MOISTURE CONTENT

➢ Moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a

material, such as soil (called soil moisture), rock, ceramics,

fruit, or wood. Water content is used in a wide range of

scientific and technical areas, and is expressed as a ratio,

which can range from 0 (completely dry) to the value of the

materials' porosity at saturation. It can be given on a

volumetric or mass (gravimetric) basis.

➢ The amount of free moisture present in any material is

dependant upon its chemical & physical properties

Ways of Expressing Moisture Content

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

% 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = × 100%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

% 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + % 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 100%

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠

Humidity

➢ Humidity measurement is an important tool for predicting the

climate outdoors as well as controlling the climate indoors.

➢ Humidity control is especially important in living, storage, and

manufacturing sites.
Definition

➢ Scientifically stated, humidity is the measure of water vapor

present in a gas.

➢ Vapor is a term that refers to the gaseous form of a substance

that normally exists as a solid or liquid.

➢ When liquid exists as a gas, it exerts pressure on its

surroundings.

➢ This pressure determines the amount of vapor in the air at a

given temperature.

➢ This value, known as vapor pressure, varies with temperature

and pressure, as well as from substance to substance.

Water, for example, has a high vapor pressure at temperatures near

boiling (at the boiling point the vapor pressure = the atmospheric

pressure).

➢ A low vapor pressure at temperatures below freezing (all

solids generally have low vapor pressures; if they did not, they

would evaporate).

➢ The vapor pressure rises as pressure decreases, which

explains why water boils at a lower temperature in higher

altitudes (low pressure).

Absolute humidity is a measure of the mass of the water vapor

present in a specified volume. Because the mass of water vapor is

difficult to measure, a more common measurement called relative

humidity is used.

Relative humidity (RH) is the percentage of the amount of water

that the air can hold at a given temperature.

Relative humidity (RH) is the percentage of the amount of water

that the air can hold at a given temperature. The following equation

calculates the percent relative humidity.

𝑃𝑎
% 𝑅𝐻 = × 100
𝑃𝑠

Where:

Pa = actual pressure

Ps = saturated pressure

Relative Humidity is temperature dependent. At 100% RH, the actual

pressure of the water vapor is equal to the saturation pressure. The

temperature where this exists is called the dew point.

Any cooling below the dew point causes water to condense. If the

atmosphere stabilizes at a constant humidity during the day, the

falling temperatures at night may go below the dew point causing

the vapor to condense.

The condensing vapor creates the phenomenon commonly known

as dew. A crucial fact to note is that it is only necessary for the

sensor to obtain one measurement, absolute humidity, RH, or dew

point, because the other two can be calculated using the ambient

temperature, graphs or equations.

Sensing Methods

In general, obtaining a measure of humidity is not an easy task.

Many of the instruments have poor accuracy, narrow bandwidth,

contamination problems, and hysteresis. Some of the instruments

are large, awkward, and expensive pieces of equipment. To

compound the problem there are few highly accurate devices for

humidity generation and measurement, needed for use in sensor

calibration.

Psychrometric Method

➢ The oldest method for measuring relative humidity is the

psychrometric method. Psychrometry is commonly known as

the “wet” and “dry” bulb method.

➢ A psychrometric sensor does not directly sense humidity, but

rather it senses temperature to indirectly find relative

humidity.

➢ The sensing elements can be thermometers, RTD’s, or

 thermistors.

➢ The first sensing element, the dry bulb, measures ambient

temperature.

➢ The second sensing element, the wet bulb, is enclosed in a

wick saturated with distilled water.

➢ Air forced across the wet bulb creates evaporation, which

cools it below ambient temperature.

➢ The amount of evaporation (cooling) is dependent on the

vapor pressure of the air.

Using the wet and dry bulb temperatures, the relative humidity can

be looked up on a psychrometric chart.

➢ Looking up the %RH on a chart for

every measurement is time-

consuming.

➢ With today’s technology,

psychrometric charts and dew point

equations can be stored in a microprocessor, thus making this

a direct sensing method for RH and dew point.

Sling Psychrometer

Sling Psychrometer is used to measure both the dry bulb and wet

bulb temperatures at time.

 ➢ These temperatures are a measure of humidity content in air.

The main parts of the instrument are

➢ The instrument frame which holds the thermometers.

➢ One mercury in glass thermometer whose sensing bulb is bare

to directly contact the air and to measure the temperature

which is called as the dry-bulb temperature.

One mercury in glass thermometer whose sensing bulb is covered

with a cotton or muslin wick made wet with pure water.

This sensing bulb covered with the cotton wick moistened is made

to contact the air and the temperature indicated by this

thermometer is called as the wet bulb- thermometer.

➢ The instrument frame carrying the thermometer is covered by

a glass casing.

➢ A swivel handle is attached to frame-glass casing –

 thermometer arrangement to ensure that the air at the wet

bulb always in immediate contact with the wet wick.

When a thermometer bulb is directly exposed to an air-water

vapour mixture, the temperature indicated by the thermometer is

the dry-bulb temperature.

When a thermometer bulb is covered by a constantly wet wick and

if the bulb covered by the wet wick is exposed to air water vapour

mixture, the temperature indicated by the thermometer is the wet

bulb temperature.

➢ In order to measure the dry bulb and wet bulb temperature,

the Psychrometer frame – glass covering – thermometer

arrangement is rotated at 5 m/s to 10 m/s to get the necessary

air motion.

Note: An important condition is that correct/accurate

measurement of wet bulb temperature is obtained only if air

moves with velocity around the wet wick. In order to get this air

velocity, the Psychrometer is being rotated.

At the same time, the thermometer whose bulb is covered with the

wet wick comes in contact with the air and when this pass on the

wet wick present on the bulb of the thermometer, the moisture

present in the wick starts evaporating and a cooling effect is

produced at bulb.

➢ Now the temperature indicated by the thermometer is the wet

bulb thermometer which will naturally be lesser than the dry

bulb temperature.

Note:

➢ If the Psychrometer is rotated for a short period, then the wet

bulb temperature recorded will not be proper.

➢ If the Psychrometer is rotated for a longer period, the wick will

get dried soon and the wet bulb temperature will not be at its

minimum value.

Application of Sling Psychrometer

➢ It is used for checking humidity level in air- conditioned rooms

and installations.

➢ It is used to set and check hair hygrometer.

➢ It is used in the measurement range of 0 to 100% RH.

➢ It is used for measuring wet bulb temperature between 0’C to

180’C.
Limitation of Sling Psychrometer

➢ The measured medium is disturbed due to the act of

measurement. The evaporation process at the wet bulb will

add moisture to the air.

➢ It cannot be used in automation requirement situations.

➢ It cannot be used for continuous recording purpose.

➢ If the wick is covered with dirt, the wick will become stiff and its

water absorbing capacity will reduce, however, a stiff/dirty

wick will resume normalcy when boiled in hot water.

Dew Point Method

To determine the absolute humidity or partial pressure of the vapor.

A widely used approach to continuously measure the dew point is

based on the temperature of the vapor equilibrium.

It measures the temperature at which a saturated solution of a

hygroscopic salt (lithium chloride) achieves a balance of vapor

with the atmosphere. An electric heating can be used to reach the

temperature of the saline solution, since it is much higher than the

temperature of the pure water.

In terms of the structure of the spray measurement system, a tube

containing a temperature measurement element is wrapped with

a glass fiber that has been moistened with a saturated solution of

lithium chloride salt.

Two conductors are wrapped around the assembly in contact with

the wick and are supplied with low voltage alternating current (25

v). The flow of current through the salt solution generates heat,

which raises the temperature.

When the temperature of vapor equilibrium is reached, water

evaporates, reducing current flow and heat input. The temperature

cannot go any higher because all the water would evaporate, and

heat input would cease.

It cannot fall because all the salt would then go into solution, and

too much heat would be generated. Therefore, equilibrium is

reached with a portion of the lithium chloride in solution and

conductive and the remainder dry and nonconductive. Thus, heat

input is balanced with heat loss. The thermometer bulb, when

placed inside the metal tube, will measure temperature or dew

point. This is also a measure of absolute humidity and can be

expressed in grains of moisture per pound of dry air, percentage of

water vapor by volume, and other units

They are typically used for the following applications:

I. Refrigeration controls Dryers

II. Dehumidifiers

III. Air line monitoring

For applications requiring greater accuracy and/or a wider range

of measurement, condensation-type, electrolytic, or oxide sensors

should be considered.

Hygrometric Method

➢ The hygrometric method of relative humidity sensing is the

most common. The instruments are generally compact,

reliable, and inexpensive.

➢ Hygrometric humidity sensors provide an output that is

directly indicative of humidity. The first humidity sensing

elements were mechanical in nature.

➢ Physical dimensions of various materials will change with the

adsorption1 of water. Some examples of these are hair, animal

membrane, and some plastics.

 ➢ To build a sensor from these materials the element is kept in

tension with a spring.

A strain gage monitors the displacement caused by a change in

the moisture content of the air.

➢ The output of the strain gage is directly proportional to the

relative humidity.

➢ A second method of hygrometry is coating an oscillating

crystal (quartz) with a hygroscopic coating. When the coating

adsorbs water the mass changes which then changes the

crystal’s oscillating frequency.

➢ A more obscure method is an electrolytic hygrometer. This

method is complicated and not used frequently enough to

warrant explanation.

Recent strides in thin film and micromachining technology make it

possible to produce high quality resistive and capacitive

hygrometric sensors.

These sensors have become more accurate, compact, and stable

in recent years making them popular in industry

The materials used to produce these sensing elements have the

ability to change their electrical characteristics with the adsorption

of water.
The materials have changed over the years from electrolytic salts,

to ceramics, to the recently popular polymers. The new designs in

sensing material have overcome many problems.

The first major problem with the sensors was narrow bandwidths.

Each individual sensor was only reliable over a span of 10 to 20%

relative humidity.

➢ Numerous manufactured sensors with specific spans cover

the entire %RH span. Then there was a problem when

adsorbed water left impurities behind on the surface.

➢ These impurities would change the electrical characteristics

of the sensing materials.

The polymers used now have overcome these early problems.

A capacitive sensor is built like a parallel- plate capacitor. The

sensing element serves as the dielectric.

As the moisture in the air changes the water vapor, the sensing

polymer changes with adsorption, resulting in a dielectric constant

change.

The dielectric constant is directly proportional to the capacitance,

which is inversely proportional to the %RH. New techniques in

producing thin films have made these, accurate, stable, and easy

to manufacture large quantities.

Hair hydrometer

Hygrometers are humidity sensors, The hair hydrometer is a type of

absorption hydrometer and uses the technique of mechanical

moisture detection.

Principle

➢ Due to humidity, several materials undergo a change in

physical, chemical and electrical properties.

➢ This property is used in a transducer designed and calibrated

to directly read the relative humidity.

Certain hygroscopic materials, such as human hair, animal

membranes, wood, paper, etc., undergo changes in the linear

dimensions when they absorb moisture from the surrounding air.

 ➢ This change in the linear dimension is used as the

measurement of the humidity present in the air

Human hair is used as a humidity sensor. The hair is arranged on a

parallel beam and separated from each other to expose them to

the surrounding air / atmosphere. Number of hairs are placed in

parallel to increase the mechanical strength.

➢ • This hair arrangement is placed under a small tension by the

use of a tension spring to ensure proper functioning.

➢ The hair arrangement is connected to an arm and a link

arrangement and the link is attached to a pointer rotated at

one end. The pointer sweeps over a calibrated scale of

humidity

Working of hair hygrometer:

➢ When air humidity is to be measured, this air is made to

surround the hair arrangement and the hair arrangement

absorbs moisture from the surrounding air and expands or

contracts in the linear direction.

➢ This expansion or contraction of the hair arrangement moves

the arm and the link and, therefore, the pointer to a suitable

position on the calibrated scale and, therefore, indicates the

humidity present in the air / atmosphere.

Application of Hair hygrometer

➢ These hydrometers are used in the temperature range of 0’C

to 75’C.

➢ These hydrometers are used in the range of relative humidity

(relative humidity) from 30 to 95%.

➢ Limitations of the hydrometer for the hair

➢ These hydrometers are slow in response

➢ If the hair hydrometer is used constantly, its calibration tends

to change.