Oscillators ‘Syllabus = 8.1 Introduction to Oscillators : = Oscillators ae basically ac signal generators which you use in your laboratories. ~ Oscillators generate sinusoidal voltage of desired magnitude, at desired frequency. = The output voltage and frequency of an oscillator can be variable. = The block diagram ofa basic oscillator is shown in Fig. 8.1.1. Output voltage: ‘control (Output frequency o- ‘control 77 Fig. 8114 = As seen from Fig. 8.1.1, the oscillator operates on a de power supply + V volts and more importantly it produces an alternating output voltage without any altemating. signal applied at its input. = Oscillators operate on the principle of positive feedback. In this chapter, we are going to introduce the concept of positive feedback first and then discuss the principle of oscillators, 8.2 Concept of Positive Feedback : ~ There are two types of feedback, namely negative and positive feedback. ‘The positive feedback is used in oscillators, The concept of Positive feedback can be explained with th help of Fig, 8.2.1, Principle of oscillator, RC oscillator, Twin T oscillator, Oscillators with ‘oscilator, Crystal controlled oscillator, Design of diferent oscillator circuits. Le feedback, Colpt’s oscillator, Hartley 6s Fig. 8 rinciple of positive feedback — An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback Incorporated in it. A part of the output is fed back through the feedback network and mixer to the amplifier input. The feedback signal is “in phase” with the original input signal as shown in Fig.82.1 as the phase shift introduced by Description feedback network is 0°. The amplifier in Fig. 821 is assumed to be a non-inverting amplifier with a voltage gain A which introduces a zero phase shift between its input and output. Description : Let.us assume that a sinusoidal input voltage V, is being ‘applied atthe input ofthe non-inverting amplifier, AS the non-inverting amplifier is being used, there is no phase difference between V, and V,..So V, is an amplified version oF V, with a 0° phase shift. A part ofthis output voltage is fed ‘back (V,) to the input side. ‘The feedback voltage V;is in phase with the input voltage Vs 4 the feedback network does not introduce any phase shift. But the feedback voltage amplitude can be adjusted by changing the value of feedback factor.(8:21) suet fw wean vein amplifier which introduces a wa hse ait between Y, and Vy, thn the feck evs should intruce a phase shit of 180° in order to = ay ¥, and; in phase with ech ote, as shown in Fig. 8.22. Vo{ 180° shitt +~——4 yu DY, 24¥1 voltage oe Pesnptase “V,! a Feedback F Feedback [network ‘agnal if Mi" Meo? shin’ a (ussi Fig. 8.22 : Principle of positive feedback conclusion : “Thus the feedback is called as a postive feedback if the input sialV, and feedback signal Varin phase with each other, 821 Expression for the Gain with Positive Feedback (A): = as V,and V, are in phase, we can write thatthe input 1 dhe amplifier V, i given by, |= Substitute the value of V rom Equation (82.1) 0 8, = Gain of the amplifier with feedback is given bys Ne. No Ac = VF V=BVo * —__Diivide numerator and denominator by V, to gets WIM. B24) BIV/VI But [V,/V,]=A = Opentoop gain ofthe amplifies. It-can be proved thatthe amplifier guin with feedback (A) is given by, + (825) A= TAB 'A.=Open loop gain ofthe amplifier. “This is the required expression for the gain with feedback. ‘Note that Equation (8.28) is valid only for the positive feedback. Conclusions : 1, In Bguation (8.2.1), as ABis a positive quantity, (1 AB) will be less than 1 and therefore A,> A. Thus positive feedback 2 Oscillators Keeping “A” constant then Ar wil increase and ata particular value of B, the valve of "AY" vill become e», This means that even without the input signal Vth amplifier will keep producing output vollge with Ce telpof the feedback signal, This is where the amplifier stars acting as an oscillator. 8.3 Oscillator Principle : $n of oscillator. (Dec. 10, 5 Marks) a cular is basically an “amplifir” which does net have any a input bat it operates on the principle Of POSINNe feedback to generate an ac signal omits own ats OU hus itis clear that an amplifier ean work as an oscila0r if postive feedback is made to exist. However postive feedback not always guarantees oscillations. ‘An amplifier will work as an osci satisfies a set of conditions called the Barkhausen Criteria: Q.1 Explain the principle of operatic itlator if and only if it “Barkhausen Criterion”. 8.3.4 ERIE ad (0.1. Explain Barkhausen criteria for an oscillator. (May 03, 4 Marks) Barkhausen’s criteria. for @.2. State and explain oscillation. (Dec. 13, May 16, 4 Marks) @.3. Explain Barkhausen criteria for sustained oscillations. (May 15, 5 Marks) — The Barkhausen criteria should be satisfied by an amplifier with positive feedback to ensure the sustained oscillations. = For an oscillator circuit, there is no input signal “V,", hence the feedback signal V; itself should be sufficient to maintain ‘the oscillations. =" Refer Fig. 83.1 to understand the Barkhausen criteria. 1. From Fig. 83.1 the expression for output voltage V, vo = AY (83.1) | Kae fet00° shit} OR Yo y Total phase shift around 180° shitt —4 the loop is 0° al (952 Fig, 83.1 : Block diagram of an oscillator 2, But V;is the sum of V, and V;. LM VtVe (83.2) will increase the amplifier gai:[7 tectonics Devices & Circuits (MU-Sem4-E&Tc)_@-9 Oscillators Note tat we have added V, and V, because in positive feedback, V, and V, wil bein phase with esch other and hence will get added, 3. The expression for feedback voltages, v= BY, 633) Substitute the value of V, from Equation (83.1) into Equation (8.3.3) 10 get, Vv, = BAY, (634) 4. Substitue this equation into Equation (8.3.2) to get, Y= V+ABY, » (1-ABY, = Y, 835) 5. For an oscillator the inpot voltage V, is absent ic V, = 0 and the feedback signal V, is supposed to ‘maintain the oscillations. Therefore substiute V, = 0 ito Equation (83.5) 10 get, Vi(1-AB) = 0 or AB: 1836) = This condition must be satisfied in order to obtain sustained ocilations. Alongwith this condition, the condition for the positive feedback which states thatthe phase shift between V, and V; must be zero, should also be satisfied. = With an inverting amplifier introducing a 180° phase shift between V, and V, thé feedback network must introduce another 180° phase shift 0 ensure that V, and V, aren phase. = These two conditions which are required to be sated 10 operate the circuit as an oscillator are called as the “Barkhausen rtrion” for sustained osciations. Statement of Barkhausen criterion : “The Barkhauseneiterion states that: 1. An oscillator will operate at that frequency for which the tt phase shift introduced, as measured from the input terminals, through the amplifier and feedback network and back again to the input i precisely equal to 0° or 360° or integral muliple 0f 360°, 2. At the oscillator frequency, the magnitude ofthe product of open loop gain ofthe amplifier A and the feedback factor Bis equa oor greater than unity 2 AABL 2 1 “The product AB is called a the “lop gain. These conditions are diagrammatically illusraied in Figs. 8.32() and (0), (b) Loop gain AB2 1 (ov9s9 Fig. 83.2 : Barkhausen criterion Effect of the Value of | A Bl on the Nature of Oscillations : 8.3.2 ‘The magnitude of the loop gain AB can vary arbitrarily. Let us now see the effects of magnitude of loop gain on the nature of oscillator output. ‘There are three possible ranges ofthe value of 1A 1. They 1 1ABl= 2. Range 1,1A BI ~~ Refer to Fig. 83.3). It appears that if| A B | atthe oscillator frequency is unity, then, the removal ofthe extemal generator will not make any difference, and we get sinusoidal oscillations of constant amplitude as shown in Fig. 83:3). ‘These are called as sustained oscillations. Output signal TABl<1 3. LABI> 1 Constant amplitude (2) Sustained oscillations of constant amplitude for |A BI=1 ‘Output signal (©) Exponentially decaying oscillations for 1A B1<1 79 Fig. 833 . eelal in absence Hy extemal generator will not be sufficient to sustain the sean. Ten the output signal will reduce exponentially as Fig 83.30). go 3,1ABI> 1: | When A L> I and total phase shift is 0 the oscillations at catpot increase exponentially, The amplitude of oscillations jal contimoe to increase continuously without limit as shown in 83300. Co Increase ‘Output signal | 87%) Fig, 8.3.3(¢) : Exponentially increasing LABI>1 ‘will osillate only if | A B 12 1. Sustained oscillations are if 1A B |= 1 and the total phase shift around the loop is. Frequency of Oscillations : = Frequency of oscillations” is defined as tat frequency a which the given circuit satisfies both the conditions of Barkhausen criteria ie. 1A B= 1 and Z AB = 0° or 2m radian, simultaneously. ‘The frequency of oscillator output is always equal to frequency. Practically why is A Bt adjusted slightly greater than 1? [Even though we get sustained oscillations at 1A B= 1, practically the value of | A Bis adjusted to be sligily greater than unity in order to compensate forthe non-linearities exiting inthe circuit. How does an osillator operate without an inpot signal ? ‘To stat the oscillations we will have to apply some input voltage, so that output is produced. Apart oft is fed back and 4s this feedback is sufficient 10 satisfy the condition 1A B= 1, the oscillations are sustained. Bt in reality we do not apply any input voltage to stat the ascillation, stil the oscillators work. So we have to find from Where does this starting voltage come ? ue to random movement of electrons inside any electronic device such as resistor a voltage is generated which is called this ‘This noise voltage is amplified by the amplifier and fed back. If the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied then, sustained oscillations willbe obtained atthe output ‘Thus noise voltage acts as the starting voltage and oscillators ‘an operate without an input signal. 8.3.4 Block Diagram of an Oscillator ! ‘The block diagram of an oscillator is shown in Fig. 8:3. ‘An oscillator consists basically of an amplifier and a phase shifting network. The amplifier receives the output of the phase shifting network. The amplifier then amplifies it, phase shift it through 180° and applies it tothe input of the phase shifting network. ‘The phase shifting network sift the amplifier output through another 180° and attenuates it before applying it back to the amplifier input Due to the total phate shift of 360°, the feedback becomes a positive feedback, which gives rise to the oscillations, if the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied. J 120” phase shit. ——+1 e100" phase shit + (0540 Fig, 83.4 : Block diagram of an oscillator = Note that there is no extemal ac input voltage applied to an ‘oscillator stil it produces a sinusoidal output voltage. ‘An oscillator isan amplifier with positive feedback. 8.4 Classification of Oscillators = = The oscillators canbe classified on the basis of various factors such as, the shape of the output voltage or the types of components used, the range of operating frequency and ‘whether the feedback is being used or not. Let us classify the oscillators based on these factors one by one. 8.4.1 Classification Based on the Nature of Output Waveform : ‘The oscillator output voltage can be either sinusoidal or non- sinusoidal So we can classify the oscillators as sinewave oscillators and non-sinusoidal oscillators. ‘The examples of sinusoidal oscillators are : RC-phase shift, ‘as noise voltage. en bridge, Hartley, Colpit, Clapp oscillators.OF triangular, ramp waves at their output. Multivibrtors of all kinds are the square wave oscillators, sala Sinusoidal oscllators += RC phaso shit oscilators ‘+ Wien bridge osalator ‘s Hariey, Colplt's and Clasp oscillators Nonsinusoidal oscillators + Muttvibrators ‘© UST relaxation osctlator (F750 Fig. 8.4.1 : Classification based on nature of output ‘waveform Classification Based on the Types of Components used : 8.4.2 Depending on the components used forthe feedback network, the oscillators are classified as RC oscillators and LC oscillators ‘The RC oscillators use only resistors (R) and capacitors (C) in their feedback network whereas the LC os inductors (L) and capacitors (C). Examples of RC oscillators are RC-phase shift oscillator and. Wien bridge oscillator whereas Hartley, Colpit’s and Clapp ‘oscillators are the well known examples of LC oscillators Oscillator lators use RC osollators ‘= Phase shit osallator 1 Wien bridge oscillator ‘© UST relaxation oscillator LCoscitators + Hanoy osailator + Colpit's oscillator * Clapp oscilator (€-789 Fig, 42 : Classification based on the components used 8.4.3 Classification Based on the Range of Operating Frequency : ~ Based on the range of operating frequency the oscillators can bbe divided into two categories namely low frequency (LF) oscillators and high frequency (HF) or radio frequency (RF) oscillators. = The frequency range of LF oscillator is approximately from 20 Ha to 100 kiiz and they are generally RC oscillators. The ‘operating frequency for the HF oscillators isin the range of 100 KHz to afew Giz. These are LC oscillators, Oscillators Low frequency High frequency ‘osolators ‘osclators, @ 709 Fig. 84.3 Cectatrs reittore tlatore Onatators win foodoack winout poatve toodback w ram Fig 843 8.4.4 Classification Based on Presence or Absence of Feedback : = The oscillators can be classified as those which use positive feedback and are dependent on the feedback for thet ‘operation. The phase shift, Wien bridge, Hanley, Colpits, Clapp ete oscillators are feedback type oscillators = The other category of oscillators do not use the feedback at all. They are called nonfeedback type oscillators. UST relaxation oscillator isthe best example of such an oscillator, 8.4.5 The Complete Classification of Oscillators : Ost ‘Sinusoidal Nonsinusoidal High requancy UST Muttvibrator (i> 20 kez) osallator « astablo “*Hartoy ‘= Monostable =Colpitts Low frequency Bistable Time baso Clapp (15 20 kH2) Goneratore ‘Tunod collector + RC phase shit Voltage sawtooth ‘Crystal oscillator « Wien bridge generators ‘sAmstrong— eTwin-T ‘*Curront sawtoot (enerators (©299 Fig. 84.4: Complete clasifiation of oscillators 8.5 RC Phase Shift Oscillator : Q.1 Draw 'the circuit for an RC phase shift oscilator using BJT and derive expression for the frequency cof oscillations. (May 03, 8 Marks) As the name suggests this is an RC oscillator. Basically, it Consists of an amplifier and a phase shifting network made of resistors and capacitors ‘The amplifier can be a transistorised one or a FET can be used ‘88 an active device or an OP-AMP (operational amplifier) can beused, Before discussing about the RC phase shift oscillator circuits Jet us know about the RC phase shifting network used in this oscillator,5! | the basic RC phase shifling network is shown in ig. 85.1(0. The inpat voltage isan ac voltage and the ouput yoliageis taken across the resistor R. La the input voltage V, be a sinusoidal voltage with a peak voltage V, and frequency f, Vi = V,sinot (B51) ‘The impedance offered by the RC circuit othe flow of current. isgiven by Z = R-jXe (852) ‘This can be represented alternatively as Z = 121<0 53) where Zs the magnitude ofZ andi s given by, WZ1 = a/R 4XE (854) ‘And 28s the phase angle given by, (8.5.5) (@ Basie R-C phase shifting network (b) Phase relations e790 Fig. 85.1 ‘The angle will be negative due to the minus'sign on RHS of Equation (8.5.5). = The current “T” flowing through the R-C circuit is given by, ye V2 OM Le Beira ZZ tO 85.0) = Equation (8.5.6) shows that the circuit current “I” leads the input voliage by an angle + 6° where 0 is given by, Xe 1 0 = ema 8 Xe“ Te OSD = The output voltage: V, =1xR (858) ~ As the output voltage is the voltage across the resistor Rit will be in phase with current I. Therefore the output voltage ‘also will lead the inpit voltage by an angle 8. The vale of © can be precisely adjusted by selecting the values of R, Cand as evident from Equation (8.5.7). Thus for the basic R-C notwork of Fig. 6.5.4(@), the output voltage leads the input voltage by an “angle 0° and this angle depends on the values of “'R, Cand frequency f. Oscillators RC Network for the Phase Shift Oscillator : i 8.5.2 Q.1 . Draw circuit diagram for phase shift oscillator and derive an expression for frequency of oscillation. + - (Dec. 15, 10 Marks) For the RC phase shift oscillator, three identical basic RC phase shifting network can be cascaded as shown in Fig. 8.5.2. Each RC network is designed to introduce a phase shift of 60° precisely a the desired frequency of oscillations. }+— Three identical networks —+| ¢ ¢ c 1 y AR SR 00's —00° + 00 4 Om Too? uput leads tho Pe (955) Fig, 85.2 : RC network used for the phase shift oscillator = Thus the total phase shift introduced by the 3 stage RC network is 180°. That means output of the network leads its input by 180°, = The RC network shown in Fig. 8.5.2 is sometimes called as the ladder network, It produces a phase shift of 180° precisely only at one particular frequency which is the frequency of ‘operation of the oscillator. — The amplifier used for RC phase shift oscillator can use a transistor, ora field effect transistor (FET) or an OP-AMP as the active device. Let us now understand the operation of an RC oscillator using OP-AMP. 8.5.3 R-C Phase Shift Oscillator usin Transistor: Input voltage by 180° Q.1 Draw circuit diagram of RC phase shift BJT ‘oscillator. (Dee. 10, 5 Marks) Q.2 Derive the expression for frequency of oscillation for a transistorized (BJT) RC phase shift oscillator. (Dec. 13,8 Marks) .3 Derive the expression for frequency of oscilation fora BUT RC phase shift osclator. (May 16, 10 Marks) = A typical R-C phase shift oscillator using transistor as an active device is shown in Fig. 8.5.3. The circuit consists of a single stage amplifier in CE. ‘configuration and the R-C phase shifting network. = The resistors Rj, R, and Ry are connected for transistor biasing and C, is the emitter bypass capacitor.[&F ctoctonics Devices & Circus (MU -Som 4- EXE) Operation of the elreutt : ‘As shown in Fig. 85:3 the output V, ofthe single stage CE. amplifier has been connected as an input to the R-C:phase shifting network. ‘The output ofthe phage shifting network is connected at the input ofthe amplifier. As the amplifier is CLE. type, it introduces a phase shift of 180° between its input and output. The phase sifting network will introduce an additional 180° phase shift to make the ‘hase shift around the loop equal to zero. ‘The phase shift around the loop will be precisely equal to O° ‘only at one frequency “" which isthe frequency of operation ‘of the oscillator. f the gain of the amplifier and feedback factor B are adjusted properly to have a oop gain | ABI 1 at this frequency then sustained sinusoidal oscillations will be obtained a the oscillator output. (F733 Fig. 85.3 : RC phase shift oscillator using transistor Note that the R-C feedback network of Fig. 8.53 is slightly different. The resistance R, of Fig 85.3 is selected in such a way that, RAZ = R (659) where — 2= Input impedance ofthe CE amplifier is given by, Z, = el(RNR,) = But as R, and Ry are large enough, we can neglect ihem. Hence aah = Substituting this value into Equation (85.9) we get, Ryth, = Ror R= Roby (8.5.10) eT Oscilators And if we do not neglect the resistors R, and R, then the value Of, is given by, Ry = R-LRNRIH,) (85.1) 8.5.4 Frequency of Oscillation: TET Q.1)- Derive the expression for frequency of oseflation fora transistorized (BJT) RC phase shi osclator, (Dec. 13, 8 Marks) 2 Draw circuit diagram for phase shift oscillator and derive an expression for froquonecy of osclation. (Dec. 16, 10 Marks) Derive the expression for frequency of oscillation for a BJT AC phase shift oscilator. % (May 16, 10 Marks) ‘The frequency of oscillations of a transistrised R-C phase shift oscillator is given by the following expression t-te Vera Tare wherek = Re/R 85.12) ‘The derivation for expression forthe frequency of oscillations is given in Example 855. 8.5.5 Minimum Value of h,, of the Transistor : Ta @.1" What isthe condition to be satistied for tho solution of BT? (ay 03,3 Marks) The condition that the loop gsin | AB | shouldbe sighly reste than 1 willbe said ifthe expression forthe value of hy, of the transistor used in the phase shift osilltor circuit is as follows : he > anerse2 319 wien =RG/R Te vale of wich gies tein vale of hy 27 andfortisvabeoth te henge tts Tat mews cnt we wir Bing hg 445 fore RC pine shits ce, 8.5.6 Variation in Frequency : ‘The oscillator frequency can be changed by changing either the resistors or capacitors in the R-C phase shift network as the frequency is dependent. on R and C (see Equation (8.5.12), ‘Remember that all the resistors or all the capacitors should be varied simultaneously and equally because we want the phase Shift introduced by each R-C section to remain unchanged (equal to 60%.phase shifting OFC. Italso keeps efore the variation mn the amplinde of | etwork constant because itis independent tbe magnitude of B and AB constant. The in frequency will not have any effect o oscillations. : ‘The R-C-phase shift oscillator is Particularly suitable for pring in the frequency range extending from a few He to several hundred KH2 (upto 200 kiiz) which includes the andie fequncy range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz 85.8 Phase Shift Oscillator using FE _ The RC-phase shift oscillator using FET as an active device | isshown in Fig. 8.5.4. (F790 Fig. 854 : Phase shit oscillator using FET Operation of the circult : = The FET is self biased. The source resistance Rg has been bypassed by the capacitor Cs, = This is the common source configuration of the FET amplifier. Therefore the phase shift introduced between its input and output is 180°. = The cascaded three stage RC-phase shift network introduces phase shift of 180° at the oscillator frequency as discussed eatlier. ~The expression forthe gain of FET amplifiers TAL = gq (tqllRp) ~ Itcan be proved that the gain of the feedback netiork ie. 1B {= 1/29. Therefore in order to make the loop gain higher than unity ie. 1A B12 1, the gain of FET amplifier must be at least equal to 29. ie IAL 2 29 (85.14) -n(8.5.15) : ae Osciiators, es ‘thal this condition is same as thit obtained with phase ShiR oscillator using OP-AMP. Therefore a FET with p< 29 canmot be used in such a circuit. ‘The expression for operating frequency is 1 © 2nf6RC 85.9 Advantages of Phase Shift Oscillator : 1, Simplicity ofthe circuit 2 85.16) Useful for producing frequencies inthe audio range. 3. A.sine wave output can be obtained 8.5.10 Disadvantages of Phase Shift Oselllator : 1, Poor frequency stability : Frequency ofthe sinusoidal output, of this oscillator is not stable as it depends on the values of R ‘and C which can change due to factors such as temperature, um 2. I is dificult to get a variable frequency output, because in ‘order to change the frequency, we need to vary all the resistors and capacitors connected in the feedback network simultaneously which is practically very difficult 8.5.11 Design of RC Phase Shift Oscillator : — While designing the RC phase shift oscillator we have to ‘consider the following important points: 1. The feedback factor B = 1/29 at the frequency of oscillations. 2. The gain has to be greater than or equal to 29 i.e. 1A1> 29 inorder to ensure sustained oscillations. 3. Fora transistorised circuit hy, ofthe transistor should be sreater than 44.5. = The following example illustrate the design of RC phase shift oscillator using BIT. 8A: Design an RC phase shift oscillator for a frequency of 1 kHz. The stablity factor S$ B. Given that Voc = 10 V. The transistor has h parameters as follows : hg = 1 KO, Rig = 50, Ng = Mop = 0. Soin: Step 1 Draw the circuit : ‘The RC oscillator tobe designed is as shown in Fig. P.8.5.1. Step 2: Design of RC network : 1 1 ot al ehaek eRe 1 = dare Yeraq) *™ ‘The minimum value of k =2.7 1 1 2ARC [6+ (4X27) ee 1x1? = RC = 3882910 Ol WF La CcElectronics Devices & Circuits-II (MU - Sem 4 - E&Tc) Oscillators, n= BE esa R, = 159k2 “The bypass capacitor Cz can be calculated as follows: ‘Select R= 390 2s the standard value, Xq € 01Rg seysvcemaiice te) Sates KxR=2.7 390 10530 2nICy 1 o aE SG EE 295) Fig. P. 85.1 : RC oscillator to be designed Select Ry = 1 kas the standard value, Ve should be atleast equal to 3V for good stability. Let Vp = 3V Also Veug should be atleast equal to 3V to ensure that the BIT is inthe active region. Vesg = 3V Voo~ (Vero Ve) Set on = feces Rees 10-(343)_ a Bye Jie T+B+ (RR) 1+ (Ry/750) = 8 = O40 T5354 RITE 8R, SRL gy, St, aan 555 = 5145 & Ry = 622649 But Ry = RNR, Lat R, = 10k0 10R, 6226 * 62.26 +6226R, = 10R, 1 Ce > Baxtx 10% 7S Cy = 212mP Select Cp = 474 F — «standard value Step 4: Check the value of AB = ee ‘T. ain is preter than 29. So the AB > 1 and there will be sustasd oscillations Component values: 59K, Re= TK, Re=7500, C=O.ApP OK, R=30Q C47 WF Design an RC phase shift oscillator using FET, to produce an output frequency of 1kHz, Voo = 10 V and the JFET parameters are as follows : Qn=4m8,V, AV, logs = 10 mA, Soin. : ‘Step 1: Draw the circuit diagram Fig. P. 8.52 shows the RC oscillator using JFET. Step 2: Calculate R and 1 2nVERC 001pF f= la c R= 1 Dix Tx1O x00 x10 VE R= 65xa ‘Step 3: Caleulate R, and Ry : Let, V. Vpgg= 3V and, la _ Yoo~(os0+¥s) = Wess = Ta ma+ eo Fig P- B52: RC phase shit oscilatr using FET Vs__3 i Ys, = ees E Rs = Tg 7 Tma 3 ‘gep 4: Caleutate C5: Xq SOIR, 1— < 014x300 IHG 1 mle Ne Cs = Fax 10300 Cy 2 0.5305 HF Select C; = IHF Step 5 : Check the value of AB = A = ~BqRp2-4x4=- 16 For sustained oscillations Ry Lt gg = OSA =! Vs) (343. Von= (aso Va) _10-(343), = 05 mA 51 ‘A= 29. So redesign the value of sg 2 “OR = +R, 22458Ry = 40Ry Ry = 678kQ. Step 2: Find C: ee 2m VRC 1 nix = 2wf6x 10% 10° xC 2 C= 650F Step 3: Draw the cireuit dingram : ‘The designed RC oscillator is shown in Fig. P. 8.53. Yoo (= 85nF, R= 10k2 {85.3 : Designed RC phase shift oscillator ZX ESAT Design a AG phase shift oscillator using FET, hhaving Gq = 8000 WU, Fs = 40 k8 to generate ‘a signal of 1.5 kez. Cas Ro = Toa ‘Sola. : nye Maghges Given: = 8000 10,42 AKO f= 1S KH fay Step 1: Calculate Ry: A= ~BeRips 4 ; For ssaned oscillations, the gun A229 iow the gun is higher than 29, So the sustained oscillations aA LtlPS) willbe produced Fi ign a phase shit cecator using FET 29 = 8(4011Ro) having & Ge: = 5000 10S, ty = 40K2, end & Laas = 28 ‘oscillation 11 kHz: Soin. Given: &q= 5000 HU, ry=40 KOR 10k0, f= 1 kHz Step 1: Caleulate Ry? For sustained oscillations, the gain A 2 29 + But A= aC tallRo) 29 = 5(401Rp) feedback circult of R= 10 k2. Frequency of 145 +3.625R = 40Ry cRy = 398K ‘Step 2+ Calculation of C: ‘Assuming R= 102 1 = TaeRe 1 : = - 2 15x10) = Gefen iat xeao C= 4330F Step 3: Draw the eireult diagram : The designed RC or is shown in Fig. P. 85.4, C= A.anF, R= 10a, (3st) Fig, P. 8.54: Designed RC phase shift oxillat FET 8.5.12 Derivation for Frequency of Oscillations : Ex:8.5.5: Detive the expression ‘or the frequency of oscillations of an RC phase shift oscilator Using the transistor as an active device, PERT Soin. : Follow the steps given below for driving the expression for the frequency of oscillations: Step 12) Replace the transistor by its approximate hybrid miodel Step2: Draw the modified hybrid model by replacing cument source by a voltage soure. ‘Step 3: Write down mesh equations for various loops. Step: Using Cramer's rule obtain the expression for I Step Obtain the expreision for AB. Step 6: Using the Barkhausenerterion obtain the expression fort. Step 1: Replace the transistor by its approximate hybrid model : ‘The transistor in the transistorised RC phase shifting network Fig, 85.3 is replaced by its hybrid models as shown in Fig P.85.5@). (ag) Fig. P.8.55(a) : Approximate hybrid model Step 2: Draw the modified equivalent ctreult: = Now modify the Fig. P85. ‘modification : 0) by pesforming the following = Replace the curtent source by an equivalent voltage source. = Replace Ry +h, = Rand R, = Rsk oC c (7431) Fig, P.8.5S(b) : Modified equivalent eireult ‘Step 3: Apply KVL to various loops of Fi 1 Loop: yeh R+ Re Bul R= ER Substimte jo = s h[aroreg]-ue = - hb Loop Hse+ER-LR+IR-LR= 0 Substituting bfareb]-un-ae =o 4 Leoptt: BeyReye-4e = 0 L ERTL AR ST E+ R-1R=0 to get KR and grouping the tems we get, Substituting jo = sand grouping the terms we get b[eed] bR = 0 Rearranging Equations (2), (4) and (5) we get s[Qrorreh] ue = - -unen[arek] ae = 0 wt -ins [akeck] kR P.8SS(b): 141)R-LR=0 “) @ o) “) 13) o fomtg hkR -R |e| 0 8 4 ° Using Cramer's rule Letus obtain the expression for A, and 4 ok 1 o -R Ree [aso] [mek] -e[eroeedk]-¢ peie] y= Lek MDsRCH ace DE RECS ys) REL2sRC+ 1 - Ukepsrcerasrcey? Rik schet}) A re Cc sc Pterm=((k+1)sRC+1] [4 REC #4 SRC 1/8 CO SPER C+d PROLIF CR AERC HEREC + ARCH RC SRC 41 APO HPC LAP ULAR E LENT eA eeRC EHC ze combination of sind Ur term = ELE NSEC LAR 2B 1) -RE[HRC+SRC+2SRC+2] =f 2RE+ISRECSESREC = ‘sc sc Now combine terms I, and II and take LCM equal tos? C°toget, POR (4k 44) +2 CR’ (dk +8) +sRC +S )¢ 1-8 COR? +35 CR+ ks ROC SOW URL DLE CN ees eG fess aE CESSES Simplifying we ge, SOR Coes 14S R (gee 6) tsCR(K SET we ne POR GS SOR ge 6escRike Set “This isthe expression for A. Now ets obtain te expression fr By ceetRe gy -R Bahk a= Rowe HR ic ° “Ro hg ERX R?=—K be hy R? by kh RC. Be FORT OR He 6) FSCRRFS IT Step: Obtain the expression for AB: ‘The feedback factor B (8) 9) 19) (ll) (12)a Oscia Electronics Devices & Circuits-Il (MU - Sem 4-E8&To)_8-13. =o | FF | on “i 1 2b ls | t ) Substitute the value of I, fom Equation (12) we get Hkh, SC AB = DORTRITPOCR FO SR (RSS )FT “1 Bus = jo ¢ = -jfo? and s'=-jo” Substituting these into Equation (16) we eet, ~ikh,, Ra"? AB = TTS R Gk 1) +p wT RC ak4 1) +jOCR(K+5) +1 Grouping the real and imaginary parts inthe denominator we get, =ikhe PoC AB = Craw OR 6a CR) —j0 (ako C+ OTRO SRC- ERC) Divide the numerator and denominator by — jeo” R?C? we get, tke B= wer eur) [io GkeR Cre ea c pamcestcsna| [eaceRee= || re ky a 7) {3 == =k lawe-te-an [or vate ae] Now substinmte = x into Equation (17) 0 get, Khe khy AB = FTP Ta exe] + [CGR 1) =e] TRF) Soha | aj a oe] ~(l8) ‘Step6: Use the Barkhausen criterion to obtain expression for frequency : ‘The Barkhausen erierion states that for sustained oscillations, 2 AB = 0°. In Equation (18) the angle of the numerator term is 0° ‘Therefore to satisfy the Barkhausen criterion, the angle of denominator term should also be equal to O°. In order to achieve this, it is essential that the imaginary tefm of the denominator should be equal to zero. 2 aden 6x = 0 09) » x@i-4k-6) =0 Neglecting the frst term ie. x =0 we get, = 4k+6 x = VaKr6 1 RCVak+6 a ioe ae 2nRCYSK+6 (20) ‘This is the required expression of frequency.Derive the expression for *h,,” of the transistor connected in an R-phase. shi it osclat terms of °K’ where k = Re / Rand obtain the value Of Pre ¢ mn) for the RC-phas: ant phase shift goin. For this derivation we are goin 20) especively in Ex, Loop sain. AB i t0 use the following two been mentioned as Equations (18) Kh the fy, ofthe transis hewn = (4x BR. nn = (427423428 0 5 Ans ‘Thus the RC-phase shift oscillator will oscillate if and only if sedis higher than 44,54, Derive the expression of frequency of oscillations of an RC phase shift oscilator Using FET, Soln. : Follow the steps given below to derive the expression for frequency Ex. 8.53 = TA T-3e T+] ae 0 1 ouput wis 2 Oupufreawencyst = FRc eSaE 2) “4, Reaanging Equation (2) we get, To 1 VERE = Sere: Bot xe aRE a NGA = x ° 4, ‘Substitute this into Equation (1) to get (Neglecting the imaginary pat in the denominator) ky = ee AB = BRS T= Gray SoE(OF aR be = [RRFT= 30-2086 -a FT Kh ABS ap key D 5. For the oscillations to occur, it is necessary that! ABI> 1 he wo = | pared! khg 2 4K +23K+29 or hy = tka 5) ‘This is the required expression for hye in terms of k where K=RGIR, Minimum value of ig: ‘We can obtain the minimum value off, with respect to k by differentiating Equation (5) and then equating it to 220. @ ke ‘Taking the derivative of Equation (5) with respect to k we 0 eet, ony a a Be 4 or ka 269-27 (6) ‘Thus the value of “k" for which we can obtain bye ¢ gi) iS ke27 ‘Step 1 : Draw the RC phase shifting network for the oscillator. Step 2: Write loop equations using KVL. Step 3: Write the equations in the matrix form and obtain Iy- ‘Step 4: Obtain the expression for Step $: By equating the imaginary part to zero, obtain the expression for frequency f. ‘Step 1 : Draw the RC phase shift network for the oscillator : ‘The RC phase shift network is as shown in Fig. P. 8.5.7. Vis the output of FET which acts as input tothe network and Vis the feedback voltage. 6 rsx) Fig, P.8.5.7 : Feedback network, ‘Step 2: Write loop equations using KVL: Loop 1: FEHR-LR =, [Rep Hue =, al) Loop2: RE | Repl |-HR= 0 2) toon3: ref are] = 0 0 Substitute jo = ino Equations (1, (2) and () to get n[Rege]-nR =v, “WR+h [2+ Je a ° eal) =o the matrix form and (5) [Now substitute this value of k into Equation (5) to get,lectronios Devices & Circuits ll (MU -Sem 4-E8Tc) 6-15 0 scilators [Let us solve this to obtain the expression for. ge uct pa sRC+1 sc by 6 a= Leane oR Te = RCH 25RCF REGGRCHI) REC 4 29RC. ~ Re tusner Rakesh BAL SRC+1)(144sRC+ 4s? RIC) RIC RCH 141 +2sRC . ro = REFS P REC HAI RICH 1a ROME RC] I RCH2ERCHISR'C? ~ ve = UsssRC +8 PRICIER CHER 7 FC 1+ 5sRC+6FRC+IRIC 4 = Ussicseeeceen cy (6a) 4 vRec b= Bt Teams RO ET m Step 4: Obtain the expression for B= . 1 Ve bR 8: Torrie | 0 = The feedback factor Bis given by, a Step: Oban the exprenion or: Subsiang te extort, we et Te falas nd sun the coca, te pase Rec introduced by the RC phase shifting network should be 180°. To DB TEERETEE RTC TERE — ~© | setiovetis th imaginary pat ofthe denonintr of Equation (10) Buts=jo :. S=fa?=-o? and s°=j'o'=—jo' | should be zero, Substituting these values into Equation (8) we get, 2 P60 iO RC” 2 0 = ape O SRS oO +1 = 0 ; aoe = 1 SjoRC_ GO RC jo RC Pees ewe eS Netting = eo, 1 x= V6 j 5 1 ORC-ERE arc! a = Separating the real and imaginary pas in the denominator nee cRYG we set, eg ey f 1 ul) *Trokehileto zl Eran [are laare-ake Tis inden Now subsite te =x to ge, Lobelectronics Devices & Circu 6 Wien Bridge Oscillator ; o mee (@.1 Draw the diagram of Wien bridge oscillator. : : (May 07, 5 Marks) {0.2 Draw tho dlagram of Wien bridge osclelr ay explain the operation. (May 08, § Marks = Like the phase shift oscillator discussed in section 85, this is iso an RC oscillator, because it uses a feedback network which consists of resistors and capacitors. - The major difference between Wien bridge and RC-phase shift oscillator is tha, in Wien bridge oscilator, the amplifier used does not introduce any phase shift (in other words its a son-inverting amplifier), therefore the feedback network also oes not have to introduce any phase sift. It hs to introduce adequate attenuation only. = The feedback network used for this type of oscillator is called 8 "Wien bridge”. Therefore the name Wien bridge oscillator. = Before we start analyzing various circuits for the Wien bridge ‘oscillator, let us analyze the Wien bridge circuit. 86.1 The Wien Bridge Circui DUERSEEnr Dias Explain the principle of working of Wien bridge oscillator circuit. Explain why negative feedback in addition to the usual positive feedback is employed in Wien bridge oscilator. Find an expression for the frequency of oscillation and gain, (Dec. 11, 8 Marks) Explain the working of Wien-bridge oscillator. Derive the expression for frequency of oscillation and the value of gain required for sustained oscillation, (Dec. 14, 10 Marks) Draw a neat circuit diagram of Wien bridge oscilator and derive an expression for its output frequency. (May 15, 10 Marks) Explain the working of Wien Bridge Oscillator. Derive the expression for frequency of oscillation for sustained oscilations. (Dee. 15, 10 Marks) Explain the working of Wien bridge oscillator. Derive the expression for frequency of oscillation and condition of oscillation. _ (Dee. 16, 10 Marks) ~The “Wien bridge” which is used as the feedback network in Wien bridge oscillator is shown in Fig. 8.6.1(a) and Fig. 86.1(b) shows the basic Wien bridge oscillator. ~The amplifier in Fig. 8.6.1(b) can use a transistor or FET or an ‘OP-AMP as amplifying device. ~ The Wien bridge of Fig. 8.6.1(a) has four arms, The arm AD ‘hich consists ofthe series combination of Rand C, and the arm CD which consists ofthe parallel combination of Ry and C, are called as the frequency sensitive arms. This is because Ose the components connected in these arms decide the oscillator frequency The resistors Ry and Ry are used to, generate a reference voltage which remains constant independent of frequency. ~ The ac input voltage is applied between points “A” and °C" of the bridge. When the Wien bridge is used in the oscillator circuit the feedback voltage is applied between these points 2 shown in Fig. 86.10) Feedback newark (b) Basic Wien bridge oscillator 0959) Fig. 86.1, = The ac output of the bridge is obtained between points “B” and “D” of the bridge, When used in the oscillator circuit these points are connected to the input of the amplifier as shown in Fig. 8.6.1(6). Wien bridge circuit of Fig, 8.6.1(a) is used as a feedback network in the Wien bridge oscillator circuit as shown in Fig, 86.10). Is also called as the “Lead-Lag Network", At Jow frequencies it acts like a lead network whereas a high frequencies it acts like a lag network, But the phase shift introduced atthe output frequency is 0° 8.6.2 _ Expressions for Feedback Factor (B) and Frequency (f) : CONAN ENEAER (RASS LARa Dinas 11 Derive expression for resonant frequency. (May 07, May 08, 5 Marks) Q.2 Prove that for Wien-bridge oscillator, gain of feedback loop is 1/3. (May 10, 10 Marks)Electronics Devices & Circuits. (MU- Som 4-E8Tc) _ 8.17 Oscitators @.3° Derive the formula for resonant troquency for Wien-bridgo oscillator. (May 10, 5 Marks) 2.4, Explain the principle of working of Wien bridge ‘oscillator circuit. Explain why negative feedback In addition to the usual postive feedback Is employed in Wien bridge oscillator, Find an expression for tho frequency of oscillation and gain, (Dec. 11, 8 Marks) @.5 Draw @ neat circuit diagram of a transistorisod Wian bridge oscilator. Explain its working. Dative ‘expression for frequency of oscillation and find condition for sustained oscillation, (May 12, 10 Marks) @.6 Explain the working of Wien-bridge oscillator, Derive the expression for frequency of oscillation and the valve of gain required tor sustained oscillation, (Dec. 14, 10 Marks) @.7 Draw a neat circuit diagram of Wien bridgo Oscillator and derive an expression for its output frequency. (May 15, 10 Marks) @.8 Explain the working of Wien Bridge Oscillator. Derive the expression for frequency of oscillation for sustained osclations. (Dee. 15, 10 Marks) @.9 Explain the working of Wien bridge oscillator. Derive the expression for frequency of oscilation and condition of oscillation. (Dec. 16, 10 Marks) yz wt be eee (863) = Now let us obtain the expressions for Z, anit Z>, 1 14 jak, Sa a (64) 1 RUN = RNS Bax Via), (10) R, To 0k, G, ting Equations (8.6.4) and (8.6.5) into Eaquation (8.6.3) we get, A865) [Kj 11 + joR, C1 eee see], +j0R,C, [HASBS Jorn rr jones) Substitute jo = inthe above expression to et, I /145RC) B=] = In order to obtain the expressions for the feedback factor “B” ‘and the oscillator frequency “f we will consider only the frequency sensitive arms AD and CD as shown in Fig 8.6.2, = Note that V,, of Fig. 86.2 is actually the output voltage V,, which comes from the amplifier output and the voltage across IR, C, acts as a feedback voltage Vp. Fan) Fig. 8.62: Feedback network of Wien bridge oscillator ~The feedback factor or gain of the feedback network ( B ) is defined as : B= V/V 86.1) = But Vpis the voltage aross the parallel combination of Rand Cy, Let the impedance of the arm AD which has Ry Cin seties be Z, and that of the arm DC which has Ry. Cy in parallel be 2, z, He7Zy*Ve 862) * 8 = TOR Gy SCAR TRC FRG IFE RRS Gakic, SR, 8 = TGR TER RGG 666) - o? into Resbstiute s = jo and = Equation (8.66) t0 get, jwC R, ° = EET RO TRESS j@C, Ry 087 ~ Rao he ution (6.7 1 ge pal2CrRal(t oF R, RG, C)—joR, C,+R, C+ RC) UO RRC G40 RCC Ee (8.68) ‘AS mentioned eater, the phase shift introduced by the Wien ‘widge circuit atthe desired output frequency should be 0°. For that the imaginary part of Equation (8.6.8) should have a zero value, 2 OCR1-WRRCC) = 0 2 @RRCC = 1 or at = 1 RRC |— ABRGG — le mREOE 869) isis the expression forthe oscillator frequency. af we substitute R, =Ry=R and C, = C,=Cin the expression for the osciltor frequency, then Equation (8.69) gets rosified as follows: oxititorfemeny, =f = he (86.10) Similarly if we substitute R, = R, = R and C, = C, = C into the expression for B [Equaticin (8.6.8) then we get, GF CR (3RC)+jocR (1 -w' REC) C-a REY +orGRCY 286.10) ‘Ths the required expression forthe feedback factor 8. = Now let us obtain the value of feedback factor “B” atthe ‘oxilator output frequency “f", For that substitute @ = 1/ RC {no Equation (86.11) t0 get, L OF ‘And frequency. Feedback factor = Be 3 Once aRCY p= 13 (85.12) “Thus atthe oscillator frequency “1” the value ofthe feedback factor Bis “1/3 Gain of the amplifier for sustained oscillations = According 0 Barkhausen criteria, the loop gain should be ‘rete than 1and phase sift around the lop should be 1 Substring B= 18 we eet, A = 3 AB6.13) ‘Thus the amplifier gain should beat leat equal 1 310 ensure sustained osilations. 8.6.3 Wien Bridge Oscillator using a. Transistor : 0.1. Draw @ neat circuit diagram of a transistorised © Wien bridge oscillator. Explain its working. Derive ‘expression for frequency of oscilation and find condition for sustained oscilation. ‘ (May 12, 10 Marks) raw and explain working of transistorized Wien onios Devices & Circuito (MU -Sem4-E8Te) 9-18 | Bridge Oscillator. (May 14, 10 Marks) = The circuit diagram for a Wien bridge oscillator using a two stage transistor amplifier is as shown in Fig. 8.6.3. Note that two common emitter amplifiers are being connected in cascade so thatthe phase shift introduced by the amplifier = ‘The Wien bridge circuit has been shown in a dated box. The input to this feedback network is obtained from the ootpt soltage V, which has been coupled from the collector of transistor Q, through a coupling capacitor. = The voltage developed across the parallel R-C network (arm DC) is used asa feedback voltage. = The expression for the oscillator frequency is given BY = fe 86.14) 2aRC = Hence the frequency can be varied by varying ether Both resistors (R) or both capacitors (C) connected in the frequency sensitive arms ofthe Wien bridge. J+ Wien Bridge —sle——— Amp. 4 son Fig. 863 = In Fig, 863, both the capacitors are ganged so that they can be varied simultaneously to vary the output frequency. = The resistor Rey is a part of the Wien bridge as well as the amplifier as it acts as the unbypassed emitter resistor of the fist stage ofthe amplifier. — Amplitude stabilization : We know thatthe required gain of. the amplifier for sustained oscillations is A123. — As the amplifier is a two stage amplifier, in Fig. 8.6.3 it can easily provide a much higher gain than 3. The gain of the amplifier should not be too high as it will distort the output voltage waveform ofthe oscillator. = In order to avcid this possibility of distortion, the amplifier ‘gain should be controlled. This is done by introducing a negative feedback via resistor Rey in the emitter of Q, vunbypassed. — This introduces a curent series type feedback. This process of ‘gain reduction using negative feedback is also called as “Amplitude stabilization”. jen bridge oscillator using transistor(My Som 4 E8TC) [EP ctoctronics Devices & Circu! [Another way of amplitude stabilization is to use 2 nonlinear resistor for Rey. This resistor is called as voltage dependent resistor (DR). As the amplitade of oscillations increases, the valve of Rey will decrease and the curtent rough it wil increase. This will increase the amount of negative feedback and hence will redoce the gxin automatically. This will avtomatically reduce the amplitude of the outpot and void the waveform distonion 8.6.4 Wien Bridge Oscillator using FET : The Wien bridge oscillator using FET is as shown in Fig. 864, The amplifier is a two stage RC coupled FET amplifier. = Two common source type FET amplifiers are cascaded together in order to ensure thatthe phase shift between the input and output of the amplifier is O°. = The resistors “R,” connected from the gates of the FETS t0 ground are connected for biasing the FETs, This is self biasing = The Wien bridge which is used asthe feedback network is connected between the amplifier output and input. Is operation is same as that explained forthe oscillators using transistor and OP-AMP. This network provides a zero phase shift with a feedback fotor B= 1/3 atthe oscillator frequency. = The gain ofthe two stage amplifier “A” should be greater than or equal to 3 to ensure that the lop gain | AB 2 1. This will censure sustained oscillations. The gain “A” is controlled in order to avoid waveform distortion. This is “amplitude stabilization” and the measures taken for tht are identical 10 those explained in section 8.63. 1 = The oscillator frequency is f= F5RC- Diesels (h-009) Fig. 8.6.4 : Wien bridge oscillator using FET What is the range of oxcillator frequency of a Wien bridge cilator? Wien bridge oscillator is basically an RC oscillator, It is suitable for operation inthe low frequency region from 20 Hz to Ovens popularly used in the audio frequency 100 KHL. But they are very in most of te signal range. Wien bridge oscillator is used generators used in the lsboratoris, 8.6.5 Advantages of Wien Bridge Osclilator : Variation in the oscillator frequency is easy to arhicve because only two capacitors or resistors wre to be simultaneously varied. In phase shift oscillator we have to change three of them at 2 time, ‘A very good quality sinewave can br obtained st the 1 oscillator output. 8.6.6 Disadvantages : Poor frequency stability 3s the oscillator frequency is dependent only onthe values of Rand C components 2. More number of amplifier stages are required to be used for the Wien bridge oscillator circuits using transistor or FETs 8.6.7 Design of Wien Bridge Oscillator While designing the Wien bridge oscillator we have to consider the following important points: 1. The feedback factor is a the frequency of oscillations, 2. The gain has to be greater than or equal to 3 ie. AL23 {for ensuring sustained oscillations — The following examples illustrate the design of Wien bridge oscillator using BJT and FET. Ex.8.6.1: Design Wien bridge oscillator using BJT to produce an output frequency of 1 kHz. The h-paramoters for transistors are : hy = 1 kQ, Soln. : Step 1: Draw the cireuit diagram : The circuit diagram of Wien bridge oscillator is as shown ia Fig. P.8.6.1 J Wien bridge —sje——— Ampliior ————#l (7-409 Fig. P- 8.6.1 : Wien bridge oscillator using transistorlations, IAL a bridge BIT iz. The “1 KD, pons wi Step 2 Calculate R and C : ot "= Fare LetC = 0047 ue 1 R= Se" 2x“ DRX TRIP XOOAT RIO" = 3386K0 Step 3: Values of Re and Kis required tohave A>3 BH A= AA, Solet A, = 10 and Aj=04 ba A, = 422 Meh = 0x8, xT ox Rg = Wee Ae A, = Ma Sox, Assuming Rye th 04 = GSXR Ra = 4160 ‘Assume Ve = 3V. Vag=3¥ and Veo = 10V we get Yee=Wesas+ Vo) lean = Fe Sectonies Devices & Circuits (MU-Sem4-E&Te) 6-20 Note! As Ay= 10\and/A, = 104, the overall gain is A= A, A; = 480 the cicult wil produce g ‘sustained oscilaions. Ex.862: Design the Wien bridge oscilator using FET, 10 produce a sinusoidal output of frequency 2 kHz, The FET has gq = 2.5 mS and = 35 Soln. Step 1 : Draw the circuit diagram : ‘The Wien bridge oscillator using FET is shown in Fig. P.862. (ses) Fig, P8622 Wien bridge oscillator using FET ‘Step 2: Caleulate the RC components: 1 te Tare Let C = 0047 uF 1 1 R= FqgC" Zax 10 0047 x10 = 163.139 ‘Step 3: Caleulate Ry and Ry + ‘The overall guin should be greater than 3, for sustained oscillations. Bu A = AyxAy LAA = 4Ay=04 ad A, = 10 But Ar = Ro S10 = 25Ry 2 Rg edh wt = 1465340 258, oa * THQ5x 153) = B20 Le. A=4 the circuit will produce Sustained ésclations, eeRET crcones evo & Circus (MU- Sem 4-E8Te)_8.21 Oscitator, 8.6.8 Comparison of RC Oscillators : “Parameice | Phaseshin | Wien bridge = silator ccilator 1 | Feedback ‘Consists of tee | Uses Wien network fdenical RC | bridge crit as sections comected | feedback incmcade network 2 | Phasestin | 180°at frequency | O° atthe imroduced by the | ofocitations | fequency of feedback network cxcillations 3 | Phasestin | 180° abe atthe introuced by he | frequency ot | frequency of amplifier excilaons ciation 4. | Freqencyor | t=wznyerc | t= 1zxre oxcilations Valucof 8 | P=-1/29 for 1B for cscilitoresing | esilatorusing OP-aM oP-AMP 6 | Minimom value | A=29,0r ABS or of sain sostained sustained xcilations escilations Variable ouput | Possible but | Possible and frequency dificult easy “Amplitude or | Necessary Necesry sain stabilization 9. | cieuitdiggam | ReterwoFig. 853 | Referwo Fig 863 86.9 Applications of RC Oscillators : ‘The applications of RC oscillators ae as follows 1. Low and medium frequency sine wave generators. 2. Function generators / signal generators used in laboratories. 3. Variable frequency signal generators. 8.7 LC Oscillators : TTC Cares {Q.1-» Write short note on : High frequency LC oscillator. g (May 05, May 08, Dec. 10, 5 Marks) @.2 Why LO. oscilators are preferred for high frequency applications ? (May 14, 4 Marks) @.3 _Wiite short notes on LC oscillators. PGR 8 (Dee. 15, § Marks) = In LC oscillators the feedback network consists of inductors (L) and capacitors (C). instead of resistors and capacitors as in case of RC oscillators. COSTE = These LC components determine the frequency of osilations of the LC oscillator. = The operating principle of LC oscillators is based on the Barkhausen conditions discussed in section 8:3, = These oscillator can operate at high frequencies typically from 200 kHz to few GHz. They are not frequencies because the values of L and C will be large at low frequencies. Large value inductors and capacitors are bulky (large i size) and expensive as well But as the operating frequency is increased we need smal ‘vale inductors and capacitors which are small in size and less table for low operating expensive = We are going to discuss the following types of LC oscillators inthe subsequent sections 1. Hanley oscillator 2. Colpits oscillator 3. Clapp oscillator 87.1 A General Form of LC Oscillators : = Many osillator ciruits can be represented (modelled) using the general form shown in Fig. 8.7.1. ~The active device can be an OP-AMP ora transistor or FET. Fig. 87.10) shows the linear equivalent circuit of Fig, 87.10). ~The active devise in Fig. 8.7.1(a) is assumed to have an infinite input resistance. ~The amplifier has a volage gain of Ay and its ouipt is applied to a feedback network which consists of impedances Zp Za Zy = Note thatthe amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network will provide an additional phase shit of 180° so that make the total phase shift is equal to 0° and satisfies the Barkhausen conditions. Foodback (9) The basic configuration Fig. 8.7.1 Contd...)(©) Faulvatent ctecult using an OFAME . see) Me. AI 8.7.2 Derivation to Decide the Components 7 atZ,,Z, and Z,: Inthe LC owas, we should comme Loe Cope of he senpedances 242, amd Z, of p78) {et find now which component placed whee. "The steps We ae oing to follow ae as given below Steps tobe folomed : [Step 1: Obmain de expression for gan A of amplifier [Step 2: Obtain he expresion fore Feock fc Step 3: Decide the types of components 10 be omnes ot 1 Obtaln the exprewion for voltage gala A {As the input impedance of the amplifice is misomed 10 be =, ccarent I flowing into the input termina 1 fs 2e0 ay shown in Fig. 87.10». ‘Since 1= 0, the impedances Z, and Z, will come in series and cross Z5, Therefore the equivalent food impedance 7, is given by = LADih 87.1) . Zand Z in So let us replace the combination of Fig. 87.100) by %, and redraw the figure as shown in Fie 8710 Refeingo Fig. 8:7.) we cn write a, AY ee (72) ) ‘re ouput vias =v Yn’ von nee 73) where, Ay = Open oop voge pan of OF-AMP. 0424) bat) 0 Cnty tr % at (a) Ven wet nic eran VI NTN prrenton for the feedlot Pati 1408) Obtaln the eee network alyvn in VR Step 2 Referring ‘ean waite th Vcedack voltage, Vy = mI) 10) — that ay the phase shift to be bntraduced Wy the Neem q Ihetwont ie 1KO" he expression for te feedback: Pacem snodifien n= ae MID) "Th 1 Obtaln the expeesaton for oop al = “The loop gain in given by - AB. 50. substituting Tgustons (8.74) and (2.7.7) we get, yt “MS TRAD) — Now subnttute Pquasion (47.1) ino Bqustiom (47.8) to get, = Ayia (Ly +2873 KATA BV) ys tyyty wha| Tis%ye7 e (AYA? ESN Vy 47 [BB lam =Mv4, RU,tE +L) + LiL, + T) MBIA) Ah = A =p = BI Step4: Decide the types of components = Let us assume that the impedances 7, Z, and Z are purely reactive. (Either i Where, X = © L for inductor and ah, X = Zhforacepacivon. ing the values of Z,-Z_ and Z, into Ksquation (6.7.9) AX 1G. MGR HIRO+ Ay XX TTR ORF HG )= XC AH) AvXs% “TIOGA 47 RO eH) ~ For the loop gain to be real (ero phase shif) the imaginary (87.10) art must be zero. 2 XAX4 = 0 (87.41) ~ Hence Equation (7.10) gets modified as, Av%X_ Ay WAB = TOK) SOR) “OTD = But from Equation (8.7.11) we ean substitute (X, + Xs ) =~ X; into Equation (7.12) to pet, (87.19) ~ According to Barkhausen criterion, - AB should be postive ‘and greater than or equal to 1. To achieve this, ia Equation (8.7.13) both X, and X, should have the same sign. ‘That means X, and X, should be same type of reactances| er inductive oF capacitive, = From Equation (8.7.11), X= - OK) +X) Hence X, must be an opposite type of reactance to X, and X;. ‘That means X, should be inductive ifX, and X, are capacitive and it should be capacitive if they are inductive. opposite type to X; and X. ‘Depending on the components used in place of X,, X, and X, wwe obtain two types of LC oscillators namely Hartley and Colpit’s oscillators. Table 8.7.1 gives more information about te Table 87.41 ‘Namie! of, [Components used in’ the feedback cscillator | network OS LE (SEX x % Harty oseiltor | L L c Cotpt’sescitator [_C c L 88 Hartley Oscillator : Donne aT ‘Draw the circuit diagram for Hartley oscillator. Write down the expression for its frequency of ‘oscilatons, (May 03, 3 Marks) Draw the ctcult for Harley oselator and write tho ‘expression for frequency of oscillations, (Dec, 03, 6 Marks) 1ency LC oscillator. Write short note on high freque [Thus X; and X; should be of same type and X, should be of Qscilators Tribe eacances X, and X, ae inductive and X, is capacitive then the circuit i called as Hartley oscillator. Depending onthe cerive device used we can have the follOWiNg types of Hanley oseilators¢ 1. Transistorized Hartley oscillator 2, Harley oscillator using FET 88.1. Transistorized Hartley Oscillator ; “The circuit diagram ofa transistorized Harley oscillator fag shown in Fig. 881 “Tonk rout (Feedback nwo v.10 Fig. 88.1 Transistorized Hartley oscillator Operation of the cireut : = Ry Ry and R, are the resistances for the biasing of the transistor. Coy and Ge, are the coupling capacitors, and C, bypasses Ry The feedback circuit is formed by the ‘components Ly, Land Ly ~The amplier is in CE configuration. Hence it provides 180° phase shift between its input and output. The feedback circuit provides an additional 180° phase shift to satisfy the coniton forte positive feedback. ~ The frequency of oscillations is given by 1 t= 88. TeOHOTS 681) where (L +L; )is the equivalent inductance, ——— (8.82) IGte ere we have not considers the mutual inductance between the two inductances L, and Ly. In practice the inductors Ly and L; ate wound on the same core so we cant neglest the Imutualindoetance M present between them. So considering ‘the mutual inductance, the equivalent indoctance Li given Oa Lg = L4lj+2M 883) We have to then substitute this expression of Lito Equation (8.82) The oscillator frequency canbe varied by varying the apacitor C, The frequency variation over a wide range ca? be easily obtained,letronies Devices & Circuits-I(MU- Sem 4 -E&Tc) _ 8-24 Oscillators 82 Hartley Oscillator using FET But if they are wound on the same core then we Fig. 882 shows the Hartley oscillator using FET. consider the mutual inductance M. The expressio *Vo0 ‘oscillator frequency will then be: fe t0 for 1 he f= 2NGy+h+2M) Feedback network with mutual indetance..(8.8.5) vy, |883 Advantages of Hartley Oselllator : 1, tiseasy to tne. 2, Itean operate over a wide frequency range 1 bp : be Hizto several Mit i 3, This easy to change the frequency by means of = variable cops 8.8.4 Applications : 1. Itis used as local oscillator in radio and TV receivers. someon cally from few Xt%+% = 0 1 2 ol+ol-ag =o rain Fig. 88.2: FET Hartley oscillator aes race Chit description: oe | ay By and Ry are used to properly bias the nchanel eT | 8-8-5 Disadvantage : used ere, 1. Poor frequency stability. |= Coy and Co, are the coupling capacitors and C, is the bypass | 8.8.6 Design of Hartley Oscillator : ———_sapacitor Ex.8.81: Design a Harley oscillator using BUT for an = The amplifier configuration is C, hence the phase stift ‘output frequency of 50 kHz. between input and output will be 180°. The feedback network | Soin. : provides the additional 180° phase shift required wo satisfy tbe | cuoyy; Draw thecireult diagram : condition for postive feedback, Ci . ; Fig, P. 88.12) shows the circuit diagram of a transstorised | Expression forthe frequency of oscillation Harteyectioe Here we have, X, = @L,, X, =@L, and X; Mog, pee | Fc “Tank crout (Foodback network) elton = a wthety = gle 1 8 = Tae 1 Les (rs) Fig. P.88.(0): Hartley oscillator using BIT Yarns Step 2: Calulate the LC components: Bu o = 2h, la l= b=L 1 = a et IG (E+) 2G (+1) without mtu inductance (884) —) Note that we have not considered the effect of mutual aac, inductance M between the two inductors L, and L. If the inductors are not wound on the same core then the fal inate between tem i zr and guton 884) Le ¢, is valid 1 f= we 0 0.01 pFElectroni ios & Circuits. (MU - Sem 4- E&Te) 2 1 a (0x10 = Sa xomRIO 1 = 5.066 10°" H or 0.5066 mit Step3: Biasing components : = Let Vp = 3 V. Vegg = 3°V and Voc = 10 Y. Also lt Va = VetVee #3407237 Ye _39 = Ra = T= pox ge SK =Vp Thay 10-37 = ata 8 (200 +20) x10 = 8.69640 ‘Components values: R, = 28636K0,R,=185K0,R,=3k0, Ly = 1,=05066 mH, C= 0.01 F Ex.882: Design a Harley oscillator using JFET to produce an output ata frequency of 100 kHz Soln. : ‘Step1: Draw the circuit diagram : Fig. P.8.8.2(a) shows the circuit diagram of Hartley osilator using JFET. Von Feedback network rai Fig. P-8.82(a) : Hartley oscillator using FET 825, ‘Calculate the LC components = 1 = GC +L) Lt by =hak Step 1 f= Gat . Let C, = 001pF | 1 100% 10? = aeyeexoorxo7 L = 1.2665% 10H = 0.1266 mit | Step 3: Biasing components Let fg=25 mS, Ipgs= 10 mA, V, =—4 V, Vosq=3 Vs 32 = Wegt dP = Vig + 8 Veg #16 1 Vijt8Vqti28 = 0 -8+V(@ 40x) Vos = 2x1 Vos = 221 Vor-5.79V Since Veg can not be more negative than Vp, we discard 5.79 V ; Vos = 221 Volts From Fig. P. 8.8.26), Vo = VostVs =-2214 79 B RekX Veo = 079 La R= IMO 1 “RETH10 = 079 R, = 1166MQ. pt Yoo ay Fig. P.88.2(0) Component vatues Ry = 11.66MQ, R,=1M9, imctronics Devices & Circults-l (MU 4-E8Te) L 11266 mH, Cy 4.9 Colpitt's Oscillator 0.01 uP, 08. Dec. 10 pa 0.1 Willa short note on high frequency LC oscil [1 anys, 10 mark, ay 08, bee to FX; and Xin the basic oscillator circuit are capacitors and X, isan inductor then the oscillator configuration is ealed os Calpit oscillator. We are going to discuss the following types of Colpt oscillators in this section : 1, Tansistorzed Colptt oscillator 2. FET Cotpttexilaor 89.1 Colpitt's Oscillator using Transistor : DRE Tse @.1 Draw the circuit of Colpitts oscillator using BUT and explain its operation. Derive the expression for frequency of oscillations. (May 04, 10 Marks) Q.2 Draw the circuit of colptts oscilator and explain its working, (Dec. 04, 10 Marks) ‘The Colpitt’s oscillator using transistor is shown in Fig. 8.9. = The resistors R,, Ry and R, will provide the biasing for the transistor. Co, and Cz are the coupling capacitors and C, is the bypass capacitor. = The transistor is connected in the CE configuration. Therefore it introduces a phase shift of 180° between its input and output. = The feedback network will provide additional 180° phase shift 0 as to make the total shift equal to zero. This will satisfy the condition forthe positive feedback. (e-17 Fig, 89.1 : Colpitt’s oscillator using a BIT ~The frequency of oscillations is given by, (89.1) 26 Oscillators ‘Asin We case of tansisor phase sit oscillator, the transistor cument gain is important. The circuit analysis gives the tiaimum value of ya. bec) = Mew = = The behaviour ofthe Colpit’s oscillator is very simi Of the Hartley oscillator for the simple reason that both of them use the same basic LC oscillator except for the phase shifting network. 8.9.2 Colpitt's Oscillator using FET [University Questions | me @.1 Derive tho oxprossion for frequency of oscilla for Colpits oscillator. (ec. 03, 6 Marka) = Fig. 8.9.2 shows the Colpits oscillator using FET. = Ry, R, and R, are the biasing resistors for the FET. Cey and Cz ate the coupling capacitor while C, is the bypass capacitor. — FETs operated in the CS configuration. Therefore the phase shift introduced is 180°. The feedback network consists of C,, Cy and L, which introduces an additional phase shift of 180° in order to make the total phase shift equal to 0°. Thus the ‘condition fr the postive feedback is satisfied. Foodback| ‘Sonal (F418) Fig. 89.2 : Colpitt’'s oscillator using FET ‘The expression for frequency of oscillaions is obtained as follows : x ro %rol, = Weknow that. X,+X,4+%5=0 +» Referring to Equation (8.7.11)) a4 akon = 0 wesc) eG iG ~~ ct nee ES 03) ¢ = te C= hence Equation 6.9.3) ges converted ss,a9 a pele? = ty 4 ¥eG 1 5 694) ad f= EE « G : wher, C= Ae 8.9.3 Frequency Stability : 1c is expected thatthe oscillator frequency should remain constant. It should not be dependent onthe factors such as changes in temperature of supply voltage and so on. Unfortunatly the Harley and Colptts oscillator circuits donot have a high frequency ability. ‘The reasons fr poor frequency stability area follows 1. The collector base internal capacitance affects the value of capacitance in the feedback circuit, This will change the frequency of oscillations. 2. The transistor parameters depend onthe temperature. Due to change. in their values, the frequency of oscillations will change. Remedy : To improve the frequency stability we can take the folowing 1. Use a temperature stabilized chamber to house te oscillator circuit, The temperature of chamber is maintained constant at the desired level. Ths will avoid any frequency changes due to drift in temperature, 2, Use voltage regulators to keep the supply voltage constant 3. Use a special type of oscillator called “Clapp oscillator” 8.9.4 Advantages of Colpitt’s Oscillator 1. Simple constrcton 2, Itis possible to obtain oscillations at very high frequencies. 89.5 Disadvantages : Its dificult to adjust the feedback as it demands change in capacitor values. 2. Poor frequency stability. 8.9.6 Application : 1. Asahigh frequency generator. 8.9.7 Design of Colpitt's Oscillator : ~ While designing the Copit's oscillitr, we have to consider the following important points: 1, - Foran oscillator using transistor, hug = Cy Cy 2... Foran oscillator using FET, w=C,/Cy, Oscilators = The following examples illustrate the design of Cofpitts oscillator using BIT and FET. Ex. 8.4 Design a Colpitts oscillator to get the frequency of 100 kHz with an active device BUT having hy = 45. Assume f = 50 and Voc = 10 V. soln Stet raw thecal agra: Fe asi te ed nm cy | cst 7 Feadback 819) Fig. P.8.9.1(a) : Colpitt’s oscillator using BJT eit connec oe | G Hecaey = c GC, _ 001x045 Gee" basa = 9.7810? AF or 9.78 nF 1 ba t= sole NE 1 - wre 1 Ga x (100 10" 9.78 x 10" Ly = 259% 10-4 H = 0259 mit Siep3: Bian components: Let Vp = 3 V. Veag = 3 Vand Voc Tog 1 mA and B= 50 10V. Also let ‘aeators “(Gf cocwenes Dovces& Cruel (MU-Som4-E8Te) 6.28 osc ge Tat = 101y=10%20=200 yA = 25x 001K =025 HF = Vet Vyg= 340.7 =: G 0.91 x0.25 9 fk C= 9615 x10? wr =9.615% 1077 F = led = 200+20) x10 R, = 28.636k0. 1 b= aPC = 0.2634 mH Fax (100% 10" x 9.615 x I iasing components = '5 mS, loss = 10 mA. Vs mA, Vg=3 Vand Voc= 10 4. Vpso=3 V+ = 1 sn P8530) Na = ta ‘Component values: = wf ] {636 KO, Ry = 185k, Ry = 3k, C, = 001 pF, C= oi =4 £0259 mil aos 2 8Ves + 16 + Design the Odbits osciltor to get he |. y?ygy_ei8 = 0 ; frequency of 100 kHz with an active device as |" * FET having m = 25. a =esNOFFCxS) x fetou, wes 1 Vg = -221¥V00-S79V Sup 1+ Draw the circuit diagram: yr¥oo Ry Va! Vas Re SY Vg = 8v ‘lgnal ces21) Fig. P,89.2(0) Since Vos can not be more negative than Vp, we discard 5.79 V. 420 Fig. P.8.9.2(a) : Colpit's oscillator using FET Step 2: Calculate C For sustained oscillations, Veg = -221 Volt, From Fig. P.8.9.20), = Vest Vy = -22143 = 079 = 079 Ima 079[EF ercoronies Devices & Gretel (MU -Sem4-E8To)_629 Oseiatrs = Doe fo the mounting ofthe crystal Betwcen two met plas R, = 166MQ ao en ir ONG) te ctl ls equ a Component rales: tapecitance denoted by C’ in the equivalent circuit. Cig R, = 11.66 MQ, R; = 1 MQ, C, = 001 pF, C, = 0.25 uF, ‘called as the mounting capacitance. L 2659 mH Resonant frequencies ; verre wee resmat crt exang nt 0 8.10 Crystal Oscillators : cae yaa LC arma sees nen cel a TT Seen it wl form a pall reeean ee ‘The resonant frequency of the series R-L-C series circuit is given by @.1 Write short note on : Crystal oscillator and its J 10 applications. = 5° tee aa (Dec. 11, 5 Marks, Dec. 12, 10 Marks) | | — We have not considered R with an assumption that quality Q.2 Wiite short note on : Crystal oscilator. factor Q is very large. The resonant frequency of the parallel (May 07, Dec. 07, 3 Marks, May 15, May 16, 5 Marks, resonant frequency formed by R-L-C and C’is given by, Dec. 13, 4 Marks, Dec. 16,2 % Marks) 1 1 (8102) Principe of crystal oscillators: IEC, ~ Certin materials such as quartz exhibit a unique property where, Cy = TESS) called “piezo electric” property. = Itstates that if mechanical force is applied to a quartz crystal Cais smaller than smallest of Cand C’. Stems me Tine pet riot ape cs Sy = Abo it eee Sadie apd to a cyst vinter |] eg : ‘mechanically. pees = AS Cqq is smaller than C or C’, the parallel resonant =" If we apply mechanical vibrations to @ quartz crystal then i frequency {fp is always higher than the series resonant under proper operating conditions we can obtain electrical ‘oscillations from it. This is the principle of operation of a frequency fs ccyeta) entation. Crystal impedance : Frequency stability : ‘To obtain the expression for crystal impedance let us use the approximate ac equivalent circuit of Fig. 8.10.2(@). The eine hemgfuing stores | nto = in tof Rae ce et rs ele | ee be ep tb ee 8.10.1 Equivalent Circuit of a Crystal Re utiey wan $y ote (a) Approximate ac equivalent circuit i * dove | i on ve et aon Tee tt (a) Crystal (b) AC equivalent circuit of a crystal 220 Fig. 8.10.1 = Inthe ac equivalent circuit of a vibrating crystal, the intemal frictional loses are represented by a resistance R. = Mass of the exystal and therefore the associated inertia is ‘Capactive represented by Land sess under the vibrating condition is Greene represented by capacitor C. very Fie. 8182 inductive 1 CapactiveDue to the parallel connection, reactance of the crystal is givenby (8.10.3) = Here @ is the frequency at which the crystal reactance is to be calculated. 1. Wo < ag 2 If © <0, then itis less than wp as well because “©, > Os Hence both, numerator and denominator of Equation (8.10.3) ie, ( aw) and (a? ~ a) will be negative. Hence the reactance of the crystal ie, “X" will be negative. ie. capacitive ‘Thus crystal reactance is capacitive for w < a, as shown in Fig. 8.10.20). 2 It | When = 04,(a 1) = 0 hence 20, a shown ia Fig. 8.1020) 3. tea, <0 < tp: For gree than but ess han the numerator (a? ~ oy Here both (0? 0) and (0? 0) wil be positive So X willbe negative ie. capactive 5. If@=a,: Ato = oy the denominator (o*-0})= 0. Hence jX =. “The variation of X with «is as shown in Fig. 8.10.20) 8.10.2 Types of Crystal Oscillators : “The two types of crystal oscillators which we are going to study are 1. Pierce erystal oscillator 2. Miller crystal oscillator 8.10.3 Plerce Crystal Oscillator = Ifyou compare Fig. 8.10.3 with the Colpit's oscillator drawn in Fig. 89.1 then you will find that both these circuits are identical except for one change. L; is replaced by the crystal here, = Therefore the erystl is made to operate as an inductance. This is possible if the frequency of oscillations @ is adjusted between a, and cas shown in Fig. 8.10.2(0). lecronics Devices & Circuts-I(MU- Sem 4-E&Te) 8-30 Oscillators ces) Fig. 8.10.3: Pierce crystal oscillator = The basie operation of the pierce crystal oscillator is same as that of the Colptt’s oscillator. = REC is a radio frequency choke which connects the DC. supply to the circuit but isolates the DC supply from the high frequency oscillations generated in the tank circuit (feedback network). 8.10.4 Modified Pierce Crystal Oscillator : = Sometimes the external capacitors C, and C; are not used. Instead the internal capacitances of the transistor or FET are sed, = Such a modified pierce crystal oscillator is as shown in Fig. 8.104. Both the versions, using a BJT and FET are shown on ie ee ‘RFC Sey re, Te ©) Ire: Ro Rk, Se (a) Modi pire crystal (8) Modified pierce ergstal cochlear. ndlaioreneg ee 29) Fig. 810.4 8.10.5 Miller Crystal Oscillator : ~ Ifthe Hartley oscillator circuit is modified by replacing one of the inductors by a crystal then we get the Miller erystal oscillator configuration shown in Fig. 8.10.5.xcitators If we want to increase the fundamental frequency we have to reduce the thickness of erystal slab, But crystal slab can not be cu too thin due tothe posiity of it getting fractured, Hence there is an upper limit on the Fundamental frequency. For most crystals the maximum fundamental frequency is about 20 MHz. ‘Overtone mode For higher frequencies than 20 MHz, we can not use the fundamental mode so the erystal is operated in the overtone mode, = Overtones are approximately integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. For example twice, three times, four times the fundamental frequency. = The overtone frequencies are usualy the odd multiples of the fundamental frequency. However this i not always tue 8.10.7 Advantages of Crystal Oscillator 00 Fig, 8.10.6: Miller erystal oscillator using FET = The crystal acts like an inductor as the frequency of oscillations « is adjusted between a, and wp as shown in Fig. 8.10.20). = The Miller crystal oscillator using FET is as shown in Fig. 8.106. Cy is the gate to drain capacitance of FET. The biggest advantage of the Pierce and Miller erystal oscillator is the ‘frequency stability The frequency will remain absolutely stable inspite of variations in the supply voltage or temperature, of the parameters of the active device. 8.10.6 Modes of Operation in the Crystal : ‘The piezoelectric crystals can oscillate in one of the following two modes 1. Fundamental mode 2 Fundamental mode : = Inthe fundamental mode, the erystal oscillator oscillates atthe fundamental crystal frequency. The fundamental frequency depends on the crystals ‘mechanical dimensions, type of cut and other factors. It is inversely proportional to the thickness ofthe crystal slab, Overtone ri @.1 What are the advantages of crystal oscillator over ‘other high and low frequency oscillator ? (May 06, 10 Marks) Following are some ofthe advantages of erystal oscillator 1. Very high frequency stability 2 Very low frequency drift due to change in temperature and other parameters, 3. tis possible to obtain vey high, precise and stable frequency of oscillations. 4. The Qis very high 5M is possible to obtain frequencies, higher than the fundamental frequency by operating the crystal in the overtone mode. 8.10.8 Disadvantages ; 1. These ar suitable for high frequency applications, 2 Chystals of low fundamental frequencies are not eatly available, 8.10.9 Applications of Crystal Oscillators CES @.1" Wte short note on : Crystal osoilator and its applications, “te (Dee. 11, § Marks, Dec. 12, 10 Marks) 1. As acrystal clock in microprocessors 2 Inthe frequency synthesizers, 3. 4 In the radio and TV transmitters. In special types of receivers