier material. The need to avoid overstuesrng and earesiv ctement in cof layers as been described in 23:28:84 Some sole And rocks have layers of harder material between {hin ayers of softer material. whi maybe (verlooked unless very eave vestigation ried out The softer laers may undergo Sgnificant alteration in properties he fang on theme creased or deceased by the construction tr affeted ty accompanying changes in sroundwater eoaitions 2.8 Struetural considerations 2.2.1 General ‘The design ofthe substrctuay and superstrictne ‘ould be eolsted ta te characterises of the Ground. All foundation move ne ae of applied IBadi there may als be ground movements independent of ead ee 21.24), The extent of such Movements should be estniaged and thelr Likely ‘foc on he structure sould be eonaened. The Aesigner sol decide, having ops tothe dees requirements, Whether the elects af uh sovements ean be tlerated 2.3.2 Interdependence of ground fad superstructure rene penta pat” pase yaaa 2.21 Genero. To obtain maximum economy the Supporting grouad, substructure and Sperstreite shoal be sted ae 8 who. Seheral el be necessary to onside the overall Snes cfm important sete together with t= strucsne and their iterelation with ground Selessets Although there ae theoretical {neatments ofthese, they are diel to apply {omany praca problems. and experience and Judgement forms the best guide at present dbstretre 2.8.2.2 Variability of ground conditions. Tae Importance of determining the properties of all, Steata kel toe alerted by the structural lad has ic lincused in 221. Hoeven the properties of fpamsieular stratum an vay between one pata ‘Mea another, and its unpartant to examine Sich variations and their infuense onthe design Gros a223.8, In some cases it wil nt be economsicta delineate all softer ses within a status pio to contraction, ‘butt umportant to make an assessment of thew probable atures, based on te information llable eo that means of dealing with such nos a be formulated beforehand With rafts for sample stay be necessary fo allow inthe design fortriging over weak zones which i i either feaaile nor econo to remove, 28.2.8 Diferontal settlements, Th total sstdemet tf sete may interfere with come special Sopot ofits factions eg the effect on services, Dut ‘isthe ferential or flatvesetelement wai, feneral produces the secondary sttesses whi ae Sfeuch importance tn the completed erecta [Not ony x frequently dificult esteate the unercal vale of ifvental settlement, ti Sanyal to assess the fet on the ftructure, Hore again. expercnce the best rue Diflerntial cettlement canto reduoed by providing fof etructune or substauceure ora combination of both A deep hollow box hike aft has the aditions) vantage of esucig the merease in pet Ioading Intensity Where this ie desirable as well as. prodsing more ifr selene. Where cole re provided With independent pad or pled foations tt maybe adeantagers serene the et lading intensity beneath the mare hghtly Toaded colimns to proce more uniform. Setilement If ie permits, another ponsible ‘method of reducing setlement is by preloading the i ‘Oceaionally, special arrangements are made for Jacking up partoof the strugture Where particularly Severe settlement is expected. This method is most fornmonly used for bee piers, but i hs wider ‘pplicationSection 2 BS soou:1986 Structures may alo be pit nto a numberof Smaller independent tnt to minimize he fect of Aiferencn eelnnent between them, othe “filfaee famed structure may be ede by ‘ding any coes bracing or altering the ‘ouneetions beeen the faube ad the cladding. ‘When lrg ferential settlements ae expected, is paricully importante avoid conte stnetures tha ne senate to slement The ‘tet of ferential setesment on services, pavements aval tack should also be (Considered, partially at dosontites. In onsiering the effets of difeentaletloment etwen past ofa structure or adjacent etuctues, isto be foenen mind ths in many ses apart tft stlement will cur during coneerston ‘Wouters inereasinly common fr estimates of ‘eteiaet tobe made st the design stage, ile ‘ater nominon for menmnements of erent {ebe made during and after construetion The ack ff such data makes any statement regarding {olerable differential settlement fr varionsfype of ‘Structure somentat tentative, Whenever poste {Systematic monitoring ofthe settlement of = [ructune shouldbe eat ou, a this wil provide ‘valuable information ons performance and provide date far design of subsequent strtines, 2.4.24 Foundation loads 29.2.4.1 General, The maximus load onthe {ounvavion wil be the sm ofthe en, live ‘Guposed) and Wind loads The maxima bearing pressure ml depend on te distrbtion, direction [nileconticiey ofthe loads, However, the lata be onsiered inthe various apects of desi wil uot ‘bess Inlude te fll Yalue of Use load [Leads woed inthe design of foundations chould bo ‘uhietored values and not the factored lode ‘etlated in BS S10. £28244. Dood and live loads, The dead loo wil ince the wig of the foundations ad of 29 ‘ekfled manera above te foundations Some live loads are dvetly clelabl. In otber ‘toe, live load wil eu allowances fr Lads ‘Which may not necocarly be realize in prac. "These are governed to some extent by codes of practice an atatutoryFequsements 2.3.4.8 Wind loading, Whore the foundation Tnating beneath a stated ond i 8 2elatvely small proportion of the total oeding i say be perieshetosgore the wind lang the screen ofthe allowable heszing presse [provided the overall fstr of safety againat shea faujge i adequate. For example, where individual {oration loads dive to ind ate loss than 25 5 of the leading due to dead a ee lad he wind Toads may be ignored inthis assessment. Where this athe exesede 26 foundations way be 2 Droportioned thatthe pressure det combined {saa ive and ind tnd does not exo the loWable bearing pressure by re than 28 2.2.44 Ultimate boorng pacts: When the Fator fants, against shear Eure isting checked, the Toads ioe ued in computing the Woading intensity {ide foundations shoud be he dead ane lade tthe stern, psa de allowance fr wind lsd ‘indicated by 23-42, redvced bythe itensity ot Jmantely surrounding dea londs, In most cases {hiecaleulation canbe done by sng the net loading Intensity However, in certain ces sth ain Folate fnndavion in a basement exeneaton or ‘Solatedbruge per in an excavated area the gross Joading intensity bast be wed, 2.3.45 Sstloment Inconsdering =tlement, 9 ‘loos estunate should be made ofthe average dend ‘dive lad likely tobe imposed since eas that fet inequently and fx short periods are less {nportant fm consolidation point flew. Onthe other hand. heasyvrations er wancent ads may fause settlement of sande and gravels paricuant ‘where thes exit ina loose onion Cer 2.3.28) 2.2.46 Bscenrelonding. Eoontie loading of foundations duet ay cause other than wind presnure should be ily investigated dhe ‘asimu pressure shoud not exved the allowable teaving pressure. Foundations for structures camry live las such as bridges and crane Enntnies may be subjected to considerable scent of lending 2.8.47 Now-sertico! leading. Ifa lad ona doriontal foundation inlined tothe vertical, farful consideration shouldbe vento captelty ff tho ground to resist the horizontal component Decale this hao a pronounced auence on the ‘tial lsaing wih the foundation ean safely amy and may Tad to redueod Vales afte Sllowable heaving pressure ‘The flowing simple procedures suggested for the design of foundations under nonvertical oad eoave the inelined lad ate ts vertical and homgantal somponents and ar he reBS S004:1986 Section 2 'V" is tho vertical component ofthe incined lon 12h horizontal component of ho inlined Iona B, Sih allowable vorical load: Py isthe allowable horizontal lead, ‘The allowable vertical lal can be assessed from the preipes described in 222 the allowable horioptal load would equal the allowable passive resistance of any ofthe ground in contact with the ‘erica face of the fotng. lus the allowable {ston andor adhesion on the horizontal base of {he foting corresponding to the applied vertical component, For calculation purpost, reference Sot be made fo the Coll Engincerng Code of Practice No.2 Inpractice, for most foctngs the re gven above is fn the safe side, but with hallow fot on ‘bonelenive sil withthe sti of the dep to Sreadth less han oneequarter) more conservative ‘ales way be necesaty especaly were the hhoiontal component i iarge compared withthe vertical one ‘developing the maximum safe pasive resistance tm vertizal face an appreciable horizontal ovement may occur, so that only faction of this resiscance can usually be utlized in pace, the requirements of tls rule cannot be met provision shouldbe made or the horizontal trast {be alien by some other part ofthe structure ar by ‘aking ies. bytyng back toa ine of sheet ping Uy other means (ee DIN 4150, 2.3.25 Dynamic loads 23.2541 General The dynamic load considered ‘elude both impulave and pulsating loads where the time period is suitently shot to mace a ‘ibvatory response int the structure and ts unidations In some arene, apes stent my be required tothe possible effects of eathgakes ‘The supporting ground under dynamie loading can flffer progressive noteeveribe strane With {rantlar materials ina oe to medium densa sate, [Eeleanet ean be induced by ibrtin event 3 Aistanoe I fine grained sis there may be Instability de tothe bcp of excess pee pressure Weakly conented materiale my undergo progressive deteringation,Ovsteonsoliatedsla= {nap soften under pulsating loading Inthe latter fe, the sftening tales place an inleading nd ‘wets the sil is fs totale up ater ito 8 Counteracting consoldation ld ender tala Sleepers 3 23.262 Sule date. Qualitative infrmation foneering the bene of fesations winder “Iman loading canbe abatned from s nowedge tf te relative density dof index properties such fs bulk density, moisture content and particle size ‘istbuton [ee noted nthe cae of granu ols parila thatthe tentve densi other than fbuate density is signieant. and nay reque Inborstory measurements of ssuinuns snd ‘nina densities Particular attention shouldbe ald to obvaining samples wih aman ‘Usturance, and in saturated fine geanulae tateralonte soul bs talen that uh dietarbance doesnot give ise to apparently very low elatve Alensitiessn st, Estimation of the rlative density Dbymeans ofan situ testing metheds may also be etnploed, Tmaddition, information is raqulred about the dynaioolasts propertios of te ground the Pellty modulus Gor te compression modulus E {th Poisson ratio, o sme equivalent, shouldbe {stern The use of mall irate fon sit ‘termination ofdynmieparacters i desea (Care shot he talento ene tht he brane have avestleant unbalanced vertical force. They ‘hol be well bedded into the sit be tected and {he state oad they impose should be hgh enough to ent at endeney 1 omg of the ground ding ‘persion By varying the iequency ofthe applied ‘Unaial free and measuring he azplite both at the wbrator itself end inthe adjacent cil is posible to dave a dyuamnic modulus of ity and 5 damping factor from the ample feateney 28.25. Desig consderrions. The rst essential Sta desig etensure tht resonance wil nt occur between the frequency ofthe pulsating lead an (tial hequency in the foundational 5stem. Resonance may led to excessive amphites of vation of te sates, ‘Even when resonance s avoided iis till necessary foliit amplitudes levels tat an be tlerted by ‘he machine and the foundation. While the evel of bration nay be aeseptable bythe chine nd the foil fom he point of ew ofectement. ma ire ‘eetoresonance in winds doors and partons ot Aascovited stroctures, and this may call for ‘eduction of amplitudes or iolation a the wibrating ‘There have ben numerous attempts to draw up fables of tolerable serial wbrotion ampli: Seale frequency fr various types of machine and ‘Seueture These presentations canbe referred toi DIN 4180 and seetens 0952),