Automata Theory and Computability ( 18CS54) Modulc I

Global Academy of Technology

RR Nagar. - 560098
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
NAAC (P
(Accredited by NBA 2019-2022)

V Semester
Automata Theory and Computability (17CS54)
[As per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) Scheme]

MODULE - 1
Introduction to Computation

Today's programmers cannot read the code that was written 50 years back. The programmers of
early days would not imagine a program of the form we have today. The theory that we study
addresses the properties and useful in 2 different ways.
1. It provides a set of abstract structure for solving certain class of problems and implantable
on whatever hardware or software platform available.
2. It defines provable limits to what can be implemented regardless of processor speed and
size.

Hierarchy of language classes

SD Languages

D Languages

Context-Free
La es
Regular
Languages

FSMs

PDAs

Turing Machines

By VML, SSM, Dept. ofCSE, GAT

Automata Theory and Computability ( 18CS54) Module I

l. Regular languages: They are accepted by some Finite State Machines. They are used in
string processing.
2. Context-Free Languages: They are accepted by Push Down Automata (PDA). They are used
in compilers for parsing.
3. Decidable (D) Languages: They can be decided by some Turing Machine that always halts.
4. Semidecidable (SD) Languages: They can be decided by some Turing Machine that halts on
all strings in the language.
5. Turing Machines: It is used in Machine Learning, Software Engineering, Computer
Networks.
6. Push Down Automata: They are FSM with some memory called stack. It is used in compiler
design(parser design for syntactic analysis).

Finite Automata

It is a mathematicalmodel which is used to study the abstract machines or abstract

computing devices with the inputs chosen from E.
Abstract Machine is aConceptualor theoreticalmodel of a computer HardwareOR
Software system which really does not exist.
E is a set of alphabets (Ex : a,b,0,l etc) using which any string can be obtained (Ex : 00100,
aababb)
On reading the string, the machine may accept the string or reject the string.

Types of Abstract Machines

I. Finite Automata
2. Linear Bounded Automata
3. Push Down Automata
4. Turing Machine

t h e n
start t &they; then

thi this

Applications of FA

1. Traffic Lights (counter, timer, LED)

2. Vending Machines
3. Elevators
4. Speech Recognition
5. Compiler Construction
6. String matching

By VML, SSM, Dept.ofCSE, GAT

Automata Theory and Computability ( 18CS54) Module I

7. String processing
8. Software Design (in communication protocols in computer networks)

Compiler Construction
FA is used in the design of Lexical analyzer (first phase ol' compiler design) which breaks thc input
text into various units such as identifiers, keywords, punctuators ctc.
Sum • numi • num2 . acyept xcept
Identlfier o Identlfier
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for-keyword
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String matching
In designing a software for identifying the words, phrases and other patterns in web pages.

surt n n-tound I—found c c found

n not i not not e

•fSErior Success

Symbols used in Finite Automata

A circle is used to represent a state.Here, q is a state of the machine.

A circle with -+ which is not originating from any node represents start state
of the machine.

A double circle is used to representthe final state or accepting

state.

There is a transition (change of state) from state q on input

q, symbol I to state q .Representation :ö(q , l) = q

By VML, SSM, Dept. ofCSE, GAT

Automata Theory and Computability ( 13CS54) Module I

The machine is in state q , on reading 0, remains in the same state q

Representation :ö(q ,0) = q

The machine is in state q , on reading 0 OR l, enters into state q

Representation ö(q ,0) q
ö(q,l)=q

Terms used in Automata

1. Alphabet (E) :
A language consists of various symbols from which the words, statements etc. can be obtained.
These symbols are called as alphabets. An alphabet is a finite non-empty set of symbols. It is
denoted by E.
Examples :
E = {0, 1} Binary alphabets
z} -+ Set of lower case letters
= ßb,....z, A, B, ...Z, O, 1 9, #, (, {, }, [, l, ..... } —Alphabets of C Language

2. Power of an alphabet
It is denoted by El. It is the set of words of length I taken from E.
Example:
If: = {0, 1} then
= {E}denotes set of words of length 0
El = {0, 1} denotes set of words of length I
2 2 = {00, 01, 10, 11} denotes set of words of length 2

3. String (w) :
the alphabets of a language.
A string is a finite sequence of symbols obtained from
alphabet E. It is denoted by w.
It is defined as a finite sequence of symbols from the
Empty string :denoted by e (epsilon)
Example:
Let E= {0,1} is a set of alphabets.
Different strings

Notations:
E is for empty string
Ex : w=100101
Lowercase letters such as u,v,w,x,y,z are normally used to indicate strings.

By VML, SSM, Dept. ofCSE, GAT

 Automata Theory and
Computability ( I 'CS54)
Module I

Functions of strings
1. Length of a string
:
It is the number of
symbols in the string w and denoted
Examples: by lwl.
'001 110' is a string
from the alphabets {0, I} has length 6.
{a, b} and S = 'aabbabbba'
then ISI= 9.
The length of an empty
string—O.

2. Concatenation of two
strings :
Concatenation of two strings u and v is
the string obtained by appending symbols of v to the right
of u.
Example:
u=abc, v=def
uv=abcdef

3. Reversal of a string :
It is obtained by writing the symbols in reverse order.
Example : ifw=abc, then w —cba.

Relations on strings

1. Substring :
A string s is a substring oft ifs occurs contiguously as a part oft.
Example :aaa is a substring of abaaabbaa
A substring s is a proper substring of a string t ifs is a substring oft and s#t.

2. Prefix:
A string s is a prefix oft is xeE* (t=sx).
Example : the prefix ofabba are e, a, ab, abb, abba

3. Suffix:
A string s is a suffix oft is xeE* (t=xs).
Example : the suffix of abba are E, a, ba, ba, abba

4. Language :
A language is a subset of E* denoted by LCE*
Examples:
I. A languageof strings consisting of equal number of O'Sand I's

2. A languageof strings consisting of n no. of O'Sfollowed by n no. of I 's

L = {e, 01, 0011,000111,..)
3. A language containing empty string is denoted by { e }
4. An empty language L={ ) or

By VML, SSM, Dept. ofCSE, GAT

pg. 5
Automata Theory and Computability ( 18CS54) Module I

5. Cardinality of a language :
It defines size of the language. The smallest language over any alphabet is (t)whose cardinality is O.
The largest language over any alphabet of is E*.

Functions of language

Since languages are sets, all standard operations are well defined on languages.

1. Union :

Ll = { e, aa, abbaaa, baaaaaabbb

L2 = { a, aa, aaa, aaaa
Lle L2 = { e, a, aa, aaa,abbaaa, baaaaaabbb.

2. Intersection :
Ll L2 = { aa, aaaa

3. Complement :
Ll —L2= {E,aa, aaaa, .... }
L2—Ll = { a, aaa, aaaaa, }

4. Concatenation :
Let Ll and L2 be two languages defined over the alphabets E.
Ll.L2 = { weE* I seLl, teL2 then w=st}

Example :
Ll = {chair, table, desk}
L2 = {book, paper}
LIL2 = {chairbook, tablebook, deskbook, chairpaper, tablepaper, deskpaper}

5. Kleen'sstar :
Let L be a Language defined over some alphabet E. The Kleen's star L* is the set of strings that can
be formed by concatenating to gather zero or more strings from L.
Example :
L={dog, cat, fish}
L* = {E,dog, cat, fish, catdog, catfish, fishcafish

6. Sentence :
A string that belongs to a language is called word or sentence of that language.
If L = {e, }, then 01 is a sentence, 0011 is a sentence etc.

By VML, SSM, Dept. ofCSE, GAT

Automata Theory and Computability ( 13CS54)
Module I

Finite State Machine (FSM)

FSM is a computational device whose input is a set of strings
and output is one of the two values —
accept or reject.lfM is an FSM, an input string is fed to M —onc
character at a time. left to right.
Each time it receives a character. M considers it currcnt state and ncw character. and then chooses
the next state. One or more states of M can bc marked as accepting states.
If M runs out of input and is in an accepting state, it accepts. If M runs out of input and is not in an
accepting state, it rejects.
Example : push

Figure shows FSM for the switch which consists of 2 states —

off on on and off states.
Arcs between the states are labelled by inputs —push.
push

The two types of FSM are

1. Deterministic FSM (DFSM)
2. Non-deterministic FSM (NDFSM)

Deterministic Finite State Machine (DFSM)

In DFSM, there is always exactly one move that can be made at each state. This move is determined
by the current state and next input character. Example : A telephone switching circuit can be easily
modelied as DFSM.
Formally, a DFSM —M is a quintuple (K, E, 6, S, A) where
K = Finite no. of states
E = input alphabets
SEK = Start state
ACK = Set of Accepting/Final states
= transition function
x to K
(current state) (input symbol) (next state)

The transition function 6 defines an operation of DFSM. We will define the relation "yields-in-one-
step" written as l- M
yields-in-one-step" relates configurationl to configuration2if M can move from configuration I to
configuration2 in one step.

By VML, SSM, Dept. ofCSE, GAT

 Automata Theory and Computability ( lSCS54) Module I

Designing DFSM

Steps :
l. Identify the minimum string.
2. Identify the alphabets.
3. Construct a skeleton DFSM.
4. Identify other transitions not defined in step 3.
5. Complete the DFSM.

Questions
(1) Draw a DFSM to accept string of a's having atleast one a.

Solution:
l. Min. string = a
2. Input alphabets E = {a}
3. Draw skeleton DFSM

a
start
4. Identify transitions not defined in step 3.
qoon a
(lion a
5. Complete the DFSM.

a
a

Transition table
K = { qo, q}
a

By VML, SSM, Dept. ofCSE, GAT

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