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1
Logical Statements and Truth Tables
Structure
10. INTRODUCTION
1•1. LOGICAL STATEMENTS
12. TRUTH TABLES
V3. NEGATION
1'4. COMPOUNDING
F5. NEGATION OF COMPOUND STATE MEN TS
V6. TAUTOLOGIES AND FALLACIES
11. PROPOSITIONS
1'8. ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS
19. CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
1•10. BZCONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
111. ARGUMENTS
112. JOINT DENIAL
Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to understand;
Logical statements, truth tables, negation, compou
nding, negation of
compound statements, tautologies and fallacies, propositions.
Algebra of proposjfio,,s.
• conditional and biconditionof Statements
Arguments and joiiiI denial,
10. INTRODUCTION
Logical statements deal with the binary logic used
e
modern mathematics Based on Boolean Algebra, the logicalxtensively it
statements
introduce mathematical logic to the studen
ts. There is great elevance of
these statements in modern mathematics because the basic rphilosophy
behind the digital c
omputers
codes and logical circuits is based on two digits I and 0. The binary
used in c
omputers ernpoy signals of true or
false. The two stable states of an electrical Sw itching circuit are ON and
OFF. With these a large number of mathematical operations are per-
formed through suitably designed circuits,
BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
ii. LOGICAL STATEMENTS

These are assertions in words or symbols which are either true or
false but not both. The difference between an ordinary sentence and a
logical statement is that it is not possible to say about truth or otherwise
of an ordinary sentence whereas true or false is an essential requisite of a
logical statement. For example, the expressions : Oh God ! ; How do you
run so fast ' are sentences all right but they are not logical statements.
The following are some logical statements
(I) The number x is even.
(U) x e - I (x -I I )(.r - I) for all values of X.
(iii) The sum of the three angles of a triangie is equal to two right
angles.
(Jv) Economics is a dismal science
12. TRUTH TABLE
It is a table indicating the truth value of a compound statement
constituting several statements. The statements are compounded by
various connectives. e.g.. ANI) (A), OR (V). NEGATION (-), etc.,
each one has a significance and therefore the truth of the compound
statement has to be considered taking these into considerations.
A truth table has a number of columns and rows. The number of
columns depends upon the number of constituent elements and how
involved over their relationships. The initial columns, two or three
depending on the constituent statements, deal with the basic truth values.
These give all possible combinations of the constituent statements.
The remaining columns are the output columns giving the truth
values of the compound statement as a function of certain relationship
between constituent statements.
The number of rows in a truth table are determined on the basis of
the constituent statements. In ease of 2 constituent statements, there are
22 or 4 rows and for 3 constituent statements, there arc 2 3 or 8 rows.
The truth tables are very useful in finding out the validity of a
equivalence relation between functions. For practical purposes, they
help in designing and testing the electronic circuits to perform a given
operation based on a certain relationship.
1-3. NEGATION
To assert a statement is to say that it is true and to deny it is to
say that it is false. Negation is the contradiction of the statement which
may be either an assertion or a denial, if p is a statement then p
(read as not p) will be its negation. But, if p is a statement then p will
be its negation which we can also express as '('-p) p. The following
truth table shows how when p is true, 'p is false and vice-versa is also
there.

LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND TRUtH TABLES 3
Truth Table 1 p or 'p
I I —p
In p
L±LT
An electronic circuit showing this type of relationship is as follows
Fig. 1.
The above circuit shows that the clectrical impulsc passes from S1
to S2 in case of and it ill pass to S 2 (S2 bar) and not to S2 in case
of —p.
Double negative is positive which can be vcrilied from the following
truth table
Truth Table 2
I) —p f
T F T
_F T F
14. COMPOUNDING
The method of combinin g statements is known as compounding
two or more constituent statements when combined into a joint statement
is known as a compound statement. The common connectives used for
the purpose are AND (A), OR (V) and NOT ('--). Actually the Boolean
Algebra recognises only three operations by which a machine manages all
other operations. Other connectives are also converted into these simple
operators. The truth value of a compound statement will depend on the
truth of the constituent statements. Compounding is done mainly through
conjunction and disjunction.
(1) Conjunction. A joint statement to the effect that each consti-
tuent of the statement is true, is compounded by the use of the connective
AND (A). For example, if stands for the statement "prices are rising"
and q for "the quantity of money is increasing". Then the compound
statement pAq indicates that "the prices are rising and the quantity of
money is increasing." A compound statement of two statement
will be true only when both the constituent statements are true
and not when either of them is true or when both are not true The truth
value of a compound statement with conjunction will be as follows

4 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Truth Table 3: pAq
!Tipj
TT T
T F F
F T F
L F ___F F
The first thing to note in the above table is that with 2 statements
there are 22 or 4 combinations. In case there are three statements, the
possible combinations will be 2 or 8.
The second is that the basic truth values in the first two columns are
4, 3, 2, 1 in binary digits if you place I for T and 0 for F. In case there
are three statements then the order will be 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, I, and 0.
However, the order can be reversed there is no special sanctity attached
to it
The third is that in the output column, which is the third column in
the above table the truth of the compound statement is indicated by T.
Wherever the alternative combinations are not in keeping with the rela-
tionship, F is written.
An electronic circuit in case of this operation will be in the same
series so that the impulse from the initial point S 1 will not pass to the
terminal point S2 if either of the switches are open (i.e., cif). See the
Circuit below.
SI
--- 2
Fig. 2.
(ii) Disjunction. A joint statement asserting that at least one of
the constituent statements is true, so that more than one constituent state-
ments can also be true, certainly all are not false is compounded by the
use of 'either ... or' or simpl y OR (V). A compound statement of two
statements will be true if either of them is true or both are true.
If p stands for the optional Maths. and q for the optional Statistics, pVq
will signify
p and q Maths and Statistics

p and'-'q Maths and not Statistics
q and—p Statistics and not Maths.
This relationship will be brought out more clearly by the following

truth table which may be compared with the previous one to grasp the
diflcrence

5
LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND TRUtH TABLES
Truth Table 4 : p V q
T T T
T F 7'
F 7' T
F F F
As shown above p V q is false only when both p and q are false. This
obviously is an inclusive type of disjunction which covers also the Situa-
tion when both are true.
The plain circuit depicting the relationship is given here under.
Fig. 3.
The electrical impulse from initial point S 1 will not pass to the
terminal point S2 only when both the switches p and q are open (i.e.. off).
The exclusive type of disjunction, which keeps out the situation
when all the constituent statements are true, is indicated by pVq orp+q.
In this case the first row of the truth table 4 will have F in the output
column. Its circuit will be of the following type
• _;
st
P.
Fig. 4.
The exclusive type of disjunction which conveys the sense of "p or q
but not both" is a special case of OR connective. Therefore, unless other-
wise stated, pV q will be taken in the inclusive sense which will always
mean "p or q or both" or "p and/or q."
15. NEGATION OF COMPOUND STATEMENT
When a compound statement is negated its connective changes from
AND (A) to OR (V) and from OR (V) to AND (A) . For example,
— (p A q)== '— p V —q
pVq)=—pA'q
We can say that the inversion of a function of several terms is
obtained by inverting the individual terms and changing the connectives.

6 BUSINESS MAThEMATICS
This is the famous De Morgan's theorem or law. It is very helpful in

simplifying and rearranging the terms of a Boolean function which is
sometimes better amenable to certain specialised operations.
The truth of the Dc Morgan's law can be verified from the following
truth table
Truth Table S: pq)pV'q
q (p ' q) PJ -q - \q
(1) (2) (4) (5) (7)
T TI F F\F F
H:
1F FE 1 T T T
The truth values of columns 4 and 7 are alike which proves the
theorem.
The following are some relations based on the above law which can
be verified by preparing truth tables
(I)(PAq)=pV'q='-PVq
(ii) '— pAq) =pVq=pV"-'q
(iii) —pV'--q)pA----"--qptq
Example I. Let p be the statement "the south-west monsoon is very
good this year" and q be the statement "the rivers are rising" . Give the
verbal translations for (a) and verify the statement (b).
(a) (i)pV'-'--q and (ii) —.'('-"-pV-'-q)
(b) the statement x> 1<->x2 >1 is false.
Solution. (a) (1) The south-west monsoon is very good but the
rivers are not rising.
(ii) It is not true that the south-west monsoon is not very good or
the rivers are not rising. We can also state that the south-west monsoon
is very good and the rivers are rising.
(b) The statement is false because if x2 >1 then x>lVx<-1.
Some illustrations:
Here are some statements along with their symbolic forms using p
for practical and q for quiet,
He is practical and quiet, pAq
e is practical and not quiet,
H PA'—q
It is false that he is practical and quiet, '—'(pAq)
He is neither quiet nor practical,
Here are some statements along with their symbolic forms using p
for idealist and q for vocal,
LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND TRUTIt TABLES
He is neither idealist nor vocal, '—p V r--q

It is not true that he is neither idealist nor
vocal, —('--pV'—q)
Here are some verbal expressions for symbolic expressions where p
stands for reading 'Patriot', q for reading 'Current , and r for reading
'Reader's Digest'.
(pVq)A-r lie reads Patriot or Current but not
Reader's 1)igest.
—(p t'. — r) It is not true that he reads Patriot but
not Reader's Digest.
(p q) V '—(p ,i\ r) He reads Patriot and Current or he
does not read Patriot and Reader's
Digest.
— ('--'p A —q ) it is not true that lie reads neither
Patriot nor Current.
pVq lie reads either Patriot or Current.
—p It is not true that he does not read
Patriot or he reads Patriot.
1'6. TAUTOLOGIES AND FALLACIES
Tautologies or theorems are like axioms which are tue for all values.
In a truth iahte of a tautology there will he only T in the last column.
For example,pV—p=p, p A pp and --pp are all tautologies. As
against these the fallacies are the contradictions which will never be true
and obviousl y there will he only Fin the output column of a truth table.
For example, p A p is a con tradition, how can a statement and Its
negative both be true. These truth tables will further reveal this fact.
Truth Table 6 : p V p Truth Table 7 : p 'p
-- 7', I- i^-- — pA P
—
1^
Since tautolog y is always true its negation is a fallacy and is always

false.
ExaiupIe 2. Verify the following statements by constructing truth
tables
(i) p V '--j (p r\ q) is a tautology.
(ii) (pAq)A'--(pvq) isafallacy.
Solution.
(1) Truth Table 8: pV —(pAq)
PAq (pAq)pV(pAq) -
(' )r
T
(2)
T T

FTT
(4) (5)
T F F T T
F / T F T T
F; F F T T
Since there is T for all values of p, q in Column 5, it is a tautology.

(II) Truth Table 9: (pA q) A — (p V q)

P q p A qp vq V q) (p A q) A —(p yq
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
T T T T F F
_T F p T p F
FT F T F F
F F F T F
Since there is F for all values of p, q in Column 6, it is a fallacy.
Example 3. Using truth lab/es, show that (pc q) p andp (p Vq)
are both tautologies, where p, q are any two statements.
(C. A., Intermediate December 1981)
Solution.
Truth Table 10
P q pAq(pAq)ppVq p(pvq)
(I) (2) _(3) (4) (5) (6)
IT T T T IT T
F F
JF T F T T T
F I F I T F T
Since all the entries in Columns 4 and 6 are 1', the given propositions
are both tautologies.
11 PROPOSITIONS
Compound statements with repetitive use of connectives (A, V, -,
etc.) are called prepositions. For example, if we use p for popular and
q for qualified then a few involved propositions will he:
He is popular and qualified. pAq
It is not true that he is popular and qualified. —(pflq)
He is neither popular nor qualified. —p V -q
He is popular or he is unpopular and
qualified. p V ( —p A q)
It is not true that he is unpopular or
unqualified. . . -(-p V —q)
The truth tables for propositions will be constructed in the usual
manner, however, it will be safe to procced step by step. We give below
truth tables for:
(i) p A (q V r), and (II) (p A q) V (pA r)
irs the above propositions there are three constituent statements in
each and they are equivalent. This will be verified by their respective
output truth values in the final columns.

LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND TRUTH TABLtIS 9
(1) Truth Table Ii pA(qVr)
P \ _5_. r)
(2)(3) (5)
T T T T T
T T F T - T
T F1TT
T F F F F
-i-- -
T F T F
F F 1 T F
F F F F F
The basic truth values are T7-7 T, FFFF in the first column, TT, FF.
TT. FF in the second column, and T, F, T, F, T,F, T, Fin the third
column.
Row-wise you can read the binary values, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, I. 0 from
first to the eighth row by substituting 1 for T and 0 for F. In the output
column 5 the truth values are based on the truth values of columns I
and 4 considering the connective AND(A) between them.
(ii) Truth Tab'e 12 (pAq)V(pAr)
q r pc'q p1 r (p A q) V (p A r)
(I)
T
(2)
T
(3)
T
(4)
7.
(5)
T
L (6)
T
T F F T
T F T F - T T
T F F F F F
F T T F F F____
F T F F F
F F T F F F
F F F F F
The truth values in column 5 of Truth Table 11 and Column 6
of the Truth Table 12 are alike showing that the two statements are equal.
It brings out the distributive property in logical statements.
18. ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS
There are certain laws regulating manipulations on propositions. An
understanding of these will help in finding out new re1atos and in estab-
lishing equivalence between certain relations. The following are the
main laws.
I. Jdempoten: law. This indicates how a statement does not
change its truth value by conjunction with another statement in certain
Circumstances;
(a)pVp=p (b)pAp=p
JO BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
This law shows difference between ordinary algebra where a+b will
not be equal to 'a' unless a () ; also a a will he equal to a 2 and not 'a'
unless a I. In logic p or q will be a true statement if there is p only. Also
a repeated assertion of p as p and p' is only in logic.
II. Associative law. This indicates that a new statement can be
associated with a compound statement with the same coLtflctjve either
from tile right or from the left as shown below
(a) (pVq)Vr=p'v'(qVr)
(b) (pAq)Ar=pA(qAr)
III. Commutative law. As per this law order is irrelevant as shown
below
(a)pVq=qvp (b)p/\qqAp
IV. Disiriliwii'e law, it deals with expansion of a term having
different connectives inside and outside the bracket containing a compound
statement. Whereas iii ordinary algebra the distribution was limited to
multiplication over addition, e.g, a(b i- c)--ab-4-ac while a±(b,c)— r(a+b).
(a+ e). But, in Boolean algebra it is possible since
(a) pA(qVr)-(pAq)v(pAr)
(b) pV(qAr) - (pVq)(pVr).
Further, the distribution can be from either side, left or right.
V. Identity law. Identit y elements in Boolean algebra are tautology
(t) and fallacy (f) as there were I and 0 for multiplication and addition
respectively in ordinary algebra. These relationships can be explained as
follows
(a)pVr=t (b)pAt'=p
(c) p Vf =p (d) pt\ff
VI. Complement law. There are complements in Boolean algebra
which perform the same function as done b y negative numbers for an
additive inverse and reciprocals for a multiplicative inverse in ordinary
algebra. These are
(a) P pt
(c) ' tf
-
(b) p
(d)
''pf-jt
VII. Dc Morgan's law. It shows that a statement will not change
if we change AND (A) by OR (V) and OR (V) by AND (A) provided
that we have the inverses of the constituent statements. This has been
shown below
(a) -(pA q) -p vq (h) — (p Vq)p A q
This law helps in stating a Boolean function from the 'sum of the
products" into the "product of the sums" by taking the complements of
the terms.
This law helps simplification as follows
pVq)V(pAq)=(.—PA''--q)V(.--pAq)
-.-pA('---'qvq)
—p A I
= '—p

LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND TUTU TABLES 11
19. CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

These are statements of the type 'if you read then you will pass' in
mathematical terms 'if p then q' or p -->q or p q. Here p is sufficient for
q but not essential. There can be q even without p ; in other words, there
can be a pass even without reading. Although p as not necessary for q, q
is necessary for p. It will not happen that one who reads will fail. The
truth values of p q are true when q is true or both q and p are
false. The true table of a conditional statement is as follows
True Table 13 : p-'q
P q 1) '1
T F 1'
T F F
F T
F F F
The table reveals that p --'q is false only when p is there but q is not
there, p is only sufficient cause but not necessary or essential. A condi-
tional statement with connective of implication ( ) can be expressed
through OR and NOT as follows
pqpvq (i.e., not or q)
Now, the conditional proposition p • q has its negation as follows
Example 4. Simplify ''('—p-----q).

Solution. '—{,'-.p--*-.-q)E---(pV q.
In such problems its always easier to substitutep V q for p—q or
p q for p q as has been done in the above case.
Example 5. Write the following .taemenis in symbolic form and give
their negations
(1) If he works /iaid he will puss the examination.
(ii) If it rains lie wi/I not go for a walk.
Solution. (0 Using p for hard work and q for a pass in exami-
nation the statement is p-+q
Its negation is p-q)('-pVq)-p A '-q
which in words is : Even if he works hard he may not pass.
(ii) Using p for rain and q for walk the symbolic expression is
p —q
Its negation is : p-"-q)('--p/-q)pAq
which in words is Even if it rains be goes for a walk.
Example 6. In a certain country, it is found that weather follows the
following rules
If it icJine today, then it is windy tomorrow.
If it is calm today, then it is hot lolnorrow.
If it is line tomorrow, then it ic cold tomorrow,
12
Each day is either hot or cold, wet or fi

ne and calm or windy. Forecast
tomorrow's weather if today is fine, calm and cold.
(C. A. Intermediate December, 0891)
Solution. The argument is as follows
(1) Fine today -windy tomorrow.
If today is fine therefore tomorrow is windy
(ii) Calm today--*hot tomorrow.
If today is calm therefore tomorrow is hot.
(iii) Fine tomorrow— cold tomorrow
-'(cold tomorrow)- . —(fine tomorrow)
hot tomorrow-->wet tomorrow.
The forecast of tomorrow's weather is hot, wet and windy.
Neither converse nor an inverse of a conditional statement is identi-
cal, Converse inverse and contrapositjve of a conditional statement i
identical see below
Converse: q -p74p-bq
Inverse :
Converse-inverse or contrapositive : -'- q-- -pmp-#q
The validity of the above three statements can be proved by the
following truth table:
Truth Table 14: p-q= '-q-+ p
Conditional Converse Irnesse Converse Inverse
q p - q L_.qTp a- '-n
( I ) (2) L.._() (4) (5)
T T T T T
T F F T T F
F T T F F T
F F T T T T
The table reveals that the truth values of p-'q and -q -* -.p are
alike and truth values of q *p and -p-- -'q are alike. Therefore, a state-
ment of logical implication is not identical with either its converse or its
inverse but is identical with its contrapositive or the converse inverse.
Example 7. Prove by means of a truth table that
(pAq) (pVq) is a tautology but (p Vq)(p Aq) is no:.
Solution.
Truth Table 15: (pAq)'(pVq) is not the same as (pvq).(pAq)
_L_ q Vq) I (pt'q).(pv ( p V q) ( p A q)
Q1 (2) (3 (4) (5) (6)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F
F T T F
F F F F 7- T

LOGICAL STATEMEMTS AND I RUTH TABLES 13
Column 5 shows that (pAq)(pvq) is a tautology and column
6 shows that (pVq)(pAq) is not a tautology.
Example S. With the help of a truth table, prove that
p(qAr)(p: q)(p r) (C.A., Entrance, June 1984)
Solution.
Truth Table 16
p q qAr p(qr) pq pr (pq)A(p'r)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) - (6) (7) (8)
T T T T T T T T
T T F F T F F
T F T F F __ r F
L F F F F F
F T T iii T T T
FT F ±_ - T j_ T
FF T F T
F F F F T T 2' T
Since the entries in columns No. 5 and 8 are identical, we have
p (qAr)(pq)A(p . r)
110. BICOr4DITIONAL STATEMENTS
The conditional statements are of the type if p then q", i.e., p-*q.
The biconditional statements are of the type "if p then q and if q then p"
i.e., p-sq and q--)-p written as p4-#q. These are also called double impli-
cations or equivalent, statements, The essential features of this relation-
ship are:
(i) p if and only if q,
(ii) q if and only if p,
(iii) p is an essential condition for q, and
(iv) q is an essential condition for p.
The truth values of p-* q are true when both p and q are true
or when both p and q are false.
You can appreciate the difference between conditional and bicon-
ditional statements by the following truth table
Truth Table 17: p-)qps-sq
p q p—sq p4_sq'
T (2) (3)
F I T T T
F F F F
F F F F
FE F lj
Example 9. Prove by means of a truth table that

p.-.q=(p-eq)A(q-'p)

Solution.
Truth Table 18 :
r1-t-iij
IJ - 2
(3)
kLIiI75]
Li F T T r -
The like truth values of columns 3 and 6 prove the validity of the
statement.
The negation of conditional and biconditjo!)aI statements are as
follows
(I) p-q)='---('pVq)pA'--'q
(ii) ....(p—q)rr
Example JO. Prove by means of a truth table that

(i) -p -q)=pf\ q
(ii) tp-+q)=
Solution.
(I) Turth Table 19: '-(p-*q)p q
flPT q(p-.q) qpAq;
(1) (3) - (4) L_i) (6)
TIT T F F
1TIF F r T T
F I T T F F F
LfJF T F T F
The truth values of columns 4 and 6 are alike.
•.• .-'(p-*q)=pA-q. -
(ii) Turtl-x Table 2.0: -(p.--q)=
f '?t -(p-q)q
(1) (2) (3) (4) - (5) (6) (7) (8)
T I T F F F F F
T F F T F T T T
F T F T T T F T
F F T F T F T F
The truth values of columns 4, 6 and 8 being alike prove the equi-
valence of the three statements.
Example ii. Prove that

LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND TRUTH TABLES 15

Solution.
Truth Table 21 : p9(qAr)(p.q)(p-,.)
r (gj r) p -(qAr)J p-'q
(.!LJJL i___(LLIE (8)
T T T T T T T
T T F! F T I F
T FTIF .F F T r
T F FF F F F! F
F T T 3' T T T T
pT F F T T 'r
F F T F T T T r
L!L_±_ F T T T T
The truth values of columns 5 and 8 are alike proving the
equivalance of the two statements.
p -qt\r) =-(p-.g)(p-*r).
Example 12. Prove that ifp+qAq - r then p-.r.
Solution.
Truth Table 22 [pq Aq - r] [p-or]
p-q) (q-4r (p r)lp-qAq-rl )p 'qAq-+r
p L
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(7) > t p Tr
T 7' P T T T T T
T P T F F T
F F r F P P 1• T
T F F 1• • 1' I,. T
F T T T T T
F T F T 'I. F F
F F P T T T P F
F F P •1' 7' T 7' T
All T's in column 8 show that the statement is a tautology in other
words, all possible combinations are true. This is called the law of syl-
logism which is there in logic also.
Example 13. Use a truth table to prove that p q is equiva/(oI( t'o
' p Vq, where p and q are statements,
A firm of Chartered Accou'tairts makes the following declaration An
articled clerk from the firm passing the final C.A. Examination in the first
attempt will be awarded a prize of R g . 100 Five clerks P. Q, R, S, 7' app-
eared/or the first time from tire firm and only P and 0 could pass-. Tire
J:r,n awards prizes not only to them but to R and S also. Is this action
logically justified ? P claims the prize comparing himself with R and S but
the firm refuses. Is the refucal logically justified ? How should the statement
be worded so that only, P rind Q will be entitled for the prize 7
Solution. The statement is a conditional statement of the t y pe "if
a clerk passes at the CA Examination in the first attempt then he shall
be awarded a prize of Rs. 100". Symbolicafly if then q or p -'q. This
does not exclude others because the statement will be true even when q is
true and p is false. The following truth table will bring it out
Truth Table 23 : p - q pVq
pq p-*q _PLPV
(4)
1' T
'.1 FF FF
I' T T T T
F F T T 7'
The truth values of columns 3 and 5 are alike. The truth set of
p-* q =TT, F] and [El. Only in one case where p is true and q is false,
the relationship v ill be invalid, i.e., the statement will be invalid only if
the prize is declined to P and Q who have passed in the first attempt but
they cannot grudge the prize being given to others who have not passed.
To exclude others, the statement should have been of the type "only
those who pass the examination in the first attempt, shall be awarded the
prize", i.e., '' if and only if q".
Example 14. '1f my brother stands first in the class, I will give him
a watch. Either he stood first or I was Out of station. I did not give my
brother a watch this
this time. Therefore, I was out of station
Solution. The first statement of promise is of the type p--+q,
the second is the possibility of the type p V r, and
the third is the conclusion of the type
From the conclusion that he has not given the watch this time implies
that he has not stood first (-q ' '— p). But, since there is a possibility of
his brother standing first or lie being out of station which is true in all
cases expect when both are not true, which is not true because as is said
he was out of station but this does not prove that his brother stood first.
Therefore, from the conclusion it implies that his brother did not stand
first.
Negation of a Bicoadhional Statement. The negation of a bicon.
ditional or an equivalent statement is all the more interesting.
--> ' q
Now to understand this type of statements let us take a statement
Ile goes aborad if and only if he has a passport, i.e., (p--.q)
Its negation can be
(i) He goes abroad without obtaining a passport, ie.,p-4-...q.
(ti) He does not go abroad having obtained the passport, i.e.,
For validity of these statements see Truth Table 20.
111. ARGUMENTS
These are assertions of the type that a given set of premises yield a
given conclusion as a result thereof. These are expressed as
P, p2,.. p ,, i— Q [sigr i- is spoken as turnstilcl
or P1AP2A .......
Such an argument is valid when Q is. true all the premises P1,
,P, are true If in the same truth table there is a possibility of P1,
F, being true but the conclusion is not true, it will he a fallacy.

LOGICAL SrAT1iMENTS AND TRUTH TAI3I.ES I
The validity can also be judged by the relationship J' A PA ... A
P.--Q provided it is a tautology, i.e., all the possible combination yield
T in the output column.
In arguments the ''law of detachment" applies. Under this law if
p-q then both pA(p -+q)i-g. This can he tested by the following truth
table:
Truth Table 24: pA(p-'q)I-q
P q p ' q J)/\ (p-q) pA(p-q)-q
(i) (2) (3) 1 (4) (5)
7 T 1' T 1'
1' F F I.' T
F 7' 1'! F T
F F TJ F T
The table reveals in the first rowof the fourth column that where q
is true, both p and p----q are true and there is no other situation where
both p and p q are true but q is not true. The argument is thus valid.
The fifth column shows that p f\(p • q)] -'q is a tautology which more
surely proves the validity of the argument.
Look at another argument which looks as if it is valid but it is not.
But the law of detachment does not apply in the argument
p -, '/ Atj i-p SO it is not valid as shown in the following truth table
Truth Table 25: (p-*q)Aqi-p
qp q p - q A q
(I) (2) (3) ()__ _____(5)
T T T T T
T F F F 1'
F T i' 7'
T F 1'
The above table shows in the first row of column 4 that p is true
when p -q and q are true but again in the third row of the same column it
shows that p is false when both p q and q are true This shows that the
argument is not valid. Applying the other test we see in the fifth column
thatp-±qAqI-p is not a tautolo3y.
The basic thing to remember in the law of detachment is that p q
is not the same as q- * p. Inp->q, even when q is true p need not be true
p is not a necessary condition for q Therefore, we can detach q but not p
in the same manner.
Another law which applies to arguments is the famous "law of
syllogism". According to this law, if p--) - q and q-*r F- p-+r. This has
been pro v ed earlier.
Example 15. If he works hard (hen he will be succescfol.
If he is successful then lie will be happy.
Therefore, /,ardwork leads to happiness.
18 BUSINFSS MATHEMATICS
Solution. If we use p for the statement 'lie works hard' and q for
the statement 'he will be successful' and r for the statement 'he will be
happy' then the argument runs as follows:
p-*qAqrFp-+r
which can be proved by a truth table. (See table 22).
Example 16. If it rai,is then the crop will be good. It did not rain
therefore the crop will not be good.
Solution. The argument in symbolic from can be stated as
(p-q).
or
The argument is not valid see the truth table.
Truth Table 26: [(p -q) , '.'p]--,, q
q Ip-q pI(p-'q)A-p 9
(1) (2) (3)_ (4) (5) (6) (7)
T T T F F F T
T F F F F T T
F T T T' T F F
F F T T T T 7'
This third row of column 7 shows that both p-q and '-p are true
but q is not true which proves the fallacy. Also the argument
[(p-q)A '-p--' -.-q is not a tautology as shown by the column 7,
Example 17. If it rains then the crops are good and crops were not
good, therefore, it did not rain.
Solution. The argument in symbolic 170TM can be stated as
follows
(p-'q)A q- -'-p
or
The argument is valid and can be proved by the following truth
table:
Truth Table 27; ((p -* q) A '-q]--'.p
p - q l -'qJ[(p-q)A-"q](
-''p .[(p-'q)A-'-q1-'- p
t) (3)
(2) 4) (5) (6)

T T T F F T
T F F T F F T
F T T F F T T
F F T T T T T
Column 7 proves the validity of the argument, it is a tautology.
112. JOINT DENIAL
A new connective ( .) called a propositional connective for joint
denial, i.e., "neither......nor" can be used to substitute the common con-
nectives \, V, and negation. The connective lengthens the statement but

LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND TRUTH TABLES 19
enables substitution of a number of connectives by one only. Since speed

is not a problem in cornputcr, the simplification of operations simplifies
also the machine design and economises the use of costly hardware. Now
p 4 q will be read as neither p nor q. The truth table for this is as follows
Truth Table 28 p i q- pA - q
L L p g
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
T T F F F F
T F F T F F
F T T F F
F F,T T, T T
The truth values of columns 5 and 6 are alike, The way the joint
denial is used for some common connectives has been shown below
(I) -ppp
(ii) qq I q
(iii) pAq(-p q)=-(p I p) I (q I q) derived from (i) and (ii)
(iv) pVq(p I q)=(p q) (p I q)
(v) p-*q -(-'p 4 q)
1( p p) 4 q]
{[( p 1 p ) 1 q 11 [(p 4p)4q])
The truth tables to prove (iii) and ( iv) above are given below
Truth Table 29 : pAq(p 4p) (q I q)
p qpAq p4qi q4q(p4p)4(q4q
(1) (2) (3) l() J(5) (6)
T
T T T F
F FfF T
1
F
F
F T FT F F
I F FFiT T F
If may be noticed that p p is like ''p and q 4 q is like -'q. The
imiIar truth values of columns 3 and 6 reveal that
pAq(p I p)4(q4q)
Truth Table 3O: pvq(p 1q)4-(p4q)
(I)
1 q pqq
(3) (4) _____
T T T F1 T
T F T'F T
F T F T
1 ------ F F T
It may be noticed that p 1 q is the negation of pVq. The similar
truth values of columns (3) and (5) prove that p Vq(p 4 q) (p 4 q).
4
EXERCISES
I. Which of the following sentences are logical statements
(i) Taj is at Agra (iv) Ram is a sincere chap.
(Ii) What do you feel about family planning programme ?
(iii) Please mind your business. (v) Where are you going I
2. Express the following compound statements in words taking p for
hard work, q for success and r for job
(i) p A q A r (iv) pA qAr
(if) -pA q (v) (p,,, q) A
(iii) p q (vi) p ---), q (vii) q -+
3. Express the following staterncnt.s through appropriate symbols
(i) it is raining but not pleasant.
(ii) It is not raining still it is pleasant
(ii,) Either there is a rain or the weather is pleasant.
(iv) It is neither raining nor pleasant.
(v) It is either raining or not raining and pleasant-
( vi) It is not true that it is not raining or not pleasant.
4. State which of the foIloing statements are contrary and contra
dictory
(i) It is a hut (lay ; It is a rainy day.
(ii) x is an odd number ; x is an even number.
(iii) Ram is a truthful person ; Ram is a liar.
5. Construct truth tables for the following and write their truth sets
(I) — (pVq) (iii) -'(pAq)
(ii) pAq (iv) p-->{(qvr)A (pr)j
6. Write which of these is a tautology or a fallacy
(i) PA '-P (iii) PV '-(p1q)
(ii)p\Jp (iv) (pAq)A(p/\p)
7. I'ro' e by the use of truth tables if the following identities are
true
-q)
(ii) pV(q/\r)(p\Jq)(pr)
(iii) (p/\q)/\rpt\(q,/\r)
(iv) p\Jqz(p\jq) - (pAq)
(v) p -(qAr)(p.-)-q)/'\(p^r)
(vi) If (p q) and (q
-*
r) then (p-fr)
(vii)
LOGICAL STATnMN rS AND TRUTH TABLES 21
8, Indicate the relevant law operating in the following propositions
(1) (pVq')A
(jj)
(iii)
(iv)
(v) pA(p
(vi)fV(-pAq)'-pt\q
(vii) (- p A p)V( p qEf\/( -.p/\q)
(vii) -PA(-q\!q)--pAt
9. Prove the following equivalence relations by the use of algebra of
propositions
(i) pA(p\Jq)p
(Iij (p V q 'l A -'p -p/\q
(iii) q)V(pAq)
10. Write the following statements in compound form and then give
their negation
(i) If it is cold he takes tea and not cold drink.
(ii) If he get a high first class he will go for MBA or Chartered
Accountancy.
ANSWERS
(1) and (iv) onl y are logical statements.
2. (1) I Ic works hard and was successful in examination but could
not get a job.
(ii) lie did not work hard and could not succeed.
iii) He worked hard but could not succeed.
(fv) He did not work hard nor could he succeed but got a job.
() It is not true that he worked hard or was successful but got
a job.
(vi) If you work hard you will be successful.
(vii) If you are not successful then you have not worked hard.
3. (i)p/\--q (iv) pA - q
(ii) —' p/\q (v)pV -pAq
(iii) p V q (vi) ( - p V q)
4. (i) and (ii) are contrary but not contradictory because
although both cannot be true both can be false.
(iii) is contradictor y where both can neither be true nor false.
5. Answer for (iv) only is given

Truth Table
q jV r r(p+----r) (p -r) (qVr)A p
(1) (2)f (3) (4) (5)J6) (7) ______
T T T r P T T T
T T FT T T F F F
T FT T F F T T T
T F F F T T F i F F
FT T T F T F F T
F T F T T F T 1' T
F F T T F 2' i F F T
__ T
6. (ii) and (iii) are tautologies.
(I) and (iv) are fallacies.
S. (1) Commutative law.
(ii) Do Morgan's law.
(iii) Distributive law.
(iv) , (v) and (vi) Identity law.
(vii) and (viii) Complement law,
9. (1) p/\(pVq)(pVf)(pq) Identity law
- p \/ ( fA q ) Distributive law
Vf Complement law
Identity law.
(Ii) (V)A '— p - p V( p V q ) Commutative law
( '- p A p)V (p,t\q) Distributive law
:-JV(..pf\q) Complement law
Identity law
(iii)
Do Morgan's law
' p A(-' q V q ) Distributive law
Complement law
Identity law.
10. (1) p-* (q '-"r) its negation is [p-(qA-.r)] which can also
In words: In cold he takes neither tea nor cold drink.

(ii) p - q V r) its negation is " [p-* (qr)j bich can also be
expressed as
[ —p V(q V r )]=pA - (q\/r)
=PA q -/\ - r
In words : In case he gets a high first class he will go
neither for MBA nor for Chartered Accountancy.
Theory of Sets
Structure
20. INTRODUCTION
21. ASET
22. ELEMENTS OF A SET
23. METHOD OF DESCRIBING A SET
24. TYPES OF SETS
25. VENN DIAGRAMS
26. OPERATIONS ON SETS
27. INTERSECTION OF SETS
28. UNION OF SETS
29. COMPLEMENT OF A SET
210. DE-MORGAN's LAW
2'1l. DIFFERENCE OF TWO SETS
212. SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE
213, ALGE}RA OF SETS
214, DUALITY
215. PARTITION OF A SET
2i6. REGROUPING OF THE SETS
217. NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN A FINITE SETS
218. ORDERED PAIR
219. CARTESIAN PRODUCT
210. SET RELATIONS
221. PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS
222. BINARY RELATIONS
223. FUNCTIONS OR MAPPINGS
224. TYPES OF MAPPINGS
Objective
After studying this chapter, you should be able to understand:
0 set, elements of a set, method of describing a set, types of sets. vean
diagrams, operations on sets.

• algebra of sets.
• cartesian product.
O set relation v and its properties
• binary relations, functions and mappings.
20. INTRODUCTION
The statements in the first chapter were concerned with individual
cbjccts. In sets we deal with a group of objects which can be dePued in
terms of their distinctive characteristics, magnitudes, etc. However, both
the logical statements and sets belong to the same class. In thc case of
logical statements, we had three Boolean operators, VIZ., Conjunction (/\),
disjunction (\J) n nd negation (.—). In set theory these are called as inter.
section fl, union U and complementation [ }c respectively.
Both these pay an important role in modern mathematics. The
logical statements and truth tables help in designing the circuits to perform
Boolean opergtions, the sets are of much wider application, especially they
help in preparing the programme for feeding into the machine. In almost
whole of the huiuss mathematics the set tbeory Is applied in one form
or the other.
2.1. A SET
A act is a collection of well-defined and well-distinguished objects.
From a set it is possible to tell whether a given object belongs to a set or
not. The following are some illustrations of a set
(i) The possible outcomes in the toss of a die
(ii) The integers from I to 100
(iii) The vowels in English alphabets.
The basic characteristic of a set is that it should be well-defined
its objects or elements should be well-distinguished for easy recognition
by description.
2'2. ELEMENTS OF A SET
rhe objects that make lip a set are called the members or elements
of the set. It is almost a convention to indicate sets b y capital letters like
A, B, C or X. Y, Z while the elements in the set by smaller or lower case
letters, viz., a. b, c or x, y, z. Nov.-, to indicate that a particular element or
object "belongs to a set" or "a member of the set" we use the Greek
symbol capital epsilon G. For example, if x is the member of a set A, we
shall indicate it symbolically as
xEA, i.e., x is a member or an element of the set A
When we want to say that an object does not belong to a particular
set, or is not a member of that set, we use the symbol 'E'. Thus, 'X
a member of the set A' is symbolically expressed as : .'E A. is not
21. METHODS OF DESCRIBING A SET

The expression of sets has to be compact and clear otherwise the
basic quality of the set being well-defined and distinctive is lost. Broadly,

THEORY OF SETS 25
there can be two approaches (1) (0 list the elements called the extension
method, or (ii) to indicate the nature or characteristics and the limits
within which the elements lie. The latter method is rather unavoidable
if the elements are too numerous, or not real but only conceptual. These
o approaches have been named variously as
(I) Tabular, Roster or Enumeration method,
(ii) Selector, Property builder or Rule nethod.
(i) Tabular Method, Under this method we enumerate or list all
the elements of the set wit bin braces. However. there is no rigidity about
these, use of e\en parentheses ( ) or brackets I has been there in many
books.
a) A set of vow els : A a, e, i, o, u}
h) A set of odd natural numbers N { I, 3,5,...
(c-) A Set of Prime Ministers : I' (Nehru, Shastri, Indira Gandhi)
(ii) Selector Method, lJrtder this method the elements are not
listed but are indicated b y description of their characteristics. We may
state some character ktics which an object must Possess in order to be an
clement n the set.
Here we choose the letter x to represent an arbitrar y element of the
set and write
A v x is a vowel in Hri g hsh alphabet
l?- {x .v is an odd natural number,
C= {x x is a Prime Minister of India,
The vertical line ' " after to he read as 'such that'. Sometimes
we use ':' to denote 'such that', c g.,
A (x : x is a vowel in English alphabetL
It will he clear from the above that the tabular method is particular-
ly useful when the elements are few in number while the set-builder
method is more suitable when the elements are numerous.
2-4. TYPES OF SETS
Sets may be of various types. We give below a few of them,
I, Finite Set. When the elements of a set can be counted by a
finite number of elements then the set is called a finite set. The following
are the examples of finite sets
Ar-{l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
B=-{I, 2, 3......., 500}
C = {x I x is an even positive integer lOO}
D x is a article clerk registered with the Institute of Chartered
Accountants of India)
In all the above sets the elements can he counted by a finite number.
It should be denoted that a set containing very large number of elements
is also a finite set. Thus, the set of all human beings in India, the set
of all integers between - I crore and -I-I crore are all finite sets.
26 BUSINESS MATH.EMAT1C3
II. Infinite Set. If the elements of a set cannot be counted in a

finite number, the set is called an infinite set. The following are examples
of infinite sets:
A={l,2,3 ....... }
B{x I x is an odd integer}
C={x I x is a positive integer divisible by 5}
In all the above sets, the process of counting the elements would be
endless, hence these are infinite sets.
III. Singleton. A set containing only one element is called a
singleton or a unit set. For example,
A-{a}
I x is an integer ncither+re nor—ye
I is a perfect square of all positive integers and 60<x<70).
IV. Empty, Null or Void Set. Any set which has no element
in it is called an empty set, or a null set or a void set. The s y mbol used
to denote an empty set is a Greek letter 0 (read as phi), i.e., zero with a
slish through it, here the rule or the property discribing a given set is
such that no element can be included in the Set.
The following are a few examples of empty sets
(i) The set of people who have travelled from the earth to the sun
is an empty set because none has travelled so far.
(ii) A =x I x is a perfect square of an integer, 26<x
Thus we may say that laying down an impossible condition for the
formation of a set produces an empty set.
V. Equal Sets. Two sets A and B are said to he equal if every
clement of A is also an element of B, and every clement of B is aso an
element of A, i.e,
A.=B if and only if {'.EA<-•xEB)
This is also known as Axiom of Evens ion or 'Axiom of identity' : For
example,
(i) Let A=t3, 5, 5, 9), B=9, 5, 3)
Then AB since each of the elements of A belong to B and each
of the elements of B also belong to A.
(u) Let 21=2, 3), 13={3, 2, 2, 3) and C=x : x 2 — 5x±6-O}
This A=B-C since each element which belongs to any one of the
sets also belongs to the other two sets.
(iii) A={x I x is a letter in the word 'march'),
B'=(x I x is a letter in the word 'charm')
C={a, c, h, in, r)
We find that A-=B=C, as each set contains the same elements
namely a, c, h, in, r irrespective of their order. Hence the sets are equal.

THEORY OF SUS 27
It may be noted that the order of elements or the repetition of
elements does not matter in set theory.
VI. Equivalent Sets. If the elemejits of one set can be put into
one to one corresp c idence with the elements of another set, then the two
sets are called equivalent sets.
The symbolLs used to denote equivalent sets. For example,
(i) A={a, b, c, d, e} and B-1 2, 3, 4, 5}.
here the elements of A can be put into one-to-one correspondence
with those of B, thus
a, b, c, d, e
1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
Hence AB
(ii) A = J I x is a letter in the word 'good'}
By I y is a letter in the word 'sets')
AB
In short if the total number of elements in one set are equal to the
total number of elements in another set, then the to sets are equivalent.
(iii) A =a, b, c, d, e,i, 2, 3, 4, 51
and C={c, a, a, e, 41, b, b, c, dJ
Here A and C are equal sets while A and B are equivalent sets.
VII. Subsets. If every clement of a set A is also an element of a
Set B then set A is called subset of set B. Smbolicatly we write this
relationship as
AcB
and is read as A is a subset of B' or 'A is contained in B or 'A is in-
cluded in B. Sometimes this relationship is written as BA and is read
as 'B is a superset 01 A' or 'Ii contains A' or 'B includes A'.
It may be noted thalA B means that every clement of A is also an
element of B and lIierC is no restriction on set B other than it includes
the set A. Thus set A many bc smaller than set B, wberi it contains some
(not all) the elements of B. Set A may be. equal to set B, when it
contains all the elements of B. But set A cannot be larger than the set B.
since in that case every clement of A will not be an element of B, i.e., we
conclude that every element of a subset is an clement of the superset but
the reverse is not necessarily true.
A cB if X E A'xEB
when we write AB, it would mean that A is not a subset of B. In this
case we have to show that there is at least one element x such that x E A
and x B. Similarly B A would mean that B is not a superset of A.
Illustrations of Subsets, (i) l2, 3, 4, 5), B=2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
Here all the elements of A arc also the elements of B.
ACB
28
(ii) If A is a sot of books on Algebra in library, and
B is a set of
books on Mathematics in library then A is a subset of B. as every book on
Algebra is also a book on Mathematics, But B
is not a subset of A, as
every book on Mathematics is not a book on Algebra.
(Ill) Let A=-x I x is a -f- ye power of 3)
i.e. A=(3, 3, 39 )={3, 9, 27......)
and B= {x I xis an odd +ve integer)
le., Ii (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 ......}
Clearly A C B as each member of A will be cdd and shall belong
to B.
VIII.Proper Subsets Set A is called proper subset of superset
if each and every element of set A are the elements of the set B
B and at
least one element of superset II not an element of set 4. Symbolically
this is written a 'ACB' and isisread as 'A is a oroper subset of superset
B'.
For example
(i) A=(l, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12)
B(l, 2, 2, 3, 5. 9, 12. 121
C==(, 2, 1
1 , 3,3,5, 9)
Here CCA, ACB, B C A and A=B.
(ii) 4={x I .v is Fellow of the Institute of Chartered
Accountants of India.)
13-1x I x is a Chartered Accountant)
A areHere all Fellows are Chartered Accountants. Thus all elements of
also elements of B.
ACB
I-Towe,er B 4 (8 is not a subset of A) as all Chartered Account-
ants (elements of B) are not Fellows (elements of A). A proper subset can
also he denoted AC B if A B and .4B.
Renaarks. (1) The symbol "C" and "a" or "D" and "" are
inclusion symbols.
(ii) The larger set is alwa y s at the open end of the sign
or D. C or J and
(iii) If A is a subset of B, then B is called a superset of A.

(iv) If .4 is not a subset of B then, there exists at least one element
in A which is not a member of B.
(v) A set is always a subset of itself, i.e.. AC A.
(vi) The null set is a subset of every set.
(ii) If A is a subset of B and B is a subset of C then A is a subset
of C. ie.,
ACB and BCC ACC
THEORY OF SLJS
29
(viii) If A is subset of B and 13 is subset of A ihen the sets are said
be equal, i.e.,
AcB, BCA 3 AB
(ix) if JICI, then A=çb.
IX. Family of Sets. 1/all the elements of a Set are sets themselves
then it is called a 'set of sets' or better term is a 'family of sets'.
For example, if A (a, bj then the set
A=(, {a, (b), {a, b}j is a family of sets whose elements are subsets
of tue set A.
X. Power Set. From a set containing ti elements, 2 subsets can
be formed. [he set consisting of these 2' subsets is called a power set.
In other words, if A be a given set then the family of sets each of whose
number is a subset of the given set A is called the power set of set A and
is denoted as F(S). For example,
(1) If A ={a}, then its subsets are c, (a}
P(S) (i', (a)]
(ii) If A= (a, 1}, then its subsets are 6, {a}, (h}, gb}
P(S)=[ (a), •. b), th)I
(i ji) If A= (a, 1,, c )l then 2 subsets are
(b), (c), (a, b), ib, C, 1 c, a}, (a, b, c
F(S) .-. (, (a), (b), (ci, i1a, b}, (b, c), (e, a}, (a, /2. c}]
XL. Universal Set. When analysing sonic particular situation we
are never required to go beyond some particular well-defined limits. This
particular elLde1ined set may be called the universal set for at th
parti-
cular situation. Now on' ards, we will assume that we are we!l aware of
the particular universal set under consideration The universal set will
generally be denoted by the symbol 'U'.
Examples of Universal Sets
(1) A set of integers may be considered as a universal set for a set
of odd or even integers.
( ; i) A set of Chartered Accountants in India may be considered as
a universal set for a set of Fellows or Associates of C. As.
citi) A deck of cards may, be a universal set for a set of spade.
25. VENN DIAGRAMS
The Venn diagrams are named after English logician John Venn
(1834-1923) to present pictorial representation The universal set, say, U
or X is denoted by a region enclosed by a rectangle and one or more sets
say, A, B, C are shown through circles or closed curves within these rec-
tangles. These circles or closed curves intersect each other if there are
any common elements amongst them, if there are no common elements
then they are shown separately as disjoints. Several set relations can be
easily shown by these diagrams. These are useful to illustrate the set relati-
ons, such as the subset, set relations, and the set-operations such as inter-
section, union, complementation, etc. by using regions in a plane to indicate
30 BUSTNBSS MATHEMATICS
sets. But Venn-diagrams talso known as Venn Eiiler diagrams] cannot be

used to prove any statements regarding sets, just as geometric figures
cannot be used to prove geometric theorems. They are mere aids for
searching appropriate proofs.
26. OPERATIONS ONSETS
In the first chapter, we studied the compounding of statements with
the help of certain connectives or Boolean operators. On the same pattern
we will now have operations on sets chiefly with intersection fl union U
and complementation (-'). The algebraic properties, as we will see later
are similar in both logical statements and sets.
27. INTERSECTION OF SETS
The intersecton of two sets A and B is the set consisting of all
elements which belong to both A and B. The inter-section of A and B is
denoted as AflBwhch is read as "A cap B', or "A intersection 13".
Symbolically,
AflB=(x: (CA and xEB}
In other words
xEAflB - xEi4andxEB
The following diagrams show how the intersection of sets can be
expresed by Venn diagrams
B U A B U
A n
Illustrations. Let A{l, 2, 3, 4), B—(2, 4,5,6)

and C=(3, 4, 6, 8), then
AflB={2, 4)
(AflB)flC={4}
BflC=(4, 6}
A fl(BflC)={4)
We notice that
Afl(BflC)(AflB)flC

THEORY OF SETS 31
2. If A=x I xis an integer, 1 <x(40}, and

B={x I x is an integer, 21 xlOO}, then
,fflB={x I x is an integer, 21 <x <40)
Example 1. Let 4r=(O, 1,2,3, 4}, B-2, 4, 51, C={O} andD::b,
compute AflB, BnC, AflCandCflD.
Solution. AflB=(2, 4), BflCç6, AflC={O} and CflD=q
'lhe important properties of intersection are
1. AflB is the subset of both the set A and the set B. Symbolically
(An B)CA and AnBçB.
11. Intersection of any set with an empty set is the null set. Sym-
bolically
Afl= for every set A
III. Intersection of a set with itself is the set itself. Symbolically
AflAr-=A for every set A
IV. Intersection has commutative property, i.e.,
Aflfl= BflA
V. Intersection has associative property. For any three sets A, B
and C
(Afl B)flC Afl(BflC).
Example 2. Prove that
(Afl B)fl C= Afl (Bfl C)
Solution. In order to prove
(AflB)nC=Afl(BflC)
we are required to prove
(AnB)nCcAn(BnC)
and Afl(Bn)C(AnB)nC
(1) Let x be any irbitrary element of (Afl13)fliC
Then by definition of intersection,
xE(AflB)flC xE(AflB) and xCC
(xEA and xEB) and xEC
xEA and XE (BflC)
- xEAfl (BflC)
Thus every element x of (AflB)flC is also an element of Afl(BflC)
(AnB)flCCAn(Bnc)
(ii) Again, let ybe any element of Afl(BflC)
If yEAfl ( BflC) ' yEA and yE (B C)
yEA and (y(EB and yEC)
(y E 4 and yEB) and yEC

32 BUSINESS MA11IIMAT1C3
yE (AflB) and yE C
' yE(AflB)flC
An(BnC)c(AnB)nc .(2)
From (1) and (2), by the definition of equality of sets, we have
(A1'B)flC=Afl(BflC)
Illustration by the help of Venn diagram
LTHI?
1=AflB
J L± 't
1-AflP)flc
i13flL 17
1Afl(BnC)
VI. If B C A then Afl B= /1 and if Ac.B thei) AflBA. The above

result can be illustrated by Venn diagram as shown below.
A £3 U
=flBB
L AflBA
VIE. If AcIB and BCC then ,4C(BflC)

28. UNION OF SETS
The union of two sets A and B is the set consisting of all elements
which belong to either A or B or both. The union of A and B is deno-
ted as "An B" read as "A cup B" or "A union B" Symbolically, we
have
AUB-{x: xEA or xEB or XE both A and B}
In other words,
xEA1'B xEAorxEB
The union of two Sets A and B is also called the logical sum of A
and B.
Illustration 1. Let A=(I, 2, 3, 4}, B={2, 4, 5, 6 1, and
C-={3, 4, 6, 8}
THEORY OF SETS 33
then AULi-={I, 2, 3,4, 5, 6}, or (AuB)UC(l, 2, 3,4, 5,6, 81

BUC={2, 3,4, 5,6, 8} or AU(RUC)=tl, 2,3,4, 5, 6,8)
A U(BU C)—(AUB)LJC
2. 11 A (I, 2, 3, 4}, B-{O} and C-=, then
.4U13 O, I, 2, 3, 4), AUC:-s{ 1, 2, 3,4) and BUC=O}
3. IIA=-{x xis an integer, [x4O, and
xis an integer, 21 <xlOO), then
AUB={x x is an integer, 1 xlOO}
Union of two sets can be illustrated more clearly by Veiin diagram
as shown below
tZi-Aue JrAfll3,TotaI 5JiudedAU13
The total shaded region

AUJJ=-A, BLA
Some important properties of the union are
1. The individual sets composing a union are members of the union.
In other words
At(AUB) and Bc(AuB)
IL It has an identity property in an empty set. Therefore
AU,6A , for every set A
111. Union of a set with itself is the set itself, i e.,
AUA=A, for every set A
IV. It has a commutative property, Le,, for any two sets A and B
AUB=BUA
V. It has an associative property, i.e., for any three sets A, B and C
(AUB)UC='AU(BUC)
Proof. For proving the associative property we are required to
prove
(i) (,4UB)UCC_ Au(BuC) and
(ii) AU(BUC)(AUB)CC
(1) Let x be any element of (AUB)UC. Then
xE(AUB)UC x((AUB)orx€C
BUSIN BSS MATHEMATICS
(xEA or xE B) or xEC
xEA or(xEJI or xEC)
xCA or x(BUC)
XEAU(BUC)
i.e., every clement of (AUB)UC is also a member of AU(LltJC)
(AUB)UCCAU(BUC)
(ii) Let y be any element of AU(BUC)
yEAU(BUC) yEA oryE (BU()
yEA or(yEBoryEC)
(yEA or yEB) oryEC
yE(AUB) oryEC
yE (A U B) U C
AU(BUC) C (AUB)UC
From (1) and (2), by the definition of equality of sets, we have
(AtJB)UC-AU(BtL C)
II
C
1()iol scdd iegonAUB)UC Total shaded reior.AU(BUC)
VI. If BCA, then AUB=.A and if ACB then AUBB.

VII. AUB= A=6 and B, in other words both are null sets.
VIII. ArIBCACAUB
To prove A(-) BC let us take
Proof xEAflB xA and xEB
So xEA
Thus AflBCA
Again to show ACAUB, let us take
yEA
= yEAUB
So ACAUB
Hence .AflBCACAUB

THEORY OF SETS 35
Distributive Laws o Unions and Intersections
1, In Algebra of sets, the union distributes over intersection which
is net there in-ordinary algebra.
Example 3. Let A, B and C be any three sets, prove that
AU(BflC)=(AUB)fl(AUC)
Also verify this resdt by means of a Venn diagram.
Solution. The law will stand proved if we prove the following
resufls:
Au(BflC)C(AU !3)fl(AUC)
and (AUB)fl(AUC)CAU(BflC)
(1) Let x be any element of AU(BnC) Then
xEAU(IJflC) xEA orxE(BflC)
xE A or (xEB and (xEC)
(xEA orxEB) and (XEA or xEC
xEE(AUB) and xE(AUC)
xE(AUB)fl(AUC)
Au(BnC)c(AUB)n(AUC) .(1)
(AUB)fl(AUC).
(ii) Let y be any element of
yE(AUB)fl (Au C) yE(AUB) and yE(AUC)
=(yEA oryEB)and (yEA oryEC)
YEA or (yEB and yC)
yEAU(BflC)

(AUB)fl(Ai'C) AU(BflC) (2)
From (1) and (2), we infer that
A U (Bfl C) = (A U B) fl (A U C)
IUustration by Venn diagram
A', 1B I A,B IU
Li
.r;
^C
C
-A EllllIP c AUB El JAuc

lmia l scdd regionAU(BrmC) IAUB)fl(AUC)
II. Intersection distributes over the union which is also there in

ordinary algebra.

36 BUSINS5 MATHEMATICS
Example 4. Prove that: Afl(BUC)(AflB)U(AflC),

Also, i'erfy this relation for the sets,
A ={J, 2, 3, 5}, B=_{2, 3, 4, 61 and C=( 1, 2, 4, 5, 7).
Solution. Here we have to prove that
Afl(BUC)C(AflB)U (An C) (1)
and (AflB)U(AflC)c14fl(BUC)
New let us take
x(7 Afl(BUC) xEA and xE(BtJC)
'xEA and (xEB or x(:---C)
(xEA and XE B) or(xEA and xCC)
xE(AflB) or x xE(AflC)
xE(AflR)U(,1( C)
Thus Afl(BUC)C(AflB)U(AflC)
Again to show (2), let us take
yE(AflB)U(AflC)yE(AflB) or yE(AflC)
='(yEA and yEI3) or (yEA and yEB)
yEA and (yEB or yEC)
"yEAfl(BUC)
Thus (AnB)u(AnC)c4n(BUC)
Combining (1) and (2), we infer that
Afl(BUC)=(AflB)U(Afl C)
1iUC=, 2, 3. 4, 5, 6, 71
Afl(BUC)={l, 2, 3, 51,
AflB={2, 3}
AflC={I, 2, 51

(AflB)u(Aflc)={l, 2, 3, 51 (2)
From (1) and (2), we have
Afl(BUC)=(AflB)u(Arc).
Illustration by Venn diagram:
rllHl- 'AI'8 fl'An

TotL shaded rQc (A fl )ut.n c)

THEORY OF SETS 37
Example 5. List the sets A, B, and C given that
AUB-'p, q, r, s} ; A UC {q, r, 3, t};
AflB{q, r} and AflC=-{q, s}.
Solution. Since AflB=(q, r} and AflC={q, .c},
q, r, sEA; q, rEB and q. s(FC
Since AUC={q, r, s, t},ptA
Since pA and AiJB={p, q, r, s}, pEB
Since AUB={p,q,r,s'. !A
Since tA and A U C - q, r, s, t}, rEC
Hence from (I), (2) and (3), we have
A - {q, r, s)
B=p, q, r}
C {q, s, t}
29 COMPLEMENT OF A SET
The complement of a set is the set of all those elements which do
not belong to that set. In other words, if U be the universal set and A
be any set then the complement of set A is the set U-A and is denoted as
A', ,4c, A or A. Symbolically,
A'- U—A - ^ x 'FU, xA)=x ; xA}
Illustration. If U={l. 3, 5, 9, 10, 18 11 and A {3, 5, 10)
Then U- A_:{i, 9, 18
Venn diagram showing the complement of the set A in set U is given
below
A
E3 At'
The important propi-ties of complementation are

I. The intersection of a set A and its complement A' is a null set.
In other words,
AflA'=
11 The union of a set A and its complement A' is the universal set.
In other words.
AUA'=U
38
lii. The complement of the universal set is the empty set and the
complement of the empty set is the universal set. Symbolic expressions for
the same are
(J'=- 0 and çb"-=U
IV. The complement of the complement of a set is the set itself.
Symbolic expression is
(A')'A or
V. If ACB then B'CA'.
VI. Expansion or contraction of sets is possible by taking into
account the complements of a set.
(1) (AflB)U(AflB)-'A, (ii) (AUB)fl(AUB')—_A
Remark. xEAUB EA or xEB (by def.)
But xAUB xA and xB
Proof. Ac(AC)B) and BC: (AnB)
•. An is superset of both A ans B.
xAUB xA and x13
Conversely, if xA andxB the n xAU B.
210. DE-MORGAN 'S LAWS
I. complement of a union is the intersection of complements.
Example 6. Let A and B be any Iwo sets, prove that
(Au B)' A fl B'
Solution. For proving the above law we have to prove the follow-
ing two results
(I) (AUB)'CA'flB' and (ii) A'flB'C(AUB).
(I) Let x be any element of (An B)'
Then by def. of the complement,
xE(AUB)' x(AUB)
xA and xB
xEA' and x€ B'
xEA'flB'
i.e., every member of (AuB)' is also a member of A'flB'.
(AUB)A'flB (1)
(ii) Let y be any element of A'flB'
Therm by def., of the intersection,
yEA'flB' yEA' and yEB'
vA and yB
s y(AUB)
yE(AUB)'
i.e., every member of A'flB' is also a member of (AUB)

THEORY OF SETS 39
A'fl8'(AUB)'
From( 1) and (2), we conclude that
(A U B)' = A fl B'
Illustration by Venr diagram:
'A'fl9
H. Complement of an intersection is the union of the complements,

I.e., (AflB)'=A'UB' for any two sets A and B.
[Student is advised to do the proof independently on the same lines
shown in the case of the proof for the preceding law.]
2'1I. DIFFERENCE OF TWO SETS
The difference of two sets A and B is the set of all those elements
which belong to A and not to Band is denoted by A—B (also A"-'B)
to be read as 'A difference B'. Symbolically,
A
Difference of two sets can be shown by Venn diagram as follows
4-B 1UIIJJB-A
From the above Vcnn diagram, we can conclude the following

results
(i)A—B is the subset of A, i.e., A—BCA and B -A is the subset
of B, i.e., B—AçB.
(ii)A—B, AflB and B —A are mutually disjoints.
(iii)4—(A--B)=.AflB and B—(B—A)—AflB

40 flUSI NESS MAT1-IEMATICg
Illustrations. (I) Let A={a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, B={a, e, 1 1 a, U)

then
A--B=-(b, c, d,f, g, h) and B --A'= (1, o, u)
Obviously
(ii) Let A=(1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15), B=r{5, 9, 13, 17, 211 then
3, 7, II, 15)
A-JI={l,
(iii) If A- (a, b, c), B= (b, c, d} and C=(d, e, f, g), then
A - C= (a, b, c), C-B --- {e, f, g},
C=
B -- {b, c}, A - (B - C)={a}
A--B=(a), and (4-B)-C- {a)
DE-MORGAN'S LAW ON DIFFERENCE OF SETS
I. if A, B, C be any three sets, then
A- (BU C)-(A- B)fl(A--C)
Proof. To prove the law, we are required to prove
A-(BUC)ci(A- B)fl(A-C)
and (A-B)fl(A-C)cA-(AUC)
(I) Let x be an element of A (lJflC). Then
x€A-(BflC) E.A and x(BflC)
-- xEA and (xB and xC)
(xEA and xB) and (EA and xC)
: xE(A-B) and .€(A-C)
xE(A-B)fl(A-C)
A--(BUC)c(A-B)n(A-C) (1)
(ii) Let y be an element of(A-B)fl(A-C)
yE(A--B)fl(A-C) yE(A-B) and yC(A C)
(j-G-7 A and yB) and (yEA and yC)
yEA and (yB and yC)
" yEA andy(BflC)
yEA-(BflC)

(A -B)n(A-C)cA-(BUC) (2)
Hence from (I) and (2), by definition of equality of sets, we get
A (BUC)(A - B)fl(A -C)
Illustration. Let us take a numerical example
A'{l, 2, 3,4,5, 6, 7, 8, 91, B=3, 5, 71. and C=-{2, 4,6)
Now BC={2, 3,4,5,6, 7)
Therefore A_(I3UC)=r (1, 8.9)
But A-B==(l, 2,4,6,8,9) and A-C= l, 3,5,7,8,9)
Thus (A- B)fl(A-C)=={l, 8,9)

TR13ORYOFS S 41
,1_(BUC)s(,1-fl)fl(A-C)
The above law can also be shown through Venn diagrams as
follows:
A 13
,-' & U
LL-
JE3UC,
-- ----
,J.
fl.A-
L -- j
L(A-). [HflJ=(i C)
II. if A, B, C he any three sets, then

A(BflC)-(A-B)U(A- C)
[Student is advised to do the proof independently on the same lines

shown in the case of the proof for the preceding law.]
Some Useful Results on Difference, Union and Intersection,
1. if A, B be any two sets, then
A U B = (A - B) U B
Proof, To prove this result, we have to show that
AUBC(A-B)UB and (A-B)LJIJcAUB
(1) let x be any element of AU!?. ihen
xEAUB ' xEA or xEB
' x 8 or .x (--A
' (EBor YEA) and (xEBorxB)
(Note this step)
EBor(xEA and xB)
- xBorxC(A-B)
' xE(A - B)orxEB
xE(A - B)UB
AUBc(4-B)Us
(Ii) Let y be any element of (A B) U1 Then
yE(A-B)UB vE(A-B)oryEB
yBoryE(A-B)
= yEB or (y(7- A and yB)
(yEBoryEA) and (yEBoryB)
(yEA oryEB) and (yEBoryB)

yEA oryEB
yE(AUB)
(A--B)UJ3C(AUB)
From (I) and (2) by equality of sets, we conclude
AUB-=(A -B)UB
II. Afl(B-A)=
Proof. Since is subset or every set
CAfl(B-A)
and hence we are only required to prove that
A fl (B - A) C
Now
xEAfl(B-A) EA and xE(B-A)
xEA and (xEB and xA)
xEA and (xA and xEB)
(TEA and xA) and XEB
4 xEcS and xEB
xEç6flB
:. xE46
Afl(B-A)s
From (1) and (2), we conclude that
An(B-A)
III. A-(A---B)=r,qflB
IV. A -B=AAflfl
V. Afl(B-A),
VI. A-8Afl-B
Proof. To verify this we have to show that
A-BCAn--B
and Afl-BCA--B
To prove (I) let
xEA-B xEA and xB
XEAand ;xE-B
xEAfl-B
{where -B--U-B,(J being the universal set
Thus A-BCAfl-B
Again to show the (2) let
y EAfl-B * yEA and yB
YEA --B, whence
An-B A - B
43
1HEOY OF SETS
Hence A—BAfl—B
VII, A'—B'=8—if
Proof. To prove the above, we have to show that ...(1)

and B-_,4CA'--B'
Now let us take
xEA'—B' xEA' and XB'
xA and XCB
1w)I, "b t herebv

To prove the second part let us take
yEB—A yEB and A
yB' and YEA'
whence
B—A_A'1J'
Hence A'---- B'B—A
VIII. Afl(B_C) (An B (An C)
Proof. Let xEAfl(B-C)xEA and xE(B—C)
rxEA and (xEB but AE C)
xE(AflB) but x(AflC)
( CxAflC)
' xE(AflB)—(AflC)
An(B_C)c(AnB)—(AnC)
Again let yE{(AflB)—(AflB)} yEA and YEA but yAflC
(yEA) and (yEB but yAflC)
YEA and (yEB but YC)
YEA and yE(B-B)(yAflCY)
yCAfl(B-- C)
(AflB)—(AflC))C_Afl(B--C)
From (1) and (2) we conclude that
Afl (B - C) = (An B) —(Afl C)
IX. Afl(B—c)(AflhJ)--C
Proof. To prove the above we will prove that
A()(B—C)(AflB)—C .. (1)
and (An B)—CCAfl(B—C)
To prove the first part let
xE(Afl(B—C)xEA and xE(B—C)
44
xEA and (xFB and xC)

(xE4 and xEB) and xC
'xEAflhJ and xC
XE(AflB)--C,
whence Afl(B-C)C(AflB).0
To prove the second part, let
YE(AflB)-CyEAflB and yC
(yEA and yEB) and yC
•yEA and (yEB and yC)
>yEA fl(B- C), which shows that
(AflR )-C)CAfl(B . C)
Hence Afl(B-C)=(Afljj)_C
X. AU(B-C):Pe-'(AL.JB)_(AUC)
Proof. To prove the above let us take
XEAU(B-C) xEAorxE(J3-C)
xCA or (xEB and xC)
(xEA or xEB) and (xEA or C)
x((AUB)afldx((AUC)
X(AUB)-(AUC)
Hence AU(B-C):;^4-(AUB)_(AUC)
XL (A-B)nB
Proof. To prove the above let us suppose that
(A-B)fl B:A
So there is at least one element, say, x, such that
xEA--J3 and EB
(xEA and xJ3 and xCfi) hich is absurd
Hence
XII. (A -B)U(B--A)=(AUB)--(AflB)
(A- B )U(fl- A)=(AUB)-(ACB).
Solution. Let x be any arbitrary chosen element of the set
A-B) U(B-A). Then
xEtA---B)u(f3-4) xE(.4-fl) orxE(B-A)
(.EAandxB)or(xE g and xA)
xEA or XEB) and (xA or xB)
(F(AUB) and x(4flB)
-xE(AUB)-(AflB)

THEORY OF SETS 45
Let y he any arbitrary element of the set (AUB)---(AnB). Then
yE(AUJJ)- (Ann) : yE(4UB) an(l y(AflB)
'(yEA oryEB) and (yA oryIJ)
(yErI and yB) or (y(Ell and yA)
'yE(A-R)oryE(13---A)
yE(A—B)U(B-A)
(AU!]) --(AflB)C(A 13)U (/?-A) (2)
From (1) and (2), we get
(A - J3)U(B-A) = (AuB) -(An!]).
212. SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE
A ditrereice set is called a symmetric difference of two sets if it con-
tains all those elements which are in set A and not in set /3 or those which
are in set B and not in set A. For example, the symmetric difference of
two sets A and B will be denoted by
AB=(A-B)U(l3 -A)
For example
1=(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6), B=(6, 7, 8)
ihen A/2B=r(A_J3)U(fl-..f)
-=(l, 2, 3, 4, 5)uj7, 81
={l, 2, 3, 4. 5, 7, 81
thus element common to both A, 13 only is excluded.
The following are some important results
I. A/S r BxA, (AB)/C=A(BC)
II, iL.\ç6A
lIE. A(AflB)=(A—B)
Iv. (AAB)u(AnB)=Aui3
V. AA B=A u8—(AnlJ)
It may be noted that it is like the exclusive connective OR, V which
does include pVq, qp but not pq.
213. ALGEBRA OF SETS
It is mere recapitulation of certain properties or laws governing
operations oil and in what way they differ from ordinary algebraic
properties with which we are conversant.
Commutative law. Additions and multiplications of real numbers
are commutative, i.e.,
a+b=b4-a and axb=ba
Union and intersection of sets are also commutative. Let A and B
be two sets, then
AuB=BUA and AflB=BflA
46
Additions and rnultiplicationsof ordinary num-
Associativft law.
bers are associative indicated as follows
(i) (a+ti)+C'a+(b+c)
(ii) (aXb)Xc=OX(bXC)
Union and intersection are also associative. Let A, B and C be three
sets, then
(AUB)UCAU(BUC) and (Aflfl)flCAfl(BflC)
Distributive Law. Only one distributive law operates in ordinary
algebra, viz.,
ax (b l-c) = (aX b)+ (ax c)
it is not distributive across multiplication as shown below
a1(bxc):A(a.f-b)X(a+C)
In the algebra of sets, we have
.4fl(BUC)=(AflB)U(AflC)
as well as AU(BflC)(AUB)fl(J1UC)
That is, in the algebra of sets, union distributes across intersection,
also.
Idempotent law
Whereas in ordinary algeb ra a-I- a=-r2a,and aXa'a 2 . But if A
is a
set then
AUA--A
4 fl A == A
This follow from the basic character of the sets in which we take into
account the character of the elements and not the number of each type of
elements. Two sets are equal if the type of elements are the same though
the number of each might be different.
Identity law:
In ordinary algebra 0 was an identity element with respect to ad-
dition because zero added to any number gave the same number, i.e.
A and a null set ç'
a+O =a, In the algebra of sets too the union of any set
is the same set A, i.e.,
AU'=A
Further in ordinary algebra "1" is an identity element with respect
to multiplication, since multiplication of any number a by I yielded the
same number as product, i.e.
aX I a
In set algebra, the intersection of any set and the universal set U is
the same set A, i.e.,
An U=A
Because of these similarities we call AUB as the logical sum and
A(iE as the logical product.
Complement law:
For every subset A of any universal set U, there is one and only one
complement of A, namely A'.

THEORY OF SETS 47
In ordinary algebra of numbers if 'a' is a fraction say 1/4, thecom-
plement of it would be 3/4 where
(l/4)+(3/4)=[ but ( 1 /4)x(314)=3/16.
Thus the multiplication of a fraction by its complement dots not
result in zero.
214. Duality
It states that union and intersection are dual operations and that if
we have established the validity of one law involving them then its dual,
which is obtained through replacing U by fl and fl by U is also true,
It is also possible to interchange U and b when they appear with U and
n.
For example, the dual of
() Afl(BUC)=(AflB)tj(AflC) is AU(BflC)=(AUB)fl(AUC)
and (ii) (Aflj U(UflA)_ -r A, has (Au U)fl(fUA)=A as its dual.
215. PARTITION OF A SET
Under partition of a set, a universal set U is sub divided into subsets
which are disjoint but make into a union U, we can say
U= A1 UA2 U ...... UA
such that if aE U, it belongs to one and only one of the subsets. Therefore
A. fl A 1 =
The following diagram shows the partition of set 1] into four subsets
A, B, C and D none of which has common elements.
illustration.
Q A
Let I1=={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7)

Now
(1) [{l, 2, 3), {2,4} {5, 6, 7)1 is not a partition because 2 is
in both
the first and the second subsets.
(ii) [{l, 5, {3, 7), (2, 4, 6)] is a partition where no element
Is
mon and the union of the three subsets makes the set.
(ifi) The following are two sets
E=r{x: xEI is even)
O { x ;xC jj s odd).
BUSINESS MATUE?-jtt.S
48
Now, every element of I is either in E or 0 but not in both. This
relation brings about a partition of the set of integers.
However, if we include those elements in a set which do not form
part of any of the subsets, then they form into it partition. In case of
three subsets of a universal set, there are eight partitions, i.e., 2 11 or 2 8
as shown in the diagram below.
-'
1 he following are the various intersections

(I) AflB'flC' (2) Ar t BflC (3) AflBfl(
(4) AflB'flC (5) AflBflC (6) Afl13flC
(7) A'fl13'flC (8) Ar)BflC
Splitting up of Sets
The basic sets of A, 13 or C can be slit up into intermediate and
ultimate sub-grouos as follows
{A}='(AB)+U-IB'} (1)
These can be further split-up into
={ABC}+(ABC}+(A13'C} + (AB'C'}
(L) above could also have been split up into
{A}={AC}1-(AC'} (3)
_(A CB) +(ACB')+{AC'B}+(AC'B
Similar, splitting-up can be of the basic sets of B and C. After
excluding repeating sets and counting them only once, the ultimate subsets
of the union of three basic sets, which are not disjoints, will be
(A U BUC)=(AB'C') i-ABC')+{BA'C'}+{AB'C')±(ABC)
+{A'BC+A'B'C} ...(5)
The residual subset is A'B'C') only.
2 16, REGROUPING OF THE SETS
The ultimate sub-sets can be regrouped into intermediate or the
basic sets. The use of the splitting up or the regrouping process will
depend on the nature of the problem, what is given and what is wanted.
The process of regrouping has been illustrated below
{ABC}+{ABC)={AB)

THEORY OF SETS
49
{ACB')+(AC/3}(AC}
{AB}-l-(11B.4} (4)
{11C}+{J3c'} {B}
{CA) - (Ct ={C (6)
The previous nianipuiatmns were simple but sometimes more involv-
ed ones are necessary. These are ill ustrated below
{1RC'={11JJ} —{A/JC}
(7)
IB'C} = (AC) - IACI3)
(8)
(A 1iC} = { BC) - {ABC}
.(9)
In {AB'C}= (1) —{AJJ}—{AC}-i-Af?C}
(10)
the above case (ID) to have {A/J'C}
elements common to {AB) and (AC) we have to remove from A}
ments common to (ABC) twice which but in doing so we remove the ele-
is restored back. hence
{AB'C'} (A}—(A/3}-_{AC} + {Anc}
We will be able to appreciate this better if you look at the diagram
on page 49 part clarly the 4 sub-sets of A.
Likewise we have
{BC'A'}'={fl}_{BC}. -(BA)+{13C11}
{cA'n'} = (C) -- {cA}----(cB) -F {cA 13)
In these we look at the 4 subsets, each of the set B
respectiely. and the set C
217. NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN A FXNITE'SET
From operations on abstract sets we now switch over to the numbers
attached to a set which is of great Practical utility in finding out the values
of new sets formed through operations on some basic sets.
find it convenient to introduce a symbol " The refore, we
ii (A)" to denote the number of
elements in a set A. In this section, we derive
terms of ii(A), n(B) and '(A1B). First we a formua for n(A UB) in
disjoi n t, i.e., ifA flj3=, then observe that if A an d B are
Next we take the case of the union of two ...

mutually disjoint meaning thereby that they havefinite
some sets which are not
to them. elements common
Consider the following Vean diagram.
r4- 8, 8-A rA fl 8
50
We observe that
AUJ3(A_B)U(M(A')
and also we observe that
(A—B)fl(B-i)'-,
(A - B)fl(AflB)=cb,
fl
(B - A) (A fl B) -k,
I.e , AU B is the disjoint union cf p1—B, AflB and B-4
n(AUB) :=n(A B)fn(.4flB)+fl(BA)
Since .4 and B are finite sets, let us assume that
n(A) = p, n(B) = q, n(Afl B) = r
Then, we have
n(AB) z p—r, n(B—A) =q r
Substituting these values in (2), we get
n(.4UB)(p—r)l-(q - r)+r=ptq--r
=n(A) t n(J3)—n(AflB) (4)
Now for the union of any three sets A, 13 and C, which are not
mutually disjoint, we have
n(A tJBUC)=n[AU(BUC)
= n(A '+ n ( B U C) - 4Afl (BJ C)i
=n'A)-I-tn(B)+n(C)- n(BflC)1
—n [(Afl B)u(AflC)1 (using Distributive Law)
n(A)+n(B)±n(C) - n(BflC)—n(AflB) n(AflC) +0(AflBflC
If the sets A, B and C are mutually disjoint, then
n( .4 IJB U C) n(i) - n(13) +n(C)
Example 8. A cornpairv studies lire product preferences of 20,000
consumers. It was found that cac(l of f/re products A, B, C wasliked by
7020, 6230. and 5980 respectively and all the products were liked by 1500
products A and B were liked by 2580, products A and C were liked by 1200
and products B and C were liked by 1950. Prove that the study results are
not Correct.
Solution. Let A, B, C d enote the set of people who like nroducts
A. B, C respectively.
The given data means
n(A)= 7420, ,dAflB)2580, n(Afl Rfl C) 1500
n(B) = 6230, n(Afl C)= 1200, n(4 UBU C)20,000
n(C) —'598O, n(BflC)1950.
We also know that
n(A UBUC)=,i(M+ n(B)+n(C)—n(AflB)-- ,r(AflC)
—n(Bfl C)+n(Afl Bfl C)

THEORY OF S!?TS
51
= '?020-1-6230-1-5980 —250— 1200-1950+1500
15,000:A20,000
This shows that tie data is not consistent.
Example 9. in a class of 25 students, 12 students have taken eco
inics : 8 lime taken economics but not politics. Find the number ' o-
of students
who have token economics and politics and those who /la y e taken politics but
not economics.
Solut ion.Total number of students-25
Number of students taking economics 12
r,—(B)—
`Number of students taking politics.
We have to hnd n(Afl/3) and.n(flflA')
Now n-j =n ( A flB')--n(1flR) I A=(jifl B ')tJ(Afl B))
2 =8 +n( An B)
7 ( ! flR)12 84
Also n(4 uB) -n(A)+n(B)--n(jlnB)
fl 2512+n(3)--4
Again 10) ==n(Afl B) +n(A' fl /3)

17z44fl(A'flB)
L
a(A'L'R)=174=t3
Example 10. Out of 880 boys in a school, 224
played cricket, 240
played hockey and 336 played basketball: of the total 64 played both basket
ball and hockey; SO played cricket and basketball and 40 played cricket and
hockey : 24 boys played all the three games. How many boys did not play
any game, and how many pla y ed only one game ?
Solution. Let the C, H and B
denote the sets of player playing
Cricket, Hockey and Basket-ball respectively. Now we are given
nCJ=224, n(H) -240, n(B)=:336
n(Iifl B)=64, fl(CflB)r=80, n(Cfl H) =40
and n(CflHflB)=24, and n(S)=880
(i) Number of players who played at least one game is given by
n(CU if UB)-=n(C) I- n(H)+ n(B)—n(Cfl H) — n(Hfl B)—n(Cfl13)
+n(CflHflC)
Number of boys who did not play any game
n(S)—n(CtjHUB) 880— 640 = 240
(ii) No'.vn(Cfl FJ) r=n(Cfl !IflB)+(Cfl Hfl B')
40=24±n(CflHflfl')
n(CflHflB')=4O-2416
52
Similarly
n(Cfl Bfl H') — 80-24=56, and n(Bfl If fl C) = 64-24=40
Number of boys who played only basket ball can be obtained from
n(B) =rn(Bfl H'fl C')+n( B fl H fl C)+n(Bfl If fl C) 4-n(13fl IIfl C)
336 =n(Bfl H'fl C')+ 56+ 40± 24
n(BflH'flC')216
Hence number of boys who played only basket ball are 216.
Also n(H)=n(HflB'flC')+n(HflBnC')
+n(HflB'fl C)+n(ifflRfl C)
- 240=nWnB'nC')-f-40+ 16±24
n(HnB'nc')= 160
Similarly n(C)='n(CnB'n H')+n(Cn IIfl H')-l-n(Cfl B'fl H)
+n(CfllJfl H)
224==n(CflB'flH')-l--56-f-16+24
n(CflB'nH') 128
Hence the number of students who play only hockey and cricket are
160 and 128 respectively.
Number of boys who played only one game
=n(Bn n'n C')+n(HflB'fl C')+n(CflB'fl H') =216+160+128
= 504
Example 11. An inquiry into 1,000 candidates who failed at ICWA
Final Examination revealed the following data
658 failed in the aggregate 166 failed in the aggregate and in
group I
372 in group 1 434 failed in the aggregate and in
group 11
590 in group II 126 failed in both groups
You have to find out how many candidates failed In
(a) all the three,
(b) In aggregate but not in group II,
(c) group 1 but not in the aggregate,
(d) group If but not in group I,
(e) aggregate or group II but not in group I,
(f) aggregate but not in group I and II.
Solution. Let n(4) denote the students who fail in the aggregate
,,(8), those who fail in the group I and n(C) those who fail in the group II.
Therefore, those who fail in all three will be represented by
n(AflBflC) and those who failin A or B or C byn(AuBuC). We are
using+for union, —for 'not' and we are not using sign of intersection
(in the diagram). The number of elements in a Set are shown here by
putting n before the braces indicating a given set. We know that

THEORY OF SETS 53
n(AUBUC)==n(A) l-n(B)+n(C)---n(AflB) n(BflC)

—n(AflC)+n(AflBfl C)
Now by substituting values in the above, we get
(a) 1,000=658-1-372±590--166--434-126+n(AnBnC).
n(AflBflC)= 106
(b) Now we have to find out the value ofn(AflC), viz.,
n(Afl C)=rn(A)_n(AflC)=658_434=224
This we can very easily be verified by use of the following figure
also:
Acgrgate (A) Group I
BA
136 ABC
CAB
(c) In this case we have to find the value ofn(BflA) which can
obtained as follows
n(Bfl A)=n(B)—i(BflA)= 372-166=206
Alternatively,
,i(Bfl A)=n(B(-)An o+nwn A) C)= 20+186=206
(d) Here we have to find the value of n(CflB), which we can obtain
as follows
n(CflB)=n(Cfl fl A)-l-n(Cfl Bfl A)=328+ 136=464
(e) Here 7z [ ( .4 UC)—B] r4(A --B)u(C----B)}
-= n(4fl ) +n(Cfl ) - n(A fl in C) -
=-n(AflBfl C)-! n(Aflflfl C)+n(Cfl.flA)+n(Cflfl A)
—n(AflBfl C)
=n(Afl.fl C) + n(Aflfl C)+n(Cflfl A)
=164+328+1 36==628
(1) We have the value of i(Aflfl C) equal to 164.
218. ORDERED PAIR
An ordered pair of objects consists of two elemcmnts a and b written
in parentheses (a, b) such that one of them, say, a is designated as the first
member and b as the second member.
Illustration. (1) The natural numbers and their squares can be

represented by ordered pairs in the following manner
(1, 1); (2,4); (3, 9); (4, 16);
(ii) The points in plane can be represented by an ordered pair (x, y)
where x is the first coordinate called abscissa and y the second coordi-
nate called ordinate. Thus a point represents an ordered pair.
(iii) The order of occurrence of members is of prime importance in
an ordered pair. For example an ordered pair (3, 5) is not the same as
an ordered pair (5, 3).
(iv) Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) will he equal if and only if
a=e and b=d
In other words
(a, b)=(c, d) a-=c, b'-d
2'19. CARTESIAN PRODUCTS
Definition. If A and B be any two sets then the set of all ordered
pairs whose first member belongs to set A and second member belongs ro set
B is called the cartesian product of A and B in that order and is denoted by
A x B. to be read as 'A cross B'.
In other words, if A, B are two sets, then the set of all ordered
pairs of the form (x, y), where XE A and yE B is called the cartesian pro-
duct of the sets .4 and 11. Symbolically
AXB={(x,y); xEA and yE8)
Illustration. Let A=[l, 2, 3, 4, 5), B={a, b, c, d}
AXB{(L, a), (1. b), (1, c), (1, d), (2, a). (2, b), (2, c),(2, d),
(3, a), (3, b), (3, c), (3, d), (4, a), (4, b), (4, c), (4, d),
(5, a), (5, b), (5, c), (5, d).
Similarly we can write down B A.
Example 12. lfA r=(l, 2, 3) and Br= (2, 31, prove that
AxB:ABxA.
Solution. The Cartesian product of sets are
Ax B={(l, 2), (I, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3))
and B A-=(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3))
We notice that (1, 2) and (1, 3) which are the elements of Ax B are
not elements oIBxA.
,', AXBZ.LBXA
Example 13. A=(I, B={2, 3), C3, 51, prove that
4),
AXB:7^BxA.
Also fi nd (Ax B)fl(A xC).
Solution. A xB={(l, 2), (1, 3), (4, 2), (4,3), and
B X A {(2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4))
THEORY OF SETS 55
Clearly A x B7^-B X A
Moreover, AxC(I, 3), (I, 5), (4, 3), (4, 5))
Thus (4xk)fl(AxC){(J, 3), (4, 3)}
If R be a set of real numbers then R X R'R2 denotes the Cartesian
plane as
RXR-=((x,y): xER,yER}
each element of this set represents cartesian coordinates of a point in
plane.
Example 14. Let A=a, b}, B=p, q) and C={q, r}
Find (a) Ax(BUC)
(b) (,lxB)U(AxC)
(c) Ax(BflC)
(d) (AXB)fl(AxC)
Solution. (a) If BUC =-(p, q, r)
Then .ix(BUC)=(a, b}X(p, q, r}
= (a, p), (a, q), (a, r), (b, p), (b, q), (b, r)}
(b) Since Ax B((a, p), (a, q), (b, p), (b, q)} and
A x C={(a, q), (a, r), (b, q), (b, r)}
Theii
(A x B) U(A x C) ((a, p), (a, q), (b, p), I b, q), (a. r), (b, r)}
From (a) and (h), we get
A x(BUC)-=(4x B)U(A x C)
c) 8flCrq}
A x(BflC) ={a, b} x (q) ((a, q), (b, q)}
(d) (AxB)ñ(AxC)=a, q), (h, q)}
From (c) and (d), we find that
Ax(BflC)=(AxB)fl(AXC)
Example 15. lf A '- { l , 4} ; B==(4, 5 C={5, 7}, verify that
A x(BflC' z(AxB)fl(AXC).
(C.A Entrance, June 19841
Solution We have
BflC=5)
Ax(BflC)=J(l, 5), (4, 5)) (1)
Ax B=(l, 4), (1, 5), (4, 4), (4, 5)}
A xC= 4( l , 5), (I, 7), (1. 5), (4,7)'
(AxB)fl(AxC)=-, 4), (4, 5)) (2)
From (U and (2), we have
A x(Bfl C)=(A x B)C(A x C).
56
HUSINaSS MATHEMATICS
Some Important Results of Cartesian Product

I. Ax/i and fix A
BxA, unless iI=l3. Thus,have the same number of elements but AXB:P-L
the Cartesian product of two sets is commuta-
tive if thc two sets are equal.
11. In the product set BxA, the first component of ordered pairs
are taken from B and the second from A.
Il l. If A and B are disjoint sets, then A x B and 13 x
disjoint. A are also
IV. If the set A Consists of m elements a 1 , a........., and A consists
of the n elements b 1 , b2 , .,bn then the product set Ax B consists of mn
elements.
V. If either A or B is null then the set A x
is also a null set.
VI. If either .4 or 1? is infinite and other is a non-empty set, then
AxB is also an infinite set.
Some Further Results of Cartesian Product
VII. If Ad, then Ax Cc- J3XC
VIII, If 4dB and CCD, then
Ax CCBX D
IX. If ACB then
AXB-(AXJ1)fl(BX4)
Proof. Let (x, y) he the element of Ax 13 then
(x,y)E(AXB)..>XE11 and yEB
XEA and (xEA and yEB)
(xEA and yEB) and (xEB and yEi1)
(•.. AB, yEA yEA and xEA and xEB).
(x, y)E(AxB) and (x, y)C(Bxi)
(x,y)E(AxJ3)fl(3x4)
AxB - (AXB)fl(BxA), provided AçB
X If A, B and C be any three sets, 1/len
Ax(BflC)=(4xj)fl(AxC)
Proof. Let (x, y) be any element of Ax(BflC). Then
(x, y)EAx(BflC) ' x.t and yE(BflC)
xA and (yER and yEC)
- (x CA) and (yEA) and (xEA and yEC)
(x, y)E(AXB) and (x,y)E(AxC)
(x,y)E(.4xB)fl(AXC)
Ax(BflC) ç (AxB)fl(AXC)
Again, let (u, r) be any element of (Ax B)fl (Ax Q.
(u, V)E(AXB)fl(AXC) (u, v)E(Ax13) and (a, v) E (Ax C)
TJ1IORY OF SETS
(nEil and v(z-"il) and (uEA and vEC)

- uA and (veil and v(:-C)
uEA and y E (BflC)
(ii, v)EAx(LIñC)
(Ax')fl(4xC) ç Ax(BflC) (2)
From (I) and (2), by equality of sets, we have
A x (B fl C)=(A x BJ fl (A x C)
XI. if A, B, C, he any three setc, then
A x(BUC)=(A x 13)U(A x C)
Proof. It is exactly similar to part X.
XII. (AxB)fl(SxT)(,1flS)x(J1flT)
Proof. Let (x, y) be any element of (.1 x B)fl(Sx T). Then
(x, y)E(Ax B)fl(Sx T) (x, ;')E(A Y. B) and (x, ))E(SxT)
> (x(--jA aid yEt?) and (xES and yET)
(XE A and XE 5) and (yEB and yET)
xEiiflSandyEBflT
(x, y) (F (A C) 5) x (Bfl T)
(Ax/3)fl(ST) C (AflS)x(BnT) (1)
Again, let (ii, )') be any element of (An S) X (Bfl T) Then
(a, v)E(AflS)x(BflT) => uE(AflS) and y (F (BflT)
-- (uEA and riES) and (vEil and vET)
(uEA and v(FB) and (uES and vET)
(u, v) E (A >< B) and (ii, v )€ (S x T)
(u, v)E(xB)fl(SxT)
(AflS)X(BflT)C(AXB)fl(SX7')
From (I) and (2), e conclude that
(A x B) F) (Sx 7') == (A n S) x (IJfl 1)
Example 16. If A= {1, 2,3); 13=f2, 3,4) ; S.r(i, 3, 4}
T=(2, 4, 5), verify that (AxB)fl(SXT)-(AflS)X(BflT)
So1uijo, AxB {(l, 2), (1, 3). (I, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4),
(3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4))
SxT [(I, 2), (I, 4), (, 5). (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 2),
(4, 4), (4, 5))
(Ax B)fl(SxT)=(I, 2), (1, 3), (I, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2,4), (3, 2),
(3, 3), (3, 4)) fl (], 2), (I, 4), (1, 5), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4,2),
(4, 4), (4, 5))
=(1, 2), (I, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4))

58 BUSINESS MA1IIMATICS
Also AIiS=(l, 3), )JflT=(2, 4)

(AflS)x(BflT)l,3},x2,4}
= ( l , 2), (1, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4))
Hence from () and (2), we conclude that
(4 x B)fl(SxT)(AflS)x(BflT)
220. SET RELATIONS
The mathematical concept of relation deals with the way the
numbers or variables are related or paired. A relation in its ordinary
meaning signifies some ties. In mathematics, the relevant expressions are
"is parallel to", Is greater than", "is equal to', etc. When these relations
are between two numbers or objects, they are called binary relations and
will be expressed as s R r or o R b. Similarly, relations between three
variables will be expressed as s R I R p. The higher order relations will
accordingly be expressed with multiplication signs. However, binary
relations are the most important for our purpose and we would confine
mostly to these relations. The following are some statements which have
been expressed in the form x R y:
5 is less than 9
9 is the square root of 81
The negative of R will be denoted by R(f bar) in the form x R y
indicating that "x is not related to y'.
The converse of R denoted b IC (R dash) so that j x if and only
if x R y is true. The respective converse of tile relations given above are
9 is more than 5 and
81 is the square of 9
Such relations are also called inverse relations. For example, the
inverse relation of x R y will be y R' x. Formally
yR x-+x R
Thus if x R y is a subset of the Cartesian product set Ax B, y IC x
will be a subset of the Cartesian product set 8XA.
221. PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS
Reflexive. When in a relation x is related to itself, i.e., x R x for alt
x. For example, if x R y stands for statements like
x has the same experience as y
y's selection synchronised with z's
They indicate relations which are reflexive.
Symmetric. When for every x R v, we have y R , so that we can
make statement
x R y --y R x
For example, a statement x is a relation of y or y is 100 metres away
from x signify symmetric reiations. But the above statements if modified
as "x is the father of y" or x is 100 metres north of y- then they cease
THEORY OF SETS
59
to be symmetric ; in other words, they are asymmetric. If, however, the

statements are such that nothing can be said whether x B y - ji B x, then
it would he asymmetric. Anti-symmetric is one which has the property
xRy and vRx—x=y.
Transitive. This is ,I in between three or more elements, e.g.,
xRyand yRz—xRz for all x,y.z

For example, if a relation is expressed -III form that "x is the
parent of y" and "y is the parent of :", the relation is transitive because
in that case the statement ''x is the parent of z' is true. If, however, the
statement is that "x is the father of y'' and ''y is father of z" the rela-
tion is not transitive because 'x cannot be lather of z". The following are
sonic relations which are transitive
X y A y 4 z-x f z
Spoken as ' if x is parallel to y'' and ''y is parallel to z" then x is

parallel to z. Similarly, if
x>y/\y>z-x>z
Spoken as ,'If x is greater than y" and "y is greater than z" then x
is greater than
Equivalence. A relation which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive
is called an equivalence relation. The following are some examples
x is parallel to y.
tii) x has the same price as Y.
Order. A relation Which is non-reflexiVe, non-s/innietric but tran-
sitive is called an order relation. For example, the relations ' is less thin"
and ' is more than" are order relations. On the other hand, the relations
"is less than or equal to" and "is more than or equal to" are not order
relations because although they are transitive, they are reflexive as well
the reflexivity goes against the order relation.
222. BINARY RELATIONS
A binary rclaiin is a set, all of whose members (elements) are
ordered pairs. Since every sub-set of a certesian product A x B is, by defi-
nition a set of ordered pairs, it follows that every sttb . set 9f A x B is a
relation.
A relation RC i >: B is called a relation from A to B (or relation
between A and B), and a relation RCA x A is called a relation in (or on)
the set A. If is a relation then (x, y)ER is sometimes written as xRy.
The domain D of the rdation R is the set of all first elements of the
ordered pairs which belong to R. Symbolically,
D[x (x,y)ER}
The range E or the relation R is the set of all second elements of the
ordered pairs which b&ong zo B. Symbolically,
E=.(y: (x, y)ER)
Inverse Relatiou. Let R he a relation from A to B. The inverse
relation of R is denoted by R ' and it is defined as a relation from B to A.
60
flUSINF.SS MAIHF.MATICS
(i) Let us have order relation I?
A={t, 2, 3) to set B=(l, 3, 5) as follows of the type < (less than) from set
R={(l, 3), (1, 5), (2, ), (2, 5),
(3, 5))
The inverse R 1 is the relation > (greater than) as follows
((3, 1), (5, 1), (3, 2), (5, 2), (5, 3))
(ii) Let us now find the relation R
set C=-{2, 3, 41 to Drr{3 , 6, 71 as follows of the type "x divides y" from
R={(2, 6), (3, 3), (3, 6))
Its inverse R 1 will be
R- 1 = ( ( 6, 2), (3, 3), (6, 3))
(//i) We can have relation R of set E= (a, b, c, d}
in itself as follows:
R {(a, b), (a, c), (a, d), (b, c), (b, d), (c, d)}
R'=-. {(b, a), (c, a), (d. a), (c, b), (d, b), (d, c)}
Remarks 1. Let R be a relation in a set .4,
AX A, then R is called reflexive relation if i. e., R be a sub-set of
is (a. a)ER for all aEA. Thus
• reflexive if every element in A is related to itself.
2. Let J be a relation in a set A and R
• is said to be s v be a subset of AXA. Then
mractric relation if for all (a, b)ER, (b, a)ER i.e.,
whenever a is related to b and then b is also related as
a, I.e., aRh-> bRa.
3. The relation R is said to he a transitive relation if
(b, c)E R implies (a, c) FR, i.e., ira Rh and bRc then (a, b)ER and
live aRc, then- R is transi-
Let us consider
(I) Let R be a relation ( (less than or equal to) in
such that (a, b) F R iffab. F{l, 2, 3, 4...),
Now
(a) R is reflexive because a<b
for every aEJ
(h) R is not symmetric because 25 but 5<2.
We can also say. (2, 5) F R but (5, 2)R.
(c) R is transitive because a(b and bc
so that ac.
(d) R is not equivalence relation because a.b
but ba.
(ii) let there be a set T of all congruent triangles. Show that they
have on equivalence relations
(a) The relation is reflexive a R a for all a F T
(b) The relation is symmetric : a R b, b R a
(c) The relation is transitive a R b, b R c
and a R C.
223. FU NCTIONS OR MAPPINGS
Let us consider the following relations which relate
(I) each given circle to its radius,
(if) each given natural number to its square,
TItEORYOPSUS 61
(iii) each given printed book to its title.
(iv) cacti given firm of Charatered Accountants to the number of its
audit clerks
(v) each given examinee of C.A. (Inter) examination and roll
number allotted to him.
Each of these relations relates each given element of an appropriate
first non-empty set to one and only one (unique) element of an appro.
priate second non-empty set. Each of these relations is called a function
or mapping from an appropriate first set to an appropriate second set,
according to the following definition.
Let A and B be two lion-empty sets, not necessarily disjouit. Then
any relation or correspondence J, which relates or associates each given
element, say, a, of set A to one and only one (i e., a unique) element, 5, of
set B is culled a function (or mapping) of ( from) the set A into the set B.
f is a mapping of A into 13 is symbolised as
J,
f: A-*B Or A—> 13
It immediately follows that
f A-^B if and only if
(i) ICAxB
(ii) For each given xEA, there exists at least one yEll such that
(x, y)Ef
Remarks. 1, A set of ordered pairs specifics a function, from the
set of all the first elements of the ordered pairs to the set of all the second
elements of the ordered pairs, if and only if, no two distinct (i.e., unequal)
ordered pairs have the same first element.
2. The set A is called the domain of the mapping (or function)f
and the set B is called the co-domain of the mapping (or function)f.
3. The element of B which the mapping fassociates any element
a of A, will be denoted by 1(a) (which reads 'f f a')
o and is called the
fimage of a or the value of the function for a.
Also the element a is
,ailed the pre-image of A. It should be remembered that each element of
8 need not appear as the image of an element in A.
We find the range off
to consist of those elements in B which appear as image of at least one
element in A. There can be more than one elements of A
which have the
same image in B. The image set of J(A) is called the range off.
4. Clearly the mapping is well defined if
(i) each element of A has an image in B,
(ii) an element XEA has only one image off(x)EJj, but two or more
elements of A may have the same image in B.
224. TYPES OF MAPPINGS
I. Injective Mapping. If to each element of set A there corresponds
one element of set B, but there are some elements of set B which
do not
62 BUSINESS MATHEMAT[CS
correspond to any of the elements of A, this type of mapping is called

injective or one-one into mapping.
Def. A mapping f of a set A into a set B is called injective or one-
one mapping of A into B if two different elements of A necessarily corres-
pond to two different images in B.
Symbolically,
f: A--B is one-one mapping of .4 into B if
((a) -=f(b) =-
a=b
or aOh f(a) zAf(b)
11Iusation. Let A be the set of students sitting on chairs in a

class-room and suppose B it the set of chairs in the class-room. Again let
f be the correspondence which associates to each student and the chair
occupied by him, i.e.,,f: A—B.
If all the students occupy different chairs (one-one) but some chairs
are still left vacant (into), it will be one one into mapping.
II. Bijective Mapping or one-one onto mapping. If to each
element of A there correspoads one and only one element of B and every
element of B have one and only one image in A, the mapping is called
bijective or one-one onto mapping or one-to-one correspondence.
Del. A mapping f, of a set A into set B is said to be a one one
mapping of A onto B if.
(I) f is an onto mapping, and (ii) is one-one mapping.
fliustrat ion. If all the students occupy different chairs (one-one)

and no chair is left vacant (onto) then it will he one-one onto mapping.
III. Surjection or Onto Mapping. If to each element of A there
corresponds one element of B but one element of B have more than one
image in A. this type of mapping is called surJertii'' or many-one mapping
-or onto mapping.
Del. Let A and B be the two sets. If the mappingf be such that
each element of B is the f-image of at least one element of A, then fis said
to be a mapping of A onto B, or is said to be a function from A onto B
or surjecton mapping.

THEORY OF srs 63
IflustratiOti. If two Or more students occupy same chairs (many-

one) and no chair is left vacant (onto) then it will be many-one onto
mapping
EXERCISES
1. Define the following and give an example of each
(i) Subset of a set. (ii) Complement of a set. (iii) Union of two
sets. (Al Intersection of two sets. (r) Disjoint set.
2. Write, in words, the following set notations
Ad?; x,l ; .41)11; (0) ;4B ; A=.
3. Represent the following sets in set notation
(i) Set of all alphabets in English language,
(ii) the set of all odd integers less than 25,
(iii) the set of all odd integers,
(iv) the set of positive integers x satisfying the equation
X'2 ---5x+-7=0
4. Rewrite the following sets in a set-budder form

() A='a, e, f, a, u) (ii) B=(l, 2, 3, .1.......
(iii) C is a set of integers between —15 and -!-15.
5. Let V={O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9), X-={O, 2, 4, 6, 81
Y=={3, 5, 7) and Z=-.(3, 7)
Find (a) (i) YUZ (ii) (VuY)flK
(iii) (XtJZ)UV, (iv) (XuY)flZ,
(v) (UV)flc.
(b) V-=(x:x+2=0}, R=(x:xm+2x=0}
S={x x2 +x-20} ; state if V, R and S are cqual
6. (a) Given A =(2, 3, 4) and B={4, 51 which of the following
statements are not correct and why 7
(i) SEA. (ii) 5}CA. (iii) 4EA
(b) If A={2, 3, 4 and LT (0, 1, 2, 3, ), which of the following
statements are correct or incorrect. Give reasons.
(1) (O}EA', (ii) EA'. (iii) '01C A',
(iv) 0EA', (v) OCA'.
64
BUSINESS MA1I(EMAT!CS
7. What is the relationship between the following sets
A -= {x : x is a letter in the word flower),
B=(x : x is a letter in the word flow),
C (x x is a letter in the word wolf),
xis a letter in the word follow).
8. State whether each of these statements is correct or incorrect

(i) {a, 1,, c} {c, 1, a), (ii) {a, c, a, d, c, d}C{a, c, d},
(iii) {b} C {{b}}, (iv) (b) C {(b}} and (v) 0 C {{b}).
9. Let A=(a, b, c), J3a, b}, C= a, b, d}, D=-{c, d}, E=(d).

State
which of the following statements are correct and give reasons
(i) BC A, (ii) D :?4-C, (iii) CIDE, (iv) DE, (v) DC B, (vi) D A,
(Vii) BC, (viii) EC A, (lx) ER, (x) aE 4, (xi) aC A, (xii) (a)GA,
(xiii) (a)CA.
IO. A={0}, B={0, l}, C=, D={/},
Let
I
E=(x x is human being 200 years old)
I xEA and XE!?).
State which of the following are true and which are false.
a) (i) AC!?, (ii) B=r-F, (iii) CC D, (iv) C--E, (v) A=F, (vi) F= 1..
and (viii) E=CD.
false (b) If A =('O, 1), state whether the following statements are true or
(I) { I) CA, (ii) (l)€A, (iii) 0 CA. (iv) OEA, (v) IC A, (vi) {0}, CA
(vii) 'ICA.
(c) State whether the following sets are finite, infite, or empty
(i) X=r(l, 2, 3.......,500), (ii) Y=(y : y=a 2 ; a
is an integer),
(iii) A= {x xis a positive integer multiple of 2),
(iv) B= {x : x is an integer which is a perfect root of 26<x<351,
11. Give an eaxmple of three sets A, B and C such that
BflC and An C^0 but AflBflC=. AflB--A,
12. Let A = {x I x is a letter in English alphabet} be the universal
set.
V={x x is a vowel}, C—(x I x is a consonant),
I
Nr=- {x x is a letter in your full name).
(a) Describe the four sets by listing the elements of each set.
(b) List the elements of the following sets
(0 NU V, (ii) Nn c, (iii) VIJC (iv) IV,-)V'
(v) Cfl N', (vi) C.

THEORY OF Sf15 65
13. lithe universal set is X-(x xEN, 1 ---, x <- 2)

and A=(1, 9, 10), B- 3, 4, 6, II, 12) and C=2, 5, 6) are the subsets
of 1, find the sets A1J(IJflC) and (AUR)fl(AUC).
14. The following table gives the distribution of radio sets by income
groups of a sample of 1,172 families.
Income Groups
No. 01
Redo sets
Less thin /?s. 6,000 to Rs. 11,000 to Rs. 16.000 Total
Rs. 6,000 Rs. 10,999 Rs. 15,999 and (thUie
Two or morel 10 174 84 94 362

One 152 308 114 46 620
None 70 50 20 50 190
TOTAL 232 532 21 190 I 1,172
Let universal set U he the set of Ianiilics in the sample and let the
following subsets of Li be defined
,[-- x x is the family owning to or more radio sets),
x is a family with one radio set),
C= x I x is a family with res. thait Rs. 6,000 income},
D=(x x is a family with Rs. 6,000 to Rs. 10,999 income),
xis a family with Rs. 11,000 to Rs. 15,999 income}.
(a) Find the number of families in each of the following sets
(1) C'fl 13, (ii) .4 UE, (iii) (A uB)'fl E,
(iv) (CUDUE) fl(AU13)'.
(1,) A number of sets are specified below. Express each of them in
let notation using the basic operations of fl, U and I.
(1) {x x is famil y with one radio set and an income of less than
Rs. 11,000),
(ii) x x is a family with no radio set and more than Rs. 16,000
income),
(hi) Jk x .v is a family with two or more radio sets or an income of
Rs. 11,000 to Rs. 15,999),
(ix) i x I x is the family with no radio set).
15. Let .4-- f a, 6, c, d), where a, b, c, d represent the members of a
decision-making body, say a committee.
(i) List the elements of power set P(A).
66 BUSINESS MATItMAT!CS
(ii) Each element of Ft A) can represent a voting coalition casting

votes for a specific measure. Ileach committee member has one vote and
if three votes are needed to carry a motion, a set of any three committee
members represents a winning coalition, while a set of any one member is
a losing coalition and the set of any two members a blocking coalition.
Specify the winning, the losing and the blocking coalitions of the set P(A).
(iii) Let the four members a, b, c, 4 of the decision-making body re-
present the shareholders of a corporation with 100 shares and let 'a' own
SO shares, 'b' 20 shares, and 'c' and 'd' 15 shares each. . If each share has
one vote and an absolute majority, i.e., 51 votes can carry a motion, list
the winning, losing and blocking coalitions of the set P(A).
16. If A'(o, b, c, 4, e, f), B=. {a, e, i,o, u},
and C= (in, n, o, p, q, r, s, I, U)
Compute the following
(i) Au 13, (ii) AU C, (iii) RU C, (iv) A - B, (i) A B, (vi) 8 C
(vii) AU(B---C), (viii) A UBUC, and (ix) AflBflC.
17. (a) If A_-r{5, 6, 7, 8, 9), B (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12),
C='{3, 6, 9, 12),
Verify that Au(Bfl C)-(AUB)fl(AUC).
(b) IJ-=(a, b, c, d, e, f. .v, y, z, w), A=a, b, c, d, e,
Br.(b, d, x, y, z}.
If A-B is defined as 4fl11', verify that (A-B)'=A'UB.
18. If the universal set U={x I x is a -]ve integer <25).
i1(2. 6, 8, 14, 22) B=r(4, 8, 10, 14), C-{6, 10, 12, 14, 18, 20),
verify the relations
(fl (AflB)'=A' UB' (ii) (B'fl C)U(A'ñ C)=Cfl(A' UB5,
19. If A - {l, 2, 3); B={2, 3,4,51 and C=(2, 4, 6, 8), verify that
(1) AUB==(A-8)UB, (ii) A--(A---B)=rAflB,
(iii) Afl(B-C)(AflB)---(BflC).
20. Let the universal set
U. {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 9, 10, Ii, 12, 13), A==(3, 4, 5, 6).
Br .3, 7, 9, 5), and C={6, 8, 10, 12, 7).
Write down the following sets:
(1) A', (Ii) 13', (iii) C' (iv) (A')', (v) (B')', (vi) (A UI.?)', (vii) (A ('IB)',
and (viii) A'UC'.
21. A={l, 2,3,4 ........ 8,9}, B"(2, 4. 6, 8), C=(I, 3, 5, 7, 9),
D = {3, 4, 5), E=(3, 5).
What is the S if
(i) SC and SA. (ii) SC and ScC.
22. Write down all the subsets of the sets:
B= ( 6, 8, 11).

THEORY 01 SETS 67
23. A-{l, 3, a, {l}, (I, a}). State whether the following statements
are true or false
(I) 1 EA, (ii) (I)EA, (iii) {l}CA- (iv) EA, (v) 0 CA,
(vi) {I , a}CA, (vii) 0, aC A. (viii) (1, a)EA.
24. Let A={I, 3,5,7, 9), B =(2, 4,6,3, 10),
C {3, 4, 7, 8, 11, ]2).
Show that
(I) (AUR)UC — AU(BUC), (ii) (AflB)flC-=Afl(BflC).
(UI) AUU3flC) = (AUB)fl(AUC),
(iv) ,i1-(BU0.(AflB)U(AflC).
25. If U=- {l. 2, 3.........., 8, 9) be the universal set
A={l. 7, 3,4) and B=-(2, 4, 6, 8)
Write down the following sets
(i) A U B, (ii) A flB. (iii) A', (iv) (A UB) , (v) (AflB)'.
26, State with reasons whether the following statements are true or
false
(I) If AU.B=-BUC then A=C, (ii) If ACB then AUB=B.
27. Show than AflB= if and only if A—B=A.
28. If .4 and B are two sets, then
(I) A — BcA, (ii) Afl(B—A)=, (iii) AUB—(A—B)UB,
(iv) A—B==AflB'=B'—A.
29. Prove that
(i) (AUB)fl( .4U B') = A and (ii) (AflB)U(AflB')=A.
30. Prove that (B—A')=BflA.
31. Prove that AUB=(A—B)UB.
32. Let A, R and C he three subsets of the universal set U. Prove
each of the following
(I) Afl(AUB) =A , (ii) (AflB)U(AflB )=A,
(iii) (Au Th=(A'flB')', (iv) (AUB)fl(AUB')A,
(v) {A'U(BUC)]'AI)B'flC',
(vi) AUB = (AflB)U( Afl B)U(A'flB),
(vu) [A'U I AflB'YL=Afl B. (viii) BU(AUB)=(AUB),
(ix) (A'1J BTU (A'UB)'=A.
33. Let A= (a, b, c, d, e, f), R=- { x: xis a vowel), C{x, y, z).
Give the following Cartesian product sets and count the number of
elements in each.
(I) AXB, (ii) BXA, (iii) CXB, (iv) (AxB)XC, (v) A(BXC).
34. Let P={1,2,x), Q=(a,x,y). R=(x,y,z)
Find:
(1) P x Q, (ii) P>< R (iii) Q X R, (iv) (P x Q) fl (P x R),
(v) (Rx Q)fl(Rx P), (vi) (PX Q)LJ(Rx P).
35. (a) If P has three elements, Q four and R two, how many
elements does the Cartesian product set P Q R will have?
(b) Identify the elements of B, if set
Q = (1, 2, 3) and fix Q ((4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (5, 1), (5, 2), 5, 3)
), (6, 2), (6, 3)1
36. Given A=-{2, 3), Br=(4, 51, C-=(5, 61, find (6, 1
A x(BUC), A )<(BflC), (Ax B)U(Bx C).
37. If A-(l, 2, 3, 4), B=-(2, 4, 6), C=-{1, 2,5) and
U=(L, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 81. Compute the following
(I) ,4fl(J3 -C), (ii) AU(BflC), (iii A'U(B-C),
(iv) A'fl(B -C), (v) A--(B'--C'), (vi) A'fl(B'nC'),
(vii) A' U(B' -C'). (viii) (A' - B')fl (B -C'), (ix) (4' UB')fl C',
(x) A'-- (BflC)', (xi) AXB, (xii) AX(BUC),
(xiii) (A U B)--(BU C), (xiv) (A fl B) > (Bfl C), (x)') (A -B) x (ll - C)
(xvi) (A'-B') X (B - C)', (Xvii) zi X (DUCy, (xviii) Ax (Bx C)
(Xix) AA B, and (xx) (4fl)"•.c
3. Let A. B, C, D be any four sets, show that
(1) ACB-AXCCBXC.
(ii) (AX B) C -) (C x D) = (An C) x (Bfl I)).
(iii) (Ax B)u(Cx D)=(A'fC)x(flUD)
(vf) (ACB)A( C (7 D) )A XCCBX D.
39. If A has 32 elements, B has 42 elements and A U B has 62 ele-
ments, indicate the number of elements in ..ifl ii
40. A town has a total population of 50,000. Out of it 28,00() read
Patriot and 23,000 read Times of India while 4,000 read, both the papers.
Indicate how many read neither Patriot nor Times of India ?
41. In a survey conducted of 2,000 clerks in an office it was found
that 48% preferred coffee (C), 54% liked Tea (1') and 64% used to smoke
(S). Of the total 28% used Cand T, 32 0/,, used Tand S and 30 0 / pre-
ferred C and £ Only 6% did none of these. Find (I) the number having /
all the three, (ii) T and 9 hut not C, and (iii) only C.
42. Compiancs about work canteen fell into three categories.
Complaints about (1) Mess, (M) (ii) Food, (F) (iii) Service (S). Total
complaints 173 were received as follows
n(M)= 110, n(F)=55, n(S)=67, n(MflFflS')=20, il(Mfl Sn F')= l,
n(FflSfl M')'- 16. Determine the complaints about (1) all the three, (ii)
about two or more than two,
43. Out of the total 150 students who appeared for ICWA Exami-
nation from a centre, 45 failed in Accounts. 50 failed in Maths, and 30 in

THEORY OF SETS
69
Costing. Those who failed both in Accounts and Maths were 30, those
Who failed both in Maths and Costing were 32 and those who failed both
in Accounts and Costing were 35. The students who failed in all the
three subjects wore 25. Find out the number who failed at least in any
one of the subjects.
44. A survey of 400 recently qualified Chartered Accountants reveal-
ed that 112 joined industry, 120 started practice and 160 joined the firms
of pract king chartered accountants as paid assistants. There were 32 who
joined service and also did practice 40 had both practice and assistant-
ship and 20 had both job in industry and assistantship There were 12
who did all the three. Indicate how many could not get any of these and
how many did only one of these.
45. A market research team interviews 100 people, asking each
whether he smokes any or all of the items, A cigarettes, B ; cigars, C-
pipe tobaco. The team returns the following data
Category Number Category Number
ABC 3 A 42
AB 7 B 17
BC 13 C 27
AC 18
Total 100
Are the returns consis tent ?
46. (11 In a survey of 100 students it was found that 50 used the
college librar y , 40 had their own and 30 borrowed hooks, 20 used both
college library and their own, IS borrowed books and used their own
books, whereas 10 used borrowed books and college library. Assuming
that all students use either college library books or their own or borrowed
books, find the number of students using all the three sources.
(ii) If the number of students using no hook at all is 10, and the
number of students using all the three is 20, show that the information is
inconsistent.
47. A class of 60 students appreared for an examination of Mercan-
tile law, Statistics and Accountancy. 25 students failed in Mercantile
law, 24 failed in Statistics, 32 failed in Accountancy, 9 failed in Mercantile
law alone. 6 failed in Statistics alone S failed in Accountancy and
Statistics only and 3 failed in Mercantile law and Statistics only. Find
(i) how many failed in all-three subjects.
(ii) how man y passed in all the three subjects.
48. Asked if you will vote for Congress, the following responses
are recorded
Yes No Don't kyow

- -
Adult Male 10 20
Adult Female 20 15 5
Youth just to en te r adulthood 105w

70 I3USINESS MATHEMATICS
Write A set of adults, C=set of women and children,

Y= set of 'Yes' answers, N= set of 'No' answers.
Find (1) n(A'), (ii) n(Afl C), (iii) n(YU N), (iv) n [A fl (Yfl 1/)']
(v) C'flY'.
49. In a market survey, a manufacturer obtained the following data
Did you use our Percentage
brand answering yes
1. April 59
2. May 62.
3. June 62
4. April and May 35
5. May and June 33
6. April and June 31
7. April, May and June 22.
Is this correct ?
50. The report of the inspector of an assembly line showed the
following 100 units
Item Defect No. of pieces
Strength defect (S) 35
2 flexibility defect (F) 40
3 Radius defect (R) 18
4 S and f 7
5 Sand 11
6 F and R 12
7 S,F and R 3
The report vvas returned. Why ?
51. In a survey of 1,000 customers, the number of people that buy
various grades of coffee seeds were found to be as follows
• grade only 180 A grade but not B grade......230
• grade and C grade ...... 0 A grade 260
C grade 480 C grade and B grade SO
None of the three grades......240
(a) How ninny buy B grade coffee seeds?
(b) How many buy C grade, if and only if they do not buy B grade?
and
(c) How many buy C and B grades but not the A grade 7
52. The workers in a factory were classified according to skill, num-
ber of years of service in the factory and whether they performed direct
or indirect labour If they had less than three years of service they were
considered as short term workers, if they served 10 years or more they
T11IORY O' SEES 71
were considered long term workers, and all others were classified medium-
term workers. Consider the following data
Skilled Unskilled Skilled Unskilled
and and and and
direct direct indirect indirect
Short-term 6 8 10 20
Mediu,n-term 7 10 16 9
Long-term 3 2 8 0
If S, M, L, Sk, I denote short, medium, long term, skilled and
indirect respectively,
(i) Determine the number of workers in the following classes
(a) M, (b) LflI, (c)SflSkflI,
(d) (MUL)fl(SkLJJ), (e) S'U(Sfl 1)'.
(ii) Which set of the following pairs has more workers as its
members
(a) (SUM)' or L
(Li) (lfl.Sk)' or S IflS')
ANSWERS
1. See text.
2. 4 is a proper subset of B ; x is not tin element of A ; A contains
B ; singleton with an only element zero A is not contained in B ; A is a
null set .
3, (1) A-. (x x is an alphabet in English language),
(ii) I{x : x is an odd integer <25
(iii) !=(1, 3,5,7.......}
(iv) j='{x x2t-5x+7=0},
4. V= [x x is a vowel),
x is a natural number)
C={x —15<x<15A x is a whole number),
5. (a) (0 (3, 5, 7) (ii) (0, 2, 4, 6, 81,
(iii) (0, 1. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
(iv) (3, 7), (v) 0 .
(b) V. R and S are equal when x= —2.
6. (a All are incorrect.
(b) Only (v) is not corect.
7. B = C= D, and all these are subsets of the set A.
8. Only (iv) is incorrect.
9. (i), (ii), (iii), (ix), (x), ('iii) only are correct.
10, (a) (i), (iii), (iv) and (v) only are true.
(b) (i), (iv) and (vii) only are true.
(c) (1) finite, (ii) infinite, (iii) infinite, (iv) empty,
72
BUSINESS MAT! IkMAT!C&
11. A={1, 2, 3, 4), 13-=(2, 3, 7, 9), C=(l, 4, 7, 9},

12. Try it yourself.
13. AU (fin C) (A UB)fl (AU C) = (I, 6, 9, 10)
14 (a) (i) 152, (ii) 402, (iii) 20, (iv) 140
(b) (i) (CUD)n13, (ii) (AUIJ)'fl(C'UD'UE')
(iii) A UE, (iv) (A UB)'.
5, (i) P(A) = [ç, (a), {b), (c}, {d}, {a, h}, (a, c), (a, d}, (b, c}, tb, d),
{c, d}, {a, b, c}, {a, b, d}. ((1, c, d}, (b, c, d), (a. b. c, d}}
(ii) See (i) for the answer.
(iii) The winning coalitions are
{a, h}, a, c}, (a, d), (a, b, c}, (a, b. d, (a, b, Cod). The blocking
coalition is
{b, c, d}. Rest are all losing coalitions,
I 6. (i) A U B (a, b, c, (', e, f, I, o, u}
(ii) A U C== {a, b, c, d, e, f, iii, a, o, p, q, r, s, t, u
(iii) BUC r-={a, e, i, o, u, in, n, p, q, r, s, i},
(iv) A - B = { b, c, d, f} (v) A n 1 - (a, c}, (i) Bfl C = {o, u,
(vii) A u(8 -C)=- (a, b, e, d, e, 1) f,
(viii) A U B U C = (a, b, c, d, e, f, i, o, ii, w, a, p, q, r, s, 'L
(Lx) AflBflC=,
20. (1) ' = t7 , 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 131,
(ii) B'-={4, 6, 8, 10, 1), 12, 13),
(iii) C' =3, 4, 5, 9, II, I 3,
(iv) (A')' =4, (v) (B')' . B,
fl
(vi) (A U BY = A' B' = (8, 10, 11, 12, 13),
(vii) (An B)'=A'UB= (4, 6. 7, 8, 9, ID, 11, 12, 13),
(viii) A'UC'={3, 4,5,7, 8. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13},
22. , (6), (8), {I I), {6, 8), it 11), (6, II), (6, 8, 1 1),
23. Except (iv) all are true.
25. (1) (I , 2, 3, 4. 6, 8), (ii) {2, 4 1 , (iii) (5, 6. 7, 8. 9),
(iv) (5, 7, 9), (v) (1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9),
26. (i) false, (ii) true.
27. I1ht. • .l flB-(A_B)flfi if A==A--B
:=(Afl B')flB=Afl(B'flB)=rAfl
33. Left to the reader.
34. (1) P Q=((1, a), (I, x), (1, y); (2, a), (2, x), (2, y)
(ii) PxR ((1. 4 ; ( I, y) (1, z) ; (2, x); (2, y) (x, a), Or, x (x, y)}
; (2, z);
(x, x), (x, y), (x, z))
(iii) Q x R = ((a, x), (a, y), (a, z) ; (x, x). (x, y), (x, z);
(y , x), (y, y), (y, M.

THEORY OF SETS
73
(iv) (P x Q)fl (P x R) - ((I, x), (I, ;'), (2, ), (2, y), (x. v), (x, y))
(v) (R x Q) r) (R x P)=((x, x), (y, .), (z, x)},
(/i) (P X Q) U(R X P)- f( l, a), (I, x), (1, y), (2, a),
(2, x),
(2, y), (x, a), (x, x), (x, y), (x, 1),
(x, 2), (y, 1), (y, 2), (y, x), (z, 1),
(z, 2), (z, z)},'
iHinis. For (v) and (ii) a1ove find Out R x P and P
Qj,
35. (a) 24, (b) B={4, 5, 6),
36. Ax (BuC) {(2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6, (3, 4), (3. 5), (3, 6))
Ax(BflC)={(2, 5), (3, 5))
.Ax B)U(B x C)- {(2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 5), (5, 6)}
39. Hints. n(U)=n(A) f n(13) - iz(Aflfl), I e., 62= 32+42-•n(A(B)
iAflB)=74 62=12,
40. Hint. U= 50,000 Aflf3--4,000
A UB==28,000 - 23,00 0--4,000 47,000
(AUu)'- 50,000-47,000=3 000
41. (1) 360, (ii) 280, (iii) 160.
42. (1) 6, (ii) 53.
43. i(A) + n(M) 4 ri(C)- n(A fl Ai)- ii(Mfl C)-n(A fl C)
±n(AflMflC):53.
44. 88,244.
45. Inconsistent
n(A)4 i(B) +n(C) ii(4 flfl) - ,i(Afl C)- n(Bfl C)
-f-n(AflJJfl C)^ n(AUBUC)
424-17+ 27-7 - 19- 13 +350
46. (I) 25, (ii) see answer to 45. 47. (i) 10. (ii) 60-50 10
4. (0,25, (ii) 40, (iii) 20, (iv) 20, 49. No.
50. The numlcr of items with radius defect alone was- -2 which was
impossible.
51. (a) 18() (b) 400, (c) 50.
52. (/) (a) 42, (b) 8, (c) 10, (d) 43, (e) 99.
(ii) (a) Both have equal number of workers.
(b) Lfl(Sk)' has more workers.
3
Boolean Algebra
STRUCTURr
30 INTRODUCTION
31 BASIC PROPERTIES
32 DERIVED PROPER lIES
3 . 3 BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
34 CANONICAL FORM
3 , 5 ELEcrRIcAL SWITCHING SYSTEM
36 BOOLEAN MULTIPLICATION
37 BOOLEAN ADDITION
38 CIRCUITS WIT H COMPOSITE OPERATIONS
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to wulersiand
• Basic, deriyed properties of Booleon -fun tiou.
• Boo/can multiplication and addition.
• Electrical switching systems and circuits with composite operations.
TO INTRODUCTION
Boolean Algebra is a two-valued algebra, applied earlier to statements
and sets which were either true or false and now to switches which are
either closed or open, i.e., ON or OFF respectively. George bole deve
loped this branch of mathematics in his book "An Investigation of the
Laws ox Thought" now known as symbolic logic. This provided the basic
logic for operations on binary numbers (1 and 0). Since modern business
machines are based on binary system, the symbolic logic of George Boole
was found extremely useful and is being considered as the base of Modern
Mathematics.
However, while symbolic logic was invented in the 19th century, it
was used much later when in the 20th century Claude Shannon discovered
he similarity of structures bet veen it and telephone switching circuits. His
paper "A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits" made an
important contribution to the use of Boolean Algebra towards the design-
ing of modern business machines based on binary numbers.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 75
There are three basic operations in the Boolean Algebra AND, OR

and NOT. These ere symbolised by/\,and V and respectively in the
case of logical statements and by fl, U and i respectively in case of the
theory of sets. In this chapter, the more common symbolic plus+, dot
.' and prime (') would be used for the three operations respectively. The
similarity would become obvious in the way the present chapter would
synthesise and generalise A bat we have studied earlier and apply it to the
end purpose of the designing of the electric circuits. Given below is a
table showing the operations of 3ymbolic logic to the three more or less
corresponding systems.
Logical Theory of Electric
statements sets circuits
1. Elements {p, q, r, s] x, y, } (X, Y, ...}
(I, 2, 3,..., n} &a, 1,, c,...}
2. Tautology T U
3. Fallacy 1 0
4. Operator 'AND' n
5. Operator 'OR' U 4-
6. Operator 'NOT. a'
7. Implication J) 'q mapping a'+b
8. Equivalence p+--+q one-to one a'b' -- ba
mapping
31. BASIC PROPERTIES
A set of elements in the Boolean system indicated by B (a, b, c,
has two binary operations AND ( . ), OR (H-) and one unary operator
NOT ('). The four basic properties of the system are
I. Uoth the operations are commutative,
(i) a+b= b+a
(ii) a . b=b . a
II. Identity elements are there in both the operations,
(i) a+O-=a
(ii) a. I =a
III. Each operation is distributive with respect to the other.
(i) a-l-(b c)=(a±b) . (a-i-c)
(ii) a . (b-i-c)=(a b) f(a . c)
1V. There exists a' for each aEB such that
(i) a+a'==l
(ii) a. a'=O
Example 1. Given the set O , l} of two elements, where the elernnls
have been denoted by the symbols 0 and I as is customary and they have no
relation with the numbers 0 and I used in arithmetic. Let the twobienary
opearions be deno;ed by + known as logical addition and ( . ) known as
logical multiplication which have no relation to the operations of addition
and multiplication used in arithmetic. In tables I and 2 are given the

76
logical SUmS
the elepncn/s ofand logical products, I.e., the results of the above operations on
the set.
Table I Table 2
-flU I (.)J0 I
00 1 00 0
10 i
Prove
Boolean. that the set (0, 1) with the operations defined in the tables is
SoIut0. 130th the operations are Boolean because of the following
properties
J. Closure.
Tables I and 2 ensure the closure property for both
the operations + and ( . ).
2. COn"n? ". 1'ative. Since there is s y mmetry about the leading diago-
nals, both the operations+and ( . ) are commutative. Also,
(1) 0+1 = 1+0=1
(ii) 0.1=1 .0=0
3. Associative. These operations are associative, e.g.,
(4-0)l=]-l=1 and J(O+1)=l+1=1
So that
and (1 0) 1=0. 1=0
and l.ffl.J)100
So that
(1.0).l = l.(0.l)
The reader is advised to verify this property in the remaining cases.
4. Distributive. Each operation is distributive with respect to the
other. For example
(1) 1-1(0. l) (10). (l+l)i
so that - is distributive with respect to ( . ) in this case
(ii) 1 . (0+l)= (I . 0)+(1 . i)=l
so that '.' is di st ributive with respect to + in this case.
The reader is advised to verify this property in the remaining cases.
5. Idempotent.
0+0=0, 1+1=1,0.0=0,1.11
(. Identity elements. We have
(00-1-0=0, 1+0=1
so that 0 is the identity element for +.
(11)0. 1=0. 1 . 1=1
so that I is the identity element for ( .

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 77
7. Complementation. We note that

0'-=. l and 1=0
Since 0+0'r-O+l=l
1 + I '= 1 + 0 = 1
and 0 . 0'0 . 1=0
1. 1':I .OrO
8. Involution. In view of property (7)
(O')'=(l)''=O and (1')' =(0=- 1
9. Dc Morgmi's Laws. We have
5 (0+1)' :1 1
O and 0'. l'r_l . 0=0
(0. 1)'=O -H and 0'f1'l+0=l
J (0-f-0)' 1 and 0' . 0'-- I I I
(0. 0)' 0'-1 and 0'-0 .=l - j
(1+!)':I'=.0 and j'.1.O0.
{ (1 . 1)')'0 and l'i-I' -M -0 .0
;o that Dc-Morgan's laws hold.
10. Absorpijo,, Laws. These laws hold good, e.g.,
0-1-(0. 0==0+0=0, 1 • I-(1 . 0)—'l +0==l
0. (0+1)=0. 1r0, I . (l -tO) =1 . 1=-I
The reader is advised to verify these laws for the remaining cases.
II. We have
(0'±1')'+(O'+l):(I.l.0)'(I 1)' i'+ l '-0±Q=0 etc.
In view of these properties of the set (0, 1 } and the definition of -(-
and ' as given b y the tables I and 2, we conclude that it is Boolean.
Example 2. State if set {a, b, c,
d} with the operations defined
In the tables is Boolean
(i) (ii)
± a b c d abcd
a a b c d a a a a a
b bbdd b a b a b
C C(Icd c a a c c
ci dddd ci a b c
Solution. Identity clement in (1) is 'a' such that
a fa.=a, bf-a- . b, c-f-a —
=c, dl-a=d
[see first row and first column of table (I).
(ii) 'd' is the identity element in (ii) such that
a.d-a,b.d=L,,c.d c,d.d=d

78 BUSINESS MMI[EMATICS
Commutative n (I) (l+bb + a etc. and

(ii) a. b=b . a etc.
Inverse ll (i) b -f -c - d
(ii) b . c a [where c- b' or the inverse of bl
Distributive Each operatioii di s tributes over the other.
b+(c . (1)=d-=(bc) . (b -1-
b . (c 4- h=(b . c)-}-(b . d)
32. DERIVED PROPERTIES
As a result of the properties given above we find that the laws
applicable to the algebra of sets are also valid here. These are restated
here in the context of Boolean expressions
1. Complement Law a -1- a' =
a. a'=O
Also (a')'=a
0,=l
1 '=0
Let us prove that (a')'=a, for aEB
(a')' I . (a')'
=(a-la') . (a')'
=a. (a')'-fa' . (a')
=a .
=a. (a')'-4-a. a'
[(a')'+a']
=a. I
II. Identity Law a+0=a

a+l=l
1.1=1 or a.O'=-a
a.O=O or a. F=0
III. Idenpotent law a4 a=a
a . a=a
This can be proved by the application of the above laws. Let there
by any aB, suppose we want to show that
(1) a+a=a
Letvs have aa+O
a--aa'
(a-f a)(a-f-a') [distributive law]
(a+a) .
= a -f- a

BOOLEAN ALOEI3RA 79
Now, we want to show

(vi) a. a = a
Let us have a-a 1
=-aa4-aa' [distributive law]

=aa+O
aa
a
IV. Associativity(i) (a+b)+ ca-)-(b
r= I-c)
(ii)(a.b).c=a.(b,c)
V. Co nu1atiity Stated with the property 1.
VI. Distributivity Stated with the property 11.
VII.De Morgan's law
(i) (a+b)'=a'
(ii) (a
(iii) a(b -I- c)' (aW) (ac)
(iv) a(b c)' = (oh') -I- (ac)
VII!. Duality : The dual of
a (h-I-c)-(a b) +-(a c) is a - (b . c)=(a+b) (a fc)
and that of (a O)+(l a) =a is (a-I-I). (O+a)=-a
Lt us take a few examples with the old symbols to reveal the
identity of structure
Example 3. Let x B, prove that
(i) xtjx=x and (ii) xflx==x
Solution. We prove these by taking the L.H.S. of the identity.
(I) Since xUx'=(xUx)1 I Identity
=(XU.v)fl(xUx'). Complement
=xU(xflx'), distributive
=xUO Complement
(ii) Since xflx'r--(xflx)LjO

= (x fl x) U (x fl x')
=xfl(x Ux')
—xfl I
=X
Example 4. Let y E B, prove that
(i) yflO=O
(li)yUl=I
S ol ut ion. (I) yfl0=(yfl0)uO

(yfl0)u(yfly')
yfl(OUy')
=(yfly')
=0
(ii) Left to the reader as an exercise.
Example 5. Let x, y(7 13, prove that
(i) x 1J (x fly)
(ii) xfl(xUy)- x
Solution. (f) Since x U(xfly)=-(xfl I) U( X fly) xfl (1 Uy)
x fl I
(ii) Left to the reader as an exercise.

Example 6. Prove that a' is a unique element.
Solntion. Let us suppose that a' is not a unique element ; there
exist two elements a' and a' such that
a' . a=0, a+a'-1
a=0, a -j--a"= I
Consider a'-1 . a'-(a -a') . a'=a , a'-l-a" . a'
=0-1-a" . a'
= 0 a'+ a' . a'
.0 4-a a
(a 1-a')
Hence a' is a unique clement.

(i) (a . b) . c=a. (b .
(ii) (a+b)+c=a+(b-f-c).
Solution. (i) Let
(a . &) , c- x and a . (b . c)y
b) . cj
= [a4 (a. b )J . (a-F-c)
b) . (a+c)
(l+b)] . (a+c)a . (b'-j-b+b)I. (a 4-c)
= [a. (b'+ b) . (a+ c) =-[a . 1] , ( a-4-e)
= 0. (a+c)"a. 0+0. C
Ca. (I+c)a. (c'+c+c)
=a.(c'+c)=a. 1=-a
a+xa
BOOLBAN ALGEBRA 81
Siiiiilady a+y=a
Now a'+x=a'+[(a. b) . c]=a' 4-(a. b)J (a'+ c)
(a'+b)I . (a'-4-c)=I11 (a'. +b)] . (a'+c
(a'+ b) (a' c)r a '±h . c
=1 . (a' v b . c ) = (a'+a) . (a' -1-b . c)
(b . c)
a' --y
Thus (a + x) . (a' + x) (a ± y . (a' +y)
aa±x=a . a'+y
0+x =0+y
X
(a.b) ,c a. (b.c)
(ii) Students are advised to do the proof independently on the same
lines as shown in the first case.
Example 8. Prove that (a.
Solution, To prove this, we have to show that
(a. b)f(a'±b')=l and (a. a). (a'+b') -0
Consider
(a . b) +(a'+b')-={a+(o' fb')}(h+(a'+tJ'))
= {(a+a') + h')((b+a') +b')
=.(1-l-h')((a' + b)+b'
==(l -4-b')(a' j (b+b'))
=(l+b')(a'+l)=l.l=-= I
aflU (a . b)(a'+b')=(a . b)cf 4- (ab)b'
=(ba)a' -I- a(bb')

b(aa') +a.0
0+a . 0
=0+0=0
(a.
Example 9. Define Boolean Algebra and establish the following
results
(i) a. (a+b) a
(ii) (a.b).c=a.(b.c)"a.b.c
Solution. (I) a . (a+b)(al-b) . a
=(a+b) (a-4'O)
=a-I-h .0
=a+0
=a

82 BUSINESS MTI-U1MATIcS
a . (a+b)r-a
(Ii) Let (a . b) . c=p, a. (b. c)=-q and a. b . cr
Then a+p=a+[(a. b) . c ] = [a . (a. b)]a+cj
b). (a+'c)==[a . (1 +b) . (a+c)
= [a. (b'+b+b)] . (a+c)=[a . (b'-4-b)] . (a+c)
=(a. 1). (a+c) = a . a + a . c
-a+a . c=-a . (l+c) == a . (c'+c±c)
=a.(c'±c)=a. 1==a
a +p a
Similarly a+q= a and a+ra
Also a' -F p = a'+[(a . b) . c] = [a'+(a . b)] . [a'+c]
= [(a '+a) .(a-l-b)].(a'+c)
(a'+b)] . (a'4-c)=(a'+b) . (a'-+c)
a' -i-b . c1 . (a'+ b . c)=(a'+a) . (a'+b . c)
(b . c)1'a'+q
Thus (a +p). (a'±p)=(a+q) . (a-I-q)
a . a'-l--p= a . a'-fq
O+p -0 + q
p=q
(b . c )](a'+ a) . [a'+b . c}
-(a'+ a) . (a'+b . e)
=a'+a. 1. c==a'+r
a'+q==a'+r
Thus (a+p) . (a'-l-p)=(a-l-r) . (a'+r)
a. a' +p=a . a'+r
O+p =0-I-
p=r
pq=r
(a.b). c=a .(b.c)='a.b.0
Example 10. Show that in a Boolean Algebra, B,
(a')'= a for all aEB (C.A. Entrance June 1984)
Solution. We have
L.H. S.
=(a 4- . (a')'
=a. (a')'-l-a' . (a')'
V. a.a'=O)

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 83
—a. (a')'-l-a. (a')
— a. I [ a+a''=1
=R.H.S.
(a')'=afor all aEB.
al- a. b=a.
(C.4. Entrance December 1983)
Solution. We have
L.1l.S.=a-fa. b
1+a . b
=a. (1+b)
= R. P. S.
a+a. b--a.
Example 12. Show that : a'+aba' -I-b.
(C.A. Intermediate November 1982)
Solution; We have
R.1-I.S.= a'±b
1-f-b . I
(a+1)+b. (a+ a')
=0' . a-f-a' . I +b. a+b. a'
= 0-f-a' 1±a . b-I-a'. b
.14-a' .b+a.h
= 0' X4 b)+a. b
1+a . b
=a'+ ab
==L.H.S.
a'+ab==a'+b.
Example 13. Show that
pqr+pqr' -f-pq'r+p'qr=pq -I-qr+rp.
Solution. We have
L. H.S. =pqr -4. pqr' +pq'r+p'qr
=-(pqr+pqr') +(pq'r+p'qr)
=pq(r+r')-I-p'qr)
=pq. 1+pq'r+p'qr [. a+a''—l)

84 UUSINESS MATHEMA11CS
pq+pq r - F p'qr a.
=-(pq -tpqr)+p'qr
.rp (q-F-q'r)-i--p'qr
p (q+r)+p'qr P: a-f-a'. b—a+bj
pq -f-pr -r-p'qr
.(pq-F-p'qr)fpr
r) I-pr
=q (p+r)+pr a-j-a ' ba-{-b1
pq + qr -4- ip [a b=b all
-- R.H.S.
pqr+pqr' 1. pq'r Fp'qr pqfqr -frp.
33. BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
A variable x which takes two distinct values symbolically denoted
by 0 and I and for which the two binary operations ( i ) and ( . ) are
defined by tables I and 2 of example 1, is called a binary Boolean vari-
able. In Boolean functions we have U and I as the constants and a, b, c
Or x, y, z as somearbitrary variables. Sometimes the initial variables a, b,
C LC., are used to express group relations with .v, y, z. The Boolean
functions are the relations, expressed in the above constants and variables
with + for U and ( . ) for fl and ( ' ) attached to any variable for
not'.
We now take a Boolean function and show bow it is verified.
Example 14. Verify that (Afly) U[( x U y ) fly f ' -=j
Solution. Let us verify this by the old method of truth table tak-
ing xfly == a and [(xuy)flyl'=b'.
Truth Table : (xfly)U[(x Uy')fly)'= I
xy axfly y xUy'h=(xLJy')flyl aUb'
1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (7) (8)
i i o I
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
o 1 0 0 00 1 1
o 0 0 1 1 0 I 1
By means of simplification we can prove the equality as follows
(xfly)U[xfly')flyj'=r(xfly)uI(xuy')' Uy'l
(xfly )U[( x 'fl y)Uy']
=r (xfly )U[ c x' uy')fl('uy')1
==(xfly)U[(x' L )y') fl I]
=(xfly)U(x' Uy')
Example 14. Simplify ({a' fl b')' U c ] fl (aUc))'

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 85
Solution. {a'fl b')' U C W) (aUc)}'=l(a' flb')' Uc]' U(aUc)'

[(a'flb')flc']U(a'flc')
=(a' fl b' fl c')U(a' fl
c')
= d fl c'
This is because { a' fl c' } j{a'flb'flc'}
Example 16. Simplify the following and show as a union of inter-
sections and intersection of unions.
[(xUy')fl(xflyflz'
Solution. [(xLJy')fl(xfly'flz)'' (x Ui)' U(xfly'flz)
rr(x'fly)U(xfly'flz) ...(i)
Now, we proceed further for having intersection of unions
=(x' Ux) fl (yUx)fl(x' Uy')fl(yUy')fl(x'flz)fl(YUZ)
'l fl(yUx)fl(x'Uy')fl lfl(x'Uz)fl(yflz)
(yUx)fl(x'Uy')fl(x'Uz)fl(yUz) (ii)
The two expressions could be written as
x'y+xy'z
(y-f-x)(x'4y')(x'+y)(y+z) ...(li)
It may be noted that expression (1) is shorter than (ii) therefore for
saving the time of machine the former is sometimes preferred.
34. CANONICAL FORM
In this all the elements are expressed as x or x', y or y' and z or
as union of intersections or intersection of unions. A complete canonical
form with three variables will take the following form
Ill x y z
1 1 0 x y z'
1 i 1 x y' z Now, a complete canonical form has a
1 0 0 x y' z ' union of all the S (i.e. 2) intersections
o 1 I x' y z (xy z)-- (vz')+(xy'z)(y'z')±
--
o i 0 x' j' z' (x'yz)±(x)'z')+(x')"z)+(x'y'z')
o o I x' y'
o 0 0 x' y' z'
But a canonical form may be preferred in even few alternative forms
having all elements. For example
(xfly)U(xfly'flz)(x'flyfll)u(xny'flz)
= [(x'fly)fl ( z U z')}U(fly' fl z)
---(x'flyflz)U(x'flyflz')U(xfly'flz)
It should he noted that all the expressions are in the form of union
of intersections having all the three elements x. y, and z.
Example 17. Convert the following expression in canonical form as
intersection of unions and not as the union of intersections shown above.
(xUy)fl(yflz)fl(i'Uz)fl(x' Uy')
86 UUSItESS MAThnMATTcS
Solution
[(xuy)U(zflz')]fl[(yUz)U(xfl x')]fl(x' Uz)U
(yfly')}ñ[(x' Uy')U(zflz')]
=[(x Uy)Uz)fl(x UyUz')fl(xUyUz)fl(x UyUz')]
fl[(x ' UyUz)fl(x' Uy' Uz)fl(x Uy' Uz)fl(x' UY' Uz')]
By eliminating the repeated unions, we have
(xU y Uz )fl(x U y U z') fl (x ' UyUz)fl (x' U y ' Uz)fl(x' Uy' Uz')
It is also possible to shorten the canonical form into a shorter but
non-canonical form. Let the Boolean function be
F(x, y, z)==(xflyflz)U(xfly'flz)U(x'fly'flz)U(x'flY'flZ')
- (xflz)IJ(x'fly').
The dual of the above can be:
F(x, y, z)=(x' U y ' Uz')fl(x' UyUz')fl(x Uy Uz')fl(x U y Uz)
=(x' Uz')rx Uy)
35. ELECTRICAL SWITCHING SYSTEM

It has a ntwork of electrical switches which is an example of the
practical application of Boolean algebra. Let us take the switches r, s, t.
q, etc. The value of a closed switch or when it is ON is equal to 1 and
when it is is open or OFF is equal to 0.
An open switch r is indicated in the diagram as follows
-.
r S2
A closed switch r is indicated in the diagram as follows
S - r - S2
36. BOOLEAN MULTIPLICATIONS

The two switches r and s in the series will preform the operation of
Boolean multiplication. See the circuit.
Obviously the current will not pass from point S 1 to S3 when either
or both are open, it will pass only when both are closed. Please recollect
the truth table given in the first chapter reproduced here with new
symbols:

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 87
Truth Table: r . s
ij1i
The operation is true in onl y one of the four cases, i.e., when both
the switches are closed.
3.7. BOOLEAN ADDITION
In the case of an operation of addition the two switches will be in
the parallel series, and not in the same series. See the circuit below
SI S
The circuit shows that the current will pass when either or both the
switches are closed. It will not pass only when both are open. Please
recollect the turth table for this operation given in the first chapter which
is reproduced here with the new symbols
Truth Table : T+s
The operation is not true only in one of the four situations when
both r and s are open.
38. CIRCUITS WITH COMPOSITE OPERATIONS
(i) Circuit showing r(s+q)=rs+rq
SI
88
BUSINESS MATHaMATICS
(ii) Circuit showing : r f (s q)
Si
S2
(iii) A corresponding circuit simplifying (ii) above into r

s+rq is
Si
(iv) A Circuit for (r+s)q(u-+- V + w) is
So far we have seen that all the switches are closed or open indepen-
dently of one another and both the states were shown by one letter
symbol. But now we want to show the closed state by the letter say r, S
and open state by r', s' (both with prime).
Therefore the function
will be shown by the circuit as follows
SI.—fJ1i]L
The closed properties of the above function are nicely shown by the
following truth table
Truth Table : (r . s' q )+ [(q+s)r']
S' (r. q) r (q+s)r' col. 5+col.8
(1) -
(2) (3) __ (7) (8)
1 (9)
1 1 o 0 0
1 (1
0 o 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 I 0
1 0 0
0 0 0 o o
o 0
o o 1 1
o i o 0
O 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
o o 1
o 0 0 0
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 89
The closed properties of the function, therefore, are (1) rs' q (ii) r's
(iii) r'sq' and (Iv) r's q For these see the row numbers 3, 4, 6 and 7.
However, the above function can be simplified and presented by a
simple network
First, we show the process of simplification and then the simplified
circuit.
q)1-[(q+s)r'i
We transforiri the tatter part in canonical form as follows

=(r. s q . s)+(r' . q . s') 1-(r' . s . q)
s . q')
s . q)-l-(r' . s . q')+(r' . . q)
q) The circuit for this is also given.
__ 2
EXERCISES
1. I)eiine Boolean algebra.

2. Indicate whether the following subsets S S0 of the set iV of
natural numbers are Boolean for the operations indicated
S1 -=(l, 2, 3,6,7,21, 42,} for least common multiple.
s'2 -=(l, 2, 3, 4, 6. 8, 12) for greater common divisor,
3. Prove that for every a, bE B
(i) afl (nUb) .=-aU(aflb)
(ii) aU(a'flb)'aUh
(iii) (a+h)'=a'b'
(iv) (a . b)'=a'+b'
4. Simplify
(m) [(xfly') UzJC(xUy')'
(ii) (nUb')fl(a' Ub)fl(a' Ub)
(iii) 1(aUb)fl(cUb')IU[bfl(fUc')l
5. Simplify
(i) (aUb)fl(a'flb')
(ii) (aflbflc)U(a'Ub'tjc').
6. Express the following in canonical form
(i) x'Uy'
(ii) (xfly')U(x'fly)
90
7. Rewrite the expressions in canonical form

(i) x=y=-I, wrzr=O
(ii) x=O, Y-- Z r= 1
8. Give the switches r, s, tin different forms.
9. Indicate the network, simplify and give a simpler network.
Si
S
10. Give the circuits
(I) (xuy')n(x'uy)n(x'uy')
(ii) (xfly)Uzfl(X'Uy')
11. Give simple circuits for those in Q. No, 10.
ANSWERS
1. See the text. Give also the main properties,
2. S is Boolean, 42 is the least common multiple for all elements
in the set.
S2 is not a Boolean, 3 is not a common divisor of 8
4, (1) x'CIy (ii) a'flb' (iii) aUb
5. (1) 0 (ii) 1
6. (1) (x'uy'uz)n('uyz)
(ii) (xflY'nz)u(xny'nz)u(xnyflz)u(xnfl)
(iii)
7. (1) xflyflw'flz'
(ii) x'flyflwflz
8. (i)
S1--__.-;.
.-.------.-.----___- z
(U)
Sr —ri s2
91
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
(iii)
SI-
S2
(rUS) with
9. (rfl t )U[sfl (S Ut)I) k' r'U(flt')}1 after simplification
a simpler network as follows
Si ^1- -,--S
10. (1)
HIJ -
(ii)
;
S
11. (1)
I I I
(ii)
51Sz
El
Real Number System
STRUCTURE
41 NUMBER SYSTEM
42 NATURAL N UMBERS (N)
43 ADDITION ON N
44 MULT IPLICATION ON N
45 ORDER RELATIONS ON N
46 THE IN TEGERS (I)
41 MODULO (M)
48 P RIME NUMBERS
49 RATIONAL NUMBERS (Q)
410 PROPERTIES OF Q
411 IR RATIONAL NUMBERS (RI)
412 REAL NUMBERS (R)
413 PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS
414 MODULUS OF REAL NUMBERS
415 IM AGINARY NUMBERS
416 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Objectives
• natural numbers, integers, rational n umbers, irrational numbers, real
nun hers im aginary/comp/es numbers.
• proper//es and operations of these numbers.
41 NUMBER SYSTEM
It is composed of various numbers, symbols or figures representing
numbers and certain rules governing operations on them The numbers
can be represented by { I, 2, 3,...), {I, 11, Ill, } or K, K* , K**, },
what is of importance is the nature and characteristic of these numbers,
whether they are capable of performing one or more operations of
addition, multiplication subtraction and division. It is because of this
that instead of attaching any undue i mportance to any system, e.g.,
decimal, binary, a good deal of importance is being attached to the pro-
perties of the system. It will at times be explained by symbols only. The
REAL NUMBER SYSTEM 93
conceptual clarity or the logic of the system is emphasised more and not
mere familiarity with the numbers. We initiate the number system by
natural numbers and then proceed on to other systems.
42 THE NATURAL NUMBERS (N)
The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,..., which are used for counting, are natural
numbers, [hus while 618 is a natural number ; 0, —7, 132 and are not
natural numbers.
Italian mathematician Peano has given five postulates (axioms)
called Peano Postulates (P) as the properties of natural numbers. To
speak in the language of modern mathematics, we say let there be a non-
empty set N such that
• 1: 1 is natural number; 1 E N.
• II For each !ZEN, there exists a unique natural number n EN,
called the successor of ii, we can write it as (."+ I) also.
P III : For each nEN, we have ri or n- -! I.
P IV : If in, n E N and in then in =n.
Thus we have successors for each number.
P V : Any subset S of N is equal to N if
(i) IES
(ii) rnES rnES
By postulate V we reach any natural number starting with 1 and
counting concecutie successive numbers.
43. ADDITION ON N
The operation of addition on N can be defined as follows
(1) n+ 1 * for every nE N
(ii) n+in=(n+m) wherever n+m is defined.
This can be grasped be recollecting that 4±5 = (4+4)+1 •9. The
basic laws of addition composition are
A1. Closure Law.
For in, nEN,ni+nEN
A2. Commutative Law.
m+n==n+n1in, nEN
A3. Associative Law.
m+(n+p)(m+n)+pvm, 'z,pEN
A4. Cancellation Law.
' m=n ln,.n,pEN
44. MULTIPLICATION ON N
The operation of multiplication on N is defined as follows
(1) a . I =n for every a EN
(ii) n • in =(n . in) +n whenever n . in is defined.
This can be grasped if you recollect that 4 .

. 4)+4=20. The
basic laws governing niultiplicat ion composition are
M1. Closure Law. For all in, n E N; in . n E N, i.e., the product
of two natural numbers is also a natural number.
M2. Commutative Law. in n=n . in V in, nEN
M3. Associative Law.
(a. p)r=(pn . a). pvL in, n,pEN
M4. Cancellation Law.
in . p r
-n . p - in=n V in, n, pEN
M5. Existence of Identify. There exists an element I EN such that
in. I =nn= I . in V in EN
The laws governing multiplication and addition composition are
D 1 . Left Distributive Law.
in. (n4p)=rn .n+Pn .p V in, n,pEN
D3 . Right Distributive Law.
(a -+ p). in a. in ± p . in V in, a, PEN
4.5 ORDER RELATTONS ON N
There are two types of order relations in N viz., greater than (>)
and less than (<). The relation "a<b" is read as "a is less than b." It
can be stated also as "b>a" read as "b is greater than a."
Greater than (>). A natural number niEN is said to be greater
than a natural number nENif and only if there exists pEN such that
in = a
Smaller than (<). A natural number mEN is said to be lesser
than a natural number nEN (symbollically m<n) if there
such that rn-I--pr-n. existsp€N
The lows governing order relations are

Q1 . Trichotomy Law. Given any two natural numbers in and n
then one and only one of the following three possibilities hold.
(i) ?n=-n, (ii) m>n, (iii) m<n
Q2 Transitive Law
,n>n and n>p---- in>pV,n, n,pEN
Q 3 . Anti-symmetric Law
m> n and n> in n in v m, n E N
Q . Monotone Property of Addition,
m> n m+p>n+p Yin, n, pEN
Q . Monotone Property of Multiplication,
m>n= . mp>np V in, a, pEN

Therefore the relation "less than or equal to" and "greater than or
equal to" and denoned as "" and i' > " respectively are defined as
(1) inn if,nr- n or m<fl
(ii) ,n'n if ?it =n or rnii>'n
PROOFS
Example 1. ,n+(n--p)r(m+n)±p Yni, n, PEN
Solution. Let us treat in and n as fixed natural numbers and put 1
for p which is the first element of natural numbers as per postulate I.
rn4-(n--i--l)=(rn-I-n)+l
Let us first take the L.H.S.
in±(n-l- l),n+n [addition rule (i)]
= (in In) [addition rule (ii)]
=(,n+n) I- I
Now, by placing kEN for p, we have ni-I-(n-1-k)--(,n+n)±k wLich
would mean that
in -f (ii + k*) = (in 4-n) + kt
Now nl+(fl+k*)=ni+(n+k)*
=[in 1 (ii +k)]*
= (in + n)
Thus the associative property in addition is proved.
Example 2. Prove that m+n=n+m for all in, nEN.
Solution. Let us treat n as a fixed natural number and take any
k E N such that
k+n=n+k
k+n=(k+1)+n=k+(1+n)
=k+(n+1)r=k+n*
=n+ft*
Thus if k*+n=n.{k* then k±n=n+k
which proves the commutative property of addition.
(n +p) . rn=n - rn+p. m, for all in, n, pEN
Solution. Let us take n and p as fixed and substitute 1 and then
k and k for in so that, we have
(n+p). l=n+p=n. l-l-p.i
Now if (n+p).k=rn.k+p k
then (n +p) . k'=n . k' -f-p . V.
Let us take the L.H.S.

(n -..p) . k*=(nfp) . k+(n-jp), (rule (ii) of multiplication]
=rn. k-+p . k-f-n+p
• k-I-(p . k-1-n)+p
• k+(n+p k)-i-p
=(n. k+n)-+(p . k-l-p)
k"--p k"
Hence (n +p) . rn=n . rn-F-p 'n. for all m, n pEN.
46. TIlE INTEGERS (I)
The integers are whole numbers positive, negative or zero. We can
also define them as ratios of two numbers which do not have a remainder.
On a number line they range between -- to and 0 to ± c . Thus ---IS
—207. 0, --9 are all integers but V7. 0392, —076 and 7. are not integers.
The set I x=0, XEN or ---xEN}
=-{..., —4, —3, --2, -1.0, 1,0,2,3, 4,...)
are called the set of integers. You ma y note
(i) The numbers - 1, —2, 3, - 4,...are negative integers.
(ii) The numbers +1, ±2, +3, -1-4,.. are positive integers.
They are generally written without any sign.
(iii) The number 0 is the only integer that has no sign.
Integers thus fulfil a gap of zero and negative numbers in natural
numbers. For example, the natural numbers do not provide answers to
(i) 0+ x = a (ii) a+x=y [when a>;]
for which we need a zero and a negative number respectively.
The operations of addition and multiplication on integers thus satisfy
all the properties of natural numbers with a modification in the cancella-
tion law as follows
Cancellation Law. If in .pn .p and if p:qe-0E1 then rn=n for all
ni, n e f.
The two additional properties for the opertion of addition are
A 5 . There exists an identity element OEI for the operation of
addition such that
n+00+n'n for every nEt
A5 . There exists an additive inverse ---nE I such that
48. PRIME NUMBERS (P)

An integer other than 0 or 1 is a prime number if and only if its
only divisors are 1 and the number itself. We can write
p;;6 0, - 1 whose divisors are ±1 and ± p only.
Properties of prime numbers

(i) If p is prime and if is a factor of ab where a, be then p is a
factor of a or p is a factor b.
(ii) It p is a prime and if p is a divisor of the product of a. h. ....... r
of integers then p is a divisor of at lest one of these.
MODULO (m)
It is a positive integer often indicated by rn and defined by the
following expression
ab (mod ,n) where a, be
and in is a factor of (a -. h).
For example
(a) 25l (mod 4) siace 4 is a factor of of 24
(h) 89cl (mod 4) since 4 is a factor of 88
(c) 243 (mod 5) since S is not a factor of 21
(d) 244 (mod 5) since 5 is a factor of 20.
The concept of modulo helps in having residue classes in case of
operations on integers 1/(4) as follows
33 01 2 3 2 1
0 1 3
1
49 RATIONAL NUMBERS (Q)
The number which can be expressed in the form - where p is any

integer and q is a integer not equal to zero is called a rational number.
To state it formally
Time set Q=-{pfq : p, qEl and q--^601 is called the set of rational
numbers.
Thus 4 EQ, -5EQ, -
EQ, --- EQ, OEQ etc. It is also clear
that NC!, lc Q.
if P are two rational numbers so that p. r I and a sE N', we

have
(1)
q S qs

(U) qs
q S
L
qr
and (iv) (Pn being a positive integer, q=AO.

An important characteristic of rational numbers is that when
expressed as decimal fractions they are either terminating or non-
terminating recurring decimals. For example.
T=
-=0.4 2.1875
I 666...(to be written as 016)
==0'27227... 027
-4'142057, 142057, 142057... =4142057
Conversely, we may show that any non-terminating recurring decimal

presents a rational number. For example
x=1344 or =l34
As the repeating cycle contains one digit, it should be multiplied by
.0 and then the original quantity be deducted from the new one as shown
below:
lOx=13.44...
x= 1.34...
10x x=-l2.1
-
9x= 12.1
12.1 121
x= — -- 90 a rational number
9 ---------,
However, if the repeating cycle is of two digits then the original

quantity will be multiplied by 100 in place of 10 above and so on.
10 PROPERTIES OF Q
We now indicate the properties of rational nun i bers,p/q=ra and
rc=b where p,q,r, sEl and q :^-'0 and s91-0 under various operations as
follows
I. Addition:
(1) Closure. If a and /, are rational numbers then a-I-h is one and
only one, i.e., it is a unique rational number.
(ii) Commudag ive. a+b=li-f a
(iii) Associative. (a+h) -j- c-'a+ (b+c)

(iv) Identity (zero), a+Oa=O -f a
(v) Inverse. For every rational number 'a' there is a rational
number ( - a) such that (j+( a) 0, --a is called the additive inverse
of a.
(vi) Ca ncellation. If a, h, c are rational numbers such that
c then a=b
11. Multiplication.
(i) Closure If a and b are any rational numbers then a X h or ab
is a unique rational number.
(ii) Connutavive, oh - ha
(iii) Asociative. (ab)c
(ic) IclefltIty (I). aX 1 1 Xa=a
(v) inverse. For every rational number a (7'0) there is a rational
number (I a) such that ax ( ---- ) -C- 1 hus, for every rational number a,
the multiplicative inverse is

(mi) Distribuli e. Only multiplication distributes over addition, i.e.
a(h+c)=ah+ac
(vii) Cancellation, If ac= hc, then a b if c7^=O.
Ill. Order Relatjor
If a=p/q, h=r/s
^j qr
(i) then a—h= R,
qs
We say that a=b or a>b or a<h according as ps—qrO, >°'
or <0, respectively,
(ii) If a>b and b>c then a>c.
(iii) If a>b then a+c>b+c
If ah, then ac>bc (c>0) and ac<bc (c<0).
N. Equality with Zero:
If ai= 0 then either a is zero or b is zero.
V. Density:
If a and h are distinct rational numbers then ---- is a rational

number lying between a and b. In other words,
a> ±>h

'I + b
or a< <1)
We can then say tlit there can be several intermediate rational

numbers between two different rational numbers stated as follows
a>a1>a2>a > a> I'
a<a 1 < a <a 3 < a4 < b
411 IRRATIONAL NUMBERS (Ri)
We can define an irrational number with the help of a rational
number. Now if there is a rational number a but there no rational
number 1, such that (/)' =u, then we write it as "n root of the equation
as the irrational number
If ",l a not equal to x, an integer, then it is called irrational number.
Or, the numbers which cannot he expressed in the form p / q. where
q#O and p, q are both integers, are called irrational numbers and are
denoted by l i.
Examples of such numbers are V5, "8, 2+ 15 etc. which are repre-
sented by non-terminating, non-recurring decimals as shown below
\/2 1.14.14...
i=3.1415 9...
,/7 =2. 64 575 1
,\/ 15=3.872983...
Example 8. Prove that s"2 is an irrational number.
Solution. If possible, let .,/2, be a rational number so that
/2=--, q:^60
and p and q are integers. Further suppose that p and q have no common
factors.
Now V2- 2=4-
i.e. P
P is even so that p is also even.

Let p=2rn
p2=4m
:. 4m2=2q2
q2 =2&

q2 is even, I. e., q is also even (2)
From (I) and (2), we find that p and q are both even, i.e., they have
a common factor 2 which contradicts our assumption that p and q have no
common factors.
Hence it follows that /2 is not a rational number, i.e., '2 is an
irrational number.
4.12 THE REAL NUMBERS (R)
It comprises a set of all rational and irrational numbers. We gene-
rally denote this by R which will have either the rational numbers (Q) or
irrational numbers (R,) formally.
R={x :xEQUxER)
Now, in relation to natural numbers etc., we have
NCICQCR
Thus, natural numbers constitute a proper subset of integers and
the integers constitute a proper subset of rational numbers and the latter
constitutes a proper subset of real numbers.
The positive and negative real numbers are shown by R+ and R
respectivel y and the non-negative real numbers by R 0 as in the case of
integers and rational numbers given earlier
real
A number system is a complete order field with zero, minus
infinity, and plus infinity including their infinitesimal parts, with the excep-
tion of imaginary numbers singly or along with real numbers called
the complex numbers. However, the real numbers are not divisible by
zero.
We can represent the order field of real numbers by the following
real line axis
-; -
The real numbers have been represented on XOX, called the real
number line. Any point on the left or right of the 0 axis represents real
numbers negative or positive respectively. It may be noted that distance
0F ±./2 is more than I and less than 2 and O p ' on the left of 0 axis is
equal to--12 is in between - I and —2. Thus, a real number Ituc can
accommodate both rational and irrational numbers.
413. PROPERTIES OF R
We summarise below the fundamental properties of the real numbers
to emphasize their basic importance which the students should remember.
Let us take the set R of real numbers with a, b, cER and then detine the
two algebraic operations of addition and multiplication, i.e., '+' and
through the following properties.
I. Addition Operation:
A 1 . Closure Law. If a and h are any two real numbers, their sum
(a-f-b) is also a real number. This can be expressed symbolically as
u+bERa, hER
A3. Co,n pnulaiive Law. If a and F, are two real numbers, then
a+b ==b +a, Va, bER
A 1 . Associative Law. IS a, b, c are any there real numbers, then
(aj-b) 4- c =a+ (b+c)-a, h, cER
A4. Erictence of Identity. There exists a real number 0 (zero) such
that
a-j-0=a=04 aVaER
This real number '0' is known as additive identity and the property is
known as property of zero.
A5. Existence of ln,erse. For every real number a there exists
another real number h such that
a+b=0b+i
The real number b is called additive inverse of a and is usually written
as —a.
II. Multiplication Operation:
M1. Closure Law. If a and hare any two real numbers, their pro-
duct ab is also a real number. This can be expressed symbolically as
- a.bERa,bER
M2. Commutative Law.
a. b=b . a a, bER
M. Associative Law.
(a. b). c—a. (h . c)a, I,, cER
M4. Existence of Identity. There exists a real number 1 such that
a. l=a—l.a'aER
The real number 'I' is called multiplicative identity and the property
is called the property of 1.
M5. Existence of Inverse. Corresponding to each real number 'a'
(a-AO), there exists a real number ' /i ' such that
a.b=b.al
b is called the reciprocal or multiplicative inverse of a and is usually
1
written as _. . or a
RAI r'JIJMIMiR SYSTEM
103
III. Relation between the two Algebraic Operations

Distributive Laws. Multiplication is distributive over addit.
For any three real numbers a, b, CE R we have
a . (b±c)=a . i'+a. c
(1,-f-c) . a=b . a j-c . a
These are known as Right Distributive and Left Distributive laws
respectively.
IV. Order Relation
0, Trichotomy Law. If we are given two real numbers a, bET R.
then one and only one of the following three holds good
(i) a=b, (ii) a -> h, (iii) a<l,
2. Transitivity.
a>b and b>c - a>cva, 1', cER
3. Anti-symmetry.
a>b and b>a a=ba,bER
4. Order relation is compatible with addition.
a>I) a+c>b+ca, b, cER
O. Order relation is compatible with multiplication.
- a . c_>b . CU, b, CER
V. Density Property. Between two real numbers there lie infinite
number of real numbers. For any two distinct numbers a, hE R, there
is ''- such that
or b> - >a
We can also state this property as

a>aj>a2>aa...
b<a 1 <a2 <a.. .a<a
Some theorems based on above axiom:
Theorem 1. (Uniqueness of additive Identity). There exists one and
only one real number 0' such that
a 4-0=a=0-l-a " aE R
Proof. Let there be two additive identities of R say 0 and 0',
a+O =a and a+0'=aaER
We shall show that 0=0'
Since a+0=aaER, in particular for a=0' also, so that
(1)
104 BUS1NlSS MATHEMATICS
Again as a--O'= aaER, so it is true for a=0 also,

0+O'=O (2)
Thus O'=O'+O
(Commutative Law)
0
There is thus a unique additive identity 0 satisfying
a+0-a-0+aaER
Theorem 2. (Uniqueness of the additive inverse). For every real
number aE R there exists one and only one real number b such that
a + b0=h+a
Proof. Let us suppose that there exists two real numbers 5 and b1
for every real number a such that
and a+h'=0
We shall show that b=h'
Now h'=b'-F-O (Property of '0')
==b'+(a+b)
—(h' +a)-f-h (Asso, of +)
(Comm, of -F-)
=04-1) F'rperiv of 0')
Hence, there exists a unique additive inverse for every number.

Theorem 3. (Cancellation laws for Addition). If a, h and c are real
numbers then
a-j-h=a+c - b=c
Proof, a 4- ba -F -c (given)
By adding —a on both sides, we have
(- a) -F- (a + Li) = ( - a) -f- (a -f-c)
—a) + a)+h= [(—a) (Asso. of +)
O+b=0-4-c
h=c (Property of 0)
Theorem 4. (Uniqueness of multiplicative identity) There exists
one and only one real number 1 such that
a. 1 = 1 .aaER
proof. Let us suppose that there exists two real numbers, say, I
and 1 such that
a.l='a=l.a
a. 1'=a= I' a
Then we have to show that I = I'.

Since a. 1 =a VaER, so in particular for a= 1' also, I.e.,

1' . I -I,
Again, as a I' =-a aE R so in particular it is true for a= 1 also,
I. e.,
Thus I -• 1' . I = I . l'= I

This shows that there is a unique multiplicative identity I satisfying
a.l=a=l .o'aER
Theorem S. (Uniqueness of multiplicative inverse). There exists one
and only one real iwmber b such that
a. b-.=I =h . a
Proof. Let there he two multiplicative inverses b and b', for a non
zero real number a, satistying
a .l,=Ih.a
and a . /j'== 1 =b' . a .. (2)
we shall show that b = I"
Now b'=b' . I (Property of '1')
(a . (using 1)
=(b' a) . (Assoc. of x)
(a . b) . b (Conirn, of X)
=1 . h
1)
Hence there is a unique multiplicative inverse for every non-zero real
number.
Theorem 6. (Cancellation Liiu's of multiplication), If a, I,, c be any
three real numbers, (/1er1
(1. b=-a . C b=c
Proof. Now a. h-=a. C
- (a . b) a' . (a . c) (Closure Law)
(a 1 . a) . b=-(a 1 . a) . c (by M3)
• b=l .c (by M5)
b=c (by Mj
Theorem 7. For any real nwther a,
• 0=0 a=0.
Proof, a . 0—a. (0+0) (Property of zero)
=a . 0+a. 0 (Distributive law)
a - 0-1-a. 0-=a . 0+0
—(a. O )1- a . 0+a - 0=-- (a. 0)+(a. 0+0)
[adding—(a . 0) to both sides]

[-(a.0)+a.O]-f-a.O=---(a.0)+(a 01-f0
0+a.O=04-O
a.0=0
Theorem S. If a and b are any two real numbers then
a . b= 0 a=0 or b=rO
Proof. We shall prove that for ab=0 at least one of them must be
zero
Two cases may arise
(i) ar=O , (ii) a:;x'-0
Case (i), If (1 = 0 then a . b=O is obvious.
Case (ii), If a?60, we shall show that b=O
Now ah=O
(ah)=a . 0
(a 1 . (1)b0
* l.b=0
b=O
Hence ab=0 = a=Oorb=0
Theorem 9. Für any two real numbers a and b
(/) a . (-h)=(a) h==-a . I,
(ii) (-a)( - b) = ab
Proof. (1) We have
O='a . O=a. (-b+h)=a. (-b)+a. b

or O+(-ab)=(j . ( -h)±a .
or -a. =a (-b) 1-[a . b+(-a . b)]
=-a. (-l')+O=a . (--b)
-a . h=a . (-b)
Again 0-0 . b (-a+o). b
=(-a). b+a. h

or O-I-(-- a. b)=(-a) . b +a. b-3-(-a. b)
-a. b=-(- a) . h +[ a . b+(-a. b)]
b
-a.b=(-a).b .(2)
From (I) and (2), we have
a. ( — b) r (_a) . h-a . h
(-b)=(-a) . (-b)-4-(-a) . b-(---a) . b
[-h+b]-(-a) .1'
=(-a). O--(-a) . b
b
REAL NuMnea SYSTEM
=—(--a). b
b—a . b-I-a , b
h4ab
ba. h
=a. b
414. Modulusof real number (i.e., the absolute numerical

value).
The modulus of a real number a is defined as the real number a,
—a, or 0 according as a is positive, negative or zero. We denote the
modulus of a real number a by the symbol I a I and define it by
a, if a is positive
---a, if a is negative
L 0, if is zero
Following live results are evident from the definition which are found
to be very useful.
I. The modulus of a real number is never negative, i.e.,
Ia
2. For every real number a,
acJaj and —a al
3 I a I —a
4. I a I denotes the greater of the two numbers a and —a, i.e.,
I a =max. (a, —a)
5. We may also define I a I by a single equation. Since the
positive root of a positive number is a positive number, it follows that w
may define I a I by
a I
Theorem 10. if a and b are any real numbers, then

(a) labI=taIJbI
=
(h)
I 7bl' (b --A
1 1
(c)
(d) Ia+bI<IaI+Ibl
(e) I (I — I) Ia - jh
Proof. We shall use the definition in the form
a
(a) I ab I =[(ah)9h/2=(asb2)11r(0)112 .
(1) ") 11 Ia . Ib
Remark. Putting a=—1, we obtain
•
a
ria \21I1 f S\1/2
( 2) 1 3
a I Ia!
h Lb)ibs (hfbI
(c) In (h), put al and b=-a, we get
a
T - IaI
(d) I a+ b =[(a±h) 2 J iI2 =((j2 +2ab-1 b2)' 2
Since I a 2_ a 2 , I b b. and ab a I I b I, the above
equation yields
Ia-Fbi < 1 iai 2 l2aj lId -1- 1bI21112
= {( ! al + lbI )2 P'2 ' 1 ! -3- !bI
Thus !a+hI . 1a! ±Ibl
(c) We have a=(a -b)+-b
I a! I (a -h) 4-b! la - h I + I h
I a-h Ia I- IbI
Example 5, State if .c(otcmen( x>Jx 2 >J is true where x is a
real number.
Solution. No, the statement is not true x 2 >1 implies x>1 or
x< -- I.
4.15. IMAGINARY NUMBERS (i)
Square roots of negative numbers are called imaginary numbers
because. the square of any number is positive only. This OCCLI(S in sonic
quadratic equations and therefore has to be taken into account and
properly defined. For example
(i) i1x29=0 then x=±3 but
(ii) if x`+4=0 then x/-4
The (ii) above shows that x is equal to an imaginary number.
Further
x2-4x 1- 13==O
x2-4x+4+9=()
x-2=-k\/-9
X2d\/=9=231.
Now, the number of the form bi is an imaginary number where
1= l or i2 = V' - 1 x '/- -1. So that e can indicate an ima-
ginary number in real form as
•/9= \/-1 .
'V-9 = i • 3 or 31
121=V /- -1 \/l2l=1.1l orlli
In general

REAL NUMBER SYS1 EM
[09
416. COMPLEX NUMBERS (a -1-b)

11 a and h are real numbers then a-- lb is known as a complex
number which has a' the real part and 'If the imaginary part. Now
(I) If in the complex number a 1- 11, a -=0, the number 0-1 lb is an
imaginary number only.
(ii) If in the above a 1- ib, b-=O then the complex number reduces to
a purely real number a.
(iii) The two complex numbers a - 1!' and a - 1/; are called the
conjugates, e.g.,
2+31 and 2-31
(—\ ,'3) 1 -5i and (V 3)-5i
Addition and Sn/traction. In these operations vc add .uhtract
real part and imaginar y part separately, e.g.
(ad-ih) ±((, -id) =(ad-c)±i(b -F: d)
ifa!tip/icaiioa. This opertiofi is done in a normal way taking
such that
(a -i-ib) (c -id) (ac— bd) -)- ((ad 4 bc)
Let us elaborate
(a+ib) (c +- id) -ra(c . 1 . id) ih(c -i--id)
=ac ta(d+cibl-lbid
7G -1- iI'fd) -1- (aid-1- cifl)
=(ae — bd)-f- i (ad F be) {.. J2 ]
a + lb a + ib c - id
Division:------- = >(
c-i-id cfid c—md
(tic 4 . hd) ± i(hc - ad)
-- - 12d2
(IC 4- ld . --- ad
c2+d2
(1) Complex numbers obey the laws of algebra

j 2 jXj/_1 X V'— l== —I
i==iXi=(--1)i=-1
t 1 =(i 2 ) (i)=(--l) x(—_l)_= I
6=(j4) (j)(l) 1=1

(ii) If a+ib=O, where a , bER then a=0 and 17=0. This we can
prove as follow
if a-1-ih=() then a=-•--- lb
Squaring both sides, we have
a2 = = --
a2-1-L2O

lL BUSINESS MA7I1EMA7ICS
But a 2 -4--h2 cannot be equal to zero unless a and b both are equal to
zero.
(iii) SL: product of two conjugate numbers are real
(a -f i/) ia— th)=2 ci
(a ib) i) a2 i2b2=aZ4b2
(iv) If a-1 ii' c ic1 tben c and b=d.
We can prove this as follows
a + lb = c + Id
(a+ib)---(c -id)()
• (a - c) -1-i (b - d) 0 (See rule of subtraction)
a-- c- 0 and b d=0 See property (ii) above]
a- : c and h--d
110 ever, we cannot say in complex numbers that a given complex
number is greater than or lesser than any other complex number.
34-21
Example 6.
3+21 (3±21) (5-1- 31)
Solution.
--- (5--31)(5+3i)
(l5-6)+i (9+10)
25_912
9+191 9 19.
25+9 = 34+34
Example 7. Find the square root of 6-i-8./-1.
Solution. Let
z-=a 4 lb
6+8 i=(a2 — h 2 )+2 lab
ab=4 ...(jj)
16
and br-
Now substituting (iii) in (I), we have

a2 —
a4 -6 a2-16=0
or 8) (a'--2)=0
a2 =8 or a2=-2
Since a2 =-2 is inadmissible, a1 8. By substituting this in (iii)
above, we have b2=2.
V'6+8i+(V8+iV2)

REAL NUMBER SYSTEM Ill
Now, the square of arty complex uuinbcr is in the form of a complex

number.
We now present the various number s y stems in the form of a chart
Number System
Real Imaginary (1)
4.
I (Complex)
(C)
I (real and imaginary
4
Rational Irrational
(I?) (RI)
I on-iepcatIn? lon -tcriii:iiating, ralioii-it [)UFU1)e1-s]
I -3l4159......
Integers lrctioils
I) (F)
[ratios which do [ratios which leave a
not leave a remainder]
reminder 1
4
4.
Non-negative Negative Decimals Fractional
() I W)) I [terminating or
re pea tingj
Positive Zero Terminating Non-terminating
(J) (0) or i nfinite and
N4. non-repeating
atural (N)
Prime (F)
EXCERCISES
1. (a) State which of the following statements are true and which
ire false
(1) Every real number is a rational number.
(ii) Every irrational number is a real number.
(ill) A real number is either rational or irrational.
(it, )
There can be a real number which is both rational and
irrational.
(h) State the following in fractional form
(1) 12 (recurring decimal 1,2222...
(ii) 1' 6 (recurring decimal 1 666

(c) State the following in decimal form or fractional form
(i) ../5
(ii) 5, 23
(iii) 1/7
2 State whether the following statements are true or fake. It the
statement is true, prove it; if you consider a statemnt to be false, give an
example in support of your answer
(i) Time product of two rational numbers is rational.
(ii) The sum of two irrational numbers is irrational.
(iii) The product of two odd integers is an odd integer.
(iv) x<Zy x<y2.
(v) For any real number x, we can rind a real number y such that
xj , -= I
(vi) If x is rational and y is irrational then xy is irrational.
(vii) It' x>O then x>x.
3. (1) Show that the sum of two rational numbers is a rational
nunibcc,
(ii) Give an example to show that the quotient of natural numbers
need not be a natural number.
(iii) Give two integers whose quotient is not a rational number
(iv) Show that there is no rational number whose square is 2.
4. Define a rational number.
Show that /3 and /7 are not rational numbers,
5. State if the following statements are true
(I) a>h and c>O then acT>bc
(ii) ab and then a==b
a>b then a=b+c if c is some possible number,
(iv) II aO and b>O then a2 >b1 in all cases.

(vi)''ad<hc
6. Prove that
E Q, —(x+y)=(—x)+( - y)
V X. y
—x x
7. Show that
-U- ='-, (yOO)
V

8. Show that .Z(z-7-1 O) xy
(ay -I-hx)_,
9. Show that - + - if x?! O, y;40
10. (1) Multiply 4--3i by 5+71
(ii) Simplify and show if
3+2i 3 -21
+ 2±51 si a rational number
2 5j
9.-7i
(in) Simplify
ANSWERS
(a) (i) False, (ii) True, (iii) True, (iv) False.
II .. 5
(/,) (n) -- (ii)
-
(c) (i) 2.23607...(i:) (Ui) 0.142857
r pr
2. (n) True, ---p -- - -
q S qs
(ii) False, (p+Vq)+(p—\/q)=2p, rational number
(iii) True, (n-I-i). (ni+ I) rim ii -f,: 1-1 (n, n being even numbers)
(iv) False, -- 1<1 but ( -- ) (I)
(v) False. if y=O then xy/l
(vi) True, -/ 2 V4 /8 which is irrational.
(vii) False, 4>0 but (4)2 I.
3. (i) Closure property
(ii) ----- [n is a natural number]
n-I-I
(iii) 2 fq=01 (iv) I <v" 2<2

4, See text.
S. (i) to (iii) are true, (iv) is true if a>b,
(v) is true if a>b, (vi) is true.
10. (i) 41+ 131, (ii) - 29' ((11)
^1
Groups, Rings and Fields
Structure
50. INTRODUCTION
S'l. BINARY COMPOSITION
5'2. VARIOUS TYPES OF COMPOSITIONS
53. COM poscr[oN TABLES
54. GROUPS
55. AN ABEL IAN GROUP
56. PROPERTIES OF A GROUP
5'7. MODULO
58. RINGS
59. FIELDS
Obj ect ives
Aj'tcr studying this Chapter, you should be able to rendepstnnd
• Binary composition, various types of Composition, Composition fables.
• Groups, rings and fields.
50. INTRODUCTION
These are some special types of mathematical systems. The purpose
of these is to help in performing certain mathmatjcal operations on a set.
In the first three chapters we studied the algebra of certain binary opera-
tions and in the fourth chapter we acquainted ourselves with the real
number system. Now, we take up some mathematical c omposition with
certain number systems and the binary operations defined on them. The
two together form a mathematical system. Before coming to certain
special algebraic structures like groups and fields we shall like to discuss
binary compositions.
51 BINARY COMPOSITIONS
A binary composition is a composition set of order pairs of numbers
which are associated under a binary system, observing the rules of opera-
tions of such a system. The operations may be symbolised by say *
(asterisk). What is of importance is the observance of the rules of opera-
tions dealt in earlier chapters. Here these rules are integrated into binary
composition system.
FIELDS 115
GROUPS, RINGS AND
* Sx S-S Is said to be
l)ef Let S he a non-ematy set. A mapping
a -ituJry composition on the set S.
Illustrations 1. Let R be the set of real numbers. Then addition
+is a binary composition in R, since to every ordered pair (a, b) of real
numbers. we get a+h which is also a real number.
Multiplication '.' and subtraction '-' are also binary compositions
in R, since a . h and a—b are also real numbers. But division is not a
binary composition in 1?, since a±O is meaningless.
2. Union U and intersection fl are binary compositions in the
power set of a given set since the union and intersection of two subsets of
a given set are again subsets of the set. Thus
AEP(S) and BEP(S)AUBEP(S)
.IEP(S) an I BC- P(S)=>AflBEP(S)
3. Conjunction (A) and disjunction (V) are binary compositions
in the set of all sentences.
4. Let Q be the set of rational numbers. Then the mapping
E Q is an addition
%:Q defined b y a * ii=a-1- h, where as a, b
composition on the set Q of rational numbers.
* bQ
Also, the mapping * QxQ Q defind by a bab where a,
is a multiplication composition on the set Q of rational numbers.
52. VARIOUS TYPES OF COMPOSITIONS
binary composition * on a
I. Commutative Composition.Th e
set S is called i'onnireta(ive (or Abelian), if for every a, hES.
Illustrations 1. Both addition and multiplication compositionsand on

a+hb+0
set V of natural numbers are commutative, because
a. b=b. a for every a, h E N.
2. The addition and multiplication compositions C, on Set Q, of
of complex
rational numbers, on set R of real numbers and on set
numbers are also commutative.
IS riot
3. The substraction composition on the set of integers, I,
commutative, because a--b :p,-^b - a for every a, hE!.
4. The intersection and union compositions in the set of all sub-
sets of a set are both commutative. * Ofl a
II. Associative composition. The binary composition
set S is called associative if for every a. h, cES,
(a*b)*c a* (bc)
compositions on
Illustrations 1. The addition and multiplication
set of natural numbers, on set of rational numbers, on set of real numbers
and on set of complex numbers are associative.
or subsets of
2. Both intersection and union compositions on set P
a set are associative, because
(4UB)UC,4U(BU
116
BUSINESS MATHUMATICS
and (4flB)(C_-Afl(BflC) where A, B, C E P
3. The subtraction operation on set of integers I is not associative
because
a—(b----c)34(a-_b)_c, for every a, h, cEI
4. In set Q, the composition defined as
is associative because
(a*b)*c (a+h ±ab)*c
= (a+b +ab)+c-F(c i +b+ab)c
Also
=a+(h +c+bc)±1(/, + c+C)
==a -fb+cfab +-bc-f-acf-a/,c
(ah*)*c
5. In set R of real numbers, the composition
defined by
a
is not associative because
(a*b)*c(ab2)*c
(ab2)c 2 = ah2c2
and (*(/)*c) a*(bc2)
a(/c2)- ahc4^ (*f,)* c
III. Identity elemen t for a
by compositi on.
e, of a set S is called an identity element An element, donoted
for the C0nipo5jtj0 S if
a*e=e*aa,LaES
Illustrations I. Let + be the composition of addition on set k of
real number where 0 is the identity clement for the
for every real number a € R, O+a=af0a co mposition because
2. Let '.' be the composition
numbers then 1 is the identity elementof multiplication on set R of real
for the Co
every real number OCR, 1. a=aa . I. mposition because for
3.
0 is the identity for the addition composition on the sets of
natural numbers, rational numbers and c
for the multiplication composition on theomplex
n umbers
numbers.
sets of natural I is the rational
numbers, identity
and complex numbers.
4. For the union composition on a set S
set S, the null set cES 1 , is the identity. , out of the subsets of the
IV. I
nvertible element for a binary conpoj0 having
i dentity eleen. If a set S an
posj tion*afld if contains an identity element e, for the corn-
of b and b is called the Inversefor every a, bE S, then a is called the inverse
of a.
GROUPS, RINGS AND FIELDS
Illustrations 1. In the addition composition on

set of real
numbers, every real number 'a' has an additive inverse (—a), because
a- (---a)=-O=(—a)+a
where 0 is the identity element
In multiplication composition on the set of real numbers, a has a
multiplicative inverse , because
a. 1 a, where I is the identity clement.
2. In the multiplication composition on the sets of rational numbers

and complex numbers, every element except 0 is invertible.
53 COMPOSITION TABLES
If S is a finite set consisting of n elements then a composition* in S
can be described by a table consisting of n rows and n columns in which
the entry at the intersection of the row headed by-an element aES and the
column headed by an element bES is a*b . Such tables are called compo-
sition tables.
Illustrations I. Let S=={a, b, c}. The table below gives a com-
position * in S.
* a b c
a 1 a b a
h b b c
C a C C
From the table we find that

a*a=a , a*b=b, a*c=a,b*a=b
b*b=b , b*c=c. c*a__a, c*b=c, c*c,c.
2. Let S=-(l w, c) where w is cube root of unity so that w=L
*1 1
1 1 to
(U (&)
2 w 1 w
V. Distributive Laws for the compositions. If * and A be

two compositions on set S and
(acb) * (aAc), where a, h, c€S, then * and A
(0 if a,Mb * c) —left
are said to satisfy the -distributive law.
(ii) If (b * c)Aa=(bL\a) * (cAa), where a, b, cES, then * and
are said to satisfy the right-distributive law. The two laws together are
called distributive laws.
Illustration. The Compositions of addition and multiplication on
the set of integers obey both the distributive laws.
We now take t.lp certain special algebraic structures under the head-
ings of groups, rings and fields.
54. GROUPS (G, ED, ®)
Basically, a group is a special type of sot with some relationships
amongst its elements. In previous chapters we have quoted many sets in
which the elements had no clear relationship with each other. We 110W
consider sets which have special properties to allow us to add, multiply
and combine the elements in some specified manner. We shall now
describe, sets which possesses certain properties and form into groups.
Definition. A guoup is an algebric or a mathematical system con-
sisting of a set G of elements a, b, c, ... a nd a single binary composition.
This binary composition gives a rule of combination of the elements, and
should be well defined. The symbol * is used to denote this composition
or operation.
A non-empty set G of elements a, b, c,...on which a binary
operation* is defined, is said to form a group (G, *) if the following
properties are satisfied.
G1 . Closure. There exists unique element a * bEG for every a, bEG
such that
a bEG a,bEG
This also shows that it is an internal composition
G5. Associative
(a * b) * c=a * (b * c)
for all a, h, cEG.
G3. Identity: There exists an identity element say eEG such that
a e=a=e * a
On the right of a it is right-identity and on the left of a it is the
left- identity.
G4. Inverse : For every element aEG, there corresponds an element
b€G such that
a * b=e=b a
GROUPS, RINGS AND FIELDS 119
The element b is called the inverse of a, it can also be denoted by
a but that will be confused with a negative index. The symbol (*) can
be substituted by for binary addition and GJ for binary multiplication
as the case may ba-
it should be further noted that even though a large number of
groups satisfy the commutative property, this is not a necessary require-
ment for a group.
A group consisting of finite number of elements is called a finite
group. A group which does not restrict itself to a finite number of
elements is called an infinite group. The order of a finite group refers to
the number of elements in the non-empty finite set.
55. AN ABELIAN GROUP
A group (G, *) is said to he co'nmuta j (ve or Abelian group if
a * hz--b a for every a, bEG.
Illustrations I. A set of integers I={..., -3, --2, - I, 0, 1, 2,
3,...) forms a group with respect to addition because there is an identity
element 0 and the inverse say (—a) for aEI. The group (1,+) IS an
Abelian group as it is commutative under addition. But the set of integers
is not a multiplicative group since there is absence of multiplicative
inverses as in the case of 0 and 2.
2. The set of all positive rational numbers Qf is an Abelian group
under multiplication. For
(1) Ir a, bE Qf, then a . b also exists in the set.
(ii) There exists an identity element I
(iii) The composition under multiplication is associative.
(ii') There exists an inverse --- for every aEQ*.

(v) The operation is also commutative and therefore forms an
Abelian group.
3. The set of real numbers with the ordinary addition composition
is an Abelian group. -
4. The set of all non-zero rational numbers with the ordinary
multiplication composition is an Abelian group.
5. Prove that set of all integers with the ordinary addition as composi-
lion is a group.
Proof. Let Z be the set of all integers and + be the given binary
composition.
(I) Let a, b be any two elements of Z.
Now a+b EZ, since the sum of any two integers is also an integer.
Therefore+ satisfies the closure law
(ii) Let a, b, c be any three elements of Z.
BtJSinsS MkThEMATICS
Then (a+h)+c=a4-(b+c) is true, since this is valid for all integers

a, h, c.
Th erefore+-sat j sfies the aslocjatjvc law.
(iii) Since a+O=a=O+a, 3,1 aEZ, therefore the identity element 0
exists. It is the integer 0.
(iv) Since a+(—a)=0=(—a)+a a€Z, therefore every clement
Possesses an rnver&e.
Since Z satisfies all the properties of a group, (Z,-f-) is a group.
6. Show that the set G= (1. w. 1), where 1, w, w2 are cube roots of
Un fIy,fo,g an Abe/fan group with respect to inultlplicatfon composition.
Proof. (1) Closure Froperty
l®wEG; u2®1=)2EG
(if) Associativity
(I ®cj)Øu ! = l®(o®(02)
(iii) Identity element Is 1, since
l®(.O—(A), 1®O)2'-W, l®l.-1
(iv) Inverse of each element exists
101=1 for lEG
W®)IWI I, (U20WW31
So, 1, w w are respectively the inverses for 1, w, '.
(v) Commulatfv(ty:
l®Wev- (DO 1, ci®w 1 c'®
and
(G, 0) satisfies all the properties for Abelian group.
7. The set I of integers with the binary composition * defined as
a * b=a—b ; a, b€I is not a group
because a * (b * c)=a—(h—c)=a—b+c
and (a* b) c=(a—b)--.c=a---b—c
Therefore a * (b * c) :A(a * h) * c and thus the property G is not
satisfied.
ed.
56. PROPERTIES OF A GROUP
1. Uniqueness of Identity. Identity element of a group is unique.
Proof. Let e and e' be the two identity elements of the group
(G,
a * e=a=e * a, Y aeG
and a * e '— ae' * a
Subsistituting a=e' in (I). we have
* e=e'=e * e (3)

and putting a-e in (2), we have

e e'-ee' e
From (3) and (4), we have e'=e
There cannot be two identity elements for (G, A). Hence identity
clement of group is unique.
II. Uniqueness of iiverae. In a group every element possesses a
unique inverse.
Proof. Let a and a' be two inverses of a in G.
a * a'r.-e-=a' * a
and a' ae=a ta1
Now a'1'=a * e [From (G
* (a * a ' ) -'(a * a) * a ' [Associative Law]
* a' tFrom (Ga)]
CX
Hence the inverse of a is unique.

III. Caiicellation Property. For any group (G, A)
(i)a*ha*c'
(ii) h a-c-c * a • h=c, where a, b, cEG
Proof. (i) Consider
a * h=a ' c
The operation with inverse a 1 will give
a 1 *(a*b) .,,al*(a*c)
(fly associative law)
e*he*c
b==c
(Ii)
b*(a*a) c*(a*a1)
b'=c
IV. For every a, bEG, each of the equations a*x=h, y*ah have
Unique .wlutions.
Prof. Consider the equations
a*.x=h y*a=b
Pre-multiplying and post-multiplying by a', we get
aa(a *\) - a (v*a)*a
(a*a)*x=a*h y*(a*a I)=b*a1
e* x=a' * h v*e==hal
-

This shows the existence of solutions of the above two equestions.

To show uniqueness, let there be another x 1 , ;' such that
a*xi=b y1*a=-b
then a*x=a*xj, y*a_yj*a
By Cancellation law, x=x 1 , Y=yl , uniqueness follows.
V. In a Group (G,*). (a'=a, V aEG. In other words, for every
aG, the inverse of an inverse of a is 'a' only, i.e., the inverse of an inverse
of the element of a group i the element Itself.
Proof. We know that
b'*b=e
Replacing b by we get
(a) l*a_ 1 -=e
Operating on the right by a, we get
[(a_1)1*a1]ae*a
(a-')'*(a a) =a [Associative property)
(a') 1=a [Using Identity law]

VT. In a group (G, *)
(ab)'= bl*aa,bEG
In other words the inverse of the product of two elements of group is
the product of their inverses taken in the reverse order.
Proof. Let e be the identity element of the group G.
Now
(b'*a')*(a*b)= b'*[a'*(a*h)]
=h'.[(a'*a)*b}=h '*(e*b)
b *b= e
Also (a*b)*(b1*a) a*11 (b*1r1)*a_ 1)
=a(e*a1)
(bJ*a1)*(a*b) e==(a*b)(1r1*a1)
By def of the inverse element of a group, b'*a 1 is an inverse of
a*b.
Hence (a*b)1=b1*a-1
Example 1. Prove that the numbers 1, 1,—!, —1, where 1= —1 with
ordinary multiplication as the composition Li an Abelian group.
Solution, Let us form the composition table for multiplication.
(I) From the above table it is clear that multiplication is a binary

operation as all the elements inside the above table are elements of G.
(ii) Also
l®(j®--i)=(l®i)®--i; since
l®(i®--i) =(l® l)r==l and (l(Di)® ---j=(I®—i) 1
Associative property is satisfied.
1 is the identity element, since
1®11 1®(-1) — 1, 10.--i—i
(iv) We can verify that inverses of every element exit. Suppose we
want to find inverse of I.
Look to the row in which leading element is i, i.e., the third row. See
the identity element I in that row then the number at the head of this
column, Le, —i will be the inverse of i. Thus (i)= -
Similarly (1 )' 1, (-1) =1
fl I
(v) Again 1®ii®l, —i®ii(.) —1, etc., i.e., the comPOSltiO
commutative,
Hence-the above set is an abelian group for multiplication.
Example 2. Prove that the set Q+ of all positive rational numbers
formi an AbeiWn group for the composition * defind as
ab
Solution. (i) Closure property. Let a, h be the two elements of the

aboe set.
(ii) A3socialive property. Let a, b, c EQ 4 then

( a.b
(a*b)*c=I--- ).c
.b \ -1
[( a
r=[a. (4E-)]

124
BUSINESS MATIH1MATICS
(b * c)1
=a*(b*c)
Hence r*b)*c a*(b*c)
(iii) Identity. 2e Q serves as an identity because
a 2 a, IwL a E Q
Identity element exists and belongs to the set,
(iv) Irnerse. For a E Q+. -- Q+ is the inverse as
4
o-- a ----—=22 2
Inverse element exists and belongs to the set.
(v) Coinmulailve property.
ab ha
a* b-= 2 -- b a

Hence Q + is an Abelian group.
Example. 3. Prove that the set Q of all rational numbers other than 1
with the operation defined by
a*h.af/,_. ab
conatitutes an Abelian group.
Solution. (I) Closure property. Let a, h
Q so that both a and b are
rational numbers other than unity.
a* b==a+b_ah is also a rational number.
(ii) Associative property. For all a, b, CEQ
(a*b)*c=(a+b. ab)*c
= a+h+c— ab—ac—bc+ahc
Also a*(h*c) a*(b + c—bc)
a + (h + c—bc) —a(b + c—bc)
=a-l-b+c--a/, —ac—bc+abe
(a*b)*c=a*(b*c)
(iii) identity. If e be the identity then
a*e_a
a+e—ae=a
eO, as aI
O EQ is the identity clement.
GROUPS, RINGS AND FIELDS
125
(iv) Inverse. If b is the inverse of a, then
a*b=re
a+h—ab=O
a
a--I
EQ is the inverse element,

(v) Commutative properly, For all a, hE Q
a'b --a+b—af,
f-a--at)
- a+ I' - a/) = a * b
Hence the set Q with the above composition forms an Abelian
group.
Example 4. Let an ordered palm of real numbers be called a complex
number, and let addition ED of complex numbers be de
ind by
f
(a, b)(c, (I) = ( a+C, b-f-il)
Show that the set of complex numbers together with binary operation ED
forms a group.
Solution. Let C be the set ofcomp!ex number, I e.,
C=a, h) I a, hER}
where R is the set of real numbers.
(I) Closure property. Let (a, b), (c, d)E C, as the sum of the complex
numbers is a complex number. Therefore
(a, h)ED(c, d)(a+c, b-f-d)EC
(ii) A isociauve law. Y (a, h), (c+d), ( c
-f-f)E C
(a, b) ((C, d) (e, f)} (a, b) tB {( c ±e), (d-f-f)}
=((a+c4-e), (b+dff)}
and ((a, h)(c, d)1ED(e,f)={(a4-c), (b±d))ED(ef)
=4a4-c--e), (h+d+f);
(I)=-(2)
(iii) identity element. The element (0, WE C is the identity element
as
(a, h) ED (0, 0) = ( a. b)—(0, 0)ED (a, h)
(iv) Existence of inverse. (—a, ---h)EC is an inverse of
(a, b) as
(a, b)ED(—a, —b)(0, O)=(—n, — h)ED(a, b)v all (a,
h)EC
(v) commutative law. For all (a, b), (c, d) E C
(a, b) (D d ) = (a+c, h -I- d) = ( C+a, d+h)=(c, d) (B
b)
Hence (C, () is an abelian group.

Example 5. Show that the set

G(x+/2y : x,yEQ)
is an abelian group with respect to addition, Q being the set of rationals.
(CA. Entrance December 1983)
Solution. Since x, yEQ, set of rational numbers, therefore,
x-l-'1 2y is a set of irrational numbers, G.
Let us see whether the set G satisfies the requisites of an abelian
group.
1. Closure property. The addition of any two irrational numbers
is also a irrational number of the same form, e.g., let x 1 , Yi and , yEQ,
then
(x1 + / 2y 1) + (x,+¼/2y,)- (x 1 -f x2)+ ,/2(y+ y)
and (x2-i- ./ 2Y2 )+ (x 1 4 /?y (x+x1)+V2(y2+y1)
The set G is closed.
2. Associative law. The addition of irrational numbers is
associative, therefore, the set G satisfies the associative law.
3. Wentity element. O' is the identity element of the given set.
4. Inverse element. --x---2Jy is the inverse of the element
x+12y because
(x+ ,/2y)-F(-x- '12y) (—x—v'2y)-F-(x+ /2y)O
. Commutative law. The addition of any two irrational
numbers is commutative, the set G satisfies the commutative law.
Hence G=={x+.,/2y: x, yQ}
forms an abelian group.
Example 6. G is a group in which every element is its Own inverse,
so that,for example, x3 =y2 =(xy)2 =-e. Show that xy=.yx.
(CA. Intermediate May, 1981)
Solution. We have
x—exx--e, i.e., x=x'
y2 eyyr=e, i.e., y=y' -(2)
(xy)2 =e(xy) (xy)==e
i.e., (xy)==(x),Y1
y__1. x
ryx [From (I) and (2)]
Xy=yX
51. MODULO
We are familiar with the operations on sets which are concerned
with union, intersection or complementation. We now take up some new
type of operations on sets. Let us take a set G O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 51. We
have to define the operation which we want to have on this set. The
formal instruction is like this
"Select any element of the set, say 4 and then select another element
of the set, say 5 ; with this ordered pair of elements the operation

associates exactly one number according to the rule; determine the sum
of 4 and 5 ; divide the sum by 5 and find the number.
Let this remainder be the number that the operation associates with
4 and 5. This is indicated by 4 5 5-4. We can say that the remainder
4 associa t es 4 and 5 through a certain operation. Similarly other associa-
tions can he expressed as 2i3-=0, 3b4 7 2, etc. The results of the
operation on a set of element {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 51 has been Shown in the
tabular form
I 0 1 2 3 4 5
00 1 2 3 4 0
1 1 2 3 4 0 1
22 3 4 0 I 2
3 3 4 0 1 2 3
4 4 0 I 2 3 4
5 0 1 2 3 4 ()
The above table shows a binary composition with the addition
operation on a set of numbers 0, L 2, 3, 4, 9fld the composition is
called addition modulo 5.
Definition of Addition modulo m. Let a and h be any two
integers and in he a positive integer. Then the addition modulo in denoted
by a(0,,,h is defined as
ac33mb= r,
where r is the least non-negative remainder obtained by dividing the

ordinary sum of a and b, viz., a-I-b by in. In other words, for finding
we add a and h in the ordinary nay and then from the sum we remove the
integral multiples of in in such a manner that the remainder r left out is either
zero or apositive integer less than in. e.g.,
96=0, since 9+6— 5(3)
2, 12®18=6, since 12+8-7(2)+6
3. —10(9 4 4=2, since ---10+4--(-2)4+2
Multiplication modulo p. The multiplication modulo p of any
two integers a and h is denoted by aGDb and is defined as
a@ ph = r,
where r is the least non-negative remainder obtained by dividing the
ordinary product of oh by p. In other words, weif nd ordinary product of
two numbers a and b, viz., oh and foin this product we remove the multiples
of p In such a nay that remainder r left out is a positive integer less than p,
e.g.,
1. 4®7=4, since 4x7=6(4)+4,
2. 8®65==4, since 8x5=6(6)+4.
Example 7. Prove that the set G=O, 1, 2, 3, 4-5) is a finit e Abelian
group under ordinary addition with modulo 6 as the composition.

128 BUSINESS MATFWMATICS
Solution. Here we shalL make the following composition table.

EI 0 1 2 3 4--5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
(i) Closure property. The system is closed under because all the
elements resulting from the operation in the set 10, 1, 2, 3, 4, 51 are
also the elements of the set.
(ii) Associative. The composition is associative because (a . b)+c
and a+-(h-f-c) both will have the same positive remainder when divided by
6, e.g.,
(3c.6)E 5=0 =3(4S)
(iii) Identity element. Clearly the element 0 of the set is the identity
element for the composition.
(iv) Inverse element. In order to find the inverse of element, say 5,
look to the row headed by 5 where 0 is there, then the element at the head
of this column, I.e.. 1 will be the inverse of 5. Similarly we can show
that the inverse of the elements 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are 0 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
respectively.
(v) Commutative, It can be seen from the table that
0 6bb g3 for any a, bEG
Hence the set C under ordinary addition with modulo 6 is a finite
Abelian group.
Example 8. Is the set {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) a group under addition
modulo 8.
S olution.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2
4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3
5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4
6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5
7 0 1 2 3 4 56
The abobe operation is not a binary operation because 0 or additive
identity element does not belong to the set.
Example 9. On the set Z, we introduce a operation * defined as
follows
a*b=a+b+l, where + is the ordinary addition.
Show that (Z.*) Is a group.
Solution. We list the following properties to show that (Z, ) is

group.
(1) Closure. If a, h are any two elements from (Z, *) then
a * h'a--1,4-1EZ
(ii) Associativity. If a, b, c, are any three elements from (Z, *) then
(a*b)*c=(aIb+I)* c=(a+b±1)±c4- I
=(a+b+l-f-c)+ I
'=(a-f-b-l-c+ 1)-f-I
=(a-I-b+c)+1+ I
== (a + h + c) + 2
Similary, it can be shown that
a*(b*0=(a+b4c)+2
(a*b)*ca*(b*c)
(iii) identity. If e is the identity for (Z,*), then we must have
a*e=av aEZ
a-e+1=a
e+ 1 =0, where 0 is the additive identity of Z
e=--1, which is an element from (Z, *)
Thus —I is the identity for (Z,*)
(iv) Inverse, if h is the inverse of a, then
a*l, e
a+h -F-1 —1
b= —2—a
Thus —2-a is an inverse of all aEZ
Hence (Z,*) forms a group.
Example 10. Prove that the Set {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is afinite Abelian
oup of order 6 under multiplication modulo 7.
Solution. The composition table is shown below,
®7 123 4 5 6
T 1
2
2
4
3
6
4
I
5
3
6
5
2
3 , 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1
(i) Closure property. From the composition table, we can see that
all the entries are the elements of the Sec.
(ii) Associative law. We can verify for any three elements of the
above se,
(a®7b)®7c= a®7(b®7c)

e g., (3®75)t74=4='3®7(5®74)
(Ili) Identity element. Clearly 1 E G is the identity, element, since
l® 7a=a=a® 7 1 (a=], 2, .,6)
(iv) Existence of inverse. The inverses of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are 1, 4, 5,
2, 3, 6, respectively.
(v) Gornrn:jtative law. The correspondin2 rows and columns in
the composition table are identical, as such the commutative law holds
good.
ifence (G, ®) is a unite Abelian group of order 6 under multiplica-
tion modulo 7.
Example 11. State giving proof or counter examples, whether the
following statements are true or false.
(i) Given a set S and a commutative binary operation 0 on it, then
aO(hOc) =-(c0h)Oa for all a, h, c in S.
(ii) A group may have more than one identity element.
(iii) Everj'fi,zlle group of three elements is Abelian.
(iv) A set A (1, 2. ... ... a— l} with the operation of multiplication
(modulo n) forms agroup for all positive integral values of a.
Solution.
(I) True, using commutative property along with associativity.
aO(bOc) (bOc)Oa (associativity)
=(cob)Oa (commutativity)
(ii) No, it cannot have two identity elements.
(iii) True, a group of three elements say (e, a, b} is an Abelian as
shown below:
* e a b
e e a b
a a h e
b b e a
(a) In the above composition, e is an identity element. Since
a*e=a , b*c=b
(h) The inverse of a is b because
ah = e --
(c) The composition is dommutative, since
a.b=ba
(d) The composition is associativc, since
(a*b)*e a*(b*e)

GROUPS, RINGS, AND FIELDS 131
(iv) True, a Set of positive integers given with modulo n has a multi-
plicative inverse.
58 RINGS (R, ,®)
The algebraic structure of rings has two binary compositions viz.
and ®. We recall that the groups dealt earlier had only one binary opera-
tion either T or ®. As regards notations there is no rigidity, some authors
use * for OT and 6 for ®. It is common practice to use the symbols '+'
and '.' respectively for and A and call these compositions addition and
multiplication respectively. An operation is known by its properties.
\Ve can now ckitne a ring as a non-empty set R with two binary
operations e and ® and indicate it as (R, ,) if the following eight
propertics hold
- R1. Closure law for
abETR, V a, bER
R 4 . Associative law for
Va, b, cER
R.3 . Identit y element for g3. There exists an element CER, called
the identity of the composition such that
aE3O a=Oa
0, the identity of R for the composition EB, is called the zero of the
ring.
R4 . Inverse element for C . For every element aE R, there exists an
element 1 ER such that
a b 0=1, a
Then h is called inverse of a. The inverse of any element a will be denoted
by (—a).
R. Commutative law for . The composition is commutative
in R, i.e.,
a(bba, ya,hER
R. Closure law for ®
a®bER,a,bER
R 7 . Associative law for ®
(a®h)®c=a®(b®c), Va, b, cER
It may be noted that for ring there is no necessity for the existence of
multiplicative identity, inverse and commutativity.
e with
Ra, Distributive Laws. The composition ® is distributi v
respect to T, i.e., for all a, I', c R
a®(hc) = (a®b) (a®c)
and (bc)®a (b®a)(c®a)
In other words, we may define a ring as follows
(1) R is an Abelian group under ,

132 BUSIN1S5 MATHRMA1ICS
(II) R is a semi-group under ®, and

(III) ® is distributive with respect to in R.
Illustrations 1. The set 1 of all integers with ordinary addition and
multiplication composition is not a ring.
2. The set of natural numbers with ordinary addition and multipli-
cation composition is a ring.
3. The set consisting of the two elements 0, 1 with the following
addition and multiplication composition tables
ED 0 I ® 0 1
and - is a ring.
0 0 1 - 00 0
I 1 0 1 0 1
4. The following two tables have been prepared for both the opera-
tions on a set of integers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4 1J . The modulo in this case will be
5 so the ring can formally be called {S ®}. The respective tables of
the two operations oil same set are
(0 1 2 3 4 06 0 1 234
1 2 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 4 0 1 1 2 3 4
2 2 3 4 0 1 2 0 2 4 1 3
3 3 4 0 1 2 3 0 3 1 4 2
44 0 1 2 3 4,0 4 3 2 1
Example 12. State if the set Compositious S a, b} with addition
and inultipiicatiw; dejind as follows is of a ring.
(i) i a (ii) ® a b
a a b a a a
b 1—b a b a b
S olution. In the (I) a is the additive identity and h is the additive
inverse.
Similarly, in (ii) both the closure and associative properties are there.
The latter for example is
(a®b)®a=a®(b®)0
On checking all the properties of the ring we find that it is a ring.
Example 13. State if the set R={a, h, c, d} with the operations
defined as follows is of a ring:
ED Ja b c d a h C d
a a b c d
b a
b a d c h
c a b a b
C d a h c a e a C
C b a d a d a d

Solution. The set R a, b, c, d) constitutes a composition of ring

=
because all the eight properties listed above are satisfied. It can be checked
taking note of the fact that a is an identity element in (i) and there is no
need of identity element for ®.
Sub-Rings. The sub-ring is the ring composition formed by a sub-
set of a set with a ring composition. As shown above S=a, b} constituted
a sub-ring of the ring set of R a, b, C, d}.
Commutative Ring. Ring for which multiplication composition is
commutative is called commutative ring In other words, a ring (R, (, ()
is said to be commutative if the ® composition in R is commutative, i.e.,
a, bER
Ring with Unity. A ring (R, (Es, ®) is said to be a ring with
unity if it contains an element denoted by I such that
l®u=a=a®l V (IER
For example the ring of all integers is a ring with unity, I being the
unity of the ring.
Rings with Zero Divisors. In a ring R an element a 1 0 of R is
called a divisor of zero if there exists clement bho of R such that
a®b=0 and b()ar=0.
For example, rings 1, Q, R, C have no divisors of zero, i.e., have
no non-zero element a where a()b r0 for SOme b®0. In fact a®b0
always implies that U or I, 0.
==
We can prove that if R is a ring with a zero divisor then for all
R. a®0=OØa-0.
Since
a®a=(aBO)®a(a®a)(O®a)
But (1®a=(a(a)EO
Hence (a®a)(0®i)=((1®a)O
= 0®a=O (Cancellation law)
Similarly a®a a®(a0) = (a®a) (a®0)
=
Also aa(aaO)O
(a®a)(a®0)=(a®a)0
B' cancellation law
a®0O
Integral Domain. An integral Domain is a commutative ring D
with uniy but having no divisors of zero. For example, the ring I, Q, R
and Care all integral domains.
The cancellation law for addition holds in every ring since every
element has its inverse. The cancellation law of multiplication holds in
every integral domain, as shown below
If a®cr=b®c and c^0
then a=b
134 BUSINESS MATI-IBMATICS
We have
Now since D has no divisor of zero
a—b=O ab
Example 14. Prove that if R is a ring with zero element z, then for
a11 aER, a. ZZ . (Z.
Solution. Since a+z=a
then a . a=(a+z).H-a=(a. a)-4-z. a
Hence (a a)+z. a(a . a)+z
Now using the cancellation law, we have
z • a=z
Similarly a . a=a . (a±z)
a+a. z
=a.z
=z
Example 15. The two binary compositions , in the set of I of all
integers are defined as follows:
a ' b=a+b-1
aExb—a+b—ah, for all a, bE!
Show that (1, * ) is a ring.
(CA. Entrance June 1984)
Solution. The set of all integers, i, is a ring for the given two
binary compositions , / because.
1. Closure for *• The composition is closed because
a * b=a+b-1I
and b*a__b+a_1E1,
for all a, bEI.
2. Associative for * The composition is associative because
a*(b*c)==(a*b)*c for all a, b, eEl.
a*(b*c)=a*(b+c_1)=a+(b+c_l)_l
-=a +-b+c-2
and (a * b) * c=(a-j-b----l) * c=(a-}-b—l)+c-1
=a+b+c-2
3. Identity element for . There exists an element I El such
that
a * i=i • a=a, for all aEI.
4. Inverse clement for ' There exists an element (2 -.a)EI
such that
* (2—a)= (2 —a) * a==I, for all eEL
5. Commutative for '. The composition is commutative because

a * b==b * a,
for all a, hEi.
6. Closure for A. The composition is closed because
a A b == a + b—abEl
ajd bAa—b+a—baE1
for allia, bE!.
7. Associative for A. The composition is associative because
a n (btxc)-=a A(b+c—bc)
=a±(b+c—bc)—a(b+C—bC)
a+bf c—ab—ac —bc+abc
(a6b)6c=(a+b—ab) c
=(a+b—ab)-l-c---(a+b--ab). c
rr-+-b *c—ab—ac—bc -I-abc.
for all (1, b, cEi.
8. Distributive Laws The composition * is distributive with
respect to A, i.e.,
a*(bAc) (a*b)A(a*c)
(bAc) * a(b a) 7\(c * a)
for all a, h, cEl.
Therefore (1, * A) is a ring.
59. FIELDS (F,, ®)
Fields are special types of rings. They also have an algebraic
structure with two binary operations, and ®.
Let F{a,b, c} be a non -empty set with Iwo binary compositions
and 0 if F arisfies the following properties then it is called afield
(F, (D, 0)
F1. Clow e law for B : abEF, Y a, b F
F2. Assoiative law for 0
(alb)0c=aEB(h(Dc), V a, b, cEF
F. ideUify laiv for 0 : There exists an clement 0 in F, called the
identity for tie composition Ce such that
00a = a = a0 O , V aEF
F4 Inverse law for 0 There exists an element —a in F, called
the negati e of a, such that
(—a)0a=0a0(—a), Y aEF
F1 Commutative law for 0:
a0b=b0a, a, bEF

136
F0 . Closure law for
F7. Associative law for 0

a, he
(a®b)®c z aO(b®c), V- a, b, cEF
F9. Identity law for 0 : There exists an element I in
F such that
ti®l (l 10(1, V (1EF
F9. Inverse mw for ® For every non-zero clement a in F, there
exists an element a- a' in F called the inverse of a such that -
aia-==j r=acl)a 1
F10. Con-injiitat j ve law for G
-i a, /E/
F11. D is tributive laws : For all a, h, cEF,
a®(bc)= (a®b)®(c®c)
(1) c)®u = (bOa) tD (cØa)
In other words, a ring (F, ED, ®) is called a field if it has the follow-
ing three additional properties
(1) it is conlrnutatjve (ii) it has a unity and
(iii) it is such that every non-zero element has an inverse for the
Composition ® in F.
Illustralioris. 1. The ring of rational, real and complex numbers
with respect to the Operations of addition and multiplication is a field.
We are giving below a list of number sets which can have the com-
Pos i tions of a field.
{Q, D. ®} sets of rational numbers
{R, E, 0) set of real numbers
{C, e, ®} set of complex numbers.
2. The set I of all integers forms a ring with respect to addition and
mu ltiplication. We can say (I, El), 0)
is a ring. But this ring is not field
because with the exception of —1 and I no other element of 1 has an
Inverse with respect to multiplication.
3. The following composition of a set S={a, b, c, d, e,
addition and mu f,g, h' with
field. ltiplication as compositions defined by the following is a
a Li c d e I g h
a a b C d e f g h
b I' a d c / e Li g
c c d a b g Ii e
d d c b
f
a h g f e
e e f g Ii a b c d
/ f e h g h a d c
9 h e f c d a h
h 9 / e d c b a

GR OUPS, RINGS AND FIELDS

137
The various properties of the field can be verified.

r emembered that a is an additive unity or zero clement and is a It may be
multiplica-
tive unity or 1. Also non-zero elements of the set lorin an Abelian
multiplicative group.
Eanip1e 16. Define a ring
is not afield. and afield. Give an example of ring which
Soluti on.For dc6nit ions see the tczt. The set

I={..., —3, —2,0, 1, 2. 3,...}
constitutes a ring but not a field because
there. multi P li citivc inverses are not
Example 17. (a) Define a field
and give two examples of afield. (b)
Given That a, b are two members 01 a field, show that
a(— -I,) = - (a/i) and ( -- -a) (--5) =ah
Solution. (a)
set of rational (Q) andDefinition
real (R) and properties are given in the text. The
field. numbers constitute the compositions of a
(/i) Let there he an element c such that h-h c-=O

So that c=— h
But we have O=aO= a(b-c)a/,Jac
ac= —(a/i)
a(--l;) --(a/i)
and (--a)(-- 14 = —(a)( - h) [a(b)] =ab
EXERCISES
I. (a)
infinite group. Define a 'group'. Give one example each of a finite and an
(!i) Define a 'group. When is it Abelian ? Show
that the set of all
integers, Positive or negative, including zero with additive binar y operation
is an infinite Abelian group.
(c) Define a group and cxaminc whether the
set Nof rational
numbers is a group with respect to addition.
(CA. intermediate Nov. 1982)
2. Is the set of all positive rational numbers, a group in multipli-

cation? What would be the case if it is a set of all non-zero rational
numbers 7
3. (1) State if the following is a group in multiplication
xE Rt\x> 0)
(ii) State if the followifg is a group in addition and multiplication;
R=-{2x: xEZ}
4. State with reasons which of the following sets form a group
In addition
(i) G={x:xE1,x<0}
(ii) G={3 : XE!)
In multiplication
(iii) G=={x xEl, is odd)
(iv) G=(-2,--1, 1, 2)
5. (a) Define ring and give two examples.
(b) Define a field and give two examples.
6. (a) State whether (N, , ®) is a ring where N stands for set of
natural numbers.
(5) State formally the property of a division ring.
7. Determine whether each of the following sets is a ring for
ordinary addition and multiplication. In each case justify your answer by
proof or by counter-examples
(1) The set of all positive integers,
(ii) the set 3n : nEZ).
(lii) (a±th a, bEQ), and
(Iv) {a-t-b.,/2 a, b€Z).
8. Let * be an operation on the set of real numbers defined by
a * b='a+b±a 2h, a,bER
Show that (R, *) is not a group.
9. Prove that the set
G =( .., 2 1, 2, 2- 2. 21, 1, 2, 2', 23, 2, . }
forms an inCinite Abelian group w.r.t. multiplication.
10. Prove that the set Q. of all rational numbers other that— 1 with
the operation defind by
a * b = a-f b+aha, bE:Q.
form a group with respect to binary operation *
11. Prove that the following sets are groups
(1) G .-{0, 3, 6, 91 for addition modulo 9,
(ii) G=={ l, 5, 7, 11) for multiplication modulo 12.
12. Show that the numbers I, 2, 3, 4, 6 form a group with respect
to the operation of multiplication modulo 7

CROW'S, RINGS AND FftLDS 139
13. Define an Ab2lian group.

In the set S=(l, 2, 3, 4}, let ® be the composition 'multiplication
modulo 5'. Prove that (S, 0) is an Abelian group.
14. (a) Prove that the following operation tabte defines a group
under*.
* 1 3 5 7
1 3 5 7
3 3 1 7 5
5 5 7 1 3
7 7 5 3 1
(b) Show that * a b C d

a a b C d
6 1) a d c
C C d b a
d d c a b
is group under*.
15. State whether a field possesses more properties than a ring.
16. Do the following sets constitute a held !
(1) The set of all rational numbers.
(ii) The set of all integers.
(iii) The set ot' all real numbers.
(iv) The set of all complex numbers.
17. Show that (0, 1), (E, 0) is a field if the coiT]positions e, € are
given by the tables
- (9 1 0 1 Or0-- 1
18. Let R be the set of ordered pairs (a, 6) of the real numbers. Let
addition and multiplication compositions be defined as
(a, b)+(c, d)=(a+c, b + d) and
(a, b)(c, d)=(ac—bd, bc+ad)
Show that R is a field.
19. Prove that the set of all real numbers of the form a+b,/2, where
a and 6 are rationals forms a field under addition and multiplication.
20. Show that the set (a, b, c, d) in which addition and multiplica-
tion are defined by the following tables is a finite field.
a b c d 0 a 6 c d
a a b c d a a a a a
6 b a d c b a 6 c d
C c d a 6 C a c d 6
d d c b a d a d 6 C
140
21. Prove that the set of integers l={0, I, 2, 3, 4} with addition
modulo 5 and multiplication modulo 5 is a composition of a field.
22. Let us define to binary compositions",
integers as follows t, in the set Z of all
a *
aAh=a-fab--ah v a, hEZ
Show that (Z, * A) is a commutative ring with unity What is the zero of
this ring ? What is the unity of this ring ?
ANSWERS
I. (a) A set of integers forms an infinite group. The following is
an example of a group composition with a finite set S=-{s, in, t, r} which is
an Abelian group.
m
I s in
S I in t r
I t r S
S
ill
r S in I
(b) See the text.
2. No, for the first part, and yes, for the second part.
3. (I) Yes, it is set a of non-zero real numbers.
(ii) Yes in addition and not in multiplication.
4. (i) No, as Inverse of each integer is positive,
(ii) Yes
(iii) No, as inverse of each element is not there.
(iv) No, as product of —2 and 2 is not there.
(a) The set of integers, real, rational or complex numbers is a
ring. 5.
(b) The set of real, rational or complex numbers constitute
ring.
6. (a) No, the additive inverse —a for a is not there.
(b) See text.
7. In all except the (I) for the reason given in 6(a) above
15 Yes.
16. (i) Yes, (ii) No, (iii) Yes. (i)) Yes.
21. Hint. If we denote the two compositions by and ®& respec-
tively, the composition tables for the two compositions are as shown
below.
JcLL
0
2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4
® 0 1 2 34
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 12340 1 01234
2 23401 2 02413
3 34012 3 03142
4 4 0 1 2 3 4. 0 4 3 2 1
G ROUPS, RINGS AND FIELDS 141
From the table, we conclude that
(1) F is closed under $
(ii) ®s is associative in F
(iii) 0 is the additive identity
(i additive inverse of 0, I, 2, 3, 4, are 0, 4, 3, 2, 1 respec-
tively.
(v) is commutative as the table is symmetric in rows and
columns.
(vi) F is closed with respect to ®
(vii) ® 5 is associative in F.
(viii) 1 is the multiplicative identity
(ix) The inverse of the tion-zero elements I ,2,3,4E F are 4, 3, 2, 1
respectiv ely.
(x) ® is commutative as the table is symmetric in rows and
columns.
(xi) Distributive law holds good iii F as
a®5(bc)
Similarly, (b$5c)05a) =(b®sa)$s(c®a)
Hence (F, (D, ®) is field.
22, Hint. (i) It can be shown that the set Z
is an Abelian group
for the composition defined as given.
(ii) The cornposil'io,2 A is binary and assocjoj lie
Since (aAh)A =(a+f,—afi)c
—a+b —ab+c—ac_bc+abc
Similarly CA(bAc) =a A( b +c_ be) a±h -I-c--bc ab
—ac -1-abc
A is distributive over *
aA(b*c)=a((b+cI)
...
Again (aAb) * (aAc)-=r(a+h—a/,) * (a+c—ac)
c - ac—i
aA(b*c)=(aAb)*(aAc)
(ii') Commutative
(v) Unity
aAO=a+O--(l O=a
OAa=04-a-0.
aAQa-OAc
Hence, the set is a c o mmutative ring with unity for the two com-
positions delned as given.
L61-
Ir
Indices and Surds

Struct tire
61. INDICES
62. POSITIVE INDICES
61. FRACTIONAL INDICES
6 , 4. OPERATION WITH POWER FUNCTIONS
65. SURDS
6'6. OPERATIONS ON SURDS
67. RATIONALISING FACTOR
68. ROOT OF MIXED SURDS
Objectives
After study ing this chapter, you should be able to understand
• Indices ; posifivefractionai indices, and opera/ions on them.
• Surds, operations on surds, rationalising of surds and calculation of
root of a surd.
61. INDICES
We are aware of certain operations of addition and multiplication
and now we take up certain higher order operations with powers and
roots under the respective heads of indices and surds.
The knowledge of these rules is indispensable for any serious mathe-
matical manipulation. We will deal with indices and surds in this chapter
and the use of logarithms to help simplifying these operations in the next
chapter.
We know that the result of a repeated addition can be had by
multiplication, e.g.,
4+4+4I-4+4"5(4)20 or
a+a+a+a+a=5(a)=5a.
Likewise the repeated multiplication can be reduced to a power func-
tion as follows
4x4X4X4x4=4
axaXQxaxaa5
INDICES AND SURDS 143
It may be noticed that in the first case 4 is multiplied 5 times and

in the second case 'a' is multiplied S times. In all such cases a factor
which multiplies is called the "base" and the number of limes it is
multiplied is called the "power" or the "index". Therefore, ''4'' and ''a"
were the bases and "5" was the index for both. Remember that the
base has to be same in order to convert a piodmict fuiictiojj into a power
function. in the above case the index Was positive and integral but it
can he negative or fractional which we shall consider later.
62. POSITIVE INDICES
In a posihve index the base multiplies a given number of times
depending on the power or the value of the index. In case of a negative
index it is reciprocal of the base which multiplies a number of times
depending on the value of the negative intle. 'The formal definition and
the fundamental rules of operations with positive index are given below
which would be relevant in other cases also.
Definition. If n is a positive integer, and o ' a real number, i.e., nE N
and aE' R. a' is used to denote the contunied product of n factors each equal
to 'a' shown below
araxax ......ton factors.
where a is called the index or the exponent of base a.
Laws of Indices. If a. hER in, rzCN, then
I.
Proof, a" x a" ('a.a a.. .10 rn factors) X (a.a.a....to ii factors)
=a. a. a.. to (rn±n) factors
-am " (by definition)
This is called the Fundamental Index Law.
II. aM
a"' a. a. a... tn factors

Proof.
a. act
(i) If m>n, there will be (?n—n) factors of 'a', it being more in the
numerator than in the denominator. Cancelling with n common factors
from the numerator and the denominator, we are left with (m - a) factors
of a in the numerator.
±a"axaxa ... (in — pm) factors =am—n
(ii) If in=n, there are same number of factors of a in the numerator
and denominator which cancel away.
(iii) If in <n, there are (n — rn) extra factors of a in the denominator.
Cancelling the common in factors from the numerator and the denomi-
nator, we are left with extra (n—rn) factors of a in the denominator.
1 1
• a"'-i-a=- -
a. a . a ... (n—rn) factors
III. (a") = an"
Proof (a)=am a' a'...n factors
•a • a ... rn
factors) x(a a . a ... n, factors)
x(a . a a— in factors)•
a . a ... (mn) factors

a"
Iv (ab) "
Proof (a /,)m=(a b) x (a . b)x ...rn factors
a a. rn factors) x (h
• b...rn factors• •
-a- x b"'
a \' m
V f
I) ) - I)"
Proof /a )--(2-,". (\
--- ). factors
- a a . a ... rn factors a"
•
bh./...mfactors brn
Remark. The above laws can he extended to the case involving
three or more power functions. It should be remembered that powers
arc added for multiplication and subtracted for division Simple addition
or subtraction of power functions is not possible,
There can be a negative integral index to any base except 0 and I in
a power function. When this is there, the power function becomes the
reciprocal of the function having a positive index. For example
0m= -a' where a^0 or I
Thus, a negative integral index makes the power function an inverse

of the one with a positive integral index. The only restriction is that the
base is not Oor 1.
flistrations. I. 3=
4
3. amX a"=a tm•41
4. (1 Xa= --- =a
atm
ZERO AND UNITY INDEX
The general principle is that anything other than zero raised to the
power zero is one, i.e.,
a=x°=5°=1,
Thus
As a rule any base raised to unity or 1 is equal to the base itself
a1=a ; 51_5
POWER RAISED TO A POWER

A power function can be raised to a power as given below
However, this will not be the same as the whole function being
raised to a power, in that case the power will multiply as given below
(a3 ) 3 =a6 , ( 4a 2 ) 3=43 . a=640
x"_ — x(-" ; and (x_)=x*
63. FRACTIONAL INDEX
In a positive fractional index the numerator represents the power and
the denominator, the root. For example
L I 1
x 2 =/x./x 2. 3. x=/
P
q ==/ x'. In particular, we have
(1) 16 2 ==j16r4,
(ii) 64=64=4, and (lit) 16 T ='(l6)

Note that in the (Iii) above, the fraction has been broken into
( 3 x This is necessary before transforming a power function with
a fractional index in the radical form
P
Meaning of a q , where p and q are any two positive integers.
Since a' xa n =a"+ n holds true for all values of n and n, putting
we have
q
L L.LL
a q xaq = a q q =a q
q
1_fl Xq
Similarly xa q x a q >< ...q factors=a\ q ,,
(p )
Therefore a q represents the q root of the pk

power of a. In a

BUSIN3 MATUBMATXS
146
P
like manner, a q =(V—
a) 1 , represents the p' power of the q" root
of a.
In case. the fractional index is negative, the function is transformed
into the reciprocal of one with a positive fractional index as shown
below:
L1 1 1 _
1. Xq=-,2. x=:cr7i=i/:y:
3. 8T==7"T
2 1 1 1 1
64. OPERATIONS WITH POWER FUNCTIONS

The two operations involved in power functions are multiplication
and division. As indicated earlier power functions cannot be added or
subtracted so as to derive a new resultant function.
Multiplication with Common Base. In the case of multiplication
of two or more power functions with a common base, the powers are
added, in other words, the base is raised to the sum of the indices. The
formulae is
x1" X X" X X X"t'
For example a6 x t,0=a'+4=a'0
This can be shown as follows:

Also {axaXaxaXaxa)X{aXaXaXa)a'°
But remember
DIvI.Ion with a Common Base. In this case, the base will be
raised by the difference of the indices. The formulae is
am
(i) a"-* atm = = a* (where m>n)
a 1
and "-a1=—
-.
a'1
(where n<n)
For example
a' axa>axaxaxaxa
=a'- 5 =at
a5 aXqxaxaxa
as axaxaXaXa
and 7$
a7aXaxaXaXaXaXO at
Illustrations
1. 232 =2g.

IND1CS AND SURDS 147
1
a- tm I b b
2. (1) :; T=
1 1
(ii) - amxO
am
a Simplify (4 x') 3 (6x3)2
(2, 0) (3—x i)-3
4x 6'x 64x 6 36.x6
which is
=l6x 6_8 +4 x6=16o+xo

52
l6+ --=-- (... o)
5 1 1
4. /a =a 3 =(a) 3 =(a3)G= (f5._/5
3
5. 16 —.L
/16 8
1 -
6. 841=r7- 7.
8. If a 2 = , 01 then a'=a' . a=0J x /O1=O1 x 1=001

1 3
9. If x 2 =2 then x 2 =x x 2 =04x2='008
1
then a-4=----= 1 1 1
10. If a=8
a4 a2 x& 8x8 64
ii. If 2a then . 22=4a
and
.
3 1 1
12. x 2 x 7 . x T can also be expressed as
3 1 1 5
2 2orx2
Multiplication of Factors with Different Bases. The rules for

this can be stated as follows
(1) axbtm=(ab)m (ii) a" . b" . c , = (abc)-
148 BUSINaSS MATHEMATICS
3x54=(3X5)'=(15)4
We can prove the formula a," . bl =(ab)- as follows:
a"' . b"=(ax ax ..... . to in factors)x
(bxbx ..... . tomfactors)
=(a x b) x (ax b)..... . to m factors
Division of Factors with Different Bases. The rule for the

purpose can be stated as follows
am (O\m
Fb)
We can prove the formula (-)r( .. ) as follows:
am axaxa ...... to m factors

bxbb ...... ton factors
............ ...... tomfactors
(a
kb
Illustrations:
1. To which power should we raise x 218 to get x?
3 2 3
X
(x213) 2 - x 3 2
2. If a'= 4 andb 2 =a,find b and bL2.
If b'=a then b==a3=4

and bI2=(a=(4)2=16
Example 1. Find the value of (f) (81) 5 and (II) (001)'1
Solution. (i) slh1.j8l 9
(Ii) ((y3)
Example 2. Express (I) 00001 and (ii) &/ fi6 into index form.
Solution. (I)
100000=006=
(ii) JIOO=/1O2=10
36 . 27 . 94
Example 3. Simplify 3. (81)

(32)4
Solution. Given expression=35
- -(33)8
25 19 28 15+9+8 322
__. _ 3 22_27 35
3 316 31+I6 317
9(4")2
Example 4. Simplify
16''-2"
32
Solution. Given exPreSSiOfl=(24)'+1-2'+'. (23)*
32.(22-)2 32 24*
2 4 1 +4 ()Sx 24*+4__24*+1
3'.2" 32 9
2 2 4 _24x . 2' = =
y2
Example 5. Simplify
t1x3
X4/7 . X815 Y2
Solution. -
y 5 1 5 . X815 . x5I8
S
Xe -
F1 —y (. x-)
M
Example & Simplify pv/n.xp

çi;• f 1.
- m it
q
Solution. Given expression= - —m
x'
(n+m) i)(m+n)
(++
(m+n)
5 3 3
Ezampl7. Divide x8.y


I 5 5
and multiply the quotient by x'10 . y 3 .z 7 Evaluate for x=16, y216
5 3 3 5 2 3 4 3 8
Solution. x . T . z 5 y $ 3 . z ' 7
248
x 5 .y 3 . z7
9 - 29 5
yThT z i (*)
1
5 5
Now, multiplying () by x40 y . z 7 • we get the product as
29 5 5 5
x40 40y15+3z7+T
10 4 14
=X Q y 4 * y 15
15 za—x zo
If x=16, y==2 15 , the given expression

161 " (2)1 " 2 1
(216)4 1 2' 16 8
7 5.
5- 72 2 5_I p 2
Example S. Stnplify (52 7_I)
7
7 5
51 72 ( LL:_T) 2
Solution. Given expression= (51 x
)2
2 X [ 5 -1-3 73+51-T
7 5
_(5-3 76) 2 (5 . 78) 2
21 25 21 25
2 721 5 2 72052 +T
=5'. 71=175
Example 9. Find the value of

I 'I'
(O3)" 3
(09)' 1 (3)-' l2 y)-' (243)-114

Solution- Let
( 3 \i/ ( 1 \i4 '(81 Y13
x—
ioJ 27) 9)I0O
-
—I (2 —1/4
( 1- ) "" (3) ) —" (243 )
\ 1/2 / 1/4 )t/2( 34 '2/3
(-2- )
r) (32
( \2(3 1,4
3%- 3 1 )—s( 36
i ) ()"(-r )
1 1 1 2
x 10_1) 3 x (3)4x (32)6 x (34 x 101) 3
2 1
x(3 3 x I0-') 3 x(3) 2 x(3')'x(35) '
1 3 i
31/3 x 10— T x34x31/x38f3x10 3
4
X3 3 x102'3x31'3X3'x3'/4
1 3 1 8 4 I 5 1 4 2
334+3+33+2+42 x10333
==3. 10-1==0.3
—9
__
x
Example 10. Simplify
•j: jy
I
Solution. Removing the radical signs, the given expression
9
x211 x8/5 x 7 y'/2
- TXy2,3< y'P >(7
2 2 9 3 1 I 2
= x2y o= 1
Example ii. (a) Simplify

2+ $ x 31 x 5mf,+ ax 61
x 10773 X —15-

(b) Obtain the simplest value of
(22n _3 . 22n_2)(3 1 _2 . 31-2)
Solution. (a) Let the given expression b

2+ 1 x 32--n x 5m+n+ x 6"
x
6"'1x JO" 3 x 15'
- 2 m+3 x 32_ny 5m+'+8 x (2 3)n+i
- (2. 3)' + 'x(2. 5)"43x(3
2111+3 x 3"- x 5sm4-n+8 x 2'x 3n+1

2Th+1 x 3n+i x 2 n +3 X 59+ x 3m x 5"'
=21+n+l_1-_1 x 3$m-n++I-n_1_m >< 5MR43.3..
=2°3°5°= 1
(2'"-3 . 2' 22)(3n2 3' . 3.4)
(b) The expression- 3n 3(2'" 43_.22n)
2
2mn( 1_3)3n (i_v)
(1181). 221(64_1)
1 7
7 81
x-O'25
93ir
4 x 20- x 12"-' x 15.4n-1
Example 12. (a) Simplify: 4
16" x 5 1 ' 9,-'
(J.C.W.A., June 199(1)
(32"5> 32n_2)(5._3 x Sn_I)
(b) Simplify:
[1.C. WA., December 19901
Solution. (a) 4"x20'"-'>< 12m_,x 15-f"-'

We have
(22)" x (22 x 5)- -'x (2' x 3)'"-"> (3x 5)+vt

= (2) x 52m+ x (33)_1
2' x 2""'x 5a-.1 x 22 "' x 3'"" X 3+'-Z < 5'+.2
=
5m-24m4n-2-Im--n
= 2'x3°x5- 3 = 15$=O.002


(b) We have
(3 1n - 5 X 3211_3)(5n_ 3>< 511-.2) 32n_2(32. 5) 5" - 2(5 2 — 3)
n_4(9?I+3_.31n)
5 = 5n-4 3(31_1)
5 2 x4x22 275
32< =0 34
9r 32 (3)-_27 1
Example 13. 33m .2' =-,prove that m=l+n.
Solution. We are given that

9n .3$ (3-n)-1_. 27n 1
33 23 27
(32)n 31 (3_.)_1(38)r
I
33m23 27
3 3143 j
* 3311+2-33n
____
3m 2' 27 ' 3'"' . 2' 27
3'(9-1)l1 33n—Sf'=3—$
3 3 - . 8 27
3n-3m=-3
Hence m=n+1
911+
T \/TflI
(a)
{( 3V_27
16(32)'"--2-'(4)-+i )M_1
(b)
V 5ø
Solution.
(3 2 ) 4 ( 3 n + 1 ) 2n
(a) L.H.S.==
f
3. (3-)i
I
3
211+ 2
=[
32
232 .3('2)]

14 BUS1NS3 MATHEMATICS
1 i+I
[ 2n+
=2
3 2
I
= [3i =33=27=R.H,S.
24(26r_21m_l(22)_e+x 5(5 5—')
(1,) L.H.S.= 15(21)(24).1 -
(5*.)2
5r1-1+1
=
15(2m_l # 4 ) - 5-
2'"(2'— 1)
15(2 1 " . 21)
2-5 0 =2 0 . 2-50=2---1=1=R.H.S.
X 4 \+' ( xb \+ f ø
(1) (-? X\)

(II) Xi+
-
—i? r+ p'i?T ( p+q '—q
('ii) ( E) P
X( p_q) X
=1
Solution,
/ a b b+ Xi \I
(i) L.H.S.= i) x) X—)
=(x &) a x (x_c)b*t x (xf
a*_hi xx b'—c' xx C1_Qa
a 1 - bt+ b1 - c' + C*_ at
=x0 = 1=R.H.S.
1 1 1
r rXVJFS
(ii) L.H.S.=[-J X L-J XL-1J

1 1
[xn2_P*]T±Px[x?2—uu2JP+m
Xn—P Xx?m
= 1 =R.H.S.

INDICES AND SURDS
155
r q+r t+4' p+g
(Iii) L.H.S. = L . (r-_p)(p._q) x
) x(q—')(r—p)
r (q—r)(p+r)+(r+p)(,_p4 (p±qXp.—q)
==L (p—q)(q—r)fr—p)
r g'—r1+r'-_p1Ipj
X (p—q)(q—r)(r—p, J=xo =I = R.H.S.
Example 16. If X + y + z O, show that
a". • • • 71 • . a ' - ' . •
(I.C.W.A. 1 December 1989)
Solution. We have
L.H.S. =a•' -1 Z1
a'' Y
Z' aXYl zI
=a('I yz ) +( y'/xz)+(z'lxy)
=a XZ
Now x3 + y' + Z3 _3Xyz=(x-f--yz1ys +
Z1—xy — xz —yz)
=0 as X +y + zr=0 (given)
x+Y3+z_-3xyz
Substituting the value of x3 +y3 -{--z in (1), we get
L.H.S.=a Xy
=a3=R.H.S.
Example 17. Find
X =(xV)c
xs/x
Solution. x
X. . x'I2)'
3
xX3hI=(/t)x
=x2
31 3
xl=-x
i.e., X+
\2J 4

156 BUSLN8S MAThMATIc
Example 18. (a) Show that

1 1 __ 1
=
(b) Simplify the expression

I I I
x'+x°+l +e+X_I1J+Xa+X+1
given that a+b+c=O.
1 1
Solution. (a) First term= 1
1
• x — °+x •
1
= X a [X_ 0 +x_ b + x-°J
Second term= i±_.+_ x_b+x.o+xb0
= x r [x_ + x -I-x'9
1
Similarly the third term_ Ex_a±x_b+xl
By taking sum of the three terms, we get
L.H.S.=(X+b+)[—.+---+3]
I =R.H.S.
X—'+X'+X
(b) Firu te= + ' +i z= Xb+C+X:.+Xe

(multiplying denominator and numerator by x')
XC
b-f.c=—a,)
=+1XC (..
I
Third term= xa +x+1=
X°+X±X
(multiplying denominator and numerator by x)
(... —b--a=c)

INDTCS AND SURDS

157
The given expression
X0
I
x°+x 0 +1 -
1
Example 19. (a) If x=3 - + 3 T , prove that 3x3 — 9x=10
(b) If a 8./X2 -f-b . /x +c=O, then prove that
ax2 + b 3 x -- c3=3abcx.
1 1
Solution. (a) x==3 3 +3

Cubing both sides, we get
X3=( 3+)3( 3 3
)+3.3 .33.x
[.. (ab)3
-- a +b3+3ab(a+b)J
= 3+3'+3. 3° x
(: a°=l,a-AO)
By transposition, we get 3X3-9x=I0.
(b)
(a. .
a3x2 +j 3x±3ab . /(a. '+b . =—c5
&x2+b3x+3abx(_c).c3
a3 x + b 3x + c3 = 3abcx.
Eamp1e 20. (a) if a= b, c'=a, prove that xyz=i.
(b) If a' =b y _—c' and b 2 =ac, prove that
2xz
(c) If( 238I) = ( 2381)' — IO', prove that

I I I
Solution. (a) aMY1__(ax)7tbY:(by)IczaaL

xyz=I
158 BUSINEW MAThFMAT1C
(b) Let each of the given ratio be equal to k, so that

ax = k . a=k'J
b'=k b=k'J'
Substituting these values of a, 1, C in terms of k, x, y and z in b'!=ac,

we have
(kl/Y)'=klP •ji/7
J)+(1/2)
*
2 1 1
—
Y---+—
x z
2 z-4-x
*
2xz
*
(c) (238l= 1O2 * 2381==10
2181 10,'
i.e., 10
* 0.2381=102/x . 10
* 2381== 10i'
Also (2381)=l0 * 2381=10k"
Io(Z/)l0Z/Y
z
---1=-
x y
*
1 1 1
• Z
x Y
Example 21. (a) If 2 = 37=12 , prove that xy=z(x--2y)
r
(b) If 21 = 4, = 8? and xyz288, prove that
1 1 1 11
rx +TY
Solution. (a) The given relation can be written as
4z11__ 3 Y__ 12f.._ k (say)
4=ku I x , 3=k 1 /', 12=k
Also 4x3=12
ki/ x . kh,,=klft
k" 4 ' I,)=k112

INDICES AND SURDS

159
2 1 1
4.
2y+x I
xy z
* xy_—z(x+2y)
(b) We have 2x=47z=8$,
I.e., 21=21Y=231
x=2y.-3z_—k, say
Also xyz=288
*k T •
* k6.288r6X144X2
=6xl2x12X2
6x6x2x6x2x2
2=(2.6)
* k=12
x=12,y=6,z4
1 1 1 1 1 1 11
Hence
-P+I yn+l Zn+1

Example 22. U
where a is a positive Integer, show that
n
±L) (n +J) (+i)_V
[ X a+b+c.
Solution. We are given

yn i.l n+1
_
an =a+b+c
(n+1)
Now Xfl=[(a+b+c)an] n =(a-fb--c n • a

(n+1) I
Similarly, y ' = (a + b + c)' . b

(n+1) 1
and Z" =( a+b+c) ri • c
(n+1) (n+t) (n+I)
V x n ±Y n +Z fl
=(a+b-j-c) ' a+(a+b+c) n b +(a+ b + c) ' C
=(a 4-b+c)[a+b+cI
(1+n)
=(a+b-j-c) F'
Fr
Raising both the sides to power -,
-I-Iwe get
n
[ (!!±J) ±L
n
r (n+ifl(n+I)
La+b+cJ -a+b+c.
EXERCISE (I)
1. State with reasons, whether the following statements are true or
false
(i) a'a :. pq
(ii) a,=bm a=b
(iii) 2=(2), (iv) 33=(33)1
(v) a>b :•
(vi) a>b
2. Simplify
1') 4
(1) (625)k (jj\ ( Y
" ' .243J
/(343)_2
(iii) (21516 (iv)
(v) 1 %/( 32)-

3. Prove that
2+2 3
2n+'-2 n 2
4. (a) Find the value of
1 _7
2X3X4' 34 x5
- _i 3 -;-.
10 x 5s 4 —s x


(b) Express in fractional indices and then simplify
(I) 'a4x41a2x/T, (If) y5/3x..J7 x/y
5. Simplify
(i) .t/j35__(8/25)._2l3
(3.645) 11 + ( 200)- 1 /3
\/3x5+V3J5x,/3X5
I 1 4
3 32 51 ><)3
V8i4 +I2VWT
3_ 3 (6) 2 x i/98
(iv) - (5) 2l1 (15) x(3)
6. Simplify
m 4-n3m8n 52X+31Øt+1
(i) X5m_Gn , (ii)
I
25 3x + 2 162
7n+2-35 7n-1
(jit) , and (Iv) 9"x3 2x
7 n x It 3—n
3 3 "x9 -
7. Show that
3.2' -f- 2" =2, 2.3fl+1+7.3n_t
(ii) 3r1+!_ 2()'- = 1
(3)(3n) 9n 1
(hi) (3n)n_1 (3n_1)6I_1 9n
(iv) (81)" . 36 -3 4- 1 (243) 4. 3"

33
9 f% . 32(3-"/2)-2—(27)-
8, if
31m22 27 ,show that m==I+n.
9. Show that
(Xb \ a fXC \ ,X\e
W —,, XL-7) x(-.)
Xb
=1
1 1 I
I'c x \ CO / X e ab
(ii)
f xb
ç;-) x-) xL)
XG - =1
x a'+ab+b' / x b \b'±bc+c' / Xe \c'+ca+a'
(iii) ( ---) X(,.)

162 8US1NS MATHEMATICS
1 1 1
1 s — C c—b
(iv) () x () x() =1
Xb
X. b+c—a / X c \C+a—b - t x a+b—c
(v)
x 77
10. Simplify
(-.id-)a*—ab+b'X( X Y—bc+c' / \c'—ca4-a'
11. Simplify
r a b')a+b
I I xb 1 x!—a! I
(a)
b
Lxi L xrajj
X b la+b r xb'+c'lb+c r XCG lc+a
)(b) Ixal+bl J < L_xbc J XL2+SJ
12. Simplify
t a' \'+P
(-T) xL--) 3(a'a)'-'
13. (a) Show that

1 1
=1
(b) If pqr=1, show that
1 1
+1+r+r'
(Hint. L.H.S.=q;q+1 +1 qpq+pp,.
pq
q_+1+
+pr
q+pq+1
1 Da -I
+
=T
q +pq T
14. (1) If 2'=3'(l 2)?, show that 1.1+-2-.

zy x
(H) If 22=3,=6.x ; show;' that -- ----=O
(iii) If 3x57(75)?, show that xy=z(2x+y).
prove that 1 1 1
FC\7
15. If a' = (, k. ) == k",

ND10ES AND SURDS 163
16. If 2'=4=8 and - +- +- , show that
z=x
= y =
17. Ifa bY = cdW and ab==cd, show that
1 . 1 1 1
--
18. If xY=yx, show that =X
and ifx=2y, prove that y=2.
19. If m=a', n=ay and (m l, . n) 2 =a3, show that xyz= I.
20. (i) If a=xy-1, b=xy- 1, c=xy'-1 , show that
a- x br-P x —q
(Ii) If a — xa +fy P, b=-rx r fPya , c=x P +(Fy ? , show that
a'-' x b r -' x C,—
q= I
21. Obtain the simplest value of
when x=01
1 2
22. If x=2 3 +2 3 , show that x3-6x=6
2 _2
23. (i) If x=3 3 +3 , show that 9x3-27x=82
(ii) If x= .J,/2+ 1 —i7i1 show that x3-4-3X=2
(iti) If x=a 3 +a , show that x-3x=a+1
I _1 I _I
24. lfx=3 4 +3 , y=r3 4 -.-3 4 , show that
3(x' + y')'= 64
25. Simplify -
tJ{X2 X /(x_2y3/2)
/(x
ANSWERS
1. (iii) 29 -A2 6 , (iv) 3 9 --A3 e , (vi) a>.b .
1 16 10'4 8
2. (1) -, (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
81 243
4. (0) 10, (b) (1) a3, (ii) I
164
. (I) --, (ii) , () 3204, (iv) 28\/2

6. (1) x—rn , (II) 8, (iii) 4, (iv)
10.
11. (a) 1, (b) __ 12. 21. Ol
25. x75 ,
65. SURDS
In the discussion on the theory of real number system we have seen

t hat the numbers like v'2, /3, 15
etc. do not belong to the set of
rational numbers and are known as irrational numbers. An irrational
number we recall is one which cannot be expressed as the ratio of two
integers in the form p/q, where p and q are the integers. For example
314 are rational as they are equal to -_
and respectively.
4 100
However /2 is not a rational number as it is equal to 14142 to the
nearest ten
-thousand. Similarly -=31416, , and 2+V7 are
irrational numbers.
In this chapter we shall discuss the particular types of irrational

numbers called surds. In other words, we shall confine to a subset of the
set of irrational numbers.
Definition I.
nwnber, of A Surd is defined as the irrational root of a rational
the type / a, where it is not possible to extract exactly the n,
root of ,a,,.
only if In other words, a real number is called a surd, if and
(I) it is an irrational number, and
(ii) it is a coot of a rational number.
In the surd a • the index n
the radicand. is called the order of the surd and
Illustration.
rational number 3. /3 is a surd, since /3 is the irrational root of the
$.
2. ,v'2j 8 , (32) 1 / 4 are surds.
3. (;) ,/T is not a surd. its root 2 is rational.
(iii) 1/{/ñT are not surds, their roots are rational.
4. v' j 72 although an irrational number is not a surd because

it is the square root of an irrational number.

5. Similarly Vf n 13-i-5 VV 5— /7 are not surds as the

radicand of each of these is not a rational number.
Order of a surd. The order of the surd is the number which
indicates the root, e.g., '/48 , ,/2l and ,/ a are second, third,
fourth and n' order respectively. However, surds of different order can
be converted into same order as follows
/ 3, ,/2, ,/ 7 _31/2, 21 1 3, 711 1 . 36 /12 , 24 / 13 , 73/12
=13 / , 1/2, '/73
Surds of second, third and fourth order are called quadratic, cubic
and quartio surds, respcctivcly.
7 has
A surd may be with or without a coefficient, for example, . V -
a coefficient while / - 4- has no coefficient. The former is called the
mixed surd, the coefficient there could he positive or negative. In the
latter case, where there is no coefficient, it is presumed to have : I as
the coefficient and it is called an entire surd, e.g.,
(1) —5 ,/4 is a mixed surd,
(II) v'2 is an entire surd.
But a mixed surd can also be written as an entire surd, e.g., J48
as — ,/3.6 or 2 and as '/'
93 or 3V3.
The surds of the type L/i where 'a' is not a prime integer can
be split into prime integers. For example
(1) /l6=2. /2 and (ii)
66. OPERATIONS ON SURDS
Surds can always be expressed with fractional indices. Therefore,
the rules of indices given earlier will apply to them also. These are
stated here in the radical form.
or a" . b11=.(ab)'I"
V'" r (a\1I"
(ii) or
VT b T)
=// or (&I")'I"=a"'
(iv) /'/ or
(v) ('=yä or
In the above rules m and n are positive integers and a and b are
rational numbers.
Illustrations. 1. x 2,/ 43U3
5114
( 5 )1/4 (5
2. 31/4
166
3 (1)
(ii)
4. (1)
(ii) /2=2=='/
It may be noted that the order of the surd can be changed by
plying the surd index and the index of the radicand by the multi-
same integer.
Remark. Two surds are similar if they can be reduced to the
same irrational factors. For example V4T and 1/147 are similar surds
because they can be put as 4 V 3 and 7/3.
Rules for Operations on Surds
I. Surds of the same order can be multiplied as follows:
/x /b =a l j n x b'l"=(ab)'In
With rational coefficients also, they can be multiplied as follows
p . x q . /_—pq
Example 23, Multiply 6 . by 3.
Solution. 6 /Tx 3 . ^/-2 634 y 218
/8-=l8.2=36
2. Surds of the same order can be divided as follows:
a 1)'
r a'I' ± b1 /n . a
With rational coellicieiits they can be divided as follows:
P. '/a -
b pal1flqbi'4 p a\'l p
q
3. Surds which are not of the same order can be reduced to the
lowest possible Common order by multiplying both the index and the
radicand by the same number as per rule shown below
=
Example 24. Multiply 5 ./6 by
3V2
Solution. It will be necessary to first reduce the two quantities to a
common order.
Now
5.362X33/
5x3/.i r l5./
Reniark. If the surds are of the same order, multiply the rational
and irrational factors separately. But, if they are of different order then
first reduce them to the same order and then proceed.

167
INDICES AND SURDS
Exaxnple25. Multiply (v 5 -v 3 +JT) by T+i1

Solution. Required product is
=V3( V5_V3+V+)+V2(V5_V3+ SR-)
= V1T-3+ +VT—V6+1
/ 15-3+ ViO— \16-j-1
V15+ 0—V6-2.
Example 26. Divide 4. /iW by 5. VT
Solution. 4. J10±5 .
3X/f2.
=4. JT
4
= T V-3
Simplification for Addition and Subtraction of Surds can
be effected by taking the common factor out in the manner indicated
below:
p.',/a+q. ¶,/a=(p+q) Va
p.V7 _q../a==(p—q).a
Example 27. Simplify. 21iãb-7/2O+1O445
Solution. We can have
(2V36 x V5)—(7V5 x V4)+(10V9 X,15)
=2. ("/5-7 .2. V5+10. 3v'S
=12V5 —14. V5±30V5
=(12-14+30)V5
=28v'5
Example 28. Simplify 3VI V" +7 /4.
Solution. We have 3V49— .
=3x7. .
=( 2l —.-+-)V3
203 V3

168
s;mpliacat;on for Ar rangement.
For arranging surds in an
order it is always advisable to convert them into surds of lowest possible
common index.
Example 29. Arrange /T, /7 in an ascending order.
Solution. First we have to make the index for all the quantities
equal to 12 and then compare. These would be
' and i7
or /J25 and '/iT
In ascending order the surds will he placed as
I / '/ / 343, i.e.,
The division of two surd expressions can be effected by rationalising as

discussed below
6'7. RATIONALISING FACTOR (R.F.)
When the product of two surds is rational then each one of them is
called the rationalising factor of the other. The following arc illustrations
of rationalising factors
(a) R.F. of Monomial Surds. The ra
surds are obtained by inspection as follows tionalising factors of monomial
(i) O \/xX \/ x=ax
(ii) 3 . x /2 =3(2)"(2)' 14=3 246
(iii) (a3/2 . b- 113 . c2 /6) x (a' /2 . b2/3 .
C") a2b - I c
(b) R.F. of Binomial Quadratic Surds
(i) (V9—V7)(V9+V7)(9)2(17)2972
(ii) (/
(iii) (a.JT +bvy)(aV_bV)azxb2y
(C) R.F. of Trinomial Quadratic
Surds. The surd expressions
(i) (±±v), (ii) (al x ±bVy +c Vz)
are called trinomial quadratic surds. The following method is applied for
finding a R.F. of (?i) above.
(a b c )(a x + b /7 C\ / Z) (av bfy)2(cz)2
+
:ra2x + b2y+ 2 ab V_ c2z
=(a2 x+ by - c2 z) + 2abV
Ap a in
[(a2x + b'y_ ctz) + 2ab vj} [(a2x
+ b 2y - c2 z) 2ab/xyJ
which is rational
R emarks. The quantities a–. V'
b and a +v' b are called the con-
jugate binomial surds. The additional feature of them is that the sum and
Product of these factors is also a rational
q uantity, e.g.,

and (a+1/b-f(a- 7')=2a

(a— \/'b) )< (a.f\/b)ra2_b
Many times RF.'s can he obtained by using algebraic identities
such as
(1) x8+y3=(x+y)(x2—xy+y2)
(ii) x3—y3=(x--y)(x3+ xy+y 2 ), (iii) x 6 —y6=(x3—y3)(x3+yB)
(iv) x4 + 2y2y4 (x2 - xy -1- y2)(x2 —xy +y2)
(v) x3+y3--z8-- 3xyz=(x-f y 4-z)(x2-I-y2-j-z2—xy—yz_zx)
7V3-5V2
Example 30. Rationalise ---- -
7\/35\/2 \"8—VtT
Solution -_= x
v'48--'/18 v'8--v'T
(7\/3- 5\/2)(4,/3--3V2)
48-18
7/3(4V3--3v'2)-5V2(4/3 -3v'2)
- 30
84-2I/6--20/6+30
- 30
114-41 V6
30
I
Example 31. Rationalise -
y'2 ± v' 3 ± -i/To

Solution..------------
Solution. - /2±
/2/3±ijx v2lV37o
/2-I-.1/3--V10 .,/2+V3—V1
V2+V3)2(y2+3+2V6_-10
/2+/3--Viö
(Rationalise further)
—5+26
/ 2+V3 —v'i 0 —5-2V6
—5+2V6 52v6
25-24
=(/2+ V3—v) (-5-2/6)
= 4V15+5i/10-913-- lls/2.

170 BU3LNSS MATHB?4Ar1CS
Example 32. Divide V98—'/5O by i/T2.

Solution. The required quotient is
98—/5O /49x2—V25X2
- V 1-2
7V 2 - 5 v' 2 2V2 ,/2 /3
2.j3 2,./3V3<V3
Properties of El-quadratic Surds:

1. If a +/ E=x+Vor a-4,/=x_/y
then a=x and b—_y
where a and x are rational Vb and Vj' are surds.
2. If V =b+ .Jc then brO and a=c
where b is rational and Vaand /c are surds.
3. If
then
where a, b, x, y are all positive rational numbers and V1 b is the only surd.
Proof. Squaring both sides of (), we get
a=x + y and V C _
— aJx (From first property)
. a—Vb=(x+y)_2Vxyf_v;)2
Example 33. If x=/3+ calculate the value of
V126V 1
X)k Xxj3
3
correct to two places of decimal.
Solution. x_6x_Y/3'x..V3
V42 V42
- V3+ 1 —V3=)
1 2 1
3
X _ _ ,/ 3 1-;73 3 _ V3
V3

NDIC3 AND SURDS 171
Given express1On=i7-3Lr V3+ -1 -V3

---
=1--4=o.83
Example 34. (a) Simplify
30 -,/ T8-
2_/24V3--.i/Th3+21'3
(b) Simp1fy:
3,12 413 213
-/6—/3 16—v2 V6+2
(CA. Intermediate, November 1981)
30
Solution. (a) Given express" on=2 4/3
12 4\/3 —/9
'9 x V2
3 + 2V3
4V3 30 3/2
2—/2 4V3-3V23+2/3
Rationalising each term, we get
4V 3 4V3 2+V2 8V3+4V6
4--2
- 2(4v134-2V6)
-- 2 =(4V3 + 2/6)
30 30 4V3--312
4V3-3V24V3--3V2 X4/3+3j/2
- 120i/3+90V2 4t3 + 3/2
-- 48—
lad 3V2 3V2 3-2V3 9V2-6V6
3+233+2V3'<3-2V3 9-12
3(3V22V6)3v1+2v6
.4V3 30
2--,/-2 4,/'3—,\/i-8 3+2V3
=4V3 +2v6-413-3V2+3i/2-2s/6=O.
(b) We have
4v'3 2V3

3V2 V6+V3 4V3 V6-4-/2 2V3 V6-2

1 6V3 < V6+ 13 76—t2 X7-x
3V2(V6+V3) 4v'3(V64/2) 2./3(V6-2)
- 6-3 6-2 + 6-4
= V2(V6 +V3) —V3(/6 +V2)+ V3(V6— 2)
= Vl2V6—\/I8—V6 J-v'18-2v3
rØ
Example 35. if x= 2V241— find the value of

1'2 N
x4V8 x4-/12
Solution. Given x= 2i/I

-----7,
5 +-2-6
Now
X i V8 X + V1-2 ' x-J-V8)/x+./f
—V —1
X
x—V8
2x 4/3
X_2V2+x_2\/3
2x2 - W6
x2-2x(V2±V3)--4v16
192 6
96 4/24
5l2V6v2+v3(V2+V3)+4Vf6
- {192-8V6(5+2/6))
96— 4V'24 (5 + 2V6)+4V6(5 +2V6)
192-40V6-96
- 96-20i/24._8\/I44f20V6-148
2(96-20v'6-48) 2
= 96-2076-48 -
-
Example 36. If 2Y54+5/294+ \16 — 1 _ IT
30 50 VT
a16, find a.

Solution.
19 23
L.H.S.=2V+5i/49x6+- \/6_,\/27X2
50x2 V3x3
3 V6---i/6.
__
0
=6V6+35/6+ -,/6--
30 10
= 41 y'64- [19V6_9V6IO/61
=41V6 4-O=41V6
41V6=aV6
Hence a=4[
Example 37. (a) If

5 V 3 + 4/2 — \/7T- V'TO±v8+2
=a+b/3, find a and b,
(b) If
4+ 78-
find a and b.
Solution, (a) 1 f/16 x3 -

FLS.= 5 3+ \/4x2+2
1+4,/3 ________
- 5V3+4V2-6V2-7+2V2+2
1-F4V3 1+4/3 2+V3
= 2_ Vr3 = 213 X27-
-I- 4V3V3
- 4-3
= 2+9V3+4 x 3= 14+9V3
14+9V3=a+bV3
Hence a=14 b=9
(b) 4+3V2
L.H.S.= 44382 10V2-8x2V3+5x2V2
4+3V2 12V2
12i/2
48V2+72
= 288

72 48
r +-r V2'=a+bV2
Hence a=.-, b= .---
Example 38. Find the values of a, b, c and d If

1 -
Solution.
1-fV5--i/3
1+V53 x
1±V5+V3
I +V5—V3
1±V5)2_(7i
1+V5—V3 3-2i/5
3+f,—
/- :-
5'3- 2N/5
(1 l\,rs_v3)(3_2v5)
=
_3+3v'5-3V3-2v'5— 10+2/f
9- 20
—7+V5-3V3+2/iT
—II
7 1
111T V5+- V3icV1
a= 171-, bc=—
jandd=—
-
Example 39. If prove that

2 '
(x+)_ 5 (xt+4 )+( x±
Solution. X=-2
2
1
X5V21
2
= x 5+v'r
+ (Rationalising)

2(5+\/21)_5\/21
T5
-21-
- 2

ND10E5 AND SURDS 175
I
x+—= 5V2I+5+VT5
x 2
Squaring both sides, we get
(x+i_)' = 25 *
X
x2
=23 ...(2)
Cubing both sides of (1), we get
1 \*
(x+—
X
125
x 8±-! _+ 3. x.
* x+-=125-3,5=110
Hence (x5+_!)_s(x2+4)+(x*L)
=110-5. 23+5=0
Example 40. If x_ 9+4i/5, find the value of
(1) x'----., (ii)
X=9 +4,/5
Solution.
1 1 9-4V5
79+4/5 (9+4V5)(9-4V5)9'5
x+=(9+4/5)+(9_15)l8 .(1)
and x (9+4V5)—(9--4./5)=8V5 (2)
(1) Multiplying (1) and (2) together, we get
(+-L)( x—i)=18x8V5
=144V5=3219984
(Ii) Cubing both sides of (2), we get
(x---)'==(8Vs
X3 —3 (x_ -_)=256o\r5
*
- x3
X3 =2584V5=57780824
Example 41. if x3+18,find the value of
I
74-
Solution. X==3+V8
1 1 1 3—I8
x3+V8_3+V8X

x2+-+2=36
x+--.=34
Squaring again, we get
X2+-L)"=(34)`
x+-=1156-2=1154
V5-2 prove that x1+x-' in an integer.

Example 42. if x-_-,15+2,
(CA. Intermediate November 1982)
Solution.We have
V5-2 V5-2 V5-2 9-41/5.
I V5+2 N/5+2 /5+2

Tv t 5_2_V52 )< V5+2 5-4
X
I I
x2+2.x.--1---..--=324
x x•

X2+
or 1 — 324-2=322
Squaring again both sides, we get
x4-2
or
x fx 4 (322) 2__ 2 r=an integer.

Example 43. If x=3+2V2, find the vcIue of
M (II) Vx L.
Solution. x3-+-2V2
• 1 1 1 3-2V2
X
3-2V2
3-2V2
= 9__3_2\/2
x+2-=3f2V2+3_2/'2=6
Adding two on both sides, we get
x' +2=6±28
+ ", ) ,
Subtracting two from both sides of (1), we get
(\/I)2
Example 44. Ifx==/t/+!_, shw that x 2 (x - 14)1 =1

Solution. /+434Vi
(7v'
7-4v'3 V (7--4\/3)(7-j-4/3)
V;1+4v3)
and x-14=7+413--14=4/3-7
x'(x-14)'==(4V3+7)(4\/3 —7)
- {(4V3 + 7)(4V3 —7))'
='{16(3)-49}'= 1
Example 45. If x==3+2./2 and find the value of
5x5 + 1Oxy+5y.
Solution. Here x=3+22
1 1 3--2'/2
Y—- y.
3-2/2
= 9-8 =3-2V2
y'=(3-2\/2)'=17--121/2
Also xY(3+2V2)x_+2 =1
51 1Qxy+5y=5(17+ 12V2)+ 10. (1)+5(17— 12V2)
=- 8 5 + 60i/2± 10+85-60V2== 180.

Example 46. (a) If x=3—V5, find the value of
x4__ x 3 _20x2_ 16x 39
(b) If fi nd the value of

2x4 -21x-f 12x2 —x4 10
Solution. (a) x=3—V5, i.e., x-3--/5
x+9-6x=5
x2-6x-j-4=0
Now divide .\4x'-_-20x2---16x-f 39 by x2 — 6x+4

IND1CS AND SURDS 179
x21-5x4-6
x2--6X+4 \ X4—x3-20x'-16x+39
- x-6x3-f-4x2
5x3 -24x--16 X
5x3 -3Ox 2 + 20X
- -
6x2-36x+39
6x-36x-1-24
—+-
15
Thus we can write

x 1— x'-20x3 — 16x+39 = (x2 -6x +4)(x 2.f-5x+ 6)+ 15
(0)(x' + 5x -1-6) + 15= 15
V3+V2
(b) V34-V2 V3-+-V2 3+2+2V6
X=732-_
3-2
=5+2V6
x-5=2'6
x24-25-1Ox=24
x1—lOx+l=O
2x4-21x3+12x2—x-t-10
=2x1-2Ox34-2x1_x3+1Ox_x+10
=2x2(x2 -10x4• 1)—x(x2--IOx+1)+IO
=2x2(0)--x(0)H-1O=1O.
Example 47. Jf x -(4 -1- \/I5)'I+(4+4JI5)—"
prove that x3-3X-8=O.
Solution. Let (4-I- V I 5)'13 =a a3 =4+ /T

Then (4-t-V a
1 I 1 4—v'15
-
= -V Th/f--
Xra+
Cubing both sides, we get

X3=a3f-a33a _-(a-F__)=a3+cV3.I-3x
=(4-I-V11-(4—\/1)+3x=8 +-3x
x8-3x---8=0.
180
68. ROOT OF A MIXED SURD
There are two methods of finding the square root of a mixed surd.
First Method. This method is known as method of inspection. In
this case we try to express the given surd a-j b in the form (s/x + -Vy )*
then ±(V X± v'Y ) is the required root.
Illustration, Consider the square
(3 -/5)29+5+6v'5=14+6V5
Now the square root of 14+6V5 is±-(3+/5)
Also t4+6V5=14+2/since
Here 14=9+5 and 45=9x5
Hence find two numbers whose sum is 14 and product is 45. These
are 9 and 5.
14+2 ,\/ 4 9+5+2v'9.V5 -= (V9 + \/5)2=(3 +V5)2
To find the square root ofx±2Vyfind two numbers a and b, whose
SW?: is x and the product is, y, then the square root
The first step s then, is to put the given surd in the form x+2\/ Y.
For example 9+4v'5=9+2Y20, the two numbers whose sum is 9 and the
product is 20 are 4 and 5.
In case 2 is not there, multiply and divide the surd by 2. For
example
8+3V7=8-f-/63=[l6+2'./63l
Now square root of --. is and to find the square root of
16+2V' find two numbers whose sum is 16 and product is 63 which

are 9 and 7.
Thus \/l6+2/3 =+(V9+7)-+(3+V7)
Second Method. This is a general method. Here we suppose that
square root= +(\/x ±\/).
Now square both sides, equating rational and irrational parts and
then find x and y.
Example 4. Find the square root of 3 + V.
Solution. Let 13+V5s174Y

3-f 5=x+y+2/xv

INDICES AND SURDS 'SI
Equating rational and irrational parts, we have
x}-y=3
2\/Y-= \/5 ...(3)
4xy = 5
Also (x—y)2=(x±y)2-4xy=(3)-4 x

x—y=2 (4)
Adding (2) and (4), we get
2x-=5
5 1
y=3--x3—
Hence \/ 3 + y5 V5I2+ V
The second square root being —V5/2—v'l/2
Example 49. Evaluate
Solution. Let V28-5V_fy
28 -5'./12=x+y-2/
x ry=28
and V xy
4xy=25X12=300
Also (x —Y) 2 = ( x +y) 2 — 4xy
=(28)2 _300==784_300=(22)2
x—y-=-22
2x-=284-22=50 x=25
Also y=28-25=3
Hence \/28-5V12V'25-V35-13.
Example 5o. Given /5=223607, find the value of
10,12
\ '8_ /( 3 + V5) V8+1(3—V5)

182 BUS!NES MATHMA71cC
Solution. We have
J3+v5—'15 and V3_V5_V51

- V2 -
1O/2 V10+3V2
Expression=
10x2 _
- 4--%(5-1 4+V5—i
10x2 2(3+.V5)
- (3+V5)
20 (3+4/5)_8
= 4 13+5V5 24'180 35
_____ =1
/8+3V7-2V2
Solution. L.F1.S.=
-- (16+2 V9x7)-2V2
AVIT
F
V --(V9+V7)'--2V2
(V7-1)
- V2 V7-1
3 V7
-- -1- V2 —2
V2
vi—'
---I=R.H.S.
- V7-1
Example 52. If Xr4(6+2 \ 15)- 1 1 1 , find the value of x 2 — 7x-f-i.
Solution. We have
X=- =- 4
V672v5 \/(v5+l)1 V5+1
- 4 -v'5--1
'.\15 - 1 =\/5-1

x+ 1=A/5
3 x2±2x+1=5
x2+2X-9X---4+9=-9X+9
x-7x+5=-9 (V5-1)+9==18--9/5.
Example 53. Simplify and show that
AJ'4-+v' 73r5
165
Ls a rational number.
Solution. Let \/7— 3-75= 4J x-

7-3/5=x+y-2/xy
Equating rational and irrational parts, we have
-7 and 2V'Th=3/5, i.e., 4xy=45
X +y_
Now (x—y)3=(x+y)2-4xy=7'-454
x—y=2
Solving x-4-y=7) 9 5
we get and
x—y-=2
- __3 /_
V7-3VT/'---V Y JT —, T /2
___•
Similarly / ' 6-5v7=ii (T_ fT
TJ T/2 T 4j
' T 3 IT
______
The given expression=-
+-!._ T
- 3/J2 3
rational number.
51V2 5
Solution.
Let V16+42/15_4v6±(VT+\/7\/7)
1 84
BUSINESS MATHEMATIc
16+4-,/f —2 s/iT
Equating rational and irrational parts on both sides, we get
X+y+z-16
xy=40
* xz=5
yz=4
Multiplying (2), (3) and (4), we get
X2y2z2_-= 40 y 15x24
Xyz± 120
... Either.xyz=+120 or xyZr=_120
Dividing this by (2), (3) and Dividing this by (2), (3) and (4)
(4) turn by turn, we get turn by turn, we get
x ==5, y=8, jr 3 x----5, Y-8, z=-- 3
Equation (1) is satisfied only by positive values of x, y, z•
Xr=5, y =8, zr=3.
Hence
V 16+4Vi5 —2/f --4=J:(v5+.'8—V3)
+(V5+2V2— V3).
Example 55. Find the square roof of
5-
(C.A. Intermediate May 1981)
Solution. Let T-/j +/6 r=d(J _/y +\/z)
5—i/f
Equating rational and irrational parts on both sides, we get
x+y+z=5
4xy=lO
2/j/j * 4yz=5
* 4xz=6

Multiplying (2), (3) and (4), we get

64 x2 y 2 z 2 = lOX 15 x 6
4xyZ=.-L15
Either4XYz= --l5 or 4xyz==-15
Dividing this by (2), (3) and Dividing this by (2), (3) and
(4) turn by turns we get (4) turn by turn, we get
x=1, Z=3 x= —1, z= -
Equation (1) is satisfied only by positive values of x, y, z.
x=1, y=, z=.
Hence V5—/10-.i/i5+v'6—_±(\f1—\/+Yfl
=±(i--i/F +/I.
Example 56. Find the fourth root of 137-36s/14.
Solution. We have
1 37- 36 V 14=137 - 2 v' 324x 14

=137-- 2--N/4536
=81-1-56-2-\/81X56-=(9--v/56)'
\'131-364/[4(9 /56)
Now 9--\/56=9-2V14
Hence t1i37--36Y14 /9_7=\/7—\/2.

V2+V5_ Y 63V5 ± / 14— 6i5=2
Solution. L.H.S. V' 2+./5— \/6-3\/'5 —4(9-4• 5-24[)
= \/V5_V/63vr5f(3_\/5)
- \/I5J7T25
\/2+%/5—Y5+4-2\/5X4
=V2+V5-(\/52)V42R.H,S.

186 BUSINESS MATWHATICS
EXERCISE (II)
1. State which of the following are surds.
(i) /81, (ii) (111) 4./j (iv) / I+'3, (v)
2. (a) Find the rationalising factors

(1) (II)
(Ili) (3v'iT + S v'6), and (Iv) (,15—i/2+v'7)
(b) Simplify
(1) V-/i
(Ii) 2Vl8+1/2O_VT+jV+/
224
((U) / 1l2—/63 -l-
3, Simplify
3+V6
(a)
5V3-2Vi2 VT
+vt
(b) 5
4. Simplify
(a) 2+\.'13 2—V3 V3-1
• 7±3i/5 7-3v'5
(1)
3+V5 + 3—V5
b
6 4V6 4\/15
7/3 2V5 3V2

(c)
+V3'6+7i3
5. Express in the form (a V5 —b), where a and b are

simple fractions.
6 Find the value of a and b if both are rational numbers and
5+2V3_
b
7+4V3 a V 3

7. If 5'/3 4/7, 3+V6 . a+x/3, find a and x.
8. 1f(V2+1) =a+xV2,
find a and x.
9. Express 1+V2 1—,/2 inthe form ai/5+bV6.
10 Show that
(a) 1 1 1
7+3V5
(b) 72TV7+3V5 7-3/5
+V2+V7_3V5
2V2
11. Show that
3 1 2 3
1_V2+V3+1_V2_V31fV2—V3 +/1
12. Prove that
5 3 =2
/16— V4+1
13. If x=7+4i/3, y7_4i/3, find the value of
1 1
14. 11 V3 +/2
and V2 find the value of
(1) x+y, (ii) x -l- y2 , ( ill)

15. If x=7—\/48, find the value of
(x+-)—I5 (x+-. -)+2o (x+__)__72
16. if x=4-f--/15, find the value of
(X3—
X)
17. (a) X=7_4-i/3, find the value of (v - )

(b) If x=5+2V6, find the value of (v+)
18. Find the value of
(I) x--lOx+1, if
(ii) x8 -6x2 -f7x+8, if xr3_2V2

(iii) X4_ 4x3 -2x2 -4x+31, if x==3+/2
(iv) 2x4 -9x3 -- 14x2 -l-7X-3, if
x=2+4/2
(v) 5X2 -2x-f I
(vi) lOx—x2, ifx(5+2V6)'

x+I x-1
if xrV3+/2
20. Ifand 2-+I3 show that
7x2 + 1 Ixy-1y1 =i I +56V3.
21. If =2'/2, show that X2 —2x+3=10
22. 1f= and = find the value of x3+y.

3.
V3 +-V2
[Hint. V3—V2 V3—V2
Similarly V3+V2 ____
x3}y3=(xf.y)3_3xy(x+y)=(1O)3-3. I . 10=970.1
23. If V31 + 4 /T ,/ + V Ii, find x and Y.

24. Find the square root of
(i) 19-8V3, (Ii)

(ill) 18+6'/5
(iv) 6(5+ 2-V6)
(v) x4V'x_y2.
25. Show that
(a)
(b) (28 10V3) 1 ' 2 ---(7+ 4i/3)-' 12_3
V-v3 f V4+V5 -\/17-4

27. Prove that
(a)3 _____
V" l1-2/3O O v8+4V3
7 — 2 i—
(b)3
- v7 X V75rW
28. Show that
29. Find x and y if ('/' :-- + V y)'4 + \/j5

Deduce that
5=A
Hence find k, If
(4-4- 1l5)31+(4_\/l5)3I2==k/lO
2—/3
30 If[2+V3 a+bV3,
+VV3 V2
2 2V3]
find the value of a and b.
31. Find the cube root of9V3+llJ2
[Hint. /913+I1y2 =(/3) ± AJ2-

4) 3f
Let )3+i=x+v y( 1)
li/T -
so that 3—
i —Vy

Multiply (1) and (2), find Y in terms of x, cube both sides of (1),
find x.1
32. Find the fourth root of
(1) 5 6-24V5, (if) 193+132y2.
ANSWERS
1. (I), (lv) are surds
2. (a) (I) j9+.j3+ l ,( ii) (iii) ,/11-5/6
(lv) (\/7--V5-\/2)(l0-2v'5) (b) (i) 0
(Ii) 6 \/5-7 \/3+-/2, (Iii) 17/7. 3. (a) ,/3 (b) 13/24-9v3

4. (a) (1) 16— ,V3=14"268 (ii) 3, (b) 0, (C) 1.
5. j?j-/5--- b=6 7. a=0,x-=l 8. a=., :=$.
6. a=11,
9. /5— ,/6 13. 194. 14. (f) 10, (ii) 98, (iii) 98, 15. 0
16. 126\/15 17. (a) 4, (h) 2 \/3 18. (i) 0, (ii) 26-12V2.
3-2/2
(iii) 10, (N)v'7, (v) (vi) I, 19. y'o 22. 970 23. x=28, y=3
24. (1) 4— ,/3 (ii)(iii) \/i +/3 (iv) 3-,/2+

3-,/2+2-,/3
2+2'3
(v) j [\/x -- y t /x—y] 26 1 29. 7 30. a=2, b-0
31. V3[ I -I- ,/fl 32. (i) \/5 1, (ii) (3 1- /2).

Multiply (1) and (2), find Y in terms of x, cube both sides of (1),
find x.1
32. Find the fourth root of
(1) 5 6-24V5, (if) 193+132y2.
ANSWERS
1. (I), (lv) are surds
2. (a) (I) j9+.j3+ l ,( ii) (iii) ,/11-5/6
(lv) (\/7--V5-\/2)(l0-2v'5) (b) (i) 0
(Ii) 6 \/5-7 \/3+-/2, (Iii) 17/7. 3. (a) ,/3 (b) 13/24-9v3

4. (a) (1) 16— ,V3=14"268 (ii) 3, (b) 0, (C) 1.
5. j?j-/5--- b=6 7. a=0,x-=l 8. a=., :=$.
6. a=11,
9. /5— ,/6 13. 194. 14. (f) 10, (ii) 98, (iii) 98, 15. 0
16. 126\/15 17. (a) 4, (h) 2 \/3 18. (i) 0, (ii) 26-12V2.
3-2/2
(iii) 10, (N)v'7, (v) (vi) I, 19. y'o 22. 970 23. x=28, y=3
24. (1) 4— ,/3 (ii)(iii) \/i +/3 (iv) 3-,/2+

3-,/2+2-,/3
2+2'3
(v) j [\/x -- y t /x—y] 26 1 29. 7 30. a=2, b-0
31. V3[ I -I- ,/fl 32. (i) \/5 1, (ii) (3 1- /2).
7
Logarithms
STRUCTURE
70 INTRODUCTION
71 LAWS OF OPERATIONS
T2 LOGARITHMS TABLES
73 OPERATIONS WITH LOGARITHMS
74 COMPOUND INTEREST
75 DEPRECIATION
76 ANNUITIES
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to understand
• Logarithms, its laws, tables and calculations with the help of
logarithms
• Calculations with logarithms in case of compound interest,
depreciation and annuities.
70. INTRODUCTION
Logarithms are simply the powers or the indices to a given base.
Once we have converted values into logarithms to a given base we can per-
form difficult mathematical operations of multiplication by addition of
logarithms and division by subtraction of logarithms and like that the other
higher order operations. Similarly problems on involution and evolution
are reduced to those of ordinary multiplication and division. This is
because, as explained in the preceding chapter, the indices of power func-
tions are added in case of the multiplication and subtracted in case of the
division.
The conversion of values into logarithms is, however, no problem since
readymade conversion tables are available for the purpose. With little
practice the use is very easy. The first such use was suggested by John
Napier (1557-1610) who invented lopirithms to the base e=271828

192 BUSINESS MATHBMAT!S
which is used mostly for theoretical mathematical purposes. But for

common calculations, logaritms to the base 10 are used. These common
logarithms given by Henry Briggs (1561-1630), have further simplified
the work. So much is the importance of logarithms that we cannot think
of tedious power or root calcuiations without the use of logarithms; the
slide rule for calculation is also based on logarithms.
Logarithms are in fact corollary to the theory of indices. In order
to understand the theory and the application of logarithms, a thorough
knowledge of indices and laws governing them is essential.
Definition. The logarithm of a number to a given base is the index
or the power to which the base must be raised to produce the number, i.e.,
to make it equal to the given number. If
there are three quantities indi-
cated by say a, x and vi, they are related as follows
a=n
then . is said to be the logarithm of the number n to the base 'a'.

Symbolically it can be expressed as follows
loga n=x
i.e., the logarithm of n to the base 'a' is x. We give some illustra-
tions below
(i) 2=16 log, 164,
i.e., the logarithm of 16 to the base 2 is equal to 4.
(ii) loI000 log10 1000=3,
i.e., the logarithm of 1000 to the base 10 is 3.
logs r=-3,
i.e., the logarithm of -3 to the base S is —3.
(iv) 2=8 log, 8=3
i.e., the logarithm of 8 to the base 2 is 3.
Remarks 1. It should be noted that the two equations a=n and
X=log it are only transformations of each other and should be remem-
bered to change one form of the relation into the other.
2. The logarithm of I to any base is zero. This is because any
number raised to the power zero is one. Since a ll -=1*log. 1=0.
3. The logarithm of any quantity to the same base is unity. This is
because any quantity raised to the power I is that quantity only.
Since loge al
Restrictions. There are a few restrictions on the base : it
should not be taken as 0 or 1 because a zero raised to any power is mean-
ingless and I raised to any power is one only. Nor can the base be a
negative number otherwise certain values will become imaginary.
LOGARITHMS 193
As regards the number a for which we flhd the logarithm, the restric-
tion is that is should be a positive value not equal to I.
Illustration S
I (a) If log , /2==,Ji,:d the value of a
We have a"8\/2
2. Find the logarithm of 5832 to the base 3/2.
Let us take log,,/2 5832=x
(3 \/2)=5S32-.=8 x 729=2 1 x 36=(/2)6x(3)6==(3i/2)
Hence
71. LAWS OF OPERATIONS

We shall now proceed to prove the laws of logarithm which are valid
for any base a (>0 butê-l). Since the term "logarithm" is merely a
substitute for the term "index", the laws of logarithms can be easily
deduced from the laws of indices.
I. Logarithm of the product of two numbers Is equal to the sum of
the logarithms of the numbers to the same base, i.e.,
loge rnn=log rn-I- log, n
p rf. Let logo In =x so that ax=m
and loge n==y so that a'=n
Multiplying (1) and (2), we get
m X n=& x 0Y==0'+Y
log, mn=x4-y (by def.)
log, 'nn=log m -1-log, n
Remark. This formula can be extended in a similar way to the
product of any number of quantities, i.e.,
logs (mnpqr ... )=log, rn+log. n+loga p-+-logu q+Iog, r+...
It should be remembered that log (i'n +-n):?4_log in -f--log n unless
111 + n = inn.
II. The logarithm of the quçtienl of two numbers is equal to the
difference of their logarithms to the .tbme base, i.e.,
log. "f- =10g. m--log a
Proof. Dividing (1) and (2) of (1), we get

M
-
n a'
ffen by the definition of logarithms, we get
nI
logo
n =—y= log. ?fl—log fl
Remark. !oga[--]=log4 I—log. n =—log n•

[I: log i=oj
II!. Logarithm of the number rai ged to a power is equal to the index
of the power multiplied by the logarithm of the number to the same base, i.e.,
log. m"r=n IOga in
Proof. Let log,, m—x so that a-m
Raising the power n on both sides of (), we get
(a s )" = (m
* log, mM=rnx (by def.)

log, rn'=n log. m
Remarks 1. The logarithm of a number to the base 'e' (e=27[8
appro.) is called 'Natural logarithm' or 'The Naplerian Logarithm'.
2. The logarithm of a number to the base 10 is called 'Common
Logarithm' or 'Briggslan Logarithm'.
3. In theoretical calculations, the base 'e' is used whereas for
numerical calculations the base '10' is most convenient. The tables that
are given at the end of the book are all calculated with '10' as base.
4. When no base is mentioned, it is understood to be 10, I.e., by the
word 'logarithm' we generally mean 'Common Logarithm'.
Illustrations.
1. (a) Find the logarithm of 1728 to the base 2V.
(b) Find the logarithm of to the base
Solution. (a) We have 1728=2 6 x 3=2' x

lo3l728=6
(b) We have
1_I
3243 . 2
iog
3V2[324] —4

LOGARITHMS
195
2. Simplify: j log 1 25-2 log 10 3+1og10 18,
Solution. The given expression
=log10(25)—log10 33+1og10 19
=109 10 5—iog 0 91'1og10 18
5 18
=1og 10 ----=log 10 IOL
3. (1) log, 210==log, (2x3x5x7)

= log. 2+ log, 3+Iog 1 S-1-log 7
45 5x3x3
(u) log10=1og10
11x7
log10 5--1og10 3+1o& 0 3--1og10 Il—log10 7
(ill) log, x a =3 log, x
(iv) 1og / )rr1og, (X + y ) L i loge (X+y)
(v) log, 81 ==1og (3)==4 log, 3
4. Without using log-tables, fi nd x if
log1 (IIl-4y7)=1og10 (2+x)
Solution. i log 10 (11 +4/7)-=log 1 (11 +4'7)
=10910 (i/7+V4)
log 10 (i/7+4)=log10(2+x)
Y7+22+x
xr=/7
CHANGE OF BASE
If the logarithm of a number to any base is given, then the logarithm
f the same number to any other base can be determined from the following
relation
log, m = log, m x log. b . log m 109, 777
Proof. Let 1og m=x, logo m=y and logo b=z,

Then by def.
a=—m, b y =m and a=b
Also a= b' = (a')' =a", therefore x=yz
log, m=log b 'nx log. b

196 BUS1NE5S MATHEMATICS
toga m
109b In
loge b
Remarks. Putting m=a, we have
log. alogs ax log, b
logs axlog,b=1
This result can also be shown otherwise.
Let Lg0 a=x and log. b=y, then by dcl'.,
b=a and a'=b
br=a X07
1
-- =y or xy= 1
Hence logo axlog b=l
Illustrations.
1. Change the base of log 5 31 into the common logarithmic base.
logs x
Solution. Since log. X=
logo a
10 31
lo&31 log
2. Prove that
log, 8
=3 log10 2
log, 16 log4
Solution. Change all logarithms on L.H.S. to the base 10 by using
the formula
logs X = 109- X
loga b
log 8 log 10 2 3 log10 2
log,
8 log10 3 loo-g10-3 log10 3
10g,16= toglo_16 129 1024 4 log 10 2
log10 9 - 1og 103 5 2 log10 3
10 1 1
log,,,4 log10 2' = 2 log10 2
[: log 10 10=1)
>< 2 log,, 3 2 log 10 2
L.H.S.=3 log,, 2
log 10 3 4 loglQ 2
=3 1og102=rR.H.S.
Erem pie 1. Prove that
2 log x+2 log x4 + 2 log x'--. + 2 log x' =n(n -1--i) log x

LOGARITHMS 197
Solution. L.H.S.=log x 2 -i log x 4 -1-log x 6 + ... + log x

=log ( x 2 . . X° ... X2)
log(X2'4 f+ 42n)
n(n+1)
=1og(x242+S"ft)
1 ... 2
= log xe"' =n(n-)--l)log x=R.H.S.
log3 ( 1+--)+log, ( 1+J)f 1095 ( i+-)
Solution. L.H.S.=log3( )+Ioga (-- ) + log,

243
4-logs -
14 5 6 242 243
log 3 X X --i-- X ... X --j-->< -
=log3 )=log3 8l=log 34=4 log3 3=4R.11.S.

1625 81
log 216
+ log log log =1
24
T5-3'2 TO
(I.C.W.A. June 19901
2
Solution. L.I-l.S.=Iog 2+16 log (- 5 )+12 log( 52
--)
34
+ 7 log
24 X 5
=log 2+ 16(Iog 2 4 -log 3-log 5)
+12(log 5---log 2 3 -log 3)-f-7(log 34 -log2'-log 5)
=log 2+16(4 log 2-log 3-log 5)
+12(2 log 5-3 log 2-log 3)
+7(4 log 3-4 log 2-log 5)
(l +64- 36-28) log 24 (-16--124-28) log 3
-l-(--- 16+24-7) log 5
=log 2 0 log 3-flog 5=log 2+log 5
=log 10 1og 5 IO=lr=R.H.S.
Second Method
1p5 ) 16
L.H.S.=-log 2 -1 log og() +log
( I 16' (25 81
=log12
--) To)

198 BUSfNBSS MATHEMATICS
2 51 / 34
=109 (
2x( 35 j x2a3)
=log 2 264 524 326 j

X
3' x5 2° x 312 >< 57
I 285x5x328
=log ]=. iog(2x5)=log 10=1=R.HS.
L
be 10. Remark. Since no base of logarithm is mentioned, it is taken to
2 log 6-j-6 log 2

4 log 2+ log 27-log
Solution. Expression= 2 log (2x 3)+6 log 232

log 2+log 33-log
2 (log 2+log 3)+6 log
4 log 2+3 log 3-2 log 3
8 log 2+2 log 3 2 (4 log 2 + log 3)
4 log 2 + log 3 4 log 2 + log 3
=2
log 6 2 +log 26
Miter.
Expression = log 2 + log 27 -log 9
log (6 2 x 26) log 481
( 2 'X 7tog48
log
_!g 48
log 48 =2
Example 5. Without using tables, show that
log li/ 27 + log /8 - log / lB 3
log6-togS
(C.4. Intermediate May I982)
Solution.
L.H.s.=S +log /8- log Y
log 6-log 5
-- log 27+ T log 8- log 125
log (2x3)+log 5
3 3 3
T log 3+-i log 2- •- log
log 2-F-log 3-log S

LOGARITHMS 199
-
log 3+ log 2—log 5
- 2 ' log 2-F1og 3—log 5
R.FE.S.

tog y - log z < lo - log x
X z log
X--log y j
Solution. Let
= to y-log z ), y tog z '-log x < Z log x-log y
y-log: XyI0 z-log X XZlog x-log Y

log u-log (x1°
=log (X
log y-Iog Z)+log (y loa z-log X )flog (z log x- log)y)
=(logy—log z) log x-1 (log z—log x) logy
+(log x—log y) log z
=0
u=ao=1 (a being any base:j60)
Example 7. (a) Find log e 25 given that log 10 2=030I0.
[l.C.W.A., June, /975; December 1989]
(b) If log 2=0-3010 and log 3=04771,find the value of
log (16) (5)

(108)
100\
10 25
Solution. (a) log, 25- log
= log 10 8 log10 2
log 10 100—log 10 4 .2 log 10--2 log
- 3log,02 - 3 log 2
2--2 x03010 2 06020 13980
3x03010 0030 09030 155
5 (5)2
(b) Let X= log (16)
(lor
(2') I (JO
T)
log
(22x3
4
2x(l0) 2 X(2) 2
=log
(21 x 3 ")

log 2+2 log 10-2 log 2-6 log 2-9 log 3
x030101-2x1--2x03010-6x03010
—9 x €Y4771
=-02408- 2-06020— 18060-42939
=--4461 I
Example 8. Find the value of the following

5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
09729 (92 + 2 + log 7., 9 (27 3
1 3 + 3 ) -- /og 9 (81 + 7)
23 31
+ log 7 .29 (243
Solution. Let the given expression be equal to X then

x=log79(9 6 )4 log-,,, (27 11 ) + log729 (81 ')-f log 729 [243271
log729 [(31)11+109719 [(31)"]-f 109729 [(34)I1]
-1- log,..,, [(31271
, (3)
"
=-109729 (312) + 1097 1 1 (3)1- I0979 (372) + log_.
= log729 (312 x 333 x 372 x 3132)
X= 109729 (3252)
729 r _s 3751 (By definition)
36; 3252
6x=252
Hence x=42
Example 9. Without using a log table, prove that

25
( _____71 '8i 3_15)
75 _2 log, + log2(215
75 '\
Solution. log, =log2 75—log2 16
=log2 (5x 3)—log 3 2

=2 log2 5+log2 3-4 log2 2

LOGARITHMS 201
25 25
2 log, 81 81
1 (25 \
3 1 7
('25 (25 (25 \2
=2 logç . jj- )
)
-2 log, 81 + log,
=2 log 2(_-)=2 (log, 5—log2 32)
-=2 (log 2 5--2 log, 3)r2 log, 5-4 10 92 3

log, ( 2 16 3- 11) = ( 15 log, 2-- i5 log, 3)=5 1og 2 2 —5 log 2 3
Substituting these in the L-11-S., we get
L.H.S.=2 log, 5-i- log 2 3-4 log, 2--2 log, 5-4-4 logs 3
1-5 log, 2-5 log, 3
log-2 2 1 =- R.
Example 10. Find the simplest value of
log 3 /729 . :/9- 1 . 27-'
Solution. Let xio/729 V9 I 27'
= log 2 V729.3 . 3
=r l0g4. /729 3
=log, /3 . 3_ 2 = log 5 /3'
x=log3 3=l
log, a=]]
Example 11. (a) If log (log x+ log y). show that
y x
(b) Prove that log ( ( a -l- h )) = (log 04 log b), ifa S +b 2 =r7 ab.
(c) If x2.-i-y 2 =1i xy, show that
(1) log'_.2'=-i (log x-f logy)

202
(ii) 2 log (x —y) 2 log 3 -1 log x+ log y

(d) If a'+b' 7 ab, show that
2 log (a }-b)r=(og a-f-log b + 2 log 3
[I. C. W.A.. December 19901
Solution. (a) log ----
x+y = (log X+logy)
log (Xy)=log (xy)
(x+y)249Xy
X2+y2+2xy49xy
X2+y247y
Dividing both sides by xy, we get
x
y x
(b) here a2 +h2 +2 ab=9 ab
(a4-b)
—ab
log I (a+b)1 2 =log (lb
2 log [ ( a +- b)]log a+logb
log [ (a-f-h)J- (log a-!og b)
(c) (I) xlly2J xy
X2y2_2Xy9xy
* (x—y)2-. q xy
Taking logaritin of both sides, we get

log(2) (log X +log y)
(ii) Taking logarithm of both sides of (), we get
log (x_y)2rlog 9 flog x+log Y
=log 3 2 +log x-f-log y
2 log (x—y)2 log 3 flog x-Flog y
(a') We have 0+ b -='7 ab
or a2+b2-2ab_9 ab
or (afb)2 9 ab 32 ab
Taking logarithms of boIh sides, we have
2 log (a + b) = 2 log 3 1-log + log h.

LOOARITHMS 203
Example 12. (a) If log2 [log, (log2 x)]==],find x
(b) Find the value of log [log, (log8 (log8 273))]
Solution. (a) Using the definition of logarithms, we get

loge (log, x)=21=2
log, x=32==9
X=2'=512
(b) Let tog2 11092 {log3(1og3273))]=u
Assuming x1og3 27 3 =. 1og3 38 =9 log3 3-=9
y=log39—log 332 =2 1og33=2
z=1og22= I
U=log2l=0
toga log log
Example 13. (a) If - ______show that - ---
y_z - z—x x—y'
a r bjI cz â Y ' +Yz-i z' b z'l XZ+ t c

I
(b) If
log x log y = log z
l + rn -2n mjn-21 n±1-2,n
show that xyz=l
log a log loge
Solution. (a) Let -=k, (say)
- x—y
log a=k(y—z), log b==k(z_x), and log c=k(x—y)
If the common base is, say, e, then
a=e < ,b=e and c = e(x Y)
(I) e x e)'
ey)4yk(5)<(5_
(ii) 01z7' bZ2Z + x' c'-2
= z)(y1
x e_ X' +Xz+x')
x
1
'r k(z'--')
=e°= 1
log logy log
(b) Let =k (say)
/-t'n-2n - m - 2/ - nl--2m
-.
log x=k(l+-rn--2n), log y=k(rn+n-21)
and log z.=k(n+l-2rn)
204 OUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Let e be taken as base of logarithms, we have
rn
x=e"' —2n) , y=e2
xyz= e +rn-2n)+k(m1 n-2I)+k(n+1-2m) =e°= 1

Example 14 Simplify : log0 b. loge. log6d. loga.
Solution. Changing the base to a common base, e, the given
expression becomes
log0 b. 1ogc. logd. logda
logeblog,c log,dg,
loga log,b !ogc log,d
Example 15. If x=!og2 , a, y=1og3 2a, z=/og 0 3a,
prove that Xy2 - I = 2yz.
Solution. L.H.S.==xyz1
=1og2 ax IOg3 2axlog Ja+l

log,a log. 2a log. 3a
- loge. 2a log. 3a X log, 4a +1
(Changing to common base eJ
log, (1
+1
log, 4a
- log. a-I-loge 4a loge (ax 4a)
- log. 4a loge 4a
log, (2a) 2 log, 2a
log, 4a - loge 4a
2 loge 2a X log,3 a
- log, 3a log, —4a-
=2 log30 2a x log,.,, 3a
=2YZ=R.H.S.
Example 16. Prove the following:
(a)______ 1 1
log,(xjjj)+ log,(xyz) + log(yz) =2
1 1 1
(b) (log0bc)4iT+ ica)+I ± (log.ab)T=1

LOGARITHMS 205
I I
=0.
(c) log P (x) log (x) log r (x)
r p
-a-----,
Solution. (a) Usiu g the rule iogb = we have
ioga
Log , ) ( x.I z) log.(xyz) Log.,.(xyz)

log 2 (xy) + iog,(yz) -I-- log(zx)
=log(xy x yz x Zx)= Log, (xyz)2
=2 log.(xyz)=:2=R.H.S.
___ I I
(b) L. +(log)l
I I I
Fog ib'1Toj
- ____ I
og,abc logabc log7b
Now proceed in the same way as part (a).
1 1 1
(C)
log7 +log (x) - ±iog(x)
r
=iog(J -)+log. (--)±Iog.. (i.-)
r p q
> -i-- x
=log, 1==O=R,H.S.
Exunple 17. If a3 b6 '=a' 5 ba ', show thai
x log( .P_)=log a.
[C. A. Intermediate November, 1981)
Salution. We have
a3 - - b'=a+ b'
Taking logarithms of both sides, we have
log (a 3 -' . b-)—log (a+5 . b3')
(3—x) log a+5x log b-=(x+5) log a +3 x log b
3 log a—x log a+5x log b = x log a -l-5 log ° t-3 X log b
: 2x log b-2x log a=-2 log a

PM BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
x log b—x log a= log a

X (log b—log a)=log a
x log -b log a.
Example 18. if a, =b' c z dw show that

1
log, (bcd)=x\_-H. -- + 1
Solution. Taking logarithms to the base a, we get
log,, (aX)r= log,, ( bY )-rlog,, (c')=log. (dw)=X
(: logo ax=:x loge a=x)
log,, (b y ) =y log b=x log,, b= - T
log,, (c') =z log,, c—x =' log,, C=r -
and log,, ((lW)_w log o d —x log,, d=L
L.H.S. --log, (hcd) log, b-t log, c-flog, d=-'-+--+.._
=x[ - f-
-- - +4j=R.H.s.
Example 19. Solve the following equations

(a) logs 34 log 9-!-log 729=9,
(b) log(x_9)+log10xr1.
Solution. (a) log 3+log, 9+log, 7299
log (3 x9 x729)=9
log. (311)=9
x=3
(b) log10 (x - 9 )+ 10 910 X=-1
log10 (x-9) x==l
x(x-9) 101 (by definition of logarithm)
x2-9x---10==0
LOGARITHMS
207
X rz IO or X_—_-j
But logarithms of negative numbers are not defined, therefore

x-96 — 1 Hence x=lO.
EXERCISE (t)
1. Change into logarithmic form
(1) (ii) 2=16, (iii) 218=2, (ii') ao=j,
2. Change into exponential form
(/) log 1 64=3, (ii) (iii) 1092 16=8.
log' 625'
3. Find the value of x, if
(i) log, x=3, (ii) log, X=O.
4. (a) Simplify
l ogio 1000 log, 32
Iog 1öO' log, 4 log (Y 2 )--I09 y
(Iii) log 44—log 176, and (iv) log, 2,56-log, 1124.
(b) Prove that
(I) log,, 11 log3 II I
13 2
log, 13 log 5
(/i) (log a)2—(log b ) 2 = log (ab) log (a/b).
5. (a) Find the values of (i) log, 256. (ii) 10 92 64.
(b) Find the logarithm of
(1) 784 to the base 2/7. (ii)
19683 to the base 3y3.
6. (a) Given that u--log9 x, find in terms of u
(1) x, (ii) log,, (3x), (iii) log, (81)
(b) Find x in the following cases
(1) log x=_{, (ii) log,( =4, (iii) log, 125=3
7. (a) If log, X=m, log, y=n, what are the values of
x
(1) log, (_ X (ii) I og
Y (iii) log (), (iv) 1og ( L,
)
(b) Correct the following
(/) If log, N=x, then X'=N

208 BUSINESS MATIII3MATIC3
,n log. ni
(ii) log,, mn) =log,, nix log, n, (in) log,
(iv) log,, (m)=log ni log o in. n times.
(C) Given that log,, y =2— log 10 x, express y in the form ax",
(d) If 3 l-log 1 x=2 log,,, Y, express x in terms of 3".
8. (ci) Prove that
(i) logX.IOg,y.log,Z-1
(ii) log, (x3 ) . log e ( y3) . log, (z)=27
(iii) log, (Vt x) log (Y 3 ) . log, I
(Li) Prove that

(i'. ,Iog y lz flog . z°
(ii) (yz) 10 ,Y/Z (zx)b05 zl X (.)IOS X!Y
9 Show that
xI
(i) log-- +log zn -I- log --
(ii) log( X, l+log(- -- +log

\' yz I z)
x xy1 --O.
10. Show that
log 343
-
1+4 log ('-)+4 log( -)
11. (a) Without using tables, evaluate

1
log +log 70_log +2 log 5
(b) Prove that
log 81_ 21og4. +3log ---fiog--=0
(c) Show that

2581
(i) 7 log ---f 5 log -+3 log +log--==0
15 f4 80 2
75 5 32
(ii) log 1-- - 2 log -- l log=log 2
384 81 5
(iii) log -- +log-+3 log - -log 9=2
3 log 1728
12. (a) Find the value of without
i-f - log 036±---1og 8
reference to log tables.

LOGARITHMS 209
[(lint. log 1723 =log (28 x3 2)=6 log 2+3 log 3
log 036r=log j =Hog 62 -Iog 102 =2 log 6-2 log 10
=2 iog 2+2 log 3-2 log 10
log 8=-log 2=log 2
Substituting thee values in the given expression.]
(h) Find the value of
1 / 3 log 1728
6 V log 36+4 log 8
14. (a) If i O 2_- (log x Hog y), show that
T x
(b) If x' + y ' 7 xy, prove that
log ( (x-1-)')}=4 (log x-i-log y)
(c) If x 3 4-y .-= 0 and x+ y -r^0, prove that
log (x+y) (log x+log y f- log 3)
(d) If a=-1og 4 12, b . =log,8 24 and c=1og 48 36, then prove that
I -i-abc=2bc
(Hint. Here 24==12, 36 b =24, 48==36
12 .24(36)=48'
12x48=48+L (24)=48'
(24)' [From ()]
Hence 2bc = I + abc]
If log a log b log c
14. (a) ----
q—rr—p p-q prove that
(1) abc=!,
(ii) a' b'+P . cP+.=l
Jf X logy log Z
(b) log show that x 4y 3 z 2 = 1
2
If logx logy
(C) 109—
z how that x4==yz
-
2 X - lOg2)
(d) If log and x3y2z= 1, show that value of
4 6 = 3k
k is
15. th at
(i) .L+
log, xy logy xy
210 RUSINESS MATHEMATICS
1 1 1
(ii) -Fog 24 +og+
2 4
8 lg8
o 24 =2
1 1
(lii) + 1 , where abc==x
10&p Iog p + log, p logs P
(b) If x = I -1- log0 bc, y — 1+ log8 ca, z= 1+ loge ab, prove that
xyz= xy + yz + zx
16. (a) If U= y2 -=W=Z4 , then prove that
10g(uvwz)= 1+ ± 4-f -i-.
(b) If a=b3 =c5 =d, that
1og(abc)=4
17. (a) Solve the following equations:

(1) Jogs 44 logs 16 flog. 64= 12,
(U) Iflog2 x+log4 x+1og18 x=-, find x.
(Iii) log 10 x+1og10 (x-3)=I,
(Iv) log,, (x+3)'-2-=1og10 -'j.-, and

(v) log 8 x4-log1 x+log1 x=11
(b) Solve the equations:
(i) log11 flogs (log, 32)]=2
(II) log, [Iog4(log1 x)J I
18. If p= log 0 be, q=logb ac, r_—loge ab, show that
pqr_—pq+r+2
19. Prove that
Jog0 x+1og x 1 -f-1og01 x8 4 ...+Jog0 x"=Jog0x"
20. Sbbw that
(I)_IfIo,o
(Ii) x=&080t IOc. loged. log4x
I HInt. (I) Let x=a' so that y =logx
x=a08.Xa1/I0*x4
(II) We have x=ab0gX .. (1)

Now 1ogb x Iogc x logd x logjX=Iogx.

OGARU'HMS 211
Substitute in (1), we get the required result.]
21. If a,b,c are any three consecutive integers, prove that
1og(l-iac)'2 log b
22. If x -, show that y = log. (.±_)
[Writ. Apply componendo and dividendo, viz.,

a c a +b c-3-dl
-==--*-------= I
b d a-b c--- -dj
23. If (3 - 7)'=(0 - 37) Y = show that
x-1-Y-1=3-1
[flint, (37)'=1000=10
x log 31=3 log 10=3
I I
—log 37
x 3
and (037) 1000 10
Y log 037=3 log 10=3
I I
—log 037
Y 3
• 1 - 1 ir 311 1
logj= lo 10= ij
= TL
24. Jfa 2 ' 3 b=a6 . b, prove that
3 log a=x log -

(CA. Intermediate November 1981)
25 Without the use of logarithm table, show that
{<Iog i o 3<
-4
- ANSWERS
I, (i) log 6 I = - 1 * (ii) log, 16 4, (iii) loge 2 = , (lv) log. I = 0
2. (i) 43 64, (ii) 54 = , (ill) (V2)" = 16 3. (1) 58 , (ii) 1
4. (1) 3/2, 5/2, (ii) logy, (iii) -log 4, (Iv) 4/5
5. (a) (i) 4, (ii) 6, (b) (1) 4, (ii) 6.
6. (a) (I) 9" (ii) , 4-u, (iii) 2/u.
(b) (I) J, (ii) 1/-V3, (iii) 5, (Iv) 25.
7. (a) (i) rn-n, (ii) 2m--n, (iii) ?n-2n, (iv) 3m-n

212
(b) (I) a=N, (ii) logm+logn, (iii) log,, m—log,n

(iv) it loge in, (c) 100x-, (d)
11. (a) 2, 12. (a) (b) J.
17. (a) (I) x==2, (ii) X=8. (i(i) x=5, (iv) x=2 (v) x-:64,
(b) (i) x=625/16, (ii) x=6561.
7'2. LOGARITHM TABLES
The logarithm of a number consists of two parts, the whole part or
the integral part called the characteristic and the decimal part called the
mantissa. Whereas the former can be known by mere inspection, the
latter has to be obtained from the logarithm tables given at the end of
the book.
Characteristic. The characteristic of the logarithm of any number
greater than 1 is positive and is one less than the number of digits
to the left of the decimal point in the given number. The characteristic of
the logarithm of any number less than I is negative and numerically one
more than the number of zeros to the right of the decimal point. If there
is no zero than obviously it will be —1. The following table will
illustrate
Number Charm tensile
37
4623
53l2 One less than the number of digits to
2 the left of the decimal point.
6'21 0 J
'8 —1 )
07 —2
'00507 I One more than the number of zeros
—3 on the right immediately after the
'000670 —4 j decimal point.
Zero or Positive Characteristic
When the numder under consideration is greater than unity

Since l0°=l log 1=0
lO'==lO log l0==1
io==ioo log 100=2
103 _ 1000 , log 1000=3
It is clear that if a number is a positive integral power of 10, its
logarithm is a positive integer. All numbers lying between 1 and 10, i.e.,
numbers with I digit in the integral part have their logarithms lying
between 0 and 1. Therefore, their integral parts are zero only.
All numbers lying between 10 and 100 have two dijs in their
integral parts. Their logarithms lie between I and 2. Therefore, numbers
with two digits in their integral parts have I as characteristic.
LOGARITHMS
213
In general, the logarithm of a number containing n digits only in its
integral part is (n— l)-Ia fraction.
Hence we deduce that the characteristic of the logarithm of a number'
greater than unity Is one less than the number of digits in its integral part
and if positive.
For example, the characteristics of log 75, log 79326, log 116 are
1, 4 and 0 respectively.
Negative Characteristics
Since 10- 01, log 01=—I
10 2 ==0 . 01, log 001-2 etc.
Obviously, if a', number is a negative integral power of 10, the

logarithm is a negative integer. All numbers lying between 1 and 01 have
logarithms lying between 0 and 1, I.e., greater than -- I and less than 0.
Since the decimal part is always written positive, the characteristic is - 1.
All numbers lying between 01 and 001 have their logarithms lying
between —1 and —2. 'Iherefore, such numbers have --2 as characteristic
of their logarithms.
In general, the logarithm of a number having n zeros just after the
decimal point is -- (n 4- 1)-i-a fraction.
Hence, we deduce that the characteristic of the logarithm of number
less than unity is one more than the number of zeros just after the decimal
point, and is negative,
Mantissa. The mantissa is the fractional part of the logarithm of
a given number. It is same for a given set of figures in the same order
and does not depend oil position of the decimal point.
Number Mantissa Logarithm
log 4597 =(.,. 6625) =3'6625
log 4597 =(..:6625) =26625
log 4594 =(..:6625) =1'6625
log 4 . 594 = (...'6625) '=06695
log .4594 (6625) -16625
Thus with the same figures there will be difference in the character-
istic only. However, it can be noticed in the last logarithm that the minus
sign of the characteristic has been placed on the top of it, which is read as
bar 1 point 6625. This is to show that only characteristic has a negative
value. It should be remembered, that the mantissa is always a positive
quantity. The other way to indicate this is
lo '004594=-3+6625325

In the common system of Logarithms, the characteristic of the

logarithm may be positive or negative but the mantissa is always positive.
A negative mantissa must be converted into a positive mantissa before
reference to a logarithm table. For examp'e
- 36872= —4-4-(4-36872)=-4+ 0'3128=43128
It may be noted that 43128 is different from —43128.
How to consult a logarithm table? For this purpose the first thing to
remember is that we use all the digits irrespective of the decimal point
(which is relevant for determining the value of the characteristic only).
The second important thing is that we use only the significant digits thus
we ignore zeros because they are there to determine the place of the signi-
ficant digits only. But we do not ignore zeros which are in between the
digits. For example the significant digits for consulting a log table with
the following numbers would be -
Number Sinflcant digits
52 52
37500 375
0163 163
5012 5012
Now, the first two digits form the significant ones which are used for
determining the row of the logarithm table. If there is only one digit then
we add a zero. For example in case of 9 we will see the row which starts
with 90 in the first column. We then proceed along that row till the column
of our 3rd digit is reached. For further accuracy we use the 4th and 5th
digits which we see in the same row in the outer or the difference column
and add that difference to the value indicated by the 3rd digit in the main
column of the relevant row.
Illustrations. 1. Add 414628 and 3'42367
Solution. —4+'74628
3+42367
1 + 116995=016995
2. Subtract T62493 from 3'24567
— 5 + 62493
+
+2—L+62074 =162074
3. Multiply 317815 by 5
—15+389075 89075

LOGARITHMS 215
In all these examples we have followed the ordinary rules of calcu-

lation except that we kept apart the initial operations of the negative
characteristic from the positive mantissa and then got the final result. The
same thing we are going to do in division with little variation in the
characteristic.
4. Divide 13'15836 by 5
Solution. Here before performing division we raise the negative
characteristic to a value which is divisible by S as follows
15 }215836--5o=343167
5. Find log 34.
Solution. The number has two digits. Its characteristic is 2— 1=1.
To find mantissa move along 34 horizontally and note down the number
under 0 (34 or 340). The number found is 5315.
log 34= 15315
6. Find log 347.
Solution. The number has three digits. Its characteristic is 3— 1 or 2.
To find mantissa move along 34 horizontally and note the number
under 7. It is 5403.
log 347= 25403
Antilogarithms. If x is the logarithm of a given number n, with
a given base then n is called the antilogarithm (antilog) of x to that very
base. This can be expressed as follows
If log, n = x then n = antilog x
For example, if log 61720=41904 then 61720=antilog 47904
The process of finding the antilog of a given logarithm is just the
reverse of the procedure adopted for finding the logarithm of a given
number. Anti-log tables are available but log tables can also be used if
anti-log tables are not available.
For finding out the anti-log of a log, we use only the decimal part or
the mantissa in consulting the table, e.g.. in 19072 we will look 90 in the
first column of the anti-log table to locate the relevant row and then use
the 3", 4° and 5 digits as in the case of finding the logarithm. Now, the
characteristic I in the above case will be used for placing the decimal
point as indicated in the table below
Number Logarithms Antilogarithms
206 21139 2060
206 11139 2060
2106 01139 2-060
206 11139 2060
0206 21139 1)2060
This can be verified from the log and anti-log tables of 4 digits.

Illustrations. j . Find the value of log 5 if log 2 is equal to 3010.
Solution, log 5-=log ( ) =log 10—log 2 1-3010

=-6990
log 1000
Remark. Remember that is not the same as
log 100
(0),
log Only the latter can be written as log I000—log 100.
2. Find the number whose logarithm is 2'4678.

Solution. From the antilog table,
for mantissa '467, the numbec=2931
for mean difference 8, the number=-5
For mantissa '4678, the number= 2936
The characteristic is 2, therefore the number must have 3 digits in
the integral part.
Hence antilog 2'46782936
3. Find the number whose logarithm is -- 24678.
—2'4678=-3-1-3-2-4678= -3+5322=35322
For mantissa 532, the number =3404
For mean difference 2, the number =2
For mantissa '5322, the number =3406
The characteristic is - 3, therefore the number is less than one and
there must be two zeros just after the decimal point.
Antilog (-2'4678)=0'003406
7,3. O PERATIONS WITH LOGARITHMS
I . MultipUca tfov. 7'o multiply numbers, add their logarithms. The

sum of the logarithms is the logarithm of the product.
Illustra tion. Find the value of 62824 x 93536.
Solution. Let x= 628-24 x 93,536
Then log x= log 62824+ log 93'536
=.27981 d-P9710=4'7691
(The characteristic 4 determines the position of decimal point after
5 digits from the left).
xrr58760

LOGARITHMS 217
The scheme of work may be shown as below

log 62824=27981
log 93536==i9710
41691
anti-log 41691=58760
ii Division. To divide one number by another, subtrac t the log-
arithm of the latter from the logarithm of the former.
Illustration. Find the value of 62&24--93536.

Solution. Let x--- 62824± 93'536
'rlien log x- log 62824--log 93536=27981— 19710

0827l
-anti-1og (0271)r 6761
I. fri volution. To raise a given number to any power, multiply
he logarithm of the number by the index oft/ic power. The product is the
!oarjthm of the power.
Iflustration. Find the value of (3-786)6
Solution. Let x=(3786)6
Then log x=6 log 3785=6x0782== 34692
x=anti-log (34692)=2945
IV. Evolution. To extract any root of a given number, divide the
logarithm of the number by the index of the root. The quotient is the
logarithm of the root.
Illustration. Find the value of (789-45)1 .8
Solution. Let x= (789.45)118
Then log x= log (78945)x289733=036217
x==anti ..log (036217)=23023
Example 20. If log 3=0-477], find the number of digits In 3.

Solution. Let X=3 43
log x= log 343=43 log 343x04771==205153
x=anti-log (205 153)
As the characteristic is 20, the number of digits in the integral part
of x is 20+1=21.
Hence number of digits in 321. 11is
218 nusiss MATHEMATICS
Ezaniple 21. If log 3=47712, find the position of the first signi-
ficant figure in 3-20
Solution. Let x .320
log x=log 3'°=-20 log 3

=-20x47712=-954240
10+(10-954240)
=104576
The characteristic of the logarithm of 3 -10 =-10 which is
numerically one more than the number of zeros immediately after the
decimal point in 31
The number of zeros immediately after the decimal point in
3- 20 =10_I =9.
Hence first significant figure is in the 10th place of decimal.
1 100
i) >100
(
Given that log 2—_030I03, lag 3=47712, log 7=8 450980
) °°21 )l0O
Solution. Let X=r( I
21 10 (21
log x=Iog (-) =l00log)
= 100 log (3x7

-----
2x 10
= 1 00[log (3X7)--log (2x 10)1
IOOjIog 3 -4-log 7—log 2—log 101
=100[4171213+-8450980-1010300---l1
= l00[13222193-13010300]
=100[02118931 =211893>2
(21 100>2=2. (1)=2 log 10=log 10=z Iog 100
log)
21 '°°
log ( -) >log 100
1 100
41 i-) >100
(

LOGARITHMS
219
00
Example 23. Simplify: 6253 (i
(I+)_6253
400
you can use logarithm tables.
Solution. Let
x=6253( 1-_j--) 6( i
' 105 405

-62
--
100) 400
' 405
log x=log 6253+log(_j-105 ) -log( ,)
= log 6253+8 [log 105-log 100}-1- (log 4OS-log 400)

=37961 + 8(2'0212 - 2-000) -P (2'6075 - 2602 1)=397l I
x=-anti-log (3971 1)-9356
Hence 6253( 1+)s( 1-f FO-0 )-6253
Evaluate 24395 x(3 16) 3

Example 24.
x(3 16)
Solution. Let x
879
log x-=log 24395+3 log 316 -log 879
- I 3874 + 3 x 04997- 09440
=l'3874 f- 14991-0'9440==19425
x- anti-log (19425)=8760
0 0357 x /O235
Example 25 Find the value of ,10-0637using logarithm
tables.
(00357 x _ v'235
Solution, log —i--- =log 00357+ log 0235
-1 log 00637
-25527+ (13711)-01041)
Now in T'371 1, the characteristic is negative but the mantissa 3711
is positive. To divide 13711 by 2, we write the logarithm as (2+137l1)
and divide each term separately by 2.
1(1371 l)= 4(2-t- I 171 1)=i+6856=P6856
Similarly (28041)=(3+1iO41)=1 +6014=16014
Hence if the characteristic is negative, increase its numerical value

equal to the divisor or its nearest multiple so that the characteristic
remains integral and the mantissa, positive and fractional. For example
59746
+19746) =39873
00357x 02
_/35
Iog---
I /00637
=25527+16856-16014
{(-2)-l- (- l)--(--- 1)}-l- (5527+6856-6014)
--2-I-63692 6369
Here again the characteristics are separately added.
Antilog 26369 004334

00357x \/0235
Hence- 0M4334
Example 26. Calculate, with the help of log tables, the value of
?./O8176 x 3621
Solution. Let X [-_ 1'

Il
log x=[1og l—!og O8l76—log 3621]
= 41 0 --i -9125- 15588]
= (l —09125— 15588 )] r= 4(_ 147I3)
=-02102=— 1-f-I - 02102= 1.7898
x-r antilog (7898)=06l03
Example 27. (a) Siraplfy
(63) x (00781) X (46)f

00032 x (2408)--
Solution. Let x= -- , where N and D denote the numerator and
denominator of the given fraction,

Then log N= 4 log 63+ tI log 00791 + log 46

LOGARiThMS 1-2.1
= (11993) (8927)+ (I '6628)

=0'8996+1(-2+08927) 102771
=08996 +(-05 + 02232) + 02771
=08996— 05-I- 02232 -1 . 0-2771 =08999
Similarly log D=log 0'0032-3 log 2408
=-73 , 5051 - 3'(1'3816)
=(-3 +O5051)-04605
= —3+05051 —(Y4605= —29554
Now log x-Hog iV—lo g D =08999 --(-29554)
=08999+29554 -=38553
x =antilog (38553)=7166
Example 27 (b) Evaluate
(/75)3 . (152)
(563) —(124)
Solution. Let the expression

u—v
Now x=075)
log X = i log 175 =(12430)=062l5
4 183
Y-
109 y==-- log 152=—xI181803939.21.6061
Y=0'4037
u
Also
log u '- log 56'3=
4. u=ll'23
Now
log c- 1 log 124=-(l'0934)0'27I35
I'S 77
The expression 4183

II 23 -+04037
1877 -0489

(On usingg logarithms again)

Example 28. Using log tables, where necessary, calculate the value of
3
/ 321 ---(00624))+ (178j'
'ffTh
Solution. Let x=(4J 32 19 (0-0624) 7 )+ fJ.78\1

00624)')-4-'
(1-78)—1
-
\7213
Assuming utJ32l9--(00624)7
log u== log (3219)-7 log ( 0624)
=[05077]— 71279521
=0l0l54-7( ---- 2-l-07952)
=0i01 54+14— 55664 =8i351
* u=antilog (85351)= 342900000
(1i8)
log v=-- log 118-4 log 2l3

-xO25Q4—x03284
= —0187S-01642=---03520
=-1+1—O3520=1648
• v--anti-log (1648)=04446
Hence x= u-j- v = 3429000004 04446 3429000004446
Example 29. Solve the equation
jJ4z-5 >< 32x 5_z.7.Z
Solution. The equation may be written as

I 1'X 32Z.__53_X x 7'
Taking logarithms of both sides, we get
log ll"+log 3"=log.53 +log 7'
(4x-5) log 11 +2x log 3=(3—x) log 5+x log 7
4xlog 11-5 log 11-4-2x log 3=3 log 5—x log 5+x log 7
* x(4 log 114 2 log 3 + log 5—log 7)=3 log 5+5 log 11
x(4x 10414l-2XO4771+06990-08451)3XO6990+5X1'0414
* 49737 x=71040
71040

LOGARITHMS
223
Again taking logs, we get
log x= 10 73040— log 4 ' 9 737 = 0'8635 - 0-6968= 01667
x:rranti-log (01667)==1'468
EXERCISE (HI)
1. Evaluate log 43 57.
. log 57 17759
Hint log43
I 57 1og 43 16335
2. Given log 3=4771, find
(i) the number of digits in 362,
(ii) the position of the first significant figure in 3-6,
(iii) Find the number of zeros between the decimal point and the
first significant figure in the value of (00504)' (given that
log 2=301, log 3=='477, log 7 =' 845, no log tables are to
be used).
(Hint. Let x=(0504)'2.(504X 10-4)12
x 32 x 23 x 10_1)12
log x= I 2(log 7+3 log 2+2 log 3-4 log 10)
=12(-845+-903+ -954-4-00)
= 1 2(-1-298)= I 2(2'702)==i'424]
3. Given that Jog 2='30103 and log 3- '47712, find the number of
digit in 620.
4. Show that
(i I )1000>
5. Find with the help of log tables, the value of
577002 x 608l8--. 69132

(435)3 ('056)
(380)
7. Find with the help of log tables, the value of
2'389 xO'004679
000556 x 52'14
937'6 x(l 1'059)3x(002097)
S. Evaluate -=--.--.-----_-.-.--_
/ 6004x 103 x 8'06
9. Simplify by using log tables,
(a) 1 9268 X 4 . 573 X 00864

J8765 x 05432
(b) (0,00034)1 X
(937)x(893) x(00l67)'
(O437)x(1407)
(c)
(0015) x(1235)T
(d) Using log tables, hod the numerical value of x from the
relation
2x log 10 2654 -h-log 10 0004321 --log 000001357
and find the value of
/ 2654<0004321
I 00000 1351
correct to the nearest integer.
10. Simplify by using log tables,
85h2—t/9l72
257
It Find the value of 3O{(l ±0035)- l}
12. Evaluate
(i)
(ii) 004 05)°— I
(1,0)
1. Find the square root of
/ööTx V315
000081
[Hint. We can write the above expression in the following form
x=anti-log [ log 00125-4- 1 log 3115— 1 log 0000811
= ,, ( x 20969 + x 14935 - X49O851

= ,, [x(+4-0969)-1-3734-46431
[(16828--0'3734)-24543]
,. [00562-24543J
= [16019]
.v=39'98]
LOGARITHMS 225
14. Solve for x the equations
(i) 2' . 3+t=7I--+-$
(ii) 4' . 202x_2=40 2'-'
15. Pareto law of income for a certain place is
5 x 1010
N--1-2--,
x
where x is incomelevel and N the number of persons earning incomes
$ x and over. Find the number of persons earning S 327500 and over.
You can use logarithms tables.
16. Find the value of N when x =3362 in the following
000603 x(4'6378)-
N(25)
17. Use log-tables to find the value of x (correct to three places of

decimal) if x satisfies the equation
20 =[. 0-0613J 1.32
147
ANSWERS
2. (i) 30, (II) 32nd. 3. 16, 4, 8757
5. 201 6. 0'0009342 7. 0'0382 8. 00426
9. (a) 2 ,063 (b) 1963 (C) 2082 (d) 19635
10. 01986 11. 30(1*6764-1}=20292 12. (1) 1386, (ii) 7076
14. (i) x=--0'9672, (ii) 2301 15. 12040
16. 0000002567 17. 004854.
74. COMPOUND INTEREST
The common logarithms can be conveniently used to solve problems
on compound interest. Let P denote the principal, r the rate of interest
per cent per annum, n the period in years and A the amount of P in
years.
The interest on P for the first year =P r

o
To
The amount at the end of the first year
:P + P. TO =rP (i+)
Similarly the amount at the end of second year
=P(i+)+(i+)
('+)

Proceeding thus, amount at the end of ii years is

A=P ( l+i)?1
A=P (1+ i ), where
The formula for compound interest admits of logarithmic computa-

tion. Taking logarithm, we have
log A log P+ n log (1 + 1)
The formula involves 4 quantities A, F, n and 1. Given any three of
them, the fourth can be determined. Thus
log P- log A—n log (11 I)
(1••fj)= log AlogP
log
log A—log_P
- 11=. -- -
log (1 +1)
If the interest is compounded half yearly A F -j-- ) and if

i 4fl
the interest is copounded quarterly, A i +. The above
(
) Qfl ,
formula in general may be written as A= ( where the
interest is compounded q times.

Example 30. Find the compound interest on Rs. 10,000 for 4 years
Of 5 per annum What will be the simple interest in the above case ?
Here P= 10,000, n=4,

We know A—P(l+i)
10,000(1 f-05)1 = 10,000 (105)
==l0.000 1 , 215 i x=(105'
=12150 log x4 log 105
Cl. Compound Interest =4x002l2
=-A--P=Rs. 2150 =00848
S I. Simple Interest x= anti-log (0048)
rPflj 10000x4x-j- ==1215
' Rs. 2000

LOGARITHMS 227
Example 31. Find the compound interest on Rs. 6950 for 3 years
if interest is parable ha if yearly, the rate for the first two years being 6%
P.a., and for the third year 9% p.a.
\n
Solution.
tion We have AP I + i
Here P==6950, n-2, i-006
O6 2x2
A=-6950 ( i+--- ) =6950(l03)
log A= log 6950+4 log P03

=38420-f4x00128
=38932
A=antilog (38932)=7820, which is the principal for the third
year.
Again 09 2 1
A=7820 ( i+__) (... n 1)
or A=7820(PO45)1
log A= log 7820+2 log 1-045-r38932+2x00191
3•9314
A =anti-log (39314)r=8539
C.I.=8539- 6950=Rs. 1589
Example 32 What is the present value of Rs. 10,000 due in 2 years
at 8°/i pa., CJ. according as the interest is paid (a) yearly or (b) half-
year/v ?
Solution. (a) A=P(l+j)
Here A = 10,000, i= =.
08, n 2
A 10.000
•
(I +iY (10S)2
* 109 P -109 10,000-2 log 108 4 --2 x 00334
=39332
P =antilog (39332)=Rs. 8574
)b) A=P( l+--)
Here A== 10,000, -- -=0'O4

2
10,000
04)1*2

228 gusiNess MAJItEMATICS
log P=log 10,000-4 log 104=4-4x00170
r39320
P=Rs. 8551.
Example 33. Mr. Mehta borrowed Rs. 20,000 from a money-lender
but he could not repay any amount in a period of 4 years. Accordingly the
money-lender demands now Rs. 26,500 from him. At what rare per cent per
annum compound interest did the lazier lend his money ?
[1.C.W.A., June, 19871
Solution. We have A= P(I -f 1)'
Here A=26,500, P=20,000, n=4,
26,500 -2O,OOO(I j)1
Taking logarithms, we get
log 26,500=log 20,000+4 log (1+1)
log
44232-43010 =00305
(1 1 i)=anti-log (00305)=l073
i-zr: 1073-1=0073
Hence the required rate per cent
—IOOx i =lOOxO073==7 3
Example 34. (a) Find the number of years and the fraction of
year in which a sum of money will treble itself at compound interest at 8
per cent per annum.
(b) In what lime will a sian of Rs. 1234 amount to Rs. 5678 at 8/
pa. compound interest, payable quarterly?
Solution. (a) We have 4_P(l+i)n
Let P100, then A=300,
300=100(1 O8), i.e., 3=0'08)"

log 3 04771
log 108 -oi428 years
I.
(h) We have A=P I +
08 "
5678rr 1234(Il____) rzr1234(102)mn

LOGARITHMS 229
Taking log, we get
log 5678=Iog 1234+4n log 102
log 5678—log 1234
- 4 log 102
37542--30913 06629
---; - o086 Y0344'921 years
Example 3. A man borrows Rs. 750 from a money-lender and the
bill is renewed after every half year at an increase of 21%. What time-
will elapse before it reaches Rs. 7,500 ? [You may use log 10 121=208281
[I. C. W. A., June 1990]
Solution. Let the time elapsed be it years. Since the bill is renewed
every half year, so the number of half years is equal to 2n.
We have
7500=750 (i ±_)th
7500 I121,2
750 100
1
io(2l)

log 10-=2n(Iog 121—log 100)
1 =2n(20828-2)
=604
n=6 years approximately
Hence it will take about 6 years for Rs. 750 to reach Rs, 7,500.
7.5 DEPRECIATION
In case of depreciation, the principal value is diminished every year
by a certain constant amount, and in the subsequent period the diminished
value becomes the principal value. In case of uniform decrease or depre-
ciation '1' is to be substituted by '-1' and the formula is reduced to
A=P(1 -
Example 36. A machine, the life of which is estimated to be 10 years,
costs Rs. 10.000, Calculate its scrap value at the end of its life, deprecia
tion on the reducing Instalment system being charged at 10% per annum.
Solution. We have
10 1
Here A=1O,000,1=---0=,nrrl0
10


10
A=10,000( i_i-ö-1) =io,000 9 10
(- )
log A==log 10,000+10 (log 9—log 10)
=4±10 (09542—i)
= 4 +9542— 10= 3542
A=antilog (3542)== 3483
Hence the scrap value of machine is Rs. 3483.
Example 37. A machine is depreciated In such a way that the
value of the machine at the end of any year is 90% of
the value at the begin-
ning of the year. The cost of the machine was Rs. 12,000 and It was sold
eYentux1Iy as waste metal for Rs, 200, find out the number of years during
which the machine was in use.
Solution. We have A=P(1—i)"
Here P=12,000, A =200, 1= —1 0— n=?

100'
10 \"
200=l2000( 1_i_)
=12,000 (6-'
j9\' 200
io) 12Ofiö
n(Log 9—log lO)=log 200—log 12,000
n(09542— 1)=2'3010-40792
n(-00458)=-11782
= =39 years (approx).
76 ANNUITIES
1. Annuity. An annuity is a series of payments, ordinarily of a
fixed amount payable regularly at equal intervals. The intervals may be
a year, a half-year, a month and so on.
Annuities may be divided into two classes—Annuity Certain and
Annuity Contingent.
In Annuity Certain payments are to be made unconditionally, for a
certain or fixed number of years.
In Annuity Contingent the paymeits are to be made till the happen-
ing of some contingent event such as the death of a person, the marriage
of a girl, the education of a child reaching a specified age. Life Annuity
is an example of Annuity Contingent. Annuity Certain may be divided
into (I) Annuity Due, (ii) Annuity Immediate.

LOGARITHMS 231
Annuity Due is one where the first payment falls due at the begin-
ning of the first interval and so all payments are made at the beginning of
SUCCeSSIVe intervals.
Immediate Annuity is one where the first payment falls due at the
end of the first interval.
2. Present value. The present value of an annuity is the sum of
the present values of its instalments. In finding the present value of an
annuity it is always customary to reckon compound interest.
3. Present Value of an Immediate Annuity. Let A be the
annuity, V the present value, I the rate of interest per unit per year and A
the number of years to continue.
A
Then the present value of A due in I year==j—j-.
Present value of A due in 2 years= A
Present value of A due in ii years
The sum of the present values of the different payments is given

by
A A A
V= l+i + ( l +1)2 + +( l which is in G. P.
-i--On'
1 )
AI
l +i I I
L l-fiJ
Ar 1 -,
L 1(l+i)J
4. Present Value of an Annuity Due. An annuity due for n
years is equivalent to an immediate payment of A plus an immediate
annuity for (n— 1) years. Hence the present value of an annuity due is
1
i ( (I +t)'
rr.
1 0+ 04
5. Amount of an Immediate Annuity. Let A be set aside at
the end of every year for n years. Then at the end of n years
the first payment will amount to A([ +i)''
the second payment will amount to A(l +I)72
the nth paymetrt will amount to A(l+ i) or A

The amount at the end of n years is given by
232 flUSINESS MATHMATCS
M=A ( 1 + 1)_1 +A(1+ fyI_2 I..+A which is G.P.
A
=A (lii)!
6. Amount of an Annuity Due. Let A be the annual payment.
Then each payment A is paid at the beginning of each year. The first
payment earns interest for n years, the second for (n— 1)years.. etc. and
nth payment for 1 year. Hence
the first payment amounts to A(1 +i)
the second payment amounts to A(l -f 0" 1
the nth payment amounts to A(I -i-i)
± i)'±A(I '4 i)"-'- . ... 4 A( I I i)
- i)((J +i)-- ' + (1-f )" 2 + ... + 1
-A(f-i) 04i.:i:
( (1--i)---I
(If i)((1+i)—i}
Example 38 A man borrows Rs, 20,000 at 4% C,!, and agrees to
pay both the principal and the interest in 10 equal annual instalments at the
end of each year, find the amount of these instalments,
Solution. Using the formula for present value
V= A ^ I _ I
i (L -j-ly'
where V=200
i= i_ 0 = 04, n=l0, we have
A Let x=(1'04)°
_.(•4)-iO;
20,000=—_ { log x= —10 log 104
A I = —10(0170)
004 (1-06761)
= —0 1700
(03239) =-1 4-1-01700
20,000 x 004247j =i8300
A=—
03239 x =0'6161
Example 39. A wagon is purcnased on instalment basis, such that

.Rs. 5000 is to be paid on the signing of the contract and four yearly instal-
ments of .Rs. 3000 each payable at the end of the first, second, third and
fourth year. if Interest is charged at 5% pa., what would be the cash down
price ?

LOGARITHMS 233
Solution. To find the present value of four instalments, we use the
formula
V-r {j — (l-l- i )}, where

A=3,000, i=05, n=4
(l —(1 +ft05)-} Jog .v=- 4 log (1*05)
(1 - - 08226) --(0-0212) "- —0848
1774 =1-9152
10,644 x=0'8226
Cash clown price=Rs. 5,000+Rs. 10,644=Rs. 15,644.
Ex a rople 40, A man rerires at the age of 60 years and his employer
gives him a pension of Rs, 1,200 a year paid in Jui/Jyearly instalments for
the rest of his life. Reckoning his expectation of l ,fe to be 13 years and that
interest is at 470 pa, payable half-yearly, what single sum is equivalent to
this pension ?
Solution.
v= 1=04, n=-13
T1 - f i—( i+2
half-yearly instalment
2{1._(l+'02)26}
x= (l'02)_26
(l-5975)
log x-r - 26 log (1,02)
4025 =-26 ('0086)=-2236
=12,075 =11764
V Rs. 12,075 x=5975
Example 41. A sinking fund is created for the redemption of

debentures of As, 1,00,0001- at the end of 25 years, How much money should
he provided out of profits each year for the sinking fund f cue investment can
earn interest u4% per annum ?
Solution. Let A be the annual instalment. Then Rs. 1,00,000 is
the amount of the annuity A to continue for 25 years. Using the formula
1(1-I

where M=1,00,000, i= j-4 j=°O4, n==25, we have
l00000=4(1 .o4)!s_ iI x=(1 .04)25

Ax10026611
log x=25 log 104
=AX25x1661 ==25x 00170
1,00,000x 1000 =04250
25x1661 x= antilog (042 50)
4000000 =Rs. 240819 266 I
= 1661
Example 42. A limited company intends to create a depreciation
fund to replace at the end of the 25th year assets costing Rs. 1,00,000.
Calculate the amount to be retained out of profits every year if the interest
rate is 3%.
Salutlon. Here
M=4{(1-f-1)n_.1
where M= 1,00,000, i=03, n=25
1,00,000=z (l+.o3)25_ i} x=(103)25
' j (1.03)25_i } log x=25 tog (103)

=-( 2089--l'i =25(0128)=3200
03 \ I x=antilog (.3200)
A' 1089 x=2089
Ø3 )
1.00,000 03
or A=- =Rs. 2755 (approx.)
1089
Example 43. A machine costs the company Rs. 97,000 and its ejJec_
tive life is estimated to be 12 years. If the scrap realises Rs. 2,000 only,
what amount should be retained out of profits at the end of each year to
accumulate at compound interest at 5% per annum?
Solution. Let A be the annual instalment. Evidently the amount
of the annuity A to continue for 12 years, i.e., balance amount to be
retained
=97,000-2,000=95.00f)
Hence from the formula
M= (1 +i)— 1•
where M=95,000, 1= j- j =005 n= 12, we have

LOGARITHMS 235
95.000= (1 +0.05)12_1} Let x=(1,05)12
P797—i ) log x=12 log 1,05

=' 12x 01212
A
=x 0197 = 02544
95,000 x 005 x=antilog (02544)
0797 P797
=Rs. 5960 (approx).
Example 44. A man wishes to create an endowment fund to provide
an annual prize of Rs. 500. if the fund is invested at 1001 p.a. CJ, find
the amount of this fund. [LC. W.A., December 1989]
Solution. The required amount of the endowment is the present
value V of the perpetuity o f Rs. 500.
P
We have V--
Here P= Rs. 500, '=i- ==
V= 22-=Rs. 5,000.
EXERCISE (III)
1. (a) Find the compound interest on Rs. 1000 for 4 years at 5%
per annum
(b) What will be the simple interest in the above case ?
2. Find the difference between simple and compound interest on
Rs. 5,000 invested for 4 years at 5% per annum, interest payable yearly.
3. Find the compound interest on Rs. 6,950 for 3 years, if interest is
payable half yearly, the rate for the first two years being 6 0/., and for the
third year 9% pa.
4. What is the present value of Rs. 1000 due in 2 years at 5% p.a.
compound interest, according as the interest is paid (a) yearly or (b) half
yearly.
5. Find the compound interest on Rs. 25,800 for 5 years if the rate
of interest be 2% in the 1st year, 2% in the second year, 3% in the 3rd
year and thereafter at 4% pa.
6. A man left Rs. 18,000 with the direction that it should be divided
in such a way that his 3 sons agcd 9, 12 and 15 years should each receive
the same amount when they reached the age of 25. If the rate of interest
is 3% p.a., what should each son receive when he is 25 years old ?
7. A owes B Rs. 1600 but it is not due for payment till the end of
3 years from this date. How much should A pay B if he is willing to

accept now in order to clear off the debt (a) taking money to be worth
5% per annum simple interest (b) taking it to be worth 5% per annum
compound interest, payable yearly ?
5%
8. In what time will a sum of money double itself at pa.,
compound interest ?
9. In what time will it sum of money treble itself at 5% p.a. com-
pound interest payable half-yearly ?
10. A machine depreciates at the rate of 10% of its value at the
beginning of a year. The machine was purchased for Rs. 5810 and the
scrap value realised when sold was Rs. 2250. Find the number of years
that the machine was used.
II. A machinery in it factory is valued at Rs. 49,074 and it is deci-
ded to reduce the estimated value at the end of each year by 15 per cent of
the value at the beginning of that year. When will the value be (a) Rs.
20,000, (b) 1/10th of the original value ?
12. Find the present value of an annuity of Rs. 1000 p.a. for 14
years following compound interest at 5% p.a.
13. Calculate the amount and present value of an annuity of Rs. 3000
for 15 years if the rate of interest he 41% pa.
14. A mail Rs. 6,000 at 6 %, and promises to pay off the
loan in 20 annual payments begin ling at the cud of the first year, What
is the annual payment necessary '?
15. Calculate the amount and the present value of an annuity of
Rs. 3000 for 15 years, if the rate of interest be 4% p.a.
16. Find the amount and present value of an annuity certain of
Rs. 150 for 12 years, reckoning interest at 3% p. a., given
(1035) 12_ 1511056.
17. A man borrows Rs. 1500 promising to repay the sum borrowed
and the proper interest by 10 equal yearly instalments, the first two falling
due in 1 year's time. Reckoning CI. at 5',1 p.a , find the value of the
annual instalment, given (I 'OS)'° = 1 629.
18. A company buys a machine for Rs. 1,00,000. Its estimated life
is 12 years and scrap value is Rs 5,000. What amount is to be retained
every year from the profit and allowed to accumulate at 5% C 1. for buy-
ing a new machine at the same price after 12 years ?
19. A man borrows Rs. 1000 on the understanding that it is to be
paid back in four equal instalments at intervals of six months, the first
payment to he made six months after the money was borrowed. Calculate
the amount of each instalment, reckoning compound interest at 2% per
half- year.
20. A loan of Rs. 40,000 is to he repaid in equal annual instalment
consisting of principal and interest due in course of 30 years. Find the
amount of each instalment reckoning interest at 4 1/lo pa.
OGARITIIMS 237
2.1. The annual subscription for the membership of a club is Rs. 25

and a person may l)CCO!iLC a life member by paying Rs. 1000 in a lump
sum. Find the rate of interest charged.
22. What sum should be paid for an annuity of Rs. 2,400 for 20 years
atcompound interest pa. ?
(given log I045=00191 and log 4150 -ft6180).
23. A man wishes to create an endowment Cu ud to provide In an nual
prize of Rs. 500 out of its income. if the lund is invcstcd in pa.,
find the amount of this fund.
24. A machine costs the company Rs. 97,000 and its eflective life is
estimated to be 12 years. If the scrap realises Rs. 2,000 onl y , what amount
should be retained out of profits at the end of each year to accumulate at
compound interest at 5 per aniui1
25. A loan of Rs. 1000 is to be paid in 5 equal annual payments
interest being at 6 per cent per annum compound interest and first
payment being made after a year. i\nalyse the payment into these on
account if interest and on account of aniortisatlon of the principal.
26. On his 48th birthday a man decides to make a gift of Rs. 5,000
to a hospital. lie decides to save this amount by making equal annual
payments up to and including his 60th birthday to a fund which gives 3
per cent compound interest, the first payment being made at once.
Calculate the amount of each annual payment. (Answer to the nearest
pa is a
27. A machine costs a company Rs. 52,000 andits effective life is
estimated to be 25 years. A sinking fund is created for replacing the
machine by a new model at the end of its life time, when its scrap realizes
a suni of Rs. 2,500 onl y . The price of the new model is estimated to be 25
per cent higher than the price of the present one. Find what amount
should be set aside every year, out of the profits for the sinking fund, if it
accumulates at 3 per cent per annum corn pound.
28. A man bu y s a ear for Rs. 16,000. lie estimates that its value
ill depreciate each year by 2() per cent of its value at the beginning of
the year. Find the depreciated value (Rs. x, correct to the nearest rupee)
of the car at the end of five years. lithe man sets aside at the end of
each of the five years a certain fixed sum (Rs. y) to accumulate at 4 per
cent compound interest in order to be able to buy at the end of live years
another car costing Rs. 22,000 (after allowing the above depreciated value
Rs. x for the old car in part exchange), find to the nearest paisa, the value
Rs. j' of each payment.
29. A man aged 40 wishes his dependents to have Rs. 40,000 at his
death. A banker agrees to pay this amount to his dependents on condition
that the man makes equal annual payments of Rs. x to the bank comnien-
cing now and going on until his death. What should be the value of x,
assuming that the bank pays interest at 3°' pa. compound 7 From the table
on the expectation of life it is found that the expectation of life of a man of
40 is 30 years.
238 BUSINESS MATH rMATICS
30. A man borrows Rs. 750 from a money-lender and the bill Ii
renewed after every half year at an increase of 21%. What time wils
elapse before it reaches Rs. 7,500? [You may use log 10 121=208281.
[I.C.W.A., June, 19901
Hint. 7,500=750 ( i +--) where n is the time elapsed ]

[
31. The cost o r a machine is Rs. 1,00,000 and its effective life is 12
years. If the scrap realises only Rs. 5,000, what amount should be retained
out of profits at the end of each year to accumulate at C.I. at 5% p.a. '1
(You can use log10 105'=00212, log 10 1797=02544).
[J.C.W.A., December, 1990]
(Hint. If P is the amount provided every year, then
1 105 1 1
_______ I
95,000 = P
'105
too
ANSWERS
1. (a) Rs. 215' 5 1, (b) Rs. 200, 2. 78, 3. Rs. 1589, 4. (a) Rs.
90690, (b) Rs. 90610, 5. Rs. 4250, 6. Rs. 9341, 7. (a) Rs. 139130, (b)
Rs. 1382, S. 14'2 years, 9. 18-6 years, 10. 9 years, 11, 4-52 years, 116
years, 12. Rs. 9899, 13. Rs. 6218333, 33070, 14. Rs. 52319, 15. (1)
Rs. 6216667, (ii) Rs. 3664444, 16. (1) 2190-24, (ii) Rs. 144950, 18. Rs.
10716, 19. Rs. 2665, 20. Rs. 231548, 21. Rs. 12075, 22. Rs. 31, 20332,
23. Rs. 20,000, 24. Rs. 5960, 25. Rs. 23740, 26. 34314, 27. Rs, 1605,
28. Rs. 309 156, 29. Rs. 84448, 30. 6 years, 31. Rs. 595915.
^6V
Equations Linear, Quadratic, Cubic

and Higher Orders
STRUCTURE
81 EQUATIONS
82. IDENTITIES
81. INEQUALITIES
S4. GROUPING SYMBOLS
8'5. GENERAL SOLUTION
86. DEGREE OF AN EQUATION
87. SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
81. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
89. SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
810. RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS
811. NATURE OF THE ROOTS
812. SYMMETRICAL EXPRESSIONS
813. FORMATION OF AN EQUATION
8,14. SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
815. CUBIC AND BE-QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
OBJECTIVES
O equations, identities and inequalities
• to solve quadratic, cubic and bi-quadratic equations
• to solve simultaneous linear and quadratic equations
• nature of roots
• to form an equation
81. EQUATIONS
Equations signify relation between two algebraic expressions symbo-
used by the sign of equality (=). However, the equality is true only for
certain value or values of the variable or the variables symbolised generally
by x, y, z. For example the equation
3x+5-- 2X+7 is true only for x.r2 and not for x=3.
Since when the equation is 3 (2)+5=(2) (2)+7 or 11 = 11 and
when x= 3 the equation is
(3) (3) l-5=(2) (3)+-7
or 14 -' 13 which is not true.
Thus, the above equality is true for the value of x variable as 2.
But in an equation with two variables x -y 5, the equality holds
true for several sets of values such as (0, 5) (1, 4) (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 1), (5, 0)
etc., and not for any values assigned to them. It is only in the case of
identities that the relation of equality holds true whatever value is put on
the variable.
8 . IDENTITIES
When equalities hold true whatever be the value of the variables,
they are called identities. For example
(a+b)2=a?+20b+b2
The above identity is derived as follows
(,,+b)2=(a1-b) (c±b)
=(a+b)a+(a-l-b)b
=a2+ab+ab+b2
= a2 2ab-l- bI
Wc can prove that identities hold true whatever be the values of the
variables by substituting say () a=2 and b.=3, and (it) a=-2 and
b= -3- First by substituting the values of a=2 and b=3, we have
(2+3)2 =(2)2 +2(2)(3) +(3)2
(5)2=(2)2 +l2 1-(3)2
25=4+12+9
25=25
Now by substituting the values of a=--2 and b-3, we have
((-2)-i- (-3))2=(-2)'+2(-2)(-3)-I-(— 3)2
(5)2(_2)2+l24(_3)2
25 = 4 + 12-1-9
25=25

QUATLONS 241
Thus, identities hold true whatever value is put for variables.
The following identities can be expressed as simple binomial expan-
ions (cf. Chapter X)
(14 x)2= I +2x
Iv 13) 2 x2 -'r 6x+9
(v' x ±y
(x4-4)2=x24-x1
(x4.)2x?+2^
X X2
There are some other identities as follows

(i) (a._b)2=a7_2ab+b2
!y)2x_2/yfy
(ii) (a-fh)(a--h)=a_bt
( x+ Ia )(V x -v a)—_.v-a
(iii) (a -- b)(c+d) =-ac-fa( /+ be fbd
(ax f b)(c + d) =acx 2 + (ad+ b)x + b/
(a fb +c)'=a 2 +b -f-c2 +- 2ab+ 2bc +2Ca
(v) (a+b)3=a3+3a2b'{3ab2+b=&+b.4-3ab (a b)
(vi) (tIb)3a3_302h±3ab2_ba3_b.. 3ab a —1;)
(vjj) - b= (a -I .b)(a2___ab -fb2)
(viii) a3— b =(a__b)(a 2 +ab fbl)
However, it may be noticed that
(.b)zAa+h',
(a+b)2 -1-1 a a +b, (a—b)Sâ....b
Derived Identities
These are the identities derived by transposing the values in the
basic identities and are very useful in tackling some problems in
mathematics. For example
(1) (a 4 b)=:a+2ab4.b2
a3.b*=(a+b)2,-_2ah and 2ab=(a fb) 1 -.- (at q b)
(ii) (a—b)2=a'--2ab+b
o2 + hI =(a_b) 2 +20b and 2ab-ra2 4 b—(a-.-b)
By adding (i and (ii),
(a + 1)' + (a —b)-= 2(a'-- b2)
By subtracting (ii) from (i), we get
(a+b)2 —(a - b)=4ab
By dividing both (1) and (ii) by 4 and then subtracting (ii) from (i),
[(a4b)2][(a_b)t]b
Other identities derived from the above are

(a + b)2 - 4ab (a_.b)2
(a+b)=(a_b)2+4ab
(lii) a2—b2-(ab) (a—b)
a3 - 1,2
- =a—b
a+b
(iv) (a 4 b)3 =a3 +/)3 +3ab(a+b) * a8 + b3 =(a+ b)3_ 3ab(a f-b)
(v) (a—b)3 .=0 3 _0 3 0 b (a—b) a3—b3=(a—b) 3ab (a—b)
a3 + b'(a + b)(a2_ abfb2) * 03!=a2_ab+b2
a-I-b
a3 —b 3 (a_b)(aI + ab+b2) _z abf b2
8 3. INEQUALITIES
In addition to the relation of equality we have a new relation called
order relation denoted by the symbol "<'. The statement "a-<b" is read
as "a is less than b'. It can be stated also as
than a" (Note "b>a" read as "b is greater
that large part of the sign is closest to the larger value.)
The statement a>b is true only when a—b is positive and a
only when a—b is negative. For example, when 8>5 then 8-53 .b "a is greater than b"
ac(b "a is less than b"
aib "a is not greater than b"
ab "a is less than or equal to b"
a.b "a is not less than b"
a)b "a is greater than or equal to b"
Properties:
Order axioms: If a and b are any elements, then
(1) one and only one of the following is true
a=b, a< b , b<-a (Trichotomy Law)
(ii) If a.<b and b <c, then a <c. (Transitivity Law)
(iii) If a.<b then a + c.<b -f c. (Monotone Property of Addition)
(iv) If a . b"
243
EQUATIONS
As shown earlier sometimes equality signs are combined with in-

equality signs
ab means a<b or a=b
b means a is not less than b which means
a or b-<a
a h means b<a
We also say that a is positive when a0 and (2 is negative, when
a<0.
Operation axioms. (i) On addition or subtraction of any number
from both sides of an inequality, the inequality is preserved. For example,
if
2x-3<7
We may add 3 to both sides
2,x-3+ 3<7+3
2x<10
Any term in an inequality can be moved from one side to the other
provided that its sign is changed. For example, if
a—c< b , then a<b+c
This, in other words, is the transposing of a term from one side of
the inequality to the other.
(ii) if we multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a positive
(non-zero) number, the inequality does not change. For example
3x>-5
multiply the inequality by 3, then
3(3x)>3(5) 9x>15
If, say, x==2 then the inequality holds true in both of the above
cases.
(iii) if we multiply or divide both sides by a negative number, the
direction of the inequality is reversed.
For example
5x>I0, where x=3
By multiplying both sides of the inequality by —5, we have
5(l0)
—25x <-50
This is because when x=3, the inequality —75 is less than —50.
(iv) An inequality can be converted into an equation
If a> b then a=b+p.
where p is positive real number (i.e. p>0)
If C> ci, then we write
c=d+q, where q>0
Also a.c==(b+p)(d+q)=bd+pd+ hq±pq


Now p and q are positive. If in addition b and d are positive, then
every term on the right-hand side is also positive so that
a.c>.b.d
(v) If the two sides of an inequality, each having the same sign, be
Inverted (i.e., turned upside down) then the sign must be reversed.
a b c d
if —> -- then, - <- i---
and in particalar if a >.b then - <
(vi) If the signs of all the terms on both sides of the inequality are
changed, the inequality is reversed.
If a>b then —a-c(—b
(vii) Now if a 1 >b 1 , a 2 >b 2 , a 3 >b 3 ... a>b
then a1 + a +a+... -1-a,>b1.-b+b3_ . +b.
and a1.a2.a3 ... a>b1.b2.b.b
(viii) If a>b and n>O then a>b
1 1
and
an
(ix) Arithmetic mean (A) of two positive numbers say a and b is
Feater than or equal to their geometric means (G) (cf. Chapter XII). This
is proved as follows. We know that
A,r±Pad G=t/c
-
A--G= -------
2 /ab
- Va — / b)i)o
A>G
Example j . Solve the inequality x+3<7xN
Solution. x+3-3<7-3 (Substract 3 from both sides)
x<4
Example 2. Solve the inequality —6x>24.zxEN
24
Solution. (-6x)> -
—x>4
CD, x<-4(inequality reversed due to change of sign on both sides)
x=-5, —6 and soon

EQUATIONS 245
Example 3. Solve the inequality 2(x+1)-3(x—)>7xxEQ

Solution. 2(x+ 1)-3(x—)>7xxE Q
2x+2-3x+4>7x
—x+6>7x
x—x+6>7x+X (adding x on both sides)

6> 8x, i.e. 8x<6 or x<.
Example 4 Show that the following inequality is consistent.
(3x+ I 5)>x+ 5

Solution (3x + 15)>x-1
x +5>x4- 5
The equality is inconsistent.
84. GROUPING SYMBOLS
Before coining to the solution of equation, we consider this because
often in equations we come across grouping s)mbols like parentheses ( ),
braces { } and the brackets [ J. They signify that the numbers or
symbols contained therein are one unit and therefore should be treated as
such in solving equations.
The normal procedure is to remove the grouping symbols by work-
ing from the inside out. In other words, we must start from the inner-
most pair of the parentheses and remove them before we take up the
braces. The brackets are taken up in the end. For example
2X-3[X4_2y-3(x+2y)-2(2_y)}-- 11
= 2x-3{x+2{y---3x-6y-4±2y)± III
=2X .-3[x+ 2y-6x— 12y— 8+4y+ 11
=2x---3[ —5x— 6y-7]
=2x-4-15x l-18 y +21 = 17x+ 18y+21
Further it should be borne in mind that the parentheses preceded by
a4 sign may be removed without changing the signs of inner numbers but
if the parentheses is preceded by - sign, the parentheses can be removed
by changing - sign to - I and applying the distributive law as shown
below:
2x—(4y-8)=2.x-1(4y--8)5x---1(4y)—1 (-8)
= 2x-4y+ 8
85. GENERAL SOLUTIONS
The particular value or values of the variable or the variables which
satisfy the relationship given in the equation is called the solution of the
equation It is also known as the root of the equation. In a linear equation.
with one variable, there is only one root or one solution to the equality.
For example, in an equation 2x— 10=4, it is the x=7 which satisfies the
relationship and therefore is the solution to the equation.
To find a solution to a simple e uation we may use simplification

techniques and the axioms of equality to transform that into the form x=b,
indicating that b is the solution to the equation. In this process we should
justify each step by any of the axioms of equation. Our main objective
is to get each term involving an unknown variable to one side and all
unattached numbers to the other side. For example, in an equation
3x+5=—x+ 13,
to get all the x's on the left hand side, we may employ the addition axiom
and add x to both the sides i.e.,
3x+5==—x+13
+X = +X
3x+5+x=—x+ 13+
4x+5=13
Now to bring 5 to the right hand side, we employ the subtraction
axiom and subtract S from both the sides. The equation now becomes
4x+5=13
_5==_5
4x=8
Then divide both sides by 4, we get x=2.
If we substitute 2 for x in the original equation, the truth of the
statement can be proved.
3x4-5=--x+13, if x=2
then (3)(2)+5=(-2)+13
6+5=11
The above equation is a linear equation in one variable. Now, let
us consider two linear equations in two variables
x+y=3
3x+2y=7 . . .(2)
Such equations can be satisfied by large number of sets of related
values of x and y in individual equations some of which are
(0,3), (1,2), (-1,4)
(0 ,), (1,2), (-2, )
It can be shown that the common set (1,2) simultaneously satisfies
both the equations. This shows that two simultaneous equations are neces-
sary when where are two variables in order we, can find a unique solu-
tion which would satisfy both the equations. Likewise for linear equations
in three variables there should be three simultaneous equations to enable us
to get the solutions for all the three variables satisfying those equations.
86. DEGREE OF AN EQUATION
The degree of an equation is denoted by the highest index of the
variable in any equation. An equation with the highest index or powrc
EQUATIONS 247
as I (as in the equation x+5=7) is of the first degree. It is also called a
inea,r equation since its graph represents a straight line.
The higher degree equations are also called higher degree polynomials
or polynomial equations. An equation having its hi ghest index as 2 is
called the quadratic equation. For example
x2-f5x-l-6==0
is quadratic equation in one variable. But the equations
x2 + y2= 25 and x2-l-xy+yt=8
are quadratic equations in two variables.
Further, higher order equations are cubic with highest index of the
variable 3 and biquadratic with the highest index of the variable 4. For
example
x3-f.6x2-l-- 12x+7=0
is a cubic equation in one variable. There can be a cubic equation in
two or more variables also.
Similarly x4 +Sx+7x=16 is a biquadratic equation in one variable
which can also have two are more variables.
Use of Equations
The practical use of the equations is in evolving certain relations and
finding out the value of the unknown. Sometimes complicated verbal state-
ments when translated into equations or inequalities can be solved with
great ease. A few illustrations will make the point clear.
Example 5. (i) In the two consecutive numbers one-fourth of the
smaller one exceeds the one-fifth of the larger one by 3. Find the numbers.
Solution. Let the two consecutive numbers be x and x+l. Now
one-fourth of the smaller is - - and one-fifth of the larger is if the
first exceeds the second by 3, we can express this in the equation form as
X x--
—3.
4 5
5x-4x---460 [by multiplying both the sides by 20]
x=64
The two numbers are 64 and 65.
64 65
We can check, = 16 and = 13, the difference is of 3.
(i) 1 father is 28 years older than the son. In 5 years the father's
age will he 7 years more than twice that of the son Find their present ages.
Solution. We normally suppose what we have to find, let the
present age of son be x then the age of fatner will be x+28. Now, after
5 years their ages will be x 1- 5 and x -1-28 + 5 respectively. If the age of

the father then will be 7 years more than twice that of the son, we can
represent this in the equation form as
x+28+5=2 (x+5)+7
* Xi33=2x+l0-l-7
* x--2x=-33+10+7
x=+33—l0-7
xzrl6
The son's present age is 16 and the father's present age is 44.
(iii) A person receives a total return of Rs. 402 from an investment
of
ft. 8001 in two debenture issues of a company . The first one carrying an
interest of 6% pa, was bought for Rs. 110 each and the other one carrying an
interest rate of 5 01(, p.a. were bought at Rs. 105 each. Find the sum invested
In each type of debentures
So lution. Let the sum X be invested in the first category, therefore,
Rs. 8001 --x must have been invested in the second category. The return
on each for the year will be
xx-1- -6-- and (800l—x)x 5 5
The total return is
6x r
Tro4L (800I—x)x1._-J=402
* 3x 9001
—-=402-38l
* 63x-55x1155(21)
8x= 24255
* xr= 3,032 (approx.)
The sum invested in each type of debentures is Rs. 3,032 and
Rs. 4,969 respectively.
(iv) The speed of a boat in still water is 10 km per hour. If it can
travel 24 km down stream and 14 km in the ups/ream in equ71 time, indicate
he speed of the flow of stream.
Solution.
Let the speed of the flow of water be x, then the speed of
the boat in the downstream and upstream will be 10+x and 10 -- x rspcctj.
vely then the time taken in going 24 km downstream will be and
14 km upstream will belO—x . Now the time taken both way in the
form of an equation can be written as
24 14
l0+ x lO—x
249
FQUATONS
24(10—X)=14(10+X)
240-24x=1404-14.V
—24x---14x=-240+ 140
—38x==— 100
38x= 100
x= 100133
The stream is flowing at a speed of 100/38 km per hour.
(v) Mr. Ray buys 100 units of the Unit Trust of India at Rs. 1030
per unit, He purchases another lot of 200 at Rs. 1040 per unit. At B.c.
10'50 per unit, he takes up another lot of 400 and a Jiirther lot of 300 at
Rs. 10'80 per 14,1(1. He vvatches as the price goes down and desires to take
up as many units at Rs. I0'25 per unit as would make the average cost of
his holding o Rs. 10'50 per unit, ,Jssriniing that Mr. Ray always buys units
in multiples of 100. find the number of units he purchases at the lowest price
of Rs, 1025 per unit.
Solution. Let x be the number of units purchased at Rs. 1 025.
Total number of units purchased at an average price per unit of
Rs. l0'50
=100I_200+400+300+X
=1000-}-x
Value of urujts==Rs. l0j0X(i000+x)10,500+10'50.v ...(l)
But the value of units held by him
-=Rs. bOx 10'30+Rs. 200)< 10'40+Rs. 400
x 10504-Rs. 300x l(Y80-I-Rs. x 10'25
=Rs. 10550+Rs. 10'25x
From given data, we have
10500-l-1050x= 10550-I- l0'25x 1(l)(2))
1050x-1025x-1055010500
O'25x=SO
x=-=200
Hence he purchases 200 units at Rs. 1025.
81. SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
A system of simultaneous equations is helpful for finding unique
values for the unknowns. The number of equations should be equal to
the number of unknowns. However, the equations can be of varying
degrees. First we take two linear equations in two unknowns which are
in the following form
a1x +b1y-4-c1=0
a 2 x + b 2 y + c2=0.
Now each equation individually has an unlimited number of
solutions (x, y) corresponding to the unlimited number of points 011 the
250
locus (straight line) which the equation represents. Our problem is to find
all solutions common to the two equations or the co-ordinates of all points
common to the two lines. There can be three possible situations iii this.
(1) The equations will be
C onsistent and independent if there is only
one solution,
in Fig. 1. i.e., the two lines have only one common point as shown
Fig 1.
(ii)
The two lines are coincident. The equations are consistent but
dependent as shown in Fig. 2.
)(
Fig. 2 Fig. 3.
(i/i) The system has no solution when two lines are parallel and
distinct. The equations are inconsistent as shown in Fig. 3.
There can then be graphic solutions as well as algebraic solutions
of equations, the former of course are not precise but easy to use in some
251
EQUATIONS
cases. A graphic solution to three linear equations has been shown in

Fig. 4.
Fig. 4.
Algebraic SolutiOnS
We are now illustrating the algebraic method of solving three linear
simultaneous equations. The other methods we shall discuss in the
chapter on Matrices.
Illustration. Solve the system of the following three con.sisxent and
independent equations in the three unknowns
2x.1-3y-4z/
3x-.--y—.2z-=4 ...(ii)
...(liI)
4x-7y-6Z=--7
Solution. Let us first eliminate y.
We rewrite (1) 2x-i-3Y-4Z= 1
3X(ii) : 9X-3y--6Z12
Add: lix —1013

Now, we rewrite (iii)
4x-7y-6Z— .7
-7x(ii): _21x+7Y+14Z28
+8z=--35 .. (v)
Add: —17x
Let us now eliminate z from (iv) and (v), i.e.
4x(iv) : 44x-40 Z= 52
5x(i ): — 85x+40Z-175
Add: --41x ==-123
x=3

252
Now, substitute the value of x in (iv) to get the value of z, i.e.,

I I(3)—lOz=I3
33—lOz--l3
z=2
Now, substitute the values of x and z in (i), we have
2(3)+3y—(2)= I
6+3y-8=
3J'=8-6-l-1=3
yH
88. QUA DRATIC EQUATIONS
An equation which when reduced to the rational integral form
contains the square of the unknown quantity and no higher power is called
a quadratic equation or an equation of the second degree.
An equation which contains only the square of the unknown and not
the first power is called a pure quadratic equation, e.g.,
5x'=21
But an e quation whichcontains the square as well as the first power
of the Unknown is called an "ad factor" or complete quadratic equation,
e.g.,
3x 2 -- S x -f-2-O or r 2 -- hx4- c=Q
where x is the unknown and a, h, c represent the constants of the
equation. However, sometimes the fact is not obvious from the observa-
tion whether the equation is a quadratic as in the following case
3x22_/x
Squaring it, we get
3x --24+X_4 / or 2x-6=-4Vx
Squaring it again and taking it in proper form, we have
4x2 -_24x+36 I 6x
4x2--40x+360
X2_1Ox+90
It is now in a rational integral form. The general form of a
quadratic equation is
ax + bx + c 0
where a, b and c
are any real numbers and °_,-6 0. This is because
if a=O then the expression ax2
becomes a linear one. becomes equal to zero and the equation
The graphic presentation of a quadratic equation takes the form of

a parabolic (chapter XV) which is a smooth and more or less a cup-shaped
curve. This may open upwards or downwards depending upon whether
'a which is the coefficient of x 2
minus sign. in the above equation has a plus or a

eQuArIoNs 253
89. SOLUTIONS TO QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
There can he both graphic and algebraic solutions to the quadrati c -
equations. The following three figures show three possible situations of it

quadratic equations.
Y-6x9
-s - -
Fig. 5. Fig, 6. c
In the first one there are tw o real solutions at the points where
curve intcects the x-axis. In the second
one there is only one real solution where
the curve touches the x-axis. In the
third case there are no real solutions.
For graphic solution of a quadratic y2x+4

equation in the form of ax2+bx+c=0,
we have to Obtain table values of x,
using a suitable sequence of values. It is
b
suggested that the value of - 2a-- may _
x---
-4
be taken as the central value and a
few greate and lower values may then
be chosen Let us take an illustration. Fig. 7.
Equation y=x--- 2X— 3
Table values
4 683fl:5
3
2
b —2
1 —2 —3
2,1 2
01 0 0 --3 ==-3
—1 1 +2 —3 .0
—2 4 +4 —3 =5
It may be noted that if a>O the parabola opens upwards. The value of
- = 1 is the folding point or the axis of symmetry of the parabola.
The points where the parabola crosses the xaxis are the values where y=O.
In the Fig. 8 where x = —1 and x =3 then y=O, therefore, these are the
two roots or the solutions of the equation.
Use of parabola is very common in economics. It represents the
behaviour of average cost and marginal cost functions. Also to represent
output and revenue it is used, however, in which case the parabola will open
downwards as illustrated in Fig. 9 for the equation y= 4x--X
Table of ialues:
if --O
x=O, Y- if x=l, y3
if x2, y=4 if x=3, y=3
if x=4, y-O
2-3
\
Y
------------
(.5 6
x
;---
1- -----
Fig. 8. Fig. 9.
provides the vertex or the turning

In the above-
point of the parabola. Also since a<O, the parabola opens downwards.
Further 0, 4 are the two roots of the equation.
However, there may be two or more equations combining linear and
quadratic forms of equations. Graphic solutions are possible there also. The
points of intersection of the various lines or curves as the case may be will
give a solution. The same we derive algebraically by solving simultaneous
equations. Among other things the smooth graphs of functions will give
approximate values of a function with several intermediate values of a
dependent variable where precise mathematical calculation may be difficult
and tedious.
ALGEBRAIC SOLUTIONS
First we tale general methods of solving a quadratic equation
and then some special methods for quadratics involving radicals etc.
(i) Method of factorisation,
(ii) Method of completing a perfect square

EQUATIONS 255
(1) Method of factorisation. This method is used where the
quadratic expression C8fl easily be resolved into linear factors.
Example 6. Solve (a) 4x 2 25, (b) x2_(a+b)xFab0
Solution. (a) We have, by transposition
4x2—.25=O
(2x)"— 5'.=O
(2x-5)(2x+5)=0
either 2x+5=0, i.e., x= --
or 2x— 5 = 0, i.e., x=
Hence the roots are -- 4, 4.
(b)
x2—(a+b)x+ab-=O
x2—ax--bx+ab=0
xxa)—b(x.---a)=rO, i.e., (.x — a)(x b) 0.
Hence x= a, b
Example 7. Solve x--6x+8=0.
Solution. We have
X2— (4+2)x+8 = 0 =:,- x(x-4)_2(x_4)0
(x-4)(x--.2)=O
either X-40, i.e., x==4
or x-2=0, i.e., x=2
-lciice the roots are 4, 2.
b a b
Example 8. Solve -- x -- =-- ••--
Solution. By transposition, we get
X b ba
b b a x
x—n b(x—a)
b ax
(X—a)
b ax
either x—a=0, i.e., x=a
I b . bt
Or -- ---, i.e., x=
b ax a
Thus the roots are a
a
4x2 -7 óx—]
Example 9. Solve
—T-- 4x23 = 2
Solution. By transposition, we get
427 Gx -
I 9x-2 I
4x2 --3 — 2 -- 3 6

6(4x2_7)=4x2+3
24x2-4x=3-f-42
4X2=.9,i.e.x2=
Hence x=±
(ii) Method of Completing Square:
Example 10. Solve 3X 2 — 14, fS=:O.
Solution. Dividing both sides by 3, we get
X2_!. +--=o
Now we add oil both sides, the square of half the coefficient of .v to make
the L.H.S. a perfect square.
49
Adding -- to both sides, we get
14 49 49 8
3 • 9 9 3
7 1 25
7 5 12 2 2
x -- =- --, --=4, --
General method of Completing the Square. Let inc general
quadratic equation be ax 2 ± bx + c= 0.
By transposition, we have ax2+bx=—c
Dividing both sides by a, the coefficient of X 2 , we have
b c
x t H- - x = - -
a a
b2
Now half the coefficient of .v is2a
- and its square is
b2
Adding to both sides, we get
4a
b b' b' c
x2+ - 4j2 4a' a
b 2 b2-4ac
Extracting square root of both sides, we have

b _±Vbc
X-_..
2a
b ./b2_4c
2a
EQUATIONS
25
Tlic two roots of a.f- bx -- C =0 are
—h+ \/biTc —b--f Vb-4ac
- ------ and -
2a 2a
The following method of Completing the square is due to the great
Hindu Matheniaticia i Stidhar Acharyya.
Since av-l-bx +c r0, we have by transposition
have Multiplying both sides by 4a, (e., 4 times the COCifiCICOE of x, we

4a22 + 4abx== - 4ac
Adding 15 2 , i. e ., square of half the Coetlicient of x,

to both sides, we get
4. 2 ±4abx+b2 b. 4ac
(2(jx+b)2=b2_4nc
( 2,7x -i b)= ± Vh- (extracting the square root)
2ax:=_h±
—b-j- ib24ac
X= -----___
It may be verified that the solutions given by (') above satiI'y the
given quadratic equation, ic., it' we put the values of x found in (') in the
L.H.S. of the iveri quadratic equation, we will get zero whicti
, is the
R.H.S. The two roots given by () are generally denotedby the Greek
letters a and (3. Thus
—coeffi. of x± \/(coetfi. of .v)— 4 (coeffi, ofx2)(constant term)
' 2 (coefli. of x)
—h-i- ' h-4ac .—b-./ b24ac
or -------- and
A quadratic equation has thus exactly two roots.
Sum of the two roots
We take a fsuni of the two roots
—b/b 2_ 4ac f_bVic}
2a 2a
—2b b
2a (2
Product of the two roots

Similarly, a . = Product of the roots
f—. b L \ hl-4-ac
2a 2a
,{ (--b)4 /b-4a}

BUSINESS MATHUMATKS
258
[(__-b)2---( .\1_4))2I
[bl_0+4acl=
Thus we have shown that
b Coefficient of x
+ = Sum of th e roots= - -a - - -- Coefficient- of x
c Constant term (**)
(3= Product of th e roots= a -- Coefficient of
() and ( u ), in fact, express the Relations between Roots and Coefficients of

a quadratic equation.
Illustration 1. Solve the equasion 2xt_iOx{5_0.
Here a=2, b=-10,c=5
= (10'10)4
The roots are
10±2 15 - 5±/i5
- 4 - 2
2. Solve (b_c)x2+(c_a).v+(a.h)=0.
Here the roots are
x_(C_)1 /(c— a)'-_4(b--c)(ab)
2 (b—c) -
—(C--(!)±\/(a+C---2b)2 _(c_a)-j(a-+-C)--2b}
- 2(b—c) 2(b---c)
2(a— b)2(b—c) a—b
20-0 2(b—c) or
Equations Adaptable to Quadratic Form. Sometimes we come
across disguised quadratic equations or equations adaptable by suitable
substitutions to quadratic form. In the following examples we shall
consider a few simple cases of such types.
Example ii. Solve the equation
V X
I—X
+
I—X
X
2 -
Solution. Putting
j the given equation becomes
After multiplying both sides by 6 y and transposing, we have

6y'-13y+6=0
E QUATIONS
259
6y2-9y— 4Y + 6=0
3y (2y -- 3)— 2(2 y — 3)=-O
4. (3y---2)(2y-3)=O, i.e., Y=:,
Now
2 2 3 /x3
=
x 4 X 9
J—x 9
l —x 4
9.i4—. 4.v
4x=9-9x
4
X= ii 9
x=-i-5
Fence tile 'root " are 4 9

,
Example 12. SoI'e the equation
(a) 26v941-6
(b) _4x12\17+5J_0
Solution. (a) The given equation may be writtcii as
6x -j- 6) + 3-=4 \/X--6x+6
Putting x2— 6x +6v the equation reduces to
y
01 .3)2(4.j)2
Y2+6y±9=f6y
Y2-10y±90
y(y - 1) 9 0 —I )
0, i.e., (y— 9)(y .— ]) = o
Hence Y9oryI
Now
y =9 * x2-6x+6=9
y•-1
X2-6x+50
6E\'36412
X ___ 7 __
Hence the roots are 3+2/3, 5, 1.
(b) Put X---4xzzy
12. Y-H9--5l
Y2 -I-102y+ 2601 -144 (),-f-19)

[Square both sides)

y 2 -42y--- l35 .'=0, i.e., (y+3)(y-45)=0

y=-3 and y45
But x-4x=y
(6 x 2 -4x-J 3=0 (ii) x2-4x-.-45==O _____
x== '±E±=l, 3 X
II ence x= I ,3,-5,9.
Example 13. Solve
xi.-'/12a---x /ä+i
x—',/12a--x 'ä 1
Solution. By coniponendo and dividendo, i.e.. if -
a b cd
then -+ == —i--- we have
2x 2/a or - v
2 './12a--x
X/a.Y12a_x
= a(l 2a—x)= 12(22— ax
x2-Fax--12a=O
xI+4ax_3ax_12a2=0
x(x+4a)_-3a(x+4a)_0, i.e., (x-3a)(x+4a)=0
x=3a or —4a
Fxaniple 14. Solve (a+x)3I3+(a_x)I3=4(a2_x2)I 13
Solution. Cubing both sides, we get
{(a _j_x) ! I.}3 +((a— x)' }+ 3 (a + x)tI3(a—x) '3{(a+ x)2P + (a—x)213}
=64{(a— x2)' /)
[Formula : (A+B)3=43+B3+3AB(A+B)1
(a+x)2+(a—x)2+ 3(a7_xI)2/a(4(al_x2)1 /3} -=64(a2---x2)
(a+x)?.f(a_..x)I+I2(al—x)=64(a2.._x)
2a' 4- 2x 2 -52a -- 52x2 =0, i.e., 54x2 = 5002
= = 25
54 27
Hence x=j ia
]Example 15. Find the value of

EQUATIONS 261
Solution. Let
Since the terms go on to infinity, the given quantity will not change
if we omit the radical before /6, and those after the first one are taken to
be equal to x. Hence we have
X=
V6+x
x= 6+x
x'—x—(r() , using the formula for finding roots, we have
. --2
2 2
But the given quantity is positive.
Hence
Example 16, Solve the equations
(a)
(b) (IO_
33x+32O
Solution. (a) Putting the given equation reduces to
2 +y = 6
y
ff
25y1+25y-6=0
—25k 25+35 6 I
.
50 505'5
- 6 . 36 1 .
Either V x ---, i.e., or x=-- , i.e., x=-
(b) Putting x5 ry, the given equation reduces to

y2— 33y±32=0
y2—(32+l)y+32r=0
y (y-32)—(y-32)=0
(y-32)(y--l)=0
Either y -32=0 y==32, i.e., x5 =32, whence x=2
or y-1=O y= 1, i.e., x5 =- whence x1
Example 17. Solve (2x-f-3) (2x+5) (x-1) (x-2)=30.
Solution. Multiplying together the first and third factors and the
second and fourth factors of L.H.S., we have
{(2x+3) (x—J)}{(2x+5) (X—.-2)}=30
* (2x-l-x-3) (2x'+x--I0)=30

Putting 2x2 +x y , we have

(y-3)(y-10)=30 Y1-13Y=0
y(y-13)=-0, i.e., Y=0,13
(i) TakingY- O, 2 2 + X O ' X(2X+1)0
(ii) TakingY =13 , 2x'+x=13 2x'+x-13=O

'1 105
4
Irrational equations reducible to quadratics:
Exatuple 18. Solve 12x4 J+V3x+4=7.
Solution. By transposition of one radical, we get
/jT1 =7—/34
Squaring, we get
2X+ 1 =49+(3x+4)— 14\/3X+4
x-f52=14\/3x+4
Squaring, we get x2 + 1 04x+ 2704 = 1 96(3x-j-4)
x2-484x+19200
x-4x-480x+1920=0
x(x-4)-480(x--4)=()
(X-4)(x-480)=O
Either x==4 or X=480
The root 4 is found to satisfy the given equation, the other root 480
does not satisfy it.
x4 is a root of the given equation, but X480 is not a root.
The value x=480, which does not satisfy the original equation and
as such is not a root of the equation is called an extraneous root.
Example 19. Solve ,,/x z F4x2J+ Vx—x-6= 16x'-5x-39
Solution. Factorising expressions under radicals, we get
V(x-3)(x+7)+V(x-- 3)(x+2) = V(x-3)(6x± 13)
i/[\/T
Either /x-3=0, i.e., x=r3
or Vx+7+Vx+2=V6x+13
(x+7)+(x+2)+2./(x..7)(x+2)6x+ 13
EQUATIONS 263
2V(x-0)(x+2)=4X+4
i/(x-T2)==(2x42)
Squaring again, we get
3x2—x-10''0
1-+'/1-f-l2O 5
=2 or
6
Example 20. Solve
Solution. Let [x'--4ax-f.5 =-y
and
Then the given equation becomes
Y z2(a—b)
Squaring and subtracting (I) and (2), we get

y 2 — z2= ( x +4a x+ S)—(x 1 +4bx +5)
(),+z)(y--z)=4(a—b)x ...(4)
Dividing (4) by (3), we get

y—z-2x

2y=2(a—b)-l-2x, i.e,, y=u—b+x
Substituting this value in (I), we get
\12 +4av+ 5=a—h+x=(a_ b)+x
. v2 +4ax--5=(u b)*-4--2(a_b)x+x2
4ax_2(a_b)x=(a_b)2_5
cop 2(a+b)x=(a_b)2_5
X (a—b)2--5
=
2(a-fb)
Subtracting (3) and (5), we get
2z=2(a—b)-2x, i.e,, z=(a—b)_x
Substituting this value in (2), we get
Vx z + 4bx+5=(a—b)—x

x2 +4bX+5 =(a—b)'-2(a— b)x+
264 B1.SINESS MATHEMATICS
I. 4bx+2(a—h)x=(a—b)2_5
2(a+b)x=(a—b)25
(a— b)2-5
X_ --
Example 21. Solve V'3x2 7x-3O± \/2x-7x-5=x-5.

Solution. Let i/3x2_7x=y
and V'2x2_7x_5 =z
Then the given equation becomes
yf-z==x-5 (3)
Also squaring and subtracting (2) from (1). we get
(y+z)Y—z)—(x+5)(x----5)
Dividing this equation by (3), we get
y—z=x+5 .(4)
Adding (3) and (4) we have
2y=2x y=x
substituting this value of y in (1), we have
W3 x-7x -3O =X ' 3X2_7x_3O=x2
2x?7x3O=O
x7+d9±2406 ' ---

4 2
Subtracting (3) and (4), we get
2z=-10 . z=-5
Substituting this value of z in (2), we have
T2x'7x--5= --5
2x-7x-5=25
2x-7x-3O=O
7+r49+4f S
X = = 6,
810. RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS

Earnp1e 22. Solve l0x 4 + 63x + 52x2 —63x +10=0.

QUA'ILONS 255
Solution. Rearranging the terms, we have

10(.x:'+ 1)+63(3—x)+52x1=0
Dividing both sides by x 2 , we have
10 ( x4)+63 (x_) 52--0
x—' )2+2
10 1-1-63-!_)+520
rXT x
10 (x-_L+63 (x—J--)+72=o
Putting y for x— we have
10y2±63y+72=0
10y2+15y+48y+72=0
5y(2y+3)+24(2y+3)=0
(5y+24)(2y+3)==0
24 3
or
24
0) when y— 24
--- then x---
5x2+24x-5=0
—24+/576+ 100 —24*26
10 = ' 5
(ii) when y= - -- then_ _L- _2.
2x'+3x-2=0
x=_ 3+ ± 63±5 _2 ---

4 4 '2
EXERCISE (I)
Solve the following equations
I x-7 4x--2 . 3 5 8
1.
5
(iii) 4-_L=+ 2(x-1)+3 (iv) a_+ 21—x 31—x

266
BUSINESS MATUMATLCS
(v) x—bc x—ca x—ab
2. (1) 25x2=16, (,)
2(45+2x2 ) 3(x3-9)
± 3
—f3
(iv) 3x 2 — 14x+ 11=0,
(v) x-(p+q)xpqo
•
(vx) x 3 10 •.x. a a
(vu) - b
(viii) x2 -2,,/3x + I 0, (ix)
3. (i) :L— 3 x-2 i-3

+2+x+
x-2 x-3 x+2 •v+3
(ii) q+
(j P x—p X—(/
4. (:) • V1—x 3
_
(ii)
x— b2
(in)
2 1 2
5. (f) x +X 3 -2=O, (ii) x'3±127x13,
3
X +4-5_ 2, ( iv) 6xT_f.3x4Ilx
(x 3x)28(x23)2QQ (ii) (2x_-7)(x2_9)(+5)=9I.

7. (1)
(ii) 3x2-18+y3x2._4x64
8. (i) "+VTI-2
(ii) V3x+10+y'9x7rr9
9. (1) \/iT + Vx4 12 1/2x+41
(ii)
10. (1) \/x2_3x+36_ V ' — 3x+9 3

EQUATIONS 267
(ii) \/.-lax* 1Ua2 _ \/ x2 (.ax.f2-x...2a

(iii)
11. (1) (x-.--::- ) _(j(.v+--) i2--O
--- ) 2_io ( _--) + 24=o

(ii) (
(iii) ( x_
1 )2
+9=-(x+ 1 ±)
12. (i) x t +8x 2 -f-1 =Sx(x 2 + 1)
(ii) --2x3 --- 13x2+2x-1-1=O
(iii) 4'__ 16x 3 +23x- 16x-1-4==0
V1±x+v'1
13
- /[2 - - 3
ANSWERS
I (i) 8, (ii) 3, (iii) 1, (iv) , (v) ab± bc - C1.
2. (i) xj , (ii) , (iii) ± 3, (iv) 1, (v) p, q,
(vO 9, 1, (vii) /1, (viii) \ /3 ± \/2, (ix) •3 2, 1.
p2-1-q2
3. (i) 0, : /6, (ii) p-eq 0, p+q.
-256
4. (1) 3, -3, (ii) (iii) (J2±b2+C2
S. (i) -8, I, (ii) 3 13 , 413, (iii) ± 1, , (iv) __ ___
6. (i) 1, 2, -2, 5, (ii) 1±V ,
(1) 0, -3rn (ii) -

2-Ev'10 2±/23
7.
, - 3
8. (i) 0, -16, (ii) 2. 9. (i) 4, (Ii) 4, 5, (iii) 3,
-IOa 2L\/14
10. (i) 0, 3, (ii) 2a, 6a, -.--- , (it)
2
268
JIUSINSS MATHEMATICS
11. (1) 1, 1, ---2± /3, (Ii) 3±i, 2 ±1, 2,
12.(i) ) —5±2
(iii) 2, ,
13.
811, NATURE OF THE ROOTS

Since the roots of the quadratic equation
by O xbx+c=O
-. are given
- --bj- /9T
2a
the nature of the roots shall depend on the numerical value of
VbI_c. The expression b2
-4ac which dis criminates the nature of the
roots is called dlscrl,n jnant of the equation
a v2 hx+cO and is denoted
for brevity by the syrnh1 /\, which is a greek letter pronounced as delta.
Assuming that a, b,
results are real and rational, we obtain the following
(1) (a) If >O and is a perfect square, then \

both the roots are rational and unequal. / A j s rational, i.e.,
(b) If A>Q, but not a Perfect square, then
both the roots are irrational and unequal. V77 is irrational, i.e.,
(ii) If ,:=O, then
t=O and both the roots are real and equal,
each being equal to
_. They will be rational or irrational according
as - is rational or irrational.
(iii) If /' <0, then

plex and unequal. ic imaginary and both the roots are com-
The reader should note the following points:

(1)
If one root of a quadratic equation with rational coefficients is
irrational, the other will also be irrational, called the irrational conjugates,
e.g., if
one root of a quadratic equation with a rational coefficient is
2+V3, the other one will le 2—,/3.
(ii) If
one root of a quadratic equation with a real coefficient is
imaginary, the other will also be imaginary, called the imaginary conju-
gates, e.g., if
one root of a quadratic equation is 2+3i, the other will be
2-31, i.e, imaginary roots occur in pairs.
Example 23. Discuss the nature of the roots of the following
equations.
(a) x 2 +2x+30, (b) (x_2) (x—b)h1.

EQUA1'!ONS 269
Solution. (a) 1-Ecre a= 1, h=2, c-3
r0_4ac4_12_8<0
The roots are imaginary and unequal.
(b) The equation may be written as
Cix -i-- ctb
- (a-I - b)x -- (ab =0

/"\_r{_ (a-4-b)1__4. I. ((zb__/i2)
==(a-l-b)2-4ah} l4112
=(a— h)+411>0 (Sum of squares is alwa y s -4- ye)
The roots are real and unequal.
Farnple 24. For what values of tit will the equation
.
-- 2(nr -}. 3)x +(2ni 3) .=O
have equal roots,
Solution. Since the dscrinutiant for equal roots is LcO),
we have
0 -4(in + 3) 2 - 4(in + I )(2'n± 3)
Ex-tin1,l. 25.the
If roots of the eqriation (rn-_. n) A- ( n -- l )x-l- I-- m
are eqtwl, Show that 1, in, n are in A. 1'. [IC. W./f, JtI?!t' 19901
Solution. The roots of the equation
(rn-_n)x2_.(nf)Xf.(l_,,l)0
will be equal if
(n--- /)2 —4(tn iz)(f -- ,n) Ø
* a2 2n1-j-- 12 = 4(tn 1 --rn- ni-f may
* a2— 21li-f- 4i1 - 4m 2 —4n1 + 4'nn
2n/4- 124pn(.y /)..- 41
(n+l)'_4,n(nl/)+4,n2O
(11+1-21n)'r--,0
71+1=2'n
* 1+n
m, a are in A.P.
812. SYMMETRICAL EXPRESSIONS
An expression in oc and is said to be
sym metrical if it remains un-
changed by the interchange of arid (. Thus -f-f becomes 1 - by the
interchange of and ft Therefore, x-l- is
Symmetric in cx and ft Other
examples of symmetrical expressions can he given as
cr$-f-i, +
X
-I-
Ce

270
It may be noted that the expressions like a x-3 +(32, 1 2 _c.B+:3
2 are not
symmetrical, as their values are altered if a and p are interchanged. Such
expressions are called asymmetric or skew expressions.
Example 26. If and ( ore 1/ic roots of the equation ax2+hxJ-c0
find the value of(i) c— (ii) e. )2
l 2, ( iii)

(111(1 (v) -1-
Solution. Since , 3 are the roots of the quadratic equation

ax 2 + b.\ I c (1, we have
-a and a[—
(I
h
Any s mmetrie expression in ,can be expressed in terms of cc + g and
(3 and ence can he MIILIM 'e' d
equation. in terms of the constants a, 1), c of the
° =\/)4p=::
----) -- =
(ii)
2 c b2 __ 'c
2+32,+()223 = (- -
i) —2
a
(üi)
c4 b3 / C / 1) bc'(3ac b2)
L 3A )J
( iv (
I a 23
(+:3)2 1(+'-:3i
==
/) 2
b*c ' / Ci b(b'_4ac)
- a2 a2 a )/a2 a2c2
I I (3ahc—b)
(v) jH
813. FORMATION OF AN EQUATION
So far we were given a quadratic equation and were required to
find the roots of the equation. We now study the converse problem, i e.,
to find the equation whose solution set is {,
Let ax2 + bx + c 0 he the required equation.
The equation can he written as
-'2-1- 1) x----O

EQUATIONS 271
We know a+f3=---a and
The equation (()

4 ) becomes X 2 — ( x 4 . 3)x+ =0
This is the required equation wht'e roots aic-,ind 3, we may state
the same result as follows
if a and 3, the roots of wi equation are O v en, then the equation can he
written us
.X--X (sum of the roots) F product of the roots = 0.
Example 27. Form the equation whose roots are (i) 6, 7, (ii) 5-1-
5— \/3.
Solution. (i) The quadratic equation whose roots are 6, 7 is
(6+7)-F6.7=0
2_
- 13x•4-42--O
(ii) The quadratic equation whose roots are 5 - v 3. 5— i is
x2 —x (5-f- v' 3 + 5-- /3)+(5±V3)(5-- 3)r- U
x'-{-IOx+22=0
Example 2. (a) If and 3 be the roots of p.4 jl,,ii
the equation whose roots are and I.C. WA., December 1990)
(b) If a and 3 be the roots of .v 2 —p.v - q 0, Jilt,! the equation whose

roots are OC2, ç32
Solution. Since a, are the roots of 2 + p x-f- q= 0, therefore,

we have
and
Sum of the roots =r,±—

2
_IL
--
(x+(3)22
0 22 -
-p'-2q
I I I I
Product of the roots= — - >< 2,1,2
The equation whose roots are -_ -and Iis

p2 q2
x+,- =0
or q1x—(p1-_2q)x+ I =0.
(h) Since at and fl are the roots of x2 —px_- q =0, therefore,
a+iP

272 BUSINESS MATHflMATC
and .. .(2)
The equadratic equation whose roots are a, 31 is
X2_X(+2)+x2(30
40-
x2_x(p!_2q)q2=O Ifrom (1) and (2)]

Example 29. If Gc and p are the roots of 2x 2_ 4x+10 , frorn the
equation whose roots are and 3'-f-.
Solution. Here +=-( -- )=

,
The required equation is
x—x (sum of the roots)+product of the roots=O
Sum of the roots of the required equation
_(a 2 +(3) +(32+c)= ((ce +13 )' - 2 43 ) +(+r3)
=(2)-2.
Product of the roots=(4-f3) ((2+)

= '+ 8 -f (3-f-a
(a+(3)+c4i
(
) ' +(2) 3 — 3.
2 2 4
23
4x2-20x+230
Example 30. If oc and p are the roots of the equation ax1+bx+cO,
form the equation whose roots are
1 1
(i) , , (ti)
afb '
Solution. Since a and P are the roots of the equation 0X2-l-bx+c0,

b c
and cz$=—

(sum of the roots)+product of the roots=O
X2 —X .
I a-f-3' ___________
(1) Sum of the roots= --+ —=-
(3

EQUATIONS 273
b' c
b-2ac
= c/a ac
Product of the roots=----

13
From (), the required equation is
b'---2ac1
- . acx2—x(bt--2ac)+ac=0
ac
1 1 ___
(Ii) Sum of the roots
- bai 13+ab(cc+13)+b2
b )+2b b
a '.-- + ab (_---)+b'
I
Product of the roots=-___ I
( aa + b) ( a 13+ b ) a fl+ ab(cc+ 13)4-b2
-fob _)+b2
From (i), the requited equation is
,b\ 1
X1—X( -
\OO/ ac
acx2.bx+1=O,
Example 31. If cc and Pare the roots of x2pxqO, from the
equation whose roots are (cc13 + -J- 13) and (cc13 - cc —13).
Solution. Here cc+13=p, cc3q
The sum of the roots of the required equation
= (cc13 +cc + 13) + (cc13 —a— 13 ) = 2cc13 =2q
The product of roots= (cc13 +a +13Xcc $ -a— 13)

132 q 2
- (13)' - ( + _pt
Now the required equation is x 2 (sum) x+productO
Example 32. Find the condition that one root of axt+bXlcO

shall be n times the other. [J.C,W,A., December 19891
11cc.
Solution. Let one root of the equation be cc then, the other will be
Sum of the roots=cc(I+n)=----

... ( )
274
BUSINESS
Product of the roots==a'n=

(2)
-(2)
Eliminating between (1) and (2), the required condition is
c
a (1+n)s a
* b'n—ac(I+n)i
Exam pie 33. Find the condition that the roots
of the equation
ax' +bx+c0 may differ by 5.
S olution. Let a and a-f-5 be the two roots.
Sum of the roots==2a+5==_!
and the product of the roots=a'+Sa=.!_

a
The C ondition can be obtained by eliminating a in (1) and (2). We
shall obtain the value of a from (1) and will substitute it in (2),
b-I-So
From (1), we have cc= -
Substituting in (2), we get

/ b+5a )"+5
2a " 2a / a
b2 +25am +1b_ 10ab5004ac
* b'-25a2 ac is the required condition.
Ezaniple 34. If the roots of the equation ax' +bx +c = 0 may be In
the rallo m n, prove that
mnb'aC(m+n)i
Solution.
Since the roots of the equation are in the ratio m n, they
can be taken as ma and flu.
We then, have the sum of the roots
m a+ na= - -
b
and the product of the roots is
The required condition can be obtained by eliminating a between

(1) and (2).

QUAT1ONS
275
b
From (1),
a (m+n)
C
and from (2),
ainn
b2 c
a2(m+n)2amn
rnnb2_—ac(rn-j--n)2
which is the required result.
EXERCISE (11)
I. If a, 13 are the roots of 2x 3 +3x+7=0, find the values of
(i) _2 +P 2 ,(ii) ce-f 13, (iii) c+3 4 , ( iv) . 13- 1 +13 .
(v) (a1_3)+(13I__)1, (vi) (x" — P.
2. The roots of x'_px-- q= O are a and 13, prove that
1 1 Ps 1 3 4 2
P
-+ i— i-- i_,
%2 q' -
3. Form the quadratic equation whose roots are
(i) 4-ivt 4—IVT; (ii) p+'q,psT.q,
(hf) \+V' q P "q
jVq 'V -/
4. If . 13 are the roots of x 2 -2x+3=0, form the quadratic
equation whose roots are
(i) a+3, P43, (ii) 2-3j3, 3-2f3, (iii) - , -p-., and
(iv) TJ
+l' 13f-1
5. (a) If c, 13 be the roots of ax2 + bx +c0, prove that the equation
whose roots are aa+b13, b + a 13 is
(ax-1b')(x+b)+ c(a_b)Z=O
(b) If a and 13 are the roots of the equation ax 3 —bx+c=O, form
the equation whose roots are
(1) -1 1 . I I . 1—ct 1-13
— , ( i, ) --.__, 13+ — , ( ii:) j-- j---.
6. If p, q be the roots of the equation 3x 2 +6x--20, show that

n —a1
the equation whose roots are -- and - is 3X2-18.X+2=O.
q p
7. (a) If r be the ratio of the roots of the equation
a'+bx+c==O,
(r 4. b'
show that
r ac
(b) If the roots of the equation ax' -fbx+c=O be in the ratio p : q,
prove that ac(p+q)I_b2pq.

& Find k,if
(1) the roots of 2x1 +3x+k=O are equal,
(U) one of the roots of the equation x'-4x—k=0 is 2(l+/3).
(ill) one of the roots of the equation x 2 -6x+k =0 is 3 + IV' 2,
(lv) one root of the equation x t_ 6x+k==O is double the other.
9. if the sum of the roots of a quadratic equation is 3 and the sum
of their cubes is 7, find the equation.
ANSWERS
(1).!2, (H) (Ill) (lv)
1.
T 1 6 14
(v) , (vi) _/—:::.
3. (1) x 2 -8x-j--18=0, (Ii) x2-2px+p2—q=0,
(lii) (p—q)x'-2(p+q)x+(p_q)=0.
4. (III) 3x 2 +2x +3=0, (iv) 3x'-2x+ 1 =0.
5. (b) (I) bcx'— ax(b -- c) + a s 0, (Ii) Ucx 2 - bx(a + c) + (c + a) 2 0,
(ill) (a+b+c)x2-2xa—c)+a_b+c0
8. (1) k=, (ii) k=8, (III) k= 11. (iv) k=8.
9. [Hint. Here (t)
+'7(+ )'-3a(n+)=27-9
9c43=20, 1e.,
Hence the equation is x'—x(3)+- -0.

814. SOLUTION OF SIM ULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
As indicated earlier there can
be both graphic as well as algebraic
methods of solving simultaneous
equations. Graphic method at time
is very handy in solving such
equations , and, therefore, employed
quite offen in Linear and Non-
linear Programming. The graphic
method is also employed in case of
inqualities. We illustrate below its
use when the simultaneous equations
consist of both linearand non-linear
equations.
The point of intersection gives
a common solution to the two
x' -4 -' -
equations, one of which is linear
(Y=3x+3) and the other one cubic
(y=x'). The value of x=21 gives
an approximate solution which is
good enough for business decision-
making.

SQUATLONS 277
We, now discuss the algebraic methods of solving such equations.
The use of matrices for the same shall be dealt in relevant chapter.
Various methods are indicated depending on the combination of linear
with linear or non-linear equations.
(A) When both equations are linear:
There are generally three methods to solve such equations. These
are
(i) Method of substitution.
(ii) Method of elimination.
(iii) Method of cross multiplication.
We will explain below these methods by taking the two equations in
standard form as
a1x+b1y+c1=O
a1x+ b2y -f c2 --O .- (2)
(I) Method of substitution. From (1), by transposition
a1x= —(b1y+c1)
X=— b1y+c1
a1
Substituting this value of X in (2), we get
a2 ( b1y+c1 )+bO
a1
* —ab1y—a2c1+a1b1y-f a1c1=O
(a1b2 —a1b1 )y= —(a1c_a1c1)
a1c2 - a,c1
3a1b,—a1b.
From (3), we get
b a1c2a1c1
l X bb - ' b 1c,—bc1
X- =ab—a2b1
a1
Illustration. Solve 5x-!-2y=8 • . .(1)
9x-5y=23
Solution. From (I), we have 2y=8-5x
8- 5x .(3)
2
Substituting this value of y in (2), we get
5x
9x-5

27 HVSINB$3 MATHEMATICS
18x-40+25x*46
43x='86, I.e., x==2
8-5x2
.. From (3), we have y=
2
Hence x=2, y —1 is the required solution.
(Ii) Method of elimination. Under this method, the two equations
are transformed to equivalent equations such that coefficients of any of
the variables in both the transformed equations become numerically equal.
Thereafter by addition or subtraction of these equations, that variable can
be eliminated, so that the resulting equation becomes a simple equation.
The solution for the variable of the simple equation can be determined by
methods already discussed. The method of elimination can be repeated
for the other variable or the solution for the other variable can be
determined by method of substitution.
The two general equations already considered are:
aix+b 1y4-c1 =0 ...(l)
a,x+b1yc2o
Let equations (1) and (2) be transformed to equivalent equations
having equal coefficient of x. The L.C.M. of the coefficients of x in the
two equations, viz., a1a2 will be the coefficient of x in the equivalent
equations. Accordingly, (1) is to be multiplied by a 2 and (2) by a1 Thus
the transformed equations are:
aia2x+a2b1y+a2ç.0
aja2x+ajb,y+a1c2==o
Subtracting (4) from (3), we have
(a1b1 —a1b2 )y+ (a1c1— a1c,) =0
a1c1--a1c2 a1c1— ac1
or
ao1 _ a1b1
By substituting the value of y in (I) or (2), we shall get
b1c, - b1c1
X
It may be noted that the method of elimination is preferable when

none of the variables can be expressed in simple form in terms of the
Other from the equations.
Let us illustrate this method with equations having numerical co-
efficients. Let the equations be
5x+2y=8 .. (1)
9x-5y=23 .. (2)

EQUATIONS
279
L.C.M. of the coefficients of x, viz., 5 and 9 is 45.
,. Multiplying (1) by 9 and (2) by 5, we get
45x+lSy=72
45x-25y=115
Subtracting (3) from (4), we get
43y=-43
From (1), we have 5x-2x1=8
x=2
(iii) Method of Cross Multiplication
The two general equations already considered are
a,x+b,y+c10
have Multiplying the first equation by a s and second equation by a1 , we
a1ax+a2b1y+a,cO
a1 a2x + a1 b2y + a1c1=O
By subtraction, we have (a2bi—ajb2)y+(a1c1_ac2)O
C1a,—c2a1 a1 bi—a,b
Similarly multiplying the first equation by b, and the second equation
by b1 , we have by subtraction
x I
—b 2c1 a1b1—a2b1 ... 2)

x y I
b1 c2 —b,c 1 j—c.a1 a5J-a2b
This is called Rule of cross multiplication.
Illustration. Solve 5x + 2y=8, 9x-5y=23
Solution. The equations must be arranged in the standard form
as
5x+2y-80
9T- 5Y -23=0
By the method of cross multiplication, we have
x y _____
2(-23)--(-5)(J(— 8)(9)- (5)(-23) = T( 75)79( 2 )
280 BUSXNSS MATHflMATICS
1
—46--40-72+115_18
X y
*
x=2 and y=::__j

(B) When one equation is linear and the other one is quadra-
tic. The general method of solution consists in (1) expressing one unknown,
say x in terms of another, say y, from the linear equation, (II) substituting
the value of y in the quadratic equation and obtaining values of y and
then (Ill) finding corresponding values of x.
zample 35. Solve xay=29
x—y_-3
Solution. From (2), x=3+y
Substituting this value in (1), we have
(3+y)2-fy'=29
* y2+3y-10=:0
y_..3V9+4O_5or2
2
From (3), we have x=-2 or 5
The roots are x=-2, y=-5 or X=5 y=2
Example 36. (a) Solve
x+y==1O
Solution. On simplification (I) reduces to
x -l-y S
• V2
10 5
[from (2)J
\/xy 2
Vy=4 and xy=lá
From (2), we have x=10—y
Substituting this value of x in (3), we get
(1 O—y)y = 16

EQUATIONS 281
y21Oy+l6==O
(y-8)(y-2)=O
y=8or2
From (4), we get x=2 or 8
Hence the roots are x==2, y=8 or x=8, y=2
Example 36. (b) Solve X2

+I=13,
Y2 4-+ - 5.
Solution. Put U- v= _!_, then the equations reduces to

X y
u2-fV2=13
u+v=5
From (2), we have u=5 .—v ...(3)
Substituting this value of U in (1), we have
(5_..v)2+p2 13
v1---5v-I-6=0
(v-2)(v-3)=O, i.e., v=2 or 3
From (3), we have u=3 or 2
u=3, v=2 or u=2, v=3
Hence the roots are x=+, y ' orX=Ly=.
(C) When both equations are quadratic:
If the equations are homogeneous and of the second degree, i.e., if
the sum of the indices of x and y in each term is 2, they may be solved by
putting y= mx as follows:
Example 37. Solve x2+xy=12
xy— 2y 2 = 1
Solution. Putting y=mx in the equations, we have
x2(I-1-m)=12
x2(m-2m2)=1
Dividing (1) by (2), we have = 12

m-2m1
24m2—llm+1=0
1 1
(8m-1)(3m-0=0, i.e., m=--or -

282 BUSINESS MAT}U3MAT!cS
(1) When we have --x'=12 (from (1)]

or X=±4%/!..
and y=mx=±--. 4 AJ =±4AJ4

(it)M we have [from (1)]
or X=±3
and y=mx==±. 3=±1
Thus the four pairs of roots are
X=3 l x=-3
A/T VT
Y=i 2
Y= —iAV
y=1 Jy=-1j
Example 38. Solve x2+xy-f-y219, 3xy+2y3=36.
Solution. Putting y = tnX in the equations we have
x 2 (1 +m+'n t)== 19
x(3m+2m2)=36 (2)
19
Dividing (1) by (2) we get 1+m+m 2
57m+38m2=36+36m+36m2
2m+2Irn-36=0
(m+12)(2rn-3)=O, &e. 1 'n==-12 or
(1) Taking m==-12, from (1), we get
X2 x133 r= 19 zb,
y =-12x±=+ =+--V1
(Ii) Taking m=4, from (1); we get
19
-4
x2X -=19 * x=2

EQUATIONS 283
Thus the roots are
I x
x=-2
12 I__I
y=- I Vi Y-3 j Y = - 3
7 Vi
Example 39. Demand for goods of an industry Is given by the equa-
tion pq=400, where p is the price and q is quantity, supply Is given by the
equation 20+3p=q. What is the equilibrium price and quantity?
Solution. The demand equation is pq= 100 .. (1)
and supply equation is 20+3p = q ...(2)
Substituting the value of'? from (2) in (1), we get
p(20 4-3p)= 100
3p+20p— 100=0
—20±V400-t-120010
6
But p-.?'--10, therefore
.. From (2), we have q=20+3 .
10
Equilibrium price = ---, Quantity exchanged=30.
Example 40. Solve 3'=9'
Solution. From (1), we have x=2y

From (2), 5$+741(52).52XJ x+y+1=2xy
Substituting the value of x from (3) in (4), weget
2y+y+1=2x2yxy
4y3-3y—l=0
3+\/ 3±5
or ---i-
8
When y=1, (3) gives x=2

and wheny=—, (3) gives x=2x(—)=—.
Hence solutions are : (2, 1) and (- J, —)

BUSLNM MAT1fEMATIcS
Example 41. Solve the simultaneous equations
4x 2 z 128
and 32z+2y.9x
for x and y.
Solution. Equation (1) may be re-written as
2+Y=27
2x-f-y=7
Y7-2x (3)
(2) may be re-written as
35+2Y.(3$)zY 321Y
3x--2y=2xy (4)
Substituting (3) in (4), we get
3x+ 2(7-2x)=2x(7---- 2x)
3X+14_4XrI4X_4X2
CDI
42-15x-f14==O
X= I5±V234 15+1 7
= -i--- =2,
From (3), we get y = 3, -
77
Hence x=-4--, y -- or x=2, y=3.
Example 42. Solve the equations

9x +3y— 4z=35
.(l)
x-4-y---zr=4 - . (2)
2x— 5y - 4z + 48=0
(3)
Solution. Multiplying (2) by 9, 9x-3-9y-9z=36 • . (4)
Subtracting (4) from (1), —6y+5z+I=0 • (5)
Multiplying (2) by 2, 2x+2y-2z=8 • (6)
Subtracting (6) from (3), -7Y-2z+56=0
From (5) and (7), by cross-multiplication,
Y
1
(-6)x (-2)(5)
-- )c(.-7)
Y — z 1
282 —32947

EQUATIONS
285
282 329
Substituting these values of y and z in (2), we get

x+6-7=4 * x=5
Thus x=5,y=6, z=7
Example 43. Solve the equations x2y+2z=()
3x-4y--z=O
x243y2+z21l
Solution, From (1) and (2), by cross multiplication

X y - z
2x1-2x(-4)2x3-1 Xl 1x(-4)--2x3
X y z
lO5—lO
X y z
x=2k,y=k, z=-2k
Substituting these values of x, y, z in (3), we have
iik'=il, i.e., k=+1

When k_=1, from (4), we have X=2, y1, z=-2
and when k==-1, from (4), we have Xr=-2, Y = — 1, Z2.
EXERCISE (III)
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
1. (i) x-2y= 1, 2x-f--y= —3, (II) 42x+ 33y = 117, 48x+ 27y = 123,
x-1 2y +l x+4 y-11
( U ) - +---
3. — TT
x y x y 19
(w)
T-12
2. (i)
.2 3 1 1 1
(li) --+-= _7=_

(Ii!) 8y-2x=.3xy, 10
1
3. (1) x'-l- y 2. 25, X+y=7, (ii) xI ±y 2 185, x—y=3

(III) 3x '-7xy4-4y2 0, 4x+3y5.
(iv) x!2yI3y=Ø, x±3y=2
4. (I) +,X+y5(iOL+,xyI2.
5. (i' ) f+--=s , x+y=6,

..xy 2 5 5
(U)y+3S, ;+-T =:: -
6. /7+J y 13
,xy=36.
7. (') I+;- = --- X-4-7=T

b
(ii) x+y=a+b,±_A.--=2, b a s b2
(iii) - +
8. x2 —y'=1, x4-2y4=J
x1 )2 9 ... x+y x—y
-
MT=T' x+Y=3, (in) i
2 3 48 32 __
10. 4- --- = 2, +— 13
Ii. (i) x-l- y2 --3=3xy, 2X-6+y2r=0
((1) 2x 2 +3xy=26, 3y2+2xy=39
12. xt+xy+y2=19, x2—xy+y'=7
13. x'-7xy+12y2 0, x'-l-5xy-8y2=64
14. y2_ 5xyl6X2 =0, x2jy2=r45
15. By selling a table for Rs. 56, gain is as much per cent as it costs
in rupees. What is the cost price?
16. A horse and a cow were soid for Rs. 3040 making a profit of
25 10/a on the horse and 10% on the cow. By selling them for Rs. 3070,
the profit realised would have been 10',,',' the horse and 25% on the
cow. Find the cost price of each.
17. In a prefect competition, the demand curve of a commodity is
D=20-3p—p' and the supply curve isS==5p-, wherepisprjceDj8
demand and S is supply. Find the equilibrium price and the quantity
exchanged.

EQUATIONS
287
18. If the demand and supply laws are respectively given by the
equations
4q+9p=48 and
Find the equilibrium price and quantity.

19. Demand for goods of an industry is given by the equation
pq= 100, where p is price and q is quantity and suPPlY is given by the
equation 20-l-3p=q. Find the equilibrium price and quantity.
20. The sum of the pay of two lecturers is Rs. 1600 per month.
If the pay of one lecturer be decreased by 9% and the pay of the second
be increased by 17%, their pays become equal. Find the pay of each
lecturer.
21. The demand and supply equations are 2p-4-q
2 =1I and p-4-2q
==7. Find the equilibrium price and quantity, where p stands for price
andq for quantity.
22 A commodity is produced by using 3 units of labour and 2
units of capital. The total cost comes to 62. If the commodity is produced
by using 4 units of labour and I unit of capital, the c,7,-,t comes to 56.
What is the cost per unit of labour and capita'
23. A man's income from interest and wages is Rs. 500. He doubles
his investment and also gets an increase of 50% in wages and his income
increases to Rs. 800. What was his original income separately in terms
of interest (I) and wages (W) ?
24. If there are two commodities X and Y
demand D1 , D2 and supplies S, S2 with prices p1 and p2 ,
schedules, and we have the demand and suppl y
DI0_p1+p, S1_-6+p1+2p2
D2 = l2+2p_p,, D2rr19+3pj+5p2
(1) Find the equilibrium prices. (ii) Determine the equilibrium
quantities exchanged in the market.
25. Solve the following simultaneous equations:
(1) (27)=r9', (81)7==243.3z
(ii) 4x . 87r=128 9X.2773
(11,) 9' and
4'
(iv) 4' . 21
128 and 38X4279x
ANSWERS
I. (I) x— I (ii) x2 (it!) x=—. I (lv) x=18
Y=1 Y=l y=15

2 (1) x='—1 (II) x=1 (ill) x=4

Y=1
3. (i) x=3, 4 (II) x'11, —8 (iii) x=,

y=4,,3 y=8,—l1
(lv) x=-1, —4 4. (1) x=r2, 3 (ii) x=4, 3
y=1,2 y=3,2 y::=3,4
5. (1) x=5,l (if) x=6,4 6. x'4,9
y=1,5 y=10,15 y==9,4
7 (1) x=1, 2 (ii) x=a, (a+b) (iii) x=a
Y=2, 1 y==b, (a+b) y=b
8. [Hint. Put x'=u,y2=v] ;X=±1, ±/3,y=0, +/2
9• (i) x=1,2 (II) x=+1, —1 10. Xrrr-!!, y -
y=2, 1 y=, —2
ii. (0 x=±i/3,±.)- ; y-0, +6 IV 19
(ii) x±2,Y± 3 12. x=+2, ±3 ; y= ±3, ±2
13. x== ±--- +6 14.x=3, —3, + 2-

y==6, --6, ±
15. 40 16. Rs. 1200, Rs. 1400
ii. p— -4±/3 7 18. p=11 , q=6
19. p==-, q=30 20. Rs. 900, Rs. 700
5 29
21. pr--, 1; q= -, 3 22. 10, 16
23, Hint. I--W---0, 21+ W=800.

24. Hint. D 1 =S 1 gives 2p 1 +p='4 and D2 ==S2 gives p1+6p8+7=0
Solving the two equations, we get the equilibrium prices and substituting
these values of p, p2 in D 1 and I), we get equilibrium quanties.
25. (1) x=1,y=, (it) x=2,y=I,
(iii) x=5,y=2, and (iv) x=2,y=3;x,Y.
EQUATIONS 289
815. CUBIC AND BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS
A cubic equation is an equation in which the highest power of the
unknown is three. The general form of the cubic equation is
ax + hx2 + cx +(/0, aÔ; a,b,c,d E R.
A graph of a cubic equation will have two turning points as

against one turning point in the case of a quadratic equation discussed
earlier. A graphic solution oil same pattern can befound for
a cubic equation. The three points at which the curve of cubic equation
intersects the x-axis will give the three solutions to the equation as shown
in Fig. II.
Y
'a
V.
Fig. ii. Hg. 12.

On the same analogy a biquadratic or a quartic equation with
highest Power equal to 4 will have three turning points and 4 solutions
and can bebe found by graphic method in the same manner given in
Fig. 12.
We now .ork out algebraically a cubic equation considering its
general form.
ax3+bx2+cx+d=-0 (i)
On dividing the equation (I) by a, we get
X2+ --- x -{-

The equation whose roots are a, 1, y can he written as
(x—a)(x—)(x— y ) --O

cop X8—(cz + I3± y)x2 +(-f 7+')X—ç3y=0

Since equations (2) and (3) are identical, by comparing their co-
efficients, we have
b coeff. of x'
SSum of the roots =x++ r=--—
a coeff, of x
S2 Suni of the product of roots taken two at a time
C coeff.ofx
+l3yfya -f
d constant term
Ss=
—Product of the roots= afly==-----
a .
coefff
A biquadratic equation is an equation in which the highest power
of the unknown is four.
The general form of the biquadratic equation is
ax -f b x 3 + cx '+ dx -f e= O; --AO and a, b, c, d, e ER
lf.*,13,y and 8 are the roots of the above equation, we have
b
a
C
c 3+ a y+ C --
+3y+y=-----
a
(I
c3 y - 3 y + ft= - a
Thus, we get
coeff. of x
S1 ==Sum of the roots
coeff.ofx
S5 = Sum of the products of the roots taken two at a time
_+0eff_of x2
coeff. of x4
S Sum of the products of the roots taken three at a time
coeff, of x
coefi. of x'
Constant term
S4 -=Product of the roots=
coeff.of x
Example 44. Find all the roots of the equation
X3
+ 9X - x —9 =0
Solution. By inspection, we find X= + I is the root.

x I is a factor of the equation.

EQUATIONS 291
Hence we divide L.H.S. of the equation by x— I as follows
1 9 —1 —g (1
1 10 9
1 10 9 0
This division gives quotient=x 2 -1- lOx-19
The depressed equation is X2+lOx+9r_0
--10I00-36
Solving this, we get X =-1, 9
Hence the required roots are - 1, 4- 1, - 9.

Example 45. Given that - 6 L a root of the equation
x2X2--17X-1-420
Solve the equation.
Solution. Since —6 is a root, x-4-6 is a factor of the L.H.S. of the
equation. Now we divide the L.H.S. by x+6, viz,
1 2 —17 42 (-6
24 —42 . - (2)
—" 7 0 . -. (3)
we get quotiefltX2-4X±7
The depressed equation is x2-4x+7O
(This 'depressed equation' is the one obtained on dividing L.H.S. of
equation (i) by x±6 and gives the other roots of the equation.)
Solving (4), we get
=2+iV3
Hence the required roots are ---6, 2+i\/3.
Explanation. Write down the coefficients of the given expression
in line (1). Write nothing (or say, zero) below and add, getting 1. Multi-
ply 1 by —6, write the product (-6) below 2 and add getting —4. Again
multiply ---4 by - 6, write the product (24) below —17 and add getting 7
and so on- In line (3), 1 is the coefficient of the first term of quotient.
The power of X in this term is 2 (one less than the degree of the given
expression). The succeeding coefficients are 4, 7. The last number,
viz., 0 is the remainder.
Example 46. Solve the equation 9-36x2 +23x+12=0, it being
given that one of its roots is half the sum of the other two.
Solution. Let the roots be a, 3, y.

But
Substituting (2) in (I), we get

4
3(1=4 =
One root is
(3x-4) is a factor of 9x 3 -36x 2 +23x- 12. Dividing, we obtain

the other factor as 3x - 8x-3.
1)
(3X---4)(3x-I-1)(x--3) U
Hence the roots are --and 3.

4x8 -24x + 23x+ 18 0
given that the roots are in arithmetical progression.
Solution. Let the roots be c,
:. Sum of the roots=(c-PH x+ (at -f-)=24_=6
it
Product of thcroots=(—)+3).—
25 5
=--, I.e.,
Taking c=2 and =- ,we get the required roots as
2--i-, 2, 2+-i-, i.e., ----, 2,
Example 48. Solve 8x 3_-I4x2 7x-. 1=(), 'i'n that its roots are
in G. P.
Solution. Let oc, 3 he the roots of the given equation, then

P
Sum of the roots=j ++P= -

EQUATIONS 293
fl+1+j3 2 \ 7
Product of the roots- . .ocP
1. 1
Substituting in (1), we get

7
- 3 2
7
1+f+132= 1
i.e., (2-1)(3-2)=O
=2 or
Hence the roots are -i-- , 1.

Example 4, So/ye the equation
- Sx2 - 2x + 24-0
gfven that the product of the two roots is 12.
Solution- Let Ge, p, y be the roots so that y 12
S343y=-24
From (2), we get =-2
From () and (4), we find that 3, y are the roots of the equation
1 2 _7t+ 12=O
Solving the above equation, we get

1, y=4 , 3
Hence the required roots are —2, 4, 3.
2x3-X2-22x-24=0,
two of its roots being in the ratio of 3 : 4.
Solution. Let the roots be 3x, 4, 3
Si3+4x+3

S2 3a. 4x+3 . +4x.

• 120+74_11
S8122ç312
120+7x (-_7cc )=_ii
• 742_7_220
* - 7 + 6512
148 2 '37
The roots corresponding to are discarded as they do not

satisfy the condition 13=1.
Hence the roots are --}-, —2, 4.
Example 51. Find the condition that the roots ofthe equation
ax+3bx'+3cx±d=O
may be(a)jn4 p (b) InG.P.
Solution. (a) Let the roots be a a and n+(3.
Sum of the
b
4.
a
Since at is a root of the given equation, we conclude
a0+3bo1+3ccc+d=O
b b2 b
4. a (--a-) +3b(-a_) +3c
bs 3b3 3bc -I-
• —j- +- — -- d=O
* 2b— 3abc+a2d=O, is the required condition.
(b) Let the roots be -, a and e
Products of the roots= . . --
•
Substituting the
the value of a from (3) in (2), we get

BQUATJONS 295
3bc'+3c=O
C3
b3OL
b3 i.e., b3d=c3a
is the required condition.

x I f- 2x3 - I6x 3 ---22x + 7 = 0
given that one root Is 2 .f- V3.
Solution. Since one root is 2+-../3, the other root will be 2—V3.
Let the other two roots be a and P.
Sum of the roots= (2 FN/ —2
Also product of the roots =(2+V3)(2—V3)a13=7
From (1) and (2), we conclude that a and 13 are the roots of
X t + 6x-l-7=0
Hence the roots are —3:I:v'2, 2±V3

x 4 -I- 4x + .5x 2 + 2x —2 = 0
when it is given that —i+i is a root.
Solution. Since imaginary roots occur in conjugate pairs, - [ —1 is
another root.
Let the remaining two roots be a and 13.
Sum of the roots -=(— I {-i) +-( —1—i) I-a 4-1 =-4
Also product of the roots-=(—I +i)( —1 —i)a3 —2
From (I) and (2), we conclude that a and 13 are the roots of
x2 +2x—l=O (Since x'—Sx+P=O)
—2± \/4+4
2
Hence - I + i, - I ±/2 are the required four roots of the equation.
Example 54. The sum of two roots of
c4 —8x + 19x2+41\x+2=O
is equal to the sum of the other two roots. Find A and solve the equation.

296
Solution. Let cc, , y and 8 be the required roots.
Quadratic factors corresponding to them are of the form

X2 -4x+a and x2-4x+b
(x'_4x+a)(x2 4x+b).4_8x3+l9x2+4?x2
Equating coefficients of like powers, we have
a--h=3
—4a-4b_ 4A . a-fb--
ab==2 (3)
From (I) and (2). we get ?=----3
and fvni I) and (3) we get a=l, b--2
Quadratic factors in (*) become x2---4x-I-1. x1-4x±2
Solving the equations x'-4x±l0 and x 2_ 4x+2O, we get the
required roots as 2±V3. 2-f-V2
16x4— 64x 3 + 56x 1 4 1 6x 15_0
given that the roots are in arithmetic progression.
Solution. Let the roots he cx.--3, c -$, c+3ç3.
S1(
S
(a-3)(+I3)
±(a-3)(+3(3)+(cc+$)(a+3ç). -
Substituting the values of a and , we get the required roots as

3 1 1 3. I 1 3 5
+--,I+--,z.e.,
Example 56. The product of the two roots of the equation

'T
x4 — l Ox-i-42x'_82x 65=O,
Is 13. Solve the equation
Solution. Let the roots of the equation be; 9, y and & Then
S1(a+fl)+(y+8)Io

EQUATIONS 297
S4m665
Since the product of the two toots is 13, we have
3=13
(6)
From (2), (5) and (6), we have
( +)(y-3- )--42 — I 3---57--.24 (7)
From (1) and (7), we find that cc I , yi 6 are the roots of the
equation
2_ lOt+ 24=0
Solving the above equation, we have

c<4= 6, y+=4 (8)
From (5) and (8), we find that the two of the numbers , f, y, are
the roots of the equation
y 2 --6yH 13=0 (9)
and (6) and (8) gives the equation for the two remaining roots as
y'-4y -5=0 ...(I0)
Solving (9) and (10), we get the required roots of the given equation
as 3+21, 2+1.
Example 57 If o(, (3,y are the roots of the equation
Aa px 2 --qx--r
0
find the value of
(a) x, (b) p, (c) (d)
(e) (f) (i and (g) (x H I)( )(y-f ).

),
Solution. Here =c+3+y=p
af3ir
(a) P2 y' (a 4- 5 + v) 2 —2(c3 +ft +ya)=p2-2q
(b) 2P23+y+2Y+i3' f,2$
Now (H3+v)(a3+ $+ c'$ +33y
tpq3r
(c) '3Y=c(2'+ 32yf V'r(x+ -f y)=pr
(d) (+ 3+ )(2 + 2 + ) x+
=- p ( p2— 2q)— (pq - 3r) =p 2 —pq + 3r

'v'11 I I
() y2+1+132 p2-2q
xtpt + 13211 +I2 aF32y2 r

298 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS.
(3
i\ 'c (3'+v 2 (3 2 +y 2 y1+c
)d (3i +
°:i +xy2 +(3r±(32+yc2±y(32
a43y
x2(3pq-3r pq
cy r - r
(g) (a+3)(3 + y)(y+c)==2(3 f-2cz$y=(pq-3r)+2r=pq—r
EXERCISE (IV)
I. Find k if 2 is a root of the cubic equation x--(k+1)x+k=0
Also find the other roots.
2. (a) Solve the equation x 3 -4x 2 -3x--l8=0, two of its roots being
equal.
(b) Solve the equation 64x 3 -104x2 =18x+45=0, one root being
double of the other.
3. Solve the equation x 3 -5x2 -16x+80=0, sum of two roots being
equal to zero.
4. (a) Solve the equation 32x 3 -48x 2 +22x-30, the roots being
in A.P.
(/) Solve the equation 27 0 ---42 x2 -2 g x-8--=O roots are in geometric
progression.
5. (a) Solve the equation x 3 -9x2 ±14.v-1-24 =0, two of the roots
being in th: ratio of 3:2. (Lelhi Univ., B.A. (lions.) Economics, 19811
(h) Solve the equation ll x3 -j-81x+121x+60=o, one root being half
the sum of the other two.
(c) Solve 2x3 +x 2 7x_6O , given that the difference of two of the
roots is 3. [Delhi Univ. B.A. (Ho/is.) Economics, 19821
6. Solve the equation x3 13xZ +l5x+189=0, it being given that one
of the roots exceeds another by 2.
7. Solve given that the sum of the two
roots is zero.
8. Solve x4.._2x3_ 21x 2 422x±400 , roots being in A.P.
9. Solve 6 x4 -29x5 +40x_7x_120, the product of the two roots
being 2.
10. Solve the equation X4 +2X3 -_21X !_ 22x+40.=0, the sum of the
two roots is equal to the sum of other two.
ANSWERS
1. k=6; 2, 1, —3. 2. (a) 3, 3, —2, (b) , L -. 3. 5,4,4-3
4. (0) , L , (b) -, , —2.5. (a) 6, 4, —1 (b)
(c) 2, —1, - 6. —3,7,9 7. ±i/2,
8. —4, —1, 2,5 9. 1, , 1±/2 10. —5,4, —2, 1.
9
Permutations and Combinations
STRUCTURE
90 INTRODUCTION
9.1 FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF COUNTING
92 PERMUTATIONS
9.3 FACTORIAL NOTATIONS
9.4 PERMUTATION OF n DIFFERENT THINGS
9.5 CIRCULAR PERMUTATION
96 PERMUTATION OF THINGS NOT ALL DIFFERENT
9.7 RESTRICTED PERMUTATIONS
98 COMBINATIONS
9.9 COMPLEMEN IARY THEOREMS
9110 RESTRICTED COMBINATIONS
911 COMBINATIONS OF THINGS NOT ALL DIFFERENT
OBJECTIVES
• permutations, factorial notations, and problems involving permuta-
tions
• cornbinatios and problems involving combinations
• difference between permutation and combination.
90. INTRODUCTION
Permutations refer to different arrangements of things from a givea
lot taken one or more at a time whereas combinations refer to different
sets or groups made out of a given lot, without repeating an element, taking
one or more of them at a time. The distinction will be clear from the
following illustration of combinations and permutations made out of a set
of three elements (a, b, C).

300
Combj,iatjo,,t Pef,nwtations
(i) one at a time (a), {b}, {c} (a), {b}, {c}
Ii) two at a time
( {a, b} (b, C) (a, C) {a, b} (b, a)
{b, c} {c, b)
{a, c) {c, a}
(iii) three at a time (a, b, c} {a, b, c} (a, c, h}
(b, c, a) {b, a, c}
{c, a, b} (c, b, a).
It may he noticed that on the left above, every set has different
Combination whereas oil right above, there are sets with different
arrangements wherever possible of the same group. However no
element appears twice in any set, e.g., (a, a), {b, h}, {c,
c ), (a, b, b},
{c, C, C) etc.
91. FU NDAMENTAl. RULES OF COUNTING
There are two fundamental rules of counting or selection based on
the simple principles of multiplication and addition, the former when
events occur independently one after another, and the latter when either of
the events can occur. At times we have to combine the two, depending
on the nature of the problem. We can state the principle as follows
If one tiling can be done in tn way.c and when it has been done in any
f
O the In ways , a second thing can be done in ,i ways ,
together can be done in rn x n wars.
then the two things
Proof. Let a, 2' •• ,a m be the rn
b2 , , h,, be the n ways
ways of doing the first thing and b 1 ,
of doing the second thing independently of the first.
Then, the two things can be (lone simultaneously in the following ways
a1b1 ; cb1 ; a, b,....; a1h
a1b1 ; a2b, ; a 2 b.,; ... ; a2h,
a,b2 ; ab3 ; ... ; ab,,

These are ra x n number of ways of selecting both the things
simultaneously,
Li 3. • ' 5 6
iJ 2'
2J3 idj 15
I 1
>'ir\27 l_!-126
( 3.5 ( 3.6
5.1 5.2 J 5.3 54 5
6 6 1 62j465
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 301
We can illustrate the idea by the shown oil page 3130 diagram which
indicates how two dice with number I 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 on its six sides can
combine in 6 2, i.e., 6.: 6 or 36 ways.
Therefore, from the fundamental principle of counting, if repetitions
are allowed all the N elements taken together can occur ill N ways. if,
however, only r of the N numbers are taken at a tune, the possible ways
are A' or 62 in the above case. 11 repetitions arc not allOVCd then the
diagonal comprising (1, I , i. 2,2} etc., is avoided and the total choices.
are 6x 5 -30 or it (n — I) only.
Exttruple 1. I/tore are Jive routes for journey Jro,ii station A to
station 13. In how oumy JiJ,7ereu( WUS can (4 OUt!! go from .4 to B and
return, if returning
(1) any oft/ic routes is token,
(ii) the saute route is token,
(iii) the same route is not taken.
Solution. (i) The man can go from A to B in S different ways,

for he may take any one of the live routes. When he has done so in any
of the 5 ways, he may return in 5 different ways, i.e , there are 5 different
wa y s at returirig.
:. The total number of different ways are 5 x5=25.
(ii) in case there is only one way of returning, then the total number
of different ways are 5 x I 5.
(iii) if there are 4 different ways of returning, then the total numbct
of different ways are 5 x 4 20.
Example 2. flow many telephone connections can he allotted with 5
anj 6 dic,'its from the natural ?Jutn/,er5 1 10 9 inclusive ?
Solution. As per the rules of counting, the total number of tele-
phone connections call
N'-9'=59,049
=9'=5,3l,44l
U.Ln1ple 3. In how many wa ys can a chairman and a vice-chairman
of a hoard of 6 members can occupy their seats ?
Solution. Whoever is chosen first, he would be seated in 6 ways
and having seated, the other one can be seated in 5 ways because one
person cannot hold both the seats. Therefore, both the chairman and the
vice-chairman call seated in 6 x 5 30 ways.
Example 4. (a In how many different ways, 3 rings of a lock capt
combine when each ring has 10 digits 0 to 9 ? If the lock opens in onl y one
co,nbutaiion of 3 digits how many unsuccessful events are pos.vlhle 9
302 BUSINESS MATHEMA1IS
(b) An automobile dealer provides motor cycles and scooters In 2 body

patterns and 5 different colours each. Indicate the number of chokes open
to a customer Visiting him.
Solution.. (a) Since the lock opens in one of the combination of 3
given digits, the unsuccessful attempts can be 1000— 1=999.
(b) With 2 body patterns and 5 different colours, a choice of each of
the motor cycle and scooter caii be made in 2 x 5=10 ways. Now he has
to decide whether to buy a motor cycle or a scooter so that the total
number of options becomes
2 x5+2x5=20.
Example 5. Three persons go into a railway carriage, where there
are 8 seals. In how many ways can they seat themselves?
Solution. Since there are eight vacant seats, the first man can
choose any one of these 8 seats. There are thus 8 ways of filling the first
seat, when that one is occupied 7 seats are left, therefore, the second man
can occupy any one of the 7 seats. The last man can now seat himself
in one of the remaining 6 seats.
Number of ways in which three persons can cccupy 8 seats is
8x7x6=336
92. PERMUTATIONS
In the rules of counting we have considered the possible choices of r
different objects from N different objects or events, with or without
repetition.
In permutations we have different arrangements of certain number
of objects, say r at a time taken from n different objects without repetition
of any given object in any one set more than once. To illustrate there
are many permutations of ABC but none will be like ABB or AAA,
thus
the objects in each set are different and there will be as many sets as are
the arrangements possible from a given number of objects For example
a bookseller has received three new books A, B, C. He can place them in his
showcase in any of the following 6 ways
ABC, ACB, BAC, BC'A, CAB, CBA
There are thus 6 ways of arranging three distinct objects when each
arrangement is of all the 3 objects. No repetition has been allowed in
any one arrangement, each element appears only once. Mathematically,
we can say that three distinct objects can be arranged in 3.2.1=6 ways.
We can reason out this as follows : "There are three places to be filled,
the first can be filled in 3 wa y s, the second in 2 ways while for the third
there is only I way. Hence, there are 3.2.1 ways in all.
93. KR AMP'S FACTORIAL NOTATION
The product of the first n natural numbers, viz..
called factorial n or n factorial and is written as I n or n 1, 2, 3, . , n, is

Thus n!=1X2x3X ... X(fl--1)xn

From this it follows that
n (n—i)!
• (n— 1). (n-2)
1 )(n-2)...(n— 1+1) {(fl—r) !}

!
Show that ----- =90
Illustrations I. 3how
101 10.9.8!
---0
8!
!
2. —=n3-11.
Show that (n-I-I)
(n-2)!
(n4-1) ! (r+ l)n('-.- I) (n—)2
L H S
(n-2) ! (n-2) I
=(n .-4-- l)n(n-1)=113-11.
3. Show that 30 1=2 15 . 15 1 . (I . 3 . 5...29).

30 !=1 .2.3.4.5 ... 29.30
=(l.3.5...29)(2.4.6...30)
=(1.3.5. .. 29)[(2. 1). (2. 2). (2. 3). .. (2.15
=(1 . 3 . S ... 29)211(I.2.3..,15)
=(I.3.5 ... 29)2'.I5
94 PERMUTATIONS OF u DIFFERENT THINGS

Permutations of n different things taker: r at a time, where r<n are
ntn 1)(n_2). ..(n—r -1.- 1).
The number of permutations of ?I things taken r at a time is

the same as the number of different ways in which r places can be filled
up by n things.
The first place can be filled up in U ways, for any one of the n things
can be put in it.
When the first place has been filled Up in any one of the n ways, the
second place can be filled up in (n —I) different ways, for any one of the
remaining n—I things can be put in it. Since each way of filling up the
first place can be associated with each way of filling Un the second place,
the first two places can he filled up in n(n - I) ways.
11
P 2 = n(n___ 1)
When the first two places have been filled UP in any one of the
n(ri-1) ways, the third place can be filled lip in (0-2) ways.

•. The first three places can be filled tip in n(n - 1)(n -2) ways, i.e.,
P3 -=10_. l)(n— 2)
Proceeding in the same way and noticing that the number of factors
are same as the number of places to be filled up and that each factor is
less than the former by 1, we have the total number of ways in which r
places can be filled up.
i:(n — 1) (11 --2) ... to r factors
==iJyt_I) (n —2).. (n—r-- 1)
=n(n— I) (a -2)•..(i' --r+ 1)
P, =Jm(n— I) (n--2) .. .Qt—r + )
Remarks 1. The number of permutations of it things taken
all at a time is
== 11(11 - I) (a-2). .3.2.1
2. (a -2) ... 3.2.l.r"P

3 = n(n - I) (1)---2) ... ( a - r -f 1)
-- n(n 1)("— 2) ... (it r -(it
I) {
(a I.)
it
- r) !
'I. We have
n = a!
Also
a!
0!
a'
According to the dctinition, 0 ! is meamimig!ess. Uut when used as a

symbol, its value is 1.
5. The number of l)errnutatLos of a difter:it things taken r at a
time in which each thing is repeated r times in any arrangement is a
Example 6. Find how Inaayfour-Ie!ter words can he formed out of
the word LOGARITHMS. (The words may not have an y meaning.)
Solution. There are 10 different ktters, therefore, n is equal to 10
and since we have to find four-letter words, r is 4. Hence the required
number of words are
10' -l0x9x8x ... x2x1
6x4. ... x2xl
==10x9 x8 x7=5,040
305
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
11tilhers grealer than 7,000
Example 7. Indicate how many 4 digit 11
Can he formed from the digits 3, 5, 7, 8, 9.
Solution. If the digits are to be greater tLlrsu 7000, then the flrs
digit can he any one of the 7, S and 9.
; 3) and the
N ow the !irst digit can be chosen iii 3 ways lct't. which can be
remaining
m three digits can he any of the four digits
chosenn i P 3 ways. Therefore the total number of ways
=3x ' P 3 = 3 x4x 3>2 .72
Example 8. In how many wars cniilS J't'lzigu, 3 English and 3
TwniI Io'ks fe arranged if the book of each different language are are kept
together.
amongst
Solution. The each language book am themselves can b e
arranged in the following ways
Telugu 5 books in P 5, i.e., 5 ways
English 3 books in 3 P3, i.e., 3 1ways
Tamil : 3 books in 33, i.e., 3 ways
or 3 1 ways,
Also arrangement of these groups can be made in 3 P 3
hence by the fundamental theorem, the required arrangements are
5 ! x 3 I)< 3! x 3 !=25,920
9 . 5 CIRCULAR PERMUTAI'[ONS
it
These are related with arrangement of objects as in the case of
sitting arrangement of members in a round-table conference. Here the
arrangement does not change unless the order changes. Let us consider the
following two arrangements of 5 members
It may be seen that the above two arrangements are the same. But it
is not so in the following cases where the order changes
Therefore, in the circular arrangement, the relative position of the
other objects depends on the position of the object placed first, it IS
only then the arrangement of the remaining objects is made. Therefore,
the circular arrangement of n objects will be in (n — I) 1 ways and not '
306
ways, when all the objects are considered for the purpose. Thus the
circular arrangement of 5 persons will he in 4 ! ways, i.e.,
4.3.2.1 = 24
ways. We now make use of the above principle in a slightly complex
situation.
Example 9. In how many ways can 5 j,oy.c and 5 girls be Seated
around a table so that no 2 boys are adjacent
Solution. Let the girls be seated first. they call in
4 ! ways
according to the rule indicated above. Now since the places for the boys in
between girls are fixed, the option is there for the boys to occupy the
remaining 5 places. There are S ! ways for the boys to fill up the 5 places
in between 5 girls seated around a table already. Thus, the total number
of ways in which both girls and boys call seated such that no 2 boys are
adjacent are 4! x 5! z 2880 ways.
Rernarl(. In the circular arrangements, the clockwise and anti-
Clockwise arrangement do not make any difference because mere turning
of a given arrangement will make it o therwise. I [owevcr, if the neighbr_
oii
hood of one or more is restricted, the arrangement will get restricted to
that extent. It there is a question of arrangement of n different objects in
such a way that no two similar things are close to each other then the
number of ways will be I (n - I) !.
For example, if 7 persons are seated around a table so that all of
arr angements have not the same neighbours, then the required number of
ways Will beA (n— I) ! or A (6.5.4.3.2 1) =360.
Example M. In how lflwiy ways can 4 Indians and 4 Pakistanis he
seated at a round to/,/e so that no two Indians 'nap be together ?
Solutj. Put one of the Pakistani iii a fixed position and then
arrange the remaining three Pakistanis in all possible Ways. Thus the
number of ways in which the four Pakistanis he seated at a round table is
3 1. After they have taken their seats in any one way, there are four seats
for the Indians each between two Pakistanis. Therefore, the Indians
can be seated in 4 1 ways corresponding to one way of seating the
Pakistani.
Total number of arrangements is 4 ! x 3 1=144
Example ii. The chief ministers of 18 States in India meet to
discuss the problem of unemployment .
In how many ways can they seat
themselves at a round table if the Punjab and Bengal chief ministers choose
to sit together ?
Solution (a) Since the chief ministers are to sit at a round table, we
shall have to fix the position of one of the chief ministers and then make
the other 17 chief ministers take their seats. Since the Punjab and
Bengal chief ministers are to sit together, consider them as one. These
16 can now be arranged among themselves in 16 ! ways. Further the
Punjab and Bengal chief ministers can be arranged in 2 ! ways.
Hence the required number of ways is 16 lx 2

PERMUTATIONS ANI) COMBINATIONS 307
9'6. PERMUTATIONS OF THINGS NOT ALL DIFFERENT

The number of permutations of n things of which p things are of
one kind, q things are of a second kind, r things are of a third kind and
all the rest are different is given by
n
x= pq!X'
Let the n things he represented by it letters and suppose p number of them
are each similar to a, q of them are each similar to /, r of them are each
similar to c and the rest all different.
Let I he the required number of permutations. If the p number of
letters a he replaced b y p new letters, different from each other and
different from the rest, then without changing the position of any other
letter, they would produce p ! permutations.
x number of permutations would produce x x ! permutations,
i. e. the total iiumber of permutations would become x p 1
Again. if the q number of letters 'b' be replaced by q new letters
different from each other and different from the rest, then the total number
of permutations would become xx p ! x q I.
Again, if the r number of letters 'C' be replaced by r new letters
differerut from each other and different from the rest, the total number
of permutations would become x:< p ! x q ! x r !.
But now the it things are all different and the permutations of 'I
different things taken all at a time is '1
x'xp!Xq !xr!=n!
-
p!xq !xr
The above principle can easily be generalised.
Example 12. (a) Find the number of permutation of the word
ACCOUNTANT.
(I,) Find the number of permutations of letters in the word ENGINE-
ERING.
Solution. (a) The word ACCOUNTANT has 10 letters, of which 2
are As. 2 are Cs, 2 are Ns and 2 are Ts, the rest are different. Therefore.
the number of permutations is
10 1 10.9.8.7.6.5.4.3.2.1
2!2!2!2! 2.2.2.2
= 2.26,800
(h) Since the word ENGINEERING consists of 11 letters, in
which there are 3 Es, 3 Ns, 2 Gs, 2 Is and one R, the total number of
permutations is
Ii!
3! 31212!
08 BUSINESS MATHMAT1CS
Example 13. Find the number of arrangements that Can be made out
of the letters of the word "ASSASSINATION"
Solution. There are 13 letters in the word of which A occurs thrice,
S occurs four times, I occurs twice and N occurs twice and the rest are all
different. Hence, the required number of arrangements is
13
3!412!2!
Example 14. flow ,nwiy numbers greater than a million can be
formed with the digits 4, 5, 5, 0, 4, 5, 3 ?
Solution. Each number must consist of 7 or more digits. There are
7 digits in all, of which there are 2 fours, 3 fives and the rest different.
The total numbers are 71 •420

2!3!
Of these numbers, some begin with zero and are less than one million
which must be rejected.
The numbers beginning with zero are 60
The required numbers are 420-60-360
Example 15. flow many dijferen words can be made out of the letters--
In the word ALLAHA BAD. In how many of these will the vowels occupy
the even places?
Solution, (1) The word 'ALLAI1AI3AD' consists of 9 letter of
which A is repeated four times, L is repeated twice and the rest all different.
Hence the required number of words are
=7560
4!2!
(ii) Since the word ALLAFIABAD consists of 9 letters, there are 4
even places which can be filled up by the 4 vowels in 1 way only, since
all the vowels are similar. Further, the remaining 5 places can be filled up
by the 5 consonants of which two are similar which can be filled in
5! .
'— ways. Hence the required number of arrangements are I X 60.
Example 16. How many arrangements can be made with the letters
of the word MATHEMATICS and in how many of them vowels occurs
together ?
Solution. The word MATHEMATICS consists of ii letters of
which 2 are As, 2 Ms, 2 Ts and the rest all different.
The total number of arrangements are
II!
2! 2!2!
PERMUTATION S AN!) COMBINATIONS 309
The word MATHEMATICS consists of 4 vowels A. A, K and I (two are

in which the four vowels
similar). To find the number of arrangements which
occur together, consider the four vowels as tied together and forming OilC
letter. Thus we are left with S letters of which 2 are Ms, 2 are i's, I is H.
I is C, I is S and thc vowels as 1 letter. These letters can be permuted in
_...L_ ways. The 4 vowels which are tied together can again be permuted
among themselves m ways (since two of the vowels are similar). Hence
the total number of arrangements are
120960
2!x2! 2!
NGE'
ExinipIo 17. In how many ways can the letters of word 'ARRANGE'
be arranged? 1/ow many of these arrangements are there in which
(i) the two Rs come together,
(ii) the two Rs rio not come together,
(iii) the two Rs and the Iwo As Caine together ?
Solution. The word ARRANGE consists of 7 letters of which two
are As, two are Rs and the rest all ditlererit. Hence they call arranged
amongst themselves in -- _.--, =1260 ways
(1) The number of arrangements in which the two Rs come together

can be obtained by treating the two Rs as one letter. Thus there are 6
letters of which two (the two As) are similar and so the total number of
!
arrangements- 6 -= 360.
(ii) The number of arrangements in which the two Rs do not come

together call obtained by subtracting from the total number of arrange-
ments, the arrangements in which the two Rs come together. Thus the
required number is 1260 —360=900.
(iii) The number of arrangements in which the two -Ps and the two
As come together can he obtained by treating the two Rs and the two As
as a single letter. Thus there are 5 letters which are all different and so
the number of arrangements is 5 ! = 120.
91. RESTRICTED PERMUTATIONS

(i) The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time
In which p particular things (10 not occur is
Keep aside the p particular things and fill up the r places with the
remaining n—p things at our disposal. The number of such ways is
n- J,
(ii) The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time

L which p particular things are present is P P_X rP

Keep aside the p particular things and form the permutations of the
remaining n-p things taken r-p at a time. The number of such permu-
tations "-'P,_,.
In each of these permutations introduce the p particular things taken
aside, one by one.
The first thing can be introduced in r-p+l ways. The second thing
can be introduced in r-p+2 ways and the pth thing in r-p-i- p or r
ways.
The p things can be introduced in each permutation in
(r-p+ l)(r--p+2) ... r ways which is clearly equal to rJ),
The required number of ways are ''P,_x rJ)
Example 18. If 12. "P 2 , find it.
npL._ and flPz=( it
Solution.
Now (n--4) (n-2)

12(n-4) ! =(n-2)
12(n 4)! = (n 2)n - 3) (n - 4)! }
12=n 2 -51i F6
712.---5n-- 6=0
(fl-_6)(n+-I):0
or n -= ---1
Since n is positive integer, we reject the second value of n • Thus
n=6.
Example 19. Find tire value of it if four times the number of permu.
lotions of,: things taken 3 together is equal to 5 limes the nwnher of permu-
tations of (n - 1) things take,, 3 together.
4xP3 =5 X""Pa
4 xn(n-1)(n-2)=5 x (it -l)(n-2)(n -3)
Dividing throughout by (n-l)(n-2), we get
4n=5(n_ 3), i.e., 4n-5n--- IS
n-=J5
Example 20. Proe that
Pr .= flX Pr.1
Solution. R.H.S. --it '
(t:-l) ! (n-I)!
=nx —=n
{(n-1)-(r-1)) (n --r)
nAP
F'ER1UTA1'IONS AND COMBINATIONS 311
Example 2 1. Find the numbers less than 1000 and divisible by 5

Ojich can be Jormed with digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 such that each digit
does not occur more than once in each number.
The required numbers may be of one digit, two digits or
three digits and each of them must end in 5 or 0, except the number of one
digit which must end with 5.
The number of one digit ending in 5 is 1
The number of two digits ending in 5 is 1' 1 —1
the number having 0 as the first figure is to be rejected)
The number of two digits ending in 0 is 01)1
The number of three digits ending in 5 is 'P-11'1
(.. the numbers having 0 as the first figure are P)
The number of three digits ending in 0 is 9P2
Hence the total number of required numbers is
1 -1-(° P - - I) - U P, +(F2 --P1 ) -F-9F
154
Example 22. (a) In how rnaizy different ways can 8 exa,ni,iatiOfl
papers be arranged in a line so that the best and worst papers are never
together ?
Solution. The total number of arrangements that can be made of
8 paprrs is 8 ! . Now let the best and the worst papers betaken together.
These taken as one and the remaining 6 can be arranged amongst them-
selves in 7 ways. In each of these arrangements the best and the worst
papers can he arranged in 2 ! ways.
The total number of arrangements in which the best and the
worst papers can come together are 7 ! x 2
The number of arrangements in which the two particular papers
are not together are
8 —2 x 7 40,320-10,080=30,240
(b) Six papers are set in an examination, of which two are 'Statistics'.
In how many different orders can the papers he arranged so that the two
statistics papers are not together ? [i.C.W.A., December 19901
Solution. Number of ways in which six papers can be arranged

=6
If two statistics papers are to be kept together then the six papers
can be arranged in 5 x 2 ways.
Hence the number of arrangements in which six papers can be
arranged so that the two statistics papers are not together
=6 !-5 !x2 ! =5 !x4=480.
Example 23. There are 5 boys and 3 girls. In how many ways can
they stand in a row so that no two girls are together ?

Solution. Since no two girls are to be together, each girl must be

placed between two boys. Place the 5 boys thus
X B1 x B2 XB 3 X B4 < Bx
Ja order that no two of the girls he together, they can only be placed in the
places marked as x There are 6 such places and so the 3 girls can he
placed in 6P3 ways. Further, the 5 boys can be arranged among thcni-
selves in 5 ! ways.
Since, for each way of placing girls there are 5 ways of placing the
boys, the total number of arragcments
= 6P3 !=14,400
x5 =4---- x5
Exaiiiple 24. How many num hers of SIX digits can f)e formed from
the digit 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; no digit being repealed, flow many of them are
not divisible b y 5 ?
Soutior,. The six digits being different, they can he arranged
among themselves in 6 ! ways, all the digits being taken at a time.
Let us find the digits divisible by 5, such digits can be
be obtained when
S occurs in the unit place. The position of 5 being fixed, the remaining 5
digits can be arranged among themselves in 5 ways. So the numbers
divisible by 5 are 5
Hence the numbers not divisible by S are 6 ! -5 ! 600
Example 25. In how many nays can 3 boys and 5 girls be arranged
in row so that all the 3 bo ys are together,
Solution. Consider the 3 boys as one unit. Now there are 6 units
and they can be arranged among themselves in 6 ways. En each of
such arrangements, the 3 boys can be arranged among themselves in I 3
ways. -
:. Total number of arrangements in which the boys are together
1 6 13-=72Ox6=4320
Example 26. In how many ways can the letters of the word
FAILURE he arranged so that the consonants may occupy only odd
positions ?
Solution. There are 7 letters of which 3 (ELR) are consonants and
4 (AIUE) are vowels.
The 4 positions to be filled up with consonants are indicated below
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(F) (L) (R)
The 3 consonants can be placed only in the 3 out of the 4 posi-
tions marked 1,35.7 The total number of ways in which this can be
done is
'Pa 4.3.2=24
Ia1MUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 313
One such arrangement is shown on page 312. For this arrangement the
4 vowels can occupy the four remaining positions such as 2, 4, 6. 7, I.e.
positions not Occupied by consonants is 4 1 or 24 ways.
Total number of arrangements are 24x 24= 576.
Example 21. In how many ways an the letters of the cord
STRA NGE l,e arranged so that
(i) the vowels are never separated,
(ii) the vowels nei'er come together, and
(iii) the vowels occupy only the 0(1(1 places.
(i) There arc 7 letters. Since the vowels are not to be
separated we may regard them as forming one Jcttc r so there are six letters
S, 1, R. V, G and ,4E. They can he arranged among themselves in 6
ways. ] 'Ile V\
' 0 \'owels can again he arranged in 2 1 ways.
i]mc total number of arrange ments 6 ! ' 2 1 440

(ii) The number of arrangements in which the vowels do not come
together can be obtained by subtracting from the total number of arrange-
ments. the number of arranccnients in which the vowels come together.
Since the total number of arrangements is 7 ! and the number of
arrangements in which the vowels conic togetia2r is 6 ! x 2 ! . Therefore,
the umber of arrangements in which the vowels do not come together
-=7!--6!x2! 6!x5-3600.
(iii) Since the number of letters in the word STRANGE are 7, the
total number of places are 7, and the number of add places are 4(l. 3. 5, 7).
The two vowels A and E ae to occupy t'.vo of these four odd places which
they can occupy in 4 P ways.
When the vowels have been placed in one way, there remain five
places to he filled up by the remaining 5 consonants which can he clone in
/ 5 ways. Now each of the ways of arranging the vowels can be
associated with each of the 5 P5 ways of arranging t he consonants.
The total number of arrangements = 4 P2 x 5 P5 12 x 120=1 440.
Exam pie 28. A number of four different digits is formed by using
the digits 1. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 in all possible ways. Find (I) how many such
numbers can be formed, and (ii) how many of them are greater than 3400 ?
Solution. (i) With the seven digits 1. 2, 3, 4. 5, 6, 7, the numbers
of four different digits that can be formed are 7P 4 =7x 6>5 x4=840.
(ii) Now we want to find the numbers out of 840 that are greater
than 3400.
If the number is greater than 3400, then the first left hand digit in
the four digit number cannot be I or 2.
The left hand digit must, therefore, he either 3, 4. 5. 6 or 7. If the
first left hand digit is 3, then the second left hand digit can be filled in
4 ways, i.e., with 4, 5, 6 or 7 and the third digit can be filled in 5 ways, i.e.,
314
with the numbers except those chos,i for the lust two digits and the fourth
digit can be filled in 4 ways, i.e., with the digits except those used for the
first
3400 three
are digits. Thus the nurnbCf5 starting with 3 and greater than
4X5 X4=80
Now if the first left hand digit is filled in 4 ways, i.e., with either
4. . 6 or 7 then the secoiict digit can be filled in 6 ways, i.e., with any of
the given digits except the one used for the first digit, the third similarly
Can he filled in 5 and the fourth digit can be tilled in
4 ways. Thus the
total four digit numbers greater than 3400 are
4x6 x 5x4=430
Hence the required four digit numbers are 80 1 480=560.
Example 29. The letters of the word ZENITH are written in all
poss:/;le orders, flow many words are possil,le if all these words are
written out as in a dictionary ? What is the rank of the word ZENITH 7
The total number of possible words will (be 6 P6 720

Since there are 6 diflerent alphabets.
The number of words beginning with E will he 5 P5
120
Thus, the total number of words beginning with E, iV, 1, T and if
will be 5 xP--6ü0.
The words beginning with 7 will have their rank between 600 and
720. Of these 120 words, the number of words with
can he E in the second place,
120j5=24
Thus, the rank of the words beginning with ZE will be 601 to 624.
ordersNow, taking into account three letters we have the following rank
ZEFI 601-606
ZEI 607-612
ZEN 613-618
ZET 619-624
The total words in the dictionary beginning with ZEN are
ZENHIT 613
ZENHTJ 614
ZENIHT 615
ZENITH 616
ZENTHI 617
ZEN Till 618
The required rank is, therefore, 616.
PERMUTATIONS AND CO1F3INA I IONS 315
Example 30. If the letters of (lie word ''WOMAN'' he perinwa'ed

mid (lie words so formed be arranged OS in ci dictionary, w!rctt will be the
rank of the word ' ivomw" ? (CA. Entrance December, 19331
Solution. The total number of possible words will be 5P,= -120

since there are 5 alphabets.
The number of words beginning with A will be 1' -- 24. Thus the
number of words beginning with A, 41, N and 0 are 4 24 --96. The words
beginning with W w i ll have the i r ranks from 97 to 120.
The words beginning with W and having A, M and N in the sccond
place ace 3 x 3 P3 = 18.
The words beginning with W, 0 and A will be J' 2.
The words beginning with W and 0 will have their ranks from
97+ 18= 115 onwards.
The words beginning with U", 0 and 41 will have their ranks
from 1151-2= 117 onwards.
We hac
JJO41AV 117
Its
Hence the rank of the word ''woman" is 117.
EXERCISE (I)
1. (a) Evaluate (i) 1 3 , (a) ' P I, (ii:) (iv) 5, (v) 94•
(b) Find if 'P3: if)3__5 : 12, (ii) 'P= 14: 1
(c) Find r if 7Pr60.713.
2, There are four routes for going from A to 13 and five routes for
going from B to C. in how many different ways can a man go from A to
C via B.
3. There are 8 vacant chairs in a room. In how many ways can
5 persons take their seats ?
4. There are 50 stations on a railway line. How many different
kinds of single first class tickets must be printed so as to enable a passenger
to go from one station to another ?
5. How many different numbers of six digits can be formed with
the digits 3, 1, 7, 0, 9, 5, 7 How many of these have 0 in ten's place ?
6. (a) How many different words can be formed with the letters of
the word SUNDAY? How many of the words begin with N ? How
many begin with N and end in
(b) How many different arrangements can be made by using all the
letters of the word (1) MONDAY (ii) ORIENTAL ? I low many of
these arrangements begin with A and end with N?
(c) In how many ways can a consonant and a vowel be chosen out
of the letters of each of the words (1) LOGARITHM, (ii) EQUATION 7
316 BUSINESS MAThIMATICS
7. How many different words containing all the letters of the word
TRIANGLE can be formed ? How many of them
(i) begin with T, (ii) begin with E, (iii) begin with T and end with
F ?, (iv) have 1' and F in the end places, (v) when consonants are ileVer
together, (vi) when no two vowels are together. (vu) when consonants
and vowels are both always together, (viii) vowels occupy odd places ?
(ix) the relative positions of the vowels and consonants remain unaltered ?
(x) vowels Occupy the second, third and fourth places ?
[flint. 8 !, (i) 7!. (ii) 7!, (iii) 6 !, (iv) 2 !x6 !,
(v) 8 ! - 4 x 5 !, (vi) 'Px 5 !, (vii) 2 5!x3
(viii) 4 P3 > 5 !, (ix) 5 !<3 !.J
S. Find how many words can be formed of the letters of the word
' FA ILURE', the four vowels always coming together.
9. In how many ways 10 examination papers he arranged so that
the best and worst papers never come together.
10. Find the number of ways in which i t hooks can be arranged on
a slid I so that two particular books are not together.
11. (a) In how many ways call books on Commercial Mathematics
and S books on Secretarial Practice be placed oil shelf so that books on
the Same subject always remain together ? (no two hooks are identical).
(1) Six papers are set in all
of which two arc mathe-
matical. In how many different orders call papers be arranged so
that (i)
the two mathematical papers are together and (U) the two mathe-
niatical papers are not consecutive ?
12. (a) Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word
'SIGNAL' such that the vowels may occupy only odd positions.
(f) In how mans' wa y
s can the letters of the word VIOLENT be
arranged so that the vowels 1. 0, E. occupy even places only.
13. (a) how many numbers between 1000 and 10.000 can he formed
With the diQitS 1. 2, 3, 4, 5 1 6,7.8, 9? I-low many of them are odd?
(/) How many numbers between 3000 and 4000 can be formed with
the diGIts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6?
14. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are written in every possible order.

How many of the numbers so formed will he greater than 23000?
15. A library has 5 copies of one book, 4 copies of each of two
books, 6 copies of each of three books and single copies of 8 books. In
how many ways can all the books he arranged?
16. (a) How man y permutations can he
made out of the letters of
the following words taken all together ?
(I) PERMUTATION (ii) EXAMINATION,
(ill) MISSISSIPPI, (iv) COLLEGE.
PERMUTAIU)NS AND COM [IINArtONS 317
(ii) How many permutations can he made out of the letters of the
word lNt)EPENI)ENCE '? In how man y of them the vowels occur
together ?
17. How many numbers greater than a million can be formed with
the digits, 1, 7, 1, 0, 7, 3, 7 ?
13, (a) Find the number of all possible different words into which
the word 'INTERFERENCL' can he comerted by change of place of the
letters, it being given that no two consonants are to be together.
flow many different words can be formed with the letters of
HARYANA ? In how many of these
(i) 11 and N are together,
(ii) begin with II and end with N 1
19. A telegraph post liai five arms and each arm is Capable of 4
distinct positions including the positions of rest. What is the total ilumber
of signals that can he made ?
20, In how many ways can 10 letters be posted in 5 letter boxes ?
21. (a) In how many ways can 8 different beads be strung on a
necklace ?
(/) In how many ways can S boys form a ring ?
22. (a) In how many ways 6 men can sit at a round table so that
all shall not have the same neighbours in any two arrangements ?
() In how many Ways can 7 Indians and 6 Pakistanis sit down a
round table so that no two Indians are together ?
D. (n how many ways can 4 men and 3 ladies be arranged at a
round table if the 3 ladies (I) never sit together, (ii) always Sit together ?
24. A guard of IS men is formed from a group of 'n soldiers in all
possible ways. Find
(1) the number of times three particular Soldiers A, ii and
C are
together on guard. and
(ii) the number of times two particular soldiers D and E
are
together on guard.
Also find In if it is found that D and E are three times as often
together on guard as A, B and C are.
25. A family consisting of an old man, 6 adults and 4 children, is
to be seated in a row for dinner. The children wish to Occupy the two
seats at each end and the old mail to have a child on either side of
him In how many ways can the seating arrangement be made for the
dinner 7
26. Seven persons Sit in a row. Find the total number of seating
arrangements, if
(i) three persons A, B, C Sit together in a particular order
(ii) A, /1, C sit together (in any order)

(iii) B and C occupy the end seats
(iv) C al va 'ccupies the middle seat.
27. If all the TerJnutations of the letters of the word CHALK he
written down as in a tItetl)aary, what is the rank of this word ?
28. There arc six students of whom 2 are Indians, 2 Americans and
the remaining 2 are Russians. They have to stand in a line so that the
two Indians are together, the two Americans are together and so also the
two Russians. Show that there are 48 different ways of arranging the
students.
ANSWERS
i. () (i) n (ii) n._4 (c) r=5, 2. 20, 3. 6720, 4. 2450, 5. 600,
120, 6. ((1) 720, 120, 24, (b) (i) 720, (ii) 40, 320 and (i) 24, (ii) 720, (c)
(i) 18. (ii) 15, 8. 576, 9. 2903040, 10. (ii-2) {n— I) !}, II. (a) 1440,
(h) 240, 480, 12. (a) 144, (b) 144, 13. (a) 3024, (b) 60, 14. 78, 15. (39)!/5!
X (4 !)2 (6 !). 16. (a) (i) (l I)! (ii) 4989600, (iii) 34650, (iv) .1260,
(v) 1663200, 16800. 17. 360, 18. (ci) 240, (b) 840, 240, 20, 19. 1023,
20. 310, 21. (a) 2520, (I) 5040. 22. (a) 60, (b) (7 !)2, 23. (i) 4320, (ii) 720,
25. 4 ! < 5! X 7 !. 26. (i) 120, (ii) 720, (iii) 240, (6) 720,
27. (4 ! ± 3 ! ± L !± 1)1' , i.e., 32nd.
98 COMBINATIONS
permutations the objects are based on the order of the arrange-
ments where each change in order constitutes a different arrangement.
But, if order is not of any consequence then it is a problem of combi-
nation. Combinations, therefore, are the groups which can be made by
taking some or all of things at a time.
Thus in combination order does not matter, it is simply the identity
of items in the selection that matters. A change in any one item will cons-
titute a new combination. For example, the number of different ways in
which 6 people call arranged ill queue is a question of permutations
where order matters. The number of different ways in which 6 people can
sit in a committee of 3 is a question of combinations where order does not
matter, but the constituents of each selection do matter. However, repeti-
tion in each combination is not allowed except otherwise stated. Thus
combination of 3 objects taken all at a time is only one but permutations
of 3 objects taken all at a time are 3 ! or 6 as was, in the previous example
for arrangements of three books.
The mathematical formula for finding out combination requires a
slight modification in the formula used for permutations This is as
follows
7?
For permutation. nP
For combination, O C, or nC, or C(n, r) or r )_(n--r) !r!

P ERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

319
Or - l)(n-2)...(n ri I)
For example,
pie, a manager of a shop of ready made pa rinen
display 4 eombi:iatiis out of the total 6 colours of Ltd , Is wants to
received in his store, he can display ill following ways cs g arments
Or(6 6!
4
(5T
6.5.432
(i)(4- 15
Th eorexu The number of
at a lime are given h comb//I//f /o/J of ii (hf/crc,:t filings taken r
- ----- , wi/crc (r n)
r ! (n--r)
Proof Let 'C,
denote the
different things taken r at required number of combination 5 of n
a time,
Each of these combinations has r different things.
If the r different thImim be arranged among tlienisejvcs i ll
possible wa s, each combination would produce r I all
permutfltjms
'C, combinations would
p roduce C, r !
number is clearly equal to the munuher of perillutatjonspermutations.
of a But this
taken r at a time. d ifferent things
Hence '•C :< r !

' Cr
1)('12),.,(,z - r + I)
rn
n(n___h)(n2)(nrl I) (a— r) ! a!
(n-.r)! r! (n—r)!
Exnirnple 37. In an exa mination in paper
questions are set, In how on Advance .4ceouf. JO
questions . 'nanv di/Jere,,, nays cn an CXOpl?jp7C
choose 7
Solution. The number of different choices
IS ev idctJy equal
number of was in which 7 places can he to the
filled up by 10 different things.
the required number of ways
/9", 8
10 ,
l>2x3 120.
Fan3p1e
32. In how many nays can 4 white and 3 black ball., be
selected from a bOX Containing 20 white and 15 black
balls.
Solution.
This problem involves merely selection and hence, is a
problem of combinations. 4 out of 20
white halls can be selected in
20 s< 19 18 x I
' i.e., -- 4845 ways.
4x3>2>-:I Call this process as the first pro-

320 BUSINESS MATfIEMATLCS
- 15x 14x13
css. 3 out of 15 black balls can be selected in 'C3 i.e., - = 45 5
3x2xI
ways. Call this process as the second process. The t.vo processcs can be
carried out together in 4845x4552,204,475 ways.
Example 33. From 6 boys and 4 girls, 5 are to he selected for
admission for a particular course. In how many ways can this he done if
there must be exactly 2 girls ?
Solution. Since there has to be exactly 2 girls, there should be
3 boys, the possible combinations would, therefore be
4x3 6x5<4
-l2U ways
Example 34. In a inercanitleJirn, 4posts fall vacant and 35 candi-

dates apply Jor the posts. in how fliaiiy ways can it he m ale,
(i) if one particular candidate is always tFiClUae(/,
(ii) i/one particular candidate is always exclude 1 f ?
Solution. (i) Since a particular person is always to be selected, we
must select the remaining 3 candidates out of the remaining 34.
The required number of selections
=1C 34x33x25984
1x2x3
(ii) Since a particular person is always to be excluded, the choice is
restricted to 4 candidates out of the remaining 34.
The required number of selections
1X2x3x4
Example 35. AJat/ter takes 8 children, three at a time to the Zoo, as
oflen as he can wit/lout taking the saute i/tree together more than once, (1)
how often will each child go 7 (ii) how oflen will he go ?
Solution. (i) A particular child goes as often as that child can be
included in the combinations of 8 children taken 3 at a time.
Let us select one child first of all, then we have to select only 2 from
the remaining 7. This can be done in 7C2 ways.
The number of times the particular child will go is
(ii) The father goes as often as the combinations of 8 children taken

3 at ittime.
The number of times the father will go is
=56
PERMU rATIONS Ar-It) COMBINATIONS 321
Example 36. -It an election there are five candidates out of whom
three are w be elected, and a voter is entitled to vote for any number of
candidates not greater than the number to be elected. In how many ways may
a voter choose to vote.
Soltioi. The voter may vote for one, two or three candidates (flit
of the 5 candidates. He can choose to vote for one candidate in C1
ways, two candidates in ways and 3 candidates in 5 C3 ways. Hence
the total number of ways in which the voter can choose to vote is
&Ci + 5 C.,4Ca= 5-I-JO + 1025
Example 37. The question paper of 'Cost Accounting and Income
Tax' contains ten questions divided into two groups of five questions each. In
/10W ninny ways can an examinee answer six questions taking at least two
questions from each group ?
Solution. The questions may he answered in the following ways
(fl 2 questions from 1St group I- 4. questions from 2nd group
(II) 3 ,, ,, ,, -13
(III) 4 ,, ,. ,, 1-2
(i) Two questions can be chosen from 1st group in 1 C, ways and 4
questions from 2nd group in C4 ways. Since each way of selecting
questions from the 1st group can be associated with each way of selecting
questions from the 2nd group, the total number of ways of sdcctiug ques-
tions from both the groups is 1 C, < C4.
(ii) In like manner, 3 questions from the 1st group and 3 questions
from the 2nd group may be selected in 5 Cx 5 C ways.
(iii) Again, 4 questions from the first group and 2 questions from the
second group may be selected in 11C, x 1 C, ways.
The total number of ways
== 5 C2 x C 4 + 5 C3 x C3 +C4 x
- 5 C2 x 5 C, -f--C2 x 1 C, --C1 x5C2
5x4 5x4 5x4 5x4

5 F5x
I x x
X
= 10x5+lOx 10+5x 10=200
Example 38. For an examination, a candidate has to select 7
subjects from three different groups A, B and C. The three groups A. B. C
contain 4, 5, 6 subjects respectively. In how many different ways can a
candidate tuake his selection if he has to select at least 2 subjects from each
group.
Solution. The different ways in which a candidate can make a
selection of 7 subjects so as to have at least 2 from each group can be as
follows
(1) 2 from 4, 2 from B and 3 from C,
(II) 2 from A. 3 from B and 2 from C.
(111) 3 from A, 2 from B and 2 from C.
322
BUSINESS MATIB7MATjCS
Now the selection of (I) can be done in dC
x 5 C2 x 6C3
=6x10x 201200 ways
Again the selection (II) can be done in c'2
x 5C x 6C2
=6x lox 15=900 ways.
Also the selection (111) can be done in C3 5 C2
x x 6C2
=4x lOx 15=600 ways.
The required number of se1ectio
5 are 1200+90046002700
E*anip!e 39. Out of 10
can be formed each containing 6 co coasoijantS and 4 vowels, how many words
nsonants and 3 Vowels?
SOluti on. 6 consonants can be chosen out of 10 in
3 vowels can be Chosen out of 4 in t' ways. '°C'5 ways and
Co mbining each way of selccing the Consonants with each way
Of selecting the v
3 voweowels the number of s elections having 6 consonants
°C and
Each of these selections contains 9 letters which can
be arranged among themselves in 9 ways.
The total number of words=°C x 4 C > 9
=10C4x4C1X9
l0x9x8x7
1x2x3x4x 4x 362880=304,819200
Example 40. boat's crew consist of 8 men, 3 of whom can
row on one side and 2 A
only on the otherin which only
the crew Can be arranged. Finj the Pzum/,er of ways'
Soint ion 4
men must row on each side. But on one side there
are already three men and on the other side two.
on the side of three men So one must be placed
and two on the other side. This
or 3 ways. can be done in
Again, 4 men on each side can be arranged among themselves in

4 ! ways. Hence the required number of ways
=31x4!X4 !=3x24x241728
Example 41.
SO Os' to include 3 boysA Party of6 is to be formed from 10 boys and Zgirls
and 3 girls. In how many
d er ent ways can the party
/eformej if two particular girls refuse to join the iff
same party?
So1ut0
If the two particular girls do not refuse to join the same
party,
'0c5 wthen we can select 3 girls from 7 in 1C, ways and 3 boys from 10 in
ays. Hence a party of 6 including 3 boys and 3 girls can be
C 3 x b0c35x 120=4200 formed
ways.
Now let us find the number of ways such that 2 girls who refuse to
Join the same party arc included in the same party. For such arrangemen
we have to select only I girl from the re ts
maining 5 and 3 boys from the ttoa
of 10. This can be done in l
5 C1 x Ioc3=sx 1
20600 ways
.. (2)


We notice that in arrangement (2) those two particular girls who
refuse to join are included. Hence the required number of arrangements
can be obtained by subtracting (2) trom (I), ic., 4200-600==3600.
Example 42. A party of 3 ladies and 4 gentlemen is to he formed
from 8 ladies and 7 gentlemen. In how ninny different ways can the party
be formed if ?fr.r. X and Mr. Y refuse to join the same party ?
[LC.W.A.. June 1990]
Solution. 3 ladies call selected out of 8 ladies in 8 C3 ways and
4 gentlemen Can be selected out of 7 gentlemen in 7 C ways.
rhe number of ways of choosing the committee
8! 7!
5! X-j—,—I96O.
If both Mrs. X and Mr. Y are members, there remain to be selected

2 ladies from 7 ladies and 3 gentlemen from 6 gentlemen. This can be
done in
6'
C2x6C3 420 ways.
! 4! )<313!
The number of ways of forming the party in which Mrs. K and
Mr. refuse to join
Y
=1960-420=1540
Example 43 A cricket team of II players is to be formed Ira/li 16
players including 4 bowlers and 2 wicket-keepers. In how many different
wars can a team he formed so that the (coin contains (a) exactly 3 bowlers
and / wicket-keeper, (I) at least 3 bowlers and at least one wicket-keeper.
Solution. (a) Here a cricket team of 11 is exactly to contain
bowlers and a wicket keeper. 3 bowlers can he selected out of 4 in 4 C3, ie
4 ways. I wicket keeper can be selected out of 2 in 'Ci , i.e., 2 ways.
Now the remaining 7 players to complete the team can be selected from
the remaining 10 players in IOC , ie., 120 ways. Hence by the funda-
mental principle the total number of ways in which the team can he
formed =42X 120=960.
(b) in this case the cricket team of I can he formed in the following
ways
(I) 3 bowlers. 1 wicket keeper and 7 other players.
(II) 3 bowlers, 2 wicket keepers and 6 other players.
(ITT) 4 bowlers. I wicket keeper and 6 other players.
(IV) 4 bowlers, 2 wicket keepers and 5 other players.
We now consider all these 4 cases.
(1) 3 bowlers, 1 wicket keeper and 7 other players can he selected in
4 C 2 Cx lO C7 r4 2x120=960ways
(ii) 3 bowlers, 2 wicket keepers and 6 other players can be selected
4 C3 x 2 C2 < 10 C6 =4X1 x210=-840 ways.
(iii) 4 bowlers, 1 wicket keeper and 6 other players can ne selected

in dc4 x 1 C1 x lo C6 1X2X2Io42o ways
(iv) 4 bowlers, 2 wicket keepers and 5 other players can be selected
in 4G4x'Cç '°G5 =lx1X252252 ways.
Hence the total number of different ways
=960+840 1-420±252=2472
Example 44. A guard of 12 me' is formed from a group of n
soldiers in all possible ways. Find (1) Me number of times two particular
soldiers A and B are together on guard and (ii) the nwnher of (lines three
particular soldiers C, D and E are together on guard.
Also findn if it is found that A and B are three times is often together
on guard as C, D and E are.
Solution. (1) A guard containing A and B will have 10 other men
from the remaining (n-2) soldiers. Hence the number of such guards in
which A and B are together is _2C10.
(ii) Similarly the guard with C, D, E will have 9 other men. This
can be selected in "C9 ways. Hence C, D, E are together C9 times.
(iii) A and B are together in 2C10 times and C, D, E
are together in
"C times.
2C3Xt_.3C
(n-2)!3x(n_3)!
101(n-12)! 9!(n—l>)i
()(" -3) I 3x(n-3)
- - I.
10x9 ! ( n-12) l'9 I (n-12) 1

(n-2)=3x10
n=32
Example 45. Find the number of combinations that can be made by
taking 4 letters of the word COMBINATION.
Solution. There are 11 letters of 8 different kinds

C, (0, 0), M, B, (1, 1), (N, N) A, T
Thus two Os, two Is and 2Ns are alike. In all the required Coin-
bmnations some may contain all dissimilar letters, some may not contain
all different letters. Following cases arise:
(1) All the four letters are different,
(1!) 2 letters are alike, 2 are different,
(II!) 2 letters are alike of one kind, 2 are alike of other kind.
(1) There are 8 different letters. The required number of combi-
nations = 8C4.
(ii) There are three pairs of alike letters,
vii,, (0, 0), (I, I) (N N),
One pair can he chcsen in 3C 1
ways. Remaining 2 different letters can be
selected from remaining 7 different letters in 7C, ways. Hence the number
of combinations of this type is 3 C1 ) C2.

?KMUTATONS AND COMBINATIONS 325
(lii) Two pairs of similar letters can be chosen in 1C, ways.
Hence the total number of required combinations is
SCF3CxlC+C_l36
Some Iniportant Deductions
1. 1k c0 = ----------. = 1
Ol(:-O) 1 O!n! lxnT
if. PlC_h; ' C2 -- -1 -n--and 'c'
Ill.
1
Proof: 1lC,1=
"TO1
IV.
V. n c,= x
These are important theorems and should be committed to the

memory. We give below the proof of the last one which is quite important.
Let us find the number of combinations iii which a particular letter
Bay a 1 would occur, The number of such combinations is C,_ 1 because
we are to choose (r- 1) letters out of the remaining (ii - 1) letters. Similarly
the number of combinations containing a is ' Cr _, the number of com-
binations containing a is also -'C, and so on. The total number of
such letters is n, theref'ore the total number of letters written in these
combinations is a
rX ? C,=nx PP-I C,_ 1 a
:j "C-_=--- x -
This result is true for all integral values of r and n,

Changing ato a - 1, r to r - I we get
n-I x'2C
'C_1=-_-___
r-J
Similarly ,-2C -- n-2 >< '3C'-3
r-2
(r -2) x n(r
(r_ 2)
Multiplying the corresponding sides and cancelling out the common
factors, we get
PC'-
a ( 1') -2) ',-
(r .-I) (r-.--2) 2
n(n-I)(n-2) (n-r+2)(n_r+1)
= lXr-2TiT2.1 -
n(n- l)(n -2) ... (n--rf2)(n-r+1)(fl -r) ... 3.2
-- [r(r-1).2 1] [(n-r)...3. 2. 11
r! (n--r)!
99. COMPLEMENTARY THEOREMS
The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time,
is same as the number of combinations of n different things taken (n-r) at
a time.
I. ., "Cr"C,r, where Orn
We have
r-
____________
j (n - r )
and Cn_r=() !
'ii
n . - (n -- J1 i1,.)
,cr=,lcft_,
Car 1. If "C r ="Cp then either r=p or r + p = n for

therefore, n-r=p or r+p=n.
Cor 2, If in the formula G_,="C,, we put
(1) r=n, then "C0 ='C. 1
(ii) r=rz- 1, then "C1='c',,_1=n, etc.
910. RESTRICTED COMBINATIONS
(1) The number of combinations of n things taken r at a time in which
p particular things always occur is "-'C,_.
If thep particular things are set aside, there remain (n-p) things
out of which (r-p) things may be chosen in 'C, 2, ways. With each of
these groups we combine the p particular things so that we get all the
combinations in each of which the p particular things will always occur.
The required number of combinations=PC,_
(ii) The number of combinations of n filings token r at a time in which
pparticular things never occur Is
Let the p particular things be set aside, then there will remain (n-p)
things out of which r things may be selected in - ,'Cr ways.
In none of these groups p particular things will occur. Hence the
required number of combinations =
n+ I C, =C, +C, -
Solution We know that
' r!(n_rI
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS - 327
• •c Fcr - r (nn --
I n!
F )! - (r— 1) (n --r-- 1)!
n nI
r(r— I) i(n—r) ! +(r 1) (n—r+l) (n—F)!
(r—l) 1TL7 (n—r-j-1)

r
r—l) I (n—r) ! L r (n_r+ I)
- (ii 4- 1)!
I (n—r-t-l) !
Example 47. Find the value of r if 18C,1C,f4
Sohitlon. Since "C C- - WC have ' 8 C, =
But, we are given 18 C 18 _ , 18c,
18—r=r+2
18-2-'r-f-r
16=2r
r=.
Example 48. Findn, "C6 C=91 4.
Solution. We know that
- n I
an 1-3C -- (n_3)_____
3! (11-3-3)
• 'C5 n1 3! (n--6)
•.
'-3C, 6 ! (n
-i < (ii 3)!
n I - l n(n - I) (a --2)
(n-3)! <6.5.4
n(n-1) (n-2) 91
Also we are given
6-. 5-.4 ----
n(n-1) (n-2)=5.6.91 =5.6.7.13=15.14.13.
Expressing the three Consecutive integers in descending order, we
get n=15.
911. COMBINATIONS OF THINGS NOT ALL DIFFERENT
We will here show that the total number of combinations of a
different things taken some or all at a time is 2 —1.
The first thing can be dealt within 2 ways, for it may either be left
or taken. The second thing can also be dealt within 2 ways.
Since each way of dealing with the first can be associated with each
way of dealing with the second, the total number of ways of dealing with
the two tbings=2 x 2=2g.
Proceeding similarly, the total number of ways=2

32 S US1NESS MATHEMATICS
But this number includes one case in which none of the things are
taken.
The required number of combinations=2-- I
Now, we consider the ,ir,uther of combinations of n things not all diffe-
rent. The total number of combinations of (p f-q+r-4....) things, where p
are of one kind, q of the second kind and r of the third kind and so on,
taken any number at a time are
Consideu the p like things. The p things can be dealt with in (p+1)
ways, for we may take 1, or 2 or 3, or p or none in any selection.
Similarly the q like things can be dealt with in (q 1) ways, r things in
(r-1- 1) ways, etc. Associating each group of selections with the others,
the total number of dealing with them is
(p . f l)(q+ l)(r-f i)...
But this iiurnhcr includes one case when all things are left. Therefore,
the total number of ways
:(p_f. l)(ql- l)(r 1r 1)......- I
Example 49. In order to pass C A. (Intermediate) examination mini-

mum marks have to be secured in each of the 7 subjects. In how many cases
can a student foil ?
Solutou. Each subject can be dealt in two ways. the student may
pass or fail in it. So the 7 subjects can be dealt in 2 7 ways. But this
includes the case in which the student passes in all the 7 subjects. Exclud-
ing this, the number of ways in which the student can fail is 2— I = 127.
Example 50. A question paper contains 6 questions, each having an
altcrnafne . In how many ways can an examinee answer one or more
questions ?
Solution. The first question can he dealt with in 3 ways, for the
question itself may be answered, or its alternative may he answered or
none of theni may be answered.
Similarly, the second question also can be dealt with in 3 ways.
Hence the first two questions can be dealt with in 3x 3 or 32 ways. Proceed-
ing thus, all the 6 questions may be dealt with in 3 6 ways.
But this number includes one case in which none of the questions is
answered.
The required number of ways= 3— 1=728.
Example 51. There are n points in a plane, no three of which
ore co/linear (lying on the same straight line) with the exception of p
points which are collinear. Find the number of
(i) different straight lines and
(ii) different triangles formed l 'yjoining them.
Solution. (i) Any two points when joined give a straight line.

329
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
The number of possible straight lines formed by joining n points

in pairs='C2.
But p of the points lie in the same straight line.
C2 straight lines are lost and instead we get only 1 straight line
in which they lie.
.. The required number of straight lines is
nC2
(ii) Any 3 noo-collinertr points give a triangle.

The number of triangles formed by joining ii points taken three
at a timeC3.
Since p of the points are collinear. 'C trian8les are losi.
The required number of triangles is
- n(n—l)(n-2) p(p— I) (p 2)
-
6 6
EXERCISE (It)
1. Find the value of 'C,,
2. () If 2C : 2,IC = 8, find n.
(h) If "C---"C., find the value of 2'C
(C) If Io P, =6,04,800 and °C= 120, show that r=-7.
. A cricket team is to be formed consisting of 2 wicket keepers. 4
bowlers and 5 batsmen from a group of players containing 4 wicket
keepers, 8 bowlers and ii batsmen- Find the number of ways a cricket
team can be constituted.
[Hint, C, x C4 x
4. In how many ways can you choose six out of nine questions?
In how many of these ways the first question is always excluded? In how
many ways the 6rst and second questions are always included ?
S. There are 10 professors and 20 students out of whom a committee
of 2 professors and 3 students is to he formed. Find the number of ways
in which this call be done. Further in how many of these committees
(I) a particular professor is included ?
(ii) a particular student is excluded 7
6. In how man y ways can 21 white balls and 19 black balls he
arranged in a row so that no two black balls may be together.
7. Find out the number of ways in which a cricket team consisting
of 11 players can be selected from 14 players Also find out how many of
these (I) will include captain. (U) will not include captain.
330
BUSINESS MAT1I51s
8. Out of 5 males and 6 females, a comnlitteo of
Find the number of ways ii, 5 is to be formed.
hich it call be done so that among the
persons chosen in the comrnicte there are W3 mates and 2 females,
(ii) 2 males, (iii) no females, (iv)
males. at least one female, (v) not more than 3
[flint. (I) 5 C3 >< 5 Cx 6 cap
(ii)(iii) sq,
(iv) 6CIX5CI-,6CZC3+6CsX5CI8CX5CC
(v) 5C c5 ±c 1 x6C4+.tc2Xsc3C<4ot]
9. From 7 gentlemen and 4 ladies a Coriilfl j ttec

of S is to be formed
In how many ways can this be done so as to include at least
one lady ?
10. The staff of a batik consists of the manager, the deputy manager
and
10 other officers. A Committee of 4 is to be selected. Find th
number of ways in which this can be done so as to always include (i) e
manager, (ii) the manager but the
manager nor the deputy maclager not the deputy manager, (iii) neither the
11. A
council consists of 10 members, 6 belonging to the party A
4 to the party B. In how many ways can a c and
that the members of the party A ommittee of 5 be selected so
are in a majority ?
12. A cricket club consists of 16 members of which only 6 can bowl.
In bow many ways can an devon he chosen to include at least
4 bowlers ?
13. An examination paper Winch is divided into
ing of 3 and 4 questions respectively, carries the note. two groups consist-
"It is not necessary
to answer all the questions. One question must he answered from each
group." In how many ways can an examinec select the questiocis ?
14. (a) Out of 17 consonants and 5
vowels, how many different
words can be formed each consisting of 3 ConSonacits and 2 vowels ?
(lv) Find the number of words which can he formed with two
different consonants and one vowel, out of 7 different consonants and 3
different vowels, the vowel to lie between two consonants ?
15. There are 48 different books including 18 books on Advance
Accounts, 16 books on Law and 14
books on Management. Find the
number of different ways in which a selection of twelve books call
made so as to have 4 books from each group.
16. How many c
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ombinations can be formed of 8 counters marked
8 taking theni 4 at a time, there being at least one odd
and one even counter, in each c ombination ?
[Hint. 1 CI )< '< 1 C2 -fC8 X 4C1].
17. There are 12 Points in a plane of which 5 are in a line. Find (I)
the maximum number of triangles that can he foinied with vertices at
these points, (ii)
the maximum number of distinct straight lines that can
be obtained by joining these points.
[Hint. i) 12 C3 - 5 C3 , (ii) - 5C2-1_

PLRMUTATONS AND COMBINATIONS 331
18. A gentleman invites a party of 13 guests to a dinner and places

8 of them at one table and the remaining 5 at another, the tables being
round. Find the number of ways in which he can arrange the guests.
[Hint. Total number ofarrangements=' 3Cx7 !x4 !].
19. Find the number of ways in which (1) a selection, (ii) an arrange-
ment of 4 letters can be made from the letters of the word "MATHE-
MATICS"
[Hint. (1) Total number of selections
1C, + ICI x 7 C2 + 8 C= 136
(ii) Total number of permutations
=1680+756 118=2454]
20. In a crosswordpuzzle twenty words are to be guessed of which
eight words have each an alternative solution also, Find the number of
possible solution.
ANSWERS
1. 56, 210, n(n- 1)(n---2)} 3 1 2. (a) 13, (b) 120. 3. 4 C2 x 8 C4 x C5,
4. 84, 28, 35 5. 1 C2 x 2 °C3 = 51300, (i) C 1 x 20 C3 =- 10260,
(ii) 11)C2 x 9 C3 =43605. 6. 1540. 7. 364, (1) 286, (ii) 86. 9. 441.
b
10. (1) " Cl, (ii) C31 (iii) '°C4 . 11. 186. 12. 3096. 13. 12
14. (a) 816000, (b) 126. 15.ac', x 16 C4 x I4C4 16. 68..
17. (i) 210, (ii) 57. 20. 256.
Binomial Theorem
STRUCTURE
100 INTRODUCTION
101 BINOMIAL THEOREM
102 POSITION OF TERMS
103 BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS
104 BINOMIAL THEOREM WITH ANY INDEX
10'5 SUMMATION OF SERIES
Objectives
• Binomial theorem, position of terms, binomial coefficients and its
application.
• Binomial theorem with any index and calculation of square root,
cube root etc. and simplification.
• Summation of series using binomial theorem.
100 INTRODUCTION
A binomial expression in mathematics in one which has two terms,
e.g., (a+b), (4x+ 3y), (x+ a), etc. These terms are at time complementary
when the expression is used for objects which are of dichotomous character,
i.e., success or failure, true or false, male or female, literate or illiterate.
In business mathematics and statistics, there are various problems based on
such classification where the theorem is found to be very useful.
From elementary algebra, we know
(a+ i) (a + b)(a'+2ab 4-b 2)=a3+ 3a2 b ± 3ab + M

These are quite simple but if the expansion is to a higher order or
with negative and fractional indices the problem becomes quite complicated.
It is here that the rule of expansion stated as the binomial theorem is very
bandy. It will be seen later that we can trace the individual terms of the
expansion without writing the whole series.
BINOMIAL THEOREM
333
The inventor of this theorem was Isaac Newton who in 1 676 gave it
through a letter to H. Oldenbcrg. Before, he could devise it general
theorem, the Hindus and Arabs new the expansion up to tile 2nd and the
3rd power only to which Vieta added the expansion up to the 4th power.
But, all this was through simple multiplication and without the discovery
of the law of expansion, the credit for which goes to Newton.
Now, we take a few expansions On the existing lines to enable the
reader to grasp the manner in which the terms appear
( x + y ) x5 + Sx ty I 0x3y + I Ox 1y -t. 5xy 4 + y
Some special features of the above expansion are
(i) The total number of terms are one more than the power,
5 + 1=6 in the above case. ie,,
(ii) The coefficients of the terms are symmetrical, riz., 1,
5, 1. These can also be expressed by combinatorial expressions 5, 10, 10,
. SCI, of the
form 3G0 5C , 5C,, C'4, C'5 respectively.
For these coefficients there is a table in the form of a triangle called
Pascal's Triangle which can be constructed intuitively beginning with
power I to n in a ladder like fashion without any difficulty.
Pascal's Triangle
[Showing coefficients of terms (v -f-y)']
Size of n Binomial coefficients Sun
/ 1 1 2
2 1 2 1 4
3 1 3 3 /
4 8
1 4 6 4 I 16
5 1 5 10 10 5 1 32
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 64
7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 / 128
8 / 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1 256
9 1 9 36 64 126 126 84 36 9 1 512
10 1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10
1 1024
The above triangle is based on the principle that
+IC,nC,_1+nç
proved in the earlier chapter.
This solves the problem of the coefficients when the indices of the
expansion are positive integers. One can note the symmetry of the succes-
sive coefficients. This can be observed from the fact that the coefficients
equidistant from the middle term are the same,
(iii) The coefficients of the first and the fast terms arc the same
since

(iv) The indices ofthe terms rise from 0 to 5 in the case of second
element of the binomial and come down from 5 to 0 in the first element.
Since
(5 c'0) x 5 yO 4- (CJ )xy' -l-( C ) x51y2 -I- (5C3)x3y
S
Naturally, as y° 1 and C0 = 1, the first term remains as x and
through a similar logic as C=l and X0r= I the last term remains as y5.
Further, it should be noted that the sum of the indices of elements in

the two terms is equal to the index of the expansion as elaborated below
Terms Sum of indices
x 5y ° 5
x 4 y 1 5
x 3y 2 5
and so on.
101. BINOMIAL THEOREM
Statement. If ( x + a ) is a binomial expression, the expansion of
(x+a)" is given by
(x-3- a) nr c 0 x n +C1 x" + .,. +"C,x"a' 'C,a"
Proof. The theorem can be proved by the method of induction.
Step 1. By actual multiplication, we have
(x -F- ) 2 = 4 2xa + a2 2 Cox I + 2C1 xa 2CO2
(x + (4) 3= x3 -f- 3xa-f- 3xo + &
+ C 3 xa + 3 C2xa' + 3Ca3
Thus the theorem is true when n has the values 2 and 3.
Step II. To prove this theorem by the principle of mathematical
induction we shall now assume that the theorem is true for some particular
value in of n, and we shall show that it is true for in -F I of ii also. So we
assume
(X+O)m=mCoXl_mCiXm a._C2x m a+ ... +"C,x a'-4- .-. -I- mCm
Multiplying both sides by (x-l-- a), we have
(x+a)m(x± a) = [x m +CxlafCsxm_2at+...
-I- 'Cam](x -1 . a)
=xrX" + 'C1x'a
4- a[x m +C 1 _ a+ mC2xm_z a 2 +.. + m Crx r a T + -F mc a]
- ' . "C1 x"a+ 'C. - x m - 1 a 2 f.. + m C,x' P a' + .. -f C,XOm
-t- .x"'a--+C,x"-'a'+
(x .f.a)"i+ l = x' +(l -+-"C1)x"a-1-('"C1 +"C2)x"a 2 +...
Now
in! in
C,.1 +Cr
i_(in—r+ 1) ! F r !(m—r)!

BINOMIAL THEOREM 335

,n! (r-1-in -ri-]) 'II (in-4- fl
r (in - r-- 1)! r ! (in - r -j- I)!
- (in4-1) !
r ! (in-rj I)
and
(x 1C1x''a .lC_a 2 + '" ' '-:3 ° 4
Thus the expansion of (x 1- a)- is exactly of the same form as that

of (x I a)", i.e. the theorem is true for next higher value (in 1- 1) of in.
Step UT. But we have seen that the theorem is true for the value
n--3, therefore it should be true for the value 3- I =4.
Hence the theorem is true for all positive integral values of it.
Reniarks 1. The expansion of the binomial (x_a)n is given below
(x-o)" — x 11 1 C1 (_a)xn1 -i- C (_.a)2v_2__C.i(_a)3.._3± +'C (-a)n
- - -1 - C2 a 2x"- 2 -C3ax + ... + ( - I )n C,,a"
Thus, the terms in the expansion of (x—a), are numerically same as
(xIa) A with the difference that the terms are alternatively positive and
negative and the last term is positive or negative depending on whether n
is even or odd respectively.
2. We are now aware that in the expansion of (x-l-a)", the coeffi-
cient of the second term is "C L and of the third term it is C0 and so on.
Thus, the suffix of each term is one lc-s thaii the number, therefore 'C, is
the coefficient of the (r +1 )th term.
In the general term we have 'C,, by giving numerical values to r,
we can hud out the coefficient and by assigning appropriate indices to 'x'
and 'a', the whole term can be obtained as follows
1i r+1
-1 "'c -rr n(n-fl(n-2) ...... (n---r.4-. I)
•
r!
It should be noted that the index of 'a' is the same as the suffix of
C and that the sum of the indices of x and (2 is fl.
3. The simplest form of binomial expansion in the general form is
given below
(I -!-.r)"= 1 -i-"C 1 r--00x 2 -b ... +'Crx"+ ... +'(,1x"
z(n - I ) X2
-l-)-nx+-------- +X"
(I -l-x) - I +5x+ 10x2 + l0x3 -I- 5x 4 f-X5

e.g.,
The general term in the above expansion indicated by t r+, IS 'S
follows
1112 l)(n -2) ... Oi-r- ^ I
Xr
-- -
4. (xJ-y)
[
(i
)T .'(l .)t:, where Z:
BUSINESS MATMIMATLCS
336
5. The hnoiiiial expan Sio n of (I x) M is as follows
n ( n -1) n ( n -- I)(x-2)
(1 . x)'-d _X±_jfX2
e.g., (l—x)51 -5x+ lOx 2 - 10x 3 + 5X'—X5

The general term in the above expansion indicated by t,., is
n(n-- J)(n . 2)..(n- r+I)
-
tr+ I ( 0'
Example 1 Expand ( s --
L
(_)2
Solution. (x_ )' C0x5 4. C1 x 1 (_.)t±Cx

SC
C3x2
_x-5x 8 + MY- i0. L+5._

x
L
x3 x
L
Example 2. Write down the expansion of ( 3x.4- ) by the
binomial theorem. By giving suitable value to x and y, obtain the value of
(29-5) 4 correct to four significant figures.
Solution.( 3-4 y )4 =(3x) 4 - C 1 (3x) 3 (_.L)
-C(3x)2 (-4) +4C(3x)

4)a± (— 4_)
=(3x)'--4(3x)3 4 -j-6(3x)' - .. - 4< 3x) ç-+ç-
4
Now (295)=(30--05) i — - .1 )
(o_
Substituting x10 and y=l in the above expansion (I), we get
(295) =(3O)-4(30)(05) .1 6(30(05)+
=8,10,000-54,000+ 1350=7,57,350
(to five significant figures)
Example 3. Exp an d and simplify
( . J 2 -f 1)+(/2-l)
+ C.(v2) 4 . 1 2 + GC3( \ /2 ) 3 1
Solution. (/2+ 1)6r. (\/2)1'-fC1(\/25. I
-j.C4(V2) 2 l + 6 C(,/2) I +C 6 . ill
C' 1 ( /)i + 6 C 2 (v'2). 1_ €C>(i2)3.l3
fC4( %/2)2.l 4 ... 0 (v'2) I+ r C,.I
(/2 + 1 + (V2 - I Y- 2{(V 2 )' + 'C,(v'2)4 +(V2)f 6)
(teims with odd indices have cancelled out)

BINOMIAL T}!nORnM
337
2 22-1 6X5x4X3
1.2 4.3.2.1
2( 8 +60+30+1) . 198
E xa s nple 4. Evaluate {v-4-
So1 p jt j o)
/1}-i. {x.— y
Let {x+Y TI}-- (.v+y), where y-
d
v5y -- C 2 .iy + 3C33y, --J aC 6(
X"y 1 5 xy . . 6Cy
A 130 {.v (1)
6C Xd—AC
. c2X.0
Adding (I) and (2), we get
+ Cx2y4 y5 -(- (2)
{x+ Yx2+ l}+{.v-- Vx2
2 iCox_f 6 C ylCv2y4
+ Cy}
2C + 6C (x 1) ±8C4x2
2 j xqx(x2+I)+5
.x(x-2x2tj)
-2{ 32x 48f 2 + 1)

EtJIC
5 Write down the 7th tern-i in the expansion of
f 4X 5
5 2)
Solu t i o n. In
the cxpanjoj1 of (y fa)', the general
term is
t r+ 1 - 'C,yn-0r
4x
Putting r - 6, a. ( 5
and n 9, we get
\9I (_
-- 5 _Y
)
9! (4x)3 (5)
53
(2x)6
98x7 64xg 3X5>5x5x5x5
'5x
84x 125 10500
Example 6.
6 decimal places.6.
Using the binomial theorem, calculate (1 . 1) 10
correct to
(C.A. Inter
o1utjo, We have mediate, November 1981]
(11) 0 =(l +0l)'o
1-f- '°C1(01 )+ '°C(O • I )'- 10 C
=
((II )3j 10G (i1)1)
^ 10 (01 )+ 10 06 (O1 )6+ C7 (O'
I )-- C(OZ )3
+

•r1+I0(0i)+45(00l)+120(00O1).j21O(Q00O1)
+252(000001)- 21 0(0000001)
+ 120(0'0000001)+ 45(000000001)4- ......
1-f- P0+0454-0120+00210+000252
-+ 0000210 ± 0'0000120 +000000045
2'59 3742
EXERCISE 1)
1. Expand
2
(1) (3x —y)4, 0') - x - +
3 4"
(in) x- (II') (1 —x + x).
4 3x
(ii ) ( /2 1)5— (v'2- 1 )5. [!.C.W.A., December 1990]
2. Write down and simplify
(i) the 11th term in the expansion of (y 4x)30,
3 4 12
(ii) the 5th term in the expansion of
)8
(iii) write down the 5th term of (v-. and

show that it does not contain X.
3. Write down
i4x 5 8
(a) 3rd term ironi the end in the expansion of ---
-)
"
(b) nth term in the expansion of (x_ 1.)
4. Expand (Y +
Simplify each term as far as possible. Use your expansion to

evaluate (1.1)8 correct to four places of decimal.
5. Expand in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term
in x3,
(1) (14- --), (it) (2—x).

6. Expand [1+(x4x2)]'0 as a series in ascending powers of X up to
and including the term in x. Find the value of (1.0101)10 correct to three
places of decimal.
ANSWERS
1. (1) 81x4 — lOSx3y+54X'Y'— l2xya+y4

x4 8x3 8x2 32x 16
(it) 1-
243 135 15 40 320 1024
(in) - .4 x'--_ 3 f- x---.---2435
--
(iv) I —4x-j- lox 2 -- 16x3 - 19.r1 — i.6x 5 + l0 x6 -4x-1-x S (v) 82.
2. (i) 4 10 30C10. y 30 .x 10 (ii) (iii) 1120. 3. (a)
(b) (
(n -- I) .(2n 1)!
4. 21436. 5. (i) 1+3X+4X-', (ii) 64--192x±240x1.
6. 1+10X+55x+2j0x3;1i06.
102. POSITIONS OF TERMS
We have already explained that in the expansion of (I +x)", the
coefficients of terms equidistant from the beginning and the end are equal.
We also know that the coefficient of (r f- 1)th term from the beginning is
RC,. The (r+ l)th term from the end has {(ni- l)--(r j-1)) or n--r terms
before it, therefore, from the beginning it is (n—r-- l)th term and its
coefficient is "C,_,, which has been shown to be equal to "C,.
Therefore, when it is even the greatest coefficient is "C ,, and when
2
n is odd it is "C,_ 1 or nC + i , these two coefficients are however
2 2
equal.
Example 7. (a) Find the middle term in the expansion of
bX
(b) Find the two middle terms in the expansion of
(3x 2x2V
Solution. (a) The total number of terms in the expansion is

12 + 1=13. Since the number is odd, there is only one middle term, i.e.,
the 7th terms.
t=1C6 (-
a\ I2
—bx)= l?Ca6b6
\ x I
I (
(b) The total number of terms in the expansion are 8 (even) and so
there will be two middle terms, viz., the 4th and 5th.
2x')3 - 840.xlo
(
1 C(
4( 3x )
n
-- 3 1 3
340
BUSINESS MATHMATjC
Example 8. Show that the middle term in the expansion of
(!+x)2-
I.J.5 ... (2n_1)
Solution. In (1+ x)-',

x) 4 ", there are (2n 1- 1) terms and so the middle
term is (n F I )th term. Now
( (21zH Xn
-- n ! n
n!n! xt,
[2n(2n- 2T±)i2_1)-3) --- 5.3

nnl
2 11 [n(n— I)(n-2)..2.I }(I.3.5...(2n --l)J
n 1n X
- Al v
n!nI
[13.5(2':- 1)12 X.
Example 9. Prove that the middle (er,'n of

J )'2,, l.J.5 ... (2n 1)
is
2x ii!
I '
Solution. In (x+
) , there are (2 n + I) terms and so the
middle term is (+ l)th term. Now
Inc xn ( 2n 1 1
)"--
[Sce above example]

103. BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS
The coefficients of the expansion of the binomial are the prefixes of
each term, the elements are with variable powers of the binomials. The
coefficients are "CO3 "C1 ... , "C,, indicated briefly as
CO3 C1 ,. , C,,. The
properties of these coefficients are given below
I. In the expansion, of (/+x)",
cients of terms equidistant from the b e where n is positive integer, coeffi-
ginning and end are equal.
Proof. (r f- 1)th term from the beginning7-t, 1
is "C,x'
Coefficient of (r-j- l)th term from the beginning is "C,
Now total number of terms in the expansion are fl -p 1.
BINOMIAL TJWGRLM
341
Since (r I )th term from the end has (11-1 1) - (r + 1), i.e,, n --r
before it, at the beginning it is (n — r -1- I )th term. term3
(,1'- I )th term from the end or 1,.., j is nC,_,x1

Coefficient of (r -I- I )th term from the end is "C.' . ='C
('.. "C, =1G4,)
Ij. Sum of the /,uiom (a! cojJicjenis in the e.vpansjon
of (1 --) is
Proof. We know that
(1 Fx)" C-f.0
Putting x - 1, we get
ft
(I +
III. In the expansion of(! . f-x),the sum of even cofficie,,is is equal
to the 511/N of the oil! coejjicienis and each iS equal to 2"
Proof. We know have
(I l-x)' C0+C1x+C,2 I...
Putting x --- 1, we get
C--CI+C2C3I C'-- - - - o
C0 - C -- ( --.. C 1 --C 3 - (25
+
Sum of odd coefficients- Sum of even coefficients
Also, the sum of each 2_ - 2".
IV. The sum of squares of the coefficients in the expansion of (1

+x)1
(2iz)
('z !)
Proof. We know that
(1+-X)-- Co C 1 x±C 3 x2 + .-. +C1xn-1.3C
Also (.Y + ] )" CoX -c 1cf-3- +C 1 x +C,,
Multiplying (I) and (2), we get
(I ± x) 2n =- [ C0 -- Cx ±C 2x1+... -- G _ 1 -'- x"]
x [C'0 x1 + C1 x_1 c2xn_2 +...+C_1x-f-G,1
Equating the coefficients of x" on both sides, we get
C1 -4-c9+.,.
Sum of the squares of binomial coefficients is
-- -- (2'i)! - 2n!
(2'i - n) ! - (a )'
Remarh. Equtug coefficients of x 1 on both sides, we get
2 +1 =C01 + C +G+ ...±C1C
BUSISS MATHEMATICS
342
C0C1 C1C C2 Ca +... +C,
Example 10. If CO, C Cs,.., C, deflole the coefficients of the ex-

pansion of (I prove that
(a) C1 ± 2C2+3C3-f-...
(b) C0 +2C 1 +3C2 -F- ... +(n 1),C,.==(n+2).2-'
(c) C0 + 3C 1 -j 5C2 + ... ±( 2n+ i).C= (n-f 1)2.
Solution. ( a) L.H.S. C1 i-2C2 - 3C3 -j-- ... -j- n.0
n(n - 1) n(n - 1)(n 2)
-'C1+
=n[(1 ±
(h) L.H.S.=C0+2C1+ 3C2 -4- 4C3 -- ... -f(n + 1).C.
2" + n.2" 1 = 2.2' -i-- n•"

=(2+'z).2''- R.H.S.
(C) L.I1.S.=C0 + 3C 1 ±5C 2 + ..- - ( 2'i + 1).0
=(C,fC1 ±C2 ±...-I C H2(C f2C2+..+iiC)
=2+ 2(n.2)==2(1 + n)= R.H.S.
Example 11. 11( 1 +x) n = C0 + C1 x .+ Cx2 + -. + prove that
C1 2C2 3C3 nC n(n4- 1)

CO''i 2 n-i
1 C 2"----1
(b) C
Solution.
2.n(n— 1) 3.n(n— 1)(11-2)
n 2 31
(a) LH.S.- n(n_1)+fl
fl
(n1) f(n--2)+ ...+I JLR.H.S.
C1 C,,
(b) L.H.S.0 0 + - + (-..
32---
n(n — 1)
n L2
1+

343
BINOMIAL THEORIP1
n(n--1) 1
-- 2 + 1.23
- i[ j
['I 'C - 'C 9 ±
- f-" ... + u+JC, i
I2'IFt_I
[(I Fl - I ]: =R.I I.S.
Example 12. If a 1 , 0.2 , 03 , 0 3 arc the coefficients of the second, third,

fourth and fifth terms' respectively in the binomial expansion (1 +x), prove
that
a3 203
- a3
Solution. Since (1-1 x)"=l -f-" C3 x 2

C X2 + " C3x
a 1 _C 1 , a 2 -_C 2 , a 8 =-C 3 , a4n-C
a ._. nc tic
UHS 4 C2
0 1 ± 03 0 3 +0 4 "C
—— 1 ± "C3
"C "C
-= [Using the formula "C r +"C_ 1 +1C11
n(n__ l)(n- 2)
n 3. 2.1
(n-{-1)n i1)p 1)(n2)
2.1 4.3.2.1
2 4 6
=±- Ti
2a 2.C2 2."C2
and R H.S.:- ?i-1C3
02 ± 03 "C2+"Cl
- I)
2
2.! 3.2.1 6
= (nfl)n (n—fl ni-I
3.2.1
L.H.S.— R.H.S.
Example 13. Find the coefficient of x4 in the expansio n of
I
(x4±-)
iS
Solution in the expansion of (x4i-_-)
X3
344 BUSINESS MATjrF.MAT(

- 1C,xO_4r,x_3r
- 15C,x60_7
This term will contain x 1 if 60-7r 4, i.e., r-:8
The required coefficient of x . 151

8 17
Example 14. Find whether there is any term containing x 9 in the
expansion of
( /\20
2x2
.- X
-)
Solu011. in the expansion of (2x --
.2a(' (2x2)20_n( 1)
X
( - I)r 20C,(2)-x10
The term will contain x 9 if 40- 3r- 9, i.e., which is not
Possible because r must be a positive integer. Hence there is no term
Containing x 9 in the given expansion.
Example 15 , Finj the term indepej'nt of x in the (;'.\V(J?JSiOfl of
f3 J\9
X2—
2 -)
(T 2x,
Solutjo, r, in the expansion of (
) 'I — r (_ , )r
=9C...-_x2
5 2x
9 c,( W)"'(— ) r (2x)-
9 c( ._ )0'X1-17 ( Or 2x-'
= QC, ( - 1 )9_ (-1)' 2—xlS_3r
This term will be independent of x if

18--- 3r= 0, i.e., if r—.6
The required term independent of X
3 )96 2-6
-(_01.9C6 (
T
91 33 1 2268
613!'5 '28000
BINOMIAL 11JEOtEM
345
Exariiple 16. [iiul tin.' (con uc(lOp/'r(Jent al x (or the c/n:siant term
or the a/' 50h110 (erm) fn the e'pansion of
,, / :
) 5!1
I -
\. x3
Solution. e -1
- r X' = ( - 1 )'.9C,,
This term will be indepemlent of x, if 3n - U, i.e., r- (.
Required terrn r (-I)'.-C,, ( - I
EampIe 17, lind the term in ( /epelz,Jc/zt of -v in the e jai;sion of
(
2x-4
[C.A. Entrance, June, 1984]
Solut jo_i Let us assume that (r - I )tli term he independent of x in
the expansion of ( x-----'
ci 121
trl•1 15c ( 2 ) 15 ()
Since this term is independent of x, we must have

15-3r=-O
or r==5
Hence the 6th term is independent of x and its value is given by
t- -105.20.(— 3)5 - -
Example 18. (a) If the 21st aiif 22nd terms in the expansion of
(1 X)14
are equal, find the value of x.
(h) in the expansion of (1 - x) 1 the fifth term is 24 tim es the third
term. Find the value of x.
Solution. (a) r+ I )th term in the expansion of (I -l-x)"
C,
121 = I4 C v2° and 1.,., • 1C1x1
Now t2l22 (given)
-
C. 44! 23'21'
1 C24'2 4J

23!x21x20! 21 7
24x23 !x20! 24 8
(b) t1 UC,x
t= 21C 4 x' and 3 t cX
We are given t-=241

1 C4x 4 - 24)IC2x2
11C II' 4!71
x 2 : 24x i
—24x---4
2! x9x8x7! 72
x+2
Example 19. (a) If the coefficient of x in the expansion of
(x2+ -) Is 270, find k.
(b) If the absolute term in the expansion of (v x k)1O

TZ i. 405,
find the value of k.
)5
Solution. (a) tr+ i in the expansion of (x2+- Ic
r_Cr()5_r ' ^- 5Cr x 1 0- 2 ' k' x_r

()
_.5C,krx1o_3r
This term will contain x if 10-3r-=1, i.e. if r=3.
Now coefficient of X is given to be 270.
5 C8k=270, i.e., k3=.0=0n-27
k3
k \10
(b) t,+ term in the expansion of (i —ii--)
k'
='oC (i/X)10r//
. I OC (_1) r k 5-r12
IO-5r
(.])r ' CC, k'.x 2
This term will be independent of x, i.e., the power of x will be zero if
10— Sr
=0, i.e, if rr=2
2
Thus the third term is independent of x, and its value is
t3- (. - 1) 2 IQC0
and we are given
( 1) l C2k- : 4O5, f e.,

10C2 45
k±3
)2fl
Example 20. If x' occurs in 1/ic expansion of ( x
prove that its coefficient is

(2,i)
(4 (2rz-r)} ! ( 4 (4n_j_r))
,i )2
Solution. In the expansion of (x+ xi-
t f1 = 2 'Cx" - - 0)
In (1), the power of x will be r if

2n-3p-=. r . p - 4(2--r)
Substituting this value of p in the coefficient of (1), we have
Required coefficient 2C
(2n --r)
(2n)
4 [(2n-r)! 2'i-5 {(2n—r)} I
{4(2n—r) (4n1 r))

Ex.rnp1c 21. In the expansion of (I +x)"', the coefficient of(2r+1)C/1
term is equal to the coefficient of (4r + 5)1/i term. Find r.
Solution. (2r + 1) terni -- - ' o C1 XIr
• 4' 14
(4r -I-- 5)th term— t4 t( 4, +4) 11 IO44-
Coeff. of tr+j --
CoeIf. of14r45_'0C4,+4
Now we are given l oG2, = lOC4rf4
2r f-(4r-l-4)= 10
Hence rr- I
Example 22. Find the coefficient of x 32 in the expansion of
1 i
s.
X8 I [C11. Entrance December 19831
ImnC=-1C,,_. ticnr-i-n--rn

348
Solut i on. Let us assume that x32 occurs in the
(r+ 1)th term of
f
the expansion of (x1_ I
\. x.--
r 5 C. (X4)Is_r. (1
X60-4r(
j )X3rl&, ( j )
Since x 32 is in the ( r +I)th term, we must have
60-7r_32
7r 28
r- 4
15--is
I) - x 32 - 1 C4 .x 3 -- 1365
C., (-
Coefficient of a2 is 1365.
Example 23. Find the coefficient of x' 1
2x + 3x) (1 + x)". in the expansion of
[C. A. Intermediate November 1982]
Solution. Using binomial theorem, we have
(I-2x± x 2 ) ( 1 +x)"
0 —2x+3x ) ( 1 + "C i x
2
.v'- C3 x 3 -- .... . -
'1C1x'1)
Coefficient of x" in the expansion of
0 _2x+.3x 2 ) (f ±x)"
I < "C 1 , —2 ' 1 C 0 -- 3 x
1 —2)< 11 C, 4-3 :- C
[-.•
--1-22+J65•144
EampIe 24. Find the coefficient of x in the
(l.+x_2x2). If 4 expansion of
the complete expansion of the expression is given by
1+ a 1x + a2x1 + ... + a, 2- 2,
prove that
a24a4.+ar++a31
S olution. (1) (1 ±x - 2X 2 ) 6 =r[1 -l-x(I -_2x)]6
I +' C, .v( I - 2x) + 6 Cx 2( 1— 2.x)2 + 6cx3( 1— 2x)'
ei( I - 2x) 4 +
1 + 6 C, x(l — 2x)+6Cx(I_4x+4r2)
+6C3x3(1_6x+..)+6c4x(l_ )+...
Coefficient of x'-- 4. 6 (22_ 6. 6C3+6C4
-6O—I2O--15-..45
(II) Now 0+x-2X 2 ) 1 =1 I
+a1x+a2x2 -. _ ... +a12x"

DIN O4IAL THEORU.t

349
Putting x - 1, we have
I +a 1 I- c1 1 + j- 1)
...( 1'
Putting X..: - 1, we have
I -aL I2 64
2(1 . I a4 H- a + ...... . ' L) 64
•.•+'. ....31
Example 25. 1)' the 2nJ, 3r/ and 4th 14!rflI g in the e xpflz>'jo,i oJ
(x -f e)" ure 240, 720 wtd 1080 respective 1), , JiI; ( f
X, (I w1 ( / , z.
Solutjo,i (x .. ci)' Cv" 1 'C1 x' nCv'-g -'c dI F
W, :2)
V,3J
Eitting 2nd, 3rd and 4th terms, we get

nx"'e: 240
Y ft 721)
.v & 1081)
(3)
MuItipying (I) and (3). we get
)2)
X1-1. 240 1080
Squaring (2), we get
1),
X-j4 720'<720
Dividing (4) by ($), we get
,(n 1)(n-2) 4 24o>- 1080
() '1(n --- I )a *i 720 720
4(n--2) 1
6(n—l) 2
8"— I6=6r-6
rz5
Substituting the value of n in (1) and (2), we get
5x1 r.x - 2'l()
10x3a'.--720
(7)
Divide square of (6) by (7), we get
25.a' 240 Y 240
lOaz 720

350 BUSINESS MATHMAT1CS
X' 32, i.e., x-=2

Substituting values of x and n in (I), we get
240
5x2- xa=240 *
Hence :2, Q --3 and H 5
EXERCISE II)
1. Evaluate the following
" CO- 1 11C1+ 1]C2+''' +1Icu
2. If (1 +x) CafCi X+C2 x 2 ± ... +CT,,x", prove the following
(2n) !
(a) Co CLCjC3+C2Cd+ ...+C,,2C::_+2) (n-2)
(b) C0-2C±3C2—...+(— I)" (n+ l)C0

2 2 C1 2 3 C2
(c) 2C0 + -f-- -I- + ......+ 2" C,, 3+i I
1 n_ =
C C C,
(d) C0------...-I-(—l)" n•ln-j
-1
3. Show that
('C0•!-'C1+C2+ ... -C-- 2 "c0 + 2 'C1 -"c. I...
4. II P be the sum of odd terms and Q the sum of even terms in the
expansion of (x + a )", prove that
(a) P2_Q2z=(x2_a1)n,
(b) 4PQ=(x+a)2—(x--.-a)'
S. Find the middle term in the expansion of +bx ) in aseen,

ding powers of X.
6. Fir d the middle term of
(i) a - X)b0
(1 +x)2.
7. Find the two middle terms in the expansion of
M( 3x--- ) (ii) ( 2X 3y'9
-
y
8. Expand (-x--- 4. -) giving, in particular, the general term
and two middle terms.
9. Find the middle term of (1 3x4.3x2_x2)2n.

BINOMIAL THEOREM
351
ID, IF k is a real ii umhcr and If the middle term in the expansion of
)8
(.i-2 is 1120, find A.
11. Find the term m(l pendent of x

)9,
(i) 2x+-- (ii) (2_ (iii)
( -
3
12. Show that the term independent of x in the expansion of
of
/ I I" l.3.5...(2n--1)
(xi
" X ----
-) is-----------_.2
13. Show that there is no term independent of .v in the expansion of

(2v2_._L''1
/
14. Find the term containing y I in the expansion
of
)10
2x—y'12
(
15. Find the coefficient of
(1) x in the expansion of ('/)9
)20
it, the expansion of (2x1 - I
(iii) X32 and x in the expansion of ( x -

- -3-) and show
that their sum is zero.
(iv) x2 in the expansion of ( 2x-
16. (a) If the Coefficients of x 2 and X3 in the expansion of (3 -f-
are equal, find the value of k. kx)9
(b) If the coefficient of x7 and f in, the expansion of ( 3 1

are equal, find the value of 'i,
17. In the expansion of (I + x) 20 , the coefficient of the rth tern) is to
that of the (r+ I )th term is in the ratio I : 2: Find the value of r•
18. Find the coefficient of x2y3z
in the expansion of (ax -. cz)
19. (a) Show that the coefficient of x 3 in the expansion of
(1+3x)'(l..x)3 is 27.
(1') Show that the coefficient of x5 in (1 ).l (I 2)5 is 60.
20. In the expansion of ( I +X)?+i, the coefficient of x' and
equal, find P. x'+l are
352 BUSINESS MATIiBMATICS
i. If - occurs in the expansion of ( v l---- ), show that its

coefficient is
(4n)
(4n_3p)} !
22. Find the value of r if the coefficients of (2 r +4)th term and
Cr —2)th term in the expansion of 1 -j-x)'
are equal.
23. Write down the fourth term in the binomial expansion of the
function
px - -
X
(;)It' this term is independent of x, find the value of n.
(ii) With this value of a, calculate the values of p and c/ given that
the fourth term is equal to 160, both p and q are positive and p— q- 1.
24. (a) The first three terms in the expansion of (a + h) are 1. 14
and 84 respectively. I)ctcrniine.a, b and ii•
(/4 The first three terms in the expansion of the power of the
binomial are 625, 3500, 7350 respectively. Find them.
25. If in the expansion of (I -f-x)", the filth term be four times the
fourth term and the fourth term he six times the third term. Find the
value of n and x.
ANSWERS
1. 2030
3. [Hint. ('Co+"Cl x-l-"C k X 1 ± ... +
[(1 -s-x)"]==(l -J-x)7"
"c0 +'"C 1x + 2Cx2 -I-... H- '"Cf
Put x:_ I oil sides.]
4. [Hint. We have
(x + a)n_ "C0x"+C,A-' 'a -I- r.CVO_2(I2_1.,IC,.3a3
-_ (.v- (1)'1_ ('C0 x" -} n c, 2O2 + .-
-4 C3x" 3az' + )
Changing a to --a, we get
(x-a)'- - (Cox"+"C1x" 2a2-f .. )
— ('C,x"a "C,x"a 3 4-...) (2)
(x+a)" P-f Q (3)
and (x—a=rP_Q (4)
Multiplying (3) and (4), in terms of P and Q
(x2_a2)n=P2.__Q1
Squaring and subtracting (3) and (4), we get
(x-f-a)2"-(x- a)2n 4PQJ
BINOMIAL THEOREM -53
5. 924 (G/• 6. i) --252, (ii) 2X

;-,T)-
189
7. (I) .-.-.x'7, -- x', (ii) S5.' y 1 , - I (39x'3 y5
16
8 'C2 (-i;--) ' " c•1 (--)

[Ilitit. (1 --- 3x 3,2 v3 ) 2 " .[(
. )2J2
-( 1— x)6'
'[here are 6': - - I terms so (3i f-I )tli tc.rrn s the middle terni.
10. k - 1 II.. (i) 4th term, (ii) 6th, . ( iii) 6th term, 2268.
14. 7th term, 1920 xy 3 15. (1) 9 C 3 & b6, (ii) 20C102'°,
(iii) J5 C 1 'C, (iv)
9
16. (a) k (1)) ii - - 55. 17. r=7.
2-
18. [1-lint. Grouping the term as
((ax— by) ± cz)9
The term with z I will be 9 C I ( tJX —y)5(cz)'.
The term containing x2 y 3 will be 5 C3 (ax) 2 ( —. by)
_5x4x3
a2x2h2y
3x2x 1
Hence the coefficient of xy3z .t j
9 C4 (— l0a2 b) c- ----1260 a2bc4j
19. (a) ((lint. (I +3x) 4 (l —x)3 =(1 + 12x+54x 2 1- 108x3+81x1)
x (1 —3x-3x—x3).
Mult i plying the two factors oil R.H.S. and collecting the term in
x5 ill product, we get the coefficient of x
=(81)(-3)+(t08)(3) +54(— 1)=27
20. [Hint 2+'C,=_2flFiC'r+i
r + r -1-1 = 2n +1 .. rn.
22. r=6. 23. (i) n==6, (ii) p=2, q=1.
24. (a) a-=l, b==2, ii=7, (6) (5+7). 25. 11=11, x=2
104 BINOMIAL THEOREM WITH ANY INDEX
We illustrate these with reference to the simplest form of expressions
(I -x) 1 " and (1 — W n frotn which other binomials can be reduced Lie
two such expansions are (1) with a fractional index and (ii) w i7 dl a nega-
tive index, e.g.,
(1 X)_ 2 = (_ l 2x + 3x2 4 r'

In each of these series the number of terms are infinite. The general
form of expansion which can be uscd in the first case is
n(n ---1 ) n(n--- 1 )(n —2)
X 4
1.2.3
If we put for n, in that case the above expansion will take the
following form:
hi
1
- 1.2 1.2.3
Now, if the index is negative, the general form of the expansion is
1 _p(—n)x--. (__?I)(
1.2 1.2.3
Example 26. Expand (I—x)3 I 2 up to four terms.
Solution. (I—x)"' — l+ (—x) + 2

3(3
)(-_2) (—x)+...
1.2.3
33
r X+Tx2+X3j..,
Example 27. Expand (2+3x) 4 up to four terms.
\-
Solution. (2-13x)-4=24( 11- 3x
--)
(-4)(-5) )2
4[1+(.4)( )+

(-4)(---5)(--6)/3x ".
+ 3 )+...]
==-(1_6x
)
Remark. The general term of the expansion can be obtained by
the formula:
n(n—l)(n--2)......(n—r+1)
(r+ 1)th tcrm= — Xr.
r
Ex-ample 28. Find the general term of the expansion of(J_x)-.
3)(— 4)(—
Solution. The (r+ l)th term= (T±±i_1) X)r
r!
1) (r )(
=(- lyxr

1)34405..(r+2)
--(---
I.2.3...,r
(r+_l)(±21
x
1.2
Remark. Students should remember the following expansions
0 -x) 2= 2
1 -I 2x+3x + 4x 2 + ... - -(r 1)x'±...
1
(1--x)-- 1+3x , 6.3±10x3-F,.,1±_.+...
Example 29. Using Binomial theorem, find the value of /126 to

four decimal, p/aces.
Solution. J126=(l26) '
=(125) I +J 3 5[1+00081
I± X 0003 X (0008)1
(neglecting the other terms)

2/125 5[l + 0002666 —00000711] 5(1002659]
=5Q13295 -50133
(correct up to four places of decimal)
Example 30. Find the value of (630) 1 1 4 correct to five places of
decimal,
Solution. The number nearest to 630 which IS the fourth power of
whole number 25 is 625. Thus
(630) (625+5) (625)4[ I +
5(1 -0008)
[ 1, (P'()o8)+ 2 (0i)0X)2+... 1
s[l +0002-_(0000064)+...1
5 1 1 '002-- 0'00006]= 5 x 1001994
5009970, correct to live decimal places.

Example 31. Extract the fifth root of 244 correct to the three places
of decInai
-I-
Solution. (244) r (243+1) 5 [243 (i +)1T
_r3[l I]T
If 4
2
3H 1 1 2 1
=
1 8 1
=3 1---(OOl234)-- -(000005)
=3+0-00247-0'000004= 3-002466
Example 3. Find the coefficient of x 1 ° in (lie expansion of
1 4- 2x
(1-2x)'
Solution.
(1
-(1 ±2x)[1 + 2(2x)+3(2x)' +... + 10(2x) 0 +1 1(2x)1+
r=(1 ±2x)[1 +4X-I--12x'± ...+ 10.2.x -- 1 1.2°.x'°-f-
Required coeflicient==I I.2°±2.I0.2-2l5O4
Example 33. Find the coefficient of x" in the expansion of
(l+x+x+x+x+...... )f3 where J x I <1.
[I.C.W.A. June, 19901
Solution. We have
(1 +x+x2+X+.\4+ ..... . )213

.,2I3
) 11
=() =(1_x) =(1—X)-tI3
il+(-X)
' 2
=I+()(—X)+L3X_—i--i)
2!
2
+( )(
- 3!
(— )( - 4 —1 )( —2 )(--L-
+—
4!
__)(—x)

BINOMIAL ThEOREM 357
+43)X X
2!
(2 \f5 ' 8
-i—A_i(--)(—) x4+ ......
4 !
Coefficient of x " in the expansion of
(I ±X+f+x8-f-X4f. ...... )113 give by
/ 2 'ç 5 '( 8 'y 11
n factors
...to
2.5.8.11 (3n— 1)
-
Example 34. If X is very small compared to 1, prove that
= 5x nearly
(14-x)+/JT 6
Solution. The given expansion
(3 ( . X)(1— . x)
(1 ±x)-(li.x)2 (1 +x)( 1+ X)
(neglecting the other terms)
2---x
( i_ j . x )( i — - - x ), omitting other terms

—1 4X1X
- -i.-
Example 35. Find the first three terms of
11(I+x)/1±4x
assuming the validity of the expansion in ascending powers of x.
Solutio. Given expansion =(1 +x)(l -4- 4x)'
(--2)x (-2)(--2-1)
2! I
(-)x ( )(--I)
I ! - +
(4x2)+
I

358 BUSXNBSS MATHItMATICS
ignoring higher powers of x

=1-4x+ 1 3x 2 + .
EXERCISE (III)
1. Express (4+3x)2_(1_x)
as a series of ascending powers of x up to and including the term in X.
2. Expand 6
up to the term containing x when x<3.
3. Find the coefficient of Xe in

the expansion of 3x2-2
X+xa
1
, Find the coefficient of x in the expansion of(l—x+x2)3.
5. Product in thousand kilograms of a certain firm in first, second,
third, etc. weeks is the same as the coefficient of fist, second, third, etc.,
powers of x in the expansion of(l+X)(l—x). Find the production in the
sixth week.
6. If x is small, show that
_1_ I
(1-2x) 2 .(1f) 2
—1 -=4+2x (approx.)
(1 -x) 2—(1-i-x) 2
7. Evaluate the following:
(1) (103)" to 4 places of decimal.
(ii) (998)118 to 5 places of decimal.
8. Evaluate up to 4 decimal places.
,/1 28
ANSWERS
1 i_.+_ Z: . 3. —1; 4. 18, 5. 13, 8. 022046.
105. SUMMATION OF A SERIES

We can find approximate value of a series if it is on lines of the
expansion. of the binomial. We know (1 +x)= 1 +nx+
If xis small compared to 1, we find that term which get smaller and
smaller and we take I as the first approximation of the value of (1 +x)
and (I +nx) as a second approximation etc. The following examples wilt
illustrate.

BINOMIAL TIJI3ORIIM
359
Example 36. Find the sum of the infinite series:
212.5 1 2.5.8 1
Solution. Comparing the given series with the expansion
(14.x)=1+nx±±.x2+ we have
n(n_J) 2 2.5 1
1.2 x 3.6 2 .(2)
From (I), wegetx= -
Substituting the value of x in (2), we have

n(n-1) 1 2.5 1
2 9n23.62
n — i 5
n = -, :,e. 2':— 2 - 5n
2
2
3
and from (1), we get
Hence the given series==(1 +x)'= I - --L 213
=2112
Example 37. Sum the following series:

5 5,7 5.7.9
2+— + m+Ti- +....
Solution. The given series is
+I +-L . , + I., . ( 1)2

,]
Comparing the series in the bracket with the expansion
(1+x)=1+nx+fQTPX2+..., we have
nx=1
n(n-1) ,_ 5
2 .x__i.

I
From (I), we get x= -Ii
11(n -- !) 1 5
Subs tituting in (2), we get 2
2n6'' 6n-6== IOn
corn (I), we get x=—

-4-
Hence the given series
(2) 2
2 —(3)3'23V3
=
/ 1.3 1,3.5 1.3.5.7
Example 38. If -- +j- +36Q+369j2 +
prove that y2+2yL2=0
Solution. The given series may be written as
r ---1 - 1.3 1.3.5
'4L
Comparing the series in the bracket with
(l+x)l+nx+ 2 U .X 2+ ,.., we have
1.
nx— (1)
"(n— I) 1.3
and (2)
1.2
Solving for n and x, we get
1 2
ii - - ---- and x-----.
y(1+x)_1( 1_)2_13_1
y4-1=/3
(y + 1)'=3
y-f-2y-2-0.


Example 39. Sum the series
/ 1.4 1.4.7
1± X x3+
T
Solution. Let the given series be identical with
(1+y)'=H . ( I)
Equating the second and third terms in the two Series, we get
try (2)
=4
n(n-1) 1.4
and (3)
2! 3.6
From (2), we get y-7-. Substituting this value of in (3), we get

n(n-1) x 1 12
2 9n18
n-1
n-1=4n
1I-- -
3 x
-
3" I
3. (
3
Hence thc sum of the given series
=(1+y)=(1—x)''3
Example 40. If a and b are values of the second and third terms
respectively in the expansion of (14 prove that
a2 a2- 2f,
and x==----
a

+ftV+
2!
We are given flx=a
n(n—l)
and __pX2 -1) (2)
Dividing (2) by the square of (1), we get

n(n— 1) X1 b n—I b
2!nxa22fla2

362
a 2 ,i —a'==r2bn or fl(a 2 — 2h)-__ 4
a2
*
From (1), we get 2b.

fl a
EXERCISE (IV)
1. Sum the following series
(a) 3 3'5 _3.5.7

1-
(b) 1+2.--+3.4J -F...
(C)
2 2.5 2.5.8
(d) 1+-- --4.
2. Find the sum of the series to infinity
(a) 3 3.5 3.5.7
(b)l+- . - 4.
(C)
(d)
1+
4- . -•
3 1.4(_L)2_
(e) 1+- 2 1.4.7 3\
.2.3 (f6+...
3. Prove that
V2[i+JL3
i
4. Prove that
1.3 1.3.5 1.3.5.7
36+369+2+...004 nearly.

353
BINOMIAL THEOREM

5 5.7 5.709
±39F36912+-
[Hitt. The given series may be written ts

r 35 3••'
ir( 3
(T)i (-s-) k...
1 3.5 1 )
iLt
[s2
II
2 )3I2 312
Here S(I _x)(
3/3-2
c0
3
ANSWERS
,
1. (a) 2V2, (b) .-, (C) (i±-)
(d) 41 3
()3
2. (a) , (b) (c)
(e) (4f5)213
(1) 5tf
3. [Hint. The series in the bracket can be proved by
(i)2VO4v2]
II
Mathematical Induction, Sequences
and Series
STRUCTURE
11'0 INTRODUCTION
i p i PRINCIPLE OF MATHE
MATICAL INDUCTION
1 P2 SEQUENCES
1P3 SERIES
1P4 D ISCOVERY OF SEQUENCE
11*5 SIGMA NOTATION
116 SUMS OF NATURAL NUMBERS
OBJECTIV}s
• math ematical induction and its applications
• sequences series, sigma notations, sum
notation. mation of series using sigma
110. INTRODUCTION
Many important mathematical formulae which cannot be easily
derived by direct proof are sometimes established by an indirect method,
known as the method of
mathematical induction. The proof of a theorem
by mathematical induction can be divided into 3 steps. The first step
consist of actual v erification for particular values of n, usually
n —1, 2, 3
the second by assuming the theorem to be true for some positive integral
value in of n
and from thereto show that the theorem is true for (m+ I).
The third step lies in simple reasoning that if the theorem is true for the
value ni of n, it is also true for the value (m+l) ,
which is the next higher
integer. But, by the first step if the theorem is true for the value 3, it
should be true for the value 3+1, i.e., 4 and so on,

MATHEMATICAL INDtJCrI0N 365
111. PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAl. INDUCTION

Let the formula or the proposition be denoted by 1'(n). The principle
of mathematical induction states that if
(1) the formula or the given proposition P(n) involving it is true for
n= 1, 2 and
(10 if the truth of 1'(in) for a =in implies it istrue for P(i f 1), thei
P(n) is true for all positive integral values of n•
Example 1. I'rove by nulthe.noijc(11 induction 1/1(41

1-1-2+3+... where ti is a positive integer.
Solution. Here P(n) is
.U)
Step i. The formula is true for n- 1, since L.H.S. --
and 1.(l-f-l)
R.H.S.--=
L.H.S.--R.H.S. and P(l) is true.
It it also true for 'x =2, because the L.H.S. -- 1 1-2- 3 and the
R. FI.S. - 2(2-f-I)
Step II. We will now show that the truth of P(n)

some positive integral value of n, say ,i -rn the truth to be true for
of P(n) for
fl n --1, i.e., we have to show that the truth of P(tn),
namely
'n(m+ 1)
.(2)
implies the truth of I'('n± 1), namely
1 +24-3+...+n1-1(rn+
2
L.H.S. of (3)[l +2-f-3-- ...+mJ+(m-f- I)
m(m+l)
H-(ni-f- 1), (due to assumption (2)1
2
Pit
(rn+ l)(rn-f-2
2
(m-4-l)[(m-I-l)ÎJ
= 2 of (3)
By the step I, P(n) is true for " = I. 2. Therefore, by step U, P(n) is
true for any particular value say P1=- 2. and hence for ,1=3 , and for ii=4
and so on, i.e., for every natural number ti

Example 2. Prove by the method of induction

P(n) : 2 + 7 -1- 12 + ...+(5n-3)-n (Sn_i)
Solution. Step I. We vehfy the result for n= 1.
Put n=1 in (1). L.H.S.-2 ; R.H.S.=.l.(5—l)2
L.H.S.=R.l1.S. and P(l) is true.
Step II. We now show that the assumption of the truth of P(m),
namely
2+7+l2+--1
implies the truth of P(m -f I), namely
27+ 12±... +(5nz 3)-f-(5m 2)==(rn . f- I) (5(m+ 1)—i) ...(3)
L.1l.S. of (3)=[2 i 7+12 I- ...-l- (Sm— 3)]-J(5m-f-2)
zr (m(Sm_ 01+0171-I-2), [by assumption (2)]
5m—in 101))+4
9n 2 -I-5m-1-41n4 4
5111(m . 1)+4(m+ I)
J
(ui -Il) (51)) + 4)
(rnIi) 1S('n+I)—l]
=R.H.S. of (3).
We have thus proved that if the result is true for n=m, it remains
true for next integral value of.': namely in+ I. Since the result is verified
for n= 1 in step 1, it follows that it is true (by step II), for n= I + 1=2
and hence for n=2+1 =-3 and so on for all positive integral values of it.
/ 1 1 1 n
3,5—+j-f-7- +•+ (2fl1)(2fl+3) 3(2n-J)
I I
Solution. Let P(n) be - I
--. -- --•••
5.7 - (2n+1)3
U
3(2n+3)
Step 1. We verify the result (I) for ':= I.
Put 11=1 in (I), L.H.S. I I
R. H S.=
MArHIMATICAL INDUCTION 367
L.H.S.=R.H.S., i,e., P (1) is verified to be true.
Step II. We now show that the aSSUuil)tioll of the truth of P (m)
namely
I I I I in
(2'-l)(2m+3)3(2m+ .(2)
implies the truth of P(in + 1), namely

1 1 1 I __•_______,_____
3.5 + + 7.9 + +
3) (2in+ 3)(2m +5)
in+l
= (3)
- 1 1 1 1
L.H.S. of - +...+ (
2in+I)(2m
+
(2in -1- 3)( 3rn+ 5)
in I
3(2m--3) F (2m±3)(2m+5) [due to assumption (2)1
'n(2m+5)±3 2m2 . j-5111 +3
3(2n1+3)(2fn F5)3(2m+3)(25)
(rn- l)(2m -F 3) in + I
3(2m-f- 3)(3m +5) 3(2rn ±5) I)-1-3J
-=R,H.S. of (3)
We have thus proved that if the result (1) is true for fl=,n, it remains
true for the next integral value of n narnc]y / 714- 1. Since the result is
verified to be true for 'i= 1, in step I, it follows (by step 11) that it is true
for n-2, and hence for 1 1 = 3, and so on for all positive integral values
of n.
(2n - 1)3 1 + 3
1.3+2.3 2 +3.33 4 ...-jil.3z::
4
Solution. here P(n) 1.3 1-2.3± 3.334----+n.3* — (2n1)3'f-3

4
Step I. The formula is true for 11=1, since

L.H.S. 1.3r3
R.H.S.2+3 3
and
For n=2, 111.S.=1.3+2.32-21

368
and R.H.S.= (4-1)13 -. 1.3 =21

Hence the relation is ture for n= I, 2.
Step IL We will now show that the truth of P(m), namely
(2m —1)31+3
4
implies the truth of I'(m j .. 1), 11"ll nely
1.3-{2.3 2 +3.3 3 -1-...+m 3"'+(rnT 1)3n+1JQ+ 1)—i] 3mt1+1+3

4
L.H.S. of (3) 1.3+2.3+3.3 3 + ... +rn.3(,n-}- 1).3m1

_(2nz—I)_3'"'3
+(in-f l).3 m+l [ fro m (2)]
3+I +3 +4m.3+' +4.3m+1
-{6m.3+1+3.3+1+3 }
=-- 2m . 3 +2 +3 n2 + 3
3'"(2'n+1)--3
[ {2(,71+I)— 11 3- +')+1+3 R1.S. of (3)

I^
By step I. P(1z) is true for fl= 1, 2. Therefore, by step II, P(n)
for n=2 1-I and so for = 3+ I and so on for every natural number ,.is true
Example 5. By the method of induct ion, show that ]O n +3.4,,+'+5
is divisible by 9.
Solution. Let P(n) I0 1 +14 n12 +5 is divisible by 9
Step I. We verify the result (I) for "=1.
Put n=1 in (1), L.1 - I ,S. =
10+3.4+52079x23 is divisible by 9.
Step II. We now show that the assumption of the truth of P(m)
namely 10"+ 3.4 12 +5 is divisible by 9, i.e.,
1Q"+3.4-4+5=.9k, where k is a positive integer
implies the truth of P(m4_ I), namely
10 1 +3.4 +I)+2 4 . 5 is divisible by 9
We have

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 369
10 .41 +3 .41? + 2 + 5=10". 10 + 34"4+5
= 10".9+ 10 +3,4+.3±3.4"-l-5
l0.9+3.4n7%+1 .3+( l0 + 3.41 + 5)
=10",9+9.4"f'-I-9k [From (2)1
= 9(1 OM + 4rn + 2 + k)
=9p, where p= 10-j-4 + +k, which is divisible by 9.
We have thus proved that if the result (1) is true for ix =m, it remains
true for the next integral value of n, namely in +I Since the result is
verified for 'J I in step 1, it follows by step II that it is true for ii =2 and
hence for 11=3 and so oil all positive integral values of ti.
Example 6. Prove by induction the inequality
(!+x)'>I-l-flX, for
it 3, 4.,,and x>—I.
S:,lut ion. Let P(n) be (1 -1-4)"> 1 +x
Step 1. We verify the result (1) for n=2.
Put n=2 in (1), L.U.S.'=(l +x)2=1+2x+X2
R.11.S.== I +2x
We obviously have 1 +2x+x2>1 -l-2X, since x2>0
[he result is thus true for n=2.
Step I!. We now show that the assumption of the truth of P(in),
namely

(l+x)"'>I+rnx (2)
implies the truth of P(rn I- 1), namely

(14-x)">l+(m+ 1)x (3)
We have (1 -l-x) 1 = ( 1+x)( l +•)
> 0 -f rnx)(1 +x), [due to assumption (2)
and x>-1J
>1 +('n+l)x+tnx2
>l+(n4-l)x, since 'flx2>0
We have thus proved that if the result is true for n in, it remains
true for next integral values of ii, namely ("± 1). Since the result is
verified to be true for ii-- 2 in step I, it follows by step II that it is true
for it -3, and hence for n=4, and so on for all positive integral values
of 'i 2.
ii 2. SEQUENCES
When individual elements of a set of numbers can be arranged
according to some definite rule such that we can find out which of them is
the first, second and so on, the set forms a sequence.

Each number of a sequence is called the term so that we have the

first term, second term, third term and so on, which form a subset of the
set of real numbers.
Definition. If to every positive integer ii, there corresponds a number
u,,, such that u, is related to n by certain law of correspondence, the terms
u1 , u2 , ua, ... , n .......re said to form a sequence. In other words, a set of
real numbers in a definite order formed according to some law is called a
sequence.
A sequence is sometimes denoted by bracketing its 11th term, there-
fore {u} or <u,> means the sequence comprising terms U, U 2 , U, ,
the suffix to 'u' denotes the rank of the term. If
(i) u, : --(- I ), then sequence or (u) is 1 2 , 22 , 32 , ...,
(ii) u=(- 1)', then the sequence or {u,} is -1, 1, ..., (-- I)".
u,,=4n + 3, then {u) is 7, 11, 15, 19.... . (4n 4- 3),
(iv) U,,= (- l)"-' 4n, then {n,,}. is 4. - 16, 64, -256,..., l)-4' .....
(v) u 1 1 1 1 11
:fn-5 . then (u} i s - I,
1112 ). 1 4 9
(vi) 1r then1___j_j_ Is
, 3' 4' •-•';ii1'-'
113. SERIES
When the terms of a sequence are connected with plus or minus
signs, a series is formed. In other wards, a series is an expression consis-
ting of the sum of the terms in a sequence. Thus if U,, is the nth term of
a sequence then
U1 + U2+US+"'+Ul is a series of terms.
11'4. DISCOVEP.Y OF SEQUENCE
It is always convenient for mathematical operations to discover the
sequence or the rule of the formation of a series in terms of a sequence
related with an order set of real numbers which is not very obvious at
times. By the method of trial and error we have to determine, ensuring
that at least first few terms are observing the rule so as to generalise
ultimately. Let us take a few illustrative examples
(i) 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, ... can be written in the form
1+(1)2, 2+(2)1 , 3+(2)2, 41(4) 2 , ...and can be formally expressed as
u=n+n1, (n4()2} or { n + n2} or {n(l-I-ri)}
(ii) 1, 6, 15, 28, ...which in the form of sequence can be written as
2x1 2 -1,2x22 ----2,2x32 --3, 2x4-4,...
wbere u=2nt -n and the sequence can be expressed as
{2n'-n}

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
371
(iii) 2, 5, 12, 31,... which in the form of a sequence can be written
as:
(4-1-3 1),,••
(1f-3'), (2432- 1 ) , ( 3+3--1-1),
where u=n+3 i and the sequence can be expressed as
( n -I- 3"-')
(iv) 1, 4, 9. 16, 25, 36, -.., where u,, is the square of n, we can say
14,,=112, and the sequence is {n2)
(v) 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25,..., where u,, is obtained by adding 4 to the
previous term I e., (u - ) and 11 1 5, we can say y, = 4n I- I, and the
sequence is {4n-f- I).
(vi) 3, 9, 27,-81 ..... where u is obtained by multiplying the pre-
ceding term (u, 1 ) by 3 and U1 3, we can say
( - )"-'3", and the sequence is {( -- I )n13i}
(vii) 1 l , 1 1 1 ••, where the numerator of u, is 1 and
the denominator is obtained by adding 3 to the preceding denominator
and u 1 1/2. We can say, and the sequence
U= ---,
The two very common types of squences are discussed under the
names of arithmetic and geometric progressions (Chapter XLI).
115. SIGMA NOTATION
We now introduce a simple SUflHfl1tjOfl flotation which considerably
simplifies the formulae and makes handling of compicated expressions
simpler. The letter "" of the greek alphabet (pronounced as 'sigma') is
used to denote the sum of a given series. The letter is placed before
the rth term say U,. We thus write °, to denote the sum of r terms of
the series Ur. If we want to sum up mtr for values of r corresponding to
r=l,2, 3, ..,n; we denote the sum by
r=n
. ii, or simply by
r = I r
Thus U1 U 2 U3 + ... ± U, +...+u,

=r 1
[read as 'sigma u, from r= I to r=
Some Properties of Sigma Notation
n
i au,-=a y u,, where a i constant.
r1
Proof.
Ii
_a(u 1 + u1 -- u 8 4- • .f. fl)a U,
r•- I

172 BU31NES3 MATIUMATW

ii Fl Fl
II. ) (u,+v,)= > Uy4 Z Y,
rI r1 r1
Proof. (t4+vy)=(u14-vi)+ ( +v2)+ U2 (u-I-v3)+
r=(ui+ua__ua_f-... --U,) --(v1---v+v1±...

11 Fl
r=1 rI
11 ,l ii n
III. y, ( a3 4 br9 + cr 4- d)= a xr3 -I- b > r'-f-c r.4-n(1
r-1 r=t r1 r1
Proof. z (ar e + br 2 4-cr-f d) a. 1' ± b. I + c . 1± d

r I
+a . 2-b . 3 2 + c . 2+d
4-a. 3' f . b 3-}-c 3+d
4a n3 +b - n 'r+d
Adding these columnwise, we get
if
(ar 3 -f'r 3 jcr+d)-- a(1 3 +2 +33-f ... --n3)

rj
3-j-...-f-n)
+dl d fdf...i n times
n Il it
a ) r3 -f-b Y. r 2 -f-c rfflj
116, SUM OF NATURAL NUMBERS

I, Sum of the first n natural numbers. The snm of the first n
natural numbers is
Si1+2+3+.+r+ ... +n=E r=±

Proof We can prove this identity by means of difference of
squares of the consecutive integers. We have the identity
(x+)--x22x±1
By putting x=1, 2, 3, ..., ?1, in the above identity, we get
22-12=2i+1
3- •2=-2.2-- I
4-3-2.3i- I
n2 -- (n— I)= 2.(rz-- 1)4-1
(n-4-1) 2 —n 1 r=-2.n I
Adding these n equalities columnwise, we get
(n-I- 1) 2 -1 2 -=2(1+2+ 3+..,4-n)+(j + 1+1...n times)
n2 +2n-2S1 +n . 2S1 -n2-I-n=n(n+1)
Hence S1=
f (n + I)
II. Sum of the squares of the first n natural numbers. The

SUM of the squares of the first n natural numbers is
S2 1 2 4. 29 +3 1 I- r2= n(n+1)(2n-I-1)
Proof. We can prove this by making use of the following identity
(x+ 3x+ 1
By putting x=1, 2, 3 ..., n, in the above identity, we get
22__ 1 3= 3.1 2 +3.I+ 1
33 -2 3 =3.2f-3.2+ 1
48_ 3S331. 3•3 +
?'s—Q'-03=3.(n— l)2+3 (n - 0 +1
+I
(n+1)8—n==3n'-+ 3n+l
Adding these n equalities columnwise, we get
(n+1)2_P=3(12+22+31+... +n2)+3(l+2+3+... +n)
+(1+1+1+...n times)
(n+1)8-1=3S2+3S-fn
n'+3 n2 +3n=3S2 -1-3.' +n
3S2=fl3f30 43_3 n(n-f-I)—n
==-- [2n1-+6nf6-3(n+1)-2]
r=-- [2n'+3n+]]=-- (n-I-1)(2n+I)
S,2 6
AItriative Method. We can prove the above result by the
method of mathematical induction also.
1-Lere P(n) is
6
Step I. For n=1,L.H.S.l2_1
and R.H.S.==-- (1+1)(2+I)==1
L.H.R.rR.H,S.
For n-2,
and R.H.S==-- (2+1)(4±1)=5
L.H.S.=R.H.S.
Thus the result is true for n=1, 2.
Step II. Let us assume that the result is true for some particular
value, say m of n • We now show that the truth of P(nz),
namely
m(,n-f- l)(2'n-I-- 1)
l2+2z+32+...fn12=
6
implies the truth of P(rn -F- 1), namely
6 ...(3)
Then
L.H.S. of (3) ==(l + 22 ±32 +... + m2 )+( ?n l)
-I-.
[From (2)]
(M+ 1)
[m(2?n+ 1)+6(rn+ 1)]
(m+I)
[2m I +l'n+6]
6
( M + 1)
614m+3m+6]
(m--l)
[2rn(m+2)+3(m+2)1
6
1)
6 P. -f-2)(Z'n4-3)J
(n l)[{(n+ l)- 1}{2('n 1)+l}J

=R.H.S. of (3)

From the two steps I and 11, it follows from the principle of rnathc
matical induction that the result P(n) is true for every natural number n.
M. Sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers. The
sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers is
r3=[''U]
Proof. As discussed in the previous cases we will now use, here, the
identity based on the difference of the for.cth powers of the consecutive
number x+l and x. We have
0
(x-1- 4 -xr=4x 3 +6x2 +4X+ 1
Putting X= 1, 2, 3...... . (n 1), n ; successively in the identity, we get
24 -1 4 =4.1 3 -i- 6.12j4.1±1
1
4 4 _3=4.3 3 +G,3 2 f4.3+l
,i4 —(n-- l) 1 4.(n— 1) 3 +6Jn— 1)2+4.(n-1)-f- I

(n f 1)-1 1 =4.n3 +6. n2 +4.n -f- 1
Adding these n equalities columuwise, we get
+6(121-22+32-I-...-f-"2)
+4(l+2f3+ ... +fl)
-f(l+1+l+...ntinies)
=4S+ 6S-l-4S1+n
4S3 =n4 -4-40 f6n244n-6S,4S1fl
= n + 4n + 6n2 + 4" —6
,i(n+ l)(2n-I- 1)4
6
JJ -- 1
=n h +4n 3 +6n 2 +4fl_2fl 8_ 3 fl2 -n-2n 2 -2n - n

=n 4 +2n 3 -+ n2
=n(n'+2n - 1)=n'(n+02
S3 r 2 r3=["("]
'1
F-1

Example 7. By the me/hod of Induction or otherwise prove that

2 (n-;- 1)2
13 +22 ±33 +n3= n
Solution Step I.
For n I, L.ILS.= I= I
12(1+1)2
R. H.$. 1
L.Fl.S=R.fl.S. and the proposition is true for n= 1.

Step I!. Let us assume that the result is true for some particular
value, say in of n • We nw show that the truth of P(m), namely
1112 (in ç- i
implies the truth of P(in+ I), namely

Zfl+ l)-I
1-3 2 + 3+ ... ±:&l(,nl)3= (2)
L.}1.S. of (2)=-(11+21+3 3
... + 'n a ) + (t?, +- I )
- n2(n
-!Y_ 1-(in 1- J)3 [by assumption (I)]
4
—(2
4(m+1))
(in+ l)2('n-+-2)2
— 4
1)41]2
4
= R.H.S. of (2)
From step I and II, we conclude by the principle of mathematical
induction, that the result is true for every natural number fl or all integral
values of n.
Example 8. Find the sum of the series:
I.4+3.7+5.I0-i-...'o ii terms.
Solution. The rth term of the series is equal to the product of the
rth teims of the two series
1, 3, 5,... and 4, 7, lO..
u,=[I+(r—l)2] . I
1-lence Sfl=
11
r1
U-
11
'l
(6r 2 —r—l)=6 > r 3 — i
fl
r—n
r=t


6n(n+ I )(2n + ) n(n -j- 1)
2
fl(4n2+5n1)
E x ample 9. Find the suin of the series
1 2 +3 2 +52 +7 2 -4-... -1- n terms
Solution. [I -f - (r— 1)2] 2 =(2r_ I ) 2 =4r 2 -4r-I- 1
11 it n
U, r- (4r 2 -.-4r4 1)=4 y r'-4 +fl
I -=1 r1
4 n(j)
n(n4-I)(2n-4-- I)n-4_
4.
61 2
n(4n'-_I)
3
Example 10. Find i/ic sum of the series Z4(1+2)+(l+2_i-3) ... tO
n terms,
Solution. U,j +2-f 3+... -f
S,, u, =- - ' E r2 + r
I n(n±I)(2n-4-l) I n(n-11)
6 ±2 2
n(n-f. 1)(n+2)
— 6
FampIe ii. Sum to n terms the following ser(es
12 12+22+31
+ 2 3
1 1 +2 2 +32 ± 4y2
Solution. Here u,.=-
r
r(r-f-1)(2r-f-I) 2r2+3r+1
= 6r 6
s= 21(2r2+3r+1)
r2+- r+
2 WE
1 t'(n -f-- 1)(2n .4-1) 1 n(n-4-1) 1

- 3 6 ± 2 2 + 6
- 13 (4122 - 5n ± 17)
26
Example 12. Su,n the series to it
2.4j5.f-468 -1-6.8.10-I-
Solution. The first factors of the terms form the sequence 2, 4, 6,...
where rth term is 2r. Also, the second factors of the terms form the
sequence 4, 6, 8, ... where nh term is (2r -f-2). Similarly, the third factors
of the terms form the sequence 6, 8, 10,. .where the rth term is (2r+4).
The rth term of the given series is
ur2r (2r+2)(2ri 4) .=8 r3 +24r 2 - 16r
a a Li
S. r3J-}-24[ r2 1+16 [ r]
r=I r=l r-I
=8 -24n(n+1)(2n+t) 16 i(a-f-1)
4 6
=2n(n 1)f'i(' * l)+2(2n 1) -1-41
=2n(n 4-I )(n .4 2)(+ 3).
Example 13. Sum to it the series

I.3 --4.4•i• 75 -f-JO.62±
Solution. Here u 7 =[I f(r - 1).3) x (3 4 (r_1).112=(3r__2)(r+2)2
=3r 3 + l0r2+4r-8
Sn= r, Urr ri(3T1- 10r2-l-4r-8)
n n fl
=3 > r '-4-1 0 1` 1 4-4 )
r- I r=l r'1
2(n ± )1 +10 n(n -1- 1)(2n+ 1) 4n(n-4. —8's

6 + 2
[9n + 49n ±44) - 8n
Example 14. Find the nth tern, and sum to it terms of the series
469 i-)3-i-l8+...
Solution. The law of formation of the series is not obvious. In
such a case we proceed as follows:
MAT!D3MATICAL INDUCTION 379
Let S denote the sum of the lust it terms and u the nth term of a
given series. Then
S=4+6+9-- 13 18-i-... +u
Also S,,= 4+6+9+ 134-...+u.1+u.
The same series is written again with each term shifted by one place
to the right.
By subtraction, we have
0=4+2+3+4+5±.,.
u,4+ (2+3-•4+5+...to n-- I terms)
j-72 1 [4+(n-2).1J
2
=4+1 (n+2)=-- (112+n+6)
Xn2+n+6n
1 rn(n+i)(2'-l-I) a(n+1) +6i
TL 6 2
12n 3 -f 611+ 40iiJ= (a2+3n+2O)
Example 15. Find the nth term and sum to n terms of the series
11+23+59+167+...
Solution. Let S,1 be the sum and U,,, the nth term of the given
etes.
Then S,,=l1+23+59+167++u
Also S,,= 11±23+59-I-...+u,,1-i-u
By subtracting, we have
0r11±12+36±108+.,+(u_u1)u
u,,=1 1+(12-l-36+108-f- ......to (n—I) terms)
3n-1_ I
=11+12 )=11+6(3-'--I)
(
=2. 3+5
Giving to n the vaiues I, 2, 3,..., n, we have
U,-2 . 3'--5
u2=2 325
U =2 . 3+5
3
u=2 . 314-5
3110
S=2(34.3232+±3n)+5n
2. 3(3-1)
-
4——, +
3af
+ 5n-3
Example 16. Swit to it terms the series:
1 1 1
1
Solution. U,.
(5n-1)(5n+4)
r=- I (5n+4) -(5a-1)
5n-I)(5
I I
=-
Giving ton the values 1, 2, 3,..., if— ; we have
11-• 1 1
j
in i
U2 ==_[_ --
U,_= 11. 1 - 1 1
ir i
Adding c olumnwisc, we get

1 ' it
5.¼4 5n +4 14(3n4-4)
Remark. The sum to infinity of the above series
1(1 ' I
54 )2O
Example 17. Find the sum of the fi rst n terms of the lizfinhle series
Go
and then prove that the series converges to the sum one,
[C.A., May, 1991]

Solution. We have
Ufl = ( 1 ) ±
n

MA'nrnMATfCAL INDUCTION 331
Giving to ii the values 1, 2, 3,..., ti — i, ; we have
=1-
I I
I'2T
1 1
U .33
4
I I
u.
U
I I
Adding columnwisc, we get

S = I .- --=-.-
p t+1 ni-I
The SUFTfl to infloity of the above series -= 1
Hence the series converges to the sum one.
EXERCISES
1. Use the method of induction to prove the following resuiN
(i) 1-f 3 -5-F-... +(2n-1)=rn (CA, Nov. 19911
(ii) 2-f-6+10+...+(4n-2)=2nt
(iii) 1.2+2,3+3.4-I--... -l-n(nf1)==n(n-l-l)(n-]-2)
(iv) 1.2.3 f- 2.3.4+3,4.5+ ... -I-( n -- l)(n+2)
= . (n -li) (it F 2) (m - 3)
(v) l.2-I-3.2+5.2+.. +(2n-- I) 2=(n— 1) 2 tl _2 ?H- t f6

I ___n
(ri)
(vii) 2 -- I is divisible by 15.

(viii) 3" 2n-- I is divisible by 4.
(ix) nyi 1 )(2n - 1) is divisible by 6.
7"+ 16r1— I is divisible by 64.
(xl) I *
+21H23
2. If the matrix P is given by

3 4\
_1 1)
then using the l'f1j iQjj c Of Mathematical Induction establish that
- ( 11 . 2n 41:
--ii 1---21:
For all positive integer.; 1: > I. [CA., May, 1991]
3. Sum to it terms the series
(1) 2i 51-82-F-.... (ii)
(iii) 1 .44 3.715.10± ... (fr) 1.3.5-1-3.5.7+5.7.9±
4. Find the nrh term and the sum to it terms of the series
2.3 t +5,4 2 ±8.5+1 1.6+...
5. Sum to U terms of the series
(i) I +(14-3)40 +3--5)+...
(ii) 1 2 +(1 2 +2 2 )* (12+22±32)+...
(iii) i 1 ±--+)F( I-I

(ii +)+
6. Find the sum of the following series
(i) a. 1 -i-(n-- 1).2-1- (11-2).3 1- ... -I-2.(n— 1)H- La
(11) ( i---)-
. ( i_ 2 )+( 1_--)± ... ton terms.
7. Find the sum of n terms of the series whose nth terms are
(I) 3 71 1 42fl, (11) n2". (iii) 53' +2,1
it
8. Find the 11th terms and sum to of the series
(I) 1+5-1-12+22+...
(ii) 4+14+30+524-80+...
(iii) 3±6+11120+37±,..
9. Find the sum to a terms and to infinite terms of the following
series
1 1 1
(z) 10.i3+
1 1 1
(a)
(p2)(p4) (p-f 4)(p+6)+(p+6)(p+8) "
10. Prove that n 2 -f. 2af1 +2+3±...-1-(n—l)]=.

MATHEMATICAL INDUCITON 383

ii. (a) Find the sum of the series
1 3 (1+2\ f13-l2-F3\
-I-----}-J---------- —j-i- ton terms
1 2 1 2 1.2 2 12 I_2 2 32
(h)
TT + ... to 11 terms
ANSWERS
3. i) - ( 602 + 311 I), (ii) n 2 n2 1), (iii) PJ(4fl2.{ - I),

(ir) ,i(n I )(2n I- 6" I) —3)1
4• 31t- . ] 1 - 8n--4; '-(9i3 + 62n 2 +

12 3 n + 2 2).
5, (i) I n ( ;' i- 1)(211 1- I), (U) "0F I )2(,, -F 2),

1\) 3 Il 1-
(w)- 3'( 1 ,
2 r 3"
6. (i) n(n - I )(n -1- 2) (ii) (ii-- I )
7. (1) 1)(2n
n(n-l- + 3), (ii) (n -- I)2' '+2, (iii) ( 311 `-9] ii(iz + 1)
f
8. (i) (Jn 1), ..cL±1311 i-2 ] (ii) 3n 1 n, n(n-f 1)2
(iii) 2" -i n, 2' ' 1- not I- I) –2

n
9. (i)±(—L__L_)
3 3n+ I 3n+4 ' 4(3ii' 1)12
I
(ii)_ --- 2n if
2 ( p -f2)(p+2n2) -- (P2)(p+2n±2)
-F ' 2(p+_2)
J. 1)(n-l-2)(3n-4 5)
11. (h)
48
12
Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions
STRUCTURE
120. INTRODUCTION
121, ARII'UMETIC PROGRESSION
322. SUM OF A SERIES IN A.P.
123. ARfUWvIETIC MEAN
124. GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
12'5. SUM OF A SERIES IN G.P.
126. GEOMETRIC MEAN
OBJECTIVES
Alter studying this chapter, you Should h able to understatid
• arithmetic progression, its sum, arithmetic nie:l'i and its applica-
tions in solving problems.
• geometric mean and its applications in solving problems.
120. INrRODUCTI0N
In this chapter we shall discuss two special types of series with
sequences increasing or decreasing by an absolute quantity or a certain
ratio designated as arithmetic and geometric progreSsiOflS respectively.
121. ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
An arithmetic progression is a sequence whose terms increase or
decrease by a constant number called the conmion difference. A series in
arithmetic progression thus becomes an additive series in which the
common difference can be found by subtracting each term from its pre-
ceding one. Thus
(i) the sequence I, 5, 9, 13, Il, 21, 25,... is an infinite arithmetic
progression of se v e n terms, the first term is 1 and the common difference is
4. Similarly.
(ii) the sequence 4, , 3, , 2, , 1, . 0, -, ...is an arithmetic pro-
gression whose first term is ' 4 and the common difference is--
ARITIIMErIc AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 385
The corresponding arithmetic series are

(i) 1+5+9+13+17 1-21- 25+...
(ii) 4++3-±2+Fl+H 0—+,..
Thus if the first term and common difference are known, the A.P. is
completely kno\\n,
The arithmetic progression
a, (a-fd), fa+2d), (a±3d), ...
whose first term js a and the common difference is d, is designated as the
standard form of OPI (lrit/lflletiC progression.
The corresponding arithmetic series
a+(a 1-d)+(a+2d)-f(a+3d)+
i designated as the standard form of an arithmetic series. The abbrevia-
tio AT.' for arithmetic progrssion is commonly used.
Definition. If jOr a sequence { u}, u,, —u remains constant for all
naturaf numbers n, then the sequence is ca/lcd the .4,P. and the numerical
dfferencc between two consecutive, terms n and u..1, Is called the
common djTerence of the A.P.
The nth terri of an A.P. Let 'q' he the first term and 'd' be the
Common difference.
Then first term (u1)=a
second term (u2) = a - d
third term (u3)-r(a+d)f.d=a±2d
seventh term (:i) =r(a+5d){d=a+6d
nth term (u)=a+(n-1)d, which is also the term indicated by 1.

This nth term is called the general term of the standard A.P., as by giving
n, the values 1, 2, 3, 4, ...the successive terms of the A.P. can be obtained.
Example. 1. Whlchterm of series
i2+9+6-I-.
is equal to (i) —30, (ii) —100 ?
Solution. (I) The series is an A,P. with first term 12 and common
difference —3.
u==a 4-(n----- 1)d== 12+(n— l)( .-3) '15-3n
Suppose the nth term is —30 then
15-3n=-30
—30 is the 15th term.
(ii) Now suppose that u,= - 100
15-3n=---100
which is impossible, because fl must be a whole number. Hence there
exists no term in the series which is equal to - 100.
386 BUSINESS MA1HMAT1CS
Example. 2. If a, b, core the pih, qth and rib terms of an

show that a(q—r)+b(r_p)+c(p_q) 0.
Solution. Let the A.P. be A, A+ D, A-f-2D.......
Then a=A+(p-1)D
b=A+(q_1)D
c=A-F (r—l) D
Subtracting (2) from (r), we get
a —b - (p—q)D
and subtracting (3) from (2), we get
b —c=(q_r)D
Dividing (4) and (5, we get
a—b p•—q
b-cq-r
(a b)(q—r)=(b--c)(p—q)
(a—b)(q—r)—(b—c)(p_q)=O
a(q—r) —b(q—r)— b(p—q)+c(p_q)=O
a(q—r) -b(q—r+p—q)+c(p--q)=O
a(q—r)-}-b(r--p)-j-c(p—q)=O
Alternative Solution
L.I-l.S.=a(q_-r)+b(r—P)+c(p_q)
=[A-4-(p— 1)DJ(q—r)+[A+(q--- l)D](r—p)+[A+(r--- 1)D](p—q)
=A(q—r) -I- (r—. p) -p__q))+D[( p— 1)(q— r)_f-(q— 1)(r —p)
+(r—l)(p—q)]
=AxO+DxO=-O=R.H.S.
Remark We have taken A instead of a because a is already
present in the question.
Example. 3. The pth term of an A.P. Is q and the qth term is p.
Show that the nh term is p -F q—r and the (p+q)th term Is zero.
solution. Let a be the first term and d the common difference of
the given series. We are given
q=a+(p—l)d
p=a+(q_-l)d
q—p_—pd—qd=(p—q)d
d(p — q)= — (p— q)
d=-1
ARITHM1LC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS
387
Substituting the value of d in (I), we get
a+(p—l)(-_1)=q . a-pf1=q
a=p+q-1
The rth term a+ (r— l)d=(p+q—l)+(r—l)(_ l)=p+q--r
Also ( p -F q )th term is
a -( p -f q— l)d=-( p + q — I)l( p +q— l)(— 1)=-0
122. SUM OF A SERIES IN A.P.
The sum of a series in A. P. is an important quantity which yields

many other related results. We denote the sum of n terms by S and the
first and the last terms of the sequence by a and / respectively.
The formula used for finding out the sum of a series in A.P. is
5.fl(U+!)
.. (1)
By substituting (a -4--(n - l)d} for 1, the above formula can also be
written as
S --{2(z-f(n—I)d)
This formula is used when the last term is not known. The proofs of
(I) and (2) are as follows
Proof. Let / denote the nth term and S, the sum of the first a
terms of the A.P., a, a -- d, a - 2(1.....a-f (n .— I )d, then
S,=a+(a+d) -f. (a 1-2d)i- ,..1-(/-2d)+(l—d)+l
Writing the series in the reverse order, we get

2S,=(a-I-l)+(a+/)+(a+I)4-...+(a+1)+(a+1)+(a+1)=n(a+1)
S= - (a+I)
Altern tive Proof. We prove the same result by means of the

Principle of Mathematical Induction. Let P(n) denote the formula for the
um of n terms so that
P(n) a4-(a4d)--(a-4-2iJ)4-...+{a+(fl--l)d}
=--[2a+(n_l)dl (1)
(a) By putting n= I in (I), we get
L.H.S. of(l)-a
R.H.S. of(I)=--(2a+(l—l)d}
L.H.S.=R.H.S., i.e., P(l) is true.

388 BUSINESS MATI{E3MAr(cS
(b) We prove the second part of the formula. We now show the
fruith of F(n) for some value m of n, namely
a+(a-fd)-f-...+(a±(m_1)d)
= "' [2a + (in — I)d] ... (2)
implies the truth of P(m4- 1), namely

a+(aj d )+... + (a -1 -(tn — 1)d)-F-(a1 end)
2a
Now LIES. of(3) =a.f(a+d)+(a.!2d)+

(in —l)d}+ (am +d)
I (a1-
In
2 [ 2a fl - ( in — l)d]+(a+tnd) from (2)]
in
=a -- -f (in 2 _a )d . a + md
('n -i l)af--[(tn_1) 1-2
(m+ j)a+ '-(,n+J)d= 1±[2a-J_met
=R.H.S. of (3)
From the steps (1) and (2), we conclude that
P(n)=[2a + Qj — I)d
is true for all positive integral values of n•

Example. 4. Find the sum of the series
(1) 2+3-I-5+6-F...1o25term
(ii) 72+70-1-68+... +40.
Solution. (i) Here the first term a is 2, the common difference
dj3 3--_2=-r1_--=-}. The last term is not known while the number
of terms or n is 25. We apply the formula
S'.
- -[a -i - n -_ l)d]
s25 =[ 2x2+(25_l)]i[4+36]5OO
(ii) The given series is an A.P. with a==72 and d= —2. Let fl be
the number of terms, Then u,r40
ARITIIMIrrIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 389
af(n-1)l=4O
* 72 f (ii 1)(-2)==40, i.e., Zn 34 or n=17.
Now S=r -.-(a i-I)
SL? : -(72+40)=952
Example S a) The first and the last terms of an A.P. are respecti-
vely —4 and 146, and the sum of A. P. = 7171. Find the number of terms
of the A.P. and also its Common difference. [I.C.W.A,, December 1990]
Solution : We have a=r-4, 1- 146 and S,,=7171
Let a be the number of terms of the A.P.
S,= - (a +1) 7171 (-44146)

or n=1Ol
Also 146—(-4)+(101_1)/ 1OOd-=J46+4._5O
or d=1.5
Hence fl=1Ol and drl5
b) The sum of a series in A.P. is 72, the first term 17 and the
common difference —2, find the number of terms and explain the double
answer
Solution. Let a denote the number of terms.
Using S,= --[2a+(n_1)d], we have 72=-[34_(n-_1)2]
* n'-18n-f-72==0, I.e., ("-6 (n-12)=O
n=6 or 12.
The double answer shows that there are two sets of numbers whose
separate sums are 72. The series to 6 terms is 17, 15, 13, 11, 9, 7 and
to 12 terms is 17, 15, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3, 1, - 1, —3, 5, ; the sum of the
Last 6 terms in the latter series is zero and so the sum of the
6 earlier terms
of the series is the same as that of 12 terms.
Example 6. Find the sum to n terms of the series
('- -- ) + ( i— )+(i
Solution. Here
U2_U1=(
14)_( 1_-- ) =_-
nd us—u2=( -( i_--) =--
1 -- -)

The series is in A.P. with a=( i_-), d=-__L
Hence 1
S,, = -- 2a + (n I )d
4{ 2( i4)+(n—i )(4)
=( l_--)=x_---=--_
Example 7. Find fire sum of the series
'+ 3 - 5 ± 7 + 9 -11+ 13+15--17+.10 3,; terms
Solution. The series can be easily split into three A.P.'s in each
of which, number of terms are n and ills 6.
.'. The required sum
=0 +7+13+ .-. to n terms) + (3+9 f 15+ ... to n terms)
—(5-I11 -- 17-1- ... to rzterms)
2+(n-1)6 ]+--[ 6+(n—l)6
J_ -[ lOf(n_l)6]
_j[ 2+6n_6+6+6n_6_I0_ón+6]
(6n-8)==3n2_4n
Exaxuple 8. S denotes the sum of the first n terms of a series, If

S. rr(2fl*+3fl), show that the series is in A.P.
Solution. S,,== 2,z+ 3n
S,=2.1 2 +3.1 =5
S1 =2.22 -j- 3.2=14
S a=2.3' + 3.327
S4 = 2.42 + 3.4= 44
Now 1st term=S1 =5, 2nd term=S1 —S1 14-5=9,
3rd term =S,—S,=27—l4= 13; 4th termS4 —S3 =44 - 27== 17.
The series is 5, 9, 13, 17, ... which is in A.P. with common
difference 4.
Example 9. Find the 20th term of the arithmetic progression 15,
13, 11,... Calculate the number of terms required to make the suns
So zero.
Solution. 20th term='U10 15 +(20— I)(— 2) —23.
In the second case the sum is equal to zero and we have to find n.
A RITH NI MC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 391
o-= -f 1 2x l5+(n—l)x(-2) ^^n(16—n)

either if or n=16
Hence the only admissible value is ,z=16.
Example 10. Find the sum of all natural numbers between 200 and
400 which are divisible by 7
Solution. The natural numbers between 200 and 400 which are
divisible by 7 are 203, 210, 217,..., 399. They form an arithmetic pro-
gression (A.P.) of the type
7 x 29, 7 x 30, 7 x 31, ...,7x57
where the first term is 203 and the nth term is 399. The number 'of the
terms are
399 =203+(n —1) x 7 r>

n29
Now the sum of all the numbers between 200 and 400 which aro
divisible by 7 can be obtained by applying the formula of Al'., viz.,
S= -(a + l) --[-7x29 F7<57fl
=7[ i (29 f-57)]=r7[29 X 43] -=8729

Example 11. Find the sum of natural numbers from I to 200 cx-
eluding those divisible by 5.
Solution. The required sum
=-.(l+2+3-}-...+2O0)—(5f-1Of15 1-..200)=S1-51
The sum of the first bracket is
S1==--(a+l) ==P (l i-200)-=20,100
For finding out S 2 , the sum of the second bracket, let us first find out
the value of fl Since the last term here is 200; we have
5+(n— 1)5=200 [; a-f-(n-1)d=200]
5f5n--5=200, i.e., 5n=200
n=40
Hence, the sum of 40 terms with a=5 and /=200 is
S2=40[5+200 ]=4l00
The required sum is 20,100 -4100= 16000

Example 12. Show that the sum of all odd numbers between 2 and
1000 which are divisible by 3 is 83667 and of those not divisible by 3 i
1)66,332.
39Z BUSINESS MATHEMAILCS
Solution. We notice that the first odd number which is divisible

by 3 is 3 and the last number < 1000 and divisible by 3 is 999.
We have to find the sum of 3-3-94-15-J-21 i-...+999. Since 999 is
the nth term of this series, we have
3-f(n— 1)6=999
(n--l)6--996, i.e. n-1)=166
n=167.
The required sum =_ 2 [2 x 3+ 166.x 16'7E3 -1 4981 =
Again by inspection, we observe that the odd numbers between 2 and

1000 not divisible by 3 are
5, 7, 11, 13,..., 995. 997
For finding their sum we shall arrange them into the arithmetic
series as,
(5+11+I7+...+9951(7-13--194- ... +997=S1-1-S(say)
If 995 is the nth term of the first A.P., then
5 - ( fl- . 1)6=995, i.e., (n . 1)6=990
n.--166
Similarly if 997 is the nth term of second A.P., then

997==74-(n---l)6, i.e., ('1- 1)6=990
fl :166
Hence the required sum

=S1 +S2 == 83,000 + 83,332=1,66,332.
Example 13. if a, 5, c, be the sums of p, q, r terms respectively of
an A.P., show that
P q
Solution. Let A denote the first term and D the common difference
of an A.P. Then
,7==
b=
.[2A+(P_I)D
[2A + q— 1)D ]
I
C= +[2A±(r. 1)D ]
ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRSS10NS 393
The above equations can he written as

aA(l)D
PA+(q—l)
- (r_ I) (3)
Multiplying (1) by q— r, (2) by r -p, (3) by p—q and adding, we get

a b c
--(q— r)H--_(r-p±)—( p-- q) r+r—p-t-p—q)
p . l)(qr) T, (q-l)(r_p)+(r—l)(p—q) ]
Example 14. 1] S 1 , S, S 9 be respectively the sum of it, 2n, 3n terms

of an 4.1'., prove that 5 3 3(5. - - Si).
Solution. Let a be the first terin and d the common difference of
an A.P., then
-
fa (n l)d
I
Changing n to 2n and 3n, e get
S2a+(2n—J)d
f ^ i
and S3={2a-+(3z_l)d
I
2 2a4(2n_l)d1_--. 2a+(n-1)d }
S2 Si =
=- [{4a+(4n_-2)d_{2a+(n_1)d
fl
2a + (3n— J)d ]
1
3(S_S1)=-[2a+(3n_-l)d]=S5
Example IS. If S, S e ,.. , S, are the sums, each ton terms of p

arithmetic progressions whose first terms are 1, 2, 3, ,,. and common
difference are 1, 3, 5, 7, ... respectively, then show that
394
Solution. Since S1 is the sum of n terms of an AP. 1+2+3+....
s1=[2.1±(fl_l).1 ] .n(n4-1)
2
Again S is the sum of terms of the A.P. 2+5+8+.,.,
2
SZ=[2.2+(fl_l)3]n-f-.1)
and S8 is the sum of n terms of the A.P. 3-1-8+13+.,.
s3 [ 2.3( _ I) 5]n(Sn+1)
Lastly S" is the sum Of terms of the A. P.
Sr_2 [2P+(fl_1)(2p_I) j
(2p1)n 11]
]++r3n+Jj^[sPz±I]
+...---j2P_l)n+1 ]
( (
1 n+ 0+ 3?1 ]- 1 )+(5n + 0+ .,.+((2p—I)n+ 1) ]
n(I + 3 ^ 5+ ...+ (2p— 1))+p]
=4[ n(2+P.2)+P]
nPO + P — 1) 4-P
I
p(np + I)
I
Example 16.
7n-5 : n +17. Show Let the sum of a terms of two A.P.'s be in ratio
that the 6th terms of two series are equal.
Solution. Let the two A.P.'s be
a, a +, a---2d, ...,
a1, a1 + d1, a1-f2d1 , ..., a1 j-(n_ I)d1
ARITIIMETtC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 395
We are given that
S.
2a--(n—l)d
--[ j 7,j5
S,,
T+(
[2a,
2a -l- (Jz- l)d 7,, -5

2a 1 I (n—l)d15n-4-17
We want to find the ratio of 6th term, i.e., we want to find
2a-l• 1()d
which can be obtained from by (1)
writting it as
above
a1+5d1 , 2a1-1-10d1
&e., by putting n=l I in (1) above. Therefore
a +5 d 2a±1Od 2a-f(ll----l)d 7.11 --5
a+5d2a 1 +lOd1 2a 1 j-(11--1)d 1 5.11+17 =1
a-j--5d=a15d1
6th terms of the series are equal.
Example 17. The natural numbers are written as follows
1
23
456
7 8 9 10
Show that the sum of the numbers in the nth row is n(n 2 -J- 1).
Solution. Evidently the number of terms in each row is the same
as its order, nth row will contain fl terms.
The first term of the nth row will be the nth term of the series
1+2+4-f-7f...
Let S, denote the sum and t,1, the nth term of the series
S=1 +2+4+7+...+u.
Also S= l-F24-i-...4u,,_1+u
Subtracting and transposing, we get
u=1-f-(l_l-2+3+ ..... . to '-1 terms)
—1+ 2+(n-2).l 1(fl2_fl+2)
This is the first term of the nth row. Thus the terms in the nth row will
form a series in A.P. whose first term is (n2—n-f-2), the common differ-
ence as 1 and the number of terms n.
396
Sum of the numbers in the nth row
r2 . 1(n2_n+2)+(n_1).1 ]
=(fl2+l)
123. ARITHMETIC MEAN

When there are three quantities in A.P,, the middle one is called the
arithmetic 'nears of other two terms. If a, I,, C are in A.P., we have
b—a=c---h or 2h-a+c
In general, when any number of quantities form an A.P., the quantities

lying in between the first and the last are called the Arithmetic means
(briefly written as A.Ms). Thus if the terms a, '1 ) , A 2 ,.,., A, h are in
A-P, the quantities A 1 , A,,.....A,,, are called the A.Ms. between a and h.
Insertion of Arithmetic Mea ns.Let A l , A 2 ,..., A,, be the
.A.Ms. between a and 5. Then a, A,, A 2 , ..., A,,, b are in A.P.
b is the (':+2)th term of this A.P., let d be the common difference.
hrra4(n .f-2_ l)d
Hence A1=a-fd=aL,)
n+]
a4-2da+2
A 3 =a43d==a+3 L)
n+1
A,.=a+nd=a+n(b,.!)
Example 18. Find the 14 arithmetic means which can be inserted

-between 5 and 8 and show that their sum is 14 times the arithmetic mean bet.
ween 5 dnd 8.
Solution. Let A l , A 2 , A,, ..., A 4 be the 14 A.Ms. between 5 and 8.
Then, 5, A,, A,, ... A, 4 , 8 form an A.P. whose first term is
5
16th term is 8. Let d be the common difference of the A.P., thenand whose
8=5+(16—I)d . d=-
Ai==a+d5+? ;
ARITHMErIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 397
27 28
Hence the fourteen A.Ms. are-s--,
26
-c
Sum of these means is 2 x( 14- 1 ^9t
)--1
5 . 1 -5 13
A.M. between 5 and 8 is
and 14 tunes the A. Ni is 14 13

x --- -9
Hence the sum of the 14 A. Ms, - 14 times the A . M. between 5 and 8.

Representation of Terms in A.P. We can conveniently represent
the terms in A.P. as follows
(I) 3 terms a- -ci, (2, it ci
(ii) 4 terms a--3d, a —/, (i -f- il, (i-f-3d
(iii) 5 terms a— 2d, a-- d, a, 0 i d, a r- 2d.
It should be noted that in case of odd number of terms, the middle term
is a wh4c in case of even number ol terms, the middle terms are a —il,
a +d and common difference is 2d. Tb toulowing examples will ilIustrat
the use of such representation.
Example 19. Find three numbers in .1,?. , whose sum is P and the
product is --165.
Solution. Let the three numbers in A.P. be a—d, a, a+d
Now we are given
(a— (I)+ a -1 (a.j-d)=9
3a-9,i.e.,a3
Also we are given
(a-d) x ax(a+cJ)= —165
(3—d)x3x(3+d)_r--- 165
9__d2_55,i.e., d2 64
d ==-l-8
Putting a-3 and d-=8 in (1), we get the required numbers as
3-8,3, 3-{-8, i.e., —5,3, 11
Il we take a= 3 and d= —8, we get
3—(-8), 3, 3+(--8), i.e., 11, 3, —.5
which are the same numbers as before, written in reverse order.
Example 20. Find four numbers it' A.P. whose sum Is 20 and the
sum of whose squares is 120.
Solution. Let the four numbers in A.P. be

a-3d,a--d,a+ d,a-4-3 d (I)
Sum of four numhers=20
(a-3d)-l-(a—d)+(a-fd)+(a+3d)20
4a=20, i.e., a=5
Sum of their squares= 120
(a— 3d)2+(a_d)2+ ( (j 0)
2 f (a4_3d) 2 = 120
(5— 3(1) 2 l(5 _d)2 +(5 .4d)2 + (5+3(1)2=120
25_30df. 02 f. 25_10d+d 2 +25+ 10(Ifd2 +25_3Qd9d2 = 120
100+202._120
d2=1 or d--. ± 1.
Putting a = 5 and d I in (I), we get the required numbers to be
5-3,5-1, 5+1, 5+3, I.e., 2,4,6,8.
If we take a= 5 and d__----I . we get the same numbers in reverse order.
Example 21. Find the three n u mbers in A. P., where the slim of the
numbers is 24 and the sum of their cubes is 1968.
Solution. Let the three numbers in A.P. he a—d, a,
Then, as given in the problem,
(a—d) j.-a-j- (a 4-d)24
a==8
Also (8—d) (g)3
+(8 fd) 3 =r 1968
(8)— 3(8)2.d+ 3 . ( 8)d2 —d 3 -l- (8) + 8 + 3(8)2.d+ 3.(8).d2 - d= 1968
3.(512)46.8d2 = 1968
48d2= 1968-1536=432
d2=9
d=4-3,
Hence the three numbers are 5, 8, Ii.
Example 22. Divide 12 Into f ive parts in A.P. such that the first
arid the last parts are in the ratIo 2 : 3.
Solution. Let the five parts in A.P. be
a-_2d,a_d,a,a.d,a+2d ... (1)
The sum of these parts= 12
(a - 2d) + (a— d) -- a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) =1 2
* 5a=12, i.e., a=—
Also first part: fifth part =2 : 3
a-2d 2
2 3a_6d=2a+4d
3. JOd=a-=
• 5
d=--1_.
ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS
399
Putting a=-- and d=--- in (I), we get the parts to b
5 1 5 1 5 5 i 51
----: 2 4' '
I.e., 2, 2-i, 2 4Z, 2 ,
Example 23. (fa, b, c are in A. P., tfie,i prove that
(i) & f4b + C3/,(t -1 c2)

(ii) a2+4ac+c2__2(ah+/)c C(j),
Solution. (() Let d be the common difference of this A.P.
SO that
/,=a-j daj c=(, i 2d
Now L.H.S. + 4(a- . d)3 -I (a+2d)3
==a2 +4(a 3&d -3ad2 }-d3) - ((j 3 I- 6a2 d+ I 2ad2
I- 8db)
r=a34a34(jd f- 1
6a2d+12ad248d8
=60+ 18a 2 d+24ad 2 i 12(13
.S. - 3h(a2 f-c2 ) = 3(a -f-d)[a2 (a + 2(j) 2j
= 3(a + d)[a 2 f- a2 -f- 4a(/-j- 4/2]
(3a -. 3d)(21i2 t- 4ad 4- 4d')
=60-4- 18a2d424ad+ 12d*
L.H-S.=R.H.S.
(ii) L,H:S.=a 2 f 4ac+c'=r.02..f 4 0(a +2d)+ (a.f 2d)2
=04-40 . 1 . 8ad+a2+4ad+J2
= 6a2 -f- I 2ad-j- 4d'= 2(3a' + 6ad+ 2d2)
R.H.S.== 2(ah+bc4-ca)
2 [a(a + d )+ (a + d)(a4. 2°) -4- (a+2d)a]
=2[a2 +ad+a 2 4 3ad+2d2+a2+2acj]
=2[3a 2 + 6ad+ 2d2J.
L.H.S.=R,H.s.
Example 24. If a, b, c are in A.P., show that
a(/,-f-c) b(c+a) c(a-4-b)
ca' ab
(II) a!(b-f c), b( c + a), ct
(a-fb) are also In A,F,

Solution. (I) Since a, b, C are in AP.,

J b C
-- arc also in AT.
abc ' abc ' abc
(by dividing each term by abc)
I-_i I
I.e. - are in A.P.
bc' Ca' ac
• ab4-bc+ca ab l-bc+ca clb+bc i ca
• ' are also in A.P.
be Ca ab
[by multiplying each term by ab+bc+a]
ab i - bc J- ca , abbc 4-Ca abf-bc -ca
caab
, —t are also in A. P.
be
(by substracting one from each term)
ab + ca ab -t. bc bc -- co
are also in AT.
bc ' ca
0(0+-c) b(c-i-a) c(afb)
are also fl A.P.
be ' Caab •'
(ii) Multiplying each term by abc, we get
a 3 (&+c), b Z (c+ a ), c'(a Ib) are also in A.P.
1 /
Example 25 II i 1 ---, - - are in A,P., prove that a, b, e'
-f-c c-f-a' a
Ire also in A.P.
1 1 1
Solution. are in A.P.
b-Fe' c-f-a ' a
(c-f--a)(a+b). (b+C)(a-f-b), (b-f-C)(C--o) are also in A.
[by multiplying each term by (b+C)(c+a)(a+b)J
ai . ( bc+ca+ab), b2 -- (be -4-ca+ab), c 2 (bc.fca+ab) are in A. P.
a 1 , bt, c2 ace in A.P.
(by substracting (bc+ca+ab) from each termi
Example 26, if a1 , b2 , c2 are in ALP., prove that
1 1 1
are also if) ,4.P.
() -c+- -
a' a + b
b+ c '
a b C
are also in A.P.
b t c , c-f-a' a+b
T' -,
1 1 1
1 1
If ---. -
c-i-a b-fe a+hc+a
b+ c — c — a c+a—a—b
i.e,, 1
(c+a)(b±c) (a-i-b)(c- a)

A*LTIIMIITIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 401

i.e., if b--a)(a I.b)(c..-b)(c-1-b)
i.e., if
i.e., if a2, b2 , C2 are in A.I.
h c - - ri c 3-a-b a+b--c
Example 27. 1] i-
-----, --,- , --- are in A.P., show
1 1 /
that -- -b-., ---- are also in ,t.?.
a' c
hf-c-a c+a--b a 1-b---c
a ' b ' c
b ±c_-a c+a-b a+b-c
-1-2, +2, -----+2 are also in A. P.
b
b +c-J-a c-f-a-i-h ai b-f--c
a -, ------- are also in A.P.
p ' C
1 1. 1
- are also in A. P.
Exampie 28. If (b -c)', (c-a)', (a-b)' are in A.P., show that

•
are also In A.P.
b-c' c--a' a-h
Solution. Put b---c-x, c-a=y, a.-b=z
Then -i-y+z=(b-- c )+( c --- a ) +(a-b)=O
x=-(y-f-z) and z=-(x-}-y)
Now c-a
-i---
-J a- b will be in AAR
b-c'
1 1 1
if --- -- --- are in A.P.
X ' y ' z
1 1 1 1
t.e.,if
Y x Z y
I e., if
xy yz
i.e., if
x z
Z
i.e., if
--(y+z) --(x-3-y)
i.e., if ;'--. x 2 = z2.yi
I. e., if x', y ', z 2 are in A. P.
i.e. if (b_c)2, (c-a) 2 , (a-b)' are in A.P.
which is true by hypothesis.

402 BUSINESS MATlIEMATIC

E xample 29. If a, b, c are in A.P ., show that
(b-f-c), (b + a), (a -f b) are also in A. P.
So1uto. b c, ca, a+b will be in A.P. if
(c f-a)-(b+c)—(af.b)(c+a)
i.e., if a bb- c
i.e., if a, b, c are in A.P.
which is true by hypothesis.
Exaniple 30. A man saved Rs. 16,500 in ten years. In each year
after the first he saved Rs. 100 more than he (lid in the preceding year.
How much did he saved in the fi rst year?
Solution. Here a--- savings in the first year=-?
n --nurnhcr of ycars.- 10, d= 100 , S,, = 16,500
Now [2af(n—j)dj
16,500= [2a+(I0-1)100)
16500=5(2a-f-900)
l0a= 16,500 —4,500 -- 12,000
a=Rs. 1200.
Euarn P le 31. A piece of equipment cost a certain factory Rs, 60,0,000.
If It depreciates in value, i5°,i,
. in the first year, 13% in the next year, 12%
in the third year, and soon, what will be its value at the end of 10 Years,
all percentages applying to the original cost ?
S olution. Suppose the cost of an equipment is Rs. 100. Now the
Percentages of depreciation at the end of 1st, 2nd, 3rd years are 15,
131, 12,.. which are in A.P., with a15 and d=----
Hence percentage of depreciation in the tenth year

= a -l-(IO— l)d=159(_3_
Also total value depreciated in 10 years

15+ 13
-=( 15+--)J-
Hence the value of equipment at the end of 10 years
165 35
100
2 2
The total cost being Rs. 6,00,000, its value at the end of 10 years
6,00,000 35
= Rs. > -- Rs. 1,05,000.

ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 403

Example 32. 80 coins are placed in a straight line on the ground.
Th e distance between any two consecutive coins is 10 nerreshow far
must a person travel to bring them one by one to a basket placed 10 metres
behind the first coin ?
Solution.
0 1 2 3 80
I I I -
10 I 10 I 10
Let 1, 2, 3,,.., 80 represent the positions of the coins and 0 that of
the haskt.
The distance covered in bringing the first coin = 0-1- 10 :20
2nd =201 20=40
3rd ,, =30 1-30--60
and so on.
Folal distance covered
{2a+ (ii — 1)d}
{2 x 20 4-(80— 1)20}
40(40 ± 1580) = 64,800 metres.
Example 33. A man is employed to count Rs. 10,710, Ile counts
at the rate of Rs. 190 per minute for half an hour. Afler this he cowirs at
the rote of Bs. 3 less every minute than the preceding minute. Find the
time taken hi' him to count the entire amount
Solution. Amount counted in half an hour
=Rs. 180><30-Rs. 5400
Balance to be countcdRs. 10,710—Rs. 5,400=Rs. 5,310
In one minute j-ust after half an hour, the amount counted is
Rs. 177.
Let n minutes be taken to count Rs. 5310, then
5310=-- {2x1774- (n-1)>(•-3)}=-- (357-3n)
- 3,F--357n H 10620=0
- 119n+3540=0, i.e.,
(it— 59)(n-60)=0
Either 11_r59 or 60
Now in 59 minutes alter half an hour, ftc amount counted
._:i_ 2x177-58x31,=.5310
and i1thing is counted in the 60th minute since a -f-59d=177-59x3 0

The required time =304 59=89 minutes.
Example 34. B arranges to pay off a debt of Rs. 9600 in 48 annual
Instalments which form an arithmetic series. When 40 of these instalment:
are paid, I? becomes insolvent and his creditor finds that Rs. 2400 still re-
mains unpaid. Find the value of each of the first three instalments of B.
Ignore interest.
Soludon. We are here given S= 9600, n=48
9600= {2a -- (48 - 1 )d} . 2a+ 47d= 400 . (1)

Also 600— 2400=7200
Again 7200 (2a {-(40 - l)d}=20(2a± 39d)
2a+39d=360
Solving (1) and (2), we get a=82, d=5.
Hence the first three instalments are Rs. 8250, Rs. 8750, and
Rs. 9250.
Example 35. A man agrees to repay a debt of Rs. 2500 in a number
•f Instalments, each instalment (beginning with the second) exceeding the
previous one by Rs. 2. If the first Instalment be of Re. 1, find how many
Instalments will be necessary to wipe out the loan completely?
a-1, d=2, S=2500, n=?
Now S,.==j (2a-l-(n---1)d
2500-=-- {2x1+(n—I)21=-_2+2fl_21
* 2n2= 5000
'1=50
Example 36. The rate of monthly salary of a person Is increased
annually in A.P. It is known that he was drawing Rs, 400 a month during
the lit/i year of his service, and Es. 760 during the 29:/i year. Find his
starting salary and the rate of annual increment. What should be his
salary at the time of retirement just on the completion of 36 years of service ?
Solution. Let a be his starting salary and d
he annual increment.
Now u11=400 . a+(lj_I)d4O0
and U29=760 a+(29_l)d 760

.cRITW1iirjC AND GEOMITRTC PROGRESSIONS
Subtracting (1) and (2). we get

18d=360 d=20
From (I), we get a+200400 a== 200
Starting salary=Rs. 200 and annual increrncnt=Rs. 20
Salary at the time of retirement=-u36 _a+35d200-l-35x20900
Example 37. Mr. Mohan Lul buys national savings certificates of
values exceeding of the !ast year's purchase by Rs. ZOO. After 10 years he
finds that the iotal value of the certificates purchased by him is R& 5000.
Find the value of the certificates purchased b y him. (1) in the first year, (II) In
the 81h year.
Solution. Suppose value of the certificates purchased in the first
year=-Rs. a
So he has purchased certificates of the value
a, a+ IOU, a+200, a 1-300,...
Also SLO=5000, d-- 100, 'i==lO
Now S=--2a-f(n----1)d)
5000=-{2a1-(10—l) 1001
5C00-5[2a+ 900]
1000-900=2a
a=50.
Value of certificates purchased in first year= Rs. 50
Again value of certificates purchased in the 8th year is
u8 =a-1-(8 .- 1)d50+7 x l00=Rs. 750.
EXERCISE (I)
I. Find the nth terms of the following and give their 10th term
(i) 3, 8, 13, 18.......
15 7 1 9
8' 8' 8' 81"
2. (a) Find the sum of the following
(1) 2+4+6+8 + ...to"terms
(if) 8--13+18+23--f-...to 25 terms
21 -i-- 15 + 9 1- 3 . to 20 terms.
(b) 1-low many terms are there in each of the following series
(i) —3+3-l-94-...+117,
(ii) 10-l-9+9-l-...+

406 BUSINESS MATIIEMA tICS
3. Find sum of the following series

(1) 7+14+21+—to 20 terms
(ii) —4-1+2+5+...to 21 terms.
4. Find the last term and sum of the following series:
(i) I ±--..-} +...to 58 terms
-. a-jb a+3b a+5b
to 15 terms
ab-I- ' a ±b '
(111) (3+4)+(8+9)+(13+14) P ...to 20 terms.
5. Find the nth term and sum to n terms of the following A.?
(I) a+b, 2a, 3a—b,
(ii) (x+y) z, (x . I_y 2 ) , (x—y),...
n.-- I n—2 + n-3
(iii )----
—+ it 1-.. .
6. How many terms of the series

(i) 5 -t- 7±9 -f ... must be taken so that the sum may be 480 ?
(ii) 2 4 + 20±16-1-...must be taken so that the sum may be 72 7
7. (a) If 1001 term of an A.P. is 15 and the 15th term is 10, find
the series.
(b) Find the 20th term of the Al?. 80, 75, 70,... Calculate the
number of terms required to make the sum equal to zero,
(c) The 4th term of an Al?. is 4 and the 54th term is --61, show
that the 23rd term is 16.
8. Prove that if unity is added to the sum of any number of ,terms
of the A.P. 3, 5, 7, 9,...the resulting sum is a perfect square.
9. The sum nt ii terms of an Al?. is 20. Find the 5th term.
10. The sum of n terms of an A.P. is 2n f3n. Find the nth term
and the series.
11. (a) If pth term of an A.P. is-- and qth term is .-, show that
the sum of pq terms is ( pq + 1).
(b) The sum of p terms of an A.P. is q and the sum of q terms is p.
Find the sum of(p -i- q) terms.
12. If S1 ,S2,S be the sums of n terms of three a:ithmetic series, the
first term of each being 1 and the respective common differences 1, 2, 3,
prove that
51-t-53=2S2
13. The sum of first II terms of an A.P. is 19 and the sum of first
19 terms is II. Find the sum of the first 30 terms.
14. (a) If the 6th term of an A.P. is 121, find the sum of the first U
terms.
ARIfIIMET1C AND GE OMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 407
(b) If the 35th term of an A,1'. is 30, show that the sum of its first '>
terms is 2070.
15. (a) Find sum of all odd numbers between 200 and 300.
(b) Find the sum of all natural nuinber between 50() arid h,i)0)
which are divisible by 13.
(c) Find the sum of all natural numbers from 100 to 300
(1) which are exactly divisible by 4,
(ii)
excluding those which are divisible by 3,
(iii)which are exactly divisible by 5,
(iv)which are exactly divisible by 4 and 5,
(v)which are not exactly divisible by 4 or 5.
16. Find three numbers in A,P. such that
(1) their sum is 18 and the product is 192,
(ii) their sum is 27 and the sum of their squares is 341.
17. Find Four numbers in A.P. such that
(i) their sum is 24 and their product is 945.
(ii) their sum is 20 and the sum of their squares is 120.
(iii) the sum of 2nd and 3rd numbers is 22 and the product
of 1st and 4th numbers is 85,
IN. Find live numbers in A.P. such that
(1) their sHin is 25, and the sum of their squares is 135.
(ii) their sum is 20 and the product of the first and the last is 15.
19. (a) If p, q, r, s are any four Consecutive terms of an A.P., show
that p 2 -3cj 2 3r 2 s20
(b) If p, q, r, s, I are in A. P., show that p J- tq 4-s=2r.
20. (a) The sum of n terms of two arithmetic series are in the ratio
of 7n —5 : 511 1- 17, show that the 6th terms of the two series are equal.
(b) The sum of . terms of two arithmetic progressions are in the
ratio 3n -f-I n--4, find the ratio of the 4th terms.
(c) Divide 20 into 4 parts which are in A.P. and such that the pro-
duct of the first and fourth is to product of the second and third in the
ratio 2:3.
Hc.
1in 2O--[2a(4_l)d ] =a- 2a ID
Also we are given

a(a+3c1) 2
(a--d)(a-2dy3 , i.e., a2f-3ad_4d2_-O
a=-4dord.

Substituting a= d in (1), we get

2d+3d 10 or 5d-jO
d2 and a-ru 2.
The numbers are 2, 4, 6, 8,
Substituting a= - 4d in (1), we get
---8d-- 3d=10 or — Sd— b
(/: ---2 and a=8
The numbers are 8. 6, 4, 2.
Hence the required parts are 2, 4, 6. 8.1
The Sequence of natural numbers is written as
2 3 4
5 6 7 S 9
Find the sum of the numbers in the rth row.

(flint. Let S, denote the sum of rth row. Then
S1 = I
S,:2-3 -1-4=9 =2i-(2—l)
5
S=5+6-1-7+8+9= 2 l)
S,=rr 3 -F (r- J)3)

22. S1 , S2 , S 3 , ..., S. be the sums of if terms of in arithmetic series
whose first terms as well as the common differences are 1, 2, 3, .. ,
show that
23. Find the sum of the series 72-1-704 68+...-f40. What will be
the sum, if all the terms are increased by 12 per cent ? Express the
original sum as a percentage of this sum, giving the result correct to one
significant figure only.
24. A man saved Rs. 16,500 in ten years. In each year after th
first he saved Rs. 100 more than he did in the preceding year. How much
did he save in the first year ?
25. Mr. X takes a loan of Rs. 2000 from Mr. Y and agrees to repay
in a number of instalments, each instalment (beginning with the second)
exceeding the previous one by Rs. 10. If the first instalment be Rs. 5,
find how many instalments will be necessary to wipe out the loan
Completely?

ARITHMETIC AND GFO1EEUC PROGRESSIONS 409
26. A class consists of a number of boys whose ages are in arith-

metical progressions the common difference being four months. If the
youngest boy of the class he only eight years old and the sum of the ages
of all the boys in the class he 168 years, find the number of boys and
the age of the oldest boy in the class.
27. A lamp lighter has to light 100 gas lamps. He takes I j minutes
to go from one lamp post to the next. Each lamp burns 10 cubic feet of
gas per hour. I low many cubic feet of gas has been burnt by 830 P.M.
if he lights the first ]amp at 6 P.M.
[Hi iii. lust term (a) = 150 miii. (i.e., 8.30 -6 P.M.)
Last tcrii (1)=a-i-(ii— l)(/--- I 5O-l-(100- 1)(--- l5)= 15 mm.

ti
Sum-c - - (a+ l)=50(l 50+ 1'5)=7575 min.
Total gas burnt---7575:e =12625 cu. fi.]
28. A workman agrees to accept certain wages for the first month,
on the understanding that his pay is to he raised one rupee every subse-
quent month until the maximum (namely Rs. 300 p.m.) is reached. At
the end of the month for which he received Rs. 300 for the first time he
resigns and finds that his wages during his period of service have averaged
Rs. 288 a month. How long has he served ?
[Hint Wages at the nfli term=a-I-(n 1) x 1 300 (1)

I
Average wages for ii months= X -' - = 288 (2)
2
Subtracting (1) from (2), a=276. :. n=300-276+1=25 months.]
29. A nioncy . lender lends Rs. 1000 and charges an overall interest of
Rs. 140. 1-Ic recovers the loan and interest by 12 monthly instalments
each less by Rs. 10 than the preceding. Find the amount of the first
instalment.
30. The monthly salary of a person was Rs. 320 for each of the first
three years. He next got annual increments of Rs. 40 per month for each
of the following successive 12 years. His salary remained stationary till
retirement when he found that his average monthly salary during the
service period was Rs. 698. Find the period of his service.
31. Two posts were offered to a man. In the one the starting salary
as Rs. 120 per month and the annual increment was Rs. 8, in the other
post the salary commenced at Rs 85 per month but the annual increment
was Rs. 12. Then man decided to accept that post which wouldgive him
more earnings in the first twenty years of the service. Which post was
acceptable to him? Justify your answer.
BUSINESS MATHeMAFICS
Mi nt. Total earnings in the first job in 20 years
20
T [2Xl20+19X8JX1247040
Total earnings in the second job
-[2x 85+j9 x 121 12=47,7601

32. A person pays Rs. 975
former by monthly instalments cach less than the
by Rs. 5. 1 hc first instalment is of Rs. 100. In what time will the
entire amount be paid ?
33. To verify cash b
alances,
his assistant to count cash in theRs.
hand of auditor of a certain bank, employs
4500. At first he counts quickly
at the rate of 1(s. ISO per minute for 10 minutes only but at the cud of
that time he begins to count at the rate of Rs. 2 less every
could count iii the previous mi nute. Ascertain m inute than he
rake to count this sum of Rs. 4,500 much time he will
34.
A man secures an Interet-ftee loan of Rs. 14,500 from a friend
and agrees to repay it in ten instalments He pays Rs. 1000 as firsi instal-
ment and then increases each nstalnieiit by equal amount over the pre-
ceding instalment. What will be his last instalment 1
35.
The rate of monthly salary of a person increased annually in
A.P. It is known that he was drawing Rs. 200 a month during the 11th
year of his service, Rs. 380 during the 29th year. Find his initial salary
and the rate of annual increment What should be his salary at the time
of retirement just on completion of 35 years of service ?
36. A firm produced 1000 Sets of T.V. during its first year. The sum
sets. of the firm's production at the end of 10 years' operation is 14,500
total
(1)
Estimate by how many units, production increased each year.
(ii)
Forecast based on the estimate of the annual increment in pro-
duction, the level of output for the 15th year.
37. An enterprise produced 600 units in the 3rd year of existence and
700 units in its 7th year.
(I)
What was the initial production in the first year ?
(ii) What was the production in the fifth year ?
(iii) What was the total production in the first five years ?
ANSWERS
1. (1) 5n -2 and 48, (ii) 8 n-23 57
------ and 8
2. (a) (i) n(n + I), (ii) 1700, (iii)
—720, (b) (1) 21, (ii) 20
3. (i) 1470, (ii) 546. 4. (1)
20 ; 609, (11) a+29b
a-i-b' a+b
ARIThMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 411
(iii) 197 ; 2040. 5. (1) n(a—b) +2b, n(a+ 3b)-4- n2(a__b),

(ii) n(x fy) --n(n - I )xy, iz(x + y ) '—n (n -- 1)xy, (iii) 0, 1 (n- I)
6. (1) 20, (ii) 4 or 9. 7. (a) 24, 23, 22..., (b) 33
9. 18. 10. 4n f 1; 5, 9, 13... ii. (b) —p--q. 13. —03.

W. (a) 1331, (b) 2070. 15. (b) 28405, (c) (1) 10200, (ii) 30000,
(iii) 8200, (iv) 2200, (i) 16200, 16. (i) 4, 6, 8, (ii) 2,9, 16.
17. (1) 3, 5, 7, 9, (II) 2 4, 6, s, (iii) 5, 9, 13, 17, 18. (1) 3, 4, 5,.6 y 7,

(ii) 3 3, 4, 4, 5. 20. (b) 2: I. 21- r±(r-1)2.
23.100 89' 24, Rs, 1200 25. 20
26. Number of boys=16. Age of the oldest boy =13 years

27. 12625 cu. ft. 29 Rs. 150 30. 40 years 32. 15 months
33. 34 minute 34. Rs. 1900 35. Rs. IOU, 10, Rs. 440
36. (1) 100, (ii) 2400 37. () 550, (ii) 650. (iii) 3,000
124. GEOMEI'RIC PROGRESSION

A geometric progression is a sequence whose terms increase or
decrease by a constant ratio called the common ratio. A series in geometric
progression thus is a multiplicative series whose common ratio can be
found by dividing any term by its preceding term. Thus
(1) the sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,... is an infinite geometric progres-
sion, the first term is I and the common ratio is 2. Similarly,
(ii) the sequence 1, , --, -, ...is a geometric progres-

,
sion, the first term is 1 and the common ratio is J.
(iii) the sequence 5, —10, 20, —40, 80 .... is a geometric progression,
the first term is 5 and the common ratio is —2.
(iv) the sequence 27, —9, 3, —1, ..is a geometric progression,
the first term is 27 and the common ratio is
The corresponding geometric series are
(i) 12+4-l-8+16-1-32+...
1 1 1 1
('I ) 1+-f--+-+...
(iii) 5-10+20-40+80—...
(iv) 27--9+—I+4—...
412
BUSINE& MATHEMATICS
The geometric progression is, therefore, in the form

a, at, ar 2 ar3,..
whose first term is a and the common ratio is r, and is designated as the
standard form of a geometric progression.
The corresponding geometric series is
and is designated as the standard form of geometric series. The abbrevi-

ation commonly used xbr 'geometric progression' is G.P.
Definition. If for a sequence, remains constant for all natural
Un
numbers ii, then the sequence is called G.P. and the constant ratio of two
consecwj'e terms u and u . , 1 is called the common ratio of
the G.P.
We can also state the series as
S,,=a.4-ar+ar2+ars+ ...-I-ar'-3+ar"+ar%-'
The sequence has the property that the ratios of successive terms are
equal. Thus if u, u,, are the terms of a G.P., then
U2 U3
U 1 U2
- ... =r, known as the common ratio.
U1
Multiplication of these terms yields

or
Thus the nth term u,,==a,-'
Now wc can illustrate the nth term of the Geometric Progression,
a, ar, ar',., where a is the first term and
r is the common ratio as follows
1st term U1=a=rarI-1
2nd term U2=ar_a,2-1
3rd term U3 == ar2=r ar3-
It may be noted that the index of r is one less than the suffix of U
which denotes the rank of the term in the sequence.
n th term U,1r_arf'l
Alternative Method
We can also prove the formula for the nth term of G.P. by
mathematical induction.
Let P(n) be the nth term, U=Orn-1
Step I. Put n==1 in (I), we have U1=ar°=a
PO) is true, since U 1 = a.
Step II. We now show that the assumption of the truth of P(m),
namely
U_= ar"-'

ARITHMt ftC AND 0!0MUTR!C PROG RSS1ON5 413
implies the truth of P(m-l- I), namely
u 1 rar'''r or" .(2)
L-HS. of (2), u=-u,,. r (by definition)
P (by assumption)
=ar'" (by index law)
=R.H.S. of (2)
From steps (1) and (2), we conclude that P (n) is true for all positive
integral values of n.
Example 38. If the third term of a G. P, is the square of the first and
the fifth term is 64.flnd the series.
Solution. Let a be the first term and r the comrn I )n ratio. Then
u = ar"-'
u,.ur 3 '=-ar2 and u5=arL_;ar
But (given)
4. ar2=a2, I.e., r2=a .(1)
Also u=64 cJt=-64 - . (2)
Substituting the value of r from (1) in (2), we get
a.a2 =64 -> a=4
Putting this value of a in (I), we have
r 2 -=4 r=-2 or ---2
Taking a_=4 and r=2, the series is
4+8±16+32+
Taking a=4 and r-2, the series is
4-8±16-32+...
Example 39. Find which term of the series
0004 + 002 + 01 +...1 12-5?
Solution. Here
14 2 0'02 20 u3 10
u_000445 and
The series is a G. P. with a=0004 and r-=5.
Now suppose 125 is the nth term.
But u,,=ar'=0'004x 5,-t
0004 x 5 n-I= 12 '5
125 12500
!Y004 4
or n=6.
hence 12'5 is the 6th term.
Example 40. Three numbers whose sum is 15 are in A.P . If!, 4
and 19 are added to them respectively ,the results are in G . P., find the
numbers.

Solution. Let the three numbers in A.P. be a—d, a, a-f d so that

(a—d)4 a-f (a-4-d)= IS
Also we are given

(a —d4- I). (a-t 4), (a--d+ 19) are in G.P.
(a (1+ 1)(a - d-f- 19)r-_ (a4 4)2 (1-=5]
(6—d)(24+d)=S1
- d2 -4 1 8d— 63 0, i.e., (CI— 3)(d-f- 2I)= 0
J: 3 or —21.
Ilciice the numbers are 2,5.8 or 26.5,- -16.
Exam pIe 41. If a. b, c arc the pt/, qf/i and nh terms of a G. P.,
prove that a h'. c' Q: I.
Solution. Let A be the first term and R. the common ratio of the
G. P.
Then a-=. R'' .. (1)
b=A, R2-1 (2)
cA. Rri
Raising ( 1) to power q r, (2) to power r —p and (3) to power p —q
and multiplying them together. we get
0q-1a
l- q. 'i ='
A F- P.
,4P(P_I)Iq.. r) > R_ h >( r - . A'' I (p-
R=j
Example 42. if a, b, c are in A.P. and x,y,z in G.P., prove that
x' yC_O z-5=1.
Solution. Since a.b, care in A.P., b==a-f d, c=a-l-2d, d being the
common difference of A.P.
Also x, Y. z are in G.P., means v-xr, 2=Xr 2 , r being the common
ratio of the G.P.
•v ° - b = ( xr) 1 4 (xr2yd x°r°-- 1.
Example 43. if a. h, care in A.P. andx,y, z in G.P., prove that

= XCVZb
Solution. Let d he the common difference and r the common ratio

of the given A.P. and G.P. respectively.
We thus have, Li =a -- d, c = a-f- 21 and j r, xr
x0.(xr)2d. (xr2)0=x30+8r3+2d
R.H,S xc.y.z5=X2d.(xr)4.(xr2)d=.3t31.r30+24
L. I I .S. = R. 11I.S. and hence the result.
ARIIItMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESI0?.JS
415
125. SUM OF A SERIES IN G.P.
The stint of ii terms of a series in G P. cait he found
Jo lo vii1g formula 0111 Us/JIg the
a(r"—l)
S. = r- , when r> 1
a(J.rn)
I —r when r<1.
Proof. Let (I be the first term, r
the CO311111011 ratio and ij
flu urber of terms. Ii 5,, denotes the su in to 'i tire
te r ins, then
S-a4 arar2 .
(I)
M111tp1viirg both skies by r, we get
By substractirig (2) from (I), WC have

S,, — r . .S'=a_-ay' it'.,
(I -- r)S,-a(I_r).l
r 4!
1 / denotes the last term, i.e., the "nit terni
(1 or"- 1),
formula becomes he above
a- Ir
(4)
Cirangi ic the signs of the ir U mera tor and denonririat or, we ca
write jj ill,()
a(rr -_ I)
S•=_
(5)
It will he found convenient to remember both the forms (3) and
for S0 . The form (3) may (5)
r--1 and tile
be used \vlrcri r--1
used when r>I. form (5) may he
If r- ], the G.P. reduces to a, a, a,.
Alternative Method. We now prove

terms of the G.P. by the method of the formula for t he slim of n
mathematical induction
Let P be a+or+ .., - arm-'
a(r't_ 1)
( ii )
= r^ I
(I
Step I. Put n = I in (I), we have
a(r'_J)
L.i1s=-a and Rfl.S.=.._..4
r-- I
Thus, the proposition is true when n= J, i.e , P( 1)
Step II. Now we assume the proposit" is true.
011 to he true For n-u ny
i.e. a+ar-fart4ar'n_n
r-. (2)

We now show that it implies that the formula is vaLid for it -1-1,
i.e., the proposition P(m ± 1) is
a(r"" _ 1)
a f-ar I ar 1. l- ar'' -f-ar=
L.U.S. of(3) [a±ar+...+ar]iar [Using (2)]
[r'_ i
= -r—j =R.U.S.of(3)
From steps (I) and (11), by mathematical induction we prove that

P(n) is true for all positive integral values of n
Example 44. Find the sum of the series
1 + 3 + 9 + 27 +... - to 10 terms.
Solution. Using the formula
S.- we have
s10 = 159,049
=
-1 =29,524.
Example 45. Sian up the series 4+- 2+ 1-I--I - --- o 10 trns,

Solution. Using the formula given in the previous example, we have
'
u=
4(1 -(D10] 1. 1024] 1023
=8xj--4=8(aPProx.)
Example 46. Find sum of the series

243+324+432+...to n terms.
324 4 432 4
Selutlon =-'
The series is a G. with a=243,
243 (_l )
a(r-12'3
1, (-----t
S
r-1 = I
3
On 3) 31(4; 3) 36fl(4l -
3)
= 243 x 3
ARITHMETIC AND G1OMnTRtC PROGRF.SSIONS
417
Example 41. Prove that the sum to ,i terms of the series'
(1O—I)-Efl2
Solution, Let S,, --- l-l-lO3flOO5 4-...

=(lO+l)I_(101+3) (101-5)+.,.
=(IO+ lO 2 lO3 ±...+ lO")-1-[L+3+5+...±(2,:_1)j
Now the series in the first bracket is in G.P. and iii the second bracket
in A. P.
10(i on —1) n
_•_lo—1
10 n
(IO—l)+ - {2+2 n --2}=to-(10-1) j.77'
Example 48. Find the sum to n terms of the series

(a) x(x 4- y) 4- x2(x2 +Y 2 ) +x(x3 f y3) +
(b) (x+y) -l- (XI +xy I .y2) +( x3 +x 2y +
xy2 +y3)+-...
Solution. (a) The series can be split into two parts, each of which
is a G.P. to n terms.
S =(x 2 4. xy) +(x4 +xyt) 1- (x +x3y 3) + . .. to '1 terms
= (x2 4x1 ± x 4 ...to a terms) f(xy 4-x 2y 2 +xy3 + ton terms)
X20—W)") Xyl—(xy}
= l—x' + l—xy
x2 (1—X 2 ') X),(l—x'y)
l—x2 + l—y
(b) Let S(x+y)+(x2 +xy+y a )+(x3 +x2y 4- xy1 -f y3) 4-. to n terms.
Multiplying both sides by (x —y), we get
(x- y)S. =(.v2 ._y$) +(x 3 — y a) -f.(xl —y4) -1-... to n terms
+to ii terms) —(Y2+y3+y'+ ..ton terms)
xt(l —_x') y'(l—y)
= Lx l-y
çx2(I—x) y'(l--y")
s
i—x l—y
Example 49. Sum to n terms the series:
(a ) 7+77-1-+... ; (b) 7+77+177+...

418
Solution. We have
S= 7-J-77 . 1 . 7774 . ...to ri terms
=7(1+114-111-+ to n terms)
= ( 9 +99+999+...to n terms)
1)+(IO2_. I )+(I0 3
-1)f ...to n terms]
[(10+ 103fto n terms)
—0 -I I + 1 4-.. to a terms)]
r 10 iL,, l± L 10) 7
9L 10—i S.! 9
(b) S7 + 77 +'777 . .to Il terms
71" II + Ill +. . to a terms]
= [9499 I 999-i- ...to a terms]
--1 )+ (1 -OI )+( I —001) ... to a ternis]

.9
7 [(
i_ )+( i a)+..ton term sJ
-
a (L + .. . to n terms)]
I
7 J - I o)
TI---
L
7fl 1,' I
—jo
Example 50. Find the least value of n for which the sum
+ . . . to
71 terms is greater than 7000. 1 + 3 +3 2 +
S o l ution. Sum to TI
3nj 3fl
This sum to a terms will be greater than 7000 if
7000
i.e . , i f
31_I > 14000, i.e.. i f3> 14001
i.e ., if a log 3> log 14001
- log 14001 41461
I.e.,i f ri> 04771 =- 8'69 (approx.)
Hence the least value of a is 9.

AR1T13MT1C AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 419
Example 51. If S he the sum, P the product and B the sum of the
reciprocals of n terms in G.P., prove that
P2 f S
=
[Delhi Uni. BA. (Hons.) Eco,, 19911
Solution. 1.et the a terms in G.P. be a, or, or 2 ,..., ar'

5=-(l-
a r"
Now -- -
1 —r
(n— On
_laflr on r 2
P=a ar ar 2 ,., a
+ . i
a or ar ar'
I-1
r
-- r (I_
- r') I rn
- (1- rr" ar"(l—r)
S -- a(I r") ar(1--r)—a r''
R (l— r ) (I—re)
1 r )=CJ2T'('l)
- F'
:-) =(a
2= ( S)n
P
Sum to in fini te terms of a GP. The sum to infinite terms of

a G.P. is given by
where Irl <I.
1—f
Example 52. Find sum of the following series:
(a) 844%,/2+4+...t0
I I I I I I
(b) - 4++j+ ---4-..1O
Solution. (a) The series is a G.P. with a8 and r=

a__]
8 8V2 8V2 \/2-4-1

420 BUSXN1SS MATHEMATICS
(6) ±.. )+(-+-+--+...to)
An infinite G.P. with a=-- and
+ ( An infinite G.P. witha-=- and
=—I -3
14
9
Example 53. The sum of an infinite series in G. P. Is 57 and the
SWfl of their cubes Is 9747, find the series.
Solution. Let the series be a +ar far' f
Then
i'r
Also, the series whose terms are the cubes of its terms is
j-5-9747
Dividing the cube of (1) by (2), we get

as —r'57x57x57
(lr)3X_
9747
(1—r)(l -J-r.4-r') 19 i.e., --r+r' —19

' 1 _2r+r2
- (1+r+r')=19_38r+19r2
18r'-39r1--18==O
* (3r-2)(6r-9)=O
* 2 3
r=--- or
We reject r= , because the sum of an infinite G.P. exists only

when r is numerically less than I
• 2
From (1), we get --.. =57 a=19

1
Hence, the series in G.P. is19,, v,...


Example 54. In an infinite G.P. each term is equal to three times
the sum of all the terms that follow It and the sum of the first Iwo terms is
15. Find the sum of the series to Infinity.
Solution. Let a he the first term and r the common ratio of the
series. Then the series is
a+ar+ar2+ar3±...00
Since nth term=:3 xSum of the terms that follows the nth term
ar's
-
* l—r==3r
- -
- 4
Also we are given a -l- ar -= 15
15 15
*
Hence sc,= a -
12
16
l--r 1
4
E*aiuple 55. If x=1 -f aI-a'-j-..00,
y=1+bb2 ,.c, prove that
xy
1+abf a'b'+...00=1.
when I a I and I b I are less than 1.
Solution.
because the series is an infinite G.P. with first term 1 and common ratio a
and I 01<1.
y=I+b+b2+.Oo=T!5
I I
xy 1—a i—b
I -
1—a +1_b
1
(I— b)--(1 —a)-.--(I - o)(l5jTab
L.H.S.=R.H.S.
422
Representation of terms in G.P. The following are some con-

venient ways of representing terms of G.P. by symbols:
(ii) Three numbers in G.P. : -,
- a, ar,
(ii) four numbers in G.P. : 4-, -f-, ar, ar 3, and
(iii) five numbers in G.P. -, a, ar, ar' etc.
The usefulness of assuming the terms in the above form will be

Illustrated in the following examples.
Example 56. The sum of 3 numbers in G.P. is 35 and their product
is 1 1 000. Find the numbers.
Solution, Let a, ar be the three numbers in G.P.
The product of these numbcrs=r . - . a ar= 1000

4. a3= 1000, i.e., a10
The sum of the three numbers is
-f-a--ar=35
0(_L±1+ )=35
10(1-f-r+r2)=35r 1.' a=LO]

2+2rf2r2=7r
2r2-5r+2==()
(2r-1)(r--.2)=O
r=.—or2
Thus, we have a= 10 and r= - or 2
For r=r, the numbers will be lOx 2, 10, JOxt, i.e., 20, 10, 5 and for
r=2, the numbers are T , iø, 10 2, i.e., 5, 10, 20 which are the same
but in the reverse order.
Hence the three numbers are 5, 10, 20.
Example 57. Find three numbers in G.P. such that their sum is 21,
and the sum of their squares is 189.
Solution. Let the three numbers in G.P. bea -, a, ar•

r
ARIThMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 423
a
—1-a--ar=21
(I+r-r1)=2i
and T+at+&r2=189
(1 +r 2 1r 1 )= 189

a(r4 -1 r I + 1)9
r(r 2 .rf.1)
(4 (r2-r4. 1)(r r-4 I)
= =9
r r2--r-r1
- (r 2 -- r-f 1) = 9.(3)
Again dividing (I) by (3), we get

r 2 -fr+I 21 7
r 2 - r -l-1 9 3
4r2—JOr+4-0
2r3-5r+2r-0
(2r- 1)(r-2)=O
r=j or
When r=2, from (I), we get (1 - 2±4)=21
Hence the three numbers are 3. 6, 12

For r—, we get the same numbers but in the reverse order.
Example 58. If a, b, care in G.P.,proye that a(b2+c2)c(aIfb2)
Solution. Let r be the common ratio of the G.P., we have
b=ar, c=ar2
L.H.S.=a(b I fc 1 )=a(a 2 r . a 2 r) _a 3 r ! (1 +r2)
R.H.S. = c(a 2 +b 2)=ar ? (a2 a 2 r 2) = a3r(1 + r')
L.H.S.= R.H.S.
Example 59. If a, b, c, d are in G.P., prove that

(i) (ii) (ab +bc +cd) 1 = (a2+b2 f c')(b +c 2 +d2).

424 BUSINESS MAT1IBMA1Jc
Solution. We are given that a, b, c, d are in G.P-, therefore, if r j

the common ratio of this G.P., then
b = or, c= or', d=ar3
abcd a • or—ar'. or'
(I) LH.S.==--.= a2r2--a2r
a 2r(I—r4) (1+r2)
R.H.S.= a4ca+ar2
b aT
a(1-r 2) 1+r2
- or r
L.H.S.=R.11.S.
(ii) L.H.S.=(ab+ bc+cd)'
ar4 or ar 2 -} ar ar3)2
= at r'( 1 -4- r'4 rt)2
Ri-IS. = (a'-1- b'- c)(b2+0-1-d)__(a2-{-a2r2-F a2 r)(a 2 r 2. f- a 2r'-4.- a2r)
= 02(1 +r 2 -4- r) . ar(1 -_r 2 4 r4)=-r-a'r2(I-f- r2+r)2
L.H.S.= R.H.S.
Example 60. If a, b, C, d are in G.P., prove Mat u I-b I, 4-c, c-J-d
are also in G.P.
Solution. We are given that a, b, c, d form a G.P. Hence if r
the common ratio of the OP., then
b ed
-=r
a b c
b=ar,c_br,d—cr
b=rar, c=ar 2, d=ar
Now o-4-b, b+c, c4-d will be in G.P.
if (b+c)'=(a+b)(C+d)
i.e., if (ar+ar2)'=-(a-I- ar)(ar'+ar3)
ie., if a'r'(l -I- r)' = a'r'(l -1- r)'
which is true. Hence the required result.
Example 61. If a'-I-b', ab+bc and b'+c' are in G.P,,prove that
a, b c are also tie G.P.
Solution. a '-l- b', nb-f bc, b-4-c 2 are in G P.
ab-fbc b2lc$
a'-f-b' ab+bc
(as -f-b')(b2+c')=(ab4 bc)'
a'b'-- a'c' + b -f b'e'= a'b' + b 2 c2 -- 2ab'c
ARF}IMtTIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 425
b.1a2 b2. 2ab2 c I)

(b2—.ac)2—O
b2 ---ac 0
ba=ac
Q, b, C are in G.P.
12 - 6. GEOMETRIC MEAN
When any number of quantities form a (i.P., the quantities lying in
between the first and the last are called the Geo,.e1ric Means (briefly
written as (j .Ms. between the first and the last. rhts i f a, G1 , (.i, G3,...,
are in U. P., the quantities G 1 , G2, G S, .,., G. are the G.Ms. between a and
b. In particular, if we take any three quantities of a series in G.P., the
middle tern) is known as the Geometric Mean (G.M.) between the other
two.
Let GI be the geometric mean between r and b, then a, G, b will be
three terms of an order set in geometric progression so that
G b
a G
(32= 0/)
For example, if 4, 8, 16 are consecutive terms in G.P., then

16 8
8 4
i.e., 6 4=4x16
8=i/4x16
Insertion of Geometric Means. Let G 1, G 30 ..., G,, be the n
geometric means between a and b. Then a G 1 , G2 ,..., G, b are in G.P.
Let r denote the common ratio of this OP., including the given terms
i and b, there are (n-f 2) terms in this
b=(n-f. 2)th term of the G.P.=ar(+2)—l=ar+
b
a'
or
i.J 1 =ar=a I -
\0 Yi+1
2
/ b n+1
G2=ar=a(
3
n+
Ga =ar 3 =a( b_.)
b n-Fl
at" respectively.
Remark. Product of': geometric means is
I 2
b 'H b b
...)n+J
Ga0))

ib \nti
n(n-+-1) n
b 2(n+l) b\2
=a(_. =(ab)'i
Now, to find out the value of r we can adopt this simple procedure
Let a he the first term I be the last term and it the number of means,
then there are n+2 terms where
1= (n-f- 2)th term
which can also he written as
1— ar''
[where a stands for the number of means between a and IJ
r" + =
/ 1 1 ../i+i
r= ,+k - -
,/a 'a
Example 62. Insert 5 geometric ,neat:s between 320 and 5.
Solution. We have in all 7 terms of which the first term is 320 and
the 7th term is 5. Therefore, using the formula r1 =
r where 1— 5
L\ and a -=320
We have r 6 -=---,
64
rr=_f.,
.
'
V64-
II / 1
64
1)6
which is the common ratio.

Therefore, the series is 320, 160, 80, 40, 20, 10 and 5, and the geo-
metric means are 160, 80, 40, 20 and 10.

Example 63. (a) If a, b, x, y, z are positive numbers such that a, x,

h are in A.?., a, y, h are in G. P., and (a+ b)z=2ab, prove that
(1) x, y, z, are in G. P., and (ii) xy2.
Solution. (i) Numbers a, x, b are in A.P.
Numbers a, y, b are in G.P.

y2=ab
2ab
Also
a+b
Now =ab.-; 2ah a+b
-
a+ b 2
i.e. x y z are in G.P.
y z
(ii) x—y=/ah -(a+b-.2/)
)2
a /b
X
.)y, i.e., (4)
But J, yz
z
xy?z
(b) Find four positive integers x, y, z, w such that y, z, w are in
Arithmetic Progression ; x, y, z are in Geometric Progression and
z + w 10,.x +y=-3. (CA.. Nov., 1991)
Solution. y, z, w are in A.P. 22=yl Iv
X, y, z are in G.P. y2=xz . . ( 2)
Again z+w=lO
and x-yr=3
y=3z-10
x+(3z—lO)=3 x=j3-3z
Substituting the values of x and y [obtained from (5) and (6)] in (2),
we get
(3z— 10)1 =(10-3z) . z

428 BUSINS5 MAThEMATICS
12z2-73z+ 100=0
12z2-48z--25z+l00=--0
(12z-25)(z-4) 0
z-4 or
But z being an integer so is rejected.
Thus Z:-4 is an admissible value.
y=3z-10- 12— 10=2

W— 10 --Z-= 10-4=6
Hence x=1,y2, z=4, w:-6.
Example 64. For three consecutive months a person deposits some
amoi at of money on the first day of each month in small savings fund. These
three successive amounts in the deposit, the total values of which is Rs. 65,
form a G.P. If the two extre,ne amounts be multiplied each by 3 and the
mean by 5, the products form an A P. Find the amOinls in the first and
second deposits.
Solution. Let the three successive deposits be Rs. a, Rs. ar and
Rs. ar1•
Thus a+or+ar2=65
Also 3a, Sar and 3ar form an A.P.
Thus 3q-5ar=5ar-3ar2
3ar2—lOar+3a=0
3r2 — lOr+3=0, i.e., (r— 3)(3r— 1) = 0
When r=3, from (1), we get a+3a+9a=65

or a=5
Thus the amounts are Rs. 5, Rs. 15 and Rs. 45.
a a
Again if r= I then from (1), wegeta -f -j
3
+--=65
or 13a=65x9, i.e., a=45
Thus the three successive deposits are Rs. 45, Rs. 15, Rs, 5. Hence
the amounts in the first and second deposits are either Rs. 5, Rs. 15 or
Rs, 45, Rs. 15.
Example 65. At 10% per annum compound interest, a sum of
money accumulates to .Rs. 8750 in 4 years. Find the sum Invested Initially.

ARITHMifHC AND GROMCTRIC PROGRESSIONS

429
SoLutioo. Let P be the principal, then
amount of after I yea r=P( I nrPXII
i 00
2 years --P> (I1)
3 yearsrl'< (1l
4 years =Px (II)
PxIl)4g650
Fr= 59737
which is the required principal.
Example 66. if the value 01 flat car depreciated by 25 per cent
annually, Iv/zal will be its estimated value at the en,! of 8 years if
value is Rs. 2048? its present
Solutjou Present value of car=Rs 2048
Value of car deprecjated25' annually
If present value is 100, then value after one year=-Rs. 75
- 75
100
2048 ,, , , >< 2048
=Rs. 1536
a=I536
sixth,We also note that values at the end of second, third, fourth, filth,
seventh and eighth years form a G.P. with common ratio
75 3
(r)
Value at the end of eight years
ar8_1-ar11536x (:-)•
= 1536 3X3x 3 x 3x3X3x3

>< -.----___ . - 6561
4x4x 4x4x4 x4x4 — 32
205 03
E XERCISE (II)
I. Find
(i) The 6th term of 5, 15, 45,...
(ii) The 8th term of -i.-, - ,

(iii) The 12th term U2, 2y 6.
BUSINESS MATHItMATICS
430
(iv) The 7th term of \/3, .- 3V3
(i) The 10th term of —1, /2,...
2. Find the nth term of the series

3 5 2
(i) I, I
(ii) a2 L? a-i-b.
(iii) 9, —6, 4....

(iv) 0004, 002,
(v) 72, —18,
6 27 27/3
23'
(vii)
x—Y x-+Y
3. (a) Find a G.P. whose 3rd and 6th terms are I and - .
L res-
ptIvely. Write down the loth term also.
and the 61h term is find the
(b) The third term of a G.P. is
'8th term.
(c) The product of first and second terms of a G.P. is 256 and that
of second and third terms is 16. find the 5th term.
4. (a) Which term of the series 1, 2, 4, 8. ... is 256 ?
(h) Is a term of the series 25, 5, 1, ...
(c) Find n if is the nth term of the series 16, 8, 4,
5. If the nth term of the series 1, 2, 4, 8, ... be the same as the nth
term of the series 256, 128, 64, ... find out n.
6. The 4th term of a G.P. is x, the 10th term is y and the 16th
term is Z. Show that z=y'
7. The nth term of a sequence is show that it is in G.P. What
is the first term and the common ratio ?
ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS
431
R. (a) If the 'nth term of a G.P. be it and the nth term he m,
that the (in + n )th term is j'1 l'fl'I" n. show
(b) In a G.P. if the (p4 q )th term is in
and the (p - q)th term is it,
prove that the 1oth term is / inn•
(1) 10244-512 1 256-1 ..to 15 terms
(ii) 1— l. —-I-...to 12 terms
(iii) 1 -4-4-2 -- 1-3 8 terms

(ii) 2+ /6 4- \ / 18 ..to 10 terms
10. Sum to a terms the series
(1) 1
2.
(/i) 2---1
(iii) 03+003-4-O003 I-,..
(iv) (a+ h) . ( a2 4- 21') . ( 3 4 . 3/,)
1. (i) The sum of the first eight terms of a G.P. is live times the
sun of the first four terms. Find the common ratio.
(h) The sum of ii terms of a G.P. whose first term is on'
.Ifl[I t lie
127
common ratio IS -- , IS I find it.
(c) In a G. P., the sum or', terms is 255, the last term is 128 and the
common ratio is 2, hud a
(d) 1-low many terms of the G.P. 1, 4, 16, - must be taken to
have their sum equal to 341 ?
12. Sum to fl terms the series
() 54-55+555-I-..
(b) 8+881-888+...
(c) 05+055+0555+..,
13. Sum to a terms the series (a) 08+088-j- 0888+...
(b) ! 034- (1 03) 2 +( I 03)+
(c) 11-i (I 41)2+ +(

14. The ratio of the 4th to the 12th term of a G.P. with positive
common ratio is If the difference of the two terms be 61'68, fine!
the sum of the series to 8 terms.
432
15. Sum the following series to infinity
.1 1 1
(ii) 40-4- 08 +0 - 16 + 00321-

1 1
(iii) V2 I-
2 5 2 5 2
(iv) - --- + - - f2
(v) ('/2-fi)+ 1-4(/2-1) -
\ 1 1\ (1 l\I
2U )-
2,-2
_.4 5 4 5
(vu) --- - .-•
16. (a) The sum of infinite terms in a G.P is 2 and the sum of
their squares is
4-.
Find tile series.
b) Find the infinite G.P. whose first term is -!- and the sum is ---.
(c) The first term otG.P. exceeds the 2nd term by 2 and the sum to
infinity is 50, find the series.
17. (a) Find three numbers in G.P. such that
(i) their sum is 130, and their product is 27,000.
13 91
(ii) their sum is 3 , and the sum of their squares is
(b) Find five numbers in G.P., such that their product is 32 and
the product of the last two is 108. -
(c) The continued product of three numbers in G.P. is 27, and
the sum of their produ'ts in pairs is 39. Find the numbers.
18, if a, b, c be in G.P., prove that

(a+b+C)2 a-4-b-C (ii) a(b?+c2)=c(a2+b2), and
W
a2b2c (- -j--- -- & + b-- c3

--
19. (a) If a, b, c, d are in G.P., show that

(i) (a-- b)2 , ( b-C) 2 , ( c -d) 2 are in G.P.
(ii) (a- b2) , (ab-f-bc), ( b2 +c') are in G.P.
(b — C) 'I + ( c—a)+(il- b) 2 =(a—d)2
(h) If (a—b), (b_c). (c—a) are in G.P., then show that
(a4 b+c)2==3(ab+bc+ca)


20. Three numbers whose sum is 18 are in A.P. ; if 2, 4, 11 are
added to them respectively, the resulting numbers are in G.P. Determine
the numbers.
2 I. The sum of four numbers in G. P. is 60 and the A. of the first
and last is IS. Find the numbers,
22. There are four numbers, the first Ohree are in A. P. and the last
three in OP., the sum of the first and the last is 11, and the sum of
other two is 10, find the numbers.
23. If y a - h c and a, b, c he in G.P., prove that x, y, z
are in A.P.
24. The SUn-I of the first three terms of the two series, one an A.P.
and the other a U P. is the same. If the first term of each of these is
and the common difference of he A.P. is equal to the common ratio of the
OP., find the sum of each series to 20 terms.
a a
25. If .v=a+----j_-2....... to
Li Li
y=b---. -;-'- to
to
.vy ab
show that
2 C
26. The sum of four numbers in O.P. is 60 and the A.M. between
the first and the last is I. Show that the numbers are 4, 8, 16, 32.
27. The sum of three numbers in G.P. is 70, if the two extreme items
are multiplied each by 4 and the mean by 5, the products are in A.P.
Show that the numbers are 10, 20, 40.
28. (a) If a, Li, C are in A.P. and a, x, Li and Li, ,Y, C are in G.P., show
hat x2, b ! , y are in A.P.
(b) II a, Li, c are three unequal numbers in A.P. and a, h--a, c—a
a b c
are in G.P., show that
T '
If a.
(C) b, C are in A. P., and a, Li, (cf I) are in G. P., show that
c=(a—b)'.
(d) The numbers X. 8, y(X:l-- y) are in G.P. and the numbers .v,
are in A. P. Find x and Y. y, --8
29 The sequence a, h, c is an A.P. whose sum is 18. If a and b are

each increased by 4 and c is increased by 36. the new numbers form a
G. P. Find a, Li. C.

434 BUSIN1S MATHEMATICS
30. If S, S21 .. ,S, are the sums of infinite geometric series whose
first terms are 1, 2, ..., fl and whose common ratios are J, j , ..., _T-!---.
respeCtwely, show that
2
31. If S. represents the sum of n terms of a G.P. whose first terms
and common ratios are a and r respectively, then prove that
na ar(I — r ')
s1+s2+sI±... s..-=----._—---
(1._r)!
l—r
[Hiflt.
l—r
S4 S ± •.. +s.= a - [(1-1-1 l-1 ... n times)
( r + r2 + r '+ ..
32. A manufacturer reckons that the value of the machine costing

him Rs. 19,750 depreciates each year by 20. Find the estimated value
at the end of 5 years.
33. Calculate the population in 1985 if the population in 1975 is 55
crores and is growing at a compound rate of 2% annually.
34. Find the value of the machine after a period of 10 years if at
the time of purchase it was worth Rs. 10,600. The machine is depreciated
at the rate of 8 for first three years and at the rate of 100/ ,,' for the rest of
the period. The reducing balance method of charging depreciation was
followed for the entire period.
35. If the population of a town increases 25 per thousand per year
and the present population is 26,24,000, what will be the population in
three years' time ? What was it a year ago '1
36. A person proposes to give alms to begger 1 nP. on the first day,
2 riP. on the second day, 4 nP. on the third day, 8 nP. on the fourth day
and so on. How much does he need to pay in the month of February,
1972?
37. Show that a given sum of money if accumulating at 20 per cent
per annum more than doubles in 4 years at comoun(1 interest.
ANSWERS
I. (i) 1215, (11) (H[) -486,,/-3, (tr) (v) - 16.
11 2 n-L a 4b 2)_1 5_I

2. (i) -' — — (iv)
4- (-) , (a - 3--3
9 (i—YTZ 3n1i2
Cv) (. l ) - 2n- 5 ('0 , (vii)

MIMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS

435
3. (a)4, —2, I,., (b) 2 , (c) -
12^ 729
4. (a) 9th, (b) Yes, (c) 22. 5. 5 7. 2, 3

5 365
9. (I) 2047 , (ii) (iii) 73 L
27 , (iv) 121(V6-i-,12).
0. (0 1 /3)(3h12 1), ()
a(J—a) +
(iii) . ( i - (iv) n(n- I)b

J (a) ± /2 or 1, (b) 8, (c) 8, (d) 5.
12. (a) Lo (10 w'-- 1)—
80 8 5 51 1
(b)__ —
(1O)
. — -- n, (c)
81 \ '1
13 , (a) . n— ) (b)
(
(c) { 1 (1 + i)}. 14. 765.
15. (1) , (ii) 5, (iii) 2V2, (iv) (v) (4

.7..7
(vi) --- , (vu) 5 1 1
16. (a) 1, -
-,
I 1 1
(b) -i.-, (c) lO, 8, 32
64
17. (a) (1) 10, 30, 90, (i i I .--, 1, 3, (h) --, -i-, 2, 18, (c) I, 3, 9.
20, 3. 6, 9; 18. 6, —6. 21. 4, 8, 16, 32. 22. 2,4,6,9.

to
24. 773k, 2 ( i_). 28. (d) X=16,y4
29. --2, 6, 14, or 46, 6, —34. 37. Rs. 6144. 33. 6,705 Iakhs.
34. Rs. 3646. 3. 28,25,761 25,60,000. 3. Rs. 26,77,800'96.
13
Convergence and Divergence of Series
STRUCTURE
130. INTRODUCTION
131. INFINITE SERIES
132, CONCEPT OF LIMIT
131. EVALUATION OF LIMITS
134. CONVERGENCE OF AN INFINITE SERIES
135. DIVERGENCE OF AN INFINITE SERIES
I36. OSCILLATORY SERIES
137. SEQUENCE OF PARTIAL SUMS
131. CONVERGENCE OF SERIES
139. AUXILIARY SERIES
1310. COMPARISON TEST
1011. D' ALEMBERTS' RATIO TEST
1312. CAUCHY'S ROOT TEST
1313. RAABE'S TEST
1314. ALTERNATING SERIES
1315. LEIBNITZ TEST
OBJECTIVES
Alter studying this chapter, you should be able to understarLd
• the meaning of convergence and divergence of series
• different methods for finding the convergence and divergence of
series.
130. INTRODUCTION
The concepts of convergence and divergence are associated with
infinite series, their limits and evaluation. Therefore, it becomes necessary
to say something about ticm

CONVERNcE AND DZVE1GBNCE OF SI3RII3S 437

13 . 1 INFINITE SERIES
We know that an expression whose successive terms are formed by
some definite law is a sequence. When these individual terms are summed
up with plus or minus signs they form a series. Now, if the series
terminates at some assigned term it is called a finite series and if the
number of terms are unlimited it will be an infinite series. We can detine
the series formally as follows
Let (u s ) = U1 , u 2 , U3 ,,. , u, .. be the sequence of real numbers, then
the expression in the form
Ut -I + U3 +'.. '+
is called an infinite series and is denoted symbolically as
u,, or Xu., where U1 , U, U 3 ,..., U,,,.,.
,i=i
are called the first term, second term, third term,..., nth term,... of the
infinite series. The nth term of the infinite series is also sometimes known
as the general term.
132. CONCEPT OF LIMIT
The concept of x approaching a implies that the difference between
x and a (i.e., x—a or a —. x) is decreasing steadily and is capable of being
made as small as we like, say smaller than any positive number c. We
express this as
x—a (x tends towards a)
which implies that the numerical difference between x and a can be less
than any positive number c, expressed as
x—a I < £
In case x is infinitely large we express it as
X
which implies that we can take any value of x larger than any large positive
number say m (when x> m).
For example, consider the function

The tabulated values of f(x) foi larger and larger values of x are U
follows
X 5 10,000 1,000,000 20,000,000
A X) 02 00001 0000001 000000005
Here, 1(x) becomes smaller and smaller as x becomes larger and

larger. By making x sufficiently large, we can make f(x) less than any
given number.
BUSINESS MATHnMA'r(c
Thus Ax) < 0 '00000005 if X>20,000,000

This explains that l/x approaches 0 as x becomes larger and largei
i.e., as x_ * . Therefore
Tim f(x)=0
X-
i.e.,
limit of function l/x approaches 0 as x approaches infinity (oo).
Theorems on Limits;
If urn f(x)=1, and Tim g(x)=,n, then
x-*a
I. lini { Jx)+g(x)}_= Tim j x)+ lim g(x)=1+rn
X+j x+a
IL. urn ( AX) —g(x)}= Tim f(x)— Tim g(x)=!_-,n
xo X-.a
Hi. Tim ( f(x) g(x)) Em flx) , Tim g(x) -= I. in

X-*a X-+
IV. Tim (
X-+a
Ax) I g (x)}= lini f(x)/Iim g(x)=111n, where m7^-0
x.
V. Jim x"=a
X— a
VI. urn k=k, where k is a constant.

x-a
133. EVALUATION OF LIMITS
Before giving the tests for convergence and divergence of a series, let
us Study the methods of finding the limits in various cases; The most
Common type of expressions in n, where limits are required to be found out
for testing series for convergence are of the type P(n) and Q(n) are
Polynomials in 'z of a suitable degree.
Case I.
Tim P(n) is smaller
,Q(n)-=0, if the degree or the power of
than that of Q(n).
For example, let the degree of P(n) be r and that of Q(n) be 3,
where s >r. Dividing the numerator and the denominator by n' and taking
fl large, the limit 0 can be obtained.
Case II. Tim

Q(n)
if the degree of Q(n) is smaller than that of P(n).
P(n) a 0
Case 111. lim
o
if degrees of P(n) and Q(n) are equal, where a0 and b0 are the cefficient
of highest power of n in P(n) and Q(n) respectively.

CONVFRGIiNCn AND D1VnRGF?NCE o p snms

Remark. ihe method of finding limits requires that the given
expression, both iii the numerator and the denominator, be divided by
a (raised to the highest power of the expression) so that we have nearly
all terms of the expression in the form etc., which we know
-,
II
approach zero when a becomes indefinitely large. 'rhose terms of the
expression which are not of this form, both in the numerator and denomi
nator will determine the limit of the expression as illustrated in the
following examples
Exzn pIe 1. Find the value of Jim/is in the follow ing cases
7n3-80.j IOn-_ 7 n4 --7n2 -1
(a) tim ---. - (I)) i/rn
8n2 . 9n i + 5 3n2 ± 5
lx^
• 3n3 f-7n._IIri-j-19 2n
(c) Ii (d) Jim and
17
n4418n1 - 2(JTl
- 1
a ( n 2.
(e) Jim ___________
LV(2fl2+3fl4J)
Solt11). (a) Denoting the expression by o, and dividing both

the numerator and the denominator
tor by a, we have
8 10 7
1
P1 ii
11
9 5
8-
8 10 7
lim a 7
ii a- n3
him - . - - -
i?' 0) '
-'- 8 - --j- .--
Pt 1I
and 0asfl.-cx )
( : a 112
(b) Now dividing the numerator and denominator by a4 , we have

7 9
It
U"
7 9
urn u , = him --z— -
0
W1 'n

(c) Here dividing the numerator and the denominator by n, we

have
3 7 Ii 19
+ - +
0 L
17+----
n n 3
- n4
7 3 11 19
I-;- -
- -
tim tim
,1 - n-(1D 17+ 18 -- 2-0-145
7
2
((1) U =------- -
n(2)(3+±) 6
(e) Dividing the numerator and the denominator by i t, we gel
=
t ) V2
j { 2±H-j
Since , -11 and tend to zero as n tends to infinity.
134. CONVERGENOE OF AN INFINITE SERIES

An infinite series consisting of n terms is a function of it (natural
numbers). If n increases infinitely the sum may either tend to a certain
finite limit or it may become infinitely large. Now, an infinite series will
"e convergent when the sum of the first n terms of the series c;t
merically exceed some finite quantity, however large n may be. This
s been explained below
A sequence {u} is said to converge to a number / if the absolute
tlilkrence between u and I. i.e., u-1 j ) can be made as small as we
please by taking it sufficiently large. Here 1 is the limitof the sequence
To define it in a formal way, {u} converges to a number I if for a
given positive number c, there corresponds a positive integer m such that
I u—/
CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE OF SERIES 441
Then (is said to he the limit of the sequence, and is written as

Jim Li,,::,,!
n-'
For example, let us take a sequence {} which we shall show

converges to the limit 0. Take E>O to be any small number. Then
1 1
Choosing the positive integer in> , we see that
U,,.— 0 - - <E v fl>tfl
I1
--0 '(€ when ;- <.
Hence the sequence U, tends to iero Yet the series formed b y such
S equenceis not con vergent which we will discuss later.
In short we sa y that ati infinite series of positive terms is said to he
convergent if its sum is a finite quantity.
35. DIVERGENCE OF AN INFINTTF SERIES

An infinite serits is divergent when the sum of the first n terms can
be made numericallygreater than any finite quantit y by taking 1 suffi-
ciently large. It can he defined as follows
A sequence {u , ) is said to diverge to + if u renains pos iti ve and
becomes larger nod larger as ' becomes large in such a way that u can
he made to exceed any finite number, however large by taking
sufficiently V,rea t.
Formally. ftQ diverges to _1 oo if for a qivefi positive number k,
howsoev:•r large. there exists a positive number rn such that
u >k V n>m.
In this case urn
n
Similarl y , a sequence uJ is said to diverge to — for each negative
number I. howsoever STTall, There corresponds a positive integer in such that
U ,>.I V fl>'flZ
Then Jim U,
For example, the sequence u} defined by u,-=n2 , it diverges to +°,

while defined by u-= —(a 2 ), it diverges to --no,
442
BU-SINLSS MATHEMATICS
13 6. OSCILLATORY SERIES
A sequence {u} is said to be oscillatory when it neither converges
nor diverges, eg.,
U,,=-r(__j)fl fl
both are oscillatory.
137. S EQUENCE OF PARTIAL SUMS
Let >u be a given infinite series. Let us form a sequence (S,) with
the help of the series as follows
Si == U'
U I .-i ti
. U . + u2 -t-... +_
The sequence {S} is called the sequence of partial sums
infinite series. of an
The infinite series u, is said to be convergent (i.e., has a finite sum)
if the corresponding sequence of partial sums {S) is convergent.
In this case 1( liiii 5,,) is called the sum of the series
u,.
If the sequence {S,,} is divergent, ju is said to be divergent and if

{S} oscillates, the series iu,, is said to be oscillatory.
G ENERAL RULES
We can ascertain whether a series is convergent or divergent by
finding out whether the sum of the first a terms of a given series remain
finite or becomes infinite as a is made infinitely large.
(i) Consider the following expression of a series
l-f-r+r2±r3++rn-1+
Iii this ease if r is equal to 1, the sum of the first n
n, therefore, it is divergent as indicated in the series belowterms is equal to
14-1+1+1+1
Here the sum of the first a terms can be made sufficiently large by
taking a sufficiently large.
If r is equal to - I then the series is I - I -f-I —1 + 1 - I -f-
Here the sum of the series is equal to 0, if the number of terms is
even and I if the number of terms is odd so the series does not converge
nor does it diverge but it oscillates infinitely.
If r is numerically less than 1, then the sum approaches the finite limit
and the series becomes convergent. For example, the series with
r=O5 will be

l-t-O54-O25+Dl25+..
and the sum will be equal to -j--. Therefore, with r-0'5 the sum
2
urn S,,=r2
I cx
Thus the series approaches a finite limit 2. It is, therefore, convergent.

If r is numerically greater than 1, the series will be divergent. For
example if r=2, then the series becomes
or 1+2+4+ s-i- 16+
r- I
and the sum of the n terms will be equal to r-1'
When r=2 and n= 5, the sum will he
2"--! 2-1 31
S, =- 31

lim
n-
(2) An infinite series of the type
lL.()
1++
has a common ratio . It can also be written as
Formally, it is a geometric series of the type

a+ar
This type of series is convergent when r<1 because it approaches a
finite limit which in the above case is 2. The sum of the f i rst n terms is
(where rr. , and ar=11
Thus, S approaches 2 as n -*c and (i)"
(3) An infinite series of the following type is convergent
Here the nth term of the series is

1 1 1

n(n-f I) or - 1
Actually this series can be written in the form
-)-
MATHEMATICS
The sum of the first n terms is
s =i— L.
(nf-
"
The series IS Convergent because as fl—c,
not exceed 1. I.e., its sum does
138. C ONVERGENCE OF SERIES
For an infinite series to be convergent its general term should

approach zero as ,i becomes infinitely large. In symbols, for an infinite
series
Ui 12U3
is convergent
Convergent * urn U=Ø
Co
Proof. Let us Suppose that

be a
given
whereconvergent Series. By definition the sequence {S} of partial sums,
S. =r u -u2 + ... + u is Convergent.
Jim S,,=/ (finite quantity)
Also
s1tI1+U2+Us+...+U1=sn_U,
Jim u,= Jim (S-S_1)
flCo
= Jim S,,— urn S_1r4/Ø•
Hence u,, Convergent
Jim u,=
fl- h Co
Remark It should be noted that this theorem never proves the

convergence of a series. It only states that if the above limit is not zero
then the series must be divergent. It is still possible for the limit to be
zero and the series to be divergent, e.g., in the series
9 23 17 4n-4-5
22 32 4- 42 lO+12
4±
the nth term is
Jim
4
U,,==r -
,r' C
and is not zero, therefore, the series is divergent.

But in the harmonic series
CON VERGENCB AND DIVERGENCE OF SERIES 445
tim U,,= urn ----I)

fl+(O flui
and yet the series has been proved to be divergent.

Thus, the condition of limit tending to zero is only a necessary con-
dition but not the sufficient one. Even when the limit tends to zero, the
series may not be convergent and for what we have to apply certain other
tests, one of which is based on the use of an auxiliary series.
139. AUXILIARY SERIES
It is a series whose nature is known to us. The common auxiliary
series which are used to test any series are
L 1 -t- r -f- r2 -F -f r' 1 where r< I.
IL ip+2p+3, f . -. rip f-.. whercp<L

We give the proofs below
I. 1Dr infinite geometric Series
1 * r i r 2 r-...
(1) is convergent if r j <1 and its sum to ., is
(ii) is divergent rjr>1,

(iii) is finitely oscillatory if r 1,
(iv) is infinitely oscillatOry if r< -- 1.
Proof. Let us consider the partial sum
Cse. (i) \Vhcri i <1

I ---rn
T 4- r -- -. + r 1 -.
Jim S= 'tin)
. hill (-)
--r )r-r
r"->Oasn.>c, when <I)
finite quantity.
sequence {S.,) is convcrgent and consequentl y u, is also
convergent The suni of the series is
hni S-
l—r

Case (ii) Let T> I Let r=I
Sr= I -I- r i . - - f r''
r e, -- i
=1+I+I+."-1--1
r— 1 S-fl
r' I
• urn U ,- Inn . urn =oo
(rr --1 r-1
= (.. r—* o as fi—* co when r>1) sequence {S} is divergent
sequence {S} is divergent and hence the series is divergent.
hence the series is also divergent.
Case (iii) Let r= -
S r -1--I+1 --... +(- ])r_1
=1 or 0 according as n is odd or even

lirn Sc0 or I.
1-
sequence {S} oscillates between two points and as such

is an oscillatory series.
II. The series
44,
Is convergent lip> I and divergent If pl.

Proof. Case 1. When p> 1
The terms of the series
n 1'
JLi±
2'
3 4P
IL +
5p
=
can he grouped as
I Il I ) i1 1 1 1

Now since 3>2 3 P > 21
1
3P <I,1
I 1 1 1 2 1
+ 3p<+p -T

CON VERG1NCE) AND DIVRG!NCE OF SERIES 447

Using similar arguments, we have
11 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
4)' 5? 6' 7? -- ' 4P 4)' 4P I 4P 4? 2(P--n
Also we have
I 1 1 1 1 8
±.._+5p<±fTh..
and so 0)1
<j -f- + --
The series on the R.H.S. is a geometric series with common ratio
which is less than 1 since p >1 -j<l ) Converges (by geometric

seies test) and consequently the given series being less than a convergent
series, is also convergent.
Case II. When p=1.
In this case the series is
I == , +- I -, i
E n 2 3 4 5
- 6 -.
can be grouped as follows
)+...
Now I I I I I
l I 1 1 1 1 1. 1 4
++
and so 011.
1 1 1\ (1 I i
±-)+
>
The series o il R.11.S. is a geometric series with
I diverges (by geometric series test) and Co COflllflorl ratio
nsequently
greater than a divergent series, is also divergent. the given series bein1

448 BUSINESS MATHItNIATICS
Case III. Whcnp<l, we have
But the series ---- is divergent.
4- being greater than a divergent series is also divergent
Hence the auxiliary series =1 +- +;- +- - ... is con-
vergent if p> I and divergent if pl

1- he above two auxiliary series form the basis of comparison test.
1310. COMPARISON TEST
The convergence or divergence of a series can be determined by
comparing it with some suitable auxiliary series (known also as standard
series or helping series) whose convergence or divergence is known before-
hand. Through this test we can know about the convergence or the diver
gence M ithout knowing the SUm of the series.
In the following comparison methods, serves as an auxiliary
series.
Test 1. 4) If >U, are two positive eriu series and there is a
Oositie constant k such that
u, u and is convergent then is also convergent.
(is) If t,, are two positive teini series and there is a positive
constant k such that
Y n and Yv, is divergent then ZU is also divergent.
Test 11 If are to positive term series and there exists
two positi e constants A and B such that
<B n
tnn the two series ii, and , converge or diverge together.

Test HI. (Comparison by limits)
(a) If ju, ajid Ev, are iwo series of positive terms and
tim / (finite and oi-:ero
hen the two series ju, and y u, are either both convergent or bat/i diergeni.

CONVERGENCE AND DIVFRGFNCfl OF S1ES 449
(b) If Urn 11 2 -=O and is convergent. then Urn is also convergent.

V,J
(c) If Urn -'-- = and Y,, is divergent, then u, is also divergent.

,.
It should he noted that this test is very useful in practice and as such
is worth remembering.
Test IV. If u and Iv. be two series of positive terms, tlien1t,
is convergent if (I) XVrn is convergent and (ii) from and after some parti-
cular term
U,_4_I Vrn+I
Urn
)u, is divergent if (I) Ev, is divergent, and (ii) from and after some parti-
cular term
Urn+1 Vjj
Un > V
Since the removal of a finite number of terms does not alter the nature .f
the series, we shall assume that the inequlity is satisfied from the every
first term.
flow to find an Auxiliary Series. If the given series is indicated
by its nth term u, we have to take a suitable auxiliary series t. First we
have to simplify the given series Y u. and then take the highest power of
FT , dropping the coefficient, as an auxiliary series, indicated by its 'ith
term vn.
E:ampIe 2. Pro'e that the following series Is divergent
2 3 4 nJ
1+-:,--
U=n+1
Solution, Here -
'I
Let us take the auxiliary series Xs., where
'I
+l -- 1
Jim - Jim- n
"+1
Jim - Jim
1mm
I\
i I + - 1.
- U, ir fl n 77
By limit comparison test both >u, and converge or diverge

together. But the auxiliary SCric8 is divergent, hence the given scrie
u, is also divergent.
E.-ample 3. Discuss the con-ergence or divergence of the series:
1 / 1
VI+V2+V2+373+\/4+
450 EUS1NFSS MATHEMATIC
Solution. Here Uz
n +vTfl+1
[i+(
Let us take the auxiliary series
L Vr n
so that
Un I I
tim -. tim -
2
which is -I quantity other than zero.

By limit comparison test, and v, both converge or diverge
together.
But the auxiliary series Xv, is divergent as p <I.
Hence the given series Xu. is also divergent.

Example 4. Examine the convergence of the series
12 3.4 5.6
Solution. Here (2n±I)2(2fl+2)2

degree of numerator is 2 and that of the denominator is 4, i.e. degree of
denominator is in excess by 2. This suggests that the given series may be
compared with the auxiliary series Xv,, where
(2n—L)(2n)n2
1
z-f.IY42n+2)
2+
LI,
lim 24^0
,1—cx) -
By limit comparison test Xu, and iv. are either both convergent
is convergent, hence the given series is
or both d ivergent. But XvMXh
also convergent.

E^ /(n 3 -7^
n
Solution. Let u denote the nth term of the series, then
=n 3i2 i ±4_) _i], (apply Binomial Theorem)
U
=ii2[(
I i+ —2! ()
••• _iJ
l+_
n 3 8n )- 1 1
I I
8n9'
212 32
Comparing the series with the auxiliary series t, where
then, lLm ±
r -s J =---,
which is non-zero and finite.
By limit comparison test, the series >u and are either both
convergent or both divergent. But the auxiliary series
V,1
is convergent (p> 1), hence the given series is also convergent.

Example 6. Show that the series whose nth term is
(n±I) _/(n1—J)
is convergent.
Solution. Here u=(\/n+l—\/fl--l)
-
X
1)—(n I)
/i+ /;c:-j
- n
+n4 T fri f I--!]'
n4
= [( i+i)+]
^ (
452 BUSINESS MAT}IBMATXCS
Let us take the auxiliary series jv,, where v= so that
['+(-)(+ 11)]H°
* By limit comparison test both )u and t', converge or diverge
together.
But V,,== is convergent. (: p> I)
Hence the given series )U is also convergent.
ELamplt 7. Examine for convergence the series:
33 43
1k.3k + 2k4 +3k 5k
Solution. Here
(n -f- l) - [ i +
nk -f (n )k]
- 1+ (1 + -
Degree of numerator is 3 and that of denominator is k. The degree of
denominator is in excess by k - 3. Compare the series with the auxiliary
series Ye,,, where
It may be seen that u n r

-cO
=4ô
* By limit comparison test ru,, and Zv,, are either both convergent
or both divergent.
But Xv. is convergent if k-3>1, i.e., k>4 and divergent if k-3< , I,
I.e., k'c4.
Hence the given series is convergent if k>4 and divergent if ks4.
Example S. Discuss the convergence of the series:
CO
n) , (p and q being positive)

+ n)'(b 1-
S&tutIon. Here
U=)1b) )P(
Taking auxiliary series
I

CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE OF SERIES

453
Jim - ti. Jim __

1- Co
)P( i -3-.!
l+')"(
which is finite for any given value of p and q and 18 non-zero.
By limit comparison test, Yu, and U., either both converge or
both diverge.
But is convergent if p -I q > I and divergent ifp+q1.
Hence the given series is convergent if ( p +q)> I and divergent if
(p + q) 1.
Example 9. Examine the convergence of the series:
1± x4x±
S o l ution. Here u,,_ x'

Let us take the auxiliary series >.=xn- 1, then
2
.
2"
Jim — urn --2 --- = u rn =1
-* CO -* CO Fl Fl -4 CO
+
2
By limit comparison test both M u. and U. converge or diverge
together,
But Ev r=x'-' (geometric series) converges if I x I
<1 and diverges
if x> 1, hence the given series converges if x'(l and diverges if x> 1.
Example 10. DIscusS the convergence or divergence of the series;
1 21 33
Solution. Since we know that the convergence or divergence of a

series remains unaltered by the omission of a finite number of terms, neg-
lecting the first term, we get
nfl 71"
U!=(_
1 13+1
+1( i+--)
- I
1V'
n( 1 +—) 1+ 711
Let us take the auxiliary series
(
u4)( i+)

U,1 1
Jim -= urn )fl( i
1+
1 1
urn -. urn
n-+ CO (1+ JL)' n_co( i+---)
e :AO iirn(i+-)"=e]
[... n- CO
By limit comparison test, xu,, and xv,, both converge or diverge
together.
But the auxiliary series is divergent. Hence the
L
given series is also divergent.
EXERCISE (I)
1. Prove that the series
(i) I+ +--+4--f. ... is divergent.
(ii) Convergent.
1 3 5 7
3+4+3 6-!- ...is convergent.
F
-
Hint 2n-1
n(n+1)(n-i-2)'
I
a2
iirn!i_==riim
Co(1+)(i+
i (2_)n2
2.T2]
J.
a)
(iv) 1 1 1 1
+ ••j divergent.
+ +
(v) AJ +,Vhii+ + / is divergent. ,V4+..

(vi)i+_L+_.4+ _L +...is divergent.
4 3 93 143
(vii) I+ ---- + + j + . is convergent.
2.2 10 3310 4.410
I I I
310 410
(viii) I+—r. + --- +...is divergent.


2. Examine the convergence of the series
1 y2 v' 3 V-4
0 - F- h1 +
1 2 3
a. 1' - h -'-— lb 1a.32 --F
14 24 34 4±Ion
(w)
3. Examine for convergence of the series
n(n4- 1) k -I - I
(i)
(n-f-2)(n-t-3)(n-f-4)2 (n)
k". I
C'-)

(iii) (iv) (3n- I)-', (v)
(Vi) (1,H)' 1 2L
-V / ii' 2
)T
(viii) (Ix) [CA,, Nov., 191]
4. Test for convergence of the following series

(1) (/2— 1)1-(v5-2)-f-( V_3)+... f(/,2
H—n)•f-...
(ii) (n--I) }
(iii) -V fl (iv) v'z -i- 1 -

{ {
(v) /Tfri (vi)
5. Examine the following series for convergence

• 2 3 4 5
(i)
I 1 1 1
(ii)
(in) 1 2P Y 4P

1' 2' 3'

(iv)
6. Test for convergence the series whose general term is

(1) 1 fl\/n
+3)' , (ii) (an -f.b7iT' (•••)
ANSWERS
2. (i) Divergent, (Ii) Divergent, (iii) convergent.
3. (1) Divergent, (Ii) divergent, (iii) convergent, (iv) divergent,
(v) convergent, (vi) convergent, (vii) divergent, (viii) divergent,
(it) convergent.
I. (1) Divergent, (ii) divergent, (iii) convergent, (iv) convergent
(v) Convergent, (vi) convergent.
5. (1) Convergent if p>2 and divergent if p2,
(ii) convergent if p>1, divergent ifp1,
convergent if q—p>1, divergent if q - p 1,
(Iv) convergent if q>l, divergent if ql.
6. (1) Convergent if p>1 and divergent if p 1. (ii) divergent,
if PO, (iii) convergent if p> and divergent if
1311. D' ALEMBERT'S RATIO TEST
If we could find S, i.e., the sum of n terms of a series, the question
Of its convergency could be settled. In most cases this is impossible or very
difficult, for which there is a very useful test which requires us only to
know the nth term We will state this theorem without proof.
Let u1 4-u,-f u +... -1- u.+...denote a series of positive terms. Find
the ratio .f_- and find the limit of this ratio as n tends to infinity. If
this limit is greater than I, the series converges ; if less than I the series
diverges, if equal to 1 ; the series may converge or diverge and this test
gives no information.
In symbols, if >u is a positive term series, then
(I) It is convergent if Jun
n-#0
(ii) is divergent if lint _f!_ <:1,
(tii) the test fails If

lint "?_J
,l-
This test is known after the name of a French mathematician Jean
c-Round D' Alembert as I)' Alembert's test or the generalised ratio test.
Example ii. Test for convergence of the series:
1 3 5 7
(a)

CONVERGENCE AND LMVERGNCI OF SflRIFS 457

1 2
2 2 23
(b)
Id +ji+T A- .
1 2 3 4
(C)
Solution. (i) We note that the nth term of the series is

2i—1
so that
F 1)
u 2n -1 2' -- —2
U. t = 2' 2n-i-1 --
2I_1
L 'U
Then urn --- = Jim 2=2>1.

fl-+ u*+1 fl 1 2 --I-- ---
n
L
The series is convergent.
2A-
(b) Here u , ---- ---- so that
3
2-1 10-f-fl
U,, 1 0H( n_ 1) 2"
10
ZfiI
Jini urn -
=- =:+
= =
^ 00• 2 : 2
(. n J
1-lence the series is divergent.
(c) Here U=__j
1 ( i+ - -)
fl-1-1( i+---)( i+ - )
• linl
lT -+)
Thus the test does not give any information, We note, however,
hat since
un=_1

458 BUSINESS MATIH3MATICS
lun U,=],
n - CJ
and since this limit is not zero, the series is divergent.

Example 12. Test the convergence or divergence of the series
1 2! 3! 4!
+...
Solution. The nth term of the series is

ii!
U
3ri
Y +1 3".3 3
3' (n+ l) !3"(n± 1) n !n-4-1
3
urn ----== urn -_= urn ---- =0<1.

fl-*.D fl-+X)
Hence the series is divergent.

OD
Example 13. Prove that the eries is convergent by

I2+
usfng d' Alernoeri's Ratio Test.
Solution, Let u be "th krm. then
n3 a
so that
2--a l+_
u,, 1 (n -- 1)3 -o 2- a Is!8 a
U., 1-1-0 2+0

Now Inn -=--- . —=2.
flD u 1 1+0 I-f 0
which is greater than I.
Hence by ratio test, the series is convergent.
Example 14. Test for convergence of the series whose nth term is
11 2 ±1 nn •.. 1.3.5...(2n-1)
(1) -p-, (ii)
Solution. (i) Let U., denote the nth term of the given series, then
U. fl 2 1_1 50± 5(,12+1)
= 5' (n+l)2+ln2+2n--.2
Thus lim u. =5>1, consequently u1 converges.
n-+,X)

ONVERG3NCE AND DIVERGENCE OF SERIES 459

• u, n (n -- 1) 1
u,, 1 n! (ni- IY+'(fl±lY ( i +
Obviously urn = urn ,-

(1+—
U
Consequently Yu, diverges.

u l,3,5 ... (2n-1) (ri+l)
u,, n4 — ' L3. 5.. .(2n - I )(2n -i- 1)
(u+ ) n-

2+1 • (2±
—
Obviously Ilin -s-- —0, consequently u,, diverges.
Example 15. Prove that the serte

X2 X3 x
x+7+T+fTh.
is convergent for Ox1, i.e., if x<l, the series is convergent,
and if <I, i.e., if x>l, the series is divergent.

If x=l, the test gives no information, but in that case, we note
that the given series reduces to the auxiliary series 1 ± - +—_ +... which
we know is divergent.
Hence the given series is convergent if x .zzl and is divergent If xl.
Example 16. Discuss the convergence of the series:
1 x X2 X"
3+36+2433fl2+
X.
Solution. Here u,, =
3+I 1 )' 3
u x' (n 1-1)' 7
Thus -= = 1+ x -

460
J i m -=-- Jim
nhl
r 1 \2
1+--) . 3 1 3
n--00
^ co n-co X
By ratio test, the series 'u,, is convergent if -->1, i.e., if x.3
and diverges if - <1. i.e., x>.3.

X
If x=3, then 3 1
But the series is convergent, being an auxiliary series

(P> 1).
Hence is convergent if x'(3 and divergent if x>3.
Example 17. Test the convergence of/he series:
2 3 4 5 n-fl
Xf...
Solution. If lu. denotes the given series, then

(n+1)+l ;fl+l
•X
• u '+I (n-fl) I
- 713 Pi
(n4-1) 4 I (i+-..)
fl 3 (n +-2) x X
3
±
U. 1
Inn
fl -D 14 ,, + I X
Hence by d' Alcmbei-t's Ratio test, the series is convergent
if ->1, i.e., x<l and divergent jf_L<l, I.e., x>I.
If x = I, then ti, =
n+I (i+)
= 1
Taking the auxiliary series as u,,=
Jim Jim( 1+
=
flcO n ) a non-zero finite quanti ty .
Xu,
and xv,, are either both convergent or both divergent.
CONVERGENC9 AND DIVERGENCE OF SERIES 461
Since V,== _!- is convergent, >u is also convergent
Hence the series is convergent if X 1 and divergent if .x>1.

Example 18. Exwnine the .JOflergerIce oJ the series
(1) +1)
(n 2)i) x, (x>())
(714- 1) .
Solution. here
(n+2)
and so that
- (nj-1)(n- 4)
+) j
U ' Vj - ( n J-2)2 X
i± - --)
(
11,
urn
fl-*cO
By ratio test, it follows that the series is convergent if

1, 1.e.,x <1
and divergent if 7<1 I.e., x>I

For x=1, we have
(n+l)
(n+2)(n+3) n 2 3
Choosing we get
(i+-.-)
Un
( i+—)(
i-4)
n)
him him 1, a non-zero finite quantity.
TJJ v,, fl•(D ( 1+._)(1-2-)
and thus the two series Yu. and Yv, converge or diverge together by
Comparison test.

462 13US1NES MATHEMATICS
But is divergent, therefore, the given series

is also divergent.
Hence >u 1 is convergent if x<1 and divergent if x>1.
Example 19. Test for convergence of the series
2 X4 XG
J
()
77 + + +
1 1 1
(b) jp + 3 p •15pI- J)P
Solution. (a) Here u, - --- and u, -

(n-4-1)\/ n (n±2)Vn+1
U,, n4 2
• (1± .L)2
1+-
r 1 2 -
fi
x
n
urn ----= urn ( +-!_ 2
p-f 1X2 X2
fl-+CC)
i+_!__
L " J
Hence the given series is convergent if- >1, i.e., x 2 <1 and diver-
gent if -. 1,
But if x 2 - 1, the nth term of the given series becomes
u 1_ = 72 ( '==[ I_-J_+...]
Comparing it with the auxiliary series

:
we find that
U f I
urn = urn ,, 1---+... )=-1, which is non-zero and finite.
fl-3c0
The both Xii,, and Xv,, converge or diverge together. But the
auxiliary series is convergent, hence the given series is

also convergent.

CONvERGENC12 AND DIVERGENCE OF SERIES 463
b) u(2n±l)' l_ ______
fit
U. (2n1)P I
211)
\P
1( )
U,, +2,:) 1 1
hill hill \/' - -
( x x
L" 2n) J
Itence the given series is convergent if >1, i.e., if x,,- I and diver
gent if! <1, i.e., if x>1.
But if x I, the given series becomes

1 1 1
1 1
(2u--1)
Choosing the auxiliary series we have

tip
11.
li p ( 2_) (2_-)
11 ti
1 1 1
which is non zero and finite for any given value of P.

Thus0 1 and either both converge or diverge together.
But
E v=
tip
is Convergent if P 1 and divergent if p1.
Hence the given series is convergent if X I and
when x=- I, the given series is convergent ii p> I and divergent ifp 1.
1312. CAUCHY'S ROOT TEST
According to this test if 2 u, is a positive term series, then
(i) it is covergent if urn (un) 11 <1.

n- '-
(ii) is divergent if urn (u,,)" > 1, and

fl-4. Co

(iii) the test is inconclusive if Jim (u1) fl = I.

/v-> CO
Example 20. Show that the series

i- ±4 is convergent.
Solution. Here the nth term of the series is
flfl
I I
(1 ' n 1
Thus (un) ,
\iJ' ) • it
tim n= iim_L—<i
By Cauchy's root test, YU. is convergent.
Example 21. Test for the convergence the series whose genera
term is
j\fl2
/
\ n
Solution. Here u.=7
Thus (u,)(
1- )" [( 1 i'
r,
tim (14.) " = tim
fl -
*C
=e"=—<l 1— ) j
By Cauchy's root test, )u, is convergent.
Example 22. Test for convergence the series whose nih term is
WI,
(n±I)h11
'I fl1
Solution. Here (un)
(l-t-n) /
\ ni
tim (u,j = urn I 1

-= 7<1
fl-+ CO
I ' ,)
Hence the series converges by the root test.


Example 23. Test the convergence of i/ic series
22
( T2
2 ) 1 d
(
33
3y(4 4)8
n4-1- \*+l (n+l A_1

Solution. I lcrc U.—
(11+)fl[n1)fl
l id I

l]1
j
d_
t + i
'[(
Thus km (ufl) = km (i + i]
e which is less than I.

Hence by Cauchy's root test, the given series is convergent.
+1)x}"
Example 24. Show that the series L(7 - Is convergent if
x].
Solution. Here n.
Pt
In
j
(n+l)x( i+), -
(ii)
flfl 1 ri's
liIfl (tij urn n 1]

[ .
By Cauchy's root test, the series is convergent if x<l and
divergent if X>l.
(n-.1)" 1 t n +1' I /
=- -h-- I--) =--,j- I
I
If x=1, then U,,=
the auxiliary series

Taking the where v—
fl
V11 n
Jim —f— - urn (1 i----_ =eÔ,

17>

By limit comparison test, and Xv, are either both convergent

or both divergent, but - is divergent, therefore, i
also divergent.
Hence the given series is convergent if x' 1.
1313. RAA BE'S TEST
Let û be a given positive tertn series such that
urn
a-. ;L
r
n ( u1 1=i then
\U+1 JJ
(1) ru,, is convergent if 1> I
(ii) is divergent if /<1.
(111) if 1= 1, then the test fails, the series may either converge or
diverge.
Example 25. Determine the convergence of the series
1 1.3 1.3.5
-- X2X2F_6X8.{,,
Soluti on . I.3.5...(2n—l)
Here U,, "
2.4.6..(2n)
+ l.3.5 ... (2n—i)(2nf.l)
" 1 2.46...(2n)(2' 2)
U. (2'z 2) 1 n1
u _4(2 n +l) . x
2n
U
urn
n— cc .s+i X
By d'Alembert's Test, the series is convergent or divergent

according as -- >1 or --<1 respectively, I.e., according as xi
respectively. Since this test is inconclusive when X 7 1,
test, If x=l, (1) can be written as we use Raabe'g
u.41(
i+)(i+L)'
- ( i+( i—+ -.•. )=i++..

I.e.,
lim n(
n, x ^
—1
)= 2i<1
' By Raabe's test the series is Convergent.
Hence the given series is convergent ifx<I and divergent if xl.

Example 26. Examine the convergence or the divergence of :/w

series
2 2.42 2.42.62
\2+ 2 X6+
22.42,62... (2n_2)2
Here ii = X
2n
224261 (2n__2)2(2n)2 x
U, 4 1 :- — 2+2
3.4.5. 6 .... 2n(2n-l-l)(2fl+2)
U,, (2': -f 1 )(2j) -4-2)
Thu s - -1 = 4n 2 -4- 6': -I- 2
--
U n I
urn
u,, 1 .v2
By d'Alembert test, the series is convergent '>1, fe,,
if <1 and divergent if 4 <1, i.e., x> I.

If x ' = 1, (1) may be rewritten as
U,,
4'f-1-6n--2
u H 4n -
/ U '/ 4fl26,4. 6,1 2 -2ti
n P=nr-_-__j i=---- \
+1 ) \ 4jj3 47J
/
I , 45n24-2n
Jim n k---- I j - - - 3
CC ( u1 / r Jim -----=-->
4fl
'
By Raabe's test, the series is convergent.
Hence the series is convergent if x 1.
EXERCISE (II)
Find whether the following series converge or diverge.
1 2 3 4
2 22
2 22 23 2"
(ii)
2.34'
2 22 2 3 2
is r± -I-... +-+..,
2 22 21 2
(iv)
I - 3
(v) -_- + i-- -

468 BUSINESS MATEIPMAT1C
2. Examine the convergence of the series:
1 3 5 7
(ii)
i
1 21 3! 41
(fit)
I) -- ±--±fj+.-.
3. Examine the convergence of the following ser i es

(1) 1+3x+5X2+7X8+9X4+...
x 1 x3 x
! ......
4. Examine the convergence of the series
X X2 x3 x4
1.2 3.4567
1 x X2
(if)
1.2.3 789
X ! 3
(iii) 1 + x- -3• +
x x2 x X"
(iv)
5. Test the convergence of the series

X x2 X
(')
.+ V2 L.
/3 2 *1
X 8 + ...--
./fl2+1
...
(ill)+2 2

(Iv) - - + -- - x-f-
6. Examine the convergence of the following series

X2 XS Xn
• x
(:)
(ii) X
(in) I -4- +4P +& -

• x x3
(iv)
244x2 3+9x

CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE OF iiuns 469
7 Examine the convergence of the following series

• 1.2 2.3 3.4
(u) 2
x 5 10 x 31
7 x'
)^-(-)+...
S. Test for convergence or divergence of the series:
c%) SO
3n-4 Xn,
112
--2n
(ii)
^^ (n-l- 1)3112 X
iii) n2+ 1 n ] x2
a0 10
1,3.5..(2n—l)
(iv) ( v)
2.5.8...(3n_1) 3.n!
n=I
(ri) x. (given 0<xJ) [CA., May, 19911
9. Test for convergence the following series
(')
CO
r a .
1 ' (n) CO
n1
[n+i _ J Y,
fl1
(iii) [1+

(iv)
2 ((?1+ 1)/nln
00 co
(v) 14- (vi) 2"-"
10. Test for convergence the following series

1 1.3 1.3.5
(i)
CO
1
' '
2.4.6..,(2n— 1)
1.3.5.,.(2n_-3) (2n-2)
n=I

470 RUSINI3SS MATIIBMATICS
• . P I3.3a.5
X x3 1.3 x 1.3.5 x7
(iv)
T1 526 7
ANSWERS
1. (i) Convergent, (ii) divergent, (iii) divergent, (iv) divergent1
(v) divergent.
2. (i) Convergent, (ii) divergent, (iii) divergent.
3. (i) Convergent, if xl and divergent if x 1,
(ii) convergent for all x.
4. (i) Convergent fur X I and divergent for X>1,
(ii) same as in (i) (iii) same as in (I) ; (iv) same as in (i),
5. (i) Convergent if x< 1 and divergent if x I, (ii) same as in (0,
(Iii) a n d (iv) same as in (i).
6. (i) Convergent if x< 1 and divergent if x> 1, (ii) same as in (1),
(iii) convergent if X2 <1, divergent if 1. Also convergent if x 2 1 and
P> 1 and divergent if x' = 1 and 1, <1, ((v) convergent.
7. (i) Convergent if x> I and divergent if x I,
(ii) convergent if .v<a and divergent if xa.
8. (i) Convergent if x<1 and divergent ii' x 1,
(ii) convergent if x1 and divergent if x>l. (iii) same as in (ii).
(vi) convergent if Ox<l and divergent if x=1.
9. (i) to (vi) convergent.
10. (i) Divergent, (ii) convergent, (iii) divergent,
(Iv) convergent if x 2 < 1 and divergent if X 2> 1.
1314. ALTERNATING SERIES
An infinite series in which the terms are alternately positive and
negative and in which each term is numerically less than the preceding
term is called all Series. Symbolically, a series of the form
u--u2-u3—u4+.., i.e., (-
1)1u4
where u >OVn, is called an alternating series.

1315. LEIBNITZ TEST
An alternating series is convergent if each term is numerically 1es
than the preceding term a' j the nth term is infinitely small whea is is
taken infinitely large. Symbolically, the alternating series
471
is convergent if (1) u u,, n, and (ii) urn
and its sum always lies bttwecn 0 and u.

Earnp1e 27. Test the convergence of the series
I I 1 1
'1! 2! 31
Solution. In order to discuss the conver3euce of the given series,

wewill apply Lcibnitz test for the convergence of an alternating series
and we shall verily whether the terms of the series satisfy tho two condi-
tions or not.
(1) Obviously u (i/) Jim U, urn 0

fl. J) n 1
By Leibnitz. test, the given series is convergent.

Example 28. Test the convergence of the series
I I I I
obc (a+IXb1I)(c j I) (a 2)(h 2)(c±2) (a3)(b+3)(C+3)"

a, b, c are positive.
Solution. Let the given series be represented by
u 1 -- u 2 -{- u -{ -
=15CT)'
Since a, b and C are all positive,
41
1 1 1 1 1 1
a+ n --l>ai-n' ---->-
-11 and
- 1 1
(a l- 1)(b + n— 1)(c t n j )>(a Fn)( + rr(c +)
u.+l-<U.
1
Also urn U,, -= urn
fl+CY) (a . j-fl—l)(b-t-fl-1)(Ct n—I)
urn - 1C--

113 lj
=0 ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we conclude that the given series is convergent.
Solution. Here U,,r\/QlTfl)_\/ ,j

__
-[\/(fl+1)— W-) X7-_
n±l—n
Now we shall apply the Leibnitz test for the convergence of an alter-
nating series and we shall verify whether the terms of the series satisfy the
two conditions or not.
1 1
(I) u—u
%1(n
(\/2+\/Ti)
(y ,ij \/ , T T)( v r 1 - 1
-- ______ n —V'n f2 n \/fl+2

( \/ +TX/l +v'<
n—(n4-2)
+ /T)
<0
u,1+1 -11,,<0 i.e., u,,>u41.
(ii) Jim u== urn

n -* ) ii - Vn+1 + / n
Jim_l1/2 7i ==°•
R
Hence by Leibnitz test, the series is convergent
EXERCISE (III)
I. Test the convergence or the following series
(1)


1 3 1
223V3
2. Sh ow that the following series are convergent
c,)
)r )nI
(
(1) , ( ii)
-
fl2 .a2
fl - 1
3. Examine the convergence of the following series
(I) +ja . where x arid 'O
1 1 1 -
xy (x i - 1)(y1 I)(x+2)(yF2)(x+3)(y+3)
where x and y>O.
ANSWERS
1. (1) Convergent, (ii) convergent,
2. (i) Convergent, (ii) convergent.
14
Circular Functions and Trigonometry
STRUCTURE
140 INTRODUCTION
141 MEASUREMENI' OF ANGLES
142, TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCI'JONS
143 [R100NOMETR1C RATIOS
144, RELATIONS I3ErWEEN TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
145. SIGNS OF TRIG ONOMEIRIC FUNCTIONS
146, TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCIIONS OF STANDARD ANGLES
ANGLES
147. USE OF PRIN ILL) TABLES
148. i-RATIOS OF ALLIIi) ANGLES
149. ILUGONOMErREc FUNCFIONS OF SUM AND
DIFFERENCE OF ANGLES
1410. T-RA'IIOS 01' MULTIrLE ANGLES
1411. TRANSFORMATION OF PRODUCTS AND SUMS
1412. TRIGONOMErRIC IDENTITIE
1413. PROPER'iILS OF A TRIANGLE
14'14 SOLU1 IONS FOR A TRIANGLE
OBJ ECTIV ES
• measurement of angles, trigonometric ratios, trigonometric
functions and their signs.
• trigonometric functions of standard angles ; use of printed tables,
I-ratios of allied angles, sum and difference of angles, t-ratios
of multiple angles.
3 solving
changing the sum or difference to products and vice versa for
problems
• trigonometric identities, properties of a triangle and solution of
a triangle.
CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS AND TRIGONOMETRY 475
140. INTRODUCTION
the word Trigonometry is derived from two Greek words— trigono'
(meaning a triangle) and metron' (meaning a measure), and hence the
literal meaning tire incasuremeni of a triangle, Thus trigonometry is
that branch of mathematics winch deals with the measurement of the sides
and the angles of a triangle and the investigation of 'various relations
which exist amongst them.
Theme are several methods of measuring angles. One of these
methods, used mostly in trigonometry is the radian measure which is also
called the circular measure. The concept of angle is also somewhat modi-
fied jfl trigonometry. H crc it is formed by a moving line from its initial
position to the terminal position, clockwise or anti-clockwise, Now the
circular functions deal with the relations of these rotating lines and tile
angles formed by them. Since these are measured n circular or tue radian
measure, they are called the circular functions. Except this there is no
difference between trigonometry and circular functions, and they are so
closely interwoven that the difference is not of much relevance.
In trigonometry we have a good deal of combination of algebra and
geometry. There are algebraic s y mbols, formulae aid equations which
make the subject more interesting and useful lar practical applications.
To state a few, it is useful in measuring height of the mountains, the
summits of which cannot be reached, the dislaice of inaccessible objects,
the width of rivers without undertaking the trouble of act tall y crossing
them, measurement of the sue of the earth, etc. It is rather indispensable
for industrial engineering, surveying and astronomy. in huusiicss the
phenomenon of business cycles can he expl;iiiicd by some of the circular
functions.
Since trigonometric functions are widel y used in mathematics, our
understanding of the subject will be incomplete without the knowledge of
trigonometry. There are two main branches of trigorionietry., viz., plane
trigonometry and spherical trigonometry, however, we will confine our
stud y only to plane trigonometry.
ANGLES
An angle in trigonometry is defined as
the amount of rotation made by a straight
line from one position to another about a
point. In other words it can be traced by
I
/ POS171VE
the revolution of a straight line about a
point from its initial position to the terminal
position as indicated in Fig. 1.
In the adjoining figure, the initial side
OX moves anti-clockwise to the terminal A?GtE
side 01' from the common point 0, called MAL 510F )K
the vertex, to trace a positive angle.

Fig. I.

4 76 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Ifl!T,aI side
Ne g ati ve-. x
angle
A similar movement clockwise will trace
a negative angle.
QUADRANTS
Let the two perpendicular lines X'OX

and Y'OY divide the plane into fur parts,
each one of them being called a quadrant.
Conventionally the region XOY is called the
First quadrant , the region YOX' is called the
Second quadrant, the region X'OY' is called
the Third quadrant and the region Y'OX
is called the Fourth quadrant.
Fig. 3.
141. MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
In geometry, an angle is generally measured in terms of a right angle.
This, however, is too large a unit for practical applications in trigonometry,
so in trigonometry there are three systems for the measurement of angles.
I. SexgesimaI System (or the English System). In this system
a right angle is divided and sub-divided into small parts as shown below
I rt. angle=90 degrees (written as 90°)
I degree= 60 minutes (written as 60')
I miunte=60 seconds (written as 60")
It. The Centesimal System (or the French System). In this
system, a right angle is divided and sub-divided as shown below:
I rt. anglc= 100 grades (written as 1001)
1 grade— 100 minutes (written as 100')
1 minute= 100 seconds (written as 100)
The minutes and seconds used in the centesimal system are distinct
from those used in the sexagesimal system.
A right angle being the connecting link between the two systems, an
angle in the first s y stem can be converted into the units of the second
system and vice versa
one rt. angle contains 90° and 100
for
90°=100'
CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS AND TRIGONOMETRY 477
Thus to change degrees into grades, multiply by 1I eg
63=63x =701
Similarly to change grades into degrees multiply by It)
40 8 =40 X -. =36.
Remark: A conversion process from one system to the other can

be simplified if the given measurement is first converted into a decimal
fraction. This, in the case of scxagesiinal system, is done by dividing each
successive part by 60, 60 and 90 from right to left and in case of it being
in centesimal system by 100, 100, 100 in the same manner as illustrate d in
the following example.
Example 1. (a) Express 17' > 15' 27' as '1 decimal fraction of a right
angle and then reduce It Into centesimal measure,
(h) Reduce 36 32' 50 to the .cexagc'siniil ,nea sure
Solution. (a) 27'= - 045'
15'27' 1545'. =02575
17°15'2r =l72575'=Ji rt. L 9rt. L

=019175 rt, angle
100
19175 grades
100
175 minutes
100
50 seconds
T hus I7d15>27=1917>50.
(b) 50=
32'5'---
36325 32 rt. --036325 rt. /

478 BU5INES4 MAT11EMA1CS
90
326925 degrees
60
41'55
60
33'00 second
Thils 3632'50"=32'41'33'
III. The Circular System (Or the Circular Measure)
In all the higher branches of mathematics, this system is commonly
used for measurement of a[Igles. In this system, the unit of measurement
is a radian.
The radian is defined as an angle sub-
tended at the centre of a circle by an arc eqiil
in length to the rodhi' of the circle.
Let us dr.w a circle around the centre 0
with any radius. From any point A on the
circumference cut off an are 41?radj1]s of
the circle. Join OA and 013. Then L
A0J3 = 1 radian, circular measure of an
angle is the number of radians it contains).
Since, the angles at the centre of a B
(r)
circle are proportional to the arcs subtended
through them, Ac have
Fig. 4.
lAO/I
- ----------------
arc AB -
r Ir
Total angle at 0 Circumference 2ttr 2m LI where tm=3i1 15
I radian 1
4 rt. Ls 2ut
4 rt. /s 2
1 radian= = rt. z.ls
27!
radians2 rt. Ls_= 180°=2009
which is the relation between three systems for the measurement of angles.
Through this, given any one system we can derive in any other system.
Example 2. Find the circular measure of
(i) 60, (ii) 112-30', (iii) 1350
Solution, We know I 8O°r-=it radians
(/) 600=1-- x 60= -_ radians
(i) 11 230'=

TRIGONOMETRY 479
225° 225 5
radians-:-: -h-- radians
180
(iii) 135-=8o x 135 radians=_3-radjans
Example 3, Find the circular measure of

(i) 400 27' 30, (ii) 65' 6' 7".
Solution, (1) 30'= 30'

=°T
55° 55 Ii"
27 30 ----27 2
2x60 )2O 24
40°27'30':-:-4() =-40'4583
Since 180°-:-v radians. 1= -- radians
4045R3== < 40 . 4583 radians
22 1
X )'< 40'458307064 radians
(ii) T_ __ -- 007'
6'7"==607'=
6516'7'= 65 ' 06071==65 - 0607x [.' 2001=: n radians]
0650607 -
it
- raLII1is-O-323O35 n radians.
Example 4. The angles of a triangle tire in A. and the ratio of the
?nirnber of degrees in the smallest angle to the number of radians in the
greatest angle is 60 ,. Find the angles in degrees.
Solutinu. Let the angles be (a—d), OC
and (a i. il)'.
The sum of the three angles being I 8ft
(a ---fl-( -a - (a-I-d)=l80" a-- 60°
so that the angles are (60—il)°, 60, (60 -d)
Now I radians
Greatest angle (60 + - (60+(1) radians,

480 BUSINESS MATHIMATEcS
Therefore, from the given data

(60--d) 60
(60+d)
180 (60-(I)=60 (60 +-d)

4d- 120, so that d=30°
Hence the angles are 30c, 60, 90°
Example 5. (a) If 0, U, Care respectively the nu,nl,er oJ degrees,
grades and radians in an angle. s/wiv that
D U 2C 20C
(a) -- r-, (b) G.—D---..
7J .t Li 7
Solution. (a) D degrees= - rt. Ls
U grades--= 1 rt. Ls
C radians.- ---
Cx2
rt. Ls
Equating all the three, we get

0 U 2C
90 l00 ,
D U 2C
96
(1) Let- 100
=. -k
D .:90k, G=iOOk and Ck
L.H.S,=-G----D=100k--90k
20C
•-=R.}1.S.
Tr
Theorem. The circular neasure of an angle subtended at the centre

of a circle h' an arc is
Subtended arc
Ra(fius -.

TRIGONOMETRY 481
Draw a circle with centre 0 and
radius (r) Let /BOCr-6 radians and
are BC== I,
/
We have to prove that O - C
r
Now cut off arc BA r Join OA I
Since angles at the centre of a circle
are proportional to the arcs subtended by
them,
1g. 5.
LAOB arc All
LBOCare BC
I radian
= _____ r
6 radians /
I
6=—r radians.
Remark. 1:rrrr6 and
6
Thus, if any two of these quantities are given, the third can be deter-
mined. But in applying this formula, 0 must invariably be expressed
in radians and I and r should be expressed in the same units.
Example 6. Find the angle subtended by an are 15 cm. long at L/i
centre of a circle whose radius is 60 cm,
/ 15
Solution. 6=— radians =-7T- radians.
r 60 4
Example 7. Find the length of an are which subtends an angle 120
at the centre of a circle whose radius is 6 cm.
So1uton. Here r=6, 0=120°=120x radians
Substituting these values in the formula, we have

1=rO6x 120x1-=4w
=4x3'142=12i68 cm.
Example 8. A circular wire of 6 cm. radius is' cut and bent so as to
Ile along the circumference of a loop wh radius is 096 metre. Find in
radians (and also in grades) the angle which is subtended at the centre of the
loop.
Solution. Here I=Length of the arc
= Circumference of the circular wire with 6 cm. radius

482 BUSINESS KATHEMATTCS
=2Xit x6cin.=12ic cm.

r=radius of the loop=096 metre=96 cm.
I 12v w
9= - = radians
Also t radians=200 grades

200i
jradians__-_x j grades==29
TC
Example 9. The large hand of a big clock is 3 feet long. how many
Inches does its extremity move in 10 minutes' time ?
Solution. In 60 minutes, the minute hand turns through 3600
360x 10
In 10 minutes it turns through= =60
Ir
0=-60x1- radians
r= radius of the circle— 36 inches

/=length of the arc=rO
=36x60X- i•o
= =377 inches.
Example 10. A horse is lied to a post by a rope 81 metres long.

If the horse moves, always keeping the rope tight, find what distance will It
have covered when the rope has traced an angle of 700?
Solution. The distance covered by the horse is the length of the

are of the circle with radius 81 metres, the arc subtending an angle of 700
at the centre.
r=radius of the circle=81 metres
O=angle at the centre in radians
70 x radians
(=required length of the are
=rO=81 x7Ox metres
ISO
22
==81 70 x 1 metres =99 metres.
7 180
EampIe jj. The ?noon's distance from the earth is 350,000 kilo-
metres and its diameter subtends an angle of 31' at the eye of the observer.
Find the diameter of the moon.
TRIGONOMETRY 483
Solution. Let AB be the diameter of the moon which subtends an
angle of 31 at 0, the eye of the observer.
Since LAOB is very small,
therefore, the diameter AB A
is nearly equal to arc AB . so 000
of the circle whose centre
is 0 and radius is OA, i.e.
the distance of the moon
from the earth. Let AR
be I kilometres.
H
Fig. 6.
Hence 0 = 31' =L
x' f-
80 radians and r = 350,000 kilometres
3l5< /
60 x 180 — 350,000 (..
o=4-)
31 x 350,000 x 22 85250 kilometres
60x 180x7 27
31 57- j- kilometres.
EXERCISE (I)
I. Give the different methods of measuring angles and give their
inter-relations
2. (a) Express in terms of a it. angle, and then reduce to the cen-
tesimal system.
(i) 200 44 42', (ii) 79'5' 15°, (iii) 1350 24' 2934.
(b) Express in terms of a rt. angle and then convert into the sexa-
gesimal system,
(1) 39 2' 50', (ii) 26' 97' 5°
3. Express in radians the following
(a) (1) 225°, (ii) 3750, (iii) 225 8 , (b) (i) 47°48' 45°, (ii) 56: 45' 75
4 Express both in degrees and radians, the angles of a triangle
whose angles are to each other as I : 2 : 3.
5. The angles of a triangle are in A.R.and the ratio of the number
of grades in the smallest angle to the number of degrees in the greatest
angle is 10 : 21. Find the angles in degrees.
6. The angles-of a triangle are in A.P. and the number of grades in
the least is to the number of radians in the greatest as 40 : r. Find the
angles in degrees.
7. (a) Find the length of an are of a circle of radius 762 cm.
which subtends an angle of 30° at the centre.
(b) An arc of a circle of length38'10 cm. subtends at the centre of
the circle an angle of 72°. Find the radius of the circle.
8 A horse is tethered to a stake by a rope 223 metres long. If the
horse moves along the circumference of a circle always keeping the rope

tight, find how far along the arc it will have gone when the rope has traced
an angle of 700•
9. The large hand of a clock is 60'96 cm long. How many cm
does its extremity move in 20 minutes ?
10. (a) A circular wire of radius 3 cm is cut and bent so as to lie
along the circumference of a hoop whose radius is 48 cm. Find in grades
the angle which is subtended at the centre of the hoop. Find also the angle
in radians.
(b) A railway train is travelling on a curve of 750 metres radius at
the rate of 30 km per hour ; through what angle has it turned in 10
seconds ?
ANSWERS
2. (a) (1) 02305 rt. Li, 23 1 5', (ii) 087875 rt. /., 08787'50",
1504535 rt. Li, 15045' 35' (b) (i) 035025 rt. Li, 31°31'2t", 0,26975
rt. Li, 2416'24". 3. (a) (i) (ii) ir, (iii) - ii.
4 if
(b) (I) 0265625, (ii) 0282287 n.
4. 30 c , 60C and 90 ( Let - = - k 5. 36°, 60, 84°

)
20', 60c, 100' 7. (a) 399 cm., (b) 3030 cm 8. 27255 metres.
77
9. 1271257 cm. 10. (a) 25 9, ( Hint. Length of arc-=circum-
ference of circle of radius 3 cm. =2,r x 3 cm.), (b) 229 0.

142. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Trigonometric functions are relations between any two of the three
sides of a triangle. For the sake of simplicity a right-angled triangle is
taken as a starting point to explain these relations. Among other things, the
sides of a right-angled triangle are easy to define and grasp. These very
ideas will then be extended to all other angles. It may be noticed that
an angle- in trigonometry is defined in a highly generalised manner which
Suits the subject because it helps in extending the concepts of trigonometric
relations to other angles with no significant changes.
A Right Angle. Let XOY be any angle 0. Take any point P on
OY and draw PM perpendicular to OX. A right angled Z_'. is formed.
If 0 is taken as the angle of reference,
MP, the side opposite to 0 is called the
perpendicular and OF, the side Opposite
to the right angle is called the hypotenuse
Se
and 0.41 the third side is called the base.
Perpendicular General Angles. Let a Straight
8 line OA, starting from the position Ox
0 M and rotating round 0 trace Out an angle
X0.4. Let 0 be the measure of the angle
Fig. 7. XOA. This angle can be of any magni-
tude. From an y point P in the final
TRIGONOMETRY 485
position of the revolving tine OA, draw PM perpendicular to OX or XO
produced if necessary as shown below
A
4Y
\P
Vt
2
XM X
Fig. 8.
143. TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

Now, the three sides OM, OP and MP can be arranged, two at
a time in six (3P2)
different ways and hence six ratios can be formed with
them. These six ratios are called the trigonometric functions or t-ratios
or circular functions and are defined as follows
L The ratio of the perpendicular to the hypotenuse is called the
sine of the angle 0 and is written as sin 0.
Perp. MP Y Ordinate
sin 0=
Hyp.OPr r
2. The ratio of the base to the hypotenuse is called the cosine of the
angle 0 and is written as cos 6.
cos - - Abscissa
--OM
Hyp.OPr r
3. The ratio of the perpendicular to the base is called the tangent of
the angle 8 and is written as Ian 8.
tanOrdinate
Base 0M - x Abscissa
The following three ratios are reciprocals of the above ratios.
4. The ratio of the hypotenuse to the perpendicular is called the
cosecan: of she angle e and is written as cosec 8.
Hyp. OP r r
cosec 6=
Perp. MP y Ordinate
5. The ratio of the hypotenuse to the base is called the secant
the angle 8 and is Written as sec of
6.
6 _Hyp, OP r
sec
Base Abscissa
6 The ratio of the base to the perpendicular is called the cotangent

of the angle 8 and is written as cot 9.
Base OM x Abscissa
cot
Perp. MP y Ordinate
Besides these six (-ratios, there are three more ratios given below
(I) versed sine or 1—co g 8
(ii) coversed sine or I - sin 0
(iii) inversed sine or 1 +cos 6.
However, these are only rarely used.
Illustration : Write the values of 1-ratios of angles $, a. and 1.
8 ___
A • 0A 12 C
c
Fig. 9. Fig, 10
Solutlo. It has been presented in tabular form as follows:
- (-ratios
sin 8(Ordinate)
5
4)9
- I is
cos 8.( Abscissa' 3 12
) 5 15

Ordinate' 3 4 9
tan
( Absc1ssa ) 4 3 12

cosec 8 = ( __ L_ 5 5 15

Ordinate 3 4 9
/ r
sec 8=r 5 5 15

\ Abscissa 4 3 12

cot 4 3 12
\Ordi nate
3 4 9

TRIGONOMETRY 487
144. RELATIONS BETWEEN TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

I. Reciprocal Relations. The following relations are obvious
from the definitions of 1-ratios.
(I) sin Gxcosec 0=1
sin 6= 1 and cosec sin 0
cosec 0
(U) cos Bxsec 8=1
coo O=—t---- and
sec 6 cos 8.
(ill) Ian 9Xcot 0=1
tan 9= ---- and cot 9=
cot tau9
In words : (I) cosec 0 is reciprocal of sin 8 and vice versa.
(U) sec 8 is nciprocal of cos 8 and vice versa.
(iii) cot 6 is reciprocal of tan 0 and vice versa.
II. Quotient Relation.:
sin9 O
tan0= and cot6 cos
co.9 sine
From Fig. 8 on Page 485, we have
sine= ! , cos
y x
sin r y cos8 7 x
—=--=—=tanø and -= - =- =cot 6.
cosO x X sin y y
r r
Ill. Square Relations:
(1) sin'O+cos'ff=l
yl X 2 y 1 -x' r2
sjn20+c&9= i
s +jjrr=l
From this relation, we can obtain
sin' 8=1—cot' 0 and cos' 9=1—sin' 6.
(ii) sec' 6 — tan' 9=1
9r2 _Y' _Y' X'
sec' 0—tan' i- x_i_= xs =ii=1
It follows from above that
sec' 8 1 + tan' 9 and tan' 8sec' 8—I
(iii) cosec, 9—cot' 9=1
r' x' 'X' )I2
cosec' 8—cot' 9= 3 Iyr ,z

488 I3USIN1ISS MATHEMATICS
We can obtain from the above relation

cosec' 0=1-I- cot' 0 and cot' 0=cosec' 0-1
The above three inter-relations are very important and are called
fdenlitxes. If any one of the trigonometric function is given, the remaining
can easily be found by using the above relations (1), (II) or (III).
Remark. It should be noted that sin 8 does not mean sin X 0, I.e,,
sin is not a multiplier. The sin 9 is correctly read as "sin of angle 9".
Similar is the case with other trigonometric ratios. Further
(sin 8)2 is written as S j fl 2 0 (read sine square 8)
(sin 0)3 is written as sin' 0 (read sine cube 9)
Similarly, for other f-ratios of 9.
But (sin 0) is not written as sin-' 8.
2 (sin e o+ cos O)--3(sin 4 8-j--coS 1 6)+1=0.
Solution. L.1-LS. = 2 [(sin' 9)3 (cos' 8)3J_ 3 (sin' 8-F cos4 0) + I
= 2 (sin 2 6-Fcos2 0) (sin' B fcos4 O — siu' 9 cos' 9)
—3 (sin" 8+cos' I
=2.l.(sin 4 8-4-cos4 8—sine 0 p& 0)-3 (sin4 9+cos4 8)-Fl
=—(sin4 0-f cos4 9)-2 sin' C cos 9+l
=—((sin' 0+cos' 0)'-2 Sin 0 cos' 0]-2 sin' cos2 9+1
- 1+2 sin 2 8 cos' 0-2 - sin' 9 cos' B +1
=O-- R.H.S.
sin 1+ Cos
= sin 0 O.
Sill 0 I-I-Cos B
St1utju. L.H.S-
1—cos B 1+cos9
- sin (l-l-cos 9) sin 6 (l-f cos 0)
- 1—cos2 0 sin' 8
I + cos 0
= =R.H.S.
sin 8
_1—slu A =sec A—tan A.

/\/I sin A
Solution. L.H.S=A
V 1-4-sinA
A / 1—sin A 1—sin A
V I+ sin 4 < 1—sin A

TRIGONOMETRY
489
i --sin A 1—sin A I sin A

- cos A cos A cos A
=sec A--tall A=R.-LS.
(cosec s—sin 0) (Sec O--cos 0) (tan ±rot O) = 1.
Solution. Evidently we have to simplify the L.H.S. This simpli-
fication is best done by expressing all f-ratios in terms of the sine and
cosine by the use of the formula
1 1 sin Cos $
COSCC ø—, Sec O— tan -- -------, cot fl.:=;__

sill cos 0 cos 8 sin 8
( 1 \( I \i'Sifl 0 cos 0
--sine U -- CoS 0 ii
'sin 0 )\ cos 0 i"cos 0 Sin 9
I—sin 2 0 1--cos 2 0 sin 2 0 cos 1 8
----
sin >---
ens 0 sin 0 cos 0
But I -sin 2 0=cos 2 0, 1 —cos 2 O r= sin' 8, 0 ±cos' O:i
I ____ =-1=R.H.S.
Sin 0 cos 0 sill 13cos 0
sin A (I -f ,4)+cos A (I+cot A)r -sec A-l-cosec A.
Solution, L.H.S.=-sjn A(l+tan A) -cos 4(1 -I-cot A)
A' 4(1 cosA'
Sifl 1 Si n
A( cos A,
' sill
/ sin '4+cos A\ 'sin A+os A"\
(sin
=sin A ------- +cos A -.
cosA ' \ sinA
/sin A cosA
(sin A -f cos A) ---
\COS ii sm A
sin 2 A-f-cos 2 A
= (sin A -f cos A)x
cos A sin A
— in A + cos A sin A cos A
cosA sin A cos A sin A+cOS A sin A
4 — sec A±cosec 4= R.H.S.
Asin
Example 17. Find the value in terms of p and qf
(p cos o -f- q sin &)
(p cos 0—q sin Cl
when cot 8=p1q. Here use of any figure is not ailowea.
Solution.
cos 0
p Cos o--q sin o'sinop cot o+q
p cos O—q sin 0 cosO p cot 0—q p
Pj0—q
_p2_^_q2
Example 18. (a) if tan A-4-sin A=m

and tan A—sinA=n
prove that m2 - =
Solution, Adding (1) and (2), we gel
2 tan A=m+n
tan
* cot A=--

2 sinA=m.—v
* Sin A=---, i.e., cosec
Also (2 A —cot2 A = l
• 4 4 4((m+n)—(m—n)}
(m_n)2n)2 Z (ni4
i.e.. 4 x 4mn
((m—n)(mtn)}: (m2n2)2=16m,
Hence (m2_n2)=4V.
(b) If m = cosec A - sin A and n= sec A - cos A then prove that
tan (_—j (C.A., May, 19911

SolitIoti. We have
7 secA— cos A
m cosecA—sinA
_0s2A
—cos A
cosA cosA
- _. ,
sinA sin
sin Asjn*A sinA
A&rtan' A

ThIGONOMnIRY 491
j
tan

(I+cot 6—cosec 0) (1+ian O+sec 9)2.
Solution. We have
cosO 1
)( !+ - -F
-- i )
((sin 0+cos 0)-1) ((sin O+cos I))+II
Sill 0 cos 0
(sin 0-t-Cos 9)2 -1 sir 6-i cos2 Of2 sin 0 Cos 0
sin Ocos 0 sin 0 cos 6
l+2 sin O c os o-1 [.. SLfl20+CO529U
— sin 6 Cos O
2 sin 8 cos 0 = , -
= - R.HS.
ssin8 cos 8
cosCi sin
1—tan 9
Solution. L.H.S.= cosO + sinO —

sinO cosJI
1
cosO sinO
cosO sin
cos0 sine +sin0_cosO
cosO Sin
COs 8 sin2 o
cos 8—sin 5 —cos 0—sin 0
cos2 6—sin s O(cos 6±sin * os 0—sin_qi
- cos 9—sin 6 (cos 0—sin 0
=cos 0-f-sin 0=R.H.S.
tan tan
=2 cosec 9.
sec 0—i +Sec
tan - tan
Solution. L.H.S.
sec0-1 scc0—i
1' 1 1 -.1•'
=tanOi
\secO—i sec0-1J
492
BUSINESS MATHLMATICS
tan 0 rscco.1H-secoI
(sec2 0 1)
[ see2 0+tan 2 0]
2sec 0 secO I cosO
=tan 6.
tan ----=2
f) —=2.--
tan 0 cos 0 sin 0
= 2 cosec 0—R.H.S.
Exaniple. 22. Prove that
tanO+sec0_; I -f sin I)
Ian 0—sccr-J co
Solution, tan 0- sec 0(sec 2 0---tan2 0

L.H.S.)
tan (i-- s ee 0-i-i
[: i=sec20—tan20]
(tan 0±see e) — ( sec 0—tan 0)(sec O#tan 0)
tan O--sec 0+1
(sec Ol-tan 0)(1 —sec 0+tan 0)
- tan 0—sec 0+1
-4- sin 0
=sec 8-f-tan --------. R.H.S.
co.s 0
Example 23. Pr ove that
(sin A-f-ca gec AYz f (cos A -f- sec A) 2 =:an A + cot 2 A+ 7.
Solution We have.
L. H.S.=(sin A4cose A )+(o A -f-cc A)
sin" A 4 ccsec 2 A +2 sin A cosec A+ cos' A
--s& A2 cos A sec A
=(sjn? A -f-& A) cosec A 4 sec
24 +2 sin A CO$C A
4 2 cos A sec A
1 +(I-+cot 2 A)+(I +tan'A)±2-i-2
=tan A +cot 2 A+7=R.H.S.
Example 24. Prove thai
I —sin x /-j-sTh x
--7----------=2 cos (cot x-4- cosec x) .
—sec
Solution. (1 —sin x)(1—sec x ) — (l -4-sin x)(1+se x)

L.i-J.S- -------
(i+secx)(1 —see x)

TRIGONOMETRY 493
1--sec x—sm Sin X Sec x- A--sec x-- sinx---sin x see x
- - scc z x
—2 secx--2 sin x 2 sec x--2 sin x 2 sec X4-2 sin x

= I - sect x sec2 X— I - tan2 x
2 sec x 2 sill 2 cos x 2 sin x cos' x
- tan2 xtan2 xcos X - Sjtj2 sin8x
I cos x
—2cos • ±-j-=2 cos x (cosec x-f cot x)=-R.H.S.
145, SIGNS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The radius vector is always positive in whichever quadrant it lies,
therefore, the sign of a trigonometric ratio of ail angle will always depend
on the sign of the coordinates.
Now, in the first quadrant all l-functions are positive because both
the coordinates are positive. In the second quadrant, x -coordinate is
negative, therefore, all t-functmns which involve X-coordinate are negative,
i.e., cos f. and tan and their reciprocals while sin 0 and co
s ec 0 will be
positive. In the third quadrant both the co-ordinates are negative,
therefore, f-ratios which involve both these such as tan 0 and cos 0 are
positive but all others are negative. In the fiurth quadrant x-coordinate
is positive but Y-coordinate is negative, therefore, cos 0 and scc U which
do not involve y -coordinare are positive and the test are negative. The
following figure is a good aid to memory.
A crude aid to remember the signs is the four worded phrase
"All Silver Tea Cups'' which may be taken to indicate that all, i.e.,
S (sine), I (tangent) and C (cosine)
with their reciprocals are positive in the
first quadrant, Only S (sine) and its ii 1
reciprocal is positive in the second quad-
rant, only T (tangent) and its reciprocal Sun and AU (-4-}
is positive ru -i the third quadrant and only Cosec
C (cosine) and its reciprocal is positive
in the fourth quadrant. x 0
T,jn u n d Cos and
Now the radius vector r is, always Cot Sec (i-)
greater than the coordinates. Therefore, III IV
sin and cos, where r is in the denomi-
nator, can never be greater than unity
whereas cosec and see, where r is in Fig. 11.
the numerator, can never be less than unity. But the functions tan and
cot can have any numerical value depending on the size of their coordinates.
Example 25. If 0 is in the fourth quadrant and cos =-- ,fi n d the
-of I3 sin +5 sec 9
value
5 tan 0 + 6 ('05CC 9

Solution.
OM 5
COS
OM= 5, OP= 13 and

MP 2 = OPt OM
=13! 144
MP=-12
C. MP is - lye in the 4th quadiant)
1213
sin 0=_-j1 sec 8=_
tan and cosec 9=

5 12
Given expression
13 sin 8+5 sec 8
Fig 2. O
= 5 tan 0 - 6 cosec—
13 ( -'+5- 2
13 ) 5) --12+13
5 —12—-
5J \ 12/ 2
Example 26. If sin o.sec o= - I and 8 lies in the second quadrant,

find sin 8 and sec 9.

sip 8 .sec0 = -1 iv
sin 8
i.e., —=--1 or tan 0=-1.
cos 9
MP1
tan
I
Since 0 lies in the second quadrant,
MP is -f-ive and OM is —ive.
•. If MP = 1, then OM=—I-
________ X' M
Also OP=VMPt+OM2
— \/1+I /2 Fig. 13.
•
MP &= /2
s i n and sec
OP -/2
21
Example 27. if sinO= Tq^prove that
5
(i) sec84-tan if o lies between 0 and
O=- -,

TRWONOMBTRY 495
What will be the value of the expression when e lies
3T
(ii) between 21 and it, and (iii) between 7t and -s.-
Solution. (i)
MP 21 P
6
I "1
S111
=-
/
MP=21 and OP = 29
Also OM=OP2_Mp2
=r 29 2_ 2 —20— 400 L X
0M=2o
(: OM is +ive in the first quad-
rant) Fig. 14.
OP 29
sec
MP 21
and tan
Hence sec $+tan 6= 29 21 5

20
— --o- =
(ii) When 6 lies between -- and
, i.e., in the second quadrant,
OM is negative. (Draw the actual figure)
29 29 2
sec O - ___ --ind tan 21
SCC 9-l-tan 29 21 5
20 20 2
(iii) The
question is impossible since in the third quadrant sin 6 is
negative but it is given to be positive.
Example 2 If cot 6=---.

12 ( T1 <6<_),
find the value of
sec 6 and sin e,
Solut ion. cosec2 6= 1+Cot2 169

6 1 f 144
C osec r-_ --
(Since cosec 0 is negative. 6 being in

the third quadrant)
sin

1 SinO 1
Again sec 8 = -- - ------ tan 0 . cosec 0
cosO cos8 sin
5 13 13
Example 29. U sec d= a F-,prove that

sec 8-1- tan 0=2a or
Solution. We know
tan2 0=sec2 0—i (a-i -- )-_i
a —4. a
2 [.: (x+y)2-4xy=(x—y)2
=( a_)
tan O= a!)or _(a_)
Taking the first value of tan 0, we have
sec 6+tan o=( a+L)+(ai)2a
and taking the second value of tan 0, we have
see + tan O-_(a-1-J. _(a--_L_!
4 1 4a1 2a
sec 8-+ tan 0=2a or
2a
Example 30. If sec 0-1-[an 8=4, find
(a) sec 0 and tan $, (h) sin 9 and cos a,
Solution. (a) We are given
see G+ tan 0=4
Also (sec2 8—tan 2 0)==i
(Sec 9—tan 8) (sec 0+tan e)=l
(sec 0—tan 9) = -- ...(2)
1 17
2sec
4P see 0 = 17
Substituting (1) and (2), we get
15
2 tan 0=4— — 1 =-
15
tan 0=

TR1GOOMITRY 497
(b) 1 8
Cos 8=---=-
sill e
and sin O=— xcos 8=tan 8Xcos 8
cos B
15
iiYiT 8 15
Eamp1e 31. If cos 9-sin 9=..12 sin 0,

prove that cos O+ sin 8r=/2 cos 0,
Solution. cos 8-sin $ = V2 sin 8
cos 0 = V2 sin O+ s in 6 = (V2± 1) sin
sin 8- cos 9
V2-1
• COS B 75T.(1)2 . COS 0
sill cos 0-cos 0

cos 0+sin 0=V2 cos 0.
EXERCISE (II)
Prove the following identities
1. (a) (1_sin 2 0) sec' 0=-I, (b) (sec2 0-1) cot 2 8=1
(c) tan (1(1-cot 2 0)-f cot (1(1-tan 2 0)-0.
cot '!-4-tan B cot A 1--tan 0 cot 0-I
2.
(a) tan A+cot B tan B' (h) T+ tan 0 cot 8+1
cos A+cos B sin A-f-sin B
sin A-sin _B cos A--cos B-o
3. sin' 0 cos' 0 +cos 2 0 sin s jfl2 0 sin 2
+cos1 0 cos2 =1.
4. (a) sin' O+cos' 0-(sin O+cos 0)(l -sin 0 cos e)
(b) sin' 0+sin 0 cos 2 0-sin' 0 cos 4 0-cos 6 0-sin 2
0-cos 2 0.
5. (a) A 4-tan A
I —sin A
(b) 1+— cos 0

/ 1 — cos 0 6+ cot 0
6 (a) 0- tan 0 2
l+cot'Q - 1-cot 0)
1+cjT1

cos2 A cot' A
(b)
IIT iihA +(1+COt2A)2 I-sin 3 A= j.
tanA cotA
7. (a) A cosec A-f-I
T—cot +i —tan _•=see
cosec A cosec A
(b) A+12 see' A
A — I
seco+I tan
(c) sec0f-I2c05O
tan
8. (a) (sin 0-1-sec Q)t 1-(cos O+cosec 0) 2 = ( I +sec 0 cosec 0)2
sec A cosce A
(1) (sill A -- cos A)( 1 -Rot A + tan A)= -_ --
cosec 2 A se c2 A
(c) 0 +sin 0—cos 0+2(sin 0+cos 0)2+(1 —sin 0 I cos 0)2=6.

1 1 1 1
9. - - ---
----- -
A
cosec +cot A sin A - sin A - cosec A—cot A
cot 0 4-cosec 0— 1 1 4-cos 0
10. (a) cot 0—cosec 0+1 sin
see xl-tanX-1 \2 cosec x-4--1
(b)
( tan x—sec x1 ) cosec
(c) cot20 (_seCU—I +sec20 jin

0-1 o.
1-+ sin O ) 1+sec0
1. (a) Prove that the equation
sin 0=1\. a+-1--'I

a)
is possible only for imaginary values of a.
12. (a) If sin 0_- - find tan 0 -f- sec 0

1_
SCC 0--tan 0
(b) If sin 0=-- and -- <0<it, find the value of
5 2 cosec0-I-cot0
21
13. (a) If cos A— s- and A lies in the fourth quadrant. find other
-ratios.
(b) if e is an angle lying between t o== !

and --- andan-
find all the other i-ratios of 0.

(c) The sine of an angle is to its cosine as 8 15. Find their
actual values.

TRIGONOMETRY 499
(d) If sec 0=/2 and -<0<2n, find the value of
i -i- tan 0-1-cosec 0

1+cot 6— cosec O
(e) If tan o=4 find the value of -2 cos

sin 0-1-3 cos o
0+3 sin 0
14. If 5 sin2 0--i =0, find the other f-ratios.

15. (a) if cos 0 cosec 0= --- I and 0 lies in the fourth quadrant,
find cos 0 and cosec 0.
(b) Eliminate 0 and 0 from x=r sin 0 cos 0, y-r sin 0 sin
and z: -- r cos 0.
(C) State giving reason whether the following equation is
possible
2 sin 2 0-3 cos 0-6=0
ANSWERS
5 3 20 20
12. (a) -_, (b) - --- 13. (a) sin tan A==---_,
29 -
-2-1-.
(b) cosec A= -----, sec 29 cot
20
5 . 8 IS
cosec 0=-----, (c) sin O = ---, cos 0==— j--, (d)
Id. cos 0=+, tan O=±---, cot 0 = +2, sec
cosec 0=±/5. 15. (9) , — V2, (b) XI+y3+Z1r (C) No.
146. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF STANDARD ANGLES

(1) Angle of 00. Let OX be
the initial position of the rotating
line. Take any point P on this line V
in this position. Then OP makes
an ante of 00 with x-axis. If OPo=r
and co-ordinates of P be (r, 0),
then y definition
x r
Co
r ,
x
sin
Fig. 15.

509 BUSINESS JOIATIPISMATICS
siriO° 0
tan 0'.-- cos 0' r
Similarly
1 1
sec 00 ---1
cosO I
1 1
cosec 0, = -- - =
sinO 0
and cot 0° = = =
(U) Angle of 30' or ,/6. Rotate the straight line through a positive
angle XOP of 30, starling from the initial
position OX. Make LQOX=30° in magnitude.
fl . , Let l'(x, y) be any point in this final position
of the rotating line. Draw PM -L OX and
extend it to meet OQ in Q. Then evidently
s MOP and MOQ are congruent, Therefore
L P =LQ 600.
Hence LPOQ is equilateral.
r
MP--
Fig. 16. From LOMP,

0M 1 = OP2_ MP
rt 3r'
- = -
4 4
[1 300 lies in the first quadrant]
r
Hence sin
OM /3r \/3
cos3O
MP r 2 I
tan 3O-=--- '
5 A7
OM
cot
MP

TRIGONOMETRY 501
sec 30 OP- 2
öM V3
OP
and cosec; 3O°=---°=2
(iii) Angle of 45° o. As before rotate the straight line through
a positive angle of 45° with OX.

Take F(x, y) any point in the final
position. Draw PMiOX.
Here OM=MP=x
OP= VOM I T MP2
From LOMP Fig. 17.

MP x
sin 45°°
OM x
cos 45°= OPx1/2y2
tan 45°=--.=l.
x
Similarly sec 45° r /2-=cosec 45° and cot 45°1,
(iv) Angle of 60° or j. Rotate the straight line through a positive

angle of 600 starting from the initial posi-
tion OX. Let P(x, y) be any point on the
final position of the straight line. Draw
PMI OX. By geometry, OP=2 OM
r=2x and MP=y=xs/3
From A OMP,
sin
r 2x 2
x
cos 60°=- r
2x 2
60°
8ifl v'312
tan 60° =V3
Fig. 18. cos 60° 1/2
Similarly sec 60°=2, cosec 60°=3j
and cot 60°=3

M BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
(v) Angle of 90° or -- When the rotating straight line makes an

angle of 900 with OX, it lies along OY.
Let OP be this position. Here in this position,
the coordinates of P are (0, r)
As before,
sin 90°=
r r
X0
cos 90°= —=---=0
r r
0sin enD
an n\
..'u -
Cos 90 0
Fig- 19. 1 1
Similarly cosec 90°=sin 900=T=l
1 1
sec 90 =-=---=,
1 cot 90
cos9O 0 tan 90 0=
TABULAR PRESENTATION
The values of some standard angles dealt above have been presented
in a systematised tabular form as an aid to memory. The first four rows
are simple steps for assigning suitable values to six t-ratios in the re-
maining six rows. The method of writing these has been explained
below:
(i) The standard angles from 00 to 90° stated in order.
(ii) The numbers 0 to 4 written in the ascending order.
(iii) Each number has been divided by 4.
(iv) Square root has been taken of the fractions in the previous row.
(v) The simplified results of the previous row give the values of sin 0.
(vi) Values of sin o given in the row (v) written in the reverse order.
(vii) Values of sin 0 in row (v) divided by cos 0 in row (vi) give the
values of tan 0.
(vill) Reciprocals of the values of tan 0 given in the previous row.
(ix) Reciprocals of the values of cos 0 given in the row (ix).
(x) Reciprocals of the values of sin e given in the row (x).

TRIGONOMBTRY
503
T-ratios of Standard Angles
0 0 300 45' 600 900

(I)
(ii) 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4
(iii) 4
4 4 4
(h')
vT VT VT
(v j sinO 0
cos 0
(vi) L
(vii) I tall 0 o V31

73
(viii)
I cot 0 10
(ix)I sec 0 I 2

(xfl cosec 1 oo 2 V2 I
It may be noted that the (-ratios of 0° and 900 are valid only in the
limiting sense. For example, sin 00 Lt sin 0 and tan 90°= Lt tan 0.
900
cotsee2-j_cos _- —15 sin' }cos ---4 Cos "r

Solution. We note that cos

f is a factor in the first and the third
terms of the given expression. But cos =cos 900=0, therefore each of
these terms is 0. Hence there is no need of substituting values in these
terms.
Given expression=0-15 sin 2 900 cos 4500
1 15
--l5<(l)x----
V2 V2
Example 33. In a triangle ABC, C>900. Find all angles if
sin(A - B) == and cos(A -B'i==
S olution. Since C>90°, A+ B<90', alsoA—B<z90°
Now sin (A+B)=1L A+B=60°
and Cos (A—B)=--- A—B45°
Adding (1) and (2), we get 2A==105°, i.e., A=52°
Subtracting (2) from (I), we get 2B=15°, i.e., B=7°
Also C0=80°_(4-- B) _o- I800 _600 1200
A=52°, B=7°, C— 120°.
14?. USE OF PRINTED TABLES
The approximate values of t-ratios can be found out from the
printed tables which are available for both natural and logarithmic
e xpressions These tables indicate t-ratios for acute angles, for other
angles we have to calculate on the basis of the values of acute angles.
Since the tables have columns for interval of 6' the mean difference has to
be adjusted given for 1 to 5. It must be remembered that in case of
natural sine, tangent and secant, the mean difference is added because
these values increase as the 0 angle increases from 00 to 90° but in case of
natural cosine, cotangent and cosecant (all with initial C) the mean
difference has to be subtracted because their values decrease as the 0 angle
Increases from 00 to 900
Example 34. Find the value of sin 20' 321.
Solution. In the table of "natural sines", first run through the first
column under degrees till 20° is reached and then look the horizontal row
till the minute column under 30' is reached. We get
sin 20° 30'==0'3502
For the second part, we have to add the mean difference for 2' which
is 00005 as follows:
sin 20° 30'=01502
Diff. for 2'=00005
sin 20° 32'=01507.

TRIGONOM WIRY 505
Example 3 , Find the value of
(a) cos 21° 17 1 , (b) tan 170 17'
Solution, (a) Table value of cos 21° 12' is 0-9323. In this case
the mean difference for 5' has to be subtracted as follows
cos 21° 12'==r0'9323
Difference for 5' =0-0005
cos 210 17'=09318
(b) From the tables, we have
tan IT 18'=03115
Subtract mean difference of 1 '=00003
tan 17° 17'=03112

Interpolation, Values have to be interpolated for (-ratios of angles
higher than 80° where mean differences are not sufficiently accurate. Also
Interpolation is resorted to where the angles lie between values shown in the
table.
(a) (an 82° 26', (b) sin 430 19' 20°.
Solution. (a) The table values for higher and lower values other
than the one given are
tan 82° 30'—=7-5958
tan 82 0 24'=7-4947
Difference for 6'=o0'I01I

Difference for 2'= 01011 x2 =00337
tan 82 0 26'=7'4947+0'0337=7-5284.
(b) The table values of
sin 430 20'=03960
sin 43° 19'=03958
Difference for 1' or 60°=0-0002
Therefore difference for 20"= 00002x20
60
sin 43° 19' 200_0.3958+0'0002x20 = 0-3959
Example 37. Find the 0 (angles) if

A sin 0=08865 , (h) cos R-- 08719,
Solution. (a) The value of sin 62° 24 in the table is 0'8862, and the
difference between 08865 and 08862 is 00003. The mean difference of
00003 is under the column of 2', therefore, the angle is
sin (60 0 24'-i2')=sjn 600 26'

506 BUSINESS MATH ATtCS
(b) The value of cos 29° 18' in the table is 08721. There is now
difference of 0-0002 but it being not there in the mean difference, where
it is 00003. we have to adjust 2 rd of this. But, in cos the t-ratio
decreases with increase in angle, so the angle has to be adjusted for a
decrease.
Therefore
0, 8721 =- 22° 18'
0-8719—cos [29° 18' -I- (2' >c )] =c os [29° 18'+l' 20w]
=cos 29° 12' 20
Logarithms of 1-ratios are found in the same manner as in the case
of natural logarithms. But, the table values have been given with an
addition of 10 to avoid expression in negative values.
Example 38. Find (a) log sin 43 0 17 1 ,
(b) angle whose log cos is 12184 or 92184.
Solution. (a) From the table
log sin 43 0 12'= 98354
Add mean difference for S'= 7
log sin 43° 17'--9'8361 or 18361.

(b) The value of angle whose log cos is 92176-=80° 30'
Subtract angle for mean difference of 8 1'
Angle for log cos 92184=80° 29'
EXERCISE (III)
1. Find the values of
tan 45° sec 60° 5 sin 90°
cosec 300+cot 45° 2Cos
(ii) cos' 0°-f cos2 30°-j-cost 45°+cos2 60°-I-cos2 90°,
(iii)-i-- sin' 60°— sec 60° tan 2 30°+ -- sin' 45' tan 2 60°.
2. Prove that
(a) 4(sin4 30°+cos4 600)-3(cos 2 45°—sin 2 90°).-2=0
it it . it 13
(b) 4 cot' - +sect _sin 2
(sin 30°-f cos 60c)(sin 0°+cot 45°)(cot 90°+tan600)1
(c) (tan 45°+see 60°)(cosec 30°-t-tan 0°) 2V3
(d) 32 cot' __8 sec 2 _ ' + 8 cos3j.-3V3=O.
3. Find the values of 0 from the equation
cott 0— (1-j--/3) cot O+i/3 =0 for

TRIGONOMETRY 507
4. (a) If tan2 45 0 —cos2 60°=r X sin 45° tan 60°, find x

(b) Find x from the equation
0 sec 600 tan 450
x sin 30° cos' 45°cot2 30
cosec" 450 cosec 300
5. (a) Given sin (A—B)=, and cos (A±B)==, find A and B
(A, B being positive acute angles).
(b) Given tan (A +B)= and tan (A—B)=l, find A and B
(A, B being positive acute angles).
ANSWERS
5 23
I. (i) 0 1 (ii) - 3. 45°, 30°.
4. (a) (a) 6. 5. (a) A==45°, B= 15 0 , ( b) A=52°, B=7°.
148. T.RATIOS OF ALLIED ANGLES

Two angles are said to be allied when their sum or difference is either
zero or a multiple of 90. The angles --0, 90°±0, 180°±6, 360 0 ±0 etc.,
are angles allied to the angle 0, which is being assumed to be expressed in
degrees. However if 0 is measured in radians (ir radians180°), then
angles allied to U are
±0, r ± O , 2'±, 2n7r±0, etc.
Through the t-ratios of allied angles we call the f-ratios of angles
of any magnitude. Broadly speaking all angles can be represented by
n.90°±e, where n is zero, an even or an odd integer. Thus, if n is zero
only ±0 angle remains; if fl is even it may be l80°±0 or 360°±0 and like
that; if n is odd then it may be 90°±0 or 270°±0 and like that. The
detailed break-up of u-ic three groups is presented below. You will find that
except the change of signs depending on the quadrant in which the angle
falls, the same t-ratios are there when ii is even and they change to co-
ratios if n is odd.
Some important relations between the f-ratios of various allied angles
are given below without any proof. Students arc advised to remember all
these results.
sin (-0)°= —sin 0 C
cosec (-0)=— cosec 0 I Since —o lies in the
cos (—o)=cos 0 fourth quadrant, only cos
- and sec are --ive, all other
sec (-0)=sec 0 f-ratios are —ive.
tan (-0)==--tan 0
cot (—a)= —cot 0 L
U. The trigonometric ratio of (n.90°±0), where n is an even integer-
and 0 is acute angle is numerically equal to the f-ratio of 0. The algebraic
sign is with reference to the quadrant in which n.90 0 ±e lies.

(a) sin (180°.—O)=-l-sjn 0 I

COS (l80°-0)==---Cos 0 I Since 1800_0 lies in
tan 080°-0)= —tan 0 ° the second quadrant, only
cot (180°-8)= —cot 0 sin and cosec are -live, all
sec (1800 -0)=—scc 0 I other t ratios are - ive.
cosec (l80°—O)==+cosec 0 I.-
(b) sin (180°+O) --sin 0

cos (1800-O)=--cos0 Sifice 180°+0 lies in
tan (180°+o)=-l-tan 0 the third quadrants only
cot (180" -j-0) -I-cot 0 tan and cot are -1 ive, all
Sec (180°f 0)=- --sec B other f-ratios are - ive.
cosec 0 800 1- - cosec 0
(c) sin (360°-8)=—sin 0 r

cos (360 1 —0)== +cos 0 Since 360-0 lies in the
tan (360-0)==--tanl 0 fourth quadrant, only cos
cot (360°0)— —cot 0 and sec are -+- ive, all other
sec (360°-0)= -i-see 0 f-ratios are —ive.
cosec (360-0)== —cosec 0 L
(CI) sin (360'+0)= -f-sin 0

cos (360°-+0)-=r± cos. o r
tan (360'+O)=r± tan O Since 360 c i-0 lies in
cot (360°-l-8) I cot 0 the first quadrant, all f-ratios
sec (360°40)= 4-sec 0 are -I- we.
cosec (360' - 0)— cosec 0 L
111. Any trigonometric ratio of n . 90°±e, where n is an odd

integer and 0 is any acute angle is numerically equal to the corresponding
Co-ratio of 0 and vice versa. The algebraic sign, as in the previous case is
the one applicable to the quadrant in which n 90°±0 lies.
(a) sin (90°-0)=-+-cos 0 Since 90°-0 lies in the

cos (90° —0)=+sin 0 first quadrant, all the 1-
tan (90°—e)= +cot 0 ratios are -f-ive but since
cot (90'-6) = ± tan 0 90' = I x 90° = odd multiple of
sec (90'—O)=+cosec 0 900, therefore, sin changes
cosec (90°-0)=--f-scc 0 to cos. tan changes to
cot, sec changes to cosec
and vice versa.
(b) sin (90°+0)=4cos 0 r

cos (900 + 0)— --- sin 0 Since 90° -4-0 lies in the
tan (90'+O)= —cot 0 second quadrant, only sin
cot (90°-4-O)=—tan 0 I and cosec are +ive and all
sec (90°+0)=—cosec B I the other (-ratios, are —ive.
Cosec (9O°+o)=-i-sec 0

TR1GONOMI3TR Y 5O
(c) sin (270°-0)=—cos 0

cos (270°-0)=—sin 0 I Since 270°-0 lies in
tail (270°--0,= +cot 0 I the third quadrant, only
cot (2700 —e)=+tan 0 - tan and cot are +ive and
see (270°-0)=—cosec 0 all the other I-ratios are
cosec (270°-0)-= —sec 0 --lye.
(d) sin (270 0 +0) —cos 0

cos (270°-j-@)=-1-sin 0 I Since 270°-0 lies in the
tan (270°+o) — cot 0 fourth quadrant, only cos
cot (270°+0) —tan 0 and sec are + ive and all
sec (270°I-0) = -l-cosec 0 1 the other 1-ratios are --lye.
cosec (270°+0) —sec U L
The two important rules to bear in mind are
1. Any t-ratio of all expressed as 180° or 360° plus or minus
an acute angle, i.e., even numbcrx -- :L acute angle has t1umcri
cafly the same I ratio as that of the acute angle. The proper signs call be
ascertained as per the rules stated below depending on where the revolv-
ing line term nates.
sin all
tan cos
2. Any 1-ratio of an angle expressed as 90° or 270° plus or minus an

acute angle, i.e., odd number x --- ± acute angle equals numerically the
co-I-ratio of the acute angle with the plus or minus sign depending upon
the quadrant in which the revolving line terminates.
The same rules can be presented in the form of a table given below
i-Ratio —8 901-0 900+0 180—( 180' -1 0
sin 0 —sin 0 cosO cosO sin —sin 0

cosO cosO sin 0 --sin 0 - cos 0 —cos 0
ctanot 0 - tan 0U —cot 0 —tail tail
cosec 0 -- cosec 0 sec 0 4 sec 0 cosec 0 - cosec 0
csec
osec
0 sec 0 0 cosec 0 - sec 0 - sec 1)
- cot 0 —cot 0 tan 0 —tan 0 --cot U Cot 0

510 BUSINBSS MATHEMATICS
Example 39. Find the values of

(a) sin 315°, (b) cos (-1760°)
Solution. (a) sin 315°—sin (360°-45°)=sin (4X 90°-45°)
=—sin 45°
---cos (4 x 360°+ 3200)

(b) cos (- 1760°)=cos 1760'-
--cos (360°40°)
=cos 320'-
=cos 40
=07660.
Illustrations
1. sin 11 5'=sin (90°+25°) = cos 25°=09063
2. sin I 2O-- sin (1 80-6O)=sin 600=
3. cos 134°cos (90c -IF 44c )=—sin 44°=-06947
4. cos 150°=cos (180-30°)=—cos 300=_
5. tan 172°=tan (180°-81 =— ta n 8°=-01405

6. tan 21 1 G= t an (1 80°-j-31°) = tan 3 l°=06009
7. sin 748'= Sin (2X360°±28°)=sin 28°=04695
8. cos 700°cos (2X 360-20°)=cos 20°=09397
9. cos 246°=cos (1 80°±66°)=—cos 66'=-0'4069
10. tan 675°=tan (2x360°-45°)= —tan 45°=—1
11. sin 31 5°=sin (360°-45°)=—sin 45°=-
12. tan (-1742°)= —tan 1742°
= — tan (5x3600-580)
=tan 58°=16003
13. cos (-1760°)=cos 1760°
=cos (4< 360°+320°)
=cos 320°==cos (3600_400)
cos 4000i660
14. Prove that tan 225° cot 405°+tan 7650 cot 675°=0.
Solution. L.H.S. = tan (180'+45) cot (360'+45*)
+tan (2x 360°+45 0 ) cot (2X 360'-45')
=tan 45° cot 45°-I--tan 45° (—cot 45°)=O=R,H,S.
cos 24° .4-cos 55°+cos 125°+cos 204°+ cos 3OO°_ -
Solution. We have
cos 125°=cos (180°-55°)°= —cos 55°

TRIGONOMETRY
511
cos 204°: cos (l80°-f-24°)=—Cos 24°
cos 300'-= Cos (360°-60°) — cos (_.600) -cos 60°—,
L. Cos 24°-f-Cos 55°—cos 55°--cos 24°-4-
cos 510° cos 330 0 -1-sin 390° cos 1201!
Solution. Now cos 510°---cos (3600+1500)
-'cos 150' -Cos (180°-30)
—cos 30°--
ens 330°=-cos (3óO°-3Q")=- Cos 30°-=

sill (360°+30 0)=sjn 300=
and cos 120° cos (180°-60): --cos 60°= -
JV-L(±. — --- --
.. L.H.S. -cos 510' cos 330°+sin 3900 cos 120°
2i'2)2 2 4 4 I=RHS
(90 0 +0) sec (—. 0) tan (]8o- -O)
Example 42. Simplify cos
Solutiofl. We know that
C&)S (90°f0) —sin 0, sec (-0) -sec 0
tan (180°-0)--- —tan 0, sec (360"-0)r-=c 0

.sin (180°+0)= —sin 0, cot (90°-0)o= tan 0
Given exprcsion= (—sin 0) Sec 0 (—tan 0)
----------------
sec 0 ( — Sm 0) tan 0
sin 0 tan (-0) see (1800-9)
cos (900__.0)+tan (18O 0_ 0) + cosec (9)
tan (—O)=o—tan 0, cos ( 900 -9) == sin 0
sec (180°-0)=—see 0, tan (1800 -0)= —tan 0
cosec (90°-0)=See 0
sin 0 Sin 0 sec 0
Given --__-ozoI.
Example 44. Find x from the equation
cosec (900 +A)+x cos A cot (90°+A)=sj (900-f-A).
cosec (90°-f-A)=sec
Cos A
cot (900+A)=—tan
cosA
sin (90°+A) = cos A

512 BUSINESS MATi4I3MATLCS
Substituting these values in the given equation, we get

si n cosA
+x cos A(-.-
( _A
— Cos
cosA
1 1 —,, 0 A sin' A
x sin A cosA - COS A
cos A cos A
in2 A I
cosA sinA
EXERCISE (IV)
I. Find the values of the following
(a) sin 480°, cos (-11251, sin (-3060°), cos 720
(b) tan 11700 , cot 570°, sec 3120°, cosec 390°, cosec 112 5'
2. Prove that
sin 3300 x tan 495° X COSeC 10 I
(a) van 120° V3
0
(b) sin 480 cos 690°+cos 780 0 sin 1050 --
(C) cos 570 sin 510+sin (-330°) cos (-3901=0.
cos (90°-I- 0) sec (-0) tan (180°--0)
3. (a) sec (360-0) sin (180'-f 0) cot (90 0 + 0) -
cos (2700 —A) tan (90°-f- A ) sin (180°+24)
(b) 27Q°f-A)cos(l80+A) sin (36O+A)
Cot (4500 +A) sill cos (270°—A)
-
(c) = 2.
cos (180°-I-A) sin (360"— A) cos (630'+A)
cos (2n + A) cosec (2+ A ) tan (_2 +4)
(d)
cos A cot (n +A)
sec (-- + 4 )
4. Prove that
cosec (90°-I-A) -1- cot (450°-I-A)
(a) -°
cosec (90—A)-l-ta n (180—A)
tan (180°+A)+SCC(180°M 2
+ tan (360°-I-A)—sCC (—A) -
C os
_(l80°+0) sin (90°+0)+sin (180'— 0) sin (l80
+0) 0
(b)
(2'70'-0) sin3 (5400+0)
sin (270°4-0) cos 3 (M- -0) — si n
sin (90'+ 0) sin (-0) —cos (180-0)
cot (270°—U) -
-I joseO 450°+0) —1,

TRIGONOMETRY
513
where 0 is taken such that the denominator appearing in any fraction in
the expression does not vanish.
5. (a) [1+cot A—sec (A+-fl][ 1+cotA+sec(A++)]

=2 cot 4
(b) If sin and <O< yv, find the value of
2y2 cos (-i- +o) sec (n+0)-3 sin —o ) tan (n-0).

6, Find x froni the equation
cosec (270 0 —A+x cos (180°±A) tan (180"—A)==sin (2700+A).
ll
tan -s- —2 ja4 --------cosec
3 2 -
+4 cos'
17
11 . 7Tc
8. sin s f+SIn -- +sin j--f-sin
.2471
---=2.
9. If 4, B, 0, D are the angles of a quadrilateral, show that

(i) sin (A+B)+j (C+D)=O
(ii) cos ( 4 + B) .=cAJs (C-I-D).
10. Find the value of tan 5°, tan 25", tan 450, tan 65°, tan 85°.
ANSWERS
1. (a) , 0, 1, (b) ±, V3, —2, 2, V2
6. tan A. 7. 10. 1.
2
149. T-RATIOS OF SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF ANGLES

So far we have studied the 1-ratios of single angles. Now, we take
up the tratios of compound angles, i.e., sum or difference of two or more
angles such as A-+-B, A—B, A +B+ C, etc.
I. For any two angles A and B,
(i) — sin A cos B +cos A sin B
sin (.4+B)_
(ii) cos (A+B)=coj A cos B—sin A s1n B.

Proof. Let the revolving line start from OX and trace out the
LXOY=A in the anti-clockwise direction. Let the revolving line further
trace out the LYOZ=B in the same
direction so that LXOZ=A + B.
From any point P on OZ, draw two
perpendiculars PM on OX and PQ on OY
and from Q, the foot of perpendicular of PQ,
we draw two perpendiculars QN on OX and
Q L oil PM respectively. Further we extend
QN to meet PR drawn parallel to LQ.
Then LPQR=90°— LPQL
=LLQO==LQON
Fig. 20.
PM RN
(1)
QN+QR
= OP
QNQR
= oiP P
QN oQ PQ
cJup— PQ op (Note this step)
=sin A cos B--cos A sin B
ON—AIM ON—PR
(ii) cos (,4+B)r-0
oT OP = op
ON PR ON OQ PR PQ
(Note this step)

=cos A cos B—sin A sin B.
H. For any two angles A and B,
(i) sin (A—B)—s(n A cos B-COS A sin B
(ii) cos (A—B)=Cos A cos B-F sin A sin B.
Proof. Let the revolving line starting from OX in anti-clockwise
direction, trace out the /XOZ=A and
revolving back in clockwise direction, trace
out the LYOZ=B so that
LXOY=A—B
From any point P on O Y, draw two
Perpendiculars PQ on OZ and PM on OX
respectively. Next we draw another perpen-
dicular QN from Q on OX and extend PM to
meet QL drawn parallel to OX.
Then LPQR=900-1PQL=A Fig. 21.
(1) PM
sin
up—

TRIGONOMETRY
515
ML—PL QN—QRQN QR
- p
QN OQ QR PQ
(Note this step)
—OQ • •
=sin A cos R— cos 4 sin B
OM ON+MN ON+PR
(Ii) cos (A_B)= ãT
p = OP
=-O
ON PR ONOQ PR PQ
+ = F
= cos A cos B-f sin A sin B
fait
III. (I) tan (A+B)— tan A+
B7 tan A fait B
tan A—tan B
(ii) fait (A_B) __ A tan B
I+ fan
Proof.
sin (p14-B) sin A cos B-i-cos A sin B
(1) tan (A-t-B)= _
cos (A+B) cos A cos B—sin A sin B
By dividing both the numerator and denominator by cos A cos B
we have
sin sin
cosA + cosB tan 4-4 tan B
sin A sin 1—tan A tan
1-
cosA cosB
(A—B) sin cos B—cos A sin B
(ii) tan (A—B)=
cos (.4—B) = cos A cos B-f sin A sin
By dividing both the numerator and the denominator by cos A cos B,
we get
sin A sin
cos B tan A—tan B
tan (A—B)='° -
8111 A siu B = F+_ n
t a tan B
cos A cosB
cot A cot B—i
IV. (I) cot (A+B)= cot B+co
tA
cot A cot B-I--i
(if) cot (AB)
cot B—cot A
I 1—tanA tan B
Solution. (I) cot (A +B)= (A+B) tan A+tanB
I cot A cot B-1
[1--A - cot A cot -
B
cot cot 4
jcotB+ — co tA
cot A cot B
cot AcotB — i
cot B+ cot A

$16 BUSINESS MAI11MAT5Crj
(ii) Left as an exercise to the reader.

sec (A +B)= sec A sec B cosec A cosec
V (i) cosec ,4cosecB—sec AsecB
sec A sec B cosec A cosec B
(if) cosec (A 4-B)
Sec A cosec B+ cosec A see B
Proof. (1) cos (A+B)cos A cos B—sin A sin B
1 1 1 1 1
see (A+B)secA see B cosec A cosec B
- cosec 4 cosec B—sec A sec B
sec A sec B cosec A COKC B
Taking reciprocals of both sides, we get
see A see B cosec A cosec B
see (A+B)
cosec A cosec B—sec A sec B
(II) Left as an exercise to the reader.
VI. (i) sin (A+B) sin (A—B)_—sin A_sin t B (or cos2 B—coS A)
(it) cos (A 4- cos (A—B)=-co gs 4—Sin e B (or co gs B—sin2 A)
Proof. (1) sin (A+ B) sin (A—B)
=(s' A cos B cos A sin B) (sin A cos B—cos A sin B)
=sin2 A coal B_cost A sin e B
= sin' A(1 —sin 2 B)—(1 —sin' A) sin B
=sin' A—tin5 A sin' Bsin' B+sin' A sin' B
=;jn' A - - sin' B (First form)
=(1—cos' A)—(1---cos' B)
= cos' B-- cos' A (Second form)
(U) Left as an exercise to the reader.
Example 45. (a) Evaluate (1) sin 750, (Ii) tan 750, (lii) cos 150
(lv) tan 150.
(b) Prove that Van 750+cot 750=4.
Solution. (a) (i) sin 75°=sin (450+300)
=sin 450 cos 300 +cos 45° sin 300
I -V 3 1 1 v'3+1
T2 2- + T2 - 2 — 2,V2
(II) tan 73'=r tan (45°+300)=:
V3+1 V3+1 V3+1

-

ThIGONOMETRY 517
3+1 +2V3-4+2V32+3
2
(lii) cos 15°=cos (45°30°)
- cos 45° cos 30'+ sin 450 sin 300
I/3 1 1 /3±1
2'sJ2
tan 45°—tan 30°
(Iv) tAn 15°=tan (45°-30°)
I +tan 450 tan 30°
1— -
\/3 V3-1 /3-1-/3-1
V3fl/3+1'<v31
i+ -
3+1_2\/32,,3
- 2
I
(b) tan 75°-f cot
______ (2—V3)
=(2+V3) (2/3)X(23)
==(2 + /3)+(2—s/3)=4.
13
Example 46. (a) If Cos A=4 andcosB j-- 4 and B being
pDsIthe and acute angles, prove that A—B=60°.
(b) If thi A and sin B A and B being positive and
acute angles, prove that A +B=45°.

Solution. (a) sin 1 A = I —cos' 4=1 - 1 48
Since A is an acute angle, sin

I
169 27
Also sin' B-= I —cos' B=l
- 196 = 196
sin B=±-
3./3
Since B is an acute angle, sin B_--1--
Now cos (A—B)=cos A cos B+ sin A sin B
1 13 43<3V3
=7X14+ 14
7
13 36 1
60°

A-8==6Q°.
(b) Here cos A=-,/ I—sin' A = 1 =
cos B= 1—sinB=\/1- =
cos (A±B) = cos A cos B—sin A sin B
3 2 1 1
7
5
=- v7=-5 1
5 6 = = cos 45
5Ø S V'2 /2
A+B=45°
Example 47. (a) If A+B+ C + D=T , prove that
cos A cos B+cos C cos D=sfn A SIFt B+in C sin D
(b) In any quadrilateral ABCD, prove that
cos A cos B +sln C sin Dr-r sin A sin B-f-Cos C cos D.
Solution. (a) A+B+C+Dr-=i
A+B=rr—(C-f-D)
* cos (A+B)=cos {ir—(C+D)J=—cos (C+D)
* cos (A 4-B)+cos (C+D)=O
• cos A cos B—sin A sin B+cos C cos D—sin C sin D_0
* cos A cos B+cos C cos D=sin A sin B-i-sin C sin D.
(b) Since A, B, C and D are the angles of a quadrilateral, therefore,
A+B+C+D=3600
* A+B=360°-(C+D)
cos' (A -+-B)=cos (360°—(C+D))=cos (C+D)
cos A cos B—sin A sin B=cos C cos D—sin C sin D
cos A cos B+sin C sin D= sin .4 sin B+cs C cos D.
Example 48. If A+B=45°, show that
(a) (l+tan A)(1+Ian 8)r=2, (b) (cot A-1)(cot B—I)=2.
Solution. (a) L.H,S.(1+tan A)(1+tan B)
=(I+ tan A)[1+tan (45°—A)] 1... A+B=45°J
A
=(1+tanA)[1 tan+l+4SoA
45°—tan I
(1+tanA
f l+1+AJ
1—tan A 1
)[1 +tan A+ 1—tan A

A ]=2=R.H.S.
—('+tan 1+tan A

519
TRIGONOMETRY
(b) L.H.S.= (cot A_1) ( Cot B1) (tan A_ 1 )(__I)

1 —tan A [I+tanA 1
1—tanA'J
I —tan A
(.: tan B= l+ t an A)
1 —tan A 2 tan A =2=R.H.S.

x
tanA 1—tanA
tan 8A—tan 5A—tan 3A=ian 8A tan 5A tan 3A.
tan 54 Ftan 3A
Solution. tan 8A=tan (5A+3A)= —tan
tan 8A (1—tan 5A tan 34)=tan 5A-1-tan 3A

tan 8A—tan 5A—tan 3A= - tan 8A tan 5A tan 3A
Ian 750 —tan 300 —ian 750 fan 300:1
Solution, tan 45°==tan (75 300)
tan 75°—tan 30°
l+tan 750 tan 30°
1+tan 75° tan 30'—tan 75°—tan 30°
750 tan 30°=1.
tan 75°—tan 30°—tan
cos 1 3°+sin 130
(a) —tan 58°
cos 13°—sin 130
(b) tan 69 1 +tan 66°+1=tan 69 3 tan 66°
Solution, (a) tan 58'°-° tan (45°+13°)
tan 45°+tan 13° 1+tan 13°
== F-- tan 45° tan 13° 1—tan 136
sin 13°
cos 130 cos 13°+sin 13°
- i_ sin 13°cos 13°—sin 13°
cos 13°
(b) The angles involved are 69° and 66°, whose sum is 135° which
can be written as 180°-45°
tan 135°=tan (69-l-66°)
tan 690 + tan 66°
1 '—tan 69° tan 66°
[ tan 135°=tan (180°-45°)==—tan 45°=-1]

520
BUSJNJS3 MATHI3MA71CS
tan 69°-f tan 660 -1+tan 690 tan 660

tan 69°+tan 66°+I= tan 69° tan 660.
cot cot (--_-o )=z.
)
Solution. cot (- _._ e )=tan
[f_( _o)]
=tan(--- —-4-0 )=tan (- +o)
cot -1 cot (---O)cot +0) tan (+o)
tan (-_+e )=i.

tan( --+o)
EXERCISE (V)
1. (a) If o<zo<z--, O<q! <z-- and sin 0=--- and sin
find cos (O+) and state in which quadrant O+ 0 lies.

(b) If sin 5 3it
T<a<T
and cog 1, 7 3n
3<--
find sin (a—a) and cos (a-4- ).
2. Prove that
(I) sin (A-i-B)
cos A cos B =tan A-f tan B
in (A 4-B) - tan A+tan B
(10
sin (A—. -- tan A—tanB
3. sin ( 0_--)-1 cos ( 8— _)=/3 sin 0.
1+tan0 ,' , \
4. tan
( I-
- 4 -°) = i— = ö tan)j_0.
1—tan 0
5. (a) sin (B—C) cos 44-sin (C—A) cos B+sin (A—B) cos C=
sin (A—B) 4 in (B—C) sin (C— A)
(b) cosA cos BCOSB cos C+COSCcoSA
6. sin 105 0 4 cos 105°=° cos 450
[Hint, sin 105°=sin (60°+45°).]
tan _(a+) sin' a—sin' tans a—tan2
7.
cot (cc —n) cos' a—sin' 1 —tan' a tan'
TRIGONOMETRY
521
8. sin (n +l) A sin (n--i) 4-4- cos (n-Fl) A cos (n—i)
A=cos 2A
9. (a) cot 0—cot 20=cosec 20
(b) tan 20—tan 0= tan 0 sec 20
10. tan 3A4-tan A cot =cot 4A

cot A
11. Prove that
cosO sin
tan 0+1tO'2
sin( 4
12. (a) tan 13A—ta ll
94—tan 4A=tan 13A tan 94 tan 4A
(b) tan 23°-j- tan 22°+ tan 23° tan 22°=1
(c) tan 700 ==tan 20 0 +2 tan 50°
13. (a) cos 29°--&jn 29' =tan 740
cos 29"—sin 290
cos I50 sin 15 0 1
(b) _
cos J5°+j 15° 73
14. (a) tan +0 ) tan(-!!--O
)=-I
tan (4 +0 )-tan(-__0)
(b) cosec 20=--
(IT
tan
15. If tan 13
U sin a cos
- prove that
tan (c-13)—_.(I—n) tan cc.
1410. T-RATIOS OF MULTIPLE ANGLES
The angles 20. 30, 40, ... are called multiple angles of 0 and the
0 0 0
angles T' --- ---, ... are called subnuliiple angles of 0.
I. Formula for the t-ratjos of 20:
(a) (1) cos 26 =cos2 6-5In 2 9
(ii) cos 20=2 cos' 0—I
(III) cos 20 = 1-2 sin' 0
(iv) cos 29= I—ton 0
T:an
(b) I+ cos 26=2 cos 0; 1_ cos292sin2 0
(c) (1) sin 20 2 sIn 0 cos 9
2
(ii) sIn 20= tan 0
i+lan2 0
(d) tan 20=— 2 tan 0
1—tan' 0

Proof. We use the results of the addition theorem for cosines, sines
and tangents.
(a) (1) cos 20=cos (6-f-0) = cos 0 cos 6—sin 0 sin 0=cos' 0—sin s 0
(ii) cos 20=cos't 0—sin' 0=cos 2 0—(l --cos' 0)=2 cos' 0—I
(iii) cos 20==cos 0—sin' e==(l— sin 2 0)—sin' e=1— 2 sin' 0
cos' 0—sin2 0
(iv) cos 20=cos2 0—sin' 0+sr0
[. cos'0+sin2o=I1
cos' 0
cos' 0 (dividing numerator and
cos' 0 + sin' 0 denominator by cos' 01
cos' 0
l_tan2 0
1-t- tan 2 0
(b) cos 20=2 cos' 0-1 I+ cos 20=2 cos' 0
Also cos 20=l-2 sin 0 1—cos 20=2 Sm 2 0
(c) (I) sin 20=sin (0+0) =sin 0 cos 0+cos 0 sin 0 =2 sin 0 cos 0
(ii) sin 20=2 sin 0 cos 0 2 sin 0 cos 0
cos' 0-- sin2 0
2 sin 0 cos 0
cos'O (Dividing numerator and
0 + Sifl 2 0 denominator by cost 61
cos2 0
2 sin 0
cosO 2 tan O
COS 2 0 sin' 0 l+tarT
cos2 0 cos' 0
tan 0+tan 0 2 tan 0
(d) tan 20 —tan (0 4-O tan Ol—tan16
H. Formula for the t-ratios of 36:

(a) sin 30=3 sin 0-4 sin' 0
(b) cos 30=4 cos' 6-3 cos 0
tan 0—tan' 0
(c) Ian
1-3 tan' 0
Proof. We use the results of the addition theorem and its extension,
(a) sin 30=sin (20+0)
=sin 20 cos 0-{-cos 26 sin
=2 sin 6 cos 0 cos 0+(l —2 sin' 0) sin 6
=2 sin 0 cos' 0+sin 0-2 sin s 0
=2 sin 0(1 —sin' 0)+sin 0-2 sin' 0

TRIGONOMETRY 523
=2 sin 0--2 sin 3 8sin 0-2 Sin3 e

=3 sin 0-4 sin 3 0
(b) cos 30 cos (26+0)
=cos 20 cos 0—sin 20 sin 0
=(2 cos2 0—I) cos 0-2 sin 0 cos 0. sin 0
=2 cos3 0—cos 0-2 sin 2 0 cos 0
=2 cos8 0—cos 0-2(I—cos" 0) cos 0
=2 cos3 0—cos 0-2 cos 0+2 cos-3 0
=4 cos3 0-3 cos 0
(c) tan 30=tan (20+0)—

+ t an
nO
0
2 tan 0
0
2 tan 0
-c—
—tan 0 • tan 0
2 tan 8+ tan _0(1 —tan 2 0)
- (I —tan' e)-2 tan' 0
3 tan 0—tan 3 0
- 1-3tan2O
III. Formula for the t-ratios of
Changing o to -- in (1), we get
(a) (1) 00
cos 0=cos t 'T—sin2
(ii) cos 0=2 cos2-- —1
(lii)
(lv) Cos Q 7 -2 , where t= tan
(b) (1) 8
sin 0=2 sin --
0 cas_if
(II) 2:
sin 0=1_i, where t=fan
(c) tan 0 =2t—, where f tan

524 BUTNFS5 MAThEMATIcS
(d) Cos--=±
2
O
(e) sin;—+ AV/ I—2
'V
tan
o sinG 1—cosO
(f) (1) = I d- cos 0 sin 0
O /1—cosO
(U) tan-1=± Cos o
'Vi+
Proof. (a) cos 0=2 Cos"4 -i
0 1+cos0
Ap c0s2 -=
6
cos -- .±\,/±0s
cos 0=1-2 sin'-

e sin-0- 1—cos O
(e) 2 2 2
• sin -- —±V 1—cosj

2
.0
srn
e
2 cos--
sin
0
(f) (I) tan--=
-- =cos - - 2
2sin--cos sine
0 1+cos0
2 cos--
0 s -- — + VT008 0 _______
'—c0s-
(Ii) tan
cos ±\/os 0 V +co o
SIn 20
Example 53. Prove that sin 6+ 0
L.H.S.=- sin 0-1-sin 20
Solution.
1+cos 0+cos 20
si0+2sin0008O sin0(1+2cosO)
= 1+cos 20+cosO2cOS2O+C08O
sin 0 (1+2 cos 8) 0=R.H.S.
cos 0 (2 cos o +i r tan

ThIGONOMUTRY 52$
tan A+ cot A. cosec 2A
Solution.
L.H.S.= tan A+ cot A
sin A cos A sm 2_A+Cos' A
cos A+sin A sin A cos A
1 2 2
sin A cotA2 SiU— A c o s —i siti 2 A
2 cosec 2 A=R.H.S.
Example 55 - Prove that
cosec A-2 cot 2A cos A=2 sin A
Solution L.H.S.=cosec A-2 cot 2A cos A
1 - 2 Cos 2A
sin A sin 2A . cos A
1 2 Cos 2A Co s 4
sin A 2 sin A cosA
1 cos 2A 1 —cos 2A
sin A sin A A
2 sin' A
sin 2sin A=R , H , S
A
2 cos o=J2+ \/ + 2 co70
Solution. R.H.S.=j 2+/i+co)
= j 2 +2X2 S'2O A
2+2 cos 26=/2(1+cos2o)

x 2 cos' 02 cos Or=L.HS
+ sin A+ C OSA
Example 57. Prove that 1 =c01 A
(l+cosA)-I-sin_A
Solution. L.IIS.=
(1— Cos A)+sin A
2 Cos' 1+2 sin 4 cos-
2 sin" 4. +2 sin -i-- cos -1

Ai A . A\ A
2cos-- ,cos --+sin---) cosT
At. A A\. A
2 sin Slfl --+COS--) sill
=cot 4 =R.H.S. -
l.-i-sinO 'r 0
Example 58. Prove that vy- -sin 01an (-- ±--)
1---sin_0
Solution. L.H.S./\ sin
/ I— 0
/ 2 0 20 .0 0
/COS_T +Slfl_ +2sInr C0s
V 2 0 .0 0
1
cos --+sin .0 ----2 sin---cos --
0.0 0
cos -+sin -- 1±tan
0 . 0
cos - - sin I --tan -
r 0
[ Dividing num. and denom. by cos
0
/r -+--=R.H.S.
7T
tan —+tan
4 2
€ = tan
0')
'if
tan
Example 59. (a) Prove that cot cc—tan x2 cot 2u

Hence deduce that
tan cc+ 2 tan 2cc+ 4 tan 4cc+8 cot 8a cot cc
Solution. We have
2 2 1—tan' cc
2cot2= == tan i
tan 2cc 2 tan cc
cc
==--tan ==cot cc—tan cc

tan cc
2 cot 2cc=cot u—tan cc
8 cot 8cc=4 (2 cot 8cc]=4 [cot 4cc—tan 4m]
=4 cot 4-4 tan 4cc
=2(cot 2cc—tan 2cc)-4 tan 4% ...[using (I)]
=2 cot 2x-2 tan 2cc-4 taa 4cc
cot cc—tan cc-2 tan 2cc-4 tan 4cc
tan cc+2 tan 2a+4 tan 4+8 cot Scc=cot cc.

TRIGONOMETRY 527
—Cos
Example 59. (b) If tan x='_ _, then prove that one solution Is
sin y
y2x. Use this result to prove
tan 7=/6—/3+y2-2. [CA,, November 1991]
Solution. We have
1—cos y 2 sin' (y/2)
tan X= 2 sin (y12) 0-jy_tan (y/2)
sin y
x =y/2 or y=2x.
cos 15°=cos (45°-30°)=rcos 450 30'+ sin 450 sin 300
1 y3 1 I '/3+1
< 2 2y2
sin I 5°=sin (450 30°)=sin 450 cos 30°--cos 45° sin 300
I 3 1 1 .'3—1
2 2 2/2'
7 1 1—cos l5°_V22/2—V3_i
• • tan
2 sin 152 v"3-1 V3-1
2\/2
2 /2— 3 L1 Y:±1
3-1 <V3+1
- y3+2/2—V3--1 v'
6 \/3+ /2-2.
Example 60. From the formula for the circular functions of 20 and
30, deduce the values of cosines and sines of
(a) 18°, 72°, 36°, 54°. (b) 22j-
Solution, (a) (i) Let 0=18°, then 50-=90° or 20+30=900
* 20=90°-30
sin 20=sin (90°-30)=cos 30
2 sin 0 cos 0=4 cos" 9-3 cos 0
Dividing throughout by cos 0, (which being cos 18°, is not zc'ro),
we get
2 sir $=4 cos' 0-3==4 (I—sin 2 0)-3=1-4 sin 0
4 Sin2 0+2 sin 0-1=0, a quadratic equation in sin 0
—2± / 4-'-l6 —1 +V5
sin 0=
8 4

528 BUSINESS MATHIIMATIc8
As sin 18° is +ive,

sin 180='5_1
4
00$ 18°V 1—sine 18 0 =J i_( \/5-1 \_V_LO+2/5

-
(if) sin 72°°=sin (90°--18°)=cos
4
and cos 72°°—cos (90' - 18°) =sin 18° V5-1

4
(ill) cos 36'= cos 2.18° 1-2 sin2 18°
cos 2A==1-2 sin' AJ
=1-2 (L± 16 - 16
Again sin 36°=/ 1_6°.=.\/

'4 )
J76+2'5 \/10-2\/5
4
(lv) sin 54°=sin (90°-361—cos 36oV'5+'
4
cos 540 =cos (90'-36') =sin oVI0-2V5
4
(b) We know that
=±/1_c A
Put A-45', then
Sin
22o+1cos 45 1-
2
1
± ^2—
V2_ ± -\/^
Since 22° lies in the first quadrant, sin 22° is +ive
sin 220=V2/2
2
(b) co 22°:rz±J /l-f cos 45°
2
=±f ( 1-f-)J2

TRIGONOMETRY 529
Now cos 22° being +ive, we have
cos 22r=Y2±./2
2
.i,i 36 site 72° sin 108 sin 144'°=-
Solution. sin 108' sin (I 80° 72") = sin 72"

and sill sill 80-30') =sin 36
Li-I S. = sin 2 36" sill',' 120 sin 2 36° . cos I
[,. sill (90°--] 8') cos 180)
= [I —cos 36°] (1--sin 1801
1(±I) 2[
10-- 2/5
[ -
101 2/5 100-20
('YJ
5
--_
>< 1 --- =R.H.S.
EXERCISE (VI)
I. (a) If sin ,I=---, find cos 2A
(b) El
0 tan =S, find tan 20
(C) If sin 0 - -- and 0 lies between
20-1-tan 20
f and w , find the value of
sill sin 24
2. (a) -- =cot 0, (b) =cot .4
1—cos 20 1—cos 24
sin 20 cos
--------.-
(c) sill -— 20
=sec 0 (d) cot A—cot 2A=-sec 24
cos U
3 (a) tan •-1-cot c=2 cosec 2, (b) cot A-tan 4-2 cot 24
I -f-sin 20—cos 20
4. (a) 2O+CbtaT1 0
(h) I -F sin A+cos .4 A
I *sin A -- ens .4 = cot - -2 -
Icos/i CO
5. (a) t --, (b) (ens
4- +sin -- )2 -- ±sin A
COS Jl+Sjn A cos A—sin .4
6. -
----------
cos A -- sin A-- cos .4-4-sin A
=2 tan 24
7. tan (- -1-0 ) - tan( - 0 oo2 tan 20

8. tan 34- tan A ot

--Tf cot 24

9. sec 244-tan 24=tan (f+A)

10. If Cos 0=-_( X + L) , slow that
(1) cos 20=__(xt+_), (ii) cos 30=-(xI-4.).
ii. cos' A-I cos' (120°+A)+cos 2 (120--A)=

12 tan 0-1-tan (0+600 )-f-(an (0-601=3 tan 30
COS A A
13. -- tan 45
.
l+srnA 2
sin 23
14. If 2 tan c=3 tan P, show that tan = - 2
ANSWER
1. (a) - (b) iT (c)

49 ,
1411. TRANSFORMATION OF PRODUCTS AND SUMS
In the last article we have proved that
sin A cos Bi cos A sin B=-sin (A +B)
and sin A cos B—cos A sin 13=siri (.4—B)
By addition, we have
1 2 sin A cos B=sin (A+B)+sin (A —B)
11 2 cos et sin B=sin (.4+8)—sin (A—B)
These formulae enable us to express the product of sine and cosine
as the sum and difference of two sines.
Again cos A cos B—sin A sin B=cos (A-I-B)
and cos A cos B+sin A sin B=cos (A—B)
By addition, we have
in 2 cos A cos B=cos(.4-fB)+cos (A—B)
IV 2 sin A sin B=cos (A—B)—cos (A+B)
These formulae enable us to express
(1) The product of two cosines as the sum of two cosines.
(U) the product of two sines as the difference of two cosines.
For practical purposes, the following verbal statements of the results
are more useful.
2 sin A cos B=sin (sum)-l- sin (difference),
2 cos A sin B=sin (sum) —sin (difference),

TRIGONOMETRY
531
2 cos A cos B=cos (sum) -+ cos (difference)
2 sin A sin B=cos (difference)—cOS (sum)
Let 4+B-=C and 4—B=-D, then
C-D
4 = C+D
--- and
By substituting for A and B in the Formula I, II. III and IV, we
obtain
C+ D C—D
V. sin C4 sin D=2 sin 2 cos
C-f-D,C—D
VT. sin D=2 cos— sin
C--D C—D
VII. cos C- cos D=2 cos - i--- cos -
C-f-D. D—C
VIII. cos C—cos D=2 sin 2 sin -
In practice, it is more convenient to quote the formula we have just
obtained verbally as follows
Sum of two sines-- 2 sin (half sum) cos (half difference)
Difference of two sines =2 cos (half sum) sin (half difference)
Sum of two cosines=2 sin (half sum) cos (half difference)
Difference of two cosincs = — 2 sin (half sum) sin (half difference).
Illustrations. 1. 2 sin 94 cos 6A=sin (94+64)-I-Sin (9A-64)
=sin 15A+sin 34
2. 2 cos 40 sin 70=sin (46+70)—sin (40-70)
=sin 110—sin (-38)=sin I l0+sin 30.
44 7A1( cos( 4A +7A)+0os(4A_7A)1
3.
l( 114 ,' 34
= -1
-F T
eos I_ -
I I hA 3A
Cos ----F
cos ---
= 21
Al.
sin 75° sin 15` -- cos (75°— 15') — cos (75°-f-1 5°)
I cos 60°—cos 9O°

160-4-80 160-80
5 sin 160-I-sin 80=2 SIfl
i- cos 2
=2 sin 128 cos 48
94+74 . 9A-7A 2
6. sin 9A - sin 74 = 2 cos 2 -sin —
=2 cos 84 sin A

hA
7. cos 2A-f-cos 9A=2 cos ---cos (-- 7A
21
hA 7A
=2 cos -- —cos --
8. cos 80°—cos 20°==2 sin 50° sin (-30°)_ --- 2 sin 50° sin 30°
701-30 70-30
2 sill - 2---.
sin 70+ sin 30 2
9. 0-7030=tan 50
cos 70 -1 Cos 3 0
2 cos------- cos------
2sii A 1-3,1 - 3.4--A

COS A - cos sin
Sill 3A - sin A 2 cos - •- tifl 2A
sin
2 2
cos 200 co.c 40° cos 60 0 cos 80°
Solution. L.H.S.(cos 20° cos 40°) cos 80

=(cos (200 +40°)i-cos (20°-40)} cos 80
(Cos 60°-f cos 20°) cos 80° [ cos (---20) --cos 2001
-J- cos 20°} cos 80°
= COS 80° j- cos 20 0 cos 80°
cos 80°+ . {cos (2O--80°)-f Cos (20°--8O)}

= cos 80°-i- - (cos 100°±cos 60°)
cos 800 --- (cos l00°+fl
=--cos 80°-h--h— cos
=--cos 8O°---- Cos 80°+.
[ . cos IOO°=cos (180"— 80 1 ) --- cos 80°1

=R.H.S.

sin A sin ( 600— A) sin (60'4-4)= sin 3A
Solntjou sin A [2 sin (60°—A) sin (6o±.4)J
=- j 4 [cos 2A—cos 120°J
sin A [cos 2A—(-- j)J7,J sin A cos 2A I- sin 4
(2 sin A cos 2A)+-- sinA
[sin (A -i-2A)-j-sjn (A --24)] f sin A

TR1QONOMTRY 533
sin 3A - sin A + sin A
sin 3A=R.H.S.
Tr
4 ( + _ COS 3
( )=
2ii'
Solution. L,I-I.S,=4 cos cos ( c-1_ - ) Cos (a+--)
=4 cos oc
[cos( X i- -- -) cs( ct 1-)]
=4 cos a _-[cos (2i-{-)-Fcos
=2 cos 2 —2 cos 2a cos cc +cos

r
Cos (_f)=COS =j
r
cos al +cos
(cos 3x-
=—cos 3 ,x — cos a -1 - cos ot= --cos 3=R.H.S.
(cot -f cos 11) 2 +

CC
( sin CK +
2
sin 11) = 4
ct
Solution. I.A.S. =(2 cos --'-
+ 3 cos -----
+11 a—B
sin----Cos
a4- cli
=4 Cos 2 _ [ cos2 -- +Sjfl2
=4 cos2--=R.H.S.

cos A±Cos 3A+Cos 5A+Cos 7A
cot 4,4
sin A+ sin 3 A -l-- sin 5A+ sin +7A
L.H.S.= (cos A f cos 7A)+(cos 3,44 cos 5A)
Solution.
(sin A+sin 7A)+(sin 3A+sin 5A)
(Note this step)
2 cos 4A cos 3A+2 cos 4,4 cos A
2 sin 4A cos 3A-t2 sin 4,4 cosA
2 cos 4,4 (cos 3A-l-cos A)
cot 4A=R.FLS.
2 sin 4A (cos 3A-fcos A)

534 BUS[NBSS MATHEMATICS

sin 80 cos 0—sin 60 cos 30
tan 20
cos 20 cos 0—sin 30 sin 40
sin 80 cos 0 ---2 sin 60 cos 30]
Solution. L.H.S.= 1 r
cos 20 cos0-2 sin 30 sin 40
(sin 90+sin 70)—(sin90+sin 30) sin 70—sin 30
(cos 30+cos 0)—(cos 0—cos 70) co 70-I-cos 30
70+30 70-30
2 cos . sin
2 2 2 cos 5O. sin 20
70+30 70-302 cos 50. cos 20
2cos • cos
2 2
=tan 213=R.H.S.
cos A -I- cog B (sin Af sin B\' A—B
i =2 co: — or 0
(stn A—sin B I \cosA—cosll) 2
according as n Is even or odd.
A+B A—B
COS 2
cosA -fcosB 2 Cos 2 A8
Solution. Cot2
sin A —sin B2 A+B A—B
cos ---- sin
cos /iFCOS B A--B
=cot' --- , whenever a is even or odd
( sin A—sin B )
sin A+sinB 2 sin 2 2

Also
cos A—cosB
2 sin sin
2
Cos 2 A
cot
—sin
2
B—A
2
s in A+sinB
csA_)1)C0tfl
I cot 0 A—B when n is even
I
A—B
- co? when a is odd

535
rRIG0N0MFrRY
f cos A -1--c0s B \fl sin A-I-sin B

sinA — sinB ) +(osB ) =(1)+(2)
=2 cot
I- B or 0,
2 --.
according as a is even or odd.
cos 20 0 -l-cos 100 0 -I cos 1400.
Solution. Given expression=COS 20 0 +(cos 10004-cos 1400)
=cos 200 +2 cos 1200 cos 200
==cos 20°+2( — ) cos 20°
—cos 200 —cos 20°-0.
v sin ( 412-
(a) sin 0+sin 2 L
(b) cos ,1 J- COS (A+ 120°)-I-Cos (A—I20°)0.
May 19911
(c) cos2 x-F-cos2 (601 —x)+ c0s2 (60°-1-x)o= 3,. [C.A.,
Solution. (a) L.H.S.=sin 0 4-sin (0-F-120°)+Sin (0I_2400)

8+12O0 +0+240 0+120°-0-240°
=sin 0-1-2 sin -------- COS 2
-
0
=sin 0-(-2 sin (01180 ) cos (-60°)
(1) L.H,S.=cos A + (cos (A+ 120°)+ cos (A - 120°)}

120°—A+ 1200
(
=cos A+ 2 cos
A+l20°{-'1
-------120°cos A-I
=cos Al 2 cos A cos 120°==cos A±2 cos Ax (-i)
=O=R.H.S.
(c) L.H.S. =cos2 x -f cos' (60°—X)+cos 2 (60°±x)
_1 -1-cos 2x + 1 +cos (1200-2r) + I +cos (120°+2x)
2 2 2
2x4 cos (120°-2 X)+cos (120°-1-2x)
2x+[2. cos 120° cos 2x]
+cos 2x-I-2. (_) . cos 2X

[. cos
=R.H.S.

536
BUSINESS MAT1113MATICS
Exrnp!e 71. Prove that

sin 0-j-sin H-sin y—si ll (—i- f3-ly)
—4 sin sin
Solution.
R.FJ,S.-2 sin [2 sin sin

+cr [
—2 sin —y- l-c3+ 2y —i3
COS COSy
2

2 ssin
cos - ----2 sin
sin —i— ens c-l-13+2y
sin a +sin P --{sin (a + P + y ) -1 -sin (—y)}
-lsin +sin y --sin (-4-P+)=L.l•I.s.
CQSCc+ COS + cosy -f cos ( 4 cos J3COS
+ p + y)=
Solution L.H,S.==cos +cos 34 cos y4-cos
(-+P+y)
(14 c— a-1-P+2y
=2 cos ----- cos -1-2 cos ---------cos
p +I-2y
2 cos -.-- cos -4-2 cos - cos -p
-fpr
c
=2 ccs ---h-- -
-_[ cos
=2cos
TL
a -4-pr
2c0
c-l- y
cos
ens cos cos
EXERCISE (VII)
I. Express the following products as sums
(1) 2 sin 0 cos 50
(ii) 2 sin ( 2 x+ y) cos (x-2y).
2. Express the following sum or difference as products

(I) sin 40+sin 90, (ii) sin (x-i-/I)—sjn X
(iii) cos 20—cos 40, (lv) sin ---sin -
3. Prove that
(a) sin 100 sin 300 sin 500 sin 700= 1

TRIGONOMETRY 537
(b) sin 20° sin 40° sin 60° sin 80°= 3
(c) cos 12° cos 24° cos'48° cos 96°= - [CA., Nov,, 19911
4. (a) sin 38°+sin 22°-=sin 82°

(6) sin 50°—sin 70°+sin 10°r-=0
(c) sin 52° +cos 68° I cos 172°=0
(a') Prove that
cos 20° cos 100° 4-cos 100° cos 1 ,100- cos 140° cos 200°= - -
5. sin (31 -1-13)— sin (A -4-B)

(a) tan A
Cos (3A1-i?)+Cos (A i-B)
sin A + sin 3.4 +sin 5A
(b) cos A -1-cos 3A+cos 5A =.tan
3l
(c)
SIll (A— C) + 2 sill 4-sin (44- C) Sin A
sin (13—C)-I-2 sin B]- sin (B-i-C) sin/fl
6. ((2) sin 0-4-sin 3 04-sin 5 0 4-sill 70-4 COS 0 CO5 20 sin 40.
(6) sin (f3—y) cos (—S) - sin (y — c) cos (13—s)
-I- sin (cx - 3) cos (y —8)=0.
7. ( a ) sin 0+sin (O-4 2 )sin (o _)=o
(6) cos 01-cos ( 0 --1201+cos (0--- 120")=0

S. (a) 4 cos a cos [I cos (COS (cx-4-3 - 1')-1-cos (134-y—c)
-i-cos (y-j-.--13) I cos (cx+P-v)
(6) cos cx-]-cos 134-cos y+cos (U-i-13+y)
+(3 )'
=4 cos -i--- cos 13-1-
- cos
sin A sin 2A-]-sin 3A sin 6A---sin 4A sin 134

9 (a) - =tan 9A
sin A cos 2A+sin 3A cos 6A±sin 4A cos 134
(b) cos 24 cos 3A— Cos 2A cos 7A+Cos A cos IOA

sin 4A sin 3A —sill sin 5A+sin 44 sin 7A
Cot 64 cot 54.
14'12. TRIGONOMETRIC JDENTITIES
When two or more angles are connected by some relation, we can
find a relation existing among their clicular functions. The method of
discovering such a relation is best illustrated by examples.
The student is advised to note carefully the various steps.
f
Example 73. I A + B -f C=,r , show that
sin 2 + sill sin 2C 4 sin A sin B sill

538 BUSINESS MATIIB?iIATICS
Solution. L.H.S.= sin 2A+sin 2B-f sin 2C

=2 sin (A+13) cos (A—B)+2 sin C cos C
=2 sin (r—C) cos (A—B)
+2 sin C cos ['i — (A+B)] (Note this step)
=2 sin C cos (A—B)--2 sin C cos (A +B)
=2 sin C (cos (A-13)--cos (4+B)]
=2 sin C [2 sin A sin B]
=4 sin A sin B sin C=R.H.S.
Example 74. If A + n+ C=180°, prove that
cos2 A--cos2 f3+cos' C=]-2 cos A cos B cos C
Solution, L.H.S.=cos2 A+os2 B+cos2 C
4 (1-1-cos 2A)+4 (1+Cos 2B)+cos 2 C
=1+4 (Cos 2A-f-cos 2B)-fcos 2 C
=1+Cos (A+ B) cos (A—B)-i-Cos' C
=1 —cos C cos (A— B)-4-cos 2 C
[: cos (A+ B) = cos (180 0 —C)= —cos C]
== 1—cos C [cos (A—B)—cos C]
= 1 —cos C [cos (A—B)+Cos (Al-B)]
cos C='cos (1800—A+B)=—COS (Al-B)]
=1 —cos C (2 cos A cos B]
=1-2 cos A cos B cos C=R.1-l.S.
Example 75. If A +B+ C =, show that
C
-- cos B - cos T
sin A + sin B+sin C=4 cos A
Solution. L.H.S.=(sin A+sin B)+sin C
AIB A—B. C C
=2 sin —i--- cos —i-- + 2 sin - COS
C A—B C C
=2 cos --i-- cos 2 +2 sin f cos
=sin80=sin 90'— )=cos

[... sin ]
=2 Cos -[cos 2 +sin
T]
Cr A—B
=2 cos TL A+B
COS --
+C0S
C A B
=2 cos — 2 cos - cos -
A B C
=4 cos --- cos -- cos - i-- R.H.S.

TRIGONOMETRY
Example 76. IfA+B+ C =, prove that
co! A +cos B + cos C= I + 4 sin

4 sin
-ç sk i
SoJtion, L.H.S.=(cos A+cos B)-cos C

4 +11 A—B
=2 cos --cos 2 +1-2 sin -y
C A—B .2C
=2 sin -ycos - —2 sin + 1
r cos -i- =-cos1800—C cos\90o_
A +B
2
C', . (3
---f- )S111_-y
• Cf A—B A+B1
=2 sm--cos ----- cos
P . I 4+/fl A+B
sin-C •
--=sin j 90 _i_f=cos 2
[
C 4B
-=2 sin -i-. 2sjn -f sin
C
=4 sin -- sin
4
yB sin --1=R.H,S.
Example 77. If A +11 + C=r, prove that

B C \
cos , - +cos2 +cos2 - C =2 i1± sia A Sifl
2 S111 2 )
Solution. L.H.S.=cos2$ -j-cos2

^ -+-COS2
A )+-(1+c0s B )+1_sin2-
C'
==2+ 1 ( Cos A±cos B )_sin2
A+B A—B .2C
= 2 + cos -i--- cos
_ S111 T
C A—B . C
= 2 + sin cos ---- - sin2
[. .
Cos (A+B)
Cos (900 C )o3fl
y]
2+ sin -y[cos_--y--_sin
y]
cr A—B 4+11
L .0 .'
=2-f-sin CO---COH—y-
r A+B\ A+B
Sin y srn(90 -----. )=cos -i-
L

sin - sin-;]
- A 13 C
Sill T
2 2
( II sin 2- /3
in --sin -,=
C' R.H.S.
2
Example 78, ff4 i-B+C= 180', prove that
(I) tan A-f--tan fl -I - Ia n C. tan 4 tail C
B C C
('1) fan- L tan-i- - f-Ian -j- fail A A B
Ian-i- = 1
2
A /1
(lu) cot- - Cot -+cot C cot B
-- -.A Cot --- COt
C
SoIutOj) (1) 4+13-1- C= 180°

Aj-B=180°-C
tail -I-B) =tan (180'- C)
tail -f tan B
tart C
I-tan A an B
Crosc multiplying, we get
tan A+tail 11= -tan C (1- tail tan B)
Transposing, we get tan A -I -tan B+tan C=tan A tan B tan C
(ii) - C
A-i B-I C=180°
T
tan(--)r_tan(9O°_ C)
IA B\ C
tan -- +-y)=cOt--
A
tan ---+ tan By
AT C
1- tan-tar-t -- tan -y
Cross multiplying, we get
tail A tan -y
C B C A
+ tan Ttail -- =1-tan -ytan -
B
Tr ansposing, we get
B C
tan -tan -y -I-tan - C A A B
-tan - --+tan ----tan -y-=1

TRIGONOMETRY 541
(iii) From (ii), we have
I I 1 1 I -
C i
cot -- Cot - cot - cot -- Cot
2
A B C A B C
cot 2 +Cot 2 ;-cot 2 cot-i- Cot COt

EX1RCISE (viii)
If A-f-il-f C --- 1800, j)IOVC that

I sin 2A -I-sin 211—sin 2C--4 cos A cos B sin C
2, COS 2A+cos 2/1-- cos 2C- : 1-4 Sill /1 Sill 11 COS C
A /1
3. sin it I-sin /3+sin C ---4 cos--- cos -i-- cos
A. C
4. sin A -I- Sin B -- sin C 4 sin --- sin B- cos----
' 1 z C
5. cos A+cos B—cos C. -1+4 COS- C()5 - Sill -
6. cos 2 A-I-cos t 8—cos 2 C-1 ---2 sin A sin 1? cos C

7. sill' A + Siii B -sill' C_2 sin A sin 13 cos C
A .11 . 2 C .A /3. C
8 511127 1 Sili' - -- I-Sill I --2 siny sin
2
A B -- CIi C-A C: A--B
9. COS -- COS---- +COS Cos COS - COS —f'—
2 2
=sin A +sin B+s lll C
Sin 2A 4 sin 2R-f- sin 2C - 11 .
10. - -- 2 sill--- Sill --- sill c
sill A-4-sin B -f-sin C 2 2 2
14 - 13. i'ioi'iurii-;s OF A TRIANGLE
We have already said in the introduction that the subject of lrigoiio-
tiletry primarily deals with the measurement of sides and angles of a
triangle. So far in the chapters we have studied the trigonometric
functions of different angles. Now, we develop some important formulae
connecting the sides and angles of a triangle. These formulae will be
useful in solving the rectilinear figures in general and the triangles in
particular.
Notations. In any A ARC, 4, B. C will represent the angles and
a, b, c will denote respectively the lengths of the sides opposite to those
angles.
I. The Law of Sines. in any triangle ABC, the sides are propor-
tional to i/ic sines of the opposite angles, i.e.,
a 1) C
sin A sin /3sin C

42
Proof. In each case, draw ADiBC produced if necessary. Then
from each figure
AD
=sin B AD=c sin B (I)
A
4
ZC b

C
a. C (a)

Fig. Ci) Fig. (ii) Fig. (ill)
AD
In Fig. (i), - = Sin C AD=b sin C
lfc
In Fig. (ii), (180°—C)=sin C AD=b sin C
In Fig. (iii), AD—AC---b=b sin C [,. Sifl CSjfl 9O1J
Hence in each case AD=b sin C

C sin B=b sin C
b C
=
srnB sinC
Similarly _± (Considering altitude from C)
a b c
Hence
sin A sin B in C
II. The Law of Cosines. The square of any sfde of a triangle is

equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides diminished by twice
their product and the cosine of the included angle, i.e.,
a2 =0-I-0-2 bc cos A
b2=c2 4 a2 -2 ca cos B
c2 =a'+b'-2 ab cos C

TRIGONOMETRY 543
Proof. Consider any oblique triangle ABC with the altitude AD

drawn from the vertex A to the opposite side.
/1
Fig. (1) Fig. (II)
In Fig. (0. BD=c cos B, AD=c sin B
CD:J9C—BD==o—c cos B
In Fig. (ii), 13D= --c cos B, AD=-c sin B
and CDr=C13IBD=a_c cos B
In both figures b'r=AD 2 -I- CD' (Pythagoras theorem)
13) 2 -f-(a--c cos
=(c sin B)'
sin 2 BIa2+cl cos ! B-2ac cos B
=-a2 -2ac cos B-}-c' (sin2 B-f cos2 B)
_0+0-2ca cos 13
The same result may also be written as
c2+a2—h2
cos
2ca
By cyclic changes, we can write two more results of the similar kind,
viz.,
a2 =rb2 +c2_*2bc cos A
c 2 r=a2 fb2_ 2ab cos C
b24c$_a2
or cos A = --------- - and cos
2bc 2ab
111. The Law of Tangent. in any AABC,

B—C b—c A
tan cot -
2 F+--c 2
Proof. We know
sin sin sin b
= ----
b c sin C

By componendo and dividendo, we have

sin B-1-sin C b f-c
sin 11—s4n Cb—c
fit-C a—C
2 sin 2
2 b °
ii+ C fl—C b-c
2 cos
B-i-Cb+c 13--C
tan ----------- tan
2 b—c 2
Transposing, we get
11--C b-c B+C b—c - A
tan ---- =r-- tan --- tan (90' --
b—c A
bTfT Cot
IV. The Half angle Forniulae. lii this article we shall find the
- A I) C
trigonometric ratios of half the angles, viz . , -- , ---, -- of a A ABC i n
terms of the sides and the semi-perimeter of a triangle.
(a) In any A/3C,
Sill /(s-b(s_c)
2 Aj bc
Proof. Recalling the cosine rule, we have
b2 -1c2—a
cos A= ___
Also we know that

- A
cos A=H-2 sin 2 --- (2)

- ,, A b2.fc2_02
-- 2 sin- --- = --------
- , A h2+c2_a2 2bc_(h2+c2-_z2)
2 SIfl
=1 - 2bc
- a 2 - (b - 2bc I c 2 } a' - (b— c)2
2hc
- 2 A-
2 sin
2bc (3)

TRIGONOMETRY 545
Now let the perimeter of the AABC be denoted by 2s, where S is

often termed as the semi-perimeter of /\ABC. Thus
2s=a+b+c
Now a+b—c==a+b-f-c-2c=2s-2c=2(s--c)
a—b+c=a-lb-}-c-2b=2s--_2b=r2(s_b)
Substituting from (4) and (5) in (3), we have
2(s—c)x2(s—b)
2siri2 A
2 2bc
A (s_b)(—c)
Sifl
bc
A
Taking the positive square root, since is essentially a positive
acute angle, we get
A j—b)(s—c)
Sifl—
bc
By cyclic changes, we have
sin
Ii
2 ca
\/(s_c)(sa)
(b) In any tABC, pro 'c that
and sin - ='
J
COS
2A \/ c
= h
Proof. We know
cos A=2 cos' •-i!- --
b2lc2_a2
2 cos 2 A - 1=
Transposing, we get
A bI +c 2_. a2 2bc+b2+c2_.a
2 cos' -i = I +
= 2bc
A (b +C)2—a2 (b+c.4-a)(b+c_a)
2cos2
2 2bc = 2bc
A 2sx2 (s— a) 2 As(s — a)
2 cos' - = cos
2 2bc 2 bc
Taking the positive square root, since is essentially an acute

angle, we get
A Is(s—a)
cos 2 'sj bc


B js(s—b) c [5(3_c)
COS and
2 ca 2'J ab
() any A ABC, prove that
tan----- /(sb) (s_c)
2 J s(s—a)
/(s-b) (s c)
sin
L be (s—e)
Proof, tan
2 - fs(s_a) \I 3(3—a)
COS
2 'J be
B 1(s—c)(s—a) C
tan -- and tan
=J s(sb) = s(s—c)
(d) In any ABC, prove that
sin A=- Vs(s—a)(s—b)(s—c)

bc
Proof, sin A=2 sin (A/2) cos (42)
=2x I)
V be \I be
2
- —/s(s—a) Is— h)(s—c)
be
sin B= -- '/s(s—a) (s—b) (s—c)

ca
and sin C=- VJ:a ) (s— b) (s—c)
Solution.
a sin (4-+B )=(b+c) sin 4
R.H.S.(b+c) sin f r(k sin B + k sin C) sin
4
=k2ri Sn
B+C
2
cos 2 j rn
B—C'. A
=k [2 sin (90'-..) Cos (s+

4 _900)]x sin
4

TRIGONOMETRY 547
[2 sin - cos
4] cos [90°(B+ -4-fl
==(k sin A) sin (B+ - )=a sin (/3+ _)=R.I-l.s.
Example 80. If the cosines of Iwo angles of a !riong(e are Inversely

proportional to the opposite sides, show that the triangle is isosceles or right
angled.
Solution. Let AARC he the given triangle and let
cos .4 b
cos /3 a
cosA - b - sin B
Now [Law of Sines]
cos B a sin A
sin A cos A=sin 8 cos B
2 sin A cos A -2 sin B cos B
sin 2A=sjri 2B
2A=213or 2A=1800-2B
A=B or A+B=9O°, i.e., C=90'
Hence the proof.
Example 81. In any triangle ABC, prove that
sin B—C
-=b—c
-
a cos
A
2 2
Solution. From the Law of Sines:
a b c
- k, say
sinA sinB sinC
a=k sin A, b=k sin B and c=k sin C
b—c k sin B—k sin C sin B—sin C
Now
a ks;nA sin
B—C B-I-C
2sin cos
2 2 B-l--CA
A A L2 2
2 sin -i-- cos
B—C ( A .B—C. A
sin -- cos 9O
-
T) T
S1fl-- Stfl
A A . A A
sin - cos -1cos
B—C
sin
A
Cos

548 DUINESS MATHEMATICS
B—C b—c
sin --==------- cos A

a2 sin (13—C) b2 Sin(C—A) C 2 sin (A - B)
sin B4-sin C sin C-t- sin A sin A +- sinB
Solution. We have
sin (B—C) - sin B cos C—cos B sin ç
b c
cos C-k- cos B [From the Law of Stnesj
l rb(a 2 -- b2_c2) c(a-}-c2+b2)1
2ab [Law of Cosines]
2ac j
1 (12+0_0_(12_CI
2a
I 2(b---c) b2_c2
C 2 —a
Similarly sin (C— A)= d sin (1
kb kc
Now
a2 sin (B—C) b2 sin (C—A) c3 sin (A —B)
L H
sin B-1- sinC + 5jfl C-f-sin A + sin A-f-sin B
61 2 ( b t --c2) b2 (c2 —a 2) c2_(a2_b2)
b c c a + a
ka(k k) ki, 7ck-) kc(T+)
a t ( b 2 - c') b2 (c 2 —a 2) C2 (a —b2)
a(b+c) + b (c*a) + c (a-f-b)
=a (b—c)+b (c—a)+c (a—b)=O=R,H.S.
1414. SOLUTIONS FOR A TRIANGLE
We illustrate below the applications of the results derived earlier in
the chapter in solving a triangle when some of its elements are known.
Usually a triangle can be solved if any three of its elements (excepting the
three angles) are known. The general problem then can be divided into
four broad cases according to the sets of known elements.
Case I. To solve the triangle, when the three sides a, b, c
are known. Either (i) use the law of cosines to determine the angles or
(ii) use the results.
A(s—b) (s— c)B /(s—c)(s_-a)
tan -=/- (so) - and tan T I:
to find the angles A and B.
Then C=l8O—(A+B)
The latter, however, is adaptable to the use of logarithms.
TRIGONOMETRY 549
Example 83. Solve the triangle if the lengths of its sides are respecti-
vely, 528. 39 3 and 721 cm.
Solution. Let a=528, b=393, c=721
2s=a4-b4-c== 1642, s=321
c--a=293, s—h=428 , s_c==lO
•• • tan
A /42 , 8 x 10
= 82 1x293
log tan -_-- [log 428 4-log 10— log 821—log 2931
[16314+1-- 19l43—U4669}=16251
Adding 10 to this (for the use of tables), we get
log tan -- =96251
-f =22° 52' A=450 44'

Similarly, we find
8 / 10< 293
log tan --- =log \f
821 x 428
— [log 293 -f-log 10—log 821 --log 428]=P4606
log tan $-=94606 [if 10 is added]
B=32°12'
Hence C=180°—(A+B)=102° 4'
Case H. To solve the triangle if one side and two angles are
given.
Procedure. Let the side a and angle B and C be given. Then
A=1800—(B+C)
Now using the law of sines
sin B Slil C
b = a and c =
sin sinA
which will give values for b and c, Logarithms may be used for caicu.
lations.
Case III. To solve the triangle when the two sides and the
included angle are given.
Procedure. Let the sides b, c and the included angle A be given
Then B-i--C=180°—,1

550 BUSINESS MATH13MATIcS
Now using the law of tangents, we have

B—C b—c B+C
tan ----=r j --- tan .. (2)
R.H.S. can be computed from the data.

Hence we find (using logarithms, if necessary) B—C.
From (I) and (3), we can obtain B and C.
sin Ab
The side a can be determined using the result a=
sin B
Example 84. Two sides of a triangle are /3+1, /3_1 and the
Included angle 500. Find the other side and angles.
Solution. Let b V3+l, c=V,3-1 and A=60°
B—C b—c B+ C 2
Also tan —i-- = j- tan -- =--3xV3=1
B—C
2 -
B—C=90°
Also B+C=120°
B=105° and C=15°
sin A('/3+l) sin 600
Now
sin 8 sin (60°±45°)
-' 2 v'2(V3+1)i/3 -
1 'V,3 1 V3+1 -
V,2 2 + 2)
EXERCISE (IX)
In any A ABC, prove that
1. (a—b) sin C +(b—c) sin A+(c—a) sin B=0.
2. (1) a sin (B—C)+b sin (C—A)+c sin (A—B)=0

(ii) a3 sin (B—C)+b3 sin (C—A)+c sin (A—B)=z0.
B—C4
3. (1) a cos----- =(b+c) sin -r
C 4—B
(II) (a—b)co .1-=c sin —1--
4. (a'—b') cOa' C+(b'—c') cos ? A+(cT _at) cos2 B==0.

TRIGONOMETRY 551
5. a2=(b.-.c)' c082
4 +(b+c) 2 sin
6. 2(0 sin'--+c sin8

b1(c8+a8—b2)0(a'+b3---0)
7
sin 2B sin 2C
cos A cos B cos C a2 +b2+c2
8. a
2 00 a2—b2
a cos A + —b— cos B-f cos C-=O
9. C
10. (a 2_ b 2) cos 2C+(b 2_ c 2 ) cos 2A+( c2—a2 ) cos 2B=0

C
11. ( a +b+ c ) B cos--
sin - A =2a cos -
C
12. (s—a) tan 4 (s—b) tan--=(s—c) tan--
13. (a+b+c) ( tan -f +tan-- )=2a cot--
A B
- -+cot
cot — -Icot - --- (a ±b .. c)2
14. cot2A±cotB+cot a2±b20
15. If then C-60°
16. With usual notations, prove that in a A ABC,

.AB—C .B.C—A
a sin 2 sin 2 h sin-i- sin
C. A—B
..fCslflT sin —
2
15
Coordinate Geometry
STRUCTURE
I 50. INTRODUCTION
151. DIRECTED LINE
152. QUADRANTS
153. COORDINATES
15. 4. COORDINATES QF MID-POINTS
155. DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS
156. SECTION FORMULA
151. EXTERNAL DIVISION
158. COORDINATES OF A CENTROLD
159. AREA OF A TRIANGLE
1510. COLLINEARITY OF THREE POINTS
1511. AREA OF A QUADRILATERAL
1512. LOCUS OF A POINT
1513, TUE STRAIGHT LINE
1514. SLOPE OR GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE
1515. DIFFERENT FORMS OF EQUATIONS OF THE STRAIGHT
LINE
1516. GENERAL EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE
1517. INTERSECTING LINES
1518. CONCURRENT LINES
1519. THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO STRAIGHT LINES
1520. LENGTH OF PERPENDICULAR FROM A POINT
1521. TANGENT AND NORMAL
1522. CIRCLE
1523. THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE
I 524. THE GENERAL EQUATION OF THE CIRCLE
1525. EQUATION OF A TANGENT

COORDENATE GEOMErRY 553
1526. EQUATION OF A NORMAL

1527. EQUATION OF A TANGENT IN SLOPE FORM
1528. ELLIPSE
15'29. PARABOLA
1530. STANDARD EQUATION OF A PARABOLA
1531. FORMS OF PARABOLA
1532. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION
1533. EQUATION OF THE TANGENT
15 , 34. EQUATION OF THE TANGENT IN SLOPE FORM
1515. EQUATION OF NORMAL
1536. EQUATION OF NORMAL IN SLOPE FORM
OBJECTIVES
• coordinates, distance between two points. section formula, area
Of triangle, collinearity of three points, locus of a point
• straight line and different forms of straight lines and their appli-
catons in solving problems
• circle, tangent arid normal and solution of problems
• ellipse, parabola, tanent and normal to parabola and probems
based on these concepts.
150. NTRODUCTION
The credit for bringing out this new branch of geometry goes to the
French mathematician Renatus Cartesius (1596-1650) popularly known
as Rene Descartes and it is after his name that it is sometimes called as
Cartesian Geometry.
Coordinate Geometry is that branch of geometry in which two real
numbers, called coordinates, are used to indicate the position of a point
in a plane. The main contribution of coordinate geometry is that it has
enabled the integration of algebra and geometry. This is evident from
the fact that algebraic methods are employed to represent and prove
the fundamental properties of geometrical theorems. Equations are also
employed to represent the various geometric figures. It is because of these
features that the coordinate geometry is considered to be a more powerful
tool of analysis than the Euclidian Geometry. Ii is on this consideration
that sometimes it is described as Analytical Geometry.
Before we come to the basic concept of coordinates it is necessary
to say a word about the directed line.
151. DIRECTED LINE
A directed line is a straight line with number units positive, zero
and negative. The point of origin is the number 0. The arrow indicates
its direction. On the side of the arrow are the positive numbers and on
the other side are the negative numbers. It is like a real number scale
illustrated below:
Direction Origki
4 Oifecfjr
0
Fig. 1.
A directed line can be horizontal normally indicated by XOX axis

and vertical indicated normally by Y'OY axis. The point where the two
intersect each other is called the point of origin. The two lines together
are called rectangular axes and are at right angles to each other. If these
axes are not at right angles they are said to be oblique axes and the angle
between the positive axes XOY is denoted by co (omega).
Now, remember the three expressions of the coordinates.
(1) The coordinates of the origin are (0, 0).
(ii) The coordinates of any point on x-axis is (x, 0) say (5, 0) if
the point is +5 units on x-axis from the origin on the right hand side
towards the direction of the arrow.
(iii) The coordinates of any point on Y-axis is (0, y) say (0, - S) if
the point is —5 units on the y-axis from the origin downwards on the
vertical axis.
152. QUADRANTS
The two directed lines, when they intersect at right angles at the point
of origin, divide their plane into
four arts or regions namely KOY,
X'OY, X'OY' and XOY'. These parts
Second Quomnt First Ouadnint are respectively indicated as first (I).
second (II), third (III) and fourth
(IV) quadrants. The position of the
coordinates in a particular quadrant
x would depend on the positive and
0 negative values of the coordinates
shown in Fig. 2.
Third Ouudrt Fourth 0uo4ront
351 COORDINATES
In a twodimensional figure a
point in plane has two coordinates.
Fig. 2. The exact position of the point can
be located by the unit size of these coordinates. As a matter of
convention, the first coordinate is read on the X'OX axis and the second
COORDINATE GEOMETRY 555
coordinate on the Y'OY axis. Various methods of expressing these pairs of
coordinates are:
(1) Vying alphabets (x, y) (a, b) (h, k)
(ii) Varying subscripts (x1, y 1) (x21 y 2) (x3, y3)
(iii) Varying dashes (x, y) (x', y') W. y)
The diagrammatic presentation of the two coordinates is as follows i
It should be noticed that the horizontal

distance of the point from the Y'OY is
called the x-coordinate or the abscissa and _bs. -.
the vertical distance of the point from the
X'OX is called the Y-coordinate or the (A
'C
ordinate.
Example 1. Plot the points with the
following coordinates:
P(-5, —5), R(3, 2),
Q(-4, 6), S(O, —5).
Solution. In the following graph,

we plot the points. It should be remembered
that we read the first coordinate on Fig. 3.
X'OX axis right or left depending on whether unit numbers are positive
or negative respectively. Similarly we read the second coordinate units
on the Y'OY axis upwards or downwards dependi ng on whether the units
are positive or negative respectively.
Q(-&6)
S
R()
1 2 3 h
--
Fig. 4.

556
154. COORDINATES OF MID-POINTS
We can find out the coordinates of a mid-point from the coordi-
nates of the any two points using the following formula:
X ____
" 2 ' 2
For example, the coordinates of the mid-point of the join of points
(-2, 5), (6, 3) are L_3 ) , i.e., (2, 4)

This is helpful first in finding out the middle point from a join of
any two points and secondly in
verifying whether two straight lines
bisect each other.
In the diagram, the dotted

vertical lines are drawn perpendicular
to x-axis and the dotted horizontal
lines are parallel to the X-axis. The
/NMP and /QML are the cong-
ruent triangles. It follows, therefore,
that
Fig. 5. NM=ML
BC=CD
OC--- QJ3Qc
(x,,—x1)(x,.._.x)
...(l)
2
Also from the same congruent triangles, we get

0. NP=QL
NB—FBQD_LD
MC_PBQD_MC
y,, —y I =y2—y_
YY2
y,,,== (2)
From (1) and (2), we conclude that the coordinates of the mid-
oint (x,,, y ,,) are x1+y
p (2 Y, +Y'
—2 .i
COORDINATE GEOMETRY $57
Now, the coordinates of the mid-point of the join of the two points
(— L 5) and (7, 3) will be
(-7 , (3, 4).
155. DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

The distance, say d, between two points P(x, y1 ) and Q(x 2 , y 1) is
given by the formula
d=
=V(djff. of abscissae) 3 +(diff. of ordinates)'
Since we take the square ot the two differences, we may designate
any of the points as (x 1, y) and the other (x2, y2).
In order to prove the above formula, let us take two points P(x1 , y1)
and Q(x, y 2 ) as shown in the following diagram.
The vertical dotted lines PB
and QC are perpendiculars from P V
and Q on the x-axis, and PR is the Q(xty2)
perpendicular from P on QC. Then
PR=BC-= OC—QJ3=x—x1 Y2 YJ
and QR=QC_RC=y2_y1
From the right angled triangle I------.

P.RQ, right angled at R, we have by
the Pythagoras theorem
Fig. 6.
PQ 2 = PR2 + QR2
d=
It may be noted that the above formula will be valid for points taken
in other three quadrants as well.
Also the distance of a point P(x 1 . y1 ) from the origin is
d= (x1 — O)Z+(y1_O)!r= Vx12+yit
Thus, the distance between two points say (4, —I) and (7, 3) is
d= \/(7_4)2+(3fl= / 3 2 +4 2_ V5 units.
Example 2. (a) Show that the points (6, 6), (2, 3) and (4, 7) are
the vertices of a right-angled triangle.

(b) Prove that the points (4, 3), (7, -1) and (9, 3) are the vertices of
an Isosceles triangle.
Solution. (a) Let A, B, C be the points (6, 6). (2, 3) and (4, 7)
respectively, then
AB'=[(6-2)2+(6-3)2]= 16+9=25
BC2=[(2_4)2+(3_7)2]==4+16=20
CA3c=.[(4_6)2+(7_6)u]=4+1 =5
AB2=BC2+CA2
LABC=1 right angle
Hence the points A(6, 6), B(2, 3) and C(4, 7) are the vertices of a
right angled triangle.
(l) We know that the property of an isosceles triangle is that two
of its sides are equal.
Using the distance formula, we have
AB=V'(4_7)21.(3+1) =v'9+16=5
BC= \" (7-9)'-l-(.--l-3)'=k14+16=2V5
AC= 9_4)2+(3_3)2 /i=5
Since two of the sides, i.e., AB and AC are equal, the triangle is an
isosceles triangle.
Example 3. Prove that the quadrilateral with vertices (2, -1),
(3, 4), (-2, 3) and (-3, -2) Is a rhombus.
(b) Show that the points (4, -5), (8, 1), (14, -3) and (10, -9) are
the vertices of a square.
Solution. (a) Let A(2, -I). B(3, 4), C(-2, 3) and D(-3, -2) be
the four vertices of the quadrilateral
AB= i/(2-3)'+(1 74)'=='
BC= V [3- (-2)]' + (4- 3)i =
CD= /R2)__3)12+r3__W=
DA= v'[(-3) -(2)]+((-2)-(-1)]'=
AC=\1(2+2)'+(-1-/ BD=i/ (3+3)+(4+2)2=i
AB=BC. =CD=DA, ACABD
* ABCD is a rhombus.
(b) Left as an exercise for the student.
Example 4. Prove that (-2. -1), (1, 0), (4, 3) and (1, 2) are the
vertices of a parallelogram.
Solution. Let A(-2, -I), B(I, 0), C(4, 3) and D(1, 2) be the
vertices of a quadrilateral.

— 2+4 --1+3
Then the mid-point of AC= ( 2 )=(1, 1)
2
and the mid-point of BD= (4- , --)=(1,

1 1)
From (1) and (2), we conclude that AC and BD bisect each other
at the same point (1. I) and hence the quadrilateral ABCD is a
parallelogram.
Example 5. Find the coordinates of the circurneentre of a triangle
whose coordinates are (3, —2), (4, 3) and (-6, 5). Hence find the circum-
radius,
Solution. Let A(3, —2), B(4, 3) and C(-6, 5) be the vertices of
the triangle and P(x, y) be the circu,nccntre.
By definition PA==PBPC ' PA2=PB2=PC2
Now by the distance formula
PA2=r-(._.. 3)+(y + 2)2=x2+y2_6x 1- 4y -1-13
PB2r ( x_4 ) 2 +(y__3) zrr x2 + y2 -8x--- 6y-4-25
I 2x— lOy+61
Now PA2=PB2
X2 + y2_ 6x+4y+ 1 3== x 2 -f- y2 — 8x— 6v+25
Zx+lOy=12
x+5y==6
and PBPC2
x2 + y2 -8 x — 6y+25=x 2 4-y 2 +12x— 10y+61
* —20x-I-4y=36
* —5x+y9
Solving (1) and (2), we get
X_TJ33
)rzr__.
(The
3 circumcentre P is 3
Now the circurnradjus of Ls ABC is PA or PB or P C. Therefore
PA=/J(—.-3)+(+2)
V'V -
/ 8
A4T
-A
Or
2

560 BUSINESS MATIIEMATIGS
Example 6. Determine the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle

ABC if the middle points of its sides BC, CA, AB have coordinates (3, 2),
(-1, —2) and (5, —4) respectively. [C.A., November, 19911
Solution. Let the coordinates of the point A, B and C of the
triangle ABC he (x 1 , y), (x21 y 2) and (x 3 , y3) respectively. Therefore,
we have
and
or X2-1x3==6
and Y2 +y34 (2)
and
2 2
or x3+x1=-2 • (3)
and Y3 +Y = —4 .(4)
and
Or x1-j-x2=O (5)
and Y, +Y, - —8 • (6)
Adding (I) and (3), (5) and (2), (4) and (6), we have
x1+x2-f-x3=7
and y 1 +y1-f-y3=-4
x=l, x 2 =9 1 x=--3 and Y1-8,y,r=-0, y4
Hence (1, —8), (9, 0) and (-3, 4) are the vertices of the triangle.
156. SECTION FORMULA
The coordinates of a point R(x, y) dividing a line in the ratio of
m : n connecting the points P(x 1 , y 1) and Q(x, y2) in the diagram below
is given by
= my2 + y1
and
m - ii In-I--n
Draw FL, RM and QN

perpendiculars on XOX and draw
PK and RT perpendiculars on RM
and QN respectively.
We are given
P
X 1 ,Y,1 PR m
RQ n
M
X Suppose PQ makes angle 0
with the x-axis. From the figure
Fig. 7. In JPRK,

PK
cOS 0
PR cos 0=x—x1
and in RQT,
R
i = cOs 0
R cos 0= x, --X
PR x—x1 ,n
[Using (')I
flX—flX 1 =flX 2 - mx, i.e., x(rn -f n) Fn x + fix1
rfl X 2 + axl
rfl+fl
Similarly
PR sin 0 y -- y 1 ni
RQ sin 0y2 -y=
fly— ny1 =1L P71)
4. y(n1- n)=my 2 * ny2
It may be noted that m, which corresponds to the segment PR

multiplies the coordinate of Q, while n, which refers to RQ, multiplies the
coordinate of P. If we find that the coordinates of the mid-
point are
yl+y2
2 2
157. EXTERNAL DIVISION
In the above it was assumed that the point R divides PQ internally
in the ratio in : n • This means that the point R lies between P and Q. If
PQ is divided externally by R, then R lies outside PQ. The student should
repeat the above method, and using the same diagram with R and Q inter-
changed, it can be proved that
rflx2 -- fix, iny2—ny1

171—n ' ' Pfl—fl
Note that if the given ratio is 4 : 3, then R lies on PQ produced,

whilst if the ratio is 3: 4, then .R is on QP produced and to the left of P.
The formula, however, takes care of this.
158. COORDINATES OF A CENTROID
The centroid of a triangle is the point of intersection of the three
medians of a triangle. Each median bisects the side opposite to the vertex
into two equal parts. In order to prove that the medians of a triangle
intersect at a point, called centroid, we have to show that its coordinates
are -
x__x1+x+x8 _yi+y2+y8
- Y_ ,y
To prove this, let us take a triangle with its vertices A(x 1 , y1),
B(x,, y) and C(x3, y 8 ) as shown in the following diagram:
(x3y1)
Fig. 8.
In the diagram median AD bisects the base BC at D with co-

ordinates
2-4-Y8
) -X3
( 2 * 2
We take a point G where two medians intersect which divides AD
internally, say, in the ratio 2 : L i.e., 'n : m2 =2 1.
Hence by the section formula, the coordinates of G are
2x+lxx1 _X1+x+x3
2+1 - 3
S
71
YtrYsmYs
L
and y = 3 =
2+1
Example 7. Find the coordinates of the point which div ides the
points P(8, 9) and Q(-7, 4) Internally In the ratio 2 : 3 and externally
In the ratio 4 : 3.
Solution. Now the values given are x 1 =8, y 1 =9, x 2 =-7 and
Y2 4. We have to substitute these values into the formula:
(i) For internal division where m 1 =2 and m,=3, we have
rn1x9im2x12X(.7j+3 --2
m1-Fm2 2+3
- 2X4+3X9
Y— -M 2+3

cOORO1NATa GEOMI3TRY 563
(ii) For external division where m 1 =4 and rn=r3, we have
m1x2 -m2x 1 {4x(-7)}-(3x8}-
al l —M, 52
4-3
in 1 y 2 —my 1 4X4---3x9
4-3 -
Below we will discuss a converse problem in which we have to find
the ratio 'n1 : in when the values of all the coordinates are given.
Example 8. Find the ratio in which the pour! (11, —3) divides the
Join of points (3, 4) and (7, 11).
Solution. Let the point P(ll, —3) divide the join of points A(3, 4)
and B(7, 11) in the ratio ?
By the section formula, we have
Th+3
'± I
r. ll?\4.11=7,k+3
P divides A externally in the ratio 2 : 1. It should be noted

that in finding the ratio of division, the knowledge of one coordinate of
the point of division is enough. The application of the section formula to
the other coordinate, if known, will give the same ratio.
Example 9, Find the ratios In which the axes divide the line joining
the points (2, 5) and (1, 9). Also find the coordinates of the points In
which the coordinate axes intersect this line.
Solution. Let the x-axis intersect the join of A(2, 5) and B(1, 9)
at the point P and the y- axis intersect All at Q.
Since P lies on the x-axis, its y -coordinate is 0. Also Q lies on the
Y-axis, its x-coordinate is 0.
(i) The point Q divides AB in the ratio AQ say.

= - ---,
Let the coordinates of Q be (0, 6). We have by the section formula
9i+5
and b=
A+I
From the former, we have ?='-2.
Substituting this value in the latter equation, we get
b - X (- 2)+ 5 13
(-2)+l
Since the ratio of division is negative. Q divides AB externally in the
ratio 2 : I and the coordinates of the point of division are (0, 13).
(ii) The point P divides All in the ratioAPk

-= ---, (say).
-
564
Let the coordinates of P be (a, 0). We have by the section formula
k+2 5+9k
and
From the latter equation, we have k -
Substituting this value in the former equations we get

---+2
a54
Since the ratio of division is negative, the division is external, i.e,, P

divides AB externally in the ratio of 5 9 and the coordinates of the
point of division are (v- , o).
Example 10. If(-3, 4) Is The ceniroid of the triangle whose vertices
are (6, 2), (x, 3), (0, y), find x and y.
Solution. Using the centroid formula, we have
36+x+O
x=—is
42+3+y . y.7
and
159. AREA OF A TRIANGLE

We can find out the area of a
Y1. A(X,,yt) triangle with the vertices given.
For this let A(X 1 , y1), B(x, Yri)

YJ
and C(x3 , y) be the coordinates of the
vertices of the triangle ABC. From A,
B, C draw perpendiculars AL, BM and
YZ CN on the x-axis.
As is clear from the figure, area

X of /ABC
H--xi . _.._. . x
= Area of trape7ium ABML
Fig. 9.
-I-Area of trapezium ALNC—Area of trapezium BMNC
Since the area of the trape7ium
[Sum of the parallel sides]
[Perpendicular distance between the parallel sides]

Hence the area of the 6 ABC can be given as
AABC= (BM+AL)ML-H(AL+ cN)LN -- (BM+ CN)MPI
r_(Xty2_Xzyj+X2y8Xy2+X&y1_Xry31
The above on simplification can take the following form
-_=[(x 1 y2 —x 1 y8)+( x2y3 — x2y1)-f ( x3 y 1 — x y2 )1 ...(2)
= [x1 (y 2 — y 9) + x(y—y 1 )+ X5(y—y2)J ... (3)
Remarks 1. The sign of the area of the triangle is positive or nega-
tive as the arrangement of vertices are counter-clockwise or clockwise
as shown below.
Vt A(X1.y,)
y j 4(x,y11
B("2. Y2)
E
(x
Y3) C(x,,y3)

X X
Fig. 10(i) !g. 10(11)

The proper area formula is therefore given by
Area of A = ± i(x1y—xy1 + x,y 3 —xy2 + xy, - x1y3)
2. Aid to memory. The formula for area ofZABC can be con-
veniently remembered by using the memory chart in the following form:
4 1' 1
t
,l t
Area ofa
X"c:::\ I
y_I
hi
(where dotted arrow is preceded by a minus sign and the other one by a
plus sign).
Example 11. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (f, 3),
(5, 7),(-3, 4).
Solution. Using the above aid to memory, viv.,
4 4
we get
3 7\4\3
Area of =(2.7-3.5+5.4-7.(-3)+(-3).3-4.2J
1(= 14 - 15 ± 20 + 21 —9---8)
=1P5 sq. units
It should be noted that the vertices are taken anti-clockwise and
therefore, the result is positive. If we take in the reverse order placing
(-3, 4) as (x e , y1 ), the result will be negative.
Fig. 11.
Example 12. The vertices of a triangle ABC are A(5, 2), B(-9, —3)
andC(-3, —5), D, E, F are respectively the mid-points of BC, CA and
AB. Prove that
fABC=4 /DEF
Solution. Area of LABC is
/ABC= 4[5 ( — 3—(— 5)}+(-9)(--- 5-2)-f (— 3){2—(— 3)}]
1
=[10+63-1 5 ==29 sq. units
Also the coordinate& of D, E and F are
D= (-9)-4-(.-3) (-3)+(-5) -
L 2 ' 2 —(--- ''
E_r+ S —5+21_( '

L 2 ' 2 J 2
.= r-9+5 —3+2 —(-2
' -
L2 ' 2
DEF=1[(-6)(— —(— )}+ 1 { -
7 J=29
From (I) and (2), we conclude that

tABC=4LDEF
567
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Example 13. Prove that the triangle formed by the points

A(8, __10), 11(7, —3), c(0, —4) is a right angled triangle.
Solution. We know that in a right angled triangle
AC 2 AI3+BC2
Also distance between two points P and Q is
])Q t ==(x2 - x 1)2 + (y.--y1)"
AB2=(7__8)3+(_3+10)250
BC2=(0_7)2+(_4+3)l50
AC2.=(8_0)s1(_ 10+4)2=100
or AC2r=AB2+BC2
and hence the triangle is a right angled triangle.
1510. COLLINEARITY OF THREE POINTS
In case the three points of a triangle are in a straight line, they are
called collinear. The area of such a triangle is equal to zero as indicated
below:
Area of /\ = (xjy2 _X 2Yi + Xy—X,y+X 3Y l —x1y3)= 0
Example 14. Show that the following points are collinear
P(3, —2), Q(_-1, 1), R(-5, 4),
Solution.
Memory Chart
-'i -
33 -I
dr
t I,
X 4 -2
Area of APQR=[(3)(1)—(2)(1)(1)(4) (l)( )

5)(— 2) (4 (3))
= (3-2--4+5+ 10— 1 21= 01= 0
Hence the points P, Q and R are collinear.
Example 15. Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(3, 1),
B(2k, 3k) and C(k, 2k). Show that the three distinct pointi A, B and C are
collinear when k=-2. [LC.W.A., December 19901
Solution. Area of the /2ABC
[3(3k_2k)-f-2k(2k---l)+k(1 —3k)]
=,(3k.f.40_2k+k_30)
=i(k4-2k).
The three points A, B and C will be collinear if

(k2 + 2k)=O
or k= -2.
1511. AREA OF A QUADRILATERAL
In case of a quadrilateral, it is possible to split it into two triangles
and then add the area of them, i.e.,
Quadrilateral ABCD=AABC+ LADC
--+Rx 1 y 2 — x2y 1 )+ (x2y 3 — x.y2)-f- (x3y1—x1y3)J
+ [( x 1 y3 -- x3y 1 ) +(xy 4 — x 4y 8) + (x4 y xy)]
[( x 1 y 2 —X9y1)-f-(x2y8 --xy)+(xy4_ x 4 y3 )±(x ,y 1_ x1y4)J
The area of the quadrilateral with 4 sides can be found out by
extending the same aid to memory illustrated for a triangle.
+ + + .4.
,,,
i2 \
XY Y,
Area of quad. 4- [(x 1y2 —x2y 1 ) 4-(x2y8.-- x y2 )+(x3y4 --x4y3)
-F (X4Y1 - x1y)]
The same as g ive " above bee' use the middle two terms cancel out.
The area is indicated by the ± sign. The sigfl of area will be positive if the
vertices are taken counter clockwise and negative if taken clockwise.
Example 16. Find the area of a quadrilateral whose vertices are
A(l, 1); 11(3, ) C(5, —2) and D(4, - 7)
Solution. Let us make use of the above formula and the memory
chart for the sake of convenience
4 + + +
Area of quad. =J[((4)—(3)}+{(-6)—(20))+ ((-35)—(-8))

-F- ((4)— (- 7)}]
-[1-F(---26)±(--27)+11]— sq. units.

COORDJNATh GFOMETRY 569
EXERCISE (I)
1. Find the distance between the following pair of points
(1) (0,0); (p, q), (ii) (9, -1); (-2, 10), (iii) (, -D
(iv) (1 + ./2, 2); (1, 1- /2), (v) (at,, 2(4t) ; (at 2 , 2(12)
(vi) (a cos , a sin ), (a cos P, a sin ),

2. (a) lithe point (a, 3) is at a distance of -/5 units from the point
(2, a), find a•
(b) What will be the values of x if the distance between (x, -4) and
(-8, 2) be 10 ?
(c) If the distance between the points (a, -5) and (2, a) is 13, find a.
3. Show that the points
(1,-I), (-1, 1) and (-v'3, -V3)
are the vertices of equilateral triangle.
4. The points (3, 4) and (-2, 3) form with another point (x, y)
an equilateral triangle. Find x and Y.
5. Prove that the triangle with vertices at the points (0, 3), (-2, 1)
and (--- 1, 4) is right angled.
6. Show that the triangle whose vertices are (1, 10), (2, 1), and
(----7, 0) is an isosceles triangle. Find also the altitude of this triangle.
7. Prove that the points
a - V3a'\ ( -13a a / a - ____
2 1' I 2 ' 2)' Y2 2
,/3a - a
and (
' 2' 2
are the vertices of a square.
S. Show that the points (2, -2), (8, 4), (5, 7) and (-1, 1) are the
vertices of a rectangle.
9. Prove that the following points are the vertices of a parallelogram
(1) (2, 1), (5, 2),(6, 4) and (3, 3)
(II) (0, 0), (a, 0), (a+ b, c), (b, c)
10. Find the coordinates of the circumeentre of a triangle whose
coordinates are (7, -1), (5, 1) and (-3,--7). Hence find the circurnradius.
11. If(-3, 2); (1, -2) and (5, 6) are the mid-points of the sides of
a triangle, find the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle.
12. Prove that the point (3, 3) is equidistant from (0,-!), (-2, 3),
(6. 7) and (8, 3). Find this distance and show that the point is the inter-
section of the diagonals of a rectangle formed by the four points.
570 susiss MATHEMATICS
13. If (8, 0) is the circumcentre of a triangle whose vertices are

(a, -5), (10, 5) and (3, b), find a and b.
14 Find the lengths of the sides and the medians of the triangle
whose vertices are (7, 5), (2, 3) and (6,- 7)
15. Find the coordinates of the point which divides internally the
join of the pair of points:
(a) (6, -5) and (-7, -15) in the ratio of 4 : 7.
(b) (5,2) and (7, 9)in the ratio of :7.
(C) (a+b, a-b) and (a-b, a+b) in the ratio of a b
(d) (p, q) and (q, p) in the ratio of p-q : p+q.
16. Find the coordinates of the point which divides externally the
join of the pair of points
(a) (4, 7) and (1,---2) in the ratio of 3 : 2
(b) (-3, 2) and (4, -3) in the ratio of 5 : 3.
(c) (p, q) and (q, p) in the ratio of p-q : p+q.
ji. (a) In what ratio is the line joining the points A(4, 4) and 11(7, 7)
divided by P(-J, -1)?
(b) Determine the ratio in which the join of the points (-2, 3) and
(-4, 6) is divided by the point (2, -3).
(c) Find the ratio in which the point (2, 14) divides the line segment
joining (5, 4) and (11, - 16) externally.
18. (a) In what ratio is the segment joining the pair of points
(2, -4) and (-3, 6) is divided by (I) the x-axis and ((I) the y-axis?
(b) In what ratio is the line segment joining (2, 3) and (5, -4) is
divided by (I) x-axis and (Ii) y-axis?
19. Find the length of the medians of a triangle whose vertices are
(1, 2), (2, -1) and (3, 4).
20. Show that the join of the points (4, 3) (2, 1) and (6,-i.), (4, 5)
bisect each other.
21. Find the co-ordinates of the centroid of the triangle whose
vertices are
(a) (3, 2), (-1, -4) and (-5, 6)
(b) (n-b, a-c) ; (b-c, b-a); (c-a, c_b).
22. (a) The centroid of a triangle is (0, 3) and if its two vertices
are (-4, 6), (2, -2), find the third vertex.
(b) If (3, 5), (x, 4) and (14, y) are the vertices of a triangle and (5, 6)
is its centroid, find x and y.
23. G is the centroid of a triangle ABC, where A, B and C are
respectively the points (xi , y1), (x 1 , y2), and (x 1 , y5).
COORDINATE GEOMI3TRY 511
If G(0, 0), A=-(2, 3), x 2 ==3 and y3 ==-2, find the values of y3
and x8.
24. Find the areas of the triangle whose vertices are
(1) (0, 0), (1, 2) and (-1, 2),
(ii) (2, -1), (-3, -4) and (0, 2),
(ill) (x, y-z), (-x, z) and (x, y+z).
25. Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices are
(1) (1, 2), (6, 2), (5, 3) and (3, 4)
(Ii) (-4, 2), (3, -5), (6, -2) and (1, 7)
26. Prove that the following sets of points are collinear
(1) (1, -1), (2, 1) and (4, 5)
(ii) (I, 4), (3, -2) and (-3, 16)
(iii) (a, b-I-c), (b, c+a) and (3, a+b).
27. Prove that the points (a, 0), (0, b) and (1, 1) are collinear if
28. (a) The points (2, are collinear,

_) (_ , - _) , (ic,--)
find k.
(b) For what value of y, the points (5, 5), (10, y) and (-5, 1) shall
be on the same line?
29. If the area of the triangle with vertices at (2, a), (a, 2), (-2, -1)
is 5, find the possible values of a.
30. (a) For what value of x, the area of the triangular region
enclosed by the segments joining the points (3, 4), (x, - 1) and (4, -6)
will be - sq. units?
(b) Determine the value of y for which the area of the triangular
region enclosed by the segments joining points (-3, -5), (5, 2) and
(-9, y) will be 29 sq. units?
31. (a) Find the area of the triangular region bounded by the lines
whose equations are x-y+2=0, 4x-f3y+8=0, and 9x-2y-170.
(b) Show that the area of triangle formed by the lines whose equa-
I (c1 c'i
tions are y = mix -1-C1, y=mx± c and x=O is 2 - ,n1 in2
32. A and B are the points (3, 4) and (5, -2). Find a point P such
that PA=PB and LPAB= 10.

33. The vertices of a triangle ABC are A(3, 0), B(0, 6) and C(6, 9).
A line DE divides AB and AC in the ratio 1: 2 meeting AB in D and AC
in E. Prove that AAflC=9LADE,
34. From two perpendicular roads X and 7, building A is at a
distance of 100 yards and 150 yards respectively, building B is at a distance
of 150 yards and 100 yards respectively and building C is at a distance
of 200 yards and 175 yards respectively. Find the distance between A and
B and examine if all the buildings are in a straight line.
ANSWERS
1. (a) (i) i/ijiqs, (ii) I l/2, (iv) 5 +2/2 2. (a) 1 or 4. (b) 0 or
7+5V3'\
—16, (c) 7 or —10 3, fI+-/3
2 .1
1+\/37±5V3
' 6. i/41 10. (2, —4).
2 2
11, (9. 2), (4, 10) ; (-7, —6) 13. a=6 or 10; b=±2
14. Length of the sides are i/29, 2V29 v'145; lengths of the
,-49 , 32
medians are '/58 i. (a) (14
2 ' 2 ll'll--), (b) (,--
a2 4 b a 2 —b'4--2ab (p2_q2+2pq p'+q2)
(c) ( a-fb 'a4 (d)
), 2p 2p
(2_ , 2 1 ' _p24q*2pq\
16. (a) (--5, —20), (b) (c)
2' 2q ' 2q )
17. (b) 2 : 3 externally, (c) I -' 18. (a) (1) 2 : 3 internally,
(ii) 2 : 3 internally, (b) (1) 3 4 internally, (ii) 2: 5 externally.
f9
19. 4, V - 21. (0) (-1. (bj (0,0) 22. (a) (2, 5)
(b) 2, 9 23. Y — 1, X3 —5 24. (1) 2, (11) _ (iii) 2xz
25. (1) -, (11) 56. 28. (a) 5, (b) 7 29. (0, —3) 30. (a) 2,
(b) —3 31 (a) 32. (7, 2). 34. 50V2, No.
1512. LOCUS OF A POINT

The locus of a point (s the path through which a point passes under
certain given conditions. For example, the condition of a line parallel to
X-axis is that the distance of all its points is equal. Similarly, if a point
moves equal distance from a fixed point, the locus of such a point will be
a circle.
An equation of a locus is a relation between x and y which is satisfied
by the coordinates of all points on the locus and by the coordinates of no
573
COORDflATB GEOMeT1Y
other point. Normally every equation can be represented by a locus and

the vice versa is also true.
Steps to find out the equation of the locus can be summarised as
follows:
In form I
(1) Take the moving point as P(x, y) on the locus.
(ii) Form an equation in x and y using the given conditions.
(iii) Simplify, if necessary, the relation so obtained.
Inform II;
(1) Take any point (h, k) or (, 13) on the locus.

(ii) Write the relation between Ii, k using the conditions given.
(iii) Simplify the relation, if necessary.
(iv) Change (h, k) into (x, y).
1513. THE STRAIGHT LINE

The study of curves starts with the straight line which is the simplest
geometrical entity. Mathematically it is defined as the shortest distance
between two distinct points.
1514. SLOPE OR GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE
The slope of the line is the tangent of the angle formed by the line
above the x-axis towards its positive direction whatever be the position of
the line as shown below
13 B
(I) (ii) ((ii)
Slope of a line is generally denoted by in. Thus if a line makes an

angle 0 with the positive direction of the x-axis, its slope is
'fl = tan 8
If 0 is acute, slope is positive and if 0 is obtuse, the slope is
negative.

In terms of the coordinates, the slope of the line joining two points,
say A(x1 , y) and B(x1, y2) is given by
m = tan0- Y 2— Y1 Difference of ordinates
X2-X1 Difference of abscissae
The following diagram will make the explanation more clear.
tan
AP x1.—xj
e
Fig. 15.
1515. DIFFERENT FORMS OF EQUATIONS OF THE STRAIGHT
LINE
1. Equations of the Coordinate Axes:
(1) if P(x, y) be any point on the
X-axis, then its ordinate y is always zero
for any position of the point P on the
x-axis and for no other point.
Y=0'
is the equation of X-axis.
(ii) if P(x, y) is any point on the
y-axis, then its abscissa x is always zero
for any position of the point P on the
y-axis and for no other point.
Fig. 16.
x=0, is the equation of y-axis.
Equations of Lines Parallel to the Coordinate Axes:
(1) Let P(x, y) be any point on a line
parallel to y-axis at a distance a from it.
For any position of the point P lying on
this line, and for no other point, the
abscissa x is always constant and is equal
to a
x=a is the equation of the line

parallel to the y-axis and at a distance a
Fig. 17. from it.
(ii) Similarly y=b is the equation of tle line parallel to the x-axis
and at a distance b from it.

COORDINATE! (OMBTRY
575
lIT. Origin-slope Form. The equation of a line passing through

the origin and having slope in
Let a straight line pass through the

origin 0 and have a slope in. Let
P(x, y) be any point on the line. From
P draw PM perpendicular on the x-axi,
I
V 4
then
MP
0
y=x tan 0
y=rflx,
which is the required equation of the
line. 1:1g. 18.
ILIA A Line Intercepting the Axes. In case the straight line meets
the X-axis and the y-axis at points other
than the origin, the respective points will
be called x-intercept and y-intercept. The
diagram shows the two intercepts of a
straight line AB which meet the x-axis in
A and the y-axis in B, the QA is called
the intercept of the line on the x-axis, and
Oil as the intercept of the line on the
y-axis, and the two intercepts OA and
OB, taken in this particular order, are
called the intercepts of the line on the
Fig. 19 axes.
It may be noticed that at the point of y-intercept, the value of x is
equal to zero and at the point of x-intercept, the value of y is equal to
zero. Therefore, in order to find out the value of say y-intercept we have
to put X equal to zero in the equation. Similarly, to find out the value of
x-intercept, we put y equal to zero in the equation.
V. Slope-intercept Form. The equation of the line with the slope
in and an intercept c on y-axis.
Let a straight line of slope in
intersect the y-axis, in K. Let OK,
the intercept on the y-axis, be c.
Then the coordinates of K are (0, c).
Take P(x, y), any variable point on the
line
Slope of KPr=_L_ ...(l)
Slope of the line, as given, is in
.(2)
Fig. 20.
Equating (1) and (2), we get the required equation as

y—c
y= nix +c_
VI. Two-Intercept Form. The equation of a line having intercepts

a and b on the coordinate axes
I Let a straight line intersect the
coordinate axes making intercepts of a
and b on x-axis and y-axis respectively.
b) Therefore
x, y) A is (a. 0) and B is (0, b)
Let P(x, y) be any point on the
line AB.
LET Slope of AL?
b--o b
Fig. 21 a
and slope of AP-0 L. (2)
Now the points A, P, B are on the same line.

Slope of AF-Slope of AL?
Y I,
X—a a
av==-- bxj.ah
h.v.-j-ay=ba
z y
IS the required equation of the line.
VII Slop " -point Form. The equation of a straight line having a
slope in and passtng through the point (x 1 , y1)
Let the straight line passing
through a given point R(x 1 , y1) he y
inclined at an angle 0 with the I
x-axis. The slope of the straight
line is, therefore, rn=tan 0. Take
any point F(x, y) on the straight
R C '.Yi)
Slope of RP=- x -
(by def)
Since the points A and P are A
on the same line, we have
Y .- y 1 Fig 22.
x-

The equation of the required line is

y—y1m(x—x)
The above equation can also be written as
sin 0
Y —Yj= --- (X - X
008.0
sin 0 cos 0
VIII. Parametric Form. In the Fig. 22, if the point P(x y) is

taken at a distance r from the point R on the line, then
x-X y—yL.sjn 0
--'C0S 0,
r r
is the required equation of the straight line

cos 0sjn0
in parametric form.
1X. Two-point Form. The equation of a strtifght hue passing

through two point (x 1 , y1) and (x 1 , y,).
Let Q(x 1 , y1 ) and R(x1 , y ) be the
t wo points on the line. XR
B
Take any point P(x, y) on the
I
line. Then by def.,
Slope of QF=
,( 1)
X
Slope of Q.R=
XI - xi
(2)
Fig 23.
Since A, P, B are collinear points, from (1) and (2), we have
y—y i - Y, _Y2
x—x I - x1_x2
Hence the equation of the required straight line is
Y]-Y2 (x—x 1 ).
y - X112
X. Normal or Perpendicular Form. The equation of a straiht
line in terms of the perpendicular from the origin and the inclination of: he
perpendicular with the axis:
Let a straight line be
at a perpendicular distance
P from the origin and the
M(P Cos ,P sin W-) inclination of the perpendi-
cular OM with the x-axis be
cc. The coordinates of M,
the foot of the perpendi-
cular, in terms of the given
constants are (p cos a, P
sin cc).
The inclination of the line

Fig. 24.
with the x-axis is - -f a
Slope of the given line
' IT \
tan +at 1=—cot '=- cosa
2 /sin a
Let P(x, y) be any point on the line, then
sin a
Slope of MP= _YP (2)
x—p Cos a
Since A, F, B are collinear, from (1) and (2), we have
Y— p Sin cc = cos a
X—p COS rL Sfl a
Y sin cc —p sin' cc=—x cos a+p cos' a
X cos at sin cc—p (sin 2 cc+cos'(X)=O
x cos cc+y sin at is the required equation.
1516. GENERAL EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE
An equation of the form ax+by.-c—=O, where a, b, c are constants and
x, y are variables, Is called the general equation of the straight line.
Proof Let P(x1, y 1), Q(x1, y2) and R(x,, y,) be the three points on
the locus represented by the equation
ax+by+c=O
which is the first degree equation in x and y.
(x1 , y) lies on (I), we get
ax1 + by + c= O .
Similarly ax,+by,+cO
and ax,+by,+c=O
Multiplying (2), (3) and (4) by y,—y,, y,—y 1 and y1—y, respectively
and adding, we have
a[x 1 ( v2 —y,) +x 3 (y, — y1) + x,(y1 —Y2)] + bfy1(y2
—y,) + y1(y,—y1)
y,)] + cfy, —.',+y8 —y1 + y1 —y2 ] =0
x1 (y 2 - y,)+x,(y3 - y) 1- r,(Y —y,) =0
rxi(Y,—yi)+x,(y1_y1)+x(yj_y,)]= 0

The area of the triangle formed by F, Q R is zero.
* Q, R are collinear.
P.
But they are any three points on the locus of (1).

Hence the locus is a straight line.
Remark. Slope of the line a x+ by + c=O . Writing the equation as
a C
Y = ----x-- s-, and comparing it with slope-intercept form, we find that
a ofx
S1oe of the line=m=---=°— coeff
coeff. of y
Example. 17. The line passing through the point A(2, —1), and
Inclined at 450 to the x-axis, meets the line /2x+2V2y-6=0 In the point
P. Find the distance AP.
Solution Equation of the straight line through A (2, —1) and
having slope 1 (tan 45°) is given by
y+l =l.(x-2)
y_—x--3
To find the coordinates of P, substituting the value of y from (1)
in the given equation, we get
V2x+2V2(x-3)-6=0
3.V2x=6(\/2+1)
6(/2+l)
* x=3V2 =,f/2+1)==2+/2
y2+V2-3=s./2—1
Coordinate of P is [(2+/2), (-,/2— 1)]
Hence PA== \/(2+ V2_2)t +(V2_ 1 + 1) 2 =2 units.
Example 18. The coordinates of two points A and B are (-1, 2)
and (2, —1) respectively. Find the equation and the slope of the line AB.
Solution. Here x 1 —1, y=2, x2 2 and y2=—i
1e reqijired equation of AB is
y-2== —
1-2 1)]
[X
2 (-1) —(-_
y-2=(x+1)
x+y=l
Coeff of x
Slope of AB= -
Coeff. of y
E,ample 19. Find the equation of the straight line through (2, 5)
and making equal Intercepts of opposite sign on the axis.
580 BUSINM MATMBMATK
Solution. Let a and —a be the intercepts on the x-axjs and y-axIs

respectively. Therefore, the equation of the line is
Since the line (1) passes through (2, 5), we have

2 5
a —a
or a=-3
The equation of the straight line is
X y
or x—y+3=0.
Example 20. Find the equation of the straight line passing through
the point (4, 5) and the sum of Its Intercepts on the axes Is 18.
[I.C.P/.A., June 19901
Solution. Let the equation of the required line be
X
This line passes through the point (4, 5), therefore, we have
45
and a+b=18
Putting the value of b from (2) in (1), we have
4 5
or a2-.-17a+72=0
or (a-8)(a-9)=O
a=8 or a=9
When a=8, b=18-8=10
When a=9, b=18-9=9
The equations are
X y
x y
9+9
Example 21. Find the equation of the straight line through P( - 4, 3)

such that the portion between the axis is divided by P in the ratio 5 3.
Solution. Here AL-=-(a, 0), B(0, b), then the line AB is
x y
--+--=1

Since the point P(-4, 3), divides AR in the ratio 5 : 3,
3a+0x5 32
or
5+3
3X0+5b 24
and or
=' 5-1-3
Substituting the values of a and b in (1), we get the required equa-
tion as
3x 5y
or 9x-20y+96=0
Example 22. Find the ratio In which ihefoin of(-5, ])and(], —3)
divides the straight line passing through (3, 4) and (7, 8).
Solution. The equation of the straight line joining (-5, 1) and
(1, —3) is
Y-l=:j'(x+5) 3(y—l)+2(x+5)=0
2x+3y+7'0 (1)
If the required ratio is is: I in which (I) divides the join o I A(3, 4)
and B(7, 8). Then the coordinates of required point are
(77+3 8i+4
1+l
These coordinates must satisfy equation (1). therefore, we have
2(77+3) 3(8+4) +7m0
75+1 + 15+1
(14?+24+71)+(6+12+7)=0
5
Hence the line joining (-5, 1) and (1, —3) divides the join of (3, 4)
and (7, 8) externally in the ratio 5: 9.
Example 23. A firm Invested Bs. JO million In a new factory that
has a net return of 500,000 per year. An Investment of As. 20 million would
yield a net Income of Rs. 2 million per year. What Is the linear relationship
between investment and annual Income? What would be the annual return
on an Investment of Rs. 15 mIllion?
Solution. Let x coordinate represent the investment and y Co
ordinate represent the annual income.
Then the required linear relationship between investment and income is
the equation of the straight line joining the points [(10000000), (5,00,000)]
and 1(20,000.000), (2,000,000)] and its equation is
v- 500000_2(000,00O...l0,O0Q,0OO (x— 10,000,000)

82 BUSINESS MATH EM?T1C3
10,000,000)
20y— 10,000,000 = 3x— 30,000,000
moo 3x-20y-20,000,000=0
Again when investment x=15,000,000, the annual income y can be
found by putting the value of X in the equation obtained, i.e.,
3(15,000,000)-20y-20,000,000=0
yc R. 1,250,000
Example 24. As the number of units manufactured Increases from
4,000 to 6,000, the total cost of production Increases from Rs. 22,000 to
Rs. 30000, Find the relationship between the cost (y) and the number of
wills made (x), if the relationship is linear.
Solution. When x==4,000, y-22,000
and when x =6,000, y=30,000
As the relationship between x and y is linear, we have to find the equation
of line through (4,000, 22,000) and (6,000, 30,000).
The reonired relationship is
22 , 000-30,000
Y-22,000— 4,000-6,000 (x-4,000)
y-22,000=4(x-4,000)
4x—y+6,000=0
Example 25. The total expenses of a mess y, are partly constant and
partly proportional to the number of the inmates of the mess x. The total
expenses are .Rs. 1040 when there are 12 members in the mess, and Rs. 1600
for 20 members.
(I) Find the linear relationship between y and x,
(II) Find the constant expenses and the variable expenses per member,
and (UI) what would be the total expenditure If the mess has 15 members?
Solution, (I) Corresponding to 12 members, the total expenses are
Rs. 1040 and corresponding to 20 members, total expenses are Rs. 1600.
The equation of de straight line joining the points (12, 1040)
and (20, 1600) is given by
- 1040
600-
y - 1040= 1 (x-12)
'—l040=70(x_12)=70x_4Ø
y=70x+200 (I)
which is the required relationship between x and y.
(U) Comparing the equation (1) with slope-intercept iorm
(y=mx + c), we find
the contant expenses (e)= Rs. 200
and variable expenses per member (m )=Rs. 70

COORDINATE GEOMSTRY 583
(iii) When the number ot members in the mess is 15, the total
expenses y=70x 15+200Rs. 1250.
Example 26. Find the equations of the diagonals of the rectangle,
whose sides are x2, x=,—J, y=6 and y=-2.
Solution. Since x2 and x—1 are '9

two lines parallel to each other, they form a C
Y=6
8(2.6)
pair of opposite side say AB and CD. The H. G)
equations y=6 and y= 2 give the other two
sides BC and DA.
X.2
A is solution of AB and DA, i.e-,
x=2 and Y = —2, i.e., A(2, —2).
Similarly 13(2, 6), C(— 1,6) and D(—1,
x
Now the equation of CA is given by
0.
(flY2 A(2,-?)
Y- 6 - 2.( _ 1 (x-f-l)
* 8x+3y-10=O Fig, 25,
and the equation of 13D is given by

y—(--2)=---- (x±1)
8x--3y-1-2=0
1517. INTERSECTING LINES
Let the lines be given by
a1x-l-b1y-fc1==0
and a2x+by+c2==0
Since the point of intersection lies on both the lines, the coordinates
of the point of intersection of the two lines satisfy the equations of both
the lines.
Solving equations (1) and (2) by the rule of cross-multiplication,
we have
X - y
c 1 b 1 c 1 a 2 —ac, a,b2—ha?
The point of intersection is
—c1b1 c1a3—a1c2
(5,b,
'a1 b2 —b,d2 ' a1b2—hi a2
1518. CONCURRENT LINES
Let the three lines be
a1x+b1y+c1=O

584
BuslNsss MATHEMATICS
axby-4-cO
a3x+b,y+csr.O
The three straight lines will be concurrent if the point of intersection
of any two of the lines lies on the thir,!.
The point of intersection of (2) and (3) is
/ b1c 1 - b 8 c1 c,a 3 - ca1
a 2b 1- a' a1b5
It lies on (1), if ) +c1=o, I.e., if

)+b a2 b_.
(_'°' aF.,2
b1c 1 ) -4- b1 (c2 a ft - caat ) + c(a1b,— a5b2) 0, which may be written in
-
the determinant form as
a 1 b1 c1i
b c
/ a b1 C81
Example 27. Prove that the lines 3x-4y-l-50 7x-8v+50
and 4X+5y45 are concurrent.
Solution. Consider the first two equations
3x-4y=-5
7x-8y=---5
Multiplying equations (1) and (2) by 7 and 3 respectively and then
subtracting (2) from (1), we get
Y= 5
Substituting this value of y in (I), we get
3x-4x5=-5 or X=.5
Hence the point of intersection of (1) and (2) is (5, 5) which also
satisfy
4x+5y=45
Hence the three lines are conc 1rrent.
1519. THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO STRAIGHT LINES
Let AB and CD be
two straight lines with given
inclinations to the x-axis
as O and 0, form inte-
rior and exterior angles 8
and a respectively as shown
below:
Since
Also =o+
i-0 ...(2)
Fig. 26

COORDINATE 0OMF!RY
(I) For the interior angle, we have

tan 0=tan (01-0!)
tan 01 —tan Q Difference of the slopes
I + tan 0 tan 02 1 -s- Product of the slopes
If we express slopes by m 1 and m t, the formula can also be expressed as

- mill
tan 0=
1 -f• m1m
(ii) For the exterior angle, therefore
tan a= tan (it —0)=—tan
We can, therefore, say that if the angle formula gives a positive result,
it is the tangent of the acute angle between the lines, but if the angle
formula' gives a negative result, it is the tangent of the obtuse angle
between the lines.
Condition of Parallelism. If two lines are parallel, the angle betwccn
them is zero degree.
tan O=tan O°=O
m —m
tan 0°=
1 +m1m2
m 1 —m0, le,, mn 1 = m,
Thus if the lines are parallel, their slopes will be equal.
Condition of Perpendicularisin. The two lines are perpendicular. if
6, the angle between them is 900
tan 0=tan 90=co
'n—ni
1 2
1+m1m2
1+m1mn,=0
Thus if two lines are perpendicular, slope of one line is the negative
reciprocal of the other line.
If the lines are given in the form
a1xb1y+c1 —O and a,x±b1y+c1=0
then their slopes are given by _L. and -p-- respectively and if 0 is
the lan gle between these lines, then
tan bi HJ a,b1—a1b2
,+( _ a, v a, aa+b1b
V1 i i

It immediately follows from (1) that

i. The acute angle 0 between the lines is
(a2b1—a1b2
Or=tanl
2 1 a 2 -i- b1b,
2. The lines are parallel if
a 2 b1 — a1 b 4 =0, i.e.,
3.
fhe lines are mutually perpendicular if
a 1a2 -f- b i b, =0.
Remarks. I. To write down the equation of any line parallel to a
given line whose equation is in the general form, change the constant term
to a new constant k,
2. To write down the equation of any line perpendicular to the
given line whose equation is in general form, we (I) interchange the coeffi-
cients of x and y, (ii) change the sign of one of them, and (iii) change the
constant term to a new constant k.
Example 28. (a) In a triangle with vertices A(O, 6), B(--2, - 2)
and C(4, 2), find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the side BC.
[C.A., November 1991]
Solution, Slope of the line BC= --_--j-= -
The slope of the perpendicular bisector of the side BC= -
Mid-point of BC=( 2+4 —2+2\)=i3O)

2' 2
The equation of the perpendicular bisector of the side BC is
Y—O= ---- 1
1 (x — l)
or 3.-4-2y-3=O
(b) The vertices of a triangle are (-4, 0), (1, 1) and (3, —1). Find
the equations of any two of its altitude. IC.A.. May , 19911
Solution.LetA(-4, 0), B(l, 1) and C(3, —I)
be the vertices of the triangle ABC.
0--i I
A
Slope of the line AB
E 0 ------ =
Slope of the altitude CE= - 5
•. Equation of the altitude CE is
Y+ 1= —5(x---3)
or 5x+y-140
Fig 21. 0
Slope of the line AC= 1- = -

587
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
.'. Slope of the altitude BD = 7

Equation of the altitude BD is
y-1=7(x-l)
or 7x-y+6=0,
Example 29. Find the equation of the straight line passing through
the point (-3, I) and perpendicular to the line 5'--- 2y--7=O.
[I.C.W.A., December, 19901
Solution. The slope of the line 5x -2y+7O is

The slope of the line perpendicular to the line 5x -2y+7'O
• 2
Is --i-.
(x+3)
or 2x+5y+1=0
Example 30. Find the equt1on of a line which passes through the
point (2, 5) and makes an angle of 45 0 with the line x -3y6=O.
[C.A., May, 19911
Soiutlon. Let the slope of the required line be in. Therefore,
we have
tan 45°= m-* I

1+ m 1 () I
3in1-1
1 or
3+m1
m1 =2 or in1
2
y-5=2(x-2) or y 5=-- (x-2)
2x-y-f-1=0 or x+2y-12=0.
Example 31. Find the equations of two straight lines through the
POW (2, -1) makIng an angle of 45° with the line 6x5y-1=O. Show
that these lines are at right angles to one another.
Solution. The equation of straight line passing through (2, - I) is
y +l =m (x-2) 0)
Slope of the given line 6x+5y-1=0 is

588
BURN MATHEMATICS
Now the angle between the given straight line and the required
straight line is either 450 or 1350
m4
tan 45 tan 135
5?n+6 5m+6
5-5m —1
5-6in
mr= ___L pnolI
The required straight lines are
Y+1==_jj(x_2) and Y+1==11(x-2)

or X+lly+90 and llx—y-23=0
Since the slopes of the required lines are and 11, the product
of the slopes is —1, hence the required lines are at right angles to each
other.
Example 32. Find the equation of straight lines each of which makes
a positive intercept of 5 units on the y-axis and Is Inclined at an angle of
45 0 to the line 2x+3y-70.
Solution. Let m be the slope of the required lines.
Slope of2X+3y-7O 2
The angle between the required line and 2x+3y-7=0 is given to be

equal to 45°.
___2
tan 45°=r± -- * 3m+2
j-2m
1-1m
Taking the positive sign, we get

3-2n=3m+2, i.e.,
Taking the negative sign, we get

3-21n=-3m-2, I.e., m-5
The equations of the straight lines are
and Y==5X+5
x=5y-25 and 5 X+y-5,
Example 33. Find the orthocentre of the triangle formed by the

straight lines x—y=.5, 2x—y ' 8 and 3x—y-=9.
C
Fig. 28.
Solution. Let ABC be the triangle formed by the given lines.
Let ABx—y-5=0 (1)
BC-2x—Y--8 - 0
CA3x—y-9=. 0 ...
Solving equations (1) and (2), (2) and (3, (3) and (1), we get the co-
ordinates of the vertices as A(2, —3) B(3, —2) and C(1, —6).
The orthocentre is the point of intersection of the three altitudes of
a triangle. It is sufficient to find the equations of two of the altitudes
AL and BM to determine the orthocentre.
Now slope of BC2.
Since AL is perpendicular to BC, slope of AL
Equation of AL with slope - and passing through the point
A(2, — 3) is
y-f3= —3(x---2)
x+2y+4=O
Similarly BM is perpendicular to CA, slope of BM.=-. ._
Equation of BM with slope -4 and passing through the point
B(3, —2)is
y4-2== - 4(x-3)
x+3y+3-O
Solving equations (4) and (5), we get co-ordinates of the orthocentre
as(-6, 1).
Example 34. Find the equation of the straigh: line passing through
the intersection of 4x.-3y-1=O and 2x-5yf3=0 and (I) parallel to
4x -f5y =6, (ii) perpendicular to 2x+3y= 12.
Solution. The equation of any line passing through the intersection
of the given lines is
(4x-_-3y —I)+(2x-5y+3)=O,
where A is some constant.

This equation can be written as

(4+2A)x—(3+5)y_(l_3,)=O
Its slope is 4+2?
(1) Since the line (I) i8 parallel to 4x45y=6,
• 4+2? 4
3-1 5A--
20+10=-12-2o
16

/ 32\ X-,' 8O Y—,' 48'
3— j-. ) I+j)rO
- i- )
28x+35y-63=0
4x+5y-90
(ii) Since the line (I) is perpendicular to 2x+3y=12,
• 4+21 3 /
3+51T • slope of2x+3y=215. 2
* 8+4?=9+157
Equation of the required line is

(4_ j ) x_( — j)Y — ( i±-)=o
42x-28y--14=)
3X-2y—I=Q
1520. LENGTH OF PERPENDICULAR FROM A POINT
Let AB be the line
ax+by+c=O
Let P(x1 , y1) be the point
and PM -L Join AP and PB.
AB meets the x-axis, where
putting y =O in (1), we get.
ax-I- c=O or x==-1
x
01 Coordinate of A is
Fig. 29 (-+° )

Similarly co-ordinate of B is
(0,4)
Now /BAP+4- AB.PM
2/BAP
± Al? (2)
cl
Now BAP— ._[ o--(_ •-y1 + 'i
b

(. f, ] )
I I
c
2Laabb]
=-[ax i -{. by, +c ]
C2 C C
AB=/\1(
2. __ (0x 1 -f by, +c)

2 ab ax 1 -F by, ±c
From (2), we get d-= ±
C_i1±b2 - Va2±b2
ab
Ex ant pl e 35. Find the equations of the straight lines through (4, —2)
and at a perpendicular distance of 2 units from the origin.
Solution. The equation of straight line through (4, —2) is
y+2=m(x---4)
or mx—y-4m-20
Since the distance of the origin, i.e., (0, 0) from this line is 2 units,
—(4rn+2)
=2
_(2m+I)=/1+m2
4m2+1+4m=I+m'
m(3m+4)=O
m=Oorm=-.
Substituting these values of m in (1), we get the required equation of
the straight lines as
y+2=O
and y+2r_4.(X-4)or4x+3y=1o.

592 BU8tNS MATHEMATICS
Example 36. Find the coordinates of the fool of the perpendicular
from (a, 0) on the line y mx-+- . *
M.
Solution. Slope of the line perpendicular to the given line=—
The equation of the line through (a, 0) and perpendicular to the
given line is
(y-0)=— (x— a) or 'flY+xP
The equation of the given line may be written as
my—m2x=a
The foot of the perpendicular is the point of intersection of (I)
and (2).
Subtracting (1) and (2), we have
(1 -l- m2 )x=0, i.e., x=0
M In
Hence the foot of the perpendicular is (o. ..f_)

EXERCISE (II)
1. (a) Find the equation of a straight line parallel to the x-axis
and at distance (1) 4 units above it, (ii) 5 units below. it.
(h) Find the equation of a straight line parallel to the y-axis and at
a distance (1) 5 units to the right, (11) 6 units to the left of it.
2. (a) Find the equation of a straight line parallel to the x-axis and
passing through (1) (-5, —7), (ii) (-8, 5).
(b) Find the equation of a straight line parallel to the y-axis and
passing through (1) (-3, —2), (11) (-7, 6).
3. Find the equation of a straight line making an angle of 120°
with the x-axis and cutting the y-axis at a distance .3 below the origin.
(b) Find the equation of the straight line passing through the orign
and making with the X-axis an angle of (1) 45°, (Ii) 60° (iii) 90° and
(iv) I35..
(C) Find the equation of a straight line cutting off an intercept 2
from the positive direction of the axis of y and inclined at 450 to the
X-axis.
(d) Find the equation of a line which makes an angle of 60° with
the x-axis and passes through the point (0, 5).
4. (a) Find the equation of a straight line passing through the
point (3, 4) such that the sum of its intercepts on the axes is 14.
(b) Find the equation to the straight line which passes through
(-5, 2) and is such that the portion of it between the axes is divided by
the point in the ratio 2 : 3.
COORDINATV GEOMETRY 593
5. Find the equation of a line which passes through the point

(1, •-2) and makes the intercepts on the axis equal in magnitude and
Opposite in sign
6. Find the equation of the line passing through the points
(f) (a, h) and (a -F b , a--b)
(ii) (at 1 2, 2at 1 ) and (at, 2a12)
(iii) (a cos 0 1 , b sin 0) and (a cos 02, h sin 02)
7. (a) The vertices of a triangle are (2, 0), (0, 2) and (4, 6). Find
the median through the first vertex.
(h) Find the equations of the medians of the triangle given by the
points (10, 4), (-4, 9) and (-2. - I).
8. Find the equations of the diagonals of the rectangle whose sides
are given by x=2, x 4, y--3 and y= -5.
9. Prove that the three points ( --- I, --I), (5, 7) and (8, II) lie on a
straight line. Find the intercepts it makes on the axis.
it). (a) In v,hat ratio is the line joining (3, 7) and (6, 3) divided by
the line joining (9, 0) and (17, -- 10)?
(/) Find the ratio in which the join of ( -- I, 0) and ( -2, 3) is divided
by the line x±2y -3-0.
I. Find the equations of the sides of a rectangle whose vertices are
(3, 2), (ii, 8), (8, 12) and (0, 6).
12. Find the acute angle between the lines
(a) 3x--2y-11=O and 2 x -f--y + l2=0
(b) -.+and -'- + =i.
13. Find the equation of the straight line.

(1) parallel to 2x-- 3X- 5=0 and passing through (4, 5),
(ii) perpendicular to 2x±3y-3-4=0 and passing through (3, 2).
14. Show that the line joining (2, 1) and (3, 4) is perpendicular to
the line joining (7, 5) and (4, 6).
15. Find the equations of the two lines through
(a) the point (2, -1) and making an angle of 45 with the line
6 x 4-5 y --1 0,
(b) the point (3, -2) and inclined at 60° to the straight line
xV3 +Y = I.
to. (a) The vertices of a AABC are A (0, 0), 13(1, 5) and C (-2, 2).
Find the equation of altitude through A.
(b) The vertices of a ( ABC are A(6, 2), B(- 3, 8) and C( -5, - 3).
Find the equation of the altitude through A.
17. (a) Find the equation of a line which is parallel to 2x—y-90

and which passes through the intersection of
5x+y+4r0 and 2x+3y-1=0
(b) Find the equation of that line which passes through the point of
intersection of 5 x 4- y -}- 4=0 and 2x+3y— 1=0 and is perpendicular to
2x—y=9
18. Find the value of k for which the three lines are concurrent.
(a) x—y=6, 4x-3y-200 and 6x4-5y+k=0
(b) 3x4y1=0,kx-l2y .--3=0 and 2x—Y--30
19. (a) Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from
the point (6, --2) to the straight line 4x-5y±7=0.
(h) Find the length of the perpendicular and the coordinates of the
foot of the perpendicular from the point 13, 4) to the line 8x+l5yf 1=0,
20. Find the equations of the altitudes of the triangle formed by the
lines 4x—y==4, 2x-- y= 6 Kf-y=-6 and show that the orthocentre of the
triangle is at (8, 1).
21. Find the equation of a straight line passing through the point
of intersection of the lines x-2y+3=0, 2x-3y+40 and parallel to the
line joining the points (1, 1) and (0, --1).
22. A line passes through the point of intersection of the lines
X 42y — I = 0 and 2x 4-3y--- 4= 0 and makes equal intercepts on the
coordinate axis, show that its equation is x-4--y=3.
23. Prove that the triangle formed by the lines \13X--y---20,
V3X - Y-1- I = 0 and y 0 is an equilateral triangle.
24. (a) The line containing points (-8. 3) and (2, 1) is parallel to
the line containing the points (11, - I) and (k, 0), show that k= 6.
(b) Determine the values of k for which the line containing the points
(k, 3) and (-2,'1) will be parallel to the line through (5, k) and (I, 0).
25. The total cost y, for x units of a certain product consists of
fixed cost and the variable cost (proportional to the number of units
produced). It is known that the total cost is Rs. 6000 for 500 units and
Rs. 9000 for 1000 units.
(1) Find the linear relationship between x and y,
(ii) Find the slope of the line, what does it indicate ?
(iii) Find the number of units that must be produced so that
(a) There is neither profit nor loss.
(b) There is a profit of Rs. 1000.
(c) There is a loss of Rs. 300 ; it being given that the selling price
is Rs. 8 per unit
26 A firm invests Rs, 10,000 in a business which has a net return of
Rs. 500 per year. An investment of Rs. 20,000 would yield an income
of Rs. 2000 per year. What is the linear relationship between investment
and annual income? What would be the annual return on an investment
of Rs. 12,0007
27. The total cost y, for x units of a certain product consists of fixed
costs and the variable cost (proportional to the number of units produced).
It is known that the total cost is Rs. 1200 for 100 units and Rs. 2100 for
400 units.
(1) Find the linear relationship between x and y.
(II) Find the slope of the line and what does it indicate.
(iii) If the selling price is Rs. 7 per unit, find the number of units
that must be produced so that (a) there is neither profit nor loss, (h) there
is a profit of Rs. 300, (c) there is a loss of Rs. 300
M. An investment of Rs. 90,000 in a certain business yields an in-
come of Rs. 8,000. An investment of Rs. 50,000 yield an income of Rs.
5,000. If the income is a linear function of investment, determine the
equation for this relation. What is the slope ? Interpret the slope in terms
of the money involved.
29. An investment of Rs. 100 in a certain business yields an in-
come of Rs. 20. An investment of Rs, 1000 yields an income of Rs. 90.
If the income is a linear function of invcstincnt, find the equation for this
relation What is the slope? Interpret the slope in terms of the money
involved.
30. M/s. R.K. Industry spends Rs. 4,000 to process 100 orders and
Rs. 6,000 to process 200 orders. Find the linear relation between the
processing money and the number of orders. Find the money spent for
300 orders?
31. A factory produces 200 bulbs for a total cost of Rs. 800 and
400 bulbs for a total cost of Rs. 1200. Given that the cost curve is a
straight line, find the equation of the straight line and use it to find the
cost of producing 300 bulbs.
32. For sending one wagon of wheat, Food Corporation of India
spends Rs 300 for a distance of 20 kilometres and Rs. 500 for a distance
of 200 kilometres. What is the linear relation between the amount spent
and the number of kilometres covered? What are the slope and intercepts
of the line? Also find the cost of sending through 400 kilometres.
33. The cost of producing 200 pens is Rs. 1000 and the cost of
producing 400 pens is Rs. 1500. (1) Find the linear relation between the
cost y of producing x pens, (ii) what number of pens must be produced
and sold at Rs. 3 per pen, so that there is neither profit nor loss? (fit) what
should he the selling price of a pen if 600 pens are produced and sold with
a profit of Rs 400?
ANSWERS
t. (a) (1) y-4, (ii) y +5=0 2. (a) (i) y +7=O, (ii) y--5=0
(h) (i) x4-30, (ii) x + 7= 0 3. (a) V3x+ y +3=0, (h) (1) yx,
(ii) Y =/3X, (iii) x=0, (iv) X+y r= 0, (c) x- y -l-2=0, (d) y=V3x-5,
4. (a) 4x .f3y=-24 x+y=7, (b) 3x-5 pJ -250 5. x—y --- 3
6. (1) (a-2b)x -by +b 1 + 2ab- a2 =0, (ii) y(11 -- i) -2x.= 2a1,1,,

01+02 y 01+02 01-02
(ill) COS lsin :=coS
2
7, (a) x=2, (b) y=4, 15x-l-16y=84, 3X-2y+4-0
8. 4x-3y+ l==O, 4x-f-3y+7-=- 0 9. -- , 10.(a) 2 : 3 externally
(b) 4: 1 (internally) 11. 3x-4y---t=0, 3y I 4x-68=0, 3x-4y+240,
3y-{-4x-- 18 .=0.
ab'-a'b ,
12. (a) tan-' -, (b) tan-' 13. (i) 2x - 3Y+7 0,
(ii) 3x--2y-13=0 15. (a) x-+-lly+9-0, llx-y-23=0,(h) yf-2z0,
V3x - y -(3V3+2)--_0 16. (a) x=y, (b) 2xfl ly=34 17. (a) y.=2x -3,
(b) x-F2y=1 18. (a) K=8, (b) K=5 19. (a) (2, 3)
(b) 5, , 21. y=2x 25. (f) y=6x+ 3000, (ii) slope-6,
17 17 J
it tells us that Rs, 5 is added to the total cost, if one additional unit is
produced. (a) When 1500 units are produced, there is neither profit nor
loss, (b) 2000 units, (c) 1350 units. 26. 20y=3x-20,000, income is 800
27. (I) y-=5x-'-700, (ii) (iii) 350 units, (iv) 500 units, (v) 200 units,
28. (i) 40y =3.-50,000, (ii) 29. 7x-90y4-1100- 0,
slope= 30. 20x-y-l2000=0, Rs. 8000 31. 2x •y 400=. 0, Rs. 1000
32. 10X-9y+2500..0 , slope - Lo , intercept on x-axis = --250, intercept
on y-axis= 2500
, Rs. .9 33. (i) 5x-2yf 1000=0, (ii) 1000 pens,
(iii) R8, 4 pen,
1521, TANGENT AND NORMAL
If P, Q are any two points on a curve, their join PQ is called a
chord. The chord produced both ways is
called a secant. Let P be a given point on
a curve and Q be any other point on it.
PQ produced both ways is called the secant,
As Q tends to P, the straight tine PQ tends
in general, to a definite straight line PT
which is called the tangent to the curve
at P. F is called the point of Contact.
Any line perpendicular to the tangent

at the point of contact is called a normal.
Fig. 29.
1522. CIRCLE
The circle is the locus of a point which moves in such a way that its
distance from a fixed point always remains constant.
The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the constant
distance is termed as the radius of the circle.
1523. THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE
0
Let the moving point be F(x, y), the
centre C(h, k) and the fixed distance, the radius
be r, then by definition, we have
CP =
In terms of coordinates, this can be

expressed as
s/Tiz)2 f(y:k)2 = r
-to,
Fig. 30.
lllUStr8tiOfl. Find the equation of the circle whose centre is (4, 5) and
the radius is 7.
Solution. Using the formula given above, we have

(x-4)2-f(y-5)2-7'
x2+y2--8x—lOy-80
We now find some particular forms of the equation of a circle
corresponding to the different sets of conditions determining the position of
the circle in a plane.
I. Equation of a circle with centre as the origin.
The equation of the circle i

(X-0)2+(y-0)2=rs
x2±y'=t'
Fig. 31.

IL The equation of a circle passing through the origin.

The equation of the circle is
(0—h)1
hI+kl=r2
iii. The equation of a circle of radius r,

passing through the origin and having its centre on
the (F) x-axis, (II) y-axis.
FIg. 32.
(1) It can be seen from the figure that the centre of the circle is (r, 0)
and its radius is equal to r.
The equation of the required circle is
(x_r)2+(y_0)! r2
xly-2rx=O.
(ii) Similarly, if the centre lies on the y-axis
and the origin lies on the circle, the equation of
the circle would be
x'l- y' -- 2T yO
Fig. 33.
IV. Equation of a circle of radius r and touching the (0 x-axis
(ii)y.axis.
(i) Since the circle is to touch the x-axis,
the ordinate of the centre must be equal to r
Hence the equation of such a circle is
(x— h)'4•(y — r) 2 = r
* x+Y1_2hX21Y+h20
(11) if the circle touches the y-axis, the
Fig. 34 abscissa of the centre will be equal to r
The equation of the circle would be
X1+y2-2rx-2ky+k1=0
Fig, 35.
599
COORDINATE GaOMTRY
V. Equation of a circle of radius r and touching both the axis.
If the circle touches both the axis in
the positive quadrant, the coordinates of the
centre will be (r, r). The required equation
is of the form
(x._r)1+(y_r)2=rI
x2 -I -y'-2rx -2ry+r2=0
Fig. 36.
as a
Vi. Equation of the circle on the join of A(x, y 1 ) and B(X. Y)
diameter.
Let P(x, y) be any point on the circle,
Join AP and BP.
LAPB, being in a semi-circle, is equal to one rt, angle.
Thus the two lines AP and BP
are perpendicular to each other.
.. Slope of /1P x Slope of BI'=-1
7' B(x2,y2)
Now the slope of
and the slope of x—x2
Fig. 37.
From (I), we have
!_iJ± x YY2 =_1
x-x 1 x—Xs
(X_.-X1)(x—X2) +-(y---y1)(y-Y2)=O
Since (xL, y,) and (X2, '2) are the extremities of a diameter, this form
may also be called the diameter form of the equation of a circle.
VII Equation of a circle passing through the origin and making
intercepts a and b on the coordinate axis.
If the circle intersects the axes in A and
B, then the coordinates of A and B are (a, 0)
and (0, b) respectively.
Since LAO/i =90° and AB is a diameter,

the required equation of the circle is
(x—a)(x-- 0)-l-(y
x4-y--aX—bY0 Fig. 38,

1524. GENERAL EQUATION OF THE CIRCLE
We have obtained the equation of the circle in the form
(x _h) 2 + (y - k) 2 == r2
which can be written as
X2fy2.2hx_2ky+(/;2+kt_r2)O
The equation represents the same circle even if we multiply it
throughout by a constant A, a non-zero number.
A(x- + y2 ) —2Ahx-- 2Aky+ A(h4- k'-- r 2 )= 0
Writing —Ah=G, —Ak=F and the equation
takes the form
A(X2+y2)+2Gx2Fy-- C. 0
On dividing by A throughout, we get
G F C
X +y+2_ xf2-
If =f and - =c, the above equation becomes

A
X2 ±
y + 2gx + 2fy -f c==0
which is referred to as the general form of the equation of the circle.
Conversely any equation of the form
X2+y24-2gx-12fy+c-0
represents a circle as we can write the equation in the form
(x3 + 2gx) +(y2-l-2fy)= - c
(x+g)2+(y+f)2=g24-f2_c
[x— (— g)] 2 + [y— (f)J2(/jf2_c)2
which is of the form
(x_h)2+(y_k)l=r
Equation represents a circle with its centre at (—g, -f)
and c,
Observing the general form of the equation of a circle, we conclude
that the conditions for an equation to represent a circle are
(1) the equation should be of the second degree in x and y,
(U) the co-efficient of X? and y2 should be equal,
(iii) there should be no term involving the product xy.
Aid to memory:
Coordinates of centre =(— coeff. of x,— icoeff. of y)
Radius= j(— j coeff. of x)2 +(4 coff. of y)' —constant term.
Example 37. Fi nd the coordinates of the centre and the radius of
the circle given by 4x2-j- 4y1 -1- 16x-24y+3=--O,
Solution. Let the equation be rewritten in the general form where
the co-efficients of x2 and y 2 are each equal to unity. Thus we have the
equation
x2+yE-4x--6y+
The x-coordinate of the centre, viz., --g=— coeff. of X==-2

and the y-coordinate of the centre, viz., -f=- j coeff. of y=3
Radius= / g7c
-=-"'4
Example 38. State the values of a and b If the equation
ax' -f
represents a circle, Substituting the values of a and h In the equation, find
the centre and radius of the circle,
Solution. If the given equation is to be a circle, then a=- —2, b=0,
the equation of circle then becomes
2X2-2y2+ 8X-- 12y+6=0
or .'c24-y2-4x-6y--3=Q
Centrc=(—j coeff. of x, -j coeff. of y)=(2, 3)
Radius= V22-1--3'---(---3)=4
Example 39. Find the equation of the circle whose centre is (4, 5)
and which passes through the centre of the circle
X2+y24X.j6y.12=0,
Solution. The centre of the given circle
x2 + y2 -f-4x 4 6y_J20 is (--2, --3)
Since the required circle passes through the centre of the given circle,
radius of the required circle will be equal to distance between (4, 5) and
(-2, —3).
Hence the equation of the required circle is

(x-4)1-f.(y— 5)2=100
Example 40. Find the equation of the circle passing through the
points (0, 0), (1, 2) and (2, 0).
Solution. Let the equation of the circle be
xE+y--29x+2fyj-c0
602 BUSfNESS MATHEMATICS
Since this circle passes through the points (0, 0), (1, 2) and (2, 0), we have
C=O
1+4--29+4f--c=0or2g+4f+5=0
4+0+4g+0+c=0or4g+4=0
Solving (2), (3) and (4), we get
and c=O

x + y2 + 2( — l)x +2(— --- )y.fO=.0
3
or x2+y2--2x—
or x22y*__4x_3y=0.
Example 41. Find the equation of the circle which passes through
the points (4, 1) and (6, 5) and has its centre on the line 4x+y=16.
Solution. Let the equation of the circle be
Since the circle passes through the points (4, 1) and (6, 5), therefore,
we have
16-l-1+89+2f+0=0or8g+2f+c-t-17=0
and 36+25+12g+lOf+c=Oor12g+lOf-4c+61=0
Also the centre (—g, -f) lies on the line 4x+y=16, therefore, we have
—4g—f-=16
Solving (2), (3) and (4), we get
g-=-3,f_ -=_4 and c= 15
x2+y2+2(-3)x+2(-4)y+ 15 =0.
or x'+y2-6x-8y+15=0.
Example 42. Find the equations of the circles passing through the
origin, having Its centre on x-axis and radius equal to 2 units.
Solution. As the circle passes through the origin, its centre lies on
x-axis and its radius is equal to 2, therefore, its centre is (2, 0) or (-2, 0).
Hence the required circles are
or x2+y'-4x=O
and (x+2)$-j-(y-0)2= 2 or x2+y2+4x0

603
COORDINATS GEOMETRY
Example 43. Find the equation of the line joining the centres of the
two circles.
Xa+y2_2xf4Y_10
x*y22 X -4y+10 .. (II)
Solution. Here
Centre of circle 1, C,=(—i cocif. of X, - coeff. of y)==(l, —2)
Centre of circle II, Ca( 1, 2)
Equation of the line joining C1 and C 1 is
2+2 (x—l), :e., y+2=--2x+2
y-i-2x=0
We now take up the general equation of circle through the inter-
section of two circles.
Let the given equations of circles be
x 2y2 2g1x 2f1y+ C1 0 ...(l)
and x2y2j2g1X+2f,y+C10
respectively.
Consider the equation
•. (*)
(x 2 y 2 t29 1 x+2f1 y+04 (x 1 4-y 2 + 2g 2 x 1- 2fy + c)=0
where A is an arbitrary constant.
It is a second degree equation in x and y in which the co-efficients of
X1 and y2 are equal and there is no term of xy.
It represents a circle.
Let (x 1, y 1) be one of the points of intersection of (I) and (2).
(xi , y 1 ) satisfies both (1) and (2), we have
x1 l +y 1 2 j2g1x1 ±2f1 y 1 --c1 ==O ...(3)
and x11 y122g1x1f2f2y1.+ c2=0
Adding ? times (4) to (3), we have
x1 2 j y1 *l2g 1x1 .-] 2f1 y 1 -f c1 +?(x 1 2 +Y12 +2g2x 1 4-2f,y1 -I- c2)=O
This equation shows that (x 1, y) lies on the locus of (4).

Similarly, if (x1, y) be the other point of intersection of (1) and (2),
it also satisfies (i).
() represents the general equation of a circle passing through
the points of intersection of (1) and (2).
It may be noted that in equation (), ) is determined from the
additional condition given in the problem.
604 nusss MATh11MATICS
Example 44. Find the equation of the circle drawn on the line
segment joining the points of the intersection of the circle x±y 2 =a' and the
straight line x cos ac ±y sin =p as a diameter.
Solution. Equation of any circle passing through the ends of the
chord intercepted on x cos c+y sin c=p by the circle + y2 --a'=O j
( x2 4 y ! _a*)+A(x cos x+y sin z--p)==0
The centre of the circle is (- - cos a, - sin
Since the given chord is a diameter of the circle, the centre of the
circle lies oil chord.
cos2 sin'
Substituting the value of ? in (I), we get

(x2 +y 2_ a2) . 2p(x cos + y sin c—p)0
as the equation of the required circle.
Example 45. Find the equation of the circle passing through the
points of intersection of the circles
x2 +y 2 =2ax and x2-4-y==2by
x y =2.
and having its centre on the line - -
Sotion. Any circle through the points of intersection of the given

circle is
(x2 -l--y2— 2ax)+ 7(x*+y_2by)==-0 .. (1)
(1 ±?)x' +(l +) 2 -- 2ax-2byJ'=0
2ax 2b)
' b \
Centre of this circle is a ,
This centre will lie on the line-- ---- =2 if

a b
a bA
Hence the equation of the required circle is

20X 2bY(1)0
x2+y'-3ax+by0.
COORDINATE (JEOMTRY 605
1525. EQUATION OF A TANGENT

The equation of a tangent at any point (x 1 , y 1 ) on the circle
x 2 +y'--2gv -f-2fy--c=0
is xx1fyy1.4g(xx1)-.f(y+y1)-.4c-- 0
Proof. Let ( x 21 y) be any other point on the circle.

(i) The equation of the line passing through (x 1 , y 1 ) and (x2 , y2) is
yy(x x0 (1)
(ii) Since (x 1 , y1 ), (2' y 2) lie oil the circle
X 1 2 1-y 1 2 +29x 1 1-2fy 1 4 c=O
and x22+y21±29x2 -2fy2f-c=0
(x, 2 _x 1 ) - ( y2 —y 1 2 ) 12g(x 2 --x 1 )-3-2fy 2 -y 1) = 0
t. 2 — x 1 )( x 1 -.x,+2g)+(y2—y1)(y1 + y 2f) =0
Y2 Y1 - X1 - 1 X24 2g
-- y+y2-2f
(iii) Substituting this value of X2.--X 1 in (1), the equation of the
chord through (x1 , y 1 ), (X, y2) is
(iv) Let X--*X 1 and y 2 - y1, then from (4), the equation of tangent at
(x 1 , y 1 ) is
x1 g
(x-x1)
Ov --- y 1 ) y 1 -lf)=(x 1 4-g)(x x1)

Yv i +YfY 12_ Y i i_ -- X 1 -l-x 1 2— xg -fx1g
xx + yy1 +f+ xg==x 1 +-y 1 2 +x 1 g -f-Y1f
Adding y 1 f+x 1 g+c on both sides, we get
xx 1 +yy 1 +g(x-1-x 1 ) ff(y4y1)c=x1+y12 f 2x 1g f2y1f-f-cO
which is the required equation.
Example 46. 1ff/ic tangents at (x e, y,) rl, 2 on the circles
xtfy ! 42gx42fy 4-c=0
are perpendicular, prove that
x 1 x-yy2 - g(x 1 +x) +f( y1 y)+g 3 f2 = 0
Solution. The equation of the tangent at (x 1 , y 1) is

xx 1 -l-yy 1 ±g(x±x 1 ) - f(y + y1) - c=0
x(x1-4--g)--y(y1 +f)4-(gx1-l-fy1+c)O
X ±g
Its slope=
The equation of tangent at (x2, y2) is

xx24-yy2.fg(x+ XI) -Jf(y 2)+ c 0
Its slope=— (x2-Fg

•
Since these tangents are perpendicular,
+ g X21 9
y 1-1-f Y2 -f
x 1 x x2 + g x 1 + g 2 y1y2 _yjy1ff2
x 1 X 2 -3yy2+g(x1 -1- x2 )-1-f(y 1 +Y04-92 +P=-0
Remark. Case of standard circle. The tangent at (x i , y,) - of the

circle
x24.y2=aS is xX+Vyi=O2
1526. EQUATION OF A NORMAL

A normal line to a curve at a point is the line perpendicular to the
tangent line at the point of contact.
The equation of tangent at (x 1 , y) is
• •- Slope of the tangent=— X1+g

-----
•• . The slope of the normal y1+f

- -4- g
I-knee the equation of normal at (x 1 , y) is -
=f
x-4-g
(x_x)
J'(x1+9)_x(y1+f)4f.y3g
1527. EQUATION OF A TANGENT IN SLOPE FORM
Let =,nx-1 c . (1)
he a tangent to thc circle x2+y2a2 •
•
Then we have to flrd c in terms of m from the condition that (1) is
a tangent to (2).
Now, the abscissae of the points of intersection of (1) and (2) are
given by the equation obtained by eliminating y between (1) and (2), viz,,
by
x24.(mx4.c)2=a2

COORDINATH GEOMRTRY 607

(1 + 1n2 )x 2 +2,ncx-l- (c2--a2)=0
shich is a quadratic equation in x showing that in general the line meets
the curve in two distinct points, real or imaginary.
If the line is a tangent, the roots are equal since the tangent meets
the curve in two coincident points.
mc 2 —(1 + in 2 )( c 3 — a 2 ) :._ ( Discriminant should vanish)
C2
+'n2)
c.=±a\/l+rn2
which is a condition for tangency.
/ T-4- _M'
are the required equations of the tangents, whatever be the value of in.
Alternative Method. The equation of the line is
y=inx+c (I)
and of the circle x2±y2=a2 . (2)
If the line touches the circle, the length of the perpendicular from
the centre (0, 0) on the line (I) is equal to the radi
caVi*
Example 47. Show that the line 3x--4y.-2O=O touches the circle
x2 y2 = 16 and find the point of contact
Solution. Since 3x+4y.---20=0, 20 -3x
Substituting (1) in the equation of the circle, we have

i.e., 25x2-120x-144..0
(5x— 12)2=0
which has two roots each equal to
The line touches the circle at the point where x=

Substituting this value of x in (I), we get
36
20
16
y= -4 -_
The required point of contact is !. )
Example 48 Show that 8x--5y_34:0 is a tangent to the circle

x24-y2fJOx-46y_-550

Solution. Method!. Since 8x+5y-34--0,

34-5y
8
Substituting (1) in the equation of the circle, we have
l0(34
—5y) +6y-55==0
89y2
356Y 1 356=0, i.e., y2-4y-1-4=-0
(y-- 2)2=0.
Hence the line meets the circle in two coincident points and is, there-
fore, a tangent
Method II. The circle can be written as
(xE 5)2 L(y 3)2:89
The centre is (-- 5, —3) and radius v'89
Nov,, the perpendicular from (--5, ---3) on to 8x - 5y --34 ---M is of
length
8(-5)+5(- 3)-34
V82f52
The distance of the line from the centre is equal to the radius
hence the line is a tangent.
Example 49. Show
o that the line y=,n(x—a) a\/Tm 2 touches
the circle x2fy 2 .2axf r all values oJ'n.
Solution. The circle is
x2+y2-20x0
and the line is
ilic centre of (I) is (a, 0) and its radius is °. (2) touches (1) if per-
pendicular distance from the centre is equal to radius.
m(a_a)fa \/l4m 2 a\/H?fl2I
= =a=radius.
/ I +rn2iV I H- I
IV
Hence (2) touches (I) for all values of tn.

Example 50. Find the equation of tangent and normal at the point
(- 2, 5) on xFy2i3x_.RY±)7=0,
Solution. The equation of the tangent at the point (--2, 5) to the
circle X 1 -I,
is -2x1-y+ - (x-2)-4(Y±5)4-l7=0
x-2y.4-12=0

Now Slope of the tangent=
Slope of the normal=-2
Hence equation of the normal is
y-5-= -2(x+2)
2x-fy=l
Example 51. Find the eqrialions of the tangents drawn from (3, 1)
to the circle x 2 + y2-- 5 . -
Solt,tor. Let the equation of any tangent to the circle x-f y2 -= 5 be
y mx 5. / irn (I)
Since the point (3, 1) lies on (I),
I -3m :{:V5 Vi 1
l-49rn 2 -61fl 5±5'n2
4m'-. 6,11 -4=-O, i.e., 2'n-3rn-20
3±-V'9-f--16 2
4 ,
Hence the equations of the tangents are
Y .- I2(x-3) or y - 2x5
and y-1--X-3) or x+2y-=5
For finding the points of contact, we solve y=2x-5 and x2 + y2 -=5 in
case of (2) and solve x +2y= 5 and X-f-y 2 =.5 in case of (3).
In case (2) x2±(2x-5)25
'+4x2-20x+25-5
x2 -4x-l-4=0,I.e.,x=2 andy --1
The point of contact is (2, - 1)
In case (3) ; (52y)2y25
25-20y+4y2+y2=5
y2 -4y j-4---
x-=l and y=2
The point of contact in this case is (1, 2).
Example 52. Find the equations of the tangents to the circle

X' +y2-4,

(1) which are Inclined at an angle of 450 to the axis of x,

(ii) which are parallel to the line 2x—y+4=0,
(iii) which are perpendicular to the line 3x+2y-5=0.
Soutiou. The equations of the tangents to the circle x2 + y2 - 4, in
the slope form are
y.cmx2 V 1-i-rn'
(i) Since the tangents are inclined at an angle of 45° to the axis of X,
m=thn 450=1
The equations of the tangents are
y =l xi-21/1±1=x±2/2
(II) The tangents will be parallel to the line 2x—y4 4=0, if
m=2=slope of the given line.
Hence the required tangents are
y==2x±2V1+4 or 2x--y+2/5=0
(iii) The tangents will be perpendicular to the line 3X+-2y---- 5=0, if
2
Hence the required tangents are
Y= -- x±2 + - -, i.e., 2x---3y2 V'l3=0.
1528. ELLIPSE
An ellipse is a sort of elongated circle, it is formed by a locus of point
which moves in such a way that the sum of its distances from two fixed
points is always constant ; these points
are called the foci of the ellipse. An
ellipse is symmetric with respect to the
two lines called its axes. These axes
a.' ' refer usually to the segments cut off on
'-- ' 'a t
he usual axes by the ellipse and are
F7
(..a,O) called the major for the longer one and
the minor for the shorter one.
co-b)
y If the major and minor axes lie
on the x-axis and y-axis respectively
Fig. 39. then the centre is at the origin and the
equation in terms of cartesian coordinates is
x2 y2
where a and b are the lengths of the semi-major and semi-minor axes.
COORDINATE GEOMI1RY 611
It can be seen that the distance from an end of a minor axis to foci
F1 and F2 is a. If c is the distance from the centre to any of the foci then
the ratio c/a is the eccentricity of the ellipse. Two ellipse are similar if
they have the sonic eccentricity.
The intersection of the axes is the centre of the ellipse. The vertices
are the points where the ellipse cuts its major axis. The chord cutting the
distance between foci and perpendicular to major axis are the latera recta
(plural of latus rectum).
Example 53. Construct the graph of an equation
4x2+9y2=36.
Soluton. Solving the equation for Y, we have
Y - :1: v' 9 —x
Assigning the values —3, —2, —1,
0 .. etc., to x we have the values of y
tabulated below
x= —3 —2 —1 0 1 2 3
Y-= 0 +15 +19 ±2 ±19 ±15 0
Plotting these points with reference y
to the two axis we get smooth curve as
shown in the Fig. 40.
Fig. 40.
EXERCISE (Ill)
1. (a) A(2, 0), 8(0, 3) are two points. Find the equation of the
locus of P if AP= 3PB. What does the locus represent geometrically?
(b) The coordinates of A and B are (3, —1) and (2, 4) respectively.
Find the equation of the locus of P if 2 PA =3PJ3.
2. (a) If a:;i1-0, show that
ax2 + ay' + 2gx+2fy-f-c 0
represents a circle. Find its centre and radius.
(a) State the conditions under which the equation
ax 2 + 2hxy + by' + 2gx + 2fy + C = 0
represents a circle and determine the centre and radius of the circle.
3. Obtain an equation of a circle of radius r touching both the
coordinate axes. How many such circles are possible ? If the circle
x2 --y 2 +2gx4 2fy +c=0 touches both the axes of coordinates, show that
its radius is equal to .,.,/3.
4. If 6y-l-9rrr0 represents a circle, state the value
of k. Substituting this value of k
in the equation, find the centre and
radius of the circle.
612 BUSINESS MATHIMATICS
5. Write down the coordinates of the centre and the length of the
rauius of each of the following circles:
(1) x3+y2+7x-9y-20-=O
(ii) 4(x'+y')+ 12ax—óay—&_O
(iii) /l-i-a ( x2 -f-y2 )_2b(x + ay) 0,
6. (a) Find the equation of the circle whose Centre is (2, - 3) and
passing through the point (5, I).
(h) Find the equation of the circle which is concentric with
x'+ y2 -8x+ 12y -f-43=O and (i) which passes through (6, 2); (ii) has its
radius equal to 7.
7. Find the equation of the circle
(i) whose centre lies on the x-axis and which passes through the
points (-1, 0) and (5, 0)
(ii) whose centre lies on the y-axis and which passes through the
points (0, 3) and (0, ----7).
8. (a) Find the equations of the circles passing through the follow-
ing sets of points
(1) (1, 2) (5, 7) and (8, 6),
(ii) (6, —8), (-2, 9) and (2, 1).
(a) Find the equation of the circle circumscribing the triangle formed
by the lines 2 x+ y -3 . 0, x+y—l=O and 3x-f-2y-5- 0.
9. Show that the points (2, 0), (-1, 3), (-2,0) and (I, --1) are
concyclic, and determine the centre and the radius of the circle passing
through them.
10. (1) Find the equation of the circle whose centre is (-2, --5) and
which passes through the centre of the circle 3x2 +3y2 +6x --9y+16=0.
(ii) Find the equation of the circle passing through the point (6, —9)
and having its centre at (3, —5). Find also the coordinates of the points
of intersection with the x-axis.
11. Find the equation of the circle
(1) which passes through the points (3, 2) and (5, 4) and having its
centre on the line 3x+2y==12.
(ii) which passes through the points (4, 5), (6, —4) and having its
centre on the axis of x.
(iii) whose radius is 3 units and which passes through the origin and
has its centre on the x-axis.
(iv) passing through the origin, whose radius is 5 and whose centre
lies on 3x.--4y+15=0.
12. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the circle.
(0 X2 + y2 16 at th point (_-, _.!.!)
(ii) 2X2 +2 y__ 2x_ 5y +3=0 at (1, 1).
(iii) 3x2+3y2_4x_9yQ at the origin.

COORDINATE GEOMnIRY
613
13. Find the equations of the tangents to
(i) the circle x2 + y2 7 which makes an angle of 600
with the x-axis-
(U) the circle x2 + y' = 7 which is inclined at 450 to the x-axis,
14. Tangents are drawn to the circle x3 4 y2 -= 169 at the points (5, 12)
and (12, —5). Prove that they are perpendicular and find the points of
their intersection.
IS. Prove that the straight line y=x + c V2 touches the circle
x2 -l- yt=r c' and find its point of contact.
16. (°) Find the condition that the straight line 3x+4y=k may touch
the circle x2 +y lOy.
(h) Find the equation of the circle which has its centre at the point
(4, 3) and touches the straight line 5x— 12y— 10=0.
17. Find the equations of the tangents to the circle x+y19
(i) which are parallel to 2x+y_3=o0,
(ii) which are parallel to the axis of x,
(iii) which are parallel to the axis of Y,
(iv) which are perpendicular to the line 3x-4y--1-6=0
18. Find the equation of the circle which has its centre at the origin
and touches the line 5x— 12y+ 13=0.
19. Show that the circles x l + y 2 =2 and x3+y2_-6x--6yj-l0=oO
touch one another at (1, 1).
20. Find the equation of the circle passing through the points of
intersection of the circles
x2---y2__2x4y+30
and X2+y2+4x+6y_40
and whose centre lies on the line x+y -4- 1 0.
ANSWERS
i. (b) 5 x -f-5y1_ I2x_80y+140-O.
2. (a) (_---, --f)
3. x2+y2±2rx+2ry+r2=O.
4. k-=0, centre=(-4, 3)and radius=o4 5. (1) (

_-,
V210 . f 3a 3a 7a . b a/,
T' - -i-, (in) -- b
VI
6. (a) (1) (x-2)'+(y+3)'.25, (b) (1) x2+y2_x+12y_16r=0
(II) x'+ y2 -8x 4-12y-4-3=0, 7, (1) (x_2)2+y2=9,
(ii) xt +(y + 2) 2 =25 8. (II) 175y-920=0
(b) x 2 4-y2 -13x--5y+ 16=0 10. (1) x 2J-y2 +4x+ lOy— =0.
(ii) x'+ y '-6x+ lOy+9=0 ii. (I) x3 +y'+4x-18y+1 1=0k

614 USINIS3 MATHEMATICS
(Ii) 1 6(x+Y 2) —88x= 304,

(iv) x1 +Y'+I0X= O or 5x'+5yt-14x--48y=0.
12. (1) 3x+4y+20==0, (II) 2x—y---1=.0, x+-2y==3, (Iii) 4x+9y=0.
2y=3x. 13. (i) y=V3x±2/7, (11) y=x±2J37
14. 5x - 12y =169, 12x-5y=169, (17, 7). 15.,
16. (b) x2 + y2 -8x-6y f2[O. 17. (I) 2x+y±3/5=O.
18. x'+ y2=1 , (ii) y=±3, (ill) x=±3, (lv) 4x4 3y±15=-0.
1529, PARABOLA
The locus of point which moves in a plane so that its distance from
a given point is equal to its perpendicular distance from a given straight
line is defined as a parabola.
The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed straight line is
called the directrix of the parabola.
1510. STANDARD EQUATION OF A PARABOLA
Let the given fixed point, the focus be S and the directrix is the line
ZM Draw SZ perpendicular to ZM and bisect SZ at 0.
The point 0 is
on the locus and is called the vertex of the parabola. Take axis as shown
with OS as the x-axis, 0 being the origin.
Let the given distance SZ be 2a so that S is the point (a, 0) and the
equation of the directrix ZMis x=r—a, f.e, x+a==O.
Let P(x, y) be any point on the parabola. Draw PM perpendicular

fl upon the directrix from the point P
Now by def. of the parabola, SP=Ph.f
SP'FM3
—
(O,O} ( PM=NZ=rNA+AZX+c]
. (x2-2ax+a5)+y8=x'42ax+a'
y'=4ax
Fig. 41. which Is the required equation.
We now give the following definitions:
(I) Axis. A straight line about which the curve is symmetrical is
called an axis of the parabola.
(II) Vertex. The point in which an axis of the parabola meets the
curve is called a vertex of the parabola.
(iii) Focal distance. The distance of any point on the parabola
from its focus is called the focal distance.
(iv) Focal chord. A chord of a curve passing through its focus is
called the focus chord.
(v) Focal axis. The axis on which the locus of a curve lies is
called focal axis.
(vi) Double ordinate. The double ordinate of a point P is the
chord PP' of the curve, which is perpendicular to the axis.
(vii) Lanus rectum. The focal chord of a curve perpendicular to
its axis is called a Latus Rectum.
In Fig. 41, thedouble ordinate LSL' drawn through the focus
is the latus rectum and SL, one half of it, the semi-latus rectum.
Since AS-:a, from y-4ax, we get
SLt = 4a . a
SLrr2a and the latus rectum is 4a.
1531. FORM OF PARABOLA

Form 1. y!=4ax
For this parabola, we have

(I) S(a, 0) as the focus,
(2) directrix, the line is x= —a.
(3) axis, y=0
(4) vertex, (0, 0)
(5) tangent at the vertex, x=Ø,
(6) latus rectum, 4a,
(7) extremities of Latus-Rectum (a, ±2a).
Form H. y2-'-4ax
If the directrix is a vertical straight line parallel to the y-axis and to
the right side of the focus then the condition SP=PM, when expressed,
gives the equation of the parabola in the form Y'--4. x and since it lies
completely on the left hand side of the y-axis, it may be called the left
handed parabola.
EEEE:o
(1) (ii)
Fig. 42.
Form III. x'4ay
If the directrix is a horizontal straight line parallel to the x-axis and

below the focus, then the condition SP---. PM, when expressed, gives the
equation of the parabola in the form x 2 =4ay and since it lies completely
above the x-axis, it may be called the upward parabola.
Form IV. x2=-4ay
If the directrix is a horizontal straight line parallel to the X-axis and

above the focus, then the condition SP PM, when expressed, gives the
ya Z Directrix
Q I
A(OO)
/
/
L
,I
yo
"I
- -
tIirtctrix
( 1) (II)
Fin. 43,
equation of the parabola in the form x== —4ay and since it lies completely
below the X-EX j S, it may be called the down-ward parabola.
COORDINATe GEOMETRY 617
Parabola y-:4ax y'=--4ax I

x2 4ay x2=---4ay
Focus (a, 0) (—a, 0) (0, a) (0, —a)
Directrix X:= --a y=--a y=a
Axis y=. 0 y= 0 x=0 X=0
Vertex (0,0) (0, 0) (0 0) (0,0)
Tangent at the X=0 X-0 y=0 y=0

vertex
Latus Rectum 4a 4a 4a 4a
1532. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION

The equation y 2 =4ax can be written as
y 2x1
2a y
y-2 at and x=t ----- 2at=at
the equations x=at 3 , y=2a1 taken together are called the para-
metric equations of the parabola y2 =4ax, t being the parameter.
Also (at 2, 2at) are the parametric coordinates of any point on the
parabola yt=4ax.
Example 54. A point moves In siwlz a way that its distance from the
pofnt (2, 3) is equal to the distance from the line 4x+3y=5. Find the
equation of its path. What is the name of this curve? -
Solution. Here the coordinates of focus are (2, 3) and the equa-
tion of directrix i8 4x-f- 3y= 5
Let P(x, y) be any point on the curve. Draw PM, a perpendicular
from P on the directrix line.
Now SP=PM (given)
i.e., SP'= PMt
We have SP=i./ (x2\+(y3)t
PM= 43'5
42_+_31

618
BUSINBSS MATHEMATICS
The equation of the locus of the point P is

(x-2)2+(y_3)'-__ 3y-5)2
25
25(xt-4x+ 4 +y2 -6y -J 9)--- 1 6x 2 +9y 2 -f- 25-I- 24xy— 40x— 30y
9x2+16y2_24xy_60x_I20yf3_.0
This equation is of the second degree wherein the terms second degree
form a perfect square.
.. The name of the curve is a parabola.
Example 55. Find the equation of the
(3, 2) and its focus at (5, 2). parabola with its vertex at
SoJuto.
We know that the vertex is the mid-point of the join of
the foot of the direetrjx and the focus.
If (x1 , y1 ) is the foot of the directrix, then
Y1-f2
3=' L-+-5
.. -_ and2=r__.-._ Xi -1 and y==2
axis. Now the directrjx is the line through (1, 2) and perpendicular to the
Equation of directiix is x- 1 - 0
By definition, if P(x, y) is any point on the parabola then PS is equal
to the perpendicular distance of P from the directrix.
V (5)2(y )7
* Y2-4y-8x-F28._o
Example 56. Find the focus, direct rix, axis, vertex, tangent at the
vertex and the latus rectum of the parabola.
(y-k)24a(x—h).
Solution. Let the origin be shifted to the point A(h, k).
Let (X, Y) denote the current
coordinates of a point with refe-
- rence to the new set of axis. We
00- - have the transformation formulae
x=h+X,y=k+Y
The equation, with reference to
the new set of axis, becomes
Y'=4aX
With reference to the new set of
"
-/1 axis
(1) Focus is given by
X==a, Y--r0
Fit. 44. (11) directrjx is X—
_ -_ a
619
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
(iii) axis is Y==o,

(iv) vertex is (0, 0)
(v) tangent at the vertex is X=0,
(vi) latus rectum-- 40.
With reference to the original set of axis, we have
(1) focus (h-f-a, k), (11) directrix x-h---a, (iii) axis
(iv) vertex (h, k), (v) tangent at the vertex x=h, (vi) latus rectum : 4a.
Exaxnpk 57. find the focus dIrecXrix, axis, vertex and tangent at
the vertex for the parabola (a) y2 -j- 2y + 4x+5: 0, (b) x 2 + 20y + 4x + 56 0.
Solution. (a) Completing the squares, the equation of the parabola
can be written as
y 2 2yJl_4x_5 I
(y+1)2=--4(x j-l)
Shifting the origin to the point (-1, --1) and denoting the current
coordinates with reference to the new set of axis by X, Y, we have
x+1 =X, yfl=Y and the equation becomes
Y 2 : 4X
—
For this parabola

(1) the latus rectum 4a=4 and hence a= I
(ii) the êoordinates of the focus are given by
Y==0, X=—a=—1
x=-2,y-1
The focus is at the point (-2, -- 1).
(iii) the dire-ctrix is X= a
x+l'= l, i.e.,x=0
The equation of the directrix is xr_O
(iv) the axis is Y=0, i.e., Y-f- 1=0
(v) the vertex is given by X=0, Y=O
- x+1=0,y+l=0
.. The vertex is at the point (-1, —1).
(vi) The tangent at the vertex is
x=0 CO. x+l=0
(b) Completing the squares, the equation of the parabola can be
written as
x1 +4x+4= —20y+56+4
4. (x-f-2)2=--20(Y-3)
Shifting the origin to the point (-2, 3) and denoting the current co-
ordinates with reference to the new set of axis by K, Y, we have x+2 K,
y-3=Y and the equations becomes X=-20Y.
620
JBUSLNESS MATHEMATICS
For this parabola
(I) the latus rectum=4a20, i.e., a=5.
(ii) The coordinates of the focus are given by
X=Ø
y-3=--5,x+20
The focus is at point (-2, —2).
The directrix is Y==ra, i.e,, y--3=5
The equation of the directrix is y-8==0
(lv) The axis is 1=0
x+2=0
(v) The vertex is given by
X=, Y=O
x2O,y_3O
The vertex is at the point (-2, 3)
(vi) The tangent at the vertex is
Y= Y-30.
Exatnple
the parabola y2 58, Find the coordinates of the points of Intersection of
chord so fornwç/ 4x and the line y44= 2x. Also obtain the length of the
[IC. W.A., June 19901
Solution. The X
given by coordinates of the points of intersection are
(2x— 4)'= 4x
or 4x-16x-j-i64x
or 4x2_20x+160
or x2--5x-f40
or
x-=l, or x=4
When
When x4y2X4844
(1,-2) and (4, 4) are the points of intersection.
Length of the chord so formed
-
=3V--5
1533. EQUATION OF THE TANGENT
The equation of the tangent to the parabola y 2 =4ax at the point
is (x1 , y1)
Yyj=2a(x+x1)
Let (x21 y2) be any other point on the parabola.

(1) 1'Ihe equation of the line passing through (x 1 , y 1) and (x e , )'2) is
y—y 1 (xxk) (1)

(ii) (x1, YL), (x, y0 lie on the parabola
Y, 2=- 4ax1
- (2)
2 =4ax
y 2 (3)
y22_y24a(x •x)
(y + y 1(y2 —y1) 4a(x 2 - x)
y2 —y 3 4a
Xz—1 1,2-}--.)'
(iii) Substituting this value of in (1), the (LLu ion of the

x2--xI e
chord through (x1 , y 1 ), (x,y ) is

4a
• (xx1) .(4)
y2±y2
(iv) Let X 2 - * x y, - y 1 , then from (4), the equation of t he tangent at
(x 1 , y 1 ) is
2a
- (x-- x1)
Yy1—y12=2ax-2ax1
yy1==4ax1 + 2ax ---2ax, (: r 1 -lax1)
yy 1 =2a(x—x1 ),
which is the required equation.
Also the equation of tangent in the parametric form is
• 2at=2o(x4-a)
yt=x4 a1
1534. EQUATION OF THE TANGENT IN SLOPE FORM

Let the straight line y= mx c
•(1)
meets the parabola y2=4ax
Solving the two equations, we get
(mx + c)'= 4ax
flt.v2+2(,nc_2a)2_Ø
a quadratic equation in x showing that in general the line meets the

curve in two distinct points real or imaginary.
If the line is a tangent, the roots are equal since a
curve in two coincident points. tangent meets the

BUSINS MATHEMATICS
622
4(mc— 2a)2 = 4m'c,
This reduces to
a
fliC= a i.e. c= -
M
Hence the condition that the line y—rnx+c be a tangent to the parabola
y==4ax is C-=-
We can therefore substitute for C in y=rnx+c and say that
y=mx+
is always a tangent to y 2 =4ax for all values of m.

1535. EQUATION OF NORMAL
Equation of tangent at (x 1 , YL) is
yy1-2a(x+x1)
Slope of tangcnt=— —2a

—= 2a —
y t y1
Slope of normal=- 6-
Since the normal must pass through (x1 , y 1 ), we have the required
equation of the normal as
(x—x1)

or xy1 + 2ay=X1y1-l-2aY1
1516. EQUATION OF THE NORMAL IN SLOPE FORM
We know that the equation of normal at (x 1 , y 1 ) is
y—y1 = - ( x—x1)
Let the slope of normal=— 2a =m, we get
Y ,— —2am and therefore 1 =-L- =am'
On substituting for x 1 and y1 , the equation of the normal

reduces to
y+2am=m(x— am 2) y= mx-2am - am3
(a771 2 , — 2am) on the
which is the equation of the normal at the point
parabola y2 = 4ax.

Example 59. Prove that y=2x -4-2 touches y2=16x.
Solution. Comparing y 2 — 16x with y 2 =4ax, we note that a-=4.
Also Y=qix f-- is always a tangent toya=16x.

In
Since m=2, we find that y_2x+2 is a tangent.

The student should, however, note the general method.
Since y=2x-{-2 cuts 16x
(2x+2)= 16
x2-2x+l::-0
(X-0 2 —0
The two values of x are equal and, therefore, the line is a tangent.
Example 60. Find the tangents common to x 2 +y 2 =8 and y2 = 16x.
Solution. Any tangent to y 2 = 16x is y=mY 4
when this meets X2 + y ' r 8, we get
x 2 +(mx+ 4 )=8
nj
x2(I+m2)H8x+8(-_l)=Q
For tangency, the roots of this are equal, therefore
64=4(l+m2)x8(_l )
'?fl
n 4 .f 0-2== 0, i.e., (m2+2)(m2-- 1)=0
= I and —2 (inadmissible)
Hence there are only two real tangents common to both curves
y'X--4ard Y=—X-4
EXERCISE (IV)
1. Define a parabola, its focus and directrix. Find the equation of
the parabola whose focus is the point (5, 1') and whose directrjx is the line
3x-4yf5=O.
2. A point moves in such a way that its distance from the point
(2, 5) is equal to the distance from the line 2 v 4-4 y 3=. 0. Find the equa-
tion of its path. What is the name of the curve ?
3. (a) Find equation of the parabola whose focus is the point (a b)

and the directrix is the line -1 +f- i.
(b) Find the equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin
having its axis along the X-axis and passing through the point (2, 3).
4. (a) Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is (1, - 1) and
vertex (2, 1).
(b) Obtain the equation of the parabola whose vertex is at (a, 0) and
focus at (b, U) ; h-/,u.
5. Find the coordinates of the focus, vertex, the equation of the
clirectrix and axis of the parabola
(a) yi4y. 6x±22=0
(b) 3x 2 12x 8y0
(c) 5x 2 +30x 2y-+-59=..0
(d) ( y -- 3)-4a(x_- a)
(e) (x—)2=4a(y- )
6. Write down the equations of tangent and normal
(a) at the point (6, 6) on y = 6x
(b) at the cods of the latus rectum on y 2 3x.
7. Find the tangent to Y- 2x which is parallel to the line - x ± 3.
Find also the point of contact.
S. Find the tangents to y29x which pass through the point (4, 10),
9. Hnd the equation of normal to y8x, perpendicular to the line
2x -1-6y
5 0. Find the foot of normal also.
10. Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola y 2 -=-8x which
makes an angle of 45 with the x-axis.
ANSWERS
I. l6x29y 24. y - 280x— 10y ±625- 0.
2. (2x+4Y--- 3) 1 :20[(. - 2) 2 +( y— 5)], equation of a parabola.
1 (a) (axby)_2a 3x_. 2b 3y+a 4 +a2b? +h4.Q (b) 2y2-9x0
4 (a) 4x2 +Y7 —. 4xy -f- 8x + 46y —71 = 0
(b) Hirt. The distance between focus and the vertex is b—a. Then
the directrix is the line perpendicular to the axis of the parabola and is at
the same distance from the vertex as is the focus.
Let x 1 be a point on the x-axis and at a distance of b—a from a, then
(a— x 1 )- b—a x1r=2a—b

COORDINATE GEOMRThY 625
The equation of the directrix is x'.=2a--b
Then by focus-directrix property,
(x_b)2+yI=(x_2a+b)2
x22bxy1' =x2+4+b1-4ax+2bx-4ab
yt 4(b_a)(x_a) (n simplification)
5 (a)(--, 0 ), (3, 2), 2x-3=0 and y-2=0
(C) ( - - 3, --), (--3, 7), =0, x+3=0

10
(d) (a+cz, (3), (, , x-=—a, y=t
(e) (a, +ç3), (a, fi), y=(3—a, x=a.
6 (a) 2yx+6,y+2x=18, (b) yr x+-, y+x==-.;
y + x -t--=0, y=x—.2-. 7. y -x--, ( 1).

8. 4 y ='xf36, 4y-9x+4. 9. y==3x-66, (18, —12).
10. yrx4.2.
16
Functions, Limits and Continuity
STRUCTURE
161. FUNCTIONS
162. MAPPING
163. NOTATIONS FOR FUNCTIONS
164. TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
165. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
166. METHODS OF EVALUATING LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
167. SOME IMPORTANT LIMITS
161. CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION
169, CONTINUITY IN AN INTERVAL
OBJECTIVES

• functions, mapping, notations for functions and types of function
• the concept of limit of a function
• the continuous functions at a point and in an interval.
161. FUNCTIONS
A function is a technical term used to symbolise relationship between

variables. When two variables are so related that, for any arbitrarily
assigned value to one of them, there corresponds a definite value (or a set
of definite values) for the other, the second variable is said to he the
function of the first.
For example, the distance covered is a function of time and speed,
the railway freight charged is a function of weight or volume, the quantity
d emanded or supplied is a function of price, etc. The area of a circle
depends upon the length of its radius and so the area is said to be the
function of radius.

FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

627
Thus, a function explains the nature of correspondence between

variables indicated by some formula, graph or a mathematical equation.
We can say that a function is some sort of a mould which give-, some
unique shape to the material poured into it. It should be remembered that
it is not the degree of variation but the way the variables move in a given
function which is or significance However, a functional re!atiorishp should
not be confused with any causal (cause and effect) relationship. It is purely
a mathematical relationship.
The idea of function is sometimes expressed as
The relationship between two real variables say x and y which are so
related that corresponding to every value 'a' of x defined is the domain,
we get a finite value 'b' of y defined as the range then y is said to be the
function of x,
The domain of variation of x in a function is called the domain of the
definition.
The fact that y is a function of a variable x is expressed symbolically
by equations
y=f(x'), y_= F(x), y=-(x), etc.
The set of the values of x belonging to the domain of a function
generate another Set which consists of values of y{ or f(x)). This generated
set is called the range of the function! (x).
If a is any particular value of x, the value of the function fix) for
a is denoted by f(a.
If the relation between x and y is such that the value of y is nxed
as soon as a definite value is assigned to x then the variable y is said to be
dependent variable and x is the independent variable. The independent
variable is sometimes called the argument of the function.
We shall now clarify the above concept of function by following
examples.
(1) If is always equal to x 2 , then y is a function of x and we write
y=x 2 (her
Similarly cos x, e', log x, (x +a) , etc., are all functions of X.
(ii) If v is defined by saving that

y=rX?, when x>2
y=x— l, when .\2
Here y is defined as a Function of x but two formulae have been used to
define the function, one holds for one part of the domain and the other
for the remaining part of the domain.
(iii) Consider the two numbers x and y with their relationship defined
by the equations
628
IY=,x2, when x<Q
when OxçI
i= k- when x> ii
The domain of definition of this function which is expressed by three
formulae is the whole Set of real numbers. The first formula is used for
the domain of all real numbers less than 0. The second formula is used
for the domain of all real numbers lying between 0 and I. The third
formula
than 1. is used for the domain of all those real numbers which are greater
(lv) Let
Here y is a function of x defined for aggregate of positive integers only.

(v) Let
IX
Here y is a function
same futj0 0 can alsoof x defined for the entire field of real numbers. The
be defined as follows
y='x, when x0
y--X, when x<0
162, Nf"pINC
In modern m
is malping• athematics, the equivalent expression for a function
Definition. 1ff Is a rule
one and only one element of which associates every element of set X with
or mapping set Y, then the rule j is said to be
the function
from the set X to the set Y This we write 3ymbollca// 1,
as
f; K-Y
If y is the element of Y,
by rule f, WC write this as yfxcorrespondiog to an element x of X, given
at x'. or y==J(x) and read as
'y is the value of
163. NOT ATIONS FOR FUNCTIONS
The mere fact that a quantity is a function of a single variable, say,

X, is indicated by writing the function in one of the forms f(x), F(x),
(x) ,
If one of these occurs alone, it is read "a function of x"
or "some function of x", if some of these are together, they are read "the
f-function of x", "the F
function of x", "the phi-function of x",
The latter y is often used to denote a function of
() f x,
The fact that a quantity is a function of several variables, sayx, y, z
it is indicated by means of several symbols, Jt x , y), ,
4i(x, y, z,ii y), F(x, ,y, z ).
.......) These are read as "thef function of x and ;" "the phi-
function of x and Y", "the F-function of x, y and z,"
etc.
Sometimes the exact relation between the function and the dependent
variable (or variables) is stated, as for example
FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 1629
A X) =-x 2 +3x -7, or y -x'-f-3x-7, F(x, y)=2e x +7e,
I
In such cases the f-function of any other number is obtained by substitut-
ing that number for x infix), and the F-function of any two numbers is
obtained by substituting those for x and y respectively in F(x, y). Thus
f(z) z2+3z-7j(4)=4'+3X4-7=21
A l , z )= 2e 1 +7e 1 +tz_I, F(2, 3)20+7e+5
(1) Constants. The symbols which retain the same value throughout
a vet of mathematical operations are called constants.
It has become customary to use initial alphabets a, b, c,.. as symbols
for constants. These are of two types
(a) Absolute constants. Those which have the same value in all
operations and discussions For example rr, \/2,etc., e are absolute constants.
(b) Arbitrary Constants. Those which may have any assigned value
throughout a set of mathematical operations.
For example, the radius of a circle or the sides of a right angled
triangle in forming the trigonometric ratios are the arbitrary constants.
(ii) Variables. If a symbol x denotes any element of a given set
of numbers, then x is said to be a variable.
The last few alphabets x, y, z or U, v, w,... are generally used to
denote variables.
The variables which can take arbitrarily assigned values are
usually termed as Independent variables. The other variables whose values
must he determined in order that they may correspond to these assigned
values are usually termed as dependent variables. It will be seen later that
a "function" and "dependent variable" are synonymous terms.
(iii) A Con tinuous Real Variable. If x assumes SUcCeSSIVelY
every numerical value of an aggregate of all real numbers from a given
number 'a' to another given number b', then x is called a 'continuous real
variable'
(iv) A Domain Interval. If a variable x which can take only those
numencal values which lie between two given numbers a and b then ail
the numerical values between a and b taken collectively is called domain
or interval of the variable x and is usually denoted by (a, b).
If the set of values say x is such that axb then the domain or
interval (a, b) is called a closed domain or interval. In this case the num-
ber a and b are also included in the domain.
If the set of x is such that a <x <b then it is called an open domain
interval which is denoted by [a, bJ to distinguish it from (a, b). Here the
numbers a and h do not belong to the domain.
We may also have semi-closed intervals like.
(a, b} or ax<b ; [ a, b) or a<xb

The first interval is closed on the left and the second one is closed on
the right.
We may have domains of variation extending without bound in one
or the other direction, which we write
(-00, b) or xçb ; (a, 00) or xa ; (-00, 00) or any x.
164 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

We shall now introduce some different types of functions which are
particularly useful in calculus.
I One Valued Function. When a function has only one value
corresponding to each value of the independent variable, the function is
called a one valued fuuct ion. If it has two values corresponding to each
value it is called a two valued function. In case a function has several
values corresponding to each value of the independent variable, it is
called a multiple valued fun ctlon, or a many valued Junction, e.g.,
(i) If y =x , y is a single valued function of x,
(ii) If y= %/x, y is a two valued function of x (+Vx and --/x).
II. Explicit Functions. A function expressed directly in terms of
the dependent variable is said to be an explicit function, e.g., y=X1+2x-5.
In it one of the variables is dependent on the other and the relation-
ship is not mutual so that the other could be expressed as a dependent
variable.
The function which is not expressed directly in terms of the depend-
ent variable there is a mutual relationship between two variables and
either variable determines the other, is said to be an implicit functions
e.g.,
2
(1) 2x - 3y= 0 then x= y and Y= x
.
(11) x'+y5 =16 so that =±Vl6_y 2 and y=d,116_x2
(iii) x—y'---6x--8y---7=0 so that
y=±(x-_3)-4 and X=±(y+4)+3.
III. Algebraic and Tranacende tal Functions. Functions may
also be classified according to the operations involved in the relation con-
necting a function and its dependent variable (or variables). When the
relation which involves only a finite number of terms and the variables are
affected only by the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, powers and roots, the function is said to be an algebraic function.
Thus 2x1 +3x1 -9, .,/x-4- are algebraic functions of x.
All the functions of x which are not algebraic are called transcend-
ental functions. We have the following sub-classes of transcendental
functions'

FUNCtIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 631
(1) Exponential Functions. (II) Logarithmic Functions,

(iii) Trigonometric Functions. (Iv) Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
Functions, e.g., cos x, tan (x+ x), sin-' xe2x log x and log (4x+5)
are transcendental functions of x.
IV. Rational and Irrational Functions. Expressions involving
x which consist of a finite number of terms of the form ax, in which 'a' j
a constant and n a positive integer, e.g.,
4x'+3x'_2x2 +9X— 7
is called a rational Integral function of x.
When an expression having more than two terms but only one
variable it is called polynomIal in x. For example in
................... -f-a,,
where a0 , a, a2 ...... ..a,,, are constants and in is the degree of the poly-
nomial.
If an expression in x, in which x has positive integral exponents only
and a finite number of terms including the division by a rational integral
function of x, it is a called a rational function of x, e.g.,
x-2
x2 +6 7x-4xf7
x+7 +8x-9
3x'+9 ' (X-5)(2x-3) 4x+5
Rational integral functions and rational functions are included in
rational functions.
An expression involving x which involves root extraction of terms is
called an irrational function, e.g.,
v Vx2+4xf5+9x_7
We can say. a rational function is an algebraic expression which
involves no variable in an irreducible radical form (or under a fractional
exponent) ; a function which can be written as a quotient of polynomials.
The expressions 2x 2 + I and 2+-- are rational but ./x+ 1 and x3'2±1
are not.
V Monotone Functions. When the dependent variable increa-
ses with an increase in the independent variable, the function is called a
monotonically increasing function. For example, the function of supply is
a monotonically increasing function of price. As against thia a demand
functions is a monotonically decreasing function of price because the quan-
tity demanded decreases with every increase in price. A function y =f(x)
is called a monotone increasing function in an interval if a larger value of
X gives a larger value of y, i.e., an increase in X causes an increase in y in an
interval. Similarly a function is called a monotone decreasing function in
an interval if an increase in the value of x always brings out a decrease in
632
BUSINBS MATHEMATICS
the value the function in the lnten'al. Thus, if x and X 1 are only two
numbers in the interval such that x1>x1, then
fix) is monotonically increasing if Jx)>.f(x1)
and fix) is monotonically decreasing if Jix2)<jx).
VI. Even and Odd Functions. If a function f(x) is such that
ft—x)==fix)
then it is said to be an even function of x, e.g., x', 5x 1 , 7x2 -l-cos X are all
even functions of x.
Now if a fun cti onJ( —x) is such that
J( — x) ---J(x)
then it is said to be art odd fwictk, p, of x, e.g., x, 5x+6x 3 , sin x, are all
odd functions of x,
VII. Periodic Functions, A function such that the range of the
independent variable can be separated into equal sub-intervals such that
the graph of the function is the same in each part interval. The length of
the smallest such part is the period. Technically if f(x4 p ) = f(x) for all
X orf(x) and fix-4-p)
are both undefined, then p is the period off For
e xample, the trigonometric function of sine has period 2n radians, since
sin (x +20=sin x of all x
VIII. Composite Functions. If y g(u) and u=f(x) then
y-=g{flx)) is called a function of function or a composile function. For
example the volume of a cylindrical water tank is the function of area and
depth, while, area itself is a function of the radius ( ': A=r 2), SO the
function of the volume is the function of the area.
IX. Inverse Functions. If y= f(x), defined in an interval (a, b),
Isa function such that we can express x as a function of y, say x=(y),
then (y) is called the inverse affix), e.g.,
(I) if 5x+3
---- * then 3-9y
=-
2x-1-9 2y-5is the inverse of the first function.
(u) Y=sin' x is the inverse function of x=sin y
(iii) X= '?/ Y is inverse function ofy=x5.
X. Continuous and Discontinuous Functions. A discussion
on an exceedingly important classification of functions is given in the next
section on limits of a function.
16'5. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
The limit of a function is that fixed value to which a function approa-
ches as the variable approaches a given value. The function approaches
this fixed constant in such a way that the absolute value of the difference
between the function and the constant may be made smaller and smaller

than any positive number, however small. This difference continues to
remain less than this assigned number say € when the variable approaches
still nearer to the particular value chosen for it.
The limit of a function say I is then that value to which a function
J(x) approaches, as x approaches a given value say a. In other words, as
x reaches closer and closer to a, the function f(x) reaches closer and closer
to I so that given a positive number c (epsilon), however small, we can
find a number 6r= I f(x)—J I such that 5<E as x approaches closer and
closer to a.
Def. If corresponding to a positive number e, however small, we are
able to find a number 3 such that
fix)- 11 <E for all values of x satisfying x—a I <6 then we say
that f(x) .4l as x-+a and write this symbolically as
tim f(x)=l
X-
It should be remembered that the function may not actually reach
the limit I but it may get closer and closer to I as x approaches a so that
I f(x) --I I is lcss than any given value. For example, let us have a func-
tion f(x)=x 2 — 2. The function approaches the limit 7 as x approaches
3, we can express it is lim (x 2 -2)=7 This can he shown below first
x-+ 3
with x approaching closer and closer to 3 from the tower side
when x=299 f(x)=-69401
when x=2999 f(x)=6994001
when x=29999 f(x)= 699940001
Now when x approaches 3 from the higher side, we have
when x301 f(x)r-.7060l
when x= TOO l J(x)=7006001
when x=30001 f(x)700060001
It is evident from the above that as x is taken closer and closer to 3,
f (x) moves closer and closer to 7.
166. METHODS OF EVALUATING LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

In this section we shall give the various methods of finding the limits.
The following are some theorems on the limits which are often used for
evaluating the limits of a function. The proofs are, however, beyond the
scope of the book.
If tim f(x)=A and tim (x)B, then
x-+o x-a
I. tim [f(x)±(x)}= tim J(x)+Ijm (x)=A+B

x-+a

634 BU5'1NSS MATHEMATICS
This can be extended to any finite number of functions.
II. Urn (ftx).O(x)]— Urn f(x). urnO (x)=AB
This can also be extended to any finite number of functions.

III. It obviously follows that
Urn kf(x)k urn f(x)=k.4
X- X-+a
Jim f(x)
IV. iimISJ X-'a A
xa qS(x)ljm g5(x) -p-, where urn (x):;e_'-O
X-+a
V. urn • J_ provided urn f(x)^Q

x-âf(x) urn.
— f(x) A
X - a
VI. Urn l ogf( x )=log urn Jx)=log A
167. SOME IMPORTANT LIMITS
I. urn na"-'
x-,.() )C—J
II. Urn (I -n)''=im(u+- ---- ' "-

,t- . co's fl,'
In. urn 0 ±x) I

X
sin
1V. Jim =1
X- 0. X
Left Hand Side and Right Hand Side Limits

Jim ftx)= Urn f(a—h)== limit of Jx),
when x approaches 'a' from the L.H.S.

also Jim f(x)== Jim f(a-u-h)=lirnit off(x),
h--O
when x approaches 'a' from the R.H.S.
Therefore, to find the left hand side limit, we write a -h for x in Jx)
and take the limit as h-o. Similarly to find the right hand side limit, we
write a-4--h for X in f(x) and take the limit as h-)O, where h is always
positive.
Example 1. Find the behaviour of as x-' O from the left hand
side as well as from the right hand side.
FUNCTIONS, UMtrS AND CONTINUITY 635
Solution. For L.H.S., we have

I—1 I
tim - = u.rn-
x+O_ X hO
urn
0—h -+o 7)
(7 _oO
and urn L= tim 1

urn (I
h
).=+
x-0-j- X h-'O h-*O
Example 2. Find urn when x-afrorn the left hand as well

x +a
as from the right hand side.
Solution. For L.H.S. limit, we have

1
urn eX_0 urn e_ a Jim e h
X-* a— h-i-U h-s-O
=1im -'--=0 for !__*ooash_O

h-O !._.
h
e
For the R.H.S. limit, we have
1 ft \ 1
Jim e- = tim e ka+h – a)= urn e
x-.-a+ h-'O h+O
4,4+3x2_1
Example 3. Find the limit of when x-* 1.
I
Solution. We have to find tim
x-.I x3-l--7
Substituting x= 1 in the express i on we find that it comes out to be a

definite number . Hence the required limit is
2 +2x— 15
Example 4. Evaluate urn x X'—
Solution. Replacing x by 3 in the expression, we get .-, which is
indeterminate, x-3 must therefore be a factor of the numerator as well

as of the denominaxor-
Factorising we get
Jim x'+2-x-15 (x-3)(x+5)
X2-9

• x+5 8 4
x+36 - by putting x=3.
Example 5. Prove that urn /c2±x s/a—x' 1

x-.O x2 V a-
0
Solution. We find that if we put x =O, we get -u-. In such cases
rationalising the numerator s we have
Tim urn
X-o x-o X1[/(a+)+V(axf}
2 1
-V W+
—O+ Va-
Example6. Evaluate : lint [C.A., May 19911
x-+O X
Solution, Tim Jim

Q X x-O X v'fT+i]
lim[_(1+x)—1 I
urn
O x(Vl+x+1) xO 2
Example 7. Evaluate: lint F(x-f-h)_.F(x)
h
where F(x)= sin 2 x. [C.A., November 1991)
sins (Xfh)_Sj2 X
Solution. Jim --------_----- Tim sin (2x+ h ) sin h
h-O h-O
si
=Jim
h-p 0 I sin (2x+h) L ]sin 2x.
Example 8. Find lint VLx.
x-*I xt—1
Solution. Substituting x= 1, we get
hence by rationalising,
litu
x2-1
- V
=—
Jim (3+x)— (5—x)
x-..j (x+l)(x-1)[Vi+/5

FUNCTIONS LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

637
Jim
2
2 ___
1
(l+1)[VjT7
Example 9. Show that urn
x-i2 x-2
-
x-3x-+-2
_J_ -
Solution. lini [I 1
;-. _ x'-3x+1]
[r
urn x-3x+2—(x_2)
x^ 2
Jim x2 - 4x -f 4
,*2
=1im I I
X-2 x .—I rrr—_czrr1
2—i
Example 10. Show that urn 2(n+5n+6)
fT*00 (n+4)(n.f-5)
o
Solution. The given limit-=Jijn 2 lm

n-+ 00 , — co
JimJim n 2 + 5n+6
n+9n+
5 6
Jim -- Jim -n --
fl-*
=OxIO
Example 11. Show that urn Ax) exists and l.y equal tof(l), where
x+I
f(x)r=x+Ifor xeJ
J_ x 2 for x>J.
1!.C.JY.A., June 19911
Solt; 0 . We have
J1)=J+I=2.
L.H.L.=jjm f(x )-11m f(1 —h),
=Ijrn
h--O

638 BU511SS MATHEMATICS
RH.L. — lim fix)==lim Al—h),h>O

h-.O
=lim (3—(l+h)21"2
Since L.H.L.='R.H.L., urn fix) exists and is equal to flu).

X- I
Example l2. Discuss the exisleact of urn fix), If

X-+
f(x)=3+2X for— 4.x<O
--3-2x for
=-3-2x for
[J.C.W.A,, June 19901
Solution.
L.H.L=lirn f(x)Jim f(-} +h h>O

x-*+-fO
= urn r_3_2(+h)]33_6.
2
R.H.L.=lim f(x)lini f(.}

_h
),
h>O
rlim I3_2(..---h')]3_3o
2
h-0
Since L.1-I.L:AR.H.L., urn f(x) does not exist.
3
x-.
168. CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x= a, if corresponding to

any arbitrarily assigned positive number c, however small (but not zero)
there exists a positive number a such that
f(x)—f( a) I < for all I x—a
We note that in order to obtain the above we have to replace 1
by 1(a) in the definition of f (x) tending to a limit I as x-+a'. Hence
the above definition becomes:
A function 1(x) is said to be continuous at a point X— a. if 1(x)
possesses a finite and definite limit as x tends to the 'value 'a' from either
side and each of these limits is equal t of(o) so that
urn f(x)=f(a) jim f(x)
X'.O-
Thus the continuity of a function at point x=a boils down to the deter-
mination of three numbers
(1) f( o ), (fi) urn f (x), (iii) Jim f(x)
X- Q-
which involves only the simple process of

(i) replacing x by 'a' inf(x) and then finding if f(a) is finite and
definite.
(ii) evaluating the left hand limit,)
(ill) evaluating the right hand limit j by methods already explained,
If all the three number so obtained are equal, then f(x) is continuous
at x=a otherwise it is discontinuous.
Example 13. Show that f(X)=3x2 42x__1 Is continuous at x=2.
Hence prove that 1(x) Is continuous for all values of x,
Solution. The conditions to be satisfied by a function before we
cn say that it is continuous at a particular point say x=a are
f(a), urn f(x) and Jim f(x)
should have definite and finite values and that

urn f(x)=f(a)=. Jim f(x)
-+ a- X-*a+
Let us examine whether these conditions are satisfied by f(x)=3x'+2x-1
for x'=2. Here a2. therefore, we have
(i) f(2)=3.22 +2.2-1l 5
Again by the method of finding the le't hand and right hand side
limits. we have
(ii) urn (3x'+2-x— l)= urn (3(2—h)'1+2(2—h)—J)_ l5
Left hand side limit=] 5

Also (ill) Jim (3x 2 +2x—l)= Jim l3=l
2+
Right hand side limit= 15.
We find that the value of the function at x=2, the left hand and the
right hand limits all exist., and are finite and equal.
We shall show further that f(x)=3x+2x— I is continuous for
values of X. The method followed is quite general and the students are
required to note it carerully.
640 BOINESS MATHEMATICS
Let x=k be any value of x arbitrarily selected and find out whetner
the given function is continuous at x==k.
Here a=k, therefore f(k)=3k 2 +2k__l (finite number)
Also urn (3x2 +2x—l)= urn {3(k h)2J_2(k_h)_,}
h-o
=lim (3 k2_ 6khf_3h 2 +2k2/,_ 1)
h-O
-30+2k_t
Similarly, we find that
urn (3xl-2x— 1)=3k'+2k - I
x.k
From (1), (2) and (3), we deduce that the given function is continu-
ous at x=k. Since k is any arbitrary value of X, therefore f(x) is continu-
ous for all values of X.
Example 14. Discuss the continuity of
xo
f(.)=O, xO
Solution. f(x) can be written as
f(x)=l, x>O
f(x)O,x=O
f(x)=— I, x<O
Graphically the function is discontinuous

at xO. Analytically we have f(0)-Q.
But urn f(x)=-J, which is not equal
to f(0).
Hence the function is discontinuous at

this point.

e-' /Z
when xÔ
I +e'"
O, when x=O is not continuous at xO.
Solution. Here f(0)0, given
I I
C x e0_h.
L.H.L.- urn urn (I)
± h-O -
l-f-e

F UNCflONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY G41
(2)
,jo 1
11
c as Ii ,-O, therefore •-,O :i

[.
17
arid t' i '->oo as /1 -_.tq
urn ---- hrn -

h )
(2) arid (3) R,H.L;:/L. I 1.1
Jim 1(x) does not exist
x -+0
.1(x) is discontinuous at x O.
Example 16. Consider the functions defined OS follows
2_4 24
(a) f(x), for x<2 (b) Jx)=--,for x<2
f(x)=-4,for x=2 fx)=2,for x2

f(x)_=2,fur x>2
(C) f(x) helL Ux <: 2 (d) Ax) = x 2 when Ox <
• f(x)=2, when x-.-2 f(x)=2, w/:e,i x =2
f(x)x1, when >2 Jx)±2, when x>2
Diwuss the continuity at x=2.

Sointuon. (a) Here A2)---4, a finite and nic gvcn number.
The first condition is, therefore, satisfied. The function is defined for values
of x<2 by f(x)
For the left hand limit we have to take up t' tt -.-t'of func-
x2 -4 (x-2)(x4-2)
tion. We then have Jim bin -- it (x -1-2) = 4
X .2— x-2 x-^2—
x-2
Again the function is defined for values of x>2 by J(x):-. 2, therefore
the right hand limit is to be calculated from f(x) =2:
Here we have lint 2=2
2-
Also we ccc that A2)= tim f(x)
Hence the function is discontinuous at X2.

(b) Here f(2)=2 and Jim fi x) = Jim 2=2
x2 -4 (X--2)(x+2)
But Jim f(x)= Jim --= Jim Jim (x+2)=-4.
x-'2— x-2— XJ
Whence f(2)=2-A Jim

X-+2— x-2
Hence f(x) is discontinuous at x=2.
(c) Here f(2)=2 (given)
Ji and Jim (x-F-J)= 3

A— m x v12+
which show that
JimJim (x±J)-7^=f(2)
x*2—x-2 x-21-
1-jence the function is discontinuous at x=2.
(d)
_____
3x+2
Here Jim - =4, urn - =4
x-2— x-2 X
but f(2)-2 which means that

urn f(x)= Jim f(x)f(2)
x.2f
I-Jcnce the function is discontinuous at x=2.

Example 17. Show that the function fi x) as defined below, is dis-
continuous at x=
f(x)=x, when Ox<
f(x)=i, when x=
f(x)=1_x, when 4<x.<l
We are given that
ftx)=1 when x=
which means that AD— l, i.e., the value of the function at x= j is 1.
the first condition is satisfied.
Now let us find urn fix) and Jim fix)
In urn fi x), we have to find the limit when x—j through those
values of x which are less than J.

Now fix)=x is the only part of the function which is defined for
values of - c i ch that Ox<i.
643
'UNCLI0S, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Therefore, we should find tim x. By the method of finding the
left hand limit, we have

tim x= lini (__h)='—
2
2
at this stage we stop and gay thatf( X ) is discontinuous at x-- because
f(fl tim X.
X -
There is no need of finding the right hand limit. In case we want to
find the right hand limit then we must select f(x)=d— X as our function
because this is the only part of the given function which is defined for
values of x greater than 4.
CONTINUITY IN AN INTERVAL
interval (a, h)
A function f(x) is said to be continuous in the closed is
<x<b, and if f(x) continuous
if it is Continuous for every value of x in a
from the right at 'a' and from the left at 'b', I.e., if urn fix) exists and
X -* a ±
is equal tof( a ), and urn f(x) exists and is equal tof(b).

x- b—
It is easily deduced from the theorems on limits that the sum pro-
duct, difference or quotient of two functions which are continuous at a
certain point are themselves continuous at that point, except that in the
case of quotient in which the denominator must not vanish at the point
in question. Further it is true that the function of a continuous function
is a continuous function.
We now take up a few examples to illustrate the method of applica-
tion of the set of conditions arrived at in the previous sections to prove the
continuity of a function at a point as well as in an interval.
Example 18. A fund Ion f(x)
Is defined as follows
for x I
Examine the continuity of in the interval (-3, 3).
Soluton, f(x)- is to be considered for values of x lying
between —3 and I because this is the part of the function which is defined
for value of x<l.
The denominator of becomes 0 when X-2. But —2 is a
644 BUSINESS MATIMMATI CS
point between -3 and 1. Hence J(x) is disconti nu ous at x=-2 as the
function is not defined at x -2. Againf(l)=3.
and Jim urn 9(11

x+2 h-'O (1-h)-1-2
x+3 . 1+h-j-3
also urn - = bin
1±h
=4
h*O
Since the right hand limit is not equal to the left hand limit and is
not equal to the value of the function at x- 1, therefore, the given function
is discontinuous at x=. J.
Hence Ax) is discontinuous at x=- -2 and 1, for all other values of
X it is Continuous.
Etmple 19. Show that the function f(x)-x sin (I/x), xAO 13
cont inuous at x=O, where fO).O.
Solu tion. Here f(0)=0
and urn x sin ± -\ urn ( h) sin (11- h)= 1111) h sin ( l Jh) =O
hO h-.o
Also In-n X sin urn h sin --- =0

xo+ x h
Hence the function is continuous at X= 0.
Exa, j,j 20 Show that the function defined as under is continuous
f
f(x)=x 2 cos e'i for all x excepting x=O
Jtx) = I for xO
R ender 11 con tinuous by changing Its definition
SoJuj0 Here f(0)_.
lim x cos xh/x=lim h' cos -j—=0

x-j--.
Also Jim x 2 cos e''- urn h t cos e1lh..O
li-+0
lirn x2cose'/'-O
,0
X-
Since Jim fx)--Af(0), the function is not continuous at x=-0.

X-+ 0
The function becomes continuous at X=0 if we define the functio n
BS follows
cos e1', x_7^:0

f(x)=0, when x==0.

EXERCISES
Evaluate the following limits
2X2
2x2-7X46
I. (a) hill 5x 2 —llx+2 urn
x-2
x34-2y-6X--3'
jim 4x'+5x4 7x2-l-6x

(C)
x*O 5x{-7X2-l-x
W— 5x4 6(x2-3X-I-2) (b) lim ----

2. (a) urn 4x
x-* 2 x3--3x-4-4 X-+ Co
•- 2
1- (b) urn
3. (a) liju
x-'O x X- a
(c) urn V'x+x-3- V+ 1

x-*2
4. (a) urn 1_L_ 21

1)(x— 2)
* 2
.v- L2
(b) lit r ..!.......

Lx-3 x(x2._5x+6)
x_ 3 - a3
(C) lijn ------
x-*o
5. Prove that the function x t +4x-2 is continuous at x=1.
6. Prove that the function is discontinuous at x==3.

x-3
7. Discuss the continuity of the following functions:
(I) flx)= - at x=O, (ii) flx)=-4- at x=O.

8. Snow that the function defined as
f(x)=1 for x=0
f(x) x for x>O
is discontinuous at the end point x=O.
9. (a) A function f(x) is defined as follows
f(x)= J —x, when 0<x<
Jtx) =O , when x-
f(x) = - 3x, when j <x< 1
Show that f(x) is continuous at x=.

(b) A functionf(x) is defined as follows:

f(x)=3+2x, for—x<0
f(x)=3-2x, for OX<
f(x)==-3-2x, for x>
Show that J(x ) is continuous at x=O and is discontinuous at x=.
10. A function f(x) is defined in the interval (0, 3) in the following
way:
f(x)=x', when 0 <x<l
f(x)==x, when 1x<2
f(x)r=kx 3 , when 2x<3
Show that f(x) is continuous at x=2 and x=1,
ANSWERS
1. (a) - , (b) —5, (c) 6 2. (a) , (b) 3. (a) 0,
(b) , (c) 4. (a) , (b) (c)

V3 2a
17
Differential Calculus
STRUCTURE
170. INTRODUCTION
171. DIFFERENTIATION
172. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION OF ONE VERIABLE
173, DERIVATIVE OF A POWER FUNCTION
174. DERIVATIVE OVA CONSTANT WITII ANY FU NCTION
175. DERIVATIVE OF THE SUM OF FUNCTIONS
17-6. DERIVATIVE OF THE PRODUCT OF TWO FUN CTIONS
177. DERIVATIVE OF THE QUOTIENT OF TWO FUNCT IONS
iTS. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION OF A FUNC [ION
179. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1710. DERIVATIVE OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
1711. DIFFERENTIATION BY THE METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION
1712. LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION
1713. DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
1714. DERIVATIVE AS A RATE MEASURE
1715. SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION
1716. MACLAURINS SERIES
1717. INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
1718. POINTS OF INFLEXION
1719. MAXIMA AND MINIMA
1720. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
1721. TOTAL DIFFERENTIATION
OBJECTIVES
• the derivative and write the derivatives of standard functions
• differentiate functions using standard derivatives and rules of
differentiation

648 BUSINESS MAFFIEMATICS
• higher-order derivatives of functions

• derivative as a rate measure
• points of inliexion, maxima and minima
• partial and total differentiation.
170. INTRODUCTION
The world calculus stands for the method of computation. There may be
an arithmetic calculus or a probability calculus. The most common use of
calculus is in regard to the computation of tile rate 01 change in one variable with
reference to all variation in the other variable. For example, we
know that given the speed, the distance covered is a function of time or given
the distance, the time taken is a function of speed. There is then a dependent
variable which gets all for change by a change in the independent
variable. Calculus gives us the technique br measuring these changes in the
dependent variable with reference to a very small change, approaching almost
zero, in the independent variables or variables. The techniques concernin g the
calculation of the a crage rate of change are studied under di fThrentiation or the
Difl,'rcntial Ca]cu]u\ and the calculation of the total amount of change in the
given range of valiics is studied under integration or Integral Calculus, which we
shall study in the next chapter.
The usefulness of both these is very great in business. Given certain
functional relations we can find out the average rate of change in the dependent
variable with reference to a change in one or more independent variables. For
example with a given demand function it would be possible to find the degree of
change ill with reference to a small change in price or income or both as
the case may be and also the maximum and the minimum values of the function.
171. DIFFERENTIATION
To express the rate of change in any function we have the concept of
derivative \hich involves infinitesimally small changes ill dependent
variable with retrence to a small change in independent variables.
J)ifu'rentiation we call is the process of finding out the derivative of
continuous function. A derivative is the limit of the ratio of the increment in the
function corresponding to a small increment in the argument as the latter tends
to zero.
Let us assume that y has been produced by labour x and that as we
increase x (lavour) by one unit, the amount of y increases by four units. This
relationship is shown by y - 4x ; when .v is increased by a small increment
6x, then y increases by 6y, and we have
3' + 8y = 4 (x +öx) = 4x -f 46x
5y=46x => _t'!:_ =4

6x
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 649
is the incremental ratio of dependent variable y with respect to the
independent variable x, i.e., we can say 8Y is the change in y with res-

pect to a small unit change in X. If the increments are very small tending
to zero, we may write
d dy tSy
(y) or ,- or Inn
dx x-O
Thus is the rate of change of y with respect to a change in X and is

called the derivative of the funtion y with respect to X.
172. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION OF ONE VARIABLE

Suppose that the function f(x) denotes a continuous function of X.
Let x receive an increment Sx, then the function becomes
f(xix) (1)
Hence the corresponding increment of the function is
f(x+x)—f(x) (2)
The ratio of this increment of the function to the increment of the varia-
ble is
f(x-J.Sx)--.ftx)
(3
The limit of this ratio when Sx approaches zero, i.e.,

f(x+x)—f(x) (4)
is called the derived function of f(x) with respect to x, or the derivative of

f(x) wri. x, or the x-rierivafftie off(x) or the differential co-efficient of Rx)
w.r.t. x.
If y is used to denote a function, i.e.,
y=f(x)
and x has an increment 8x, then y will have a corresponding increment
positive and negative), which may he denoted by Sy so that
y-48y=f(x4-6x)
3y r-f(x + 6x) —f(x)
and 8Y f(x+ ax) - f(.

= 8x
im -= urn
3x
he phrase derivative of y with respect to x is symbolically equivalent to

the urn and is denoted by . Thus

axô 8X dx
f(x+6x)—f(x) V(X)
Ii ju
dx 8X-0 8X
The process is quite general, as indicated in steps (1), (2), (3) and
(4) above. These may be described in words, thus
(a) Let the independent variable have an increment,
(b) find the corresponding increment in the function,
- (C) write the ratio of the increment in the function to the increment
In the independent variable,
(d) find the limit of this ratio as the increment of the variable
approaches zero.
dy d
It should be noted that
, 6 does not mean the product of d with
Y. In fact (IX is not a real number, so the notation _- stands as a syni-

bol to denote the operation of differentiation. The derivative or differential
co-efficient of y w.r.t.x, A is written in many other ways such as
. [f(x)], I '(x), Dy, etc.
17'3. DER I VATIVE OF A POWER FUNCTION

The most important rule is in regard to the differentiation of a
power function. Let y=f(x)=x 2 and let there be increment in the function
as follows
y+ Y = (x + 6x)2 = x2 -j- 2x x + (x)2
yrrx22x X+(X)2_x2
y =2x . x+(x)2
urn - =Jim (2x+x)
dy
f'(x) or =lim (2x-l-x)=2x
Now for the general case where y=x", we have for an increment
Using the binomial expansion, we have

y + 8y==x" + 'C x'' (8x) +"C8 x"'(x)'-l-... + x(X)"' +(&X)
y[xnC1 x'(8x)+,.-l-(8x)J--x"

y ["C1 x' (6x)-...-]-(8X)}

6x 5x
Sy ^nC
urn =lim [C1 f- -1
dy
—=n,'fl_
dx
Thus the general formula is

dy d (nn-1
/
dxdx '
dy
Illustrations _X8, then a- =3x3*-=3X2
- (I)'
y=x , then dx
)'=X 210 , then =

y=x, then - (-8)x°.
174. DERIVATIVE OF A CONSTANT WITH ANY FUNCTION

Let C AX), where C is a constant.
Let X receive an increment x, consequently y receives an incremen
v1Sy-=cf(.v+8x)
y=cf(xi ax)--f(x)]
•rf(v+x)_f(x)1
lim urn c [x1 ]cf'(x)

8X 3x
(cf(x)]—cf(x) ]rcf(x)
dx — dx r dx
Thus the derivative of the product of a constant and a function is the
product of the constant and she derivative of the function.
If f(x) is denoted by then (1) is written as
U,
d du
- (cu)=c -
dx cL
Illustration. lfy=5x2 , then
dy
=5 [/-x) ]
= lox

652
Remark. When a function is equal to a constant say y-- a,
where
a is constant, then 0.
175. DERIVATIVE OF A SUM OF FUNCTIONS (SUM RULE)

Let y-f(x)4 ow+
Then on giving x all Sx, ve have
Y+ y =f(x -F 8x)+ q(x + X)+...
)'t+x)f(x)
• Yf(x4 x)—f(x) ______
x +— -
Hence on letting S X a pproach zero, we get
• by f(x 'S X) ± bX)—(x)
tim — tim
tin)
x-O X xO +
f(x)+ (x)+...
(2)
Thus the derivative of a sum of finite number of junctions is the SZA

of their derivatives
If the functions be denoted by U, V, U', •., i.e. if
yu+v+w+...
the - result (I) may be expressed thus
dy
(IU dv dw
dx dx+r (& — dx
+...
Illustrations. I. If Y='2.V-f-x2, then
dy d d
Tx (x)-- (x2)=242x
2. If Y4x 3 — 7x4 , then

dy (I' d
— (x3)_7 -. ( x 4)=4 3x 2 ---7. 4X312x2_28x
3. If )r x,_-_ x 7 -- 4x 8, then
dy 4 d (3. -
6 d d
d ' ' 7 dx / 4 dx-
d x7'-J-
3
• 3x---- .
- 4x2 6x6 - I 2x


4. Find the differential coefficient of
9x-7X+8x2-- 8 10
x \.
Solution. y9xt_7X34-8X2_
8-
9x-7x3 4-8x—
dx dx x 1-x
(9x) - 7x)+- (8x2)-(_ )+*(- )
d
-1
9.- () -- (x2 ).8 . 7_.(x)± 10. (1 - (xi)
d ()- -r-
=9.4x-7.3x -F8.2x2 1 ---8(— 1)x'+ 10.(--3)x
Let y=--1-, finddx
( —2x+x
Solution -
fi -x-2-2x- f I
1 —2 2
0- -j-.
TIC
176 DERIVATIVE OF THE PRODUCT OF TWO FUNCTIONS

(Product rule)
Let y.f(x) (x)
Then, on giving x an increment 5x, we have
y + y J( x + x)(x+8x)
6y=f(x-4- x)(X+X)—f(X)(x)
==f(x -- x)[(x+ x)-- (x)J-- (x)[ f(x -s'- &r) —f(x)J
q(x) Jx+8x)—Jx)
x_ fx-x).
ax 3x
Hence on taking the limits as 8x approaches zero, we have
dy d d
T f(x) j .1 (x)) 1- ( x )a-_[ 1(x)]


Thus the derivative of the product of two functions is equal to the pro.
duct of the first and the derivative of the second plus the product of the second
and the derivative of the first.
If the functions be denoted by u and v, i.e, if y=uv
then (1) may be expressed as
dy dv du
—u----rv--
dx dx dx
Remark. The derivative of the product of any finite number of
functions can be obtained by an extension of (2). For example, if
y=uvw
then, on regarding vw as a single function
a'y du d
(V W) --- u - ( Y Vv)
(IX = (Ix dx
du 11v dw
viv -_ L /
w -- -1--v -
(IX \ dx dx
fu 41V thy
=vw ------ - wit - -• Uv -
(IX (IX dx
Similarly if y==uvwz then

(I)'
-
du (It (IW (IS
= vwz - f uwz -- -4 uvz - -f-14VW -
dX dx Ix dx dx
In general, to find the derivative of a product of several functions,
multiply the derivative of each function In turn by all the other functions and
add the results.
Illustrations 1. Let y=(3x 2 +I) ( x4 +2x), find
Solution. Let us take u=(3x 2 +l) and v=(x 3 +2x) then the deriva-
tive of the product function y=uv is
dy dv du
dy
=(3x2+1)(3xt+2)+(x3+) (6x)
=9x 4 +9x 2 +2+6x4 + I 2x2 = 15X 4 +21x2+2.
2. Differentiate (3x 1 +5) (2x3 +X+7) w.v.!. x.
Solution. Let y=(3x 2 -f . 5) (2x8+x+7)
By using rule III, regarding the derivative of the product of two

functions, we have
dy d d
j- = (3x2 +5) --(2x3+x-4-7)+(2X3+x+7) j-(3x2+5)

=(3x±5)[ 2 (x)I.+f-(7)]
+(2x3+x+7)[ 3
(3X 2 5) (62+ 1)+(2x 3 + x -F7) (6.v)
5)
30x' 1 ± 39x2+42X+5.
3 Di/Jereuiite (I - 2. X) (t, x -2. / x ) w.r.t. x
/—
Sotio.i. Let )' ( V x ±2. x) X (/ x -2. x)
k
( x 2x)( -2x)
x f-2x ).( -2x) .( x k --2x( ç 1 2x)

TX (
x +2x' )[-4 x . - -- x
/ x --2x \rl A
-'4x
2x
4 Iff(x)2x cf(x)
)f dx
Solution.
f'(x)=(Vx ±2)( _1)(2x ) 2x x - )-( x +2)

—
+2x' +2 dx x
=(x +2)(\/ -X- - 1 )2. 4 x +2x (/_i )x
+2x(4Jx±2)--
(\/*2) (Vx-1)3\/x - x(v'x-l)±x(\/x +2)
=4x+5.v\/ x -6 x.
01. DERIVATIVE OF THE QUOTIENT OF TWO FUNCTIONS
1(x)
Let y
Then on proceeding as before, we have

f (x+gx
8y

656 BUSINESS MAThEMA'L ICS
.J(x-1—x) i_c)
-
(xf-6x) o(x)
I (x-j-8x) 0 (x) —f( x ) (x -4
ON 0(x-1-x)
• yf(X-x)(x).--f(x)(x+3)
(x) (x-i-810—ax
On Jetting 8x-0, right band side approacis the form -.
- In order
to evaluate, introduce
qS (x) f(x) — c(x) f(x)
in the numerator of right hand side. Then, on combining and arranging
terms, (1) becomes
(x) [f(x±x)_f(x)] —f(x) [
(x) (x--&)
Hence on proceeding to limit as S x approaches zero, we have
dy
(x)-[f(x)]-_f (x-[x)J
( E()J2
Thus if one function be divided by another, then the derivative of
the fraction thus formed is equal to the product of the denominator and
the derivative of the numerator minus the product of the numerator and
the derivative of the denominator, all divided by the square of the
denominator.
If the functions be denoted by u and v, i.e., if
U
y=Y
then (1) has the form
du dv
,v— —U—
d
V5O (2)
d -
X2-1
Illustrations 1. Find the differential co-efficient oJ_____ w.r.t. x,
y=x2--I
Solutiou. Let
(x-l-I) (xa _ l)—(x--- l)(x2-- 1)

• dy
dx (XI + 02
(X2 +I)2X—(x_j)2x 4x
(x2+l)

DIVFERBt'4TIAL C\t.CJf.US 657
2. Differentiate wr,I. x, the Jinet ion

(x - F) (2x -1)
(x--3)
(x -f-- I) (2x - I) 2X 2 -jx--- I
Soluiuii. Let Y=-
x --3
1);(X -3)
• /
• (3)2
c/x
(x --3) (4x-1-l)---(22f-x
(x 3)
2(x 2 -6x --- l)
x
3. Find the differential co-efficient of -i-
x
xi f2
Solution. Let -
. If
x x - x
dy ) -- x -, )- ç
dx I •
)
X— X
-
,x.J
178. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION OF A FUNCTION

Here we deal with derivative of a composite function (function
of a function). If y is a function of u, say y=f(u), where U itself is a
function of x say rl(x), then y is called a function of a function or
a composite function of x•
Suppose derivative of y with respect to x is required. [Here J(u) and
(x) are differentiable functions]. The method, which naturally comes first
to mind, is to substitute g(x) for U in first equation, thus getting y=f((x)J,
and then to proceed according to preceding articles. This method,
however, is often more tedious and difficult than the one now explained.
BUSNSS MATIIEMATtCS
Let x receive an increment J X, accordingly, U receives an increment

:i and y receives an increment V. Then
y -f- y=J'(uf-iu)
'5}' :J(ii-fu)_.f(u)
• y ju4•Sii)—f(u)x
-- u
Assume5u/--o when x :/-O. When x approaches zero, 5 11 also
approaches zero and this relation becomes
fu-- u) -f(u)
Inn -.-- hmn -------------------- turn --
-O (3U
dy (1 du
1f(u)]. r-
hence
dx du
lllustra(.Ions. j . Dferent(cite .\/(3x2._ 7) w.rj. •v.
2
Solutjo. Let y - V'(=(3x2 7)
Put U- (3x 3 ---7) then y=u

il
Now / (3X-7)6x
dv
dy --i I
and U -_. (3x2- 7)
du 2
dy dy du
I knee --- = - -
dx dx •dx
(3x27) - x
Miter - =-- - (3x_7)4

f- (3x2 -7)
I - 3x
= 2 - (3 x '— 7) 6x-
. -=----
\/3x2_7
2. Find the differential coefficient of(3x 3_ 5x 2 -f8) 3 w. r. x.
Solution. Let y=(3x-5x2--8)3=u3
where u=3X3-5x-f S
dy dy du
Now (1)
y 1u dx

D11FIRENTIAL CA LCULI)S 659
dy 1
But -_ (ui): 3112
du (/U
du d
aid lOx
Substituting these values in (1), we get
3(3x 5x 8)'(9- lox)
3 Differentiate w.r.t. x the follow(ng function

1
./6x-7x-f 9
1j3
Solution. Let y=- 1 __(6x5-7x3+9)
./6x .-7x3±9
Put u=6x5-7x8-I-9, then yu113
Now (ly uI=----- (6x5-7x+9)-413
du
and =30x4--21x
(/Y dy did
Hence -- du dx
dx
-}-
Aliter. ± ' 6x 5 - 7x+9)

(6x-7x3+9)4J - (
dx 3
(6x7X2+9y4I3(3OX4_2lX2).
4. 1)erentiate w. r.t . X.
V/X2+
Solution. Let y
Vx2 + a + V'X -r b'
Rationalising the denominator, we get
a2)1)2_(xt+b11]
a 3 —b 2 02 — b2l
dy
I- - [ -^- (x±a5) (x+O)
—1 d 1
(x2b2) 2 (x2+b)
J
60 I3US1NES MATUJMAT(CS
1 F 2x 2x
xi. I I
a_62[Tj_ ii-
17 . 9. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1. Derivative of SiIJ u. Let Y=sin U
Then y f Sy=3j (u+u)
sin (u-f u) - sin U
-=2 cos(f._) Su
u
_ 2cos (u.4 Su -)s. n --
6u
cos ( u +) -
2
Let then also u- . O and
Irni - - -- h rn os
'u \
( U -- ---
Sin--
2
x-ø o ' 2 lu-n -----
u Itin
61, 4V O
dy du
dx dx
(I du
( sin u) - COS U
(IX dx
In particular, if U=X
d
— (sin x)rcos x
dx
Thus the rate of change of the sine of an angle with respect to the
angle is equal to the cosine of the angle.
II. Derivative of cos u. Let y =cos U, then y-sin (i- _u)
dy d, - du
dx -cos \2
I--u
1
—1------ )=-- -sin
dx2 / U -
dx
d c/u
i— (cos u) = —sill U
dx

bF}R!!NT!AL CALCULUS 661
In particular, if U: X
d
- -- (cos x)-= --sin X.
111. Derivative of tan u. Let y=tan U, then

cos U
d d
cos u (sin u) -sin ufl-- (cos u)
dx c082u
(cos2 U4—Sill' U) dii
- cos2 u dx
1 du Jts
—==Sec2U.—
cos U Adx
ddu
j—(tan u)=sec2 u
If ti -X, dj_(tan x) sec2 X.
IV. Derivative of cot u. Substitutingfor cot u and differeu

tan U
tiating, it can he found that
(cot u)= - cosec2 u
If U==X, (cot x)_--coiec' X.
V. Derivative of sec u. Let y=sec u=- ---, then

cos U
dy sin u du I iii
sin
dx cos' u dxcos U cos U
d du
(sec u)r=SCC U tan U
If U-----X, (sec x) =sec x tan x.

dx
VI. Derivative of cosec u. Let y-cosec u=----,U then

sin
dy cosu du
dx sjn2 U dx
dy du
= — cosec U cot U
dx

If u=x, (cosec
x)= —cosec x cot x
dx
VII. Derivative of sin' u. Let y =sin' xi so that sin ==U
dy u
On differentiation,
rentiation we get cos y -
dy I thi 1 du
dx cos V 'X sin2y' dx
d . I du
* (sill U)----
dx %/1_u2 dx
If u=x, (sin x)-=

V1—x8
VIII Derivative of cos- 1 ii. Let ycos U so that cos y -- U
y dy du
On differentiation, Sin
dy 1 du I du
dx sill ydxJjjdx
d I du
- (cos-' u)=
dx i/l—u dx
If U=X, d 1
—(cos 1 x)-------
dx
IX. Derivative of tan s u. Let Y=tan U so that tan y -u
dy du
On differentiation, we get s&y
• dy du I I du
Tx secy dX 1+tan2 y dx
d,
- (tan- U) =
I du
•
In particular if U=x,
d 1
- (tan-
dx 1±x2
X. Derivative of cot u. On proceeding in a manner similar to
that in (IX), it can be shown that
ci I du
(cot U)==-_1__1
dx
If u=x, -(cot' x)._

dx i+

DWPFRENIIAL CALCULUS 603
XI. l)ervttive of see' u. Let y sec ' ii so that sec v =

dy du
On dillere lit iaLion, we get see Y tan Y (IX
(1.
I (ILl 1du
•
Ix see y tan )' dx see;' Vscc'—i (IX
di 1
i.e. -- (sec 1 ___
u2 - - i dx
(1 1
It U X, then
(IX XVx2_1
XII. De,-ivativ' of cosec - ' i. On proceeding ill manoer S1IIUIdF

to (XI), it Can he shown that
(I I --
(coscc ii) - - =---
(IX U \/U2 Ix
I
If then (coect ) --
d xV x2---- j
1710. DF:RIVATEVE OF 1.0GAR1TUMIC FUNCTIONS
XIII. I)( . rivativi' of log o ti. Let Y -log.d U audi let x receive
Increment )X , I U ai .1' consequently receive increments 6 11 ;InJ oY
rcspectivcly.
1hen . 'y tog, (ii 1-
log ,, ( U -1-6 11) —log" u
(Uf(dU I4
=log --)=-iog.
- Sy \ I
-=log. / I -
U
h--— ).
Oil - u in the second member, we have

14
U --
6 y 1 ii f u
. log o 1
8x -•
u -)
U
I / 8U\ Sri
—tog I 1+—)
u '\ UI 6x
From this, on letting x approach zero and remembering that 5 14 and
t approach zero ith 6 x, it follows that
Sy su
urn = - urn log/ i -i----- ). tim
14 U
•8k 0
8x
664 BUSINESS MATHIMA11CS
dy I du Ilia
log, e i — urnr (I - n)
(/.X LA
L m-.-O
If ii --x, then - (tog a x)== --(log e)
If a -- c then d (log u) I- du
d u
(I
If u - x and a e• then - ( log x) --1
dx x
XIV. Derivative of e'. If y - e, then
dydu
—e"
- (IX
If U x, then d!!Y- e.
dx
Illustrations. I. find the dijjerenifal coefficients of the following
functions
(a) sin 6x, (b) tan (5x+7), (c) cc 4x.

S o l ution. (a) Let v sin ôx sin U, where U 6x.
dy (1Y 31u
Then
(j---; -
dy
But --
du
r: CØS U and dii
-. - -6 dx
• • (lV
- cos U. 6 - 6 cos 6x
dx
(13) d
AIitej-. ±
(sin 6x)-=cos 6. dx (6x)=6 cos 6x.
, 4
(b) Let y=-- tan (5.r+7)= tan u, where 11=5x+7

(1ydy du
Then
dy du
But =sec2 it and - _5
dy
=scc t U. 5=5 sec2 (5x+7).
dx

65
OThDBRNfJAL CALCULUS
(e) Let y -- sec 4x

dy l(I
(scc 4x)-=3 see' (sec 4x)
-3see' 4x see 4x tan 4x. (4x)
12 se0 3 4x ta n dv.
- l--sinx dy
2. 1/ y - •- - -----__-, find
I t . cos (IX
(1 (1
(1C0S 1 )(1 -) (1 +CO5X)
dy
(l+COSX)2
(1-1-eosx)( —cos v)- (1—sin x)( . --.in x)

(1-{ cos x)1
— sin -- COS x_(sifl t x+COS 2x) sin x cos x ---1

(1-I-COS x)2 - - (14 cosx)'
3. Find the differential co-efficients of:
(1) y -= log 5x, (Ii) y log (sin x), and (III) y lg (x cos x)
Solution Let 5x=- u Sd that y=-log ii and5
dy dy du
B ut dx==--.
du dx-
dy I dii! I
dxu 4 5 X
du
(ii) Let sin X: U so that -cos x and Y = log u
=-
(45) dy du
But j
dy I A
L . cosx=COtx.
'dx sin x
(iii) Let u—X cos X so that

du
-= cos X—X Sin x and y = Iog U

666
flUSNESS MATIHiMATIC
(ly dy c/U I
But =- -
(lx C/U clx U
I
X
x sin x)= (cos
(ens x--- -
x x sj x)
X
X vn s X
More about logarithmic diilcrentjatjon will be discussed in the later

section of this chapter.
4. Find the different Ic:! co-efficien t of 1/ic foIIowjn ' function

(a) cos-' Sx, (b) ran- ./--
v,(c) log (sec- x).
Soltin. (a) Let ) — cos (5x) - = cos - ' U, where u= 5v

dy —1 (111
Then c---. :- -::- and -
v Vi -• u clx
dy cl• i du =
N ow - - -1
dx c/u /X
5 =--- ---- -
•\/l --25x'
(b) Let y = tan x rtan ' U, where U=x'/'
dy 1 du I
Then - and
(LU I r' - dx 2
(ly I I -_. I
dx I .0 2 2/x(lfx)
(c) Let y= log (scc' X) := Jog U, where u =sec' •
y I cl
(114 1
Then d-
du = -u and /x X./2
dy dy du 1 - I
- (/X c/u dx - ii X./ iT
I
- sec - ' x
dy (I
Aliter, -=- (tog sec' X
I d
-- (see - ' x)
Sec X /x
I I
sec-i

667
DI1RENT1AL cAlcuLuS
Example 1. Find the deriini(ivC of ( x 1
-4. 3 -l- 9) tan x e.
Solution. Let y. (x' - 4x3 1-9) tati x C'.

By using rule III, regarding the derivative of the product of three
functions, we have
dy -(x --4X3 -1 9) tan x (c') I (x 1 -- 4x3 9) e' (tan x)

JX
-I tan Xe' (x-4x2 1-9)
_( t 4 3 +9) tan x e' - (x 1 — 4-0 - j 9)e' sec X 1-tan X e'(4. 3 -- I 2x)

(x'- 12x 2 -f9) tail e' -t (x - 4x 3 -j 9) e' see' X.
Example 2. Find the differential co-.cJictent Of
( ( pg \
7 (cos x) (log x) A- cosec x-i w.r.t. x.
tall X
Solution. Lt y --7 (ens x)([og x) 1-3 cosec x
l right iiand side is the product of two functions
The first term oi
co x and log x, where 7 is only it constant, therefore, we can apply the
product rule The second term is the product of a constant and it junction
and the third term is the quotient of two functions tan X and (x 1- e s ). In
this we shall have to apply the quotient rule.
(IYd d d
— = [ cos X. (log x) flog X. 1 -(cos x)]±3 (cosec x)
(x+e'). --(tau x) -tan x. ,,-,. x±e')

(x e')
flcosx 1
I - --- —log .v sin X II --3 cosec x cot x
L X
(x e') sec" x - -tan x (1-1-c')
Example 3. Differentiate the following function w.r.t, x

(a) sin ( x 2 1-2x - 5) -, , (b) log sin x2.
Solution. (a) Let y -=sin (x2-+-2x--5)7
Pitt u=(x 2 + 2x —5), --u, then y ---: sin v
du - 7l.7(r 2 +2 5)6
2x+2,
dx 1U
dy
and -cos vcos 141coS (x2f2x_5)7
dv
668
BUSINESS MAT1IPMAT1C
By using the chain rule, we get
dy dy dv du
- X7-Xj
-- cos (x2 +2x- 5)7 x 7(,1 2x 5) 8 x (2x+2)

Aliter. ( x 2 4-2x- - 5). - ( ( x'-f-2x 5)7]
- --
cos ( x2 +2x . 5) 7 7 ( x 2 -I-2x- 5)

7 cos (x' + 2x— 5)7 (x 2 -i 2x - 5)(2x+ 2).
(1') Le Y=log sin x'
Put
v :--- sin u, then y --log v
dt d
- 2x - cos U Cos x'
dx
and dy II
s ill dv -u v sin X2
(ly (ly dv du
cos x 2x2x cot x2.
dy j it
AHter. -- (sin x )
dX sin x dx
sin 2 • cos x' -.-.(x')

dx
2x
- cos x'=2x cot x4.
sn x2
Exaniple 4. Find the dffereniial co-efficient
of
(a) tan (log tan-1 .1 x)+tan '(sin e°-') w.rt. x,
(b) e'- w.rj. sin x,
Solution, (a) We shall apply sum rule, chain rule and the standard
results.
Let Y-=tan (log tan' \)-f--ta,-' (sin e)
dy d
= (t an l (log tan
' X )]+ d- Ftan- 1 (sin e)J
-
scc' (log tan- V7) tan-' xJ
1 d
± j- (sine)

scc (log tan' V v) . -- .1 -- (tan' x)

tan \i X
(I
- ----- CO -
I sill" e (IX
=•sec 2 (log tan'\/ x) -.. -- ---- '--(V

Lao X 1 +C \/ v) 2 dx
d
(ax)
S cc I (tag tan ' V) I ae' cos (ed')

2(an . x) \. X I !-iii (v'')
(h) Let y e' dy

z sin x, thcn we need , for which we shall use
,Iz
chain rule. Now
dy . daz
c -j-- (tan .v)._r.sec 2 .v e' and cos X
17'-
'c (Lk (L
(19 dy dx 2
-. - -- ---- e ' ------ x
sec
. sec, V
(Is A ci z CO s .V
Example 5. Itid
7- when x -= a cos r, y a Sit1 3 t.
dx
Solution. 32 CO5 1 ( 501 1
dy
3a sill'2 I COS I
dy
d y di
3fl StI'L t COS
dv ='Ix - — tan I.
(It
(IV
Example
Exa 6. Find - When v (I (f--Sit: 1), y zi(! — COS t).
Solution. Differentiating w.r.t. 1, we obtain
dx dy
a( I - cosI), = a sin 1
(/( di

131JSINE33 MATUI3MAT1CS
670
'ly
!' a sin l
dx dx a( I —cos t)
dl
I I
2a sin cos
- cot
I 2
2a SUI -
EXERC ISE I)
Find the derivatives of the following w.r.t. x
f. (a) -L., (b)
2. (a) 7x 4 I 3x--9.v4 5, (b) X- --
.2
3. (a) (x-
x3
4. (a) (xi a)(-i- b)(x + c), (h) V x(ax 2 - bx.c)(1x2fmx+n)
5xi_6x2_7X.1 8
5. (a) (6) ' 5x-6
7x+4 ' 4x I-I
6. (a) (5x 3 i 6 2 + I lx±7)11, (6) v.+hx+c
(c)
2x 3x--5x+6
(a) (1— x 2 ) tan x, (6) 3\/X sin x, (c) x3 tan

X
7
14- tan log cos X
. (a) __-----,
41 (b) (c)____
sill x oxtan ogX
Sill 2x 1 cos (c
C5 X
9. (a)— b COS x-f-sin x
L.COS Sin 2x'
dy
-=2
10. If y --sin (2 sin x), show that dx l—x
ebot •In x (c) log (\/X-1 -
it. (a) log sin X, (b)
12. (a) log sin V' X, (6) \/sin's/T (c) e'°' ian—I
(d) log\/x+V'x2+a
l+ tan x a!-bsinx cos X+smn x
13. (a) 1—tan x (b) Ts i 'n x+ b cos x—sin x

J)IPfltRCNTT,\ I. CSLCUL(J3 671
COS x
14. (a) cos J, 2 sar' (cos x)}, (h) tan - 2 -1
(c) /; Ian tan- ' :'i ), (J) \ 'sin(msin'x)
(e) e tfl fl log (sec9

15. log sec - -'4- log (log cos
I (x--I) I
16. (a) If y =- tan --' 2x H
- log -----r
(ly .v
fli)VC that
2
.v
(/) li • p - -- 1 1 2x -
log 7 -----4• -,:-;2tall- '
dy I
prove that
17. Differentiate sin (lo g x) v.r.t. tan (es),

IS. Differentiate (1 -f-x2) cot ' X w.r.t. log e' (I +x)}
19. liftcrcntiate (x - Ox a 2 y logcc t --- wi. t. taii 1 (a cos hx)
20. Differentiate x log tan - ' x w.r.t. Sill X
dy
Fin d - - i n the following cascs
'lx i
21. X-= a(t -sin 1), Y::-(I(I --co x)
3W 3012
22. iP)' (l-1 1)
23. v :!og t +Sjfl 1, y=e'-4-cos I
24 (cos 0 - 1 - ti sin 0), ya (sin 9 --cos o)

X=-a
25.x -=3 cos 1-2 cos 3 1, y=3 sin 1-2 sine t.
ANSWERS
I. (a) •- x- 8 / 2 , ( h) 7x'°/ 3 . 2. (a) 28x3 - 9x' _9
(/) I -4-i--- . 3. (a) 2z— .--, (b) I _L.!..

BUSINESS MArI1(m.f,T(C
672
4. (a) 3x 2 +2JX+2bX2cXF(th j lc •j ca,
/ x(I.1 mx I•fl)(2lX -- b)
(b) (1v2 rn x+ n )(ax4 I tjx -c) \
2\/X
-i x(ax& I bx + c)(2lx-f- nz)

5.
(a) 21424x,20 (J) )4," 12) . I
(7x-+ 4) (lv I
75x --I 2O.k 31 x 2 -72.v - 2
(c)
6. (a) I l(5X +6x2 -- 1 lx-I-7)'°l5x 2 - I 2X 1- ii , (b) ax-4 bx-I-c

8x-9 :- - 7. (a) (1- x 2 ) sec' x 2x tan X
3 . ç/(2x+3x'- 5x-j 6)1
3
(h) -.-----. (2x cos x-jsln x), (c) x 2 (3 tan x i-x sec' x)
2\/x
2x(ax 4-b) sec x2 --a tan 2
8. (a) _ cosec , (h) - f-

(l v) tan X+x log cos x sec , (log •)1
( - -
tan2 (log x)
X (cos X 4-sin x),
9. (a) sec' x, (b) sec' x (c) use cos 2x -(cos --sin x)
X
--(sin x+Cos x) it. (a) cct X, (b) cos X, (c)

2\,/x21
12. (a) ()
b (c) j-i--1i
_______
2T'
2 --a2) cosx
(d) —±.._ 13. (a) (1--tail (1') (b
(a sin x+b)2
x)2'
2 x-t-a2
(c) 14. (a) 2 sin {2 sin ` (cos x)}

---j
ab ax -
3 sin X [tan
b (C)
s f8
in cos (in sin-' x) L(e)e' 6x2 tanx3

(I) I I-x
2 Vsjn(rn sin x) 1 _2
15.-------- -
2v'l sec x2 COS

D!FlRENT1AL CALCULUS 673
Cos(log XVX I -I-2x cot'' x)(x4-l)

17 (8
see (') e (2
—(I 4(12 cos' bx)(x2Fax.c2)n_l
log cot -• —cosec x (x2-l_aX+a j

19.
ub sin bx -
+X2) tiln-t tali-' .x
20 2
(I i--x 2 ) tan' x (/x cos - 3 sin T)

21. cot 22. (2tt 23. 24. tan 0 25. col I
2 (1-21) I-1-t Cos t
1711. DIFFERENTIATION BY THE METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION

Sometimes we can reduce the given expression to be differentiated
to a much simpler form b y making a suitable substitution. To hit at the
proper substitution, a fair knowledge of trigonometry and algebra, together
with a good amount of practice is needed. We illustrate the method by
the following solved examples
Example 7, FInd the derivative of sin' i+x2
2x
Solution. Let y"=sin' - arid put X=tan 0.
2tan
then ,V =sin o = sin-' (sin 20)=-20
I +tan2
Now x='tan 0 givs 9—tan-' x.
20=2 tan' x (1)
Therefore, instead of finding the derivative of the given expression,
'e find the derivative of 2 tan x which is in much simpler form than the
iven expression. Differentiating (1) with respect to x, we get
dy I
dx l+x2
d,'. 2x ' 2
Hence -lSIfl l+x2H.+.-2
2x \ dy 2
Example 8. If y=tan prove that -a--- =-
Solution. Put xtan 0 so that B=tan' x

2x - 2tanG
y= tan 1--tan( 1—tan' 0
674
then

y= 2 tan x. Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

BUSINESS MAIHE?.IATICS
dy
(I).
Example 9. Find the derivative of

2
I+x2
tan 3x— x
1-3 X2
3
then
Solution. Let y=tan' 3x—,

3x'
Y=3 tan- x 1
y=tan-1 [3 tan 0—tans
. Put x=tan 0 so that 0=tair' x
0 ]tant (tan 30)==30
3
Differentiating w.r.t. X, we get (1)'
x±
Example 10. Find the derivative of (an-1
1— /QX
r
Solution. Let tan _ __. Put V x =taJ) 0 atl(IV a=tan
I - v ax
Now V '
Then
X
y= tan
=tan 0
Y= tan-' V X +tan
r tan 0 f-tan
1
L 1--taIl 0 tan
0=tan1 \/ _X and \/a=tan
Y : I)itTrcntiating Wr.t
1
tan [tan ii + 41 --0-I
v=tan'/a
X, WC gc
dy I I I
dx Th - x 2 T(1±x
VJ+xz_I
Example ii. Find the derivative of tan'
Solution Let y=tan'

/rTz_ 1
X
Put x=tan 0 so hat 0—tan' x then we have
y= tan
r
I —cos 0
tan 0
2 sin (0/2)
_______________
=tan-'L sin 0 1=tarl [2 sin (0/2) cos
1
jtan_' [sec
r
_0-11
tan 0
2 (J J
=tan-'[tan (f)]=:

DIFFERENLIAL CALCULUS 675
Y= tail-' X
dy 1 1
Differentiating, we get =.
--a--- i- l•
J± 2 fly 2
Example 12. If y sec show that -- =j-----.
Solution. Put x=tan 0 so that 0-tan x
_ )=sect (I )5ec'(see 20)20
then Y- 2 tail - ' -V. Differentiating, Nye get
fly 2
dx - 1 + X 2'
dy
a Sifl v-I- b cos .v
Eanip1c 13. If y:- a( osx_bnx)'dx
Solution. Let a=r cos a, b=r SILl a SO that
Wsill x+b CLIS X sill __ t,' 1 (X+X)
U cos .v -b sin x cos (x+ )
v-. ran-' [tan (.v -}a)] =X -f-a
dy
Hence I , a being a constant.
Eaiiip1e 14. Differentiate ivith respect to x the function
tat) ' \/___________________

( I +x)-- /(i_x)
77 t-x)+
Solution. Put Xs-COS 20, then
'l= l-1-0O52öa=V2 cos 0, \/l--X= v'T0'1 2Sifl 0
+x--J l--x 1(COSO—SinO
-
'° cos 0-I- sin 0
=tan'-1()=tan
1 tail 0
1 tan'
Y1it EOS1
f 1 —0 )= --0
i dy I
Hence - = _-- --
dx 2 \/l—xi

676 HUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Example 15. Differentiate
tan-' "± w.r.t, cos-' x2.

V1±x 2 i 1--x
Solution. Let cos x'=u so that X2 =cos U, hence
\11 1
-X _S/ I -f-cos u=V2 cos it,
/1x2 V2 Sin U
TT
rcos4u-sinu
Now y=tair'
\/TTfV'1_x 2 LcOs Ju j i Jul
I—tan U\ I Ic
tan )=tan ' tan u)
(-a-T
I I
• dy
du
EXERCISE (II)
Differentiate with respect to x the following
1. (a) sill-' (2x V I-x 2 ), (b) cos (I -2v 2 ), (c) sin' (3x-4x3)
2. (a) sin ( V1 I --X 2), (b) cos (2X' I), (C) cos (4x3-3x)

3. (a) sin' (i 2 (b) cos' (C) tan' (--)
). ),
±.. 13x-x3\
4. (a) sec (b scc' (c) tan'
)' , I_3x2)
5. (a) tan (
sin \
(b) tan
/ /i—cosx
I+ Cos I-cosx )
(c)tan' k/I±x2+Vl_X21
7+x2 \/iT2)
(6x-8.z3 2X -
6. (a) sec (b) tan 3a331
1l2x )
ANSWERS
2 3
I Hint. Put x sin 0 ; (a) and (b)
(c) v'Tx'
--1 -2 -3
2. Hint. Put x=cos 0 ; (a) (b) -- , (c)

2
3. H int. Put x=tan 0 ; i n each case.
1+x2
4. flint Put x tan 0 ; (a) (b) (C)
I
5. () Hint Express sill x1c=m ; - --
T
(b) Hint. Express /cosx /Ltan

I I -i-cos x .J 2 cos' (x/2) 2 ; --
(c) Hint. Put x2 -cos 0.
The bracketed exp.: tan(-

- --)
a 63a
(a) ------_, (1,) .-----_ 7, Hint. x-a tan 0,

1712, LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION
In order to find the derivative of (I) a function which is the product
or quotient of a number of factors or (ii) a function of the form
(variable)""'"', i.e, of the form [jx))*('), whe rcf(x) and g(x) are both
derivable, it is often advisable to take the logarithms of the function first
and then differentiate. The process of taking logarithm and then differen-
tiating is known as logarithmic differentiation. The following examples
will illustrate the method of logarithmic differentiation.
(_)1I31
Example 16. Differerniate log[ e3. w.r.f. x.
3)i
Solution. [.et y'Iog [e3. (5x
I3
,.'5x-3 \1l3
—loge -I-log
=3x log e +--- log

= 3x+) [log (5x-3)—log (4x42)]
Differentiating wy.z. x, we get
[3x4 {log (5x_-3)---Iog (4x+2))]
==- (3X)+_[ log (5X_3)_

log (4x+2)]
=3+Tj3(5X_3)__2.d_(4X+2)
+1{5X3_4x+2
Example 17. DW'erenliate (ax 2 ±bx-fc) e el tan ( Ix-1- m ) cos x w,rt X.
Solution. Let y =( ax2 -fbx-f . c) e el tan (lx+in) cos' x

log y=n log (ax2 +hx+c)4-cx+log tan (lx-f-m)+log cos' x
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
1 dy n
d (ax2 + bx -f-c) -4- c
y 2
Iv (1X -fbx-I-C d
1 d 1
tan (Ix -fm -- (cog x)
4-tan(lx-f'fl) — Cos- 1 X dx
n 1
(2ax-4-b)+c+ (ix-f-m) sec2 (ix -I- n) . I
ax2 -J- f, x-4- c tan
-1
dy
5 n( 2 ax + b) +c 4 - 1 sec 2 (lx I'm)
ax2 -j-b x4c tan (lx-I-Pfl) OS-IX/4
where y is given in (1),
(X 2 - 1)4 /5 (3x+5) 2 1 7 e3'
Example 18. Differen!iate w.r,r. X•
(x-9)' 12 (2x-7)4
(x 2 -1)415 (3x+5) 211 e'
Solution. Let Y= - (x9) 1 I 2
(2x-7)4
Taking logarithms of both sides and using the theorems on logarithms,
we get
log yr— i log (.–. l)+ log (3x-}-5)+3x—. log (x---9)-4 log (2x-7)
Differentiating w.r.t. X, we get
1 dy 4 1
2x-l- 2 13+3-i-- . --
y 3x4-5 2 x-9
.2
dy (x2 -1)4 (3x+5)217 e3

dx (x—.9)112(2x-7)'t
I 8x 6 _______
X
L5(x2_I)+7(3x+5
Example 19. (a) If y=x', find

dx

DLFPRNTfAL CALCULUS
679
Solutiov. We have y—x

Taking logarithms of both sides, we have
log y==x log x
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
1
- (IY —=logX+X. 1 - = 1+log x
dy
-1-=-y(1+log x)=f (illog x)
(b) If yx' , find

JV
Solution. Taking logarithms of both sides we have
log y=log x =f log x

Differentiating w.r,i. x, we get
Idy d d
-r-X j— (log x)f log x a- (x')
--
But -
X)=x (1 +log x) [From Example 19(0)1
1 dy
- +log x. x (I 1-log x)
- [xx '+log x. f (1 +log x)]
Example 20. If x'=e-', prove thai dx (1. log x)t

[I,C.W.A., June 19851
Solution, Taking logarithms of both sides, we have
y log x=(X—y) log e . y(1 +log X)=X ( log e=l)
1+logX
1
dy (l+logx). l_XXT log
dx (I+ log x) 2 0 + log x)
Example 21. Differentiate x a x (Sjn x)°" w,r,t. x.
Solution. Let y=x +(sin x)°'
Here we cannot take logarithms directly because
log (m+n),I--log m+!og n
We now find the differenia1 coefficient of each term on R.H.S.

separately.
Let Ux' and v(sin x)' so that yu+v
• dy du dv
Now u=x" Taking logarithms of both sides, we get

log u=log (x'" ')=Ian X . log x
Differentiating wr.t. x, we have
-1 du I
=tan X. - --l-log x. see , X
u dx x
I
Again v=(sin x)°°". Taking logarithms of both sides, we get
log v=log (sin x)111 x = COS X log sin x
Differentiating, . =-cos x --------. cos x— log sin v . sin x

V dx sin x
dv rs2x
j-- =(sin x)" —log Sin x • sin x
sin x
Y =x" [ t an
Hence L x _F log x . sect
r cos2
+(sin — log sin x . sin x
sin x
EXERCISE (IIJ)
I. If y=sin x cos x (log x) ex . tan-' x . x", find
2. ( x + a ) (x+b) (x-l-c) (x-4-d)

Find the derivative of (a)
(x—a) (x—b) (x—c) (x—d)
(b) x'jx-4a'
/X1a1
3—x " d
3. If Y=(2-_x)(IT_ ) find
Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. X:

[ex (.)3/4],
4. (a) log (b) e5 P • ( V 2x'— I),
(C)
.x e5'
(2x—I)"3

x" (5_2x)2 °
(4_3X)314(7-_4X)*15 6. A.
7. (a) (1 +x 2 , (b) x"', (c) (x

8. ((1) X 10 8 , (b) x 1ot 1 101 )
9, f + ax +f -- a, (a is constant)
10. a) (sin x)'° '-l-(x)' x (b) (cot x)Jlx -F-(tafl X)C
ANSWERS
1 Y cot x_tanX±+l+r.i7fT}
1 1 1 1 1
2. (a)
+ + ;i
( 4 _2a ? x 3 I-4&)
N -2 - - a2 ) 3 ' 2(x2 - 4a
r3-xi'lç I I
3 (2-x)
11 A-I1iY2(1±X)
3 3 2x3— 10x2+5
4 (a) I+T) 4(xf3)' (b)
f/2x-1
x 2 e sx r 2 3 2
(C)
(3x+1)112(2I)1L51x2(3x±I)3(2x_1)
x112(5_2x)213 r 1 4
5. (4.3x)314(7_4x)/5 4(43)I3(7 -4x)
3(5-2x)
6. xx(l+Iogx)
7, (a) 2(1+X)[_-j+ log (x+l)j. (1) X' .
(C) x j -4-2 log x) R. (2x'' 'log x,

(i_4_IO (log X))
(b) , 1o: (IQ }
9 ax+ax log a+x x (1 +Iog x)

si x
logn
10. (a) (sin x)"'( cot x . log x+ --------)
x log
(b) (cot x)" I [cos x (log cot x)—sec x]

+(tan x)"' [cosec X — sin x log tan x].

1713. DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS

Sometimes y is not given directly in terms of x, the value of
dy
can be found by differentiating the given equation term by term and
dy
then separating
dx.
Example 22. Find if x3+y33axy.

[LC,W,A,, December, 1990]
Solution. We have
x3 +y3 = 3axy
Differentiating with respect to x, we have
dy dy
3x21.3y2 =-3a (y+x
or (3y2_3ax)=3ay_3x2
dy-
dx
dy ay—x2
or
dx y2—ax
Example 23. If xvT -l y /J+x --- 0 , prove that

(ly I
dx (1+x)
Solution. From the given equation, we get
x/j_y/jj, which on squaring and rearranging gives
x 1 —y I x 2 y_y 2 x=0 , i.e., (x—y)(x+y+xy)--O
Thus x+xy+y=O [: x ^ y * x—y-7'-01
X
*
• dy (I +x) l—x. 1 —1
• •. dx (l+x)2 (I +X)"
Example 24. Find LY from the following equation
dX
x'y'--3x=5y.
dy dy
Solution. Differentiating, we get 2x-2y . +3-=5
2y4-+4-=2x+3

dy (2y4- 5)
dx
• (I)' 2x-I-3
dX2yj-5
dy
Example 25. Find ifx3—xy2+3y2+2=0.
Solution. Differentiating each term w.r.t. x, we get
3x'-{-(--x. 24_y 2)±6y i-=O.

3x2-2xy
dx
(6y-2xy) dy
1 32
dy Y 2 - - 3X2
Hence -=
(IX —'2y(3--x)'
y if ax t -j2hxy fhy 2 -f-2gx + 2fy + c= 0.

Example 26. Fifld dx
L
Solution. Differentiating the equation w.r.t. X, we get

dy
2ax±2/i(x % A-y
_=_(ax+hy+g)
(hx-f-by-1-f) _(1yy
dx
- axhy+g
dx hx -t by +f
xx_00
Example 27. If y .=x , prove that

dy y2
X
d = I—y log x
x.., Co
Solution. y=x -=x
log y=y log X
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
1 dy dy
-=
y dx x
' 1 dx
dy f 1
Ix
684 BUSINESS MATHeMATICS
Y2
dy
(Ix x(l —y log x)
dy _______
Hence x —= —
dx l—y log x
EXERCISE (IV)
Find dy of the following
dx
1. (a) x 2 4- y2 ---2x=O, (b) X+3xy+y24.
2. X3+)X4y+yx=5 3. sin y =x sin (a+y).
4. (x±y)m+xInyn S. Y._—X",
6. If Y = -"[sinX+ \/sin N/sin prove that

dy COSX
dx 2y--1
ANSWERS
1—x 2x+3y
1. (a) * b
, 3x±2y
dy (3x2+ lOxyi-y) sins (a +y)
2
dx x(5xTF sin a
4. —log y+ X sin y
x cos y log x—y'
1714. DERIVATIVE AS A RATE MEASURE
Differentiation is employed to measure the rate of change in a
dependent variable with reference to a minute change in the independent
variable. Let, the relation between two variable X and y be y=J (x)
and let 8 x represent a given increase in x, theii 5y will be consequent
increase in y.
For a unit change in x, the change in y is
gy
represents the 'average' change in y per unit change in x in
the interval (x x+8x).
Now, as S x approaches zero, the average rate Ly in the interval

ax
(x, x + x) becomes the actual rate at x.
I.e., urn Ly becomes the actual rate at x.
ax-,O 3X

IMt'FIUINT1AL CALCULUS
dy
I e. - becomes the actual rate at x.
dx
Hence represents the actual rate of change in y per unit

dx
change in X for the particular value of c.
Or is the rate at which y is changing with respect to x.
Now, to find out a change in the dependent variable, I.e., 8y when x,

need not approach 0, we can use differentiation as an approximate
measure of change so that
SY21Y.
dx
y
This is because, dx
where e is a small quantity which vanishes in the limit.
Proof. 5y=(dy + ) x
dX
dy
ax
(ty
dx
This is because tX approach zero as 8x.-0.
Hence - . 8x
by dy
ax
Velocity. It is defined as a change in a given phenomenon with
respect to time. In business economics there is use of income velocity,
money velocity, credit velocity, etc. In science, this refers to the rate of
displacement or change of position with respect to time. For example,
If ftV)=31+t3
Then, f'(V) or ...(iI)
(ii) above refers to velocity.

Again if, J V)=2( 2 ±3t (where t stands for time units)
df V)
Then f'(V) or =41+ 3
dt
Therefore, the velocity after 4 units of time is 4(4)+3-= 19
per Unit of time.

Acceleration. It refers to the rate of change in velocity or a change

in the rate of change. Therefore, if velocity is expressed by
d
acceleration is expressesd
d2V
by
This is because
(IV d ,(IV d 'it (1W
- (V)and
(V)
dt Tt
I1IL;str ation. Given the function of speed as f(S)=31 + t' in t seconds,
calculate both velocity and acceleration after 2 seconds.
Solution. If f(S)_3t+(3
(If(S)
3+3(2
dt
l2f(S)
and 776t
Therefore, after 2 seconds

Velocity3 + 3(2) 2 15
and Acceleration :=6 x 2 12
1715. SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION
As observed in many of the preceding examples, the derivative of a
function of x is, in general, also a function of x. This derivative, which
may he called the first derived function, or the first derivative (of the func-
tion). may itself be differentiated, the result is accordingly called the
second derived function or the second derivative (of the original function).
If the second derivative is differentiated, the result is called the third
derived function, or the third derivative and so on. If the operation of
differentiation is performed oil function n times in succession, the final
result is called the nth derived function or the nth derivative of the
function.
NOTATIONS
1. If y denotes the function of x, then
d dy
the first derivative, namely - (Y), is denoted by
dxdx
d 1d (/2),
the second derivative, namely - i is denoted by -b -
dxjxx -),
r(Y)]
d3y
the third derivative, namely • d— i y d , i s denoted by
dx L4X dx dxs
and so on. On this way of writing,

i)iFFjflENr1A1. CALCULUS 687
d".Y
the oth derivative is denoted by
II. The letter I) is frequently used to denote both the operations and
d
the result of the Operation indicated by the symbol s-. The successive
derivatives of y are then Dy, D(Dy), D(D(Dy)}, ..., these are respectively
denoted by
Dy, D 2y, D3y .... . D1y.
1(1. Instead of the symbols shown in I and It, for the successive
dcrivativcs of y, the following are sometimes used, namely
Y" _v'', v"', . . . ,
IV. If the function he denoted by Ax), its first, second, third,
and nth derivatives (with respect to x) are generally denoted by
1(x), 1(x), f"(x), ..., f'n(v) respectively,

(1 C12 (/3 (j
also by Jx), 1(x), fix).
-
THE nth DERIVATIVE OF SOME SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

I.
Uheii r1XTZ 1, 2
n(n - I )x'2,
and y, n(n— I )(n-2)..,3.2.l '--fl
II. y=(ax-i-h)'
Then = n(aX+b)' a,
y— flu? — I) (ax -I-- by-2 &.............
and y,= n(i— l)(n— 2),.. 3.2.1 (ax-f- b)'T"O'=n a"
Ill. y=e0
Then Y1 rrae, y 2 =a 2 e°, 1
y =& e', •.., an e
Iv. y= ax-F-b
(—fla - ____________
1
(ax -f-b)2 ' 2
(ax+ b ) 3 .
(-1)(-2)(-3) ... (—n)a (-1)" It ! an
(ax +b)+ i (
ax 4b)r+i
V. y=sin(ax+b)
y 1 =a cos ( a x-l- b ) =a sin I rc -l- (ax +b)]

y 2 =a 2 cos
I f(axb) -- a3 sin [2. -i-- -F(a-fb)]
[sin (ax±b)j f
s:Q S l [n. Tc +((ix+b)]
VI. y.° cos (hx-1- c)
Here YmK =ac cos (bx c) _be a sin (1,x+C)

dx
= (a cos (bx -f c)— b sin (hx-f c)]
Put a=-r cos 0, b -=r sin 0,
then r- and tan O=_
LY =e ft cos 0 cos (hx c)--r sin 0 sin (bx . f C))

dx
rre cos (bx-F-c+0)
e(a'-- b2)112 cos (bx -- c-i- tan-'
We see that to differentiate once, we multiply with ((j 2 +b 2 ) 1 / and

add tan' to (bx+c). To differentiate second time we shall have to
el
multiply with the square of ( a 2 fb2)' /2 and add 2 tan' to (bx fc) so
that we get
Wy 2.1/2
T _e (a2+b2 ) cos( b x-4- c -42 tan'

Therefore, to differentiate n times, we have to multiply by (a 2 ;- by)'
n times and add n tan' — to (bx-+c).
112
Thu5 -=-e (a2+b2 cos ( b x+ C + fl tan' a)
Example 28. if y-=a sin nx + b cos nx, prove that

+n'yO.
dx2
(I.),
Solution. We have dx - =an cos ?2.v—bn sin nx
DI!TereI1iating again, we get

d dy\ d2y an2 sin nx—bn 2 cos nx
— n 2 (a sin n x+ b cos nx)=—n7y

DtFPERrNTJAL CALCULUS 689
the required result.
Exartp1e 29. Find the fourth derivative of log /3T7.
Solution. Let y-1og \/3X-j-4= - log (3x-f-4)
dy 1 13
3 -- (3x -f4)
(IX 34
Again differentiating, we have
(l)(3x+4)z . 3=--- (3x+3)-

dx ()
Differentiating again, we have
(--2) (3x-4 4). 3=27(3Xt4),-3

d4y 243
j- 27(— 3)(3x-f- . 243(3x±4)4-
ExrnpIe 30. Find 2

when xa cos 0, yb Sin 0.
fix
dy
dy dO bcos0 b
Solutio n . We have -- - - —cot 0
dx dx --asinO a
do
d2y b do b
(Iva (—cosec 0),,- =3 TX
dx (12y b
But —a sin 0, therefore dx2
dly
E x ample 31. /fx=- a (0—sin 0) and y:a (I —cos 0), find
Solut i on. We have =a(l — cos 0) and lt^- sin 0

do A
2a sin - cos -
• dy/dO a sin 0 2 2
= cot 2
d dx/dO a(1— cos 0) 20 sin'
0

690 nusnffss MATTIENIATICS

dly 0 1 do 1
Then cosec?7
-------a
sin'2
do
1 1
2 6 •0
2 srn 2a sin 2 4a sin'
Example 32. If Y == T (sin- 1 x)2 , show Mat

(1—x2 y21 --xy1 = I
Solution. We have y1r= . 2 sin-' x.
4.\/1X2V15jfl-1

(I _x $)yi l =(Sin 1 x)2=2y
Differentiating both sides, we get
(1_x?). 2Y1y2•-2xy122y1
Cancelling out the common factor 2 y1 , we get

(l—x2)y2.--xy=1
Example 33. Ify(x±,/iT?)", show that

(I +x')y 2 + XY1 m2y.
SoJ.tjon. We have y 1 =m(x+ /Ti)-1 [ i +

Vt + x
=m(x+/T2)1 (\/i+x)
MY
Squaring both sides, we have (1 +x2)y12==m2y2

Differentiating, we have (1 +xl) 2y i )Yi +2xy1 2 =m 1 . 2yy1
Cancelling out the common factor 2y1 , we get
0 +x3)y1+xy1=m'y.

DIFF6ENT1AL CALCULUS
Example 34. If y .r=2x-_, prove that

d2y dy
0,
dX I fix
[I.C.JVA., June 19901
Solution. We have
dy --2 2
-
(IX X2
or =2x!_4
dx
j2
J
- =4x
dx dx
dy dy dy
Or x9 — -f x -- -4-x -- - 4x= 0
or x2 +X+x(2_)_4X0 From (2)]
(12y dy 4
or --4x-0
2)' + dv 4
or 2X - ):O
-(
(12y /y
Or X2r,,+Xj__JO. [From (01
Example 35. if 2x=y h f4 +y 11 , then prove that

(x2_1)
[CA., May 1991]
Solution. We have
2x=y113±y/4
2 . ±_ y-514
4' yI4 'dx 4 ' ' (JX
/4).
or 2— -- . y' . (y 14—y
or Rj'-(y—y-t14)
dx

692
BUSINESS MAT112MATICS
Bu (y"4-y-1/4)1= (y"4 +Y-114 )2 -4=4x 2 - 4
[From (1)]
yi/4.yi/4.2fjrj
Substituting this in (2), we have
8y=2/i
dx
or 4)'- -/yj Ly
dx
or
dx
dy d2y
32y +(x 2 2
A \dX dx dx2
or d2y
16Y=x-+(x2.l)
• dy dy
(x2-l).--
I
Exaxnple 36. If y x log--, then prove that
x
- 4 3x0 (C.A., November 1991]

SoItj 0 . We have
yrX
=3x2 . log -+X8.
or Ly =3x t log-! --.x
6x1og+3x2.x.()_2x
=6x log -1-3x-2x
--6x log -5x
=-[3x2 iog J._ _ X 2 ]_ 3X
-3x [From (1)J

DIFZ1UNflAL CALCULUS 693
d 2y 2 dy
+3x=Q
Example 37. if y=log (x+ /I 1 j_x), show that

( ! 2 +X 2)
y-j-xy 1 =- 0. [l.C.WA., December 19903
Solution. We have
y=log (x4- /1-j-x)
• 7]
[i+ 2]
___ rv'T2+x1
x+\/12 + x2 [ \/ J
or 4b/l2Ix2y1=O
or (121_x2)y12__0
(12+x2) 2y1y2+2xy1E=O
(l'+x')y2-Fxy1.0.
a stn1
Example 38. 1fyr-. e , then show that
( l— x 2 )y X ) = ay.
a
Solution. We have y1=e
asin x
A/ l--x 2y1 ==ae =ay
(I __x2)y12=ay2
(1— x2)2y1y2-2xy11= 2a2yy1
Hence (1 —x2)y2—xy1=a2y
Example 39. If y-= sin (m sin-' x), then
(I_xt)y, —xy 1 -- m'y=O
Solution We have y, = 'cos (in sin' x). m
y1 =rm cos (in sin-' x)

(1-x')y12 ==m2 cos 2 (m x)
==,n2 ri — sin(m i-' x)j=m(1 yt)
(1 ._x2)2y1y2_2xyj2r —2'n2yy1
Hence ( +x?)y2__xy1_1n2y=•
1
EXERCISE (V
d2y
1. Find in the following
(a) y =(2+- x ) sin x, (Li) y=xm e , (c) Y = xl tan' x

2. (a) Lfy=ax + bx2 -F cx 4d, find y 3 and y4.
(Li) If y-= 1-9* _ , show that
3. (a) If y= ae"' -4- be '. prove that :(ç.; =m2y
(/'))
(b) If y = a cos ni Ol- b sin mU, prove that dOI- -1'n2y=O
d 2y
4. If ysin ax, prove that -i + a2yO
'Ix-
5. (a) tfy=A sin (log x), prove that x2±xyy--0
(b) If y=sin (sill
prove that y+y1 tan x 4-y cos 2 xO
6. (a) Ifye cos x, then y4 4 4)'=O
(b) If y—e' cos 2x, then show that
dzy dy
d2
j-+5y==O
7. If y=Ae 2 +Bxe 2x , where A and B are any constants, then
dy
show that 411
,IX 2 —4 _ -t-4y-- 0
8. f yA (x+V'ii) n ±B(x_ 4x 2 l), then prove that

(x-- I)y2±xy1_112y=0
9. Ify=x sin (log x) -x log x, then
—X_ +2y_x log
10. Ify=i Ti+ i/x_ i, prove that

d2y dy I
(xt-_1)_ +x-=---y
11. (a) Y=sin - ' x, show that
2 d2y dy
(l_x )d.

(b) If y =e lanIx prove that (1 X2) y + ( 2X-- 1) Y1O
12. If Y = log (x I- V'2), then (1 fx2) y2-I-xy1=0

13. If y = cos (m sin x), show that (I —x 2) y2 2y
14. (a) find when x=a1 2 and y=2at

(/1)7
(b) Given that x=a cos3 0, y=b sin3 0, find
(f2y
(C) I1xa(O+sin 0), y=a(l-cos 0), find
15. Ii =et (cos 1 + sin 1), y = e' (cos t sin 1), show that
dy d2y I
- - -- tan 1, = - see1'
(Ix dx 2
l—t 21 d2y
16. If x=-- y-= -', find -
1±1 I -i-: dx2
ANSWERS
(a) y2= (1) y 2 ==,n(nj - l)x" - 2 e" 1- 2mnx m 1 e' + n2x"e"
2x(2-,, x2 ) 1 b
(C) V2 + 2 tan -v 14. (a) (b)
(I _+x2)2 3a Cos' 0 sill 0
(c)
16. 0.
4a cos4 o
1716. MACLAUR1N'S SERIES

1. Suppose f(x)=a+bx
and we wish to investigate whether the constants a and b can be represented
in terms of the special values of at say x=O.
If we put x-0 in (I), we obtain
f(0) a
Now differentiate (1) ;f(x)=b
To correspond with the above we will again put x=O in this and
obtain f'(0)=b
a+bx=ftO)f-xf'(0)
II. Suppose f(x)=a+bxl-cxt
Again f(0)a
696
BUSII.WSs MATHeMATICS
Differentiate (2), f'(x) b-f-2x
(3)
f'(o) b
Differentiate (3), f (x)=2c
P(0)=2c or c=f(o)
+bx+ x2
CX2JO)+xf'(0)+ f"(0)
whe
rcf(o) means that we have differentiated the given function Q-- bx+cxa
twice and then place xO
III. The student should assume
that in this case and show
Jtx ) f(0)+xf'(o)
IV.
Wecall
function that may now prove the general theorem. Assumitig thatf(x) is a
epan(1ed in ascending poweis O f .x. let
f(x)0L X
-X- x3-
(4)
We wish to find the unk nown c o-efficients
terms of the value of fix) 0 0, 0 1 02 , a, ,
ar*t its differential cocflicjepts at X ft
Put xO in (4), we have
Now differentiate (4) and note that

n
fl!( 1)1
We have
f'(x)=a+ f x + 20 x 2 ± . . f T1X 2 1+...

(5)
Put x= 0 ill this
Differentiating (5), we have

p(x)a,+
, X_+...+
_- (6)
Put x=. 0 in this
P(0)
Di fferentiate (6), we have
(7)

D1PFCRINT1AL CALCULUS 697
Put X=-O in this
Proceeding in this way. we will find that

fl, (0) --- a,
fOf n=l, 2, 3,
We have now obtained Maclaurin's scries which states that iff(x)
a be expanded in ascending powers of x. thc ii
f(x)J0i 1! f ( 0)+ ! RU3! J(()) n!

Example 40. By Maclaurin series expand a' and prove f/rat
1 1 1
2! 34!"
Solution. Here f(x)=e', f(0)=e._l

f'(x) er,
J"(o)= I
.f"(x)e', f"(0)=i
f"'(x)=e', ["'(0) 1 and scion.
By Maclauria's series we know
fi x ) f(Q)+xf'(o).4 (o 1 (ffl-...
\2 x
x 2 x3
± -. , + ±
Putting x 1, we get
e-=2
2 ! ± 3! T ..............
Ex21rnpc 41. Find the coefficient of x;r in the expansion of
(1+ax-1-bx 2) e
Solution. We know that e1_xj-X1_1±
........ J)n
(n—fl
(1±ax--bx) e ' = ( 1 f ax + bx2 ) Ix +,_ 3 ,+ .........
±(_l)n_2
(nYi' (n—i)i' n!}

698
flUS)NSS MAT111MATjCS
The term in the given expression involving the nth power of x is

given by
(-1)" 2 bx2.
(- 1)'-¼'x. 1)'
It a 1)
X
n —2)!(n_1)!
Hence the required coefficient is
LL
?n !(n—j) L(n-2) !
Exary j,le 42. Expand sin x in ascending powers of x applying
Maclauri,'s expansiol: hence obtain the expansion of cos X.
Solut ion. Ax):-sin x, 1(0)—sin 0=0
f( x ) = Cos x, f'(0)=cos 0=1
fi(x)= —sin x, f(0)=sin 0=0
f(x)= cos x, f"(0)=•--cos 0= I
f'(x)=sin x, f'(0)=sjn 0=0
E v idently f(0) is zero whenever it is an even integer and + I and
- 1 alternately when 11 is an odd integer.
Now Maclaurin's expansion is
X 2 3
A x) = f(0)+xf(o) fW+!f"(o)+...
Substituting the values of Jtx). f(0), P(0), f"(0).....we get
sill x
2!
X3 x 5 x7
=x-
D ifferentiating both sides, we get

3x2 5x4
Cos X
X2
x'
1 T+ ...............
Ea zpIe 43. Apply Maclaurin's expansion for expanding log (I x),
log (1 -x), in ascending powers of x and deduce the expansion
of log
Let f(x)=log (1 -+x) J0) =log 1=0

699
oIFFRNrIAL CALCULUS
—1,
f1(x) - 6 and so on.

X X2
log([ l.x)0f i!12! ( f (2)- (-6)-...
xy X 3 x
Changing the sign of x i 7 i result (1) we have
log (1--x)—X - ( 2)

3 2.\-
-s-. -- --
log (1 +x)-log (I --x)=-2x+ 2x
log- X3
±T
XS
The student may note that unfortunately log x cannot be expanded

by Maclaurin's theorem, since iff(x) log x, f(0) is infinite and so is P(0),
f"(0 ), f"(0).
EXERCISE (VI)
I. Use Maclaurin's theorem to expand the following functions
(a) e5 , (b) log (1-2x), (c) sin ax, (d) cos bx, (e) (1+x)".
2. Prove by Maclaurin's series
x 2 x4
+2
X2 X4
3. Prove that x sin x -l- cos x=-1-l--- _---_-_
4. Prove that e' 1 -x+ L X2 -

2 22
Prove that e l cos x = 1 -f-x-- x4 *
ANSWERS
(5x) t (5 )3
j, (a) e5=15x+---i--+-j--i-+...
(b) log (1
a8x3 a6x6
(c) sin
b2.2 b'x
(d) cos bx=lT_...
(e) (1 +x)"=I—,
1717. INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

If yrf(x), then y is said to be an increasing function of x at the
point x='x1 if
dy 'dy
at x x>0, i.e., ( d-_ )
x 'x=x, >0,
and it is said to be a decreasing function of x at the point x=x if
dy idy
at <0
dx (IX
Co nvexity or Concavity of Curves. If a curve is a straight line

then its first derivative or /i. is equal to some vilue positive or negative
depending on whether it is increasing or decreasing but it is the same at
all points and its second derivative is equal to zero. Its rate of change
does not change and is constant, therefore, acceleration rate is zero.
Jf the curve is concave upwards or convex downwards its rate of
L
change will accelerate and ey will be positive or >0. If, the curve is
concave downwards an(l convex upwards, its rate of change will decelerate
and L2Y will be negative or <0. These two situations are shown below
(i) Concave upwards and (ii) Convex upwards and

convex downwards, concave downwards.
C

17 18. POINTS OF INFLEXION

There can be a situation where the above two positions may be com-
bined as in the following diagrams
F. (i) Fig. 00
At point P in both the curves is equal to zero, the tangents

ITX-
being perpendicular to y-axis. But at all other points is positive in

dx
figure (1) and negative in figure (Ii),
As is evident is first positive and then negative in figure (I) and

the reverse is the case in figure (II).
But is equal to zero at point P in both. Hence it is the point of

inflexion. The conditions, therefore, are
(1) 4K = O, however, this is not a necessary condition.

dx
(ii)
(iii)
dy
d3
0, this is a necessary condition.
Y --j60, it may be positive or negative
I
but it is a necessary condition.
dy is not equal to Zero in the side diagram
But the other two conditions will hold good o X
in this case.
Example 44 Given the function y=x 3 —3x 2 -i-3x, find the point of
inflexion.
Solution. Now !L =3x^--6x+3

3.'-6x±3
ax

flUSINLSS MATHEMATICS
702
dy
The first condition is dx
-
ie., 3x2-6x+3=0
3(x 2 -2x+ 1)=0, i.e., 3(x- 1)2 0
x==1
Thus =0, when x=- 1.

dx
d2y
The second condition is
6x-h=0, i.e., 6x=r6
cJ2;
Thus --0 when x-1
d2
dy
Now - 6 which is not zero.
dx
The point of inflexion is X-= I and y I or (1, 1).
Example 45. Show that the function y=-xe has a point of Inflexion
[C.A., November 19911
at x_2.
So1utio. We have
y=-rxe
(IV
dx
(__e)-e' (I—X)
(12y (-I)+(1 ..x)(-e-')
=e- ' (x-2)

dy
and =-e' (l)+(x-2)(-C)
dx
=e (3--x)
For point of inflexion we must have
d2y d3y
-=0 and
d'y --0
e-' (x-2)0 : r2
d
and> c.
dx 3 x2
Hence x=2 is the point of inflexion.
DIFE1bNTIAL CALCULUS 703
Example 46. Show that the Curve y=x' (3--x) has a point of
inflexion at the point (1, 2). (C.A.. May 19911
Solution. We have
y =- x2 (3—x)=3x2—.3
dy
--=6x-3x2
(IX
d2y
(Ix
d3y
6
dx
For point of inflexion, we must have
d2y
=() and
dly
(4i x=1
dy
and <0
When X1,y3(I)2_132.
Hence ( 1, 2) is th' point of inflexion.
1n9. MAXIMA AND 1711INIMA,
(a) A function f() j. .s id to hace attained it au ' vinjunj value at x = a
If the function ceases to incr e and begins (0 decrcise r( x=a.
(h) A function Jx said to have attained its minimum value at
b if the function CCaSL'S :i decrease and begins to increase at x= b.
Suppose that the foIowing figure shows thc graph of some function
of x • The points P2 , P4 are called ,naXirflutfl points of the graph, the points
F 1 , P3 are called ,ninimun points. The function has a maximum value

704 uusirss MAfl 1I1A iCS
1Y2 1 2 when xON2 ; and a maximum value NP, when x=0N4 . Again,
the function has a ininiiauui value N L P I when x=O N and a minimum
value iV 3P3 when =-ON. Notice that in this case the minimum value
at P is greater than the maximain value at P4.
It should be noted carefully that according to the definition given
above it is clear that
(i) the maximum' and 'minimum' values of a function at a point
does not mean the greatest' and the least' values of the 1unctoii but only
signifies that it is the greatest and the smallest value of the function in the
immediate neighbourhood of that point,
(ii) the function may have several maximum and minimum values.
(iii) maximum and minimum values occur alternately,
(iv) some of the mnitujmnui-n values of the function can he greater than
some of its maximum values.
(y) maxima are like mountain tops and minima like valley bottoms.
,vi) The maximum and minimum values of a function together are
also called the extreme values of the function.
(vii) points at which a function has a minimum or a maximUfli value
arc classed together as turning points, and the maximum and minimum
values are called turning values.
Criteria for Maxima and Minima. (a) When y•f(x) is maxi-
mum at a point say xa, by definition, it is an increasing function for
values of x which just precede a and is a decreasing function for values
of x which just follow 0,i.e., its derivative A is positive just before
dy
x=a and negative just after Q Thus at the point x=a changes sign
thc
dy being a continuous function of x can
from positive to negative. But
change sign from positive to negative only by passing through zero value.
dy
Thus dx
Hence for it maximum value of the function at a point.

i) —=0 and
dx
(ii) changes sign from +ve to — y e at that point.

GIX
(b) When yf ()
is minimum at x=0, by definition, it is a decreas-
ing function just before xa and an increasing function just after
x-= a, i.e , its derivative is negative just before x =a and is positive just
after x ' a, rhus at O, changes sign from negative to positive

DWFIiRNTIAI. CALCULUS
70 5
values, Butbciug a continuous function can change sign from

negative to positive values only by passing through Lcro value. Thus
0
(IX
I Icuce for a 111 j il injuril value of the function at a point,

(i) =0 and
• (ly changes sign from -VC
(ii) to -t- ye at that point.
Modification of Second Condition. For a maximum point, changes

dy i
Stgil from -1- ye to --v'. I his means that 1x
-- s a decreasing function.
of x.
j2
• [Is dit1eremtmal coefficient, i.e.dx
Similarly, for a minimum point, changes sign from ye to + ye.
This means that is an increasing function of .v,
Iv, dit1ential coefficient, i.e.

(Ix's
I Icuce, the modified conditions for maximum and minimum pointS
can he stated as follows
For a rnaImum point
dv d2y
(1) =
dx
For a minimum point:
d2y
dy
0. (ii) J,2
17X
Working Rule for fiuiding Maximum and M1,iiniult1 Values

of a function
First Method
dy
Step I. Find for the given function yr-f (x)
Y zero. Let
Step Ii. Find the value or values of x which make L
dx
these be a, Ii, C,

706 BUSINESS MA1IHMATICS
We shall test these values of maxima and minima in turn.
Step UI. To test x=a, study the signs of for values of x slightly
<a and for values of x slightly >a.
If changes sign from +ve to —vc, then y= f(x) has maximum

value at x=a and max j, =-f
If on the other h:Lnd,cly- changes sign from y e to -- ye, then itit

dr
has a minimum value at x=a and mm y=f(a).
If (Ij^does not change sign, then x= a is a point of inflexion.
Smi]arly test the other values of X found in step H.

Second Method
Step I. Find for the given function y=f(x).
Step II. Find the value or values of x which make A

zero. Let
A
these be a, h,
1!y
St ep II). Find 1
dx2
Step IV. Put x=-a in if the result is — y e, the functioit is
maximum at x =a and wax. yf(a).
If by putting x= a in the result is -1-- y e, the function has
minimum value at xa and win. y—f(a).
Similarly lest other values 5, C,... of found in step ii.
S t eep V. When =0 for a Particular value xa (say), then we
either employ the first method or find and put X=c2 succes-
d
sively in these derivatives.
We tabulate the result as
Maximum Minimum
Necessary condition dy dy
=0
Suitcicnt condition =0, -<O

dx dx2 (1,1Cdx

DWEBR1NTLL CALCULUS 707
Example 47. Investigate the ina.,Jina and minima of the function

2x 3 + 3x -- 36x • JO.
Solution. Let y denote the given function of x.
Then --=6x2±6x-36
dx
6(x2.fx_6)=6(x_2)(x+3)
The function has turning values where -0, i.e.. at x2 and

dx
To find whether these values are maxima or minima, we must exa-

mine the sign of near these points.
dX
If x>2, 6(x--2)(x-l3) is 4ye.

If 2>x>-.-3, 6(x-2)(x ]- 3) is -- ye.
If x< - -3, 6(x--- 2)(x-f 3) is -1- ye.
Therefore, when x is just less than 2, L is -lye and when .v is just
greater than 2, -,dy is -I- ye, i.e.. xrr2 makes y a minimum.
At this point Y- 16+ 12-72+ 10=-34
Again when x is just less than-3, is -1- c, and when X is just
greater than —3, - is — ye, i.e., x=--3 makes y a maximum.

dX
At this point, x=-54+27+lO8+lO91.

Example 48. Find the extreme values of the function x3e.
Solution. y.X3e"
`d (e-)+e--'- (x3)
=x 3 [e (— l))+e.3x2
=ex[3—x) (1)
dy = 0 e x'.(3—x)z=0
dX
e_'=0 or x2 =O or
xr=corX=Oor x=3

708
BUMNESS MATJUMTICS
For xr-rO
When x is slightly less thaii 0, r=(l) (+) (+)=(+)
When x is slightly greater than 0,dy-- rr(}) (+) (-I-)=(+)
dy
Thus
(IX does not change sign as X passes through 0.
x- 0 gives neither a maximum nor a mini,nunl value.
For i = 3.
When x is slightly less than 3, y

d -=(--)
(IX
When x is slightly greater than 3, dy

,IX (4) (---)—( )
So x-3 gives a maximum and the maximum value is

M) 33 e-3==27e--3
For
When x is slightly less than , 4y- :-.( ) (+) (—)-

dy
When x is slightly greater than c , ___n(f.) ( .)
(__) (—)
dy
Since does not change sign, hence x =
dx o does not give niaxinlurn
or minimum value.
Exa mple 49 Given1L .

a b I, Prove that xy has a rnaAi,num
value ab when x= andy (a> 0; b >0) [C.A., May
''i
Solution. Let F=xy
:^ X b( x
X-[..
a y
+,1
x
=b (x_)
dF
(i?)
a
OF 2b
<0
F will be maximum if dF
-
dx =0 and

I)WFPRENTTAI. CMCULUS 709
dF / 2x' a
- 0 hI l---.)t)
dx \. a
y=b(
)
a I b
When X'- Y- i
E=xy= 1 ab
4
Hence xy has a maximum value .- a b when
a b
=
X --- and y=-2
Example 50. Find the maximum and minimwn values of the
function
2 1
.x4 x2 -6xf S.
I
X3 6x±
X2
Solution. Letf(x):: _ +T
f(X):2x2+x_.6=(Xl.2)(2x_3)
--0,atx=-2,
f"(x)==4x* 1
(i) at x 2, .1(v) 4(— 2) +], i.e., negative.
Hence 1(x) has a maximum at X —2.
(ii) at x = 1(x) =4. + I, i.e. positive.
Hence f(x) has a maximum at X
the
Example 51. Find the maximum and minimum values of
fimct ion
x4 .- 2x3 - 3x - 4x + 4.
Solution. Let f(x)=x4 -l-2x3 -3x2 -4x+ 4
f'(x)4x3+6x2-6X-4
=2(x+2)(2X+ l)(x— 1)
Now f'(x)=O x— —2,—i, I
To 6nd the maximum and mirimum values we have to test these
values in the second derivative of the function which is
f "(x)= 12X 2 + I 2x— 6
710
(1) When x-=r-2,f'(x) is >0 or positive.
1(x) attains minimni atx=-2
(ii) When x=— ,f(x) is <0 or negative.
A-0 attains a maximum at x ,
d2y
When x=l, -p-->O or positive
1(x) attains a minimum at xv 1.

Hence the mimlitnurn values of the function are
f(-2) =( _2)4+2(_2)3._3(-2)2_4(_2)+4o
f(1)=1-j-2-3--4.F4 -0
and the maximuni value is
f(-. ) J)'+2(— J)
Example 52. A company has examined its cost structure and revenue
structure and has determined that C time total cost 1? total revenue, and x the
nu mber of units produced are related as
Cr-s 100+ 0'015 X 2 and R=3x
Find the production rate x that will maxitnise profits of the company.
Find that projit. Find also time profit when x-s- 120.
Solution. Let P denote the profit of the company, then
P== Revenue —costR —C
3X_ (100-f 001 5x 2)=3xIO0 1000x
dP 30v
dx 1000
dP
For max. mm . values
dx
3--- 30x
6 =0 , i.e. x==100 units.
d2P 3
also --i- = - --- , which is — y e when x= 100.
dx 1 00
Profit is maximum when x=IO.
Maximum profit=3 x 100-0015 x (100) 2 . 100
= 300-100-150=50 rupees.
Profit when x= 120 is
P=3 x 120— 100-0015 x (120)'
360-100-2I644 rupees.

Etmple 53. By an 'Economic Order Quantity' we ineati a quantity

Q, which when purchased in each order, minimizes the total cost 1' incurred
in obtaining and storing material for a certain time period to Jilfil a given
rate of demand for the material during the i/tue period.
The material demanded is 10,000 units per year the cost price of
material Re. I per wilt, the cost of replenishing the stock of material per
order regardless of the size Q of the order Is Rs. 25 ; and the cost of storing
the material is 12 per cent per year on the rupee value of average quantity
Q12 on hand.
250000 Q
(i) Show that 1=10,000 + '-_--- -i-.
(ii) Find the Economic Order Quantity and the cost 1 correspondmg 10
that.
(iii) Find the winl cost when each order is placed for 2 i)() units.
Solution. Let x be the number of units made in sCli production
run. We shall assume that alter a hatch has been made. lie 2 unLS ill
batch are placed in inventory and then used up &withdrawn ' an LtiventorY
at a uniform rate such that inventory is zero when the next batch appears.
This last assumption permits us to use the average Q,, 2 to tormutate
inventory cost.
The cost structure is the cost of obtaining (purchasing) 10,000 articles
at Re. I each = Rs. 10,000
Q number of articles being the lot size, the number of production
I 0,000
runs (batches) per year
The cost of replenishing the stock or material, i.e., cost to make the
factory ready for production
10,000 2,50,000
=-25x----Rs.
Q
The average inventors number and its cost
Q
lx- Q -Rs. -i--
The cost of storing material at 12 per cent on the rupee value per
0 125 Q
year x = rupees
Hence total cost 1 10'000+2150100-0 +Q

Q 16
dT 2,50,000 I
(ii)
•i=_ Q2
712 13USINESS MATHEMATICS
dF
But for max. or ruin, value =0
-.2,50,00 +
01 i.e. Q -12000

Q being quantity purchased cannot be negative, rejecting the
negative value, we get Q=2000 units.
d2 T 500.000
Also :---r._- is positive, when Q = 2000
Flence 'I is miitimuiu when Q 200() units.

250,00 2000
Total lii iii iii tim cost T- 10,000
+ 2000 16
(I'y putting Q 2000)
[0,011)0+1254 125
-[0,250 rupees
(iii) Now cost when each order is placed by 25(0 units is given as
fo llows
T 10,()00 + + Rs 1026525
Exam pIe 54. The demand function far a particular commodity is

)'-. 15e-o for Ox . where u is the price per Uflit 00(1 x is the number of
units cje,nan,li',l Determine t)' 1irjr' and the quantity for which the revenue
is maximum
(Hi rit_ Revenue I? r_)' A)
Solution. Demand, y— 15 . c'' 3 , for 0x8
Revenue, R =xy - 15X .
For niaxlmisM i oti of' re v enue, we lie
di? ' 15
I Sc '3 -( -. -i-- )xe
-
15e X/34 5e'13
dR
dx =0 3e'i.-xe/ =0
Either x=3 or e-113

0. i.e. r oo(absuz-d)
Also"!d7
.., <0 or negative when x=3.
Ucnce the maximum profit is. yieIdd by substituting x= 3 in the

revenue equation.
DFFIRFNTtAL CALCULUS 713

EXERCISE (VII)
Find the maximum and minimum values of the full owing functions:
1. x 3 — 2x---4x—f
2. 2x'— 15x 2 i 35x1-12
3. -l-.2.a--- 3xa2
4 (x .-2(v _3)5
5. (a) Show that 1, his 11)2 \iIUhi in value wheti

and X 0, a minimum value when x 3.
(h) Show that •v 1 —. 3v2 f 3x-7 has pitI'c a n)axjnitim nor (1
minimum value.
6. Prove that the curve given by 3y-- x - 3.— 9x-1- 11 has a maxi-
mum at x 1, minimum at x = 3 and U point of inflexion at .v J.
V.
lii' . +
2
1, orove that is negative when x lies
t Ix
I 1
between --. and I. What banpensi f .v - or X-z I
8. Find the tnaxiini.Inl and the minimum values of the function

- 1. D;ctiss its nature at Xr_ U.
5x3 -
9. The dill'r renec of two numbers is 100. l'he square of the larger
(InC exceeds five times the square of the Smaller one by an amount
which is maximum. Find the numbers. [CA., November 19881
[Hint. Let the numbers be x and y(x> y ), then x --y= 100 and
x2 h or - 5 (x -- 100)2.
(f/i d2/i
---=r2x l0(x -100) and =- S 0, --0 - x-125,
dx (IX' (Ix
yr25)
hO. State whether )'=x - 6. + 13 has maimnm or a minimum

value. Find the value.
11. The cost C of manufacturing a certain article is given by the
formula
C= 5 ... 4. 3x2
where x is the number of articles manufactured. Find minimum value

of C
12. A company finds that it can sell out a certain product that it
produces, at the rate of Rs. 2 per unit. It estimates the cost function
of the product to be Rs. [l000f '- . ( ) 2 ]ior q units produced.

(I) Find the expression for the total profit, if q units are produced
and sold.
(ii) Find the number of units produced that will maximize profit.
(iii) What is the amount of this maximum profit ?
(iv) What would be the profit if 6000 units are produced ?
13. By an economic lot size', we macall a lot size (x) which mini-
mizes the total cost (1) incurred in obtaining and storing material
for a certain period to fulfil a given rate of demand for the material during
the time period.
[he material demanded is 10,000 units per year, the cost of material
is Rs. 2 per unit, the cost of replenishing the stock of material per order,
regardless of the sire order (x), is Rs. 40 per order, and the cost of storing
material is 10 per cent per year on the rupee v?Jue of the average
inventory ( -- ) oil
- .
(m) Show that 120,O0O+ 4,00000
—+ x
X 10
(ii) Find the ccoiioniic lot size.
14. A firm has to produce 144,000 units of an item per year. It
costs Rs. 60 to make the factory ready for a product run of the item
regardless of units x produced in a run. The cost of material is Rs. 5
per unit and the cost of Storing the material is 50 paise per item per year on
tile average inventory ( - ) in hand. Show that the total cost C IS
given by
C=720,000±
X 4
Find also the economic lot size, i.e., value of x for which C is
mini mu mm
IS. A company has to manufacture 36,000 units of an item per year.
It costs Rs. 250 to make the factory ready for production run of the
item regardless of units . produced in a run. The Cost of material
per unit made is Rs. 5 and it costs 50 paise per year for each unit for
X
storing on all average Inventory hand. Show that total cost C is
given by
250x 36000 +1,80,000+
X T
D!iFr3RENTlAI. CALCULUS 715
Find also the economic Lot size, i.e., value of x for which C is
flhiflhiTiUIlL
16. A company notices that higher sales of a particular item whici

it produces are achieved fly lowering the price charged. As a result the
total revenue from the sales at first rises as the number of units sold
increases, reaches the highest point and then falls off. rhis pattern of
total revenue is described by the relation
y.-40,00,000—(x--.2000)2
where y is the total revenue and x the number of units sold.
(i) Find, what nuiuber of units sold maximizes total revenue
(ii) What is the amount of this maximum revenue ?
(iii) What would be the total revenue if 2500 units were sold 7
17. A sitar manufacturer notices that he can sell x sitars per week
at p rupees each where 5x- 375-3P. The cost of production is
(500 -f- 13x - x) rupees Show that the maximum proilt is ohttitiCd when
the production is 30 sitars per %cck.
18. if the demand function of the monopolist is 3q-98 4p and
average cost is 3q -2 where q is output and p is the price, tind m.IXlmUifl
profit of the monopolist.
ANSWERS
I. Max. value and

13 Min. value -- 9.
2. Max. value 40 at x=2 and mm. value 39 at x.-3.
3. Max. value 9a at x=-3a, min. value at x==.a
60 55 28
4. Max. value 0 at x=r=2, min. value at x=-. Neither max.
nor mm. value at x- 3. It is a point of inflexion.
tO. Mm. value of y=4 at x=3.
2 12. (i) Rs. [ 2q-3-0—

10001, (ii) 50000 (iii) Rs. 4000
(Iv) Rs. 3800 13. (ii) 2000 N. 4000 15. 6000 16. (1) 2000,
(ii) Rs. 4,000,000, (iii) Rs. 3,150,000 IS. Rs. 3375.
17*20. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION

In earlier sections, we considered a function in the form,
Y=f(x)
There y was a function of the single independent variable x. However in
Practice, very rarely we come across such a situation where a variable is
a function of a single independent variable. Generally it is found to be
716 BUSINESS MAfHIMAT!CS
a function of several variables. For example production may be treated

as it function of labour and capital, price may he a function of supply and
price of the substitutes, etc.
Consider the following example
If V is the volume of a right circular cylinder of radius F and height
Il, we know
Now suppose that the height I: remains constant while the radius r
changes. Since h is constant it may be considered as another constant
like n and on differentiating wit. r, Nye have
/ dV'
- ar - ) =(itli) - 2r,
cOIst,nt.
giving the rate of - change in V with respect to r when Ii remains constant.
Similarly, if r is a constant while h varies
I =(17r).
7
1,/ r consint.
This notation, which shows precisely what has been done, is rather clumsy,
therefore a special notation is introduced. We write
- - 2r
ar
av
and -- -.r-r-r2 . 1
h
The curly' a' is used to show that the expression to be differentiated

Contains more than one variable, and that we regard as constant all but
the one used in the denominator on the left-hand side. We differentiate
in the usual way with respect to this stated variable, treating all the
others as constant.
Let U he a function of two independent variables x and y, we write
this sy mbolicall y as
?t=f(x, y)
Now we ma y consider a change in u corresponding to a change in X,
keeping y as constant. Or, we may consider change in u corresponding
to a change in y, x being kept fixed. Under these assumptions
f or tim
xO
is known as partial derivative of ii w.r.t. x,
and Or I [f(rYY)_f(x, y)
Y y-.oL
is known as partial derivative of U w.r.t. y,

Illustrations. I. Find the first order parihzl derivatives of
x2 4-6Xy y=O
Solution. Let z:J(X, y ) x 2 •6xy-4•y
Treating y as Constant and dil1crenti:iting partially with respect to v, we
have
17
3
(x+6 y fy2)
ax Px
(Z)
= 4 x - (6xy) ax
-(X2) f6y WI-0
r:2X1 6y
(,X 2 -f-6xy+y'!)
Again
(x)4- (6vy) a. (x)

ay ay dy
6 (y) {- 5y (y 2 ) x is constantj
6x 2v.
3u
2 If u e' , , find (lUdi
ax aj,
Solution. (e' )e'Y -- (vy)

V y
y e
ax
au
(e)=e
y ay a)'
V (y) :'V
3. Ifu= 3y3 z4 +6x- . 7v 4- 9: findf-
au
Solution. - y 3 z 4 .7x -f
ax
au =x2z4.3y23-7
all
az

4. Given below is a function of profit with two variables Q 1 and Q2
60+ 140Q 1 -- 100 Q2_- 10Q 1 2 —8Q,,2 — 6Q1Q2

-
Determine the opthnum values of Q and Q2.
Solution. Treating Q2 as a constant and differentiating w.r.t. 21

we have
140+0-20Q---0--6Q2
140-20Q,-6Q,
a An
Also 0+000-0-16Q2-6Q1
- =100—l6Q2--6Q1
Now taking the two partial derivatives equal to zero, i.e.,
l40-20Q1-6Q=0
l00-6Q---l6Q2=0
Solving (1) and (2) for Q and Q2, we will have the optimum
quantities assuring maximum profit as
Q,= ' 5-77 and Q=408.
PARTIAL DERIVATIVE S OF HIGHER ORDER
Higher partial derivatives are obtained in the same manner as
higher derivatives.
For the function uf(x, .Y) we have four second order partial deri-
vatives.
The direct partial der i vatives are defined as
L4 1au )—f,.
(r) x2 ax ax
a (')
(it)
ay ay ay
Apart from these two second-order partial derivatives, there are also
the mixed (or cross) partial derivatives defined as
(U
U)
14
(n)
Illustration 1. Find second order partial derivatives of

u= 4x'-4- 9.xy...5yt.
Solution. Let U,=4X2+9XY5Y2
au =..?_ (4x2+9Xy-5Y2)
3x 3x

=-• )±- (9xy) (5y)

ax x
=4 (x 2 )+9y (x)_ (y2)

ax ax ax
=4,2x+9y.1 —5.03x+9y
(4x2+9xy_5y!)
ay ay
(4x2)4._ (9xy)- 2 - ( 5y2)
4 1 (x)+9x 2)
ay ay- 5a
=4.0+9x.1 -5.2y=9x--l0y
u a 'a" a
(8x-4-9y)
- =ax
(x)f9 (y)=8.l +9.0 $

ax
a 2 u a au a
=9 (x)--lO (y)=9.0-10.H 10
ay ay
all
==--( =- (9x—lOy)
5x—
ay ax '.y i ax
-9--- (x)-10- (y)=9.t-1O.O=9

a 2 u a ( a U \
-- :-)=. a
(8x+9y)
ay
8 (x)4-9 _ (y)=r804-9J-9
ay ay
ô'u 3211
axay Oyax
2. Find first and second order partial derivatives of log (x f-y2)

Solution. Let U==log (X2+y)
all
(x 2 +y2 I a
-= - log )= (x2y)
Dx
2x
2x2+yl
log (x1+y2)z_i___.
(x24y2)

8USINSS MATHEMATICS
720
j17j 2— 2y
—1TI
0 ,2 11 all s (
2x
X Z X x ) 'Ox
(y2) (2x) 2x! (x 2 fy
-- (.x-2 .. y2)
(X+ ) - 2— 2x (2x) 2(y2—X2)

(x-Y 2 ) (x2-t-Y1)'
,21 O314 a(2Y \
'y2 )
ay2 - ay
- (x 2 -1- y2 ) - ( 2) , )-2y (x 2 FYI)

j -
- (x2 +Y2)2
(x 2 + y2 ) . 2-2y . 2y 2(x—y2)
a 2" au (a U a 2y a (a -r -)
-j
f21y2) Y
=2y(— l)(x 2 +y 2 ) ax
(x2 4 y2)
—2y
2-- -
-- (x2-i--)2Y
lj'U -- ) au ( 2x ' 2X (x 2 - y) I
ay ox yx}ay)

=.2x (-1) (x2+)2) 2 (x2 y2)
-- --2x --4xy
y2 ) 2
2
(x2
+
- D'U a2u
•
xay ayax
1721. TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL

From a practical point of view, the partial derivatives gave us a
small change in u J (x, y) when there is a small change in either X or Y.
The total differential will give us a linear approximation of the small
change in u =f (x1 y) when there is a small change in both x and Y.
If 6x and Sy be the increments of x and y respectively and let U be
the corresponding increment of U.
Then u+51j=rf (-}--&)r. Y+Y)
8u=f(x+X,y+y)—f(x,y) (1)

121
t)tFFIEU1NTiAL CA LCULUS
Adding aiid subtracting f(x, Y-1—V) on the R. I I S. of (I), we have
uf(x--x, y y) -Jx, y -y) ff(x, yy ) --A x , y)

Y+)
-± x y
Lt tix, dy and do he [lie ItIiiE mig valueS of , y afld 81 1. I 1LC

from (2), we have
L4
(IX (lii --
(4 V
ax -
where do is k io.s n as the total differential of ri.
III ust
rit im . Find the total iiJfe rem mis of the folio wing functionS
(I) ii x 3 y j x 2 3 1 - x 3 , (ii) El X Si/i V V Sill k
G
SoIiiioii. (i) 2y2 f vy)
3x1y l2x)2 I.y.(

)u a
- --- (x y -j- x 2 y' - s))
rx 3 -f-2xy -3.v
The total d lfereiitiid is
(111 (IX - - (I)'

ax
(3x 2 y f2 xy2 + j , ") (IX i (v -1 2x 2 ) , 4- 3xy2)dy
•V -i' COS S
C-
all
-. =--x ens V sin .\
differential is
The total
du(siri J, --y) cix+( x cos j , x) Jy
EXERCISE (VIII)

all all.
I . In eouh nix the lllowing fuichms, 1i [I
o c
(o) ii - 3.v2 4-2xy 4y 2 . (h) u= -
2x--y V
(c) u=-----•-----, (d)
2. Show that if
^lj all
(a) u =f (x fy), then — -
ax ay
(b) u_if(x.-.y) then -O

O x a)'
au
(c) then x -
ax ay
((1) U=X21Y2:. z 2 , then X 11 - za-
ya- 112u
a 2 u a21€ 2u JU
3. Find -----k, - - - ions
3x- axdy , a yax ay'
(a) U_=rx'y 3 , ( b) H =-a \3 -Fhx 2y 1-
(c) fi-x cos y—y cos X
4 If U= log (x2-j-v2). prove that a 2 u a221

j- - =O
y 2j a2u
}f Zin Tog x, verify that
6. If ti= x2y+y2Z_Iz2x show that
211 all
-.-- +— =(x.Ly -} z)2.
7. 11 ux log y(y>0) show that
a:u
a x &u yax
. If u f[(z —x), (x -y), 0 1 —z)], prove that
all u ju
0.
y az
Hint. u=f(a , b, e) where a-z---x, b=x
--y, cy —zJ
9. 11 zIog(i±2i) prove that
az 97
ax 8y
10. 11 U== log ( x 2 +y 2 +z), prove that
a 2 u '-u u
X --.r-=y__ Z --
a'a z axay
ANSWERS
L. (a) 6v - 2y, 2x+8y, (b) --, -

I v 3v —3.v
( c)
(x f-),)2'
(d)_.2___ _
r+y2
3. (a) 2ya, 6xy 2 , 6xy 2 , 6x2y
(1) 6x+2hy, 2hx, 2/tx, 6by
.) y cos x, —sin Y+sin x, —sin y +sin x, --x cos y
Integral Calculus
S FRUCTUFtE
IN FRODUCTION
181. INDF.F[NITE INTEGRAL
182. RUTIS OF INTEGRATION
183. SOME STANDARD RESULTS
184. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
185, INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
186. SOME STANDARD INTEGRALS
187. INTEGRALS REDUCIBLE TO SOME STANDARD FORM
188. INFFGRArION BY PARTS
189. INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRAC F1ONS
1810 DEFINITE INTEGRALS
1811 PRO PERT I ES
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter. von should be able to understand
• to find the indefinite integral of a given function
IS to state the standard indefinite integrals
• to evaluate definite integrals.
180. INJ'ROflUCTION
In the previous chapter, we dealt with the methods of finding
derivatives of a given function. We had noticed that the derivatives so
obtained were also the functions. In this chapter, we propose to deal with
the converse, Consider the following examples
(i) If : l rx , then f'(x)= I
(ii) If f(X) :rX 3 , then f'(x)= —3x
(iii) If (xl = x 112 , then f'(x) =
(iv) If f(x)sin x, then I()=cos x
(v) Tff( xl == sec x, then f'(x)=sec x tan .v
BUSINI'NS MAlJlgMrns
Now let us consider the questions

(1) What is the function whose detrivative is I ?
(ii) What is the function whose derivative is - 3x
(iii) What is the function whose derivative is xI 2 ?
(ii') What is the function whose derivative is cosx 7
v) What is the function whose derivative is see x tan A , ?
Clearly the answers to these questions are X, sin x and sec -s
respectively. The functions winch we find are called primitives or anti-
derivatives or integrals of the given function. Thus we are given a function
of x and we try to find another function whose derivative is always the
given function. This is exactly the problem of integral calculus. Integration,
therefore is called the inverse process of differentiation. For example,
the function whose derivative is cos A is Sill X.
: sin x is called the primitive or anti-derivative or the integral
of cos X.
Definition . 1f f(x) be any differentiable function of x such that
j— [(.r)] /x)
(lien (x), is called au anti-derivative or a primitive or an indelinfie
integral Or simply an integral of 1(x).
Symbolically this is written as
f
and is lead as "(x) IS the integral of f(x) w,rr , x"
The process of finding the integral of ii given function is called
Infegrotiot: and the given function is called the ln(egrana.
Remarks. I. The symbol used for 'integral' is a distorted form

of the letter S, the first letter of' time word 'sum'. This is because originally
'integral' was defined as the sum of a certain infinite series.
2 The symbol i dx is purely a symbol of operation. which means

integral of with respect to x.
scp;I rately.- J and dx mean nothing when taken
3 From the definition of anti-dcrivat j ve it is clear that

[ Jx)dx]
ifx
4. In the present chapter we shall study several methods of finding
integrals of a function but this however does not mean that integral of' any
given function can always be obtained.
NTFGRAL CALCULUS 725
18 1. INDEFINITE, INTEGRAL
Suppose f(x)=- 2 /(x) --l-9 and X)=x +c, where c is a constant.
By dilterentiafing these functions, we get
fx)?: (xY= (x) -2x
2x 1X=x2 or x2 9 or 2 ç
I fence 2x dx does not give a definite value and is called an indefinite
integral. The general value of 2xdx=.x2 +c, where c is an arbitrary

constant. The corrstailt added with the integral is called the constant of
integration.
For example
(1 1
(sin 4- Cos V, COS x dv-= sun x--f-c
.'.
From these considerations, we conclude that integral of a function

is not ii ruique arid that if f(x) he any one integral of m(x), then (i) 1(x) Fe
is also its integral, c being any constant, (ii) every integral of (x) can he
obtained from f(x)+ c , by giving a suitahle value to c,
12. RULES OF INTEGRATION
Rrile 1. The inf egret of the product of a constjnl and a function is
equal to the product of 1119 constant and integral of the function i.e.,
k f(x)dx-k f(x)dx,
I
where k iv some constant.
Proof k f(x)dX ]k' f(X)dXkf(x)

f
From the definition, we have
k Jx)d.v=Jkf(x)dx
Rule 11, The integral of the sum or differen ce offunctions is equal to
the sum or drffi'rence of their integrals. Symbolically
+f(x)1dx
J
f, (x)dx + J f (X)dx - I ... +
where f(x), f2(x).....f,,(x) are functions of x.
Proof. if-f, (.v )dx ± f( ' ) dx + •- + f)dx
-,
I fl(x)"x+dx I f2(x)dx+...+L f(x)dx
From the definition, we have

f1(x)dx f2(x)dx+...+f.(x)dx
. f1 (x) ± fl y) + ... +f(x) jdx.

=I[
183. SOME STANDARD RESULTS
We give below some standard results by using the derivatives of some
well-known functions.
1.d x1iI I
)
xdx=-_-1
d 1
H. - (log x)=-__ ;. dx=log x
I
(sin x)==cos x, .. cos x dx=sin x
IV. (cos x)= —sin x, sin x dx—cos x
V. . (tan x)=sec 2 x, :. sc2 x dx= tan x

'IC
Vi. (cot x)—cosec 2 x, .. cosec x dx=—cot X
VII. T (sec x) sec x tan x, :. sec x tan x dxscc x
viii. . ( cosec x) cosec x cot X,
Icosec x cot x dx= cosec x
(ex):e,
IX. . :. el dx=e
J
X. (srn X) X
Xl. .
dx (tan' l-j-x- [tan1 x
JlfX2
d 1 dx
X II. :. —(sec' x)r= :. =sec-' x
(ix lx"/

INTEGRAL CALCULUS 727
di c'
Xlii. --1 -- a fix :
dx '.Iog a) J log
Illustrations
1. 5x cix-=5 - x 2 -
2. j (3--2x---x4) dx=3 fix- 2x dx--- x 4 dx

1
x 1+I x4'
=3x-2 --
1-fl 4-f-I
=3x-x2 --
3 (4x1 43x 2_ 2x+5) (IX
X3 dx F3 x 2 (x 2 x dxi 5 dx
2+1I I Of'
4+3
j 4 jj
_2
rr x4 -I- x3 --- X2 1-5x.
4. (x'-- 1) 2 dx= (x'-2x 7 + I) dx
= dx2 dx cix
X6 2
Ix
X'
X+
5.- -- dx=- /T dx_+J x dx-j-2-,--_._ d
- 2 - - x2 1 4 .I /2
6. (3x)(1±x)dx=(1_2x3X2)dx
dx 2 x dx --3 v t dx
=X—X2 X3.
dx= (x2+x2) dx x dx-I-J x 2 dx

728 BUSINI5S MATHEMATICS
3. Evaluate 3x--4x-3x i.8) (IX
Solution I dx 1 4x dx— 3x dx -- 8dx
3 ± dx 1 41 V2d x dx ± 8 dx
3-
= 3 log X . 4xa- ---- -8x.
9. Integrate ( x--- .x.
Solution. ±(Ix-. ( X3x i - dx

j\ xl \ x x31
( x3 -3 x 4- 3x x) dx
x" eh - 3 x/x-I.3 x_ldx__1

I+L lfl X. 31
-- 3'--3. logx -
- - .x- ±x2F3 log x+
)C2. Jx i 74 7
IX1 - I) 1 l• .Inht ). r(t!L -------- ,..----- w.rj . X
Vx
33'2
)hjfl. I ''•l-7x-'' ) dx
5fl X 312 3j6

3__ —+7--
--
f (JX -- bx-- 3 -- cx--7

Example 2. Evaluate kx
(lx.
j
hfi cc
Solution. /: X 1 (4.(+ -- (IX .1 -- dx
-,--
ax l log x cx
4kk —4-
3. Evaluate 8e'- 4a-F3 cos x-- /) dx

729
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Solution- fix 4 a' dx- 3cos x JA: - x' ' dx
+3 sin x -- xb/4
log a
u-j-hciflX
Lxi Jfl p I C 4. I valuate ------ - — -- dx
C()5 V
1 a:fsill j -. a see 2 A dx b sec x tail x dx

Solul ioll.
.3 COS ..v .3
a tan A -f- l 5CC A.

.V(fl X dA
Exa in pIe S. Ll0111a1t
sin x ( - sun 5) sin X- sin 2 x

Soluiion. 1= -------- ,1 -- - -------- -dx
- Sill 2 CnS2
Sill V Sill' .2
- - dx --- -
CO V
JS- COS X
SeC A tall x dx - tafl .V (IX
Sec v (seca x — I) (IX
=Sec .v—tafl X-fX.
2co.cx I
Example 6. intrgraic 52 + wr.t. ;.
((-
2 cos - I
A
Solution , let I - - -------------
j ( 5 S1 1l A - 5 ens 2 x
12 COSX I I
(1X + - - - - dx
.3—
,5
5 sin x ccis x

COsCC .1 COt A (l.k-i- x (IX
- -- COSCC X+ -- tan X.
Example 7. Integrate \/I -f Sill 2x w . r - 1. x.
Olfl(jOfl, /--- fvi+511)2x dx
= Vcos2 X fSiil 2 x+2 sill x Cos X dx
\7 (cos x - I Sill dx (cos x sin x) (Ix
COS X C/A + Sun X (IC + 5 j fl X cos x.

730
BU3TN3ss MATHEMATICS
EXERCISE (I)
Integrate the following functions
I. (i) x'' , ( ii) /4 , iii) (
Vx
2. (i) \/x
(ii) 7 _3xJ8 -- •-
(iii) t±b2±cx+
4xG+3x+2x4+x3+x2
(rv)
3. ( 2±.Le+.3_L)
2 x
X4j24 1 sin X+COS 3 X
4. 6 cos 2x -
2(x2 - 1) si ne x cos 2 x cos2 x sin2x
ANSWERS
1. (i) (ii) 7 / 3, ( Iii) 2x' '
-4. x
2. (1) - - x312-2x' 12 (ii) _x 3 - X2 -f-8x-2y'T+log x -
(iv) X4 +X 3 + X2 +X4_lO , X---!- 3. 1 ---e-*4 log X—X,
og
4. (1) (_- +tarr' x)
5. Sec x—cosec x. 6. —sec x cosec x.
184. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
Integration can often be faciIitted by the substitution of a new
variable for the given inde pendent v ariable, in other words, by changing
the independent variable. Experience is the best gu i de as to what substi-
tution is likely to transform the given expression into another that is more
readily integrable.
Illustrations
I. COS3 X
Let sin xi- cos x - - 1
cos3 x dx cos3 x di

731
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
cos2x. Cos x -dt
0 -sill' x). (It dl t2
Sjfl X - Sifl 5 X.
2. Evaluate (4x+5)6 dx. dx
I
Let 4x+5=t 4 or
-
(4x+5) 6 dv=f (4x-t-5)6 .ITdt
dt = g8 (It_t
.1 '4 4J 4 7
(4x4. 5)7
3. Evaluate x (x f- 4) 5 dx.
dv dx
Put x2 +4=t 2x =1 or x
—2-
4)5 x v-. di
J x(x 2 -f. 4) 5 dx-= (x2
-1 i s .J- dt= J 0
2 12
(xS 4)6,
4. Evaluate J sin x cos 3 x dx.

dx
Put COS X= —sin
x =1
1. I' d
sin x cos3 x dx------- cos a x (--sin x) di
J
J
--1 . 4__ 4
Example 8. Integrate (x +a) , w.r,t. x.
Solution. We put (x+ a ) =t . _==I dx==dt

732
JJusINiss MATHEMATICS
%,&1I
(x4 a)" dx= ell= ------- (*4-a)" 1-
J
Example 9. Integrate the following functions w.r.t • x.
(a) ( x3 + 2) 2 . 3x, (b) (x 3 -1- 2)112 x2, (c)
8
and (d)
(3+2Y'4
Solution, Let us put ( x3 ±2)=:t then dt=3x dx 2
(a) IW; 2)2. 3x 2 dx 1 di
2)"" d= (x ± 2) 12 3X2
3/2
3J 3 3/2
:
(X ' -J- 2) 12
(C) dx=8 J (0-1-2)- 3x 2 dx

-_
3j
I
-- t- 3 di— !
3\
- L, 2
2
4
3(x3--2)2
(il) (.-j 2) 3x2 dx
t 4 di— - g814
rT (x3+2)14.
Exaniple 10. Integrate e"" I sec x Wri. X. 2

Solution. We put tan x=t
2 dxdi 1, i.e., sec , x d=rdt

sec x
Je", , sec x dx=1 th=e'=e'" C'

INTEGRAL CALCULUS
,sin -I v
Exainpli I I. Intt,'r(l1e-_------------ wet
ll
Solut iou. I lere sin X is involved i the iritegiaiid and its derivative
i.s hictor of the iiitegranL.

Vl-x
This suggests ihe substitution sill - . V I - - . dx= dl

\/ i —x-
I e' dl - e e'
Exa uiuple 12. Lro/unte

/ --
Solo ion. Ve put x 5 I - ( fe fti dx di

tit -- --
dx tit tD1 f-a:- taji

((i+!)
Exa flu 1)1(5 13. integrate (IIt folio wins' i-c r .

sin' . (ii) sin 4v cos 2x.
Soil]( ion. (t) We know sill 3 sin v --4 sin .v
3 sin v -- sin 3x 3
Sm 3 X -•--- sin v- --- sin 3x
Jv -s i nvdx-----J sill 3.vdx
3 I ens 3x
ens -S -f- - i--
(II) sin 4x cos 2x=

2- 1..
2 sill 4x cos 2x
P [
sill 2x]
sin (-v-i-i- sin 2.v
J sill cos 2.v dx:
- I
sin 6x d
ens 6x I
sin 2.v dc
Ci)S 2-v
6
'PS toP? X
Example 14. integrate w,ri. x

,fl
—a
Solution. Put nj tan-' x-=l so that I -{- x- dx=dL Therefore
m 1 x
ç e dx I f 1 1 in tan- i
— .--- _ c' di -. ----. el --• e
•) 1 4- x .1 In
Example 15. Integrate Sin \/ X iv.r.i, x.
Solution. Put \//- -

X t, then -_._L- (It, i.e., —. :2Jt
/2sin1 (it --2 cos t=-2 Cos x.
- 1c (I.f-)
L.xample 16. I:1'OIuaiC coS2(xe) d.
SOluior!. Put xe= I so that (xe -f ) dx.- -iI
ç di f
---------- sec 2 I (Ito- tan (--tan (X9)
i cos I ,j
I 3: dx
Example 17. Obuiln
Solution. Put x 2 -3-k 2 = I so that 2v d.-=dt
3 1 3
I;= I--- —.I i' di=
j 1' 2 1 2 - n- -1
3 (x 4 k)'-'
2(3—n)
Example 18. Integrate (4.j)3 w.r.. x,
Solution. Put K-1- I rI so that 2x dx di

1 f X. 2 x dx I f (I- L) a!
- - 2 j (x2 -+ 1)3 2
I fi I I \ I / I I
-- It---i
2 iv- - 12 / 2 \ 1 2t
I L-2 (X2 11)
_JJ
2 21 ) 2 L (x21.i
I 2x±I
4 (x:-f- 1)2
sill X Cos X
Exatnp1 19. Integratewr.i. x
a 2 sw2 dX -F b7 x


Solution. Put a2 sin8 x-j Il l ccs2 x=(, so that
2(a--b 2 ) sin x cos x dx- cit s i ll
di
cos x
2(ab2)
I rdr 1
• I- i t
2(a 2 h 1 ) J I --- --- to
2(a 2 _l,2)
-
. log ( ( 12 sin x - b2 cos2 )
Example 20. Integrate --•

X log x log (Jog x)
Solution. Put loc (log x)=t so that . - a'x-di

log. x
i J
L cit s log l.-log [log (lo-
integrate sin 13-4- cos 13

Example 21. - -_ • e
si/i (1- cos 0
ci
-
(sin h-c
S
I sin0 -cos 13 i all
13)
SSolution. t-.--- ------
I Si O ---cos 0 I-----
j
--------
, i n 13 -
db
- cosO
-Hog (Sill El -cos 0).

SCC V ('o.cec X
Example 22. Integrate ---- IVY•f v
fog tanx
d
r 5CC -' Cosec ax (tog (an x)
Soluiion. I--- --------------- dx
J log tan x -----__.
. log tan x
-=--log (log tar v).
sin 2x
]Example
E 23 Integrate1 4-------- ii r.i V
x4 sin x
f I -I- sin 2x r -4-

Solution ----s----- dx= I (I 2 si x cos x)
X -I-sin-
J x j —--------.
.v--I- sin 2 x IX
(I
- — (x 4-sin 2 x)
•--- dx=log (x4- sin x)
Example 24. Integrate ------_ w.r . t .x.

fog sin
d
r co x (log
Slt10. -_- dx r sir,
j log sin x d
J log sin X
=log (log sin x).

RUSJNSS MATHEMATICS
736
EXERCISE (II)
Find the integrals of the following functions w.r.1. X
I. Ci) sin X cs x, (ii) scc' X Ian x, (i/i) tn' x seO
2. (i) e3l 1 ` COS X . ( ii) ((jx 2x 1 . c)(V I b), (iii)

)3
M t:) ' in
t
• \ 1 taii .X .. COS A
' (') ("
• 3 cos •V .. 3 . - 4 cos x
(u1)
I - - s111 2 x' xf (1+sinx)2
I +(log x1j
sin (24-3 log x) sin ..Y cos-
6 (i ..
x 3+7 cos x 9 --2six
SCC?X 1- sec
7. (1) L(I -tan xf
v'4-3 tan X
sec 3x Ian 3x . cus x sin X .
(iv) sin 2x
(u) (Ii:)
2 sec 3 x -- 5 5 + COS X I + Sint .
ANSWERS
I .. tan4 x
I. U)-- cos 2x, (II) ---, (ul)
( +21?•V+0"41 (ii)
(i) +2 .. •
2 ' 2(n+1) log
2
3 (i) log (3 tan x + 1), (ii) - cos). (iii) 4-(x-3)

4. (i) (Ian - x). (II) tan-' (sin x), 5. (i) 3 tan (sin x),
(ii) 3 tan (log x), (Iii)( iv ) -- - cos (2 + 3 log x)
6.--- log (31-7 cos 4, (ii) - log (9 --2 sin x),
-3 tan x 7. (1) ------(ii) Jo?- sec 3x -5)
(iii) - log (S-f cos x), (iv) log (I -f-sm x).

jgs . INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
In standard forms, we have already seen that
Sin V dx=—cos x and cos dx- si ll x
We now derivr the following standard formulae for the primitives of other
circular or trigonon1toC tuncions.
!NTBGRAL CALCULUS 737
f fsinx
1 tan x fix - - -- --------
j cos
Jx J C-0 IS
d
X)
(iA -Iogcosx1og sec x
J CoSx
tan x
COS x
I!. cot x dx= dx== dx
sin •- sin x
=log Sin ;k-
cot x dx4og Sj7
f I dx dx
Iii. I cosec x
J • '
2 sin cos 2
x I x
5CC t dx iCc' - dx
sect -(2sin -- COS -)
di A
tan_-i--)
I
=
-
dxr]og ari I
J tan
2
(.OSCC ) cot X)
Second Method. cosec x dx=j
cosec A Cot X
-- I• -- cosec x cot x - fc'i x
-- j cosec x T cot x
(cocc X — Cot x)
-dx
J cosecX —cotX
log (coscc A—cot x)- Io'. tI i --cosx

---fl---
sir k
I
2 s:a2 -
2/ (A
= Jog ---------------- =lotan-)
2sin --- cos T)

738
Cosec x dx==log (cosec —cot x)=1og tan (-)
IV.
J sec x dx=J Cosce (x )ilx
Jcosec dl, putting x I - - I, so that dxdt
log tan -y--log tan (-
Second Method, Sec x (IX=

I Sec x(Sec x+tan x)
(Sec x + tan x)
s log (sec X -4-tan x)
(R
Now sec X- I tan

cos x
cos
Cos' Sin2
x x
cos -- +sin --- 1 -F-tan --
/
x x -
x =tan( 2 — -F--
COS - -- - sillI — tayi -- 2
sec x dxIog (see x- tan x) r =Iog tan (-- -
18'6. SOME STANDARD INTEGRALS
J/TT
I
a cos 0 dO
putting Xa si ll 0
x
1—
= do=o=1
a
Then dx
I I ------
. — ix
a
dx a sec 0 tan 0 10
tan o -, putting x=a sec 0
=j Sec & de=log (sec +tan 0)
= log (sec I)
(
X
log \+ )=log {(x+/i_a2)/}
a a

Thus --1og {(x±Vx2-Ey/a}
Sec2 0 (10
X 2 2
j0 P11"1119 x a tan 0
= sec 0 d0log (sec O--tat 0)
-log(./ l- tan 2 0±tari o)

V +a ll
4--f- )=log (x+V X2+(j2)/(j)
Thus log{(x+ /x2Li2)/a}
IV. Sricc(
X? a 2 2a - x-a .e--a
we have
I dx I dx
(I X 1 11r I
•V- c 2a .-a - Jx-fa
log (x-a)--log (x+a) ]

x-a
log
2a
I d I
rhus ----- - -log --
jx -a 2a x+a
1 11 1 we have
V. Since — —I ----
a2 - x 2 2a \ a -x a- X-'
dx I I
2a U a
dx
-p-x
rr
f dx
---
log (a+x)-log (a-x) }=- log -
dx
--log —
J a -x 2 2a
2 a-X
dx asee? 0 dO
VP. 2(1±7' by puttingx=a tan 0
d0=-a 0=—tan'
a a
aj
Idx 1tan- \ a
x+a' a

f A I f (IX f d
Solution.
j 2X+J((X2._X+k) + U
1 1 (IX
J
where r=x—
tan .i]==tan1 (2x- 1).
Example 2o. [CA., May 1991]

Evaluate (1--x)i_x
Solution. Put I — x = so that —dx - di

1 71
or dx-1.
/ I 2 1 21-1
l—x
dx Cd02)
f
j(l-x)iT-x'J (I/)7ii V/
di
(2t1) dl
(2t 2 ^Jl i x
(fl(2) -- I 1—x 1- x
Example 27. Integrate W. r. 1. X.
d dx
Solution.
'-
dx
V(++)-(x2 4 x+)
f I dx
=7j I(\•w9'1 5
J- .) _ )
dl
ir
where t=x 5
v'3 /Th) - 6

INTEGRAL CALCULUS 74'

1 ± I - (6x--5
Sill-'
109/6 VROT
(3x-I-7) dx
Example 28. L valuate
12x, +3x-2
Solution. Let (3x-f-7) (2x2+3x--2)+
(3x+7)A (4x43)+
3 19
Then 4=3 and 3-l-=7 giving ?= , - ,
3x+7= (4x+3)-I.1. (This can be done by inspection also)
( --
3 19
J 2x2-i-3x.-2
3 (4x . 3) (/X 19 dx f
4 J2x+3x-2 4 j2x 3x2

3 19 dx
-- log (2x2 -- 3x-2)+-8-
JTi
log (2x2+3x..2)+!
25
4 16
3
=-;4- log (2x2+3x-2)+
19
2.() log
x++
(35)
4)
3
log (2 x2 +3x-2)+ 19 log 2x-1
=
(4x+1) d
Example 29. Evaluate 1_-__-_
Js/3+4x4?
d
Solution, Let 4x + li - (3 + 4x -4x 2 )+ i
Equating co-cfficients of x and constant term, we have
4x±1=__(4_8x)+3
dx
jJ(-1(4-8x)_4-3)

742 OUSIN8SS MATHEMATICS
- _(4 —8x) dx cdx

J 34x2+3 I V3+44x
di
r dx
2 x'—x
1)
(2X_1)
So1utiox.
I x2 dv
(x2±1)-l-(x2--I)
Jr._I x4 ± I
dx [Note this step]
1 fx2+1
dx-- dx
( 1\ 1\ /
fx+I
Now dX=1_ JdX=IL-I -
Jx4-4-1 J 1 j (x___)
I
Xi ±2
dt 1 1
where f =x---- so that df( i
==tan'=tan-'[J( x.L)i
ALISO X4+ 1
jdx= _ dx— ^
u=X+—1 -
Idu
• where
ju-2 x
-- x2 - V2x+ I
to
2V2 .X+/2x-f 1
• - 1 tan --
(x2—1 1 log

j- y2x +1
Remark. The above technique can also be applied to evaluate
x2-
integrals of the type dx.
I x4fkxa+

d.
Ea inpi e 31. Find
4 -5 sin 2 x'
dx sec 2 . dx (Note this step)
Solution. - -x
^ 4 + 5 sin SL()
see' x dx sec txic dx

4 (l -1-tan' x)+5 tan x 4-t-9 ntx
I f dt
putting 3 tan X=t
1 1 '(3 tailx )
1--tan ----- tail -2.
187. INTEGRALS REDUCIBLE TO SOME STANDft.RD FORM

1 1
When functions are of the type a -I-h cos x ' —
al-h sin X
and
X--
then substitution tan 1 is most useful. All integrals
of the above type can by reduced by this substitution to algebraic forms

where the integrals call evaluated by available methods of integration
of algebraic fu n ctions.
\Vc also make use of Following results from trigonometry.
21 1—"
1fl x= cos Xrr---j- etc.

Also tan -- I -2 see' -- - dx di
1 2d1
T(1+12)=dt i.e., d=1--
dt
ç dx ¶2.i-_t ç 2d(____
ja fb Os x j.1 2 j(a . b) t2-i-(a-l
-h)
ia-Lb
1+12
2 f di
a_bJ ,2 a+b
a--b
Case I. Let a'> b2 , so that is positive say V. Then
abt2+k2 --tan (-k--)

2 tan_ h A P tan
/a2_b ". V a+b 2
744 BUSINESS MAT}IEMATR3
Case II. Let a.<b1, so that

a+b
a-b is negative say - p '. Then
2 f di 2 I 1-p
b-l.a
tan_L_
log
Case III. Let a!h? so that b=ja

dx I dx -
J aacosx aJl+ cos x
11 dx If dx
=-I--- or -I-
aJ x aJ 2X'
2 cos 2 -- 2 sin
according as ba or b= -a.
- coscc2
sec3 Z lx or[ dx
2aJ 2 2a) 2
Ix I x
tan -- or -- - cot
Example 32. Fvaltiaie
2dt
Solut 0 . A'= It2' putting tail -- =1
5-f 4.-
I 4f 2
f 2d1 2 t
= j 94t T tan -
2 ri x
=-Ttan tan--i-
Example 33, Evaluate
2d1
X
Solution S1' putting tan 2 =1
'= 1 3(1 (2)
1+1,
I-j-1
f did,
51+41-f85j 2+
1+4

2
1 5 5
I 2 ( 6 - tan
5 6 6
T) T)
= tan-' 5 tan *2 )]
EXERCISE (Eli)
Evaluate the following
dx (IX
1. (I) (ii)
2. (1) 2 V2 —
L.dx (ti) (iii) dx
J 2,v -i ^1-3x! J3 + Zx —x2
dx 3d dx
3. ()
x '+8x +T
IN/"73_ 6x_x2' JVx2x2
4. (i) J gIXii)J-7=-_-__dX (iii) ^ (Ix

jw
Xdx I X2-•--1
J+x'+i J X+'c'-)' (iii)
j-.----_---_ dx
6. (i)(IX, 11 Jc±. Ti
2
d
7.
I e dx .. C (Ix
(')
i3C+3&f-l'" J4sin2xF4sinx±5
COS x
dx
j2 cos 2 x-f sin x cos x •+-sn' '
dx ..i dx ç Ix
8. •..
(i) j-----, COS (") T 5 23sjn 2v

r dx r dx
9. 10. ._-
j-, _ - _x
2-fCOSX-fSIn 3 cos x + 4sui x+13
ANSWERS
1. (z)
I
tan
13x--j •. I (2(x-1)
(ii) - -------
3 Jog
2. (i) -3 log (2x!-2x+3)+±- tan-' j (2,, — 1)^
log (1 ±2x-t- 3x 2 )_ j-_. ._2

tan'
(hj) --i- log (3+2x—x2).F+ iog(± ..)

746 !3USLNES MATHEMATICS
3. (i) log '5x-t-4 (.V5xl+8x4
(ii) 3 sin 1 . (11) -- sin

V2 5
4. (1) 5(1+±jx2±x±)/6
9-3-8x-1j4 siii-'
), (iii) /2ax_x2
(ii)
I i2x2+l
• 0) , tan
(X i I I
23 tan-
XI—X-1
-1log -:1)
-A
I (X&_V'3X-fJ\
log \/1l
6. (1) sin X(x+2)/iT?]
(ii) /X2_ 1 log
2 2e-1. 1 .. I 2 sin xj-j

7. (i) tan-' (--, (ii) -
tan' (-2----)
2 2tanx-i-I . 2 tall_
tan 8. (i) 3 tan -
(
ui)
log (_i_ (iii) _3iog [ j
9. /2 tan [-( tann--i- +11 )]

5
10. --.tan'
188. I NTEGRATION BY PARTS

U and v be two functions of x. From differential calculus, we
have Let
ddv du
(rIv)=u .-
d dx dx
Integrating both sides w.r.t, x, we have
r du
u_. u—dx1 v— dx
I dx dx

INT EG RAL CALCULUS 747
C (IV f (114
Transposing, we get u - dx_uv d x
I Tv
If u=-J(x) and -- = (x), so that v=

the above rule may be written as
AX) (x)dx:- Jx) (x)dx ) - Jx) } (x)dx dx

J I
Thus
The integral of the product of two Junctions :-first function x integral of
the second function - integral of (the derivative of the first x integral of the
second function).
Example 34. Integrate x 2 sin x, w.r.t. x.
Solution. Let x he the first function and sin x be the second
function. Then
12 sin X (IX- (T x ( sin x dx ) dx
=_XZ cos x -I•- 2x cos x dx
Integrating by parts, the second term of the R.1-1.S., we get

^ / d
1= - cos x + 2x cos .v dx-- (lv) cos x dx ) dx
cos x2X sin x--2 sin .v d

J
=•—x2 cos X-F2x sin x+2 cos x.
Example 35. Evaluate xedx

J
Solution. Let x2 be the first function and e be the second one.
Then
I=X' I e3 dx--( x2 ) . e3 ' dx dx
xe' I e3
2x. - dx
x 2e3 ' 2 C
- - - xe x dx
Integrating by parts the second member on the R.H.S., taking x as

the first function, we have
Xt
x x dx— J(-/- (x). e tix ) dx }
--I-{

—
x 2 e 3 '
3
2 e3-(I
3(•3
I
3J
e 3 il
-
Xe' 2xe 2
3 -- 9 r7
Example 36. Evaluate (a) log -v dx, (b) x" log x dx.
f
Solution. (a) Take log x as the first function and 1 as the second.
J log x. 1 dx=log x J I dx J[ (log x) I . dx ] dx
=rx log xJLxix

x log X.
(b) Taking log x as the first function, we have
1=- log x x" dx--j[/-- (log x). X" (IX ] dx
'+i r
=log X. ------_-_I--_- —dx
n-}l Jx n+l
i r
-log X . -- --- -- I X" dx
nfj nflj
X" 1 x'''
= log x . -

Example 37. Jaluwe x tan X dx.
Solution Let tan' r be the first function, then

i--- tan ' xIX dx - (tan x) x dx
JLdx A]
I XI
tan x — , -- dx
x' I f(x+1)—i
tan - ' dx
tan' I If If
dx+-1-j dx
Ti
X2 x 1
tan X— -- +-- tan X
Example 38. Evaluate e sin (bx-I-c) dx.

Sol ution- Taking e as the first function, we have
!=e , sin (bx+c) dx_J/_ (e0) sin (bx+c) dx dx
cos (/'x I c)I ens (1).x I c)

+) ---— dx
e' ens (bx±c)± e cos(bx Fe) dx
[ntcgratiiig the second member again by parts, we have

-- e' cos (bx c) - e (hx+) m/v
C' , ens (b+c)

(e') cos (hx +c) ix } (IX
J
h
I
(IC'
sin (bx 4- c) dx
--- -- --
-= -- e° cos (hx+c) c'' sin (hx +c)
S in (bx I c) dx
b cos (b--c 4-a s in (/x Ie)]
I knee a sin (hx c) - b cos (hx c) ]
Example 39. Integrate the function x cos , x w.r.t, s.

FCOS 2.v
Solution. From trigonometry, cos' -----------
II-i- cos 2x II
Ij X( )Jx-) dx4 V cos 2xd
The second integral is integrable by parts.
XCOS ? xdx=--
It
+_fx
2
1 Jin2x
]
x 3 X sin 2x I
+ -f---- ens 2x
a mple 40. Integrate

" IUton, . I Ix
=
2 1—2x
- -- - x
x—V/a..x2 (IX
: I -'- -_-.-_-.. dx

70 nusir-r•j .',tAriiL:in.•\r[Cs
X V'a 2 V'T 2 d-[-a2
2 Va2=x2dx=x4Ia2_x24a2 siir'--
(lX 1c2_2+_ sin -
Example 41. Integrate -. --- w.r.t. x.

(x sin x (OS )2
S ol ut i on.
N
I x2
in x-- cos x)
x
jcos x
s _-_
(x ill)" -
Since(x sin x-cos x)x cos x, integrating by parts, we get
cos x (x sill x---cos x)
dx
j A cos x I x -- cox
(x sinco-,
x
+ (:05 x)
r cos x--x sill X
-1-'------.------------- -.--- ---- (lx
J cos2 x (x Sin x-+COS x)
I
dv
x) 4-j I
sec 2
cos x (x sinXCoS
--
= ------------ - -+tan x
cos x ( sin x cos x)
Example 42. Evaluate the following integrals
xel
(1) dx [l.0 WA., June 11]
r 1--sfnx
(ii) I e . dx.
J l+CoSx
r xe I
Sniution. W dx dx
= j
e
(x -j- 1) t)
cr -
JLx+1 (x+1)2
] e ^ dx
Integrating ----j-- e' A by parts, we get

1N1E(IRAL. CALCULUS 751
(LV -- - --a-, e• C (IX

J x-1 x-1 j (x-j- 1)
Ir 1 -. 1 i 1
It I e' 1Ix=
JL x ±1 (X-H)J xi-1
1±2 Si!)
(ii) e (_±2 :
1-cosx I x
2 cos' 2
L
I_I x x
see- -- -I--tan
x
Integrating e tan by })arts, We get
I e x x x
tan (j_.etth 2 sec2dx
2
e (sac'
2 4
-1-tin
X Sj11' X
4) dx -e tail
Example 43. Integrate wr.(

\ r J--_\-
Solution. let sjir' x-9 -V=sjr 0
so that iLv-=cos 0 do
tj
fIii 0 1) cos U
do
J cosD
I) sin o do
0)-fl cos
O COS O-I-sin 0=sin 0—. 0 V jT712j
x— /l—x sin-' x
x2 ta,z I .
I
i.e, Xtan 0 so that dx=scc 2 0 dj
--____.L (IC
Solution. Let tan'

f O. sec? 0 do= tan' F) scc'O
I-
j TT i ll 111 0 i see2 8
0 tan' 0 IoJ 0 (sec2 0l).de
0 sec , 0 0 dO

n:si•: MVII IflMAIIL-
= 0 tan 0— . tan 0 d -
=0 tan 0- log sec 0-- -- o2
0 tan 0 ---og / i -o -. (;2
tan \'-- -- log (I +x2)- (-
EXERCISE (IV)
Integrate the Iollowing functions.
I. (i) XC', (ii) x 2 e ll [!.C.W.A., December 19901
2. (1) x sin -. (if) . sin (02), (iii) xi cos X.
3. (i) sin ' x, (ii) cot x. (iii) x see - I .v.
4 (1) x log x, (ii) (log x)2.
S. (1) x sec 2 X, (Ii) X 2 Sin X COS X.
6. (i) x sin x sin 2x sin 3x, (11) sin x log (cos x).
-. I .--------
x-4-sii, X I x--sin x
7• (1) - (1.,;, (1,) ---. dx
J 17-f cos X J 1 - cos x
±:
8. ( 0 h2' e' dx, (ii) i ----' J9_:_ e' i.--.
I e' rcosx -fsinx \
(ill) i
--.-----------'----------) dx
J co2x
-I x3 s j n -• ' x
9. M dx, (U) 2
dx,
(i—x1)1'
I X tan' x
(in) I -- -_- ix.
J (1
C08 0+ sin 0
10 cos 20 . log - — dO.
cos 0—sin 0
ANSWERS
1. l)e, (II)
(1) ,x---01-2x4 2 e'. 2. (1) sin .v --x cos x,
(ii) --2x cossin
(x 6x) sin +3(x— 2) cos x.
3 (1) x S1fl 1 x VFx, (ii) x cot x - t o(l +x2),
X1 sec X—
(iii) -._ [
4. (0 - x 2 log ( f-) ((I) x(log x)22. log 1+2x

753
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
(1-2x2) cos 2x-f-- sin 2x

5. (i) x tan x — 109 Sec X, (it)
(i) - x ( cos 2x+ cos 4x— cos 6x )

6.
I I
sin2+ sin 4x-- sin 6x )
(ii) cos x[l ---log (cos x)].
(i) X tan -ix -., (ii) —x cot 2

X7.
ex (x- tan x)
8. (1) ---, (U) eiog x, (II) e sec x, 9. (III)
sin 20 1 +tanO sin 20 2

log 1—tan 0 dO
10. 2 cos 20
(Integrate by parts)
1810. INTEGRATION USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS

X
Example 45. Integrate (x-1)(2XI-i) w..t. x.
X A B
Solution. Let -_-I) +
Multiplying both sides by (x— 1) (2X+ I), we have
x=A(2x+ 1)+B(X— 1)
Putting x1 and -- -i--, we get
l=3A
and - - - -- B B= -
... JI)(2X+l) [3(x_1) 3(2x+ 1)
)dx
(x--1) J(2x
=--- log (x-l)+- . -- tog (2x+l)
r d
46. Eyaluate
Example 46.
dx t dxdx
Solution. ' . x(l —x)(l +x)

754
Let - - A ii c
X(1 x)(I -fx) x I --x 4.---
1-4 x
Multiplying both sides by x(1 —x)(l -+-x). we have
1=-A(1--x)(1-4 x)-f-Bx(1+x)+cx(!_x)
Putting x 0, 1 and 1, we have
1==A A=1
1=2B B=
and I = —2C
I dx ç t 1 1 (Ix
j x•—x J 2(1—x) 2(l +x)
=log x-- j log (1—x)--3 log (1 +x)
2 log x—log(1--x) -log (l+)J
11 x2
log
Exrnple 47. Evaluate [__±__

J(x—a,)(x--nx_.c) Lr.
________
Sotuon. Let-- A B C
x a x --b x—.c
Mdtiplying both sides by (x--U)(x-_.b)(_c), we have
=(x—a)(._b)(x c){(x- b)(x_c)A+()(a)B
-f- (x— a)(x.—b)C
Putting =a, I-' and c, we
b3 0
(a- b)(ci— c) B. C
(b—a)(b —c)' (c—a)(c —b)
dx+A
a 3.B1+CJ
x+A log (x—a)+B log (x—b)1 Clog (x- c)
hcre A, B. C have the values obtained above.
Example 48. Evaluate cos x A

JTsjr, x)(24
[CA., November 19911
Put Sin x( so that cos x
I cos xdx di
J(1 +sin x)(2±si 'J Cl +1)(2+1)
jrL1d
-I- I 2+tJ
iL l

f 1, di
)i* t j2+1
log (1+ 1 ) — log (2+1)
ll-t \-1-SmX
--log ) 1O (12.
)_
(Ix
Example 49. Evaluate i

ç dx
Solution. Let i- -- dv -------
JSifl XrSlfl 2x Isin x-4-2 sin X cos x
f dx f sin xdx
Mn x(l +2 cos x) jsill' x( +2 cos x)
-- ( sin x dx
J(1cos' x)(1-j-2 cos X)
f sin xdx
—cos x)(1l- cos x)(1-f2 cos X)
Put cos x-t so that sin x

ç -- di
•
= J(l—l)(lt)(L+2t)
I A B C
Let
I-=(l+1)(1+21)A+(I - t)(I -2t)B±(l.-1)(t +t)C
Putting 1=1. --I and - -- respectively, we have
1-6A
I---28 > Br-----4-
and 1=- C C=4_

4 3
- + --] dt
tog (I—t)+ -- log (l+— -- log (1+21)
log (I - cos x) + -- log (I +-cos x) - - log 0+ 2 cos x)

756 BUSINESS MATflEMAT1
Example 50. Integrate x+5

(x±1)(x2)
-- W.r.t.x.
x+5 A 13
Solution. Let
C(x+1)2t
* x+5A(x+2)2+B(x+1)(x+2)+c(x+ 1)
Putting X=-2 and X=-1, we get A=4, C=--3•
Comparing co-efficient of x, we get A i.e., 11= —4 -f-BO,
14 fdx 4 [dx r dx
x--1 jx+2j()i
=4 log (xf . 1)-4 log (x-l-2)+ 3
x2
2_1
Example 51. Integrate ( w.r:• x,

Solution. Let x be denoted by y (we are not substituting y for x).
Then the integrand becomes
Y-1 —1 3 —2
(Y+ l)(y+2)(y±3) ±yT
(Using partial fractions)
Writing back X2 for y, we get
1) IX d 'jx
1 )(X2
f(X114- (X2f 2)(x-f3) - + —2 I dx
tan' x+tan 1 a —1 tan-
EXERCISE (V)
Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x
1 (11) I
(x—l)(x--2) x4-12
2. (i) (II)
(x+3)(x17' x'-13x+ 4
(Iii) (x
0( x --i)x+ l)
X I -4 xt
. (1)
(x2_l)(3x (11) (x---a)(xb)
4.
x[6(Iog x)1 -F7 log x+2j
Sin 2x
5. (1) -
(sin X+ l)(sin x +2)(510 X-f-3)

I secs x
( ii) •-.--- (II)
3 sin X +S j fl 2x' (a+tan x)(b- tan x)
x 3x4-4
6. (1)
(x._l)2(x+-
2) (x+2)2(x_6)
x' —1
7.
( x 2 + 1)(x2±2)(xS+.3)
ANSWERS
1. (i) - lo (x 3)3 (x+ 1), (Ii) f log [(xH- 1)(x+ 3)/(x±2)2].
2. (0 10 log (x 1-3)_30 log (x+4)+21 log (x+5),
(ii) 19 log (x-7)— 18 log (x-6)
log (x+l )++
l og (x-1)+- Tog (2x-fl).
(iii) -}
3. (1) -- log (x—I)— log (X+ I) f}- log (3x+I),

(II)
b2
+(,b log (x —a) log (x—b)
4. (0 2logx+1
log 3 log x4-2
5. (i) 4 log (sin X +2)—log (sin x+ 1)-3 log (Sin x+3),
(ii) log (1—cos x)--- log (1 +cos x)+ -i-log (3+2 cos x),
(ill) lTa log (a+ tan x)-4-_!-_ Tog (b-2 tan x).
x-1
6. (1) -- log x23(x7' (II) II log x-6 I
I-
x
' -L--- 2 tan' tan
.810, DEFINITE INTEGRALS

In geometrical and other applications of Integral Calculus it becomes
ecessary to find the difference in the values of the integral of a function
x) between two assigned values of an independent variable x, say, a, b.
he difference is called the Definite Integral fix), over the interval [a, b
nd is denoted by
1(x) d'c

758 BUSR4ESS MATHF3MATICS I
Thus f(x) dx=(b) (a),
wh4rc (x) is an integral of f(x).
The difference [(b)—(a)J is sometimes denoted as
[(x)]
Thus if (x) is an integral of Ax), we write
dx[)
1=(b))
The numbers a and b are respectively called the lower limit and the
upper limit of definite integral. Ax) dx is called the definite integral
because the indefinite constant of integration does

does not appear in it. Since
If(x) dx=I(x)±c1_{(b)c —(a)+c
- (b)- (a)
so that arbitrary constant c disappears in the process.
Illustrations
I 1
J. r2x x4 7 (2
2x' —x3)dx=[Tj) l ,' 2
1(
4 4
2. (3 x 2) 2 dx=J (9x 2 — 12x+4) dx
J
2 2
4
=[9._-I2.

INTE(jRAL CALCULUS 759
3x3 -- 6x2 4 4x
4 J
= 192-961 i6)—(24-24•f8) 104
3. [4 ] dx=[—±.+]
to
4. 1 ""< — [ 2 ,,, _x
10 10
f log (x42)1
=log 12 log 8 —log (-)log (-_)
6. log x dx=- [ x log x x
=(e log e —e)—(log I I)

3rJ4 3rc)14
7. 1 sin x dx---[_c05 .
/2_0 )+v2
e_x1 dx[ 2e12 J

—2
--2 (e'2--e)-49904
2 2
f dx TI x
9. I tan1 -
Jx-4 L2 2
—2 —2
I TI t I \1
TLT \4 )J4
760 BUSINflSS }tATF!13MAT1CS
1811. PROPERTIES
In this article we establish some important properties which consider-
ably facilitate the evaluation of many definite integrals. It is assumed
throughout that
Property I. The value of definite integral is independent of the

variable of Integration, l.e.
f(t) dt=f fix) dx
Proof. L.ILS.[ 0 (t) ]=(h)_(a)
J f(x) d=
Property II. f(x)dx=O
Proof. L.H.S.[ (x) ]=(f(a)—&)=0==R.H,S-
b
Property III. J(x) dx= fix) dx
3
Proof. L.H.S.[(X) ]=(b)—(a)
(a)—(b) ]=_[(x)]
= fix) 'tv=R.H.S.
Property IV -1 f(x)dx
f(x)dx+ f(x)dx_

761
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Proof
(b) - = I J(X)dx -= R.ILS.
Property V. f(x)dx= fla -x)dx
Proof In the integral on R.H.S., put a -X-=( so that —dx----dl.

Also i—a when x=O and (=0 when x=a.
RH.S.= f(t)dt
(by Property Ill)

I jz twl
f(x)dx (by Property I)
=L H.S.
Cor. If f(a —x) = _f(x) then f(x)dx 0
Property VI. (l) Jtx)dx= 2 f(x)dX, if Ax) is even function of
x, I.e., Iff( —x) = ftx) and
(iI)lflX)dX=O, if f(x) Is an o dilfuncilon of x, i.e., If

J_x)= —f(x).
Proof. We can write
f(x)dx (x)dx ftx)dx
In the first integral on the right hand side, put x 80 that t

when x=0 and t=-a when x=—a.
762
RUSINeSS MATHIMAT1CS
fix) d.v
_
a
J() f( t)dt (by Property III)
a
= f( —x)dx (by Property
0
Therefore
f(x) (IX = fix)(Lv+J f(x) x f(— x) f(x)J dx

_
=2 J(x)dx if J—x)f(x)
J
—0, if f( x)= —f(x)
2a 0
Property VI I. f(x)d2 f(x)dx If f(2a—x)f(x)

J
Q iff(2a—x)_f(x)
Proof, We have
2a a 2a
J0 xix =J0 f(x)dx + aI Ax)dx - - (I)
Now in the second integral on the R.H.S. put x2a-1 so that when
xa, t=a and when x=2a, 1=0.
ftX)dx J2a-f)d1= f(2(j--t)di= J2a--X)dx

J J J
From (1), we get
2a a C7
a
J ftx)dxJ f(x)(/x +J f(2a—x)dx J [ AX) a —x)]dx

763
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
2a 0
flx)dx=2 fx)dx, if f(2a x) =f(x)
=0, iff( 2a -x)=—f(x)

15 b
fa + b - x)dx
Property VIII. f(x)dx
Proof. In the integral on the R.l-LS. put a -+- b —x .=-- f so that

—.-dx=dl. Also when X=(l, t--=h and whet, x- b, t ..a.
R.H.S,=— f)dt f(t)dt= f(x)dx=L.H.S.
0
Example 52. Evaluate - f di.
[I.C.W.A., June 19901
Solution. ±± dt( 1+2+ 1) dr
=k+2t+5 log
(4_1)--2(2_-1)+5(1og2-- log!)
log 2=5 log 2+
Example 53. Evaluate [C.A.. May 19911

(a2 4-X ) _
0
solution. Put x-=a tan 0 so that dx=a see' 0 dt3
When x=O,0=taia (-)._o.
When x=a , 0==tan_ 1 (_)tafl h 1= --

a
dx f a see" 0 dO I ç do
• f
• ' J (a 2 + x') 8 /2-J a3 sec3 o a2 j Sec U
0 0 0

ir/4
=-L
as f cos Odo=.Ji! sin o
sin -
) va
Example 54. Evaluate the Integral
I 'Ix
•1 l-I-4cosx [C.A., May 19911
x
So1utjn. Put tan -=t so that dx= 2d1
2 l+1
When x=O, t=tan (--)=o
When X=x, t=-tan
co Co
• ç dx f 2dt/(1-4-z') I 4d1
J 1 2+2:5+1_0
cc r, x 0+--.
Co Co
f4dI r dl I (I
12+3 (3
4 4 2
=_3_ (tan'c-tan 1
o )(T—°)T

I±xt dx.
0
[CA., November 1991]
Solution. Put 1+x2_12 so that x dx_—t di
When x=O, 1=1 and when x=l, :=/T
di
j I+
/:
a/
2--tdI

. .. /a—x' dX = \/a+-sjn--' L-]

r
v'2
t 2
f-=2±iSIn
v'2
i
isill
in'1—sill -- --
2
-- v'2 22T•
Example 56. Evaluate the following iniegrals
(1) cos x dx, (ii) e 2 dx and (iii)

J y ( IX
0 2
TO it/2
Solution. (I) cos x dx[ sin x ]=sin -i-- —sin o -
J

(ii) J
(eee4)!. e(e 2 -- I)
(iU) j -\/Tj _+7—,ir x)dx=J( COS2

+ sin ' j_.2COSdx
,J2
ci x .x
+sIn ---)dx
1( —2
0
sin -
x
- 2
0
766
=2 [( sin - —cos ---)-( sin 0—cos 0)1

( ---- - --
—2 o—i —2
Lk
/2 V 2 ' ( )
Example 57. Evaluate the following integrals
ic/3
r. r Cos xdx
(t) CO54 X Slfl X dx, (ii) )
0 0
fsin 2odo
j s114—co
6-'1- .1
0
1
n
Solution. (i) Let C0S4 x Sfl X (IX
Put cos x= t , then --sin X dx-dt or sin x dx —dt
Also, when xO, t =I and when X-- t=0
id dt---[S (Ql)-
]_-
n/3
r cosxdx
(u) Let 344 sinx
0
Put sin x=t, then cos x ddt

Also, when x=O, t=0 and when 1
,/312 V312
__[ log (3+4t) ]
3-4-41
=-' [log (3+2'3)IOg 3]
1 3-+2V3 I 108 1+ 72-
,;14
dO
C'
0
sin 29 d
in 1) + COS0 I
0
C' 2 sin cos 8
sin4 O+cos4O

INTEGRAL CALCUI us 767

r/4
f 2 tan 0. Sec s dd
)
0
fDividing num. and deEl, by cos' 01
Put tail 2 C t then 2 tan 6 sec' 8 d (it
Also, IVhCIi 9 =:O, (=0 and \hen 0 rr. 1 1.
j= tail
58. Evaluate 1= 7 r' r dx
Sill (- -)
x
SrIution. 1=
/ sin( -x
)+Vcos (-)
dx
by Property (V)]
7T/ 2
sin x
J 7==— dx
81n x --- v/' ô s
ij2
fV SiflX f CosX
21 -dx
r'2 J2
L 3+\/TT
S In I
I dx -
sin x-1-V cos x 2
4
rl2
Ex6mpe 59. Evaluate log (sin x)dx.
o!ution. ;= sill (-__x)]dx= log cos xdx

log

r/2
=-- [tog (sin x)-t-log (cos x)
I dx
2 iI2
log (sin x cos x)dx=4J iog(-) dx
0 0
nf2
=
tog (sin 2x) dx— -
J log 2 dx
1 ir
log
=2
42
where log (sin 2x) dx
0
log sin g di, putting t==2X

0
• 2 log sin I di [by Property (VII)j

0
42
=1 0
loggia xdxf
J---- log 2, whence I==— log 2
EXERCISE (VI)
Evaluate the following definite integrals
/Xd
x14—: 7
4
j
2. d.'(
j 25—x2
3
dx.

NTEGRAI. CALCULUS 769
4. Prove that (i) tog 5,
f cos x th 4( (IX
IX TV
(ii) - - --- - tog (ui)
s' j
0 0
TtIZ
3 ----- . , 6.
1- cos2x 2 1 tax
0 0
r/2fix
7. Prove that - [CA., May 1984
Write tan
L cos.
IT
I xdx
8. Piove that I ----------- [C-A., November 1981]
J 1 - sin .
()
9. Evaluate (I)
I
2
\/ x
X 4- V 2 x
2
(IX
J--- - ______
(x 4- 1) V. -
0 0
10. Evaluate _____ A.
ANSWERS
I •- 1 3
1. j- TZ V3 2. --- log
98
3. 5. ---T
3
9. (i) I (ii)
10.
19
Vector Algebra
STRUCTURE
191. VECTORS
192, TYPES OF VECTORS
191. OPERATIONS ON VECTORS
19'4. ADDITION
195. PROPERTIES OF OPERATION OF ADDITION
196. SUBTRACTION
19'7. MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR
198. ORTHONORMAL BASES
199. PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
1910, SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS OR DOT PRODUCT
1911. PROPERTIES OF SCALAR PRODUCT
1912. VECTOR PRODUCT OR CROSS PRODUCT
1913, PROPERTIES OF VECTOR PRODUCT
OBJECTIVES
• Addition, subtraction, scalar product and vector product and
solve problems based on the above.
191. VECTORS
In mathematics we generally deal with two kinds of quantities. Those

which are specified b y a single real number called the magnitude, in
other words, those which measure quantities but not related to any direc-
tion in space. Such quantities are called scalars. The examples of such
q uantities used are in measurement of mass, volume, electric charge, tempe-
rature, sales, production, etc. The other types of physical quantities are
those which have got magnitude as well as a definite direction in space.
Such quantities are called vector quantities or simply vectors. The most
familiar examples of this type are for the mtasurement of velocity, accelera-
tion, etc

VECTOR ALGEBRA
771
A vector is often denoted as a directed line or line segment. Such

a line has an initial point or the origin and a terminal point or the terminus,
and whose direction is indicated by an arrow. Such a directed line in
geometric expression has the following three attributes.
(i) length or magnitude,
(ii) support or inclination, and
(iii) direction or sense.
-4.
Thus in vector /18, 4 is called the origin and 13 the terminus. The
magnitude of the vector is given by the length AR and its direction is
from A to B or 11 to A depending on the A
arrow indication. In addition to the
above notation of vectors giving their A
origin and terminus, we shall use bold
face type a. b. c Tho corresponding
italic letters a, b, c denote only the magnitude of the vectors, We also use
- -4 -
I,], k vector bases or just i, j. k depending oil context in which these
have been employed.
19'2. TYPES OF VECTORS
I. Free and Localised Vectors. When we are at liberty to
choose the origin of the vector at any point, it is said to be a free vector
but where it is restricted to a certain specified poiat, the vector is said to
be a localised vector.
I(. Null Vector. If the origin and terminal points of a vector
coincide, it is said to he a zero or null vector. Evidently its length is
zero and its direction is indeterminate. A null vector is denoted by the
bold faced type o. All zero vectors are equal and they can be expressed
as A,4, /18, etc.
111. Unit Vector. A vector whose modulus is unity is called a
unit vector. If there be any vector a whose modulus is a, then the
corresponding unit vector in that direction is denoted by a which has its
parallel supports.
-. a
a=-O a or a=—
IV. Reciprocal Vector. A vector whose direction is the same as

that of a given vector a but whose magnitude is the reciprocal of the
magnitude of the given vector, it is called the reciprocal of a and is written
as
- •l a
Thus if o=a a, then a a -
V. Equal Vectors. Two vectors are

0 said to be equal if they have (1) the same length
(magnitude). (ii) the same sense and (iii) the
same or parallel Supports. The equality is sym-
bolically denoted by a b. Thus equal vectors
may he represented by parallel lines of equal
length drawn in the same sense or direction
Irrespective of the origin.
Al3=EF= CDV--CD
VI. Co-initial Vector.
origin are called co-initial vectors. Vectors having the same initial point or
VII. Collinear Vectors. Any number of vectors are said to be
collinear when they are parallel to the same line whatever their magnitudes
may be.
VII!. Coplanar Vectors. Vectors whose supports are parallel to
the same plane are called coplanar Vectors.
Any plane which is parallel to this plane is
called the plane of site/i rectors.
X t±yb is coplanar with the vectors /

a, b, whatever be the values of the scalars
X and y. If
a, h he two non-colljiicar
V ectors then every vector r coplanar with a
and 11 can he repi-esenteti as a linear combj- / --
nation. 0 a
-. -4
If three vectors arc coplanar, then any one of them can be expressed
In
terms of the other two. Converse also holds good, i.e., if there are
three vectors and any one of them cart be expressed in terms of the other
two then the vcctoc are coplanar.
Rcmj I. If a, h be two non-colljnear vectors, then any vector
1, coplanar ith a, h call expressed as ,= xa +
yb and x, .y being scalars.
2. No: . cophjr,ir Vectors, If a, b, c
Coplanar v ectors, then any v ector r be three 11011-ci1ljiiejr and non-
can be expressed as
r=xa+yb--zc
-. Y, 1 are scalars.
IX. Lin ear Combination . The linear combination is the
addition
of two or more vectors multiplied by the respective sealans. For example,
w
e have the vectors a. b, c and the respective scalais x , y and z •
linear c ornbjiition of (he 'c
'File
above vectors will then be ex prsse(l
r'Ya+)h+zc
With numerical expression of scalars, vector combinations can he
2a -f b, 3a+2b-4c, —4a+3b±2c
VECTOR ALGEBRA 773
X. Linear Depeitcicnec. Now a linear combination r may he of

linear dependence or independence. The vectors a, 1) c are said to
be dependent if there are scalars X, y arid z not all zero such that their
linear combination with scalar multiplications yield it zero vector as
indicated below
xa -f-yb+zc=O [0 is a zero vector]
It' there is no such set of scalars that the linear combination of
vectors with scalar multiplications yield a zero vector then the vectors a,
b and c are linearly independent. In such a case the linear combination
r will be a zero vector only if all the scalars x, y, z are zero.
Xl. Position Vector. Any vector joining an arbitrary point of
origin 0 and the terminal point P can be the position vector in a place
which can he used to explain vector from other origins but terminating at P
or those from other origins in the same plane. In a way this concept of
position vector is the basis of vector geometry Ny e are discussing here.
Fo illustrate, we express the position vector OP in the following
figure in terms of On and OR which are from the same origin as
- —)
m0A -1 nOB
in -I-n
Ma 4 flJ)
--
where the point P divides the vector AB in the
ratio in :
This result we had ohtined earlier in the chapter on Coordinate
Geometry.
Example 1. The position vectors of four points, P. Q, R, S are a,
— -4
b, 2a I-3h, 2a-31i respectively. Express the vectors PR, RS and PQ in
lerm.c of a 017(1 b.
Solution, Let 0 be the origin.
OPr=a,OQ=h, OR2a+3b,0S2a-3b
-4 --4 ->
Now PROR-0Prr2al-3b—aa -f 3b
RS=OS—QR=2a-3b--2a---3b - --6b
and /'QrOQ—OPb---a
Example 2. Show that the points a-2b+3c, 2a-f-3b-4c and
- 7b + lOc are collinear.
774
Solutton. Let the given points be denoted by A, B
and C. Let C
be the origin of reference, then
-+ -* --,.
AB=OB_OA:=2a+3h_4c_a+2b_ 3c=a+5b-7c
--)- - .-).
AC=OC---OA=-7b+ lOc-a-1-2b -3c
--a-5b+7c-(a4 Sb-7c)
- -+
AB=-AC
- -*
hus the vectors AB and If are either parallel or collinear.
T
Further because these vectors are cotcrminus, hence the points A,
B, C are collinear.
Example I Show that the vectors 2i -j -F k, i -3j--51, 3j-4j-4k
are coplanar.
Solution. Let 2i -j Fkx (i- 3j- 5k)-y(3i_4j --4k)
- 2i-j-I-k(x±3)) i-(3x I- 4y) j•-(5x•f4y)k
x---3y==2
3x-4y=i
5x-j-4y_i
From (1) and (2), we get x=- - 1 , y.= 1.
These values of x and y satisfy the equation (3). Hence the vectors
are Coplanar.
Example 4. Show that the points. --6a--f-3b--l-2c, 3a-2b+4c
5a f- 7b-l-3c, -l3a--i7h-c are coplanar, a, b, c
vectors. being three non-coplanar
Solution. Let the given points be A, B, C and D.

Let 0 be the origin of reference, then
O A = --6a+3b+2c, OB=3a-2b+4c
-
0C-=5a+7b3c ODz=_l3a+17bc
-) - -4
Then A OBOA3a2b+4c6a_3b -2c
-9a--5b-r-2c
-4 -4 -4
ACQC_QArr5a+7b3c+6a_3b_2c
11 a -4-4 b -+ c

VECTOR AI.CWnRA 775
-4 -- --,-
AD=0D-0.4- - 13,i I- 17h—c+6a--3b-2c
----7a--14b-3c
Let us first prove that the vectors AB, AC, AD are linearly connected.
Let
jAB 4-ThAC7rAD, then
1[9a—%-l- 2c]+t?i [I la-F-4b-4- c ]- —7a1 14b- ic
- (91+1 l'n) a +[- 51 + 4rn ] b-I (2 / -I- ni ) c= —ia-F- 14b--3c
91+1lrn==---7
—51+4n'=14
214-in ---3 .. (3)
Solving (I) and (2), we get
in --1
These values of I and rn satisfy the equation (3) also. hence vectors
AB, W. AD arc coplanar.

llccaase these vectors are coterminus, hence the four points '4, /3, C
and L) are coplanar.
193. OPERATIONS ON VECTORS

The two important operations are addition and inultipliCrttiofl
whereas subtraction and division follows from them. It should be rcmeifl-
bered that the operations oil -are element by eletiicnt because a
vector is an ordered set. We have discussed with two dimensions but a
vector point can be in 'i-dimensional space indicated by the n number of
elements in a vector.
194. ADDITION
If is a vector represented by OA and b is a vector represented by

AR so that the tc:minus of a is the initial
point of b, then their sum or resultant c_._ --i------ -S
(a-f-b) is dehned to be the vector
represented in magnitude and direction by
OB, where 0/3 is the third side of the
triangle OAB. This method of addition is a
called the triangle law of addition.
If a is a vector represented by OA and b is a vector represented by

OC (i.e., they have a common origin) then their sum (a + b) is defined to

776
i-iiJSiNrs MAT TtMA11C
Lc the vector represented it, magnitude and direction by 011, where OABC
is the completed parallelogram. This method of addition is called the
parallelogram law of addition. It may be noted that these two methods
ar, identical as is ObVIOUS from the definition of the c(luality of vectors.
195. PROPERTJFS OF THE OPERATION OF ADDITION

1, lIlCliLn'o/i Property. If it F I' iiii(l b ' then a-+ h(E V.
II. Coninuiioii'c Property , a+ I): I) 1 a for all a, 1 ) E V.
Proof. Let 0A =-a and AB -- b he two given vectors.

+
13v t rtangte law of addition, 0/3= a + b
( T o j iri d ete Ille parallelogram OAI?C.
Then OA_=CRra and OC- - AB- b, Now
04 -A/3--0B c-a-lI, and 0C--(13'=(1/1=bfa
Hence itH h-- 13 ft

III. 1 vsociative Property , a I (I, -I-c) - (a 4-b) -c for all a, b, cE V
and BC --c he an y three vectors.

Proof. Let 0.4 a, 4/3=1)
[hen
a +(b+c)UA+(r11fl BC) 0.4 -i-AC0C (1)

- .-) - - - -
Again (a i b) + c (0.-f-f-4134 iic- OBA BC= 0C (2)
Foin (I) and (2), we ha %e
a ± (b fc) -(a--r-b)+c
IV. Identity or Zero Property . '[here exists a zero vector or identity
cctor for addition such that
a+o-"a:=o±a for all aF V
VECTOR ALGEBRA 77?
llccause of this property the vector o is called the additive identity or

the netural element for addition.
V. Negotive Property . For any vector a there is , I vector - a with

the property that
i
a - (-. a ) o aol ( -- . ) I- a- o
On account o f this propert y , the vector ( - I) a is calledthe ncittive of
he vector a and we write
a_( I) a
It should he notcd that the existence of the four properties of addi-
tion comp sition is referred to b y saviag that the set 0 f vectors is a com-
mutative group for the nddit i on corn position.
addition
19 . 6. SUBTRACTION
Suht raction is the inverse of tile operation of addition as shown
below
a---a=--(- a ) =a -f-( 1) ;t-O
It can also he dehned as a difference of two positive vectors or a
SUM of a pCsitise and a negative vector as shown below.
. h-a-4-(—h)
also --- (a - -h) - - — a li
Diagrarnatically we can show these results as follows
-a B
/
-b
191. MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR.

If rn is any scalar, then the product ma of a vector a and the real
number n, is defined as a vector whose magnitude is Ffl times the modulus
of a and whose direction is the same as that of n or the opposite direction
according as the scalar rn is positive or m1egatic.
The division of a vector a by a real number in is defined as the
multiplication of the vector a by
PROPERTJ E 01 SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

j It has an ifl(CTfla/ CO#fl/?OSiI ion oii/'. i.e., if
aF V then in a F V

778
H. It has an identity element such that
I . a= a , I for all a V
111. It has a zero element such that
0. aO=a.0
IV, It has an associative proper!)'
,n (ii a)(mn) a, for all a V
V . It distributes over addition of two vectors, i.e.,
(0) 'ii (a ± b) 'ii a--iii b
(b) ( rn + it) a 'it ± a for all a, hE V
}
19'8. ORTFiONORMAL BASES
A set of vectors such that the length of each vector is unity and any
two Vectors are orthogonal then they form orthonormal bases. The vectors
are orthogonal when their inner product is zero. Let us take three ortho-
normal bases I. j, k as shown in the adjoining figure
Now, their relations are of the type that
1. i=l,j.j=l,k k-=t
and i.j0,j.k0,i.k-
The above vectors are coplanar, being in the
same plane. Since their inner product is zero, they
arc orthogonal and therefore they constitute
orthonorinal bases.
Further to illustrate the two vectors which are
perpendicular (will have cos angle of 900 which is
equal to zero) are orthogonal as shown below
r_ •-'
2 1 I —1 1 4
)
2
L 3 J
1
showing that i . are perpendicular and therefore orthogonal and forra
orthonormal bases.
19'9. PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

There are two different ways by which vector quantities are multi-
plied, one is called scalar or dot product and the other is called vector or
cross product. The former is a mere number and does not involve any
direction whereas the latter is associated with a definite direction and as
such is a vector quantity. However in each case the product is propor-
tional to the products of the lengths of the two vectors and they also follow

VECTOR ALGEBRA 779
the distributive law just as in the product of ordinary numbers. The scalar
or dot product of two vectors a and b is written as it b, i.e., by placing a
dot (.) between a and b whereas the vector or cross product of vectors
a and b is written as ax b, i.e., by placing a cross (<) between it and h.
1910. SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS OR DOT
PRODUCT
The scaler or dot product of two vectors a and b is defined to be t/u
scalar
a b I cosO
where 0 is the angle between the vector quantities a and b and a
b 1 are the moduli of a and b respectively.
1911. PROPERTIES OF SCALR PRODUCT
I. Commutative Property. From the a hove we find that
a bb . a =ab cos 0, i.e., scalar product is commutative.
a - b a b Scalar Product
• • • cos -
aL = a 13 Preductof inoduli
11. The scalar product of two lion-zero vectors is positive, zero or
negative according as the angle between them is acute, a right angle or
obtuse.
III. Scalar product of a ector with itself, i.e., the square of a vector
is equal to the square of its modilus.
a . a= I a j I a I cos a
IV. Condition of Perpendicularity. If two vcctc'rs and b are per-
pendicular, then a . b=O ('. a b=ab cos 90 . 0). i.e., for perpendi-
cular vectors, the scalr product is zero. Conversely if a - b-O, then
either a-O or b-=O or ft is perpendicular to b.
V. If two vectors have the same direction, 0 0 or cos, 0 1
a. b=.ab
and if two vectors have opposite directions, QL c or cos i = 1
VI. (i) a. (—b)= —a . b
(ii) (—a).b=—a.h
(iii) (—a). (—b)=a . b
Proof. (i) a. (—b)=ab cos ( g -Q) -(--a) - b
=—ab cos 0 —(a . b)
VII. Orthonorinal vector trjad.c i, j, k. We know that i , j. k are three
mutually perpendicular unit vectors.
i'=j 2 k2 =i and i . j=j . k = k . i=O
VIII. Distributive Law of Multiplication, i.e.,
a - (b-l-c)=a. b+a. c

B C Proof. 'faking o as origin, let

- -
Oil, OR and BC represent the vectors
b/I a. 13 and c respectively so that OCh+c.
Draw BL and CM perpendiculars from B
and C on OA.
OL and GM are projections of
GB and OC on 04 and LM is the projec-
tion of BC on OJ.
0lt 1=01- {-LM
Thus the algebr;ijc sum of the projections of 011 and BC on GA

- the projection of OC on 04
a . (h-I c) -a. (OC)O1(0C cos 0)

- 0A(OM)=- 04(OL-l- LM)
OA(OL)-I OA(L4-f)
b+a c
because OL and Lilt are the projections of b, c on a.
On the same lines, we can prove that

(al (c-ld=(a-Ib). c - I (a+h). d
=a. c -I-b. c -i-- a. .d
IX. Scalar product to terms of components.
;k (1 1' I 07 j -}. (J 1k and hh 1 i+ b2 j 4-b 3 k he two vectors a and b,
then Let
a . 1) (Ii -1 a 2j - 0 3 k) . (b 1 i -I- b 2 j -I- h310 (!1 b 1 -J- (Z2b2 -f-- a3b.
('.' i . i=j j - -lc . k= I and i . j=j . k k .
i - O)
I.e.,
the scalar product of two vectors is equal to the sum of the product of
their corresponding components.
X. Angle between two rectors in terms of the components of the
given vectors
Let 04 a = a 1 j +aj -f a.k and OR b =b, +b2j+bk
be two vectors aml 0 be Ihc angle between them.
0.4 r- and 013= /b12+b22+b32
Now it b=O4 . OB Cos Q
Cosb

VECTOR ALGEBRA 781
.- .-).
Exa mple 5. Give,: that a , b are two vectors (11d
---). -^
a = a 1 iH- a 2 j1 a3k ni,/
Ik where i, j, k are or:nowrnzal or

ortIionornwitrad of vectors, sho a that
—> —
a b - a 1 b, -I-- a,h j- a3b

-^—. -s--), -
j 1r I, j Js I, k k1
and ij--f L(), j.kk.jO, k.iI.kO
a b -(i t- a ,j-I- a 3k ) (h 1 i--/j-f hk)

- —
-a,h 1 ( I i ) + ab 1( f .) ) .f-(Jb( k k )
j . 1 b 2 (
•a .j)f-a2b 1 (j. I )-(1b3 ( j. k
—4-
-L 0 2 /) 2 K k J) i-a3b 1 ( k I) a L f( i. k)
al/si. /54 .
1912. VECTOR PRODUCT OR CROSS PRODUCT

J'he vector (or cross) prothict of two vectors a (Jfl(l b. written (IS a > h
(S a vector c, where
is
(1) modulus I C a b sin 0, where 0 tile aale
vectors a, h. and 0 9 180f.
(ii) tic support. of the vector c, 5

perpendicular to that of a • as well as of b, C
(iii) the sense of the vector c is such
that a, b, v is a right handed 5'stdui.
/ 7
Thus the vector product of two
vectors a and b whose directions are
inclined at an angle 0 is defined as —
0
a X t)- C!!) Sin 0 n
where a I b I and n is a Unit vector perpendicular to both a

and b and the sense of n is such that a, b, n form a right-handed triad of
vectors.
782
Also the modulus (Jb sin U of a X b is the area of parallelogram whose
adjacent sides are and b.
1913. PROPERTIES OF VECTOR PRODUCT
I. The vector product is not coniniritai ire. In fact
axh= ---(bxa)
This follows from the fact that the magnitude and support of b x a
are the same as those of a x b but the senses are different.
11. —a)(b.--(aXI)), ax(—h)=—(a>b),
(--a) x (— b) xb
Generall y max nh--=rnn(a > ht =a < mu h,
where at and a are any scalars, positive or negative.
III. The vector product of two parallel or equal vectors is the zero
vector, for in this case, 0 or 180, so that sin 0 = 0 and as such
a x b=0
From here it also follows that a a=0.
Convere!r, if ax b =0, oh sin on =0, then either a— 0 or b= 0, or

sir. 0= 0, i.e., either of the vectors is a zero or null vector, and in case
neither of the vectors is a zero vector, then sin U being zero shows that they
are parallel.
IV. in case the vectors are perpendicular, i.e., e=90, then
0 = 1 so that >( b=ab . a.
Sin
Thus the cross product of two perpendicular vectors is a vector whose

modulus Is equal to the product of the modulus of the given vectors and whose
direction is such that a, b and I form a right-handed system of mutually
perpendicular vectors.
V. Vector product of unit vectors i, j, Ic.
We have ixi=jXj=kXk=0
i Xj=k=—j Xi
j xlc=i=—kxj
k xi=j-=—iXk.
e To express the vector product as determinant-
VI.
L t a and Ii be the two vectors. Let us express them in terms of
orthonornal unit vector i, j . k, I.e.,
t=ai-l- a2j-J--a 3k and b=b 1 i + b,j+b3k.
a > b (ai aj -a3Ic) X (b) 1- b2j-f-b31)
{a 1 b1 (i x i)-1-a 1b2 (i xj)+a,b'30 x Ic))
-1-(a0b 1 (jxi)4 a.2b, ( j x j)+ a2 b3 (j xk)}
4{Oab i (kxi)4-aaba(liXj)+a5ba-(kxk)}

VIcroR ALGEBRA 783
-= (ab,1 --- /,)i-- (o1 -- a 1 h)j f (ah. - a2b1)k
1:3
'2
b 1 h., 1)3
Iaxhj
VII. nn (4
a . b
-,/(a2b2 a3 152 ) -j-(a3 b 1 - a 1 b.) 2 -1-_(a1b,
(a l lt4^
a b22 + b)
V (1. The magnitude of a x h can he expressed in terms of scalar
products, i.e.,
1))
( x 2 a l b 2__ (a .
P3'oot'. (aXb)=(aXli) (axh).= a,.<.b I
= a2 2
s1ll 2 0
I b
=I a 2 1) I2 (I —cos2 0)
A 2 b cos2
= a 2 b 2 —(a . b)2
IX. If a, b, c be three vectors, then
Example 6. Find the angle between the vectors

(1) a=i-F-2j+2k, h=i--2j+2k
(ii) a-2i--l-j+1k, b=-2i+2j+2k
j
(iii) p =a 1 i+ b 1 j + ck, q =a 3 i-4- b 3 +c21,
and find the condition that they are perpendicular to each other,
Solution. (i) a , b(i-4-2j-1-2k) - (i-2j-f-2k)
=1-4+4=1
a=/1 2 +22 +22 =3 , b=',/ji._2)2+23
a.b 1
Cos O=
at 1b19
6=cos" (1/9)
(ii) a . b=2(-2)+1.2+ 1.2=O
-Tr
Cos 6=0
i.e., Vectors a and b are perpendicular to each other.
p . q=u1a3-f-b1b2fc1c.,
p=sV a i .+ b 1 2 +c 1 2 q W2

784 I3tJSINPSS MATHEMATICS
P 010.,-f- bb, 4C1C2

CC), 0
I P I q I -- Vaib2 /J2.b32
The condition that FJ -: '- provides a1a2 +'), 6 24 C 1 C 2 =-O.
Example 7 .Shmnv i/Jul the vectors 2 -j - k, I-- Jj --5k and

3 -4j - 41 t form the LI] (I rn;1i1 aug led triangle ,4/so /aJj the remain-
jug angles of the trjam,'/e
Sol kit inn. Let us SUOSC that
a 2i -j -ik, b-'i-3j--5k
and c-J--4j 4k
Let a and h represent the vectors BA and
( ' fl respectively.
2)
1 hen CA .r (-'I?- 1- BA
=-.(i-3j-- 5h)3-(2i j k)
3i 4j 4kc
a, li and c. form the sides of a triangle.
Again a I) - 7 (2i-- j f-k) - (i -- 3j --5k)

- l)( -3) -(l)(-5)
=-2-f-3 5
0
-. a and h, it'., BA and CH are perpndicu1ar to each other,

- C
Also COS .1 -- ---------
a I I
(2i--j+k) . (3i--4j-- 411)
-- V(2 1 ^l1,.i 2 ) Y(32-1.4214-')
(2)( 3) - ( -- I )( -4) f (1) ( 1) 6 14 -4 6
/6 \//. - 41
mi -'I
/ (1
0 b.c
cos C -
-
b -
---3j-Sk). (3i-4j- 4k)
V(l 2 1 3-i-
5) /(31+42_i_4)
1)(3) -I- (__3)( -4) + (- 5)(- 4)
i / i5 '\/41

VLC Ii iR AI_GI'URA 785
3 f2-4-2t) A/1
- 35Y41 V 41,
1/35
C
or os'\/
(- )
-
Example, 8. Given three vectors a, b, c, such that
7 a 2 i +31+6 k
7 b ? i - .6 /4-2 k
7 6 i +2 .1 —3 k
Show ihat i, I' e are each of jo li t Jcnih and are maivallY perpendicul(-;
Solution. We are giver; the vectors
- 2 3 6
C, -— -i--- - - k
_7 7 .
3 6 > 2
0
6 2. 3
C i + / -
2 0 3 ... 49
Magnitude of a - +(.) =
/ 6 2 2 ' 149
Magnitude of' b - b = () +(-)
- ' I 6' 2 2 /49

Maimitude of c c \! (i +(--) +(- ) = .—
c are;ill or ruanitude equal io ; i.e.. they are urot
VectOrs
N'w to prove that they are nuttiafly perpendicular, let tis take their
dot products
6\ i3 ,--6 2
\7 7. 7 \7 7 7
2. 3 3 . 6 2. 6 0-- 18-t-12
TY:7 - 7.749
,
Vectors and 6 are perpendicular.
a

786
. 7- 4 ). ( 74
3.6 6.2 2.3 181260
7.7 7.7 7.7_ 49
Vectors h :tnd c are perpendicular.

3 6 (6 2
l i+--7-k)..-.
2.6 3.2 3.6 I246---I
-
Hence vector,
'ectors a, i' and C are mutually perpcndcular.
a/
Example 9. If a -- 3i j
- 2k, b-2 t-j-k, ci-2j±2k, find
b) '< c n3 a : (h' c) and hence ihow
chow that (a ;< b) c7l a x 11 >< c).
Solutjo
j j k
axb=3 -1
2 !
(axb)<c( -i-4-7j-5k)x(_2j+2k)
j km
= -1 7 524i7j--5k
1 -2 2
S iniiarly we can show that
j k
hxc=- 2 I -I •--5j-Sk
2 -2 2
aX(bxc)=r(3j- j+2k)<(_5j_5k)
* k j
= 3 -1 2 =15(•j--k)
0 -5 --5
From (I) and (2), we conclude
(a> b)xc-7^-ax(bxc)
zauip1e 10. If a= 2i-j-fk and b---3i-14j-k,
prove that ax b
epresents a vector which is perpendicular to both a and b.

VECTOR ALGEBRA 787
Solution. i j k
aXb - 2 — 1 I -=--3i+5j+1Ill:
3 4 --1
(ax). a=-( --3i5j+ Ilk). (21—j+k)
=-6-5+Il
-o
Here (ax Ii) is perpendicular to a. Similarly we can prove that
(a< b) is perpendicular to b also.
-^ —
Example II. Two vectors a and b are expressed In terms of unit
vector as follows
-- ---p - .-* -* -- —).-
a=2 i - 6j . -3 k anjib = 4 i + 3J-- k.
What is the wilt vector perpendicula r lo each of the vectors. Also determine
she sine of the angle between the given vectors.
jj k
Solution. axb= 2 --6 --3 - 15i-_lOj-{-30k

'4 3 --II
a> b1 / i 52+IO2 +3O \f535
Unit vector perpendicular to each of tic vectors a and b

axb 15i--.10j+30k
I ab — 35
_ 3. 2. 6
— -- :—
----j,- --k.
•I axbf
sill 0 ,/22462+32,/42432+12
— -_-h Ii
'I
\/
ax (bc)+ b x (c+a)+C x (a+b)=O
a
Solution. L.H S. a xb+axc+bxc+b ><
±C x a 4-C X
788 BusiNess MATHEMATICS
.-.+ --4. -.-)
0 x c)--(c > u) l-(b x c)—(a x h)
-). -). -4. -1-
-I-(c x a) — (b x c)
_()-= R.1-1.S.
Example 13 Show that the diagonals of (1 rhombus are at rig/It
angles.
D
Soluton. With A as origin let
b / be the position vectors of

then
/ b-: d is the position Vector

of C.
__-_,..•__________B
Now AC=/7+d
Si. ii - h.
-3. --. -). -.
AC 131) (/)-1 d)(d—h).d2—b2)
(: 1R=. Al), i.e., h —ij
-4.
Since the scalar product of AC and HD I S zeta it follows that ;IC
and B!) are at right angles.
Exarnplr 14. 1)/s the mid-paint of the (tie BC OJ (2 triangle ABC,
show that
AW--AC'--2 (AD 2 ± 13D2) A
Solution. With A as origin let
b, e be tVi e poitiovctorsof B
and C so that the position-vector of
D is •-(b--f-c)
-
Now 81)4D—A3
-
Agaii 4g2+AC AB—b,
(..• 4C-(,)
Thus AD 2 BD 2 +*(/) c) 2 — (C — 17)2
=[(b2-f-c2)-f-2( b c)- F c2 + b2_ 2(b . c)}

4(bs{c2)
2(AD 2 +BD 2 )= AB' +AC2

VECTOR AI.OFnRA 789
Exaazp1e 15. In any triangle ABC, show that
Sin .4 Sin B sin C
a h a
-). - -)-
Soluti on. Let a, h, a represent the
sides of the J1BC.
TT
ax(a+b4-c)=O
I.e., (ax a)+(aX/))-l-(ax c)=O

-> --
But (aa)=O
-4 -4 _>- -4 -^ --7
(aXb)=_(axc)r (cxa)
-> -4 -- - 7
axbH.Icxa!
Similarly I c x a J = bxc
- -
Now I a x b J [ab sin (n-- C)1 - ab sin C etc.
Now ab sin C=ca s in Jj=hc Sin A
sth A sin B sin C
Or
a b c
EXERCISES
1. The position vectors of the four points A, B, C, D are a, b,
- -4
2a+3b and a-2h respectively. Express AC, BD, BC and DA in terms
of a and h.
2. If a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors, show that
(i) 2a -3b+c, a+b-2c, a+2b+4c,
(ii) b4-c, c+a, a+b
are also non-coplanar.
3. If a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors, show that the points
6a :2h_c, 2a—b+3c, ---a+2b-4c, —12a—b-3c
are coplan ar.
4 If a—_2i+3j--4k, h=3i+j-2k, c=-2i—j+k, find
(i)a.b,(ii) axb,
(iii) a . (b x c).

5. A vector is a linear combination of the vectors 3i+4j+5k

and 61+7j-3k and is perpendicular to the vector 1 +1 —k. Find the
vector.
6. The dot product of a vector with the three vectors 2i, 3) and 4k
are respectively 6, 18 and 16. Find the vector.
7. If a=2i-I-j-fk and b=-21+4-I-2k, find the angle between
the vectors a and b. Also find a Unit vector perpendicular to the plane
of these two vectors.
8. If a=41+j- k, b=3i-2j+2k and e=—i-2j-fk, calculate a
unit vector parallel to 2a—h -c but in the opposite sense.
9. 'three vectors are given below
a=21- 5j+3k, b= 31+31+6k, c= 21+71+4k
Find the magnitudes of the vectors (a— b) and (c-- a) and also find
their inner product (a --. ( c —a).
10. Prove that the three vectors 1-2j+3k, —21+31-4k and
—1+2k form a linearly dependent system. [CA., November 19911
ii. Given three vectors
a1 = 5i+7j+ Ilk, a2 -2i+j+ 3k, a3r-3i+6j+8k
Find a vector k 1 ai + k a2 -j_ k 3 aa where the scalars are k 1 --1, k21,
k1 =L Are the three vectors linearly dependent or independent ?
[CA., May 19
12. If 0 is the angle between two unit vectors a and b, show that
1 0
I a-f-b I =cos T.
13, if a and b are two vectors, then show that

(axb) 2 +(a . b)2 - a 1 2. I b 2
14. If a=21—j-j-2k, br=lO1_2j+7k, find the value of aXb. Also
find a unit vector perpendicular to the given vectors.
15. If aXb=cXd and axc=bxd, show that a—d is parallel
to b—c.
[Hint. (a—d)x(b---.c)
aX b a Xc - dx b + dxc
= (a x b) - (ax c) + (b x ci)— (c X d) =0
Vetor (a—d) is parallel to vector (b- c).J
ANSWERS
1. AC==a-}-31,, DB=—a—b, BC-2a+2b, DA=2b.
4. (I) —I, (ii) --10i-16j-7k, (iii) —11
5. —31 + 1 If-f 8k. 6. 31+&+4A.
1
7. ---, -- 1. i + --k.1
8. 6i- 6j-f- 5k).
(-
14. aXb=-31+6j+6k; --
20
Matrix Algebra
STRUCTURE
200. INTRODUCTION
201. DEFINITION
202. TYPES OF MATRICES
20'3. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX
204. EQUALITY OF MATRICES
205. MATRIX OPERATIONS
206. ADDITION AND SU I3TRACTION
20*7. PROPERTIES
208. MULTIPLICATION
209, PROPERTIES
20'10. [RANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
20'II. DETERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX
2012. DETERMINANT OF ORDER TWO
2013. CRAMER'S RULE
2014. DETERMINANT OF ORDER THREE
2015. SOLUTION OF TI-IREE LINEAR EQUATIONS
2016. SARRUS DIAGRAM
2017, PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
20'18. EXPANSION OF THE DETERMINANTS
2019. MINORS OF A MATRIX
2020. CO-FACTORS OF A MATRIX
2021 ADJOINT OF A MATRIX
2022. INVERSE OF A MATRIX
2023. SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
2024. GAUSS ELIMINATION METHOD
20-25. RANK OF A MATRIX
792
Ii(JS1t4Is MA1 lit SIATIC.S
OBJ EC rivs
After studying this chapter, y ou should he able to undcrstan(l
• types of matrices, scalar multiplication of a matrix, equality of

matrices, addition, subtraction, in ultiplica tioti of na rices,
• dcterinivaiits, properties of dctermjnij n1, Cramer's rtl Ic, solution
of linear equations.
• inverse of it matrix, solution olcqwitioris by niatlix nitlic.d.
• rank of -,I matrix.
21LO INTROI)UCTJON
A matrix consists of a rectangular in esetitalion of symbols or liume-

neal elements arranged systeuiatjca] in rows and columns d'scihing
various aspects ol a phenomenon inter-related in some maimer.
It is a powerful tool in modern inatlieniatics having wide applica-
tions. Sociologists use matrices to stud y the dominance within a group.
Dem ographers use matrices ill the study of births and survivals, miii riage
oid descent, class strtict nrc and mobility, etc. Matrices are al] the more
useful foi practical t ) USLnCSS purposes and. therefore. occuny all
place in Business Mathematics. Obviously, because business problems
call
presented more easily in distinct finite ii Imitiber of gr datiocs ban in
infinite gradarions as we have in caculus.
1 he matrix urm them efore
suits very iefl for games theory, allocation of cx peimses, bndgetimin for
by products, etc. Economis now use matrices very extensively fit
' i n put-output tables' and iii the study of 'i
accounting -
CC000rnjcs.
fltcr- i idustry
There is not inure presentation, matrix algebra prosirics a system

O f operations oil ordered set of numbers The C O
iflfll1ii operations
are addition, multiplication, Inversion, transposition, etc. A most signi-
ficant cnrrihutmon of matrix algebra is its extensive use in the solution of
a s y stem of large number of simultaneous linear equations. The widely
used 'Linear Programming' has its basis in matrix algebra it is on this
account, matrix algebra is defined at times as linear algebra.
In the study of communication theory and in electrical engineering
the 'net work analysis' is greatly aided b y the use of matrix representa-
tions. Statistics and particularly the 'design of experimnen(c', and
'multivariate analysis' heavily rely on time use of matr i x alge bra. Above
all, the matrix form is amenable to machine operations. Even if the
operations are somewhat lengthy, these are worked out by electronic
speed and the final results are both quick and reliable.
A matrix to put in simple language is a rectangular array of nuni-
bert. Now what is a rectan g ular array ? For this. we Consider the
following illustrations
I. lit allelocution contest, a participant can speak either of
the five languages : Hindi, En g lish, Punjabi, Gujarati and Tamil A
college (say No. I) sent 30
students of which 10 offered to speak in Hindi,

793
MATRIX ALGF,RRA
9 iii hnglisli 6 in Punjabi, 3 in (Jujarati and the rest in Tamil. Another

college (say No. 2) sent 25 studcnts of which 7 spoke in ilindi S in 1.nglish
and I') in 1)uirjiihi. Out of 22 students from tIre third college (say No. 3),
12 offered to speak In ii IiIdt, 5 in Liiglish and 5 in Gujarati.
[lie information furnished in the above manner is somewhat cum-

be, rsoTile. It can he written in a more compact manner i f we consider the
lot lowing tubular form
It un_li hnglish Punjabi GujaratiI TauT ii

College I f() 9 6 3 2

College 2 7 5 10 (1 0

College 3 17. 5 1) 5 1)
-Ili(, number in the above data are said to form a rcctaliglllat array.
In airy such array, lines across the page are called run's and hires down the
pace arc called columns Any one number within the r i rrangenient is
called air entry or an element. Thus in the a hove data there are 3 rows
and 5 columns and hence 3 x 5=- 15 elements It' it is enclosed by a pair
of square hrackets then
F 10 9 6 3 2
i 8 io o o
(1 S (1
L 12 5
is called a matrix.
Since it has 3 rows and 5 columns it is said to be a matrix of
order 3 c 5 or si lli piv a 3 x $ (read as 3 b y 5) matrix. It may be
noted that a matrix can have any ii unthcr of rows and airy number of
columns Thus in the above illustration if there arc' entries from 12
COnS-
colleges and if the competition is held ill languages then we cr111
truer a 12 x S matrix,
VIZ.,
2. Consider a system of two linear equations in three ulrkiro\V11,
2x— 3y -l- 7
4x+5Y-3z=5
'I he co efficients of x, y, z in the first equation are 2, —3. I and those in
the second are 4, 5, --3 respectively. They form the matrix (called the
co-efficient matrix)
( 2 —3 1
I"4 5 —3
virich is a 2 x 3 matrk,
Rem ark The reason for enclosing a rectangular array by a pair

of brackets is that hereafter we sh1l treat a rectangular array (and hence
a matrix) as a single entity. In fact, we shall develop a new algebra which
may be called 'Algebra of Matrices' where operations are performed on
the whole array of numbers and not oil single number. It will be seen
that this algebra bears a close resemblance to the Algebra of Sets.

794
20j, DEFINITION
CO1US
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and
encloscd by a pair of
presentat i brackets and subject to certain rules of
on Thei numbers can he substituted by symbols, with appropriate
SUffiXCS iildieatii
g the row and columnnumbers It will he possible to
identify the exact location of a number or a symbol in the whole arrange-
nient of a n at x. We will fi
the complex phenoniena with nd that through a matrix form of presentation,
various char
presented in a very conciSe manner. acteristics or relations would be
Sometimes a pair of brackets I
are used irrS(e d of a Pair of p J. or a pair of double bars H
arentheses e.g., the matrix H
( 2 —3
4 5 —3 )
may also 1e written us
r 2 —3 1 1 2
L
N otationc A matrix is usually den
-3
5 J Or
1 11
3 4
e denoted
by a capital letter and its
lements by corresponding Sinai] letters followed by two suffixes, the first
one indicating the row and the s econd one t1c colun
ment appears i n in which the ele-
For ex ample, in the first illustration
ed frø I Just as the colleges were number-
matrix callnto 3, let the languages be numbered from 1 to s.
be riflen as rhci the
ii 1112 a (I5
/
1121 1133 1134

122 a25
)
a31 082 033 (1 /
where 11 the number of students from
language No. I (i.e. , 1-liiiii) = 10, a College No. 1 who offered
language No. 2 (i.e., 12 =those from College No. I offering
English) =9 and so on.
It should be noted th at all the
ele ments in the 1st row have I as the
first suffix, those in the 2nd and 3rd rows have respectively 2 and 3 as the
first suffix. Also all ri-ic elements in the 1st column have I as the second
Suffix, those in the 2nd, 3rd, 40 1
and 5 as the second suffix. and 5th columns have respectively 2, 3, 4
A general form of a matrix
having in rows and n A matrix of order mxn ( i . e ., one
columns) can be written as
at I (13 •.. ij ... 1
I
I
I a11 a., a21 az,, I
I ' a, a ,
L a,,, 1 a,, 2 a,,, a,,,, J

MATRIX ALGEBRA
where a 1 , a11 ... stand for real numbers. The above matrix call be
written in a more concise form as
A [a0),
where 1, 2.... . 'n ; j= 1, 2..... ii and where a,1 is the element in the
tth row and )th column and is referred as (i,j)th element.
Illustration. Read the elements C1 2 4 a, a., and the corres-
ponding 'b' elements in the following matrices.
1 3 4 5 9 12 o 11
12 0-6 2 1 2 21
B= I
3 7 I 5 7 8
L 3 ---6 --2 4J 2 6J
Solution. (1) 3 4 5 9
I
2 0 —6 2 1
Let
1 3 7 8
L 3 -6 --2 —4 J4x
Now a indicates the element which appears in the second row and
fourth column.
Again a indicates the element which appears in the fourth row and
first column.
a41=3
Similarly a 13 =5, a2=0

(ii) Here
12 0 1
1 2 2t
I I
5 7 8
I_-i 2 6j4>.3
b2 not possible, h = - I, b 13 -1 and /'222.
20-2. TYPES OF MATRICES

I. Square Matrix. A matrix in which the number of rows is equal
to the number of columns, is called a square matrix. Thus a inxil matrix
will be a square matrix if m n and it will be referred as a square matrix
of order n or n-rowed matrix. Thus

796
RUSINCSS MATHEMATICS
I (112 03
a12 a, )
1
0 21 I I
a
fn 022 . j a21 02 (1
\ (7
12 x 2 03j I
°22 (J J 3 3 I a a, . a,, J n x n
are square matrices.
Renaik
. lii a square matrix those
i e.,those which occur in the sameall elements a, 1 for hich
row and same column namely ij,
are called the diagonal
two diagonals. elements. A square matrix has of
Diagonal extending frorti the upper left to the lowercourse
is more right
(liago/Jal than the other ci iagonal. This is k nown as the principal
I or the main diugoiwl and its clenieflis
elements. are called the diagonal
J6
tllUstrti(,.
r i 2 —3
8 5
3 x 3 (square) Matrix
L 2 1 6 J Principal Diagonal is (1, 8, 6)

11. Row and Col
matrix having i single row and aMa l i-ices. A row matrix is defined as a
column, e.g., column matrix is one having a single
(a I.Jl xnis a
i12 row matrix
(1j
a21 is a column matrix

L a,,Jmxl
RcT11rk
Row and column matrices are sometjI)es called the row
and
or column
coiiim vectors The latter names are also used to designate any row
ii of a I n e It matrix
111. Diagonal Matrix. A square
matrix all of whose elements,
except those in the leading diagonal, are zero is called a diagonal
Thus the matrix matrix.
((1 0 0...
0 a 22 0 ... 0 I
A= I I.
10 0 0
LO 0 0 ...a:nJnXn
is a d iagonal matrix and may be written as
Adiag ( a 11 a22 .. a )
Re marks. 1. The square
elements a. for which i:?^-j are zero. matrix A will be a diagonal matrix if all

MATRIX AiIiEFIRA 797
2. A diagonal iti;itrix whose all the diagonal elements are equal is

called a scalar matrix, e.g
a 0 t) ... I) )
I) (1 0 ()
diag. (a, (I.
1) 0 i 1)
(1 Ô ) 0 J
1V. Unit Matrix. A scalar matrix each of whose diagonal eninot
is unity (or one) is called a iirut matrix or an identity matrix. A unit
matrix of order 11 is written as " hit-is
1 1) 01
Ii 0
(()
f I () I (1
Ii
(f) 0 I )
are iii it I na!riccs 01 OfdCI two and three respe.'t ively
Bt-marks. [ii general tar a unit matrix
a=Q , i:Y/
LV:]
V. Zeeo Maii-i, or 11 Null Niatriv. A
matrix, tcc(aiigiilar or
Squire each Of whose Clinents arc zero called a zc:o illatrix or a null
niat ix aid is denoted b y 0. Tb us
O 0 () 01
0-
1) () 0
0
0
0
I
O 0 1) ()
is a eir (nt-jIlj matrix cf order 4 '<4.
V] TriangLIIa c Matrices. A square iriarcx A -- (a),., is called
upper titanguklr matrix if a,, () for i >j a ad is called lower triangular
matrix if a) for i<i.
Thus 2
(7 ) .. (1
111 0 ... 0 ')
() a 073
G74 071 a fl ., 9 9
I C) 0 011 r?t-, 031(1, 0
"7:51
1) I) 9 a, J a (ç J
are upper arid lower trianutar matrices.
V11 Sob Matrix. A matrix obtaurerl by deleting some rovs or
cohimas or both of agiven matrix is called a sub matrix of a aiwil, illatrix.
lZ 0
i l4
032 (73
I- Pt A= 021 02i
(7,.
L
U32
a 41 17
l2 0 4•3 1244 J 4x4
798 BUSINESS MATHVMATK
If we delete the first row and first column, the sub-matrix of 4 is

a., a21 a24
a 37 a 83 a3,
a4 , a4 a44 3x3
VHT. Scalar Matrix. A square matrix when given in the form
of a scalar ni tilt iplication to an identity matrix is called a scalar matrix.
For example
30 0\ 7100'
(i 31- 0 3 0 =3 0 1 0
003! '00 I
tez O'\ ii 0'
(I!)
'ii 0 1'
are scalar matrices.
IX. Sttc Matrices. A symmetric matrix is it special kind
of a square matrix A = [a,,] for Which
- a,, for all i and j
I.e., the (1. /)tli element ( J. i)th dc'cnt. For example the matrices.
5 2 l\\ (a It g
2 6 —1 It b f
5! \g
'1 ---I f c
are symmetric matrices.
X. Conpfex Conjugate of a Matrix. It is a matrix obtained
by replacing all its elements by their respective complex conjugates.
For example
r2±31 41 - 12-3i 4
If A then A
j = [ 5 {3 1 7
XI. Skew- syrnrietric Mtr,x. It is square matrix A if
A t - —A,
i.e.. the transpose of a square matrix is equal to the negative of that
matrix. For example the following matrix
ro —6
A=16
0
is skew symmetric.
Or
A square matrix A is called a skew-symmetric matrix if a, 1 -= —a,1 for
all I and I. In a skew-symmetric matrix all the diagonal elements are zeros.

MATRIX ALGERRA
799
203. SCALAR M ULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX
A real number is referred to as a scalar when it occurs ill operations
involving matrices. The scalar multiple kA of a matrix A by scalar k,
is a mMrix obtained by multiplying every element of
the scaler multiple of the niatri. A = ( a1), 1) ), scalar4kby the scalar k,
is the matrix
C= [c,,,,,, hee c,1 ka0, 1= 1 - 2..... ... ..
f 1, 2, - , n. Thus if
I2 (Ii,, ka1
&
(121 1.22
•. then kA z ka,
kall ka
a a 1 ka ka2 ... ka,

lI1tIS(rZjWfl5
4 —3rn 12 —9 )
/
-)
0\ 0
2.
f (
-i —5
=
\ 1 \ o
/ 3 7 6 —5
3ff A(
1 2 —6 0 4
5 2 8 8
--i 6 5 -3
—3 —7 --6 5 / 12 28
hen A=' —2 6 f 0-4
I 4A=l
( 8-24
24 —20
0 16
—5 —2 --8 —8 1 20 8 32 32
I —6 --5 3 / —4 24 20 -12
!04. EQUALIrY OF MATRICES
To matrices are said to be equal if and only If
(1) they are comparable, i.e., they are of the same order, if one is
3 x 2, the other one is also 3 x 2 and not 2 > 3.
(ifl each element of one is equal to the corresponding element of
the other, ie,. If
A=(a,,J,,,,,, and then
ArB iffa=-h 1 i=l. 2, ..,
..,
Illustrations. 1. If
7 B=( ' O
7 — 2
0 4
5!' 7 —2 51
then A=B.

800 BUSINESS MAT11IMAI1CS
2. 1 f
A=(
-) and (
then A .AB (since a., —2 and b2 . = U.
/347
347
3. A ( 2 S 6 )' 2 S 6)
1 2 5
A B because 1rst they are not comparable, matrix A being 2 x 3
and B betng 3 X 3. Second, the elements are not the same ill respective
columns and rows.
ci. The 1oiiowii is a Statement of matrix equality given the values
of the components.
,i x-f- y 2/lit , ( 3 S
z—w J I 4;
if X 2, y = I, Z-- 3 and
EXERCISE (L)
I. Read the elements 03L u124, " in each of the following
matrices 'iven below. Also give their diagonal element.
/ 8 7 -4 2\
( 3 2 0 5 1 '--1 0 3'
7 6 3 I )'( 3 2 5
--5 12 5 9 \ 7 (1 6
2. lind -V and y if
/ x .y 2 3 2
I v 1 I 7)
3 Classify the Following matrices
/ I 0 0 ,3 0 0
(i) 0 1 11 ), tJ ! ) [ 1 —4 0
0 0 I 9 5 10
(0 0 0
(iii) ( 4 , (ii') (-1 —2 --3. (v) 0 0 0
I' s1 '0 0 0.
6'
2\ [6 0 0 0
h (i (1) 0 6 0 0
0 0 4' ro 0 6 0
. 0 0 0 6
(3 8 / 2 6 2 I
(nil!) ( 4 3 -- I I () 1 '
\ 8 —1 5 4

MATRIX ALGEBRA 801
4. The following matrix shows the results of the college wimr;iOig

meet
2 1) 3 1
() 3 3 4
5 3 0 1
-2 3 4 4-
[ lit rows represent the trarns : Team A, B, C and D in that order.
The columns represent the number of wins ; first place. second place,
third place and fourth place scored by the teams.
(a) I low many events did the team A win
(b) I low man y llrst places did leant 13 win 7
(C) How many fourth places did team 13 win 7
(d) Write down the row vector which represents team /3's result.
e) Write
d down the column vectors which represent the results of
first place an 4th places.
1) Write do'. ii the 2 e 1 matrix which represents the results of

team .1 and I),
(g) In the row vcetr (5 3 0 1) what does 0 represent 7
ANSWERS
i. 7, 5, 1, 8 and 7, x , X, -- 1 the diogonal elements are 8, 2, 3, 9
and —1,2. —6. 2. x5, y=--2.
3. (i) Identity, (ii) lower triangular, (iii) column matrix, (Iv)
row matrix, (v) null, (vi) upper triangular. ( i/i) scalar, (viii) 2 X 3
matrix (b.) 3 x 4 matrix
/2\ /4
I) ' (
4. (a) 6, (h) 0 (c) 4. (d) (1) 3 3 4), (e) and
(f) ( (g) Team C has not been placed at third
place.
205 MATRIX OPERATIONS
In matrix algebra the ckments are ordered numbers and therefore
opera trans on them have to be done in a manner an a rnry sergeant gives
drill to (11C platoon. Every cadet has to maintain his position vjs-a-vis his
fellow cadets. Again the main operations arc addition and rirultiplication
while the subtraction and division is derived out of these operatiions.
206. ADDITION AND SUBTRACtION
(I) Matrices can be added or subtracted if a nd only if they are of the
same order.
(ii) The sum or difference of two ('a >. n) matrices is another matrix
(,n x a) whose elements are the sum or d:fterences of the corresponding
elements in the component matrices.
802 nusrcs MATHEMATICS
Symbolically let A=[a 1]_,, and B[b 11), be two matrices of order
in n each then their sum (difference) A ± B is
where
the matrix C=-[c1],,
i== I, 2, ..., in
1=4, 2, is the matrix each element of which is
the sum (difference) of the corresponding clement of A and B. Let
a 11 ap, I b11 b12 ... b,,, •)
I I I
Ar= I a, a2., a ,, I , B I b 1 b. ... b2. I
I, a,,, a ,2 a,, , J /?z>n (by,,, b,,,. ... b,,, J nzxn
I a, .L h, a,,-j-b,2 ... 1 1 .I:b 1 , -1
A rhO = a, ± 1)2 1 a± h 22 a 2, +b2,
La 1 -b,,,, a,,, 2 ±b,, •, ifl)(fl
207. PROPERTIES
Cona rnutative If A and B are any two matrices of order flXIt
each, then
A +BB + A
Proof. Let A =(a,1J,,,,, B ==
then, A + B =[a11),, + [a1 + b,1J,,,
and B+A=IbiiJ+{aJ[b fa11],
But a, and b,1
are the corresponding elements of the matrices A and
B, and by commutative law of real numbers
a, + b,, =h,, + a1
(i,j)th element of A +B = (i,j)tii element ofB+A
Hence A+B=B+A
type 'nII.Xn,
If A, B and C are any three comparable matrices of the same
then
(A+ B) + C= A + (B + C)
Proof, Let A=[a,]., B-= [ b ,1),, C={c,1],,,
(A + B) + C [(a + b,,) 4- j
A +(B+ C) fa,,,-- (b,;+c(1)J,,
But a,1 , b,1 and c,
aw of numbers are elements of the matrices and by associative
a,, +(b,, + c,)= (a,, +b,,) + c,1
(1,j)th element of A+(B-j-c)(f
j)th Iement of (A+B)4 C
Hence A+(B+c)(A+B)4c

MATRIX ALGEBRA 803

III. Distributive with respect to Scalar.
k(A -1- B)=kA + kB
Proof. k(A +B)=-Ek(a11+b,)J...
kA + kB=[ka,1]+[kb,1J,,,,,,
But by distributive law of numbers, we have

k(a, 4-b,1)=ka,,-f- kb11
(I, j)th clement of k(A + )=(i, j)th element of [kA +kBJ
Hence k(4+B)=kA-f k
IV. Existence of An Additive Identity. A+ O=A =O+A
where 0 is the null matrix of the same type.
(Proof is left as an exercise to the reader)
V.xistnce of An Inverse If A he any given matrix then the
matrix —A which must exist, is the additive inverse of A.
A+(—A)=O—(—A)4-A
IV Cancellation Law. If A, B, C are matrices of the same order,
then
A -fC=B+C A=B
Proof. A+C=B+C (A+C)+(_C)(B+C)+(—C)
n A+(C—C)B+(C--C)
A-l-O=B+O
' A=13
0 2 7 6 3
Example I. If A(2 3 ) and B=1 5
/
find the value of 2A + 3B.
ro 2 311 0 4 6
Solution. 2A=2 L2 1 4J[ 4 2 8
6 3 1 r 2 1 18 9
383 L 1 4 5J[ 3 12 15
ro
2A#.3BrI4
4 61 21 18 9
2 8 J + L 3 12 15
flO-l-21 4+18 6+9
L44-3 2+12 8+ 15
r21 22 15
L7 14 23

804 BUSINESS MA! IWMATICS
208. MULTIPLICATION
Earlier we considered scalar product of a matrix. To recollect if
2 0 3x2 3x00
A ( I ) then 3A=(3
< 1 3 x 4) G' 12)
Now, a step ahead we take a vector product of a matrix. If
/4 9
Vector A=(l. 2, 3) and matrix B=( 6 3
\8 0
/4 9
then AB-----(l 2 3)x( 6 3
\8 0

[1.4 +2.6; 3.8 1.91-2.3+3.0]

= [ 4 + 12+24 9-j•6 0]
=[40 15]
It was it pre- inultiplicat ion of a matrix by it vector. A post-multi-
plication in the following form is not possible
/ 4 9'\
fo 3fx(123)
\ft 0/
The reason being whereas in the earlier case the columns in the
vector were 3 which were equal to the number of rows of the matrix which
were also 3. But, in the latter situation the matrix had 2 columns but the
vector had only one row. For mofrix multiplication, the nzwi/.jer of columns
in the first matrix or vector must he equal to the number of rows in the
second ,?iatrjx or the vector.
The rule is to multiply the first elementin the first row of the first
matrix with the first element in the first column of the second matrix, the
second element in the first row of the first matrix with the second clement
in the first column of the second matrix, the nth element of the first row
of the first matrix is m ultiplied by the nth element in the first column of
the second matrix. This further proves the need of the number of columns
in the first matrix to be equal to the number of rows in the second matrix.
Now, these products are added together to give the first clement of the
first row and the first column of the product matrix. Next we multiply
the elements of first row it the first matrix with the elements of the second
column of the second n1itrix and obtain the second element of the first row
of the product matrix and so on.
Thus the two matrices are conformable for multiplication if the
num/er of colwnns of first matrix is equal to the Flitinber of rows
of the
second matrix. lithe matrix A is of type in X n i.e ., has in rows and n
columns, then B must be of the type 'I X where n is the number of rows
which are the same as number of columns in A and p is an y number not
necessarily M. Then the product AB is another matrix CAX B of the
type my (number of rows of A and number of columns of B).

MATRIX A1A;ittRA 805

Let A and 13 [ b k J be two matrices (hell the product A/i
is the ,nQtr
C [kJ ,fl 3'

where C k is obtained by multiplying the corresponding entries of the ith
row of A and those of ki ii column of C and then adding the results. Thus
I •.. (111 [b1 b12 b1, )
h 2k .hp
_____ I I: I
I2 'Li b b,
tfl11
a cc cc1 c b 1) h r J
I
i
C 11 C, C1k C12. -
C
21 C_.2... C2•1.
C I , (', C:k Cii,
C j e Ck C, rnxp
where Cik a1 b k l- a -I (7 3 h. -... + a. t),.
Remarks. I. '1 lie rule of multiplication of t\; u matrices is Row-

Coliunnwise ( -p wise), i.e., row of one matrix is multiplied with column
of the second matrix to get the corresponding cicmc Its of the product. III
short first row of AR is obtained by mu]tiplyii I he first row of A with
1st, 2nd, 3rd column ... of B respectively. Similarly the second row of AB
is obtained by multiplying the second row, A with 1st, 2nd, 3rd CO1tI moS
of B respectively and so on.
2. The rule of multiplication (viz.,_- . wise) is the same for ii,atrices
of any order provided the matrices are conformable for multiplication.
3. If
I R1 )where R denotes B==[C1 C2.,.C1...Ci,L,,

Ithe ui1 row of
I R 2 I matrix A and where C, denotes the jib column
I can be regarded of matrix B and can be regarded
R i as in x n matrix, as an fl Xp matrix.
I, R Jnixn
then AB= j
( R 1 c 1
R 2C
]
R1c ,.. R1C7.
R2C2 .. R 2 C
II
1
L RC R C2... RCrJmxp
806
4. In the product AB. A is said to have been post-multiplied by

B and B is said to have been premultiplied by A, i.e., AB
is called the
Post-multiplication of A by B or premultiplication of B by A.
5. Matrix multiplication In general is not commutative. If AR is
defined, it is not necessary that BA is also defined, e.g., if A is of the type
nxn and B of the type nxp
then AR is defined but BA is not defined.
Even if AR and BA are both delIitcd, it is not necessary that they are equal
e. g., if A is 'nxn and B is nxm then AD is m x and BA is nxn
so that
AB-?'-BA because they are not of the same order.
209. PROPERTIES
I. M ultiplication is distributive w.r.t. addition.
If A, B Care mx n, n xp and n p matrices respectively, then
A. (B+C)—AB±AC
IL Multiplication is associative if c onformability is assured
If A, B, C are rn x n, U x p and p x q matrices respectively, then
(AB)C== A(BC)
III. If A is nXm, 0 is Pnxn, then
A0=O=OA
(Proof is left as an exercise to the reader.)
1V. Multiplicatioii of a Matrix by a Unit Matrix. If A it a
square matrix of order n x n and I is the Unit matrix of the same order
then
AI=A=.IA
V. AB=0 (null matrix) does not necessarily imply that A=O
11=0 or both=0, e.g., or
A=( ) and B=( )960

But
AB =( _' 1)=( 0 0 -o
i ) 1 1 0 0
VI. Multiplication of Matrix by Itself. The product A.A
is defined if the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows
of A, i.e., if A is a square matrix and in that case A.A will also be a
square matrix of the same order.
A2A=(AA)A.A(AA) [By Associative Law]
A1A=AAA=A'
Similarly A.A.A...n times==A"
Reniark. If I is a unit matrix, then
IrrI 2 rrI 3 = ... , In

MATRIX ALGEBRA 807

Example 2. Write down the product AB of the two matrices A and B
where
1
12
A = (1 2 3 4) and B 3
Soluti on . Since A is I >< 4 matrix, B is 4 x 1 matrix, AB will be

I X 1 matrix.
AB=(l 23 4) 14 x ( ) =[1.1+2.2+3.3+4.4j^(30j,,,
4
Example 3. IfA -( )anci B=( I 1), find AB

and BA. ISAB==BA?
Solution. Here
AB==(
—1 ' (2X1+5X(-3)2X(—l)+5X2
x(
2 )1 x l+3x(-3) IX(-1)+3X2
(-13 8
5
' —l'y2 5 S.' / 1x2+(—l)xl 1x 5+(-1)x3

BA=(_
—3 2Al 3T1, (-3)x2+2x1 (-3)x5+2x3
(1 2
___'-4 —9
Thus AB7^:BA
Example 4 Obtain the product
,2 I O/1 2 3 4
I 3 2 1 lxi 2 0 1 2
\I 0 11 \3 1 0 5
Solution. Let/2 1 0\ 1 2 3 4
A==(3 2 ii B=12 0 1 2
\i 0 113x3 \3 1 0 5 3x4
Since A is 3 x 3 and B is 3x4, product AB is valid and AB is 4x4.
/2 1 0\/I 2 3 4
AB= f3 2 11f2 0 1 2
\i 0 1A3 1 0 5
/2+2+0 4+0+0 6+140 8+2+0
=1 3+4-+-3 6+0+1 9+2+0 12+4+5
\1-FO+3 2+0+1 3±0+0 4-1-0+5

/4 4 7 10
10 -, 11 21
\4 3 3 9
/ a I: \ X
Example 5 Find (a) (x
/ h )
c/ /Z g\ X
(1,) (x y z) ( I, h f )
C / z )
SOIUtIO a ( J( a /? \
i x ( y )2 x 1 1
(x ax-f-by
y) 1x2(hx-1 by J2J
r[x(uX . fhy)y(/Ix_}. by) J1
x
ax -1 lixy + hxy + hy2 = ax' - 2Jzxy + by2.
ha 11
/ x \
(b) (v y z) h f
x 3 I
L \ g f C ) 3x3 \ .. z 13x1J
/ ax-f-hy.-f-gz
Y i I' X( hy4fz
xt gx
jy -- cz 3>. I
= [x(ax-;- by -gz) 4 y(hx f- hy -fz) f z(gx +j+cz)J1
ax 1 +hxv+gxz4 hxy+b 2 i • fy:.f gzx 4J z + cz
Example 6. If A=z( fin d the

), ),
matrix X such that 3A+5B--2x0
Solution. 3A-f- 5B+2X0 X= ---33A + SB]
X=— I f 3(9 1 / 1 5
325
12 9 )+( 60 }
1 (( 274 5 3+25
12+35 9+60
/ 32 28\ (-16 —14
( 2 2\
47 69) 47 69
\ T 2/ 2 2

MATRIX AIGEII}tA 809
1 2 0 4
Example 7. If A=(
2 ' / 3 )
2 1 (1 3
and i-( /
-1 2 3)
(a) Find a 2x 4 matrix X such that A-- X JB.
(b) Find (1 2 x 4 inc.rix Y such that A -1- 2y 4B.
Solution. (a) A- X 313
X--A--3B
1 2 0 4 2 I 0 3
-- (2 4 ---1 3 [ ( 1 -I 2 3
(1 2 0 4'\ ,'--ô -3 0 -9
4 --1 3) -3 --3 -6 - 9
(1 -6 2--3 0 4-9' (-5 -1 0 5
2-3 4 3 --(-6 3 -9 1 L-1 7 -7 ---6
(b) A+2Y=4B Y=2B-A
1 0 3' 1(1 2 0 4
> Y---21
'l -1 2 31 2 "2 4 -1 3
(4 2 0 6) 0 1)
\2 -2 4 6) -
4- A 2-1 0 6-2
2--1 -2-2 4± 6-
1 0 4
"-1 --4
Example 8. W/ie,i
A - (
and B ( il I)
and 1-= V.i7 , determine AB. Compute also BA.
(1 xi ix I (-- ox I -f(i) (-i) 0 0
Solution. AB 1 )+ 1 (-i)
-- - > 1 0
BA=( 21 -2
and
2 --21)
Example 9, Given
0 -i Ii 0
1 10),
), B=(. 0
c=/
A=(
Prove the following relations
A' = B' = C2 = I (unit matrix)
AB=- BA, AC=- CA, BC=--CB.

1(0 1' [0+1 0+0

Solution. A2=A.A=( 01
o oI = koi-o 1+0
(1 0=l
'0 if
B2B.Brr(. 0 -f 0_i2 0-I-U
0 -i) ( - i2+ 0
Similarly C2=I
l\rO -_--i\ (0+i 0+0\ ( 0\
O)i = (O+ O,
0)\0 --i+o)o -1)
-BA=---
0 -i 0 1 '0-i 0+0\
)—o+o i+0)
Ø\ 1
=-( -1 o )o —')
U
... P.B=-BA. Simi larly we can prove the other relations.

b ), show that
Example 10. If A= a d) and l=
A2 _(a+d) A=(bc-ad) I
Sltition. We have
'a ba b
A2=A.Ar d)(c d)
ia2 ±bc abl-bd' ,a2 + bc \ b(a+d)'
'iac+cd bc+d*1c(a+ d) bc+d2)
,- a 2 -f-bc a b
AZ_ (a + d) A== Lc( b(a+d) " (a4 d) ( c
ad)
bc+d2 ) d)
,' a + bc b(a - d) - a(a d) - b(a + d)
be + d2 )+( - c(a + d) - d(a + d) I
or A' - (a + d) A= 1\ c(a + d)

-( a2fbc-a(a+(I) b(a+(1)-b(a+d) '.
- c(a+d)-c(a-fd) bc-j-d'-d(a+d) I
bc-ad U \ ? )=(bc-ad)l
) =(bc_ad(
0 bc-ad
Example 11. If A_( 2 B( )

- 1 ),
and (A+B)2 =A2 +B2 find a and b.
Solution. A+Brr( ii )

MATRIX ALGEBRA 811

0 (1+a) 0' ((1+a) 2 0
(A+B)2_( (13-a)
(2+ b ) —2 A (2-I h) —2 )2a-3-ab—h-2 4
A2=( 1 —1 1 —1 —1 0
2 --1 A 2 —1 ) 0 —
a I a
B2 =( I - - ( a2 -f-b a+1
b —1 A b —1 1- ab—b hfl
A2+Bz.( —1 () ' ( a 2 -j-b a---i ' a 2 +b ._ j a—I
- 0 i nb—b b-1 ) ab—/, 1;
Now (A-fB)2=A23-B
(I +a)2
0 / a--b--- a—i
2a--b+ab-2 4 ) nb--h I,
a —o or a=l and b=4
Example 12. Given the matrices A, 1, C,
/• 3 —i )\ / I '
, B== I ), C =(I —2)
\ 3 0 2 \, 2
verify that (AB)C = A(BC)
Solution. Clearly AB is defined and will be 2 x I matrix and hence
(AB) 21 C2 2 is also defined and will be 2 x 2 matrix.
Also BC is defined and will be 3> 2 matrix and hence A 2x3 (BC)5
is also defined and will be 2x 2 matrix.
/ 2 3-1 \/2.1-3-3.1-1.2
(AB)=(
f
3 )2x2x(
0 2 2 J3x I \ 3.13-0.1+2.2
( 7 3 )2x 1
/ 3 \• / 3,1 3.(--2)
(AB)C={ ) (1 _2)jX2r=j
\ 7 /2x1 \ 7.1 7.(-2) 2x2
(3 —6
7 —14 )2x2
Again
/ 1 /1.1 1.(-2)' /1 —2
BC=( 1 (1 — 2) 12 =f 1.1 1.(-2) ) == f 1 —2
\ 2 )3x1 \2.T 2.(-2)/3x2\2 —4 3X2
/2 3 1 —2
A(B C)f 1 —2
\3 0 —I)2x3(
22 —4/3>2
(2.1+3.1 +(— 1).2 2.(-2)+3(-2)+(-1)(-4
\3.1 +0.1+2.2 3.(-2)+0.(-2)+2(-4) 12 X 2

812 BUSINESS MA1IIIMAT1C3
3 —6
(II)
"7 —14 J2x2
Thus we observe that
(AB)C-=A(Hc)
Example 13. U
/1 2 I'
A=( o i i
\\3 I
show that A3-3A2--A.L9 I— 0
Solution.
/1 2 1'\/l 2 1\ / 4 3 0
A 2 =( 0 1 --I 0 I —1(--3 2 -2
\3 —I 1,\3 —I 11 6 4 5
/ 4
A3==A2.A --( --3
3 0\/1 2 l\ / 4 fl 1•
2 —2 )f 0 1 --1 1-- ( - - 9 —2 ---7
\ 6 4 SJ'3 —1 1/ \, 21 II 7
/ 4 11 1\ / 12 9 0
Now A 3 --3A 2 --A+91( —9 --2 —7 )_( —9 6 —6
\. 21 Ii 7) \. 18 12 15
/1 2 1\ /9 0 0
1 —1 --0 9 0
3 —1 i./ \o 0 9
71) 1)
0 0 0 j=rO.
\o 0 0/
Exam pie 14. /1 finance compan y has offices located in every division,
every district and every t luka in a certain State in India. Assume that
there are five divisions, 30 districts and 200 tolukas in the Slate. Each office
has / head clerk, I cashier, 1 clerk and I peon. A divisional office has, in
addition, an office sup(r:nlendent, 2 clerks, I typist and I peon. A district
office has, in addition, I clerk and / peon. The basic monthly
salaries are as follows Office .uperintendent Rs 500, head clerk
.Rs. 200, Cashier Rs. 175, Clerks and typists Rs. 150, and peons Rs. 100.
Using rnatriy notation find
(I) the total number of posts of each kind In all the offices taken
together,
(ii) the total basic monthly salary hi/i of each kind of office, and
(iii) the total basic monthly salary bill of all the offices taken together.
Solution. The number of offices can be arranged as elements of a

row vector, say A. Division District Taluka
- (5 30 200)

MATRIX .\L(EI3RA 813
ttli conipositioii can he arranged in 3X6 matrix 13,

0 IL C T Cl P
/1 1 1 1 3 2'
Ii ( 0 1 () 2 2
\o i i o i I
where 1) =001cc superintendent, 11= head clerk, C -Cashier, T Typist.
Cl "- (;lrk. P = Peon.
Column vector ) will have the elements that correspond to basic
monthl y. salaries.
0 1 500 1
H 20t.)
I 175 I
1) - -1- 150
(l 150 i
P L IOU J
(i) total numher of posts of each knid in all the offices are the
elements of the matrix
1 0 H C 1' Cl P
A B,
5 235 235 5 275 270 )
(ii) lotal basic monthl y salary bill of each kind of offices is the
ekincu ts of matrix
/ 1 1 I 1 3 2 \i 500 / 1675
81) - 0 I 1 0 2 2 201) -_ [ 75
0 I 1 0 1 hi 175
150 6
150
l00
(1(i) Total bill of all thise offices is the element of the matrix
/ 1675
(5 30 200) I 875 1,59,625.
\ 625 /
EXFRCISE (11)
Ild (x ) if
i ) (4 5)+(x )r(7 3)
(ii) (1 —0)—(2 —3)-. (x y)
(iii) ( y) --(0 - 1)-- (5 4)
(I l\ (2
y)
1) --
2. Given

(2 0 4 1 4 / 82 0

6 2 8 , B:.( ü - -2

o). c_I 02-6
4 6) \2 2 6 / \— s 4-10

Compute the following:

(a) A+B, (b) A—B, (c) A-I-(B+C), (d) (A-l-B)i-C
(e) (A—B)-f C, (f) A—B—C, (g) 2(A+B)
(Ji) 2A+2B, (1) 3A+2B--3C, (I) 3Bf-2A
and (k) 2B-f-3A.
/1 2\ /3 5 9
3. Af 6 )' Br(
\5 8/ \6 —2 1
(a) Write down the order of the matrices A and B.
(b) Write down the order of the product AB. (C) Calculate AB.
(d) Is it possible to calculate BA 7(e) Is ABBA ?
(f) Arc the following possible? A-I-B, A—B, 2B, A2.
4. A=( B==( c=(

), )
Show that
(i) A(B+C)==AB-I-AC, (ii) (AB)C=A(BC)
/l O\ . 0 . 0
5 If I
o j P o —i )' ' = (-1 01
Show that
1i) i2=j2k2—I.
6. Find the matrice B if
(a) )and A4-2B=A2
(b) A=( and A 2 +3A+B=( 0

E ) )
7. (a) A=( ) and B=(-3

). Find the matrix C
if (1) 2C=A+B (Ii) C+A=( (iii) 5C+2B=A

)
/ 4 1 0\ /2 0 —I\1) /
(b) If A = I , B=( , C=( 2
\1 —2 2/ \3 1 4/
Find a matrix X such that (3B-2A)C+2X=O,
/4\ 1-4 8 4\
(c) If ( I 1 A= ( — I 2 1, find A
\31 \-3 6 3/

MATRIX ALGEBRA 815
2
(d) if A= Ci], c=(
3
0\ 1 /1
], 1t=( 3
2! \o
2\
o
I!
/1
\3 —.1
2
Find (AB)C, hence or otherwise write down the value of A(BC).
8. If i=( ) and A( ), prove that

(a1-I-hA)3 =-a 3 1 •f-3a2bA
9. If A=r( cos 0 sin 9), prove that

—sin 0 cos e
I cos 20 sin 26\ and A cos 38 sin 30
As 2 = ç(
—sill 20 cos 2' '—sin 39 cos 3
What do yod suppose is the general result ?
10. If A=( show that A'----2A and A 4A

1 0 —tan a. \
11. If Ai ) and I is a unit matrix, show that
\tan 0 /
(COS —sin
I-A=(!-.-A)
Sin a. COS a.
/ 1 2 3\
12. (a) If A= 1 1 2 3, show that A2=O
\-1 —2 —3!
/0 1 t\
(b) A=( 0 0 1, compute A 2, A3 and A4.
\0 0 0/
3 5\
(c) A —3 -5 1. show that A3=A
U3 5/
2 0\ /0 0 0
13. (a) If A= 1 0], B=( 0 0 o
U4 0! \1 4 9
Show that AD=O
/1 1 —1\ 7-1 —2 —1
(b) If A=( 2 —3 4], B=( 6 12 6
\3 --2 3/ \ 5 10 s
C= ( 2 2 —2
_3 __3 3•
Show that AB and CA are null matrices but B A--/6 0, AC--A0.
I a h c
(c) If M=a-1 I ab a-1c
b_I ah ! 1Y2C
(C-1 bc_I
ac'

816 HU.SNESS MA1HIMAT1C3
Prove that M2=4M.

/1 5 1 3
14. (a) If A-( 2 1 0 5
7 1 8 -7
2 1 6
/1 0 () 1)
and B:f 0 0
1)
- 0 1 0
0
Show that A!3 =HA. Also compute 4A 2 611z.
(/) For the following matrices, find AB or BA whichever is defined.

/3 2 --1 2\ / 3 2
I j3r-7
(50
A-17 •6 8j, 3
J
\ 9.
\9 5 6 •_I
/3 2 -2' / 2 3
(c) A 4 5 9 0 5
\5 -6 -3, \_.7 6,
and C -:( ), show that (A 13)C -A (BC)
/--3 2 5' /1 4 () 3
(d) [f 1 5 0 2 -1 3 _2)
S 3 \3 2 5 '5.
0
and CI 3 --I -. 5 4
—s 0 -2 3.
show that A(B •+ C) -AB-l- AC,
IS. (a) For which values of x, will

/ 2 I x
(x ci I) ( 1 0 2 4 )==o ?
\ 2 4/ . ----1
(I') II' the numbers p, q and r satisfy the equation ptq2 4-r 2 -- 1, show
that the matrix
/ 0 r q
-r U p
-p 0
satisfies the equation Aa+AO.

817
MATRIX ALGEBRA
(c) Prove that the matrix A, given by

/0 I 2
A=( 2 —3 0
\i I I
satisfies the relation A 4A ! A= 12 I, where I, is a unit matrix of order
three.
16. (a) i\ shopkeeper sold 8 kg of peas, 20 kg. of potatoes, 12 kg
of tomatoes and 4 kg of onions on Monday, On Tuesday he sold 10 kg
of peas, 15 kg of potatoes. (i kg of tomatoes and 8 kg of onions.
Describe by means of 2 x 4 matrix, the position of sales on the two different
days of different vegetables.
The prices of different items per kg were Rs. 2'50 for peas, Rs. 125
for potatoes, Rs. 225 for tomatoes and Re. 1 for onions on Monday. The
rates on Tuesday per kg were Rs. 025 more than on Monday for each
item. Express the prices on the two days through a 4 x 2 matrix.
Express also his total sales position of Monday sales at Monday
rates, Tuesday sales at Tuesday rates and likely sales on Monday at
.Tuesday rates, Tuesday sales at Monday rates by a 2>< 2 matrix.
Peas Potatoes Tomatoes Onions
[Hint.
20 12 4
Monday ,f 8
Tuesday 10 15 . 6 81
Monday Tuesday
Pe'as/ 250 275
Potatoes l'25 150
OTomatocs 225 250
Onions \ 100 125
Mondy rates Tuesday rates
Monday( 76 87
PQ- Tuesday 's. 6525 75
(6) A manufacturer produces three products : P, Q and R which he
sells to two markets. Annual sale volumes are indicated as follows
Markets Products
P Q R
1 10,000 2,000 18,000
II 6,000 20,000 8.000
(I) If unit sale prices of P. Q and R are Rs. 250, I 25 and 150
respectively, find the total revenue in each market with the help of matrix
algebra,
, 80, 120
tii) if the unit costs of the above 3 commodities are Rs. 1
and 080 respectively, find the gross profit.

818
[Hint. (1) Total revenue in each market is obtained from the

product matrix
/ 10,000 6,000 '\

(250 125 l50)f 2,000 20,000 ) r_ (54,500 52,000)
\ 18,000 8,000 /
(ii) Total cost==(180 / 10,000 6,000

I 20 080) 2,000 20,000
\. 18,000 8,000
==(34,800 41,200)
Now find the profit.)
t7. The matrix A=(

)
rep
resents the number of instruments p and Q, two factories X and Y
can produce in a day, according to the table shown below
Factory X Factory Y
I nstrument p 2 per day i per day
Instrument Q 4 per day 3 per day
Let B=(
)
re
present the number of days the two factories operate per week, i.e.', X
Operate 5 days per week and Y six days a week. Find AR and state what
it represents
18. A company is marketing 4 different types of pumps. Although

the 1)four models have the same rating, the principal difference between
the1 lies in the co
type may not have mbination of accessories produced. For example one
a utomatic shut off control and another may be without
moUnting brackets. Five
Upon the model and the f parts are required in various quantities depending
ollowing tabulation shows the requirements.
Pump Model
Parts Required
A B C D E
1 1 2 0 5 2
11 0 3 0 I 5
Hi" I t 4 2
IV I 2 4 5 5
What will be re quirements of the parts
has to supply 3 model I pump, 5 model A, B, C. D. E if the company
and JO model JV pumps ir 2 model III pumps,
? if the cost of parts
12. Rs. 5, Rs. 4 and Rs. A, B, C, D, E be Rs. 30,
Purc hasing the parts. 7 respectively ,find the amount spent on

819
MP.IRIX ALGEBRA
19. Tea Coffee Chocolate

m 33 42 55\
t 35 43\ Tea /2p
28 3p
D w 56 64 41 I, C =CotTee
th 36 49 38 / Choc. \ 3p
jr 41 53 28!
Matrix D shows the daily sales of drinks from a hot drinks machine
for each of the 5 days of one week.
Matrix C shows the cost of each type of drink.
(a) Calculate (1 1 1 1 1) D and say what information this gives.
(c) Calculate D ( i ) and state what information this gives.
(d) Find (1 1 1 1 1) D( I What does this represent?

).
10. Three persons buy cold drinks of different brands A, B, C. The
first person buys 12 bottles of A, 5 bottles of B, 3 battles of C. The
second person buys 4 bottles of A, 6 bottles of B, and 10 bottles of C. The
third person buys 6 bottles of A, 7 bottles of B and 9 bottles of C.
Represent the information in the form of a matrix. If each bottle of
brand A costs Rs. 4, each bottle of B costs Rs. 5 and each bottle of C costs
Rs. 6. then using matrix operations find the total sum of money spent
individually by the three persons for the purchase of cold drinks.
[C.A.. November 19911
R 1 R2 R, R4
S 1 f6 8 3 4 R1118
V=R2 ( 20
( 24
21. K=S 2 5 7 4 5
R435
53 8 3 5
R 1 '2 R 3 .R4
S1 f2 2 1 3
W=S2 ( 1 3 1 2
S3 \4 1 2 0
R3
Matrix K shows the stock of four types of record players R 1 , R2 ,
and R 4 in three shops S, S 7 and S.
Matrix V shows the value of the record players in ('00 rupees).
Matrix W gives the week's sales. Find
(a) the stock at the end of the week.
of the cheaper pair
çb) the order matrix to bring the stock of each
of record players to 8 and the dearer pair to 5.
(c) the value of the sales, (d) the value of the order.

820
8USLNlS MATIIFMATICS
Si S. S8 S
C1 /2 1 3 0\
22. s=C2 f
/3 4 2 5
2 1 D( 3 4
C3 \3 2 3
1 4/ \2 3 4 1
/2 1 2 4
L=( 1 3 1 2
\2 3 4 2
Matrix S shows the stock of 3 types of cooker C1 , C2 and
Showrooms 51 , S2 and S2 and S4 C in 4
Cookers at the beginning of a week. Matrix D shows the deliveries of new
Matrix L shows the sales during that week. Find
(a) the stock immediately after delivery D.
(b) the stock at the end of the week.
(c)
UP to 6. the order matrix to bring stocks of all cookers in all showrooms
ANSWERS
I (a) (1) 0 -2), (ii) ( —I —6) (iii) (5 3)
(Iv) (_ !1
' 6 12
/10 4 2\ /-6 —4
2. (a) ( 6 0 6\
8 ), (b)( 6 4 8
"4 6 121 \ 0 2 0/
/ 18 6 2\ 18 6
(c) ( 6 2 2
21,(d)( / 6 2 2
10 2/ —4 10 2
2 2 6\ /-14 —6
(e) 6 6 6
2 J(f)f 6 2 14
C8 6 — 10/ \ 8 —2 10
(20 8 4\ /20
(g) 8 4
12 0 16 I, (Ii) (12
8 0 16
12 241 \8 12 24
/ 2 2 8\ 28 12
(/) ( 18 —4 2
42 ), (j) 12 --2 16 IQ
\34 4 601 (10 14 30
/22 8 8
(k) (18 2 24
\10 16 30

MATRIX ALGEBRA
821
3. (a) 3X2, 2X3, (h) 3X3, (d) yes, (e) no, (f) No, only
2B is possible.
7 3
6, (a) (6 (b) ( —20 20
4) 30)
(0
7. (a) ) (ii)
(-- 2 I)
=x( i) (c) A=(-1 2
15. —2±\/6.
17 16 The number of instruments p produced by the

38 1 factories is 16 and of the instrurnciits Q is 38.
IS. Part A= 15, Part B43, Part C =48, Part D-74, Part E= 95.
Amount spent is Rs, 2097.
19. (a) (194 243 205). Total sales of each drink.
130
106
(ii) 1732, (c) 161 Total daily sales. (d) (642), Total weekly
123 sales.
122
20, A B C
1 /12 5 3\
2 4 6 10), Rs. 91, Rs, 106, Rs. 113,
3\6 7 9/
/4 6 2 1\ /4 2 3 4
21. (a))4 4 3 31,(b)(4 4 2 2
\5 2 3 1/ \3 6 2 4
(c) 49,900 (d) 95,600.
/5 5 5 5\ /3 4 3 I\ /3 2 3 5
22.(a)(55571,(b)(4245)(c)(2421
\5 5 5 5/ \3 2 1 3/ \3 4 5 3
2010. TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
The matrix obtained by interchanging rows and columns of the
matrix A is called the transpose of A and is denoted by A' or A' (read as
A transpose), e g,, if
/3 2\ /3 4 7
AH 4 1 I then A'=I
\ —5/ \2 1 —5

822
Symbolically if
A=(a11),,,,, then A'=(a11),,,,,
I.e., the (I,J)th element of A=(j, i)th element of A. In other words, if

r a 11 a . r a, a21 • .a, ...a,,,
a 22 ... a, . a 12 a20 •• a 12 .. a,,,2

a 11
I A'=I I
A== .a 1 ,
I a 11 a,.1 .. a 11 • . .a,, a, a21 —a.,
a L a,. c ...a,,, a ., j flX

J
in
RmrkS. I. If A is mxn matrix, then A' will be a nx matrix.
2. The transpose of a row (column) matrix is a column (row) matrix
3. (A')'-A.
4. The transpose of the sum of two matrices is the sum of their
transposes. i.e., (A±B)A'+B'
S. The transpose of the product AB is equal to the product of the
transposes taken in the reverse order, i.e., (AB)' Z.BIAr.
Example 15. Let

2 —3 1 3 —2 4
A-(4 3) and B=-r(1
2
Show that (A+B)'=A'+IV.
Solution.
'., (5 —5 5
A B_I'2+3 (-3)+(-2) 1+4
(4+1 2+3 3-l-(--5) ).5 5 —2
/ 5 5\
(A+B)'=j —5 51 -
\ ,5 -21
/ 2 4\ / 3 1
Now A'—( —3 21 and W=( —2 3
3/' \4 -5
/ 2+3 4+1 )+5
A'+B'=( (--3)-t(--2 2+3 5 5
1+4 3+(-5) 5 —2/
Hence (A+B)'=A'+B'
Symmetric Matrix. A square matrix is said to be symmetric if
the transpose of a matrix is equal to the matrix itself, e.g.,
/0 1? g\ 1 4 9\
b / , ( 4 7 5 1 are symmetric matrices.
\g f c / \9 5 8/

MATRIX ALGEBRA 823
Symbolically is said to be symmetric if a, 1 =a1 , for all

I and].
Skew Symmetric Matrix. A square matrix is said to
be skew matrix if
a1,,= —a1, for all I and j
/ 0Jr g / 0 6 8
e.g.,f—h 0 f. (--6 0 9
\—g f 0) \--8 —9 0
are skew symmetric matrices.
Orthogonal Matrix.A'A=l—AA'
EXERCISE (LU)
1. For each of the following matrices verily that (A')'=A
28 4\ 13 9 2 —7 21
(a) 18 6 —1 )(b)
\4 --1 0/ L 7 8 5 6 0
/3 —3 0\ 1r2 3 01
2. IIA=( 6 3 9j, Br- 6 ._ 9 3,
\12 3 241 L3 3 --31
verify that (A+fl)=A' -f-B', (AE)'=B'A'
r 8 16 —4 r 12 16 20
3. If Ar.=j , B=( —4 8 28
t- 4 0 8J L 8 4 0
Compute (AR)' and WA'
(a) For the matrix A=( COS B sin 9)

4.
—sin 0 cos 91
show that AA=I.
1 2 2\
(b) If A= 2 1 —2 ( ' verify that
(-2 2 —1!
AA' r=A'A==I
Ii i 1 il
(c) If = i i —. i —1 verify that
AA'==A'A=14
5. Find x and y so that the matri*
/1 2 2
P=f 2 1 --2
\x 2 y
may satisfy the condition PP=PP'=18.
Ans. 5. Xr=-2,y=_I
2011. DETERMINANTS OF A SQUARE MATRIX
Let Ar=[a, j J be a square matrix. We can associate with the square
matrix A a dctermiiiant which is formed by exactly the same array of
cements of the matrix A. A determinant formed by the same array of
elements of the same square matrix A is called the determinant of the
square matrix A and is denoted by the symbol det. A or I A I . It should
be remembered that the determinant of a square matrix will be a scalar
quantity, i.e., with a determinant we associate some value whereas a
matrix is essentially an arrangement of numbers and as such has no value.
6 5 6
For example. let a matrix A= ( 2) so that I A I
52
=6x2-5x3=-3.
--3
Here I A 1 3 whereas A is a matrix giving only an arrangement of the
four numbers 6, 5, 3, 2 in two rows and two columns. It should be noted
that the positions occup i ed by the elements of a matrix are important. A
change in the positions of the elements of a matrix gives rise to a different
matrix.
For example ( ') and ( ) are diIfecnt matrices. although

formed by the srne elements of a niiniber 6. 5, 3 and 2. However, the
determinants of these two square matrices are
6 5 2 5
and
3 2 1 3 16
and have the Same value, namely —3.
We will now take up determinants of various orders, Viz., two three
and higher order.
2012. DETERMINANTS OF ORDER TWO
The determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix is denoted by any of the follow-
ing ways
a
(1) = ad - ch or ad— be
C d
H
a,, 22 a,1
i bb,aor
b, d
It should be remembered that the numbers enclosed by straight lines
825
MATRIX ALGEBRA
do not constitute a matrix—they are the coeflIcientS or the numbers
assigned to a square matrix. We will now illustrate its use in solution of
simultiicOUS equations.
2013 CRAMER'S RULE

It is a simple rule using determinants to cx pi ess the solutioti of a
system of Linear equationS for which the numher of equations is equal to
the number of variables.
We shall now show how the second order determinants can be
used to give the solution of two simultaneous linear equations in a con-
venietit form. Students are already familiar with the method of solving
two simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns.
Let the given equations be written ill the form
a1x+h1yci
and axbyc2
To Livid the value of x we eliminate ,v by multiplying (I) by b, and

(2) by b 1 and then subtract the latter from the former, we then get
(a l b,-a,h1)x=Cib2—C2bt (3)
Similarly to find the value of y we eliminate x by multiplying (I) by
a2 and (2) b y a, and then subtract the latter from the former, we then get
. ( 4)
(b 1 a, - a 1 by c 1 a2 --- C,a1
The valus of x and y as given by (3) and (4) can be written as
X y - I
c, b 2'_ c2h1 - a2 c 2 a.c1 a 1 b,-- a,!',
This solution can he conveniently written in the determinant form as
follows
X Y I
C
l h -- a 1 c1 a1 1)1
C, h 2 a2 C2 a2 1).,
C1.
b 1 a2 c1
C, b a2 C
and y= --
b,
a, b2 0"
h.2
We observe that the denominator for each unknown is the deter-

minant in which the elements are the coefficients of x and y arranged as in
the two given equations. The determinant, we shall call, as the determi-
nant of co-efficients and will denote by D. Observe further that the
numerator for any unknown is the same as D except that the column of
826
Co
Let-efficients of that unknown is replaced by the column of Constant terms.
us call for co nvenience the determinant in the numerator
and de for x by N
terminant in the numerator for y by N,•
the Solution given in terms of d The rule embodied in
as Cramer's rule. eterminants as described above is known
Remark From C
oordinate Geometry we know that equations (1)
and (2)inbeing linear in x, y represent two straight lines. The values of x, y
given solut j oii (5)
give the coordinates of the point of intersection of
lines (1) and (2). Ifujb2_Q2bO
the equations (1) and (2) are not satis-
fied
a1 b--bya2b10
finite values of x and Y and the lines become parallel. However, if
the lines (I) and (2) i
ordinaics are given by (5). ntersect in a finite point whose co-
We, flow, illustrate the use of Cramer's Rule for the solution
simult aneous linear equations in two unknowns. of
Example 16. Solve the following
determinants s imultaneous linear equations using
2x—y5
3x+2y3
So lution.
Lety us
Of the value of x and as first find out the denominator of the quotbnt
follows
2 —1
2 =2.2-3(_1)4+3=7
3
D-?4-0 , the system has a unique solution.
5 —1L
N= 5.2(-3) (-0=10-3-=7
—3 2
2 5
Ny-=
2.(3)_3,5z_6_15z.21
3 —3
N 7 N, —21
x a_j nd
2014. D ETERMINANT OF ORDER THREE
In a 3 by 3 matrix, the determinants are defined as follows
at b1 c1
a3 b2 c2 a11 b, c2 —b 1 a 2 c2 ---c 1 b2
a
a3 b3 I
ca I b1
Ce a c3 I , b
- b.c2 )__ b1(a3c—a5c1) 4- c 1( a2 1i3 - a3h2)
Ii may be noticed that in each Case a
taken by omittitg the row and 2 by 2 determinant has been
a, b 1 and c1 , column of a particular row element in order
elements Another thing to note is the alternating signs for this row

827
MATRIX ALGEBRA
matrix
Example 17. Compute the determinant of the following
2 3 —4 )
A--f 0 —4 2
\1 —1 5
Solution.
—4 2 0 2' O-4
--1
I A I ==det (A)= 2 5
--3
1 5 1-1
r2(-20+2)-3(0-2)-4(0+4)
=--36+6-16==-46
20 1.5. SOLUTION OF THREE LINEAR EQUATIONS
On the lines of the solution for the two equations, the solution for
the three unknowns will be through the following quotients of determinants.
N N, N
X=- ' = -, Z=='
-

In order to illustrate we take the following system of three linear
equations
a1x+b1y4-c1z==d, 2x*-Y—z3
av+b2y+c2z=d2 IX 4- Y + z l
ax+by+cz=d x-2y_3z_r4
The denominator D of each quotient is
a1 b1 C1
D= a2 b 3 c 2 ^Q
a 3 b3 C3
In the above case

2 1 —1
D= 1 1 1 =2 11 1 1 1 1
—1 —1
I —2 —3 —2 —3 1 —3 1 —2
= 2(--3+2)—l(-3-1)-1(-2-1)
D:i6o
Now
d1 b1 c
We have replaced the
N =- d2 b3 C2column of the coefficients of X
by the column of the constant
d3 b3 c terms.

828
BUSINESS MATULMATICS
3 I --i
N= I I I =3(-3 +-2)--1(--3--4)
-. (-2-4)
4 —2 ---3
a 1 (11 c1
Also N) = a 2 We have replaced the

d2 2 colurni of the coefficients of
a 3 Y by the column of the cons.
d3 c3 tant terms.
2 3 -_
N, 1 2(--3 .. 4)-3(-3 -1)— 1(4-1)
I 4 _
14l2_3.5
O b
and N a b2
We have replaced the
2 column of the coefficien- s of
z by the column of the cons-
b do tant terms.
2 1 3
N= i i I -2(4+2)--J(4 1)+3(--2--1)
1 —2 4
The required solutions are
14 i- Y U
N N, —5
X=-2,y1 N 0
2016. SARRUS DIAGRAM

We can find out determinants of a given matrix very conveniently
if we extend the matrix by adding the first two columns and connect the
elements by arrows downwards preceded by a plus sign and upwards by a
minus sign as illustrated below
4.
a,
l a,' LI
a b2 z \ 2 -
a 3 - 1 a
\'a3 b3

MATRIX AI01313RA
829
[he product of elements joined by downward arrows preceded by
plus signs are
-I--u1b9c + b1ca3-4.c1a2b3
And the products ci each of three elements joined by upward arrows

preceded by minus signs are
a 1 b,c1 h 3ca 1 -- c3ab1
Example 18. Find the value of the deter,ninu, its
2x 4y 1 1 x x-j-i
X 3y x-4-2 x-f3
Solution.
12x 4y
(()( 2x.3y---x.4y-=2xy
v 3y1
V x-i-- 1
(ii) x(x* 3)—(.v+l)(x+2)= —2
X 2 x3

(3
::'
0 3 4
SOIUtIOI).
Since there is zero in the first column, we expand by the
elements of the first column,
3 2 I
4 I —7 -=3 --7 1-4 1 2 10 2
0 3 4 3 4 3 4 1 —7
-3(4 f2l)--4(83)+055
By Sarrus Diagram
4 4
3 2 3 2
-,
L 1 :7 I '2OtI2-32tC3.O
\ ,. 55
0
BUSINESS MATHLMAT1CS
830
2017. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
I. If the rows of a determinant are changed into columns and vice
versa, the value of the determinant remains unchanged, I.e., del A=det A'
all a,2 a, a1, 021 a33
a2 , 033 a13 = 0 33 a,3 033
a,, a32 a 33 a,, a., 033
For example
1 5 6 1 2 3
2 8 7 = 5 8 —9
3 —9 0 6 7 0
II. If any two rows (Or columns) are interchanged, the value of the
determinant so obtained is the negative of the value of the original determi-
nant, i.e.,
all 12 033 a2l022 a23
a.,, a,2 a, 3 = - a,, a12 a,,
a 3i a,, a 031 a32 a,,
ui If any two rows or any two columns of a determinant are ifen-

tical the value of the determinant is zero.
a ll 0, 013
a, a12
C 3 a32 a3,
IV. If the elements of a row (column) of a determinant are added

(subtracted) k.t:rneS the corresponding elements of another row (column), the
value of the determina n t remains unchanged.
0 j a, 2 0,1 a a,, --ka, 1 - ma 12

°j3
a 023 = a 2 , 033 a,,4- ka31—ma2,
a,, a32 a,, 033 a32 a33 + ka 31 - ma,2
V. If the elements of a row (column) of a matrix are multiplied by

the some number. k say, the determinant of the in a/rEx thus obtained is k
times the determinant of the original matrix.

MATRIX ALGEBRA 831

ka a3 a a11 a12
ka 21 a23 023 =k a 21 a22 O3
ka a12 a33 a11 a33 a31
W. If the elements of (my row or any column of a determinant is sum
(diJjerence) of two or more elements then the determinant can be expressed as
Sin?? (difference) of two or more determinants
a 1 1 + 11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a23 --- 21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23
a31 + is, a32 a33
a31 a33 a3
a12 a13
21 023 (123
31 a32 033
Example 20. /'rove that
1 1 /
a b c =(a—b)(b_c)(c_0)
a 2 b2 c2
Solution.
1 1 0 0 1
b c a—b b—c C Apply c1—c
01 b2 Ca - Cj
c2 a2—b2 b'—c' c3
0 0
==(a—b)(b—c) 1 1 c
a+l, h+c c2
=(a—b)(b--c)
f !a+- bc }
=(a— h)(h—c)(b+c-_a__b)
—(a— h)(h-.-c)(c_a)
Example 2). Prove that
a1b-F2c a b
b--c±2a b
c a c+a+2b

iusIr*SS MAThEMATICS
832
SoIuton, b
2a-t-2b±2C a
a4-b+2C a b
J
b
c b+c+2a b 1= 2a+2b±2C bjc+2(1
2a2b+2c a c+a42
a c+a+2/i
Apply CLfC±Cz
a b
h+c±20 b
2(a+b-fC) 1
a -ia+2b
a b
b+C Apply RR
2(9+b+ C ) 0 a 0
B3—R1
0 0 c+a+b
b-fça c±
2(a+b-iC) a b 1}
-2(a+ b 4 03
E,carnple 22. Evlxi1f

U ab2 ac2
a 2 b 0 bc2
Iale
S0II1tI0IL
0 b2 c2
o ab 2 ac2
a2b 0 hc abc a 0 c2
12 0
t C bc 0 a2
0 1 1 ^
cjh (a'b 2 c 2 ) 1 0 1
1 1• 0
= asb3c 3[_. 1(O 1+1(1-0)V2a3b3

EXERCISE (V)
1. Show that
3 —7 1 2 1 =0,
74.
8 6 k 1 3 6
X y —4 2
=22
—1 +L --3 —4!

MATRIX ALGEBRA
2. (a) Shov' that
2 5 6
4
I3 1 7
(!J) Show that
ci I, q p d
+
C d p ( Ii (j
3, Show that
!l 0 23 4 h
2 5 =-4. 2 I 3 14
H 8 0 7 --2 0
4. Show ti)aI
3 4 7
2 1 3 = 40
I --s ---1 2
5 Show that
1 2 3
a ---a b =ab--3a2
-a 0 --h
6. Show that
a h g
Ii b f -2Jgh
g f c
7. Evaluate the following
j2 2 32
x 1 2 1 a a2

2 x 2 , 0 1 2a ,2' 3' 4'
b b2 42 52
3 1 x I 311
8 Show that
2 45 55
1 92 32 --54
3 68 87
[Hint. [Apply R-2R,, R 8 -3R 2 and ec
834
BUSINM MATHE MATICS
9. Prove that
1 1
a b C J^( b--c)(c—a)(a—b)
tbc ca ab
(b) Show that
I x
1 y Z--X rO
1 z x+y
I G) (U
' I , where w is cube root of unity

WI I w
[Hint. I+c-1-wOJ
11. Show that
a--b b—c c—a
b—c c--a a—b rO
c—a a—b b—c

12. Prove that
a b C
a—b b—c c—a =a3+b8+cB3abc

b + c c + a a+b
[Hint. Apply C1+c1+c1J
13. a—b—c 2a 2a
2b b—c—a 2b r(Q+b+C)I
2c 2c c—a—b
[Hint. Apply RI+R+RIJ
14, I+a I I
I H-b I
I I l+c

MATRIX ALGEBRA
835
15. Show that

x -- Y 1 x x 1 y
y-_.z I Z
y = y
2-- 1 g z I x
[J.C.W.I4., June 1991]
16. Show that

2ab h2

h2 (22 2ab -j-
2a 1) bs
[1.C.W.A., December, 19901
ANSWERS
7. (1) x 3 4 lOx-I• 10, (ii) (a - b)z , (iii) 8. 10. 1.
2018. EXPANSION OF THE DETERMINANTS

Determinants can be represented as linear combinations of order two
with co-efficients from second row or third row or in terms of the elements
of any column. The only thing to remember is that 2 x 2 determinant
accompanying any co-efficient can he obtained by deleting the row and
column containing the co-efficient in the original determinant. Further,
the signs accompanying the co-efficient in the original determinant will
follow the Following checker board pattern
n
Example 23.
Give the determinants with co-efficients from (i) first
column and (if) the third row in the following co-efficients of the determinant.
a b1 c1
(22 b2 c2
0 3 b3 C3
Solution.
/)i C1 b1 C1
)2 '2
(i) /'—a 1
b, c2 11 b3 c3 h2 c1
=01 (h1c3_fC2)_a2(b1C_b3Cl)+(bIc3—bIcj)
a1b2c2 - a L 5c1 — a2 b l c! + a 2b 3 c 1 -- a1 b 1 c2 - a1bc1

1)3 a1 c1 a1 b1
(II) =a, Cl -h3 + c3
h 2 C2 U c, c b.4
a,(b 3 c,. b2c,) b8(ac 2 -. '12c 1 ) c3 (a1 b 2 - a2b1)
= a3b1c2 - a3 b2c 1 -b3 a 1 c2 +b.a2c1 +c8a 3 h --c3a2h1
This aspect will be examined more extensively in the next article on
minors of the matrix.
2019. MINORS OF A MATRIX
Consider a matrix
12 a13
/
0 21 022 1I
J
a a, 033 / 5x3
When we deletp any one row and any one column o A, then we get
a 2 x 2 matrix, whieji called a subrnatrjx of A, for cnpie, if we strike
off the first row and first column, we get the sub-iu.strix as
01
' a, 2 (1
The determinant of any such submatrix is called a minor df deter-

minant A, thus
a 22 a,,
is minor of det. A.
(13
The minor of a 11 , a1 , U 3 in J A I arc
I a, 1
a22 028 a0, a, a22
a,, a ,3
respectively.
a,, 0,1 a,
The minors of 0 21p 0 33 a,, in A J are
0 12 018 a 013 a1 a12 i
and respectively,
a s a3 a, a81 (202
The minors of a, 1 , 0 3k , a,, in I A are
a I a, a ll a,
and respectively.
0J3 GIl 033 a22
2l
In general, the minor obtained by striking off the Ith row and jth
column of a matrix is called the minor of a,1 in A
a a1, ..... . a .....
02J -
-a,,-- , - a,,-.
a, ..... . a,,1 .....

837
MATRIX AI.(WRRA
The minor of element a, 1 is designated by M0.
2020. CO-FACTORS OF A MATRIX

Lt we multiply the minor of the element in the ith row Rud jtli
)+ J the product is called
column of the determinant of the matrix by ( — l
he co-factor at the element. It is usual to denote the co-factor of a
element by the corresponding capital letters. Symbolically
A 0 ( - 1)' 11 x minor of a in I A
==(_ 1)1 I M 0 I e.g.,
a 1 a
AI = (1 ,1 (1,2 U28

(731 a8
a22 a a28
ft , A 1 =(— 1)1+2
A -_(. 1) I a23
a32 a32
(133
a tt t3 all
/1 22 =( -- 1)2 ,-
a33 a31
(1i
and so on.
Example 24. If
/3 4 7
A=( 2 5 6
I,' 3 _9
find the co-factors of eletneats 6 9.

Solution. The co-factor of element a28 , f. e., 6 is
3 4
=—(9--2S)=+ 19
7 3
The co-factor of the element a83 , i.e., —9 is
3 4
0113
—2 5 1
15 -8) +23
=- + (
Remarks. 1. The sum of the products of the elements of any row
(column) of a determinant with the corresponding co-factors is equal to
the value of the determinant,
2. The sum of the products of the elements of any row (column)
with the co-factors of the corresponding elements of any other row
(column) is zero.
2021. ADJOIN'r OF A SQUARE MATRIX
n, then adjoint of A is
Let A[O 1],. be a square matrix of order

838
HUSINSS MATflMAT1CS
defined to be transpose of matrix f
in J A iii other words, let duhx., where A, is co-factor of a,1
a ll 0 ..... . a11,
A= a.,
a,,,
A, /11 2 ......
Adj A'=transposc of A,, A22......
'1 "'2 ...... A,,,
'12
A 2 , A,,,, fixI
Here A1 , —' co-factor of a, 1 in A
I
a, 1 in I A I and Fo on.
RenL,u. ls
1. If A be an ti-rowed (viz.,
i X n) square matrix, then
.4 (adj A)=(a(lj A) A— I A
order n f I,,, where I, is a unit matrix of
2. Adj (AB)=(Ad B)(Adj A)
Example 25. Find the adjoint of the matrix

ii 1 j
1 1 2 —3
\2 —1 3
and verify the theorem
A ( Adj A)(AdjA)A_ IA I I,
Solutio, / A,, A1, A13

Adj A==transpose of A 31 A,, 42
\ . A,, A,, A,, ). . a
'here
4 ii'cofactor of a,, in I A 2 --3

(.l)'+' r,3
3
AiiCo-factorofa in IA —3
=(._I)1+1
3
A i, c o . factor of a1, in I A 2
I =-(—J)''
I
MATRIX ALGEBRA
839
Similarly
1 1 1 1
A21==(_l)1+1 =-4, A 1 =(— 1)5+2
—1 3 2 3
1 1 1 1
A,,= (_ 1) 1-3p A81 =( --1)' - --5
2 —1 1 2 —3
1 1 1 1
=4, A1=(— =
1 —3 1 2
Therefore
3 -9 —5)' = ( 3 —4 --5
Adj A==4 1 3 --9 1 4
(--5 4 1 —5 3 1
Also I A 1 =1.3-1.(4)+2.(-5)=--11
Now
7 1 1 1 \/ 3 —4 —5
A (Adj A)==t 1 2 --3 ) —9 1 4
\2 --I 31\-5 3 1
/-11 0 O\ / 1 0 0
0 —11 0 --=—iit 0 1 0
\ o 0—li! \o o
={Aj13
3 —4 —5\/1 1
Also (Adj A) A=---9 t 4 1 2 ---3
(-5 3 i/\2 —1 3
f—il 0 0\
0 11 0== IA!!3
\ 0 0 11'!

A (Adj A)=(Adj) A- AI
EXERCISE (VI)
1. Find the adjoint of the matrix
A=(
Verify A(Adj A)=(Adj A) A= I A I

840
BUSINESS MATHEMATIC S
2 Find the adjoint of the matrices
/1 4 /i 0 -1
(I) A-( 3 2 (ii) 3 4
\o i -
6 ),
/ 0 --6 -7
5
and verify that

A (Adj A)=-(Adj A) A= A 1
J 13
/ ---1 --2 —2 \
3. If 'A( 2 —2 , show that Adj A==3 A'
2 -2 t/
4. II' A
r
5
2 r
2 3 , verify
1 2
A (Adj A)= A I .I=(Adj A).A, [/.C.V,i., Dec. 1990]
2022. I NVERSE
OF A MATRIX
The operation of
dividing one matrix directly by another does not
exist m matrix theory but cquiva1et of division of a uOit matrix by any
square matrix call
" I nversion of Matrix'".accon) pushed (in most cases) by a process known as
In ordinary aiec bra' 1 x
verse of x r x s nesc 1, then x. 11 y or we say that y is in-
Is One. ot. The product Of quantity x and its inverse
let A he any n x n matrix. The fl -square matrix

13 is called inverse of .4 if
AB= BAY,,
The inverse of A is denoted by A, fe, , B-=A-
1 so that
AA'A-'.;1
The concept of inverse matrix is useful in solving si
multaneous
methods of input-output analysis and regression analysis. There are three
finding the inverse
of a given square matrix.
(I) Using adjoint matrices co-factor method.
(ii) Using linear equations.
(iii) Gauss Eliinintje i Method.
Renak,
A square matrix
I A J ^0, i.e only ncn . slngt!uar
if andA has an inverse
only if
matrix possesses an inverse.
Co-factor M ethod.
The inverse of A is given by
A'=1 1A I Adj A

MATRIX ALGLJIRA 841
Evampic 26. fin! the inverse of the tnatri

a h
.c ci
AdjA
Sootion.
Al
A
/12 A I Z12)
Adj Au: transpose Of (
21 oo / A2
Now
- l)' (is (1, 1 3 -( I )1+2 C- --C
z12t(--I)' b.— b, A21 1) 1 a =a

i --b.
Ad' A==
(—C, a
I (1 h
I / J --b (a(j7
1-lence A - ' : - 4
cuI.-.f?c \—c a a
\a1i---bc ad--bc
Example 27. Compute the inverse of the matrix
/ 1 1) 4
2 5
3 --1 2
Solution We know
1 0 —4
IAI==-2 2 5
3 —1 2
---1 (4+5)--0 (-4— 15)---4 (2-6)=25
/A
ll Ajq A13 \' /A,, A21 A1n
Adi A=( /121i A23 _( /1]
'422 A33
\ A 31 A3, A33 / \ '13 A23 438
The co-factors of the elements of A are

2 5 --2 5
A ll (... 1)+ 1 —__9, A,-=z(- 1)12
---1 2 3 2
—2 2 0 —4
=-4. A2=(-1)2+'
3 -1 —1 2

842
BUSINESS MATII13MATICS
A = 14, 4, 3 -=1. A 91 8, A 31 =3, A39=2
9 4 8
Adj A= 19 14 3
(-4 1 2
19 4 8
4 8 -- :5
I:
19 14 3 3 19 14 I
25 L4 1 J J- . 2
2- 2 1
25J
Remark. The students are advised to verify that
AA-'
EXERCISE (VII)
1. B==( c( 3)
_) and
Find X if BX-C.
—5 5)
2. If A=(—'2 ), then show that A':-=__ (3
3. (a) Find the inverse of
( COScz Sin a)
— sin cc cos
(b) Show that
( cos 0 —sinI —tan 0 1 tan )4
sin o cos o tan o )(_tan 0
(Hint. Let A==( I tan 0 )
-tanEJ I
Then show that
( cosO —sin 0) —tan0
sin 0 cosO A'
tanO 1 )
cos 0 --sin 0) AA-'—( I —tan j 0
( sin 0 )A-'
cos S tan 0 1
Hence the result.
(; AA-1—I)j
4. A=(
). k-ind matrix B if AR equals
2 6
( ii) (1 0
(I)
3, (ill) _)

843
MATRIX ALGTBRA
5. Find matrix B if B8 cquals

17 (20 16'
(1) ( \16 201
6. Compute the adjoitit and inverse of the matrices
r2
4
3
3
4)
1 I, (ii) —1
1 2 —fl
1 2
r
Li 2 4.] L 2 —1 Ii
7. Verify that AAA'A-1
1 - 1 1 1
1 —2
31 j-
5- 15 31
I 14 8
If A= I 3 —1 4 I, then A-' I - F5
iS
I I 1 --1
2 1 —2 I I 1
I- J LT 3 3.)
-- sin 0 0
8 if A= sin 00
( cos cosO o)
0 0 1
Show that
cosO sin
-
A'= ( —sin0 COSO 0)
0 0
9. Find the reciprocal of the matrix
1 1\
- 1 0 i)
(0 1 1 0
and show that the transform of the matrix
I b+ c c—a b-a
A=:I c—b CF a a—b
L b---c a—c a+b j
pa 0 0\
by S, i.e., SAS-' is a diagonal matrix 0 2b 0)
k\0 0 2c
ANSWERS
/
x—( • 1) 1 I 1)
)
- 7/3 )
•
—110 —30) (_
1-4 2
)or( )
14 —8) (
(4 2 i2 4•\
(if)
I.2 41 or 4 2)
1 ^-10 4 i F 3 —1 5]
6 (f) -- 15 —4 —14 (ji) j1 5
- S 1 6 L-1 5 3
844 FIUSINeSS MATHEMATICS
2023. SIMUUTANEOUS FQUATIONS

Suppose we are given data oil in (Rs. per kg.) of wheat and
rice io the months of August and Sept.
JV/war Rice
August 3 2
Sept. 4 3
The family can spend Rs. 80 and Rs. 90 in August and Sept.
respectively on wheat and rice. Now if the family wants to purchase the
same combination of wheat and rice in August and Sept., the question is
"how much wheat and how much rice it call buy in each month?"
Assuming they spent x kg. of wheat and y kg. of rice in each month.
Then the amount spent are
3x+2v in August
and 4x-J 33' in Sept.
Since the family can spent Rs. 80 in August and Rs. 90 in Sept., we
must have
3v! 2y=80
4x+3y=90J
Solving these equations for x and y, we get the required combination.
The given data on prices can be written in the matrix form as
2
Ar( 34 ), the price matrix
The purchase of the family may be expressed as
Xt the required matrix.

\ X2I ,
4( x1 (3xi+2x2
Then Ax= ( 3
".4 3) x2 I .4x13x2
Writing B=( ), the equations (') can now be written as

(3 2 x (80
'.4 3A x 2 )'. 9Q
AX=B
In general. the two simultaneous equations in the two variables X1
and x2 are
Qx1 -f a,2x2=-b1
u21 x 1 - a22x 2 = b2
can be written in the matrix form as
a11 (1 ( ç \
( a22) x2 b2
or AX'R (•)

MATRIX ALGrBRA 845
Similarly the three simultaneous equations

(1 1X1 -f U , .,X± U, 3 X 3 b,
a" X
I -+ U-V - a, -
X1 -F + 1.V3 t'a
can be written in t ive matrix forn as
1 41 11 0 12 0 / V,

h,
2I i
-2 '= (
b
(1(l 32 C11 , .\3 / i
AX B
where A -( till
a
(2 3k ,
j, x-( \ I
X1 )
B= ( ' )
\ b1
Since I A -/Ô. A- 1 exists
Multiply () by A 1 we get
A-' AX — A- 1 B, ic..
X=A'H
Remarks. By elementary algebra, we can corvcniefitly express
,x2 ..,x,ill terms of b, ba ,..., then the co-efficient matrix of
this
latter System is the inverse A of A.
Illustration 1.
x+ 2y - - Z =; 5
3x.—y -1- 2z 9
5x+3y+4z15
is equivalent to
/1 •2--1\/x\ / 5 )
(3 —1 2J( y (=1 9
\5 3 4J\z/ \ls
/ 3 —1 5','x ) __( _ 4 )
2. 5 3 --' II y 3
—i 5 3/\ Z 2
gives the equation
/ 3x—y--f-5z\ / 4
5x-+-3y----z =f —3
\-- x -f-5 y -f 3: ) \\ 2

846
From this, we get the simultaneous equations as
3x—y+5Z=4
5x + 3 y — z = —3
_x+5y+3z-2
Example 28. Solve completely the following equations
2x-3y=3
and
using matrices.
Solution. The above equations can be written in the matrix
orm as
(2-3'(x\ ( 3
4 --IA y )= )
I x' (2 —3 1 (
y i=4 )
Now A-] =--

Al
2-3
A = =(-2+ 12)=10
4 —1
Adj A==transpoSe of (
:=( i::)
A 1 =( — J)' (-1)--- 1, A-(—I) 1 ' 4=-4
A21=(--- 1)141 (-3)=3, A11=(-1)2" 2=2
AdjA=( )
/ 1 3
i--i 3('°i )
A1=(_4 2)1
\10 10
From (), we get

Cl 31
(X'\ 10 I( 3'\ = (3
2 11 ) 1
1 i ±
L 10 10 )
x=3, y1

MATRIX ALGEBRA 847

Example 29. Solve the following equations
.5x--6y4z=15
7x4y-3z 19
2x --y-j- 6z=46
Solution. The above system in the matrix notation is
/5 —6 4\/ x \ / 15
(7 4 —3(( y 19
\2 1 61\ t J \46
AX=B
X=A1B
5 —6 41
Now A 1Adj_A where A I
Af'
=1 I -
2 1
I
6)
A ,i
A13\ 7A 11 A31 A1\
Adj A=transpose of A, J(\ A l
A,3 A 23 A33
(A-13 A,3 A33! A 13 A,3 A33!
where
4 —3
A, 1 r J)1l
1--24+3-27
I 6
7 —3
=—(42+6)-48
2 6
7 4
1) 143 =(7-8)= —1
2 1
—6 4
A 21 -(_1)!+1
1 6
5 4
A=(_ i)t+t
=(30-8)=22
2 6
5 —6
--(5 -- I2)= —17
I I
6 4
(18-16):_2
—4-3

5 4
=--(---l5----28) 43
7 .-3
5 --6
A33(— 1) (2O 42)=62
7 4
27 / 40
Adj A=( -•48 22 431
\— I -17 62)
27 40 2
Adj A - 48 22 43
A
A - 419
- Il 62
From (+) v C get
/ 27 40 2\/15\
( --48 22 43( 19 )
\ z / \— 1 —17 63/\ 46
f x / 27.15+40.191- 2.46\
:a-F--( --48.15 -22.19+43.46
)
\ z / -- 1.15-17.19-4-62.46/
1257 \ I
1
419 16Th l 4
( 2514/ \6/
— X=3, y =4 and zc6
Example 30. The daily cost of operating a hospital C is a linear
function of the number of tn-patients 1, and out patlen(s, P plus a fixed
cost a, i.e.,
C= a + b P + dl
Given the following jata from 3 days, find the value of a, band d by setting
up a linear systetn of equations and using the matrix inverse.
Day Cost in Rs. No. of Inpatients, I No, of out-patients, P

1 6,950 40 10
2 6,725 35 9
3 7,100 40 12
Solution. Substituting the tabulated values in C - a + bP + d1 , we
obtain the following set of simultaneous linear equations

849
MATRIX ALGeBRA
a-j--Job I 401:6,95()
a - 96 1-35(1 6,725
(1+ 12b+40d-7,IU0
The above system in the matrix notation is

LI 10 401 [ a 1 L 6,950
9 35 x b 6,725
I I
d
LI 12 40J L J L 7,100
a II 10 40 1 [ 6,950
b r— I 9 35 > 6,725 (*)
i LI 12 40j L 7,100 ]
10 40
Now A where A I = 1 9 35 = -10
1 12 40
[ 60 —0 10
and Adj A=I --. 5 0 --5
I
L--3 2
From (), .
we get
r b
I ^ 60
10 3
—80
0
2
101
ij L
6,950
6,725
7,100
LdJ
1
r
60x6950_80X6725+7100>'0
5x6950— 0x67255X7100
10_ 3x6950+ 2x6725+1Xh100
—50,0001 F 5000 1
- 750 =- 75
10 - 300J _ 30
Hence £2r 5000, b=75 and d-=30
Earnple 31. Show that the equations

2x + 6)' + 11=0
6.v4 20y-6z--30
6y l8z+1=O
are not cflSjS(Cit,
Solution. Ihe above system of equations may hc written as
/2 6 0\/x\ / —11
20 -- 6 11 Y 1=( 3
[6
\0 6 ---18/\ z / \ -- 1

850
IJUSIN13SS MATHEMATICS
AX=B
But A does not exist, since

2 6 0
I A I == 6 20 —6=0
6 —18 0
Hence the equations are inconsistent.
2024. GAl rss EL IMINATION METHOD
This method is also called the pivotal reduction method. Taking

three equation with three unknowns an attempt is made to reduce them
to the following form
x-#-b1y±c1z- d1
Y+C2Z '2
z = d3
The following example makes the point clear.
Example 32. Find the solution of the following equations b y ineani
of an inverse inalrbc (Gauss E/i,njrj, j Method)
x-2y3z- 4
2x-f-y-3z-5
—x + y i 2z3
Solution. Let us have an extended matrix for the L.H.S. of the
three equations and then perfdrm elementary row operations to get the
inverse of Inc matrix on the R.H.S. of it as follows
r i
2
--2
1
3 1
—3 0
0
1
fl
() [since Al=- A]
1 2 0 0 lJ
r i —2 3 1 0 0.1
2 1 —3 0 1
0 —1 5 1 0t1?1-f.R3
0 IJ
r i —2 3 1 0
0 5 01
—9 —2 1 0 I-2R1--i-R2
L 0 —1 5 1 0 1j
11 —2 3 1 0 01
I
-0-R
I D —1 5 I
1 0 j

851
MATRIX ALGE)RA
ii —2 3 1 0 01
0 1 - --- -i-- 0
I I
.6_
5 5 5
We have now got the L.H.S. in the upper triangular form. We can
continue the operations to get it as an identity matrix and R.H.S. as an
inverse matrix of the given matrix.
11 -2 0 1 1 0 01
9 2 1.- o
10 ------ 5 16
3 1
10 0
16 16
7 3 15 I
ri —2 0
9 2 1
0 IR13R
5_ 5• --
3 1
[o 0 1 16
I 7 3 15 1
—2 o
1 5
R2 +- J?3
0 1 16 16
3 1
0 16 j
L0
5 7 3)
0 16 $
ii
91
0 0 R1+2R,
16 16
I 3 1
ID 0 II 16 J

The inverse matrix call in finding a solution of the set of

equations as follows
C 5 7
I 16
X=A'fl=
L 16 16 16 J
x=4, y =3 and Z=2
EXERCISE (VII)
I. If A=(
), X=V1)and i=()
and AX=B, find x1 and x2.
2. Solve simultaneously for matrices X and Y from the equations
/-2 5)
2(X-Y)+(3X+2Y)( —3 6
\ 0 2
/ -4 2\
and 3(X+2Y) -2(2X+3Y)4 ( 5
\ 0 —i /
where 0 denotes the 3 x 2 zero matrix.
3. Solve fciowing system of equations using matrix method.
(a) 2- 3y l5z=l I (45) 3x!-l-x2+x$1
5X+2y-7Zc--12 2xi-i-2x30
— 4x+ 3y + z5 5v1 +x 2 + 2X3 2
(c) x+),--z=7
x +2y 4. 3z = 16
x+3y+4z=22
4. Solve the equations
X+Y+z=a
x + 2y + 2z =ç3
2x-f-3y-18z=y
by evaluating the inverse of the co-efficient matrix on the left
S. Solve the system of equations
X+y+z6
x—y+2z=5
3x+y+Zr=8
2x— 2 y + 3z=7

MATRIX ALGEBRA 853

6. A trucking company owns three types of trucks X, Y, Z which are
equipped to carry three different types of machines per load as shown
below
Trucks
Type X Type Y Type Z
Machine I 2 3 4
Machine II I I 2
Machine UI 3 2 1
How many trucks of each type should he used to carry exactly 29 of
type I machines, 13 of type II machines and 16 of type III machines 7
Assume that each truck is fully loaded ?
7. The prices of three commodities X, Y and Z are as x. y and z
per unit res'cctiveIy. A purchases 4 units of z and sells 3 units of x and 5
units of Y. B purchases 3 units of -v and sells 2 units of v and I unit of z,
C purchases I unit of x and sells 4 units of y and 6 units of z lii the
process, A, B and C earn Rs. 6000, 5000 and 13.000 respectively. Find the
prices per unit of the three commodities.
[Uin i . [he above data can be written in the form of simultaneous
equations as
-3x-- 5y+4z- ._ 6000
—2x-1-3y—z=5000
x-4y-6z= 13,000
and the equations can be written in the matrix form as
[ —3 —5 4 f x j 6000
- 2 3 - 1 II y 5000
I —4 6 JL z J 13000
8. Solve the matrix equation AX—B,
.1=
where 3 —1
ri 2 ---11,
2
rx
X= y = 1 3'ii
B-1
2 —2 3 Lz 2J
[CA., November, 19911
9. A manufacturer produces two tyfes of products X and Y. Each
product is first processed in a machine M 1 and then sent to another machine
M2 for finishing. Each unit of A' requires 20 minutes' time on M1 and 10
minutes' time on M2 whereas each unit of Y requires 10 minutes' time on
and 20 minutes' time in M2 . The total time available on each machine
is 600 minutes. Calculate the number of units of two types of products
produced by constructing a matrix equation of the form AY---B and then
solving it by the matrix inversion method. [CA., IkfaY, 19911
10. Consider the following National Income Model
Y= C+1+G
C=a4-b(Y--7)
T d-- tY

954 BUSINESS ALGEBRA

where Y Natjonal income, G =collsumption expenditure, T=ax collec-
tion, I =income-tax rate.
Write down the above system olequations in matrix form and solve
for the endogenous variables Y, C and? [D U. BA. (lions.) Eco. 1991]
11. Calculate PQ and QP where
r3 I rI/3 1/6
I,
[o 2J [ o 1/2
Also verify that : (PQ)'-Q- 1 , P-1
[A!.C.W.A., June, 19911
12. Sliuw that the matrix
X= [
[1 2 2
= 2 1 2
L2 2 1
ati the equation .k' 2_ 5X_51=0. where I is the unit matrix of order 3.
Hence find X' [i.C.W.A,, June 1990]
ANSWERS
1. xr-17, x2=26
2.
r-20
X= ) —41
58 1
71i f, y=
r 8
1
—12
- 125
L 0 25J LO —3
3. () x -rl, y '2, z=3 (b) x1-r1,
(c) x=1.y==3,z=3.
4 x=.} (7cc-5+y), y= j (33—ci--y), z= I (y —cc—p)
5. x=1, y=2, z=3. 6. 2 in type X, 3 in type Y, 5 in type Z.
7. x=3,000;y=1,000 and z==2,000
S. x1,y=4, z=rzr4 9
ri -i
b-1 —1'
oTY ^ = I+G
C —a
t 0 --1JLT ^ —d
2025. RANK OF A MATRIX
A non-zero matrix is said to have a rank say r if at least one of it
minor (r-square) is different from zero while (r + 1) square minor, if any.
is zero. For example the rank of the following matrix is 2 because with
ri
A = 2
2
3
37
4 its minor
1 2
1 which is -AO
L3 5 7J 2 3
while I A
It shocd be remembered that if I A I A0 the above fl-square
matrix would have been called a non-singular matrix where its rank (r) is
equal to its order i t. But, since I A I above is equal to zero it is a singular
matrix.
MATRIX ALGHBRA 855
Illustrations
1. The rank of the matrix
1 2 31 1 2
A = is 2 since
- 4 0 S J 4 0
and there in no minor of order three.

1 2 31
2. B= I 2 5 Iis
2 4 8j
2 3
Since while I 8 =0,
2 5
ro 2 31
3, C 0 4 6 is I since C =0
LO 6 9J
while each of the nine 2-square minors are equal to zero even when every
element is not zero.
The following elementary transformations on a matrix do not change
either its order or its rank. These are
1. The interchange of ith and ]th rows and ith and jth columns.
2. The multiplication of every clement of the ith row or jth column
by a non-zero scalar.
3. The addition to the elements of the ich row of k, a scalar times
the corresponding elemeets of the jth row. Similarly, for the ith column.
EXERCISE (Viii)
1. What do you understand by the term rank of a matrix 7 Find
out the rank of the following matrix:
r 7 —1 01
AI 1 1 4
L 13 —3 --4
[D. U., B.A. (lions.) Eco., 1991J
2. Find the value of x such that the rank of the following matrix is
less than 3:
r3 5
x
0.1
13 2
L9 —1 8j
[D, U., B.A. (lions.) Eco. 19901

856 HUSSNESS MATHEMATICS
[Hint. For the rank to be less than 3

5 01
2 I==]
O.
I .9 1 8J
3. Define the term 'rank of a matrix'. Is 'rank' defined only for
square matrices ? What is the rank of the identity matrix I ?
[0. U. BA. (Lions.) Econ. 19881
4. Find the rank of the following matrices
(i)
[-1
I
1
1
21
2 (ii)
r' P,
0
1
01
0
--1 1 10] 1 0 I 1
ANSWERS
I. 2, 2 x-I 3. 3 4. (i) 2 (ii) 3

Supplement
BUSINESS MATIULMAIICS
(GUIDELINES LOR
OF a COM. (FIONS.)
Till 105 fliCd
Note : Problems and Theorems involving
not be done.
Concept of limits and continuity. Evaluatioll ot
1 CaLculus
limits, Simple application to Commerce such as I)epreeiati011, etc.
differentiation. Sum aiid
DetiiiitiOfl of d i fferentiation. Theorems Oil
difference of i0 1 1ti00s. Multiplication and Division of tunctions. i\
function raised to power of a function. Function ot a I unction.
lmI)IiCLL function (Derivation of one function with reSJ)eCt to
the formulae not necessary). (jeOilICtrlC
another junction (Derivation 01
and Economic interpretation ol derivatives.
Successive differentiation. Simple standard forms (without
Partial thWerentiation. DelinitiOn of hulerS
LEII3N [Z RULE).
Theorem (1st order). Total differentiation of implicit functions.
Maxima and Minima. Cases of one variable involving second and
higher order derivatives. Cases oh two variables involving one constraint.
Reducible to standard fors. m
Integration. Standard form s.
Method of substitution. Integration by parts. Use of partial fractions-
ill cases.
Definite integration for finding areas
Application of Calculus to Business and Economics
Knowledge of common forms of functions used in Business and
liconoinics and shapes of their curves like demand function, supply
iOU
function, cost function, revenue function, utility function, prod net
function with one or more factors of production (Tracing of curve not to
be done).
Mathematical interpretation of average, marginal and elasticitY
concepts. Derivation of their interrelations by using Calculus . Calc- u
obto niug of
lations of these values and from them (in simple forms)
original functions. Cross and Direct elasticities. Compound interest
and rate of growth.
Problems involving one or two variables of optiium level Of
production under monopoly. Simple cases of duopoly. Equihibfiu1
prices under Perfect Competition. Simple cases of inventory coptrol.
Consumers surplus and Producers surplus.
2. Matrices Definition. Different types of matrices. Algebra. of
Elementary row transfOi111atbol'
matrices. Transpose of a matrix.
including method of finding inverse.
Determinants. Properties of determinants. Calculation of values
and product of determinants tip to third order.
Adjoint of a matrix and method of finding inverse. Solution of
equation with the help of matrices and determinants.
Problems relating to Business and Economics based on solution of
equation and matrix multiplication. Leontief input and output model.

ACE 4
DUS]NLS MATtIEMArICS
tom ax
3. Linear Pr oy mming Gra
phical method. Problems rclating
rn isation and mm imisation involving two variables and in-
equalities of both types greater than and equal to and less than and equal
to. Cuses when no solution exist and multiple solution exist.
Shnpltx Meth od.
Concept of slack variable. Solution of problems
involving not more than three variables
in v olving ineoualitics Maxi
of t y pes less than and equalmisition
to.
problems
Dmility Miirnio Concept of
th problems involving ine qualities of type
greater
an and equal
niaxirnisatior to. Solving of them by reducing to a problem in
4 Probability
lity in irale Concept of probability. Calculation of probabi-
events A cases from definition. Independent and mutually exclusive
tJitiou rule for two or more mutually exclusive events.
of the t lir ii when i \ VO Form
events are not mutually exclusive.
plication ne ro ince peridep C events. Condit Multi-
ional probability
1 -' p tt
rel ating to Business iind Ryes' Theorem Definition and simple problems
and Commerce Situations.
SUGGESTED FURTHER R EADINGS (Fo) . flefrence)

1. 4 lr ,jf,j f Sul/,m, ;
Mathematics for Business and Social
Sciences John Wiley & Sons (Chapter III to XII).
2 R. B. ,tI/e,z Mathenmtici I
Mcmi!I A flal\'sis for Economist
St. Mrtnres Press - Chapter V to XTI. XIV to XV.
3. L. W T S !Ie Ifrd:
ltusincss Nit cm tics --Relevant Chapters.
4. Finite .Lui,frss AppIicwiu,i
i%IQ1IIC,,,(JII CS Wit/i
Kcni1u,y,
Schleifer, Snell a rid I hoinpsou. Prentice Hall of India-- FEE Book
Rekvant Chapter.
5, Line,r Programn ing :

N. Paul Loomba. MacGraw liii] Co.
SECTION A
Applications to Commerce
and IY'OIlOJJIiCS
FUNCTIONS
1. Supply Functions aixtl Deniard Functions. The StippltJ
function in economics is used to specify the UnlOillitS of a particular
commodit y that sellers have available to offer in the market at various
prices. The detnorid Jinc1iOn specifics the aniouuis of a particular
commodity that buyers are willing to purchase at various prices. It is
well known that an increase ill usuidly causes an increase in the
supply, but a decrease in demand ; on the other hand, a decrease Iti
prices brings about a decrcae in supply but an increase in demand.
The I nurkei price is defined as the price at which supply and demand are
equal.
Let x denote the quantity of commodity demanded and [3 its price.
x and p being variables we may write the demand function
x =f( p ) showing dependence of X On p or
p=g(x) showing dependence of p on x
(These are the explicit forms of the implicit demand function,
F(x, p)=OJ.
(o) The variables in the case of demand function, as ill the case
of other functions in economics, are hypothetical quantities and not actual
observable quantities. Changes in the values of parameters cause shifts
in the demand curve.
(b) The arguments given above apply to a supply function if x
stands for the variable supply.
(c) (i) The slope of a demand curve is negative, i.e,, it slopes down-
wards from left to right indicating that demand under normal circuni
stances expands as price is lower.
(ii) The slope of a supply curve is positive, i.e., supply curves
normaliy r i se from left to right.
(d) Examples of demand functions are
i) Qd = 53p, (ii) Qd , (III) Q - . 3p' +P4 65,
(lv) Q-5/p and soon,
Similarly the supply functions are
(1) Q,=3p-3, (ii) Q=2p . b-p, (lii) Q=3p-3, etc.
2. Cost functions. lix is the quantity produced of a certain
good by a firm at total cost C, we write the total cost function C-c(x)
explicitly. We may write this in the implicit form
g(C, X) =0
(a) It may be noted that the Cost (C) of producing so much good,s
can be analysed into two parts (f) fixed cost which is independent of x
BUSINESS MATHIMAl [CS
(with cctaio limits) and (ii) variable cost depending on X. Thus we

may hac cost function of the type
C(x) 200l- ax,
where a is a known coast lot.
(1,) Average cost of production or cost per unit is obtained by
dividing total cost by the quantity produced.

dC: C=/1C.
(C) Cost
curves are obtained froni the knowledge of production
functions Usually the cost curve is rising to the right as the cost of
prnductiofl generally increases with the output (x).
3 Total •veuuP FurcIiOfl. Revenue is the amount of money
derived from the sale of a product and depends upon the price of the
product and the quantity of the product that is actuall y sold. If Q4 is
the demand for the output of a firm at price p, then the total revenue (R)
collected by the firm is
R(x) -pQ j p.—
Thus the price p is also average revenue of the firm.

4 Profit Function. The revenue and Cost function lead to the
profit function of a firm, as the profit is the excess of revenue over the
cost of production. The profit fuiction of the firm is
P() = R(x')—C(x)
1etior FuTtetion. PrO(IUctiOfl of a firm cannot usually
5 p 1 . 9 satisfactorily
be expressed as a function of the single variable such as
capital for the simple reason that production necessarily implies the
of several economic factors such as capital, labour. etc.
coming togethe r
The production function is written as
P.:f(L, K)
are quantities of labour and capital respectively required to
where L K
produce P.
defined as
In FconomiC s the Co.DoUg1aS production function
P=c K z L3 , ctll.
is most generally used.

P-1(y)K O - 25 L0".9
OOK°"
denotes the satis raction obtained
6. Utility Function, If U (x, y)
by an individual when he buys quantities X and y of two commodities
(x. y). the function of two variables x and y is called
X and Y. then U
utility function or utility index of the individual.
U(x, y)= U0 . Since
(a) For a fixed value U= U0 . we get a curve
y) of the commodities X and Y which are on this
cnrnl)ifl t i oflS (,
give the same satisfaction to the individual, he would he in-
C1117 11
different to the particular combination (x, Y) that he buys. The curve is,
therefore, known as indifference curve.
APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS
(b) It may be noted that for different values of U0, we wilt get
different indifference curves.
(c) If U (x, y)--xy, then the indifference curves are hyperbolas
xy U0 , where U0 takes different values for different level of satisfaction
e.g., when
U—(x--3) (y+2)
U U
y------3-----2 and X= L2
7. Ovei-p il Cox;suuiption Function. If C is the total consump-

tion of the Comnmuility dependent on income Y and properity to consume
C the aggregate consumption function is indicated by
C=-a+cY
But since Y=C-1 S
S=rY_(a- cY)
This is the savings function of the community.
EQU I LI BR IUM
Equihbrium price or quantity can he found by equating demand
and supply functions or by calculating excess of demand over supaly as
shon below
Example I. Find equilibrium !rice and quantity, given the functions
Q- 2 -- 002 P
Q,=02+ 007 P
Solution. Take Qd= Q,
2-002 PO2-4 007 P
—002 P-007 Pr-2+0-2
->
Miter. Excess demand=—=Q,— Q
Excess Dernand=(2-002 P ) — (0'2+0'07 F)
=(2-02)—(002 P +007 P)18-009 P
Equating excess demand to zero, we have
P: - - -- =20
009
The equilibrium quantity is found by substituting the value of
quilihrium price in any of the given demand or supply functions.
Q 4 =2—o-02 P
With P20, Qd-2--(002 )< 20)=r2__4=1.6
Example 2. Find equilibrium price by the method of excess demand
given the functions
Q d =5 0 — ; Q,JQf?

BUSINESS MATHI3MATICS
ACO-S
Solution. Excess demand==Qj—Q.

i.e., Qi—Q'(50-- p)—(l0-1-p)
-=S0--- p-10— p =40-18[ p
Equating excess demand to zero, we have
181 p=40
40
E ' -im le 3. Find equilibrium price given
Solution. Let
-?--.= 8p=p2(p--2)
Se
Dividing both sides by p we get
8=p2 - -2P
p2--2p---8=0
p*4p+2p8r0
. p(p-4)+-2 ( p 4)--0 or (p-4)(p+2)O
p==4 or pr-2
Since puce cannot be a negative figure, p =4.
Example 4 Assume that for a closed economy, E_C+I4-G,
where E is total expenditure, C is expenditure on consumption goods, I is
expenditure on investment goods and G is Government spending. For
equilibrium, we must have FY, where Y is total Income received.
For a certain ecofloflly, It is given that C=15-1-0'9 Y, 1=20-1-005 Y,
and G=25.
Find the equilibrium values of Y, C and I. How will these change if
there is no Government spending 7
Solution. Here we are gwen that
E=C±I+G
and for equilibrium E=-- Y
Y-=C+I+G
Substituting the given values of C, I and G in (3), we get
Y=r(I 5--09 Y)+(204 005 Y)---25=60+095 Y
Y(I-095)=60
60
=1200.
Now C=l5+09Yr15+jXI20Ol095
O

ACE-9
APPLICAT IONS ao COM I!RCI ANT) ECONOMICS
(6)
and 120+005Y201 l)() 1200=80.

The required equilibrium values are given by (4), (5)
and (6). f
there is no govern meat speuding then G —0 and the equilibrium equation
takes the form
.(7)
Y=c 1 I
Substituting the given values of C and I in (7), we find
Y (IS +09 Y) (20 005 Y)= 35+0 95 Y
Y(l -- 0'9)--35
: , = 7000 ... (8)

(Y05 5
Now C - 15 4 09 Y 15 1 700=645
1=20 I 005 Y=20+ x 70055. ... ( 10)

and to
The changed values of Y, C and I, if there is no government spend-

ing, are rc pectively given by (8), (9) and (to).
ELASTICITY
Elasticity of the function y=f(x) at the point x is defined as the
rate of "proportional change in .v or f(x) per unit proportional cli.ingc
in x"
Price l:L;ticity of Hupply is the relative change in supply in
response to a relative change in price. If now x stands for supply and
the supply function is written as x --g ( p ) the formula for elasticity of
77 -
supply retains the same form as that of
Ck
p. --i- , where x is supply function.
-
Since the slope of the supply curve is positi v e, 1 1, is also positive.
Price Elasiicty of Demand. The
average price elasticity of
demand is the proportionate change in quantity demanded to propor-
tionate change in price. Precisely if the demand changes from X to
x -f 8 x when the price changes from p to p 4- p then
X/x p 8x
Average price dasticity of demand - --- -
hp/p x .
The poloi ehsticftv of (Jemand. It is the elasticity of demand at a
particular price level say p, by definition it is the limiting value of
average price elasticity
Point elasticity of clemind at price 'p' is
(c'x) x . tJ' r)
1m m -- - =- Inn 1^x- - rip x

P P tp-o P
5JO
In general, the slope of demand curve is negative and hence Ili is
negative.

ACR-1Q
BUSINESS MAT11I3MATxc
p dx Marginalquantity demanded
x dp Average quantity damanded
(Usually we write 77 d in the form I which means that we only
consider the absolute value of )) d irrespective of its sign.)
The crucial value of 77, is I.
When I I >1, demand is elastic.
When I 11 ,i I <I, demand is inelastic
When 1 71, I =1, demand has unit elasticity.
Working rule for finding Ela sticity of demand
If x -=f( p) is the demand function, then
• .
(I) arg :al quantity demanded d
dp
(ii) Average quantity dcmandcd=-
(iii) I I
I llustration 1 . If the demand law is ,find the elasticity

Of demand in terms of x.
'Solution Tie elasticity of demand is defined as
p dx
—X---
x tip
Given: 10 -2
dp 20
-w (-2)(l)-
(x+l)
Substituting the values in (i), we get
10 1 C (x+1)2 ) ( X+1
'ld(x)iXX. —YO—
S
Illustration 2. Find the elasticity of demand for the demand functotn

where x is the demand of a good at a price p.
Ps
Solution. Marginal quantity demanded
dx 81
Average quantity demanded

x 27 1 27
____=7•
APPLICATIONS TO CONWERCE AND ECONOMICS ACE- Il
Hence ' = clasricitv of demand=

- xIp
(-8l/p)
27/pa
Illustration 3. Find '? d when P- 5, if the demand function is
x= 50 + p —pr whore x is the demand for the commodity at price P.
Marginal quantity demanded 'IP ) 1 +2p.
Averace quantity demanded -- ()(5o+p± p2)IP.
Marginal quantity demanded p(I+2P)

Average quantity demanded 150-lp-4-P2
li when p-=5 is given by
5(14-2x5)55 .
-= which i s < 1 shows that the demand is inelastic.
Income elasticity of dema!rtd. It is the elasticity of quantity

demanded in response to change in income. It is defined as
(IX
where x is te quantity demanded and y is the income per head ii the

relevant group of people.
If ti,> 1, the goods are Luxury.
0 the goods are Necessity of life.
and 1,<0, goods are Inferior.
Remark. Elasticities can also be expressed in terms of logarithms.
For example, let demand curve he
x=flp)
d I dx d I
then (log x)— . and (log
Fl dx d
- j—(logX)
d - d(logx)
dp = TPd (Iogp) d(logP)
dp
Example 5. Find the elasticity of demand w,r.t. price for the
following demand functions
(a) p= ya---bD , a anI b being constants.
(b) D=zr4.,
it
(C) D_—pe ; a, b and c are constants.
ACE-12
BUSINESS MATiiEMAfCS
77, I p dD
Solution.
(a)
£' (a—bD) x(-b)=_ 2a—bD)17
(ID 1 - 2(ab_D)l2
••
(Ip - (ilp/a'D) b
•
/a I
(ab -D)t'
x r 2(a—hD)'2
2
L--— b -
=(a-bD)
(b) D_- 8p - 312.
12p512
ldI —12p5'2
12 22 3 3
(c) D=p e'
p'1--J e-) -p e-?(P+)

di (b)
pa • e(P+C) —b
=p-'
x -L e(P+a) (a - bp)J
=
Example 6. Glen the demand function

20
Q=-7 , find the elasticity at point p3.
Solution. Q-1y=2O(P+ 11'

dQ
----20 / 2
dp ' 1 I
APPLICATIONS TO C0MMaRCI AND ECONOMICS ACV- 13
• p(p1) 20 p
I I
20 (p)2
when p =-3 is given by
3 3
=Y75
Example 7. ,l demand function is given by xp' =k, where n and k

e constants Calculate price elasticity of demand.
Solution. Here x=kp-"
dx
nkp
• .IP
Now
x dp
x (_nkp_?1)Hn
Hence the demand curve xp'k has elasticity equal to n at all
level of prices.
Eatnple S. Show that the elasticity of demand at all points on
Me curve xp =- 2 will /e numerically equal to one.
Solution. Here
dx
(I-),
dx
Now I -' . -
x
X(Y2)(
Hence the elasticity of demand at all points on the curve is one.

Example 9. Find the elasticities of detnind and supply at equilibrium
price for demand junction p= / 100 -x, and supply function x--2p--10,
where p is price and x is quantity. [Del/if Univ . B . corn. (lions.), 1992]
Solution, Equilibrium conditions are determined by equating
demand and supply laws.
4(100X !)=x+20x+ 100

X2
+4x-60=0
(X+I0)(x-6)_=0
X=6 or X=—]O
x=-- 10 is not admissible as quantity cannot be negative.
X=6
x+l0 6+10

ACE-14 BUSINESS W!AThEMAT1CS
p dx dx
7d and )1 R
x tip x dp
Calculation of 77 a.
100
(100—X2)-112 (-2x)=----_
dx 2
lO0x
- p dx 8 ( vi?_616
9
Calculation of
x=-2p— 10
• dx
2
• p (Ix 8
- x 2-- 8
-- 3
Marginal Revenue and Elasticity of Demand
We know
Total Revenue= Price x Quantity sold
or R=px
Average tvcnuc (AR) - -

R
dR dp
Marginal revenue (MR ) = d_ =p--x
x cip•
dx
p ( 1—,--_)[SinceVd=---__
P'- •
MRrrp ( 1—±-()
or MR=AR ( I _(!) or AR=MR.

d lid
It follows from this that when
(I) J ' = 1, TR remains constant with a fall in price
77d > 1, TR rises with a fall in price
0 0 I <1, TR faIIs with a fall in price.

APPLICATIONS FO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACE-i5
Example 10. Verify the relations/zip

MR=p ( iL)
for the de mand Junction p =(12_x) 1 1 2 , Ox 12.
Solution. We have p=(12—x)10
dp
=W (12—x)/ (-1)
:{ _c! 1'L!. _2(l2_x)112
The total revenue is
(l2--x)/2
=(12_x)1I2Ii_ _2(l2—x)]
p(i _,;L ) [ From (1) and (2)]
Hence MR=p( i-----'
li d I
Example II. If AR and MR denote the average and marginal
revenue at any output, show that elasticity of (lemand is equal to
ARMR
Verify this law for the linear demand law p=a+bx.
Solution Total revenue : R=px
R dRdp
AR=— =p , whereas MR-- —p-I-
x fix x a-
AR
Now
R P_(P+xd) dx
('p
For p=a+bx,
Rpx_ax+bx
ACE- 16
ftUSlN?SS MATHEMATICS
So R (IR
,1R •-=a - hv and MR= __a+2bx
A (IX
- d (a+hX
I d I =
T dp x 1d,o
dx
(a -l.b I a-l-h (ai-/)x)
x h
,j R
AR—MR
EXERCISE (I)
I. What do you understand by market equilibrium ? State its uses.
Fxpla i n your answer graphically also.
Find the marketequilibrium of prices and quantities if the demand

laws for two commodities are
x5--pi q, y- lO—p+j
and the supply laws ire
x-5-4 . p+q i'=-2p 2q
where p and q represent the price per unit
respect ivclv of Commodities v and y
2. Explain what y
g ou understand by rnnrfet equilibrium Show
raphically Or otherwise that no price other than the equilibrium price
can last longer in the market.
Find the market equilibrium price and quantities if the demand laws
for two commodities are
q--27—x-3y
and supply laws are
Y = -- 6 1-2p—q,
)-= -- 3—p8q
where p and q represent the price per mut of commodities -v and Y
respectively.
3. Find the equilibrium prices and quantities for the two commo-
dity market models
X j i_ 2__p ..fq, X,jr=_2_q
Xi_3-_p_q, X4?__9fp±q
where p is price and q is quantity.
(Hint. At equilibrium, XJX.1 and .v 2 - x,J
4. (ci) Explain (i)
Denitnd function and Supply function. (ii)
Market equilibrium.
(b)
The price p of a certain commodity is partly constant and partly
varies as the reciprocal of the quantity demanded d.
is 5 -f-3p where a and 0 The supply functio n
are constants. The demand and supply

AC2tIl
APPLICATIONS 10 COMMERCIt A ECONOMICS
curves were drawii on the same graph taking the quantity nfl x-axis and
on Y-aXIS. ihe equilibrium point is (4, 6) arid at price 5 units,
the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied are 5 and 3 ii ruts
respectivel y . Determine the demand and supply tunction and find the
price when (0 the quantity demanded is S units and (ii) the qua ii lily
supplied is 10 units.
5. Explain what von understand by Demand and Supply tUilCtiOfl

and Market equilibrium.
The demand law of a commodity is p . ? n \ 1X Jr . If the price is
one unit, the demand is 100 units and if the demand is 16 unitS, the total
reveiiiie is 144 units. 1:iiid the constant ti and ii.
Hp -2 nnils what is the total revenue ?
l equilibrium.
6. F\plain the effect tit' taxation oi
lie &hentand law is 3P- 1 -2.v .27 and supply law is (;P--'-X:-9
(1) If the tax of per ulin IS iiiiposed, find the equilibrinni price
and quantit y and the total government revenue.
(li) It';I snhcrlv of I per unit is granted. find the new price and
cpia iitry rid
i total government expenditure.
7. Ex plain what you understand by demand and supply functions.

State their uses State reasons for the chance in demand and supply of
a eu a nudity.
W !c:i the price of sweets was Rs. 3 per kg. its tIeiid
12 0,ousiiwl ke. and when the price was Rs. 5 per kg. its demand WaS
tIiouiinti kg It' the demand function is P b.. find the vakics of
the constants a and b. \Vliat will he demand when the price is Rs. 7
per k,, . "• Which of thisc three prices of sweets will give more benefit ?
S. The demand curve and the supply curve of a commodity are
given 3p -. p2 and S Sp - I. Find the equilibrium price and
'lie q ia itt ity.
[Hint l:1r eqinhibrium, we have D S
19 3jip 2 .-.5p .. I
p24-Sp--20-0
(pi-10)(p -2)0, i.e.. p-2 and p 1
We reject the value i 10, since price cannot be negative. I ICflCC
equilibrium price is p s: 2 arid substituting it in the demand or supply
curve, we get
D=:S9.J
9. The demand functions of two commodities A and P are
0,4 = 10--pA - 2P B , D p s6 A Pa
and the corresponding supply functions ate
S 4=-3+p.4* p n, S8=-2+ps
where PA and p a denote the prices of A and B respectively. Find
ACE- 18
(I) The equilibrium prices, and
(ii)
The equilibrium quantities exchanged in the market.
(Hint. For equilibrium,we have
and D8=S
10PA - 2p13_ 3+pA+p B and
2PA- 3p 5 — 13==o and
P4+2pa-80
Solving, we get the equilibriu
mprices as
P2 and p,=3
Sub
quantitiesstituting
are givenin by
demand function or supply function, the equilibrium
and
AO. The demand y for a co
mmodity when its price is x, is given
byy
; find the elasticity of demand when the price is 3 units.
11. Defineelasticity of
demand. Interpret 1
12. Define demand elasticity 'i
I nterpret the cases when 1>1, '7 for a given demand law and
=-1 and <I
If AR and MR be
the average and marginal revenue at any Output
show th,t 'i
AR1R at this output. Verify this relation for the
demand law
p. (1--.bx
13.
Define elasticity of a function, hence or otherwise explain in
p articular the elasticity of demand and supply.
If I
is the elasticity of 1(x), then find the elasticities of Xflx)
and
14. The supply of certain goods is given b

is price and a and b are positive co y X
nstants ( p
aQV p-b, when p
elastic i ty of supply e 1 >b), find an expression for
increases . Show that e, decreases as price and supply
arid becomes unity a the price=2b.
15. Express the
following demand laws elasticit ies of demand in terms of q for the
(a) P((j__bq)2
(b)p=-,/771
() P — r---- c
16. Determine the price elasticities of dcmancj for the following
(a) pqe", (h) p= -e-

APPLICATIONS 10 COMM[RCL AND ECONOMICS ACE-i9
1. b
(c) a=- qe (d) qb p, (e)
17. If the demand luoction is p-4-5x', for what value Of X, the

elastiey of demand will he unity 7
[Hint. p4--5x2
Differentiating w,r,t. p, we get

Adx I
1_— lOxX (/J)
Jp l0.
- p dx 4__52
xdp lOx2
Elasticity of demand will be unity if

2
4-5 =1 15 X2 or
IOX2 V15
18. If the demand curve is of the form
p=c2 e
where p is the price and x is the demand, prove that the elasticity of
Hence deduce the elasticity of demand for tlic curve

demand is
10 C
[hint. We have p a
l --ake. dx
dp
pd, ae k'
kx
For the curve p 1OP- 11 , we have
n=IQ, k-
The elasticity of demand foi the curve

i lOe '
is given by
2
I 17 I
19. J)eline elasticity of a function. Hence or otherwise explain

in particular the elasticity of demand and supply, State the uses of
elasticity in Economics.
AcI-2O
BUSINESS MATHEMA CS
If the (1Cm alli! Curve is given by
Pfd)
.-p- e-6(
show that the demand increases as the price decreases, becoming large as
the price approaches the value a/i,.
thilri a//p on the e hsticity of demand, Find the effect of any price greater
20. Compare the elasticities of the demand curves

C!
b
p—c —b and p I
at a price p a, b, c are
and p k th. r-.c 9 Positive x is the quantity demanded,
Toi.l, 'Iverage and Marginal Cost

Total cost (C)
is represented as a function of output x, i.e.,
C=f(x)
Remirlc.
Some books use the notation C=f(Q) where Cis the
cost and Q is the Output.
C
Average cost .=--- or 1(x)
The average cost (AC)

represents the cost per unit of production.
The term marginal cost represents the change in the total cost for
each additional unit of production. .1C
total cot 1UflCtO, i.e., is the first derivative of the
cost ('lfC)=. (IC

dX
Let us flow generalise the total cost function
Total cost (TC)-f(x)+/, (h is fixed cost)
From this total cost function,
as follow other cost functions can he derived
Average cost (AC)i.(.±_±b
Average variable cost (A VC)r-- -fix) )
Average fixed cost b ATC==AVC+AFC

(AFC)-=-_
+1'
Marginal cost dC x
(MC).
Relation bet w
een Average and Marginal Cost Curves
Although cost functions may assume many different shapes under

different circumstaiccs yet usually under natural economic limitations,
we assume average and marginal costs to have U-shapes. The relation
be tweenthem is established as follows

AI'PI.ICAIIONS TO COMMLRCu AND nCONUMLCS ACE-1-21
We know AC the slope is given by
(IC c
(C.' d.-k: I (dC C
(IX 'X) X2 Xdx X
(Mc'/IC)
Case 1. When average cost curve slopes downwards, i.e., when AC

is declining, i ts slope will be negative. In other words,
d C
-- )<o
(51'C— AC) <iO
MC<AC
Thus when AC curve slopes downwards MC curve will lie below
AC curve.
Cise II. When AC curve , reaches a minimum point, its slope be-
comes zero, IL'.,
(1 / C
-- 1=A)
dx \ x /
MC=AC
Thus SIC curve and AC curve intersect at the point of minimum
average cost.
Ce- Ill . When average cost curve rises upwards, its slope is positive.
In other words,
( ;>o Ic>Ac
(IX \ X I
Elitis when AC curve slopes upard, MC . curve will be above AC
Cu rye.
Example 12. The total cost Cfor output x Is given by

2 - 35
x +--
C. ==-
Fin! (i) Cost when output is 4 units,
(ii) Average cost of output of 10 units.
(iii) ,frgitiul cost when output is 3 units.
C— -2 x4 35
Solution. (I)

Acu-22 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
C for 4 units==4- (4)+=2016 units
2 35 145
(ii) C for 10 units: (10)1 2416 Units
145 1 29
=-242 units
is.ic=L(4 x- _)=-_=o67
11 2
units
(MC is constant here
Ex4rflpe 13. The average cost function (AC) for a commodity is
given by
,IC—+5 - 36
-
in terms of the output x. Find the outputs for which AC is increasing and
the outputs for which AC is decreasing, with increasing output.
Also, find the total cost C and the marginal cost (MC) as function
of X.
Solution. Slope of AC=-(x+5+
AC is increasing if 1 -->0, i.e., if x'>36, or x>6

36
and decreasing it I72 <0, i.e., if x<6.
36x2-i-5J-36
Now AC=-x +5+—=
X x
Total cost (C)=x. AC=x 2 + 5x+36
dC
Marginal cost (MC)-=2X+5.
Example 14. The total cost function of firm is given by

C=004 q 3 _09 q 2 10 q+ 10
Find (a) Average cost (AC).
(h) Marginal cost (MC).
(C) Slope of AC.
(d) Slope of MC.
(e) Value of q at which average variable cost is minimum.
Solution. (a) AC=- 1 =004 q 2 -09 q+Io+-
(b) Marginal cost (MC)- 012 q 2 -1i q+10

APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS A03-23
(c) Slope of
q2-09 q+io±!-9.)
_(oo8_O9_-'--)
q ( q2-09
q
_L[(o.12 q2 -18 ± 10)
q
q—O9
- [MC—.AC]
(d) Slope ofq-18
(e) When A VC is minimum, the slope of A VC curve is zero, i.e.,
or f(OO4q?_0.9 q+I0)=0
dq (A VC) =O
008 q -09--=0 or q=1125

Example 15. Let the cost function of a fi rm be given by the
following equation
C=300x_1Ox 2 + x3 , where C stands for cost and xfor output.
Calculate (I) Output, at which marginal cost is minirnum

(ii) Output, at which average cost is minftnu,n
(iii)Output, at which average cost is equal to marginal cost.
[LC,W.A ., June 1991]
Solution. (i) C=300X_10x 2 +_}. x8
MC= dC 300-10 (2x)+ i-. 3x2

300-20x+x'
Differentiating wr.t. x and equating to zero, we have
dx —20+2x=Q

Aci-24 BUSINISS MATflI3MATICS
or x 10 is the CCsiI y condition IOU marginal Cost minimisation.

To get the sufficient condition, we have
I(MC)
it positive quantity which mcaiis that marginal cost is
minimum at X = 10.
C: 300x1OX-4 kx
(ii) Average Cost (AC)== T
300— tO
Now to find output at which avcrae cost is rniriimuiji, we liavc to

di1Tcrn tiale the ,IC and CqIJiI I ig it to zero.
• d(tC)00
2t , -o
dx
or
d2 (4j) d 2 2
A1s j- tO+- j X a positive quantity.
T ( )= -,
Second condition is atso satisi ed. Hence the output at whicb

AC is minimum is given by X: 15.
(iii) Now ACMC

300 i.Ls + 300 -- 20x 4-
1xi
lOx Of x 15
Hence for x 15, average cost is equal to marginal cost.
FxituipA p 16. The loft:l tiriibic cost of a monthly outplut x toils by
a firm producing a variable metal is B.c. 5x on/ the fixed cost
is Rs. 300 per month. Draw the overage cost curve whEn cost includes
(i) iarujble COSt i?ill, (11) all Co.cts. Fijuf the output for ,nirilmum average
cost in each case. [Delhi Univ. BA (lions) Econ. 1991
Solution. We have
TCIotal cost 3_ 3? + 5x + 300
and TVC Tot:i] variable cost x3— 3x? + 5x
(1) JV/icn cost includes variable cost only

TVC I
, VC-- Average variable cost f—3x + 5
APPLICATIONS TO CUMM1OCU AND FCONOMICS AC-25
It is a parabola with vertex at (15, 175) and the axis of the parabola is
= 15. The graph of the curve is shown in the figure below
d(AVC)
(IX
1v3
5__
2
(A VC) I
and
d.( 5-
d(1fV(--)
() 3.
or x:15
Hence average cost is minimum
when the output is IS tons.
(ii) H'/e,, cost Includes all costs
4,-,
n 'C
= Avcragc cost
\\
10 X 2 -3x f- 300
—
=-
x
The graph of the curve is shown in the
adjoining figure
d(AC) 1 300
dx 5
C (12
(AC)
and
dx 5
which gives x=191
If average cost is minimum
when the output is 191 toils.
Con3itions for Profit Mxniizatjon
We know that if y -J x) then for y to be maximum,
0 and
Now assuming that we are given the total cost function along with
the total revenue functionn----both in terms of output, i.e., given functions
are
Total cost function C=f(x)
Total revenue function : R (x)
Total profit:

ACE-26
uUSiNnSS MArFL\n11c3
For P to be maxi!nwn, the c o nditions are

First order CUi(Ii1iO/7
dP /R J( -
'IX (IV /
dR (IC
dx dx
Thus, the profit 1' is maximi'.ed at that quantity x for which marginal
revenue equals marginal cost.
It may be noted that AIR MC means that slope of
total revenue I'll net ion slope of total Cost function.
.''ooj order condron
jp diR d(
dx 2 (4x 2 dx <0
il 2 R dC
(.1V 2 dx2
(I (dR\ (I (dC
(Ix \dx / (IX "(IX
ZIP ± (AIR)< -L(MC)
(IC dx
Thus rate of change of AIR (slope of MR) should he less han the
rate of change of MC (I.e., slope of MC) at the profit maximising output
level.
We shall now discuss the problem of maximization of the Profits of
a firm under wirious market conditions
((') Perfect competition. Under perfect conipetitiot i , the Price
P is constant. The profit maximiration conditions obtained above, riz.,
AIR = MC, which is the condition for equilibrii.im of a firm and
d(AIR)
( i . e ., the rate of change of MR) should he less than C)
dx
dx
(le., the rate of change of MC) at the equilibrium output.
(b) Monopoly. Under monopoly, the n)onopoljst fixes the output
leaving price to be determined by demand conditions.
The profit maximization conditions, obtained above, apply to this
case also.
Example 17. Find the profit maximising Output given the fOIIOn'ing
revenue and cost functions
R(Q)=1000 Q-2Q2
C(Q) Q3-59Q2+1315Q-h-2000.
fDeThI Univ B.A. (lions.) Econ, 1991)
A pp ucArloN; TO COMMURC8 AND E(:oNoMcs ACL27
e I ul 1011. We have
P= Profit= R(Q)_ C(Q)
-(IOOOQ-2Q 2 )--(Q 3 -59Q 2 + I 351Qf2000)
---Q+57Q---315O--2OOO
First order CO,d it run
(//)
--3Q3fH4Q3i5
—3QH Il4Q-315=O

or Q 2 --38Q+ 1O4)

or (Q-3)(Q- 35)=O
Q=3 or Q-35
S'cuntl order condition
(12P
(/Q2<
(1 P
- —6Q+114
P
dQ2 Q=3 18+1 14=96>0
CJQ2 =-21() II4--96<0

Q-5
knce the profit ma irnising output is given by Q=35.
Example A radio manufacturer produces s ets per week at a
total cost of R.F. (x 2 -- 78x+2500). lie is a monopolist and the demand
function for his product is when the price Is Rs. p per set.
Show that maximum ri_I revenue (i.e., profit) is obtained when 29 sets are
produced per week. ?Vlrat is the monopoly price ?
Solution. Total cost (C)=x 2 +78X+ 2500
(IC
Mar g inal (MC)-rd_ =-2x+78
600-p
Demand function is x
Sx-600—p
p=600-.8x
Ac g -28 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Now total revenue for x sets is

R=p x x==(600-8x) x=600x-8x
Marginal revenue (MR).r_ : f (600x_8.vt)=600'_l6x ...()
Net revenue will be maximum at the level of output, where

MR=MC.
2x+78=600-- 16x
l8x522
522
X
18
Flucc in order to maximise his profit, the manufacturer should
manufacture 29 sets per week. Also the monopoly price is given by
p = 600--Sx 600-8 x 29Rs. 368.
Alker. We know Net revenue=Total revenue—Total cost
or V- px-- C=x (600-8x)—(x-j78x±2500)
dP
For maxima and minima ; =0 * 600--16x-2x---78=0
(IX
or x=29
Renark. Also examine whether second order condition is satis-
fied ftL output level.]
Exaiple 19. The total revenue function of a firm is given a
=2Jq _qz and its total cost function as q3_3q2_7q16, where
q Is the o ' ttpu. Find

(1) the output at which the total revenue is maximu,n, and
(U) the output at which the total cost is ,nlni,num
Solution. (1) R-2I q—q2
Differentiating w.r.t. q and equating to zero, we have
dR
-2l —2q=O
dq
or q - - 10-5 is the necessary condition for revenue maxi-

2
m is at ion
To get the sufficient condition, we have
—2, a negative quantity, which means the revenue is
maximum atp=l05.
APPLIC,VI IONS TO UOMM}RCFt AND ECONOMICS ACIt-29
(i/) C - q33q2 7q- 16
.Ddlercntiating w.r.t. 'j and equating to zero, we have

- dc --- 3q 2 ---32q - 7 - 0
(l(/ 3
q---6q--7=0
(q-7) (q-1-1)---o
q --7 or q --- -- I is the necessary condition for cost
maximisation or minimisation. j --1 is not admissible as output cannot
be negative.
To get the sit fficic ii t condition, we have
/- c:-
2q--6
(Iq.-
/2C
1
2 x 7-6 -2, a positive quantity which means that
[ j
cost is minimum at q==7.
EN—ample 20. The unit (J('otonJ function is x - (25-2p), where x
is the nnnrbc'r of wilts and p is the price. Let the average cost per wilt he
R. 40 . 1/ni
(a) the revenue Ji.'nction U in terms of price p.
(h) the cost function C,
(c) the prot Junction F,
(d) the price per unit that maxw:fzL'.c the profit function, and
(e) the tna.vi,nu,n proit.
Solution. (a) .R(.v) --- vp= j (25--2p) p--- (25p— 2p2).
(h) Q. 40x-40 (25-2p)= (25 —2p)
(c) P(x)= R(x)_.C(x)
-- (25p--2p)-- (25-2p)
25p 2p 2 1000 80p

3 - 3+3
= j [-2p+105p-1000]
(d) The derivative of l'(x) is
(-4p+ 105)

ACi- 30 BUSINESS MAJ1-EMATICS
Solving the equation P(.)- 0 we find that
p 2625
Using second derivative test, we have

P'(x)= ---- <0
Maximum prolit is found when j) -2625
(e) Maxinuini profit is
)2
2 105 - )_-I000.]=l2604
-4-
Example 21. The deminid function faced by a firm is p -500-0-2x
and its cost function is C 25 .k 1. 10 , 000 (p price, x - output and C.-=cost).
Find the ouijflit at Winch (lic profits of the firm are maximum. A iso find
the price it will charge.
Solution, Revenue, R(x)=p.x- x(500 --02x)--500x-- -02X2
Profit.- Revenue - Cost
P(X)r=R()_ C(x)=- 500x--02X2 ---- (25X+ 10,000)
r=475 v- 10,00-02x2
For maximum or minimum
/J)
—=-475-02x 2x475-.04x:0
dx
= 118750.
d P
Also
fx2
Hence the profit is maximum when the output (x)= 1 18750. At

this level, the price is given by
p='500-02x
=500-02 (118750)=26250.
Example 22. ABC Co. Ltd. is planning to market a new model of
shaving razor. Rather than set the selling price of the razor based only
on production cost estimates, management polls the retailers of the razors
to see how mao razors they would buy for various prices. From this
Survey it is determined that the unit detnwui function ((lie relationship
between the a/no ii,!! x each retailer would by and the price p he is willing
to pay) is
-1500 p+30,000
The--fixed costs to the compan y for product ion of the razors are found
to be Rs. 28,000 ann' the cost for material and labour to produce each razor
is estimated to be Rs. 8-00 per itriii J-"ji0t price should the company
charge retailers in order to obtain a tnaxfnum profit ?
APPLICATIONS to COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS Au-31
U mt on. Let x denote the number Of units produced, and C'
'' note tIiC cost (-)F proiliictiOii to the compsny, and let p denote
price per Unit (iii rupees).
Then tilecost C is given by CRs. 8x1-Rs. 28,000
and the unit demand is -v 1500
- p f- 30,00)
Substituting, we find thi:tt the cost function C(x) in terms of the

Price P per unit is
C(x) 8 (-1500 p 1-30,000) 1-28,000
C() - 12,000p -i-- 2,68,000.
The Iflolley derived from the sales of the shaving razors as t
function of the price p per unit is the product of the LflrlibCr sold by
the price per unit, i . e., tine revenue function R() is
R (- s ) --(---1 Sot) p 1-30,000) 1)

1500 p -1- 30,000 p.
1h ,, profit P to the company is merely the difference between
revenilte (money derived from sales) and total cost, i.e., tine profit
function is
P(x) .R(x)—C(X)
- 1500p-( 30,000 p) —( 12,000 p +2,68,000)
— 1 500 p' + 42,000 p— 2,68,000.
The derivative of P(x) is
-3000 p+42000,
Solving the equation, l''() =0, we find that
v- 14.

l''L)= --30(R) <0
Maximum profit is found when p = 14.
The profit for this price is
— 1,500 (14 )1 + 4 2, 000 x 14 2,68,000
Rs. 26,000.
The number of units sold at this price p is
x=-(-1500)(14)-1-30,000 = 9,000.
Example 23. .4 company making a single product has manufactu r -
ingrind distribution divisions . Stock of finished goods are not he/of, all
production being to order.
The average net revenue per u'ii, allowing für quantity discounts,
is Rs, (/00 - 0-01 Qi where Q is the qucmxicy sold.

ACE-32 BUSINESS MATHPMATICS

The average variable costs per unit for the IWO divisions are
Manufacturing == Rs. 10 - 1-Rs. 0015 (2
Dis%rjbuj ion Rs. 2-1-Rs, 0001 Q.
i lie Jixed costs per annum are
Moitufacturing - Rs. 40,000
Distribution Rs. 20,000
You are required to calculate
(o the oplinit on annual production quantify to maxrvnise the profit
of the company
(b) the profit of the company at the level of activity in (a) above
() r e animal product ion quantify to maximise the manufacturing
dii Ision's profit if it has been instructed to transfer the product to the
distribution (lii isbn (it R.Y. 73 per unit.
d) the profit of the company, showing the results of the two divisions,
at the level of UC(jvjlV in (c) above.
'ut1(,n. (o) Profit Revenue Varjahje costs j:J costs
P:()(l()0__UO! Q)--Q10-f 0015 Q)-Q(2-{ 0001 (2)
(40,000 t-20,000)
P. .8 (2 -0'026 Q'--60,000.
I 'r maxIn1cat!on, we havr
-0052 Q 0 (2 - 1692 units.
- --
Also 0 052<0.
Profit max irnisation out put is whcn (2 :1692 units.

(b) When (2-- . 1692,
Profit-88 (1692)-0026 (1692) 2 60,000- Rs. 14,46154
(e) If the manufacturing division arc to transfer out at Rs. 73 per
Unit, we can express their profit as
Profit 73 x (Production quantity) -Manufacturing variable costs
- Manufacturing fixed costs
Prr73 Q—Q (10 1 0015 Q)-4,000
P=63 Q-0 ' 0 15 Q!_ 40,000,
For maxiruisation,
dP
003 C) O * Q = 2100 units.
Also —003<0,

APPLICATIONS Ti) COMthRCI3 AND ECONOMICS AcE-33
(d) (2oinpaiiy Profit (Part a)-88 Q--()'026 (22 --60,000.

if Q-2,100 ; Profit=- 88 (2, 100)— (Y026 (2,100)2
—60,000 Rs. 10,140.
Manufacturing Profit (part (7) -63 () 0'015 Q1-40,000
if (2 2100, Profit 63 (2,100) - 00! 5 (2,1 00) 2 _ 40,000
=Rs. 26,150.
Distribution profit - - Revenue —Ti ansfer cost arid Department Cost
.Q (100 00! (2) -1 7 3 (21 (2(230001 Q)-3-20,000
100 (2 001 (j — 73 (2-2 (2- o . 00l Q— 20,000
()011 Q2 Ll. 5 (2 20,000
if Q- 2,100 ; Profit --001! (2, 100)' 25 (2, 100)--20,000
-----Rs. 16,010.
This shows that there is a loss of Rs. 16,010 from the tiistrihution
unit.
Example
pIe 24. It is given that a cletna,rcl curve is ccmvc'x from below
(_-
> o) at all patius. Show that the marginal revenue curve is also
convex from be/ow either if- - is posi11 re or if __ is negative and is

dx clx
nutnerrcally less tlra,i If the ,/ema,r/ curve is' alwa y s concave
from below, does a similar property hold of marginal revenue curve ?

(Delhi Univ . /1 A. (/fomis) Economics 1991J
Solution. Let the demand curve be
p--J(x)
4
i
veand
412p
--------lye..
dx dx .c
Then, we have TR=_p . x
d(TR) - MR - p . 1 +x .
c/(i'1R) Jp dp dp
dx - +-
dp d2p
2. 1+x '
d 2 (%1 R) cl2p c12j:i -x
an
d2p dp
=3 +x

Ace- 34
BUSINESS MAT1 IF MAli CS
For AIR to be Convex from below
(f J) d1p
3.iX.-----'->()
(fyi
dx-
d1p
B
Rut _0 (given).
So for MR to be convex from below either

(1/)
or if
l3p
S negative then it should he numerically less
3 dip il2(MR)
than - so ihat --------t),
>
A ax'- dx-
1-or .ic l'niand cm ye will be negative, so for MR to be
dp d p L
Concave Iron-i below we should have either --- n egative or it

positive then it is numeric-ally less thn

3 (11P
a - -
Extimplc 25. The production Junction oJ a com;noduy is given by
Q =40E-312__
where Q is the total output and F is the wilts of input,

(1) Find the number of units of input required to give fliaxitnu,n Output.
(ii) Find th mi:i 'nlI,n value of marginal product.
(iii) Verify that when the average product is niuxinjurn it is equal to
marginal product
SoIut j 0xj, (I)

- 401 6P - 40+ 6F
(First order Condition)

40+ 6F_F2=()
(F+1O)(F--4)=0
or F-4
F=-10 is not admissible as input cannot be negati\e.
6— 2 F (Second Or(li'r condition)
[ iF=4 62 (4)=-2<o.
Hence output is maximum when 4 units of input are used.

APPLICATIONS TO COM%1IR( P AND tCUNO?IICS
(ii) 1P.- 40 OF f?
d(MP)
For maximum or Ilunimum -. --- 0 21 )
1' 3.
(1 , !')'1 I')
A'so -2<0.
Hence maximum value of marginal product is when input is 3 units.

Value of marginal product-=40 4- 6 x 3 3 2 -=49 units.
(iii) Average product (A)')
40/' 31 it
- - 401 3F
d(JP) 21
dF33
d(AP) 2
Also IE - -
<0.
Average product is maximum when F--fl
. 9
Average product ( hcn I' -- 45
-40 1 3(-)
Marginal product ( when Al' is maximum, i . e., F 4'5
40+27-- -- 4675.
Example 26. The quantity cold q and the price p are related by
q = ae - b P
m are
The production cost is given by C(q) —1 -mq ; a, b, I and
positive constants. Find the optimal price which ,na-dUJISCS the profit ?
Solution. Profit P= Revenue--Cost pq —(1 -inq)
pae —( i -f- inae) =-ae (p--- in) —I ..

Differentiating () wi .1. p., we get

dP
c/p _a/) e- (P--in)-1 Ue-'•
:OCbp (—hp+b,n I) (*)

() gives ae (-bp-bni 1)=O.
For any finite value of p , e_tP:1—O.

hp -4 bin + I ft
• I4-bin I
/3
Dilit r ( ) with respect to p, we get
e (p--in)—abe- 1 -abe
:ah C_bP
When p -- in,
a/re b (-
+111 )[
h( k - ' _) 2
=013 c--1' ( - I)
== —ab e-n -mi<O , since a, b> 0.
m maximises the profit P.

P ae- 1 (p - rn)--1
p=ae_b
e'm) l•
Example 27. A monopolist firm has 1/Jr following total cost and
demand functions
C=ax 2 +bx+c, p=(3—x.
J'/rat Is the profit maximising level of output when
(i) The Jirin is assume/ to fix the output
(ii) The firm is assumed to fix the price ?
S o lution, When flrn,fixes the output level:
Revenue (R)-=px x (p—ax) - x— x2

APPLICATIONS TO COMMElCU AND ICONOMICS
(14
MR -
Total Cost (C) =ax I -1 hx+c
MC - = 2ax -F b
1x
Now condition for profit maximising output level is
MR- Mc
i.e., 13-2zx=20x lb
[3—hrr2cix+2aX . -2X (a j a)
-b
x
2 (a - )
which iS the profit maximiSing level of OLltpUt.
(ii) When firm fixes the price : ti this case the total revenue and
cost are put in terms of price p.
Now p -f3—x -> x- p

a
R:.=p=p(±T)
( JR I
MR ( p. - - 2p) (*)
Also C=dX'i-bx+c
h
fp L c a
For profit maximisation A'fRr - MC
---(3-2p)-
2p 2a-
- -- — -H-
2ap 1
a ± --i- ---- -
ci. a
c3 4 2a -F ab 2pz ± 2ap 2p(a -F a)

a2
a-4-2a-f-ab
2(a)
ACE-38
1flJSNriss MATHEMATICS
Nov the de mt n d function is
p.
3 -4 2ci3 - - =
2 ( ( i)
a13. 2a3 1h 22aç3–$_b

2 (c-3- o ) 2 (cc +a)
±±_.
2 (x+(z) 2 (-i-f-cc)
which 9"s the scii level of output wh(u the firm assumed to fix the
output it-vel.
Exit mpl 29. -I 1Wiiop/ist 111lS (;)tUI Cost ficnctio,z C ax 2 -j.
and if 1JC11?cIlil 1OIY is p bx-f-c
•c.V, s/;occ' f/lit (/' tcutput for maximum revenue
is
Solut inrc - Total x ---

Net reenue Total revenue --Total cost
R ( -cc)---(cix2-f-h -f-c)
For 1 1 i:cxilnutn or rnnumurn
JR
- — 3cx-2ax---o—Q
lx
or x2-f-2ax—(3—b)=()
—2 cz f-' / 4a'-j . 4x 3x (13---b)

or
(kr.
- —a+\(277, (s—h)
3(
-/a2---3 (13-- b)—a
• •
3c
-a—
or ---- this value of x is
3
not admissible as output cannot he negative.
Also
243_(13---b)—a
When x=— ----, we have
ff ---2 (Va2+3 (13—b)—a)--20

APPLICATIO N S U) COMMhRCt ANt) 1C)NOMICS ACI1- 39
—2 s/a) 3 1) .
I fence the net ICVCT1UC is IflaXlIllIJfll svltcn the output IS given by
(- /)_/
x-
3x
in pie 29. file Wilt! CO1 /wict ion of a/ni/I iv
5x- 2$x 1(1
where C is 10(111 Cost Inn! .e is vulpat -i f(1 of f/Ic rate of Rs. 2 per li/lit
a! alit/mt is im/)OStfl/ and the .' roiliic€'r I/dill it tO Iii: co t . 1J the mirk Ct
ilen1vj /iiIlC(1o,l is
p -25!Q---5x,
where Rs, p is the price i.,nir eti oiir .f0w .fT/nd i / ic prftfit (naximtsunj ,(Ut-
['l/t and price.
I ( 4 I/li,rnIt'/wtc iI(J V 1990]
Solution. Foul revenue function, I R - - (23() - 5x) .v
After inipo5itlon ot 1 LX of Rs, 2 per flint,
Total cost In flcliOtl, 7C'r -- 5X 2 1- 2i.v -- I) -- 2
Now Profit, 1'- TR -- TC

..-
(2530xS--(S— 5x 30x f- 10)
For maxinhisation, WC hurl
('P
- (2530 l O x) —( x2 lOx 30):()
(1.V
=
X: -0
Out s -. ----50 is not :ulmi;sib!e as olilput can not be negative.
d2P
and
(IX
Profit maximising output is SC) 12nit.
Price WI/Cl) XS0 is p-=2530-5 x 50Y22SQ.
En)le 30. Suppose the demand (1,1(1 total cost functions of a
monopolist are p 20 -4.y (2/UI Tc= 4x -t-- 2 rL'spectil'h ishere p is price and
.\ is ql/(J?liiU. If the government i/?i[0 (Is tax at the rate of 20' of sales
i1€'tcrinnC (III 1(11(71 tax rClefl!ii' 117111 the ljovern,ncut ivill Ire able 11) collect.
I D('l/il (Jflj/ B. Co,,r ( 110/75 ), 1992]
SlJtlr1t1. WC ale givL'l that
p-20-4x and ['C-4x±2
Total Revcnuc== TR=rpX=2O -- 4x1

ACE-40 BUSINnSS MATHEMATICS
Tax-20 of TI? -- (20x-4x2)
Total new cost TC+Tax4x+2+ - (20x-4x2)
2+ x 12
Now, profit P Total Revenue ---Total new cost
:(20X j2) X28x+2)

(
v2fl22
dP 32 (I'P 32
--xf-l2 and
3x 5
dl' 32 12x5 15
=0 gives ---- x-l-12r=0 or "
v
will give maximum profit.
Also, x will yield the maximum tax
Tax when . !. given by
-[ 30x
15
6
Hence tiie government will he able to collect as tax revenue.
Example 31. Given the demand and cost functions

P=20-4x
C— 4x
(a) Find the optlrnuni quantity, price and the profit on this level.
(h) What will he the new equilibrium after a tax of Es. 050 is
Imposed'.'
(c) Determine the tax rate that will maxfrnfse tax revenue and deter-
mine that tax revenue
(d) Find the total tax revenue if in addition 10% sales lay is
a Iso impose/.
APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACE-41
Solution. (a) TR: 20X —4x, MR =2() —8 v

C--4, MC-=4
For optimum level, MR = MC
20-8-'C-=4, I.e., xrr2
p-12
(b) After Tax, C4x+05X
MC=45
At the optimum level MCMR
20-8x=45, i.e., when x-31/16==194
p=1225
(c) Tax revenue is maximum where
MR=MC (after tax 1)
20-8x=4+t x=(16—t)/8
New price after tax is
P-20-4( 2-- I2+-)
Thus, the increase in price is half of the tax imposed and profit
after tax is
Profit (P).- 2R—TC
=(20_4x2)_(4x+1x)=x(16_4x__1)
Substituting x= 1-—, we obtain
16—t i (16_t)2
Maximum profit=
r
161_12
Tax revenue
dl'
I will be maximum where - =-O and ------<0
a! (i!
16-2!
I-
!16-8
/\
Maximum tax-=1x=8 —)=8
(ci) With sales tax of 10% the net TR is

TR. 0Y90 (20--4x) x
MR=090 (20-8x)
At optimum level, MR=- MC
090 (20-8)=4 x-140/72--1'94-
ACE-42
BUSINESS MAT1II MATICS
Example 32. XYZ Company , as a result of past experience and
estimates for the future ,
has decided that the cost of product (on of thei
sold profuct F, an advanced process mac/tine , is
C - 7 :1064+5x+0-04 x,
where C=tota/ in cost '000 Rs.
Xr== quantity produced (and sold)
The marketing department has estimated that the price of the
product is related to the quail! ity produced and sold by iFe Pqua(1on
I'•-I57--3x,
where P== Price per unit in '000 Rs.
x=quan(ity so/cl
The government has proposed a tax of Rs 1,000 per unit on product
P hut it is not expected that this will have any effect on the
costs in-
curred in making F or on the demand price relations/tip Find
(a) the price and quantity that will nirlximise profit when there was
no tax
(b) the price and quantity that will 'naxi,nise profit if the proposed
tax is introduced
(c) how much of the tax t per unit is passed on to the customer
(d) the effect on the profit of the company if t was fixed at Rs. 4,000
per unit,
Solution. (a) Profit (Y)Rcvc 1 ue (R)—Cost (C)
Revenue (R)=Price ( P )xQuantity (x)
r(I573x) XlS7x-3x2
Cost P = 1064 4- 5x 1- 0'04 X2
Y=- I 57x-3x'-_-(1064+5x+o.04xt)
—304x2+J52x--1064
Differentiating Y W.r.f. x, we have
dy
dx 152— 6'08x= 0
X ---25 units
d2 }'
xi = -608-<o
Profit is maximum when 25 units are produced.

Now =157-3x25 in '000 Rs.
=rRs. 82,000 per unit
and Y= 152 x 25— 304x (25)2__ 1064
Rs. 836 in '000 Rs.
==Rs. 8,36,000.

ACE-43

APPLICAT I O NS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS
(b) When a tax t) is jntoducd,

Y= R - C becomes
Y=(157 -- 3x)X - (1064+5x+004x2±t)
= I52x_304X 2 -1064 —t -
rentiatfl9 Y with respect to x and setting to zero, we have
dy =152 —608X---1=0
dx
152-1
dzy 152—'
when
dx
For imiximum profit,
Quantity (x) = 25- 6-. 0-
8 units
Substituting for x in the price equation, we have
F= t57-3 ( 25— )=82+
or
(c) The amount of tax passed on to the customer is
approximatelY 4934"o.
t4.
(d) When the tax per unit is Rs. 4,000, then
or 24 in whole units.
Now Y=152x-3 04x2_1064tX

=(152X 24)_304X(24)2_1064_4X24
=73696 in '000 Rs.
=Rs 736,960
8,36,000
The profit without tax in (a) above==R3.
Profit with tax of Rs. 4,000 =Rs. 7,36,960
Difference to profit = Rs. 99.040.
33. A monopolist's TC=aX+bX+C
total cost andis the
Example Is p - , where x and p denote the units of owput and
demand functio n and are positie constants. If the govern-
011(1 a. b, C.
price
mentres'peCtivelY
imposes tax at the rate oft per unit of output, show that time total tax
[Delhi Univ. B.Com . (Hans.). 1991
Is mna.ximU'fl when i=(—b)Q.
t per unit, the total cost
Solution. After the imposition of tax,
function, TC, is given by
TC__ax2+bx+C+x
Revenue function= R =px( — x) xX—ctX

ACI3-44
Profit function P_(p _c(x $ ) . ( QX 2 fb V + c 1-tx)
For P to be maximum,
First order condition
dP
- =0, i.e., (3-. 2ax)—(2ax-1-b+t)O
dx
Second order condition

d2 J)
—i <0
dIP
—2- 2a= —2 (a + a)<O as a and a are positive constants.
Therefore, the level of output that maximises the profit is
2(c - a)
The total tax revenue for this level of output is
T=t1JPL't
2(a + a)
For T to be maximum,
First order conditloti
dT I.e., 13--b-2t
dx ' 2(°
or f=--- (f3-.b)
Second order condition;
d2T
ax <0
____2_
d2 7' I
d-' (+a) <0 as a and a are positive constants.
Hence the tax rate 1 that maximises the total tax revenue is
Example 34. There are Iwo duopolists manufacturing equal and

identical bicycles. The total Cost of an output of x bicycles
Xt
per month is
Rs. - 3.100 ) In each case When the price Is Rs. p per bicycle the
(
market demand is x- 75 -- 3p bicycle per month. Find the total equilibrium
Output per month.
Solution. Let x1 and x, denote the output per week
of the two
duopolists. Then x=x 1 -f-x,, is the total output.

APPLICATIONS ro COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS AC-45
Demand function
X (x-4-x)
— 25•-- -25-------- a—
- 3__ 3
Net revenue for the first firm
+
Tfj^ - R1 - - C1 25.Y1 —
28.x 1 2 x1x,,
(X 1 X0.11 — [^!-2
3 25
+ 3 v, 4- 100
j
75 3
For maximum net revenue,
x dxx2
75i
d.r1 3 • dx1 3
But the conjectural variation 0
(1)
75 3
Similarly, we can show, by considering the net revenue for the
second firm, that for maxirnu tn net revenue, with conjectural variation zero.
The equilibrium output of the two firms in duopoly are the simul-
taneous solutions of (1) and (2). They are
X 1,- 51150
511
f-
511-
i.e., X1=x2-20'37, approx.
Total output per week is 2(2037)--41 (approx.)
EXERCISE (II)
1. A man producing very fine earthenware lampstands found that
he could sell on an average of 4 stands per day at a price of Rs. 18 each.
When he increased his output to an average of 4'5 per day he could only
obtain Rs. 175 each, if he were to sell all his output.
Assume that he maintains no inventories, so that he sells all he
produces, and that the appropriate demand function is linear and is of
the form
x==a-4-hp
where a and i are Constants, x is the average number sold per da y and
p is the price. An accurate survey into his total daily production costs
produced the relationship
C_ x 2 — x+54
ACF.-46 I3USINESS MATHEMATICS
between the total production cost, C, and the average daily production x.
Required : (a) Determine the demand function giving the average
number sold per day, x, in terms of the price, P.
(b) Find an expression for the gross profit per day in terms of the
average number of stands produced and sold.
(c) Find the profit when 6 stands are produced and sold.
(d) What is the average number that must be produced and sold
for maximum profit?
[Hint. (a) Demand function :
When price p=Rs. 18, demand 4 per day on average
4:a+l8b (*)
When p=Rs. 175, dcmnand=45 per day on average
(*$)
45-=a+175b
Solving (1 and ($*), we get
a=22, b=-1
The demand function is x=22—p.
(b) Profit P= x(22—x)—( x 2 — x+54)
=-,3 x-1-22 x---54
(c) Gross profit when 6 stands are produced and sold is
=—X(6) 2 +22 x6-54=Rs. 27
(d) To maximise gross profit
dP j2p
—=0 and -j <0
dx dx
i.e., if x=7j then the maximum gross profit would be
-3 (7) 2 +22x 7— 54=Rs 3038 per day.]
2. Let the unit demand function be
x = ap -I-b
and the cost function be
c- ex--f
where x - sales (in units)
p = price (in rupees)
f= fixed cost (in rupees)
e=variable cost
b=demand when p=0
a=slope of unit demand function
(a) Find the cost C as a function of P.

(1') Find the revenue function R(x).
(c) Find the profit function P(A).
3. (a) A man derives Rs. x from his business this year and
Rs. y next year. By alternative use of his resources he can very x and y
according to the following relationship,
X
y --l000--
What is the income this year if he plans for zero income next
12
year ?'' and - Y
Derive What is the shape of the businessman's
transformation Curve '?
(b) A sugar mill has total cost function given by
j2 }-5x+200)
where x tons of sugar are produced per week. LI the market price is
Rs. p per ton, what is the supply function of the firm ? What is the
average fixed cost ?
4. (a) A business produces an income of Rs. .v this year and
Rs. p next year, where these values can be varied according to the
{( dy
•y ) -
XZ ^
relation y— 100— Explain how i can be interpreted
250
as the marginal rate of return over cost. Show that the value of his
x— 125
marginal rate is when this year's income is Rs. X.
125
dip
(b) It is given that a demand curve is convex from below >0 )
at all points. Show that the marginal revenue curve is also convex from
/2,
below either if %--. is positive or if - is negative and numerically
3 d2
less than - . —i--. If the demand curve is always concave from below,
X(IX
does a similar property hold of the marginal revenue curve 7
S. Show that the demand curves
'° c and p=(a—bx)2

a
are each downward sloping and convex from below. Do the same
properties hold for the MR curves ? Show further that, for each of
ACE-48
thc demand laws p=- va— bx and the demand and MR
curves
a, are downward sloping and concave from below. Assume that
b, c are positive.
(Hint A curve y.=-fix)

is downward sloping if < 0 ; and
convex Ironi below (or concave from below) if
'Iy (Iy
>0 (or -j— <0
6. (a) For a unit (fen)and function of
)J
p 24 -- 8x, where x is the
number
function of units in thousari(ls and p is the price in rupees, find the sales
If the average cost per unit is Rs. 8, find
(a) The profit function.
(b) The number of mi l ts that max mule the profit function.
(C)
Graph t lie cost and revenue functions.
[Flint P(x)R C(x)(24 8)x-- 8xJ
(b) If the to al cost function of a firm is
5x 2 1 30x+ W.
where C
is the total cost and x is the output, and price under perfect
Competition is given as 6. find for what value of x the profit will be
maximised. Exaudne hod first and Second ordei COfldjtjOflS.
. If the demnaiid function for a commodity is given by p 1 2e1'
"' here p is the price per unit and q is the number of units demanded.
D eter-ine the price and the quantity for hich the revenue is maximum.
int. Revenue function is given by
R-pq . l2qe1'
For R to be maxit-nurn
dR (/21?
-= 0 and <0.
dq
dR
12[qe (cili(_]14) e / I )1 l2e°/" (v)]
S. State the conditions for a m aximumprofit. Find the profit
maximising out-put level if p200— lOx and
AC=i0-f. .
. Suppose the W ill cost function is given by Ca-

bx4- cx 2 ,
wricre .r is the quant i ty of output produced. Show that the slope of the
average cost curve is 01C—AC), where MC= Marginal cost and
AC=Average cost.
•P PI.ICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACI3-49
10. A firm produces an output of x tons of a certain product at a

total Variable Cost given by -- 4X 2 4--- lx, Find the output at
which he average cost is the least and the corresponding value of
the average cost.
11. A company notices that higher 531es of a particular item which it
produces are achieved by lowering the
price charged As a result
the total reve,e from the sales at first rises as the
number of units
sold increases, reaches a maximum and then falls off. This pattern
Of the total revenue is described by tile relation
Y 40.00,000 (x— 2000) 2 where .v is the total revenue and
X the
number of units sold.
(i) Find the number of units that maximizes total r(venue.
(ii) What is the amount of maximum revenue ?
(iii) What would be the total revenue if 2500 units are sold ?
FAns. (i) 2000, (ii) Rs. 40.00,000, (iii) Rs. 37.50,0001
12. If the est function is C(x)^4x f 9 and the revenue function is
9p x, where x is the number of units produced (iii
thousands) and R and C are nicasired in millions of rupees, find the
following
(ci) Marginal revenue.
(b) Marginal revenue at X - 5, .v 6.
(C) Mcirina1 cost.
(d) the fixed cost.
(e) The variable cost at x-- 5.
(f) The break-even point, that is, R() C(x).
(g) the profit function.
(/t) The most profitable output.
(i) The niaximum profit.
(j) The marginal revenue at the most profitable output.
(k) The revenue at the most profitable output.
(1) The variable cost at tile most profitable output.
13. Suppose the cost funct i on is given by C(X)_X2 -I-
5 and the price
function is p= 12— 2x, where p is the price
in rupees Alld x is the
number of units produced (in thousands). Answer the question
asked in Problem 12.
14. A Company has for x items produced the total cost
C and time total
revenue R given by equations R=3x and C=
1004 52, Find
how many items he produced to maximise the profit.
What is this
profit 7
15. A sofa-set manufacturer can manufacture x sofa sets per
week at a
total cost of Rs,
(_ x2 +3x+ 100
)_
flow many sets per week should

ACE-SO FIUSLNESS MATHEMATICS
he manufacture for maximum monopoly revenue when the demand

law of his product is X =l0\/25_p set per week. Also find the net
revenue with this output.
16. The cost function C() for producing x units of a commodity is
given by
C(X)=r -_ x- 5x2 +75x . 10
At what level of output the marginal cost (i.e., 2. ) attains its

dx
minimum ? What is the marginal cost at this level of production ?
[C.A. Intermediate, November, 19911
[Ans. 5, 50]
17. If q be the number of workers employed, the average cost of pro-
duction is given by
C_ 2(qJ4.j-+24
show that q=425 will make the expression minimum. In the

interest of the management will you then advise to employ four or
five workers ? Give reasons for your answer.
t!.C.W.A., June 19901
3
[Hint.
Hi C_2(q4)+24
dC —3
* /q2(q tic4)2+24
C will be minimum if a- 0
when 2(i _ 4) 2+ 24 ° - q=425
Since the function C is not defined at q=4, therefore, the value of q

must be 5.]
18 The following expressions define a firm's total revenue and total cost
functions:
Total revenue= 18x—x1+24
Total cost= x3-25x2+50
(a) Use calculus methods to find the optimum production level.
(b) State the firm's profits at the optimum production level.
(c) Using the same axes, sketch the graphs of the total revenue and
total cost curves, indicating the output at which profit is maximum.
[Ans. (a) 6, (b) 641

19. A steel plant is capable of producing x tons per day of a low grade
steel and y tons per day of high grade steel, where If the fixed
market price of low grade steel is half of the high grade steel, show that
about 55 tons of low grade steel are produced per day for maximum total
revenue.
[Hint. Let p 1 be the price of low grade steel. Then 2p 1 is the price
of the high grade steel, p 1 is constant.
(40-5X\
Total revenue function, R2p 1 ,-j-----)±xp1
dR
Show that t) - X=10+2'5
dx
Further show that $<O for x= 10 2V5 and
->0forx==lO-I-2V5
I
20. Maximizing Profit . A tractor company can manufacture at
most 1000 heavy duty tractors per year. Furthermore, from past demand
data, the company knows that the number of heavy duty tractors it can
sell depends only on the price p of each unit. The company also knows
that the cost to produce the units is a function of the number x of units
sold. Assume that the price function is p=29,000-3x and the cost
function C2,000,000 '20,000x+5x 2 . How many units should be
produced to maximize profIts?
21. A manufacturer estimates that he can sell 500 articles per
week if his unit price is Rs. 2000, and that his weekly sales will rise by
50 units with each Rs. 050 reduction in price. The cost of producing
and selling x articles a week is C(x) 6200 i , 6 , 1 Ox + 00003x2. Find
(a) The price function.
(b) The level of weekly production for maximum profit.
(C) The price per article at the maximum level of production.
22. A trucking company has all engine overhaul cost of
Rs. 1000 and routine maintenance cost (in rupees) of C - -- 0 , 40X +10- 1 x2.
where x is the interval in kilometres between engine overhauls.
(a) Show that the total engine maintenance cost Rs. (per km) is
given by
04+ 10- Ix
(b) Find the rate of change of the total maintenance cost with
respect to the engine overhaul to interval
Wx-

ACE-52 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
(c) Find the value of x at which the derivative in (L.) is equal to

zero.
(d) Evaluate and compare c for x==5,000 ; 10,000 ; 20,000 kms.
Ans
l0
(b) c/c 2 + 10, (c) 10000, (il) 029, 024, 029.
r
23. Given p==20--q
C==2-j--8q-}- q2
Find
(a q which maximizes profit and corresponding values of p(=Price)
R( total revenue) and Al ( = Profit).
(ô' q which maximizes sales (total revenue) and corresponding
values of p. R and Al.
(c) q which maximizes sales subject to the constraint M8 and
corresponding values of p and R.
24. A monopolist has the following demand and cost functions
P=30---q
C-- 160--8q
The Government levies a tax at the rate of 2 per unit sold. Find
profit rnaximi7ing price and quantitY after tax levy.
[Ans. p 10, p20)
25. A firm has the following functions
p=100--0'01 q
=50q+30,000
and a tax of 10 per unit is levied. What will be the profit maximizing
price and quantity before the tax and after the tax ? Which does the
monopolist find it better to increase the price by less than the increase
in tax ?
[An. Before tax q=2500, p75, Profit=32,500.
After tax q=2000, p=80, Profit= 10,000
A price higher than 80 will reduce profit below 10,0001
26. If the relevant position of the demand function is
P-100-0 , 01 q
when q is weekly production and p is weekly price and cost function is
c= SOq+ 30,000
(a) Find maximum profit, output, price and total profit.
(b) 11 suppose government decides to lev y a tax of Rs. 10 per unit
of product sold, what will happen to pride, quantity sold and total
profit ?
APPLICATIONS TO C0MMnRCB AND ECONOMICS ACi-53
27. (a) Given the demand function p(10_x) : and the cost function
C=-55x-8., find the flaXLinum profit. What would be the effect of an
imposition of a tax of Rs. 9 per unit quantity on price ?
[Azis. 54 ; Price increase= 15].
(I') Given the demand function Y r-=20_4x and the average cost
function Y=2, determine the profit maximising output of a monopolist
firm. What would be the impact of a tax of Rs. I per unit of output on
profit?
28. A monopolist has a total cost of output x given by ax" 4- bx±c
and the demand price for the output x is given by (3—ax. Find his
monopoly output, price and net revenue in equilibrium. How will these
change if a tax at Rs. I per unit of output is levied 7
[Ans. Before tax
Output= -------- Price 2af3-J- a13j/

2(-l- a) 2(- a) --
Net revenue= 3—
4(a-{a)
After tax:
bt t
Output = Price=
2(ot 2(cx
Net revenue= _t)2

4( oc i
29. A monopolist firm has the following revenue and cost functions
R=—Q'-f-3Q, (x, 3>0)
C=aQ+bQ-{-C, (a, b, c>0)
The government plans to levy an excise tax on its product and wishes
to maxirnise tax revenue T from this source. What is the desired tax rate I
(rupees per unit of output)?
30. (a) The demand and cost functions of a firm are given by
'1 = 10,000—
c= 59q+ 30,000.
and 100
where q---quantity demanded
p = price/un it
C-
--total cost,
Determine the optimum level of (j that the firm should sell.
(b) Assuming that the above firm has to pay a sales tax at the rate
of Rs. 10 per unit, find out the optimum sales.
ACE-54 BUSINESS MATHLMATICS
SOME APPLIED PROBLEMS

Example 35. Prove that a rectangle with sides x and y and a given
perimeter P has its area maximised if it is a square.
[Delhi Univ., B.A. (lions.) Economics 1991]
Solution. We have
P=2(x-l-y)
or VTPX
Px—x2
First orde r condition

dA
dx
c/A I
P— 2x
dx 2
clx 2
or x=-4- P

dtP
d2P
—2<0
x=4çP
and
Hence the rectangle has the maximum area if it is a square.
Example 36. A box with a square base is to be made from a Square
piece of cardboard 24 centimetres on a side by cutting out a square from
each corner and turning up the sides. Find the dimensions of the box that
yield maximum volume?
Solution. Let the volume of the box be denoted by V and the
d imensions of the side of the small square by X. Since the area of sheet
metal is fixed, the sides of the square can be changed and thus are treated
as variables, Let y denote the portion left after cutting the x's to make
the square, we have
Y.24-2x

APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCIE AND ECONOMICS ACE-55

Since thc height of the box is x and the area of the base of the box
is y, the volume V is given by
by V= V(x)= xy2
V(x)=(24— 2x) r-=4x3 96 2 ( 576x
To find the value of .v which maxjrnjscs V, we differentiate and find
the critical values, i. e.,
V'(v)r= 12x2-192x+576
I 2(x 2 — I 6X+48)== I 2(x— I 2)(x-4)
x= 12 is not admissible as in that case box cannot be formed.
x=4
V"(x)=24x— 192
V "(4)=96— 192<0
Hence the dimension X-=4 maximises the volume and 4 X 16 x 16 are
the dimensions of the box.
Example 37. The rate of working of an engine is giien by the
4000
expression /0v-- , where v is the speed of the engine. Find the speed
at which the rate of working is the least.
Solution. We require to find the value of v for which the expression
4000is
lOv± a minimum.
Let
dH 4000
10 V2
(FV
dH
when v1 4OO, i.e., v=±20
v-20 is not admissible as speed cannot be negative.

vz=20.
d`2 1`1 8000
Akr
d2H
-dv->0
- when v=20
The rate of working, H, is a minimum when v=20.

Example 38. Afirni's annual sales are s units of a product which
the firm buys from a supplier. If the replenishment cost is Rs. r per
order holding cost Rs. It per unit per year, finel the economic order
quantity by using calculus, (Delhi Univ., B. C'otn, (lions), 1991J

AC-56 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Solution. Let x be the number of units ordered at any time. Then

the holding (storage) cost for x units is hx.
Number of orders ==
The total cost

lix- (-i-). r
Sr
or C=hx i
For C to he minimum,
First order c,Londix ion
sr
dc 0 ic. / — ---- =0
dx ' x2
I Sr
or X=AJ h

d'C
>0
dt C ..sr
Hence the economic order quantity is --. i.e., when

units are ordered at a time the cost is minimum.
Example 39, The production manager of a company plans to include
,180 square centimetres of actual printed ,natter In each page of a book
under production. Each page should have a 25 cm. wide margin along the
10/) and bottom and 2() cm. wide margin along the sides. What are the
tosi economical dirnenslor1s of each printed page.
Solution. Let x, ,v denote the length and breadth of he printed
matter in each page. Then
Arca of each pages AY= 180 .
Due to margin, the dimension of each page will be
x+2X 2X + 4 and y-j-2 < 25y+5
l.ct A he the area of each page then
A=(x+4) (y+5)=-xy+5x+4y+20
(*.)
APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACC-57
Differentiating (") w.r.t. x, we get

d4
—ç 720 —U
WT
x=144
x 12, discarding the negative value.
Using the Second Derivative Test,
dA 2 x 720
-= >0, when .v=12
x= 12 minimises A.
180
Substituting x-I2 ui (), we have
Hence the most economical dimensions are

Length =x+4=16 cms.
Breadth =y -f-5 = 2{) ems.
Exntple 40. Your company is planning to build a new factory.
The rectangular area required for manufacturing and office is /5,000
square metres. .....ar parking area to a depth of 50 metres is needed t
the from of the building, an access drive width of 15 metres is planned for
the side and a delivery/loading bay to a depth of 25 metres at the rear.
You are required to calculate the smallest total site the compalTy
should buy, to meet these requirements. Workings must be shown marAg
will be avtarcled for method used.
Solution. Let the length of the rectangular area required for
manufacturing and office be x and the width be y, then xy-151000
square metres.
x-i--50 4-25 is the length of the sides including the car park ano the
delivery/loading bay at the rear, I.e., x+75, and
y - 15 is the width of the site including the access drive. Thq area
of the whole site is then
A=(x+75(y+ 15)
v=(x4-75) (15000+15)
15,000
xy=15,000 .
I
5 000
=l5000+l5x+ 1 !_P_+ 1125
1A 1,1250Q0
Now --=0 15-- —_-=0
X72-
ax

ACE-58
I3USINESS MATHEMATICS
(12/1 2X 1,125,000
Also
(/12
Hence A is mjiijnuim when X- 273'86

15,000
Y-=5477
Hence t1e smallest total site the company should buy to meet its
requirement is
(27386+75) metres by ( 5477+ 15) metres.

F x i in plc 41. A metal box with a square top mid bottom of equal
is to conlam 1000 cc. The 'naterwi br the (op and bottom costs one
patsa per square cm and the material for the sides costs half paisa per
square cm. Find the least cost of the box.
Solution. As the base of the box is a square, the dimensions can

be taken as x, x, y. Then the volume is x 2 y.
x'Y= 1000 1000
Let C he the total cost.
The area of the top and bottorn=2x 2 sq. cm .

Cost for the top and bottom=1 >< 2X 1 == 2x2
Cost for the 4 sidesrr < 4x) , =- 2xy

Total cost, C-.=2x2+2xy (4.)
=2x 2 + 2x. 1000
X2
2 2000
(4Is)
tic =
x-
di
dC 2000
dx ewes 4x------..=O
x
4x 5 = 2000
500
X/55xi/5xI.5979S
4+ 2>( 2000>0 when x=795
2
(IX X
Thus x=795 minimises C.

ACF-59
APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCU AND ECONOMICS
Substituting x=-7'95 in (), we get
C.01 ,v -2 X (7 .95)2 + 37798 378 patse
A rectangular block with a square base has the total

Etrnple 42.
area of its surface equal to 150 square cms, and i/re sides of the base are
each x cm long. Prove that the volume of the block is j (75,v-- x 3 ) Cu.
cm., and hence Jurd tire volume of the block.
Solution. In order to obtain the maximum volume of the block

say V, we must first obtain m expression giving V in terms of one variable.
As is indicated in the question, Ny e will
first show that V= (75x--x3) where x is the

length of a side of the base.
We have V :Ir cu. cm., where It is the
height of the block.
10 obtain 11 in terms of x, we use the fact
that the surface area of the block is equal to 150
sq. cm . .
Surface area-- 2x'+ 150 I
x+2x/'7S
75_x2
2x
Hence V=X 11X2 2 - ._ = j (75x-- x 3 ) cu. ems.
1-Living obtained V in terms of one variable, we proceed to trii&t

maximum value in the usual way.
d 75 3x2
We have dx 2
d 75 3x2
----=0, when --.--=0
(IX 2 2
i . e., when v2 =2S, or x=-,-5.
In this case, the negative value of x has no meaning and we
discard it.
dV 6x
JT= - -- =-3x
(1 V
Whet x5, —i
(IX
d d2V
Hence, when x=5, - -r() and J2 is negative.
ACE-60 BhJtMP.sS MATHEMATICS
X=5 makes V a maximum.
.. Maximum value of V=-_ (375-125)125 cu. cm,
Example 43. A Wastepaper basket consists of an open circular

cylinder. If the volume of the basket is to be 200 cubic centimetres ; fi
the radius of Its base when the material used is a minimum nd
Solution. The mate iia. used in making the basket depends on the
surface area of the basket.
Hence we require to find the radius of the base when the surface
area is a rajilimum
We must first of all obtain an expression giving the surface area

(say sq. cia) iii terms of the radius of the base (say r).
The total surface area S==gr2 rh sq. em, where 'h' is the height
of the cylinder.
To obtain S in terms Of r alone, hi roust be obtained in terms of
r.
'This is done by using the fact that the volume of the basket is equal to
200 cu. cms.
We have, volurnc=2OOr2/z
100
/.
r2
Hence S=r'4-2rh
or 2
S=,tr8-f21r . .
7;r2
==r'
r
(IS 4
dr
(iS 400
dr 0 when 2r---..0
I.e., when r8= 200

—. or r.= iö
(/S 800
Also ----2n +
When r -' /200 dS .

dr
is positive, i.e., S is a minimum.
Hence, the amount of material used will be a minimum when
r= 3 —=3'99 cm.

Eatuple 44. ABC Co. Lid, wishes to produce a cylindrical

container with a capacity of 20 cubic feet. The top and bottom of the
Container are to be mw/c of a material that costs Rs. 6 per square Jbot,
while the side of the container is made of material costing Rs. 3 per square
foot. Find the dimensions that will minimise the total cost of the
container.
S olution. Let denote the height of the container and r the
Ii
radius, then the total area of the bottom and the top is 2 i r 2 and the area
of the lateral surface of the container is 2trh.
Ar
Top
Laiernn
Bottom surface
The total cost C of manufacturing the container is

C=-(Rs. 6)(2itr 2 )+(R. 3)(2rh)
- - 12gr3-I-6tr/i
Since volume of the cylinder is fixed at 20 cubic feet, i.e.,
V=20=ir 2 h zlo Ii
rrr2
Substituting ($) in (, we get
C=12itr+6rr 20
-
ir2
=l2itr2+
To find the value of r that gives minimum cost, we differentiate C

w.r,t. r Thus
dC 120
dr r2
24rr8-12O
The critical values obey C'(r)=O

24tr3-120=0

AcI3-62 ]BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
5__
Using the Second Derivative test, we have
C"(r)= 24it
and C" ()=24+2.!>o
Thus for rl'l7 feet, the cost is a relative minimum. The corres-
ponding height of the cylindrical container is
2 20
Ii ==0
-
=465 feet
rtr2 n[5/itj-13
These are the dimensions that will minimise the cost of the
material.
EXERCISE (111)
I. An open tank with a square bottom to contain 4000 CC, of water

is to be constructed Find the dimensions of the tank so that the
surface area may be the least.
[Ans. Base dimensions 20 cm - IIeiIit 10 'n'
2. A rectangular box with no top is to be made from a rectangular
piece of metal with dimensions 32 cm by 60 cm by cutting equal
sized squares from tin' corners, then turning up the Sides. What
should be the side of the squares cut off if the box is to have maxi-
mum volume ? (Ans. 5 cmnsj
3. A company has scrap pieces of metal sheeting left over at the cod
of its production line. The company has no other use for the scrap
and it can manufacture new boxes on present underutilised machi-
ner'. The market is willing to pay Re. 050 per cubic centimetre of
such bOXCS, so the company wishes to maxiniisc the volume that can
be made by cutting equal squares out of the corners of the scrap
pieces that measure 4 cm x 10 cm. The cost of manufacturing and
selling the boxes is Rs. 3-00 per box. The production department
states that the metal costs Re. 010 per square cm. What is the
volume of the largest box that can be made from the scrap 2 Should
the company produce the box ?
[Ans. 1624 c.c. nearly. The company should produce the box]
4. A box with square top and bottom is to be made to contain 500
Cubic ems. Material for top and bottom costs Rs. 4 per square cm
and the material for the side costs Rs. 2 per square cm. What is
the cost of the least expensive box that can be made ?

F
APPLICATIONS TO COMM1RCB AND ECONOMICS A03-63
[Hint. Volume of the box, X y=500

Cost for the top and bottom= Rs. 4x2x 2 =Rs. 8x2
Cost for the 4 lateral sides= Rs. 2 x 4xy=Rs. 8xy
C= 8x 2 +8xy ...(•*)
500
From (), we get Y =- —i-
Substituting in (), we have

C=8x 2 .8x . =8x2 400_0•]
5. A box with a rectangular bottom and no top is to be made from a

rectangular piece of material 30 ems. long and 16 cms, wide by cutting
equal sized square corners, thenturning up the sides. What should be the
dimensions of the squares if the box is to have maximum volume ?
[Hint. Let x cm. be the side of each square cut off from a corner.
Then the dimensions of the box made are
30-2x, 16-2x and x
V=(30-2x)(I 6-2x)x
=4x 3 -92x 480
dv
3x-46x+120=U
x=12 and 10-

3
x = 12 is not admissible.
(dV
r(24X_ 184) <0
\dx 1013 x1O/3
Hence in order to have maximum volume, the side of tL square cut
off at a corner should be cms. ]
6. One side of a rectangular enclosure is formed by a hedge the

total length of fencing available for the other three sides is 200 yd. Obtain
an expression for the area of the enclosure, A sq. yd., in terms of its
lengths x yd , and hence deduce the maximum area of the enclosure.
[Ans. A=100--,5000 sq.yd.]
7. If the volume of a circular cylindrical block is equal to 800 Cu,
ems., prove that the total surface area is equal to 2x 2 + sq. cms.
where x ems is the radius of the base. Hence obtain the value of x which
makes the surface area a minimum.
[Ans. x = 503 cms.
1
ACE-64
USNLSS MF}[EMATtCS
8. A closed rectangular box is
thickness, the length of made of sheet metal of negligible
the box being twice its width. lithe box has a
capacity of 243 en. ems., show
that its surface area is e q u al to 4x2+729
J-le p c obtain the dIrneri (
-)s of the box of least surface area.
[Ans. 9, 9/2, 61
9. A rectangular sheet of metal is 8
squares of side x (m. are cut from each metre by 3 metre. Equal
folded up o form an of the corners and the whole is
open rectangular tray of depth x ems. Find the
volume of the tray in teims of x, and its maximum volume.
[Ans. V 4x ( 4 O0x)(l5O_) en. ems.,
ma y . volume7 cu. fll.
10. A long Strip oF metal 60 cms. wide
baSe and two is to be bent to form the
sides, of a shute of rectangular cross-section.
Of the base so that the area of the Find tire width
maxrmutn. rectangular cross-section shall be a
[An. 30 ems.]
I. An open rectangular box is to he made out of cardboard and
to hae it vo!Ijfl)c of 288 c.
ems. The length of the ho is to be twice
the width. I f the width is x ems., show that the area of the cardboard
requ ired is 2xx+ sq. eros, and find the vahe of X for i1k area to be
a niinifllum
-. [Arts. 6]
12, A rcclangular box is to have a volume oF 100
lengil is to be twice its breadth. .c in. and its
Find an expression foT'th square of
the length of a (lIagor11 ol the box in terms of the
x headth in Find
abo the minimum porhIc length of this (Iiaona1. (Find the minimum
of the square ot' the length of the diagonal um
[ Ans. 5x+^ 0 ; \' n.

1
13. A close d cylindrical can
cm . Find, in terms f the maxi is to have a surface area of 150 sq.
O v, inu ill volume of the can.
[Axis, 250 C.c.]
14.
An open cylindrical call
cm. hod, in terms of i to have a surface area of 147r sq.
t, the maximum volume of the Can.
[Arts. 343i cc.]
15. A skeleton of a box is to be
formed from three metres of wire.
If the length of the box is to be twice its width,
so that its volume shall he as large as possible, find in ems. its dimensions
fAns 12, 6, 9 cms.]
16. A closed box is to have a volume of 225 c. ems, and the length
of tire base is to be I times the width. Find the d
incnsiQns for the
minimum surface area.
[Arts. *, 5, 6 ems.]

17. A closed cylindrical can is to have a certain given surface area.

Show that the maximum volume is obtained when the height of the can
is equal to its diameter.
[Ilint. S2rr2±2nTh (fixed)
h (S-2r2)
Vr 2 h=r 2 x (Sr2r3)
2rr 2
(S-6r2)
------i) S=6rr2 or
Jr
or 2rIi=4tr2 or h==2r
d2 V
--i.
ar
Volume is maximum hen height of the can is equal to its
diameter.)
IS. An open tank with a square base and vertic.nl sides is to he
constructed of sheet metal so as to hold a given quantity of water. Show
that the cost of the material will be least when the depth is half of the
width.
19. A manager of a printing firm plans to include 20() square
centimetres of actual printed matter Li each page of a hook under
production. Each page should have a 25 cm. margin along the top
and bottom and 2 0 cm. wide margin along the sides. What are the
most economical dimensions of each printed page 7
20. A printer plans on having 50 square inches of printed matter
per page and is required to allow for margins of 1 inch on each side
and 2 inches on the top and bottom. What are the most economical
dimensions for each page if the cost per page depends on the area of the
page.
21. The total cost C of sampling information is given by
C=a 1 n± - , where a 1 is the unit cost of sampling an item, a2 is the
cost of a unit error in estimation and n is the size of the sample. Find
the number of items to be sampled that minimises the total sampiiflg
cost.
22. There are 60 newly built apartments. At a rental of Rs. 45
per month all apartments will be occupied. But one apartment is likely
to remain vacant for each Rs. 150 increase in rent. Also an occupied
apartment requires Rs. 600 more per month than a vacant one for
maintenance and service. Find the relationship between the profit and
the number of unoccupied apartments. What is the number of vacant
apartments for which the profit is maximum 7 What is the maximum
profit ? [Ans. P=2340+5lx-15x3, 17, Rs. 2773501

ACL-66
23.
A farmer wishes to enclose 12,000 sq. metres of land in a
rectangular plot and then divide it
into two plots with a fence parallel to
one of the sides. What are the d iinensjo,
of the
require the leasta nionit of fence ? rectangular plot that
F1 rnplc 45. S/tow t hal the rwe
cotnflw/, ' with respect to y is equal to of ciwuge of m arginal till/il)'
of
the rate of cliwige of Marginal
utility o / p
tilt/i res/'eel to x, where utilityf net/on is given by
UJx2y2_fy2
Sol u tiozi.
a (3v ?y 2 1 y).3),2 (X2)+

07V (Y2)6y1x
ax
(3. 2y 2 y 2 )32 a
(Y 2)+2y-- 6xy+2y
I6yX,f,.6x?y+2y
J r—(L). (6y2x)=6 (y I 2xv.

u- a
(6x-yH2y)
ox
a. (6x2y) (2y)
r- X
Now } is the marginal utility of X.

L, will be the rate of change of marginal utility of
K ivy!. ),
Similarly f
W.r,t. x will be the rate of change of marginal utility of Y
Hence /rf,,
E xample 46. F/nd the ratio of the marginal
when theoil/it)' Jiu:ct ion i U (x + cJ)P 111i//lies Jr two goods
( y + b)'. S/row that 1/ic same result
Is obtained when the ziflhtty Junction is taken as
Urp log (x f ")+ q log (Y+ b).
So1utj0
' = ( x- J- a ) (Y-1-I))
oil
— p(x-f a)'(y b) and — all q(xa)r(y I
ax
• au au p
a.v ay xa
For utility function U-p Jog ( x
±a)+q log (i'
all
an d° —
• all a ll p q

ACE-67
Marginal Products
(L) and
If the output (Q) of a firm is a function of two tiiputs labour
capital (K), SU1)pOSC
Q=f(L, K)
Then, it often becomes necessary to take dectsLons regardtnt; changes
in the inputs with regard to their separate contributiOnS to the enhiancelncflt
in the rate of output. The partial derivatives, in this case, are known as
Marginal producti v i t y (or product) of labour
and Marginal productivity (or product) of capital•

aK
Example 47. The production function of a firm is given by

Q=4Li 1 1)1 4 , L>O wid K>O.
Find the marginal p!OduCHVJtiL'S of Labour (F) wid Capital (K). is it
true that the marginal productivity of labour decreases through positive
values as 1. increases ? Does a similar statement regarding K hold ?
Also, show that L *K =Q

(iPL) is
Solution. The marginal productivity of labour
4(3/4) L 0 '' K 1 / 4 3K' 'I/J)l
and the marginal productivity of capital (MPK) is

(1/4) L 3 R K/ =
aK
Since L >0 and K>O
>0 and decreases as L increases
and -- 0 and decreases as K increases.

3fr1JI L34
Further L K— =L )+K (-)
==3L 311 A)l'-j-L3t J\]jI
=4L 3 i 4 K' J1 Q.
of a firtn he given by
Example 48. Let the production functuot
Q=81-K_1-2_K.
Fiad the !iIPL and MPK. Show th.it
F ----K --2Q
aL 6K
(AIPL) is
Solution. The marginal productivity of labour
-8K--2L
BF-
Ace-68
and the marginal Productivity of capital (MPK) is
aQ
-8L-2K
There fore
L +K L(8K2L)1 K(8L2K)
--I6LK_7L22g2
=2(8LK_ I-2--.K)
2 Q.
F , a in p1 e 49
(liven the 1r0dtcti0 function P =
where L represents labour and K capital find L2 2KL + 2K2,
labour L 2 and K=- 3. m arginal physical product of
Sj 0 ,., P= I.-2KL+2K2
ap
2L--2K- R24K
when L=-2 and K-3, we have
ap
2x2-23 -2
aQ
Example 50. G
iven the production function
I' 4KL --2K2_ [2, fInd the 'flaxilflu,, l
P with the COnS/Pal,,: + K= 10.
So1ut0 Sjc K-3-L 10;
K=10_L
Now, P can be e
of K=i0.J xpresse(f as a function of L by su
bstitutitig the value
P-4 (IO—L) [ -2 (10L)?_L2
80 L— 7L2 — 2 00
For P to be maximum we have
dP
;;7----() and dII'
dp
80-14L or L4O/7
and (iSP
Hence rnaxiinj 1
P is given by
40 40 2 200
- —7 () —200=7-
=2857
Exanp1e 51. Given the
C obb-Douglas production function
=io L'K
APPLICArIONS ro COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACE- 69
Find the Output levels Jor
(a) K is fixed at 100 and I. rises 5, 10 , 15.
(b) L isfixecf at 100 and K rises 5, 10, 15.
(C) With L is 10 and K is 15.
SoIuto. (a) With K fixed at 100, the function becomes

P=- to L 1 too"
10 L'/ 100
=100 L1
with L 5, 10 and IS the production levels will he 74767, 1778'28 and
2951-98.
(b) With L fixed at 100, the function becomes
P=lo x l00 • K
=r 31622 K
With K5, 10 and IS, the production levels will be 70711.
99991
and 122386.
(c) With L-_ 10 and K 15
P= lOx 101-25 X 15- 1 :68872.
homogeneous Funtfou
If u --f (x, y) be a JuncHi)u of two variables, then this /thi
ct/ui: is
said to be a Ito mogeneou$ Jimct Ion of degree n (or of order a) ft/ic /llow.
fng relations/up holds
f(tx, f)) f(x, y) ; 1>0.
Remark. A Function is said to be linear homogeneous function,
if the following relationship holds
f(tx, ty) t f(x , y)
Example 52. Let q be the quantIty , p be ,"rice andy
Show that the demand function Shown as be income
q-f(p, where k is a constant , homogeneous of

degree zero.
Solution. Here f(p, •y)—

kp
p
f(tp, t))- ty to± f(p, y)
• . The demand function is homogeneous of degree 7ero.

Example 53. Let
Q=IOL-0-1 1) -- 15K_02K 2 + 2KL
be the production function of a commodity with Q standi
for labour and Kfor capital.
ng for output , L
AC-70 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
(a) Calculate the n1ar'u1aI products of the two inputs When 10 units
each of labour and cap Ital are used.
(b) ,fsswning that 10 units of capital are being used, indicate the
upper limit for use of labour which a rational producer will never exceed.
Solution. (a) - 04-0+15 , ( K)—O2_(K12L&(K)

=21-04K+ 15
Now substituting 1. -: 10, and K= 10, we get
Marginal product 2x10-0*4x 10+ 15=20-4-1-15-3i
l0.(L) - 0l(L2) 00i2K (L)
---2K-0'2L+ 10
NOW substituting K-- 10, and L 10, we get
Ma rginal product for Labour

=2x 10-0*2x 10+10=28.
(5) N ow, the upper I mit for use of labour which a rational produces'
will never exceed, where II) units of capital are being used, can he obtained
by using the following condition
>f)
'L
cl )K= 10 - -
I 2K--0'2L+101
JK=iu -
>0
2x 10-02xL+100
30
--
02 1-
L150
Hence, the upper limit for the use of labour input will be 150 units.
Example 54. Show that the production function
,f(l, k)=2Vlk
(where )c, / and k are the units of output, labour and capital respectively)
gives constant return to scale and diminishing returns to Inputs.
iDe/hi Univ., B. Corn. (Hans.), 1992]
Solution. The given production function
x=j'(l, k)=2-//k
is homogeneous function of degree one. Replace l by il and k by k in x,
we have
x=f(l, k)24,/i.Xk-2i/lk
APPLICA [IONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS
ACEt-71
Hence the given function is a homogeneous function of degree onc.
So, the function gives constant returns to scale.
Now MP1=
and _-(.'tfP1) - I
e nec the function gives the diminishing return to labour.
Al Pk
(1Pk)± <
icilce the Function gives the dimiuishiig return to capital.

The muncton gives the dirninishin returns to inputs.
Lulers 'I'lleoi'eni
luler hi ,],()wll that if Z- f
decree n, then
(v 1 , x) is a 1101110C11CQUS Function of
al a/
ax, tIZ
Exa niple 55. The Cn

as a whole is 'ivc h bb_Dozi7j,c pro luction finicijo,, for (I?,' economy
Q=a La K
where 0, a, P are Constants such that
Show that
(a) Q is linear hon oge,,eo,,s fu,idllon of L and K
(b) Prove that
L '- + Ka- - Q
S0ij 0 , ( a) Let
Q=f(L, K)a L" A,
Then f(t L, £ K)a (1 L) a (1 K)
=/ (a L K )
t' f(L, K).
Hence Q = f( L K) is a linear homogeneous function of L and K.
(b) -_-r La1 KO and
---=°t3 La K'.
Hence L -+Q-=a.a L K --a$ L K
=aL a K (a±3)=rQ

ACI-72 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
since f3= 1. [Fkre, we have verified Eul(;r's Theorem for the Cobb-
Douglas (linear homogeneous) production function]
Example 56. Verify Eukr's Theorem for
ria.cbx2y-3-cxy 2 4. dy.
Solution Here the given function is homogeneous and of the third
degree in x and y. It is required to prove that
ZL
x — +)' --3u
13 X ay
Now
(ax +bxy i- CXy +-(1Y3)

---
=$_ (ox) --- (bxi') - (cxp) (dy3)

BX 3X 6x ax
=3(j52+2byX+Cy2
(Here )' is constaflt)
and (a -- hxy I cx y' j dy)
(ax) - 0.
- (bxy) F . -- ( CXy) + ( dY3)
==hx2+2cxy+3dy2
(Here X is constant)
Multiplying (I) by X and (2) by y, we have
a" =3ax a
42hx iy+ cxy2
y. hx2y + 2cxy2 + 3dy3

ay
Adding, we get
u
au +Y —r--3 - 3bxy43GXyz.F3dy3
OX ax
3(ax 3 + bx 2y +Cxy 2 +dy 8 ) =- 3u
Example 57. Verify Euler's theorem for U xt' log
Solution. Here the given function is of the nth degree, the degree
of y/x being zero. It is required to prove that
u a"
x–– +y j;=flU.
ax a
Since u=X Jog

APPLICATIONS TO CO4MERC:E AND ECONOMICS ACE-73
log - )=X't --(iog 2)+!og f. (x')

TV/X) ax
(-f)+iog .nxn-1.
X" - (-)+nx-'.
X2 log--- (l-Ierc y is constant)
y
= —x--1+nx"-'. lo b --
log L"1 ---(log _-_

a)' ay \ xl ny'.
n (y\ x I x
X .(2)
(y/x) x ' x J y X y
Multiply (1) by x and (2) by y, we get

au y
X - = - x" + rix" log -
ax
y ay
Adding, we get
U
X—
i1 +y — =nx log 2-rr flU.
ax x
Example 58. Define the degree of homogeneity and stale Euler's
theorem.
If the supply function x=f (p1 , p2 ,..., p,,,) is homogeneous' of
degree n, show that the sum of the partial price elasticities of supply equals
n (x denotes the quanifly supplied of a particular commodity and p1 . p2,...,
p,, are the prices of the different commodities.
[Delhi Univ. B. Corn. (Mons), 19911
Solution. If u==f (x, y) be a function of two variables, then this
function is said to be a homogeneous function of degree n if the following
relationship holds
f((x, ty)t=t"f (x, Y); 1>0.
If Z=f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n, then
Z aZ
x----+ y - —=rZ.
ax ay
The partial elasticity of supply x w.r.t. p1.
pt ax
= -(I1 2... m)
x - apt
Sum of partial elasticities of supply
n
pt ax
X
1-1

A-74 BUSINISS MATHEMATICS
=1 pi.
1 -api
1-1
=-i-(p1.-a+p2.
flX
[By Euler's Theorem]
= n.
Example 59. A production function is given by
q=4L' I3 C'13
where L=labour, C==rcapital
(a) Find the behaviour of the marginal product of each factor.
(b) What Is the nature of returns to scale?
(c) What is the reward of labour and capital if each factor is paid a
price equal to its marginal product ?
Solution. (a) We have q=4L2/C113
5.(4L 2 I3Cl I 8 )=4C1 /3
-_ L2/3J-
aL
C'/ L'i
Marginal product of labour=-- C" L-'l
Rate of change of Marginal product of labour

i(!_' (!_ c'i L-'' 3 '\---,( _ ) L" '"I
aL 'L ) a L '., 3 3' 3
—8 L- 4 1 3 C' 13
hich shows that as L increases, Marginal product of labour decreases.
Again {;- (4L2/3 C'/3)_ 4- C--' '3 13
Marginal product of capitai= 4- C213 Dl'.
Rate of change of Marginal product of capital

-__2-(2_'_. - --- ( i L2 IS
13 L28 C-5
aCaC)aC 3 C-"3 ) 9
which again shows that as C increases Marginal product of capital decreases
(b) Let q=f(L, C)=4L'13 C''
ACE-75
lPPL1CATWNS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS
1 1/3 C/3
f(IL, :C)=4 (tL) 13 (tC)113=412 13 L 13
=t [4L2 13 cl Ii=tf(L, C)
.. The production function is homogeneous of degree one, which
shows that the reward to all the factors is exactly equal to total product.
[Remark. If the production function Is homogeneous of degree
greater than one, we shall have a case of increasing returns and if it is of
degree less than or equal to one, this shows we have a case of diminishing
returns to scale.)
(c) 11 each factor is paid a reward equal to its marginal products
then we have
L f- C =L (--
8C
hIn L13)-l-C (4-2' c- L21)
C'i L 2 13 -__-- C'I L/=-4C' JI=_q.
Example 60. The product ion fI4flct ion is x=Aa h, where

Show that there are decreasing returns 10 scale and deduce that the total
product is greater than a tunes the marginal product of Labour plus b tune
the marginal product of capital. What economic interpretation can you
give for this ?
Solution. Here x=A a b P and ci+<l
tIP= Marginal product of labour
Ox h
--A c a '
aa
a LX =il a a h =X
aa
MPr==Marginal product of capital
ax
=A a
ab
IX
h-=3x.
ab
Thus a— +b
aa 2b
I lence there are decreasing returns to scale.
Example 61. Find the first and second order total differentials of
the function
Z=rftx, y)-7y log (1+x)
[Delhi Univ., B.Cm. (Hans), 19921

AcE76
Solution. We have
Z7y log (jx)
dZ4 + . dy
ay
aZ 7y
d az(I+
7 log x)
x 14x anay
dZ-_ dx+7 Jog (1 +x) dy

l+x
d
=7-+1og(1+x)dy
1
111Z=-!-_(dZ). dx+-P_. ( dZ). dy
( 7ydx ldy I 7dx

. dX+<
( (1-f- x)2 1-f-x (l+x ) ay
14dxdy lydzx
E xample 62.
Given linear homogeneous production functjo,
ZALa KO P1 ,
show that L, K, P, stand for factor quantities and A is a Constant,
(1) the swn of

IS unity. the production elasticities with respect to tile factors
(ii) the sum of

marginal products of factors each multiplied by its
respective quantity equals the total output.
(iii) Zn (I) and (ii) above, consider how these results change
if the
given production function is not linear homogeneous but homogeneous of
degree n.
Solution. (i) ZALP KO pr
K P P1
L aZ_ AL" KP p1
KO p1
Similarly
K Z p z
- p and -
we getAdding the above production elasticities with respect to the factors,

L aZ K Z P az
• +- • --- .
VP ++vrl.
(. For linear homogeneous production function +(3+y=l)

OZ aZ aZ
(ii) L y f-K
- — -f-P-yp (cc ++v) Z=Z
Hence sum of marginal products of factors multiplied by L, K and

P is equal to total output Z.
(iii) In each case, the production elasticity will be multiplied by TJ
and also Z will he multiplied by n•
Marginal Demand Functions and Partial Elasticities of Demand
Let the demand functions for two related commodities x and x
with the respective prices p and p2 be
=f (P11 p) and x2 =g( p 1 , p2)
X1
Then the partial derivatives of x1 and x are known as the (partial)

marginal deinand fi,ncuio,, of x i and x2 , respectively.
In particular,
the (Partial) marginal demand of x 1 w.r.t. p 1 is
the (Partial) marginal demand of x 1 w.r.t. p 2 is ax )
the (Partial) marginal demand of x 9 w.r.t. p 1 is

DPI
and the (Partial) marginal demand of 1 2 w.r.t. p, is
For the usual demand functions

iI'p, is constant, x increases (decreases) as p 1 decreases (increases)
and if p 1 is constant, x 2 increases (decrc3ses) as p 2 decreases (increases)
and hence, and are negative for all economically relevant
values (positive or zero) of p 1 and p2. Further,
ax2
if and are both negative for a given ( p p ) then a
decrease in either price corresponds to an increase in both demands ; and
the commodities X and A'2 are said to be complementary.
On the other hand.
if .-L and - are both positive for given (p 1 , p2 ), then a
ap2
decrease in either price corresponds to an increase in one demand and a

decrease in the other and the commodities x 1 and x 2 are said to be
Competitive.
If then x and x3 are neither complementary nor

---- <0,
ap2 ap1
competitive.

ACE-78 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS I
The partial elasticity of demand is the ratio of the proportional
change in quantity demanded of one commodity (say, x 1 ) to the pro-
portional changes in price of one commodity (p 1 , or p 2), with the price
of the other commodity (p 2 or p) held constant. Thus,
the partial elasticity of demand x 1 w.r.t. price p, with p—'constant is
(log x1)
aP1
_. (log p1)
Ox1
the partial elasticity of demand x 1 w.r.t. price p 2 with p, =constant is
(log xi)
— P 2 — ax1
'712/12
ap, -- (log p2)
ax1
the partial elasticity of demand x 2 w.r.t. price p 1, with p 2 =constant is
a - (log x2)
—p 1 ax,
2j/21
(log p1) =
ax 2
and the partial elasticity of demand x 2 w,r.t, price p 2, with p s=constaflt is
----(log x2)
- —p ax2
222 x 2 p2 _i (log p2)
Example 63. For the following pair of demand functions for two
commodities X1 and X2 , determine the four partial marginal demands, the
nature of relationship (Complementary, Competitive or neither) between X1
and X2 and the four partial elasticities of demand
4 /6
x1 =— and x2=—.
p12p2
Solution. Partial marginal demands:

3x 8
pl p3J)
ax, —32
<,
p, j7 3p2 p1 2P2
ax, —16 <
and
Op, —.
Hence X and A', are complementary commodities.
Partial elasticities of demands:
I I = (-2), I I = (-1), I =(— 1), I 1 = (— 2).

APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCØ AND ECONOMICS ACB-79

Example 64. The following are the demand functions for two
commodities X 1 and X1
- j -1.7
X1—P 0.8
Pa
x2=pI0.5 P2- 0-2
Determine whether the two commodities are complements or substitutes In

some sense. [Delhi Un iv., B.A. (lions.) Economics 19911
Solutio n. We have
x1=p1'lp268 and
—P7 p 1 - 3 ' P208
-=08 p(17 P2 - '.t
=05 p1-0.5 p1-.0-2

ap1
=-02 p 105 p21•'

02
Since ----and are both positive, the two commodities are
ap2 5p1
substitutes in sonic sense.
Example 65. The demand functions of two commodities X 1 and X
are x1 =p1 1 p20.6 and x 2 = p 1 05 p 2 - respectively , where x 1 and x2 are the
quantities Iernande1 of X anj X2 respectively and
p 1 and p 2 are their
respective prices . Find the four partial elasticities of demand and determine
whether the commodities are competitive or complementary.
[Delhi Univ. B. Corn. (Hans.), 1991]
Solution.
The partial elasticity of demand of x 1 w.r.t. prices p,=-—p, ax

-:L1 - - ---
6z(_l4)p14p2o6..p4
The partial elasticity of demand x 1 w.r.t. price p1

-. x1
x1 p11.4p20. x(06) P1 4 p°'=-06
The partial elasticity of demand x 2 w.r.t. price p1
_Li.- —P'
- x(05) p 1 -0.5 p"—_o 5
x2 p
3 1 P3 0" p2-1-2
The partial elasticity of demand x 2 w.r.t. price p,
- CE!-- - x(— P2)p10 P2 12= P2
- xl p1 p108p2-i.2

ACE-80 BUSINESS MATHEMATIC S
Since both-s-. and

a p 2 ap1 are negative, the commodities X1 and X,
are said to be complementary.
Example 66. Find the elasticity of substitution (a) for the production
function Q.f(1, k)=[akb+(1_.a) t b J_u/ b by using the formula
f.lfk d(kJl)
k I id(f, fl)
(Delhi Univ. B. C'onz. (lIons), 19911
Solution. We have
lib
Q=-. [ ak+(l_a)l-b]
or Qak+(l_a)J_b (1)
Differentiating (I) partially w.r.t. k, we get
ak
Q ok'b—1
fk
- Q (l.a)l--!
Similarly, -b-1
---
ak1.Q+t)
Now &=-()=-(
=k__ i (b^ J)Qb

al
ak- b- 1 (b+1)Qb (1—a)l-'

= Qb_1
aQ aQ
.1. I fk d(k I)
kj ak a/
d(f,If â'Q
aliJc
ak b-i (1 __a)16_1 Q-l'-1
X
XQk.b_1(b+ I) Qb(I -
FTI
Example 67. The demand (D) of passenger automobiles is given
by D= 090 11 p -07 where i is the income and p is the price per car.
Find the (1) income elasticity of demand and (ii) price elasticity of demand.
Solution. The income elasticity of demand is given by
laD
' 1
APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACS-8I
r (09x 0'90 x 1•1Io•p-°1

JI.J-G.?
Price elasticity of demand is given by

p DD
1r
ap
0901''p°7 x 090 x (-07)I''P-11
Example 68. The demand function for a commodity 'X' is given by

x=300_051)4.002p0+005y
where x is the quantity demanded of 'X', p the price of X, pa the price of a
related commodity and y is the constant income. Compute
(1) The price elasticity of demand for X,
(ii) The income elasticity of demand for X • , and
(iii) Cross elasticity of demand for X, w.r.t. p0
when P=I2, p o =IO and Y=200.
Solution, (1) Price elasticity of demand for X is given by
77,
p =_
3 x-
X 3p,
PX
x {05 x (-2p3}
300— 05p 2± O02Po-f O'05y
[from ...()]
2
3000'5p 2 -4 002Po HJ'OSy

When p . ,=12, p0 = 10 and y-=200,
I —144 1 144
300-72 02± 10
(ii) The income elasticity of demand for X is given by
ax
Y
x8y
0 05y
from
3-0r5p, 2 ±002p1,f 0 05y
When p,=l2,p=10 and y=200, as in part (I)
•q 2382 =004
(iii) Cross-elasticity of demand for X w.r.t, Pa is given by
p0 ax
x apo

ACE-82
(positive sign is taken since, from () we see that p0 and x change in the
same direction).
• • • OO2p0
'?o from *
Atp'12,p0 o and y =200, we get
002 x 10
Maxima and Minima for Function of two Variables

It is beyond the scope of this book to obtain the general conditions.
We shall merely state a set of sufficient conditions, which are applicable
to a large number of problems.
For a function Z=f(x, y), if at the point (x 1 , y1)
(j) =,
3X ay
and (ii) 3 ' 7 Z 52 Z 2

()()(—)>o axay
then Z is maximum or minimum according as
is negative or positive at (x 1 , y1).

Example 69. The joint cast function for two commodities is
+ 2xx2l_3x22
The prices are 81' for x) and 12( for x,) per unit Find the
fit and the total cost.
"
maxirnupn pro-
Solution. Total revenue 8x, + 12x2
Total cost rX1+2xix2f3x22
Total profit: P=TR_TC
=(8x 1 + I 2x2) - ( x1 i + 2x1 x2 + 3x22)
OP
and ax,
—I2--2x1--6x2
The condition (1) gives
8-2X 1 -2x2 O and
S olving these simultaneous linear equations in x
1 and x2, we get
x L-3 and xr=l
P can have a maximum value at (3, 1).
a'P
Now —r=_2, a2P
x1 2 ax2' —==-6 and =-2
ax1ax2
/_
• ( alp ) ( 32P 0
2 ) x2)
The condition (ii) is satisfied at (3, 0.
a21'
Also -- —2 is negative
axis
P has a maximum at (3, 1) and the maximum profit
=(8x3-l-12x 1)--(9 •-6+3)=18
EXERCISE (IV)
1. Find - -- for
ax' y
(1) =x2y 2 -- x5 +y 6 , ( ii) uXy+xy 3 , (iii) u==+y3-l- 3axy,
(iv) u=log (x 2 +Y2)513 (v) u.- ii / 2x-4-y2.
[Ans. (i) 2xy 2 -l--5 X4 , 2xy 2 -r-6Y 5 , ( ii) 3x 2y4-y 2 , x+3xy2,
(iii) 2x + 3ay, 3 y2 -j-- 3 ax, (iv) lox/3(x" -l- y2 ), I Oy/3(X 2 +Y')
(v) - 2x(2x2 + y2 )- 2
, — y(2x 2 +y2)3 (2]
2. Find the first order and second order partial derivatives of the
following functions
(1) ti=x2 -5Xy-4-y 2 , ( ii) U= x2e'.
[Ans. (I) f=2x— 5y, f=2, f, = -5,
f-5x42y, f=2,J.=-5.1
3. Find the first order and second order partial derivatives of the
following functions
(1) u=x-5xy+y2, (ii) u=e u=x2e'
(iii) u=-e (iv) u=x2e',

a'u 2u
4. Verify that when U—'±Y
au
5. If u=rlog [x+ \/ X 1 +y t ), au + Y - =1.
prove that x —
ay
6. If u_rax 2 +2bXy1 . by Z , show that
au azi
x — Y --=2u.
ax ay
7. A utility function is given by
u = 2q 2 q 2 -4-- 3q1q.2.
Show that the rate of change of marginal utility of commodity q1
w. r. t. q2 is equal to the rate of change of marginal utility of q 2 w. r. t.
q1.
8. (a) If show that
au au
X +Y
ax

ACE-84
BUSINESS MATULtMATLCS
(b) If OX 2 +b 2 y 2 ==c2u, show that

u a?bl
ax2 ay c2u
9. Verify that
a 2zzaXaY lu
±2xy ---+ y2 — a2z 2u, where uxl+2xy_.y2.
10. ' U xa±y_3jxy2 verify that
a 2" a2" a2u
+2xyf-y2 -. r6U
If z=(ax lby)-', find the value ofa2z a'z
12. For the production function zcix y' , show that

az az
(:) x ----- - 1-y — 4-)z and
i)x ay
(u) x ---±2xy a2z --l-y 2
axay
13. Suppose there is a production function of the type
z-= e' 2y + 3y2)
where Z is the product and x and y are different factors of production,
find the marginal products of x and Y.
14. If q3L 2C2_ 2L 2 0, where L
Capital. Find Average and C are inputs Labour and
If input be fixed, wh.tt is the value of input Lproduct of labour (L).
C product and Marginal
for which AP be maxi-
mum ? Does the maximum of Marginal Product Curve reach at lower
level of labour ?
[flint. Lq_?_ (3 L20_2L 2C8) - ( 3L3C2)__ (2L2C3)
3C2. 3L 2 2C3.2L 9C2 L2
--- 4cL.
Marginal product of labour (MP)9C2L2_4L
Also Average product of Labour (AP)=Tq 3L3C2_ 2L2C3
=
=3L1C2...2LC8
Now for maximum value of AP,
/VJPA P
or 9C2L2. 40L3L2C22LC3
6C)L2_2C2L0, 6C2L2=20L LL.
3
Again Marginal product of labour (MP) is maximum when slope of
MP curve is zero, 1e., when - (Mp)=O.

APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCI3 AND ECONOMICS ACE-85
- 9C' (L2)_4C3 j- (L)=O

OL
2
L=C
15. The demand function is q=3y+2y 2 -6x 2 --- 5x-4,

where x>O, y>O, q is quantity demanded, Y is income, X is the price.
Find what is the slope of the demand curve ? Is the commodity
normal or inferior ? Is the reaction of demand to price is independent of
the level of income ?
[hint. ax
Lq
ax
(3y+2),3-6.2--5x)=----- I2x-4-20x
aq
Slope of Demand curve —I 2x+2OX.
If fy => O, then the commodit y will be normal.

DY
ay iY (3y+2y2-6x54)=3+4y.
Since y is positive, f>O

The commodity is normal commodity and is not inferior.
Now the reaction of demand to price is independent of the level of
income iff=f=o.
Now 3+4y and - —12x+20x

ax
Now (3+4y)=0
axay ax ay ax
and j=JL -)=-(_ l2x-l-20x)r0.
The reaction of demand to price is independent of the level
of income.]
16. The following are two linear homogeneous production func-
tions where X, 1.., K represent output, labour and capital respectively.
Show that in each case, L times the marginal product of labour plus K
times the marginal product of capital equals total product.
(0 X=4L K, (11) X=aL-fbK.
Find what is the sum of the partial elasticities in each case.
17. If a' men are employed in planting 'b' acres with timber,
the amount of timber cut after '1' years is x=J (a, 5, 1). What meaning
can he attached to
x ax
—ann—?
a' b a'

The production of a particular commodity was estimated as

X= L 064 Ko36, where X is the production of that commodity,
L is labour and K is capital.
Determine the marginal productivities for L15 and K11
units.
18. Q= 101 L05 K° 2 , where Q=output, L= Labour, K= Capital.
Prove that L --KQ.

1. K
1. The following is a linear homogeneous production function
where X, L, K represent output, labour, and capital respectively
X= ,/ aL2+2hLK±bK1.
Show that L times the marginal product of labour and K time
the marginal product of capital equals total product
20. (a) For the linear homogeneous production function
X=AL K1
where X, L and K denote output, Labour and Capital respectively ; show
that the average and marginal products of each factor L and K are
functions of the relative amounts of L and K used.
(b) If the production function is given by XrAL K 1 , show that
there are increasing, decreasing or constant returns to scale as
+>l, <l or1.
(c) For the production function X=ALD K P where X , L and K
represent Output, Labour ana Capital respectively, show that-
(i) a and 3 represent the labour share and capital share of the
output respectively.
(ii) a and 3 aire also the elasticities of output with respect to labour
and capital respectively.
K aX L aX
[Hint. (ii) Calculate - . - . . I
21. The production function is P=-AK` L5 where +3<l. Show
that there are decreasing returns to scale. Deduce that total product
is greater than total income distributed between K and L, when income
is dis'fributed according to each factors marginal productivity. What
will be the economic interpretation of the residual ?
22. Explain what you mean by production function. State the
factors which are generally involved in it- State the mathematical form of
Cobb-Douglas production function, interpret its constants and describe
the method to fit it to the production data.
For the production function
x=A aP bt
ACE-87
show that the average products and the marginal products are functions
of the ratio of the factors used.
23. A production function is given as x4 a b where

-i-13> I,
and factor quantities are a and b for labour and capital respectively.
Show that there is increasing returns to scale and deduce that the total
Product is greater than a time the marginal product of labour plus
b
times the marginal product of capital.
24. For the production function
Q=AkL-1(I_) A - 9,
1- ]/
where A>O, O<<1 and -/O are constants, find the marginal products
of labour (L) and capital (K). Further, if
aQ Q
1.
^
'LlaQic
is the elasticity of' Substitution, show that =
is a constant.
25. If Uf(x 1x2,......-) is the (total) utility
(index) function in
terms of the amounts x 1 , x 2 ..,,, , consumed of the
n respective goods
(commodities) A'1 , X......, X,, then the marginal utility
of the goods X1,
is defined to be
au
, at a point (x 1 , X,.., X),
Find
(i) The marginal utilities with respect to two commodities
X0 , when x =j and x2 X, and
-=2 units of the two commodities are consumed,
if the utility (index) function of A' 1 and A'2 is given by
U= (xi +3) (x2+5).
(ii) The ratio of the marginal utility of the good A' 1
utility of the good A'2 , if the utility function of the goods the
to marginal
A'1 and A'3 is
given by
(a) U=,
- 11
(b) U=1og, (ax1+bx2+c./Tc)
[Ans. (i) Marginal utilities
(q)
\ x 1 (I, 2) =7;(- =4
I(1 2)
(ii) In (a) as well as in (b)
(U/ (U \ /xix.+cx2
k' ) / TT)2b \/ . 1 CX
26. If Xrf(p ,, p, M) is a homogeneous demand function of degree
zero, where P. and P. are prices of two commodities x and y, and Al' is
the money income ; then prove that the sum of the partial elasticities is
equal to zero.

27. The supply function for

1 2
x =ft p , p . ps,..., p,.)
(where p1 , p2 , p, •. , p,, are the prices of several goods) is a homogeneous
function of degree n. Prove that the sum of partial elasticities of x must
total fl. [Delhi Univ., B.A. (Econ. Hens.) 1990 (N.S.)J
28. A manufacturer finds that his costs are given by the function
Q=a -I-8b. Under the assumption that he keeps his cost fixed at the value
of Q= 50 and that his production function is defined by
U==32ab-7a 2 - 102
prove that his maximum production is U- 500.
29. For the linear homogeneous production function:
2Iiab---Aa2—Bht
= Ca±Db
where H, A, /1, C and D are positive constants, and a and b denote
Labour and Capital respectively show that the average and marginal
products of the factors depend only oil ratio of the factors.
30. If x 3 and p 1 are demand and price of tea and x 2 and p., are
demand and price of coffee, and the demand functions are given by
x 1 -- I I -1-3 J-' 0.5
x2=plo•3 p o•S 5_ J
show that the two commodities are competitive. Also find four partial
elasticities of demand.
[Hint. r=0.5l.I p ° 5> 0 an( ia —03 -0.7

p1
Since both >0 and the two commodities, viz., tea

ap, , ap1
and coffee, are competitive.
Partial Elasticitiess
p1 x1
(i) [ (— 13) p23 ]=1'3
X1 •p 1 - p14p
P2 3XI p2
(ii) + — l•3 ,, +, ,----'(o-5)P,,
=1W)
, -
(Note that here positive sign is taken since from (*), x 1 and p2 move
in the same direction).
(ii) >< - [ o " S -0.7 i'n -0.5
X /'
ap1 p ° .3 po5
(Here also note the positive sign)
I p 10.3 (-05) p15 I = o 5

(iv) —b- BX 2— p2
X2 pi P1
,, 0.5
0.3 i-i .

. pc-89
APPLICATION S TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS
31 Determine the partial elasticities and nature of commodities for

the demand functions,
P.-
1 =I'iP"O'sx p
32. When are two goods X 1 and X said to be (a) CoapeitIYC,
(b) Complementary ih demand ?
Examine the relation between X i and X 2 in the case of the follow
ing demand functions
(a) x1=a1—a 12, f a 2 1,2
a-+ a2 --
a 2.4
(h) x1=
x, — +a21 p1
(c) xp1°'' ehIPt±1)

Xp2°" e(aPl+G1)
33. The demand functions for two commodities X 1 and K, iii terms
of their respective prices p and p, are given by

_G1 and .2_p.0' eh1P1
where a1, 0 2, h 1 , h 2 and c 1 , C. are constants.
Find the four partial marginal demand functions and show that
The 'direct' pr ice- elasticities (viz.,ap, -' and axt are independent of
ap, )
the prices ; while the 'cross' price-elasticities ( viz., _L.i and __!)are
at' 2 at'1
determined in sign, by the constants b 1 and b2.
34. Show that x, =a, - is an example of a demand law for good
Pi
X i in competition with good x 2 and that is a corresponding
P, P,
law where x 1 and x 2 are complementary.
35. The cost functions for two duopolists producing a common
good are respectively by
c 1 =5x 1 and c2=5x2!.
The demand function for the good is given by

p= 100-0'5x
where xx1+x2.
Assuming the duc'polists take independent decisions regarding out-
puts (1 e., there is no conjectural variation), find their equilibrium
outputs and profits.
(Hint. The profit functions of duopolists are
P 1 =px 1 —c1 and P,=-px2—c2
ACE-90 BUSINESS MA7HEMATICS
respectively. Equilibrium outputs are determined by the condition that

P1 and P2 are maximum.]
(Ans. Equilibrium outputs : x 1 ==3980/43 and x2 =210/43 ; equili-
brium profits: P1 4628 and P2l3O.]
36. A monopolist firm produces chocolates of two types X 1 and
1. The constant average cost of X1 and X. are respectively, Rs. 250
and Rs. 300 per kg. For price of pi and p, the demands for A'1 and A'2
are respectively, given by
x 1 =5(p 2 —p 1 ) and x2=32-f-5p1--10p2.
Find the levels at which prices will be fixed for A' 1 and A'2 for
maximum joint monopoly profit.
Also find the prices of A'1 and X2 fixed by two independent mono-
polists.
[Ans. For a single monopolist, levels of prices Rs. p 1 445 and
p 2 470 for two independent monopolists, levels of prices is
Rs. p1 32 and p 2 n39.]
37. A monopolist produces amounts x 1 and x 2 of two goods A' 1 and
A'2 at a total cost 7r=x 12 +2x 1x2 .f 3x 22 . The demands for the two goods
in the market are
p1 r=36-3x 1 and /)2=40-5x2
where p 1 and p2 are the prices charged. Determine the quantities and
prices which maximise the profit. Find also the value of the maximum
profit.
38. The demand for a good x is represented by the demand relation
p=41 (x). The production of the good is shared between two duopolist
firms selling at the same price p. The first duopolist produces an output
x2 at a total cost of -1==F1()c1) and the second doupolist produces an out-
put x2 at a total cost 01 i 2 =F2(x2). Find the equations which determine
the output of the two duopolists. (Assume zero conjectural variation.)
APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
To find the cost function when marginal cost is given:
We know that if the total cost function, say C, is given then the
marginal cost function is the first derivative of the total cost function.
It follows, therefore, that the total cost function is the integral of the
marginal cost function.
If C represent the total cost of producing an output x, then the
marginal cost is given by
dC
MC=--
C=(MC)dx±k
The constant of integration k can be evaluated if the fixed cost (i.e., the
cost when x='O) is given.

PPLlCATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACE-9I
Further the average cost AC can be obtained from the relation
Example 70. The marginal cost function of a product is given by

==
4c_ioo—ioq+o'i q$,
where q is the output. Obtain the total and the average cost function of
the firm under the assumption that ifs fixed cost is Rs. 500.
dC
Solution. = tOO - lOq+Oi q2 = MC
dq
Integrating both sides w.r.t. q, we have
C==f(lOO_10q4-01q2)dq
=100__10.±40.1 .
Now the fixed cost is 500, i.e., when q.-0, C=500.

k=500.
Hence total cost function is
C=loOq-5q 2 -4 +500
Average cost function is

C q2 500
AC=—=l00-5q±--+--
Example 71. The marginal cost function of manufacturing x shoes

is 6+I0x-6x. The total cost of producing a pair of shoes is Rs, 12. Find
the total and average cost function.
Solution. MC=6+10X-6x
C=4(6+10X_6X2)dX
-=6x4-10 .
where k is the constant of integration.

Now C=12, when x=2.
12==6(2)+IOX ----6x ---+k
k=12-12-20+16=-4
The total cost function is
C=6X+ 5x'-2x3-4

ACE-92
BUSINESS MATHE)4%11C
Further the average cost function AC is given by

C 4
-.
X x
Example 72. The marginal cost function ofaJirn is given by
MC=3000 e°-j--50,
when x is quantity produced. If fixed cost Is Rs. 80,000, find the total cost
function of the firm, (Delhi Univ., B. Corn. (lions) 1990]
Solution, The total cost function ot the firm is given by
TCJ(MC)dx .{ k, where k is constant of integration.
TC1(3000e03+50)dx±k
=3000. 4—±5ox+k
= 1 0000e°'3+50x+k
When =0, TC=80000, therefore, we have
8000010000+k
k=7000
TC.= 10000e°"+50x--70000
Example 73. Assume that the marginal cost in bk/is of rupees is
given by
MC=4+5x1+4
where x is the quantity produced. Find the total cost of production when
x=2, Iffixed cost is Rs. 6 !akhs, [Delhi Univ., B. Corn. (Hons,), 1992]
Solution, We have
MC=4+5x2 + 3 e
TC4MCdX =J(4+5x1 42. e" )dx
=4x+------ e--fk,
where k is constant of integration.
We are given that when x=0, TC6
6=_-+k krr-15
TC=4x- -i-- - e

PPLICAT1ONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACE-93
iC(atx=2)=4x2+
=8 -
=Rs. 28 63 lakhs.
[Lct y -- e2 , ., log y=-2 log e=-2x04343
1 1314
y-r flfl log ( 1.1314)=01 3531
To find the total revenue function and the demand function
when the marginal revenue function is given.
TI R is the total revenue when the output is x, then the marginal
revenue MR is given by
dR
MR
dx
Hence if the marginal revenue MR is given, then the total revenue
R is the indefinite integral of MR with respect to x i.e.,
(MR)dx+k
The constant of integration k can he evaluated from the fact that

the total revenue R is zero when the output X is zero.
Further, since the demand function can be easily obtained as
R
X
is gtvefl
Example 74. If the marginal revenue function for output
integration. Also
by R,-_ (x2)25"' the total revenue function by
deduce the demand function.
Solution. Total revenue function is given by
RB dx
2)2 I
dx+5 dx
1(x+2r
±5x+k
( x±2)
Since total revenue is zero at x=. 0, we get
k==3
R=3-

Also we know R=p>x

6
R
•
x
3
6 +5
x x(x-2)
-. 3x+6-6
6-6 +
x(x-p2)
x+2
Hence • p= +5 is the required demand function.

EampJe 75. If the marginal revenue function is
MR=Tb) 4
show that p=•b --- -C

-x
Li the demand law.
ab d
Solution. MR (b) c_•d(R)
Integrating both sides wr.t. x, we have

f( ab I
dx-f-k,
where k is a constant of integration.
=ab (x- b)- 1 dx-c dx+k
J J
=ab (' _-ab -cx+k •.(*)
Now when x=o, total revenue=O.
ab
0. k=-a.
Hence the total revenue function is given by
- ab
TR b -CX--a=px
-ab a
b)
x(x - x
-ab--ax+ab -ax
- x(x_b° x(x - b)
—a a
x—b _C==b__
C
is the required demand law.

To find the consumption function when the marginal pro-
pensity to consume (MPC) is given.
If P is the consumption when the dispQsable income of a person is
X, the marginal propensity to consume (MPG) is given by
MPC
dx
Hence if MPG is given, the consumption P is given by the indetinite
integral of U PC with respect to x, i.e.,
P(MPC)dx-fk
The constant of integration k, can be evaluated if the value of P Is

known for some x.
Eiam pie 76. If the marginal propensity to save (MPS) IS
15 02x- 2 , when x is the income. Find the consumption function, given
that the consumption is 4-8 when income is ten.
Solution. Now "derivative of consumption function w.r.t. output
represents marginal propensity to consume".
MPS = 15-F02x2=
dx
x-2+1
P= (l 5+02x 2 ) (1X I 5x+02( 2 )+k
=1 5x—
Now P=4g when x= 10

48=15x10----+k
k=—l0l8
Hence the consumption function is
P=15x— —1018
Maximum Profits
Suppose we are required to find the maximum profits of a firm when
only the marginal cost and the marginal revenue functions are given. Then
our problem is, how to compute maximum profits? By equating marginal
cost to marginal revenue, we can find the output that maximises total
profits. To calculate total profits at this output, we have
dP dR dC
dx - dx dx
ACE-96 US)NESS MAThEMATiCS
where P. R, C, x represents the total profit, total revenue, total cost and
output respectively.
Integrating, we have
P ^ i dR dx_j_ . dx+k=R—C+k
here the constant of integration, k, can be found from the additional

information given.
Remark. It may be noted that profit is maimiscd when
marginal revenue equals marginal cost, given the assumption of pure
competition Total profit is the integral of marginal revenue minus
marginal cost from zero quantity to quantity for which profit is niaxiinised.
Example 77. The marginal cost of production of a firm is
given as
C'(q)r 5 -1- Ol3q
Further, the marginal revenue is
R'(q)=18 -
Also it is given that C'(0)= Rs. 120. Compute the total profits.
Solution. Since profit is maximum, where,
marginal cost=-marginal revenue
i.e., C'(q)- R'(q)
5+0l3=l8
('P
Also _zrJ R'(q)dq_JC'(q) dq
Now S R'(q)=J 18 c1qr 18q--k1,

where k 1 is an arbitrary constant.
Put k 1 -0, as under pure competition, total revenue = output x price.
R(q)= I R'(q)dq 18g.
Also SC'(q)dq=J(5+0l 3q) dq
C(q)=5q+013
where k2 is an arbitrary constant.
From tb,e additional information C(0).-= 120, we have
C(0)=5(0)-+ O 3(0)-f-k 2 = 120
k 2 = 120, ... C(q)=5q005q$20.
Now P(q)_—R(q)_C(q
=18q5q_0065q?_ 120
13 q -0'065q 1 — 120
Total profit, when q— 100 is

P(1 0O)- 13— I00_0065(l00) 2 - 120
= I300--60-_l20Rs. 530.
Example 78. The ABC Co. Ltd. has approximated the marginal
revenue function for one of its products by MR= 20 - 2x The marginal
cost function is approximated by MC----81 --l6x+x2.
Determine the profit. maximizing output and the total projit at the
optimal output.
Solution. Solving for profit-maximizing output, set MR equal to
MC, i.e.,
MR=-MC
20x_2x2=81_6X+x
8136x_-3x=()
x2—l2x-i-270
(x-3)(x-9)r-0
x=3,9.
The second derivative of MR - MC is the second derivative of total
profit. The sign of P"(x) indicates whether x is a relative maximum
or relative minimum.
d(MR— A fC)
=36-6x
P(3)-36 -6(3)=-- 18.

P(9)=36 —6(9)=-18.
Therefore, at .v=9, profit is maximum.
Total profit= J 81+36x3 d= (_81x+18x1—XI)
: [_8I(9)- 18(9)1=0
which indicates no profit. A negative sign would signify a loss.
Example 79 XYZ Co. Ltd. suffers a loss of Rs. 12150 if one of
its special product does not sell. Marginal revenue is approximated by
MR —30—ox and marginal cost by MC= —24+3x.
Determine the total profit function, the break-even points, and the
total profit between break-even points.
Solution. Solving for total profit, first determine marginal
profit.
MP=MB—MC
=(30-6x)—(---24+ 3x)
=54-9x
Total profit function
= ,f MP dx

ACE-98
=f(54x-9x) dx
=54x?+k
Since a loss of Rs. 12150 occurs when there are no sale3, k must
equal —12150. Consequently, total profit function equals
(
P X) r -l2l'5O+54_ 9 -X
Solving for break-even points, set P(x) 0
0 r -121'50l54x - x'
(X-3)(x_9)=0
x=3,9.
Integrating the profit function between break-even points will give
total profit between break-even points.
TPJ(—l2l50+54x_ 9 )dx
=[(-121 • 50x+54 ._ - x )
=[ —12150(9)-l--54 (9)'
121•50(3)+54_--(3)3]
=Rs. 4536.
Ezample 80. The price elasticity of a demand curve x = AP) is of
the form (a —bp) where a and b are given constants. Find the demand
curve.
p dx
_-
x WP
a—bp dx
( )dp+ _==O
a dx rQ
( -_b)dp+
Integrating, we get
(alogp—bp)+log x=logc
log (p ebP)+ log x= log C
xp° e'==c
xcp-a eb?,
where log c is the constant of integration.
APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS AC-99
Example 81. Derive the demand function which has the unit price
elasticity of demand throughout. (Delhi Univ., B. corn. (Hons.) 19911
Solution. Since the elasticity of demand is unity throughout,
we have
p dx
I
dx dp
or
x p
Integrating both sides, we have
where k is the constant of integration.

or logxr-=logpk
or log x+ log p=k
or px=ek=c
pX=c is the required demand function,
Consumer's Surplus
Suppose the price p a consumer is willing to pay for a quantity X
of a particular commodity is governed by the demand curve
p D(x).
In general, the function D(x) is a decreasing function, since, as the
price of a commodity increases, the quantity the consumer is willing to
buy declines.
Further, suppose the price p that a producer is willing to charge
for a quantity x of a particular commodity is governed by the supply
curve
p=S(x).
In general, the function S(x) is an increasing function since, as the
price p of a commodity increases, the more the producer is willing to
supply the commodity.
The point of intersection of the demand curve and the supply
curve is called the equilibrium point E.
If the coordinates of £ are (x0 , p) then p 0 , the market price, is the

price a consumer is willing to pay for and a producer is willing to sell
for. a quantity x 0 , the demand level, of the commodity. The total
revenue of the producer at a market price p 0 ; and a demand level X0 is
p 0 xo (the price per unit times the number of units) which can be inter-
preted geometrically as the area of rectangle OAEB.
In a free market economy, there are times when some consumers
would be willing to pay more for a commodity than the market price p0
that they actually do pay. The benefit of this to consumers, i.e., the
difference between what consumers actually paid and what they were
willing to pa', is called consumer's surplus (CS). Thus
CS" (Total area under the demand curve O (x) from x-O to XX0)
{the area of the rectangle OAF-B)

XO
D(x) d -- < p0
In other words, consumer's surplus is the amount which a consumer

is willing to pay for a commodity rather than go without it, minus what
he would have to pay actually for it at the market price.
Remarks. 1. Under pure competition, the price p 0 is determined
by equating the demand and supply functions, and from this relation the
demand x0 is calculated.
I. Under monopoly, the price Pa is determined by equating MR

and MC functions. From this price value Po, we obtain the correspcnding
value of x 0 and then the consumer's surplus is calculated in the usual way.
Surplus
In a free market economy, there are also times when some
producers would be willing to sell at a price below the market price P0
APPL I CATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACII - 101
that the consumer actually pays. The benefit of this to the producer,
I.e., the dtlrcrct'ce between the revenue producers actually reeevC and
N
what they have been willing to receive, is known as producer's

surplu (PS).
PS (Area of the rectangle OAETh—(Area below the supply
function from 0 to x0}
X0 x p0 S(x) dx
Example 82. The de,nand law for a commodity is

P=20—D_D0
Find the consumer's surplus when the demand is 3.
Soluiio. Here
Also when the demand D,= 3, the price
P0 20-0)— (W 8
Consumer's surplusJf(D) dD—p0D0
(20—D—D^) c/D—(8x 3)
^j
4 20 D-_1_2d
('2 (11
=r 20x3____ _1_24=4:5
Example 83. I f supply curve is '- and the quantify

sold in market is 6 Units, find the producer's surplus.
ACE-IO2 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Solution. Now X 0 =6 p0: / 10+6 =h4

x0=6 and p0=4 (•.• p_4 is meaningless).
Hence producers' surplus
6x 4—VI0+Xdx
—24— (I04x)3
3/2
0
=24___[ (16)3/2_(10)321=2'42
Example 84. Determine consumer surplus and producer surplus

under pure competition for the demand function p=36_xz and supply
2
function p=o -.-- -, where p is the price and x is quantity.
[Delhi Univ. B. Corn, (lions.),
Solution. Under pure competition, market equilibrium conditions
can be obtained by equating the demand and supply.
5X2
36--x2=6+-- or
x30<4=r24 - x=2V"6X0
or
p,=36-24= 12
Consumer's Surplus= D(x) dx—p0x0
(36—x2) dx-2 i/6x12
2V6
= 36x_._ —24 '6
=72v' 6 —16-,/T —24V 6 =32V -6 -

XG
Producer's Surplus S(x) dx

2V6
X
=2V6X12— 64- )dx
J(
0
2/ 6
=24 V6 - 6x--1
=24\/6 —l2/6 —4i/6 =8\/6

Example 85. Find the consumer surplus and producer surplus
under pure competition for demand function p=-- 7----2 and supply function
P= 4- (x+3), where p is price and x is quantity.

[Delhi Univ. B. Corn (Hons)., 1992]
Solution. Under pure competition, market equilibrium conditions
can be obtained by equating the demand and supply.
—2=--- (x+3)
or 16-4(x+l)=(x--l-3)(x+1)
or 16-4x-4=X2 +4x4-3
or
or (x+9)(x—l)=O
or x=-9
x=-9 is inadmissible as quantity cannot be negative.
When x=], p=---(x+3)=--- (143)_-2.

xo
Consumer surplus D(x) dx—p00
0
J( .1_ 2 )dx_i x 2
0
log (x+ I)-2x] —2

BUSINESS MATF1E'1ATCS
104
=8 log 2-2-2=8 log 2-4.
Xa
Producer surplus S(x)

dx
=1 x 2 (v+3) dx
=2— [(+3x)]
2--
T3)
I
7
I
1
2
Example 86. The (lemand and supply function under perfect

compeluion are y=16—x 2 and y=2x 2 4-4 respectively, Find the market
price, consumer's surplus and producer's surplus.
Solution. Demand function : y=16 (*)
(*)
Supply function y=2x2+4
Subtracting (1) from (2) wc have
0=12-3x2
x = 2=x0
When x=2,
y- 16—(2) 1 I 2=y0
Thus when the quantity demanded or supplied is 2 units, the price
is 12 units.
Consumers' surplus
(16 _x 2) dx-2 12
2
=[ 16X----1--24
=32-- -. —24= =533

APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACE- 105
Producers' Sw plus
=2x12- (2x2+4)dx
—24 ["^ ' + Zlx ] = 24

LT +8]=T
—"'
1067
LxarnpIe 87. Demand and supply functions are D(x)=(l2-2V
and S(x)=56 -4x respectively. Determine CS under monopoly (so as to
maximnise the profit) and the supply function is identified with the marginal
cost Junction.
Solution. Total revenue -TR=x x D(x)
=(144-48x -1- 4x2)x
1 44x 48? + 40
MR_r.144_96x.4I2X2
Since the supply price is identiti(,d with MC we have
MC= 56+ 4x
In order to find Cs under monopoly, i.e., to maximise profit, we
must htve
MR=MC
144-96x+12v2=56+4x
12x 2 -- lOOx+88=0
3x2--25x-f-22=0
22
xI=X0 or X-
When x0 - 1, D( 9 )=p=(1 2-2)= 100
Cs_-_f (144_48X+4X2 )dx—IX 100
144x--48 +4 . _]_ioo
144-24+_100_=units.
22 ( 4'1' 64
Again when x ; PD —
= 12— --) =--
ACE- 106
22/3
22 64
CS= (144_4X+4x2)dx
2211
x t x3 22 64 19360 -
K4x- 48. ---44 -s- < ----- -- units.
-
Exa"tp1e 8R. Wizen the price of pocket calculators averaged

.Rs. 400, ABC Co. I41, sold 20 every month. When the price dropped to
an average of Rs. 100, 120 were sold every month by the same company.
When the price was Rs. 400, 200 calculators were available per week for
sale. When the price reached Rs. 100, only 50 remained. Determine con-
sumers' and producers' surplus.
Solution. The demand and supply functions are obtained as
follows
L)(q)- 400 100--400
D (q)-
(1--20 120-20
D(q)=460-3q
S(_0
S (q) 50-200
q--200
S(q)=2q
At equilibrium, D(q)=S(q)
460-3q-=-2q
q=92-'q0
With q0=92 ; p0 = 184
C.S. j (460— 3q) 1q—(92X 184)
= 460q - — 16928
=460x92— .x(92)2 -- 16928= 12696
P.S.92x 184— 2q dq
= 16929— [ qt] 8464

Example 89. Let p be the price of rice, q the quantity of rice, and
5, the amount of fertiliser used in rice production. Using data fm India
for 1949-- 1964 (Timmer and Pate!), we find for the per capita - demand
function for rice p =0964-6?73q
and for the supply function
q-0 063+0036 S
(1) Find the equilibrium in the rice market if 5=05
(ii) Find the consumer's surplus.
Solution. The dcniaiid function for rice is
J) 0 , 904 6773q
The supply function is
q=-0063 10036 S
For equilibrium, quantity demanded = quantity supplied.
From the two equations, we have on eliminating q)
p0964-6i73 (0063+0036 5)
For 5=0-5, 1)=0 , 964 - 6773 (0 , 063+0 , 0-36x 5)
=0964 --6773 (0-063+0-018]1=0-41 5=p,
and c -0063-I-0'036 == 0063 +0Ol 8- 0081 =q0
are the equilibrium price and quantity exchanged.
0081
(b) The required consumer's surplus =- p dq - p0 q9

0081
(0964--6'773 q) dq-041 5 x 0081
0081
q 6773q2
=[o'964 —0'033615
0
=0964x0081—-7 -- (081)'-0'033615=002225
The Learning Curve
In certain industrial operations such as assembling of television

sets, cars, home appliances, operating printing presses, workers learn
from experience so that the direct labour input per unit of product
steadily declines The rate of reduction in direct labour requirements
is described by a curve calked Learning curve. Ihe general form of the
function is usually taken as
IX)z4x
ACE- 108 BUS1NSS MATHEMATICS
where f(x) is the number of hours of direct labour required to produce
the xth unit, - la<O and A>0. The choice of x" ,with --l0,
guarantees that, as the number of x units produced increases, the direct
labour input decreases.
The learning curve can be used as a predictor to determine the

number of production hours for future work, once it has been determined
Yt
for a gross production process. From a given learning curve the total
number
'1J. is of labour hours required to produce units numbered 'a' through
N: f() dxr AX a dx
Example 90. ABC Co. Li5! tnanufacrur p s air. conditioners on an

assembly line From experience it was determined the first 100 air con-
ditioners required 1400 labour hours - For each subsequen t 100 air
conditioners (1 unit), less labour hours were required according to the
learning curve
Jtx)= 1400 x°
Where f(x) is the rate of labour hours required to assemble the xih unit
(each wilt being 100 air-conditioners). This Curve was determined after 100
units had been manufactured. If the company is in the process of bidding
for a large contract involving 20,000 additional air-conditioners or 200
aj/di!fo,ial units, find the man power required to complete the job.
Solution. The labour hours required to assemble the additional
200 units can be estimated by evaluating
300 3C0
N=J fix) dx= 1400 X-° • dx
100
J
IO
30{)
I 1400 x°•'
= i 07
100
APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACE-1 09
=2000[ (300)°—(100)
I
=2000[ y—z 1 , say
Let y=(300)°7
log y 07 log 300 07 x 2477 I 173397
y=Antitog (173397)=5420
Also let z - (100)0"
log z ==07(log I00)=07x2=14
z=Antilog 14=2512
Substituting the values in (), we have
1V=2000(5420 —25'12)r=58,160
Hence the company can hid estimating the total labour hours
needed as 58,160.
Example 91. After producing 35 units, the production manager
of a company determines that its production facility, is following a learning
curve of the form
AX) 1000.X-0.5
where fix) is the rate of labour hours required to aice,nbie the xlii Unit.
How mony total labour hours should i/wv estimate are required to produce
an additional 25 units.
Soiutiin. NJ 1000 x o• dv
2000 x1212000 ( 601-35'/ )
-2000 (7746-5916)=3660 hours

Rate of Sales
When the rate of sales of a product is a known function of x, say f(x)
where x is a time measure, The total sales of this product over a time period
Tis
/Zx) dx
j
Example 92. Suppose the late of sales of a new product is given by
f(x)=200_90 e-

ACE- 110 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
where x is the number of days the product is on the market. Find the total
sales during the first 4 days.
Solution. The total saies=J fi x) (IX
1 (200-90 e) dx= 1200x1 90 e I
s 800+90 e 4 -90710+9O e-4

•710-f 90(0'018)=71 162 units.
Fxairiple 93. Assume that in 1990 the annual world use of natural
gas was 50 trillion cubic feet The annual consumption of gas is increasing
at a rate of 3% compounded continoiisly how long will it take to use
all available gas, If it is known that in 1990 there were 2200 trillion
vhic feet of proven reserves ? ,f.csiiine that no new discoveries are made.
[Delhi Univ., B. Corn. (Hons.) 1991]
50. e°°'dt22OO
________I
50 . 003 =2200
0
5000
3 (e''_ )=2200
e°°3 '== ____
003t log e_]og 232

(003 t)(04343) (Q3655)
01655
03x04343281
year
Exaitp1e 94, A firm has the current sales of Rs 50,000 per month.
The firm wants to embark o pt a certain advertising '
campaign that will
Increase the sales by 2 01.
per month (compounded continuously over the
period of the campaign which is 12 months
. Find the total increase in
sales as a result of the campaign. Use calculus.
[Del/If Univ., B. Corn . (lIons.) 19901
APPLICATIONS TO COfMRCE AND ECONOMICS ACE-1 It
Solution. Total increase in sales is given by
-50000e° O2'(jf - 50000x 12

1
12
coot'
-50000 . —50000x 12

=25,00,000(e o it_i) -50,000x 12

Let y=e° 24
log y024 log e-=0 24x 04343 =01042

or y antilog.(01042) = 1272
Total increase in sales is given by
25,00,000 (1 '272-- 1)-- 50J)C0 x 12
6,80,000 - 6,00000 80,000.
Example 95. A company whose annual sales are currently Rs.
5,00,000 has been experiencing sales increase of 20 % per year. Assuming
this rote of growth continues, what will the annual sales be in five years.
Solution. If A is the annual sales in five years, then
A 5,00,000 e°' 2' cit
5,00,000
[e-i
02
-= 5,00,000(8591 39)-. Rs, 4295695
Amount of an Annuity
The amount of an annuity is the sum of all payments made, plus all
interest accumulated.
If an annuity consists of equal annual payments P in which an
interest rate of r°/, per annum is compounded continuously, the, amount
A of the annuity after N payment is
AJPe" d,

ACE-1 12 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Example 96. XYZ hank pays 10% per annum compounded

continuously, if a person places R& 10,000 In a sa y ings account each year,
how much will be in the account after 5 years?
Solution. Here P=10,000; N=5 and r=010. The amount A
after 5 years is
10,000 e° '°' dt
5
10,000
1 e 0 10, - '.9.(e5_- 1)
= 010 - 010
0
[06488]==Rs. 64880
011
Example 97. A bank pays interest at the rare of 6% per annum
compounded continuously. Find how much should be deposited in the
bank each year in order to accumulate Rs. 6.000 in 3 years
[Delhi Univ. , B. Corn. (lions.) ; 19921
Solutj, Let Rs. A be deposited each year. Then, we have
6000=,l . e °' di
3
re° 06 ' '1 A
LJ
6(eols_e0)
0
--------te°'8---
1)
006 '
6 000X0'06=A(e O ' i8_ I)
A 6000x006 360
= J-1
Let
log y==O'18 log e=018x0434300782
y=antilog (00782)==1198)
360 360
• A 1 818 18
1198-1 0198
EXERCISES
I. If MC of firm is given by
C(q)==250,

APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCI3 AND ECONOMICS ACE- 113
find total cost if C(0) 100. Also find average cost. What will be
the marginal, average and total cost for q=6() units ?
2. Let the marginal cost function of a firm be 100-- lOx-f 0 . 1 x2,
where x is the output. Obtain the total cost function of the finn under
the assumption that its fixed cost is Rs. 500.
[Hint. MC= 100— 10x+01x2
TC =1(100—lOx .-I-01 x2 ) dx
lOOX_5X2+lk
Fixed cost is 500
TC=l00x_5x 2 + + 500]
3. The marginal cost of production is found to he

MC=' 2000-40x 1-3x 2
where x is the number of units produced. The fixed cost of production
is Rs. 18,000. Find the cost function.
If the manufacturer fixes the Price per unit at Rs. 6800,
(I) Find the revenue function.
(ii) Find the profit function.
(iii) Find the sales volume that yields maximum profit ?
(iv) What is the profit at this sales volume ?
[Flint. C(x)=r1(2000— 40x+3x 2) dx- 2000x--20x2 +x 3 -l- k
C(0)= 18,000 4 C(x)=x— 20x 2 -f 2000 X + 18,0003
4. A company determines that the marginal cost of producing
x units of a particular commodity during a one-day operation is
MC-16x--1591, where the production cost is in rupees. The selling
price of commodity is fixed at Rs. 9 per unit and the fixed cost is
Rs. 1800 per day.
(a) Find the cost function.
(b) Find the revenue function.
(c) Find the profit function.
(d) What is the maximum profit that can be obtained in a one-day
operation ?
[Hint. (a) C(x)=J (MC) dx=-J(16x-159I) dx=8x— 1591x+k
C(0)= 1800 C()=8x2— 1591x 4 1800
(b) R(x)9x
(C) P(x)=- R(v)— C(x) - 8x 2 + 1600x— 1800
(d) P '(X) r—_16X+1600=0 x=100
The maximum profit that can be obtained in one day is
P (lOO) c= __8(100) 2 + I ,60,00— I ,800'= Rs. 78,200.1
ACI3-1 14 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
3
S. If the marginal cost function is given by
=3q±4 and
fixed cost is 2, find the average cost for 4 units of output. [Ans. 8/71
6. Find the total revenue functions and the demand functions
corresponding to the following marginal revenue functions.
(i) MR=9-4x', (ii) MR=7-4x—x2;
(iii) MR==-6---------
(q2)? 5.
[Ans. (i) Rr=7x --- 2.V —,2 AR=7 --- 2x ---
7.The marginal revenue function of a commodity for output q is

dR 1q -
given by , where R stands for total revenue. What is
the demand function ? [Ans. p=q121
S. If the marginal revenue of output q is given by the equation

dR
where R is total revenue. Find the total revenue function
= --q,
dq
and hence deduce the demand function.
j2
[Ans. B =q-- andq]
ab
9 If the marginal revenue function is MR_ - 1- - show
that is the demand law.

xtb
r C b (IR
t, MR=
Hint, C
- ( (x--b) dx
Nab ab
----c dXr=-------C-fk
J((X$-b)' x+b
where k is the constant of integration. Now .R=O when x=O.
—ab
— + k =O .. k==a.
oh ax
T+--b + xx+b CX
R a
x x+h
10. If the marginal revenue and the marginal cost for an output x
of a commodity are given as
MR=5_4x±3x2 and MC=3+2x

APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND IC0NOM(CS ACe- I 15
and if the fixed Cost is zero find the profit function and the profit when
the output is xr4.
(Ans. Profit function =2x 3x2 + x3 ; 24]
11. Additional earnings obtained by purchasing a new machine is
approximated by R(x) 50x -x2. The annual maintenance costs foi the
machine are C(X) = 4x'. how many years should the machine be
maintained, assuming no salvage value ? What are the total net ciriiings
for that period 2 Costs are in Rs. 100 units and x is in. years.
[Ans. 5, Rs. 1251
12. If the marginal cost function is MC=x 2 - 16x+20 and margi-
nal revenue function is MR=20 2x, determine the profit-maximizing
output and the corresponding total profit. Cost is in units of Rs. 1000
and x is in units of Output.
13. The marginal propensity to consume out of income for the
economy as a whole is given as 4. It is known that when income is zero,
consumption equals Rs. 12 billion. Find the function relating aggregate
consumption to national income. Find aggregate saving as function
of income.
[Ari. C= Yj- 12, S- Y_ 12.]
14. In an economy, the marginal propensity to consume of domes-
tically produced goods is given by
dC dM
and marginal propensity to import is
where C, M and Y stand for consumption, imports and income respec-

tively. What will be the equation for aggregate expenditure of the
economy ? Also give economic interpretation of the constant of
integration.
[Ans. E=K-i-08 Y, where E is aggregate expenditure of the eco-
nomy and K represents autonomous expenditure.]
15. Determine the consumer's and the producer's surplus, given
the demand function D(x)= 25 - 5x-i- (x/4) and supply function
S(x) 5x + (x 2 /4). Assume a monoply situation,
[Ans. 13'02, I 825.]
16. Under pure competition for a commodity, the demand and
supply laws are
and p =_- (xf3) respectively.
Determine the consumer's surplus and the producer's surplus.
[Ans Cs (2)dx2x181og2._2_2 ]
ACI- 116 BUSINESS ?,MTL11MA TICS
17. Find the consumer's surplus (at equilibrium price) if the demand
25 p
function is D= and supply function is p -= 5+ D.
18. Find consumer's surplus and producer's surplus defined by the

demand curve D(x) •20—. 5x and supply curve S(x)4-f-8
Sketch also the appropriate graphs.
413 413
[Hint CS=j (20-5x) dx--P.x--, PS = ±._J(4xi8) dx]
19. The quantity sold and the corresponding price under monopoly
are determined by the demand law p=16--xl and by the CM=6+x in
such a way as to maximise the profit. Determine corresponding CS.
In the above question, if demand law is p=45—x 2 and
determine C.S.
20. Assume that the demand and average cost curves of steel are
p =234— 134x
and AC= —0834 085 x,

x is the quantity of steel demanded or produced.
Show that consumer's surplus under monopoly and perfect competi-
tion is 0351 and 0*129 respectively.
Show also that C.S. would have been cqual to 2 , 043 if steel were
a free good.
21.Find the consumer's surplus if the demand curve is
D(x)=50— 0025x2
and it is known that the market quantity is 20 units.
[Hint. cs=J (500025 x) dx— 40 x 201
22. A business organisation made an analysis of production which

shovs that with the present equipment and workers, the production is
10,000 units per day. It is estimated that the rate of change of produc-
tion P with respect to the change in the number of additional workers
X is
dP
=2003X1l
dx
What is the production (expressed in units per day) with 25 addi-
tional workers 7
A PELICA I IONS TO COMMFRCI ND ECONOMICS ACE- 117
Hint. x detiotes the change in the number of workers. Wheit

there is no change in their number, x.0. When 25 additional workers
lie taken. x 25.
dP
- 2O3x".
dx
Integrating both sides with respect to X • w. get
S (/1'.J (200—.3x';') (Ix
3x3
2i-[k (*)
Using the condition that when x==0, P 10,000, () becomes
10,000---200,<o--o k
10,000
Hence l'-=200x--2 -I 10,000
When x 25, J' 200:' 23 -2(25)'4- 10,000= 14,750.)
23. Fhc production manager of an CICL tron cs coinp.lnv obtai::cd
the following functioti
f(x)= 13564x°°
whereJ (x) is the rate of labour hours required to assemble the h unit
of a product. The function is based on the experience for asenibling
the lust 50 units of the product. The Company was asked to but on a
new order of 100 additional units. Find the total labour hours required
for assembling the 100 units. [An s. 31,460)
24. The purchase price of a car is Rs. 15,000. The rate of cost
for the replir of the car is given by the function
C=60() (I --e-')
where I represents the years of use since purchase and C denotes the cost.
Find the cumulative repair cost at theend of 5 years. Also find approxi-
mate)v the time in yeats at which the cumulative repair cost equals the
original cost of the car.
25. If Rs. 500 is deposited cacti year in a saving account paying
55 per annum compounded continuously, how much is in the account
after 4 years ?
Hint 500 °' 11=9090(eo02236.]

[
26. What is the present value of Rs. 1200 per year at 7 for five
years ? How does this compare with Rs. 100 per month ? (Assume
continuous discounting). (Ans. Rs. 506249, saine)
27. A small daLi-processing company is planning to acquire addi-
tional components for its main Computer. Estimated maintenance COStS
for each unit are C(x) = 3x 2 . Anticipated savings from each added mind

ACE-1 18 uLsu':rss MKIHEMA TICS

are approximated by S(x)2x2+ 16. C(x) is in Rs. 1000 units; 5(x) is
in units of Rs. 10,000 ; and x is the number of units added. How many
units should be added and \hhat are the resulting earnings 7
28. The anticipated idditiona1 sales from a newspaper advertise-
ment campaign are approximated by R(., )=16088 e°°", where R(x) is
extra daily sales in rupees and x is in days. Research has found that
10 days is the maximum period of return for an advertisement If
the advertisement cost is Rs. 11 '99, what is the exnected additional
income at the end of the first day 7 At the end of the fifth day ? At the
end of the tenth day ?
9. Pareto's hypothesis concerning income distribution is given
by the equation y=- A - Ib+1 A and b being positive constants, where y
represents the number of persons with an income of Rs. x and is a conti-
nuous frquencv distribution of persons according to their levels of
income.
Find (i) the number of laconic recipients between income levels p
and q and (ii) their average income
A f 1 1 b
b L ph q1-I --b pb_qb
30. Suppose a law of income distribution states that
0 t /(
where X is income level, U and a are constants and y is a cumulative

frequency of income recipients. Find the number of people falling into
the income bracket (x 1 , x2).
IAns.----[
1b+l_X2b+1 11
31. If the investment flow is given by L— 5(1/4 and the capital
stock at t0 is K0 , find the time path of capital K and also find the
capital formation in the t th period.
[Ans. 41 -f-k0 , 4 3 / 4
32. Obtain the demand function for a commodity for which

elasticity of demand is constant '' throughout.
/)dX
[Hint. - =. dp
- dx -
xdp x p
__ f dx di)
J x j p
—log x=,,. log p +log k. log p +log k
Hence xp 0C
=c.]
APPLiCATLOtS TO COMMERCL AND LCoOMlCS A CE- I 19
APPLICATIONS TO MATIUCFS
Ex al "Ple 98. Mr V LV <1 so!e trader. ni r/ruJaciurin ,ç' tables and

chairs. Each table requires 5 hours of labour and 6 unItS of material A
chair requires 3 labour hours and 3 units of material. if Mr X plans to
produce 10 tables and lS chairs in the ,,et week how may hours will lie
need to work and how much material will he require ?
Solution. The labour requirement is (10 x 5) + (IS < 3)-- 95 hours

The material requirement is (10 x 6'4 (IS 3)= 105 units.
The matrix solution would be
Tables Chairs Labour Materials Labour Materials
(10 I s< () =(95 jos)12

It may be noted that
( 5 6 / 10 1 MO
I 3 is ) 7
is incorrect as labour hours are being added to units of material.
Example 99. A firm produces di fferent pump Units , (- 0(11 0/ which
requires some components shown be/ow in a tabular form
Pump housing Impeller 13o11.v Couplings Inlets Armoured
Hose
Type A 1 / 5 4 2 8 in
Type B 1 1 7 3 2 4 ,n
Type C 1 1 3 5 2 3 tn.
The firm receives an order for 8 Type-A pump units , 4 Type- B units
and 2 Type-C units . Using tire notion of Mairi- multiplication, ohiin die
matrix whose elements may represent the quantifies of each item required
to make up the order.
Solution. The specifications of the different pump units with their
components can be represented by the following matrix,
11 I 1 where each column represents the type of the pump and

each row represents the different components required.
111 The firm has received order for 8 type .4. 4 type B.
2 type C units. This can he represented by the matrix,
I 5 7 31
12221 II 4 II
I I
8 4 3 j 6x3 L 3 J31

Therefore the matrix multiplication of these two matrices gives

1 1 1 1 ) I 1x8±1x411x3 _1
I 1 I
1 1 1 1x8f-1x4+1x3 I
181 I
I 5 7 3 I
II 5<8+7x4-I-3x3
4 I
I 4 3 5 1 I 1 4x8-j-'3X4+5x3 I
I I3 jI
I 2 2 2 f I 2X8+2x4+2x3
L S 4 3 J L 8XI4x4f-3x3 i
The Ivst clement of matrix (= 14) gives the number of component
for housing, the second ( 14) gives that of impeller and so on.
Example 160. The following matrix gives the number of units of
three products (P, Q and R) that can be ircesed per hour on Three
machines (,1, ii and C)
A B C
P ('10 12 15)
() I 13 11 20
R 16 18 14
Determine by using matrix algebra , how many units of each product con he
producer!. if the hoiir available on machines A, ii and C are 54, 46 and 48
respectively. [Delhi Unlv, B. Corn. (lions.), 19921
Solut LOl).
4 1? C
J' o 12 1 F 54 1
15
Units of productcQ 13 11 20 I I 46 I B
RI: -- 16 18 14 i L 48 J C
540-f-5521 720 1
702+506+960
L 864+828+672
1 1812 1 °
2168 IQ
2364 J B
1812, 2168 and 2364 units of product P, Q and Rare produced
respectively.
Example 101. The following matrix gh'es the proportionate mix of
constitUe ' rH used for three fertilisers
Constituent
A B C D
1 05 0 05 0
Fertiliser 2 02 03 0 05
3 02 02 01 05
APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACE-l21
(1) If sales are 1000 tins (of one kilogram) per week, 20/ being
fertillser 1, 30% being fersillser 2, and 50% fertiliser 3; how much of each
constituent Is used?
(II) If the cost of each constituent is 50 palse, 60 poise, 75 poise and
100 paise per 100 grams, respectively, how much does a one kilogram tii
of each fertiliser cost ?
(Ill) What is the total cost per week?
Express the calculations and answers In matrix form.
Solotion, (I) The sales of fertilisers per week can be expressed as
the following matrix
1000(0-2 03 05)=(200 300 500)
Thus
05 0 0'5 0
(200 300 500) f 02 03 0 O'5

02 02 01 05
=(260 190 150 400)
Requirements of constituents are
A: 260, B: 190, C:150, D. 400
(II) Costs of each constituent are 50 p, 60 p, 75 p, and 100 p per 100
grams, I.e., 500 p, 600p, 750 p and 1000 p per 1,000 grams (one kilogram)
of each constituent, respectively.
Thus
500
/05 0 0'5 0 /625
\ 600!
I 02 0. 3 0 0'5 Ix =1 780
1 750
\ 02 02 01 0'S / \ 795
1000
Costs per 1 kg tin of fertilizer are
1: Rs. 6'25, 2 : Rs. 710, 3 : Rs. 7'95.
(1(i) The total cost of fertiliser if 1,000 one-kilogram tins are needed
per week may be calculated by either
/ 625
(200 300 500) ( 780 )=(7.s6500)
795 /

ACE- 122

BU51NSS MATHEMATICS
500
or by (260 190 150 400) 600=(7,56,500)

750
1000
Hence, totalst per week is Rs. 7,565.
Example (A1jJ The total cost of nianufacturjn5 three types of motor
car is given by :/-folhwing table
Labour Materials Sub-Contracted
(lirs) (units) work (units)
Car A 40 100 50
Car B 80 150 80
Car C 100 250 100
Labour costs Rs. 20 per hour, units of material cost Rs. 5 each and units
sub-contracted work cost Rs. 10 per unit. Find the total cost of of
'nanufac
luring 3,000; 2,000 and 1,000 vehicles of type A, B and C respectively.
(Express the cost as a triple product of a three element row matrix
a 3 < 3 matrix and a three element column matrix and perform the ,nu/jj_
plicatlon according to the same rules you used for 2x 2 matrices)
Solution. Let matrix P
sub -contracted work for three typesrepresent labour hours, material used and
of cars A, B, C respectively,
r 40 10050
P==j 80 ISO 80
L 100 250 100
Further let matrix Q represent labout cost per unit, material cost
and cost of sub-contracted work
r 20
Q= S
L 10
The cost of each car A, B, C is now given by the column matrix
11800')
PQ== I 3150 I
L425oJ
Let the number of cars A. B, C to be manufactured in that order
be represented by the row matrix
R==[3000 2000 1000]
Hence the total cost of m anufacturing three cars A, B and C
by the matrix is given

APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACE- 123
11800
PQR=z 131501 x[3000 2000 1000]
4250j
- [1,59,50,000]
F:xat-npte 103. A manufacturer produces three products : F, Q and
B which he sells in two markets. Annual sales volumes are indicated as
follows:
Markets Products
P Q R
I 10,000 2,000 18,000
II 6,000 20,000 8,000
If unit sale prices of P, Q and R are Rs. 25Q, 125 and 1-50_
respectively, find the total revenue in each market with the help of MhJffL
Algebra.
If the unit costs of the above 3 commodities are Rs. 1 80, 120 arid
080 respectively, find his gross profits. -
Solutioii. Total revenue in each market is obtained from the
matrix product
110000 60001
[250 1'25 150]x 2000 20000 =[54500 520001
L18000 8000J
6000
1-10000
Total cost r =tI80 1-20 080) x 1 2000 20000
L18000 8000]
=[34800 412001
Profits from market A-:54500-34800'19700
Profits from market B=52000-41200 10800
Example 104. In a certain city there are 25 colleges and 100 schools.
Each school and college has 5 peons. 2 clerks and I cashier. Each college
in addition has I accountant and I head-clerk. The monthly salary of each
of them is as follows
Peon—Rs. 300 ; Clerk—Rs. 500 Cashier—Rs. 600 ; Accountant—
Rs. 700 ; and Head-clerk— Rs, 800.
Using matrix no:aiion,find
(a) the total number of posts of each kind in schools and colleges
token together.
(b) the total monthly salary bill of each, school and college separately,
and

ACE-124
(c) the total monthly salary bill of all the schools and colleges taken
together.
Solution. (a) Consider the row matrix of order I x2
A=(25 100]
This represents the number of colleges and schools in that order.
5 2 1 1 1 ]
Let
2
L 5 1 0 0
where columns represent number of peons, clerks, cashier, accountant,
head-clerk while rows represents colleges and schools in that order.
Then
rs 2 1 1 1
AB=[25 lOOJxI
lx 2L S 2 1 0 0
2x5
=-f625 250 125 25 100]
1x5
where first element represents total number of peons, second represents
total number of clerks, third represents total number of cashiers, fourth
represents total number of accountants and fifth represents total number of
head-clerks.
(b) Let the column matrix
30 r
1 oo
600
700
L8
represent monthly salary of peon, clerk, cashier, accountant and head-
clerk in that order. Then
(300
I I
I 500 I
r s 2 1 1 i
ftCrr
I x I 600 I
L 5 2 1 0 0J I
2x5 I 700 I
[800 3
1500+1000+600+700+800
[ 1[ 4600
1 500+1000+600+0 +0 3100
2x1 2-<l
APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS ACt- 12
Thus. total monthly salary bill of each college is Rs. 4600 and of each
school is Rs. 3 100.
(c) The total monthly salary bill of all schools and colleges taken
together is
4600
A ( BC) = [ 25 100] Xr
x2 [ 3100
2x I
r= ,15,000±3,l0,000]
=-[4,25,0001.
Example 105. The allocation of service department costs to produc-
tion departments and other service departments is one area where nafr1X
algebra may be used.
Consider the following data
Service departments Production department
Maintenance Electricity Marching Assembly
Manhours of
maintenance tune - 3,000 16,000 1,000
Units of electri-
city consumed 20,000 - 1,30,000 50,000
Department costs
before any alloca-
tion of service
departments Rs. 50,000 Rs. 4,000 Rs. 1,40,000 Rs. 2,06,000
You are required to
(i) Calculate the total Costs to be allocated to the production depart-
ments using matrix algebra (Formulate the problem and show all workings)
(ii) Show the allocation to the production departments, using matrix
methods.
Solution. (i) Let X be the total cost of the maintenance department
(i.e., including an allocation of electricity costs).
Let Y be the total cost of electricity (i.e., including an allocation of
maintenance costs).
Proportion of maintenance time consumed by electricity department
is
3000 3000
3000+16000+100020000_0 15
i.e., 15% of the maintenance deptt. costs should be allocated to the
electricity department.
Y==4000+015 X

Ace-126 BUSINESS MAT}IEMArICS

Likewise, the proportion of total electricity consumption used by
the maintenance department is
20000 20000
I
so that 10 0% of the electricity cost should be allocated to the maintenance
department.
X=50000+0'I '
From (') and (), we get
—0'15X F Y=4000
X01Y500OO
--015 l\ ( X ) == ( 54000
i —011 \ Y 0000
/ )^( X --015
1
1 )- 4000
Y 1 —01 \50,000
1 01 1 4000
0985( 1 0.15)x(5000{))
( 51,168
1I,675 )
Rence X-=Rs. 51,168 and Y=Rg. 11,675.
(ii) The proportions of maintenance and electricity consumed by
the production departments are
Maintenance Electricity
16,000 1,30,000
Machine ----.= 08
2,00,000 =065
1,000 . 50,000
Assembly 2,00,0000 25
20,000 =0 05
Accordingly the allocations of maintenance costs to the production
department is
(01 O'65\ ( X
I\0•05 025)
(01 0-65)
0Q5 0-25) 11,675
r.e., Rs. 48,523 to machining and Rs. 5,477 to assembly, a total of
Rs. 54,000.

APPCAT1ONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS kC13-127
Example 106. A, B mid C has Rs. 480, Rs. 760 and Rs. 710 respec-
tively. They utilised the amounts 10 purchase three types of shares of
prices x, y and z respectively. A purchases 2 shares of price r, 5 of price
y and 3 of price z. B purchases 4 shares of price x, 3 of price y aid 6 of
price z, C purchases I share of price x, 4 of price y and 10 of price z. Find
X, y and z.
Solution. We obtain the following set of simultaneous linear
equations
2x+5y-3Z 480
4x+ 3y+ 6z== 760
x-4y4- 10z=710
The above system of equations in the matrix notation is

12 5 31 (x 148O
I I! I
4 3 61 X y = 7601
I II I
LI 4 10J LZJ L 710
1 X i 12 5 3) •-1 1 480
I I 1 I
y !=H4 3 6X I 7601
I I 1 I
LZJ L 4 loJ L71 0J
1 2 5 3
Now A -I; where I A 4 3 6-1I9
—38 +21
1+6
and Ad] A = —34 +17 0 (Try yourself
L+13 - 3 —14J
From ('), we get
I - 1-1-6 —33 4-211 f 4801
I II
'' I--3 4 +17
yI=—------ 0 lxi 7601
L z J L+13 —3 —14J L 710J
1 r 6x480-38x760-I--21X710
—34x480+17X760-F0 x710
119
L 13x480-3 x760-14x710
r —11090 1 110901119
-1 —3400 == 34001119
119 5980/119
L —5980 J

ACE-123
RUS!NJsS MATHEMATICS
Hence
11090 3400 5980
Z_1•
x= 119'
Example 107. To control a certain crop disease it is necessary to
use 8 units of chemical 4, 14 units of chemical B and 13 units of chemical
C. One barrel of spray P contains one unit of A, 2 units of
Of C. One barrel of spray Q contains 2 units of A, 3 units of13 and 3 units
of C. One barrel of spray R contains one unit B and 2 units
of A, 2 units of B and 2 units
O f C. flow many barrels of each type of spray should be used to control
the disease 7
Solution. To grasp the situation easily, let us tabulate the data
as follows
Spray Requirement in
chemicals
P Q
A 1 2 1 8
Chemical B 2 3 2 14
3 2 2 13
Quantity in C
each spray x y z
Let x barrels of spray P, y barrels of spray Q and z
R be used to control the disease. Then barrels of spray
x+2y--z =8
2x+3y+2z14
3x+2y+2J3
Writing the equations in the matrix form, we get
[1 2 11rx1r8
2 3 2 xj y 14
L3 2 2J LzJ [i3
rxl ri 2 11- 1 r 8
I -' I I 2 3 2 Ix 14
LzJ L3 2 2J L13
Now r i 2 1 1-1 r +2 —2 +1 1
2 3 2 +2 —1 0 (Try yourself)
L3 2 2J L-s +4—h
r x 1r 2 —2 -l-I1r81
Y '=1 +2 —1 0 x 14 kI 2
L z - L —5 +4 —1 [ 13 J [ 3
X=1,y2 and z=3
Hence I barrel of the spray P.
ray R should be used to control 2 barrels spray Q and 3 barrels of
the disease.

APPLICATIONS TO COMMeRCIR AND ECONOMICS AC1-129

Example 108. The XYZ Bakery Ltd. produces three basic pastry
mixes A, B and C. In the past the mix of ingredients has been as shown
fri the following matrix
Flour Fu Sugar
A 5 1 1
Type B 65 25 0'5
C 4-5 3 2
(All quantities in kilogra,n weight)
Due to changes in consumer tastes it has been decided to change the
mixes using the following amendment matrix
Flour Fat Sugar
A 0 +1 0
7ype B —0-5 +05
C +05 0 0
Using matrix algebra you are required to calculate
(I) the matrix for the new mix:
(ii) the production requirements to meet an order for 50 units of
type A, 30 units of type jj and 20 units of type C of the new mix;
(iii) the amount of each type that must be made to totally use up 3700
kgs, of flour, 1700 kgs of fat and 800 kgs of sugar that are at present In
the stores.
Solution. (i)
The new mix is given by the addition of the original
mix matrix and the amendment matrix.
5 1 1\ / 0 -f-I 0\ /5 2 1
65 25 05 —05 +05 +05 6 3 1
=
(4 5 3 2 ./ o 0/* 5 3 2
Therefore, the answer to part (i) is
Flour Fat Sugar
Type 5 2 1
Type 6 3 1
Type 5 3 2
(Ii) To determine the production requirements it is necessary to
multiply the order vector by the new mix matrix,
5 2 1
(50 30 20) 6 3 1 =-(530 250 120)
5 3 2

ACE- 130
•. 530 kgs of flour, 250 kgs of fat, 120 kgs of sugar
(Iii) 5X,-6K2+5X3700
2X 1 + 3X2 4-3X3 1700
X1 +X21-2X3=_800
5 6 5 X1 / 3700
/ '
2 3 31 A'2 1700

1 2/ \ 800
AK=-B
/X1 \ / 5 6
A'2 I"- 2 5\-1 /3700
3 3 x( 000
\X,/ i 1 2/ '\ 800
On s i mplification, we get
X1 = 400 X.4 =200 and Xz= 100.
Example 109. A mixture is to be made of three foods A, B,
The three foods A, B, C contain nutrients P, C.
Q, R as shown in the tabular
column. Flow to forma mixture which will have 8 gms of F, 5 gm
of Q, and 7 grns of R,
gqis per kg of
Food Nutrient P
Nutrient Q Nutrient R
A 1 2 5
B 3 / 0
C 4 2 2
Solu tion. Let x kgs of food A, y kgs of food B, and z kgs of food C
he chosen to make up Uie mixture.
Then we have the equations,
x+3y+4z-8
2x+ Y+2z=5
5x+2z7
Expressing these equations as a single matrix equation, we have
1 3 4)X( x \/8
2 1y s
0 2z/\7
3 4 )=( 8 Apply
/1
or [0 —5 - 6)x( yx -11 R+(-2)R1
0 —15 —18 z _J3 / R3+(-5)R1
APPLICATIONS TO COMMFRCC AND P.CONOMICS A(,E-131
1 3 4\ 8 Apply
y 1
/ X
or 1 0 5 6 x I It 1) R,
0 0 0) 1
0 R3-l-(-3)R2
Therefore, we have
x -1- 3y+ 4z - S • .
5 Y-1- 6z=- • (4*)
Let zfl-a. From (**), 5y-6a=I I, i.e.,
Substituting in (*) x + 3 + 4a 5
5x-l-3(11 --6a) F204O

7--2a
2a or
5x=7--2(z x
7-2n 11 -6a
The solution I S x = ---, y ------- , z =a.
As 'a' changes, we can get any number of solutions and thus there
are any number of mixtures. Sinc ' x, y, z take non-negative values zO,
I.e., a > 0.
Considering the value of x, we have
0, i.e., 7 -2a 0. i.e., 7 2a, i.e., a J1)
Considering the value of y,
0, I.e., It —6a 0, i.e., I I 6a, I.e., a ...(1I)
The restriction (II) covers the restriction (1)
Therefore, we have 0 a
When a==I,xl,yr=1 and z=I.

Example 110. ABC company has two service departments, S1
and S,and four production departments, P1, P1. P. and P4.
Overhead Is allocated to the production departments for inclusion
in the stock valuation. The analysis of benefits received by each depart-
ment during the last quarter and the overhead expense Incurred by each
department were

AcE- 132 BUSINESS MATHMA11C5
Service Percentages to be allocated to departemnts

Department
S1 S2 P, P, P3 P4
S1 0 20 30 25 13 10
S2 30 0 10 35 20 3
Direct overhead 20 40 25 30 20 It)

F-Vpenje Rs '000
I J
You are required to
(i) express the total overhead of the service deparimenis in the form
of simultaneous equations
(ii) express these equations in a matrix form
(iii) determine the iotal overhead to be allocated from each of S 1 and
S2 to the production department.
Soludon. (I) Let
S 1 = tal overhead of service department S1
S,-= total overhead of service department S,
Then S=20,000+03 S2
32 -- 10,000+02 S1
Written as sjmujtaneoiy equations, this becomes
S1 -03 S,=20,000
—02 Si-I- S2==40,000
(ii) In matrix form, the equations are written as
E A S
/ 20,000\ / 1 —03) X ( S1
1=1
\ 40,000 1 \ - 02 1 S2
S A-' E
S1 ( I —03 \' / 20,000
=1 lxi
\ S2 / \ — 02 1 / \. 40,000
(Iii) By the normal rules for finding the inverse of a 2 > 2 matrix, this
equals
S1 1 03 )X( 20,000 34,043
( (
S2 ) tY94 02 1 40,000 46,808

APPLICATIONS TO COMMI RCH AND ECONOMICS ACE-133

The allocation of overhead from S and S1 becomes
Pt
P
( 1 )x(0'3 025 015 01)=
F'
P4
10,2!)
/
,51E
(34,043)X(03 025 015 01)
5,106
3,404
P1
and (S.)x(0'1 035 02 005)=

P3
P4
4.681
16,383
46,83) (010 , 35 02 025)=
9,367.
2,340
The final allocation becomes
Department Total P, P3 P3 PA
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs, Rs,

S1 27,234 10,213 8.511 5,106 3.404

S. 32,766 4,681 16.383 9,362 2,340
Total 60,000 14,894 24.894 14,468 5 , 744
LEONTIEF INPUT-OUTPUT MODEL

The Leontief input-output model in ec
onomics (named after
Wassily Leontref, a recipient of the Noble prize in Economics in 1973)
may be characterised as a description of an economy in Which input
equals output, or in other words, consumption equals production, I.e.,
the model assumes that whatever is produced is always Consumed
Input-output models are of two types : closed, in which the entire

productio:i is consumed by those participating in the produ':tion ; and
open in which some of the production is consumed by those who produce
it and the rest of the production is consumed by external bodies. In
the closed model we seek the income of each participant in the s)stern.
In the open model, we seek the amount of production needed to achieve
a forecasted demand when the amount of production needed to achieve
a current demand is known.
Consider an economy consisting of n industries where each industry
produces only one type of product (output). There is all
of industries in the sense that one must use other products to
operate. Also the production of the finished product must meet the
final demand as well as the demand of the other industries.
Our problem is to determine the production of each of the
industries if the final demand changes, assuming that the structure of
the economy does not changc. The data is tabulated in the following
input-output transaction table
To (user) Final Total
1 2 3 ... n demand output

I .x11 X X1 ('I

2 . X22 'T23
X,
x2

X X J ,, (/3
3 X31 x31
A.,
n X.1 Xn2 X .. d
x,.,, X.
j, i.e., it represents
where X, 1 is t he output of industry I sold to industry
the rupee value of the product of industry I used by industry j.
Now
represents the rupee value of the total output of industry I.
x,1 Rupee value of the product of industry I used by industry j.
Xj Rupee value of the total product of industry I.
=Rupee value of the out-put of industry I that industryj must
purchase to produce one rupee worth of its own product.
=a,1 (say)
In other words,
X, i —_ aaj Xj amounts to saying that sales of industry ito industry
j,
j are a constant proportion a of the output of industry j.
=Rupee value of the product of industry I used by industry].

A PPLICATrONS TO COMMFRCE AND ECONOMICS

ACE-135
Now we introduce the matrix of input cOefficit5.
Oil a 12 ... a1
I I x
a 21 a, 2 ... a2 where aIlkL
etc.
a 1 a,. J
Replacing each X, 1 by a, ,, X,,
in the table, we get the set of simul-
taneous linear equations
a 11 X1-f-a1, A' + ... + a 1, X+d1-X1

a 21 X,+ a22 X2 f • ..• .-f 1 5 Xfl + 11,
=
a,1 Xi+ a,,2 X, 4- X,.+drX
which may be written in the matrix form as
X=AX+D
X—AX=D
(I — a 11 ) X1 —a 12 X—a 1 Y3—_—a
— a 21 X1 —(1_a 22 ) X2 —a25 X.__ —a Xd2

— a. , X1 —a, 2 X2—aX_. ...(I a) X,,=d
In the matrix notation this may be written as
/1—a11 —a1,
J—a55
12
/ X1 \ / d1
1122 —as,, X2
( ( d2
—a,,. • . 1—a,,/ X"
(1—A)X=D
4.
where I is the matrix of input coefficient, while X and D

of output and final demand of each industry. are tho vectors
'Leontief w hile developing the input-output analysis made the

of direct proportionality between the output and the I ndividual inputsa ssumption
industry. of the
Ac13-136 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Example iii. Given the following Transaction matrix, find the

input-output coefficient:
\ Purchasing
sector 4grc1ure Industry Final
demand
Producing \
sector
_--
Agriculture 300 600 100
Industry 400 1200 400
Lmer3fl 200
Find also total output as well as total input.

Solution. Total output for Agriculture is
300+ 600+ 100=1000 and
for industry 400+1200+400=2000
Similarly total input for Agriculture is
300+ 400+300=1000 and
for industry 600+1200+200=2000

The above transaction can be put in the following way
\ prchas1ng
1
sector Industry Final Total
Agriculture
demand output
Producing \.
sector input
300 600 100 1000

Agriculture
400200 400 — 2000

Industry
300 200 0 500

Conun1er
-
1000 2000 500 3500
Total input

APPLICATIONS TO COM.MIIRCO AND ECONOMICS ACO-137

Now to lind out input-output coellicicuts
A coefficient is obtained by industry's input by total output. It is
an indication of the number of any industry's Output needed to produce
one unit of another industry's output.
Therefore, coefficient of input-output can be obtained as follows
300 -- 600 - —0 30

1000 —0 0 2000
40() -- 126P
0
1000 --040 ' 2000 - 06
300 030 - 200 00
1000 , 2000
which can be represented as follows
"N.Purchning
\,sect,r
'N output Agr(cultu r Industry
'N
Producing \
sector input \
Agriculture 030 030
Industry 0-40 0O
Consumer 0 30 010
Exariiple 112. Suppose the Interrelationship between the production

of Iwo industries R and S In a given year ic -
Current Consumer

R S Demand Total output

P 14 6 8 28

S 7 18 11 36
If the forecast demand in two years is
r 20 ]
D2=j
L 3°
What should be total output X be ?
Solution. Step 1. To obtain the input-output matrix, we deter-
mine how much of each of the two products R and S is required to
produce one unit of R. For example, to obtain 28 units of R requires
the use of 14 units of I? and 7 units of S (the entries in column one).
Forming the ratios, e find that to produce 1 unit of R requires
AC-138
BUSINESS MATHBMATIc,s
14128== of R, 7/28 of S. If we want, say X1 units of R, we will
require j X1 units of 1?, j X1 units S.
Continuing in this way, we can construct the input-output matrix as
follows
R S
R1
li
It may be noted that column 1 represents the amounts
R, S required
for one unit of R, Column 2 represents the amounts of R, S
required for
one units of S. For example, the entry in row 1, column 2 represents
the amount of S needed to produce one unit of S.
As a result of placing the entries this way, if
XH
rxi
L x j
represents the total output required to obtain a given demand, the
product AX represents the amounts of R and S
Co nsumption Here the total output is required for internal
28 r
L 36
The correctness of the values in A may be verified by noting that
[1 X [ 281 r 20
] 36 J 25
r 20 1
where
25 J
I represents the internal needs of R and S.
L
If the demand vector is
181
Do=I
L 11 J
then for production to equal co nsumption, we must have
Internal needs+Consumer demand =Total output
(*)
In terms of the input-output matrix A, the total Output X, and the
demand Vector D0, (4) becomes
AX+D0X
Again, the correctness of this result may be verified since for the
demand vector D 0 , we know the output is
1 28 ]
XH
L 36


To find the total output X, required to achieve a future demand
1 20
L 30
we need to solve for X j
AX+D2X
Siniplifyi ng, Nve have
(I - - X—D
Solving for X, we have
X; -(I --A)-' D2.
-, 1--i r201
J L30
24 1 r20
5 30
2 4 1 15 1 1 72
5 [ 20 YL 96
Hence the total :utput of B and S for the forecast D 2 is
X1 72, X=96.
Ex.inple 113. Given the following transaction matrix, find the gross
output to meet the final demand of 200 units of Agriculture and 800 units
of Industry.
Producing Purchasing Sector Final
Sector Agriculture Industry Demand
Agriculture 300 600 100

Industry 400 1200 400
Solution.
Producing Purchasing sector Final Total
sector 4gr icu It ure Industry Demand Output
Agriculture 300 600 100 1000
Industry 400 1200 400 2000
The input-output coefficients can be obtained as follows
300 3 600 3
0iL 1606 To' fOO6 10
4 00 2 1200 3

c13-140
BUSINU.SS MA1ATC
The technology matrix is

/3 3
(10
3
5
—5
5
(- -5 - )
Il---AI =Th-x----(----)x(--)=
/2 3
(I_A)-1=(5 10
4 2 7
10
Now X=r-(I_--A)-' D
/2 3\
(X =(I—A)-' D 25 ( 5 10 (100
4 t 2 7) \400
10/
25 160'\ ' 10
00
4 320 )r=ç 2000)
which verifies the given data.
The new demand vector is D_1 200
800
Then
X(1—AY' D? ( 200
)x(

X1 ' 25 (320 ) ( 2000
' X, 4 640 4000
Hence the Agriculture and Industry sector must produce 2000 and
4000 Units to meet the final demand.
EXERCISES
I. The prices of 3 commodities A, B and C
Rs. 6 and Rs. 10 respectively. Customer X buys 8 Unitsin a shop are Rs.
of A, 7 units of
B and 6 units of C. Customer Y buys
6 units of A, 7 units of B and 9

APPLICATIONS TO COMSWR03 AND eCONOMICS Ac-141
units of C. Show in matrix notation, the prices of the conn11odities7

quantities bought and the amount spent.
2. Two types of food, I and 2 have a vitamin content in units per
kg given by the following table
Vitainn A V(t,n1, B
Poodl 3 7
Food 2 9
Express the vitamin content of 5 kg of food I and 6 kg of food 2
as a matrix product and evaluate it. If food 1 costs 30 paise per kg and
food 2 costs 35 paise per kg, express the cost of 5 kg, 6 kg of foods 1, 2
respectively as a matrix product and evaluate it.
9), i.e., 27 units of vitamin A and

I Hint. (5 6) (
89 units of vitamin 11.
(5 6) ( )(36o), i.e., the cost is Rs. 360.)
3. A motor corporation has two types of factories each producing

buses and trucks. The weekly production figures at each type of factory
are as follows
Factory A Factory B
Buses 20 30
Trucks 40 10
rue corporation has 5 factories A and 7 factories B. Buses and
trucks sell at Rs. 50,000 and Rs. 40,000 respectively. Express in matrix
form and hence evaluate
(i) The total weekly production of buses and trucks.
(ii) The total market 'value of vehicles produced each week.
30 ( 5 " (310'
[Ans. (1) (20 )27oP i.e., 310 buses, 270 trucks
40 10) 7
30)\
(ii) (50000 40000). 20
10 / ( )
=(50000 40000) . ()=(2,63,00,000),
i.e., the total weekly value =Rs. 2,63,00,000]
4. In a certain coal mine, the amounts of Grade 1 and Grade 2
coal (in tonnes) obtained per shift from each of two teams, A and B are
given by the following table
Grade I Grade 2
Team A 4,000 2,000
Team B 1,000 3,000

Ac13- 142 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Team A has worked 5 shifts per week and team B has worked 4 shifts
per week. Grade 1 coal sells at Rs. 9 per tonne and Grade 2 coal sells
at Rs. 8 per tonne. Find
(1) the total amount of coal mined each week,
(Ii) the market value of the coal mined each shift,
(III) the market value of the coal mined each week.
[A us. (i) (24,000 ; 22,000) tons of Grade 1 and Grade 2 respectively.
/ 52,000 \ / 4,000 2,000 \/ 9
(ii) ). (iii) (5 4)( II
\ 33,000 / \. 1,000 3,000 A 8
5. A builder develops a site by building 9 houses and 6 bungalows.
On the average one house requires 16,000 units of materials and 2,000
hours of labour ; one bungalow requires 50,000 units of materials and
4,800 hours of labour. Labour costs Rs, 5 per hour and each unit of
material costs, oil average Rs. 10. Express in matrix form and hence
evaluate
(i) The total materials and labour used in completing the site.
(ii) The cost of building a house and a bungalow.
Ans. (1)
I (9 6)
/
(iii) The total cost of developing the site.
16,000
\ 50,000
2,000
4,800 )
/ 16,000 2000) ( 10
(ii)
50,000 4,800 5)
/ 16,000 2,000\ / 10 \1
(Iii) (9 6)
50,000 4,800) 5 )j
6. Two television companies, TV, and TV, both televise documen-
tary programmes and variety programmes. TV, has two transmitting
s tations and T V,
has three transmitting stations. All stations transmit
different programmes. On an average the TV, stations broadcast 1 hour
of do cumentary and 3 hours of variety programmes each day, whereas
each TV2 station broadcasts 2 hours of documentary and 14 hours of
'ariety programmes each day. The transmission of documentary and
v ariety programmes costs approximately Rs. 50 and
Rs. 200 per hour
resp ectively. Express in matrix form and hence evaluate
(1) The daily cost of transmission from each TV, and each
TV,
station.
(ii) The total number of hours daily which are devoted to docu-
mentary and to variety programmes by both corporations.

APPLICATIONS TO COMMflRCC AND ECONOMICS ACE-143
(Iii) The total daily cost of transmission incurred by both corpo-

rations.
r (1 3)X( 50 \/650
Aiis. (I) (2
t oo / \. 400
i.e., Rs. 650, Rs. 400 per day respectively for each TV, 7'V2 station.
/1 3 \
(ii) (2 3) ( 1=(8 1OD
\2 UI
i.e., 8 hours documentary and 10 hours variety.
/ 1 3\ / 50\ /650\
(iii) Rs. (2 3) ) ' Rs. (2 3) - Rs, 2,500
\2 l. / \ 200/ \400/
7. A firm produces five qualities of its product which needs the

following materials
Quality Materials needed
m a M4
A l 6 6 10 8
A, 3 4 12 6
A 5 4 5 15 8
A 4 2 2 12 5
A 5 3 2 10
If the firm has to produce, respectively, 3, 22, 20, 12 and 7 units of

the five qualities find the amounts of different materials required by
writing their requirements as a row vector.
(Ans. (169, 194, 658, 324)J
8. A publishing house has two branches. In each branch, there
are three offices. In each office, there are 6 peons, 8 clerks and 10 typists.
In one office ofa branch, 12 salesmen are also working. In each office
of other branch 4 head-clerks are also working. Using matrix notation
find (i) the total number of posts of each kind in all the offices taken
together in each branch, (ii) the total number of posts of each kind in all
the offices taken together from both branches.
A1 A2 A3

9. A=I 4 6 /14 6 8\ 10 14
1! 8 10 12,B=10 12 14 ,C 18 32 26
==
III 16 18! 18 20/ \3o 34 38

ACE-144
BU3)NFS3 MATHEMATICS
Matrix A shows the stock of 3 types
shops A 1 , A 2 , Aa. Matrix B of items i 11, 111 in three
shows the number of items delivered to
three Shops at the beginning of a week. Matrix
C shows the number of
items sold during that week. Using matrix algebra, find
(i) the number of items im
mediately after the delivery,
(ii) the number of items at the end of the week.
10. The following matrix gives the v
in con veniently chosen units itamin content of rood items,
Vitamin: ' A B C D
Food! s i o o
Food II 3 0 2 '1
Food III - '1 •2 5
If we eat 5 units of food I,
Ill, how much of each types 10 Units of food I!, and 8 units of food
of vitamin we have consumed7 If we pay
only for the vitamin Content of each food, paying 10 paise, 20 paise, 25
pa 'se, 50 paise respectively for Units of the four vitamins, how much
does a unit of each type of food costs 7 Com
food eaten. pute the total cost of the
1 15
[Ans. (63 3 . 3 36 50); 13 ; Rs. 469]
33 j
11. A m anufacturing unit produces three types of products A,
B, C.
The following matrix shows the sale of products in two different Cities.
B C
1200 900 600
(
900 600 300
If cost price of each product A, B, C
3000 respectively and selling price Rs. 1500, is Rs. 1000, Rs. 2000, Rs.
Rs.
tively, find the total profits using matrix algebra only. 3000, Rs. 4000 respec-
It The production of a book involves several steps first it
must be set in type, then it must be printed and finally it must be
supplied with covers and bound. Suppose that type setter charges Rs.
6 per hour, paper costsJ paisa per sheet, that the printer charges Ii
paise for each minute that his press runs, that the cover costs 28 paise,
and
a pu the binder charges 15 paise to bind each book. Suppose now that
blishers wishes to print a book that requires 300 hours of work by
the ty pesetter, 220 sheets of paper per book and five minutes
time per book. of press
(1) Using matrix multiplication, find the cost of publishing one
copy of a hook.
(It) Using matrix addition and multiplication find the cost o
printing a first edition run of 5000 copies.
(iii) Assuming that the type plates from the first edition are used
again, find the cost of printing a second edition of 5000 copies.
(Ans. (i) Rs. 180153, (ii) Rs. 9450, (iii) Rs. 7650]
13. One unit of commodity A is produced by combining I unit
of land, 2 units of labour and 5 units of capital. One unit of 11 is produc-
ed by 2 units of land, 3 units of labour and I unit of capital. One unit
of commodity C results if we use 3 Units of land, I unit of labour and 2
units of capital. Assume that the prices are P 27, Pb l6 and Pr _19.
Find the rent R, wage W and rate of interest I. (Use matrix method).
14. To control a certain crop disease it is necessary to use 7 units
of chemical A, 10 units of chemical B, and 6 units of chemical
C. One
barrel of spray P contains 1, 4, 2 units of the chemicals, one barrel of
spray Q contains 3, 2, 2 units and one barrel of Spra y R contains 4. 3, 2
units of these chemicals respectively. flow much of each type of spray
he used to control the disease ?
[Ans. 14 barrels of spray P, j
barrel of spray Q and one barrel
of spray RI
15. A certain company gets the automobile chassis and then builds
3 types of bodies, v(2., luxury coaches, ordinary passenger bus and lorries.
For a luxury coach 5 supervisors and 20 skilled labourers, for a passenger
bus 3 and 12, for a lorry 2 and 11 of these categories, are required for a
(lay's work. If 50 supervisors and 260 skilled labourers are available
how many coaches, buses and lorries could be built 7
16. A firm manufactures 3 products P, Q, R using 20 machines
of type L, 12 machines of type M and 15 machines of typ
e N. If the
machinery time requirements are given in the following table, find the
production quantity of each product during a 40-hour week.
Alec/tines
Product L M N
P 3hr. 2hr. 4hr.
Q 2hr. 1 hr. 2hr.
R 4hr. 3hr. I hr.
[Ans. 16 units of P, 232 units of Q and 72 units of product R.]
17. In a market survey three commodities A, B and C were con-
siderecl. In finding out the index number some fixed eights were
assigned
o to three varieties in each of the c ommodities. The table below
Pr vides the information regarding the consumption of three commodities
according to three varieties and also the total weight received by the
commodity

Ad! . 146 BUSINESS MAThEMATICS
Commodity Variety Total Weight

1 11 111
A 1 2 3 11
B 2 4 5 21
C 3 5 6 27
Find the weights assigned to the three varieties by using Matrix-
inverse method, given that the weights assigned to a commodity are equal
to the sum of the weights of the various varieties multiplied by the
corresponding consumption, [Ans. 2 3, I]
18. The monthly expenditure in an office for three months is
given below according to the type of staff employed
Total
Month No. of Employees monthly salary
Clerks Typists Peons (Rs)
April 4 2 3 4,900
May 3 3 2 4,500
June 4 3 4 5,800
Assuming that the salary in all the three months of different cate-
gories of stall did not vary, calculate the salary for each type of staff
Per mensum using the matrix method. [An. 700, 600, 3001
9. The following table shows the fixed cost (F) and the variable
cost (V) of producing 1 unit ofXand I unit of Y
Product
X y
5 8 (Rs. '000)
Cost F J
4 12
When x units of X and y units of I are produced, the total fixed

cost is Rs. 6,40,000 and total variable cost is Rs. 8,20,00 0. Express this
information as a matrix equation and hence find the quantities of X and
Yproduced. [Ans. x=40, Y=55]
20. A salesman has the following record of sales during three
months for three items A, B and C which have different rates of
commission.

APPLICATIONS TO COMMIRCO AND ECONOMICS ACE- 147
Months Sales of Units Total Commission

drawn (in Rs.)
A B C
January 90 100 20 800
February 130 50 40 900
March 60 100 30 850
Find out the rates of commission on items A, B and C.
[Ans. Rs. 2,4 and Ill
21. (a) We consider buying three kinds of food. Food I has one
unit of vitamin A, three units of vitamin 13 and four units of vitamin C.
Food II has two, three and five units respectively. Food 1(1 has three
units each of vitamin A and vitamin C and none of vitamin B. We need
to have 11 units of vitamin A, 9 of B and 20 of C. Find all possible
amounts of the three foods that will provide precisely these amounts of
the vitamins.
(b) One unit of food I contains 100 units of vitamins, 60 units of
minerals and 80 calories. One unit of food 11 contains 150 units Of vita-
mins, 60 units of minerals and 180 calories. One unit of food 111 contains
90 units of vitamins, 40 units of minerals and 100 calories. Diet require-
ment for a patient is 1100 units of vitamins, 500 units of minerals and
1200 calories. Find out either by matrix method or by determinants
method how many units of each food be mixed to form the diet which
would meet the requirements exactly.
22. An automobile manufacturer uses three different types of
trucks T1 1 and T,,, to transport the number of station wagons, full size
and intermediate size cars as shown in the following matrix
Station Full-size Intermediate-size
Wagons Cars Cars
'1L 2 6 9
Trucks '2 7 12
TaL 6 6 8
Using the inverse of the matrix, determine the number of trucks of
each type required to supply 58 station wagons, 75 full-size, and 62
intermediate-size cars to a dealer in city A.
If a dealer in city B orders 46 station wagons, 60 full-size and 64
intermediate-size cars, how many trucks of each type does the factory
need to make this delivery.
[Aus. A'
[ i - _!
City A; Station wagons 2; full8ize cars 3 ; Intermediate cars 4
City B: I P, 5; ,, 3; ,, ,, 21

ACE- 148 I3USINJ3SS MATHEMATIC
23. For the following input-output table, calculate the technolog'

matrix and also write the balance equation for the two sectors
Sector A B Final demand
A 50 150 200
/1 100 100 75
24. Suppose the interrelationships hetseen the production of two
industries P and Q in a given year is
Curreni Consumer
P Q Demand iota! output
P 30 '00 60 130
Q 20 40 10 70
If the forecast demand in two years is
1 o
L 40
what should the total output X he ?
25. The following table gives the input-output coefficients for a
two-sector economy Consisting of agriculture and manufacturing industry.
!npu'-ou1p4( Coefficient
I\ mnpu
\.,
I Al
LL
I
The final demands for the two industries are 300 and 100 units
respectively. Find the gross outputs of the two industries.
j
If the input coefficients for the labour for two industries are respec-
tively 05 and 06, find the total units of labour required.
26. Consider an oversimplified two sector economy in which
there are two industries, each producing a single commodity. The
production of Re. one worth of the first industry's Product requires
material worth of 30 paisa of the first industry and 20 paisa of the second
industry. The production of the second industry's product worth Re.
one requires 10 paisa and 30 paisa material of the first and second
industries respectively. Determine the output levels of each industry
necessary to meet the open sector demand of Rs. 12 million and Rs. 5
million worth of goods of the first and second industries respectively.
[Ans. 20, 10]

APL'UCArIONs TO COSIMJIRCU AND IiCONOMICS
27. In aii economy there auc two industries A and ii and the
following table gives the supply mid dcinauid position of these ill iuiilhon
rupees

User Final 'I'otal

A II Demand Output

Producer A 15 10 10 35

/3 20 30 15 65
Determine the total output if the final demand changes to 12 for

and 18 for B. [Ai1. 42, 78]
28. In an economy of three industries A, B, C the data is gi-p'"
below (in millions of rupees of products).
User Haul Total
A B G deniwj if output
/1 80 100 100 40 320
Producer 13 80 200 60 60 400
C 80 100 100 20 300
Determine the output if the Final demand changes to
(/) 10 for A, 40 for II, 20 for C.
(ii) 60 for A, 40 for 13, 60 for C.
{A,;s. (1) 179 : 13, 24522, 189'1 3 (ii) 41739, 45565, 41739J
29. Suppose that the final demands for steel, coal and electricity
in an economy consisting only of these three Sectors are Rs. 10
crores, Rs. 5 crorcs and 6 crores respectively. It is given that a
Rupee worth of steel requires 21) paise, 41) paisc and 10 paise worth
of steel, coal and electricity respectively as inputs, a Rupee worth of
coal requires 30 paise, 10 pamse and 30 paise worth of steel, coal and
electricity respectively as inputs and that a Rupee worth of electricity
requires 20 paise worth of steel, coal and electricity each as inputs
respectively. How much of steel, coal and electricity should be produced
to satisfy both final and intermediate demands ?
[Hint. Matrix of input-output coefficients is
r 020 040 010
A= 030 010 030
- 0*20 020 020
30. A pharmaceutical company produces three products X, Y
and Z which are partially used in the manufacture of these products.
However, none of the products is In its Own manufacture The
quantities of the outputs of each product which are used as inputs in the
manufacture of one unit of each of the other products are

ACE- 150
Input
X Y Z
X o 03 0•4
Output Y 02 0 03
z 0-i 0-5 0
The production targets for each product are Rs. 1,50,000 for X,
Rs. 2,00,000 for Y and Rs. 100,000 for Z, these being the amounts of
the three products which are to reach the final consumer. Use input-
output analysis to determine how much of each of the products should be
produced.
31. From the following mat rix , find out the final output goals of
each industry assuming that consumer output targets are Rs. 80 million
in steel, Rs. 30 million in coal and Rs. 0 million iii railway transport
Steel Coal Railway transport
Steel 03 0,2 02
Coal 02 01 05
Railway transport 0 . 2 0.4 02
Labour 03 0.3 0_I
What would be the labour requirements in final output of three
industries ?
-i 07 ---02 —0-2
uint. .'. [1 —A)= —02 -+09 05
1 —02 —04 +08
Substituting in K=[I—A] D, we get
r X1 1 r —02 01 —02 —0'2 jl r 80
XH X HI 019 —05 xj 30
%X9 J L —0'2 —04 0'8 I 50
After inverting the matrix, we get the required result.]
32. D Limited produces three products, x, y and z oil different
types of machine installed in three departments A, 11 and C. The
departmental monthly capacity is limited to
Department Machine hours
A 1,800
B 2,100
C 1,300
The machines are purpose built and each type can perform specia-
lised task only.

APPLICATIONS TO COMMERCE AND ECONOMICS Ac13-151
The three products are proposed in all three departments but take
varying amounts of time in each as follows
Departments
Products A B C
Hours per unit
X 2 6 1
Y 2 1 3
z 3 2 2
The production controller has been instructed to obtain the fullest
possible utilisation of all machines.
Calculate the number of units of products X, y and z to he produced
in order to fill the capacity of all three departments for the month.
[Aii, x r 200, y= 100, z400J
33. The prices of the three commodities K, Y and Z are x, y and z
per unit respectively. A purchases 4 units of Z and sells 3 units of X and
5 units of Y. B purchases 3 units of Y and sells 2 units of K and I unit of
Z. C purchases 1 unit of K and sells 4 units of Y and 6 units of Z. En the
process A, B, C earn Rs. 6,000, Rs. 5,000 and Rs. 13,000 respcctivtly. Using
matrices, find the prices per unit of the three commo dities.(Note thaE
selling the units is positive earnings and buying the units is negative
earnings).
[Hint. The above data can he written in the form of simultaneous
equations as
3x+ 5y-4z= 6,000
2x-3y + r=x 5,000
—+0+6z= 13,000
and the equations can be written in the matrix form as
/ 3 5 4)X( X )==( 6,000
2 —3 1 y5,000
U 4 6 Z 13,000
AX=B :). X=4-B

/ X\ / 3 5 —4 )-1 / 6.000
y )=j2— 3 1 x( 5,000
z / \—1 4 6 \ 13,000
—22 —46 - 7 \/ 6,000 \ / 3,00o
=----H —13 14 —Il 5,00
151 1,000
- 7 —19 /\ 13,000 \ 2,000 1
Hence x=-3,000 ; y= 1,000 and z2,0001
SECTION B
Linear Programming
"LP is only one aspect of what has been called a systems
approach to management where all programmes are
designed and evaluated in terms of their ultimate effects
in the realisatioLt of business objectives."
N. Paul Loornba
INTRO DUCT ION N
The central theme of economic theory and management science is
o optimnise the use of scarce resources which include machine, man-
)()Wt, money, warehouse space or raw material. There are several
theorettcal to; to accomplish this purpose in both the sciences. But
such tools are not adequate for treating a complex economic problem
with evcraL alternatives each with its own restrictions and limitations.
It is for tackling such problemi that the use of linear programming has
been found to he most useful. The technique was first invented by
the Russian Mathematician L. V. Kantorovich and developed later by
George B. Daiitzii, the Simplex method is particularly associated with
his name.
MEANiNG
Linear programming is a method or technique of determining an
optimum programme of inter-dependent activities in view of available
resources. In other words, it is a technique of allocating limited resources
in an optimum manner SO 1S to satisfy the laws of supply and demand
for the firm's products. fn general, Linear Programming is a mathe-
matical technique for dctcrmniiiiig the optimal allocation of resources
and obtaining a particular objective (i.e., cost minimization or inversely
profit maximization when there are alternative uses of the resources
Land, Labour, Capital, Materials, Machines, etc.
pr, ' grriflfliflg is just another word for "planning" and refers to the
process of determining a particular plan of action from amongst several
alternati''S. The word linear stands for indicating that all relationships
involved in a particular problem are of degree one.
APPLICATIONS
The use of L1 is made in regard to the problems of allocation,
assignment, transportation etc. But the most important of these is that
of allocation of scarce resources on which we shill concentrate, Some
allocation problems are as follows
i. Devising of a production schedule that could satisfy future
demtnds (seasonal or otherwise) for the firm's product and at the same
time minimise production (including inventory) costs.
2. Chocc of investment from a variety of shares and debentures
so as to maximfliSe return On investment.
3. Allocation of a limited publicity budget on various heads in
order to maximise its effectiveness -
4. ScicctiO of the product-mix to make the best use of machines,
man hours with a view to maxmmise profits
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
5. Selecting the advertising mix mat will maximise the benefit

subject to the total advertising budget, Linear Programming can he
effectively applied.
6. Determine the distribution system to minimise transport costs
from several warehouses to various market places.
Three Typical Probleint. Three problems have become elas3ical
illustrations in linear programming.
A. The Diet Problem
It is the problem of deciding how much of 'ii' different foods to
include iii a diet, given the cost of each food, and the particular cornht
nation of nutrient each food contains. The object is to minimise the cost
of diet such that it contains a certain minimum amount of each nutrient.
B. Optimal Product Lines Problen
1-low much of 'n' different products a firm should produce and sell,
when each product requires a particular combination of labour, machine
time and warehouse space per. unit of output and where there are fixed
limits on the amounts of labour, machine time and warehouse space
available ?
C. Transportation Problem
It is a problem of determining a shipping schedule for a commodity,
say, steel or oil, from each of a number of plants (or oil-fields) at
dificrent locations to each of a number of markets (or refineries) at
ditlerent locations in such a way as to minimise the total shipping Cost
subject to the constraints that (I) the demand at each market (refinery)
will be satisfied, and (2) the supply at the plant (oil field) will not he
exceeded
General Linear Programming Problem
Let Z be a linear function defined by
i) Z=c1x1-4-c2x+ ... +cx
where C ' S are constants.
(ii) Let (a,) he inn constants and let (b) be a set of in constants
such that
(1 "X1 -1- a12 X 2 +... - -f- a 1 ,x, ( - )) b1
- {- a2 x + .. . -- a2.v, (, =, ;;a ) 112
a,,, 1 x 1 4 a,,, 2x2 + (. fl---. )) b,.

and finally let
(1(1) X, > 0 x ,>O, -.
The problem of detcrmming the values of x 1 . x.....- x which
makes L a minimum (or maximum) ) and which satisfies (ii) and (ni) is
called the General Linear Programming Problem.
LP-3
usiss MATHEMATICS
(al Objective fun ction.The linear funci ion
Z_—c1x1c2x,, 4-c1x,
which is to be minimized (or maximized) is called the
Of the general L, P. P. Objective function
(b) Const raints. The inequalities (ii) arc called the
of the General L.P.P. constraints
(c) Non-negative restricijons.
The set of inequalities (iii) is
usually known as the set of non-negative restrictions
of the General L PP.
(d) So l ution V alues of unknowns x 1 , x 2
constraints of a General L.P.P. is called a soiw ion ,..,x, which satisfy the
to the General L.P P.
(e) Feasible Solution.
Any solution to a General L.P.P. which
satisfies the fl on-ncçatjve restrictions
solu piü,, to the General L PP. of the problem, called feasible
(f) Opt I in ii Sl ni ion. Any feasible
(minimizes or 1111aximj7es the objective fiitiosd ii tion which optimizes
called an Optitnuin solution to the general L.P.P. i i of a General L.P.P. is
Example I. A
a certaiti un o r manufacturing firm has discontinued production of
olitable produce line, and this has' created considerable excess
production Capacity .
capaci Maiiagenie,it is considering to devote this excess
ty to produce one or more of three products 1, 2 and 3. The available
excess capacity on the machines which might 1i;"it output, is summarised in
the following table
iWochj,,e typ e AvotiriHe excess Capacity

(In machine hrurs per week)
Milling mac/line 250

Lathe 150
Grinder
The number of mnachinehours requires for each unit of the respective

product Ic give,, below
COP,7citY Requirement
(in nzachin . h,,j per unit)
Machine Type Product 1 Product 2 Product 3

-J
Milling mochir,' 8 2 3
Lathe 4j3 0
Grinder 2 1 0 I
LEAR PROGRAMMING
LP 4
The per unit contribution would be Rs. 20, Rs. 6 and Rs. 8 respec-
tively for products 1, 2 and 3. Formulate the problem mathematical!)'.
Solution. Step 1. Let the number of units of the products 1,2
and 3 manufactured be designated by x 1 , x and x 3 respectively.
Step 2. Since it is not possible to manufacture any negative
quantities, it is quite obvious that in the present situation feasible alter
naties are sets of values of x 1 , x 2 , x 3 satisfying x 1 )0, x 2 0 1
x30.
Step 3 The objective here is to maximize the profits which is
given by the linear function
(maximize) Z=r20X14-6X2+8X3
Step 4. Next ' express in words the influencing factors or

constraints (or restrictions) which occur generally because of the cons-
traints on availability (resources) or requirements (demands) Here in
order to produce X L units of product 1, x 2 units of product 2 and X units
of poduct 3, the total time needed on Milling machine, Lathe, and
Grinder are given by
8x 1 +2X,,+3x 3 , 4x 1 +3X 2 and 2X1+X3
Since the manufacturer does not have more than 250 hours available
on Milling machine, 150 hours available on the Lathe and 50 hours
available on the Grinder, we must have
8x 1 *2 x 2 +3 X 3 <250
4x 1 f3x 2 <150
2x 1 +x <50
Hence the manufacturing firm problem can be put in the following
mathematical form
Determine three real numbers x, x 2 and x 8 such that
8x 1 +2x 2 4-3x <250
<150
2x 1 +x 3 e.50
Xu, X 21 X 3 >0
and for which the expression (objective function)
Z r 2OX j 46 X2 4 8x5
may be maximum.
ample 2. Produc t ion Problem. A company iS

Manufacturing two products A
and B. The manufacturing times required to
make them, the profit and capacity ova liable at each work centre are given
by the following table:
LP-5
Work
\Centre
Matching Fabrication Assembly f'roJii per unit
(in Rs I
L!'roduct \
10(1
Total
Capacity 720 hours ISOt) hours 900 hours
/-orrnuIce the L. 1'. 'node!
Solution. Step I. The key decision to be made is to determine

the nu mhcr Of Units of product .1 and B
to he produced by the coin pariy.
Step 11.
Let .v he the number of units of product A and x, the
number of units OfProduct B
which the company decides to Produce.
St . p III
'111C total profit that the riianijfacturer gets after selling
the two products A and 1? is given by
Z-O +uo .v
Se}) I V. No w,
the total Ur11[)
611 order to produce these two products .4 and B,
of hours required at rnatchiiig centre is given by
+ 2x,
The total number of hours required at fabrication centre is
5x 1 +4X,
and the
total number of hours required at assembly centre is given by
3x 1 + x
Since the matching centre is not available for 1110cC
.fa brication Centre than 720 hours,
centre is available only for 1800 hours and assembly centre is
a 'ail," bl e only for 900 hours we have
X, -4-2x2 sç 720
5Xi+4x21800
3x -fx79Oo
Step V. Also. Since it is
not possible for the manufacturer to
Produce negative tiumb of the products it
have is obvious that we imist also
x and xs0

LINEAR PROGRAMMING LP-6
Step VI. The above allocation problem of the manufacturer can

he mathematically expressed as follows
Find two real numbers, x 1 and x 7 such that

x k -4-2x2 720
5x 1 44x2 s 1800
3x+X2 < 900
x , x, ?- 0
and for which the expression (objective Function)
Z=80x-I 100x
may be maximum (greatest)
Exatple 3 A com;)Ofly produces three products P. Q and R from

three raw materials 1 8 and C. One unit of product 1' requires 2 units
of A and 3 units of P. One unit of product Q requires 2 units of 11 and 5
units of C and one writ of product R requires 3 units of A, 2 units of B
and 4 wills of C. The compane has 8 units of material JO writs of
material 1? on] 15 units of material C available to it l r ofit.c per writ of
products P. Q and R are Rs. 3, Rs. 5 and Rs. 4 respectively.
Formulate the problem ,nathe,na:ical!y.
Type of raw material Profit per unit

Decision Product
variables A B C (Rs.>
P 2 3 - 3
- 2 5 5
Q
R 3 2 4 4
x3
8 10 15
Units of material
available : maximum maximum inaximutn -----
------- -- ----- P
x 1 =number of units of Product
x2 =number of units of Product Q
x5 =number of units of Product R
-
rhe given problem is formulated as the LPP as follows
Maximize Z= 3x 1 + 5X 2 -j- 4x
Subject to the constraints
' +3x38
3 1 +2 2 +2x 3 10
5X2+4x3
X1 , X 2 x > 0.
wishes to ensure certain
Example 4. A diet conscious housewife
C for the family. The
minimum
minimum intake of vitamins A B and
LP-7 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
daily (quantity) needs of the vitamins A, B, Cfor the family are respectively
30, 20 and 16 units. For the supply of these minituwn vUa,nfn require..
nlents, the housewife relies on two fresh foods, The firs: one provides 7, 5,
2 units of the three vitamins per gram respectively and the second one
provides 2, 4, 8 units of the same three vitamins per gram of the foodstuff
respec:iyely. The first foodstuff costs Rs. 3 per grain and the second Rs. 2
per gram. The problem Is how many grams of each foodstuff should the
housewife buy everyday to keep her food bill as low as possible ?
Formulate the underlying L.P. problem.
Solution. Step 1. By designating the number of units of foods
Xnd Y by x 1 and x 2 respectively, the data of the given problem can be
summarized as below
Decision Food Content of vitamins Cost per unit
variables type
A B C (Rs)
xI P 7 5 2 3
X 2 Q 2 4 8 2
Minimum vitamins 30 20 16
required
x- number of Units of food P
x=- number of units of food Q
Step 2. Here the objective is to minimize the cost and, therefore,
the objective function is
Z=3x1 + 2x,
As the minimum required amounts of vitamins A, B and C are 30,
20 and 16 respectively, the constraints of the problem are
7x1 +2x 1 )30; 5 x 2 +4Xs>20; 2x,+ 8x,,>,
Thus the given LP problem is:
Minimize:
Z =3x1 +2Xe
Subject to the constraints:
7x 1 +2x2 >30
5x 1 +4x 2 > 20
2x1 +8x,> 16
x1, x1 > 0

LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Example 5. A city hospital has the following minimal daily

recuiremews for nurses
Minimal Number of
Period Clock Time (24 hour day) Nurses Required
1 6A.1W. 10 A.M. 2
2 JO A.M. . 2 P.M. 7
3 2 P.M. - 6 P.M. 15
4 6 P.M. - 10 P.M. 8
S 10 P.M. - 2 A.M. 20
6 2A.M. - 6A.M. 6
Nurses report to the hospital w the beginning of each period and
work for S COflSCCU(JYC hours. The hospital wants to determine the
minimal number of nurses to be employed so that there will be sj/icient
number of nurses available for each period. Formulate this as a Linear
Programming Problem by setting up appropriate constraints and objective
function Do not solve.
Solution. Let x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 , x 5 and X be the number of nurses
commencing duty at 6 A.M., 10 A.M....., 10 P.M., 2 A.M. respectively.
(I) Requirement Constraints, Between 10 A.M. and 2 P.M.. the
nurses who start work at 6 A.M. (x 1 ) as well as those who start work t
10 A.M. (x 2 ) will be available. Since the requirement of nurses during
this intcrvat is 7,
x1+x2>7
Similarly X., + x) IS
x4x5>20
X5 +X6>,6
X e + X j >2
X 1, x 2 , x, X4 . X5 , x6)0
Objective Function: To minimise

z=x1+X2+X+Xg+xI+x6
EXERCISES
1. A small manufacturing firm produces two types of gadgets,
A and B, which are first processed in the foundry, then sent to the
machine shop for finishing. The number of man-hours of labour
required in each shop for the production of each unit of A and of B,
and the number of wan-hours the firm has available per week are as
follows
Foundry Machine Shop
Gadget 10 5
Gadget B 6 4
Firm's capacity per week 1000 600
LP-9
BUSINESS MATHEMAI1cS
The profit oil sale of A is Rs, 30 per unit as compared with

Rs. 20 per unit of B.
The problem is to determine the weekly production of gadgets
A and B, so that total profit is maximized.
[hint. Determine two unknown variables X 1 and x 2 , such that
l0x-f- 6 r
(1) 1000 (Foundry constraint)
(it) 5XL 4. 4x 600 (Machine shop constraint)
x x2 >0 (non-negativity constraint)
and 1,)r which the ex pression (objective function)
/ = 30 x, -f 20 x2
may be a m aximum (greatest).]
2. 1 he ABC' Electric Appliance Company produces two products
refrigerators and ranges. Production takes place in two separate
departments. Refrigerators are produced in Department I and ranges
are produced in department II. The company's two products
are
produced and sold on a weekly basis. The weekl y production cannot
exceed 25 refrigerators iii Department I and 35 ranges ill
II, because of the liniited available facilities
in these two departments.
The company regularl y em p loys a total of 60 workers
Ia the two
departments. A refrigerator requires 2 rnn-scks of labc'u:, while a
range requires one man week of labour. A refriee.rator contr i butes, a
Pro fit of Rs. 60 and a range. a profit of Rs 40.
The problem is to determine the weekly production of refrigerators
and ranges so that total
contribution is maxirnised.
Formulate thc above problem as a linear programming problem
Ans Maxinii Z=60 x +40 x, subjci to the Constraints
2 X 1 +a 2 60 x, 25;x 35 x,, x 2 >0, wheje Y , and x be the
riumbec- of units of refrigerators and ranges respectively,]
3. Three products are processed through three ditiercot operations.
The time (in minutes) required per unit 1 each product, the daily
capacity of the operations (in minutes per day) and the profit per unit
sold for each product (in rupees) are as follows
Tittle iêr unit (rnizluies)

Operation .
Operation Capacity
Produ ct .t Product II Product
(rniiriies doy)
M
4 3 43
2 I 0 4 46
3 3 6 2 I 42
Profit unit
(I(s) 2 2 3
LINEAR PROGRAMMING i.p-lt)
The zero times indicate the product does not require the given
operation. It is assumed that all units produced are sold. Moreover,
the given profits per unit are net values that result after all pertinent
expenses are deducted. The problem is to determine the optimum daily
production for three products that maxiinitcs the profit.
Formulate the above production plan n i rig problem in a linear
programming format.
[Hint. Find the real numbers x 1 , x.,, x 2 as to maximize
Z=2x 1 12x.2 1-3x,
subject to the constraints
3r 1 I
5x 1 ±4x<46
3x 3 + 6x2±2X342
with restrictions
X, x ,
.v301
4 I Vitamins A and B are found in food F arid /. One unit of
food contains 20 units of vitamin 4 arid 31) units of ",, -ita!Iun B. One
unit of food F. contains Of) units of vitamin ,l aid 411 units of vitamin
B I unit of each of foods F and I, cost Rs 3 and Rs. 4 rcsncctrVCly.
'Ihe inininiurn daily requirement (for it) of vuainmS A and I! is
SO 111) : ts arid 10 1 ) Units resct jvc h, A'.'arnilaL' that an%111171 11 in excesS of
daily ;iiininiurn requiremenk ci vitamins A and I? is not hartnt'ul. find
OUt the opti ii urn mixture of foods 1", and F-, at the ruin mom co,t Which
mccl ,, the daily minimum requirements of vitamins .4 and I?
Formulate the above problem as it programming probleni
;r fl int. Find two real numbers x and r, s ucli that
204 6();'8()
30x -i- 40y 100
X , )'.()
and for which the expression (objective tune tiun)

z =3-j-4y
may be a minimum (least)]
5. A feed mixing company purchases and mixes one or more of
the three types of grain, each containing different amounts of four
nutritional elements ; the data is given below
I One unit weigh; of _"M 1010!

Ifem over __ requirenlenf
plannihg horion
I
Grain I Grain 2 Grain 3
Nutrinonal ingredient .4

4 6 I r 125

Nutritional ingredient 1? 0 2 24

Nutritional ingredient C 80
>

Cost per unit weight (Rs.) 25 15 18 Minimize

LP- I BUS1NES MATHEMATICS
The production manager specifies that any feed mix for his live-
stock meet at least minimal nutritional requirements, and he seeks the
least costly among all such mixes. Suppose his planning horizon is a
two-week period, i. e., he purchases enough to fill his needs for two weeks.
Formulate the above problem as a linear programming problem.
fAns. Find three real numbers x 1 , x., x, so as to minimise
Z=25x 1 + 15x2 + 18;
2x1 -f- 4x., -f 6; 125
2x-t-5x324
5x1+x,+3x.>80
and X'- 'X 2, x30I
6. Lhe XYZ Company Ltd. manufactures two products A and B.
These products are processed on the same machine. It takes 20 minutes
to process ne unit of product A and 15 minutes for each unit of product
B and machine operates for a maximum of 80 hours in a week. Product
A rcquiics 3 kg and product B, 2 kg of the raw material per Unit, the
supply of which is 1200 kg per week. Market constraint on product B is
known to be 1500 units every week.
If tho product A costs Rs. 10 per unit and can be sold at a price
of Rs. 15, product B costs Rs. 15 per unit and can he sold in the market
at a unit price of Rs. 22 ; the problem is to find out the number of units
of A and B that should be produced per week in order to maximize the
profit potentially
Formulate this problem in the standard linear programming format.
Do not solve it.
7. A firm manufactures 3 products A, B and C. the profits are
Rs. 6, Rs. 4 and Rs. 8 respectively. The firm has 2 machines and below
is the required processing time (in minutes) for each machine on each
product
Machine Products
A B C
X 8 6 10
Y 4 4 8
Machine X and Y have 4,000 and 5,000 machine minutes respectively.
The firm must manufacture 200 A's, 400 B's and 100 C's but no more
than 300 A's.
Set up a L.P. problem to maximise profit. Do not solve it.
[Hint. Find the real numbers x1 , x2 and X 3 so as to maximize
Z = 6x1 +4x,+ 8;
LINEAR PROGRAMMING

8x4 (x 2 -3- I0x34,000
4x 1 + 4x2 + 8; 5,000
with restrictions
200x1' 300
r24Q0
xa 100.]
8. The manager of a company, which supplies office furniture, has
asked you to prepare a profit maximizing schedule for their production of
desks. This particular company sells a basic line of four desks. (Type A,
Type B, Type C and Type D) to local distributors at the prices given below.
Costs of producing each type are also given
Desk Selling Price Production cose
Type (In Rupees) (In Rupees)
A 28 21
13 35 30
C 52 39
1) 72 54
For short-run scheduling, labour must be considered a fixed quantity
and desks production is a two-step process, requiring labour for carpentry
and finishing operations. Labour is not transferable between operations.
6,000 hours and 4,000 hours can be used in carpentry and finishing
respectively. The labour hours required for each desk are given below
Desk flours of flours of
Type Carpentry Finishing
A 4
B 9 1
C 7 3
D 10 40
Formulate this as a Linear Programming problem.
9. A media specialist has to decide on the allocation of advertise-
meat in three media vehicles. Let x 1 be the number of messages carried
in the z-th media, i== 1, 2, 3.
The unit costs of a message in the 3 media
are Rs. 1000, Rs. 750 and Rs. 500. The total budget available is Rs. 20.000
for the campaign period of a year. The first medium is a monthly
magazine and it is desired to advertise not more than one insertion in one
issue. At least six messages should appear in the second medium. The
n umber of messages in the third medium should strictly lie between 4 and

BUSINESS MATHLMATICS
8. The expected effective audience for unit message in the media vehicles
is shown below
J/ehkle !ir peeled effective audience
80,000
2 60,000
3 45,000
Build the linear programming model to maximise the total effective
audience.
[Ans. maximize Z= 80.tjOOx 1 + 60,000x0 -f 45,000x3
subjects to
10004 750y 2 ±500x20,000 (budget)
X,, x2. x301.

10. The manager of AC Oil Co. wishes to find the optimal mix of
two possible blending processes. For process I. an input of 1 unit of
crude oil 4 and three units of crude oil B produces an output of 5 units of
gasoline X and two units of gasoline Y. For process 2, an input of 4 units
Of crude oil A and 2 units of crude oil B produces an output of 3 units of
gasoline X and 8 units of gasoline Y. Let x 1 and x he the number of
UflitS the company decides to use of process I and process 2. respectively.
The maximum amount of crude oil A available is 100 units and that of
crude oil B is 150 units. Sales commitments require that at least 200
units of gasoline X and 75 units of gasoline Y are produced. The unit
profits of process I and process 2 are p and P2 respectively. Formulate
the blending problem as a linear programming model.
An. Maximise Z=p 1 x 1 4p x2
subject to
x1-+4x2100)
> Availability
3x 1 +2x2 150 I
5x14 3x2 )20Q '1
Demand
2x1+8x275 j .
X 1 , x0J
GRAPHIC METHOD
Summary Procedure for the Graphic Method

Step I. Formulate the appropriate LPP.
Step 2. Construct the graph for the problem as follows
'Treat each inequality as though it were an equality and for each
equation arbitrarily select two sets of points. Plot each set of points and
Connect them with appropriate line'.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Step 3. Identify the feasible i.e, that Space which satisfies

all the constraints simultaneously. For less than or equal to' and 'less
than' constraints this is generally the region below these lines. For
.greater than or equal to' or greater than' constraints, this is generally the
region which lies above the lines.
Step By choosing a Convenient profit (cost) figure draw an

isoprotit (isocost) line so that it hails within the shaded area.
Step S. Move this isoprofit (isocoSt) line parallel to itself and
izirthcr (closer) from (to) the origin until an optimum Solution iS
determined.
Eampte 6. .1 factory manufactures u'wo articles A and /1 f'o
raanujac(ure the 0, tic/c A, a certain machine has to be worked for 15 hours
and in addition a craJtsniaa has to work for 2 hours, TO tnantfocture the
(1rtt'de B, the niactiuit' has to be worked for 25 hours and in addition //U?
craftsman has to itork Jar 15 hours. In 0 Ueek tire Jactory can rivail o
80 hours of me chine time and 70 hours of craftsman's time. The profit on
each article 4 iv Rs, S and that on each article 9 is 1/s 4. if all the er(rcis
prr'c/nced carp be SO/d away, laid how 1)1011)-' of each k ira! c/iou!,] be rrtIuct'd
to earn the tfl(7XiPfltilfl projit jit'i' week.
Iornuulate the hi,iew' programming problem.
Solution. Step 1.
I)ATA SUMMARY CHAR I'
I), ciS ion Article 1/ours on I'roft per 107t

IJt1t(JI 1 (5 ,'ti'a/rpue (.rnJfsman
15 2 Rs. 5,00
.v2 /3 2 Ii Rs. 400
Hours tivailable 80 70
,per 'Ytt" I ItliiXiflhlJfll rn,uxuinum
- - number of units of article A

uunihc'r of units of a rt j cle B
1 hus the given problem is formulated as a L.P.P. as follows

Maximize Z. 5-x, -14
... V)
15 x 1 +2'5 x,,8Q
2x1j-1'5x270 ...()
x1.x2O
Step 11. Construct the graph. Next we construct the graph by
drawing horizontal and vertical axes which are represented by the
X,-axis and x-axis in lie Cartes:an X,OX Plane- S iec lili\' print
which satisfies the conditions x, o and x 0 lies in the first quadcaru
cnly our search for the desired pair (x,. X) is restricted to the poinic oh the
first quadrant only,

LP- 1 5 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Now the inequalities are graphed taking them as equalities, e.g..

the first constraint l5x1 ±25X2 80 will be graphed as l5x1+25x=80,
and the second constraint 2x 1 ±15x2 70 as 2x1 -I-15x2 =70 and the
third constraint x, x 2 > 0, merely restricts the solution to non-negative
values.
Further, since the functions to be graphed are linear we need plot

only two points per constraint.
Thus to graph each constraint,
we arbitrarily assign a value
F (0.32) to x and determine the correspon-
ding value of x 2 . The procedure
FeosbIe oreo is then repeated for another pair
for nwch.ne of values for the same constraint.
Thus for the first constraint we

have two such points as P(0, 32)
and Q(533 0), which upon
joining represents
0 0
it6Ct0 l'5x1-j--2'5x2=.80.
Fig. 1.

If xi 0 55,3
MM
Similarly, by considering the set of points satisfying x 1 >0, x2>O

and the second constraint 2x 1 + 15x2 70, we obtain the shaded area of
Fig. 2 as shown below
If xi 35 0 I 2.157O 1
40 LIJ
3O f-ras,bie area
for craftsman
Step lU. Identify the feasible

region. The feasible region, i.e.,
solution space, is the area of the
graph which contains all pairs of
values that satisfy all the constraints.
In other words, feasible region Article A
Fig. 2
will be bounded by the two axes, and the two lines 1 , 5x 1 + 25x 80,
2x ,+ 1 5x. - 70, and will be the common area which falls to the kit Of
these constraint equations as both
the constraints are of the 'less than
equal to' type.
Step IV. Locate the solution
Points, The shaded area OPTS
represents the Set of all feasible
solutions The four corners of the
polygon are 0 (O, 0), P=- (0, 32)
Tr (20, 20) and t
.S'-.-.(35, 0).
.
live funcon Dantz's
guarantees that the optimal solution
to an L. P.P. occurs at one or
theobjec.
0P14
Aritc'e A
a ,
more of the Corner points, we Fig. 3

evalwiic the objective function at each of these four points as folio
Corner point Objective function Value

(x i , x2 ) Z==5x1 - 4x2

0 -- (0, 0) 5x0f4x0 Z(0)= 0

P(o, 32) 5 xO-l-4x 32 Z(P)- 123

T= (20, 20) 5x20+4x2O Z(T)= 180
S=(35, 0) 5 x 35+ 4x 0 Z(S)== 175
Now the optimal Solution is that corner point for which the objec-
tive function has the largest value. Thus the optimal solution to the
present problem occurs at the point T= (20, 20), i e , x, 20. x -=20
with the objective function value of Rs. 180.
Hence to maximize profit the company should manufacture

20 units of article A arid 20 units of article B per week.
ExmpIe 7. 4 company produces two articles X and Y. There

are two departments through which the articles are processed viz., assembly
and fini5hing. The potential capacity of the assemhly departrneni is 60
hours a week and that of the finishing departmen t is 48 hoursrt a week.
Production of one unit of A' requires 4 hours in ussemb!y and 2 hours
in finishing. Each of the unit Y requires 2 hours in assembly and 4 hours
in finishing. If pro 'it is Rs 8 for each unit of A' and Rs 6 for each
unit of Y fin d 0111 the number of units of X and Y to be produced each
week to give maximum profit.

Solution.
Time required for producfng

one Unit
Total hours
Products
available
x
Assembly Department 4 2 60
Finishing Department 2 4 48
Ptoflt per unit R. S Rs. 6
Z=8X-i 6Y
Objective function
Subject to constraints 4?(+2Y60
2K+4Y48
Non-negativity requirement XI, Yo.
Plot the constraints in a graph given below. X is shown on the horizontal
axis and Y is shown on the vertical axis. Consider the constraint
4X-+-2Y60. When production of X is 0, then Y-- 30. Plot the point
(0, 30) in the graph.
Again when production of }' is 0, then X= 15. Plot the point
(15, 0) in the graph. Joining these two points, the resulting straight
line BC is such that area ABC of the graph represents the ineuality
4X+2Y60 as long as X and Y are both greater than 0.
Similarly plotting the constraint 2X— 4Y48, i.e., joining E(0, 12)
and F(24. 0). The area AEF contains all possible combinations which
will satisfy the restriction of the finishing department.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING I.t'I
Therefore the best combination of .( and Y which must not exceed

the available time in either assembly or finishing should fall with in
the areas .1 JJC and ,fEI'. 'I he area which does not excec(l either of the
two constraints of the assembly and fluishing departments is the thadcd
area AEDC.
Now observing front graph, the point which yields the greatest
profit is the point L) (12, 6).
Point Total p r ofi t (applying oLjectIve function)
Rs. 8X-4-Rs. 61
4(0, 0) 0
C(15, ) Rs. 8(15) IRs. 6(0) 7 Rs. 120
1)(12, 6) Rs. 8(12) I Rs. 6(6)- Rs. 132
E(0, 12) Rs. 8(0)-I Rs, 6(12) -= Rs. 72
1 his may also he obtained algebraically by solving
4X-I-21'60 and 2X-f4Y=48 or 8X+4Y=l20, 2X+ 4Y48
BY subtraction 6X-=72 X== 12 and Y6
Applying it to the objective function Z 8X-1-6Y, the maxiniuni
P rofit equals to Rs. 8(12) 3- Rs. 5(6) Rs. 132. Thus 12 units of X and 6
units of Y give it maximum profit of Rs. 132.
Rernai-1. If there is a third constraint as shortage of labour
which restricts the production of Y to a maximum of 4 unit.s per eck.
then Y is less than or equal to 4 units per week and X and Y
are non-
negative.
Now plot the Constraint in the graph given below and draw it
straight line parallel to the hori,onitah axis. The feasible alternative
wIl he somewhere in tIo shaded area A IIGC. The point which yields
the greatest profit is loun(l out by testing tine four corners of the shaded
Asse-bly
. , r.rç .-ln
0 L 1Z'\isi 2
1. 6 n? 16 2) 24 28 32 4
Pr.t
area. This is the point (1 13, 4). Therefore the optimum production
per week is 13 units of X and 4 units of Y and the maximum profit
max 1= Rs. 8(13)-I Rs. 6(4)= Rs. 128.
LP- 19 J3USINsS MATIMAT
Example 8. Solve the following linear programming problem

graphically:
Maximise Z=4x6y subject to constraints x4-y =5, x > 2 , y<4,
X. y>O [Delhi Univ. J3.Coin. (lions) ; 1992)
Yii Solution. Clearly each point (.v, y)
satisfying the conditions x0, y > 0 must
lie in the first quadrant only. Also since
x- 1'y=5, x)2 and y4, the desired point
1.4)
lies somewhere on the line CB. The co-
(i ordinates of C= (2, 3) and II (5, 0). The
values of the objective function Z at these
Points are
Z(C)=4X2+6X3.26
ZB)4x5+6X0::20
Since the niaxiniutn value of Z occurs
at the point C(2, 3). Thus to maximise
Fig. 4 /, x=2 and y=3.
EXERCISES
I. (a) Describe the graphic method of solving a ]nicar program-
rniiig problem.
(h) S ' l y e the following prohem by graphic method and for that
show
(I) Objective function (Ii) Set of feasible solutions
(iii) Optimum solution (li) Extreme points
Maximize Zr= 3x 1 j . 4
4x 1 -.f-2x, 80
2x1 - 5x1 < 180
x1 , x2 > 0
2. It is required to maximise Z2x1 +5x2 subject to x 1± x 2 24,
3x 1+ x 21, x1 +x2 < 9, x ) 0, y > 0. Show graphically how to arrive
at the solution and find the maximum value of Z.
3. A dealer wishes to purchase a numbet o f fans and sewing
machines. He has only Rs. 5760 to invcst and has space for at most
20 items. A fan Costs him Rs. 360 and a sewing machine Rs. 240. His
expectation is that he can sell a fan at a profit of Rs. 22 and sewing
machine at a profit of Rs. 18. Assuming that he can sell all the items
that he can buy, how should he invest his money in order to maximize
his profit ?
[Hint. Maximize Z=-r22xi+18x
5.!. Xi+ 20
LINEAR PROGRAMMING

r.-20
360X 1 -j-240x 576-()
X11 x, > 01
fAns. x 1 =8, '2 12 ; wax. Z:Rs. 3921
4. A manufacturer produces tubes and bulbs. It takes 1 hour of
work on machine M and 3 hours of work on machine N to producc one
package of bulbs while it takes 3 hours of work on machine M and 1 hour
of work on machine N to produce a package of tubes. He earns a profit
of Rs. 1250 per package of bulbs and Rs. 5 per package of tubes.
How many packages of each should he produced each day so as to
maximize his profit if he operates. the machines for at most 12 hours
a day.
[flint. Maxim i ze Z -= 1250 x 1 -+ 5x,
$(.x -3.v, 12
3x 1 -1x 2 ' 12
X 1 , x2 >
[Ans... x., 3 ; max. Z--- Rs. 52501
5. A dealer deals in only two items, c y cles and scooters. He has
Rs. 50,000 to invest and a space to store at most 60 pieces. One scooter
costs him Rs. 2500 and a cycle costs him Rs. 500. 1-Ic can sell a scooter
at a profit of Rs. Sot) and a cycle at a profit of Rs. 150. Assuming
that he call all the items that lie buys, how should he invest his
money in order that he may maximize his profit ?
[Hint. Maximize Z.r50Oi 1 -j- 150X2
S . I. 60
2500x 1 +500x 2 50,000
X1, x, > 01
[Ans. x 1 =10, x 2 =50, Max. Z=12,5001
6. A firm makes two types of furniture chairs and tables. The
contribution for each product as calculated by the accounting depart-
ment is Rs. 20 per chair and Rs. 30 per table. l3oth products are
processed on three machines M 1 , M2 and M. The time required in hours
by each product and total time available in hours per week on each
machine are as follows
Machine Chair Table Available Time
M 1 3 3 36
M1 5 2 51)
2 6 60
flow should the manufacturer schedule his production in order to
maximize contribution ? (Use graphic method only.)
[Ans. X 1 =-3, x., -- 9, Max. Z=330]
7. Food X contains 6 Units of vitamin A per gram and 7 if of
vitamin B per gram and costs 12 paise per grain. Food Y contains 8
r-21 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
units of vitamin A per grain and 12 units of vitamin 13 and costs 20 paise
per gram. The daily minimum requirements of vitamin A and vitamin B
are 100 units and 120 units respectively. Find the minimum cost of
product mix using graphic method.
(HLn(. Minimize Z l2x 1 20x2
6x1-l-(x1>too
7x1 -- 12x2 120
_v l . x10
An, . x 1 15, x= ; minimum Z- 205]
8. A farm is engaged hi breeding pigs. The pigs are fed on

various products grown on the farm. Iii view of the need to ensure cer-
tain nutrient constituents, it is necessar y to buy two products (call them
A and B) in addition. The contents of the various products, per UfliL
in nutrient constituents (e . g ., vitamins, proteins etc.) is given in the
following table
Nutrients Nutrient Cc)flten( Minimum amount
ill product of nutrient
A 1.1
M 36 6 10
12
10 1(10
The last ciii inn of (lie above tahk: gives the iiUiirflUm amounts of
flUtr;cut Coflstitue.i(s If LW
xvilich
tf must he gi . en 10 the pigs. 11
the products A nd 11 cost R. 2( and Rs. 40 per unit rcsicctivelv, how
flIUCIL each I,I (II(SC
IS lI)! illflij y ecj !
two products should he hoocht so that the total cost
[Hhi. Find real riumhrrs x. and .v, So as to ii iimnc the objective

function
/. 20x 1 -f 41
36x f (t l0
3x 1 .4 ]2x2>6
20x-4 l0x1OQ
x+x2u
Thc farm should purchase 4 i l product A w'd 2 units of product
B in order to maintain a minimum Cost of Rs. 100.1
9. A scrap metal dealer has icceived an order from a customer for
at least 2,090 kilograms of scrap metal. The customer requires that at least
1,000 kilograms of the shipment of metal must be high quality copper that
can be melted down and used to produce copper ttibmgs Furthcrmoic,
LINIAR PROGftAMMU'OTj
the customer will not accept delivery of the order IF it containu more than
175 kilograms of metal that he deems unfit for commercial use, I &, metal
that contains an excessive amount of impuritica and cannot be melted
down and refined profItably.
The dealer can purchase scrap metal from two different suppliers lit
unlimited quantities with the following percentages (by weight) of high
quality copper and unfit scrap.
Supplier A Supplier B
Copi:cr 25% 75%
Unfit scrap 5% 10%
t A and
The Costs per kilogram of metal pure! e'd fron
supplier B are Re. I and Rs. 4 respectively. 'rhe problem is to determine
the optimum quantities of metal for the dealer to purchase from each of
the two suppliers.
[Ithit. Our problem is to find the real numbers x 1 and x 2 so as to
nun mule
Z=.x1+4x
subject to the constraints x 1 2,000
1000
x i x
175
20 to
X" x2 >0
The dealer should purchase 2,500 kilograms of scrap metal from
supplier .4 and 500 kilograms of scrap metal from supplier B ',it to
maintain a minimum cost of Rs. 4,500.]
10 A cold drinks company has two bottling plants, located at two
different places. Each plant produces three different drinks A, B and C-
The capacities of the two plants, in number of bottles per day are as
follows
Product A Product B Product C
Plant 1 3000 1000 2000
Plant If 1000 1000 6000
A market survey indicates that during any particular month there
will be a demand of 24,000 bottles of A, 16,000 bottles of B, and 48,000
bottles of C. The operating costs, per day, of running plants I and it
are respectively 600 monetary units and 400 monetary units. How many
days should the company run each plant during the month so that the
BUSINUS MATHEMATICS
production cost is minimised while still meeting the market demand ? (Use
graphic method).
[Hint. Minimise cost 600X1-4-400x2
st. 3000x1 4-I 000x 24,000
I 000; + 1 000v 2 16,000
2000x 1 -1-6000x2 ) 48,000
0 1 x 2 ) 0.1
II. The manager of an oil relincry wants to decide on the optimal
W ix o Iwu possible blending processes I and 2 of which the inputs and
Outputs per production run are as follows
Input (Units) Output (Units)
Process Crude A Crude 13 Gasoline X Gasoline Y
5 3 5 8
2 4 5 4 4
• Fhc ulaxilutjjn amounts available of Crudes A and I? are 200 units and
ISO unts respectively. At least 100 units of Gasoline X and SO units of
Y arc requLLed. The profit per production run from processes 1 and 2
arc Rs. 300 and Rs. 40() respectively. Formulate the above as Linear
programming problem and solve it by graphical method
[Ans. Maximize 7= 300x 1 + 400x2
s. t. 5x1 +4x2200
3x 1 j 5x,,5;150
5x1 -f 4x 2 100
8x1 +4x, ,>-80
x?0, .v0.1
SIMPLEX METHOD
In most of the linear programming problems, we have more than
two variables and, therefore, it cannot be conveniently solved by a graphic
method. A procedure known as 'Simplex Met/r od' can he used to find the
Optimal solution. The method is in fact an algorithm or a set of instructions
which seeks to examine corner point in a methodical manner until the
best solution ensuring highest profit or the lowest cost under given
C onstraints is obtained. Fortunately, computer programme is available
for dealing with problems involving several variables but to understand its
m echanics we shall confine to a few variables only.
Slack and Surplus Variables The formulation of a linear
prog ramming problem for simplex method requires introduction of slack
or surplus variable to convert a linear inequality into linear equality.

LINEAR PROGRAMMING it-P-24
(i) Let the constraint of LP problem be 2X1-f-3X210
Then the rR)I-negative variable S 1 which satisfies
2x 1 3x9 -lS1 - 10
is called a slack variable.
(ii) lithe constraint of a LP problem is 4xj-5x>25
Then the non-negative variable S. which satisfies
4.x 1 -1- 5X.2 —S==25
is called a surplus variable.
The variible .S is called slack variable, because
Slack --= Requirement—Production
The variabie SE is called surplus variable, because
Surp1us=Production -Requirement
rhese slack or surplus variables introduced in an appropriate manner
to linear cmctraints expressed generally as inequalities get represented in
the objective function so that the number of variables in objective function
has correspondence with those in the constraints but they do not contribute
anything to the objective function and their cocflicicnts in the objective
function are only zero.
Illustration.
Problem Maximise protit==7x1+5x2
Subjct to 2X1+lx10
4x1-l-3x224
X 1 0, x20
The inequali t ies expressing constraints are converted into, equalities by
adding slack variable to each inequality as follows
2x1 + lx2+S1=l0
4x1 +3x2+S2=24
Now, the objective function is being transformed to accommodate

slack variables with zero coefficients as follows
Maximise profit ==7x 1 + 5x, +0S, +02
But, since all equations must have equal number of variables that is
made possible by Incorporating the slack variables of other equations
with a zero coefficient as follows
2v 1 + Ix1+IS2+0S2=10
4x 1 +3X 2 +0S1 + 1S1=24

BUSINBSS MATHEMATICS
A model of simplex tableau to present these is given hereunder

Simplex Tableau
Co efficients af Programme Available

Progr,nrne t t t 0 0 0 Objective variable
variables quantities coefjicients
variables of
In objective -
variables x1 x 1 . S S S3
ob/rcttye ()bjc;it
funciiorrvariable row
o
o S,-- -1 •
* *
* . 00
Si (i 0
o S S 0
t
Structural Identity
coefficients, matrix
matrix
S ummary Procedure for the Simplex Method
( M ax j mjz; 01 Case)
The various steps involved in the simplex method may be inmed

up Z's follows
1. Formulate the problem and the objective function.
2 Develop equations from the inequalities by add iitg slack
variables.
3. J)evelop the initial simplex tableau including the ittit al (trivial
SOhtIjOi
4. Obtain the 2-11 and G1 —Z 1 (index row) for this solution.

5. Choose the highest positive number in the index row.
6. The highest positive number determines the key column.
7. Divide the numbers in quantity column by corresponding
numbers in key column,
8. Select the least positive ratio of these quotients.
9. The row containing the least positive ratio is the key row.
10. The key number is at the ir,tersction of the key column and
key row.
II. Divide every figure in the key row by the key number.
@ Data on total available capacities.

Data on cotPije t ts of variables in the objective function.
Data of Coefficients of structural constraints.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING 1.r-26
12. The quotient of the key row divided b y the key number is the
main row in the next table. Tile formula is
Key row number
Main row
Key number
13. All other numbers for the next table are dcrici the
arm ul a
ICorresponding Corresponding
Derived Selected I number in ke y < numhcr in key
number number -. row column
Key number j
14. Repeat steps 5 to 13 until no positive numbers exist in the
index row. When no positive numbers exist in the index rew, an
cpimum solution has been obtained.
Remarks . Sfmplijiccrt on of Calcu?aiion,c
It is possible to sim plify the calculation process by fohl ing a
few rules
1. Any variable lit tie variable column will have a 1 where thr
row of that variable intersects with the column of that variable, and nh
other figures in the column of that variable Nil] he zero.
2. If there is a zero in the key column, then the row in v.hieh that
?Cfu appears will remain unchanged in the subsequent matrix.
3. II there is a zero in the key row, then the column in which tInt
zero appears will remain unchanged in the subsequent matrix.
B y observing the above three rules, the number of items for which
derived numbers are to he cnculatcd will be greatly reduced. \Vlre a
simplex solution has to be worked by hand methods, the saving III tulle
and effort is significant. When computers are used, it is desir able 10
allow the normal procedure to he followed.
2. Rules for Ties
In choosing the key column and key row, whenever there is a tie
¶etween two numbers the follow ing rules may he adopted
1. Select the column farthest to the left, whenever there is a tie
between two numbers in the index row.
2. Select the ratio (8) nearest to the top whenever there is a tic
between two ratios in a matrix.
Illustration. A factory can manufacture 2 products X 1 and X2.
Each product is manufactured by a (wastage process which involves
machines / and Ii and the time required is as follows
Machine Product
X 1 x2
I 2hr. 1 1r,
Ii 3 hr. 2 hr.
DUSNaSs MATHnMATICS
Available hours on mach Inc I is 10 hours and mach Inc It is 16 hours.
The contribution for product X is ]?s. / per unit widJir X. is R g . 3 per unit
What should he the M a nufacturing policy for the factory ?
SoltI 0 . Step I. Formulation of the LP problem.
Maximise (Profit) Z=4X1 -t- 3X2

Subject to 2X1 -l-X.<10 (constraint on Machine 1)
3X1 - 16 (constraint on Machine II)
X >0. X>(J
Step 11. Develop Equations from the Inequalities . The first

step in the Simplex Method is to convert the inequalities (or restrictions)
into equalities. This is (]one by adding what are known as slack variables
(slack variables in economic terminology represent unused capacity but
the contribution associated with them is zero). After adding the slack
v ariable. all the above express iOOS
can he written as
2X1 + Y' I - S' =10
3\J 2X
.(2)
4k--3V -0.S=Maxouie / (3)
I Iei e the slack variables S 1 and
mach l ;ic5 I and 11 rcspcctivclv, 2 represent the idle hours on
Step II!. Designing the Initial Programme. Set the basic

variables equal to zero in winch case the slack variables assume the full
value of the resources available and the contribution at this stage is
flnniinu in.
A first feasible solution is thus
X, =- X2 = , S t = 10, S2 = 16
The profit contribution resulting from this programme can be

determined by substituting the values of the different variables in the
objective function. Thus
Profit contribution = 4(0) + 3(0) + 0(10) I 0(16) 0.

Step IV. Develop Initial Simplex Tableau. We can now set
out this whole problem in what is known as a Simplex Tableau.
The
simplex tableau also known as simplex matrix is a table consisting of
rows and columns of figures We illustrate below the form of simplex
tableau and explain its various parts
LINEAR PROG\SIM1NG
TABLE 1. PARTS OF INITIAL SIMPLEX TABLEAU

(.' Coluititi i.e.. pr(ii rer will)
I I'i,(luct'inl nc colt.iinii)
I CootanI column (i.e., quaniitie3 of product in usc MIX)
I I Variable columns
C, I'roduct R. 4 Rs 3 R 0 Rs. 0 * C'J row

- Quani ii y -5 ariahe mV
175 X1 X .51 S
0 Rows ilusir-
- 10
ing COiil 1110
RS, I) S- 3 2 0 I equations
(toc I lie it' it s

- --- _Y__ - - -- --
Body alau rix ld'n1ity

Coni. iSling of Man ix
cu . c0iclents consisting of
of real pin- co-ellicients
duct variables of lack,
Variables.
((i) C1 row or n/n/cc/ire row. Oil top row o the tableau known
as (. 'j row or objcctie row, we insert the coefficients iii the ob1eetivc
equation
c/i) [lie identit y matrix is formed by the slack variables and
consists of a diagonal or l's and U's. It may be noted that the identity
should tie, ci has e negative numbers.
((') Ihe ii.i,/y matrix consists of all restrictions and equationS and
includes the coefficient of all variables not in the identity. The numbers
in the body can be zero, positive or negative.
(d) The quantity co/unto represents the list of constants of the
equations. [very number in the quantity column (excluding index
row) must he zero or positive. This condition is true from the time of
setting the matrix iiiit ii its solution stage.
(1') The product mix CO/i//flfl in the initial programme is a list of the
variables in the identity. (It may be noted that the row headed by S1
and the column headed by S 1 cross in the identity where the 1 occurs.
The same is true for Sn also). it may be noted that the product-mix
column shows the variables in the solution. The variables in the first
solution are S and S. (the slack variables representing unucd capacity).
In the quantity column, we find the quantities of the variables that ale
in the solution
10 hours available on Machine I
S-= 16 hours available on Machine 11.
As the variables K1 and .V 2 do not appear in the product-nds, they
are equal to zero.
f)
C, or object ice column. The C, or objective .oluinn at the left
end shows the profit per unit for the variables S and S. For example,
the zero appearing to the left of the S 1 row means that profit per unit
i. p - 29 BUSINESS MATIlLMAi1C
of S is zero. Likewise, the zero to the left of S2 row means that profit
per unit of S, is zero. The initial simplex tableau will now appear as
follows
Pro?uct' Rs. 4 Rs. 3 Rs. 0 Rs. 0

C, Quantity
mix T__ 2 i 2
Rs. 0 S i 10 2 1 1 0
Rs.0 S2 16 3 2 0 1
( e) 7, row. The 7 1 is the C, for a row times the coefficient for that
row Within the tableau, sum ned by column. In other words, to arrive
at the 7, value for a particular column, we first multiply each coefficient
in that column by the C', against that coefficient and then add up the
products So obtained. The four values of 7, under the columns of
variables X1 , .1'.,, 1 and S are likewise computed as follows
7, for column X Rs. 0(2)--' Rs. 0(3) Rs, 0
7, for column .Y, Rs. 0(I) + Rs. 0(2) Rs. 0
7, for column S1 Rc. 0(1)1 Rs. 0(0): Rs. 0
/, for column .S 1 _ Rs. 0(0) I Rs. 0(I) Rs. I)
The above values of 7, represent the amounts by which profit

would he redured if I unit of an y of the variables ( X,, S1 , S) were
added to the rni.
(h) C,—Z, (Injex) or ;\e! Jialuajiop row, C,-7 1 represents the net
profit that v. ill Occur from introducing one unit of a variable to the
production schedule or solution For example, if I Unit of V 1 adds
Rs. 4 of profit to the solution and if its introduction causes no loss, then
CIT /I for .\' = Rs. 4. The net profit per unit (i.e., C,--Z1) of each
variable is calculated as shown hclow
I'rojit per PrnJit lost Net profit

V(lrtables unit per unit per unit
(C) (Z,) (C, -7,)
.vi 4 0 4
3 0 3
S3 0 0 0
S2 1) 0 0
1.1
LINEAR 111106RA5I1I(i
lABLE Z INITIAL SIMF1EX FAI31.EAU

COM1LElE1) -
4 3 I)
t'rod',tt (liutly -
CI fflI
X .t, 'c -
0 Ii) 2 I I)
- :-•• -- --- -: -
C1 Z1 (Ind row) 4 3 1) (1
Remark. Ely cxaniiniisi the numbers in the ((-', -- <,) r ow of hihie

2, e hrid t 114 C total profit can be increased 1)y Rs. 4 for each unit 1
added to the mix or by Rs. 3 for each unit of \ added to the inix.
Thus a po,itive niinsher iii Iii: (C /,) row indicates that profits call be
improved by that amount per unit of Y j added. On the other hand, a
negative isu III hec in the C, - /,) row would indicat tue anioUrit IY
%NhIch profits would decrease if one u sit of the variable head I n,g that
column were added to the solution. I l':itec the Optimuiru SolLitiorl is
row.
reached \Vheii 110 p()SitiC riuiIl)CrS are there in C1 -/,
Step V. Developing Improved Solutions. After the initial
simplex tableau is set up, thut: next Step is to determine if the improve-
ment is possible. l'hie Computational procedure is as follows
(a) Chrosinc; i/ic cnrcrine variable. We choose the va IRINC CO b.3
added to the first selutiouu v fuels contributes the highest probt Cf Unit.
This is done by ideiitik ing the column (and hence the variable) which
offers the largest positive number in the (C, - t,) row. As will he seen
from 'Fable 3, bringino in X 1 v. ill add Rs. 4 per unit to profit. The
column is the O/)litIIiD)1 colrinuii, also commonly known as Pivot Column or
Ke y Co/twin, Ely definition, the optimum colu mu is that column which
has the largest positive value in the C, - row, or iii other words, the
column v. bose product will contribute the highest Profit per Unit. Ins-
pection of key or pivot column indicates thhtt the variable .Y1 should be
added to tile product mix replacing one of the variables present in the
mix. The variable X is, thus, the catering variable.
(I) Choosing 1/ic departing variable. Since we have chosen a
variable to enter the solution mix we have to decide which variable is to
be replaced. This is done in the following manner.
First, divide each number in the quantity column (also kno vu as
constant column), i.e., it.) and 16 by the corresponding numbers in the
key column.
Second, select the row with the smallest non-negative ratio as the
row to he replaced.

flftj555 MATHEMATICS
Here the ratios would be

row : 10 hours/2 hrs, per unit-5 units of X1
row 16 hours/3 hrs. per unit-- 5j units of X2
As the S row has the smallest positive ratio, it is called the replaced
'ow, or the pivot row or key row, This row will be replaced in the next
solution by 5 Units of X, i. e ., the variable S. (unused time) will be
replaced by 5 units of X1 in the next solution.
The number at the intersection of key row and key column is
referred to as the pivot or key number which is 2 in the present case.
TABLE 3. INITIAL SIMPLEX TABLEAU, KEY ROW,

KEY NUMBER, KEY COLUMN
('I I'n-duct Rs. 4 Rs 3 Rs. 0 it 0
,m.v Quantity X X, S1 52 -
4 Key number
Rs, 0 5, O 2 1 1 0
st Replaced row
Rs. 0 !i 3 2 0 1 or Key row
Zj Rs. U R. 0 Rs. 0 Rs 0 Rs. 0
Cj— ;7j 4 3 0 0 -- -
O1ii aim Column or
Key Column
Step VI. Develophig Second Simplex Tableau. Ilavitig chosen
the optimum solution and the replaced row, a second simplex tableau
can be developed, providing an improved solution.
(a) Compute new values for the key row. For this we have to simply
divide each number in the key row by key number, The key row now
bccornea

C) P,oduci.n,Ix Quantity XL

X. s, s,

4 XL 1 5 0
It may be noted that in the product mix, S1 has Oeeu replaced by

X1 and the corresponding C1 value also has been replaced (4 for 0).
(h) Compute new values (derived numbers) for each remaining rows
To complete the second tableau, we compute new values for the remain-
ing rows. All remaining rows of the variables in the tableau arc calculated
using the following formula
( New ( Elements in' Intersection Correspondiiig ele-
X
row ) ' the old row I [(element of old row ments in replacing
row
Using this formula, we get the new S 2 row as follows:

LINEAR PRJ. INC. 1,1--32
Element in Intersectional - Corresponding - New S row

Old S. row eletflCflt of element in
S. row key row -- -
-
(1) (2) (3) (J)-(2)\ (3)
- 16 3 5 16-3x 5_1
3 3 1 3--3x1()
2 3 2--3x=
(J 3
1 3 0 3 0.=1
Thus, the new S, row will be

(1, 0, , I)
An alternative formula is as follows
Derived Number=- Selected number
/ Corresponding Corresponding
x
number in key row number in key column
- Ky number
The computations will be as under
2x3 3 1
10x3 1 •3 0 2
2 2
---
- •i-
2 ' 2
(c) Conpuiing Z 1 and C1 - 7 1 rows. Now, we shall compute the Zj
and ('-Z rows (the profit opportunities) according to the methods
discussed earlier.
TABLE 4. SECOND SIMPLEX TABLEAU
Cj- 4 3 0 0
Product 'nix Qua,itiiy XL X1 S S2
4 Xi 5 0
- S1 - 1 0 —3!2 1row
Zj 20 4 2 2 0
0 1 —2 0 Index
- -- -- ----- _row
$
------ Key Column
Keynumber

-! he computation of Ihe /, row of the second tableau is as follow;

/j (i.e., total pcolit) for quantity colitrnii
('I X 5) i-(Ox 1)=-20
/j for X co lumn (4 X 1) - (Ox 0) 4
/, br K2 column (4 x ) - (0 X ) 2
Z for S column (4 x ) - { Ox ( -- )} = 2
Z for S column (4. 0) 4(0 x 1) 0
The computation of the (C, -- Z) row of the second tableau is as

follows
Variib!es Profit per Plojif lost jVet profit

14/lit per unit (t) per unit (C 1 - -
4 1 0
3 2 1
s t 0 2 --2
0 0 1)
Step VII. [he presence of a positive number in the K 2 column

of the C, - /, row of the second tableau shows that J)OBitiVC improve-
ment is possible. Ileilce the process ucd to develop the second solution
mu3t now he repeated to obtain it third solution. Accordingly, we find
that
(i) The variable ,V 2 will enter tile solution by virtue of C 1 -Z = 1
being the largest and only positive number in that row. This means that
for CVCi y unit of X., that we produce, the objective function will increase
by Re. I.
(fr) rh opt i iiinm colu inn or key column is X column.
(C) ihe replaced row is 2 row also known as key row or pivot
row. This is found by (f) dividing 5 and I in the quantity column by
their corresponding numbers in the key column, i.e, J and J respectively,
(ii) choosing the row with the smaller ratio as the key row.
((J) Intersectional element of .l' row is A, arid the intersectional
element of S, row is also . This will he the pivot number or the key
number.
(e) The key row is replaced by dividing every number in it by the
key number, i . e , the key row now becomes
C1 Proc/u, t ,tci Quantity X I X 2 S1 S,
2 1 - 32


f) The new values Intersectional
of the X1 row (tnird tableau) are
Correspon(/ing \
/
Element in clement of x element of = New X 1 row
\. old X 1 rov / \ X row new X2 row
5 x 2) - 4
-- x 0) =
- ( x 1) 0
- ( )< —3) = 2
I) - 2)
(We can compute the new X, row through the alternative formula
as well.)
TABLE S. THIRD SIMPLEX TABLEAU
Ci 4 3 0 0
Frothier mi-i Qua#itiry X1 X. St S
4 4 1 0 r —j .-Fey row
3 2 o I —3 2
----- -.-------- __ ______

22 4 3 —1 2
I
Cj - o 0 1 —2 A Index ru
t ____Key column
Step VIII. Once again, we find that all the values of this row
are not zero or negative, therefore, we have to proceed a little further.
However, the key row s key column as well as the ke y number have been
indicated in the third simplex tableau.
Step IX. By repeating what has been done earlier we arrive at the
final tableau IV.
TABLE 6. FOURTH SIMPLEX TABLEAU
Ci 4 3 0 0
Product mix Qiinriy X1 A'2 S S1
St 2 0 I —1
3 X28 1 0
24 3 0
Z'
CI—?) - 0 0 -
As there are no positive values in Cj —Z1 row, no further improve

ment is possible, and the optimum solution has now been obtained This
Solution is X, = 0, X2 = 8, S 1 = 2
The Z total, i.e., Rs. 24, represents the profit obtained under the
Optimum solution.
Example 9. An electronics firm is undecided as to the most p r ofit
-able,nixfortspduc.The nowmaufctrednsio,
resistors and carbon tubes with a profit (per 100 units) of Rs. 10, Rs. 6 and
.Rs. 4 respectively. To produce a shipment of transistors containing 100
units requires 1 hour of engineering, 10 hour.s of direct labour and 2 hours
of administration service. To produce 100 resistors are required 1 hour,
4 hours and 2 hours of engineering, direct labour and administration time
respectively . To produce one shipment of the tubes (100 units) requires I
hour of engineering , 5 hours of direct labour and 6 hours of administration.
There are 100 hours of engineering services available, 600 hours of direct
labour and 300 hours of ad,ninist ration What is the most profitable mix 2
Solution. For the sake of convenience, we tabulate the data in
the following manner
Products
Available
hours
Transistors Resistors Carbon Tubes
Engineering I I I 100
L'bour 1 10 4 5 600
Administration 300
Profit per 100 units I Ks. 10 1 Rs 6 I Ks. 4
Objective Function : Maximise Profit

Z=10x1+6x2-I-4x3
Subject to the constraints:
X1+X2+X3'100
I OX, +4x 2 -f5x3 600 .. (3)
2x1 ±2.v2 +6x3 300 (4)
X 1 , x2 , X3 ,-
>
The first step in the Simplex Method is to convert the inequalities
(or restrictions) into equalities. This is done by adding a slack variable
(unused capacity of the department). After adding the slack variables,
all the expressions (1) to (4) can be written as
X 1 + x, + x3 + S 1 100
l OX, ±4X2+5X3+Sr600
2x 1 1- 2x2 4 6x + S,-3OO
lOx1 +6x.1 ±4 x3±OSr1- OS + O-S, = Maximise Z
The simplex method always begins with a zero solution. i.e., it starts
at the point of no production whatsoever. This enables the steps in the

solution to determine the appropriate quantity of each item to produce,

subject to the objective function and the restrictions.
In other words, if X 1 . X., and x3 are not produced, then the unused
capacity of the three departments as given by S, and S3 will be 100,
00 and 300 hours respectively. The solution at the first programme is
given by the quantity column and the product mix column. The solution
at this point is S,=100, S 2 600, S3=300.
SIMPLEX TABLEAU I
CJ 10 6 4 0 00 Rciio
Product Quantity Column
Mix K1 X2 X3 S1 58 S8
0 100
0 60
I
Z i 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cj - Zj 1 10 6 4 0 0 0
SIMPLEX TABLEAU II

0 S1 40 0 6/10 5/10 1 -I/JO 0 67
f
10 X1 60 1 4110 5/10 0 1/10 0 150

0 S, 180 0 12110 5 0 -2/10 I 150
Z, hG 4 5 0 1 01
Cj -Zj 0 2t -1 0 -1 0
J
SIMPLEX TABLEAU III
5/6 10/6
6 400/6 0 1 -1/6 0
16 -213 I/O 0
JO 100/3 1 0

0 S, 100 0 0 4 -2 (1 0
Zj JO 6 20/3 10/3 2 3 0
0 0 -20/3 -I0/3 -2/3 0

LP-37
BUSINESS MATHeMA1 IcS
4 00100
Hence the most profitable mix is resistor and transistors.

The maximum profit is 400-I 1000 733 3
Example io. Vitamins A, B and C are found in foods F1 and F2.
One unit of F1 contains I Mg of A, 100 ing of B and 1(1 nig of C. One unit
Of F contains I mg of A, 10 mg oJjJ and 100 tng of
requirements of ,t, Li and C are / C. The sninilnum daily
tng, 50 ing and 10 mg respectively. The
Cost per unit of l', and f are Re. I and Rs. 150 respectively. You are
required to (i) Joririulate the above as a linear programming problem tniiumis-
Rig the cost per day, (ii) write the dual
of the problem and (ii) solve the
diiul by using simplex method and read there from the answer to the primal.
[Delhi Un i v. , B. Corn. (lions.), 1992]
Solt0 (i) Let x units of l' and x 2 units of F2 be purchased.
Primal: Minimise (cost per day) : Z=x 1 -- 15, subject to
x 1 -t-x 2 1, 100x1 ± l0x5O. 10x 1 + l0Ox>lO
x)O, x20.
(ii) Dual Let p, q. and r be the dual variables. Then we have
Minimise C==p+ 50q-- lOr subject to
,p,q,rO.
(iii) Solution to Dual : Introducing slack variables s and s, the dual
may be written as under
Maximise C =p+50q lOr40.s 1 +0.s2 subject to
p f 100q j- lOr
p -f-10q---l0O r -f Os f-S=
p. q. r S1 , S ' > 0
4 Variables Basic Ratio

Variables p q r S1
1 I 100 10 1 0
10 100 0 1
- CJ -z - 1 -50 t 10 0 0
50 q r+-ç 1 rt r'r 0
0 99*1
4 505 4 0
C—Z1 3 0 5 0
10
q V5 T+T I 0 th
ci__Z/ ir
- 0 0
I no
10 r 0 —I I
z, 1 100 10 0 0
0-50 0
Answer to primal = 1. x2 0 and total cost =
EXERCISES
I. Why is the simplex method a better technique than the graphi-
cal approach for most real cases ?
2. Give outlines of 'Simplex Method' in Linear programming.
3. (a) A manufcuirer produces two items X,and X9 . X1 needs
2 hours oil A and 2 hours on machine B. ''2 needs 3 hours on
machine A and 1 hour on machine B. If machine A can run for a
maximum of 12 hours per day and P. li hours per day and profits from X1
and X2 are Rs 4 and Rs. 5 pc tcm respectively, find by simplex
method how many items per day be produced to have maximum profit.
Give the interpretation for the values of 'indicators' corresponding to
slack variables in the final iteration
(h) A manufacturer produces bic y cles and scooters. each of
which must he processed through two machines A and B. Machine A baR
a maximum of 120 hours available and machine B has a maximum or 180
hours available. Manufacturing a bicycle requires 6 hours ill A
and 3 hours in machine B. Manufacturing a scooter requires 4 hours
in machine A and 10 hours in machine B. If profits are Rs. 45 for a bi-
cycle and Rs 55 for a scooter. determine the number of bicycles and the
number of scooters that should he manufactured in order to maximize
the profit.
4 A novelty manufacturer makes two types of emblems, A and B.
flc uses three departments : preparation, cutting and packaging. Each
department is used for both types of emblems. Processing rates are
Type A Type B
(min/pc (min/pc
Preparation 4 3
Cutting 8
Packaging 6 3
The profitper unit is Rs. 2 and Ps. 3 for t y pe A and type B res-
pectively. TI I ,00 minutes are available in each of the departments,
determine the optimal production schedule. Use Simplex Method.
5. A firm makes two types of furniture: chairs and tables. Profits
are Rs. 20 per chair and Rs. 30 per table. Both products are processed
on three machines M1 , M2 , and M3 . The time required for each product
in hours and total time available in hours on each machine are as
follows
Machine Chair Table Available Time
M l 3 3 36
5 2 50
2 6 60
(a) Formulate the above as a linear programming problem
to
maximise the profit; (b) Write its dual: and (c) Solve the primal by
simplex method. [Ans. 3, 9; Rs. 330.1

6. A manufacturing company contemplates to produce two addi-

tional products, called A and B, which can be marketed at prevailing
price ,- in any reasonable quantities without difficulty. It is known that
Product A requires 10 and 5 man-hours per unit in the foundry and the
machine departments respectively ; and that product B requires only 6
and 4. However, the profit margin of A is Rs. 30 per unit as compared
with Rs 20 per unit of ii. In the week immediately ahead, it IS esti-
mated that there will be 1000 and 600 man-hours available in the
foundry and the machine departments respectively. How much of '
and B should be produced in order to most profitably utilize the excess
capacities ?
7. A company makes three products X, Y, Z out of three matarials
F1 , P2 and P3 . The three products use units of three materials according
to the following table
Materials
I
X 1 2 3
Products Y 2 1 1
Z3 2±
The unit prolit contributions from the three products are

Product : X Y Z
Profit Contribution (in Rs.)
3 4 5
and availabilities of the three materials are
Material P1 P2 P.
Amount available (in units) :
10 12 15
I he problem is to determine the product mix which will maximize
the total profit.
[Hint. SIMPLEX MATRIX V
C-+ Product Quantity 3 4 5 0 0 .0
Mix X y S i SZ 53
0 S2 0 0 4/5 —h'S 1 —3/5
3 x 4 I 0 —1/5 —1/5 0 2/5
4 Y 3 0 1 8/5 0
315 —1/5
ci—zi 0 0 —4/5 —9/5 0 - 2/5
The optimal solution of the primal problem is to produce 3 units of
product X, 4 units of product Y and no units of prcduct Z which gives a
ma'umum profit of Rs. 24.1
R. A manufacturer of leather belts makes three types of belts
B and C which are processed on three machines M. M 2 and M3 . A,
Belt

LP-40
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Belt B
A requires 2 hours oil M 1 and 3 hours on machine M 2 .
requires 3 hours on machine M 1 , 7. hours on machine M2 and 2 hours
and 4 hours
on iiiaelune M 3 and Belt C requires 5 hours on machine M 2
on machine M, There are 8 hours of time per day available oil
Al 1 , 10 hours of time per day available on machine M 2 , and 15 bouts of
time per day available oil M 3 . The profit gained from belt A is
Rs. 3'00 per unit, from Belt B is Rs. 500 per unit, from belt C is Rs. 4-00
per unit. What should be the dail y production of each type of belts so
that the profit is maximum.
(Hint. Maximize
z3x 1 + 5x2-j-4X3
2x,1 -f3x2 '8
2x 2 + 5 X 10
3x1+2X2F-4X315
x 1 , x 21 x)0.
Using simplex method, we get
89 5062 765
1 =-1-, x 2 =-1 - , x= and max. Z=--1
X
9. Explain the nature and significance of L.P.
A farmer has 1.000 acres of land on which he can grow corn, wheat
or soyaheans. Each acre of corn costs Rs. tOO for preparation, requires
7 man-days of work and yields a profit of Rs. 30. An acre of wheat
costs Rs. 120 to prepare, requires 10 man days of work and yields a
profit of Rs. 40. An acre of soyabeans costs Rs. 70 to prepare, requires
8 man-days of work and yields a profit of Rs. 20. If the farmer has Rs.
1,00,000 for preparation and can count on 80,000 man-days work, how
many acres should be allocated to each crop to maximise the total
profit 7
[Ans. Corn 250, wheat 625, soyabeans 0, Profit Rs. 32,500,1
10. A small-scale industrialist produces four types of machine
components tif 1 , M2 , M 3 and M 4 made of steel and brass. The amounts
of steel and brass required for each component and the number of man-
weeks of labour required to manufacture and assttnble I unit of each
component are as follows
M2 M Availability
Steel 6 5 3 2 100 kg.
Brass 3 4 9 2 75 kg.
Man-weeks 1 2 1 2 20
The industrialist's profit on each unit of M1 , Mp M3 and M'4 is

respectively Rs. 6, Rs. 4, Rs. 7 and Rs. 5.
How many of each should he produce to optimize his profit and
bow much is his profit ? (Note that the values given are the average

LP-41
BUSINESS MAThEMATICS
values per week. If a uracional Value appears in the answer, it should be
Interpreted as an average value)
[Ans. M, : 14 ; M2 : 0; M3 : 10/3 ; M4
0
Profit ; Rs. 13 -- per week]
DUALITY IN LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Associated with every linear-programming problem is a related
dual linear- progra in ming problem. The originally formulated problem,
in relation to the dual problem, is known as the primal linear program-
ming problem. If the objective in the primal problem is niuim,za(:on of
some functjo, then the objective in the dual problem is rnininiiuit ion of
a related (but different) function. Conversely, a primal minimization
problem has a related dual maximization problem. The concept of
duality is niOrc effectivity demonstrated in the following illustration
Primal Dual
Maximize : Z 3v 1 +5x4. Minimize Z'=8y1-4-l0y+l5y
Subject to Subject to
2x1 +3x8 2y1 -f- 3Y3>3
2x 2 + 5x 3 10 3P1 -4-- 2y -I- 2y 3 >5
3xi-4-2X+4x15 5y2+4y3>4
X i >0. X'>'0' X3>0
Y1>0,y2>0,y3)0
PRiMAl.
xt Re/tion Cons:ang
yl 2 3 -1< 8
DUAL - 2 5
I
y 3 3 2 I '5
Relatton
mm Z'

Con stants 3 5 4 max Z
It will be seen that
I. Primal, here, involves maxi- Dual involves minimizatjo
mization.
2.- In primal, we write objective
In dual, we write objective function
function as Z. as Z•
3. In primal, the variables are
Dual has a new set of variables, i.e.,
X1 , x 2 and xa. y1, y2 and y3.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING i.p-42
4. Prima] has three varia blcs, The dual, three
therefore. has
iz V 1 , X2 and x3. Consf aints.
5. The primal has three cons- The dual, therefore, has three
train is. variables, oiz . , y 1 . v. and .v.
6. In primal's objective func- In dual. 3, 5 and 4 become cons-
tion. 3, 5 arjd 4 arc the tants of constraints on the right hand
coctficiet5. Side.
7. In primal, the coefficients In dual, each C011.111111 takes the
of constraints, columnwise, position row-wise as under
are
2 3 2 3
- 2 5 3 2 2
3 2 4 -. 5 4
8. In primal, the signs of In dual, the signs of the constraints
constraints are less than or are just the reverse, i.e.. greater than
equal to or equal to.
9. The non negativity cons- The non- negativity constrinis are
Iraints are as man y as the as many as the variables in the dual,
varia hk's in the primal, i.e. , 3.
i.e , 3,
10. The signs in the non-ncga ti- The signs in the non-negativity
vity Constraints are greater constraints do not change and remain
than or equal to. the same.
Concli,sjon
The foregoing examples make it clear that the transformation of
a givea primal problem involves the following considerations
I If the primal involves maximization, the dual involves mini-
mization, and vice versa,
2. A new set of variables appears in the dual,
3. Ignoring the number of non negativity constraints, if there
are n variables and in inequalities in the primal, in the dual, there will
in
be and n inequalities.
4. The coefficients in the primal's objective function are put as
dual's constraint constants, and vice versa.
5. Of the primal's constraint inequalities, the coefficients column-
wise (from top to bottom) are positioned in the dual's constraint
inequalities row-wise (from left to right), and vice-versa,
6. IF the primal's constraints involve signs, the dual's constraints
involve ) signs, and vice versa,
7. The signs in the non-negativity constraints are > both in the
primal and the dual.
Example 9. Food F1 contains 6 units of vitamin A, 7 units of vita-
min B and 8 units of vitamin C. It costs Rs. 10 per unit. Food F 2 contains 7

L'-43 I3USH'1€SS MATHEMATICS
units of vitamin .4, 6 UflhtS of vitamin B and 10 units of vitamin C. It

costs Rs. 12 per unit. Food F 3 contains 8 units of vitamin A. 9 units of
vitamin /3 and 6 units of vitamin C. It costs Rs. 15 per unit. The daily
minimum requirement of vitamins A, B and C are 100 units, 120 units and
150 units respectively. Write the dual of the above linear programming
problem, solve the duai From the optimal solution of the dual, find the
optimum solution of the prirno! problem.
Solution. 'The given problem, i.e., the primal problem, stated in
an appropriate mathematical form is as follows
Minimize C (Total cost) = I Ox 1 + I 2x 2 + I 5x
6x1-l-7x2+8x.1>I00
7x1+6x1-I-I0x)I20
8x 1 +9X 2 4-6x 3 150
x1 0 1 x 1> 0 1 x3>O
where.
- Number of units of Food F1
xn==Number of units of Food F2
-= Number of units of Food F3
The dual to the above problem is

Maximise 7= 100y 1 -1- 120y 2 + I 50y
6;' -I- 7y, 4-
7y 1 -f-6y2-f9y3l2
8y 1 -l-lOy.+6y3 15
y1 s0, y 2 )0, y3I)
Solution of Dual Probletn
For solving the Dual problem, we convert the inequalities by adding
slack variables S 1 . S2 and S3.
Maximize 7 = 100 y 1 4- 120) 2 + I 50y3 -4- O.S + 0.S n 1 0-S3
6;' -i- 7y 4- 8y 3 ± S 1 = 10
7y 1 + 6y, -f 9y 3 + S 2 == 12
8y 1 +10y2+6y3+S3=15
Y1, y2 , y, S1 , S.., S3>0
As usual, if we make an initial decision of no production, this
decision summarized in tabular form ill be as follows

LP-44
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
SIMPLEX MATRIX I

Cf Product Quint it y 100 120 150 0 0 0
YI Y2 Y3 S1 S1 S

U Si 10 6 7 8 1 0 0 - hey
Cottilnn
o 12 7 6 9 0 I 0
o s 15

8 tO 6 () 0

Cf - Zj 100 120 ISO 0 0 0
t
L ----Key Row
In simplex matrix I, e find that key column is corresponding to
the variable y and key row is corresponding to the variable S 1 We
now proceed to Simplex Matrix II.
SIMPLEX MATRIX II
I 1 1 100 120 1.50 0 0 0

ci-.. I -___ ------- ___
I'roduci Quantity Yi Yz )3 S1 Si S
Mix
150 54 3/4 7/8 1 I/S 0 0

0 ,ç 3/4 114 —15/8 0 —9/8 1 0
0 1512 7/2 19/4 0 — 3/4 0 I
--T J—Zj 1-25/2 - 45/4 —0 150/8 0 0
The optimal solution to the dual problem gives a maximum value

or for the objective function.
Interpreting Primal-Dual Optimal Solutions
Once the dual problem has been formulated and solved, there,
remains the vital step of correctly interpreting the optimal solution to
the primal. The solution values for the primal can be read directly
from the optimal solution of the dual. This can be, described in the
following steps
Step I. Locate the slack variables in the dual programme. These
correspond to the primal basic variables in the optimal solution.
Step 2. Read the values of the index numbers in the index row
corresponding to the columns of the slack variables. This directly gives
the optimal values of the basic primal variables.

Lip - 45 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Step 3 The optima) values of the objective function for the

problems are the same.
150. 70
- ; x=x9 = 0 and Mm. Cost
Remark. It may be noted that if the primal problem involves
lesser number of variables than the number of restrictions (constraints),
the computational procedure can he considerably reduced by converting
it into dual and then solving it This offers advantage in number of
applications.
EXERCISES
1. Solve the following primal graphically. Write down its dual
and solve this also graphically.
Maximize Z=x1+5x2
5x + 6x230
3x1 + 2x2 12
x1 , x2>0
[Ans. x 1 r=O. x-=5. Z,,,,.251
2. Some town, a small township of 15,000 people. requires, on the
average, 3.00,000 litres of water daily. The city is supplied from a central
waterworks where the water is purified by such conventional methods as
filtration and chlorination In addition, two different chemical com-
pounds (i) softening chemical and (ii) health chemical, are needed for
softening the water and for health purposes. The waterworks plans to
purchase two popular brands that contain these chemicals. One unit of
ARC Corporation's products give S kilogram of softening chemical and 3
kilogram of health chemical. One unit 01 XYZ chcmicil company's
product contains 4 kilogram ard 9 kilogram per unit, respectively.
To maintain the water at a minimum level of softness and to meet
a minimum in health protection, experts have decided that 150 and 100
kilogram of the two chemicals that make up each product must be
added to water daily. If costs per unit. for ABC corporation's and
PQR chemical company's products are. Rs. 8 and Rs. 10 respectively,
what is the optimum quantity of each product that should be used to
meet the minimum level of softness and a minimum health standard ?
Write also the dual to the above linear programming problem and
solve it.
[Hint. The relevant data may be tabulated as below:
Chemical
I ABC Brand XYZ I Deily Requirement
(1) Softening 8 4 150

(it }iealmb 1 3 9 1 tOO
Cost/unit of c y ch brand 1 8 10

LINIAR p Ro(;RAMMR4C; u'-46

1'rirui1 Minimise (cost), Z=8x 1 F lOx2
8x 1 +4x_ 150
2x 1 -l9x, l0()
and x1>O, X, -- 0.
Minimum cost -= Rs. 185.
Dual: Maxitnise, Z= I 50y1 -I bOy2
8 y1 -F 2y 2 sç 8
4y1+9y2b0
.y 1 , y>01
3 A diet for a sick i)trsoi must Contain at least 4000 units of
vitamins, 50 units of minerals and 1400 of calories. Two foods A and B
are available at a cost of Rs. 4/- and Rs. 3/- per unit respectively. If
one unit of A contairts 200 units of vitamins, I unit of mineral and 40
calories and one unit of food B Contaiils 100 units of vitamins, 2 units
of minerals and 40 calories, Iuid b y simplex method what combj!iatuJn
of foods be used to have least cost.
[Hint Primal Minimize Z-4 1 -l--3x
200x1 + 100x 4000
x1--2x25O
l0x 1 +40j2 1400
x 1 , x20.
Dual : Maximize Z*=400y15y2 1400y3
200y 1 1-y2+40y4
100y+2y0-j--40y33
Y 1 1 Y2 1 YaO
x 1 =5, x2 30, Z,, 1 RS. 110]
4 A company makes three products, K, Y, Z out of three
materials P 1 , P2 and P2 . The three products use units of three materials
according to the following table
Pt P2 P3
X I 2 3
Y 2 1
Z 5 2 1
The unit profit contribution of the three products are Rs. 3, Rs. 4
and Rs. 5 respectively Availabilities of the materials are 10, 12 and 15
units respectively. The problem is to determine the product mix that
will maximise the total profit Solve the primal problem, write its dual
and give the economic interpretation.
SECTION C
Probability
INTRODUCTION
Two types of phenomena have usually been observed in nature and
in everyday life. These are
(1) deterministic. and
(ii) probabilistic.
In the first type, the hypotheses are stated exactly and no 'chance
elements' are involved subsequently during the analy sis of the pheno-
menon. Consequently, in such a case predictions of complete reliability
can be made, e g,, if we are given that a train is running at a uniform
speed of sixty kilometres per hour, then we can predict with cent per cent
surety that it will cover one hundred twenty kilometres after two hours,
assuming. of course. that it never stopped during these two hours. Most
of the phenomena in physical and chemical sciences are of a deterministic
nature. However, there exists a number of phenomena where we cannot
make predictions with certainty or complete reliability and are known
as unpredictable or probabilistic phenomenon. Such phenomena are
frequently observed in business, economics and social sciences or even
in our day-to-day life. For example:
(i) In toss of a uniform coin we are not sure of getting the head
or tail.
(ii) A manufacturer cannot ascertain the future demand of his
product with certainty.
(iii) A sales manager cannot predict with certainty about the sales
target next year.
(iv) If an electric tube has lasted for one year, nothing can be
predicted about its future life.
Probability is also used informally in day-to-day life. We daily
come across the sentences like
(i) Possibly, it will rain to-night.
(ii) There is a high chance of your getting the job in October.
(iii) This year's demand for the, product is likely to exceed that of
the last year's.
(iv) The odds are 2 : I in favour of getting the contract applied for.
All the above sentences, with words like 'possibly', 'high chance'.
'likely' and 'odds' are expressions indicating a degree of uncertainty
about the happening of the event. A numerical measure of uncertainty is
provided by a very important branch of statistics called the "Theory
of Probability " Broadly. there are three possible states of expectation--
cerlainty', irnpasibilicy' and uncertainty' The probability theory des-
cribes 'certainty' by 1, impossibility by 0 and the various grades of un-
certainties by coefficients ranging between 0 and 1.
PROBABILITY
According to Prof Ya-Lin-chou "Stwis:icr is the science of decision-

piakinç wit/i calculated risks in the face of uncertainty''
MEASUREMENT OF PRO1L&BILITy
The following is the broad classification of the different schools of
thought in probability
PROBABILITY
--.4,
Objective Subjective
Classical Empirical
Approach Approach
Modern Approach
Brief description of these concepts is given below.
OBJECTIVE PROBABILITY
The objective probability is based on certain Jaws of nature, which
are undisputed, or on some experiments conducted for the purpose.
This is not based on the impressions of the individuals as is the case
with subjective probability. These theories, therefore, are free from personal
bias and ensure objectivity. The two approaches to objective probability
are (a) classical approach, (b) empirical approach.
Fundamental Concepts
1. Random Experiment. An operation which can produce any
result or outcome is called an experiment. An experiment is called a
random experiment if, when conducted repeatedly under essentially
homogeneous conditions, the result is not unique but may be any one of
the various possible outcomes (The word random may be taken as one
depending on chance' without any bias). For example
(1) Tossing a fair coin is an experiment. (A coin is a circular metal
disc, the two faces of which are somehow distinguishable and are called
'head' and 'tail'.) Whether the coin will throw up head or tail is
unpredictable.
(ii) Rolling an unbiased die is an experiment. (A die Is a solid cube,
Ibc'. faces of which are marked with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 dots or actual
11ges 1, 2, 3. 4, 5. 6 respectively.) How many dots it will actually throw
up is unpredictable and is subject to chance.
(iii) Drawing a card from a well-shuffled pack of playing cards is
an experiment and as there are 52 cards in the pack and any of these may
be drawn in a s p ecific trial, which card it will turn out is unpredictable.
(h') Drawing two balls at random from a box containing, say. 8
white, 9 red and 7 green balls, all well-mixed is an experiment. Which
particular ball will be drawn is unpredictable
P-3 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
(v) When a coin is tossed 100 times or 100 coins are tossed together,
there are hundred experiments.
(vi) Experiments in business world can be in regard to the obser-
vation of the number of defective items produced by a machine, or
recording the number of customers visiting a sale Counter. In an
advertising campaign for new product launched, the number of items
sold may be observed.
2. Elementary Event. Each one of the possible outcome in a
single experiment is called an elementary event.
(i) In an experiment of tossing a coin there are 2 possible elementary
events, the head and the tail.
Ui) In an experiment which consists of throwing a six-faced die, the
possible elementary events are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
, iii) in an experiment of drawing a card of a given designation
from a pack of cards, there are 4 possible outcomes corresponding to 4
suits with designations of heart, diamond, spade and club.
(iv) In a trial of drawing a card from a suit of spade alone, there are
13 elementary events, viz., 1 to 13 cards.
(v) In a trial amongst 12 face cards, there are 4 elementary events,
viz., king, queen and jack.
3. Exhaustive Cases or Outcomes. The total number of possible
outcomes of a random experiment is called the exhaustive cases for the
CXperinent. Thus in toss of a single coin, we can get head (II) or tail
j. Hence cxuausrive number of cases is 2, vii, (H, T). If two coins
are tossed, the various possibilities are HI!, HT, TH, Ti', where Hi'
means head on tue first coin and tail on second coin and TH means tail
on the first, coin and head on the second coin and so on. Thus in case of
toss of Iwo coins, exhaustive number of cases is 4, I.e., 2. Similarly, in a
toss of three coins the possible number of outcomes is
(ii, x (H, T) x (II, T)
- (HH, Hr. TH, TT) x (H, T)
=(1fH H, 11TH, TIll!, TTH, Hill', HTT, THT, TTT)
4. Favourable Cases. The number of outcomes of a random
experiment which entail kor result in) the happening of an event are termed
as the cases favourable to the event. For example
(1) In a toss of two coins, the number of cases favourable to the
event "exactly one head" is 2, HT, TH and for getting two heads' is
one, viz., HI!.
(ii) In drawing a card from a pack of cards, the cases favourable to
'getting a club' are 13 and to 'getting an ace of club' is only 1.
5. Mutually Exclusive Events or Cases. Two or more events
are said to be mutually exclusive if the happening of any one of them
precludes the happening of all others in the same experiment. For
example, in tossing of a coin the events 'head' and 'tail' are mutually exclu-
PROf3fl(UfY p-4
sive because if head comes, we can't get tail and if tail comes we can't get
head. Sitmiarly, i ll throw of a die, the six faces numbered 1, 2. 3, 4,
5 and 6 are mutually exclusive. Thus events are said to be mutually
exclusive if no two or more of them can happen simultaneously.
6. Equally Likely Cases. The outcomes are said to be equally
likely or equally probable if none of them is expected to occur in pre-
(die), all the outcomes, viz.,
ference to other. Thus, in tossing of a coin (die),
H. 1 (the faces I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) are equally likely if the coin (die) is
unbiased.
Independent Events. Events are said to be independent if
the occurrence of one event in no way affects the occurrence of the other.
For example
(t) In tossing of a coin, the event of getting 'head' in first throw is
independent of getting 'head' in second, third or subsequent throws.
(ii) In drawing cards from a pack of cards, the result of the second
draw will depend upon the card drawn in the first draw. However, if
the card drasn in the first draw is replaced before drawing the second
card, then the result of second draw will be independent of the 1st draw.
Similarly, drawing of halls from an urn gives independent events if
the draws are made with replacement. If the ball drawn in the earlier
draw is not replaced, the resulting draws will not he independent.
Mathematical or Classical or 'a Priori' Probability
Definition. If a random experiment results in N exhaustive, mutually
exclusive and equally likely cases (outcomes), out of which ni are
favourable to the happening of an event A, then the probability of occur-
rence of A, usually, denoted by P(A) is given by
Number of outcomes favourable to the occurrence of A-
P(A) Exhaustive number of outcomes
11
n
This definition was introduced by James Bernoulli.
Remarks. 1. Probability that event A will not occur, denoted by
P(A) j
Number of outcomes not favourable to occurrence of A
- Exhaustive number of outcomes
tv—rn
2 Probability of any event is a number lying between 0 and

1, i.e.,
0P(A)l,
for any event A. If P(A)==0, then A is called an impossible or nz'tl event.
If F(.4) I. then A is called a certain or sure event.
3. The probability of happening of the event A, le, P(A) is
also known as the probability of success and is usually written as p and
the probability of the non-happening, i.e., P(A)
is known as the probabi-
lity of failure, which is usually denoted by q. Thus,
q=1—p
4. Limitations. The classical probability has its shortcomings
and fails in the following situations
(I) If N, the exhaustive number of outcomes of the random experi-
ment, is infinite.
(Ii) If the various outcomes of the random experiment are not
equally likely. For example, if a person jumps From the running train,
then the probability of his survival will not be 50, since in this case the
two mutually exclusive and exhaustive outcomes, viz . , survival and death,
are not equally likely.
St atistical or Enipirical Probability
Defitj0 (Von Mises). If an experiment is performed repeatedly
under essentially homogeneous and identical conditionr, then the limiting
value of the ratio of rie number of times the event occurs to the number of
trials, as the number of trials becomes indefinitely large, is called the
probability of happening of the event, if being assumed that the limit is
inite and unique.
f
Suppose that an event A occurs in times in N repetitions of a
random experiment Then the ratio in/N, gives the relative frequency of
the event A and it will not vary appreciably from one trial to another. In
the limiting case when N becomes sufficiently large, it more or less
co rresponds to a number which is called the probability of A.
cally, Symboli-
P(A)= urn
N-" oo N
Ileznarks. 1. Since in the relative frequency approach, the
Pro bability is obtained objectively by repetitive empirical observations,
it is also known as Empirical Probability.
2. The empirical probability provides validity to the classical theory
of p robability. If an unbiased coin is tossed at random, then the classical
Probability gives the probability of a head as J. Thus, if we toss an
u nbiased coin 10 times, then classical probability suggests we should have
5 heads. However, in practice, this will not generally he true. In fact
In 10 throws of a coin, we may get no head at all or I or 2 heads. J.E.
Kerrich conducted coin tossing experiment with 10 Sets of I ,000 tosses
each during his confinement in World War Ir. The number of heads
found by him were:
502, 511. 497, 529, 504, 476, 507, 520, 504, 529
This shows th.i: the probability of getting a head in a toss is nearly
. Thus, the empirical probability approaches the classical probability as
the number of trials becomes indefinitely large.
P-6
PROBABILITY
3, Limitations. (1) The experimental conditions may not remain

essentially homogeneous and identical in a large number of repetitions of
the experiment.
(ii) 'The relative frequency rn/N, may not attain a unique value no
matter however large N may be
Axiomatic Probability
The modern theory of probability is based o i l axiomatic
approach introduced by the Russian mathematician A.N. Kolmogoroy
in 1934. Kolmogorov axionilsed the theory of probability and his small
book Foundations of Probability' published in 1933, introduces probability
as a set function and is considered as a classic. In axiomatic approach.
to start with some concepts are laid down and certain properties
or 1,ostulate.c commonly known as atOrns are defined and from these
axioms alone the entire iheory is developed by logic of deduction. The
axiomatic definit i ons of probability includes both the classical and em-
pirical definitions of probability and at the same time is free from their
drawbacks. Before giving axiomatic definition of probability, we shall
explain certain concepts, used therein.
1. SrnpIe Space. A set whose elements represent the possible out-
comes of an experiment is called a sample space, which is a universal set
and is denoted by S. Each possible outcome given in the sample space
is called a sample point. The number of sample points in S may be
denoted as N(S). For example
(i) If one item is drawn from a manufactured product, the item
selected may either be defective D, or non-defective N. Then the sample
space is
S=-{D, N)
(ii) When a coin and a die are tossed together, there are twelve
sample points in the sample space:
S= {(7 1), (T. 2), (7', 3), (T, 4), (T, 5), (7', 6), (H, I), (H, 2), (11, 3),
(H. 4), (H, 5), (II, 6)).
- (iii) If a pair of dice is to be cast once, the 36 possible outcomes of
this experiment will be
Outcome of IOutcome of Second Die

First Die
1 2 3 4 5 6 The
I (1, 1) (1,2) (i, 3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6) sample
2 (2, i) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2. 6) I space
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, ';) (3, 5) (3, 6) " of the
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4. 6) experi-
5 (5. 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6) ment.
6 (6. 1) (6,2) (6. 3) (6. 4) (6. 5) (6, 6) J
2 Evert Sets An event set' is a subset of the sample space. Thus
on a sample space there can he two or more event sets consisting of a
group of elementary events (sample point).
P- 7 BUSINESS MA1HEMATlC
For example, in the experiment of picking two items, one at a

time, at random, from a box containing defective and non-defective
items, "both items are defective" is one event, "both items are non
defective" is another event.
The event sets are denoted by capital letter A, B. C or E, £2,
etc. The sample points in each set may be denoted by small letters,
say a, b, c or a 1 , a2 , a 3 , or by any other suitable description. The number
of sample points in an event set A may he denoted by n(A).
Remarks I. An event E defined over a sample space S is said
to be a sample, or elementary, or fundamental event if it contains exactly
one sample point in S. An event F defined over a sample space S is
called a composite, or compound event or simply an event, if it Contains
more than one sample point in S. Thus, when 'a die is toss,'d, each of
the elements in the sample space S I. 2, 3. 4. 5 . 6 is a simple event
but the events F, -={l, 3, 5 and £=12. 4, 6 are conpsite.
2. A set of events defined over the same sample spice is said to
be tnutuall e xc lu sive, or disjoint, if no sample point is contained in more
than one of these events, i.e , a set of events E. is mutually
exclusive if no two sets have any sample points in COIflUlOfl.
3. Two or more events defined over the same sample space are
said to be collectivclj' exhaustive if their uuiou is equal to the sample
Space.
Azioruatic probability (DefinLtioi). Given a sample space or
a random cx perimcnt. the probability of the occurrence of any event
A is defined as a proIability function P('l) satisfying ihe fol!owing
axioms.
Axiom 1. The probability of an event exists, is real and non
negative, i.e
P(A)Q
Axiom 2. The probability of the entire sample space is I, i.e.,
P(S)= I
Axiom 3. If A 1 , A, 4 3,...be a finite or infinite sequence of disjoint
events of S, then
P(A1+A2+...)=P(A1)+P(A.,)+ P(4.).l
Remark. The above axioms are also krown as axioms of
positiveness , certainty and complete additivity respecTively.
Example 1. (a) Find the probahilitt' of getting head ( e throw of
a coin.
(b) If two coins are tossed once, what the 'rohabilitu' of getting
(I) both heads, (ii) at least one head ?
So'ution. (a) When a coin is tossed, there are two possible
outconies--head or tail.
n=2
PROBABILITY P-S
The outcome head' is the favourable casc.
Hence P(Head)=
(b) When two coins are tossed there are four possible cases, viz.,
Jill: Head on the first coin and head on the second coin
HT: Head on the first coin and tail on the second.
TH; Tail on the first coin and head on the second.
TT: Tail on the first and tail on the second.

n-4
(1) Out of these 4 cases, we need heads on both, i.e., the HH

tnr=l
Hence P(hoth hcads)=P(HH)=k

(ii) In three cases HI!, HT and TI!, we get at least one head.
P(at least one head)= or 1 -1
Eim pie 2. What is the chance that a leap lear selected at random
will contain 53 Sundays?
In a leap year (which consists of 366 days) there are 52

complete weeks and 2 more days. The folowing are the possible combi-
nations for these two 'over' days
(i) Sunday and Monday, (ii) Monday and Tuesday, ((ii) Tuesday
and Wednesday. (iv) Wednesday and Thursday, (v) Thursday and Friday,
(vi) Friday and Saturday, and (vu) Saturday and Sunday.
In order that a leap year selected at random should contain 53

Sundays, one of the two 'over' days must be a Sunda y . Since out of
the above 7 possibilities, 2, viz., (i) and (vii) are favourable to this event,
the required probitability=-
Exawple 3. Three unbiased coins are toss/. What is the pro-

bability of obtaining (i) all heads, (ii) two heads , (Iii) one head, (iv)
at
least one head, (v) at least two heads , (vi) all tails ?
Solution. There are 2 3 or 8 possible cases, viz, NH!!, T-IHT, 117W,
TI!!!, I!TT, THT. 7 T11 and TTT (the three letters in each case denoting
the results on the 1st, 2nd and 3rd coins respectively). These are mutually
exclusive, exhaustive and equally likely cases.

The cases favourable to the events are as follows

Event Favourable cases Number of
favourable cases
A : All heads uHf! 1
B : Two heads uHF, 11TH, Till! 3
C : One head [ITT, TilT, TTH 3
D At least one JuTE, THT, TTII, If HT,
head If Til, Till!, If HI! 7
E : At least two heads HHT, 11T11, THH, HHH 4
F All tails TTT 1
Applying the classical definition of probability, we have
(0 l'(A)P(a]l heads) = 118
(ii) P(B)==P(two hcads)=3/8
F(C)=P(on head)=3/8
(iv) P(D)=P(at least one head)=7/8
(v) P(E)=P(at least two heads)-4/8=12
(vi) P(F)=P(alI tails)= 1/8
Example 4. Two unbiased dice are thrown. Find the probability
at
(a) both the dice show the same number,
(b) the first (lice shows 6.
(c) the total of the numbers on the dice is greater than 8
Solution. Each of the six faces of one die can be associated with
each of the six faces of the other die, so that the total number of equally
likely cases which can arise would be 6x6, i.e., 36. These can be
denoted as
(1, 1) (2, 1) (3, 1) (4, 1) (5, 1) (6, 1)
(1,2) (2,2) (3,2) (4,2) (5,2) (6,2)
(1, 3) (2.3) (3, 3) (4, 3) (5,3) (6,3)
(1,4) (2,4) (3,4) (4,4) (5,4) (6,4)
(1, 5) 2, 5) (3, 5) (4, 5) (5, 5) (6,5)
(1,6) (2,6) (3, 6) (4,6) (5, 6) (6,6)
The expression say (3, 4) means the first die shows 3 and the second
die 4. The total of all possible events is
N=36
(a) The favourable cases are (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5) and
(6, 6). Therefore ,n=6
Probability that the two dice show the same number
6 1
36 -W

PROBABILITY P-10
(b) For out of 36 cases, the first die shows 6 in the following
cases : (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5) and (6, 6). m=6.
• ,, 6 1
• • Probability that the first die shows 6
36 =
(c) The cases which give a total of more than 8 re (3, 6), (4, 5),
(4, 6), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 3), (6. 4) (6, 5) and (6, 6).
m= 10
5
Probability that the total is greater than 8= 10 -
361 -18
Example 5. A bag contains 5 green and 7 red balls. Two balls
are drawn. JV/zat is the probability that one is green and the other red ?
Solution. Total number ofballs=r5 + 7=12
Now, out of 12 balls, 2 can be drawn in ISC ways.
12x11
Exhaustive number of cases= " C ,
2 - = 66
Out of 5 green balls. I green ball can be drawn in C 1 ways and
out of 7 red balls, one red ball can be drawn in C 1 ways. Since each of
the former cases call associated with each of the latter cases, the
total number of favourable cases is 5 C2 x C,=-5 x 7=35.
Required probability= 35
-
Example 6. Five men in a company of 20 are graduates. If 3 men

are picked out of the 20 at random, what is the probability that they are
all graduates ? What is the probability of at least one graduate ?
Solution. There are °C3 possible ways of selecting groups of 3
men out of 20, and these groups are mutually exclusive, exhaustive and
equally likely.
However, a group of 3 men (all graduates) out of 5 can be obtained
in 5 C3 ways. Similarly, a group of no graduate out of remaining 15
can be obtained in 1 C0 ways. Therefore, We number of cases favourable
to the event is C3 x
Hence, the probability that all are graduates
6 C3 x' 5 C0 •
= 2 C
1140 114
In order to find the probability of at Icasi one graduate, it will he
easier to find the probability of the complementary event, viz., that none
is a graduate'.
I5CX5C 455 91
Probability that there is no graduate=
= Fl
the probability that there is at least one graduate
91 137
—1
228 228
-1 1 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
ADDITION RULE OF PROBABILITY

Statennt. The probability of occurrence of at least one of The
two events A and B is given by
P(A(J 13) =r P(A)+P(J3)—P(AflB)
Proof. Let us suppose that a random experiment results in a

sample space S with N sample points (exhaustive number of outcomes).
Then by definition
n(Aufl)
n(S) - N
where n(ALJB) is the number of outcomes (sample points) favourable to
the event (AUB).
From the above diagram, we get

(n(A)—n(AflB)l-- n(AflB)+ (n(B)—n(4 flB)
N
n('4)+n(B)—n(AflB)
n(A) n(B) n(AflA)

- N ±7
=P(A)+P(B)_P(A (B).
Remarks I.. If the events A and B are mutually exclusive, i.e., if
(A(B)oS, then
P (Afl 8 n(AflB) n()

N N
Thus the probability of happening of any one of the two mutually
disjoint events is equal to the sum of their individual probabilities.
Symbolically,
2. For three events A, B and C, the probability of

of at least one of them is given by occurrence
P (AUBUC)Z. P(A)+P(B)+P(C)_pLAnn)p(flfc)
--P(AflC)fP(4flnc)
PROI3AI3ILITY P-12
Example 7. A card is drawn from a well siru/Jied pack of playing
cards. Find the prohubility that it is either a king or a spade.
Solution. Let A denote the event of drawing a king and B denote

the event of drawing a spade from a pack of cards, Then we have
and P()=2. _
There is only one outcome favourable to the event AflB, viz., king of
spade, Hence F(AflB)-.
or -j- _ =.
Example B. The probability that a student passes an Accountancy
rest is
4- and the probability that he passes both an Accountancy
and Law test is . The probability that he passes at least one test
Is . What is the probability that he passes in the Law lest?
Solution. Let us define the following events

A : The student passes an Accountancy test.
B : The student passes a Law test.
We are given
P(A)=, P (AflB)- and P(AUB)=4.

—
45
Now P(AUB)=P(A)+p(B)_p(,1flB)
4 14 2 4
Example 9. The probability that a contractor will get a plumbing

contract is 213, and the probability that he will not gel an electric contract
is 519. If the probability of getting at least one contract is 4/5, what is
the probability that he will get both the contracts ?
Solution. Let A and B denote the events that the contractor will
get a 'plumbing'- contract and 'electric' contract respectively. Then we
are given:
P-I 3 SWINESS MATHEMATICS
P(A)_- P()_
P(l3)=1_-P(i)
and P(AUB)Prob. that contractor gets at least one contract
= 4/5
P(A)-P(13)_P(Afl/?)-± [By addition rule of probability]
--+- —P(,I()B)-
Hence the probability that the contractor will get both the contracts
is 14/45.
Example 10. A question paper contains 6 questions of equal value
divided into two sections of three questions each, If each question poses
the same amour( of a'ftIcuhty to Mr. A', an exatninee and he has only 50%
chance of solving it correctly , find the answer to any one of the following
(I) If Mr. X is required to answer only three questions from any
one of the sections, find the proba/,iliry that he will solve all the three
questions.
(ii) If Mr. X is given the option to answer the three questions by
selecting one question out of the two standing at serial number one in the
two sections, one question out of the two standing at serial number two
in the two sections, and one question out of the two standing at serial
number three in the two sections, find the probability that he will solve all
the three questions correctly, [Del/ti Univ., B. Corn. (lions ), 19921
Solution. (i) Mr. X will solve all the three questions correctly',
if he is able to solve
(I) all the questions of the first section and not all the questions
of the second section
(2) all the questions of the second section and not all the questions
of the first section ; or
(3) all the questions of both the sections.
Hence required probability
1 1 'f 1 1 1
T')+( '- ( T )(
7 7 1 15
+f'
(iii) Mr. X will solve a question correctly, if he is able to solve at
least one of the questions standing at the particular serial number in the

PROBABI LITY
P-14
two sections, the probability of which is 1— -
hence required probability

/ 3 27
= 4 I 64
MULTtPLICATION RULE OF PROBABILITY

Statement, The probability of siinulianeoits occurrenc of two events
A and B is given by
P(AflB) P (A). P(B I A); P(A)^()
Or
P(j3flA)7 P(/3) . P(A I B) ; P(13)-^60
where P(B I A) is the conditional probability of happening of B under the
condition that A has already happened and P(A I B) is the conditional
probability of happening of .4 under the condition that fi has already
happened.
Proof. Let A and B be the events associated with the sample space
S of a random experiment with exhaustive number of outcomes (sample
points) N, i.e., n(S) = N Then by definition
P(AflB)=-
For the conditional event A I B (i.e., the happening of A under the

condition that B has happened), the favourable outcomes (sample points)
must be out of the sample points of B In other words, for the event
A I B, the sample space is n(B) and hence
P(A I
---
Similarly, we have
n(BflA)
P(I3 I
A)— n(A)
Rewriting (), we get
n(A) n(A fl B)
P(AflB)=—x-
n(A)
=P(A) . P(B I A) [From ..()]
Also
n(B) n(Aflfi)
>
n(S) n(B)
=P(fl). P(A I B)
Remarks. 1. Multiplication Rule for Independent Events. If
A and B are independent so that the probability of occurrence or flOfl•
occurrence of A is not affected by the occurrence or non-occurrence of B,
we have
P(A I B)=P(A) and P(B I A)=P(B)
Hence substituting in ('), we get
P(AflB)=P(A) PB)
Hence the probability of simultaneous happening of two independeni
events is equal to the product of their individual probabilities,
2. The multiplication rule of probability can be extended to more
than two events. Thus, for three events A, B and C, we have
P(AflBflC)-P(A) P(B I A) F (C I AflB)
3. If events A and B are independent then the complementary events
A and fl are also independent
Proof. We know
P(AU/3)+P(AUB)—1
P(AuB)+ P(A)=1 (By Dc-Morgan's Law)
P(AflB)1P(AUB)
I —[P(4)- P(B)—P(A flJJ)
= I —P(A)--- P(B)+ P(A)P(B)
(. A and B are independent events)
=1l—F(A)j[1 —P(B)J-pP()
A and B are independent events,
4.
P (happening of at least one of the events A, B and C)
I —P(none of the events A, B. C happens)
or equivalently,
P(AUBU C)1 —P(A fl Bn5
=1-.-- P(A). P(. P(C)
(If A, B and C are independent events).
Example if. ,4 bag containts 8 red and 5 white balls. Two
successive drawings of 3 balls are made such that (i) balls are replaced
before the second trial, (ii) the balls are not replaced before the second
trial. Find the probability that the first drawing will give 3 white and the
second 3 red balls.
Solution Let A denote the event of drawing 3 white balls in thç
first draw and B denote the event of drawing 3 red balls in the second
draw. Then we have to find the probability P(AflB).
(i) Draws with replacement If
the balls drawn in the first draw are
replaced back in the hag before the 2nd draw then the event A and
B
are independent and the required probability is given (by the multi-
plication rule of probability) by the expression
PROIIAnILTT y p16
P(,1n8)-P(A) P(B) ...y)

X 13C
(u) Draws without replacement . If the balls drawn are not replaced
back before the second draw, then the cvents A and B are not indepen-
dent and the required probability is given by
P(Aflfl)=P(4) . P(B I A)
As discussed hi part (i),
Now, if the 3 white halls which werc drawn in the first draw are not
replaced hack, there are 13 -3 10 balls left in the hag and P(B A) is
the conditional probabilit y of drawing 3 red balls from the bag containing
10 balls out of which 2 are wh lie and 8 are red.
c3
Hence /'(B i A) =ri
Substituting in ()7 we get
ic 8c
P(A fl13 <
Example 12, i-ct A and B he the two possible outcomes of an

experiment and suppose
P(A)=O 4, J'(/tuJJ)=_-0*7 and
(i) For what choice of p are A and B muival/y exclusive )
(ii) For isliai choice of p are A wid B independent ?
Solutjn = (1) We have
I(-i UB)r P(4) -f- P(13)—P(AflB)
I'(AflB)=P(A)+P(B)_p(Au/I)
P-03
If A and B are mutually exclusive, then
P(AflJi):O 41 p-03=o PO3
(ii) A and B are independent if
F( A CtB)=PtA) P(B)
P—O3=O4>p
06p=(y3
03
P06-05
Example 13. The probability that a management ir(ij, y
ee will re,,ioj,j
With a company is 0 60. The probainlay that on employee earns more 111an
Rs. 10,000 per year is 0 50. The probability that an employee is a
management trainee who reniaiiied nih the company or who earns more
than Rs. 10,000 per .vear is 070. What is the probability that an employee
p-17 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
earn more than Rs. 10000 per year given that lie is a management trainee
who stayed with the company ?
Solution. Let US (kline the events
A : A management trainee will remain with the company.
B : Au employee who earns more than Rs. 10,000/-
Then we are given

P(A) '=ft60 and P(R)= 050
Also we are given
P(A managmen1 trainee remains with the company or earns more
than Rs. 10,000 per year) 010
P(AUB) = 010
PtA-P(8—P(AflB)=070
l'(AnB)=P(4)+P(8)-07
=-06-t 05-07— 04
Required probability is
PB I A P(AflfJ) 04 2
- P(A) 06 3
Extnp)e 14. The oddc against student X slrilig a Business

Statistics problem are 8 : 0, and odds in Ji'our of student Y solving the
some problem are 14 16.
(I) What Is the prob a bilit y that neither solves the problem, if they
bout try, independently of each oilier ?
(ii) What is the chance that the problem will be salted.
Solution. Let A denote the event that student K solves the pro-
blem and B denote the event that the student Y so ves the problem.
Then we are given
14 7 16 8
(I) The probability that neither K nor Y solves the problem is

given by
P(A fl J3)=P(A)XP(B)
[Since A and B are independent A and are independent]
4 8 32

PRO BADILIIY -l8

(Ii) The problem will be solved if at least one of the students X and
Y solves the problem. Hence the required probability is given by
I'(A U B)Probability that at least one of X and Y solves the
problem
= I '--Probability that none solves the problem
32 73
1 - P( A () B) I - -
105 105
Ex tvpe 15. It is 8 5 against a husii,qrd who is
55-year-olc1 living
fill he is 75 and 4 3 against his wf i/ia is non' 4$, living till she is 68,
Find the probability that (i the couple w ill be alive 20 years hc,ire,
an0f
(ii) at least one of thciii will he alive 20 years hence
So1utiji. Let A denote the event that husband will he alive 20

years hence and I? denote the event that wife will be alive 20 years hence.
Then we are given that
J'(A)=i
13 13
3 3 4
> P('=l
(i) The event that catiple is alive 20 years h

A fl B, ence is given by
Required prohability-P'(AflB)
=P(A) x P(B)
(By multiplication rule of probability, since A and 8
are independent
and consequently A and B are independent).
5 3 15
uj- x-=-
(ii) The event that at least one of the persons
.1 and B is alive 20
years hence is given by AUB.
Required probability=P(AUB)
= I —P (None of and B is alive 20 years
hence)
I —P(A)fljj)
r 1_P(A) P(B)
8 4 59
X
Exiiple 16. A candidate is selected for interview for three posts.

For the flFit post there are 3 candidates for the second there are 4 and for
the third there are 2. What are the chances of his getting at least one post 7
p-19 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Solution. Let iL B and C denote tiic events that the candidate is

selected for the first, second and third l)OSt respectively. Since the selection
of each candidate is equally likely, we have
P(A)=-
The probability that the candidate is selected for at least one post is
given Oy
P(AUBUC)= i-P(Anhihd)
= l—P(A). P(B). P(C)
[Since the events A, B and C are independent]
2 3 1 3
-l- X X24
Example 12 A piece of equipment will function only when all the
three components A, 13 and C are working. The probability of A failing
during one _vear is 015, that of B failing is 1) 0.5 and that of C failing is
010. What is the probability that the equipment will fail before the end
of the year 2
Solution. Let us define the events
A1 Component A fails
A 2 : Component B fails
A 3 : Component C cans
We are given
P(A 1 )=015, P(A 2)005, P(A3)=010
Probability that equipment will fail before the end of the year is
given by
P(A1UA2U143)=l —P( Zn2n3
= I —/'()1'(73)P(5)
=l--(l-015)x(1--005)x(1_0'10)
= I —0'72675=027325
Example 18. A bag contains 5 white and 3 black balls and four
are successively drawn out and not replaced What is the probability that
they are alternatively of swne colours 2
Solution The required event can materialise in the f6owing
mutually exclusive ways
PR)8ABtLi IN'
p-20
(i) The balls are white, black, white and black in the first, second,
third and fourth draw respectively.
(ii) The halls are black, white, black and white in the first, second,
third and fourth draw respectively.
Hence by addition rule, the required probability 'p ' is given by
p=P(i)+P(ii) .
Let A, B, C and 1) denote the event of drawing a white, black, white and
black in the first, second, third and fourth draw respectively. Since the
balls drawn arc not replaced before the next draw, the constitution of the
bag ill the four draws is respectively
pj
1st draw 2nd draw
W3i 2B
3rd draw
HH 4th draw
P(f)=P(AflflflCflD)
=P(A). l'(li I ..l). P(C I 'lflB). P(D 1fl8flC)
5 3 4 2 1
_X T X 6 X5-l4
3 5 2 4
Si p((i) A
< 6x
Substituting in ('), the required probability is
I I I
14 7
Example 19. A hag contains 5 red and 3 black balls and the second
one 4 red and 5 black balls. One of these Is selected at random and a
draw of two la/is is made from it. What Is the probability that one of
them is re(l and the oilier black 7
Solution. Two balls (one red and one black) can be obtained in the
following mutually exclusive ways
A : when bag I is selected and two balls are drawn from it.
B: when bag 11 is selected and two balls are drawn from it.
Hence by the addition rule, the required probability is given by
pP(A)+P(R)
But A is itself a compound event consisting of (1) the selection 01
bag I, with probability t, and (ii) the drawing of two balls, one red and
C1 x C-
other black from it, with probability .
Hence by the multiplication rule, we have

P(A)=(Probability of selection of hag I) x (Probability of drawing

one red and one black ball assuming that bag I is selected)
I 5C1xC1 1 15 15
TX
8C2
1
Similarly, P(B)—_- x 4C,xC 1 20 5
6
T
Hence the required probability is
15 5 275
Example 20. The odds that a look on Business Mathematics will

be favourably reviewed by 3 indepen/ent critics' are 3 to 2, 4 to 3 and 2
o 3 respectively. What is the probability that , of the three reviews
(a) all will be favourable
(b) majority of the reviews will be favouraHe
(c) exactly one review will be favourable and
(d) exactly two reviews will be favourable,
(e) at least one of the reviews will be favourable
Solution. Let A, B and C denote respectively the events that
the book is favourably reviewed by first, second and third critic respec-
t i vely. Then we are given that
P(A) = ---, P(B)=_ , and
E(A) --, P(B) and P(C)

(1) P(all the three reviews will be favourable
- P(,nBnC)
= P(A).P(B).P(C)
[: A, B and C are independent]
3 4 2 24
(ii) P(majoriiy, i.e., at least 2 reviews will be favout able)

=P(AflBfl )+ P(A nn c )+ p(nBnc)+ P(AflBfl1C)
P(4)P(/3)P(+p(4)pj)p(C)+p()p(B)j)(C)
-- P(A)P(8)P(C)
('. A, B and C are independent)
3 4 3 3 3 2 2 4 2
=Tx
3 4 2 94
+-- xTx

PROBARILITY P-22
(iii) The probability that exactly one review will he favourable is
given by
I'(Afl B7 C)± P(Afl13fl C)+ P(AflBPflC)
= P(A)P(B)P(C) f J'(A)P( 13)P(C) + P(A)P(B)P(C)
3 3 32 4 3 2 3 2 63
= 5 X 7 I X7K X7X5
+
(h) Similarly, the probability that exactly two reviews will be
favourable is given by
p(AflBflC)+p(AflflflC)+ P(AflJ3flC)
- P(A)P(B)P(C) + P(A)P(B)P((.') 4- P(A)P(B)P(C)
3 4 3 3 3 2 2 4 2 105
+
(lv) The probability that at least one of the reviews will be favour-
able is given by
P(AUBU C) = l—l'(AflBfl C)
= I __P(A)l'(B)P(C)
2 3 3 157
=1- 7 175
BAYES' RULE
One of the important applications of the conditional probability
is in the computation of unknown probabilities, on the basis of the infor-
mation supplied by the experiment or past records. For example, suppose
we have two boxes containing defective and non-defective items. One item
is picked at random from either one of the boxes and is found defective,
and now we might like to know the probability that it came from Box I or
Box 2. These probabilities are computed by Bayes' Rule, named so after
the British Mathematician Thomas Bayes who propounded it in 1763.
Quite often the businessman has the extra information in a partt-
cular event, either through a personal belief or from the past history of
the event Probabilities assigned oil basis of personal experience,
before observing the outcomes of the experiment, are called prior pro-
babilities. For example, probabilities assigned to past sales records, to
past number of defectives produced by a machine. are examples of prior
probabilities When the probabilities are revised with the use of Bayes'
rule, they are called posterior probabilities. Bayes' rule is very useful
in solving practical business problems in the light of additional infor-
mation to arrive at valid decisions in the face of uncertainties,
Statement. If an event B can only occur in conjunction with one one
of the n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events A 1 , A,.,4,, A. and if B
actually happens, then the probability that it was preceded by the parti-

P-23
BUSINESS MATJJIMAT1C
cu/ar event A, (1= 1, 2, n) Is give,, by
P(BflA,) P(A,) P(B I A,)
-
P(B 1 A,) P(A, P(B I A,)
Proof. Since the event ii

the mutually exclusive andexhatistjve canevents
occur in combination with any of
A 1 , A t ,..., A, we have
B(BflA,) U (Bn4 2)
U ... U(BflA)
where B fl,, BflA ,.., Bfl4 ,
are all disjoint (mutually exclusive)
events. Hence, by addition rule of probability, we have
I>(B) P (.IJfl,1 1 ) +P(Bfl A
2 ) .. . - /'( BflA)
P(A,) P(B I A)+ P(A) J(B
I 4) + ... -- P(A,) P(/i I A,)
/'(A,) P(B I A,)
For any particular event A,, the conditional probability

givcji by P(A, 13) is
P(A(flfl)p(B) P(A, I B)
' P(A, J fl)Ll).
I A,)
tl
P(A) P(B 1 A,)
Which iS the Bay' rule For obtaining the

co nditional Probabilities.
Remark. The probabilities 1'(A1),
P(A 2 ), ..., J-'(A,,) which are
already given or known before conductin
priori or prior probabliti
probabi g the experiment are termed as a
P(A 2 B), •, P(A, B) lities. The conditional probabilities P(A, B),
I which are computed after conduct'
ment, viz., occurrence of A, are called a ng the experi-
probabilities Posteriori or posterior
Example 21. Two sets of candidates are co
on the Board of D mpeting for the positions
and second sets w irectors of a company. The p robabilities that the first
ill win are 06 and 04 respectively . If the fi
the probability of introducing a new product is 08 rst set wins,
probablfi,, , and th e corresponding
pro duc, will if
hethe second set wins is 03. Whnt j' th probability that the
introduce d?
Let
sets of ca ndidates A , A denote the events that the first and second
product' is introduced. W in respectively. 1_ct B
denote the event that 'new

PROBABILITY P-24
We are given
P(A 1 )-O'6, P(,4,) ==
P(Ti I A,) =0 , 8 = Probability that 'new product' will be introduced
given that first set wins.
P(B I A2)-03
The event B can materialise in the following mutually exclusive
ways:
(1) First set wins and the new product is introduced, i.e., A 1 fl ii
happens
(ii) Second set wins and the new product is introduced, i.e., A fl B
happens. Thus
B=(APB) U (Afli3),
where A 1 flB and A 2 fl13 are disjoint.
Hence using addition rule of probability, we have
P(B)= P(A1fl13)+ P(A2fl/3)
=P(A 1 ) I'(B I A)+P(A 2) .P(B
=0r6x 0'8+04x03
Example 22, Suppose that a product is produceJ in three factories,

A, B and C. 11 Is known that factory A produces twice as many items aS
factory B, and that factories B and C produce the same number of items.
Assume that it is known that 2 per cent of the items produced by each of
the factories A and C are defective while 4 per cent of those manufactured
by factory B are defective . All the items produced in the three factories
are stocked, and an item of product Is selected at random. What is the
probability that this Item is defective ?
Solution. Let the number of item-, produced by each of factories
B and C be n. Then the number of items produced by the factory A is
2n. Let A, A 2 and A 3 denote the events that the item is produced by
factory A, B and C respectively and let £ be the event of the iteni being
defective. Then we have
2n 2n
PA' 05
2n+n+n4n
=025
P(A2) = = -- = 025
p(E I A1 )P(E I A 3)=002 and P(E I A,)=0-04 (Given)
The probability that an item selected at random from the stock 19
defective is given by
P(E)==Pf(EflA 1 ) U (EflA) U (EflA3)J

=F(EflA 1 ) -I- P(Efl /1 2 ) ± P(EflA2)

[By addition rule of probability]
: P(A 1 ) P(E I A 1 )-f-P( A 2 ) P(E 1 As) -lF(A 0) P(E I A)
05 x 002+ 0 • 25 x 004 +025 x 002
=0025.
Example 23. A company has two plants to manufacture scooters
Plant I manufactures 70% oJ (lie scooters and Plant ii manufac tu r e s 30%.
At plant 1, 8001 of scooters are rated standard quality and at plant 1190%
of scooters are rated standard quality. A scooter Is picked up at random and
isjbund to he of standard quality. What is the chance that It has come
from plant I?
Solution. Let us define the following events
Scooter is manufactured by plant I
A2 : Scooter is mmufactured by plant II
13 : Scooter is rated as standard quality.
Then we are given
P(A 1 )=070, F(A2)=030,
I
P(B A 1 )=080, P(B I 42)=090
Using Bayes' rule, required probability is
P(A1) P(B I A)
P(B I A 1 ) P (4) P(B I A2)
070x080 056 56
070X080-I030x090 313
Example 24. In an automobile factory, certain parts are to be fixed
to the chasis in a section before it moves into another section. on a given
day, one of the three persons A, B and C carries out this task. A has 45%,
B has 3501 and C has 20% chance of doing Ii. The probabilities that A, B
and C will take more than the elicited time are 1116, 1/10 and 1120 respec-
tively, If It is found that none of them has taken more time, what is the
probability that A has taken more time?
[Delhi Uni BCovn. (lions.) 19921
Solution. Let E1 , E2 E 3 denote the events of carrying out the task by
A, B and C respectively. Let 11 denote the event of taking more time.
Then we have
P(E1 )=-045, P(E2 )=0'35, F(E)= 020
P(H I E)rr 16'
-_ P(H E)=-.L
2
, P(H I Es) — 1
10
The required probability
P(EI). P(H I E1)
P(E1 ) . P(H I E3+P(E 2 ) PU! I E2) -4 P k E,) . p(H I E)

PROBABILITY P-26
-
045x 1-- -l-035x . +020x
10 20
5
=11
Example 25. In a bolt factory, mac/lines A, B and C manufacture
respectively 25% 35% and 40% of the total, of their output 5, 4, 2 per
cents are defective bolts, A bolt is drawn at random from the product and
is found to be defcctie. What are the probabilities that it was manufactured
by mac/lines A, B and C ?
Solution. Let us define the events
/1 1 Bolt is manufactured by machine A.
A 2 =Bolt is manufactured by machine B.
A 3 = Bolt is manufactured by machine C.
The data of the problem give the following probabilities
P(A 1 )=0'25, P(A 2 )=035, P(A,)= 040
P(B I A 1 )=0'OS, P(B I A 2 ) = 004, P(B I A S ) = O02
P(BflA 1 )=J'(A 1 ) PB I A 1 )=025 x 0'05=00125
P(BnA,) = 0'35 x 004= 00140
P(Bfl1 3 )= 040 x 002=00080
Hence the probability that a defective bolt chosen at random is
manufactured by factory A is given by Bayes' rule as
P'A fl \_ P(A))P(B_A1)
I
' P(A 1 )P(B I A 1 )+I'(A 2 ) P(BA 2 )f-P(A 2 ) P(BpA)
00125 0'0125 25
0'0125-I-00140+00080 0034569
Similarly, we get
00140 28
P(A 2 1 B )-5=-
00080 16
P(A
The above information concerning various probabilities may be

summarized in the following table
Event Prior Conditional Joint Posterior
Probability Probability Probability Probability
A 1 025 25
0'05 00125
69
28
035 004 00140
69
16
Al 040 002 00080
69
Total l'OO 00345 1'OO
P-27 BUSINESS MATHItMA'I'JCS
Important Remark. P(A 3 ) is greatest, on the basis of 'a prior'
probabilities alone we are likely to conclude that a defective bolt drawn at
random from the product is manufactured by machine C. After using the
additional information we obtain the 'posterior' probabilities which give
P(A2 B) as maximum. Thus, we shall now say that it is probable that
the defective bolt has been manufactured by machine B, a result which is
different from the earlier conclusion. However, latter conclusion is a
much valid conclusion as it is based on the entire, information at our
disposal. Thus, Bayes rule provides a very powerful tool in improving the
quality of probability and this helps the management executive in arriving
at valid decisions in the face of uncertainty. Thus, the additional informa-
tion reduces the importance of the prior probabilities. The only requirement
for the use of Bayesian Rule is that all the hypotheses under consideration
must be valid and that none is assigned 'a prior' probability 0 or 1.
EXERCISES
I. (a) Define random experiment, trial and event.
(b) What do you understand b y (i) equally likely, (ii) mutually
exclusive and (iii) independent events.
(c) Define independent and mutually exclusive events.. Can two
events he mutually exclusive and indc3endcnt simultaneously ? Support
your answer with an example.
2. Discuss the different schools of thought on the interpretation
of probability flow does each school define probability ?
3. Explain tile meaning and illustrate byau example how probabi-
lity can be calculated in the following cases
(i) Mutually exclusive events, (Ii) Dependent events.
(iii) Independent events.
4. Differentiate the following pairs of concepts
(i) Mutually exclusive events and overlapping events.
(ii) Simple events and composite events.
(iii) Mutually exclusive events and independent events.
5. Define independent and mutually exclusive events. Can the
two events be mutually exclusive and independent simultaneously.
Support your answer with examples.
6. Explain with examples the rules of Addition and Multiplication
in theory of probability.
7. A card is drawn from a pack of cards. Find the probability
that it is
(i) queen, (ii) queen of diamond or heart,
(Iii) not a diamond,
() a ten, a jack, a queen or a king.
[An s. (1) 1/13, (ii) 1/25, (iii) 3/4, (iv) 4/131

PROBABILITY
(a) Given the following data

0-10 10--20 20-30 30- 4() 40-50
J: 2 8 13 7 5
What is the probability that an item chosen at random from the
data falls between 30 and 40? (Ans. 1/5)
(b) Given the following probabilities concerning the number of
accounting personnel that will be needed in a company during the next
two years.
No of
Accountants: <100 100-199 200--299 300-399 400-499 50599
Probability : 010 015 030 030 0 10 005
(1) What is the probability that the company will need 400 or
more additional accountants during the next two years.
(ii) What is the probability that the company wili need at least
200 but not more than 399 additional Accountants ?
[Atis. (I) 0 - 1040 - 05, (ii) 0 - 304-0 - 301
9. The following data shows the length of life of wholesale grocers
in a particular city
Length of Life Percentage of
(years) wholesalers
0-- 5 65
5—JO 16
10-15 9
15-25 5
23 and over 5
Total [00
(i) During the period studied, what is the probability that an

entrant to this business will fail within five years ?
(ii) That he will survive at least 25 years ?
[Ans. (i) 065, (ii) 095)
10. From 30 tickets marked with the first 30 numerals, one is drawn
at random. Find the chance that,
(i) it is a multiple of 5 or of 7, (ii) it is a multiple of 3 or of 7.
[
A, (ii)
11. A number is chosen from each of the two sets

1 ,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

P-29
If p1 is the probability that the sum of the two numbers be 10 and
P 2 the probability that their sum be 8, find p1 {-p2 ,
[Ans. 16/181
V. From a pack of 52 cards, 2 are drawn at random. Find the
chance that one is a king and the other a queen.
r ____
Ans. -_____
L
13. A bag Contains 3 red, 4 white and 5 black balls. Three balls
are taken From the bag. Find the probability that
(/) all are black,
(ii) all are of different colours.
[Ans. (I) ' (Ii)

- 12V3-
14. Two cubical dice are tossed.
following events Find the probabilities of the
The sum of numbers

(I) Divisible by three, (II) Less than 7,
(iii) Not less than 7 (or at least 7 or more than 6).
[Ans. (1) 1/3, (Ii) 15136, (Iii) 21/361
15. An urn contains 5 white, 3 black and 6 red balls, 3 balls are
drawn at random. Find the probability that
(i)
two of the balls drawn are white, (ii) one of each colour,
(iii) none is black, and (iv)
at least one is white.
Ans. (i) - ,. 5x3x6 .., "C5 .
--_--- . (u) •HC8 (xii) , (w) I -
C5
L
16 There are 3 economists, 4 engineers. 2 statisticians and I
doctor. A committee of 4 from among them is to be formed. Find the
probability that
the committee
(1) consists of one of each kind ; (ii)
has at least one economist
(ii) has the doctor as a member and three others.
r
L '.24..
210'
84
210
35 .
(Iii)
17.
fivc . paise A bag contains 12 rupee coins, 7 fifty paise coins and 4 twenty-
coins. Find the probability of drawing
(1) a rupee coin ; (ii) three rupee coins, and
(iii) three coins, one of each type.
18. The Federal Match Company has forty female employees and
sixty male employees If two employees are selected at random, what is
the probability that
PROBABILITY p.30
(1) both will be males ? (ii) both will be females '1

(iii) there will be one of each sex ?
Since the three events are collectively exhaustive and mutually
exclusive, what is the sum of the three probabilities 1 [Ans. One]
19. In a box there are 4 granite stones, S sand stones and 6 bricks
of identical size and shape. Out of them 3 are chosen at random. Find
the chance that
(1) They all belong to different varieties.
(ii) They all belong to the same variety.
(iii) They are all granite stones.
20. If the probability is 0 30 that a Management Accountant's
job applicant has a post-graduate degree, 070 that he has had some
work experience as a Chief Financial Accountant, and 0-20 that he has
both. Out of 300 applicants, approximately what number would have
either a post graduate degree or some professional work experience ?
[Ans. 240]
21. Find the probability of getting 6 at least once in two tosses
of a die.
(hint. Using Addition rule, the required probability is
J'(A or B)=P(A)-j-j'(B)—p(A and B)=
--_-_-
22. (a) A chartered Accountant applies for a job iii two firms X and
Y. 1-Ic estimates that the probability of his being selected in hrni X is
07, and being rejected at Y is 05 and the probability of at least one of
his applications being rejected is 06. What is the probability that he
will be selected in one of the firms ?
[Hint. Let A and B denote the events of his being selected in firms
X and Y respectively.
P(A)=07, P(B) nr 05, P(Aor B)=0 6
The required probability that he will be selected in one of the
firms is obtained by using addition rule as follows
P(A or B)=P(jl)±p(B)—.P(A and B)
Also we know
P(A and B)=l—P(A or
Hence P(A or B) r 07+0 5-0'4=0-8j
23. Two vacancies exist at the junior executive level of a certain com-
pany. Twenty people, fourteen men and six women, are eligible and
equally qualified. The company has decided to draw two names at
random from the list of eligibles. What is the probability that
(a) both positions will be filled by women ?
P-31 BUSINESS MATHtMATICS
(b) at least one of the position will be lifled by women ?

(c) neither of the position will be filled by women ?I'C
[ Ans. (a) (b) 1 (c)
24. Sixty per cent of the employees of the ABC Corporation are
college graduates. Of these, ten per cent are in sales. Of the employees
who did not graduate from college, eighty per cent are in sales.
(i) What is the probability that an employee selected at random is
in sales ?
(ii) What is the probability that all selected at random is
neither in sales nor a college graduate ?
(Ans. (a) 033, (b) 0'081
2. A small insurance company has written theft insurance for
two different businesses In any one year, the probability that business
A IS burglarized is 001. In any one year, the probability that business
B is burglarized is 015, (Assume these are independent events.) Find
the probability that
(a) both will be burglarized this year.
(h) neither will be burglarized this year.
(c) exactly one will be burglarized this year.
26. The probability that a person stopping at a gas station Will ask
to have his tyrcs checked is 0'12, the probability that he will ask to have
his oil checked is 029 and the probability that he will ask to have them
both checked is 007.
(i) What is the P,obabilfly that a person stopping at th gas station
will have either his tyres or his oil checked ?
(ii) What is the probability that a person who has his tyres checked
will also have his oil checked ?
(iii)
What is the probability that a person who has his oil checked
will also have his tyres checked ?
[Ans. (1) 034, (ii) 0 58, (iii) 0241
27. A card is drawii from a full pack of cards. What is the pro-
bability of drawing a "black" king (either spade or club) given that the
card drawn was "face" card (jack, queen or king) ?
28. A bag contains 6 white and 9 black balls. Two dra¼ ings of 4
balls (in each draw) are made in such a way that
(i) the balls are replaced before the second trial.
(ii) the balls are not replaced before the second trial.
Find the probability that first drawings will give 4 white and the
second 4 black balls in each case.
[Ans. (ii)
15 C4 15C4 15C4 IC41
PROBARILITY
P-32
29. If the probability that A'
project will have an economic life ot'
20 years is 0'7 and the probability that 13' project will have anonoj
cc
life of 20 years is 05. What is the probability that both will have art
ec onomic life of 20 years ?
(Axis. 07 x 05J
30 ,\ salesman has a ] 0 per cent chance of making a sale to each
Customer. The behaviour of successive customers is assumed to he
independent. If two customers A and B
enter, what is the probability
that the salesman will make a sale to A or 13?
(Axis. 0' 9.]
31. It is known that bolts produced by a certain process arc too
large 10 per cent of the time and are too small 5 per cent of the time.
If a prospective buyer selects a bolt at random from a lot of 500 such
bolts, what is the probability that it will be neither too tong nor too
short ?
32, A Problem in Statistics is given to three students

A, 1] and C
whose chances of solving it are . and - respectively. Firal the pro-
bab,liy that the problem will he solved by at least one of them.
[An, 3/5]
33. The probabilities that three drivers will be able to drive home
safely after drinking are, and respectively. If they set out to drive
home after it party, what is the probability that all three drivers will have
accident ? What is the probability that at least one driver wnll drive
home safely ?
34. (a) Find the probability of throwing 6 at least once in six

throws, with a single die.
[Aus. I --(5/6)11
(b)
Suppose tso six-faced dice are thrown I() times. What is the
probability of getting a double six ill least one of the throws "
[Aim. I _(35i36)boj
35. In the milk section of a self-service market there are 150 quarts,
100 of which are frcsli and 50 are a day old.
(1) If two quarts are selected, hat is the probability that both will
be fresh ?
(ii) Suppose two quarts are selected after 50 quarts have been
removed from the selection. What is the probability that both will he
Fresh ?.
(iii) What is the conditional probability that both will be fresh, gi veil
that at least one of thein is fresh,
36. An urn .4 Contains 2 white and 4 black halls, Another

L11-1) /1
contains 5 white and 7 black halls. A ball is transferred from urn
the urn B. Then it ball is drawn ficin the urn .1 to
13. Find the probability
that it will be white.
37. A hag contains 5 hre uid 3

black balls. Another hag con-
tains 4 white and 5 black halis. From any one of these bags single draw
P-33 BUSINESS MATHEMA'tICS
of two halls is made. Find the probability that one of them would be
white and another black ball.
38. An urn contains 10 white and 3 red balls. Another urn con-
tains 3 white and 5 red balls. Two balls are transferred from the first
urn and placed in the second, and then one ball is taken from the latter.
What is the probability that it is a white ball ?
39. There are two groups of subjects, one of which consists of 5
science subjects and 3 engineering subjects and the other consists of 3
science subjects and 5 engineering subjects. An unbiased die is cast. If
number 3 or number 5 turns up, a subject is selected at randout
from the first group. Otherwise, a subject is selected at random
from the second group. Find the probability that an engineering subiect
is selected ultimately.
F 325
LAn5.
RI )X
44), An urn contains 7 red marbles and 3 white marbles. Three
marbles are drawn from the urn, one after the other, without replacement.
Find the probability that the first two are red and the third is white.
41. One shot is fired from each of the three guns. E1 , E2 , E3 denote
the events that the target is hit by the first, second and third gun respec-
tively. If I'(E,) =0'S, P(E 2)= 06 and P(E3 )= 08 and E1 , E2 , E 3 are
indcpcndent events, find the probability that ( a ) exactly one hit is regis-
tered. (b) at least two hits are registered. [Ans. ( a ) 026 (b) 0701
42. A certain part can he defective because it has one or more out
of three possible defects insufficient tensile strength, a burr, or a dia-
meter outside tolerance limits. In a lot of 1000 pieces it is known that
120 have a tensile strength defect.
80 have a burr.
60 have an unacceptable diameter.
22 have tensile strength and burr defects.
16 have tensile strength and diameter defects.
20 have burr and diameter defects.
8 have all three defects.
If a piece is drawn at random from the lot, what is the probability
that the piece
(a) is not defective ?
(b) has at least one defect, and
(C) has exactly two defects
43. An investment firm purchases 3 stocks for one-week trading
purposes. It assesses the probability that the stocks will increase in value
over the week as 0'8, 07 and 0'6 respectively. What is the chance that
(1) all three stocks will increase, and (ii) at least 2 stocks will increase ?
PROBABILITY p34
[Assume that the movements of these stocks are independent
Also find the probability that : (iii) Exactly one stock will increase
in value, (iv) Exactly two stocks will increase in value and (v) At least one
of the stocks will increase in value.
{Hint. Let A, B and C denote respectively the events that 1st, 2nd
and 3rd stocks increase in value. Then we are given that
P (A)= 08, P(B)=07 and P(C)06
P(A)=02, P(U)=03 and F(0=-04
(1) The probability that all the three stocks will increase in value is
P(Afl8flC) P(A)P(I?)p(C)
[. Movements of the stocks are independent]
(ii) The event that at least two of the stocks increase in value can
materialise in the following mutually exclusive ways
(a) Afl B flC happens, (h) A flflC happens,
(c) A flBfl C happens, and (d) Afl 13flC happens.
Hence by the addition rule the required probability is given by
P( A fl B fl C )+ p (AflflC) P(4fl13flC)+P(,lfl131C)
P(A)P(B)F(C) + P(A)P(B)P(C) P(A)J>(B)p(C) H- P(A)P( B)P(C)
('.• A, ii, C are ide penden t]
(iii) Arguing as in case (ii) the probability that exactly one stock
will increase in value isgiven by
P(A)I'(B)p(C) +P(A)P(B)P(C)+p(A)p(B)p(C)
(: Movements of stocks are independent]
(iv) Similarly, the probability that exactly two stocks will increase in
value is given by
P(AflBfl C )+ P ( A f
l Bf
l C)+ P(Aflhj'flC)
= P(A)P(B)P() + P(A)P)P(C)+ P(A)P(B)P(C)
(v) The probability that at least one of the stocks will increase in
value is given by
P(AUBUC) l—P(Afl B fl I
44. Ina multiple choice examination there are 20 questions. Each
question has 4 alternative answers following it and the student must
select one correct answer. 4 marks are given for the correct answer
and I mark is deducted for every wron g answer. A student must secure
at least 50% of maximum possible marks to pass the examination.
Suppose a student has not studied at all so that he decides to select the
answers tothe question oil random basis. What is the probability that
he will pass in the examination ?
P-35 BUSINESS MA1tIEMAT1CS
45. A speaks truth 4 out of 5 times. He throws a die and reports

that there was a six. What is the chance that actually there was a six ?
[hint. P(AflB) -
5 30 30
4/30 4
Required probability -
46, ( a ) Iii 1992 there will be three candidates for the position of
principal Dr. Sioghal, Mr. Mehra and Dr. Chatierji whose chances of
getting appointment are in the proportion 4 2 3 respectively. The
prohabdity that Dr. Singhal if selected will abolish co-education in the
college is 0 3. The probability of Mr. Mehra and Dr. Chattcrji doing
the same are repectivclv 0 5 and 08. What is the probability that co-
education will be abolislied froin the college in 1992 7 [Ans. 23/451
(b) Suppose that one of three men, a politician, a businessman,
and an educator will be appointed as the vice-chancellor of a university.
The respective probabilities of their appointments are 050, 030, 020.
The probahitties that research activities will be promoted by these People if
they are appointed are 0 30. 0'7() and 0'80 respectively. What is the
probability that research will be promoted by the new vice-chancellor 7
[An. 052)
47. Electric light bulbs are manufactured at two plants. The first
plant furnished 70% and second 30% of all required production of
bulbs. At the lust plant among every 100 bulbs, 83 are on the average
standar(j , whereas only 63 per hundred are standard at the second plant.
What is the probability that a bulb chosen at random is manufactured at
the second plant, given that the bull) is standard. (Ans. 0 245
4. Suppose that there is a chance fora newly constructed house
to collapse vhcther the design is faulty or not. The chance that the
design is faulty is 20 % . The chance that the house collapses if the design
is faulty is 9S 11/0 and otherwise it is 25. It is seen that the house collapcd.
What is the probability that it is due to faulty design 7
[l'4uit. We are given
f)(4 ) 0'2 and I '( 4 2 )-08 ; P(B I Aa)0'98 and l'(B I A2) =0-25.
Using Bayes' rule, we have
P(A1) . P(B
P(A 1 I P(A ). P(/3 I A)-i-P(A 2 )P(B I A2)
(0r2) (098)
(0-2) (0'98)+(0'8) (05)]
IV The president of a company must decide which of two actions
to take, say whether to rent or buy expensive machinery. His vice-
president is likely to make a faulty analysis and thus recommend the
wrong decision with probability 005. The president hires two consultants,
who separately study the problem and make their recommendations.
PROIJAB)LIIY
p-36
After watching them at work, the president estimates that one consultant
is likely to recommend the wrong decision with probability 005, the other
with probability 0A0. He decides to take the action recommended by a
majority of the three reports be receives. What is the probability that
lie :'ill make a wrong decision ? Does the assumption of independence.
you ha made seem reasonable for this problem ?
[Ans. 0 012.J
54'. A factory produces a certain type of output by three types of
machines. The respective daily production figures are
i'iIac/:we I 3,000 units
AJGChiOL' If 2,500 units
Mahjue III 4,500 units
Past experience shows that I . per cent of the output produced by
Machine I is defective The corresponding fraction of defectives for
the other two machines are respectively 1 , 2 per cent and 2 per cent.
An item is drawn at random from the day's production run and is
found to be defective. What is the probability that it comes from the
output of ((i) Machine I, (b) Machine II, and (C) Machine [11 7
[Ans. (a) 1/5, (b) 1/5, (c) 3/5]
MATHEMATICAL EXPECTATION
If X is a random variable which can assume any one of the vues
Y . with respective probabilities p 1 , p.,,... then the
niathematical expectation of X usually called the expected value of X and
denoted by E(X) is defined as
E(X)-'x 1 i' 1 -f •.. +,, I'.
Properiies of Expected Value

(i) The expected value of a constant is the constant itself, i.e.
E(k)k, for every constant k.
(ii) The expected value of the product of a constant and a random

variable is equal to the product of the constant with expected value of
the random variable, i e.,
E(J X)=k E(X)
(iii) The expected value of the sum or difference of two random

variables is equal to the sum or difference of the expi' ,'od values of the
individual random variables, i.e
E(K± Y)=E(X)±E(Y)
(iv) The expected value of the product of two independent random
variables is equal to the product of their individual expected values, I e..
E(XY)=-E(X). E(Y)

P-37
flUS1Nr5 MATHEMATICS
(v) EfX—E(X)Jo
Illustration A dealer in radio sets estimates from his past
experience the probabilities of his selling radio sets in a day. These are
given below
No. of radio---
q --
sold in a day 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Probability 02 l02l 32 72 O 09 06
W e observe now that the number of radio sets sold in a day is a
random variable which can assume values 0, 1. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 with the
respective probabilities given in the table. We may also note that the
dealer has estimated the probability zero of selling seven or more radio
sets in a day.
Now
Mean number of radio sets sold in a day
O)(•02+1x10+2x21±3<.32+4)<.2015x.09 -6x'06
l0+42+'96-l- 0-{-4S+36- 309
Example 26. A bakery has the following sch edule
Cl daily demand
for cakes. Find the expected number of cakes demanded per day.
/V(}. of cokes
demanded iii o
I I 4 5 I I
hundreds 6 / 7
J j_y
Ptob0bIft,
002 007 1009 012 020 020 018 010 001 001
Sol ution. We observe that number of cakes demanded per day

is a random variable (X) which can assume the values 0, 1, 2,...,
respective probabilities given in the table. 9 with
Now
E(X)0XO.02+1 X007+2x0'09+3x0.12
+4x020+5 xO2O+6xo.]8+7xo.lo
436
Exup),. 27. And & Company estimates the net profit on a new
product it is launching to be Rs. 3,000,000 during the first year
if it is
'successful' ; Rs 1,000,000 f it is 'mo.derately successful' and a loss of
Rs. 1,000,000 if it is 'unsuccessful' The firm assigns the follow g
probabilities to if r st year prospects for the product in
m oderately successfzjl 025 What is the expected value Success /i d
of f - 0-15,
net profit for this product ? ir st year
Sohitior,. Taking loss as negative profit, the probability distrihu-
tluii of net profit (.) on the new product in the first year is

P-38
' RO BA B! L 11'!
3 1 —1
P.oJit
(in million Rs
---
Probability 015 025 1-015 —025

p(x) =060
Expected value of first year net profit is

E(X)=x p(x)
3x0154-1 x(Y25-l(—UXO6O
010 million Rs. =Rs. 1,00,000
Ern pIe 28 .4 lottery sells 10,000 tickets at Re. I per ticket, a
prize of Rs. 5,000 will be given to the winner of the first draw. Suppose
you have bought a ticket, how much should you expect to win ?
Solution. Here, the random variable 'win', W, has two possible
values : Re I and Rs. 4,999. Their respective probabilities are
d
10000 1000
9999
Thus E(W)=(-- l)x +4999 x - 0 Rc 050
1
Hence a minus 50 paisa is the amount we expect to will on the
avet age if we play this game over and over again.
Exmp1e 29. A box contains 6 tickets. Two of the tickets carry
a prize of Rs. 5 each, the other four a prize of Re. I, (a) If one ticket is
drawn, what is the expected value of the prize ? (b) If two tickets are drawn
what is the expected value of the game ?
Solution. (a) The sample space consists of C 1
6 6 sample points.
Let X be the random variable associated with the experiment and let it
denote the amount of prize associated with the sample point. Here X
assumes values Rs. 5 and Re. 1 respectively for 2 and 4 sample points.
2 . 1 4 2
Also p(5)=' -i-- -- and p( l ) = --
E(X)=Expctcd value of the prize

x 1 p(x))+x2,p(X2)
1 2 5 2 7
=5'' x T.T+1 =---=Rs. 213
The expected amount of prize is Rs, 213.

(b) The sample space consists of C 2
=-l5 sample points. Let X be
random variable associated with the experiment and let it denote the
amount of prize associated with sample points. Then X assumes follow-
ing values
P-39
BUSINESS MATHr14T(S
(I) Rs. 10 (when both the tickets carry prize Rs. 5 each
Number of sample points 2C21) Le.,
(ii) Rs. 6 (when one ticket carries prize Rs. 5 and the other Re. 1
i.e., Number of sample points =G1 >< 1C18)
(iii) Rs. 2 (when both the tickets carry prize Re. 1 each, i.'., No, of
sample pointsr-- l C2 = 6)
Also p(10),
p(6) -j-, p(2)=-
E(X)v1p(x1).fxp(x) -f X3.J)(x3)
10x-+6x ' +2x

F
2 16 4 10448-1 12 70 14 -
355 ------- I5 =467
Hence expected amount of prize is Rs. 467.
Example 30. A player pays Re. I to play a game. The game consists
of repeatedly tossing a coin and recording the number
h eads. The game ends as soon OS of ürnes it falls
the coinfails
f tails or when it has Jo//eu
3 heads in succession The player is paLl R . 2 for each head which
appears, calculate (a) his expectation in each game, (b) the amount won
or lost, on the average, in 20 games.
Solution. According to the rules, the game ends
the following Outcomes with either of
1' Tail in 1st throw
HT
head in 1st throw and Tail in 2nd (i.e., I head)
HHT
Head in 1st, Head in 2nd and 'rail in 3rd throw, (ie., 2
heads)
Il/f/f
1-lead in 1st, 2nd and 3rd throws (i.e., 3 heads)
shownThe probabilities of these events and the amounts received are

below
Outci,rnes Probability .4inounz Received (Rs)
(Rs. 2 for each head)
T 1/2 1)
HT 1/4 2
HHT 18 4
HI/H 1/8 6
(a)
Mathematical expectationLxo+ -- x2+ -_ >4-f-

PROBABILITY P -40
(b) Average loss in one game I - =
Loss in 20 games -- x20=—Rs. 15
Example 31 The manager of a machine shop has a choice of com-

peting for one of the' two contracts shown it) the table below
Contract /1 Contract B
Event
probabilities Consequences probabilities Consequences
Contract awarded 050 ±Rs. 60,000 040 +Rs, 80,000

Contract not
awarded 050 —Rs. 10,000 060 —Rs. 14,000
Which contract should be preferred if the expected monetary value

is considered as an oppropriate measure.
Solution. For contract A : Let X he the random variable which
assumes the values 60,000 and —10,000 with probabilities 050 and 050
respectively.
Then
Mean of X= 60,000 x 0-50 - 10,000 X Q5O
25,000
Similarly, for contract B, we can define a random variable Y, and
we find that
Mean of Y=80,000x040-14,000X060
=23,600
Thus, if the expected monetary value is considered as an appropriate
measure, then contract A should be preferred.
Example 32. There are four different choices available to a customer
who wants to buy a transistor set. The first type costs Rs 800, the second
type Rs. 650, the third type Rs 880 and the fourth type Rs. 760. The
probabilities that the customer will buy these types are 113, 116, 114 and
114 resp ectively. The retailer of these sets gets a commission @ 20%, 12%,
250 and 15 01, for iliece sets respectively. What is the expected commission
of the retailer 7 [Delhi Univ., B. Corn. (Hon.), 19921

P-41 BUSINBSS MATHEMATICS

Solution. We have
Type Price (Rs.) Commission

Probability Expectation
(1) (2) (3) (4) (2)x(3)x(4)==5

Frist 800 20% 53,33
Second 680 12% 1360
Third 880 25 5500
T
Fourth /60 15% 2850
Total 15043
Hence the retailer's expactation is Rs. 15043.
EXERCISES
1. (a) What do you understand by 'the expectation of a random
variable' ? Explain as clearly as you can ?
(b) A balanced coin is tossed 4 times. Find probability distri-
bution of the number of heads and its expectation.
(c) In a business venture a man can make a profit of Rs. 2,000 with
a probability of 0 4 or have a loss of Rs. 1,000 with a probability of 06.
What is his expected profit [Ans. Rs. 2001
2. A random variable K has the following probability distribu-
lion:
X —1 0 1 2
Probability : 113 1/6 1/6 1/3
Compute the expectation of X. [Ans. 1121
3. Calculate the expected value of K, the sum of the scores when
two dice are rolled. [Ans. 71
4. A box contains 8 items of which 2 are defective. A man
selects 3 items at random. Find the expected number of defective
items he has drawn. [Ann. 3141
5. A player tosses two fair coins. He wins Rs. 5 if 2 heads
appear, Rs. 2 if I head appears and Re. 1 if no head occurs. Find
his
expected amount of winning [An. Rs. 2'51
6. A player tosses 3 fair coins. He wins Rs. 5 if 3 heads appear.
Rs. 3 if 2 heads appear. Re. 1 if 1 head occurs. On the other hand, he
losses Rs. 15 if 3 tails occur. Find expected gain of the player.
(Ans. Rs 0251

P-42
PROBABILITY
7. An urr, contains 7 white and 3 red balls. Two balls are kh

together, at random, from this urn. Compute the probability th
neither of them is white. Find also the probability of getting one white
and one red ball. Hence compute the expected number of white halls
drawn.
3C 1 C xC 63
IHint. E(X)=Oxj±1x- Cc,
OC2 45
8. The monthly demand for transistors is known to have the
following probability distribution
Demand 1 2 3 4 5 5
Probability 010 015 020 025 018 012
Determine the expected demand for transistors. Also obtain the
variance. Suppose that the cost (C) of producing (n) transistors is given
by the rule, C 10,000 +- 500 ii. Determine the expected cost.
[flint. E(C)=E[ [0,000±500 nJ
10,000f 500 E(n)
=l0,000±500[( fl XP) }=l0,00t)+-500X362]
9. The probability that there is at least one error in accounts state-
ment prepared by A is 02 and for B and C they are 025 and 04 respec-
tively. A, 13 and C prepared 10, 16 aud 20 statements respectively. Find
the expected number of correct statements in all.
[Hint. Expected number of correct statements is
(1— 0'2)x 10 4-(1--025)x 16±(1 —04)x 20
x 10±075x 16-l-06x20
=32]
10 (a) Suppose an insurance company offers a 45 year old man
a Rs. 1,000 one year term insurance policy for an annual premium of
Rs. 12. Assume that the number of deaths per one thousand is five for
persons in this age group What is the expected gain for the insurance
company on a policy of this type.
[flint. Expected gain — 12 x (1-0005)—(1000--12)X 0005]
(b) The probability that a house of a .ertain type will b burned
by fire in any twelve month period is 0005. An insurance company
offers to sell the owner of such a house Rs. 29,000 one year term fire
Insurance policy for a premium of Rs 150. What is the company ex-
pected to gain ? [Any. Rs. 51
U. A firm plans to bid Rs. 300 per tonne for a contract to supply
1,000 tonnes of a metal. It has two competitors A and B and it
assumes that the probability that A will bid less than Rs. 300 per tonne
is 03 and that B will bid less than Rs. 300 per tonne is 07. If the lowest
bidder gets all the business and the firms bid independently, what is the
pxee'ed value of the contract to the firm 7
P-43
[Hint 300x 1000 [J'(botb bid less than 300)
+P(A bids less than 300 but B bids more 300)
+ I'(A bids more than 300 but 13
bids less than 300)
= 300000(03 0'7+0'3>< O'34-0'7x 07)=R, 2,37,01)0.]
12. A gamester has a disc with a freely revolving needle. The
isc is divided into 20 equal Sectors by thin lines and the sectors are
marked 0, 1, 2 , 19. The gamester treats 5 or any multiple of 5 as
lucky numbers and zero as a special lucky number. He allows a player
to whirl the needle on a charge of 10 paise. When the needle stops at
the lucky number the gamester pays back the player twice the sum charged
and at the special lucky number the gamester pays to the player 5
times of the sum charged. Is the game fair ? What is the expectation of
the player ?
(Hint.
Event Favourable cases p(.) Gain (x)

f
Lucky number 5, 10, 153/20
Special Lucky No. 0
20--10= 10 P
Otbers 1/20 S0—I040 P
1,2.3.4.6.7.8,9. II. 16/20
12, 13. 14, 16, 17, 18, 19
---iO p
E(X)<lo+j_x4l6
20
13. In a college fete a stall is run where on buying a ticket a person

is allowed one throw of two dice. 11 this gives a double six, 10 times the
money is refunded, if only one six turns up, double the ticket
money is refunded and in other cases nothing is refunded. Will it be
profitable to run such a stall ? Yhat is the expectation of a player ?
State clearly the assumptions, if any, for your answer.
SECTION D
Some Additional Topics

DE-MOIVRE'S THEOREM
Statement. For all ratiof101 values of n (positive negative or frac-
tion) cos n O-F- i sin nO is the value or one of the values of (cos OF i sin 0)".
Proof. Case I. When n is a positive integer.
By actual multiplication, we have
(cos 01+ 1 sin 0 1 )(cos 0 2 11 sin 02)
=(cos 0 1 cos 02 —sin 0 sin 02)+I(sin 0 1 cos 0-}- cos O sin 0)
=cos (0 1 -1-0 2 )-1- i sin (01+02)
Again (cos 0-1-i sin 0) (cos 0 4-i sin 0 2) ( cos 03 +1 sin 0)
=(Cos (0 +0,)+i sin (0,+0,)] (cos 0,+i sin Oa)
C0s (01+ 02 +03)-I- i Sin (0 1 +0 2 +0 0 ), as before.
Proceeding as above, the product of n factors
(cos O+i sin o) (cos 0 3 4_I sin O) ... (cos O-j-i sin 0)
=cos (01+02+...+0.)+isin (03+03+...4-0)
Putting 0 I = 0 2 ... =0=0 on both sides of(), we have
(cos 0-4-i sin O)tt= cos nO4 1 sin nO
Miter. The proof can be obtained by the method of mathematical
induction also.
For n L the result is obviously true.
For n=2, consider
(cos 0+ 1 sin 0)2=cos2 j2 sin 2 O -1-2 1 sin 0 cos 0
r=(cos 2 0—sin2 0)+ i (2 sin 0 cos 0)
=cos 20+isin 20
hence the result is also true for n=-2.
Let the result be true for n—rn, i.e.,
(cos 0-1-i sin 0)-= Cos rn O+ i sin mO
Now (cos O+i sin 0)MfI=(cos 0-4-i sin 0)' (cos 0-F-i sin 0)
==(cos rnO+ I sin mU) (cos 0 ± i sin 0)
— cos (m+l) 0+1 sin (rn4-1) 0.
Hence the result is true for n=rn4- I also.
Thus we conclude that if the result is true for n2, then it should
be true for 11= 2-; I, Ic., n= 3. Therefore, proceeding in this manner we
find that the theorem is true for all positive integral values of n
Case 11. When n is a negative integer.
Let us suppose n= - in, where In is a positive integer.
BUSINESS MATHE4ATICS
A-2
(cos 0-1 .1 sin 0)=(cos 0-f-i sin 0)'
1 1
cos 0-1- I sin o)-(eos ,nO +- i sin mO)
- 1 (cos mO—i sin mO)
- (cos 'nO I -i sin tno) >( (cos 'nO - I sin mU)
cos 'nO—i sin ,nO
- cos 'nO -. I sin ,nQ
-
(Cos" n(J -t- sial mU)

0
= COS (- M O) .-j-i sin (—'nO)

=cos nO+ i sin no n= —mJ
Case in. When it afracc'ion, positive or negative.
Let n= , where q is a positive integer and p an integer positive
or negative.
By case I, we have
0 0
.. 0' r=cos (qx__)F:srn(qx 0
(cos -i- - i -__)
cos 84-i sin 0

Taking the qth root of both sides, we get
(cos .- -i-i sin -9—) is one of the values of (cos 0-j-i sin O)'
Raising both sides to the power p, we get

0
- 4- i sin -is) one of the values of (cos 0-1-i
(cos 0
q
(cos -- o -Fi sin -? e )is one of the values of (cos 0-I- i sin 0)''
(cos nO -F - i sin no) is one of the values of (cos 0 + i sin O)n
Remarks. I. (i) (cos 0+1 sin 0)"—cos (—no)--l-i sin (—no)
=cos nO—i sin no
sin (-0)=—sin 0; cos (-0)=cos 0]
(ii) (cos 0 —i sin 0) -={cos (-0)-I-i sin (---0)}
=cos (—no)+i sin (—no)
—cos nO — isinne
(iii) (cos 0—i sin 0)={cos (-8)+i sin (-0)}
= cos nO + i sin no
2. Students often wrongly apply De-Moivre's theorem in the
following way
(sin 0-f-i cos O)-=Sin no -i--i cos no
It should be noted that the real part must be cos 0 and imaginary
part should be sin e, but 0 must be the same with cos and sin both.
SOME ADDITIONAL ioics A-3
(sin 9 -+ I cos 0)106in no -}- i COS no
3. (cos 0-I I sin0)"-Acos no -f- i sin n
4. -.-----------L--.----.---
ios O) sin nO
=cos 0 f-i sin fl
5. Every complex quantity can be put in the form r (cos 0-f-i sin 0),
where r and 0 are both real.
Let a given complex quantity be x+fy.
Also let xi-iy=r (cos 0-I- i sin 0)
or x-j-iy=r cos O-f- Ir sin Q
Equating the real and timagiriary parts oil sides, we get
x=r cog 0 (*)
and y=r sin 0
Squaring and adding () and ('), we have
or rr=
Dividing () by ('), we get tan O r- - .. 0=tan1

Here r is always positive and is called the Modulus of the complex
number. 0 is called the aniplliude of the given complex quantity. That
value of 0 which satisfies equations (*) and () also lying between n and
-n is called the principal value of arnpIiiuJe . We shall always take
principal value of the amplitude expressing any complex quantity in the
form
r(coS 0+ 1 sin 0)
Example 1. Simplify
(cos 30 4- 1 sill (co g 0—i sin O)
(cos 50+1 sill (cos 20—i sill
Solution. Expression
(cos ISO f-i sin 150) [cos (-0) -I-i sin (_0)19
-
(cos 350 1 z sill [cos (-20) - sin (-2O)]
(cos 150+1 sin 150) [cos (-30)+i sin (-30)J
(cos 350--f sin 350) [cos (- 100)-f--i sin -(-100))
cos (150-30)+i sin (15o3e)
cos (350—. 100)—i sin (350 -. 100)
— cos 120+isill 120
cos 50+i sin250
=(cos 120+1 sin 120) (cos 250 +i sin 250)'
(cos 120+ 1 sin 120) [cos (-250)-i--i sin (-250)]
=cos (12-25) 0+ 1 sin (12-25)0
=cos l3O—isin 130
r+ sin 0 +i cos 0 1' cos (-. -
L 1+iln, —I cos \ 2 (--_n
J / \2

A-4 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
_(sin2 b -- cos 2 ) '- sin -1-i cos ) (

Solution.
- L.H.S.
[ 1sin
-4- —icos
[_(sin '-li cos ) (sin -- i cos )+ (sin 0 I -i cos )
- (1+sill —icos ) T
cos ) 1-4-sin --COS (
-L-
--
=(sin -l i cos
(I-j-sin—i Cos ) T
=[coS (_ )+i sin (--_i)]"
(fl z t i —n
' Tt
- - ----n )+i )-=R.H.S
sin (---
Ecample 3, Prove that
[(cos O+cos ) , I-i (sin Oi sin )}"-f [(cos o+cos )—i (sin 0 +sin
2n+1 COS, (0—) eo .s n (0+0)
2 2
Solution. L.HS.
640 6-0 0— - i
2cos
==[----f --j
cos — i2sin - cos —
2 cos ----
- — i 2 sill ----cos
--J
2" cos" --- - i sin
0+)1
4cos ---------1sifl ------
J
=r2cos coSn 2
____
(O (0+)1
-1cos n -_jfl
(8—) (0-f')
=2's cos 2 cos
2 2
=2 1 1 Cosii
$+
2 2
Example 4. Ifx= cos o-I-isin o, y=cos )+1 sin 0 and m and n
are integers, prove that
xv') yn
=2 cos (in 0—n)
Y 11
X
xm cos mO-F i sin mO
y" cos n+I sin no
Solution. —, +,,—
i sin nO Cos7n0 -1- ( sin ino
=(cos ,nO-- i sin mO) (cos n' 4-i sin ti)
-F (cos 'I ± i sin ") (cos mO 4-i sin m0)'

SOME ADDITIONAL TOPICS A-5

(cos ,nO t I sin mO) [cos (--iz) +- i sin (—n)]
-I- (cos nO i-i sin "t) [cos (---mO) f-i sin (--'nO)j
=cos (mnO mt) +1 sin ('ad - I cos (maO -
i sin ('nO ._iiq)

=2 cos (mnO—m/.)
Example 5, If(U +-1b 1 )(11 2 b 2 )(a -f-ib 3 ). ..(a,, f- ib,,) =4 011,
prove huh
() ( 0 2 1 b2)(a21b2)(a1b2)......(a,,2 f h,,2) =A-4-B2

bb 2 h b A
(1)) %afl -1 1. -f- ..... . -+-Iafl —i- tan-'
a, U, a8 a,,
Solution. (a) Let a 1 +lb,=r 1 (cos 0, -+- i sin 9,)
a2 +ib, r., (cos 0 2 -f-i sin 02)
and similar other expressions.
\/a12-1-b,, r 2 -. \/a 2 2 4b 2 ,..-, etc.
and 0, Lw' L , . tarr'- . ..,etc. (*)
Now it is given that

(a -{- ib )@ 1 2 -F ib)(a 3 + ib,) . . . (a,, + ib,) =A f-- 113
or [r, (cos 0, f- i sin (),)]()-,(Cos 0 2 I-i sin 0 2 ))[r 2(cos 024- 1 Sill 08)1
o f-/ sin 0)J=-A+iB
or r1r2r3.... . ,Icos (0 1 +02 1- .. . +0,,) f-i sin (e 1 +0 2 -t- ... +9)]:__A.f 1/3
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get

A=r,r2r3 ..... .r, cos (01+02-i-... ±0,,) (S*)
B=r ,r2r3......r,, sin (0,+ r2 -f- ... -- 0,,)
Squaring and adding () and (**, we get
A 2 +li-_=r 1 2 r.4 2 r 82 •.. r,,2
= (a,' f..b(a8+b2 ). ..(a,,' 4 . b,,')
(b) Dividing (4**) by (*1) we get
4.rtan(0i-{-.02-f....+0)
or
b b
l -4- ... +tan'—b
tan - ' ._L +tan --
a2 a.
Example 6. Show tItct
- -+Iir
(1 i)+(1—i)'=2 cos

A-6 BUSINESS MATLTBMTLGS
Solution. Let 1 + i =r (cos U +i sill

Equating real and imaginary parts of both sides, we have
r cos O=J and r sin 0=l
Squaring and adding we have
r 2 =H. 1=2 or r-/2
Dividing, we have tan ti -- I - O-,-r'4
l + i=r V 2' cos- i
(1 - i)v%_=2IL'[ cos- -- +1 sin

-
rfliT
==2I2J cos - - -f i sin--J
Similarly (I - i)'
2i/t - -- sin
fl1ri FliT
(1 +f)-+(I_i)"2[ 2 cos 2 cos

(a-f- ib) "+(a—iby Jn 2(a ! ±& 2 ) Tn co,. /
Solutjo,h The cartesian coordinates can bc transformed into

polar coordinates by means of the following relation
a=r cos 0, b:- sill
where rI=a+bt and Q r tan L- .
Putting this value in L.H.S., we get

F?i
(a4ib) nl +(a_(b)i=(r cos 0+ ir sin 0)

F??
4-(r cos 0-jr sin 0)
r[(cos 0 + 1 sin 0)-f (cosO--i sill
r ri
[
cos—
n
r sin
s - 04-cos 0-i sin

0
J
1
(Fly using Dc-Moivre's Theorem]

SO4[ ADDITIONAL TOPICS
In
hJ
2 COS 02 (a2 1 h') 2 "cos [.tan_1
r=
L
fn
Thus (a + ib ) +(a -ib) 2(a b2) cos [—tail- 1

'rIIEoREM. Find q roots of (cos. U ii sin 0)" N , where p and
q a re inteore piline to each other,
[flint. We know that
cos (2n {-O) r cos 8 and sin (2'i+ 0) --sill &
where n is any integer.
(cos 6-f-1 sin O) .Pi =c 2n 1-0)4 i sin (2nr-4•0}r'
I p(2nr E0). . ( P(2'1r+0)
ens
q ----- I- sill ( q
Now giving the successive values 0, I, 2.....(q - I), we obtain the
n
q values as
p p
. sin --0 when n:-0
cos sin2 1-0) when ii
cos--------- --I sin p(4+e)

----- ---, when n-=-2
cosL2(q-I)+0}±f
{2(q- 1)
when n-=q----1
When n=q, we obtain the values as
(2q Tc - .
+t sIn -------
cos q
=cosp( 2T+---)+isinp( 2n+--)
'CO5 (2pr+ 2 ) +i sin( 2p7T-t-_)
COS -+1 sin—

q
which is the same value as obtained by putting q=0.

A-8 BUSINESS MA1}1IMATICS
F;&ample 8. Find (Ill the values of (16)11

Solution, 1602(1)h1
=-2 (cos 04 I sin 0)hti==2 (cos 2ni + i sill
/ flT . fliT
2 --- +
-r)
Giving fl the values 0, 1, 2 and 3 we get the required values as
2, 2 ( cos -- i sin--), 2 (cos -r 1 I sin i)
/ 3ir 3,i
and 2 ens -i-- +'sjn—- )
i.e., 2. 2i, —2 and —21,
Example 9. Find the all values of (8f)k
Solution. Since ens - =0 and sin -- 1
8i=8 [
1! .
(Si) =8 [ COS—t-: sin - ]
=2 [ cos( 211+--).1-i s(
-1- -I .
=2 cos ----- -z sin -- -.
[
Giving n the values 0, 1 and 2, the required values are
r . . " E
JL
2
L COS4l
SIn_.,2 cos+I
-'- sinJ
arid r 3rr
2 [ cos---j--z sin--
.
2 [.Fi --
j, 2[9
-
2 fi. L ] and 2 + 1 (-1)]
10
i.e., 2 tt), 2(.±±) and —21

i.e., 3 -f-i, - 3+ i and —21.
Example 10. imud till the values of (—J + 13iI
Solution. Let - I + /3i=r (cos 9+ 1 sin 0), then
r cos- O =— I and rsji 9= . / 3 r=-2
I 2ir
and ens P== ---- and sin 6 = - i-- 0=

T 4-i
2
(-1 + /3i)=2 7 [co
g Si.
J
141v 147c
=2 ----1-f sin
14 \
=2 [005 (2n+__)+i sill ( +)]

or (—I - ! % 1'3i)'1'-- 2/ [cos ( 6n4-14 —) - i sin ,-_6n-j-l4 )]
Giving n the values 0, 1 and 2, the required values are

l4it l4r Orr 2Ot 1
2' sill --- 2' ---_+ i
sin---- i
and
26t
2' [co g _- i sin 26
1
Example ii 11/Id the continued product of the four values of
It - It 3j4
(cos --- -1 1 sin
-
-'
I 3 1 114
Solutioxi. -- -I-i Sin -- ) co, -- +1 sin '-M-

= (cos r -I-- i sin)' I'
[cos (21irt f- r-0 f-i sill +xt)1' (4
2iiIt i It 2'ln i
Cos 4sin(
4 )
Required continued product
( It - t 3 31t / 5-t 5i
=COS -- 4 1 Sill )(cos sin —-)Cos--- -f-i sin
f' 77
xcos —+iSifl -
4
( I 3 5 7n f 3, 5 7
=cos (-- +---+-- ±T)-•l Sin
-- f---;-
-=Cos 4It4i sin 41+jX0:--I

Example 12. Expand cos 8e and siO 88.
Solat ion. By De-Moivrc's Theorem
(cos 0-1 1 sin 0) , — Cos 8 0+i Sin 80
Also by Binomial Theorem, we have
(cos 04-i sin 8)8 ='cos8 0 + 1 c, cos 7 8 (i sin O )+ c. cos" 0 (1 sill
+ 8 c 3 cos 0 (1 sin Ø)!_4_ 8 c cos1 0 (1 sin 0)
- 8c5 cos 0 (1 sin 0)5 cos 2 0 (i sin 6)r

H 8 c_ cos 0 (1 Sill + CB . ( i sin 0)

A-10
BUSINESS MATT1EMAflCS
= cos' 9+81 cos 7 8 sin 0-48 cosd 9 sin' O--56 I cos 8 0 sin' 0
+70 cos 4 9 sin 4 0+561 cosa 8 sin s 0-48 cos' 0 sin e 8
cos 0 sin 0+sin' 0
or (cos 8+1 sin 0) 8 =(co3' 0-48 cos' o siii 2 0-1-70 cos' 8 si l l ' 0 ,
—48 cos' 0 sin 6 O-l-sin 9 9)
4-1(8 cos 1 0 sin 0-56 cos 5 9 sin 0 4- 56 C0s 3
0 Si11 0e
--8 cos 0 sin' 0) (**)
From ($) rind (* ), we have
=
cos 89+1 sin 89 (cos' 0-48 cos 6 0 sin 2 9-4-70 cos' 9 sin' 8
—48 cos 2 0 sin C -- sin 8 + i(8 cos 7 0 sin 9 ---56
COS- C sin a 0
s
f-56 cos' C sin 0---8 cos 9 sin 9
Equating imaginary and real parts on both sides, we have
sill 8 cos 7 0 sin 6-56 cos-6 9 sill' 01-56 c0s 3 0 sin s
0
-- 8 cos 0 sin 7 0
and =
co, 0 cos' 0-43 cos' 9 sill' 1-70 cos 1 0 sin 4 0 0
—48 cos 2 6 sin' &1-sin' 0
Example 13. E.vpress:
(a) COS 7 in a series of cosines of multiples of Q.
(b) Sin" 8 in a series of cosines of multiples of 0.
So1ut 0 Let X-=Cos 0 + 1 sill so that -f- = cos 0—i sin 0

X"=Cos n8-{-i sin nO and
4- =cos n O — isin no
x+ ± =2 Cos 9
and
x+ --=2
X11 Cos n0
(a) (2 cos 8)7=(x+
• . . . '-i- + 7 c . x'
3
7c 3 7C
-+7c7 -
=x7 +7x5 +21x3 4-35x+35 -i-- +21 . - +7. - +-
(x7+)+7(x5+4-)+2l(3+I)+3S( J)
2 cos7 8=2 COS 70+7. 2 cos 59-1-21 . 2 cos 30+ 35. 2 cos 6
SOML ADDITIONAL TOPICS A-li
Hence cos' 0 = ( j [cos 70+7 cos 50-1-21 cos 39-4-35 cos 0]

(b) We have
(2 i sin 0)'°=(v _ 1 )1O_1O+1oCx (--- )+o 2 (_ _!_ )2
_l
+ 10c3 _L) 3 +ioc 4 (_
x7 (-
-f
0 5 5 (

1 )-°c
107 --'°c8 x2(_.)

-. )7
Yo
( --)°-i-'°c10 (

=x°— 10x 8 -4- 45— 120x 4 +210X 2 — 252
-210 _---120 45 —10
=r(Xi0+ xs+4)_45 ( °±-)

)—to(
_120( 0+)-l-2I0 ( x2+)_252.
or 210 110 sin' 0 0=2 - cos 10 0-10 . 2 cos 80+45 2 cos 60

—1202 . cos 40-1-210. 2 cos 20-252.
Hence sin° 0 - (— [cos 108-10 cos 80-f 45 cos 60
-----120 cos 40+210 cos 20-1261
i •• fI0(j)5=(_1)5ll
Example 14. prove that
sin e 0 cos' 0=- [-_-cos 8 0+ 4 cos 66-4 cos 4o — 4 cos 20 +51
Solution. Put
X : COS 04- I sin O-=C+iS
cos 8—i sin O=C—S
2 cos O=x+-1 -, 2iS=x—
and X= cos FIG + i sin nO, 4 =cos no —I sin nO.

2 cos nO -- x4- 2 i sin n0=x- xn
_\fl

(21 sin 0) (2 cos 0)2
:=
x 4 -4x'. _L+ 6*. ----4x.
(x2+)
(
xs.+.-)-_4.( x+_-) + 4( x4+—)
-1-4 ( x 2 +4.-')+ 10
28 sin" 0 cos' 0
= 2 (cos 80-4 cos 60+4 cos 40-1-4 cos 20- 10)
Hence sin e 0 0
=r- (—cos 80+4 cos 60-4 cos 40 -4 cos 20±5)
SOME IMPORTANT THEOREMS ON MATRICES

Theorem 1. Matrix multiplication is associwive, i.e., if A, 8 are
conJormal for the product AB. and C are conformal for the product BC,
then, (AB) C•=A (BC)
Proof. Let A, B, C be the ?flXn, nxp and p q matrices and
A=[a,1], B=[b 11 ], C=-[c,,]
Here A, B and C are conformal for the product AB and BC.
AB=(a, 1 ) x [b,,]== [ bt, /)k1 J= [u,,J, say

(U,1] is an m x p matrix. = 1, 2.......,
j=1,2 ........ p.
(AB) and C are conformal for the product (AB) C.
(AB) C=(u11]x[c,j1=[ U,1 C,]

1=3
P iT
Z ( u, b,,,) c,1]
1=1 k=I
P ir
: 7, 0 tk bk, C,,] ;

: 1, 2........
1 = 1 k=
jJ,2 ........ p.

A-13
SOMS ADDITIONAL TOPICS
It is an nix q matrix.
P
BC [b 11 J X {c, [ , b,, c]= N,1, (say) 1=1, 2, ...,
s I
j1,2,...,q
[v,1] is an ax q matrix.
Therefore, A and (BC) are conformal for the product A(BC).
A(BC)=(a,1) X [v 1 ]= [ Y. a v,,]
P A
- [
a,, ( > b C 11 ] — I y. a, b, Cl)
t — sI s=I t==I
i=I,2.....
j=1,2,...,q.
Here (AB) C=A (BC)
Theorem 2. Matrix multiplication is distributive with respect to
addition of matrices, i.e., if A and B are conformal for the product AB, B
and C are conformal for addition, then
A(B+C)=AB± AC
Proof. Let A= [a,,] be m x n matrix
and B= [hill and C=[c 1 ] be each n x p matrices, so that
(B+C) is also nxp matrix.
Thus A (B+ C) is of order mxp.
Also AB-f AC is of order m xp.
Therefore, the matrices A(B+C) and AB+AC are conformable.
Further.
(i,j) th element of A (B+ C)
=-Sum of the product of the corresponding elements
of ith row of A and jtb column of B+C.
a
-= ) a1 (b1±ck)
k= I
n N
= a b,1+ y. 0k Ctc1
k'I
(Since in case of real number, multiplication
is distributive w.r.t. addition
=(i,j) th element of AB-4-(i,J) th element of AC
=.i, I) lb element of (AB +AC).
Hence A (B+C)=AB+AC

A-14
Theorem 3. The transpose of the product of two matrices is equal

to the product of transposes taken in reverse order, i.e., if the matrices A
and B are conformable for the product
AB. (lien the matrices B', A' are
conformable jor the product B' A' and
(AB)'=B' A'
Proof. Let A=[a,1 ] be an lnxp matrix and
B=-[b, 1 ] be a pi nx in matrix. Then
A'[a1,] is an n x m matrix.
and B'=[b,] is a pn matrix
'p
AB . [ a,1 ] x[hk]= [ a ,, b,,,]
/=1
Jt is an rnxp matrix.
(AB)'=[ y, b,k a,1]; k =i, 2, .., p

j=I
i=l,2.... . in
The elements in the kth row of B' are the elements of the kth
column of B.
They are b lk , b 2 ......., b . Similarly the elements of the ith column
of A' are a, 1 , b,,......., a,,,.
The scalar product of these two sets of elements= bjk a,1

./ =I
'p
B t Al. [ 7 b1i a,J; k_..1,2........p
1=1
1=1.2,,.... m
Ileizice (AB)'==B'A'
Theorem 4. Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the
sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.
Proof. Let A be a square matrix and A' its transpose.
Then we have
A= (A+A')+3 (A—A')
(say)
where P= (A+A') and Q = (A—A')
Now P'= (A+A')'== [ A1 +(A 1 )8 ]1 (A'+A)=p
and Q'= (A—A')'= [A'—(A')'J=-_ (A—A')=—Q
Thus P is a symmetric matrix and Q is a skew-symmetric matrix.
Hence from (1), we conclude that a square matrix can be expressed as
the sum of a symmerio and skew-symmetric matrix.
To prove the uniqueness of representation (1), let, if possible
A=B+C

S13 ADDITIONAL TOPICS A-iS

where B is symmetric and C is skew-symmetric matrix so that
13'=B and C'.=—C
Then A(B+C)'=B'+C'=B-C
On adding and subtracting (3) and (4), we get respectively
B= (A+A=p
C= (A—A')---Q
This establishes the uniqueness of (l).
Theorem 5. If A=[a, 1 ] is a square matrix of order ,:, prove that
A(adj A)=(a/ A) A I A jI.
Proof. We have
r a1 a, ... ar,, /1 11 A .. 4 'u )
A (adj A)= a21 0 22 0 2,,
1 X
1 Al2
... A 21 ... A
I I
L a, a,., ... a,,, J I A t ,, ,L,, ... A,,, J
IIAi 0 ... 0
OH!
9 I
L ô ó ...IA
since from the property of determinants, we have
A I, ifi=k
: a, 1 Akj=I
j-I 1 0 if iLk
Hence A (dj A)= I A I L..
Similarly it can be proved that
(adjA). A IA IL
Theoren3 6. The necessary and sufficient condition for the existence
of the inverse of sqiare matrix A is that A is non-singular.
Proof. The necessary condition Let B be the inverse of A.
AB=BA=l
AR I = IA I x I RI = III
A I 7O. Thus A is non-singular.
Tile sufficient condition If I A I ;610.
adfA ) çadfA
fAT)
adjA
and it exists.
IA I

A-16 BUSINESS MATHS MATICS
Theorem 7. A and B are non-singular matrices of the same order,

then AB Is also non-singular and
(AB)- 1 =B-'A-'
i.e., the Inverse of the product of two non-singular matrices A and B is
equal to the product of the inverses A'
and B- 1 in the reverse order,
Proof. If A and B are non-singular matrices of order n, then
A F :7--0, I B 1 y4_0.
Also IABL- IAIxIBI -#O
AB is also non-singular and hence has an inverse (AB)-'
We have
(W i A- 1 ) (AB)=B- 1 (A-' A) B=A-'L,, B==B' B=I,,
and (AB) (B-'AJ)=A(BB-l) A-'-=A I, A-'=AA-'=T,
Hence B-'A- 1 is an inverse of AB. In other words,
(AB)-'=BA'
EXAMPLES ON DETERMINANTS
r+cc 13 1 =0
y 1
Solution. Operating C1 -1. C,+C2 , we have
a I 1 cc I
= 13 1 = ( a413-l- y ) 1 13 1 z+13+i)x0=0
y 1 1 y 1
1 a a
Example 16. Show that a' I a
a a' 1
Solution. Operating C1 -+C3 -f- C, C,, we get
l-}-a+a' a az I
L = I -j-a+a' 1 a
1+ a -4- a2 a' a
1 a a'
==(1+a+a') 1 1 a
I a?1


I a
OperatingR2-R2- R(
=-(1+ a + at) 0 1-a a-a2 and R2-R,-R3
() a1 -a 1--a2
1-a a(1-a)
(1 + (3 + a2)
a(a-1) 1-a2
1 a
=(1 -f- a4-a 2)(j- a)2
-a 1-I-a
=(1-a)
I a a2-bc
I b b2 ---ca =0
I c c2_ab
1 a a2 1 a bc
solution. I h b2 - 1 b ca
I C ('2 1 c ab
1 a a2 a a2 abc
= I b bt - b b2 abc
I c ct c c2 abc
I a a2 a a2 1
= 1 b li' - b b' I
I C C1 C Ct 1
1 a a1 a I a2
=1 b b1+b I b2
1 C cz c 1 Ct
I a at i a a2
= 1 b b2 - 1 b b2 o
1 C C2 I 1 C C1
1-18 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

(b 4 c)z at 02
b2 (c+a) b2 —2abc(a+b-1-c)3
C2 c2 (a+b)2
Solution. Operating C1 - C1 —C and C2 -*C2 —C we get
(bc)2 & 0
0 (c+a)_b2bz
Cl— (a+ b)2 (a+ b)'
(bfc—a) (h-f c + a ) 0 a2
= 0 (c-j-a--- b)c+a+b) bt
(c—a—b)(c.4 a+b) (c.--a.--b)(c+a+b) (a±b)2

b-c—a () a2
0 c+a---b b8
c-- a — b c--a - b (a-t-b)'

b4-c---a 0 &
Operating
=(a-+-b4-c)2 0 c+a—h b
—2b —2a 2ab
Operating C,-4C,+ C and C3-,C2+-- C3, we get
at
b+c Ta2
(a -j-b+c)' c-i-a
o 0 2ab
a2
b+c
• 2ab
b
c+a
(expanding the determinant along its third column)

=2ab (a+b1c)2 Rb + C) (c+a)—abj
r=2abc ( a + b + c) -

SOME ADDITIONAL TOPICS

A-I9
Example 19 Show that
x - -a b c d
• x-f-b c d
==x' (x-l.af-b+c+6/)
• b x ± c (I
• b c X+j
Solution. Denoting the given determinant by

C1 -'1 4 C -!- C3
t , and operating
we get
x + a -l- b +c+d b c d
x+a+/,+c-f-d x+b c
X + a f b ± c + d 1) xfc d
x + a + h -f- c ±d b c xf-d
I h c d
1 x--b c d
= (x + a + b + c + (1)
b x+C d
b c x+d
(x -f- a -- h I- c Fd) is common in C1]
I b c d
o 0 0 Operating
= (x± a 1-b+c+d) R2-R2R1
o 0 x 0 R8 -R8 —R 1 and
R4-^R4-_R1
o o o
X
(x+a+b+c+d) 0 x 0 expanding the above

determinant along C1
o o
x 0
=r(x+ajbc4 d). x
expanding the above
0 x 1 1 determinant along C1
x x'
=x (x+a+b+c+d)

A-20 BUS1NSS MATHEMATICS

32 3a 1'
a' 02+20 2a + 1 I
=(a— 1)6
a 2a+I a+2 1
1 3 3 1
Solution. Denoting the given determinant by t and operating

we get

30—i 3a' 3a 1

0 a6 +2a 2a+1 1

0 2a-4-1 0+2 1

0 3 3 1
a2 +2a 20+1 1
=(a-3a'+3a-1) 2af1 0+2 1
3 3 1
(expanding the above determinant along C)
a—i 0
2(a-1) a—i 0
3 3 1
(operating R 1 -+R2 —R, and R,-+R,—R,)

0+1 1 0

.=(-1) 2 1 0 , (a—i) is common to R1
1 and R.
3 3
a+1 I
(a— 0 expanding the above determinant
2 1 1 along C,
=(a_I)1[(a+1). 1_I.21=(a_1)6(a__1)=(a_I)6

SO?,fl3 ADDIrIONAL TOPICS

A-21
i-f-a2 ab ac ad
ab I+b2 bc bd
ac bc l + c Cd
ad bd cd i+d2
Solution, Multiplying C 1 , C2 , C3 and
tively and dividing by aocd, we get
C4 by a, b, c and d respcc-
a(1 +a 2) abt ac2 ad2

1 a l b b(l +b 2) bc s bd'
abed
ac b2c c({4.c2) cr/a
a2 d b2 c2d d(1+c/2)
i+a 2 b c2 d2
(2bCd a2 I ±b 2 C2 d2
02 b2 I +c2 d
b2 c2
(Taking a, b, C and dcommon from R, R2 ,
R 3 and R4 respectively).
Now operating C l* C L +Ccs±c
we get
1 b2 c2 d2
a
ê —(1 + a2 + b2 .f ct+d2) I 1+b2 c
I b2 1+c2 d
I 1'2 C2 l+d2
1 b2 c2 d2 Operating,
o i o o R2-+R2_R1
= (l + &+bI+c!+dt)
o 0 1 0 R3--*R3_R1
o 0 0 1 I
1 0 0
lja2+b2+c2+(1) 0 I 0
o 0 I
=(1-4- a2 F b*4C2-ld2) [Expanding along the first column)

A-22 BUSINESS MATHMA11CS

l-Fa 1 1 1
1 I.+1' 1 1
=abcd( J.3.±+L+L+L)
/ 1 1 1-i-il
Solution. Dividing C 1 , C2 , C3 and C4 by a, b, c and d respec-

tively, we get
(1/aH- I 1/b 1/c l/d
I/a (1/b) -1 11c lid

j -rabcd
I/a 1/b (l/c)+l i'd
1/a i/b 1/c (l/d)--i
Operating C 2 - C1 4- C2 -j- C+ C4 , we get
=abcd (1- .i H , +±)
1/h 1/c lid
I (1/b)+1 1/c 11'd

X
I i/b 0/0 +1 id
1 1/b I/c (l/d)+l
1 11b 1/c ifd
1 1 1 1 0 0
=abcd (i + - ± T+ +
'0 0 0 1
[Operating R1 -R,-- R, ; 2=2, 3, 41
=abcd (i----+--+--+-)
(Expanding by first column)

PRODUCT OF TWO DETERMINANTS
The product of two determinants of third order is a determinant of
third order. More precisely if t I and 2 are two determinants each of
order 3 as given below

SOME ADWrJONAL TOPICS

A-23
a 1 C1 Ii
A- (J2 b2 C3 ac1 /"r:01 2 P 2 Yl
a 3 b 3 C3
then their product L\ 1 . 2 is the determinant of order 3 given by

0,--hp1--c1 a3-j.b2-l-c..., a1b133-4-e.1
a21 -f b3 1_f- c2- a,,,, -I b, p 2 +c 2 '., a,c3 -f b2B-l-c,y3
a31+ b 3 1 + c 3 y 1 a3i+b332+c3y2 a33 + b3--c2y

Now can be split up into 3 x 3 x 3, i.e.. 27 determinants, since
there are three constituents in each column. These 27 determinants
are
a11 a1r.z2 a1B 02 (1y
21 O2x2 a2cz 3 ac1 O137 a 2Y3
a 3 a3 32
h1 3 1 a12
b 2 , a22 21
b31 a8cx2 C3y5
The first of these determinants

a l a1 a2
=0, since the columns in the determinant
a, a2 a2 are identical.
0 7 05 03
The second of these determinants

a b1 c1
=a 13 'y 3 a b3 c 2 =y
a b7 C3
The third of these determinants
b1 a c1 a
b2 a 2 c. p l a lya 02 b2 (3
b3 03 (3 h8 C3
a3
= 2I1Y3 X

A-24
In this way we can easily find out that 21 out of these 27 deter-
minants will vanish and the remaining six determinants will be
t 1aA i iflzL\i ± 2aY1 A 1 —°131yA1
-F 3l y 3 L\ I — 2y1Ai
cc aP2r) Al
=(c y@3y2Y2
(3 1 y 3 —f3y 1 )+cc3 I
( 3 1 y 9 — c2 y 1)] Al
Gb
==l
TI •t'2 13
Remark. Formula gives the so-called row by row rule of the

multiplication of two determinants and may he described in words as
follows
"The three elements of the first row of the product determinant
are given by the sum of the products of tire elements of the first
row of L'j with the corresponding elements of the first, second and third
row of rcspeciir'ely. Similarly the elements of the second row of A
given by the sum of the products of the constituents of 2nd row of A1 with
the constituents of the first, 2nd and 3rd row of A , respective !)' ; and so
on for the third row of f".
by column or
Similarly, we can obtain the value of A by COhlIflPl
column by row rule of multiplication of two ,lcterrninatltS A, and A2.
Thus the value of A can be obtained by any of the four rules of multi-
plication, viz., row by column rule, row by row rule, column by column
rule or column by row rule. In other words, we call multiply two deter-
minants of the same order by any of tile four r'41Cs of ,nuitiplicaiiofl.
Example 22. Express the product

a 0 1110 a

/ b Olxlb 0 I

0 1 c I' c U
as a determinant and find the value of it
Solution.
a U 1 0 l a
1 b oxb 0 1
o I c I c 0
axO+Oxl±lxa axb-l-0x04-1 xi oxl-i-0xc+lx0
Ix -- b x c 4 Ox 0
1lx04-lxl+Oxa Ixb-i-bx0+0I
OxO+lx11cxa Oxb+IXO+CXI 0<1+! xc-l-cXO

SOME ADDITIONAt roPcs

(1 ab-1 a
= b b i±bc
1ca c c
Also
a o I a
a () IJ
b o b I I) .-- h 0 1
I
e I U c I c U
1) 1
(by interchanging the coimns)
=(abc-4- I) [by ex1ntiding1
ProJuct = (abc
Example. 23. /'rove that
C1 a1 b1 C1
A B
a.4 b2 c
C3 a, b3 c3
A 3 84
where capital letters denote the cofactors of the corresponding small letters
i,r the de;erininwjl on I/IC rig/it hand side, provided it is not zero,
Solution. Let us write
a c1 A B1 C1
/'
an(l .... C,
I\= b (3 43 j
a 3 b 3 C3 43 J C
Now
a 1 134 ;1 J C,
cl
a.2 b, c. X ,, B C0
a 3 b3 c3 A I ('a
a 4 A 4 +h 1 B i + C 1 C 1 a.,4, , --:'), B24 c1C3 a4A3+6iB3--ciC3
= (la/I j + '8L-1- c 2 C 1 (12 ,f 2 - b3B2 + 2'32 a 3 A 3 + h 2 B 3 -I- c3C3
aA -- b 3 8 1 + c 3 C 1 a 3 A,1 -f h 3 !? 2 4 3( 3 arl 8 -1- b 3 n -I- c3C3
(By row-by-row rule of rnuitiplicatton)

0 0
= 0 Lx 0
0 0
.2
hence if t, :A () ; then ,

A.26
UUSi5S MATHa.MATICS
Example 24. Express

(a-x)' (b-x)' (c-x)'
(a-y)' (b-y)' (C-y)'
(a-z)' (b_z)2 (c-z)I
as a product of Iwo determinants and prove that the value
minant Is of the deter-
2 (b -- c) (c— a)(a-b) (y- z) (z- x) (x -y)

Solution. Given determinant
aI.2axx b'.-2bxfx' c'-2cx-4x'
= a'-2ay+y s b'244-y' c1 •- 2cy+y2
a'-2az+z' b2 -2bz+' c' -2cz+z'
a' -2a 1 1 x x'
= b' -2b I > I y y'
J c' -2c 1 1 z
(by inspection and trial)
I a a' I x X
=21 b b' xi y y
1 c 1 z z
(Interchanginp, the first and third column)
=2 (a_b) (b-c) (c-a) (x-y) (y-z) (z-x)
(On simplification)
Example 26. Solve she following equations by Cramer's rule:
x-2y+3z5
4X+3y+4z7
x + y - z = -4
Solution. We have
= Determinant of coefficients of x, y, z
1 -2 3
3 4
1 1 -1
(-3--4)-+(3-2)+I (-8-9)=-20=Ao

SOME ADDrflONAL TOPICS
Since p^0, the unique solution of the system is given by
Y = z—_L!
A' A' A
5 —2 3
where A1-= 7 3 4 =40 (on simplification)
--4 1 --1
1 5 3
1
4 7 4 20 (on simplification)
1 --4 —1
1 —2 S
4 3 7 =-60 (on simplification)
1 1 —4
Substituting in (s), we get
y=1
x=---2, and zr3.
Example 26. Use determinants io solve the folio wing equations:
ax-I- hy+cz=k
02x+b?y+ClZ_kI
a'x+ by -1- 8=k
Solution. The determinant of the system
a b c 1 1 1
A= ' b' c2 =abc a b c
a s b' c' at b' c'

=abc(a—b)(b - c)(c —a)
Let us suppose that a, b, c are three distinct numbers and they are
different from zero.
k h c 1 1 1
k' b' ct khc k b c
A' bs CS k' b' c

A
kbc(k_b)(b—c)(c--k) - k(k—b)(c—k)
abc(a_.-b)(b—c)(C—a) - a(a — b)c — ä

A-28 BUSINESS MATII1MTIS
ej k c I I I
a 2 k CI kac a k c
I a3 k c3 a2 k' c2
Y ---
kac(a_k)(k_c)(c(A) k(a--
k(k --)
abc(a-- b)(b . - c)(c— a) -- a(a- b)(h C)
Similarly, we shall get
k(b k)(Jc--a)
- c(Ii -- (1 C .- a)
CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION AND ROOTS OF A MATRIX
Let A [a 1 1 be a n x it square matrix. Then matrix A-- Al is called
the characteristic matrix of A. The determinant
A -?I — N), say I (
which on expansion gives a polynomial of degree n in is called the
characteristic polynomial or characteristic determinant of characteristic
function of A. The equation
A—At I =0
is known as characteristic equation of A and its roots,
are called the characteristic roots or lateral roots of A.
Example 27. Find the characteristic equation and roots of
6 —2 2
A=r —2 3 —1
2 —I 3
Solution. The characteristic equation is
I A—?l
6--N —2 2
—2 3—N —1 =0
2 —1 3—)
I 3— -- I --2 --1 1-2 3—N
(6 - N) + 2 -1- 2 0
2 3-N 2 —1
(6—N) f(3 —N)— 1J4-2[ -6-t-2N+2]-f-2[2-6+2N]= 0
-12N2 +44N-48=0 (on simplification)
(N-2)(N-4)(N-6)O
Hence characteristic roots tire 2, 4 and 6

SOMR ADDIT[Q/L TOPICS A-29

Cayley-Ilamihoii T1ioreiii
Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation. Thus if
A—Al F =(—I),$
is the characteristic ecluation of the matrix A then
q5(A) (- fl" [A n -I- p 1 A' - p2 A" 2 + ... -p1) = 0......(')
Remark. Cayley-Hamilton theorem may also he used to obtain

the inverse of a non-singular matrix A. If A is non-singular ( A
then premultiplying () by A 1 and transposing, we get

A -= [A- 1 +p, A 14 I-..- +p-1 II
P.
Example 28. Verify tAat the matrix
r 2 —1 •/i
A= J 2 —1
1 --1 2
satisfies its characteristic equation. Hence compute A'.
Solution. ihe characteristic equation of A is
A--1 -0
E 2 --1 l ri 0 01
—1 2 —1 -- 0 1 0 1=0
I l 2J Lo 0 lJ
12--A —1
—1 2—i --1 I-=0
I —1 2—A
2--h --1 --1 -1 r1 2--
(2•—?) +1 -1- 1
---I 2—Ai I 2—i I
(2—a) ((2— A)— lJ+(-2+?+ 1)+[I—(2—A)]-0
. 6A I- 9A-4=0 (On simplification)
By Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we get
A-6A2 -l- 9A-410 (.)
Verification of (*)
2-1 l 2 —1 1
A2 =A . —1 2 —1 lx —1 2 -
1 —1 2J 1 --1 2
6 —5 5
—5 6 —5
5= —5 6
22 —21 21
A3 =A2 . A[ —21 22 —21
21 —21 22

We have A3-6A'-l-9A-41
[ 22 —21 211 [ 6 —5 5
r
—21 22 —21 I —6 I —5 6 —5
L 21 —21 22J L 5 —5 6
r 2 —' ii rio °]=[00001
+9 I —1 2 —1 I —41 0 1 0 0 0 0 =O
1 —1 2J [oo ' 0 OJ
Premultiplying (P) by A', we get
A1 -6A-- 91-4A-1=O
A 1 -=-, [A'-6A+91)
r 6 —5 5 1 r 2 —1 1 1 r 1 0 0
=l —5 6 —5 1-61 —1 2 —1 1+91 0 1 0
L 5 —5 6J L 1 —i 2J LO 0 1
r
I 3
t
1
A
1•1
A
I
r
j
3
1 1
I
4
1 —.1
—1 r t
L
t
1 i I
L
i
T
1
I
3
t
Example 29. Obtain the characteristic equation of the matrix
r' 0 2
A=l 0 2 1
[2 0 3
Hence or otherwise calculate its Inverse.
(Delhi Univ, B.A. (lions.) Eec,. 1992]
Solution. The characteristic equation of A is
A—?fl=0
11 0 21 [1 0 0=O
01
* I 0 2 1 I—Al 0 1
L2 0 3J [o 0 1J
0 2
0 2-1 1=0
2 0 3-?
*
—A+6)'-7A-2=0
By Cayley. Hamilton Theorem, A satisfies its characteristic equation.
herefore, we have
—A'+6A'-7A--210.
Premuitiplying by A 1 we have
- A' + 6A— 71— 2A-' = 0
A_11=4[_A246A-7I)

fOmB AOUirIONL TOPICS A31
ri
A2 =I 0
0
211
1 II 0
2
0
2
2] = ^5
12
0
4
8
5
L2 3JL 2 0
0 3 8 0 13
5 0 8]+6.[ 102]-7.^ 100
—A'+6A-71=—I 2 4 5 021 010
L8 0 13 203 OOl
1-5+ 6-7 0-1- 0-0 -8+12- 0 1-6 0 4
—2+ 0-0 —4+12-7 - 5+ 6-0 1=1 —2 1 1
L-8+12--O Of 0--O —13-i-18--7J L 4 0 —2 -
r
—6 0 4 ] . [ _
A-'=! —2 1 1
-3I 0 2
4 4
4 0 —2 2 0 —1
EXERCISES
1. Determine the characteristic roots of each of the following
matrices
8 —6 2\ /2 2 1\ /2 1 0
(I) ( —6 7 —4 1. (ii) ( 1 3 1 . (iii) 1 0 2
\ 2-4 3) \1 2 2/ \0 02
2. Prove that each of the matrices
/0 hg\ (0 fh\ /ogf
A=Ih of ), B=( f o g, C=( g oh
\gfo) \h go!
has the same characteristic roots.
3. Prove that the following matrices have the same characteristic
equation
/abc \ C a\ 1cab
A 1 = ( b c a ) , A2 =( c a b ), A3 =1 a b C
\cab/ \b cal \bca
4. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix
11 0 —1-)
I I
A== 3 4 5I
10 —6 —7J
Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem. Hence or otherwise compute A_L
[Hint. Characteristic equation of A is
' + 2 N - —20=0
By Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we have
A+2A*_A —201=0
This gives A' [A'+2A—I]=51

r
2
21
6
—7 —8
4
—I8 6 4

A32 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

5. Show that the matrix
c
A== r co
- 0 a
b --a 0
satisfy Cayley-Ilamiltori theorem.
[Hint. Characteristic equation of A is
A 3 4 1(a2 + b+ c2)=0
To satisfy Caylcy's Theorem, we have to verify that
A3 f(a2 lb2 j&) A-OJ
0 0
6. If A= "1I () I
'0 I 0
show that for every integer 11>3,
A ll = A- 2 + A2-!
Hence determine A 5° and A'°°
[Hint. Cayley-Hamilton theorem gives
A3--A2-A--J==O (s)
Premultiplying () by k>3, we get

Ak_ (A2 __ l) (A2-1) (**)
Putting k=h, n-I, •.., 3 in succession and multiplying the resulting
equations, we shall get
A 1 (A2-t)=At----I ; n3
An -A"2-=A---1 ; n>3
as desired.
To obtain A, put n =50, 48, ..., 4 successively in (*) and add
the resulting equations. Similarly for A'°°)
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION
Example 30. If x- sin t, y= sin pt; prore that
(I-x') Y2-y1+py==O
dx dy
Solution.
-a--- =cos /, -ar-- p cos P
dy p Cos pt
dx cos I
OS I . Yi'P cospi
cos2 t . Y12=p cos 2 p1

- (I —sin 2 t) ; ' 1 2p2 ( I - sin pi)

(I x2)y12.p2( I --y)
Differentiating again, N y e get
(I---x 2 ) 2y 1 y 0 y 2 (-2x) -p2 . 2yy1
(I
ExmpIe 29. If y -- i e- cos (pi .-- -f e), 5/lOW that
+ 2k -- n'y = 0, where n' =p -f k2.

TI 2
Solution. -- k4e' cos (p1 -j e) -- pAe sin (pt -f e)
--ky—pAc -II sin (pt-fe)
or pAe sin (p1 e)= k -

Ift
Differentiating (*), we get

d2y d
ke' sin (pt+e) L e p cos (pt+ e)J
dly (it
pAe' sin (p(-e) - p2y
—k .k( ky )p2v (Using )

_
--2k p2+k2)y
tit
dy
= 2k - --- ny. Transposing c get the result.
(It
Example 20. If p 2 r=- 0 2 Cos4. b 2 • i°'e, prove that
el2p a2b2
p4 d0 2
p
We have
2:0? COS T e- b 2 S i 112 0
=a 2 (1 — sin 2 0)-f b 2 sin' 0
0 2 _ (a'-h2) sin 2 9 _(2)
Again pt=-.a2 cos2 0 b2 (l--cos 2 0)
(a 2 —b 2 ) cos 2 0-t-h2
(a 2 -1) 2 ) cos? 0=p2—b2
A-34 IiUSR435 MATH14ATICS
Differentiating (1), we get
dp
2p -=--2a t sin cos 0+2b i sin cosO
dp
p - a
=— ( 2 —b') sin O cog ü (4)
Differentiating again, we get
dlp((1,0
p +-) =_(a2....b2) (cos' 0—sin' 0) (5)
dp (a'—b) sin 0 cos 0
From (4), we get --=----
do p
Substituting in (5), we have
d2p ( a 2 — b t )2 sin' 0 cos' 0
Pji+
=_(a2 _b*) (cos 0—sin? 0)
d 2p (u T — b') sin' 0 . (a 2—b 1 ) cos2 0
- Pd62+
_(a 2_ bt) cos, 0+(a2 — b2) sin 0
dip (ai---p2 ) (p2_hi)
P do 2
[Using (2) and (3)]

a2b'
d02 P2
dp &b2
p2-1-p1=--—.
Dividing by p, we get the result.
E.&mp1e 31. Ifx'+2xy4-3yl, show that
(x+3y)' -- +2=0.
Solution. Differentiating the given relation, we get
dy
2x+2
dy
dx x+3y
[X +Y dy 1
dly 1+—(x+y)1+3
dx
dx2 (x+30'

SOME ADD1flOAL TOPICS A- 35
[(x43y) -.(x±y)+(x+3y_3X-3Y)
dv
(x+3y)'
2y_2x]-:(x+3Y)
=,_[
-- (-tY—)]--' (X+3y)2
Y+ -x^
2[
= —2 (xy-13y1+x2+xy)—(x+3y)'
=-2 (x'+2xy4-3y')±(x-F-3y)'
x2+2xy±3y=1)
(x+3y)'
LEIBN1TVS THEOREM
Statement. If fix) and g(x) be two functions differentiable up to
order n, then
'I
(fg )1 == "C, f_,g,
f
where the suffixes in and g denote the order of differentiation wYl .x.
Proof The theorem can he established using the 'Prinipl of
Mathematical
(cal Induction'.
Step I. By actual differentiation, we have
(fg) =jjg +fg1 == 'C0 f1g 'C1fg1
(fg)2=(f,g+f1g1)+(f,g1+fg2)
— 'cc f2g -I-'C, fa, -l-'C2fg1
Thus the theorem is true lot n==1 and n=2.
Step II. Let us assume that the theorem is true for n—m, so that
(fg) mC,f,g,
F=O
Differentiating both sides, we have
,n
g, +f,,_, g,41}
rO "C, {f,,,,.,
C0{f+,g+fgj± C,{f,,g,4-f_,g,}
+-c, ( f-1g1+f 2 g ±... + "C_{ f1 g +fg,,,1}
rC.f1
Step Ill. We know
mC. lIic0, _C_ +1 C.. +,, "C, + "C,_ 1 zr4'C,
'a + J
= > g
F 0
Step IV. Thus if the theorem is true for n = 'ii, it is certainly true
for ?= rn 4- 1 . It is already verified for a = I and 2, hence the theorem is
true for all positive integral values of a.
Remark. We choose g for a function whose nth derivative is
known, and f should be such function that vanishes after a few
differentiations.
Example 32. Find i/ic nt/i derieaiive of
y:X 3 sin ax
Solut iou. I Icre- we take sill ax as .1 and x 3 as g.
Now 91=3x7, 92r 3. 2x, g3==3. 2, g40
flr
Also f,,=a Sin ( a.v-- , etc.
Hence by Lcihnitz's theorem ; we have
- . n—i
in ( ax-f . .--- , a 3x 2 . a sin ( ax4.
)
a -1) . /
-- ----,- . 3 . 2x u'- s ill ---yr
n(n - 1) (11-2)
a —3
- ----------- 3 .2. 1 a - Sill
sin t lJ X-f--------7r
Remark. If one of the factors be a power of x it will be advisable

to take that factor as g
Example 33. Let y=x 4 . e ; /indy5.
Solution. Here g—x,f=e"
so that 91 4x 3 92=12x 2 , g 3 =24x, g4==24
and 95 etc. all vanish.
Also f,, ac ; etc,
whence y5=u e°' x-f-.50 e 4x3 -j- 10 . a3 ex . 12x2
+ l0a2 e . 24x+5a e ll 24
a e' {114x4 4- 200x 3 f- 1 20a2x2 +240 a x-f- 1201
Example 34. Di/Jerentiate n times the equation
dy (ly
X,
(I'
Solution. ---- (x )2 )= x 2y,, + .±n . 2x . .Y+ 1+ n(n-1) . 2y.
(I,,
d (xy1) =X 4) -f- fl,.

SOM13 ADDITIONAL TOPICS A - 37
d"y
(IX'
therefore, by addition,
I 1) XV f1 -f (n
I (2'? 1) v ()
(jl) (/Y
Of -1--(2n 1 1) X j t +(' I' 1)--- :-()
Example 35. If J r--a (OS (log .v) f) sin (10: x), shov that
xv -I- (2n --f- 1) .vy., i (a 2 1) p -. 0
Soliti on. Differentiating, we have
—a sin (log x). -f b Co s (lo.) .
xY --a Sin (log x) 1-" cos (log .v)

0 cos (log ) /1 •-iii (log v)
-
. X2)1.XV1 _(a cos (log x) +b Sill (log x)J
X?y +X)1 *Y -
Differentiating !his cqnatioo 11 times using I ibnitz's theorem,

2v y rC -(-y.41-l-'-C1 . vJ fyI)
2. y .,
-F 2':xy^, -f- n( -- 1) y,, --f n ) !, f -,, 0,
1) XY, j 1?:(,:'-- l )+': i-u j )r)
Remark. It may be noted that nth derivative of j' -= y ., ;
derivative of y 1 ; nth derivative of j'
Example 36. If) r A (x± Yx? -- 1 ) -1- l3(x Ir

prove that
(a) (x2 —1) y 2 -f- vy1
(h) (x2 -- I) y-- (21:
Solution. Y: (x ± Y x2 -j ) -
174
t I - F 2Y-2._1 2x
+ fl B(x — x I—- 2x
( 2v x2—l)
- - n.-1 X-\X—t)'-
X-I
- 'I / (x - ' x--i)"
(\/ x—I) y 1 - ,lA (x-- \/ x—I)--nh1 (x- ' x-1)

A-38
(\/'1)y'+ 2x . y1
.=rflA 1+ 2x }
{ 2V 32i .
n28 (x i_
.{ }
:n 2 A (x4- - ____
i/ x a — I
n2J3(/xI_I)-t
•1 x2-1
(x t — 1) y +x y 1 =n2 [A(x-1 V'x--1)-l-B(x— V x_1i5'1
= n?y (1
Differentiating equation (4) n tunes by Leibnitz's theorem,
(x2— 1) y+ 2 + ' C 1 . 2xy, + "C2
. 2 . y,,4 xy,. 1 +C1 . I . y-= n'y
* (x'— 1)y 1 -(2n+1)XY+1=O

Example 37. Ify 1 ty l/ 4 2x . prove that
(x t — 1)y 2 -j (2n + ] ) xy41+ (nt-- m2)y.=0
Solution. y1 l+y -'I" = 2x gives (yI')2._2X(Yl 1n)4 1=0
yI={2x±V'(4x2.4)}/2=X±s/ ( X 2 _ 0
Thus y[xf/ (x'-1))'
If y==(x+\/X-1Y, then
[i+
= ,nx + \/ )m/.\/(x2_ 1)=nly/VX'—1
If y(.i_ / then
y_m(x - 1-
- zn(X -- V xt_1) M /VX 2 I = - my/V xt —1
Thus in either case

m ty 2 . (x2_)y1?=FflY2
- (x' - 1)
Differentiating, WC get
(x2— I)2y1y2Y1221YYl
r. (x2— 1 b'2 • xy - 1?1 2Y= 0

SOME ADDITIONAL TOPICS

A-39
Using Leibiitz's theorem for "•tirncs differentiation, we get
r(x- l)y + "C1(2x)y41 + ' C2(2)y.J+[xy,+1 ftC1 y. ]_
rn'y=Ø
£
* (x—l)y42(2n+
Example 38. If c03-1 (y/b)_ log (x/n)', prove that
(a) x 1y3 -xy1 n'y=O
(b) x2y.+2f(2n+ l)xyf1_32n1y,r
Solution. cos'(y/b)=n log (x/n)=n flog x— log nJ
Differentiating, -v1==

n
,1(52
_y2)
(-2yy)
Dividing by 2y 1 , we get
x2y 2 +xy 1 +n2y=o
Differentiating n times using Leibnitz theorem, we get
f x2y 24- c1 2x.y+1f-C2 .2 .yJ
[xy 1 -f-"C1 . I . yj- ny=O
c3. X 2y,,+ 2
n xy+ +fl(fl—l)y+xy+i+ny+n1y0
* xy2.+2-f(2n4
Ezmple 39. If y -(x-3- /(x27? prove that
(I+X2) y,-4-xy1-_p'yO
Hence find the value of y when x=O, n
being an even integer.
Also find y (0) when n Is an odd Integer.
Solution. We have yc=(x--./x -f-I)'
Differentiating, )1P(x+Yj)'-1 . ( 1+—)
• ±±
VXZf 1
=p (x+
=py/Vf
\i%/fl
or
,
i.e., (r2 + I )y2

BU3INf3SS MATIflMAT(CS
A-4t)
Differentiating, we get
(.v 2 }- 1) 2 yy.2 4-. 2x.y 1 21)2yy1
Dividing by 2 y 1 , we get
(x 2 + I )y, x =p3J' S. (3)
which wits to be proved.
Differentiating ( 2) /' tunes h Lebnitz's theorem, sc get
"C ) . 2x y, 4 r C ! . 2
Simp!if) ing. we get
(.0- 1) y—, 1) k Yf ) -l( fl •p2)y=0.
Putting .V
(pa-- n1)y(0)
From (1). putting .v =0, .v(1)) -= I.
From (2), py! /iv2 I
i() py(})/l =p.
From (3), putting A =fl.
y(0)=p2 y(0)= 11
In (4), put ?Z 2. 4, 6, ... successively ; then
= (P*-'— 2) y .,tO) =(p -.-22),p2
42) (p-22)p2
v(0) =(p 2 —4 2 ).y 1 (U) =(p.
yU) .(p? 6) (p 42) (j, 2 -2 1 ) etc.
Hence, when I t is an even integer,

y(0) [ p in —2)2][p -
4), put = 1, 3. 5, . successively then
it
(0) = (1,2 -- 12) p
y3 (0) = ( p2 - I ) y 1
(p? - 1 2 ) p , etc.
Y (0) 3) Y 3(0) = (p . )
Hence. slien /i is an odd integer.
y(0) = [ 1 ,2 - (n -- 2)?] [i - 4)2 1.. V 1 2)p.
EXERCISES
I. If y , prove that
\ A.
(1 — x 2 ) y — ( 2 j 1) x - y, -- 11 2 y, 0
[ I-lint.
,.,/l\! . .v sin -1
Differentiating w. r.t ..v, we have
V 1 x7. Y 1 +Y . (I --x" 2 (-2x)==

—x-
(1—x)—Y. —l0 .. (•)

We now apply Leihoit rule for 17-times differentiation.
II X 2 ) v -1.C 1 (-- 2.v)y -I- 1 C2 (_2)y1}-1XY1 --C1yJ=O

SOME ADDtT1CNiL TOPICS
(I —x 2 ) y.+i—(211+ 1)xY, —fl2Y-i 01

2. If Y- sin (m sin x), prove that
0
(I - x 1 )y 42 -- (2,1-4- i)xy --(nt— "")Y,
3. If y = cos (m log x), show that
x 2y. - ( 2n - I )xy. - (r n 2 +fl ! ) y Ø•
(1-lint =
- - sill (m log x) mJx
2 y 2 =-ni sine ( III log x)
=rn 2 l — cos 7 (m tog x)}
=-'n 2 (t—y).
Differentiating, we get
X2 .
Divide by 2y, and differentiate n times by Leibiiitz's theorem.]

Slfl show that
4. if y= ecx X ,
(t) (1
(ii) (•.)y.—(2'
[hint. y 1 re'' jr . ct/v'l.Y/V'1

Y13 (I __x)=='y2.
Differentiatilig, we get
([_xt)2y1y_2XyI212cL.YY1.
n times]
Divide by 2 y and transpose. Then differentiate
X2
5. If y -= -( --- l). prove that
(x'-- l)y.+1+2xY+i+l)YO.
d,
Bence if 1'. = - (x'—l), show that
0.
[Hint. y 1 =fl(x 2 l) n . 2x
Mul t iplying by x 1 —1, we get
2x—ny . 2x.
Differentiate ('1 ± I) times to get the first result.
Now
Hence the second result required is
dr d
(yb) ]+ nn +n Y.
,TIC A
d ((l_X 2 )y+ i J4fl(fl .+
l)y—O,

A-42 BUSINESS Mi11iIMA11cS
Multiplying by --1, we get

(x1 — l)y.+2+2xy+1—n(n--l- 1) y- 0,
which is the same as the first result already proved].
6. Iff(x)=tan X, prove that
f"(0)_ " C2 f"-'(0)+"C4(0)--.-... =Sill (nw /2)
[Hint. Jx)sin X /COS x
or cos x . f(x)=sin x.
Differentiating ii times, we get
cos x f(x)+"C 1 . (—sin x) . J 1 (x)+C2 . (—cos x)
=sin (x+nrr/2),
Putting n =-O, we get the required result. f"(o) means the value of
f(x), when x= 0)
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Example 40. Find the partial derivatives with respect to x and y if

Z= 3xy —y -1- (y2
Solution. 3xy_..y+(y2_2x)3l2
=3y+ T(y22x)l2 (-2)== 3[y— (
y2 --- 2x)' ']
-i- (y 2 -2x)" (2y)
= 3[x_y2 -}y (y2--- 2x)' 01
Example 4 If u=si,r -- -ftaPr 1'- , show that

all au
Solution. u=-sin` ---+tan :!

Y
Ou
ax
)
Y X,
_L
= \/y2 _x2 XI+Y1
au
X )2 -(—)+2.
Y ) Y, ^(Yx
+
V2
X

0.
Example 42 If u=f ( y- ), prove that
au u
av
Solution. Differentiating partially w.r.t. x, y ; we get
ç, 3LI (Y (Y\
5
)J J
( y /1
and
X
x_+Y=±)f' (--)+. L •j' (L)o.
Example 43. If f(x,y)=log ( x2 + y2 )±Ian -1 2_ , then prove that
± 4._Lrrr 0.
x2 ay,
Solution. f y )= log (x2-f-y2)+tan-1
f 2x I/))
2x—y
- x2 + y1
a 2 f (x2 y? ) 2—(2x—y). 2x
ax 2 (XL ty')2
2y 2 2.v 2 4- 2xy
f 2y
X
Y2
+ 1+--
2y t x
f (2-4-y2) 2 -(2) -x) . 2y

av2 (2+ yl )2
2x 2 2y2

A-44 BUSINESS MATHI3MATLC3
• a'f a'f_
BY
Example 44. If Usshow that

how
a'u a'u a'u
* +y2+)
Solution. We have
au --
- _(x2 +y i + zl)_ S I 2 . 2x-= —x(X 2 fy2+
Z2)'
--
a2u
3x1 (XI +y2+ z2) 2
ax!
Similarly, we get
(x'+y'+Z')'12+3y' (x2+yj Z2)_5l

ay 2
atU
and
aza = — (x2 +y'+z 2 ) - " + 3z2(x* - - y2 + z)-'/
a2uu 'u
Adding, we get -- +- +
axt
== .3(x2 +yt + z2) _ 31I + 3(x' + y + z 513 (x' +y'+ z')

—3(x'4-y + z')-' + 3(x*+yt+r)_3
=0
Example 45. Jfu=e-' cos (x — at), show that
ar2
Solution -!f_=ex_i cos (x—at)-f-e-' [—sin (x—at)]
—e- (x—ar)--sjn (x—at)]
a'u
-=e' [con (x—at ) — sin (x—al)]
ax'
+e" (—sin (x—at) —cos (x—at)]
=-2e'' sin (x---ai)

au cos (x _al)4_ex_aI [ — sin (x— at)].(—a)
at
r-=ae" 1 ' Icos (x—aI) —sin (x—at)]
atu
—ae-' (—a)[cos (x —at)—sin (x_-aI)}
—ae'- ' 1n (x — at) - -acos (x-- at)

=-2a'e'--' sin (x—at)

a:u a2
tz --
Example 46 If u(og r, where
show that
a 2u u u f
Solution. Differentiating partially, we get

U I a r -
(x—a)[.: 2r - . 2(x-- a) ]
X r ax V2
a2u I '\ ar I 2(x—a)1

--i+(x--a) -----,----
r2 -2(x - 0)2
V4
Similarly
2u r2 _2(y_b) 7 ' u r2-2(z---c)'
y2 '
Adding, we get
a2U 5 2u 3r1— 2
2u
[(x—a) 2 + (x—b)3 +(-'c—c)9
r4
Example 47. If u=f(r), where r2= xI +y2, prove that

a 2 1
_—=f'(r)+ --f'(r)
aT 1
2•(x$y ) l$ 2x=—
Solution. r= /x+y2 =
ax
u au ar x
ax ar ax -J •
alu r [ f'(r) + xf"(rl'—r ] — xf '(P). 'r

l ax ax
TI
I
=-- [rf'(r)+xlf'(,)-_.(x2/r) f'(r)]
—1
f'(r)+x If'(r) f'(r)1
r
Since r is a symmetric function, by interchanging x, y; we get
a2 u I f(r) f'(r) 1
Trf'(r)+y1rL (*)
j-y! r' - r J

BUSINEM MATHEMATICS
A-46
Adding (*) and (**) we get
3 2" 321i 2 fr)]
r 2 - r3
- 2 f(P)+T2rLjr) D-0
Lrrzi
2
r
ô2u i 2 u 1
Hence +y2 f'(r)+f'(r)
ã•.
Homogeneous function. A function f(x, y) is said to be a
homogeneous of degree n if on replacing x by kx and y by ky, the function
is multiplied by k r', i.e., if
f(kx, Icy) = k n f(x, y)
For example log x -log y is of zero degree since
log kx-log ky=log x-log y=k° (log x---lo y)
Again V x2-yt sin'-- is a homogeneous function of degree 1
since i/ (kx) (ky) sin' L =- k I .1 sin-, L.
Another way of defining the homogeneous function f(x, y ) of

degree n is that it can be expressible as
x'f()
Now log x-log y_x° tog -
and /.-sin' -is x' [,,/(Y)2 sin'-j
EULER'S THEOREM ON HOMOGENEOUS FUNCTIONS

Statement. If z=f(x, y) be a homogeneous function of x and y of
degree n and possesses continuous partial derivatives, then
3z Z
x--y =nz
ax ay
Proof. Step I. Since z -=. f(x, y ) is a homogeneous function of
degree ii in x and y,
z-=f(x. y)=x1 q5 (y/x) (1)
Step Ii. Differentiating (I) partially w.r.t. x, we have
8Z a [x(y/x)
ax
[(yfx) . i x 1 1- t 4 x (x/ y) ( -y[x2)1

SOME ADDITtONAI. TOPICS A-47
or x-- nx"(y/x) —x ' yb '(y/x) (2)
Step lu. Again, difIercritiating (1) partially w.r.t. y, we have
DY ay
.v' '(y/x)(l/x) -x'' '(yfx)
or x-1 0 ,(Y/X)
Step IV. Adding (I) and (2), we have
z az
Y -nx"
Oy ay
This proves the theorem
Deduction. if z f(x, y) be a homogeneous function of degree n,
then
- 2xy . - fy 1 _: fl(fl -- I )z.

ax 2 axaz ay!
Since z is a lioniogeneous function of degree .,, L and - are

ax
homogeneous functions of degree (rr
az
Appl y ing Eulei's theorem to the functions --and -, we have
ax
) Z z
) + --(---
ax) (n— I)---
ax
Z) a ,az'
and x ax
- ( - --y - (
ay
= (ii - 1 )-
a2z a'z az
le " x --'1-y —=(n—I)__ (1)
ax2 aya ' ax
az 'z
x
xy +Y a2=(fl1) (2)
azz a'z
Multiply (1) by x and (2) by y and add, taking
aX t -+2xy 1 : atz az azl
xy +Yt=(n_t)[ x— +Y_- J
ax2ay
But by Euler's theorem x az ) az
ax
az z z
x-1+2xy á
-----+Y'------n(n—zz.)

A-48 BUSINESS MAT1tEMATLc
- - i x -
Eaniple 48. If f(x, y) = y2 •-2
show that Y _ f (X , y)-= 0

ax ±Y ay
Solution. f(x, y ) = \/ T' sin

k2x2 /<2 2
f (kx, ky) =- /k1y2_k22
=k[
f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree 1.
Hence X-i[-y..L-rf(x,y)
ay
or XLY_f(X,Y) -O
ax dy

Example 49. If u-=COS (_) ), prove that
L" au u
X —+y------fz -=0
x ay az
1Xy--y2•-zx \
Solution. u=f(x, y, z)=cos 2212 )
k2 xy+ k . yz-.k2
f(kx ky, kz)=cos
(- )
=COS(4)=kof(x,yz)
X2+y7+z2
u is a homogeneous function of zero degree.

au
Hence x±yi+z_=oxu=o
Example 50. If u_s1n , show that

au au
—=tan
ax + y y
X U.
Solution. Here Li is not a homogeneous function but if

x2
z=sin u= --Y2,then z is a homogeneous function of x, y of degree 1.
By Euler's theorem, x --+y -=Z

ax ay

SOME ADDiTIONAL TOPICS
Since Zrsin it is a function of

z dz Oil all
- - ---- =cos U
x du ax ax
aZ (IZ U
and -- =cos u.
y u a)'
Substituting these values in ('), we get
Dil all
X COS U -y----- cos U sin U
all all
or x --4- y - = tan U.
ex ay
Example 51. If zsin (-:. show that

\ •/ x + y I
au Y au
--- - x ay
i-—Vy\
Solution. sill ` i
Z= - ._- I X Sifl I
\V x / 1—yIx
z is a homogeneous function of degree zero.
Using Euler's theorem, we have

F.
x----- 4- Y - - = 0. z= 0
ax x •y
Example 52. If it
+Y3')
(X!+2),
2 ,Prove that x -i-a --
M
3-fy3
Solution. u=log (xX1+y2) e
[1'(jx')
-
Li -I- ( y2/x2)
Here e' is a homogeneous function of degree one.
By Euler's theorem, we have
(e l ) + y —p-- (e s ) = I . e
DY
X+YWl

A-50 9USiNFM MATHEMATICS
EXERCISES .
1. Find the partial derivatives with respect to each variable of
(i) f(x, y, z, i)=x2 e2YF31 cos 4
Z) r(r - cos 20)

(it) f(r, 0,
r2-I-zt
2. If?(x-1 y)—x-4 y 2 , show that
Ia z az
ax ay
3. If u= /x.fy2.;z2 show that
( au_ )2.i_/ \ 2
/
4. If x 1 y2 -j- z J,j prove that

a?u a 2u u -
— j +--
ax ay
5. If u=- -2 tan- 1 Y —y2 tan 1 prove that
x2 -y2
ay x+y2
xy
6. If u=taii-' --j-----, show that
- (i-1-x2+y)3
7. If (i) z= log (ii) z=(x—y)V2,:-i-'

XY
tZ a2z
verify the relation
8. If z =r tan (y+ax)—(y_--ax)312, show that

- -as
9. if Z :3xy-y-3'(y 2 -2x)3/2 verify that

a ? z a1Z 2z '
a ( 2z
and ----
axt =j
10, If u=)og (x t 1.z._.3xyz), show that

au au a u 3
(a)
.,.5 I
SOMI! ADDITIONAL TOPICS
'jU a 2 u a10
(h)
11. If U=Iog (X2y2 f z Z), show that
- --= z
ay az zx ax—
ay
12. If U=(y-ax) 4- (y --ax), show that
a'u
-
0x 2 ay1
[Hint. f-' (y -+ ax) a +/ (y - ax) (—a)
alu -'
() , H- ax) a 2 4-4' (y---(Ix). a'
all ='(y- ax). I + ' ( y ax). I

ay
(),+x)+ (Y- . ax)]
x y
11. If U=rSlfl 1 tan- ' -, prove that
all au
x --- y
ax A
14. if z =xyf(y/x) prove that
az
v -- -
ox ay
U. if z= sin - ' prove that
z az
X --- f- y - ---=tari
ax ay
16. z=tan' ( prove that
),
4_Y___ = sin 2x
cX cy
A1 1
17. If u= sin-' (r77s)' prove that
au au I
X +Y tan

A- 52
18. If U=COs'
xf-y
-•-------•--------, show that
\/X+ /y
u au I
x- +Y - + --- cot u=0
ay
EXAMPLES ON INTEGRATION
Example 53. Evaluate' __________
J Sifl x CO5 1 X
r dXr --
Solntioij.
inXc0s2x
=f sec2 x dx+f cosec 2 x dx=- tan x----cot X.
cos x
Example 54. Evaluate dx.
Solution. Let I=- dx.

J cos (x±a)
Put x+a=t (IX =(It
1-_-f cos(1—a) dt _r acost-4-s,itsina (1':

- I cost -- J cost
=cos of dt .4-sin a f tan t dl
=rt cos a+sin a log sect
cos a+sin a log sec (x+a).
r dx
dx (dx
Solution,
J,V: +SIfl X j
—=1
/ COS2- + Sjflh --+2 sin 4-cos -.-
I dx 1 (dx
X X\4/2j x n
cos -- -f sin cos cos -- + sin -.1 sin 2x
I dx
---=— J see (f+)dx
cos (--)
(-2) X \
log tan +
i - T)
Example 56. Evaluate dx
J sin (x— a) sin (x—b)

SOMF ADDITIONAL TOPICS A-53

dx
Solution.
sin - a) sin ( - b)
I f sin (x-a)
sin(a --b)
sin (x-b) (Note this step)
1 Sin ((x-b)--(x-a)}
f
sin (a3 J sin (x-a) sin (x.-b) "
1__________________
sin (a-b) f sin (x-b) cos (x--a)--- cos (x -- b) sin(x— a)
- dx
sin (x--a) sin (x--h)
cot (x—a) dx_J cot (x-b) d ]

= sin (a -- b) L
=cosec (a-h) [log sin (x—a)--log sin (x-/,)]
I
cosec (a -b) log sin (xx--a)
sin 2x dx
J
sin 2x A C 2 sin x cos
Solution. Let r=rIsin'
XCOSX j SIfl.V+C&X dx
f (2 sin x cos x)/coS'
A
= J (sinx+cosx)'cos
f 2 tan x se V
) 1tanx
f- -
Put tan2 x=t 2 tan x sec' x dx=di
di
• • l+( =tan' t= tan' (tan 5 x)
Example 58. Evaluate Irafr \/ _!_— x dx.
I +x
solution. Put X=-COS 0
L-x
tan-' • i = tan' I_!_. =tan' ( tan __ )
J I+x 1+cosO
O 1
cos-1 X
4 I
dx== - J (cos-' x). I d
X
_f- ' 4- -.-, dx ]
J V 1-x3

A54 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
rr[Xcos - X— V1

I sin (j-;--) d.
r5_1
Solution. Let 1=
\J
Put X---il tan 0 64-=21j tan 0 sec2 0 dQ.
I f / a tan() '\
I - I sin' ----) 2a tan see2 e do
J \j a-i- a tan2O '
tan O
= 2a I. l ( ---------- tan 0 sec' 0 (16
J sec0 I
r -2a $0 (tan 0 sec' 0) d
-2a [0 tan 0-f I tan' 0 dO)
rO [0 tan' 0-- J(sec2 0-I) tie]
-a [0 tan" 0--tan 0 UJ
a[tan'J} -Jtan' ']
Vax
A
X(X+ 1)
dx
Solution Let 1- ¶
j x (x'--I)
Put x=_t .-. nxn- 1 dx=jt

I in
1

di
(1i l)LtJt1] dl cdi
-- - [log f—log ( t + log

(if )
I Xn
_____
log(
-- fl x+1 )•
Example 61. Evaluate Jlog (x+ \/&--x) dx.
Solution. S I . log (x+ \/ a 2 -t-x2 )dx=x log (x+\/){a2)
('+-- ) dX

SOMe ADDITIONAL TOPICS A-55
- x log (x v /rx7 - dx
X log (x I- V'a2 l-x2) —31 2x(a 2 +x 2 ) clx
x lo g (x 1- a -t x ) -- V a - x
Lvaluatc - - 3x
-
Example 62. E valuate
J cos v
Solution, sin 3x=j (x+ 2x)5jit x cos 2x cos x sin 2x
=sin x (2 COS 2 -- 1) j - c os x sin 2x
f sin 3x 1 2 sin 'c cos' x --sin x-f- cos x sill
/x -- ---- -- dx
J cosx J cosx
J(2 sin x cos 'c -tan x -f sin 2x) dx
1(2 sin 2x -- tan x) dx
- –cos 2x -1 log CnS x.
Example 63. Evaluate J cos 2x log (I+ taii x) dx
Solution. Integrating by parts, we get
I sin 2x
cos 2-v log 0 1 tan -c) dx - —i-- Tog (1 -I-tan x)
I sin 2x sec x
- dx
J 2 1 ltanx
• sit)
-'3 sill (H tan ---(IX.
J sin x+ Cos X
•
sin2 xlog (I-I-tan 'c)-- II
cr ii (cos x - sin x1
A- I---------- I dx.
sin X-fcosX j
•
= sin rr 1 1 cos x—sin xl
2x log (14-tan x)----- II -- ---- I dx.
J L 2 2 sin x+ cos xJ
=- sin 2x log (I - tan x)—-

-- -- log (sin X+cOS x).
1
3
Example 64, Evaluate dx.
V
^ _ 0 XI)
Solution. Here - – (sin' x)-

c ( •c
Substitution is sin- 1 x .1 so tlat;- dx di

A-56 BU3 1NM .lATIIMVFtC5
Also when x=O, (=0 and when x =1. s ince sin - =1

2 2
t 42 t/2
x3 sin-i x
dx= I
I
sin 3 t dt= - (3 g ia I—sin 31) /t.
I /(l—_x)
o 1) 0
t/2
- - -- C sin I dt - - I sin 3t I(
o 0
,tJ2 m /2 t/2 r/2
3 I - -
. cos idi [-_L.] I Cos 3' di
t Cos C ] 3 4 3
o 0 0 0
42 42
3 [ sin t Ô — L
n 31 1
o 0
3 1 28 7
dx
Integrals of the type -_
where X and Y are linear or
J Xi/y
quadratic expressions iu x.
The following substitutions will render the above type to the
integrable forms:
Case I. A' and Y are both linear.
The substitution is Y=t'.
Case It. A' Is quadratic and Y is linear.
The substitution of Y=t3.
Case III. A' is linear and Y is quadratic.
The substitution i s X= I
quadratic.
Case W. A' and Y are both
I
The substitution is -i-
dx
Example 65. Evaluate (i) f
X2 -1-1
(II) dx.
(3x+2) /(x—l)

SOM13 ADDITIONAL TOPICS A-5')
Solution. (1) Put I ---x1 2 dx= —21 dr and x 1 -ti

(-2'_di ç di 1 1-4-1
h)(1_1z)12 --fog-j—j-
1+1 -
=—log
(ii) Put x—I =t so that /x=21 i(.
di
1(3x f-2) -V( x IT J (3i{ 3--2)
11-1 1 13 2
2 di2JL 3+9+9(313f5)J di
21 2!
2 26
-f
2 26
-- xV (x — Tj-j.— tan
vI(3)
3

Example 66 Evaluate --- -- -- --= - A
I (x 3 -f2)t/(x.j)
Solution. Put x-{- 1 SO that dx==21 (/t
• I Xy2 (t3+1).2zdi
dx—
J( x f3x+3) .iT45 J(12_L)1+3(2_1)±3j
- -2'U'I( I
= 2j dt.
r du
where
2
1 14
tanr ç- =-;- tin-' /(3x-j-3)
'i--I x 2
(jx
Lxm p1e 67. Lvaluae /
^ (x-3)
Solution, Put x-3=rJ_ so that dx= - --- arid x=
—di
-- ___ ______
ift
--j V:6i

A-58 us1r,n3s3 MATHEMATICS

di
-Sifl t -siü-1
X-3
mple 68, Evaluate

Example x ____
Solution. Put XI+ so that
Taking logarithmic differentiation, we get

2x' 2
—2---2--+1 - )d=--- di
22x-l-2x--2
(I—X2)(Xj.l) -- di
t
_ 4x(fx 2
(1—x2)(x'+l) -1d1
dx 1 v'(j- x2)
- 1i2)2./ji
ritdt 1
_ 2f I
dt-2 sin-' I
=— ,'2 Sjfl1 (
VI
it/4
Example 69. Evaluate i/ian xdx
J
0
Solution. Put /=: so that tan x= to and sec' x dx=21 dl
21
d
l+tanx 1+1'
Also when x=O, i'JtanO:=()
when x=-'_, t=\/tan_4.

Hence the given integral becomes
fl.21d1 to
j
0 0

50MJ3 ADDIflONAL TOPICS A59
I
12__1
=2[?log 4±i./2 tan-' J—
0
2—/2 V2
2[- tan-'
--
(V 2 log 1_2tan_1co}]
in
—2r1o/2
- L8 v'2 •2J
g--2--
V2
log 2— V 2 /2 I 2—/2 1
= -;r 27 log2 +
r
Example 70. Evaluate smnx - dx and hence find the
ii XCos
+ X
0
a
_ ilx
value of
Ix___
sin x
Solution. Let 1= dx, then
sin x+cos X
0
sin Ix \
d'
o sin (_x)+cos(_x5
n12
r COSX
dx
= cosx sin _
x
0
7t12
Sin dXfc dx
J Sin X+COSX J SiflX --COg
o 0
= dxr-.
... l=1
0
a
AToevalut put x=a cos 1, then
x+i/(a_x')
dx== —a sin t di
JiUSINCSS MATI1UMAflC
Also when x=O, t=—- and when x=a, t--)
a 0 rc/2
dx a sin I dg f sin t di
x/äiTTi yJ a cos t+a TIJ os t -+sin t
0 :t/2 0
Eamp1e 71. Prove that

f log (I+ tan 0) di - - log 2
a'id hence find the value
I
log (l+x) dx
J I± x1
I)
44
Solution. Let 1= log (I +tan 0) dO, then
0
44
'=1 log [ l± tan (..!..o )]iio

0
44
1• 1±Etan 2
log og —1----------do
L l± tan Oi =
o 0
44
=1 log
0
J4
21_1 log 2do=-- log
I!og2
8
For the second integral put x=tan 0, then dxscc' 0 do
Also when x-O =0 aud when X ---1, fj=

-Tc

OMB ADDrrLONAL 'lopics
[log (I+tan 0)
sect Q dO
•j 1
j - X2
j sec20
0 0
,c /4
log (I +tan 0) de=-1- log 2

o
()
dx
Example 72. Evaluate log ( x+ .
0
Co
Solution. Let I log (x+_-_)
v — tan
Put 0

(1vSCC5 0 (1O
(..)
Also, when x-- c, () gives 0 - Tc
and when .i=O, O=O

/2
I ' sec2O
1^- ^
log ( tan
o
0
= [log
j
(L_Q_) tan
dx
0
12i
=log 20)dO
sin
0
(log 2--log sin 2e) dO

0
71
rr log 2— log sin 20 dO
0

A-62 BUSIN6SS MATHEMATICS
it/2 itl2
log 2 (log 2) do log sin 0 dO
- log cos 0 d
=- log 2--T- log 2+-- log 2+-- log 2
= i log 2.
X tan
Example 73, Evaluate iecx - dx.
f- Iax
Solution. Let I=x, dx, then

i Sec x -F tan x
1f(lr—x)tan(n.-._x) -
sec (1r—x)jn (71---.x) d
0
it
f (ir - x)tanx
dx
J sec x±tan x
0
it It
t lT tan x
J sec x+ tan x see j x+tanx
o 0
IT
= f1 -dx--!
j Sec X--tan x
0
IT
r tanxdx
21=
j secx-ItanX
0
I
=,, ' (sec x —tan x) tan x dx
0
it
S&x—tarjX
X tan x-(sec2 x- I)] x

SOME ADOCI1ONAI. TOPICS 63
= [sccx - tan .v - -x IT
REDUCTION FORMULAE
'r/2
Example 74. Prove that sin" x dx cos" x (IX

0 0
I
n(n-2)(n-4) ... 7T
when is is even
i(n—l)(n-3)(n - 5)...4.2 .1,
I n(n-2)(n-4) ..5
when is odd
n!2
Solution. sin" x dx= sin" cos a x dx
—x )=
[.: AX) dx=Jf(a_x)dx]
Now J sin" x dx-rJ Sinn-1 x . sin x dx

x ( — cos x) — f Q?—I) sin" •2 x cos x (—cos x) dx
- (Integrating by parts)
x cos x-j-(n—l) j sin"' x (1—sin' x) dx
x cos x +(n -1) f sin"' x dx—(n-1) j sin x dx
R12
Let 1= sin x dx. Then by transposition, we get
—1) x cos x ]4 (n — i) f_,
• r
is
fl—I n-3
1i4 (Changing is to n-2)

A-4
BUSINESS MA1*1PMAUC
flj-i fl-3n-5
n n— n-4
(Changing n to n--4)
and so on.
• I - (n— I)(n-3)(r__5) ... 3 1

_ ____________
- n(_n— 2)(n--4)...4. 2 10, When n is even
(n I)(n-3)(n_5)4 2
- — n(n-2)(n-4),..5.3 when n is odd
7!2
Now !Osin- • dr dx=[
o
J
0 0
and sin x d
1 r_ cos x
l2
Example 75. Prove that J in x cos" L- J cos x sine x
0 ()
{J35 (,iz_ !) {i.3.5. ..(n_J)} ir
I 2.46,.. T
I
-
when both m and a are even integers.
- (rn— i)
(±i)(n+3)...(n+rn) when one of the two indices, say
I
n is an odd integer.
S110 S Sin" x cos" x dx==j cos"' x (sinm X cos x) dx.
I ntegrating by parts, we get
Sifl
J sin- x cos x d cos ' x_J (n -1))cos 2 x (— Sin x)
x1'"1 ' dr
" rn+1
1xcos"-'x n—I
sin M+2 x cosx-3 x dx
sin'xcOs"-'x n—I
+ f Sill" X
cos" x(J —cos' x) dx,
5jm cospt-1n — I
,n-- + f sin .r cos"-' x A
— ---j- , siI n" x cos" x A.

n—I

SOME ADDITIONAL TOF'cs
By transposition, V' C Fet
( - h-- f sine' X COS" -' X

1------------ 11 Sin-" xeos' - (IX -
in I- it] -I--I
x cos' x 'Ix.
Ir Sifl .1 COS" xd-=j -

L
sill" , x cos . -- -
rn-I--n
0 0
-1- 1- i-
-
U 12
I
0
sill' x cos" 2 x dx.
nI
,fln Jf
-+-
.sinxcos2dx
0
I
n12
or = X COS X (JX.
ffl-fflj
0 0
It can he similarly proved that
sin x cos 11 x dxJ sin 1 x (cos' X sin x)
rc12
in—IC
sin' 2 x cos . dx (proceeding as before) (2)
=--- ,)
0
1-Jere, with the notation,
n/2
- x cos x
We get, from (I) and (2)

fl—I ," tn—i
""

Thus i_. -±
m4 rr
(m—l)(n-3)
-

00-_3)(n._5)
(ii— - _____ -
(,n -- n)(m - n —2)(m ± n —4) -6 and so on.
(n-1)(n---3)(n-5)..J
where n is an even integers

C (n—l)(n--3)(n-5),I . (in-1)Qn-3)...1
I (rn--n) rn- i )4 . 2 2
when in and n are both even integers
(n--1)(n-3)(n-5)-.,3 . 1(in—l)(m-3 4 .2
I (n+m)(n±rn-2)...(n-_3)(n_1) ... 3 . 1
when a is even and in is odd
C_ ( m— Win — 3)...4 . 2
(in -l-n)(Fn . n-2) ... (n1T)
- I when n is even and rn is odd
I(n---!)(n-3)...4 .2
('n+n)(rnt-n-2)...(in-_1)
L when a is odd and III ever)
When both in and a are odd
I (fl--1)(n---3 ... 4 .2
(m -f-n)(m + a —2) . (in -+1)
(rn—l)(,n —3)...4 .2
L (in + nJ(rn -I- n —2). . . (a + 1)
IT/2
Also sin' x cos x dx

0
sinm (-I—x ) cos*x x dx

o 0
Here I,.. = __ - -
2.4.6 ... (in+n-2)(rn+n) 2
when both m and a are even integers
2.4.6 ... (m-1)
= (n +l)(n+3) ..(n+'n)'
when any of the indices is odd.
Exampb 76. If I_, =1 cos"' x sin nx dx; show that
— CO5"X Cos flx m
•mn I__I, U-I.

Solution. Taking cos- X as the first function and Sin ,tx as the
second function, we have oil by parts,
I COSUX
I =cos'xç_
-J In cos' x (sin x)( cs flX )

dx
Cos n x cos nx in r
x sin cos nxdx ,,(4)
Now sin (n-- 1) X=sjn ( nX -x) = sj ri nx cos x-cos fix sin x
sin x cos nx = s jn FiX cos x-j ('i—I) x
Substituting this value in (), we get
I.. ,,-- Cos' X Cos flX

f1
—
ti I cos' x (sin n. cos X-sin (n—I) x} d
-- cos" x cos lix in
+'- J cos x sin (n — i) x dx

in cos" x cos fix
fl -
In I
Cos-
+7j -' X sin(n — I)xdx
* cos" x cos flx fn

M +n --
Remark. There is another form of the reduction formula for
f cos - X Sin nx dx
cos"xsrnnxdx= COS'XCOSflX mJ
J rn—a —+--- m n iX sill (n+1)xdx.
This is left as an exercise for the students.
Example 77. 1j1., ,=f cos" x cos flx, show that
fix
I = x sin rn
COS
m--n rnn
Solution. Taking cos" x as the first function
and cos nx as the
5000nd function, we have on integrating by parts,
innx J
Im p '=cos"x. - rncos'x(_sjn
'5 )

A-68 BUSINESS MAIHLMATJCS

COS" X sin ii in f
= ------------ -f- - j COs" x (sill sin x) A (')
But cos (n-- 1) x=COS (nx--X) - coS , x COS x - sin nX sin x
sin rjx sin x--'cos (n-- I) x— Cos fl y cos x
cos' x sin 11-V
:- -
() gives 1,,,,
III
±- Cos --I x (ens (ii I) xcos nX cos x)) /x

COS" X Sin 7x m f
- -----f---- cos"' xcos(n— l)xdx
=cos ri x
sin-
--' '--
in
-_
in
n
M I COS M x cos flX cL'
P1 P1 "'' fl
( cos" X sin fIX ill

I-f- -) l, ,------------- ± -,-
cos t" x sin fix in

I =-----+—I-1 -i
III + ii
which is the required reduction formula.

Remark. There are two other forms of the reduction formulae for
I cos' x cos nx (IA
(1) cos'. sin nx

COS X cos fl.\ CIX
rn -- ri
In
cos1 X Cos (n-f I) x dx
(ix) f n cos X sin 'ix in cos' X Sin X COS 71X

cos' x cos fix dx = - 2 - t +
11.11_ ill
rn(rn—l)
cos"' x cos nx dx.
i2
Example 78. Prove that cos" x cos n dx= 1 , n being a
positive integer.
Solution Let I. cosft x cos flx dx

SOME ADL)JTIONAF, TOPIC, A-O9

,/2 ,c'2
[ Cos" i
COS' t COS (a- 1) x
I) ()
Writing (n —I)for n iii ( s ) we have
() gives
Proceeding in this way and applying h reduction triai_,t

we have t
to '1 factors) I
'I2 ,I2
(cos aY' COS Ox 1v.•
2.
RU
II-
x
()
Example 79. Find a redr4L'iion formula /;ir sin ax (IX
i X,
Solution, Let I.. f x' sin rix dv
Taking as the first function and sin ax as
the SCCQfld fUflCtjoij
we have oil by parts.
()SflX) Cos
I rx' m-i ( _i' (IX
n j II J
X'" Cos fl y in f
= -
- --J
n x"
in cos Fax dx
,, ()
X" cos flv,fl[ (sin v'
n 11
(m — ) x-z (A)
xrn cos ax in
Pa Sill nX
m(m -
— -- .Ixm_! S i ll FIX (I
n2 j
I COS flx + mX -' Sit a
Hence x sin fl.r dx =
j ns
I)
Sin nv
the required :cducticui formula,

Remark. A reduction formula for J x' cos nx dx is given by

f flX' sin nx4mX' cos nx
I X COS x ux---------------------.
j nl
m(m — I) (
2 COS Xdx
z j
This is left as an exercise for the reader.

n/2
Example 80. If U,= x" sin x dx and n>!, prove that
1
U-j-n(n—J) U.-,=n
(2
Solution. We have X" sin x dx
,
7 12 rr !2
cos x J-fn x' cos x dx
x' cos x dx
" 1242
X' sin x -2 sin X dx]
[
lr '-1
Hence U-l-n(n— 1) U_2n

(T)
Example 81. (a) Find a reductiqn formula for f tann x dx.
(b) If 'A Ian1 x dx, prove that

0
1
(i)
(ii) 1(IN_1+I4j)='.
Solution. (a) J tan x dx= tan' - ' X taii2 x d)
I
=-J tan , ` x (sec' x— 1) dx
= tae 2 x sec2 x dx—S tan' I x dx

SOME ADDITIONAL TOPICS A-71 I

tan' x
Hence tan" x dx=-1----__j tan X dx,
n
which is the required reduction formula.
Remark. The reduction formula for J cor x dx, viz
I cot-' x f
cot x dx== - cot-' x (IX
- J
is left as an exercise for the reader.
71(4 12/4
(b) (I) I, tan x dx tan"-' X tan 2 x dx
1214
tan'-2 y (sec 2 x— 1) dx
i/4
= tan x sec 2 X clx I tan" 2 x dx
1
rr 14
,-2
n—i
0
71/4 12/4
(II) n
(1._7+II)=flr J tan"-' 0 dOF tan k ' 0 dO ]
=n 1( t an— t 0 ftan' 0) do
71)4
;7= n tan 0 (14-tan' 0) dO

f
dn tanG
12)4
O I
=n tan' 0 sect 0 I.
0 0
1fl •1
• . . • •
I.-
I.
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30 47;! 4780 4800 4 8 11, 439 4843 4S5 7 771 .4553 45(X) l / 6 7 9 10!! 13
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38 5 1 s 519 5211 5224 5227 525(7 5261 5775 5289 5302 1 4 5 6 10 12
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36 Y.63 5575 5587 5509 5101 5'..23 5035 5647 5053 56 7 0 1. 5 5 7 510 II
37 5082 5004 505 3717 5729 5740 5752 573 5775 57 31 3 ó 7 8 9 to
38 598 5509 532! (632 58;I s•55 5566 5377 5888 5 Sço 5 6 S
39 5912 52 5933 5944J •: cc 36 5977 53S 5999 6-:- 1 L, 2 3! 4 3 7 8 910
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44 0435 6444 3454 6164 1 6-1 74 614 f.; 6503 6y3 6522 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9
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2 3 4' 5 7
T-2 01INS8 MATHI MATIC3
LOGARITHMS
2 8 4 6 6 89 123 454
50 6990 5998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067 123 345
7076 7084 !093 7101 7110 7218 7126 7135 7143 7152 123 3456781
52 7160 7 i6 177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235 122 345 6'
63 7243 725! 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 732)) 7308 7316 122 345667
64 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 738.8 7396 122 345 667
66 74)3 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474 122 345 567
66 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551 '22 345
7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 719 7627 £22 345 567
68 I 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701 112 344 567
69 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7753 7760 7767 7774 112 344 567
1
7789 7796 7803 7820 7818 7825 7832 7839 7846 lIZ 544 566
31 7853 7860 7863 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917 112 344 566
62 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973 7980 7987 112 334 566
83 7993 S000 3007 8014 2021 4028 8035 8041 8 048 80 112 334 556
84 8o6 2 8069 3075 8032 8089 8096 8102 8199 8116 8122 112 334
65 8i9 8136 3142 8149 8156 8162 8,69 8176 8182 8189 112 334 556
66 5195 830: 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254 '12 334 5 56
67 8261 3267 3274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319 112 334
68 .3325 833! 8338 8344 8351 3357 8363 8370 8376 8382 112 334 456
69 33S3 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8436 8432 8439 112 234456
70 18411 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 800 8506 112 234 456
71 51513 8519 8525 853! 8537 8543 8549 856, 8567 112 234 455
72 S573 8579I 9585 8591 8597 8603 Sóoq 561 8621 8627 112 234455
73: S ", 3J 863 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686 112 234455
74 2092 3698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 3739 8745 I I 2 23 4 4 55
7t 8751 8756 8762 8763 3774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802 112 233 455
78 '4o8 1814 8Sao 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859 112 233455
77 SS-,l 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 89,0 8915 113 233445
78 59:i 3927 8932 8933 8943 8949 8954 896o 8965 8971 112 233 445
79 3982 2987 8993 8 99 8 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025 112 233445
80 9031 9046 9042 9047 9053 908 9063 9069 9074 9079 112 233 445
B! 9090 9096 0101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133 112 233 445
82 91p 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186 112 733 445
83 OI)1 9I91 920! 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238 112 233445
84 9243 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289 lIZ 233 445
85 9294 0:99 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340 112 233 445
86 0345 (fl55 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390 112 233 445
87 9S 94) 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440 OIl 223 344
88 9450 9455 9460 9465 9469 19474 9479 9484 9489 01 1 223 544
89 .1499 9504 9509 9513 9528 9523 9528 9533 9538 Oh 3 2 3134 4
90 Q5 954? 9552 9557 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586 011 223344
9595 9(x)0 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633 0! I 223 344
9'S 9)43 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9615 9680 0!! 223 344
I 93 95 90S9 9694 9099 9703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727 01 1• 223 344
94 9731 9736 9742 9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 9763 9773 Oil 223 344
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go; jS23 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9 8 59 9863 01 1 323 344
97 119-968 9572 9877 9821 9886 9890 9894 9899 9903 9908 011 223 344
98 9912 99,7 992! 9936 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952 011 223 344
99 9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 993799919996 0il 2131134

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ANTMOGARrMUS
1 S 3 4 5 8 7 7 9 1234567l$
00 1000 *002 1005 *007 1009 *0*2 1014 1016 1019 *021 001 1* I 232
-01 1023 1026 ioaS * 00 133 p035 2038 1040 *042 *045 00* 1* 1 211
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31 1622 1626 029 1693 1637 *641 1644 *648 1652 *656 01* 232 333
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44 1738 1742 1746 io 175. *738 *762 1766 1770 1774 01 223 334
26 *778 7782 1786 *79! *795 1799 1803 1807 181, *8*6 011 222 334
18 1820 1824 1828 1832 1837 *841 1845 18. 18S4 1838 011 223 334
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28 1905 *910 19*4 911 1933 *928 1932 *936 *941 *945 01 223 344
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30 19435 2000 2004 2009 20*4 2018 2023 20282C32 2037 01 1 22 3 344
31 2042 2046 2051 2056 2061 2065 2070 2075 2080 2084 01 233 344
32 2059 2094 2099 2*04 2*09 2113 21*8 2123 2*28 2*33 01* 223 344
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44 2188 2*93 2*98 2203 2208 22*3 2218 2223 2228 2234 112 233 445
36 2239 2244 2249 2254 2259 2265 2270 2275 2280 2286 II 2 2 33 443
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37 244 2350 2355 2360 2366 237* 2377 2382 2388 2393 II 2 333 445
88 3399 2404 241012415 2421 2427 2432 2438 *443 2449 112 333 443
-39 2455 2460 2466 2472 2477 2483 2489 2495 2500 2506 113 233 4S5
40 25*2 2518 2523 259 2535 2541 2547 2553 2559 2564 11 2 234 455
41 1570 2576 2582 2588 2594 2600 2606 6*i 26182624 113 234 435
42 2630 2636 2642 3649 2655 3645* 2667 2673 2679 268 I 3 2 234 456
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45 2818 2825 283* 2838 2844 2851 2858 2864 387* 2S77 I 1 2 334 556
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NUMIRICAL TABLES T-
NATURAL SINES
oi 12 1&4 30 1 85 t42I' I 64' 3

11 0•o IG•-e O3 0' 3 0* 4
4 6
0000 0017 0035 0052 0070 0105 0222 0140j0157 369
0175 0192 0209 0227 0244
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0202 0279 0297 0314 0332 3 6 12 15
0349 0366 0384 0401 0419 0 1,6 0454 0471 0488 0506 369 II 13
0523 0 5* 1 08 0576 0593 oôuo 0628 0645 066 3 0680 3 6 g
0698 0715 0737 07! 1 0767 I2 45
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2015 1063 1 080 2097 1115
12 l
IT 1210 2236 1253 1133 1149 1167 1184 1201 3 69 '12 14
'27' 38 2305 2323 1340 1357 1374 3 6 12 24
1392 1 4 09 1426 1444 I41 2 478'495 1513 1530 1547 3 6 Il 14
IS64 2581 2599 1616 1A3 l'5O 1668 03 2702 1 7 1 9 3 6 q *2 14
10 2736 2754 1?71 3738 180 18,72 18 4 0 18c7 18 1891 6 13 14
18 1933 1975 1941 1959 1'fl7 1994 1011 2028 2045 2062 3 36 g n IA
11 '49 2096 211 3 7130 2147 2264 2181 2193 2215 2332 3 6 9 II 14
1$ 250 1167 2284 2300 2317 2334 2351 2368 1385 2402 j 6 8 II 14
14 2419 2436 2453 2470 2437 2504 2521 2538 255 4 757! 3 6 8 II 14
16 2588 2605 2642 2639 2656 2672 3689 3706 2723 2740 , 6 8 II 4
16 2756 2 773 2 790 3807 282 2840 2857 2874 2890 2907 3 6 8 II 14
17 2924 2940 1757 2974 2990 3007 3024 3040 3057 3074 3 6 8 II *4
14 '3090 3107 3123 3140 3156 3173 3199 3,206 3223 3239 3 6 8 II 14
19 '3156 3272 3289 3305 3322 3338 3355 3372 3381 3404 3 5 8 II 14
20 3420 3437 3453 3469 3486 3502 3528 3 5 35 3551 J S6 7 3 5 8 II 14
21 354 3600 3626 3633 3649 3665 3632 3697 3724 373 0 3 3 8 II 14
£2 3746 3762 3778 3795 3R,1 3 82 4843 3859 3875 3391 3 5 S II 14
23 3007 3923 3939 3955 3972 3987 4003 40194035 4052 3 5 8 II 14
24 4067 4031 4999 4215 413 4147 4263 4179 4195 4210 3, 5 8 II 13
25 4226 4742 44258 4274 4289 4305 4321 4337 4352 4363 j 5 8 II .3
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$1 5150 5165 5195 5210 5225 5240 5255 5270 5254 2 5 7 10 SI
82 5299 5314 3329 5344 5358 5373 $333 5402 5417 5432 2 5 7 10 II
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4 '6947 6959 6973 6984 67 P009 7021 7034 7046 7059 1 4 6 8 to

T6 3UIINII$ UATEMMATICS
NATURAL SINES
• S 11' iS It W $8' 4W 0' 54 Doss

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8$ 7986 700' 8007 8018 8028 8039 8049 8059 8070 Solo 2 3 5 7
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7. 452* 9526 9521 9527 953.3 9537 9542 9548 9553 9558 I 3 3 3 4
7. 95689573957895$3958895939598^039608 132 3 4
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1877 9880 9883 9885 9888 9890 9893 9895 9898 9900 0 I I 2 2
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17 -9986 c.987 9988 9989 9990 99il0 999* 9992 9993 9993 000 I I
U -9994 995 9995 9996 9996 9947 9997 9997 9998 9998 4 00 0 o
N -999* 9999 9999 9999 9999 Z000 *000*000 l 1000 1'O00 000 0 0
I. IC
Index
A B
kbclian group 119 Base of indices 143-148

'b5cjssa 555 Biconditional statement 13
Absolute value 101 13ijectiv mapping 62
Absorption law 77 B i-quad nil IC
Addition —equations 289
—natural numbers 93 —surds 170
--rational numbers 98 Binary
—real numbers 102 —codes
Additive inverse 99, 803 —compositions 114
Adjoint of a square matrix 837 —relation 59
Algebra Binomial
—Boolean 1,73-91 —coefficients 340
-matrix 791-856 —terms 339
—propositions 8 —t heoi ems 332-362
—sets 45 Boolean
Allied angles 507 —algebra 3, 74
Alternating series 470 —addition 87
AND operation —Circuits 87
—statCfllentS 2 —functions 84
—Boolean 75 —multiplication 86
Angle 475, 584 —properties 75
Annuities 230 Briggsian 194
Anti-symmetry 103
Arbitrary constants 629 C
Are 478
Area Calculus
—quadrilateral 568 —differential 647
—triangle 564 —integral 722
Arguments 16 Cancellation law 96-121,803
Associative law Canonical form
—Boolean algebra 79 —Boolean 85
—groups, field, etc. 114-137 Cartesian product 54
—real number system 94-105 Centesitnal system 476
—matrices 802,806 Cent rol d 561
—vectors 776, 778 Circle 597-600
Auxiliary series 445-454 —equation 597
Axis 615 —forms 597
1-2 BU31NM MATHEMATICS
—general equation 600 —of power function 650
Circumccntre 559 —of the product of functions 653
Circuit 87 —of quotient of two functions 655
Circular —of trigonometric functions 660
-functions 475 Dc Morgan's law
—measure 478 —sets 38-45
Closure property 118-135 —statements 10
Co-initial vectors 772 —Boolean 77-79
Cotlinearity 567 Density Property 99-103
Collinear vectors 772 Depreciation 229
Combinations 318-331 Determinants 824-8%
—restricted 326 Diameter 482-483
Conditional statements II Difference sets 39
Coordinates 554-561 Differentiation
Commutative property —of implicit functions 682
—number systems 93-107 —logarithmicic 677
—group and field 114-137 —method of substitution 673
—matrices 802 Directed line 553
—vectors 776 Direct rix 614
Complement Disjoint sets 47
- of a set 37 Disjunction 4
—of statement 46 Distance between points 557
Complementation 78 Distributive law
Complementary theorems 326 —Boolean algebra 79
Completing squares 256 —compositions 118
Complex number 109 —field 136
Composite functions 632 —group 131
Composition —sets 35
—tables 117 —statements 10
—types 115 —real numbers 94, 99
Compound interest 225 —matrices 803
Compounding statements 3 —Vectors 778
Concurrent lines 583 Divergence 436-473
Conjunction :3 Dot product 779
Conjugate 109 Duality
Continuity —Boolean algebra 79
—function 638 —sets 47
—in an interval 643
Continuous functions 632 E
Convergence 436-473
Conversed sine 486 Electrical network
Cosecant, cosine, cotangent 485,486 —switching circuits 1, 5
Counting rule 300 —switching systems 86
Cross product 781 Elements
Cubic equation 289 —sets 24
---matrix 794
ii: Ellipse 610
Empty set 26
Derivative Equality with zero 99
—of a oonsant with function 651 Equations
—of a function of one —biquadrat Ic 289
variable 6-49 —cubic 289
—of logaritnmic function 663 —kgrees ac

INMX 1-3

—format ion 270 Homogeneous linear equations 249

—quadratic 252
—reciprocal 264

—nature of roots 268

Olutioti 241 Identities 240

—normal 606 —derived 241

—normal in slope form 622 —trigonometric 537

—tangent 605. 620 Identity law

—tangent in slope form 606 —Boolean 76-78

Equivalence relation 59 —binary composition 114

Euclidian geometry 553 —sets 46

Expressions syninietrica! 269 —statements It)

Expansion of determinants 835 Idempotent law

Explicit functions 630 —Boolean 76-78

External division 561 —sets 46

—statements 9

1' Image of a set 61

Imaginary numbers 108
Factorial notations
302 Implication in statements 11
Fallacies
7 Inclination 771
Fields 135 Inclusion property

Finite set 25 —vectors 776

—elements in a finite set 49 indices
Focal —positive

143

615 —negative 144

—distance 615 —zero and unity 144

—chord 615 —fractional 145

Functions Induction

—algebraic 630 —mathematical 365

—Boolean 84 Inequality 242

—composite 632 Infinite

—continuous and disconiinuo us 632 —set 26
—even and odd
632 —series 437

—increasing and decreasing 700 Inflexion 701

-mapping 60-63, 628 Injcctive mapping 61

—one valued 630 Integers 96

—periodic 632 Intercept

—transcendental 630 —axis 575

—types 630 —slope 575

-two 516
G Integral

—calculus 723
Gauss elimination
850 —definite 751

Graphic solutions 276, 289 —indefinile 725

Groups 114-141 —reducible to standard form 743

—Abelian 119 —standard form 738

—modulo 126 Integral domain 133

—properties 120 Intersection

Grouping symbols 245 —of sets 30

—of lines 583
H Integration

—by parts 746

Half angle formulae 544 —rules 725
1-4 BUSINSSS MATHBMAIIC3
—partial fractions 753 —orthogonal 823
—by substitution 730 —rank of matrix 854
flVCiSe —Sarrus diagram 828
—matrix 840 —scalar 798
—relation 59 —skew-symmetric 798
—inversed sine 486 —submatrix 797
Involution 77 —square 795
Irrational equation 262 —transpose 821
Irrational numbers 100 —triangular 797
—zero or null 797
J Maxima and minima 703
Mean
Joint denial 18 —arithmetic 396
—geometric 425
K Modulo 97, 126
Modulus 107
Kramp's factorial notation 302 Multiple angles 521
L
N
Latus rectum 615
Line
578 Napier (Napierian) 194
Linear
Natural numbers 93-96
—combination
772 Natural sine 504
—dependence
773 Negation 2-16
Limit
—concept 437
—evaluation 438, 633 0
—function 633
Locus of a point
572 One-to-one mapping 62
Logical statements 2 ON-OFF
Logarithms
191-238 On-to mapping 62
—change of base
195 Order relations 94, 103
—operations
216 Oscillatory series 442
Ordered pair 53

M Origin—slope form 575

Ordinate 555

Maclaui in's series 695 Orthogonal bases 779

Mathematical induction 364-383 Orthogonal vector 779

Matrix Orthocentre 589
—algebra 791
—addition and subtraction 801 P
—adjoint 837
—complex conjugate 798 Parabola

—Cramer's rule 825 —forms 615

—definition 794 —parametric presentation 617

—determinants 824, 835 —standard equation 615

—diagonal 796 Parallelism 585

—equality 799 Partition of a set 47

—inverse 840 Peano postulates 93
-minors 836 Permutations

—multiplication 804 —n different things 303

—notations 794 —circular 305

—operations 801 —not all different 301
1-5
INDEX
—restricted 309 —empty 26
26
Perpendicular from a point 590 —equal
Perpendicular c(ors 779-788 —equivalent 27
—family 29
Perpend icu ar sm 585
Positive integers 96 —finite 25
—infinite 26
Position vector 773
Power function 650 -power 29
28
Prime 96 —proper subset
Progressions —singleton 26
—arithmetic 384 —subset 27
29
—geometric 411 —universal
370
Propositions 8 Series
—alternating 470
Sexagesimat system 476
LSI
Sigma 371
485
Quadrants 476, 493, 554 Sine of an angle
Quadrilateral 568 Slope—intercept form 575
576
Quadratic equations 252 Slope—point form
487
Quotient relations 487 Square relations
Statements
R —conditional 11
-logical

Radian 478-483 Straight line
585
Rank of a matrix 854 —angle
573
Rational numbers 97 —gradient
574-78
Real number system lOt —equations
577
Reciprocal equations 264 —normal or perpendicular form
577
Reciprocal relations 487 —parametric form
577
Rectangular coordinates 554 —two point form
133
Reflexive property 58 Sub-ring
686
Regrouping of sets 48 Successive differentiation
Relations Surds
165
—binary 59 —operations
168
—Sets 58 -rationalisation
180
—numbers 103 —mixed
167
Rhombus 788 —simplification
62
Rings 131-135 Subjective mapping
269
- commut alive 133 Symmetric expiessiOns
58
—subrings 133 Symmetric relation

—with unity 133

—zero divisor 133 T
S Tabular method 25
Tangent and normal
596
Sarrus diagram 828 —equations
Scalar Tautologies 7

—matrix 798 Tests of convergence and divergence
463
—vectors 779 —Cauchy's
448
Secsion formula 560 —Comparison
Selector method 25 —d'Alembert's 456
470
Sequence of partial sums 442 —Leibnitz
Set —Raabe's 466
—elements 24 Total differentiation 720
1.6 BUSINES1 MATHEMATICS
Transitive relation 59 —inverse 121
Transitivity 94, 103 Unit vector 771
Transpose matrix 821
Triangle V
—properties 54'
-solutions 548 Variables
—Trichotomy Law 94 —in functions 630
Transposition 256 —continuous and real 632
Trapezium 564 Vectors
Trigonometry —algebra 770
—functions 484 —addition 775
—identities 537 —co-initial 172
--ratios 485 —coplanar 772
—relations 487 —free and equal 77'
—signs 493 —linear 773
—standard angles 499 —multiplication 771
—tables 504 —null 771
t-ratios of allied angles 501 —position 773
—t-ratios of sum and difference —product 778, 781
of angle 513 —reciprocal 771
—t-ratios of multiple angles 521 —subtract ion 777
—transformations of products and —unit 771
sums 530 Versed sine 486
Venn diagrams 29-41

Lei Z
Union of sets 32 Zero

Uniqueness —divisor 133
—identity 120 —clement 777
Statistical Methods
Dr. S.P. GUPTA
Dean, Faculty of Management Studies, University of Delhi. Delhi
Twenty-Ninth Revised Edn. 2001' Pp. xxiv+ 1428, 152 Diagrams 1000 Solved Illustrations
1300 Exercises with Answers ISBN 81-7014-772-7 As 27c
Special Features
• The book has been written in a very simple and lucid sytle The text material is self-explanatory and even
the students of correspondence courses can follow it without much stress and strain
• The treatment is nor)-malbemalcal in character and the readers can easily understand the text material
without much taxing their brains.
• Besides good theory the book contains a Largr iumber of solved illustrations (to be exact 1000). These
illustrations have been very carefully selected mainly from the latest examination question papers of various
Universities all over India and neighbouring Countries
• This book is primarily meant to cater to the needs of undergraduars and postgrarhiale stjdents Of commerce
and economics.
Elementary Statistical Methods

Dr. S.F. GUPTA
12th Edn. Reprint 2000, Pp. viii + 702 22 x 14 CM - ISBN 81 . 7014 . 402-7 As. 125.00
Special Features
• This book is especially designed for B Corn. and B.A. Economics Courses of indian universities. It has
devoted maximum space to explain in simple and clear language tire topics and at the ievel recmired or
them,
• There is art of solved problems (497 to be precise) of all varieties as illustrations to help quickly
understand the app l ication of various staristicat tools.
Statistics
D.C. SANCHETI V.K. KAPOOR
Ex-Principal, Shri Ram College of Commerce, Shri Ram College of Commerce,
University of Delhi, Delhi University of Delhi, Delhi
Formerly, Joint Director, Board of Studies,
Institute of Chartered Accountants, New Delhi
Seventh Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged Edition, 2000
Pp. xxxii+ 1447 566 Solved Illustrations 1510 Problems with Answers
22 x 14 cm. 152 Diagrams ISBN 817014•276-8 As. 210.00
Special Features
• A consc entious effort has been made all through to keep the treatment simple, lucid and non .matflematical.
• The theoretical description of each sub-section has been followed by simple illustrations. Complex problems
have been solved thereafter.
• Exercises at the end of each chapter are substantially reorganised. Hints and answers have been provided
forl most of the exercises.
• So ved examples and unsolved problems have been drawn from examination papers of hi Corn. B Corn, M.A.
(Eco.), B. A. (Eco.). CA. t.C.W.A. etc.
• 'Objective Type' questions are also there at the end of each chapter.

Operations Research
Dr KANTI SWARUP
Former Professor, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi
Dr P.K. GUPTA, Ph.D. Dr MAN MOHAN, M.Sc., Ph.D.

J. V Jain College, Saharanpur Ramjas College. University of Do/hi. Delhi
Eighth Revised Edn. 2000 Pages xiv+ 815 22x 14 cm. As 150.00
300 Solved Examples 150 Diagrams Over 900 Unsolved Problems with Answers
ISBN 81-7014-216-4
Special Features

N It is designed to satisfy the long-felt need of students of OR., Business Systems Analysis,
Management, Engineering. Mathematics, Statistics, Commerce and executives.
U It is rigorous in its treatment of the theory, comprehensive and lucid in its explanation of techniques.
U All important Algorithms have .been summarised in a step-wise manner, followed by their
Flow Charts.
U Great emphasis on mathematical formulation of O.R. problems through sample problems
arising in the fields of Management. Economics, Defence, Manpower Planning. Agriculture, etc.
U Addition of two new chapters on Decision Analysis and Resource Analysis in Network Scheduling.
N A chapter on case studies for the students of management.
An appendix presents answers to problems contained in the book.
Problems in Operations Research

Dr P.K. GUPTA Dr MAN MOHAN
J. V. Jain College. Saharanpur Ramjas College, University of Delhi, Delhi
Eighth Edition 2000 Pages xvi+ 972 ISBN 81-7014-3594 As 170.00
760 Typical Problems Fully Solved 350 Unsolved Prob/ems with Answers
Special Features
• Contains sufficiently large number of solved problems on each topic.
• Problems have been framed so as to include ticklish points.
Contents
Operations Research—An Over-view • Linear Progamming Problem—Mathematical
Formulation • Linear Programming—Graphical Solution • Linear Programming—
Representation in Standard Form & Basic Solution • Simplex Methpd • Degeneracy in
Linear Programming • Duality in Linear Programming • Dual Simplex Method
Revised Simplex Method • Bounded Variable Problem • Integer Programming
Post-Optimal Analysis • Parametric Linear Problems • Transportation Problem
Assignment Problem • Sequencing Problem • Dynamic Programming • Decision
Analysis • Competitive Games • Markov Analysis Problems • Queuing Problems
Inventory Problems • Replacement Problems • Non-Linear Programming • Quadratic
Programming • Project Scheduling by PERT/CPM • Cost Considerations in PERT.'CPM
Simulation • Information Theory • Statistical Tables.
Sultan Chand & Sons

Helping students to achieve their aspirations
23, Daryaganj, New Delhi-1 10002
Phones: 3266105, 3277843, 3281876, 3286788; Fax 011-326-6357
Operations Research
for Managerial Decision-making
V. K. KAPOOR
Co-author of Fundamentals of Mathematical Statistics
Fifth Revised Edition 200O Pages X1+8BB ISBN 81-7014-130-3 Rs 225-00
This well-organised and profusely illustrated book presents updated account of Uie
Operations Research Techniques.
Special Features
• It is lucid and practical in approach.
• Wide variety of carefully selected, adapted and specially designed problems with complete
solutions and detailed workings.
S 221 Worked examples are expertly woven into the text.
• Useful sets of 740 problems as exercises are given.
• The book completely covers the syllabi of M.B A MM.S. and M Corn courses of all Indian
Universities.
Contents
aning & Scope Linear Programming: Graphic Method • Linear Programming Simplex
d • Linear Programming : Duality • Transportation Problems
n ment Problems • Sequencing Problems • Replacement Decisions
C ng Theory • Decision Theory • Game Theory • Inventory Management
CPFvt • Forecastirg
3latistical Quality Control • Investment • PERT &
1chniques • Work Study • Simulation
Problems and Solutions in

Operations Research
V.K. KAPOOR
Fourth Rev. Edition 2003 Pages xri+ 835 ISBN 81-7014-605-4 Rs 235.00
Salient Features
• The book fully meets the course requirements of management and commerce students. It
would also be extremely useful for students of professiora' courses like ICA, ICWA
• Working rules, aid to memory, short-cuts, atternative methods are special attractions of the book
• Ideal book for the students involved in independent study
Contents
Meaning & Scope • Linear Programming Graphic Method • L i near Programming : Simplex
Method • Linear Programming: Duality • Transportation Problems • Assignment Problems
Replacement Decisions • Queuing Theory • Decision Theory • InventorL Management
Sequencing Problems • Pert & CPM • Cost Consideration in Pert • Game Thory • Statistical
Qualit*Control • Investment Decision Analysis • Simulation
Sultan Chand & Sons

Providing books - the never failing friends
23. Dai-yaganj, New Delhi- i 10 002
Phones: 3266105.3277843,3281876,3286788; Fax: 011-326-6357
Fundamentals of Mathematical Statistics
S.C. GUPTA V.K. KAPOOR
Hindu College, Shri Rem College of Commerce
University of Delhi. Delhi University of Delhi. Delhi
Ninth Edition 2000 Pages xx + 1284 22 x 14 cm ISBN 81-7014-120-6 Rs 210.00
Special Features
• Comprehensive and analytical treatment is given of all the topics
• Difficu l t mathematical deductions have beentreated logically and in a very simple manner
• It conforms to the latest syllab of the Degree and Post graduate examinations in Mathematics
and Economics Stabs t-, 5
Contents
Introduction • F requncy Distribution and Measures 04 Central Tendency •
• Theory of t'roOabilii / sparsn Skewness sri <urtics
Fianrjom Variables—Dsirbuson Function • Mathematical Eupeclairon, Generating unctions and
Law of Large Numbers • Theorei,cai Discrete Dlstr,b(rOrls • Theoie:cat Conlnuoi.s Dstibr-is • CureF Ftrng arid
Principle 01 Least Squares • Correlation Flegiesson, B'varale Normal Dslrbjt
Theory of Atnibutas -Sampling ano Large Sample Tests at Mean and Proponror-t • Samp:rrg
and Parrisi & Multiple Cor,et'
DisIrbutlon Exact (Cit-square
Drsilbui(.on) Enact Sarrtphn5 DSlrbuons I
Squeria Anirlyss and NOi-pvameoC Methods i , F and Z Distributions) • Theory 01 Estimation • Tesxg or Hypothesa,
Elements of Business Statistics &

Operations Research
- Dr S.P. Gupta • Dr. P.K. Gupta • Dr. Man Mohar,
Solh Edn 2000 Pp. xiv .e 896 IS13N 81-7014-401-9
- Rs
Special F Jtures
• 'he la 5 age is SlImpIe and the text-material self-expianatory in character
• Busdes good theory, the book Contains a large number ol itlustralons
of varied types
Contents
Pan l—Trars'.cs lPries 710,
Siaisrc—Wyra, & Wt'y Condcng a tuals:rcal Enquiry • Pr'ma'y a irs Secanoary Da:a au Soutce y • Sampling
TriChitidUOS • Diagrammatic anti Gr y
q:ui-c Preseniraliort • iririasures 01 Central Value • Measures Cl larsron-i
Suewnesm. Moments & KuOirs ••COrreiuicn AnSlySis Regression Analysis • Index Numbers
Sores • Ir.:erpoiaficn e E rpoialrbn • ?obaoiry T'rersry • Statistical Quaily Control Analysis of Time
Pin ll--Ceratons Piysearcr' (Pages 180 Iotypretato.s of Data
Lines Pr Cgranimrrnq . F-la. od • Goror iro Merrusi • Snrrp.sr Melnrcxt • Tr.ry.-.t.--, Poiio
. rt r Assnrr.n: Pobrtm
Fundamentals of Applied Statistics

S.C. GUPTA VK. KAPOOR
Third Edition 2000 Pages xx + 628 ISBN 81-7014-151-6 Rs 110.00
Special Features
• The book provides ccmpretlensve and exhaustive theoretical diSCuSSIOn.
• All basic concepts have been explained in an easy and understandable manner
• 125 simulating problems Selected from various university examinations have been Solved
• It conforms to the latest syt!abi of 8Sc. (Hone) and postgraduate examination in Statistics, Agriculture and
Economics
Contents
Slalintica; Ovary Control • Antalyyrs 01 Time Series (Mamormalical Trea t ment)
and Income EIas:icity • Anatysis of Vir.ance Index Numt'x,ir • Dernans Analysis , Price
Design 01 Experiments. Conrrpetety Randomsed Design • Randonriseri Bocu Design ,
Designs and Confounding Lain Square Design • Facto ria l
Design 04 Sample Surveys tMalnermuancal Treatmenil • Sample Random Sampling. Stratified Sampling, Systematic
Sampling. Multi-stage Sampling • Educational and PscboiogCa: Statistics • Vital Srascticai Methods

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ii. LOGICAL STATEMENTS

Truth Table 3: pAq

p and q Maths and Statistics

This relationship will be brought out more clearly by the following

This is the famous De Morgan's theorem or law. It is very helpful in

He is neither idealist nor vocal, '—p V r--q

Since tautolog y is always true its negation is a fallacy and is always

(II) Truth Table 9: (pA q) A — (p V q)

LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND TRUTH TABLtIS 9

(1) Truth Table Ii pA(qVr)

LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND TUTU TABLES 11

19. CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

Example 4. Simplify ''('—p-----q).

Each day is either hot or cold, wet or fi

Example 9. Prove by means of a truth table that

Example JO. Prove by means of a truth table that

Example ii. Prove that

LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND TRUTH TABLES 15

LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND TRUTH TABLES 19

enables substitution of a number of connectives by one only. Since speed

In words: In cold he takes neither tea nor cold drink.

21. METHODS OF DESCRIBING A SET

II. Infinite Set. If the elements of a set cannot be counted in a

(iii) If A is a subset of B, then B is called a superset of A.

sets. But Venn-diagrams talso known as Venn Eiiler diagrams] cannot be

Illustrations. Let A{l, 2, 3, 4), B—(2, 4,5,6)

2. If A=x I xis an integer, 1 <x(40}, and

VI. If B C A then Afl B= /1 and if Ac.B thei) AflBA. The above

VIE. If AcIB and BCC then ,4C(BflC)

then AULi-={I, 2, 3,4, 5, 6}, or (AuB)UC(l, 2, 3,4, 5,6, 81

tZi-Aue JrAfll3,TotaI 5JiudedAU13

The total shaded region

1()iol scdd iegonAUB)UC Total shaded reior.AU(BUC)

VI. If BCA, then AUB=.A and if ACB then AUBB.

-A EllllIP c AUB El JAuc

II. Intersection distributes over the union which is also there in

Example 4. Prove that: Afl(BUC)(AflB)U(AflC),

rllHl- 'AI'8 fl'An

The important propi-ties of complementation are

H. Complement of an intersection is the union of the complements,

From the above Vcnn diagram, we can conclude the following

Illustrations. (I) Let A={a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, B={a, e, 1 1 a, U)

II. if A, B, C he any three sets, then

[Student is advised to do the proof independently on the same lines

Proof. To prove the above, we have to show that ...(1)

1w)I, "b t herebv

xEA and (xFB and xC)

Let I1=={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7)

1 he following are the various intersections

Next we take the case of the union of two ...

Again 10) ==n(Afl B) +n(A' fl /3)

n(AUBUC)==n(A) l-n(B)+n(C)---n(AflB) n(BflC)

Acgrgate (A) Group I

Illustration. (1) The natural numbers and their squares can be

Some Important Results of Cartesian Product

(nEil and v(z-"il) and (uEA and vEC)

Also AIiS=(l, 3), )JflT=(2, 4)

to be symmetric ; in other words, they are asymmetric. If, however, the

xRyand yRz—xRz for all x,y.z

Spoken as ' if x is parallel to y'' and ''y is parallel to z" then x is

correspond to any of the elements of A, this type of mapping is called

11Iusation. Let A be the set of students sitting on chairs in a