a La a 172.17.10.21 172.17.10.22 172.17.10.23 ‘Scanned with CamScanner* STP ensures that there is only one logical path between all destinations on the network by intentionally blocking redundant paths that could cause a loop. * A port is considered blocked when user data is prevented from entering or leaving that port. This does not include bridge protocol data unit (BPOU) frames that are used by STP to prevent loops. * The physical paths still exist to provide redundancy, but these paths are disabled to prevent the loops from occurring. a MRE ol hia cee eke Rom Rite eu geel+) (Lele Len) Aol MMM creole) Melee ale| unblocks the tee a Lela to allow the redundant path to become active.32768.1111.1111.1111 —— 32768.2222.2222.2222 32768.3333.3333.3333 Seanned with CamScanner32768.2222.2222.2222 32768.3333.3333.3333 32768.1111.1111.1111 ‘Scanned with CamSeannerbe ae ee bg Original STP (802.10) was created to prevent loops. Switches send probes into the network to discover loops. These probes are called as BPDU. TUE aoe Aare i Dolo RU alia TUR Tae eo cela omen seem ena Switch multicasts BPOU probes (every 2 seconds) and if it receives its own BPDU back, it means there is a loop in the network. Also the BPDU probes helps to elect the root bridge. All switches will find the best way to reach the root bridge and the redundant links will be blocked. (Port cost) BUM se Ure Me alli Me MMe aoe lm relat goes down. 532768.1111.1111.1111 32768.2222.2222.2222 32768.3333.3333.333 Seanned with CamScanner2 172.17.10.21 '- 172.17,.10.22 172.17.10.23 ” 172.17.10.27 S2 forwards the broadcast out all ports, except the Originating port and the blocked port. ‘Scanned with CamScanner7 172.17.10.21 a 972.17.10.22 a 172.17.10.23 172.17.10.27 PC2 forwards out & broadcast frame, but it cannot be processed due to the traffic overload on the network. ‘Scanned with CamSeannerREDUNDANCY IS GOOD! * Enables users to access network resources, despite path disruption. © Improves reliability. Improves availability. bolero) ara Mo MEM line eee logue eae) cells fool g Creating redundant links is very simple and is advisable.Maa cele a Mae cee ool melo MOMMA Rouen Ml -tel0 1g to the frame. * It is used to properly transmit multiple VLAN frames through a trunk link. * Switches tag frames to identify the VLAN to that they belong. Different tagging protocols exist; IEEE 802.10 is a very popular example. * The protocol defines the structure of the tagging header added to the frame. * Switches add VLAN tags to the frames before placing them into trunk links and remove the tags before forwarding frames through non-trunk ports. * When properly tagged, the frames can transverse any number of Te Re SLRs ie Rl MR olanolse Te RRL Rel | at the destination.Ethernet Frame — IEEE 802.1Q Frame 2 Bytes 3Bits 1 Bit 12 Bits ‘Scanned with CamSeannerDerR TEU) Default VLAN Lelia Lea Management VLAN + + OF SolaSecurity. een aroun eat sala e Sees ee Curie Tee Mieco a ae 2 ST ed era escort a nara uu aim* AVLANis a logical partition of a Layer 2 network. * Multiple partitions can be created, allowing for multiple VLANs to [oer tm * Each VLAN is a broadcast domain, usually with its own IP network. VLANs are mutually isolated and packets can only pass between them Nie kehlUt is * The partitioning of the Layer 2 network takes place inside a Layer 2 device, usually via a switch. * The hosts grouped within a VLAN are unaware of the VLAN's existence.AVLAN is a logical partition of a Layer 2 network. * Multiple partitions can be created, allowing for multiple VLANs to oe Each VLAN is a broadcast domain, usually with its own IP network. VLANs are mutually isolated and packets can only pass between them Tee RcolU ia * The partitioning of the Layer 2 network takes place inside a Layer 2 (Nf MUU] AT eke RS Loam ryVLAN * AVLANis a logical partition of a Layer 2 network. * Multiple partitions can be created, allowing for multiple VLANs to [oneNN) 10.10.10.0/ 24Application Applications/Profiles 1 Re —— Service Middleware ‘Comm | lelephony discove layer Logical link control adaptation protocol Data Link manager! ‘link Baseband layer Physical Physical radio layer ‘Scanned with CamSeannerApplications/Profiles Pitt RFcomm | Telepho saree ny [Luc | discover | Logical link control een protocol [Link manager| Baseband Physical radio ‘Scanned with CamSeannerApplication layer Middleware layer Data Applications/Profiles Service RFcomm | Telephony |. an discover us Logical link control adaptation protocol Physical radio Control It is short for Radio nterface with WAP g nd Component. It provides se: ‘Scanned with CamSeannerApplication layer Other RFcomm | Teleph Service Middleware LLC on elephony | discovery Control |! layer Logical link control adaptation protocol hin Applications/Profiles Link manager! link layer Baseband Physical Physical radio layer ogical Link Control and Adaptation protocol layer: It is also known as th Te aR RU Ro el lone Mee ee RU Real ooo tie ant yo ial lower layers of the bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data packets receive rom upper layers into the form expected by lower layers. It also performs th segmentation and multiplexingApplication Applications/Profiles layer Service Middleware ne Logical link control adaptation protocol Data [Link manager] link Baseband layer Physical radio ‘Scanned with CamSeannerApplications/Profiles aa rvice tae tat link control coe suopaion protocol ine [Link manager] link Baseband layer Physical Physical radio ‘Scanned with CamSeannerApplication Applications/Profiles layer a Tat Service Middleware ‘comm | Telephony | 4; Audio a = ener Control |! layer Logical link control adaptation protocol Data Link manager link Baseband layer Physical It performs modulation/demodulation of the data into RF signals. It defines the physical characteristics of bluetooth ransceiver. It defines two types of physical link: connection-le ‘Scanned with CamSeannerApplication layer Middleware layer Logical link control adaptation protocol a Data link Baseband layer Physical Physical radio layer. Applications/Profiles ae a ‘comm | Telephony | ,. Audio discover ‘Scanned with CamSeannerpamela Ra AU aero Role Re uence Rel device through a Bluetooth connection, often between phones, desktops, laptops, and PDAs. * uu allows access to calendars, contact lists, emails and text messages, and on some phones, users can copy pictures and private videos. bea RR oe RoR Rete me (hamCons * It can be hacked and hence, less secure. * It has slow data transfer rate. baa ane cone a Oeals Xes=) ba Ko) eto Easy to use. It can also penet Cell It creates an ad- in immediately without any + + PCs aurea Zell (8 ba‘Scanned with CamSeannes1S TRU) axel ys) be eRe Lele Remon Ue moo ame) RU Rl rere) yet ole Me aC cell os * It specifies an entire suite of protocols, going beyond the link layer to define application protocols, which it calls profiles, for a range of applications. There is a profile for synchronizing a PDA with personal computer. Another profile gives a mobile computer access to a wired LAN. be Bore ok Ue eo eee cea e eel re Keh loi Consists of a master device and up to seven slave devices. Any communication is between the master and a slave. The slaves do not communicate directly with each other. o Aslave can be parked: set to an inactive, low-power state.bile Lelie Moy Ao M ae Up me em Reel Ri siete) Special Interest Group. bee Re oa concer me colle Ros Solo MUN AL ao) Ce) define application protocols, which it calls profiles, for a range of applications. © Thereis a profile for synchronizing a PDA with personal computer. Another profile gives a mobile computer access to a wired LAN. * The basic Bluetooth network configuration is called a piconet.* Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard used for exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices over short distances using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM radio bands, from 2.400 POR cle ReUl ele eure kelsey Os * It was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data [rol * Bluetooth is a wireless technology named after Harald Bluetooth, based on an analogy that Bluetooth technology would unite devices LUE ey Aneel MUR Ree Lone ae kingdom.‘Scanned with CamSeannerIEEE 802.11 — Cottision AvoipANCE be a a BAe eR aoe Pa cel re RE ee elm he oes Cre Ue to ERR EU meer cele RoR celta Cre ame eal Rieu oR CLs if two or more nodes detect an idle link and try to transmit an RTS frame at RU Rl PM Re Rel eee CRC caked ig Elevmi Neel eae) leamee eek cilol) SMR Mae ee oP a oreo eae) Te a a Sas Coo receive the CTS frame after a period of time pM Ro Ma Aol n elim R cele eM Rel Rb Zine Role 91 As The amount of, time a given node delays is defined by the same Perens uiel cull ktece tan ut uaaIEEE 802.11 — CoLtision AvoipANCE * Any node that sees the CTS frame knows that he RR EN ld Cee mice RRR LC RCE RoR coal} ere ae ti * Any node that sees the RTS frame but not the CTS frame Male Tel RR Ee em aC Read CMDR R CUEIEEE 802.11 — CoLtision AvoipANCE pM PA to RB eee) Roel Lanse ORM ol eae PRS ee role ola a Lev eva Ce) bee ae Mo) eae ie Moco l M oo oLoe d sender actually transmits any data. pM A> Couao lie MU oud Ma cel) Re MRR Cell modelos * Sender transmits a Request to Send (RTS) frame to the receiver. BUMMER cua Mele RR Rie melo Melo M oe RU Bue ms oe) rodeo Ria Muara ale ema eel Rie Boke BLL ton Pee aC utd on | LS bieetacy BUR cea A ene RUA eR le Bere SR leeExposep TERMINAL PROBLEM — SOLUTION Dol Eee keel Tlie VE A Leo LoL) | contro! |] ation Bits 2 2 \Version| Type [Subtype Ke) fool ME ie Pwr|More| W | © | Frame control ered Pe ee ee hm oe ee Lea Be en ae RU Re reeExposep TERMINAL PROBLEM Oe a Ee oo ee Ug Deo s SR Che ae Re con ol Ra ee Ro) SS ro Te ee Pe Te ee ne Se RL Ad al)HIDDEN TERMINAL PROBLEM — SOLUTION UT eer AO) CaP oak COU eto Ua ELT kok bS) Bytes 2 Frame |} Dur control |} ation Bits 2 2 To |Fom| sap | Re- | pyy w| Frame control Ve Ty ‘Sub! |Nerson] Type |Subbpe 8 |b eres PO er Se aU ee a eS ee OR RL a ueeHIDDEN TERMINAL PROBLEM Re eRe Se eR A ei tek Cel BM Re See ee RU eu te Eee Ree Se ee Ra Ce CRS Ua ee nd Ce cme * Aand Care said to hidden nodes with respect to each other.Bytes 2 2 6 6 6 ae) 0-2312 Sy Data = Bits Version| Type | Subtype Ne ro] Me - Pwr|More) W | © | Frame control ‘Scanned with CamSeannerBytes 2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4 = 5 | Frame | 5 heck- Frame | Dur- [Address | Address Address | Seq, Address ee Chea control | ation | 1 = 3 | 4 % Bits » » a lwlo Re- | Pwrlsore Frame control try | This is a variable sized field that carries the [eee RR AY oY1g layers. The maximum size of data ores Mee Seanned with CamScanner0-2312 6 6 6 2 6 Sy Frame Oa Address | Address | Address | Address. Data control 1 2 3 4 4S ' cas ' ' Bits 2 2 4 itr 7 oon] eu Version| Type | Subtype ne al MF fe Pwr|More| W | O Frame control ‘Scanned with CamSeanner4 oe aa Ss 1 Version| Type | Subtype] ie | MF ie Pwr|More| W | © | Frame control ‘Scanned with CamSeannerBytes Bits 2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4 r ——— — & - Frame Address | Address | Address Address Data | Check- control rs 1 2 3 [SH 4 | sum i : 6 bytes <=> 12 hex digits <=>48 bits Unicast: 0; multicast: 1 Byte 1 AUD e eu lieR mi Re Aree il RU Rb Reiko le (ele coe eee OM Sere oe A oe lanl Me If all bits are 1, then it is broadcast addressUnicast: 0; multicast: 1 Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 6 ‘Scanned with CamSeannerMinimum payload length: 46 bytes Maximum payload length: 1500 bytes _ —$— —$—S— — — — ——— ————————] 2 bytes Minimum frame length: 512 bits or 64 bytes | 6 bytes 6 bytes ' Maximum frame length: 12,144 bits or 1518 bytes ‘Scanned with CamSeannerMinimum payload length: 46 bytes Maximum esl cela Ey length: 1500 bytes Destination Source 6 bytes Gbytes 2 bytes Minimum frame length: 512 bits or 64 bytes Maximum frame length: 12,144 bits or 1518 bytes ‘Scanned with CamSeannerPreamble: 56 bits of alternating 1s and Os. ‘SFD: Start frame delimiter, flag (10101011) 7 bytes byte} 6 bytes 6bytes 2bytes 4 bytes Physical layer header ‘Scanned with CamSeannerEthernet evolution Standard Fast Gigabit Ten-Gigabit Ethernet Ethernet Ethernet Ethernet ‘Scanned with CamSeannera felt To Ria Mane ime le Ar A Mieco A RC eal ollere] om Operates in the data link layer and the physical layer. Family of networking technologies that are defined in the IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 standards. Supports data bandwidths of 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, 40,000, and 100,000 Mbps (100 Gbps). Define Layer 2 protocols and Layer 1 technologies Two separate sublayers of the data link layer to operate - Logical link relief ORO Ke Ri TULL) 4CDMA The assigned codes have two properties: SA Maat ae coakeere Ro ae ou eel ae kom PAA MU Ake: A aia See ROU lee eel (ie Lola T ol ye EA Ra Maa ea aE S ToeCDMA bP Wola Reale laa keel Re Rice al eee la cel COMA differs from FOMA because only one channel occupies the entire betel Net ke muda * It differs from TOMA because all stations can send data SMU eR eel § .Data Data Common channel t t Silent Data ‘Seanad with CamscannerTDMA * In TOMA, the bandwidth is just one channel that is time shared betta ie ae Colao MEU chore aCe Le aS emo K ole * Stations share the capacity of the channel in time. :Data vata Common channel Data ‘Scanned wih Camcaner* In FOMA, the available bandwidth of the common channel is divided into bands that are separated by guard bands. * The available bandwidth is shared by all stations. * The FOMA is a data link layer protocol that uses FOM at the physical ea Frequency |aac ula AA ed PLY) Sa aL eon LP TY) anes PCO Peed (PLY)MULTIPLEXING * Multiplexing in computer networking means multiple signals are combined together thus travel simultaneously in a shared medium. * Multiplexing = Sharing the bandwidth.CHANNELIZATION * Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of*a link is shared in time, frequency, or through code, Arta ie Lok sPERFORMANCE OF TOKEN PASSING - u ;fora<1 ET i ook: bal FICE 7/\) ana mal oF Tr SEM coolly TU eel) U3 = Propagation delay i = Transmission delay' Gviecinn' ve iets ©. Bus rit d. Star ri ‘Scanned with CamSeannerTOKEN PASSINGpL Maree Meola Ret ROR Na eR Ro sends up to a maximum number of frames and then forwards the Ae) RoR Aaa es * Token passing is decentralized and highly efficient. But it has problems ooonr bre oni MUR Rome ears Reo eege RR Reale aeme a node accidentally neglects to release the token, then some recovery Flore te Ue Mum Aa oe Rok RU Rubee ea akeicat) oes ,* Astation is authorized to send data when it receives a special frame called a token. CR Uae Cm rele Asmall, special-purpose frame known as a token is exchanged among the nodes in some fixed order. * When a node receives a token, it holds onto the token only if it has some frames to transmit; otherwise, it immediately forwards the . aro) RoR Ea am rereEFFICIENCY OF POLLING ois Toit RR ACelg colle RoR RRs Ut RMA of data. Then, ny (suite -1nte Aig ierPOLLING — FUNCTIONS bo RR eae Te MR OC to): oe Le ORL} secondaries if they have anything to send. beers aM cae a Ae AL COL e MoCo Le LM Cl MR L9 secondary to get ready to receive. .‘Scanned with CamSeanner* The procedure continues in this manner, with the master node polling Cele emia tulele tek Za aie The polling protocol eliminates the collision. AUX olnee rele a oMecoul aC eMule We iia ULV * = The first drawback is that the protocol introduces a polling delay-the TeV emia eerie RCA Miers RUA mes Rice Le aL Breese Rolfe Loree MCL eM M el A ek eM OR Ue LD master node fails, the entire channel becomes inoperative. B* The polling protocol requires one of the nodes to be designated as a Master node (Primary station). * The master node polls each of the nodes in a round-robin fashion. * In particular, the master node first sends a message to node 1, saying that it (node 1) can transmit up to some maximum number of frames. Pm MRR OU mee RRs ea (node 2) can transmit up to the maximum number of frames. * The master node can determine when a node has finished sending its ee RA ete We Ra TollAstation need to make a reservation before sending data. TN to Counc tale Moe aoe ta ee rete Ra Re OLR Cea oe aa) Bie a aia 701 8 * If there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N reservation Cae eR Ae la ee ice bean oleate Ro Eola OUR Rola Mat eM oR ae Mo Rel Rice MiMi ok Re laren) Deel MUR a Ree Ra ela eee RU melo R Cel) CLUS CkCSMA/CA * The Access method used by IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi is eebel eeu Mah) Melee Relea Colle olae a (LT VOY} network multiple access method in which carrier sensing is used, but Lilete (Tolar g mokel Coe Reel oad yao ae Rice ea Rela Aol is the channel is sensed to be "idle". oa A a oA oo) og Colt Toe mele OOM Mem eco) Me RRC or) transmitters desensing their receivers during packet transmission. * CSMA/CA is unreliable due to the hidden node problem and exposed terminal problem. * Solution: RTS/CTS exchange. * CSMA/CA is a protocol that operates in the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.ba ole ee a Mah) Melee Rael Re (ol(e ee Oe U Eee] network multiple access method in which carrier sensing is used, but nodes attempt to avoid collisions by beginning transmission only after the channel is sensed to be "idle". * It is particularly important for wireless networks, where the collision felt Teemu MeL LN OOO Memeo) Me RRC oc) transmitters desensing their receivers during packet transmission. * CSMA/CA is unreliable due to the hidden node problem and exposed terminal problem. * Solution: RTS/CTS exchange. .- (Siren ae EVIE Tp TG pM Re iene Rego Rome UT Me leg -tee * CSMA is not suitable for long distance networks like WAN; but works optimally for LAN. * If length of packet is bigger, the efficiency of CSMA also increases; but Galea mom ule Lams 1\eh =) oe * Transmission Time >= Round Trip Time of 1 bit * Transmission Time >= 2*Propagation Time‘Scanned with CamScannerAt the point marked t,, a station has finished transmitting its frame. a MU Leo Ro Rice ta Rok -Ure Mae) AaeloR Li meks koe Ll eRe mele eae ucke ale RRs Lee colt VA Rel] elke] (ol Toa * Collisions can be detected by looking at the power or pulse width of Rude eee Roa Ree aro ROR RUE atc Ele me R oes acme mae (Mime aM m illum Lone] random period of time, and then tries again, assuming that no other station has started transmitting in the meantime. Sle Mele oO OOM eu ome mule Renu} eRe ceul ue Mane Sue kee ane arene are quiet. ** If two stations sense the channel to be idle and begin transmitting simultaneously, they will both detect the collision almost immediately. Solu maa mica Mme cea OMA MC eh feo) garbled anyway, they should abruptly stop transmitting as soon as Bin Reon ks ital. * Quickly terminating damaged frames saves time and bandwidth. * This protocol, known as CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection) is Pie Cate Ret RU ero). * Access method used by Ethernet: CSMA/CD.O-PErRsisteNT CSMA * Each node is assigned a transmission order by a supervisory node. siand transmit Continuously sense Gusy Tpenistent Sense Serse War Wait ‘Scanned with CamScannerbam) 9) CROPS lace Relea ce * When astation becomes ready to send, it senses the channel. Sede M Rune cele] * With a probability Q=1-P, it defers until the next slot. bo (oe oo MD Loo Cele probabilities P and Q. be core role ML mC Re Ae ol RL ete elon te eR Le * In the latter case, the unlucky station acts as if there had been a collision (ie, it waits a random time and starts again). SMe aR Ree eR Rha omits Kel Salesaiutke tl algorithm.% OF OF OF a Rel Ye) arora Raul aa ice UNE beeen ail Aoki le Me eR Rane If it is idle, it transmits with a probability P. With a probability Q=1-P, it defers until the next slot. ALM om Meo MLL moo ae Cu -Le deo TL probabilities P and Q. BUM eel oe Me Tete Lm a te MoM tL or another station has begun transmitting. TCM CLiCimeee MMU Ue Meola Me ae MMU Mee Mle) ool TT CCMA LCI Ee ae Le oly* Before sending, a station senses the channel. If no one else is sending, UE Cel elders lake Coline ea Sano) -RL a-Mon LA M® |00\VAMLIee dk e (ol Co continually sense it for the purpose of seizing it immediately upon fro i eae Rol RUS oe eR ceo * Instead, it reg a random period of time and then repeats the algorithm. Consequently, this algorithm leads to better channel roo MeLehm elale ime) RUM LeU Clried with CamSeanneroles Re UHR mua RU Rene m ek} Dao ee Ree RUC ke oho Ro RU Ai elt UL MAU Rea Ne MERCK Rigel Sal A a Meum tel ame ae a Ls Lettered ode MeCN UU Ret RSL kL 0011 od the carrier or channel is idle, this scheme of CSMA is called as eee lL MeN ice) celeron Ao ola e i RRC EL aioe Lod nd protocol.\-PersisteNt CSMA SM al ae ole Cole) A od becomes, and the worse the performance of the protocol.Types oF CSMA eT 2. P-Persistent CSMA 3. De les Ty 4. O-Persistent COMA CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection) eV Ve NOU WT aneeeue- Wel ete)ne a a lee tesa areal h To minimize the chance of collision and, therefore, increase the performance, the CSMA method was developed. Principle of CSMA: lg Carrier busy = Transmission is taking place. Carrier idle = No transmission currently taking place. The possibility of collision still exists because of propagation OA) lame ac Mase amelie mila Mime Molaro Ru Ries Lye nm Aeon melas See -1 ele ehouk K ie) Ae The time is continuous and not globally Pues Vulnerable time in which collision may occur Pred T, rere ese uae: or) le EAC h Sth Maximum efficiency = 18.4% (Occurs at G = 1/2) DOR eee al aural uous Any station can transmit the data at the renal tata miuataas Me eer tae eure Vulnerable time in which collision may occur A 3 Coe ee oR ue ag oi) Pee eetcht ae Maximum efficiency = 36.8% ( Occurs at G=1) Due Me Ma aol fore RRR RU et al ee TeeCollision Collision duration —_ duration ‘Scanned with CamSeanner* It was developed just to improve the efficiency of pure aloha as the chances for collision in pure aloha are high. PR om eee Rana Moe cere Mos at Ra MUL a ol} called slots. baie ae Rode oR Xel lone Rou eRe lle Rela ole SU ee Rem aol BUR te We RUE cello] poke) loAcollides with C | fo 3 t-Ty, t t+Ty, | Vulnerable time = Ty, | ‘Scanned with CamScannerSLOTTED ALOHA bee le) BUM eh RU ees oe eRe oie ke Rl Coif lie ch oleae ea aN ee Kolo ke culls SM a Mo Ma Rao le te Mana MM cere Minos ei M MAC ae called slots. * Sending of data is allowed only at the beginning of these slots.* Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the same time, there will be a collision and both will be garbled. SR Rime Rell tele N Om Melee Rice almost finished, both frames will be totally destroyed and both will have to be retransmitted later. MT rele ral AUC eC eRe AR lel eeu ae UR RCLSTE Reena Maximum throughput = 0.184 for G=0.5 (“/)B's end Assend collides with collides with A's beginning C’s beginning | | ' es t-Ty t t+Ty, Tim . Vulnerable time = 2 x Ty, A ‘Scanned with CamScannerB's end collides with A's beginning | t Vulnerable time = 2 x Ty, Asend collides with C’s beginning | ' t+Ty, . ‘Scanned with CamScanner TimPuRE ALOHA * Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the same time, there will be a collision and both will be garbled. SRM RRR cea Kelle) ACL Cm A lee Rice al Cole Male Moco MCT Molle (okey te Mele MoT Tae T eS ela ool* Pure ALOHA allows stations to transmit whenever they have data to be ta * When a station sends data it waits for an acknowledgement. * If the acknowledgement doesn't come within the allotted time then Rel Mr Rom M Cem m Ree B ee comity COLT lire Nee RUT: oho Se Le oo OMS LLL Co FTeo)ose loll pei nmol oli Ke (eg tole * The throughput of pure aloha is maximized when frames are of uniform ChasPuRE ALOHA * Pure ALOHA allows stations to transmit whenever they have data to be a * When a station sends data it waits for an acknowledgement. pL Moco ure lL coe an oo CT ed kL) UCM MoM Colo me el Mem Mell re lelL orem OL Tele Ec ec ule Rit Ke ohred iY‘Scanned with CamScannerALOHA BME oN Xo Dro lie ou ke re -oe cel (oleol * It was actually designed for WLAN but it is also applicable for shared medium. ad In this, multiple stations can transmit data at the same time and can hence lead to collision and data being garbled. : 7s bao] * Slotted AlohaCOLLISION COLLISION laa Certo)ALOHA * Aloha is a random access protocol. * It was actually designed for WLAN but it is also applicable for shared medium. * In this, multiple stations can transmit data at the same time and can hence lead to collision and data being garbled.CHANNELIZATION PROTOCOLS Ce roan eM eee a ere MR RU Reco ele aero lke kel TOE OR uo Ae eae ea a coeCONTROLLED Access PROTOCOLS A pM Reece reece Eee ee el mR Mea aed Te Ocul d bE eeu ue Ra tae do aoe ok eel eel oadRaAnpbom Access PROTOCOLS To avoid access conflict, each station follows a procedure. PT Ue R UC eeu kee oR tut te led DN UR ULE ks RMU al aed Dek DR Eek RU ees eel Sm Ries oie ee tes Deemer Ri ocak: Mim Eee lenses aedPee Ro cue ecu Ai ana aad aa than another station. Any station can send data depending on medium's oir @el Kes toe * In a Random access method, each station has the right to the medium Maca uiusl ce eau ioas Rn ESR RR a ae eee eo ia (eI (0)\)} RU Rc RE ies oui ce emia reeMultiple-access protocols ALOHA CSMA CSMA/CD CSMA/CA FDM/ TDM/ Reservation Polling Token passing ‘Scanned with CamSeannerWuy Mutripce Access PRotTocoLs? TR Ree le Ma un Om Ru Ree mae Rd Ce a RC loci ac Ca eae eke ee oR See ela Hence multiple access protocols are required to decrease collision and avoid crosstalk. oBandwidth - Delay Product = Bandwidth x Delay Bandwidth - Delay Product = 128 kbps x 80 milliseconds bolo ot thee) Anse ears b were be tlm lo cy Bandwidth - Delay Product = 128 x 1024 x 80 x 10° bits Bandwidth - Delay Product pet tor) ays: S ae Ba: 10h a Od fe7e) Taare Mae Colne A oid PED Optimal Window Size = 40 nSELEctIVe REPEAT ARQ bo lt OL) ol Lo Co Ce retransmitted, while correct frames are received and buffered. BM MC ela Mtoe coo od sete ol Le UR frames in memory and sends NACK for only frame which is missing or damaged.WORKING OF Go-BAck-N ARQ ec a Sr 0 y 0 v2 Go-Back to 2 3 Window Size: ig ry 5 va Ki] ry 5Go-Back-N ARQ bd od N- Sender's Window Size. For example, if the sending window size is 4 (2), then the sequence numbers will be O, 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, and so on. The number of bits in the sequence number is 2 to generate the binary sequence 00, 01, 10, 11.Go-Back-N ARQ * The size of the sending window determines the sequence number of the outbound frames.* Go - Back - N ARQ uses the concept of protocol pipelining ie. the sender can send multiple frames before receiving the Celeron rela Rom RLU RCo LC pM MR Mle moon Mae RU Rice Role Ma aol ict aR) sequential manner. * The number of frames that can be sent depends on the window size of BU Eo lao (i * If the acknowledgment of a frame is not received within an agreed upon time period, all frames in the current window are transmitted.Go-Back-N ARQ ‘N'is the sender window size.a WwW PROTOCOLS re relay Peed rey Peter Channels Sd LG) BS Teele els Go-Back-N-ARQ Cece) Tae LeeleeWORKING OF SLIDING WINDOW PROTOCOL rd eg ae ee ee in) ny Brno y 0 2 1 3 J 1 B) Tm (as Sent but not oa Clean ile te} g PenWORKING OF SLIDING WINDOW PROTOCOL og Coreg Ite ) || Brice Pie 4 Om oe) aUe Rien ole Ra Me oc R Ch Sd ooo Kola) * Each frame is numbered -> Sequence number.STop—-AND-Wait ARQ — DRAWBACKS bie Tel moR ia boom eho oo are (1 LA bee nue)Idea of stop-and-wait protocol is straightforward. After transmitting one frame, the sender waits for an acknowledgement before transmitting the next frame. Ta kennel ea Re oe Re Re aol cer Ra the sender times out and retransmits the original frame. Stop-and-Wait ARQ = Stop-and-Wait + Timeout Timer + Sequence Lele1. Problems due to lost data. T-Tlo are Romel Sem MLA ie el a Pre mea ome Lek M Ke ie Remi 2. Problems due to lost ACK. Slee R Om Te Rm Rol mele 3. Problems due to delayed ACK/data. After timeout on sender side, a delayed ack might be wrongly considered as ack of some other data packet.PROBLEMS OF STOP—AND-WAiIT PROTOCOL 3. Problems due to delayed ACK/data. * After timeout on sender side, a delayed ack might be wrongly considered as ack of some other data packet. a ReceiverPROBLEMS OF STOP—AND-WAIT PROTOCOL 2. Problems due to lost ACK. ale mR MUL RRM a Role og Cog err raPROBLEMS OF STOP—AND-WAIT PROTOCOL 1. Problems due to lost data. bale anol Rome Uae Tee elm emo R ome olka eae ee me ed Cog OrrSTOP—AND-Wait PROTOCOL Pare pees ota packet ee Cecil Acknowledgment Data packet Par;PRIMITIVES OF STOP—AND-Wait PROTOCOL Sender side Rule 1 : Send one data packet at a time. CU Ceer Ure Ri Ma am rele imo acl eae Lome ecole Tela l(e() Rule 1 : Receive and consume data packet. Rule 2: After consuming packet, ACK need to be sent (Flow Control).Stop - and - Wait protocol is data link layer protocol for transmission are me ote ae Decl dre Male creates ioc oer UR ile meow RCelel Md ele cel meen conor om The idea of stop-and-wait protocol is straightforward. After transmitting one frame, the sender waits for an Cereal tole UA oe RCSL RU a CeFLOw CONTROL — PROTOCOLS ed Deed i oS ern Sad Se me U.0) r Se aed ERS] See Ee)OutTcoMES Very Ri ere Meo ream er Ao Lol Be) bam rere) La ae) lela oe * Understand flow control. * Know the flow control protocols.Pee Gein nasa cas pM Roeser col RU Kee melas ole RU es aR ee ele Ee eile) Tela Nele ture cole a be Reo Ae mee cere oe RC RU Ee mma oko ole R imac) transmit before it must wait for an acknowledgement from the receiver. * Receiver has a limited speed at which it can process incoming data and a limited amount of memory in which to store incoming data. Mm ee RRR Meola RRC Teo that the transmitter to send fewer frames or stop temporarily. aRounpb Trip Time (RTT) ng Ce i ia ae Cd RTT =2xT. °bo ola MUA GULP) PRU Rohm Eee heh F Ue Rua eed time it takes for an acknowledgement of that signal to be received. * This time therefore consists of the propagation times between the two point of signal. Lami T,is the Propagation time, then RIT=2xT. AgSOLUTION rs Pe rn Ed ee ALLL atom menor] ropagation ine =—— 5 —x a milisec Sera aod Pee Pat) Ca eas A errr 10 ae Ee ane _ $000 x 1000 Cee aR eee See rd Propagation Time =——— 5 — sec 10 i Paani Seen eh een eee nats 0 10%(elem emia Ma gee eloped Re ae Pao) ode lie Ecol ae Remit] 2) CoCo Waa om 0)0 10) The bandwidth delay product =S12 Kops «1000 ms = 512 «1000 bits/sec x 1000 = 10 sec = $12,000 bits = 64,000 bytes aahSender Receiver Bandwidth: 1 bps Delay: 5s Bandwidth x delay = 5 bits ‘Scanned with CamSeannerBANDwipTH—DELAY PRODUCT MUTA erelae ln otiaes lelacere ame Cin RLM mda eee RRL Tl Length: delay ross section: bandwidth Volume: bandwidth x delay Scanned with CamScannePROCESSING DELAY MR RU aor RoR Cod here Rie le Ld Seanned with CamScanner* The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold the message before it can LT Fel gole re 8 SMe Reine a Mol Ro MR oe Coole ML ono Lhe LA LM imposed on the network. ee UR etapa kU ie kell Ri Aged .PROPAGATION DELAY Time it takes for a bit to go from device A to device B. MUP olce)rolero oR aes ono key ae Ulla RU Ke liek LL) propagation speed. Distance Propagation speed Propagation Time =Message size Bandwidth Transmission Time =COMPONENTS OF LATENCY (DELAY) Latency is made of four components: Transmission delay. 2. Propagation delay. 3. Queueing delay. cm Processing delay. FR De ea Cet cut ome TCs ace C (Na 5THROUGHPUT eae eM LAIR ele om ele MRK le Leola a rat se1 to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we elie er Mele RUA OL eRe? RRLInformal: Actual amount of data that passes through the medium. olf aTo AM Malco eal Lem Me Maco e Mo Mola Meo Amerie) ) aia, data through a network. Although bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they are different. Na uae) Aare Ao R ecole Mot KerM Mo) MoM Reel a1 e M )RLolt eA) BUTCH SLUMS Kelso) ZoInformal: Maximum amount of data that can be transmitted per second. rele MU dee luka eR ela ee uke AU led Remo} be transmitted over the network in a certain period of time. Bandwidth = Capability. Example: Gigabit Ethernet can provide a bandwidth of 1 Gbps. Arange of frequencies used to transmit signals which is measured in aacNa el st and tain OLS PN ato OTT cola A eae PRUE aetna Red ol dd how good is it? Network performance is measured in following fundamental ways * Bandwidth bac e la * Latency (Delay)Divisor tite or | 101)100109 L1o0lyw 1ooo 11ot ro1rodo 1101 lero 1101 OoO1l)d 0000 1100 IRIZOF ‘Scanned with CamSeanneret Ost 1101 1001.00 LLolw 1ooo riod 1o1d 110) 1110 110d o1190 o000 1100 Daneel Remainder ‘Scanned with CamSeanneeCRC GENERATION AT SENDER SIDE SB UCU uke mak: co ae 2. Append'L-T bits to the original message. 3. Perform binary division operation. 4. Remainder of the division = CRC. A i] Be 8 Note: 0 0 ° The CRC must be of L-1 bits. © u uCRC Find the CRC for the data blocks See RULE cols ele* ~The checksum detects all errors involving an odd number of bits. be tee ete RoE leek * If one or more bits of a segment are damaged and the corresponding bit or bits of opposite value in a second segment are also damaged, the sums of those columns will not change and the receiver will not detect the error(s).CHECKSUM — OPERATION AT RECEIVER SIDE ban) me Ri Ke olcohoere tual ele Ri Realteam eM RTRs Seek ei) Sed ee lon)CHECKSUM — EXAMPLE eed oel] ™mooo10 eee) Seer) oo 1 i i 1 i 1 ) o ° ° 1 ° ) ° ° 1 ° t i ° tC) i i i ) ° ° 1 ) 1 ° ° 1 1 ° Co 1 ° ° i ° ° ° 1 1 1 ° C ) i C) C 1 Co 1 ere) 1 i ° 1 i ° i °ection K Section | coos Section | Section 2 Section k Section 1 Bection K Sum “omplement All Is, accept Checksum Otherwise, rejec' Sender Receiver ‘Scanned with CamSeannerCHECKSUM — OPERATION AT SENDER SIDE AM cto Saal Rola ine aa ee SOR Mate olde Ce LNA) Teh) lele a ST aKel Ria Rms CoLro Boller 3. Add the carry to the sum, if any. Lele Teele) a RU Eek Oa recsfe Te Eee Satay Tile (ee Rene eee ole Receiver side - Checksum Validation.PERFORMANCE OF LRC pee Sineg oR Aller Rome ual Deere * If two bits in one data units are damaged and two bits in exactly the same positions in another data unit are also damaged, the LRC checker will not detect an error. ee ee oe oe ee ee ) 1 jo}]1 1/0 Co) Caran)Direction of movement 1OLOLOOL | OOLLLOOL | LLOLIIOL | 11100111 LRC Data ‘Scanned with CamSeannerLRC — EXAMPLE Find the LRC for the data blocks 11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001 and CTR Ke Coho RU LARC ACL Te Ed Dear! i Ulta 0 Orpie fa) an ar 0) Pe Pe eee ce eee) 0; | On} Uv like eel vl aU a OW? 1h; ,olle ol coma) (a Coan fe)Ese Longitudinal Redundancy Check. In LRC, a block of bits is organized in rows and columns. ORS M TM aioe celta + oF OF OF The parity bit is calculated for each column and sent along with the data. bleed ob eee Rie osPERFORMANCE OF VRC pM eee ele Bole col pees me emo ea lL moe clea kore (od Sender: 11100001 — Transmission Error 1.100001 — Receiver rejects this data. Sender: 11100001 -> Transmission Error 1100 01-> Receiver accepts this data.Wis1e * Vertical Redundancy check. bX eRe) (eked ip aad Data | 100001 tele [Te enrien rs Fen ee erERROR DETECTION TECHNIQUES mor Noae se ae olue Aenectole ato oiroRou nee e MS are: 1. Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC) 2. Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) KO te tia 4. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)ERROR CORRECTION It can be handled in two ways: eh mee eR Ele ree eke oho Raia 2) The receiver can use an error-correcting code, which automatically elie fot Lo a Colcol es 5heckin function Redundancy check Sender Data & redundancy check 10100000000 10101 ‘Scanned with CamSeannerHow TO DETECT THE ERRORS? * Error detection means to decide whether the received data is correct Taam amie ke keel) Ae mia -Kelse ale ual ccele) * To detect or correct errors, we need to send some extra bits with the data. pM Each idee Keel (refed soars lLoe ryBurst ERROR * In burst error, 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed. Sent K -| o]ifofojo]ifolo ] oO} ofofofofi]i Corrupted bits Received o]1fofapaytfofajol1fajojojofiji0 changed to 1 jofofofo| fol [o} > fo]o]o [| jo] 1 Jo| Sent Receivedne a a ye Te R eld BU -Xe (ole kool ho keoeee ro ke Uae Rice ia cols Aca col -acel ele ol Kero a eC Lhe At cello Rol oko iC tat sol arlene Re eu A ad LenS ee Rice ae oem ee ieeeOne danger with this approach is that if transmission error could corrupt bi Remi Riu eu Remi Rice RSet) Maem elt Sens) detected A eee) 14 42 Count |] Header BodyDDCMP + % % % Byte-oriented communication protocol. Devised by Digital Equipment Corporation. It is a byte-counting approach. Ce RMR Riel Rot aeLe Count: How many bytes are contained in the frame body?* ee es -1 byte that marks the beginning and the end of the frame. The bit pattern of the flag is O10. -1 byte which is set to 11111111 in case of broadcast. Soe tales ~1or 2 bytes that define the type of data contained in the payload field. Be ee RU eR RU eed a a tell Re ed a ola Bee a 8 16 Flag | Address | Control | Protocol | PayloadPpp PPP is a data link layer protocol. Pe TAT ce Meee aaa aed TeCR Cs Ret tt Rea aa a ao Cee * It is used to transmit multiprotocol data between two directly connected (point-to-point) computers.CHARACTER STUFFING Byte stuffing or Character stuffing is the process of adding one extra byte whenever there is a flag or escape character in the text. This is done by praia protocol.BISYNC —- FRAME FORMAT Frames transmitted beginning with leftmost field. ba eee ica Ake Cul heme Lo Erte DLO Maren coal.) character. Data portion of the frame is contained between special sentinel lela PAC lamar L aba Cuomo aps * SOH: Start of Header. * OLE: Data Link Escape. * CRC: Cyclic Redundancy Check.a aed Te enn roe Dee aS Also preferred as BSC. Itis a byte-oriented protocol.=) ates tliat eae Nals bE) AL RU Rice Keke Reel oll lao aC Romeo cela tear AOla alice hace) cele) Le edo) bool confers} ODCMP <-> Digital Data Communication Message Protocol.STN Nc} tie Stuffing 11101011 {ele} HDLC Protocol: Beginning and Ending Sequence is OTT)BB Romie ee hm Rec ied aia oe nari e alpacas alin to acolo I-Frame Ist bitisO Ast two bits is 10 Bar a01111110 Biers eel oer ke ae Lo At RRL ALAR eso} that the sender and receiver can keep their clocks synchronized. Address and Control Field. Payload (Variable size) Cyclic Redundancy check - Error Detection Beginning Header Body Ending sequence sequenceLD) Bes SSL ESS iene Aol M A AMC h PRON correo Ale hyvals iy is an example of a bit-oriented protocol. * SOLC was later standardized by the ISO as the High-Level Data Link Control (HOLC) protocol. * Bit Oriented Protocol.CLOCK BASED FRAMING * The third approach to framing is the clock based framing. * Example: SONET <-> Synchronous Optical Network.BYTE ORIENTED PROTOCOLS * BISYNC <> Binary Synchronous Communication Protocol. * DDCMP <-> Digital Data Communication Message Protocol. bo loo ocBYTE ORIENTED APPROACH * One of the oldest approaches to framing. et eu hie aay ne keee Ree) ole Kedar od ulead aie s ph SoS alo cole Ol aire BV e) ol kere laBit ORIENTED APPROACH Ana Rice Redehall hold Ls In bit-oriented framing, data is transmitted as a sequence of bits that can be interpreted in the upper layers both as text as well as multimedia data. .VARIOUS FRAMING APPROACHES