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Reactor Engineering - Introduction

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1 REACTOR ENGINEERING
1.1 Introduction
Introduction
What is a Reactor?
Reactors are vessels designed to contain chemical reactions. They typically have a single or multiple
feed points, a single (or multiple) product removal points as well as (but not always):
- Agitators;
- Heating/cooling coils;
- Aeration points; and
- pH control points (to add acid or base).

Reactors can also refer to bioreactors, nuclear reactors, fission reactors or chemical reactors.

What is a Chemical Reaction?

A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances
to another.

Chemical reactions can be either spontaneous (requiring no input of energy), or require the input of
some type of energy, e.g. heat, light or electricity.

Chemical reactions are largely determined by the laws of thermodynamics.

The speed of a reaction depends on reaction kinetics.

What is Thermodynamics?
Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of energy.
Thermodynamics typically involves the interrelationship between temperature, volume and
pressure.

What are Reaction Kinetics?

The speed of a reaction depends on reaction kinetics.
This depends on such things as reactant concentrations, surface area (catalysts), pressure, activation
energy, and temperature.

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 1

What is a Catalyst?
Catalysts are substances which change mechanism of a reaction which in turn increases the speed of
a reaction (by lowering the activation energy needed).
A catalyst is not destroyed or changed during a reaction.

What is Conversion?
The percentage of reactants converted to products inside a chemical reactor or unit process.

Series & parallel

Kinetics
Reactors

Batch/Continuous Graphical techniques

(numerical integration)

moles of reactant A reacted

Conversion =
moles of reactant A in the feed

moles of A reacted
XA =
moles of A fed

Information required:
i) Reaction e.g. A + 2B  C
ii) Which is the limiting reagent

Mass balance constraint: Maximum conversion

[𝐶]
Thermodynamic constraint: Equilibrium, 𝑘𝑒𝑞 = [𝐴][𝐵]2
, if you have keq, we can find where the
equilibrium lies.

Rate of Reaction

Introduction
r = kCA 1.1
(where k is assumed to be a function of temperature only)

By the Arrhenius Law:

E
k(T) = Ae−RT 1.2

where:
A = pre-exponential factor or frequency factor
E = activation energy, J/mol

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2

 R = gas constant; 8.314 J/mol.K
T = absolute temperature, K

“Well behaved reactions” follow elementary kinetics; i.e. the rate law follows the stoichiometric co-
efficient of the reaction.

Elementary kinetics typically occur in homogenous, gas phase reactions.

Irreversible Reactions
Fist order irreversible reaction:
AB rA = kCA

Second order irreversible reaction:

2A  B rA = kCA2

Example:
A + 2B  C

What is the rate law?

rA = kCACB2

What order is this reaction?

- First order with respect to A
- Second order with respect to B
- Third order overall

Most industrial reactors are not homogenous.

In order to save costs (electricity, and capital costs) smaller reactors are preferable. When
decreasing reactor size (and in general) catalysts are added.

A B

Catalyst surface

Interact, react, desorb

Gas phase concentration no longer determines the rate. The adsorbed concentration of the reactant
determines rate of catalytic reactions (these concentrations are very difficult to measure).

Reversible Reactions
Elementary kinetics for a reversible reaction:

A  B

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 3

Overall rate: (for the consumption of reactant, A)
rA = -k1CA +k2CB
Positive k is for the reverse reaction

2A  B rA = -k1CA2 +k2CB

A + 2B  C + D rA = -k1CACB2 +k2CCCD
At equilibrium, rA = 0

0 = -k1CACB2 +k2CCCD
k1 CC CD
∴ = = k eq
k 2 CA CB 2
k1
k eq =
k2
Where both sides of this equation are functions of temperature only.

If rA = -k1CACB2 +k2CCCD:
If the feed is only A and B and the concentration approaches zero, the effect of k 2CCCD is small and
the reaction appears irreversible.
For a conversion approaching one, the effects of k2CCCD are more significant.

Units and Sign Convention

The reaction rate, rj, for the reaction j is defined as the rate of formation of species j per unit time.
mol
Therefore, the units of rate of reaction: (moles/volume)/ unit time  m3 .s

The sign depends on whether we define rate as a formation or consumption. In reactor theory, we
work with a rate of formation since we are interested in what products are formed.

What this means is that the rate is negative because we work with a number of moles of feed, which
are then consumed.

A + 2B  C + D rA = -k1CACB2 +k2CCCD

Units of:
mol
rA  m3 .s
2
(m3 )
k1  (mol)2 .s third order
m3
k2  mol.s second order

For a first order reaction: r = kCA

Units of k  s-1

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 4

Rate of reaction is always: mol/(volume.time) OR
mol/(mass catalyst.time)

Why moles and not mass?

When working with reaction it is moles converted and not mass (i.e. stoichiometry)

Types of Reactors
Various types of ideal reactors exist in industry. These are typically broken into batch (and semi
batch) reactors and continuous flow reactors. The most common continuous flow reactors include:
- Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTR)
- Plug Flow reactors (PFR); and
- Packed Bed Reactors.

Additionally, there are several other reactors which are not modeled as ideal reactors:
- Differential Side stream Reactor (DSR);
- Fluidised Bed Reactor (FBR); and
- Packed columns.

Batch Reactors
A batch reactor is a vessel where reaction takes place and has NO flows in or out during the reaction
taking place inside it.

A typical batch reactor consists of a tank with an agitator and integral heating/cooling system.
These vessels may vary in size from less than 1 litre (lab scale) to more than 15 000 litres.

Semi Batch Reactor

Similar to a batch flow reactor BUT there is either a flow in OR a flow out during reaction; but not
both.

Example:
Slowly adding a chemical to a batch reaction to push equilibrium in a certain direction
The removal of carbon dioxide in a fermentation reaction.

Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)

A CSTR reactor is a vessel where reaction takes place and has flows both in and out.

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 5

It is assumed that there is vigorous mixing with allows for the contents of the reactor to be perfectly
mixed i.e. the composition and temperature is identical in all parts of the reactor.
Also known as a back mix reactor.
Unless otherwise stated, assumed in = out; i.e. Steady State (SS).

Plug Flow Reactor (PFR) – Tubular Reactor

A reactor with flow in and out; and reaction throughout a tube like reactor.
It is assumed that the concentration changes along the length of the pipe (axial).
It is assumed that the concentration in a radial direction is equal (radial).
Fluid in a PFR may be modeled as a series of infinitely thin "plugs", each with a uniform composition,
(traveling in the axial direction of the reactor). Each plug has a different composition from the ones
before and after it.
Unless otherwise stated, assumed in = out; i.e. Steady State (SS).
Also known as Continuous Tubular Reactors (CTR).

1.2 Conversion and Reactor Sizing

The General Mole Balance Equation

Example:

Solution:

Definition of Conversion
Xxxxxxxxxxxxxx

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 6

 Example:

Solution:

Design Equations

Batch Reactor
By definition, a batch reactor is non-steady state.
Why? Concentration and temperature changes with time.

Given:
AB
1st order irreversible reaction

By a mass balance (mole balance):

Final = Initial + Change
moles of A│t+ ∆t = moles of A│t + moles of A reacted during ∆t
NA │t+ ∆t = NA │t + rA ∆t. V

Solving:
NA │t+ ∆t − NA │t
= rA . V
∆t

Taking lim t  0
dNA
= rA . V
dt

For a 1st order irreversible reaction:

-rA = kCA

Therefore:
dNA
= −kCA . V
dt

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 7

 NA
CA = or NA = CA . V
V

Substitute for NA
d(CA . V)
= −kCA . V
dt

If density is constant, volume is constant

Therefore:
d(CA )
V. = −kCA . V
dt
dCA
= −kCA
dt

Separable differential equation

Solving:
CA t
dCA
∫ = − ∫ kdt
C0 CA
A 0
C
ln CA0 = −kt Batch process, 1st order irreversible reaction, constant density
A

For a batch reactor, the volume of the reactant and the reactor are the same.
For gases, we use partial pressures, not concentrations (in a constant volume reactor, pressure
changes). Use ideal gas equation for substitution.

For a reversible reaction 2A   B

dNA
= rA . V
dt

For a 1st reversible reaction:

rA = -k1CA + k2CB

Assume density is constant; volume constant

Therefore:
dCA
= rA
dt
dCA
dt
= −k1 CA + k 2 CB [1]

Let:
NA = NA0 − 2x Reactive balances
NB = NB0 + x

Since volume is constant NOTE: will only work for constant density and volume
CA = CA0 − 2x [2]
CB = CB0 + x

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 8

Substitute onto (1)
dCA
dt
= −k1 (CA0 − 2x) + k 2 (CB0 + x) [3]

From (2)
CA = CA0 − 2x

Since CA0 is a constant:

dCA
= −2 [4]
dx

(4) into (3)

−2dx
= −k1 (CA0 − 2x) + k 2 (CB0 + x)
dt
−2dx
= dt
−k1 (CA − 2x) + k 2 (CB0 + x)
0

Solving:
x t
−2dx
∫ 0 0 = ∫ dt
o (−k1 CA + k 2 CB ) + (2k1 + k 2 )x o
(−k1 CA0 + k 2 CB0 ) + (2k1 + k 2 )x −2
ln [ 0 0 ]. =t
−k1 CA + k 2 CB 2k1 + k 2

Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)

Assume perfect mixing. Therefore the reaction is happening at the concentration of the exit stream,
i.e. the rate is the same in the entire volume of the reactor and in the exit stream.

CA,f

CA

CSTR implies steady state:

Volumetric flow in = Volumetric flow out Assuming constant density

Number of moles in + Number of moles reacting = Number of moles out

Q f CA,f + VrA = QCA

With: rA = -kCA2
Q f CA,f + V(−kCA 2 ) = QCA

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 9

For a constant density: Qf = Q
Q(CA,f − CA ) = VkCA 2 No integration required
Q(CA,f −CA )
kCA 2
=V OR
Q(CA,f − CA )
=V
−rA

Example:
What CSTR reactor volume do we need to achieve a 90%
conversion given the following information?
rA = -kCA
k = 0.1 /min
Q = 50 litres per minute
CA0 = 2 mol/litre

Solution:
It can be shown that:
𝑄(𝐶𝐴,𝑓 − 𝐶𝐴 ) 𝑄(𝐶𝐴,𝑓 − 𝐶𝐴 )
𝑉= =
−𝑟𝐴 𝑘𝐶𝐴
CA = 2mol/l – (0.9 X 2 mol/l) = 0.2 mol/l

50(2−0.2)
∴𝑉= = 4500 litres
0.1 𝑥 0.2

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 10

 Example:
What overall conversion will you obtain by adding two identical CSTRs in series, given the
following information?
Volume of each reactor = 4500m3
Rate equation: rA = -kCA
k = 0.1 /min
Q = 50 litres per minute
CA0 = 2 mol/litre

Solution:
𝑄(𝐶𝐴,𝑓 − 𝐶𝐴 ) 𝑄(𝐶𝐴,𝑓 − 𝐶𝐴 )
𝑉= =
−𝑟𝐴 𝑘𝐶𝐴
𝑄𝐶𝐴0 50 𝑥 2
For the first CSTR: 𝐶𝐴,1 = = = 0.2 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙
𝑄+𝑘𝑉 50+0.1 𝑥 4500
𝑄𝐶𝐴0 50 𝑥 0.2
For the second CSTR:𝐶𝐴,2 = = = 0.02 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙
𝑄+𝑘𝑉 50+0.1 𝑥 4500

0.2 mol/l
2 mol/l

0.02 mol/l

V1 = V2 = 4500l

2 − 0.02
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 99%
2

Subheading?
Q(CA,f − CA )
V=
−rA
QCA,f − QCA
V=
−rA
NA,f − NA
V=
−rA
NA . X
V=
−rA
NA . X
V=
−rA
X
V = NA . ( )
−rA

SUB-HEADING
For a CSTR it was shown that:
Q f CA,f + VrA = QCA
Q f CA0 + VrA = QCA

Rearranging we can write:

Q f CA0 − QCA = −VrA

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 11

Q f CA0 − QCA
= −rA
V

OR
Q f CA0 − QCA
−rA =
V
Q f CA0 QCA
−rA = −
V V
Qf Q
−rA = CA0 − CA
V V
Q Qf
−rA = − CA + CA0
V V
(y = mx + c)

Plotting –ra vs CA0:

Slope of the line = -Q/V
For -ra = 0, CA = CA0

CSTR3 CSTR2
CSTR1

-ra

Slope = -Q/V

Ca3 Ca2 Ca1 Ca0

Ca

- As concentration increases rate increases, i.e. rate proportional to concentration.

- A CSTR is represented by the straight line (mixing line)
- For CSTRs of equal volume (connected in series therefore equal flowrate), slope of the line is
constant

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 12

 Example:
A single 4500 m3 reactor is to be replaced by two equally sized CSTRs. How big is each reactor?
Show graphically how this is represented on a plot of -ra vs Ca.

Rate equation: rA = -kCA (k = 0.1 /min)

Volumetric flowrate = 50 litres per minute
Initial concentration (CA0) = 2 mol/litre
Final concentration (CA) = 0.2 mol/litre

Solution:
Graphically, a plot of –ra vs. CA gives a mixing line for a CSTR with a slope = -Q/V
50𝑙. 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1
Slope = − = −0.01𝑚𝑖𝑛−1
4500𝑙
And CA0 = 2 mol/l

0.06

-ra 1 x CSTR
0.02 CSTR1

CSTR2

0.2 0.6 2
Ca

For n equal volumes CSTR reactors in series (1st order irreversible, constant density):
𝐶𝐴0
𝐶𝐴𝑛 =
𝑉 𝑛
(1 + 𝑘. )
𝑄

Therefore for two equally sized reactors: V = 1081l

Plug Flow Reactor

V + V
V

CA

Assume perfect mixing radially and no axial mixing (along length of reactor)
At any point long the reactor we have a certain concentration CA and rate of reaction rA.

From a differential balance:

(Moles of A in at V) = (Moles of A out at V + V) – (moles of A reacted)
ṄA |V = ṄA |V+∆V − rA ∆V

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 13

ṄA |V+∆V − ṄA |V
= rA
∆V

Therefore taking limits:

dṄA
= rA
dV

Example:
The reaction A  B has a rate rA = -kCA, with k = 2 min-1. A feed flow rate of 150 l/min has concentration
CA0 = 1.6 mol/l and CB0 = 0.1 mol/l. What are the exit concentrations and conversion in a 120 l PFR?

Solution:
𝑑𝑁̇𝐴
= 𝑟𝐴 AND 𝑟𝐴 = −𝑘𝐶𝐴
𝑑𝑉

We need NA in terms of CA: 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑄𝐶𝐴 (Assuming density is constant and therefore flowrate is constant.)

𝑑𝑄𝐶𝐴
Therefore: = −𝑘𝐶𝐴
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑄𝐶𝐴
= 𝑑𝑉
−𝑘𝐶𝐴
𝐶𝐴 𝑉
𝑄
∫ 𝑑𝐶𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝐶𝐴0 −𝑘𝐶𝐴 0
𝑄 𝐶𝐴
𝑙𝑛 =𝑉
−𝑘 𝐶𝐴0
𝐶𝐴 −𝑘𝑉
𝑙𝑛 =
𝐶𝐴0 𝑄
𝐶𝐴 −𝑘𝑉
=𝑒 𝑄
𝐶𝐴0
−𝑘𝑉
𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐴0 . 𝑒 𝑄 = 0.323 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙

𝐶𝐴0 −𝐶𝐴 1.6−0.323

Conversion: 𝑋𝐴 = = = 0.798 or 79.8%
𝐶𝐴0 1.6

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 14

 Example:
The reaction 2A ↔ B has a rate rA = -kCA, with k = 2 min-1. A feed flow rate of 150 l/min has
concentration CA0 = 1.6 mol/l and CB0 = 0.1 mol/l. What are the exit concentrations and conversion in
a PFR if the following volumes are used: 20 l, 40 l, 80 l, 120 l, 160 l?

Solution:
For V = 20 litres XA = 23.4%
For V = 40 litres XA = 41.3%
For V = 80 litres XA = 65.6%
For V = 120 litres XA = 79.8%
For V = 160 litres XA = 88.2%

Doubling the reactor volume increases the volume; but does not double it. Rate starts off high when
the concentration of reactants is high. As concentration of reactants decreases the rate decreases.

rA

Concentration

Example:
Assuming a PFR with the following condition: A  2B rA = -k1CA + k2CB2
Calculate the volume required to achieve a conversion X.

Solution:
𝑑𝑁̇𝐴
= 𝑟𝐴 = −𝑘1 𝐶𝐴 + 𝑘2 𝐶𝐵 2
𝑑𝑉

In terms of CA: 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑄𝐶𝐴 Assuming density is constant and therefore flowrate is constant.

Therefore:
𝑑𝑄𝐶𝐴
= −𝑘1 𝐶𝐴 + 𝑘2 𝐶𝐵 2
𝑑𝑉

But:
CA = CA0 – x
CB = CB + 2x
And dCA/dx = -1

−𝑑𝑥 2
𝑄 = −𝑘1 (𝐶𝐴 0 − 𝑥) + 𝑘2 (𝐶𝐵 0 + 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑉
𝑥 𝑉
−𝑑𝑥
𝑄∫ 2 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉
0 0
0 −𝑘1 (𝐶𝐴 − 𝑥) + 𝑘2 (𝐶𝐵 + 2𝑥) 0

BUT: k1 and k2 are functions of temperature. If they were constant we could use partial fractions. But
they are not, so we can’t integrate.

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 15

dṄA
= rA
dV

But: NA = NA0 – NA0X

Therefore:
dX
−Ṅ Ao = rA
dV
dX
ṄAo = dV
− rA
x V
dX
ṄAo ∫ = ∫ dV
0 − rA 0
x
dX
V = ṄAo ∫
0 − rA

CSTRs in series
Suppose we extend the above example to n-tanks in series

From the above:

For CSTRs with a constant volume and density

CA0
For first reactor: CA1 = V [1]
1+k.
Q
CA1
For second reactor: CA2 = V [2]
1+k.
Q

CA0
Equation [2] into [1] CA1 = V 2
(1+k. )
Q

For n equal volumes CSTR reactors in series (1st order irreversible, constant density):
CA0
CAn =
V n
(1 + k. )
Q

Useful but very limited as ALL the above conditions must be true for ALL reactors

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 16

 Example:
The reaction 2A ↔ B has a rate rA = -kCA, with k = 2 min-1. A feed flow rate of 150 l/min has
concentration CA0 = 1.6 mol/l and CB0 = 0.1 mol/l. What are the exit concentrations and conversion in
the following setups: 1 x 120 CSTRsl, 2 x 60 l CSTRs, 3 x 40 l CSTRs, 10 x 12 l CSTRs, 100 x 1.2 l CSTRs.

Solution:
𝐶𝐴0
Since the reaction is for 1st order irreversible, constant density, we can use: 𝐶𝐴𝑛 = 𝑉 𝑛
(1+𝑘. )
𝑄

No of CSTR’s CSTR volume Total Volume Conversion of A CA final

1 120 litres 120 litres 61.5% 0.615
2 60 litres 120 litres 69.1% 0.494
3 40 litres 120 litres 72.3% 0.444
10 12 litres 120 litres 77.3% 0.363
100 1.2 litres 120 litres 79.6% 0.327

Example:
What overall conversion will you obtain by adding multiple (identical) CSTRs in series, given the following information?
What is the total volume compared to the volume of a single CSTR needed to achieve the same conversion?

Volume of each reactor = 4500m3

Rate equation: rA = -kCA (k = 0.1 /min)
Volumetric flowrate = 50 litres per minute
Initial concentration (CA0) = 2 mol/litre

Solution:
Volume of Conversion at the
No of Conc. in Conc. out single Total end of n CSTR's Equivalent volume if
CSTRs (mol/l) (mol/l) reactor (l) Volume (l) (%) only 1 CSTR was used (l)
1 2 0.2 4500 4500 90 4500
2 0.2 0.02 4500 9000 99 49500
3 0.02 0.002 4500 13500 99.9 499500
4 0.002 0.0002 4500 18000 99.99 4999500
5 0.0002 0.00002 4500 22500 99.999 49999500
6 0.00002 0.000002 4500 27000 99.9999 499999500
7 0.000002 2E-07 4500 31500 99.99999 4999999500

PFR in Series
Given that the concentration changes along the length of a PFR, adding multiple reactors in series is
simply equal to extending the length of the first PFR.

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 17

Combinations of Series and Parallel
We could put reactors in parallel:

If split equally, we don’t gain anything. The same is true for non-equal splitting. CSTRs may be used
in series to reduce the size of a single CSTR (but no gain is achieved in reducing total volume).

We may add reactors in series as a means of backup or due to space limitations or costs of single
large reactors.

Levenspiel Plots
xxxxxxx

Example:
Given the following data, draw a graph of -1/rA vs conversion. What can you determine from the graph?

X 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85
rA -0.0053 -0.0052 -0.0050 -0.0045 -0.0040 -0.0033 -0.0025 -0.0018 -0.00125 -0.001

Solution:
X 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85
-rA 0.0053 0.0052 0.0050 0.0045 0.0040 0.0033 0.0025 0.0018 0.00125 0.001
1/-rA 189 195 200 222 250 303 400 556 800 1000

We can solve using numerical integration.

Residence Time (or Space Time)

Mean residence time (MRT) is defined as the rector volume divided by the volumetric flowrate:

V
τ≡
Q0
where:
 = Mean Residence Time (sec)
V = Reactor Volume (m3)
Q0 = Incoming Volumetric Flowrate (m3/sec)

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 18

In practical terms, the mean residence time is the time to process one reactor volume of reactant
(based on entrance conditions). As such it is also called the holding time.

Example:
The first order reaction (A  B) is carried out isothermally
in a CSTR with a volume of 1827 litres. A feed of 180 l/min
containing A at an initial concentration of 3.0 mol/l is fed to
the reactor. It is required that we achieve conversion of
89% of A. What is the residence time of the reactor?

Solution:
𝑉
𝜏=
𝑄
= (1827 l)/(180l/min)
= 10.15 min

Space Velocity
Space velocity is defined as:

Q0 1
SV ≡ =
V τ
where:
SV = Space velocity (/sec)
V = Reactor Volume (m3)
Q0 = Incoming Volumetric Flowrate (m3/sec)
 = Mean Residence Time (sec)

While this appears to be the inverse of Mean Residence Time (MRT), this may not always be the
case. This is since the entering flowrates may be defined differently to the actual conditions. A
liquid-hourly, gas-hourly and weight-hourly space velocity are defined according to the conditions
below, even though the actual conditions may be different.

Liquid-hourly space velocity (LHSV)  liquid feed at 60°F or 75°F

Gas-hourly space velocity (GHSV)  gas as standard temperature and pressure (STP)
Weight-hourly space velocity (WHSV)  incoming mass (NOT volume) per mass (NOT volume) of
reactor catalyst.

Residence Time Distribution

Residence time distribution (RTD) is a probability distribution function to describe how an element
might spend its time in a reactor. A known amount of ink tracer is introduced at the inlet and the ink
concentration is measured at the outlet. Typically this is done either as a step or pulse experiments.

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 19

 1.3 Rate Laws and Stoichiometry
Definitions
Homogenous reactions:
Heterogeneous reaction:
Irreversible reaction:
Reversible reaction:
Molecularity: (uni-, bi-, termolecular)

Relative Rates of Reaction

Given the chemical equation below:

aA + bB → cC + dD

We can define the rates of reaction (formation or consumption) of chemicals B, C and D (relative to
A) as:

rA rB rC rD
− = − = =
a b c d

Or:

a a a
rA = rB = − rC = − rD
b c d

Additional Reading
Fogler, HS, 2006. Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering, 4th ed., Pearson International Edition.
Fogler, HS, 2011. Essentials of Chemical Reaction Engineering, Pearson International Edition.
Froment, GF, Bischoff KB, de Wilde J, 2011. Chemical Reactor Analysis and Design, 3rd ed., Wiley.
Murphy, RM, 2007. Introduction to Chemical Processes – Principles, Analysis, Synthesis, McGraw Hill.
Roberts, GW, 2009. Chemical Reactions and Chemical Reactors, Wiley.
Stolen, KA, Harb, JN, 2011. Introduction to Chemical Engineering – Tools for Today and Tomorrow,
5th ed., Wiley.

K. Harding University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 20

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