“A PAROJECT REPORT ON ENGLISH REVOLUTION; MAJOR

ISSUES INTECLLECTUAL AND POLITICAL CURRENTS”

Introduction

The English Revolution, also known as the Puritan Revolution and the English
Civil War, officially began in 1642 with the onset of military action between King
Charles I and his supporters, and the forces rallied by the Puritan Parliament. Yet
the political upheaval and religious schisms which contributed to the revolution
were underway long before 1642. The causes of the English Revolution are hotly
debated among historians, but some agree that a combination of the struggle for
power between parliament and the crown and the religious divisions between
Anglicans and Puritans were the most potent forces behind the developing crisis.
Political and religious pamphlets were produced in abundance during the mid-
1600s. Religious sermons, often highly political in nature, were also preached and
sometimes printed during this time, and, like the practice of pamphleteering,
attempted to sway public opinion. Additionally, much of the poetry of this time
period was focused on the topical religious issues, issues which many maintain
fueled the fire of the Revolution.

Critics such as Nicholas Tyacke (1973) stress that the revolution of the mid-1640s
was already brewing in the 1620s. Tyacke notes that the Calvinism and Puritanism
of England was threatened by the rise of Arminianism, the belief in God's universal
grace, and in the free will of all men to obtain salvation. Calvinists and Puritans
believed that salvation was predestined, that men were divided into the classes of
the Elect and the Reprobate. As the House of Commons gained power in the
1640s, it wore an increasingly Puritan face, whereas King Charles I surrounded
himself with Anglicans and Arminians. Stuart E. Prall (1968) also surveys the
troubles of the early 1600s, demonstrating how James I, Charles's father, had failed
to understand the role and power of Parliament, and had championed the cause of
royal sovereignty. Prall notes that with the ascension of Charles came an increasing
reliance of the crown on the Bishop of London, and therefore an increase in both
political and religious tensions. These tensions exploded with armed conflict in
1642, continued for several years with the Puritans being lead by Oliver Cromwell,
and lasted until the execution of Charles I in 1649. The Puritan Parliament then
abolished monarchy, the House of Lords, and the Anglican Church and declared
England a Commonwealth. England was ruled by Cromwell as Lord Protector until
his death in 1658, after which his son Richard attempted to fill Cromwell's role.
Richard was unable to do so, and following the dissolution of the Puritan
Parliament in 1660, a newly elected Parliament restored the monarchy and offered
the crown to Charles I's exiled son, Charles II. Thus began the Restoration.

Background

The English Civil War was a highly complex conflict, one which cannot be pinned
on one cause alone. Indeed, several things contributed to the animosity between
Parliament and the monarchy, which erupted into armed conflict in 1642. Firstly,
England, and specifically Parliament, exhibited a rabid paranoia concerning
Catholicism in the 17th century. English Protestants were constantly fearful of
Catholicism being foisted upon the English, whether through foreign invasion or
internal rebellion. As a result, the English were suspicious when Charles I
attempted to impose a new, Arminian prayer book upon both England and
Scotland. The book reinstituted some Anglican principles and practices that Puritan
activists had sought to eliminate from English practice. Many Englishmen,
especially the more radical Protestant activists, viewed these practices as inherently
Catholic, and rumors abounded that Charles was preparing to reintroduce
Catholicism to England and that Charles was himself a secret Catholic. Charles'
1625 marriage to a Catholic French princess, Henrietta Marie, certainly did not
help.

Causes, & Major issues

The Civil War did not start as a revolution. Those involved did not set out to
remove the Monarchy and replace it with a Republic. Conflicting attitudes towards
Royal authority and religion brought about a series of events which escalated into
armed conflict.

Charles I believed he ruled with the Divine Right of Kings. This meant he thought
he was King by the will of God and therefore his decisions could not be challenged
or questioned. This ideology was opposed by those who believed there should be a
limit to Royal authority; that the people and their representatives, that is Parliament
should have more say in how the nation was governed. Tied up with this were
arguments over the Church and religion. There were deep divisions over what
religious practices, forms of worship and organizational structure the Church
should have.

The basic causes of the English Civil War were lack of money, religion, foreign
affairs and the struggle between the monarchy and Parliament, according to the
BBC. The conflict broke out during the end of the reign of Charles I in 1642 and
concluded in 1649 with the execution of the king.

Religion

Religion was a major cause of the English Civil War. It was part of a Europe wide
conflict between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism.
At the start of his reign (1625) King Charles I had married the Roman Catholic
Henrietta Maria of France. Included in her marriage treaty were provisions that she
be allowed to practice her religion freely at Court. It was also made a condition of
the treaty that King Charles I set about lifting restrictions for recusants (that is
Catholics who refused to attend Anglican Church services). The marriage was not
a popular one. At this time Roman Catholics were distrusted and feared. The reign
of the Catholic Queen Mary I (Bloody Mary as she came to be known) had seen
the persecution of Protestants. Within living memory there had been the attempted
invasion of England by Roman Catholic Phillip II of Spain in 1588 (The Spanish
Armada); the Gunpowder Plot of 1605, a Catholic plot to blow up James I in the
Houses of Parliament; and the on-going Thirty Years War, ultimately a religious
conflict which saw Roman Catholic nations trying to wipe out Protestantism in
Europe.

Money

A key factor which led to the outbreak of the Civil War was King Charles and his
lack of money.

Charles’ father King James I, had led a lavish, extravagant lifestyle, which had left
the Royal treasury depleted. The cost of running the Royal household of Charles I
was similarly expensive. King Charles was a patron of the arts and spent vast sums
of money on musicians to entertain his Court and in buying works of art.

King Charles needed to call Parliament to ask for money. In June 1625 Parliament
had only granted the King tonnage and poundage (income from customs duties) for
a single year, rather than for life as was customary. This meant that Charles would
be forced to call Parliament again to grant further taxes. Parliament refused to
grant King Charles enough money to finance military campaigns against Spain and
France. Charles dismissed Parliament and sought to raise income through a Forced
Loan. That is money from taxes levied without the consent of Parliament. Refusal
to pay often resulted in imprisonment without trial. This caused much discontent.
In 1628 a Commons’ Petition of Right was drawn up which stated that the king
could not levy taxes on his subjects without the assent of Parliament, nor arbitrarily
imprison them. Although King Charles initially agreed to the Petition it was never
properly enacted as a statute.

Parliament

Under the reign of James I there had been a breakdown in relations between
Parliament and the Monarchy. Charles I had a similar negative view of any
interference by Parliament in his rule. It was within the King’s royal prerogative
not to call Parliament but they did have their purpose. As well as being necessary
for raising taxes and passing legislation they could also be used as a source of
advice and as a means of getting grievances heard.

The Short Parliament

King Charles called Parliament in April 1640 to raise money for the Second
Bishops’ War. He needed Parliament to grant taxes to finance an army. Parliament
expressed concern over King Charles and his administration and wanted their
grievances heard. The Puritan MP, John Pym was particularly outspoken in the
call for reform. King Charles dissolved Parliament after only three weeks when his
request for money was refused. [S. R .Gardiner, 1884]

The Long Parliament

After the defeat in the Bishops’ Wars, King Charles was forced to call Parliament
in November 1640. The Members of Parliament now had the opportunity to have
their complaints about Charles’ Personal Rule heard. Their list of grievances
concerned Archbishop Laud and his religious reforms, which were considered to
be too Catholic; The use of the Royal prerogative to raise money, such as ship
money; Dissolving Parliament rather than allow grievances to be heard and
arresting Members. One of the main complaints of Parliament was that King
Charles was unduly influenced by some of his closest advisors. Parliament blamed
bad advice rather than the King himself for most of the problems.

In December 1640 Archbishop Laud was impeached for High Treason. One of the
charges brought against him was that he gave wicked and traitorous advice to the
King. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London in March 1641. His trial finally
began in March 1644. Unable to find any evidence that would prove him guilty of
Treason Parliament passed a Bill of Attainder against him. William Laud was
executed in January 1645.

In 1641, John Pym MP accused Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford of Treason

and had him impeached. The Earl had been recalled as Lord Deputy of Ireland to
become one of Charles’ chief ministers during the Bishops’ Wars. When the
attempts to impeach him failed, the House of Commons passed a Bill of Attainder.
Charles I tried to rescue Strafford by sending troops to the Tower of London. The
attempt failed and resulted in demonstrations in London, with the protestors
demanding justice. The House of Lords passed the Bill of Attainder and King
Charles signed it. Strafford was executed in May 1641.

Parliament wanted to see its place in the running of the country made more secure.
It also tried to remedy the religious and political problems that had arisen during
the king’s Personal Rule. Some of these measures would also reduce the Kings’
ability to rule without Parliament. King Charles agreed to some of these reforms.
Non-Parliamentary forms of taxation, such as ship money, were declared illegal.
The court of Star Chamber, which sat without a jury, was abolished. King Charles
also agreed that the English Parliament could not be dissolved without the consent
of Parliament itself. Furthermore, Charles gave Royal Assent to the Triennial Act
of 1641, requiring that Parliament be called at least once every three years.
The Puritan members of Parliament were still calling for further reforms,
particularly of the Church and religious practices in England. Divisions began to
appear within Parliament and within the wider population. The more moderate
Protestants believed that religious reforms had gone far enough and did not agree
with the more radical changes the Puritans were demanding. It was these who
would emerge as supporters of the King.

The Nature of the Struggle

The struggle has also been called the Puritan Revolution because the religious
complexion of the king's opponents was prevailingly Puritan, and because the
defeat of the king was accompanied by the abolition of episcopacy. That name,
however, overemphasizes the religious element at the expense of the constitutional
issues and the underlying social and economic factors. Most simply stated, the
constitutional issue was one between a king who claimed to rule by divine right
and a Parliament that professed itself to have rights and privileges independent of
the crown and that ultimately, by its actions, claimed real sovereignty.

Parliament in this period did not represent the full body of the English people; it
was composed of and represented the nobility, country gentry, and merchants and
artisans. The 16th cent. had seen a decline in the influence of the nobility and a
striking rise in the numbers, wealth, and influence of the gentry and merchants, the
beneficiaries of a tremendous expansion of markets and trade in Tudor times. It
was from this middle class of gentry and merchants that the opposition to the
crown drew most of its members. Their ambition to do away with financial and
commercial restrictions and their desire to have a say in such matters as religious
and foreign policies had been severely restrained by the Tudors, but on the
accession (1603) of a Scottish king to the English throne the popular party began to
organize its strength.

The Road to War

Lacking the funds to put down the revolt in Scotland, Charles was compelled to
call a Parliament in 1640. Known as the Short Parliament, he dissolved it in less
than a month after its leaders criticized his policies. Defeated by the Scots, who
captured Durham and Northumberland, and still needing money, he recalled the
group that fall. Reconvening in November, the Parliament immediately began
introducing reforms including a need for regular parliaments and prohibiting the
king from dissolving the body without the members' consent. The situation
worsened when Parliament ordered the Earl of Strafford, a close advisor of the
king, executed for treason. In January 1642, an angry Charles marched on
Parliament with 400 men to arrest five members. Failing, he withdrew to Oxford.

English Civil War: First Civil War - Parliamentarian Victory

Though Sir William Waller was beaten at Cropredy Bridge in June 1644,
Parliamentarian forces won a key victory at the Battle of Marston Moor the
following month. A key figure in the triumph was cavalryman Oliver Cromwell.
Having gained the upper hand, the Parliamentarians formed the professional New
Model Army in 1645 and passed the Self-denying Ordinance which prohibited its
military commanders from holding a seat in Parliament. Led by Sir Thomas
Fairfax and Cromwell, this force routed Charles at the Battle of Naseby that June
and scored another victory at Langport in July. Though he attempted to rebuild his
forces, Charles' situation declined and in April 1646 he was forced to flee from the
Siege of Oxford. Riding north, he surrendered to the Scots at Southwell who later
turned him over to Parliament.

English Civil War: The Second Civil War

With Charles defeated, the victorious parties sought to establish a new government.
In each case, they felt that the king's participation was critical. Playing the various
groups off one another, Charles signed an agreement with the Scots, known as the
Engagement, by which they would invade England on his behalf in exchange for
the establishment of Presbyterianism in that realm. Initially supported by Royalist
revolts, the Scots were ultimately defeated at Preston by Cromwell and John
Lambert in August and the rebellions put down. Angered by Charles' betrayal, the
army marched on Parliament and purged those who still favored an association
with the king. The remaining members, known as the Rump Parliament, ordered
Charles tried for treason.

English Civil War: The Third Civil War

Found guilty, Charles was beheaded on January 30, 1649. In the wake of the
king's execution, Cromwell sailed for Ireland to eliminate resistance there which
had been directed by the Duke of Ormonde. With the assistance of Admiral Robert
Blake, Cromwell landed and won bloody victories at Drogheda and Wexford that
fall. The following June saw the late king's son, Charles II, arrive in Scotland
where he allied with the Covenanters. This forced Cromwell to leave Ireland and
he was soon campaigning in Scotland. Though he triumphed at Dunbar and
Inverkeithing, he allowed Charles II's army to move south into England in 1651.
Pursuing, Cromwell brought the Royalists to battle on September 3 at Worcester.
Defeated, Charles II escaped to France where he remained in exile.

English Civil War: Aftermath

With the final defeat of Royalist forces in 1651, power passed to the republican
government of the Commonwealth of England. This remained in place until 1653,
when Cromwell assumed power as Lord Protector. Effectively ruling as a dictator
until his death in 1658, he was replaced by his son Richard. Lacking the support of
the army, his rule was brief and the Commonwealth returned in 1659 with the re-
installation of the Rump Parliament. The following year, with the government in
shambles, General George Monck, who had been serving as Governor of Scotland,
invited Charles II to return and take power. He accepted and by the Declaration of
Breda offered pardons for acts committed during the wars, respect for property
rights, and religious toleration. With Parliament's consent, he arrived in May 1660
and was crowned the following year on April 23.

Effects of the English Revolution

The event that is most commonly called the “English Revolution” is the one that
happened in 1688 and is better known as the Glorious Revolution. The main effect
of this revolution was that the English monarchy came to have much less power
than previously while Parliament came to be more powerful.

At least since the signing of Magna Charta in 1215, the English had been trying to
reduce the powers of the crown. This was not a constant process, but it recurred
from time to time. By the late 1600s, people had become more likely to challenge
royal authority. This was partly because of religion as King James II was a
Catholic who tried to further the interests of his church while Parliament was
largely Protestant. It was also due to the ideas of the Enlightenment, which held
that rulers existed to care for and protect their people and that government should
exist by the consent of the people. For these reasons, Parliament overthrew the
monarchy and offered the crown to William of Orange, but only on a number of
conditions.

With this, the Glorious Revolution had occurred and the crown had been
weakened. The monarch no longer ruled “by the grace of God.” Instead, the
monarch ruled because Parliament had invited him to rule. This vastly increased
the power of Parliament and greatly reduced the power of the monarch.