5.1.

So, what needs to be taken into account to create an effective survey that minimizes bias and
sampling error?

Can you think of some other ethical considerations that might be warranted when designing survey
research?

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The very construction of the survey should be considered when anticipating potential ethical
concerns. As Goodwin and Goodwin (2017) note, surveys that are biased, flawed or poorly
constructed can cause emotional pain in participants unintentionally. For example, researchers must
ensure that the language used is neutral and the questions are not framed in a biased or hurtful
manner.

The researchers should also take into consideration how some questions might be received by
minority populations. For example, controversial topics might alienate people from different cultural
backgrounds, especially if the question is not thoughtfully phrased. Immigrant or refugee
populations might be uncomfortable answering questions about their circumstances, like legal
status.

Demographic questions relating to gender, race, sexuality, etc. should be respectfully phrased.
Identity questions are complicated for many people and poor or blunt phrasing can prove hurtful to a
participant. Any unnecessary questions should be removed from the survey. I also think open-ended
questions, when possible, are a great solution to complex topics. Open-ended questions allow for
more diverse answers, whereas closed-ended questions might not aptly reflect a participant’s
experiences or perceptions.

Are there any other considerations researchers should make when surveying special or minority
populations?

(194 words)

References

Goodwin, K. A., & Goodwin, C. J. (2017). Research in psychology: Methods and designs (8th ed.).
John Wiley & Sons.

5.2.2
,
The Still Face experiment follows an ABA design, going from a control condition (A) to an
experimental condition (B) and then back to the control (A). In the Still Face Experiment, the control
condition would be the normal interactions between the infant and adult, while the experimental one
would be when the adult would maintain a neutral facial expression. By focusing on one behaviour
(the baby’s reaction), the researchers avoid the risk of other variables affecting the results.

Although the experiment does fit the definition of a single-case study, in which a specific behaviour
is studied in detail by using an independent variable (the mother’s reactions) to measure the child’s
behaviour, it can and has been replicated since the initial experiment.

In one recent study by Li et al. (2019), the researchers discovered that cultural context and the
gender of the parent influenced the behaviour and emotion exhibited by the child. The broad
availability of subjects (babies and parents) and the replicability of the experiment prove that the
experiment is well-controlled and, although a small N design experiment, can be generalized.

(181 words)

References

Li, W., Woudstra, M. J., Branger, M. C., Wang, L., Alink, L. R., Mesman, J., & Emmen, R. A.
(2019). The effect of the still‐face paradigm on infant behavior: A cross‐cultural
comparison between mothers and fathers. Infancy, 24(6), 893–910.
https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12313

Small N designs are typically used to look at behaviour in scenarios where samples might be
rare (due to a special condition) or difficult to find a larger sample of (Goodwin and Goodwin,
2017). This approach allows the researcher to explore the subject(s) in-depth and draw
specific conclusions about the individual(s).

Goodwin and Goodwin (2017) describe how B.F. Skinner highlighted the strength of this design by
suggesting that large N designs might not
adequately reflect the participants' behaviour at times, but rather an effect of the overall group. They
added, "the goal is to reduce random variability by achieving precise control
over the experimental situation affecting the single subject" (p .350). However, this poses
difficulty for achieving generalizability, as the most common complaint about small N
designs (particularly single-subject studies) is with respect to external validity (Goodwin and
Goodwin, 2017).