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Dokuchaev’s Soil Map of European Russia of 1900 as a source of information for

agroecological evaluation of the lands in the central gubernias (Historical
aspect)

Article  in  Moscow University Soil Science Bulletin · April 2015

DOI: 10.3103/S0147687415020039

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ISSN 01476874, Moscow University Soil Science Bulletin, 2015, Vol. 70, No. 2, pp. 41–49. © Allerton Press, Inc., 2015.
Original Russian Text © V.A. Kirillova, I.O. Alyabina, 2015, published in Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta. Pochvovedenie, 2015, No. 2, pp. 13–21.

GENESIS AND GEOGRAPHY

OF SOILS

Dokuchaev’s Soil Map of European Russia of 1900

as a Source of Information for Agroecological Evaluation
of the Lands in the Central Gubernias (Historical Aspect)
V. A. Kirillova and I. O. Alyabina
Faculty of Soil Science, Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991 Russia
emails: fekdastar@mail.ru, alyabina@soil.msu.ru
Received February 11, 2015

Abstract—Information about significant soil agroecological parameters is extracted from the Soil Map of
European Russia of 1900. Quantitative cartographic evaluations of natural soil fertility, fixing nutrients, and
ease of soil cultivation are obtained using GIS. These data are used in interdisciplinary studies (history and
soil science) to identify the role of the soil cover in the economic development of the central gubernias of
European Russia in the 18th century by carrying out a comparison with socioeconomic parameters from a set
of General Land Survey materials.

Keywords: land use, soil quality, historical sources, geoinformation systems

DOI: 10.3103/S0147687415020039

INTRODUCTION which they serve as the basis for historical research.

Both the natural sciences and humanities are
touched by current active processes of interdiscipli
nary integration and informatization of studies. The
generation of a new information environment of his
torical science is largely determined by accessibility to
data sources, as well as by the advent of new methods
of extraction of information from them. Thus, for
example, modern digital forecasting soil mapping is
based on a hypothesis formulated by V.V. Dokuchaev
as early as 1886 [17].
Changes have taken place not only in research
methods and technologies, which undoubtedly influ
ence the methods of information fixation, preserva
tion, and transmission, but also in the very conception
of the subject matter, objectives, and opportunities for
historical works [8].
The field of historical informatics, which deals with
study of the spatial regularities of historical processes
and phenomena, attracts the attention of both histori
ans and natural scientists who trace the changeability
of their subject in time. The use of historical maps sup
plements the source data of any study to a great extent,
and, in some cases, computer capabilities allow one to
use this type of source material in a primary role and
take cartographic materials as the basis for largescale
scientific projects. These works are of particular inter
est when the cartographic material covers several time
samples [27].
However, studies involving the use of geoinforma
tion systems (GIS) are not yet so popular in Russian
historiography. There is only one series of works in
These are the works of N.V. Piotukh, in which, based
on cadasters and General Land Survey materials, GIS
are used to study the economic activity of the Russian
peasantry in the 17th and 18th centuries [11, 12].
We may distinguish some publications by Russian
and foreign historians which consider different aspects
of using GIS in historical studies and practically do
not address the general problems and methodology of
application [1, 5, 6, 9, 13].
In foreign countries, works discussing the use of
GIS in historical studies began to appear in the late
1980s and 1990s [19, 29, 34, 37, 39, 42]. In subsequent
years, the range of GIS application in this area contin
ued to expand [20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 30–32, 35, 36, 38,
40, 41]. In Western Europe, North America, and Aus
tralia, powerful systems of cartographic historical data
have already been created or are being created and
projects associated both with the history of individual
regions and countries and with the history of entire
continents are being implemented. There are systems
of computer historical maps and geoinformation sys
tems associated with problems of population demog
raphy and migrations, archeology and ethnology, eco
nomic and social history, and politics and culture.
Some of them concern the history of Russia [36].
Over the last decade, the number of historical
works with a GIS component has been steadily grow
ing. According to Knowles [33], the geographic sub
ject matter has always interested historians, who con
sider maps as “living tools” for understanding human
behavior; and geoinformation systems, as a universal

41
42 KIRILLOVA, ALYABINA
tool for the analysis of spatial data, represent a means
for the convergence of geography and history in light
of the current tendency toward the convergence of the
two sciences.
At the same time, while determining the applica
tion of GIS to historical studies as a rapidly growing
area and noting numerous examples of their successful
use for historical needs, specialists indicate that this
field is only at the early stages of development, despite
the abundant software capabilities [22, 25].
The processes of interdisciplinary integration and
informatization of scientific studies largely determine
the relevance of the given subject. These processes per
tain to both the natural sciences and humanities.
The stage of narrow specialization for the accumula
tion of knowledge is giving way to the modern systemic
approach.
The objective of the current study is to quantita
tively evaluate the agroecological land characteristics
using GIS methods based on the Summary Soil Map
of European Russia of 1900 [16]. This is of interest for
the determination of the role of the soil cover in eco
nomic development (particularly agricultural develop
ment) of the central regions of European Russia in the
18th century in the course of further comparison of the
results of the cartographic evaluation of lands with
socioeconomic parameters [7, 28]. The map compiled
by N.M. Sibirtsev, G.I. Tanfil’ev, and A.R. Ferkhmin
under the editorship of Dokuchaev is the most suitable
for this work, since it was the first soil map based on
field soil cartographic studies, which were initiated in
Nizhegorodskaya gubernia and progressed to more
than twenty other gubernias of Central Russia.
The evaluation of the soils of Nizhegorodskaya
gubernia made by Dokuchaev and his followers in
1882–1887 was the first experience of such a scale and
nature, having no parallel either in Russia or abroad,
and was focused on studying the relationship between
the soils and the environment. The necessity to con
duct this kind of research was due to the rapid devel
opment the capitalist system in agriculture after the
reforms of 1861, when land became an item of pur
chase and sale, loan, lease, and other operations. Such
operations required the objective evaluation of agri
cultural lands, and the municipality ordered the devel
opment of a scientific method to determine the value
of soils. Dokuchaev’s works in Nizhegorodskaya
gubernia provided us with a new genetic principle of
distinguishing soil units, which Dokuchaev called
types of soils; this principle is suitable for all climates
and areas of the vast Russian state. Using the ideas of
Dokuchaev’s genetic soil science, soil cartography
acquired a high economic value and became the basis
for the inventory of the main productive capacity [3].
There was no uniform and universal classification
of the soils of Russia before the studies conducted in
Nizhegorodskaya gubernia in Russia; in his works,
Dokuchaev paid much attention to the period of prep
aration for creating such a classification and proposed
MOSCOW UNIVERSITY SOIL SCIENCE BULLETIN
to elucidate three key aspects for its characterization:
defining the concept of “soil”; identification of the
main types of genesis of soils; and indication of the
main, i.e., most essential, qualities of soil. Dokuchaev
proposed his first classification in 1886. Its underlying
idea is as follows: soil is considered as a function of the
parent materials. In this classification, according to
the presence of primary genetic traits, he distinguished
three main soil groups: normal soils, transitional soils,
and abnormal soils. Further, these groups were divided
into classes by degree of the soil’s relationship with the
parent material, i.e., with respect to mode of origin.
Thus, there were three classes distinguished in the
group of normal soil: plantground soils, landbog
soils, and bog soils. These classes were divided accord
ing to climatic zones (type of humus) and granulomet
ric composition.
During the period from 1886 to 1900, Dokuchaev
published four editions of his classifications; however,
the basic idea remained the same: changes were made
only in the grouping of elements. The successor of
Dokuchaev’s concept was his closest associate Sibirt
sev. It is his classification that underlay the Summary
Soil Map of European Russia. Its main idea was the
division of soils according to the geographical princi
ple, i.e., identification of zonal, intrazonal, and azonal
soils. Their further division into genetic types is based
on the nature of the dynamic processes of soil forma
tion (chernozem formation, podzol formation, etc.).
Intrazonal soils are understood as soils that are
patched inside zonal soils due to a very strong impact
of local factors. These are solonetzes, rendzina soils,
muddybog soils, etc. The classification considers in
detail the internal properties of soil such as the nature
of the organic component of soil and the mechanical
composition [2]. These are the parameters that were
used in the agroecological evaluation of lands, since
their characteristic occurs in almost all descriptions of
soil types, as well as in the map legend.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The Summary Soil Map of European Russia with a
scale of 60 versts per inch (1 : 2520000) was digitized
[7]. The works were conducted with the MapInfo Pro
fessional v.10.5 software.
The main sources of information were the map leg
end; the collected works of Dokuchaev, in particular
the Nizhny Novgorod works [3, 4]; works by Sibirtsev
on soil classification [14, 15]; and the Map of Parent
Rocks of the European Part of the Soviet Union
(1 : 4000000) of 1968 by Chizhikov [18] to specify the
granulometric composition.
Any soil map can be a source of different informa
tion: both characteristics included in it in explicit form
and parameters inferred from other characteristics by
calculation or expertise. The detailed study of the map
legend and the descriptive text, as well as the study of
the peculiarities of classification used in creating the
Vol. 70 No. 2 2015
 DOKUCHAEV’S SOIL MAP OF EUROPEAN RUSSIA OF 1900 43

Table 1. Ranking of data on content in of the organic compo the organic component of soil found in the maps and
nent of soil literature review were converted into 6 gradations
(Table 1) and the 9 values for granulometric composi
Information from maps Identified Natural
and literature review gradations fertility
tion found in the original sources were condensed into
6 gradations (Table 2).
content of the soil organic component, % points Based on the information concerning content, a
1.5–1.8 point evaluation was obtained for natural soil fertility.
Based on the data on granulometric composition,
1.5–2 1.5–2 1–2 qualimetric point evaluations of soil were obtained
1.5–3 2–3 2–3 with respect to ease of cultivation and degree of fixing
Approximately 2 3–5 3–4 nutrients (artificial soil fertility). The points assigned
2–3 4–6 3–4 to each of the soils are expert evaluations based on
information on the soil obtained from studying the
2–3.5 6–10 5 descriptions of soil types in the materials for the eval
3–4 to 5 uation of the lands of Nizhegorodskaya gubernia
3–5 [7, 28].
3–5 to 10
4–6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5 According to the results of the information col
6–10 lected, the lands of the whole territory were classified
10 into the following groups: soils; solonetzes; alluvial
soils; and nonsoil formations, i.e., opentextured
loose sands, salt muds, khaki, raw soils, or wash soils
map, make it possible to identify several strata of (Fig. 1). Solonetzes and alluvial soils are identified as
attributive information. a separate group due to the wide variety of data and the
From the data on the soil cover of European Russia impossibility to generalize them. These groups and
which were contained in the map used and in the land nonsoil formations are not considered further.
evaluation materials, the agronomically significant As a result, according to the legend of the Soil map
parameters were selected: the granulometric composi European Russia, the following list of soils under study
tion and content of the organic component of soil. was obtained: lightbrown1 (red) loams; lightbrown
Attention to these properties of soil is due not only to (red) sandy loams (Calcisols)2; chestnut loams (Kash
their obvious significance for agricultural use, but also tanozems); chocolate chernozem; fertile chernozem;
due to their accessibility for research. Information on common chernozem; weakly sandyloam chernozem;
these parameters is given in most of the historical chernozem sandy loam (Chernozems); darkgrey for
materials under study.
1 Here
The heterogeneous textual and numerical descrip and elsewhere, the spelling of the map legend of 1900 is
tions of indicators, which characterize almost all types used.
2 The
analogs taken from the WRB are conventional, since the
of soils, were reduced to several single gradations classification used in creating the Soil Map of 1900 is one of the
which, in turn, were ranked with respect to agroeco first versions of the genetic soil classification, which was being
logical properties. Thus, the 14 values for content of developed at that time.

Table 2. Ranking of data on granulometric composition

Information from maps
and literature review
Loam
Loamy and clayey
Loamy
Loamysandy loam
Sandy loam
Clayey
Loam and loamysandy loam
Sandy loam and clay sand
Loose sand
Fixing
Identified gradations Ease of cultivation, points
nutrients, points
Clayey 1 6
Loamy and clayey 2 5
Loamy 3 3–4
Lightloamy 3–4 1; 3
Sandyloamy 6 2
Loose sand 5 2

MOSCOW UNIVERSITY SOIL SCIENCE BULLETIN Vol. 70 No. 2 2015

44 KIRILLOVA, ALYABINA

1 2 3 4

Fig. 1. Land groups: 1—soils; 2—solonetzes; 3—alluvial soils; 4—nonsoil formations.

eststeppe loams (degraded chernozem); grey forest
loams (Phaeozems); soddy and lowpodzolic loams on
the loess; soddy and podzolic clay soils on heavy and
partly marl clays; soddy and podzolic loams on boul
der and other sandy clays; soddy and podzolic sandy
loams and clay sands (Albeluvisols); podzols (plovkas,
podnoras, and ludas) (Podzols); humic soils on calcar
eous rocks (rendzinas) (Leptosols); sandy soils (Areno
sols).
Based on the study of the detailed information on
each soil, all the soil varieties marked in the map were
characterized with respect to the chosen agroecologi
cal parameters.
The materials concerning land evaluation include a
large volume of data on the chemical and physical
analyses of soils. Thus, 300 definitions of content of
the organic component of soil, 35 analyses of mechan
ical composition, 25 analyses of absorbing capacity,
and 175 analyses of physical properties (specific
weight, absolute weight, density, capillarity, moisture
capacity, etc.) were made within the framework of the
Nizhny Novgorod expedition. K.D. Schmidt was
appointed responsible for carrying out chemical soil
analyses; the analyses of the physical properties were
carried out under the supervision of V.M. Yakovlev.
Content of the organic component of soil. This is
one of the key factors of the productivity of agricul
tural lands. In our work, information on content of the
organic component of soil was collected to evaluate
the natural fertility of soils: they were assigned points
depending on type. The final evaluation with respect
to this indicator is given in Table 3 and Fig. 2. On the
generated map, the chernozem zone and the chestnut
soils of the southern dry steppes, as well as the soddy
and podzolic soils with a heavy granulometric compo
sition in more northern latitudes, are distinguished
most significantly.
Granulometric composition. Among the many fac
tors of productivity of agricultural lands, granulomet
ric composition is of great importance, since it deter
mines to a considerable extent the chemical composi
tion; physical, physicochemical, biological, and other
properties of soils; soil regimes; and the intensity and
direction of soil processes.
The analysis of “Materials for Land Evaluation”
showed that the economic factor played a significant
role in the use of land, i.e., the cost of land cultivation,
which depended largely on the ease of cultivation.
In his agriculture manual, renowned agronomist
and agrochemist and Moscow University professor
N.E. Lyaskovskii pays special attention to the issue of
soil cultivation [10]. He notes that, for successful
growth, crop plants require soil that is loosened to a
certain extent. This loosening is achieved through
mechanical soil cultivation using different imple
ments. The manual presents a detailed review of such
implements.
Hand tools used for tilling include gavelocks, mat
tocks, and pickers; horsedrawn tools included
sokhas, inclined arches, and plows. The most wide
spread plowing tool in Great Russia was the sokha.
However, this is a very imperfect implement, which is
not appropriate for heavy and matted soils, and its
handling requires significant efforts and skills from the
plowman; even on loose soils, it is not possible to plow
deeply using a sokha (no deeper than 14 cm). Its
advantages are low cost and light weight: only one
small peasant horse is needed, while a plow requires a

MOSCOW UNIVERSITY SOIL SCIENCE BULLETIN Vol. 70 No. 2 2015

 DOKUCHAEV’S SOIL MAP OF EUROPEAN RUSSIA OF 1900 45

pair of quite big horses or oxen, and, in the case of Table 3. Evaluation of soils by natural fertility
heavy soils, up to three pairs of oxen.
Soil type Point
The inclined arch is a transition from the sokha to
the plow. It turns over the soil better than the sokha Lightbrown (red) loams 2
does and is also suitable for developing matted areas; Lightbrown (red) sandy loams 2
however, it is unstable while in motion and requires Chestnut loams 4
some handling skills. The inclined arch was used
mainly in some northeastern gubernias (Yaroslavskaya Chocolate chernozem 4
gubernia, Kostromskaya gubernia, and Vyatskaya Fertile chernozem 5
gubernia). The plow has several varieties of design Common chernozem 5
depending on the features of the soil: the plow with Low sandyloam chernozem 4
forecarriage, the semiperched plow, and the plow
without forecarriage. The latter is fast in motion, but Chernozem sandy loam 3
requires a skillful plowmen; it is inconvenient for Darkgrey foreststeppe loams (degraded cher 3
irregular areas and in those places where plowmen are nozem)
accustomed to plows with a forecarriage (steppe ter Grey forest loams 3
rain). The semiperched plow represents a transitional Soddy and low podzolic loams on the loess 2
step from the plow with forecarriage to the plow with Soddy and podzolic clay soils on heavy and partly 3
out forecarriage. When soil is developed with a plow, marl clays
blocks of soil are tilted so that the lower side faces
Soddy and podzolic loams on boulder and other 1
upward. The smaller and wider the slices plowed, the sandy clays
more complete is the turnover of the soil [10].
Soddy and podzolic sandy loams and clay sands 2
Along with the ease of cultivation, the granulomet
ric composition also determines the degree of fixing Podzols (plovkas, podnoras, and ludas) 1
nutrients supplied together with fertilizers, which Humic soils on calcareous rocks (rendzinas) 4
depends, in turn, on the absorption capacity of soils. Sandy soils 2
When soils are watered with solutions that contain
potassium, ammonia, or phosphoric acid, they always
retain a portion of the dissolved substance. This capac capacity only to a low extent, which explains why it is
ity, inherent to soils, is called absorbing capacity and is not useful to provide these soils with large quantities of
of greatest importance for farmers. Clay soils have the fertilizers at one time, since they are not retained in
highest absorbing capacity, while sandy soils have this the soil but are washed from it [3].

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Fig. 2. Evaluation of natural soil fertility: 1—low; 2—below average; 3—average; 4—above average; 5—high; 6—no informa
tion; 7—nonsoil formations, solonetzes, alluvial soils.

MOSCOW UNIVERSITY SOIL SCIENCE BULLETIN Vol. 70 No. 2 2015

46 KIRILLOVA, ALYABINA
Table 4. Evaluation of soils with respect to the ease of cultivation and the degree of fixing nutrients
Soil type
Lightbrown (red) loams
Lightbrown (red) sandy loams
Chestnut loams
Chocolate chernozem
Fertile chernozem
Common chernozem
Low sandyloam chernozem
Chernozem sandy loam
Darkgrey foreststeppe loams (degraded chernozem)
Grey forest loams
Soddy and low podzolic loams on the loess
Soddy and podzolic clay soils on heavy and partly marl clays
Soddy and podzolic loams on boulder and other sandy clays
Soddy and podzolic sandy loams and clay sands
Podzols (plovkas, podnoras, and ludas)
Humic soils on calcareous rocks
Sandy soils
Lyaskovskii’s manual also gives a comprehensive
and detailed review of all existing fertilizers. They were
classified into two types: complete fertilizers, which
contain all substances necessary for plant develop
ment, and simple fertilizers, which include only one or
a few such nutrient substances. In many cases, com
plete fertilizers also improved the physical properties
of soil and contributed to the absorption of nutrients
by plants. Complete fertilizers include manure, liquid
manure, human waste, and compost.
The amount of fertilizers used depends on many
factors, among which the most important are soil
quality and the demands of the cultivated plants.
For loose and hot soils it is better to use less fertilizer
at a time, but apply it more often. The common fertil
izer effect is observable within two–three years.
Light fertilizers include bird waste, phosphorous
acid and potassium fertilizers, and byproducts from
manufacturing operations (ash).
Another type identified was indirect fertilizers, i.e.,
substances that do not provide soil with nutrients at all
or do this in small quantities, but work by making
available the nutrients contained in the soil for plant
roots. This group includes green fertilizer, lime, marl,
and gypsum [10].
Based on the studied literary materials and infor
mation on the system of soil cultivation and fertilizer
application, all soil types were ranked by the degree of
ease of cultivation and the degree of fixing nutrients
(Table 4, Figs. 3 and 4). According to the conducted
MOSCOW UNIVERSITY SOIL SCIENCE BULLETIN
Ease of cultivation, points Fixing nutrients, points
3 4
6 2
3 4
2 5
2 5
3 3
4 3
6 2
3 4
3 4
3 4
2 6
4 3
6 2
3 1
3 4
5 2
ranking, the identified gradations acquired ratings with
respect to the studied characteristics (see Table 2).
The map shows the ratings of ease of land cultiva
tion; on the one hand, the ease of cultivation depends
on the granulometric composition: the lighter the soil
composition, the less effort required and the lower the
cost for its cultivation. On the other hand, soils with a
very light granulometric composition also have their
disadvantages [3], which is reflected in the point eval
uation. Thus, loose sand takes first place in the grada
tion according to the granulometric composition, but
is not first in the ranking.
The evaluation map for fixing nutrients is also
based on the dependence of the degree of nutrient fix
ation on the granulometric composition: the heavier
the granulometric composition, the better the nutri
ents are fixed. In his work, Dokuchaev notes that
sandy soils are more sensitive to new fertilizer and
yield a more significant growth in production in the
first years, while loamy soils do not respond to fertil
izer application so sharply, but provide the longest
period of using the applied fertilizer (manure) [3].
However, this peculiarity was not reflected in the point
rankings of sandy soils during, since in most cases
sandy soils were considered to be insensitive to fertiliz
ers for practical purposes, and it was not economically
profitable to fertilize them.
Vol. 70 No. 2 2015
 DOKUCHAEV’S SOIL MAP OF EUROPEAN RUSSIA OF 1900 47

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Fig. 3. Evaluation of the ease of land cultivation: 1—difficult; 2—above average; 3—average; 4—below average; 5—easy; 6—
very easy; 7—nonsoil formations, solonetzes, alluvial soils.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Fig. 4. Evaluation of the degree of fixing nutrients: 1—very low; 2—low; 3—below average; 4—average; 5—above average; 6—
high; 7—nonsoil formations, solonetzes, alluvial soils.

CONCLUSIONS tion capacity of the source. The heterogeneous textual

The digitalizing of the Soil Map of European Rus and numerical descriptions of the agronomically sig
sia of 1900 and the application of GIS methods have nificant parameters of soil types (granulometric com
made it possible to significantly increase the informa position and content of the organic component of soil)

MOSCOW UNIVERSITY SOIL SCIENCE BULLETIN Vol. 70 No. 2 2015

48 KIRILLOVA, ALYABINA
are reduced to several single gradations and are further
ranked by a number of properties. As a result, quanti
tative ratings of the agroecological quality of the lands
of the central gubernias have been determined, includ
ing natural soil fertility, fixing nutrients (artificial fer
tility), and ease of cultivation.
The obtained cartographic evaluation of the lands
of the central gubernias is used in the course of inter
disciplinary studies (history and soil science) to iden
tify the role of soil cover in the economic development
of the central gubernias of European Russia in the 18th
century. The socioeconomic data which are required
for comparison include a set of materials on the Gen
eral Land Survey, the major measure initiated in 1765
by the government of Catherine the Great, as a result
of which a great number of maps were created, a
detailed territorial description was made, and popula
tion and land use data were obtained.
This historical period is associated with the eco
nomic and demographic expansion of Russian society,
which found expression in the active settlement and
economic development of the vast areas of Northern
Eurasia. And since the great majority of the population
was engaged in agriculture, the possibilities and limits
of the territorial development were substantially deter
mined by the availability of land resources and the
quality of soils.
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Translated by D. Zabolotny
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