Aircraft System

Aircraft Systems
CONTENTS:
Lecture Subject Page
1 Hydraulic Systems 04
2 Pneumatic Systems 39
3 Water and Waste Systems 49
4 Equipment and Furnishing 62
5 Electrical Systems 75
6 Light Systems 106
7 Air-conditioning and Pressurization Systems 116
8 Oxygen Systems 135
9 Flight Control Systems 150
10 Fuel Systems 175
11 Fire Protection Systems 184
12 Landing Gear Systems 196
13 Ice and Rain Protection Systems 252
Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

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Aircraft Systems
LECTURE 1 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this topic, you will able to:
Describe purpose of hydraulic system

Recall type of hydraulic fluid
Fluid contamination
Able to Identification component of hydraulic system
Carry out inspection of hydraulic system
Carry out hydraulic servicing

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Aircraft Systems
1. HYDRAULIC POWER
GENERAL – hydraulic system have many advantages as a power source for operating various aircraft units. The advantages of
hydraulic; light weight, ease of installation, simplification of inspection, and minimum maintenance requirements. Hydraulic
operations are also almost 100% efficient, with only a negligible loss due to fluid friction.
Hydraulic fluid, - are use primarily to transmit and distribute forces to various units to be actuate, they are almost
incompressible. Pascal’s Law states that pressure applied to any part of a confined liquid is transmitted with undiminished
intensity to every other part. Thus, if a number of passages exist in a system, pressure can be distributed through all of them
by means of the liquid.
Viscosity, - one of the most important properties of any hydraulic fluid is its viscosity. Viscosity is internal resistance to
flow. A liquid such as gasoline flows easily (has a low viscosity) while a liquid such as tar flows slowly (has a high
viscosity). Viscosity increases with temperature decreases.
A satisfactory liquid for a given hydraulic system must have enough body to give a good seal at pumps, valves, and
pistons; but it must not be so thick that it offers resistance to flow, leading to power loss and higher operating
temperatures. These factors will add to the load and to excessive wear of parts. A fluid that is too thin will also lead to
rapid wear of moving parts, or of parts which have heavy loads.
The viscosity of a liquid is measured with a viscometer. The Saybolt universal viscosimeter or viscometer instrument
measures the number of seconds it takes for a fixed quantity of liquid (60 cc. (cubic centimeters)) to flow through a small
orifice of standard length and diameter at a specific temperature. This time of flow is taken in seconds, and the viscosity
reading is expressed as SSU (Seconds, Saybolt Universal). For example, a certain liquid might have a viscosity of 80
SSU at 130 0 F.
Flash point, - is the temperature at which a liquid gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite momentarily or flash
when a flame is applied. A high flash point is desirable for hydraulic liquids because it indicates good resistance to
combustion and a low degree of evaporation at normal temperatures.
Fire point, - is the temperature at which a substance gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite and continue to burn when
exposed to a spark or flame, like flash point, a high fire point is required of desirable hydraulic liquids.

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Aircraft Systems
Saybolt
i i

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Aircraft Systems
Type of hydraulic fluids

To assure proper system operation and to avoid damage to non-metallic components of the hydraulic system, the
correct fluid must be used. When adding fluid to a system, use the type specified in the aircraft manufacturer's
maintenance manual or on the instruction plate affixed to the reservoir or unit being serviced.
There are three types of hydraulic fluids currently being used in civil aircraft:
Vegetable base hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-7644) is composed essentially of caster oil and alcohol. It has a pungent
alcoholic odor and is generally dyed blue. Although it has a similar composition to automotive type hydraulic fluid, it is
not interchangeable. Natural rubber seals are used with vegetable base hydraulic fluid. If it is contaminated with
petroleum base or phosphate ester base fluids, the seals will swell, break down and block the system. This type fluid is
flammable.
Mineral base hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-5606) is processed from petroleum. It has an odor similar to penetrating oil
and is dyed red. Synthetic rubber seals are used with petroleum base fluids. Do not mix with vegetable base or
phosphate ester base hydraulic fluids. This type fluid is flammable.
PHOSPHATE ESTER BASE FLUIDS (MIL-H- )Non-petroleum base hydraulic fluids were introduced to provide a fire-
resistant hydraulic fluid for use in high performance piston engines and turboprop aircraft. These fluids were fire-
resistance tested by being sprayed through a welding torch flame (60000). There was no burning, but only occasional
flash of fire. These and other tests proved non-petroleum base fluids (Skydrol ®) would not support combustion. Even
though they might flash at exceedingly high temperatures, Skydrol ® fluids could not spread a fire because burning was
localized at the source of beat. Once the heat source was removed or the fluid flowed away from the source, no further
flashing or burning occurred.
Several types of phosphate ester base (Skydrol ® ) hydraulic fluids have been discontinued. Currently used in aircraft are
Skydrol ® 500B-a clear purple liquid having good low temperature operating characteristics and low corrosive side
effects; and, Skydrol ® LD-a clear purple low weight fluid formulated for use in large and jumbo jet transport aircraft
where weight is a prime factor.
Intermixing of Fluids, - due to the difference in composition, vegetable base, petroleum base and phosphate ester
fluids will not mix. Neither are the seals for any one fluid useable with or tolerant of any of the other fluids. Should an
aircraft hydraulic system be serviced with the wrong type fluid, immediately drain and flush the system and maintain
the seals according to the manufacturer's specifications.

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Aircraft Systems
Health and Handling, - Skydrol ® fluid has a very low order of toxicity when taken orally or applied to the skin in liquid
form. It causes pain on contact with eye tissue, but animal studies and human experience indicate Skydrol fluid causes
no permanent damage. First aid treatment for eye contact includes flushing the eyes immediately with large volumes of
water and the application of any anesthetic eye solution. If pain persists, the individual should be referred to a physician.
In mist or fog form, Skydrol ® is quite irritating to nasal or respiratory passages and generally produces coughing and
sneezing. Such irritation does not persist following cessation of exposure. Silicone ointments, rubber gloves, and careful
washing procedures should be utilized to avoid excessive repeated contact with Skydrol ® in order to avoid solvent effect
on skin.
Hydraulic Fluid Contamination, - Experience has shown that trouble in a hydraulic system is inevitable whenever the
liquid is allowed to become contaminated. The nature of the trouble, whether a simple malfunction or the complete
destruction of a component, depends to some extent on the type of contaminant.
Two general contaminants are:
(1) Abrasives, including such particles as core sand, weld spatter, machining chips, and rust.
(2) Non-abrasives, including those resulting from oil oxidation, and soft particles worn or shredded from seals
and other organic components.
Contamination Check, - Whenever it is suspected that a hydraulic system has become contaminated, or the system
has been operated at temperatures in excess of the specified maximum, a check of the system should be made. The
filters in most hydraulic systems are designed to remove most foreign particles that are visible to the naked eye.
Hydraulic liquid which appears clean to the naked eye may be contaminated to the point that it is unfit for use.
Thus, visual inspection of the hydraulic liquid does not determine the total amount of contamination in the system.
To determine which component is defective, liquid samples should be taken from the reservoir and various other
locations in the system.
Contamination Control, - Filters provide adequate control of the contamination problem during all normal hydraulic
system operations. Control of the size and amount of contamination entering the system from any other source is the
responsibility of the people who service and maintain the equipment.
Therefore, precautions should be taken to minimize contamination during maintenance, repair, and service operations.
Should the system become contaminated, the filter element should be removed and cleaned or replaced. As an aid in
controlling contamination, the following maintenance and servicing procedures should be followed at all times:
(1) Maintain all tools and the work area (workbenches and test equipment) in a clean, dirt-free condition.
(2) A suitable container should always be provided to receive the hydraulic liquid that is spilled during
component removal or disassembly procedures.

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Aircraft Systems
Hydraulic micronic filter type
(3) Before disconnecting hydraulic lines or fittings, clean the affected area with dry cleaning solvent.
(4) All hydraulic lines and fittings should be capped or plugged immediately after disconnecting.
(5) Before assembly of any hydraulic components, wash all parts in an approved dry cleaning solvent.
(6) After cleaning the parts in the dry cleaning solution, dry the parts thoroughly and lubricate them with the
recommended preservative or hydraulic liquid before assembly. Use only clean, lint-free cloths to wipe or dry the
component parts.
(7) All seals and gaskets should be replaced during the re-assembly procedure. Use only those seals and gaskets

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Aircraft Systems
recommended by the manufacturer.

(8) All parts should be connected with care to avoid stripping metal slivers from threaded areas. All fittings and
lines should be installed and torque in accordance with applicable technical instructions.
(9) All hydraulic servicing equipment should be kept clean and in good operating condition.
FILTERS, - is a screening or straining device used to clean the hydraulic fluid, thus preventing foreign particles and
contaminating substances from remaining in the system. If such objectionable material is not removed, it may cause the
entire hydraulic system of the aircraft to fail through the breakdown or malfunctioning of a single unit of the system.
The hydraulic fluid holds in suspension tiny particles of metal that are deposited during the normal wear of selector valves,
pumps, and other system components. Such minute particles of metal may injure the units and parts through which they
pass if they are not removed by a filter.
Since tolerances within the hydraulic system components are quite small, it is apparent that the reliability and efficiency
of the entire system depends upon adequate filtering.
There are many models and styles of filters. Their position in the aircraft and design requirements determine their shape
and size. Most filters used in modern aircraft are of the inline type. The inline filter assembly is comprised of three
basic units: head assembly, bowl, and element. The head assembly is that part which is secured to the aircraft
structure and connecting lines. Within the head there is a bypass valve which routes the hydraulic fluid directly from the
inlet to the outlet port if the filter element becomes clogged with foreign matter. The bowl is the housing which holds
the element to the filter head and is that part which is removed when element removal is required.
The element may be either a micronic, porous metal, or magnetic type. The micronic element is made of a specially
treated paper and is normally thrown away when removed. The porous metal and magnetic filter elements are designed to
be cleaned by various methods and replaced in the system.
Maintenance of Filters, - Maintenance of filters is relatively easy. It mainly involves cleaning the filter and element or
cleaning the filter and replacing the element. Filters using the micronic type element should have the element replaced
periodically according to applicable instructions. Since reservoir filters are of the micronic type, they must also be
periodically changed or cleaned. Filter using other than the micronic-type element, cleaning the filter and element is
usually all that is necessary. However, the element should be inspected very closely to insure that it is completely
undamaged. The methods and materials used in cleaning all filters are too numerous to mention. Consult the manu-
facturer's instructions for this information.

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Aircraft Systems
BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

A fluid power system in which the fluid in the system remains pressurized from the pump (or regulator) to the directional
control valve while the pump is operating is referred to as a closed-center system. In this type of system, any number of
subsystems may be incorporated, with a separate directional control valve for each subsystem. The directional control valves
are arranged in parallel so that system pressure acts equally on all control valves.
Another type of system hat is sometimes used in hydraulically operated equipment is the open-center system. An open-
center system has fluid flow but no internal pressure when the actuating mechanisms are idle. The pump circulates the fluid
from the reservoir, through the directional control valves, and back to the reservoir. Like the closed-center system, the open-
center system may have any number of subsystems, with a directional control valve for each subsystem.
Unlike the closed-center system, the directional control valves of an open-center system are always connected in series with
each other, an arrangement in which the system pressure line goes through each directional control valve. Fluid is always
allowed free passage through each control valve and back to the reservoir until one of the control valves is positioned to
operate a mechanism.
The first of the basic components, the reservoir, stores the supply of hydraulic fluid for operation of the system. It
replenishes the system fluid when needed, provides room for thermal expansion, and in some systems provides a means
for bleeding air from the system.
A pump is necessary to create a flow of fluid. The pump shown is hand operated; however, aircraft systems are, in most
instances equipped with engine-driven or electric motor driven pumps.
The selector valve is used to direct the flow of fluid. These valves are normally actuated by solenoids or manually
operated, either directly or indirectly through use of mechanical linkage. An actuating cylinder converts fluid pressure
into useful work by linear or reciprocating mechanical motion, whereas a motor converts fluid pressure into useful work by
rotary mechanical motion.
The flow of hydraulic fluid can be traced from the reservoir through the pump to the selector valve. With the selector
valve in the position shown, the hydraulic fluid flows through the selector valve to the right-hand end of the actuating
cylinder. Fluid pressure then forces the piston to the left, and at the same time the fluid which is on the left side of the
piston is forced out, up through the selector valve, and back to the reservoir through the return line.
When the selector valve is moved to the opposite position, the fluid from the pump flows to the left side of the
actuating cylinder, thus reversing the process. Movement of the piston can be stopped at any time by moving the selector
valve to neutral. In this position, all four ports are closed and pressure is trapped in both working lines.

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Aircraft Systems
Open-Center loop System Open-Center loop System
Advantage:
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Disadvantage:
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Aircraft Systems
Power Driven Pump System, - a basic system with the addition of a power-driven pump and filter, pressure regulator,
accumulator, pressure gage, relief valve, and two check valves. The function of each of these components is described in
the following paragraphs.
The filter removes foreign particles from the hydraulic fluid, preventing dust, grit, or other undesirable matter from
entering the system.
The pressure regulator unloads or relieves the power-driven pump when the desired pressure in the system is reached.
Thus, it is often referred to as an unloading valve. When one of the actuating units is being operated and pressure in
the line between the pump and selector valve builds up to the desired point, a valve in the pressure regulator
automatically opens and fluid is bypassed back to the reservoir. This bypass line is shown leading from the pressure
regulator to the return line.
Many hydraulic systems do not use a pressure regulator, but have other means of unloading the pump and maintaining
the desired pressure in the system.
The accumulator serves a twofold purpose:

(1) It acts as a cushion or shock absorber by maintaining an even pressure in the system, and
(2) It stores enough fluid under pressure to provide for emergency operation of certain actuating units. Accumulators
are designed with a compressed air chamber which is separated from the fluid by a flexible diaphragm or movable
piston.
The pressure gage indicates the amount of hydraulic pressure in the system. The relief valve is a safety valve
installed in the system to bypass fluid through the valve back to the reservoir in case excessive pressure is built up in the
system.
The check valves allow the flow of fluid in one direction only. Check valves are installed at various points in the lines of
all aircraft hydraulic systems. In figure 8-4, one check valve prevents power-pump pressure from entering the hand-
pump line; the other prevents hand-pump pressure from being directed to the accumulator.
The units of a typical hydraulic system used most commonly are discussed in detail in the following paragraphs. Not all
models or types are included, but examples of typical components are used in all cases.

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Aircraft Systems
Basic hydraulic system with power pump

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Aircraft Systems
Basic hydraulic system with hand pump

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Aircraft Systems
RESERVOIRS,
There are two types of reservoirs and they are:

(1) In-Line-this type has its own housing, is complete within it and is connected with other components in a
system by tubing or hose.
(2) Integral-this type has no housing of its own but is merely a space set aside within some major component to
hold a supply of operational fluid. A familiar example of this type is the reserve fluid space found within most
automobile brake master cylinders.
In an in-line reservoir, a space is provided in the reservoir, above the normal level of the fluid, for fluid expansion and
the escape of entrapped air. Reservoirs are never intentionally filled to the top with fluid. Most reservoirs are designed so the
rim of the filler neck is somewhat below the top of the reservoir to prevent over filling during servicing. Most
reservoirs are equipped with a dipstick or a glass sight gage by which fluid level can be conveniently and accurately
checked.
Reservoirs are either vented to the atmosphere or closed to the atmosphere and pressurized. In vented reservoirs,
atmospheric pressure and gravity are the forces which cause fluid to flow from the reservoir into the pump intake. On
many aircraft, atmospheric pressure is the principal force causing fluid to flow to the pump intake. However, for some
aircraft, atmospheric pressure becomes too low to supply the pump with adequate fluid, and the reservoirs must be
pressurized.
There are several methods of pressurizing a reservoir. Some systems use air pressure directly from the aircraft cabin
pressurization system; or from the engine compressor in' the case of turbine-powered aircraft. Another method used is an
aspirator or venture tee.
In other systems an additional hydraulic pump is installed in the supply line at the reservoir outlet to supply fluid
under pressure to the main hydraulic pump.
Pressurizing with air is accomplished by forcing air into the reservoir above the level of the fluid. In most cases, the initial
source of the air pressure is the aircraft engine from which it is bled. Usually, air coming directly from the engine is at
a pressure of approximately 100 Psi. This pressure is reduced to between 5 and 15 PSI, depending upon the type of
hydraulic system, by using an air pressure regulator.
Reservoir Components, - baffles and/or fins are incorporated in most reservoirs to keep the fluid within the reservoir from
having random movement such as vortexing (swirling) and surging. These conditions can cause fluid to foam and air to
enter the pump along with the fluid.
Some aircraft have emergency hydraulic systems that take over if main systems fail. In many such systems, the pumps of
both systems obtain fluid from a single reservoir. Under such circumstances a supply of fluid for the emergency pump

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Aircraft Systems
is ensured by drawing the hydraulic fluid from the bottom of the reservoir. The main system draws its fluid through a
standpipe located at a higher level. With this arrangement, adequate fluid is left for operation of the emergency
system should the main system's fluid supply become depleted.
Reservoir “In- Line”

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Aircraft Systems
Double Action Hand Pumps, - is used in some older aircraft as a backup unit. Double-action hand pumps produce
fluid flow and pressure on each stroke of the handle.
Note: Note:

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Aircraft Systems
Power-Driven Pumps, - Many of the power-driven hydraulic pumps of current aircraft are of variable-delivery,
compensator-controlled type. There are some constant delivery pumps in use. Principles of operation are the same for
both types of pumps. Because of its relative simplicity and ease of understanding, the constant-delivery pump is used to
describe the principles of operation of power-driven pumps.
A constant-delivery pump, regardless of pump r.p.m. forces a fixed or unvarying quantity of fluid through the outlet port
during each revolution of the pump. Constant-delivery pumps are sometimes called constant-volume or fixed-delivery
pumps. When a constant-delivery pump is used in a hydraulic system in which the pressure must be kept at a constant
value, a pressure regulator is required.
A variable-delivery pump has a fluid output that is varied to meet the pressure demands of the system by varying its
fluid output. The pump output is changed automatically by a pump compensator within the pump. Various types of
pumping mechanisms are used in hydraulic pumps, such as gears, gear-rotors, vanes, and pistons. The piston-type
mechanism is commonly used in power-driven pumps because of its durability and capability to develop high pressure.
In 3.000 PSI hydraulic systems, piston-type pumps are nearly always used.

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Aircraft Systems
Gear Vane

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Aircraft Systems
Typical angular type
Hydraulic pressure must be regulated in order to use it to perform the desired tasks. Pressure regulating systems will always use
three elemental devices; a pressure relief valve, a pressure regulator and a pressure gage. A pressure relief valve is used to limit

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Aircraft Systems
the amount of pressure being exerted on a confined liquid. This is necessary to prevent failure of components or rupture
of hydraulic lines under excessive pressures. The pressure relief valve is, in effect, a system safety valve.
The design of pressure relief valves incorporates adjustable spring-loaded valves. They are, installed in such a manner as to
discharge fluid from the pressure line into a reservoir return line when the pressure exceeds the predetermined maximum
for which the valve is adjusted, Various makes and designs of pressure relief valves are in use, but, in general, they all
employ a spring-loaded valuing device operated by hydraulic pressure and spring tension.
Pressure relief valves are adjusted by increasing or decreasing the tension on the spring to determine the pressure
required to opens the valve.
Pressure relief valves cannot be used as pressure regulators in large hydraulic systems that depend upon engine-
driven pumps for the primary source of pressure because the pump is constantly under load, and the energy
expended in holding the pres. sure relief valve off its seat is changed into heat. This beat is transferred to the fluid and
in turn to the packing rings causing them to deteriorate rapidly. Pressure relief valves, however, may be used as
pressure regulators in small, low-pressure systems or when the pump is electrically driven and is used
intermittently.
Pressure relief valves may be used as:
• System relief valve. The most common use of the pressure relief valve is as a safety device against the possible
failure of a pump compensator or other pressure regulating device. All hydraulic systems which have hydraulic
pumps incorporate pressure relief valves as safety devices.
• Thermal relief valve. The pressure relief valve is used to relieve excessive pressures that may exist due to
thermal expansion of the fluid.
Pressure Regulators, - the term "pressure regulator" is applied to a device used in hydraulic systems that are
pressurized by constant-delivery type pumps. One purpose of the pressure regulator is to manage the output of the
pump to maintain system operating pressure within a predetermined range. The other purpose is to permit the pump to
turn without resistance (termed unloading the pump) at times when pressure in the system is within normal
operating range.
The pressure regulator is so located in the system that pump output can get into the system pressure circuit only
by passing through the regulator. The combination of a constant-delivery type pump and the pressure regulator is
virtually the equivalent of a compensator-controlled, variable-delivery type PUMP.

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Aircraft Systems
LRU: Line Replaceable Unit

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Aircraft Systems
Pressure Gage, - the purpose of this gage is to measure the pressure, in the hydraulic system, used to operate
hydraulic units on the aircraft. The gage uses a Bourdon tube and a mechanical arrangement to transmit the tube
expansion to the indicator on the face of the gage. A vent in the bottom of the case maintains atmospheric pressure
around the Bourdon tube.
Accumulator, - is a steel sphere divided into two chambers by a synthetic rubber diaphragm. The upper chamber contains
fluid at system pressure, while the lower chamber is charged with air.
The function of an accumulator is to:
a. Dampen pressure surges in the hydraulic system caused by actuation of a unit and the effort of the pump to
maintain pressure at a preset level.
b. Aid or supplement the power pump when several units are operating at once by supplying extra power from its
"accumulated" or stored power.
c. Store power for the limited operation of a hydraulic unit when the pump is not operating.
d. Supply fluid under pressure to compensate for small internal or external (not desired) leaks which would cause the
system to cycle continuously by action of the pressure switches continually "kicking in."

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Aircraft Systems
Diaphragm type accumulators consist of two hollow half-ball metal sections fastened together at the centerline. One of
these halves has a fitting for attaching the unit to the system; the other half is equipped with an air valve for charging
the unit with compressed air. Mounted between the two halves is a synthetic rubber diaphragm which divides the tank
into two compartments. A screen covers the outlet on the fluid side of the accumulator. This prevents a part of the
diaphragm from being pushed up into the system pressure port and being damaged.
Piston Type
Diagpram Type

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Aircraft Systems
Piston-Type Accumulators
The piston-type accumulator also serves the same purpose and operates much like the diaphragm and bladder
accumulators. This unit is a cylinder (B) and piston assembly (E) with openings on each end. System fluid pressure enters
the top' port (A), and forces the piston down against the air charge in the bottom chamber (D). A high-pressure air valve
(C) is located at the bottom of the cylinder for servicing the unit. There are two rubber seals (represented by the
black dot s) which prevent leakage between the two chambers (D and G). A passage (F) is drilled from the fluid side of the
piston to the space between the seals. This provides lubrication between the cylinder walls and the piston.
Maintenance of Accumulators, - consists of inspections, minor repairs, replacement of component parts, and testing.
There is an element of danger in maintaining accumulators. Therefore, proper precautions must be strictly observed to
prevent injury and damage.
BEFORE DISASSEMBLING ANY ACCUMULATOR, MAKE SURE THAT ALL PRELOAD AIR (OR NITROGEN)
PRESSURE HAS BEEN DISCHARGED.
Failure to release the air could result in serious injury to the mechanic. (Before making this check, however, be certain you
know the type of high-pressure air valve used.) When you know that all air pressure has been removed, go ahead and
take the unit apart. Be sure, though, that you follow manufacturer's instructions for the specific unit you have.
Check Valves, - For hydraulic components and systems to operate as intended, the flow of fluid must be rigidly con-
trolled. Fluid must be made to flow according to definite plans. Many kinds of valve units are used for exercising such
control. One of the simplest and most commonly used is the check valve which allows free flow of fluid in one direction,
but no flow or a restricted flow in the opposite direction.
Check valves are made in two general designs to serve two different needs. In one, the check valve is complete
within itself. It is inter-connected with other components, with which it operates, by means of tubing or hose. Check
valves of this design are commonly called in-line check valves. There are two types of in-line check valves, the simple-
type in-line check valve and the orifice-type in-line valve.

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Aircraft Systems
Simple type in-line check valve
Orifice type in-line check valve

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Aircraft Systems
Simple in-line check valve, - (often called check valve) is used when a full flow of fluid is desired in only one direction
Fluid enters the inlet port of the check valve forcing the valve off its seat against the restraint of the spring. This
permits fluid to flow through the passageway thus opened. The instant fluid stops moving in this direction, the spring
returns the valve to its seat.
Orifice-type in-line check valve, - is used to allow normal operating speed of a mechanism by providing free flow of fluid in
one direction, while allowing limited operating speed through restricted flow of fluid in the opposite direction. The
operation of the orifice-type in-line check valve is the same as the simple-type in-line check valve, except for the
restricted flow allowed when closed.
Line-Disconnect or Quick-Disconnect Valves, - these valves are installed in hydraulic lines to prevent loss of fluid
when units are removed valves are installed in the pressure and suction lines of the system just in front of and
immediately behind the power pump. These, valve units consist of two interconnecting sections coupled together by a nut
when installed in the system. Each valve section has a piston and poppet assembly. These are spring loaded to the CLOSED
position when the unit is disconnected.
Line disconnect valve

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Aircraft Systems
ACTUATING CYLINDERS - a n actuating cylinder transforms energy in the form of fluid pressure into mechanical
force, or action, to perform work. It is used to impart powered linear motion to some movable object or mechanism.
A typical actuating cylinder consists fundamentally of cylinder housing, one or more pistons and piston rods, and some
seals.
Seals are used to prevent leakage between the piston and the cylinder bore, and between the piston rod and the end of
the cylinder. Both the cylinder housing and the piston rod have provisions for mounting and' for attachment to an
object or mechanism which is to be moved by the actuating cylinder.
Actuating cylinders are of two major types:
(1) Single-action and
(2) Double-action.
The single-action (single port) actuating cylinder is capable of producing powered movement in one direction only. The
double-action (two ports) actuating cylinder is capable of producing powered movement in two directions.
A single-action actuating cylinder, - fluid under pressure enters the port at the left and pushes against the face of the piston,
forcing the piston to the right. As the piston moves, air is forced out of the spring chamber through the vent hole,
compressing the spring. When pressure on the fluid is released to the point that it exerts less force than is present in
the compressed spring, the spring pushes the piston toward the left. As the piston moves to the left, fluid is forced out of
the fluid port. At the same time, the moving piston pulls air into the spring chamber through the vent hole. A three-way
control valve is normally used for controlling the operation of a single-action actuating cylinder.
Double-Action Actuating Cylinder, - (two-port) actuating cylinder is usually controlled by a four-way selector valve.
Figure 8-26 shows an actuating cylinder interconnected with a selector valve. Operation of the selector valve and actuating
cylinder is discussed below.
Placing the selector valve in the "on" position admits fluid pressure to the left-hand chamber of the actuating cylinder. This
results in the piston being forced toward the right.

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Aircraft Systems
Single Action
Double Action

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Aircraft Systems
SELECTOR VALVES, - are used to control the direction of movement of an actuating unit. A selector valve provides a
pathway for the simultaneous flow of hydraulic fluid into and out of a connected actuating unit. A selector valve also
provides a means of immediately and conveniently switching the directions in which the fluid flows through the actuator,
reversing the direction of movement.
One port of the typical selector valve is connected with a system pressure, line for the input of fluid pressure. A second port of
the valve is connected to a system return line for the return of fluid to the reservoir. The ports of an actuating unit
through which fluid enters and leaves the actuating unit are connected by lines to other ports of the selector valve.
Selector valves having four ports are the most commonly used, the term four-way is often used instead of four-port in
referring to selector valves.
Typical selector valve

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Aircraft Systems
Rotor type, closed-center selector valve operation

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Aircraft Systems
“A” illustrates a four-way, closed-center selector valve in the "off" position. All of the valve ports are blocked, and fluid can
not flow into or out of the valve.
“B” the selector valve is placed in one of its "on" positions. The PRESS port and CYL I port become interconnected within
the valve. As a result, fluid flows from the pump into the selector valve PRESS port, out of the selector valve CYL I port,
and into port A of the motor. This flow of fluid causes the motor to turn in a clockwise direction. Simultaneously, return
fluid is forced out of port B of the motor and enters the selector valve CYL 2 port. Fluid then proceeds through the passage
in the valve rotor and leaves the valve through the RET port.
PRESSURE GENERATION
The hydraulic power drive used to drive and control such equipments consists of the following:
• Main Hydraulic Systems, controls by engine driven pumps (EDP). An EDP supplies about 22 gpm at 3000 Psi through a
variable displacement pump mounted on each side of the engine. The EDP is driven through a splined shaft by the engine
accessory drive gearbox.
• Electric Motor-Driven Pump (EMDP), an EMDP supplies 6.0 gpm at 2700 Psi. Each pump assembly is composed of an oil-
cooled three phase 115 volt ac motor, a centrifugal pump and a single stage, variable displacement, pressure-
compensated hydraulic pump.
• Some of aircraft hydraulic power system generates with a motor ram air turbine.
• Ground service cart or with the manual fill pump installed at the servicing station.
General, - separate hydraulic systems provide fluid at 3000 Psi to operate the airplane systems. The standby hydraulic system
provides reserve power for critical systems. The indicating systems provide information for crew monitoring of the operating
conditions of each hydraulic system.
The pressure source for each engine driven pump (EDP) is directly coupled to the engine accessory gearbox and runs all the time
that the engine is running.

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Aircraft Systems
Electric motor driven pump (EMDP), when an ELEC pump switch is ON, the respective EMDP runs all the time.
Hydraulic system components are located on each engine and within the main gear wheel well section.
A typical ram air unit, this type of emergency system is intended for use only when normal hydraulic pumps are completely
inoperative. The ram air turbine provides a means for emergency hydraulic and electrical power when the normal aircraft
hydraulic system has failed. The turbine-driven hydraulic pump supplies fluid under pressure as well as to an emergency
hydraulically driven alternator. Consists of a dropout governor-controlled turbine, a hydraulic

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Aircraft Systems
Pump Turbine
Ram Air Turbine hydraulic pump

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Aircraft Systems

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Aircraft Systems
The indicating system consists of warning lights and gages, Fluid pressure, temperature (overheat) and reservoir quantity are
monitored in the cockpit while reservoir quantity and pressure are indicated in the wheel well.
The pressure indicators get their signals electrically from the pressure transmitters. An overheat warning system is provided to
monitor the fluid operating temperatures of each system placed in case drain line is connected to a respective amber light on the
control panel. The hydraulic fluid quantity indicating system shows the quantity of fluid in the reservoirs. A low pressure warning
system is provided for each hydraulic pump. The switches are connected to amber low pressure lights on the control panel.
Activation of a low hydraulic pressure warning circuit will cause the Master Caution and hydraulic annunciator lights to illuminate.

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Aircraft Systems
LECTURE 2 PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this topic, you will:
Able to Identification component of pneumatic system

Able to show location of the component
Carry out inspection of pneumatic system
Able to removal, installation and functional check

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Aircraft Systems
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
System pneumatics, - some aircraft manufacturers equip their aircraft with a pneumatic system. Such systems operate
a great deal like hydraulic systems, except they employ air instead of a liquid for transmitting power. The word "fluid"
implies such liquids as water, oil, or anything that flows. Since both liquids and gases will flow, they are considered as
fluids; however, there is a great deal of difference in the characteristics of the two. Liquids are practically
incompressible; a quart of water still occupies about a quart of space regardless of how hard it is compressed. But gases
are highly compressible; a quart of air can be compressed into a thimbleful of space. In. spite of this difference, gases and
liquids are both fluids and can be confined and made to transmit power.
The type of unit used to provide pressurized air for pneumatic systems is determined by the system's air pressure
requirements.
High-pressure systems, air is usually stored in metal bottles at pressures ranging from 1,000 to 3,000 Psi,
depending on the particular system. This type of air bottle has two valves, one of which is a charging valve. A ground-
operated compressor can be connected to this valve to add air to the bottle. The other valve is a control valve. It acts
as a shutoff valve, keeping air trapped inside the bottle until the system is operated.
On some aircraft air compressors is used for operating a unit to supply bleed air from high or low stages of the engine
compressor, APU or from a ground cart. Air is distributed by a pneumatic manifold from the above sources.
Medium Pressure System, - pneumatic system (100 - 150 Psi) usually does not include an air bottle. Instead, it
generally draws air from a jet engine compressor section. In this case, air leaves the engine through a takeoff and
flows into tubing, carrying air first to the pressure-controlling units and then to the operating units.

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Aircraft Systems
Drive shaft turns by engine
Jet engine compressor with pneumatic system
Basic schematic air compressor

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Aircraft Systems
Low Pressure System, (1-10 PSI) many aircraft equipped with reciprocating engines obtain a supply of low-pressure air
from vane-type pumps. These pumps are driven by electric motors or by the aircraft engine. When the pump begins to
operate, the drive shaft rotates and changes positions of the vanes and sizes. At the supply port it receives another
supply of air. Thus, the pump delivers to the pneumatic system a continuous supply of compressed air.
Pneumatic systems do not utilize reservoirs, hand pumps, accumulators, regulators, or engine-driven or electrically-driven
power pumps for building normal pressure. But similarities do exist in some components.
Relief valves are used in pneumatic systems to prevent damage. They act as pressure-limiting units and prevent
excessive pressures from bursting lines and blowing out seals. At figure illustrates a cutaway view of a pneumatic system
relief valve. At normal pressures, a spring holds the valve closed, and air remains in the pressure line.
Pneumatic system
Schematic vane-type

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Aircraft Systems
If pressure grows too high, the force it creates on the disk overcomes spring tension and opens the relief valve. Then,
excess air flows through the valve and is exhausted as surplus air into the atmosphere. The valve remains open until the
pressure drops to normal.
Control Valves, - are also a necessary part of a typical pneumatic system is used to control is used to control emergency air
brakes A spring holds the left poppet closed so that compressed air entering the pressure port cannot flow to the
brakes.
Check valves, - are used in both hydraulic and pneumatic systems a flap type pneumatic check valve. Air enters the left
port of the check valve, compresses a light spring, forcing the check valve open and allowing air to flow out the right
port. But if air enters from the right, air pressure closes the valve, preventing a flow of air out the left port. Thus, a
pneumatic check valve is a one-direction flow control valve.
Restrictors, - are a type of control valve used in pneumatic systems orifice type restrictor with a large inlet port and
a small outlet ports. The small outlet port reduces the rate of airflow and the speed of operation of an actuating unit.
Another type of speed-regulating unit is the variable restrictor it contains an adjustable needle valve, which has threads
around the top and a point on the lower end.
Since air entering the inlet port must pass through this opening before reaching the outlet port, this adjustment also
determines the rate of airflow through the restrictor.
Filters, - pneumatic systems are protected against dirt by means of various types of filters. A micronic filter consists of
housing with two ports, a replaceable cartridge, and a relief valve. Normally, air enters the inlet, circulates around the
cellulose cartridge then flows to the center of the cartridge and out the outlet port. If the cartridge becomes clogged
with dirt, pressure forces the relief valve open and allows unfiltered air to flow out the outlet port.

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Aircraft Systems
Restrictor orifice
CONTROL VALVE
Variable pneumatic restrictor

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Aircraft Systems
Micronic

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Aircraft Systems
The pneumatic system is to supply bleed air from the 5th and 9th stage of the engine compressor or from the APU or from a
ground distributed by a pneumatic manifold to aircraft systems (air conditioning, Anti-Ice, engine starting, potable water
system and the hydraulic reservoir). The main supply of bleed air to the manifold is obtained from the engine 5th stage
compressor to the pneumatic manifold at all times except at engine idle or at low engine thrust setting. When this occurs 9th
stage bleed air is automatically used. Air from the 5th and 9th stage bleed ports is controlled by the engine bleed control system.
APU bleed air or pneumatic ground cart bleed air is primarily used for engine starting and for air conditioning pack operation on
the ground.
Two pressure transmitters are provided for pressure indication of the bleed air are connected to pressure indicator on the control
panel. The engine bleed air over-temperature indication over-temperature switches which are connected to control panel and the
corresponding engine pressure regulator shut-off valve (PRSOV) closes when the bleed air temperature exceeds temperature
setting, also excessive pressure at the bleed valve exists.
Typical pneumatic hydraulic reservoir system, - the air is provided from pneumatic engines, APU, or External power ground
through the left and right pneumatic systems. The pressure provides positive fluid flow from the reservoir to the pumps, and
maintains normal return pressure in the hydraulic system. The reservoir pressurization module is the major component and
contains check valves, a filter, an orifice assembly, a manual air charging valve, and a test port. Also, common to each reservoir
pressurization system are vents, restrictors, a reservoir depressurization (vent) valve, a pressure gage and a pressure relief valve.
A manually controlled depressurization (vent) valve is located near the reservoir to release the pressure from the reservoir during
maintenance.
The cleanable filter prevents contamination of the system downstream. Restrictors are installed to the reservoir pressurization
module will prevent a noticeable loss of pneumatic duct pressure should a downstream break in the system occur.

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Aircraft Systems
Pneumatic hydraulic reservoir system

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Aircraft Systems
LECTURE 3 WATER AND WASTE SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
Understand the function of water and waste system

Show the location of components
Understand safety precaution

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Aircraft Systems
WATER AND WASTE

The water system supplies potable water to the galleys and lavatories. The waste system is for storing and removing waste
from the toilets. The water and waste system consists of a water tank, distribution lines, toilets and service panels.
Water system components are located in the lower aft section of fuselage. The toilets and associated components are located at
the forward and aft sections of the passenger cabin.
The water system consists of:
A filling system for the tank through an external service panel, a water tank, with a quantity indicating system, for storing
water, an air pressure system to force the water from the tank, distribution lines to deliver water to the galleys and lavatories.
Water from the tank is supplied by the distribution system to the galleys and lavatories. Wastes from the toilets are stored
in tanks and serviced on the ground.

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Aircraft Systems
POTABLE WATER SYSTEM

The potable water system supplies water to the galleys and toilets fro use by the passengers and crew. The system consists of
a water tank, quantity indication, pressurization components, servicing area and distribution. The water tank, pressurization
components and servicing area are located aft of the aft cargo compartment on the right side of the airplane. The quantity
indication is in the aft section of the passenger cabin.
The water tank is pressurized by a filtered, regulated air supply, allowing water to be delivered to the galleys and lavatories.
Water tank is normally pressurized by engine bleed air taken from the pneumatic manifold which pressurizes the APU manifold
to move fresh water from the water tank to the lavatories and galleys. The tank is serviced from an external service panel.
The water service panel is provided for filling, draining and pressurizing the tank. The panel is located on the left side of the aft
fuselage. The components on the panel consist of drain and fill and overflow valve handles, fill and overflow fittings and air
valve.
The volume of the tank is 40 gallons. The water tank is protected from freezing by a 3-piece fiberglass blanket. On the upper
section of the tank are connections for the air pressure line, fill line, overflow line, supply line, and a quantity transmitter.
WATER TANK QUANTITY INDICATION
The quantity indication shows the amount of water in the tank. The quantity transmitter is located in the water tank and the
indicator is located above the aft galley service door.
The quantity transmitter consists of 10 reed switches and 3 diodes inside a tube. A float with 3 magnets surrounds the tube.
The indicator consists of 5 lights labeled E, ¼, ½, ¾ and F, and a push button.
The amount of water in the tank determines the position of the float. The magnets on the float close the associated reed
switches.

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Aircraft Systems
Using the push button on the quantity indicator, allows the corresponding quantity light to illuminate:

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Aircraft Systems
Empty tank,
E light is illuminated
¼ tank,
E and ¼ lights are illuminated
½ tank,
E, ¼, and ½ lights are illuminated
¾ tank,
E, ¼, ½, and ¾ lights are illuminated
Full tank,
All lights are illuminated

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Aircraft Systems
WATER TANK PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM

The water tank pressurization system provides air to force water from the tank through the distribution lines to the galleys and
lavatories. The pressurization system components are located above the water tank. The pneumatic connection is forward of
the APU check valve in the keel beam. The external connection is on the service panel.
Air is supplied to the tank from the pneumatic manifold through a 10 micron replaceable filter and a pressure regulator. The
pressure regulator reduces the pressure to approximately 25 ± 2 psig. A pressure relief valve prevents over pressurization of
the tank. The valve open approximately 50 ± 2 psig and reset at 37 psig.
An alternate way of pressurizing the water tank on the ground is by connecting a nitrogen source to the air valve on the water
service panel.

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Aircraft Systems
TOILET SYSTEM
Separate independent toilet systems are provided in the forward lavatory compartment and the aft lavatory compartment. The
toilet unit is installed in each lavatory compartment entirely above the lavatory compartment floor. Each unit consists of a toilet
shroud assembly (contains toilet seat and cover), flushing components and a waste tank. Each tank consists of a fiberglass tank
with a laminated stainless steel/fiberglass top.
Flushing equipment consists of a flush handle, timer, pump-filter assembly, and related tubing. The flush handle and timer are
located on the cabinet above the toilet. The flush handle is rotated to start the timer for the flushing cycle. A stainless steel
toilet bowl is attached to the tank top. The bowl is fitted with a stainless with a hinged separator between the bottom of the
bowl and the tank. A perforated flush line is used for tank cleaning.

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Aircraft Systems
The toilet tank drain valve is for draining the toilet tank located inside the tank at the bottom and operated from the top of the
tank. The valve consists of a spring loaded telescoping guide tube enclosed by a rubber boot, seats against a hole at the bottom
of the tank. A cable, with a quick disconnect is attached to the top of the telescoping tube. During servicing, the valve is opened
by a cable connected to a locking handle on the service panel and closes by action of the compressed spring in the telescoping
guide tube when the locking handle is unlocked and released.
Toilet Service Panels
The service panels for the forward and aft toilet systems are on the airplane right side. The forward service panel is located
right of the nose wheel well door. The aft service panel is located near the airplane centerline, forward of the APU access door.
TOILET FLUSH SYSTEM

The toilet flushing unit is electrically operated. The flushing components include a flush handle, timer, flush motor and the
required tubing. The flush motor and tubing are on the tank top. The flush handle and timer are on the toilet back shroud
located above the toilet unit.
The flush handle is rotated to start the timer for the flushing cycle. The timer is mounted behind the flush handle. Rotating the
flush handle 15 degrees provides power to the flush motor for 10 ± 2 seconds.
The toilet motors are operated by 115 VAC, 3 phases from bus 1 and 2. The C phase is also used for the timer and relays.
When the flush switch is pushed, C phase energizes the timer circuit and the timing relay for 10 seconds. 3-phase power is
supplied to operate the toilet flush motor. The reversing relay is energized at ever other flush cycle, causing the motor and filter
basket to change direction to keep the filter basket clean.
The flush motor operates for 10 seconds during each cycle.

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Aircraft Systems
LECTURE 4 EQUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS
OBJECTIVES
Understand the function of the equipment and furnishings

Able to Identification and show the location of component of Equipment and furnishings
Carry out inspection of pneumatic system
Able to removal, installation and functional check

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Aircraft Systems
EQUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS

Equipment/furnishings include those items which: provide comfort and convenience for crewmembers and passengers,
handle and stow cargo, protect passengers and crew in an emergency.
Equipment/Furnishings are in the passenger compartment for passenger and attendant comfort and utility. Sidewall panels
line the sidewalls of the passenger compartment. Lowered ceiling panels, moveable ceiling panels, and sculptured ceiling
panels line the ceiling. Service units are at all seats, attendant panels and in all lavatories, and may be throughout the
cabin. Seats are provided for passengers and attendants.
The sidewall panels mount to the airplane structure by support brackets on the vertical edges. The upper edge slides into
the air outlet extrusion.
Carpet Risers and Air Grills panels have air grilles secured to the risers with clips on the outboard side of the grilles. The
air grilles permit air to circulate into the lower lobe and prevent floor beam failure in the event of rapid decompression in
either the passenger cabin or the lower lobe.
Sculptured ceiling panels line the ceiling over the passenger compartment aisle. The panels are crushed honeycomb with a
tedlar covering on the exposed side. Two hinges support the panel on the outboard edge. The inboard edge fits in a groove
on the air outlet extrusion. A lanyard on the inboard edge prevents the panel from swinging fully open.

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Aircraft Systems
Passenger seats are attached to seat tracks in the floor, and may be rearranged for different passenger configurations by
moving the seats forward or aft on seat tracks. Tracks are provided for seat studs and lock pins, which lock the seats in
position.
The seat consists of reclinable seat backs, seat cushions, safety belts, removable armrests, a seat base with fixed
armrests and fixed legs. The seat is equipped with integral tables. Seat backs recline individually and can be returned to
full-up position without use of the recline mechanism.

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Aircraft Systems
SHOULDER HARNESS, - the primary objective in shoulder harness design is to prevent fatal injuries to personnel involved
in a survivable crash condition. Basic requirements of the aircraft airworthiness rules are designed to provide an aircraft
structure to give each occupant a reasonable chance of escaping serious injury in a crash landing. The human body has the
inherent capability of withstanding decelerations of 20g’s for time periods of up to 200 milliseconds (.2 second) without
injury. In view of the foregoing, persons installing a shoulder harness may wish to use a restraint system designed to
withstand 20g-25 g loads. In addition, seat belts and seat belt anchorages designed to these load limits may be used.
Type of restraint systems, - there are generalized types of shoulder harnesses currently in use: a. Single diagonal type
harness. b. Double over-the-shoulder type harness. The over-the-shoulder harness may utilize either two independent
attach points, or joint in a “Y” configuration and attach at a single point.
Mounting configuration, - type of shoulder restraint configuration for installation is dependent upon the attachments
available in each individual aircraft.
The basic harness mounting configurations are: Seat mounted, airframe mounted (Side, ceiling, floor, directly rearward).
Inertia reels.
Inertia reels, - the function of the inertia reel is to lock and restrain the occupant in a crash yet provided the ability for
normal movement without restrictions. In addition, automatic rewinding of any slack assures that the harness is always
snug, which results in a more comfortable restrain system.

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Aircraft Systems
CARGO COMPARTMENTS
The lower deck has forward and aft cargo compartments. Each compartment has a pressure equalization valve and blowout
panels. Each compartment has an access door which provides access from the passenger compartment. Anchor plates, tie-
down tracks, and webbing are provided to secure the cargo from shifting.
Tie-down tracks run fore and aft for the full length of the each compartment are fastened to airplane body frames by lock-
bolts for attachment of tie-down fittings.

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Aircraft Systems

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Aircraft Systems
EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
The emergency equipment installed on the airplane is as follows:
(1) Escape Straps
(2) Door-Mounted Escape Slides
(3) Over-water Survival Equipment
(4) Miscellaneous Emergency Equipment.
Escape Straps/Lanyards are installed in the control cabin above the Captain's and the First Officer's sliding windows. An
escape strap is installed above a hatch on each side of the airplane.
Escape Slides, for each door on the airplane. The escape slide is attached to the bottom inboard side of the door.
Over-water Survival Equipments - there are Life rafts, Life Vests.
Miscellaneous Emergency Equipment is installed in the flight compartment and the passenger compartment. can be
removed from the airplane; Megaphones, Signal flares, First aid kits, Smoke hoods and goggles, Crash axe, Flashlights,
Fire extinguishers, Portable oxygen.

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Aircraft Systems
ESCAPE SLIDE, - escape slide assembly has these components:

(1) Escape slide pack
(2) Escape slide compartment
(3) Floor brackets.
The escape slide assemblies are installed on the lower inboard face of each entry and galley service door.
The escape slide pack has these components:
(1) Escape slide
(2) Detachable girt
(3) Girt bar
(4) Air bottle
The air bottle holds high-pressure gas to inflate the slide.
Operation

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Aircraft Systems

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Aircraft Systems

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Aircraft Systems

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Aircraft Systems
LECTURE 5 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Objectives
Able to Identification of electrical power system and component


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Aircraft Systems
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
GENERAL - The term “electrical system” as used in aircraft means those parts of the aircraft that generate, distribute, and use
electrical energy, including their support and attachments.
The electrical power system consists of AC Electrical Power and DC Electrical Power.
AC Electrical Power, - generators supply are the primary sources of power for the main AC buses and the whole electrical power
system. Generators are driven by the engines and one generator is driven by the auxiliary power unit (APU). External power,
provided via the external power receptacle of the aircraft. Transformers provide power to AC buses by reducing AC power. A
static inverter converts DC battery power to AC power. Each engine is equipped with a CSD driven generator. The CSD provides
a constant drive speed to the generator regardless of the actual engine RPM. The CSD operation is similar to an automobile
automatic transmission. Each generator supplies three phase, 115 volt, and 400 cycle alternating current to a maximum load of
40 KVA or 111 Ampere draw.
DC Electrical Power, - A battery provides 28-volt DC power to start the APU. Transformer-rectifier (T-R) units provide DC power
by converting AC power.
Most land-based power systems use alternating current (AC) rather than direct current (DC), principally because transformers
can be used only with AC. An AC distribution system usually contains one or more generators (technically known as
ALTERNATORS in an aircraft system); a wiring system of FEEDERS, which carry the generated power to a distribution center;
and the DISTRIBUTION CENTER, which distributes the power to wiring systems called PRIMARY MAINS and SECONDARY
MAINS.
Engine-driven generators are driven by constant speed drives to obtain a generator speed constant of 6000 rpm.
AC external power, when provided to the external power receptacle, can power the entire electrical power system only the
ground. External power provides power to airplane when switch is set directly to power distribution.
A battery is used as a standby power supply. Transformer - Rectifier (T-R) Units
The APU generator is directly driven by the APU itself.

The APU generator is identical to the engine generators.
When on the ground, the APU may be used to power both the #1 and #2 Electrical systems. When in-flight, the APU
generator can provide backup power to either the #1 or #2 electrical system, if necessary.

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Aircraft Systems
Electrical transmission and distribution system

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Aircraft Systems
CS
GEN 1 D
GEN 2 CS
D
GEN AP
U

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Aircraft Systems
ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM SCHEMATIC

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Aircraft Systems
EXTERNAL AC BUS
APU GEN
CSD GEN 1 GEN 2
CSD
GENERATOR BUS 1 GENERATOR BUS 2
115VAC GND 115VAC 115VAC 115VAC 115VAC

SERVICE BUS MAIN BUS 1 TRANSFER BUS 1
TRANSFER BUS 2 MAIN BUS 2
TR 1 TR 2 TR 3
DC BUS 1 DC BUS 2
AC STANDBY
BUS DC STANDBY BUS BATTERY BUS
INV
APU HOT BATTERY BUS
START
BATT
CHGR
BATT

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Aircraft Systems
EXTERNAL AC BUS
APU
GEN
CSD GEN GEN CSD

SERVICE BUS MAIN BUS 1 TRANSFER BUS 1 TRANSFER BUS 2 MAIN BUS 2

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Aircraft Systems
EXTERNAL AC BUS
APU GEN
CSD GEN 1 GEN 2
CSD

SERVICE BUS MAIN BUS 1 TRANSFER BUS 1
TRANSFER BUS 2 MAIN BUS 2
TR 1 TR 2 TR 3
DC BUS 1 DC BUS 2
AC STANDBY
BUS DC STANDBY BUS BATTERY BUS
INV
APU HOT BATTERY BUS
START

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Aircraft Systems
The aircraft battery is located in the Electronics Compartment. The battery is a 28 volt nickel-cadmium battery. The battery
can supply DC power to certain busses when necessary. Charging of the battery is automatic.
We will describe the indicators and gauges on this panel. The DC meters and switches are shown on the left. The AC meters
and switches are shown on the right.

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Aircraft Systems
- + 400
50 DC 50 CPS
AMP 380 FRE 420
S Q
110 12
0
20
10 AC 13
0 DC
VOLTS 0 3
VOLTS 0
TR 1 APU GEN
BAT TR 2 GEN 1 GEN 2
BAT GRD INV

TR 3 PWR
BUS
STBY STBY
PWR TEST PWR TEST
GALLEY RESID
OFF VOLTS
OFF
BAT
ON ON
AC

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Aircraft Systems
AC GENERATION
Generator, - used to produce an alternating current re called AC generators or alternator. The elementary AC generator consists
of a conductor or loop of wire in a magnetic field that is produced by an electromagnet. The two ends of the loop are connected
to slip rings, and they are in contact with two brushes. When the loop rotates it cuts magnetic lines of force, first in one
direction and then the other. Rotating loop (A and B) placed between two magnetic poles North (N) and South (S), the ends
loop are connected to two metal strip rings (collector rings) C1 and C2. Current is taken from the collector rings by brushes.
As the coil rotates in a counter-clockwise direction, the coil sides will cut the magnetic lines of force in opposite directions. The
direction of the induced voltages depends on the direction of movement of the coil.
There are two alternations in a complete cycle, the positive alternation and the negative. The number of times each cycle
occurs in a period of time is called the frequency, the frequency of an electric current or voltage indicates the number of times
a cycle recurs in 1 second.
In a generator, the voltage and current pass through a complete cycle of values each time a coil or conductors passes under a
north and south poles of the magnet. The frequency then, is equal to the number of cycles in one revolution multiplied by the
number of revolutions per second.

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Aircraft Systems
Simple Generator

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Aircraft Systems
DC GENERATION
A basic DC generator has four basic parts:
(1) A magnetic field;
(2) A single conductor, or loop;
(3) A commutators; and
(4) Brushes.
The magnetic field may be supplied by either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. For now, we will use a permanent
magnet to describe a basic DC generator.
Basic Operation of a DC Generator
A single conductor, shaped in the form of a loop, is positioned between the magnetic poles. As long as the loop is stationary,
the magnetic field has no effect (no relative motion). If we rotate the loop, the loop cuts through the magnetic field, and an
EMF (voltage) is induced into the loop.
When we have relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor in that magnetic field, and the direction of rotation is
such that the conductor cuts the lines of flux, an EMF is induced into the conductor. The magnitude of the induced EMF depends
on the field strength and the rate at which the flux lines are cut, as given in equation.

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Aircraft Systems
The stronger the field or the more flux lines cut for a given period of time, the larger the induced EMF. By replacing slip rings of
basic AC generator with two half-cylinders, called a commutators; a basic DC generator is obtained. The two segments are
insulated from each other; the two stationary brushes are placed on opposite sides of the commutators and are so mounted
that each brush contacts each segment of the commutators as the latter revolves simultaneously with the loop. The rotating
parts of a DC generator (coil and commutators) are called an armature. The generation of an EMF by the loop rotating in the
magnetic field is the same for both AC and DC generators, but the action of the commutators produces a DC voltage.
EMERGENCY GENERATION
A generator converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Generators that produce AC are
called AC generators or alternators. The few
requirements that remain for direct current (dc) are
normally supplied by a system of rectifiers. A
rectifier converts AC power to DC power.
The storage battery was the only source of
emergency electrical power. Also, the aircraft
storage battery with its highly corrosive electrolyte
damages precision equipment and precious metals
used in today's aircraft for these reasons, there are
new methods of providing emergency electrical
power.
Emergency generators, - these generators provide
emergency electrical power in the event of main
electrical power failure. In some aircraft, a power
package positioned outside the aircraft provides
emergency electrical power. When required, the
pilot operates a lever that causes the package to
stick out into the airflow. The ram-air effect of the
airflow provides the turning power for a turbine. The
turbine, in turn, rotates the generator's armature
that produces the electrical power.

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Aircraft Systems
VOLTAGE REGULATION
The problem of voltage regulation in an AC system does not differ basically from that in a DC system the purpose of a voltage
regulator is to maintain the output voltage of a generator at a desired value, maintain a balance of circulating current
throughout the system and eliminate sudden changes in voltage (anti-hunting) when a load is applied to the system.
There is one important difference between the regulators system of DC generators and alternators operated in a parallel
configuration. The main reason for this change in voltage is the change in the voltage drop across the armature winding caused
by a change in load current.
AC generator voltage regulator, - this regulator consists of six basic circuits that together regulate the output voltage of an AC
generator from no-load to full-load.
Voltage Regulator Block Diagram
Sensing circuit, - senses output voltage of the AC generator. As the generator is loaded or unloaded, the output voltage
changes, and the sensing circuit provides a signal of these voltage changes. This signal is proportional to output voltage and is
sent to the comparison circuit.
Reference circuit, - maintains a constant output for reference. This reference is the desired voltage output of the AC generator.
Comparison circuit, - electrically compares the reference voltage to the sensed voltage and provides an error signal. This error
signal represents an increase or decrease in output voltage. The signal is sent to the amplification circuit.

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Amplification circuit, - which can be a magnetic amplifier or transistor amplifier, takes the signal from the comparison circuit
and amplifies the milliamp input to an amp output, which is then sent to the signal output, or field, circuit.
Signal output circuit, - which controls field excitation of the AC generator, increases or decreases field excitation to either raise
or lower the AC output voltage.
Feedback circuit, - takes some of the output of the signal output circuit and feeds it back to the amplification circuit. It does this
to prevent overshooting or undershooting of the desired voltage by slowing down the circuit response.
Sensing circuit senses the decrease in output voltage as compared to the reference and lowers its input to the comparison
circuit. Since the reference circuit is always a constant, the comparison circuit will develop an error signal due to the difference
between the sensed voltage and the reference voltage.
The error signal developed will be of a positive value with the magnitude of the signal dependent on the difference between the
sensed voltage and the reference voltage. This output from the comparison circuit will then be amplified by the amplifier circuit
and sent to the signal output circuit. The signal output circuit then increases field excitation to the AC generator. This increase
in field excitation causes generated voltage to increase to the desired output.
If the load on the generator were decreased, the voltage output of the machine would rise. The actions of the voltage regulator
would then be the opposite of that for a lowering output voltage. In this case, the comparison circuit will develop a negative
error signal whose magnitude is again dependent on the difference between the sensed voltage and the reference voltage. As a
result, the signal output circuit will decrease field excitation to the AC generator, causing the generated voltage to decrease to
the desired output.
POWER DISTRIBUTION
Delivery of power to building premises on poles or placed underground, from the power plant or substation through feeders and
mains. Most AC power distribution system is 115/200-volt, 3-phase, and 400-Hz power. The ac power distribution system
consists of the power source, equipment to distribute the power, and the equipment which uses the power.
The power source can be the ship from generator or the external power generator. Power is normally distributed through the
ship service distribution switchboards and power panels. Some large ships also use load centers that function as remote
switchboards. Power is used by any equipment that requires electrical power for its operation (lights, motors, etc). If power
from the ship service distribution system is interrupted, the emergency power distribution system is activated.
The emergency system supplies an immediate and automatic source of electrical power to selected loads that are vital to the
safety. Bus transfer equipment is installed on switchboards, at load centers, on power panels, and on loads that are fed by
normal and alternate and/or emergency feeders.

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INVERTER
The INVERTER, often referred to as a NOT gate, is a logic device that has an output opposite of the input. It is sometimes called
a NEGATOR. When an inverter is used alone, it is represented by the symbol (view A). It will more often be seen in conjunction
with the symbol for an amplifier (view B). Symbols for inverters used in combination with other devices will be shown.
If we apply P to the input of the inverter then the
output will be the opposite of the input. The output, in
this case, is P. At times T0 through T2, P is LOW.
Consequently, the output (P) is HIGH. At T2, P goes
HIGH and as a result P goes LOW. P remains LOW as
long as P is HIGH and vice versa. The Boolean
expression for the output of this gate is f = P.
You will recall that P is the complement of P.
The Truth Table for an inverter is shown below.
P f
0 1
1 0
The inverter is a general purpose, direct current (DC) to alternating current

(AC), static inverter which provides a 115-volt alternating current power
source for use there systems if required.
The basic functional entities of the inverter are the input filter, inverter drive, silicone controlled rectifier (SCR) inverter, and the
ferro resonant transformer and filter. The input filter attenuates noise such that the inverter does not introduce noise back onto
the input dc line. The inverter driver operates the SCR inverter which in turn, operates in a square wave mode to drive the
Ferro resonant output transformer. The Ferro resonant transformer and filter provide a 115- volt, with voltage regulation,
current limiting, and harmonic suppression located inside the inverter and the cables from external equipment must be routed
to their respective terminal boards through openings in the rear panel of the inverter.

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TRANSFORMER
Most basic form a transformer consists of:
• A primary coil or winding.
• A secondary coil or winding.
• A core that supports the coils or windings.
The primary winding is connected to an ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up (expands) and collapses
(contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the
secondary winding and induces an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating current to flow through
the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and secondary windings.

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THE COMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMER, - Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In
some cases the coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core material is air and the
transformer is called an AIR-CORE TRANSFORMER. Transformers used at low frequencies, such as 60 hertz and 400 hertz,
require a core of low-reluctance magnetic material, usually iron. This type of transformer is called an IRON-CORE
TRANSFORMER. Most power transformers are of the iron-core type.
The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:
• The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.
• The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.
• The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and delivers it to the load.
• The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture, and mechanical damage.
CORE CHARACTERISTICS, - The composition of a transformer core depends on such factors as voltage, current, and frequency.
Size limitations and construction costs are also factors to be considered. Commonly used core materials are air, soft iron, and
steel. Each of these materials is suitable for particular applications and unsuitable for others. Generally, air-core transformers
are used when the voltage source has a high frequency (above 20 kHz). Iron-core transformers are usually used when the
source frequency is low (below 20 kHz). A soft-iron-core transformer is very useful where the transformer must be physically
small, yet efficient. The iron-core transformer provides better power transfer than does the air-core transformer. A transformer
whose core is constructed of laminated sheets of steel dissipates heat readily; thus it provides for the efficient transfer of
power.
These steel laminations are insulated with a non-conducting material, such as varnish, and then formed into a core. It takes
about 50 such laminations to make a core an inch thick. The purpose of the laminations is to reduce certain losses which will be
discussed later in this chapter. An important point to remember is that the most efficient transformer core is one that offers the
best path for the most lines of flux with the least loss in magnetic and electrical energy.
Hollow-Core Transformers, - There are two main shapes of cores used in laminated-steel-core transformers. One is the
HOLLOW-CORE, so named because the core is shaped with a hollow square through the center.
The most popular and efficient transformer core is the SHELL CORE each layer of the core consists of E- and I-shaped sections
of metal. These sections are butted together to form the laminations. The laminations are insulated from each other and then
pressed together to form the core.
TRANSFORMER WINDINGS, - As stated above, the transformer consists of two coils called WINDINGS which are wrapped
around a core. The transformer operates when a source of ac voltage is connected to one of the windings and a load device is
connected to the other. The winding that is connected to the source is called the PRIMARY WINDING. The winding that is
connected to the load is called the SECONDARY WINDING.

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In the transformer shown in the cutaway view, the primary consists of many turns of relatively small wire. The wire is coated
with varnish so that each turn of the winding is insulated from every other turn. In a transformer designed for high-voltage
applications, sheets of insulating material, such as paper, are placed between the layers of windings to provide additional
insulation.

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When the primary winding is completely wound, it is wrapped in insulating paper or cloth. The secondary winding is then wound
on top of the primary winding. After the secondary winding is complete, it too is covered with insulating paper. Next, the E and
I sections of the iron core are inserted into and around the windings as shown.
The leads from the windings are normally brought out through a hole in the enclosure of the transformer. Sometimes, terminals
may be provided on the enclosure for connections to the windings. The figure shows four leads, two from the primary and two
from the secondary. These leads are to be connected to the source and load, respectively.
SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS FOR TRANSFORMERS, - Typical schematic symbols for transformers an air-core transformer is shown in
figure (A). Parts (B) and (C) show iron-core transformers. The bars between the coils are used to indicate an iron core.
Frequently, additional connections are made to the transformer windings at points other than the ends of the windings. These
additional connections are called TAPS. When a tap is connected to the center of the winding, it is called a CENTER TAP.
Block diagram of a basic power supply

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RECTIFIER
Most power supplies are made up of four basic sections: a TRANSFORMER, a RECTIFIER, a FILTER, and a REGULATOR.
The first section is the TRANSFORMER; - the transformer serves two primary purposes:
(1) To step up or step down the input line voltage to the desired level and
(2) To couple this voltage to the rectifier section.
The RECTIFIER section converts the ac signal to a pulsating dc voltage. However, you will see later in this chapter that the
pulsating dc voltage is not desirable.
For this reason, a FILTER section is used to convert the pulsating dc voltage to filtered DC voltage.
The final section, the REGULATOR, does just what the name implies.
It maintains the output of the power supply at a constant level in spite of large changes in load current or in input line voltage.
Depending upon the design of the equipment, the output of the regulator will maintain a constant dc voltage within certain
limits.
The filter section contains a network of resistors, capacitors, or inductors that controls the rise and fall time of the varying
signal so that the signal remains at a more constant dc level. You will see this more clearly in the discussion of the actual filter
circuits.
The transformer has several purposes: In addition to coupling the input ac signal to the power supply, it also isolates the
electronic power supply from the external power source and either steps up or steps down the ac voltage to the desired level.
Additionally, most input transformers have separate step-down windings to supply filament voltages to both power supply tubes
and the tubes in the external equipment (load).
RECTIFIERS, - that rectification is the changing of an ac voltage to a pulsating dc voltage. Now let's discuss the process of
rectification. Since a diode vacuum tube will pass current in only one direction, it is ideally suited for converting alternating
current to direct current. If an ac voltage is applied to a diode, the diode will conduct ONLY DURING THE POSITIVE
ALTERNATION OF VOLTAGE when the plate of the diode is made positive with respect to the cathode.
During the positive alternation of the source voltage, the sine wave applied to the tube makes the plate positive with respect to
the cathode. At this time the diode conducts and plate current flows from the negative supply lead, through the milli-ammeter,
through the tube, and to the positive supply lead. This is indicated by the shaded area of the output waveform. This current
exists during the entire period of time that the plate is positive with respect to the cathode.

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During the negative alternation of plate voltage (dotted polarity signs), the plate is driven negative and the tube cannot
conduct. When conditions prevent the tube from conducting, the tube is said to be in CUTOFF. This is indicated by the dotted
waveform. The tube will be in cutoff and no current will flow for the entire negative alternation.
For each 360-degree cycle of input voltage, the tube conducts for 180 degrees and is in cutoff for 180 degrees. The circuit
current therefore has the appearance of a series of positive pulses, as shown by the shaded areas. Notice that although the
current is in the form of pulses, the current always flows through the circuit in THE SAME DIRECTION. Current that flows in
pulses in the same direction is called PULSATING DC. The diode has thus RECTIFIED the input voltage.
Although the principle of rectification applies to all rectifier circuits, some rectifiers are more efficient than others. For this
reason, we will explain the three rectifier circuits most commonly used in electronics today-the half-wave, full-wave, and
bridge.
Simple diode rectifier

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Circuit Protective and Control Devices

It is very important to protect aircraft components, injury personnel, and that with properly controls electrical circuit under
proper control.
Most serious trouble in a circuit is a direct short, term “direct short” describes a situation in which some point in the circuit,
where full system voltage is present, come direct contact with the ground or return side of the circuit. According to Ohm’s Law,
if the resistance in a circuit is small, the current will greatest. When a direct short occurs, there will be an extremely heavy
current flowing through the wires or cables.
To protect aircraft electrical systems from damage and failure cause by excessive current, several kinds of protective devices
are installed; Fuses, Circuit Breakers, Thermal Protectors are used for this purpose.
Fuse, - a fuse is a strip of metal that will melt when current in excess of its carefully determined capacity flow through it. The
fuse is installed in the circuit so that all the current in the circuit passes through it. Most of fuses, the strip metal is made of an
alloy of tin and bismuth, other fuses are made of copper and are called current limiters. Fuse melts and breaks the circuit when
the current exceeds the rated capacity of the fuse. When fuse is replaced the applicable manufacturer’s instructions should be
consulted to be sure a fuse of the correct type and capacity installed. Two type fuse holders are installed in aircraft; “Plug-in
holders” are used for small type and low capacity fuses, and “Clip” type holders are used for heavy high capacity fuses.
Circuit Breakers, - is designed to break the circuit and stop the current flow when the current exceeds a predetermined value.
Circuit breakers differs from a fuse in that it “trips” to break the circuit and it may be reset, while fuse melts and must be
replaced. There several types of circuit breakers in general use in the aircraft systems; Magnetic type and Thermal overload
switch or Breaker. This consists of a bimetallic strip which it becomes overheated from excessive current, bends away from a
catch on the switch lever and permits the switch to trip open. Most circuit breakers must be reset by hand and when overload
condition still exists, the circuit breakers will trip again to prevent damage to the circuit.

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Thermal Protectors, - or switch is used to protect a motor, it designed to open the circuit automatically whenever the
temperature of the motor become excessively high. It has two positions, open and closed. If a malfunction in motor causes it to
overheat, the thermal switch will break the circuit intermittently. Thermal switch contains a bimetallic disks, or strip, which
bends and breaks the circuit when it is heated (one metal expands than the other subjected to the same temperature). When
the strip or disk cools, the metals contract and the strip return to its original position and close the circuit.
Control Devices, - the units in the electrical circuits in an aircraft are not all intended to operate continuously or automatically.
Most of them are meant to operate at certain time, certain conditions, to perform very definite functions. There must be
controlling their operation, either a switch or a relay may be included in the circuit for this purpose.
SWITCHES, - switch is used to start, to stop, or to change the direction of the current flow in the circuit. Switch must be able
to carry the normal current of the circuit and must be insulated heavy enough for the voltage of the circuit.
Circuit Breaker

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Single-Pole Single-Throw Knife and

Single-Pole Single-Throw Knife and Toggle switches
Toggle switches
Single-Pole Double-Throw Knife

and Toggle switches
Knife switches are seldom used on aircraft, Toggle switches operate much the same as Knife switches but they moving parts
are enclosed. A pole of switch is its moveable blade or contactor, number of poles is equal to the number of circuits or paths for
current flow that can be completed through the switch at any one time. Throw of switch indicates the number of circuits or
paths for current that it is possible to complete through the switch with each pole or contactor.

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Example on figure it is possible to complete only one circuit through a switch, the switch is a Single-Pole Single-Throw (SPST)
switch. A single-pole switch through which two circuits can be completed (not at the same time) is a Single-Pole Double-Throw
(SPDT) switch.
A switch with two contactors or poles, each of which completes only one circuit, is a Double-Pole Single-Throw (DPST) that can
complete two circuits, one circuit at the time through each pole.
Double-Pole Single-Throw
Knife and Toggle switches
Schematic representation for typical switches
A toggle that is spring-loaded to the OFF position and must be held in the ON position to complete the circuits is a momentary
contact two-position switch. One that will come to rest at either of two positions, opening the circuit in one position and closing
it in another, is a two-position switch. A switch that stays open, except when it is held in the closed position, is a normally open
switch (identified as NO).
One that stays closed, except when it is held in the open position, is a normally close switch (identified as NC). Both kinds are
spring-loaded position to their normal position and will return to that position as soon as they are released.

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Push Button switch, have one stationary contact and one moveable contact. The moveable contact is attached to the push
button. The push button is either an insulator itself or is insulated from the contact. This switch is spring-loaded and designed
for momentary contact.
Micro-switches will open or close a circuit with a very small movement of the tripping device. Micro-switches are usually push-
button switches; they are used primarily as limit switches to provide automatic control of landing gears, actuator motors. When
the operating plunger is pressed in, the spring and the moveable contact are pushed, opening the contacts and the circuit.
Cross section of a Micro-switch

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Rotary-selector switch, - take the place of several switches when the knob of the switch is rotated, the switch opens one circuit
and closes another. Ignition switches and voltmeter selector switches are typical of this kind of switch.
Relays, - Relays are electrically operated control switches, and are classified according to their use as POWER RELAYS or
CONTROL RELAYS. Power relays are called CONTACTORS; control relays are usually known simply as relays.
Relays or relay switches are used for control of circuits carrying heavy currents. A relay is connected in the circuit between the
unit controlled and the nearest source of power (or power bus bar) so that the cables carrying heavy current will be as short as
possible.
In general, a relay consists of a magnetic core and its associated coil, contacts, springs, armature, and the mounting. Relay
switch consists of a coil or solenoid an iron core, and both fixed and moveable contacts.
A small wire connects one of the coil terminals (which are insulated from the housing) to the source of power through a control
switch usually located in the cockpit. The other coil terminal is usually grounded to the housing. When the control switch is
closed, an electromagnetic field is set up around the coil.

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Rotary Selector
Switch

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Fixed-Core Relay
Moveable-Core Relay

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LECTRURE 6 LIGHT SYSTEMS
Objectives
Understand the type of light

Understand the function of the light
Show location of light

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LIGHTS
GENERAL, – Most light assemblies are readily replaceable with standard tools. However, certain precautions should be taken in
the selection of lamps used as replacements. Lamps of different voltages ratings may have the same physical characteristics;
therefore, size and shape of lamp should not be used as only criteria for selecting replacement lamps. Always verify that
identification number on replacement lamp is correct for the application.
Primary lighting power used is 115 volts AC. Step-down transformers and transformer rectifier units supply the various levels of
AC and DC voltages required by specific lighting groups. Lighting controls are conveniently located through out the aircraft and
vary in complexity from simple toggle switches to logic circuitry.
Aircraft lighting consists of:
• Exterior Lighting (Exterior lights illuminate the aircraft and landing area during flight operations. They illuminate the runway
and taxi areas during ground operations.
• Interior Lighting (Flight Compartment Lighting, Passenger Compartment Lighting also Cargo and Service Compartment
Lighting), and
• Emergency Lighting (Each interior and exterior emergency light gives lighting to the escape paths. There are lights for the
aisles and exits and their associated areas.
Exterior Lighting
The exterior lights are the lights installed on the outer side of the aircraft for the purpose:
• Make the airplane more easily seen.
• Supply lighting to the areas around the aircraft.
• Supply lighting to the external surfaces of the aircraft
Exterior lights are controlled by switches on the control panel in the cockpit. Landing lights supply lighting to the runway,
runway lights supply lighting to the area in front of and to the side of the airplane, taxi light supplies lighting to the area in the
direction the nose wheels are pointed, position (anti-collision) lights make the aircraft more easily seen are installed on each
wingtip and fuselage.
Landing and runway lights, - are adjusted to give good lighting when landing or turning on the runway. Power is supplied from
the 115 volt AC buses through step-down transformers provide an output of 28 volts AC for the operation of the lights. A
retractable landing light is attached on outboard flap track fairing. Runway lights are adjacent to landing lights; power is
supplied from the 28 volt AC buses.
Taxi light, - is installed on a bracket on the inner cylinder of the nose gear shock strut. The nose gear taxi light turns with the
nose gear wheels so they are always aligned together.

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Exterior Lighting

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Run away lights

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Landing lights

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Interior Lighting
Flight compartment lighting includes general and special types of area lighting. The intensity of the lighting can be changed for
the best visual condition. The lamps operate on 5 volts, the 28 volts AC transfer buses supply electrical power to the lighting
controls to a step-down autotransformer. If there is a electrical power failure, AC standby bus supplies electrical power to the
lamps in some flight control instruments.

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The panel light control adjusts the lighting intensity can be to increase or decrease the brightness.
Passenger compartments, - lighting provides illumination of the entire passenger cabin. It also provides area lighting for
entryway; attendants work areas, lavatories, and galleys. Passenger information signs, reading, and attendant call lights are
also installed. Passenger compartment lighting comes from these sources:
• Ceiling Lights
• Night Lights
• Sidewall Lights.
Passenger cabin illumination is provided by fluorescent lights installed in the ceiling and sidewall panels throughout the
passenger cabin. Reading lights are installed in the passenger service units Switches are located adjacent to the respective
reading light on PSU’s. Lavatories are illuminated with dome lights in the ceiling. Controls for the lighting are on panels in the
passenger compartment, for lavatory lighting controls are within each unit.
The emergency lights automatically supply lighting and identify the exits, if the airplane has an electrical power failure. In this
condition, the emergency lighting replaces the usual lighting. Electrical power is supplied to the emergency lighting system by 6
volt battery operated power supplies, independently from airplane generator and battery busses.
The interior emergency lights supply lighting to the passenger compartment and the flight compartment.
• Aisle lights supply lighting to the aisle from the ceiling.
• Exit signs show the passengers where the doors and escape hatches are.
• Floor proximity emergency lights identify the aisle and the exits of the passenger compartment.

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Exterior emergency lights are 6-volt incandescent lights installed on the outer side of the airplane. These lights are pointed to
supply lighting to the paths of deployed emergency evacuation slides.

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LECTRURE 7 AIRCONDITIONING AND PRESSURIZATION
Objectives
Understand the function of the Air-conditioning and pressurization

Become familiar with component Air-conditioning and pressurization
Describe operation air-conditioning and pressurization

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AIR CONDITIONING AND PRESSURIZATION SYSTEMS

Oxygen is essential for most living processes. Without oxygen, men and other animals die very rapidly. A reduction in
normal oxygen supplies to the body can produce important changes in body functions, caused by a deficiency or lack of
oxygen is called hypoxia.
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The mixture of gases commonly called air but more technically termed
atmosphere is composed principally of nitrogen and oxygen, but there are
smaller quantities of other important gases, notable carbon dioxide, water
vapor, and ozone.
As the altitude increases, the total quantity of all the atmospheric gases
reduces rapidly, and, except for water vapor and ozone, the relative
proportions of the gaseous mixture remain unchanged up to about 50 miles
altitude. Above 50 miles altitude, changes do take place, and different
gases and new forms of the gases present at lower altitudes appear.
Pressure of the Atmosphere

The gases of the atmosphere (air), although invisible, have weight just like
that of solid matter. The weight of a column of air stretching from the
surface of the earth out into space is called the atmospheric pressure. If this
column is 1 sq. in, the weight of air at sea level is approximately 14.7 lbs.;
and the atmospheric pressure, therefore, can be stated as 14.7 Psi at sea
level.

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Another common way of stating the atmospheric

pressure is to give the height of a column of
mercury which weighs the same as a column of the
atmosphere of the same cross sectional area. When
measured this way, the atmospheric pressure at
sea level is normally 1013.2 milli-bars, or 29.92 in.
Hg. How the atmospheric pressure decreases with
altitude. For example, at sea level the pressure is 14.7
Psi; while at 40,000 ft., as the dotted lines show, the
pressure is only 2.72 Psi.
Temperature and Altitude, - at high altitudes the
atmospheric temperature is not so variable but
tends to have a more set pattern.
The meteorologist finds it convenient to define
that the lowest of these is called the troposphere .
The air temperature decreases with increasing
altitude in the troposphere and reaches a definite
minimum at the top of the layer.
The top of the troposphere is called the tropopause
reaches its greatest height over the equator (about
60,000 ft.) and its lowest height over the poles
(about 30,000 ft.). The tropopause marks the point
at which air temperature stops decreasing with
increasing altitude, and remains constant.
The atmospheric layer above the tropopause is
called the stratosphere. The lower stratosphere is an isothermal (constant temperature) region in which the temperature
does not vary with altitude. The isothermal region continues up to about 82,000 to 115,000 ft. altitude. Above this level,
the temperature increases sharply at the rate of about 1.5° C. per 1,000 ft. The temperature reaches a peak at about
164,000 to 197,000 ft. altitude. Above the 197,000 ft. altitude (approximately), the temperature decreases again,

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reaching a minimum of -10° F. to -100° F. at about 230,000 to 262,000 ft. altitude. Above this level, the temperature
again increases and apparently continues to increase until the edge of space.
Pressurization of the aircraft cabin is now the accepted method of protecting persons against the effects of hypoxia. Within
a pressurized cabin, people can be transported comfortably and safely. However, the flight crew in this type of aircraft must
be aware of the danger of accidental loss of cabin pressure and must be prepared to meet such an emergency
whenever it occurs.
PRESSURIZATION
An aircraft is flown at a high altitude, it burns less fuel for a given airspeed than it does for the same speed at a
lower altitude. In other words, the airplane is more efficient at a high altitude. A cabin pressurization system must
accomplish several functions if it is to assure adequate passenger comfort and safety. It must be capable of maintaining a
cabin pressure altitude of approximately 8,000 ft.
In the typical pressurization system, the cabin, flight compartment, and baggage compartments are incorporated into a
sealed unit which is capable of containing air under a pressure higher than outside atmospheric pressure. Pressurized air
is pumped into this sealed fuselage to a relatively constant volume of air at all altitudes up to a designed maximum. Air is
released from the fuselage by a device called an outflow valve. Pressurized pump air provide a constant inflow of air
to the pressurized area, the outflow valve, by regulating the air exit, is the major controlling element in the pressurization
system.
The degree of pressurization and the operating altitude of the aircraft are limited by several critical design factors.
Primarily the fuselage is designed to withstand a particular maximum cabin differential pressure. Cabin differential
pressure is the ratio between inside and outside air pressure and is measured of the internal stress on the fuselage skin.
The cabin air conditioning and pressurization system supplies conditioned air for heating and cooling the cockpit and
cabin spaces. This air also provides pressurization to maintain a safe, comfortable cabin environment. Some of the air
conditioning systems installed in modern aircraft utilize air turbine refrigerating units to supply cooled air. These are
called air cycle systems.
Five basic requirements for the successful functioning of a cabin pressurization and air conditioning system are:
(1) A source of compressed air for pressurization and ventilation.
(2) A controlling cabin pressure by regulating the outflow of air from the cabin.
(3) A limiting the maximum pressure differential to which the cabin pressurized area will be subjected.
(4) A regulating (in most cases cooling) the temperature of the air being distributed to the pressurized section of
the airplane.
(5) The sections of the aircraft which are to be pressurized must be sealed to reduce inadvertent leakage of air to

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a minimum, also be capable of safely withstanding the maximum pressure differential between cabin and
atmosphere.
SOURCES OF CABIN PRESSURE
Air supply to the air conditioning system is furnished by the pneumatic system from engine bleed air, APU bleed air, ground
pneumatic supply cart, or from a ground conditioned air supply cart during ground operation. Part of the warm air supply from the
engines or pneumatic cart is passed through air conditioning packs to be cooled. The cold air is then mixed with the remainder of
the warm air as required to obtain the conditioned air temperature called for by the temperature control system.
PRESSURIZATION VALVES
The principal control of the pressurization system is the outflow valve. This valve is placed in a pressurized portion of the
fuselage, usually underneath the lower compartments. The purpose of the valve is to vent cabin air overboard through
suitable openings in the fuselage skin. One type of outflow valve is a simple butterfly which is opened or closed by an
electric motor, receives electrical signals from the pressurization controller to the valve position required for pressurized.
Some aircraft use a pneumatic outflow valve. This valve receives signals from the pressurization controller in the form
of controlled air pressures. The air pressures which operate the valve are obtained from the high pressure inside the
cabin, with assistance from the pneumatic system pressure in turbine-powered aircraft.
Typical pneumatic outflow valve

Page : 119
Aircraft Systems

Page : 120
Aircraft Systems
Left Right
Pack Pack
Isolation
Wing Valve Wing
Anti-ice Anti-ice
A GRD AIR
P
U
Source of pressurization

Page : 121
Aircraft Systems
Pressurization Controls, - the pressurization controller is the

source of control signals for the pressurization system. The
controller provides adjustments to obtain the desired type of
pressurized condition. The dial is graduated in cabin altitude
increments up to approximately 10,000 ft. usually there is one
pointer which can be adjusted to the desired cabin altitude by
the cabin altitude set knob.
Several instruments are used in conjunction with the
pressurization controller. The cabin differential pressure gage
indicates the difference between inside and outside pressure.
This gage should be monitored to assure that the cabin is not
approaching the maximum allowable differential pressure. A
cabin altimeter is also provided as a check on the performance of
the system. In some cases, these two instruments are combined
into one. A third instrument indicates the cabin rate of climb or
descent.

Page : 122
Aircraft Systems
CABIN PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM

The cabin pressure control system is designed to provide cabin pressure regulation, pressure relief, vacuum relief, and
for selecting the desired cabin altitude. In addition, dumping of the cabin pressure is a function of the pressure control
system. A cabin pressure regulator, an outflow valve, and a safety valve are used to accomplish these functions.
Cabin Air Pressure Regulator
The cabin pressure regulator controls cabin pressure to a selected
value in the isobaric range and limits cabin pressure to a preset
differential value in the differential range. The cabin pressure
regulator is designed to control cabin pressure by regulating the
position of the outflow valve. The regulator usually provides
either fully automatic or manual control of pressure within the
aircraft. This regulator is a differential pressure type, normally
closed, pneumatically controlled and operated.
Cabin Air Pressure Safety Valve

The cabin air pressure safety valve is a combination pressure
relief, vacuum relief, and dump valve. The pressure relief valve
prevents cabin pressure from exceeding a predetermined
differential pressure above ambient pressure.
Under normal conditions, the combined forces of atmospheric pressure and the calibration spring hold the metering valve
away from the calibration screw, keeping it closed.
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

The function of an air conditioning system is to maintain a comfortable air temperature within the aircraft fuselage. The
system will increase or decrease the temperature of the air as needed to obtain the desired value. Most systems are
capable of producing an air temperature of 70° to 80 ° F. with normally anticipated outside air temperatures. This
temperature-conditioned air is then distributed so that there is a minimum of stratification (hot and cold layers). The
system, in addition, must provide for the control of humidity, it must prevent the fogging of windows, and it must
maintain the temperature of wall panels and floors at a comfortable level.

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Aircraft Systems
In a typical system the air temperature is

measured and compared to the desired
setting of the temperature controls.
Then, if the temperature is not correct,

heaters or coolers are set into operation to
change the air temperature, and the air is
mixed together to create a uniform
temperature in the cabin.
In summary, an air conditioning system is
designed to perform any or all of the
following functions:
(1) Supply ventilation air,
(2) Supply heated air, and
(3) Supply cooling air.
COOLING SYSTEMS
Air cooling systems are installed to provide a comfortable atmosphere within the aircraft both on the ground and at all
altitudes. These systems keep the correct amount of air flowing through the interior of the aircraft at the right
temperature and moisture content. Two of the more common types, air cycle and vapor cycle.
I. AIR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEM, - an air cycle cooling system consists of an expansion turbine (cooling turbine), an
air-to-air beat exchanger, and various valves which control airflow through the system. The expansion turbine incorporates
an impeller and a turbine on a common shaft. High-pressure air from the cabin compressor is routed through the turbine
section. As the air passes through the turbine, it rotates the turbine and the impeller.

Page : 124
Aircraft Systems
MAIN SUPPLY DUCT
Ground
Air Source

Page : 125
Aircraft Systems
Mix Valves
LEFT PACK RIGHT PACK
Right
Pack
Pack
Left engine Valve
bleed air
Isolation
Valve
Right Wing
TAI
Right engine
bleed air
Bleed air from the engine is available to the right PACK Valve. When the compressed air performs the work of turning the
turbine, it undergoes a pressure and temperature drop. It is this temperature drop which produces the cold air used
for air conditioning. Before entering the expansion turbine, the pressurized air is directed through an air-to-air heat
exchanger to cool the compressed air. The primary purpose of the heat exchanger is to remove the heat of compression
so that the expansion turbine receives relatively cool air on which to start its own cooling process.

Page : 126
Aircraft Systems
Primary Heat Exchanger, - reduces the temperature of engine bleed air by routing it through the veins in the core of
the heat exchanger. During flight the core is cooled by ram air.
Secondary Heat Exchanger, - the function of the secondary heat exchanger is to partially cool the air for cabin
pressurization and air conditioning to a temperature which makes possible the efficient operation of the refrigeration unit.
Water Separators
Water separators are used in the cabin air conditioning system to remove excessive moisture from the air. In most
refrigeration systems a water separator is installed in the discharge duct of the cooling turbine. The water separator
removes excess moisture from the conditioned air by passing the air through a coalescent bag or condenser.

Page : 127
Aircraft Systems
Pack
Left
Valve
engine
bleed air
Isolation
Valve
Right Wing TAI

Right engine
bleed air

Page : 128
Aircraft Systems
A coalescent bag condition indicator is provided on some water separators to indicate when the bag is dirty. The
indicator senses a pressure drop across the bag and indicates when the pressure drop is excessive. Since the indicator
is pressure sensitive, the condition of the bag can be determined only while the system is in operation.
Ram-Air Valve, - the ram-air valve is always closed during normal operations. It is energized to open when the cockpit
switch is placed in the "ram" position. With the ram-air valve open, air from the air inlet duct is admitted through the valve and
directly into the cabin air supply duct.

Page : 129
Aircraft Systems
The cooling airflow is provided for the Pack Heat Exchangers by the Ram Air system.
The cooling airflow for the pack heat exchangers is provides when the aircraft is in-flight or on the ground.
Ram Air system is provided for the respective pack. The Ram Air door is automatically controlled to open fully when maximum
cooling is necessary when on the ground, in-flight. The Ram Air exhaust area also controls the airflow by modulating exhaust
louvers. The Ram Air inlet door and exhaust louvers controlled by the same mechanism.
II. Gases Cycle Machine (Freon)
ELECTRONIC CABIN TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM

The operation of the electronic temperature control system is based primarily on the balanced bridge circuit principle. When any
of the units which compose the "legs" of the bridge circuit change resistance value because of a temperature change, the bridge
circuit becomes unbalanced. An electronic regulator receives an electrical signal as a result of this unbalance and amplifies this
signal to control the mixing valve actuator.
Packs normally provide conditioned air to the cockpit and the cabin through the Main Supply Duct. Temperature sensors are
installed to detect duct overheat conditions.
Both the cockpit and passenger cabin have a duct temperature limiting sensor that restricts maximum pack temperature output to
140F/ 60C when operating. This sensor causes the controller to modulate the air mix valves toward the cold position thus
preventing excessive temperatures in the supply duct.
In a typical application of the electronic temperature control system, three units are utilized:
(1) Cabin temperature pickup (thermistor),
(2) Manual temperature selector, and
(3) Electronic regulator
Cabin Air Temperature Selector
The air temperature selector is a rheostat located in the cabin. It permits selective temperature control by varying the effective
temperature control point of the cabin air temperature pickup unit. The rheostat causes the cabin temperature pickup unit to
demand a specific temperature of the supply air.
In most air temperature control systems, there is one switch to select the mode of temperature control. Usually, this switch will
have four positions: "off," "auto," "man hot," and "man cold."
In the "off" position, the air temperature control system is inoperative. With the switch in the "auto" range, the air temperature
control system is in the automatic mode. With the switch in either the "man hot" or "man cold" position, the air temperature
control system is in the manual mode.

Page : 130
Aircraft Systems
CABIN PRESSURIZATION OPERATIONAL CHECKS

Two operational checks can be performed on a cabin air conditioning and pressurization system. The first is a general
operational check of the complete system, designed to ensure the proper operation of each major system component
as well as the complete system. The second is a cabin pressurization check designed to check the cabin for air tight-
ness.
To operationally check the air conditioning system, either operate the engines or provide the necessary ground support
equipment recommended by the aircraft manufacturer. With system controls positioned to provide cold air, ensure that
cold air is flowing from the cabin distribution outlets. Position the system controls to provide heated air and check to
see that there is an increase in the temperature of the airflow from the distribution outlets.

Page : 131
Aircraft Systems
PACK PACK
TRIP OFF 0 0 0 0 TRIP OFF
121 C/250 F 121 C/250 F
DUCT DUCT
OVERHEAT
880C /1900F 880C /1900F OVERHEAT
MAIN SUPPLY DUCT
Ground
Air Source
To Gasper
Outlets
Mix Valves
Left Pack Right Pack

Page : 132
Aircraft Systems
LECTRURE 8 OXYGEN SYSTEM
Objectives
Understand the type of the oxygen system

Understand the function of the oxygen system
Know location of oxygen system

Page : 133
Aircraft Systems
OXYGEN SYSTEMS GENERAL

The atmosphere is made up of about 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1% other gases by volume. Of these gases, oxygen
is the most important. As altitude increases, the air thins out and air pressure decreases. As a result, the amount of
oxygen available to support life functions decreases.
Aircraft oxygen systems are provided to supply the required amount of oxygen to keep a sufficient concentration of
oxygen in the lungs to permit normal activity up to indicated altitudes of about 40,000 ft.
Modern transport aircraft cruise at altitudes where cabin pressurization is necessary to maintain the cabin pressure altitude
between 8,000 and 15,000 ft, regardless of the actual altitude of the aircraft. Under such conditions, oxygen is not needed
for the comfort of the passengers and crew. However, as a precaution, oxygen equipment is installed for use if cabin
pressurization fails. Portable oxygen equipment may also be aboard for first-aid purposes. Aircraft designed without cabin
pressurization, oxygen equipment may be installed for use by passengers and crew when the aircraft is flown at high
altitudes; installation of an oxygen system, depend on portable oxygen equipment stowed in convenient positions.
In some aircraft a continuous-flow oxygen system is installed for both passengers and crew. The pressure demand
system is widely used as a crew system.
Continuous Flow System
In simple form a basic continuous-flow oxygen system in the illustration, with the line valve turned "on", oxygen will flow
from the charged cylinder through the high-pressure line to "the pressure-reducing valve, which reduces the pressure to
that required at the mask outlets. A calibrated orifice in the outlets will control the amount of oxygen delivered to the
mask.
The passenger system may consist of a series of plug-in supply sockets fitted to the cabin walls adjacent to the passenger
seats to which oxygen masks can be connected, or it may be the "drop out" mask arrangement where individual masks are
presented automatically to each passenger if pressurization fails. In both cases oxygen is supplied, often automatically,
from a manifold.
Any automatic control (e.g. barometric control valve) in the system can be overridden manually by a member of the crew.

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Aircraft Systems
Continuous-flow oxygen system

Page : 135
Aircraft Systems
Pressure-Demand System
A simple pressure-demand oxygen system is illustrated note that there is a pressure-demand regulator for each
crewmember, who can adjust the regulator according to his requirements.
Typical pressure-demand oxygen system

Page : 136
Aircraft Systems
PORTABLE OXYGEN EQUIPMENT

Typical portable oxygen equipment consists of a lightweight steel alloy oxygen cylinder fitted with a combined flow
control/reducing valve and a pressure gage. A breathing mask, with connecting flexible tube and a carrying bag with the
necessary straps for attachment to the wearer, completes the set. The charged cylinder pressure is usually 1,800 Psi;
however, the cylinder capacities vary. A popular size for portable equipment is the 120-liter capacity cylinder.
Depending on the type of equipment used, it is normally possible to select at least two rates of flow, normal or high.
With some equipment three flow rate selections are possible, i.e., normal, high, and emergency, which would
correspond to 2, 4, and, 10 liters per minute. With these flow rates a 120-liter cylinder would last for 60, 30, and 12
min., respectively.
OXYGEN CYLINDERS, - the oxygen supply is contained in either, high-pressure or low-pressure oxygen cylinders. The
high-pressure cylinders are manufactured from heat-treated alloy, or are wire wrapped on the out side surface, to
provide resistance to shattering. All high-pressure cylinders are identified by their green color and have the words
"AVIATORS' BREATHING OXYGEN" stenciled lengthwise in white.
There are two basic types of low-pressure oxygen cylinders. One is made of stainless steel; the other, of heat-
treated, low-alloy steel. Both types of low-pressure cylinders come in different sizes and are painted light yellow. This
color indicates that they are used for low-pressure oxygen only. The cylinders may carry a maximum charge of 450
Psi, but are normally filled to a pressure of from 400 to 425 Psi. When the pressure drops to 50 Psi, the cylinders
are considered empty.
The cylinders may be equipped with either of two types of valves. One type used is a self-opening valve which is
automatically opened when the self-opening valve coupling assembly attached to the oxygen tubing is connected to the
valve outlet the other type is a hand-wheel, manually operated valve. This valve should be safety wired in the "full on"
position when the cylinder is installed in the aircraft. This valve should be closed when removing or replacing parts of
the oxygen system and when the cylinder is to be removed from the aircraft. Cylinders are often provided with a disk
designed to rupture if cylinder pressure rises to an unsafe value. The disk is usually fitted in the valve body and
vents the cylinder contents to the outside of the aircraft in the event of a dangerous pressure rise.
The Oxygen Generator, - basic oxygen generator the center axial position is occupied by a core of sodium chlorate,
iron, and some other ingredients mixed together and either pressed or cast into a cylindrical shape. This item has been
popularly referred to as an oxygen candle, because when it is ignited at one end, it burns progressively in much the
same manner as a candle or flare. Surrounding the core is porous packing. It supports the core and filters salt particles
from the gas as it flows toward the outlet. A chemical filter and particulate filter at the outlet end of the container
provide final clean up of the gas so that the oxygen delivered is medically pure breathing oxygen.

Page : 137
Aircraft Systems
An initiation device is an integral part of the package. This may be

either a mechanical percussion device or an, electric squib. The
choice depends on the application. The entire assembly is
housed in a thin shelled vessel. Often included is a layer of
thermal insulation on the inside shell; a check valve seal, on the
outlet, and a relief valve to protect against an inadvertent over-
pressure condition.
In operation, the burning is initiated at one end of the core by
activating the squib or percussion device. Oxygen evolution rate, is
proportional to the cross sectional area of the core and the burn
rate. The burn rate is determined by the concentration of fuel in
the chlorate. In certain cases, one end of the core is larger than the
other. The purpose of this is to program a high oxygen evolution
rate during the initial few minutes of burning such as is
required for an emergency descent supply.
OXYGEN PLUMBING
Tubing and fittings make up most of the oxygen system
plumbing and connect the various components. All lines are metal
except where flexibility is required. Where flexibility is needed,
rubber hose is used.
There are several different sizes and types of oxygen tubing. The
one most frequently used in low-pressure gaseous systems is
made of aluminum alloy. Tubing made of this material resists
corrosion and fatigue, is light in weight, and is easily formed.
High-pressure gaseous supply lines are made from copper alloys.
Installed oxygen tubing is usually identified with color-coded tape
applied to each end of the tubing, and at specified intervals along its
length. The tape coding consists of a green band overprinted with
the words "BREATHING OXYGEN" and a black rectangular symbol overprinted on a white background.

Page : 138
Aircraft Systems
The oxygen system filler valve is located on most aircraft

close to the edge of an access batch or directly behind a
cover plate in the skin. In either location, the valve is readily
accessible for servicing. It is usually marked by a placard or
a sign stenciled on the exterior, reading: "OXYGEN FILLER
VALVE."
There are two types of oxygen filler valves in use, a low-
pressure filler valve and a high-pressure filler valve.
- When servicing a low-pressure oxygen system, push the
recharging adapter into the filler valve casing. This
unseats the filler valve and permits oxygen to flow
from the servicing cart into the aircraft oxygen
cylinders. The filler valve contains a spring loaded
locking device which holds the recharging adapter in
place until it is released. When the adapter is removed
from the filler valve, reverse flow of oxygen is
automatically stopped by a check valve. A cap is
provided to cover the filler opening and prevent
contamination.
- To service an oxygen system that uses a high-pressure
filler valve, screw the recharging adapter onto the
aircraft filler valve. Open the manual valve on the filler
valve and the servicing bottle. When recharging is
completed, close the valves, remove the recharging
adapter, and screw a valve cap on the valve to prevent
contamination

Page : 139
Aircraft Systems
REGULATORS
Diluter-Demand Regulators, - the diluter-demand regulator gets its name from the fact that it delivers oxygen to the
user's lungs in response to the suction of his own breath. To prolong the duration of the oxygen supply, the oxygen is
automatically diluted in the regulator with suitable amounts of atmospheric air. This dilution takes place at all attitudes
below 34,000 ft.
The essential feature of a diluter-demand regulator is a diaphragm-operated valve called the demand valve , which opens
by slight suction on the diaphragm during inhalation and which closes during exhalation When the diluter lever is set in the
position marked "normal oxygen," atmospheric air at ground level is supplied with very little oxygen added. As
altitude increases, the air inlet is gradually closed by the bellows to give a higher concentration of oxygen until at
about 34,000 ft. the air inlet is completely closed and 100% oxygen is supplied: As altitude decreases, this process is
reversed.
The diluter control can be set by turning the lever to give 100% oxygen at any altitude. At moderate altitudes, however,
this causes the oxygen supply to be consumed much more rapidly than normal. The diluter control should be set at
"normal oxygen" for all routine operations.
It can be set at "100 percent oxygen" for the following purposes:
(1) Protection against exhaust gases or other poisonous or harmful gases in the aircraft,
(2) To avoid the bends and chokes, and
(3) To correct a feeling of lack of oxygen.
The diluter-demand regulator is provided with an emergency valve, opening this valve directs a steady stream of pure
oxygen to the mask, regardless of attitude.
Breathe oxygen normally from the mask. The oxygen flow meter should blink once for each breath.
Another type of diluter-demand regulator is the narrow panel type This type regulator face displays a float-type flow
indicator which signals oxygen flow through the regulator to the mask.
The regulator face also displays three manual control levers. A supply lever opens or closes the oxygen supply valve.
An emergency lever is used to obtain oxygen under pressure.

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Aircraft Systems

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Aircraft Systems

Page : 142
Aircraft Systems
Continuous-Flow Regulator
Continuous-flow regulators of the hand adjustable and the automatic type are installed for the crew and passenger
oxygen supply respectively.
The hand-adjustable continuous-flow regulator delivers to the user's mask a continuous stream of oxygen at a rate that
can be controlled. The system usually contains a pressure gage, a flow indicator, and a manual control knob for
adjusting the oxygen flow. The pressure gage indicates the Psi of oxygen in thee cylinder. The flow indicator is calibrated
in terms of altitude. The manual control knob adjusts the oxygen flow. The user adjusts the manual control knob until
the altitude of the flow indicator corresponds to the cabin altimeter read.
The automatic continuous-flow regulator is used in transport aircraft to supply oxygen automatically to each passenger when
cabin pressure is equivalent to an altitude of approximately 15,000 ft. Operation of the system is initiated automatically by
means of an electrically actuated device. The system can also be actuated electrically or manually should the automatic
regulator malfunction.

Page : 143
Aircraft Systems
A typical passenger service unit operation during the first few seconds of oxygen flow, a pressure surge of 50 to 100 Psi
causes the oxygen mask box doors to open.
Each mask assembly then falls out and is suspended by the actuating attachment on the flexible tubing. The action of
pulling the mask down to a usable position withdraws the outlet valve actuation pin, opening the rotary valve, allowing
oxygen to flow to the mask. Chemical oxygen generators are used to supply oxygen to each passenger and attendant. Oxygen
flow to the masks is started when the mask is pulled downward. This causes the chemical oxygen generator to start a chemical
reaction one product of which is oxygen.
Mask deployment occurs automatically by an altitude pressure switch when cabin pressure decreases to that equal to an altitude
of 14,000 feet. The pressure switch energizes the door latch actuator which causes the mask box door to open and the masks to
fall free. Mask deployment can also occur manually by moving the passenger oxygen switch on the aft overhead panel to ON.

Page : 144
Aircraft Systems

Page : 145
Aircraft Systems
OXYGEN MASKS
There are numerous types of oxygen masks in use which vary widely in design detail. It would be impractical to discuss
all of the types in this handbook. It is important that the masks used be compatible with the particular oxygen system
involved. In general, crew masks are fitted to the user's
face with a minimum of leakage. Crew masks usually
contain a microphone. Most masks are covers only the mouth
and nose.
Smoke mask equipment consists of a full- face mask, a
flexible breathing tube, and a coupling. The coupling connects
to a demand regulator. A microphone is permanently installed
in the mask Passenger masks may be simple, cup-shaped
rubber moldings sufficiently flexible to obviate individual
fitting. They may have a simple elastic head strap or they
may be held to the face by the passenger.
SERVICING GASEOUS OXYGEN SYSTEMS
The servicing procedures for a gaseous oxygen system
depend upon the type of system. Before charging an aircraft
system, consult the aircraft manufacturer's maintenance
manual. Precautions such as purging the connecting hose
before coupling to the aircraft filler valve, avoiding
overheating caused by too rapid filling, opening cylinder
valves slowly, and checking pressures frequently during
charging should be considered.
Gaseous breathing oxygen used in aircraft is a special type
of oxygen containing practically no water vapor and is at
least 99.5% pure. Gaseous breathing oxygen is generally
supplied in 220- to 250-cu. ft. high-pressure cylinders. The
cylinders are identified by their dark green color with a
white band painted around the upper part of the cylinder.
Oxygen Service Safety

Page : 146
BATT
BATT
CHGR
Aircraft Systems
Gaseous oxygen is dangerous and must be handled properly. It causes flammable materials to burn violently or even to
explode. Listed below are several precautionary measures to follow:
(1) Tag all reparable cylinders that have leaky valves or plugs.
(2) Don't use gaseous oxygen to dust off clothing, etc.
(3) Keep oil and grease away from oxygen equipment.
(4) Don't service oxygen systems in a hangar because of the increased chances for fire.
(5) Valves of an oxygen system or cylinder should not be opened when a flame, electrical arc, or any other source of
ignition is in the immediate area.
(6) Properly secure all oxygen cylinders when they are in use.
Several types of servicing trailers are in use, each recharging system contains supply cylinders, various types of Valves,
and a manifold that connects the high-pressure cylinders to a purifier assembly. In the purifier assembly, moisture is
removed from the oxygen. The reducing valve has two gages which are used to monitor inlet and outlet pressures
respectively. The reducing valve also has an adjusting screw for regulating the outlet pressure. The charging valve
controls oxygen flowing away from the servicing trailer, and the adapter connects the recharging equipment to the
aircraft filler valve.
PREVENTION OF OXYGEN FIRES OR EXPLOSIONS

Many materials, particularly oils, grease, and non-metallic materials, are likely to burn when exposed to oxygen under
pressure. To avoid fire or an explosion it is essential that all oxygen equipment be kept clean and free from oil or
grease.
An oxygen fire or explosion depends on a combination of oxygen, a combustible material, and heat. The danger of
ignition is in direct ratio to the concentration of oxygen, the combustible nature of the material exposed to the oxygen,
and the temperature of the oxygen and material. Oxygen itself does not burn but it supports and intensifies a fire with
any combustible material.
When working on an oxygen system it is essential that the warnings and precautions given in the aircraft maintenance
manual be carefully observed. In general, before any work is attempted on an oxygen system the following fire
precautions should be taken:
(1) Provide adequate fire-fighting equipment.
(2) Display "NO SMOKING" placards.
(3) Avoid checking aircraft radio or electrical systems.
(4) Keep all tools and oxygen servicing equipment free from oil or grease.

Page : 147

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Lecture Subject Page

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

LECTURE 1 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

 Describe purpose of hydraulic system

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Type of hydraulic fluids

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Hydraulic micronic filter type

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

recommended by the manufacturer.

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Open-Center loop System Open-Center loop System

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

The accumulator serves a twofold purpose:

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Basic hydraulic system with power pump

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Basic hydraulic system with hand pump

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

There are two types of reservoirs and they are:

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Reservoir “In- Line”

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Typical angular type

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

LRU: Line Replaceable Unit

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Simple type in-line check valve

Orifice type in-line check valve

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Line disconnect valve

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Typical selector valve

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Rotor type, closed-center selector valve operation

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Ram Air Turbine hydraulic pump

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

LECTURE 2 PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

When you have completed this topic, you will:

 Able to Identification component of pneumatic system

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Manual No.: BCT-0087 For Training Purpose Only Rev.0/ 01-05-2008

Drive shaft turns by engine

Describe purpose of hydraulic system

Able to Identification component of pneumatic system

Understand the function of water and waste system

Understand the function of the equipment and furnishings

Able to Identification of electrical power system and component