Gec05 Math Midterms Reviewer

Learning Objectives
o Discuss the language, symbols and conventions of

mathematics.
o Explain the nature of mathematics as a language.
o Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.
o Compare and contrast expression and sentences.
o Identify and discuss the four basic concepts in mathematical
language.
o List and discuss some basic operations on logic and logical
formalities.
o Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.
o Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life.
o Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
Topic Outline
I. Characteristics of Mathematical Language
II. Expression versus Sentences
III. Conventions in the Mathematical Language
IV. Four Basic Concepts
V. Elementary Logic
VI. Formality

Conventions in the Mathematical Language
Mathematics is a spoken and written natural languages for
expressing mathematical language.
Mathematical language is an efficient and powerful tool for

mathematical expression, exploration, reconstruction after
exploration, and communication.
It is precise and concise.
It is a poor understanding of the language.

Mathematics languages:
Digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9;
Mathematical symbols

Mathematical Language
Mathematical language is the system used to communicate

mathematical ideas.
It consists of some natural language using technical terms

(mathematical terms) and grammatical conventions that are
uncommon to mathematical discourse, supplemented by a
highly specialized symbolic notation for mathematical
formulas.
Mathematical notation used for formulas has its own grammar

and shared by mathematicians anywhere in the globe.
Mathematical language is being precise, concise, and powerful.

Expression versus Sentences
An expression (or mathematical expression) is a finite
combination of symbols that is well-defined according to rules
that depend on the context.
Symbols can designate numbers, variables, operations,

functions, brackets, punctuations, and groupings to help
determine order of operations, and other aspects of
mathematical syntax.
Expression – correct arrangement of mathematical symbols to

represent the object of interest, does not contain a complete
thought, and cannot be determined if it is true or false.
Some types of expressions are numbers, sets, and functions.

Expression versus Sentences
Sentence (or mathematical sentence) – a statement about two

expressions, either using numbers, variables, or a combination
of both.
Uses symbols or words like equals, greater than, or less than.
It is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that states

a complete thought and can be determined whether it’s true,
false, sometimes true/sometimes false.

Mathematical Convention is a fact, name, notation, or usage

which is generally agreed upon by mathematicians.
PEMDAS (Parenthesis, Exponent, Multiplication, Division,

Addition and Subtraction.)
All mathematical names and symbols are conventional.

Formulas are written predominantly left to right, even when
the writing system of the substrate language is right-to-left.
Latin alphabet is commonly used for simple variables and

parameters.
Mathematical expressions
= (equal) < (less-than) > (greater-than)
+ (addition) – (subtraction)  (multiplication)
 (division)  (element)  (for all)
 (there exists)  (infinity) → (implies)
 (if and only if)  (approximately) (therefore)
Four Basic Concepts
A. Language of Sets
B. Language of Functions
C. Language of Relations
D. Language of Binary Operations

Methods of Writing Sets
A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
The objects are called the elements or members of the set.
Roster Method. The elements of the set are enumerated and

separated by a comma it is also called tabulation method.
Rule Method. A descriptive phrase is used to describe the

elements or members of the set it is also called set builder
notation, symbol it is written as {x P(x)}.

Some Examples of Roster Method
A = {1,2,3,5,8,13,21,…}
B = {𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾, 𝛿, 𝜀, 𝜃, 𝜇, 𝜋, 𝜎, 𝜏}
C = {d, i, r, t}
D = {a, e, i, o, u}

Some Examples of Rule Method
A = {xx is a positive integer less than 10}
B = {xxis a letter in the word dirt}
C = {xx is an integer, 1  x  8}
D = {x𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = −2}

Write the ff. Sets using Rule Method
a. D = {Narra, Mohagany, Molave, …}
Answer: D = {xx is the set of non-bearing trees.}
b. E = {DOJ, DOH, DOST, DSWD, DENR, CHED, DepEd,…}

Answer: E = {xx is the set of government agencies.}
c. F = {Botany, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, …}

Answer: F = {xx is the set of science subjects.}

Write the ff. Sets in Roster Form
a. A = {xx is a letter in the word mathematics.}

Answer: A = {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s.}
b. B = {xx is a positive integer, 3  x  8.}

Answer: B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
c. C = {xx = 2n + 3, n is a positive integer.}

Answer: C = {5, 7, 9, 11, 13, …}

Some Terms on Sets
✓ Finite and Infinite Sets.
✓ Unit Set and Empty Set
✓ Universal Set
✓ Cardinality

Finite and Infinite Sets
Finite set is a set whose elements are limited or countable, and

the last element can be identified.
Example:
a. A = {xx is a positive integer less than 10}
b. C = {d, i, r, t}
Infinite set is a set whose elements are unlimited or

uncountable, and the last element cannot be specified.
Example:
a. F = {…, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2,…}
b. G = {xx is a set of whole numbers}
Unit and Empty Set
A unit set is a set with only one element it is also called
singleton.
Example:
a. I = {xx is a whole number greater than 1 but less than 3}
b. J = {w}
An empty set is a unique set with no elements (or null set),

it is denoted by the symbol  or { }.
Example:
a. L = {xx is an integer less than 2 but greater than 1}
b. M = {xx is a number of panda bear in Manila Zoo}

Universal Set
Universal set is all sets under investigation in any application of

set theory are assumed to be contained in some large fixed set,
denoted by the symbol U.
Example:
a. U = {xx is a positive integer, x2 = 4}
b. U = {1, 2, 3,…,100}
c. U = {xx is an animal in Manila Zoo}

Cardinality
The cardinal number of a set is the number of elements or

members in the set, the cardinality of set A is denoted by n(A)
Example: Determine its cardinality of the ff. sets Answer

a. E = {a, e, i, o, u}, n(E) = 5
b. A = {xx is a positive integer less than 10} n(A) = 9
c. C = {d, i, r, t} A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} n(C) = 4
Theorem 1.1: Uniqueness of the Empty Set: There is only one set
with no elements.

Venn Diagram
Venn Diagram is a pictorial presentation of relation and operations

on set.
Also known set diagrams, it shows all

hypothetically possible logical relations
between finite collections of sets.
Introduced by John Venn in his paper "On the Diagrammatic and Mechanical Representation
of Propositions and Reasoning’s"

Operations on Sets
✓ Union
✓ Intersection
✓ Complement
✓ Difference
✓ Symmetric Difference
✓ Disjoint Sets
✓ Ordered Pairs

Union
The union of A and B, denoted AB, is the set of all elements x

in U such that x is in A or x is in B.
Symbolically: AB = {xx  A  x  B}.

Intersection
The intersection of A and B, denoted AB, is the set of all

elements x in U such that x is in A and x is in B.
Symbolically: AB = {xx  A  x  B}.

Complement
The complement of A (or absolute complement of A), denoted

A’, is the set of all elements x in U such that x is not in A.
Symbolically: A’ = {x  U  x  A}.

Difference
The difference of A and B (or relative complement of B with

respect to A), denoted A  B, is the set of all elements x in U
such that x is in A and x is not in B.
Symbolically: A  B = {xx  A  x  B} = AB’.

Symmetric Difference
If set A and B are two sets, their symmetric difference as the set
consisting of all elements that belong to A or to B, but not to
both A and B.
Symbolically: A  B = {xx  (AB)  x(AB)}

= (AB)(AB)’ or (AB)  (AB).

Example
Suppose
A = {a, b, c} B = {c, d, e} U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
Find the following

a. (AB) B
b. (AB)~U
c. (A’ ~A)  B
d. A  (B U)
e. (A  B) (U~A’)

Disjoint Sets
Two sets are called disjoint (or non-intersecting) if and only if,
they have no elements in common.
Symbolically: A and B are disjoint  AB = .

Kinds of Sets
✓ Subset
✓ Proper Subset
✓ Equal Set
✓ Power Set

Subset
If A and B are sets, A is called subset of B, if and only if, every

element of A is also an element of B.
Symbolically: A  B  x, x  A → x  B.
Example: Suppose
A = {c, d, e}
B = {a, b, c, d, e}
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
Then A  B, since all elements of A is in B.

Proper Subset
Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B, if and only if,
every element of A is in B but there is at least one element of B
that is not in A.
The symbol  denotes that it is not a proper subset.
Symbolically: A  B  x, x  A → x  B.
Example: Suppose
A = {c, d, e}
B = {a, b, c, d, e}
C = {e, a, c, b, d}
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
Then A  B, since all elements of A is in B.

{} {f, g} {e, g, i}
{e} {f, h} {e, h, i}
{f} {f, i} {e, f, g, h}
{g} {g, h} {e, f, g, i}
{h} {g, i} {e, g, h, i}
{i} {h, i} {e, f, h, i}
{e, f} {e, f, g} {f, g, h, i}
{e, g} {e, g, h}
{e, h} {e, f, h}
{e, i} {e,f, i}
Equal Sets
Given set A and B, A equals B, written, if and only if, every

element of A is in B and every element of B is in A.
Symbolically: A = B  A  B  B  A.
Example:
Suppose A = {a, b, c, d, e},
B = {a, b, d, e, c}
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
Then then A  B and B  A, thus A = B.

Power Set
Given a set S from universe U, the power set of S denoted by

(S), is the collection (or sets) of all subsets of S.
Example: Determine the power set of (a) A = {e, f},

(b) B = {1, 2, 3}.
(a) A = {e, f} (A) = {{e}, {f}, {e, f}, }
(b) B = {1, 2, 3} (B) = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3},
{1, 2, 3}, }.

Theorem
Theorem 1.2: A Set with No Elements is a Subset of Every Set: If

 is a set with no elements and A is any set, then
  A.
Theorem 1.3: For all sets A and B, if A  B then (A)  (B).
Theorem 1.4: Power Sets: For all integers n, if a set S has n

elements then (S) has 2n elements.

Cartesian Product
The Cartesian product of sets A and B, written AxB, is

AxB = {(a, b)  a  A and b  B}
Example: Let A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {7, 8}. Find each set.
a. AxB = {(2, 7), (2, 8), (3, 7), (3, 8), (5, 7), (5, 8)}
b. BxA = {(7, 2), (7, 3), (7, 5), (8, 2), (8, 3), (8, 5)}
c. AxA = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 2), (5, 3),
(5, 5)}
Language of Functions and Relations
A relation is a set of ordered pairs.
If x and y are elements of these sets and if a relation exists

between x and y, then we say that x corresponds to y or that y
depends on x and is represented as the ordered pair of (x, y).
A relation from set A to set B is defined to be any subset of AB.
If R is a relation from A to B and (a, b)  R, then we say that “a

is related to b” and it is denoted as a R b.

Let A = {a, b, c, d} be the set of car brands, and

B = {s, t, u, v} be the set of countries of the car manufacturer.
Then AB gives all possible pairings of the elements of A and B,
let the relation R from A to B be given by
R = {(a, s), (a, t), (a, u), (a, v), (b, s), (b, t), (b, u), (b, v), (c, s),
(c, t), (c, u), (b, v), (d, s), (d, t), (d, u), (d, v)}.

Let R be a relation from set A to the set B.
domain of R is the set dom R

dom R = {a  A (a, b)  R for some b  B}.
image (or range) of R

im R = {b  B (a, b)  R for some a  A}.
Example: A = {4, 7},

Then AA = {(4, 4), (4, 7), (7, 4),(7, 7)}.
Let  on A be the description of x  y  x + y is even.

Then (4, 4)  , and (7, 7)  .

Function is a special kind of relation helps visualize

relationships in terms of graphs and make it easier to interpret
different behavior of variables.
Applications of Functions:
financial applications economics medicine
Engineering sciences natural disasters
calculating pH levels measuring decibels
designing machineries

Language of Binary Operations
A function is a relation in which, for
each value of the first component of
the ordered pairs, there is exactly one
value of the second component.
The set X is called the domain of the

function.
For each element of x in X, the corresponding element y in Y is

called the value of the function at x, or the image of x.
Range – set of all images of the elements of the domain is

called the range of the function. A function can map from one
set to another.

Determine whether each of the following relations is a function.
A = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 6)}

B = {(–2, 7), (–1, 3), (0, 1), (1, 5), (2, 5)}
C = {(3, 0), (3, 2), (7, 4), (9, 1)}

Algebraic structures focuses on investigating sets associated by

single operations that satisfy certain reasonable axioms.
The algebraic structures known as group.

Binary Operations
Let G be a set. A binary operation on G is a function that assigns

each ordered pair of element of G.
Symbolically, a  b = G, for all a, b, c  G.

Group
A group is a set of elements, with one operation, that satisfies

the following properties:
(i) the set is closed with respect to the operation,
(ii) the operation satisfies the associative property,
(iii) there is an identity element, and
(iv) each element has an inverse.

Group
A group is an ordered pair (G, ) where G is a set and  is a

binary operation on G satisfying the four properties.
Closure property. If any two elements are combined using
the operation, the result must be an element of the set.
a  b = c  G, for all a, b, c  G.
Associative property. (a  b)  c = a  (b  c), for all a, b,
c  G.
Identity property. There exists an element e in G, such that
for all a  G, a  e = e  a.
Inverse property. For each a  G there is an element a–1 of
G, such that a  a–1 = a–1  a = e.

Group
The set of group G contain all the elements including the
binary operation result and satisfying all the four properties
closure, associative, identity e, and inverse a–1.

Example
Determine whether the set of all non-negative integers under

addition is a group.
Solution:
Apply the four properties to test the set of all non-negative
integers under addition is a group.
Step 1: Closure property, choose any two positive integers,

8 + 4 = 12 and 5 + 10 = 15
The sum of two numbers of the set, the result is always a
number of the set.
Thus, it is closed.

Solution
Step 2: Associative property, choose three positive integers

3 + (2 + 4) = 3 + 6 = 9
(3 + 2) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9
Thus, it also satisfies the associative property.
Step 3: Identity property, choose any positive integer

8 + 0 = 8; 9 + 0 = 9; 15 + 0 = 15
Thus, it also satisfies the identity property.

Solution
Step 4: Inverse property, choose any positive integer

4 + (–4) = 0;
10 + (–10) = 0;
23 + (–23) = 0
Note that a–1 = –a.
Thus, it also satisfies the inverse property.
Thus, the set of all non-negative integers under addition is a

group, since it satisfies the four properties.

Formal Logic
✓ The science or study of how to evaluate arguments &

reasoning.
✓ It differentiate correct reasoning from poor reasoning.
✓ It is important in sense that it helps us to reason correctly.
✓ The methods of reasoning.

Mathematical Logic
✓ Mathematical logic (or symbolic logic) is a branch of

mathematics with close connections to computer science.
✓ Mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal

logic to other areas of mathematics.
✓ It also study the deductive formal proofs systems and

expressive formal systems.
Four Divisions:
Set Theory Recursion Theory
Proof Theory Model Theory

Statement
A statement (or proposition) is a declarative sentence which

is either true or false, but not both.
The truth value of the statements is the truth and falsity of

the statement.

Example
Which of the following are statements?
1. Manila is the capital of the Philippines. Is true
A statement.
2. What day is it? It is a question

Not a statement.
3. Help me, please. It cannot be categorized as true or false.
Not a statement.
4. He is handsome. Is neither true nor false - “he” is not

specified.
Not a statement.

Ambiguous Statements
1. Mathematics is fun.
2. Calculus is more interesting than Trigonometry.
3. It was hot in Manila.
4. Street vendors are poor.

Propositional Variable
A variable which used to represent a statement.
A formal propositional written using propositional logic

notation, p, q, and r are used to represent statements.

Logical Connectives
Logical connectives are used to combine simple statements

which are referred as compound statements.
✓ A compound statement is a statement composed of two or

more simple statements connected by logical connectives
“or” “not” “if then”

“and” “exclusive-or.” “if and only if”
✓ A statement which is not compound is said to be simple

(also called atomic).

Conjunction
The conjunction of the statement p and q is the compound
statement “p and q.”
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “and.”
Property 1: If p is true and q is true, then p  q is true;

otherwise p  q is false. Meaning, the conjunction of
two statements is true only if each statement is true.
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Example
Determine the truth value of each of the following conjunction.
1. 2 + 6 = 9 and man is a mammal. False

False True
2. Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion and Gloria False

Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine
President.
3. Ferdinand Marcos is the only three-term Philippine True
President and Joseph Estrada is the only Philippine
President who resigns.

Statement
The disjunction of the statement p, q is the compound
statement “p or q.”
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “or.”
Property 2: If p is true or q is true or if both p and q are true,

then p  q is true; otherwise p  q is false. Meaning,
the disjunction of two statements is false only if
each statement is false.
p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example
Determine the truth value of each of the following disjunction.
1. 2 + 6 = 9 or Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion. True

False True
2. Joseph Ejercito is the only Philippine President who True

resigns or Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female
Philippine President.
3. Ferdinand Marcos is the only three-term Philippine True

President or man is a mammal.

Negation
The negation of the statement p is denoted by p, where  is

the symbol for “not.”
Property 3: If p is true, p is false. Meaning, the truth value of

the negation of a statement is always the reverse of
the truth value of the original statement.
p p
T F
F T

Example
The following are statements for p, find the corresponding p.
1. 3 + 5 = 8. 3 + 5  8.
2. Sofia is a girl. Sofia is a boy.
3. Achaiah is not here. Achaiah is here.

Conditional
The conditional (or implication) of the statement p and q is the

compound statement “if p then q.”
Symbolically, p → q, where → is the symbol for “if then.” p is called

hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q is called conclusion (or
consequent or consequence).
Property 4: The conditional statement p q p→q

p → q is false only when p is true and q is T T T
false; otherwise p → q is true. Meaning T F F
p → q states that a true statement cannot
F T T
imply a false statement.
F F T

Example
In the statement “If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.”
The antecedent is “vinegar is sweet,” and
the consequent is “sugar is sour.”

Example
Obtain the truth value of each of the following conditional

statements.
1. If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour. True
False False
2. 2 + 5 = 7 is a sufficient condition for 5 + 6 = 1. False

True False
3. 14 – 8 = 4 is a necessary condition that 6  3 = 2. True

False True

Biconditional
The biconditional of the statement p and q is the compound
statement “p if and only if q.”
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “if and only if.”
Property 5: If p and q are true or both false, then p  q is true;

if p and q have opposite truth values, then p  q is
false.
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Example
Determine the truth values of each of the following
biconditional statements.
1. 2 + 8 = 10 if and only if 6 – 3 = 3. True

True True
2. Manila is the capital of the Philippines is equivalent False

to fish live in moon.
3. 8 – 2 = 5 is a necessary and sufficient for 4 + 2 = 7. True

Exclusive-Or
The exclusive-or of the statement p and q is the compound
statement “p exclusive or q.”
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “exclusive or.”
Property 6: If p and q are true or both false, then p  q is false;

if p and q have opposite truth values, then p  q is
true.
p q pq
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example
“Sofia will take her lunch in Batangas or she will have it in
Singapore.”
Case 1: Sofia cannot have her lunch in Batangas and at False

the same time cannot do it in Singapore,”
Case 2: If Sofia will have her lunch in Batangas or in True

Singapore, meaning she can only have it in one
location given a single schedule.
Case 3: If she ought to decide to have her lunch False

elsewhere (neither in Batangas nor in Singapore).

Predicate
A predicate (or open statements) is a statement whose truth

depends on the value of one or more variables.
Predicates become propositions once every variable is bound

by assigning a universe of discourse.
Most of the propositions are define in terms of predicates
Example:
“x is an even number” is a predicate whose truth depends

on the value of x.

Predicate
A predicate can also be denoted by a function-like notation.
Example:
P(x) = “x is an even number.” Now P(2) is true, and P(3)

is false.
If P is a predicate, then P(x) is either true or false, depending

on the value of x.

Propositional Function
A propositional function is a sentence P(x); it becomes a

statement only when variable x is given particular value.
Propositional functions are denoted as P(x), Q(x),R(x), and so

on.
The independent variable of propositional function must have

a universe of discourse, which is a set from which the variable
can take values.

Propositional Function
Example:
“If x is an odd number, then x is not a multiple of 2.”
The given sentence has the logical form P(x) → Q(x) and its
truth value can be determine for a specific value of x.
Example: Existential Quantifiers
There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even number.
For all x, if x is a positive integer, then 2x + 1 is an odd

number.
Universal Quantifiers
Universe of Discourse
The universe of discourse for the variable x is the set of

positive real numbers for the proposition
“There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even
number.”
Binding variable is used on the variable x, we can say that the

occurrence of this variable is bound.
A variable is said to be free, if an occurrence of a variable is

not bound.

Universe of Discourse
To convert a propositional function into a proposition, all

variables in a proposition must be bound or a particular value
must be designated to them.
This is done by applying combination of quantifiers

(universal, existential) and value assignments.
The scope of a quantifier is the part of an assertion in which

variables are bound by the quantifier.
A variable is free if it is outside the scope of all quantifiers.

Existential Quantifiers
The statement “there exists an x such that P(x),” is

symbolized by x P(x).
The symbol  is called the existential quantifier
The statement “x P(x)”is true if there is at least one value of x

for which P(x) is true.

Universal Quantifiers
The statement “for all x, P(x),” is symbolized by x P(x).
The symbol  is called the universal quantifier.
The statement “x P(x)”is true if only if P(x) is true for every
value of x.

Topic Outline
Quantifier Symbol Translation

Existential  There exists
There is some
For some
For which
For at least one
Such that
Satisfying
Universal  For all
For each
For every
For any
Given any

Truth Values of Quantifiers
If the universe of discourse for P is P{p1, p2, …, pn}, then
x P(x)  P(p1)  P(p2) … P(pn) and
x P(x)  P(p1)  P(p2) … P(pn).
Statement Is True when Is False when

x P(x) There is at least There is at least
one x for which one x for which
P(x) is true. P(x) is false.
x P(x) P(x) is true for P(x) is false for

every x. every x.

Quantified Statements and their Negation
Statement Negation
All A are B. Some A are not B.
No A are B. Some A are B.
Some A are not B. All A are B.
Some A are B. No A are B.

For the things of this world cannot
be made known without a
knowledge of mathematics.
– Roger Bacon
Copyright 2018:
Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
Equivalent Forms of the Conditional Statement
Statement Equivalent Forms
If p, then q (p→ q) If p, q
p only if q p implies q
Not p or q Every p is a q
q, if p q, provided that p
q is a necessary p is a sufficient
condition for p condition for q

Example:
Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form:

1. The number is an even number provided that it is
divisible by 2
ANS: If it is divisible by 2, then it is an even number.
2. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.
ANS: If yesterday was Thursday, then today is friday.

Statements Related to the Conditional Statement
Statements Equivalent
Converse of p→ q q→p
Inverse of p→ q p → q
Contrapositive of p→ q q → p

Example:
Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the
statement:
If I get the Job, I will rent the apartment.
CONVERSE: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.

INVERSE: If I do not get the job then I will not rent the
apartment.
CONTRAPOSITIVE: If I do not rent the apartment then I
did not get the job.

GEC 05: Mathematics in the Modern World Academic Year 2020-21
1|Southern Luzon State University

V. Logic
Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect
reasoning. Using the methods and techniques of logic—one can distinguish reliably between
sound and faulty reasoning.
Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements, questions, and
commands. For instance,
“Is the test today?” is a question.
“Go get the newspaper” is a command.
“This is a nice car” is an opinion.
“Denver is the capital of Colorado” is a statement of fact.
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or

false, but not both true and false.
You may not know if the sentence is true, but you do know that the sentence is either true or it
is false, and that it is not both true and false. Thus, you know that the sentence is a statement.
Example:
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
a. Florida is a state in the United States.
b. How are you?
c. 99 + 2 is a prime number.
d. � + 1 = 5.
Solution:
a. Florida is one of the 50 states in the United States, so this sentence is true and it is a
statement.
b. The sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus, it is not
a statement.
c. You may not know whether 99 + 2 is a prime number; however, you do know that it is a
whole number larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not a prime number.
The sentence is either true or it is false, and it is not both true and false, so it is a
statement.
d. � + 1 = 5 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x = 4, and it is
false for any other values of x. For any given value of x, it is true or false but not both.

EXERCISE
Determine whether each sentence is a statement or not, then explain why or why not.
1. The Dark Knight is the greatest movie of all time.
2. Open the door.
3. The area code for Lucban is 3003.
4. January 1, 2021 will be a Sunday.
5. 7055 is a large number.

Simple Statements and Compound Statements
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a

statement that conveys two or more ideas. Connecting simple statements with words and
phrases such as and, or, if . . . then, and if and only if creates a compound statement.
We will use symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple statements and the symbols ∧ , ∨
, ∼ , → �� ↔ to represent connectives as shown in the table below.
Example 1: (Negation)
Write the negation of each statement.
a. Bill Gates has a yacht.
b. Avatar was not selected as best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony.
Solution
a. Bill Gates does not have a yacht.
b. Avatar was selected as best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony.
Example 2: (Conjunction)
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
b. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
Solution:
a. This is a false statement because 5 is not an even number.
b. This is a true statement because each simple statement is true.
In any conditional statement represented by “If �, then �” or by “If �, �” the � statement is called
the antecedent and the q statement is called the consequent.
The conditional � → � is false if � is true and � is false. It is true in all other cases. The
conditional statement, “If �, then �,” can be written using the arrow notation � → �, read as “if
p, then q” or as “p implies q.”
Example 3: (Conditional)
Identify the antecedent and consequent in the following statements.
a. If our school was this nice, I would go there more than once a week.
b. If you don’t stop and look around once in a while, you could miss it.
c. If you strike me down, I shall become more powerful than you can possibly imagine.
Solution
a. Antecedent: our school was this nice
Consequent: I would go there more than once a week
b. Antecedent: you don’t stop and look around once in a while
Consequent: you could miss it
c. Antecedent: you strike me down

Consequent: I shall become more powerful than you can possibly imagine.
Example 4: (Conditional)
Determine the truth value of each of the following.
a. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.
b. If 3 is a negative number, then 5 > 7.
c. If 5 > 3, then 2 + 7 = 4.
Solution:
a. Because the consequent is true, this is a true statement.
b. Because the antecedent is false, this is a true statement.
c. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, this is a false statement.
Example 5: (Biconditional)
State whether each biconditional is true or false.
a. � + 4 = 7 if and only if � = 3.
b. �2 = 36 if and only if � = 6.
Solution:
a. Both equations are true when � = 3, and both are false when � ≠ 3. Both
equations have the same truth value for any value of x, so this is a true statement.
b. If � = − 6, the first equation is true and the second equation is false. Thus, this is a
false statement.
Example 6: (Translating Compound Statements)
Let p, q, and r represent the following simple statements:
p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.
a. Write (p ∧ q) → r as an English sentence.
b. Write “If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you
will not receive a bonus.” in symbolic form.
Solution:
a. Because the p and the q statements both appear in parentheses in the symbolic form,
they are placed to the left of the comma in the English sentence.
Thus, the translation is:
“If you get a promotion and complete the training, then you will receive a bonus.”
b. Because the not p and the not r statements are both to the right of the comma in the
English sentence, they are grouped together in parentheses in the symbolic form.
Thus, the translation is: ~q → (~p ∧∼r)
In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least one are called existential
quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are used as prefixes to assert the existence of something.
In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called universal quantifiers. The universal
quantifiers none and no deny the existence of something, whereas the universal quantifiers all
and every are used to assert that every element of a given set satisfies some condition.
Examples:
There exists a real number whose multiplicative inverse is itself.
All elements of the set of integers are elements of the set of rationals.

Equivalent Forms of the Conditional Statement
Every conditional statement can be stated in many equivalent forms. The table below lists some
of the various forms that may be used to write a conditional statement denoted by � → �:
If �, then �. � only if �. Not � or �. �, if �. � is a necessary condition for �.
If �, �. � implies �. Every � is a �. �, provided that �. � is a sufficient condition for �.
Example 1:
Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form.
a The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by
b Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.
Solution:
a. The statement, “The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by 2,” is
in “q provided that p” form. The antecedent is “it is divisible by 2,” and the
consequent is “the number is an even number.” Thus its “If p, then q” form is “If it is
divisible by 2, then the number is an even number.”
b. The statement, “Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday,” is in “p only if q”
form. The antecedent is “today is Friday.” The consequent is “yesterday was
Thursday.” Its “If p, then q” form is “If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday.”
Statements Related to the Conditional Statement

The converse of p → q is q → p.
The inverse of p → q is ∼p → ∼q.
The contrapositive of p → q is ∼q →∼p.
Example 2:
Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the statement “If I get the job, then I will rent
the apartment.”
Solution:
Converse: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.
Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not rent the apartment.
Contrapositive: If I do not rent the apartment, then I did not get the job.

EXERCISE
Write the negation of each statement.
1. The Giants lost the game.

2. The lunch was served at noon.
3. The game did not go into overtime.
4. The game was not shown on ABC.
5. The dog does not need to be fed.
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
6. 7 < 5 �� 3 > 1
7. 3≤9
8. (−1)50 = 1 �� (−1)99 =− 1
9. 7 ≠ 3 �� 9 ��
10. −5 ≥− 11
11. 4.5 ≤ 5.4
12. 2 is an odd number or 2 is even. __________ _________________
Write each sentence in symbolic form. Represent each simple statement in the
sentence with the letter indicated in the parentheses. Also state whether the
sentence is a conjunction, a disjunction, a negation, a conditional, or biconditional.
13. If today is Wednesday (�), then tomorrow is Thursday (�).

14. I went to the post office (�) and the bookstore (�).
15. A triangle is an equilateral triangle (�) if and only if it is an equiangular triangle (�).
Write each sentence in symbolic form. Use p, q, r and s as defined below.

�: Dwyane Wade is a football player.
�: Dwyane Wade is a basketball player.
�: Dwyane Wade is a rock star.
�: Dwyane Wade plays for the Miami Heat.
16. Dwyane Wade is a football player or a basketball player, and he is not a rock star.
17. Dwyane Wade is a rock star, and he is not a basketball player or a football player.
18. If Dwyane Wade plays for the Miami Heat, then he is a basketball player and he is
not a football player.
Identify the antecedent and the consequent of each conditional statement.
19. If I had the money, I would buy the painting.

20. If Shelly goes on the trip, she will not be able to take part in the graduation
ceremony.
Write each statement in “If �, then �” form.
21. Every nonrepeating, nonterminating decimal is an irrational number.

22. Being well known is a necessary condition for a politician.
Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the given statement.
23. If � + 4 > 7, then � > 3.

24. Every trapezoid has exactly two parallel sides.
Determine the original statement if the given statement is related to the original
statement in the manner indicated.
25. Converse: If � > 2, then x is an odd prime number.

26. Inverse: If their manager will not contact me, then I will not purchase any of their
products.
27. Contrapositive: If Ginny can’t rollerblade, then I can’t rollerblade.

REFERENCES
Aufman,Richard N.,et al,(2013), Mathematical Excursions. 3rd ed.,Brookes/Cole, Cengage

Learning
Medallon, Merlita C. et al (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World, Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Reyes, Juan Apolinario C. (2019), Mathematics in the Modern World, Unlimited Books Library
Services & Publishing Inc.
Sirug, Winston, (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World, Mindshapers Co.,Inc.
Online References:
http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf_files/LANG1.pdf
https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf
https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Mount_Royal_University/MATH_2150%3A_Higher_Arithm
etic/1%3 Binary_operations/1.1%3A_Binary_operations

Module 3
PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
“Every problem has a solution. You just have to be creative enough to find it.”
- Travis Kalanick
INTRODUCTION
Problems are inevitable. And because of that, one must learn the necessary skills to arrive at
solutions to different types of problems encountered. It is imperative that we study different
approaches and strategies in problem solving. This module presents the fundamental principles
of problem solving along with some specific processes that can be applied to certain types of
problems. Its main goal is to develop students’ skills in pattern recognition, critical and logical
thinking, and creativity. This also aims to help students become better problem solvers, develop
interest in problem solving and consider it as an enjoyable experience.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Explain Polya’s four-step problem solving strategy;
2. Apply Polya’s four-step problem solving strategy in solving certain problems;
3. Distinguish inductive reasoning from deductive reasoning;
4. Give examples of inductive and deductive processes of inference; and
5. Use either the inductive or deductive reasoning to solve practical problems; and
6. Solve problems using different approaches and strategies.
DISCUSSION
I. Polya’s Strategy
George Polya, known as the father of modern problem solving, created his famous four-step
process for problem solving. The steps are:
10 | S o u t h e r n L u z o n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
Example 1:
A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different orders could they
have two wins and two losses in four games?
Solution:
Understand the Problem – There are many different orders. The team may have won two
straight games and lost the last two (��) or they may have lost in the first two games and
won the last two (��). Of course there are other possibilities, such as ��.
Devise a Plan – We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized list is a
list that is produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed
once and only once.
Carry Out the Plan – Each entry in our list must contain two � s and two � s. We will use a
strategy that makes sure each order is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to
always write a � unless doing so will produce too many � s or a duplicate of one of the
previous orders. If it is not possible to write a � , then and only then do we write an � . This
strategy produces the six different orders shown below.
1. �� (Start with two wins)
2. �� (Start with one win)
3. ��
4. �� (Start with one loss)
5. ��
6. �� (Start with two losses)
Review the Solution – We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list
considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a
baseball team can win exactly two out of four games.
Example 2:
The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are the same age.
What are the ages of the teenagers?
Solution:
Understand the Problem – We need to determine three distinct counting numbers, from the list
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, that have a product of 4590.
Devise a Plan – If we represent the ages by �, �, and �, then �� = 4590. We are unable to solve
this equation, but we notice that 4590 ends in a zero. Hence, 4590 has a factor of 2 and a factor
of 5, which means that at least one of the numbers we seek must be an even number and at least
one number must have 5 as a factor. The only number in our list that has 5 as a factor is 15. Thus
15 is one of the numbers, and at least one of the other numbers must be an even number. At this
point we try to solve by guessing and checking.
Carry Out the Plan –

15 ∗ 16 ∗ 18 = 4320 → No, this product is too small.
15 ∗ 16 ∗ 19 = 4560 → No, this product is too small.
15 ∗ 17 ∗ 18 = 4590 → Yes, this is the correct product.
The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.
Review the Solution – Because 15 ∗ 17 ∗ 18 = 4590, and each of the ages represents the age of a
teenager, we know our solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and 19 is a factor
(divisor) of 4590, so there are no other solutions.
EXERCISE
Apply Polya’s Strategy to solve the following problems.
1. Twenty-four points are placed around a circle. A line segment is drawn between each
pair of points. How many line segments are drawn?
2. There are 364 first-grade students in Park Elementary School. If there are 26 more girls
than boys, how many girls are there?
3. If eight people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with one another, how
many handshakes take place?
II. Problem Solving Strategies
1. Guess and test (Trial and error) – this is the most common method that students tend to
use when solving a given problem. This includes trying different possible answers to the
question and checking if it is correct and if not, then try another guess.
Example:
Place the digits 8, 9, 10, 12, & 13 in the circles so that the sum across and vertically equal to 31.
It is possible to systematically answer this

problem, but since we are dealing with just 5
numbers and addition is the only operation, it
will be faster and easier to just simply guess it.
Few trials will be enough to correctly answer
the problem. (Try it!)
2. Picture/Diagram/Experiment – this method is used by most people because it is much

easier to solve a problem if you can draw or picture it, or try it out yourselves, instead of
just imagining things.
Example:
Using only a 5L and an 11L can, how can you have exactly 7L of water?
This is one of the problems that were

presented in class during our group activities.
5L 11L And solving this easily would involve actually
experimenting on it, or drawing scenarios or
steps. (Try it!)
3. Working backwards – this is when we are given a problem wherein a final output is
given, and we are asked to find something at the beginning or somewhere at the middle.
Since the final output is provided, the best way is to start from there, then work
backwards, reversing all actions.
Example:
Mary is thinking of a number. If you double it, and subtract 7 you obtain 11. What is the number?
Solution:
Since we are given the final answer which is 11, it is best to start from there, and then go
backwards. First, we see that 11 is obtained after subtracting 7 to the previous number. Since
we work backwards, instead of subtracting, we add. Thus, the previous number is 11 + 7 = 18.
From 18, we see that it is obtained by doubling the previous number. Thus, the previous
18
number is 2 = 9 . Therefore, 9 is Mary’s number. We can check it by substituting 9 to the
problem. We have 9, if we double it, we get 18, and subtracting 7 from 18, we get 11. So our
answer is correct.
4. Looking for patterns – this is used when we can find a pattern in a given problem or
sequence. (More examples are presented in Section IV.)
Example:
Fill the missing the number in the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, ___, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, …
Solution:
In this sequence, we can observe that the given numbers are actually perfect squares, 1 =
12 , 4 = 22 , 9 = 32 , 16 = 42 and so as the others. Thus, we can conclude that the missing number
is actually 52 which is equal to 25.
5. Listing/tabular – this is often used when we are asked to answer problems where we
need to list down possibilities so we can look at it properly. Of course we can just use a
scratch paper and write things randomly but this is more organized and easier to look at.
Example:
Let �(�) denote the ��ℎ term in the Fibonacci Sequence where � 1 = 1, � 2 = 1, � 3 = 2 and
so on. Find the least value of � such that � � > 500.
Solution:
In this problem, we are asked to find the smallest � so that �(�) is greater than 500. One way to
do it is to make a table and list down the terms of the Fibonacci sequence with the
corresponding �.
� 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
�(�) 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597
In this table, all we do is to find the smallest � so that � � > 500. We see that 610, 987, 1597
are all greater than 500. Therefore, the possible values of � that will give us these values are 15,
16, 17, and even greater. But, we are only asked to find the smallest. And the smallest here is 15.
So the answer is 15.
6. Algebraic equations – this method is used when it is not enough to simply look at the
problems, draw it, or guess. This happens when the given problem is too complex and
there are way too many possible answers, or the values are too big.
Example:
The sum of the two digits of a 2-digit number is 11. Reversing the digits increase the number by
45. What is the number?
Solution:
We use Polya’s strategy in solving this problem We enumerate the steps as follows:
Understand the problem – In this problem, we are asked to find a two digit number. It says that if
we add the two digits of this number, we get 11. (For example, 65 is possible because 6 + 5 =
11, but that’s not the only possible combination.) Next, it tells us that if reverse the numbers,
meaning if we interchange their positions, then the resulting number is 45 more than the
original (Well, if we reversed 65, it will be 56, so definitely it’s not the answer).
Translate – After understanding the problem, we now try to translate it to mathematical

sentences. First, how do we translate “The sum of the two digits of a 2-digit number is 11”?
Since we are dealing with two unknown values, we can use two variables to represent them, say
� is the first and � is the second. Therefore,
� + � = 11. (Equation 1)
But what is the number? Is it ��? No. Because if it is ��, you will be multiplying the two digits,
and that is not right (It is different when we are dealing with variables already). For example, if
you have 65, we know that to get 65 out of the digits 6 and 5, we have to multiply the tens digit
with 10 and add the ones digit. So 10 6 + 5 = 60 + 5 = 65.
Now, if we have the � and � as variables, then the number that we are looking for is
10� + � (The unknown number)
But since we have two variables to solve, it is not enough that we only have one equation (The
second one is not an equation). Thus, we need another one. Going back to the problem, it tells us
that if we reversed the digits, we get a number that is 45 more than the original one. So we are
saying that if we have 10� + � (we interchanged � and �), then this will be equal to 45 + (10� +
�). Thus we have the second equation
10� + � = 45 + 10� + � (Equation 2)
Solve – Since we have enough equations to solve for the unknown values, we can already solve it.
� + � = 11 → � = 11 − � Rewrite Equation 1.
10� + � = 45 + 10� + � Simplify Equation 2 by combining like terms

10� − � + � − 10� = 45 and leaving the variables in one side and the
9� − 9� = 45 constant in the other side of the equation.
9 11 − � − 9� = 45 Since � = 11 − � from Equation 1, substitute

99 − 9� − 9� = 45 11 − � to � in Equation 2. Solve for �.
99 − 18� = 45
−18� = 45 − 99
−18� = − 54
−18� −54
=
−18 −18
�=�
� = 11 − 3 Solve for � using the computed value of � and

�=� Equation 1.
Therefore, we have � = 3 and � = 8, so our number is 38.
Check – We now try to check if our answer is correct. If we have 38, then the sum of its digits, 3
and 8 is obviously 11. Now, reversing the digits, we have 83. We can check that 83 = 38 + 45.
Therefore, 38 is correct.
7. Logical Reasoning – this deals with the way we analyse things, and how we come up
with solutions to our problems. This can go with every other method that was discussed
earlier, whichever is appropriate. There are two types of reasoning which will be
discussed in the next section.
EXERCISE
Solve each of the following problems.
1. How many square are in the following figure?
2. In a basketball league consisting of 12 teams, each team plays each of the other teams
exactly twice. How many league games will be played?
3. A room measures 12 feet by 15 feet. How many 3-foot by 3-foot squares of carpet are
needed to cover the floor of this room?
4. Nine dots are arranged as shown. Is it possible to connect the nine dots with exactly four
lines if you are not allowed to retrace any part of a line and you are not allowed to
remove your pencil from the paper? If it can be done, demonstrate with a drawing.
⦁ ⦁ ⦁
⦁ ⦁ ⦁
⦁ ⦁ ⦁
5. You have eight coins. They all look identical, but one is a fake and is slightly lighter than
the others. Explain how you can use a balance scale to determine which coin is the fake
in exactly a) two weighings; and b) three weighings.
III. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
1. Inductive Reasoning – the type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the
examination of specific examples.
Example 1:
During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year, the tree did not
produce plums, so this year, the tree will produce plums.
We arrive at our answer based on our observation on what has been happening for the past
years, thus, this might not be that accurate, but, it is what is most likely to happen based on
experience.
Example 2:
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the sequence 5, 10, 15, 20, ?
Solution:
Each successive number is 5 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict that the next
number in the list is 5 larger than 20, which is 25.
 The conclusion formed using inductive reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it
may or may not be correct.
Example 3:
The period of a pendulum is the time it takes for the pendulum to swing from left to right and
back to its original position. The following table shows some results obtained for pendulums of
various lengths. (For the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches has been designated as 1
unit.) If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period? If the length of a pendulum is
quadrupled, what happens to its period?
Length of pendulum Period of pendulum,
in units in heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6
Solution:
In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length. Thus we conjecture
that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7 heartbeats. To answer the
second question, note that a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of
a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is
twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the length of a
pendulum doubles its period.
 A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one
case for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a
false statement.
Example 4:
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample.
For all numbers �:
a) � > 0 b) �2 > �
Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only fi nd one counterexample to
verify that the statement is false. For a), we can let � = 0 , so that � = 0 which is equal (not
greater than) 0. Thus, this is a false statement because we have found a counterexample. For b),
1 1
we can let � = 1, so that �2 = 1, which is again, equal to 1. We can also take � = 2, so �2 = 4, and
1 1
4
< 2, which is a contradiction to the statement.
2. Deductive Reasoning – it is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general

principles and procedure.
Example 1:
All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that my home
improvement will cost P200,000.00. Thus, my home improvement will cost more than
P200,000.00.
Here, it is already given as a fact that ALL home improvements cost more than the estimate.
Therefore, if we are given estimate, then we know that the actual cost will be bigger. It is not just
based on observations, but with given facts.
Example 2:
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is three
times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 3,
and subtract 2.
Solution:
Let � represent the original number.
9� Multiply the number by 9.

9� + 6 Add 6 to the product.
9� + 6 Divide the sum by 3.
3
9� + 6 Subtract 2.
−2
3
9� + 6
−2 Simplify.
3
3� + 2 − 2
�� We started with � and ended with 3x. The
procedure given in this example produces a
number that is three times the original
number.
 Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that helps us
visualize the problem.
Example 3:
Each of four neighbors, Kristan, Michael, Luis, and Francis, has a different occupation (editor,
banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
 Michael gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
 Luis, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
 The dentist and Luis leave for work at the same time.
 The banker lives next door to Francis.
Solution:
From the first clue, we can already tell that Michael is not the banker or the dentist. Thus, we
can already mark it x in our table. From the second clue, it is mentioned that Luis is not the
editor, and the third clue is implying that he is also not the dentist, so we mark it x. Finally,
Francis is living next to the banker, so clearly, he is not the banker. We mark it with x.
editor banker chef dentist

Kristan
Michael x x
Luis x x
Francis x
The table shows the initial information that we can get from the clues given. Now, to deduce
more information, we analyse further the clues. It was mentioned from the second clue that Luis
is the last to get home from work, therefore, from the first clue, we observe that he is not the
banker, because clearly the banker is not the last one to go home because Michael and the
dentist goes home after him. We can mark it with x.

Kristan
Michael x x
Luis x x x
Francis x
From the table, we can observe that the only one who can possibly be the banker is Kristan.
Thus, we can already mark it with ❶. Obviously, Kristan can no longer have the other
occupations so we can mark the entire row with x.

Kristan x ❶ x x
Michael ❸ x x
Luis x x ❹ x
Francis x ❷
Continuing this fashion, we can conclude that Francis is the dentist, mark it ❷. Then Michael is
the editor, mark it ❸. Finally, Luis, is the chef, marked ❹.

Kristan x ❶ x x
Michael ❸ x x x
Luis x x ❹ x
Francis x x x ❷
EXERCISE
 Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list.
1. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, _____ 6. 80, 70, 61, 53, 46, 40, _____
3 5 7 9 11 13
2. 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, _____ 7. , , , , , , _____
5 7 9 11 13 15
1 2 3 4 5 6
3. 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, _____ 8. , , , , , , _____
2 3 4 5 6 7
4. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, _____ 9. 2, 7, −3 , 2, −8, −3, −13, −8, −18, _____
5. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, _____ 10. 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, _____
 Determine whether the argument is an example of inductive reasoning or

deductive reasoning. Justify.
11. All pentagons have exactly five sides. Figure A is a pentagon. Therefore, Figure A has
exactly five sides.
12. Every P.E. teacher likes to dance. Vivian is a P.E. teacher, so Vivian likes to dance.
 Use inductive or deductive reasoning to decide whether each statement is correct.

Justify.
13. The sum of any two even counting numbers is always an even counting number.
14. Pick any counting number. Multiply the number by 6. Add 8 to the product. Divide the
sum by 2. Subtract 4 from the quotient. The resulting number is twice the original
number.
1
15. For all numbers �, � > � .
IV. Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns
 An ordered list of numbers such as 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, … is called a sequence. The numbers
in a sequence are called terms of the sequence. In the given sequence, we call 6 as the
first term, 12 the second term, and so on.
 The �th term of a sequence is denoted by ��.
 That is, a sequence consisting of � terms is represented by �1 , �2 , �3 , …, ��.
By examining the given terms in the sequence, we can analyse and try to find the pattern so that
we can identify the next term. In the sequence above, we can observe that the next term is
computed by adding 6 to the preceding term. Thus, we can conclude that the term after 30 is 36,
followed by 42, 48, and so on.
 In some cases, it is possible to predict or derive a formula, called the �� term formula,
which can generate the terms of the given sequence.
Example 1:
Consider the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … of even numbers. Observe that we can write the term 2 as
2(1), 4 as 2(2), 6 as 2(3), and so on. Generally, we can write the terms in the sequence in the
form 2�, where � is a natural number. Thus, the formula for the �th term of this sequence is:
�� = 2�
Example 2:
Consider the sequence 4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114. To find the �th term of the sequence, we have the
formula �� = 3�2 + � . Thus, if we want to find the 20th term of the sequence, we simply
substitute 20 to the formula.
�� = 3�2 + �
�20 = 3 202 + 20
�20 = 3(400) + 20
�20 = 1200 + 20
�20 = ��
EXERCISE
 Predict the next term of each sequence.
1. 1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, _____

2. 10, 10, 12, 16, 22, 30, _____
3. -1, 4, 21, 56, 115, 204, _____
4. 0, 10, 24, 56, 112, 190, _____
5. 17, 15, 25, 53, 105, 187, _____
 Use the given �th term formula to compute the first ten terms of the sequence.
� 2�+1
6. �� = 2
7. �� = 5�2 − 3�
�
8. �� = �+1
 Determine the � th-term formula for the given sequences, then compute for the
50th term.
9. 1, 5, 11, 19, 29, …
10. 8, 15, 24, 35, 48, …
V. Recreational Problems using Mathematics
KenKen® Puzzles
KenKen® is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the Japanese mathematics
teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “ken” has “knowledge” and “awareness” as
synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates as knowledge squared, or awareness squared.
In recent years the popularity of KenKen has increased at a dramatic rate. More than a million
KenKen puzzle books have been sold, and KenKen puzzles now appear in many popular
newspapers, including the New York Times and the Boston Globe.
KenKen puzzles are similar to Sudoku puzzles, but they also require you to perform arithmetic
to solve the puzzle.
Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle
For a 3 by 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with one of the numbers 1,
2, or 3.
For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3,
or 4.
For a n by n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2,
3,..., n.
Grids range in size from a 3 by 3 up to a 9 by 9.
 Do not repeat a number in any row or column.
 The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must
combine (in some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner
of the cage using the mathematical operation indicated.
 Cages with just one square should be fi lled in with the target number.
 A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row or
column.
Here is a 4 by 4 puzzle and its solution. Properly constructed puzzles have a unique solution.
column 1 column 2 column 3 column 4

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
�× �+ �× �+
row 1 → 2 1 3 4
� �× � �×
row 2 → 3 2 4 1
�× �� × �− �× �� × �−
row 3 → 1 4 2 3
� �
row 4 → 4 3 1 2
A 4 x 4 puzzle with 8 cages The solution to the puzzles
Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies

Single-Square Cages – Fill cages that consist of a single square with the target number for that
square. In the puzzle above, the cell in row 4, column 3 is filled with 1.
Cages with Two Squares – Next examine the cages with exactly two squares. Many cages that
cover two squares will only have two digits that can be used to fill the cage. For instance, a
5 × cage can only be filled with 1 and 5.
Large or Small Target Numbers – Search for cages that have an unusually large or small target
number. These cages generally have only a few combinations of numbers that can be used to fill
the cage. For example, in a 5 by 5 puzzle, a 60 × cage with exactly 3 squares can only be filled
with 3, 4, and 5.
Duplicate Digit in a Cage – Consider the 4 + cage shown below. The digits 1, 1, and 2 produce a
sum of 4; however, we cannot place the two 1s in the same row or the same column. Thus the
only way to fill the squares is to place the 2 in the corner of the L-shaped cage as shown below.
Remember: A digit can occur more than once in a cage, provided that it does not appear in the
same row or in the same column.
�+
2 1
Remember the Following Rules – In an � by � puzzle, each row and column must contain every
digit from 1 to � . In a two-square cage that involves subtraction or division, the order of the
numbers in the cage is not important. For instance, a 3 − cage with two squares could be filled
with 4 and 1 or with 1 and 4. A 3 ÷ cage with two squares could be filled with 3 and 1 or with 1
and 3.
Make a List of Possible Digits – For each cage, make a list of digits, with no regard to order, that
can be used to fill the cage. It’s like having a list of possibilities for later use.
Guess and Check – In most puzzles you will reach a point where you will need to just guess, then
try and see if it works. Assume that the possible digits in a particular cage are arranged in a
particular manner and then see where your assumption takes you. If you find that the remaining
part of a row or column cannot be filled in correctly, then you can eliminate your assumption
and proceed to check out one of the remaining possible numerical arrangements for that
particular cage.
A Famous Puzzle
The Tower of Hanoi is a puzzle invented by Edouard Lucas in 1883. The puzzle consists of three
pegs and a number of disks of distinct diameters stacked on one of the pegs such that the largest
disk is on the bottom, the next largest is placed on the largest disk, and so on as shown in the
next figure. The object of the puzzle is to transfer the tower to one of the other pegs. The rules
require that only one disk be moved at a time and that a larger disk may not be placed on a
smaller disk. All pegs may be used. Determine the minimum number of moves required to
transfer all of the disks to another peg for each of the following situations.
There are many possible solutions of course. But what we need is to solve the problem with
minimum number of moves. First, label the pegs from left to right with A, B, and C. We follow the
following steps:
1. Transfer the yellow disk to

peg A
2. Transfer the pink disk to peg
C.

peg C.
4. Transfer the blue disk to peg
A.

peg B.
6. Transfer the pink disk to peg
A.
7. Finally, transfer the yellow

disk to peg A.
The puzzle can be played with any number of disks, although many toy revisions have around 7
to 9 of them. The minimal number of moves required to solve a Tower of Hanoi puzzle is 2� − 1,
where � is the number of disks.
EXERCISE
 The Galton Board
The Galton Board is designed such that when a ball falls on a vertex of one of the hexagons, it is
equally likely to fall to the left or to the right. As the ball continues its downward path, it strikes
a vertex of a hexagon in the next row, where the process of falling to the left or to the right is
repeated. After the ball passes through all the rows of hexagons, it falls into one of the bins at
the bottom. For each hexagon, determine the number of different routes that a ball can take
from that point to the top of the board. Summarize the experiment and what can you conclude
about the numbers in the hexagons?
PROBLEM SET
 Solve each problem Polya’s and any other strategies. Label your work so that each
of Polya’s four steps is identified.
1. A rancher decides to enclose a rectangular region by using an existing fence along one
side of the region and 2240 feet of new fence on the other three sides. The rancher
wants the length of the rectangular region to be five times as long as its width. What will
be the dimensions of the rectangular region?
2. If 15 people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with one another, how many
handshakes will take place?
3. Nonie, Louise, Eduard, and Mark are attending Southern Luzon State University (SLSU).
One student is a computer science major, one is chemistry major, one is a business
major, and one is biology major. From the following clues, determine which major each
student is pursuing.
a. Nonie and the computer science major are next door neighbors.
b. Louise and the chemistry major have attended SLSU for 2 years, Eduard has
attended SLSU for 3 years, and the biology major has attended SLSU for 4 years.
c. Mark has attended SLSU for fewer years than Nonie.
d. The business major has attended SLSU for 2 years.
 Determine whether the argument is an example of inductive reasoning or

deductive reasoning.
4. Samantha got an A on each of her fi rst four math tests, so she will get an A on the next
math test.
5. All amoeba multiply by dividing. I have named the amoeba shown in my microscope
Amelia. Therefore, Amelia multiplies by dividing.
 Find a counterexample to show that the following conjecture is false.
2
6. For all numbers �, � + 4 = �2 + 16
�3+5�+6
7. For all counting numbers �, 6
is an even counting number.
 Predict the next term of each sequence.
8. 5, 6, 3, −4, −15, −30, −49, _____
9. 2, 0, −18, −64, −150, −288, −490, _____
10. A sequence has an �th term formula of �� = 4�2 − � − 2.

Use this formula to determine the first ten terms of the sequence and the 20th term of
the sequence.
 Solve the following problems.
11. A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that connects nonadjacent vertices (corners) of
the polygon. In the following polygons, the diagonals are shown by the red line segments.
Triangle Square Pentagon

3 sides 4 sides 5 sides
0 diagonal 2 diagonals 5 diagonals
Predict the number of diagonals in a) a hexagon, b) a heptagon, and c) an octagon.
12. In how many different ways can a basketball team win exactly four out of their last six
games?
13. A student has noticed the following pattern:

91 = 9 has 1 digit
92 = 81 has 2 digits
93 = 729 has 3 digits
.
.
.
10
9 = 3,486,784,401 has 10 digits.
a. Find the smallest natural number � such that the number of digits in the decimal
expansion of 9� is not equal to �.
b. A professor indicates that you can receive five extra points if you write all of the
9
digits in the decimal expansion of 99 . Is this a worthwhile project? Explain.
14. Sudoku is a deductive reasoning, number placement puzzle. The object in a 6 by 6 mini-
Sudoku puzzle is to fill all empty squares so that the counting numbers 1 to 6 appear
exactly once in each row, each column, and each of the 2 by 3 regions, which are
delineated by the thick line segments. Solve the following 6 by 6 mini-Sudoku puzzle.
6 2 5
4 3
6 5 4
1 3
1 6 2 5
4 1 6
15. A palindromic number is a whole number that remains unchanged when its digits are
written in reverse order. Find all palindromic numbers that have exactly
a. three digits and are the square of a natural number.
b. four digits and are the cube of a natural number.
REFERENCES
Aufmann, Richard N., et al. Mathematical Excursions, 3rd ed., Cengage Learning, 2013.
Earnhart, Richard T., & Adina, Edgar M., Mathematics in the Modern World, Outcome-Based
Module, C&E Publishing, Inc., 2018.
Petkovic, Miodrag, Famous Puzzles of Great Mathematicians, AMS Bookstore, 2009.
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Learning Objectives

o Discuss the language, symbols and conventions of

II. Expression versus Sentences

III. Conventions in the Mathematical Language

IV. Four Basic Concepts

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Mathematical language is an efficient and powerful tool for

It is precise and concise.

It is a poor understanding of the language.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Mathematical language is the system used to communicate

It consists of some natural language using technical terms

Mathematical notation used for formulas has its own grammar

Mathematical language is being precise, concise, and powerful.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Symbols can designate numbers, variables, operations,

Expression – correct arrangement of mathematical symbols to

Some types of expressions are numbers, sets, and functions.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Sentence (or mathematical sentence) – a statement about two

Uses symbols or words like equals, greater than, or less than.

It is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that states

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Mathematical Convention is a fact, name, notation, or usage

PEMDAS (Parenthesis, Exponent, Multiplication, Division,

All mathematical names and symbols are conventional.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Latin alphabet is commonly used for simple variables and

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

The objects are called the elements or members of the set.

Roster Method. The elements of the set are enumerated and

Rule Method. A descriptive phrase is used to describe the

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

A = {xx is a positive integer less than 10}

B = {xxis a letter in the word dirt}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

b. E = {DOJ, DOH, DOST, DSWD, DENR, CHED, DepEd,…}

c. F = {Botany, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, …}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

a. A = {xx is a letter in the word mathematics.}

b. B = {xx is a positive integer, 3  x  8.}

c. C = {xx = 2n + 3, n is a positive integer.}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

✓ Finite and Infinite Sets.

✓ Unit Set and Empty Set

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Finite set is a set whose elements are limited or countable, and

Infinite set is a set whose elements are unlimited or

An empty set is a unique set with no elements (or null set),

b. M = {xx is a number of panda bear in Manila Zoo}

Universal set is all sets under investigation in any application of

c. U = {xx is an animal in Manila Zoo}

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

The cardinal number of a set is the number of elements or

Example: Determine its cardinality of the ff. sets Answer

b. A = {xx is a positive integer less than 10} n(A) = 9

c. C = {d, i, r, t} A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} n(C) = 4

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Venn Diagram is a pictorial presentation of relation and operations

Also known set diagrams, it shows all

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.