al structure a |\Hn the socialsciences, social structure is the pattene | detersunan of the ations of the suamgsments in society that are Sth emerc from 1 gwose nota th cast ster) setlists. etn between esx mp On eso ea | atest of x tr es ete tions thi wal an ey besa 1 bhava finvdul wihin the oil yom, j | gociat norms infiuence social structure through relations between the majority and the minority. Because thase who align with the reely ave ended nal while those wh gn wt he misty awe cons bor wey minor lions [Grete chil satetian within sv sts tha a hein aspects Fc Fou via tha certain actor “There scales are not always kept ssa, Har example, sect sels by Jo taf sect e”cesembles that used by tathrepoagt Che vSiraus) Likewise, anor event sy apy deserts ow ico seh tate a -the Republic of Panama hanged mt soci stucires and ind planed Pana Cana expansion! Mart soicingy so habaiory of mixing diferent meanings scl structs huh ve 0 by spl ating laps of ssa structure as epiphenomena ofits economic ons, Since the 192th nhs ben in gta se sia see eyprlly sabe whe s-components ned 1 be isingushe in reaionsip to ote scan vviles ‘he notion of social structure as retype sven eto romp a emdaning and realy ie pters relaionshipPennphasies the ea that soviet ic propo to strut vated puoups or sets of votes. with tere Kinctons, ‘soda seattcain’ e eeers t the ea that ont songs oF yrsnes One ens fsck tte 6 “eles ate separate nt life saat lve). (i ly pty by he bay ts spect has been important in the academic Biteratare with the ese of anim freee of moder ctudy of organizations, Uecanse lity, capacy to hang, aa my 1 oapanization'ystactne may detain os Lise fur manayernet ps acts. Teor scare in Social stzuctte may be seen to nflcnce imprtant sora systems inching he economic syste ei ster, eel system, UL syste 6 the parent cultural system, and others, Family, religion, la, economy. and class are all ycil structs, The embod at c system ofthore various syste th Contents History Dofintions and concepts Origins and development Critical implleations By country See also Related ideas Related theorists References Further reading Histor “The wars tudy of seal structres has informed the stl of stitutions culture and agen. soc interaction, and history Alexis | deToequssile was appre the Bist to use de tern social rut; ae Karl Mary, Herbert Speces, Ma Webe, Ferdinand xy Webet hvystigated 92 amlyaed the ngtstions ul palin eden Tanaies, and Emile Durkheitn all contributed to strctural concepts soc afrmoden ay a brews letra pol als) (One ofthe earliest nd most conipreiensive estate, and eligious ie to the made of proactos (o estan Aeternvined the cultural and political sypertruclire of. savety Sobsequen! Mansst scronnts, wt 2 —is Scanned with CamScanner‘etetmination by ecumnne fts oly“ he Lt wistarne® an ot 1 bal Moat 11905, the Geta sot Fa saady the Pose ad Je tat ya a des a coun tal satire? (easy Has appease on bby € arguing that only the constitution of ltt it ants « socal wil), wie by Heber Spencer an th een ving hms eee pl a esp bet See a td lotr the Mea tat dvere sol Antitaeaa tes ye vole asin. thf {through atiltion of ere p i a tnt cot, a ris ttre tha ute silt pats of structural rats anchanieal stay 7 ough a sacle the ates de bursts a sights ‘Aud Moa al Weber we penealy Gey Soe essa Wile 1M i ‘nto domination and subordination, eenpetitiny, vision aly soup Tal, fama jtes egestas 9 an econ aseciation, ‘with exclaiveness foward the outside, and many nar Ceti in the slat, fn egos coment ie {nan ast achoot, atin faily ant inh tous hawever vets ‘which interests are realized may yet be identical (Crothers, 1996) ve tt These atc ‘The notion of social structure was extensive ly devel a 2 Arascing on the theories of Clute Léviseauss, evchyed by Tabott Masons ‘Som ft Mar in ty sity, ia hry steno seartanalis pevapes tives Teminist or Marxist peispectves, fron functionals perspectives such a8 those ste yess tives (or las 1975, Fp aml Swot 206 of soot that ya the ie dens ns en te 0 ssiing either 6 sori, oye ler tn cultural strustwees, Stl others, welt te a onl Hoy a for example, the ways in which factors hey “The notion of sect steustue is oie ventless stone ‘snd agency, The most influential attempts to combine the concept oscil srutute wath agency a ‘tructuration and Pierre Bounties practice thew. ny, the elation of snature ‘tony Gablens’tcory of agency. a Gillen emphasizes the duly of sructuee Sevetures and agency cannot be conceived apat from one ttn, "Was poets I Independeat of actors nor detraing of tei bluvny, but eather st of le and ep ericson which stots deo, and ens anal this respect, eogely paralelsJeques teed erica aul suthuopolopieal seasoning ‘ructuralis). Mourdiew's practic Aetecmuative of, ndvisa belavin ‘hich, inthe agarerate they repvolice Ci ats deconstevction ofthe binaries that underlie cassie si Ay the ners tennis of fev Sau Other recent work by Margate om ogee teary). Ton Wun el focial rule system theory, and liane Wallesei (Worl Syncs They) pro sociological classics in structural sciology. sons (etorsystem dans theeey and vied abortions aul applications of the Definitions and concepts ‘As noted above, social structure has been iene a8 + the relationship of definite entities of groups to each other, * enduring patteins of behaviour by participants in a social gystom in relation to each other and * Instutionatised norms or cognitive tmnt Hat nye thy atin of ator in tho toda system, open and Scot (200) distinguish beeen tut sve wal tats stir whee iat emer 66 «social structure is ucon ae comprising thore caitural or normative pattems that deine the expectations of agents hold about each other's behaviour and that organize their ” enduring relations with each other. J. Lopez and J, Scott, Social Structure, p.3 whereas in the later 66 _..Social structure is seen as comprising the Patlerns of causal interconnection and interd Actions, as wall as the posi relationships themselves, understood as lependence among agents and their ” ions thal they occupy, A Loper aut 8.8 Suou! Stuetine p 8 Social structure can also be uivide Into mictosteuctue basic clements of socal life, that cannot be further divided felations between individ erostructuve. Microstvutune i th pattern uf relations betwcen most and fave saci structure of their own (for example, patter of 5 in a group campoted of inlvidials where infividuals have no social structune, oF a structure of Scanned with CamScanneryeselves Mactostructre i hus a iad of secu level sett, pate of el teste (or exalt oc We, mpl soca seuture betwen pit! pute, a plea panes have th sete Some types of social structures that moder suculgis ue so tony 1 be nie structures), communication siractre ( c tures (how information is pused in gions) and score secre (rcs of sympa apathy and } oe an tony between alycts that have their owt ale ave relation stctaes (aw Lily oF ins «ths was she by Ja Ato Social rule syste Social rule system theory reduces the structures of (3) to particular rule systeu arrangements, that is, the types of basic structures (of (1 atid 2). t shares with role theory, ony rd netwurk analy the coer wily steuxturat resting, Felt rational an nett tinal xoeology. eptual tls nee to generate i properties and developments and at the sue tine provides detailed 60 propositions anil movlels nt Sociologists also distinguish between: + normative structure ~ pater of relallons in gen stuclu (ryaisaln) belwean arms and mos of operations of people of varying social positions + idoal structure — pattor of olations betwoen batie’s and views of p90 * Interest structure ~ pattorn of rotations between goals and doses of peop! + “interaction structure ~ forms of communications of people of varying social positions ple of varying socal postions varying soeal positions Origins and development Taapee oyster ave, at netition among politica parties oF Ie may Some believe tha soul struct Hs nat ay elasacs, oF by sich as om management, profesional al 1, fis silly coms a est of etal ye ononxe systems that place empha upon eympetition OF among elites a sates Others lew ht i be created by the power of elites who seck to retin their power. by | cooperation nnogrephy hae consibuted to understandings abou soc trate Uy revealing We actin rl nln Me a from Wester practice of hierarchy and economie power ints construction sue mest thorough account ofthe evolution of waste peng prove satu agen ao at | asoptiteated aly of the co-evulton of sia sractne sal Iman agen, whe scl ae val systems wre thei at 00 eat y ensting.instittional st my toke sti nus but muy ow the ole had inane rans ‘expt Critical implications “Fa novo of ec trace may mas ster Dan 8 le rere ea uaa ceive ifeen reset nthe workplace cose of tis som tine th Bore worl) might be ys and ee ecnigas, ut the iy Meni suvaribles, for example, gsr, Some argue that men and women who have oth a bia, bt ether gender, which would be terme masked, Modern socal structural analysis take + this into account through multivaria | analytic problem of how to combine various aspects ‘of social life into a whole remains") I | By country eee See alsé } ‘Related ideas + Sect tno | + Agency (socltooy) 2 Base and supersucture + Cognitive social srucures + Conficl theory ‘+ Formative context + Morphological analysis + Norm (sociology) 2 8 + Sociolechnical systems theory + Structural functonalism + Structual violence + Structure and agency + Systems theory + Power (social and political) + Theory of structuration *» Social Model + Values Scanned with CamScannerSocial com pente of Sorta Content Social contol isa concept that refers tothe Ways i oongs, appearance, and Behar eis regulated in social systems. One way-his is done is through coctsion, from imprisoning these who coma a erie I patouts moe manageable, Social contol, however, is mainly which poopls come to kent) witha social system and its wales art norms, thereby acquiring a stake in maintaining those values and norms. [Need for Social Control Soci soliy fen rhe xin ty me, hv mun at Interests. Every individual isa spare personaly. Tete are he anit A 2 tater of fact city fa teerogenensehaniation, Hever alia aed unrest td eer to ac Eehave, Icnmy clerate sala dats ter mw any Sia ie owl som Feces He I Ns rival re orn ct cone sa ya eyo «jai Social control ie necessary for aia ies neceoary fv very Society oF OUP 19 : ‘Maintain ie social ender and hs pre ea eh fs member Bae aon wl tha sia we, A i important objective of socal contol fs lo maintain the OM! urdr. Although eaovcemcnt of the okt one in 9 tanging society may hinder socal progres, yt itis necessary to maintain continuity and wiry in ose. Without scit contol soa unity would bo a mere dream, Social eomolreutes Beaioe i acordace wt stablished norms which brings uniformly of bekavior and Teads Yo unity smnong the indie. "the fly raiatain is unity beease its meniers Besve iv a simelar mane in pret do not ave the ve lene ‘at every wove thee i Us possibility of elash between them, In moder times this possibilty has al the more increased because man hes Eecome to selected ool necessary to tet sei ren a Sty cme Ye, 1 ca control Is rernoved and eve ‘Agents of Soci Control Some nocfologiste have clus wot the anal ant fail eas, vt nes x8 {informal means of social eontral. They are very posterlul in pimary soci groupe where inleraeion ison a personal basis. The effectiveness ofthe informal means of control though somesshat lessened in modern la ge communis wherein con-acts tend to be impersonal may still be observed in small villages. In modern times the in-form: ‘methods have given place to formal ones such as lnws, education, coercion and codes, From hoist point of view, following are prominent types of agent in social control 1. Religion 2, Education Art and Architecture “The sense of justice Public apinton, Folkways 10, Social values 11. Sanctions (Separations) 12; Reward nnd punishment, 3 s. 6 Reseniment, 7 ® 9. Scanned with CamScanner1 In ordinary language, the ter i \ { dees a wala pnb ya se, he Prime” Uae 1 rmodeenetminal law, have any simple and universally accepted tnt, hough satatory finns Hane been Provided for certain purposes. The mut popular view a exe i 3 cceery rete by ts in het Wot fomething is crime if Jclred as sch by the relevant and appiable lw. One proposed definton ha cin froffence(r criminal offence) i an act harmful not only to some individ or indvidals bt abo 10. sommune ‘soclety or the state ("a public wrong"), Such acts ore forbidden and punishable by 1aw. ‘Tre ntion at ats suchas ude, rape and he set i profiel exists worlds What res sere! Satence is dfined by ermal law feah country. While many lave aextalogue fries ale the criminal ede, ingame common law countries no such comprehensive sau exis. 3 Blements ofa Crime + Aetus Reus ithe physen element of a Mfr the ac Goa which cx fanpletion of force (ching aon xe a ofa cro, I's what gs on se the deena ti Han Be leant of es ok reasons. ep the ars fea is fey HE Interlon ur recklessness = Moth are requlred for a crime & Crimlnclogy: Criminology (om Lath thenaar, extent, raagerent, ees, indvidal and socal evel. & Vietimology: Study from the perspective of : Jeune Blimywency, also known 2% "juvenile offering”, is partciaion in eal bebaver y mints Guten te uivals younger hn the latory age of mari, Moat xa systems pes Pele ‘rocedure for dealing wit Juveniles, suchas juvenife detention centers, and cours ‘omission ora sate of crime, ean be nth frm of 2 34 38 Sait : is is the unlawful The erm (Such as fra batery: the acts 4 slog) isthe sein Fe stody of rien, “accusation”; and Greek oyia inal beavis hom he iro, conseuenecs, mal prevention of i canes Sarin erin yt nsec maak Te Ca eo ny be he ange At Inert wage rowing ele worl coming sedi camino atin, ee gy ao aan Bae Croce ge ea al Es ome tng in foe Sth ny ead mano, Oe oer ayn» 3 snd eg bem a Types of CyberCrimes However, before Jou can understand more about this system, Jetus find out more about eyber crimes. ‘When any crime is enmmitted over the Internet it is referred to ‘asa cybercrime, There are many types of eyber crimes and the ‘most common ones are explained below. Mineking: This fen type of erime wherein {s broken inl so dia his personal or sensitive information can ‘be accessed. In tho United States, hueking ts elowsiied ws w felony end punishable as such. ‘Hiv is wiferen trom ethical heking, which mony organizations use to eheek thee tnt ‘security protection, In hacking, the criminal uses a variety of “oftware to ener m peeson's vmypater nnd the pees may we be aware that his computer is being accessed from a remote location, ‘Thett: This crime occurs when a person violates copyrights ‘and downloads music, movies, games and software. There ste even peer sharing websites which encour, piracy and many of these website are now being targeted by the FI. Tey, the justice system is a¢ ‘ey crime and there arc laws that prevent peop frin illegal downloading. Cyber Salking! This sa kind ofentine harassment herein the vii is subjected oa rage of oa messazen ‘ind emails, Typically, these slakers know their vitims and instead of resorting to of fine stalking, they use the Internat to stk, Ilowever, if they notice that eyber siatking is not having the desived effet, they Lyin wMine stalking along with eyber stalking to make the vietims’ ives more miserable, ently Theft: This hae become # major problem with people using the Intent fi services. In thls cyber ctl, w eriminal nscesses sta ant t persis bank wee debit card and other sensitive information fo siphon money orto buy things online inthe vsti’ na inmajor financial losses forthe vietim and even spoil the victim's credit history Malicious Software: These are Internet-based solware or programs that are used to disrupt a network. The sofware is used to gain access toa system to a sensitive information or data or causing damage fo softwere present in system, Coli solieing and Abus: This is also a type of cyber erime wherein criminals solicit minors via chat rooms for purpose of child pomography. The FBI has hecn spending a lot of time monitoring chat rooms frequent children with the hopes of reducing aid preventing child abuse and soliciting, oer Two relevant Concepts of Probation and Parole > Crime and Punishment x fants computer sofware sing this sash transactions 2 Banking el cut, Sock Sei, icon resul Scanned with CamScannerCally abs Iw Mast Gua nN Doinestte intone Domestic violence (| ‘ Yori overtime, an wary’ ferent pats he world, {Fam wt ml din, of wa 1 lee as eNom her aera {+ fetwete tnt ber Fol ap die bythe WHO eqn eit eat tc fv a yi and a mie tt it evan Menaul in so don ve nies Wo bed = nloyslcl bo; sama ab pyle t win ue trewinvennt; catedtonal abuse, ariel expshritaties Lutes | Uber bse fs weconding to te WHO: rem ck ie {eto ite neu i cms oe dNHes an a ) Parental ease hte fh bt es Ci ace ie plgete sal or emotional mgcanent oF nape of «it nthe na Fe ae se encase Costa on reventon (COC) ad he Dearne fr Chien ones (DCF) ctv cesta ay wt or nes of commit os by pet x fer ewe rou Snel ena a otha oh ei” CIN suse eee noc Home the Sepanvaony, seul er ummuaen th cece With, ete we fo a evi wf CM se t neglect, physica! abuse, psychological or emotianat abuse, and sexual abuse, 5 Parental abuse by children : a 1 Sabuso of parents by the ehiklre fw conn bat under reports mil uae vested safest Maven a } often saject to lves of childiood aggression in ences of onal ehildiaod aggressive onbursts, typtenly in the form of verbal or physienl abuse, Parents feel a scnse of shane and humiliation to have that problem, so they rarely ; reek Hsia heey Ue wally (ile oi hoy alae mnywnys #0 ‘Elder abuse ‘ Elder abus Is “a single, or repeated act, of tack of appropiate aston, occuring within any rtaionshly where there é isan expectation of trust, whlch cus barn or distess to a older person. This definition hasten adopted by the World Heath Oxyanatin ton eth pa en wal by Aion nt EWR vse i the UK. 19s protesting Ae elderly from abuse are similar te, al rele oir oteting depen ils on ine The core elentent to the harm of elder abuse isthe “expectation of trust” of te older person toward their abuser, ‘Ths, it includes harms by people the older person knows er with whom they hve 0 relationship, such as & spouse, parmer or family member fiend or neighbor, or people thatthe alder person relies on for services. Many forms of ‘elder nbuse are recognized as types of domestie violence or family violence, Forced and child marraga Forced and child marriages are practiced in certain regions ofthe world, particularly in Asia and Afra, and these {ypes of marrnges are associated with a high rls of domestic vilenee. A forced marrlave ty @ unnrtice weve ov or boll puutlelpani ste Myteed Wii ete fvely ghsen consent ‘The line beteon forced matexe nid enscnsonl marine muy bec blared, boca the ela wt ty cultures dictate that ene should never oppone the desire of ens paventreltves in veya to the esis of spn in such exdtures i is not necessary for Violence, steals, intimidation ete, to wecur, the person siniply "eonseIs™ to the mncriage even ifhe/She doesnt want it, ont ofthe iiypied soil pessine i daly, ve easton of ide price find dowry that exist in parts ofthe word ean led to buying and selling peuple il wnt ving. A child marriage is a marriage where one oF both spouses are under 18. Child marriage was common throughout history but is today condemned by intemational human rights organizations, Child marriages are often arranged between the families ofthe future bride an groan, sometimes as soot #8 the pitt i bom, Child mniages ean also ‘occur in the context of martiage by abduction, Werk-family balance Further information: Worh-life balance and Wotk-fatnity balanee in the United States %. Work-family balance is a concept involving proper prioritizing between work'career and family life sa’ des (issues relating 10 the way how work and families intersect and influence ench other. Ata politictl level, it is ; reflected through policies such matemity leave and paternity leave, Since the 1950s, social scientists ae well 3 i feminists have increasingly ertcized yendered arvangements of work and care, and the male breadwitner role, and F polieies aro increasingly targeting men as fers, a wool of ehanging gem relation ¥ = pene Sei Nepean Grand! Parenting; And Development of C1 Modern days explore the roles of praklpivents at thie when they arg weeded) move th vt hey awe needed smote tha ever Leto, Walt Wet tzadeninrs mor aval sigh, the popular nationally syuisated columnist alscusses tag's andpurntng challenges while reminding us that one thing is absolutely essentt: unconditional lore, With ace a commonsense wisdom, her woum nnd urgent eunenties discuss the spovialslemante wvteewaee eek resolving conflicts with grown children, visitation rights, how grandpa aise yrandetil sexo 0 ights, how grandparents can raise grandchildren themselves, and en Scanned with CamScanner42 Social change Social change refers to an alteration in the social order wf a society. Social change may i social institutians, social behaviors, or social relations, Social change may refer to the notion of social progress or io-cultural evolution, the philosophical idea that society moves forward by dialectical or evolutionary means. It may refer (0 a paradigmatic chan for instance a shift away fre few and towards capitalism. Accordingly, it may also refer to social revolution, such as the Socialist revolu*ian presented in Marzism, oo other social movements, such as Women's suffaye or the Civil righs ovement, Sil change ay nal poyel owgy can playa ie changes in nature, role in social change. ‘Major changes in contemporary Bangladesh Society is 1. Demographic § 7" One of the most obvious changes currently occurring is the change in the relative global population distribution botween countries. In the recent decades, developing countries became a larger proportion of world population, increasing from 68% in 1950 to 82% in 2010, while population of the developed countries has declined from 32% of total world population in 1950 to 18% in 2010. Bangladesh society is not an exception in this connection and currently the country has 28% urban people and Dhaka city is covering 17 million peoples. 2, Gendered patterns of work and care In much of the city areas of the country, changes from distinet Patterns have been economically important since the mid 20th century. 3. Socint he structure of Which vests great re very okt peuple as classical Chin, conservative and stable. According, to Ottenberg a society which stesses conor Individual to be highly responsive « is ews reveptive to the + socioty like the Heo who are highly individualist and totetate consulerale eultutal sarsalbty. 4. Attitudes and Velues: To people in developed nations and societies change is normal. Children there are socialized to anticipate and appreciate change. By contrast the Trobriand Islanders off the coast of New had no concept of change and did not even have any words in their language to express or describe change. Societies differ greatly in their general attitude toward change. People who revere the past and preoccupied with traditions and rituals will change slowly and unwillingly. When a culture has been relatively static for a long time the people ore likely to assume that it should remain + indefinitely. They are intensely and unconseiously ‘ethnocentric; they assume that their customs and techniques are correct and everlasting. A possible change is unlikely even to be seriously considered. 5. Massive uses of Technoloyical productsfitems: The technological factors represent the conditions ereated by man which have a profound influence en his life. In the attempt to satisfy his wants, fulfill his needs and to make his life more comfortable man ereates civilization, Technology is a byproduct of civilization When the scientific knowledge is applied to the problems in life it becomes technology. Technology is a systematic knowledge which is put into practice that is to use tools and run machines to serve human purpose. Science and technology go together. In utilizing the products of technology man brings social change. The social effects of technology are far- reaching. : 6. Increased rate of enrollment in educational center from women side 7. Transforming to the right based society (Human rights, fundamental rights etc. ) 3 8, Traditional social institutions are losing their appeal (family, religion, maktab, temp 9. Massive urbanization 10. Loneliness and Insecurity 11. Political turbulence 12, Social chaos, terrorism etc. 's and women's work to more gender equal Structure: cuted A society Ud tor centuries is likely 10 be yy aud ans the vy tha Scanned with CamScanner8 oo Armee nt nya RRR TERR » Soctal control: Ci ot tnt refers to the ways in which people's thoughts, feelings, appearance, ant beliavior are iv done Is through coercion, from imprisoning those who commit a crime jeu Social conto, harvever i mainly system and its values and norms, thereby Soclu eon con regulated in socal aynen, Ono ay th to piatelnnewlstnstering dg Li dine trough aoclallaation In wh peuple come vo Mently wit a socal ‘acquiring a stake in maintaining those values and norms. Need for Soelal Controt ity is essentin for the existence of suciely.No two persons is alike in their na-ture, ideus, attitudes and Mes Every individual is a separate personality. There are cul-tural differences among the individuals. As a matter of fact society is a heterogencous or-ganization. If every individual is allowed unrestricted freedom to act and ohave, it may ere-nte sucinl disorder, Kor un orderly social life social eontral is necessary, The aims of social control aro to bring out conformity, solidarity and continuity ofa particular group or society. Social control is necessary for forder in the sociely. It is necessary for every society or group 10 ‘maintain its social order and this is possible only wl wee with that sncial onder, AR Important objective uf snclal contol is to malutain the old order, Attwough cinforcement of the vid order in changing socioty mny hinder so-cial progress, yet it is necessary to maintain continuity anal uniformity ah society. Without social control social unity would be w mere dream, Social control relates behavior in accordance with established norins which brings unifonnlly of behavior wud leads to unity among the individuals. “The fam ‘maintains its unity because its members behave in a simi-lar manner in accordance with family norms, as No two men are alike in their attitudes, leas, interests and habits. Even the children of same parents do not have the samo altitudes, habits or interests, Men believe in diflerent religions, dress, eat differently and have different ideologies. There are so many differences in the ways of living of the people that at every moment there is the possibility of clash be-tween them, In modern times this possibility has all the more inercased because man has become too solf-centred.Social control is necessary to protect social interests and satisfy common ticeds. If soeial Control Is removed and every individual fy lel ta behave freely so-ciely would he reduced to a site af lawlessness, Agents of Social Control Some sociologists have elussified the social control inte informal and formal means. and mores are some of the informal means of social control. They ate very powertul in primary social yroups where interaction is on a personal basis. The effectiveness of the informal means of control though somewhat lessened in modern large communities Wherein contacts tend to be impersonal may still be observed in small villages. In modern times the in-formal methods have given place to formal ones such as laws, education, coercion and codes. From holistic point of view, following are prominent types of agent in social control. % 1, Religion 2. Education 3. Artand Architecture 4. Sympathy, 5. Sociability, 6. Resentment, 7. The sense of justice 8. Public opinion, 9. Folkways : 10, Social values 11, Sanctions (Separations) \ 12. Reward and punish . Scanned with CamScannersehen er see sgl recs of such things as ‘aging, and eeligious causes nnd conscy confit, deviant behav poverty and wealth wind socal mena as population geowth and migration, war re galysis a evidence abot sa He go develop wad enti Sociologists crit He vera praceses Tho rematch wells sociologists use wre varied, Savile So eet Mer ren rout hp ede surrenders at Cr a itn incre partipnts opm al Smt ln epi et soa ko thnk raya wana oa Ue sietiiow to asic Important research questions. They know how to desian goud s¢ project, ae cn! lyr empiri da nd erm ad pests thee esarch Give, Students ated Fe oe tne owe lyr unt Ch way thesia won, wl ot 1 Wi Us ijatgnd or the beter, Rost general. ey have learned I to think, evaluate. ane creneesy.and effectively. These are all abies of wemerdous value i a wide va ‘ra profexsions Origins Oriageet analysis has origins inthe amnion stock of Western koowleage ant phitowspty sd has been car ‘ut from as far hack. ae the ine of anetont eephre Plate Inet hofece, The (nin of the surve}, ut ra ag fh ae ts of aint es Fi et ce nk ag he Poe asim won he ape Same Tee's camer Iban, tathcetar Arab Ha eae ae net Aten Chun) Wo have been The ist sociologist tn father of sociology (oe Latly a a re a agadmal ws pa the fie work os siete renin so cote a wel coi Een ons ae dre Rm bth Latin an! Grek ogi The Latin work: oe a ey of om Create fom yo Lt,” “knowed" © It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sicyés (1743-1836) in an unpublished nant. MAME ga ter Jefined inked bythe French pxophe faces, Aegan Comte (798- Bn eee ets tance new wy owning Sei. Co ad tarred he aa eee core 'hed eeamenty been apprred by ole, Tost bly the Begin stiiian ‘AdolpheOuete sms af the xexdeic discipline Tornual neaitomie socio ‘established! Iyy rile Ca a ite Durkin reeced wu the al oC soph, be raat nd refined te method, mining that he social ei seal continuation the nara one nto Fe aad sag at ty may feta he some ject, sha, an aprench She sai of uma Be a pen Ueacune of saogy wie Unissty dena Tn 195, thine (1888 1017), wha ove! ped positivism ae a reblaing Rates of the Saciolasicul Method (1895), For Durkin, sociology could be described asthe "science Of institutions, their genesis and thet functioning". Durkiscim's menograpt, Suicide (1897) is considered a seminal ‘work in statistical analysis by contemporary sociologists. , : Seope Culture whi ‘cultural sociology sees all social phenomena as inherently cultural. Sociology of cui a cul ultural. Soeiology of cure often attempts 10 explain certain cultural phenomena as a product of social processes, while cul ial potential explanation of social phenomena, ’ caret ‘Arty music and literature Secilogy of itera, lm, and ati subse of esc of ture. Tiss is anistie objects nd its social implications, None ofthe Founding thers of sociology pres $ fathers of suciolagy pronved st Bat they did develop idea were subequeat pie io iete by ies sees culture as a 1 pedo ed study of art, Soc deviance, law and punishin norms, including both formally enacted rules (¢ c¥im) and inforol violations of cultural try a Scanned with CamScannertin famously described 1a snl inerease in incarceration in the US over the last 30 years is due to changes in law and ‘policing and not to an incr in rime; and that this inerease significantly contributes to maintaining racial stratification The sociology of communications and information technologies includes “the social aspects of computing, Internet, new media, computer networks, and other communication and information technol ‘Media "AS with cultural studies, media study iv a distinet disci avghe "visible 9 approach within the field of legal law with other aspects of society, ‘and viee versa, For example, an inf that owes to the convergence of sovivlogy and other im and crtiea theory. Though the production process or ich as idcotosical ei 1 ot | the eritig elfcets and audience reception, st sub discipline, but the media is a common and often-indispensable new approach 1 the analysis oF economic phenome, and modemity as a philosophical concept. The relationship between capitalism and modernity is a salient issu ppethaps best demonstrated in Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1903) and Sims's Th Philarephy of Money (1900) ‘The contemporary period of economic snciolory, also known as me ‘acalogy, was consolidated by the 1985 work of Mark Granovetter titled “EEconounte Aetion and Sota ‘Work, employment, and industry Tke sociology of work, or industrial sociology, examines warue. globalisation, Fabour markets, work organisation, manager ‘cant to Which these irenels are intimately related tn ebay ing experiences of individuals and families the ways in whic utions to the patterning of work and shaping of work institutions.” Toca Tee socio “the direction and implications of trends in tec I practices. and employment relations 10 the Wt tthe hh workers challenge, resist and make cial sictures, experince, sal fila stehtiss staves 1966 seca bs ve tony ect tte dete sche oateomes, tis particula tv the scan atone Pa tute in thie field y James Celemae, now a8 the * aa sal Frudemty and found that stem backeround and sociveconomic status are much more important in determing ‘Sdocational outcomes tn nro measured differences in shoo resources (Le. per pupil spending). Environment Environmental sociology isthe study of human interactions with the natural envionment, typically emphasizing, ‘human dimensions of environmental problems, social impacts of those problems, and efforts to resolve them. As with other subsfields of sociology, scholarship in environmental sociology may be at one or multiple levels of analysis, om global (e.g, world-systems) to local, societal to individual. Atention is paid alsc to the processes by which Trenmentil problems become defined and Anoven to humnans. As arzued by notable environmental sociologist Joba Foster, the predecessor to modern environmental sociology is Mars’ ‘analysis of ths metabolic ef. which ced contemporary thought on sustainability. Environmental sociology is often interdseipisaty ana e=cps the sociology of risk, ural sociology and the sociology of disaster. man ecolony ecology deals with interdisciplinary study ofthe relationship between humans and their natural, social, and ‘environments, In addition to Environmental sociology. this field overlaps with architectural sociology, urban ‘logy, and to some extent visual sociology. In tum, visual sociology—which is concerned with all visual ht i ilizes photography, film and other technologies of | sine of social life--overlayt with mein Family, gender, and sexuality gender and sexuality form a broad area of inquiry studied in many sub-ilds of saciology. The sociology of srily examines the family, 2 an institution and unit of socialisation, with special carcem forthe eompacively 'm historical emergence of the nuclear family and its dstinet gender roles. The nation of sigrificant. As one of the more busie institutions te wich ene may apply sociological perspectives, the sociology of {52 family is a common component on iniroductory academic curricula. Feminist sociology, on the other hand, is a ative sub-field that observes and critiques the cultural eategories of gender and sexuality, particularly with fect to power and inequality. ° Health, illness, and the body The sociology of health and illness focuses on the socal efTects of. and public anitud rental health and disabilities. This sub-lieMlalsw overlaps with pcvantalogy and the Medical sociology, by contrast, focuses on the inner-workings of medical organisations and Britain, soeiofogy was introduce into the medical cu ¥ Death, dying, A subfield ofthe sociology of heath and illness that overlaps with cuiiural sociology isthe study of death, dying and bereavement, sometimes referred to broadly as the soci ah Ts lope is exemplified by te wack of eesrement sometines reed to roaty a5 te sailogy of deh. This opi is exemplified by the ek of Knowledge and science The sociology of knowledge isthe study of the relationship between human Which it artes, and ofthe effects prevailing ideas have on societies, The 1920s, when a number of German-speaking theorists, most nota diseases, is process. In and the social context within Scanned with CamScannerextensively on it, With the a hnowledgs tended ta teninin Peace, war, and contict subfi i : _ ce Sociology Studies, brondly, the ae Sean an tility institutions, Asa swe of hivsultcld cat Spteti study Ay, sell group rather tha as an organ, Is hig interest Tinked os fled to service personnel es dtner ge een A one ae eel in Vocation and combat, with + Military sociology also concerns elvil a i rial concems elvil Eovernmental agencies, Topics include the dominant aseu oF tune tionatisny AWhery wt anit vent the ake INL an fal 9 the 20h eentiny, te sovinkygy af a thon Alynamies af war, conflict resolution, pen movements, ar ology ims tows the hly specialized sub-tield group with coerced collective action based on shared wrpases and values that are more defined and narrow than ‘nilitary relations and inteructions between other groups oe imptions eld by those in the military, changes in military iti r ght, military unionization, military professionalism, the increased utilization af women, the ones staacndenc Complex, the military's dependence on rescuteh, and the iastitutional and organizational Political sociology Historically politic s! willingness to fj tel ions between political o on anal society. A typical reseatch, fon in this area might be: "Why do so few American citizens choose to vote?" In this respect questions of Political opinion formation broupht about some of the pioneering uses of statistical survey research by: Paul Lazarsteld, Ml of political sociology’ slovoloped in elation 40 stich questions, which lta comparative history to analyse socio-political trends. ~ Population and demography Demographers or sociologists of po ation study the size, composition and ehane over inte ef a given population Demographers study how these charueteristies impact, oF ure impacted by, various social, economic or political systems. The study of population is also closely related to human ecology and environmental sociology, which studies a populations relationship with the surrounding environment and often overlaps with urban or rural sociology. Reseurchers in this field may study the movement of populations: tansportation, migrations, diaspora, ete, whueh falls into the subfield known as Mobilitics studies and is closely related to human geography. Demographers may also study spread of disease within a given population or epidemiology. Race and ethnic ret ‘The sociology of « © and of cllinig relations is the area of the disc economic relations between races und ethnicities at all levels of soci residentia ine that studies the social, political, and ‘This area encompasses the study of racism, segregation, and other complex social processes between ditferent racial and ethnic groups. This research ation and social psychology, as well as with inilationistn oF frequently interacts with postcolonial ny. AU the Ie) sm, Anticracist fi The sociology of religion concems the practices, historical backgrounds, developments, universal themes and roles of religion in society. There is particular emphasis on the recurring role of religion in all societies and throughout recorded history. The sociology of religion is distinguished from the philosophy of religion in that sociologists do not set out to assess the validity of religious truth-claims, instead assuming what Peter L, Berger has described as a position of "methodological atheism". It may be said that the modern formal discipline of sociology began with the analysis of religion in Durkheim's 1897 study of suicide rates among Roman Catholic and Protestant populations, Social changeanddevclopment The sociology of change and development attempts to understand how societies develop and how they can be changed, ithin this ficld, sociologists often use macro-sociological methods or historical-comparative methods. In Contemporary studies af social change, there is averlap« with international development or community developnient, However, midst of the founders of sociology ud theories of social change based ou their study of history. £0) Go relogy oe devclopnert- a Underdenele ponent Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 9 SOCAL. process “TANING OF sactar proces ly: “perpete: more than elsewhere like themselves «: nal and mental response cet + physical movement »: Perhaps i: 15 moze important th peliefs and cus ‘2 common life they come in 9 02. As individuals, sharing cent stimulusresponse relationshi7s *, other and in their Listizy ef the concept of socicl process is closely tied up Hees see ence uf so2.oh arate dis iplineo st to Srzall, af! soi 1, ocpehpacda. of Socal Scion. 3 4 Yorks 1937. p- 148- # 2 mor or XIV. The Macmillan Comps=7, Sout rrociss 283 @ consciously assumed this conceptastheir majer premise. Most of ws sociologists have tried to say that social recess mst alasys be analysed asa way of tehasing whichinsctsesa putaty. nother words, the contest of the scial process aba i to oF mere pease that is shared sims fically the socal proces is not the static pos Teference to anciber, ot even the pattems of fe 4p the role, tut the ws in wbich pes a Function. These ways of tehaw society. They placed where. But to exch ether sords cf R. eats of perscns to otker acquire certs one state of r or backward there would be £9 soc c isthe bing dyzemic social relationships. Inter and (2) symbols. Direc i or communication et spoken oF writen. Th quality, oF reletionshi 2. Fichter. Seciology. symbel is at repres: . According to Wilson ‘Scanned with CamScanner4 ee et ee tn ee eee PRINCIPLES OF SOCIOLOGY dynamic rather than the wie rat Static aspect of socio-cultural, phenomens, and its varied forms are d called social processes. ‘TYPES OF SOCTAL PROCESSES Social processes : be classified in various ways. One group of sociologists may ditfer w: the other group in finding out the types of mporary sociological theory makes use of feraction categories. They ane ordinarily pt under Nlidarisic and ant i ciation is iemplicd in all interaction we shall svoid the Possibility of mislzading connotation by using the t and “disjunctive” social pzocesses. They run in two opposite « sections ‘The conjunctive processes are the patterns of related which persons are drawn tozether and become integrated, T™ Pally exemplify coopetstien, ascommodation and associ: disjunctive Processes are thosein which people are pushed fur: and become less solidariitic. They mainly discuss comp conflict. This categorization ofsocial processes does not co Fange of aspects in socis! processes. There are some more ¢3: social process that we shz!! discuss here, The following are the funds society : But conte only a few basie in twon iveand dissocix tetactics throwgh tion and whose ries of nentalsoeial processor whi wed 1, Association. ‘The ‘st process enumerated by Ress is 22 process of association itself. Soc-sty is what it is because of association, We rave and demand comp:zionship and we do not act Rarmai'y withost it. The eustoms, habits 3+ 4 manners aresocial. Society i hui on a ert of social sympathy or Ws Wise we think others =k of Med hy Charles Hortes Coolsy “mirrored” or "looking as se affects oF controls almost our every act. Every body wants ¢ approval by eters: Even the Fndepenent mah 36 Res in supported by an imagicary approval, Social if or humans 3 iva proces of ing topthr. the constant esting of Isiita's rulitiors and associations. — ease One spastic expression of intererow that 3 Wilson, Sortolegteat daly cow York, 1949. p. 681, SOCIAL PROCESS 385 {0 communication as the typical socis! process. Communication is ‘more than what the psychologist has foend in the process. It is more than stimulus and response, Such an explanation unduly simplifies the Process and also misses its essence. To Park, communication is the expression, interpretation and response, and of these three the grestest is interpretation. u Communication is also a process of transmission. The role that news plays in communication was put by R. E, Park as foliows The usual reaction of any person to news is to repeat it, that is totell it to several other persons as soon as possit'e. “This makes conversation. Ses further comment and perhapsstzztsadiscussion."+ ‘Thus, news ly stimulates communication. It maltiplies communicatio: of this tree for all communi Sa eloprstat of pablie opinion, Without there could be no puble opinion, and without >: d through the channels of free communieat: coed be no democracy, ing to Dozardus, the procsss of communication can bs and is ssc2 tw be authoritarian ends. Censszship can stop free coms nda sind coloration of th: news can abuse the pri ‘ation. Communication itself is amoral. The cit gy need to see to it that the ctzanels of free commu: iy open as possible, It is mportest that new: spomtanzously and without resiraint, of els unfound ic there becemmus Fumours ef all Tumouss, vie.2us ruzours, will be spread. The dimensions of a person's worl’ depend on “the directicn ces from which the news roms ta hic. A person's po» *!.) eeslopment telated to the number cf chansels of communication ‘open to him or that he keeps cpen through the newspspers, nd books that he reads, trough his conversations sant Pondcuce and through news b:zadcasts, R.E Path. Newsar a For ef Kaomietee® +A chapter In the Sce:story ny XLV, ent of Sica Thought, Longmans, Ges ‘9, anus. The Develo: ané Co, New York, 19¢0. PP, $58. Scanned with CamScanner26s oe PRINCIPLES OF SOCIOLOGY 3. Competition. Com ipetition is a social process ix 7 ee [Process inwhichtwo ormore 'BS ars striving to attain the same objective. According to Ficht ie Focus stinthe process of conflict and contravention attention is petit eaaratily exe otter party as such, But inthe processof eom- fom both partics focus primar to achieve and only secondatil compete for the obi object is short in sony Coup: ly on the objective tbat boch want ly on cacit other. Persons and groups and the competitionis always stronger shen the ly an Situation, Som Some scholars lim of kuman tact ; however, ite: also invoked ia a: CUS Process. and_assimilztion. Competition, ten2 ong plants and territerially and ¥ the vast organized ts in modern 1% 7 a if others. ss eae aah tina 2 Pn ooo ‘Stonally.® Itexplaizsthedivisione! labor rerdeperdence of individuals and seccascious can be classed ements [SOCIAL PROCESS eo 2. Competition functions as the means whereby the desires, ar terests and values of the public are best served. 3. Competition provides the seans whereby sexual asd se<'al selections may effectively cperate. in selecting them: provides what Durkhc ef labour.” Taese functional units of socier: ing the werk of society. They are onal groups, relic oups, groups of efor 5 of artists, and ecene: ee Scanned with CamScannercomes in missionaries began to culture came into compet religion is a form of cultut Hinduism is a god Institat Found int they have betwee: the st “because individuals and groups a Te inte a 4. Racial competition iu ial characteristics, ape of the face, & the consciousness of re2l Gifference in ra sta als Rac Racial betseea yellows for cor contact with and cxaiaple, ional eo in; Ne institution davised to e larger and ture, fferences are given prime im ad whites, he Blacks @: ¢ economic, tition is only as: the institution, as large portion of cultural comple to whieh they b PRixeirits oF socioLocy another. As for example, when the Christian christ Men sit om meet a new s more fun¢: order. nds to,saat Mai for domination” and what the psyciclogist For ordinary personnel it is d- social and 72! te ianize the Bengalis, the Christian British ion with the Bengaliculture. Competition of ral competition. The long competition of Buddhism during the early centuries in Indian history ial phase of cultural competi: is iz fundamental needs according, ntomed by long use or what ion. Competition may exist tutionssuch as church, role and status in a society fe, a desire for superior sed it as a corapenation for ck calls “th ills “satisfaction of the satodby the term “st in economic comp who are engaged in different co express itself in art, music, cultural competition. TI izable tothe eyes such as skin ined cultural differences. types of competitions. iportancein the competitive struggle ‘and Jews and the whites and ica! positions. following : evel sometimes makes SOCIAL PROCESS 289 for association. Striving for personal advancement, the educators, the lawyers, the doctors, social workers not only tzy to do their best {to uphold themselves to the esteem of theit clients, but also unite in ssociations for the protection of standards and for the lewsening of cut-throat competition. 2+ Dissociative Result. When there is unfzir means of competi in business, in profession, in con To avert this, a mmunity, there often develops conflict. all of them develop a code of fair conduct. This cous is Usually informal and is enforced by public sentiment. 3. Result with Reference to Personality. According to C’ Cooley, wien competition is fair it prom Competition involves contact and some des: sion. Onzcarkardly compe With your rival you endeavour to discover hi interpret his thougit, his words and behavicu Thus competition serves to broaden one’s ¥izw peint, understanding and deepens one's sympa 4. Social Progress. Competition is a sociai rapidly cenzing society readjustment takes place. individual to do his test, a minimum possitle ce is obtained. tt represents tke contribution of com: and social progress. 5. Group Solidarity. So long as rival group remains on {sir corapatitive level, grey ened. If competition approaches conflict, riously impaired. Group solidarity ‘is individuals in their soefal relationships by according to kis abitity and by which the various groups and s institutions become modified to satisfy the members of society."2 6. Social Disorgenization. Competition does in progress and socis! solidarity. It functionsin det ual Status in sociexy and provides an automatic process by v narles H a breader sccial feeling. se of ratval compreben- ompenag sto ithout know 8. CH. Cooley. Suclal Process pp. 210-21 9. Gillin & Gillin. Cultural Sociology. p. 696. Scanned with CamScannerpo FRENCIPLES OF soceLoct Patterns of behav ic saviour and system of relationship: ma metts befor the judgment ‘of society. eae ft tee : : A of strugete Qos Att in human society competiton is not only a malice Tis also dita eta + i ao a strugee for status and prestige. . ‘cull to have full freecom in competition in all spheres of ofes, customs, and rules of conduct HS oA Competition aed frealom in ony — a jor in compet sease would mean ul on in eet on in the chaos. There can only be freed in absolute compe lative sense. consuier ‘personal, gecord process Menwis ¥ secommedation, otherw ed in cortict w eons or cikertine. AS in thease of comp alscatsotistive effets, 2 ce 0} ally destroyed at ene er 1 kas not enly disseciative oitive. > 8 ete reanressel itself in 2 if in various ee of human ccrzet Its modes are always ehangi every FanE™ © ind cultural conditions. Social conflict includes ging social and! MY ontend agaiiat exe aauther fot wry aeeeivity. in whieh men al objective?” eg to cooperaticn in the sense of antithesis. The 14> ‘Conflict is relat atte tins Colerct Sue» OS. iin and Gita. Co peesian & Co, Ltd. 192. 9, Gila a getver. Suciety: Mi M4, Mael 10. R SOCHL rrectss mt Forms of interaction mightbeconsidcred asthe extremes ona continum With varying dezes:s of the one or the oiher in between. The central Position on the «a's anald constitute ecatrality. Bote: ity and confst on the soz Fand would rangebshaviocrdenoted 2savension, bbe defined as activity ist yy oF t9 deprive others of hoerty of F jens to prevent ene frors beice we inten ally or mesa as activity dos against eth the first about every thi cor groups, 5° due to the diffe individual difers: 2 Cultural not enly upon b's sneeces. The persers'ty of yma riake up. bet 2 shares th organization of with diffrent ev" be clash of int various types M.D. mA ine. me Gillin & Gita. Cultural Sociology. p-633- ‘group in which he has bee reared. When people close contact with each otfer thers may Book Gepany, Ne York, 1955. $65. Seetlopy. Ate _Nen von University ef Mizazscta, New Yorks 1 nc TN ee EET Scanned with CamScanner3, ES NGRLES. OF SOCIOLOGY + Clashing Bit Tete nese interest is another sous 8 very vital pas MY Be OF ll sorts. Today economis Testers, Clashing Xe of cone interest plays AS For cxampte igo eine FE to contictng situations and each 20d the emplanen, Wants WS find the clashes between the employes Icading to strikes and lockouts. Rapid changes in the society disrupt the establish At divies 5 Tan Wie People into separate groups cach cherishing * selues. Thischange brings about eonilict le spread use of new inser 4. Social Chasey. €d relationships divergent soci, For example, ty oll methods, c carding Porters and in; eet FORMS OF CosFicr Confit ji Yas long 2s individuals or groups There are, howe a arcas of = ps in wh ict is particularly acute and in which probiems of personal and social welltei 25 2 result of the destructive clement of conflict situation. 1, War, Revelation and Strike. Th Well as most motives. They ~ most encompassing as ective of cil forms. In most wars there are multiple y he ce ererses from 2 highly compiz ar dynamic situation of interrelated factors. system and the accompanying ide: ozies, technological ‘ad to the ert of war and peace, Piychologial pattern re”. In the final analysis “it is the motves of men the way to war not merely the conditions of if ; though that have paves ™ separated. The immediste participating fretor, of two can nee me overt act orseriesof acts by ce nationthat three inguarses Js Of of anathen.”24 7 tens the » Coafliet. Any cla:s system operates in the principle of 3. Chas Cunllict, 9. i samentals of Sociol 4, Flirilge 234 Otbers Foe aa, Fie ditlerential benetits and prisiisy more benefits than from tho: privileged groups maica groups for their own interes conquest of one people by anc It depends upon the particular time and place. 3. Racial Conflict, human beings that the plobe are inhabit antagonism leading tiot between the Am: of racial contfict. in the bottomof the socia! seale. Often, selves by exploiting vader-prvileged 6. Saperior fraction may result from the 2 gives inherent in racial c! patible, yet ¢ I groups. They 2vh! confi ty and “brotherhood religious prejudices. the direct threat to n of the society n the Hindus and th: Musins as a cite the reli example of 5. Politi forms + 1 conflict may take cours between political conflicts eset: Intranational Po! tion, but iat these organizations citizens and usually the contravention. But often they ateeck physical violence. Th: leaders of ogposing party. 1 parties. During = competitive for votes interaction are ther with words and ga of hatreds Mares v Brees Scanned with CamScannerite: 2 OMEEES OT" SQOLOGY nal Conflict, War by te tween nations is usual ' two blocks form of etoup ly most extensive ‘ Conflict. To-dayth i Scape rythe world isdivided int Mrerencse i ge maint block and socialist block. There are or ar Blocks. The eae Wal, economic And social ideals between these two country Fitton, Ole8Y dilfers from thet of the sociale eS differences a Fe found to be most fundame: ee fandameatal causes Prevailing among the s between two individuals due to k ed, Propertyand farily matters. In the fist between husband and wife, betasen parents the children, These conflie:s may arise ys it reflects éiverg: ; 85 isliking, hate mily we find co: There are toxever commun: oseur in a local setting in a community conflict. H of different sosis! ba i “ause of conflis: Such a condit the war. The following are th ts. Racial or et infizx of people with divergent socis! values is the main ion developed in many calozies during consequences of conic 1. Solidarity of the Group. When the group is :a confict with one another the reset is usually closer welding togethe: of the individual in cach group. The members of the in-groups submerge all the d ferences and eaite together. 2. Lessening of Group Solidarity. When the « the uni up is broadly damaged. 3. Alternatizg of Personality, In intra-group and iater-group-conflict there are always some individuals who share the Izyaltios 2nd values group of thoseof twodifferent yesups. Is such eases involved into strain situation, while others are of fyetors withiz some individus's are ‘under menial torture. 4, Destruction of Blood and Treasure, The conflict, sometimes, _ and destroys the wealth and tressur takes place between the employ. , particularly and the employee causes bloodshed when the cont joa mill of a & Me SOCIAL PROCESS. 295 5. Accommodation or Dominatica and Sebjugation: If the parts are of equal strength and one can not destroy the other, accommodation results. IF they are of quite uneven ia power domination and subj. tion occur. CoofeRATION According to A. W. Small, with the rise of conflict there devel sped the practice of co-operation. In the mind of Small the social li nS ‘out to be two social processes, namely, conflict and coopération ith the latter playing an increasingly inuential role. Cooperation is the mutual working together for the attai of common goal. It is that form of social process in which ts > or ‘more persons of groups act jointly in the pursuit of comm It is not only the most common form of social relation 5 i is essential and indispensab!: requirement for the maintnanc> tod juance of groups and societies. Co-operation is a rez'p* cal n. It cannot be “one-sided” although it is quite cbviow: cooperation neither requires nor often contains an etzcily amount of effort by each side of zelation, People may ¢2spa self-centred gain ot for s ‘on or to do good to o: Persons who cooperate is no limit to the achieve peration not only stimulates mor: that specialization may 6; tion among the speciali fs but increases eflici te constructively there mus An intention of the cooperative element in human sery noteworthy. Cooperation functions quitely and unostent his janifested “tin the increase ia size of political agsregates : + "he gr -xth of political and economic interdependence and possibly despite cu'saral diversity in an underlying assimilation or convergence in science. art ion and culture yenerally."18 The growth of the role of coxperation is seen in the increase i the size of communitics, in the devstoping organizations of between communities, in the ineressing sense of unity and the nes! for developing some kind of a world order. "15. M. Ginsberg, Reason ond Urreason in Soctety. 9. 32. 20= Scanned with CamScannerPRINCIPLES OF 50 ctoLos Toe eration has a long history. tt E The principle eres It has origins in the biologi Cooperation give MES for survival is the princhone’ topical level ton gives i Principle of cooperation, ion. According to A. F. Emerson, Sense of a life process is found func+ isfar more Important in the evolution on that is found everywhere. vere it not for the increasins ngth of cooperation."10 ei leveloped from instinctive and defensive levels behaviour of cooperation levels of cooperative activities may be dis Ik > ities may be discussed : eiles that result in the survival of individuals and groups. oe here individuals and grouzs by cooperation oblain advan. anes emselves at the expense of other people and able to en aheed of others. ge Activities that direetly ena’ their wellbeing and they incidental! highly required The following five 1 h is individuals and groups to improve £0 to the benefit of others. 4. Activities in which persons are developing their own wellbe! asa means of increasing the wellbeing of mankind. “S)The persons and groups «tose purposes are devoted frst o alto the welfare of the persons and groups. They are ready to sacri some of their interests to achieve maximum cooperation. Sorokin develops three sequences of social relationships + (1) Compulsory : (2) Contsactual : (3) Cooperative. The compulsory relitionship involves coersions of the weaker party by. the strone. Contractual reationship represents voluntary agreements of parties for their common advantage with toth parties remaining, self-centred vor rrecking thelr own advantages respectively, The cooperative rels- vr Aap is exemplified by the members ofa devoted family in which Hons ier pladly gives and receives help without attention being each mempernat is mine and whst is thine.t7 directed to wha begin in marginal cooperatioy oe Couperative activities may 5 pie 18 Feb, 1942 & Biatogical abstract 16, cited ty The Mstory 1. Science, jepardus, P. $32 soe Social TRON NY Es Te omarion of Humanity p. MQ Cited by Es AR, sorokinn Th ar 17 PS jastory of Social Thazeht™ p. 531, Bogard —partly SOCIAL PROCTSS 27 cooperative and patily competitive. Groups with marginal cooperation may be highly antagonistic towards other groups. Intermedizte coop- eration is found in the majority of cooperative groups. In these manifest cooperation all members cannot comprehend the meaning of coopera tion. Then there is full cooperation by which altruistic spirit permeates all the activities and in which cooperation becomes the” commonly expressed way of life. Mutual aid is of special name for cooperation. Kroptkin developed the theory that mutual aid has made evolution possible. He maintains that mutust aid is powerful survival traits and points out to animals that increase in herds through mutual cooperation. Intensity of Co-operation sity of the process of co-operation depends pon the following factors : 1. I depends upon the measure of esordination achieved by perticipanss. ‘The degree of order depends upon several factors such as knowledge and skill for carrying works and the way the task is distributed 2. The intensity of co-operation is rela:ed to leadership. In simpler cases where and when perfect coordination is net vital. cooperation may take place without leadership. In more complex situation where high degree of coordination is required cooperation is effected th leadership and the compliance of participsats with the directions of the leader. The activity of the leader, by bringing sbout closer coordi= ghtens the intensity of co-operation, character of the Bends which nation of efforts. b 3. The intensity depends also on the unite the members of a group, engaged in coopsrative process, The family is the place shere we find most intease ecoperatica ACCOMMODATION Accommodation is the term used by seciolegists to describe a process in the fields of social relation. To some sociologists, the term is analogous to the term adaptation, used by the Diologists to descrite the process by which living things become adjus- ted (0 the envirosrisnt. Prof, Park distinguishes accommodation from adaptation in that the latter refers to “organic modifications which ‘accommedat Scanned with CamScannereee ~ rE ¢ PRINCE a . SOF SOCK . 2 ee ted bioto mt SOCIAL PROCESS 299 abi w ; 1 i or hereas accommodation involves changes | Process. As a state it has a reference to the degree of accommodation nkaccommic~ g adjustments transmitted soc, the social eny; _The concept adjustment that Sir Costelative culture patterns which sve any particular time. As an on-growing process wemayt! changes that they call for in dation in the dynamic aspects of increasing of decreasin: of individual and groups as they interact with each other in competitive tnd condicting relationships. Accommodation may also be viewed ia individual's subjective ns and in terms of his overt behavious : subjecting his relation- ship with each other to fulfill his basic paysiclogical and psycho! needs. On the behavioural level acc: ‘on of the indiv group involves overt expression, both vzrDal and non-verbal. applies to vari plies to variows forms Of psychological and social individual f S OF sroups make to their environment. Fea iological, social, i sociologist rane | social, psychological and competing ans as st by this term means the process by which 'p to cach other ae Wividzals and groups adjust their relation- infcompenis order to overcome the difficulties that arive METHODS TO BRING AUOUT ACCOMMODATION Petition, contravention or confict, ‘Accommodation is bi bout ia var Some sociologists opin citmodation is brought about 2 sas fe that accommodation grows out of conflict ae eS tee Pe vntion oe ; of confit, sordins to the types of relations Satravention or competition insted out of conflict alone. The pro. methods to bring about effective accom=rodatia 1 SS of accommodation appears wien two business competitors find it and greugs invctved - Soavenient to aeree to submit similar bids for a contract or having 1. Yielding to Cocreion. tt is th combined cither into a partnership or a corporation, accommodate subordinate type of accommodation. C. their respective points of view and methods of doing business in of menta!. The rode of accommodati organization. In 2 sentence we can thus say that accommodation than any other sethods in the perse process by which the individual 2-4 the group adjust their antagonis:'c demand of superior force. activities in their interest of associated unity. Accommodation my 2. Compromise. In compromise ¢2- also be defined as that form of sccial process in which two ot something to the ether. When to part roups interact ia order to prevent, reduce or eliminate con~ to come ta a discussion, where both t=2 £79 the necessary process that os: expect to 2: make a compromi petsons oF g fet. Accommodation is 24 a a a 1 is aver, in that the survivors fearnto adjust and adopt ther 3. Arbitration. It is a form of iestion we a conic ch other. ‘The objective of accommodation, however, i usually rance of a mediator the dispute ume 5 a means of ving peacefully, of cvexi sae one ote merely negative. It i another, which muy eventually fad to Positive co-cperation. direct negotiation. It usually signifies that ene another, : I atally a wwo-sided relationship, in which both parties, also exsent Iris s or whole societies are parti ] individuals OF Bro) PS nn gi cases indi oF groups have differeacss which are not whether rene. characterized by “give and = eases indsidual oF groups have fillersees which ate wot pst jnteraction- ‘alteration in its behaviour patterns in order to enough. Ia such case they may tolerate the differen ae ide makes. nt cf lemert. K. Young. calls it “toleraat participyion.” This each side ™ = definite settlement. K. Young. calls its a accommodate tHe ote of accommodation both as a state and asa may be stated simply as the principle of “live snd let live.” This brings “Tp is justified to sPe i of co-operation. ee at of East & West. N. ¥. The Macmillan Co, 146 P63. attitude of ¢co-opera Mecting . \ 1g, TH =p ae| : i os Scanned with CamScannereC PRINCIPLES OF SOCIOLOGY acceptance srs term is usually used to mean the sudden °F group has papas Pattern than that to whch the individual Feoriented paychatee en wee Ia conversions the persons become Way Of life tomang a 884 socially from an old and ursatisfying Ge Sub ee BY Sol values and social welatsaskip. ore coe Wis a type ofaccommedation wherby an Other ese eetatss For competitive and confit deluge iets wich obtained at least a degree ef en, Potential opponents. Sublimation also. u activities and approval feo as an oullet for emotions, generated in opposition. 7 Rationalization, Aa individual may achieve rodation by linding reasozs sound of unsound, that just views of status, thereby avoiding frustration, mental cor ings of and ccher unsatisfying psychological te2 Tn short, accemmodation brings about check in s and harmony in opposition. It is also responsible variant personalities. It causes modification of insti coordination of statuses. ASSIMILATION Assimilation 5 a specific process best observed up of divergent ethaic backgrounds. Here exist cultural traits ceming from societies in different r: The varying po: nny mode arly ciseernizte of the world. sof thinking and acting mee: + people involve: 5 process do more than enche: teritics. They t, adjust and finally as: to themselves. [2 this process the people also are another so that they now share similar patterns of which previously existed i tion. _ aes 1g to S. G. Daw assimilation refers to th a and fusioa in which persons and groups 23: entimenta and atitudes of other Persons Ds Bros sree experience and history, are incorporated wit process of interac and by sharing net in 3 common cultural life. 19, Fistiter. Sociology eo ee ue SOCIAL PROCESS: * Thus asstaiilation may be definad from a Sociospsycheiegical point of view as the changes tat occur ia an individual's attitude, til and habits as a result of prolonged contact with culture patterns other thaa the ones to Which he has already been conditioned. Accord 2 W Gillin and Gillin, assimilation is an advanced social process carts rized by differentiation between individuals and between grt well as by unity of action, attituse and mental process with refersnee to common interests of goal AS individuals become assimilated in a group o¢ a society. they’ loose those distinctions which sct them off as outsiders and in wa eyes they conte to identify themselves with other menibers gtogpand with interests and goa! common by them. Ta the assimilative process is chara: he development of ¢; ritudes leading to unity and i fon of thous n.2t We can account the following factors for assi 1. Toleration, Toleration to people of different culture may lation. But if the tol nication and association, nilatic operates to aceelsrate € speeds up the process of assimilatics. 2, Equal Economie Opportunity. Extension of economic opportu nities to different cultural groups hasteas the process of assitn! a ne difference between the occvpationa! classes are sharp, assi is retarded, 3. Recognition, When two cultures come in contact wi wether, each recognizes somethii in contact with each other the process of assimilativa is i 5. Amalgamation, It is the most formidable condition process ofassimilation, It oce=rs when two different groups ¢ contact with cach other and amelzamate by intermarriage. Ame Hoa may be a step towards aseimilation of two cultures. 20. Gillin & Gillin, Cuitwral 5 1p. S23. 2b. Ibid. p. 523, Scanned with CamScannerThey are the following’; iol _Attitede of Superiority, ie up Is an EMportant factor, etween the superior and the Cooperation. Ss nee AN altitude limits communication inferior and act as a bar to mutual 2 Wide Di dine ahs Divergence of Skin-colour and Cultare. When pzvple of : a races with physical or cultural differences come in contact onllicl takes place due (o intoleration and this acts as hindrance. 3. Perseution, When persecution of a msmber of an inferior group in a population by a member of the cominast group takes place mutue! distrust 2nd hatred takes place. Tnis acts as a hindrance. 4. Culnral Factor or Acculturation a is a social process. The effor: of assimilation is to od senti ding ment. But sace humza being usually act to cultural satterns, assimilation maylikewise iavolve zot only change ing of jn social zelationship but also a change in ¢ Gisteard fazd) interaction THis ts [a ccullucell process ami is calles aceulturati ‘Acculturation involves a mental modifications of sastoms of cal t culures come im when persons of groups of disti= rach other. place in the situation | ‘acculturation are i ‘cant difference in ¢' sentially in the tural patter: al p development cfmutual lindesstané-az Of : ip i tion- sequaintanessbi’ ™ elon of parties with uiverse cultural : ssimil y On the ther hand & vi changes in culture if he proccss is 0 grou al378 Ov et re gration i the proces: we ythesites be successl in saene modified through ly long continued contac st caltres 376 of ai alte Da vl SocIAt PROCES Os Bibliography Brown, FJ. Sociology. Englewood, CHM, NI. Preatice ait Ine. 14-7 Dartlett, S. F., Ginsterz, M., Lindgren, E. J. (2¢s) T= Sion! «/ raul 2th. Society, Methudolegy and Problerss. Rostledge and Kezs= London, 1956. S Elliot, M. A. acd Mec, F.E. Social Disorgar’ Brothers, New York, 150. Fairchild, H. P.(0d.) Distioners of Seciology. Adzms228 Cart Now Jersey, 1961. Gould, J., and Kolb, W. L.(e4) 4 Dictionary UNESCO, 1964. Gillia, J. L, 2: Company, 1950. Odum, H.W. Une New York, 1947. . Receand C-: Free Press, Glzxcoe.! waukee, 1959. Scanned with CamScannerPRINCIPLES OF SOCIOLOGY 40 coat go make as habits of eating, and the fossiliza Process of socialization in many people, : iin se ways the individual is socialzed or adjusted to the noes Of social life. Thus he learns to co-operate with his ctu yy the sive and take of social intercourse through imita- of following examples provided by those whom he admires sid eee Fejecting behavior patterns of those whom he dislikes, ssimilating idea's suggested by word or action, responding to responsibility pisced upon him by the circumstances of life in con- Rection with those he loves or for whom he feels an obligation, he forms his idests of conduct, habits of life which surrounds him like ano: *. Sociology then, is process of adjustment by the ent t conditions or situations predominantly she society of whieh he is a member of sige CMETIODS APPLIED TO THE STUDY OF PILYSICAL AND SOCIAL Sciences © in an age of science. For over a century a leading elementin westera culture, or way of living and thinking has been science. Taouga there is) much) controversy. concerning the use of the term scsace, it is widely accepted to mean a reasonably sd body of classifies knowledge formulated with the object of discovering general trutts or the operation of general truths er the zeration of general Iaws.tt es our emphasis i on the search for scientific chis is why We have chided the sum total of human > 2 number of areas of Selds and every compartment mts the systematic esllection and study of data in catic human, knowledre, in a some ene of Hse areas, All sy ider abe classified into two major fields—natural or eal seiences and social sciences. Ee 1) seances deal with nature! envi more accura::ly, the phenomena common onment ia which man is piel Me BET pea Mia Aton omy it ee ee en introdattion to the stuly of society. The ape io. ‘Social Sciences, 43. ee ‘New York, 1962 P. 21. Macenlla® NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 4 to all non-living things. According to the Webster's Collegiate Dictionary by the physical sciences are meant “any ef the sciences ich are included under the head of pure physics cr of the allied sciences i.e., chemistry, mincrology, geology, astronory, meteorology etc."45 However physics and chemistry are the fundazeatal physical sciences. The other physical sciences are special composite applications Of these two fundamental sciences. Social science, on the other hand, is the field of Euman know: edge that deals with all the aspects of the grovp Life of man. It is most concerned with those basic elements of culture which determine the ral patterns of human behaviour. Secial sciences as defined by tke New Century Dictionary is the gsczp of sciences concerned with all t82t relates to the social cond s existence and well-being as a member of an of maa or nized com- Macmillan’s Modern Dictionary defines social st which treats of the structure and development ciology, and also any of a group of studies dealing 2:25 me relation to his fellows and his environment, as. pecs economics and histezy. The Columbia Encyclopascia the social sciences 2re meant the sciences treatizz ‘groups.’ According to Selizzan the phenomena related to Zoup estivities are commonly calls? social phenomena and the siences whict classify and ret such activities are the socia! sciences. The social sciences may shus be defined as those mera! of sciences which deal ith the activities of the individval as ofa group. Stun Ciae ve 2s social sciences ons the application of tbe scientific method to the st=¢y of human relations. Thus whether tht social sciences are constrexzé as dealii with human affairs, behaviour relations, actuate, of hum: societies, judgment of value, etc., there seems to be =: 46. Op. cit. PS 47. Gee. W. Social Science Research Method. Appleton Cectary Ci New York, 1950. p.1 "Scanned with CamScannerthat sociat sci ee conee: the activaies of man in relation ches tPF Soups With which he associaties, Pure soci janes Serording to Scligman, are politics, economies, ory. and eideace, anthropology, penology and sociology. Prycholagy and Social psychology are, however, slso included ia the rests Of social sciences. The very progressive character of science as a whole shows that its essence is 0 he sought not on the content of ite specific Conclusions but rather in the method whereby its findings are made and constantly corrected. The term method comes from the Grock meta (with after) and hados (ay). It_means an apt of doi ing with brevity, thero sd sceurity, Accor to the Distionary of Social Sciences, the term methsd inits original and proper usage refers to the systematic study of principles guiding jeatific and phlosophical investigatios. A method is sometimes confused sith atschnique but they are sifferent, there is a clear cet demarcation line between the two. The method of a study applies to the cesses or procedures (Hat isto be followed in the que consists in the mesas wed or mode in which the, whole =ethod of stage of it is t0 be followed. Since the razze of physical sciences and social se methods are employ: to their invest different, phepotiens. : : hod of Experiment : The only :eiable methsd used in tke fe physics, chemists; and so on, is the method at because the physical sciezces introduce anifcial con- fal isslation and thereby exsures the zepieduction ef ‘and the consequent z7oduction of ecitain elects. SSoviously Lived of He idea that wiicte the cite similar things will happen. Webster physical of experi trols, arvizcisl similar condition: ‘This metzod is pis. methot os are similar, roa in ia of Social Science (XX). Toe Mesnillys Company. New 1, Exctomeit York 920.7 2.6 apy of Rakin, Sein Folate, Dae, 6 Cs and Kegan Paul, 1961, Poverty of Mistoriim. Restle 8. Po. Ports pb not forget the di making experiments in the soca! sciezces. That difficulty se: re almost inseparable so lore as ws hold to the old con of human natures? So now it is crystal clear that ardly applicabls to the inve ever there up a tradition of atomistic acd arti2- psychology and to alittle exte: ial experimentation in iocial strial sociology. But > Sociology. “we mst not be lot difference of exact laboratory experiment as applied is the New York 1950, 345. 37. Ibid. P $3 Tbk, 387 (of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1954, P21. Scanned with CamScannerPRINCIPLES OF SOCIOLOG: Hh : me gee ite S the methods of social sciences are conesrned. With the denen method for the. study of social phenomena, ery ment of social sciences, many methods have —— with the multitudes of social problems, Here let ‘Pt tO describe only the important me ; ethods. Historia Method: Many social ally unique phenomena. In order to ial scientist must be sh: 2s adowed by th hod. They must rel The use of histosis developments are essen” grasp their significance, the 1¢ umbrella of the t is not a static organization: ‘an organism contizually growing through dynamic changes. Socio- logises in particul in 2 social vacuum: every ed to the belief that nething happens hss an antecedent history, a zaturat development which tends to exert influence on the present. This is why social scieatists are no longer inclined to push the problem of the time into the background. This method is helpful to the sciences because it ex2 calls for 2 study of events, pro- cess and institutions of past civilizstions, for the purpose of nding the origins or antecedents of coz:emporary social life ard thus understanding its aature. In this context let me quots, 2s advanced by Charles V. Lanzioiis 2nd Czarles Seignobos, who advocated the applicabil of historical metzod in the incerzretation of social! plencmenon. cps direct observation of sociel phenomena ina state of rest is not a sufisient ‘xadation; it eves neither the req mer accuracy. There must oe added a study of the evelopment mevthese pheonomens in time, tha: is im history." eee oes Korie. Aor ant S et The 1p. Yarns: and Noble, Hoc, New York, 1956, 0 NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY 47 But historical method is not an. unmixed blessings. Nevertheless it is possible for this method to lead to scientific knowledge. Many social scientists as well as’ anthropologists like August Comte, H. Spencer, Hobhouse, Westermark, Max Weber and Mill, applied the historical method in their interpretation and investigation of social phénomenoa. 2 Comparative Method : Another reiable method which is widely ‘accepted by the social scientists is the comparative method. The basic jothesis by sysiematic com- a better understanding of the nai altempt to compare one society F discoveriag evolutionary sequences is the developmest of Ezman institutions, that is pattern of develoz Comparative method plays a anthropology in order to show that 53 like biological species, continually series of stages. American exthrop would te unive comparative method, Rowey=:, application, E. A. Freeman claimed 2be: the establi ment comparative method of study had bera the greate: achievercent of our time. He citeé 6 intellectual in the 65. Conca. a Introduction to Logic ext Scientific Metho?. Georg: Rou ledge and Sons, Landon, 1947. P. 344. Scanned with CamScannerPRINCIPLES OV Soctor study of language and went on to sho it i Ww how * we pea institutions.&7 fe dificuttics op nee BSS also some drawkecks. One of the prime in a compete: (matted is that the dats may not be alae is ap-thiversally pacar Inspite of some diiclties this mothed Fe Cay SeePed method of socal sie. Social scicwee nay, Method + 1 is another imporant method of is method is employed in studying a condition, ory, Sommuzity, institution of individual. Underlying it is the contention that any case being studied in representative of many if not all similar cases, and hence will make generalizations possible. The with al] its mystery to put share

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