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DAVID HARRIS

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DORLING KINDERSLEY
LONDON • NEW YORK • STUTTGART
 A DORLING KINDERSLEY BOOK

Project editor Louise Candlish

Art editor Liz Brown
Assistant editor David T Walton
Assistant designer Carla De Abreu
Se nior editor Roger Tritton
Senior art editor Tracy Hambl eton -Miles
DTP designer Zirr inia Austin
Managing editor Sean Moor e
Managing art editor Toni Kay
Produ c tion controller Mery l Silbert
Picture research Julia Harris -Voss, Jo Walton
Photography Steve Gorton, Andy Crawford

Fii·st publ ished in Great Britain in 1995

by Dorling Kindersley Limited,
9 Henri etta Street, London WC2E 8PS

Copy ri ght © 1995 Dorling Kindersley Limited, London

Text copyr ight © 1995 David Harris

Ali right s reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, elect ronic,
mechanical, photocopying , recording or othe rwise, without the pr ior written
permiss ion of the copy right owner.

A CIP cata logue reco rd for thi s book is available from the British Library
ISBN O 75 13 0149 3

Colou r reproduction by GRB Editrice s.r.l.

Printed in Singapore by Toppan Printin g Co . (S) Pte Lt<l
Contents
Introduction 6 Bastard Capital s 78
The Development of Western Script 8 Cade ls 80
Script Timeline 12
Getting Started 14 . ITALIAN & HUMA NIST SCRIPTS

Rotunda 84
ROMAN & LATE ROMA N SCRIPTS Rotunda Capitals 88
Rustic Capitals 16 Humanist Minuscule 90
Square Capita ls 20 Italic 94
Uncial & Artifical Uncial 24 Humani st & Italic Capitals 98
Italic Swash Capitals 100
INSULAR & NATIONAL S CRIPTS

Insular Majusc ule 2 8 POST-RENAISSANCE S CRIPTS

Insular Minu scule 34 Coppe rpl ate 102

Coppe r plate Capita ls 106
CAROLINE & EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Carolin e Minuscule 38 RoMA N & LATE RoMA N ScRI PTS

Foundation al Hand 42 Imper ial Capita ls 108

Early Gothic 46
Script Refere nce Chart 120
GOTHIC SCRIPTS Glossary 122
Textura Quadrata 5O Bibliograph y 124
Textura Prescis us 54 Ind ex & Acknowledgments 125
Gothic Capitals & Versa ls 5 8
Lombardic Capita ls 62
Bastard Secretary 66
Batarde 70
Fraktur & Schwabacher 74
f NTRODUCTION

lntroduction
OR 2,000 YEARS, the western Latin alphabet
F
BooK PR.ODUCTION
The production of a
manuscript book is has develope d and been modifi ed by a vast
ª·complex business, range of social and techn ologica l change s,
requiring the skills of
numerous craftsmen.
providing a rich and vari ed reso ur ce for the
mo dern calligraph er to quarry. Thi s book
chart s that developme nt, pr esentin g script s
in both historica l and pra ctica ! contexts .
Calligraphe r s of all levels will be able to MAGNIFYIN G GLASS

explore the origins of each script and A magnifying glassor

eyeglass is a valuable aid to
understand anew th e construction of examining the lettcrforms
in historical manuscripts
th e 26 letters that we use every day. shown in chis book.

G ENERALLY, LATIN-BASED scripts fall Ascender/in• Wedgeser!f Bracketedserif I Capital line

into two categories: formal - that Minuscule ilfaj=ul e (cap1tal
is scripts used as the instrument of Counttt (/ower•case /euer , upper-case
letw) letter)
authority; and informal - the cursive
■ -
or quickly written scripts used for
~ Pen Bowl {l,ow,
everyday transactions. History
1 width ~~ curvedstroke)
rep eated ly shows formal script s
degenerating into cursive form s,
which are, in turn , upgraded, finally
•- Crossstroke Horizontol Swn
~ lnner-
Jau,
achieving formal status as new hands (crossbar) foot (main stroke) space

in their own right. The pages of

historical analysis in this book chart
the rise, fall, and reviva! of these
hands, and exp lain the emergence
of other significant scrip ts.
Pra cti ca/ ad vice
Following the historical study of
each script is a practica! guidc to
the construction of the letters in
E
■ -
' Diamond
~Penangle
r-
Headline
1(waistlint,
line)

'
that hand . A comp lete alphabet is
included , showing the separate strokes --- - -
needed to produ ce each lette r, and 1---- Hairline
r.a,I
Foot
. IBasclinc

indicating the pr obable seque nce

of these stro kes. To the left of this
alphabet, the chief characteristics
of the script are describ ed and
demo nstrated in a separate panel.
The appearan ce of a script is
influenced by a range of pra ctica!
facto rs, including the cut of the nib
used to write it. Full infor mation
about tools is given for each script.
LETTER ANATOMY
In order to identify or construct scripts, it is
essential to become familiar with the vocabulary
of calligraphy. Unfortunately, there is no agreed
standard nom enclature , so terms used in thi s
boo k are those most commonly favoured by
calligraphers and palaeographers. Altemative
terms, including tho se used by typographers,
are shown here in brackcts. For example, the
Desct nder line
headline is known to sorne calligraphers as
the "waistline" and to cypographers as the
"x - line". Although these letters represent
only a few characters, the terms used to
describe their compone nts are applicable
to all the letters in the alphabet. A ful!
glossary of the calligraphic temis used in
chis book is also included (pp. 122- 123).

6

This anafe indicotes,he de9reeef
Jorward lean efthe leuer; in this
case, the anafe is e/ose to /0 °
The minim heigh, ef
this f isfou r pen widths
LETTE R HEI GHT AND i' EN ANCLE
The height of a letter is calculated
in pen widths, shown in this boo k
to the left of the letter in the fom,
of a "ladder". Eac h script is drawn
with the pen held at one particular
angle. The figures used to indicare
this angle refer to degrees to the
horizontal. W here relevanc, the
approximate angle of the ÍOJ"\vard
lean of a letter is also give n. T his is
measured in degrees to the vert ical.
Srn.OKE SEQ UE N CE
A recommended sequence of strokes is given
for ali 26 letters of each script . T he use of
transparent co lours makes it clear where a
stroke crosses or overlaps w ith another.
Thefim letter in the sequence
showsthe model that yo u should
jo llow - in t.his example, a Caroline
Minuscule [(pp. 40-4 1)
/i __,'.(- The sensitivi'J efa quill
I_I • pen makes it an ideo/ too!
- Jor drawing hairlines
1
f NTRODUCTION
Model script s
The search for a definitive model
for any part icular hand is virtuall y
-- - ~ The hcight efrhe impossible. Within each script there
ascenderis about
rhree pen widths
are endless variation s, ra nging from
th e excessively forma l to the almost
40º-- The pen is held at
indecipherabl e. Therefore the script s
an an9le ef40°
to the hori2ontal includ ed in th e practica! pages of
_ ___ ___ This !etter is written
thi s book are actually a synth esis of
with a "slanted" pen var ious different styles , and should
(square-cut nib) be used to prompt your own
per sonal redefinition of the hands.
Manus cript sources
By definition , a script is a system
of handwritt en chara cte r s, and the
majority of the script s included in this
book come from manu script sources.
An arrow-head Wh ere appr opriat e, an enlargement
indicares wherethe
strokeflnishes and of a sectio n from an important
che pen is l!fied manuscript is shown, often revealing
the basic du ctus of th e script und er
scrutin y and giving invaluable clues
to th e constru ction of lett erform s.
Imp erial Capitals
On e significant script included in this
book mu st be regard ed separately
from th e rest - the Roman Imperial
Capital. A produ ct of th e bru sh and
not th e pen , it was, until rece ntly,
The second stroke creates
not accept ed as a script at ali. Du.e
The block arrow indicotes the ascender efche leuer to its comp lexit y and importan ce to
the pro9ress eftheflm and,flnally, the crossba
r is
stroke; on reachin9 che
m odern calligraph y and typogr aphy,
added with a third stroke
baseline,the pen is pushcd it is explored in depth in a section
back over thcfim scroke at th e end of the book. For the first
and upwards
tim e, the origin s and stru ctur e of
ali 26 lett er s are demonstra ted in an
WR ITING TOO LS
Some materials and imple ments are mo re easily accessible way (pp. 108- 119) .
suitable for an accurate represenration of a script Lejt-handed work
than others. For instance, most scribes writing
befo re 1500 used either parchm ent or vellum,
The step-by-step lett er s dem onstrat ed
whic h rema in to this day two of the finest in thi s boo k are the wo rk of a right -
writ ing sur faces. Freq uently , the wr iting hand ed calligraph er. Left -hand ed
im pleme nt is of equa l importanc e. For a
Batarde lette r (/eft), it wou ld be difficult to calligraph er s can follow the same
achieve the very fine lines w ith any other angles and str oke sequ ences, but
implemem than a sharp ly cut qui ll. Advice
on che selection of surfaces and writing too ls might find it useful to adjust their
is given in " Getti ng Started" (pp. 14-15). nor mal writin g position to the
___ ___ The qui// has been shorn ef
"und erarm" po sition: tuck the arm
most efits barbs, making ir inward s, turn th e hand to th e left ,
easier to handle
and shift the paper clown to the r ight.
Nibs cut obliquel y from top right to
bott om left can also be very useful.
7
TH E D EVELOPMEN T OF W ESTERN SCRJPT

The Development of Western Script

HE FIRSTALPHABETevolved in Phoenicia in about 1200 B.C ..
T This was adapted in the eighth century B.C. by the Greeks,
whose lette rforms were borrowed by the Etruscans and, in
turn, by th e Romans. All subsequent Western scripts have
evolved from Roman originals. The scripts in this book are
grouped in six categories: Roman and Late Roman Scripts
(pp. 16-27, 108- 119), Insular and Nationa l Scripts (pp.28- 37),
Caroline and Early Gothic Scripts (pp. 38-49), Gothic Scripts
(pp. 50-83), Italian and Humanist Scripts (pp. 84-101), and
Post-Renaissance Scripts (pp. 102- 107). The duration of
each script is shown in a timeline (pp. 12- 13).

ETR USCAN LET T ERS

PROBABLY the mo st important event
in the history of Western script was
the Roman adoption of the Etruscan
alphabet. By t.he first centur y B. C. , the
Romans had developed several scripts.
These letters have been written in Osean,
an ancient Italian language derived from
Ecruscan. In addition to the writing system,
almost every aspect of Etruscan cultu re was
adopted by the Roman s, including the legal
and military systems.

On e was a quicl<ly penned, cur sive This terracotta rablet, efa t_ypeused to mark property
script used for corr esponden ce, and land, shows clearly reco9nizableleueiforms, such
as t_his characier, which resemblesan overwrned E
scratched onto a wax tablet or written
with a reed pen on papyrus. This hand
THE LA T I N ALPHABET
was influential in the developm ent of
This inscription from the base of the T rajan
the minus cule lette r, includin g the Co lumn , Rome , is on e of the finest surviving
Half Uncial (pp. 38- 39). Another examples oflmperial Cap itals (pp. 108- 109).
The oldest Latin al phab et contained 21
key script was the Rustic Capital, characters, as opposedl to the Etruscan 20. By
used in manuscript, signwritt en, late Roman times, the Latín alphabet had 23
characters, the two addit ional characters - Y and
and inscribed forms (pp. 16- 17). Z - having been taken from the Greek Upsilon
Imperial Capitals and Ze ta. Ali of these characters have survived
for modern use, with t he addition in medi eval
The third Roman hand produ ced by times ofletters J, U, and W.
the first centur y B.C. , now known as
the Imperial Capital, was used in both
stone-ca rved and brush-drawn form /\ PLJl.\ ' L '~~
l~ /E·R -
(pp. 108- 109). Over 2,000 years
later, the letters of the script provide
the basis of our mod ern capitals.
By the fourth century, the Square
~ ;\ E \ \ l 1 l l
11\\ 1~ \__ l .\ r,
T l \ I \ 1 1 l ·\ \ ,.~ , l ~ El \ .
l,T·\
Capital, a modified de luxe bookhand, l
had also emerged (pp. 20- 21).
Another importa nt script t.hat had \ \ .,\ '\ , , \ l 1) 1l~ l
-7~ 1
its origins durin g the Roman period ---
was the Uncia! (pp. 24-25) . Similar
in form to t.he Greek Uncial that \l [lf l ~l \1 \ N l) ~t\ L/
prec eded it, this was developed for r
use by the early Christian Chur ch.

CHARLEMAGNE AND AL CU IN
In many ways _ th e eigh th- century Empcror Charlemagne
modelled him self and his co urt on his Roman forebears.
Roman influ en ce in the Frankish Empire wa s partic ularly
importanc in che arcas of learnjng and scholars hip , in
which che e mperor was aided by a pro mjn ent m on k from
York named AJcuin. Und er Alcuin 's abbocship from 796-
804, th e greac scripcorium at Tours , France, was found ed.
H ere, che Carol in e M.inuscule wa s created (pp. 38-39) .
The rounded 1ip ef1he
penkn!fe su99escsthac it
was a/so used for scori n9 __..---..
fines on che pa9e
The scribecastsa critica/ eye over the The produccionefbook coverswas
new!Ysharpened nib '![che qui// a separacccreft requirin9 che ski/Is
efa team efworkers
THE PRODUCT I ON
OF MANUSCRIPTS
Thes e 12th -cc.ntury illustrations
show sorn e of che pro cesses
involv ed in che produccion of a
m edieva l book. Firsc, che
parc hm e nt mak er wou ld soak th e
skin and th e n str etc h and scrape ic.
Theflnished manuscript book lends Next , th e dri ed parclu11e nt wou ld
be t.rimmed and sco red in
authoricyro the monk's preachin9
preparacion for th e scribe. Th e
text wou ld be plann cd in dct.ail,
with spaces left for th e work of
che iUustrator and illumjn ato r.
After th e scribe had co mplcced bis
text, the illuminator would apply
th e go ld leaf, which was then
ov erdrawn by che illustrator.
FinaUy, sepa rate leaves w ere
gat h ered and bound , and th e
cover fitt ed.
Thebookis bound and 1hescribepreparesro
makeany necessa,yannotationsto the texc
Once che leaves '![ che manuscripc The ptmched holes are joined by scored
are placed in order, rhey are line.<
, between which che scribe would
sriuhed rn9ether 1hen ivrile the text
The parchmentis srrerchedon a ll'ooden
Jrame anclscraped with a t unred knife
Once dríed and cleaned, r he
parchmem is trimmecl10 size
Teachin9Jrom writcenmanuscripts
wa.sa keyaspec1 efmonaslic !!fa
Small holes are punched throu9h che
parchmenr, probab!f ro provide
9uide/ines.for spacin9
TI-IE D EVELO PMENT OF W ESTERN SCR!PT
Insular and Nat iona l scrip ts
After the demise of the western
Roman Empir e in the fifth centur y,
numerou s hands developed in the
kingdom s car ved out of thc r cmain s
of the Empire. Irish scripts, such as thc
Insular Majuscule (pp. 28- 31), dcrivcd
from Uncia ! and Half Uncia! forms,
((• 1 ,, .
are now known as msu ar scnpts.
Elsewhere in Europ e , national script s
includ ed th e Visigothic in Spain and
the Merovingian in France.
The mo st important means of
communi cation bctwccn differcnt
nation s was thc Chr istian Church,
whic h kcpt thc torch of litcrac y and
learning alive . Irish monk s formed
many monasti c centres in Scotland and
northe rn England, as we ll as in Luxeuil
and Corbie in France, and Bobbio in
Italy. Meanwhile, monks from Rom e
enter ed southern England and were
responsible for the widespread
co nversion to Christianity th ere .
Carolin e and Early Gothic script s
The first em pire in the West to
emerg e from thc rcmain s of the
Roman Emp ire was that of Charles
the Great (Cha rlemagn e) . By the ninth
century, his Frankish Empir e stretc hed
from the Pyrenees to thc Baltic. A
r eform cd hand deviscd by Alcuin of
York beca me the establishcd hand of
the empir e - it is now known as the
Caroli ne Minu scule (pp. 38- 39).
Outsidc the Frankish Empire,
national hands per sisted. In Italy,
th e Bencvcntan script was one of the
longest surviving post -Roman scripts,
used from the mid -eighth century until
1300 (pp. 84-85 ). In England, the
Insular and Anglo-Saxon Minu scules
sufficed until th e tenth century (pp.
34- 35), when the Caroline Minuscule
was introdu ced. Over tim e , the
Caroli nc Minus cule bccame mor e
co mpr esse d, antic ipating th e angular,
uniform aspect of Gothi c letters. This
co mpr esse d script is known as Late
Caro line or Early Gothi c (pp. 46-47) .
9
Ti JI:. D L 1'U OP 1/1:.\ T OF l l 1ESTEIC\ SC Rll' T

Got hic scripts
Bv th c ene! o í th c 12 t h cc ntur y, a
co mp lcx syst cm o f Got hic sc ript s
GOT I II C TE X1 U RA ~CIUl' T ~
Tnrura Prcscr:ms 1s charnctcri/ cd This dctai l fro m ch e I J rh-et: nrur v Win dmi ll !',a lte r
b) dw "cut '!fi':fcc1'?f cerram show s Cor hic T ,:xtur a Prcsc isus ~n ipt (pp. 5./-55 ).
leuer.;. ~uch us llus ,-J'rom Uot h rhc Pre sá;us an d its twi n scripr th<' Qu ad rara
1he llú ,dm,/1 P.whcr

----
wer<' n :scr\'d for prestige rdi gio us book \\'ork.
hacl crn h·ed thr o ugho ut Eur o pe . Far
sim plicity, th ese are of te n di, ·ided
into tw o g roup s : th c high-gu ality
(d e luxe), form al hancls used fa r
bot h re lig io us ancl se cul ar boo k
tex t , and t he cur si,·e hancls use cl for ROS NA1VRA!t::,
HISTORI
doc um entar;' \\'Ork and , fro m the late
13th ce nt ur .Iv, fa r ,·ern ac ular boo k o·· ~;!T 'P,,.,', :,;'wP.:l'HOY! CV
NIS <l:¿IPJ1:'!/'J T'/()P,.'lf\ 0 1"1\ HA
pro du ct ion. Th e t " ·o m ost imp ort ant 'IC F :\¡.lttfl u:;1 l;c('
m1Cll't'f0ob 11
01,íh1111ni,, 1C\11n.d,1limr m'fP 1c,r~1
de luxe boo khands \\'Cre the Textur a 11h.'c. 1u1pn{,n o ncn!l'un,1 J 11mmwt1
Qu ad rata (pp. 50 5 1) and its twin, li:11m p-m-,- H.111.
19"n,l~ IÍprn:.ttT.1l
n1C.1Í
1ltt~f :11·obum"l'mollLimc. 1mlll
t he Pr esc isus (pp. 5-1-55). :1mcum ~1\0kil .'\ 1wc.1flm1Ít u
ttn.ine111
m !U.
• tn1in ,u klf ¡ffl1,ur;,.11fpn
0\'l~1fíyi
Bas ta rd scr ip ts d\m11f<u!m·h lt frcu-~u,1ct.\.11
q:1ílmu n ,lu
Go thi c cur sive scr ipts are kn own as fa.m:1!tl
1Í1u1fl'I fm,1,Iuf"l,u 111,, 1 ,~ub,,
'lttolr 't"'l;1111r 0{'11 tirn9utOufd.1n.1lt1p
bast ar<l scr ipt s, ancl th ey rem aincd tt"l1o1, nt10r.1urmc¡t1rd.m, .\lht,;t,.
r;mr
111r-ton.1,tf 'j°''9ºº m uni tu .i..u 1111
in use until suppl ant ed by th e 1mpk1J,(.~cm~ ,¡( 01f« ttÍ (,;"l't1(1Js·
Co pp e rplat e in th e 18th ce ntur y mt"1«rllml p,lt11upf ., hifnob1 'f
d. 1101 llh1d
r;un l'-Hi«T<i. f9l1 ('flfl
(pp. 102 / ()3), som c 200 yea rs afte r .fpa frdu(pmon1nl1Í On11tt.lq,lrt
p ~ o('b,f 9n1drm 9u..1ltfmc.,íh·,nfi e -
th c d cmi se oí t hc for ma l Go thi c no ll«Jmc,1 unt mm;\1111 -f'<'nun.:.10,
boo kh and s. 13asta rd hand s are 01 n h 1f m fi urp1~cfle-1 ;uucm dr111p1f!
. •tr ornnu ,lb ,,.olní.~ colnldu
1.\ Hr.'1: r,
d ifficult to ca tego r ize, cliffcrin g fro m 1lunuf .u1d.1C1
.l("'·· '"} \n h., 1r ub1unr111:ibtÍJ\mnoíh:lco!p-tnb,t~
P«fo ru , bocrn ncr tln M. r,roÍrci ~1ucinu t11,\ 1n ..1h.
1 uu ~wm nÍmS,Tnf <'\lon~t1t1Í
co untr y t o co un t ry, t own t o tow n, l('l1d·u~n"l'lliÍfunl"'ltÍ ·. '1lg:C11:-.r 11utt11f('lt1
n~om1ifclHh L11 Ítfn1un1114 • tHl,un
and t rad e to tr ad e . Howe,·cr, ge ne ral 0:.,11f fuc11nd1( 1L1-. r
, nro n 1 (11' .' ltl"l!l u,J rí rm uf c¡11.1n1oh'.1mÍ.11n.i i11.111m f,nf
tÍ ()m.1~\.'\
1 ft:mnd1~r., 111>,t l <JUOn. 1dthC\l11mf1:tn t"m9m\i-l'!.llll",lm1f _o.ccg;11';1n
d iffc re nces ca n eas ih · be d isce rn ecl
.I
e lyc 9 u1! ~rmm p1Jii ( C\" um .1n• li.,bunrufm%,nuJnu111c\urnmpn-fn-r1u1l.lC
1.11w Hc1. e.mmfi,mhtdl- cond111C'publ1c.nu 111m ..-tncm111\Ulll111b. d1u nnn m
bet \\'ce n English (pp. 66 67), Fre nch ri,,,d1cn"t'uid11
b lr~,tfunrn-;iror
h,,,ml,uul~c,fcnp1;1funr·'S;'.-ol.u·um op1f1C1
9 fun(·· C11ni h.1nc ºFm c,mJICen"f
(pp. 70 71), and Ger ma n (pp. 7-1---75) rlY clcm~l1h1d1~ Í 1u1d,r 111d1cnn
1m MC1Í1
~uc 1'11.ll."lrt' Hnnettil '1'
., lh>/'\,1 1ort11, u· Íc11lu111~ ti! ' drlét1.Ci.1nun
n('tlí Lnh'\'.
mode ls. lt \\'as in bastare! t ext sc ript ,bhc.1m.1m ('t.\ld1rm:11m 1ntt.l10 .. / 11mr db .\ J\ T11
ll111
l O(tt'.lcYlll n nrm 1119.tmt.1
t hat m in uscules and cap itals oí th e
,«
lc·~if~ m 1nm 11r r,,·.J 111x..1m111d,ftnd 11u,~ 11« 1ndtil11!':1t1ifm.111111m f"..jium 1.
~ -rn~o rnm 11m c0t,4J.
1m,oi;,lo ~· _fih.'ll,ml111
f ~ 111pmnnfcond1d11 1hl1n:\tl11
LlÍ1.1buf1onoTit\
mn1Fnontm rcpuobir Pt.1m11fm1111í.i7nmm C.tt'111'nCOnkt
1
sam c hand fir st app ca rc<l toget hc r
'4''º-une¡ , n1mr idno11mufu nu r9- COJlflllMU-H.1fmn.11.urmd1;cu-'td111ruF,u
\\'ith t hc Got hic Ca pit als use cl to nd1, d
Í lig.im ru 1u~l 111nLnl('-l\:lCoJccbra .ríl S1 .1tlrn,...1n11u1ih1p1u
:11n

beg in ne\\· sc nt e nces ancl de no te

p ro pe r no un s (pp. 58 59).

H U1'vlAN I, 1 MI NU~C U LE
Thi s 111:111mcript page fi-0 111a trans lacio n
of Pli11y', .\ 'a11m1/l li .<l()f)' shows bea utifiill y
pc·nn<CdH u m a11ist M in uscu le ktrc-rs. Th c
h andwritt<'ll R cnaissa nc<: scripr was used as a
modd for rype by I Srh- cc ntur y Vc-11eri:111
primer<. lt qui ckly rcp lac<:d rhe Gor hic m odds
fovo 11red by J o h:11111C ure 11berg. rhc' Ccrn 1a11
i11,·enro r of printing wirh movablc typc:. ~
JO
 T111:. D 1:,1·1:,10P.IJ/:,,\/ ()¡. 11'!:SILR\ SCRll'T

CO I II IC llA\IAIU) \CRll'T\
This pagc 1s from a l.look of Ho ur, I ta lia n an d H uma nist scr ipts
ttmm1E'> ~-lTltn'- mmo,b '1fu11 produccd 111 Fran ce ,1fter thc intro du ction In ltaly, th c formal Gothic script s
~rf1101~cntm. 1\llhJ>li,11,1 .e:¡ of priming. Own crship of a hand\\' rine n
book at chis time was an mdication of
ne,,e r rea l!\'I sec ur cd a footing. ltalian
J tjx
'ro:omm-tr et&u~1ct11114 high ,oc ial mtm. Thc deg.rnt scr ipt is lctt e rform s of thi s peri od gc nc rally
~

tt6i qm,t }\Tf,mct1111J m1«1111uia late 13:itardc ha n d known ,l\ Lmn ·
m"\-1111fh 11111n'S1111
i'\~r(l,.:..:-
O 111 p1f{11f.ff. }-':O no61E'o.
8,1111m ttnfnn, no61f..\1(r1f
-9-,1111mmmt>1~f~l{o:1111 11.
' f cfolllOI". ~ a d1stmc111c
• ~- 0111111c-,f-,:fux).mPt pft
·\'®'&ü,uul,.'\)llt:,..\,ffto1m~
m1mI1 et ltlO?tt'ltJ ÚhlltJ lllftr
m'S.ClUtlJ1mllt) et ,nttlllllll) E
lllCtHIJ IIIHlt et 111fu11t lll0.1U by D enis l3rown . Entitled f>/roe11ix,rhc
:et
111« f,m11n'31q11mf.'ii1111~
1111(mro:'Btni
,, ct_gnmct11¡'fiftu
ffif, ll'l)IUotJ ct~HhlttJ mf11c
knmrn b\', th e namc uf Rotun d a
-e B011~~11(q11()11111 · V'I'·70-7 /), wh ich
(pp. 8-J. 85) ,,,e re round e r, \\'ith a
contaim a m ixture of cursi ve and
T extura dcmems. mu ch more ope n aspect than thcir
Thc Baw,Jc lmcr f o/1en ha,
Gothi c co nt cmpor ari cs .
foruarJ lean. as By, 1400, a rc,·iscd ,·crsion of the
Joc, ,he lon9jorm of',
Ca ro line Minu sculc script kn o\\'n as
M ODERN CAi LICRA PI IV the Humani st Minu scu le had beco mc
This thr ee-d imensional work, which
th e csta blished \\'ritin g hand of th e
mearnres 2➔ by 35 by 5 ccntimc tr es (9 , ,
by 14 by 2 inchc,), was crca ted in 1993 Renaissancc (pp. 90- 91) . Evcntua lly,
its adaption for t yp c mad c it th e
pagc of Insular kttcrs - rem in i,ccm of thc
pre-eminent lcttc rform in Europc,
grcat man u scnpts of Kclls and Lind 1,fa rn e
01¡,. 28-3 1) - ha\ bcen penctrated by and its use co nt inu es to thc pr cscn t
ck ctric wi rc, a, a 111
etap hor of che
phoenix crcati ng ncw life from che old. day. A ,·ariant oí the Humani st
Minu scul e that also rcma ins in use
is th c Itali c (pp. 94 95) . DC\isccl as
a m anu sc ript hand in 1420, it ,, ·as
adapt ed for typc 6::,1 1500.
Post -R ena issa nce scr ipts
Th c final scr ipt of signifi cancc
is th c Co pp crplat c (pp. 102- 103).
As thc nam c suggcsts, this was
orig inally a hand cng ra\'cd or ctchcd
on shcc t s of copper. Typified b::,·
delicate ly jo ined loops and cxo ti c
proportions, this curs ivc lctt cr could
be eng raYed ,, ·ith far grcatc r case than
it co uld be dr awn. Ho\\' cvc r, in its
simp ler hand,vritt en form, th e
Copperp late d id ha\'e th e advantagc
of being ,·cry fast to pcn ancl, by the
19th ccnturv,, it was th e st an dard
sc ript oí busin ess and ed ucat io n.
Mod ern ca lli9 rap hy
A modern callig raph y 1-c,·i\'al bcgan
at th e bcg innin g of th c 20th ccntur y
with the pionee rin g wor k of Eclward
John ston in England (pp. -1- 2 -1-3) and
Rudolf ,·on Larisc h and Rud o lf Koc h
in Gcrmany (pp. 7-1--75). Since the
19 50s, int ercs t in ca llig raph y has
pr o liferat cd in man y cultur es, both
thosc with and without Latin -bascd
alphabets. Durin g th c last 20 yca rs,
as ca llig raph c rs havc cxp lor cd ancl
redc flncd lctt crform s, callig raph y has
bc comc an art form in it s m, ,n right.

II
 SCRIPT Tr IIELI .\ E

Dat<' (A. I>.)

Scr1pt
Timeline 200
Ül 1> RO .\IA:-..
CUR \1\ E
Key
Greyli11e: Chicflm c of influencc
Duration of Kripc for t<'XI
Dottedl111r:
------- -- i:1L1usTJ,n 1•---------· --
e t,,,.-
111,it Dur:mon of \cnpt for me
ocher tha11for 1ex1

.t()()

CUll\lVE HAL F UNCIAL 11 CUR\IVE H AU UNC"IAL

500
1 ■----------
IN\ULAR M II\U\CULE
..1
- -
600 ~ttt ffuelanrac1~
____ .__1_. ________ .......... P~tUt'U&
,. ~muf;tpftfnut ___A _____ .. ____
-- m,-,t(fual
.__
e
______ _ _

Vl~IGOTIII( 1 1 13E:S.E\ENTAN M1:--.uscULE LUXEU II 1

7(X> M INUSCULF 1 1 MI NU\CULE 1
-- --- -•
1
1
.
1
■
1
~
-
1
I NSULAR
1
800 1
1 1 1 MA JUSC"ULE
1
1
1
1
1
.1
•
900 1 1 ---- CA· R-OL-,N-E .. b~pr;1(mo i,oh~n "'"' 1
--
1
-• .
1
■
M INUSCULE
!
1 1
1000 1 1
1 1
1 1
1100 1 1
J. 1

1200 hJmm1fu~ tt1 !

1 Yc
EAIU1111
Go nda,S, f1 ..._..,._,.,. ,._.4,
~UUIUalU 1
.,_ _______ _

1300 :
ROTUNDA

i pannfimn mumn
--_ ._.~... __ <EtFÍIJÚ:nm
------ --.------ ,
1400
■

1
I ____
1
__.__..___ ~.----.._
TEXTURA
1
1
TEXT URA
-.■___
1
1
..._ __

PRE.KI\U~ Q UADRATA

!1
1
J. -•
1
1
1
-•
1
1500 1
1 1
1 .... .....
1
1600 ♦

1700

1800

1900

FO U1'1>ATIONAL H A'ól>
2(XJO {DRI fl\11 CAlLIGRAl'I
R EVIVA!)
IIC"
twith the-hoi
12
 SCRIPT T ! .1/EI.J,\ 'E

SENATVSPOP' - fó!MON5 .,
VM·CC
I MPER IAL
.1 R.U\T IC CAPITAi ~
1
1
CAP ITA i '>
1 1
1 1
----------------. 1
1 +
1 •1
1
1 ■
1 1
d,q~ 1
1
IMPROBtIDVR 1
' ...
1 SQUARE CAl'ITALS
1
1
■

1 rra~X1l:iOOft~l
~rA
he-
Jtttut■"'I1 1

-Ri.IfflI. ItlE~
Ru, ic CAP I rAL,
1
1 1
~no 1
1
-
1
l. ,., . . L ....... .. ,;.,. .. . .... , , ~ · .,Sl

-1 1:-S'>ULARD IWLAY 1
1 CAPITAL'> 1
1 1
1
1
+
1
-
■
1
••
f ca,:t_s
r:IN:r ~
1 s "7

LllMllARllll CAPITAL, 1
1
1
--1 H UMA<'.l',T M 1,u,c u1 E
1ni~ ~Cent 1
1_
13A,TARI) 1 gulas noél:es]ed .___

SECRETA R Y 1
1
-• yt{olto_fignor
m. ITALI{

~~mn,bk ~ ababím11
be·9omútc
IJATAIU)~

r••-.1
1 f l<AKTUR (Zj ~¿_
Ctll'l'ERl'LATE
-1
--
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
■
• 1
1
1 1
■ 1
1 C:LR~IAN
1
1 1
1
•
CALLl<;RAl' I 11
R EVIVAL
<.
.-
1

..... 1
v
ilJlttJttgtbtt¡~
v 1
..l.

13
 GETT/\G ST.1RTED

/
Getting Start ed
begin s with th c too ls
T HE ART OF CA LLIGRAPI IY
and mate rials, and th ese should be selccted
with great care. Oft en, a stru gg le to achieve
a good result is an indi catio n th at the chosen
surfacc or wr iting tool i unsuitable. Owin g to
a " ·idcspr ead rcviYal of inter est in calligrap hy,
therc is now an cnormo us rang c of pens, paper,
and oth er equipm ent available . Herc, basic
informatio n is given on th e typ es of surfa ces
and writing imp lem ent s you can use, and also
on how to mak e the tw o traditi onal types of SUIUACES

pen - the re ed pcn and th e quill. For pracrice

and trying out
inicial ideas, a
The reed pe n lightweight dcsigm:r·s
The r.:ed pcn Jnd che qmll (<>JIJl"Sile) haw becn used ,mee anciquicy. Alchough layom paper is ideal. For
bo ch havc now becn ,upcr,eded by ochcr wriring implcrnencs, thc rced pen more fom ial work. good -quali ty
rcrna im ,lll ideal too! for cxp ressivc callig r,1phy. lt i1 mually madc fro111a papcr is imp orta llt - pr eferably a
ho llow -, rc111111edgardc n cane (Plm1,~111iri
s c,m11111111i
s). but somc calligraph ers 111100th,clo sc-g rained and acid-
use a ,ynrhctic ma terial. ,uch as plastic tubing. instcad. A sharp craít kni fe frcc type. Vellum , made from
is required 10 make a recd pen - alway, take the grcatesc care when using it. calfskin or goa11k111.is che fincst 111aterial
for wriring. w1th parchmenc a closc second.

WKl l'ING IMPI l•.MENTS

In addi cio n to thc rced pen and quiU. therc is a lrnge rangc of Use a sma/1
wriring implemcms from which the calligrapher can choose. pomreJ
Fibre-tipped pcns are ideal for rrying out ideas. while, for sablebru,h
flcxibi licy and cconomy, decachable nibs are an cxccllem Jor Jra11rn9
opt ion. T hc m e of a fou ncain pen guarancccs a constant suppl y bu,lt-up
of ink. alchough a sprin g-loaded dip pen is more lctrcrs
convenienc for cha nging ink Sprrn9-loaded
colo urs easily. A broad -edged d,p pen<are
brush is essenti al for co nsrru cti ng The call19raph1c ,Jealfo r lar9e-
I111pcrial fo umain pcn ,s scalc work
Capita ls (pp. A standard 1onc eft he mos1
t. Cm a lcngch of cane abom 18 2. On the reverse side of thc cane. 11O- JI 9). pen ho/J,r can 1com·cn,cnr100/s
cenrimerrc, (7 inchcs ) long. Use a d1rccdy undcmcath the first cut, Jua IOfltlJ

mong craft knife to makc a cut about 111akea shortcr cut to creare thc flat efJerachablc
ct rc1 ( l '1,inchc1) long to
.¡ ccm i111 top of the pcn nib. Next, rcmovc 1IJ,bre-t1ppcJ nibs (oppo~ítc)
rc,·eal thc hollow centre of thc canc. any pith from thc core of thc canc. pen ,s idealfor
prd1mma9 nork ~

)>
e
...
o
l
~
¡:;
..,.
3. Return to thc undersidc of the pen 4. Finally. make a longit ud inal cut z
and carve 1houlders berwccn rhe n, ·o about 1.5 centime rres ('!, inch) long
cuts. Makc a ,quare or obhque cut through the centre of rhe nib - chis
,1crossthc top of the nib a, dl>sired (see will 111akcthc flow ofi nk ca,y. Th e
"Straight""and "1la111ed'"pcm, oppos i1e). rccd pen is now rcady to use.

1,.J
 GETTl ,\ 'G S7iiRTED

Th e qu ill
Although rhc qu ill is probably che finesc o f ali writing cools, it is not as
co nv en ie nt as o che r irnp lements and requircs more pract ice in handling .
13eing of a sofrer mat erial than a stccl nib ora rccd pcn . it req u ires gentle r
pressur e than yo u wou ld ex pe ct, bue che subtlet y ofli n e that it produces
is far supe rior to that of othcr pcns. Turkey, goosc . or swan feathers are
th e mos t uscfu l, and duck or crow may also be used for fo m1al work.

US ING A WHETSTONE
To sharpen a steel nib, hold che p cn
at 45° to che whetstone and srrok e
che top side along che ston e.

DETACHAIJLE N IIJS

PoinrcdCoppcrplacc

~~-¡l¡r;
sceelmb
1. Cuc che shafr of che fcathcr to a 2. Ho lding the 1hafr fin nly. 111akea
Speeclba/1
leng th of abour 20 ccmirnctrcs long. S\\'eeping cut on che unde rsidc
oblique-wc nib
(7'1, inchcs) and carcfu lly strip che of che qu ill. Carefully make a sccond
~ - ba rbs from it usi ng a scalpe l or cut to sbap<' che shoulders and pare
Alicche/1
sha rp craft knife. thc cdges to forn 1 the tip.
squarc-cut nib

Decachable reserl'oir ~ -
Jo, ,1/itchcllnib ~

1ParchmentesmadcJrom
,heepskm, andes cou9hcr
\
and morc.fibrousthan i·ellmn
.-1lon9. broad-
,1broad-ed9cd ec/9edsable or
synchet1c or synchelic brush
sablebrush es 1s usedfor
essent1alfor lar9e-scale \ Th,,o,/1
lmperral Imperial ís the most
Capitals Capicals trac/ir,onal 3. Make a short longirndi nal cut 4. Place rhc tip of the qui!! on a
efcools th rough che centr e of thc nib ro case curting surface and carefully cut auoss
che tlo\\' of ink. R emo,·e the pit h che shafr to creace the nib edge . Make
from che cent re of thc pen and any a square cut for a "slanred '' pcn andan
rc111aini11g materia l on the o utside. oblique cut for a "straighr'· pcn (/,e/ou,)
.

"S rRAICI rr" AND ''SLA NTED .. PlcNS

Thro ugho ut thi1 boo k. there are reforences to "stra ight'' an d '\lamed"
pcns. T his ca n ca use confus ion, as th e mc an ing of rhesc ren ns appears to
be co mradi cto ry . Th <:''srraight" pen i; hc ld ho rizont ally. producing thick
ste ms and chin horizon tal strokes. Th c "slamcd" pcn is held ar an ang le ot
abour 30°, crcar ing horizoma l and ,,arica ! srrokcs of simi lar wcight.

15°

A "ma19hc"pcn has an oblique-cw nib, ,1''s/amed''peo ha~a square n,b, tw

<lll aran an9lc oJ abom 70° to ,he "' ri9hcan9/es ro che shaji 11 is ¡¡/cal
sh~f, ir is iclealfor scripcssuc/1a., .for scripc, suc/1as che Caro/me
the I ia!fUncia/ (pp. 40-4 1) ,1/muswle (pp. 40- 4 1)

15
 ROMAN &_ L 1ITE ROM AN SCRIPTS

Rustic Capitals
F THE CALLIGRAPHER of today is some tim es
I confused by the ric h vari ety of script s available,
b oth mod ern and histori cal, then the op po sit e I 1lAAts\'.\ l .\ \.\·r~O~\' t\'l
must have be en tru e for th e scrib e of the earl y A\.\1or\t S· \\' f·( .\ 0\ ' N }.\ L~ l
Roman peri od , who had only three basic hand s.
The first was th e m agnificent Imperial Capital -
the most co mplex of all scr ipt s, used in stone-
cut form on th e gr eat mon uments of state (pp.
108- 109). Secondly, for everyday nee ds, th ere
was th e cur sive script - the quickly execu ted
hand used by everyon e wr itin g in th e Latín
language . Third ly, there was the Ru stic Capital,
an elegan t alt ern ative to th e Imp erial Capita l
and popu lar w ith both signw rit er and scrib e .
FR OM THE FIRST TO the flfth centur y,
the Rustic Capital was used for de luxe
manuscripts, particularly works by The nib would have been
held anear ,,enicalfor
Virgil. After the fifth century, it lost al

favour as a manuscript hand, although

,he upri9h1srrokes
, ~('f .1.\
its use for titles continued for centur ies
afterwards. As far as is known, the
~l"f far\.\t l'!\ ~\' A\fl"k ro~-
script was not used for Christian
V ERGILIUS
R OMANUS,
ECLOGA11
0Elle1A::-·DO.\\ t N l·N r(:1...
l
literature, and the conversion of
Rom e to Christianity in A . O . 313,
This magnificenc and
rare exa mpl e of a
1~ \ N 1Vi\\-lN 1f f\ DL 1t \ 5·
with its attendant use of the Uncia! Virg il r-nanuscripc in
R.uscic Capitals dates
..\ DSl D\"S[-\'ENl f ~.\ I-1&l·
(pp. 24- 25), may be one reason for the from th e secon d half
demise of the Rusticas a bookhand . of che fifch cencury.
The words are
Rustic Capitals also served as stone - separat ed by a p11nct11s
cut letters, often used in conjunction (mid-poinc), insread
of che script11ra
co11ti1111a
with Imp erial Capita ls on the less (concinu o us script )
pr estigious monuments. typical of chis period.

THE HIERARCHY OF SCRIPTS

Ru stic Capitals were used for cicles 1N c1r 1r L1 _l>f 1'. Tfk.TlVS ·

S
unt il che late 12ch cenmry as pare of
a so-called "h ierarchy of scripcs".
Ru stics were used for c hapt er 'ANCTJSSJm~m~ro~e:NJT ~ns h1s-ro~UJf:1"11J
openings, Uncíais for the first lines, •~L,t,.,;· ei:(iol,LJ,ore,n ~ e,laum m,~
notiri ,nlua..m CA.fc.tt:" ...
followed in rhis example by a fine
Caroline Minuscule rexc (pp.38-39). _M"uo,nd,o.l.%:IJ,-.9'~•" •rtrUm"Q.m en rtcunJ, L,l,,-ineca.,'""-fanem
~P'ar
J:':!
A-m'JUu.fu~u((w~p~o-n.a...eu..\l!~fra.t: fiu~á,iítil,,arorirua:1,Jtb:

16
 Rusn c C11P1TALS

Wri t ing materi al s

__ The pen or brush is
Th e fact that we havc evidence of the
held 01 on on9/e ef Rustic Capital in both manuscript and
-10°jor r he brood signwritt cn form show s that two
dio9onol stroke
different writin g impl em ents wer e
u sed. Th e script wou ld have been
wr itten with equal íluency with either
R UST IC CAPITAL R a r ee d pen - or aft er th e fourth
Thc exec utio n of
the letccr R begins
century , a quill - or a bru sh . Th e
wit h a twist of the bru sh used would have been a broad -
pen at rhe head
edged, flexible sable, held ata near -
of rhc stcm.
upright angle to create the thin stems
and broad horizontal strok es .
A simp le d uctus
Th c basic difference betw een the
Imperial and the Rustic lics in the
compl exit y of the strok e weight.

l
The strok es of the Imperial are even,
with no sharp contra sts in weight.
Thejeet efrhe /er,er rurn sli9hrly downwords Thjs effect r cquires nwn erous changes
before.flni.<hin9with on upword.flick
in too! angle (pp. 110- 119) . Th e ·
A~
a,,t-i,-------,-- -- The pomair illustration shows Vir9il ductu s of th e Rustic is simpl er to
si11in9beside a lectern, with a capsa peo, with a pronoun ced di.ffe rence
Jor srorin9 scrolls10 his Jefc
in strok e weight betw een th e
CaIli9rophic.flounshe.,
thi ck and thin strok es .

NlCiw..·ttílN\TS
1Ntrd11f.)io1\1VS1N
nwilitirrsoot
o
NTl~llf~JM!llLS PAPYRUS LEAF

i\TSl~\Tiftlli\fo
Papyrus was the principal
!.\\ wr iting sur face for over 3,000
years trntil thc late R oman

The inrerlinear9/os.,has been os

fAfvlsllltf
N\TS period . Ir was made by,
poun ding rogether
wr,uen in a modcrn ltalie
hond (pp. 94 95) lNSllViSCÍl\\TTlbl rwo strips of
papyrus leaflai d
at right angles
,

P ETER H ALLIDAY
This modern vcrsion ofVi rgil's Eclogue VI/,
wrirten in black ink on cream paper, was penncd
11M1S1NH61m
):i~~ ro each othe r.

by Peter Halliday in 1983. N ote rhc con trasr he

achieves betwecn thc broad hor izo nt al and
diagona l strokes and the th in vert icals. Ü ETAIL FROM VERGILIUS
R. OMANUS , ECLOCII lJ

t
17
ROMAN &_LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS

Rustic Capitals 1\
'\ 77,ereis 110
aossbar011 tl,e A

HE DUCTUS OF the Rustic Capital is differen t from the other

T hands shown in this book in that the pen angle can be as steep
as 85° to the horizontal for the thin vertical stro kes. This angle
77,eBis a
is relaxed to nearer 45° for the foot serifs and diagonal strokes.
ta/1letter a11
d
Therefore, from the top of the stem to the beginning of the foot, risesabove
the pen must twist as much as 40°, and this transition is the key to the headline
well executed Rustic Capitals. With its serif, thin stem , and broad
foot, the L (below)typifies many Rustic letters . The letter height is
generally between four and six pen widths, but can reach seven.

-¡
e
1. Using a square-cut pen nib,
begin the serifof the letter L by
pushing downwards with the broad
edge of che nib. The pen angle
2. Pull the pen downwa rds to the
right, while twisting the nib from 65°
to almost vertical at the line of the
stem. Without lifting the pen, begin
drawing the fine stroke of the stem.
11
should be about 65° for this stroke .

f 11
The second

J
stroke efthe
tal/ F rises
abovethe
headline
3. At about half way to the baseline, 4. Lift the pen, turn it to 45°, and add
anticípate the foot serifby gradually
turning the pen to about 50°. This
will create the distinctive Rustic
the foot serif in one firm, downward
diagonal sweep. The foot is a major
element in the script for it leads the
----
4

thickening of the stem base. eye forward to the next letter.

17,isfom1ef
Gis most
,0111111011/y
used

l
This broadsweepi11g
curoeis draum in one
smooth stroke ivith a
pen angle of 45-50 °
17,is a/ternative ~2
Diago nal sweep
fom10JG is
used on the
,¡
!t is the repetition of the
downward sweeping
strokes, combined
with the near-diagonal
'"""""'
. - -1'
bottom line of 1

ff -ff ,
strokes of the feet,
that gives the Rusti c
Capital its characteristic
rhythm. These strong
strokes prov ide a
counterpoint to the
fine vertical stems.
_·1l
2 '"'--'I

18
 Rusnc CAPITAL$

lJ
-~ 111estem
TIJis is the
modem
11
1 2 cifthe] is
identicalto
form ofJ that of the I
1
---.......
e>
2 3

2
-
3
-

\\ {
The ser![cif 111isis
the tal/ L
the modem 1
risesabove
form efU
the headline

\T \ U
J

For the V,
use the same . 1 2
duc/11sas the A

\ ~ 4

~l o ,
,11 !' r T/1isformofYis
11sedfor ali text
except the bottom
/ine of a page
l 1
(f -
____,,
3

·l
Use thisfom, \
efYonly on 1
the bottorrrline
Altemative Y cifa pageof text

~ z 3

] 1l - z 1 Tl1eZ co11/d
altemarivelybe
completedÍ1I a
singlestroke

2 ....___,,,

19
R OMA/\ ' &._ L ATE R OM!11\' SCRIPTS

Square Capital s
¡\ S A LATE FOURT H- CENT URY Roman hand with out
fl. prece dent or descendent s, the stately Squar e Capit al
(Capitalis (&adrata) falls awkwardl y into th e evoluti onar y
pat tern of Rom an script s. Because ver y few exam ples sur vive
from this peri od , the durati on of its use and the developm ent
CAP ITAL ,\1
of its style are subject to co nject ur e . Th e script r em ains, Small ser!fsare SQUARE
T he broad downwa rd
drawn with thc
however, one of great dignity, its gr ace ow ing largely t o th e comer efrhe pen nib srrokes of che .\/ typify
the Square Cap ital letter.
openness of th e lett erfo r m s and the clear lett er separ atio n.
Parchmem was screrchcdacross a woodenJrame and
rhe rcsidualflesh removed wrth a circular knife

I r IS OFTEN BELIEVED that the Squar e P ARCI !McNT MAKER

Cap ital ori ginated as an att empt to
int erpr et th e bru sh-d rawn Roman
Imp e rial Capita l (pp. 108- 109) in
pcn-drawn form. 1-lowever, the thick
down strok es and hairlin e horizonta l
strok cs of the Squarc Cap ital point to
the use of a horizonta lly held pcn , in
In !lome, pa rch menr was an established rival
to papyrus by A.D . 300 and was the prin cipal
sur face for wr iting late R.oma n man uscrípts,
suc h as the Codo: Va1iam11s 3256 (opposite).
lt was invcnted in Pc rga mon . Asia Mi nor,
in response ro an Egyptian trade embargo in
197-158 u.e. that cut offthe su pply ofpapyrus .
SAN SEUASTIANO PLAQUE

contra st to the angle of 30° rcquir ed The inscr iption on th is plaque in the C hu rch
of San Sebast iano, R o m e, dates from between
to produ ce th c visua lly balan cc d the ycars 366 and 38-l. Notice th c imaginative
verti cal and hori zontal strok cs of the ligaruresof certa in lcners, such as .\ ·- T, /-1-R,
V-A , and T-E, an d thc way sorne letters
Imp erial Capital. Thi s sugges ts that havc bcc n inscrt cd insidc orhers.
the Square Cap ital may have bee n
dcr ived from anoth er sour cc .
Cont emporar y injl uences
It is perhap s mor e like ly that scr ibes
writin g in Square Capita ls looked for
inspirati on to cont emp orar y car ved
lctt erin g, rat her th an to thc bru sh-
creatcd capitals of thcir predcccssor s.
On e suc h cxamp le is th e fourt h-
centur y plaque in the Church of San
Sebastian o, Rom e (right), in w hich
strok e anglc and lett er prop or tion
coincide '<V ith th c manu script hand .

r
1
20
-
 SQYA R E CA PITALS

CODEX VA TI CANUS 3256

T his man uscript of Virgil' s Georgit:.1was
writt en in Square Cap itals in the late fourth
cent ury. Perhap s on e reason why it has
survi ved is chat it was written on parchment
instead of che mo re fragile papyru s. Beca use
of che scarcity of exam ples of Square Capitals,
ic is d ifficult to assess che duracion of the
1-cL, l I y ..;L,. 1, · "n ". n., 1., ;, " ' ut tH :t ., 1·' ·" ., ,
hand, and th ere is no evidence to suggesc rhac
ic survived beyo nd ch e early fifth centu ry .
.\.l 1.\. 1' t 1 1 1'•,,; ~ rt l. \.<.;, )<.t .\ 11 1 1 '\' ,\ \ 1 D .\ L1 ~ .\
,\. E.i ,· ~ 1 :i
l V .\I [ l!~R I :tl COR,\h :L \.:l.__':\ ' l .\.l L\. .\\ ,\ I 1 ~ -\. ::-I :~R.\ t
~ ,, ~ , r 1t1 ." H_., ., , l , ~~C I ~ f) I r) .\ :-,...1f ,~~ , U I IG ~ , .\1
l , . ·'" .\ :t l.",·t, 1 R l.\. R l L~ L .\ f>t.n.O ,\I .'- 1., \ ' H.' 1 ,
Sur vivin9 example s
Only two known sur viving examples
1.\l r R<.)I\ fl I)\ ' ., I S~ \' f~(; l t'- ~ 1~ :u r, .\I .C l '!-l.\ ~ of Square Capital s exist , compared
l'R t.\\ .\ <..¡ [., 1...., f 1 :t:tO. \I O lt t.\ l I ~\ -CR I t IU I t :, :~., , . to sorne 400 of the other late Roman
1 ,~ 11l , . 1 1(.._"\ ' ¡\ 11.\ .\\Cl.\ ,...,;P I ~ ., 1( 1- ., R r,, l i\ ~., e •~y bookhand, th e Un cia! (pp. 24- 25) .
l H l 11..'l ,U ;--.1~1 1\. ·" l " . 11..'.1 \ ",\ 1 ()<.H )t )~ A~ l C , , i;. 1 Both manu script s are de luxe texts
~ H.>'.\ f 11R \ .\.1 f ' 1 1-::-l.\ r, <.) ;L \ PI> ll \ ' ~ \ ' l.\. 11, I. \. C •.' LJ .\ 1' o f Virgil dating from th e fourth
l...,~, 1.U ) I\ I CO~ I , : ., l~ <.1- 1 1(. ) ~ ,,l iU l 1 ;--. i'. ,t \.f ..:. 1 centur y. On e is the Codex Vaticanus
'-, .\ '., !)\. ' \ ' ~ 1., 1f ,H V ;--. l ~ f <.. : t I r~ ~ V r, 11.\ -:-rl-1'\-.\. 5 11· 325 6 (/efr.), hou sed in th e Yatican
1 \l 'l '.\l <.1 1 .tl r- .~l l h . } 1 S I f i~<..l "' 111 :-,.!) 1., 1..' Y l t.\ Librar y, the ot her a text from th e
1,1 11 1., L,..)l 1\ ',\\ l I Slt :, l Lrs D O .\\I ~ ,, 1,,-~~,- t, monast er y of St. Gal!, Switzerland.
c.,·~se.. )1 ' 1' l ~ I f 1 \ 1) ~11) \ ' · ~ 1f RR. \ ,\ 11.'-J~l C l. \ f\l U :t., From this scant evidence, it is clear
l l ~u , 1 " l l -~R l 1; 1-:,.,\ , . [ ~ l J R , . ;H ~ U r ,\ C J that th e Squar e Capita l was the
1. lCt l'Rl.'- I1 -::- V \.H \ R., ~, ·0IISO , -u '- ,\ , T :t t~ I.\I t-1~, mo st shortl ived of Roman scr ipt s,
1·1! , .. ,~.,c., ,..\ L\. l 1 [ 1t 1, · S f :t V~ 1~ ., -.:;rr c L\_f¾IS .\ C l ' and palaeograph er s are forced
(_'( )'(. ·, ·~~., n,.f., .\I [.\ -\1~~ H V I S~OL\. , ·e ~f (."'.'\. ' r ~ to co nclud e that in ter ms of
.' t, 1) \ ' i\ \ ll ( ~V .\. l ..;J ~ 1 ()\" i"
1) 1<. , l'::'.\ C R l S 11 L', ,\ ;, .\ \.' the evolution of calligraphy the
hand repr esents a blind alley.
Tim e-cons umin9 work
On e reason for the shor t life of th e
Square Capital is th e tim e it would
have ta ken scribes to writ e each
lett er. The multip le angle changes and
difficult serif constru cti ons r equir e
con side rab le patie nce (pp. 22- 23).
D ETAi l FR O M C ODEX VA TI CANUS 3256
While such tim e-co nsumin g labour
lnstead efche more common In chis detail, it is clear tha t che script is w rit ten may have been acceptable for titles, it
thickfi m s1roke efthe letter R, witho uc word division and pun ctuation . O n the fine
a hairline s,roke has been used upright stro kes of A , N, M , R , and V, che pen is
would have been highly uneconomical
cumed from horizo ntal to vertical, whi ch prod uces a for text, par ticularly in compar ison
strong contrast in stro ke prop ortions. T he triangu lar
serifs that tem 1inate th e hairl ine strok es have been
with th e more pr actica! Uncia!
The tal/ L is ojrenfo und in
inscripcions and manuscripts added wich che comer of th e pen nib. or th e Rustic Capital (pp. 16- 17).
f rom the latefo urth centu,y

f
•
21
R OMAN &_L ATE R OMAN SCRI PTS

Square Capital s
HE SQUARE CAP ITAL is characterized by a combination of Use the comerof rhe11ib
T broad stro kes - both straight and cur ved - delicate hairlines,
and neat serifs. O f th e dominant broad strok es, the diagonal is
10add 11,eserifsof tl,e A

the most difficult to draw, involving a pen tw ist as great as 45° .

The simpler verti cal strok es are mad e with a single movement
of the pen, held almost hori zontally. Upright hairlin e strok es
occur on the lette rs A, M, N, R, W, and X and can be made Use tl,e comerof rl,e,rib
by skating the wet ink from th e main stem strok e. to add 1/,eserifof1/1
eC

1(( - , 2

I
&ginrl,e
mrve of //,e e
with the edge
of 1/,enib
Drag11,etailof 11,
eC
wirh 11,ecomerofthe nib

Mosr Sq11are
Capiralsare
I11ecomer
of 1/,e11
ib
Basic elements
T he Square Cap irnl letter is abouc four
D
abo111fo11rpe11
widrltsltigl,
is usedfor
addingtite
serifs
pen widths h igh, with the letters F and
L drawn slighdy higher chan the rest.
The scrip t is bese drawn with a reed
pen or a square-cut steel nib .
-
2

Complex letters
The perfecdy balanced
letter N is one of the
--
2

J
most complex letters in
the han d. It consists of 11,e F is a tal/
3
one broad diagonal, cwo leuer, rising
hairline verticals and sl,ghtlyabove 1~
three serifs. A series of the l,eadli11e
angle changes is requ ired
for its comtruct ion .

1. Begin the N with a 2. Mak e a small

pen angle of about 45°, horizonta l strok e on the
progressively turni ng head.line, then pull che
the pen to the vertical wet in k downwa rds
as it reaches the baseline. with the edge of the nib .

1u ~/2 11
J
3. Return to rhe 4 . Now draw the 5. Still using the comer Drag1/1eiail oft/1e
leading verrical stroke of the nib, add the serif 1TI1isletter]
s a modem J with 11,ecomerof
headline and bu ild
up the serif under with the córner of the at the head of the COIIStnlCIÍOll
1/1enib
che horizonral stroke. nib and add the serif. diagonal stroke .
2

22
 SQYARE CAP/TALS

Usethecomerof tite t1ib Twist titepet1Jrom45° to

todrawtheserifofthe K almos/horizot1talfor the 111isletterU is a
diagot1alstrokeofthe K modem comtructi0t1

1
TI1eL is a tall letter,
risit1gslightlyabove
tite headlit1e
~ --
2
Twistt/1epet1slightlyfor Use the comerofthe t1ib Twist the perifrom 90° to 45°
thtdiagot1al
strokeof the M 5 to add the seriftof the M for chediagot1alstrokeof cheY 4 3
- - --- ::;a-i.-
'A
\¡¡"7- Use the comer
of the nib to
2 drawthe serift
- 1 ~ - __ ofthe Y

E lÍ
7 3
Twist thepenfrom 90° to 45°
for the diagonalstrokeoft/1eW
\w
~U-ffi set
5
he6 7

T"'" <h<pmfrom
45 ° to the verrical~ 6
for tite diagonal
strokeof cheN _ 1 _
Z'l<
-
2
5

_ ___

Use the comerofthe nib to

draw the serift of the N
_ W- ~ ___;:h:et
-

The two diagonalhairlinesof the

W canextend belowthe baseline
- /i --
~
• ~~

3
l
4
comerof
the nibfor

Usethe wmer
of the t1ibro
add the serif
ojthe Y

ThtQ is madefromthe O, wit/1

anadditio,ra/
strokefor rhetail

a
-RJse jl the comer of ~
~ The third and
The eleganceof Square
Capitals is assistedby
get1ero11s
inter-leuer

VIRGIL
the nibfor che 1 ~) . fourth scrokesof
spacingand by interlinear
4 the R can be
serifofcheR spacit1gthat equalsthe
~ --- --• - -"' - .,;:,..
_,•.._. combined
/e/terheighc
2
Use checomerof the nib to
add the top serifof cheS 2

s GIOR_GICS
Two lines of Square Capitals

23
R OMA N &_LATE R OMA ,V SCRIPTS
Uncial &
Artificial Uncial
ROMANU CIALscript (Littera Uncialis)
T HE
orig inat ed in th e second or thi r d cent ury
A.D., po ssibly in No rth Africa. Alth ough its
b eginni ngs are subj ect to co nject ur e, ther e
are noticeable simi lar it ies with th e Gr eek
Un cial - a-cur ved, fun ct ional script that had
been used since th e th ird centur y B.C. and
was the official hand of th e Christian Chur ch.
By the second ce nt u ry, Ch r istianit y wa s
in creasi ng in influen ce th r oughout the
Rom an Empir e, and it is likely that th e ear ly
Chr ist ians co nsciou sly adapted the Greek
Un cial to th c Latin languag e as a script
appropriate for their n ew religion.
T H E U NCIA L SCR I PT was brought to
south ern England from Rom e by the
missionar y St. Augustine in th e year
597 . Its name , mea nin g "inch" o r
"inch-high lc tt er" , is att ribut ed to
St. Je rome, a tran slato r and co mpi ler
of the Vulgate (co mm on) Bible . He
possibly used ita s a term of deri sion,
in object ion to the co mmon pra ctice
of wasting parchment by using large
lette r s for de luxe books.
Ori9ins of minuscules
The beginnings o f o ur mod ern lower -
case lettc r s can be cliscc rn ed in the
Uncia! script. Th e lett er s d, h, and /
rise above capital height w hile i,f, n,
p, q, ancl r drop below the baseline . A
further departure from the capital
form is the absence of any e laborate
serif constru ct ion s. Th is simplicit y
makes the Un cia!, toge ther with thc
Carolinc Minu sculc (pp. 38- 39) and
the Foundational Hand (pp, 42-4 3),
ideal for lcarn ing the basics of pc n
handlin g ancl calligrap hy.
2-+
f-lairline su akes should be
drawn asfi ne/y as pomb le,
usin9 the lefi comer of thc nib
Para9raph openm9s ore preceded
by a lar9cr letter in the mar9in
UN C IAI SC Rll' T
This cconomi cal Un cia! script
was writt e n in abouc 45 0 . Th e
pcn is he ld at 30° , giving a
wel l-mann ercd, flowin g quali ty
to the texe, Th e text is wriccen
as scrip111raco111i1111a
(wit h out
spaccs berween word s), whi ch
wa s common for rhi s pcr iod.
. / +ce:NC:fü . ó e x 1cn11m c 1ur o
OC'1Clnn ,Lc ~>J..o,TORIS
J · Cf<.
1un c , puT ccc l.e s1., 1..::-
_::____ _,
úe<.">1c x 1 .~1:r., p c)cs
}' 'C7 '1W~ l '-N~:OB\ltOoRua )
CYTRCO") I~ <.°'
C P NI B · .\ B R~S
◊C:<.JOTI .\ ITCC T<.15
P •~~-~OR \ m1TT O mc 1
( D C (l l lC <n cos q -o pTh NS
T \ '-ITI INTCll C:~ll Ó I.\ p ."\.
T Rl.
,.~ c ,cl.1s (l)CCT)Oll C'(Y)
scn")pCR h,n cnc Loc um
AR T I FIC lt\L UN C IA L A
Broad diago nal and verti cal
scrokes , contra stcd w ith
de licate hairl ines, typi/)'
Artifi c ial Unc ia! lett ers,
Thc Art!fic,al Uncialjo rm efa
,s drawn with I he pen held
near to the horl/ om a/
e,, c.,p11uL,yu .,l.'lp.JC'l"'ntnoN110
TtH."."Jllt,\
CFC!-l I Cfll ,\l ltC eTc:oc pi sc •
NOS:UtUF·'(J~, INO $CC'crpRM:s
u1lcmp h1l1ppu~e1,-.sellus i;co.i·
;\.brutc nuNT collcc1>,..s.,-,-.:iO~tJS
oet'¡OONt-CCUNi'.>cn1lMll.\.UICl"lllt~
UT1U.11,010et()RC-pCRT,\.,'t-JOll 1Sf1
--'"----
cnM,\uN'\"U1t~u
- o,t' ,~~o~~~~~c;~~••r
·1s1woN\NUCN11'.:
~~'e~-~~~c:~~ f-1~~I~iJ;~
1
,
1
A
· /' \,._
uT s up en.tus Lccr uo,~,
quot:1r,.:ion.01~CRC C fJ?-Uf,_,.
ercuml\CCtT>r.ll:Cl ·
uRel.flJSep1sc~
·n 1u
"fl/h1..<:cn~,llu, · •
J
.. h"1.\eN'IOÓ:C)'-.e<Of>L'l l l~t:n.'\TUrol\"
~~~~~e~-;;::~~~f~~~c~
• ct_HUsJ;on.m,Mnsc1<.u~ n·l& .'i ,....
""
,;'~~
;iit
.#~;;:;
~
l-cles 1~c.niC)r,,.9ut1t.cpcRNOSTfl.....,,_,.
-· 1 • • . ~.
,. '
Thc rc1·1s1ons rn theJírs1 line
sccm to havc been madc by
a later, untutored hand
_ The cledicatory l'erseJro m the Codcx
Amiat inu s shows 1ypicalljj,ne scr!fcd
Artf1C1a!Unoa l leuers
CO D EX A .III A 'J"/Sl 'S
Th c Codex A111iati1111s !3iblc
was writtcn in W eam1ou ch
and j:IITOW bcforc 7 16,
lniti ared by Abbor C o efrid,
rhis imposing boo k is che
earliesc known !3ible in
Latín and was produ ccd
for prcscnt ation to Pop e
Grego1y 11.Althou gh
mistak es oc cur in che first,
second , and fifth lines, che
re mainin g script is a tour
def orce of rhe Artificial
Un ciaL T he finely drawn
lrnirlines and dclicace scrifs
are of a su perior qu aliry to
chose in thc V cspasian
Psalter (oppasite).
 8"---:- "--1 .J;Y
1( ·"''" "'-'u-i·s'Rlu s~1 ,: j,Y-1 :, ..
(!) (º, \ c1uem·r1?ñ'e r.o·
'fl • 1H .. ......... .,.).1 ~
il AI\ O •
!('):~, •f'tlt
, · NS Oq :U NSt )ll CIIT,\. O OH ;, \ t:: MjUO I R<;!P1
o Rml, ~t~ltiNT
'D w n,,ü i>R<>1>1 ,\ N T s'ii'r.> l:S~•:r('O\iJ
0

. .~\ ~ , ...)f' • '... t' J 1 ,, ...

C:,\l {:0-:
t:S !l H; AS (Jll lT R l r,ol,-.NTCTll: 1:--mH C UD Cl
.... , •• ) ' .. i ....
,ps i 1i-:p1i<n,, : n s uNT e -r(: ec ,oe rtul\'.T·
... ~,-,...... 1 ,l

.
' ·• ,.,;,,h·•~

.
,,:., ., i),,1'-.1.,..,,
s ·•1co :-.:SIST.\ NT ,\OU CRS Clll) O l l; C ,'-!',T! ¿,\ NONTIID 6
r,rr Cl >l~n ) Cllln- s , l~ S lll {C )o.TI N ln C pR O cl J u(n
~-
1N·h oc ceo s 'po7Í;,,.1>
0•
, H' •JJrJ ~ •>" 1ty t1fC•i ),tt t< IH "'H\h

l l ~.-. o> ·p c T 11.-.n N o ·h ,-...._c itc qomMn tl' n l\'. h , I\ IT Cffl

1:-.:
b ~)(no ur:::'
1on;l':'m11s o iéü'us t\'i'i, e 1i')'é\e · .,-c,a$ ·
I" •~t)t ,, 1- 1.,)11,UJ -,1t)"1,> 1 ,)•,,¡,,...,, l ' 'ft;, • ' •,,
l T u fD e .-.11) oo lJ J:S.:T"'TClll D:-:1CTf)ROT 6C 1'R:-.'íé pl.o sco
t'.. • ' ~~
' U (l) ,\:l\ S CO:--OITll) C lt-TX l'>l ; J{:--1,
.
ROm 'J)ROT GXITlrl C 11':i\l\S t:Dr-.:
\ C Ul.os

<llTOTM'>GRN.'\GlÍl. r
,. ' ..., .,.,. INOICO)~in
i~o
.., .
l
'1tll l!TRII. <!~,· J.;"..
,ui-rm c ·
• • &-,' .. ~ •• , • " • Í '~ ,¡,)
U NCM IT l.;(l) e ~· AIT ,\UIT C,\llllTOl()U(l'l s uµ1 HUN ltOI
cos Cl iboi. C l ~ c i"i m o d n n ~~:~~
:;G-1;0 ,ifii ~~·R-;:;~
at r
.••• .),1 . • r ,,,., ..., ,l' .fl ."-",{ ,i, ,;-, .,., c~ u ,· ·t<t
ClllS ll0 5;1' 1Mn 1111\I L\TIO N IS C1'1".T;..r,o C.. "'l'f)S.J., .ltÍÍ)1C\M '
.. ·""'"i' ),.. J. ,. ~ ,1, 1 "t H ,~· 1\ "" ,,,l....,. 11¡
..\ f,)¡¡f
,\' ,\UD10~6 CIOCfül'l (l)C,\ll) ljUM .:L\(l );\ (11 .\l)TC
-1n,i 1• il 1 1 ,r, . ,
<lHS l'!Rl:R t: <l'l 11 GT é-,X"II.UOHl>C · •

T I IL V ESPASIAN P SALTER Thc interlinear9/oss 11·0,

T he Vespasian Psalrcr ,vas w ritt e n ar St. Aug usrinc 's addcd in 1hc nin1h ccnwry Ar tifi cia l Un cia/
Abbey, Ca nccrbu ry. in che early eig hch ce nw, y . T hc Th e Un cia! hand was wc ll cs tablished
interlinear gloss con cains che carliesr kn own copy o f
rhc Psaltm in Engli sh . T he opc n ing O fro m Psalm in Brit ain by thc t ime thc twin abbcys
26 . show ing thc fig ures of David and J o narhan . is D ETA ii FROM TI IE V ESl'AS IAN (>SAi TER o f Wea rm outh and Jarr ow \\'e re
thc earliest cxample of a h isto riate d in icial in T he scrifs in th is de cail are slig hcly bo lder
chan rhose in the Codex A 111i a1i,111s
found cd in 674 and 682 rcspecti \'ely.
W estern man usc rip rs. Th c illumi nated title is
w ritt en in buil c-u p R o m an capicals. ("J'J)OSÍ
le), w hic h indi cares thc use Soo n, th e m o nk s of Wca rm o ut h ,
o f a less sha rply cu t quill. Jarr ow, and Sout h umb r ia (Eng land
• ~
.
• • • • • ,.

•
'"'---' '-..4'

•
'- / '-., .J'-. -'

.. , J
., .. '
.-- \
so uth o f t he Rivc r Humb er) " ·ere
pr od ucing manu sc ript s o f a qu ality
N ,'( t1 ·1)t~ ·ru ~c..~ <.), l) ~~c Ret~( ll R~< equ al to th at anywh crc clse in Euro pe.
~ Th c i,· wo rk includ cd the land mark
l~O ( Xll l )Dl\!I l )(l)NIP, ( l S 0 l6 llU S Bible thc CodexAmiatinus (opposite).
....,· \ -V,..l.. - , Howe\·er, t he hand th ey we re us ing
'T <.11Dt~-'lll 1olu N "r~ :Te (11 ON t e .;1
1_ was not t he Un cia l of St. ] cro m e , bu t

.. a highly intr icat e ancl se rif cd ,·cr sion ,

wi th t hin hori zo ntal and thk k vert ical
()) " "- o~Orr,1l( ; l~T"-.1\( ; RN-'(
.. .' . . st rokes, and scrifs rcmini sce nt of thosc
o n Squ arc Capit als (pp. 20- 21). Th is
~):"l"r(I) C IN ~l'>S C<.)~Oíl
RU(ll .J)RO"l l _ cxtr c m cly bca ut iful ca llig raph ic hand
• ◄ .. o .. ,, is kn o wn vari ously as Artifi cial Un cia],
~ Jle·rR:~t :~ ,~LT ,"\U l'T'l ne:, Late U ncial, or Ro m anising U ncia l
. .' of th c Ca ntc rbur y Stylc .

25
R OMAN &._LAT E R OMAN SCR1PTS

Un cial & Artificial Uncial

T HE U NCIAL 1s A practica! writing hand and as such presents
no difficulti es topen. Th e Artific ial Uncia !, howeve r, is
Uncia l A ~
Artificial Unc ia! A ,h,
/w;rli,,,loop
wir/11/,ecomerof1/,e11i b

subj ect to considerable elaboration involving many pen twists 2

17,e secondm,d
and changes of angle. Both forms of the scr ipt are regarded as
bilin ear - writt cn betwee n two horizontal lines - but they
show the bcginning s of a tendenc y that ult imat e ly leads to the
de\'elopment of our lower-case lett ers: F, !, N, P, Q_,and R drop Uncia l B
B '[Q)
Artificial Unci a! B 3
1/,ird srrokesof
1/,e B ca11be
ro111bi11
ed

below the baseline, and D, H, and L risc above the headline. For 1/,eseco11d
srroke of11,eC,

e e
Uncial C Artifi cial Uncia! C
/tlfÍSI 1/,e 11iba11ti-
clork 111ise
1l1
all(Idrag
e i11kdounavards

Pul/ ow rl,e raílof 11,eC

wirl, 1/,e comer of rhe 11ib

Basic differences
U11rial

Th c Uncia] lctte r is
wrirre n with a pen angle
easily penned with a
l lrtifiria/U,uial

stecl nib . The mo re

com plex Artificial
~
Uncia! D
()
Artificial Unc ial D
,~) ,
of30 °. Simplcr in U ncia! lettcr is wrirten
17,e Arrifiáal U11
ri11I .
co nsrruction than rhe wirh a pen angle of 10°.
¿ ;:t
e
Artificial variery, it Ir can be pe nned wit b E could be encl,~,sed For;;: 1
can be quickly and a stecl nib or a quill.
3 ~♦ r111i
s1 1/,e11ib
1 ~ a111i-dorkwi,e
Pcn twists a11ddragtite
In the Artificial Un cia!. rhe · i11kdoumwards
charac teristic pc n twis t that Un cia! E Artificial Uncia! E ~
occurs on the serifs of lcttcrs
C, E, F, G, K, L, N, and T can
be execurcd simply and qu ickly. To draw 1/,eserifa
ofrhe F, 1r,,isrrl,e
11iba111i
-clock11
1ise
1. 13egin by drawing a 111rd
drag1/,ei11k
horizonta l hairlin e strokc, dou111111ar
using che full length of th e nib.

2. On reaching the end of thc Un cia! F Ar tificial Uncia! F

stroke, gradually rwist thc pen ant i-
cloc kwise from rhe horizontal to
near vertical and lifr. T he resultant
serif is indc mcd, with a small blob
visible ar the top right-hand co mer .
Complete tire
r11n
1em,d tail
of 1/,e G i11a
Bl<>b si11iesrroke

~ lude111a1io11

71,eserifcm, be lefr
111ill1
rl,e
bloba11di11d
e,11ari,,11
sri/111
isible Modern Modern Artificial
Uncia lJ Unc ialJ
77,e I mtd J aredraun,

l J JJ J j
3. Th e serif can be ncatc ncd in " si,wlesrroke
by min g the comer of thc pcn 1
nib to draw a ha irline stroke Dmg 0111 riterailof
1/,e I andJ wirl, rl,e
back up to thc headline. T his

'
ex tension is then fillcd in with ink . Uncial I Artificial romerof 1/,e11ib
Uncia! I

26
 U NCIAL &__ARTIFICIAL U NCIAL

s s
011 chetl,ird
stroke, 1wis1 To draw 1heserifs
1henib 101/1e of 1/,e S, 1wis11/1e
horizo111al 11iba111i-dorkivise
a11ddrag1/,e
Drag out tlie tail Uncia! S Artificial U ncial S i11kdow1111,ards
ef1/1eK wi1/11he
wmer of cl,e nib
11,e U11cialL 11,eA rtifidal
versio11retai11s Forthe seri/of

T 'f
resemblesa
111i1111
smle letter the appeara11ce At cl,eeud of 1he T, cwislr/1e
1/,e
of a capital second stmke of 11iba,11i-dock111i
se
1/,eL, tu!Íst1he a11ddrag1/1e
Uncia! L 11iba111i
-dock111is
e Uncia! T Artificial Uncia l T i11kdo11111wards
Uncia! L and dra,(;1hei11k
do111111vards
&11/,Jonns of M llave a

mm m , u
111i1111sc11l
e appeara11ce

Uncia! M Artificial Uncia! M Uncial U

u '[ t
Artificial Uncia! U

Tl,eseforms of V are
011 1hefirs1
wodem cm1strru1io11s
~ slroke ef1/,e

N N
Uncia! N Artific ial Uncia! N
'í'\r ]' l::!S V
B . ji , ,J
egm 11,e irs1stroweo t11e
N ar 45° ,md 1111i s1 ro a
Uncial V
V 1 ~,
Artificial Uncia! V

s efWare
Thesefor111
11earverricalat,;?l
e

o w lO 'W ,
111od
em co11s1r11aio11
s

Uncia! O Uncia! W Artificial Uncia! W

11,e bo111/
of elle U11cialP is more
tlwcqf 1/1
ope11cl,a11 e Arrificial
Jon11 2
For the seri/ef

p p
1heX, 1wist

,,,.,,,.X
1he 11iba111i-

'J~ .:.,,
cfock111is
e a,1d
drag1/,e ink
do111111
vards
Unc ia! X
Uncia ! P Artificial left wilh 1/,e comer of 1he11ib Uncia! X 3 11,e Y is
• \ do11ed
Tl,e sero11d
and t/1ird
srrokes of 1he
Q may be ~ 2
dra11n1as a
singleslroke
Uncia! Q Artificial Uncia! Q
2 _

z,
2 771is a/1ema1ive

Q (tj)
Alternative Artificia/Uncial
Artificial / fon11efQ has
Un c ia! Q cheappearanc e
of a capira/letter
~ J
'-j=- Uncia! Z Artificial
Uncia! Z
Formbotl, serifs efrl,e Z by
11iesimple, 1111isti11g
1he 11iba111i-dock111i
se and

.: g~j
2 U11rialZ ca11 drag,J,i11g
tl1e i11kdo11111111ards

H:.
Drag 1hetail bepe111
1ed in
ro 1/,e riglu a si11gle
stroke
111ith
1/1ecomer
of the nib
Uncial R

27
 I ~- ~
./
-~l

:
,
: 'C)i_í
J puupcfü'Ji'8-{.) l.1lfll Ofi) UJfl

:- lp SO 'Rl S"G R lJl n(Jl( Í LJ

'
· (iu .. lTI ~ l(J ll lll l TI lpS 1 f~l<};~~~l

=- ~ lJeLl l , U~R 0-1 te.=~ :- ~l >

-
:- r1u 0 1l .1Ji'©7 J1111cql1 01J1rn 11,

()l lS Í J{ÚÜUULl1 1
• • •
·· ·• .. .,UUlG.qs - SRlll UL _·.
·· (ll CT·? S l !~((U J .
•
:- - ~
-l j
.---:. --. ~oc=-':-! --•
'---,,-- _· --------- -.)
,1
ll
y Q
V-(, I;>-~

:· l<" ) '{ - · ·· "10 1 i 1 un

~

=·
)1
~ ~l j l <> ,
........... C0118t' í Jl ~61
~· •

:--:f
8 _. ) •. ·
~

11' 1t i l I l .
'•- .. ....-'

:-_ 1f'")8 1 ~ º~ º~ .

• !.. -~-~~> , 711ñ ,~,

...~--·
. --1..-
.... ,

=-@ 0~ -t? 41 U O (l.r _ - _ _.,"9 :.• ~ t?1i

.
 l ,\ 'S ULAR M 11jUSCULE

Insular Majuscule
HEINSULAR MAJUSCULE (Insular Half Un cial) derives its
T name from its origins in the islands of Britain and Ire land.
"Insular" is from the Latin for "island", and "Majuscule" refers
I NSU LAR M AJUSCULE F
Th e principal characteristic
to the height of the letters, much large r and bolder than those o f che Insular Majuscule lecter
is the w edge- shaped serif o n
of the com pl ementary Ins ular Min uscu le (pp. 34 - 35). the head line (pp. 32-33) .

As a prestige hand, the Insu lar Maju scule is characteriz ed

by letters drawn slowly and carefu lly, with m any lifts of
the pen (pp. 32- 33). In early med ieval Brita in and Ire land,
it was the favoured hand for sacred manuscr ipts written The thickencd base is crcaccdby
in Latin, including two of the most beautiful books ever mo1•,n9 che pcn sl19hclyw che
r,9 hc efche stcm and 1hcnpush1n9
produced, the Lindi sfarne Gospe ls and th e Book of Kells. i¡ up to 1hc midway pornt

B EAT ITU D ES PAGE FRO M T H E B oo K OF K ELI.S fF EVER THERE WAS a gold en

T he bo rde r of th is page from the Doo k of KeUs com b ines
thc cig h t init ial bs and incorpora res bot h zoornorph ic and age of calligraph y, it was the
anchropo m orp hic d eco ration. T h e ho rizont al stro ke ove r "sp11 " b eg innin g of the eighth ce ntur y,
in the first line deno tes an abbrevia tion of "spiri111 " (" breach o f
wh e n orthumbria wa s one
Go d" ). Thc hor izonta l str o kc is a dcv icc u sed b y scrib cs for o ft-
rcpcated w ords. Also typ ical is che lett e r II in che 13th lin e, w hic h Careful srudy efchc thrnner o f the most flo uri shin g ce ntr es
has b een t,xtravagantl y ext end ed in o rd er to fil] space. Th e use o f ink on che r9ivcsclucs co o f art and scholar ship in western
red d ots to o u tline initials and ornam ent text is mor e sensitive and the consuu cli on efInsular
restrai ned here than in th e Lindisfarne Gos p els (pp. 30- 31). Moj uscule lw ers Europ e . Int e raction betw ce n
script orium s of the twin Augustinian
monasteri es Jarrow and Wearm outh
(see th e Codex Amiatinus, p. 24 )
and that at Ce ltic Lindisfarn e (see
the Lind isfarn e Go spcl s, pp. 30- 31)
lec! to th e pr odu ction of sorne of the
greatest achievements of medieval art.
The Book of K ells
Th e Book of Ke lls was writt en at
sorn e tim e in the second half of the
eig hth centur y and the early years of
the ninth cent u ry, probabl y by lrish-
Northumbrian monk s. Its place of
ori gin is shr oud ed in un cert aint y and
the first reco rd we have o f its existence
is an acc ount of its theft in 1006 from
th e mona ster y of Ke lls in lre land.
Th e four illumina te d Co spel text s
in the Book of Kells were writt en
by at least thr ee scrib es in insular
version s of Un cia! (pp. 24 - 25) and
T H E G OSPEL O F ST. M AR.K Half Un cia! (pp. 38- 39) lett er s. Th ese
Th e Insu lar M aju scule is wi tho u t capitals as th ey are used in The ascender efihe leuer
the mo dern sense. Chapt e r op enin gs, suc h as chis d etail frorn b slants to che ri9hc, with would have deri ved from chara cters
che Co spel of Se. Ma rk in che Doo k of Kclls, co mm c nccd ,he wed9e serif balancin9 ori ginall y introd uced int o lreland
wi th a line of d isp lay capi tals, a Ve rsal (pp. 58-59 ), o r a over che bowl '![the leu cr
combi nation o fbo th . Verses wo u ld o pen wi th a large r from the ancient reg io n of Gaul by
characce r, whi c h was ofcc n de co ratc d o r filled wi th co lo u r. St. Patri ck and his missionari es.

29
J,, ·suLAR &__NATIONIII. SCRIPTS

TARA UROOCI 1
Thi s intri cacely deco rated brooch
was found in lreland in 1850 110c
far from a11cicnt T ara . The date
of its consrrucc io n is unkn ow n,
although strikin g d esign
sim ilaricics w ith some deco raced
inicials in ch e Lindi sfarne Cospels
sugge st an early medieval date.

Thesecur1ilinear parternsare
1

1•e.ry similar to ,hose in the

Lindiifarne Gospcls(right)

D ETAil FROM TIIE C111- R. HO PAGE

T h e interla ced birds and curvilin ear
patterns in ch is deta il are almost
idenci cal to dccoracio n 011che Ta ra
broo ch. T his sryle of zoomorph ic
interlacing is ofCe rmani c origi n.

C1-11-R 1-10 l'AGE

These ornace d isplay capital s on the Chi- Rho "
page of che Li11disfarnc Gospe ls make ch is onc
of che m ost imp ressivc lea ves in che book . A
variery of influ en ces are evidcnt, i11cluding nscnn.ronnm ··
Crcek, R oman, H alf Un cia !, and runi c .
Eadfrich 's use of the capitals is highly creative.
T herc are thr ee diflerent fom1s of che lcn er A 011
chis page : rwo on thc second Line , and a chi rd,
OC form 0 11ch e bortom li ne (pp. 32-33) .

The Lindiifa rn e Gosp els

Thc richly illumin ate d Lindi sfarn e
Gospels date from the e nd of the
seventh cent ur y, wh en the scrib es
of the No rthumbri an mona steri es
were enter ing their most productiv e
phase. The Go spe ls wcrc written
in Latin by a single scrib e, Eadfrith,
who becam e Bishop of Lindisfarn e in
698 . An int e rlin ear gloss, providin g
a translation of the text into English,
was added in th e tenth ce ntur y.
The Durh am Gosp els
In addition to the Gospels from
Lindisfarn e and Kclls, th er e are a
numb er of other book s and fragments
from thi s period that revea! well-
executed Insular Majuscules . Among
the mo st outstancüng are the Durham
Gospels, wh1ch are contemporaneous
w ith tho se of Lindi sfarn e and
ma y eve n have bee n writt en
in th e Lindi sfarn e scr ipt o rium.
The elegant, wcll -balan ced hand is
markedly similar to Eadfrith 's. Oth er
exampl es includ e th e Echt erna c h
Gospels and the Book of Durrow .

30
 Í 1\'SULilR M , IJUSCULE

Manuscript decoration
~lJa ch1enom Thc scho lar Giraldu s Cambrcnsis,
writin g in 1185, re marked: " ... you
Jno:e-p:xnoei11 may say thi s wa s th e wo rk of an

tt}Ont~
n
~
angc l, not of man ... th c m ore I
st udy, the mor e I am lost in frcsh
amazcmcnt." H e was d escribin g,
in ali probability, th c cleco rati o n
•• of th e Book of Kells (pp. 28- 29) .
This, along w ith th c illu st ration s
in the Lindisfarn e Gospe ls an<lothe r
works from the ear ly medieval
period, rep rcse nt s th e highest
achievcment of Weste rn manu script
d eco ration. From the ca rp et
pages (pages without text and filled
ent irely with intricate designs) to the
cleco rat ed initial s ancl display capitals,
and from the shie ld s, tru mpets,
spiral s, and kn ots to th e labyrinthi ne
int erla ces that dissolve int o fancifu l
animal forms, th e craf tsman ship
has rema ined unsurpa ssed . Today,
we view the wo rk w ith th e sam e
wo nd erm ent as Ca mbr ensis , often
requiring a magnifying glass to stud y
thc fine dctail.

ST. JEROME'S Plt EFACE

This bcaucifully dccoraced page from rhe
Lindisfarne Gospe ls shows che prcfacc ro
che rexr ofSr. J erome. Th e abundant use
of red docs around che inicial lerrcrs is a
com mon design feacurt' of che book . Tl,e interlinear9loss,
As well as outlining che lecters, th e docs written in an An9lo ·
provide a ba ckground of delicace colour. Saxon mmusculc
Onc folio in che Lindisfame Gospels is (pp. 34--35), is the
decoraced wi th over 10,000 sucl1 docs. earlie.stsur,•frin9
The rubri cated ktters ac che cop of cran.dation inco
che page indi cate che end of one An11lo - Saxon oJ
texc and che bcgi nn ing of anochcr. the Four Gospcls

In this work by Denis 8rown,

the medieval Insular Majuscule letters
harc been recreated lll a modern contcxt

ÜENIS UR.OWN
This calligraphic piecc, cntitled Cultural Deco111posi1io11,
was created by the lr ish calligrapher Denis Brown in
1993. At 1.2 by 1.6 met res (47'1, by 63 inc hes), ic is a
work of great scale and power. The med ieval art isrry of
che Insular Maju scule lctcers are seen to be systema ti cally
corroded by che symbo ls of m odernit y, che clcccr ic cables .

31
/ 1\'SULAR 8t_NATIONA I. S CRJPTS

Insular Majuscule
HE INSULAR
MAJUSCULE
is among the most prestigious of
(L P11sh1/,e
firsr parrof
rhestroke
((
( .•
~
-
_, ,......
li.."111
11,ebo111/of
1/1ea sh,wld
__ _bes¡mcio11
.......

T scripts. Most Iettc rs in this hand are built up from a series

of composite strokes and involvc multiplc pcn lifts. Ascenders
Oc form of a The oc Jorm of a ís ef,m med

and desccndcrs are minimal. The script tends to be bold, with

a lette r hcight of bctween three and five pen widths. Clear Tl,e seco11d srrokeof
spaccs should be allowed both within ancl between letters, and 1/,ea fi 11i
s/1esurit/1
interlinear space is generally equal to about two minim heights. n skated l,airli11e
Uncia] form of a

b T/,e S/C lll of

1/,eb sho11/d
ve to 1/Je lef,
n 11
3
Bala11ce tlie top of
1/,e s1e111over
1/,ebowl o.fr/1eb

e
2
TI,c seco11d

~
stroke of 1hr
e ís " separate,
p11s/1ed strok1

Pen angle and wedge serifs
Insular Majuscule lettersare written
with an oblique-cut nib. with the pen
angle becween che horizontal and 15°.
Thc discinctive wedge serif, such as
that 011 the b, is made by drawing a
short downward mokc at abouc 45°
inro rhc main srcm. Thi s can be
preceded or followed by a hairline
stroke along che to p of thc wcdgc . Uncia] form
of d

d
Alternative d
4

e
2 T/,e lrairli111
of tl,e e ca11 bt
ex1e11ded to ti~
Horizonta l darts downwa rd stroke, then pull che pen rigl,ta11d fi11isl,eJ
To creare che darts chac appcar on ro che right to makc a long horizont1l 111i1/1
a darr
leccersd,g, ,. and z, use the back of the scroke. Letters g and I have a second
pcn nib. Begin by drawing a diagonal dart; create rhis by cwisting che pen
stroke to the righc, foUowedby a short downwards to an anglc of about 15°.

Complete 1/i1
...._IIJ-- ----,:c"""'-;,
Jt- --- The comer ~fthe 11ibcn11be 011dstroke cf thefin
11
sed to draw tl,e s/10r1dart n si,~'-!l
e moi;emem

Drmv tlrem'lll
4
of 1/,ef /oi,
011tl,e stem
1
Alternative dart
An alternativc rechn iquc to
that described above is to use
~
2 ---v
~----::::r-
---
' Dmw1/,e 111v
/10ri::0
111i1I
d11m
3 4 of 1/,eg 11n·,1,
1/11
the com er of the pen nib to
define che dart bcforc filling
in che ouclinc w ich ink. s@ · bark o.f1/,e11
ib

32
 I NSULAR MAJUSCULE

h - ·
r - 11
1~

2
. __
-- 11,esecondand
third strokes
of ~h-
be comb111ed
2
11,e serif at rhe
rop of tl,e q is
a variatio11of
tlie wedge serif

Tl,e areof tl,e

an be made i11
eparare srrokes
s 3

Tire second and third

trok s can be combined ~{-::: n tl,e
of..¡,t...is.,p11
"'""'
sl,ed

3 ~
5

1 3

m - 1rTIITT1 Afi er drawing 1/,e serif, 1/,e m can

be completed wirlw11tlifii11 g tl1e pen
4
11,e v takes
tliefor,11of a
modem u

1T Ul Eirher of rl,ese two

fo rms of n can be used
4
6

u - rr~
1 3

~
2~ ~ ·
Altemative n Tite hairli11
e of tl,e
11,e cross srroke oflhe n can be
ex tended to tl1e rigl,rtofi l/ x is skared or draum
space at tl,e end of a line witl, tl,e 11i
b comer
Tl,eo is

O composed of
avo si11
gle
opposing strokes

+J l( P
Afi er drawing Draw tl,e rl,ird
2 ·~ - ~
1/1e serif, 1he Swivel 1/1 e nib 11p
side doum 3 stroke oftl,e z 111
ith
p can be fo r 1/,e long l,orizoma!..!!ro~e __ the edgeof1/,e 11ib
completed i11
a single stroke

33
/\su, IR&_."\' IT/0.\.1/ SCRII'TS

Insular Minuscule
prcst ige forma l hands,
¡\ LOi\GS ID E Et\CH OF THE MAJOR
P OIN I U> \,\INU,CULL />
fi thcrc has usually dc,·clopcd a functional complcmc ntary Thc namc dcri,·es from
the d1~r,Kteri,ric long
hand for use in cvcrvday transactions and for writing non-
✓ J
,weep of the de,c,mde~.
Thi, i, in contr.m to the
sacrccl manus cripts. In the case of thc Insular Majusculc, thc ,quarcr dc:scc:ndc:rso(
complcmentary script is thc Insular Minuscule, which dates thc sc•t minmcule.

from th c late fifth or carly sixth century. Its use cont inucd
in Englancl until aftcr the orman Conqucst of 1066, and in
lr cland it ha s survived for Gaclic u se into th c 20t h ccnturv, J

makin g it onc of thc most cnduring of all Latin script s .

TH E ] .\'SULA R MI .\ 'USCULE was

L1-..:1>
1, 1-ARl'sl-
brought to thc British mainland The Pr ior,· of Lmdi,farne ""' founded in 108_1,
from " lrclancl bY,
St. Columba ancl 011 thc sitt· ~f the ,:arlier A11glo-S.1xo11mona,tc-ry.

\\'as taught at thc monasteries of lona

ancl Linclisfarnc. As \\·it h th e Insula r ,~ ,XJZ.\BOU.e s.tloO'lO} ,US(t1ot.1ttf :1fi o11tC
Majusculc, thc scrip t \\·as thcn
disscminatcd on the Contincnt by 1~' ctcuu.tm •"fU t 4-\..t10UU"1~d1url,{,dtnmnr
tnCtrtc
.
missionan · lri sh monks. The tcrm ) . ucno11rt(« Jtt1n~uLr
cr11-1«r b,lfW~
!t n,ülotui
"insular" is appliccl by palacographcrs
,. , !.,P1<01·11rn1.1S. ·ILI.\IOXIS
to indicatc a sharccl culture bct\\·ccn d" /11J>nwabi"Sr1/,1111011is,
a "·ork
lrcland and Britain, free from by che:gre,it Anglo-S,1xon
hi,torian lkde. \\·a, ,nitten in ~t:
Con tin ental influcncc. an lmular Minuscuk ,cript th.1c had becn
()l'~'l'!~ vbnr;1"
. ] fH,~n~~ ~b:c>l-:1\
An9lo-Saxon hand perfi:cted in We,mnomh-Jarro\\' by 750.
· 1-,,,,x1b1~· "1111~ '.11,\1l)l'-"Q''N~-i--n'':-
Afte r thc Council of Whitby in 664, ¡, ~11,11\~min::>1 ,cr:.¡:
lndr,,1m ,-,.: ,r.-·
Ml ,R( IA1' l'Rt\Y I ll-l!OOK
thc inllucncc or thc Cc lt ic Church i, ln::n1111>11,1er ,¡:-a\mlt',rnf "ln 1~rn-:
Thi, pagc: of set mi nusnile from J Mercian
~ ''le me>m1'i'li,u1nln1>1Q_\111l1 ~: 1'111lltn h:t1lum
m.:akcncd in England, Scotland, ancl pr,1yer-book wa, wrim:n in che carly ninth
_ y','.<Ulull\e, ~l Q_l ffi lJV . ViÍl .,¡n)111p<m1Tf6
cc 11tury. po,s,bly in Worcc,tc:r, 13rita111.
\Vales ancla more clistinct iYc Ang lo - Co m p,ll"Cthc: rc:l.1ri,·cly re,traincd dccor.1tion ,~-rr'f\e1n;:,{):>f\ecor\ , ,¡111q ,~,\llt.. (M(Ull~
Saxon hancl began to eme rge. lts of thc in mal kttcr with chat of !Jede\ ¡\--cci,,,,"\.1)) 111<\l\<,';l~•'ll11l1<1 ,]Uü ....lllt'1 ,', i::'·
l /is1ori<1Eff lcsi¡1s1iw(,>pp<>si1e
) . whi c h ~1111-;-tn o111111btt,;(\"-Snpd, ,,m111, 1 ~;;bli,~c
quality is classccl in four g rades: f;:amre, spirals. fret,. ,111dknor inccrlace,. \Je, <:>nn icmr. m1h1omnh\ \-i.1',ln-..;n1d,t
hybricl, "·hich rnn tains half- uncia l rltC•4<\ l TIL'l\ .xr,¡11, - (t\!tn ll\<I ,¡11,1<1' p.,1
elcments and thc oc form of' a; set, "" ' n.1b11[~· lm1lITT19"111e,1e, 11;;,1' lr:
h,1n~:,
a carefo ll)· execu tccl, l'ormal hancl ; ,1c'.:,m¡·ho 1,1ny 1Qf'"1r h111t1\b1j· .l111, 1..;n
h1m,;11 1111),.,e,.;f11
Jn,1u'()fé1 1 hrm,-ro ºf1= •
cu r si, e, the basic, functiona l uefü1,f 11olfo1s1~1d1rm¡\c1d1pph•w 1• ¡'3
hand; ancl currens, thc quickly 111,,•11¡,01,~ ;:,elm,¡miry-(.,mm,;;1•
pcnned, informal hand. By thc carly f ·~ rm1t:"'~'
,1mn,1nn'.':-
::,-¡¡:1l11111
. ,
ninth ccntury, thc most fa,·ourecl hancl
vll11'1f-•"''"'"
" ,Jtlf ,,....,s t\11 .n,i- ,
in sou th crn Britain wa s thc pointed
Dot ,11pplcanJ colour are
cursi ,·e minuscuk , and it is this that ?fíen H~edto Jecorme thc
,,·e use as our modcl (pp. 36 37) . .flnt leucr <?
f"a rcrsc

DI 1 \11 1 R0\1 ~ /'he cenera/ urokc 0{1hc lar9c cJOrnh

M I R< l \'s l'IC\YI ll-BllOK thc lcuJmg >1r okc of1hcfo llo11m9p

------;=c:::::-===±=-==2.~
- The decorat i on around
The bo.«d copitof lcttcrs
dcmon:,1rate run,c u~j1uences med,a//y an,I 1ermmolly
D ETAil FROM T I I E 1-1,sro R/A ECCL/;SIASTIC·I
o te the two difli:re nt forms of, that occu r ac che end
of the first and second words of rhis dc taiL Thc use of
the uprig h t form of the lem :r din the scco nd line is a
departu re from che Uncial form (pp. 24-25 ).
Compare1h1sform'?fa w,chcheocfor m
uscJ w the Hi storia Ecclcsiastica
tn
1hc
miual h resemb/e_,;cha1jou ncl
m metolwork on a hoard 111
Trewhidclle.Cornwa/1
J Í ISHJIH. I ECCLES/A.ff/C.4
In 13ede ·~ 1-/istoria i::ff lcsiastica
Cc111isA11glon1111, writtcn in
southcrn Eng land in about 820,
the descende rs are made in a
single strokc and tcrm inaccd
by an upward flick. T h e pen
is lifred betwec n cach stroke.
Ex ETE R B ooK
W ritte n dur ing thc sccond half ofchc
te n th cent m y in a fine Ang lo -Saxon
squarc min usculc, th e Exete r 13ook
is an anthology of ve rn acular poctry .
I NSULIIR MI NUSCU I.E
Thi<wh1111s1cal decorauon,
w11h leuen cran40,mrn9 rnto
animals, is lessJOrmal 1han lhlll
usecJ.fo
r capuols ,n thc l 1nJ1ift1rnc
(;o,pel, (pp. 30 31)
Carolin 9i an injlu ences
By th e te nth ccntur y, Lhe Insular
Minu sculc was und e rgo ing changcs,
fir st bcco min g ang ular and upright
ancl then , unde r the influcncc of the
Car o linc Minu scul e (pp. 38 39),
b eco min g m o re ro unclecl. By th c
11th ccntur y, thc script hacl cnt crccl
its final phasc o f change, with th c
lc tt cr s gaining a squar er aspcct .
Chan9 es of p en an9l e
Throu g ho ut th c clcvc lo pm ent of
th c carly Insular Minu scule, it was thc
changcs o f pc n ang le that allo,vecl th e
scr ibes to c xpr css th e ir calligraph ic
vir tu osity. Thi s clcme nt of play seems
pro gress ivcly to havc dimin ishecl
as th c hand becam e squ arer.
To th e mod ern eye , th e lo ng, spiky
desce nclers of th c point ed cursive
m inu scule ar e m ade ali the mo re
do min ant by th cir app earance on
lett er s r and s (pp. 36 37) . Th e
ot her min im charactcrs ar e roun decl
and co mpr cssc cl, which gives a m ore
flow ing tc xtur e to th e page than any
o f the later Insular Minu sculcs .
11 decora,frcsweepon 1he
_final le9 oj rn ma_yoccur at
___
,,,_üt
•
35
I NS ULAR &_NATIO NJIL S CRJPTS

TI,e a is pointed
ar rhe top
Insular Minuscule A -- - -;--- -- --~
C
ALLIGRAPHERSMAYWELL find th e ductus of the Insular
Minuscule one of the most satisfying to accomplish. In the
Anglo-Saxon pointed minuscule shown here, the character istic
"' l- ---
<e 7?3
point ed aspect - most noticeable on the descenders - is created
•1 TI,e stem of t/1e
f: b co11/dbe more
by pro gressively turning the pen to a steeper angle as the stroke 11pri
g!,1 1ha11tlus
is drawn. The pen begins at the headline atan angle of about
··-- !'?,
40 ° and on reaching the bottom of the descender has turn ed
to a near ver tical. The minim height is about five or six nib widths.
1 2 -

1. Using che edge of 2. R ecurn ro che 3. Continue to pull

a squarc-cut nib, begin headline and begin the pen downwards, T/1eascenderof the f co11/d
ar che headline with che downward stroke gradually turning riseabove the headlint
a shorc downward with the pen at an the nib in an anti-
diagonal stroke. ang!e of abottt 40°. clockwise direccion.

2
TI,ecrossbarof t/,e
f should be 011 the
baseline

TI,e bowl of rl,t

g co11
/d be more
I open 1/1a11tl,is
3

2- /;m,
----1/-l!----
4. At rhe baseline. rhe 5. Once the descender 6. On reaching che
pen angle should be has capered co a poinc, headline, che pen should TI,e letterj
about 65°, reaching begin retracing the be ac its original angle.
is a modem
75° at che rip of che stroke before separating Now proceed wich che
COIISlnlClion
descender. at che baseline. nexc pare of che letter.

36
 I NS ULAR M! NUSCULE

TI,e stem of the I can

be complete/y upright

------
ª 2 3

Createtitelerterw by
combiningthe u artd v

t1 4

o--- l ---, -- ·- --~-

2

--
- 11,eocanbe
drawnwith one
stroke or two

(J__.
Use either 011
e
2
or two strokes
to drawthe z

This modemfo rm ef
r is morerecognizab
le
than the historically
Traditional correctform
form
of r

4
TI,e tal/ e was commonly /igatt<red
with

Long s The modem 4

Modero fonn of s E- 1 ligature
s is oftenprejmed

37
 CARO// ,\/; &..E A RI) ' GOTHI C S CRIPTS

Caroline Minu scule fh e ascender ,s <'qua/

m her9hccoche m,mm
¡\ t first sight, the diffcrcnces bctween the Caro line Minu scule
CAROLINE
fl (Carolin gian Minu scul e) and th e late Half Uncial scr ipts MtNUS CULE /1
The Caroline
(see Vatican Basilicanus, below)are not clcar. Thc main distinction Minuscule 1s
betw cc n th c two is in the pcn used to wri te thc m, th c Half written with a
square -c ut nib,
Uncial using a "straig ht" pen and th e Car oline a "slant ed" pen with the pen
hcld ac 30°
(pp. 40-41). In fact, th e Carol ine Minu sculc was developc d (pp. ./0-./ /).

in th c cighth ccnt ur y as a reform ed vers ion of th c Half Uncial.

It survived in this form unti l thc 11th ccntur y, bcfore evolving In, m,mms adh.,, strrrrlj
10 thc htadlmc onJ
int o the Early Gothic (pp. 46-47) and Rotunda (pp. 84-85) . basdme, creo1rn9 ntat,
lc91bl, /me, efttxt

B Y THE eighth ce ntur y,

LATE
Charlcmagne (Charles thc Gr eat,
King of the Frank s), had created
a Franki sh Empirc that strctc hed
from the Baltic to northern ltaly.
lnspired by thc glories of antiquity,
Charlcmagne instigate d a grcat
cultural revival. The promin ent
scho lar Alcuin of York was made
Abbot of St. Marlin s in Tours, France,
whcre he estab lished a scr iptor ium
and Court School. It " ·as hcre that thc
existing Half Un cial was rcformed
to crcatc the Caroline Minu scule.
A dom in ant scrip t
Chara cterized by its clarity and
uniformity, thc Carolin e Minusculc
gradua lly becamc the dominant
script in Europc. lt arrived late in
England, but wa ado ptecl in the
tenth ce ntur y for Latín texts, such
as thc Ramsey Psalter (pp. 42--43).
Ov cr 400 ycars later, it was
recliscove red by Renaissance scrib es
ancl, in turn, adaptccl by icholas
Jenson and oth cr type clcsig ners
in Vcnice for thcir early
printin g types (pp. 90- 91).

VATI CAN ll A51LICANU'>

The l lalf Uncia) i~ usu ally defined by ics capital
form of N and by che o bliquc -c uc nib uscd to
wrice ic (p. 40). Alcho ugh lacking in subtlety , rhi ~
early exam ple . probabl y from che late fifth century,
show ~ clear and unambi guous letterform5. Note
h ow vertical che scripc is co mpared co che slanted
Caro line ofchc Crandval Diblc (opposite).

38
 CAROLI NE MI NUSCULE

These modern Coroline leuers cJp;cal leuers, looselyderfredJrom Uncia/

ha"e been wricum in 9ouache and Roman mode/s, hal'e been creacedto
on a back9roundefwotercolour harmonize with the minuscule hand

$HEILA WA TER$
Composed in 1990
by the English- born
calligrapher Sheila
equidiSC11.n~ >.ris e-'likeplumes Watcrs, chis work
is part of a triptych
pron, 1he
9" - whitefÍc,or'of,nl st- entitled Clo,id
SCQV een tl,e-,noum.. ln d,;ún s Conceptions from
lnmorning s ut, ,wl,id, s l""'.!rburn s Above. T he text is
arranged asymmetrically
--ti.e v.ille7fo
s -'"'~· in a stretched, mod ern
11,e-d-.,ee
b ftB, J,.u,~sin i~a.uJn..,o,.,sb.p- version of Caroline
wf,;cl, ~Awhí le:.- cM,enJ;s sofve-:- ' Minuscu le. The even
height and straightness
In mt>rnínsl~~~ sncn.vfielJ l couL:l
w.Jk upan. of che lin es allow
fRA N KJSH EMPI RE
The extent ofChar lemagne's Franki sh ....M7tras.v-e$º" e;'mi les p>-Bt; subtle colour changes
Empire in the early ninth century is marked R e tun , ecl to p.u-etttc
\~fº,.__, to be made to the
in red on this map of modem Europe. As letters ·withour
the emp ire expanded north ofthe Alps, th e ove rall design
Latin and Greek learning was carried with it. becomi ng too busy.

A sq ua re-cut ni b
The major differen ce betw een

lNCIPIT LIBER the Half Uncia! and the Caroline

Minuscu le is the cut of th e pen nib.
The ear lier hand is written with an
EXO DVS ob lique-cut nib, which prod uces
an upr ight lett er with contrasting
thick and thin strokes. The Caroline
A€C SU,HT _(:.o,f : l.
is wr itten wi th a square-cut nib,
~Oml~Í"- which prod uces letters with strokes
f 1 LlORU of even propor tions (pp. 40-41) .
1sRN'1el Text ura] colo ur
When viewed as a page of text,
q u 11 ]"-l(j""RE S the textura! colour of the Caroline
Sl S ~ Tl-,..;i lJ Minuscule is guite distinct from that
7'--ES-YPTU of the Half Uncial. Wh ile th e Half
cum1i'-COB Uncial letters have a static aspect, the
Caroli ne letters have a slight forward
STf'•.¡CjuL1
· thru st, an element most noticeable on
cumDomJ the ascenders and descenders. Minims
BOS ~UlS adhere sharp ly to the headlines and
J~TROJ E baselines, which em phasi zes the
script's ordered and logical aspect.
RU~T -
f'-u l, en . -(i-m ro 11. le-u1 . 1u d.)...1r
._.._[
fi .ch~ z_"-l, u Lo,,
,_ __ __ The square-cut pen nib9ives ,he Caroline
Minusculeleuers a sli9hiforwardthrust
. ch..ne-r:n
e-c:bC?11~m111 ...,,.,.,~m . _3>--d
e--c~e-r-·
THE GR.ANDVAL 8113LE
E ~-i:1.51-ru,.....omnct.,..n1m~rum CfU-"'-e~, e f Th ere is a subtle forward thrust to these exemplary
,r. -.f. d.....J:........ l, f.
11'ZA--qu
111 c¡ue-'
• Caroline Minu scule letters. They are writt en
1 ~ un-z=; 1e-pn1":$"'1
':" 1 .,,, ,O-r-c,:\..C-0 · bccween four imagi nary Lines:che minims
, otevh xu-a-ni. 1 n~p--ro~ - guomor-z:uo C7:::" adhere to che centra l two lines, the ascenders
J I .::, ' reach the top bn e, and the descend ers reach
u111u~r~ b:~urom111c¡ : co<rn~o11e-fü..1'-. the bo ttom line. Th ,-,ascenders and descenders
- _, _ • ..;:, are exactly th e sam e heigh t as the minims.

39
C A ROLI NE &_EARLY GOTH IC S CRIP TS

Caroline Minuscule
HE CAROLI NE MINUSCULEis one of the easiest hand s for a
T calligraph er to master . As a reform ed script, its original
function was to communicate legibly (pp.38- 39). Th e Ietters are
without em bellishme nts, the word spaces clear, and the ligatur es
minimal. AJthough closely related to the Half Uncia!, from which it
der ives (below), the Caroline is always writt en with a "slant ed" pen
where as the Half Uncia! is usually wr itte n with a "str aight" pen .

A fo rwardslant of aboul
10° is characteristic efthe
Caroline Min11 scu/e /etter

11,e pen anglef or tite

hand is abo1<135° 11,e tl,ird
srroke eftire
Basic elements d co11ld be a
Th e mini m height of contitmation
the Ca ro line M inu scule eftire second
is betwee n thr ee and
five pen width s, wich
a furth e r cwo or three
for the ascend ers and
descend ers. The serifs 11,e sweep ef
o n the ascend ers o f b, tl,e third stroke
d, h, k, and / have a efthe e cou/d
clubb ed app earance. contin11 e 11p1var
ds
Oth er letters, such as i, ~ ""'-'~~ - """'-
-- toj oin tire bo,ul
m, an d 11, have slightly
w edge- shaped serifs. 2

11,e stem of the f

ca11a/so be made

X
Caroline Minuscule
Th,C,
roU•
,
Mi,mscu/e a is
a two-storey,
HalfUncia l

i,;.,i- --- 77,isoc f orm of a

is characteristic of
,vit/1 a single
doumward stroke

-v=
- - oprn letter tite Half U11 cial

The Caroline
n takes a T/1e Half Uncia/ 11,e bowl of
recogniz ably hand retains the tl,e g s/1011/d
- -·- /ower-casefo rm U11cial capital n be left op en

Fi11isl, the h ,vith

i----•~ -~,::,....
_______ ...,~
is writte11ivith a
"straig ht " pen
---,...:...--.;'-..✓-- this inward sweep
or wi1/1af oot (see
alternative n, opposite)

-e
(obliq11e-cut nib)
11,e Caroli11
e Skate the tail ef
tire i tofo rn1aj
,uith a "s/a11t
ed" pen
(sq11are-C11t
nib)

40
 CAROLINE M! NUSCULE

thefoot ofthe 1
P111/
~ alongthe base/ine

_,,, ,, í!iiE.~·
Use one co11ti
1111011s
strokefor the

__
m ,.vith a11inwardsweep
or afoot {seealternativen,
below right)
2

LU!
2'
2
Finish the n
with an inward
sweepor afoot
(seealternative
n, below right)

2 --
A lternatively,

P
the p co11/d
be draumin
......~-- two strokes,
with the second
roke co11
ti1111ing
to the stem
2

3
11,estem of
the q co11/dbe
a continuation
ofthe second
stroke
~~ -- ----,
2~2-
2

traditionallong
for111ofs

-n ~ --o foo
-
Long s

tf
or
h,
, --
1
-
2 11,isaltemative

and n ca11be
11sedinstead
ofthe sweep
3
AJternative n

41
C1ROL/i\'E &._Eill\lY GOTI-IIC SCRIPTS

Foundational Hand
o BOOK o m echani cs of calligraphy is complete
THE
N without a reference to Edward Johnston's Foundational
Hand and its simplicity and integrity. Historica lly, it belongs
to the early 20th century. Howe ver, th e basis for the scr ipt is
a manuscript dating from the year 966, the Ramsey Psalter. fO UNDAT IONAL I'
Wirh rhc pcn hcld ar
Believcd to have been produ ccd by scr ibes at Winchcster, 30º . the weighr of
each Foundarional
th e Ramsey Psaltcr ·was written in a hand now known as lerrc r appcars to be
e\·en ly disrribuced
the English Caroline Minuscule, an Anglicized version bcrween horizontal
of Frankish Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38- 39). and verti cal strokes.

Br THE END OF thc 19th century,

undcr thc influe ncc of thc Arts and
Craft s movem ent in Eng land, a who le
--u 1sr14rc
dñe-dze-1/h,:
ne" · philosophy was emerg ing among fine peccaronof cuf6d1re--
· ..
artists and crafts mcn. Th e basis of
this phil osop hy was that the hon cst m tfcr-erenndne-.-m1fcrere-nn· ,:
co nstr uct ion of an artefact wa s
achicvcd only by th e co rr ec t f tac m1fencou:fuUL\,dñe
int eraction of too) and mat e rial.
Med ica) studcnt Edward Johnston
fu~ nof quemagjnodum
readily endor scd this idea and began, fpaauimuf 1ncc· .· .
in 1897 , to expe rim cnt in writing
lct tcrs with a broad-cdgcd pcn. In
1 ore dñé fpera.u1.nonconRin .·
1899, his work carne to thc attcntion
of W. R. Lcthaby, Prin cipal of th c
dar 1na«crnum · .· .
Ce ntral School of Arts ancl Crafts in
London, who invit cd him to tca ch
classcs in Calligraphy and Illumination.
In 1901 , John ston also began lecturin g
at thc Royal Collcgc of Art, London.
íB
;'
1,y~US lúuM. fuE·R.0R,~~
encdtace-omá,opaa
Lmdatt6{fupa--~Ltatt-
-✓
dmdno
-

eum 1nf~ . .·. .

B ~ansru~dño:!,gtid~~ · .,
B enaqme-omf qutCfup(Jlof
In 1h,s dc1ad, 1hc "lumped"serif on the I has func dño~~
otñf u1mmf dñídno·.,
B mfol&luna, dño.~
bcen complctcd aficr thc stcm has been ,lrau n

THE R AMSEY P~ALTER

T hc Caro line Minu scu le of the R amscy Psaltcr
was o nc ofr he hands on whi ch Jo hnsron 's
bmedrare-
,..,, _,
ff:d1ac
cdt
"'r
drio·
calligraphic work was based. In Writi11
Jl/11111i11n1i11
,~ mu/ Le11eri11.~,
,~ m,d
he staced. "it has ali the
B cnom1f1mbc.&rofdnÓ .~
qualitics of good writing in a markcd degrec, and
1 cons idcr it. takcn ali round, the m osr pcrfcct
and sacisfactory pcn manship which I have seen" .

..f.
2
 f OUNDATIONA I. J-IAND

EDWA l~I) J O! INSTON

Thro11gh his calligrap hy. dcsign. wri ting, and
teachi ng, Edward Johnston be.:a 111 e one of the
the mo~t influential pcn smc n of the early 20th
ccn mry. He is pictured here using his favourite
wri ti ng instru ment. the quill.

"Slant ed " p en Iett ers

Johnston was cncouraged in his work
by Siclncy Coc kerell, the former
sccretary to William Morri s, who
J->~Jl,Tf. 6.- 11 SLANTED-PEN .. SMALL-LE1-rERS. },.,,•,
.• "l/nJ1,:lt1,-,-. "Jw.r .....,N,lm(Jp1Jj,_ ,~,,, .. ,¡, }'~1 ,1 10, ....
introcluced him to the Ramscy Psalter.
1. F,11,trl,uio,ir1/
fiad: 1 h.mJ for MS. work :lnd to dcvclop into latcr Íorms ( Reí. W. &:L. collo. Vil( .
:ancxccllcnt form.1
& PP· 30¡-3 ,o). lt was then that he v,rrote to a friencl:
IL /111/ it llmul: a r.lpiiJ:rndp~ctil:'1 1 h:u1díor rnoJc:rnMSS. (Ri.:f.W. & l. . rollo. XXI. & PJ), J I 1-3 15).
111. Rf11ta11 lliutd : suitablc for thc most form.1
$111.Jl!-l.mer \ modc:rnMSS. (Reí. \V , & L eolio. XX . & rP•J 10 , 48t). "Ancl so t he idea carne - to make
11. :lnc! Jl l . m1yb< uken :u MS. modd! for ¡)t.1. Ctical :tdap 111ion to pri;uiN.t. &c.: cf. Pis. 101 11, 1-4, 16.
, p11in1int,tfl1"::i1rt,
living letters with a formal pen". In his
great instru ctiona l work Writing and
11/uminating and Lettering, publishecl
in 1906, he explaincd his preference
WORK~H EET
In 1909, in collaboration wit h che arrist Eric Gill,
for "slantcd" pen lette rs, sucl1as
J o h nston produced a se ries of student wo rk shec ts those in the Ramsey Psalter, over
on w hich he descr ibed che Fou11datio11al H and as the Half Uncia! letters writt cn with
€t h.1cc sc1ibín1us '·cxcellent for for mal MS wo rk an d to develop into
latcr forms" . 011 che shcccs, h e mod ificd che R amsc:v a "straight" pen (pp. 38- 39). Drawn
,u bís ut (.~
o.1udc.1tís. Psalter script by mak ing it lighter and more uprighc :
and he included his cha racteristi c "s harp-headed " serifs.
with a broacl-eclged pen held at 30°,
the "slanted" letters haclthe greater
&&1udítu11 ~stnun strcngth and legibility, and the text
sít plcnun1. they procluced was of an evcn weight.
E'rl)llJl'.CS[l!llllllllCÍ(l(ÍO.~llJ.1 - Careful considera/ion of1ex1si✓.e. ,,,,., "Sharp - headed " serifs
111
1f1tvmm
sabni&QllllllllCÍlllllllS wci9h1, and spacin9 is demons1ra1cdTI) The most markccldiffcrcnce between
mbís:QyoníamDmsl11xcsr. ,h,s mawre workb)' joh11sw11
John ston 's lette r s and those of thc
ínrommsmzrullac.
& rcnrbmr
Carolinc Minuscule is thc scrif on
asccnclcrs. Rcgarding the "pushcd"
STunv s 111;1;·1
Th e main rcxt of rhis study sheet from 1919 is writtc n pcn strokcs used for "lumped" serifa
in Johnscon ·s own full y developed Found acional H an d . as forced, John ston advocatecl thc
The ascc11ders are: mon : nrdert:d and shorter than
those demo nstr ated 011 che ea rlier wo rkshcc t (abo11c).
use of "sharp-headed" serifs macle
Johnscon 's 111asccry of ltalics (pp . 94-95) is also clear. from "pulled" pen strokes.

43
CAROLIN E &_EARLl' GO T HIC SCRJPT S

a
1

FoundationalHand
¡\ LMOST AS IMPORTANT in calligraphy as the lette rform s is the
J"\. mann e r in which the words are laicl ou t on the page and
the tex tura! effect that they achieve. With its regulari ty of cluctus, /4
1
l~ 3

b
in which arches, curv es, widths of letters, ancl interna ] spaces ali 2'-t
relate, the Founclational Hand demonstrates a perfect evenness of To draw tite serif
texture (see lnter-letter spacmg, below). The pen angle is about 30°, and srem of the b,
see letterI
increasing to about 45° for diagonal stro kes. Minim height is four or
five nib widths, with a further thre e for ascenclcrs and descenclcrs.
2

7 e P11/Irhefi rsr
strokeof r/ree
a/o,igthe baseline
~

d
2 4
To drawt/1e
5
serifa11dsren,
of tite d, set
letrer1

e
The key letter
As thi s co mp osite characte r of a, d, e,
"• and q shows, che o is th e key letter
of th e hand . Take time and careto
com po se its two curved strokes . lt is
useful to explor e che construc tio n
of Foundacional letters by drawing
che m with two pencils caped
together . The pencil points relate
to the corners of a pen nib .
-e
Inte rna! spaces
j The elegam oval

S ,
of space within the 3

..
L, letter o prov ides che
model to which ali
' oth er spaces in the
hand sho uld ideally

l
-L confo rm .

,.
t
J -

f l nter- letter spacing

The spaces between lettcrs shou ld be as
co nsiscem as possible. Many scrib es train
their eyes to study inter- lette r spac ing as
keen ly as che letterfo rms chemselves .
♦
h ♦
fo,...,..
nnd stem of r/,e
h, see lerrer1

lJ
To drawrlreserifs
oJrhe i andj,
see
leuer 1

44
 fOUNDATIONAL H AND

k
_
~
1- To draw tl,e se;
and stem efrite
k, s::__leuer 1
......-::1

t __ Pul/ chesecondsrrokeof
p.,sl, tite edge of the t along the baseli11e
,e nib downwards Ret1m1to the top

l u
to rl,e lejt {1) 3 and pul/ the pen
doumwardsto draw To draw rl,e
iWake an inward curve to 1/,estem (3) serifof rl,e
join rl,e main stem (2) u, see leuer1

To completethe letter, pul/ the

stroke along che baseli11e
(3)

m To drawthe serifof the

m, see /etter1
V
n nt
To draw 1J1e
serifof the n,
see /etter1 w
o X ·- 4

-p- To draw t/1e

serif eftite p,
see letter 1
/.
z\
t
1
J - Q ~,fffeh,wkeef

-
the p can begin ro
the left efthe stem 3

z
Tum titepen
nearerto the
horizontalto
3 broadenthe
secondsrroke
3 of the z

4
------"
To drau,the
serifof 1/,er,
see letter1

This alternativeg may prove

easierfo r beginnersro pe11

s
t/,an the traditionalform

g
To avoid rlres tilring,
stretcl,t/,efirst stroke
horizontal/y

M«m
=••g
45
C II ROUNl:. &._E A RU ' GOT /II C S CRIP TS

Early Gothic f-- -- - Thejlic k at the head efrhestem

can either be drawn asan inilial

script (Pro to-Gothic, Late Caroline) stroke or adcledon complerion

T HE EARLY GOTHI C
was used widel y in most of western Europe from th e
late 11 th century to the mid - 13th ce ntur y, a period that fell
betwe en the end of the Caro line era and th e beginning of the Thc bow is quite
Gothi c . In r etrosp ect, the scri pt can be seen as transitional compressed.9il'in9
it an o,·al aspect
between th e Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38- 39) and th e Gothic
Text ura hand s (pp. 50- 5 7), for it contains characteristics of
EAR LY G OTI IIC 8
each, including th e rounded bows of the Carolin e and the T his Early Gothic
split ascenders of th e Quadrata. lett er is wr ittcn wirh
che pen aran angle
ofabo uc -Wº.
THE E ARLY GOTHIC script
THE W iNCHESTER l3113LE
cvo lved dir ec tly from th e Carolin e T he illumina ted inicials in th e Win chcstcr
Minuscul e . It was more co mpr essed Il ible rep resenr a h igh poinr in medi eva l
artistry and are th e work of six d ifferenr 11iese rubrico1edcapitals
and oval than it s pr edeccss or and illuminacors. Thi s inicial leccer P from rcjlect thc use '!fR11stic
gr e at e r att e ntion was paid to such the Iloo k ofK ings shows Elija h being Capirnlsfor 1illes, (seoTh,
co nsu!ted by the me ssenge rs of Ahaziah . hierarchy ef scripts. p. 16/
details as serifs and the feet of minim s. . "
Its deve lopm e nt wa s poss ibly th e , 1 1
,,..
simple result of scrib es altering their
pen nibs from square-c ut to obliqu e- l ucn•n · Lornor.1t1.1.-1011.osn,11!"0I ~HfH
s15 -'""chtfrts'-".."f 1 or ,\\t~Ti~e---1 tr;-:
cut. This pr odu ces mor e angular s,,.,•,,___ 111i:.u --- 1n1s----.
lctt er s and gives an upri ght aspcc t
~
momltbu( <Vndt,111um Í(m1onan
to a page of text. Th c differe nce • aun ud ¡,.ttrt.1m
h,1l,i111nuf ;.1riÍ ~ .
betwec n lctt er s w ri tte n with a ,t!-,::VUa-lnot~tm
l~-c,mtl'¡,tJ«¡m\ •I~
v. lnf mfoiin,m ,nq: m!hnm .1ift1t(<,.'tfflS
squar e-c ut nib and tho se writt en ,n.1101-umm~ ..:m:~,u-,vmmq; =•
with an obliquc-cut nib can be seen •• • ,_ / " C.lt¡lffl•,1«h um1i o½dn~0\~1.C11ti;:quo
;.,",I_- • Nn01t,irq1ci-b.111t1fm,un •<1<mn1fümn r'
wh e n comparin g th e Win chest er ·; :._ 11~fflÍ • <¡Uj ,tbltmifel=°"". ijunédemj-!k
:;:J rÍtf <lt«t~ m11t"IÍ ,l(ttnOII« , <ffil' ljlÍÁmt\fflO
Bible with the Grand val Biblc (p. 39) . nmt ÍAC11tmcmot'UIII dCN -~tLt m <1tmli. 1¡mímum fi¡,ttmtl'ttt111í mft
The Winchester Bible tnm.mfr ¡,i001dúfq10tt t l5 q114mffllfflÍWdht114 '

~ffl)-
nu.tncl.i:!n
11C!t41nn
1-.mm·.Oeindc qd'mopm.ttml,uf md,ufw~'-lt1Tmj-lltt,ortnn mfo
The Win chestcr Bible is on e of dmt: qu.un1ic.1m ftt= .tltquif~,fl" ~. K¡,cim ~ .wrd ·
The initial illuminated P
the most out standing book s of th e ~ (.,qnt
nn odomnurce=i 1c-1lf.tt0 uobtsmu11~~wrm11mtOM1m
is extended 10flll the
qd',,obtsÍl5ffl~Ull!fu.l\ Cttm •~
"'lffl%•
len9th ef the column oJ
Early Gothic period. Commi ssioned text
dt«mnuf .q,!Ja;i· qd'dldd41'fflN-•nr-umtUrufunufqunq: .td swn
by Henr y of Blois , th e Bishop of qd~1:ntt ·«"<3"of~ , qt1ui1~Vot1d tt~metmm flhl~-
Win c hcstcr, Britain, it dat es from
t)« mj-!lmumc.kln-~utr, ~e m ~ ftntr fo,inntf•<ttmmuttt/
ST. AMBRO SE, cttt= .-tfünlum·~,"<idl•.,;-cmsi-• <JU
'-' munnn an:úw-<\'furd
. u•-
about 1150. Writt en with a "straight" DE M ISTER /1S f 1nA!m-.,u:-oS,-?mfm~fcno~ioctf.ipm1tt:1n<1!mvqin.v..1.xuí~
T his page is from a Utrtnn~tt- Íffltin.unnon dcccl,a.-. ?oll fum f.fe:,
1~ t-d"cmm §, .
pen he ld at an ang le cl osc to th e theo logical trace '"$!~in -,s1'W" ct:nwn1f fMI= •Rc¡,m.qutd 1~ft> •
p ro b ably penned at ~01« qutd t-d"~d fflS• Rcnun=lh dt.ú,olo~l,ufo uS•
horiz ontal , th e script featurc s short , manclc .I,'.úmmcJ MtUlfup=ú,us.,:'m<tUrUOHU<l •t!Olt m tu
R.oc h esrer Pri ory,
ncat ascenders and descende rs. Thcse Br itain , in 1130 . T he
TIIU(offl~IOI~ :fo¼tn(dm, UIUUffl trm •\ / ~ tl!«WllmUII•
uidi\tiÍ4M°1Wmn•
u1c1tth fummiÍCtca'li= •ijo!t ..vnftdo.
't·.u-t
creat e mor e int e rlin ear space than Early Go thic hand
o.irponmt i¼ur.iS•
f«l mm1 !ktorií ,pim•eryrmnoue .tnp iS
used is in co mple te ~~ ft=- frnpn,m tll- -qttl41-111L~""""~ ~ UITt'f(icn
longe r ascc nd e r s and desce nd er s con rrast to rhac of che
would , and so aid th e rcading of Wi nchcster B ib le
'-íVSE': \f
BRlT -1.'~
the line . Many of the Lomb ard ic (nbove). Altho u gb th e .\ l C\ \[ ~,
\,\,... ~~ ~ , { ~,S~"-__,,., .
nib is square, thc pen
Capita ls in th e Win chestcr Bible , is h eld ac an a ngle
used both as display capital s and as clase to 40°, which
resulrs in a strong
capitals vvithin the text, are amon g head line, reinforc ed
the finest of the ir kind (pp. 62- 63). by a stur dy base line.

46
 EARLY GOTJ-/JC

P APER MAKER
T h e earliest European
T/,,,
l'ersal letter I deparrsfrom paper was ,nade fron1
Goth1tto m,enuons rn rhe extreme rags of cotton or linen.
ef
11iformalit)' us decorarion The pen is hcld a, a sha!/oll'eranofe which were ch opped,
,han in rhe St. Arnbrosc, De soa kcd, and laid 011 a
Mistcr iis I monuscnp1(op posit e), sieve before bein g
resuhm9 in le.« le9ible fines of 1ex1 pr esscd and dr icd . 1n
13ritain, rebtively fine
paper was ava ilable by

Ef;,
Lffi~
~

the 12th ce 11n1ry.

~ v .n~ ___

,\,/ ORAUA l.\ ')01!

~ J.
~ 1NCIPIT:XXI
•
·J Thc: ,\ lomli11i11Job vol u mes wcre colllpleted
in 11 11 by scribc s and illulllinators at Citeaux,
Fran ce, onc yca r bcfore St. 13ernard arri,·ed
and i111 posed che hard discipline for which the

Yl~I ,,U CN~ Cisrercian o rder bccame known. The hulllour

and vib ra ne co lour in rhe illustration of thi~ pagc
from thc manus c ript are in sharp co mrast to rh e
~- f4e,t~ etcqi.ut 1ttm '"'ttxtú~tnf{re- wo rk produced in the austcre ti111c:sthat followed.

nuni Qtmt, dt ldmmottepetlM,U'l) ✓___

~. ... Thcse leucn are lc.<scompr«m l rhon
•Jprcolfor Earlj· Go,hic mipr
,s
ur:-uttiuf q;.paraf Lancc mode,ata;
butu=ne-q; 111mt?dtfcuffuml potuim
dq,nmar; 1ne-q¡ rttrft8 Wl-J'OrtnaÍ --- D eve lopm ent efEa rly Got hic
Nf' UdCUÚt·dtnqudtí,~ quip ,, Th e Early Goth ic script or ig inated
in th e areas that were subj ect to
p('eiuf fettuun,r tarna ~ Norman and Angevin inílu ence -
ronapnone-fum; gtau tdr :'urq$ mainl y England and France befo re
spr ead ing to north e rn Ge rman y,
eas ad folun Uflm ~ nitté--t Scand inavia, Spain, Sicily, and part of
.~U4Ú 1lcnn4 _pfUtÍ tnaíNám puer; ltaly. As a resu lt of English inílu e nce,
b; f«p--- of the min ims, vvhich werc form ally
more atte ntion was paid to thc feet
Ilonnul{f-uerv tta t'Xtt1'1ort
nf tttf eru tum:-- .✓ur fi qwf atS ft.
wn-- applied, as opposed to th e upw ard
flic k fa\'Our ed on th e Continent.
bu( penenare-deftdemr1int' qurK" As thc scr ipt deYeloped, minim s
11111ttutt1tar •ÍedñocfibteaX-quod genera lly became mo re comp ressed .
funf(oa.tnrar abfconditt;,qnd e--be-- Th e demi se of th e ha nd
Th e hand is p erhap s best regarcled
nc quoq: nananone-brllmuaper- as the micl-point of th e pendulum
f~tfrCaIJ oni' diamr; Tollmf tacob svving between th e Caro lin e
/ / /
u1rgaf populcaf utn def.~atn~da - Minu scu le, with its clearly definecl
let terforms, and the Gothi c Textura
liruf. ~ ~p LÚantf-~pattt dean,- hancls, in wh ic h th e overall textur a!
;;
e ffect is of the greatest importan ce .
aeantr eaf deaarofq: c.ozac 1buf.1n
mf Altho ugh inílu encccl by th e Caroline,
q~ ~pofuua fuaam candoi., scr ibes qu ickly realized that if th ey
apparnir; lila ti q~Í~ ~ increased the compr ession of lett er s,
«mdüi_p tnapferunr/ arq: 1nb unc th ey co uld alter th e textura! co lour
of thc page . Thi s reached its ext rem e
tnodñ• rol.o.i,effdl:uf..E-uan uf.-Vb1 form in the Gothi c Tex tura hand s,
~ ------- fub
dtrur¡ P ofuti;q: taf inca~~ wh ich qui ck ly grew in popular ity
and d isplace d the Ear ly Gothi c .

47
C11ROL/NE &_EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS

EarlyGothic TI,e bowl 011the

a s/1011/dbe large
ARLYGOTIIIC SCRIPT is writt en with a "stra ight" pen and
E has an upri ght, co mpr essed aspect. Th e wedge serifs on
the headlin e of the minim characte rs help create a strong

b
horizontal stress to the text. Th e minim height varíes bet:ween 2

approximately four and six p en widths, and ascenders and 11,e ascenderl1e1g/11
~f1l1eb can equal
descenders frequently equal the minim height. Because of the rl,atof 1/1eminim
great variation in pen angle - betwee n 10° and 40° - variou s
types of serifs are includ ed in the hand. The most distin ctive of
ali is the split serif on the ascenders of letters b, d, h, k, and /.

A _ B e - ~

1
,
d V

Split serifs "Filled" serifs

Create che split ascender with a pen angle of 40°, A third method invo lves
drawing che left serif and main stem first, thcn "filling" che split serif (C) . 0111i1the rrossba,
adding che thinner right serif (A). Altcrnativel y, The pen is held at a constanc
of the f to crearea
extend the chin serif inco the stem (B). 30° for the w hole letter .
.~Jormofs
lo11

D - - ----~~-- E

_ (\ , I 1__
,!.. /
- ~ \¡L.._ ✓~--"~
40°
A l1emari11ely,
bt
rl,e g ro11/d
T11efeet 011 rlie comple1ed Íll

straig/11strokesef tl1reeslrokei
the minims termina/e
witlt an 11pward 1_
Early Gotl,ic
lerter,slwrildbe
Flat-headed and wedge serifs
11m1efthe pen

A fourth serif variation is che flac-headed type (D),

l ~ 3 a/1emarively
!J
Tl,e h r"11/d
have
a serifedfoot

writ1e11
,villr an created by overlapping two strokes, w ith a pcn angle The j is a
obliq11e-c111
11ib of about 10° . A fifth serif type is the wedge serif (E), modem
which appea~ on the lette~ i, m, n, p, r, and u, as we ll amsuuctioH
as the modern lette rs j, v, and w. This can be drawn
in one or two strok es, with a pen angle of about 40°.

48
 EARLY GOTl-1/C

I Thefirst stroke of the

t co11/dextendabove
the headline

P11/Ithefirst
strokeof the 1
alongthe baseline_
t ~
1

<
The v is a modem
co11
stmctio11

The w is a modem
construction

;¡
2 -

~
~I
1 111esero11d a11d
tlmd strokes of the
~\...~¡ x ca11
be combmed
711e x has a f!!:/"
1

- ~
r
- (<v 3
=1 3

:ti:
This ligawrebe1111ee11

•-
the lo11gs and the
71,is ha!f r can be 11Sed 111eha!fr is co1wnwed

f4
J t is a dis1i11ctive

~"i"" ,_<J.►o~f
~" ,. fe
•_nd_p__
_i ro>»re ,f ''" ''"'

Full r Half r S- t liga ture

C-t ligature
~~
49
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Textura Quadrata
Y THE BEGI of th e 13th century, the Early Gothic
ING
B script had evolved into a non -cursive, angular hand known as
th e Tex tura Quadrata (Black Letter, Old English). The namc
indi cates th e woven appearance of th e lines of text, "Text ura " ,
m eaning "an evcn effect in weaving". Th e script r epr ese nt ed
a re volutionar y chang e in calligra ph y - after ce nturie s of
empha sis on clear lette r recognit ion, ind ividua l lett ers wer e TEXTURA Q UADRATA S
The script 's most distinctive featu re is che
suddcnl y subservient to overall textural effect. diamo n d-s haped cerminals of che m inim srrokes.

WITH I T_SDENSE, angu lar strokc s ancl

cliamoncl -shapecl heacls ancl feet, th c
Quadrata lett er is to many pco ple a
graphi c embodim ent of the Middl e
Agcs. In north ern Europe, it was usecl
into the 16th centur y for high -gracle
liturgical manu script s, second only in
prestige to its twin scr ipt the Prescisus
(pp. 54-55) . Th e Quaclrata' s declin e
as a de lux e bookhand ma y hav e
been part ly du eto its large size; th e
demand for smaller, hand-h eld books
meant that mor e mod est ly sized
script s such as thc Schwabacher
(pp.74-75) and Hum anist Minuscule
(pp. 90 9/) wc re more suitabl e .
Howeve r, thc Quadrata <lidsurv ive
into thc 20th ccn tur y in the form of
cut lette rs, staincd glass lett er s, and
titl es on dee ds, as we ll as being
mu ch favoured in Europe by
signwrit cr s, shop owners, and
designers of ncw spapcr ma sth eads.

The oudines of Versa/sand 11/us1rat1onswere

drawn ,n 1hespacespro1•ided by ,he scribe:here,
they ho1e been outlincd rn metalpo,m. wilh the
1

90/d and colour s,i/110 be app/ied

TliE M ETZ PONT IFICAL

This bcauc ifully crafted page fro rn an early
1-lth- century French man u script show s Textura
Quadrata ar its finest. The even, textu rcd effcct of
che pagc is crcatcd by che scribe's meciculous
regulation of spacing and minim height. T he
scribe may have uscd an obliq ue- cut nib , w h ich
wo uld have made che product io n offi nc hairlines
particularly easy (pp. 14- 15). Not e the rubri catcd
cap itals S an d /, pr ece ded by thi;, capi tal P. T h e
stroke th ro ugh th e stcm of che P denotes th e
co mra ction of "par", ·'p e r", or "por".

50
 TEXTURA Qy.lD/vt7 : t

PAINTING IN CI IICI !ESTER CATHEDRAL

Th is pa in tin g shows Bishop Sh e rbourne
asking King Henry V I 11 to confirn , th e
c h arter for C h ich este r Cachedral. Lly che
time che work was painccd in 15 19, che
Quadrata wo uld havc bee n obsole ce as a cexc
hand , appea ring on ly occasio nally in bru sh-
drawn fonn . The arcist has paddcd out che text
011 che top line with awkward word breaks.
T hc inclegance of these breaks is poss ib ly
cxaccrbared by che req ui rem em ro p lace
che w o rd ·' R ex" above thc King's hcad.

The 1ex1on the book

Thesp/,c ascenders
and destendershave
/,,enexa99era1ed,
part,cuarlj·on the
descenderefI he p
includes t he alternatwe
Go,hte a, ovhichJeawres
a double crossbar
1hrou9h1he counter

DETAi i FROM JYAIN 'J I G IN Dott in9 t he i a nd j

Ct IICI !ESTER CATI-IEDRAL
Th e char ac t cri st ic uni formit y of th c
Thc splic asccnders an d descenders are
particu larly developed in chis br ush-drawn Te xtura Quadrat a lct ter pr odu ccd
vcrs ion of Q uadrata, b ue chcy havc caused an inte resting inn ornt io n that rcmains
che artist d ifficulties - che ascc nders of letters
d and t clash w ich che dcsccnders of ch e ps. in use to day. Ha\ ·ing bee n easily
mi st aken for o th cr lct te rs, th e i was
.llanJ' mokes, such as I hose d istin g uishccl fro m ot hcr lctt crs b )' a
on the s. terminacewuh flick (by thc late 14 th cc ntur y, t his had
ha1rl1neflourishes ,,
cridence oJ
dc\·cloped into a do t) . T hc lctt er i also
.íl .ft.b.r:b.
t he 'icnbe's
l'lrlUOSll)1 clo ublcd upa s aj , acquirin g a tail
wh cn so usecl. Thi s changc, along with
Thecountcr ef1his lar9e c.f.g.f)~t.k . th c late medi cYal inclusio n o f th e 11·

.tn.ti . o.p.q♦-r~ i .f.

l'ma/ P ,s used 10 dtSplaJ' ancl the d iffe renti ation of ,, and u, gaye
the com efarms <?frhe
d'Or9emontJa nulj· us o ur 26- lctt er m oclern alph abet.

GOTI I IC ALl'I-IAllET
.t .\l.tt ., .,;.;.t.~. Script stat us
Th e statu s o f a sc ript is ge nerally
T h is pagc from a
calenda r-, hym n-, and
prayer-boo k be longing
';.( .r.t. t ~~ .~)-( clct ermin ed by th c num be r o f
sc parate st rokes ancl pc n lift s used in
to Gu illau mc
d'Orge mont dates
ttr its crca tio n , a distin ction parti cularly
di sce rnibl e in th e Qu aclrata.
from abo uc 1386. lt
givcs us an alm ost
co mplete alpha b ec of
noftrr Gcnc ra lly, t he m o re angular and
co mpr esse d th c lc tt c rs, th e m ore
Textura Quadra ca
lecrers , inclu d ing two
QtttCS strok es wi ll havc bec n used in thc ir
co nstru ctio n. A use ful indi cat or of
llt et
versions of a, r, an d s.
Closc exami nation of
che letters suggests
th c st at us o í a sc ript is th e bowl o f
chacche pen may havc
becn cut ob liqu ely .
This wo uld exp la in
lts ancttftcrtttt· it o th c lctt er a, whi ch ca n range fro m
a low -statu s, alm os t cur si\·e form
che rclacive thi ckness (scc th e Paintin g in Chic hcst er
of che stem strokes . Ca th cdr al, abo,·e) t o a high-stat us,
compared to che
diagonal and ri g iclly gco m ctri c form (sce th c
diamond srrokcs. Go thi c alphab ct , lefi).

51
 GOTH/ C SCRJPTS

Textura Quadrata
T HE ESSENCEOF THE Quadrata is the formal, upr ight let ter
with stro kes differ ing as little as pos sible from one another.
a--- 71,, bo1vlof rht
a ca11bt more
ro11nded

Curves are practically eli minated and the formality is only

b
broken by the use of hairlines. These inelude the skating stro kes
that occur on letters a, e, and r, created by dragging the wet
ink with the corner of the nib. The Quadrata 's other distinctive
features are the split ascenders and the diamond feet on the
minims, applied with only a small space between each one.
Basic elements
A "slamed" pen
(square-cut nib) is 11ie]i11alsrrokt
used for che Quadrata.
The pen is he Id at
an angle ofbetwcen
l'
-,,..____,.
of rl,e e can bt
fi11is/1ed11111/1
a l,airli11e

35° and 45° for stem 2

srrokes, adjusted to
a shallower angle for

b
conneccing mokes.
Minim height is
gene rally about five
pen widths. The
relatively large size
of che leners makes
che use of a reed
pen ideal.

r f' J
Join 1/,e1/1irdsrroltt
( of 1/iee ro rliesrem
of rite ndnim
(
,.______,,,,
2

-r -4

D rawing a right serif Adding a left serif

T he split ascender is drawn in two The pointed left serif should be a
srrokes. 13eginthe right serif above thc little shorter than che right one. Tum
headline, pulling che pen down to the the nib onto its lefi comer and use
len to complete che stem in one scrokc. the wet ink fi-om che previous srroke.

4/
1 ~,
~

}~
11,e 11pwardsrroke
above r/rei and j cm,
Te xtura! effect
To achieve che ideal textura! effect of Quadrara, foter-word spact s/w11/d
be eq11al10 abom llvo
,.12 be substiruredfo, a
/111/diamo11dstrokt
inner-letter spaces and inter-letter spaces should
each cquaJ the width of one strok e. 11ibwidr/,s
3"'-..

52
 TEXTURA ~/JIDRATA

¡-- ~
-t ~
--r¡
2

_-=,,:__ __
·-
4
-:¡lr; cross stroke
of tire t can be
ji11ishedwith
!!..'
a hairline

J a
4

~
2 6
'- Make sure tlrat
3 a sma/1spaceis
lejt betweeutire

J¡,
4 ovo diamo11d
::::.l

D
J\tlake sure lreadsof le//ers

l
8 tliat a s111all
spaceis lejt
betwee,,
eacl,foot
12 u a11dv

6 9 3
ef the m
Make s11r e
tliat sma/1
spacesare
/ejt betwee11
tire tlrree
dia111011d
lreadsof
3 thew

~n_ t ~ l
~ ~

. ~ lí
11_¡5
•t at
rr')i Dragthe i11k
~
> 'i
3
2

-_,
3 ,,,--" wirlr tire comer
of tire 11ibto 7

r1
1
.. complete the

2( ~ 4
7 ----
1
split serifsat
rl,ejeet of
leuers p and q 2
~

~ -----
3
Tire lrairli11ediago11al
of tire z ca11be draum
as a separarestroke

=:m~Tlr
4
elra
!fr -
3 5

f f
;:¿S k; te tite liairli11
e
' of tirer witlr tire 1 ca11be used
comer of tl1e 11ib
~ 1 _,
6 tofo llow a
rigl11
-lra11d
~ - ~ bow

r
0-r 2 7
ligature

a- Skate tire
e efrite s
liairli11
T1terrglrt-lia11d
- bow of tite p ,mi-
bej0111ed wrtl,
1
"s
J2
:! 3

_y wirh the comer

eftire nib
the lejt-lra11d
bow of tiree
- .
5
' 4 -V
4

Joined p and e ~ 8
6

53
 ~

.. . ,("

.•
~'

,J

L1
,.
,,,,
h
4
•

• ap
nnttmtton J. • lal~ . -~n-

fttlmnonon falt JL~~~~Ei~)~ :.

tnlMP
~~
·tto·mtntuo
·.v
m Hu5
"
v♦ : &\~·"·
, ~ ltStttll;f
mtdtrabttdtca~n
_orlt. · .,
tmnqtu1m ~um qbp~t . · ·
dl:ftttt$dtttirítt~aquamf· _
 T EXTURA PR ESCISUS

Textura Prescis us
SE OF TH E T EXTURA PR ESCISUS (Textualis Prescissa,Black
U Letter) para lleled that of the Quadrata (pp. 50- 5 1), both
in its duration as a bookhand and in the development of its
textura] style . Th e two script s evcn used the samc Capita ls
and Versals (pp. 58- 59). The chief differenc e betw een them is
indicated by th e adjunct to th e Pres cisus's name, velsine pedibus,
T EXTURA PR .ESCISUS .11
-n,e sq,wre-ended
which tran slat es as "with its feet cut off". Thi s refers to th e Presris1s1Jeetcontras
, Th e fiar fcer of the
Prescisus are rhc scripc's
squar e- ended bases of th e minims and desce nd ers in th e hand. 1/iediamondfeer
111il/1
mo st cha racte ristic feature.
~fthe Q,wdrata

THE WINDM ILL PSALTER

B OTH THE QyADRATA and the
Thc Windm iU Psalte r was wr inen in Eng land in about
1290. In chis folio from The Judgc m cnr ofSo lomo n , che
m1~mcrsam1tmr
Prcscisus e volved from thc Early
fine filigrcc work is done wit h a sharply point ed gu ill. Thc
steep pen ang le uscd for che text produ ces rypically angular
qmc1utn
• rtumtnt Gothi c scrip t (pp. 46-47) and dat e
lcttcrs with stro ng dia m on d hcads and n arrow m inim m1mbtttm11tm t 1 from the end of the 12th centur y.
strok es. Srroke wid rh an d inn er-lerrer spacing are eq ua l.
1a1r1gn1smfi,tnts Palaeog raph er s are uncertain which of
tnattlnt&fumm, thth ee two carne first. It is possible that
Prescisus ori ginated in south ern
mpttlftt&tt1fflU5Í1 England and spr ead to Fran ce , wh ere
y- L;,COVUS QUlO~~Unt
COtunt mnffuícqnrmr "t
~ scrib es we re inspir ed to deve lop the
~puo
- ·niíd}t Oommuf!1;1qm fo
__1 mn1rmaltt
mram
aoucrfu6
rn~~WDMID
illmnam
nnttn mm11rut&
stmrcbttnfaum
· Quadrata. Th e arri val of the Prescisus
was most likcly thc result of a creative
bur st from a calligraphi c virtu oso .
~tlmnonu ; tría But , what ever its origins, th e script
{~ ntoonnnroommefarmm i· rapidl y becam e a more pr estigious
atbtittlfbnUm• •
fllttttt:qUta
l ~OptlTt10ttlCtl ÍU8ut
6 boo khand than th e Early Gothic .
,rftnttf
•
mroiOta
e

b.mmc
nta·
t ·qmaegrnus_
tpau--
•
A precise h a nd
~ As a script , the Pr escisus was a
tour de.force. It was as pr ecise as its
µer~fum;1rot1hcum
conturb
a: nam c suggcs ts and scrib es necdcd a
T i! E ÜRM ESBY P SALTE R
nmidl1ntra
mtt5GY SY'.'Vl The O rmesby Psalrer, writt e n in parti cular dcxtcrity to use a "slanted"
am~ottlmat
f}~rutu~nbta abla' East Anglia in abo ut 1300, rev eals a
mo re rclaxcd form of Pre scisu s rhan
pe n to pr odu ce th e artifi cially
:1rrru
~ ntsfum tTus
fmnftrut
lo--- rhat used in rh c LuttrelJ Psalter. co nstru cted fee t that imitat ed the
work of a "straight" pen (pp. 56- 57) .
.m~• ri+;;Emw+ 1t@!4i e& THE L UTTREU PSALTER
T h e LurtreU Psalte r, w ritten for a Th c length of tim e it too k to writ e
uamca mfi
mtatafuntart - wealrh y Lin colnsh irc landown er in thc script meant that it could be used
~
.,.11
abo ut 1325-35, is Prescisus writi ng ar
its finest. The lines of text are unjfon n only for lar ge , pr es tigiou s books.
an d co ndcn sed, eac h stro kc near and Use start ed to dec line dw·ing the late
prec ise. Thc chickening of mi nims
rowards th eir base may indi care a
Goth ic pe riod , and th e introdu ction
twi sring of rhe p en (pp 56-57). of printin g saw its final demise .

The ha![ r is used when The diamond heads efminims are D ETAil FROM ·11f E

iütlm!()U
~lipirnOttlffl
...
.....
tarua
55
 GOTHI C SCRIPTS

Textura Prescisus
T HE PRINCIPALDIFFERENCEbetw een the Quadrata and Prescisus
is the latter's absence of diamond feet on letters
m, n, r, t, and u. The split ascenders on b, h, k, and / are reduced
a,j, h, i, k, 1,
a Drag the ink with tite
comer of tite nib to
complete thefoot of the a
2

or ílat-headed (square-e nded) and, in the extreme form of the

The split serifof the b
script, 1-etters a, e, d, ande are even deprived of a baseline stroke . can be replaced 1vith
Prescisus has a more clearly delineated base than the Quadrata and titejlat-headed type
interlinear spacing is approximately equal to the minim height.
2

-e 3

bt
A hairlineca11
includedon t/1ee

í
b
Tl,e Quadratafoot
is diamond-shaped

Common elements
The Quadracaand Prescisushave a
The Prescisusfoot
is square-ended

approximacelyfive pen widths and

both are written with a "slanted"

-e
number of elements in common.
Boch have a minim heighc of

0,11/i11e
pen (square-cut nib). A pen angle of
45° is usual for both T extura scripts.

TUIÍstthepen
11,ehairlin
tl,e e sl,011/d
e ef
touch

l! lJ
1/,efootby 45° at t/1ebottom the 111ainstroltt
dra111i11g
a/01,g ,f the stem
the baseli11e

~
m,d 11ptojoi11
theste111 \

f
Filled feet
To make che square
fooc, draw che scemat
an angle of 45°, chen
add che outline of the
foot by dragging che
ink with the comer
Pen tw ist
A second mecbod
involves twisting the
pen from 45° to the
horizontal in a short,
swifrmovement (above).
Alternatively, begin
rag tl,e ink with the
mer of the nib to
1

':.':lete tl,efoot of the f

3
Omit theuoss
stroketo use
this letterllS
a longs

of che nib. This is C\visting at che top of fo r 111rit

ing Prescis11s
/etters, ~
then filledin with ink. che scem (aboveright). i11duding t/1ereedpen 11,esixthand

1 4

5
~ --
seventhstrokes
of theg canbt
~bine d
6

Drag tite ink 11/Ítlt

the comer of tl,e
nib to complete tl1e
squarefeet of the h
/l Use the comer
of the nib to
completerhesplit
ascenderojtheh

/
Flat-headed serifs
Like the square feec,the flat-headed
serifsare created artificially with a
"slanced" pen. One method is to
outline the serifwich che comer of che
nib before filling it in with ink (above
/eft). Alternatively, add the serifby
C\Visting the pen downwardsfrom che
horizontal of the ascender line to the
45° angle of che stem scroke (above).
-1 Altematively,aful/
diamondcan bemed
to dot titei andj

56
 TEXTURA PRESCISUS

(¡ 4
Completetl1e
split serifof
the k 1vith the
comerof the nib t - ~

'll
-

The I cou/da/tematively
feature an elongated
diamondfoot _U 5
Leavespaces
betweenthe
headsofu, v,
w, andy

4 6

n- 4

P11ll0111the tail
of the x wit/1the
comeroJtl1enib

-~
1/ 2/--
The hairline
strokeofthe z can

--3
be 1/iickened
t1visti11g
t~
by

T11e final hairline

i --- ~ J,at/iisextreme
form of
strokeof the r 2 Prescis11s,
letterslose
is a 11seful
spacefiller t/1eirbaselinestrokes

Extreme form
of Prescisus

Lettersd and o areamongthe

bowedPrescis11slettersthat
canbe easilyconjoined

Two forms of half r Conjoined d and o

S7
Gon11c ScR1PTs

Gothic Capitals & Versals

HE PRINCIPAL DIFFERENCE b etw ee n Go thi c Capi ta ls and Exuberantjlourishesefthis

T Ver sals lies in their constr uction: Gothic Capitals are wr itt en
wi th sing le str okes , wher eas Versa ls ar e comp osed of sever al
kind are limited to openin9
letters or letters on the top
line efa pa9e efte.n

built -up stro kes. A Ver sal is a single initi al letter, dr awn larger GOTHI C CAPITAL P
tha n th e t ext script and used to indicate a titl e , chapt er, or Decorative diagona l
strokes and hairlines
paragraph opening. The size of the Versal and th e amo un t of gold reduce che amounc
of white space in the
and colour used to decor at e it is dir ectl y pro p orti onal to the letter's counter and
en hance ics stams in
per ceived stat us of th e init ial within th e t ext . Alt ho ugh less a page of text. In this
im pr essive th an Ver sals, the Got hic Capita l is far from plain , P, the thick diagonal
is complememed
with elaboratio n in the for m of hairlin e verti cals and diagona ls. by hairlines above
and below ir.

I T WASI N G OTHI C text that capital

and minu scule lett er s of the sam e
hand first appear ed to geth er. Gothic
Capitals, which used the same ductus
as th e minu scules (pp. 50- 57), were
used w ithin text script t o begin a
sent ence or denote a prop er no un .
In import ant sent ences or verses,
Gothic Capitals wer e frequ entl y
usurp ed by Vers als. In its simplest
form , a Versal can be an outlin e
lett er filled with a splash of colour.
In mor e sophisticated form s, it can
be hjstoriated (see th e Win chester
Bible, p. 46) , zoomor phic (see the
Book of Kells, pp. 28- 29) , o r
floriated (see the Boo k of Hour s,
p. 84). Alternatively, the decoration
can be abstract, with spirals, frets,

-- •' ®· ~ p ·.~
and interla ced kn ots (see th e
Lindisfarne Gospels; pp. 30- 3 1) .

Rounded bul9es ha,•ebeen odded to the

$".. :
.

ll . ~ .~♦ $ "
stems to 9ive extra emphasis to the letter

The coum.erefeoch letterhas been decorated

with vertical and dia9onal hairlines --1 ~ --- ~ ~ -:
•1 __

SAMPL E ALPHABET
Two sets ofGothic Cap itals have been draw n
011thi s i11com plete sample alpha bet, whic h
dates from abouc 1400 . AJthoug h the letters are
11otthe finest examp les of Gochic Capitals, each
scroke is clearly show11, maki11g them usefu l
m odels for the modem calligrapher to follow .
Note how the scribe has created extra weighc 011
sorne bowed lecters by adding an extra stroke.

58
 GOTH ! C CAPl7i 1LS &_ VERSALS

TH E ST . VAA ST 131[1LÉ
Writtcn in northe rn France
in che early 11ch cencury,
che St . Vaast Bible is a
prod u ce of the Franco -
Saxon school, which had
been p rodu cing boo ks
(
of the hig hest o rde r since ¡_.•
the m id- ninth cencu ry. Ar
first glance, che manusc rip t
looks ah ead of its tim e,
so sophi sti cated is che
page design. How e ver, the
plait and kno t deco racion
aro un d che Versal bc trays
' che manuscr ipc's Saxon
pedigrec (pp . 28- 3 /).

Ti • 'F '-Fl,-\.1~ The su99estion efa bracketed

ser!fshows 1ha11hese capitals
weremodelled on Imperial
leuers(pp. 108 109)

In this Versal,che initial leuers

E and T have been combined
IN GRECIA · (this combinar.i
on is che ori9in
'?four modern ampersand)
DETE Rl{ftC
SIMPLE VER SAL S
GEi\r PERSl\
..... , ... .,.._ •• 11~ .,..1 The se Versals rnay be
by che scribe responsib le
......
"''<.f1'1(in.:,Nes
),..,. ~ .,.., /e
for che samp le a lp habet
(
1T SPol1 m (opposite).They have been
free ly penned, wi t h
the letters drawn first
and the de co ration
added afte rward s.
Models for Versa Is
Over the centuri es, Ver sals have bee n
modelled on a variety of lette rform s.
Durin g th e Go thi c pe ri od , th ey
were generally based on Lomb ardic
Capitals (pp. 62- 63). In both th e
Caroline and th e Renai ssance e ras,
Imperial Capitals were ofte n used as
models (pp. 108- 109) . Possibly the
most ornat e Yersals ever drawn were
those in the de luxe No rth urnbrian
manuscr ipts of the earl y medieval
period (pp. 28- 3 1) . Th ese we re
derived from Rom an, Gr ee k ,
and runi c m odels.
Cadels
The other significant mode l for
Versals was the Bastard Capital
(pp. 78- 79). Enlarged and emb ellished
by a series of inte rlacing str okes, this PATTERN BOOK
l
Designs for Versals were chosen by
type of Ver sal is kn own as a Cadel che patron from pattern boo ks such as
(pp. 80- 81). Cadels were later revived this one from th c 12th century . This
page show s a final wor king pattern, in
for use with It alic (pp. 94- 95) and whi ch che intertwining stems have
Copp erplat e (pp. 102- 103) scr ipt s. been accurate ly worked out .

59
 GOTHJC SCRJPTS

Gothic Capitals
OTHIC CAPITALS USE the same ductus as th e minu scules
G (pp.52-53, 56-57) and are writt en with the same "slanted"
4

pen . However, the capitals have a wider, rounder aspect than the
rigid ly formal minuscul es, and the two forms cont rast striking ly
when used tog eth er. The numb er of calligraphi c flouri shes in 3
each Gothic Capital make it an unsuitable script for writing a TI1ebowi
whole word or a ful!page of text. For this, Lombardic Capitals of the B can
be strengtheneduritli
provid e a less ílamboyant alternative (pp. 64- 65). a11additio11al
scroke

J : l For cheserifof
cl,ee, rtvist
the nib ami-
dockwiseand
dragcl,e i11k
doumwards

_ TI1ebowlof
r/,eD can be
strengc/1e11ed
with a11
addirionalscroke
Letter height
T he letter height of che Go chic Capital
is approximacely seven pen widths, rwo 2
higher than che minuscule height .
Hairlines
The inner -lecter space is reduced by Altemative D
che use of hairlines, drawn with the
comer of the nib . There are mually

6f
one or two vertical hairline s, and a TI1ecurveof
single diagonal hairline on either side che E m11 be
of a thicker diagonal strok e. screngthened
wicha11
additio11al
scroke
2

Create---- ---4•
the bu/gesby
weavíngtlie
pe,, in a si,,gle
dow111vard
stroke

Jf
Tl,efi rst 6
eF
strokeof 1l1
Bulges and hackles extends below
Usea pen a11gleof
The vertical strokes of the base/ine
abo11t35° to draw
Gochic Cap itals can be
cl,espiky hackles
given additional we ighc
and interese in the form
3
of bulges or hackles, which
protrude to the left of che - ~ To draw 1/,e
stem. Use only one or the
/4 . s~!:(:Ji1;,~i
other and always ma ke
them consistent. Generally,
calligraphers add th ree
\q ant1-dockurise
and drag
bulges or hack les. the i11k
dowmvards

60
 G OTH!C CAP!TALS

11,e curve of
the H can be
~ (]]]' 2

~r
strengthened trengthened
u1i1/1
an 3"'--. wirl, a11
-;- Finish the
H 11n'1/,
a additional additio11al
stroke stroke

~stroke
s
,/i. , wrl
,,,.,,,,
011both the I
a11d1/,eJ, the
b11/ges
are .........
~i -
of the
Jco11/dbe
1 .drawnfrom
riglrtto lefi, -
dra11111
last 3 fi11islring
,vit/11/,
e
e mrl
hairli11
1 _.

0
~ --
11,e bowl of the T can
4
be s1re11gthenedwitl, an ~3
additional srroke
2

~
Thefoot eftl,e L
can be adapted to
joi11on to tl,e
folloivi11gleuer

11,e curveof
the V can be
strengtl,ened
witl, a11
addirio11al
stroke

T11ewrve of
the N can be
strengthe11ed
with an
additional 11ie rnrveef
stroke '---. theW can be
6 strengthenedun'tl,
a11addi1io11alstroke
hairlinecurl 4 T11ebowl ef1/,e
:--,.._OorQ canb e
To drmvthe .. \ strengthened
Q, add a tail witl, an
to rl,e O additional
stroke

~ 'l.í1] P11/It/1eraíl
ofrhe Y
belowthe
baseli11e
Altemative O and Q
~ -
6
71,e bowl of
1/,e P can be
strengthe11ed
wit/1a11
additional
stroke 2

61
L OTHI C ::,CRIPTS

Lombardic Capitals
LOMBAR DIC CAPITALis a bui lt -up lett er char acter ized
A by cur ved stem s and distinctiv e monolin e serif s.
Unlikc Gothi c Capita ls (pp. 58-5 9), Lombardic let ters
worke d well in sequ ence and so were u sed for wh ole
words and phras es . The y we re su ccess ful both in p enn ed
form as display capit als and carve d form for monum ent al
wo rk. The scr ipt was increasing ly pr evalent by th e mid-
The lerrer M can
1 l th centur y, and finally ou sted by the Humani st Capital alrernatirel)' adhere to
in th e 16th centur y (pp. 98- 99) . How ever, it enjo yed a L OMUARO IC CAPITAL M a baselinecross.stroke,
A squa re-cut nib is used to makin9 1he ri9h1-hand
resurg ence, partic ularl y as a m on um ental lett er, durin g draw Lombardic Cap icals, stroke o mirror ima9c
wir h che pen hcld clase to efI he lefi-hond onc
th e 19th- centu r y Gothic r evival in England, undcr th e che horizontal (pp. 64-65). (pp. 64 65)
influ ence of the ar chit ect and d esign er A .WN. Pugin.

TH ERE IS A RELUCTANCE am ong Dots are u.redon -IN

CI PITEZE
rhe letter N to
sorne autho ri ties to use the adjective
9fre che suokes
"Lombardi c" in relation to thi s extra wei9h1
scr ipt, becausc th e lett ers have littl e
speci fically to do with the north ern

~ IE : ;eTA
ltalian reg ion of Lombard y. However,
over th e ce nturi es, the term has
bee n widely used and acce pt ecl by
calligraph ers, typog raph e rs, and
lette rer s, ancl has come to repr ese nt
th e parti cular co mb ination of Imp e rial
ancl Un cia! element s that make up this
t: ~
distinctive hancl of capita l letters .
A simplifi ed Imp eri a l
Lombard ic Capitals can be see n as
Ca;>
:
simplifi cd, pcn -dra w n versions of th e
Roman Imp e rial Capital. Th e multipl e
st rok es of the Imp e rial (pp. 110- 119)
~r:
are red uced to a min imum , produ cing
a lette r that is rc lati vely easy to exec ute
(pp. 64-65) . The Lom barclic script
:
sr m
rJ..; 1mo ••
The text is
usually incluclcs Uncia! forms of wriucn in a
myjíneEorly
A, D, E, M, and T (pp. 24- 25) . Gorh,c scripr

(pp.
46 47
) - ---,\ ron
tlnno.mqmnm.mqummmcnnr.rnm 1mncáto
I

THE WiN C HEST ER fiillL E capaumuml_g;tf,()ftuumm chobár_.,.

apcmfunv
The Vísion of Ezekicl, frorn che Winche ster
13ible (pp. 46-4 7). includes a series of meticulous ly crafrcd c9-1.d'md1utf10ncf ctal nqumrumrnflf.1pfvcit
Lombardic Capitals. In common wich o th er works frorn ch e
n1id- 12th ccntury, rhe scribe has show n little concern abour -annur qumrur rranfmt_gr au omf~f 10ach1m.,
breaking words ac rhc cnd ofa lin e: for inscance, " I NC I P/ T
EZEC I-/IEL" reads " IN C IPIT:EZE IC IJJEL". In th e illum inaced fufu.nndt ucrbumctfüa.dt;ft.Ch1d, nltúbuz.{
ini cial, Ezekiel is depicced dr earning by ch e Rivcr C h obar. T he
four inrerlo c king whcels are symbo lic of che four Evangelim .
fa.ccrd
occm.mmra.,chatdc mum nxuf flumcn
62
 LOMBARDI C CAPITALS

In this early example Thesedisplay lwer s read: "IN NM DNI TH E G ELLONE SA C RAM ENTA R Y
efa hiscoriatedVersal NRJ /HU PS INCPT L/8 SACRAMTR". In che title let ters of chis eighth-ce n tury text
(pp . 58- 59), the Vir9in This is an abbreviacion oj: "IN NOMINE for C hristma s Eve Ma ss, produ ced in north ern
is shown in t hefo rm DOM/NI NOSTRIJESU CJ-IR/STI. France, we can discem th e cru de begin nings
efa capital leuer 1 INCJPITLIBERSACRA MATRIS" of Lombardic Cap itals. Th e scribe has uscd
Imp erial Capitals as bis mode ls, draw ing che
outl ine o f eac h letter in a single strok e w ith a
narrow pen nib. In th e firsc thr ee lines, lett ers
fea tu re interna! deco ration. Th e wo rds of che
title have been co nsiderably abb reviated. On
the secon d lin e the abbreviation of " DOM/ N I"
,.
as " D N!" has been indicated wi ch a m em1aid
s instead of with th e tradiciona l hor izonta l strok e.
e
....
Built-up lette rs
Unlike mo st other capital scripts
includ ed in th is book, the Lombard ic
letter is not th e produ ct of a natural
movement of the hand. Whil e each
basic compon ent of the Gothi c
Capital, for instan ce, is mad e
from a single stroke (pp. 60- 61),
a Lombardi c com ponent is built
up from severa) composite strok es.
Th e sides of the stems curv e inwards,
usually drawn with th e pen held
horizontall y. Th e monolin e seri fs
are also the product of the horizontal
pen; they are gene rall y slightly
concave and are not brack eted
to the main stem as they are in
the Roman Imperial Capital.
Embellishments
The Lombardic Capital forms the
basis for many Yer sals (pp. 58- 59),
and th e amo unt of emb ellishm ent
and deco ration is limit ed on ly by
the scribe' s imagination (p. 64).
How ever, th e ston e-cut Lombardic
lett erform is often modified as a
result of the natur e of the surface -
for instanc e, the fine serifs are either
thi ckened or omitted altog ether.
Th e Lombardic has been used
extensi vely on oth er surfac es :
textil es , metals, glass, and ceramic s.

Belowthe <itlecapital,, ehe chapter

openin9 hasbeen writcen in rubricaced
Uncia/ leners(pp. 24-2S)

Below ehe chapteropenin9, the text

script has beenpennedin a Ha![
Uncia/hand (pp. 38- 39),
, reco9nizableby its upri9htaspect
, +, •, :fie
nctl

63
G OTHI C S CRJPTS

Lombardic Capitals
HERE IS NO HISTORICAL pr ecedent for a ful! set of Lombardi c
T Capitals and those shown here have been compiled from a
variety of sour ces. Unlike Gothic Capita ls (pp. 60- 61), they are
Either oft/1ese
twoforms of A
can be used
used for writin g complete word s and phrases and so consistency
is of great importan ce. Conc entrat e on making the weight of
stro ke, the leve! of compr ession or expansion , and the serif - ~
constru ction exactly the same in each letter you draw.
Uncial
TI,e concavefine of t/,e form of A
serifscan temrinate at

B
eachend wit/, a
decorative blob

Waisted stems
Wais ted stems can be crcated by ove rlapping two broad,
curved vertical srrokcs and then addi ng the hairline
horizomals at the top and botrom (aboveleft) . A more
precise method is ro draw che who le o utline wi th a
Use a narrow
pe1111ibto add
rl,edecorative
blobs ar the end
ofthe serifs
e -8

narrow nib and rhen fil! it in wit h ink (abovecenrre

).

Rounded letters
Define che form of
rounded letters by

É o D
draw ing either the Uncia) Either of 1/1ese 11vo
oute r or inn er circle form of D fonns of D can be 11 sed
firsr. The latter often
preves mo re pracrical
(see tercer O, opposite).

Expanded and
compressed letters
To regu lare rhe chosen
level of expa nsion or
compression, use rhe
spaces enclosed wir h in
charncrers as guides.
Compressed lerters
have shorrer serifs rhan
expanded letters . Bows
can be fully roundcd --+ I
or poinred. Expmrdedlerter Compressedlerter
1

llO".c
~~
~ --::!'o ..,;
::il!I
J- - Caseli11e
a11d
shadow
Displa y capitals
Since the 12th cent ury,
the Lomba rdic Ca pital
has often bee n heav ily
elaborated when used
F ffJW
- 2
3

as a d isplay capita l.
Decoration ca n range
from simple add icional
caselines to comp lex
illustratio ns that are
gilded and in colo ur.

64
LOMBARDIC CAPITALS

65
GOTHI C SCRIPTS

The rop loopef, he w

Bastard Secretary should not exceed

min im hei9ht

ISTORICALLY,THE MORE FORMAL a manu script hand has becom e,

H the greater has been the need for a fun ction al cur sive scrip t to
comple m ent it. Ju stas th e Insular Majuscule spawned th e Insular
Minu scule in th e eighth century (pp. 28- 37), so the pres tige
Textur as of the 13th centur y (pp. 50- 57) gave rise to parallel hands
for the less pr estigious work of the day. A series of com plem entar y
cursive scripts evolved both r egiona lly and nationally, quick ly
developing into fully fledged hand s in th eir own right. They are
classified un der th e generi c title of "bast ard" (bastarda) scri pts, 13ASTA R O SE C RETAR Y IV
Thc w rcaches ascende r he ight
the term denoti ng a m ixed cursive and Tex tur a par entage . and is identical in both
minu scule and capital form.

TH E CURSI VE SCRJPT (pp. 34-35) The illuminated borde, and

had probabl y bee n rediscovered for Versal are cha racteristicef

f 5th -cemury En9li.,h
documentar y use in England towards manuscript work --r .,..;iil
the end of the 12th centur y. Although
speed was the most important
co nsid erati on , th e script was also
designed to impr ess, as the loops and
linking let ters test ify. Th e French
form of cur sive , called Secretar y
or Chancery, was introduced into
England and Germany at th e end
of the 14th century. Wh en Tex tura
featur es ,..vereinco rporat ed, it became
known as Bastard Secretar y in English, The horizontal suoke o,,e,
Batarde in French (pp. 70- 71). t he ampersand denotes the
abbreviarion efa word

1\t/Eorrr1no ,, ·s o,,·
TH E LiF E OF CHIU ST
Thi s manus c ript page
sh ows the translation
int o Mid dle English
by Nic holas Lowe of
a popular l 3th -centu ry
Latín wor k attributed
to St. B onaventura.
One of 4 9 vers ions
of rhe text kn own to
ex ist, it dates from
abour 1450. Th e

KA NE MED IEVAL MANUS C R IPT

Dacing from abo m 1430, rhis c::arlier translacion of St. Bo naventura 's
Medi1111io11s 0111/,e L!fe '!f Christ is also che wo rk ofNic h olas Lowe . In rhis
vers ion, rhe scr ibe has lllade use of boch che An glo- Saxon thorn sign and
the m odern 1/1for writing the word "rhe" . No cice also th e serifs at che feet
of th e m ínirn s, which are turned upwards and not broken as rhey are in
th e Bastard Secretary of th e Ad alll and Eve cexc (opposite).

66
 BA STARD S ECRE.TARY

l • •
French and Germ an J eatu res
Th e re are certain fcaturc s that

. .
he lp identi fy a bastard script by
its nationalit y. The Frenc h form,
for instan ce, is m os t distin ctive
for the calligraph ic feast mad e of
theJ and long form of s (pp. 70- 7 J) .
Early German cursi\"e script s wcre
character ized by bold, expanded
minim s and tall asce nder s and
desce nd er s . Wh en they we re
contarninat ed with Tex tura fcatur es
1 at the e nd of th e 15th ce ntur y, th e
Frakt ur and Schw abac he r hand s
em e rged, fca turin g "broken"
le tt e rform s (pp. 74- 75) .
En9lish chara cteri stics
In English mod els, it is the letter ,v
that attracts the mo st atten tion - the
sam e impress ive, loo ped form is
used for both minu scules and capitals
(opposite). Another English fcatur e
is_the long, downward terminating
fl1ck from ascenders, som etimes
called an "e lephant 's t ru nk".
Ge nerally, the English Bastard
ecr etar y tends to be staid and
prosaic, lacking the subtl e shift s
of pen angle that char actc rize its
French count crpart. As a result, it
was highly practica], and o hada
long life as a document hand: it was
used "ve ll int o th c 18th ce ntur y.

ADAM AND EVE

Thi s tcx t of the stor y of Adam and Evc was
written in English in abouc 1-115.A fine upright
as~ect to th~ le rrcrs suggests th at they were wrirren
wnh an obhque-cut nib. In the best English
¡J 13astard script traditio ns. the 111 is wdl prono u nced
and the "elepham's rrunksºº are boldly dra\\11.
rnduJes a scrif cap110/lctrers
The l<"AI
urr11enwuh 1hcsamcduttus e151hc/oll'tr•
cuse te\! (pp. 78 79)

e hei9htonJ laoprn9Jormif rheBasra,J

The 1mpr<!S.'11
S«rnu~•w make II the mostsmkm9 lctterin th,s po9c efrc11

DEl AIL fROM ADAM ANI> Ev~.

In thi s valuable dcrai l, a splir in rhc quill
allows us ro sce very clearly borh ~ides oí
eac_h _strokc. N or ice parricula rly che lcrter .f
th1s 1s consrrucred wirh a single srroke. che
pen bcgi nn ing ar the vert ical. rhen turnin g to
abour 30º ar mid srem beforc· rcrurning ro
the ve rtical for rhe de sce nder (pp. 68-69").

67
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Bastard Secretary
¡\ s A FUNCTlONAL, CURSIVEscrip t, the Bastar d Secretary is
fi wr itten with as few pen lifts as possible, with lette r s linked
ff
wherever practica!. Conseque ntly, the hand can be penned far
more quickly than the forma l Gotruc scripts, such as the Textur a
Quadrata (pp.52-5 3). Ascende rs are comp lemented by strong,
downward diagonal stro kes known as "elephant's trunks", draw n
to the right of the stem ata n angle of about 45° . These echo
the downward diagonal stro kes of the min im feet .
2

Tl,e angleof tlie

"elepl,a111's trrmks"
sl,ould be consisten/
tlirougl,0111tl1e rexr

Completerlre
17,e tail of rhe h is 11s11ally _ hairlineloop
draggedto rhe lefi of the of tiredin a
lerrer,a/111osrat a para/le/ single stroke
10 rl,e baseli11e

Key letter
The /1is a useful
letter with which to
srart pract ising the
TI,e e is almosr 11,e tail of rhee
Bastard Secretary.
circularand can co11ldjoin ri,e
Ir includes both th e have t/1eappearance
"elephant's trunk" thar seco11d srroke
of a let1er o
sweeps from th e head

~
of the ascender almosr
to the headli ne, and Tl,esecond
the charac teristic 4~ ~ ) strokeoftl,ef
downward pull of retracesthejirst

-f
For rliefim srroke
the pen at the foot ro ri,e headline
of tl,e f, gradual/y
of the srern . a11dwrves sligluly
1tvisr1/,epen
to rhe vertical __ _ to 1/,erighr

Drawin g an upward loop
Wirh irs sweepi ng hairline loop, the
d is one of the mosr distincrive letters
in rhe hand. After drawing the bowl,
crea re a large are by pushing rhe pen
upwards in one sweeping movemenr.
("'-, #
~ ~4
Adding a dow nward diagonal
3
Wirhout liftin g the pen, make a
strong downward diagonal strok e, Make a l,airlme
curving it to the left to jo in the bow l 1 strokefrom the
at its midw ay point. This stro ke will -- foot of ihe srem ro
echo the shape of the loop . the headline,before

downwardstroke
a11drarl
Basic elem ents
Th e pen angle for the
hand is about 40-45°

l)
and a square-cut nib is
gene rally used. Minim
Tire leuersi andj
heighr is four pen
can be dorred
widths, with th e
ascende r equal to a
furrher four widths.

68
 BASTARD SECRETARY

- 71,ebowlª"d
rigl,tfool of the
k aredra11111
a singlestroke
i"
t
Slightlyextendthefoot of
the I alongthe baseline

m
n A separatef,jt/1strokeis not
for the w if t/,e second
required
orfo11rthstrokeis extended

-Y V
Twist tlzepen

ú
to the vertical
2 tofinish the
descender of the
q ruitlza l,airline

n --1.
Conjoined letters
2

t\
Conjoinedlettersare less a
fea111re of the Bastardas the
71,e ha!f r is used to
Quadrata , b11tt/1isform oJ

'l
follow letterswith a
p- p ligatureis quite,0111111011
right-hand bow
Abbreviation Abbreviation
M , Half, of "that" of "what "

t Y -t and w - t (feat11ri11g
A11glo
rhe
-Saxot1t/1omsign, p. 66)

5 werecommonabbreviations oJ
the words "tl,at,,and "wliat"
respeaively

69
GOT/1/C SCRIPTS

Batarde
(Lettre Bourguignonne) is thc Frc nch cqu ivalent
T H E 8 ATARDE
of thc English Bastard Seo·ctar y (pp. 66- 67). It was dcvc loped
at th c end of the 13t h ce ntur y and uscd unt il th c m id- 16t h
Th11bascl,necross
century, evo lving fro m a low ly curs ivc bastard hand in to a ,trokc can be extcni/eJ
formal , pr estigc scr ipt in its own right. Batarde achieved its most rhc 10,I efthe p 11hcnthc lmer bc9m1
r,pomreJ anJ a norJ
sophi sticated appcarancc in thc mid - 15th century, an era ,vhen con bedro11n
mhcr upn9h1 or
the popu larity of th e pr inted book was increasing among a wholc sl19h1lyslanred \
13A11\IU)E P
In co1mruc tin g thc
new ec tion of soc iety. In this de luxe for m , it was th c hand il atar<lc ¡,, a series of pen
hft, and angle changc, 1s
favourcd by Burgundia n court circles, hcncc its altcr nativc name. rcqu1red (pp. 72- -.1¡.

BY THE 1111D-lSTH cent urv,, book ..

illustration in Fran ce was moving
away from m ed ieva l sty lizati o n
(pp. 5-1 55), becoming les intri cate
ancl m o re naturali stic. Th e Bata rd e
hand usecl for m anuscript books was
shedding its own Gothic ances try -
lett ers wc re light c r, seeming to
dan ce on the pagc . Thi s effcct was
achicvc d part ly by makin g scvc ral
chang c of pcn angle during th e
co nstru ctio n of each lcttcr. In
returnin g to thc major key after eac h
c hangc, the scr ibe co uld crca te a
rh)·thmi c harm o ny across a page of
text. This is parti cularly noticeablc
in thc Froissart Chronicl c (opposite).
HowC\"Cr, in othcr Bata rd c scr ipts,
such as that in th c Book of Ho ur s
(riahr), thc harm ony of thc tcxt is
achicYcd instcad by thc maint cnance
of onc co nstant o,·erall anglc.

lhc ,¡,/,rascender,me one ef,,.,,ra/

G0th1c /c,,wro charactenu,csthar
haoc,un 11,d m rhu basrardsmpt

!J OOK 01 ' H OUR\

This page i, from a small prayer-book
wnrtcn for the wcalthy Pohgny family in
,1bour 1-170.Thc script's Goth1c origin~
,1r" clear: asccndt,r, are sphc, dcscenders
m odcst, and minim ,trokcs tcrmin atcd wich
feet rcmmiscent of thc Quadrata (¡,p. 50-5 /).
The O\'crall texcural cffcct is closer to the deme ;,,.
aurhonry ofthe Go1h1c Textura scnpts than to
the light h,irmony of .1mu: Barardc, such as that
achicvc<l in the Froissart C hr on icle (<>pposi
re).

70
 BA T!IRDE

routm11rrn(r1t-l1f'-~~, ~ 11 ri fnt, /ct

tlll
nN m,tn,Htmtl (
mq1CP.« 111tm t-tc,v,¡ 111111t nk-01 ,ftt. 1td~CTW1,~t:ttrfll(
-~ •mrtctttt" ('f11ffi1tuttn'l:~/fa
• n-Nu t. mef", 11l('t111tl!t1tJ"'4111!W
.l..YNtlC--(t l')-llC«/t°N m 1111IIJ'(' f(, lU (f'tllOll/h'll" f'lUl"<~ftlfflC"
n pmttr(ffJ\ntu-1utot1lcí,,ut tt~ 1C'\\."ilf'RUCf.~1ttr~\w,I'.\
r•cffi-c
u,, put{tttutfJn(C- 11n 111
t-cc 1um a- p1•~ nr~~
¡l <l' · l (f' /i.ilH«t .. ~1 ( 111 ,, ,r- lc~.ctn"N11 t"''t\':lo1111,
1ttn.f<1"1

·~
~:,::~.l.,;~ :::i::::,:
':.t·~~;;::(~~·' ::t ,1::~;,r::.p~
R' J1111"'111t IIIMIII ~.,,...,.tt
,nau,c, .. n, nf t~'(C"h tt1ff'u, lff
CJll 'C'
( t '")IJIIICf--{r1r\l•11 f' t)1I k\...,,
\m c1t<-~l,1~••rm(t /11rlcf
,Jnl cll\~ l (k o(ttrft f' ,H1Pltt'- •l0 * F',;tt,-
\"«'p.'<~(frnr,-
1,1m14(
-:<{Ip.tm« •~11<tmp f4 u t II IN' ... p,'('l lll (l't l lltUr°IA·/
f, u1J1m •[n 11tt1t w,,c 11u tt- ""f
\'( ( C!!JllCIU'"\"c"-n"frp:-1 ttCt~
q 1tT 0 ~11111cun- tunfflt'"f- :;."';'\! t1nll ,f.t1 i'uiy1u1tu 1wf<t lt ~ 1
11r c1p: 111#- tucuct-lt ,_.;.,,.¡m· n,vc~.. .,u{-"-.•
~ towtt lflll
-f!!rth (1 t!IOl1U •l-\l1' ,II N(ltl\' ---r.,
e 11l 111T11rc , 1111
.IJh ~
m ~·, u 111,c-h ~J;,t11
't11/, 11,, u~1 Hne
C,1d tc-11~lJ i «-~·fl'p Ut-~ 11r
~ tt (fi r11f1-t► m1mff./t1mfl · ~ .-1~é t11tr (ir(' \ 11ut1 turfl
l'1" ~1t f"-II C{iw uf l'tCllf'1ffll: "\•u·11k11rt ~ «c c ltf-lott1':1tm-
"'""tt'r<t!fUt '\\J.i1("1U UI Cf ~I H f" <'I1u./fi {'cm ,tucrc•o 1,•1.!!71-
nir
-nvp fi 11!J11
t11(t nrou \n{itt t '( Ofll f' l lt ft'°'wf l,--/l: 1.._
~f'"
lt,,, l<tt1 n'~' ll1t U fo,1("(W":t
( P- ~ l«' f H( tt i lf C"(t~ ,~ \,,'tif /f
fm\",,.,, h un· « {cw ttt-
('t tC ltl f'
1ru i.\11mf l ttf- •r 1( ~(tf
~ 11Yt'1cfonrf u,,c-, t t !!\." ""\\H lf'nt ll l' Uf tfl \l llÑ m ~ r-
13..m {{n ttl't'-<•Jt tNU ft-1«-C"JI
r l 1'~ 1i.U1 1" N 'll t m 11l t1'ÍT
nll tt- JM,¡ltf, t 11fi 11111tt· CDU CH '-

t:,~..l~~ ·"""'
tcu/ tt"'"' •~t out a..fomm,.
tni m ,, ,~bt.r
fn Utd l t't"Ct , . ...
")11<• p u· 1, J;iu cu , .,. 1h 011t
1'\"HOflllff l / Í'!,gl'lt"m"::t"
h# f1 -·Fue f~IIIPfn ' ltffllC'tlllítn'{
oftc t e u/urp:C11u
•ft•~•"'" fn1 au "'"""1111'N-11101c-c"tf
,,ur"\,,c,,-,
.-<~ /(i •u• 01tt1~
t n>v~u cri('N'm· •
t u hl') UC't "1Í'"-ttl 'Cp-11f»(Tf h'
lll tf l( , Ht ll n ,m u · f.ttrt+ ,-Hlf- C":,J-"M
· 1.;,..

Ti IE FROISSAR T CH RONICLE
This is a copy of rhe l 4rh-century ch ro nicle Vit a Chris ti
of Jcan Froissart. A delighrful book. it has Th e scrib e of the Vita Chr ist i page
a modem appearance. owing parrly to che
rdacionship of rcxt ro rnargins and partly co che from La Ven9eance de la Mort Ihesa
resrraint shown in che decoracion. The feec of (left) had arguably lesser skills than
the minims end wirhouc elaborarion and che
scripr is ge n erally more cursive than char his two co ntemporari es featured
used to wricc the 13oo k of H ours (oppositl'). he re . He do es not achieve the
harmon y of thc Froissar t Chronjcle
or Book of Ho ur s, his pe n angles
are inco nsiste nt, and he is unab le
to return to any co nstant pen angle.
Comm on f ea tu res
In so rne exa mpl es of Batard e, the J
ÜETAIL FROM THE FROISSAR T C1 IRON I CLE ancl long form of s lean forwarcl at
The ini rial C is dccoraced w ich a Cadel
(pp. 80-8 1). Th e horns on che lcrrc r g are an angle . By kee ping thc angles of
.. similar to chosc on rhe g of another Gochic thcse two lett er s absolutely co nstant ,
script, che Fraktur (pp. 76-77) . Bo th the
· .._ ur half r and full r forms are used in rhe cext . th e scrib e can create a co unt erpo int
, ntit11t."1tfsfi
' IVÍ~"t...:1 ..\f ...Jftl1!!{t J.11m'1n".):(yr to the main harmon y. This textual
.:, IPWfh\:•~ ~rn cnr('c:
,,11( ~ out
. UIOJ'lfl.., ,
~J.~111..« c<cr
"- ...fJ~mn Theforward lean efthe leuer í effect - known as "hot spot s" - is
: 1u-crmui..ui.h ÚUIII(<4.
"'f"(c..l
rc,w, ·~ _.
u,,,u-uao:r ~ f.mocrnc.nt J." nrro · IS one efthe most d1st1nct11
•e a co mmon featu re of Batarde .
•l)J:\IMR¡.
ÓK11fu.'.11Ll ~u 1,t- .t'f llC -~ charactensucsefthe 80torde
111,(JU";tH
Í«-J,.llt'G.~1U<
11t Au1frn: ❖tc11 ,11<
J,-~•
J'--.:J1(q,,¡nr. ,i.,.-1um
'>
•,
Oth er frequent character istics
(tCUrmn ·
~' "'""''°''!"" .: V ITA CHR IST I PACE o[ Lettre Bour9u i9nonne ar e the
This page from La Vc1(~eanc1•de In Mor/ lhesn
overlapp ing st rokes re min iscent
includes rhe rubricaced prologue co che rnain
cexc, w hich opens w ich a Ve rsal. The book dates of Fraktur (pp. 74-75), and the
from 1479 an d was written by David Aub err delicate hairlin es used to join strokes;
of Ghent, scribe to Philip rh c Good, Duke
of l3urgund y. In che illusrrat ion, we see che th esc see m to adcl a further se nse
scribe presenting che book to his pacron. of move ment to a pag e of text.

71
GOTHIC SCRJPTS

Bátarde
T
o ACHIEVETHE most successfuJ Batarde letters, th e use of a
quill is recommended . A sharp ly cut oblique nib is required
-(l; 1~
:t 4
;;;;,
Fi11is/1

of rl,e a 11
1/,e
fi rst a11d
1/,irdstrokes
,itl,
a laairline
flick
to produce the exquisitely fine hairline strokes. The clubbedJ and
long s are frequently written mor e bold ly than other letters and
have a forward slant (the two letters have th e same basic form,
with a crossbar added for thej) . This produce s "hot spots" within 6 [: :1)
.,,....___,,
the wr itten text and makes for a distinctiv e textura ! patt ern.

Prepare to add the crossbar

to the f by wrning the Tl1e wn,e of the e
q11il/lo 10° 1er111i11at
es 1vitl1a
laairli11e
flick

A
l
¡-
11iekey lettersf and longs
should /ea,1slightly to the rig/11

t
Tl1e hairline
D rawing the f and long s tum che pen 6:om 30° to the vertical srroke of rl,e e is
The many changes of pen angle as you pull the pen downward s, dra111r1
ar a11a11gle
required to draw the Batardef and finishing with a hairline. R etrace the of about 45°
long s are typical of this sophisticated first stroke, looping outwa rds to che
hand. Begjn about half a minim right to creare a thickened stroke, and
above the headline and gradually retum to the original ang!e of 30°. 0 111i1 barof
the cross
the f to createthe l011g
fom1of s (left)
Draw 1/1elaairli11e
Tl1ecurved /1airli11e stroke at 2 crossbar of rhef al
the top of the /etrerq can be an angle of 10°
contin11011
s with the descender
71,eletter f can lea11 TT1ec/11bbed
slaa
pe
forward al a more of 1/,ef can be
pro1101111c
ed a11gletlaan exa;¡gerated
this (pp. 70-7 1) 3
Des ce nders
The descenders of letters p and
q are made by turning che nib
anti-clockwise from che horizontal
to the vertical, 6nishing with a
hairline. The descenders may
altematively slant to the left,
echoing the forward lean of
4
chef (above)and long s.
~

Tlaeheig/11of 1/ie ~
Batarde111i11i111
is The leading stroke
abo111
fo11rpen 111idtla
s of the h fi 11i
sl1es

Flat feet
with ajlatfoot

- ~ J
A · hairli11
e at the
top a11dtail of

J,,,;,
..
,-
Flat feec occur on all leading 2 e lerter h is
1/1
straight minims in the script, ( c/1aracteristic
such as the stem of the t and / / /4

l
che first leg of the 11. 1n a

't J'
more cursive version of j can be
Batarde, the minims may dotted
termínate with a Oickat the
end of the downward stroke,
as on the second leg of the 11.

72
 B ATARDE

,.~

ti Tl,e s1e111
mid
leading foot (!Í
rhe k can be
draum iu a
si11
gle srroke
'lli
~
2
t 3
j
t The ste111a11d f oot
of rl,e r ca11be dra11111
i11a si11
gle srroke ~
~
J.
-++-+
3

[ 0.
;~

- 2

11,, fim

be co111
,,,d,.,,,,'
strokes ~( rl,e I ca11
bi11ed ~
'-..
2
Tl,ef 001 of 1/,e I ca11be
exre,uled sligl,1/y u
2 5 6
s si11
Tl,efirsc uvo
strokes of 1/,e v
ra11be drai11
gle 111
11i11a
011e
111e111 ~
2
?

2
A3
~ l ~,
77,e w is coustnmed
Jro11
11,m ro1yoi11ed vs
2 4

X.,,. J lwirli..,
tail ,if 1/,e x wi1/, 1/1
comer of rl,e 11ib
e

p
2
-~
u
J1 1
,
]
T111i
s1 1/,e peu
10 a uear r1e
rtical
a11gl
e tofo r111
1/1
e

'""'"
' '"""'
ef " 1/,e p

~
/~ ·,¡
2 Wl,erepraairal, Barnrde
J 77,e leuer z ca11
alren1aci11e
dra11111
srroke
/¡, be
i11a si11gle

I! . i'7l;
/el/ns ca11be ro11 11er
1ed
111
i1/, /,air/i11
e srrokes

Joined lett e rs
7711· p a11dh arerl,e
cm/yletters110 1joi11e d
/,ereby a l,airli,,e srroke
of 1/,e h
77,e rigl,r bo111
of 1/,e
and 1/,e lefi bo111
o ca11be co1yoi11ed

73
COT!-II C SCRIPTS

Fraktur & Schwabacher

RA KT UR (G ERM AN L ETT ER) is a marriag e b etw ee n
F Gcrman cur sive script s and Tex tura Quadr ata (pp. 50- 5 1).
Manuscript exampl es of thc hand dat e from about 1400 and it
FRAK TU R A
The disti ncti ve
spikes of man y
fir st app ear ed as a typ eface abou t a centur y lat er. Earl y typ e Fraktur lett ers
are th e produ ce
vcrsions of Fraktur, and it s mor e cur sive, verna cular co usin of ov erlapp ing
Schwaba cher, r emain ed clo se to th eir pen-writt en origin s. strok es (pp. 76- 77).

They werc desig n ed by th e lcading Gcrman calligraph er s

of th e day, including Johann Neudorffe r th c El der. Th c two
script s continu ed to influ ence calligraph y and t ype design
until thc mid -20th centur y, and hada formativ e influence on
th e work of emin cnt pra ctition er Ru do ]f Koch (opposite).
Thc Frakwr a is always a sir,9/e-srore)
lcu er with on endose,/ bowl

utrgtní
~oKíntditttat(
TH E DIFF ERENCES bet wcc n Fraktur W O RK SI I EF.T rtc~ntlum
ufitmfom
e
and Schwabachcr are difficult to
Thi s ponion o f a
wo rksh cct (nbwe) is -~
~-~.;_
'.,mrtc. ,,.·--~bmatutillM •
~~~·- ©mtneíallt(tm
define pr ecisely . Bot h fcatur e thc possibly che old est
survivi ng cx ampk
swo llen body and pointcd tail of thc
Batard ef and longs(pp . 70- 71), as
of Fraktur -rd atcd
le ttcrin g . lt was ~ 11!1rtcG • ~too.mrumm ~
·we ll as curv ed strok es on the bow s
writt en in about 140()
by J ohan n es vom ;:~;~ 1tunctt~6tt {(tUbrnt tuá•9 ~
; ·v~J~)~
of lette rs a, b, e, d, e, 9, h, o, p, and
q. Diamond str okcs rem iniscent of
H agen, wh o rcfe rs to
th e hand as ".\ 101111/n
Frna11mr11111'' ("brokcn , - U6tn"btutoitunt
. .,~.... .ntrum tttté
Text ura lctte rs are a distinct ive fcature no tes"). lt is fro m chis
1f!~¡/
·~J'i~~ t,(.9 omtn( 4lb
:(tbtuuatl
~-~ tll(f<íltn(t
tcrm that th e namc
of the hand, but there is a ten cle ncy
for te rmi nal strok cs to be cur vccl. Ali
'' Fraktur " is belie ved
ro h ave bccn dcri ve d .
~ih ~;;. +6 {ott(t (t ~
.ty4\tn
lette rs havc a rig idly upri ght aspect.
Ge ne 1·ally, the Schwaba cher has a
{to:etij
írttutf(tttó
•S tcutct 1
Thew il (!fthis p. am:I -;.. ~ -'-~ --'-- --- -~ '
broacler, mor e cur sive form than the 1/un '!{orher lcuers on the
.;
bou om /,ne oj'texr, mllJ '
Frakt ur, and does not baYe the forked l by hand
hal'e been aclclec
,.~ -~¡ ·__..
,..
; ¡,,.
ascenclers and excess ive elaboratio n of '!Jíer thc book ll'as prmted
that han el. Sorne of tbe mo st strikin g
ve rsion s of Schvvabache r were • 'P')
pennecl, centu rics after the script first The illustrations ond _,;..,.....; --,.:..
l'ersalsll'ere adcled '!Jicr the
appearccl, by the calligrap her ancl t he cext had been cornplem l
clesigne r Ruclolf Koch (opposite).
 FR AKTUR &_SCl/ll ~IBtlC/-/ER

r MATTHAUS EVANGELIUM
In chis Ge rm an cexc ofchc' Cospel
ofSc. Matthew fro1111921. 11..udolf
Koch combines the features of Frakcur
and Textura Quadraca ro rhc ultimare
dcgree - che lines of cexc appear to
have becn knicrcd. Koch classified chis
style as a version of Schwabachc r. and
cxplaincd: "The page should seem to
be scackcd wich finished rows of
lincs ... espccially che space between
words mus e noc be broadcr than chac
berween lincs ." Thc Versals havc bcen
creaced in an equal ly robusc manner,
rcsulcing in two beautifully designed
pages of cext .

!/HR#f.-1- - In Koch':.1ext, the rntcrlineGrspaa

has 1·rr,11allj
,lisappcare<I,
allo1nn9
JU5l su/JICumt
whue{or the e_rero
sean alon9 thc /mes horiLomal~r

Z ~pa:
íttpúttctl)iOZtlUtlC
~ tnf(CU((t ~mrn♦
((m{olUlll ./

~Udui(t•8~iijUdut(t~ p~ 1)1, 1A I L ~ROM

MA TTHÁUS
G erm a n Lette r
By the early 16th centu ry, a furth er
~ba ufqtabRµmagc"mam : EVANCELIUM
Th e conc ro lled fo rm of Fraktur and Schwabacher
·ctafq,tuageAma
uf'1ab~~ frccdom of Koch's
had d cvelopcd that has since come to
letterforms is shown

fd>a •Batttl
btdtttr tt6tbont~ in chis detail from
Marchaus Evangel ium
typify German scr ipt s. lt featured
"brokcn" lett crs created by the
moitt•
tta(f ttttnc jnuítato (nbovc). R ad ical in ics
c-in1c,suc h ,vork gave ovc rlappin g of strok es (pp. 76- 77).

rtum.
~martagrattapf
~ new mcaning to thc
ter111"131ack Lettcr"
Used only in German-spea king
arcas, thi s broken lett er is frequently
n«• . Stuettt
9omttlU6tecft w (pp. 5(J--5I).
re ferred to as a "German Lett er" .

na♦ Jlla{m'"'Utl
~•---"' ,;.-,.----,-~
Thc s,ra19ht. comprcsscd
Th e rej ect ion cifItalian SCl'ipts

m m•M""tltt
' Fraktur and Schv.rabachcr cnjoyecl
\;;nt"'m-t
,e
1(9', '"" {"'
ttVVV
aspcct of rhehandbctrays
1/S Tc.nura on9ins: e,·en thc
lo nge r lives than any othe r bastard
no:íubtknttttl
brof<ttu lctter f has an 11pri9htform scri pt in Europe in thc carly 20th
.¡.... ~ PR AYER-BOOK cent ur y, half the books printccl in
f(tflUO,n0:l)t(O(cuprntU8,
, ;.,m ,ít~ / Thcsc pagcs from
Germany st iII featurecl Fraktur-basccl
tt1ron,\,,
_ll(:(t tn
che prayer-book of
. dU6 ~tO~ .
Emperor Maximilian
wcrc published by
typefaces. Th is longevity was a clircct
Schonspcrgcr of
result of th e Ge r man rejection of Italic
Niiremberg in 151-1·. ancl Humani st scr ipt s (pp. 90- /01).
Thc Fraktur cype was There ,verc two imp ortant factors in
dcsigncd by J ohann
Ne11do rfrer thc Elder, th.is reject ion : firstly, the Reformation
facher of chree ca used Protesta nt s in nort hern
generations oí
calligrap hers. The Germany to reject lta lian hands as
bordcr decoration is a pol itical gcst ur e; second ly, it was
equally oucscandin g,
bcing the work of
w id ely believed that a Humani st
Albrcchc IJürer. scr ipt d id not su it Gcrman text.

75
GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Fraktur Eitherof 11,ese

11w
fonns ofa can be used

HE UPRIGHT, COMPRESSEDletters of Fr aktur are closer in

T appearance to the Gothic Textura scr ipts (pp. 50- 57)
than either the Bastar d Secretary (pp. 68- 69) or th e Batarde
(pp.72- 7J) . The hairlin e spikes, such as those on lette r s b, B,
h, and q, are a distinctive feature of Fraktur and do not tend to
occur on the ro under Schwabacher let ters . The pen angle of
about 40° is altered only for drawing the pointed descender s.

e
_,,,,.
= ---- --- -- TI,e asce11dercan be dratvt1
111ít/1
a si11glero,mded
strokeor witl, a sp/it serif

__ ___ ___ Tl1eminim heig/11is about

.five pet1widtl,s, witl, a C11rlthe asce11der
of the
fiml,er twofor ascenders d backto tl,e rightto
and descenders avoid1/1elettertilting
to 1/,elef,

Tl,e pen nib s/1011/d

be
sq11are-a1I
for drawing
Frakwr /etters

Rounded strokes
Despite the Fraktur
letter's upright aspect,
many strokes are
actually rounded . Here,
the ascender of the letter
b has been drawn with
a curve to echo the
3
rounded stroke of the
bowl. Whether you
choose straight or
_ 1_{j¡ The.firstat1dseco11d
strokesof the f ca,i
ro unded letters or split
or pointed ascenders,
¼ be drawn1vithou1
l!ftingthe pen
it is important to be as
consistent as possiblc
throug hout the texc. Twist the penfrom 40°
to nearverticalfor the
r
descender of the f
The rrossbaris a co111111011Jeature

[ '0
ef11,eleuerg i11bot/1Frakt11r
a11dSc/1111abacher
scripts~ /.. Tl,e secot1d
and third
strokesof the g can
Spike strokes Altematively,the /,aír/ine be dra,vnin one
The distinctive can be draw11as a 3 co11tim1011

,f ~~ -
Fraktur spikes are continua/ion of tl,e.first movement
made by extending stroke (seeg, opposi te)
one scroke over che
previous one. The
more pen lifts there The spike strokeoverlaps

!)
are in a letter, che the bottom of the rounded
strokeofthe bowl
more spikes
are created .
}V

TI,etail of the g can

• ♦
-,¡~ '.4 ♦\3

tJ~
.fi11isl,witl, a short "" Frakwrdescendersare ¡..
hairline,a blob,or
restrained,except on tire
a back111ard s111eep;
bouomli11eof a page of
altematively,it ca11be
looped(see g, right)
text, ivhereaddi1io11al
flourishescan om,r
J1
76
 fRtlKTUR

t Begi11rhet
ª"
11~11,
upwardstroke
3-

(
4

11,efinalfoot

m
4 7 efthe m ca11
, -._

V
tmninarewit/1a
2 diamo,rdstroke

Titew is <cmsrn,ned
Jrom
a co,yomrdu c111d
,.

w
4 71,efi11alfoot 4

lt
ef1/,e n can ten11i11at
e
with a diamo11d
stroke 7

Eit/Jeref1/J
ese 111
10
forms of o ca11be rrsed 5

Use ritetomer of
rl,e 11ib10drmv 1/,e
hairli11erail of rl,ex

Altemative o -1

T wist 1l1e
I ..._
,), L'st 1hecomeref

r
✓
pmfrom 1/,emb ro draw rl,e
2 A_/ -10º to 11ear hairlmeraíl efrl,ey

j
verticalfo r
e descend
1/J er
of 1/Jep

L\
'(
Gradual/y11vi s1 rl,e 77,e rhirdstroke
penfrom 40 ° to 2 efrl,e 2 ca11
near verticalfor 1/1e alremmivelybe
descenderef1/1eq pe1111edi111wo
3 separaresrrokes

l'í
Full r Half r

011 the s, 1/,eseqrrmce Altcrnative /1 11,isrnrlmg hairline

7111s"tlepham's
rnmk" <a11 be used011
/euersb, h, k, a,id 1

ca11be ahered, 1ailca,i be used 011

1vi1/,1hetop stroke leuersh, m, a11dn
draumseco11d

77
GOTHIC SeRIPTS

Bastard Capitals
ASTARDCAPITALSIIAVI:the samc ductus as thc minusculcs
B that they accompany (pp. 68-77), and are pcnned w ith the
same nib. In most instance , they tcnd to be wid c, expandcd
lettcr s. Th e thick stem strokes are oftcn supportcd by a thin
,·crt ical slash to the rig ht , and thc add it ion of a dia mond str oke
in the centr e of the counter is also co mmon. Like the bastar e!
minu culc hands, thc capitals wer c ubject to a range of
indhidual and regional \'ariation. Bccause of this di, ·ersity, the
alphabct shown herc sho uld be rcgarded only as a general g uidc. 11,e C <011/d
/1 a/1ema1i,,ely1ake
1/,tf11n11 1/,e
<>J
Basic elemenu 2 E /below), b111
The pen angle of 1111/101111/,e<ross
thc 13astard Capital is s1roke
about 40° or thc same
as the minusculc that
1t accompa111cs. Thc
lctter height is about
six pen width s. The
characterisrically wide
lctters. such as che 8,
are a dircct produce
of downward and
'f
horizontal arccd r---__.,,,"
sweeping strokcs. 2

j 71,e/1a1rl111r
vrnic<1/
011

Draw 1/w/111irfi,,es
wirl, 1heE rn11
2
be0111i
11
ed

Co nnecting hairlinc s J
On lcttcrs 1/. ,\f , and
,\ ', hairlinc strokes are
often used to connect ,( "/1,isdo11bl
e mm
cwo mam downstrokes. ~ ~r
is remimsce,,/
This ha1rhnc should 1l1eCc1/,i(Cap11al
spring from thc right (pp. 60-61)
cdge of rhc bascline scrif.
J
Spur s
Weight can be added 2@~Altema/11'tl)•,
1/,eG <,111
bt
to vertical srems in che <011smwed
fonn of diamond- f,0111a series
1haped spurs. Each spur ojCOIII/WSl/f
can be 1harpcncd with s1rokcs
a short ha1rlmc flick.
4
Li111i1
r!,e 1111111ber
,f d1,1111<111d-shap.-d '/1,e11pwardli11ki11J
sp11rs
,,, ""' or 1/iree l,mrlmestroke~{1l1r
H 1s made,mi, 1l1t
"E lephant 's trunk s" comerof 1/1e111b
Thc "elepham's tmnk "
so characteri1tic of che
Ba,tard Secretal') (pp.
68-69) also occurs on
capital lcttcr s / /, K,

T
L, and X. Draw rhc J
diagonal trunk w1th
thc fuU widch of thc
111b.finishing w1th
a ,hon hairlinc.

í8
 B ASTA RD C APITALS

tt {__l
f_i 2

~- 7,)--
-----.:...
2 Drawche hairli11
e strokes of che
M wichthe_comerof the 11ib
~ '\L
3~

2
QJ,(~ ~
- - -- - -
,(J
-
Draw the

~
airli11e srroke
,f rlre N with

f~
the comer
L
ojthe 11ib
2 4 ~

"' ~ -,
f
:,j
-~--'L- , Taper tiretailof
4

tireX wichthe
edgeofche 11ib

3 4

~
2

Draw rl,e lrairlin

e
-- linki11g stroke
of the R.with
1 2 che comer
eform ofh
11,isaltemaciv
of the nib feawres a longhairli11
e tail
\ ) 4

¡. Altemative H
-

6 - ~-G 1

2 Ampersand
111rl,isa111persa11d
tire T is scressed

Altemat ive ampersand

79
 ...

' 11 ~ • ~
fi, .-- __...,.._........._
- '· "'

~- -~ ~ Á ?' :

'-----'' o~\\' C:,t ~ ~

-1~~,/..) "? ~
~~{~
r:
• \♦
,. ___,,
♦ ...
"
:. ~
•,~- '
·:f.~
~
 CADELS

Cadels
the Cadel (Cadeaux)in th e early 15th
T HE INVENTIO N OF
ce nt ur y is attributed to Jean Flamel, librarian to th e
prominent patron of the arts, th e Duc de Ber ry. Flarnel used
these large, patterned capitals to inscrib e the duk e 's narne
in the front of each rnanuscript. By the rnid - 1Sth century,
Cadels were widely used in north ern Europe as single Ver sals
(pp. 58- 59), rnain ly in vernacu lar tex t written in th e variou s CADEL H
Despite che appa rent co mpl ex ity of ch is l 6th-
bastard scripts (pp. 66- 79). During the 16th cent ur y, they century Cadel, the main stru cture of che letter is
appear ed in Italic tex t in incr easing ly elaborat e forrns. easily pennable (pp. 82- 83). The fine interna!
dccorar ion can be drawn wich a flexible sceel nib.

Br THE END OF the 16th centur y,

This BasrardCapital
letter D , wi1hilS laaped
ascender, is a useful model
jor drawin9 a Cadel
(pp. 78- 79)
CAOELS, CA l'ITALS,
AND MINUSCULES
The se lercers were
penne d in che sccond
half of che 15ch
cen cury, po ssibly by
che English scrib e
Ri cardus Francisc us.
One basic ele ment of
che Cade l contai ned
in ch e !ercer A is che
Jefe fooc, w hich has
been conscru cced from
chr ee strokes linked
by a series of shorter
srrokes . This linking
syscem is che key to
mor e complex letters,
su ch as che H (above).
·-
the Cacle! was frequentl y appearing
as a Versal in print ed form, and the
advent of cop perpla te engraving led
to mor e fanciful elaboration than was
achievabl e with a broad -edged pen.
This paralleled the developme nt of the
various Italic and Copperplate hands
(pp. 94-107), v,,ith which the Cadel
"vas ofte n inco rp orat ed.
/n terlace patternin9
Th e Cacle[ differs from other capital s
used as Versals in that it is compo sed of
interlacing stro kes rather than built-up
strok es (pp. 58- 59). It is drawn with
a constant pcn angle - this produces
thick and thin strok es that create a
patt ern with a continuo usly changing
direction of line. In this way, substance
is added to an otherw ise skeletal lette r.
lnt erla ced strokes can also be
used to em bellish the ascenders on
the top line of a page of text or the
desce nders on the bottom line.

FLAMEL'S CADELS ENGRAVED ALPHALIET

This page from a manus c ript
belong in g to che Duc de Berry
was writtcn by Jean Flamel in
abouc 1409. Alrhough che basic
srruc rure of che Cadels is relarivel y
simple, che facc rhat so m an y have
been used on che same page creares
an impressive overall effecc.
T h is alphaber of capira ls was
e ngrav ed by Thomas W eston
in 1682. Alchough the main
strncture of th e letters follows
thac of Bascard Cap itals
(pp. 78-79"),che basic fonns
h ave been embe llished wit h
typical Cadel scrolls and interlace s.

81
 GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Cataneo's Cadels
These letters B and C are based on the initials
Cadels ofBernardino Cataneo, writing master at the
UniversityofSiena, Italy, between 1544and 1560.
In thcir original forrn, they were used with text
HE GREATVARIETYof existi ng Cadel mod els makes it very difficult to in Rotunda (pp. 86-87) and Italic (pp. 96-97).
T assemble a comp lete alphabet. These examples have been selected
to represent a few general prin ciples. Although Cadels can look very TI,e skeletonB co11Sists
daunting to accomplish, in practice they are often a great <lealeasier than of a spineand tu,o bou,/s
you may think and, when used as Versals, they can look very impressive.
The go lden rule is to begin at the core of the letter and work outw ard s. 1. Begin the
stem of the B with
Letter spine a double stroke,
Alwaysbegin with the spine with the inner
of the letter. Here, the spine ,. stroke leading
is composed of downward into the moke
diamond mokes and straight of the top bowl.
vertical strokes. The pen angle Next add the single
for both types of strokes is mo ke of the lower bowl,
between 35° and 45°. leading into a tail.

t. Establishthe
basicstructure
of the Cadel in
O--- Tire decorative
jlo11rishes
are
pencil before addtd last
rctracing the
strokes in pen.
2. Build up the
skeletalform
with loops ar
Usea pttml fo, tht
the top of the
i11itial
planni11g of rhe
leuer'sstn1(t11r
e __ bowl and spurs
to the left of the
stem. ScroUscan be
added as a final flourish.

n,etop
/oft/rebowl
_/) /rasbeen
>( exrmdtd
n,eCadel is decorated
D iamond strokes t. To begin the C,
A series of diamond draw the spine and
strokes is a comrnon the top curve in a
feature of the Cadcl single moke.
spine. Move the pen The bottom
downwards in a curve can be
controUed,zigzagging drawn in the
movement, without forrn of a foot.
altering the pen angle.
A pen angle of 45°
hairli11e
Tire i1111er stroktsa11d
will give symmetrical
, scal/opsare similarto e/rose
diamonds. main strokes
used in Gotl,icCapitals
of the lerter
(pp. 60-61 )
are penned,
flourishesand
decoration
can be added.
Maintai11a
of
pe11a11gle 2. Build up the
45°fo r a Cadel with a
mies ofshort,
systemof
11eat
diamonds
linked
diminishing
,..., strokes to create
"boxes" (opposite).

82
 CADELS

Drawing a Cadel A Cadel om amentation

This apparencly com plex A can be built up
qu ite quickly in four stages. Diamonds have
been drawn into the legs of the A, so keep
a constant pen angle to ensu re an even
distribution of thick and thin srrokes .
1. Begin by penning the
five basic compone nts of
the lette r: the two legs,
cwo feet and top stroke .
Allow yourself ample
space becween strokes .
In order to build up che weight of a main stroke or to creare a change
in line directio n , various types of orname ntation can be used. Th e
patterns shown below have ali been created with the pen at a constant 11,ispallem
angle . Each in volves a series of short strokes that move at 90° to each involvesa serie¡of
o ther in a series of thin and thick "boxes " . T his simple device can be fo11rsma/1"boxe¡",
adapted to form increasingly complex patterns. followedby a lineof
three"boxes"
A co1wa111pet1angleis
essemialin the creation
of "box" partems

Termin al "boxes" Basic "boxed" strokes "Bo x" steps

Straig/11
horizontalstrokesare
1n this pattern, the The basic principie of the "boxed" stroke · In a principie similar to the
bestavoided,so 115e curved
use of "boxes" allows is tha t when che pen moves sideways, a thin basic "boxed" stroke (above
diago11als
for thefeet of the A
strokes to be terminated line is produce d, and when it moves upwards lejt),this pattern involves the
2. Build up che legs in different directions . or downwards, a thic k line is prod uced. "boxes" moving sideways
of the lette r with two in steps. Th is wo rks best 011

./ complementaryupright
strokes o n either side
of the core diamond
strokes. As a general
~
curved stro kes and requ1res
careful planmng .
Interlo cking loo ps
A series of interlocki ng

~
rule, che legs sho uld but unjoi ned loops can
have more we ight be adapted at a
than the feet. term inal stroke or

~~
provide an in fill. 11,,mm -dm,J.,J.,p, w.i,;
~ ""-.witho111actual/yto11d11
11
g

71,e li11esof the serif Mirror images

echo thoseof tirefeer T his pattern ing is loose ly based
on a decorated descende r from che
16th -century "Alphabet" of Mary
of Bu rgundy. T he two halves of
3. Keepi ng a the ornamentation suggesr a
constant pen angle, mirror image . Th is decora tion
build up che feet. wou ld wor k equa lly we ll from a
Changes ofline top line of an ascende r. 1. Begin by folding a sheet of
direction can now lightweight layout paper in half - the
be introduced. fold will represe nt the centre line of
the image. Fold the paper again at a
right angle to the origina l fold - this
will represent the ann . Unfold the
Cha11ges ofline Sma/1tenninal loopssltouldbe draw11 paper and work out che sequence,
directionhave complete;this is easiertitan trying loops, and imerlaces of halfthe pattem.
bee11inrrod,iced to construct 1,a!fa loop
Finish the
Cadel by
1er111i11ating
the
strokeswitl,
loopsand
hairli11es

TI,e balanceof thick and thi11 2. Using rhe right angle fold as a
5/rokesi11tite left ar111
wi/1be cent re line, work o ut the strokes for
tite exact reverseoftltosein the ann. When chis is complete, fold
the rig/11ann the paper ove r the cent re line and
repeat rhe pattern from the see-
4. Now add the crossbar, breaking the th rough image. Any ílaws in the
stro kes as they cross che lines of the legs. design will become immediately
Finally, add the decorative loops and ílourishes. obvious when the pattem is reversed.

83
I TALIA N &._H UMA N IST S CRIP TS

The 119ht ha!f efthc

Rotunda o hrlla smoothtr

semi-circular
swu p than
tht l,fi

T HE GoTHICI FLUENCE on west ern Europea n scripts betwee n

the tenth and 13th centu ri es was largely r esisted in one
major country - Italy. The clarity of classical inscriptions, still
(pp. 86 87)

evident throughout th e land , th e cont inu ed use of a wid e,

round ed hand called the Beneventan, and the retention of the
Caroline Minuscu le, were all factors in th e em ergence of R .OT UN J)A O
The roun dncss
a formal script that differed from its Gothic cont emporari es of the o is the kcy to
in its round, open aspect. It was known as Rotunda. Rotunda and is reflccted
in ali th e bowe d lcttcrs.

BY THE 12TH CENTURY, the pr estige

Rotund a scrip t had dcve lopcd into
an extr c mely formal and upright
version of the Caro line Minu scule
(pp. 38- 39), with slightly short er
ascende rs an d desce nd er s than
its par c nt script. Th c hand
,. 1
also emb odied elemcnts of the
Be nevc ntan , mos t notabl y in ufca·ott
the round ed str okes o n m any 1:0111111:1
letters. In contr ast, straight str okes
were squar e -cut and rigidly upright.
n1r.11:1nc
A le9ibl e hand
t .1111.111.1
In general, th c Rotunda was bold c r n1.1rcr ro ptrtltt pfnutli'
than th c Car oline Minu sculc, but 111ftft1nn111rrq1sfth.1n1i·
thc round ed stroke s and m odest
ascend er s and desce nd crs crcated
~011otiílint.1111 ;1rrro1ph1
a clear, legible script that was used 1101n111 rontol.1notrfol.t
for handwritt c n w o rk lon g aft e r ro1nn1n 1.1 rrrannunt t:t1,
th c intr odu ctio n o f printin g. Th c et t)rs111te f~n:111
n u11111
_1_
simpli city of th e lett crform s mad c
the scr ipt equ ally popular as a mod e l
go ..1nrcp.11n1111.1u r ~ t
for typefaces, thrivin g in that form P-
.ntn. rr1nrgo ~-u
ftii.1rni
un til as late as the 18th ce ntur y. ns 1111fn1co:01cfon~
Tht ma'!)'cun·t.clstrokes,such rll1h1s
.1ltttt~ cr~r.tClC. f 0,115JJl
on 1he ltrttr o, htlptd conrmut tht
ef
ltal,an 1rad111on open, rounded sw prs

ef
Tht square base/mefoo, the lt11tr f ,s a
ef
d,s11ncuvt charactemu c 1he Rotunda

B OO K OF H OU R.S
Thi s small Book o í Hours, produ ce d in
Brugcs in about 1480, shows thc evenn ess and
regu larity oí th e Ro tunda . Th c script differs
from rhat used for the Veron a Antiph o ner
(opposite) in one signi ficant respe ct - the
uptum ed fee t oí th e minim s. Here , th ey are a
cominu ation of th e minim srrokes, which results
in slightly m or e cu rsivc lette rs than was usual.

84
 R OTUNDA

Larg e-sc al e lett ers

As a manuscrip t hand, the Rot unda was
writt en in a full range of sizes, from very
small to ver y large, and was the chosen
scrip t for sorne of the largest known
manu scr ipt boo ks in th e wo rld .
Wh en writt en on a large scale, the
let t ers can have a ri gid formalit y
and the hairline str okes often seem
dispr opor tionate ly light.
Rotund a Capital s
Accomp anying capitals are wr itt en
with the same pen as th e minu scules
(pp. 88- 89). A double str oke can be used
for the stcm , "vith a clear gutt er between
str okes. In sorne histori cal instances, the
Rot un da Capital was developed int o a
· ■ Versal. In other s, Gothic or Lomb ardic

bt~l8 mctl(.¡.{.cófitc Yer sals wer e used with Rotun da

text scrip t .
A common featur e of ali Rotu nda
letters, bot h minuscule and capital,
~ ---- H--- A):.,:z5df~mlniy
C:lll is th e sharpn ess of the cut of the nib,
ftm 1j. uri Rt111r
iñs. w hich gives clear, precise stro kes and

-iC :. lu?~~ n~"icetttffic.ro1f\•

,.1: fine hairl ines . In large r ver sions,
the pen shou ld be clear ly lifted after
th e compl et ion of each stro ke, while
■ ■ in smaller ver sions, m any strokes can
be dr awn in one continuo us movemen t .
..::::!11
~ -- --- --- ---- ~'

• . mia ntir' lll,._

·
l _I _ Theselor9e-scaleRotundaleuerslockany
cursivejeatures: note the an9ularity with
which the ascendersand strai9ht minim
s1rokes have been drawn

·
·¡
¡ Compare the unusual brokenfo rms ef
¡ J ,he strokeson cap1talsA, e, and E ll'lth
1he more commonJorm (pp 88-8 9)

THE V ER ONA A NTIPHONER - - · •·-

T his Annphon er (book ofchants and anch ems) was
wmcen m abouc 1500 for che mon asten es of SS Nazro ·
'Cmpbttbcofis
'- ~
fin ;o.ifum.([♦t)( íure·
cm
and_Cal io in Vero na, lraly. Th ,s rype ofbook \~as often
wnttcn 111 a large formar to enable seve ra] cho n ste rs to
read lt at che same nme. The Rotunda letters have been
drawn with co nsiderable precision, wich 1d10sync ras1es
arising only in che unu sual broken form ofche cap1tals.
A"'•§•"I
pbí♦-Z fin .vofiín fu1n.rub:í.ne

r:
118_
..\d(',' bí b _a .t · loca.
grecce ,.
1_!1(;O?.
pbt •cori~
I lt emp t fO f' ~vi g, cm ltbeo
t· Qt,o
I 1,., • ~b ·• ' Í
wtl(!a ~ntto (l tm
·
• -
Th,s Carolmeform efdfaawres . tlcrttta
Q b~c?C_!Y l~ qacctecc
?CCdcbaf:l't
an upr,9hcscemand curvedbow/ rél mclío:c·ftanit,cducaet:'Zftcrtliferríle;
R OTUNDA AS A TYPEFACE ·reddact.~oftca tñ.~1níffu;i ti rcrofcrtffíhl
Thc rype used in th.is dictionary was possibly from th e
foum s of the Venice-based Gem1an printer Erhard t fructuofíffímífcmpbítbcotícart poffe:~t
Racdolt (pp. 90-91), who had punches cut for a
R otunda type in 'I486. Th is detai l shows rwo different
, ·((.ne íurcempbí+l.f +ínf,n+1:t di empbttbc
fonns of d: th e uncia! form and the upri ght Carol in e
form - both can be sccn in thc middle of thc sixth lin e .
--ofts9d empbtrbcott~'
1 :,trHctuetllcqut
.. (11
85
Í TALIAX &.._HU.IIA,\ '/ ST SCRI PTS

a
Tlrefootof
Rotunda Tirea is clraracreri;:ed
1/,ea ,011/d
alcematively
by its lrairli11
e w rl fl uis/, wir/,
ru:-;oA ISA;s;upright , open letter, which works well o n a su't'ep10
K both a largc and small scale . Thc characteristic straight stem
strok cs, such as those on lctt ers b,J,and h, are constru ctcd with
the ri,~/11

b
the pcn held at about 30° . Thc squar c foot is then add ed in one
17reflar -lreaded
of two ways. Thc implest mcthod is to use the com e r of the nib asu11der of rlreb
to outlin e thc foot, bcfore fllling it in with ink . Altern ative ly, can be replaced by
the "du al du ctus" techniqu e can be uscd , which involves turning _ a splir asce11der
the pcn from 30° to th e horizontal in one short movement .
Although the latter may sccm mor e complex, it is probabl y

e
prefcrab le when drawin g large Rotunda lett er s.

A split asce11derra11
be usedi,weadof tl,e
j1,11-/1eaded
1•ari
ety

l.
011la')!e-sca/e

b
Rotu11da letrers,
the om•edstroke
is drmm sq,ararely Altematively, tire
from tirestraigl,r d 'ª"feawre ª"
stroke 11
pri,~/11srem 1

If tbe upri,e/11
stroke½¡ins
at 30º, wm tbe peu to tl,e
bori;:011talto createaflatf 001

Complerethe sweeprotlie
ri,e/11
iu a singlesrroke

Sweeping stroke s
On !ercer;in which thc stem

f
srroke cnds in a right swccp,
such as 1(abiwe), thc sweep is Twisctirepen
usuallycompleted in a single Alternative 3 to tirel'trriral
srroke. On larger le11crs,rwo crossba r for 1/,errossbJr
separate strokes are uscd efrlre f
(see b, /, and t, rig/11).

Key let ter

- 2

g e
Th c <> is rhe key lcttcr of thc
R otunda. The bowls of b, d, g, p.
and q closely follow its shape. and its
open aspect is also echocd in thc e
and e. The first stroke is only slightly
curvcd, closely following a vertical
bcfore sweeping v1gorously10 the

_b
righr. The second stroke is much
more semi-circular than rhc first. 77reflar-lreaded 17,escN11d
asce1d1erof tireh scroke<!fr/,e
canbe replaced by 2 h c,m be
a sp/11ascmder exceirded ,md
tire1/rird
;croke omitred
3
T erm.inating Oícks
As an altemativc 10 the swecpmg
strokr. leners ,11.11, and II can
••
1
1crmi11a1e with a ílick. Thcsc are
severe and rathcr mechanical: thc
stroke 1ssimply executed with a pen
anglc of 30° and 11i1hou1any
direccional lll rn of thc pen.

86
 R OTUNDA

1; t -. 1
11,eflat-headed
ascenderofthe k
canbe replacedby
a splitascender
Altemative
crossbar
1

--.---'?-- -- - --- -
Twist thepen
to the vertical
to completethe
crossbarofthe t

_u;~•h•fli~
t, Ü ' Theflat-headed ascender
canbe replaced
ofthe 1
by a split ascender
The secondlegofthe

-......... --......
Altemative J 6
Tirefinal foot ofthe foo t

m ,,1} ffl, u
m ca11finish with aflick

Altemative
foot ---
7

n
The secondfoot
of the n could
altematively
termina/e
with aflick
-.......
Altemativ e 5
foot
5
--
1 · ;::,... ---·-
Drag the ink with
thecomerof thenib ro
make the tailof the x

The secondstrokeof ~ -
the o is more semi-
circulartl1anthefirsl

-p- Altematively,
twistfrom the
diagonalto the
12 .,__ __
---- hon·zontalfor -
the serifof the p

,=1,
1 3
Any two letrerswith
The use of the
opposíngbows
ha!f r is common
canbe conjoined
in Rotunda text

Full r Halfr -~ Conjoined Conjoined b Apartfrom conjoined

Eachstroke of the s beginsor d ande and o letters,Rotunda letteifonns
2 e11dson the central hair/ine are clearlyseparated

s {: , ~.. Rotunda
... "º'
letters

87
I TALIAN &._HUMA N IST SCRIPTS

Rotunda Capitals
HE STRUCTURE OF the Rotunda Capital is less clcarl y defin ed
T than the minus cule (pp.86- 87) . Both single and doub le stem
capitals can be used; historically, they were often combined with
__]___.
5

J; l 'JI
Veniral
Lombardi c Capitals (pp.64-65) . The doubl e stem capitals shown /1airli11es
ca11
her e have been taken from a numb er of sour ces and sho uld be be added
1/1ro11gl,
1/,e
regard ed only as guid e for individual interpr etations. As with the cowuerof
Rotund a minuscules, a "doubl e du ctu s" app lies, with ali cur ved 1/,e 8
~
strokes and sorne upright st:rokes drawn with the pen at 30°, and 4
the rema ining stro kes drawn with the pen at the hor izontal.

,;,-.e-------- Sweepi11gwwed strokes /,elp

esrablisha r/1yth111

TI,e pe,, is held at 30°.for che

c11
n,ed strokesof 1/,eR o11111da
Capital
~'
A single dia1110
11
d
stroke reduces1/,e
110/rm,e of space
• in tite coimter Diagonallrairli,,esca11be
addedro 1/,e leuerD (Ieft) 4

Counters
The round, open nature of the R.otunda
Capital tends to produce ge nerou s
counters . The expanse of whitc space
E L )lf ~ 3

~f ~
can be broken by the addition of spurs,
diamonds, double hairlines, ora 1
~ 77,este111of
co mbination of thcsc elements. the F mu
~S altematívelybe
4
' • draw11 a
11ri1/1
do11ble
stroke
Square feet
If the pcn is at 30° at rhe cop of che -;--..; 4
stem, the anglc shou ld be maintaincd
for the who le stroke, finishing ar the
baseline. To crea te the square foot,
use che comer of rhe nib co trace
along the baseline and up co·j oin the
righr side of the stem. Fill in this
trianglc of white space wit h ink.
L~ ,
4

T/,efeet are ourli11ed

a11dfilled i11wi1/11/,e
comerof 1/,e11ib

Alternative form of M
In thi s fonn of M, the doublc
scroke is in the centre of che lette r
and a large sweep ing stroke has 1

1 1 14--
been inco rporated. The volume
of space in the countc r has been 3
reduccd by the double hairlinc. Hacklesca11be added
'),, to thefirst stem oJ1/,e1
5
11,e.~ap betwee,, tl,e 111,0 s1e111
strokes
slw11ldbe abo111 /,aif a pe11widt/1

88
 ROTUNDA CAPITALS

E
ü5l 1 Tum · the pe11

ltol::::~
R
---+ 3
6 30° ro draw
,.,...- tl,efinal stroke
oftl,eU

~ -
2 4

e 1:) t ~ )'-
~E::~:
A l,airlinestrokeca,
L((
V !1
be addedto t/1erigl,1
of tl,e stemof rl,eL
~

2
1
4 {.

....._,
_,.
the centralstroke 2

ffi t íAD:,h,M }~~ - ~

?·,~~
!~,-- 2 4

30
,2~!- 11 7 ::i--._ -

lf} _

X
rlre
10

J J(
;:,fr;:::
horizontalto
draw thefirsl
2 3

6
4
11recrossstroke
011 rheX gives
tl,e letter
additio11al ,veigl,t
1 5
3

- stroke
of the N ...___
5
~
2 1

A
3 4

~
77,eO a11d 1 5 To Jorm t/1e
rlre Q have Q, add a tail
,h,""''bmi,~ ' ,1,
~
" O
a..,.
"--
. fom1

,~i--1~4
~

-
;:,fr;::~
~2 -- 6'-+
--
1

1~ 30º to tite 3 Ahairli11e

stroke canbe •
2
horizontal addedto tite
ro draw tl,e rightof the
first stroke stem oJthe p
__ _ oftheP _5

R sm~~ ,.,m
Rotunda
Capital R
Any Rotunda Capital can be
draum,vith a singleratherthan
a doublestem; this plainerform
is bestfor use in text 11,ith
mirmscules(pp. 86--87)

89
 / 7:,11.1,1
,, · &._H U.4/,t.\l lST SCRIPTS

Hulllanist Minuscule
HE HUMA1 1ST MINUSCULE(Littera Antiqua) and the Roman
T Imperial Capital (pp. 108- 109) are the two historical scripts
most influential in our mod ern society. Betw een them, they give
us the basic constr uctions of our capital and low er- case lett ers,
both in handwritt en and t yp ewritte n form. In th e Hum anist H UMANIST Mt NUSCULE .11
The serifs have Ali Hum anist Minu scule
Minusculc, the darker overtones of the Gothic script s gave way been drawn with letters have an uprighc aspec1
, he pen held ar 30° wich clear ly defined scrokes.
to th e light er style of the
Renaissance letter. It wou ld
be d ifficu lt to envisage a
script better suit ed to th e
intcllectual ideat 0f th e age.
bon c L~ o [nnt atlS tuc co ron a fu nosle r

TH E H u ,11ANIST Minu sc u le was 9 u1crn nc r na ru J D 1ng.y

d_o mm C't
esse ntiall y a redi sco Yery of th e de u s mcus , n conf}cél-u tu_o uíam m<'
. Ca rolin e Minu sculc (pp. 38- 39).
clll L / ( O!lUl:'ffCl"C. p :t
As a clear, un ambi g uou s hand, free
from affec tation, th e Carol ine was Ü lllll1C llC infurorc CTlO cl~rl.5 me llC
cons idered by l 4th -centur y scholar s, <r 111 1 ra CTl,l cor np1c1S lll( M) lÍCHTCmcr
includin g th e Italian po et Petrar ch ,
dom m e quontrlm 111hr111u
s (urn {. ¡n <i., t
to be in harm o ny with th e idea ls
of th e Renaissance . m e rtommc . c1uo 111
.1m eonn.trbdt<i .hrnt
Althou gh the Humani st Minu sculc
\\·as to have a profound and formative
om n u oÍÍd. ~ca
ll t ,rn,m,-t me.,\ c-1.1r

influ ence o n modern Latin -base d

bata dl uctfd.c.1;d ru domine u (~P q
\\Titing , accep tance of it was initially c1uo tl onucrtTrc domine et cnpc, Ü
slow. Th e wid es pr ead popu lar it y of
m,1m m ram : C-dcwrnme f~c _prop t c r 1
th e scr ipt cam e only after manus cript
bo oks were supersecled by print ed m 1fcn cord1d.m cu.:1n
1,,ti.1 nomc1m n o n
w ork s, and it was adapted as a dl 111mortc cp..t1me mor fit- n.11rn '11-~r
mode l for tcxt typ efaces, not ably by n o .1ucr111 1¡u 1s n rn h rcb 1n1r hbLII J
Nicho las Jenson of Venice after 1470
(pp. 38- 39). It g radual ly rep lacecl borc1u 1 111&cm1ru meo l dcubo pcr fi n
th e Rot unda in lta ly (pp. 84-85) and /Stlas ou<'hs [n'h,m mrnm¡,,_c
b7
th e Gothi c sc ript s of Brit ain and
south e rn Europ eas th e prin cipal
mode l for typefaces .

1300K OF H OURS
Thi s Iloo k of Ho urs was wriccen in 13ologna
in abour 1500 for Giovan ni II Bentivog lio.
Arguably. che sumpcu ous decora cion and
brighr colours of the VersaIs dl'tracc from che
dig;1icy of th<' cexc script itself Th e flac serifs
ar rl1<' heads of the ascenders are che na cural
produ ct of a horizoncally held pcn (pp. 92- 93).

90

.\°o,c,he scrupulous
tonsblcnc.,1111th1rh1
ch thcsc
smull <1mpcm1nJs ha,·c hcen
Jrawn 1hrou9hout tlu te.\l --l ~+
Thc hookhas bccn
handirrwen on re/Jum --' ~+t±f
rhc l"m<1/s<1rc
hascd on
Roman ami not Lombard1c
lme:forms (pp . 58 59/
ST. PAuL·s EPISTI E
W,im:n in about 1500.
this text combi nes
ltalic an d Humani st
Minus cuk hand s to
dra111aticeflect . D..-spite
the diminutiw size of
the let ters. reprodu ce d
here app ro xima td y the
sam e sizt' a< they ¡¡re
writte n. each cha racter
rem ain < distin c t and
clea rly legible. Ata
glancc . thc 111anuscript
111a,·be 111 istaken for a
· pr imcd book .
In 1h1s nwr9m onnowuo n,
thc car~, use.f. lrah1c
numeraIs 1s cndcm
PI U Nl 1:D TEX 1
Fiftee 11th-ccnmrv
tt'xt rype was close.ly
mod elled on rhc
hand wrin cn !erren;
of rh e period. Tlw
sim ilaritie s bet ween
this typefacc (bri<>11•) .
primed afrer l -t86 .
and the handw ritren
Hu manisr Minm cu le
ofS t. Paul"s Epi,tle
(11b"11
c) are \Try c k ar.
The , ame ,c rif
for111atio n has becn
used fo r bo th capit als
am i mi nusculc<.
\AU.I At' ~r. uu.., .. '-&."•~
!ex cisqu~
m_aoíteíleapparent conduda~us,ati
lanobísalili dem~on(}:ratis; at~uc ab ípÍo.~dc~ Coclu~ito
Qaqua::q¡
Gusnatur~
an
l'íl.a,¡
rg tat
¡~~;t~fn ad f~ loco.ah,
autem UntCutt¡l par .gcnct4itreex
ilícctcfao fccú· · · mn_orum Quxípfi ínfunt roq;
1lidoruní8'p orumfubflantíam;
; alteratío contíngít. ~Verum ílquideµ1hoc ita
- ·· .,,,..
H Ul1 1I .\! ST M f ,\'USCULE
..u P.wti
1 p,no.bt AdI.ph<Íio,
-.- IHlf-::--:- -- -- -- -""'lllW.......
II..UJ~~r outt u:mh cut4 ,nprom,ITiont
· vt btnc/i,111,,adi. ló
c hriíluu,;t;IW•m·'!º'~ mm,br.ft, g!"UJfuperttrr•m .f tvosp.itru no
mu., cotp>t1st1us dcucn, cms&.d, Ót<•d 1racuncliamprouor•rr,filoos
w
,.,,,. , l !.1•• 11 offibus ClUS . Propia ha:rd,nqutt 1,, íl.r0$ f,d<duc,1101U
os1nd1ftipl1nat1
\t•,. i•1 .,jJ r moratren,&mat.umfuam ·&ad corr<.pt1on
t.d om1na. Str-ut obtcl1tt.do
11n1'11u 6
hcnb1t vxo,1 (;,at. &cmntcluoic.u m1n1latn .al1l>uscum t.imott &tmno
cra1ncntum In ma_griu,.
ne vna .S o1 rt ,n limpl,,n•u.aicdisvdln licul e¡;
.n. Lg,odUtund, oo10 cl,riCh, ~. ílo:nonadoculu mfnuím 1esqudiho
ccclclía.. VctÚt.imcn &, vos lin.l':!-11, plac:u,tu, f«I,,.fmu chníl,
min,bus
v nufqu1f~ vxoremfuam Gcutf<1p ÍJct t.nta vof.unt•ttm dei : a .in1mo a;
~um d,ligat :vxorauttm tunt.it.,_,. binavolant•"fca.ucntesf.cutdom,.
luum . no&non hom1nihL1J •fotn«s quon1.Í
-~it---- --- -1 - <.ap-f,1-,../>of!o/,w.,,,.,,,...,,
,~. vnufqmfq¡ quodcunq:1 fta.ttt l»num
01 c.,• J>4ttntu 1uomoJ.omuict.,., vu1.cr hocr.ap1t1a clom1no,l1uefuuusf1u•
,nfli,ui1-dcmM{,ruoscfdom,no,"' 1,bu.E,t vosdom1n, ucicm facitull"
f,lu¡,.wtnm hrm,rronc
,J,«,r,nrui/1.,- rtm111t_niaminas· fc1mwqu1a & 1tlo
«d WIICSNnd111 ' non j,rouoctnt.$uw[i
tum &vdl:e.rdominusdlmo:áis.«
J u1t ,, ..,Jh
o,éh fm• ,U,.
J.,,,,,,.¡,,J.,,,,,,..h,,,;f11• pr:rfonuum acupuonond hpuddtÜ . , ... l rel i
f1n11a ,.(14,
tr.A,.n, ,Pof>tcmomv,,;.,.,f,,.,, J ~at uufr•tTUainfottamin i m d o
tlT'•u•t,.•od...
... ...... d ,.../u,,m frdt1 ¡,...,_,,,.,,
'
li
~ m1no&1npountiavtttu..tJ.1uus . ln Al)--•• 1.-.,
.,,., ,,,
M,or ot
...
l •f ,,
llu olr.d1ttparwt1 bus vm
md.om1no .H«.cmmrn lh1
dtntt.v0$atmaturamde,vtp,ftiti
ll.i~adoufu, mlidiu d,ahol,:<¡ua
, 1.hn ,, •~c.t
Mu· 1•.Lur·, <I\.Honora.patrtmtuum 6,m ,rttm, n,a,n non ell nobu colluél.úo .ldut r
tu~m:9uod d\ m•nd.lt.umpr,mum fus~m,m&.fant:1-inun ,ftd,¡d....-
~.../' ..,~ ~ --·
f -1·
}' J" ?A! I t
1ttt, ¡, • t .f,, t",
.........
_, Ti IE I IANI >WRIT I NC
OF l' EJ ltARCI 1
A small lett er
. r~..-u, i lk1., flliA~. Tht: >Cript developed Like the Carol ine Minus cu le, th c
J 7' •,f ~ -r·~~~,:v-·n <.
by F rancesco l' etra rc h
1~.1._ ., - 0 _ .: ,, - Humanist Minus culc ""ªsan e legant
t"'°'..-t fu-. w a~ probabl y the fim
Hum an i,r M inmcule. hand that work ed mo st success fully
Thi s a1111ocarionby on a small sca le . Th is is eYident in
~: ~~q; ~~e-11A·,.. the po et to h is co py
thc diminuti, ·e lettcrs of the Epistlcs
~1~ .' -i.,l.t-ii-·n~,
-~- ofS u cto nius·s Liw.<o(
1./ -~ t " " o.(_
' L •-_ Cae.rnr.,, wa s m ade ¡;, tex t (abore) . In ltaly, th e Rotunda
.. ~ . :?... (: . «L ~re abou t 1370 an d dearly
.....?_, ·f..• ! demon srrares rhc (pp. 8-J- 85) co ntinucd to be used
, . ui n " n 1,t.t"tf14'
degrcc ro whi ch for lar ge -scale book work.
{j,Jt{'¡.rt7J.
,.1 " .<f
~ he 'nad adopted the
1· t' 1 · Caro line Minus cu le as
Versal s and capi ta ls
· ~1 4J 1~, 1•. a m odcl for h is ha nd. Vcrsals, so pop ular \\'ith Got hic
~• o · ~
_;) ' e • 1i _. -) ru'- scrib es, we rc also uscd with the
i
tO?_. :vf
1 , 11 ;;:- , . "/1,ese/ra/,c/mm u ere Humani st Minu sculc, but th ese wcre
fe-" 1 prob<1b~r cw by rhc 90/dsmtrh
FrnncescoGri/Jo ,n 1501
in crcas ingl y m odc llcd on Roman
forms (pp. I 08 109) . Th e use of
~ 'V'1 r.ua.&U,IU'-1•• A.,._. '"""Pr o.v r ..
capitals for sent e ncc open ings was
·.. no\\' uni, ·ersal. Also dcr i,·ed from
Roman forms, th e Hum anist Capitals
:p:'J!;:::. wcre drawn with the same ductu s as
th e minus culc s and were the sam c
height as thc minus cule ascender
·n·utriri (pp. 98 99) . A r ig id adhe rencc to
aquibus·etiant ascend e r and desce nd e r lines, along
\\'ith clear linc sepa ration, helps g i,·e
an ord ered aspect to a page of te xt.
• • • f • • """ ... -
91
 ITALIAN &._H UMAN IST S CRJPTS

Humanist Minuscule
T HE HUMAN
IST MINUSC
ULEis a dir ect desce ndent of the
Caroline Min uscule (pp. 40--4 1). Letters are clearly defmed,
separate , and open - very clase in form to modern lett er s,
a
e11,ewedgeserifof 1/,e
b, repl,redby
Nt:d _ If 11sing a "s/amed"pe,,,
titebowlof titeb ,vil/

u ""f11
par ticularly those used as typefaces . Th ere is no exaggeration /,avea diagonalaxis
1
of ascend er s and descend ers in the script and int erlin ear spacing
is clear and regular . Human ist Minu scule can be wr itt en with a
square-cut "slanted" oran oblique-cut "straight" pen. The lette rs ~ J

shown here have been writt en with a "straight" pen. In both __.
2
cases, the letters are upri ght and usually small in scale, with
a minim height of about five pen width s. 2

"Slanted" pen
The "slanted" pen
H uman ist Mi nusc ule
is based on the early
11iewedgeserifof 1/,e
hand of Poggio and
d canbe replacedby
relates qu ite closely to

cr ..
afiar serif
the Caro line Minuscule.
lt is written with a pen
angle of 30-40°. The
a is a do uble-sto rey
letter; this distinguishes
it from the Italic a, If 11si11g
a "slanted" pen,
which is a single-storey the bowlof tl,e d u,i//
lette r (pp. 96-97) .

e ce.
/,ave a diago11alaxis

"Straight" pen
Our ing the latter part
ofthe 15th cent ury,
chere was an increasing Like the Rot1111da
cendency ro wr ice the f, 1/,eH11111a11i
Humanist Min uscule Mim1sc11le f doti
with a "straight" pen . 1101 /,avea raíl
The pen angle for chis
is shallow - 5-15° -
and a greater contras t
bc rwecn thick and thin
strokes can be produced . If 11si11g
a
ªslanted"
Wedgeserifdraw11 pe11, the bowl
in 1wo srrokes 111it/1 Footdrawntvitl,
Footdraw11 of theg ,viff ·
llavea
diagonalax~

~ ~ Tireh can
Serif types Minim feet e wirh
1en11i11ar
The script features rv,o types of serifs: When using a "slanted" pen, che a wmedfoot

wedge-shaped and flat. T he wedge
serif is created either in a single
stroke or in two separate srrokes
(above).Th e flat serif is created with
a single horizonta l stroke. When
using a "scraighr" pen, rhe flat serif
can also be used to rennina re u prighr
minims and descende rs (see lett ers
J, 1,, k, m, n, p, q, r, opposite).
-l -t1
tendency is ro creare a tumed foot,
produced by terminat ing the minim
scroke with a flick to che righ t. ,,,,
When using a "straig hr" pen, this
flicking moveme m is more difficult.
lnstead, use che flat serif, or finish rh e
stroke with a slight movement ro the
righr alo ng rhe baseline and then add
a separa te serif ro rhe lefr.

92
 HUMANIST MINUSCULE

11,e ,vedge serifof

1/1ek ca,i be replaced
by afiar senf

77,e wedge se,if of P11II the raílof the 1alo11g

t 11,e ropofthe t sho11ld
rise only slig/11lyabove
the /,eadli11
e

l
the 1ca11be replaced

u
rl,e baseli11e
, or 1en11inate

l
by aflat serif rl,estrokewit/1afiar serif

...L..

V
n If 11si11ga "sla111ed"
w
}):;,,
...,
pen, rl,eo un// liave
3

o
.,; ,_ -----+

X
If 11si11ga "sla11ted"
-
1 3

~
· pe11,the bo1ulof
2 the p wi/1have

J
a diago11al
axis

''" •fam,of ,l"Y

s the same as the u,
11
nrh thef orm/1srroke

z
1
extended Íllto a raíl

lf usin~a "slanted" pen,

7 -- 2
H11ma11i st Mi1111scul
e letters draim,1vit/1a
rhe bowlof 11,
e q un// have
"slanted" pen ca11lea11fon11ard slightly; i11
a diago11al
axis
rhi5fom1 tite a, f, a11dg differfr om 1/1
e ftalic
(pp . 94-95 ) in that they are 1111/i11k
ed

L 11,efirst stroke
oft/1e r ca11
tem1i11are
lf"t11rn
,uith
edf oot
" Slanted"
letter s
The tail ofthe g differentiaies 1/1e
letterfrom its Italic co1mterpart.
(pp. 96-97)

93
I TALIIIN &_H UMAN IST S CRJPT S

Italic
N ITS BASIC FORM, Italic script (Chancery Cu r sive, Can cellaresca
I
I TALIC 11
T he ltalic a,
Corsiva, Littera di Brevi) is a cur sive offspr ing of the Hu mani st w ith its fully
formed bowl,
Minu scule (pp. 90- 91) . Ov er time, it beca m e a distin ctive is che earliest
ancestor of our
hand in it s own right, spawning, in turn, th e Copperp late modem lower-
(pp. 102- 103). The scr ipt was invented in 1420 by iccolo case letter a.

Niccoli, an Italian scholar who found the Humani st Minu scule

Leuers9eneral9
too slow to execut e. By 1440, bis new, less labour -inte nsive join at the midwaJ
poim beuveenth,
script had been adop ted as the official hand of th e Papal Chancery. baselineand1h,
heaclline

TH E FOUR BASIC chara cteristic s

of ltalic that were established by
iccoli tend to occur naturall y when
the Humani st Minuscule is writt en
rapidl y and with th e mínimum
numb er of pen lifts: there is a
tendency for th e hand to lean to
the right; circl es becom e mor e oval;
many letter s can be wr itte n in a single
str oke ; and let ters are join ed to each
other with a conn ecting strok e.
Chan9in9 th e a
The chara cte r alt ered most
significantl y by Niccoli was th e a,
which he tran sform ed from a tall
two-storey lette r (p. 92) into a single-
stor ey lett er of minim height (above
righc). His q also tended to follow this
new form, resembling an a with a tail.
The terminal s of Italic ascender s and
descender s were drawn in one of tw o
form s : the formata (semi- formal ), in
which they were horizontal or wedge-
shaped and left-facing, or th e cor siva,
in which they were row1ded and
right-fa cing (pp. 96- 97) .

TREA11SE 0 1'\' HllWKINC

Th is page fro m a wo rk by che ltalian scho lar
Francesco Moro was pen n ed in abou t 1560-70
and co nsists ma in ly of alphabets and cexts in
different hands. At the top, in gold, are cwo Enes
ofCadels (pp. 80-81) . Be n eath che b lu e b order
are the I calics, fuUy separated and ge nerous ly
spaced . The min uscule hand is a fom1aca,
idencifiable by the wedge-sha ped ascender se,i fs.
Four lines ofTextura Q uadrata (pp. 50-5 1)
follow an d, below che green borde r, there are
several Enes of H umanist Mi nuscule (pp. 90-91).

94

The relatil'ecruditJ efMorris's
,apicalJeccers
isprobablyowing
to his use efa pointed pen nib
ratherthan che moresuicable
broad-ed9ednib -
Althou9h clearly an ltalic
scripc, Morris'sJeuersare
noticeably upri9ht compared
ivicha classicltalic such as
FrancescoMoro's (oppositc) ----:--::--:-- -:-/::c+ ,-,!lr...;-.:~
W ILLIAM M OR.R.IS
Although Edward
Johnston is generally
regarded as che father of
modern caUigraphy
(pp. 42-43), William
Morris had been
explor ing the methods
of medieval scribes two
decades before him . T his
illuminated work of 187 4
is an attempt to realize
che vision of che Ares and
Crafts move m ent by
achievi ng com m un ion
between crafisman and
cool (pp. 42-43). Bue
since a pointed nib rather
than a broad-edged pen
has been used to draw
che capita ls, the attempt
is only partially successfuL
The lon9 ascendersand descendershal'e
presenceda problemfar the scribewhere
they c/ash in the interlinear space
In th1sJcaliccexc,che calli9rapherhas
inc/uded bochJormaca and corsiva
ascenders;chis I is the corsivatype
PRINTING TYPE CATALOGUE
This design from 1990 is by the
N orwegian calligrapher C hriscopher
Haanes . He has ach ieved harmony
between che capitals and minuscu les
by reduci ng ch e size of che cap itals
to just above m inim he ight.
; ) _ 1-rOrtt twFlt1cá
G
- -,-,,;-'-;~'H:c-"--::-'1;'-{ ,.,11,ni111m11111r,J.,i {"'".,.º
,/,0111 11
,11 • .... , \n H I fil
EM ,11·1rn1.rnt f:r,t,}
f1..'.ri.Uf
I TALIC
SATUR1,!ALIA
This fine Italic script was written by Ambrosius
Theodosius Macrobius in 1465. Each letter is
clearly defined, reminiscent both of the Humanist
Minuscule (pp. 90-91) and che earlier Caroline
Mi nuscule (pp. 38-39). The capicals are small and
restrained compared w ith those by Moro (opposice).
The injluence oj type
The changing.demands brought about
by the developing prin ting industry of
the 15th century hada n import ant
iníluence on the Italic script. In 1501 ,
the Venetian print er Aldus Manutiu s
commi ssioned goldsmith Francesco
Griffo to design a small Italic type
(pp. 90- 91), in which most of the
characters were clearly separated.
From that point , calligrapher s began
to follow the example of type by
separatin g their penned lette r s. This
led to a loss of sorne of the Italic's
cur sive guality and the script quickly
reached its full maturit y as a carefully
crafted text hand. But by the 1550s,
the complaint from scrib es was that it
had become too slow to write . From
then, its decline was rapid , eventually
being used only for text in parenthesis
and for annotation.
John sto n 's o
For the modern calligrapher, Italic
script remains a co nstant sour ce
of inspirati on. However, mu ch new
Italic can be traced back not to the
15th centur y but to th e influ ence of
the early 20th- centur y calbgraph er
Edward Johnsto n. Th e script was
subtl y m odified by his intr odu ction
of two pull ed stro kes for the o and
r elate d letter s, in place of the
original single str oke (pp.42-43) .
95
lutLU N &_HU//1ANl5T 5CJUPT5

Italic 11,e ltalica is

alwaysa single•
HE ITALICHAND is writt en with a square-cut "slanted" pen, held _.!!~rey letter

T atan angle ofbetween 35 and 45°. Letters should be written

with the minimum number of pen lifts - most can be written with
a single stroke. The two traditional examp les shown here are
formata and corsiva. Formata letters are distinguished by the wedge
serif to the left of the stem, cors iva by the swashes to the right of
the stem. Ideally, the two different types should not be mixed. The
o is the key letter of the script: it establishes the basic ductus of
-v--
-- --
Formata Corsiva
form of b form of b
the hand, the cur ve of othe r letters, and the letter width (below).

Joining strokes Altematively, the top curve of tite e

Where strokes spring Co1111ecting ca11be draw11 as a separate stroke
from the stem of a _ltnlir -~ t lPr< hmlP tt / c1rril,P( <"hnuJA ~ - --
letter, such as on /1, 111
, fonvard lean of about begi11about two
and 11, che stroke should 10or15° __ __ _ pen widths short
begin about two pen of the headli11
e
widths below the
headline. The bottom
curve of che bowl of
the d, g, and q meets
the stem stroke about
two widths above the
Formata Corsiva
baseline. Ali connec ting
form ofd form of d
strokes follow these
basic rules.

I
2
Tite top loop
of the e can be A longuecan be
Ascendersand descmders added wltettthe e is
771/s1vedge draumas a
can be the same heightas __ _ separarestroke - -llll!"'
:;...<
:.____ ~
ac the ettd of a word
serif,dra11111 tite 111i11ims
or slightlyshorler
i11two strokes,
is commo,iin Tiiis serif
modemwork cana/sobe
TI1is corsivaseri
c/11bb
has beendra1vt
Withoutche
i11a single
crossbar,
tlief
strok
becomes tite
fonn ofs
/011g

corsivaserif
crearesbold
asce11d
ers
Altematively,
the desce11der
Serifs of rhe g <a11
Serifs can be wedge-shaped and left-fucing (formata) or ten11i11ace wit/1
right-fac ing (corsiva). On letters b, d, /1,k, and I in the a swash
Step-by-step o alphabet (right),both formata and corsiva types are shown. Corsiva (above left)
form of h

Altemacíve ly, the

·secondf ootofthe
h cattcen11i11a
111ithaflick
~__,,,
____ __,__
(above left)

1. To create the o in 2. Maintaining the 3. Push the pen

a single strok e, use an
angle of 40°. Begin just
below the headline and
push the pen upwa rds
to the headline, before
curving clown to the left.
40° pen angle, curv e
the stroke downwards
towards the baseline,
before moving along the
baseline and beginning
to curve upwards.
towards th e headline in
an are, meeting the top
curve j ust below th e
headline. Alternativel y,
draw the lette r in two
stroke s (opposite).

96
 I TALIC

Forma ta Corsiva
form of 1 form ofl
2

1/' Tlfl
_
11,e legsof tlie m ca11be
f-- --- ~---
Th, fi•"'""'¡TI 1
thevca11begin,'!I
like 1/,eu, witli
a ,vedges~rif
) L~
{ ))

-- --- - - --

draumas separarestrokes

~.)l ..-
1
11,efirststroke
1----- -T- --II '-- tl,e w canbegin~
like the u, ,virl,
a wedgeserif

Altematively,1/,eo canbe draum

i11a singlestroke(opposite)

----- ---~ ~~~ Alcematively, tl,ey canbe

constnictedfrom 1/,ebasic
¡ fom, of u, ,vith the addition
------ - -------- -~ - __ . _of.g_descender
3(r-'
Thejirst and third
strokesof t/1ez can be

_r_
replacedby a singlestroke
from right to left
Conjoined leuersdo
no/ appearin ltalic
scriptand ligat1,res
ar~ limit.edto 1/,e
letterss and t ltalicampersandscan be
decoratedU/Ít/1
jlouris/1es
2

S-t ligat ure Ampersa nd

97
/ TilLIAN &__HUMANIST S CRIPTS

-
2

Humani st & Italic Capitals

H UMANIST CAPITALS ARE closely mode lled on Roman Imperial
Capitals (pp. JI 0- 119) and can be used with the Carolin e
Minuscule (pp.40-4 1) and Foundati onal Hand (pp. 44-45), as
A tA 3

B l B'.
wcll as with Hu man ist Minuscules (pp. 92- 93). A pen angle of
30° is most lik.ely to produc e lette rs with a similar str oke weight

-
to the ston e-c ut Roman ori ginals. Italic Capitals are based on
the Humani st lette rforms but have a dist inctive forward lean.
Th ere are variou s possible serif formati ons (below),and any 2
2
of these can be used on eith er typc of capital.

e lC
T111i
st tl,e pe11to
tl,e verricalto
draw tite serifof
tite C (seeleft
H,m,anis1a11dJtalic for altemativt
Capi1als sl,011/dnever methcds)
exceed1/ie equivalen/
of ltvo mi11i111
s in lteight

/ra/icCat>itals /ea11ro 11t

e
D º ' ..:::.:..__..,.

--
2
rii11ar tite sarnea11gle as 3
(pp. 9&-97)
tite 111i1111smles
Pen nibs
The same pen nib should be used far capitals as is used
far the minuscules that they accompany. The serifs
can be drawn with the pen at a slightly shallower
angle than that uscd for the main stem strokes.

...
Arm serifs
4J iJ
Alternative serifs
}
f l --+
2
.±.....

2
T,vi!I tite petrto
t/1everticalro
drarvtite top serif

G
Alternatively, che top left serif can of 1/,e G (seelefi
Draw the arms of E and F and the
simply be the beginning of the ste m for altemativt
top curves of C. C, and S in a single
stroke and che right serif can be 111etlrods)
stroke and, if dcsired, build up the 3
two scrifs with the corner of the nib. creaced with a slight flick to the left.

2 5
--+ --+

/
H l 3
--+
-y+
-
3

Basic foot serif
Create che basic foot serif
by extending the stem
to che left and finishing
with a bascline stroke.
Bracketed serif
Alternatively, finish the
scemstroke with a swccp
co che right and add the
lcft serif separately.
IJ
Inn er fillet
11,e /euerJ ra11drop
A third option is to draw belorvthe baselim
the basic faot serif (Jeft)
and add the inner fillet
with a short curve.

98
 H UMAN IST &__/TAL/C CAPITALS

T lf- -.
11,etop ann of
the K canbe
draw11tvitlra

--
straiglitstroke

3-
2
3 2 5

L ___.
2

-7

M t' V t-
77,esecond 11,efirsr diagonal
strokeof 1/,e of 1/ieV canbe a
M canbe straiglitstroke
srraighr

N l :~!'
TI,efirsr
The 1/,ird and rhird
strokeof rhe srrokesof
N ca>1 be 11,eW can
straig/11 besrraig/11

p 11,efirsl diagonal
strokeoJ11, eY
can be maíg/11

7 2

K _tt ltalic Capitals

Ita/icCapitalssl,ouldbe
slig/11/y
shorrerrhan the
ascender/1eigh1of rhe
minuscule

--------
2 2

s
11,efirsralremariveE showsbrac k etedserifs
Twist thepen 10rhe
ar rlie ropand botcomoj tire/erce
r, a11dche
verticalto draw the
secondshowsa scraighcscemand maighcanns
senf of the S (see
op posite Jor Two altema tive
a/rer,!al
ive_me~od~ forms of E

99
I TALIAN &_HUM AN IST S CRIPTS

Italic Swash Capitals

A
SWASH CAPITAL IS A flamboyant letter that traditionall y served
a similar function in Italic text to that of the coloured Versal
']J
/J ]
1, D ).
2~~
in Gothic tex t (pp.58- 59) . It should neve r be used to writ e --.__
a complete word, but can be combined with standard Italic Capitals
(pp. 98- 99). The Swash Capital's characteristic showin ess is created
by the exten sion of stem strokes above or below the capital line and
~
the extension ofbowls and hor izontal strok es to the left of th e stem . 3
These ex tended strok es term ínat e with a swash or, alternatively ,

~
~
2
can be looped like Co pperp late Capita ls (pp. 106- 107).

e
11,eCis
draumin
11,esrem Iras been [ uvoseparare
exre11ded abo11erhebowlef

~((1
wn,ed srmkes
rl,e /errerwfor,11a swas/1
Wlw, a swas/1is added 2
both 10r/re top and 1/,e

J
lefrof tire srem, rl,e lerrer B11l1111c e1l1e
gains a parrimlarly 4 3 ropswasl,
jlamboyanrappearanre of1/1eD
()lltr 1/1e
s111eep of
~ 1/rearc
5
2

Tl,e swasl, ro tirel~fi ,ifrhe s1e111

oJ
i.~1111muralco11li1111ario11
1/1ero,mdedsrmke of rl,e bmvl To draw
Ira/irSwasl,
Left swashes Capirals, use
Whcn crcating a swash rlresame pe,,
from che bowl of a letter, asfo r lralic
such as dm of the B or R, ir mim,scules A/1ema1ively,
is important that the swash (pp. 96-97) r/re sremefr/reF
is a namral extension of the can tenninatein
bowl stroke, with the pen a lrorizomal
foor
pulled in a swccping Top swashes (seeH, below)

movement. Thc lctters in
che alphabet (rig/rr)show
che swashcs added as
separate strokes.
-
The stem can be extended
upwards and pulled to che right in the 2
manner of a corsiva ascender on the
ltalic minuscule (pp. 96-97) .

Draw the loopin a single

movement witlwra
a/1eri11g
1/1epen an.Rle

Twisr the penfrom

30° ro tirevertical,
move do11111111ards
slig/rtly,and lifi

Looped terminals Formal arm serifs

This clubbed. looped terminal can be Th is formal cype of serif provides an
used as an alternarive to the swash in , elegant contrast to the Oourishes. 1n
finishing the stcm stroke. le works construction, it closely imitates che
particularly well on a single stem brush-dr awn Imperial Capital serif
letter such as an / or P. C reare the (pp. 110--119). On reaching the end
loop by crossing back over che stem of che arm, begin to rwist the pen
and pulling thc stroke out to che right. from 30° to the vertical.

100
 I TALIC SWAS/-1 CAPITALS

1(
-L- -¡¡ 2

1 '\ ,, ¡:_
~---- _'below
t/1eL canstroke
of111efi11al drop
tirebaseli11e

_,.._ ___-- --
1
11,etail of the
X extendsbe/0111
the baseline and
ten11i11ate
s un'tlr
a swash

11,etail oft/r, Y
is loopeda11d
exte11dsto tire
11,efoot of tire P rij!IHo( tireletter
ca11be 0111i11ed

11,etail of Z exte11ds
be/owtirebase/in e and
tem1i11at
es rvitlra s111aslr
11,ef oot 011tire
stem oftlre R
ca11be omitted 11rissimple11priglrt
fomr
oftlris
Tireste111 of E can be adaptedfor
11prigJ11Jom1
ofB lettersB, D, F, H, 1, K,
fea111res
a 111edgeserif P, R., a11dT

s Alternative B Alternativ e E
Uprigl,tS111ash Capitals, s11d1as
tlrisB and E, tan replace lta/ic
Capitals (pp. 98-99) i11ltalictext

JO/
PosT- R ENAISSA, CE SCRIPTS

Copperplate
¡\ LTHOUGH THE ITALI C script began life as a quickly
.l'\. penne d , cur sive vers ion of the Hum anist Minu scule ,
by the beginning of th e 16th centu ry it had beco me a
forma l script in its own right with a corr espondingl y
slower ductus (pp.94-9 5) . In 1574 , an instruction manual
for Italic script was prin ted from text that had been
engr aved on sheets of copper with a point ed tool known
CAPITAL B
as a burin . Th e hand developed for thi s new engraving The stem efI he
COPP ERl'LATE
Although wrinen to thc same stroke
method , combin ed with the narr ower pen and slant ed CopperploteCop110/ thickness as the minims, Copperplate
usual/y termmou s Capitals cend to be relatively large
writing angle that scr ibes had begun to favour, led to the with o blob (pp. '/ 06-107). Th e degree of
expansion or contraction should
emerge nce of a, new hand writt en script : Cop perpl ate . closely echo thac ofthe minim.

TH E PRI NC IPAL I NNOVA TIO N of the

Copperplate was that, for the first
tim e, ali the lett ers in a word were
linked, making ita fast and pra ctica!
hand to write . By the mid - 18th
centu ry, it was the cst ablished script
of comm crce , rep lacing th e vari ous
bastard hands that had previouslybeen
used for much business and verna cular
wor k in Euro pe (pp. 66- 79).
Thr ougho ut the 17th and 18th
centuri cs, Copp erplat e writin g also
acquired the statu s of an art form
suitable for gentle folk, who used
the impr cssive script for both private
and business corr espo nden ce.
faentually, Copp erplate replaced
the Humani st hands includin g
the Italic itse lf - altoge ther.

THE UNIVERSAL PF.NMA 1\:

This version of an insrruccional cexc by Samue l
Vaux is from TI,e UniversalPe11 , a celeb rated
111a11
volume of engraved work by the calligrapher and
engraver George Bickham. Published in 1743, the
book epítomiz ed the eleganc writing manuals of
th e 18th century. The engravcd letters, writtcn
wit h very few lifrs of che cool, closely follow
pen-drawn Coppe rplace letterforms.

WALP U RGIS NIGHT

This handwritten cext of a poem by che artist
R ic hard Dadd dates from about 1840. Th e letters
closely follow the approvcd "sc hool" hand of
the period: che minims are small, asccnders are
relatively large and unlooped, and the hand is
w ritten at che very steep angle of nearly 40°.

102
 COPPERPLATE

éy;od.h/t.Je1Ntdf ~(Jt!-1/!att11 ./1/4ej11ora1dc;;;:;;✓d

c'trl't ' 11t'V1N'4tjta1~r/2.r
0
i~.Jt/2(Jt;1k
t7t"hlYl7VU e,f; /l/;;;ch.J77u0//la
C/f ~ocl--9Zattt1· b',llyf
a1,ce
(tlld &,11abl'¡-,

¡j thvj/nxdtct r;;:jltúfe~z, 1vkrh 7'1

er,iy/lltli,,J¿,ve allt»t /0,/lCCéu & ,,-:,
~1t~y..1t.j;the1u, t-011
.11;J21~/hat'7 i ,110/'htj'
lh en· 1. jtMf:~t t;l~ lth/tth . ....-,

THE U :, ·!VcRSAL PESMA , '

This engraving of an instructiona l
text by W. Kippax is also from
George Bickham's Universal
Penman.Notice che looped and
un looped fonm of ascenders
used; on che chird line, che word
"wh ich" incl udes boch cypes.

"COMMAND OF HAND"
1n arder to maimain their statu s as ceachers,
the 1Sch-cencury wri ting masters oftcn
pro du ced a series of virtu oso calligraphic
perfom1ances that were each known as The s1rokescross each
"scriking" or "command of hand", in which other at the most acute Copperplate in ed ucation
increasingly comp lex baroque flourishes were anglc possible The adoptio n of Coppe rpl ate script
produced w ithout the remo val of pen from
paper. Th is o rnace wo rk is one such examp le. The loops, drown Lo va')•ing sizes, would
occurr ed rem arkably rapid ly, a
have been carefully planned in advancc phenom enon owing partl y to the role
\ s;¡' ._J • ...---
in education of the wri ting master .
COPPERPLATE WORKSHOP
---;--;·~-[ ~ ., In the past, w ritin g skills had been
In letterpress printing, the raised
R -:
..
?·~.m.:
L 'r~1f!.;J~
surface of the type is inked and
impressed on to paper. 1n copperplate
taught by univer sity academics, but,
---1 (imag lio) printin g, thi s proccss is by the late 17th ce ntur y, incrcasing
~
reversc d. lnk is applied to the literacy and the demand s of business
inscribed surface and wiped from che
face of the place. Dampcncd papcr is cr eated the need for a teachcr who
chen pressed on to che plate, picking taught vvriting excl usively. Examp les
up the ink from the recesses. In chis
engraving, we can scc che papcr of writing masters' work wer e
bcing forced onto che place, w hile, reproduced by copp crp latc
in che backgro un d, print ed sheets
are dryi ng 011 the racks. engraving, and schoolbook manuals
began to super sede the elegant
wr itin g manuals - such as The
Universal Penman - that had
previo usly been widely favoured .
Techni cal skill
By the 19th centur y, Copperp late was
the standar d school hand in Europ e
and th c Unitcd Statcs of Amcr ica,
and stu dent s wer e jud ged as mu ch
on writing tec hniqu e as the cont ent
of their work. Thi s empha sis on
tec hnical skill lasted we ll into thc
20th cent ur y, when the Copperp late
pen was usurp ed by the ball-point
pen, typewrit er, and word pro cessor.

103
Pos·r- R E.NAISSANCE S CRI PTS

Copperplate
T HI ELEGANT SCRIPT i probably the most cursi,·e of ali hands.
Most lette rs can be writt en in one stroke and there are few
pen lifo bctween lettcrs. Minim s can be slightly co mp rcsscd and
--a Tiie bou1of tlrt
a i., eudosed

the chara cteristic loops of the ascenders and descende rs can be

drawn either open or cnclosed . Thc best efTcct are often achjeved
by using com pr cssed minims with cnclose d loops . Th e fine lines
of thc burin engraving (pp.102- 103) are difficult to rep licate with 11re bowlof rlie
bis ope11
a steel nib but, with practice, imprcssh ·e resu lts can be achieved .

~ Oº
~
~ 77reJonvard lea11of the
Copperplateletrer,s
about 30º
( {J.
~ Tire asre11der
Too) sclect ion of rlre d is
Always use a pomted 1101looped
nib for Copperplatc
leccers.A flexible 77rebowloftire
drawing nib or purpose- d is eudosed
madc Copperplatc nib
will ensure che best

e
vanat:ionof thick and
chin strokes.

11retop loopof
the f is e11rl
osed

~-1'7,e,rmolm overlap,keep rl,epetr a11gle Tire lorV<'T

loopof tire
as e/oseto 90° as 1/ze srriptwi/1allow f ca11altemativelybe
dm,v,r to rhe riJIIIIof
rhestem
Adjus ting th e p ressu re
The pressure is adjusted rw1ce on thc
average mmim srroke. Begm with a
gcmle prcssurcto produce a fine line,
11rebowlofrl,e
increasc i1 co thicke n che stroke at
gis enrlosed
the centre of the minim, then relax
11 agam at the bortom of thc srroke.

11re bottomloop of
rlre g is e11do
sed

77relooped
asce,rder
of tire
Linking letter s
h (QII be OJICII
Link letters wherever possiblc,
or e11
rlosed
cnsuring that the link is as high up
thc stem as is practicable. Do not
join letters near their base.
T ry 10 leave a 11ea1

beru,;>e,,
of space
trit111,(!lt
ead, letter
, , , ,
Interna) spaces
Once you have decided whether to
use comprcsscd or expandcd minims,
make surc cach coumer contains the
samc amount of spacc. The inter-
$ 71reloopof rl,e
j is e,u/osed

lerter space should be approx:imately

half the interna) space.

104
 COPPERPLATE

ne top loop of
the k can be

Tl,e ascender of
the l can be looped
open or enc/osed_

t t
m Tite wp loop of rl,e v
can be ope11or e11
c/osed

Tire rwo ioops of

1/,e w are enc/osed

Tiie stem of t/ie p

ofien risesabove
X 2
111inim ireig/11
TI,e bowl of TI.e loop ofrl,e y

!I
rhe pi s is endosed
usual/y open

TI,e bowl ofrl,e

q is enc/osed

TI,efi11alloop of
tire z is enc/osed

Letterforms can be s/ig l,1/y

TI,e sma/1rop 111
odified to acco111111
odare tire
loop oJtl,e half r co1111
eaing srrokes
can be open

Joined letters Copperpit1t e is 111rict

e11wirl,
asf ew pen iifts as possible :
TI1e s is the only rl,is word ca11be 11m tte11wirl,
Copperplate letterin TI1is fo r111
of ( is tl,e most 011ly 011
e pen lift - fo r tire
1/,e a/pl,abet witl, no f onnal and restrained ,,j crossbar of rl,e t
natural linking stroke al/ possible options

105
POST-RE NA ISSA NCE SCRIPTS

CopperplateCapitals
¡\ MO NGST THE MORE useful practica! advice offered in th e
.í"'\.Copperplate manuals of the 19th century (pp.102- 103)
is this tip from writing masters James Lewis and Joseph
Carstairs: "The writing hand should be lightly suppor ted by the
tip of the little finger and the forearm free to move in a circular
movement" . This can very helpfu lly be applied to the drawing
of Copperplat e Capitals, a script in which the precise control
of pressure on the pen is central to the execution of each letter.

As a ge11eral ni/e, 1/,e-- -- t./ lncreaset/,e pressure

tl,ick stroke sho11/dnot at tl1ispoi11t
contínue i,uo tlie curve;
avoid this happening
by comrolli11 g tl,e pen press11reat
press11re tl1ispoi111

/
Incor rect S
This S shows how the lette r will
loo k if the pressure 011 th e pen is no t
meticulously contro lJed. The stro ke
should only increase in weight when
following the angle of the italic slope.
Decreasethe
pressurear this point
Correct S
To draw the S correctly , begin che
stroke with light pressure, increasing it
when reaching th e italic slope angle.
Decr ease the pressure when moving
away from the italic slope angle .

Loops Crossing strokes

Loop s shouJd balance over the As a rule, thin strok es can cross both
uprig ht axis and, when used spirally, thi ck strok es and ot her thin stroke s.
sho uld diminish proport ionat ely, Ho wever, thick stro kes should never
rather like a snail's shell. be crossed with other thick strok es.

Capitals
and minuscu les
N ever use Cop perplate
Capitals to write a whole
wo rd. Where severa!
capitals have to be used,
such as for initials, plan
the lerr.ers very carefüUy.
When used to begin
a wo rd (pp. 104-105),
che features of the
Coppe rplate Capital Here, the tail of the L terminatíng a
can be adapted to Itas been elongated a11d stroke, Jinish wíth a
co mplement che lowered to complement /,airlineor app/y pressure
minuscules. 1/1e minusw/e letters 011 the pen to /eavea blob

106
 COPPERPLATE CAPITALS

~ 1

- ~

----- --

M '~
(2_
-

Arabi c nurrierals Arabíc111m1eral

s hamroníze tvíth Copperplate
scriptsbetter t/1a11
Roman m1meral
s

107
R OM11N &_L ATE R OMAN ScR JPTS

Imperial Capitals
HE IMPERIAL C APITAL (CapitalisMonumentalis) ef
T
The proporuons Dürer's letter A ore
bosed on o subdivided square, wiih the
was the lett er used on the monume nts of ser!fs basedon compass-drawn circles

Ancient Rome to proclaim the might of the D t!RER'S CUISSICAL A

Th e analysis and redi sco vcry of
Roman Empire, and is indis putabl y the most f?. ant iquc letters was a m atter of
, greac industry for R enaissance
stately of all scripts. The earliest examples of scholars and artis cs. This Im perial
a mature Imp erial letter date from the first Cap ital, draw n by Albrccht
Dü rer in 1525, de monscrates the
century B.C., and sorne of th e finest models are widespread bclicf chat th e key to
~ (. und erstand ing classical lctters lay
inscribed on the base of th e Trajan Column in r
Rom e ( opposite). These stone-cut letters were f (J in geomcr ric dissecrion. ·

carved directly on top of brush -drawn forms

(pp. 1 10- 111), th eir proportions dictat ed
by th e natural mov ement of the han d .

C APITAL LETTERS 'vvith serifs had

been written by thc Gree ks from the
fourth cent ur y B.C .. Howeve r, it was
only when the Roman s developed a
springy, broad -edged brush from the
hair s of th e red sable that it bccam e
technically possiblc to draw serifs and ef
The re9ula11on space
other lctt er part s quickly and vvith bet weenleuers, words,
and /,ncs n·as ojprimary
precision. When used within the
concern to ehe Roman scribc
natural co mpa ss of the hand, this tool Ü ETAIL FR OM THE Y IA A PPIA M ONUMENT
pró\ ·ed cru cial in determ ining th e In th is inscription o n the Via Appia M on ument ,
thc interli n ear space is equal to abouc half thc
shap e of thc Imp erial Capital itself. he igh t of a lettcr. Wer e the spacing any cighcer,
A key J unct ion as ic is on the Arch ofCons cantin e (opposite), che
case of horizoma l sean wou ld be reduced and
In a society with a high dcgree of
thc lctt ers would become jumb led .
litcracy but without the bcnefit of
thc print ed word , Roman scrib es
and signwrit er s perform ed key Compare ,he imer•ICLLer spacesef

funct ions. Althou gh what re main s

ef
the elei·enth line with those ihe
1we!Jt.h 10 see how ,he spaceshave
of their work is fragm cntar y, we do been compres.sedLO accommodacc
know, from one small paint ed sect ion the aJ/ocat.1on oj texl
of an clcction postcr in Pompeii, that
- by simplif ying so rne strok es - thc V iA A PPIA M O NUM ENT
The beau tifu l proport ions of che lccters o n this
Impe rial Capital was adapted from rnon um ent in the Via App ia, R ome, compare
the pr est ige lctt er s of sta te for use ve1y favou rably with those o n che base of che
T rajan Col u mn (opposire). Su ch a large amoum
in evcryday documentation. of ccxc wo u ld hav e req uir cd co nsiderab le
Thc Imp erial Capital has provcd to forward planning. Th e inicial aUoca cion of
wo rds to each line may have been calculat ed
be thc most endurin g of ali script s.
0 11 a wax cablee o r slate . befo re working ru les
Ovc r 2,0 00 years after it was first wcre drawn to lettcr he igh t on che marb le.
uscd , its form rcmains virtually Once thc pos itio n of the letters was m arkcd
in c halk bccwecn che rul es, che letters wer e
unchanged, as thc capital lett cr s in paint ed wit h a brush. On ly th en wcre che
the typc print of this book testify. word s actual ly carvcd into che stone.

108

\El J¡\
l' . \ n1 l l l
l 1 \ l) l ~ ;\
r 1 \ 1 \ J l \ 1 ~ l_1E1 1
¡\ \ ,\ \ l 1 \ l )l~1)1l~l (, T·\
;\ l ~ I El ~ l \ 1
THE TRAJAN COLUMN
This inscription on thc base of th e T rajan
Col umn in R.ome, cut in A.D. 112-3, is 2.7-1
metres (9 fcet) wide and 1.15 mcrres (3 feet
9 inches) high. Thc inscripcion, com mernorating
rhe bactles ofT rajan against Ge rmany and Dacia,
bcgins with the ph rasc "SEiVA TVS POP VL VS
QVEROMANVS"(''Thc Senate and Peoplc of
Romc"). The lette rs we re originally co lo ured
red so rhar rhey would stand ou t from che
background. Words are separated by a medial
incer-point and rhe horizonta l stroke ovcr
certa in lerrers indicates chcir use as nume rals.
The words''SE:--IATVS PO PVLVS
QVEROMANVS" ha,•e been abbrei•,ated10
"S.P.Q.R. "and rele9a1ed10,he second/,ne
f MPERIIIL CAPITALS
1
--
\ / l Cc1SVll P
1\LTIT\ I L l N l~
~ l T·t l~ [ \ T\ l
/
The lmers on ,he 1.op fine are The leuer A, like 1he N Father Catich
11.5 cenrimeues(4'1,inches) and M, has a pointed Since th e Renaissan ce, Imp erial
hi9h. reducin9 to 9.6 apex, ajorm efImperial
centimeues (] '!, inches) on Capual more d!l]icuh 10 Capit al lett er s have bee n studi ed ,
1hebouom line probably consrrucr than 1he analyzed , impro ved, and recreated by
ind,cacm9 the relmive common serifed orflac-
imponancc <:_{
the words headed leucr ( p. 113) co untl ess scholar s and calligraph ers.
However, it is o nly th ro ugh the
THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE
This monument daccs from A.D . 315, some 200
pioneerin g work o f a modcrn scholar,
years aftcr rhe Trajan Col umn (above).In some the late Fath er E .M. Catich, that we
ways, it marks the degeneracio n of Romc, since can now fully und erstand the du ctus
many of the scatucs and rcliefs 011 the colu mn
have been scavenged from earlier work. The of th e hand. H is analysis of Ro man
lette rs are square-cu t in sha llow rclief. lett er constru ction was demonstrat ed
Or iginally, the groovcs would have h oused
bronze letters - the ci rcu lar fixing holes can on 19 lett er s of the alphab et in his
still be seen insidc each letter. defin.itive w01·k, The Origin efthe Ser!f,
pub lished in 1968. These methods
ar e int erpr eted for ali 26 le tt ers in
th e follo w ing pag cs (pp. 110- 1I 9) .
Spontaneous letter s
Th e g reat str ength and beaut y of
the Imp erial Capita l lies in the fact
that th e lett er s can be writt en with
spo ntan eity, thc tool and hand
determinin g the form, and one letter
part relating natura lly to the ne xt.
In mu c h mod ern wo rk, excessive
pr e-plann ing can have the effect of
makin g the lett er s app ear laboured.
Hovveve r, th e metho ds explain ed in
~"the followin g pages will enabl e the
mod ern scrib e to work in the same
way as his or her Roman forebears
and produ ce spontan eou s lett ers
for o ur own time .
109
ROMAN &_LATE ROM AN SCRIPTS

Imperial Capitals: Brush Strokes

N ORDER TO RECREATE authentic Imper ial Capitals, it is essential to use a
I broad -edged brush. This should be made from sable or synth etic hairs,
which are fine enough to create a sharp clean edge when wet. Imperial
A mal,lstick is 11seji1/
for
keepi11gthe lzandclear of
Capitals are constructed either from "pulled" or "manipulated" stro kes, the wn'tingsurface___ _ __,

or from a combination ofboth. In both types of stroke, the angle betwee n

the brush and the work surface is equally as important as the angle of the
brush edge on the lette r. Whe n drawing lette rs with a brush, differences in
stro ke thickness are created by many factors, including changes in rhythm
and tempo, and the increase or decreas e of pr essure on the too!. This
sensitivity is generally most apparent on "manipulated" strokes (opposite) . for "pulled " strokes
With the hancl resting
directly on thc work
The basic "pulled" stroke surface, the movemem
The "pulled" stroke is used in rhe majority of Imperial A movemelll efabo111 of the brush wiUbe very
Capital leccer strokes. The basic "pulled" stroke is the five or six ce11time1res small for a "pulled"
vertical scem stroke. For this, the hand moves only sligh1ly, (11110
incl,es) can be stroke - about two or
with the index finger drawn towa rds 1he palm of 1he hand, ac/lievedwith 1/,e ha11d three cemime 1res (one
causing the brush 10 be pulled dowmv ards. 011a maldslick--
resti11g -+---- inch) . With the right
hand resting on the lef1
hand or on a mahls1ick,
The i11dex finger 1he movement can be
s/,011/dbe positio11ed increased.
011 thefemde ef
1/,e brush
3. Continue pulling the brush 4. On letters B, D, E,
downward s, slightly reducing and L, che vertical sccm
the pressure as you reach the s1roke is continued into
centre of the stem - this will 1he bottom ho rizontal
give che stroke a sligbt waist. arm. In chese inscances.
lncrease the pressure again the anglc of the brush
and, a1the bottom of che scem, edge on 1he letter
begin to lifr che brush while should be about 30°.
moving to the right.
Adjusr the brusha11 gle to
30° for tire addition of a
1. Bcgin che stroke with die brush thickerstroke r" tiren'g/11
a1 a fairly 0at angle to the surface.
Gently edgc 1he bru sh to 1he
right and begin the downward
sweep of 1he strokc . 2. As you move downwards
into the s1em, gradually pull
1he brush cowards the palm
of your hand , until i1 is
almost upright.

Other "pulled" strokes

The brush is held in a
símilac way on curved ___ TI,is sweeping
srrokes as on vertical
srrokes, bu1 ins1eadof Basic stroke is used
Opposing
drawing the brush cowards "pulled" onC, G, O ,
sweepfor
1he palm of the hand, 1he stroke • +-- This is an an'ilQ
lettersD,
hand moves in a semi- alrematíveleft O, andQ
circular movement 10 1he seriffo r A, M,
right or Jefe. To make chis The centrestroke and N
movemem smoo1h and efrhe S is both
easy, che angle of1he "p11/l
ed" and
This iail stroke of K, R.,
brush edge on che lecter and Q is exea,ted with
should be about 15°. Leuers M , N ,
1/,e bms/1wm ed to 30° V, a11dW /,ave
a diagonalstroke
that rums upwards
circularsweeps ar r/,e base/ine
occur on B , P,
a11dR.

J Jo

The "manipu lated" stroke
To dr:tw "manipulated" strokes,
you need to be able to t\virl the
brush through 180°. To make this
possible, hold che brush between
chumb and index finger with an
angle of about 90° between the
brush and che work surface.
"Manipulated" srrokes are used to
creare che four main types of serifs in
Imperial Capitals: che top left serifs
and arms of letters T and Z (above
riglir);che top serifs thar rerminace che
arms ofleccers C, E, F, C, S, and T
(right);the bortom serifsand arms
of C. E, L, and Z (below);and che
bottom lefr scrif of che S (belowright).
Although che top strokes of C,
S, and G are curved, che principie
remains che same as for the str:tight
top arms of che E and F. For che
bottom anns of E, L, and Z, che brush
is positioned so charche angle of che
edge on che letter is about 150°. The
strokes of che top serifs are known as
"forward" and those of the bottom
serifsas "reverse". The bottom serif
of che Sis unique in tbat rbe brush
beginsrather rhan ends at che serif tip.
Bottom arm and right
serif on C, E, L, and Z
Tlie a11gle
of
rhebnis/1edge
011rheletreris
abo11r150°
l. To creaceche bottom ann and right
serifon C, E, L., and Z, begin wich che
angle of che brush edge on che letter
at abouc 150°, and move ro che right.
St rai ght and curve d
"manip ulat ed " st rokes
"Fonvard"stroke11s ed
011the top a11dce11tre
am,s of the E and F
"Reverse"siroke11s
ed 011rhe
bottomann ofE, L, and Z ~
Top left serif on T and Z
1. Begin rhe top left serif on rhe
T and Z by bringing che brusb
downwards in a shorc stroke.
Top right serif on C, E, F, G,
S, and T
11,e a11gle
of rhebn1sh
edge011r/,e
/eueris 30°
1. To creare che top righc scrif
of C, E, F, C, S, and T, hold the
brush in an uprightposition and
begin che horizontal stroke with
che brush edge on che letter ar 30°.
2. On reaching che end of che stroke,
t\virl che brush 10 che vertical, chen
move upwards and edge off, finishing
on che lefr comer of che brush.
~
C11rved'Jorward"
stroke11s
ed 0111/1etop
rnn,eof C, G, a11dS
_jj
I MPERIAL CAPITALS : BRU SH STROKES
2. Twirl che brush to 30° to create
che left serif, slighdy increasing che
pressure as che brush twirls.
Rorare1/iebrus/1,pi1101i11g
ir ar the top righrcomer
2. Contin ue moving che brush
horizontally, maincainingcheangle of
30° untilthe brushapproaches the end
of che arm. At chis point, begin to
ro cate che brush on ics right comer.
Bottom serif
on S
11,e a11gleof
tl,e brushedge
0111/,eletreris
abo11r 150°
1. The bottom serif of che S is che
only bottom serif on che left side
of a lerter. Begin at che cip of che
serif, moving che brush downwards.
I "Fon11ard"
Cuwed "reversen
srroke11
sed0111/,e
bouomrnn,eof C
3. Wichout adjusting che angle ofthe
brush edge on che letter, move che
brush horizontally to creace che arm.
Fi11is/1
rl,e arm wirh rl,e
leficomerof the bnis/1
3. Continue to rotate che brush on
irs left comer umil che edge is 90° to
the arm. finally, move it downwards
slighclyand "edge ofl", gendy lifting
che brush from che surface.
b
2. Twirl che brush to 30º and curve co
che right and upwards. Work carefully,
for che first pan of che stroke will be
obscured by your hand.
ijj ►
011T a11dZ
stroke
precededby a serif
Curved "reverse" stroke
begi1111i11g
ar 1/ietip of rl,e
senf - used011/y011S
JJJ
R OMA N &._LATE R OM/IN S CRIPTS

Imperial Capitals: Construction Mmd

~,
26 CHARACTERS constru cted in the following pages are based on the 19 lett er s
HE
indicarea cl,ange

T included in the inscr iption on the base ofth e Trajan Co lumn in Rome (pp.108- 109).
The two Gr eek-derived lett ers, Yand Z, are based on oth er Roman sour ces , and the
of brush angle, in
tl,is insrancefrmn
JOº ro the
re maining thr ee lett ers, j, U, and W, are mod ern chara cters, which, as such, are op en vertical

to individual interpr etation . In pr incipie, the lett er s adhere to the ductus desc rib ed
by _Father E.M. Catich in his book The Origin efthe Ser!f. Each letter is indi vidually
demon strat ed by strok e sequence and brush angle . T he pressure on the brush and
the speed at wnich the strokes are drawn will vary from the bru sh of one ca)Iigraph er T11efirst stroke- the
to anoth er, and the rhythm that suit s you best will be acquir ed with pra ctic e . key t<>the /e11er- is

,~
drawn in pink __ ___ _ _

Fiveste111 Six ste111 Seven stem Ni11este111 Nine ste,11

011r .<tem
widrl,
111idt/1s 111idr/,s widrhs 111idths 111id1/1s '.:;,;:"

EBXA N M ª:;~~ •~~ "º''"•

fac h letter has been constructed from

9.5 $"[('111
widt/1s

LP Z
F TDeR
OW l!~~~~i:~i~s
l~t
~
the fourth. The frequently changing
brush angles are represemed by a
seriesofw hite linesacrossthestroke .

Letter weight
1t is generally assumed
diat the weight - the
relationship bctween
stem "'idth and srem
height - of rhe T rajan
S Tl,e H is creared
Jro11111volsjoi
.•,,."~,,.,,
P1
~
GU
l -i V
Letter proportions
When writing a series of Imperial Capitals, it is
cssential to know the relative width of one Imperial
Capital to another. The width of a letter - including

J
lencr is 1O:1. A balance serifs - is measured in stem widths. The apparcm
of 11: 1 is generally

y
discrepancy in weight bctween rounded and straight
considered acceptablc,

_J(
lettcrs is optical; rounder letters appear lighter than
although the actual
straight ones. To our modern eyes, this can be
letter weight is
displeasing and the elfect is "corrected" by the
abour 9.5:1. Thejillet bet111een rl,e
ser/{ m1dsrem efan addition of extra weight to the curved strokes.
ImperialCapital cm, he Arguably, the original weight di/ferences give thc
sli)!lulyf,dler tha11rlii., Imperial inscriptions a more natural rhythm than
that achieved in more formal modern work.

Numerals
Although Arabic num erals were not
introduced into Europe unril thc
13th century, avoiding their use in

7•'829 ()
favour of R.oman numerals can be an
incurnbrance in modern calligraphy.

,1for
l:"2 61
::~:~1~:~I:i(:;:!i:~a:!!:~1:~~1~~1
w1th111the capnal he1ght. The O1s
usually a narrow numeral, but if
used singly, it can be made wider, 3 ..-,
rcsembling a letter O (p. 116).
Stroke order

2
34 ? 3 _,
2
~
I
2 -•
2 2
3
~
2
1

J J2
 IMPERIAL CAPl7i1LS : C ONS TRUCTION

1 1,esma/1J!ªP

A
Flar-headcd A Serifed A
rn11befilled
afier 1/,eleuer
is co111pleted
Impe rial Capital A
Although most Roman As were flat-
headcd, ali of the As on the Trajan
inscription (pp. 108-109) are poimed.
When building rhc poinccd serif, ir is
essemial to draw rhc apex firsr. You will
In 111odem u,ork, 1/,ecrossbnr noticc rhar a small gap is left between
of 1/,eA 1e11ds w be positio11ed rhc first and the second srrokes.
/or,,ertiran1/,is Historically, 011 stone-cm lctrcrs, rhis
gap could be cradicated wirh a
7'1,elift lei is chisel. For the bmsh-drawn
a/11,ays1/1i1111er letrer. the gap can be lefi
1/,a11
tl,e r~~/11 leJ! as it is or it can b~ fiUed
·in \\~th the bmsh.

In post•Re11aissa11re
times, a11 ~ g, ,ff,/,, mif Tl,e 1/,irdsrrokeqf 1/,eA m11
i1111er
serifu,asi11d11ded 0111/,e 111i1/,
,l,c tip of a/1emati11cly be dra11mas a
legqf 1/,eA - tl,is is
ri>1/11 1l1e/m,s/1 (f 1/,efim stroke
w111i,111a1io11
mniued i11111odem work

7711· axis oJ1/1earr

r(~l11
is abovetl,e lwriz())1tal

Tl,e seco11da11dtlúrd
sm,kes of 1/,e13ra11be
co111binedi11a si11}/le Im pe rial Capita l B
sweepi11gstroke----+-6_.■ On rhe B. rhc filler bcrween rhe srem
and curve of thc lower bowl is an
imporrant characteristic, which only
occurs 0 11 the brush-drawn lctter. lt will
only occm at the bottom of the stem,
never at the top. The top bowl is always
smaller than the bottom and che join ing
strokc always above thc srem's centre.
Thc bortom bowl can alternatively be
consrrucrcd wirh a single sweep.

T11rntite brus/1J,-0111
1/,el1ori:m11al
to 30° aud 11
10,,ealoux tll(' baseliue

Im per ial Capita l C

Thc top and borrom srrokes of the
C are pulled out horizontalJy and do
not curve inwards. The rwo scrifcd
Tl,c axi.<()f 1/,el~/i ,if 1'11mt/1(•lm,sl, 011crm,d 1111is1 arms are vcry similar in consrrucrion
11,eareis bc/o11, tl1e fro,11150° 101/,eveniral to to those 011 rhc E (p. 114), which
l,orizo111a/------ - ~ should be uscd as a model. Thc only
dra111
1/1e /,0110111
ser!/'~
difTcrencc is rhat the arms 011 the C
.___:!__. are curved. not straight . Rcmembcr
at to turn rhe brush over to 150° for
rbc borrom srroke.

113
R OMAN &_LATE R OMAN SCRJPTS

P11/Ithe stroke lo the right

beforeco111111en<i11,11
tl,e are
2

Tite axis oJt/1e areis

aboveritehorizo11tal---
----1
Imp erial Capital D
As on che letter 8 (p. / / J), the stem
and rounded stroke of the D are
conncctcd with a fillct.This is always
at the bonom of the lcttcr - never
at the top. The width of the lencr
presems a problem in connecting
the baselinemo ke 10 che bowl. In
anticipating chis, thc Trajan.scribc
sloped che scemslightly10 che right.
In modem usage, che stern is upright.

T,m, t/1ebmsl,from tl,e l1orizo111al

to 30º a11dp11/Iir alo11g
the
baseli11e
asfar as possible

7'7,eL is co11s1nuted
from Ttvist the bn1s/1from

-;,
foot of titeE
tirestem a11d 0° to 90° to create
he top serif

Imp erial Capital s E, F, and L

In 77,eOnginoJthe Senf,Catich
regards the E as che key le11erin
detemiining che fonn of the Imperial
lecter. This is owing 10 che fact that
che length oí the top arn1and che
size and form of the scrifare narural
strokcs - in Carich's words, "the
T11m11,ebmsh 10 most satisfyinglynatural stroke che
30° a11dpul/ it brush rnakes". Thercfore thc E is
a/o11,11
tl,e base/i11e an ideal letter with which to starc
learning the brush technique. The
F is crcated in the same way as E bue
wi1hou1che foot, whilc the L is made
up of che stem and foot of che E.

For tl,efo11rtl1stroke ofrl,e

E, mm tl1ebmsh overa11d
ttvistfrom 150° ro 90°

~.J'lr
11ietopserifoftite
G slwuld bala11ce ove,
tl,e rigl11
sideof 11,e
slton sttm
To createthe top serifoftite G, pul/
•J 11,esrrokel,orizo111ally
to tite rigl,r
befaret111i
sti11sfro111
30° to 90°

11,eaxis ofthe are is

belotvthe horizo111al

11,estem of 1/,eG i;
a/x111r
110/ftite l1rigl11
of af11ll-sizt stem __ _ _

Imp erial Capita l G

For pracricalpurposes, the G is thc
C (p. 11J) combined with the upper
half of thc stem of thc / (p. 115).
The top serif is a manipulated moke
similar to the top arm of E (above).

114
 I MPERJAL CAPITALS: CONSTRUCTION

Imperial
Capitals H, I , and J
The H, /, and J are very
alike in cheir basic form.
As a modern letterform,
the J can be partly your
own invemion - for
To <reaierileH, joi11 instance, the rail can be
11110Is with a aossbar extended and edged off
draivt111r30° with a fine hairline stroke.
The / is che basis for ali the
scrifcd, sremmed letters
in the hand. Thc H is
constructcd from rwo /s

'11,e raílof 1/,eJ ca11sweep

fimher to rhe lefi
0111

This an11is similar ro

t/1erig/,rJork of the V
(p. 118)

Imperial Capital K
The arm and leg of rhe K con11cct to
che srem with a point. lt is acceptablc
to leavc a small gap between arm
and leg juncturc a11dthc stem. This is
preferable to co nnecring the lcg to a
point 011che le11grhof the arm. Alter
che angle of the brush 011thc chird

17w apex 11111srbe draum

firsr rocremerl,e nnglefor
L stroke to finish ac che horizontal.

fum rhe bmsh ro rhe

~ff
horizomal beforeedgi11g

17,epoi111ed M is i11 rl,e doivt1srroke

han11011ywit/1rhe A
(p. 113) a11dN (p. 116) The s111allgap <a11
beJilled after the
lelleris co111pleted

Imper ial Capital M

Alchough more commonly
flac-topped, che poinred
Mis uscd on rhe Trajan
inscriprion. The firscand
sccond srrokes of che M are
ahvays the rhickest, and che
rhird and fourth always che
thinn est. In classicusage,
che first and last lcgs incline
inwards, bue never as steeply
as th e inner V (p. 118).

115
ROA1A &..LATE R OMA . CAPITALS

Draiv the apex of

tl,e /enerJirst ---+-

2
Imperial Ca pital N
TI,t gap bet11~e11
the The firstand last leg¡ oí
serifa11drl,etop of the N are slightlychinncr
rl,eseco11ds11okeca11 than che diagonalscrokc;
befil/ed afierrl,e lerter in modern work, chey
is completed are ofien drawn as chinly
as che crossbarof che A
(p. 113). Note the slight
TI,ediago11a/ is
curve at the bottom oí
tl,e rl,ickmof
t/1ethreesrrolm__ _ the diagonal, caused by
sweeping the brush from
Tur11rl,ebrnsl,ro the diagonal to che vertical.
fi,risl, ar the vertical-- ~ Jr The N can be drawn cither
flat-topped or serifed.

11,eO a11dQ aresligl,r/y

11arro111er a perfectcircle
r/1a11

Imperia l Capitals
O and Q
The same ductus is used for
Tiie axis ofrl,e thc bowl oí che Q as for the
ri}llllareis abow key lertcr O. The stressof
rl,e l,on·zomal __ _ each letter is below centre
left and above centre right,
creating a diagonalaxis that
is compatible wich che
natural swecp of che wrisc.
The tail oí che Q swecps
well below che baselinc
and, becauseoí its frequcm
occurrence in Latin cext.
attraccivelybreaks the
forrnalityoían otherwisc
bilinear scripc.

Co11srm!I the Q by addi11g

a raílro rl,e/etterO _ __ ___ __ _

Slíg/11/ywm tire bntslt to

lrorizo11tal011 tite tail of r/1e
a -
Q beji>re edgi11g o.O'

TI,e axis of tl,e

TI.e basicfon11of areis abo,~ rl,e
r/,elt11erP is 1/,e l,orizomal
sameas rl,eR
(opposite)-- - - ----f-

Imperial Capital P
Alchoughthc bowl of che P appears co
be smaller than chacon che corresponding
TI,e mrved strokeof leccerR, they are, in f.ict,the same size.
rl,elo,verbowl does The illusionis causedby cheabsence
11otjoi11rl,e srem of the conncct ing scrokc co the
stcm of che P. In modern usagc, a
connecting bar is ofien added, and
in type it ncarly alwaysis. The bowl
finishesjust bclow the centre line.

116
- ----------- -------- ---- --- ----
I MPERIAL CAPITALS : CO NS TRU CTIO N

11,eaxis of the areis above

rhehorizontal
77,ebowlof the R is rhe
same size as rl,acof rl,e P
(opposice)
Imperial Capital R
The R, together with the E (p. 114),
is a useful lecter 011 which to practise
brush-drawn lmperials because it comains
more elements of other lctters chan any
other character. The j uncture of che
11,e tail of tl1eR. cowinues bowl and connecting srroke is a valuable
an i111agi11ary diagonalli11e indicator of the brush-drawn origins of
acrossrhe /euertliat begi11s the script. This has syscematically been
ar rhe top serif removed by scribes in an attempt to
"improve" the letter. The tail is a very
5
satisfying stroke to draw, producing
a gradual thickening,of che
¡- rail near the basehne

rhe
1 Flat1e11 bmsl, to rhe
horizontalbeforeedging qff

3
T1vw the br11sl1from30°
~ ~ ( 10 90° 10 completeche serif

4 Imperial Capital S
The curved strokes of the S often
presenr a rather awesome prospect ro che
beginner. In fact, once the E has been
mastered (p. 114),the S should not prove
dif!icult.The Trajan S has a forward lean.
Co111111e11re at tl,e which slightly interferes with the flow of
tip if serif, twisr 11,e the script. The tail serif is the only part
bms/1backwards, of che letter rhat may require addirional
a11dpul/ it alo11g practice. lt is the only arm serif that is
the base/ine constructed tip first,and aggravated
by the hand obscuring the first stroke.
For chis reason, it is essencialto draw
che tail of the scrif as the second stroke,
while thc hand "remembers" wherc
che firstsrroke 6nished.

Eac/1ann is 1/,e
same lengtltas 1/,e
armsof rl,eE and
F (p. 114}

ft--;- ---- ,
_
2
'j 11,erighrarm if rlzeT is
exaaly 1/,esame as 1/,e rop
arm of the E (p. 114)

Imperial Capital T
The cross stroke of the T is an extremely
clegam shape with subtle changes of
angle between serifs, and a gradual
swelling of the arm leading imo and
away from che serifs. The arm starts
with a slight downwards movement
with che edge of che brush twisting
back to 30° before moving along the
arm and finishing at 90°. On an
inscription, the inicialjuncture
would be filled in by the chisel.

117
R OMAN &_LATE R OMAN SC R IPTS

Im perial Capi tal U

In Latín, the character
V was used to represent
both U and V sounds.
In medieval scripts, rhe
V often cook rhe form
of a U; by about che 1-lrh
century che two lerters
wcrc diffcrcmiarcd and
used separarely. lt is a
matter oí personal opinion
as to what cxrcnt rhc
1mperial Capital scripr
should be adapred. to
languagcsothcr rhan L1tin.

TI,eb()IIOm serif<,frl,e U A I riteeod of r/1eS('((m

d str<>k
e,
cm, be omirted, wir/11/11• sweep 1/1ebruslt 101/,erig/11 a11d
rnn1esweepi,rg11pro meet ~u·
e~~e 111i1/1 af,11eS/roke
1/,erig/11
11enic/ll
s1r"ke

Slig/11/y1wis11/1e bn1slt le>
_fi11isltar 1/1e a11glec,f1/,e
seco11d s1roke --------
Im perial Capital V
Th e first strokc of thc V bcgins in
the same way as a vertical stroke and
finishes with the apex oían .H. The
change ofbrush angk is rcflcctcd in
the slight turn ar rhe bottom of the
stroke. The V can end in a flar base
whcn used wirh Oat-headed A . .H.
--- ~ 1 and N, but makc sure chis base is no
widcr than thc thin strokc.

6 7

2 4

Tite W rn11bt•
,nade 11amn1,er by
replad11.~ 1/1
e aossed
ceutn•strokes r,,irl, a appcarcd in the 11th
¡,oii11ed
sinJ<!le apex ccntury. In principie,
it is composcd of
two Vs, which can
eirher cross one
another or join in
a single apcx in thc
centre of the lettcr.

118
 I MP ERIAL CAPIT ALS : C ONS TRU CTION
The top v-sliape of tl,e X
s/1011/dbe s/ig/11/ysmaller
t/1a11rl,ebottom or,e
/mema/ serifsca11
be i11d11ded
0111/,e
1,voarms of 1/1eY
1/,ickertha11111osrdiagonal
strokesin tl,e script
T11m1/,ebrus/1overall/l rwist
from 150° to 90° to draw 1/,e
bortomstroke
Imper ial Capital X
The letter X appears with relative
frequency in Latin inscripcions, used as
a numeral to represem 1O. The slope
is mote inclined than that of the A
and ideally, the top v-shape should be
smaller than the bottom one to make
the letter optically correct - balanced
and noc top heavy. There is no serif
on the right inne r leg.
Imper ial Capital Y
The letter Y was used by che Romans
for words of Greek derivacion, and it
appears only occasionally in Lacin
inscripcions. This conscruction is
based 011 a Greek inscription of
the letter Upsilon. lt is also correcr
to include an inner serif, as 011 che
letter X (above).
Imper ial Capital Z
The Z is an interesting construction,
which combines the top ann of che
T and che bottom arrn of the E,
separated by an awkward diagonal
stroke - awkward in che sense that a
stroke moving to the lefr is naturally
thin (see A, p. 113). However, a chin
stroke would make the letcer appear
inordinately light, and so the bmsh
is held near to che horizontal to
create a thick diagonal.
J/9
S CRIPT R EFERENCE C1111RT

Script Ref eren ce Chart

A B D E F G H I
Imperial
Cap irals
e K L M N o
R.ustic A fi e D f f G 1{ 1 K L M N o
e D e J: e, h l le 1 m N o
R.OMAN
& LATE
R.OMA
U ncial A B
SCRii>TS
Squarc
Cap itals
)\ B e D t f G H 1 K_ l MN o
HalfU ncial a b e d e J:" e¡ h l k. l m N o
e í -S h 1 J F- l m l-1 o
1nsular
INSULAR& M ajusrnk
N A11ONAL
([ b G ()
b e ~ t' f 3 b 1 ~ L m t) o
SCRIPTS lns11lar
Mi nuscule á
CAROLINE
& EARLY
Ca roline
Mm usrnle ~ b e d e f g h i k L m n o
Gc.H t llC
SCRIPTS
Early
Go rhic a {, (, d t f g b t k 1 m n o
Textu ra
Quadrara a b e b ( f g h 1 J
/

k ( m n o
Textura
Prc,cisus
a b e b e f g h í j h r m n o
21 ~ ~ ~ $' f ~~ 1 j lt 1 ffl ~ ~
Goth ic
Ca pirals
Lomba rdic
Capi tals ~ B e {) € F G n I,, lí L m ll o
GCYJIIIC
SCRll' IS 13asrard
Secret.iry t\, s e ~ ~ t i 1, t J !t r m n
"
13asrard
Cap irals ~ ~ (C t, ~ <f (5 fJ J 'l R. L m 2t (!,
!Jacarde a, v e 8 (, f ,g 6 {; J ~ [ 1% fl; o
• '
Fraktu r ~ b e b t f il 6 t
. J
.
k, í 11t ti o
a b e b c. f gb 1 l m n o I;
IAN &
111\ I
H UMJ\Ni'>T
SCRll'lS
R.orun da

R.oru nda
Capirals AJS & ~ Ef . .
'
~ Jf:J1 'j ~ ( ffi lf? e
Hu111anist
M inusculc a b e d e f g h t. J. k L m n o
ltalic a b e d (,g G l J
f k L m n o
Humanist
Ca pirals A B e D E F G H I J K L M N o
l' OSl- Co pperplatc
i<.ENJ\1~~/\NCE
O/ t (} d e ! ff t 7,,
f
,
f t m n (Y

SCRll'I S
Coppcrplatc
Ca pitals &191 f57 95 0 8Jrfj✓ BCJ J c9C~J!{c/Y&
120
 SCR !PT R EFERE,\'CE C t-lART

NOTE~ 0:'-1 SC:RIPrS

p QR s XYZ Presu9eRonwn hand used m brush,drall'nan,I car,·eJ

T V forms; the leue!formsare rhe lxis1s~fmall) moderncapuals

p Q lZ 5 r V X y. Z Firlt-cemury scnpl useJ in manuscrrpt, ~i9nwnttcn, anJ

caT<'edform¡;/a,er used onlyfor chapter headm9s

p q R s T u X, z efthe Greek Uncia/ 1nth rudimentar_y

Laun -..,e,s1on
ascender,and descenders;mee/by the earlj C/,ristwn Church

p QR_ s T y XY z /.me Romon copuals reseneJ_{or non-Chnsuan Je luxe

monuscnplt; a 11me-consumm9 letrer ro pcn

( z u t .1 morecuN1reJOrm <!fUnciol mcorporm1n9aKcnders,md

p q r 1( z_ dcw:enclen;
thc leuc~(orms(Jre 1hebasisof mmuscuJclette~

p q ~ s f G u 7( ~ p Combines Unc,a/ ami Naif Uncia/ element<:dereloped

I>;lrish-,\'or,humbrian Ce/11cmonk,

'!.frhc /mular .1/a1us.culcused}Ordocumentdf)

( ~ u
Cur:,neform
~
p q ri ~ 4. work¡conrmueJ 10 be w,edm lreland ,mo the 20th ccnw')

Rformed l la!f Unc,a/; otahhshe,/ /wnd ?f che rrankish

p q r 5 ( e u X y z Emp1re:rhe model_for l 5ch-cenwr•.r1-fumanist.1/muscule

.
p 'l r s t: u( J( r z ,·ers10nC!I
Compres.'ied thc Caro/me .1/,nuscule useJ ,n
che 12th cemury: presa9c,IJacerGothic smpH

w 1 Fullj compret<cdGo1h1clcttcr.from the car~r 13th

#

p q r _g f t u (J JJ l cen111rJ:characicrued bJ dramonJ terrmnal~'!.fmrmm.\

•
p q 1' s f t u u w ¡ JJ l
Tu m scrrpt <?J"
the <'-!wdrato:characterued h.,,1
on mm,m s: u:,cdJOrpres119e111e1nus
crrp11rork
flmJccr

f1' a 1t ~ ~~~W3f1if 71:' . kcompall)in9 cc1p

i1alsJOrTc.wura mmuscu/cs

p Q ll s e X]'
V z .1b111/r
-11p,prcsu9c c/,sp/a) anJ l'ersal cap1tal: muallj
useJ rn con1uncuon 11·Hh ~mlrata or Prcsosm scnpH

r t u ~~~ro
.1 cunfrc Cothic scrrp1use,/onlj Jor ,·ernacularancl

~ q r 5
Jocumenwr) u·ork

~ & 'lt, 6 ~V~~~~,

Capit,d lcttcrs use,/ w11hha~wrJ minu5cules, rnc/uJrn9
,h ose m ,he Bowrde and Fmkrur hands

p q r \' r t u ~ ~ ~ lJ 3 fren ch oernon of thc Bastare/ Secretor;

p q p .S f t 11' 1) w ~ , r Germcm,late basrardscrrpt wllh mar~,

Schwt1bacher,
· Texwra,fcature:,:uuh
11remained,n use um,J the rmc/.lOth cenWl}

p q r 9 r t u V u, r 1' z
lwlran lwncl; comcmporo') wirl1 Goduc scnpts: rounder
and more o¡u:n1han othcr norrhcrnEuropeanJwnd~

1P ft lR S ~~~t(.:,~~~ ·1n9 (apual~.fOrRotundo 1111nm

. lccompa1~1 culcs

p q r s [ t u V w X y z Renmssona lwnd 1'!fluenceJb) the Caro/me,1/inuscule;

1hclcttc:forms are thc bas1sJOr
much modernpnncm9 ~rpe

p q r s f t u V w .X y ~
Curdre.form <?fthc Humamst .llinmculc: used m
moclern 1_ypc
_for 1ex1m parenthcsis ,md annow11on

p QR s T u V wx V z .,1ccompcm,y1n9copual s~for l lumanw and lwlic

minuscules: pcn-,lrmrn dcrnalire s '!f Imperial Cap11d/:,

17 íf 1; Á I t U/ ~ w x; ll 7 E.wreme.JOrm '!fcu"11
·ci;arpru-ith1110.!it lcucri;lmkcJ:
dcT/l'cdfromftahc and ,~jlucnccd b; copperplatccn9ro1m9

¿J5 cf¿ fil @/ cf7czt 9J ?lf ée {!/:? . lccompan,,..rm9

copiw/ .¡_forCoppcrplme1111nm
cu/c:,

121
GLOSSARY

Capital letter See maju scule . "Elephant 's trunk " A broad,
sweep ing stroke that hangs from che

Glossary Cap ital line The w riting linc ascenders in cercain bastard scripts,

~
to which u pper-case letters rise . such as che Engl ish Bascard Secretary .
The cap ital line is often slightly
Ampersand T he character & denot ing the lower than che ascender line. Expanded letter A style of
word "and". lettering in wh ich che characters
Capsa A container for storing and incer -lecter spaces are w ider
Anthropomorphi c decoration A style of scrolls . ( than is usual.
lecter decoration that incorporares imagery of
Hairlines are drawn wiLhthe Filigree Elaborare deco ration
human forms. Compressed letter A style of
comer efthe pen nib and ofren in che form of fine, curved lines.
lettering in which che cha racters
taperjrom a rhickerstroke
Ap ex T he po inced cip of a letter, as in A. and incer- letcer spaces are
narrower chan is usual. Fillet The name given to che
Arc h T he portion of a lower-case letter filled angle that is formed between a stroke and
fom,ed by a curved scroke springing from che Conjoined A tenn used to describe letters its serif.
stem, as in /¡ and 11. that are joined together.
Floriated Decorated w ith images offlqwers .
Arm A horizontal scroke couching the letter Copp erplate An extremely slanced script w ith
at only one end, as in E and F. distinctive flourishes that developed from lette r Folio A leaf of a man uscript. Also refers to che
engraving on chin places page nu mber.
Ascender The upper of coppcr .
stem of a lower-case Fret patterns Ornamental designs that can
letter, as in b, d, and k . Counter Any space be used to fonn ch e border of a page or can be
with in a letter, eit h er fully woven into che cext. The simplest free patterns
Ascender line A or partially enclosed . are composed solely of straight lines.
wricing line to wh ich che
uppe r scems oflct ters rise. Crossbar The Gilding T he app lication of go ld leaf to che
hor izontal stroke o n a writing surface.
Axis In Roman Impe rial lette r, as in / and H. Also
Capicals, this is the k nown as the "bar". Gothic scripts T he gener ic term for hands
imaginary linc thac passes written between abo u t 1200 and 1500.
chrough the rhickcsc points Cros s stroke A
of a lecter. Also known as hor izontal mark essential Gouache Watercolour mixed wit h a type
the "stress" of the letter. to che lctter, made eicher of ch alk to achieve an opaque effect .
Cadelsare ornate Goihic Capital lmers
from left to right or right
that wereori9inallyusedivithbastard iext scriprs
Baseline The wr iting to left, such as on ch e Hairline A fine line used to link letters,
line on which the main letters E, F, and T. term ínate scrokes, fil) large counters, and
body of the letter sits. decorare letters.
Cursi ve A rapid forrn of w riting, using
Bastard script A Gothic script of mixed elements such as linking and loops. Half r A fom1 of th e letter r, che spine of
Textura and cursive elements. w hich is provided by che previous lette r.
De luxe A term used to descr ibe ch e highest
Bilinear T he term used to describe a script grade of manuscript writing. Headline The line to wh ich che u ppennost
that is w ritten betwccn, and adhering to, two point of a letter - excluding its ascenders or
imagina ry writ ing lines. Des cender T he lowcr sterns of letters su ch as descenders - rises. Also known as che "waisdine".
p, q, and.f
Black Letter See T extura . "Hierarchy of script s" The name given to
Des cender line The lin e on which a lecter's che code of practice whereby differen t scripts
Bookhand The generic term for scripcs used descender shou ld rest.
in books before the age of prinring. Bookhands
include Unc ia) and Caroline Min uscu le. Displa y capitals Decorated capitals
used in che introductory word or
Bowl The curved scroke attachcd to the letter words of a text but not singly as versals.
scem chat creares an enclosed spacc (co u mer), as
in letters b, d. andg. Also known as "bow" . Do w nstroke A stroke that is
directed downwards.
Bracke ted serif A type of serif thac forms a
fillcc with che stro ke of a lcttcr. Ductus The d irection and order of
che stro k es used to co nstru ct a letter .
Built-up letters Letters that are outlined and Jralicscript is characrerizedby linked leirers
fillcd, or construcced a section at a time . Ear A small stroke that projeccs from che with a distincch•eforward slant.
top of th e letter g.
Burin A pointed too ) used in copperplate
engraving. Edge off A term used with reference :o appearing in ch e same man uscript adhere to a
brush-drawn letters to describe che techn ique strict order of use: the most regal hand is used
Cade l An ornare Gochi c capi tal )ercer of removing che edge of che brush from the for the cides and important detai ls, che next most
construcccd from a series of inter lacing pen strokes wr iting surface, w ith che left comer lifted last. fom,al script for che first sentence, and so on.
wr itten with che mínimum number of pen lifcs.
Edg e on The techn ique of gradually placing Histo riated The cenn used to describe inicial
Capital height The height of a majuscule thc ful] edge of the brush onto ch e surface, with letters rhat are decorated with che human figures
(capital) letter. the right comer touc h ing the surface first. desc ribed in ch e text.

122
 CLOSSARY

Illumination Originally, rhe tem1 referred Movable type Individua l letters made from Stipple To engrave, paint, o r write in dots.
only ro gilded decoration, bur ir is now used metal rhat can be ink ed and primed in any order.
to describe any fom1 of cext decorar ion. "Straight" pen A pe n with che nib cut
Palaeography T h e study ofthe history of ob liqu ely ro the shafr, faciliraring che drawing of
Insular Originaring from rhe Lacin word for handwriting and documents. an upri ght scem . When posicioned ho rizonrally,
" island", rh is term is app lied by palaeographers it wi!J produce a greater contrast in thick and
to indicare a shar ed culture bet\veen Ireland and Papyrus The ea rliest fom 1 of pape r , made th in scrokes, an effcct known as "shading" .
norrhcrn Britain, free from Continental influ ence.
Stroke Any straight
Interla ce A fonn of deco rarion in which lines or curved line chac
weave in and o ut of each orh er. has becn pcnncd or
paintcd.
Inter-letter space The space between
characters . Tail A diagonal line
rh ar conneccs co che
Interlinear gloss Words ,vritt en in che lette r at one end, as
interlinear space of the main texr ro providc a in Qand y.
com m enta ry on che cext or a translacion of its
concents . Termi nal A scroke
that <loes not end with
Interlinear space The spacc becween che a serif.
baseline of one line of texc and t he h eadline
of che line be low it. Text script
A script
that is parcicularly
Italic A Humanist style of writing in which suitab le for pages of
che oval-shapcd . linkcd lectcrs slanc to the righc. text, owing to its
A manuscrip, is a book or document wriuen b)' hand clar ity and lack of
Leading minim The name given to che first deco ration. Also kn own as
min im of a letter, as in 111and 11. from che stem oí che papyrus planr. "body text" or " text hand".

Letterform The shap e of a letter. Pa rc hment A writing surface made from Textura From th e Lacin wo rd fo r ·'woven",
mammalian skin, usu ally sheepskin or goats kin. ch is is che name given to a scyle of Gothi c script
Ligature The linking oflctters by one or character ized by dense, compressed charac rers
more scrokes. Quill A wriring implcmcnt made from th e tail and mínima ! inter linear space.
or wing fearher of a bird, such as turkey or goose.
T hom sign Thc Ang lo-Saxon sign rescmbling
Reed pen A writing tool made from a a y chat wa s used to represenc che ''ch '' so und .
hollow -stemmed marsh plant.

ttro Uncial A late Roman script with rudimentary

Reman The Latin alphabet. The te rm is also ascenders. T he na111
e m eans "inc h high ·•.
used ro describe any plain, uprighc lcrrcr.
Upper case Sec majuscule .
Rubri cate d Originating from rhe Lacin word
nrber for " red", ch is describes lette rs in a h ead in g Ve llum A cype of wr iting surf ace made from
ll'here the boll'ls'![ letters are combined, the or within a passage of cext cha e are colo ur ed red. calfskin.
lettcrsare refcrrcd to as '"conjoined"
Rune Any lctter in thc ancient Gcrmanic Versal A bui lc- up ornamental capital letter
Link The stro ke rhat connects che top and alphabe t. The characters conrai n no curved uscd ro open verses and paragraphs.
bottom of the minuscu le g . strokes and very few horizonta l stro kes.

Loop The enclosed space in an ascende r or
descender , as in -~-
Lower case See minus c ule .
Majusc ule A bilinea r scripc in which che
letters are of eq ual height. A cap ital letter.
Sable A ve,y fine po inccd brush, made from
che tail hairs of che sable, a dark - furred arctic
mamma l.
Serif A sho rt, decorat ive stro ke used to finish ofí
che stroke of a letter. Many different types ex ist,
including che brackeced se1if and che wedge serif

Manuscript A handwritt en book or Skate T hc cechnique of gcmly pulling rhc we r

doc um ent pre-dating che in venc ion of printing. ink from one strokc to creare ano cher scroke, Decoral.ireabbreviatedstroke.s known as "ser!fs''
Can be abbrcviarcd ro " MS". ofren a hairlinc. can be drawn in o vanety oj'd!lferemsr.yles

Minim A downscroke char is as talJ as che "Slanted " pen A pen wit h che nib cut ar Waistline See headline .
body h eighr of che script. right ang les to thc shafr . Hcld aran ang le, che
posirion of ch e nib is "slanred" to che srem . Weight The rclationship of a letcer's nib width
Minim hcight T h e heighc of a minuscule to its hcight.
letter , excluding the ascender a nd descender. Sp ur A small project io n off a main srroke.
Also kn own as ·'x heighc" o r "body height ". Word space The amount of space between
Stem The main vert ical scro ke of a letter. lt word s.
Minuscule Any non-capital lettcr. Minuscu le can be drawn ac an angle for a slanred script .
script ~·coma in leccers of u neven heig h r beca use and can be the main diagona l srroke of the Zoomorphic decoration A sryle of dccoration
of the ascenders and descenders. letter, as in N and Z. incorpo ratin g i111agery of an imal form s.

I 23
8IBL/ OG RIIP J-/Y

Bibliography
The DecoratedLe11er,
J.J.G. Alexand er/ Thames and Hu dson, London, 1978

71,e Winchester Bible, Ciare Donovan / British Libra1y, Wi ncheste r Cat hedral,
1993

Mam1script
s at Oxford- R. W. H11111
Memorial Exhibitio11
, Edited by A.C. de
la Mare and B.C. Barker-Benfield / Bodleian Library, Oxford, 1980

Eyewit11ess
Cuide to Writing, Karen Brookfield / Dorling Kinders ley, !3ritish
Libra1y, Londo n , 1993

The Golde11Age <ifE11

glish Ma1111 1200-1500, Ri chard Marks
scrip1Painti11g
and N igel Morgan / Book Club Associates, Lo ndon, 1981

A11glo-Saxo11
Mm111
scnpts,Miche lle P. Brown / British Library, London,' 1991

A Book of Scripts, Alfred Fairbank/ Pcngu in Boo ks, Lond on , 1949

Writi11g,
David Dirin ger / Thames and Hud son, Lo ndon, 1962

Das Schreib-Biidr/ei1111011
R11do!fKoc/1
, Johannes Staud a Verlag Kassel, 1984

de Scrittorio1535, Ugo da Carpi , introd uction by Esther Potte r/

711esa11ro
Natcali and Mauri ce, Lo nd o n, 1968

Writi11g
a11dll/11111i11
ati11
g a11dLetteri11g
, Edward J ohns ton, originally published
1906, reprimed by A. & C . Black, London, 1983

Englisl,Handwriting 1400-1500, J ean F. Prestan and Laetitia Ycandle / Statc

Universiry, New York, 1992
f
A G11id 10 1600, Mi chelle P.
e to WesternHistoricalScriptsf,0111A11tiq11ity
Brown / British Library, 1990

TireBook <ifKe/1s
, Selected and introduced by Peter !3rown / Th ames and
H udson, 1980

Tite LindisfarneGospels, J anet Backhouse / Phaidon, Oxford, 198 1

Tite UniversalPe11111a11
, Engraved by George !3ickham, 1743/ Dover
Gr Publications Inc., New York, 1954

T/1eA,·t of Calligrap/1y
, Western E11r
opea11dAmerica,J oyce Irene Whalley /
Bloom sbury Books, London, 1980

Tire Story of Wri1i11g,

Don ald J ackson / Studio Vista, 1981

MedievalCalligrap/1y
, /1s Historya11dTed111iqu
e, Marc Drogin / George Prior
Associated Publi shers Ltd., London, 1980

Calligrapl,y:71,eArt efWn"tte11Forms, Dona ld M. Anderson / Dover

Publi cacions lnc., New York, 1992

T1,e O,igi11of 1/,e Serif, Edward M. Catich/ Cat ich Gallery, Se. Ambr ose
U niversicy, lowa , 1968

Mastersof t/1eltalicLe11
er, Kathryn A. Atkins/ Pengui n Press, London, 1988

111eltalicCalligrap/1y
Handbook,Caro lyn Knud sen/ Stemmer Ho use Publishers
!ne ., Maryland , 1985

Calligraphy
, lnspiration, In11ovatio11
and Com11111nicatio11
, David Harri s/ Anaya,
London , 1991

BooksefHo11
rsa11dtheir O11111er
s, John Hartham / Th ames and Hu dson, 1977

Le//en·ng O/d m1dNew, Tran slatcd by Dr. W.E. Walz / Batsford, London,
c.1930

Omammtal A/pl,abets m1dfoitials, Alison Harding / T hames and Hudson . 1983

Ce/tic K11ot
fllork, lain Bain/ Co nstable, London, 1986

124

Index
A e
Adam and Eve, 67
Alcuin ofYork, 9, 38
Anglo-Saxon nlinu scules,
history and deve lopment, 9
Arabic num erals, 107, 112
arch , lette r anato my, 6
Arch of Constantine, 109
Ar tificial Unc ial:
history and development, 24-5
prac tica], 26- 7
Arts and Cra fts mo veme nt , 42,
95
ascender :
lette r anatomy, 6
height , 7
ascende r line, letter anatomy, 6
Aubert, David, 71
Aug ustine, St., 24
B Chancery, 66
basebne, letter anatomy, 6
Bastard Cap itals, practica!, 78-9
bastard scrip ts, 1O, 11
Bastard Secretary :
history and deve lopment, 13,
66-7
pract ica!, 68- 9
Batarde, 7, 11
history and development, 13,
70-1
practica!, 72-3
Bede, Venera ble, 34
Beneventan Minu scule, history
and development, 9, 12, 84
Bent ivoglio, Giova nni 11, 90
Berna rd , St., 47
Berry, D uc de, 81
Bickham, Geo rge, 102- 3
Black Letter see T extura
Qu adr ata, Textura Prescisus
Bobb io, 9
body heíght, letter anatomy, 6
Bonaventu ra, St., 66
Book of D urrow, 30
Book ofHours, 70, 84, 90
Book ofKells, 29-31
bow, letter anatomy, 6
bowl, letter anato my , 6
bracketed serif, letter anatom y,
6 descender line, letter anatomy, 6
British callígraphi c reviva],
history and deve lopment, 12
Brown, Denis, 11, 31
brushes, 14
Cadea ux see Cadels
Cade ls, 59, 94
history and deve lopment, 81
practica], 82-3
Cam brens is, Giraldus, 31
Cancellaresca Corsivasee ltalic
capital letter, lette r anatomy, 6
capital line, letter anatomy, 6
CapitalisMonumentalissee
Imperia l Ca pitals
Capitalis Quadratasee Square
Cap itals
Ca rolin e M inu scule, 16, 35, 84,
90
Early Gothic and, 46, 47
history and deve lop ment, 9,
12,38-9
practica], 7, 40- 1
Ca rstairs, Joseph, 106
Ca tic h, E.M., 109, 112
C hancery Cursive see ltalic
C harlemagne, Emperor, 9, 38
Chichester Cathedra J, 51
Citea ux, 47
Cockerell, Sidn ey, 43
Codex Amiatinus, 24, 25
Codex Vaticanus3256, 20-1
Coefri d , Abbot, 24
Co lum ba, St., 34
"Co mm and ofha nd", 103
Copperplate, 10
history and deve lopment, 11,
13, 102- 3
practica], 104-5
Cop perplate Ca pita ls,
pract ica!, 106- 7
Corbie, 9
co unt er, letter anato my, 6
cross stroke, letter anato m y, 6
crossba r, letter anatomy, 6
Cultural Decomposition,31
Cu rsive HalfUncia l, history
and development, 12
curved stroke, lette r anatomy, 6
D develop ment , 9, 10
Dadd, Ri chard, 102
descender, letter anatomy, 6
detac habl e nibs, 14, 15
development of W estern script ,
8-13
diamond, letter anatomy, 6
Dürer, AJbrecht , 75, 108
Durh am Gospe ls, 30
E HalfU ncial:
Eadfrit h, Bishop, 30
ear, letter anato my, 6
Early Gothic :
history and development, 9,
12, 46- 7
practica], 48- 9
Ec hterna ch Gospels, 30
Eng lish Bastard Secretary see
Bastard Secretary
Eng lish Ca roline Minuscule,
42
Et ruscan aJphabet, 8
Exeter Boo k, 35
F Hum anist Minu scule, 50, 94
fibr e-tipp ed pens, 14
Flamel, J ean, 81
flouri sh, lette r anatomy, 6
foot, letter anatomy, 6
Foun dational Hand:
history and deve lopm ent,
42- 3
practica], 44-5
fountain pens, 14
Frakt ur , 67
history and development, 13,
74-5
practica], 76- 7
Franciscus , R icard us, 8 1
Froissart, Jean , 71
Froissart C hronicle, 70-1
G 29- 31
Gellone Sacramentary, 63
Gennan calligraphi c reviva!,
history and deve lopment, 13
Gennan Letter see Fraktur
G ill, Eric, 43
Gothic Ca pitals, 1O
history and development,
58-9
pract ica!, 60- 1
Got hic scripts, history and
Grandva l Bible, 38- 9
Greek scripts, 8
Gree k Un cia!, history and
development, 12
Griffo, Francesco, 91, 95
I NDEX
H
Haa nes, Ch ristoph er, 95
hackle, letter anatomy, 6
Hage n, Johannes von, 74
hairlin e, letter anatomy, 6
hairLine tail, letter anato my, 6
and the Caro line Minu scule,
38-39, 40
history and deve lopment, 8,
9, 12
Halliday, Peter , 17
hand made papers, 14, 47
Harri s, David, 103
headline, letter anatomy, 6
H en ry ofBlois, Bishop, 46
Henry VIII, King ofE ngland, 51
hierarchy of scripts, 16
Historia Ecclesiastica,35
horizontal foot , letter anatomy, 6
Hum anist Cap itals, 91
practica !, 98- 9
history and development, 11,
13, 90-1
practica!, 92- 3
I
Imp erial Capita ls, 7, 16, 90
bru sh strokes, 1 l 0-11
const ru ction, 112- 19
history and deve lopment, 8,
13, 108- 9
ln ProverbiaSalamonis,34
inner -letter space, letter anatom y,
6
Insu lar Display Capitals , history
and developm ent, 13
Insular Maju scule:
history and development, 12,
prac tica!, 32- 3
Insular Minuscu le:
history and development , 9,
12,34-5
practica}, 36- 7
insular scripts, 9
interlaced pattern ing, 81
int er-lette r space, letcer
anatomy, 6
interlinear space, letter anat◊my,
6
lo na , 34
lri sh scrip ts, 9
Italic:
history and develo pment, 13,
94-5
125

practica!, 96-7
ltalic Capitals, pract ica!, 98-9
ltalic Swash Capitals,
practica!, 100-1
Jarrow, 25, 29
J M ercian prayer-boo k, 34
Jenson, Nicho las, 38, 90
Jerome, St., 24, 31
Johnson, Edward, 11, 42-5, 95
K origin, 24
Kane Medieval Manuscript, 66
Kippax, W., 103
Koch, Rudolf, 11, 74-5
L N
Larisch, Rudolf von, 11
Late Ca roline see Early
Goth ic
Late Unc ia), 25
left-handed caUigraphy, 7
Lechaby, W.R., 42
letter height, lette r anat0my, 7
letterp ress printin g, 103
Lenre Bourguignonnesee
Batarde
Lewis, James, 106
ligature, letter anatomy, 6
Lindisfarne, 29- 31, 34
Lindi sfarne Gospe ls, 29-31
link , lette r anatomy, 6
LilleraAntiqua see Human ist
Min uscule
Lirteradi Brevasee I talic
Utrera Uncia/is see Uncia!
Lomba rdic Cap icals, 88
history and developme nt,
13,62 - 3
pract ica!, 64- 5
Lowe, Nicholas, 66
lower counter, leccer anatomy, 6
lower-case letter, letter
anat0my, 6
LuttreU Psalter, 55
Luxeu il, 9
Luxeui l Minuscu le, history
and deve lopmen t, 12
M Poligny family, 70
Macrobius, Ambrosius
Theodos ius, 95
majuscule, letter anatomy, 6
manip ulated stro kes, 111
manuscript sources, 7
Manucius, Aldus , 95
Matthiius Evangelium, 75
MaximiJian, Empero r, 75
M edications on che Life of
Chrisc, 66
Merovingian script, 9
Metz Pontifical , 50
minim height , lette r anatomy, 6
Minu scu les:
leccer anatomy, 6
deve lopment, 8
Moraliainjob, 47
M oro, Francesco, 94
M orris, William, 43, 95
Ne ud orffer, Johann che Elder,
74, 75
New R oma n Curs ive, history
and deve lopm ent, 12
nibs, 14-15
Nicco li, Nicco lo, 94
o practica !, 18-19
O ld Eng lish see Textura
Q uadrata
Old Roman Cursive, history
and deve lopmenc, 12
Orgemont, Guillaume d', 51
Ormesby Psalcer, 55
p Schwabac her, 50, 67
papers, 14
handmade, 47
Papyrus, 17
parchment, 7, 14, 20
Patrick, St., 29
pattern books, 59
pen angle, leccer anacomy, 6, 7
pen width, letter anatomy, 6
Petrarc h, Francesco, 90, 91
Philip the Good, Duke of
Bu rgundy, 71
Ph oen ician scripts, 8
Phoenix, 11
Pliny, 1O
Po inted M inuscule, 34
Prescisus see Textura Prescisus
print ing, 103
Proto-Gothic see Early Go thic
Pugin, A.W.N., 62
Q Early Got hic and, 46, 47
Quadrata see T extura Quadrata
quilJ pens, 7, 14- 15
R tongue, letter anatomy, 6
Ramsey Psalter, 42-3
R acdolt, Erhard, 85
reed pen, 14
R ocheste r Priory, 46
Roman Imp erial Ca pita l, 7
history and deve lopmen t, 8
R oman script~, history and
developme nt, 8
Romanising Uncia ! oft he
Canterbury Style, 25
Rotunda:
history and development, 11,
12, 84-5
practica !, 86- 7
Rotunda Ca pitals, pract ica!,
88-9
Run ic Ca pitals, history and
developme nt, 13
Rustic Cap itals, 8
history and deve lopment, 13,
16- 17
s 71
51. Ambrose, De Misteriis /, 46
St. Paul's Epistle, 91
St. Vaast Bible, 59
San Sebastiano, Rome, 20
Saturnalia, 95
history and dcve lopmen t,
76-7
Sherbou rn e, Bishop , 51
"slanted" pens, 15
sour ces, 7
spri ng-loaded pens , 14
Square Cap itals:
history and deve lopment, 8,
13, 20- l
pract ica], 22-3
stem , letter anatomy, 6
"straight" pens, 15
stroke sequence, 7
swash, lette r anatomy, 6
T
Ta ra brooch, 30
Textura Prescisus, 1O, 50
histo1y and develo pm ent, 55
I NDEX
Textura Quadrata, 1O, 94
history and develo pm ent, 12,
50-1
practica ], 52- 3
too ls, 7, 14-15
Trajan Co lumn , 8, 108- 9, 112
Treatise on Hawking, 94
Trewhiddle, 35
turned foot, letter anatomy, 6
u
Un ciak
history and deve lopment, 8,
9, 12, 24-5
practica !, 26- 7
The UniversalPenmm1, 102-3
upper-case letter, letter
amcomy, 6
V
Vaast, St., 59
Vatican Basilican us, 38
Vaux, Sam uel, 102
vellum, 7, 14
La Vengeancede la Mari l/1esa,
Verona Antiphoner, 84-5
Versals, history and
development, 58-9
Vcspasian Psalter, 25
Via Appia Mo nu ment, 108
Virgil, 16, 21
Visigothic Minuscu le, history
and development, 9, 12
w
waistline, lette r anato m y, 6
WalpurgisNight, 102
Waters, Sheila, 39
Wearmo uth, 25, 29
wedge serif, lette r anacomy, 6
Wescon , Thomas, 81
whetstones, 15
Wincheste r Bible, 46, 62
Windm ill Psalter, 1O, 55
X
x-height, letter anatomy, 6
x-lin e, letter anatomy, 6
127
A CKN OWLEDGME N TS
Acknowledgments
PICTURE CREDITS
Ew ry effon has been made ro trace thc copyright
holdcrs and wc apologize in advancc for any
unintcnrional omissions. We would be pleased ro
inscrt rhe appropriare ackno\\'ledgmenr in any
subsequenr editio n o f this publicatio n.
Key: 1: top /,: boriom e: centre r: right /: left
Abbreviations:
AA : Ancienr Art and Archit<'Cturc Collection
BL: 13y Pennissio11o f thc 13ritish Libra,)", Londo n
BN: © Cliché 13ibliorhi:que Nationale de France. Paris
BO: T he llodlcian Library. O xford
IK: 1kona. R.o me
VA : By Cmmesy of rhe Uoard ofT rustee, of rhe
Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Jacket: Calligraphy by Caro! Ke,np back jacket: 1/:
Add 4213 f73, 13L: le: Worksheet, Author's own
ro py: tr: Harl 2904 f.l6. BL: re(dm,il): R eid MS 64 f.
33. VA: /,: HistoriaEcclesi11 m, COTT
.<1iraCe11i;/111~/oru
T ib C II (51-. 13L
Pages 2-3
p2: Reíd MS. 6~ f. 33. VA p3: Metz l'onrifical. early
14th cemury, MS. 298.f l 38v/ Fimv illiam Museum,
University of Cambridge
Pages 4-5
pp4-5: Acld 42130 20 1v (det,lil). l3L
Pagcs 6-7: lntrodu ction
p6: 1/: 13eaws of Licbana. Spai11
. c. l 220. Scriptorium
in the Tower of rhe Monastcry ofTava ra. Th e
Pierpont Morgan Library. New York. M.-129. f.183
Pages 8-11: The Development ofWestem Script
p8: r: T erracotta Markcr. inscribed wirh O,can scripr,
lraly. T hc T rnsrees o f the 13ritish Museum. L<> ndon;
b (de111i/):lnscription on rhe 13ase of rhc Co lon na
Traiana. Monti, R omc/ lK p9: ¡; Charlrn ,agnc wirh
Akuin . Mary Evans Pin url' Librar¡•: b: Msc. Patr. 5
f.1v. Sraarsbibliothek Ua111b,·r g p 1O: 1 (dl'tnil):M 102.
f 1\'-2. The Pierponr Morga11Librar¡' . New York: /,:
Fro111 i;pil'Cl'of translarion of Pli11y's atura! Hisror¡,,
1-173. Uibliorec., Mc-din·a Laurenzia11a.Florcncc pl 1:
1: Ms.Lar 9-174. BN: /1:Plwruix. Dc11 is 13rown, 1993
Page s 16-17: Rusti c Capitals
pp16-17: tr, I (dctnil/. b (d,·tnil/:VAT 3867 fJv .
Vergilius R on,anus Ecloga 11 & ~. 13ibliorec.1
Apostolica Vaticana/ lK: e: Ms. Bodl. 218. fol.62r,
130 pl7: br: P,·r,·r Halliday. Qu orarion from Virgil:
Ecl<>gueVII. 43 x 31.5 cm. 1983. black ink on
cream papa . rranslarion by thc scribe
Pages 20- 21: Square Capitals
p20: tt : T hc Parchmcnt Maker. Do,·er Publications
lnc .. 1 ew York: e: lnscription ar San Sebastiano/ lK
pp20 - 21: /, (de,ai/): Pontificia Co n11nissio 11
c d<'
Archeologia Sacra/ lK p21: ¡; PontificiaCo 111111 issio11
c p66: cr:Kanc Medieval MS 2 1 folio 6r, Grl'nvillc
ele Archcologia Sacra/ 1K
Pages 24- 25: Uncia! & Artifi cial Uncia)
p24: r: MS E Museo 100 f7v/ 130: b: Ceo lfrid 13ible,
AA p25: 1, b (dctnil/: COTT VESP Al 30v- 31. 13L
Pages 28- 31: Insular Majus c ule
p28: T he l3ook of Kells MS 58 fol. -I0v. T he lloard
ofT rinity Collcgc. Dubli11p29: br (detnil):Th<' 13ook
ofKells MS 58 fol. 179\'. T hc 13oard of T rinit)'
128
Co llege, Dublin p30: ti: T ara Brooch, Nario nal
Muscum of lreland, Dublin; /,, rr (detnil) : Lindisfun,e
Gospd s f29 COTT Nero DIV f29, UL p31: t: MS
COTT Nero DIV fSv, 13L; b: C11/111 ml Deco111 posi1io11
, - Handschrifrenabtcilung pp74 - 75: b: MS 64/ 35v &
Denis llrown, 1993
Pages 34-35: Insular Minusculc
p34: 1r: Lindisfornc l'riory, photo : Andy Williams; er
(detnil):Dcde, Co 11 1111
enrary o n rhc 13ook of Proverbs.
MS 819 folio 29/ 130; /Jer,bel (de1ail),b (detail): R.oyal
2 Axx f17 l'raycr-book, En glish Mcrcian, UL p35:
1 (dN11il),te/, /,el(dl'tai/): ll isron·aEcdr.<i11s
1im Ce11is
11COTT TI U C 1 1 fSv, 13L; her:T1ie Spiri,
A11glar111
o(.\ /e111 1.7 1- end. Widsi1r/ , 11. 1- 13 fo! 8-lb,
il eprod11ccd by Pcnn issio n o f the Dcan ancl
Chapter of Exeter
Pages 38- 39: Caroline M inusculc
p38: b: Arch. S. Picrro 1)182 fol. 159v, l3ascicicanus
D 182 f l 59v/ Foto IJibliott·ca Varicana/ 1K p39: 1/:
Sally-Anne R eason: 11': Cloud Co11ec¡)IÍ()1,1<.fr,>111
Abm,c,
1st verse. Sheila Warc,~; /,; Moaricv Grandval Bible
ADO/ MS 10546 f 2S 13-26, llL
Pagcs 42-43: Foundational Hancl
p42: br, I (dewil):1-larl 2904 20 1v. 13L p43: 1/:
Workshcer. Amhor', ow n copy; tr : l'hotograph of
EdwarclJo hnsron, Holburnc Muscum :u,d C rafts
Sllldy Centre. Bath: /,; Edward j o hnsron', Winchester
Formal Writing Sheet C.778 , Holburn<·Muscum a11d
Crafrs Smdy Ce mrc, Uath
Pages 46- 47: Earl y Goth ic
p46: e: Winchestt'I' lliblc. AA: /Jr:CO 7 613v 1, UL
p47 : /JI: .\ fomlit1i11J11b,Lib XVII- XXXV, MS 173,
fo 41. Bibliothcquc Municipalc de Oijon: ,r: Th e
l'apn Makcr, Oover Publicario111lnc., Nc-w York
Pages 50-51: Textura Quadra ta
pS0: /J. Mctz l' ontifical. Early 14th ccntury, MS 298
f138v/ Fitzwillia,n Muscum , Univcrsity of Cambridge
p51 : 1, / (de111il/
: Chichesrer Ca rhedral, l lcnry VIII
(Ui,ho p Shcrbournc asking Henry VIII m co11finn the
chane r for Chichester Cathcdral). Foromas lndex;
b: MS ll awl liturg.c. 40 fol 40v/ UO
Pagcs 54- 55: Textura Prescisus
p54: Judgcmcnr of Solo111o n. Th e Pierponr Mor¡,r.1 11
Librar¡•. • ew York, M. 102, f.lv-2 p 55: d (d('l(1il):
Add 42130 201v. BL: e: MS Doucc 366 fo) 15-lr/BO
Pages 58-59 : Gothi c Capitals & Versa ls
p58: MS 298 1. Scrs ofCap irals. Magdalcnc Co llcgc.
Camb ridge p59: 1/: MS 55 G vol3 F52V. Uible ofSt.
Vaa1r. Uibliothéquc Mlll1icipaled 'Arras; r (detail): MS
2981, Sets of Capital,, Magdalcne Collegc,
Camb ridge: /,/; MS.83- 1972 f1r. Fitzwilliam
Muscun,. Univcrsiry of Ca ,nbridgc
Pagcs 62--{i3:Lombard ic Capitals
p62: /¡ (dcwil/:Winchl'Stl'f l:liblc. Ezekicl, 12th ccntlll)',
AA p63: Larin 12048 f lv, 13N
Pagc s 66-67: Bastard Se cretar y
Ka11cCollection of Medieval Manuscrip11.
Ma11 mo i pts Division. Dcparnncnt of Rare Uook, ancl
Spccial Co llcctions, i'ri11
ce't011Univcrsiry Librarics:
bl: E Mus 35 f98 / UO p67: English Ge11 esis, MS
Uodky 596 f2r/ BO
Pagcs 70-71: Batard e
p70: b: MS Do ucc 267 f.36r/ BO p71: 1, e (dnail):
Jcan Froi,sart', C hronicle, 14th Cl'lltlll")
', 13L: bl:
Roy 16 GIII IB. IJL
Pages 74-75: Fraktu r & Schwabac her
p74: el (derail): MS.Lar 2° f384 v, 13erlin,
Staarsbibliorhck zu !3crlin - Prcuflischcr Kulturbc,itz
36r. 13ayerische Staarsbibliothck, Miinchen p75: 1, r
(derai/): l<.udolf Koch, Cospel of Sr. Matthew, 1921,
O ffenbach/ Klingspor-Muscu111dcr Stadt Offenbach
am Main
Pages 80-81: Cade ls
p80 : D54/ 107 fr380 J>agc de Carde, BN p81: /: MS
Ashmolean 789 fol. 4v/ 13O ; 1r: lnitial Lettcr, Spccdball
Texrboo k 1952, R.oss F. George; br: An example of
fine inirials fro 111a book by Th omas Westo n in 1682,
Speeclb all T extbook 1952, ll oss F. Gcorgc
Pages 84- 85: Ro tu nda
p84: b: MS.L.4929-1866 f 27r Verona Anriphoncr,
mid-15th centu ry, VA p85: ,: L.2384-1910 f2 03r
Epistle 13ook, lralian Uook o f Ho urs. VA; b: Sheet
of primee! R.orunda. Aurhor's own copy
Pagc s 90-91: Humanist Minuscule
p90: b: l<.eid MS 64 VA p91: ,: MS Ll72 1-1921
f96v-97r, VA: e: MS 186 fo! 21 r, Th c R.ccror and
Fcllows o f Execer Co llege. Ox ford: /,: Petrarch ·s
Annotarion. Aurho r's own copy
Pages 94-95: Itali c
p94: b: MS L1485- 1946 Franccsco Moro : Alphaber
l'agc. VA p95: 1/: Skrift Karalog. Chrisropher Haanes.
Oslo; 11· (dt·1ai/):MS L1769- 1952 f. l l 3r, VA: b: Lat
Class E38. Willia111Morris 111anuscripr. 130
Pages 102-103: Copperpla tc
pl 02: r, b: Tire U11i11el'$a/
Pc111a11,Dover Publications
11
l11
c .. Ne"' York pl03: 1, a: 77ret:11i11asall'mm1111,
Dover Publicarions lnc., ew York; el: Copperplare
workshop. Fot0111as Index: b: Copperplate rypcfucc
de1ign, David Harris
Pages l08 - l09: Imperial Capita ls
p108: ,_.Lettering fro111011 1/ieJ11s1 S/iapi11,e of Lmers.
Albrccht Dürcr, Dover Publicatio ns !ne.. New York:
b. e (de,ai//: Appian Way: lnscriprion, De Luca.
R.0111 t'/ IK p109: t: lnscriprio n o n rhe 13ase of
Colo nna T raiana, Monti, Ro 111 c/ lK: b: Th e Arch
of Co nsranrine, De Luca. R ome/ 1K
Pages 124-127: Bibliograp hy & Inclex
pl24: / (detnil): MS 298 1, Magdalcne Co llcge,
Can,bridgc pl26: MS Lar 2° f38-I v, Uerlin,
Staar1bibliothck zu Uerlin - Preuílischer
Kulturbcsitz - Hand,chriftenabteilung
Spe cial photography:
Michacl Dunning: p6: 1r
Perer Hayman: p 17: b,·
Autho r's acknow ledgmcnts:
To 111y wifc Nancy who llntiringly ryped and
corrccted my manuscript pagcs. To Mi,s Pe111 ber1on
and thc srafTo f thc 13oclleian Librarv for their kind
help beyond the call of duty. ande~ Liz !3ro wn and
Lo uisc Candlish of Dorling Kindersley who sropped
me m aying too far fi-0 111rhc chosen parh. And finally
to fa111liv and fricnds who have also suffercd a link
wirh m~ ovt-r thc }asry~ars.
Dorling Kindersley wou ld like to thank:
Janos Marfr)· and Sally-Anne R eason for rheir
am vorks: l<.ic hard Uird for che index: Jane Carrer,
Srcphcn Croucher, a11dMark Johnson Davies for
de1ig11assistancc: Lo! 1-tenderson and Helen Casrlc for
editorial a,sisrance: Jo, Si111
0 11, Liz. and Loui,e for
rheir hands; and to Morag Hislop for ali her hdp.