wltiple Access Techniques it Wireless ‘communications 1) om access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share simultaneously | ite amount of radio spectrum. The sharing of spectrum is required to achieve high capacity by | guluneously allocating the available bandwidth (or the available amount of channels) to multiple | yes. For high quality communications, this must be done without severe degradation in the perfor- | ee ofthe system. a1 Introduction tnvireless communications systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to send simulta- sxosly information to the base station while receiving information from the base station. For cumple, in conventional telephone s¥stems, itis possible to talk and listen simultaneously, and tiseffect, called duplexing, is generally required in wireless telephone systems. Duplexing may be done using frequency or time domain techniques. Frequency division ‘pling (FDD) provides two distinct bands of frequencies for every user. The forward band prides traffic from the base station to the mobile, and the reverse band provides traffic from ‘temobile to the base station. In FDD, any duplex channel actually consists of two simplex ‘anes (a forward and reverse), and a device called a duplexer is used inside each subscriber ‘si and base station to allow simultaneous bidirectional radio transmission and reception for | ‘od the subscriber unit and the base station on the duplex channel pair. The frequency separa- ‘Sobetween each forward and reverse channel is constant throughout the system, regardless of ‘puticular channel being used. Tine division duplexing (TDD) uses time instead of frequency to provide both a forward ‘drevese link. In TDD, multiple users share a single radio channel by taking tums in the time “sit Individual users are allowed to access the channel in assigned time slots, and each 449Groner 8 Mahle Access Technaues tor ya le : Toad \ Channel ; “a Frequeney separation —> a (a) Forward Ree Fanaa annel ae “<= Time separation —> " (b) Figure 9.1 (a) FDD provides two simplex channels at the same time; (b) Top simplex time slots on the same frequency. j duplex channel has both a forward time slot and a reverse time slot 10 facilitate bi, communication, Ifthe time separation between the forward and reverse time slots sy the transmission and reception of data appears simultaneous t0 the users at both ty gy, unit and on the base station side, Figure 9.1 illustrates FDD and TDD techniques, Tp 4 communication on a single channel (as opposed to requiring two separate simplex or ja.” | channels) and simplifies the subscriber equipment since a duplexer is not required, ; ‘There are several tradeoffs between FD and TDD approaches. FDD is geared vay | communications systems that allocate individual radio frequencies for each usr. Becae as transceiver simultaneously transmits and receives radio signals which can vary by mor jy 100 dB, the frequency allocation used for the forward and reverse channels must be cael | inated within its own system and with out-of-band users that occupy spectrum between tsehy bands. Furthermore, the frequency separation must be coordinated to permit the use of inetpesie RF and oscillator technology. TDD enables each transceiver to operate as either a transite | receiver on the same frequency, and eliminates the need for separate forward and reverse fqex | bands. However, there is atime latency created by TDD due to the fact that communicatisist | full duplex in the truest sense, and this latency creates inherent sensitivities to propagation dis of individual users. Because of the rigid timing required for time slotting, TDD generally ili to cordless phone or short range portable access. TDD is effective for fixed wireless access vt all users are stationary so that propagation delays do not vary in time among the users. 9.1.1 Introduction to Multiple Access Frequency division muliple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA) #4 division multiple access (CDMA) are the three major access techniques used to share th oll Te bandwidth in a wireless communication system, These techniques can be grouped var and wideband systems, depending upon how the available bandwidth is allocated © ered ] duplexing technique of a multiple access system is usually described along with me PM" | multiple access scheme, as shown inthe examples that follow.Sn pivision Murpre Access (FDMA) whand Systems — 7 ary expected coherg, tS ™ nar to the expected coherence ja.) Ma”voWl . ; ra po ye available radio spectrin, chang» the bandwidth of single \ «IS divided j el. In ot re usually Operated using PDD. Te iM aarp muir "Wand multiple ane ° Of nary we each channel, the Frequency Separation ize inte ference bet sive channels. The joy, while still allowing ing, ensive ¢ 'S made g Breat as Ween forward and reverse pach subscriber Unit, In nap “pl Possible within the frequency lexers a Towband By and a comm a it i : ‘D . 10N trans¢ a shared bY other users in the Vicinity, ang itm User is assi ‘ceiver antenna to be ci 4 particular channel which nt werse simplex cha is . inne] whic! ie ihe hand lee 1, then the System a (hits, each duplex channel nan cpa oF ane S t0 sha DM, Fy toeah Wer ina cyclical fash 2 Eth sam ADD. Narrowband Tadio channel bu 7 “ t allocates au it ; F ‘anny . nique ot on a single channel. For Narrowband el thus Separating a small number of users ‘ a ee A syst . jo channels a using either Fp) ci Dae ere generally are a large number Sass are called TDMAVEDD or 7444 7 DD: AM each channel shared using TDMA, ‘wideband systems — In wideban Seee8s systems, ids . Systems, the transmission, bandwidth width of the Channel. Thus, Within a Wwideban n Signal bandwidth at ar 451 of a single channel ‘multipath fading does not } and frequency selective fades mites are allowed. a2 F time. In Wideband multipe aes ie 4 10 he many wansmirs go ge re © onthe same chanel ae wee pect ee sine channel and allows only one transmitter sniters to access the channel at the sq Pecirum CDMA allows all of the aecess techniques being used in various wireless communications systems, 92 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Gequney division multiple access (FDMA) assigns individual channels to individual wer) abe seen from Figure 9.2 that each user is allocated a unique frequency band or chart These channels are assigned on demand to users who request servic During the period of the cal,no other user can share the same channel. In FDD systems, the users afé assigned a Charmnel— 5 pa : is forward 1, while the other fre- ‘8a pair of frequencies; one frequency is used for the forward channel, while the other Ti gency is used for the reverse channel. The features of FDMA are as follows: —-~ Rect et comer feats \wihe FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time. *Ifan DMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot be used by other users to increase or share capacity. It is essentially a wasted resource.452 Figure 9.2 FDMA where different channels are assigned different frequency bands. Table 9.1. Multiple Access Techniques Used in Different Wireless Communication Systems Multiple Access Cellular System Technique Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) FDMA/FDD Global System for Mobile (GSM) ‘TDMAFDD gel game cee eh eC ya ly US Digital Cellular (USDC) TDMA/FDD Cie Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC) TDMA/FDD: ai ee es acer a CT2 (Cordless Telephone) FDMA/TDD: Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) FDMA/TDD US Narrowband Spread Spectrum (IS-95) CDMA/FDD CDMA/FDD W-CDMA (3GPP) CDMA/TDD CDMA/FDD- cdma2000 (3GPP2) CDMA/TDD + Code Wy ---- Frequency (Channel 1 ‘Channel 2, Channel 3, Channel V Timesine assignment of a Voice channe, ae y and continuously, mt bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow a spponts only one cicuit per carer. That ig, Epa 0 8 AMPS) as each chan- FDMA is Usually implemented in narrow- mis t e ame ol interference is low and, it inl “ , thus, little or no aqaliation is requifedin FMA narrowtand system = «the complexity of FDMA mobile systems is lower hough this is changing as digital signay Processing «since FDMA is a continuous transmission scheme ses (such as synchronization and framing bits) as compared to TDMA. s FDMA systems have higher cell site System costs as compared to TDMA — because of the single channel per cartier design, and the need to use costly bandpass filters toeliminate spurious radiation at the base station +The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers since both the transmitter and receiver operate at the same time. This results in an increase in the cost of FDMA subscriber units and base stations +FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference. ‘When compared to TDMA systems, methods improve for TDMA. fewer bits are needed for overhead Nonlinear Effects in FDMA — In a FDMA system, many channels share the same antenna athe base station, The power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at or near satura- iia or maximum power efficiency, are nonlinear. The nonlinearities cause signal spreading in the feueney domain and generate intermodulation (IM) frequencies. IM is undesired RF radiation stich can interfere with other channels in the FDMA systems. Spreading of the spectrum results inajacent-channel interference. Intermodulation is the generation of undesirable harmonics. lamonics generated outside the mobile radio band cause interference to adjacent services, while thee present inside the band cause interference to other users inthe wireless system [Yac93]. ia ca NE iT aa cA RE Pi DN Example 9.1 Find the intermodulation frequencies generated if a base station transmits ‘wo carrier frequencies at 1930 MHz and 1982 MHz that are amplified by a saturated clipping amplifier. If the mobile radio band is allocated from 1920 MHz to 1940 MHz, designate the IM frequencies that lie inside and Outside the band. Solution 'ntermodulation distortion products occur at frequencies mf, + nfz for all integer values of m and n, i.¢., << m,n < = Some of the possible inter- Modulation frequencies that are produced by a nonlinear device are (2n + 1)f,—2nfy, (2n+ 2)f — (204 Mf, (2n + 1h — 2Mhy (2n+2)f-(2n+1)f, etc. forn=0, 1,2,ple Access Techniqy Table E8.1 lists several intermodulation product terms. Table E8.1__ Intermodulation Products m0 n=t n=2 n=3 jos0 1926 ©«1922~=«1918 1928 «1924 ~=—«1920—=S«1916 1932 «1936:~=~=«940~—«19a 19394 «1938 ~=—«1942" ~—«1946" ‘The frequencies in the table marked with an asterisk (*) are the frequencig that lie outside the allocated mobile radio band. . hee The frst US analog cellular system, the Advanced Mobile Phone Sstem (AMPS), on FDMAVFDD. A single ser oceupiesa single chanel while th cals in progres, andy ale chanel is actualy two simplex chanels which at equeney dupleted with 45 Migs When a calli completed, or when a handoff accu the chanel s vacated 0 that anther ma Subscriber may use it, Multiple or simultaneous users are accommodated in AMps 4° aiving exch user a unique chanel, Voie signals are sent onthe forward chanel from th te! sation to mobile unit, and onthe reverse channel from the mobile unit to th base sting AMPS, analog narrowband frequency modulation (NBFM) is sed to modulate the ear ne rnumber of channels that canbe simultaneously supported in a FDMA system is given by B,-2B, wy = Be 2owe ei where B, isthe total spectrum allocation, Byyayy is the guard band allocated atthe edge ofthe allocated spectrum band, and B, isthe channel bandwidth Note that B, and B, may be spec, fied in terms of simplex bandwidths where it is understood that there ate symmetric frequency allocations for the forward band and reverse band. — Example 9.2 In US AMPS, 416 channels are allocated to various cellular operators. The channel between them is 30 kHz with the guard band of 10 KHz. Calculate the spectrum allocation given to each operator. Solution ‘Spectrum allocated to each cellular operator is. By =N Be +2 Boyarg = 416 x 30 x 109+2(10 x 103) = 12.5 MHz 12.5 MHz is allocated for each simplex band. tl455 + Frequency | gtd TDMA scheme where each channel occupies a cyclically repeating time slot. | 9g Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) multiple access (TDMA) systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots, and in user is allowed to either transmit or receive. It can be seen from Figure 9.3 that huser occupies @ cyclically repeating time slot, so a channel may be thought of as a particular vest that reoecurs every frame, where V time slots comprise a frame. TDMA systems trans- vada ina bufer-and-burst method, thus the transmission for any use is noncontinuous. This igs that, unlike in FDMA systems which accommodate analog FM, digital data and digital | Fablaion must be used with TDMA. The transmission from various users is interlaced into a | ppaing frame structure as shown in Figure 9.4. It can be seen that a frame consists of a number | low Each fame is made up of a preamble, an information message, and tail bits, In TDMA/ | aot the time slots ia the frame information message woold be used forthe forward link nels and half would be used for reverse link channels. In TDMAVFDD systems, an identical ‘nit frame structure would be used solely for either forward or reverse transmission, but the «iz fequencies would be different forthe forward and reverse links. Tn general, TDMA/FDD ‘ems intentionally induce several time slots of delay between the forward and reverse time “fora prior user, so that duplexes are not required in the subsriber ni | ‘edison tno Is a1DMA frame, the preamble contains the adress and synchronization information that if ard times are utilized to allow the base station and the subscribers use to identify eachother. Ou ; it slots and frames. Different TDMA wireless ization of the receivers between differenChapter 9 + Multiple Access Tachniaus fora Conn 456 > | 4 Dre TDMA Frame —_—_—— Information Message [ma] ite ne sea | Preamble [se Slot2 } Slot3 Guard Bits | ‘Trail Bits | Sync. bits Figure 9.4. TDMA frame structure. The frame is. cyclically repeated over time. standards have different TDMA frame structures, and some are described in Chapter 1), The features of TDMA include the following: “TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user makes use of nonoverlapping time slots, The number of time slots per frame depends on several facons, such as modulation technique, available bandwidth, etc. + Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but occurs in bursts, This results in low battery consumption, since the subscriber transmitter can be tumed off ‘when not in use (which is most of the time). * Because of discontinuous transmissions in TDMA, the handoff process is much simpler for a subscriber unit, since it is able to listen for other base stations during idle time slots, ‘Anenhanced link control, such as that provided by mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) can be carried out by a subscriber by listening on an idle slot in the TDMA frame. + TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, thus duplexers are not required, Even if FDD is used, a switch rather than a duplexer inside the subscriber unit is all that is required to switch between transmitter and receiver using TDMA. + Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission rates are generally very high as compared to FDMA channels, + In TDMA, the guard time should be minimized. If the transmitted signal at the edges of 2 time slot are suppressed sharply in order to shorten the guard time, the transmitted spec- trum will expand and cause interference to adjacent channels. + High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems because of burst transmis- sions. TDMA transmissions are slotted, and this requires the receivers to be synchronized for each data burst, In addition, guard slots are necessary to separate users, and this results in the TDMA systems having larger overheads as compared to FDMA.tiple Access (TDMay jon Mo “57 an advantage jn, that itj MA has an itis possi v7 frame (0 different users, Thus, bandvin allocate different * oncatenating or Teassigning ¢j car by aM be sya lumbers of time slots Me SlOtS base on geet on der mand to different users Priority, iene? of TDMA ~The CMfciency of, ued data that contains informayion 3S oppose tg System isa measure of the percentage of oo efficiency, Ty, is the PereeNtaRe Of bis er git overhead for the access scheme, ; ; frame wie HF fe wansmitted data may include Source ame Whi I v isi of asystem is generally less thay annel od ie d ch contain transmited data, Note MB bits, so the raw end-user Coe me ef CY can be found as follows. ci is [Zieg2), oH = Nb AND Ns rhe number of Overhead bits per fan, b Nb, Insts per frame, N, (9.2) Ni is the number of reference by oN, ; is th bursts per p, is the number of overhead bits Der reference bus, big gon ot Malle bursts pe ineach slot, and bj ist, b, is the number of overhead bits yeamble in each slot, and b, is the number of Squivatent bits in each guard time interval, #2 yal number of bits per frame, br, is ‘he TR 03) ie T; is the frame duration, and R is the Channel bit rate, The frame efficiency ny is thus vt sens (9.4) i — The number of TDMA channel slots that can be iber of channels in TDMA system ile SDMA system is found by multiplying the number of TDMA slots per channel by ms oe cua of channels available and is given by mre 2B) 5) ye MBs = _ io channel, Note that two i supported on each ra io i imum number of TDMA users cael Nat : band do not “bleed ov Dersure that users atthe edge of the Se ‘DD system that Example 6.3 for Mobile, which is @ TOMAIEDD sysier tet Consider Global Sen link, which is boien 7 je radio channel, and uses 25 MHz for the a nels are supported on B “simultaneous users that 200 kHz. If 8 speech cl sain 1ed, find the number 'fno guard band is assumed, can be accommodated in GSM. aitigors that ca" be accommodated j In@g Mi solution f The number of simultaneous jiven as . 25. MHz. = 1000 N= Gogutey/8 to 1000 simultaneous users. sthus, GSM can accommods h frame consists of gi Example 9.4 where eacl Example 9 | ame structure WET 5 its, and data is trang a i slots, and each time sot coma 6 mime duration of abit, (b) ve ‘| 370.833 kbps in the channe ° time sme, ard (4) how at" ie Jot, (c) the time 7 lon oie £6) he me sot wat ewe two successive wang sions. Solution 1 {@) The time duration of a Bit, To = 70885 Kos = 156.25 x Tp = 0.577 ms, 8 x Tojor = 4.615 ms. = 3.692 us. (0) The time duration of a slot, Ts (©) The time duration of @ frame, Ty (4) Auser has to wait 4.615 ms, the arn transmission. Example 9.5 eearmal GEM has 3 start bits, 3 stop bits (also called as trailing bits) daptive equalization, 8.25 guard bits and 26 training bits for allowing a‘ 3B bursts of 58 bits of encrypted data which is transmitted at 270.833 kbps in the channel. Find (a) number of overhead bits per frame, Bon, (b) total number of bits/frame (0) frame rate (6) time duration of a slot (©) frame efficiency ival time of a new frame, forts ne Solution A time slot has 6 + 8.25 + 26 + 2(58) = 156.25 bits (a) Number of overhead bits, by, = 8(6) + 8(8.25) + 8(26) = 322 bits (b) Number of bits/frame = 8 x 156.25 = 1250 bits/frame © cane rate: 270.833 kbps/1250 bits/frame = 216.6 frame/sec ‘ ) Time duration of a slot = 156.25 x 1/270.833kbps = 576.92 Hs (e) Frame efficiency 1 = (822/1250)] = 74.24% age «59 gpread Spectrum Multiple Access earn multiple access (SSA) 885g A ¥ é J jes of magnitude greater than the p= {ransmission bandwidth that is ¥ an either TDD or FDD may be used. CDMA system raises the noise Noonan et ase numberof users in ' a 38 no absolute limit on users in CDMA. R the number of A. Rather, the system gersas tbe mumber of WETS is inceasey cm betormance gradually degrades forall delayed versions of the required signal. «Since CDMA uses co-channel cells, it can use m; soft handoff. Soft handoff is performed by the MSC, which can simultaneously monitor a panicular user from two or more base stations. The MSC may chose the best version ofthe signal at any time without switching frequencies. + Selfjamming is a problem in CDMA system. Selfjamming arises from the fact that the spreading sequences of different users are not exactly orthogonal, hence in the despread- ing of a particular PN code, non-zero contributions to the receiver decision statistic for a ‘esired user arise from the transmissions of other users in the system, +The near-far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an undesired user has a high detected power as compared to the desired user. 943 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques Lakin to the frequency hopped and direct sequence, spread spectrum multiple access tech- tins, there are certain other hybrid combinations that provide certain advantages. These hd techniques are described below. y Hybrid FDMA/CDMA (FCDMA) — This technique can be used as an alternative to the iA echrigues discussed above. Figure 9.6 shows te spestum of this hybrid scheme, The Wideband spectrum is divided into a number of subspectras with smaller bandwidths.im of Narrowband CDMA Spectra a 9.6. Spectrum of wideband ‘CDMA compared tothe spectrum of ahybrg, ty, Figure 9.6 Sp Fie gect sequence multiple access. < ‘Burst transmission resets in this channel eas aa bursts Figure 9.7. Frequency spectrum of a hybrid FH/DS system. Each of these smaller subchannels becomes a narrowband CDMA system having process Tower than the original CDMA system. This hybrid system has an advantage in that te iz bandwidth need not be contiguous and different users can be allotted different subspeetuntat widths depending on their requirements. The capacity of this FDMA/CDMA technique iss lated as the sum of the capacities ofa system operating in the subspectra [Eng93]. Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (DS/FHMA) — 7 technique consists of a direct sequence modulated signal whose center frequency is me periodically in a pseudorandom fashion. Figure 9.7 shows the frequency spectrum of st signal [Dix94]. Direct sequence, frequency hopped systems have an advantage in that they the near-far effect. However, frequency hopped CDMA systems are not adaptable handoff process since i is difficult to syichronize the frequency hopped base station =" the multiple hopped signals. ‘Time Division CDMA (TCDMA) — In a TCDMA (also called ToMAcoM E(sdway ‘muttiple Access ion lace, the sprain, oft takes Place, the sp 8 CO. oF the uss; el isan ONES In hte oe 0 tt enw Ug inane “Tet sincg Only one user transmits ata time nti pion Frequene SPbing (CDRH) — f - severe multipath of When se | ge Wuhtipl n Vere cO-cha iterferer Pi” #885 technique has at | pote ay frequency at the Sart of a ney, TDM, fere 1 nes a 09 articular channel, This tec i ona part Nee Occurs. The subscriber can 7 ame, thus - MIQUE has be S avoiding a severe fade or erasur oe sequence is predefined ang iy. s om Adopted for th tandard, where the @ Subscriber jg Ald to hop only came wit assigned t0 a cel This scheme aigg void ’ oa cells if two interferin vont ©? Only on certain frequencies ion pon'S O-Channel inter. Station transmi ot different times. The use o ies ference problems between f ‘ansmitters Made to transmit on different fre- : mt etease the capacity of GSM by several fold og}. Chapter 11 describes the Ggny Standard in more detail Pacity by space Division Multiple Access, (sma) ¥ division multiple access (SDMA) Controls the radiated Snergy for each user in space. It ie en fom Figure 9.8 that SDMA serves different users by Using spot beam antennas eee by the antenna beam nay be served by the same frequency (in a ‘ an CDMA System) or diferent frequencies i cod ol a's primitive a oy in an FDMA plication of SDMA. inthe tn be wsed to simultaneously steer energy inthe cely direction of many users at once and appear sited for TDMA and CDMA tase sation acho pa reverse link presents the most dif =p. ‘tp. beams ers by using spot ing different us ation antenna servi Faure 9g A spatially filtered base stat