Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, Vol. 16, Nos. 2±3, pp.

253±268, 1998
# 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
PII: S0743-9547(98)00024-5 1367-9120/98 $ - see front matter

Geology of the Chalt±Babusar transect, Kohistan terrane,

N. Pakistan: implications for the constitution and thickening of
island-arc crust
M. Asif Khan*$}, Peter J. Treloar%, M. Ahmed Khan}, Tahseenullah Khank,
M. Sufyan Qazi* and M. Qasim Jan*
*National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, Pakistan, $Department of
Earth Sciences, Oxford University, UK, %School of Geological Sciences, Centre for Earth and
Environmental Science Research, Kingston University, Surrey KT1 2EE, UK, }Government
Degree College, Sargodha, Pakistan and kGeoscience Laboratory, Geological Survey of Pakistan,
Islamabad, Pakistan

(Received 4 July 1997; accepted 1 April 1998)

AbstractÐThe Kohistan island arc terrane is sandwiched between the collided Indian and Kara-
koram plates in the Himalaya of North Pakistan. Structures related to collision, during which the
arc was thrust onto the leading edge of continental India along the Main Mantle Thrust, have
resulted in exposure of an almost complete section of arc crust. Mapping along a transect across
the east end of the arc terrane provides new data concerning the magmatic emplacement of sev-
eral of the principal units. The base of the arc here is occupied by a major stratiform ultrama®c±
gabbroic complex, the Sapat complex. This was intruded into the base of a thick pile of meta-vol-
canic rocks which make up the Kamila amphibolite belt, and which comprise a varied sequence
of basalts some with MORB-type tholeiitic anities and some with island-arc tholeiitic anities
as well as calc-alkaline andesites. Ultrama®c and gabbronorite rocks of the Chilas complex are
intrusive into the top of the Kamila amphibolite belt. The upper part of the crust comprises
meta-sediments and meta-volcanic rocks of the Jaglot and Yasin-Chalt Groups. These were
formed in one or more arc-related basins, and host much of the Kohistan batholith. A three-stage
history of crustal thickening can be documented for the Kohistan arc. From its initiation at ca.
125±120 Ma until ca. 90 Ma, the arc grew downward through magmatic emplacement, into its
base, of stratiform ultrama®c±gabbroic plutonic complexes, and upward through extrusion of vol-
canic sequences. In Stage 2, the focus of crustal growth shifted upwards from the base of the arc
with emplacement of the Chilas complex along the interface between the Kamila amphibolite belt
and the overlying volcano-sedimentary cover. This stage of crustal thickening was accompanied
by shortening associated with the 90±80 Ma Kohistan±Karakoram collision. Finally, in Stage 3
(80±45 Ma), the Kohistan batholith was emplaced into deformed cover rocks of the uppermost
part of the arc crust. # 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Introduction 168). Burns (1985) described plutonic ultrama®c and

Many models for the growth of continental crust
acknowledge the important role played by the evol-
ution of island arcs from their intra-oceanic initiation
through to their incorporation, through collision and
suturing, into continental crust. Despite their parental
signi®cance to continental crust, details of the internal
structure of island arc crust is, as yet, only poorly
understood. The existence of plutonic xenoliths in vol-
canic rocks of modern island arcs has been noticed
since the turn of the 20th century (Laxroix, 1904), with
the xenoliths interpreted as indicating the presence of
cumulate ultrama®c and gabbroic rocks at depth
(Arculus and Wills, 1980). However, the presence of
large plutonic bodies is still considered atypical of
oceanic island arcs (cf. Moores and Twiss, 1995, p.
} Corresponding author.
253
ma®c rocks from a 1000 km long zone in south-central
Alaska and interpreted them as forming the plutonic
core of an intra-oceanic island arc. An analogous in-
terpretation was previously made for the plutonic
ultrama®c and gabbroic rocks exposed in the Kohistan
region of North Pakistan (Tahirkheli et al., 1979; Bard
et al., 1980). The fundamental question relating to arc
evolution is: do arcs grow vertically primarily due to
magmatic underplating and accretion, a process which
includes subduction erosion, or through emplacement
of melt extracted from the mantle wedge directly into
the lower arc, a process likely related to upward
growth through sub-aerial volcanism. In this paper we
use results of recent mapping along a transect at the
eastern margin of the Kohistan terrane to discuss: (1)
the constitution of the arc crust, (2) relationships
between the various components and their relative pos-
itions and timing of magmatic emplacement, and (3)
mechanisms of thickening of the arc crust.
254
Regional geological setting
The geology of North Pakistan (Fig. 1) provides a
superb example of accretion and collisional tectonics
involving the sequential suturing of the Karakoram
and Kohistan terranes to the southern margin of
Eurasia and the subsequent collision of India with that
margin. As a result of these processes, the Kohistan
terrane which represents a magmatic arc developed at
the extreme western end of the Trans-Himalayan bath-
olith, is preserved between the continental Asian and
Indian plates. The Kohistan terrane formed as a result
of convergence between India and Asia and the associ-
ated subduction of Tethyan oceanic crust (Treloar et
al., 1996, Khan et al., 1997). The arc was initiated as
an intra-oceanic island arc and was sutured to the
southern margin of Asia along the Shyok Suture at
between 104 and 85 Ma (Treloar et al., 1989). Prior to
suturing, thus becoming an Andean-type continental
margin, the arc terrane had acquired much of its thick-
ness through magmatic processes. Middle levels of the
arc are dominated by meta-basalts, as exposed in the
Kamila amphibolite belt, and upper levels by thick tur-
bidite successions with intercalated volcanic rocks as in
the Jaglot, Chalt and Yasin Groups. Ultrama®c-ma®c
cumulate bodies, such as the Jijal, Sapat, and Tora
Tigga complexes, were emplaced into and stalled at, or
accreted to, the base of the arc crust.
The mid-Cretaceous collision with Asia, which
ended the principal phase of subduction-related mag-
Fig. 1. Regional geological map of the Kohistan terrane, North Pakistan. (After Tahirkheli et al., 1979; Coward et al.,
1986; Searle and Khan, 1996). G = Gilgit.
M. Asif Khan et al.
matism and marine sedimentation within the arc,
caused considerable tectonic thickening of the
Kohistan arc crust (Coward et al., 1987; Treloar et al.,
1990). Treloar et al. (1996) argued that intrusion of
the Chilas ultrama®c±ma®c complex accompanied, or
closely followed, collision, placing emphasis on the
close interaction between tectonics and magmatism in
the evolution and crustal thickening of the Kohistan
terrane. Continued subduction of oceanic crust
beneath the Andean-type margin resulted in emplace-
ment of the Kohistan batholith and accompanying
extrusion of intermediate to felsic volcanic rocks of the
Dir Group (Sullivan et al., 1993). Neotethys ®nally
closed during collision of the Indian plate with the
Kohistan margin along the Indus suture. This collision
took place during the Late Palaeocene (Beck et al.,
1995) or, more likely, the Early Eocene (Pivnik and
Wells, 1996; Rowley, 1996). The segment of the Indus
Suture in North Pakistan, locally termed the Main
Mantle Thrust (MMT), emplaced the base of the arc
crust onto the northern margin of the Indian continen-
tal plate (Tahirkheli et al., 1979), resulting in the ex-
posure of sections through lower crust of the Kohistan
terrane (Bard et al., 1980; Miller and Christensen,
1994).
Studies along the Karakoram Highway in the Indus
and Hunza valleys have formed the basis of much of
the current knowledge of the geotectonic framework of
Kohistan (Tahirkheli et al., 1979; Bard et al., 1980;
Bard, 1983, Coward et al., 1986; Treloar et al., 1990;
 Geology of the Chalt-Babusar Transect 255

Loucks et al., 1992; Miller and Christensen, 1994).
Access to a relatively less accessible section across the
southern part of the arc in SE Kohistan is provided by
a north ¯owing tributary of the Indus river to the
south of Chilas, locally termed Thak Gah (Fig. 2).
Previous work along this section suggested that amphi-
bolites are present from the MMT in the south to the
Chilas complex in the north, with small ultrama®c
bodies outcropping in the vicinity of Babusar Pass and
diorites in middle reaches of the Thak valley (Ahmed
and Chaudhry, 1976; Shams, 1975; Ghazanfar et al.,
1991). Here we report results of a recent mapping exer-
cise in this area, the objectives of which were to make
comparisons with the better known section along the
Indus valley. In addition, we have recently completed
mapping of a 12,000 km2 area in the northern part of
the Kohistan terrane, to the west of Jaglot, between
the Gilgit and Indus rivers (Fig. 2). A thick sedimen-
tary-volcanic succession is described from this area for
the ®rst time. This new mapping enables us to outline
the geology of the Kohistan terrane along a complete
transect from Chalt to Babusar and to comment on
the implications that these new data have for models
of arc evolution and thickening.
Geology of the transect
The Sapat complex
Ahmed and Chaudhry (1976) ®rst noted the pre-
sence of ultrama®c bodies at Babusar Pass, which they

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Babusar±Chalt transect at the eastern margin of the Kohistan terrane.
256 M. Asif Khan et al.
described as being enclosed within a succession of
amphibolites. Our mapping to the west, in the Sapat
area, reveals the presence of a large ultrama®c body in
the hangingwall of the MMT which is overlain by
amphibolitized gabbroic rocks that occasionally dis-
play magmatic layering (Jan et al., 1993). The physical
continuity between the rocks of these adjacent areas,
as well as a close lithological and compositional simi-
larity between them, lead us to infer the presence of a
stratiform-type ultrama®c-ma®c complex in this part
of the Kohistan terrane (Figs 2 and 3).
The Sapat complex consists of ca. 650 m thick ultra-
ma®c cumulates at its base, comprising, from base
upwards, serpentinites (ca. 10 m), homogeneous
dunites (340 m), dunites with thin layers of chromitites
(ca. 100 m) and ®nally, a zone of interlayered dunite±
pyroxenite±gabbroanorthosite (ca. 70 m). Overlying
this sequence is a ca. 6±7 km thick succession of gab-
broic rocks, layered at the base and foliated but
unlayered at the top. Minor ultrama®c bodies includ-
ing pegmatitic pyroxenites occur at several horizons
within the gabbroic succession. Ghazanfar et al. (1991)
reported a pyroxenite body measuring ca. 4  16 km,
about 10 km to the west of Sapat Gali, which is prob-
ably a western extension of the pegmatitic pyroxenite
horizons observed in the gabbroic succession to the
north of Sapat Gali. Several minor ultrama®c bodies
occur to the east of Sapat Gali, including those in the
vicinity of Babusar Pass. These ultrama®c bodies are
lenticular in shape and, rather than being equivalent to
Fig. 3. Geological map of SE Kohistan showing lithological subdivision and distribution of the Sapat complex, Kamila
amphibolite belt and the Thak granitoid complex.
the basal cumulates at Sapat Gali, probably form part
of the layered gabbroic succession. In this region, the
MMT carries basal ultrama®c rocks in its hangingwall
only in the Sapat area. Elsewhere, to both east and
west, gabbroic rocks are in tectonic contact with
Indian plate rocks on the footwall (Figs 2 and 3).
The exposed width of the Sapat complex does not
represent its true thickness as the complex is folded at
least twice. First-phase folds are upright structures
with gently plunging axes that parallel the general
strike of the MMT. They are characterised by large
open synclines with a half-wavelength of about 1 km
and narrow anticlines. In the vicinity of the MMT, the
folds verge to the south as do the reverse faults that
breach the narrow anticlines. To the north, away from
the MMT, the folds are either upright or north ver-
gent. The second phase folds are open, recumbent
folds which refold the phase-1 folds and associated
reverse faults as well as the MMT. The restored thick-
ness of the complex after removing the e€ects of fold-
ing, approaches 7 to 8 km.
The Sapat complex has several attributes which
suggest that it is part of the Kohistan arc assemblage
rather than a remnant of Neotethyan oceanic crust.
Firstly, it is overlain by amphibolites of distinct island-
arc anity with an arc-tholeiite chemistry (Khan and
Thirlwall, 1988; Fig. 4b). Secondly, chromian spinels
from the Sapat complex are characterised by a high Cr
No. [100Cr/(Cr + Al)>70] that is akin to arc-related
environments (Jan et al., 1993); chromites formed in
 Geology of the Chalt-Babusar Transect
Fig. 4. Trace element patterns (normalised to average N-type MORB; Bevins et al., 1984) for representative rocks from the Sapat complex and three varieties of amphibolites forming
part of the Kamila amphibolite belt exposed in south-eastern Kohistan (data from Khan and Thirwall, 1988; Khan et al., 1993).

257
258 M. Asif Khan et al.
oceanic environments have a Cr No. <60 (Dick and
Bullen, 1984; Jan and Windley, 1990). Thirdly, trace-
element patterns for the Sapat rocks are spiked similar
to those in island-arc settings characterised by an over-
all depletion in high-®eld strength elements (HFSE),
particularly Nb (Fig. 4a). Additionally, TiO2 contents,
which are low in rocks of the Sapat complex, are dis-
tinctly lower than mid-ocean ridge basalts but compar-
able to those of arc related magmas. It may be noted
that the trace-element patterns for the Sapat complex
are closely comparable to the overlying Babusar
amphibolites (Fig. 4b) of island-arc tholeiite compo-
sition (Khan and Thirlwall, 1988) and are distinct
from high-Ti (Niat) amphibolites (Khan et al., 1993)
forming much of the Kamila belt in the Babusar±
Chilas transect (Fig. 4c). In terms of regional geology,
the Sapat complex occupies a tectonic setting similar
to that of the Jijal complex with which it has compar-
able chromite chemistries (Jan et al., 1993), although
the epidote-amphibolite facies grade of metamorphism
is lower than that of the garnet±granulite facies Jijal
complex (Jan and Howie, 1981). No age data are
directly available for the Sapat complex. However, the
age of metamorphism of the Jijal complex is bracketed
at about 100 Ma by a range of age data: 104 Ma, Sm±
Nd garnet (Coward et al., 1986); 114 2 39 Ma, Sm±Nd
whole rock (Sano et al., 1996); 91 29 Ma, Sm±Nd
mineral isochron (Yamamoto and Nakamura, 1996);
1012 6 Ma, Rb±Sr mineral isochron and 96 2 3 Ma,
Sm±Nd mineral isochron (Anczkiewicz and Vance,
1997). It is likely that the magmatic emplacement of
the Sapat complex occurred prior to 100 Ma as is the
case with the Jijal complex.
The Kamila amphibolite belt
It has long been recognised from studies in both the
Indus and Swat Valleys that amphibolites constitute a
principal component of the lower arc crust in
Kohistan (Jan, 1979, 1988; Treloar et al., 1990, 1996).
Amphibolites are also widespread in SE Kohistan
where they outcrop between the Sapat complex in the
south and the Chilas complex in the north. Three com-
positional varieties, which we term the Babusar, Niat
and Sumal amphibolites (Fig. 3) are identi®ed in the
studied transect.
The Babusar amphibolites form a linear, E±W
oriented belt ca. 1.5 km wide, immediately overlying
the Sapat complex on its northern side. Due to shear-
ing the original contact relations between the two are
no longer preserved. The amphibolites comprise both
homogeneous and banded varieties, with ®ne to med-
ium grained textures distinguishing them from amphi-
bolitized gabbros of the Sapat complex. Modal
compositions are dominated by plagioclase and amphi-
bole, together with common epidote, and rare garnet.
Minor mineral phases include biotite, chlorite, magne-
tite and sphene. Whole-rock geochemistry (Fig. 4b)
suggests a tholeiitic composition with trace-element
patterns characterised by high Sr and low Nb levels
typical of subduction-related complexes (Khan and
Thirlwall, 1988).
The Niat amphibolites occupy much of the area
between the Babusar amphibolite and the Chilas com-
plex. These are characteristically ®ne grained, strongly
foliated and homogeneous in composition. Locally
however, greenish epidote-rich layers alternate with
dark layers, imparting a banded appearance. At some
localities such rocks contain relict pillow structures
suggesting, in some cases at least, that the banded
amphibolites represent sheared pillows. Gabbroic
amphibolites, common in parts of the Kamila belt
exposed in the Indus and Swat valleys, are character-
istically absent from the Niat amphibolites. Khan et
al. (1993) identi®ed an ocean-¯oor anity for this unit
transitional between N-MORB and E-MORB and
Treloar et al. (1996) identi®ed chemical similarities
with ocean plateaux basaltic sequences. Samples from
this unit have high HFSE contents, including TiO2
and Y, relative to arc-related basalts, thus con®rming
a character transitional between E- and N-type MORB
(Fig. 4c).
The Sumal amphibolites are restricted to a narrow
belt ca. 500 m wide, that is tectonically sandwiched
within the Niat amphibolites. These amphibolites are
best exposed in Butu Gah (Fig. 3). They are typically
®ne-grained, and much lighter in colour than the Niat
amphibolites. A volcanogenic protolith is con®rmed by
the presence of stretched, but intact, pillow structures.
Petrographically, they are dominated by amphibole
and plagioclase with relict clinopyroxene, mantled by
amphibole, present in some samples. Their whole-rock
geochemistry (Fig. 4d) suggests a basaltic andesite
composition, with a distinct calc-alkaline nature. The
incompatible trace elements have ratios suggestive of a
subduction-related origin.
The Chilas complex
The Chilas Complex, in places up to 60 km wide, is
a 300 km long ma®c-ultrama®c intrusive body exposed
along the length of the central axis of the terrane.
Gabbronorites, locally di€erentiated into pyroxene
tonalites constitute about 85% of the complex. Several
isolated bodies of ultrama®c rock (the UMA suite,
Khan et al., 1989) are exposed near Chilas (Fig. 5).
These include dunites, peridotites and rare chromitites
and are intimately associated with troctolites, gabbro-
norites and anorthosites that commonly form layered
successions. Data for four samples from the Chilas
complex (two each from the ultrama®c rocks and the
main gabbronorites) show a homogeneous isotopic
composition, suggesting a common source for the two
rock associations (Khan et al., 1997).
The relationships between the main gabbronorites
and the ultrama®c rocks are as yet poorly understood.
Khan et al. (1985, 1989) interpreted the ultrama®c-
ma®c bodies as being derived from picritic melts
emplaced into a magma chamber in which the main
gabbronorites were in the process of crystallising. The
distinct mineralogical contrast between the two rock
associations was suggested as due to inherent di€er-
ences between their compositional and rheological
properties which hindered any mixing/hybridisation
even during simultaneous crystallisation (cf. Huppart
and Sparks, 1980). Niida et al. (1996) proposed a
broadly similar interpretation involving emplacement
of an ultrama®c crystal mush into crystallising gab-
broic magma, and stressed the magma±magma re-
lationship between the two rock associations, In
 Geology of the Chalt-Babusar Transect 259

Fig. 5. Geological map of a part of the Chilas complex exposed in east-central Kohistan. The southern contact with the
Kamila amphibolite belt is marked by the Jal shear zone. Note the presence of roof pendants belonging to the Gilgit
Formation (Jaglot Group) in the northern parts of the complex. UMA = Ultrama®c±ma®c±anortosite association
(Khan et al., 1989).

contrast, Kubo et al. (1996) argued that the magma
from which the ultrama®c and associated rocks crys-
tallised was emplaced prior to that of the main gab-
bronorites. Nevertheless, there is a general agreement
that the two associations crystallised simultaneously.
That the ultrama®c and associated gabbroic rocks are
more depleted in incompatible elements than the main
gabbronorites led Khan et al. (1989) to suggest that
they represent a greater degree of partial melting of a
sub-arc mantle source, than the main gabbronorites.
Alternatively, if the ultrama®c magmas were younger
than those of the main gabbronorites, their derivation
through melting of a more refractory source impover-
ished in trace elements as a result of previous melt
extraction (including those parental to the main gab-
bronorites) could account for the low abundance of
incompatible trace elements.
The Kohistan batholith
The Kohistan batholith has been studied in con-
siderable detail near Gilgit (Petterson and Windley,
1985; Kausar et al., 1996). Petterson and Windley
(1985) proposed a three-fold division of the batholith.
Stage 1 plutons are characterised by a penetrative duc-
tile deformation, probably related to suturing of
Kohistan to Asia. Stage 2 comprises undeformed plu-
tons that post-date the Late Cretaceous suturing of
Kohistan to Asia but pre-date the Eocene Kohistan±
India collision. Stage 3 comprises post-tectonic aplites,
granites and pegmatites of leucocratic composition.
Petterson and Windley (1985) obtained ages of
1022 12 Ma for the stage 1 Matum Das tonalite/
trondhjemite pluton, 54 24 and 40 2 6 Ma for the
Stage 2 Gilgit and Shirot plutons respectively and
342 14 and 29 28 Ma for the Stage 3 Indus Valley
con¯uence and Parri leucogranite sheets respectively,
with the latter age re®ned by George et al. (1993) to
26.2 2 1.2 Ma.
The Kohistan batholith is exposed in three segments
along the Chalt±Babusar transect. From south to
north these comprise the Babusar±Chilas, Chilas±
Gilgit and Gilgit±Chalt segments. That segment
between Gilgit and Chalt is well mapped and described
in considerable detail (Petterson and Windley, 1985;
Kousar et al., 1996). We restrict ourselves here to the
description of the other two, hitherto poorly documen-
ted, sections.
The Babusar±Chilas segment. The Kohistan batho-
lith is generally considered to be restricted to the north
of the Chilas complex. Our mapping, however, has
con®rmed the presence of a noticeable proportion of
granitoid rocks, ®rst noted by Ahmed and Chaudhry
(1976), in the SE part of the Kohistan terrane to the
south of the Chilas complex, and which we include in
the Kohistan batholith (Fig. 3). These granitoids,
termed the Thak granitoid complex are intrusive into
the Kamila amphibolite belt. They are typically com-
posite bodies, predominantly tonalitic in composition,
but also comprising gabbro, diorite, granodiorite and
trondhjemite, although deformation has obscured re-
lationships between separate phases. They occur either
as large sheet-like lenticular bodies or as minor intru-
sive bodies in the form of veins, sills or dykes. The
sheet-like bodies are up to 5 km thick, and, in the
mapped area alone, extend east-west for a distance of
over 40 km.
The largest of the granitoid sheets occurs near
Domain, 5 km to the south of the Jal con¯uence in the
Thak Valley (Fig. 3). Towards the east, in the Niat
Gah, it bifurcates into thinner sheets but continues
westward as a coherent mass across Buto and Thor
260 M. Asif Khan et al.
Gah. This sheet is about 5 km thick, and is pervasively
deformed in its marginal zones, but undeformed in the
centre. Diorites and tonalites dominate with minor
gabbros and granodiorites. Fine to medium grained
ma®c xenoliths are common, some with a geochemistry
identical to the host Niat amphibolites. The next body
to the south is exposed only in the Thor and Buto val-
leys. It is ca. 5 km thick in Buto Gah but pinches out
westward while extending across Thor Gah.
Compositionally, this body comprises multiple phases
ranging from gabbros, through diorites to granodior-
ites, all of which are variably deformed. The third
sheet, which bifurcates repeatedly, is predominantly
tonalitic in composition and occupies the middle to
upper reaches of the Thak, Buto and Thor valleys.
Ductile deformation, which is pervasive in the
southern parts, is common and causes local mylonitisa-
tion.
The minor dykes and veins are characterised by four
compositional types: tonalite, andesite (diorite), grano-
diorite and trondhjemite. Tonalites, which are interca-
lated with greenschist to amphibolite facies meta-
volcanics of the Niat amphibolites, are strongly
deformed suggesting a pre-tectonic origin. Andesites,
granodiorites and trondhjemites occur in thin veins (up
to 4 cm thick) and dykes (some as thick as 5 meters)
that cross-cut the fabrics in the Niat amphibolites, but
are themselves variably deformed suggesting a syntec-
tonic origin. Of these, the trondhjemites predominantly
crop out within the Niat amphibolites immediately to
the south of their contact with the Chilas complex.
Locally they are suciently abundant to give a banded
appearance to the amphibolites. Similar sill- and vein-
like granitoids, including tonalitic and trondhjemitic
varieties, crop out within the Kamila belt in the Indus
Valley near Kamila. Treloar et al. (1990) interpreted
these as having been emplaced synchronously with the
main phase deformation which they showed to have
been related to suturing of the arc to Asia. Thus they
post-date the Stage 1 plutons but are synchronous
with the early Stage 2 plutons. To the north of the
Chilas complex, later Stage 2 plutons are undeformed.
Mantle-normalised trace element patterns for the
tonalites and granodiorites from the Thak granitoid
complex (Fig. 6a, samples A-161 and A-166) have gen-
eral characteristics similar to the stage 1 Matum Das
pluton from the Gilgit±Hunza segment of the
Kohistan batholith (Fig. 6b, sample A-152, Petterson
and Windley, 1985, 1991), although with less HFSE
depletion. These are however, considerably di€erent
from the stage-1 gabbroic diorites (Fig. 6b, sample A-
58) and stage-2 diorites and granites (Fig. 6b, samples
A-208 and A-184), which are relatively enriched in all
the incompatible trace elements except for Y. There is
some similarity in the trace element patterns of the
minor trondhjemite intrusions from the Thak granitoid
complex (sample A-103, Fig. 6a) and the Stage 3 leu-
cogranites from the Indus con¯uence (sample A-158,
Fig. 6b), though the former have a more spiked pat-
tern on the multi-element spidergram, possibly a func-
tion of alteration.
The Chilas±Gilgit segment. Several granitoid bodies
occur within this segment (Figs 1 and 5). The principal
body in this area occurs along the drainage divide
between the Indus and Gilgit rivers and is termed the
Gor pluton after a local summer village. It is 25±30
km wide and, in the area mapped alone, stretches for
60±70 km on a WNW±ESE trend. As it probably
extends further west, this body represents a major
focus of magmatic activity. The Gor pluton is a coher-
ent body, mainly of quartz diorite composition,
although 15% of the body comprises granodiorite,
granite and adamellite. Both the northern and
southern contacts of the pluton are intrusive and sub-
vertical. In the south, the Gor pluton is intrusive into
the Chilas complex and in the north into folded rocks
of the Jaglot group. This contact is sub-parallel to the
axis of the regional Jaglot syncline. The Gor pluton is
locally deformed by ductile to brittle shear zones.
Predominantly, however, the pluton is undeformed,
suggesting it to be a Stage 2 pluton.
A large body (25  2 km) of predominantly basic to
intermediate composition, termed the Shinghai pluton
(T. Khan et al., 1994), occurs on the northern slopes
of the mapped ridge, extending NW±SE across Kar
Gah, Shingahi Gah and Sai Nala (Fig. 7). It comprises
gabbros and diorites, and is deformed by ductile shear-
ing, similar to that reported in the stage 1 plutons.
The Jaglot Group
The Thelichi±Gilgit sector of the transect is domi-
nated by a succession of meta-sedimentary and meta-
volcanic rocks, de®ned as the Jaglot Group (T. Khan
et al., 1996; Treloar et al., 1996). The group is exposed
in two NW±SE trending belts between the Gilgit river
and the Gor drainage divide, separated by the
Shinghai pluton (Fig. 7). To the ESE, the group is
truncated against faults associated with the Raikot
Fault and the MMT along the Indus river, while to
the NW, the Group is intruded by plutons of the
Kohistan batholith. The Jaglot Group is divisible into
three units. In stratigraphic order, these are the Gilgit
Formation, the Gashu Con¯uence Volcanic Formation
and the Thelichi Formation (T. Khan et al., 1996).
The Gilgit Formation is comprised mainly of para-
gneisses and schists. These include both pelites and
psammites, commonly inter-strati®ed but with, at sev-
eral localities, gradational relationships. Other litholo-
gies include amphibolites and calc±silicates. The
amphibolites are frequent and form laterally continu-
ous horizons. Although some of the amphibolites may
be transposed dykes and sills, others are clearly de-
rived from basic tu€s and volcanic ¯ows. One such
horizon, exposed in the Sai Nala, comprises a 4 metre
thick sequence of stretched pillows. The calc±silicate
horizons are most common in the upper part of the
formation, above the pillowed amphibolite horizon.
The Gilgit Formation shows evidence of regional
metamorphism up to sillimanite grade. The topmost
unit is a biotite schist that passes downward into gar-
netiferous schist, and kyanite and sillimanite gneisses.
Further downsection the paragneisses have undergone
anatexis, resulting in the development of migmatites.
The distribution of the Gilgit Formation, in the
mapped area, is structurally controlled (Fig. 7). Three
NW±SE trending belts are mapped. The principal belt
(15  40 km) is located between Jaglot in the SE and
Gilgit in the NW, within the core of a large antiform
(Coward et al., 1987). The other two belts are much
 Geology of the Chalt-Babusar Transect 261

Fig. 6. Trace element patterns (normalised to primordial mantle, McDonough et al., 1992) for rocks of the Thak grani-
toid complex, SE Kohistan (6a) compared to those of the Kohistan batholith (6b) exposed in the Gilgit±Hunza transect
(data from Khan, unpublished and Petterson and Windley, 1991).

narrower (<500 metres each) and occupy the two
limbs of the Jaglot syncline, enclosing the Gashu-
Con¯uence Volcanic and Thelichi Formations. The
lower contact of the Gilgit Formation is not exposed
although there are indications that the base of it is
intruded by the Chilas complex which contains xeno-
liths and screens of meta-sediments that closely re-
semble those of the Gilgit Formation (Treloar et al.,
1996). No way-up criteria have been identi®ed in the
Gilgit Formation.
The Gashu-Con¯uence Volcanic Formation is ca.
500 m thick and comprises metamorphosed tu€s, vol-
caniclastic sediments and ¯ows. The contact with the
underlying Gilgit Formation is de®ned, in the Sai
Nala, by a zone of intercalated biotite schists and
meta-basalts. The presence of amphibolites, on the
roadside between Thelichi and Jaglot, has been noted
previously by Tahirkheli and Jan (1979) and Bard et
al. (1980). We have mapped the extension of these
meta-volcanic amphibolites towards the NW, across
the Sai Nala, Shinghai Gah and Kar Gah, and have
named them after their occurrence at the Gashu con-
¯uence, in the upper reaches of the Sai Nala. A com-
plete section through the Formation along the KKH,
south of Jaglot, comprises pillowed basalts alternating
with massive basalts and volcaniclastic sediments. No
way-up criteria have yet been identi®ed in the
Formation. The sequence has been metamorphosed to
lower amphibolite facies. Its contact with the overlying
Thelichi Formation, which is of lower greenschist
facies or lower, is sheared suggesting the contact to be
a tectonic, post-metamorphic one.
The Thelichi Formation was previously described as
part of the Salkhala series (Wadia, 1932) and as the
Thelichi beds by Tahirkheli (1982). The Thelichi
Formation outcrops within the core of the Jaglot syn-
cline. It comprises a sequence of slates, marbles and
meta-volcanic rocks. No way-up criteria have yet been
identi®ed in the Formation. The structurally lowest
unit, which is found only in the upper reaches of Kar
262 M. Asif Khan et al.
Fig. 7. Geological map of the area between Indus and Gilgit rivers in east-central parts Kohistan displaying lithological
distribution and subdivision of the Jaglot group (after T. Khan et al., 1994).
Gah, comprises volcanic rocks which, in this study, are
termed the Majne volcanic rocks. These are ®ne
grained and schistose to massive and comprise volcani-
clastic sediments and ¯ows. The Majne volcanic rocks
do not have a great lateral extent. The rest of the for-
mation is predominantly comprised of interbedded
slates and sandstones, probably derived from an
assemblage of interbedded sand-, silt- and mudstone of
turbidite origin. The lower part of the formation con-
tains several intercalations of felsic volcanic rocks and
volcaniclastic rocks. A thick, laterally persistent, unit
comprising thickly-bedded marbles occurs in the
middle part of the formation and serves as a useful
marker horizon. The succession of slates above and
below the marble unit are lithologically identical.
The Chalt±Yasin Group
A thick succession of meta-sediments and meta-vol-
canic rocks which outcrops immediately to the south
of the Shyok suture (Fig. 1) is exposed along almost
the entire lateral extent of the northern margin of the
Kohistan terrane (Ivanac et al., 1956; Pudsey, 1986;
Petterson and Windley, 1991). Meta-sediments occupy
a 1 km wide section along the Karakoram Highway
immediately to the south of the Shyok suture. Termed
the Yasin Group, these meta-sediments comprise lime-
stones, quartzites and slates. On the basis of faunal
evidence the group has been assigned a Cretaceous age
(Pudsey, 1986). The Chalt Group is overlain by the
Yasin Group and comprises tholeiitic meta-basalts,
bonninites, basaltic andesites and rhyolites together
with a high proportion of volcaniclastic meta-sedi-
ments. The detailed geochemistry of these meta-volca-
nics is given in Petterson et al. (1990).
Constitution of the arc crust
Our new mapping along the Babusar±Chalt transect
across the Kohistan terrane provides new data regard-
ing the constitution of the arc crust. Identi®cation of
the Sapat ma®c±ultrama®c complex in the hangingwall
of the MMT highlights the importance of stratiform
complexes in the basal part of the arc. Similarities
between the silicate mineralogy of the Sapat complex
and the Jijal complex of the Indus valley (Jan et al.,
1993) suggest that they have a similar origin in the
basal part of the arc crust. Miller et al. (1991) and Jan
et al. (1997) have indicated that garnetiferous gabbroic
rocks in the Jijal complex have a primarily high-press-
ure origin, overprinted by granulite-facies metamorph-
ism probably soon after their crystallisation
(Anczkiewicz and Vance, 1997). Although compo-
sitional factors cannot be ignored, the absence of gar-
net in the Sapat complex probably precludes a high-
pressure emplacement. Hence, we consider the Sapat
complex to have had a shallower depth of emplace-
ment than the Jijal complex. Of the three gabbroic
plutons (Pattan, Kyal, Dassu) located upsection from
the Jijal complex in the Indus valley (Loucks et al.,
1992) either the Pattan or the Kyal body could be the
western continuation or equivalent of the Sapat
complex.
The part of the Kamila amphibolite belt exposed
between the Sapat and Chilas complexes in the trans-
ect studied here is signi®cant in several respects.
 Geology of the Chalt-Babusar Transect
Firstly, gabbroic plutons are rare and meta-basalts
constitute the principal component of the belt here.
The meta-volcanic component becomes subordinate
westward in the Indus and Swat valleys but remains
an essential constituent of the belt, ranging from
screens between gabbroic plutons in the Indus and
Swat valleys (Treloar et al., 1990) to thick successions
of banded, and frequently pillowed, amphibolites in
the Swat and Dir sections (Jan, 1979). Secondly, trace-
element geochemistry suggests a composite nature for
the belt. High-Ti meta-basalts are intercalated with a
belt of calc-alkaline meta-andesite and a belt of island-
arc tholeiites suggesting the Kamila amphibolite belt
to have a complex origin. Khan et al. (1993), identify-
ing a MORB-like geochemistry for the high-Ti meta-
basalts, suggested that the Kamila belt represents, at
least partially, remnant oceanic basement which was
subsequently intruded by subduction-related magmas
of the Kohistan island arc. In contrast, on the basis of
trace element data, Treloar et al. (1996) suggested an
oceanic-plateau origin for the high-Ti meta-basalts of
the Kamila amphibolite belt, while Khan et al. (1997),
on the basis of the existence of subduction-related tho-
leiitic and calc-alkaline meta-volcanics in close associ-
ation with MORB-type meta-basalts, argued for a
back-arc origin. Nevertheless, the existence of pillow
structures in both the high-Ti meta-basalts and the
calc-alkaline meta-andesites indicate initial formation
in a basin of either oceanic or island-arc origin. This
raises a question relating to the mechanisms respon-
sible for transporting the Kamila belt from its initial
position at shallow crustal levels to the middle crust
which will be addressed later.
The position of the Chilas complex in the magmatic
stratigraphy of the Kohistan crust has been widely
debated. Coward et al. (1982, 1986) raised the possi-
bility that the Chilas complex is a folded limb of the
Jijal complex, emplaced at the very base of the arc
crust. Jan et al. (1992) demonstrated that, beside other
di€erences, the chromite in the Chilas complex is
characterised by a lower Cr No. than that of the Jijal
complex at equivalent mg no. (100 Mg/(Mg + Fe2+)).
Our mapping in the Indus Valley along both margins
of the Chilas complex provides unequivocal evidence
that places the Chilas complex at the stratigraphic
interface between the Kamila amphibolite and the
overlying Jaglot group. The southern contact of the
Chilas complex against the Kamila amphibolite is
sheared in the Babusar±Chilas transect. However,
xenoliths close to the contact resemble lithologies from
the Kamila amphibolite belt and suggest an intrusive
nature for the Chilas complex.
In the Indus valley section, a few km north of
Kamila, hydrated gabbronorites of the Chilas complex
are clearly intrusive into a meta-volcanic succession,
containing calc-silicate horizons, that belong to the
Kamila amphibolite belt (Treloar et al., 1990). In the
northern part of the Chilas complex, abundant xeno-
liths and blocks of schists and paragneisses similar to
those of the Gilgit Formation suggest intrusion into a
middle to upper crustal meta-sedimentary cum meta-
volcanic succession. First noted by Khan (1988), these
xenoliths have been reported in several recent publi-
cations including Khan T. and Shirahase (1996),
Takahashi et al. (1996) and Treloar et al. (1996).
263
Treloar et al. (1996) additionally suggested that the
fabric in the xenoliths, which dates from the time of
suturing of Kohistan to Asia, predated the intrusion of
the Chilas complex, which they consider to have
occurred contemporaneously with, or closely following,
closure of the northern suture. A U±Pb zircon age of
84 20.5 Ma (Zeitler et al., 1980), a Rb±Sr whole-rock
isochron of 892 14 Ma (Mikoshiba et al., 1996), and
40
Ar-39Ar hornblende cooling ages of ca. 80 Ma
(Treloar et al., 1989) record an emplacement age for
the complex of about 85 Ma (Treloar et al., 1989;
Zeitler et al., 1980), which is distinctly younger than
that of the ca. 100 Ma Jijal complex and probably
post-dates the age of suturing of Kohistan to Asia.
The meta-sediments and meta-volcanic rocks that
crop out to the south of Gilgit and comprise the
Jaglot Group, are signi®cant in bridging the gap
between the middle (i.e. the Kamila±Chilas segment)
and upper (i.e. the Gilgit±Chalt segment) parts of the
arc crust. In the transect studied here, the contact
between the Chilas complex and the Jaglot Group is
obscured by the intrusion of the axial part of the
Kohistan batholith, although the presence of xenoliths
and screens of paragneisses and schists belonging to
the Gilgit Formation in the Chilas complex determine
the emplacement position of the complex as intrusive
into the base of the Gilgit Formation. The strati-
graphic relationship between the Jaglot Group and the
Kamila amphibolite belt is not directly evident in the
transect studied here due to intrusion by both the
Chilas complex and the Kohistan batholith. This re-
lationship is, however, clear in the Dir Valley, where
the Peshmal schists (the westward equivalent of the
Gilgit Formation; see T. Khan et al., 1994; Treloar et
al., 1996; Searle and Khan, 1996) clearly overlie the
Kamila amphibolite belt. Thus, ®eld data show that
the Jaglot Group stratigraphically overlies the Kamila
amphibolites.
The stratigraphic relationship between the Jaglot
and the Yasin±Chalt Groups is more problematic. The
sedimentary succession of the Yasin Group that over-
lies the meta-volcanic and meta-volcaniclastic rocks of
the Chalt Group immediately to the south of the
Shyok suture has traditionally been considered as
forming the uppermost part of the arc crust. T. Khan
et al. (1994) noted, however, that, the Gashu
Con¯uence Volcanic Formation and the overlying
Thelichi Formation, which crop out in the core of the
Jaglot syncline, structurally overlie the Gilgit
Formation. Metamorphic breaks between the
formations suggest the contacts to be either tectonised
unconformities, or post-metamorphic breaks of su-
cient magnitude to render any stratigraphic relation-
ships meaningless. Further north, a large area around
Gilgit is underlain by rocks of the Gilgit Formation
that either occupy the core of the Gilgit anticline
(Coward et al., 1986) or form part of a divergent
thrust sheet (Abdelsalam and Khan, unpublished
data). On the basis of limited geochemical data, T.
Khan et al. (1994) suggested that the Gilgit Formation
forms the basal part of a sequence in which the Gashu
Con¯uence Volcanic and Thelichi Formations of the
Jaglot Group correlate with parts of the Chalt and
Yasin Groups respectively. Treloar et al. (1996), on
the other hand, consider the two groups to have been
264 M. Asif Khan et al.

deposited in two separate basins subsequently tele- complex, these authors considered that the arc crust in
scoped by thrusting and folding associated with sutur- Kohistan was thickened by the magmatic accretion of
ing of Kohistan to Asia. Further work is needed to ultrama®c±ma®c plutons one below the other, with the
resolve the complexities of the upper arc stratigraphy. Jijal complex being the youngest and the most basal in
Data from the transect studied here constrain the terms of its magmatic emplacement. This model is
emplacement position of the Kohistan batholith at probably invalid, partly because the crystallisation of
more than one crustal levels. As shown in Fig. 2, the garnet±clinopyroxene assemblages in Jijal complex is
Kohistan batholith occurs in three segments more or likely to be metamorphic rather than magmatic (Jan
less isolated from one another. In the most northerly and Howie, 1981), partly because of the widespread
of the segments, along and to the north of the Gilgit outcrop of garnet±bearing meta-volcanic rocks within
river, most of the plutons occur along the stratigraphic the Kyal and Dassu complexes and partly because of
interface between the Gilgit Formation and the volca- the lack of plutonic material within the Dir (Treloar et
nic rocks of the Chalt Group, although some are solely al., 1996) and Chalt±Babusar transects (this study).
intrusive into the latter (e.g., the Matum Das pluton) Figure 8 summarises existing radiometric age data
and some solely intrusive into the former. The second from southern Kohistan. Despite being limited in num-
segment of the Kohistan batholith forms part of the ber, both mineral and whole-rock data indicate ages
Chilas-Gilgit transect and is termed the Gor pluton in for the Jijal complex distinctly older than those for the
this study. As this pluton occurs to the north of the Kamila amphibolite belt and for the Chilas complex.
Chilas complex and separates it from the Jaglot Group These results are contrary to those predicted by the
it appears to have been emplaced along the interface
between the Chilas complex and the Gilgit Formation.
The part of the Kohistan batholith exposed to the
south of Chilas, the Thak granitoid complex, is the
least known of the three segments. It is located entirely
within the Kamila amphibolite belt, although the
trondhjemitic dykes and veins associated with this part
of the batholith are more numerous near the upper
contact with the Chilas complex. In that they were
emplaced synchronously with to post the main phase
deformation related to the suturing of Kohistan to
Asia, the sheets in the Kamila belt to the south of
Chilas (this study) and in the Indus Valley (Treloar et
al., 1990) were emplaced during the transition from
the intra-oceanic stage of island-arc evolution to the
continental margin stage. In terms of the temporal
subdivision of the batholith (Petterson and Windley,
1995), they may represent early Stage 2 plutons. The
other sheets and plutons described here are predomi-
nantly stage 1 formed in the intra-oceanic stage of arc
formation prior to Kohistan±Karakoram collision.

Discussion
That the Kamila amphibolite belt is essentially com-
prised of meta-basalts with common relict pillow struc-
tures, intruded by gabbros, leads us to infer that the
Kamila amphibolite belt represents a marine volcanic
sequence intruded by gabbroic plutons and which may
have been underplated by the Sapat, Jijal and Tora-
Tigga complexes. This raises two important questions.
Was this crust thick enough to have crystallised garnet
gabbros, such as those of the Jijal complex, at its base? Fig. 8. A summary of radiometric age data from southern part of
How was the Kamila belt subsequently transported the Kohistan terrane. The subdivison into ``magmatic emplacement''
and buried to its position at lower to middle levels in and ``cooling/metamorphic'' ages is interpretative. 1, Sm±Nd whole-
the arc crust? rock isochronÐ114 Ma2 39 Ma: Sano et al. (1996); 2, Sm±Nd on
Based on studies in the Indus valley section, Loucks garnetÐ104 Ma: Coward et al. (1986); 3, Rb±Sr mineral isochronÐ
et al. (1992) discussed mechanisms for thickening of 101.32 5.7 Ma: Anczkiewicz and Vance (1997); 4, Sm±Nd mineral
isochronÐ95.72 2.7 Ma: Anczkiewicz and Vance (1997); 5, Sm±Nd
the arc. They considered the Kamila belt to comprise a
mineral isochronÐ9126.3 Ma: Yamamoto and Nakamura (1996);
stack of ultrama®c±gabbroic plutons, which included 6, Ar±Ar spectrumÐ8321 Ma: Treloar et al. (1989); 7, Ar±Ar spec-
from south to north (i.e., from base, upwards) the trumÐ86 Ma: Zeitler (1985); 8, Rb±Sr whole-rock isochronÐ87
Jijal, Pattan, Kyal, Dassu and Chilas complexes (also Ma: Mikoshiba et al. (1996); 9, U±Pb on zirconÐ84 Ma: Zeitler et
see Miller et al., 1991; Miller and Christensen, 1994). al. (1980); 10, Ar±Ar base of a U-shaped spectrumÐ80 Ma: Treloar
In order to explain the primary crystallisation of gar- et al. (1989); 11, Sm±Nd mineral isochronÐ69.529.3 Ma:
net±clinopyroxene assemblages in gabbros of the Jijal Yamamoto and Nakamura (1996).
 Geology of the Chalt-Babusar Transect 265

model of Loucks et al. (1992) and suggest that the
lower to middle arc crust in Kohistan experienced a
more complex history of crustal growth, thickening
and metamorphism than that envisaged by Loucks et
al. (1992). Although the Jijal and Sapat Complexes
may have been accreted to the base of the arc, it is
likely that the Kyal and Dassu gabbroic bodies were
emplaced into older marine volcanic sequences forming
part of the Kamila amphibolite belt.
On the basis of the existing age data (Fig. 8), com-
bined with reasoning based on ®eld relationships, we
envisage a three-stage evolution of the arc crust in
Kohistan in terms of magmatic and tectonic thickening
and associated metamorphism (Fig. 9). As indicated
earlier, the Chilas complex cannot be considered
together with the Jijal and Sapat complexes as they are
fundamentally di€erent as illustrated by their petrol-
ogy and silicate mineralogy (Jan and Windley, 1990,
Jan et al., 1992; Khan et al., 1989 ), age of emplace-
ment and their position of magmatic emplacement
with one at the base and the other at the top of the
Kamila amphibolite belt. Together with this fact and
the data outlined above, we consider that the mechan-
ism for crustal thickening proposed by Loucks et al.
(1992) involving thickening of the arc through sequen-
tial underplating and accretion is unproven. Instead,
early arc growth dominantly involved the emplacement
of gabbroic plutons into pre-existing volcanic crust,
combined with limited accretion (Jijal, Sapat) to the
base of that crust (Fig. 9, Stage I). This phase of mag-
matic crustal thickening, and associated metamorphism
of the deep crust, occurred prior to 90 Ma and was re-
sponsible for the base of the arc attaining pressures in
excess of the 10 kbar needed to crystallise garnet-clino-
pyroxene assemblages in the Jijal complex. Stage 1
trondhjemitic plutons in the Chalt area and tonalitic
sheets in the Thak±Babusar section may be related
with partial melting at the base of the arc crust during
the course of this phase of metamorphism. Although
volcanic rocks of the Kamila amphibolite belt may
have experienced low temperature metamorphism at
this stage, the peak metamorphism within the belt is
de®ned on microtextural criteria (Treloar et al., 1990)
as occurring synchronously with, or shortly after, de-
formation associated with crustal thickening linked to
Kohistan±Asia suturing and can be linked to emplace-
ment of trondhjemitic sills and veins south of Chilas
complex in Thak valley and in the Kamila region of
the Indus Valley. Hornblende 40Ar±39Ar data (Treloar
et al., 1989) date cooling after this event at ca. 83 Ma.
The second stage of crustal growth is related to the
transportation and burial of the Kamila amphibolite
belt to mid-crustal levels. Two mechanisms are poss-
ible: (1) south-vergent thrusting of the northern parts

Fig. 9. A schematic representation of the three-stage crustal thickening model for the terrane. (1) Stage I: 120±90 Ma.
Crustal thickening by the intrusive emplacement of ultrama®c-ma®c plutonic complexes into and at the base of the
Kamila amphibolite belt. (2) Stage II, 90±80 Ma. ``Out of sequence'' emplacement of the Chilas complex on top of the
Kamila amphibolite belt, accompanied by a phase of north-south crustal shortening induced by the Kamila shear zone
(KS) (3) Stage III, 80±45 Ma. Emplacement of the Kohistan batholith in deformed upper arc crust.
266 M. Asif Khan et al.
of the arc terrane (including the overlying meta-sedi-
ments/meta-volcanics of the Jaglot±Chalt groups and
maybe, depending on the relative timings of emplace-
ment and thrusting, the Chilas Complex) onto the
Kamila amphibolite belt causing its burial and internal
thickening, and (2) magmatic emplacement of the
Chilas Complex into the top of the meta-volcanic pile
that forms the Kamila amphibolite belt, at its strati-
graphic interface with the overlying meta-sedimentary/
meta-volcanic succession of the Jaglot Group. Field
evidence suggests a role for both of these processes
(Fig. 9, Stage II).
Treloar et al. (1990) described the presence of a 28
km wide shear zone, the Kamila shear zone, within the
Kamila belt in the Indus valley section. This is an ana-
stamosing continuation of the shear zone at the
southern contact of the Chilas complex exposed in the
Thak valley (Khan and Coward, 1990). The Kamila
shear zone is a crustal scale shear zone that accommo-
dated south-vergent crustal shortening and was respon-
sible for internal imbrication and stacking of the arc
crust. Internal deformation and associated amphibo-
lite-facies metamorphism is of Cretaceous age (80 Ma
and older; Treloar et al., 1989). In the upper arc crust,
structures of a similar age are recorded in the Jaglot
syncline and thrusts to north and south of Gilgit and
in the ¯attening of pillows in the volcanic sequences.
All of these structures relate to whole arc thickening
associated with suturing to Asia. Field evidence,
including the occurrence of xenoliths of deformed
Kamila meta-volcanic rocks in the lower or southern
margins of the Chilas complex, and of deformed meta-
sediments (pelitic schists, paragneisses and migmatites)
of the Gilgit Formation in the uppermost or northern
parts of the complex, suggest post-deformational mag-
matic emplacement of the complex on top of the
Kamila amphibolite belt and below the Gilgit
Formation, probably at the stratigraphic interface
between the two.
Thus the burial of the Kamila amphibolite belt from
an initially shallow crustal position in a basin of ocea-
nic or island-arc origin to middle or lower crustal
levels in the arc crust occurred both by crustal shorten-
ing accompanying suturing, including stacking along
the Kamila shear zone, and by burial beneath the
Chilas complex by magmatic emplacement of gabbro-
noritic magmas. On the basis of data presented in
Treloar et al. (1989), we envisage that this stage of
crustal thickening took place between 90 and 80 Ma.
Treloar et al. (1996) suggested that peak metamorph-
ism within the volcano-sedimentary units of the
Kamila amphibolite belt, Jaglot and Chalt Groups
could be related to a combination of heat generation
through radioactive decay within the thickened arc
complex and heat advection into the upper arc crust
by emplacement of the Chilas gabbronorite complex.
Hornblende 40Ar±39Ar ages date cooling back through
5008C after this metamorphism at ca. 80±85 Ma
(Fig. 8; Treloar et al., 1989).
Finally, during the continental margin stage of crus-
tal growth much of the Kohistan batholith was
emplaced into the deformed volcano-sedimentary cover
units of the upper part of the arc crust (Fig. 9, Stage
III). Batholith emplacement, accompanied by the con-
struction of volcanic edi®ces during the sub-aerial fel-
sic volcanism recorded within the Dir Group (Sullivan
et al., 1993) represents a third stage of crustal thicken-
ing. This ®nal stage of, Andean type, dominantly mag-
matic, crustal thickening probably involving erection
of stratovolcanic edi®ces, followed collision along the
Shyok suture between Kohistan and Asia and lasted
until the closure of the Indus suture between the
Kohistan and the Indian plates. It was, in part, syn-
chronous with thickening of the northern part of the
arc de®ned by post-metamorphic shears that tele-
scoped the metamorphic sequence within the Jaglot
Group and which was likely related to India±Kohistan
collision.
Acknowledgements ÐWe acknowledge support of NSRDB
Project ESC. 24 for ®eld work in Kohistan. MAK and MQJ
are thankful to Professor M. Gaetani to arrange travel sup-
port from the Accademia Nazionale die Lincei for partici-
pation in the 12th HKTIW at Rome. M.G. Petterson, M.
Sullivan and R.J. Stern are thanked for useful reviews, and
S.M. Bignold for assistance with drafting.
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