Senior High School

Physical Science
Quarter 2 - Module 4
Einstein’s Theories of Relativity
Physical Science
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Quarter 2 - Module 4: Einstein’s Theory of Relativity
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 Senior
Senior High
High School
School

Physical Science
Quarter 2 - Module 4
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity

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 Table of Contents

What This Module is About ......................................................................................................... i

What I Need to Know .................................................................................................................. i
How to Learn from this Module .................................................................................................. ii
Icons of this Module ................................................................................................................... ii
What I Know .............................................................................................................................. iii

Lesson 1:
Special Relativity and the Consequences of its Postulates ...............1
What I Need to Know ..................................................................................................... 1
What’s New: Observing Light ........................................................................................ 2
What Is It ....................................................................................................................... 2
What I Have Learned: Test Your Analysis .................................................................... 3
What I Need to Know ..................................................................................................... 4
What’s New: Guessing time........................................................................................... 5
What Is It ....................................................................................................................... 5
What I Have Learned: Explain Briefly ............................................................................ 8

Lesson 2:
The Consequences of the Postulates of General Relativity ...............9
What’s In ........................................................................................................................ 9
What I Need to Know ..................................................................................................... 9
What’s New: Find a Partner and The Fabric of Curvature .......................................... 10
What is It ...................................................................................................................... 13
What’s More: I am Bent ............................................................................................... 13
What I Have Learned: Expound Me ............................................................................ 13

Lesson 3:
Speeds and Distances of Far-off Objects ............................................ 14
What I Need to Know .................................................................................... 14
What’s New: Knowing Parallax ...................................................................... 15
What Is It ....................................................................................................... 15
What’s More: Show It to Me! ................................................................................... 22
What I Have Learned: Test Your Analysis ..................................................... 22
What I Can Do: Make Me Complicated: Parallax ........................................... 22

Lesson 4:
The Expanding Universe ........................................................................ 24
What’s In ....................................................................................................... 24
What I Need to Know .................................................................................... 25
What is It ....................................................................................................... 26
What’s More: The Expanding Universal Galaxies ......................................... 26
What I Have Learned: Calculating the Age of the Universe ........................... 32
What I Can Do: Sketch Me Up!...................................................................... 32

Summary .................................................................................................................................. 33
Assessment: (Posttest) ............................................................................................................ 35
Key to Answers ........................................................................................................................ 37
References ............................................................................................................................... 40
What This Module is About
This Module in Physical Science attempts to briefly introduce you to the main ideas
and consequences of Albert Einstein’s postulates for his Special and General Theories
of Relativity. These theories are innovative examples of the unlimited result of a persistent
and creative process that Einstein started as a thought experiment during his inquisitive
years at age 16. He pursued this thought experiment on ‘chasing a beam of light’ for close to
10 years until his early adulthood when he came up first with his Theory of Special Relativity.

The introductory notes for each lesson provide a brief background of the activity,
while the activity guide questions and analogies will help you understand both the
conceptual and mathematical ideas of Einstein’s Special and General Theories of
Relativity. The activities are designed to build your interest in understanding the
applications of relativity to medical technology, nuclear power, Global Positioning Systems,
and space explorations designed to probe our expanding universe.

The following are the 3 weekly lessons contained in this module:

1. Special Relativity and The Consequences of the Postulates of Special Relativity,

2. Consequences of the Postulates of General Relativity, and
3. Speeds and Distances of Far-off Objects and The Expanding Universe

What I Need to Know

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Explain how special relativity resolved the conflict between Newtonian Mechanics and
Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Theory (S11/12PS-IVi-j-69),

2. Explain the consequences of the postulates of Special Relativity (e.g., relativity of

simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction, mass-energy equivalence, and cosmic
speed limit) (S11/12PS-IVi-j-70),

3. Explain the consequences of the postulates of General Relativity (e.g., correct

predictions of shifts in the orbit of Mercury, gravitational bending of light, and black holes)
(S11/12PS-IVi-j-71),

4. Explain how the speeds and distances of far-off objects are estimated (e.g., doppler
effect and cosmic distance ladder) (S11/12PS-IVj-72), and

5. Explain how we know that we live in an expanding universe, which used to be hot and is
approximately 14billion years old (S11/12PS-IVj-73).

How to Learn from this Module

To achieve the objectives cited above, you are to do the following:
• Take your time to read the lessons carefully.
• Follow diligently the instructions in the activities and exercises.
• Answer all the given tests and exercises.
i
Icons of this Module

What I Need This part contains the learning objectives that are set
to Know for you to learn as you go along the module.

This is an assessment as to your level of knowledge

What I know in the subject matter at hand, meant specifically to
gauge prior related knowledge.

This part connects the previous lesson with the

What’s In
current one.

An introduction of the new lesson through various

What’s New
activities before it will be presented to you.

These are discussions of the activities designed to

What is It deepen your discovery and understanding of the
concept.

These are follow-up activities that are intended for

What’s More
you to practice for you to master the competencies.

What I Have Activities designed to process what you have learned

Learned from the lesson.

These are tasks designed to showcase your gained

What I can
skills and knowledge as applied to real-life concerns
do
and situations.

This is an end-of-module assessment as to your level

Assessment of mastery in achieving the learning objectives for the
subject matter at hand.

These are additional activities that are intended to

Additional
strengthen your gained skills, knowledge, attitudes,
Activities
and values.

ii
 What I Know (Pretest)

Multiple Choice. Select the letter of the best answer from among the given choices.

1. At what rate do the EM waves travel according to Maxwell's electromagnetic wave

theory?
A. 3.00 x 108 ms-1 C. 3.00 x 10-8 ms-1
8 -1
B. 6.00 x 10 ms D. 6.00 x 10-8 ms-1

2. Which among the following resolves the conflict between Newtonian mechanics and
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory?
A. Theory of general relativity C. Law of universal gravitation
B. Theory of special relativity D. Law of conservation of energy

3. Einstein's theory of special relativity modified the classical laws of motion by

___________ to account for relativistic transformations in objects that move close to the
speed of light.
A. Herts C. Maxwell
B. Galileo D. Newton

4. Which of the following are the postulates of special relativity?

I. The color of light is the same for all frames of reference.
II. The speed of light is the same for all frames of reference.
III. The relative speed of objects is the same for all observers in moving
frames of reference.
IV. The laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniformly moving
frames of reference.
A. I and II C. II and III
B. I and III D. II and IV

5. Einstein's famous equation E = mc2 implies that mass is ____________.

A. always greater than energy C. can be converted to energy.
B. always smaller than energy D. can be converted to a speed of light

6. Simultaneity is __________.
A. dilated C. absolute
B. invariant D. relative

7. One of two identical twins is an astronaut, while the other is a real estate broker. The
astronaut embarks on high-speed space travel and is gone for several years. Upon the
astronaut's return, the two twins reunite and observed their physical appearances. The
observation will be that __________.
A. both have aged the same C. the astronaut has aged more
B. the astronaut has aged less D the real estate broker has aged less

8. When compared to an identical clock in a moving reference frame, a clock in a stationary

reference frame will appear to run _________.
A. at the same rate C. faster
B. backward in time D. slower

iii
9. An observer from afar, tracks a blue object moving towards a black hole. As the object
nears the black hole, the observer notes the color of the blue object as __________.
A. black C. green
B. blue D. red

10. The Principle of Equivalence in the General Theory of Relativity states that inertia and
gravitational masses are ___________.
A. identical C.not significant
B. increasing D.varied

11. Which of the following is not a consequence of the General Theory of Relativity?
A. Black Hole C. Precession in the Orbit of Mercury
B. Gravitational Lensing Effect D. Time Dilation

12. The Einstein Cross is an evidence of ____________.

A. Black Hole C. Increased gravity
B. Gravitational Lensing Effect D. Shifting of orbit

13. A galaxy cluster in Ursa Major has a recessional velocity of 15, 000 km/s. Using the best
estimate for Hubble’s constant, find the distance to the galaxy cluster.
A. 221 Mpc C. 121 Mpc
B. 211 Mpc D. 112 Mpc

14. What happened to the brightness of the candle when the square of its distance
decreases?
A. increases C. Remains the same
B. decreases D. Zero

15. What do you call the age-old technique used by astronomers to determine more distant
objects?
A. Parallax C. The standard candle
B. Cepheid variable stars D. Doppler Effect

16. Who discovered that Cepheid variable stars could be used to accurately measure
distances?
A. Alan Guth C. Albert Einstein
B. Edwin Hubble D. Henrietta Leavitt

iv
 Lesson SPECIAL RELATIVITY AND THE
CONSEQUENCES OF ITS
1 POSTULATES

What I Need to Know

Before Einstein’s theories of relativity, the idea of relativity prominently started
with Galileo who explained that all events of motion are observed or measured with respect
to an observer’s point of reference. Wherever you happen to be right now, it seems like you
are at a fixed point, and that things move relative to you. All you do is to select a fixed
coordinate for space and time commonly called a frame of reference. You then simply add
or subtract any relative velocity because the laws of motion do not change in a uniform or an
inertial frame of reference. Recall that the concept of ‘inertia’ was first hinted at by Galileo,
the term was first used by Kepler, and finally the definition was first given and used by
Newton.

In 1687, Newtonian Mechanics, also called classical mechanics, combined into one
the theory of Kepler’s planetary laws of motion, Galileo’s law of relativity for uniform motion,
Descartes’ law of conservation of momentum, and Huygen’s analysis of circular motion. In
this theory, the motion of both heavenly and terrestrial objects is built on one force law and
three independent basic concepts of:

(a) the absolute time that is the same for all observers on earth as well as for those
in orbit that imply simultaneous events independent of location and state of motion,

(b) absolute three-dimensional space where any object can freely move, and the
inertial mass of objects that resist acceleration.

From Newtonian mechanics, all inertial frames, physical laws, and universal
constants that arise in it are the same.

On the other hand, Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Theory in 1856 integrated into four
mathematical equations the extensive research of Faraday and others that led to the fact
that electrical and magnetic fields propagate as electromagnetic waves at the same
constant speed with which light travels in a vacuum. Thirty years later (when Einstein
was 7 years old), Hertz first demonstrated the production and transmission of one of the
electromagnetic waves when he experimentally produced radio pulses.

Another 9 years later, Einstein at 16, amused himself with a thought experiment of
him ‘chasing a beam of light while riding another beam’. But the manner of adding light
velocities according to Newtonian mechanics, obviously contradicting the constancy of the
speed of light according to the Electromagnetic Theory, has occupied Einstein’s mind
during his spare time well into his mid-twenties.

How then did Einstein’s teenage pursuit and eventual publication of the Theory of
Special Relativity resolve the conflict between two fundamental theories governing
Newtonian Mechanics and Electromagnetic Waves? What are the central ideas, postulates,

1
and consequences that underly Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity? Hop on, as you
chase to understand this important topic!

What’s New
Activity 4.1.1 Observing Light

1. Examine Figure 4.1.1. Recall Newton’s theory on motion and Maxwell’s theory on the
speed of light. Why did the light reach both presidents at the same time? Which theory
can correct and explain this observation? Write your answer in the journal notebook

Figure 4.1.1 Two stationary observers Figure 4.1.2 Light moves along a moving
equidistant from a stationary source of light reference frame past a stationary observer.
Source: https://doi.org/10.1119/1.4895355 Source: https://aether.lbl.gov/www/classes
/p139/exp/rel2.gif

2. Study Figure 4.1.2 and analyze the given situation to answer the questions that follow.
Write your answer in the journal notebook.
Mrs. Yap is stationary along a roadside watching Mr. Yap standing still on a truck which is
moving leftwards with velocity v. She saw Mr. Yap switched on a flashlight in the direction in
which he is moving.

Question: Applying Einstein’s postulate of special relativity, what was Mrs. Yap’s
observation about the light as it travels? What about Mr. Yap’s observation? Do they have
the same observation?

What Is It Hi! I am Mrs. Brighty, I will share to

you everything you need to know
about the Special Theory of Relativity.

In the first scenario of Activity 4.1.1, Maxwell’s theory can account for why the light reaches
both presidents at the same time. Recall that Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory consists of
four formulas from the different works of Faraday and other physicists that unite all the
concepts of electricity and magnetism that describes that a time-varying magnetic field acts as
a source of electric field and that a time-varying electric field acts as a source of a magnetic
field. Each sustaining the other, forming the electromagnetic wave spectrum, of which light is
a part of. In 1886, Hertz demonstrated that these waves really exist with his demonstration of
the Hertzian waves, we now call as radio pulses or simply, the radio waves.

2
Maxwell proved that these electromagnetic disturbances should propagate in free space with
a constant speed equivalent to the speed of light 𝑐 = 3.0 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠 which can be calculated
using the formula below.

1
𝑐=
ඥ∈0 − μ0
where:
𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
∈0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
μ0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Source https://www.facebook.com/notes/physical-science/91-theory-of-special-relativity/3390893954260139/)

If we consider an object moving uniformly at 100 m/s (like Mr. Yap in the previous Activity)
and switch on a flashlight, according to Newtonian mechanics the speed of light would be
100 m/s + c and dispute Maxwell’s theory that calls for the speed of light to be constant.
Which of these two observations support the correct concept?

The Theory of Special Relativity proposed by Einstein in 1905, is a theory in physics that
concerns the relationship between space and time for objects that move uniformly near the
speed of light in a straight line. Simply put, an object approaching the speed of light would
make it’s mass infinite while reaching its cosmic limit and it is unable to go any faster than
the speed of light. It is generally accepted and is already experimentally confirmed based on
two main postulates.

The two main postulates of special relativity are:

1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.

2. The speed of light in a vacuum is the same in all inertial reference frames.

These postulates imply that (1) Events that are happening at the same time for one observer
may not be simultaneous for another. (2) When two observers moving relative to each other
measure a time or space, they may not have the same results. (3) For the momentum and
energy to be conserved in all inertial systems, Newton’s Second Law and the equations of
momentum and kinetic energy must be revised.

What I Have Learned

Activity 4.1.2 Test your Analysis

1. Make a table showing the conflict between Newtonian Mechanics and Maxwell’s Theory
on the speed of light. Write your answer in your science notebook.

3
 Newtonian Mechanics Maxwell’s Theory on Electromagnetism

2. Explain in your own words how the theory of special relativity resolved the conflict
between Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell’s theory on electromagnetism.

3. What attitude or characteristics did the young Einstein have that led him to develop his
Theory of Special Relativity? How can you be like Einstein in this new normal?

What I Need to Know

Can you catch up with light then? What would happen if you are able to ride a light
beam? Or, if you move at the speed of light and check your face using a mirror, will you be
able to see your reflection? And If you travel through galactic space, will your wristwatch
show you Earth time?

Let us look closer at the two main postulates of Special Relativity.

Postulates of Special Relativity

1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.

In an inertial reference frame, any object experiences no net force and so is

considered either at rest or moving uniformly with constant speed in the same direction. In
this frame of reference and without communication with the outside world, one cannot tell
whether one is at rest or one is moving with constant velocity. Therefore, all laws of nature
are the same in these inertial frames of reference.
If you measure the length of a 30 cm box with you on any ground or inside a bus
moving with constant velocity, you will get the same 30 cm measurement. Or if you swing a
pendulum on the ground or inside the uniformly moving bus and measure its period, you will
also have the same measurements when on either inertial frame of reference for the same
laws of physics are valid on each location.

If you do the same set of measurements with you at rest on the ground, while the box
and the swinging pendulum you are measuring are inside the uniformly moving bus, then
this time you will have measured different lengths for the box and periods for the pendulum.
Being aware now that you as an observer is relatively outside the inertial reference frame of
the object you are measuring, try as you might with being careful with your measurements,
you will always have a preference for one or the other.

Although the same laws of physics apply, now you must take into account the
relative transformations on time, space, matter and energy which become more pronounced
when the relative motion between the observer and the observed event or motion moves
close to the speed of light. This brings us to the second equivalent postulate.

4
2. The speed of light in a vacuum is the same in all inertial reference frames.

The second postulate means that for all reference frames, the speed of light, c is the
same no matter what the relative speed is between observer and that which is being
observed, be it moving matter, flowing energy or an event that occurs within invariant
intervals of space and time.

In other words, the speed of light is a universal constant in the natural world.
Suppose you are in a car going at 30 kph, and your cap flies off your head at 10 kph in the
other direction the car is going. If you were standing on the roadside with a radar gun, you
would measure the cap going 30 kph - 10 kph = 20 kph. That is how we classically (very low
speeds compared to light) deal with relative motion.

Now suppose you are in the car at night. If you could measure the speed of light
coming out of your headlights, you would get the same speed from the radar gun no matter
how fast the car was going forward or backward. Light would still be moving at its constant
speed. That is what makes light special!

What’s New
Activity 4.1.3 Guessing Time

Look at the picture in Figure 4.1.3. Why does the twin who travelled through space look
younger after 60 years than the twin that remained on earth? Does time on Earth differ with
the time in outer space? Why?

Figure 4.1.3 The Twin Paradox

One set of twins leaves the Earth in a rocket ship bound for the stars.

Sixty years later the rocket returns to Earth with the astronaut only 40 years old.

Source: http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/images/twin_paradox.gif
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
What Is It

Hi! I am back again, this time I am

sharing to you the different
consequences of Theory of Special
Relativity.

5
 The consequences of the postulates of special relativity are (1) time dilation, (2)
length contraction, (3) relativity of simultaneity, (4) mass-energy equivalence, and (5) cosmic
speed limit.
TIME DILATION

An observer who is in relative motion with respect to a clock perceives the “slowing
down” of the clock.

Figure 4.1.4 The Consequence of Time Dilation

.

Consider a
light clock.
d d

stationary A B moving

Source: http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/physics/high_schools/2005/Special_relativity/TIMEDILATION.html

A clock measures the speed of light by sending out a beam of light to the top plate.
We will call this event A. The beam is then reflected to the clock as event B.

For the stationary clock on the left, the measured time interval between events A and
B is ten seconds. The clock on the right is set in motion with a given speed. To an observer
traveling with the clock, the time interval between events A and B is still ten seconds.
However, to an observer watching the clock move, it now appears that the light beam travels
further than before.

Since velocity is distance/time and the speed of this beam must be a constant, the
measured time interval between events A and B must now be greater than ten seconds. So,
to an observer on Earth, traveling clocks moved slower causing time to dilate or
increase. This is one of the consequences of special relativity.

LENGTH CONTRACTION

A moving object would be shorter in length as measured by stationary

observers. This is another consequence of special relativity.

Figure 4.1.5 The Consequence of Length Contraction

Here are two

identical cars
A and D.

Car A Car B
Source: http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/physics/high_schools/2005/Special_relativity/car.jpg

6
 Car A stops before a signpost while car B moved past it with an appreciable fraction
of the speed of light. Measure the length of car B while passing car A. Measure also the
length of car A. Is the length of car A the same as car B? It turns out that the length you
measured for car B will be shorter than the length of car A. This is an example of length
contraction. Relative to you, since car B is moving while car A is not, you obtained two
different values for their lengths.

Note that car B will only be shorter in length along the direction it is traveling, while its
width and height will not be affected. One cannot observe considerable length
contraction for objects or events that move very slowly in comparison to the speed of
light, not even for objects moving at the speed of sound.

SIMULTANEITY

Two spatially separated simultaneous events do not necessarily occur at the

same time depending on the observer's reference frame. This is another consequence
of special relativity.

Figure 4.1.6 The Relativity of Simultaneity

Imagine that you and your

friend Timmy are standing on
opposite ends of the room
when you notice your teacher
turns on his penlight at the
podium. You ask Timmy if he
saw the teacher turn on the
light. Timmy answers that he
did.

Source: http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/physics/high_schools/2005/Special_relativity/2a.jpg

The next day your professor decides to demonstrate simultaneity by asking the
class to go inside the special relativity bus, while he remains outside midway the bus.
Again, you and Timmy are on opposite ends of the bus. Timmy sits in front with you at the
back.

Then the bus starts moving at 0.9 c (90% the speed of light) while your stationary
professor outside turns on a Christmas lantern. With your watches synchronized, you and
Timmy separately took note of the moment when you saw the lantern turned on.

Source: http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/physics/high_schools/2005/Special_relativity/3c.jpg
7
 When the bus comes to a stop you and Timmy compare the times at which you saw
the light. Surprisingly, you have different time records. Now that the bus was moving, the
backend was going into the path of the light waves faster than the light waves that were
spreading radially outwards from the middle of the bus. This enabled you to see the event
sooner, whereas Timmy had to wait for the emitted light waves to reach him. Thus, two
simultaneous events from a stationary observer (like the professor) are perceived as not
simultaneous relative to locations of moving observers.

MASS INCREASE

The rest energy and total energy of the body are

equivalent to the rest mass (an invariant quantity which is
the same for all observers in all reference frames) and
relativistic mass (dependent on the velocity of the
observer), respectively. This is the fourth consequence
of special relativity.

Figure 4.1.7 The Consequence of Mass Increase

Source: http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/physics/high_schools/2005/Special_relativity/MASSINCREASE.html

Einstein cleverly suggested that when someone measures your mass while you
are in motion, your mass will appear to increase as your speed increases.

So why does your mass seem to increase to an observer watching you if you are
speeding up? Einstein proposed that the energy 𝑬 is equivalent to the product of its rest
mass 𝒎𝟎 and the square of the speed of light 𝒄𝟐 as indicated in Einstein’s famous
equation 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐 . Your rest energy is a sort of minimum amount of energy you always
have whether you are at rest or not. This energy-mass equivalence is fundamental in many
nuclear and particle physics applications.

What I Have Learned

Activity 4.1.4 Explain Briefly

Answer the questions briefly and concisely.

1. During a flight to your engineering project site, it appears that the plane inside is at rest
with the Earth moving underneath your plane. Why is this view valid?
2. When will the observed elapsed time for a process seem longer? Is it when Observer A
is moving with the process? Or is it when Observer B is moving relative to the process?
Which observer measures proper time? Explain your answer.
3. How far can you travel into the future without aging significantly? Could this method also
apply to travels into the past?
4. To which observer will an object seem greater in length. Is it when Observer A is moving
with respect to the object? Or is it when Observer B is moving with the object? Which
observer measures the object’s proper length? Why?
5. Assuming no molecules escape or are added, what happens to the mass of water in a
pot when it cools? Is this observable in practice? Explain.
8
 Lesson THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE
POSTULATES OF GENERAL
2 RELATIVITY

What’s In
After the publication of the Theory of Special Relativity in 1905, the following years,
Einstein worked on the details that acceleration produced the same effect as gravitation. The
General Theory of Relativity is a generalization of the Special Theory of Relativity. It is the
most remarkable achievement of science to date. It was developed by Einstein with little or
no laboratory experiment but instead he was driven by mental analysis and philosophical
questions.

What I Need to Know

The General Theory of Relativity rests on the Principle of Equivalence which states
that inertial and gravitational (heavy) masses are identical. This postulate will fail if one can
find a material for which the inertial and gravitational masses have different values. One
might think that this represents a defect of the theory, its Achilles heel – its weakness
despite its overall strength. In one sense this is true since a single experiment has the
potential of demolishing the whole of the theory which many people have tried. On the
contrary, all these experiments validated instead of the principle of equivalence. Thus, the
General Theory of Relativity is a gem.

The second fundamental principle of General Relativity is that of the presence

of curve matter in space. With this principle, gravity is not classified as a force as described
by Newton, but a curvature in the fabric of space where matter, energy and time respond to
gravity by following the curvature of space in the vicinity of a massive object as illustrated in
Figure 4.2.1.

Figure 4.2.1 The Curvature of Space caused by a Massive Object.

Source: https://casswww.ucsd.edu/archive/public/tutorial/images/sp_curv.gif

What’s New
Activity 4.2.1. Find A Partner

Pair the following terms according to their meaning:

Bend Process Equivalent

Identical Deflect Shift

9
________________ = ________________: which also means change
________________ = ________________: which also means to follow a curve path
________________ = ________________: which also means the same

Activity 4.2.2 The Fabric of Curvature

To visualize the curvature of space caused by a massive object, perform this activity
with your siblings, parents, or any household members.

Materials: Any stretchable cloth or fabric such as a shirt, jersey, or blanket

Any round objects of considerably different masses available in your
home such as calamansi, onion, fruits, marble, ball, rock, etc.

Procedure:

1. Ask for assistance from any household members to hold on to the stretchable fabric on
four corners horizontally. (Placing your arms through the sides of a shirt will be adequate if
there is not much helping hand to perform the activity and learn with.)
2. Starting from a lighter object, place each round object on the center and observe what
happens to the fabric.
3. Continue with the next heavier objects.
4. Place any round object at the center of the fabric and this time, let another round object
roll on the fabric from any corner.
5. Do the same with the materials available.

Guide Questions:

1. What happened to the fabric as you place a round object at its center?
2. How does the mass of the round objects placed on the fabric affect its curvature?
3. How does the round object behave as it was rolled on the curved fabric?

What Is It
Some of the physical consequences of the postulates of general relativity that
will be introduced in this lesson are (1) shifts in the orbit of mercury, (2) gravitational bending
of light, and (3) black holes.

SHIFTS IN THE ORBIT OF MERCURY

In the study of the Solar System, a long-standing problem was that the orbit of
Mercury did not behave as Newton’s equations say. Let us look at the way Mercury’s orbit
looks to understand what the problem is.

As Mercury orbits the Sun, it approximately follows an elliptical path. It was found
that the point of closest approach of Mercury to the sun changes as it slowly moves around
the sun as shown in Figure 4.2.2. This rotation of the orbit is a precession. The precession

10
of the orbit does not happen to Mercury only but to all the planetary orbits. The effect of
being produced by the pull of the planets on one another was predicted in Newton’s theory.

The precession of Mercury’s orbit is measured to be 5600 seconds of arc per century
as seen from Earth. Considering all the effects from the other planets (as well as a very
slight deformation of the sun due to its rotation) and the fact that the inertial frame of
reference is not the Earth, the precession of 5557 seconds of arc per century has a
discrepancy of 43 seconds of arc per century as predicted.

This discrepancy cannot be accounted for using Newton’s formalism. Many ad-hoc
fixes were devised (such as assuming that there was a certain amount of dust between the
Sun and Mercury) but none were consistent with other observations. Similarly, Einstein was
able to predict that the orbit of Mercury should process by an extra 43 seconds of arc per
century should the General Theory of Relativity be correct.

Figure 4.2.2. Artist’s Version of the Precession of Mercury’s Orbit. Most of the effect is due to the
pull from the other planets but there is a measurable effect due to the corrections to Newton’s theory
as predicted by the General Theory of Relativity.
Source: http://iontrap.umd.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/WudkaGR-7.pdf page 179

GRAVITATIONAL BENDING OF LIGHT

A clear consequence of the equivalence principle is the bending of light by gravity.

For two times Einstein calculated the amount that light would be deflected while passing the
sun, which is the largest "nearby" mass (Figure 4.2.3). It was in his second calculation that
Einstein was able to predict that light from a distant star would be deflected by 1.75
arcseconds or less than 1/2000th of a degree.

Figure 4.2.3 Bending of Light while Passing the Sun

Source: https://casswww.ucsd.edu/archive/public/tutorial/GR.html

11
 The Solar Eclipse of 1919 was the first opportunity for Einstein to test his
calculations. British Astrophysicist Sir Arthur Eddington observed the shift in the position of
the Hyades cluster of stars behind the occulted sun by mounting a pair of expeditions to
West Africa and to Brazil. Though not perfectly precise, Eddington's measurements clearly
showed a deflection and favored the larger value. This result made Einstein world-famous.

This refers to the bending of light due to the change of the speed of light as it passes
through a refractive medium. Massive objects can act as lenses because gravity can bend
light. This is done by focusing on and amplifying images of distant objects. Gravitational
lenses differ from "normal" lenses. It produces multiple images such as the Einstein Cross, a
case of a distant quasar imaged behind a massive galaxy whose gravitational effect on the
distant quasar causes us to see this single object four times. The Einstein Cross was
discovered by J. Huchra & colleagues as shown in Figure 4.2.4.

Figure 4.2.4 The Einstein Cross: four images of a quasar GR2237+0305 (a very distant – 8 billion
light-years– very bright object) appear around the central glow. The splitting of the central image is
due to the gravitational lensing effect produced by a nearby galaxy
Source: https://casswww.ucsd.edu/archive/public/tutorial/images/EinsteinCross.jpg

BLACK HOLES

Light is pulled by gravity just like rocks. Rocks can be put in orbits, but how about
light? Indeed, light can be put in orbits, but we need a very heavy object whose radius is
very small yet heavy, for example we need something as heavy as the sun but concentrated
to a radius of less than about 3 km.

Going farther and imagine an object so massive and compact that if we turn on a
laser beam on its surface, gravity’s pull will bend it back towards the surface. This means
that since no light can leave this object it will appear perfectly black. This is a black hole.
An object which comes sufficiently close to a black hole will also disappear into it since
nothing moves faster than light if an object traps light it will also trap everything else. A Black
Hole is a large body of matter that is so dense that nothing can escape its gravitational
attraction.

The effect of a black hole, like all gravitational effects, decreases with distance. This
means that there will be a boundary surrounding the black hole that anything crossing it will
not be able to leave the region near the black hole; this boundary is called the black-hole
horizon.

12
 What’s More

Activity 4.2.3. I am Bent

Refer to the two pictures below, how does the beam of light behave in both situations?

Situations Behavior of light

(a)

Upward-accelerating
elevator

(b)

Elevator maybe
accelerating upward or
maybe acted by gravity

What postulate supports this behavior of light?

Source: https://openstax.org/books/college-physics/pages/34-2-general-
relativity-and-quantum-gravity

What I Have Learned

Activity 4.2.4 Expound Me

Describe the postulate and give a consequence.

Postulate 1.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Postulate 2
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

What I Can Do
Activity 4.2.5 Let Us React

Noting the different consequences of The Theory of General Relativity, what is

one of its great contributions to science and humanity?
13
Lesson
SPEEDS AND DISTANCES OF
3 FAR-OFF OBJECTS

What I Need to Know

Speeds and Hi! I am Mr. Starlight. I am going to

distances of far- share to you what speeds and
off objects…What distances of far-off objects is all about.
is this all about?

Oh, hi Mr. Starlight!

I really need
someone to teach
me about these.

Sure! I will teach you how

astronomers make
approximate determination of
distances and speeds of far-
off objects in the universe.
Continue to read this module
and you will be able to explain
how the speeds and distances
of far-off objects are estimated
using Doppler Effect and
Cosmic Distance Ladder.

Do you remember that the astronomical unit AU is

a convenient unit of expressing distances in the
Solar System? It is the average distance
between the Earth and the Sun. One AU is 1.5 x
108 kilometers or 9.3 x 107 miles.

14
 Using astronomical
units, one can get a
relative idea of the
distances of planets
from the Sun.

To measure distances to the nearest
solar system objects, scientists have
developed powerful radar to bounce
signals of Venus, Mars, Mercury, and
even the sun.
For more distant objects, astronomers use an
aged-old technique called geometric parallax
that was first devised by the Greeks in 300
BCE

What’s New

Activity 4.3.1 Knowing Parallax

Look at Figure 4.3.1. What did you

observe about the earth’s position
and a nearby star at different times
of the year? Write your observation
on your science notes.

Figure 4.3.1 Annual Parallax of a Nearby

Star

Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Spence_M_
Taylor/publication/235158031/figure/fig2/AS:299724398710804@1448471273699/The-astronomical-annual-
parallax-to-a-nearby-star-is-defined-as-the-half-angle-of-the_Q640.jpg

What Is It Figure 4.3.1. shows the Annual Parallax

of a nearby star. This parallax effect is
due to the changing position of a viewer
as the Earth moves around the Sun. The
nearby star observed from two positions,
appears to move back and forth against
The angle p, the background of more distant stars. This
measured in arc apparent motion is called parallax.
seconds,
represents the
annual parallax
of the nearby
star.
.
15
The distance coordinate is measured in How is the distance
light year (ly) or in parsec. coordinate measured?

A light-year (ly) is the

distance traveled by light in 1 What is the difference
year (9.5 x 1012 km). It is between a light year
calculated by multiplying the and a parsec?
speed of light (3.00 x 105
km/s) by the number of
seconds in a year (3.16 x 107
s/y)

On the other hand, a parsec (pc) is defined as the distance to a star when the star
exhibits a parallax of 1 second of arc, where 1 second of arc is defined to be 1/3600 of
10. A parsec is related to a light-year by 1 pc = 3.26 ly

Defining a parsec this way provides an easy method for determining the distance to a
celestial object because taking the reciprocal of the angle p, measured in arc seconds,
gives the distance in parsecs.
distance (pc) = 1/parallax angle (p)

Before 1915, the The distances to stars can

technique of also be determined by
accurately knowing their absolute and
measuring apparent magnitudes.
distances were These techniques are not
limited to objects easy because the distance to
within the Milky the star must be known to
Way Galaxy. determine the absolute
magnitude of the star.

A breakthrough happened when Henrietta Leavitt, an

American astronomer discovered that a certain unstable
red giant Cepheid Variable Star could be used to
accurately measure distances.

Leavitt found that the periods of variability of the

Well, what did she
discover about the
Cepheid Star?
unstable stars were directly related to their brightness.
Therefore, the distances to the stars could be determined.
With this important discovery, the distance to the nearest
galaxies could be accurately determined. The use of
Cepheid variable stars (see Figure 4.3.2) allows accurate
measurements to 50 million light years.

16
Figure 4.3.2 Luminosity versus Period of Type I Cepheid Variable. (The period of variation in the
brightness of a Cepheid variable star is directly related to the brightness of the star, and the
distance can be determined using the graph.
Source: https://community.dur.ac.uk/physics.astrolab/images/maslumcep.gif

How about the distances to
more distant galaxies?
Astronomers in the 1970s discovered that the
brighter spiral galaxies (those having more stars)
rotate faster. Measuring rotation via the Doppler
shift of light allows one to determine the
absolute brightness of galaxy.

Distances up to 600 million

lightyears can be determined by
comparing the absolute and
apparent brightness of these
galaxies.
Is there a technique
that uses Physics
principle? Supernovae can be used to measure distances
also, specifically Type I. Supernovae are stars that
explode and became incredibly bright objects,
What is that inverse- sometimes entire galaxy of stars, or even brighter than
square law of an entire galaxy of stars, although this will be so for a
intensity? short time.

Yes, many techniques use the

inverse-square law of intensity.

The inverse square law describes the intensity of light

at different distances from a light source. Every light
source is different, but the intensity changes in the
same way.

17
 This means that as the distance
The intensity of light is inversely proportional to the from a light source increases,
square of the distance. the intensity of light is equal to a
1 value multiplied by 𝟏Τ𝒅𝟐 . The
𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼 𝛼 2 17 proportional symbol α is used to
𝑑
Where: show how these are related.
𝐼 = 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑊Τ𝑚2

The relationship
between the intensity of
Visible light is part of the EM
light at different
spectrum, and the inverse square
distances from the same
law is true for any other waves or
light source can be
rays on that spectrum like radio
found by dividing one
waves, microwaves, infrared, x rays,
from the other.
ultraviolet light, and gamma rays.
The intensity of visible light is
expressed in candela units while the
intensity of the other EM waves is
expressed in Watts per square
meter.

What about the The Intensity at different distances:

Intensity at different
distances?
Where:
I1 = light intensity at distance 1
I2 = light intensity at distance 2
d1 = distance 1 from light source (m)
d2 = distance 2 from light source (m)

When astronomers use this principle to measure distances, they refer to the method as
standard candles. Because the brightness of the candle decreases as the square of
the distance increases, the distance to the candle is determined. The figure below
shows the simple idea for this technique.

Figure 4.3.3 The Standard Candle Technique.

As the candle is moved farther away, the brightness decreases. If the distance of the candle doubles,
then the brightness of the candle decreases by a factor of 4
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_distance_ladder#Galactic_distance_indicators
18
 Several methods rely on Have you heard Yes sir. But
a standard candle, which is an about the please tell me
astronomical object that has a cosmic more about it!
known luminosity. distance?
ladder?

The cosmic distance ladder or extragalactic distance scale in Figure 4.3.4 is the
succession of methods by which astronomers determine the distances to celestial
objects. The ladder analogy below arises because there is no single technique that can
measure distances at all ranges encountered in astronomy.

GREEN
BLUE

GREEN
BLUE
BLUE

PURPLE
BLUE

RED
BLUE

GREEN
BLUE

GREEN
PURPLE
BLUE

BLUE

BLUE

GREEN
GREEN
BLUE
BLUE

Figure 4.3.4 The Cosmic Distance Ladder

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Extragalactic_distance_ladder.JPG

Legend:
 Light green boxes : Technique applicable to star-forming galaxies.
 Light blue boxes : Technique applicable to Population II galaxies.
 Light Purple boxes : Geometric distance technique.
 Light Red box : The planetary nebula luminosity function technique is
applicable to all populations of the Virgo Supercluster.
 Solid black lines : Well calibrated ladder step.
 Dashed black lines : Uncertain calibration ladder step.
19
 Instead, one method can be used to measure nearby
distances, a second can be used to measure nearby to
intermediate distances, and so on. Each rung of the
ladder provides information that can be used to determine Is there a possibility to
the distances at the next higher rung. have a direct distance
measurement of those
astronomical objects?
A real direct distance measurement of
an astronomical object is possible only
for those objects that are "close enough"
(within about a thousand
parsecs) to Earth.

Okay
At the base of the ladder
are fundamental distance
measurements, in which distances Now are you familiar
are determined directly, with no with Edwin Hubble?
physical assumptions about the Do you know what
nature of the object in question. Hubble’s Law is?
The precise measurement of stellar
positions is part of the discipline The name sounds
of astrometry. familiar…

Well, Edwin Powell Hubble, is an What are his major

American astronomer who played a contributions?
crucial role in establishing the field
of extragalactic astronomy and is
generally regarded as the leading
observational cosmologist of the
20th century.
Hubble’s Law determine distances to the
farthest known objects in the universe.
His major contributions are the following:
1. Using the new 100-inch telescope at Mt. Wilson Observatory in California, he
demonstrated that some of these nebulae, like the Andromeda nebula, were actually
galaxies far beyond our Milky Way Galaxy.
2. He was the first to classify galaxies based on what he observed from 1922 to
1923. He classified these based-on shapes (elliptical, spiral, and irregular) or a
galaxy’s visual morphology. Hubble’s classification led to his Hubble Galactic Tuning
Fork or Hubble Sequence (how he thought galaxies evolve).
3. His formulation of the redshift distance law in 1929, better known as Hubble’s
Law. The law states that the more distant a galaxy, the greater the redshift. We can
determine a galaxy’s receding velocity by its redshift— most of the time.

20
How do velocities of
many distant galaxies
are measured?
The velocity of many distant galaxies was
measured with large telescopes by observing
their spectra. The absorption lines in the
spectra are red-shifted (the well-known
Doppler effect) in direct relation to the overall-
velocity of the galaxy.

Remember that the

Doppler effect is
observed whenever the
source of waves is
moving with respect to
an observer.

The produced effect by a moving source of waves is

an apparent upward shift in frequency for observers
towards whom the source is approaching and an
apparent downward shift in frequency for observers
from whom the source is receding. Now, let us talk about
Hubble’s Law.

Hubble’s law can be written in equation form as

𝑣𝑟 = 𝐻𝑑
Where,
𝑣𝑟 is the recessional velocity,
𝐻 is the Hubble’s constant
(currently estimated to be 71 km/s/MPc), and
𝑑 is the distance to the galaxy.

Thus, if a galaxy’s velocity is

measured to be 10, 000 km/s, then
𝑣𝑟 Take note that to determine
𝑑= distances to the most distant
𝐻 objects in the universe, a very
good determination of the Hubble
10,000 𝑘𝑚/𝑠 constant is needed. The Hubble
𝑑= space telescope does that very
𝑘𝑚
71 𝑠 /𝑀𝑝𝑐 task.

𝑑 = 141 𝑀𝑝𝑐 ≈ 460 𝑀𝑙𝑦

21
 What’s More
Activity 4.3.2 Show It to Me!

Using Hubble’s Law equation, solve the following and show your solution. Box your final
answer.

1. The intensity of a radio signal is 0.120 W/m2 at 16.0 m from a small transmitter. What is
the intensity of the signal 4.00 m from the transmitter?

2. Galaxy NGC 123 has a velocity away from us of 1,320 km/s and the Hubble Constant's
value is 70 km/s/Mpc. How far away is the galaxy according to Hubble's Law?

What I Have Learned

Activity 4.3.3 Test Your Analysis

In the table below, write a summary of how to solve speeds and distances of far-off objects
on the first column and a brief explanation of the method/technique on the second column.

Method / Technique in solving distances Explanation / Equation

of far-off objects in the Universe

Method / Technique in solving speeds of Explanation/Equation

far-off objects in the Universe

What I Can Do
Activity 4.3.4 Make Me Complicated: Parallax

Answer the following:

Distance and parallax:

1. Recall what happened to the distance measured from the star as the parallax angle got
smaller. Briefly explain what happens to the distance as the parallax decreases.

2. Astronomers often measure parallax in units called arcseconds. There are 3600
arcseconds in 1 degree. Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to our Sun has a parallax of
about 0.0002 degrees. How many arcseconds is this? Show your solution.

Parsec – the unit of distance:

3. One of the commonly used units of distance in astronomy is the parsec (pc), which comes
from combining the words parallax and second. Proxima Centauri is 4 x 1013 km (40 trillion
kilometers) from the Sun. Given that 1 pc = 3.1 x 10 13 km, convert the distance of36 Proxima
Centauri into parsecs. Show your solution.

22
Distance to a star:
4. When parallax is measured in arcseconds and distance is measured in parsecs, the
formula relating distance, d and parallax, p is simply d = 1/p. WISE astronomers recently
discovered several brown dwarfs. These celestial objects were not massive enough to
become stars, is within 10 parsecs from our Sun.

(a) Find the distance to the brown dwarf, WISE 1541–2250, which has a parallax of 0.351
arcsec. Show your solution.

(b) Find the distance to the brown dwarf, WISE 0254+0224, which has a parallax of 0.165
arcsec. Show your solution.

23
Lesson
THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
4
What’s In

Hi! I am teacher Beth, your teacher for this lesson,

‘The Expanding Universe’. How do you do today?

Hello teacher Beth. We are doing

fine today. Thank you.

That is great! In the previous

lesson, you have learned
how the distances and
speeds of far-off objects is
determined.

By the way,
what is
cosmology?
Using the knowledge that Thoughts from
you have; we will try to anyone? Yes Cosmology is
discuss how the astronomers Ms. Sunshine? the branch of
determined the structure of astronomy that
the expanding universe we deals with the
live in which used to be hot study of the
and is approximately 14 structure and
billion years old. Cosmology evolution of the
will help us with this lesson. universe.

24
 What I Need to Know
The astronomers determine the structure
of the universe by detecting and analyzing
electromagnetic waves that come from the
galaxies, the ‘building blocks’ of the universe.
From the data collected,
they determine the way in
which these galaxies are
distributed throughout the
vast volume of the
universe.
Astronomers then estimate the tens of
billions of galaxies that are within range
of the optical telescopes. Even if they
were inclined to do so, astronomers
would not have the time to observe all
the tremendous volume of the universe
for information about all the galaxies.
Ah, so the model
of the universe’s
structure was
based on
samples of
different regions.
25
What did they do
after detecting
and analyzing the
electromagnetic
waves?
Then, what
happened next?
Why? What did they do then?
A sampling of the different
regions of the universe was
used instead by the astronomers
to come up with the model of the
structure of the universe.
Yes definitely! These data also
revealed large voids, millions of
light-years across space that
contained very few galaxies. In
other words, the two-dimensional
sheets were separated by vast
volumes of nearly empty space.
So it seems that galaxies are not
evenly distributed in space.
 In 2003, a team of astronomers, entered the So, from what was shown
coordinates into the computer, and obtained in the illustration, what was
an illustration showing the location and their finding?
relative positions of different galaxies.

Based on it, they found out that

nearly every galaxy in the
sample belongs to either a two-
dimensional “sheet” or a one-
dimensional “thread” that is
millions of light-years in length. Millions of light-years in
length? That is very far!

Yes, exactly!

What’s New

Activity 4.4.1 Think and Share

Read each question carefully. Think critically and share your answer by writing it in a
clean sheet of paper.

1. What is the universe expanding into?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. Is the universe becoming into something?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

What Is It
Guys, your questions are
also the basic questions
about the size and age of
our very universe that
Does the universe astronomers wrestled with
go on forever, or for thousands of years.
does it have an
edge somewhere?
Has it always
existed, or did it
come to being at
some time in the
past?

26
Remember the Mr. Hubble discovered that
astronomer Edwin the universe is expanding!
Hubble? He made
a critical discovery Really?
that led to scientific Yes!
answers to your
questions?

When Einstein developed his

General Theory of Relativity,
he thought he ran into the Ma’am, can you tell us the story
same problem that Newton on how Mr. Hubble discovered
did. His equations imply that that the Universe is expanding?
the universe should be either
Sure! That is good! You
expanding or collapsing, yet
guys are listening intently…
he assumed prematurely
that the universe was static.

Well, you see, Einstein’s

original solution contained a
constant term, called the
cosmological constant,
which cancelled the effects of
gravity on very large scales,
and led to a static universe.
So, after Hubble discovered
that the universe was
expanding, Einstein called the
cosmological constant his
"greatest blunder."
Einstein's theory of gravity
discovered the equations had
some solutions that described an
expanding universe. In these
solutions, the light coming from
distant objects would be
redshifted as it traveled through
the expanding universe. The
redshift would increase with
increasing distance to the object.
27
In 1929 Edwin Hubble, working at
the Carnegie Observatories in
Pasadena, California, measured the
redshifts of distant galaxies. He also
measured their relative distances by
measuring the apparent brightness
of a class of variable stars called
Cepheids in each galaxy.
Remember the Cepheids Variables?
When he plotted Doppler redshift
against relative distance, he found
that the redshift of distant galaxies
increased as a linear function of their
distance. The only explanation for
this observation is that the universe
was expanding.
Same finding
with Einstein…
 Once scientists understood that the
universe was expanding, they Big bang
immediately realized that it would have as in big
been smaller in the past. At some point explosion?
in the past, the entire universe would
have been a single point and must have
been more compressed. Carrying this
idea to each logical conclusion, most
astronomers think that the universe
began in a small, hot, dense state, the
rapid expansion of which is called the
Big Bang and was the beginning of the
universe as we understand it today.

Teacher Beth can Maybe it Can you please

Ah! Like a
you please give us looks like an illustrate to us
bubble…
an illustration on inflated how the universe
gum?
how the universe balloon or … expands?
expands?

Of course, Jupiter, why not? If the galaxies are

That’s the reason why I am moving away from one
here today…for you to learn another at the present
new things each day and time, the galaxies must
because of that very kind have been closer to one
request, I will see to it guys another in the past.
that you will go home with That is, the universe.
great learning. So hold on
and concentrate!

Consider baking a loaf of raisin bread. Imagine that the raisins represent the
galaxies and the dough represents space. As the loaf bakes and expands, its
raisin remains the same size but moves away from every other raisin. No
matter which raisin an observer might be “riding”, the other raisins would move
away. The greater the initial distance a specific raisin was from the observer’s
raisin, the faster and the farther the observed raisin would recede.

28
Figure 4.4.1 Analogy of the Expanding Universe
Source:https://courses.lumenlearning.com/astronomy/chapter/the-expanding-universe/

The expanding universe is somewhat analogous to the expanding dough in a

loaf of a raisin bread (See Figure 4.4.1). The raisins (representing the galaxies)
are carried along as the dough (space) expands. The number show that the
farther an observer “raisin” the faster the former is moving.

Note that the raisins “galaxies” stay the So, if that is Maybe it is
same size, but they are carried along the case, very hard to
by the expansion of the dough (space). how old is the determine the
Essentially, the raisins behave in universe age of our
accordance with Hubble’s law. now? universe…

No Venus, we can
calculate the age of
the universe easily.
That will be our next
topic.

Whoaah!!! Sounds interesting! Really interesting, but how?

Until recently, astronomers estimated that the Big Bang occurred

between 12 and 14 billion years ago. To put this in perspective,
the Solar System is thought to be 4.5 billion years old and
humans have existed as a genus for only a few million years.
29
 Astronomers estimate the age of the universe in two ways:
1) by looking for the oldest stars; and
2) by measuring the rate of expansion of the universe and
extrapolating back to the Big Bang; just as crime detectives
can trace the origin of a bullet from the holes in a wall.

Astronomers can use a simple technique to determine the

age of the universe by using Hubble’s law (See Figure 4.4.2).

Figure 4.4.2 Velocity–distance relation among extragalactic nebulae (1).

Source: https://www.pnas.org/content/112/11/3173

“Radial velocities, corrected for solar motion, are plotted against distances estimated
from involved stars and mean luminosities of nebulae in a cluster. The black discs
and full line represent the solution for solar motion using the nebulae individually; the
circles and broken line represent the solution combining the nebulae into groups; the
cross represents the mean velocity corresponding to the mean distance of 22
nebulae whose distances could not be estimated individually” (1).
(Note: Velocity units should be in kilometers per second.)

As shown in the figure above, the slope of the graph

represents the assumed constant rate at which the universe
is expanding; therefore, astronomers can calculate how long
the universe has been expanding, and the result of that
calculation is the age of the universe.

30
This relation is the It is like this, if the slope of the line is the Hubble
well-known Hubble
constant 𝑯, then the age of the universe is
Law (and its graphic
𝟗. 𝟕𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏
representation is the ሺ
𝑨𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒚𝒓 − ሻ
Hubble Diagram) 𝑯
where:
𝑯 is the Hubble constant currently estimated to be
71 kilometer/second/Megaparsec or km/s/Mpc.

What does 9.78 x 1011

stands for? The number 9.78 x 1011 is a
conversion factor for the time and
distance units used in the
problem. The best estimate of the
constant H is about 71 km/s/Mpc
(1 Mpc = 1 mega-parsec, 1 million
parsecs). This calculation gives
about 13.8 billion years for the
Do astronomers agree age of the universe.
that the universe is
expanding?

Recent evidence strongly

indicates that we live in what
Yes definitely! cosmologists call a flat
universe that will continue to
expand forever. Contrary to
earlier ideas that gravity would
slow down the expansion.

Will it
expand
forever?
Yes! Recent discoveries have
confirmed that the expansion of the
universe is actually accelerating. The
acceleration is thought to be due to the
Is there any repulsive effect of a mysterious dark
confirmation energy that seems to make up 68% of
for this the mass-energy of the universe
ma’am? (E=mc2). The remaining mass energy
appears to be 5% ordinary matter and
27% dark matter.

31
 What’s More

Activity 4.4.2 The Expanding Universe-Galaxies

Follow the step-by-step instructions.

1. Take a round balloon and draw on it six “galaxies”, each about 5 mm across. Make your
galaxies roughly evenly spaced around the balloon.

2. Choose any one of the “galaxies” and mark it “A” so that you remember which it is. Label
also the other “galaxies.” Make a mental note of the distances from this galaxy A to its
nearest neighboring galaxies.

3. The balloon represents space itself. Blow up the balloon to represent the expansion of the
universal space.

4. Again, check the distances from galaxy A to its nearest neighbors.

5. Answer the following questions in complete sentences:

a. Sketch the balloon with its galaxies before and after you blew it up. Observe and record
your observation.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

b. If people living somewhere in galaxy A. observe the motion of their neighbor galaxies,
what will they notice? Why might they think their own galaxy is the center of the
universe?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

c. Would people in a different galaxy observe the same over-all effect in the motion and
location of a neighboring galaxy, or would they observe something different?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

d. As time goes by, the real universe behaves much more than like this balloon. What do
you think our astronomers must have observed about the motion of our neighboring
galaxies?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

What I Have Learned

Activity 4.4.3 Test Your Analysis - Calculating the Age of the Universe

In a clean sheet of paper, calculate the age of the universe if the constant rate of
expansion is 71 km/s/Mpc. Show your solution.
32
 What I Can Do?
Activity 4.4.4 Sketch Me Up!
Using one letter-sized (short) bond paper, draw your understanding of an expanding
universe. Make it colorful and presentable.

SUMMARY
1. Angle p is measured in arc seconds. It represents the annual parallax of the nearby star.

2. Astronomical unit AU. A convenient unit of expressing distances in the solar system. It is
the average distance between the Earth and the Sun. One AU is 1.5 x 10 8 km (9.3 x 107 mi).

3. Big bang. The idea most astronomers think that the universe began in a small, hot, dense
state, and is rapidly expanding and was the beginning of the universe.

4. Black Hole. A region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing—no particles or
even electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from it.

5. Cepheid variable stars. Unstable red giant stars could be used to accurately measure
distance up to 50 million ly.

6. Cosmic distance ladder (also known as the extragalactic distance scale). The
succession of methods by which astronomers determine the distances to celestial objects.

7. Cosmology. The branch of astronomy that deals with the study of the structure and
evolution of the universe.

8. First Postulate of special relativity. At any frame of reference, all laws of physics are
similar.

9. Geometric parallax. An age-old technique used by astronomers for more distant objects
was first devised by the Greeks in 300 BCE.

33
10. Gravitational Lensing. The bending and focusing of light and especially the formation
of multiple images of a more distant object by a celestial object acting as a gravitational
lens.

11. Hubble’s law. A simple technique used by astronomers to determine the age of the
universe. If the slope of the line is the Hubble constant 𝑯, then the age of the universe is
𝟗. 𝟕𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏
𝑨𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 ሺ𝒚𝒓ሻ −
𝑯
where: 𝑯 is the Hubble constant currently estimated to be
71 kilometer/second/Megaparsec or km/s/Mpc
(1 Mpc = 1 mega-parsec, 1 million parsecs).

12. Inverse-square law. A technique that uses the Physics principle to describe the
intensity of light at different distances from a light source. The intensity of light is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance.

13. Length of Contraction. A moving object would be shorter in length as observed by the
observer at rest that is relative to the moving object.

14. Light-year (ly). The distance traveled by light in 1 year (9.5 x 10 12 km, 6 trillion mi.).

15. Mass Increase. The rest energy and total energy of the body are equivalent to the rest
mass (an invariant quantity which is the same for all observers in all reference frames) and
relativistic mass (dependent on the velocity of the observer), respectively.

16. Maxwell Theory. The light in a vacuum travels at a constant speed regardless of the
motion of the source or the observer.

17. Newtonian Mechanics. The speed of light depends on the motion of the observer and
the light source.

18. Number 9.78 x 1011. A conversion factor for the time and distance units used in the
problem

19. One parsec, (pc). The distance to a star when the star exhibits a parallax of 1 second of
arc, where 1 second of arc is defined to be 1/3600 of 1 0. A parsec (pc) = 3.26 ly.

20. Parallax. The apparent motion of the nearby star observed from two positions, which
appears to move back and forth against the background of more distant stars

21. Precession. The change in the orientation of the rotational axis of a rotating body.

22. Second Postulate special relativity. For all reference frames, the speed of light (c) is
the same no matter what their relative speed is.

23. Simultaneity. Whether two spatially separated events not absolute occur at the same
time but depends on the observer's reference frame.

24. Standard Candle Technique. The other term for the inverse square law. As the candle
is moved farther away, the brightness decreases. If the distance to the candles doubles,
then the brightness of the candle decreases by a factor of 4.

25. Time Dilation. An observer who is in relative motion with respect to that clock
determined the “slowing down” of a clock.
34
 Assessment (Posttest)

Multiple Choice. Select the letter of the best answer from among the given choices.

1. Einstein’s Theory of Special relativity is based on what two postulates? Choose all that
apply.
I. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference moving with
constant velocity relative to one another.
II. The laws of physics application change based on the condition of the observer.
III. The speed of light is constant in all inertial frame of reference.
IV. The speed of light depends on the speed of the observer.
A. I only C. II and IV
B. I and II D. I and III

2. Which of the following describes the speed of light according to Newtonian mechanics?
The speed of light in any frame of reference
A. is infinite. C. depends on the observer’s motion.
B. is constant. D. depends on the motion of its source.

3. Which of the following correctly describes the statement: The speed of light is constant?
A. The statement is sometimes true. C. The statement is never true.
B. The statement is always true D. The statement is sometimes false.

4. A woman on the ground sees a rocket moving past her at 99% the speed of light.
Compared to when the rocket is at rest, the woman measures the length of the moving
rocket as:
A. longer. C. a foot long.
B. shorter. D. having the same length.

5. Starship "Alpha" travels at 0.9c past an identical starship "Beta," which is at rest. Both a
cabin boy on the "Alpha" and a cook on the "Beta" measure the time required for the
other ship to pass by their respective windows. Who measures the longer time?
A. Both measure the same time. C. the cabin boy
B. Time stood still. D. the cook

6. Two identical clocks are made. One is placed in interstellar space, and the other is
placed on the surface of a massive planet. Which runs faster?
A. Both clocks have the same rate. C. the planet clock
B. Both clocks stopped running. D. the space clock

7. Which of the following describes the first postulate of General Relativity Theory?
A. Inertial and gravitational masses have different values.
B. Inertial and gravitational masses are identical.
C. Inertial and gravitational masses are inversely proportional.
D. Both inertial and gravitational masses are zero.

8. Which of the following is NOT a consequence of the General Theory of Relativity?

A. Black hole C. Precession of Mercury’s orbit
B. Red Giant D. The existence of gravitational lenses

35
9. Why is a blackhole black?
A. No light can escape the blackhole. C. All colors are absorbed by the blackhole.
B. No light can enter the blackhole. D. All colors are reflected off the blackhole.

10. Who discovered that Cepheid variable stars could be used to accurately measure
distances?
A. Alan Guth C. Albert Einstein
B. Edwin Hubble D. Henrietta Leavitt

11. Calculate the number of seconds in a year (365 days) in standard exponential notation
with three significant figures.
A. 3.51 x 107 s/yr C. 3.51 x 109 s/yr
7
B. 3.15 x 10 s/yr D. 3.15 x 109 s/yr

12. What do you call the age-old technique used by astronomers to determine distant
objects?
A. Parallax C. The standard candle
B. Doppler Effect D. Cepheid variable stars

13.What happens to the brightness of the candle when the square of its distance
decreases?
A. It increases. C. It remains the same.
B. It decreases. D. It becomes zero.

14. A galaxy cluster in Ursa Major has a recessional velocity of 15, 000 km/s. Using the best
estimate for Hubble’s constant, find the distance to the galaxy cluster.
A. 112 Mpc C. 211 Mpc
B. 121 Mpc D. 221 Mpc

15. One cannot directly observe blackholes because they emit no light. Why can scientists
still hunt or track them?
A. A black hole can radiate electrons. C. A black hole can affect orbits of nearby stars.
B. A black hole can reflect protons. D. A black hole can radiate high-speed photons.

36
 37
What I Know: Pretest
1. A 6. D 11. D 16. D
2. B 7. B 12. B
3. D 8. C 13. B
4. D 9. D 14. A
5. C 10. A 15. A
Activity 4.1.1 Observing Light
1. Maxwell’s theory that the speed of light is constant
2. Every observer will measure the light from the flashlight traveling at the
same speed.
Activity 4.1.2 Test your Analysis
1. Newtonian Mechanics The speed of light depends on the motion of the
observer and the light source.
Maxwell Theory The light in a vacuum travel at a constant speed regardless
of the motion of source or the observer.
2. Theory of special relativity resolved the conflicts between Newtonian
mechanics and Maxwell’s theory by deriving an equation and proving that
the speed of light is constant.
3. Out of curiosity
Activity 4.1.3 Guessing Time
The answer should be related to time dilation.
Activity 4.1.4 Explain Briefly
1. The answer should be about Einstein’s first postulate
2. The answer should be about simultaneity and time dilation
3. The answer should be about time dilation
4. The answer should be about length of contraction
5. The answer should be about mass-energy equivalence
Activity 4.2.1 Find A Partner
Bend – Deflect Precess – Shift Identical – Equivalent
Activity 4.2.2 The Fabric of Curvature
1. The fabric curved down
2. The heavier the mass placed in the fabric, the greater the curvature.
3. As round objects are rolled down the fabric, it follows the curvature of the
fabric
Activity 4.2.3 I am Bent
In both conditions, light is bent.
Activity 4.2.5. Let’s React!
KEY TO ANSWER
 38
Activity 4.2.4 Expound Me
1. The answer should be about equivalence principle
2. The answer should be about the curvature of space
Activity 4.2.5 Let’s React!
Answer varies but will focus on the postulates of General Theory of Relativity
Activity 4.3.1 Knowing Parallax
The astronomical annual parallax to a nearby star is defined as the half-angle of the
vertex of a triangle with the orbit of the Earth about the sun as the base. The mean
distance of the Earth from the sun is one Astronomical Unit (AU: 149,597,870.69km ±
0.03km). The annual parallax is thus defined as p = 1AU/d, where d, the distance to the
star, is canonically measured in AU [3]. Similarly, the distance to an Earth-orbiting satellite
can be accurately measured if it can be simultaneously observed by two telescopes
separated by an accurately known distance, or by modified versions of this basic
technique.
Note: Answers may vary
Activity 4.3.2 Show it to Me
1. ans 1.92 W/m2
2. ans 18.86 MPc = 61.47 Mly
Activity 4.3.3 Test Your Analysis
Method/Technique in solving far-off Explanation/Equation
objects’ distances
Cosmic Distance Ladder Composed of several methods that build on
one another
Powerful Radar Use to bounce signals of Venus, Mars,
Mercury, and even the sun.
Geometric parallax An aged-old technique used by
astronomers to measure distances for more
distant objects.
Stars’ absolute and apparent This technique is not easy because the
magnitudes distance to the star must be known to
determine the absolute magnitude of the
star.
Cepheid variable stars This can be used to accurately measure
distances even up to 500 million ly since
the periods of variability of the unstable
stars were directly related to their
brightness.
Comparing galaxies’ absolute and
apparent brightness This is used to measure distances for more
distant objects up to 600 million ly. This can
be used to measure distance but only for a
short period of time.
 39
Method/Technique in solving Explanation/Equation
speed of far-off objects
Supernovae As the candle is moved farther away, the
brightness decreases. If the distance to the
candles doubles, then the brightness of the
candle decreases by a factor of 4.
Standard Candle Technique This is used to determine distances to the most
distant objects in the Universe.
Hubble’s Law Vr = H x d
Method/Technique in solving Explanation/Equation
speed of far-off objects
Doppler effect It is the shift in the wavelength of the emitted
light of an object which is proportional to the
speed with which the object moves.
It states that the intensity of light is inversely
Inverse Square Law of Intensity proportional to the square of the distance.
(I=1/d2)
It is the succession of methods by
The cosmic distance which astronomers determine the distances to
ladder or extragalactic distance celestial objects.
scale)
Activity 4.3.4 Make Me Complicated: Parallax
1. Distance increases as parallax angle decreases.
2. 0.72 arcseconds
3. 1.29 pc
4. A. 2.85parsec B. 6.06 parsec
Activity 4.4.1 Think and Share
1. answers vary
2. answers vary
Activity 4.4.2 The Expanding Universe-Galaxies
5. a. answers vary c. answers vary
b. answers vary d..answers vary
Activity 4.4.3 Test Your Analysis- Calculating the age of the Universe
13.7 billion years or 14 billion years
Activity 4.4.4 Sketch Me Up
Score depends on teacher's criteria/rubrics
Assessment (Posttest)
1. D 6. C 11. B
2. B 7. B 12. A
3. B 8. B 13. A
4. B 9. A 14. C
5. D 10. D 15. C
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41
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