Mopule-» Drocttal. VOLTMETERS Drortar. VOLTMETER eat nly oe tt cle > i y, numoie * readocd on te Be Uj dont on ty ill 9 alle used ak an fet lf le, digital (Bo digital volbneta bi Jiflays $5 § ai h | | A hone vical seodout ws unditarda geocs becouye Tt reducos hwmar eso, elim’ a OrO05r, ihescage nant peed ¢ on ai Mell fom sv! fable fe fue sees Ag § second ing: versatile § nccwra tt ansewnont ae Oe owed. yy mabe daboratory wt : re omaclales, he S22, sae boos hh & cost of DVM s fue than soduced, W]e ak DUM compebe with alors voltmeter in pos babilety § podcerao Sigil qpolhonotore can ho chaszifitcal gece ye .t he te the following be.od cateag ates. 4 @ - type Dvm . Gnp type Dim Cioltage fo Hime Conv @ Dual lope integrating tn © Intepating dye DV! Cit liege fo frespaney QD Stat cose — Kamp DVM Grversion) @ success NC~ Appowxairmadion DIA + Rone ~ Tyee DVM fe DVM ut hosed ete atin inciple in the a oe od of. the ot eG hes [era bina amp / dp , Arise from OV te te level af the Up voltage , C7 fo decease prev the level) of tho Vp voltage te. 2e%0- 6 tts dime vilorwal dmeasurcel asith on eleckone Hand raterwel counter & de court t's displayed af. ge, “on electron jrdicctr. ay & pur Dr + Jlescnip tion + by The sroump type DVo convict af a nang 6 otlenuator | uenonk bo select the sequuls solge d 1 fou ie measeoymnoke » A samp gonvulor Us used to genorake he som | 2 Ae | at Com continu co da de inpat vo Hage asith dhe 4 % The pound comparato conus ce ate oman 2 0 dhe Seamp vo [age DF Gente dbo i.e, OUR | 2 Js wate to count dhe purnben of Be be bres _ aon ont carer dhe ldo tell display. i| = ae te send of Be Porriment HE TT vo Hage he initiqhtdd; ts vo ltage an going & hegabive gore: . ; : ° a continu wale Com, iu. o> ths mega yes vem t ve lee, : f with , ths vn known inp ei lib Noo A dhe i stant thot the samp vo Hage eye aeekicon voltage jo comparator greats the pale ehéh opens dhe foe * > he aw ise (lage Grtinucs te decease wiftr lima ~ { awenp p ba Second comfale ond! it finally weaches a ga Seco pipet | G enerates an op potse ash; ch obese the gate - > dn oscillates gqenesales chock puedes hich anh alleccd to fess dhsough dhe gale ba number d decade Gounttng ants ahich tclalize Yc ro. ¢Pi. pose dhe ugh tho gts. - deciwall number , Ueplayed hy tho indurtes, rie ee MEAL of dhe mag nitude of dhe led rate rule ycbra fe deberm)nss de b ob sohick dhe omeasromont Cpe bos ane ated rye fe ae orate ciscuit proviole on inibiekoig ats the sorp gb rerador fo Sfast its lect romp voltage Biro, & cose a at ity som the Counter vt van techhique chaeut fs cary 40 desige, g its cost ih [008 » Yo op pulse con be fransmJbed over long “doy. Yrnas « > Hogseve 1 theo Sh gl samp chayactertshres pegerding leneore by of- ths sain ff tims omeaswcomant. sfergo vb are pessible wher verse is spiced yn ho input Sighed. | Tapa filters ang usury ooquised woke 1 this Hype of conventer- Uy pulse wb generated do the 2er0 Stale. sequsiers excellodS4gout | ee ASE inod _Cointid ence ov — ee J is Kemp lav a | ' bing ep ———— — we Lt dats mT to Gouin ' | # Dual core INTEGRATION Te DVM + edn the Samp Jichnigques j Superimposed mois Co COLES do CLONE + h the duotl oom Fechi nique hoise cs averaged out by qe Gxve vamp useny the process of in begsection “ ‘He inp voltage ‘e;) as inkegrated with be Slope of the In tegrotor fp Prgpe crtional e po He fest i/p . a fixed time equal to 4 dhe ip vo ltegn fs dicconnected G the i/p voltage Me converte l ge -Cx to Inte rater op 40 megatiyé vo lla wi ll howe & ~ve lope cohich és constant § | propoorttonal fo fy onaguttalle ol dhe jh a + \o U age « . ’qf dhe slant a pulee iorxch dho connte, te the y/F cub pel to (oq'e Q. 5 uh clowd & Sn he of yn DC Hange A Soon os, Sf tho caprertor begin, d jhe jntayeertor e exceds 2en0 the compactor ep VO Hage Aangor Stale, which apens tho gab SO tut dhe asc’ lla fe, clock polbes as 4d to tho Coulton . , chs dro samp vo Haug 0 starts, Peo Composales ofors § clock pale goes Lo stab I the gab dnives counte . fphon dhe counter neaches the WOxr count, re tha co tOor pe omacle urn bm 2 * case 2417, On Bre nex digits qe fo C000 & E/E te logic level i? (DS J ey Waa Principle d Gal ¢ bh the DVMC, Gk ap of » Dad fe HD + Bis activela Be swileh dive 107 ts Adconmected § ~Grls connecked go dhe nh m the dnbgalin Hp oll ios 6 alive slope wich @ — ws consteut vee irakegaictton Ue "show decsean, e a _ ting, Hine to zew Vo Hs. | Co ~— &o + Compvntor ofp steto CSongos Agoun G locks ; the gore . t 0 |" the discharge fone. ty hs HOU pre 10 Honall | dhe Input ve Hage « & po Phe coutter Indicates the Coun dusing | ashen the glope of tho Inbegraton reach e °4, hat te ewitcles te sot bo! € de | €8 eer ay a ark set cr IS Row discharge rkaee| Integratorac dhe @ * gern tho, Counter bh, shopped. pie dhe ip ve lage , a Yjeviny chanae ” > -L erdt RC QO eit, —O RC +) oo ‘Loring discharging : = tl ~€xdt RC = ~€n by Lae DB RC 0-9 _ eg tats = (tis) Co ° G UG & = Cats + orth RC RC Cate = Srl “pe TRC ppt | $1 | “This shows, thal tho aeconacyy de centaryyr.od) yo Hage Ds Aydeper intel to Inlegoton {bane constat . j oes 7.a: ° 4) dha Oxcillabos period eqruaks Te the. cugivel) nr router ndleadbs ry mg court nespeckel,, | Cp = 2al en é ne Ty 2 Gj = Ma Ca 7 m, Now hn, & Cn ve consteuds Lt Ki=La Dor er= king. . n, » Ps fimes ki §& 9 ane orn castro by the Court” ef he clock given by the hurkors oy § respec - e the clock escilli ad capalls 7 § if Ay en aw Cons 1 see the above @yvehion 2 reates dat dhe agcurary of omethaed ig — nv ae independ ub af oscillator frequency. I: i Advantages g disadontage of Dal slope Tents 5 ok dunt fond Joes excceblud noise xgedto as the abe Me queued oven 7n the Bowes of- integration . Aperdael D the speed § . aceon ing to demapds of tha measeroment B® The onlly Source 4 error Is ty nepronee voltage “Here Ho ¢ is Sor QAOCURL - meas oS» dry aocusaey f Rees in [Ons *s available - Accuracy is kdeberdordt a osc'laher feyPee) 6 eee. ee g files we pot neeyutard Hla stelrby ejenion temp he vlc th ali — Ram? 4 d Duag Gor Chpnge Cre ane fessible do|+ Hos excelled poise agen prs re superimpose on do | b&2 Relse § sy ni mpated Ac hor ; arc aveagel ouktn the t]p signa pores! zl inbequadon -Cincvit Complexity is low [Goce complex ty x Typ Jilkers ae sayin + Filters hot sequlaed pow accuracy § accuracy |’ Accuzacy of this DVM & ends on tho stabil'ly of high rAccusocy 1S dhe oscillate § do Vvasty iideperclent of occt lates ef He oudimp Shope freer) © Roose stabil Ss "Hiab Stake ' Operating Spe seis, Epered ing Sheed igh 4 Most Commonzy USED Pernetes OF AVC (Analg a Digital Conversion.) . “Ip signal ts Gm af with an devel cd voltage hich ts} naread =~ ches ft fom Ze, >The 16. q steps yreded to seaolh He fil Compensallor #5 coud, >h ciple compensa ion type ts the 9 Staircase Seadfy Tue STAIRCASE Ramp : - +The host: prircihle vs thet tho Input signal Vi 8 cen, pith an intevral Staincase voltage, Ve gereral ed i a Serfes Chacutk consisting of a ple g 2h eab Clock , A Coulter councing dhe pulses | a dfotte! to anal °lp Indoa de Con verter, Conver tg 2 Count en sighal. ~ As scon a Vo as eqpal fo Vy, the Ip Comparatlen cinges a gett between the chek § de counter t Yp jc Shown On the \ pourten stops G its disp ley | + opowstien > the clock gorercites pulses conHnvovsby ARH Fhe counter & Stef ol a qreaywonmt , nett to Oab tore ty co thot dhs %p + : the digital le ova leg Gpverte (DAC| hs abo, ‘sd Ve as vot eqpol te 2ex0, the Vp confealo : feos an op vol tot 6 ate “t ce psu Sk Hee flab dlck putter ano : tough te aeFP ts tects counking G the Dac ate tho coun gtascks csuntt § he DAC shod ” oduct an Lp vellogs incrcagm b « wrt sep of each cnbef Be cower weudt B a ctaligcase vollge applied tot ms ip 4 the cemparaton l bso tg Slop “bye obo V Gok Close | if ' ' ' I U DAC alp ! < alocade LIQVEZOPOM o - continues unit! He dro Stalocase veolege fied fo or cli tly palo Han the i/p | - wolage grstord tg, Hs ofp voltage ob lp | i tO clays elects on polity co thet ae closes & Fe counter % s topped. | 3 ph, und choos the nest of the Count. sasxeorada . cd ° | dre nO cow oe ae oe ‘1 § hence fo Vr 's dl fonal i pat ef exence VO eg Hal pep tals height of ths gfahocase Volloge far be meictouind FT\ Advantages ' TP Ye Mnped ence of tho DAC Ds A ahina d, ‘ ” ompensabion 1s exch @ The accuracy deperds only one the tobi, é accura of ths vo Hage § DAC, dhe clock hes “re affect on the acenacyy, “Gisadvantegss : © the Stem qmenstves ha Matentoreoue rely of the Mp signal] @ te oneness ud JU } 5 this, MCONS tho ! is | oho unsteble, ye th Up clgral & robe put de vo bha.ge ic O@ Until the [ull compensator &s reached A’ ip fmpedence ds ih Which. can pnflusriee dha accusacy, ASUCESSINE AppROXIMATIONS 6 The curcossine sonclmations Drable Con de casi un ; stood using & ets pt eh . a oh deb eht of the object, by using a ballare i G placing the object on one Stele GOH | approscirnee weight on dhe oto. Stele, peight of the object is debermna, |— fhe sucess) re apprcrtmation DVM works on the \ _ se » Go % the » Now, » Pusbng the vob ths Dot ! & Vou J emps te 9 pol! sdferoue yo lags. «Hs SAR Hp is ],06,60,600 | IL Vout > Vin hs Comparator Op & | negodive- , [oe nreroty Dz » Howevery lt «The cone) 5 Shect Vo ud tes com prude ‘Vins re control cKEset Do. “At the beging fel Fo the lak sop mall | le tan tho Stert palbe sien) attivales contre! ahs Salle a prcocions ion aaisten AR) *s cleaned , 1 of. Ho SAR ts QOOQDCOOS. Voutof | p/A Converter is 0. r] Wy S Vout te Comparator ofp 1S. pesiHve. Seme perinclp kt clock pole , the corbswol ckt ee Og - (ey S a hen © ab is. Comp the om CaktU.rno lees, of the gneasurenunt- cyels a shod pulse Fs vibnater.his sab a Fn dhe HSB of He conbolagit, © & a Ot all bits Gssumntng an & bi Gad, 5 | woubl do 1,00,0G 000 » f° the inttal cetting of de aeg ister Causes, he of ol the pm converter ve bs toll the | nafererce voltag® ie Vav- - ib convert 4 fs compared Yo the vn Ken, */p by tha comparator for Hath the S IL dhe "lp voltage 1g goer ' Gepverter aafrcnce vo lhage, tHe compe craler trol Gouna the Gabel Op Ww an o/ | 6/p poroud cos O11 haan Loethng In tts Msg | &@ He converter conkinus to S i hols | sefwrce lp vo llage of Va Vo - |p Tha sung country Hon advanss, Ore court ~ ghifHyg at in Tho nd MSB of the awh neqiston g PIS ending, becomes Ihoope,oee, ; otha causes the D/A converter fo Mnorease Is | arefpones lp by | jncrenunt to Yoyrre | Yav rlay | , And again Mok compared cord tho | pnkroton Up - | Th thin Hee case Ho total seefpsene vo [tage exceeds dhe unknown voltage, tx tor oducos on °/p frat carzes te Gordo | secpidis do react PHS andl MEE do 0. tk sealingI the converter %p than vchur " Mae of VaVv § aoa fons to ‘je ee \ qe SAR. pom spoken dhe sdb Counter Elen hy L, dhe al $B Is cet fo | § converter %p disex by Ho next Incrcnend of Ie Vile V, de easosroreid ou Hula proceeds He.cugh a sents a sececoss} VE a pprrecctamad ions Gopal ehon He hh Counter reaches tts Mol found , the aneajuromont ye le stops ¢ digital op of the cordoo! n@yistor sre reser te the [ira opfroccineHen of Hyg ynkioton Up rola“hin Cb Y decal O]O|O}°] Wr< & a | IdeDzorik Nvewzmere | . prbrtae Frequency Meter nciple Oy O erakion 5 oe 9 oe wb Zonve.ted 10 talages pulser § > i condinvmoely fo an AND guts, se ad sped 1 tha othr temminal) § ty wb % pre -counbed dustry mies pertod Fodkes the preponery (1! IJIN Jit —p- ft yet = (7 Penahle 4 dll foyer Mecseormnint a sttevinald shee peyoee] de dor he m is | tains nie ahead publses, one pute fo Si ' - “ ve In oe definate Infouwed | he ro» Gh pulses occ using ris of Hows TS thon counted by or el c cowrdDs + ‘Sco each M tie eyole f. the unbrsen . , the He qe | cag indicator, a the frequeney ¢ tha synod linkirwon)+ "Since eleckronic counters howe o. heh s peed. of. ofewtion, high requeney siqhals Gap hid nemmanalCe Baste Cecurt OF A Diertac Frequency Meteg “oan Scho oe] Saab] | ad " | tbe ape Step | J alt . | ppewster iggen Babe sen >We sigvall may be amplfied before being ofp lied do Ho Schonilt balggen « “> Tho Schonstt tani gg converts the tp alpnallinte a Syparg woe with fast Ise 4 fall times, chili ts tha, > ‘h A [lowabla bed & clipped : > fg a nesult, the ofp prom the Sehoms'tt terdygen | ? . « thrale of fubses, ere pube for eae, : of. Hae seqaal > Pho op podlsee pom the Gchon't Trigger BZ fed a start /StoP gots. probe He gob cnablel he Tp poles poss rough dhardah § one fed dred fo He ; cbechnomic ajeb § om oe Hy Ww. ¢ puke 7 the Hus gate is dicabbd | He counter steps counting tho tncom! pehses. + the counter A isplass the no. of pulses dod | howe posed dhsough, it in dy +tfong tndewel | pefesenee stant stop. Ls aL ah dosed tg Jon fhe lau arg | aur ho qnesyered - | Am pos cred fpr frequency meamowmonS o> te cloecste errenih f° freqpusnery meesicrmoand ts gs Shouse ‘ b of 7 as apo Ho caloouem popaney afb es a Schmitt tonigger i prodvetng positive pulls at tho eutpet - colldl the counter Stonale as present at point A of the moln ge, 4 Bettive pulses Grom Re frre base checkss ane premnt at point B of. fhe START ga g ot folnt B of dhe STOP gabe. pt unknown [VW Choi [fbr Matnboch Frequency Toulgger D To courten f Display unt | ! : p baie . __ FFs | + Tritiably the Fle-! bb at its loge stat ' >We jute Ping VO lhage fom ofp Y us applied fo point A of He STOPath enables dksp hs dole 0 shign at the Op Vol the Fie HES ap lied a Vp 4 EI er ener ed § dicaples the gake - > dg the stoP gal 's cralilrd , the +ve pub, from Hs tiomo base dase the STOP gah He ie cot CO Tip of the TP~® thaeby selling F/p-g to dha | Shh & Keepiiget oe. Lt fp level Yoh F/F-2 | Sho nesulti 7 ev 4 . us applied i Founlnal B or main gah. > Henc6o ho pulses from fro viknoisn proqpuney go unee can pass through fro main gech . > In ord to Stock de operation, a te pulte ie opplied to Gaead tp) reset 4. FE-1, > Hence Y=l SO, § ae nesall Ha STOP gah ut disabled § Me START got enabled , ya seme reed file Is stmalbonaoualy ofp ted Stone on ew ingot of ef decads covubers, So Hunt Hey are rect fo O & na | ifor tho next poLecs from He unknocsn freer Source pars flnroud, tho Mak lo dha couky g He counter Starts courbes - Fe Same pure ifron fhe START gelt ~ Hh de te set “Ip of F/F-l, pog Mng Hs { tect fom Otel.poles He START gah § enables tho a his dis gtop : Bll dhe Tan gek Ns erabled , probe, D pocver / > He dhe unRno con preqoney Con tinus be Asem on Horo tho main go Ho the combs, . port dle fiom the time ase sclecbs fesse a tha evabeled STOP gab cy He set Ifp , 4 ye Up back to | nil of FF, chosging § finde off gho main ah disablhal disconnect toe foes alypal per Fhe coun ‘ » We counter coun tHe ho, af poclees accu! hg | los 2 succoslve pulses hom fla Home dsases, celector + 24 qo Hone ‘der bly Thdeert tuo Succorstie pulses from te Homo base sollector is | Sond, Hon the WD 6, prulhes counted wethtr tas ene de Phe peaenty warknosen pe SOUL | wn He. he aosembly conuivting of RtHes § 2 ws Coallid m gad contol FIF , the _ block Bagram a a digitiol frerpmey | moter rs shown:De ip signal a omplilied § converted toa Sqpork Gave by a sebenilt balggen chacult- a wave di; crertieted 4 clippeol hee tactn of axe each pulse sepooted ie He penied of do f/p sional 7 Lens base selectess, ofp ys abbelionl fom on OM le: 4 1's similarly anverted fut positive | cabses |e | | | P s sg, Ist bute achivates the gate. corkxol Hp Tha gake contre) FE provicls au, erable \ signal to ths ee pal i» Fea tal He /p sig OP. ; — albwed "to te and the gate fora slid pioms period § counted, ‘ Yo Qnol pulse from flre deade frequency . divider Hanger fo £tar, of the condrol E/E - & nemoyes the erable Signal from the AND geh,Freely Clesing jte 4 ; dhe decimal counter & ol ts ploy unit of cosereyends jo the nes of, idp puLses neeelve telly . ponecise timo pntewal- He counter display Corresponds to , eWee ye fr agp cy 2 DIGITAL MEASUREMEMT OF TIME a fprncrPLe OF OPERATION. ° Fy eginin. dhe Home exped 7s tho start ow saint 2 ln Iho Ip 1, & He evel UT the Home postoo! Fe. the stop pulse coming por Te? => Ts oscillates FUR continversly 7 but de pscillate pudyes reach dhe e/p only dm the penial don the control Pe jc in the Iskeb sho no. af °/p pulees counted I O Mmeayire : of tha time period , one Bas: SELECTOR * att is clban thak on onden de Known the aon penny of the lp Si tha time / J Te the Slat & stop of the anust- b2 cour osely known, Tha FS callrel AHlrre tere. Sh) time base Conslst of a fixed preqranee) wad escillators ¢ a clock oscilla, tohteh hos, do ae Very accurald « "Lh osdor to errwe phe axceunaty , dhe Crystal rs Bec. Ina constant Jer forafecy | oven, | SaF >No o/p of, thy constant { ! AM re a a Jol 1 Zh Higa, lo a the ip sino wave to an ofp Cons h ny £ to He frequeney of He clock ascillatoy, ov He doen, of ulues dan asses Hrougle sented preqpunrey olivier lecads arsendbilie, f prune wm cascadle . > Beak decade dividen consist of a-deacls 1 1 copnter § divicls He proqutidy tere | 5 O/p cro ledter nov each decals fui diver by mers of. a celeckor surkeh, | ony Op MAY ha elected . > Th consist of % clock escillator having o [MHe ag he sched eg io! pibaos per second § Hus bernt Canney fo o How of Ins. - | Hence b using a b cbecad’s frequency dhl, | a time base with a srange of ae | HOD 6 lang ~ lms ~ lOOms ~ Ie Can ho + selected usta Ov cele cto» Swr'teh,.opi example, ohn measuring tha period ofa GOH> > - fhe electronic coursen oneght 16,667 3ms toh er. the Frequency & Pp pe te Lal = 54.9978 He 60h Tt 6.6673x0* > Phe accuracy 4 He entod measwsamroud henge . Of preqney wa gaol pei hy oa ! the omulhple period AVENFAR sola of operation > Ty this mods, ths man gale fo eral {or anane an one peated of. Hs Lenk noton sf ; Les Dig Wh obtained hy porsing ql unkown | signal dso uphr End Or Mar» Aecads divider | agernblies (PAs) $0 tat he period is L extercledl by oO foctor of [0,000 a, [ | WPH72r ,applence dhe digita! display Shows me%o dig ited of m Jounetion thus Prereastng § VeuHacy ale dho decrmad fornd local 4 § Pn CaBVrcinsys oo ee c four eal aach time oM anal ts decade divides sa displ fe aLunys leq berm i ous tgete Of He ip dhe qreascowmach ; overt thou a sil tel om “[0,(00- or 770% cycles tho multiple averae medo » Bi Sek « d : | Tin the Chk & mone ececd 0 exten Le 2; Het a gk . A722 ce apviding one A oe logos trbervel of . Oud ve Hah Ih wes i}th single DPA Moin, Pecimal s Ga = § Dsphy ume io. AF Sie I) Me lololao1 ip fuobed Stpralls to aya Courter ___ Bultifle Paiocl segral t ( ; t Fo) eet Pecade Dividor ascembllg Dock C)eexgaum = Sng 0 G Half fox lec (Avena ge Menge untFUNCTION GENERATOR . A dunchion geroator fraducs cifrcrd oorfen, : equancy Phe Common °- wowelyvns ore ho sintl, Sqpors, torlogichs, |, & soo tooth 220008 - . The om do lusted - pe havent a Hebke Sorsahied kRz. 1 the vos Wp of the qencroler cindy muds lke at Bhs Same teres FoR cxanft andi rr aa 1 Giomull bore vi A Sod teoth to dive the reel deflection gmbilie ot He CRo te provicls a Vis bepl, : LOCK _ + CaaeILETy OP frase LOCK othe funct enerater can be pilose behed ts Lowe + st ary cucweyerm Con be poate idQE ———— olian generator can alte bo plore Ichucl she fu a [uch wtanclard § afl its bh he eee seme a g stability ax tho standard Sowree , ee te fhequancy vs condvolled ; + tually spe 5 Con RC chacut ven He copaciten mM dHho ata tus pastorumont the frequency Ls controlled varying the magnitude of currcut aohich dotves the integrate . Te naa taumud pooduees sine, tadosuleng sayumree 1g0ged p with @ freqpency Puange of, 0, O}Hz + (oo KHe.. + Sho propor corde lled wv6lbage sequlises two ewer sO ad wren SUP lies constant CU Te ¥ 1 co yo Lage sy cnense® Inoasly with Hora, Ace volte cal ths steed volhe Cout= TL lt c ° Jde crease in the current * creas | " dn Sncreas? tha slope of ths Up volte § lc dhe preyed de ct.coses hence conto ’ biter arate vlhi-vi He roolbage Oe io adeboxmed rare ator Yp voltage. & perdi) tho in Teg "Ths changes cuk off the upper cwurent Helles on the F fewer cosvarit | cats § swt~ the Qo exer current SOWUD KU blebs, aA Xr, ceeconk fo tho thegrra feos 1 Nad the, op de ca ceracs |r ne ody with Vigne « : « tole the e/e neathes % bredefesvminsd : level , the voltage Compr citer bros On the off, ant tiingam : aga chounges steal. | SHE aed SO unce « < he ce ql the infeqraters, a tele nguclars waveform GIO ne és oletermined by te orageetrde ed tle Current sep lied by Hu coneteut auvund Secnere, > tHe Comparator “ delivers R Guane Gave voltage of the Sane network alters fhe slpe 4, H Gore 2S ute Sing COVE cith ca’ C4 pUre 4 , The Sesisteiver oll lade uw Frdarcqelas a np Cituck CRON GELS & preduces = 5 less jtlan Le Arstortion . io ~ . steve Cov liedo Le ns yi [ssl (Lo — AL. vo /; 6 unatpn ; fonvakrI BRIDGES | a id cat : she ne's pon iclgc s Measuxoment of Kesigtence Ly sostsbones Burs forrsing a clbred circuit + OC source, E applied lo & apposite junction Age » Garort efector connected fo Rather junction . Gclvaromr is 7 + Uohon ho cusrent dough the meker, Ho gales pei vitex Ker aests On omic scale + chango in ddneche of consent I, Ip cu pointer to efleck 3h bo the the did hk . we Pecooe Racers, Gerrrem + 2 te Lrldge 3 cbalbnced chon to ne corvrnt Or ho deflection in He galvasorctos « Cos dhe tho botertial diffouce at fotnt- ec §e we. re he potential across the galletas kh 20 tun tHe nidge is sald fo be beloved 7, k= tah —*O tom gelranomelen cwrersul to be 2er°, -t.- = Kk ye ls= RO RPK ee Bole = oe, re)r ebubstitds @O §O 'n@ a xR, = &_x® R, tk Fo thu ect emits R,tRa Ra tRy K) Cha thy = Re Ce, t Rs) £) Ro +R Ry = R, Ro bRaRe vo 2, R, = Ke Rs Ii} a goon o Bad to delancedl, the urkwown seshsteve een Te IS ded fla of Rp can be led = Ka Rs K, + SENSLTIVIT y Or A WHEAT STONE Beroae > ohn Hue bridge fe th pnbidbrreod covdition, Commit a desough He gabvasomisten, Conds lng a ole beth, of ids folufer ls The amok Cenge tive hy = fp poorer Ont) Currorit eG Cnn > Gellbcben may de Lincos: Or angular +5 nite $= pA 0% depen ft on ackinfh + Nive abhor atin He ee Ge pallUNBALANCED | WHEATSTONES BeToGe or te de bes, rind tho amausl to ddl E fe fleur’ sonst Hoang te, qalvemeli deste f ghove nis eqpsvellon evbhing Cyr valent vol joo fs peor ect! the abyavemso Sncat g defo te oben Whe ill ile a gb ae + 2 % a + Ml, vole onlge dire eq”, the Voltage @ poluba Ge delermlnod 7 a =# Rs RitR3 W@b E,= Eh Katka 4 wollege We a Gb Ms He alfferasen, Ho &§ Eby ch wef nesuby Thevinis, OY" yo 2 ee ee 7 Rit Re Rat ky A EL Rs -k ” thevbain’s equ! talent pesistanct oy, bo debormve Jachy the vo lage sence E us Phe thteug ee a athens choot -clecuckol _ oli tnstmg Ho ests anced loekiig Ite tovminaly a Gb.fi R, RQ 1 Rs Ru >Infeviad nglstarce js very Joie, AU OL On Run= RL Rs + Ra II Re m= Rik + RyRy R¥Rs Ry HRs 7 > Hawe Me bet ye rs, | + Te magnitudes . | | Qa ths wild etre deflect is se ertenco the Samo eo tho ep of tho baidge : ecusrond is Imi leok by doth fed bhi agh i Rin §& nesisterve Onrec R (yalyano roi ABS rv 7 lof ocsbt wont tn thy gotvarom & » te defle ee | ae Ran the eSmnny Ungacancen_Nuzat Stove ¢ Ber Dak &, ~epRoLINATION METHOP 7 i Jofera arrl used, Tn thot + i wl gen oe Th > This develops Bn eae apprcodimate bet ace ex prexsion fpr Thevenin's equivelid V6 Hage & poset SAAD4 R= > fe welle ge ke= Ro Ry SR ADA jteliore Ao, } no Acs 1S ee hoy Tk Ae afar 77> R Rtas @ port a, Zon th= Eh = £ Rte yi edhe tolkge @ peinlb, By = ECeth») = Eltsy) RtrOA)ER QREDA 3 fevenirts eqpulvaloid voltage 7 Eyn = Eero ar é Ad is En= Ey- be = Elkin of ARTN “RO = E [BERS —L QR+hn = _g foninn ston] (BRP) = ae GR + abn ~Ak-7* ~Qr-Br a ktabr rare oa | b% joa, ee E [él] ee, Sy negleel 4 4 Se May h DrRy = RVR F RIV READ — RR + KERHD» RrR REREAD ~ pet RRPAV aR RERtAXr anc Pompod ance, Zzoko dhs Dado ds palancecl , SON Za = a I 22 Zu leae qyuasd'th 1 i) 2a yZyr 2e, cee Vector Complece qr les, vad posses phase orighors Wotton of. tchectsfone'e bx! ee at d vero epee ie sislings, fas bps OM los I [Disadvartog os i heattone’s Basis | vet ede {on oneasurley be giatniatonce td ne || 9,038 /'sfance meoswromonts ) | oY Wests § (balance hie Sr ee (oMPARISON BRIDGE lei) | £ fa scaistns | Ry 7) a > Kou Stare fino R Re > vexboble Ae 7 hee & & Ga Cx 2 Unknocon Caf capacdtane 0, > Sorrell leakage eshshance of. tho Gheccfor. | i | || (tras "ai eae ae b Tie eo es) hts leokage wreris tance 1S obtained a=aR § 2 =Re — Re Th ‘epics culth Cz | { | |ok; + bX JWC3 J =-R,-}]. | lye . wd 2 = Rex fr senpes col fA Cr 2x = Re wCx + Te conc t}or. {or Ho hodelge te balasicr, : 2) Zr = 2g ©3 be Ry (Re oh Ee) = & (aa) Cre Ry Ry — Rib = Kaks ~ Ra f aCe Cy . Gmmperce Pro seal feort R, KOE Rg Wt Rx = a Rs R : Compasee the Pom aginany Jevrif R= Re WC WCa, R, = fe C¥ & CG =VCTANCE COMPARISION FRIDGE. — f InP Db pnd 2) 2g = trduebanes ly § § wkreon resicfeneo bls iin hy compaloning tte Pie shed uctor § calories C2 th) k Kg Real) ahon m Roc Hjot Rg heat = fe =hak = ky hs 7 k, a Ry L5 yd Rx = fo oe Rolaglxen’s BRIDGE : of WIEN S$ sljdeol fo mrensureo bp ° RG ano In Sefer, | a Rx & Qo Pn psa + Alco Usedl fo Prenstae Unkyotuh Capacitor with Great ACCUROLLY —Od — Ria 2g> Re + 23=G UR, & pind a on tpnco -l +e! Ys ka Yjels 2y = Ry = Lf) 3 7 Zoe 2Zy he ae 23 = 2, 242 Ra= (de VR, eS) = RRe + RK, Rayo Cs = Raj — {he Gea = R, 4G, wey Rs hs wc C1Ra = Bikey c, Ry ° at os 2eR 4 (4 ro (gr&) Re 2h ¢G Ry Ro & Eyroltrg imag inary pul, Rk, er [ J Ky — © WG - kA, G Je = =i R3 Rk Gw = a Lo, yy mea x 1 BG Ri eG a R83 463 w= | VR BGS Wkb = AAT - — an TRE ahr K,=h =k § oe