Welding

Welding
Parts are joined together by Fusion. Fusion is
brought about by a combination of heat and
pressure between parts being joined. In normal
welding processes very high temperatures and
little or no pressure is used.

Welding conditions
• Smooth joint surfaces that match each other
• Surfaces clean and free from oxides, grease and dirt.
• Metals to be joined have same microstructure
 Welding conditions continued….
• The metals should be good quality (no internal
impurities)

Welding Preparation
• Before starting a weld, the joint edges should be
carefully prepared.
• Beveling large edges
• Cleaning (Chemical/Mechanical)
Weld Joints Weld defects
Welding Symbols Welding Techniques
Weld Joints - Parts of a Weld Joint

• Joint root
• Groove face, Root face and Root edge
• Root opening and Bevel
• Bevel angle, Groove angle and Groove radius
Weld Joints - Types of Weld Joint
• Butt Joint • Corner joint
• Lap Joint • Edge Joint
• T Joint • Splice Member
Joint Root
is that portion of a joint to be welded where the members
are closest to each other

• The joint root may be

either a point, line, or
an area

• The joint roots are

shown as shaded areas
in (A)-(D) and lines in
(E) (F)
Groove face, Root face and Root edge
• Groove face is “ that
surface of a member
included in the
groove”

• Root face (land) is

“that portion of the
groove face within
the joint root”

• Root edge is a root

face of zero width
Root opening and Bevel

• Root opening is
the separation
between the
work pieces at
the joint root
• Bevel
(chamfer) is an
angular edge
preparation
Bevel angle, Groove angle and Groove
Radius
Butt Joint

A joint between two

members aligned
approximately in the
same plane
Lap Joint

A joint between two

overlapping members
T Joint
A joint between two
members located
approximately at right
angles to each other
Corner Joint
A joint between two
members located at
right angles to each
other
Edge Joint

A joint between the

edges of two or
more parallel or
nearly parallel
members
Splice member
is “ the work piece that spans the joint in a spliced joint

Single-
spliced
butt joint

Double-spliced
butt joint with
joint filler
 Basic components of a WELDING SYMBOL

Reference Line (Required element)

Arrow
Tail

Reference Line must always be horizontal,

Arrow points to the line or lines on drawing
which clearly identify the proposed joint or weld
area.
 Weld Symbol Terminology

OTHER SIDE

ARROW SIDE Work

Fillet Weld (Arrow Side Only) Fillet Weld (Both sides)

Welding Techniques
There are many different methods of welding. The difference
between them is outlined by two important features

• The way the metal is heated

• The way additional filler metal if any is fed into the weld

Types of Welding
• Electric Arc Welding • Friction Welding
• Gas Welding • Robotic Welding
• Resistance Welding
Electric Arc Welding
The heat for fusion is supplied by an electric arc

Arc is formed between electrode and work this melts

and fuses the joint edges
Types of Electric Arc Welding

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

Metal Arc Gas Shielded (MAGS) MIG
Tungsten Arc Gas Shielded (TAGS) TIG
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Manual Metal Arc (MMA)

• Most widely used of all

the arc welding processes
• Commonly called “stick”
welding

Applications
repair work, structural steelwork,
 Touch electrode against
work withdraw
electrode to establish
arc. Heat of arc melts
base metal, the
electrode’s metal core,
and any metal particles
in electrode’s covering.
Heat also melts,
vaporises, or breaks
down chemically
non-metallic substances in covering for arc shielding.
Mixing of molten base metal and filler metal from
electrode produces coalescence required to effect
joining.
Advantages
• Used with many electrode types & sizes
• Used in all positions
• Used on great variety of materials
• Flexibility in operator control makes it the
most versatile of allwelding processes
• Low cost of equipment

Dis-advantages
• Rod becomes shorter & periodically needs replacing
• Slows production rate (% time welder welding)
The Electrode and Coating

Coating is a combination of chemicals

• Cellulosic electrodes contain cellulose
• Rutile electrodes titanium oxide (rutile)
• Basic electrodes contain calcium
carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride
(fluorspar)
Function of Electrode Coating
• Produce gas to shield weld pool from
oxidisising effects of atmosphere
• Fluxing elements help weld pool to form
• Helps slag to form-removes impurities
• Slag slows down cooling preventing
Brittleness
• Can contain alloying elements or additional
filler metal
Equipment used in MMA
AC power source
Takes power directly from mains power
supply. It use a transformer to supply the
correct voltage to suit the welding
conditions.
DC power source
Two types
DC generator
Transformer-rectifier
DC Generator
An electricity generator is driven by a
motor. The motor can be electric,
petrol or diesel. The generator
provides DC current for the arc
Transformer-rectifier
A transformer with an electrical device to
change AC to DC, this is known as a
rectifier. It has the advantage of being able to
supply both DC and AC
Basic Transformer-rectifier circuit (AC to DC)
On/Off Step Down
switch Transformer
Bridge Rectifier

Smothing
Capacitor
High AC +
Voltage
230V DC
output

Low AC
Voltage 10-
50V
A B C D
 A
B

C D
Transformer
A transformer converts AC current at one
voltage to AC at a higher or lower voltage

Step Down Step Up

Metal Arc Gas Shielded (MAGS) MIG

MIG is similar to MMA in that heat

for welding is produced by forming
an arc between a metal electrode and
the workpiece

Applications
Sheet and Heavy plate, production
welding by robots on cars
 MIG is similar to
MMA in that heat for
welding is produced
by forming an arc
between a metal
electrode and the
workpiece; the
electrode melts to
form the weld bead.
The main difference
is that the metal electrode is a small diameter wire fed from a
spool and a sheilding gas is used. As the wire is continuously
fed, the process is often referred to as semi-automatic welding.
 Advantages
• Large gaps filled or bridged easily
• Welding can be done in all positions
• No slag removal required
• High welding speeds
• High weld quality
• Less distortion of work piece
Equipmnt used in MAGS
Three major elements are :

Welding torch and accessories

Welding control & Wire feed motor
Power Source

Shielding Gas
Welding torch and accessories
GAS DIFFUSER

NOZZLE

CONTACT TIP

• The welding torch guides the wire and shielding gas to the
weld zone.
• Brings welding power to the wire also
• Major components/parts of the torch are the contact tip,
shielding gas nozzle, gas diffuser, and the wire conduit
Welding control and wire feed motor
 Main function is to pull
the wire from the spool
and feed it to the arc
 Controls wire feed speed
and regulates the starting
and stopping of wire feed
Welding power source

Positive (+) lead is connected

to the torch
Negative (-) lead is connected
to the work piece
Sheilding Gas

• Purpose of shielding gas is to

protect the weld area from the
contaminants in the atmosphere
• Gas can be Inert, Reactive, or
Mixtures of both
• Argon, Helium, and Carbon
Dioxide are the main three gases
used in MAGS
Tungsten Arc Gas Shielded (TAGS) TIG

TIG is similar to MMA in that

heat for welding is produced
by forming an arc between a
metal electrode and the
workpiece

Applications
Used in joining magnesium and
Aluminium, stainless steels
for high quality welding
Thin sheet material
 In the TIG process the arc
is formed between a
pointed tungsten
electrode and the work
piece in an inert
atmosphere of argon or
helium. The small intense
arc provided by the
pointed electrode is ideal
for high quality and
precision welding.
The electrode is not consumed during welding. When filler metal
is required, it must be added separately to the weldpool. There
are two currents one for starting the arc the other switched on
using a trigger or foot pedal, this is a high frequency current
to maintain the arc, this is generated by a separte unit.
Advantages

• Superior quality welding

• Can be used in mechanised systems
• Used to weld aluminium and stainless
steels
• Free of spatter
• Low distortion
Equipment used in TAGS
Power source
TIG must be operated with a
constant current power source -
either DC or AC
Electrodes
Electrodes for DC welding are normally pure
tungsten. In AC welding, as the electrode will be
operating at a much higher temperature, It should
be noted that because of the large amount of heat
generated at the electrode, it is difficult to
maintain a pointed tip and the end of the
electrode assumes a spherical or 'ball' profile.
Sheilding Gas
Shielding gas is selected according to the material being welded.
• Argon
• Argon + Hydrogen
• Argon/Helium
Helium is generally added to increase heat
input (increase welding speed or weld
penetration). Hydrogen will result in cleaner
looking welds and also increase heat input,
however, Hydrogen may promote porosity
or hydrogen cracking.
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Similar to MIG welding, SAW
involves formation of an arc between
a continuously-fed bare wire
electrode and the workpiece

Applications
SAW welding taking place in the flat
position. Ideal for heavy workpieces
Carbon-manganese steels,low alloy
steels and stainless steels
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
The process uses a flux to generate protective gases and
slag, and to add alloying elements to the weld pool. A
shielding gas is not required. Prior to welding, a thin layer
of flux powder is placed on the work piece surface. The arc
moves along the joint line and as it does so, excess flux is
recycled via a hopper. Remaining fused slag layers can be
easily removed after welding. As the arc is completely
covered by the flux layer, heat loss is extremely low. There
is no visible arc light, welding is spatter-free and there is no
need for fume extraction.
Equipmnt used in SAW
Wire
SAW is normally operated with a single wire on either AC or
DC current. Common variants are:
• twin wire
• triple wire
• single wire with hot wire addition
• metal powdered flux addition
All contribute to improved productivity through a marked
increase in weld metal deposition rates and/or travel speeds.
Flux
Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible minerals
The flux is specially formulated to be compatible with a
given electrode wire type so that the combination of flux
and wire yields desired mechanical properties. All fluxes
react with the weld pool to produce the weld metal
chemical composition and mechanical properties
Gas Welding (Oxy-acetylene)
A number of welding processes use a flame
produced by burning a mixture of fuel gas and
oxygen. The gas usually used is Acetylene but other
gases are also used.
Separate cylinders and
a hose pipe from each
cylinder transports the
gases to a torch.
Gas and fuel mix in
the torch
burns @ 3100°C.
During the welding heat from the flame is
concentrated on the joint edges until the metal
melts and starts to flow. When the molten metal
from both sides melts it starts to fuse, when the
metal cools down the two parts become
Permanently joined
Additional Filler
Metal is fed in by
hand into the weld
pool, at regular
intervals where it
becomes molten
and joins with the
parent metal.
The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame
Reducing or Carburizing Inner Cone
Excess acetylene (0.9:1)
(Alloy steels and
aluminium alloys)
Max. Temp.
Oxidizing Zone
Excess oxygen (1.5:1)
(Brasses, Bronzes, copper)
Secondary Combustion
envelope
Neutral
Equal acetylene & oxygen
(low carbon steel, mild
steels). Acetylene
feather
The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame
Carburising Neutral Oxidising
The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame
The oxy-acetylene flame has two distinct zones.
The inner zone (Primary combustion Zone) is the hottest part
of the flame. The welding should be performed so as the point
of the inner zone should be just above the joint edges.

C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2

Primary Combustion zone

The outer zone the secondary combustion envelope
performs two functions
•Preheats the joint edges
•Prevents oxidation by using some of the surrounding
oxygen from weld pool for combustion and gives off
carbon dioxide and water vapour

CO + H2 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Secondary Combustion zone

Equipment used in O-A welding

The oxygen and acetylene hose pipes

Gases used
Gas pressure Regulators
Flashback arrestor
Welding torch/Welding nozzle
Filler rods and fluxes
The oxygen and acetylene hose pipes

Reinforced rubber hoses.

Acetylene hose has left hand thread couplings and colour
coded red.
Oxygen hose has right handed thread couplings and colour
coded blue
Gases used
Oxygen extracted from air and compressed into
cylinders at high pressure. Cylinder is black. Oil should
never be brought into contact and should not be used on
fittings
Acetylene (C2H2) is a fuel gas. Cannot be compressed
directly as explodes at high pressures. Cylinders are
packed with porous material which is filled with
acetone Acetone absorbs acetylene. Cylinder colour
coded maroon
Gas Pressure Regulators

One gauge indicates the pressure of the cylinder and the

other indicates the pressure in the supply pipe to the torch.
Welding torch
Oxygen and acetylene are delivered to the torch by separate
hoses. Each gas is controlled by a valve on the torch. The
two gases mix in the torch and after they are ignited burn at
the nozzle.

Mixer Needle valves

Flashback Arrestors

These are positioned on both the fuel gas and oxygen

supply between the hose and the regulator. Their purpose
is to prevent the return of a flame through the hose into
the regulator.
Filler Rods and fluxes

Filler rods are used when additional filler metal is

required in the weld area they come in different
diameters.

Fluxes protect the weld pool from contamination by

oxygen and nitrogen, they are normally in paste
form placed on a heated filler rod before welding
begins
Resistance welding
Resistance welding uses the application of electric
current and mechanical pressure to create a weld
between two pieces of metal. Weld electrodes conduct
the electric current to the two pieces of metal as they are
forged together. The welding cycle must first develop
sufficient heat to raise a small volume of metal to the
molten state. This metal then cools while under pressure
until it has adequate strength to hold the parts
together. The current density and pressure must be
sufficient to produce a weld nugget, but not so high as to
expel molten metal from the weld zone.
• Spot welding
• Seam Welding
Spot welding
Ideal for joining light sheet metal. The
electrodes are made from copper.
Pressure is applied to the electrodes and
an electric current is passed through the
circuit. The high resistance between the
joint faces causes rapid heating and
fusing of a small globule of metal from
both faces.
Seam welding

The rollers allow the workpiece to

move through the welder
continously. A stream of electrical
pulses pass through the rollers and
welds the joint
Resistance Welding Benefits
• High speed welding
• Easily automated
• Suitable for high rate production
• Economical

Resistance Welding Limitations

• Initial equipment costs
• Lower tensile and fatigue strengths
• Lap joints add weight and material
Friction welding

One part is held stationary while

the other part is rotated
When the parts are hot enough the
rotation is stopped and the parts
forged together
Robotic welding
Robots are driven using actuators which
control the robotic arm from an input signal.
They can use hydraulic (large robots),
pneumatic(small actuators with simple
control movements) or electrical principles of
operation.
A computer sends instructions in electrical
signals or pulses. An interface converts these
digital pulses into analogue electricity for the
motors. The robot is fitted with sensors which
can send feedback on the position of the robot.
Advantages of Robotic welding
• Faster production rates
• Efficent continous operation
• Safe working practice
• Reliable and consistent welds
• Full automation
• Cost effective

Examples
Automated welding of motor vehicles
skeletel frames and bodies.
Robotic welding Terms
Lead through programming Teaching robot movements
through guiding it manually through a sequence of
operations. These are recorded to memeory
Machine Vision Area of vision robot has, limits which
robot sensors can operate
Working enevelope The area within which a robot can
operate. Where the work is caried out by robotic arm
Yaw left and right movment of robotic arm
Roll rotation of robot about one of its axis
Degrees of freedom These are the number of
independent movements of the arm joints( or actuators)
the robot has.