Grade 10 Science

U N I T
Energy and
Matter in
Chemical Change
H ow far and how fast can you run? The answer depends in part on
chemical reactions. The scientist in the small photo is testing a runner’s
fitness. The scientist monitors the breath that the runner exhales to
determine the quantity of oxygen he consumes. This test works because
the reactions that provide the energy the runner needs to keep moving
consume oxygen from the air and stored glucose from his cells. The harder
the athlete works, the more oxygen he consumes.
Whether they are developing a fitness test or a large-scale process for
a chemical plant, scientists and engineers apply theories about the nature
of matter. Modern chemical theories have developed over the past four
hundred years. The roots of these chemical theories, however, go much
farther back in time. The observations, ideas, and discoveries of philosophers,
alchemists, craftspeople, and countless others were crucial to the early
development of chemical theories.
In this unit, you will learn how theories of matter developed. You
will apply these theories to your own observations of matter and chemical
reactions. By studying matter and its interactions, you will equip yourself
to make decisions and think critically about the benefits and risks of the
chemistry that surrounds you.
2
Chapter 1
Atoms, Elements,
and Compounds 4
Chapter 2
Names, Formulas,
and Properties 40
Chapter 3
Chemical Reactions 82
1
C H A P T E R
Atoms, Elements,
• How can you determine how

to work safely with different
substances?
• How did early scientists form
hypotheses and predictions
about particles that they could
not see or manipulate?
• How are elements and
compounds constructed?
How do elements combine?
4 MHR • Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

and Compounds
T he desk you sit at, the clothes

you wear, the food you eat, and the
Today, technological inventions
such as the scanning tunnelling
water you drink all fit under the microscope (STM) allow researchers
category of matter. Matter can also to “see” atoms. Their observations
be invisible, such as the air you breathe. confirm many of the predictions
Matter comes in a great variety of made by scientists several hundred
forms and can be found everywhere years earlier. The photograph on
you look, all over Earth and the left, for example, shows an STM
throughout the universe. image of iron atoms in a corral
You could spend all day making pattern on a copper surface.
observations about matter and asking The STM could not have been
questions such as the following: invented without atomic theories that
What is the composition of matter? were developed based on indirect
Where does it come from? What is evidence. Today, however, instruments
its underlying structure? Why does such as the STM provide direct
matter behave the way it does? evidence of atoms and their structure.
Throughout history, scientists have These instruments help researchers
asked these same questions, trying to make further direct and indirect
to explain the nature of matter. observations, and to proceed toward
The idea that matter is made of ao obetter
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understanding of the nature
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tiny particles has been around for of matter.

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thousands of years. It began in ancient

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How has scientific

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In the past several centuries, however, inquiry into chemica

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head and physical propert
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ies of substances
the particulate nature of matter helped researchers
develop useful chem
products? How can ical
has become an important topic scientific theories ex
certain substances pla in wh y
of scientific inquiry. Early chemists have certain useful
the Unit 1 Design Yo prop ert ies? In
ur Own Investigation
and physicists experimented, Antacids on page 13 : Analyzing
2 you will design an
to investigate and co experiment
observed, hypothesized, predicted, mpare different antac
your working groups ids. Form
and experimented again as they early and begin to thi
nk about
the investigation as
you study this chap
developed theories about the tiny ter.
particles that make up matter.
Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements,

Solar Energy
and Compounds
and Climates•• MHR 5
1.1 Investigating and Working
with Chemicals
As a distinct science, chemistry is fairly young. In fact, some people suggest
that chemistry, as it is known and practised today, did not emerge until the
late 1700s. This does not mean, however, that people only learned how to use
chemicals a few hundred years ago. Since prehistoric times, people have used
chemical substances and chemical processes to meet their needs.
North American Aboriginal Peoples and Chemistry

For thousands of years, Aboriginal peoples have used the chemical
properties of substances and their interactions to make clothing,
preserve food, treat illness, build tools, and adorn objects with
colour. Figure 1.1 shows just a few examples of the many ways in
which chemicals played a role in the lives of early North American
Aboriginal peoples.
To tan leather, Aboriginal peoples from

various parts of North America used
different techniques. For example, some
peoples used a mixture of ashes and
water to pre-soak the hides. Substances
in the ashes helped to break down the
tough layer of mucous that coats the hide.
Animal brains were applied to the hide,
creating soft, water-resistant buckskin,
shown here. Substances in the brains,
including emulsified fats, penetrated the
hide to change its properties. This
process is called brain-tanning.
A
Dyes for decorating fabric, wood, and other

materials were obtained from local plants.
Delphinium plants, for example, produce a blue-
green dye. The roots of bloodroot plants produce
an orange dye. A modern example of designs B
created using dyed porcupine quills is shown here.
To treat illnesses and alleviate pain,

substances were extracted from local
plants. For example, wild ginger was
Figure 1.1 Chemicals, C used by many Aboriginal peoples to treat
chemical processes, a number of ailments including coughs,
and chemical techniques Many Aboriginal peoples who travelled by water melted pine colds, and flu. A tea made from the juice
are involved in each of or spruce gum and mixed it with animal fat. They used the of juniper berries, shown here, could be
these examples. resulting sticky resin to build waterproof canoes. applied to the skin to soothe insect bites.

Many ancient techniques and remedies work just as well as modern ones.
Some Aboriginal people and others interested in traditional methods still use
them today. For example, many people prefer hides that have been tanned using
traditional methods. These hides are said to be softer and stronger than hides
tanned using mass-production methods. As well, ancient means of healing and
herbal medicine have become more popular.
Safety in the Chemistry Laboratory

Native medicines were, and still are, gathered, prepared, and administered by
people trained to do so safely. Even household substances, such as cleaning
products, can be dangerous if handled improperly. Therefore, everyone who
works with chemicals must know how to handle them safely and responsibly.
Handing chemicals may require the use of protective clothing, as shown in
Figure 1.2.
To find out about how to handle a chemical safely, consult its Material
Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). An MSDS includes important information about
a chemical. This includes physical properties (such as melting point, boiling
Figure 1.2 Researchers test
point, and odour) and chemical hazards. Instructions explain how to handle,
protective equipment in the
store, and dispose of the chemical, as well as the procedure to follow in case Defence Research Development
of an accident. A sample MSDS is shown in Figure 1.3. In the activity on Canada (DRDC) laboratories at
page 9, you will investigate a chemical and create your own MSDS. Suffield, Alberta.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Figure 1.3 What safety precautions would you

need to take when working with chlorine?
Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds • MHR 7

In Canada, managing hazardous materials is covered by WHMIS, the
Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System. WHMIS legislation
Class A: Class B: ensures that workers are informed about, and trained to handle, the hazards they
Compressed Gas Flammable and
Combustible Material may encounter. WHMIS informs workers about the chemicals in three ways.
1. Controlled products must have informative labels, in both English and
French, on their containers.
Class C: Class D1:
Oxidizing Material Poisonous and Infectious
Material Causing
2. Each controlled product must have a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
Immediate and Serious
Toxic Effects 3. Workers who handle chemicals must complete an education program
provided through their employer.
Examine Figure 1.4 to review WHMIS symbols and their meanings. WHMIS
Class D2: Class D3:
Poisonous and Infectious Biohazardous Infectious symbols identify eight classes of hazards labelled A, B, C, D1, D2, D3, E, and F.
Material Causing Other
Toxic Effects
Material A substance may be associated with more than one hazard. You can learn more
about the WHMIS symbols and lab safety at the beginning of your textbook.
Class E: Class F:
Corrosive Material Dangerously Reactive Figure 1.4 These WHMIS symbols are used throughout Canada to identify
Material
hazards associated with materials used in all workplaces, including schools.
Pyrotechnician
Fireworks! Dazzling colour, ear-splitting sound, fantastic bursts, sprays, and explosions
of light — all brought to you by chemists known as pyrotechnicians. As the science of
fireworks developed, chemists learned that the standard mixture of gunpowder used
in fireworks could be processed to produce different effects. It could be compressed
into different shapes that would vary the speed of its ignition. A common shape is
the marble-sized ball, called a star. For a display, many stars are placed in a container
called a shell. A lifting charge in the base of the shell is ignited electronically. When
the shell is in position high in the air, a secondary burst ignites the stars.
Pyrotechnicians use their chemical background to mix fireworks. Most fireworks are
mixed by hand to avoid the possibility of a stray spark from metal machinery igniting
the gunpowder. One dazzling aspect of fireworks is their colour. Not until the nineteenth
century did pyrotechnicians figure out how to produce the vibrant colours we see
today. By replacing an ingredient in gunpowder with one that raised the temperature
of combustion from 1700°C to 2000˚C, they made it possible to use a new set of
chemicals. They learned that adding compounds with certain metals produced vivid
colours. Copper compounds produced blue, strontium compounds produced red,
and barium compounds produced green. Today, pyrotechnicians can produce all
the colours of the rainbow by carefully selecting the compounds. For sound, other
mixtures of chemicals are used to produce “screeches,” “whistles,” and “bangs.”
The number one concern of pyrotechnicians is safety. The chemicals they work
with are highly explosive and very powerful. In Canada, the Explosives Research
Division of Natural Resources Canada offers a course leading to the title of Display
Supervisor. Supervisors are allowed to fire shells of different sizes, depending on Today, professional firework displays are
their level of expertise. Team up with a partner to find out what you can about fireworks electronically controlled by computers.
safety in Canada. What kinds of rules exist? How often are the rules updated? Music is often an integral part of the displays.

Find Out
Understanding an MSDS
Certain information must be included on 4. Most MSDS searches are by chemical name.
a Material Safety Data Sheet, but there is no A search for a specific name often turns up
set format. In this activity, you will use print and several possibilities, however, depending on
Internet resources to find information you would how the chemical is sold. For example, sodium
need to develop a chemical MSDS. hydroxide is sold in solid form as pellets,
at different levels of purity, and in various
solutions. Look up your chemical in the form
specified by your teacher.
5. As you proceed, keep a list of any words that

are unfamiliar to you.
6. Record the appropriate information about

your chemical on your form. Here are some
things to keep in mind:
• Note any unusual information. (E.g., does
the chemical decompose before it boils?)
• For chemical stability and reactivity, note
any dangerous decomposition products.
List any warnings about contact with
other chemicals.
• List any potential health hazards, such
Procedure Performing and Recording
as exposure to the skin or eyes. Is the
1. Design your own form to record the following chemical poisonous?
MSDS information: • Is special handling or storage required,
• chemical name other than a cool, dry, ventilated area?
• chemical formula • What procedures should be followed
• physical properties (e.g., appearance, if there is an accidental leak or spill?
odour, melting point, and boiling point)
• chemical stability and reactivity
What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
(e.g., explosiveness, flammability)
• potential health effects 1. From the MSDS you prepared, create a
• handling and storage 1-page safety sheet that could be placed in a
• disposal storeroom, near containers of your chemical.
Use point form and plain English. Include
2. Use the Internet Connect on page 11 information about dangers, handling, and
to learn about the Workplace Hazardous storage, as well as procedures to be
Materials Information System (WHMIS) and followed in case of an accidental spill.
Material Safety Data Sheets. Bookmark at
least one site that has MSDS information. 2. Employers must provide education programs
for people who use hazardous chemicals. What
3. Your teacher will give you the name and additional information would you expect to
formula of a chemical. Write the formula learn from an education program? Use your
on your form, as well as the name of list of unfamiliar words to help you answer
the chemical. the question.

Classifying Matter
Ancient Greek philosophers In previous science courses, you learned to classify matter in a variety of useful
believed that all matter was
ways. Figure 1.5 shows a system that chemists use to classify matter. Answer
composed of four "elements"
called earth, water, fire, and air. the Practice Problems that follow to make sure that you understand this system.
Ancient Western medicine was
also based upon this idea. The MATTER
body was thought to contain
• anything with mass and volume
four substances called the four
humours, each corresponding • may be solid, liquid, or gas
to a different “element.” They
were: black bile (earth), phlegm
(water), yellow bile (fire), and
MIXTURE PURE SUBSTANCE
blood (air). A person’s tempera-
ment and health were thought to • combinations of matter that can • matter that has a definite composition
depend on the balance of these be separated by physical means
four humours. According to this • do not have definite composition
theory, illness resulted from an
imbalance of the humours.
Physicians treated illness by
HETEROGENEOUS HOMOGENEOUS ELEMENT COMPOUND
attempting to restore the balance
MIXTURE MIXTURE
of the humours. For example, • cannot be • two or more
(MECHANICAL (SOLUTION) chemically elements that
deliberately bleeding a patient MIXTURE)
(bloodletting) was thought to • different broken down are chemically
cure fever and headache, illnesses • different components into simpler combined
components are not visible substances • can be
associated with the characteristics
of the mixture • composition separated
of air and fire. The theory of the are visible
four humours persisted until the is constant chemically
• composition throughout into simpler
late 16th century.
is variable the mixture substances
throughout
the mixture
Figure 1.5 Try to use this system to classify examples

of matter that you see around you right now.
Practice Problems
1. State whether each of the following is a pure substance or a mixture.
(a) seawater (c) sodium chloride (non-iodized table salt)
(b) iron (d) bronze
2. State whether each of the following mixtures is homogeneous or heterogeneous.

(a) sugar dissolved in water (c) cranberry juice
(b) oil-and-vinegar salad dressing (d) steel
3. State whether each of the following pure substances is an element or a compound.

(a) copper, Cu (c) water, H2O
(b) oxygen, O2 (d) methane, CH4
4. Classify each of the following substances.

(a) graphite, C (c) motor oil
(b) clear shampoo (d) sodium hydrogencarbonate,
NaHCO3 (baking soda)

Section 1.1 Summary
In this section you learned about the importance of safety for everyone who
works with chemical substances and products. It does not matter whether these
substances are cleaning solutions, herbal medicines, or fireworks. You are now
ready to take a closer look at the structure of matter in the next section.
Check Your Understanding

1. Name three ways in which WHMIS ensures workers have the information
they need about the substances they use.
2. What does MSDS stand for? What information would you expect to find
on an MSDS?
3. For each of the following WHMIS symbols, what precautions would you
take if you were using a product with the symbol on its packaging?
(a) flammable and combustible material
(b) corrosive material
(c) poisonous and infectious material causing other toxic effects
4. Apply Using the Internet, investigate each of the eight WHMIS symbols.
Create a table that shows the following for each symbol: two risk factors
associated with the class of chemical, and two precautions that you could
take to minimize the risk involved.
5. Thinking Critically You can work with dangerous substances safely if
you take the appropriate precautions. On the other hand, substances that
most people consider harmless may be dangerous under some circumstances.
Water, for example, is probably the most familiar substance on Earth, and
is necessary to all life. However, water can be fatal by inhalation (drowning).
In addition, heating water in an enclosed container can cause an explosion.
(a) Name another familiar substance that most people consider harmless.
(b) Classify the substance according to Figure 1.5 on page 10.
(c) Under which circumstances might this substance be dangerous?
(d) How would you avoid these circumstances?
www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/sciencefocus10
To find out more about the Workplace Hazardous Materials
Information System (WHMIS) and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS),
go to the web site above. Write a short report, or design your own web site,
to explain the purpose and history of WHMIS legislation and the
information required on a Material Safety Data Sheet.

1.2 Developing Atomic Theories
Figure 1.6 shows a high-energy particle accelerator. Such an
instrument helps modern scientists probe inside tiny particles
of matter by splitting them apart. Using this tool, scientists can
even create new particles that do not exist in nature. Work of this
kind is based on modern theories that explain the composition
of matter. These theories, in turn, are rooted in the work and
the ideas of scientists from centuries ago. These scientists used
techniques and tools that are “low-tech” by today’s standards.
Even so, early chemists devised atomic therories that are still
useful today.
Early Observations
During the 1600s and 1700s, scientists improved laboratory
techniques for isolating pure substances and analyzing their
properties. The scientists gathered a great deal of information
about specific substances and the ways that they interact.
In some cases, scientists observed an action or condition so
consistently that they were convinced it would always happen.
When scientists are convinced of the regularity of certain
Figure 1.6 Linear accelerators fire
observations, they generalize their observations as scientific laws. Several of
fast-moving particles into a target
surrounded by sensitive detectors. these early laws could be explained by the hypothesis that matter is made up
of tiny particles. In this section, you will discover how that hypothesis developed
to become modern atomic theory.
Dalton’s Atom
John Dalton (1766–1844) was an English scholar and teacher. He published
a comprehensive atomic theory in 1808. The heart of Dalton’s theory was
that every substance is made up of indivisible atoms. Further, the key difference
between atoms of different elements is their mass. Dalton’s theory is summarized
below. Note how well it explained many observations and laws.
For example, by the late 1700s, scientists knew that when substances react,
the total mass of the substances before and after the reaction is always the same.
If matter is made up of indestructible particles, this law makes sense. Particles
Figure 1.7 According to are only rearranged during reactions. They are not destroyed or created.
Dalton, the atom was a solid, Today, chemists still use many parts of this theory to explain the behaviour
uniform sphere. of matter. Figure 1.7 shows how Dalton might have pictured the atom.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory

• All matter is made up of small particles called atoms.
• Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or divided into smaller particles.
• All atoms of the same element are identical in mass and size, but they
are different in mass and size from the atoms of other elements.

• Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements hydrogen water
combine in fixed (definite) proportions. The tiniest particles
of any compound always contain the same types and relative
nitrogen ammonia
numbers of atoms.
• Chemical reactions change the way atoms are grouped,
but the atoms themselves are not changed in reactions. carbon methane
Many of Dalton’s conclusions were based on assumptions.

If the assumption was wrong, it led to an incorrect conclusion. oxygen carbon dioxide
For example, Dalton assumed that atoms combined in the
simplest possible way. He knew that water contained hydrogen
sulfur sulfur trioxide
and oxygen, so he proposed that the formula for water was OH.
He assigned hydrogen a mass of one unit. Then, Dalton used
measurements made by French chemist Joseph Proust (1754–1826). According Figure 1.8 Dalton represented
to Proust’s measurements, water contains eight times more oxygen by mass elements and molecules
than hydrogen. Based on Dalton’s assumption, an atom of oxygen would then differently than modern chemists.
have a mass of eight units. Dalton developed a system of symbols, shown in How are these substances
represented today?
Figure 1.8, to keep track of his assumptions about how atoms combined.
Dalton’s assumptions about the composition of water, and several other
compounds, were inaccurate. As a result, some of his calculations of relative
masses were also inaccurate. However, Dalton used his theory to predict John Dalton was colour-blind
different ways in which a given pair of elements might combine. He proposed, to red, a condition that made it
for example, that there should be several different compounds containing difficult for him to describe and
nitrogen and oxygen. These included NO, N2O, and NO2. When his prediction identify chemicals by sight.
In 1794, Dalton wrote about
was verified experimentally, doubts about Dalton’s atomic theory gave way to colour-blindness. His paper was
widespread acceptance. the earliest scientific description
of this condition. Colour-blindness
is still sometimes referred to
Electricity and the Atom as Daltonism.
Sometimes science fosters technological discoveries, and sometimes new
technology stimulates scientific discoveries. A technological achievement
that helped scientists improve on Dalton’s theory was the refinement of the
gas discharge tube. A gas discharge tube is a sealed glass vessel that contains
a gas at low pressure. As electricity flows through the gas, a “ray” is formed
across the length of the tube, and light is produced. The rays produced in
gas discharge tubes are called cathode rays. In 1855, Heinrich Geissler
(1814–1879), a German glass-blower and mechanic, improved the gas discharge Some ancient Greek philosophers
tube. Figure 1.9 shows a modern version of a Geissler gas discharge tube. speculated that the universe
must be composed of small
particles that could not be
broken down. They used the
Greek word atomos (“indivisible”)
to describe these particles, which
were thought to be separated
by empty space. Ancient Greek
thinkers arrived at their ideas
by a series of logical arguments.
They did not use experimental
investigation to test or develop
Figure 1.9 High-voltage their ideas. Would you consider
electricity flowing through the methods of the ancient Greek
a low-pressure gas produces philosophers to be scientific?
the glowing line in the middle Explain why or why not.
of this gas discharge tube.

Evidence of Electrons
Several experiments with gas discharge tubes led researchers to infer that matter
contains tiny particles that have negative charges. This inference may seem
obvious today. At the end of the nineteenth century, however, many scientists
were reluctant to abandon the central theme of Dalton’s useful atomic theory.
They did not want to believe that Dalton’s indivisible atoms might actually be
made up of even smaller particles.
Find Out
Develop a Theory
As you are discovering, scientists developed 4. Seal your box, and exchange boxes with
theories about the structure of the atom without your partner.
ever seeing the atom. They used models to
represent their theories visually. In this activity, 5. Perform simple tests to determine what is
you will construct a mystery box and develop inside your partner’s box. You may not open
your own model to show what is inside it. Then the box. Make a table like the one below to
you will challenge a partner to collect evidence record the tests you performed and what you
and develop a theory about what is inside. can infer about the internal structure of the
box. Give your table a title.
Materials
Tests Conducted Observations and Inferences Made
cardboard box, the size of a shoe box on Box Evidence Collected Based on Evidence
objects to place inside box
adhesive tape
thin, stiff wire
6. Put your inferences together to develop a
Procedure Performing and Recording theory of the internal structure of the box.
Then draw a model of the inside of the box.
1. Design a mystery box. Keep in mind that:
• a simple but creative mystery box is better
than one that is too complicated What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
• your box may not contain any liquid that 1. Compare your model with your partner’s.
could spill or any substance that could How similar are they? Which inferences could
decompose, such as food account for the differences between them?
• your design must allow for simple tests or
2. Which test yielded the most useful evidence?
experiments, such as probing with a thin
wire or shaking 3. Having seen your partner’s model of his or
her box, what test did you not carry out that
2. Construct your box. You can
might have yielded useful results?
• put in one or two objects that can move
and make noise when the box is tilted 4. Suppose you are granted access to an X-ray
• tape a few objects to the inside of your box machine to conduct further tests on the box.
What are your hypotheses for the X-ray
3. Draw a model of the inside of your box. Your machine experiment? What predictions
model must be based on the inferences you will you make before you begin?
think your partner can make about it. Do not
show your model to your partner.

In 1894, English physicist J. J. Thomson (1856–1940) used a new version
of the gas discharge tube to obtain direct evidence that cathode rays were actually J. J. Thomson once said, “At
a stream of negatively charged particles. Thomson’s modified gas discharge tube first there were very few who
used charged plates to bend cathode rays around a curved path. He knew that believed in the existence of
these bodies smaller than atoms.
by measuring the radius of their path, he could calculate information about I was even told long afterwards
the mass and charge of the particles. Figure 1.10 shows a simplified view of by a distinguished physicist
Thomson’s experiment. who had been present at my
lecture at the Royal Institution
Thomson was indeed able to work out a quantitative relationship between
that he thought I had been
the charge and the mass of the negatively charged particles. He showed that ‘pulling their legs.’”
either they had far more charge than any other particle then known, or they were
much less massive than an atom. Later experiments confirmed the second
option. These stable, negatively charged particles are now known as electrons.
1
Each electron has less than ! ! the mass of a single hydrogen atom.
2000
A anode (") with slit in centre B anode (") with slit in centre
(!) cathode (!) cathode
to vacuum pump to vacuum pump
source of source of
high-energy high-energy
electricity electricity
This diagram represents Thomson’s apparatus. Thomson knew When the current is switched on, the cathode rays travel from
that cathode rays exited from the cathode, and were absorbed the cathode to the anode. A narrow portion of the cathode ray
at the anode. passes through the slit in the centre of the anode.
negative plate
C
(!)
www.mcgrawhill.ca/
links/sciencefocus10
(") A “neon” sign is a modern version of a gas

discharge tube. The colour of the sign depends on the
positive plate gas inside the tube. Find out which colour is given off by
a tube that contains neon gas. What gas glows violet-blue?
source of to vacuum pump
When was the neon tube invented? Where did the first
high-energy
neon sign appear? Answer these questions and learn
electricity
more about neon signs by going to the web site
above. Click on Web Links to find out
When a positively charged plate and a negatively charged
where to go next.
plate are placed near the tube, the ray is attracted to the
positive plate.
Figure 1.10 Based on his experiments with cathode ray tubes,

Thomson concluded that matter contained tiny, charged
particles. How would diagram (C) change if the positions
of the positive plate and the negative plate were reversed?

Electrons and the Atom
Thomson is sometimes called Electrons were much less massive than atoms. Electrons also appeared to be
“the father of the electron.”
present in all samples of matter. These discoveries suggested to scientists like
When he published his results in
1897, however, he referred to the J. J. Thomson that every atom contained electrons. Electrons are negatively
cathode ray particles as corpus- charged, however, and samples of matter normally have no overall charge.
cles. It was not Thomson, but Therefore, each atom would also have to contain a source of positive charge.
another scientist, G. Johnstone
Stoney, who invented the name
Yet, it was not clear where the positive charge was. Thomson at first supported
“electron” in 1891 to describe a model first suggested in 1902 by another English physicist with the same
a unit of charge in electrolysis last name. This person was William Thomson, better known as Lord Kelvin
experiments. A third scientist, (1824–1907). According to Kelvin’s model, atoms consisted of electrons
George Fitzgerald, argued that
this electron and Thomson’s embedded in a spherical cloud of positive charge.
corpuscle were really the Figure 1.11 shows a diagram representing the Kelvin/Thomson model.
same thing. This model eventually became known simply as the Thomson model.
electrons
positively charged sphere
Figure 1.11 The Thomson atomic model of 1903. Thomson viewed the
atom as a positively charged sphere embedded with sufficient numbers
of electrons to balance the total charge.
The electrons in this model are like raisins in a plum pudding or raisin bun.
Ernest Rutherford won the 1908 Thus, Thomson’s theory has been called the “plum-pudding” or “raisin-bun”
Nobel Prize in Chemistry for theory. This model (also called the Thomson atom) could not account for
finding that radioactive elements a phenomenon that Thomson himself was studying. Radioactive elements
actually gave off three different
types of emissions. These had only recently been isolated in pure form. They appeared to be constantly
emissions are now called emitting fast-moving, positively charged particles. These particles are called
alpha particles, electrons, and alpha particles and have about 7200 times the mass of an electron. The Thomson
gamma rays. He studied with
atom contained nothing similar to alpha particles, and gave no clues about how
J. J. Thomson at Cambridge,
then taught at McGill University they might be formed.
in Montreal from 1898 until
1907. Then he returned to Rutherford’s Experiment
England to develop his own
research laboratory at the In 1909, New Zealand-born physicist Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) designed
University of Manchester. an elegant experiment to probe the structure of atoms. As shown in Figure 1.12
on the next page, Rutherford’s apparatus directed a stream of alpha particles
from a shielded sample of radioactive polonium toward a very thin gold foil.
Collisions with gold atoms, or parts of gold atoms, in the foil were expected
to cause the alpha particles to change direction slightly and hit different parts
of a fluorescent screen placed near the foil. Rutherford observed this deflection.
He observed something else, as well. A small number of alpha particles bounced
back from the gold foil. Rutherford did not expect this result.

5. some alpha
particles were
6. a few alpha particles deflected off
bounced backward course (deflection
exaggerated here)
1. polonium source
(emits alpha particles)
2. fluorescent screen
(lights up when struck 3. very thin
by an alpha particle) gold foil 4. most alpha
particles
went straight
through the foil
Figure 1.12 Rutherford realized that alpha particles, much more massive than electrons, would
not be significantly deflected when they passed by, or even collided with, electrons in the gold
In 1904, a Japanese scientist
foil. “Clouds” of positive charge, as proposed in the Thomson model, could cause slight changes called Hantaro Nagaoka proposed
of direction. Rutherford reasoned, however, that the alpha particles would interact with many an atomic model that was similar
atoms on their way through the foil. Thus, the effects of many random deflections would tend to Rutherford’s. Nagaoka’s model
to cancel one another, and the overall deflection would not be very great. described a disk-shaped atom
with negatively charged atoms
orbiting a positively charged
Based on his observations, Rutherford developed a new atomic theory. nucleus. When Rutherford wrote
about his atomic model in 1911,
This theory included both electrons and positively-charged particles. The
he noted that his results would
theory also explained the surprising alpha particle rebounds that he had be the same if Nagaoka’s model
observed. You can follow Rutherford’s logic by examining Figure 1.13. were correct.
Question: How
could the foil Tentative
repel the answer: The
dense, strongly atoms in the foil
positive alpha must possess
particles so something that But: This dense
dramatically? is very dense positive
and intensely “something” Why? Because
positive. must be the foil let most
relatively small. of the positive So: The atoms
alphas go
straight through. must also
They were possess a
neither repelled relatively large
nor attracted. region that is
mostly empty
space.
Figure 1.13 Interpreting the gold foil experiment

nucleus
electrons around nucleus Protons and a Nucleus
Rutherford’s atomic model is shown in Figure 1.14.
Rutherford’s reasoning led him to propose that the
atom had the following features:
• A nucleus: a central region that is positively charged,
extremely small, and yet contains almost all of the atom’s
mass. Such a nucleus would be far too dense to be a cloud
or shell of positive charge, as Thomson had suggested.
Rather, Rutherford visualized the nucleus as containing
tiny, relatively massive particles, each with a single
positive charge — protons. A proton is now known
to have about the same mass as 1836 electrons.
• Electrons: particles with a single negative charge,
located in the outer region of the atom. Electrons
Figure 1.14 Rutherford’s “solar-system” atomic model
are much less massive than protons and neutrons.
of 1911. This diagram distorts the size of the nucleus of the Rutherford’s model suggests that the electrons move
atom. If atoms were really the size shown here, the nucleus around the nucleus rather like planets orbiting the Sun.
would still be far too small to be visible. Electrical attraction from oppositely charged protons in
the nucleus would keep the electrons in orbit, just as the
Sun’s gravity keeps planets in orbit.
• Empty space: a volume of space surrounding the nucleus that is very large,
compared to the nucleus. The electrons exist in this space, but it is otherwise
empty. Since the gold foil was a solid, Rutherford assumed that atoms in it
Canadian Harriet Brooks, shown were packed closely together. He reasoned that most alpha particles could
below, was probably the only pass through the foil due to space within individual atoms, not between them.
person to work with all three leading
investigators of the atom at the
beginning of the twentieth Evidence of the Neutron
century: Rutherford, Marie Curie,
and J.J. Thomson. Brooks was an
Hydrogen is the element with the least-massive atoms. Rutherford hypothesized
excellent researcher in her own that hydrogen would have the simplest possible atom: one proton and one
right. She discovered that the electron. It seemed logical that helium, the next-lightest element, would have
radioactive emissions from the two protons and two electrons. That would make a helium atom twice as
element thorium were actually a
simpler atom — the gas radon. massive as a hydrogen atom. According to experimental evidence, however,
She thus became the first person helium atoms are four times more massive than hydrogen atoms.
to recognize that one element could To explain these results, Rutherford hypothesized that there was a third
change (“transmute”) into another.
subatomic particle in the atom. He hypothesized that this particle had the
same mass as the proton, but no electrical charge. For this reason, he called
the particle a neutron. A helium atom, then, would contain two protons and
two neutrons (as well as two electrons), making it four times as massive as a
hydrogen atom.
The neutron hypothesis could also explain the existence of isotopes. Isotopes
are atoms of the same element that differ in mass but are chemically alike. All
atoms of a given element were thought to contain the same number of protons,
which accounted for their identical chemical properties. If atoms of the same
element could have different numbers of neutrons, however, they would have
different masses, as shown in Figure 1.15 on the next page.

one isotope of neon another isotope of neon
(neon-10) (neon-12) The alpha particles used in
proton Rutherford’s experiment, which
had the same charge as two
protons, were four times more
" 0 " 0 massive than hydrogen atoms.
" neutron "
0 0 Alpha particles are now known to
0 0 0 0 0 " be helium nuclei, each consisting
0 " " 0 0 " of two protons and two neutrons.
" " " " "

0 0
0 0 " 0 " 0 " 0 0
0 " " 0 " "
Figure 1.15 All neon atoms have 10 protons. The isotope on the left has 10 neutrons,
however, while the other isotope has 12 neutrons.
Because they have no electric charge, neutrons were extremely difficult to

isolate and study. In 1932 Rutherford and his colleague English physicist
James Chadwick (1891–1974) gave clear experimental evidence of the existence
of neutrons.
Evidence of Energy Levels

Two of the main objections to Rutherford’s “solar-system” atom came from
other physicists. According to physical theory, electrons moving around a
nucleus should constantly emit energy in the form of light or radio waves. This
process would cause the electrons to spiral into the nucleus, and the atom would
collapse. Atoms, however, do not collapse. There is also no evidence that their
electrons emit energy under normal conditions.
In a gas discharge tube, however, gases do emit light, but only when electrical
energy is supplied to them. As well, each element emits specific colours of light.
These colours are different for each element. The colours of light correspond
to specific wavelengths. This means that the colours have different energies.
Rutherford’s atomic theory had no explanation for this behaviour. Figure 1.17
on the next page shows how instruments called spectroscopes separate light into
different colours. Figure 1.18 shows the spectrum of light from hydrogen gas
Figure 1.16 Niels Bohr used
in a gas discharge tube.
mathematics to describe the
The Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885–1962) came up with an explanation atom. In later life, Bohr was
for these observations. He hypothesized that electrons in an atom have certain a leading advocate of international
allowed energies that enable the atom to remain stable. These allowed energies co-operation in developing peaceful
could be thought of as electron shells or energy levels. Electrons would be uses of atomic energy.
associated with specific energy levels. In addition, electrons could move only
from one allowed energy level to another. They could not exist between the
energy levels. By absorbing a specific quantity of energy, an electron could
move to a higher energy level. By emitting the same quantity of energy, the
electron could move back to its original energy level. Figure 1.19 shows how
Bohr pictured electron energy levels. The diagram shows the energy levels
in two dimensions for simplicity. In three dimensions, they would have the
shape of spherical shells.

slit
prism
gas discharge tube detector
Figure 1.17 Instruments called spectroscopes separate light into different colours.
Figure 1.18 Each coloured line in this hydrogen spectrum is produced by

light with a certain energy.
energy levels Bohr proposed this new atomic theory in 1913. The theory fit very well
with observations of light emitted from discharge tubes. It seemed reasonable
that electrons in atoms of different elements would have different allowed
nucleus
energy levels, and would therefore absorb and emit light of different energies
(different colours).
The energy levels of electrons in an atom are the key feature of Bohr’s theory. Bohr
showed how to derive mathematical equations that described these energy levels.
Figure 1.19 In Bohr’s atom, The equations could be solved for the hydrogen atom (the simplest atom) by
electrons can exist only at assuming that electrons moved in circular paths. As the electron absorbed
certain energy levels. energy, the equation showed that it could move farther from the positively
charged nucleus. Bohr calculated the average distance of electrons in different
energy levels from the nucleus of a hydrogen atom.
Table 1.1 Maximum Number of Atoms with more than one electron were too complex for Bohr to analyze
Electrons in First Two Energy Levels mathematically in the same way as hydrogen. He did establish, however, that
Energy level Maximum atoms with two or more electrons could have only a certain number of electrons
number of in each energy level. This meant that atoms of each element would have a
electrons
characteristic arrangement of electrons in different energy levels. Table 1.1
1 2
shows the maximum number of electrons that can occupy the first two
2 8
energy levels.
Atomic Theory Evolves

www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/sciencefocus10 Current models of the atom are far more complex
The neutrino is a subatomic particle that is produced in than Bohr’s electron energy levels and Rutherford’s
great numbers by the Sun. Canadian researchers study neutrinos nuclear model. For example, electron energy levels
at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, a unique world-class centre are now thought to be divided into sublevels. In
for specialized research into the properties of neutrinos. Find
out more about neutrino research in Canada by going to
many cases, electrons in the same energy level are
the web site above. Click on Web Links to find grouped in pairs. In addition, scientists now believe
out where to go next. that neutrons and protons are made of even smaller

Find Out
Presenting the Atom
It is often easier to understand a concept if you • a poster summarizing the key points
can see it represented visually. In this activity, your of the theory
group will research an atomic theory. Your group Decide how to divide up the work among
will then use three methods of communication to group members.
explain its details to the rest of your class.
3. Use this textbook to do your research. As time
Materials permits, use other texts or Internet resources
modelling materials, such as polystyrene balls, to supplement your research. The information
marbles, cardboard, modelling clay, and wire you present should include:
posterboard and drawing materials such • information about the key experiment or
as markers experiments that provided evidence for
computer three-dimensional modelling software the theory
(optional) • details of the theory itself
• explanation of why the theory needed to
Procedure Communication and Teamwork be modified (i.e., what observations did
1. Your teacher will divide the class into the theory fail to explain?)
four groups. Each group will present an
atomic theory according to one of the
following scientists: 1. Based on your group’s research and on the
presentations of other groups, create a
• Dalton
point-form summary of the development
• Rutherford
of atomic theory.
• Thomson
• Bohr 2. Each of the models of the atom that you have
studied has some flaws. In other words, not all
2. Each group will learn about atomic theory
observations of matter can be explained using
according to Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, or
these models. Without knowing the details, do
Bohr. As a group, you will communicate what
you think that the most modern atomic theory
you have learned in the following three ways:
is likely to represent the best description of
• a 10-minute presentation
reality? Explain your answer.
• a 3-D model or computer simulation
showing how the scientist you researched 3. Although Bohr’s atomic theory has flaws, it
might have pictured the atom is still used today. Explain why a theory with
known flaws is still taught and used.
particles called quarks. Instead of just three subatomic particles (neutrons,

protons, and electrons), scientists have identified dozens of fundamental particles.
It seems likely that with new observations and discoveries, theories of the atom
will continue to evolve.

approximately 10-10 m A Working Model of the Atom
nucleus Physicists and chemists have developed a complex and detailed model of the
atom. A more simplified version explains many observations about chemicals
and chemical changes. What are the key features of this model?
Protons and neutrons cluster together to form the central core, or nucleus,
of an atom. For this reason, protons and neutrons are called nucleons. Electrons
occupy the space that surrounds the nucleus of the atom. Table 1.2 and Figure
1.20 summarize the general features and properties of atoms and their three
types of subatomic particles.
A atom
Table 1.2 Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Subatomic Relative Symbol Mass (in g) Radius (in m)
proton particle charge
(positive charge)
proton 1" p" 1.67 $ 10#24 10#15
neutron
neutron 0 n0 1.67 $ 10#24 10#15
(no charge)
electron 1# e# 9.02 $ 10#28 smaller than 10#18
approximately 10-14 m
B nucleus
An average atom is about 10#10 m in diameter. Such a tiny size is hard to
visualize. If an average atom were the size of a grain of sand, a strand of
Figure 1.20 This illustration
your hair would be about 60 m in diameter!
shows a simplified modern model
of an atom. Notice that a fuzzy,
cloud-like region surrounds the Nuclear Notation
atomic nucleus. Electrons exist As you have learned, elements often have two or more isotopes. In other words,
in this region at certain allowed
atoms of a given element always have the same number of protons, but may
energy levels.
have differing numbers of neutrons.
How do scientists keep track of the number of protons and neutrons in an
atom? The composition of an atom is often represented using just two numbers.
The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus, which identifies
the element. The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons.
Along with the atomic number, the mass number identifies a particular isotope
of the element. Figure 1.21 shows how to use these numbers.
1 proton 1 proton 1 proton

0 neutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons
mass number 1 2 3
atomic number 1 H 1 H 1 H
hydrogen-1 hydrogen-2 hydrogen-3
(deuterium) (tritium)
6 protons 6 protons 6 protons

6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons
mass number 12 13 14
atomic number 6 C 6 C 6 C
carbon-12 carbon-13 carbon-14
Figure 1.21 Scientists represent isotopes using element symbols and by adding the mass
number to an element name. These examples show how to represent isotopes of carbon and
hydrogen. Hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3 are more commonly known as deuterium and tritium.

You can determine the number of neutrons in a nucleus by subtracting the
atomic number from the mass number.
number of neutrons % mass number # atomic number
For example, how many neutrons are in lithium-7?

• The number 7 in its name tells you that lithium-7 has a mass number of 7.
• Determine the atomic number of lithium by examining the periodic table
in Appendix B.
Since lithium is the third element on the periodic table, its atomic number
is 3. Therefore, the number of neutrons in lithium-7 is:
number of neutrons % 7 # 3 % 4
What about electrons? Atoms are electrically neutral, so they have no charge.
Therefore, the number of negatively charged electrons must equal the number
of positively charged protons. The atomic number of a neutral atom, then, is
the same as the number of electrons in that atom. Answer the Practice Problems
below to be sure you understand how to work with nuclear notation.
Practice Problems
5. State the number of neutrons in each of the following isotopes.
22
(a) 10 Ne
4
(b) 2 He
40
(c) 20 Ca
27
(d) 13 Al
6. State the number of each of the following subatomic particles in

oxygen-17.
(a) protons
(b) electrons
(c) neutrons
7. A certain isotope has a mass number of 35. The isotope has

18 neutrons.
(a) What is the atomic number of the isotope?
(b) What is the atomic symbol of the isotope?
(c) Use nuclear notation to represent the isotope.
8. How many nucleons are in sodium-23?
Section 1.2 Summary

In this section, you examined some of the evidence that led to an atomic theory
that involves protons and neutrons in a nucleus surrounded by electrons in
energy levels. In the next section, you will see how the arrangement of these
electrons affects how compounds form.

1. Make a table that summarizes the following features of the electron, proton,
and neutron: location within the atom, relative mass, and electrical charge.
2. Explain why Thomson’s theory of the atom could not explain the results
of Rutherford’s gold foil experiment.
3. Explain how the following observations provided evidence for the existence
of neutrons.
(a) A helium atom has four times the mass of a hydrogen atom.
(b) Different atoms of the same element can have different masses.
4. In your notebook, copy and complete the following table.
Neutral isotopes Number of neutrons Number of protons Number of electrons
carbon-12 6 6 6
lithium-7 (a) 3 (b)
sodium-23 12 (c) (d)
chlorine-37 (e) (f) (g)
5. Describe the reasoning that links each observation-hypothesis pair below.

Scientist Observation Hypothesis
Thomson Cathode rays are attracted to positively charged Atoms contain tiny, negatively charged particles.
plates. They curve with a measurable radius. Atoms also contain sufficient positive charge to
counteract the negative charge.
Rutherford Most alpha particles pass through a gold foil, Atoms have a tiny, dense nucleus, but are mostly
but a few rebound. empty space.
Bohr Hydrogen spectra consist of only a few, specific Electrons in atoms exist in specific energy levels.
colours of light.
ScientistObservation Hypothesis
6. Thinking Critically Give an example from the development of atomic
theory that illustrates each of the following features of scientific thought.
(a) A hypothesis allows you to make predictions that can be tested.
(b) Theories must explain experimental observations.
7. Thinking Critically Rutherford studied for his undergraduate degree in
New Zealand, did graduate studies to get a Ph.D. at Cambridge University
in England, did further research at McGill University in Montréal, and
then returned to England, to Manchester University. Do you think all
this moving around was a disadvantage or an advantage to Rutherford
as a scientist? Explain your answer.
8. Apply If an element contains two or more naturally occurring isotopes,
is it a pure substance? Explain your answer.

1.3 Electrons and the
Formation of Compounds
Group 18
Under normal conditions,
Group 1
Group 2
hydrogen and oxygen are metals
colourless, odourless gases. metalloids
If you ignite a mixture of Period 1
non-metals
hydrogen and oxygen, it burns Period 2
explosively, forming water. Transition metals
Period 3 (Groups 3 to 12)
Water’s physical and chemical
properties are different from
those of the two original
elements. What if you had never
heard of hydrogen, oxygen, or
even water? As long as you understood some basic facts about the organization Figure 1.22A Patterns and trends
of the periodic table, you could predict that hydrogen and oxygen should in the periods and groups of the
periodic table
combine to form a new compound with the formula H2O. The periodic table
could also help you predict some properties of this new compound.
The periodic table, shown in Figure 1.22A, arranges elements into periods
(horizontal rows) and groups (vertical column). Across periods, elements appear
in order of their atomic number. Down groups, elements have similar properties.
Groups of elements are also called “families.” Several of the groups have names.
For example, elements in group 1 are called alkali metals, elements in group 2
are called alkaline earth metals, elements in group 17 are called halogens, and
elements in group 18 are called noble gases or inert gases.
Figure 1.22A also shows the three major sections of the periodic table.
The dark “staircase” line separates metals from non-metals. Elements that
border this line — metalloids — have some metallic and some non-metallic
properties. Table 1.3 summarizes characteristic physical properties of these
three groups of elements.
Table 1.3 Properties of Metals, Metalloids, and Non-Metals

State Appearance Conductivity Malleability
and ductility
Metals • solids at room • shiny lustre • good conductors • malleable
temperature, of heat and • ductile
except for mercury electricity
(a liquid)
Non-metals • some gases at • not very shiny • poor conductors • brittle
room temperature of heat and • not ductile
• some solids electricity
• one liquid
(bromine)
Metalloids • solids at room • some are shiny, • some conduct • brittle
temperature others are dull electricity somewhat • not ductile
• poor conductors
of heat

Patterns of Electron Arrangements in Periods
The periodic table represents patterns related to the arrangement of electrons
in atoms. These patterns help explain how substances behave during a chemical
change. For example, the periodic table can help you answer questions such as:
Group 18 elements, the noble
gases, are very unlikely to take
• Why do elements in the same group have similar chemical properties?
part in chemical reactions. Why • How can you predict the kinds of compounds elements are likely to form?
might that be? Record your ideas,
and your reasons for them, in
The answer to both of these questions comes from the electrons.
your notebook. As you learned in section 1.2, Neils Bohr inferred that electrons orbit the
nucleus of the atom in fixed energy levels. Each energy level can hold a certain
number of electrons but no more. For example, the first energy level can hold
a maximum of two electrons. The second energy level holds a maximum of
eight electrons. Figure 1.22B shows electron arrangements for atoms of the
first 20 elements.
1 Groups 18
1 2
1 H He
2 13 14 15 16 17
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Periods
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Figure 1.22B Occupied energy 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
levels for the first 20 elements in

the periodic table. The diagrams 19 20
do not represent the position or 4 K Ca
path of electrons as they move
in the atom.
Notice that the two elements in period 1 have a single occupied energy level.
Recall that the first energy level can hold up to two electrons. Helium, the
second element in period 1, has a full complement of two electrons in its
energy level. Hydrogen, the first element in period 1, has only one electron.
Turn your attention to period 2, which has two occupied energy levels. The
first energy level — the shell that is closest to the nucleus — is full. The second
energy level contains different numbers of electrons. Lithium has one electron
in its second energy level. As you move from one element to the next across
period 2, one more electron is added to the second energy level of each atom.
The second energy level can contain a maximum of eight electrons. The
arrangement of eight electrons in the outermost occupied energy level is
called a stable octet. Since neon’s second energy level has this maximum,
the second period must end with neon.
Elements in period 3 have a third occupied energy level. What do you
notice about the number of electrons in the first two energy levels of period 3
elements? What about the number of electrons in the third energy level? As
in period 2, the outer occupied energy level of period 3 elements can have
a maximum of eight electrons.
period number of an element % number of occupied energy levels of its atoms

Patterns of Electron Arrangements in Groups
The key to recognizing the group-related pattern of the periodic table is the
number of electrons in the outer occupied energy level. For example, turn back
to Figure 1.22B and examine the group 1 elements. Notice that atoms of each
element in group 1 have only one electron in their outer occupied energy level.
Now examine group 2. As with group 1, you will notice that each element
has the same number of electrons in its outer occupied energy level. Group 2
elements have two electrons in their outer occupied energy level. This pattern
holds for groups 1, 2, and 13 through 18. Notice that all group 18 elements
have a filled outer energy level. Helium has two electrons, while neon and
argon both have eight electrons in their outer energy level.
The outermost occupied energy level of an atom is called its valence energy
level. The electrons in the valence energy level are called valence electrons.
Elements in the same group on the periodic table have atoms with
the same number of valence electrons.
Table 1.4 summarizes some of the properties of groups 1, 2, 17, and 18.
Try the Practice Problems below to apply what you have learned.
Table 1.4 Characteristics of Groups 1, 2, 17, and 18

Group Group name Number of Appearance Properties
number valence electrons
1 alkali metals 1 • shiny solids • very soft, malleable, and ductile
• react easily with water and other substances
2 alkaline earth 2 • shiny solids • malleable and ductile
metals • react with oxygen to form substances called oxides
17 halogens 7 • chlorine and fluorine are gases • react with metallic elements to form substances
• bromine is a liquid called salts
• iodine is a solid
18 noble gases 8 (helium has 2) • colourless gases • very unlikely to take part in chemical reactions
Practice Problems
9. Based on the patterns of the periodic table, identify the number of
valence electrons for each of the following elements. (You will need
to consult the full periodic table in Appendix B.)
(a) chlorine, Cl (c) cesium, Cs (e) bromine, Br
(b) magnesium, Mg (d) strontium, Sr (f ) silicon, Si
10. State what you would expect the appearance of sodium, Na, to be.
11. Identify the name and symbol of the element in each of the following
locations on the periodic table.
(a) group 1, period 2 (c) group 15, period 3
(b) group 14, period 2 (d) group 18, period 1
12. Based on the patterns of the periodic table, identify the number of
occupied energy levels for each of the following elements.
(a) calcium, Ca (c) sulfur, S
(b) krypton, Kr (d) iodine, I

Using Electron Dot Diagrams to Represent Valence Electrons
Li Li An electron dot diagram is a useful way to represent an atom and its valence
electrons. In an electron dot diagram, the symbol of the element stands for
the nucleus and inner energy level electrons of the atom. The electrons in the
valence energy level are shown as dots placed around the symbol. Figure 1.23
shows two different representations of lithium and fluorine. In the figure, the
F F representations on the right are electron dot diagrams. Electron dot diagrams
are also called Lewis diagrams to honour the scientist who first used them,
American chemist Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875–1946).
Figure 1.23 How do these two
representations of lithium and
fluorine compare?
Find Out
Drawing Electron Dot Diagrams
How do you draw an electron dot diagram? Procedure Performing and Recording
Imagine a square around the symbol for an 1. Copy the table below into your notebook.
element. You can place a dot (representing Then draw the missing electron dot diagrams.
an electron) on any side of the imaginary square. Refer to the periodic table as necessary.
When an element has more than four valence
electrons, you begin to arrange the dots in twos. 2. Notice that helium is shown with its electrons
For example, nitrogen has five electrons in its paired. For atoms of most elements, this
valence energy level, so the fifth dot is paired pairing of electrons happens only if there are
with one of the other four dots. While there is more than four valence electrons. Suggest a
no rule for where you place your first dot, and feature of helium’s energy levels that justifies
subsequent dots, you may find it easiest to start placing its two valence electrons in a pair.
above the element symbol (the “12 o’clock”
3. Draw electron dot diagrams for an atom of
position) and add dots clockwise.
each of the following elements: selenium (Se),
bromine (Br), strontium (Sr), radon (Rn), and
francium (Fr). Explain how you decided on
the number and placement of the dots.
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca

The Formation of Ions
As you know, a neutral atom has the same number of electrons and protons.
Therefore, it has no net charge. It is possible for an atom to gain or lose
electrons, and thus to carry an electrical charge. Any atom or group of atoms
that carries a positive or negative electrical charge is called an ion.
Positively charged ions have fewer electrons than protons. A positively charged
ion is called a cation (pronounced “CAT-eye-on”). Figure 1.24 shows three
ways to represent the formation of a sodium cation. Note that the names of
ions of metal elements are the same as the names of the elements.
Na Na+ ! electron
+
11 e– 10 e–
11 p +
11 p +
" e–
neutral sodium atom charged sodium ion

(11 protons and 11 electrons) (11 protons and 10 electrons)
+
Na [ Na ] ! e–
Figure 1.24 These diagrams show three ways to represent what happens when a sodium
atom loses an electron. A neutral sodium atom has 11 protons in its nucleus and 11 electrons,
including 1 valence electron. Adding energy to a neutral sodium atom removes the valence
electron, leaving a positively charged sodium ion and a free electron.
Ions are negatively charged when they have a greater number of electrons than protons.
A negatively charged ion is called an anion (pronounced “AN-eye-on”). Figure
1.25 shows the formation of a chloride anion. Non-metal ions have names
that end in “-ide”. For example, a negatively charged fluorine atom is called
a fluoride anion.
Cl ! electron Cl–
–
17 e– 18 e–
17 p + " e– 17 p +
neutral chlorine atom charged chloride ion

(17 protons and 17 electrons) (17 protons and 18 electrons)
–
Cl ! e– Cl
Figure 1.25 A neutral chlorine atom has 17 protons in its nucleus and 17 electrons, including
7 valence electrons. Adding an electron to a neutral, gaseous chlorine atom results in a negatively
charged chloride ion and a release of energy.

Chemists represent ions using their charge and the symbol of
ion charge
the element from which they are formed. Figure 1.26 shows
how to represent ions.
Na" Mg2" Forming Compounds

sodium ion magnesium ion Ions do not normally form in isolation. Usually, one atom loses
an electron to another atom that accepts the electron. This transfer
ion charge is one way of forming a compound. Why would this transfer happen?
You can answer this question by looking at the structure of the
noble gases of group 18, which do not tend to form compounds.
2# Their valence energy levels are completely filled with electrons.
Cl# O The link between chemical stability and a full valence energy
chloride ion oxide ion level is the clue to understanding how atoms of the other
Figure 1.26 Examine the figure
elements combine.
to see how to represent ions and When two atoms collide, their valence electrons interact. A chemical bond
their charges. Note that a single forms between the atoms if the new arrangement of atoms and electrons is
charge is written " or #, without stable. Often, stability means that the new arrangement has lower overall
the numeral “1”. energy. The lowest energy is often achieved when the atoms in the compound
have the same arrangement of valence electrons as the arrangement for the
noble gas to which they are closest in the periodic table.
When an atom forms a compound, it may acquire a valence energy level
like that of its closest noble gas in one of three ways:
• Metallic atoms tend to give up electrons to other atoms, forming cations.

• Non-metallic atoms tend to accept electrons from other atoms,
forming anions.
• Non-metallic atoms may share electrons with other atoms.
The Formation of Ionic Compounds

Experimental evidence shows that many compounds appear to be made of ions.
Compounds composed of ions are called ionic compounds. Ionic compounds
formed from just two elements are called binary ionic compounds. How do
neutral atoms of an element become charged ions in a compound? Binary ionic
compounds form when a metal reacts with a non-metal. As the two elements react,
metal atoms transfer one or more valence electrons to atoms of the non-metal.
The resulting oppositely charged ions attract one another, forming an ionic
bond. These ionic bonds hold the ions in ionic compounds together. Ionic
bonds are very strong, because they result from the strong forces of attraction
Na Cl between oppositely charged ions.
What happens when an ionic compound such as sodium chloride forms?
A piece of sodium metal is placed in a container of chlorine gas. A cloud of
+ – fine white particles appears, and the piece of sodium shrinks and vanishes
[Na] [ Cl ] as it is consumed by the reaction.
Crystals of sodium chloride, NaCl, have been found to be composed of
Figure 1.27 These electron dot two types of ions: sodium ions, symbolized Na", each with charge of 1"; and
diagrams show the formation chloride ions, symbolized Cl#, each with charge of 1#. The formation of
of sodium chloride. sodium chloride is represented in Figure 1.27.

The ions of an ionic compound such as sodium chloride are arranged in a
regular, repeating pattern. Scientists call this repeating pattern a crystal lattice.
The ions are held rigidly in place by strong ionic bonds. Figure 1.28 shows
how chloride and sodium ions are arranged in a crystal of sodium chloride.
Each ion in sodium chloride has a completed valence energy level. The
arrangement of valence electrons of the ions is identical to that of the nearest
noble gas on the periodic table. For example, the sodium ion, Na", has the
same electron configuration as a neon atom. In general, in ionic compounds,
a metal cation has the same number of electrons as an atom of the closest
noble gas with a lower atomic number. Neon is the closest noble gas in the
periodic table to sodium, magnesium, and aluminium. The cations Na", Mg2", Cl− Na+
and Al3" all have the same number of electrons as atoms of neon.
Similarly, Cl# has the same electron configuration as an atom of argon. Figure 1.28 Ions in ionic
compounds are arrayed in
In general, in ionic compounds, a non-metal anion has the same number of
regular, repeating patterns
electrons as an atom of the closest noble gas with a higher atomic number. called crystal lattices.
Argon is the closest noble gas to oxygen and fluorine. The anions O2# and
F# have the same number of electrons as atoms of argon.
• Binary ionic compounds form as electrons are transferred from metal

atoms to non-metal atoms.
• The resulting ions have the same valence electron arrangement as
the closest noble gas on the periodic table.
• Anions and cations in ionic compounds are held together by ionic
bonds, forming a crystal lattice.
The Formation of Molecular Compounds

When coal burns in oxygen, atoms of two non-metals — carbon and oxygen Table 1.5 Selected Molecular Elements
— form bonds. The carbon dioxide gas that results shows no indication of being Element Chemical formula
made of ions. Neither does it appear to be one large array of particles. Instead, oxygen O2(g)
samples of carbon dioxide behave as though they are made of separate groups hydrogen H2(g)
of atoms that share electrons. These groups of atoms are called molecules. nitrogen N2(g)
Compounds that are composed of molecules are called molecular fluorine F2(g)
compounds. Carbon dioxide, like most other compounds containing
chlorine Cl2(g)
only non-metal elements, is a molecular compound. Because atoms of the
bromine Br2(g)
same element can form bonds, some elements also exist as molecules. For
iodine I2(g)
example, oxygen, O2, exists as diatomic (two-atom) molecules. Table 1.5
phosphorus P4(s)
shows examples of diatomic elements and of other elements that can exist
as polyatomic molecules. sulfur S8(s)
Atoms in molecules are joined by covalent bonds. Covalent bonds are very
different from ionic bonds. Because they are non-metals, atoms in a molecular
compound tend to gain electrons to complete their valence energy level. Neither
atom gives up electrons easily. When the atoms interact, no electron transfer is
likely to take place. Therefore, ions and a crystal lattice do not form. Instead,
molecules form when atoms share valence electrons in a covalent bond. Some
examples of molecules are shown in Figure 1.29 on the next page.

O C O CI CI
B
A molecule of chlorine gas
(CI2) shares one pair
of electrons.
A H
This sharing arrangement in a carbon
dioxide (CO2) molecule gives the
carbon atom and both oxygen atoms H O
stable octets. C
In a molecule of water, the oxygen
atom needs two more electrons,
Figure 1.29 Molecules form when so two hydrogen atoms each
atoms of non-metals form covalent share a pair of electrons with
bonds by sharing electrons. Molecules the oxygen atom. Can you
of both compounds and elements are now see why water has the
shown here. formula H2O?
An atom can form enough covalent bonds to complete its valence energy level.
A single covalent bond is formed when two atoms share a single pair of electrons,
one from each atom. In Figure 1.29, chlorine, Cl2, and water, H2O, contain
single bonds. Double covalent bonds form when two atoms share two pairs
of electrons. In Figure 1.29, carbon dioxide, CO2, contains double bonds. In
a triple covalent bond, two atoms share three pairs.
Electron dot diagrams are helpful for predicting or representing electron
sharing in molecules. You can predict the number of covalent bonds an atom
will form by examining the arrangement of electrons in its valence energy
level. Each single (unpaired) electron in the valence energy level can form
a covalent bond. In Investigation 1-A, you will model the formation of ionic
and covalent compounds.
• Molecular compounds form when non-metal atoms share one or more

pairs of electrons in a covalent bond.
• Molecular compounds consist of independent units called molecules.
They do not form a crystal lattice as ionic compounds do.
• Each atom in a molecule attains the stable electron configuration of the
nearest noble gas through electron sharing.
When predicting the formation of a molecular compound, you use the rule that non-metal atoms
share electrons to achieve a stable octet. This is not always the case. For example, if you try to
draw electron dot diagrams to show the formation of carbon monoxide, CO, you will be unable to
show how the atoms achieve a stable octet. Carbon requires four electrons, while oxygen requires
two. Molecules of carbon monoxide do exist, however! Carbon monoxide is a toxic compound
that builds up when substances are burned without sufficient oxygen. A more complex model
of bonding is required to explain why the molecule is stable. You may learn about this model in
future science courses.

S K I L L C H E C K
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording

1–A
Analyzing and Interpreting
Communication and Teamwork
Ionic or Covalent: Track Those Electrons

Think About It Hydrogen reacts with the alkali metals to form
3
Atoms give up, gain, or share electrons to obtain the ionic compounds. On a sheet of paper, use rings
same number of electrons as the atoms of a noble gas. to model the electron dot diagrams for lithium
The compounds that are formed must contain the and hydrogen. Then, move one ring to model
same number of electrons that were present in the the formation of a lithium cation and a hydrogen
atoms before a reaction took place. Using small rings anion. Use the diagrams that follow to check your
to represent electrons can help you keep track of them. modelling. Notice the square brackets around the
electron dot diagram of each ion, as well as the
What You Need charge shown as a superscript outside the brackets.
bag containing small rings, such as washers or Copy these diagrams into your notebook, so that
coloured hole-punch reinforcers you have a summary of the formation of this
sheets of blank paper ionic compound, lithium hydride.
notebook
electron dot
diagrams for Li H
Li and H
Move one ring to
show how lithium
becomes a cation Li H
and how hydrogen
becomes an anion.
electron dot + –
diagrams for Li H
the ions present
in lithium hydride lithium hydrogen
cation anion
Election dot diagrams showing the formation of ions in
lithium hydride.
4 Now, model atoms of sodium and fluorine.

Part 1 Decide how atoms of sodium and fluorine
Modelling Ionic Bonds become ions when they form the ionic compound
sodium fluoride. (This compound is added to
What to Do toothpaste.) In your notebook, record the electron
1 Work in groups to make models using the rings transfer and ions formed, using the format for
according to the following steps. Each group electron dot diagrams in step 2.
member should record the diagrams as the
steps direct. 5 Some ionic compounds form when two or more
electrons are transferred between atoms. The
2 On a blank sheet of paper, write the symbols number of electrons given up by the atoms that
for helium, neon, and argon. Use the rings form cations must always equal the number of
to depict their valence electrons. Set the sheet electrons gained by the atoms that form anions.
aside to use as reference.
CONTINUED

Calcium oxide is an ionic compound that is used The region where circles overlap represents the
to make cement. (Its common name is lime, covalent bond. Within that region, there must
and its formula is CaO.) Model the ions that be a pair of electrons, one from each atom. After
are present in this compound, and record the the bond forms, each circle must show an electron
electron dot diagrams in your notebook. arrangement like that of a noble gas. The bottom
part of the diagram gives a structural formula for
6 Using electron dot diagrams can help you the molecule. The structural formula shows
determine how an ionic compound is formed. only the element symbols joined by a single line
Ionic compounds contain cations and anions in representing the single covalent bond. Copy the
simple whole number ratios, such as 1:1, 1:2, and diagram into your notebook.
so on. Model atoms of magnesium and chlorine.
Decide how many electrons each atom will give isolated hydrogen atoms H H
up or accept. Then, find the simplest possible
combination of ions that can be re-formed Each hydrogen atom
when these atoms react. Use the diagrams has the same number H H
of electrons as an
below to check your modelling. Then, record atom of helium. The overlapping region containing
a pair of shared electrons represents
the electron dot diagrams in your notebook. the covalent bond.
structural formula of
Cl a hydrogen molecule H H
electron dot
diagrams for Mg The bonding in a hydrogen molecule
Mg and Cl
Cl
2 Model the bonding process in the formation of a
electron dot – 2+ – water molecule. Use the diagram below as a guide.
diagrams for the Notice that paired electrons around the oxygen
ions present in Cl Mg Cl
magnesium chloride atom are not involved in the bonding. The struc-
tural formula for the water molecule shows two
Electron dot diagrams showing the formation of ions in
single covalent bonds, one between the oxygen
magnesium chloride
atom and each hydrogen atom. The two pairs of
electrons that do not participate in bonding are
7 Repeat step 6 for atoms of aluminium and also shown. Copy the diagram into your notebook.
oxygen. Model the formation of stable ions
in a compound, and draw electron dot H H
electron dot diagrams
diagrams representing the compound, of atoms of hydrogen
called aluminium oxide. and oxygen O
H
Part 2 the covalent bonds
Modelling Covalent Bonds in water O H
What to Do H
the structural
1 Use the rings you were given to model the formula of water O H
sharing of a pair of electrons between two
hydrogen atoms. One way to do this is shown The bonding in a water molecule
in the diagram that follows. A circle is drawn
around the electron dot diagram of each atom.

S K I L L C H E C K
3 Methane (CH4) is the main component of Analyze

natural gas. Model the formation of a molecule
1. Compare the valence energy level of hydrogen
of methane. Then, draw electron dot diagrams
atoms in the compounds you have modelled
and a structural formula for a methane molecule.
with the valence energy level of other atoms in
4 Oxygen molecules (O2) are formed when the compounds. In what way are the valence
one oxygen atom forms a double covalent energy levels similar? How do they differ?
bond with another oxygen atom. Each atom
contributes two single electrons to the double 2. How is the bonding in calcium oxide different
bond. Therefore, the double bond contains from the bonding in carbon disulfide?
two shared pairs of electrons. Look back 3. Would you expect covalent bonding or ionic
at Figure 1.29 to help visualize this process. bonding in each of the substances listed
Then, model the formation of an oxygen below? Give a reason for each answer.
molecule, and draw electron dot diagrams
and a structural formula for the molecule. (a) magnesium fluoride, MgF2, which is
formed when magnesium and fluorine react
5 Nitrogen is another diatomic element. Predict (b) carbon tetrachloride, CCl4, which is formed
how many covalent bonds are created when when carbon and chlorine react
a nitrogen molecule forms. Then, model the
process and draw electron dot and structural
formulas for the resulting molecule.
Conclude and Apply
4. Describe what happens when:
6 Molecules of carbon disulfide (CS2) contain
(a) a metal atom and a non-metal atom form
covalent bonds. Model the formation of this
an ionic bond
molecule, and draw electron dot and structural
diagrams for the resulting molecule. (b) two non-metal atoms form a molecule
with a single covalent bond
5. According to what you have learned so far,

what is the largest number of electrons that
any one atom could:
Many ionic substances are (a) donate in an ionic bond?
soluble in water. Barium sulfate
is an exception. This is impor- (b) accept in an ionic bond?
tant because barium is a toxic (c) share in covalent bonds?
element. Barium sulfate has
another property, however, that 6. On some periodic tables, hydrogen is shown
physicians and surgeons find useful: it absorbs X-rays. When
doctors suspect that a patient has a digestive disorder, such as
on both the left side, with the metals, and on
an ulcer or cancer, they may prescribe a barium sulfate “cocktail” the right side, with the non-metals.
for the patient to drink. Soft tissues and organs are transparent (a) What does this placement suggest about
to X-rays, so they do not show up on radiographs (X-ray
photographs). Since barium sulfate absorbs X-rays, it makes the behaviour of hydrogen?
organs visible as white regions on radiographs (shown above), (b) Draw an electron dot diagram showing
as it passes through the digestive system. Outlines of ulcers or
how a hydrogen atom would form a cation.
tumours, if present, also become visible. Because barium sulfate
is insoluble, it passes through the patient without any threat (c) Draw an electron dot diagram showing how
of poisoning. a hydrogen atom would form an anion.
Chemistry often plays a key role in medical testing and diagnosis.
What other examples can you think of?

Section 1.3 Summary
In this section, you have examined how the valence electrons of atoms affect the
ways that elements combine to form ionic and molecular compounds. In the
next chapter, you will learn some rules for naming compounds and writing
their formulas. Then, you will investigate some properties of substances to
see if you can use the theory you have learned to explain what you observe.

1. Find rubidium (Rb) in the periodic table, and answer the following questions.
(a) How many electrons are in an atom of rubidium?
(b) How many occupied energy levels does a rubidium atom have?
(c) How many electrons are in the valence energy level of a rubidium atom?
(d) Write the symbol for the ion that you would expect rubidium to
form in an ionic compound.
2. (a) Why is knowing the number of electrons in the valence energy level
of an atom important?
(b) How is the number of valence electrons in the atom of an element
related to the position of the element in the periodic table?
3. What is the total charge on each of the following ions or sets of ions?
(a) one fluoride ion
(b) one sulfide anion
(c) two nitride anions
4. Think of two cations and two anions that have the same number of
electrons as an atom of argon. Use chemical symbols to represent
these cations and anions.
5. Draw electron dot diagrams to predict how bonding occurs between
atoms of the following elements.
(a) magnesium and oxygen
(b) nitrogen and hydrogen
6. Apply Examine the electron dot diagrams on the left. They represent atoms
of three hypothetical elements.
(a) Which element or elements are non-metals? How do you know?
Xa Yb Zc (b) Predict which element will not combine with oxygen. Give reasons
to explain your answer.
7. Thinking Critically In an ionic compound, an unknown element exists
as ions with a 2– charge.
(a) Classify this element as a metal or a non-metal.
(b) Where, specifically, in the periodic table would you expect to find
this element? Why?

Now that you have completed this chapter, try to do the following. If you
cannot, go back to the sections indicated in parentheses after each part.
(a) Give three examples of ways in which early North (g) How is the arrangement of electrons in atoms
American Aboriginal peoples used chemicals to related to the placement of elements in the
improve the quality of their lives. (1.1) periodic table? (1.3)
(b) Give three examples of ways in which you use (h) Describe the special relationship between
chemicals to improve the quality of your life. (1.1) valence energy levels of the noble gases and
the formation of chemical bonds. (1.3)
(c) Identify three features of WHMIS requirements
that improve safety for people working with (i) Identify the type of element that forms cations
hazardous chemicals. (1.1) and the type that forms anions. Give an example
of an atom in each group, and describe how each
(d) What conclusions did John Dalton make about atom forms an ion. (1.3)
the structure of the atom? (1.2)
(j) Use electron dot diagrams to illustrate the
(e) Summarize the experimental evidence that formation of ionic and molecular compounds (1.3)
suggested that electrons are particles with both
charge and mass. (1.2) (k) Describe how the arrangement of particles
differs in ionic and molecular substances. (1.3)
(f) List the names and summarize the work of
scientists identified in this chapter as contributing
to our understanding of atomic structure. (1.2)
Summarize this chapter by doing one of the • What are cations and anions?
following. Make a graphic organizer such as • What happens to valence electrons when an
a concept map, produce a poster, or write a ionic bond is formed? What happens to valence
summary of the key chapter concepts. Here electrons when a covalent bond is formed?
are a few questions to use as a guide:
• What is an MSDS and what is its purpose? What
kind of information would you find in an MSDS?
• What are the key features of each atomic model
discussed in this chapter? What experimental
evidence showed that each early model
needed improvement?
• What are the differences among protons,
neutrons, and electrons? Where are they
located in an atom?
• What is the relationship between the groups
of the periodic table and electron arrangement?
What is the relationship between the periods
of the periodic table and electron arrangement?

4
1
C H A P T E R
Review
Key Terms
gas discharge tube isotope stable octet ionic compound

cathode ray energy level valence energy level binary ionic compound
electron nucleon valence electron ionic bond
nucleus atomic number electron dot diagram crystal lattice
proton mass number ion molecule
subatomic particle period cation molecular compound
neutron group anion covalent bond
Understanding Key Concepts 10. Compare and contrast anions and cations. (1.3)
Section numbers are provided if you need to review. 11. Explain in terms of electron behaviour what
1. What types of safety information are found in happens when an alkali metal reacts vigorously
a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)? (1.1) with a halogen. (1.3)
2. Distinguish between the terms “evidence” and 12. Explain how the number of valence electrons in
“inference” using examples from Rutherford’s atoms of aluminium is related to the position of
gold foil experiment. (1.2) aluminium on the periodic table. (1.3)
3. List two phenomena that Dalton’s atomic theory

Developing Skills
failed to explain. Justify your answers. (1.2)
13. Draw an electron dot diagram to represent
4. Describe how Rutherford’s gold foil experiment an atom of each of the following elements:
showed that there were flaws in the Thomson (a) calcium (d) argon
model of the atom. (1.2)
(b) rubidium (e) arsenic
5. What is an isotope? Define the term and explain (c) iodine (f) boron
why the existence of isotopes provides evidence
for the neutron. (1.2) 14. Identify the ion that an atom of each of the
following elements is likely to form in an
6. According to Bohr’s model of the atom, how ionic compound.
many electrons can exist in each of the first
(a) Na (d) Mg
two energy levels of an atom? (1.2)
(b) Br (e) Li
7. What are valence electrons and why are they (c) O (f) N
important in the formation of compounds? (1.3)
15. Use electron dot diagrams to represent the
8. How does the formation of an ionic bond differ formation of ionic compounds from the
from the formation of a covalent bond? (1.3) following elements:
9. Use diagrams in your answers to these (a) potassium and bromine
questions. (1.3) (b) magnesium and fluorine
(a) How are electron dot diagrams useful? (c) beryllium and oxygen
(b) Draw an electron dot diagram of selenium, Se. (d) lithium and oxygen
(c) Draw an electron dot diagram of a bromide
ion, Br#.

16. Copy the following table into your notebook 20. Unknown element Z exists as a diatomic
and complete it. molecule. In the molecule, the two atoms
of Z are connected by a single covalent bond.
Isotope Number of Number of Number of
protons neutrons electrons (a) Classify the element as a metal or a non-metal.
fluorine-19 9 10 (a) (b) Where in the periodic table would you expect
carbon-12 (b) 6 (c) to find this element? Explain your answer.
silicon-28 (d) (e) (f)
uranium-238 (g) (h) (i) Thinking Critically
21. If the Thomson model of the atom had been
17. Use electron dot diagrams to represent the accurate, how would the results of Rutherford’s
sharing of electrons in one molecule of each gold foil experiment have been different? Explain
of the following substances: your answer in detail.
(a) water, H2O 22. Use the Internet to find information about
(b) oxygen, O2 hydrogen chloride gas, HCl(g).
(c) nitrogen, N2 (a) What are the hazards associated with using
(d) carbon dioxide, CO2 hydrogen chloride gas?
(e) methane, CH4 (b) What uses does hydrogen chloride gas have?
(f) hydrogen bromide, HBr (c) What precautions would a chemist need to
take when working with this substance?
18. Identify the noble gas that has the same
(d) When hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in
electron arrangement as the following ions: water, it is called hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq).
(a) Li" What hazards are associated with hydrochloric
(b) Ca2" acid? Are they different from the hazards
(c) Br# associated with the gas?
(d) N3# (e) What uses does hydrochloric acid have?
(e) K" (f) What precautions would a chemist need to
take when working with this substance?
(f) S2#
Problem Solving/Applying
19. Unknown element Q reacts with chlorine,
forming an ionic compound. In the ionic
compound, Q exists as ion Q". Write answers to each question below in your notebook.
(a) Classify the element as a metal or 1. Go back to page 4, and check your original answers to the
Focussing Questions. How has your thinking changed? How
a non-metal.
would you answer those questions now?
(b) Where in the periodic table would you 2. Food additives are carefully tested and controlled. Most
expect to find this element? Explain common foods are not. If you drink a cup of coffee, for
your answer. example, you are consuming over 1000 different chemicals.
Only about a quarter of these chemicals are believed to be
relatively harmless in normal quantities. Should coffee be
banned until all the chemicals it contains have been fully
tested? Explain your thinking.

2
C H A P T E R
Names, Formulas,
• How can you name and

write formulas for ionic
and molecular compounds
to reflect their composition?
• How do theories of bonding in
ionic and molecular compounds
help explain their physical
properties?
• What are some properties of acids
and bases and what precautions
should you take to work safely
with them?

and Properties
T his spectacular limestone

cave resulted from the interactions
Some of the carbonic acid decomposes
into carbon dioxide and water. As the
of an ionic compound, a molecular carbon dioxide escapes into the air, the
compound, and an acid. calcium carbonate stays on the cave
The first stage in “cave building” ceiling and eventually forms stalactites.
is the formation of layers of limestone. In this chapter, you will learn
Over a period of millions of years, how to name and write formulas
the shells of dead sea creatures form for ionic compounds such as calcium
a calcium carbonate (CaCO3(s)), or carbonate, CaCO3(s), and for
limestone, sea bed. Movements deep molecular compounds such as
inside Earth lift the limestone layer carbon dioxide, CO2(g). You will
above sea level. Eventually the original investigate and explain their properties
sea bed becomes a limestone layer using bonding theories you learned
deep below the surface of the land. in Chapter 1. You will also learn about
Later, as rain falls through the the names, formulas, and properties
atmosphere, carbon dioxide, CO2(g), of acids such as carbonic acid,
in the air dissolves in the rainwater, H2CO3(aq), and bases. Finally, you
forming carbonic acid, H2CO3(aq). will learn why the unique properties
The acid seeps through the soil of water, the most familiar and plen-
down to the limestone. tiful
o
o k i substance on Earth, are essential
n
L
Very slowly, the acid dissolves to life on this planet.

head
A
the calcium carbonate and washes

it away. Underground streams may o
oki
n
In the Unit 1 Design

L
speed the process. When large caverns Your Own Investigati

on:
head Analyzing Antacids
A
have formed, a reversal of the carving , you will need to ma

use of some of the ke
properties of acids
process may occur. Small drops bases. As you work and
through this chapter
attention to the inf , pay close
of calcium carbonate dissolved in ormation on acids
and bases.
Write down any qu
estions that occur
carbonic acid cling to the cave ceiling. you consider how to you as
you will use your kn
to design your expe owledge
riment.
Chapter 2 Names, Solar

Formulas,
Energy
andand
Properties
Climates•• MHR 41
2.1 Chemical Names and Formulas
Do you enjoy a sip of refreshing dihydrogen monoxide on a hot day? Do you
like sodium chloride on your French fries? Do you take sucrose in your tea?
You probably know these substances better as water, salt, and sugar — their
common names. Figure 2.1 shows some other examples of chemicals with
common names.
Common names often tell very little about a substance. In the past, names
often referred to the source, uses, or properties of a substance. Saltpetre, for
example, is a salty-tasting chemical found crusted on rocks (petra in Greek).
No one could guess from this name that saltpetre is a potassium compound.
Chemists need a naming system that lets them identify the substance clearly.
A chemical name also should describe the composition of a substance. As
well, it should enable chemists to communicate results with other chemists
around the world.
A Sodium hydrogen carbonate,

NaHCO3, is commonly called
baking soda. It is often placed in
refrigerators to prevent odours.
The baking soda absorbs moisture
and molecules that cause odour
from the air.
B Solid carbon dioxide, CO2, is often called dry ice because

it resembles solid water (ice). Unlike ice, it does not melt under
normal conditions. Instead, dry ice sublimes to form gaseous
C carbon dioxide.
C Limestone, used for building, is composed mainly of calcium Figure 2.1 Each of these compounds has a common name, a
carbonate, CaCO3. Calcium carbonate also has the common systematic name, and a chemical formula. Which do you think is
names chalk or calcite. most useful in identifying the compound?

The international system for naming chemicals is maintained
by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/
(IUPAC). Founded in 1919, IUPAC has developed a systematic sciencefocus10
method to name chemicals according to their composition. Use Internet search tools to find the systematic
Today, chemists all over the world use the IUPAC system. names and some uses for these common chemicals:
This system ensures that each pure substance has a single, laughing gas, muriatic acid, milk of magnesia, lye, and
lime. What are the origins of these common names? The
unique name, called its systematic name. The name of a
“official” rules for chemical nomenclature are summarized
substance describes its composition. It also enables you to in the IUPAC “colour” books. (For example, the Green
write its chemical formula and predict some of its properties. Book contains rules for quantities, symbols, and units
For example, the systematic name for saltpetre is potassium of measurement.) You can investigate these books,
and find out more about the history and role
nitrate (KNO3). This name identifies the substance as an ionic of IUPAC, from its web site. Go to the web
compound that contains potassium and nitrate ions. From this site above, and click on Web Links to
information, a modern chemist can predict that, like all potassium find out where to go next.
salts, potassium nitrate will dissolve readily in water.
In this section, you will learn how to name several types of compounds
from their formulas. You will also learn how to write a chemical formula when
you are given the name of a compound. Later, you will study properties of
different types of compounds.
Binary Compounds
Compounds that are made up of two elements are called binary compounds. Before chemical names were
Sodium chloride, NaCl, is a binary compound. The same is true of nitrogen standardized, a single compound
dioxide, NO2. Compounds that contain atoms of more than two elements might have more than one name.
For example, sulfur dioxide (SO2)
are not binary compounds. For example, sodium nitrate, NaNO3, is not a binary was known as both vitriolic acid
compound. One way to identify a binary compound is to examine the ending air and sulfurous gas.
of its name. The names of binary compounds that you will see in this textbook almost
always end with the suffix “-ide.”
Binary Molecular Compounds

Table 2.1 Prefixes for Binary
The prefix “mono” is
A binary molecular compound forms when Molecular Compounds
only used for the second
atoms of two different elements group together element. When the second Prefix Number it
as molecules by forming covalent bonds. Usually element is oxygen, the
the two elements are non-metallic elements. These “o” is dropped. Thus the ➤ mono-
represents
1
second part of the name is
three rules will help you write the names and monoxide, not monooxide. di- 2
formulas of binary molecular compounds.
tri- 3
1. The first element in the name and formula is usually the one that is
tetra- 4
farther to the left on the periodic table. For example, in a compound
penta- 5
containing carbon and oxygen, the carbon is named first because carbon
is to the left of oxygen on the periodic table. hexa- 6
2. The suffix “-ide” is attached to the name of the second element. For hepta- 7
example, in a compound containing carbon and oxygen, the name octa- 8
“oxygen” is changed to “oxide.” nona- 9
3. Prefixes are used to indicate how many atoms of each type are present (ennea-)
in one molecule of the compound. Table 2.1 lists the first ten prefixes. deca- 10
For example, a compound consisting of molecules with one carbon
atom and two oxygen atoms is called carbon dioxide.
Chapter 2 Names, Formulas, and Properties • MHR 43

Study Table 2.2 to understand how to apply these rules. Table 2.2 lists
different binary molecular compounds formed from nitrogen and oxygen.
Table 2.2 Naming the Oxides of Nitrogen
Formula Systematic name Common name Comments

NO nitrogen monoxide nitric oxide • helps to maintain blood pressure
• pollutant from vehicle exhaust
N2O dinitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide • also known as laughing gas
NO2 nitrogen dioxide none • brown gas
• used to manufacture nitric acid
N2O3 dinitrogen trioxide none • deep blue liquid
N2O4 dinitrogen tetraoxide none • used in rocket fuels
N2O5 dinitrogen pentaoxide none • dissolves in water to form nitric acid
Figure 2.2 Car exhaust is a
mixture of gases that includes
carbon monoxide and carbon Practice Problems
dioxide. For carbon monoxide,
CO, carbon is to the left of oxygen 1. Write the name of each of the following molecular compounds:
in the periodic table, so it comes (a) SO2 (b) SO3 (c) OF2 (d) O2F2
first in both the name and formula.
The “di-” prefix of carbon dioxide, 2. Write the formula for each of the following molecular compounds:
CO2, you now know. (a) sulfur difluoride (c) sulfur hexafluoride
(b) sulfur tetrafluoride (d) disulfur difluoride
3. Write the name for each of the following molecular compounds:
(a) CCl4 (b) SF2 (c) CO (d) PCl5
4. Write the formula for each of the following molecular compounds:
(a) dinitrogen oxide (c) disulfur trioxide
(b) carbon dioxide (d) carbon tetrafluoride
Names and Formulas for Binary Ionic Compounds

A binary ionic compound is composed of ions of one metal element and ions of one
non-metal element joined by ionic bonds. The name of a binary ionic compound
is formed from the names of its elements. These three rules can help you
Look back to Figure 1.28 on page write the names and formulas of binary ionic compounds.
31. The figure shows the crystal
lattice for sodium chloride, NaCl. 1. The first element in the name and formula is the metal.
Copy the figure into your note- 2. The second element, the non-metal, is named as an ion. In other words,
book. Circle a portion of the
crystal lattice that represents one the suffix “-ide” is attached to the name. For example, the compound
formula unit of sodium chloride. formed from lithium and fluorine is named lithium fluoride.
3. The chemical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of each
type of ion in the compound. For example, the formula CaF2 indicates
that any crystal of calcium fluoride contains two fluoride ions for every
calcium ion.
Note that because ionic compounds are crystal lattices, their formulas do not
represent molecules. Instead, the formulas represent the smallest repeating unit
within the lattice. These repeating units are called formula units.

The names of ionic compounds do not contain prefixes. Therefore, to determine
the formula for the compound, you must deduce the number of each type of
ion in a formula unit of the substance. You can do this by thinking of the number
of electrons transferred when the compound forms. You find the number
of transferred electrons using the ion charges given on the periodic table.
Remember that an ionic compound is electrically neutral. (Its overall charge
is zero.) So, in one formula unit of an ionic compound, the total positive charge
on the cations plus the total negative charge on the anions is equal to zero.
Model Problem 1
Predict the formula of calcium fluoride. The small lowered numbers in
chemical formulas are called
Solution subscripts. They indicate the
number of particles of a particular
• Identify the type of compound. Since the compound contains a metal element found in the smallest
and a non-metal, it is ionic. possible unit of a compound.
• Use ion charges from the periodic table or your knowledge of the The prefix “sub-,” meaning
“below,” describes the position
groups to determine the charges on the ions. In an ionic compound, of the number. How many other
calcium tends to form a calcium cation with a charge of 2! (Ca2!). “sub-” words do you know?
• In an ionic compound, fluorine tends to form a fluoride anion with
a charge of 1" (F").
• The compound must be electrically neutral. Therefore, one formula
unit of the ionic compound must contain two fluoride ions, each with
a charge of 1", and one calcium ion with a charge of 2!.
• The formula for the compound is CaF2.
• Check your answer by adding the total charges on the ions:
!2 ! [2 # ("1)] $ 0
The total charge adds up to zero. The formula is correct.
You can figure out the formula for calcium fluoride by picturing an
electron transfer, as shown in Figure 2.3.
Practice Problems Ca F
5. Write the name of each of the following ionic compounds:
(a) LiCl (b) KBr (c) CaCl2 (d) MgO F
2+ –
6. Predict the formula for each of the following ionic compounds:
[Ca] [ F ]
(a) sodium fluoride (c) barium bromide –
(b) magnesium fluoride (d) aluminium chloride [F]
7. Write the name of each of the following ionic compounds: Figure 2.3 In one formula unit
(a) KF (b) K2O (c) CaO (d) BeF2 of calcium fluoride, one calcium
atom gives up two of its electrons,
8. Predict the formula for each of the following ionic compounds: and two fluoride atoms each
accept one electron.
(a) lithium bromide (c) potassium nitride
(b) magnesium sulfide (d) aluminium oxide

Cation Charges
Atoms of some elements can form more than one ion. For example, most of the
transition metals (the elements in groups 3 to 12 on the periodic table) are able
to form more than one cation. The periodic table in Appendix B shows some
common ions of the transition metals. For example, nickel can form the cations
Ni2! and Ni3!. Copper can form the cations Cu! and Cu2!. If you are given
the formula of an ionic compound, you can determine the charge on the cation.
Model Problem 2
Which copper cation, Cu! or Cu2!, is in CuCl2?
Solution
• Begin by writing the two ions involved. You know that a chloride anion
has a charge of 1". You are not sure of the charge on the copper ion —
it could be either 1! or 2!, according to the periodic table.
Cu? Cl"
• The compound must be electrically neutral. There are two chloride
ions in CuCl2. Therefore, the single copper ion must have a charge
of 2! to balance the two chloride ions. The copper cation is Cu2!.
• Check your answer by adding the total charges on the ions:
!2 ! [2 # ("1)] $ 0
The total charges add up to zero. The answer is correct.
Practice Problems
9. Determine which iron cation, Fe2! or Fe3!, is in each of the
following binary ionic compounds:
(a) FeCl2 (b) FeO (c) Fe2O3 (d) FeBr3
10. Determine the charge of the cation in each of the following

binary ionic compounds:
(a) SnBr4 (b) FeN (c) PbO (d) PbO2
Naming Cations Using the Stock System

The current way to distinguish between cations was invented by a German
chemist, Alfred Stock. In the Stock system, the charge on the cation is written,
in parentheses, as a Roman numeral after the name of the metal. (The first ten
Roman numerals are I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X.) For example,
Cu! is called copper(I). Cu2! is called copper(II).
The Stock system is used only for metals that have more than one type of
cation. You do not need to write sodium(I), because sodium forms only one
type of cation: Na!. When an ionic compound is named using the Stock
system, the name tells you the cation charge to use.

Model Problem 3
Write the chemical formula for copper(II) oxide.
You may need to write the formula
Solution for an ionic compound without
• Because the copper cation is named copper(II), it must be Cu2!. knowing the Stock name. In that
case, choose the most common
• According to the periodic table, the oxide anion is O2". cation, as indicated on the periodic
• The compound must be electrically neutral. Therefore, one formula table in Appendix B. For example,
suppose you were asked to write
unit must contain one copper(II) cation and one oxide anion.
the formula for an ionic compound
• The formula for the compound is CuO. containing mercury and iodine. The
best answer is HgI2, because Hg2!
• Check your answer by adding the total charges on the ions: is a more common ion than Hg!.
!2 ! ("2) $ 0 Now write the formula for an
ionic compound containing lead
The total charge adds up to zero. The formula is correct. and bromine.
Practice Problems
11. Write the formula for each of the following ionic compounds.
(a) colbalt(II) chloride (c) molybdenum(VI) chloride
(b) chromium(III) oxide (d) lead(IV) oxide
12. Determine which cation is in each of the following compounds.

Then, write the name of the compound using the Stock system.
(a) SnO2 (c) TiCl4
(b) CuBr (d) PdO
In Investigation 2-A, you will practise using the rules for writing names
and formulas of binary ionic compounds.
The classical system for naming transition metal cations is based

on the Latin names for metals. For example, the Latin names for iron,
copper, and lead are ferrum, cuprum, and plumbum. To indicate the
ion with the higher charge, the “um” ending is dropped, and the suffix
“-ic” is added. The suffix “-ous” indicates the ion with the lower charge.
Copy and complete the table below by adding the missing names.
The first line is given to help you.
Element Latin name Ion with Ion with

lower charge higher
charge The classical system for
naming compounds is still
iron ferrum ferrous Fe2! ferric Fe3! used. Compare the Stock
cuprum Cu! Cu2! system with the classical
system. Which do you think
plumbum Pb2! Pb4!
works better, and why?

S K I L L C H E C K

2-A
Writing Names and Formulas

of Binary Ionic Compounds
Think About It Examine the type of elements in each of
3
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons to the following substances. Identify whether
form ions with the same electron configuration as each name or formula represents an ionic
a noble gas. In this investigation, you will use the or molecular substance.
periodic table to predict the number of electrons (a) sodium sulfide
transferred in the formation of some binary ionic
(b) PCl3
compounds. Then, you will use this information to
(c) nitrogen dioxide
determine the chemical formula of each substance.
(d) zinc oxide
Apparatus (e) MgI2
periodic table
notebook 4 Remember that the name of a binary ionic
compound begins with the name of its cation
(metallic) and ends with the name of its anion
What to Do
(non-metallic). The anion name ends with “-ide.”
1 Review the definition of a binary compound on Copy the table below and use this information
page 43. Then, identify the binary compounds in to complete it.
the following list:
(a) HCl Element Anion
(b) SO3 Name Symbol Name Symbol
(c) MgCO3 fluorine F fluoride F–
(d) hydrogen sulfide chloride
(e) sodium hydrogencarbonate bromide
As you have seen, the naming system for ionic oxide

2
substances differs from the naming system for sulfide
molecular substances. nitride
(a) Which types of elements combine to form
binary ionic compounds? 5 Copy the formulas below. Find the total charge
(b) Which types of elements combine to form on the cations and the total charge on the anions.
molecular compounds? Classify each formula as correct or incorrect.
Correct the incorrect formulas. Finally, write
the name of each compound.
(a) LiO
(b) MgO
(c) K2S
(d) AlBr3
(e) NaN3

6 Work through the following examples. Then 8 Many transition metals form more than one
answer question 7 to practise writing formulas. cation. You can use the formula of an ionic
compound to determine the charge on the cation.
A Determining the formula of magnesium chloride Copy the following example, and explain it to a
Based on your understanding of valence partner so that you will remember how it works.
electrons and the periodic table, you know
that in an ionic compound, magnesium forms A Formula: FeCl3
a cation with a charge of 2+, and chlorine
forms an anion with a charge of 1–. One formula unit of FeCl3 contains
three chloride anions and one iron
The compound must be electrically cation. Each chloride ion has a
neutral. Therefore, one formula unit charge of 1–. The total charge of
must contain two chloride ions and the anions is therefore 3–. Iron
one magnesium ion. cations have a charge of either 2+
or 3+, according to the periodic
magnesium chloride
table in Appendix B.
Check your answer by adding the total charges on
Since the compound must be electrically neutral,
the ions: +2 + [2 x (–1)] = 0
the iron ion must have a charge of 3+ to balance the
The total charge is zero. The answer is correct.
total charge of the anions. In FeCl3, the iron cation is
B Determining the formula of calcium oxide Fe3+.
In an ionic compound, calcium forms a cation B Formula: FeO
with a charge of 2+, and oxygen forms an
anion with a charge of 2–. One formula unit of FeO contains
one oxide anion and one iron
The compound must be electrically cation. Each oxide anion has a
neutral. Therefore, one formula unit charge of 2–.
must contain one calcium ion and
one oxide ion. Since the compound must be electrically neutral, the
iron ion must have a charge of 2+. In FeO, the iron
calcium oxide cation is Fe2+.
the ions: +2 + (–2) = 0
The total charge is zero. The answer is correct. 9 Find the charge on the cation in these
compounds. Decide if your answers are
reasonable before you move on to step 10.
7 Write the formula of each of the following
(a) Cu2S
compounds:
(b) Cr2O3
(a) beryllium fluoride
(c) PbO2
(b) sodium nitride
(d) NiCl2
(c) calcium sulfide
(e) CrN
(d) aluminium chloride
(f) HgO
(e) lithium oxide
(f) magnesium nitride
(g) gallium sulfide
(h) barium bromide
CONTINUED

0 Copy and complete the following table by adding @ Write the chemical formula for each of the
the missing Stock system names. The first line is following compounds.
given to help you. (a) copper(I) oxide
Stock System Naming (b) lead(IV) bromide
Formula Ion Name (c) iron(III) sulfide
FeCl3 Fe3! iron(III) chloride (d) nickel(III) fluoride
(e) manganese(IV) sulfide
FeO Fe2!
Cu2S Cu! # What happens when you do not have the Stock
name of an ionic substance to help you write its
PbO2 Pb4!
formula? In that case, choose the most common
cation of the transition metal, as indicated on the
When the Stock system is used to name an ionic periodic table in Appendix B. Write formulas to
! represent the following compounds, choosing
compound, you can tell immedicately which
cation charge to use. Copy the following example, the most common cation.
then move on to question 12. (a) an ionic compound containing iron
and chlorine
Writing a chemical formula given the Stock system name (b) an ionic compound containing titanium
of a compound and fluorine
2+
In iron(II) sulfide, the iron cation must be Fe . (c) an ionic compound containing platinum
2–
According to the periodic table, the sulfur anion is S . and oxygen
For the compound to be electrically (d) an ionic compound containing lead
neutral, there must be one iron ion and oxygen
for each sulfur ion.
iron(II) sulfide
Analyze
the ions. +2 + (–2) = 0 1. Explain why you must use the Stock system to
The total charge is zero. The answer is correct. name ionic compounds containing transition
metals. In which cases do you not need to use
the Stock system to name an ionic compound?
Explain your answer.
2. There is something wrong with the name

written beside each of the following compounds.
In each case, explain why the name is wrong,
and then write the correct name.
(a) Ti2O3, dititanium trioxide
(b) NaCl, sodium(I) chloride
(c) CuCl2, copper chloride
(d) NO2, nitrogen(IV) oxide

Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
Many ionic compounds are not binary because one or both ions contain atoms Table 2.3 Common Polyatomic Ions
of more than one element. These polyatomic ions consist of one or more Name Chemical
different atoms, which are joined by covalent bonds. As a group, these bonded formula
atoms have an overall positive or negative charge. An example of a polyatomic ammonium NH4!
ion is the nitrate ion, NO3". In the nitrate polyatomic ion, one nitrogen atom hydroxide OH"
and three oxygen atoms are joined by covalent bonds. As a unit, they have a net
carbonate CO32"
charge of 1". Many common polyatomic ions are negatively charged and have
names ending in “ate.” You will find it helpful to memorize the names, formulas, nitrate NO3"
and charges of the ions shown in Table 2.3. You will find the names, formulas, sulfate SO42"
and charges of more polyatomic ions on the periodic table in Appendix B. hydrogencarbonate HCO3"
Compounds containing polyatomic ions are classified as ionic. To name these
hydrogensulfate HSO4"
compounds, use the name of the cation, followed by the name of the anion. For
example, NH4NO3 is named ammonium nitrate. When writing formulas, you phosphate PO43"
must use parentheses around the polyatomic ion when more than one is present
in a formula unit. For example, aluminium nitrate must contain three nitrate
ions, NO3", for every aluminium ion, Al3!. This combination gives a net
charge of zero. To show this clearly, the formula is written Al(NO3)3. Model
Problems 4 and 5 below give more examples of writing names and formulas
for compounds that contain polyatomic ions.
Model Problem 4
What is the formula of ammonium sulfide?
Solution Compounds with polyatomic
The compound contains a polyatomic ion, so it is ionic. Name it ions contain both ionic and
without using prefixes. Write the formula of each ion: covalent bonds. For example,
sodium sulfate, Na2SO4,
is classified as an ionic
substance because it is
Since the compound must be electrically neutral, there must be two made up of different ions.
ammonium ions for every sulfide ion. Sodium sulfate dissolves
in water, and the solution
Use parentheses to indicate the two ammonium ions present. conducts electricity. Because
The formula of ammonium sulfide is (NH4)2S the sulfate ion, SO42", is
made up of non-metal atoms,
Check your answer by adding the total charges on the ions. however, the bonding
[2 # (!1)] ! ("2) $ 0 between the sulfur and
oxygen atoms is covalent.
The total charge is zero. The answer is correct.
Model Problem 5
What is the name of CuCO3?
Solution
From the periodic table in Appendix B, the two possible ions of copper are
Cu! and Cu2!. From Table 2.3 above, the carbonate ion has a charge of 2".
There is one copper ion and one carbonate ion in each formula unit of
CuCO3. Since the compound must be electrically neutral, the copper ion
must be Cu2!.
The name of CuCO3 is copper(II) carbonate.

Practice Problems
13. Write the name of each of the following compounds:
(a) NaNO3 (c) CuHCO3
(b) CaSO4 (d) Cu(OH)2
14. Predict the formula of each of the following compounds:

(a) magnesium sulfate (c) ammonium hydroxide
(b) sodium phosphate (d) copper(II) nitrate
15. Write the name of each of the following compounds. To find the
name of some of the polyatomic ions, you will need to refer to
the periodic table in Appendix B.
(a) Sr(ClO2)2 (d) Na2Cr2O7
(b) Ba(CH3COO)2 (e) KSCN
(c) Ca(IO3)2 (f ) FeSO4
16. Write the formula of each of the following compounds. To find the
formula and charge of some of the polyatomic ions, you will need
to refer to the periodic table in Appendix B.
(a) ammonium chloride (d) calcium sulfite
(b) sodium hydrogensulfite (e) nickel(II) phosphate
(c) potassium dihydrogenphosphate
Families of Polyatomic Anions

You may have noticed that many polyatomic anions are composed of oxygen
and one other non-metallic element. Nitrate, NO3", and sulfate, SO42", are two
common examples. Nitrite, NO2", and sulfite, SO32", are two other examples.
What do you notice about the names, formulas, and charges of the nitrate
and nitrite anions? What do you notice about sulfate and sulfite?
Anions that contain oxygen, such as sulfate and sulfite, or nitrate and nitrite,
are part of the same families of polyatomic anions. They contain the same
elements and have the same charge. Their names and formulas are slightly
different, however. You can use a series of rules to name anions that belong
to these families. The rules are outlined below.
• In each family, the anion with the ending “-ate” serves as a reference point.
In the example in Table 2.4, nitrate, NO3", is the reference. The other anions
Table 2.4 A Family of are named according to the number of oxygen atoms in their formula, in
Oxygen-Containing Anions
relation to the reference anion.
Anion name Formula • Compared with an “ ate” anion, an anion named “ ite” has one less
pernitrate NO4" oxygen atom in its formula. Compare nitrate, NO3 , with nitrite, NO2".
"
nitrate NO3! • Anions that have two less oxygen atoms than the reference anion are named
nitrite NO2" “hypo ite”, as in hyponitrite, NO".
• Anions that have one more oxygen atom than the reference anion are called
hyponitrite NO"
“per ate”, as in pernitrate, NO4".

Answer the following questions. They will help you practise naming oxygen-
containing anions based on the rules you have just learned.
Practice Problems
17. The anion sulfate has the formula SO42". What is the formula
and charge of the sulfite anion?
18. The anion chlorate has the formula ClO3". What is the formula
and charge of the hypochlorite anion?
19. The anion iodate has the formula IO3". What is the formula and
charge of the periodiate anion?
Find Out
The Ionic Card Game
How well do you understand the rules for classify- 2. Prepare cards and a detailed set of rules for
ing and naming ionic compounds? In the following your game.
activity, apply your knowledge to design a chemical
card game. 3. Try several rounds of your game within your
group. Refine the rules as necessary.
Materials
4. Exchange games with at least one other group.
pencils After playing each game, complete an evalua-
felt markers tion of the game as directed by your teacher.
index cards
Procedure
Communication and Teamwork 1. What were the main difficulties your group
1. Work with your group to design a card game faced in designing and producing the game?
that involves naming and finding formulas for
2. How did your game differ from those of
ionic compounds. Consider the following
other groups?
points as you design your game.
• Your game must include a variety of ions, 3. What would you improve about your game
including polyatomic ions, and must if you were to redesign it? Give reasons for
involve combining them to make formula each change.
units with a net charge of zero.
4. How has producing and playing a card game
• The game must include at least 32 cards. helped you learn and practise naming rules
• You may base the game on other card and formula-writing rules for ionic compounds?
games, or you may invent a new
game entirely.
• The game should involve two to four
players and require no more than 15 min
to complete.

Hydrogen Compounds
www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/ One important group of compounds seems to break the
sciencefocus10 naming rules given in this section. You might think that
How many chemicals are there? Scientists are still HCl, for example, would be ionic. It contains hydrogen
counting. The Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) of (found with the metals on the periodic table) and a non-
the American Chemical Society maintains a very large
database of substances. In mid-August, 2002, the CAS metal. In fact, hydrogen is a non-metal, and HCl is known
Registry was adding about 4000 new substances per to be molecular. It is the same for most other compounds
day and contained a total of 20 124 413 different whose names begin with “hydrogen”. The names of these
compounds. You can check the CAS Substance
molecular substances, however, do not use prefixes. The
Counter on the Internet to find the current
number. Go to the web site above, and correct name for the molecular compound HCl is hydrogen
click on Web Links to find out chloride, not hydrogen monochloride. Similarly, H2S is hydrogen
where to go next. sulfide, not dihydrogen monosulfide. You will learn more about
this type of substance in section 2.3. Compounds containing hydrogen
and carbon, such as ethane, C2H6, or ethanol, C2H5OH, have another set of
naming rules, which you will learn in later science courses.
Table 2.5 shows some examples of important compounds that contain hydro-
gen. You should memorize the names and formulas of these common compounds.
Table 2.5 Selected Hydrogen-Containing Compounds
Formula Name Comments

H2O water • known as ice in its solid form and water vapour in its gaseous form
NH3 ammonia • a gas used in household cleaners and fertilizers
CH4 methane • natural gas is composed mostly of methane
• colourless and odourless
CH3OH methanol • a liquid also known by its common name, wood alcohol
• used as a disinfectant, in antifreeze, and as a paint thinner
Section 2.1 Summary

In this section, you learned how to name and write formulas for ionic and
molecular compounds. Table 2.6 below summarizes some of the key points
Table 2.6 A Summary to remember when naming molecular compounds and ionic compounds.
of Key Naming Rules
Molecular Compounds Ionic Compounds

Binary molecular compounds Binary ionic compounds
• These compounds contain two non-metal elements. • These compounds contain one metallic element and one
non-metallic element.
• The leftmost element on the periodic table is written first in the
name and the formula. • The metallic element (the cation) is named first.
• These compounds are named using prefixes to indicate the number • The name of the non-metallic element (the anion) is changed
of atoms in each molecule (e.g., P2O5, diphosphorus pentoxide). to “-ide” (e.g., sodium chloride).
• The prefix “mono-” is omitted in the first element named • Cations with more than one possible charge are named using
(e.g., CO2, carbon dioxide). the Stock system.
• Subscripts in the formulas of these compounds indicate the • The total charge of anions and cations must equal zero.
number of atoms in each molecule (e.g., a molecule of CO2
Ionic compounds with polyatomic ions
contains one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms).
• Refer to the periodic table for names and charges of
polyatomic ions.
• Treat a polyatomic ion as a unit.

1. Name each of the following ionic compounds:
(a) MgBr2
(b) KHSO4
(c) (NH4)3PO4
(d) Ca(OH)2
2. Name each of the following molecular compounds:
(a) CF4 (d) PCl3
(b) PH3 (e) N2F4
(c) P4O10 (f) O2F2
3. Copy the following list of compounds in your notebook. Identify each
compound as ionic or molecular. Mark the binary compounds with an
asterisk (*). Name each compound using the appropriate method.
(a) P2O5
(b) CaSO4
(c) KNO3
(d) MgI2
4. Write the formula for each of the following compounds:
(a) phosphorus pentachloride
(b) sulfur hexafluoride
(c) nitrogen trifluoride
(d) silicon tetrafluoride
(e) silver phosphate
(f) manganese(II) dichromate
(g) sodium perchlorate
(h) cobalt(II) permanganate
5. Write the systematic name for each of the following substances:
(a) water, H2O
(b) ammonia, NH3
(c) potash, K2CO3
(d) lye, NaOH
6. Thinking Critically Explain why a standard naming system is important
for international communication, safety, and efficiency.

2.2 Explaining Properties
of Substances
Table 2.7 Abbreviations for States
One mark of a valid theory is its
State Abbreviation Examples (at room temperature) ability to explain observations. In
solid (s) iron: Fe(s) this section, you will investigate the
sodium chloride: NaCl(s)
properties of ionic compounds and
liquid (!) water: H2O(!) molecular compounds. You will use
octane (found in gasoline): C8H18(!)
the theory you learned in section 1.3
gas (g) helium: He(g) to explain what you observe. Then,
nitrogen: N2(g)
you will investigate the properties
aqueous (aq) sodium chloride solution (brine): NaCl(aq) of two other important classes
(dissolved in water) ammonia solution (found in glass cleaner): NH3(aq)
of substances.
Bonding and Properties

Chemists can infer many features of the structure and bonding of different
substances. They do this by observing their physical and chemical properties. For
example, physical properties such as structure, melting and boiling points, and
electrical conductivity give important clues about bonding in ionic compounds
and molecular compounds. It is important to know the state of a substance
because substances have different properties in different states. For example,
substances have different properties when they are dissolved in water. To avoid
confusion, chemists use subscripts to show the state of a substance when writing
its formula. Table 2.7 shows these subscripts.
Properties of Ionic Compounds

You can see some important properties of sodium chloride, NaCl(s), in Figure
2.4. Note that a red light indicates when a substance is conducting electricity.
• In the solid state, ionic compounds have regular crystalline shapes with
flat sides. This property suggests that the ions in the crystal are arranged
in a regular, repeating pattern. As you know, scientists call this pattern
a crystal lattice.
Figure 2.4 Like most ionic compounds, sodium

chloride (A) has a relatively high melting point
(801˚C). It conducts electricity in solution (B), and B C
does not conduct electricity in its solid state (C).

• Ionic compounds tend to have fairly high melting points. This property
suggests that the attraction between positively and negatively charged ions
in the lattice is strong and extends throughout the crystal. A great deal of
energy is required to break the strong ionic bonds.
• In the solid state, ionic compounds do not conduct electricity. This property
suggests that the ions in the lattice are not free to move.
• When melted or dissolved in water, ionic compounds are electrolytes. They
conduct electricity. This property suggests that melting and dissolving break
down the crystal lattice and allow ions to move freely and carry charge.
Properties of Molecular Compounds

Properties of molecular compounds can also be used to build up a picture
of their structure. Figure 2.5 shows glucose solid and solution being tested
for electrical conductivity.
• Most molecular compounds have fairly low melting points. This property
suggests that the attractive forces between molecules must be weak and easy
to overcome.
• Once melted, molecular compounds can usually be heated further without
decomposing into other compounds or elements. This property suggests
that the covalent bonds within molecules must be strong.
• Molecular substances tend to be non-electrolytes. They do not conduct
electricity in any state as pure substances. This property suggests that
molecular substances are not made of ions. They do not conduct electricity
even in liquid form, because the liquid contains only neutral molecules.
• When dissolved in water, most molecular substances do not conduct electricity.
However, some molecular substances do conduct electricity when dissolved in
water. This observation suggests that some molecular substances can form ions
when they are dissolved in water. When a substance that is dissolved in water
conducts electricity, you cannot be sure whether it is an ionic compound or
a molecular compound. You must perform further tests.
Figure 2.5 Like most molecular compounds, glucose

does not conduct electricity either in solid form (A) or
in an aqueous solution (B). Glucose is a solid at room
temperature, but it has a relatively low melting point
(146°C). Many molecular compounds, such as sulfur
dioxide, SO2(g), are gases at room temperature. Many
others are liquids.
In the investigation that follows, you will design a procedure to identify

substances as ionic or molecular, based on their properties. You will explain
why theories of ionic and covalent bonding help to describe the different
properties of substances.

S K I L L C H E C K

2-B
Ionic or Molecular?
Scientists often work in the same way as detectives. Like detectives
searching for clues, chemists classify substances by matching
observations against theories about ionic and molecular compounds.
In this investigation, you will try to determine the type of bonding
in several common substances by observing their properties.
Question
Which substances in this investigation are composed of molecules,
and which are composed of ions?
Prediction
Read Procedure steps 1 to 6. Before you write your procedure, examine the
substances you will be investigating. Describe their physical appearance. Predict
whether your tests will determine whether each one is ionic or molecular.
Safety Precautions Procedure

1 With your group, decide on a set of at least
five observations, including a conductivity test,
• This may be the first time you work with chemicals which will help you determine whether each
in this course. If so, review the general laboratory
safety procedures outlined on page xiv of this substance is ionic or molecular. You may include
textbook. Your teacher may provide additional tests using any of the apparatus listed. Qualitative
guidelines specific to your school. observations are fine, too. For example, you can
• Review with your teacher the safety hazards of the describe the melting point as “low” or “high,”
chemicals you will be using. Be sure you understand depending on whether the substance melts in
the MSDS information for these chemicals, and use a beaker sitting on a hot plate at low heat. You
recommended handling and disposal procedures.
can also describe the odour of the substances.
• If you have medical conditions, such as allergies or
asthma, inform your teacher and find out appropriate Write a step-by-step procedure for your tests.
precautions to take before beginning the investigation.
2
CAUTION: If you are going to use smell as
• Be sure to wear gloves, safety glasses, and protective one of your tests, be sure to include the correct
clothing while you are working in the lab.
procedure for doing so. CAUTION: Never
Apparatus Materials taste any substances in the laboratory.
magnifying lens 9 labels
3 Design a data table to record your
5 beakers (100 mL) distilled water
observations. Use a grid format, with
scoopula solid honey (paraffin
wax is an alternative) space for observations of each substance
stirring rod
in a separate row.
conductivity tester Epsom salts
hot plate lauric acid Have your procedure and data table approved
4
test tube rack washing soda by your teacher.
4 test tubes
test tube holder

S K I L L C H E C K

xx-A
5 Perform each test and record your observations.

If you decide to test the substance after it has
been dissolved, be sure to include observations For tips on designing an investigation,
of a control sample of distilled water. turn to Skill Focus 5.
6 When your tests are finished, dispose of

each sample and clean your workspace and
apparatus as directed by your teacher. Wash
your hands thoroughly.
Analyze
1. What do the relative melting points suggest 7. Share your results with others in your class.
about the bonding within each substance? Discuss any classifications about which you
disagree and suggest a method of resolving
2. Classify each substance as an electrolyte or the disagreement.
a non-electrolyte. On which test do you base
this classification? 8. Discuss how this investigation would change if
you made quantitative, rather than qualitative,
3. What is the purpose of testing a control, as observations. Which of your observations or
you did in Procedure step 5? Did all your tests could be made in a quantitative fashion?
observations require a control? Explain Would your confidence in your classification
why or why not. be improved by using quantitative observations?
Would there be any disadvantages to making
Conclude and Apply this investigation quantitative?
4. Which of the compounds in this investigation
are made of ions? Which compounds are made Extend Your Knowledge
of molecules? Explain why you classified each 9. Use Internet or print resources to investigate
substance the way you did. the substances you tested in this investigation.
5. Which substances were the most difficult to If possible, write the IUPAC name and formula
classify? Describe any inconsistencies in your for each substance. If it is not possible to name
observations. For example, perhaps one test and write the formula of a substance, explain
suggests that the substance is ionic even though why. Hint: At least one of the substances is not
all the other tests suggest that it is molecular. a pure substance.
6. Choose one of your tests and evaluate it in detail.

Identify the manipulated and responding variables.
Which variables (if any) were controlled? Were
the results clear and easy to interpret? Based on
your experience, how could the testing procedure
be improved or made more precise?

Assessing the Risk: Toxic Properties of Substances
Nicotine-like chemicals are being Industrial workers who handle the molecular substance ethanol, C2H5OH(!),
investigated for their potentially
are warned that the chemical can be harmful. The MSDS for pure ethanol
useful medicinal effects. They
may be useful in the treatment of states that it can cause mutations, damage unborn children, irritate the skin
Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s and lungs, cause unconsciousness, and damage the liver and nervous system.
disease, some mental illnesses, Despite these hazards, people expose themselves to ethanol solutions daily.
and adult ADD. Some chemicals
that are related to nicotine appear
They do so every time they drink an alcoholic beverage.
to improve memory and learning Life in our modern society can involve the use of many chemicals with
in rats, and may protect rat brain properties that produce pronounced physical and psychological effects. Society’s
cells from some toxins. Other attitude to these substances varies. Some of them are widely accepted. Caffeine,
chemical relatives of nicotine are
effective painkillers. Nicotine for example, is a powerful stimulant that is found in coffee, tea, cocoa, and
itself is a “dirty drug,” whose chocolate (Figure 2.6). It is a diuretic, meaning that it causes more frequent
negative effects often counteract urination. It also increases blood pressure by constricting blood vessels. Caffeine
its possible benefits. Tobacco
is not classified as a hazardous substance. Its use is not regulated. Controlling
products, such as cigarettes, with
their mix of potent chemicals, your caffeine intake is a personal decision.
have no known medical use. On the other hand, governments and other bodies strictly regulate the
use of some substances. Many performance-enhancing drugs, for example,
are strictly banned from athletic competitions. The use and sale of many
psychoactive drugs, such as cocaine, heroin, and ecstasy (MDMA), are illegal.
People under a certain age cannot legally purchase alcoholic beverages and
cigarettes. In the last decade, many towns and cities have decided to ban
smoking in public places.
Knowing about chemistry can help people make informed personal decisions
about whether to include potentially harmful chemicals as part of their lifestyle.
Table 2.8 outlines some information about the chemicals in alcoholic beverages
and tobacco products and their effects. In the next investigation, you will have
Figure 2.6 Caffeine is present in a chance to find similar information about another chemical that you wish
varying amounts in all these items. to research.
Table 2.8 Ethanol and Nicotine Products

Alcoholic beverages Tobacco products
Active ingredient ethanol, C2H5OH(!) nicotine, C10H14N2(!)
Toxicity • Drinking 50 mL of pure ethanol can lead to death. • Absorbing one drop of nicotine through the tongue can
cause death. (In tobacco plants, nicotine functions as
a natural insecticide.)
Physical effects • increased risk of fetal alcohol syndrome in unborn • increased heart rate and blood pressure
child if alcohol consumed during pregnancy • suppressed appetite
• temporary loss of coordination and slurred • digestive problems and vomiting
speech (“drunkenness”) • reduced body temperature
• damage to brain, pancreas, liver, and kidneys • increased risk of lung cancer and other lung problems
• increased risk of cancer of the stomach, mouth, and liver • possible medicinal uses
• impotence and infertility
Effect on • depressant (reduces activity in brain areas that • stimulant
nervous system control behaviour) • release of dopamine, a brain chemical associated
• temporary confusion and inability to think clearly with feelings of pleasure and relaxation
• increased risk of seizures
Addictiveness • Both physical and psychological dependence develop. • Both physical and psychological dependence develop.
• Tolerance develops slowly, so larger doses are • Tolerance develops rapidly, so larger doses are
eventually needed to produce the same effect. quickly needed to produce the same effect.
Associated • Other chemicals in alcoholic beverages are not • Other chemicals in tobacco smoke are even more toxic
chemicals generally hazardous. than nicotine.

S K I L L C H E C K

2-C
Reducing the Risk

Think About It
Deciding to use chemicals always involves balancing 5 Creatively present your findings and action
risks and benefits based on what you know about plan. For example, you may present your work
their properties. In this investigation, you will create as a poster, a slide show, or a web page.
an action plan for regulating the use of a particular
chemical so that people can enjoy its benefits (if any)
while minimizing its risk to human health and to the Analyze
environment. Try to create an action plan that is
1. Compare the action plans proposed by the
imaginative, feasible, and likely to be effective.
different groups. Which action plans seemed
What to Do most likely to be successful?
1 As a group, choose a widely used chemical to 2. Problems associated with a particular

investigate. Some possibilities are listed below: chemical may take years to discover. The
• chlorine or fluoride chemicals added to anti-nausea drug thalidomide, for example,
drinking water was introduced in the late 1950s. Not until
• formaldehyde-emitting glues used in 1961 did scientists realize that many women
plywood and chipboard who took thalidomide during pregnancy gave
• a medicine birth to children with missing or deformed
• “road salt” used to melt ice limbs. How did each group’s action plan deal
with the possibility that an apparently useful
• addictive chemicals discussed in this section
chemical might have unsuspected long-term
• MSG (monosodium glutamate) or another
side effects?
food additive
3. The sale and use of alcoholic beverages
2 Gather information on the benefits of using
was completely banned in Alberta during
the chemical and the specific hazards it presents
Prohibition (1916–1924). Despite harsh
to human health and to the environment. Such
penalties, however, many people disregarded
risks may arise while in producing, distributing,
the law. How did each group’s action plan
using, recycling, or disposing of the chemical.
Use Internet and print resources. The Merck encourage people to follow regulations and
Index is a useful starting point for information guidelines for using the chemical?
about chemicals and their properties.
Extend Your Knowledge
3 Find out whether use of the chemical is now
4. Chemicals that are relatively safe on their
regulated in Canada. If its use is regulated,
own can be much more hazardous when used
find out how.
together. Find and describe an example of
4 Brainstorm ways to reduce the hazards associated a potentially hazardous drug interaction.
with the chemical. You could, for example, decide Doctors, firefighters, hazardous materials
to ban it completely, control how it is distributed, specialists, pharmacists, and industrial safety
require a permit to purchase or use it, or restrict officers at chemical plants are good resources
the quantity that is allowed in products. Use for your research.
your ideas to create an action plan for using
the chemical.

Section 2.2 Summary
In this section, you learned about some of the properties of molecular
compounds and ionic compounds. You used your knowledge of bonding
to explain some of these properties. You have also explored some of the risks
associated with chemicals and their properties. In section 2.3, you will learn
about the properties of acids and bases. These substances have some dangerous
properties, but they are also very useful.

1. Compare and contrast each term in the pairs below.
(a) crystal lattice " molecule
(b) electrolyte " non-electrolyte
2. Explain why ionic compounds tend to have very high melting points,
while molecular compounds tend to have relatively low melting points.
Compound Melting 3. Apply Examine the table on the left. The table shows melting points for
point sodium fluoride, sodium chloride, and sodium bromide. By examining these
sodium fluoride, NaF 993°C melting points, what can you infer about the bonding in each compound?
sodium chloride, NaCl 804°C
4. Apply You have been given two solid substances. One of them is
sodium bromide, NaBr 755°C
an ionic compound, and one is a molecular compound.
(a) Describe four safe tests you could perform to try to identify the
substances as ionic compounds or molecular compounds.
(b) For each test, explain what you would expect to see for an ionic
compound, and what you would expect to see for a molecular compound.
5. Thinking Critically Examine the observations in the table below.
(a) Use the observations to classify each substance as an ionic compound
or a molecular compound. Give reasons to justify your choice.
(b) Based on the information in the table, which of the five tests (odour,
hardness, ability to dissolve in water, conductivity, or melting point)
is the least useful when classifying compounds as ionic or molecular?
Substance Appearance Odour Hardness Dissolves Conductivity Relative Ionic or

in water? in aqueous melting point molecular?
solution
moth balls white solid distinctive soft no cannot be low
odour measured
sodium white solid none hard and brittle yes conductor high
thiosulfate
(photographer’s
“hypo”)
antifreeze colourless “sweet” odour liquid yes non-conductor low
liquid
potassium deep purple none hard and brittle yes conductor high
permanganate crystals
benzoic acid white solid distinctive soft a little poor conductor low
odour

2.3 Properties of Acids
and Bases
Do your muscles ache after a long workout? Unless you have injured yourself,
the ache is probably due to lactic acid. Intense exercise causes the energy- Some anthropods use the
releasing process of cell metabolism to surpass the supply of oxygen to your properties of acids to their
muscle cells. New chemical reactions begin, releasing the energy you need. advantage. For example, milli-
pedes and scorpions produce
These reactions also produce lactic acid. Unfortunately, lactic acid reduces corrosive acids to deter predators.
the ability of muscle tissue to contract — and causes you pain. Ants secrete drops of an acid to
You have seen how to classify compounds as molecular or ionic. There are mark their pathways.
other useful ways to classify compounds. You can group them based on their
chemical and physical properties.
Acids form a very important and common group of chemicals with distinctive
and useful properties. The tangy flavour of some fruits and other foods and
drinks is due to one physical property of acids: their sour taste. Acids are used to
remove rust and to refine and process metals. Acids can perform these functions
because of their useful and sometimes dangerous chemical properties.
Bases are bitter-tasting compounds with a slippery feel. The bitterness
of tonic water is due to a base called quinine. Like acids, bases have useful,
distinctive properties. Many cleaning products are bases.
So are medical drugs such as lidocaine, a local anaes-
thetic used by dentists. Because they are corrosive,
however, bases must always be handled with care.
Common household acids and bases are shown
in Figure 2.7.
Defining Acids
How do chemists explain the properties of acids
and bases? In 1884, the Swedish chemist Svanté
Arrhenius (1859–1927) proposed a theory of acids
and bases based on their behaviour in water. Pure
water, a molecular compound, does not conduct
electricity. Both acidic and basic solutions, however,
are electrolytes, so they must contain freely moving ions.
One common feature of acids is that they all contain hydrogen. Figure 2.7 All these consumer
products contain acids and bases.
Therefore, Arrhenius defined an acid as a substance that reacts
Which of them have you used?
and releases hydrogen ions, H!(aq), in a water solution. Did you check the packages for
One molecule of hydrogen chloride gas, HCl(g), forms the ions safety warnings? How did you
H!(aq) and Cl"(aq) in water. This change is shown below. According change your behaviour after
to Arrhenius’s definition, hydrogen chloride dissolved in water, HCl(aq), reading the warnings?
is acidic.
HCl(g) → H!(aq) ! Cl"(aq)
Table 2.9 gives examples of some important acids and their uses.

Table 2.9 Some Important Acids
Name Formula Notes
sulfuric acid H2SO4(aq) • most widely used industrial chemical
• present in automobile batteries
• one component of acid precipitation
hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) • sold in hardware stores as muriatic acid
• used in water treatment and processing of metals
nitric acid HNO3(aq) • used to manufacture fertilizers, explosives, and dyes
• one component of acid precipitation
carbonic acid H2CO3(aq) • present in rainwater and carbonated drinks
ethanoic acid CH3COOH(aq) • commonly called white vinegar and used in the home
(acetic acid)
Defining Bases
Arrhenius defined a base as a substance that dissolves in water and releases
Pure water contains equal, hydroxide ions, OH"(aq), into the solution. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH(s), for
minute quantities of hydrogen example, is an ionic compound that dissolves readily. The number of hydroxide
ions and hydroxide ions. In any ions in the solution increases as NaOH(s) crystals break up into ions in solution.
pure sample of water, an extremely
tiny proportion of the H2O(!)
Arrhenius’s theory, therefore, correctly predicts that the solution, NaOH(aq),
molecules are ionized. That is, will be basic. One formula unit of solid sodium hydroxide, NaOH(s), dissolves
they are broken into a hydrogen in water to form OH–(aq) and Na!(aq), as shown below. According to Arrhenius’s
ion (H!(aq)) and a hydroxide ion definition, sodium hydroxide dissolved in water, NaOH(aq), is basic.
(OH"(aq)). As a result, the amounts
of the two ions in any given NaOH(s) → Na!(aq) ! OH–(aq)
sample of pure water are equal.
Table 2.10 gives more important information about several useful bases.
Table 2.10 Some Important Bases
Name Formula Notes

sodium hydroxide NaOH(aq) • common name is lye
• most widely used industrial base
• present in drain cleaners
potassium hydroxide KOH(aq) • used to make some liquid soaps
calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2(aq) • used to manufacture paper and cement
magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2(aq) • not very soluble in water
• active ingredient in some antacids
ammonium hydroxide NH4OH(aq) • used to make fertilizer and cleaning
solutions
Indicators and pH
Many common acids and bases form colourless solutions. These look just like
water but may be much more hazardous. One safe way to tell whether a solution
is acidic or basic is to use an acid-base indicator. An acid-base indicator is a
chemical that changes colour in response to the concentration of hydrogen or
hydroxide ions in a solution. Litmus, shown in Figure 2.8 on the next page, is
red in acids and blue in bases. Phenolphthalein is another common indicator.
It is colourless in acids but turns pink in bases.

To express the acidic or basic nature of a solution, chemists use the pH scale.
This scale is shown in Figure 2.9. The pH of a solution is a number that
expresses the quantity of hydrogen ions, H!(aq), in each litre of a solution. The
pH scale usually ranges from 0 to 14. Pure water has a pH of 7. Solutions with
a pH of 7 are said to be neutral. They are neither acidic nor basic. Solutions
with a pH less than 7 are acidic. When pH is above 7, a solution is basic.
Figure 2.8 Litmus is a compound

that is extracted from lichens, plant-
like members of the Kingdom Fungi.
Litmus paper is made by dipping
paper in litmus solution.
The pH scale allows chemists to express a wide range of measurements using

a small and easily understood range of numbers. This is possible because
pH numbers are exponents of measurements expressed as powers of 10.
For example, a bottle of acid with a pH of 1 contains 1 000 000 (106) times
more H!(aq) in each litre than a solution with a pH of 6. The Richter scale for
expressing earthquake intensity and the decibel scale of sound intensity are
exponential scales similar to pH. You can find out more about exponential
scales from your mathematics teacher or a senior mathematics textbook.
ant bites sea water

drain
blood
stomach detergents cleaner
normal
acid rainwater
acid rain
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
acids bases
neutral
Figure 2.9 The pH scale. The symbol “pH” stands for “power
of the hydrogen ion concentration.” pH values have no units.

As you can see in Figure 2.10, there are two common ways to find the pH
of a solution. You can observe the colour of pH paper that has been dipped
Sodium hydroxide is also known
as lye. The word “lye” comes from
into the solution. Indicators in the paper turn different colours in solutions
the term “alkaline,” which is of various pH values. Alternatively, you can use a pH meter or pH computer
sometimes used to mean a basic probe. Both of these instruments measure an electrical property of the solution
solution. A basic substance is that depends on its pH. Although they are more precise than pH paper, pH
called an alkali, from an Arabic
word meaning “ashes of saltwort” meters are expensive. They are also delicate, and require frequent calibration
(a plant). In pioneer times, water (adjustment to give accurate results) using solutions of known pH.
that had been poured through The table below summarizes some of the observable properties of acids and
plant ashes was mixed with animal
bases. In the activity that follows, you will use and compare several different
fat to produce soap. What does
that suggest about the chemicals methods to classify solutions as acidic or basic.
in the soap?
Hydrangea flowers function like natural acid-base

indicators for the soil in which they grow. In acidic soil,
the flowers are blue. In basic soil, the flowers are pink.
Figure 2.10 You can use pH paper or a pH

meter to measure how acidic or basic a
solution is.Figure
Table 2.11 Properties of Acids and Bases

Property Acids Bases
taste • Acids taste sour. Lemons, • Bases taste bitter. The
CAUTION: Never taste limes, and vinegar are quinine in tonic water is
chemicals in the laboratory. common examples. one example.
feel • Many acids will burn your • Many bases will burn your
CAUTION: Never deliberately skin. Sulfuric acid (“battery skin. Sodium hydroxide
touch chemicals in the acid”) is one example. (“lye”) is one example.
laboratory. • Bases feel slippery. Soap
is one common example.
indicator tests • Acids turn blue litmus red. • Bases turn red litmus blue.
• Phenolphthalein is colourless • Phenolphthalein is pink in
in an acidic solution. a basic solution.
chemical properties • Acids corrode metals. • Acids and bases lose their
• Acids and bases lose their acidic and basic properties
acidic and basic properties when mixed together.
when mixed together.

Find Out
Acid or Base?
Indicators, pH paper, and pH meters can all help Initiating and Planning
distinguish acids and basics from neutral solutions Procedure
(those that are neither acidic nor basic). Your
task is to develop a safe procedure to determine 1. With your group, design a step-by-step
whether a variety of solutions are acidic, basic, testing procedure using the litmus paper,
or neutral. indicator, and pH paper or probe. Include
rules for interpreting your results; for example,
“If the pH is between 6.5 and 7.5, we will
Safety Precautions consider the solution to be neutral.” Also
include disposal instructions.
• Hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, and 2. Submit your procedure to your teacher
bleach solutions are caustic (that is, they can for approval.
corrode metals and destroy skin tissue). Glass
3. Check the accuracy of your procedure by
cleaner and bleach can irritate skin and lungs.
testing the standard substances. If your tests
• Phenolphthalein solution contains alcohol, do not give correct results, find and correct
which has flammable vapours. Do not use it the source of the errors.
near open flames.
4. Test the solutions from the list of substances
• If you spill any of the solutions on your skin,
to test and record your observations.
immediately wash the area with lots of cold
water. Inform your teacher. 5. Dispose of each sample and clean your
workspace and glassware as directed by
Materials your teacher.
spot plate pH paper
stirring rod pH probe (optional)
red litmus paper labels 1. Based on your observations, classify each
phenolphthalein solution glass plate test substance as acidic, basic, or neutral.
in dropper bottle blue litmus paper 2. For each substance, describe how consistent
bromothymol blue 12-well plate or small your tests were. Did they all agree? If not, how
indicator solution in test tubes and rack did you decide how to classify the substance?
a dropper bottle
3. Can you say which of the solutions you
Standard Substances identified as an acid was the most or least
acidic? Why or why not? Why is it important
dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq) (acidic)
to be able to identify a very acidic or a very
dilute sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH(aq) (basic)
basic solution?
distilled water or pH 7 buffer (neutral)
Substances to Test
grapefruit juice vinegar Electronic pH probes can be connected to many computers
household glass cleaner milk and graphing calculators. If your school has probeware,
you could use it to perform or check the results of
soap solution shampoo this investigation.
tonic water lemon-lime soda

Find Out
Home-Grown Indicators
There are many natural indicators. In this activity, 2. Pour about 20 mL of grape juice into a clear
you will use “clear” tea and purple grape juice to glass or jar. Add about 80 mL of water to the
test household chemicals and decide whether juice. Use four more containers, and divide
they are acidic or basic. the grape juice indicator into five roughly
equal portions.
3. Add vinegar to one portion and household
ammonia to another. Record the colour of
your indicator in acidic and basic solutions.
CAUTION: Household ammonia is a
poisonous, caustic liquid and should
be handled carefully.
4. Place an Aspirin™ tablet in a plastic bag,
and crush it using a rolling pin or hammer.
Dissolve the powder in a small quantity of
Many common products, such as Rolaids™, are acids or bases. water. Add the Aspirin™ solution to the third
container of grape juice indicator. Record
Safety Precautions the colour change, if any.
5. Repeat step 4 using a Tums™ or Rolaids™
• Ammonia solutions can irritate your skin tablet. Rinse all solutions down the sink.
and lungs. Avoid breathing the vapour from Clean and dry the five containers you used.
the solution. 6. Pour roughly equal volumes of the cool tea
• If you get any chemicals on your skin, rinse into the five glasses or jars. Add lemon juice
with copious amounts of cold water. Inform to one portion, and record the colour of the
your teacher. tea in an acidic solution. Add baking soda
to a second portion, and record the colour
Materials of the tea in a basic solution.
kettle 5 clear glasses or jars
7. Test the Aspirin™ and Tums™ or Rolaids™
teapot rolling pin or hammer
tablets as before, but use tea as an indicator.
tea bag 20 mL household
Dispose of solutions as directed by your
4 plastic bags ammonia
water 20 mL lemon juice teacher. Clean and dry the five containers
20 mL purple 2 Aspirin™ tablets you used.
grape juice 2 Tums™ or
20 mL vinegar Rolaids™ (tablets) What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
baking soda 1. Why were no tests performed on one portion

of indicator solution?
2. Classify Aspirin™ and Tums™ or Rolaids™
1. Make a cup of tea, without milk or sugar.
tablets as acidic or basic.
Let the tea cool while you test the grape
juice indicator in steps 2 to 5.

Naming Acids
Common names for many acidic solutions come from the compounds found
in the solutions. Table 2.12 gives the formulas and names of some chemicals
in two “families” of acids. Try to find and describe patterns in the table in
your own words before reading the naming rules below. Look back to the
rules for naming polyatomic ions on page 51 for help in spotting patterns.
Table 2.12 Naming Inorganic Acids
Chemical formula Name for substance Chemical formula Name for solution
for substance for solution of of substance (acid) Acids that are based on chains
substance (acid) of carbon atoms are called organic
Some acids containing sulfur acids. They are named using a
H2S(g) hydrogen sulfide H2S(aq) hydrosulfuric acid different system. Their formulas
begin with carbon (C) and end
H2SO4(!) hydrogen sulfate H2SO4(aq) sulfuric acid with the hydrogen atom or atoms
H2SO3(!) hydrogen sulfite H2SO3(aq) sulfurous acid that can dissociate. Ethanoic
acid (CH3COOH(aq)), the main
Some acids containing chlorine ingredient in vinegar, is an example
HCl(g) hydrogen chloride HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid of an organic acid. Ethanoic acid
is also called acetic acid.
HClO3(s) hydrogen chlorate HClO3(aq) chloric acid
HClO2(s) hydrogen chlorite HClO2(aq) chlorous acid
It is also correct to name an acid as an aqueous solution. For example,

hydrosulfuric acid, H2S(aq), is also called aqueous hydrogen sulfide. Sulfuric
acid, H2SO4(aq), is also called aqueous hydrogen sulfate.
Study the guidelines below to test if you were able to identify the patterns
in Table 2.12. You can use these guidelines to name other acids besides those
listed in the table.
• Solutions of compounds named For example, aqueous hydrogen
“hydrogen ide” are named chloride is also called hydrochloric
“hydro ic acid.” acid, HCl(aq).
When acids are composed of hydrogen and polyatomic ions that contain
oxygen, the names of the acids are related to the names of the polyatomic ions.
“hydrogen ate” are named chlorate is also called chloric
“ ic acid.” acid, HClO3(aq).
“hydrogen per ate” are named perchlorate is also called perchloric
per ic acid. acid, HClO4(aq).
Table 2.13 A Family of Oxygen-
“hydrogen ite” are named chlorite is also called chlorous Containing Acids
“ ous acid.” acid, HClO2(aq).
Acid Name Formula
• Solutions of compounds named For example, aqueous hydrogen perchloric acid HClO4(aq)
hydrogen “hypo ite” are hypochlorite is also called
chloric acid HClO3(aq)
named “hypo ous acid”. hypochlorous acid HClO(aq)
chlorous acid HClO2(aq)
Table 2.13 summarizes the names of acids that contain hydrogen, chlorine,
hypochlorous acid HClO(aq)
and oxygen.

Practice Problems
20. Write the formula for the following acids.
(a) nitric acid (c) aqueous hydrogen fluorite
(b) iodic acid (d) hydroiodic acid
21. Write the name for the following acids.

(a) H3PO4(aq) (c) HIO2(aq)
(b) H3BO3(aq) (d) H2CrO4(aq)
22. Write the formula for the following bases.

(a) ammonium hydroxide (c) magnesium hydroxide
(b) sodium hydroxide (d) potassium hydroxide
23. Identify each of the following substances as either acidic or basic.

Then write the name of the substance.
(a) H2CO3(aq) (c) HNO2(aq)
(b) LiOH(aq) (d) HF(aq)
Safety and Acid-Base Neutralization

Acids have several distinctive chemical properties. For example, strong acids
react noticeably with magnesium and several other metals. In the reaction,
hydrogen gas is produced and the metal is consumed. Many acids also react
with the chemicals that make up skin and other living tissue. These reactive
and corrosive properties make acid spills difficult and hazardous to handle
and clean up.
Fortunately, when acids and bases react with each other, they neutralize
each other. In other words, they lose their acidic and basic properties when
they react chemically. Hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq), for example, reacts with
sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq), to produce water and sodium chloride, NaCl(aq).
If the correct amounts of acid and base are mixed, the two hazardous solutions
become nothing more than salt dissolved in water!
Some chemicals can act both as
an acid (to neutralize a base) and as
a base (to neutralize an acid). Sodium
hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3(s) (baking
soda), is an example. Baking soda also
dissolves readily and can be handled
safely. It is often part of the safety
supplies in chemical laboratories. Baking
soda and other safety supplies used in
labs are shown in Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11 Spill-absorbing “pillows,” cat litter, and

baking soda are common chemical safety supplies.
Baking soda neutralizes spilled acids or bases. How
would you use the other items in the photo in case
of an acid spill?

Neutralization reactions are used for large-scale cleanups, too. For example,
sulfuric acid spills can occur during manufacture, transport, or use. If a large- Sulfuric acid is one of the most
scale spill such as a transport accident occurs, emergency teams are called in important industrial chemicals.
to contain and clean up the spill. The team uses large quantities of sodium It is used to make detergents,
pharmaceuticals, rayon fibres,
hydrogencarbonate or calcium oxide to neutralize the acid. The resulting dyes, and paper. It is also
material is then carried away for proper disposal. Finally the team washes used in other processes,
down the area with water. such as petroleum refining
and metal processing.
Section 2.3 Summary

In this section you explored some of the properties of acids and bases. You
learned about acids and bases that are solutions in water of various substances.
But what about water itself? You learned that pure water has a pH of 7.0. In
the final section of Chapter 2, you will explore the key properties of water,
which are essential to life on Earth.

1. Write the names and formulas of two common acids and two common
bases. State at least one use for each acid and base.
2. Make a table that compares the following characteristics of acids and bases.
(a) taste (b) effect on litmus
(c) pH (d) Arrhenius definition
3. Identify two ways to measure pH. Then, describe one advantage and one
drawback of each method.
4. Phosphoric acid has the formula H3PO4(aq). Name each of the following
related acids.
(a) H3PO3(aq) (b) H3PO5(aq) (c) H3PO2(aq)
5. The formula for nitric acid is HNO3(aq). What is the correct formula
for each acid named below?
(a) nitrous acid (b) pernitric acid (c) hyponitrous acid
6. Which of the following solutions has the greater quantity of H!(aq)
for each litre of solution: orange juice (pH 4.0) or baking soda solution
(pH 8.0)? Explain your answer.
7. Litmus shows its acidic colour most clearly when pH is less than 4. The
basic colour is not distinct until pH is greater than 8. How does this
observation limit the usefulness of litmus as an acid-base indicator?
8. Apply Cheese and yogurt are made by the action of certain bacteria
on milk. The pH of fresh milk is about 6.5, the pH of cheese is usually
about 5.5, and the pH of yogurt is about 4.5.
(a) Which of these common foods is most acidic?
(b) Does the taste of these foods support your answer to (a)? Explain
your response.

2.4 Why Water Is Weird
How important is water? You can live for a few weeks without food, but only
A watermelon is about 92 percent for about two days without water. Water is crucial to the chemical reactions and
water by mass. Your body is physical changes that take place in the human body. The remarkable properties
about 67percent, or two-thirds, of water are vital to all life on Earth.
water by mass. Even the “dried”
grain in a granola bar contains
about 30 percent water. Water and Its Properties
The properties of water do not seem unusual to most people because water is
such a common substance. Compared with many other substances, however,
water has many unique properties. For example, water is the only substance
that exists on Earth in large quantities in all three states.
Also, unlike most substances, water in its solid state (ice) is less dense than
in its liquid state. When water freezes on the surface of a lake, the ice floats.
It insulates the water below so that the water remains liquid. If ice were denser
than water, the ice would sink as it froze. The lake would freeze solid and kill
all the life within it. As shown in Figure 2.12, pastimes such as ice fishing and
hockey are only possible because ice collects on top of a body of water.
Water is different from all other substances that have similar composition and
molecular mass. The molecular mass of methane, CH4, for example, is similar
to the molecular mass of water. Like a water molecule, a methane molecule
consists of hydrogen atoms bonded to a central atom. Hydrogen sulfide and
hydrogen selenide, like water, are compounds of hydrogen and a group 6
element. As shown in Table 2.14, the properties of these substances are
different from the properties of water.
Table 2.14 Properties of Water and Other Substances

Substance Formula Molecular State at room Melting Boiling
mass (u) temperature point (˚C) point (˚C)
A methane CH4 16 gas "183 "161
water H2O 18 liquid 0 100
hydrogen H2S 35 gas "86 "60
sulfide
hydrogen H2Se 81 gas "66 "42
selenide
In Inquiry Investigation 2-D, you will explore some of the properties of water
and compare them to the properties of an oil and an aqueous solution.
Figure 2.12 If ice were denser than water, the ice fishers shown in photograph A would
have nowhere to sit. Even if they did, they would not have much luck. Fish could not survive
B the winter if the lake froze solid. The hockey players shown in photograph B would have to
wait a long time for the entire lake to freeze before they could play their game.

S K I L L C H E C K

2–D
Physical Properties
of Water
Water is such a familiar substance that its unusual properties,
compared to other compounds, can be easily overlooked. In this
investigation, you will observe and contrast several properties
of water, a water solution, and another liquid.
Question
How do properties such as surface tension and density of water
compare with the properties of other liquids?
Prediction
Read through the procedure. For each part, make a prediction
concave convex
about how the behaviour of water will compare with the behaviour
meniscus meniscus
of the other two liquids. For example, in Part A, will you be able
to place more drops of water, water solution, or olive oil on
the penny?
Safety Precautions Procedure

Part A Surface Tension
• It is very easy to break capillary tubes. Be very 1 Lay a clean, dry penny flat on your lab table.
cautious when you work with them, and report
any broken glass to your teacher immediately. 2 Draw some water into a dropper. Count and
record the number of drops of water that you
Apparatus can place on a penny before the water spills
3 pennies over the edge.
3 droppers
1 straight pin 3 Using a different dropper and penny, repeat
3 250 mL beakers steps 1 and 2 for each of the other liquids.
stirring rod Fill the 250 mL beaker with about 200 mL
3 short pieces of capillary tubing
4
of water.
3 short pieces of regular glass tubing
5 Gently float the tissue paper on the surface of
Materials the water.
water
6 Place the pin on the tissue paper. Then gently
dilute detergent solution
poke the tissue paper with the stirring rod so
liquid olive oil
that it sinks. What happens to the pin? What
3 small pieces of single-ply tissue paper
happens if you poke the pin with the stirring rod?
ice cube
cube of frozen olive oil Carefully dry the pin and repeat steps 4–6 with
7
fresh tissue paper and each of the other liquids.
CONTINUED

Part B Capillary Action Using separate pieces of glass tubing, repeat
!
8 Place the end of a capillary tube in the beaker step 6 for each of the other liquids.
of water. Observe and record what happens.
Using a different capillary tube, repeat step 4 Part D Relative Density of Solid and Liquid
9
for each of the other liquids @ Place an ice cube in the beaker of water.
Observe and record the level at which it floats.
Part C Meniscus Repeat step 8 using a frozen cube of olive oil
#
0 Place the end of a piece of glass tubing into the in the beaker of olive oil.
beaker of water. Seal the open end of the tube
with a fingertip, and lift the tube out of the water.
Observe and sketch the shape of the meniscus
(the top of the liquid column). Compare the
meniscus with the meniscuses shown in the
diagram on the previous page. Is the meniscus
convex or concave?
Analyze Conclude and Apply

1. Liquids are said to have a high surface tension if 5. Summarize your inferences about each substance.
they tend to form drops instead of spreading out. Record your inferences in a table with the
Use your results from Part A to list the three following headings: Substance, Surface tension,
liquids in order of increasing surface tension. Adhesive forces to glass, Cohesive forces,
Density of solid and liquid, Volume change
2. If a liquid is pulled up into a narrow tube,
during freezing.
does this suggest that the forces of attraction
between the liquid and the tube are strong or 6. Compare your observations of the pure water
weak? Use your observations from Part B to and the detergent solution. Which properties
identify the liquid with the strongest attractive of water were affected by a solute?
forces to glass.
7. Assess your predictions and your hypotheses.
3. Molecules of a liquid are attracted to one
(a) Which of your predictions were correct,
another (cohesive forces) as well as to the walls
and which were not? What does this say
of the tubing (adhesive forces). If the meniscus
about your hypotheses?
is convex, which forces must be stronger? Use
your observations from Part C to describe the (b) How would you modify your hypotheses
balance of the two forces in each liquid. to explain the results you observed? How
would you test your new hypotheses?
4. (a) Solids float when they are less dense than the
liquid around them. Use your observations Extend Your Skills
from Part D to compare the densities of 8. Do different solutes have the same effects as
the solid and liquid states of each substance detergent on the properties of water? Design
you tested. an investigation to find out. If possible, obtain
(b) Infer whether each substance expands your teacher’s approval and then carry out
or contracts as it solidifies. Explain. the investigation.

Water: A Molecular View oxygen end:
partial negative charge
Chemists explain the properties of water based on the structure of the water %"
molecule. Two features of a water molecule contribute to the macroscopic
properties of water. The first is its shape. A water molecule has a bent shape,
as shown in Figure 2.13. The bent shape of a water molecule is due to the
arrangement of electrons within the molecule. Current atomic theories help
105°
to explain the bent shape of a water molecule in greater detail. You may study
these theories in later science courses. %!
The second feature that contributes to the macroscopic properties of water hydrogen end:
is the bonding within a water molecule. A water molecule has two O—H bonds. partial positive charge
Each bond consists of two shared electrons. However, the oxygen and hydrogen Figure 2.13 Chemists say
atoms do not attract the electrons equally within the bond. The oxygen atom that a water molecule has
attracts the electrons a great deal more strongly than the hydrogen atom. This a “bent” structure.
means that the electrons spend more time near the oxygen atom than near
the hydrogen atom.
What is the overall effect of this difference in attraction for the electrons?
Across each O—H bond, the oxygen atom has a permanent, partial negative
charge, while the hydrogen atom has a permanent, partial positive charge. These
partial charges are sometimes represented using the %, or “delta,” symbol. A
partial positive charge is represented by %!, while a partial negative charge is
represented by %".
Because the O—H bond has a permanent difference in charge across the
bond, it is said to be polar. A polar bond has a negative end, or pole, and
a positive pole. How does the polarity of the O—H bond affect a water
molecule? The bent shape of the water molecule means that it can be considered
to have a hydrogen end and an oxygen end. The hydrogen end has an overall
partial positive charge. The oxygen end has an overall partial negative charge.
In other words, the molecule has a positive pole and a negative pole, as shown
in Figure 2.13. Thus, the molecule as a whole is polar. Sometimes a polar
molecule is also called a dipole.
Attraction Between Water Molecules

Because water molecules are polar, they attract one another. The positive
hydrogen end of one molecule attracts the negative oxygen end of another
molecule. The attraction of an oxygen atom in one water molecule to a hydrogen
atom in another water molecule is called a hydrogen bond. Figure 2.14 shows
hydrogen bonds among water molecules.
Hydrogen bonds are one kind of intermolecular force. An intermolecular
force acts between molecules. An intramolecular force, on the other hand, Figure 2.14 Water molecules
are held together by a network of
acts between atoms within molecules. A covalent bond is an intramolecular
hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen
force. Hydrogen bonds are the strongest of the intermolecular forces. They bonds are much weaker than
are still much weaker than covalent bonds, though. the covalent bonds that hold the
atoms to one another within
each molecule.

Explaining the Properties of Water
Useful theories give convincing explanations of observations. Are your
observations of the behaviour of water consistent with the following
theoretical explanations?
• The boiling point and melting point of water are higher than similar substances
Hydrogen bonds do not occur without hydrogen bonds. It requires a great deal of energy to break the
only in water. They also occur hydrogen bonds between neighbouring water molecules and thus to melt
in some other substances that ice and to boil or evaporate liquid water. This property of water explains
contain hydrogen bonded to
oxygen, such as methanol, why perspiration, shown in Figure 2.15, works to cool the body.
CH3OH(!). As well, they occur • Similarly, it requires a great deal of energy to increase the temperature of water.
in substances that contain When the temperature of a substance increases, it means that the average
a hydrogen atom bonded to
speed of the particles in the substance increases. In order for water molecules
a fluorine atom or a nitrogen
atom, such as hydrogen to move more quickly, they must overcome the relatively strong attractive
fluoride, HF(g). forces among them. On the other hand, as water cools, a great deal of energy
is released. Figure 2.16 shows what happens when water and its cooling
properties are absent.
• Water has a concave meniscus and shows capillary action because of the large
forces of attraction between polar water molecules and the sides of containers.
Capillary action is the force that draws water up from the roots to the leaves
of tall trees.
Figure 2.16 Water in oceans and seas covers over 70 percent of

Earth’s surface. The water absorbs energy from the Sun during the
day and releases the energy at night. The temperature of the planet
is thus moderated and remains relatively constant, allowing Earth
Figure 2.15 Perspiration evaporates when water molecules to support life. The effect is less noticeable in the desert, where
absorb energy from the body. Because significant energy there is little water. Here, the temperature may vary as much as
is necessary to evaporate the water, the body cools down. 40˚C between day and night. On the Moon, with no liquid water
Evaporation of water is one of the main ways your body or water-laden atmosphere, lunar temperatures may range
regulates its temperature. between 100˚C and "150˚C on the same day.

• Ice floats in liquid water. Water expands as it freezes because the polar
molecules arrange themselves in an open pattern held together by hydrogen
bonds. As it forms, the less-dense ice floats on the denser water. Substances
without hydrogen bonding pack together more tightly as they freeze, so
the denser solid material sinks to the bottom of the liquid. Figure 2.17
shows how the structure of ice contributes to its relatively low density.
• Water has high surface tension because the hydrogen bonds between molecules
on the surface pull them together into the smallest possible area. Thus,
a small volume of water falling through the air forms a circular drop, as
shown in Figure 2.18. Liquids without hydrogen bonds spread out over
a larger area under the influence of gravity. Small water insects take
advantage of water’s surface tension to move across its surface.
A A
B B
Figure 2.17 As shown in A, water has an open Figure 2.18 Molecules of water in the centre of a drop of water are
crystal structure held in place by hydrogen bonds. attracted equally by hydrogen bonds to the molecules all around them (A).
When water freezes, its volume increases. The Molecules on the surface are not attracted equally on all sides. There is
six-pointed shape of a snowflake reflects the an overall force attracting them inward. The net inward force draws the
six-sided crystal structure of ice. water into a spherical shape. The same effect allows water’s surface
tension to counteract the pressure exerted by the water strider’s legs (B).

Section 2.4 Summary
In this section, you have learned about the weird properties of water. You also
learned that water supports life on Earth. As well as helping to moderate the
temperature of the surface of Earth, water takes part in many chemical reactions
that provide food and energy for Earth’s organisms. You are probably already
aware that water is one of the substances consumed in the process of photo-
synthesis. In Chapter 3, you will learn how to identify, classify, and represent
chemical processes such as photosynthesis.

1. Compare and contrast covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds.
2. How does the shape of a water molecule contribute to its polarity?
3. List five physical properties that distinguish water from most other
compounds with a similar molecular size.
4. What is surface tension? Use the concept of surface tension and hydrogen
bonding to explain why water forms droplets on the surface of a car after
a rainstorm.
5. Apply Explain why it would be unwise to store a completely full glass
container of fruit juice, a water-based beverage, in the freezer. Use the
concept of hydrogen bonding in your answer. Would you have the
same concerns about storing an oil in a glass container in the freezer?
6. Thinking Critically As shown on the right, a molecule of
ozone, O3, has a bent shape like a water molecule. Is ozone
likely to be a polar molecule? Explain your answer.
7. Thinking Critically The following photograph
and diagram show what happens when water is
placed in a glass tube. The water molecules are
attracted to one another by hydrogen bonds.
They are also attracted, again by hydrogen
bonds, to the oxygen in the O—Si—O groups
of the glass. Which hydrogen bonds are
stronger? Explain your answer.
Si

(a) Describe the difference between a formula unit (h) Explain why ionic compounds tend to have
of an ionic compound and a molecule of a relatively high melting points. (2.2)
molecular compound. (2.1)
(i) Explain how to classify a compound as an
(b) List the first six prefixes used when naming electrolyte or a non-electrolyte, given its
molecular compounds. (2.1) name or chemical formula. (2.2)
(c) Write the formula of an ionic compound. Show (j) Describe how indicators can be used to identify
step by step how IUPAC rules can be used to acidic and/or basic solutions. (2.3)
name the compound. Do the same for a molecular
compound. (2.1) (k) Explain how the pH scale is used to distinguish
between acids and bases. (2.3)
(d) Choose an ionic compound that has a formula
containing at least one subscript. Describe the (l) Explain why baking soda may be used to
meaning of the subscript. Do the same for neutralize both acids and bases. (2.3)
a molecular compound. (2.1)
(m) State at least three properties of water that
(e) Write the names and formulas of two differ from the properties of most similar
polyatomic ions. (2.1) substances (2.4)
(f ) Explain why ionic compounds conduct electricity (n) Explain what hydrogen bonds are, and describe
as liquids, while molecular compounds do not. (2.2) several effects they have on the properties of
water (2.4)
(g) Describe three safe tests that you could carry out
to determine whether a compound is ionic or
molecular. (2.2)
Summarize this chapter by doing one of the • What differences are there between the physical
following. Make a graphic organizer such as properties of acids and those of bases?
a concept map, produce a poster, or write a • What are some names of common acids
summary of the key chapter concepts. Here and bases?
are a few questions to use as a guide: • What are some of the unique properties of
• What physical properties are common to most water and how are they significant?
ionic compounds? What physical properties • How do scientists explain the unique properties
are common to most molecular compounds? of water?
• How do theories of bonding help to explain the
properties of ionic and molecular compounds?
• In what ways do the names of ionic compounds
differ from those of molecular compounds?
In what ways are the names similar?

2
C H A P T E R
Review
Key Terms
binary compound polyatomic ion acid-base indicator hydrogen bond

binary molecular compound electrolyte pH scale intermolecular force
binary ionic compound non-electrolyte neutralize intramolecular force
formula unit acid polar
Stock system base dipole
Understanding Key Concepts 10. Explain why neither solid ionic compounds
Section numbers are provided if you need to review. nor solid molecular compounds conduct
electricity. (2.2)
1. What is the first step in naming a chemical,
given its formula? (2.1) 11. Explain why molecular compounds tend to
have relatively low melting points, even though
2. When naming or writing the formula for a covalent bonds are relatively strong. (2.2)
binary molecular compound, how do you know
which element to name or write first? (2.1) 12. Describe two safety precautions you should take
when working with acids and bases. (2.3)
3. Classify the following compounds as ionic or
molecular. Justify your answer. (2.1) 13. How does the pH of an acidic solution differ
from that of a basic solution? What causes
(a) Na3PO4(s) (c) CaCl2(s)
the difference? (2.3)
(b) CH4(g) (d) HCl(g)
14. According to Arrhenius’s theory, how do acids
4. Does the compound sodium nitrate, NaNO3, differ from bases? (2.3)
contain ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or both?
Explain your answer. (2.1) 15. How does the density of ice compare with the
density of water? How does this property affect
5. How do polyatomic ions differ from simple the environment? (2.4)
ions? (2.1)
16. Explain why the covalent bond between oxygen
6. How many calcium ions are in one formula unit and hydrogen is polar. (2.4)
of each of the following ionic compounds? (2.1)
(a) CaO (b) CaBr2 (c) Ca3N2 Developing Skills
7. When an ionic compound is named or its 17. In your notebook, name each of the following
formula is written, which ion is placed first, substances.
the anion or the cation? (2.1) (a) MgI2(s) (d) (NH4)2S(s)
(b) Al2(CO3)3(s) (e) HCl(aq)
8. List three physical properties that can be used
to distinguish between an ionic compound and (c) CaO(s) (f ) SBr2(g)
a molecular compound. (2.2)
18. In your notebook, provide the chemical formula
9. Use what you have learned about bonds to explain for the following compounds. Omit the state
the conductivity or non-conductivity of molecular of matter.
substances and ionic substances in liquid form, (a) aluminium oxide (d) sodium phosphate
in solid form, and in aqueous solution. (2.2) (b) barium hydroxide (e) ammonia
(c) sodium phosphide (f ) disilicon tetrafluoride

19. In your notebook, provide the chemical formula (e) The substance is a clear and colourless
for each of the following acidic solutions. Include liquid. It reacts with hydrochloric acid
the state of matter. to form a dissolved salt and water.
(a) hydroiodic acid (f ) The pure substance is a liquid at room
(b) hypochlorous acid (perchloric acid is temperature. It conducts electricity when
HClO4(aq)) dissolved in water but not as a pure liquid.
(c) nitrous acid (nitric acid is HNO3(aq)) 23. At room temperature, the pH of various
(d) phosphoric acid (phosphorous acid is solutions was found to be as follows.
H3PO3(aq)) (solution A) 10.4
(solution B) 7.8
(solution C) 5.1
20. When the following pairs of elements combine,
they form ionic compounds. Use the periodic table (solution D) 7.0
to work out the formulas of the ionic compounds (solution E) 2.8
formed. Note: Each pair is given alphabetically. (solution F) 11.2
(a) barium and fluorine
(a) Identify each solution as acidic, basic,
(b) bromine and potassium or neutral.
(c) nitrogen and sodium (b) Which solution is most acidic, and which
(d) magnesium and phosphorus is most basic?
(e) calcium and sulfur
Thinking Critically
21. Oxygen has six valence electrons. How many
valence electrons does the other element have 24. Find a recipe for a sweet and sour sauce. Which
in the following oxides? Name each oxide. ingredients make the sauce sweet, and which
ingredients make it sour?
(a) Na2O (b) MnO (c) PbO2
25. At least one of the following formulas is incorrect.
22. Each of the following sets of observations
Find the incorrect one(s), and correct the error(s).
describes a different substance. Classify the
compound and justify your answer. (a) LiCl2(s) (c) MgF2(s)
(a) The pure substance is crystalline and (b) KS(s) (d) (NH4)3SO4(s)
has a purple colour. It has no odour
and a high melting point.
(b) The pure substance is a gas at room
temperature. It has a strong odour and
does not conduct electricity when liquefied. Write answers to each question below in your notebook.
Go back to page 40, and check your original answers to the
(c) The substance is a clear and colourless liquid. Focussing questions. How has your thinking changed? How
It reacts with magnesium, producing hydrogen would you answer those questions now?
gas. The substance also turns blue litmus red. Certain acids and bases do a good job of cleaning up grime and
grease. Bases, however, not acids, are usually used as the key
(d) The pure substance is a clear and colourless ingredient in oven cleaners. Based on what you know about the
liquid. It has a strong odour. It vapourizes properties of acids, why do you think this is so?
at a low temperature.

3
C H A P T E R
Chemical Reactions
• What energy changes take place

during chemical reactions?
• What patterns can you use to
classify chemical reactions?
• How can you predict whether
two chemicals will react or
not? Why is this important
for safety?

L oud explosions, flashes of
colour, puffs of smoke — these are
a propane stove. As the propane
burns, it reacts with oxygen in the
all results you might expect from air, forming carbon, carbon dioxide,
chemical reactions. You may not carbon monoxide, and water. The
think of less obvious reactions, reaction releases thermal energy,
such as those that are taking place which cooks the food. Thanks to
everywhere in the peaceful scene chemical reactions, the canoeists will
on the left. be ready for another day of paddling.
The energy that the canoeists are Why do you need to know
using to paddle comes from chemical that a chemical reaction has taken
reactions occurring in their bodies. place? How do you know? How are
Food molecules react with oxygen words and symbols used to represent
and other substances to produce a chemical reaction? Why and how
energy. The surrounding trees and do scientists classify different kinds
green plants use energy from the of chemical reactions? You will find
Sun to carry out chemical reactions the answers to these questions in
that produce glucose from carbon this chapter.
dioxide and water.
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Chapter
Solar
3 Chemical
Energy and
Reactions
Climates•• MHR 83
3.1 Recognizing and Describing
Chemical Reactions
A chemical reaction occurs when one or more substances
change to form different substances. A chemical reaction
is also known as a chemical change. For example,
a chemical reaction occurs when carbon, C, and oxygen,
O2, react to form carbon dioxide, CO2. The substances
that undergo a chemical reaction are called the reactants.
The substances formed in a chemical reaction are called
products. For example, in the reaction just described,
carbon and oxygen are the reactants, while carbon dioxide
is the product. What are the reactants and products in
Figure 3.1?
Figure 3.1 Iron in this truck
reacted with water and oxygen Recognizing Chemical Reactions
to form rust.
Suppose you are baking a cake. You mix baking soda with other ingredients.
When the batter cooks, the cake rises. Has there been a chemical reaction? How
do you know? You need to look for evidence. Often, the clearest evidence of
a chemical reaction is a release or absorption of energy. All chemical reactions
involve a change in energy. A change in energy, however, may also accompany
a physical change. Evidence of the formation of new substances suggests that a
chemical reaction has taken place. For example, there may be an odour change
or a colour change.
Examine the types of evidence shown in Table 3.1. Then examine the
photographs in Figure 3.2 on the next page. What evidence of a chemical
reaction is there in each photograph?
Table 3.1 Evidence of Chemical Reactions

Energy change All chemical reactions involve a change in energy. Energy
Chemical reactions in which
changes can be observed in the following ways:
light is given off are called
chemiluminescent reactions. • temperature change (thermal energy released or absorbed)
What is bioluminescence? Use • emission of light (light energy released)
an online or print dictionary to • emission of sound
investigate the answer. Compare
the two terms, and give an example • electrical energy
of each one. Odour change In some chemical reactions, the odour of the products is
different from the odour of the reactants.
Colour change In some chemical reactions, the colour of the products is
different from the colour of the reactants.
Formation of a gas Gases are formed in some chemical reactions. When the reaction
takes place in solution, you can observe the gas being formed
as bubbles in the solution.
Formation of a solid In some reactions that take place in solution, a substance is
(precipitate) in solution formed that is not soluble in the solution. The substance comes
out of solution as a solid (precipitate).

A B C
A Potassium perchlorate, sulfur, and other B Baking powder in batter reacts at high C The odour, colour, and taste of food
compounds react in highway flares. Energy temperatures. Bubbles of gas form. This change when you cook it because
is released as light and thermal energy. is why batter rises when placed in the oven. substances in the food undergo
chemical reactions.
D E F
D Substances in bleach react with coloured E The combustion of fuel such as gasoline F The characteristic smell of lightning
compounds to form colourless compounds. produces energy in the form of heat, and storms comes from ozone and other
This reaction is useful when you want to produces gases. The expanding gases drive substances. These substances are formed
remove a stain from white fabric, but an the pistons in the engine of the car. when the electrical energy of lightning
accidental bleach spill can damage a pair causes chemical reactions.
of jeans.
Figure 3.2 Each of these photographs illustrates a common chemical reaction.
Solubility and Chemical Reactions

One of the pieces of evidence for a chemical reaction, as listed in Table 3.1,
is the formation of a solid, or precipitate. A precipitate is an insoluble solid
that is formed in a chemical reaction that occurs in solution. Such reactions
often involve ionic compounds.
Recall from Chapter 2 that many ionic compounds are soluble in water.
When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the ions break away from the
crystal lattice structure. The cations and anions that made up the solid crystal
now move freely in the water. Some ionic compounds, however, do not dissolve
well in water.
Why does the formation of a precipitate signal that a chemical reaction has
taken place? Suppose two solutions of ionic compounds are mixed. The anions Figure 3.3 Hard water contains
and cations may react to form a compound that is insoluble in water. This dissolved ions that react with
compound comes out of solution as a precipitate. The solution turns cloudy compounds in soap. Insoluble
and particles of the precipitate may collect at the surface or bottom of the compounds form as products
and appear as a precipitate
liquid. Figure 3.3 shows an example of precipitation that you may have seen.
called soap scum.
In Inquiry Investigation 3-A, you can mix solutions of ions to determine
whether a precipitate will form. You can use your observations to identify ionic
compounds that are soluble or insoluble in water.
Chapter 3 Chemical Reactions • MHR 85

S K I L L C H E C K

3-A
Recognizing Reactions of Ionic

Compounds in Solution
When two solutions of ionic compounds are mixed, the positive and negative ions
mix and may react. When a positive ion and a negative ion react to form an insoluble
compound, a precipitate forms. In this investigation, you will observe the formation
of a precipitate and attempt to identify the ions that have combined.
Question
How can you test whether a reaction occurs between dissolved ionic compounds?
Safety Precautions
• Wash your hands thoroughly

at the end of this investigation.
• Dispose of materials as your
teacher directs. Do not pour
any chemicals down the drain.
Apparatus
test tube rack
6 test tubes
Materials
6 labels
sodium nitrate solution
calcium chloride solution Calcium chloride is a more expensive, but less corrosive, alternative to
sodium phosphate solution sodium chloride (road salt) for melting ice on streets and sidewalks.
Procedure
1 Label three test tubes with 2 Pour 10 mL of each solution 4 Pour about half the sodium
the names of the solutions into the test tube with the nitrate solution into another
to be tested. One test tube appropriate label. test tube, and add the
should be labelled “sodium remaining calcium chloride
nitrate solution,” another 3 Carefully pour about half the solution. Record your
should be labelled “calcium sodium phosphate solution observations, and make
chloride solution,” and the into another, empty test tube. a label to identify the
third test tube, “sodium To this test tube, add about contents of the test tube.
phosphate solution.” half the calcium chloride
solution. Record your
observations. Make a label
to identify the contents of
this test tube.

5 Pour the remaining sodium nitrate solution and 6 Dispose of the solutions as your teacher directs.
sodium phosphate solution into the last empty Do not pour any solutions down the drain.
test tube. Record your observations, and make Wash your hands thoroughly.
a label to identify the contents of the test tube.
Analyze
1. In step 3, you mixed solutions of sodium 6. (a) List all the sodium compounds you
phosphate and calcium chloride. Write the encountered in this investigation.
names and formulas of the ions in the sodium Describe each compound as soluble or
phosphate solution. Then do the same for the insoluble according to your observations
calcium chloride solution. and previous experience.
(b) What generalization can you suggest about
2. Sodium nitrate and calcium chloride are soluble
the solubility of compounds containing
in water. Expain how your observations confirm
sodium ions? How could you test this
this statement. Use your observations in step 4
proposed generalization?
to identify two other ionic compounds that are
soluble in water. Explain your reasoning. (c) Repeat steps (a) and (b) for the calcium
compounds you encountered in this
3. Write the names and formulas of the ions in investigation.
the solutions you mixed in step 3. What two
substances, other than sodium phosphate and Extend Your Skills
calcium chloride, could form from these ions?
7. From your teacher, obtain another set of three
What is the name and formula of the precipitate
solutions of ionic compounds. Two of the ions
formed in this step? Explain your reasoning.
in these solutions combine to form a precipitate.
Design a set of tests to identify the precipitate,
Conclude and Apply and perform them. CAUTION: One of these
4. When you mixed solutions of sodium nitrate and solutions, silver nitrate solution, can stain your
sodium phosphate in step 5, did new compounds skin. Handle it very carefully.
form? Explain your answer.
5. Potassium nitrate, KNO3(s), is highly soluble in

water. If you mixed each of the following pairs
of solutions, would a precipitate form in each
case? Explain your answers.
(a) potassium phosphate and calcium nitrate
(b) potassium chloride and sodium nitrate
(c) potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate

Predicting Solubility
How do you know whether a certain pair of positive and negative ions will
combine to form a precipitate in an aqueous solution? Scientists have tested a
wide range of ionic compounds to see how well they dissolve in water. Table 3.2
outlines their results. The table gives combinations of common positive and
negative ions and shows whether ionic compounds containing two types of
ions are soluble in water.
Table 3.2 Solubility of Ionic Compounds in Water at 25°C

Ions NH4! NO3" CH3COO" Cl" SO42" S2" OH" CO32"
ClO3" Br" PO43"
ClO4" I" SO32"
High all all most most most Group 1 Group 1 Group 1
solubility Group 2 NH4! NH4!
NH4! Sr2!
Ba2!
TI!
Low none none Ag! Ag! Ag! most most most
solubility Hg! Pb2! Pb2!
Cu! Ca2!
Hg! Ba2!
TI! Sr2!
Ra2!
You can predict the solubility of ionic compounds in water by using the
information in the table. For example, suppose you wish to determine whether
barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2(s), is soluble in water. First, locate one of its ions
(Ba2! or OH") in the first row of Table 3.2. The negative ion, OH", is in
the seventh column of the first row. Looking down the column, locate Ba2!.
You will find it in the row with the heading “High solubility.” This heading
means that Ba(OH)2(s) is soluble in water.
How soluble is silver sulfide, Ag 2S(s)? The sulfide ion is in the seventh
column of the first row. Silver does not appear specifically in that column;
therefore, it is included among “most” ions in the “Low solubility” category.
Silver sulfide therefore has a relatively low solubility in water.
Knowing the solubility of different ionic compounds can help chemists iden-
tify the solutes in solutions using a precipitation test. For example, Figure 3.4
shows a test for chloride ions, Cl". The chemist adds silver nitrate solution
to the solution being tested. If a white precipitate forms, the chemist infers
that there are likely chloride ions in the solution. Use Table 3.2 to justify
Figure 3.4 The solution in this
this inference. Suggest one other inference the chemist could make.
beaker contained dissolved sodium
chloride, NaCl(s). The chemist How do you predict whether a precipitate will form when you mix two
added silver nitrate solution, solutions together? Sometimes it is useful to draw diagrams in order to
AgNO3(aq), from a dropper. visualize what is happening when the solutions are mixed. Work through the
What compound is the white Model Problem on the following page to see how to solve solubility problems.
precipitate? How do you know? Practise your skills by solving the Practice Problems on page 90.

Model Problem 1
A chemist mixes a solution of lead nitrate, Pb(NO3)2(aq), and potassium
iodide, KI(aq). Does a precipitate form? If so, what is the precipitate?
Solution
• First determine which ions are present in each solution (Figure 3.5 A).
The lead nitrate solution contains Pb2! ions and NO3" ions.
The potassium iodide solution contains K! ions and I" ions.
• When the solutions are first mixed (Figure 3.5 B), the mixture contains
all four ions: Pb2!, NO3", K!, and I". Using your knowledge of how
ionic compounds form, list the possible compounds that can form from
these ions. They are:
Pb(NO3)2 KI KNO3 PbI2
• Decide whether any of the compounds are insoluble. You know that
Pb(NO3)2(s) and KI(s) are both soluble, since they were the two
compounds initially in solution.
• According to the solubility chart, all ionic compounds containing the
nitrate ion, NO3", are soluble. Therefore, KNO3(s) is soluble.
• According to the solubility chart, most ionic compounds containing the
iodide ion, I", are soluble. One exception occurs when the compound
contains Pb2!, as is the case with PbI2(s). Therefore, PbI2(s) is insoluble.
• PbI2 is the only insoluble compound that can form from the four ions.
Figures 3.5 C and D shows what happens when the solution KI(aq) is
added to the solution Pb(NO3)2(aq).
When lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2(aq), and potassium iodide, KI(aq), are
mixed, a precipitate forms. The precipitate is PbI2(s).
D
Pb 2!
NO3" K ! I" ! K! K! PbI2(s)
K
NO3" NO3
"
I" Figure 3.5 The bright
NO3"
I
"
2!
I" K! K! !
K K! yellow precipitate shown
Pb PbI2(s)
in (D) is lead(II) iodide.
A Pb(NO3)(aq) and KI(aq) before mixing. Based on solubility
C guidelines, PbI is insoluble.
2(s)
K!
I" I
"
I" NO3"
I "
K ! K! !
Pb K Pb2!
2!
As solutions are mixed,
B NO3"
the ions mix and may react.

Practice Problems
1. Determine whether the following ionic compounds have high
solubility or low solubility in water.
(a) KCl(s) (b) SrSO4(s) (c) NH4OH(s) (d) CuCl(s)
2. Determine whether the following compounds have high solubility

or low solubility in water.
(a) PbI2(s) (b) Rb2S(s) (c) Ba(OH)2(s) (d) CaSO4(s)
3. When solutions of KI(aq) and AgNO3(aq) are mixed, a precipitate forms.

(a) What four types of ions are in solution when KI(aq) and AgNO3(aq)
are first mixed?
(b) Other than KI(aq) and AgNO3(aq), what two possible compounds
can form from these ions?
(c) Which one of these compounds is the precipitate? Briefly explain
your answer.
4. (a) Which polyatomic cation forms soluble compounds with all anions?
(b) List the other cations that form soluble compounds with all anions.
(c) List the anions that form soluble compounds with all cations.
Chemical Reactions and Energy Changes

All chemical reactions release or absorb energy. For example,
consider the process of photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, plants
convert carbon dioxide and water to glucose (food) and oxygen.
Energy from the Sun is required for the reaction to proceed.
What evidence is there that photosynthesis requires energy in
the form of light? Plants do not produce oxygen at night. Also,
a plant kept in a darkened room will eventually die, because it
cannot produce food for itself.
Figure 3.6 Plants, such as these The reverse process of photosynthesis is cellular respiration. In cellular
trees, absorb the greenhouse gas
respiration, plants and animals convert glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide and produce
oxygen through the endothermic
and water. This process releases energy in a form that the organism can use.
process of photosynthesis. Your body uses energy from cellular respiration to carry out every function
it performs. Running, solving a problem, breathing, and digesting your lunch
all require energy from this process.
For many chemical reactions, thermal energy is the most significant
form of energy involved. For this reason, reactions that release energy in
any form are called exothermic reactions. Cellular respiration, an explosion,
the combustion of gasoline in an engine, and the rusting of iron are all examples
of exothermic reactions.
Like photosynthesis, some reactions need the continuous addition of
energy to cause a chemical change. For example, when you cook food the
energy you add is absorbed by the reactants. Reactions that absorb energy
are called endothermic reactions. In the next activity, decide whether a reaction
is endothermic or exothermic.

Find Out
Exothermic or Endothermic?
(Demonstration) Procedure Performing and Recording
All chemical reactions involve a change in energy. 1. Place about 25 g of iron powder, Fe(s),
This change may be quite noticeable, or it may and 1 g of sodium chloride, NaCl(s), in
be so slight that it can be detected only with a resealable plastic bag.
sensitive instruments. Note any evidence of a
change in energy as your teacher demonstrates 2. Add about 30 g of vermiculite to the bag.
two reactions. Seal the bag. Gently squeeze and shake
the contents to mix them.
Materials
3. Pass the bag around the class. Hold the bag
iron powder, Fe(s) between your hands and note any changes
sodium chloride, NaCl(s) in temperature.
vermiculite
resealable plastic bag 4. Pour a very thin layer of water on the
wood block.
barium hydroxide octahydrate, Ba(OH)2•8H2O(s)
ammonium thiocyanate, NH4SCN(s) 5. Add 20 g barium hydroxide octahydrate
Erlenmeyer flask and stopper and 10 g ammonium thiocyanate to the
block of wood Erlenmeyer flask.
water
6. Insert the stopper and shake the dry mixture
Safety Precautions until it begins to resemble slush. Place the
flask on the block for a few minutes.
7. Lift up the flask.

• Your teacher will demonstrate these reactions.
• Do not handle any of the materials unless you What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
are wearing gloves.
1. Classify the first and second reactions
• Barium hydroxide octahydrate and ammonium as endothermic or exothermic. Explain
thiocyanate are poisonous. One of the products your reasoning.
of the second reaction is ammonia gas, which
is a respiratory irritant. 2. Besides a change in energy, what other
evidence, if any, showed that a chemical
reaction was taking place in each case?
Chemical Reactions and the Law of Conservation of Energy

Like all natural events, chemical changes obey the law of conservation of
energy. This law states that energy can be converted from one form to another, A change in energy does not always
mean that a chemical change has taken
but the total energy of the universe remains constant. In other words, energy
place. Physical changes also involve
cannot be destroyed or created. Figure 3.7 on the next page shows the energy changes. Give three examples of
scientists who are credited with developing the law. physical changes. Classify them as
At first, the law of conservation of energy may seem puzzling when you endothermic or exothermic and justify
your classification. What questions
think of chemical reactions. For example, burning wood seems to create would you ask to decide whether
thermal energy. You might conclude that energy has not been conserved. a change is physical or chemical?
This conclusion, however, is inaccurate. It overlooks the fact that energy is

present in the bonds of the reactants and products of every chemical reaction.
The term “total energy” takes this chemical energy into account.
Energy is always required to break chemical bonds. As well, energy is always
released when new bonds form. In a chemical reaction, chemical bonds in the
reactants break, and new bonds form in the products. For example, think about
what happens when water reacts to form hydrogen and oxygen. The bonds
within the water molecules break (this requires energy) as bonds within the
new hydrogen and oxygen molecules form (this releases energy).
A
• Breaking chemical bonds is an endothermic process.
• Forming new chemical bonds is an exothermic process.
The energy released or absorbed in the reaction is equal to the difference
between the energy required to break bonds and the energy released when
bonds are formed. For example, the electrolysis of water to form hydrogen
and oxygen is endothermic. This means that less energy is released by the
formation of new bonds in the hydrogen and oxygen molecules than is
required to break the bonds in the water molecules.
B
1. When more energy is required to break bonds than is released when
new bonds form, the reaction is endothermic. For example,
energy ! water → hydrogen ! oxygen
When oxygen and hydrogen react to form water, energy is released.
C 2. When less energy is required to break bonds than is released when

new bonds form, the reaction is exothermic. For example,
Figure 3.7 The law of hydrogen ! oxygen → water ! energy
conservation of energy as we
know it today was formulated by
Hermann Helmholtz (A), based in Figure 3.8 summarizes these ideas.
part on the experimental data of
James Joule (B) and the theories 1. energy + reactants products
of Julius Robert Mayer (C). bonds break
ENERGY
ABSORBED
endothermic reaction:
reactants products energy is absorbed
bonds form
energy
released
2. reactants products + energy
bonds break
energy
absorbed
exothermic reaction:
reactants products
bonds form energy is released
Figure 3.8 The difference in
energy between the reactants ENERGY
and the products is released or RELEASED
absorbed in the chemical reaction.

Section 3.1 Summary
In this section, you reviewed the evidence of chemical reactions. The formation
of a precipitate and a change in energy both indicate that a chemical reaction
has taken place. In the next section, you will learn how to represent chemical
reactions using chemical equations.

1. Describe five types of evidence of a chemical reaction. For each type
of evidence, give an example that has not been used in this section. Many cooks use sodium
hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3(s)
2. Distinguish between an exothermic and an endothermic reaction, using (commonly called sodium bicar-
examples to illustrate your answers. In the laboratory, which type of reaction bonate or baking soda), to put
is more likely to be dangerous? Why? out cooking fires. When heated,
sodium hydrogencarbonate forms
3. Name each of the following ionic compounds and determine whether carbon dioxide gas, which does
not support combustion (burning).
or not each one is relatively soluble in water.
The solid residue of sodium
(a) AgNO3(s) carbonate helps to smother
the fire. Why is it usually a bad
(b) CaS(s) idea to use water to extinguish
(c) PbI2(s) a cooking fire?
(d) Na2SO4(s)
(e) (NH4)2SO4(s)
(f ) Li2CO3(s)
4. Apply Classify each of the following changes as exothermic or endothermic.
Also classify each change as a chemical reaction or a physical change.
Explain your reasoning for each.
(a) Ice melts.
(b) A match burns after it is struck against a rough surface.
(c) Dissolving ammonium nitrate in water decreases the temperature
of the solution.
(d) Heating a frying pan that contains a raw egg cooks the egg. When
the frying pan is removed from the burner, the cooking stops.
5. Thinking Critically A student mixes aqueous potassium sulfate and aqueous
barium nitrate. Will the student observe the formation of a precipitate?
If so, what is the name and chemical formula of the precipitate? If not,
explain why not.
6. Thinking Critically A student has two beakers containing clear, colourless
liquids. One of the beakers contains aqueous sodium bromide, NaBr(aq).
The other beaker contains pure water.
(a) How could the student use aqueous copper(I) nitrate, CuNO3(aq), to
determine which beaker contains aqueous sodium bromide? Explain
your answer in detail.
(b) Suggest a different soluble ionic compound that the student could
have used to test for the presence of sodium bromide, NaBr(aq).

3.2 Representing Chemical
Reactions
The statement “one plus one equals two” can be represented by the mathematical
equation 1 ! 1 # 2. Mathematicians use symbols for numbers and operations
as a kind of shorthand that conveniently and clearly expresses mathematical
concepts. Scientists use a different type of shorthand to represent chemical
concepts. As you have seen in this unit, scientists use chemical symbols, such
as H and O, to represent elements. They use chemical formulas, such as H2O,
to represent compounds. They represent chemical reactions using a combination
of chemical formulas and symbols. For example, the reaction of hydrogen with
oxygen to form water is represented as follows:
2H2(g) ! O2(g) → 2H2O(!)
To represent chemical reactions accurately, chemical equations should be
written so that they reflect theories and laws that relate to chemical reactions.
One such law is the law of conservation of mass. The law was first developed
by French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794).
A painting depicting Lavoisier at work is shown in Figure 3.9. One of
Lavoisier’s most successful and influential techniques as a scientist was his careful
measurement of mass. He stressed the importance of measuring the mass of
all the substances involved in a chemical change. These measurements were
crucial for making accurate inferences about what happened to the substances.
By generalizing many observations of the same results, Lavoisier wrote his
version of the law of conservation of mass.
Lavoisier’s law of conservation of mass

During a chemical reaction, the total mass of the reacting substances
(the reactants) is always equal to the total mass of the resulting substances
(the products).
One of Lavoisier’s innovations was carrying out his reactions in closed

systems. A closed system does not allow any exchange of matter between
the system and its surroundings. A chemical system includes all the substances
involved in a reaction and the container that holds them. The surroundings
include everything that is not part of the system. A tightly capped test tube
containing a solution is a closed system. Gases, liquids, and solids cannot
enter or exit the system. An open system allows the exchange of substances
between the system and its surroundings. An open test tube containing a
solution is an example of an open system.
Figure 3.9 When Lavoisier
carried out reactions in closed The law of conservation of mass is a vital part of modern chemical theory.
systems, he observed that the In Inquiry Investigation 3-B on the following pages, you can carry out an
system did not gain or lose mass. investigation to illustrate the law of conservation of mass.

S K I L L C H E C K

3-B
Comparing the Masses of

Reactants and Products To review procedures for reading,
recording, and interpreting experi-
Laws such as the law of conservation of mass are generalizations based mental measurements, turn to Skill
on numerous experiments that have given the same results. In this Focus 4.
investigation, you will consider why it is important for scientists to
analyze the appropriateness of their procedure and the precision of
their instruments when interpreting results.
If you need help with rules for
Question working with significant digits,
How do you decide whether observations of a specific chemical turn to Skill Focus 2.
reaction demonstrate the law of conservation of mass?
Hypothesis
• State the law of conservation of mass and describe and
explain the conditions necessary to demonstrate the law.
• Explain how you expect the law of conservation of mass
will apply to this investigation.
Prediction
• Predict how the mass of your system will compare before
and after the reaction. Remember, you should be able to
explain your prediction using your hypothesis.
• Once you have measured the initial mass of your system
(Procedure step 4), record your prediction as a specific mass.
Apparatus
Safety Precautions electronic balance
• Sodium hydroxide solution is caustic. Avoid Erlenmeyer flask
skin contact.
stopper
• Copper(II) sulfate is toxic.
small test tube
• Always report spills of any chemicals to your tongs
teacher immediately.
• If any solutions touch your skin, rinse immediately Materials
with plenty of cold water. Report the accident to
your teacher. copper(II) sulfate solution
sodium hydroxide solution
• Wash your hands thoroughly at the end of
this investigation.
• Dispose of materials as your teacher directs.
CONTINUED

Procedure
Analyze
1 Pour 20 mL of sodium
1. How do you know that a chemical reaction occurred when
hydroxide solution into
the solutions were mixed?
the Erlenmeyer flask.
2. Subtract the mass of the flask and contents after the reaction
2 Pour copper(II) sulfate
from the mass of the flask and contents before the reaction.
solution into the small test
tube until the test tube is 3. Indicate the precision (degree of uncertainty) in your measurement.
about half full. Refer to SkillFocus 4 for help.
3 Tilt the Erlenmeyer flask to 4. Consider your mass measurements. Based on the precision you
one side, and carefully place reported, were the initial and final masses different or the same?
the test tube inside. Do not Can you be certain that this is the case? Explain your answer.
let the solutions mix. Seal
5. Find the percent difference between the final mass that you
the flask with a stopper.
predicted and the result you obtained empirically. Use the
4 Measure the mass of the flask following formula:
and its contents. Ensure that final mass of system " predicted mass
% difference # %%%%% $ 100%
you record all certain digits predicted mass
and one estimated digit in

6. Compile a list of the percentage differences observed by all lab
your reported mass. For
groups in your class. If any figures differ greatly from the others,
electronic balances, the last
decide as a class whether to include them when calculating an
number of the digital readout
average. Then find the average percentage difference.
is uncertain. Record your
prediction for the mass of 7. Identify some possible sources of experimental errors in the class
the system after the reaction. results from question 6.
Think carefully about how
many significant digits you Conclude and Apply
include in your prediction. 8. According to your analysis, do the experimental results from
Tip the flask to allow the your class illustrate the law of conservation of mass? Explain.
5
solutions to mix. 9. Evaluate the procedure for this investigation. Suggest some
improvements in the apparatus or procedure that would
6 Measure the mass of the
increase your confidence in your results.
flask and its contents again.
Record your measurements.
Also record the appearance Extend Your Knowledge
of the contents of the flask. 10. Suppose you performed a reaction in an open system, such
as a flask without a stopper.
7 Remove the small test tube
(a) If the products included a gas, how would you expect the
with tongs. Dispose of the
mass of chemicals and glassware to compare before and
contents of the flask as after the reaction?
directed by your teacher.
(b) Why do you think it took chemists many years to realize
Clean up your workspace and
that the mass of the reactants is always equal to the mass
wash your hands thoroughly.
of the products?

Writing Balanced Chemical Equations
The simplest form of a chemical equation is a word equation. For example,
arrow means Recall from Chapter 1 that some

“produce” elements exist as molecules.
Keep this in mind when you are
reactants on products on right translating word equations into
hydrogen + oxygen water skeleton equations. For example,
left side of arrow side of arrow
oxygen exists as O2, not O.
plus sign on left side Hydrogen exists as H2, not H.
means “reacts with” Turn back to Table 1.5 on page 31
of your textbook. Then translate
this word equation into a
Word equations provide only limited information about a chemical reaction. skeleton equation:
They do not tell anything about the chemical composition of the reactants chlorine ! sodium iodide →
and products. They also do not give the numbers of atoms, molecules, or iodine ! sodium chloride
formula units that are involved. You can start to write a more useful equation
by replacing words with chemical symbols and formulas: H2O
H2 ! O2 → H2O
This “bare-bones” representation of a word equation is called
O2
a skeleton equation. A skeleton equation is not a complete or
H2
accurate equation, however. It may not show conservation of
mass. Use Figure 3.10 to help you understand why the skeleton
equation above violates the law of conservation of mass.
Lavoisier’s law of conservation of mass demands that the reactants have the Figure 3.10 Why is this imaginary
scale unbalanced?
same total mass as the products. This is why chemists write balanced chemical
equations. According to the atomic theories you studied in Chapter 1, atoms
of elements and compounds are not created or destroyed in chemical reactions.
Therefore, there should be the same number of atoms of each element on each
side of a chemical equation. A balanced chemical equation shows that atoms are
conserved in a chemical reaction.
In the skeleton equation above, you can see that the number of hydrogen
atoms is balanced. There are two hydrogen atoms on each side. The oxygen
atoms are not balanced, though. There are two oxygen atoms on the left,
and there is only one oxygen atom on the right. So the skeleton equation is
unbalanced. To make it balanced, you add (where necessary) numbers called
coefficients before the chemical formulas. Examine the modified chemical
equation below. The coefficient 2 in front of the formula for water means
that there are two molecules of water:
H2 ! O2 → 2H2O
Does adding this coefficient
H2 O2 balance the equation? No. Count
the number of hydrogen atoms on
both sides, and you will see why.
2H2O
As shown in Figure 3.11, there are
two hydrogen atoms on the left,
but two molecules of water would
contain four atoms of hydrogen.
Figure 3.11 Why is the scale still unbalanced?

To finally balance this chemical equation, you need to add one more coefficient:
2H2 ! O2 → 2H2O
Figure 3.12 shows why this equation is balanced. Often it is useful to know
the state of the chemicals that are involved in a chemical reaction. Add this
information to a chemical equation by inserting the appropriate abbreviation
in parentheses after each chemical formula. Table 3.3 provides the abbreviations.
The final balanced equation for the formation of water, if the reactants and
product are at room temperature, is:
2H2
O2 2H2O 2H2(g) ! O2(g) → 2H2O(!)
➤
Notice that you do not include a coefficient 1.
Chemical equations sometimes also show whether a reaction is exothermic

Figure 3.12 Why is the scale or endothermic. If a reaction is endothermic, energy is written as a reactant.
finally balanced?
If a reaction is exothermic, energy is written as a product. For example, the
decomposition of copper(II) oxide into copper and oxygen is endothermic.
The reaction can be written like this:
Table 3.3 State Abbreviations CuO(s) ! thermal energy → Cu(s) ! O2(g)
State Abbreviation The exothermic reaction of sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide to form
solid (s) water and sodium sulfate can be written as follows:
liquid (!)
H2SO4(aq) ! 2NaOH(aq) → 2H2O(!) ! Na2SO4(aq) ! thermal energy
gas (g)
aqueous solution (aq) Writing Balanced Chemical Equations
(dissolved in water)
Balancing a chemical equation requires patience, practice, and perseverance.
Here are some guidelines and examples to help.
1. Skeleton Equation: Write the skeleton equation. Be sure you have the
correct formulas for all the compounds and elements. Each reactant and
product make up a “term” in the equation.
2. Balancing: Identify unbalanced atoms and polyatomic ions. Write
coefficients to balance them. The steps below will help for more
complex equations.
• Look for an unbalanced atom or a polyatomic ion that appears just once
on each side of the equation. Add balancing coefficients to the two terms
that contain the element or polyatomic ion. Leave atoms that appear as
elements in the equation until later (e.g., O2, H2, or Na).
• Pick another unbalanced element that appears once on each side. Choose
coefficients to balance the atoms of this element as well. Adjust coefficients
so that the terms you balanced in the previous step remain balanced.
Repeat for any other elements that appear once on each side.
• Balance any remaining unbalanced elements or ions. Use fractional
coefficients if necessary.
• Clear any fractional coefficients by multiplying the whole equation by the
same factor. The resulting coefficients should be the smallest possible
whole numbers.
3. Check It: Check that the equation is balanced. Make a table of the atoms
of each element on each side of the equation.

Examples of Balancing Chemical Equations
Model Problem 1
Write a balanced chemical equation to represent the following word equation.
sodium ! water → sodium hydroxide ! hydrogen gas
1. Skeleton Equation
First write a skeleton equation. Be sure you have used the correct formulas.
Na(s) ! H2O(!) → NaOH(aq) ! H2(g)
Remember: Hydrogen gas is diatomic.
2. Balancing
• Identify unbalanced atoms and polyatomic ions.
Na(s) ! H2O(") → NaOH(aq) ! H2(g)
The only atoms that do not balance on each side of the skeleton equation
are hydrogen atoms.
• There are two hydrogen atoms on the reactant side, and three hydrogen
atoms on the product side. On the product side, hydrogen appears as an
element, H2, and also as part of sodium hydroxide, NaOH.
• Since the atoms of all other elements are balanced, begin to balance the
equation by changing the coefficient in front of H2O(") to 2. There are
now four hydrogen atoms on the reactant side. Balance the hydrogen
atoms by changing the coefficient in front of NaOH(aq) to 2. The hydrogen
atoms are balanced.
Na(s) ! 2H2O(") → 2NaOH(aq) ! H2(g)
• The sodium atoms are now unbalanced. There are two sodium atoms on
the product side, but only one on the reactant side. Balance the sodium
atoms by placing a coefficient of 2 in front of Na(s) on the reactant side.
2Na(s) ! 2H2O(") → 2NaOH(aq) ! H2(g)
The equation now appears to be balanced.
3. Check It
Your final step should always be to check the total number of atoms on
each side of the equation. Make a chart to list the reactants and products, Sometimes students try to balance
and record the number of atoms and ions to see if they match. a chemical equation by changing
the formula of a reactant or
Reactants Products product. For example, you might
2 Na atoms 2 Na! ions be tempted to balance the skeleton
equation for water by changing
2 0 atoms 2 0 atoms H2O to H2O2. This approach
4 H atoms 4 H atoms seems simple, and the numbers
The equation is balanced. balance. So why is it incorrect?

Model Problem 2
Write a chemical equation for the following word equation.
copper ! silver nitrate → copper(II) nitrate ! silver
Cu(s) ! AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) ! Ag(s)
2. Balancing
On the left and right sides, there are compounds that contain nitrate ions,
NO3". Balance these ions as a unit first.
Cu(s) ! 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) ! Ag(s)
Then balance the silver atoms.
Cu(s) ! 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) ! 2Ag(s)
The copper atoms are balanced without any further changes.
3. Check It
Reactants Products
1 Cu atom 1 Cu! ion
Figure 3.13 This photo shows 2 Ag! ions 2 Ag atoms
the reaction in Model Problem 2.
2 NO3" ions 2 NO3" ions
Which ions are in the solution? The equation is balanced.
What is the precipitate that is
forming on the wire?
Model Problem 3
Write a chemical equation for the following word equation.
calcium nitrate ! sodium hydroxide → calcium hydroxide ! sodium nitrate
Ca(NO3)2(aq) ! NaOH(aq) → Ca(OH)2(s) ! NaNO3(aq)
2. Balancing
First balance the nitrate ions and the hydroxide ions.
Ca(NO3)2(aq) ! 2NaOH(aq) → Ca(OH)2(s) ! 2NaNO3(aq)
The equation appears to be balanced without further changes.
3. Check It
Reactants Products
1 Ca! ion 1 Ca! ion
2 NO3" ions 2 NO3" ions
2 Na! ions 2 Na! ions
2 OH" ions 2 OH" ions
The equation is balanced.

Practice Problems
5. Balance each of the following equations.
(a) Li(s) ! H2O(") → LiOH(aq) ! H2(g)
(b) Fe(s) ! O2(g) → Fe2O3(s)
In 1995 a scientist spent 15
(c) Zn(s) ! HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) ! H2(g) days in a sealed chamber. His
(d) (NH4)3PO4(aq) ! Ba(OH)2(aq) → Ba3(PO4)2(s) ! NH4OH(aq) oxygen was supplied entirely
by photosynthesis, courtesy of
(e) Pb(NO3)2(aq) ! KI(aq) → PbI2(s) ! KNO3(aq) 30 000 wheat plants. In turn,
(f ) Cu(NO3)2(s) → CuO(s) ! NO2(g) ! O2(g) the carbon dioxide needed for the
photosynthesis came from the
6. Aqueous copper(II) nitrate reacts with aqueous potassium hydroxide to scientist’s breath, as a product
form aqueous potassium nitrate and solid copper(II) hydroxide. Write of his cellular respiration.
a balanced chemical equation to represent this reaction. Human-carrying interplanetary
expeditions will likely depend
7. In section 3.1, you learned that plants use the Sun’s energy to make their on similar closed systems to
supply and recycle water,
own food through the process of photosynthesis. Both plants and animals
oxygen, and many nutrients.
use food to make energy through the process of cellular respiration.
(a) The skeleton equation for photosynthesis is below. Balance the
equation. Hint: Leave oxygen for last.
CO2(g) ! H2O(") → C6H12O6(aq) ! O2(g)
(b) The skeleton equation for cellular respiration is below. Balance
the equation.
C6H12O6(aq) ! O2(g) → CO2(g) ! H2O(")
(c) Classify each reaction as exothermic or endothermic. For each
equation, add “! energy” on the product side or reactant side.
8. Figure 3.14 below shows the contact process for producing sulfuric
acid, an important and versatile industrial chemical.
Figure 3.14
(a) Read about the reactions that take place in each step. For each
Step 1 Liquid sulfur, S(!), is
of the four steps, write a chemical equation to represent the reaction. burned in air. The sulfur reacts
(b) Identify three dangerous substances that are used or produced with oxygen to produce sulfur
in the contact process. Explain why they are dangerous. dioxide, SO2(g), a stable, poisonous
gas. The sulfur can be obtained
(c) The contact process produces no harmful waste substances that from underground deposits or
must be disposed of. Explain what happens to the dangerous as a byproduct of natural
substances you identified in question (b). gas production.
Step 2 After impurities are
removed, the sulfur dioxide
is reacted with more oxygen
to produce toxic sulfur trioxide
sulfur Step 1 gas, SO3(g). To speed up the
melter sulfur burner H2SO4 reaction, the gases are heated
Step 3 to a temperature of 400°C.
SO2 SO3
melted Step 3 After cooling, the sulfur
sulfur trioxide is bubbled through
highly concentrated sulfuric acid
O2 H2S2O7 H2SO4(aq). The reaction produces
air Step 2
pyrosulfuric acid, H2S2O7(aq).
O2 O2 H2SO4 Step 4 Water is added to the
water pyrosulfuric acid, producing
H2O H2O highly concentrated sulfuric
Step 4 acid, H2SO4(aq).

Section 3.2 Summary
In this section, you learned that the law of conservation of mass states that
the mass of a system remains constant during a chemical reaction. You learned
how to write balanced chemical equations to reflect this law. In Section 3.3,
you will continue to work on your balancing skills as you learn to classify
chemical reactions.

1. Create a chart that summarizes the key features of word equations,
skeleton equations, and balanced equations, showing the advantages
and disadvantages of each type of equation.
2. Explain why a balanced chemical equation is consistent with the law of
conservation of mass. Use an example of a balanced chemical equation
in your answer.
3. Each of the following chemical equations is balanced, but is incorrect in
some other way. State what is wrong and then write the equation correctly.
1
(a) H2O(!) → H2(g) ! %2%O2(g)
(b) NH3(g) → N(g) ! 3H(g)
(c) 2C(s) ! 2O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
4. When you light a campfire, you are burning carbon compounds in the
wood. The main compound in the wood is cellulose, a compound containing
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The products are carbon dioxide and water
vapour. There is one other reactant besides cellulose. What is it? Write a
word equation to describe the burning of cellulose.
5. Apply Given the following word and skeleton equations,
write balanced chemical equations for each reaction.
(a) copper(II) oxide → copper ! oxygen gas
CuO(s) → Cu(s) ! O2(g)
(b) methane ! oxygen → carbon dioxide ! water
CH4(g) ! O2(g) → CO2(g) ! H2O(g)
(c) ammonia gas ! oxygen → nitrogen ! water
NH3(g) ! O2(g) → N2(g) ! H2O(!)
(d) sulfur dioxide ! oxygen → sulfur trioxide
SO2(g) ! O2(g) → SO3(g)
6. Thinking Critically Suppose that you measure the mass of a chemical in
an open container, and then heat it for a few minutes over a Bunsen burner
flame. After the container and contents have cooled, you find that the mass
is larger than before.
(a) If you accept the law of conservation of mass, how can you explain
your observation?
(b) Is there a way to carry out the same reaction so that your results illus-
trate the law of conservation of mass? Explain your answer.

3.3 Types of
Chemical Reactions
Chemists classify reactions to make it easier to predict the products of reactions
and recognize new reactions. You have already learned one way to classify
reactions — as endothermic or exothermic. There are other ways in which
chemical reactions can be classified. In the following activity, model different
chemical reactions and look for patterns that can help you classify them.
Find Out
Modelling Chemical Reactions
You can develop a classification system for (e) potassium ! water →
chemical reactions by paying close attention to potassium hydroxide ! hydrogen gas
patterns in the products and reactants involved. (f) zinc ! tin(II) chloride → zinc chloride ! tin
(g) copper ! silver nitrate →
Materials copper(II) nitrate ! silver
blank paper (h) potassium iodide ! lead(II) nitrate →
coloured pencils or markers potassium nitrate ! lead(II) iodide
(i) sodium chloride ! silver nitrate →
Procedure Performing and Recording sodium nitrate ! silver chloride
1. Working in groups, you will make drawings (j) barium chloride ! potassium sulfate →
to represent atoms and model chemical barium sulfate ! potassium chloride
reactions. First, copy the following word
6. Compare your diagrams with the diagrams
equation into your notebook:
of other groups.
iron ! sulfur → iron(II) sulfide
2. Under the word equation, write the skeleton
equation for the reaction. 1. Think about the diagrams for the following
groups of reactions:
3. Choose one colour to represent iron atoms,
• (a) and (b)
and another colour to represent sulfur atoms.
• (c) and (d)
Draw diagrams to represent an iron atom and
• (e), (f), and (g)
a sulfur atom.
• (h), (i), and (j)
4. Draw diagrams in your notebook For each reaction, compare the products with
to represent the reaction. Use shaded or the reactants. What do the reactions in each
coloured circles to represent atoms. group have in common?
5. Repeat steps 1–4 for your assigned reactions. 2. Develop a classification system for the chemical
(a) calcium ! oxygen gas → calcium oxide reactions you observed in this activity.
(b) calcium oxide ! carbon dioxide →
calcium carbonate 3. For each class of reaction, try to find one
(c) copper(II) oxide → copper ! oxygen gas example in this unit that is not listed in
(d) water → hydrogen gas ! oxygen gas Procedure question 6.

Chemists often use five broad categories to classify reactions. These
categories are formation (or synthesis) reactions, decomposition
reactions, single-replacement reactions, double-replacement reactions,
and hydrocarbon combustion. Each name provides a clue about the
reaction type.
Formation Reactions
In a formation (or synthesis) reaction, two or more reactants
combine to produce a new product. This general equation represents
a formation reaction:
X ! Y → XY
Often the reactants in formation reactions are elements. Figures 3.15
Figure 3.15 Fertilizers contain nitrogen and 3.16 provide some examples of formation reactions.
compounds such as ammonia, which plants
can use easily. The following exothermic Decomposition Reactions
formation reaction is used to produce ammonia.
In a decomposition reaction, one compound breaks down into two
N2(g) ! 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) ! thermal energy
or more simpler compounds or elements. The general equation of
Farmers often supply nitrogen to their a decomposition reaction is:
crops by applying fertilizers as shown in
the photograph. XY → X ! Y
You can think of decomposition reactions as the opposite of formation
reactions. Figures 3.17 and 3.18 show several examples of decompo-
sition reactions.
Figure 3.16 Energy released by the formation Figure 3.17 Passing electricity through Figure 3.18 Decomposition reactions
reaction between liquid hydrogen and liquid water will decompose it into hydrogen and sometimes occur explosively. For
oxygen helps to propel the space shuttle oxygen. This process is called electrolysis. example, when ammonium nitrate
into orbit. Compare this reaction to the reaction is heated, it explodes, forming
shown in Figure 3.16. dinitrogen monoxide and water.
2H2(!) ! O2(!) → 2H2O(g) ! thermal energy
H2O(!) → H2(g) ! O2(g) NH4NO3(s) → N2O(g) ! 2H2O(g)

Single-Replacement Reactions
In a single-replacement reaction, one element takes the place of (replaces)
another element in a compound. There are two general forms of equations The single-replacement reaction
for a single-replacement reaction: between sodium and water
produces enough thermal
A ! BX → AX ! B energy to ignite some of
or the substances involved.
AX ! Y → AY ! X
Many single-replacement reactions involve the reaction between a metal and
a compound. Some metals react with water to produce hydrogen gas. Other
metals are unreactive. All the alkali metals are able to displace hydrogen from
water in single-replacement reactions such as the following:
2Na(s) ! 2H2O(!) → 2NaOH(aq) ! H2(g) ! thermal energy
Metals that are not reactive enough to displace hydrogen from water may
be able to replace hydrogen in an acid. For example, magnesium does not react
significantly with water at room temperature, but it generates hydrogen gas
with hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq):
Mg(s) ! 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) ! H2(g)
Valuable silver can be recovered from a solution that contains silver ions
by using copper.
2AgNO3(aq) ! Cu(s) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) ! 2Ag(s)
Single-replacement reactions can involve the reaction of a halogen and Think of water as hydrogen
hydroxide, H—OH. When hydro-
a halogen-containing compound. The elemental halogen replaces the halogen gen hydroxide combines with
that is part of the compound. For example, the reaction of chlorine gas and sodium, a sodium atom takes the
aqueous sodium bromide forms liquid bromine and aqueous sodium chloride. place of the hydrogen atom to
form sodium hydroxide, NaOH.
Cl2(g) ! 2NaBr(aq) → Br2(!) ! 2NaCl(aq) The displaced hydrogen atoms
combine to form hydrogen gas.
Double-Replacement Reactions Try writing the balanced
chemical equation for the single
In a double-replacement reaction, the cations of two different compounds exchange replacement reaction between
places, forming two new compounds. The general form of the equation is: potassium, K(s), and water.
WX ! YZ → WZ ! YX
In many double-replacement reactions, either a precipitate or water forms
as one of the products. For example, aqueous solutions of barium hydroxide
and sodium sulfate are both clear and colourless. When the solutions are mixed,
a white precipitate of barium sulfate forms.
barium hydroxide ! sodium sulfate → barium sulfate ! sodium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2(aq) ! Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) ! 2NaOH(aq)
The reaction between an acid and a base is a special kind of double- Figure 3.19 Aqueous solutions
replacement reaction called neutralization. For example, the reaction of two dangerous, corrosive
between sodium hydroxide solution and hydrochloric acid produces compounds, hydrochloric acid and
a harmless aqueous solution of sodium chloride (see Figure 3.19): sodium hydroxide, combine to
form water and chemically safe
NaOH(aq) ! HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) ! H2O(!) sodium chloride.

S K I L L C H E C K

3-C
Analyzing an Industrial Process

Think About It
Magnesium and its compounds have numerous applications in the world around
you. If you have ever flown in a jet airplane, driven in a car, or enjoyed a fireworks
display, magnesium has touched your life. Magnesium touches your life in another
vital way, as well. It is a nutrient that your body’s cells need to release energy from
food and perform other life functions. Compounds such as magnesium oxide are also
used to make fertilizers and insulation for pipes, refine sugar, and treat waste water.
What to Do
The diagram shows how magnesium is obtained commercially from seawater, using
a technique called the Dow process. The raw materials are methane, seawater, and
seashells. Examine the diagram, and the numbered steps, to identify the chemical
reactions involved.
1 Seashells are mostly calcium carbonate, CaCO3(s). 2 The calcium oxide is added to seawater, and a
They are heated to produce calcium oxide and number of changes occur. First calcium oxide
carbon dioxide. reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide.
(a) Write the word equation and the balanced (a) Write the word equation and the balanced
chemical equation. chemical equation.
(b) Identify the type of chemical reaction. (b) Identify the type of chemical reaction.
chlorine gas
molten Mg(!)
molten MgCl2(!)
MgCl2(aq)
MgCl2(!)
Mg(OH)2(s) dryer +
mixture Mg(OH) –
2(s)
HCI(g)
Mg2+ (aq) settling Cl2(g)
pond neutralizing
mixing tank
seawater tank filter
CaO(s) Cl2(g) reacts electrolytic cell
with O2(g) (to decompose
magnesium
and CH4(g)
chloride)
lime oven
seashells
(CaCO3(s))

Next the calcium hydroxide reacts with
magnesium ions, Mg2!(aq), in the seawater to Extend Your Knowledge
produce magnesium hydroxide and calcium ions. When the space shuttle Challenger exploded in
(c) Write the word equation and the balanced 1986, scientists recovered the data recorder from
chemical equation. the ocean several weeks after the accident. They
were not able to analyze the tape at first because
(d) Identify the type of chemical reaction.
magnesium from the recorder case had reacted
Magnesium hydroxide is insoluble. It is pumped with the seawater. The tapes were coated with
3 insoluble magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2(s),
as a suspension through filters. Does separating
Mg(OH)2(s) from the water need to involve which had to be removed.
a chemical reaction? Explain your answer.
1. Write a balanced chemical equation for the
In the next step, the magnesium hydroxide reacts reaction between water and magnesium to
4 form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen,
with hydrochloric acid to produce an aqueous
solution of magnesium chloride and water. and identify the type of reaction.
(a) Write the word equation and the balanced 2. Scientists removed the magnesium hydroxide
chemical equation. by reacting it carefully with nitric acid,
(b) Identify the type of chemical reaction. HNO3(aq). The skeleton equation is
5 Water is evaporated from the magnesium Mg(OH)2(s) ! HNO3(aq)

chloride solution. The resulting solid is melted → Mg(NO3)2(aq) ! H2O(!)
at 700°C and decomposed by passing electric
Balance the equation, and identify the type
current through it.
of reaction.
(a) What is the name of the physical change
that occurs first in the magnesium chloride? 3. Why was magnesium hydroxide converted
(b) Write the balanced chemical equation for to magnesium nitrate?
this step.
(c) Identify the type of chemical reaction.
6 One of the products in step 5 is chlorine gas.

This can be burned with natural gas, which is
mostly methane, CH4(g), and oxygen to provide
the hydrochloric acid needed for step 4.
What other roles does chemistry play in analyzing
CH4(g) ! O2(g) ! Cl2(g) → HCl(g) ! CO(g) and restoring sunken artifacts? Find out by visiting
the website above. Click on Web Links to find out where
(a) Balance the skeleton equation for this reaction. to go next. Make a flowchart of one of the chemical
processes you discover.
(b) Classify the chemical reaction, if possible.
If not, explain why not.

Reactions Involving Carbon Compounds
The study of carbon-containing compounds and their properties is called
Numerous different hydrocarbons organic chemistry. A few carbon-containing compounds (such as carbon
make up crude oil. Crude oil is dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ionic carbonates) are not considered organic.
the second most common liquid This still leaves millions of different compounds, however. In fact, organic
on Earth. Most scientists believe
that crude oil is formed from the
compounds far outnumber inorganic compounds.
remains of organisms that lived A hydrocarbon is an organic compound that contains only the elements
millions of years ago. carbon and hydrogen. People obtain useful hydrocarbons by refining crude oil
and natural gas. About 95 percent of these hydrocarbons are burned as fuels
in exothermic combustion reactions. The resulting thermal energy warms
homes, businesses, and schools, and provides energy for transportation.
When hydrocarbons such as those in Figures 3.20 and 3.21 are burned in
a plentiful supply of oxygen, complete combustion occurs. This reaction
produces carbon dioxide and water vapour, and releases thermal energy.
hydrocarbon ! oxygen gas → carbon dioxide ! water ! thermal energy
methane
ethane
propane butane
Figure 3.20 These fairly simple hydrocarbon fuels all react with oxygen gas to produce carbon
dioxide and water vapour when combustion is complete.

When hydrocarbons are burned in a poor supply of oxygen,
incomplete combustion results. This reaction is still
exothermic, but it does not generate as much thermal
energy as complete combustion. The products of
incomplete combustion are carbon dioxide and water,
as before, but also carbon (soot) and carbon monoxide.
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, highly
toxic gas. Breathing carbon monoxide interferes with
your body’s oxygen transport system. Blood cells contain
a chemical, called hemoglobin, that combines with
oxygen in your lungs. The oxygen is later released
to other cells in your body. Carbon monoxide bonds
about 200 times more strongly than oxygen to hemo-
globin. If you breathe carbon monoxide, you reduce
the amount of oxygen that can bind to hemoglobin.
As a result, cells die. To reduce the danger of carbon
monoxide poisoning, never operate fuel-burning Figure 3.21 The simplest hydrocarbon is methane, CH4(g),
apparatus without proper ventilation. which is present in natural gas. If you have a gas furnace at
home, the following complete combustion reaction keeps you
warm during the winter:
CH4(g) ! 2O2(g) → CO2(g) ! 2H2O(g) ! thermal energy
One sign that a chemical reaction has occurred is the formation of a gas. Since gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide are
clear and colourless, chemists have developed standard tests to identify them. CAUTION: Hydrogen gas is highly combustible. Oxygen gas,
while not combustible itself, supports the combustion of other substances and materials. Take appropriate safety precautions when
performing these (or any other) chemical tests. Your teacher will provide you with detailed instructions before you conduct any of
these tests yourself.
1. Standard Chemical Test for Hydrogen

A burning wooden splint is lowered into a jar that contains an unknown gas.
• Positive result: If the gas is hydrogen, you will hear an explosive “pop” sound, and the
flame will be extinguished.
• Negative result: If the gas is carbon dioxide, the flame will be extinguished (no “pop”).
If the gas is oxygen, it will burn more brightly.
2. Standard Chemical Test for Oxygen

A glowing wooden splint is lowered into a jar that contains an unknown gas.
• Positive result: If the gas is oxygen, the splint will ignite.
1 • Negative result: If the gas is not oxygen, the splint will not ignite and
may stop glowing completely.
3. Standard Chemical Test for Carbon Dioxide

Limewater, an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide, is added to a jar that
contains the unknown gas. (Alternatively, the unknown gas is bubbled into
a test tube or beaker that contains limewater.)
• Positive result: If the gas is carbon dioxide, the limewater will become milky. 2
• Negative result: If the gas is not carbon dioxide, no change in the limewater occurs.
4. Standard Chemical Test for Water (not shown)

Cobalt(II) chloride paper can be used to test for the presence of gaseous or liquid water. To test
whether a liquid is water or contains water, a drop of the liquid is transferred to the test paper.
3 • Positive result: If water is present, the blue cobalt(II) chloride paper turns pink.
• Negative result: If water is not present, the cobalt(II) chloride paper stays blue.

S K I L L C H E C K

3-D
Putting It Together:
Classifying Chemical Reactions
In this investigation you will combine much of the knowledge you have gained so far
in this chapter. You will perform experiments and identify reactants and products.
Then, you will balance chemical equations and classify the reactions you observe.
Question
How can you use your knowledge of chemical reactions to classify reactions you
carry out in the laboratory?
Predictions
• Read through the entire investigation. For Parts 2, 3, 5, 6, and 8, write a chemical
equation to describe the reaction you believe will occur.
• Describe in detail what observations you expect to make for Parts 2, 3, 5, 6, and 8,
based on your equations.
Safety Precautions Part 1

Note: Your teacher will demonstrate this reaction.
• Handle all chemicals with care. They may be toxic,
irritants, or corrosive. Apparatus
Bunsen burner or propane blowtorch
• Burning magnesium produces an intense white flame
that can seriously damage your eyes. You must wear heat-resistant pad
welder’s goggles when observing the flame. crucible tongs
• Hydrogen peroxide is an irritant. Avoid contact with
your skin.
Materials
• Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and sodium 2 cm strip of magnesium ribbon, Mg(s)
hydroxide are caustic. Rinse any spills on your skin
immediately with plenty of cold water, and inform
your teacher. Procedure
• Copper(II) chloride is a poison. Silver nitrate and Make a table like the one on the next page,
potassium permanganate will stain skin and clothing. 1
and give it a title. Use several whole pages
• Manganese dioxide, copper nitrate, nickel nitrate, turned sideways. Use your table for all parts of
and ammonium nitrate are toxic.
the investigation. After each part, fill in the table.
• Phenolphthalein solution is flammable.
• Use the proper technique for smelling chemicals. 2 Your teacher will ignite the magnesium ribbon
Waft gases gently toward your nose; do not smell using the Bunsen burner or the blow torch.
chemicals directly.
CAUTION: Burning magnesium produces an
• Wash your hands thoroughly at the end of each
part of this investigation. intense white flame that can seriously damage
your eyes. You must wear welder’s goggles when
observing the flame.

In your table, describe Part 3 When the flame goes out,
3 Apparatus
6
the magnesium and the quickly turn the flask upright
drip catcher (aluminium dish or
way it burns. Is the reaction a piece of cardboard) and add the limewater. Swirl
exothermic or endothermic? small beaker (50 mL or 100 mL) the solution. Record any
In this reaction, magnesium large beaker (500 mL or 1 L) change in the appearance
reacts primarily with oxygen. Erlenmeyer flask of the limewater.
Write a chemical equation for
7 Waxes are a group of pure
the reaction. Include thermal
Materials substances with varying
energy on the correct side of candle numbers of carbon and
the chemical equation. 3 strips of cobalt(II) chloride paper hydrogen atoms. Use the
limewater formula C20H42 to represent
wax, and try to balance the
Part Reactants Observations Word Balanced Type of
equation chemical reaction combustion equation. Is
equation the reaction exothermic
or endothermic?
Part 4
Part 2 Procedure Apparatus
Apparatus Practise the test for identifying 2 test tubes and a test tube rack
2 test tubes and a test tube rack
1 scoopula
water. Take two strips of cobalt
chloride paper. Moisten one
Materials of the strips with water and Materials
dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq) compare its appearance with hydrogen peroxide, H2O2(aq)
2 cm strip of magnesium, Mg(s) that of the dry strip. In your manganese dioxide, MnO2(s)
wooden splint notebook, summarize this wooden splint
test for identifying water.
Procedure Procedure
2 Place the drip catcher under
1 Place about 3 mL of hydro- 1 Place about 2 mL of hydrogen
the candle. Light the candle
chloric acid in a test tube. Add peroxide solution in the test
and place a large beaker over it.
a small piece of magnesium tube. Use the end of the
to the acid solution. Collect 3 When the flame goes out, scoopula to add a small
any gas in a second test tube. examine the inside of the amount of manganese dioxide,
Test it with a burning splint. beaker. CAUTION: The about the size of a grain of
beaker may be hot. Test rice, to the test tube.
2 Dispose of the materials as
any moisture with a strip
directed by your teacher. 2 Collect the escaping gas with
of cobalt(II) chloride paper.
a test tube. Test it with a
4 Add 25 mL of limewater glowing splint and record the
to a small beaker. Describe result. The second product of
its appearance. the reaction is water.
5 Repeat step 2, but place the 3 When the reaction has

Erlenmeyer flask over the finished, carefully pour off the
burning candle. liquid from the solid in the
CONTINUED

test tube. Add another 2 cm Materials Materials
depth of hydrogen peroxide dilute sulfuric acid, H2SO4(aq) dilute solutions of:
solution to the test tube from dilute sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq) ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4(aq)
step 3. Do not add more dropper bottle containing sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq)
phenolphthalein
manganese dioxide.
Procedure
4 Record your observations Procedure
and the result of any test 1 Pour about 2 mL of ammo-
1 Label one test tube “acid” nium sulfate solution into
you performed. and another “base.” a labelled test tube. Pour
5 When you write equations to Pour about 2 mL of sodium the same quantity of sodium
describe this reaction, do not
2 hydroxide solution into
hydroxide into the test tube
include maganese dioxide. marked “base.” Add two another labelled test tube.
drops of phenolphthalein. Record your observations
6 Dispose of the materials as of both solutions.
directed by your teacher. Swirl the solution, and
record the colour. Mix the solutions in an evapo-
2
rating dish. Use the proper
Part 5
method for smelling chemicals
Apparatus
test tube and a test tube rack
to obtain evidence of any
chemical change. See if you
Materials can identify any gas that is
copper(II) chloride solution, produced. The other products
CuCl2(aq) of this reaction are water and
2 cm square of freshly cleaned an aqueous solution of sodium
aluminium, Al(s) sulfate, Na2SO4(aq).
Procedure 3 Dispose of the materials as

1 Place about 2 mL of 3 Repeat the test using
copper(II) chloride solution sulfuric acid.
in the test tube. Part 8
4 Use the test tube from Apparatus
2 Add a small piece of step 3. With the medicine 2 test tubes and a test tube rack
aluminium to the solution. dropper, carefully add sodium
After a few minutes, record hydroxide, one or two drops Materials
any changes you observe. at a time, until you first see silver nitrate solution, AgNO3(aq)
a persistent colour change. sodium chloride solution, NaCl(aq)
directed by your teacher. 5 Dispose of the materials as
directed by your teacher. Procedure
1 Pour about 2 mL of silver
Part 6 nitrate solution into a labelled
Apparatus Part 7 test tube. Pour the same
2 test tubes and a test tube rack Apparatus quantity of sodium chloride
50 mL beaker 2 test tubes and a test tube rack
solution into another labelled
medicine dropper evaporating dish
test tube. Record your
2 labels 2 labels
observations of both solutions.

Pour the contents of one Add a strip of copper to Procedure
2 3
test tube into the other. the zinc sulfate solution. 1 Place about 3 mL of
Note any change. As before, part of the strip hydrochloric acid in a test
should be above the solution. tube. Obtain a marble chip,
3 Dispose of the materials as After a few minutes, record which is calcium carbonate,
directed by your teacher. your observations. CaCO3(s). Record your obser-
vations of these substances.
4 Return the strips of metal to
your teacher. Dispose of the 2 Add the marble chip to
liquids as directed. the acid, and observe
what happens.
Part 10 3 Collect and test any gas that

Apparatus results. Perform any further
2 test tubes and a test tube rack tests that may help you
understand the reaction.
Materials Record your observations.
Part 9
Apparatus dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq)
2 beakers (50 mL) marble chip
2 labels
Materials
Analyze
solution of copper(II) sulfate, 1. Compare the data in your completed table with those of your
CuSO4(aq) classmates. Discuss and resolve any discrepancies or disagreements.
solution of zinc sulfate,
ZnSO4(aq) 2. A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction
strip of copper, Cu(s) but is unchanged at the end of the reaction. In other words, the
strip of zinc, Zn(s) catalyst is not consumed or produced in the reaction. In which
reaction do you think a catalyst was used? What evidence
Procedure supports your claim?
1 Prepare two labelled 3. Which reactions generated gases as products? Summarize the
beakers. Pour about 20 mL tests for oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. What is the
of copper(II) sulfate into name of the gas that smells like household glass cleaner?
one beaker and the same
quantity of zinc sulfate into
Conclude and Apply
the other beaker. Record
your observations of 4. Were you unsure about how to classify one or more reactions?
these solutions. Which ones were you unsure about? Why? How did you resolve
your uncertainty?
2 Add a strip of zinc to the
copper(II) sulfate solution. 5. Which metal is more reactive, copper or aluminium? Summarize
Part of the strip should be your reasoning.
above the solution so you 6. In many experiments, aqueous solutions are made using nitrates.
can compare it with the part What property do nitrates have that makes them suitable for
below. After a few minutes, making aqueous solutions?
record your observations.

Section 3.3 Summary
So far in Chapter 3, you have identified, represented, and classified chemical
reactions. Table 3.4 reviews the different types of chemical reactions. You
have learned how to balance chemical equations. In the next section, you
will learn a different way to interpret the coefficients in chemical equations.
Table 3.4 Summary of Reaction Types

Reaction type General form Example
formation reaction X ! Y → XY 2Mg(s) ! O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
decomposition XY → X ! Y 2HI(g) → H2(g) ! I2(s)
reaction
single-replacement 1. A ! BX → AX ! B 1. Zn(s) ! HCI(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) ! H2(g)
reaction 2. AX ! Y → AY ! X 2. Cl2(g) ! 2KI(aq) → I2(aq) ! 2KCl(aq)
double-replacement WX ! YZ → WZ ! YX 2KOH(aq) ! H2SO4(aq) →
reaction K2SO4(aq) ! 2H2O(!)
complete hydrocarbon ! O2(g) → C3H8(g) ! 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) ! 4H2O(g)
hydrocarbon CO2(g) ! H2O(g)
combustion

1. Ammonium hydrogencarbonate, NH4HCO3(s), is one of the ingredients
used to bake some brands of snack crackers. During baking, this compound
decomposes to form ammonia gas, water vapour, and carbon dioxide
gas. Write the word equation and a balanced chemical equation for the
decomposition of ammonium hydrogen carbonate.
2. Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the following word equa-
tions. State whether the reaction is a formation or decomposition reaction.
(a) solid sodium ! liquid bromine →
solid sodium bromide ! thermal energy
(b) thermal energy ! solid lead(II) oxide → solid lead ! oxygen gas
(c) thermal energy ! solid sodium nitride → solid sodium ! nitrogen gas
(d) solid tin ! chlorine gas → solid tin(IV) chloride ! thermal energy
3. Balance the following skeleton equations, if necessary. Classify each as
a single-replacement reaction or a double-replacement reaction.
(a) Zn(s) ! H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) ! H2(g)
(b) Al(s) ! CuSO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) ! Cu(s)
(c) Na2S(aq) ! HBr(aq) → NaBr(aq) ! H2S(g)
(d) HNO3(aq) ! Mg(OH)2(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) ! H2O(!)
4. Write a word equation and a balanced chemical equation showing the
complete combustion of butane, C4H10(g).

5. Apply Do the photographs below show complete or incomplete
combustion? On what evidence do you base your answer? Alberta holds one of the world’s
two largest deposits of oil sands.
The other large deposit is in
Venezuela. Oil sands contain
bitumen, which is a thick, sticky
form of fossil fuel. At room
temperature, bitumen has a
consistency similar to molasses.
Bitumen must be processed
before it is sent to a refinery
as crude oil.
A B
6. Balance the following skeleton equations, if necessary. Identify each

reaction as a formation or a decomposition reaction.
(a) CaO(s) ! H2O(!) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
(b) NiCO3(s) → NiO(s) ! CO2(g)
(c) Mg(ClO3)2(s) → MgCl2(s) ! O2(g)
(d) N2O5(g) ! H2O(!) → HNO3(aq)
7. Apply Predict the type of reaction that the following reactants will
undergo. Then predict the products and write balanced chemical
equations for each reaction.
(a) Li(s) ! H2(g) → (d) Na(s) ! CuCl2(aq) →
(b) K(s) ! Al(NO3)3(aq) → (e) HBr(aq) ! NH4OH(aq) →
(c) C2H6(g) ! O2(g) → (f) MgCl2(s) ! thermal energy →
8. Apply During World War II, lithium hydride helped to save lives. If
an airplane crashed at sea, the pilot used the reaction between lithium
hydride and seawater to generate hydrogen to fill a flotation device and
lifeboat. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
9. Thinking Critically Ammonium perchlorate, NH4ClO4, is a white
crystalline solid at room temperature. It is commonly used as a solid
propellant in missiles.
(a) Balance the skeleton equation and identify the type of reaction.
You may have been familiar with
NH4ClO4(s) → N2(g) ! Cl2(g) ! O2(g) ! H2O(g) ! energy the term “combustion” before
reading this section. Summarize
(b) Based on the reaction equation, suggest two reasons why ammonium
what you now know about
perchlorate is used to propel missiles. combustion. Write any questions
(c) Suggest a reason why gaseous water, not liquid water, is produced you have about combustion, and
look for information that will
in this reaction. answer your questions.
(d) Suggest a drawback of using ammonium perchlorate as a propellant.

3.4 The Mole
When you buy a carton that says it contains one dozen eggs, you know that
Avogadro’s number is named to the carton contains 12 eggs. The term “dozen” is a counting unit. You use
honour the Italian chemist Amedeo counting units for convenience all the time. For example, you group your
Avogadro (1776–1856). In 1811, socks into counting units of two, called pairs. You might buy a six-pack of
Avogadro postulated what is now
known as Avogadro’s law. The
soft drinks.
law states that equal volumes
of gases, at equal temperatures The Mole
and pressures, contain the same
number of molecules. This law For convenience, chemists group particles by large numbers that are easier to
was eventually used to determine work with. The numbers of elementary entities (atoms, molecules, or formula
molar masses. Unfortunately, units) in even a small sample of a substance are enormous. Therefore, they
the importance of Avogadro’s
law was not recognized until
are grouped by an extremely large number. The grouping that chemists
several years after his death. use is called the mole.
He never knew the number
that now bears his name.
• The mole (symbol mol) is defined as the amount of substance that
contains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules, or formula
units) as exactly 12 g of carbon-12, the most common isotope of carbon.
• One mole (1 mol) of a substance has been determined to contain
6.022 141 99 $ 1023 elementary entities of the substance. The
number 6.022 141 99 $ 1023 is called Avogadro’s number.
Notice that there are nine significant digits in the most precise and accurate
determination of Avogadro’s number to date. You will rarely need this level
of precision. In this textbook, you will use the value 6.02 $ 1023. For example,
there are 6.02 $ 1023 carbon atoms in 1 mol of carbon, C. There are
6.02 $ 1023 carbon dioxide molecules in 1 mol of carbon dioxide, CO2.
There are 6.02 $ 1023 sodium chloride formula units in 1 mol of sodium
chloride, NaCl(s).
The Magnitude of Avogadro’s Number

The number 6.02 $ 1023 is enormous. One way to
appreciate the vast size of the number is to relate
it to everyday objects that you can visualize.
Figures 3.22 and 3.23 provide some examples.
In Think and Link Investigation 3-E, you
will visualize covering the surface of Alberta
with 6.02 $ 1023 pennies.
Figure 3.22 It cost about $3.5

million to build the Calgary Tower.
Suppose you could build three
Calgary Towers each second,
spending $3.5 million to build
each tower. If you began with Figure 3.23 Measure the height of a pile of five
$6.02 $ 1023, it would take loonies. How tall, in kilometres, would be a stack
nearly 2 billion years to go broke. of 6.02 $ 1023 loonies?

S K I L L C H E C K

3-E
How Big Is 6.02 ! 1023?

Think About It
In this investigation, you will consider the following scenario. You have 6.02 $ 1023
If you need help working
pennies, which you are going to use to cover the surface of Alberta. What will be with scientific notation,
the height of the layer of pennies? You will stack the pennies in columns of roughly turn to Skill Focus 3.
equal height. The columns must touch at the bottom.
What to Do
Analyze
1 As a group, design a procedure for answering
1. To answer the question, you probably needed
the question above. You will need to consider
to make one or more approximations. List the
several variables, including the following:
approximations you made. How do you think
• How will you determine the surface area these approximations affected your estimate
of Alberta? (that is, did they increase or decrease your
• How will you lay out the pennies? final answer)?
• How will you determine the height of
2. Compare your group’s procedure and results
a penny?
with the procedure and results of other groups.
2 Carry out your procedure to determine the Did the answers differ? By how much did they
height of the layer of 6.02 $ 1023 pennies. differ? How did the procedures differ? Which
group do you think came up with the best
3 Write a detailed report showing what you did procedure, and why?
and how you arrived at your answer. Pay careful
attention to significant digits in your measure- 3. How could you have improved your procedure
ments and calculations. Include answers to the for this investigation?
Analyze questions below in your report.
Extend Your Knowledge and Skills
4. With your group, create your own problem
using Avogadro’s number and challenge other
groups to solve it. Here are examples to give
you some ideas:
• If you have $6.02 $ 1023, and you share it
equally among all the people in the world,
how much money would each person receive?
• How does the mass of 6.02 $ 1023 bananas
compare with the mass of Earth?
• If you removed 6.02 $ 1023 mL of seawater
from the world’s oceans, would the oceans
be completely emptied?
5. Choose and solve one of the three problems
given as examples above.

Relating Mass and Amount
On its own, thinking of atoms and molecules in amounts of 6.02 $ 1023 particles
is of little practical use. There needs to be a convenient way to measure amounts
of substances in moles. Fortunately, it is possible to calculate what mass of
a substance is equal to one mole of that substance. To do this, chemists use
the relative masses of elements.
The mole has its own day! Mole Day begins at 6:02 A.M. and ends
at 6:02 P.M. on October 23 each year. Why are those times and that date appropriate?
High school teachers and students throughout the world take part by writing jokes, songs,
and poems, and by participating in projects to celebrate the mole and chemistry in general.
What is the theme of this year’s Mole Day and how can you participate? Go to
the web site above to find out where to go next. Prepare a brief
proposal outlining three possible ways your class
could get involved in Mole Day.
Find Out
Can You Count on It?
Chemists and chemical engineers usually need 5. Develop and carry out a method to determine
to control the number of atoms, molecules, and the number of items in the bag without
ions in their reactions very carefully. Chemists opening it.
can calculate the approximate numbers of the
particles by measuring their masses. How What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
accurate is this method?
1. According to your determination, how many
items are in the bag?
Materials
small identical items to be counted 2. Explain how you determined that number.
(e.g., paper clips or bingo chips) 3. After calculating the number of items in the
re-sealable plastic bag bag, open the bag and count the number
electronic balance of items. Compare your calculated number
of items with the actual number of items.
1. Count out a small number of items and 4. Discuss the accuracy of your method of
measure their mass. Record the number determining the number of items in the
of items and the mass. plastic bag. What are some sources of
error that may have affected your results?
2. Determine and record the mass of an empty
re-sealable plastic bag. 5. In this activity, you were able to count
manually a group of small items and measure
3. Fill the bag to the brim with items and seal it. the total mass of the group to determine an
average mass. Do you think chemists are able
4. Determine and record the mass of the filled
to determine the average mass of an atom
plastic bag.
or molecule in the same way? Explain
your answer.

The Atomic Molar Mass of an Element
The atomic molar mass (M) of an element is a weighted average of the
mass of 1 mol of all of the naturally occurring isotopes of the element. You
can find the atomic molar mass listed for each element on the periodic table.
For example, the atomic molar mass of iron is listed on the periodic table as
55.85 g/mol. In other words, the mass of 1 mol of iron is 55.85 g. Similarly,
the atomic molar mass of sodium is 22.99 g/mol. Therefore, the mass of 1 mol
of sodium is 22.99 g. Figure 3.24 shows samples of elements. Each sample
contains 6.02 $ 1023 atoms, or 1 mol.
Figure 3.24 Each sample above contains 6.02 $ 1023 atoms. Note that the mass of
each sample is different.
Some elements exist as molecules, not atoms. For example, the element
nitrogen exists as a molecule composed of two nitrogen atoms, N2(g). Therefore,
1 mol of nitrogen molecules contains 2 mol of nitrogen atoms. The molar mass
of nitrogen molecules is therefore twice the atomic molar mass of nitrogen as
shown on the periodic table: 2 $ 14.01 g/mol # 28.02 g/mol. In other words,
1 mol of molecular nitrogen has a mass of 28.02 g.
The Molar Mass of a Compound

The term molar mass (M), with units of g/mol, is used to refer to the mass of
1 mol of any pure substance. You can determine the molar mass of a compound
by using the formula of the compound. For example, the formula of carbon
dioxide, CO2(g), tells you that each molecule contains one carbon atom and
two oxygen atoms.

By extension, 1000 molecules of CO2(g) contain 1000 carbon atoms and 2 $ 1000
oxygen atoms. Further, 6.02 $ 1023 molecules of CO2 contain 6.02 $ 1023
carbon atoms and 2 $ 6.02 $ 1023 oxygen atoms. In other words, 1 mol of
CO2(g) contains 1 mol of carbon atoms and 2 mol of oxygen atoms. Therefore,
the molar mass of a molecular compound may be calculated as follows:
mass of 1 mol of CO2(g)
# (1 mol C $ MC) ! (2 mol O $ MO)
# (1 mol C $ 12.01 g/mol C) ! (2 mol O $ 16.00 g/mol O)
# 44.01 g
Therefore, the molar mass of carbon dioxide is 44.01 g/mol.
You can calculate the molar mass of an ionic compound in the same way:
mass of 1 mol of Mg(NO3)2(s)
# (1 mol Mg $ MMg) ! (2 mol N $ MN) ! (6 mol O $ MO)
# (1 mol Mg $ 24.31 g/mol Mg) ! (2 mol N $ 14.01 g/mol N) !
(6 mol O $ 16.00 g/mol O)
# 148.33 g
Therefore, the molar mass of magnesium nitrate is 148.33 g/mol.
Figure 3.25 shows some examples of molar amounts of substances and their
masses. Try the following problems to practise determining molar masses.
Practice Problems
9. Find the molar mass of each of the following elements.
(a) potassium, K(s)
(b) zirconium, Zr(s)
(c) chlorine, Cl2(g)
(d) oxygen, O2(g)
10. Determine the molar mass of each of the following compounds.

(a) potassium bromide, KBr(s)
(b) methane, CH4(g)
(c) sodium sulfate, Na2SO4(s)
(d) aluminium nitrate, Al(NO3)3(s)
Figure 3.25 Each sample shown

contains 6.02 $ 1023 molecules
or formula units.

Converting Between Mass and Moles
It is often useful for chemists to convert between the amount of a sample
expressed in moles and the mass of the sample expressed in grams. To do this,
you can use a method called the factor label method. The factor label method
uses conversion factors to change units without affecting the value. You can use
conversion factors to change an amount of a sample expressed in moles to the
mass of the sample, expressed in grams. In this case, the conversion factor is
the molar mass of the substance. For example, to determine the mass of 2 mol
of helium, use the molar mass of helium, 4.00 g/mol, as a conversion factor.
You can do this because 4.00 g of helium is equivalent to 1 mol of helium.
4.00 g He
conversion factor # %%
1 mol He
Multiply 2 mol by the conversion factor to determine its mass.
4.00 g He
mass of helium # 2 mol He $ %%
1 mol He
# 8.00 g He
Notice that the answer has the desired units, grams. Model Problem 1 shows
how to use this method to convert from amount to mass of a compound. You
can use the inverse of the molar mass to convert from mass to amount, as
shown in Model Problem 2.
Alternatively, you may use the following equation to convert between mass
and moles:
m
n # %% n # amount (mol)
M
m # mass (g)
M # molar mass (g/mol)
Model Problem 1
What is the mass in grams of 7.50 mol of H2O(!)?
The solutions you see here use
the factor label method. To learn
Solution more about how to use the
number of moles of H2O(!) # 7.50 mol factor label method, turn to
amount of water (in mol) → mass of water (in g) Skill Focus 3.
Use molar mass as a conversion factor to convert from moles to grams.

First, calculate the molar mass of water.
mass of 1 mol of H2O(!)
g g
# 2 mol H $ 1.01 %% ! 1 mol O $ 16.00 %%
mol H mol O
# 18.02 g
Therefore, the molar mass of water is 18.02 g/mol.
Set up an equation, using molar mass as a conversion factor. Check that
the units cancel, leaving the desired unit (grams).
18.02 g
7.50 mol H2O $ %% # 1.35 $ 102 g
1 mol H2O
The mass of 7.50 mol of water is 1.35 $ 102 g.

Model Problem 2
The mass of an iron bar is 16.8 g. What amount (in mol) of iron is in
the sample?
Solution
mass of Fe # 16.8 g
mass of iron (in g) → amount of iron (in mol)
Set up an equation to convert from mass to moles, using the molar mass
of iron in your conversion factor. Check that the answer has the desired
unit (moles).
1 mol
16.8 g Fe $ %% # 0.301 mol
55.85 g Fe
A 16.8 g sample of iron contains 0.301 mol of iron.
Practice Problems
11. Determine the mass of 43.2 mol magnesium, Mg(s).
12. What is the mass of 9.01 $ 103 mol carbon tetrafluoride, CF4(g)?
13. How many moles are in a 0.021 g sample of helium, He(g)?
14. Determine how many moles of potassium chlorate, KClO3(s), are

in a 344.9 g sample of the pure substance.
Across Canada
Most people are familiar with stories of Olympic™ athletes who enjoy consume 10 very strong cups of coffee within 15 min to go over the
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and how are these tests conducted? Dr. Ayotte and her team are constantly searching for reliable
Dr. Christiane Ayotte has been the head of Canada’s Doping tests for natural substances, developing new analytical techniques,
Control Laboratory since 1991. When a urine sample arrives at the and determining the normal levels of banned substances for male
doping control lab, Dr. Ayotte and her team ensure careful handling and female athletes. These are
of the sample. Portions of it are taken for six different analytical just part of the challenges she
procedures. The more than 150 substances banned by the inter- and her team face. Dr. Ayotte
national Olympic Committee (IOC) are grouped according to their must also defend her tests
physical and chemical properties. There are two main steps in in hearings and with the
analyzing a sample: press, especially when
1. purification, which involves steps such as filtration and extraction high-profile athletes are
using solvents, and involved. Dr. Ayotte’s findings
2. analysis by gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, or high- are sometimes unpleasant to
performance liquid chromatography. Chromatography is a part report. However, she believes
of the processes whereby chemists separate mixtures into that integrity and a logical
pure substances. mind are essential aspects
of being a good scientist.
Just the presence of most banned substances in a urine sample
means a positive result. Other substances must be present in an
amount higher than a certain threshold. This is when knowing about
chemical amounts comes in handy. A male athlete would have to Dr. Christiane Ayotte

Working with the Mole
The best way to get better at working with the mole is to practise. Sharpen
your skills by working through the following Practice Problems.
Practice Problems
15. Determine the molar mass of the following elements.
(a) cesium, Cs(!)
(b) gold, Au(s)
(c) hydrogen, H2(g)
(d) nitrogen, N2(g)
16. Determine the molar mass of each of the following compounds.

(a) NO3(g) (c) FeSO4(s)
(b) Al2S3(s) (d) (NH4)2CO3(s)
17. What is the mass, in grams, of 8.52 mol of each of the

following substances?
(a) H2O(!) (c) NiCl2(s)
(b) Al(s) (d) O2(g)
18. What is the amount, in moles, of 342.5 g of each of the

following substances?
(a) W(s) (c) S8(s)
(b) NCl3(!) (d) Ca(NO3)2(s)
19. Express the following as molar amounts.

(a) 10.00 g CO2(g) (c) 14.00 g Cr(OH)3(s)
(b) 3.50 g C5H12(g) (d) 6.97 g Al(NO3)3(s)
20. Re-order each of the following groups of substances from lowest

to highest molar mass.
(a) Nb(s), Tl(s), U(s), Sb(s)
(b) F2(g), I2(s), Cl2(g), Br2(!)
(c) Ir(s), Se(s), GaP(s), HClO3(s)
(d) NH3(g), SO2(g), K3PO4(s), Pb(s)
21. A student writes down the following information.

mass of beaker # 52.43 g
mass of beaker and CuSO4(s) # 65.41 g
What amount of CuSO4(s), in moles, did the student add to
the beaker?
22. A student uses a graduated cylinder to measure 25.5 mL of water

at 25°C. The density of water is 1.00 g/mL at 25°C.
(a) What is the mass of the water in the graduated cylinder?
(b) What amount of water, in moles, is in the graduated cylinder?

The Mole and the Law of Conservation of Mass
Using the mole concept, you can relate the coefficients in balanced chemical
equations to the mass of the substances involved. Start by thinking about
how the coefficients relate to moles of substances. For example, consider
this chemical equation:
2H2(g) ! O2(g) → 2H2O(!)
You can multiply all of the coefficients by two and the equation will remain
balanced. Four molecules of hydrogen react with two molecules of oxygen to
form four molecules of water. There are then eight hydrogen atoms on the
reactant side and on the product side. There are four oxygen atoms on the
reactant side and on the product side. In fact, as shown below, you can multiply
the coefficients by any factor you like.
2H2(g) ! O2(g) → 2H2O(!)

2 molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules
2 $ 2 molecules 1 $ 2 molecules 2 $ 2 molecules
2 $ 1000 molecules 1 $ 1000 molecules 2 $ 1000 molecules
23 23 23
2 $ 6.02$10 molecules 1 $ 6.02$10 molecules 2 $ 6.02$10 molecules
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
Notice that 2 $ 6.02 $ 1023 molecules is the same as 2 mol of molecules.

In the same way, 1 $ 6.02 $ 1023 molecules is the same as 1 mol of molecules.
Now you have two ways to interpret the coefficients of a balanced chemical
Examine Table 3.5. Use calculations equation. The coefficients can represent the number of particles (molecules or
to demonstrate that 2 mol H2, formula units) involved in the reaction. Or, the same coefficients can represent
1 mol O2, and 2 mol H2O each
have the mass shown on the
the amount in moles of each substance involved in the reaction.
table. Then write a balanced In Table 3.5, you can see how molecules, moles, and mass are related in the
chemical equation for the chemical equation. Notice that the total mass of the product is equal to the
formation of sodium chloride, total mass of the reactants. If you carry out this comparison with any balanced
NaCl. Make a table similar to
Table 3.5 to show that the chemical equation, you will see the same thing. The total mass of the substances
equation is consistent with the on the products side equals the total mass of the substances on the reactants
law of conservation of mass. side. You know from Section 3.3 that balanced chemical equations obey the
law of conservation of mass when the coefficients refer to atoms, molecules,
or formula units. Table 3.5 shows that balanced chemical equations also obey
the law of conservation of mass when they refer to moles.
Table 3.5 Chemical Equations and The Law of Conservation of Mass

Balanced chemical equation 2H2(g) ! O2(g) → 2H2O(!)
Number of particles (molecules) 2 molecules H2(g) ! 1 molecule O2(g) → 2 molecules H2O(!)
→
Amount (mol) 2 mol H2(g) ! 1 mol O2(g) → 2 mol H2O(!)

Mass (g) 4.04 g H2(g) ! 32.00 g O2(g) → 36.04 g H2O(!)
Total mass (g) 36.04 g reactants → 36.04 g product

Section 3.4 Summary
In this section, you learned how the mole connects the amount of a substance
to its mass. The concept of the mole plays a major role in predicting how
much of a given substance is consumed or produced in a chemical reaction.
In later science or chemistry studies, you will learn more about the mole and
its role in predicting quantities involved in chemical reactions.

1. Write a paragraph to describe the mole and Avogadro’s number, and
explain their importance in chemistry.
2. One mole of atoms of any element contains 6.02 $ 1023 atoms. Explain
why elements have different molar masses.
3. Find the molar mass of each of the following pure substances.
(a) ozone, O3(g)
(b) carbon monoxide, CO(g)
(c) methane, CH4(g)
(d) calcium carbonate, CaCO3(s)
(e) ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3(s)
(f) aluminium sulfate, Al2 (SO4)3(s)
4. How many molecules are there in 1 mol of water?
5. Determine the mass of each of the following samples.
(a) 3.52 mol silicon, Si(s)
(b) 0.0035 mol barium, Ba(s)
(c) 545.13 mol ammonium hydroxide, NH4OH(s)
(d) 8.45 $ 10"4 mol zinc phosphate, Zn3(PO4)2(s)
6. Express the following as molar amounts.
(a) 2.33 g hydrogen chloride, HCl(g)
(b) 16.0 kg carbon dioxide, CO2(g)
(c) 1.03 $ 105 g propane, C3H8(g)
(d) 6.84 g sucrose, C12H22O11(s)
7. Thinking Critically Chemical equations are sometimes written with
fractions as coefficients. For example:
5
C2H2(g) ! %2% O2(g) → 2CO2(g) ! H2O(g)
(a) Demonstrate that the equation is balanced.
(b) Does using fractions as coefficients make sense if you consider that
the coefficients refer to the numbers of molecules involved in the
reaction? Explain your answer.
(c) Does using fractions make sense if you assume that the coefficients
refer to moles of reactants and products? Explain your answer.

8. At the beginning of this unit, you learned that dyes can be obtained from
natural sources such as plants. Dyes can also be produced synthetically. In
1856, chemistry student William Perkin accidentally discovered a way to
produce a mauve dye synthetically. A dress that was dyed with the original
mauve dye is shown in Figure 3.26.
(a) The mauve dye, known today as mauveine or aniline purple, contains
various compounds. One of the compounds is (C26H23N4)2SO4(s).
What is the molar mass of this compound?
(b) If you assume that mauveine consists exclusively of
(C26H23N4)2SO4(s), what is the mass of 5.8 $ 103 mol?
(c) How many moles of mauveine are contained in 25 tonnes?
Figure 3.26 Perkin’s mauve dye started a fashion

craze. Because he made his discovery while he
was trying to produce something entirely different,
Perkin’s invention is an example of the role of luck in
scientific discovery. Luck, however, was not enough.
Perkin needed to analyze what at first seemed to be
a failed experiment.
William Henry Perkin was 18 years old when he produced the first
synthetic dye — by accident. He was working with coal tar to try to
obtain quinine, a substance used to treat malaria. His work resulted
only in a dark sludge. When he processed the sludge, however, he
found that it produced a purple substance that worked very well as a dye. He called the dye
“mauve” and patented the process for making it. Clothing dyed with mauve quickly became
extremely fashionable. In fact, the period after Perkin’s invention is sometimes referred to
as the “Mauve Decade.”

(a) Describe evidence that would suggest that (h) Write the balanced chemical equations for specific
a chemical change has taken place. (3.1) examples of a formation reaction, a decomposition
reaction, a single-replacement reaction, and
(b) Describe how to distinguish between an exother- a double-replacement reaction. (3.3)
mic reaction and an endothermic reaction. (3.1)
(i) Define the term “hydrocarbon.” Give examples
(c) State the law of conservation of energy. Describe of at least two different hydrocarbons and their
how the law applies to both exothermic and uses. (3.3)
endothermic chemical reactions. (3.1)
(j) List the products of burning a hydrocarbon
(d) Predict combinations of ions that will form an by complete combustion and by incomplete
insoluble compound in water, using a solubility combustion. (3.3)
chart. (3.1)
(k) Explain the significance of Avogadro’s number.
(e) State the law of conservation of mass. How does (3.4)
the law apply to chemical reactions? (3.2)
(l) Explain how to calculate the molar mass of
(f ) Explain why a balanced chemical equation is con- a compound, using an example. (3.4)
sistent with the law of conservation of mass. (3.2)
(m) Show how to determine the number of moles
(g) Identify where you would place the term “thermal in a given mass of a substance. (3.4)
energy” in an equation for a reaction that is
exothermic and for one that is endothermic. (3.3)
Summarize this chapter by doing one of the • Explain how the law of conservation of energy
following. Use a graphic organizer (such as relates to chemical reactions, such as the
a concept map), produce a poster, or write combustion reaction shown below.
a summary to include the key chapter concepts.
Here are a few ideas to use as a guide:
• Identify the evidence for chemical reactions.
• Explain why chemists represent reactions using
balanced chemical equations.
• Classify chemical reactions into five types.
• Explain why 1 mol of carbon and 1 mol of
sodium contain the same number of particles
but have different masses.
• Relate the law of conservation of mass to the
mole concept.

3
C H A P T E R
Review
Key Terms
chemical reaction law of conservation coefficient hydrocarbon

chemical change of energy formation reaction complete combustion
reactant law of conservation of mass decomposition reaction incomplete combustion
product closed system single-replacement reaction mole (mol)
precipitate open system double-replacement reaction Avogadro’s number
exothermic reaction skeleton equation neutralization atomic molar mass (M)
endothermic reaction balanced chemical equation organic chemistry molar mass (M)
factor label method
Understanding Key Concepts Developing Skills

Section numbers are provided if you need to review. 9. Predict whether each of the following ionic
substances will be soluble in water.
1. List five categories of evidence of chemical
reactions, and give examples of each. (3.1) (a) NaOH(s)
(b) CuCl(s)
2. Distinguish between an exothermic change and
(c) AgClO3(s)
an endothermic change. Give one example of
each. (3.1) (d) NH4CH3COO(s)
(e) Pb(OH)2(s)
3. Explain the importance of a closed system in
(f ) SrSO4(s)
demonstrating the law of conservation of mass
through experiment. (3.2) 10. Write the balanced chemical equation for the
displacement of aluminium in aluminium chlo-
4. Explain why a balanced chemical equation is
ride by magnesium.
consistent with the law of conservation of
mass. (3.2) 11. Gold is usually found as small, uncombined pieces
of metal. One way to extract gold is to dissolve
5. In what circumstances can incomplete combustion
it in a cyanide solution (a hazardous procedure!).
occur, and why can it be dangerous? (3.3)
The gold can be precipitated from the cyanide
6. Distinguish between a formation reaction and solution by adding a metal such as zinc:
a decomposition reaction. Give one example 2Au(CN)2(aq) ! Zn(s) → 2Au(s) ! Zn(CN)4(aq)
of each. (3.3)
What type of reaction is this?
7. Which of the following compounds are hydro-
12. Write a balanced chemical equation for each of
carbons? Briefly explain your answers. (3.3)
the following word equations. Use the description
(a) C3H8(g) of energy changes to write the term “thermal
(b) C6H12O6(s) energy” on the correct side of the equation.
(c) H2CO3(s) (a) Solid sulfur combines with oxygen gas
(d) CH3OH(!) to form sulfur dioxide gas. The reaction
(e) C6H6(!) is exothermic.
(b) Solid sulfur combines with oxygen gas
8. Describe the relationship between the mole and exothermically to form sulfur trioxide gas.
Avogadro’s number. (3.4)

(c) The decomposition of sulfur trioxide gas 17. As part of a laboratory procedure, a student must
produces sulfur dioxide gas and oxygen dissolve 0.10 mol of silver nitrate, AgNO3(s),
gas. The process requires energy. in 100 mL of distilled water. What mass of
(d) The decomposition of carbon dioxide silver nitrate should the student add to the
gas into solid carbon and oxygen gas distilled water?
is endothermic.
18. A student finds the mass of a small beaker to be
13. Balance each of the following skeleton equations, 12.5 g. The student adds some sodium hydrogen
write the word equation, and classify the reaction. carbonate, NaHCO3(s), to the beaker and finds
the mass of the NaHCO3(s) and the beaker to be
(a) Sn(s) ! AgNO3(aq) → Sn(NO3)2(aq) ! Ag(s)
18.1 g. What amount of NaHCO3(s), in moles,
(b) Al(s) ! O2(g) → Al2O3(s) did the student add to the beaker?
(c) NaI(aq) ! Pb(NO3)2(aq) → 19. You begin with 15.0 g of sodium chloride. You
NaNO3(aq) ! PbI2(s) use electrical energy to cause the sodium chloride
(d) CaCO3(s) !HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) ! H2CO3(aq) to decompose into its constituent elements.
(e) MgI2(aq) ! Br2(g) → MgBr2(aq) ! I2(s) (a) How many moles of sodium chloride did
you begin with?
(f ) (NH4)2S(aq) ! Pb(NO3)2(aq) →
(b) What do you predict will be the combined
PbS(s) ! NH4NO3(aq) mass of the products? Explain your answer.
14. Calculate the molar mass of each of the
following compounds: Critical Thinking
(a) MnO2(s) 20. Suppose that a winter storm brings down electrical
lines over a wide area. You are told that there will
(b) Ba(OH)2(s)
be no electricity for three or four days. It is bitterly
(c) C8H18(!) cold outside and, unfortunately, your furnace
(d) (NH4)2SO4(s) cannot operate without electricity. Someone
suggests placing towels around doors and windows
15. Gasoline is a homogeneous mixture of hydrocar-
to keep out drafts, and bringing in the barbecue
bons. What is another name for a homogeneous
as a source of heat. Why would this last action
mixture? A key compound in gasoline is octane,
be very dangerous?
C8H18. Can you see from the formula why it has
this name? Try to balance the equation for the
complete combustion of octane.
16. You have one solution that contains dissolved
sodium chloride, NaCl(aq), and another solution Return to your notes and review your answers to the Focussing
Questions on page 82. Now that you have finished the chapter,
that contains copper(I) nitrate, CuNO3(aq). You how would you change your answers? Rewrite the responses
mix these solutions together. Do you expect reflecting your change in thinking.
a precipitate to form? Explain your answer.

U N I T
1
Ask an Expert
Over the past 50 years, countless industrial activities
have taken place all over Earth. Unfortunately some of
these activities have resulted in the contamination of soil.
Researchers like Professor Selma Guigard and her students
at the University of Alberta are working to perfect a process
that will remove unwanted or even dangerous metals from
soil. Thanks to their work, contaminated soil can be made
safe and usable once more.
Q I’ve read about environmental companies using micro- Q Is the method you are researching able to eliminate
organisms to clean soil. Does your research involve those problems?
anything like that?
A Yes. We are using a different solvent to clean
A No. Although it’s popular for some clean-up the soil — carbon dioxide, CO2. It is more
jobs, bioremediation is not terribly successful environmentally friendly than organic solvents,
in removing metals. Often the metals are toxic so there is no problem with disposal or unsafe
to the organisms that are meant to clean them residues. We’re not using CO2 in its natural
up. The process we are investigating is a solvent state, though. We’re using it in its supercritical
extraction technology. It is a process that has fluid form. Supercritical CO2 is the same thing
been tried by others in the past, but the result some manufacturers use to remove caffeine
was not very satisfactory. from coffee beans.
Q Why not? Q What is supercritical CO2?
A The solvent that was used in the process was A When we bring CO2 up to a certain pressure
usually an organic compound, such as methanol. and temperature, it becomes what is called a
It successfully cleaned the soil, but it left behind supercritical fluid. It behaves a little like a liquid
a residue that often made the soil useless for and a little like a gas, so it is able to do the job
anything but landfill. As well, after the cleaning we need it to do. Other researchers have already
process, the contaminated solvent had to be used CO2 in its supercritical state to extract
disposed of safely. unwanted organic compounds from soil. The
idea of using it to remove metals was first
proposed around 1991. Our lab is one of only
a handful in Canada that are pursuing the idea.
Q What does the cleaning process entail?
A A batch of contaminated soil is closed

inside a reactor, along with something called
a “chelating agent.” CO2 is pumped in, and the
pressure and temperature within the reactor are
set. The supercritical fluid remains in contact
The blue colour in this soil is due to contamination by toxic metals. with the soil for several minutes or hours.

The length of time depends on the amount of Q How exactly does the CO2 get the metal to leave the soil?
soil and the metal that is being removed. When
the CO2 is removed, depressurized, and brought
A The metal is usually in the soil in the form of a
charged ion. Carbon dioxide is not charged. So
to normal temperature, it changes from its
the metal won’t dissolve in CO2 on its own. That’s
supercritical fluid state back to a gas. Then the
why we add the chelating agent. If the right chelate
metal deposits just fall out of it. We’re left with
is added, the metal bonds with the chelate more
CO2, which is recycled. We’re also left with
than with whatever it is bonded to in the soil.
a small amount of highly concentrated metal,
Once the metal combines with the chelate, the
which we hope we can recycle some day.
compound has no charge. The compound
dissolves in the CO2 and flows out with it.
Q What sort of metals can you extract using this process?
A We’ve been using copper as our test metal.

Once the process has been perfected, we hope
to use it to remove such things as lead, mercury,
cadmium, and chromium. One day, far down the
road, it may even remove radioactive elements.
Q What stage is your research at right now?
A My students and I are beginning to work on

designing a way to pump new batches of soil into
the reactor without having to depressurize in
between. The depressurizing and repressurizing
for each load of soil is one of the most expensive
parts of the process right now. For the moment,
A soil-cleaning reactor however, our research is focussed on determining
the best chelating agent to use. We hope to do
some trials with soil samples in the near future.
Personal Poisons: Removing Metals surrounding chelation therapy, what are the view-
from the Blood points, and what is being done to resolve them?
As a starting point, go to www.mcgrawhill.ca/
Many of the same toxic, heavy metals that contam-
links/sciencefocus10.
inate soil, water, and air are often found in the
bloodstream of people who have been exposed
to these contaminants. Lead and mercury are
especially worrisome, because they directly and
indirectly cause a host of serious (and sometimes
deadly) health problems. Anyone can be exposed
to lead. Common sources include old paint, soil,
and even some toys. Sources of mercury include
old paint, some kinds of fish, and certain vaccines
and drugs prepared prior to the late 1990s. Chelation
therapy is a proven course of action for removing
heavy metals from blood. What is this therapy, and Is there lead or other heavy metals contaminating this site?
what does it involve? Why are there controversies Why does it matter? How could you find out?
Unit 1 Ask an Expert • MHR 131

S K I L L C H E C K
Analyzing Antacids
Think About It Some suggested areas of investigation:
• Does every antacid tablet of the same brand
One of the most significant of all chemical reactions contain the same quantity of active ingredient?
occurs inside your body. It is probably occurring right
• How do antacid tablets of different brands compare
now. If not, it will as soon as you have your next meal in terms of neutralizing ability? What does this have
or snack. Chemical reactions change the food you eat to do with the mass of the tablets or the nature of
the active ingredient?
into compounds that your body uses to grow, maintain
and repair cells and tissues, and provide energy. These • Do antacid tablets of different brands contain the
same active ingredient? If not, how could you
reactions are collectively known as digestion. compare the effectiveness of different brands?
The stomach is one of several organs involved in • What are the products of the reaction between
digestion. It secretes an acid — hydrochloric acid, with an antacid and an acid? (Can you isolate and
a pH of 1 or 2 — that helps break down food particles test any or all of these products?)
and large nutrient molecules. When you eat a large
meal, the stomach secretes more acid to assist with Possible methods of investigation:
this process. The excess acid can cause a condition you • Is a gas produced by the reaction you are working
with? If so, how can you use what you know about
have probably seen or heard advertised: heartburn the law of conservation of mass? What can you
(or acid indigestion). It occurs when the acidic determine by comparing the mass of the reaction
stomach contents are pushed into the lower area vessel and contents before and after the reaction?
of the esophagus. The esophagus does not have • Does a neutralization reaction take place? If so, how
can you use indicators and drop by drop titration
a protective lining like the stomach does, so you to compare the effectiveness of active ingredients
feel a burning sensation in your throat and chest. in antacids?
For immediate relief of heartburn, many people
reach for an antacid product. What kind of chemicals Safety Precautions
do antacid products contain? Which is the active • Do not mix chemicals without your teacher’s
ingredient, and what kind of chemical reaction does knowledge and approval.
it produce? Are there effective alternatives to store- • You will be working with dilute acids and/or bases in
this investigation. Remember that bases and acids are
bought antacid products? What other questions about corrosive. If any acid or base contacts your skin, rinse
antacids can be asked? In this investigation, you and the area with plenty of cold water and inform your
your team members will study one aspect of antacids. teacher. Clean up any spills as your teacher directs.
Formulate a question based on information you have • List additional appropriate safety precautions as
you design your experiment.
studied in this unit and information you may find by
researching on the Internet. Then decide how you will
carry out an experiment to answer your question. Be
sure to have your teacher approve your materials
and procedure before you begin. The following
suggestions will give you some ideas.
For tips on how to set up a controlled experiment, turn to

Skill Focus 6.

Materials Write up your findings in a laboratory report.
Brainstorm a list of the apparatus and materials that 9
will be most appropriate to answer your question. You Be sure to include the following:
may also need electronic resources, construction • Introduction
materials, and art materials for your final report.
• Hypothesis and/or prediction
Initiate and Plan • Procedure (step by step), including a diagram
1 With your group, decide on an experimental • Data/Observations in the form of words
question to investigate. You might need to do combined with graphs, tables, etc.
further research to decide on the question. • Conclusions
2 If it is appropriate to your question, formulate 0 Evaluate your experimental design.

a hypothesis that provides an explanation that (a) How would you change your design if you
relates to your question. Write a testable were going to perform the experiment again?
prediction that states what you think you
(b) What further questions arose as you carried
will observe in your particular experiment.
out your experiment? How might you
3 Brainstorm ways to test your prediction. Any investigate these questions?
of the lab skills you have learned in this unit and
in earlier courses may be useful. For example, Experimental Design Checklist
you may have experimented with acid-base
1. Have you clearly stated the purpose of your
neutralization in Grade 9. experiment (the question you want to answer)?
4 Design an experiment to test your prediction. 2. Have you included any important back-
Use words and diagrams to explain your design. ground information you obtained from
Refer to the Experimental Design Checklist on your initial research?
the right for help. 3. Have you written a testable prediction stating
what you expect to happen, or a hypothesis
Perform and Record tentatively explaining what will happen, or both?
(Test Your Prediction)
4. Have you written a step-by-step procedure?
5 Set up and perform your experiment. Carry out
two or more trials. Make modifications to your 5. Did you make a complete list of all the materials
experiment as necessary. you need?
6. Have you listed all appropriate safety precautions?
6 Gather and record data and observations as you
conduct your experiment. Decide how to record 7. Have you identified the manipulated,
and present your data in a clear format. responding, and controlled variables in
your experiment?
Analyze and Interpret 8. Have you identified major assumptions
(Draw Conclusions) and sources of error that you can think of
Draw conclusions based on the results of your in your design?
7
experiment. Discuss your conclusions with 9. Did you repeat your experiment several times?
your group.
8 Did your findings agree with your prediction?

Are you able to use your hypothesis to explain
your results? Explain.
Unit 1 Design Your Own Investigation • MHR 133

U N I T
1 Review
Now that you have completed Chapters 1, 2, and 3, 13. A compound containing only two elements
you can assess how much you have learned by is called a .
answering the following questions. Before you
begin, you may find it useful to return to each 14. In forming an ionic compound, a calcium atom
Chapter at a Glance and each Chapter Review. tends to transfer to an atom of
a element.
True/False 15. In a weak acid, a proportion of
In your notebook, indicate whether each statement acid molecules in solution.
is true or false. Correct each false statement.
16. Neutralization is an example of a
1. Ernest Rutherford provided evidence for the elec- reaction.
tron by bombarding gold foil with alpha particles.
17. The reaction of sodium with water is an example
2. An anion has more electrons than protons. of a reaction.
3. The atoms in diatomic molecules are held 18. When methane, CH4(g), burns in sufficient
together by ionic bonds. oxygen, the reaction is called a
reaction.
4. Metals usually react to form cations, not anions.
19. Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons
5. All binary ionic compounds containing
results in the production of a toxic gas called
the sodium ion are soluble in water.
.
6. Burning propane is an example of an
20. One mole of carbon-12 atoms has a mass of
endothermic reaction.
exactly .
7. In a decomposition reaction, two or more
substances react to produce one substance. Matching
21. In your notebook, copy the following descriptions.
8. A sample of water containing 6.02 ! 1023
Beside each description, write the term from the
molecules has a mass of 36 g.
bulleted list that best fits the description. A term
9. One mole of iron, Fe, has a mass of 55.85 g. may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
(a) common name of a strong acid
10. One mole of molecular oxygen, O2(g) contains
6.02 ! 1023 atoms of oxygen. (b) reaction that absorbs energy from its
surroundings
Completion (c) group of atoms with a net charge; the
atoms are joined by covalent bonds
In your notebook, complete each statement with the
correct term or phrase. (d) type of bond that forms between two
non-metal atoms
11. J.J. Thomson observed the behaviour of
(e) type of bond in a molecule of oxygen, O2
produced in gas discharge tubes to
provide evidence for the existence of . (f) unit for the amount of a substance
(g) intermolecular bonds in water
12. Bohr’s theory of the atom says that electrons
have certain allowed energies called .

• covalent bond • ionic bond Short Answer
• mole (mol) • vinegar 26. Give two examples of anions that have the same
• gram (g) • endothermic number of electrons as neon, Ne.
• hydrogen bond • polyatomic ion 27. Draw electron dot diagrams to represent an atom
• muriatic acid of each of the following:
(a) silicon (c) strontium
Multiple Choice (b) sulfur (d) argon
In your notebook, write the letter of the best answer
for each of the following questions. 28. Draw electron dot diagrams for each of the
following pairs of elements. Then show how
22. Which of the following is not a typical property atoms of each pair could form a compound,
of an ionic compound? and predict the formula of the compound.
(a) Ionic crystals with a well-defined shape form (a) Si and H (c) Ca and N
at room temperature.
(b) Be and O (d) Al and P
(b) Aqueous solutions of ionic compounds are
good electrical conductors. 29. Name the following compounds.
(c) Ionic solids conduct electricity. (a) Fe2(SO4)3(s) (c) SO3(g)
(d) Ionic solids have relatively high melting points. (b) Pb(NO3)4(s) (d) HI(g)
(e) Ionic solids are hard and brittle.
30. Write formulas for the following compounds.
23. What are the formulas of the carbonate ion, (a) copper(I) nitrate
the ammonium ion, and the nitrate ion? (b) mercury(II) bromide
(a) CO32", NH3#, and NO3#
(c) nickel(III) sulfide
(b) CO32", NH3#, and NO32"
(d) calcium hydrogencarbonate
(c) CO3", NH4#, and NO3"
(d) CO32", NH4#, and NO3" 31. Write the molar mass of each of the
following elements.
(e) CO23", NH4#, and NO32"
(a) sodium, Na (c) silicon, Si
24. When the following equation is balanced, (b) barium, Ba (d) iodine, I2
what is the value of x?
wAl # xH2SO4 → yAl2(SO4)3 # zH2 32. Predict whether each of the following ionic
compounds are soluble or insoluble in water.
(a) 1 (d) 4
(a) Ba(ClO3)2(s) (c) SrSO4(s)
(b) 2 (e) 5
(b) NaCH3COO(s) (d) NH4OH(s)
(c) 3
33. What is the range of pH values for an acid?
25. Which of the following ionic compounds is
highly soluble? 34. Draw a concept map to explain how the average
(a) Ag2SO4(s) (d) Ca(OH)2(s) atomic mass of an element and its molar mass
(b) PbCl2(s) (e) Ba(OH)2(s) are related.
(c) CuCl(s)
Unit 1 Review • MHR 135

35. Explain how the law of conservation of mass is (b) NaOH(aq) # (NH4)2SO4(aq) →
reflected in the coefficients in balanced chemical Na2SO4(aq) # NH3(g) # H2O(!)
equations. Use an equation to illustrate (c) H2SO4(aq) # Al2O3(s) →
your explanation. Al2(SO4)3(aq) # H2O(!)
36. Why do many household cleaning products (d) Zn(s) # FeCl2(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) # Fe(s)
carry warning labels? Why should you wear (e) C3H4(g) # H2(g) → C3H8(g)
gloves when using an oven cleaner? (f) CaCO3(s) # HCl(aq) →
37. Explain why water is a polar molecule. CaCl2(aq) # H2O(!) # CO2(g)
38. Choose two unusual properties of water. 41. Determine the molar mass of each of the
following compounds.
(a) State what practical consequence each
property has. (a) chlorine dioxide, ClO2(g)
(b) Explain each property based on the (b) disulfur dichloride, S2Cl2(g)
structure of the water molecule. (c) sodium nitrate, NaNO3(s)
(d) phosphorus pentabromide, PBr5(!)
Problem Solving/Applying (e) urea, CH4N2O(s)
39. Copy each of the following word equations into (f) iron(II) phosphate, Fe3(PO4)2(s)
your notebook. Then write the balanced chemical
equation, and classify the reaction. 42. How many moles of each substance are in each
(a) Sodium reacts with water to produce aqueous of the following samples?
sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. (a) 34.1 g Au(s)
(b) Solid magnesium oxide reacts with carbon (b) 1.08 g Cr2O3(s)
dioxide to form magnesium carbonate. (c) 4.33 ! 10"2 g NH4Br(s)
(c) When heated, solid ammonium chloride (d) 3.32 kg (NH4)2Cr2O7(s)
forms ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas.
43. What is the mass of each of the following?
(d) Aqueous copper(II) sulfate reacts with solid
nickel to form aqueous nickel(II) sulfate and (a) 3.70 mol H2O(!)
copper metal. (b) 14.8 mol BaCrO4(s)
(e) Solid sodium carbonate reacts with sulfuric (c) 2 ! 103 mol HCl(g)
acid to form an aqueous solution of sodium (d) 0.0345 mol Fe2O3(s)
sulfate, water, and carbon dioxide gas.
44. How many molecules of CO2(g) are in 2 mol
(f) Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride
of CO2(g)?
gas to form solid ammonium chloride.
45. Suppose you had an oven that could reach
40. Copy each of the following skeleton equations
extremely high temperatures. If you place a sample
into your notebook. Then balance the equation
of malachite in the oven and heat it vigorously,
and indicate the type of reaction.
would you expect to obtain copper? (The oven
(a) NaClO3(s) → NaCl(s) # O2(g) is made of an unreactive material.) Explain
your answer.

46. Alloys of titanium with iron are used in airplanes (e) Suggest a way you could test if a breakfast
and racing bicycles because of their strength and cereal contained elemental iron without
relatively low density. Titanium can be obtained looking at the list of ingredients.
by reacting TiCl4 at a high temperature with
magnesium. The skeleton equation is: 49. Hemoglobin is a protein molecule in blood that
carries oxygen to all of the cells of the body.
TiCl4(g) # Mg(!) → Ti(s) # MgCl2(!)
Carbon monoxide is produced by the incomplete
(a) What is an alloy? combustion of fuels. It is a poison because it can
(b) Balance the equation and classify the reaction. bind to hemoglobin in the place of oxygen, with
(c) At the temperature of the reaction, which a bond that is almost 200 times stronger than the
metal has the higher melting point? Explain. hemoglobin-oxygen bond. If a person is working
in the presence of carbon monoxide, poisoning
may result.
Critical Thinking
(a) Based on the information above, how might
47. A student carries out a chemical reaction in the
a person with carbon monoxide poisoning
laboratory that generates a gas. The student
be treated?
decides to test the gas to identify it. The student
lowers a burning splint into the gas, and the (b) Suggest at least two situations that would
flame is immediately extinguished. The student create a risk for carbon monoxide
concludes that the reaction produced the gas poisoning, and suggest ways to avoid or
carbon dioxide. Do you agree with this conclusion? remedy those situations.
If so, explain why. If not, what other tests could
50. Mercury is highly toxic in its elemental form
you carry out to positively identify the gas?
and in chemical compounds. Water-soluble
48. The RNI (recommended nutrient intake) of mercury compounds such as mercury(II) nitrate,
iron for women is 0.0148 g per day. Ferrous Hg(NO3)2(s), are particularly dangerous, because
gluconate, Fe(C6H11O7)2(s), is often used in iron they are easily spread through an ecosystem via
supplements because it is easier than elemental wastewater. One way to remove mercury(II)
iron for the body to absorb. Some iron-fortified nitrate from wastewater is to add sodium
breakfast cereals contain elemental iron metal sulfate, Na2S(s).
as their source of iron. (a) Predict what reaction will occur when
(a) Determine the number of moles of elemental mercury(II) nitrate and sodium sulfate
iron, Fe, required by a woman each day react in aqueous solution. Write a balanced
according to the RNI. equation for the reaction and classify
the reaction.
(b) Determine the molar mass of ferrous gluconate.
(b) Explain why this reaction would be useful
(c) What mass of ferrous gluconate would satisfy
as part of a process for removing mercury
the RNI for iron?
from wastewater.
(d) Some evidence suggests that the elemental
(c) What would likely be the next step in the
iron in iron-fortified breakfast cereals is
clean-up process?
absorbed only to a small extent. How could
a breakfast cereal manufacturer assure that
a consumer absorbs more iron? Make two
suggestions, and list the pros and cons of
each suggestion.

U N I T
Energy Flow in
Technological
Systems
T he Toronto skyline at dusk with no lights visible is a rare sight.
Nevertheless, just such an event occurred on August 14, 2003 during the
largest blackout in the history of North America. The lights also went out
in most of southern Ontario, New York State, Ohio, and Michigan. Airports
were filled with stranded travellers waiting for flights to take off. As you
can see on the next page, one man found a place to sleep on a luggage
conveyor belt.
Elsewhere, people were rescued from stalled elevators and subway trains.
Citizens began directing traffic because the traffic lights were not operating.
Over 50 million people found themselves without electrical power.
Power grids are designed to share power over large areas — to prevent
occurrences such as the blackout. In this case, the opposite happened. Many
electrical power-generating stations connected to the same grid automatically
shut down when the grid failed. In the photograph on page 139, an operator
stands in front of a screen showing a power grid near Toronto. The operator
was one of thousands of power company employees who worked throughout
the night to try to restore power to the public.
In this unit, you will learn about the development of technologies
that provide power for electrical energy and transportation. You will
learn how one form of energy is transformed into another. The blackout
of August 14, 2003 is a striking example of why society needs to find ways
to conserve energy and to improve technologies that provide energy.
138
Chapter 4
Thermal Energy
and Work 140
Chapter 5
Energy
and Motion 174
Chapter 6
Energy Conversions
and Efficiency 220
4
C H A P T E R
Thermal Energy
• Think of a situation related to

heating or cooling where you
solved a problem without knowing
the science behind it. Now think
of a situation where you did
know the science. What were
the differences?
• What is the source of thermal
energy released by a fire?
• How are the concepts of heat
and thermal energy related?
140
140 MHR
MHR •• Flow
Unit of Matter in
2 Energy Living
Flow Systems
in Technological Systems
and Work
T hese campers are using

two technological problem-solving
In this chapter, you will investigate
thermal energy transfer and technology.
strategies for staying warm. First they The steam engine is one of the most
are getting close to an open fire — fascinating examples of technology
a source of thermal energy. Second, driven by thermal energy. The
they are insulating their bodies to original invention was relatively simple
prevent their body heat from escaping compared to the powerful steam loco-
too quickly. When they are not near motive shown in the photograph.
the fire, the campers probably do work You will follow the development
to generate heat by rubbing their hands of several forms of technology that
together. People have used open fires, use thermal energy. As you read,
furs, and blankets for centuries to solve notice how the developments in
the problem of staying warm.
technology and the formulation
The thermal energy that warms
of the scientific theories of thermal
your body comes from energy stored
energy progressed hand in hand.
in food. As you digest the food, energy
is released and some of the energy is
oki
o
used to heat your body. What is the
n
Look ahead to page

L
248, “Building an
source of the thermal energy in your head En ergy-Conversion De
vice.” In this project
A
you will develop, bu

school that keeps you warm? The tech- ild, test, and measur
the results of your e
own energy-conversi
device. You will the on
nology of keeping a building warm make it more effici
n suggest improvem
ents to
ent. As you read thi
depends on producing and controlling begin your prepara s chapter,
tion for the project
by:
the transfer of thermal energy. • practising your
technological problem
skills by completing -solving
How to cook food is another Problem-Solving
Investigation 4-A: Tu
rbine-Powered Hoist
problem humans have solved by using • using the Intern
et and other resou
research different rces to
sources of energy,
technology to control thermal energy. conversions, and en energy
ergy-conversion eff
• developing electr iciencies
A pot of water on an open campfire onic and paper file
s for
articles you find pe
rtaining to your ide
eventually gets hot, enabling the about the project as
campers to cook food. The gas burner
on a kitchen stove is a more effective
technology for cooking food. It is
faster and easier to control than an
open campfire.
Chapter 4 Thermal Energy and Work • MHR 141

4.1 The Development
of Steam Engines
For thousands of years, people have known that when they boil water, the
resulting steam exerts pressure and moves objects. You might have seen pictures
of machines such as the one in Figure 4.1. A Greek inventor named Hero of
Alexandria drew and described this machine. (Historians do not agree on Hero’s
birth date. Some say it was as early as 130 B.C.E. and others say as late as
70 C.E.) Hero’s “steam engine” is little more than a toy, but it demonstrates that
people understood what steam pressure could do. This knowledge came from
observation because no one understood the concepts of heat and thermal energy.
People observed that when water boiled, the resulting steam created pressure.
This pressure could be controlled and directed in a way that would produce
Figure 4.1 The sealed kettle had mechanical motion, as shown in Figure 4.1. A steam engine is any machine
two pipes that carried steam to a that generates steam and converts the steam pressure into mechanical motion.
hollow ball. The ball was mounted
on the pipes in such a way that it The First Practical Steam Engine
was free to spin. Steam escaped
through jets on the ball, causing It was nearly 2000 years after Hero’s time before anyone built a practical steam
it to spin. engine. The need for a powerful engine became critical in England, in the
1600s. Wood and charcoal were becoming scarce. More and more fuel was
needed to heat homes and provide heat for industries such as iron smelting,
glassmaking, and firing pottery and bricks. To provide more sources of fuel,
industrialists built bigger and deeper coal mines. Water accumulated in the mines
and had to be removed so the miners could work. Originally, miners used horses
to pull buckets of water up and out of the mines. At one mine, 500 horses were
needed to keep the mine free of water. A much more efficient method of
removing water was needed.
How Savery’s Steam Engine Worked

valve C Thomas Savery, of England, built the first practical machine to
pump water from the mines. In 1698, he received the first patent
G for a steam engine. The patent gave Savery the exclusive rights
B
to make and sell his invention. Savery’s engine was quite simple
but effective. The steps in Figure 4.2 explain how the steam engine
F forced water out of a mine. The process was repeated over and over.
water D
Figure 4.2 This simplified diagram of Savery’s steam engine shows how it
discharges water from the mine. The smaller diagram at the top is an original
E
sketch of Savery’s steam engine.
A
valve V2 Step 1 Fire boils the water in boiler B producing steam.
fire valve V1 Step 2 Open valves C and V2 and close valve V1. Steam fills vessel D.
atmospheric pressure Step 3 Close valves C and V2 and open valve V1. Steam in D condenses and
creates a partial vacuum. Atmospheric pressure above water in the mine is
now greater than pressure in vessel D. Atmospheric pressure pushes water
water in mine up into vessel D.
Step 4 Close valve V1 and open valves C and V2. Steam from B pushes water
out of D to E and up past F and G. Water is expelled from G.
142 MHR • Unit 2 Energy Flow in Technological Systems

Savery’s engine was very inefficient and costly
to operate. Thus, inventors continued to search for
better engines. In 1712, Thomas Newcomen invented
(g) rocking
a much-improved steam engine, called the atmospheric beam
(f) cold water
engine. If you study the diagram of Newcomen’s engine
in Figure 4.3, you will see that atmospheric pressure
also played an important role in the design of this
(d) piston
engine. The following steps describe one cycle of
Newcomen’s engine. (a) cylinder
• With steam valve (c) open and cold water valve (e) (e) cold water
pump rod valve
closed, steam from the boiler (b) enters the cylinder (a).
smaller cold (c) steam
The steam pressure pushes the piston (d) up. water pump valve
• The upward motion of the piston (d) moves the
(h) mine (b) boiler
rocking beam (g), causing the piston in the mine pump pump
(h) to go down. Valves (not shown) allow the piston
in the mine pump (h) to go down without pushing
any water down.
• The upward motion of the piston (d) closes the steam water in mine
valve (c) and opens the cold water valve (e). A spray of
water causes the steam in the cylinder (a) to condense, Figure 4.3 Newcomen’s steam
creating a partial vacuum in the cylinder (a). engine relied on atmospheric
• The atmospheric pressure above the piston (d) is now greater than the pressure to push the piston (d)
down and to push water from
pressure inside the cylinder (a) and the atmospheric pressure pushes the the mine up the pipe and out
piston back down. of the mine.
• The downward motion of the piston (d) moves the rocking beam (g), causing
the piston in the mine pump (h) to go up. As the pump rises, it creates a partial
vacuum in the pipe. Atmospheric pressure pushes the water in the mine up the
pipe. Valves cause water already in the pipe to be expelled from the mine.
• The downward motion of the piston (d) closes the cold water valve (e) and
opens the steam valve (c). The cycle begins again.
Newcomen’s pump relied on atmospheric pressure to push the piston down
but all pumps rely on atmospheric pressure to push the water up from a mine.
People often incorrectly say that a vacuum “pulls” water up. However, the low
pressure caused by a partial vacuum cannot pull. Pressure only pushes. You can
determine the direction that pressure will push on water in a pipe by comparing
the pressure on the water inside the pipe with that outside the pipe. The pressure
that is highest will push on the water. To better understand the way that a
pressure difference can move water up a pipe, carry out the following activity.
Find Out
Condensing Steam
You can simulate the principle behind Savery’s Materials
and Newcomen’s steam engines. Complete beaker (250 mL) Pyrex test tube
the activity to find out how. Your teacher might cold tap water test tube holder
choose to do this activity as a demonstration. Bunsen or alcohol burner heat glove

Safety Precautions 4. When the water has nearly boiled away,
invert the test tube and put the top of the
test tube in the water in the beaker.
• Do not touch hot surfaces with your skin.
5. Watch the test tube and the water while
• Take care not to burn yourself with the steam. the test tube cools.
• Tie back long hair to keep it out of the flame.
• Do NOT use an ordinary glass test tube What Did You Find Out?
because it will break. 1. What happened to the water as the test
tube cooled?
2. What was the origin of the force that caused
1. Fill the 250 mL beaker with cold tap water. the water to move?
Set it beside the burner.
3. What stage of action of the Savery engine did
2. Put approximately 0.5–1.0 mL of water in the this activity simulate?
test tube.
4. What stage of the action of the Newcomen
3. While holding the test tube with a test tube engine did this activity simulate?
holder, place the test tube in the flame until
the water boils.
Although Newcomen’s atmospheric engine was a dramatic improvement

over Savery’s engine, it still had some fundamental flaws. With every cycle of
motion, the piston and the cylinder were heated with steam and then cooled
Outline the technological problem- with a spray of water. This constant heating and cooling caused rapid wear on
solving strategy that led to the the engine’s parts. As well, it took time for the cylinder to heat and cool with
Newcomen engine. Identify the
challenge, design requirements, every cycle, which slowed the process. Therefore, inventors continued to look
and construction. Evaluate the for ways to improve the Newcomen engine.
technology in your own words.
Watt’s Improvement of the Steam Engine
In 1757, James Watt (1736–1819) went to work as an instrument maker for the
University of Glasgow, in Scotland. Several years later, as part of his job, Watt
was asked to repair a Newcomen steam engine. While working on the engine,
Watt became aware of its limitations. He began thinking about ways to design
a more efficient engine. After much designing and testing, Watt developed an
engine that became the model for all steam engines for many years to come.
In 1796, Watt received a patent for his modifications of the steam engine. A
simplified diagram of the essential parts of Watt’s engine is shown in Figure 4.4.
Follow the arrows in the diagrams to see how steam pushed the piston in
two directions. In Figure 4.4A, you can see that the steam (red arrows) moved
The design for Watt’s crankshaft is
still the most common mechanical through a valve that directed the steam to the left side of the piston. As the steam
transfer mechanism in use today pushed the piston to the right, the exhaust steam from the previous cycle (blue
— it is used in cars, trucks, and arrows) was pushed out through a valve that directed it out of the cylinder. When
other machinery. All internal
combustion engines convert heat
the piston reached the right side of the cylinder, as shown in Figure 4.4B, the
into rotary motion to drive wheels. valve rod slid to the left. The valve’s movement changed the direction of the
steam’s flow. Then the steam from the boiler (red arrows) flowed through the

high-pressure exhaust high-pressure exhaust
steam in steam steam in steam
valve rod slide valve rod slide

valve valve
piston rod piston rod
piston
cylinder piston cylinder

A B
Figure 4.4 Watt’s design for the steam engine is sometimes called the “double-acting”
engine because steam pressure pushed the piston in both directions.
valve to the right side of the cylinder. The steam pressure pushed
the piston to the left. It also pushed exhaust steam (blue arrows)
through the valve and out of the cylinder. When the steam flowed
out of the exhaust tube, it went to a chamber (not shown in the
diagram). Here, it was condensed by a spray of water. The piston
and the cylinder remained hot at all times, thus avoiding the
damage caused by constant heating and cooling. In addition, the
steam pressure produced was higher than atmospheric pressure.
At first, the piston in Watt’s engine was attached to a rocking
beam much like the one in the Newcomen engine. This design
is effective for pumping water from wells. Watt realized, however,
that the steam engine could provide power for many other uses. Figure 4.5 This textile factory was powered by one
He not only continued to improve his engine but also designed of Watt’s steam engines. Imagine the deafening noise
caused by all of the belts and turning wheels.
systems of gears and levers so that the piston could turn a wheel.
This design made it possible for the steam engine to provide
power for many of the machines used in small industries. For example, in textile
factories (like the one shown in Figure 4.5), a steam engine turned a wheel that
had a long belt wrapped around it. The belt was attached to another wheel near
the ceiling of the factory. A long shaft connected the wheel near the ceiling to
many more wheels above many machines in the factory. A belt would run down
from the wheel above the machine and power the machine.
Steam Engines and the Industrial Revolution

Watt’s steam engine was soon adapted to drive many types of machinery that
were previously powered by other means. Two such means were horses and
flowing water. For example, flowing water powers the mill shown in Figure 4.6.
The late 1700s marked the beginning of a tremendous change in Western
society called the Industrial Revolution. People were moving from farms to
Figure 4.6 Imagine turning this
cities to work in the new flour mills, sawmills, and textile industries. More
water wheel by hand to cause a
than any other single invention, Watt’s steam engine was responsible for the millstone to grind flour. This is an
rapid development of the Industrial Revolution, first in England and then in “undershot” water wheel — the
North America and Europe. water flows under it.

Figure 4.8 The steam cylinder is located in the box, just above the two small
wheels on the front of the locomotive. The cylinder and its partner on the
opposite side provide more than enough thrust to turn the wheels. The bulk
of the engine is the boiler, which produces the steam used in the cylinders.
Figure 4.7 Farmers no longer use

steam-driven tractors. What design To feed the growing populations in the cities during the Industrial Revolution,
criteria would favour a tractor with farmers needed to produce more food. The steam engine became an important
an internal combustion engine, new tool for farmers. With a steam-powered tractor such as the one shown in
such as those used today? Figure 4.7, farmers could cultivate much more land than they could with horses.
In order for steam engines to power larger machines, they had to produce
higher steam pressures. These higher pressures required the development of
stronger boilers and cylinders and better seals around the piston rods. By the
early 1800s, high-pressure steam engines were powering huge locomotives like
the one in Figure 4.8. In 1836, the first railway was built in Canada between
Montréal and the Richelieu River. By 1864, railway tracks spanned the country.
Steam locomotives opened up the western Prairies.
Tractors and trains were not the only vehicles powered by steam engines.
In the early 1800s, paddle-wheel steamboats, similar to the one shown in
There were many steam cars in
Figure 4.9, travelled the major rivers of North America. Steamboats carried
production by the beginning of the
1900s. The “Stanley Steamer” was people, supplies, lumber, furs, and sometimes even entertainment. The pistons
the best known. Brooks also made on the steam engines turned large paddle wheels mounted on the sides or at
steam cars between 1923 and 1927. the back of the boats. Paddle-wheel steamers were a common sight on the Fraser
It was the best-selling (after the
Stanley) steam car in Canada and
River in British Columbia. The Hudson’s Bay Company used steamboats along
was assembled in Stratford, Ontario. the North and South Saskatchewan rivers to carry supplies to fur trappers. The
steamboats also carried the furs back to markets in Eastern Canada.
Steam Turbines
Today, steam engines no longer power locomotives or tractors. Most paddle-
wheel steamers are merely tourist attractions. However, a type of steam engine
called a steam-turbine engine still powers giant ocean liners and cruise ships.
Several inventors had attempted to design a steam-turbine engine. Finally,
British engineer Charles Parsons (1854–1936) perfected the steam-turbine
engine in 1884.

Steam-turbine engines do not use pistons. Instead, steam
passes through a set of curved blades similar to fan blades (see
Figure 4.10). Some of the blades are stationary. They direct the
steam toward blades attached to a central axle that turns. Steam
turbine engines are somewhat cone-shaped. This shape allows
the steam pressure to decrease gradually. As the pressure decreases,
a larger set of stationary blades directs the steam to a larger wheel
with more blades. These blades add to the forces that turn the
axle. By the time the steam leaves the turbine, the temperature
and the pressure of the steam have dropped greatly. In the
investigation on the next page, you can experiment with
steam engines of your own design.
Figure 4.9 Paddle-wheel steamboats were usually
rotation
wide and shallow so they could navigate rivers. The
steam engines had to provide enough power so that
the boats could travel upriver against the current.
steam stationary blade rotating blade
flow
steam turbine
wheel
axle
Figure 4.10 In this turbine, steam hits the first set of stationary blades. The steam
is then deflected by the first set of stationary blades to the next set of rotating blades.
Only two sets of blades are shown here. Large turbines have many sets of blades.
This action continues to the last set of rotating blades. Although the steam loses
pressure as it passes through each set of blades, steam at its original pressure
and temperature continues to enter the turbine. Thus, the rotation of the axle is
continuous. Modern turbines may have as many as 20 sets of rotating and
stationary blades attached to a single shaft.
Technology Paves the Way for Science

While Savery, Newcomen, and Watt were designing, building, and marketing
steam engines, scientists still did not understand the nature of heat. Inventors
based their work entirely on what they observed, not on scientific theories or
laws. They knew that when wood or coal was burned, the fire was hot enough
to boil water. They also knew that when water boiled into steam, the volume
of the steam was much greater than the volume of the liquid water. If the steam
was contained in a boiler and not allowed to increase in volume, the steam
created very high pressures. Inventors used this pressure to propel pistons and
to turn turbines. However, they did not know the scientific principles related
to heat. As the Industrial Revolution — based on the steam engine — took
place throughout England, Europe, and North America, scientists became
more and more curious about the basic nature of heat.

S K I L L C H E C K

4–A
Turbine-Powered Hoist
You have been reading about step-by-step improvements in steam engines.
Now apply what you have learned to design and test a steam-powered hoist
to lift an object. How large a mass can your steam turbine lift?
Challenge
Design a steam-powered turbine that will lift a 50 g mass a distance of 10 cm.
Materials Design Specifications

The materials required for this project are those A. The turbine must be able to lift a mass
determined by your design and must be readily available.
a distance of at least 10 cm.
For example, the bottom of an aluminium pie plate might
provide the turbine blades for your hoist. A flask fitted B. The most effective design will lift the mass
with a rubber stopper could be used as your steam
in the shortest period of time.
boiler (see diagram of steam generator assembly).
Plan and Construct

test-tube clamp Your group should provide a design that enables
mounted on 1
iron stand you to lift a mass in the shortest possible time.
Start testing your hoist with a 50 g mass. Test
rubber stopper rubber hose smaller and smaller masses until you find one
rubber tube that your hoist can lift. This will depend on the
rubber stopper shape and angle of your turbine blades. It will
ring stand also depend on the position of the nozzle that
mounted on
an iron stand
propels the steam onto the blades. CAUTION:
turbine Be careful when cutting and bending the edges
blades of the turbine blades. The metal can be sharp.
steam gauze screen
nozzle 2 To create the most effective hoist, friction must
Bunsen burner be reduced. Take special note of the method
(or hot plate) by which the axle of the turbine is mounted.
Note also the method by which the energy
is transferred to the string that lifts the mass.
3 The nozzle from the boiler can effectively

increase the speed at which the steam is
projected onto the turbine blades. CAUTION:
Safety Precautions The steam boiler and nozzle will be very hot.
Use protective clothing and eye protection.
• Take care when handling boiling water, steam,

and open flames. Avoid contact with your skin.

Evaluate Extend Your Skills
1. Could your turbine-powered hoist lift the 50 g 4. How could you modify your design to increase
mass the full 10 cm distance? Why or why not? the mass it could lift? Is changing the design
of the turbine blade the only method to
2. What was the shortest time required for your accomplish this?
apparatus to accomplish the task?
5. Try several arrangements for the blades of your
3. What is the greatest mass your turbine- turbine. How does the shape of the blades affect
powered hoist could lift? the force exerted by the turbine? How does the
shape of the blades affect the speed at which
the turbine rotates? Does the number of blades
affect the speed?
Section 4.1 Summary

In this section, you learned about the development of the steam engine. People
used steam to power toys over 2000 years ago but no one invented a practical
steam engine until the 1600s. Thomas Savery invented the first useful steam
engine to draw water from coal mines. Soon, Newcomen developed a more
practical steam engine. The improvements that James Watt made in the steam
engine were essential for the rapid development of the Industrial Revolution
in Europe and North America. Watt’s engine became the standard for many
years. Very few steam-powered piston engines are still in use but steam
turbines still power large ocean liners.

1. How is sucking on a straw to drink pop or water similar to the way that
Savery’s steam engine pumped water from a mine? What really causes
the liquid to move up the straw?
2. What exerted pressure on the piston in Newcomen’s steam engine,
causing it to move?
3. State two ways in which Watt’s steam engine was an improvement over
Newcomen’s steam engine.
4. How do steam-turbine engines differ from piston engines?
5. Apply Explain how Watt’s steam engine influenced the Industrial
Revolution.
6. Thinking Critically In 130 B.C.E., people knew how to operate toy
steam engines. Why do you think it took 2000 years before anyone
made a useful and practical steam engine?

4.2 Scientific Theories of Heat
Scientists have found evidence that intelligent beings have been using
fires for at least 400 000 years. Yet Homo sapiens — the human species
— has existed for only 40 000 to 100 000 years. Evidence shows that
a pre-human species knew how to use fire to keep warm and to
cook food. Figure 4.11 shows how Homo erectus might have looked.
Surprisingly, scientists have only understood the nature of heat
for less than 200 years.
Early Theories of Heat

Figure 4.11 Homo erectus, a pre-human Since the time of the early Greek philosophers, scientists and
species, learned to cook with fire before philosophers have proposed various explanatory theories about fire
humans existed. and heat. One of the earliest theories was proposed by the Greek
philosopher Empedocles (492–435 B.C.E.). He believed that all matter
consisted of some combination of four elements: earth, air, fire, and
water. According to this theory, many objects contained fire. When
these objects burned, the fire was released. This theory, expressed in
symbolic form in Figure 4.12, was accepted for hundreds of years.
The Phlogiston Theory

FIRE When scientists realized that there were more basic elements than
earth, air, fire, and water, they began to accept a new theory. According
HOT DRY to this theory, which became popular in the early 1700s, substances
that could burn contained an invisible fluid. Scientists called this fluid
AIR EARTH phlogiston. It was believed that the phlogiston flowed out of an
object when the object burned. For example, when wood burned,
WET COLD the phlogiston flowed out, leaving only the ashes. However, when
magnesium (and a few other substances) burned, the ashes had a
WATER larger mass than the original magnesium (see Figure 4.13). How
could phlogiston flow out but leave more mass behind?
Figure 4.12 According to the theory of the
four elements, each element had two qualities
The Caloric Theory
that connected them to the other elements.
Fire was hot and dry; earth was dry and cold; By the late 1700s, the caloric theory was formulated. This theory
water was wet and cold; air was wet and hot. proposed that caloric — or heat — was a massless fluid that was found
Diagrams such as this are often used to in all substances. Caloric could not be created or destroyed, but could
represent the theory. Study the diagram until flow from one substance to another. The theory stated that caloric
you can you see how the qualities connected always flowed from warmer objects to cooler objects. For example, when
the four elements.
you put ice in water, caloric would flow from the water into the ice,
causing it to melt. The caloric theory could explain most of the
scientific observations about heat that had been made at the time.
English chemist Joseph Black (1728–1799) even defined a unit of
caloric — the calorie. According to Black’s definition, 1 cal was the
quantity of caloric that would increase the temperature of 1 g of
water by 1°C.

Figure 4.13 Scientists now
know that when magnesium
burns in the presence of
oxygen, a compound called
magnesium oxide is formed.
The mass of the magne-
sium oxide is greater than
the mass of the original
magnesium. Photographers
used magnesium in old
flash bulbs for cameras.
Magnesium fibres were
sealed with oxygen inside the
bulbs. An electrical current
would ignite the magnesium,
which produced a bright
light when it burned.
Modern Theories of Heat

The first person to reveal flaws in the caloric theory was Benjamin
Thompson (1753–1814). Thompson was born in Massachusetts, but
was loyal to England during the American Revolution. So, in 1776,
he moved to England where King George knighted him for his
achievements. In the 1780s, Thompson moved to Bavaria, in
Germany. He became Count Rumford, Imperial Count of the Holy
Roman Empire. Count Rumford applied scientific methods to all of
his tasks. At one time, he was the superintendent of the arsenal in
Bavaria where cannons were made. Rumford noticed that when a hole
was bored in metal to make a cannon, the tools, the metal, and the metal
shavings became very hot. Since none of the objects had been hot before the
boring process, what could be the source of the caloric, or heat? Caloric is
Figure 4.14 Count Rumford was
supposed to flow from warmer objects to cooler objects — but there had astonished by the extremely hot
been no warm objects before the boring began! metal shavings produced by
boring holes in metal cylinders
Count Rumford’s Hypothesis to make cannons. He realized
Rumford suggested that there is no substance such as caloric. Instead, he that the caloric theory could not
hypothesized that some of the mechanical energy used to bore the holes account for this intense heat.
was converted into heat. By stating this relationship, Rumford was saying
that heat is equivalent to energy. He even performed calculations relating the
amount of energy used in boring a cannon and the amount of heat produced.
In 1798, Rumford published his hypothesis that there was a relationship between
mechanical energy and heat. His hypothesis contradicted the caloric theory.
Although Rumford’s hypothesis has since been verified, the caloric theory
was so widely accepted that his ideas were ignored for a long time.
Many years after Rumford published his scientific work, German physician
Julius Robert Mayer (1814–1878) found evidence supporting the relationship
between energy and heat. Mayer discovered the relationship in a manner
completely different from Rumford’s. In 1840, Mayer served as a ship’s doctor
on a voyage to the East Indies (Southeast Asia). In a common medical procedure

at that time called bloodletting, pictured in Figure 4.15,
Mayer punctured a sick sailor’s vein. The blood
was a much brighter red than Mayer expected
In addition to his
experiments on heat, for a vein. For a moment, he was afraid
Count Rumford is known for that he had opened an artery. Soon he
his invention of the Rumford discovered that it was common in the
fireplace, which is still in use
tropics for blood from a vein to be
today. Find out about the design
specifications for this fireplace, bright red. How could the colour of
and describe Rumford’s techno- blood be related to energy and heat?
logical problem-solving strategy Blood in an artery is bright red
in developing it. Go to the
web site above, to find out
because it is fully oxygenated. In other
where to go next. words, it carries the maximum amount of
oxygen. As the body uses oxygen, the blood
has less oxygen and becomes a darker red. The
dark red blood with less oxygen flows through the veins
and back to the heart. People in the tropics did just as much work and
used just as much energy as people in cooler northern climates did.
Why would people in cooler climates use more oxygen? Mayer was
one of the first scientists to recognize that the body uses oxygen to
break down food and use it for energy. He reasoned that people in
cooler climates must generate more heat in their bodies than in hot
tropical climates. He also reasoned that the same processes that use
oxygen to provide energy for the body must also be providing heat.
Therefore, heat is related to energy.
Figure 4.15 From the days of the early Greek physicians such as
Hippocrates, until the late 1800s, doctors practised bloodletting.
They believed that a fever and some diseases were caused by an
imbalance of fluids in the body. They believed they could correct
the imbalance by removing some blood.

Upon returning home to Germany, Mayer pursued his ideas about energy
and heat and wrote a scientific paper. However, Mayer was not schooled in
Caloric theory may have been
physics and math. His paper was overlooked due to the poor quality of his abandoned, but it left us with
presentation. Therefore, Mayer began to study physics and math in order to a term we use today — the calorie.
formulate his theory in a more acceptable way. Unfortunately, by the time Mayer Use a scientific dictionary or other
completed his work, British physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889) had reference source to find the mean-
ing of calorie (lower case c), as
also presented the same concept. Mayer was correct and produced exceptional well as Calorie (upper case C).
scientific work. However, Joule receives the credit for discovering the mechanical Record the differences you find.
equivalent of heat. What prefix do we use today instead
of the upper case C? Next time you
have a snack, look on the package
for the nutritional information and
find energy. What do nutritional
calories have to do with energy?
Write a paragraph in which you describe the difference it makes to think of heat as a
substance (caloric) and as a form of energy (motion of molecules). As you reflect on
this chapter so far, think of phenomena you cannot explain by using the caloric theory.
Write your ideas in your notebook.
Energy and Work

Joule was a careful experimentalist who performed accurate
measurements relating mechanical energy to heat. The SI unit
of energy, the joule, was named in his honour. To understand more
about Joule’s work, you need to learn how physicists determine
quantities of mechanical energy. For example, moving objects
have a form of mechanical energy called kinetic energy. As well,
Figure 4.16 When you exert a force on a crate
lifting objects requires mechanical energy. and move it across the floor, you do work on
Physicists often define energy as the ability to do work. They the crate. The amount of work depends on the
define work in a precise way. Work is the transfer of mechanical force you exert and the distance that you move
energy from one object to another. For example, if you stretch or the crate.
compress a spring, you do work on the spring and transfer energy
to the spring. You can show that it has stored energy by releasing it.
The spring will return or spring back to its original length. You can calculate
the amount of work done by multiplying the force — push or pull — exerted
on the object by the distance through which the object moves. The direction of
the force and the direction of the motion of the object must be parallel, or along
the same line. Study the formula for work below and the Model Problem on
the next page, then complete the Practice Problems.
W ! F"d
where W is the work in joules (J) The symbol delta (") in front
F is the force in newtons (N) of the d in the formula for work
"d is the distance in metres (m) means change or difference
between two positions. Think of
"d as the distance between two
positions such as d1 and d2 or
The GRASP Method d2#d1. You will learn more about
this notation is Chapter 5.
When solving problems, it is very helpful to have a method to organize your
thinking process. The Model Problems in this textbook use a method called the
GRASP method. In the first Model Problem, notice that the “Given” section

lists all of the information provided in the problem. The “Required” section
lists your goals for the problem. The “Analysis” section outlines the reasoning
for choosing a particular formula or set of formulas. The “Solution” section
Give an example of something includes formulas and the mathematical steps involved in solving the problem.
considered “work” in everyday In the “Paraphrase” section, you state the answer in sentence form.
language but that is not
work according to the
scientific definition.
Model Problem 1
You exert a force of 25 N on your textbook while lifting it a height of
1.4 m to put it on a shelf. How much work did you do on your textbook?
Given
Force exerted on the book, F ! 25 N
Distance the book moved, "d ! 1.4 m
Required
Work done on the book, W
Analysis
Since you know the force exerted on the book and the distance that it
moved, you can use W ! F"d
Solution
W ! F"d
W ! (25 N)(1.4 m)
W ! 35 N•m
W ! 35 J
Paraphrase
When you exert a force of 25 N on your textbook, lifting it a height of
1.4 m, you do 35 J of work on the book. (Note: A N•m is equivalent to a J.)
Practice Problems
Use the information you have learned about work and refer to the Model
Problem to complete the following problems.
1. When you lift a cheeseburger from the plate to your mouth, you exert
a force of 1.0 N over a height of 0.35 m. How much work do you do
in lifting the cheeseburger to take a bite?
2. Three teenagers exert a total force of 350 N on a stalled car to push it

to a safe place. If they pushed the car 15 m, how much work did they
do on the car?
3. A forklift exerts 1475 N of force on a crate while lifting it a height of

1.8 m. How much work did the forklift do on the crate?

4. An elevator cable exerts a force of about 1.5 $ 104 N while lifting an
elevator filled with people. If floors of a building are 12 m apart, how
much work does the cable do on the elevator while lifting it
(a) one floor?
(b) five floors?
5. You are pushing a box filled with books across a floor. If you did 322.5 J
of work by pushing the box a distance of 4.3 m, what force did you exert?
6. A pulley system called a block and tackle helps mechanics lift engines
out of cars so they can work on them. If the block and tackle does 1900.0 J
of work to lift an engine a height of 2.0 m, what force did the block and
tackle exert on the engine?
7. A champion weight lifter did 6000.0 J of work while lifting a barbell a

height of 1.8 m. What force did the weight lifter exert on the barbell?
8. A snowplow did 4.9 $ 105 J of work while exerting a force of 7.0 $ 104 N
on a pile of snow. How far did the snowplow push the pile of snow?
9. A backhoe exerts a force of 2850 N while lifting a load of dirt. If the

backhoe did 4150 J of work, how far did it lift the load?
Graphical Methods for Determining Work

Drawing a graph of force versus position will help you visualize a different A=l×w
Force (N)
10
way to determine the amount of work done by a force. Analyze the graph
in Figure 4.17, then follow the steps below.
• Write the formula for the area of a rectangle. Recall that
the area of a rectangle equals the length times the width. A!l$w 0 4.0
∆d
• Note that the long side (vertical-axis) of the rectangle Position (m)
on the graph represents the force. Also note that the
width (horizontal-axis) of the rectangle is the distance Figure 4.17 This graph shows
over which the force acted. (The force acted from that a force of 10 N acted on an
object, causing the object to move
position 0.0 to position 4.0 m.) Substitute F for
from a starting point of 0.0 m to a
length and "d for width in the formula for area. A ! F"d position of 4.0 m. The area under
• Recall that force times distance, or F"d, is the amount the force versus position curve is
of work done by the force. Substitute W for F"d. A!W a rectangle.
You have just shown that the area under the curve of force versus position
is equal to the amount of work done by the force. To reinforce the idea,
compare the calculations below.
A!l$w W ! F"d
l ! 10 N F ! 10 N
w ! 4.0 m "d ! 4.0 m
A ! (10 N)(4.0 m) W ! (10 N)(4.0 m)
A ! 40 N•m W ! 40 N•m
A ! 40 J W ! 40 J

Graphs with Geometric Shapes
The “area under the curve” method for determining the amount of work done
A = 1
b $h by a force is especially valuable. You can use it even if the force is changing
Force (N)
10 2
while it is doing work. For example, consider the force that is graphed in
Figure 4.18. The force increases from 0.0 N to 8.0 N while it is moving an
object over a distance of 4.0 m. You could not use the formula W ! F"d
because there is no single number to use for the force, F. However, you
0 4.0 can use the area under the curve, as shown below.
Position (m)
• Analyze the shape of the area under It is a triangle.
Figure 4.18 The shape of the
the curve.
area under the force versus
distance curve is a triangle. • Write the formula for the area of a triangle. A ! %12% b $ h
Thus, you can use the formula • Determine the values of the base (b) and b ! 4.0 m
for a triangle to find the area.
the height (h) of the triangle. h ! 8.0 N
• Substitute the values for the base and A ! %12% (4.0 m)(8.0 N)
height of the triangle into the formula. A ! 16 N•m
Then solve for the area of the triangle. A ! 16 J
• The work done by the force is equal to W!A
the area under the curve, which is the W ! 16 J
area of the triangle.
Graphs with Non-uniform Shapes

If the curve of force versus position curve does not form a simple geometric
5.0 $104 shape, you can still estimate the area under the curve. For example, the graph
4.0 $104 in Figure 4.19 represents the force exerted by a golf club on a golf ball. You
Force (N)
3.0 $104 can estimate the work done on the golf ball by the club by calculating the
2.0 $104 work represented by each small square (see shaded square in Figure 4.19),
1.0 $104
and then counting the squares:
• Determine the amount of force
0.0050 0.0100
represented by the height of one square. F ! 0.50 $ 104 N
Position (m)
• Determine the distance represented
Figure 4.19 The force that a golf by the width of one square. "d ! 0.0010 m
club exerts on a golf ball starts • Determine the amount of work W ! (0.50 $ 104 N)(0.0010 m)
very small, but increases rapidly. represented by the area of one square. W ! 5.0 N•m
Then it immediately begins to fall
W ! 5.0 J
to zero.
• Count the number of squares under
the curve. If more than half of a
square is under the curve, count it
as one square. If less than half of
the square is under the curve,
do not count it. 45 squares
• Multiply the amount of work
J
represented by one square by the
number of squares. This value
! "
Wtotal ! 5.0 %% (45 squares)
square
is the total work done by the golf Wtotal ! 225 J
club on the ball. Wtotal # 2.3 $ 102 J

The area under a force versus position curve can often be divided into two
or more simple geometric forms. You can determine the total work done by
calculating the area of each simple shape and adding them together. Study
Model Problem 2 and then complete the Practice Problems.
Model Problem 2
Find the amount of work done
2.0
Force (N)
by the force represented by the
graph of force versus position. b
1.0 a
Given
Graph of force versus position 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Position (m)
Required
Work done by force, W
Analysis
The amount of work done by a force is equal to the area under the curve of
force versus position. Divide the area into a triangle (a) and a rectangle (b).
The formula for the area of a triangle is A ! %12% b $ h. The formula for the
area of a rectangle is A ! l $ w.
Solution
A ! %12% b $ h A!l$w
A ! (2.0 m)(2.0 N)
%1%
2 A ! (8.0 m)(2.0 N) Wtotal ! Wa & Wb
A ! 2.0 N•m A ! 16 N•m Wtotal ! 2.0 J & 16 J
Wa ! 2.0 J Wb ! 16 J Wtotal ! 18 J
Paraphrase
The force did 18 J of work.
Practice Problems
Use the area under the curve method to find the work done in the
following problems.
10. Find the work done by the forces represented by the two graphs,
A and B.
15
Force (N)
10
Force (N)
4.0
5.0 2.0
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10 12 14 16 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Position (m) Position (m)
A B

11. Estimate the work done by the force represented by the graph.
30
Force (N)
20
10
0 5.0 10 15
Position (m)
Joule’s Method for Determining

the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
Now that you know a method for calculating the amount of work done in a
process, you can analyze Joule’s experiment. Joule used an apparatus similar
to the one shown in Figure 4.20 to determine the mechanical equivalent of
heat. The force of gravity acting on the weight causes the weight to fall toward
the ground. While it is falling, the weight pulls on the string and turns the
drum, which stirs the water. The paddles attached to the drum transfer the
energy to the water. Therefore, the force of gravity acting on the falling
weight indirectly does work on the water by stirring it. Joule measured the
force that gravity exerted on the weight, the distance that the weight fell, and
the temperature change of the water. He then determined the amount of work
done on the water and related it to the change in the temperature of the water.
The unit of energy — the joule — that is used today had not been defined
when Joule did his experiments. However, if you converted Joule’s values into
SI units, you would find that Joule determined that 4.16 J of work done on the
water caused an increase of 1.0°C in the temperature of 1.0 g of water. The
precision instruments available today give the value of 4.186 J. The error in
Joule’s measurements was less than one percent!
What Exactly Is “Heat?”

string around
drum On page 150, you read that Joseph Black defined 1 cal as
thermometer the amount of caloric needed to raise the temperature
weight
of 1.0 g of water by 1.0°C. Although Black defined the
calorie as a unit of the fluid caloric, the definition applies
equally well to an amount of energy. Today the calorie is
water defined as the amount of energy that must be added to 1.0
stirrer
g of water to increase its temperature by 1.0°C. Scientists
now know that 1 cal is equivalent to 4.186 J of energy.
The work of Mayer and Joule led to the law of conser-
vation of energy. This law states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed, but it can be converted from one form
Figure 4.20 Joule performed many experiments with an
to another. How do you describe the form of energy that,
apparatus similar to this one. His precise measurements of the
amount of energy transfered to the water while increasing the up to this point, has been called heat? What is the
temperature of each gram of water by 1°C were almost identical modern definition for heat? The following section
to those using modern instruments. will answer these questions.

The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Heat hot water
If heat is not a fluid that flows into a substance and makes the substance warmer,
what type of change occurs in the substance when it becomes warmer? To
visualize the currently accepted theory of heat, think about the paddles in the
water in Joule’s experiment. They were pushing on billions of water molecules,
making them move faster and faster. Soon after the paddles stopped moving,
the water appeared to stop moving as well. Nevertheless, the individual water cold water
molecules continued to move faster than they had before the paddles started
turning. However, they were moving in random directions, as shown in Figure
4.21. As the molecules move, they collide with each other and with the walls
of the container. They continue to bounce in random directions.
You can apply the motion illustrated in Figure 4.21 to many substances other
than water. The random motion applies to any gas or liquid. Molecules in a solid, Figure 4.21 The dots represent
though, do not move freely around and away from each other. How, then, can water molecules and the arrows
represent the speed and direction
you explain the change in molecules of a solid when it becomes warmer? The
of the water molecules. When the
answer to that question is illustrated in Figure 4.22. You can picture molecules average speed of the molecules is
in a solid as though they are attached to each other by springs. The molecules high, the water is hot. When the
vibrate in place. As the solid becomes warmer, the molecules vibrate faster. average speed of the molecules
is low, the water is cool.
Heat and Thermal Energy
The energy of motion is called kinetic energy. The degree of warmth of
a substance is directly related to the motion — or kinetic energy — of the
individual molecules. Therefore, the current theory of heat is called the
kinetic-molecular theory. Scientists now understand that heat is not a
fluid that flows into a substance. Instead, heat is the transfer of energy to
a substance. The term “heat” has been replaced by the term thermal energy.
Heat is now defined as the transfer of thermal energy from one object to
another. You can compare this definition to the definition of work, which
is the transfer of mechanical energy from one object to another. Heat and
work are mechanisms by which energy can be transferred from one object to another. Figure 4.22 Atoms and molecules
Figure 4.23 summarizes the history of the theories of heat. in a solid are strongly attracted
to each other and stay beside
each other. However, they move
4 elements as though they were attached
earth, air, phlogiston by springs.
water, fire
400 B.C.E. – 1700 A.C.E. 1700 A.C.E. – 1800 A.C.E.
kinetic–
caloric molecular
theory
1800 A.C.E. – 1900 A.C.E. current

Figure 4.23 As scientists learned more about the nature of matter and energy,
various theories of heat were put aside. Inspired by the rapid advances in
technologies such as the steam engine, scientists arrived at the modern
kinetic-molecular theory of heat.

Physics Specific Heat Capacity
The amount of thermal energy in While reading about Joule’s experiment, did you notice that the discussion
a substance depends on the amount emphasized that the numerical values applied specifically to water? Did you
of the substance. Temperature wonder if the same values would apply to substances other than water? The
does not depend on the amount
answer is no. The values do not apply to substances other than water. Each
of the substance. A full kettle of
water has more thermal energy different substance or material requires a different amount of energy to
than a cup of water at the increase the temperature of 1 g of the substance by 1°C. This value is called
same temperature. the specific heat capacity of the substance. The symbol, c, is often used to
represent specific heat capacity. For example, for water, c ! 4.186 J/g•°C.
You read the units as “joules per gram per degree Celsius.” You can remember
the units by remembering the meaning of the specific heat capacity — the
amount of energy (J) required to raise the temperature of a unit of mass (g)
of a substance by one unit of temperature (°C). You will learn more about
specific heat capacity in Unit 4.
Heat and Temperature

As you just read, different substances require different amounts of thermal
energy to increase their temperatures by 1°C. Therefore, a temperature change
is not a measure of the amount of thermal energy added to an object. What,
then, does temperature measure?
In the discussion of Joule’s experiment on page 158, you read that the
increase in the temperature of the water was related to the increase in the
motion of the molecules. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy
of the individual atoms or molecules in a substance. Atoms and molecules in different
substances are different sizes and shapes. They also attract each other with
different forces. In some substances, large amounts of energy are needed just
to separate the atoms or molecules. After some energy is used to separate the
molecules, more energy is needed to make them move faster. To learn more
about heat and temperature, complete the activity on page 162.
The Laws of Thermodynamics

Motivated by the invention of steam engines and the improvements made
by Watt, scientists continued to search for a theory of heat that could explain
all of the observations that had been made. They collected large amounts
of data and eventually formulated an entirely new field of physics called
thermodynamics. By taking the name apart — thermo and dynamics —
One of James Joule’s scientific you can deduce the meaning of the term. “Dynamics” involves forces and
goals was to determine the
“mechanical equivalent of heat.” motion. “Thermo” implies heat and thermal energy. Thermodynamics is
A story is often told that, while the field of physics that deals with forces and motion involving heat — the
Joule was on his honeymoon in transfer of thermal energy.
Switzerland, he spent his time
Joule’s experimental results stimulated the interest of many other physicists
measuring the temperature of
water at the top and at the bottom who contributed to the growing body of information. The development of
of waterfalls. By determining the the new field of thermodynamics required a group effort. The basic principles,
difference in the water temperature, however, can be expressed in three fundamental laws of thermodynamics.
he could determine how much
thermal energy the water would
The first law of thermodynamics, stated on the next page, was implied in the
gain by falling a certain distance. work of Mayer and Joule. The first law was formalized by German physicist
Herman von Helmholtz (1821–1894).

First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be
transformed from one form to another or transferred
from one object to another.
When Albert Einstein

(1879–1955) developed his
theory of relativity, the first law
of thermodynamics had to be
expanded to include mass.
Part of Einstein’s theory is
that matter can be converted to
energy. Therefore, matter must
be considered a form of energy.
The conversion of mass to energy
is the source of energy in nuclear
reactors. Mass is also the source
of energy for the Sun.
Figure 4.24 Another way to state the first law of thermodynamics is, “The total energy of the
universe is constant.”
At a scientific meeting in 1847, Joule gave a short presentation on the

topic of thermodynamics and the first law. A young Scotsman, William William Thomson’s genius was
Thomson, was in the audience. He was so fascinated by the subject that he obvious when he was a young
began to ask some important questions. An enthusiastic discussion arose, child — he entered university at
age 10. He made contributions not
stimulating the scientists to dig deeper into the theory of thermodynamics. only to theoretical science but also
Had Thomson not initiated a discussion, Joule’s presentation might have to practical technologies such as
been overlooked. William Thomson continued to study thermodynamics. the telegraph and navigational
Eventually, he formulated the second law of thermodynamics: instruments. For his leadership in
these areas, Queen Victoria
honoured him with a knighthood
and he became Lord Kelvin. The
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Kelvin, or absolute, temperature
It is not possible for any process to remove scale was named in his honour.
thermal energy from an energy source
and convert it entirely into work.
If the statement of the second law in the box does not sound clear, you can
also state the law as follows: No process can be 100 percent efficient. Some energy
will always remain in the form of thermal energy.
This “leftover” thermal energy is often said to be “wasted” as heat. The
challenge to engineers is to find ways to keep the amount of “wasted heat”
as small as possible.
Another way to state the second law of thermodynamics is, thermal energy
always spontaneously flows from an object at a higher temperature to an object at a
lower temperature. A spontaneous process is one that will occur with no input of
energy. It will happen “naturally.” If you want to make an area such as the inside
of a refrigerator cooler than its surroundings, you must use energy to do so.

Find Out
Heat versus Temperature
Thermal energy transfer to an object can result in either a significant, or a

very small, change in its temperature. The amount of thermal energy trans-
ferred determines the final temperature of the object. In this activity, you
can determine how mass affects the change in temperature. Which will
transfer more thermal energy: 50 mL of boiling water, or 100 mL of water
at 50°C? Predict an answer to this question and explain your prediction.
Safety Precautions 3. Measure 50 mL of boiling water and pour it

into a 250 mL beaker. Record the temperature
of the boiled water. Using the beaker tongs,
• Take care while measuring the boiling water. place the 250 mL beaker inside the 400 mL
Avoid contact of water or steam with your skin. beaker containing the ice water. Record the
• Check beakers for small cracks before using. temperature of the water in the 400 mL
beaker every 60 s for 10 min. Stir the water
Materials between the two beakers continuously when
graduated cylinder beaker tongs not taking its temperature. Do not use the
ice water stirring rod thermometer to stir and do not touch the
inside beaker while stirring.
2 large beakers (400 mL) stopwatch
thermometer water at 50°C 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3. Use 100 mL of 50ºC
boiling water water in the 250 mL beaker. Record the
temperatures.
2 small beakers (250 mL)
Procedure 1. Which of the samples was able to transfer
the greatest amount of thermal energy to the
1. Read the activity, then create a data table ice water? Why do you think this happened?
to record your observations. Ensure that
2. Which of the samples was able to transfer
you measure accurately.
the thermal energy most rapidly? Why do
2. Using the graduated cylinder, measure 100 mL you think this happened?
of ice water (without the ice) into a 400 mL
3. Predict the final temperature of the ice water
beaker. Record the temperature of the water.
if you used 75 mL of 75°C water. Try it. Test
your prediction. Repeat using water samples
of different masses and temperatures.
Extension Initiating and Planning
4. Do research to learn about the concept of

absolute temperature. What is the equivalent
of 50°C and of 100°C on the Kelvin (absolute)
temperature scale? How does this knowledge
Step 2 Step 3 influence your reason for your prediction?

Section 4.2 Summary
The first recorded theory of heat, called the four-element theory, was
proposed by the Greek philosopher Empedocles before 400 B.C.E. In
the early 1700s, the phlogiston theory replaced the four-element theory.
Before the end of the century, the caloric theory replaced the phlogiston
theory. Both of these theories suggested that heat was a fluid. Count
Rumford demonstrated that the caloric theory could not explain the
heat generated by the boring of metal to make cannons. However, his
hypothesis was largely ignored. About 60 years after Rumford proposed
his theory that heat was a form of energy, Mayer observed evidence based
on the use of oxygen by the human body. This evidence led to the same
conclusion. Then, Joule produced evidence for the theory that heat was
a form of energy. Joule’s evidence was so strong that it was accepted by the
scientific community. Joule showed that doing work on water changed its
temperature. Work is the transfer of mechanical energy. Work is mathe-
matically defined as force times distance. The current definition of heat
Figure 4.25 The second law of
states that heat is the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another. thermodynamics can be expressed
The modern term, thermal energy, is now used to describe the energy of in many different ways. One of
atoms and molecules in the kinetic-molecular theory. The work of Rumford, the most vivid ways of stating it
Joule, and others lead to the development of the laws of thermodynamics. is, “Unless energy is added to a
system, the system will become
more and more disorderly.”
Although the second law applies
Check Your Understanding only to the atomic and molecular
level of a substance, a messy
1. Explain the phlogiston theory of heat and state one flaw in the theory. room is a good analogy. It takes
energy to convert disorder
2. How did Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) demonstrate that the to order.
caloric theory had a serious flaw?
3. How do physicists define work?
4. When bench pressing, you exerted a force of 515 N on a barbell. If you
lifted it a height of 0.55 m, how much work did you do?
5. A leopard did 945 J of work in carrying its prey a distance of 3.8 m up
a tree. What force did the leopard exert on the prey animal?
6. Outline Joule’s method for determining the mechanical equivalent of heat.
7. Explain the relationship between thermal energy and heat.
The laws of thermodynamics affect
8. Temperature is a measure of what property of a substance? almost everything you do. For
example, when you put ice in water,
9. State the first law of thermodynamics in your own words. heat goes from the water into the
ice. The water gets cooler while the
10. Apply State at least three ways that the laws of thermodynamics affect ice melts. Anyone who has run out
your life. of gas while travelling in a car is
quite sure that the energy to run the
11. Thinking Critically If you were holding a glass of tap water and car has to come from something.
suddenly one small spot on the top of the water started to boil, you Energy cannot be created from
nothing. Many scientists now believe
would be shocked. However, this event would not break the first law of that these laws are some of the
thermodynamics. There is enough thermal energy in the glass of water most fundamental laws of nature.
to boil a tiny portion of it. Why could this situation never happen?

4.3 Sources of Energy for
Modern Technologies
James Watt’s original design of the steam-powered piston engine changed
society. Before a practical steam engine was available, most people lived in
rural farming communities. After Watt’s steam engine became available, many
people moved to large industrial cities. Technology does not stand still, however.
The power of steam is still used in many modern technologies, but, in most
cases, it does not drive pistons. Instead, steam drives turbines. Pistons are still
widely used, but they are not driven by steam. In this section, you will see how
pistons are still important in transportation and how steam is important in
generating electrical energy.
Internal Combustion Engines

The large amounts of water and fuel needed for steam engines are not practical
for small vehicles. Steam engines burn fuel and heat water outside of the engine
and then inject the resulting steam into a cylinder to drive a piston. Modern
cars and trucks have internal combustion engines. The terms “internal” and
“combustion” give you clues about how these engines work. Unlike steam
engines, in the internal combustion engine, the fuel itself goes directly into
the cylinder. The combustion — or burning of the fuel — occurs inside the
cylinder. The sudden combustion of the fuel inside the engine converts the
liquid fuel into gases as well as heating the air. The hot gases expand and push
the piston down the cylinder, as shown in Figure 4.26 on the next page. Follow
the four steps of the cycle of the piston in the illustration.
While studying the steps in Figure 4.26, notice that the combustion of fuel
provides energy for only one of the four steps in the cycle. How does the piston
move in the other three steps? Modern internal combustion engines have four,
six, or eight pistons, all attached to the same crankshaft. The pistons are designed
to fire at different times. At least one piston is always in its power stroke, causing
the crankshaft to turn. The turning of the crankshaft causes the inactive pistons
to move through their other three strokes.
Major automobile manufacturers are developing gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles to dramatically

lower emissions and increase gasoline engine efficiency. Toyota has produced the Prius, and
Honda has produced the Insight. The success of the Insight was realized through its Integrated
Motor Assist (IMA) power train. The IMA consists of a newly developed gasoline engine, a permanent
magnet electric motor, and a five-speed manual transmission. The power train incorporates an
electric motor to supplement the gasoline engine at low RPMs (revolutions per minute).
Both the Prius and the Insight have self-charging batteries. In the Insight, the
electric motor draws power from a lightweight, nickel-metal hydride battery
pack located in the rear of the car. You never have to plug the Insight into a
power socket to recharge — the battery is maintained through regenerative
braking. The electric motor (doubling as a generator) harnesses kinetic
energy from the forward motion of the vehicle when the car decelerates.

spark plug spark plug
intake exhaust intake exhaust
valve valve valve valve
air and fuel
combustion combustion
piston chamber piston chamber
crankshaft
(a) Intake stroke: The intake valve opens, and (b) Compression stroke: The intake valve closes
the piston moves downward, drawing the and the piston moves up, compressing the
mixture of air and fuel into the cylinder. air-fuel mixture.
spark plug spark plug
intake exhaust exhaust

valve valve valve
exhaust
gases
combustion combustion
piston chamber piston chamber
(c) Power stroke: When the piston is almost (d) Exhaust stroke: The piston moves up, forcing
at the top of the cylinder, the spark plug the waste products from the combustion of the
produces a spark that ignites the mixture. mixture out the exhaust valve.
The mixture burns, causing hot gases to
expand and move the piston down.
Figure 4.26 One complete cycle
of a piston’s action in an internal
Nearly all modern cars, trucks, buses, and trains have internal combustion combustion engine involves four
engines. Although these engines have made it easy for people to travel freely distinct steps.
over relatively long distances, they have also had a negative effect on the
environment. Internal combustion engines release greenhouse gases and
gases that contribute to smog and acid rain. (You will learn more about
these environmental challenges in Unit 4.) Today’s engineers are still moving
technology forward. While they are attempting to improve the capabilities of
engines, they are also looking for ways to design engines that reduce negative
effects on the environment. Therefore, engineers are designing and testing
alternatives to the internal combustion engine. In the Ask an Expert feature
at the end of this unit, you will read about fuel cells and cars that use these

fuel cells instead of internal combustion engines. Another approach to modifying
engines is to use a combination of a gasoline engine and an electric battery.
These cars are called hybrid cars. They are described in the Did You Know?
feature on page 164. In the future, many alternatives will be available for
people shopping for a new automobile.
Production of Electrical Energy

Nearly all appliances, small and large, designed for the home, office, or factory,
use electrical energy. Electrical energy can be generated in a location far from
where it is used and transported over power lines for many kilometres. At the
point where it is being used, electrical energy is clean and quiet. As you read in
the introduction to this unit, modern civilization has become very dependent
on electrical energy. How is electrical energy generated? What is the primary
source of energy that is converted into the electrical energy that you use?
All commercial electrical energy is produced by electrical generators.
You might recall from previous science courses that when electrical
wires move in a magnetic field, a current flows through the wires.
electrical generator Electrical generators have huge magnets with coils of wire turning
between the poles of the magnet. In most generators, turbines turn
the coils. This kinetic energy of the coils is converted into electrical
energy inside the coils of wire (see Figure 4.27).
Steam pressure drives the turbines that turn generators that produce
approximately one third of the electrical energy generated in Canada.
turbine The heat that boils the water into steam comes from either the combus-
tion of fossil fuels or from nuclear reactions. Examples of a fossil
electrical energy fuel-burning power plant and a nuclear plant are shown in Figure 4.28.
Figure 4.27 Mechanical energy
in the form of the turning turbine
is converted into electrical energy
in a generator. The energy contained in 150 t of uranium used
in a nuclear reactor has as much energy as 2.0
million t of coal, 1.8 million L of oil, or more than
1 million m3 of natural gas. Why do you think
we use coal, oil, and natural gas when uranium
stores so much energy?
We hear the term “fossil fuel”

frequently, but do you know what
it means? If not, look it up in
a dictionary or other reference
source and write the definition in
your notebook. Why have fossil
fuels become such an important
part of our everyday lives? Will
they run out some day? Why or
why not?
A
B
Figure 4.28 Fossil fuel-burning plants (A) release large amounts of pollutants into the
atmosphere. Nuclear power plants (B) are very clean under normal operating conditions.
However, many people fear the risk of the accidental release of radioactive materials from
nuclear power plants.

Figure 4.29 Dams are very expensive to
build, but within a few years the cost is
recovered through the sale of electrical
energy. Once built, there is very little mainte-
nance for a hydro-electric generating station.
Figure 4.30 Windmills have been used for hundreds of years, usually for pumping
water. Modern windmills such as these near Pincher Creek, Alberta, look very different
from the old windmills that used to pump water for farm animals. These windmills
convert wind energy almost directly into electrical energy.
Hydro-electric generating stations, like the one in Figure 4.29, produce the
other two thirds of the electrical energy generated in Canada. The high level
of the water behind the dam creates a tremendous amount of pressure. The
pressure forces the water to flow through the turbines, causing them to turn.
The turbines then turn the electric generators. Hydro-electric power is clean
and dependable. However, large areas of land are flooded when a dam is built.
Sometimes this flooding can threaten an endangered species. The flooding can
also cover many hectares of tillable land. Entire farms might be flooded.
In a few regions of Canada, strong winds are dependable enough to provide
the wind energy to produce electrical energy. Figure 4.30 shows a wind farm
near Pincher Creek in southern Alberta. Small electrical generators are built

directly into the top of the windmills. As the wind turns the blades of the
windmill, the axle turns the generator. Electrical circuits carry the energy from
each windmill to a central unit. Wind energy is a clean, renewable source of
electrical energy. However, there are not many places where the wind blows
strong enough and frequently enough to make wind farms profitable. Wind
will never be able to produce enough electrical energy to replace most other
sources of energy. Nevertheless, using wind energy could reduce the amount
of fossil fuels that must be consumed to produce electrical energy.
Canada is a very large country and different sources of energy are available
in different locations. In Québec and British Columbia, most of the electrical
energy is generated in hydro-electric generating plants. In Ontario, nearly
half of the electrical energy is produced by nuclear reactors. In Alberta and
Saskatchewan, coal-burning power plants predominate. In some remote areas
of Canada, far from large electrical generating stations, internal combustion
engines turn the generators that produce electrical energy.
As technologies change, these patterns might also change. Conduct the
investigation on the next page to see the changing trends in the methods for
producing electrical energy in Canada over the last 50 years.
Electrical energy generation is critical to the functioning of society. The
energy sources used to produce electrical energy in Alberta are, for the most part,
non-renewable. There is a need to replace these with renewable energy sources.
Wind, water, and photovoltaics (the production of electrical current at the junction of two
substances exposed to light) are all renewable sources of energy for generating electrical
energy. To learn more, go to the above web site and find out where to go next.
Why are these sources considered renewable? Describe or diagram the conversion
process that converts these sources to electrical energy. Why are they
not used more? What are the disadvantages of using these
sources of electrical energy?

S K I L L C H E C K

4–B
Producing Electrical Energy

The data chart below provides the history of electrical energy
production in Canada over the last 50 years, as well as projections
for 2010. What trends or patterns do the data indicate? Use graph For tips on using computer software
paper and a calculator, or a spreadsheet and a computer graphing to make graphs, see Skill Focus 7.
program, to organize and display the data.
Apparatus The population of Canada for the years in the

calculator
5
chart is given below. Calculate and graph the
graph paper
coloured pencils energy consumption per capita by dividing the
or computer spreadsheet and graphing program total production by the population for each year.
What to Do Population of Canada
Use the production chart to prepare graphs for Year Population (in millions)
Steps 1 and 2. 1950 13.6
1960 18.2
1 For each of the seven years, prepare a stacked bar
graph or pie chart showing the energy sources and 1970 21.6
total production. 1980 24.8
1990 28.0
2 Prepare a line graph for each of the six sources
of energy by year. Connect each energy source’s 2000 31.0
data points by drawing a best-fit line or curve. 2010 33.4
estimate
3 Prepare a second chart similar to the production
chart below showing the percentage of the total
for each source in each year. Calculate the
percentages by dividing the total for that
particular source by the total for each year. Analyze
Production (! 1015 J) 1. Which energy source has become the most
Energy 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 popular? Which source(s) show decreasing
source popularity? What do you think is the reason
coal 3.70 11.5 114 205 276 396 322 for these trends?
oil 1.93 6.00 27.3 45.6 51.8 44.4 16.3
2. Compare the graphs of the actual values with
natural
gas 3.62 11.3 24.4 31.7 32.5 114 374 the graphs of the percentage values. Did you
hydro 188 381 564 902 1058 1277 1378 remember to place the manipulated variable
nuclear 0 0 3.49 129 248 247 265 (year) on the x-axis on all your graphs? Explain
why some sources show very different trends
other 0.655 2.04 3.79 6.92 16.7 30.3 5.83
on the two graphs.
Total 198 412 737 1321 1683 2109 2360
3. Does the increase in population account for the
4 Prepare six line graphs as described in Step 2, increase in electrical energy production? Explain
using the percentage values instead of the the trend in per capita energy production.
actual values.

Section 4.3 Summary
In this section, you learned about the changes in technology for transportation.
Watt’s steam engine was the first type of engine for rapid modes of transportation
such as locomotives and steamboats. Modern vehicles have internal combustion
engines. You learned about the common four-cycle piston that is found in most
cars, trucks, and buses. You then reviewed the methods used in Canada and
much of the world, for generating electrical energy. Each technology —
combustion of fossil fuels, nuclear power, and hydroelectric generation of
electrical energy — has some negative effects on the environment. The demand
for electrical energy is increasing, so scientists and engineers are always looking
for ways to improve current technologies and to develop new technologies.

1. Describe two significant differences between steam engines and internal
combustion engines.
2. Describe one similarity and one difference in the generation of electrical
energy when using fossil fuels and when using nuclear fuels.
3. List potential environmental challenges created by the generation of
electrical energy by (1) the burning of fossil fuels, (2) nuclear fission
reactors, and (3) hydro-electric generation in dams.
4. Apply Do some research to find out the source of electrical energy where
you live. Find out if there are any environmental issues involving the
electric generating station nearest you.
5. Thinking Critically Find out how much more hybrid cars cost than a
typical car with an internal combustion engine. What criteria would you
use in deciding how much more you would be willing to pay for a hybrid
car in order to help protect the environment?

(a) Explain how the first patented steam engine — (g) Describe Count Rumford’s observations that
Savery’s engine — worked. (4.1) caused him to reject the caloric theory of heat.
(4.2)
(b) Thomas Newcomen’s steam engine was often
called an atmospheric engine. Describe the role (h) Explain the differences between Count Rumford’s
played by atmospheric pressure in Newcomen’s observations and Mayer’s observations that both
engine. (4.1) led to the same conclusion about the nature of
heat. (4.2)
(c) State the most important difference between
Watt’s steam engine and Newcomen’s steam (i) Explain the difference between the everyday
engine and explain why it was so important. (4.1) concept of work and the scientific definition
of work. (4.2)
(d) Describe the improvements that were necessary
(j) Briefly describe the kinetic-molecular theory
for Watt’s steam engine before it could be used
of heat. (4.3)
to power much larger machines such as the
steam locomotive. (4.1) (k) State the first and second laws of thermodynamics
in two different ways. (4.2)
(e) Describe the ways in which the steam engine
influenced (1) the Industrial Revolution, (l) Describe how an internal combustion engine
(2) farming, and (3) transportation. (4.1) causes a drive shaft to turn. Start with the
combustion of the fuel. (4.3)
(f ) Briefly outline the basic concepts of three
theories of heat that preceded the kinetic- (m) State the three most common sources of energy
molecular theory. (4.2) that are transformed into electrical energy in
Canada. (4.3)
Summarize the chapter by doing one of the • Write a short biography of one inventor and
following. Use a graphic organizer (such as a one scientist mentioned in this chapter.
concept map), produce a poster, or write the • Explain and give experimental evidence for
summary to include key chapter concepts. the flaws in the early theories of heat.
Here are a few ideas to use as a guide: • Make energy flow diagrams for one or more
• Make two time lines and place them next to each of the modern technologies for generating
other. One time line should include all of the electrical energy.
technological advances involving the application • Describe ways in which new technologies build
of steam energy and other forms of thermal on previous technologies. Describe how scientific
energy. The second time line should include models are modified or replaced.
the scientific models and theories about the
hot water cold water
nature of heat.
• Choose one of the technologies described in
the chapter and explain its functioning based
on the scientific theory of heat.

4
C H A P T E R
Review
Key Terms
steam engine GRASP thermal energy thermodynamics
phlogiston calorie heat laws of thermodynamics
caloric theory kinetic energy specific heat capacity combustion
work kinetic-molecular theory temperature
Understanding Key Concepts 11. What property of a substance does the specific
Section numbers are provided in case you need heat capacity reveal? (4.2)
to review. 12. Explain the difference between heat and
1. What basic information was available for temperature. (4.2)
Newcomen and Watt that they could use to
design their steam engines? (4.1) 13. State the first law of thermodynamics in your
own words. (4.2)
2. What was the most important difference
between Watt’s engine and Newcomen’s engine? 14. Explain how “wasted energy” is related to the
How were these differences beneficial for Watt’s second law of thermodynamics. (4.2)
engine? (4.1)
15. In what way is the internal combustion engine
3. How did Watt’s steam engine influence society? more practical for cars than the steam engine?
(4.1) (4.2)
4. Briefly describe how a steam turbine works. (4.1) 16. What are the two main sources of energy that
are used to boil water into steam for the steam
5. List the flaws in the following three theories of turbines that drive electrical generators in
heat: the four-element theory, the phlogiston Canada? (4.3)
theory, and the caloric theory. (4.2)
6. How do physicists define work? Give your answer

Developing Skills
in words and in a mathematical formula. (4.2) 17. Choose three of the scientists (not inventors)
mentioned in this chapter. Write a short para-
7. Under what conditions would you use the graph on the contribution that each of them
graphical method for determining work instead made to the field of thermodynamics.
of using the formula? Why would it be impossible
to use the formula in this situation? (4.2) 18. Devise an experiment that could determine the
specific heat capacity of an object. Hint: When
8. Briefly describe how Joule determined the rela- an object is placed in water at a much lower
tionship between work and heat. (4.2) temperature, thermal energy will be transferred
from the object to the water until the temperatures
9. State the name of the modern theory of heat.
of the two are the same. The thermal energy that
Explain the meaning of the terms used in the
enters the water will be equal to the thermal
name of the theory as they apply to the theory
energy that left the object.
of heat. (4.2)
19. Design and draw diagrams that illustrate the
10. State and explain the modern definition of heat.
first and second laws of thermodynamics.
(4.2)

20. Do research using print resources or the Internet Critical Thinking
to learn about the types of environmental 27. The drawings and descriptions created by Hero
challenges caused by nuclear reactors, fossil of Alexandria show that over 2000 years ago,
fuel-burning power plants, and hydro-electric people knew that steam could be used to make
generating stations. Compare the results and list objects move. Why do you think that it took so
the three methods of generating electricity in long for anyone to design and build a practical
order from the least to the most challenging to steam engine?
the environment. State your reasons for the order
that you chose. 28. James Joule was an experimentalist and William
Thompson was a theoretician. Explain the
Problem Solving/Applying difference between these two types of scientists.
21. A crane that loads ships must exert a force of Do you think one type or the other contributes
24 550 N on a crate and lift it 22 m. How much more to the body of scientific knowledge? If so,
work does the crane do on the crate? which one? Discuss your reasoning.
22. You exerted a force of 15 N on your textbook 29. Use print resources or the Internet to learn
while you lifted it 0.86 m to the shelf of your about research on experimental cars other than
locker. How much work did you do on the book? hybrid electric cars or fuel cell-powered cars.
After learning about these cars, explain how they
23. Two movers do 2500 J of work to move a piano help protect the environment. How much would
8.4 m across a room. How much force did the you be willing to pay for a car that helps
movers exert on the piano? preserve the environment but is more expensive
than a standard car? Explain your reasoning.
24. A weight lifter does 420 J of work to lift a
barbell a height of 0.35 m. What force did the
weight lifter exert on the barbell?
25. You exert a force of 100.0 N on a shopping cart.

If you used 2750 J of energy, how far did you
spush the cart?
Go back to your answers to the Focussing Questions. Has your
26. A farmer exerts a force of 125 N on a wheelbarrow. thinking changed about any of your answers? Revise your
When the farmer has used 7198 J of energy, answers to reflect what you have learned.
how far has he pushed the wheelbarrow?

5
C H A P T E R
Energy and Motion
• What is the fastest moving object

that you have ever seen?
• How do you measure potential
energy and kinetic energy? In
what circumstances would these
measurements be important?
• How is gravity related to energy
and work?
174
174 MHR
MHR •• Flow
Unit of
2 Energy
Matter in
Flow
Living
in Technological
Systems Systems
A s a space shuttle lifts off
from the pad, it accelerates to speeds
In Chapter 4, you learned that
kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
far greater than speeds of objects You also learned that energy is often
anywhere on Earth. While in orbit, defined as the ability to do work.
the space shuttle travels at 28 000 A force does work on an object
km/h. It uses about 1500 t of fuel when it causes that object to move.
just to take off. A cheetah crouches It is clear that work, motion, and
motionless until just the right energy are closely related. In this
moment. The big cat then springs chapter, you will study forms of
into action, reaching greater speeds energy and energy transformations
than any other land animal on the in more detail. You will learn about
planet. The cheetah can run over many different ways in which energy
100 km/h. can be stored. You will learn how to
Every object, whether it is an describe, analyze, measure, and
advanced technological craft or a predict the motion of an object.
living being, must use energy to begin
or change its motion. What form of o
oki
n
As you study this ch

L
energy does the space shuttle trans- apter, look ahead fro
m
head time to time to the
A
Unit 2 Project: Build

form into kinetic energy? What form an Energy-Conversi ing
on Device. Start ga
ideas and materials thering
of energy does the cheetah use? How for your project and
plans with your tea discu ss your
do you mathematically describe the m members. Make
a ch ecklist
of the concepts and
skills you will need
energy of motion of the space shuttle the project. Pay sp to co mplete
ecial attention to ca
lculations of
and of the cheetah? In this chapter, kinetic energy and
potential energy.
you will answer these questions and
many more.
Chapter 5 Energy
Solar The Basis
Energy and
and Motion
of Life ••• MHR
Climates MHR 175
175
5.1 Analyzing and
Measuring Motion
Experienced mountain bikers develop a sense of speed. They can
react to bumps and turns almost automatically. However, it takes
a lot of practice to develop the biking skills shown in Figure 5.1.
Engineers who design cars, airplanes, and spacecraft need a different
set of skills to do their job. Precisely measuring and calculating
motion are critical when engineers are designing technologically
advanced vehicles. However, engineers and physicists must all
start at the same place — learning about the basics of motion,
as you are about to do.
Scalars and Vectors

To communicate about motion, you need some basic information about the
quantities used to describe motion. The following example will give you some
insights into these quantities. A classmate invites a few friends over after school
to study for an exam. He tells the group, “I live 1.2 km from school. If you
walk at 4 km/h, it will take you only about 15 min to get there.” Could you
find the way to your classmate’s house? He told you how far (distance) he
lives from school and how long (time) it will take to get there if you walk at
a reasonable pace (speed). However, you still do not know the direction in
Figure 5.1 When you look at this which to walk to his house.
picture, imagine how it would feel Quantities that describe magnitude (size or amount) but not direction are
to grip the handle bars tightly as called scalar quantities or scalars. The quantities that the student used to give
you soar into the air. instructions — speed, distance, and time — are scalar quantities. Information
about direction is missing. Quantities that do include direction as well as magni-
tude are called vector quantities or vectors. Some examples of vector quantities
are velocity, displacement, and position. To distinguish between these quantities,
symbols for vectors are written with arrows above them while symbols for scalars
are not. For example, the symbol for velocity is v!" and the symbol for speed is v.
Defining Distance, Displacement, and Position

In the example above, the student told his classmates that he lived 1.2 km
from the school. He was telling them the distance between the school and his
house. Distance is a scalar quantity that describes the length of a path between
two points or locations. The symbol for distance is !d. The symbol in front
of the d is the Greek letter delta. Physicists and mathematicians often use delta
to mean a difference or change. In the case of distance, the delta means the
change in the location of an object when it moves from one point to another.
In Figure 5.2, a student is giving instructions for going to his house 1.2 km
Figure 5.2 When you are telling away. If he was pointing, he would be providing a direction. By providing a
someone how to go to your house, direction, he would be describing the displacement from the school to his
you usually point toward your house. Displacement is a vector quantity. Displacement describes the straight-
house. Without realizing it, you
line distance from one point to another as well as the direction. The symbol for
are describing a vector quantity.
displacement is !d!".

The delta in the symbol for displacement means the change in y
the position of an object when it is displaced. Position is a vector
quantity that describes a specific point relative to a reference point.
You can choose any point as a reference. If you use a co-ordinate
system, the logical reference point would be point (0,0) where the d"2
axes cross. The symbol for position is d!". Displacement is defined !d"
mathematically as the difference between two positions, as shown
in the following formula. The relationship between displacement x
d"1
vectors and position vectors is shown in Figure 5.3.
Displacement
!d!" " d!"2 # d!"1
where !d!" is displacement
d!"1 is the initial or starting position
Figure 5.3 To graphically determine a
d!"2 is the final or ending position displacement vector, start at the tip of the
The SI unit for position and displacement is metres, m initial position vector and draw an arrow
to the tip of the final position vector.
To develop a clear understanding of the difference between

distance and displacement, examine the map in Figure 5.4.
The displacement from Edmonton to Peace River is shown
by the arrow. To avoid clutter on the map, no reference point Peace River
is chosen and position vectors are not included. The distance
along the displacement arrow is approximately 365 km. The
direction that the arrow points is about 40° west of north.
That means that if you pointed an arrow north and then
rotated it through an angle of 40° toward the west, you would
Valleyview Slave Lake
be pointing in the direction of the displacement on the map.
You would describe the displacement from Edmonton to
Peace River as !d!" " 365 km[N40°W].
If you were to drive from Edmonton to Peace River, you
could not drive in a straight line. You would follow the highways Whitecourt
shown by the heavy line on the map. The distance along the
highway (path between Edmonton and Peace River) is approxi- Edson
mately 485 km. This distance is completely described by writing Edmonton
!d " 485 km. No direction is involved. Notice that the distance
is longer than the magnitude of the displacement. You can
practise your skills in working with distance and displacement
by completing the following activity. Rocky
Moutain
House Red Deer
Figure 5.4 The distance along

Measurement, communication, and precision are essential to science and the mathematics used the highway from Edmonton to
in calculations for science. Confusion can lead to big and expensive problems. In 1999, NASA’s Peace River is longer than the
Mars Climate Orbiter space probe disappeared. It probably burned up in the Martian atmosphere. magnitude of the displacement.
Several engineering groups had worked on the probe, which cost more than $300 million to design,
construct, and launch. An investigation later found that one group had used SI units, such as metres
and kilograms. Another group had assumed that data were being recorded in feet, inches, and
pounds. These units are commonly used in the U.S. As a result, the computers on the probe
made errors in the calculations for putting it into orbit.
Chapter 5 Energy and Motion • MHR 177

Find Out
Analyzing Distance and Displacement
Every time you use a map or give directions, (c) What is the displacement from Cate’s
you are using vectors. Your teacher will give house to Allison’s house?
you an enlarged version of the neighbourhood (d) What is the displacement from Allison’s
map shown here. You will use the map for this house to the school?
activity. You will first determine the distance and (e) What is the displacement from Cate’s
displacement between several pairs of points. house to the school?
Then you will learn how to add vectors and
2. Esra and Donita go to the Food Mart after
subtract vectors graphically.
school to pick up some snacks. They then
A length of 10 cm on the map you will use
go to Donita’s house to study for an exam.
represents 1 km in actual distance in the neigh-
Before dinner, Esra walks home.
bourhood. Use a ruler to measure lengths on
the map. You can then find the actual distances (a) Determine the total distance that
by multiplying the measured map distances in Esra walks.
centimetres by 1 km/10 cm. Use a protractor to (b) Determine the total distance that
determine directions. Use the intersection beside Donita walks.
the school as your reference point when drawing (c) What is the displacement from the
position vectors. This intersection is marked with school to Esra’s house?
a ⊗ on your map. The first letter of a student’s (d) What is the displacement from the
name is used to label his or her house on the map. school to Allison’s house?
Adding Vectors
Materials Neighbourhood Map
N
A 3. To add vectors, you place the tail of the
map
W E B
second vector on the tip of the first vector.
ruler You then draw a vector from the tail of the
S
protractor first vector to the tip of the second vector.
C E
pencil Park Without realizing it, you performed vector
paper addition in parts (c), (d), and (e) of step 1
above. The mathematical expression for
the addition of these vectors is:
Sports
D !" !" !"
Field !d C to A $ !dA to S " !dC to S
School Parking
door Examine your answers to step 1 (c), (d), and (e)
and relate your process to the equation above.
F
4. Determine the displacement from Brad’s
Food
Mart G house to the school. You can do this by
adding the displacement vector from Brad’s
10 cm " 1km reference point
Procedure house to Frieda’s house to the displacement
Distance versus displacement vector from Frieda’s house to the school.
The mathematical statement is:
1. Cate walks to Allison’s house and they then
!"
!d !" !"
walk to school together. B to F $ !dF to S " !dB to S
(a) Determine the total distance that 5. Find the sum !d

!"
x to z of the following vectors.
Cate walks. !"
!d x to y " 4.5 cm [E30°S]
(b) Determine the total distance that
!"
Allison walks. !d y to z " 6.3 cm [E60°N]

Subtracting Vectors 7. Use the method shown here to find the
6. You learned that the definition of displacement displacement from Frieda’s house to Giesela’s
is given by the equation: house. First, draw position vectors from the
reference point near the school to Frieda’s
!" !" !"
!d 1→2 " d2 # d1 house and Giesela’s house. Label them d !"
F
and d!" . Subtract these position vectors as
To find a displacement vector from two known G
position vectors, you would have to subtract shown in the equation to find the displace-
vectors. The graphical method for subtracting ment vector.
vectors is shown below. !" !" !"
!d F→G " dG # dF
8. Use graphical vector subtraction to find

"
#B
"
A the displacement from Giesela’s house
"
B " to the Food Mart.
#B
"
A
" $ (#B)
" " C" What Did You Find Out?
A
1. What did you observe about the relative
"
C
lengths of distances and the magnitude
!" !"
To subtract B from A , define the negative of of displacement vectors? Write a general
!" !"
B by drawing a line the same length as B but statement about your conclusion.
!"
pointed in the opposite direction. Add #B to
!" !" 2. Write a detailed method for adding vectors.
A by drawing a vector from the tail of A to
!"
the tip of #B . This new vector is the difference 3. Write a detailed method for subtracting vectors.
!" !" !"
vector, or C " A #B . Study the method until
you can apply it to the map.
Calculating Distance and Displacement

In the previous Find Out Activity, you added vectors in two dimensions
graphically. In this textbook, you will perform mathematical calculations on
vectors only in one dimension or along a straight line. The direction of the
vectors will be indicated by compass directions (N, S, E, or W) or by positive
and negative signs ($ or #). For example, Figure 5.5 shows you how to
determine the displacement vector, !d!", given two position vectors, d!"1 and d!"2.
When you subtract a vector, you point it in the opposite direction but keep
the length the same. Because you will be working in only one dimension,
the magnitudes of the velocity vectors can be added and subtracted algebraically.
The Model Problem and Practice Problems that follow will help you add and
subtract vectors in one dimension.
10 m[E] 50 m[E]
d"1 50 m[E]
d"2 d"2
[W] [E] !d" #d"1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
metres 40 m[E] #10 m[E]
Figure 5.5 Position d
!" is the point at which the runner is 10 m east of the reference point or
1
0.0 m. Position d!"2 is 50 m east of the reference. The runner’s displacement, !d!", is 40 m[E].

Model Problem 1
Part A Solution
Find the displacement vector from position A to !d!"X→Y " d!"Y # d!"X
position B if d!"A " $3.5 cm and d!"B " $5.7 cm. !d!"X→Y " #8.2 m[E] # (6.9 m[E])
!d!"X→Y " #15.1 m[E]
Given
!d!"X→Y ! 15 m[W]
position A, d!"A " $3.5 cm
position B, d!"B " $5.7 cm ✓ PROBLEM TIP
Required The symbol ! means “approximately equal.” When rounding an
displacement, !d!"A→B answer to the correct number of significant digits, physicists
and mathematicians often write the answer with a !.
Analysis
The two position vectors are given so you can use
Paraphrase
the definition of displacement, !d!" " d!"2 # d!"1. In
The displacement is negative 15 m east, which is
one dimension, the magnitudes of vectors can be
the same as a positive 15 m west.
added or subtracted algebraically.
Solution Part C
!d!"A to B " d!"B # d!"A
Alonzo walks 0.64 km north and then walks 1.76 km
!d!"A to B " $5.7 cm # ($3.5 cm) south. What was Alonzo’s total displacement?
!d!"A to B " $2.2 cm
Given
Paraphrase first displacement, !d!"1 " 0.64 km[N]
The displacement is 2.2 cm in the positive direction. second displacement, !d!"2 " 1.76 km[S]
Required
Part B
total displacement, !d!"total
Find the displacement vector from position X to
position Y if d!"X " 6.9 m[E] and d!"Y " 8.2 m[W]. Analysis
The total displacement is the vector sum of the two
Given displacements. Since the vectors are along a straight
position X, d!"X " 6.9 m[E] line, the magnitudes can be added algebraically.
position Y, d!"Y " 8.2 m[W] Since south is the negative of north, the second
vector can be written, !d!"2 " #1.76 km [N].
Required
displacement, !d!"X→Y Solution
The vectors are known, so you can just add them.
Analysis
!d!"total " !d!"1 $ !d!"2
The direction “west” is equivalent to the
negative of “east.” Therefore, write position Y as !d!"total " 0.64 km[N] $ (#1.76 km[N])
d!"Y " #8.2 m[E]. Now you can use the definition !d!"total " #1.12 km[N]
of displacement, !d!" " d!"2 # d!"1. In one dimension, !d!"total ! 1.1 km[S]
the magnitudes of vectors can be added or
subtracted algebraically. Paraphrase
The total displacement is negative 1.1 km north,
which is the same as positive 1.1 km south.

Practice Problems
1. Find the displacement from position 1, d!"1 " $45 cm, to position 2,
d!"2 " $33 cm.
2. Matthew is standing at a position described by d!"M " $73 m. Jason
is standing at d!"J " #18 m. What is the displacement from Matthew
to Jason?
3. On a chessboard, a king sits at a position $12 cm from the lower
left corner. A knight is $5.0 cm from the same corner along the same
straight line. What is the displacement from the king to the knight?
4. Grant is standing at position d!"G " 45 m[W] and Serina is at position
d!"S " 22 m[W]. What is the displacement from Grant to Serina?
5. Alex walks 1.4 km west from the school. Kendra walks 0.45 km east.
What is the displacement from Alex to Kendra?
6. Brooks is 111 km south of Hanna. Killam is 122 km north of Hanna.
What is the displacement from Brooks to Killam?
7. Raja drives east from Olds to Trochu, a distance of 59 km. He then
drives west to Sundre, a distance of 97 km. What distance did Raja
drive? What was his total displacement?
8. You have learned how to take steps that are exactly 1 m long. You
take 12 steps north, then 15 steps north, 35 steps south, 11 steps south,
then 16 steps north. What distance have you walked? What is your
total displacement?
9. Jennifer throws a softball 7.8 m east to Sasha. Sasha throws it 9.5 m
east to Clair. Clair throws it 8.2 m west to Brianna. Brianna throws it
9.1 m west to Kerry. What distance did the softball travel? What was
the total displacement of the softball?
Speed and Velocity

The terms “speed” and “velocity” are probably quite familiar
to you. Think of a weather report in which the meteorologist is
reporting wind velocities. Think of auto races in which cars run
at speeds of over 200 km/h. Have you ever thought about the difference
between speed and velocity? As you read at the beginning of this section,
speed is a scalar and velocity is a vector. Speed is related to distance and
velocity is related to displacement. Both quantities involve time.
If you were going to determine a sprinter’s speed or velocity, you would
probably start a stopwatch the instant the sprinter left the starting line.
However, you might want to know how fast a certain sprinter was running
during the first half and last half of a race. Assume that the race is a 50 m
dash. You would start the stopwatch when the race started. Then you would
check your stopwatch when the sprinter reached the 25 m line and again at
the end of the race. You would have measured two time intervals. How does
a time interval differ from a time?

Time (t) is a point in time as it relates to your reference or zero time.
As shown in Figure 5.6, a time interval (!t) is the difference between two
times. Both quantities are scalars. When you calculate speed or velocity, you
must specify the time interval during which you are determining the speed
or velocity. The mathematical formula for time interval is given below.
!t " 5 s time interval

Figure 5.6 You usually choose 8
901
2 8
901
2 8
901
2
3 3 3
time zero as the time at which 7
654
7
654
7
654
t0 t1 t2 times
you start your stopwatch. All
t
times after that are determined 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
in relation to time zero. seconds
Time Interval
!t " t2 # t1
where !t is time interval
t1 is the initial or starting time
t2 is the final or ending time
The SI unit for time and time intervals is seconds, s.
Now you are ready to define speed and velocity mathematically. Speed is the
distance travelled by an object during a given time interval divided by the time
interval. Velocity is the displacement of an object during a time interval divided
by the time interval. The direction of the velocity is the same as the direction
of the displacement. Since the speed and velocity might change during an
interval of time, the formulas below represent average speed and average
velocity. The formulas look very similar, but an example will reveal some
slight differences. Apply the formulas below to a trip from Edmonton to
Peace River.
Speed Velocity
!d !d!" d!"2 # d!"1
vave " %% v!"ave " %% or v!"ave " % %
!t !t t2 # t1
where vave is average speed in where v!"ave is average velocity in
metres per second, m/s metres per second, m/s
!d is distance in metres, m !d!" is displacement in metres, m
!t is the time interval in seconds, s d!"2 is the final position in metres, m
d!"1 is the initial position in metres, m
!t is the time interval in seconds, s
t2 is the final time in seconds, s
t1 is the initial time in seconds, s
Imagine that your family was driving from Edmonton to Peace River. It is
a long trip so you stopped once for a meal and two other times for snacks. The
entire trip took 7.5 h. As you read previously, the distance along the highway
is 485 km and the displacement is 365 km[N40°W]. You could calculate the
speed and velocity as shown on the next page.

Speed Velocity
!d !d!"
vave " %% v!"ave " %% Peace River
!t !t
485 km 365 km[N40°W]
vave " %% v!"ave " %%
7.5 h 7.5 h
km km Valleyview Slave Lake
vave " 64.667 %% v!"ave " 48.667 %% [N40°W]
h h
km km
vave ! 65 %% v!"ave ! 49 %% [N40°W]
h h Whitecourt
Although the values for speed and velocity describe the same trip, they look Edson
quite different. The reason for the difference lies in the definitions of distance Edmonton
and displacement. Remember that displacement is always measured along
a straight line joining the initial and final positions. Distance, however, is
measured along the actual path taken. The time intervals are the same. Rocky
Moutain
Study the Model Problems below and complete the Practice Problems House Red Deer
on pages 184 and 185 to sharpen your problem-solving skills.
When speed is given in kilometres per hour, you can convert to metres per second. Convert km/h to
SI units by multiplying your quantity by the ratio of metres to kilometres and by the ratio of hours
to seconds, as shown here. For example, if you were given the value of 55 km/h and wanted to
convert it to m/s, you would do the following.
55 km 1000 m 1h (55)(1000) m m
"% h #" 1 km #"3600 s#
% %% %% " %% %% " 15.28 %%
3600 s s
When the units cancel properly, you know that your calculations are correct.
Next, you should report the answer in the correct number of significant digits. Since 55 km/h
has two significant digits, the answer should also have two significant digits or 15 m/s.
For practice, convert 18 km/h to units of m/s.
Model Problem 2
Part A Solution
A car travelled a distance of 550 m in a time interval !d
v " %%
of 35 s. What was the speed of the car? !t
Given 550 m
v " %%
distance travelled by car, !d " 550 m 35 s
m
time interval during which the car was observed, v " 15.714 %s%
!t " 35 s m
v ! 16 %s%
Required
speed of the car, v Paraphrase
The car was travelling at a speed of 16 m/s.
Analysis
The data given are time interval and distance.
Therefore, use the formula that involves distance
and time
!d
interval, v " %%.
!t

Part B Analysis
Two trainers with stopwatches are timing a runner The problem gives the positions of the trainers.
who is training for a race. Both timers start their They stopped their stopwatches when the runner
stopwatches when the runner leaves the starting was at those positions. The trainers also started
point. The first trainer is standing at a position that their stopwatches when the runner was at position
is 12 m[S] of the starting point and the second zero. Therefore, the readings on their stopwatches
trainer is standing at a position 65 m[S] of the are the times that the runner passed each position.
starting point. Each trainer stops her stopwatch Use the formula for velocity that involves positions
when the runner passes her. The first trainer’s stop- d!"2 # d!"1
and times, v!" " % %
watch reads 1.6 s and the second trainer’s t2 # t1
stopwatch reads 8.7 s. What was the athlete’s Solution
velocity while racing between the trainers? d!"2 # d!"1
v!" " % %
Given t2 # t1
initial position, d!"1 " 12 m[S] 65 m[S] # 12 m[S]
v!" " %%%
final position, d!" " 65 m[S] 8.7 s # 1.6 s
2
initial time, t1 " 1.6 s 53 m[S]
v!" " %%
7.3 s
final time, t2 " 8.7 s
m
v!" " 7.26 %s%[S]
Required
Velocity of the runner, v!" m
v!" ! 7.3 %s%[S]
Paraphrase
The athlete was running at a velocity of 7.3 m/s[S].
Practice Problems
All of your answers should be in SI units. Read the Math Connect on
the previous page to review the method for converting km/h to m/s.
Use the method that involves distances or displacements and time
intervals to complete problems 10 through 14.
10. A stunt bicycle rider goes 39 m in 3.0 s. How fast is the cyclist riding?
11. A skier goes 148 m[W] in 5.50 s. What is the skier’s velocity?
12. A jet plane travels from Calgary to Winnipeg, a distance of 1358 km,
in 2 h and 45 min. Determine the speed of the jet plane in metres per
second. (Hint: There are 1000 m in 1 km, 60 s in 1 min, and 3600 s
in 1 h.)
13. A cheetah runs at a velocity of 29 m/s[N]. If it runs for 8.4 s, what is

its displacement?
14. You and your family are driving to your grandparents’ home, which
is 95 km away. If you drive at an average speed of 85 km/h, how long
will it take you to get there?

Use the method that involves positions and times to complete problems
15 through 17.
15. A 100 m track is marked off in metres. When a sprinter leaves the
starting line, timers are started. The sprinter passes the 12 m[E]
mark at 1.8 s and passes the 56 m[E] mark at 6.7 s. What was the
sprinter’s velocity between those two positions?
16. The fence posts around a large pasture are 2.5 m apart. A horse starts
running west beside the fence. When the horse passes the fifth fence
post, your second hand is on the 9.0 s mark. When the horse passes
the fourteenth fence post, the second hand is on 11.5 s. What is the
horse’s velocity?
17. On some highways, exit signs are numbered according to the number
of kilometres the exit is from the place where the highway originated. EXIT
If you are driving south and pass exit 35 at 2:15 p.m. and then you 116
pass exit 116 at 3:09 p.m., what is your velocity?
Analyze each problem to decide which method applies to problems 18
through 22.
18. A cougar can leap 11 m horizontally. If it spends 1.8 s in the air,
what was its speed?
19. If a maglev (magnetic levitation) train ran between Edmonton
and Calgary, a distance of 295 km, it could make the trip in about
0.75 h (three quarters of an hour). What would be the speed of the
maglev train?
20. A car and driver leave Whitecourt at noon. The car passes through
Valleyview at 2:15 p.m. and reaches Grande Prairie at 3:45 p.m.,
including time to stop for a meal. Valleyview is 168 km from Whitecourt
and Grande Prairie is 279 km from Whitecourt. What was the average
speed of the car between Valleyview and Grande Prairie?
21. Some teenagers are training their dog to carry messages between
the store where one teen works and the restaurant where the other
works. They want to find out how long it will take the dog to make
the trip. They measure the displacement between the store and the
restaurant and find that it is 1.2 km[W]. While training the dog,
they time it with a stopwatch and find the time to be 14 min.
What was the dog’s velocity?
22. If you walk to school at a speed of 1.2 m/s and it takes you 18 min to
reach the school, what is the distance from your home to the school?
You have learned the definitions for speed and velocity and have practised
calculating speed. You can now start collecting your own data. In the next
activity, observe the motion of a laboratory cart and measure the distance that
it travels over several seconds. Determine its velocity for a few different time
intervals. Draw conclusions about the motion of the cart.

Find Out
Measuring Velocity in One Dimension
If an object is travelling slowly in a straight line, 6. Let the point at which you started measuring
you can gather data about the object’s motion represent a position of zero. Now measure
using simple tools. from the starting point to each successive dot.
Record your observations in a table, such as
Materials the one below.
laboratory cart or friction block
Trial 1 Trial 2
stopwatch
Time (s) Position (m) Time (s) Position (m)
paper tape
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
masking tape
two coloured pencils or pens
string or wire 7. For each of the two trials, calculate the velocity
metre stick or measuring tape for every time interval. (For example, calculate
the velocity between 0.0 s and 1.0 s, between
Procedure Performing and Recording 1.0 s and 2.0 s, and so on.)
1. Stretch a paper tape along a smooth surface, 8. Calculate the average velocity for each of the
such as a table top, and tape it down using two trials. You can find the average velocity by
the masking tape. adding the velocities of all the time intervals,
2. Attach a string or wire to a laboratory cart then dividing the sum by the number of time
(or friction block). intervals. (This method is correct only if the
time intervals were all the same. For this activity,
each time interval should be 1 s.)
9. For both trials, calculate the velocity for the

full 6 s. (Note: Save your data for use in another
activity that you will carry out later.)
1. Was the velocity constant for Trial 1? for Trial 2?

Explain how you can determine whether the
3. The second team member will watch the velocity was constant.
stopwatch and count each second aloud.
2. How does the average velocity for Trial 1
4. Trial 1: Have the third team member pull the and Trial 2 compare to the velocity that you
cart at a constant slow speed beside the calculated for the full 6 s for the given trial?
paper tape. Walk along, marking the cart’s
3. Was it easier to maintain a constant velocity
position with a coloured pencil on the tape
for a slow speed (Trial 1) or a greater speed
each time the team member counts the
(Trial 2)?
seconds. Do this for 6 s. (Hint: Start pulling
the cart before you start taking data.)
5. Trial 2: Repeat Trial 1. This time, try to move

the cart at a faster constant speed. Use a
different coloured pencil to mark its position.

Teri MacDonald-Cadieux is a professional road-racing driver. Her
job demands special physical and mental qualities. She must pilot
her car around complex, twisting courses. Her first racing experi-
ence came at the age of 11, behind the wheel of a go-cart. Teri’s
worst moment in racing came in 1997. Her car crashed into a wall
at over 200 km/h. It rolled several times before coming to a stop.
In the accident, Teri fractured a vertebra in her neck. Within
three months, however, she was back in the driver’s seat.
Teri’s love of driving goes beyond her role as a driver. She
teaches race-driving techniques, runs car-care clinics, and is
a certified child safety seat inspector. As well, she presents a
television feature called “Car Sense.” In this feature, she aims
to demystify the automobile.
List the qualities that you think would be needed in Teri’s work.
In what other careers might these qualities be valuable? Teri MacDonald-Cadieux
Graphing Velocity
You often understand a topic better if you approach it in several different ways.
Some people learn from visualization. Working with data tables, pictures, and
graphs might help you develop a deeper understanding of the relationships
among position, displacement, time, and velocity. Examine Figure 5.7 and
analyze how the motion of the sprinters matches the graphs below them.
A B C
d" d" d"
t t t
A Sprinter is at rest (no B Sprinter steadily changes C Sprinter steadily changes
change of position). position from starting point. position from direction
opposite to that in B.
Figure 5.7 The zero position is on the left in the illustrations of the sprinters at the top of the
figure. The motion takes place along the position axis, which is the vertical axis on the graphs.
All of the motion of the sprinters in Figure 5.7 takes place along a straight
line. In the graphs, that line is the d!" axis or vertical axis. The time between each
image of the sprinter is 1 s. In part A of Figure 5.7, the sprinter is in the starting
position. Thus the position, d!", is the same at all times. In part B, you can see that
the sprinter is running at a constant velocity because the distance between the
images is the same. The sprinter is starting near the assigned zero position
and moving away from it. Therefore, the line in the graph goes up — or farther
from the zero position — as time passes. In part C, the sprinter starts at a greater

displacement from zero and runs toward the zero position. Notice that the line
on the graph starts at a large value of d!" and goes down toward the zero position
as time passes. In each case, the velocity of the sprinter is constant. Physicists
call this type of motion uniform motion because there is no change in velocity.
You can directly determine the velocity of an object that is moving with
uniform motion from a graph of position versus time. To start developing
the method, study Figure 5.8. Recall from mathematics that the slope of a
straight line is defined as the “rise” over the “run.” In Figure 5.8, you can
see that the “rise” on a position versus time graph is the displacement of the
object. The “run” is the time interval during which the motion occurred.
Examine the figure as you read through the following steps.
rise
d" • Write the definition of the slope. slope " %%
run
!d!"
rise !d" • Replace the words “rise” and “run” with their slope " %%
!t
run quantity in Figure 5.8.
!"
!d
!t
• Write the formula for velocity. v!" " %%
t !t
• Because the slope and the velocity are equal to the v!" " slope
same quantity, they must be equal to each other.
Figure 5.8 The velocity of an
To learn how to use the relationship between velocity and slope, examine
object is the slope of the graph
the data table and graph, then follow the calculations below. The data in
of position versus time.
Table 5.1 were used to plot the points on the graph in Figure 5.9.
Choose the first point Choose the second point
Table 5.1 Experimental data (0.0 s, 0.0 m) and the last (1.5 s, 12 m) and the third
Time (s) Position (m[E]) point (7.5 s, 60 m). point (3.0 s, 24 m).
0.0 0.0 !d!" !d!"
slope " %% slope " %%
1.5 12 !t !t
3.0 24 60 m[E] # 0.0 m[E] 24 m[E] # 12 m[E]
slope " %%% slope " %%%
7.5 s # 0.0 s 3.0 s # 1.5 s
4.5 36
60 m[E] 12 m[E]
6.0 48 slope " %% slope " %%
7.5 s 1.5 s
7.5 60 m m
slope " 8.0 %s%[E] slope " 8.0 %s%[E]
m m
v!" " 8.0 %s%[E] v!" " 8.0 %s%[E]
Choose the third point

(3.0 s, 24 m) and the fifth
point (6.0 s, 48 m).
60
!d!"
48 slope " %%
!t
position
48 m[E] # 24 m[E]
(m[E])
36
slope " %%%
6.0 s # 3.0 s
24
24 m[E]
12 slope " %%
3.0 s
Figure 5.9 You can pick any
m
two points on the straight line 0 slope " 8.0 %s%[E]
1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5
to determine the slope and thus m
time (s) v!" " 8.0 %s%[E]
the velocity of the object.

Notice that the velocity is the same in each d"
case. This result supports the statement that when
a position versus time graph is a straight line, the 6
2
velocity is constant.
5
Position (m[E])
Data points that lie precisely on a straight
line, such as those in Figure 5.9, are unusual. 4
More frequently, you will detect small measure-
ment errors. For example, the time it takes to 3
push the button on a stopwatch will vary with
each measurement. Also, it is difficult to read 2 1
a metre stick with precision. For these reasons,
1
graphs plotted from experimental data usually
look more like the graph in Figure 5.10. You t
can get the best results from these data by drawing 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
a “line of best fit” through the points, as shown Time (s)
in the figure. To draw a line of best fit, try to leave an equal number of points Figure 5.10 The slope of a line
above and below the line. When you calculate the slope of the line, do not use of best fit is a more accurate
any of the actual data points because most of them do not lie directly on the calculation of velocity than the
line. For the most accurate calculation, choose two points on the line that are velocity calculated from two
near the opposite ends of the line. Calculate the slope from those points. For data points.
example, as shown in Figure 5.10, you could choose 10 s and 80 s. Start at those
numbers on the time axis and go up to the line. Mark the point on the line with
a symbol such as a cross. Then go left from those points to the position axis to
find the value of the position that corresponds to each of the two times. The
selected points on the line in Figure 5.10 have the co-ordinates (10 s, 1.6 m[E])
and (80 s, 5.3 m[E]). Calculate the slope as follows. Practise these techniques
in the activity on the next page.
d!"2 # d!"1
slope " % %
t2 # t1
5.3 m[E] # 1.6 m[E]
slope " %%%
80 s # 10 s
3.7 m[E]
slope " %%
70 s
m
slope " 0.05286 %s%[E]
m
v!" ! 0.053 %s%[E]
Defining Acceleration
How would it feel to drive the dragster shown in Figure
5.11? Some dragsters can go from a full stop to speeds
of over 89 m/s (320 km/h) in less than 4 s. Imagine how
the driver is pressed back against the seat. Even under
normal driving conditions, you can feel a change in
the motion of a car when you speed up, brake rapidly,
or turn quickly. However, when a car is moving at a
constant speed — uniform motion — you are almost
unaware of any motion at all. What is unique about Figure 5.11 Try to imagine how the driver of this dragster feels
changes in velocity compared to constant velocity? as the speed increases rapidly.

Physicists define acceleration as any change in the velocity of
an object during a time interval. The change might be an increase or
decrease in the magnitude of the velocity or a change in the direc-
tion of the object. Since velocity is a vector quantity and acceleration
is a change in velocity, acceleration is also a vector quantity.
To explain why you feel a change in motion, or an acceleration, think about
the cause of acceleration. Imagine an ice surface that is so smooth that when
a hockey puck slides across it, there is no friction. What would speed up, slow
down, or change the direction of the hockey puck? You would have to hit it,
or exert a force on it. When you feel a change in the direction of a car in which
you are riding, you are actually feeling the force that is causing a change in
the motion of your body. If no forces act on an object in uniform motion, the
motion will not change.
Calculating Acceleration
The mathematical forms of the equations that describe acceleration are very
similar to those for velocity, as shown on the next page. When you first look
at the units, metres per second squared, they might seem strange. A brief
analysis should clarify the meaning. When an object is accelerating, the
velocity is changing. The numerical value of the acceleration states how
much the velocity is changing. A value of 1.2 m/s2 means that the velocity
is changing by 1.2 m/s every second.
Find Out
Graphing Position-Time Data
In this activity, you will use the graphical method 4. Determine the slope of the line on each
for determining velocity from a position versus graph. Include units for the slope.
time plot.
What Did You Find Out?
Materials
1. When you were collecting these data, you tried
data from Find Out Activity:
to achieve uniform motion. How well did you
Measuring Velocity in One Dimension
succeed in creating motion with a constant
graph paper velocity? How does your graph support
your answer?
Procedure
1. Obtain your data tables from the Find 2. How well does the slope of each graph agree
Out Activity: “Measuring Velocity in One with the average velocity that you calculated
Dimension.” Also, find and record the average in the original activity? Why might you expect
velocities that you determined for the motion the values to agree?
for the two trials in the activity.
3. Explain how you would use your graph to
2. On separate pieces of graph paper, make predict the displacement of the cart 10 s
graphs of position on the vertical axis and after you stopped taking data.
time on the horizontal axis for each trial.
4. How would the graph appear if you had
3. On each graph, draw a line of best fit. allowed the cart to slow down?

Acceleration Unit Analysis
!!v" !v"2 # !v"1 !!v"
a!"ave " %% or a!"ave " % % a!" " %%
!t t2 # t1 !t
where a!"ave is average acceleration in metres m
per second squared, m/s2 m
%s%
!v!" is the change in velocity in metres %2% " % s
s
per second, m/s m s
!v"2 is the final velocity in metres per second, m/s " %s% & %%
1
v!"1 is the initial velocity in metres per second, m/s m 1
" %s% ' %s%
!t is the time interval in seconds, s
t2 is the final time in seconds, s m
" %2%
t1 is the initial time in seconds, s s
The direction of the acceleration is the same as the direction of the change in
the velocity. To determine the direction of the acceleration from the initial and
final velocities of an object, picture the direction in which you would have to
push on the object in order to cause the observed change. The following exam-
ples will help you visualize the meaning of the direction of the acceleration.
• The initial velocity is in the positive direction. v"1

The final velocity is in the positive direction
v"2
and the magnitude is larger. The acceleration
is in the same direction as the initial velocity. a"

The final velocity is in the positive direction,
v"2
but the magnitude is smaller. The acceleration
is in a direction opposite to the initial velocity. a"

The final velocity is in the negative direction.
v"2
The object slowed down, stopped, and began
to move in the opposite direction. The a"
acceleration is in a direction opposite to
the initial velocity.
• The initial velocity is in the negative direction. v"1

The final velocity is in the negative direction,
v"2
but the magnitude is smaller. The acceleration
is in a direction opposite to the initial velocity. a"
When solving problems mathematically, the sign — positive or negative —

of the answer will tell you the correct direction of the acceleration. Study
the following Model Problem, then complete the Practice Problems. After
solving each problem, analyze the sign of the answer. Ensure that it gives the
direction that you would expect. This method is one way to ensure that your
answer is correct.

Model Problem 3
A naturalist observed a cheetah reach a speed of Analysis
19 m/s from a standing start in a period of 2.0 s. The change in the velocity and the time interval are
What was the cheetah’s acceleration? Assume that known, so you can use the definition for acceleration,
the cheetah runs in a positive direction. !!v"
a!"ave " %%
!t
Given
Solution
Since the initial velocity is zero, the change in
velocity is the same as the final velocity or !!v"
a!"ave " %%
m !t
!v!" " $19 %s% m
$19 %s%
!t " 2.0 s a!"ave " %
2.0 s
Required m
a!"ave " $9.5 %2%
acceleration, a!" s
Paraphrase
The cheetah’s acceleration is 9.5 m/s2 in the
positive direction.
Practice Problems
23. In a record-setting race, a dragster reached a velocity of 145.08 m/s
in 4.48 s. What was the dragster’s average acceleration? Assume that
the direction of the velocity is positive.
24. A model rocket started from the ground and reached an upward
velocity of 66 m/s in 5.0 s. What was the rocket’s average acceleration?
(Let the upward direction be positive.)
25. A student on a bicycle decided to determine his acceleration when coast-
ing down a steep hill. The student started from a full stop and reached
a velocity of 8.75 m/s in 3.8 s. What was his average acceleration?
Assume that downhill is the positive direction.
26. A car enters a highway travelling 14 m/s[N]. After 5.5 s, the car reaches
a velocity of 28 m/s[N]. What was the car’s average acceleration?
27. A professional baseball pitcher pitches a ball, giving it a velocity of
45 m/s toward the batter. The batted ball has a velocity of 30 m/s
toward the pitcher. Let the direction from the batter to the pitcher
be the positive direction. If the change in velocity takes place over
a period of 1.2 s, what was the average acceleration of the baseball?
28. A child rolled a ball up a hill. At time zero, the ball had a velocity of
1.8 m/s up the hill. After 6.5 s the ball’s velocity was 2.3 m/s down the
hill. Let uphill be the positive direction. What was the average acceler-
ation of the ball? What is the meaning of the sign of the acceleration?
29. Objects near Earth’s surface fall with an acceleration of 9.81 m/s2. If
you dropped a rock from a cliff over a river, how fast would the rock
be falling 4.1 s after you dropped it?

30. The average acceleration of the space shuttle at takeoff is 29 m/s2[up].
What is the shuttle’s velocity after 12 s? Let up be the positive direction.
31. A car is initially travelling at a velocity of 4.2 m/s[W]. If the car’s

average acceleration is 0.86 m/s2[W], how long will it take the car
to reach a velocity of 9.6 m/s[W]?
Across Canada
Have you ever dreamed of becoming an astronaut? How do Her astronaut training with
you make such a dream — any impossible-sounding dream — the CSA (Canadian Space
come true? You could ask Julie Payette. On May 29, 1999, she Agency) and NASA has
became the eighth Canadian to fly into space, aboard the Space taken her to Moose Jaw,
Shuttle Discovery. For Julie, this ten-day mission was just the Saskatchewan, to qualify
latest stage in a long and varied journey that began in Montréal, as a pilot, and to Houston,
Québec, where she was born in 1962. That journey has taken her Texas, to train for her role in
to many different places in Europe, the United States, and Canada, the 1999 mission. Julie acted
in pursuit of her goals. as the on-board “director”
Julie Payette
The first stop on Julie’s quest was Atlantic College in Wales, U.K., for the mission’s space walks.
where she won a scholarship to study at age 16. “Atlantic College Julie Payette has a truly global perspective. As she says, “To
helped open my mind and broaden my horizons. I met people from work while orbiting Earth, to contribute to the pursuit of scientific
all over the world and shared incredible experiences.” Julie returned knowledge, and to be able to see our world from above is an
to Montréal to earn a degree in engineering at McGill University. extraordinary privilege. From orbit, you can’t see political borders,
She then attained a Master’s degree in computer processing design but in a truly global fashion, you can help monitor and preserve
at the University of Toronto. This was followed by further work on our beautiful planet — our only home — for everyone.”
computer voice recognition in Zurich, Switzerland, and at McGill.
Graphing Accelerated Motion

How does a position versus time graph A B
of accelerated motion differ from a graph
of uniform motion? Examine the graphs
in Figure 5.12 of sprinters speeding up
and slowing down. Once again, the time d" d"
between images is 1 s. You can tell that the
sprinter in graph A is speeding up because
the distance that the sprinter runs in one
second becomes greater with each second.
The sprinter in graph B is slowing down
because the distance travelled each second
becomes shorter. Notice that the graphs t t
are both curved lines. When the speed A Sprinter starts slowly, then B Sprinter starts rapidly, then
increases, the graph curves upward. increases speed. decreases speed.
When the speed decreases, the graph Figure 5.12 Position versus time graphs of accelerated motion are
curves downward. always curved.

By analyzing graphs of position versus time, you can determine whether
the velocity is zero, constant, or changing. You can learn even more from a
graph of velocity versus time, as shown in Figure 5.13. The position versus
time graph in part A is a straight line indicating that the velocity is constant.
The velocity versus time graph below shows this constant velocity. In part B,
the position versus time graph is a curve, indicating that the velocity is changing.
The velocity versus time graph below shows that the velocity is increasing.
The fact that the velocity versus time graph is a straight line shows that the
velocity increases uniformly. Earlier, you learned that a straight-line graph of
position versus time (A) represents constant velocity. Similarly, a straight-line
graph of velocity versus time shows that the acceleration is a constant. In part C,
the position versus time graph curves in a downward direction. This direction
is opposite to that of the curve in part B. The downward curve once again
indicates that the velocity is changing. However, the direction of the curve means
that the magnitude of the velocity is decreasing, as shown in the velocity versus
time graph. The velocity versus time graph in part C shows that the velocity
is decreasing uniformly, again indicating that the acceleration is constant.
A B C
d" d" d"
t t t
Position changes Position/time graph Position/time graph
uniformly curves upward curves downward
Figure 5.13 Each pair of v" v" v"

graphs — above and below
each other — represent the same
motion. The upper graphs show
position versus time and the lower
graphs show velocity versus time.
The lower graphs clearly show
whether the velocity is constant,
increasing, or decreasing. t t t
Therefore, these graphs reveal Velocity is constant Velocity increases Velocity decreases
the acceleration of the object. uniformly uniformly
You might feel that you should use the term “deceleration” instead of
“acceleration” for cases in which the magnitude of the velocity is decreasing.
However, deceleration is not a scientific term. The correct term to describe the
change in the motion represented by the graphs in part C is negative acceleration.
To practise combining information about position, velocity, and acceleration,
complete the following activity.

Find Out
Describing Motion
To get a clear understanding of an object’s motion, 4. Record your observations in a data table.
especially if it is changing speed and/or direction, Show the position of each timer (in metres,
you need to determine the object’s position and measured from the starting point). Show the
velocity of travel many times as it moves along. time the runner took to reach each position.
The more observations you make, the better you
5. Draw a graph to show the position the runner
will be able to describe the details of the motion.
reached at each different time.
Use this principle to study the changing motion
of a runner during a short race. 6. Calculate the runner’s average velocity for each
segment of the race.
Materials
7. Make a graph of velocity versus time.
athletic measuring tape (at least 50 m)
as many electronic timers or digital watches What Did You Find Out?
as possible 1. Answer the following questions:
whistle (for starter) (a) What is the runner’s initial position
and velocity?
Procedure (b) What is the runner’s final position
and velocity?
(c) Does the runner accelerate at any point in
1. Choose one student to be the runner and one to
the race? Where? How can you recognize
be the starter. The rest of the students are timers.
when the motion is accelerated?
2. Have the runner stretch and warm up while (d) In what time intervals is the runner’s
the rest of the class sets up a 50 m or 100 m velocity highest and lowest?
straight racetrack. The timers must be equally
2. What information was easier to obtain from your
spaced along the track and at least 2 m apart,
graph than your data table? What information
and with one timer at the finish line. Practise
was easier to obtain from your data table?
synchronizing the start time before actually
running the race. 3. How could you change your method of
collecting data to get a more detailed picture
3. Each timer must start his or her watch when the
of the runner’s motion?
runner starts the race, and stop it when the
runner passes his or her position. When every- 4. How precise were your measurements?
one is ready, have the runner run the race.
Acceleration is the measure of the rate at which velocity

changes. In free fall near Earth’s surface, an object will
accelerate at 9.81 m/s2. This seems like a rather large
rate of acceleration until you consider the following:
• a rat flea can jump with an acceleration of 2900 m/s2
• a squid can extend its tentacles at 330 m/s2
• a woodpecker’s head stops with a negative acceleration of 100 m/s2
• a trout can start swimming with an acceleration of 40 m/s2
• a deer can jump at an acceleration of 16 m/s2
• a human can jump at an acceleration of 14 m/s2

Section 5.1 Summary
In this section, you learned that scalar quantities have magnitude only
while vector quantities have both magnitude and direction. You learned
the meaning of the scalar quantities of distance, speed, and time. You also
learned the meaning of the vector quantities of position, displacement, velocity,
and acceleration. You developed skills in both calculating and graphing these
quantities. In the next section, you will use some of these quantities to describe
kinetic energy and learn how it is related to work.

1. Explain the difference between distance and displacement.
2. How are position and displacement related to each other?
3. Explain the difference between “time” and “time interval.”
4. Imagine that your house is 0.75 km[N] from school. Your friend’s house
is 1.6 km[S] from school. If it takes you 6.5 min to walk to your friend’s
house, what is your velocity?
5. A professional tennis player returns a serve, giving the ball a horizontal
speed of 21.5 m/s. If her opponent is 21.7 m away, how long does it take
Time (s) Position (m[E]) for the ball to reach the opponent?
2.0 5.4
6. Apply Make a position versus time graph of the data in the table on the
4.0 6.9
left. Draw a line of best fit and use the graph to determine the velocity.
6.0 10.4
8.0 13.8
7. Apply For each of the following combinations of initial and final velocity
vectors, determine the direction of the acceleration. Explain how you
10.0 16.3
determined the direction of the acceleration.
v"1 v"1
v"2 v"2
v"1 v"1
v"2 v"2
8. Apply Define acceleration. Give three different examples of the acceleration

of an object.
9. Thinking Critically In your everyday experiences, you observe that
everything that is moving eventually slows down and comes to a stop
unless you continue to exert a force on it. For example, if you are riding
your bicycle on a level road and stop pedalling, the bike will soon stop. A
child on a swing will eventually slow down and stop unless someone pushes
the child or she pumps the swing. You roll a ball along a horizontal surface
and eventually it stops rolling. However, in this section, you read that if
no forces are acting on a moving object, it will continue to move indefinitely.
Explain why everyday experiences seem to contradict this principle of motion.

5.2 Energy of Motion
Photographs taken with a strobe light, such as the
image of the golf swing in Figure 5.14, give you
a sensation of motion. Strobe lights flash many
times a second, allowing you to capture steps in
the motion of objects.
Stroboscopic photographs also allow you to
analyze the motion and the energy involved in the
motion. For example, Figure 5.14 shows that the
golfer is doing work on the golf club, thus making
it move. Since it is moving, it has kinetic energy.
Then the golf club exerts a force on the golf ball
over a short distance, thus doing work on the ball.
The club did work on the ball, making it move. Figure 5.14 The same piece of film is exposed every time the
Since the distances between the images of the ball strobe light flashes so you can see many steps in a process at
are all nearly the same, the ball is moving with a the same time.
constant velocity or uniform motion. In this case,
the energy given to the ball was the energy of motion or kinetic energy.
You have learned how to calculate the amount of work done on an object.
How do you calculate kinetic energy?
Calculating Kinetic Energy Stroboscopic photography

is not the only way to study
On what properties of an object does its kinetic energy depend? An object rapidly moving objects.
must move in order to have kinetic energy. Therefore, the amount of kinetic Repeating motion, such as
energy must depend on the speed of the object. Think of another property the rotation of a fan or a
that might contribute to kinetic energy. Imagine that a bowling ball and a reciprocating (back-and-forth)
movement, can appear much
billiard ball are both rolling toward you at the same speed. Which one slower when you look through
would be the most difficult to stop? Since their speed is the same, what else a hand stroboscope like the one
could be contributing to their kinetic energy? An object’s mass contributes pictured here. As you turn the
stroboscope wheel, its slots
to its kinetic energy. You can calculate the kinetic energy of an object by
reveal a brief glimpse of the
using the formula below. moving object every few
hundredths of a second. If your
Ek " %12%mv2 school does not have a hand
stroboscope, it is not difficult
where Ek is the kinetic energy in joules (J) to make one from particle
m is the mass of the object in kilograms (kg) board or thin plywood.
v is the speed in metres per second (m/s)
In every formula, the units must agree. Agreement means that the units on
one side of the equation must be equivalent to the units on the other side.
If you substitute the units for each quantity into the formula for kinetic
energy, you will get the following result.
m m2
" #
2
J " kg %% " kg %2%
s s

A joule is equivalent to a kilogram times a metre squared divided by a second
squared. Including units in problem solving will often help you discover errors.
For example, if the units do not agree, you know that there is an error in your
solution. The incorrect units will usually lead you to the misplaced or missing
value. To develop your problem-solving skills, study the Model Problems below.
Then complete the Practice Problems.
Model Problem 4
Part A
A car with a mass of 1500 kg is moving at a speed of 14 m/s (about 50 km/h).
What is the kinetic energy of the car?
Given
mass of the car, m " 1500 kg speed of the car, v " 14 m/s
Required
kinetic energy of the car, Ek
Analysis
The speed and mass of the car are given so you can substitute directly
into the formula for kinetic energy.
Solution
Ek " %12%mv2
" #
m 2
Ek " %12%(1500 kg) 14 %s%
m2
"
Ek " %12%(1500 kg) 196 %2%
s #
m 2
Ek " 1.47 ' 105 kg %2%
s
Ek ! 1.5 ' 105 J
Paraphrase
The kinetic energy of the 1500 kg car travelling at 14 m/s is approximately
1.5 ' 105 J.
Part B
A hockey puck has a mass of 0.21 kg. If the hockey puck has 73 J of
kinetic energy, what is its speed?
Given
mass of the hockey puck, m " 0.21 kg
kinetic energy of the hockey puck, Ek " 73 J
Required
speed of the hockey puck, v
Analysis
You can approach this problem in two different ways. You can rearrange
the formula by using the rules of algebra to solve for speed. You can also
substitute the numerical values into the equation and then solve for the
speed. Both methods are shown on the next page.

Solution
Solve for the speed in the Substitute numerical values into
formula first. Then substitute the formula first and then solve
the numerical values into the for the speed.
modified formula.
Ek " %12%mv2 Ek " %12%mv2

2Ek " 2(%12%mv2) 73 J " %12%(0.21 kg)v2
2E mv2 73 J " (0.105 kg)v2
%m%k " %m%
73 J (0.105 kg)v2
2E %% " %%
v2 " %m%k 0.105 kg 0.105 kg
m2
kg %2%
&'
2E
$v%2 " %m%k s
695.238 % " v2
kg
&'
2E k m2
v " %m% 695.238 %2% " v2
s
m2
v " %%
& ''
2( 7 3 J )
0.21 kg
$v%2 " &'m''
695.238 %
s2
m2 v " 26.367 %s%

146 kg %2% m
s v ! 26 %s%
v " %%
0.21 kg
m2
v"
&'''
695.24 %
s2
m
v " 26.367 %s%
m
v ! 26 %s%
Paraphrase
A 0.21 kg hockey puck that has 73 J of kinetic energy has a speed
of approximately 26 m/s.
Practice Problems
Use the knowledge that you have gained about kinetic energy to
complete the following problems.
32. A wrecking ball, similar to the one shown in the diagram, has
a mass of 315 kg. If it is moving at a speed of 5.12 m/s, what
is its kinetic energy?
33. A freight elevator with a mass of 120 kg is moving with
a speed of 2.50 m/s. What is its kinetic energy?
34. A student with a mass of 55 kg is jogging at a speed of
1.6 m/s. What is the student’s kinetic energy?
35. An electron with a mass of 9.11 ' 10#31 kg is moving at a speed
of 2.19 ' 107 m/s. What is the kinetic energy of the electron?

36. A basketball that is moving with a speed of 6.1 m/s has 8.4 J of
kinetic energy. What is the mass of the basketball?
37. A bowling ball is moving at a speed of 2.21 m/s. If the kinetic
energy of the bowling ball is 15.7 J, what is its mass?
38. What is the speed of a 0.155 kg billiard ball that has 12.0 J of
kinetic energy?
39. You are paddling a canoe. The combined mass of the canoe and
your body is 115 kg. If you and the canoe have a kinetic energy
of 75 J, how fast are you paddling the canoe?
40. A 15 kg child is sliding down a playground slide. If the child’s
kinetic energy is 77 J, how fast is the child sliding?
Work and Kinetic Energy

The pitcher in Figure 5.15 is exerting a force on a baseball over a distance
of about 1 m. The pitcher is doing work on the ball and thus transferring
kinetic energy to the ball. If all of the work goes into kinetic energy, you could
predict the speed of the ball when it leaves the pitcher’s hand. The method is
identical to the problems above. You determined the speed of an object given
the mass and kinetic energy of the object.
In many transformations, however, not all of the work goes into kinetic
energy. In fact, in some situations, doing work on an object reduces its kinetic
energy. For example, consider the situation shown in Figure 5.16. The baseball
had kinetic energy. However, the work done by the catcher’s mitt removed
the kinetic energy. Where did the energy go?
If you have ever caught a fast ball, you will have a clue to the answer to the
Figure 5.15 To a baseball fan, question above. The mitt and your hand felt a little warm. When you caught
the pitcher is pitching the ball. the ball, the kinetic energy of the ball was converted into thermal energy, mostly
To a physicist, the pitcher is in the mitt and your hand. Notice that when kinetic energy is removed from
doing work on the ball. an object, the force doing the work is directed opposite to the direction of
the motion of the object. When work removes kinetic energy from an object,
physicists call this negative work.
Catching a baseball is just one example of
negative work, that is, work that removes kinetic
energy from an object. In the Find Out Activity
on the next page, you will examine a situation in
which your life might depend on removing the
kinetic energy of an object. The object is the car
in which you are a passenger. In the investigation
that follows the activity, you will have a chance to
design your own system that does negative work.
Figure 5.16 When the catcher catches a baseball, the

catcher’s mitt does negative work on the ball. Explain
the meaning of negative work as it applies to the baseball.

Find Out
Driving Safely
To drive safely, you must be able to stop within
the distance between your car and the car in
front of you. The distance required varies with the
speed at which your car is moving. The force that
does negative work on your car to transform all
of the kinetic energy into thermal energy is the
force of friction within the brakes and between
the tires and the road. The thermal energy is then
shared among the brakes, tires, and the road. For
a car with a mass of about 1500 kg, it would be
reasonable to expect that the force of friction would
be approximately 12 000 N. Your challenge is to
find the distance needed for stopping at several
different speeds.
Procedure
1. Develop an equation to calculate the
stopping distance for any speed by
following these steps.
(a) Start with the information that the work
done on the car by the force of friction
must be equal to the kinetic energy of
the car. Write that relationship in mathe- 6. Make a graph of stopping distance in metres
matical form. versus speed in kilometres per hour. Put
(b) Substitute F!d for work and substitute distance (d) on the vertical axis and speed (v)
%1%mv2 for kinetic energy.
2
on the horizontal axis.
(c) Solve the equation for !d.
What Did You Find Out? Communication and Teamwork
2. Make a table similar to the one shown here.
Leave space for seven different speeds. 1. Describe the shape of the curve on your
Speed Stopping Distance graph. Is it a straight line or not? (Hint: If it is
a straight line, doubling the speed will double
Metres per Kilometres per (m)
the stopping distance. For example, is the
Second (m/s) Hour (km/h)
stopping distance at 100 km/h twice the
stopping distance at 50 km/h? If not, the
relationship between speed and stopping
3. Fill in the first speed column with 5, 10, 15, distance is not a straight line.)
20, 25, 30, and 35 m/s. 2. What does this graph tell you about
4. Calculate the stopping distance for each of the stopping at high speeds compared to
speeds. Place the answers in the last column. stopping at lower speeds?
5. Convert the speeds to kilometres per hour 3. What, if anything, surprised you the most
and fill in the second speed column. about your results?

S K I L L C H E C K

5-A
Hit the Brakes!

Slowing down a heavy, fast-moving aircraft or racing
car in a short distance can be too much for drum
or disc brakes, like those used on most vehicles.
Although the brakes could be made powerful enough
to stop the wheels from turning, the skidding tires
would be quickly worn away or destroyed as they
scraped across the ground. Air brakes are parachutes
or surfaces that can turn or pivot to increase drag
(air resistance) and help stop the vehicle.
Challenge
Design and construct an effective air brake for a
small vehicle, and measure its stopping distance.
Materials The space shuttle Atlantis, slowing down from over 350 km/h
small moving vehicle, such as a lab cart or a large toy car at touchdown.
starting ramp to get the vehicle moving
construction materials, such as wood, cardboard, Plan and Construct
cloth, string, glue, and fasteners
1 Work in a small group to brainstorm possible
stopwatch
designs for an air brake. Possibilities include
metre stick or tape
parachutes, movable sails, or spoilers that
change the shape of the vehicle to increase
Design Criteria air resistance. Consider how to keep your air
A. Your vehicle must gain initial speed by moving brake from slowing the vehicle as it goes down
down the ramp without any braking action. the ramp. How will your air brake fold or
B. The air brake might be a separate structure that turn when activated? How will you attach it
the vehicle runs into, but it must end up attached to the vehicle? What sort of trigger mechanism
to the vehicle. will you use?
C. The air brake must not cause the vehicle to tip
over, spin, or turn significantly. 2 Obtain the materials you need, and construct
D. Construct your air brake. Then conduct several a prototype of your air brake.
trials to determine the shortest distance required Conduct preliminary trials. Modify your
to stop the vehicle. Start measuring at the end
3
air brake until it satisfies the design criteria.
of the ramp.
4 Create a data table for your observations.
5 Conduct several trials, so that you can average

your results to increase their reliability.

Evaluate
1. Prepare a concise summary of your observations. 4. What changes would you make if you designed
Include a sketch or photograph of your a second-generation version of your air brake?
air brake.
5. What single change would most improve the
2. What problems did you observe when you way your group worked together?
tested your prototype? What modifications
did you make to overcome these problems?
3. How does the effectiveness of your design

compare with the effectiveness of other
groups’ designs?
Race car driver David Purley survived a crash in which his car went
from 173 km/h to zero in a distance of 66 cm. Using calculations of
work done to stop the vehicle, scientists estimated that he experienced
a force 179.8 times his body weight. It's no wonder he suffered
29 broken bones and three dislocations.
Section 5.2 Summary

In this section, you learned how to calculate the kinetic energy of a moving
object. You learned that when a force does work on an object and increases
the object’s speed, the work transfers kinetic energy to the object. You also
discovered that doing work on an object can reduce its kinetic energy. In these
cases, the force doing the work is opposite to the direction of the motion of
the object. When the kinetic energy of an object is reduced, the energy is
often transformed into thermal energy.

1. What properties of an object affect its kinetic energy?
2. Since work equals force times distance, the units are newtons times metres
(N•m). A newton is equivalent to a kilogram times a metre divided by
seconds squared (kg•m/s2). Show that the units of work are the same
as the units for kinetic energy.
3. The SR71 Blackbird — the fastest jet airplane ever built — is flying at
a speed of 3200 km/h. If the mass of the Blackbird is 36 000 kg, what
is its kinetic energy? (Hint: Remember to convert km/h to m/s.)
4. A neutron travelling at a speed of 2200.0 m/s has 4.048 ' 10#21 J
of kinetic energy. What is its mass?
5. (a) A pool cue exerted an average force of 160 N on a cue ball over
a distance of 0.012 m. How much work did the cue do on the ball?
(b) If all of the work done (a) was transformed into kinetic energy of
a 0.200 kg cue ball, what was the speed of the ball?
6. Describe three different examples of negative work.
7. Apply To stop a car that is moving at 45 km/h, a specific amount of

work must be done on the car by some force. The same amount of
work must be done to stop the car whether it is on a dry road or
a wet road. Why is it safer to stop on a dry road?
8. Apply In the first section of this chapter, you learned how to relate
the direction of an object’s acceleration to the change in the velocity of
an object. In this section, you learned that a force can either increase
the kinetic energy of an object or reduce the object’s kinetic energy.
Create examples that involve both (a) increasing and (b) reducing the
kinetic energy of an object. Visualize the forces acting on the object
in both cases. Determine the direction of the acceleration of the object
in both cases. Formulate a relationship between the direction of a
force acting on an object and the direction of the object’s acceleration.
9. Critical Thinking As you know, a force must do work on a car to
reduce the car’s kinetic energy to zero, thus stopping the car. You also
know that an object’s kinetic energy is related to the square of its velocity.
Use this knowledge to prepare a presentation to convince people that
when the speed of a car doubles, the distance needed to stop the car
increases by a factor of four.

5.3 Potential Energy
Figure 5.17 What do a lump of coal, a snow-covered mountain, and a lump of uranium ore
have in common? How are these objects related to energy?
The photographs in Figure 5.17 — coal, snow, and uranium ore —

show the three major sources of energy used to produce electrical
energy in Canada. The photographs do not show energy being
transformed or any work being done. Nevertheless, energy is stored
in each of these substances. This stored energy can be transformed
into forms of energy that can do work. Physicists refer to stored
energy as potential energy. In this section, you will look at several
forms of potential energy, including those shown in Figure 5.17.
Then you will focus on one specific form of stored energy —
gravitational potential energy.
Forms of Potential Energy

Elastic Potential Energy
Elastic potential energy is the easiest form of potential energy to
visualize. An object is elastic if it always returns to its original form
after its shape has been distorted. Work must be done on the object
to distort an elastic object. That work gives the object elastic potential
energy because the object tends to return to its original shape when
it is released. For example, energy is stored in stretched or compressed
springs, stretched elastic bands, bent diving boards, or stretched
Figure 5.18 A very large amount of energy
trampolines. You might have seen or tried out an amusement park is stored in the stretched bungee cords in this
slingshot ride similar to the one shown in Figure 5.18. The motor slingshot ride. As the seat and passengers
does work to stretch the bungee cords that hold the frame containing shoot up into the air, they have lots of kinetic
the seat. When the frame is released, the elastic potential energy energy. As the seat and passengers slow
stored in the stretched bungee cords is rapidly converted into down and come to a stop at the highest
kinetic energy. The riders shoot straight up into the air. point, what happens to their kinetic energy?

elements Chemical Potential Energy
If you have already studied Unit 1, you know that
energy is released when bonds are formed between
Chemical Potential Energy
C H4 $ 202 (reactants) atoms to make molecules. The amount of energy

released is much smaller for some compounds than
thermal
for other compounds. Compounds that lose very little
energy
released energy when the bonds are formed have the potential
during of releasing even more energy by undergoing chemical
reaction reactions and forming different compounds. The burning
CO2 $ 2H2O (products) of methane in oxygen is an example of such a reaction.
CH4(g) $ 2O2(g) → CO2(g) $ 2H2O(g) $ energy
Compounds such as methane are said to have large
amounts of chemical potential energy. You can
Figure 5.19 Chemicals that are high on the potential energy
visualize the relationships among the reactants,
scale can react to form compounds lower on the scale and
products, and chemical potential energy in diagrams
release thermal energy.
such as Figure 5.19.
Suppose two compounds are low on the chemical potential energy scale
and you want them to react and produce compounds that are higher on the
scale. You must add energy to the system to make the reaction go forward.
In nature, this energy comes from the Sun. Plants capture solar energy and
use it to synthesize glucose and other compounds from carbon dioxide and
water. The process, as you probably know, is called photosynthesis. The
plants themselves and the animals that eat the plants can use the glucose for
energy for life processes. The chemical reactions that provide energy for
cells are called cellular respiration. The summary reactions are shown below.
Photosynthesis 6CO2 $ 6H2O $ energy → C6H12O6 $ 6O2
Cellular respiration C6H12O6 $ 6O2 → 6CO2 $ 6H2O $ energy
These reactions are portrayed on a chemical potential energy scale in Figure
5.20. When plants and animals die, their tissues still contain glucose and related
compounds. These plant and animal remains are eventually buried deep under-
ground. Over millions of years, bacterial action, as well as heat and pressure,
convert plant material into coal, and animal material into oil and natural gas.
These are the fossil fuels that store chemical potential energy. Humans then
burn the fossil fuels for transportation and for electrical energy generation.
The formation of fossil fuels is included in the energy diagram in Figure 5.20.
pressure
(glucose) heat
bacteria coal
Chemical Potential Energy
C6 H12O6
natural gas
$6O2 oil
energy
for life
processes
Figure 5.20 Glucose is the principal form of chemical potential energy
energy 6CO2 $ 6H2O for plants and animals. Solar energy drives photosynthesis and enables
from plants to convert carbon dioxide and water back into glucose. The
photosynthesis tissues of dead plants and animals are transformed into fossil fuels
over millions of years.

The chemical equations for the combustion reactions of methane and glucose are very similar.
In both cases, the compounds — methane and glucose — react with oxygen and produce
carbon dioxide and water. The combustion of methane produces intense heat and flames.
When glucose reacts with oxygen, there are no flames or intense heat. Are the reactions
fundamentally the same?
The answer is yes. However, in living systems, glucose does not react directly with oxygen
and release all of the energy in one step. Glucose is broken down into carbon dioxide and water
in many small steps. A little heat is released in each step. Much of the energy is used to make
other compounds that are high on the chemical potential energy scale. The energy in these
compounds is used directly for such processes as muscle contraction, nerve conduction,
synthesis of bio-molecules, and all processes needed for life.
Nuclear Potential Energy

Very large nuclei — mainly uranium and plutonium — have the potential to
split into two smaller nuclei with the release of large amounts of energy. These
large nuclei store nuclear potential energy. The nuclear reactions that release
the stored energy are illustrated in Figure 5.21. When a free neutron collides
with a uranium nucleus, the nucleus absorbs the neutron. As a result, the
uranium nucleus becomes unstable and splits — or fissions — into two smaller
nuclei. Two or three free neutrons are also expelled from the original uranium
nucleus. The total mass of the products — the two smaller nuclei and the
neutrons — is smaller than the total mass of the original uranium nucleus
and the neutron it absorbed. This extra mass has been converted into energy
in the form of kinetic energy of the fission products and the neutrons. The
process continues because at least one of the free neutrons (expelled when
the original uranium atom split) is absorbed by another uranium nucleus.
This process is called a chain reaction. In Chapter 4, you learned that the
kinetic energy of atoms and molecules is thermal energy. Therefore, the
nuclear potential energy that was released when the large nuclei fissioned
has been transformed into thermal energy. This thermal energy in nuclear
reactors converts water into the steam that drives an electric generator.
neutron fission
product
neutrons
uranium
very unstable
uranium
fission
product uranium
Figure 5.21 This diagram illustrates nuclear
fission, the splitting of a very large nucleus.

Gravitational Potential Energy
What do snow-capped mountains in the photograph at the beginning of this
section have to do with potential energy? Examine Figure 5.22 to find the
answer. The figure shows how solar energy causes water to evaporate into
water vapour. Moving air masses carry the water vapour over mountains.
The water condenses, forming clouds, and then it snows. The snow melts
and runs into streams and rivers. Eventually, the water might run into a
reservoir. While held behind the dam, the water in the reservoir has the
potential of turning a turbine and generating electrical energy. Since gravity
is the force that pulls the water down, the water is said to have gravitational
potential energy. In the remainder of this chapter, you will learn how to
calculate gravitational potential energy and predict the motion of objects
under the force of gravity.
moist air mass

condensation moves to land
evaporation from rivers,

lakes, and soil
precipitation
evaporation from oceans

Figure 5.22 You might
have seen diagrams
similar to this one under
the title “The Water
Cycle.” Humans have
learned how to use the
water cycle to provide
useful energy.
Explaining Gravity
To discuss gravitational potential energy in detail, you need to learn some
basic concepts about the force of gravity. Gravity is a property of all objects
with mass. Any two masses attract each other with a gravitational force.
However, the force is so small that it is not noticeable unless one of the
masses is extremely large, such as a moon, planet, or star.
In Section 5.1, you learned that a force acting on an object causes a change
in the motion of the object. The force of gravity is always acting on objects
near Earth. Therefore, if there is no other force acting on an object to
balance the force of gravity, the motion of that object will change. The
object will accelerate downward. When you hold a ball or any other object,
you are exerting a force on it that balances the force of gravity. When you
release the ball, it falls to the ground with increasing speed because it is
accelerating downward. Normally, when you drop an object, air friction
exerts an upward force that affects the acceleration of the object. If there
were no air friction, all objects near Earth’s surface would fall with the same
acceleration, called the acceleration due to gravity. The acceleration due

to gravity has its own symbol, g, and has an approximate value of 9.81 m/s2.
This value means that the speed of a falling object increases by 9.81 m/s Gravity on the Sun, Moon, and
every second. The acceleration due to gravity is not exactly the same at all and other planets is quite different.
The size and mass of the planet
points on Earth because Earth is not a perfect, uniform sphere.
determines the strength of the
gravitational force. If you can
Calculating Gravitational Potential Energy jump 1 m (100 cm) on Earth,
that same effort would produce
If you were to lift a book above your desk and then drop it, the book would the following:
accelerate downward with the acceleration due to gravity. After you lifted the • 3.3 cm on the Sun
book, it had the potential of falling and thus gaining kinetic energy. Therefore, • 34.5 cm on Jupiter
the book had stored energy while you were holding it. The potential energy • 67.7 cm on Neptune
that an object has before it is dropped is called gravitational potential energy. • 80.3 cm on Saturn
• 85.5 cm on Uranus
The amount of gravitational potential energy that the book had is equal to the • 101 cm on Venus
amount of work that you did in lifting it. To determine how much work that is, • 240 cm on Mars
you need to know how far you lifted the book and what force you exerted on it. • 250 cm on Mercury
• 406 cm on Pluto
You can choose or measure the distance that you raised the book. How do
• 554 cm on Earth’s Moon
you determine the force that you exerted on it? Your muscles will tell you
that the weight of the book affects the amount of force that you must exert
on the book. What is weight?
Mass and weight are not the same. Mass affects the weight, but it is not
weight. If you took that book to the Moon, it would not feel nearly as heavy In 1971, the Apollo 15 crew
as it feels on Earth. However, it would still have the same mass. Weight is the landed on the Moon in their
force of gravity acting on a mass. You can calculate the weight of an object by lunar landing module named
“Falcon.” Astronaut Dave Scott
multiplying its mass times the acceleration due to gravity. took a falcon feather and a
hammer on one of his Moon
Weight walks. He dropped the hammer
and the falcon feather simultane-
Fg " mg ously. They hit the Moon’s
where Fg is used to represent weight and the units are newtons (N) surface at exactly the same time.
This demonstration showed that
m is the mass in kilograms (kg) all objects fall with the same
g is the acceleration due to gravity in metres per second squared (m/s2) acceleration when there is no
air friction.
Note: A newton (N) is equivalent to a kilogram metre per second
squared (kg•m/s2).
When you lift an object with uniform motion, you must exert a force on it equal
to its weight. With this information, you can now determine the amount of work
that you must do to lift an object from one point to another. In Chapter 4, you
learned that work equals force times distance. When the work is done against
B
gravity, the force is the weight of the object or the force of gravity acting on
it. The direction of the motion must be parallel to the direction of the force. E
That is, the distance over which work is done against gravity must be the height A !h
that you lift the object. If you move the object horizontally while lifting it,
F D
the horizontal motion does not contribute to the work done against gravity.
Therefore, you do not include horizontal distance in your calculation. For C
clarification, study Figure 5.23. Figure 5.23 Regardless of the
When all of the work done on an object gives the object gravitational potential path through which you move an
energy, the amount of work done is equal to the amount of gravitational potential object, the vertical distance, !h,
energy gained by the object, or W " !Eg. You can use this information to develop is the distance over which you do
a formula for gravitational potential energy as shown on the next page. work against gravity.

• Write the formula for work. W " F!d
• The force that you must exert to do work against gravity
is the weight of the object. Substitute Fg for force. The
distance over which you do work against gravity is the
vertical height. Substitute !h for !d. W " Fg!h
• The force due to gravity is the mass times the acceleration
due to gravity, mg. Substitute mg for Fg. W " mg!h
• The gravitational potential energy that an object has is
equal to the work done on it against gravity. Use the
symbol, Eg, to represent gravitational potential energy. Eg " mg!h
Remember that distance and therefore height always refers to a difference
hshelf " 140 cm between two specific points. Therefore, gravitational potential energy always
refers to those two points. The lower point is often called the reference point.
You always specify your reference point by reporting the gravitational potential
energy relative to a certain position. Recall the example of lifting the book
from the desk and then dropping it. In this instance, you would describe the
gravitational potential energy of the book relative to the desktop. You are free
to choose any reference position that you wish as long as you clearly specify
that position.
hdesk You will gain a better understanding of gravitational potential energy after
" 70 cm you study the Model Problems, complete the Practice Problems, and carry
hchair " 45 cm out the investigations that follow.
hfloor " 0 cm

Eg " mg!h
where Eg is the gravitational potential energy in joules ( J)
m is mass in kilograms (kg)
g is the acceleration due to gravity in metres per second squared (m/s2)
!h is the height in metres (m)
Model Problem 5
Part A
The shelf in your school locker is 1.8 m above the floor. If your science
book has a mass of 1.2 kg, what is its gravitational potential energy
relative to the floor if it is sitting on the shelf?
Given
height of the book, !h " 1.8 m
mass of the book, m " 1.2 kg
acceleration due to gravity, g " 9.81 m/s2
Required
gravitational potential energy of the book relative to the floor, Eg
Analysis
All of the needed values are given so you can use the formula Eg " mg!h.

Solution
Eg " mg!h
m
" #
Eg " (1.2 kg) 9.81 %2% (1.8 m)
s
kg•m2
Eg " 21.1876 %2%
s
Eg ! 21 J
Paraphrase
The book has 21 J of gravitational potential energy relative to the floor.
Part B
If you did 565 J of work on a 12 kg box by carrying it up a flight of stairs,
how high is the flight of stairs?
Given
work done on the box, W " 565 J
mass of the box, m " 12 kg
acceleration due to gravity, g " 9.81 m/s2
Required
height of the flight of stairs, !h
Analysis
The work done on the box is equal to the gravitational potential energy
of the box relative to the bottom of the stairs. You can use the formula
for gravitational potential energy, but you must solve for height. You can
approach this problem in two different ways. You could rearrange the
formula by using the rules of algebra to solve for height. You could also
substitute the numerical values into the equation and then solve for the
height. Both methods are shown below.
Solution
Solve for height in formula, then Substitute numerical values and then
substitute numerical values. solve for height.
Eg " mg!h Eg " mg!h

m
Eg
%
m g !h
m%g " % m%g " s #
565 J " (12 kg) 9.81 %2% (!h)
"117.72 %%#(!h)
Eg kg•m2 kg•m
!h " %m%g 565 %2% 2
s s
kg•m2 "
565 %2% kg•m kg•m
s 117.72 %2% 117.72 %2%
!h " s s
m
"
(12 kg) 9.81 %2%
s # 4.7995 m " !h
!h " 4.7995 m !h ! 4.8 m
!h ! 4.8 m
Paraphrase
The height of the stairs was 4.8 m.

Practice Problems
Use the information about work and gravitational potential energy
discussed on the previous pages to complete the following problems.
41. A picture with a mass of 3.8 kg hangs on a wall 2.1 m above the floor.
What is the gravitational potential energy of the picture relative to
the floor?
42. A 27 kg child sits at the top of a playground slide that is 2.8 m above
the ground. What is the child’s gravitational potential energy relative
to the ground?
43. A roller coaster raises its passengers a vertical distance of 42.1 m

above the ground. If the total mass of the roller coaster and passengers
is 5.27 ' 103 kg, what is the gravitational potential energy of the
roller coaster and passengers relative to the ground? How much
work did the engine do on the roller coaster and passengers in
carrying them to the top?
44. How far would you have to lift a 1.2 kg book to give it 40.0 J of
gravitational potential energy?
45. A chair lift did 5.60 ' 105 J of work on a 64 kg skier to carry the
skier to the top of the mountain. How high is the top of the
mountain relative to the base of the lift?
46. How high would you have to throw a 0.300 kg baseball so that it
would have 120.0 J of gravitational potential energy at its highest
point relative to the ground?
47. You did 583 J of work on a box of books while carrying it a vertical
distance of 3.3 m up a flight of stairs. What was the mass of the
box of books?
48. While a child is swinging on a playground swing, she reaches a height

of 2.8 m above the ground. If she had 604 J of gravitational potential
energy relative to the ground at the highest point, what is her mass?
49. A boulder rests on a ledge 36 m above a lake. If it has 2.8 ' 105 J of
gravitational potential energy relative to the lake surface, what is the
mass of the boulder?

S K I L L C H E C K

5-B

and Work
If you roll a rock off a high cliff, you become aware of the gravitational potential
energy it had while sitting on the cliff. This is evident in the kinetic energy it has
as it rolls down. However, you may not be aware of the work done to get the rock
to the top of the cliff unless you carried it there yourself. Note: You will be working
with both mass and weight. Recall that the weight of an object is a force equivalent
to the object’s mass times the acceleration due to gravity (mg).
Question
Is the work done to raise an object to a height more than, less than, or the same as
the gravitational potential energy of the object?
Safety Precautions
• Use caution when handling weights.
Apparatus
3 different objects with known masses between 1–2 kg
force scale measuring up to 2000 N
metre stick or measuring tape
calculator
lab table
pen
Materials
paper
graph paper
2 Using the force scale, hold each object just
above the lab table. Record their weights.
Procedure
1 Read through the procedure and make a 3 Measure the height of the lab table above the
data/analysis table, such as the one shown below. floor and record it in your data/analysis table.
DATA (observations) ANALYSIS (using data)
Mass Force or Weight Height or Distance Work Done Potential Energy Area in Graph
(kg) (N) (m) (W ! F!d) (Ep ! mg!h) (A ! lw)
CONTINUED

4 Lift each object from the floor to the lab table 7 Draw three lines horizontally across the graph,
slowly and steadily. Try to keep the force read- one for the force exerted on each object (its
ing on the scale constant. Calculate the work weight). Draw one vertical line at the point
you did on each object and record in the representing the distance all three objects
data/analysis table. were lifted.
8 Calculate the area of each rectangle formed

on the graph and record in the table.
Analyze
1. How is the force needed to lift each object
related to its weight?
2. What is the relationship between the work

needed to lift each object and the gravitational
potential energy of the object relative to
the floor?
3. How is the area of each rectangle on the

graph related to the work done to lift the
5 Calculate the gravitational potential energy for object onto the table?
each object and record each value.
6 On your graph paper, label the vertical axis Extend Your Skills
“force” and the horizontal axis “distance.” Be Describe an experiment you could do to test the
sure the scale on each axis is appropriate for the calculated gravitational potential energy of each
values of force (weight) and distance (height) in object on the table.
your data/analysis table.
Here is an opportunity to review your understanding of the relationship between mass and
weight. In this investigation, you used the formula W " F!d to calculate the work done to lift
an object with a weight of Fg. To calculate gravitational potential energy, you used Ep " mg!h.
Notice that !d in the one formula has the same value as !h in the other formula, and notice
that W " Ep. Explain in your note book that, according to this reasoning, Fg " mg.

S K I L L C H E C K

5-C
Free Fall Analyze

1. Use the speed versus time graph to describe
Think About It the motion of the ball.
A common energy-conversion process used in Canada
converts gravitational potential energy of water into 2. Use the energy graph from Step 3 to describe:
electrical energy. As you saw in Chapter 4, the falling (a) how the potential energy changes as the
water from a dam strikes the vanes of a turbine, ball falls
causing it to spin. The vanes are mounted on a shaft (b) how the kinetic energy changes as the
that is connected to a generator. As the coils of the ball falls
generator spin in a magnetic field, electric current is
(c) how the total energy of the ball changes
produced. The gravitational potential energy of the
as it falls
water has now become electrical energy.
In this investigation, you will use measurements,
calculations, and graphs to analyze a free-falling
object. For our purposes, a steel ball (mass " 400 g) Use your completed table from step 1 to
has been used to represent a mass of water. The calculate the change in gravitational potential
ball is dropped from a height of 2 m. Its position energy during each successive tenth of a second.
and speed are measured every tenth of a second. Do the same for kinetic energy. Record your
results in an appropriate table. What can you
What to Do conclude about these changes in potential and
kinetic energy?
1 Copy the table below in your notebook.
Complete it by calculating the gravitational
potential energy, the kinetic energy, and the
total energy of the ball at each position.
Time Height Speed Gravitational Kinetic Total
(s) (m) (m/s) Potential Energy Energy Energy
(J) (J) (J)
0 2.00 0
0.10 1.95 1.1
0.20 1.81 1.9
0.30 1.55 3.0
0.40 1.22 3.9
0.50 0.73 5.1
0.60 0.20 6.0
2 Plot a graph of the speed of the ball versus

the time.
3 Plot graphs of gravitational potential energy

versus time, kinetic energy versus time, and total
energy versus time. Plot these all on the same
set of axes.

Section 5.3 Summary
In this section, you learned the meaning of potential energy. You then learned
about four different kinds of potential energy: elastic potential energy, chemical
potential energy, nuclear potential energy, and gravitational potential energy.
You studied gravitational potential energy in more detail. You learned that
mass and weight are not the same but they are both related to gravitational
potential energy. You solved problems and carried out investigations about
gravitational potential energy. Finally, you studied the relationship between
work and gravitational potential energy.

1. Define potential energy.
2. Briefly describe how energy can be stored in
(a) elastic materials
(b) chemical compounds
(c) large nuclei
(d) objects under the influence of gravity
3. Under what conditions would the value of g, the acceleration due to
gravity, be the acceleration of an object?
4. Explain the difference between mass and weight.
5. An airliner with a mass of 1.50 ' 105 kg flies at an altitude of 9750 m.
What is the airliner’s gravitational potential energy relative to sea level?
6. A chandelier with a mass of 27 kg hangs above the centre of a banquet
hall. If the chandelier has 4000.0 J of gravitational potential energy
relative to the floor, how high is it hanging above the floor?
7. Apply When astronauts went to the Moon, they were able to jump
higher than they could on Earth, even while wearing heavy spacesuits.
Use what you have learned about gravity and gravitational potential
energy to explain why the astronauts could jump so high on the Moon.
8. Apply Have you ever lifted a box that you thought was full but was
actually empty? If so, you probably lifted it much faster and higher than
you meant to lift it. From what you know about gravity and doing work
against gravity, try to explain why this happens.
9. Critical Thinking Cables that lift elevators usually go over a pulley and
are attached to some very heavy weights called counterbalances. Explain
how these counterbalances reduce the amount of work that a motor must
do to lift an elevator.

(a) Distinguish between displacement and distance. (h) Discuss and give examples of positive and
(5.1) negative work. (5.2)
(b) Explain the meaning of the term “uniform (i) Describe an example of a direct relationship
motion.” (5.1) between work and kinetic energy. (5.2)
(c) Describe the characteristics of a position (j) How could you know, by looking at an object,
versus time graph for (a) uniform motion that it has elastic potential energy? (5.3)
and (b) accelerated motion. (5.1)
(k) How is it possible to make chemical compounds
(d) How can you determine the speed of an object from reactants that have a lower chemical
from a “line of best fit” on a position versus potential energy than the products? (5.3)
time graph? (5.1)
(l) What form of energy is transformed into kinetic
(e) How does accelerated motion differ from energy when a nucleus splits or fissions? (5.3)
uniform motion? (5.1)
(m) Why do you weigh less on the Moon than on
(f ) Describe some evidence that indicates that Earth? (5.3)
mass and speed affect the kinetic energy of
an object. (5.2) (n) What properties of an object determine its
gravitational potential energy? (5.3)
(g) What are the basic SI units that are equivalent
to the joule? (5.2) (o) How is work related to gravitational potential
energy? (5.3)
Summarize the chapter by doing one of the follow- • Choose a sport and show how an understanding
ing. Use a graphic organizer (such as a concept of the concepts in this chapter affect how the
map), produce a poster, or write the summary sport is played.
to include key chapter concepts. Here are a few • Write a science fiction story that contradicts the
ideas to use as a guide. concepts in this chapter. Ask a classmate to do
• Write a clear definition of work and show how the same. See if you can find the contradictions
it is related to motion, kinetic energy, and the in your classmate’s story and if your classmate
four forms of potential energy discussed in can find the contradictions in your story.
this chapter.
• Choose an object such as a car, an airplane,
a hydro-electric plant, or any other complex
machine of your choice. Show how all of
the major concepts in the chapter apply to
your object.

5
C H A P T E R
Review
Key Terms
scalar time line of best fit chemical potential energy
vector time interval acceleration nuclear potential energy
distance speed potential energy gravity
displacement velocity elastic acceleration due to gravity
position uniform motion elastic potential energy gravitational
potential energy
Understanding Key Concepts 10. A friend tells you that, when driving a car, you
Section numbers are provided in parentheses if you should always leave a distance equal to four car
need to review. lengths between your car and the one ahead of
you. Explain why this is not necessarily a good
1. Describe in words and in a mathematical rule to follow. (5.2)
formula the relationship between position
and displacement. (5.1) 11. Potential energy is sometimes described as energy
that results from the position or condition of an
2. Why is it necessary to define the concept of
object. Give an example of one case in which
a time interval instead of just using the term
potential energy is a result of the position of an
“time”? (5.1)
object. Give another example of a case in which
3. You learned two different formulas for velocity, the potential energy is a result of the condition
!d!" d!"2 # d!"1 of an object. (5.3)
v!" " %% and v!" " % %. Explain the difference
!t t2 # t1
12. Sketch a chemical potential energy scale and
between the formulas. How would you decide
put two horizontal lines on it. On the upper
which one to use? (5.1)
line, write “products” and on the lower line,
4. Sketch position versus time graphs that illustrate write “reactants.” If this reaction was expressed
the following situations. as the equation below, on which side would you
(a) zero velocity write “energy”? (5.3)
(b) uniform motion reactants → products
(c) increasing velocity 13. You could say that fossil fuels and hydro-electric
5. Describe the process for finding the velocity of energy are both forms of solar energy. Explain
an object from a position versus time graph why this statement is true. (5.3)
of its motion. (5.1) 14. Briefly describe the process of nuclear fission
6. Sketch a velocity versus time graph that illus- that is used by nuclear reactors to produce
trates a positive acceleration. (5.1) electrical energy. (5.3)
7. If you double the speed of an object, by what 15. A label on a bag of potatoes in the grocery store
factor will its kinetic energy increase? (5.2) says that the potatoes “weigh 5 kg.” Explain
what is wrong with that statement. What should
8. Two objects, A and B, have the same speed the label say? (5.3)
but the mass of A is double that of B. What is
16. One student says that the gravitational potential
the kinetic energy of A relative to that of B? (5.2)
energy of a book is 12 J. Another student says that
9. When an object slows down, into what form the gravitational potential energy of the same
of energy is kinetic energy most likely to be book is 19 J. Explain the conditions under which
transformed? (5.2) both students might be correct. (5.3)

Developing Skills 27. A rock climber climbed 25 m directly up a cliff.
17. Design and, if possible, carry out an experiment If the mass of the climber and her gear was 75 kg,
that shows how air friction affects the motion of what was the climber’s gravitational potential
falling objects. Have your design approved by energy relative to the base of the cliff?
your teacher before performing any experiment. 28. A crane lifts a 550 kg container to a height
18. Find out how scientists study free fall by of 24 m above the deck of a ship. What is the
using long vertical tubes from which all air is gravitational potential energy of the container
removed by a pump. Do research with print relative to the deck of the ship?
resources or on the Internet. 29. Piano movers used 4000.0 J of energy to lift
19. Collect data on the motion of an object such as a a 314 kg grand piano onto a moving van. How
laboratory cart or a jogger. Use the data to make high did they lift the piano?
position versus time and velocity versus time 30. A hydraulic lift raised a car up 0.22 m. If the car
graphs. Study the graphs and describe the motion. had 3800 J of gravitational potential energy
20. Do research with print resources or on the Internet relative to its original position, what was the
to learn about the theories of Aristotle and mass of the car?
Galileo regarding the motion of falling objects.
Critical Thinking
Problem Solving/Applying 31. You learned that, in nuclear fission, some of
21. A racehorse ran a 1.8 km race in exactly 2 min the mass of the original nucleus is converted
and 18 s. What was the horse’s average speed? into the kinetic energy of the product nuclei.
Kinetic energy of atoms and molecules is thermal
22. A driver is on a highway that has provided an energy. What do you think is the source of the
odometer test zone in which signs mark every thermal energy in chemical reactions that produce
kilometre for 25 km. He checks his watch and thermal energy? Do research with print resources
sees that it is 1:16 p.m. when he passes the or on the Internet to check your prediction.
5.0 km marker. When he passes the 25 km
marker, his watch reads 1:31 p.m. What was his 32. In a group, brainstorm examples of how the
average speed for that section of the test zone? following professions might require a working
knowledge of kinetic and potential energy.
23. A 0.046 kg golf ball is travelling with a speed • a set designer in a theatre
of 5.1 m/s. What is the kinetic energy of the • a director or stunt person filming an
golf ball? action movie
24. A Ping-Pong™ ball with a mass of 2.0 g is trav- • a modern-dance choreographer
elling at 3.8 m/s. What is the kinetic energy of • a swimming coach
the Ping-Pong™ ball? Be as specific as possible in your answers.
25. The kinetic energy of a long freight train is

4.8 ' 108 J when it is moving at a speed of
40.0 m/s. What is the mass of the train?
Go back to the answers you wrote for the Focussing Questions.
26. A 55 kg pronghorn antelope has 25 000 J of How would you change your answers now that you have
kinetic energy. How fast is the antelope running? finished this chapter?

6
C H A P T E R
Energy Conversions
• Why is efficiency an important

consideration in designing
energy-conversion devices?
• Where does the energy in coal or
gasoline go when it is burned?
Can this energy be used over and
over again after it is released?
• What makes certain types and
forms of energy more “useful”
than others?
220
220 MHR
MHR •• Flow
Unit of
2 Energy
Matter in
Flow
Living
in Technological
Systems Systems
and Efficiency
T he two aircraft in the pho-

tographs on the left both fly, but that
trip in about 14 h using 100 times
as much fuel as the Voyager. After its
is about the only thing they have in record-setting flight, the Voyager flew
common. The SR71 Blackbird, (top) back to its home base and has never
was designed and built for one purpose flown again.
only — reconnaissance or information The SR71 Blackbird and the
gathering. The Blackbird can fly at Voyager are examples of extremes of
speeds of over 3000 km/h (Mach 3!) energy efficiency. The Blackbird can
at an altitude of over 24 km. At this accomplish incredible tasks, but uses
speed, the Blackbird could fly from tremendous amounts of energy. The
coast to coast in just over 1 h. While Voyager is the ultimate in energy effi-
in flight, the instruments aboard can ciency, but it can do little else but fly.
photograph over 250 000 km2 of It cannot carry passengers or freight.
Earth’s surface in 1 h. Normally, engineers who design
Between 1968 and 1990, Blackbirds aircraft and other machines must
flew over 2000 missions and outran compromise. They design machines
over 4000 missiles. These impressive that can accomplish the required
accomplishments are costly. The task while using a reasonable amount
Blackbird burns nearly 24 000 kg of energy.
of fuel per hour. It must be refueled In this unit, you have been
in the air once an hour by another learning about energy and some
oki
airplane. Due to the tremendous technologies
o that use energy. In
n
L
cost of operating them, Blackbirds this chapter, you will focus on the
head
A
are no longer in use. efficiency of energy transformations.

The Voyager (bottom) was designed You will look at some ways in which
and built for only one purpose — fuel society uses energy and how energy
efficiency. The Voyager is hardly more can be used most efficiently.
than a flying fuel tank. On takeoff, the
3000 kg of fuel account for more than o
oki
n
You will build and

L
70 percent of the total mass. Flying test your own energ

y-
conversion device
head in the Unit 2 Project:
A
at an average speed of 186 km/h, the Building an Energy-C

onversion Device on
Voyager was the first and only airplane page 248. You will
then try to improve
You probably already its effiency.
to fly non-stop around the world with- have a good idea of
you want to constru the device
ct. Apply what you
out refuelling. The 42 212 km trip chapter to modify learn in this
your plans for your
to increase its effici device and
took just over nine days to complete. encyclopedias, and
ency. Explore the Int
ernet,
other sources to fin
The Blackbird could make the same d ideas.
Chapter 6 Energy Conversions

Theand
Basis
Solar Energy Efficiency
and of Life •• • MHR
Climates MHR
MHR 221
221
221
6.1 Efficiency of Energy
Conversions
What form of energy nearly always accompanies energy transformation? An
analysis of the photographs in Figure 6.1 should give you a clue. A light bulb
like the one in Figure 6.1 burns out and you try to replace it, but it is too hot
to touch. The light bulb converts electrical energy into light energy. However,
much of the energy becomes heat. A car engine like the one in Figure 6.1 stops
running. The driver decides to check the radiator to see if there is enough
coolant, but the radiator cap is too hot to touch. The chemical potential energy
in the fuel was transformed into the kinetic energy of the car. However, much
of the energy became heat in the engine and in the exhaust. When the SR71
Blackbird lands, the ground crew cannot go near it for about half an hour because
the exterior of the airplane is too hot. Chemical potential energy in the fuel
was transformed into the kinetic energy of the airplane, yet much of the energy
was converted into heat. Heat is a by-product of most energy transformations.
Figure 6.1 (A) Have you ever

started to unscrew a light bulb
that had just burned out and Efficiency and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
nearly burned your fingers? (B)
If a car engine was just turned In Chapter 4, you learned that the second law of thermodynamics can be
off, do not touch the radiator cap expressed as follows:
with your bare hands because it “No process can be 100 percent efficient. Some energy will
will be hot. always remain in the form of thermal energy.”
This statement of the second law of thermodynamics tells you that it is not
possible to build a perfect machine. To understand what a perfect machine
would be, think about the basic function of all machines. All machines are
designed to convert one form of energy into another form in order to accomplish
a specific task. The energy that performs the task is called useful energy.

During any process, some energy is always converted into a form that is not
useful. This energy is often said to be “wasted.” The incandescent light bulb
is a common example of wasted energy. An electric current passes through
the very thin filament in the light bulb. The electric current causes the filament
to become very hot. The hot filament glows, producing light. The electric
energy was transformed into light — the useful energy — and into heat —
the wasted energy.
Calculating Efficiency
Scientists define efficiency as the ratio of the useful output energy to the
total input energy times 100 percent. You can write a formula for efficiency
as shown in the following box.
useful output energy

efficiency " $$$ # 100%
total input energy
Efficiency is a ratio so it has no units.
The output and input energies must be in the same units so
they will cancel.
How can you use the formula to calculate efficiency? You need to identify
the useful output energy and the total input energy for any system or machine
that you are analyzing. For a light bulb, of course, the useful output energy is
light and the input is electrical energy.
The useful output is sometimes work. For example, the function of a crane
is to do work by lifting objects against the force of gravity. The input energy
for a crane would be the chemical potential energy stored in the fuel. Sometimes
the useful output energy is heat. For example, suppose you are cooking vegeta-
bles in a pot of boiling water on the stove. In this case, heat is also the “waste”
energy because not all the heat from the stove is transferred to the vegetables.
Some energy heats the air, some energy heats the pot itself, and a lot of energy
goes into heating the water. As you can see from these examples, there are
many different forms of useful energy and waste energy. Study each item or
machine in Figure 6.2. Identify the form of energy that is input energy as well
as the useful output energy. Also identify the waste energy.
Figure 6.2 Try to name as many energy transformations as you can that occur in these devices.
Chapter 6 Energy Conversions and Efficiency • MHR 223

Simple Systems
Most complex modern machines involve several energy transformations
between the input energy and the final useful output energy. These
machines can be quite difficult to analyze. To develop skills in calcu-
lating efficiency, it is helpful to examine simple systems instead. The
pendulum is an excellent example. Study Figure 6.3 as you read the
following information about energy transformations in a pendulum.
1
3 2 ∆h First, you do work against gravity by pulling the pendulum bob to the
side, thus raising it a distance %h above its resting position. You have
Eg = mg∆h Eg = mg∆h given it gravitational potential energy (mg%h). When you release the
1
Ek = 2 m v 2
pendulum bob, the gravitational potential energy is transformed into
kinetic energy ( $2$mv2) until the bob reaches its lowest position. As the
1
Figure 6.3 What causes a pendulum bob continues to swing, the kinetic energy is transformed into
pendulum to lose mechanical
gravitational potential energy. This energy transformation causes the bob to
energy and eventually stop
swinging? Where does the swing up in the opposite direction. If a pendulum could be 100 percent efficient,
“lost” energy go in a pendulum? the amount of kinetic energy at the bottom of the swing would be equal to the
gravitational potential energy at the top of the swing. The pendulum would
continue to swing back and forth until someone or something got in its path
and stopped it. Since no machine is perfect, however, pendulums eventually
slow down and stop.
The efficiency of many machines and other systems can be calculated in
much the same way as that of a pendulum. For example, when you coast
down a hill on your bicycle, or when a child slides down a playground slide,
gravitational potential energy is being transformed into kinetic energy. Ski
racers try to maximize the efficiency with which their gravitational potential
energy is transformed into kinetic energy as they race down a hill. The Model
Problems and Practice Problems on the following pages will help you develop
skills in calculating efficiencies.
Are you sure we’re making an

energy transformation? I thought
we were just skiing.
Sure.
Our potential energy is
being transformed to
kinetic energy.
Figure 6.4 Energy transformations

are involved in everything you do,
including sports and recreation.

Model Problem 1
Part A
In living cells, glucose is broken down in a multi-step process using oxygen.
As shown in the chemical equation below, the products are carbon dioxide
and water. The difference in the chemical potential energy of 180 g (1 mol)
of glucose and the products of its reaction with oxygen — carbon dioxide
and water — is 2870.0 kJ.
C6H12O6 ! 6O2 → 6H2O ! 6CO2 ! 2870.0 kJ
The energy that is released is used to make ATP. ATP is the form of
energy that your body uses for such functions as muscle contraction and
synthesizing large bio-molecules. The energy from one glucose molecule
makes 36 ATP molecules. During the breakdown of glucose, 1098 kJ of
the energy are used to make the 36 ATP molecules.
36 ADP ! 36 Pi ! 1098 kJ → 36 ATP
In the chemical equation above, ADP represents adenosine diphosphate.

You could write ADP as adenosine (A) with two phosphates (P) attached,
or A-P-P. The symbol, Pi, represents a free phosphate group. To form
ATP, the free phosphate group is attached to the ADP. You could visualize
this as adding a P to A-P-P and getting A-P-P-P.
What is the efficiency of the energy transformations involved in making ATP?
Given
chemical potential energy released with oxidation of glucose
total input energy " 2870.0 kJ
chemical potential energy stored in ATP
useful output energy " 1098 kJ
Required
efficiency of the oxidation of glucose in living cells
Analysis
All of the necessary values are known so you can substitute directly into
the efficiency formula.
Solution
total input energy
1098 kJ
efficiency " $$ # 100%
2870.0 kJ
efficiency " 38.2578%
efficiency ! 38.26%
Paraphrase
The efficiency of the oxidation of glucose in making ATP is 38.26 percent.

Part B
You used the chemical energy obtained from your food to pedal your bicycle
up a steep hill, thus gaining gravitational potential energy. You then coasted
down the hill, transforming the gravitational potential energy into kinetic
energy. Suppose that you pedalled up a hill and gained a vertical distance
of 25 m. You turned around and coasted down the hill. At the bottom of
the hill, you were coasting at a speed of 13 m/s. If the combined mass
of yourself and your bicycle is 68 kg, what was the efficiency of the
transformation of your gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy?
Given
combined mass of yourself and your bicycle, m = 68 kg
increase in vertical height, %h = 25 m
acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2
speed at bottom of hill, v = 13 m/s
Required
efficiency of conversion of gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy
Analysis
The total input energy is the increase in your gravitational potential
energy. You can use the formula, Eg " mg%h, to find that value.
The useful output energy is your kinetic energy at the bottom of the hill.
You can use the formula, Ek " $2$ mv2, to find that value.
1
Solution
total energy input useful energy output
Ek " $2$ mv2
1
✓ PROBLEM TIP Eg " mg%h

2
" #
Eg " (68 kg) 9.81$m2$ (25 m) "
Ek " $2$ (68 kg) 13$m #
1
When you use a value that you s s$

calculated in one step, as data
kg•m2 kg•m2
for the next calculation, use the Eg " 16 677 $2$ Ek " 5746 $2$
unrounded value. s s
4
Eg ! 1.7 # 10 J Ek ! 5.7 J

total input energy
Ek(bottom)
Eg(top)
5746 J
16 677 J
efficiency " 34.4564%
efficiency ! 34%
Paraphrase
The efficiency of the transformation of gravitational potential energy
to kinetic energy was 34 percent.

Practice Problems
Use the Model Problems and the information about efficiency discussed
above to complete the following problems.
1. When a 100.0 W light bulb is on for 1.0 h, it uses 360 kJ of electrical
energy. During that time, the light bulb emits 19 kJ of light. What is
the efficiency of the light bulb in transforming electrical energy into
light energy?
2. An electric motor uses 670 kJ of electrical energy to generate 595 kJ
of mechanical kinetic energy. What is the efficiency of the motor?
3. A bobcat uses 393 kJ of chemical potential energy stored in the fuel to
lift 2750 kg of dirt 3.2 m straight up, to dump it into a truck. What was
the efficiency of the bobcat in converting chemical potential energy
into gravitational potential energy of the dirt?
4. A rocket uses 4000.0 J of chemical potential energy stored in the fuel while
shooting the 0.55 kg rocket straight up into the air. The rocket reaches
a height of 23 m. What was the efficiency of the rocket in transforming the
chemical potential energy of the fuel into gravitational potential energy?
5. The Millennium Force is the highest roller coaster in North America.
It reaches a maximum height of 94.5 m. The total mass of a roller
coaster car and its passengers is 1380 kg. The speed of the roller coaster
is 41.1 m/s at its lowest point on the tracks. What is the efficiency of
the roller coaster in transforming gravitational potential energy into
kinetic energy?
6. A 16 kg child sits at the top of a playground slide that is 2.6 m higher
at the top than at the bottom. When the child slides down, she reaches
a speed of 2.8 m/s at the bottom of the slide. What is the efficiency of
the slide in transforming the child’s gravitational potential energy into
kinetic energy?
7. A pitching machine uses 185 J of electrical energy to pitch a 0.320 kg
baseball. If the speed of the ball is 25 m/s, what is the efficiency of the
pitching machine in transforming electrical energy into kinetic energy
of the baseball?
8. A 0.85 kg block is sitting on top of a compressed spring that is placed
with its axis in the vertical direction. Assume that 63 J of elastic poten-
tial energy are stored in the compressed spring and then the spring is
released. If the spring is 86 percent efficient in transforming the elastic
potential energy into gravitational potential energy of the block, how
high will the block rise vertically?
9. A 0.075 kg pendulum bob was pulled to the side, giving it a vertical rise
of 0.24 m. The pendulum bob was released and at the bottom of its
swing its speed was 2.1 m/s. What was the efficiency of the pendulum
bob as it swings from the release point to the lowest point in its swing?
What vertical height did it reach at the top of its swing on the other
side? Assume that the pendulum has the same efficiency in its upward
swing that it had as it swung down.

S K I L L C H E C K

6-A
Determining Efficiencies
You have learned the meaning of efficiency and practised solving problems involving effi-
ciency. In the problems, all of the necessary data were given to you. Now it is your turn
to collect data and determine the efficiency of two processes. First, you will assemble
and test the efficiency of a falling mass that is pulling a cart. You will then test the efficiency
of sliding a block across a horizontal surface. In this investigation, you will look for factors
that tend to decrease the efficiency of a device. In the process of completing this inves-
tigation, you will develop a greater understanding of the challenges involved in designing
and assessing the efficiency of simple machines. First, read through the two procedures
and predict which system will be more efficient. Record your prediction.
Question
What properties or characteristics of a device or system increase or decrease its efficiency?
Apparatus Test the apparatus by placing different amounts of
selection of masses, including one 2
that has a hook for hanging mass in the dynamics cart. Observe the speed of
dynamics cart the apparatus when you release the hanging mass.
2 pulleys (Note: Catch the cart before it collides with the
retort stand and clamps for pulleys lower pulley. The string should be long enough
string (at least 4 m long) so that the falling mass hits the floor before the
measuring tape or metre stick cart reaches the pulley.) From your observations,
stopwatch select the combination of masses that causes the
balance capable of measuring a mass of 1–2 kg motion to be slow enough to accurately measure
block of wood the time taken for the mass, m1, to fall the
long wooden board (or other material) for inclined plane distance %h.
stack of books or a chair
3 After you have chosen the masses that you will
newton spring scale
use, select and measure the height, %h, from
board (or other material) to protect floor
from falling masses which you will drop the mass. Record the
height in your notebook.
Procedure 4 Hold mass, m1, at the point you selected in step 3.
Part 1 Start the stopwatch at the instant that you drop
Set up the apparatus on a lab bench or long the mass. Stop the stopwatch at the instant that
1 the mass hits the floor. Take at least five measure-
desktop, as shown in the diagram.
ments and determine the average time interval, %t.
rider + dynamics = m2 hanging
= m1 This method will increase your accuracy. Record
cart mass
the average time interval in your notebook.
5 After you have completed your measurements,

use a balance to determine the amount of mass
in m1. Record that number in your notebook.
∆h
6 Measure the total mass of the dynamics cart and
board
masses in the cart. Record the value in your
notebook and label it m2.

Part 2
Analyze
1 Use the laboratory balance to measure the mass
of the block of wood. Part 1
1. The input energy for the system, which consists
2 Make an inclined plane with the long board. of the falling mass and the cart and rider, is the
You might use a stack of books or a chair on gravitational potential energy of the falling mass.
which to rest one end of the board. Calculate the input energy by using the
Attach the newton spring scale to one end of formula, Eg = m1g%h.
3
the block of wood. Place the block of wood 2. The useful output energy of the system is the
on the inclined plane at the lower end. total kinetic energy of the falling mass plus the
Pull the block of wood up the inclined plane by cart and riders. To calculate the kinetic energy,
4 you must know the final speed of the objects.
pulling on the newton spring scale, as shown in
the photograph. Be sure that the spring scale is Since they were all attached together, they
straight ahead of the block and parallel to the were all moving at the same speed as the
inclined plane. While pulling at a slow, steady falling mass. Follow the steps below to make
speed, read the amount of force you are using on your calculations.
the newton spring scale. Continue pulling until • You can calculate the average speed by using
the block reaches the top of the board. Record your measured height, %h, the measured
the force in your notebook. %h
time interval, %t, and the formula, v " $$.
%t
• This value of the speed is an average value
over the entire distance and time. However,
you need to know the final speed. You can
estimate the final speed by rearranging the
formula for average speed given here.
vfinal ! vinitial
vave " $ $
2
• The initial speed was zero. You calculated
the average speed. Now you can find the
final speed by rearranging the formula
above as shown here.
vfinal " 2vave
• Calculate the kinetic energy of the system
5 Measure the distance, %d, that you pulled the by using the following formula.
block. Measure the change in the height, %h, 1 2
Ek " $2$ (m1 ! m2)vfinal
of the block. Consult the diagram to see how
to define %d and %h. 3. Calculate the efficiency of the system by using
the formula shown here.
total input energy
∆d nce
ta height
dis ∆h
Ek (final)
efficiency " $ $ # 100%
Eg (initial)
CONTINUED

Part 2 Conclude and Apply
4. The input energy for the system of the block 7. Was your prediction correct? Which
on the inclined plane is the work you do on of the systems that you tested had the
the block. Calculate the work by using the greater efficiency?
following formula.
W " F%d 8. How was energy “lost” in each of the two
systems?
5. The output energy is the gravitational potential
energy gained by the block. Calculate the 9. Where did the “lost” energy in each of
energy by using the following formula. the two systems go?
Eg " mg%h
10. What features of the system with the lower
6. Calculate the efficiency of the system by using efficiency caused the loss of useful energy?
the formula shown here.
11. What changes could you make in the
useful output energy system with the lower efficiency to
total input energy improve its efficiency?
Eg (final)
efficiency " $$ # 100% Extend Your Knowledge
W (initial)
12. Design your own experiment in which
you test the efficiency of a system.

Section 6.1 Summary
In this section, you learned how to analyze machines and other systems to
identify the total input energy and the useful output energy. You practised
calculating efficiencies for many different systems. You now have the skills and
background to understand how scientists and engineers analyze more complex
systems such as motors. In the next section, you will consider many machines
and devices that are a part of your everyday life. How efficient are the instru-
ments, such as sewing machines or microwave ovens, that you use? How can
the efficiency of commonly used machines in industry and transportation be
modified? Read on to learn how an understanding of efficiency can help
scientists and engineers contribute to building a sustainable environment.

1. Explain the meaning of the term “useful energy.”
2. State the definition of efficiency as it relates to machines.
3. Identify the useful output energy and the total input energy for the
following devices.
(a) electric stove
(b) television set
(c) well pump (pumps water up from wells)
4. A 20 W compact fluorescent bulb uses 72 kJ of electrical energy in 1.0 h.
During that time, the bulb emits 14 kJ of light energy. What is the
efficiency of the fluorescent bulb?
5. A speed skier with a mass of 67 kg (including skis) reaches a speed of 58 m/s
when passing the first timing point. If that point is a vertical distance of
280 m lower than the starting point, what was the efficiency of the trans-
formation of the skier’s gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy?
6. Apply Find a picture of some type of machinery. Identify as many different
energy transformations as you can that occur when the machine is operating.
7. Thinking Critically Imagine that an engineer is testing designs that
improve the efficiency of a power saw. The design that improved the
efficiency by 8.0 percent resulted in an increase in the price of manufacturing
the saw by 5.2 percent. The design that improved the efficiency by
11 percent resulted in an increase in the price of manufacturing the saw
by 12 percent. You are on the board of directors for the company that
manufactures and sells the saw. What criteria would you use to decide
which design to use?

6.2 Energy Efficiency
and the Environment
Thomas Newcomen, James Watt, and others worked to improve steam engines
to decrease the time to complete a task and the cost of operating the machines.
Today, society has a much more important reason for increasing the efficiency
of machines and systems. Many people are concerned about how machines for
industry and transportation are polluting the environment. How can machines
be modified or changed to reduce damage to the environment?
One sure way to reduce pollution would be to stop using machines. People
could perform tasks manually, as shown in Figure 6.5. However, very few people
would be willing to sacrifice the labour-saving devices we enjoy today. In
addition, the world’s population is so large that it would be nearly impossible to
provide food, clothing, and shelter for everyone without using modern machinery.
Therefore, a better option is to improve the efficiency of today’s machines.
Efficiency of Some Common Technologies

Internal Combustion Engines
Would you be surprised to discover that, on average, cars are only about
20 percent efficient? Only 20 percent of the chemical potential energy stored
in the gasoline is transformed into the mechanical kinetic energy of the car it
fuels. Where does the other 80 percent of the energy go?
Figure 6.5 Ploughing land with horses,

building log cabins, and reading by candlelight
would reduce pollution. Would you be willing
to live this way to save the environment?

Figure 6.6 Did you know that for every litre of
gasoline that a car burns, about 2.4 kg of carbon
dioxide are released into the atmosphere?
When the fuel is ignited in a cylinder of a car’s engine, the gases become
very hot and expand, pushing down the piston. When the piston has moved
the entire distance of the cylinder, the gases are still extremely hot. In fact, the
gases are so hot that the engine will be damaged unless a liquid coolant is
pumped through the engine to absorb the heat. The coolant absorbs the heat
in the engine and then flows through the radiator and releases the heat to
the outside air. About 36 percent of the energy from burning the fuel is lost
through the coolant. The exhaust gases are still very hot. When they leave the
exhaust pipe, they carry away about 38 percent of the original energy. The other
six percent of the energy is lost due to friction between the moving parts of
the engine.
Electrical Devices
In Practice Problem 1 on page 227, you calculated the efficiency of a standard
(incandescent) light bulb. Were you surprised to discover that only about five
percent of the electrical energy used by the light bulb is converted into light
energy while 95 percent is converted into heat? Compact fluorescent bulbs are
much more efficient. However, they convert only 20 percent of the electrical
energy into light energy. Nevertheless, replacing one million 75 W incandescent
light bulbs with 20 Watt compact fluorescent bulbs for one year, would save
a lot of energy. The amount of energy saved would be about the same as the
amount of electrical energy generated by a coal-burning plant in one year.
Note also, that a 20 W compact fluorescent bulb produces as much light as
a 75 W incandescent bulb.
A
B Figure 6.7 A 20 W compact
fluorescent bulb (B) produces as
much light as a 75 W incandescent
bulb (A). If you replaced one 75 W
incandescent bulb with one 20 W
compact fluorescent bulb, over
the life of the fluorescent bulb,
you would save over 200 kg of
coal burned at a plant that
provides electrical energy.

Look around your home and school and other
places that you visit. How many devices are driven
by electric motors? Fans in ventilation systems, furnace
fans, hair dryers, electric razors, and computer fans
use motors. Industries use much larger electric motors
for many purposes such as drilling and sawing. In
fact, nearly half of all the electrical energy generated
in North America is used to drive electric motors.
Electric motors are between 50 percent and 90
percent efficient in converting electrical energy to
mechanical kinetic energy. When you consider the large
number of motors, think about how much electrical
energy they use. An increase in efficiency of only a
few percent in all motors would greatly reduce the
total amount of electrical energy used. Also, if electric
motors are not properly matched to the job they
Figure 6.8 Replacing an old motor with a new, high-efficiency perform, they waste energy. For example, if the
motor would save money by using less electrical energy. Companies motor is too powerful for the job it is doing, it will
that replace old motors can often save the entire cost of the new use more energy than is necessary for the job. Proper
motor within three to four years.
use and maintenance of motors can save money and
reduce the amount of electrical energy consumed. Reduced use of electrical
energy reduces the amount of pollutants released from electrical energy-
generating plants.
Generating Electrical Energy

How efficient are the energy transformations that generate electrical energy?
As you read in Chapter 4, the three most common forms of electrical energy
generation in Canada are coal-burning generators, nuclear reactors, and
hydro-electric generation. Both coal-burning furnaces and nuclear reactors
produce heat to boil water into steam. The steam then drives turbines. The
steam turbines turn electrical generators. These two technologies have similar
efficiencies — they are approximately 30 percent efficient. Hydro-electric
generation of electrical energy is much more efficient — about 90 percent
efficient. In the investigation on page 235, you will analyze these three
systems and look for reasons why energy is lost in each system.

S K I L L C H E C K

6–B
Energy Transformations in
Electrical Energy Generation
Think About It
The diagrams below show the major steps in the into two atoms and releases large amounts of energy.
generation of electrical energy in (A) a coal-burning In (C), gravitational potential energy is released when
plant, (B) a nuclear reactor, and (C) a hydro-electric water flows downward under the influence of gravity.
plant. In (A), the chemical potential energy is released You will use these diagrams to analyze the individual
from coal by burning it. In (B), nuclear potential steps in converting potential energy into electrical
energy is released in a fission reaction. In a fission energy. You will then draw conclusions about why
reaction, an atom of uranium or plutonium splits energy is lost.
coal supply cooling tower

conveyor
belt
pulverizer
cooling water
fans
combustion condenser dam spillway
superheated chamber exhaust steam
steam
electrical transmission
energy lines
water penstock generator

reservoir
steam turbine generator turbine
A thermoelectric-generating plant
steam C hydro-electric plant

turbine
steam
coolant
reactor generator
circulating water
fuel control cooling

bundles rods water
B thermonuclear plant CONTINUED

What to Do
Analyze
1 For each diagram, list as many energy transfor-
1. Compare the three systems and explain the
mations or energy transfers as you can.
differences in efficiency that you read about
2 For each energy transformation that you listed in the paragraph before the investigation.
in Step 1, predict how energy might be lost
before it can be transformed into electrical 2. Rate the three systems based on their negative
energy. In each case, estimate the percentage effects on the environment.
of the original energy that might be lost. 3. Which system is the most acceptable when
List environmental problems that each of the all considerations are combined? Explain
3 your reasoning.
three systems causes.
Extend Your Skills

4. Do research in print sources or on the Internet,
or interview someone in the energy industry.
Find out the costs of constructing and
maintaining the three types of electrical
energy-generating plants.
5. How does this new information affect your

answer to question 3 above?
Drawing Conclusions about Efficiency

What did you conclude about systems that convert potential energy into
thermal energy to generate electrical energy? Did you discover that these
systems have a low efficiency? After the thermal energy has turned a turbine
or moved a piston, the steam or hot gases still contain much of the thermal
energy. This thermal energy is usually lost to the environment.
Efficiency of Energy Transformations in Living Plants

In the Model Problem on page 225, you discovered that living cells are only
about 38 percent efficient in transforming the energy from glucose to make
ATP. How efficient do you think plants are in using energy from sunlight to
form glucose?
As you read, glucose is broken down in many steps in living cells. Similarly,
glucose is formed in many steps in the cells of living plants. The process is
known as photosynthesis. The summary reaction of photosynthesis looks like
the reverse of the breakdown of glucose that you saw in the Model Problem.
However, the individual steps are quite different:
6CO2 ! 6H2O ! light energy → C6H12O6 ! 6O2

Research reports about the efficiency of photosynthesis can be quite
confusing because different researchers report the results in different ways. Solar cells, such as those that
For example, some reports consider all of the light that is available to a plant. are used in some calculators,
Much of this light does not reach the leaf and therefore cannot be utilized. convert light energy directly to
electrical energy. They are only
Also, the necessary measurements are very difficult to perform. Nevertheless, about 20 percent efficient.
scientists who study photosynthesis have made some good attempts.
If you consider only the light that is actually absorbed by the chlorophyll
in the leaves, the maximum possible efficiency of the plant is 26 percent.
However, plants absorb only about 34 percent of the light that actually falls
on the leaf. If you include all of the light that falls on the leaf, whether or not it
is absorbed, the efficiency drops to just over eight percent. These are maximum
values. Sometimes light energy reaches the plant faster than the systems inside
the cells can use it. So, in reality, the efficiency of plants is probably closer to one
percent than eight percent. Despite this low efficiency, nearly all of the energy
used by society originally came from the Sun and was stored by plants.
Trapping and Converting Solar Energy

Scientists and engineers continue to search for
ways to convert several forms of potential energy
into electrical energy. Since solar energy is a very
dependable form of energy, some researchers are
trying to find more efficient ways of trapping and
converting solar energy into electrical energy.
For example, some scientists have even suggested
using molecules similar to chlorophyll to trap
solar energy in artificial systems. How difficult
is it to trap solar energy and efficiently convert it
into another form of useful energy? Completing
the investigation on the next page should give Figure 6.9 Chlorophyll, the
you some insights into the challenges that substance that absorbs sunlight,
scientists meet in their research. gives plants their green colour.
The bodies of lizards act as solar traps. Most lizards bask in the sun to raise their
body temperature. They position their bodies so that the maximum area is receiving
sunlight. As well, they orient themselves so the solar rays are perpendicular to their
body surface. One type of lizard can absorb enough sunlight to raise its body
temperature to as much as 30°C above the air temperature.

S K I L L C H E C K

6–C
Building a Solar Trap

Enormous amounts of energy from the Sun reach Earth’s surface every second. This
energy can be used only when the Sun is shining. Can the Sun’s energy be captured
and used at other times? This is possible through the use of solar traps. They convert
light energy to something that can be stored and used later. The most popular and
convenient conversion is to thermal energy.
Challenge
Evaluate
Design and build a model solar trap. The trap will
1. What factors were most important in the
capture sunlight and convert it to thermal energy. You
design of the solar traps? Which features
will then measure the increase in the air temperature
provided the greatest temperature gain?
in your trap. Your goal is to produce the highest air
temperature using only 20 min of sunlight. 2. Suggest modifications to your design that
would improve its performance.
Safety Precautions
3. Try exposing the traps for 30 min. Does the
• Use care with sharp objects when constructing your
solar trap. extra time provide higher temperatures?
4. How high do you think the temperature
Design Specifications could go? Why can the temperature not
A. Sunlight is the only input energy source you rise indefinitely?
can use. 5. As a class, discuss the best features of each
solar trap. Design and build one new solar
B. Choose only materials that are readily available
trap that incorporates as many of the best
for constructing your solar trap.
features of all the solar traps as possible.
6. How does the new solar trap compare to

Plan and Construct your original solar trap?
1 Design a solar trap. Prepare a drawing and a
list of materials. Make the design as complete
as possible.
2 Have your teacher approve your design.
3 Construct your trap including a method for

measuring the temperature inside the trap. For tips on scientific and technological drawing,
turn to Skill Focus 9.
4 When your trap is completed, place it in
the Sun for 20 min. Compare the highest
temperature of each trap.

Saving Energy
Saving energy not only saves money, it also reduces environmental pollutants
and conserves natural resources. However, improving the efficiency of machines
is not always possible or practical. In some cases, the cost of building a machine
with a slightly higher efficiency is so expensive that no one could afford to buy
it. Therefore, many researchers and engineers have tried to think of different
ways to perform the same task. Some examples are described below.
Cogeneration
Along with producing electrical energy, a coal-burning plant produces thermal
energy or heat that is released to the environment. In another large facility,
fossil fuels are burned to heat buildings. Why not combine the two processes?
Many industries, universities, and factories are doing just this — it is called
cogeneration. The “waste” heat from the turbine of a coal-burning system is
not released to the environment. Instead, the heat is directed to a heat exchanger
where it heats water. The hot water or steam is then pumped through pipes to
heat a building. Instead of using less than 40 percent of the input energy for just
electrical energy, the system can use as much as 80 percent of the input energy
for both electrical energy and space heating. The efficiency is doubled!
In the past, coal-burning plants have been located far from
population centres because the plants produce pollutants.
Electrical energy can be transported long distances with little
loss in energy. However, thermal energy cannot be transported
over long distances. Recently, industries or greenhouses have
been built near coal-burning plants to take advantage of the
heat the plants produce. In addition, large industries, universities,
and some other facilities such as hospitals are building smaller
cogeneration plants near their main buildings. These smaller
plants often use gas turbines with natural gas for fuel. Burning
the natural gas produces hot gases, which turn the turbines.
From the turbines, the hot gases go through heat exchangers
where they heat water for heating the buildings. As well as
being more efficient, these gas turbines produce fewer
environmental pollutants.
Figure 6.10 The Joffre power plant east of Red Deer,
Canada’s Largest Cogeneration Plant Alberta, is the largest cogeneration plant in Canada.
An excellent example of a new and efficient cogeneration plant
is the Joffre power plant shown in Figure 6.10. Three companies
have co-operated to build and operate this facility. The Joffre
plant burns natural gas in two gas turbines to generate electrical
energy and provide heat for a large chemical plant. The chemical
plant produces ethylene and polyethylene. Surplus electrical
Cogeneration is an increasingly common
energy is sold to the Alberta Power Pool. method of conserving energy. To learn about the
many uses of cogeneration facilities,
go to the web site above to find out
where to go next.

Keeping a City Cool
It would be extremely uncomfortable to work in a large, downtown office
building without air conditioning. Consequently, most businesses are air
conditioned so employees can do their jobs efficiently. Air conditioning,
however, uses tremendous amounts of energy and is very costly. Are
there any alternatives?
A utility company believes there is an alternative for Toronto because
it is on the shores of Lake Ontario, which is very deep. Thus, the
temperature of the water near the bottom of the lake remains about
4°C throughout the year. The utility company and the city of Toronto
agreed to try an experiment called Deep Lake Water Cooling. Pumps
on the shore will draw 4°C water from about 70 m below the surface
of Lake Ontario and send it through a heat exchanger. The lake water
will cool water that runs through the air conditioning systems for many
large downtown office buildings. The lake water will never leave the
pipes or mix with the air conditioning water. It will be returned to the
Figure 6.11 Some day, the cold waters lake. By 2004, the Deep Lake Water Cooling system will pump enough
of Lake Ontario might be used to cool lake water to cool 100 office towers in Toronto. One building is already
downtown Toronto office buildings. connected to the system.
Find Out
Designing a Heat Exchanger
As you have studied this unit, you have read Procedure Performing and Recording
about heat exchangers. Exactly how do heat 1. Fill the 1 L beaker about two-thirds full of ice
exchangers work? What features are necessary water. Be sure that there is always some ice in
for maximum exchange of heat between two the water so the temperature remains near 0°C.
fluids that are never mixed? In this activity, you
will answer those questions. You will simulate the 2. Place the beaker of ice water higher than
system for using the cold waters of Lake Ontario the empty 250 mL beaker, as shown in
to cool Toronto office buildings. By completing the diagram.
the activity, you will develop a greater under- funnel
standing of the function of heat exchangers.
Safety Precautions
beaker of plastic tubing
• Use care when working with glassware. ice water
Materials small beaker
beaker (1 L)
block or stand for large beaker
ice
water
beaker (250 mL)
funnel 3. Insert the funnel in the end of a long piece of
various sizes and lengths of plastic tubing plastic tubing. Coil the tubing in the ice water,
thin-walled copper tubing keeping the end opposite the funnel out of
graduated cylinder (100 mL) the water. Put the end of the tubing in the
thermometer small beaker, as shown.

4. Put 100 mL of room-temperature water in the What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
graduated cylinder. 1. How did the length of the tubing affect the
5. Measure and record the temperature of the temperature difference of the water before and
water in the cylinder. after it passed through the heat exchanger?
6. Pour the water into the funnel so that it runs 2. How did the diameter of the tubing affect the
through the tubing and into the small beaker. temperature difference of the water before and
Be careful not to pour the water into the after it passed through the heat exchanger?
funnel so fast that it overflows. 3. How did the flow rate affect the temperature
7. Measure and record the temperature of the difference of the water before and after it
water in the small beaker. passed through the heat exchanger?
8. Calculate the difference in the temperature of 4. How did the presence of copper tubing affect
the water before and after it passes through the temperature change of the water?
the heat exchanger (the coil of tubing in the 5. Describe the characteristics of an effective
ice water). heat exchanger.
9. Repeat the procedure several times with vari-
Extension
ous lengths of tubing as well as tubing of
various diameters. Also vary the rate at which 6. Do research in print resources or on the
the water flows through the tubing. (Hint: You Internet to learn how heat pumps and heat
can change the flow rate by changing the height exchangers can be used in homes and offices.
of the funnel and the height of the end of the Heat pumps connected to pipes in the ground
tubing that is going into the small beaker.) can heat homes in the winter and cool them
in the summer. From your research, explain
10. Insert a few short sections of copper tubing how this is done.
into the plastic tubing. Repeat the procedure
with some copper tubing in the heat exchanger.
Section 6.2 Summary

While studying this section, were you surprised to www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/sciencefocus10
learn about the low efficiencies of commonly used Heat exchangers and heat pumps are widely used to heat
machines and systems? and cool buildings. To learn more about heat pumps, go
to the web site above. Click on Web Links to find
• The incandescent light bulb has changed very little out where to go next.
since its invention by Thomas Edison in 1879.
• Today’s cars are actually much more efficient compared to the
cars built in the 1920s and 1930s. However, 20 percent efficiency
is still very low.
• More and more cars are on the roads every year.
• The generation of electrical energy using fossil fuels is only about
30 percent efficient.
• Over 96 percent of the electricity generated in Alberta uses coal or
natural gas as a fuel.
• Natural resources are gradually being used up and their use pollutes
the environment.
• Scientists and engineers are constantly searching for other sources of
energy. They are trying to design more efficient methods of transforming
potential energy into electrical energy.

1. Explain why internal combustion engines have a low efficiency.
2. Compact fluorescent light bulbs are more expensive than incandescent
bulbs. How is it possible to save money by using compact fluorescent bulbs?
3. Electric motors are already quite efficient. Why is there a need to improve
their efficiency?
4. Briefly explain how plants use and store energy through photosynthesis.
Describe and discuss the efficiency of photosynthesis.
5. What is the most efficient, commonly used method for generating
electrical energy?
6. Explain the concept of cogeneration.
7. Apply Describe two things that you could do every day to reduce your
use of electrical energy.
8. Apply Take a tour of your school. Learn how your school uses electrical
energy and how it is heated and cooled (if it has air conditioning). As a
class or in small groups, submit a report including ways in which your
school administrators could save energy. Include criteria in your report.
For example, reduced lighting would save energy. However, darkened
stairways would be a safety hazard. Reduced lighting in classrooms could
cause eyestrain, which could have an effect on students’ ability to concentrate.
Be prepared to defend your suggestions.
9. Thinking Critically Incandescent light bulbs and internal combustion
engines in cars are very inefficient. Why do you think these devices are
still used instead of being replaced with more efficient technologies for
lighting and transportation?
10. Thinking Critically Do research on the Internet or in print resources to
learn about technologies that scientists or engineers are studying that will
provide energy with a minimal effect on the environment. Write a short
summary about the information you have found.

(a) State the second law of thermodynamics in (g) Approximately half of all of the electrical energy
terms of the efficiency of processes. (6.1) generated in North America is used to drive
what device? (6.2)
(b) How do scientists define efficiency? State the
definition in words and in an equation. (6.1) (h) Compare the efficiencies of coal-burning plants
and nuclear reactors to hydro electric-generating
(c) How do you determine the useful output energy plants? (6.2)
and the total input energy of a system? (6.1)
(i) Explain how cogeneration can increase the
(d) Explain why it is not feasible to stop using efficiency of the use of thermal energy. (6.2)
machines and return to manual methods of
providing food, clothing, and shelter. (6.2) (j) Describe some examples of technologies that
are currently being developed with the goal of
(e) How efficient is the internal combustion engine? reducing the amount of “waste” energy. (6.2)
What happens to the waste energy? (6.2)
(f ) How efficient are incandescent light bulbs?

What is a more efficient alternative to
incandescent light bulbs? (6.2)
heat
27 W visible
light
fluorescent
heat
100 W
visible
light
incandescent
Summarize the chapter by doing one of the follow- been made and your energy company’s plans
ing. Use a graphic organizer (such as a concept for the future.
map), produce a poster, or write a summary to • Choose one piece of equipment that you use.
include key chapter concepts. Here are a few Trace the energy transformations and their
ideas to use as a guide: efficiencies from the source of energy — such
• Choose a machine or technological device used as coal — to the final form of “useful” energy
in modern industry. Follow the history of its produced by the device.
development and see how its efficiency of
energy use has evolved.
• Compare energy usage and efficiency of living
systems with technological devices.
• Find out what type of electric-generating
plant supplies electrical energy to your home
and school. Learn about the progress that has

6
C H A P T E R
Review
Key Terms
useful energy output energy waste heat

efficiency resting position cogeneration
input energy
Understanding Key Concepts 10. Give two reasons why reports in scientific
Section numbers are provided in parentheses below literature about the efficiency of green plants
could differ significantly. (6.2)
in case you need to review.
1. According to the second law of thermodynamics, 11. Explain the concept of cogeneration. How does
why cannot any processes be 100 percent cogeneration save energy? (6.2)
efficient? (6.1) 12. How can heat exchangers transfer heat from one
2. The statement that “energy is lost” often refers liquid to another while not allowing the liquids
to the efficiencies of devices. According to the to mix? (6.2)
first law of thermodynamics, energy cannot be
created or destroyed. What, then, is the meaning Developing Skills
of “lost” energy? (6.1) 13. The “machine” in the diagram is called a perpetual
motion machine because it provides its own energy
3. When you calculate the efficiency of an object
while also performing a task. It is designed to run
or process, your answer has no units. Why is it
perpetually (forever). Analyze the diagram and
critical to use the same units for the total input
explain how it is supposed to work. Explain, based
and useful output energies in the calculation? (6.1)
on the first and second laws of thermodynamics,
4. Identify the useful output energy and the input why such a machine cannot exist.
energy for (a) a gas stove and (b) a satellite-
upper water
launching rocket. (6.1) reservoir Archimedes’
overshot water wheel water pump
5. Describe the energy transformations that
gears gears
occur when a pendulum is swinging. How
would a “perfect” pendulum differ from rotating shaft
a real pendulum? (6.1) rotating shaft
wheat
6. If a classmate told you that the answer to an lower water reservoir
efficiency calculation was 105 percent, how millstone
would you know that there was an error in
the calculation? (6.1)
flour
7. When you are solving a problem involving
efficiency, what must you do before performing 14. Do research in print resources or on the Internet
any mathematical calculations? (6.1) to learn how energy, released by one process, is
used by another process in the Joffre cogeneration
8. What is the difference in how incandescent light plant. Write a paragraph about these processes.
bulbs and fluorescent bulbs produce light that
results in differing efficiencies? (6.2) 15. Design a machine in which the input energy is
the kinetic energy of a falling pendulum bob and
9. Why are the efficiencies of coal-burning plants the output energy is gravitational potential energy.
and nuclear reactors that generate electrical Sketch your machine. Include labels and a caption.
energy similar? (6.2)

16. List all of the energy transformations that occur 23. A toy uses a spring to shoot an arrow with a
when you heat food in a microwave oven. suction cup on the end. The toy shoots a 35 g
arrow and gives it a speed of 5.5 m/s. If the
17. By using a pulley system
efficiency of the toy is 66 percent, how much
like the one shown here,
elastic potential energy was stored in the spring?
you could lift a 100 N
weight by exerting a force 24. A 145 g ball is thrown directly upward with
FE = 25 N an initial speed of 8.63 m/s. If the ball reaches a
of only 25 N on the rope.
Analyze the pulley system height of 3.34 m above the point of release, what
carefully. When you lift is the efficiency of the transformation of kinetic
the weight with the pulley energy into gravitational potential energy?
system, is the gravitational 25. A cyclist is standing still at the top of a hill and
potential energy gained by then begins to coast down the hill. The mass of
the weight four times the cyclist and bicycle is 64 kg. The cyclist’s
FL = 100 N
greater than the work you gravitational potential energy is converted into
did on the rope? Explain kinetic energy with an efficiency of 48 percent.
why or why not. What is her speed when she reaches a point
that is a vertical distance of 12 m lower than
Problem Solving/Applying the point at which she started?
18. A portable stereo uses 586 J of energy while
playing a CD. If it produces 327 J of sound Thinking Critically
energy, what is the efficiency of the stereo in
26. Since hydro-electric generation of electrical
transforming electrical energy into sound energy?
energy is so efficient, you might think that it
19. A kerosene lantern uses 984 J of chemical potential would be used more extensively. Find out why
energy and produces 75 J of light energy. How many people are opposed to the construction of
efficient is the lantern in transforming chemical dams and power plants in many locations. After
potential energy into light? learning about the various perspectives of other
people, develop and defend your own position
20. A crane uses 1.15 # 106 J of chemical potential on the building of hydro-electric plants.
energy in the fuel to lift a 985 kg crate a distance
of 27 m. What is the efficiency of the crane? 27. As a society, we continue to use large amounts
of fossil fuels in systems that have very low
21. A falling block with a mass of 2.4 kg drops a efficiencies. Although some efforts are being
distance of 1.7 m onto a spring and compresses
made to develop more efficient systems and
the spring. If 32 J of elastic potential energy are
processes (such as cogeneration), progress is
stored in the spring, what was the efficiency of
slow. What do you think should be the role of
the transformation of gravitational potential
government, industries, universities, and the
energy into elastic potential energy?
general public in developing methods to
22. An archer does work on a bow by exerting an conserve energy?
average force of 175 N over a distance of 0.62 m
to stretch the string and bend the bow. In the
process, elastic potential energy is stored in the
bow. When the archer releases the 0.065 kg
arrow, its initial speed is 49 m/s. What was the Go back to the answers you wrote for the Focussing Questions.
efficiency of transforming the archer’s work into How would you change your answers now that you have
finished this chapter?
the arrow’s kinetic energy?

U N I T
2
Ask an Expert
Dr. Steve Bergens knew he wanted to be an astronaut or a
scientist. He opted for science and earned his B.Sc., M.A.,
and Ph.D. in chemistry. He then conducted postdoctoral
research at Harvard. Now he’s a professor in the University
of Alberta’s top-ranking chemistry department. For the past
seven years, Dr. Bergens and four graduate students have
been doing research in the field of fuel cells.
Q How did you become interested in your field? Q Are there by-products when you oxidize these
A I learned about fuel cells while doing postdoc-

substances?
toral research at Harvard. It’s good to learn as A When you oxidize any common fuel, you make
many different things as you can while you’re water and carbon dioxide. So, you still make
doing this research. The professor I worked greenhouse gases, but the idea is to do it as
with at Harvard had been working on fuel cells efficiently as possible to minimize any negative
for a while and I thought that sounded pretty impact on the environment.
interesting. I went over there to see what was
going on and decided to carry it on here.
Q Is using fuel cells an efficient way to make electricity?
Q How are your fuel cells different from

A A fuel cell, in theory, is the most efficient way
to get electricity from burning a fuel. It’s about
conventional ones?
90 percent efficient. The best they can do with
A A fuel cell is a battery, but instead of carrying a car is around 30 percent efficiency, so 70 percent
the chemicals inside it, you continuously feed it of the gas you burn in your car is wasted and
fresh chemicals so it never runs out. Your watch turned into carbon dioxide and pollutants in the
battery runs out when the chemical reaction inside atmosphere. In your car, you burn gas and use the
is done. With a fuel cell, you keep replenishing heat energy to move your car using devices such
what’s inside and it keeps making electricity for as transmissions and pistons. In theory, if you
you. The cheapest chemicals around for that can get a fuel cell to do it, 90 percent of the gas
are air and some kind of gasoline or fuel. you burn goes directly into work to move the
We’re using methanol. car. The promise is really great. It’s very quiet,
Q How do your cells replenish the chemicals?
it’s very clean, and it’s very efficient, in theory.
A It’s a pump system. We have a gas tank full of

methanol in one side and we pump that into the
fuel cell. We pump air into the other side and
the cell produces electricity.

Q Only in theory? Q How long do you think this will take?
A Well, it’s a tough problem to solve. The problem A I would guess around ten years. Everyone is
is that the electrochemical reaction of methanol working as hard as they can. There are so many
in the fuel cell is slow — almost too slow to be parts to the problem. It’s not only getting the
practical. What we need to do is speed up that fuel cell to work well. You also have to come up
reaction with a catalyst. We’re using platinum- with a way to distribute methanol (or another
ruthenium as a catalyst. We’re trying to optimize fuel) around the country. You have to make sure
the activity of this catalyst and also use it as the cells are safe in such incidents as crash tests
efficiently as possible. in cars. It could be that the people working on
Q Do you hope to replace conventional batteries with
the other parts of the problem are further ahead.
So it could be sooner than ten years.
these fuel cells?
A That’s certainly the idea. A company in

Vancouver is pushing hard in this direction.
They’re using hydrogen and methanol as fuels.
The issue with hydrogen is, as everybody knows,
it’s a flammable gas. So to safely transport and
store large quantities of high-pressure hydrogen
will be a challenge. A liquid-fuel fuel cell is, at
least for the immediate future, a more attractive
way to go.
Several companies in Canada are actively developing

fuel cells. One of the best known is Ballard Power
Systems, located in Vancouver. The technology Ballard
is researching differs from Dr. Bergens’s. However,
Ballard Power Systems is trying to accomplish the
same thing. Using reference materials and the Internet,
research the Ballard fuel cell and compare it to the one
described above. What are some of the advantages
and disadvantages of the different cells? Continue your
research and find other fuel cells being developed. List
their advantages and disadvantages.
Northwest Scientific sells a solar-powered fuel cell
model that can power several different devices. To The NECAR 4 uses fuel cell technology. This prototype uses
increase your understanding of fuel cells, research liquid hydrogen to produce electricity in a fuel cell, which is
its operation as well. then used to power the vehicle.
Unit 2 Ask An Expert • MHR 247

2
T
C
E
J
Building an Energy-Conversion Device
O
R
P
Can you convert energy? You certainly can. Materials

Whenever you eat, you convert chemical potential any materials you will need for your approved design
energy to kinetic energy. In this project, however,
you are to design an energy-conversion device Design Specifications
external to your own body. The device must convert
A. Your conversion device should be “useful” in
one form of energy into another, convert potential
that it does work or converts energy to another
energy into kinetic energy (motion), or convert
form that is preferred.
energy into work. You will calculate the efficiency
of your device and suggest improvements to increase B. The energy input to your device must
its efficiency. be measurable.
C. The energy output from your device must
be measurable.
D. Your device must have an efficiency of at
least 60 percent.
E. The suggestions to improve your device must
boost its efficiency by at least 10 percent.
Plan and Construct

1. Working in a group of four, organize the project
so that the workload will be evenly divided
among members of the group.
2. Create a drawing of the device with proposed
measurements and expected performance:
• Label the energy conversion(s) that are
taking place.
Challenge
• Provide a theoretical input and output
As part of an engineering team, you are to design and
calculation.
build an energy-conversion device. The conversion
may be from any energy form to any other energy • Predict the efficiency of the device.
form, or from any energy form into work. The • Make a list of materials needed to create
important point is that the energy input and the device.
the energy output must both be measurable. • Have your teacher check your design.
3. Prepare a timeline for the collection of materials,
Safety Precautions construction, testing, and measurement of the
Use care when constructing the conversion device, device. Your teacher may provide specific dead-
especially if you are using sharp objects, or if lines you will have to meet, so be prepared.
surfaces become hot. 4. Test the device and perform the necessary
measurements and calculations.

5. Prepare a 5 min presentation explaining
the operation of your device, its energy
conversion(s), how you measured its energy
input and output, and its efficiency.
Evaluate wind power, etc. Choose one of these sources

1. As a group, discuss the effectiveness of your and report on its advantages and disadvantages
device. Did it perform as well as you intended? compared to the others.
2. Suggest modifications that could improve the 3. There are many simple machines in every
efficiency of your device by at least 10 percent. household. Levers (like brooms), wheel and
axles (like doorknobs and screwdrivers), and
3. Prepare a set of plans or instructions that
other simple machines all make life easier for
would enable others to build a device that
us. Research some types of simple machines.
functions like the one you have built.
Choose and describe the science behind the
safe operation of a household device that
Extensions illustrates this machine.
1. Fitness machines used at local gyms are often
designed to waste energy. That is, the machine
makes the work of moving some weights more
difficult than normal in order to exercise specific
muscle groups. Visit a local gym and find a
machine that is designed to waste energy in
this manner. Draw a diagram that shows the
operation of the machine and highlight where
energy is wasted.
2. Find out the total amount of electrical energy
used in Alberta in a specific year. Determine
the fractions of that energy provided by various
sources — nuclear, fossil fuels, hydro-electric,
Construct two simple machines, such as a pulley and a lever. Use each machine to do
work, and measure the efficiency of each. Make a compound machine by combining
the two machines to do work. Measure the efficiency of your compound machine and
compare it to the individual efficiencies. Note: By definition, the efficiency of a compound
machine is the product of the individual efficiencies. For example, two 80% efficient
machines hooked together should be 0.80 ! 0.80 " 0.64 or 64% efficient.
Unit 2 Project • MHR 249

U N I T
2 Review
Understanding Key Concepts 13. How did Joule use water to experimentally
1. Why was there a need for some type of determine the mechanical equivalent of heat?
engine such as a steam engine in England 14. Hot and cold water look the same. Based on
during the 1600s? the kinetic-molecular theory of heat, how do
2. One of the flaws in Newcomen’s steam engine hot and cold water differ?
was the fact that the cylinder had to be heated 15. Explain the relationship between heat and
and cooled during every cycle. What happened temperature. Describe an example that illus-
during the heating part of the cycle? What trates that temperature is not a measure of the
happened during the cooling part of the cycle? amount of thermal energy in a substance.
3. Watt’s steam engine was sometimes called a 16. Describe an example that illustrates the first
“double-acting” engine. Explain the meaning law of thermodynamics.
of “double-acting” as it applies to Watt’s steam
engine. In what ways was this “double-acting” 17. Sometimes students of science describe the laws
process an improvement over Savery’s of thermodynamics in a humorous way. They
steam engine? claim that the first law can be stated, “You can’t
get something for nothing.” They state the
4. How does a steam turbine differ from Watt’s second law as, “You can’t even break even.”
steam engine? Explain how these statements are somewhat
5. List three different applications for Watt’s appropriate for the laws of thermodynamics.
steam engine. 18. Engines based on Watt’s design of the steam
6. Describe the “four-elements” theory of heat. engine are not in use today. However, pistons
are used, and steam is used in different applica-
7. What is a major flaw in the caloric theory tions. Describe one modern device that uses
of heat? pistons and one modern device that uses steam.
8. Joseph Black defined the calorie as a unit used 19. List the major energy conversions, in sequence,
to quantify the fluid called caloric. Why is this that take place in a nuclear reactor generating
unit still used today, even though scientists now station.
know that there is no such fluid?
20. Why can wind energy only supplement but
9. Describe Rumford’s observations that he used not replace coal-burning generation of
to develop his theory that a relationship existed electrical energy?
between heat and energy.
21. Explain the difference between scalar and
10. Why was Mayer’s work on the relationship vector quantities. Give two examples of each
between energy and heat ignored by the type of quantity.
scientists of his time?
22. Why is the distance between two points usually
11. How do physicists define work? greater than displacement between those two
points? Can the distance between two points
12. Explain how to determine work graphically. ever be less than the displacement? Explain.
What quantities must be on the vertical and
horizontal axes of the graph? 23. State the definitions of speed and velocity in
words and in mathematical formulas.

24. What is uniform motion? 36. Name one very efficient modern technological
device and one inefficient modern device. What
25. Explain how you could use a graph of position is the major difference between the two devices
versus time to find the velocity of an object that causes the efficiencies to be so dissimilar?
or person.
37. Explain the concept of cogeneration.
26. What is wrong with the statement, “Acceleration
is the change in the speed of an object during 38. In a Model Problem, you discovered that living
a time interval?” State the definition correctly. cells are only about 38 percent efficient in
converting the energy stored in glucose into
27. If the graph of position versus time curves the energy in ATP. Mammals, including humans,
upward, what can you say about the object’s are animals that maintain a constant body
acceleration? temperature. Use the concept of cogeneration
28. What properties of an object determine its to explain why the use of glucose in mammals
kinetic energy? is more efficient than 38 percent.
29. What happens to an object’s kinetic energy Developing Skills

when you do negative work on the object? 39. In an experiment on the school track, two
30. How can you give a spring elastic potential students try to run at constant velocities. They
energy? How do you know that it has use the portion of the track that goes directly
stored energy? north. A timer records the time for each runner
as he and she pass each 10 m mark. The times
31. How can you convert chemical potential energy are recorded in the following table.
into another form of energy?
Time for Time for Position (m[N])
runner #1 (s) runner #2 (s)
32. When a very large nucleus fissions (splits),
0 0 0
energy is released. In what form was that
energy stored in the original nucleus? 1.3 2.9 10
2.5 5.7 20
33. Describe an example of gravitational potential
3.8 8.6 30
energy that can be converted into a useful
form of energy. 5.0 11.4 40
34. Define efficiency in words and in the form

(a) Plot a position versus time graph for
of a mathematical formula.
each runner.
35. State the form of the input energy and the (b) Use the graph to determine each runner’s
useful output energy for each of the average velocity.
following devices. (c) How well did the runners achieve a constant
(a) a battery velocity? Explain how you determined your
(b) a lawnmower answer from the graph.
(c) a notebook computer (d) Was either runner accelerating? Explain how
(d) an automobile horn you determined your answer from the graph.
Unit 2 Review MHR • 251

40. Describe the energy conversions that occur as 47. A turtle walks 0.44 m[E] in 3.5 min. What was
the cars and riders in an amusement park ride the turtle’s velocity?
complete a vertical loop.
48. If you walk at an average velocity of 1.4 m/s[S],
41. Draw a concept map that shows how the follow- how long will it take for you to go 2.1 km[S]?
ing terms are related: (a) work (b) elastic
49. A runner passes one trainer at a velocity of
potential energy (c) gravitational potential
0.35 m/s[W]. The trainer’s stopwatch registers
energy (d) thermal energy (e) chemical potential
16 s. The runner passes the second trainer at a
energy (f ) kinetic energy (g) efficiency
velocity of 1.8 m/s[W]. The second trainer’s
42. Design an experiment for determining the effi- stopwatch reads 24 s. Both trainers started their
ciency of a spring in converting elastic potential stopwatches at the same time. What was the
energy into gravitational potential energy. runner’s acceleration?
43. James Watt defined the unit horse power to 50. A car slows from 27 m/s[W] to 10.0 m/s[W]
describe the rate at which work is done by a before reaching a highway exit. If it took the
machine. Do research in print resources or on the car 6.5 s to reach the exit after starting to slow
Internet to find out how he defined the term and down, what was the car’s acceleration?
how he applied the concept to his steam engines.
51. In the Career Connect on page 187, you read
that Teri MacDonald-Cadieux’s car crashed into
Problem Solving/Applying a wall at a speed of 200.0 km/h. If the car came
44. A weightlifter exerts a force of 883 N on a to a complete stop in 0.55 s, what was her accel-
barbell over a distance of 0.65 m. How much eration? Assume that the car was travelling in
work did the weightlifter do on the barbell? the positive direction.
F applied 52. A 5.4 kg bowling ball is rolling at 1.8 m/s.
What is the kinetic energy of the bowling ball?
∆d
53. How fast would a 0.250 kg billiard ball have to
be rolling to have the same kinetic energy as
the bowling ball in problem 52?
54. A 4.5 kg chandelier hangs from the ceiling of

a large ballroom. If the chandelier is 12 m above
45. With a single pulley, you lift a crate. If you the floor, what is its gravitational potential
exerted a force of 455 N and did 3276 J of work, energy relative to the floor?
how far did you lift the crate?
55. How high would you have to lift your 0.55 kg
46. A student rides her bicycle 825 m north and textbook to give it 119 J of gravitational
stops to talk to a friend. She then rides 382 m potential energy?
north but realizes that she was supposed to pick
56. The 200.0 kg roller coaster car shown on the next
up a book at another friend’s house. She rides
page is sitting motionless at point A, 15.0 m above
540 m south. After picking up the book, she
the ground. If the car starts to roll down the track,
rides 1450 m north. What distance did the
what will its speed be when it reaches point B,
student ride? What was her displacement?
6.0 m above the ground?

mcar = 200 kg Critical Thinking
m
0.0 s 60. A company’s management wants to build a factory
A
by a river that runs through the city where you
live. The management claims that the factory
15.0 m B will create over 100 new jobs for the city.
However, the factory will generate thermal
6.0 m energy that could lead to thermal pollution of
the river. What information would you want to
know before permission is granted to the company
to build the factory? What suggestions might
57. A 102 kg soapbox derby car starts at the top of you make to the company to reduce the impact
a hill. The starting point is a vertical distance of the factory on the environment?
of 40.0 m higher than the finish line. The car is
going 11 m/s when it crosses the finish line. With 61. The use of some form of electric vehicles offers
what efficiency did the car convert its gravita- the following advantages. For each of the advan-
tional potential energy into kinetic energy? tages listed, explain whether the primary advantage
is economic, environmental, or energy efficiency.
58. A 3.8 kg steel ball is dropped on a spring and Provide reasons for your choice.
compresses the spring. As a result, the compressed
(a) electric cars reduce air pollution
spring stores 72 J of elastic potential energy. If
the gravitational potential energy of the steel (b) electric cars can be designed to convert
ball was converted into elastic potential energy kinetic energy into chemical energy of
of the spring with an efficiency of 80.5 percent, a battery while braking
from what height was the steel ball dropped? (c) electric motors do not consume energy
when the car is not moving
59. If a light bulb is 5.2 percent efficient and it
(d) electric cars do not produce as much waste
emits a total of 6.24 ! 103 J of light energy,
heat as do internal combustion engines
how much electrical energy does it use?
(e) some electric car batteries can be recharged
from a variety of sources, including wind
and solar energy
(f ) electric motors are quieter than internal
combustion engines.
Unit 2 Review MHR • 253

U N I T
Cycling of Matter
in Living Systems
A fly lands on a Venus’s-flytrap. Suddenly the plant’s leaf folds,
capturing the insect within. The plant then slowly digests and absorbs its
prey. A few days later the Venus’s-flytrap leaf re-opens, ready for the arrival
of its next meal.
How can the response of a Venus’s-flytrap be explained? How would
you go about investigating this behaviour? What questions might you ask
about how the plant captures and digests its prey? For instance, you might
have noticed hairs on the inner face of the leaf. What is the function of these
hairs? To find the answer, you could start by looking at a Venus’s-flytrap leaf
under a microscope. You would see that the leaf is made up of cells. What
roles might those cells play? Do different groups of cells perform different
tasks? Which cells detect landing prey? Which cells help to break down food?
Perhaps you can form hypotheses to answer these questions. You could then
test your hypotheses by doing experiments. Later, you might tell other
investigators about your findings. You could compare your results with theirs
to see if the results were the same and to see if you could agree on answers
to your questions.
Scientists have long used this approach to build knowledge about living
things. Over hundreds of years, they have come to see how cells function in
living organisms, from a microscopic bacterium to a towering spruce tree.
To reach this understanding, scientists had to learn about the structures
and processes of cells, which are the basic units of life. In Unit 3, you will
examine the roles of the cell in cycling matter in living systems.
254
Chapter 7
The Basis of Life 256
Chapter 8
Dynamic Cells 288
Chapter 9
From Cell
to Organism:
Focus on Plants 318
7
C H A P T E R
The Basis of Life
• What is the cell theory and

how was it developed?
• How did the cell theory
revolutionize the way
scientists study life?
• How has technology advanced
the understanding of cell
structures and functions?
256 MHR • Unit

Flow 3of Cycling
Matter in
of Living
MatterSystems
in Living Systems
W hat is the scientific basis
of life? Driven by the desire to answer
as this concept came to be known,
provided a way of explaining how new
the question, people have observed generations of organisms came about.
the world around them for millenia. Some scientists questioned the
Over time, theories about how principles of spontaneous generation.
organisms function have changed. Was there another way to explain the
Today scientists agree that all living source of new organisms? Gradually,
things share five characteristics. advances in technology enabled
Living organisms: scientists to test these questions
• need energy in new ways.
• produce wastes Seen under a microscope, as
• respond and adapt to shown on page 256, the mould
their environment growing on an orange turns out
• reproduce to be composed of many individual
• grow cells. Further investigation would
show that single-celled spores made
Where does life come from? You
by the mould could spread to other
might have asked yourself that question
food sources and produce more mould.
after finding mould on an orange.
A new theory began to take shape
Centuries ago, some scientists asked
that would eventually replace the
that question after encountering o
oki
concept of spontaneous generation.
n
L
maggot-infested meat. Early investi-

Scientists
head recognized that living
A
gators, such as the Greek philosopher

organisms share another important
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.), used
characteristic: they are composed
creative thinking, philosophy, and
of cells.
logic to explain such observations.
Aristotle observed that some
oki
o
organisms reproduce asexually and
n
How can the function

L
ing of entire organism

others sexually. However, he was head be explained by cell ac s
A
tivities? Later in
this unit, you will bu
unable to observe any reproductive investigate the struc
ild on your ideas as
you
tures and function
process in some small organisms. In “Design Your Ow s of plants.
n Investigation: Ins
Parts of Plants,” yo ide Out: The
Aristotle therefore hypothesized that, u will look for evide
are related to tissu nc e that cells
under the right conditions, some life es and organs in pla
nts . Read the
investigation now
and prepare for it by
forms could arise from non-living and assembling rel rec ording
evant information
in files.
matter. Spontaneous generation,
Chapter
Solar 7Energy
The
TheBasis
Basis
and ofofLife
Life ••• MHR
Climates MHR
MHR 257
257
257
7.1 Life from Life
Figure 7.1 shows maggots hatching from the fly’s eggs. Where did these
maggots come from? For a long time, people believed that maggots arose
spontaneously from rotting material. The theory of spontaneous generation,
or abiogenesis, was widely accepted for over 2000 years. This theory explained
how mice seemed to develop suddenly in a pile of wheat husks or why frogs
How did the first organisms
originate? Many scientists today would appear in mud. Aristotle based his support for this explanation of the
believe that a type of spontaneous origin of life on many such observations. However, Aristotle did not check
generation occurred on early the validity of his hypothesis. That is, he did not conduct experiments to test
Earth. They theorize that bacteria-
like “cells” could have formed
his idea that some types of animals arose by spontaneous generation.
from molecules under the
conditions present on Earth
billions of years ago.
Figure 7.1 People once explained the

origin of life as a process of spontaneous
generation. The explanation we now
accept is that organisms arise from the
reproduction of organisms like themselves,
such as the maggots hatching from the
fly’s eggs, pictured here.
Redi’s Controlled Experiment

An Italian physician, Francesco Redi (1626–1697), was the first person to
use scientific experiments to test the theory of spontaneous generation. He
Why was Redi’s test considered
a controlled experiment? Could he
suspected that the maggots that appeared on rotting meat did not actually
have reached the same conclusions arise from the meat itself. Redi had observed flies depositing objects on the meat.
had he not used a control? On He hypothesized that maggots hatched from the objects dropped by the flies.
the basis of Redi’s experiment, In 1668, he tested his idea by performing a simple controlled experiment.
can anyone conclude that the spon-
taneous generation of organisms Redi placed pieces of meat into two glass jars, as shown in Figure 7.2 on
other than fly maggots does not the next page. He tightly covered one jar with a piece of cloth that let air
occur? Explain your answers. pass through but kept out flies. He left the other jar open, making the meat
accessible to flies. A few days later, he inspected the jars’ contents. If maggots
could arise on the rotting meat through spontaneous generation, then both
jars should have contained maggots. In fact, maggots squirmed over the meat
in the open jar. In the cloth-covered jar, however, no maggots developed.
This experiment convinced Redi that maggots found in rotting meat were
not produced by spontaneous generation.
As you will read on page 262, the discovery of microscopic single-celled
organisms occurred only a few years after Redi’s experiments. Ironically, this
discovery renewed the debate over spontaneous generation. Some scientists
considered micro-organisms as new evidence for spontaneous generation. Such
organisms could not reproduce in the manner of flies. How else would new
micro-organisms be produced, it was argued, if not by spontaneous generation?
Many people believed an “active principle” in the air created the micro-
organisms. For another 200 years, people debated their differing theories.
258 MHR • Unit 3 Cycling of Matter in Living Systems

Control group
Time
Experimental group Figure 7.2 Francesco Redi placed meat in

Time
two different jars. As a control, he left one
jar open. He covered the other jar with cloth.
While maggots developed in the open jar, none
appeared in the covered jar.
Pasteur’s Evidence
French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) was convinced that spontaneous
generation did not occur. Many people were interested in micro-organisms,
but Pasteur was curious about what these unicellular organisms did. For instance,
he studied fermentation, the biochemical process that sours milk. In other cases,
fermentation converts grape juice into wine and barley into beer. From previous
studies and his own experiments, Pasteur knew that living micro-organisms
carried out fermentation.
Pasteur hypothesized that the so-called “active principle” in air was also an
organism. To test his idea, he designed a glass flask with a long, S-shaped neck
(see Figure 7.3). He filled a number of the “swan-neck flasks” with nutrient-rich
broth and boiled them to force out air and kill any microbes. As each flask
cooled, fresh air was drawn in and moisture condensed in the curve of the
neck. Pasteur predicted that air entering the neck of the flask would contain Figure 7.3 If air itself were the
micro-organisms, but that they would settle by gravity in the neck and never “active principle,” then all of
Louis Pasteur’s flasks should have
reach the broth. The results of his experiment showed that his hypothesis was
teemed with life. This flask, used
valid. Several days after broth was boiled in the flask, the broth remained clear. by Pasteur, was photographed
Even in the presence of air, no organisms appeared in the broth. If the flask recently and still shows no sign
was tilted to bring the broth in contact with the neck, however, the broth quickly of microbial growth.
became clouded with micro-organisms.
Pasteur conducted other experiments in which he purposely placed small
amounts of micro-organisms in nutrient broth. The process was much like Louis Pasteur made several major
planting seeds. The micro-organisms produced more micro-organisms. Using contributions to science and
medicine. One was his method of
a microscope, Pasteur was able to observe the microbes multiplying.
using heat to kill disease-causing
Other scientists also questioned the theory of spontaneous generation. micro-organisms and organisms
Instead, they believed in biogenesis, the theory that living organisms could that spoil food. “Pasteurization,”
arise only from other living organisms. German physician Rudolf Virchow named for Pasteur, is the process
of heating food, such as milk,
(1821–1902) suggested the theory in 1858. Pasteur’s experiments provided to a temperature that kills
supporting evidence for biogenesis. In the investigation on the next page, unwanted bacteria.
you will compare the ideas and experiments of Aristotle, Redi, and Pasteur.
Chapter 7 The Basis of Life • MHR 259

S K I L L C H E C K

7-A
Evaluating
Spontaneous To review the process of
Generation
scientific inquiry, turn to
Skill Focus 5.
Think About It
How do we know where living things come from?
How can we determine whether micro-organisms
are present if they are too small to see without
microscopes? The ideas and experiments of Aristotle, Pasteur at work in the laboratory
Redi, and Pasteur illustrate ways of using observations,
hypotheses, predictions, and experiments to develop Analyze
scientific knowledge. In this investigation, you will
1. Compare and contrast the approaches of
examine how these methods were used to create argu-
the three scientists. How were they similar?
ments both for and against spontaneous generation.
How did they differ?
What to Do 2. Evaluate the quality of the evidence

the researchers used to back each of
1 Working in a small group, collect information
their arguments.
about the ideas and work of Aristotle, Redi, and
Pasteur. Use the information in this chapter to (a) What were the experimental controls?
identify each of the following elements of their (b) In what way did the evidence support
research. For each scientist, identify: the researchers’ conclusions?
Observations (c) Which, if any, of the scientists’ arguments
are the most convincing? Explain why.
Hypothesis
Predictions 3. How did each researcher’s work change
our knowledge about life?
Experimental design
Experimental results 4. Apply Some fungi, such as the earth-star,
produce millions of spores. If a spore lands
Conclusions
where nutrients are available, it starts to grow.
2 Organize the information you have collected in What might have led early scientists to
a table. Note: Not every cell in your table will conclude that fungi could be produced
contain data. Some researchers used observations by spontaneous generation?
only, whereas others used observations and
experiments to develop their ideas. Extend Your Skills
5. Experiments can provide clear answers to
some questions. They also often generate
new questions. Identify a new question that
Aristotle, Redi, and Pasteur might have left
unanswered. Propose a hypothesis, a prediction,
and a controlled experiment to answer the
Did Redi’s or Pasteur’s experiments prove that spontaneous question. What are some possible outcomes of
generation is impossible? In your notebook, explain your answer. the experiment? Present your ideas to the class.

Discovering Cells
Scientists could learn only so much by making observations with their unaided
eyes. Imagine, for instance, how difficult it would have been to conceive of germs
View the micrographs in Figure 7.4,
without being able to see them! Gradually, however, scientists learned more which are in chronological order.
about the details of the living and non-living world. The invention of micro- These micrographs represent what
scopes made it possible to magnify objects and observe them in greater and early scientists may have observed.
How did the images — and the
greater detail. Tools and methods for growing micro-organisms were invented
information they provided —
and refined. By examining this microscopic world, scientists were able to answer change over time? Answer this
many questions about the structure of organisms. Eventually, scientists concluded question in your notebook.
that all living things are composed of cells (the smallest functional units of life).
However, the first researchers to observe cells with microscopes had little
concept of what they were seeing. As you will learn, some scientists never
understood the groundbreaking nature of their own discoveries.
Magnification 240! Magnification 60!
A Cork cells, such as those pictured here, were first observed in B These are pond-water organisms. Microscopic observations
the mid-1600s. of similar organisms were first described by the 1670s.
Magnification 60! Magnification 240!
C Scientists in the 1820s–1830s relied on microscopes to observe D By 1839 microscopic examination of animal tissues led
plant tissues closely. The nucleus of the plant cell was described researchers to the important conclusion that all animals are
in 1831, and the cytoplasm in 1836. made of cells.
Figure 7.4 Early users of microscopes were able to view individual cells and observe basic
structures never seen before. By today’s standards these scientists saw little detail. However,
their observations would eventually lead scientists to the knowledge that all living things are
made of cells.

Developing the Cell Theory
Ideas about the scientific basis of life have changed a great deal throughout
history. The discovery of cells was a breakthrough that shed new light on
how healthy organisms function and what can make them unhealthy. Today,
scientists’ understanding of cells continues to grow. How are discoveries
about cells made? How are one observer’s ideas transformed into a widely
accepted theory?
Over time, researchers have collected evidence about the structures and
functions of living things. They have communicated their findings to other
Figure 7.5 Robert Hooke’s
drawing of cork cells, published
scientists, who have repeated their observations and tested their ideas. As
in his book Micrographia in 1665. new information has become available, scientists have expanded and revised
their explanations. The invention of new technologies, such as the microscope,
has helped scientists to overcome limits to their understanding. This process
led to our current understanding of the cellular basis of life.
Hooke’s Discovery
Over 300 years ago, an English scientist named Robert Hooke (1635–1703)
looked at thin slices of cork from the bark of an oak tree under a crude
compound light microscope. His microscope had a magnification of about 30!.
To Hooke, it looked as if the cork was made up of hundreds of empty boxes
or tiny rooms (see Figure 7.5). Because they reminded him of monks’ small
rooms or cells in a monastery, he named the structures “cells.” Hooke did not
know that he was looking at the walls of dead cells. It would take decades to
confirm that cells were common to all organisms. As a result, Hooke never
realized the significance of his own discovery.
Hooke published drawings and descriptions of the cells in a book entitled
Micrographia. When other scientists read about his observations, they were
encouraged to develop his work further. They began to look for cells in
other organisms.
A Miniature World
In 1674, a Dutch linen merchant named Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)
became the first person to describe single-celled micro-organisms. He studied
blood cells, pond-water organisms, and matter scraped from his teeth. Van
Figure 7.6 Antony van Leeuwenhoek’s hobby was making magnifying lenses. He performed his studies
Leeuwenhoek observed a variety of with a single-lens microscope that he had built himself (see Figure 7.6). His
cells with his simple microscope skillfully constructed lenses had magnifications of up to 500!. Of the matter
(top image), including relatively scraped from his teeth, van Leeuwenhoek wrote, “There were many very little
small cells (shown just above in
living animalcules, very prettily a-moving.” His “animalcule” sightings were
his drawing). These smaller cells
were probably bacteria.
among the first observations of single-celled organisms.
Van Leeuwenhoek, who had been inspired by Hooke’s writings, also wrote
about his own observations. His letters were printed in Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London, a scholarly journal that continues to publish new
Write a note to suggest why scientific research today. The public was excited by his ideas. Some scientistss
van Leeuwenhoek called the who learned of these discoveries hoped that they could explain the basis of life.
cells he viewed “animalcules.”
Check a dictionary based on
historical principles to see if
you were correct.

The Stuff of Life
People often comment, “Two heads are better than one.” This is especially
true of science. Scientific discovery often advances when investigators share
knowledge. Two German scientists, Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804–1881)
and Theodor Schwann (1810–1882), came to an important conclusion after
comparing their results.
Like many other scientists of their day, Schwann and Schleiden believed that
the way to understand life was to understand how it developed. After studying
cells in hundreds of plants, Schleiden concluded that all plants are composed Using a dictionary or other
resource, look up the roots of
of cells and the materials produced by cells. In very young cells, Schleiden the word “biogenesis.” Write
consistently observed nuclei. He concluded that each new cell developed from a literal meaning for “biogenesis”
the nucleus. Schleiden described his findings to his colleague Schwann. The in your notebook.
animal tissues Schwann studied under the microscope did not closely resemble
plant cells. Schleiden’s description of plant nuclei, however, reminded Schwann
of objects he had observed in developing animal tissues. Schwann reasoned
that where there were nuclei, there were cells.
Based on his hypothesis and his observations of animal tissues, Schwann
concluded that animal tissues contained cells. In 1839, he argued that all
organisms contain cells. “There is one universal principle of development for
the elementary parts of organisms, however different,” said Schwann, “and this
principle is the formation of cells.” Schwann had stated the first principle
of what came to be known as the cell theory: all organisms are composed
of one or more cells.
Other scientists began testing Schwann’s claim for themselves. In their
studies of other organisms, they repeated his findings. By doing so, they
provided supporting evidence for Schwann’s hypothesis.
Cells from Cells

Schleiden and Schwann thought that cells formed from the crystallization of
non-living materials or by budding from the surfaces of other cells. However,
they did not test these hypotheses. The German physician Rudolf Virchow
corrected these misconceptions. Virchow showed in experiments that bone cells
could develop from cartilage cells. He also made microscopic observations of
dividing cells from multicellular organisms. He concluded that cells divide to
produce more cells. “Where a cell exists, there must have been a pre-existing
cell,” said Virchow.
The Cell Theory

The observations of the researchers discussed in this section have been replicated
and reconfirmed many times. These conclusions form the basis of an important
therory. The cell theory states the following:
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. Figure 7.7 Rudolf Virchow
2. The cell is the smallest functional unit of life. was a supporter of the theory
of biogenesis. He criticized
3. All cells are produced from other cells. Schwann’s and Schleiden’s ideas
There are important differences among plant cells, animal cells, and about the origin of cells because
single-celled organisms. Even so, all cells share several basic similarities. the crystallization of non-living
materials implied that cells are
You will look at some cells in the next activity. In the next section you will
created by spontaneous generation.
also look at some non-cellular structures that have some properties of life.

Find Out
The Diversity of Cells
How do the structures of different kinds of single- 4. Using a medicine
celled organisms relate to their functions? How dropper, place one
do different types of structures enable cells to drop of pond water
carry out similar activities? Follow the steps below in the centre of the
to observe different methods of locomotion in slide, on top of the
single-celled organisms in pond water. cotton threads. (The
fibres will slow the movement
Safety Precautions of organisms in the pond water.)
5. Place a cover slip over the sample.
• Be careful when using sharp objects such 6. Study the pond water under low power on
as tweezers. the microscope. Draw three or more cells.
Estimate the size of one of the cells based
• Dispose of your materials according to
on the diameter of the field of view.
your teacher’s instructions.
7. Turn to medium power. Again, estimate the
Materials size of one of the cells. Draw and describe
chicken egg microscope slide any internal or external structures that you
beaker medicine dropper can see. Repeat this step at high power.
microscope pond water 8. Remove the pond-water sample and replace
transparent plastic ruler cover slip it with a prepared slide of a pond organism.
cotton batting prepared slides of Repeat steps 6 and 7 with the prepared slide.
tweezers typical pond organisms
9. Wash your hands when you have completed
the activity and cleaned up your work area.
1. Some cells, such as chicken eggs, are large
enough to see with the unaided eye. Examine What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
the chicken egg in the beaker.
1. Were the estimated sizes of the animal cells
2. Before examining samples under the micro- the same for low, medium, and high power?
scope, use the plastic ruler to measure the
2. Other than size, what are the differences
field of view at low power.
between the structure of the egg and other
3. Pull two or three fibres cells that you observed?
from the cotton batting.
3. What differences did you observe between
Using tweezers, spread
the pond organisms in the prepared slides
the fibres across the
and the pond-water organisms?
centre of a clean
microscope slide. 4. Compare the movement of the different
pond-water organisms. What structures
did they use for locomotion?
Extension
To review how to measure the field of view and for other
tips on using a microscope, turn to Skill Focus 10. 5. Relate the different structures of the cells
you observed to their different functions.

Section 7.1 Summary
In this section, you learned how observations, scientific experiments, and the
invention of the microscope have led to the discovery of cells, the smallest
functional units of life. You have been introduced to several influential scientists
whose observations and experiments all contributed to the understanding of
cells. Their work resulted in the cell theory, which states:
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the smallest functional unit of life.
3. All cells are produced from other cells.

1. List the five characteristics of living organisms.
Schwann and Schleiden concluded
2. Compare and contrast the theory of biogenesis with the concept of that cells are common to all living
spontaneous generation. things. On the other hand, Hooke
and van Leeuwenhoek noted that
3. Describe the three major principles that constitute the cell theory. cells were present in only a few
organisms. In your notebook,
4. Describe Rudolf Virchow’s contribution to the cell theory. explain why these scientists made
different inferences about the
5. What microscopic observations provided evidence for the theory importance of cells. Use references
of biogenesis? to their differing experiments and
observations in your explanation.
6. Thinking Critically Why is communication, such as through oral
presentations or written publications, essential to the development
of knowledge in science?
7. Apply Imagine that you have discovered a new organism on another
planet. Describe an experiment that you could do to determine if the
organism is composed of cells.
8. Thinking Critically Review Figure 7.4.
(a) What conclusions can you draw about the make-up of living organisms The largest cells are egg cells.
based on the information provided by the images? Ostrich eggs, in which the yolk
(b) Can you generalize your conclusions to other types of organisms? constitutes the cell, win the size
prize at about 1.2 kg and 14 cm
Why or why not? in diameter. The longest cells
are nerve cells. The sciatic
9. Thinking Critically
nerve contains the longest
(a) How would you design an experiment to test the hypothesis that nerve cells in your body. Each
wasps found living in a backyard composter were produced by of these cells runs from your
spontaneous generation? lower spine to your foot.
(b) What would be an alternative explanation for the source of the wasps?
10. Apply If a microscope was unavailable, a researcher might infer that
an organism exists by making observations of the organism’s effects
on its surroundings. Describe one simple experiment that you could
do to determine whether microscopic organisms are present in
a sample of pond water.
11. Thinking Critically Virchow knew that single-celled organisms, such as
yeast, could multiply to produce more similar organisms. What might these
findings have suggested to Virchow about growth in multicellular organisms?

7.2 Cells and Technology
In section 7.1, you saw how developments in technology helped curious
researchers develop the cell theory. Since Robert Hooke made his first observa-
Why are the images created
tions of cells, microscopes have continued to improve. These improvements
by microscopes called “micro-
graphs”? Locate this word in have allowed scientists to explore the world of the cell in much greater detail.
a dictionary to find out why. In this section, you will learn how advances in computer and optical technology
In your notebook, compare the have made possible enormous progress in cell biology.
meaning of “micrograph” and
its word roots with the terms
“photograph” and “microscope.” Light Microscopes
The earliest microscopes were simple microscopes. They used only one
lens, which was similar to a magnifying glass. Because visible light was used
to view objects, the simple microscopes were a type of light microscope.
In 1595, a Dutch maker of reading glasses, Zacharias Janssen (1580–c. 1638),
designed a microscope that used two lenses to produce a large image. In doing
so, he created the first compound microscope. This type of microscope, shown
in Figure 7.8, uses two or more lenses placed one on top of the other. Compound
microscopes that are used to view objects illuminated by visible light are called
compound light microscopes.
The quality of the lenses in Robert Hooke’s compound light microscope was
poor. As a result he could see little detail. (Van Leeuwenhoek’s simple micro-
scope, on the other hand, was far superior to compound microscopes of the time.
How he obtained such good results is still a mystery.) During the 1800s, methods
for producing better-quality lenses had paved the way for creation of the modern
compound microscope. You use compound light microscopes in science class.
These microscopes are commonly used to study prepared slides of stained cells
as well as living cells. (See Figure 7.10A on the next page.)
Figure 7.8 Most modern
compound light microscopes Electron Microscopes
use several lenses — one in Many objects that are too small
each eyepiece and one in each
to be seen with a light microscope
objective. The combined power
of the lenses can magnify as can be viewed with an electron
much as 2000x. microscope. Using this type of
microscope, specimens are illuminated
with a beam of electrons instead of
a beam of light. A photograph of an
image from an electron microscope
is called an electron micrograph.
Electron microscopes are extremely
powerful, some magnifying images
up to 1.2 million times.
Figures 7.9 Pictured here is the path of
electrons through a transmission electron
microscope (see next page). Magnets are
used to focus the electrons on the specimen.

The transmission electron microscope (TEM) is one of two main
types of electron microscopes. German scientists built the first TEM
in 1931. Canadian scientists improved on its design in 1938. The
TEM works much like a slide projector, as shown in Figure 7.9.
A beam of electrons is transmitted through a specimen to produce
a two-dimensional image magnified 10 000! to 100 000!
(see Figure 7.10B).
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) was also designed
by German scientists in the 1930s. The SEM sweeps a beam of
electrons over an object to create a three-dimensional image.
These microscopes can be used to view the shapes of specimens
in realistic detail (see Figure 7.10C). Although the SEM can reach A
a magnification of 300 000!, most specimens are easier to view
at magnifications less than 10 000!.
B C
D E
Figure 7.10 A Using compound light microscopes, researchers can view some of the structures within cells.
The nerve cell shown here was stained for light microscopy. The other micrographs of nerve cells (B–D) have
been coloured. B To view objects with the TEM, specimens are thinly sliced and placed under a vacuum to
remove moisture and other interfering particles. Electrons are directed through ultrathin specimens to view
internal structures and details. The TEM can magnify images over 1 million times. C Tiny details are visible
under the SEM, but only the surface of an object can be observed. D As described on page 268, the confocal
laser scanning microscope produces three-dimensional images of cells and their components. E The scanning
tunnelling microscope, described on page 268, produces an image of the atomic structure of the cell surface.

Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope
Czech researchers invented the confocal laser
scanning microscope (CLSM) in the 1960s. This
microscope was introduced elsewhere in the 1980s.
The CLSM makes it possible to study specimens that
are too thick to be viewed using a compound light
microscope. It is not necessary to cut the specimens.
Instead, a laser beam is first directed at one plane, then
another, and so on. This process creates a series of
two-dimensional images. In this way, the CLSM
produces optical “slices” of a three-dimensional object,
such as those shown in Figure 7.11. The images are
“stitched” together using computer software. Using
a CLSM is much like studying a whole loaf of bread
by examining several slices.
Figure 7.11 Shown here are
optical slices through a pollen Scanning Tunnelling Microscope
grain as viewed by a CLSM.
In Unit 1 you saw that it is possible to obtain an image of atoms on an object’s
The last image in the sequence
was created by stacking the
surface. The scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) allows scientists to do
optical slices. this. The STM revolutionized microscopy in the mid-1980s. Because it has
more magnifying power than an electron microscope, an STM lets researchers
produce images of molecules such as DNA.
To use this microscope, a very fine metal probe is brought near the specimen.
Electrons flow between the tip of the probe and atoms on the specimen’s surface.
As the probe follows surface contours on the specimen, this information is
interpreted by a computer. The computer creates a three-dimensional image,
like the one shown in Figure 7.10E on page 267.
In the next investigation you will learn how microscopes are used in
cell research.
Many modern microscopes, including electron microscopes, CLSMs, and

STMs, are integrated with computers. In many cases, the computer can save
the microscope image and display it on a monitor. Researchers can then retrieve,
manipulate, and study the image long after it was created. It is also much easier
and faster to use a computer to operate the microscope indirectly and adjust
the position of a specimen than to do these painstaking tasks by hand.
Computers allow researchers to obtain more precise and better-quality images.
How would you like to try out a magnifying microscope,
scanning electron microscope, confocal microscope, and
more? Go to the web site above to find out where to go next.
Use the virtual tools at the site to view specimens under the
microscope. What kinds of specimens can be viewed with each
type of microscope? What did you learn from the images?
Did the site help you learn more about how microscopes
are used? Write a short paragraph evaluating the
site’s usefulness.

S K I L L C H E C K

7-B
Microscopes and Cell Research

Think About It
Thousands of scientists use microscopes daily to make new discoveries about
cells. Their research improves our health and basic knowledge about biology.
What are these scientists learning? How are their discoveries made?
What to Do Use the library and, if possible, the Internet to

2
1 With a partner, identify an area of cell research gather more information about this research area.
that interests you. The research area you choose
should apply the use of microscopes in some way. 3 As you complete your research, keep a record
You can use the Internet to search for different of all books, web sites, and other resources you
types of research, or select one from the list below. used. Include a comment regarding the quality
of each resource.
Here are some sample topics in cell research:
• how cells divide Analyze
• how viruses and bacteria infect cells 1. What question(s) does the research address?
• diagnosis of viral and bacterial infection
2. (a) How do the researchers use microscopes?
• how genes affect a cell’s activities
(b) What were their observations?
• how cancer cells grow and spread
3. What is being learned from this research?
How is the new knowledge being applied?
4. Compile your research and list of references in

a one- to two-page document. If possible, share
• For tips on researching and organizing information, your findings by e-mailing your document as
turn to Skill Focus 6. an attachment to your classmates.
“Resolution” refers to 0.1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 µm 10 µm 100 µm 1 mm 1 cm 0.1 m 1 m 10 m 100 m 1 km

the ability to distinguish
between two points.
The smallest distance the
unaided human eye can
resolve is about 0.2 mm,
about the width of proteins chloroplast mouse
a human hair. The scanning plant and
tunnelling microscope has animal frog
a maximum “magnifica- amino acids cells egg
tion” of 200 000 000x. atoms viruses human
most bacteria egg ant
Calculate the size of the electron microscope
smallest thing your eye lilac bush blue whale
can resolve through light microscope
one of these powerful unaided human eye
microscopes.

S K I L L C H E C K

7-C
The Power of Microscopes

When scientists discovered cells, they were eager to learn more about how cells
function. Much of what they learned about cell functions came from observations • For tips on making
using the microscope. Even at high magnification, however, many cells are difficult scientific drawings,
to see clearly. Stains and dyes make cells easier to see by marking specific substances. turn to Skill Focus 9.
• For tips on using a
microscope, turn to
Question Skill Focus 10.
How do different types of microscopy techniques enhance our observations?
Apparatus Materials
Safety Precautions tweezers onion
• Avoid getting methylene blue stain on your skin 2 microscope slides water
or in your eyes.
medicine dropper protective gloves
• Handle microscope slides and cover slips with
care so they do not break. 2 cover slips methylene blue solution
magnifying glass filter paper
• Dispose of your materials according to your
teacher’s directions. compound light microscope
• Be careful when using sharp objects such
as tweezers.
Procedure Total Stained

Magnification of magnification with
1 You will examine onion cells at Magnification objective lens (ocular x objective) methylene
differing levels of magnification, level (microscope only) (microscope only) No stain blue
both with and without stain. Magnifying
Predict what you will see at glass
different magnifications and Microscope at
with and without stain. Which low power
technique do you think will Microscope at
allow you to see the most detail medium power
in the cells? Microscope at

high power
2 Copy the data/analysis table

shown here into your notebook. Using a medicine dropper, add a drop of
You will be making drawings in
4
water. Then carefully place the cover slip
the table, so be sure it is large enough on the slide.
to give you plenty of room.
5 Observe the specimen with a magnifying glass.
3 Use the tweezers Draw what you see.
to carefully peel
away a thin layer 6 Observe the specimen under the microscope
of onion skin. Place at low power. Draw what you see.
the section on a
microscope slide. 7 Increase the magnification to medium power.
Draw what you see.

8 Increase the magnification to high power. Draw ! Examine the stained specimen as you did with
what you see. the unstained one, repeating steps 6 and 7. When
you study the specimen under the microscope,
9 Now, prepare another specimen, following the look for a well-stained area with cells that have
instructions in steps 3 and 4. While wearing blue edges.
protective gloves, use another medicine dropper
to add one drop of methylene blue stain to one @ Some of the structures you see in the cells may
edge of the cover slip. CAUTION: Avoid getting be familiar to you. Later in this chapter, you
methylene blue on your skin or in your eye. If will review many of their names and functions.
you get methylene blue on your skin or in your In your notebook, list the structures that you
eye, inform your teacher and rinse the affected recognize. Make a note of some questions you
area with water. The eye should be rinsed for have about these structures and their functions.
at least 15 min — methylene blue is an irritant.
# Wash your hands when you have finished the
investigation and cleaned your work area.
Analyze
1. How did the images of the cells change with
increasing magnification?
2. How was the methylene blue stain useful for

observing the cells?
0 Hold a small piece of filter paper next to the 3. What new details emerged as you examined
cover slip away from the drop of stain. This will the cells in different ways?
draw the methylene blue through the specimen.
4. What do the details you observed suggest
about the cells’ activities?
Many bacteria are transparent. Such cells must be stained to

examine them under the microscope. The Gram stain, developed
by Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938), not only
stains bacteria, but also allows researchers to distinguish between
different kinds of bacteria. The Gram stain procedure stains one
group (Gram-positive bacteria) purple, and another (Gram-negative
bacteria) red. The difference in the colour the cells stain is due to
differences in the chemical structure of their cell walls. The Gram
stain is helpful in trying to determine what type of bacteria has
contaminated a food or water supply, or made someone sick.

Across Canada
Néha Datta attended Western Canada High School in Calgary, Alberta. Along with other science
students across Canada, she has participated in local science fairs and has represented Calgary
twice at the Canada-Wide Science Fair. At age 17, she entered the 2002 Intel International
Science Fair. Her project involved tracking mammalian neural stem cell expansion. Much research
is currently being done into the regeneration mechanisms employed by the central nervous system.
Scientists hope that one day it will be possible to repair damage and restore function in cells
affected by Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and other such conditions.
A large supply of neural stem cells (NSC) is required for research and treatment. Néha
researched methods for expanding neural stem cells that have been specially grown for
research purposes. In her study, she was able to establish optimal growing conditions.
Néha has always enjoyed science and hopes to continue to learn and have fun with
science throughout her career.
A Molecular World
Cells are tiny hubs of molecular activity. It is not surprising that much of
the progress in cell research has come from discoveries made at the level of
molecules. For example, we now know that genes direct the activities of our
Caenorhabditis elegans is a tiny,
cells. Genes are sections of long molecules called DNA. DNA is found in the
transparent worm. Scientists nucleus of every cell. Genetic research shows that changes in the DNA can
studying cell development can result in disease by causing cells to function improperly. Sickle cell anemia, for
use a special microscope to look example, is a blood disease caused by a change in a gene. The change in the gene
inside this worm to observe
its growing cells and tissues. causes the body to make deformed red blood cells, which clog the blood vessels.
C. elegans has relatively few In order to study changes in our genes, many scientists rely on gene
body cells — only about 1000 sequencing. DNA is constructed of thousands to millions of molecular subunits.
— which makes it simpler to
Each subunit contains one of four kinds of bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C),
study than other organisms.
Scientists have traced the guanine (G), and thymine (T). The order of bases is different in every gene.
developmental pathway of Gene sequencing involves mapping the order of all of a gene’s bases.
every cell in this worm’s body. Often, scientists compare gene sequences from two or more sources to look
for differences or similarities between the gene sequences. Not all differences
between gene sequences indicate that one gene is “faulty.” Many are just
normal variations.
The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an international project to sequence
all 30 000 to 40 000 human genes and learn more about them. Scientists have
completed the sequence. The genes of organisms commonly used in research,
such as yeast, mice, fruit flies, and the worm Caenorhabditis
elegans, have also been mapped. Now that scientists know
these sequences, they can learn the genes’ functions more
quickly. The sequences can also be used to develop
methods for diagnosing and treating genetic disorders.
Figure 7.12 Scientists now use automated gene sequencers

to determine the order of bases in genes. First, researchers use
a machine to make more copies of the DNA. Special subunits
tagged with fluorescent dyes are used in the reaction mixture.
The order of bases in the DNA can be traced by following the
order of the four different coloured bands, as shown here.

Cancer — Is It All in the Genes?
Cancer is the second leading cause of death in North
America. (Heart disease is the number one killer.) Most
cancers are caused by damage to genes. Some kinds of
gene damage introduce mutations (changes in the sequence
of bases). Mutations increase a person’s chance of developing
cancer. Figure 7.14 shows a mutation that results in tumours
in rats. Such mutations cause cells to grow and divide
uncontrollably, forming a tumour.
As shown in Figure 7.15 on the next page, normal cells
are prevented from growing too close together. Cancer
cells, however, grow without any restrictions. One of the
ways researchers learn more about cancer-causing genes
is by determining their sequences. Information about
a given gene’s sequence helps researchers to learn how
the gene affects cell activity.
www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/sciencefocus10 Figure 7.13 Shown here are the gene sequences, or order
What kinds of research are currently underway in Canada of bases, in a normal gene (left) and the mutated version of
in the fight against cancer? To learn more about recent this gene (right). The mutated gene differs from the normal
progress in cancer research, statistics on cancer in Canada, gene by one base.
and some breakthroughs that may be just around the corner, go
to the above web site. Investigate which types of cancer appear
to be due to faulty genes. In a 5 min talk to your class,
present your findings about one type of cancer
thought to have a genetic basis.
Living or Not?
At the beginning of this chapter you learned that all living
organisms share some key characteristics. For example,
they require energy, produce waste, and reproduce. How
would you classify a structure that exhibits only some of
the characteristics of life?
A virus is a non-cellular structure made up of a stretch
of genetic material enclosed in a protein coat. When a virus
infects a cell, it takes over the host cell’s reproductive
machinery and causes the host cell to produce more viruses.
The prion is another sub-cellular structure that can
reproduce in living tissue. A prion is a protein that
converts from its normal form into a harmful particle.
Prions cause several deadly diseases, including Bovine
Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) or “mad cow disease.”
Figure 7.14 This illustration shows the shapes of four
Like a virus, a prion does not have any independent life different types of virus particles. Viruses are responsible
functions, and therefore is not considered a functional for many human diseases including polio and the common
unit of life. cold. Viruses can also infect plants and bacteria.

single layer of
normal cells
growth medium
multilayer of
cancer cells
plastic tissue-culture dish
Figure 7.15 Normal cells, as shown on the

left and at the top, are distinct from cancerous
cells. Cancerous cells, shown in the lower dish,
continue to divide indefinitely and form layers
upon layers when grown in tissue cultures.
Culturing Cells in the Laboratory

When scientists study human Cell culture is another valuable technique in cancer and cell research. In cell
cells in the laboratory, they use culture, isolated cells are placed in test tubes, petri dishes, or special flasks (see
cells that people have donated Figure 7.15). The cells are supplied with all the nutrients they need for growth.
for research purposes. One
well-studied line of cells, called The generations of cells that result from growth and division in each culture are
HeLa cells, is named for their called cell lines. These cell lines provide cells for research. Many cell lines have
donor, Henrietta Lacks. In 1951, been cultured from a variety of cancers. Cancer cells can grow indefinitely in the
31-year-old Ms. Lacks was
laboratory, whereas normal cells can live outside the body for only a limited time.
diagnosed with cancer of
the cervix. Researchers from
Stem Cells
Johns Hopkins University in the
United States collected some of What if doctors could grow organs in the lab for patients who needed new hearts
Ms. Lacks’s cancerous cervical and kidneys? What if doctors could grow new nerves for people paralyzed by
cells. The scientists then grew spinal cord injury? Are stem cells the key to these dreams? Stem cells are “blank
the cells in cell culture. Although
Ms. Lacks died from cervical
slate” cells that divide to produce all other types of specialized cells. Stem cells
cancer only eight months after differ from the other cells in your body, which can divide to produce only cells
her diagnosis, her cells live on like themselves. For example, skin cells can produce other skin cells, but they
in the laboratory. HeLa cells cannot produce liver cells. As far as scientists know, some of your cells, such
have made possible important
successes in cancer research. as mature nerve cells, can never divide or be replaced if they are damaged.
Research on HeLa cells has Most of the rapidly dividing cells of a one-week-old embryo are stem cells.
also generated much basic As shown in the diagram on the next page, stem cells divide to become the
knowledge about the biology
multitude of cell types in the body. After they mature into specialized cells,
of cells.
most cells lose the ability to produce cell types other than their own. Adults
retain a limited number of stem cells, which supply new cells to replace those
that are worn-out or damaged. Most adult stem cells are located in the bone
marrow, where new blood cells are produced.
By taking advantage of stem cells’ ability to develop into other cell types,
scientists are looking to develop treatments and cures for a variety of diseases.
Scientists also hope to grow tissues or organs for transplants. Adult stem cells
cannot give rise to all cell types of the body. As a result, adult stem cells cannot
be applied in as many ways as embryonic stem cells can. In the next investigation
you will research more about stem cells.

S K I L L C H E C K

7-D
Exploring Stem Procedure

1 Using the Internet or the library, do some
Cell Research preliminary investigation on stem cell research.
How are stem cells being collected and used?
Think About It
2 There are many applications for stem cells in
Stem cells could potentially be used in the treatment of research and medicine. Identify one application
Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, and and investigate it more thoroughly. Keep a record
spinal cord injury. Human stem cells cultured in the
of the resources you used and note which sources
laboratory could be grown into tissues and organs for
were most useful.
transplants. Drug development and testing using stem
cells could lead to more rapid development of new 3 Find out why some people view the use of stem
medicines. The study of stem cells is also helping scien- cells in research and medicine as unethical, in
tists to understand more about how developing cells terms of the application you are investigating.
become specialized. However, many people argue that
stem cell research is unethical. Some people are espe-
cially concerned that stem cell research devalues human
life. There may also be safety concerns with stem cell • For tips on researching and organizing information,
treatments. What can we learn from stem cell research? turn to Skill Focus 6.
How could it change the treatment of disease and
injury? What are the pros and cons of using stem cells?
Analyze
stem cell
1. Respond to the following questions about
the area of research you examined:
• Where do the stem cells come from?
• How are the stem cells being used?
• What are the possible benefits of
the research?
• What are the risks and ethical
concerns involved?
Division of embryonic stem 2. Organize the information that you have

cells into differentiated gathered in a poster to present to your class.
(specialized) cells Write a paragraph or two summarizing what
you found out. Include a list of pros and cons
differentiated cells in your analysis of the costs and benefits of
How Can Science Help? stem cell research. Also include a flowchart
that illustrates how the stem cells are used
Are there technical challenges that would make treating
or how the research is done.
diseases using stem cells impossible? Careful, long-
term studies will be needed to learn if transplanted
stem cells will function in humans the way stem cells
function in the lab. Scientists must make sure that stem
cell transplants or organs developed from stem cells Why do you think biologists have given the name “stem” to
will not carry diseases or result in other negative stem cells? How are stem cells like the stem of a plant? Draw
a Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences between
effects. They need to find out if such transplanted the stem of a plant and stem cells.
cells or tissues will function and age normally.

Healthy Cells, Healthy People
Every multicellular organism Your body contains hundreds of different kinds of cells that perform hundreds
begins development as a single cell.
of specialized functions. What would happen if some of your cells stopped
Through a series of cell divisions,
that cell multiplies to produce all functioning properly? Chances are, you would get sick. The kind of health
the cells that eventually make up problem you developed would depend on which cells stopped functioning
the mature organism. As the cells properly and the reason for their failure.
divide, they become specialized
as part of a certain kind of tissue,
Rudolf Virchow was the first scientist to see a link between malfunctioning
such as skin tissue, blood tissue, cells and most illnesses. He thought the best way to understand disease was to
or leaf tissue. study the activity of the infected or damaged cells. In Virchow’s time, researchers
were still piecing together the basics of cell function and tissue function. Since
then, scientists have made great advances in understanding how cells work and
how cell activity contributes to disease.
Section 7.2 Summary

In this section, you learned how developments in microscope technology have
increased our knowledge of cells. Light microscopes and electron microscopes
help researchers investigate cells in remarkable detail. The use of these tools has
resulted in a better understanding of the structure and function of cells. You
also learned about cell research as it relates to human health. Gene mapping,
cancer research, and stem cell research are linked to the advances in our
understanding of cells and the advances in microscope technology.

1. What is the difference between a simple microscope and
When Theodor Schwann first a compound microscope?
stated the cell theory, he also
tried to explain how a single type 2. Compare how images are produced when using an electron microscope
of structure — a cell — could versus a light microscope.
result in many different kinds of
structures and organisms. Write 3. Describe how and why staining techniques are used to study cells.
a letter to Schwann explaining
why this is possible. 4. How do scientists grow cells in the laboratory?
5. (a) What is a gene sequence?
(b) Why is it valuable to know a gene’s sequence?
6. Explain how stem cells differ from other kinds of cells.
7. Thinking Critically How do the SEM and CLSM differ in the way
that they collect data and provide three-dimensional images?
8. Thinking Critically At first glance, research on the genes of yeast, flies,
and worms may appear to have little to do with learning about human
Henrietta Lacks’s husband has
said researchers used his wife’s health. Explain why scientific discoveries made about these and other
cells without his or her permis- organisms’ genes might be important to medical researchers.
sion. Should scientists be allowed
to use someone’s cells or body 9. (a) Compare the technologies available to cell biologists today with the
tissues in research or medicine tools that were available to scientists such as Robert Hooke and
without that person’s permission? Antony van Leeuwenhoek.
Make a list of arguments for both
sides of this issue. (b) Explain, using one example, how the availability of tools influences
the types of questions scientists can address in their research.

7.3 What’s in a Cell?
Many people have compared the cell to a bustling
city, like the one shown in Figure 7.16. From a
great distance, a city may seem a quiet place with
little activity. At its core, however, a city is in
constant motion. People with different skills take
care of the city’s needs. These include as generating
power, bringing in food, disposing of garbage, and
moving people and supplies from place to place.
To run smoothly, a city relies on teamwork
and organization. Even its shape and structure
help it to function successfully. What would
happen if cities had no streets, sidewalks, buses,
water and sewer lines, or power lines? They
would not be very efficient. Transportation of
people, food, wastes, and energy would occur
much more slowly, if at all. Well-designed cities
are structured to enable communication within
their borders, as well as with other cities. Ports,
harbours, and highways provide connections with
the outside world.
Cells are just as complex, busy, and organized as
cities. In plant and animal cells, specific functions
are carried out by specific internal cell parts called
organelles. Various organelles are illustrated in
Figures 7.17A and B on the next four pages.
Boundaries create compartments for specific
cell functions and also protect the cell. Vital
connections run among organelles and connect
organelles with the cell membrane. Co-ordination
of the organelles enables cells to survive and
function in a variety of environments. Just as
a city is always bustling with different activities, Figure 7.16 How is a cell like a busy city? As you read the following
all of the cell functions described in Figure 7.17A section, compare the roles of different cell structures to the functions
and B take place at the same time. of people, vehicles, and structures in a city.
Plant and Animal Cells

Plants and animals are made up of many different tissues, each of which is
made up of specialized cells. Specialized cells take on different forms. For
example, under a microscope, a muscle cell looks different from a blood
cell. Plant and animal cells have many of the same parts. They also have
some features that distinguish one from the other. All cells, different though
they may be, share several basic structural and functional similarities. Learn
more about plant and animal cell structure by examining the diagrams on
the next pages.

A Cell membrane
Every cell has a cell membrane. This boundary around the cell separates the cell interior
Not all cells have membrane-bound
organelles. Cells that do — including from the environment. The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane) holds in fluids,
most animal and plant cells — are chemicals, and structures that the cell needs to survive. These contents are suspended within
called eukaryotes. Bacteria and some the jelly-like cytoplasm that fills the cell. The cell membrane keeps the cell’s contents from
algae lack a membrane-bound leaking out. It also prevents unwanted materials from getting inside the cell while allowing
nucleus and organelles. These needed materials to enter.
cells are called prokaryotes. The cell membrane and membranes surrounding the organelles are composed mainly
of lipids, the basic units of fats and oils. Lipids give the membranes a fluid-like structure.
Like a drop of oil floating on water, the cell membrane can change shape. Small sections
may pinch off, forming small membrane sacs called vesicles. These structures store or
transport materials in and out of the cell. Protein molecules embedded in the membrane
act as tiny doors that let certain molecules cross the boundary. Some other materials, such
as oxygen and carbon dioxide, simply diffuse across the membrane.
The cell membrane is also the cell’s front line of communication. Proteins in the membrane
can interact with other cells and detect chemicals in the environment.
B Nucleus C Lysosomes
Like the mayor of a city, the nucleus is the manager that Inside special vesicles called lysosomes various materials are
directs all of the cell’s activities. Within the nucleus are the degraded with the help of digestive enzymes, a type of protein.
cell’s genes. Information encoded in the DNA is copied in Inside the lysosomes, the pH is generally low, which helps the
the form of messenger molecules, which leave the nucleus digestive enzymes to function. Lysosomes can fuse with vesicles
through nuclear pores in its membrane, called the nuclear containing food particles taken up by animal cells or single-
envelope. In the cytoplasm, the messenger molecules attach celled organisms. The digestive enzymes break down particles,
to larger molecules called ribosomes. Ribosomes are produced just as enzymes in our digestive system break down the food
in an area of the nucleus called the nucleolus. Ribosomes we eat. Some lysosomes protect the body by killing infectious
translate information on the messenger molecules into proteins, micro-organisms. In various cell types, lysosomes also devour
which carry out cellular functions and are a part of many old, worn-out cell parts. These components may be recycled
cell structures. or used to provide energy.
D Endoplasmic reticulum E Golgi apparatus

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of folded membranes Molecules transported in vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum
and tubes connected with the nucleus. The endoplasmic often make their first stop at the Golgi apparatus. The vesicle
reticulum has two types of membranes: rough and smooth. membrane fuses with the membrane of the Golgi apparatus. The
The rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes. molecules delivered from the endoplasmic reticulum are modified
Ribosomes build proteins. These are then packaged in vesicles by enzymes and made fully functional. Then, like a post office, the
for transport. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum has no Golgi apparatus sorts and repackages the molecules into vesicles,
ribosomes. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes which are distributed to other locations in the cell. Vesicles that
lipids and packages large molecules (proteins or lipids) in contain materials needed outside the cell pinch off from the Golgi
vesicles. These vesicles are transported to other parts of apparatus and travel to the cell membrane. The Golgi apparatus
the cell, usually the cell membrane or the Golgi apparatus. is also where lysosomes (see C), are produced.
Look up the word “lysis” in the dictionary. How does the meaning of this word relate to
the name and function of a lysosome? Draw a diagram in your notebook to illustrate
the function of a lysosome.

Animal Cell
B D
nucleus endoplasmic reticulum
nuclear pores rough endoplasmic smooth endoplasmic

reticulum reticulum
nuclear nucleolus
envelope
ribosomes
cytoplasm
cell
membrane
A
centrioles
G
mitochondrion
F vacuole
(see H on
next page)
lysosome
Golgi apparatus
C vesicle E
F Mitochondria G Centrioles
When you turn on a light in your house, the energy needed to When a cell divides, it must reproduce all of its genetic
operate it flows in from a power plant. When your cells do work, material and then divide this material between the two new
they also need a source of energy. Mitochondria (singular, cells. Centrioles are cylindrical structures located just outside
“mitochondrion”) provide that energy. Cells that need a lot of the nucleus. In animal cells, these structures play an important
energy, such as muscle cells, tend to have many mitochondria. role in cell division by helping to move genetic material correctly
Within the mitochondria, chemical reactions convert the energy into each new cell. Most plant cells do not have centrioles.
in food molecules into a form that the cell can use to carry out
other activities. The reactions occur on folded membranes inside
the mitochondria.
Figure 7.17A Animal cell

H Vacuoles
You keep your extra clothing, food, and other materials in storage, in a cabinet or closet.
In many cells, balloon-like vesicles called vacuoles provide storage space for water, food, and
minerals. Plant cells also use vacuoles to regulate the amount of water in the cells. Digestion of
old cell parts occurs in certain vacuoles. Some vacuoles contain wastes. Some plant cells even
contain poisons to prevent animals from eating the plant. Plant cells usually have a large central
vacuole that may occupy nearly the entire cell volume. Animal cells have many smaller vacuoles.
I Cell wall
Plant cells, fungi, and some bacteria have cell walls. Like the walls of a house, cell walls are
rigid and supportive, giving cells their shape. When Robert Hooke observed cork cells, what he
actually saw were the cell walls of dead plant cells. The cell wall, which is composed of a fibrous
material called cellulose, completely encloses the cell membrane.
J Chloroplasts
Green plants (and some single-celled organisms) manufacture food from water and carbon
dioxide by trapping the energy of sunlight. This process is called photosynthesis. Chloroplasts,
the organelles of photosynthesis, have two layers of membranes: an inner layer of flattened
membrane sacs enclosed by a second outer membrane. The inner membranes contain the green
pigment molecule chlorophyll. This molecule absorbs energy from the Sun and converts it to
chemical energy. This chemical energy is used to power the chemical reactions that synthesize
sugars from carbon dioxide gas and water.
Wood products, paper, and cotton are all made from

the cellulose walls of plants. Cellulose is an important
part of our diets, too. When we eat fruits and What is the life story of a protein? In a flow diagram, trace what happens
vegetables, the cellulose in their cell walls provides to a new protein, starting with its production to its transport throughout
fibre that keeps the digestive tract healthy. However, the cell. Indicate how the organelles described in Figure 7.17 would be
because people lack digestive enzymes to break down involved in the protein’s “life story.”
cellulose, it has no nutritional value.
What would you find if you could dissect a single cell?
For a virtual tour of a cell and its organelles, visit the web site
above. Magnify, cut, rotate, and see inside a cell using the web
site’s tools. As you explore the virtual cell, make drawings in your
notebook of the cellular structures you observe. Write a brief
paragraph describing what you can learn from a model
such as the virtual cell compared with a two-dimensional
illustration. Explain how research scientists could
use computer models of cells.

Plant Cell
B
nucleus
nuclear pore
H
central vacuole nucleolus
nuclear
envelope
J
chloroplast
ribosome
I
cell wall
cell membrane
A
mitochondrion
smooth rough
F endoplasmic endoplasmic
reticulum reticulum
cytoplasm
D
Golgi apparatus
cell wall of adjacent cell endoplasmic reticulum
E
Figure 7.17B Plant cell

S K I L L C H E C K

7-E
Comparing and Contrasting

If you were to compare a plant with an animal, you would find the two to be very
different. However, if you were to examine individual cells of these organisms, would
they look as different? In this investigation, you will compare plant and animal cells.
For tips on making
scientific drawings,
Question turn to Skill Focus 9.
How do plant and animal cells differ? How are they similar?
Safety Precautions 4 Focus on one cell. Draw what you see, labelling
• Be careful when using sharp objects such as tweezers. your diagram. Increase the magnification to
medium power and then to high power to
• Handle glass slides and cover slips carefully. If broken,
they are sharp and dangerous. make more detailed observations of individual
organelles. What organelles and other structures
Apparatus Materials are visible? Do you see any movement? Record
medicine dropper Vallisneria your observations in the data table.
microscope slide prepared slide of Return to low power and remove the slide.
scissors animal cells
5
tweezers 6 Place a prepared slide of animal cells under
cover slip the microscopes. Repeat steps 4 and 5.
compound light microscope
Procedure
Copy the data table below into your notebook. For tips on using a microscope, turn to Skill Focus 10.
1
Cell structure Vallisneria cell Animal cell
cell membrane
Analyze
cytoplasm
nucleus 1. Which structures were visible in both cell types?
cell wall Which were visible in only one cell type?
chloroplasts
2. In what ways are the two cell types similar?
Why are plants and animals so similar at the
2 Use the medicine level of the cell?
dropper to put a drop
of water in the centre 3. In what ways are the two cell types different?
of a clean slide. Cut Relate the differences you saw in the cells’
a small portion of the structures to the differing processes and
Vallisneria leaf. Using functions of plants and animals.
tweezers, place it on top of the drop of water.
Cover it with a cover slip, making sure that
no bubbles are visible. Extension
4. Did you observe any movement of structures
3 Observe the leaf on low power. Focus on the top within the plant cells? If so, suggest what might
layer of cells. Then, carefully focus down through
have caused this movement.
the leaf to observe the layers of cells below.

S K I L L C H E C K

7-F
A Cellular Story
Think About It
This section opens with a comparison between a cell
and a city. Many people also describe cells as miniature
factories with separate areas for production, transport,
and other tasks. Analogies like this are an important
tool for communicating scientific ideas. In this
investigation, you will develop your own analogy
to describe a cell. You will then use this analogy
to share information about cellular structures.
What to Do
1 Your teacher will divide the class into small
groups. With your group, gather and organize
the data you will need. For example, collect
information about the function of each organelle,
its size, and its location in the cell. Visit the library • For tips on researching, turn to Skill Focus 6.
or search the Internet to find the data you need. • For tips on presentations, turn to Skill Focus 8.
2 Brainstorm possible analogies you could use to

communicate information about the cell and its
organelles. Then decide on the one analogy that Analyze
will be the basis for your project. Discuss with
1. Write an assessment of the analogy you have
your group how to make your analogy fit well
chosen. In what ways does it work well? Are
with the information you have gathered.
there any ways in which it does not work?
3 Prepare a model or a presentation to present
2. Which analogies chosen by your class were the
your information using the analogy your group
most effective at communicating information
has chosen. For example, if you have chosen to
about the cell? Why do you think these
compare the cell to a factory, you could do one
worked well?
of the following:
(a) create a physical model of a factory 3. After you have looked at the models or
showing how different areas represent presentations by other groups, can you
different organelles; think of any ways to improve your own?
(b) prepare a “virtual tour” of the factory on 4. Write some comparisons you could use to
a computer; describe the functions of individual organelles.
(c) perform a skit live or on videotape, in which
you show your audience around the factory. Extension
5. Biologist and science writer Lewis Thomas
once compared Earth to a single cell. In what
ways do you think this analogy works? Discuss
your ideas with your class.

Across Canada
Drs. Jianzhong Zhang and Norm Dovichi, of the University this new technology. These organizations assumed that
of Alberta, developed a technology that accelerated by U.S. companies were probably doing similar research
several years the mapping of the human genome. Their with more lucrative funding.
technology involved a DNA sequencer that could analyze Because of the many delays, a foreign company was
DNA ten times faster than previous instruments. able to develop the same technology and file patents
Zhang and Dovichi began work on the sequencer for it. Those patents were the ones that eventually
in the late 1980s, and spent several years trying to turned the technology into the success story it is today.
secure funding and patents. However, they encountered Recognizing that research such as Zhang and Dovichi’s
frustration whenever they tried to obtain funding for their must be financially supported, the University of Alberta
work. None of the funding organizations was sufficiently has formed an Industrial Liaison Office, partly to ensure
knowledgeable at that time to appreciate the importance of that its star researchers will not go unrecognized.
Section 7.3 Summary

In this section, you learned about the structure and function of cell organelles.
You compared the organelles in plant and animal cells and learned that the two
types of cells share many structures and functions. Structures shared by both plant
Some scientists think that both and animal cells include the cell membrane, the nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochon-
mitochondria and chloroplasts dria, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and the vacuoles. Plant
evolved from bacteria. According
to one hypothesis, ancient cells cells usually have one large vacuole, while animal cells contain many smaller
had nuclei and a few other vacuoles. Structures that appear in plant cells but not in animal cells include
organelles, but no mitochondria chloroplasts and the rigid cell wall that supports a plant cell and gives it its shape.
or chloroplasts. Some of these
cells engulfed bacteria, which
continued to survive. Eventually,
the two grew to depend on each Check Your Understanding
other and their relationship 1. Name two cellular structures that are present in plant cells, but not in
became permanent. One piece
of evidence for this hypothesis animal cells.
is that both mitochondria and 2. Which structure within the cell carries out protein synthesis?
chloroplasts contain a small
amount of their own DNA, which 3. How is the Golgi apparatus like a post office?
looks similar to bacterial DNA.
4. Organelles divide the cell interior into many different compartments.
Explain how having compartments benefits the cell.
5. Describe the functions of vacuoles in plant cells.
6. How are mitochondria and chloroplasts distinct from other organelles?
How are mitochondria and 7. Thinking Critically What would happen inside a cell if its lysosomes
chloroplasts similar? Answer
had leaky membranes?
the following questions about
mitochondria and chloroplasts 8. Thinking Critically During the development of red blood cells, the cell
and organize your responses in
nucleus is lost. How do you think this affects a red blood cell’s longevity
a table. You may use drawings
to illustrate your answers. and ability to divide?
• In which kind of cell is each of 9. Thinking Critically The endoplasmic reticulum is attached to the
these organelles found? nucleus. How is this close association important to the cell’s activities?
• What is its function?
• What are its shape and 10. Thinking Critically Assume you could tag the atoms in a food molecule
structure? with a visible marker. Using a flow diagram, trace the path of one such
• In what part of the organelle
do the energy-producing atom in the cell, starting with the digestion of the food molecule. Follow
reactions occur? the atom up to the point when it is used in cell structures. Name the
organelles involved at each leg of the journey.

(a) Describe how the observations made by Hooke, (f ) Describe how microscopy stains work and why
van Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, and Schwann led they are used. (7.2)
scientists to conclude that all living things are
made up of cells. (7.1) (g) Describe some of the ways that cancer cells are
being studied in the laboratory. (7.2)
(b) Explain the difference between spontaneous
generation and biogenesis. (7.1) (h) Explain why physicians and scientists are inter-
ested in research on stem cells. (7.2)
(c) Explain how Louis Pasteur’s experiment
supported the hypothesis of biogenesis. (7.1) (i) Define what an organelle is, and explain how
organelles contribute to cell functions. (7.3)
(d) State which type of microscope(s) would be
most appropriate for studying the following: (j) Explain how animal and plant cells differ. (7.3)
(i) living cells, (ii) the shape of a molecule,
(iii) the shape of a large or thick specimen. (k) Describe the functions of the following
Explain your choice. (7.2) organelles and cell structures and find them
on the diagram shown here: (i) nucleus,
(e) Explain how computers have made microscopy (ii) endoplasmic reticulum, (iii) cell membrane,
easier and more precise. (7.2) (iv) mitochondria. (7.3)
Summarize this chapter by doing one of the • Create a chart listing the different kinds of
following. Use a graphic organizer (such as a microscopes discussed in this chapter. Briefly
concept map), produce a poster, or write the describe how each microscope works, and state
summary to include the key chapter concepts. its maximum magnification.
Here are a few ideas to use as a guide: • Make a list of some of the activities a cell
• Draw a timeline summarizing the process of must carry out to survive. Next to each activity,
development of the cell theory and the give the name of at least one organelle or cell
theory of biogenesis. structure that contributes to that activity.

4
7
C H A P T E R
Review
Key Terms
spontaneous generation scanning electron cell membrane rough endoplasmic

abiogenesis microscope (SEM) cytoplasm reticulum
biogenesis confocal laser scanning lipid smooth endoplasmic
microscope (CLSM) reticulum
cell vesicle
scanning tunnelling Golgi apparatus
cell theory microscope (STM) nucleus
mitochondria
simple microscope base nuclear pores
nuclear envelope centriole
compound light microscope gene sequencing
ribosome vacuole
electron microscope cell culture
nucleolus cell wall
electron micrograph cell line
lysosome cellulose
transmission electron stem cell
microscope (TEM) organelle endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chloroplast
Understanding Key Concepts 10. What are some of the techniques being
Section numbers are provided if you need to review. used to study genes? (7.2)
1. Who was Francesco Redi, and how did he 11. Explain how a cell wall differs from a cell
contribute to the theory of biogenesis? (7.1) membrane in both structure and function. (7.3)
2. How have modern microscopes improved on early 12. Match each organelle with the correct function.
microscopes? Explain your response using three (7.3)
examples of improvements. (7.1) (a) ribosome (i) transports materials
3. Explain why certain plant cells have chloroplasts, (b) mitochondrion throughout cell
whereas animal cells do not. (7.3) (c) vacuole (ii) converts energy in
(d) vesicle food molecules into
4. Describe the role of technology in the development a form cells can use
of the cell theory. (7.1) (iii) makes proteins
(iv) stores water in
5. Compare the ideas of Rudolf Virchow with those
plant cells
of Louis Pasteur. How were they similar? (7.1)
6. Explain the difference between adult stem cells Developing Skills
and embryonic stem cells. (7.2) 13. Design an experiment to test the hypothesis
7. What kind of cell is pictured that the formation of algae in a fish tank is
here — an animal cell or due to biogenesis.
a plant cell? Explain your (a) Based on your hypothesis, predict the
reasoning. (7.3) outcome of the experiment.
(b) What experimental results would suggest
8. Describe the similarities and that your hypothesis was not valid, and that
differences between vesicles, algae form spontaneously in the fish tank?
lysosomes, and vacuoles. (7.3)
14. Make a diagram of a cell illustrating the effect
9. Explain why much of cancer research that opening a hole in the cell membrane would
focusses on genes. (7.2) have on the cell.

15. Refer to the photographs shown here. He wants to make observations of the cells’ nuclei,
but is having trouble identifying them. Suggest
how your classmate could improve his ability to
observe the nuclei.
20. Type 1 diabetes occurs when the pancreatic cells
are damaged. As a result, these cells are unable
to make insulin, a chemical messenger that
regulates the level of sugar in the blood. How
might researchers develop a cure for Type 1
mitochondrion diabetes using stem cells?
21. How would a mutation in a gene encoding
a ribosomal protein affect cell function?
Critical Thinking
22. Mature red blood cells have no mitochondria.
Explain how this affects the function of these cells.
500 nm 23. Explain why Hooke’s observations alone would
chloroplast probably not have led scientists to develop the
cell theory.
(a) If 2 cm represents 265 nm on the electron
micrograph of a mitochondrion, determine 24. Explain how the cell theory has influenced the
the approximate length of this organelle. way scientists study conditions such as cancer,
(b) Use the scale with the electron micrograph Alzheimer’s disease, and spinal cord injury.
of a chloroplast to determine the approximate 25. If Antony van Leeuwenhoek had not published his
size of this organelle. findings, would the course of the development
(c) Make a diagram showing the relative size of the cell theory have been different? Why or
of each organelle. Include the scale. why not? Explain how the communication of
ideas and data are important for the progress
Problem Solving/Applying of scientific discovery.
16. Suppose you are doing an investigation of 26. One criticism of science-based explanations for
mitochondria and want to be able to see them natural phenomena is that these explanations
magnified in clear detail. Describe some of the often change. For example, Hooke initiated the
methods you might use in your research. development of the cell theory by claiming that
cork was made of cells. Later, Schleiden and
17. A classmate has given you three test tubes
Schwann revised Hooke’s argument and stated
containing dividing cells. One of the test tubes that all living things are made of cells. Present
contains stem cells, and the other two contain a counter-argument to the criticism that revising
specialized cells. However, she has forgotten the “facts” is a weakness of the scientific method.
to label the tubes. How could you determine
which tube contains stem cells?
18. Design a procedure to identify whether a sample of
cells was collected from an animal or from a plant.
Now that you have finished the chapter, re-read the Focussing
19. A classmate is studying the root cells of a radish Questions in the chapter opener. Write responses to these
seedling under a compound light microscope. questions based on the new information you have learned.

8
C H A P T E R
Dynamic Cells
• What are the properties of

membranes and how do these
properties contribute
to cell survival?
• How does matter move into
and out of cells?
• Why and how are the size and
shape of a cell important?

T his long, thin bacterium is
being engulfed by a macrophage.
Membranes allow the passage of
some materials but not others. The
This is a type of cell that defends the properties of membranes allow cells
body against invading disease-causing to change shape. The macrophage
organisms. How does the macrophage does this when it surrounds and
— a single cell — carry out such a engulfs the bacterium. In fact,
complex function? What is the story membrane properties are so useful
behind the picture? Cells are much that people have created many types
more than a collection of organelles of artificial membranes for different
and cytoplasm. The lives of cells applications. For example, artificial
depend on how these structures membranes have been developed to
function and interact, with each safely transport medications from
other and with the outside world. one part of the body to another.
Thousands of chemical reactions In Chapter 8, you will explore the
are taking place within this macro- structure of membranes. You will also
phage. Like the other cells of your learn how membranes manage the
body, the macrophage is sending and basic activities of living cells by
receiving signals, dividing, using controlling the passage of water
energy, and building new molecules. and other materials.
To carry out these activities, cells o
oki
n
must be able to store and transport

L
oki
o
n
Why are there multic

L
head
A
materials. Some chemicals must be How do cells work

ellular organisms?
head together in a multic
A
combined in the cell, and others lular organism, su

ch as a plant? In a
el-
group, come up wi small
must be kept separate. How are th possible proced
could use to answ ures you
er these questions
to learn about a lea . For instance,
cell activities controlled? Among f’s functions, you ma
dissect the leaf. Th y need to
e strategies you de
the most important structures a cell you with “Design Yo vise will help
ur Own Investigati
Out: The Parts of Pla on: Inside
relies on to carry out these activities nts,” which you wi
ll complete
at the end of Unit 3.
are its membranes.
Chapter 8 Dynamic
Solar Energy Cells •• MHR
and Climates MHR 289
289
8.1 Membrane Properties
Why do cells need membranes? Consider what you would require to keep
tropical fish. You would need an aquarium to hold water, which could be kept
warm with a small heater. A lid with a light attached to it may cover the top
of the tank. Like the tropical fish in Figure 8.1, cells survive in a controlled
environment. Instead of glass and plastic, a cell has a membrane to separate its
interior from its surroundings. By defining the inside versus the outside of cells,
membranes allow cells to survive as individual units of life.
A cell must also allow some materials to move in and out of it. Similarly, the
aquarium may require a bubbler to introduce oxygen from the air into the water.
Someone must feed the fish and, when wastes build up, replace the dirty water.
Materials entering or exiting a cell must cross the cell membrane. Unlike the hard,
inflexible walls of an aquarium, however, cell membranes change according
to each cell’s needs. The flow of matter between a cell and its environment
makes it an open system.
Figure 8.1 In what ways is an aquarium of tropical fish similar to a cell?

In what ways is it different?
Membrane Structure
Cell membranes are primarily composed of a double layer of phospholipids
(a type of lipid). Proteins and other molecules are embedded between and
attached to the phospholipids. What happens if you try to dissolve lipids, such
as cooking oil, in water? Even with the most vigorous mixing, the oil does not
dissolve. Although the mixing may cause small droplets of fat to separate, the
droplets float back to the surface to form a thin film. The behaviour of the
phospholipids that make up cell membranes is similar to that of the fat droplets.
In the presence of water, phospholipids spontaneously form thin layers.

As shown in Figure 8.2, each phospholipid molecule has a head and a tail.
The two ends have different chemical compositions that cause them to inter-
act differently with water. The head end is hydrophilic, or “water-loving.”
Hydrophilic molecules dissolve easily in water. The tail end, however, is
hydrophobic, or “water-fearing.” Hydrophobic molecules, such as fats and
oils, do not dissolve readily in water. Water molecules repel, or push away,
the tail end of a phospholipid.
The dual nature of phospholipid molecules causes them to arrange themselves
automatically into layers that are two molecules thick. As Figure 8.3 shows,
in each double-layered membrane, the phospholipids’ hydrophilic heads point
toward the water. Their hydrophobic tails are sandwiched in the middle, where
they are shielded from the water. The two layers of phospholipid molecules
are called phospholipid bilayers. Viewed from the side, the two layers of
phospholipids look almost like mirror images of one another. In the Find Out
Activity on the next page, you can investigate the properties of membranes.
CH3
nitrogen CH2 +
N CH3
group CH2 CH3
O hydrophilic
phosphate O P O- head group
group
O
CH2 CH CH2
glycerol
O O
C O C O
CH2 CH2 head hydrophilic heads
CH2 CH2
hydrophobic tails
CH2 CH2 tail
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
fatty acids
hydrophobic
CH2 CH2 tail group water
CH2 CH
CH2 CH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH3
CH2
CH3
Figure 8.2 A phospholipid molecule has hydrophobic Figure 8.3 The molecular structure of a phospholipid bilayer.
fatty acid tails and a hydrophilic head. The head contains Unlike the cell membrane of a living cell, the bilayer shown
a phosphate group and, in some cases, a nitrogen group. here surrounds only water.
Chapter 8 Dynamic Cells • MHR 291

Find Out
Bubble Biology
How do membranes behave? What do they look 5. Predict what will happen if you stretch, fold,
like? A soap bubble is one type of membrane. or alter the shape of the detergent solution
Soap molecules are very similar to phospholipids; membrane. Test your predictions and describe
they have a water-soluble head and a water- what happens to the membrane.
insoluble tail. As a result, soap bubbles have (a) Slide the straws of the string-and-straw
several similarities to cell membranes. In this apparatus into different positions to create
activity, you will use soap bubbles to explore different shapes.
the nature of membranes.
(b) Hold the apparatus perpendicular to the
Safety Precautions floor, then sweep it sideways to stretch
the membrane.
• Avoid spilling soapy water on the floor, and
clean up any spills. (c) To test the effect of folding the membrane,
slowly bend and fold the apparatus.
Materials (d) As one partner holds the membrane, the
newspapers straws detergent solution other should wet a finger in the detergent
cotton string scissors cafeteria trays solution and slowly push it through and
sideways in the membrane.
6. After holding the membrane out of the solution
1. Work with a partner to spread newspapers on
for several seconds, observe the membrane
the table and floor in your work area.
surface closely for movement.
2. Thread a piece of cotton string through two
straws. Hold the straws parallel to each other 7. Clean and dry your work area.
and pull them apart to make parallel sides of
a rectangle that is smaller than the cafeteria What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
tray. Cut and knot the ends of the string. 1. (a) How does the membrane respond to
bending and prodding?
(b) What do your observations suggest about
the properties of cell membranes?
2. Based on your observations, would you

expect the phospholipids in cell membranes
to move within the membrane? Explain
3. Without making the detergent solution frothy, your answer.
pour it into the tray to a depth of about 1 cm.
3. How might the properties of membranes
4. Dip the string-and-straw rectangle into affect their functions?
the detergent solution, then lift it to create
a thin film.
At about 10 nanometres, the thickness of a soap bubble

membrane is very similar to that of a cell membrane.

Membranes Contain Proteins
Cell membranes contain embedded proteins. These proteins move substances
across the membrane and carry out chemical reactions. Other proteins protrude
from the membrane’s surface. Some proteins have “marker” molecules on
them that allow cells to recognize each other and, in some cases, protect cells
from infection. Such proteins may also act as an attachment site for “messenger
molecules,” such as hormones. Messenger molecules are used in cell-to-cell
communication and control of cell functions.
Membranes Are Fluid

Viewed under the microscope, cell membranes may appear motionless.
However, the molecules that make up membranes are thought to be in constant
What is a mosaic? Compare the
motion, as in a fluid. This model suggests that, like canoes on a lake, membrane
structure of a mosaic of tiles or
phospholipids and proteins drift past one another. This fluidity helps membrane stones with the structure of a
proteins to function by allowing them to move within the membrane. It also membrane. In your notebook,
gives membranes flexibility, allowing cells to change shape. This model of write a short note relating the
everyday meaning of “mosaic”
membrane structure is called the fluid-mosaic model, because the fluid motion
to your understanding of the
within membranes changes the pattern of proteins on the cell surface. The fluid fluid-mosaic model.
mosaic model is shown in Figure 8.4. Carbohydrates (such as sugars) are attached
to lipids and proteins on the membrane’s outer surface. These carbohydrates
are thought to be involved in cell-to-cell communication. Together, the proteins,
lipids, and carbohydrates of the membrane form a biological mosaic. In the next
investigation you will learn about an experiment that supports the hypothesis
that membranes are fluid.
Outside cell
carbohydrate
chain
phospholipid
integral bilayer
protein
cholesterol
Inside cell peripheral filaments of

protein the cytoskeleton
Figure 8.4 The fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure. Inside the cell, parts of the cell’s skeleton
(called the cytoskeleton) support the membrane. Each type of cell has its own unique “fingerprint” of
carbohydrate chains on the outer surface that distinguishes it from other kinds of cells.

S K I L L C H E C K

8–A
Fusing Fluid Cell Membranes

Think About It
Cell membranes are about seven millionths of a millimetre thick.
Until the invention of electron microscopes, it was not possible
to observe membranes directly. Even so, scientists were able to
make inferences about membranes by studying the movement of mouse cell human cell
protein molecules embedded within them. In one experiment,
illustrated here, researchers labelled membrane proteins with
dyes. The dyes made the proteins visible under a microscope. cell fusion
Then, two labelled cells — one mouse cell and one human cell
— were fused. Observations of the resulting hybrid cell led to
some important new insights about the structure and behaviour
of the cell membrane.
What to Do immediately after fusion

1 On the previous page you learned that membranes
are fluid. Before scientists discovered this, an
alternative hypothesis might have stated that
membranes are rigid. Both hypotheses can be
tested by the mouse-human cell fusion experi-
ment. Based on the two hypotheses, develop two
predictions about the movement of membrane
proteins during cell fusion. Write each prediction
in your notebook. mixed membrane proteins
After human cells and mouse cells fuse,
2 The cell fusion experiment is illustrated in the the membrane proteins of the mouse cell
diagram to the right. Describe any differences (blue spheres) and of the human cell
in membrane protein distribution before and (red spheres) mix within a short time.
after the human and mouse cells were fused.
Analyze
1. Describe the behaviour of the membrane In just one second, the average
proteins. What does their distribution tell phospholipid molecule travels
about two micrometres (two
you about the ability of the proteins to move millionths of a metre) within a cell’s
within the membrane? membrane. Although that distance might not seem far, it’s
about the full length of a large bacterial cell. Scaled up to the
2. Compare the results of the experiment with size of a human, this would be equivalent to a person travelling
your predictions. Which prediction was a kilometre in a single second — fast enough to break the
sound barrier! Membrane proteins are much larger than
more accurate? lipids and move more slowly.
3. Determine which hypothesis is more consistent

with the results you observed. Explain
your decision.

Membrane Function
A Biological Barrier
The cell membrane prevents many substances from entering
a cell. The fluids that bathe cells contain chemicals such as salts,
sugar, and proteins. Electrically charged molecules and atoms
(ions) are also present in these fluids. Also, organisms such as
viruses and bacteria may float in the space around cells. The cell
membrane often prevents such materials from entering cells.
Membranes organize the insides of cells into many smaller
compartments. Most organelles are surrounded by membranes
and chemical reactions take place within these organelles. By
keeping certain chemicals together, membranes help to promote
the reactions that are needed for life. They also prevent unwanted
chemical reactions. For example, lysosomes are filled with enzymes
Figure 8.5 During a process called apoptosis, the
that digest other cell parts. What would happen if those enzymes contents of the lysosomes are released into the cell,
were not contained within a membrane? If they were allowed thus digesting it from the inside. Shown here, in green
to float freely through the cytoplasm, the enzymes would digest and red, is the fragmenting cytoplasm of a cell
everything they contacted. This would kill the cell. At certain undergoing apoptosis. The nucleus is shown in yellow.
times, however, the contents of lysosomes are purposely released
into cells. For example, Figure 8.5 shows how older cells in the
body are broken down and digested by the enzymes contained
in the lysosomes. New cells then replace these older cells.
How is a cell membrane similar to a plastic zip-up
A Selective Filter freezer bag? How is it different? In your notebook,
describe how a freezer bag may be viewed as
The role of the cell membrane in regulating movement of a model of a cell membrane.
substances in and out of the cell is vital. Cells cannot survive
for long without taking in food and gases and getting rid of
wastes. Also, the functions of many cells depend on the movement of materials
across the membrane. To absorb nutrients, for example, cells must be able to
transfer these molecules across the membrane. Cell membranes must allow some
materials to cross while excluding others. That is, cell membranes must be
semi-permeable. The fabric used in the jacket in Figure 8.6 is semi-permeable.
Air can move in and out of the fabric, but water cannot.
How does the cell membrane regulate which particles can enter and leave
the cell? One basis for semi-permeability is particle size. Some molecules,
such as oxygen gas or water, are so small that they can cross the membrane
by slipping between phospholipid molecules. Larger molecules, such as sugar,
are too large to cross directly between the phospholipids of the membrane.
A window screen is an example of a membrane that is permeable to some
“particles” but not to others. The screen’s fine mesh allows air to flow
through, but keeps insects out. Figure 8.6 This Gore-Tex™ jacket
is semi-permeable. Some air passes
Membrane proteins also contribute to the cell membrane’s semi-permeability.
freely through pores in the fabric,
Proteins that protrude from the membrane may bind to specific chemicals based allowing the material to “breathe”
on their shape or their electrical charge. These selected molecules are then when the person wearing the
transported across the membrane by the protein. In the following section, you jacket perspires. Liquid water
will learn more about the ways cells move materials across their membranes. cannot pass through the fabric,
however. Thus Gore-Tex™
protects against rain and snow.

extra-cellular
space
Because membrane proteins are partially buried within the lipid layers,
they can be difficult to see. Scientists use freeze-fracture to study these cytoplasm
proteins. Using freeze-fracture, researchers can look at how proteins membrane
are distributed. To prepare cells, specimens are frozen in liquid nitrogen. proteins When cell membranes
Then, they are cracked using a cold knife. The cells shatter along a fracture are freeze-fractured the
line that follows the path of least resistance. Sometimes, that line falls
two phospholipid layers
between the cell membrane’s two phospholipid layers. The layers are
peeled apart, making the membrane proteins visible. The fractured specimen
are split.
is then coated with platinum and examined with an electron microscope.
Electron micrographs resemble miniature moonscapes. Proteins create
bumpy hills and craters separated by smooth membrane plains. By Two layers of
studying these contours, researchers can learn where proteins lie in the freeze-fractured cell
membrane. Freeze-fracture has provided some of the best evidence for membranes, showing
the fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure. the membrane proteins.
Section 8.1 Summary

The cell membrane protects the cell organelles and regulates the flow of matter
between the cell and its environment. Cell membranes are made of a double
layer of phospholipids, which have a hydrophobic fatty acid tail and a hydrophilic
head. The cell membrane is semi-permeable. This means that only substances
with certain characteristics (e.g., a particular size) can move through the cell
membrane. Protein molecules embedded in the cell membrane are like passage-
ways in or out of the cell — they transport certain substances through the
membrane. The lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in the cell membrane are
in constant motion resulting in a membrane that is fluid and flexible. This
model of membrane structure is the fluid-mosaic model.

1. (a) List the major types of molecules that make up a cell membrane.
(b) Identify the components of the cell membrane that give it
a fluid consistency.
2. Explain why a cell is considered an open system.
3. Describe the fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure.
4. Thinking Critically How would cell function be affected if
cell membranes were rigid and inflexible, like walls?
5. Thinking Critically Explain why blocking all transport across
a cell’s membranes would shorten the cell’s life span.
6. Scientists who study cell membranes often work with membranes from
which the proteins have been removed.
(a) Thinking Critically Explain how the function of the protein-free
membranes would differ from regular cell membranes.
(b) Apply How could you use a protein-free membrane to investigate
the functions of the missing proteins?

8.2 Transport Across Cell Membranes
The cell membrane controls most of the movement in and out of the cell.
It distinguishes between different molecules based on their size, shape, and
electric charge. Only certain substances are allowed to cross. Movement across
membranes is therefore called selective transport. How does a molecule get Based on the particle model of
to the other side of the membrane? In some cases, the cell must use energy matter, explain why it takes longer
for a sugar cube to dissolve in
in order to transport materials across the membrane. Other molecules are iced tea than in hot tea.
moved across the membrane without using any energy. In this section you
“will learn about the different ways in which materials are transported across
cell membranes.
Particles Are In Constant Motion

According to the particle model of matter, all matter is made up of tiny particles.
In liquid or air these particles are in constant, random motion. This movement
is called Brownian motion. You will investigate Brownian motion in the
Find Out Activity below.
Find Out
Brownian Motion
One of the first people to observe the random Procedure Performing and Recording
movement of microscopic particles was a Scottish
1. Place a very small drop of water in the centre
scientist named Robert Brown (1773–1858). In 1827,
of a clean microscope slide.
Brown used a microscope to observe pollen grains
suspended in water, and he noticed that the 2. Dip a toothpick into the milk, then dip and
pollen grains moved constantly in little jerks. stir it into the drop of water on the slide.
See if you, too, can observe evidence of the
random motion of molecules, now described
as Brownian motion.
Safety Precautions
• Do not eat or drink anything in the laboratory.
• Handle the microscope slides and cover slips 3. Cover the fluid droplet with a cover slip. Use
with care. They break easily. the paper towel to dab away any excess fluid.
4. Examine the specimen under the microscope

Materials
at low power. Look for fat droplets in the
distilled water cover slip
water. Focus and gradually increase the
microscope slide paper towel magnification to high power.
toothpick compound light microscope
whole milk What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
Describe and explain any movement you

observed in the specimen.

Concentration Gradients
The random movement of particles results in a net movement toward
areas where the concentration of particles is lower. For example, when
you add sugar to a cup of tea, the sugar molecules will eventually
spread out to give the tea a uniform sweetness. At first, the sugar
molecules are highly concentrated in one part of the cup. Over time,
the sugar molecules move toward areas of low concentration, where
there are fewer sugar molecules. The difference in concentration
between the two areas is called a concentration gradient. Just as the
cyclist in Figure 8.7 can coast downhill on a bicycle, molecules move
down a concentration gradient.
A state of equilibrium occurs once molecules are distributed evenly.
The sugar molecules (the solute) in the cup of tea reach equilibrium
when their concentration is equal throughout the water (the solvent).
The molecules do not stop moving after reaching equilibrium. The net
flow, or overall distribution, however, does not change. In the Find Out
Activity below, you will measure the concentration of solutes in a solution.
Figure 8.7 When coasting downhill on your bicycle, you do not need to expend
energy to transport yourself to the bottom of the hill. Similarly, molecules moving
down a concentration gradient get a “free ride.”
Find Out
The Amount of Water in Solutions
We often refer to the concentration of solutes in 2. Gently fill beaker B with pebbles to the 300 mL
a solution. However, we do not usually talk about mark. Again, add water to bring the total
the amount of water in a solution. Two solutions volume up to 400 mL.
with different solute concentrations also contain
differing amounts of water molecules. Dissolved 3. Using a slotted spoon, remove all the pebbles
molecules take up space in a solution, reducing from each solution. Do not remove any of
the volume left for water molecules. the water.
4. Read the approximate volume of water

Materials remaining in each beaker.
2 500 mL beakers tap water
pebbles slotted spoon What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
1. (a) Which solution had the higher concentration

Communication and Teamwork of pebble “solutes”?
(b) Which solution had more water?
1. Working with a lab partner, label one 500 mL
beaker “A” and the other 500 mL beaker “B.” 2. All cells require water to survive. Explain
Gently place enough pebbles in beaker A to why many types of bacteria cannot live in
reach the 100 mL mark. Complete the pebble extremely sugary foods, such as honey.
“solution” by adding enough water to bring
the total volume up to 400 mL.

Passive Transport
Brownian motion and concentration gradients help materials move across cell
membranes. Molecules move down a concentration gradient passively, or without
using any energy. Movement across cell membranes without an input of energy
is called passive transport. There are three types of passive transport: diffusion,
osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
Diffusion Across Cell Membranes A Greater solute concentration

The net movement of particles from an area of high concen-
tration to an area of low concentration is called diffusion.
Many molecules diffuse across cell membranes. Very small
particles can move between the phospholipid molecules
from one side of the cell membrane to the other.
Cells do not expend energy to transport materials by H2O
diffusion. Just as you transport your body by coasting
downhill on a bicycle, cells can benefit from the movement H2O
of molecules down a concentration gradient. For example,
oxygen travels down a concentration gradient from the fluid
surrounding cells, through the cell membrane, and into the
cytoplasm. However, the oxygen in your cells never reaches
equilibrium with the oxygen outside your cells. Since your
cells consume oxygen, the concentration of oxygen is always B Equal solute concentration
lower inside cells than outside.
Osmosis: The Diffusion of Water Across

a Membrane
Most of the molecules that fill and surround cells are water
molecules. Substances that diffuse through the cell membrane H2O
and within cells move through this watery medium. Water
H2O
itself can also diffuse across the cell membrane. The diffusion
of water molecules across a membrane is called osmosis.
Water molecules move from areas where they are in a
higher concentration to areas where they are in a lower
concentration. When the random movement of water
molecules into and out of a cell occurs at the same rate,
the water is in a state of equilibrium. water molecules
In Figure 8.8A, the solution of water and solute outside
dissolved substances
the cell is hypotonic to the solution in the cell cytoplasm.
Hypotonic solutions lose water. Because there is a higher Figure 8.8 The top cell (A) is in a solution that is
concentration of water molecules outside the cell than hypotonic to the cytoplasm. The bottom cell (B) is
inside, the net flow of water is into the cell. In contrast, the in a solution that is isotonic with the cytoplasm. In this
cytoplasm is hypertonic to the solution of water and solute case, the membrane is permeable to water but not to
the solute molecules.
surrounding the cell. This means that the solute concentration
inside the cell is higher than that of the solute solution outside.
Hypertonic solutions gain water. After osmosis occurs, the solute
concentrations inside and outside the cell reach equilibrium Look up the meanings of the words “gradient” and
(see Figure 8.8B). At this point, the cytoplasm and the solution “grade” in a dictionary. Brainstorm a list of other words
outside the cell are considered isotonic to one another. This beginning with “grad-” and write them in your notebook.
means they have the same concentration of solutes. What similar concepts unite the words’ meanings?

S K I L L C H E C K

8–B
Osmosis in a Model Cell

The small size of living cells makes it difficult to observe osmosis occurring across their
membranes. However, you can make a model of a cell to study osmosis. You will use
dialysis tubing as the membrane of a model cell. Dialysis tubing is semi-permeable,
allowing osmosis but not the diffusion of starch molecules. As water flows into or out
of the model cell, the volume of the cell changes. As well, if iodine and starch interact,
the solution will turn black. In this investigation, you will conduct an experiment to
determine how solute concentration inside and outside the cell affects osmosis.
Question
How does solute concentration inside and outside a model cell affect the
direction and amount of osmosis?
Hypothesis
For tips on designing scientific
Formulate a hypothesis about how different solute concentrations would experiments, turn to Skill Focus 5.
affect the direction of osmosis across a semi-permeable membrane.
Safety Precautions Materials

• Do not eat or drink anything in the science laboratory. tape or labels for beakers
• Iodine can stain. Wear gloves when handling it and 3 pieces of dialysis tubing
avoid getting it on your skin or clothes. (approximately 15 cm long)
string
Apparatus starch solutions (150 g/L and 300 g/L)
3 250 mL glass beakers or large jars water
graduated cylinder iodine solution
analytical balance paper towels
timer or watch
Procedure While holding the dialysis tubing under

3
1 Create a table such as the one shown below running water, open it by rubbing it between
before beginning your investigation. your fingers. Use the string to tie one end of
the dialysis tubing closed.
2 Label the beakers as Starch Solution 1 (150 g/L),
Starch Solution 2 (300 g/L), and Control. Fill 4 Fill one dialysis tube with 25 mL of Starch
each beaker two-thirds full of distilled water. Solution 1. Twist the open end of the tube and
Add a few drops of iodine to the water until tightly tie it closed. Rinse the tube with water
it turns pale yellow. and dry it using a paper towel.
Data (observations) Analysis (using data)

Starch Time Colour of Colour of Initial mass Final mass Change in Change in model
concentration solution in tube solution in beaker (g) (g) mass (g) cell volume (density
of water ! 1 g/mL)

Analyze
1. Prepare line graphs illustrating your data.
Plot the change in model cell volume vs.
time for each cell.
2. Compare your predictions with the actual

results. How did the differing solutions inside
and outside the cell influence osmosis?
3. Describe the solution in each of the model

cells as hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic
Repeat step 3 and create two more model cells, compared with the solution in the beaker.
5
one tube filled with Starch Solution 2 and a
4. What evidence do you have that the amount
second filled with distilled water.
of water inside the cell was or was not changed
Use the balance to measure the initial mass of by osmosis?
6
your model cells. Record the measurements and
5. (a) In this investigation what is: the manipu-
any observations of colour in your data table.
lated variable? (b) the responding variable?
(Initial observations are recorded at time ! 0.)
(c) the experimental control? Explain why
Note: You will need to calculate the difference an experimental control is necessary.
between the initial mass and the mass recorded
at each subsequent time point. Since the density 6. Is the dialysis tubing: (a) permeable to
of water is 1 g/mL, you can then determine the starch? (b) permeable to water? (c) permeable
volume of water lost or gained by the cell. to iodine? Explain your answers.
7 Immerse the model cells in the appropriately Conclude and Apply

labelled beaker. The cells should be completely
7. Was your hypothesis supported or rejected?
underwater.
Explain why. If your hypothesis was not
8 Based on your hypothesis, predict what will supported, suggest a new hypothesis.
happen to the model cells when the solute
8. Compare the dialysis tubing that formed your
concentration inside the cell differs from the
model cell’s membrane with the cell membrane
solute concentration outside the cell.
of a living cell. In what ways is the dialysis
9 After 15 mins record the colour of the starch tubing a good model? What are its limitations?
solution and the water in each beaker. Remove
9. Based on the results of your experiment, infer
the model cells from the water. Use a paper
how living cells would be affected by being
towel to dry the outside of the cells and
bathed in solutions of different concentrations.
measure their mass.
0 Repeat step 9 after 30 min, 60 min and, Extend Your Skills

if possible, again after leaving your model 10. What other problem or question could you
cells overnight. investigate using this equipment?

Osmosis in Living Cells
Maintaining water balance across the cell membrane is vital for
Based on your understanding of the process of
osmosis, what do you think is the meaning of the
cell survival. Too much or too little water can kill a cell. When
word “osmoregulation”? Write a definition for cells are placed in an environment in which the concentration
osmoregulation in your science notebook. Check your of solutes is different from that in the cytoplasm, water diffuses
answer with your teacher. How might osmoregulation across the cell membrane by osmosis. If the water concentration
be important for the well-being of cells?
outside the cell is high relative to the inside, water flows into
the cell by osmosis. This occurs when cells are placed in distilled
water. As water flows in by osmosis, the cells swell and may burst
as shown in Figure 8.9A. In plant cells, the cell wall can withstand
the pressure from the uptake of water. This resistance creates
turgor pressure, an internal force that keeps plant structures firm.
When the cells are placed in strong salt water, as in Figure 8.9B,
the solution outside the cells is hypertonic to the cytoplasm. In
A B this case, the charged salt ions cannot diffuse into the cell, but
water diffuses out. As cells lose water, they may shrink and lose
their shape. Eventually, they may die. The same is true for plant
cells (see Figure 8.9C).
cell membrane Facilitated Diffusion

Water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide can diffuse through the cell
membrane. Other substances cannot pass through on their own.
For example, glucose molecules are too big to squeeze between
the phospholipid molecules of the membrane. Yet, somehow,
C
glucose must be transported through the cells lining the intestine
Figure 8.9 Animal cells placed in distilled water in order to reach the blood and other cells of the body. Ions,
(A) will eventually burst. Animal cells placed in
although very small, are also unable to cross the membrane by
relatively salty water (B) will shrivel, a process called
plasmolysis. Plant cells will also shrivel if placed in simple diffusion. Their charge causes them to be repelled by
a very hypertonic solution relative to the cytoplasm the hydrophobic tails of membrane phospholipids, as shown
(C) as the plant’s central vacuole loses water. in Figure 8.10.
noncharged molecule
H2O
charged ions
macromolecule
People must drink water daily to stay alive. If you +
were stranded on a desert island with only salt
–
water to drink, you would die in a matter of days.
Explain why in your notebook.
cell
membrane
– +
Figure 8.10 How molecules cross the cell membrane. The curved arrows for
the macromolecule and charged ions indicate that these substances cannot
cross the plasma membrane without help. The back-and-forth arrows for the
noncharged molecule and water indicate that these substances can freely cross
the cell membrane.

How do glucose, ions, and other substances that cannot cross the membrane by
simple diffusion get in and out of the cell? Transport proteins are membrane Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder.
proteins that help move materials across the membrane. The use of transport This disease involves faulty channel
proteins to aid, or facilitate, the diffusion of particles across the cell membrane proteins, which cause some ions
to build up inside cells, and other
is called facilitated diffusion. Facilitated diffusion always occurs down a ions to build up outside cells. As
concentration gradient. Since the interaction between the particles and their a result, water moves out of the
transport proteins provides enough energy to cause their diffusion through mucous layer that coats and
protects the body’s passageways
the membrane, facilitated diffusion is considered a type of passive transport.
and into the cells by osmosis. The
Transport proteins have three-dimensional shapes that make them highly mucous left behind is unusually
selective. These proteins recognize atoms or molecules by their shape, size, thick and sticky. In the lungs,
and electrical charge. Just as a key fits only a certain lock, transport proteins the thick mucous interferes with
breathing and traps disease-causing
move only certain particles. Carrier proteins and channel proteins are two types bacteria that would normally be
of transport proteins. A particular carrier protein (Figure 8.11) facilitates the coughed up. In the intestines,
diffusion of glucose across the cell membrane. A molecule of glucose fits into the mucous interferes with the
a groove on the carrier protein. This causes the protein’s shape to change. absorption of nutrients.
As the protein moves, it releases the glucose molecule on the other side
of the membrane.
Figure 8.11 These carrier

carrier
proteins are specific for
protein
glucose. Carrier proteins
change shape to allow certain
molecules to cross the cell
membrane.
+ + +
+ +
negatively charged +
channel protein +
Some transport proteins form tunnel-like pores in the membrane.

The pores created by these channel proteins (Figure 8.12) are filled
with water. When the pores are open, they allow charged ions in and +
out of the cell.
Active Transport
Sometimes, the direction of a concentration gradient is opposite to the +
direction in which transport is needed. For example, there are times when +
you have to use energy to ride your bicycle uphill. Cells, too, must +
sometimes use energy to transport certain materials across their membranes.
This is called active transport. Figure 8.12 Channel proteins provide
Cells use active transport when they have to work against a concentration water-filled passages through which
small dissolved ions can diffuse.
gradient. For example, root cells require minerals from the soil. However,
as Figure 8.13 on the next page shows, the roots may already contain a higher
concentration of minerals than the surrounding soil. In this case, the minerals
cannot move into the root cells by passive transport. Cells must expend
energy to pump the minerals against the concentration gradient. The energy
is used by membrane transport proteins, which bind to the minerals and
move them across the membrane.

Active transport helps cells maintain an
internal environment that is different from
cell membrane
soil their external environment. As in the case
mineral of root cells, many cells must concentrate
nutrients for growth or other cell activities.
In addition, many of the cell’s waste products
are highly toxic. They must be removed
energy
root and discarded outside the cell.
cell Cells are not limited to using only one
process to move materials across their
mineral membranes. Can you identify the types of
carrier molecule
transport that are occurring across the cell
Figure 8.13 Plant root cells use active transport to take in minerals from
the surrounding soil. Because there are already more minerals in the root membrane in Figure 8.14?
cells than in the water around the roots, the root cells rely on carrier
molecules and energy to move additional minerals into the root cells.
Na" Na"
Active transport uses a large
amount of cellular energy. Even Na" Na"
H2O O2 "
when a person is resting, his or Na" Na"
her cells use up to 40 percent of
their energy on active transport.
Many types of specialized cells use
even more energy. For example, A
the cells in your kidneys that filter
your blood use up to 90 percent
B
"
of their energy on active transport.
D
" C "
" "
" Na"
Figure 8.14 Cells can use more than one process to transport materials across their membranes.
Passive and active transport both

allow materials to cross the cell Endocytosis and Exocytosis
membrane, yet they do so by
different means. How are these Passive and active transport move a wide range of substances across the cell
two transport mechanisms similar membrane. However, some molecules, such as cholesterol, cannot dissolve in
and different? Make two lists water. Diffusion is impossible for such molecules. Other materials (e.g., large
to compare active and passive
transport. Using your notes as
protein molecules and bacterial cells) are too large to cross membranes even
a reference, create a poster that if carrier proteins are used.
illustrates the steps involved in Cells take in substances that can’t be moved by passive or active transport
active and passive transport. Be through endocytosis. In this process, the cell membrane forms a pocket around
sure to highlight the similarities
and differences of these processes. the material to be transported. The membrane folds in and encloses the item
Your poster should address the in a sphere. The sphere typically pinches off as a vesicle, which transports its
following topics: contents to other locations within the cell. Or the sphere may form a vacuole,
• cell membrane structures which acts as a storage site for the ingested material. Some single-celled organ-
• type of materials transported isms, such as the amoeba pictured in Figure 8.15, take in food by endocytosis.
• direction of transport
• concentration gradients When cells “eat” by taking in large particles or other cells, the type of
• equilibrium endocytosis is called phagocytosis (see Figure 8.16A). When cells “drink” by
• consumption of energy taking in droplets of fluid, the process is called pinocytosis (see Figure 8.16B).

Figure 8.15 The amoeba shown here is engulfing a
food particle with its cell membrane. As endocytosis
proceeds, the membrane begins to surround the What are the meanings of the
particle. When the leading edges of the membrane prefixes “endo-” and “exo-”?
meet, they fuse, and a sphere pinches off from the How do they relate to the
membrane. The resulting vesicle enters the cytoplasm. processes of endocytosis and
exocytosis? What are some other
A lysosome may fuse with the vesicle, and release
words that use these prefixes?
digestive enzymes. Make a list in your notebook.
Outside cell
red blood cell solute particles secreted particles
cell membrane
vesicle
vesicle
Inside cell
A Phagocytosis B Pinocytosis C Exocytosis
Figure 8.16 A Phagocytosis is used by cells to ingest food or other solids. B In pinocytosis, the
cell membrane surrounds droplets of fluid. A portion of the membrane pinches off, forming a
vesicle. C Exocytosis is used to dispose of wastes or secrete cell products. The membrane of
the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane and the contents are released to the outside of the cell.
Membrane proteins can assist in endocytosis. Proteins called receptors

protrude from the membrane surface. Like antennae, the receptors detect
specific compounds or cells in their environment. When a receptor identifies
an item for transport, the receptor binds it and triggers endocytosis. Cells use
this process, called receptor-mediated endocytosis, to take in molecules such
as cholesterol. As shown in Figure 8.17, virus particles, such as the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), can also enter cells by receptor-mediated
endocytosis. In a sense, HIV “tricks” the cell into transporting it inside by
binding to receptors specialized for transport of other molecules.
Cells must dispose of wastes, as well as take in food. Exocytosis is the Figure 8.17 HIV is too large
reverse of endocytosis. Exocytosis allows the materials stored in vesicles to cross the cell membrane by
and vacuoles to exit the cell. In this diffusion or by passive or active
transport. Instead, HIV interacts
mechanism, the membrane of the
with receptors on the cell’s
vesicle or vacuole fuses with the www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/
surface, causing the cell to take
cell membrane, and the stored sciencefocus10
in the virus by receptor-mediated
contents are released as shown There are several ways materials are transported endocytosis. Eventually, HIV may
in and out of the cell: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated
in Figure 8.16C. Exocytosis is diffusion, active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
replicate inside the cell.
especially important in cells Review these modes of cell transport by watching
that specialize in the secretion computer animations. Go to the web site above to
of cell products, such as find out where to go next. As you view the
animations, create a chart that summarizes
enzymes and hormones. the basic features of each type
of transport.

Membranes at Work
The value of semi-permeable membranes extends far beyond their role in
living cells. A variety of technological and medical applications also use diffusion
and selective transport across membranes.
Water Purification
Reverse osmosis is used to purify water. In this process, water is filtered
through an artificial membrane containing very fine pores. The pores are
large enough to allow water to pass through. However, larger particles,
such as bacteria, salts, and other dissolved molecules, cannot pass through.
Pressure is used to force contaminated water through the membrane. The water
collected on the other side of the membrane contains far fewer impurities than
Figure 8.18 A reverse osmosis before being filtered. Reverse osmosis filtratration systems, such as the one in
filtration system. Figure 8.18, are commonly used in Canada to purify drinking water.
Kidney Dialysis
Blood carries oxygen, nutrients, and wastes to and from the cells of the
body. Wastes that accumulate in the blood must be eliminated. But valuable
Many industries produce large substances, such as proteins, glucose, amino acids, and certain ions, must be
volumes of contaminated water. retained. The kidneys filter the blood and regulate its solute and water content.
Water treatment plants clean some
waste water before it is released Damaged kidneys do not filter the blood properly and wastes can build up
into the environment. However, to toxic, even fatal, levels. Patients with failing kidneys must receive a kidney
industries are allowed to let a transplant, or be treated by filtering their blood through an artificial membrane.
certain amount of untreated water
In kidney dialysis, as shown in Figure 8.19, the patient’s blood is pumped
leak directly into lakes and rivers.
This contaminated water can reach through tubing made from a synthetic, semi-permeable membrane. The
the ground water and harm organ- membrane, called dialysis tubing, is immersed in a salt solution with a
isms that come into contact with concentration similar to blood, but which does not contain wastes. Pores in
it. How could water purification
systems be applied to minimize
the tubing allow small dissolved waste molecules to diffuse out of the blood
environmental damage caused by while retaining large proteins and blood cells. Because salts and water are in
industrial waste water? Suggest equilibrium between the blood and the salt solution that bathes the tubing,
some possibilities in your notebook. there is no loss of salts and water from the blood.
Controlled Delivery of Medications

Medicines bring us many health benefits. However,
pump blood semi-permeable
tubing
providing the right dosage and maintaining a medication
blood
flow dialysate at constant levels in the body can be difficult. The use of
flow semi-permeable membranes is one way to deliver some
medications in a safe, controlled manner. The medications
dialysate
can be placed in a flat transdermal patch that sticks to
the skin. A semi-permeable membrane lining the inner
surface of the patch allows the drugs to diffuse out of
the patch at a slow, constant rate.
The medications must be able to diffuse through the
skin to reach the blood. Therefore, this technology is most
fresh dialysate used dialysate (contains effective with medications that pass easily through the skin.
urea and excess salts) These medications include nicotine for help in quitting
Figure 8.19 As the patient’s blood is pumped through dialysis smoking, drugs to prevent motion sickness, pain reducers,
tubing, it is exposed to a dialysate (dialysis solution). Wastes and hormones to correct some hormone imbalances.
exit from blood into the solution because of a pre-established
concentration gradient. Blood is not only cleansed, but its
water-salt and acid-base balance can also be adjusted.

Another method of delivering medications uses artificial vesicles, called
liposomes (see Figure 8.20). Some liposomes have been developed that transport
medications safely from one part of the body to another. Liposomes are used to
transport anti-cancer medications to tumours in some cancer patients.
Section 8.2 Summary

Cell membranes control movement of molecules in and out of the cell. Most
substances are moved by passive or active transport. In passive transport, the
cell does not expend energy to move molecules across the membrane. Passive
transport includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
Active transport is necessary when the concentration gradient is opposite
to the direction in which the transport is needed. Active transport requires
the output of energy. Figure 8.20 Liposomes are non-
Molecules too large to be transported by carrier proteins are moved in and out toxic, which makes them useful
of the cell by the formation of vesicles in processes of endocytosis and exocytosis. for delivering medications
throughout the body.

1. (a) Write a definition for diffusion.
(b) Describe how diffusion occurs, using the particle model of matter
to support your explanation.
One of the ways active transport
2. (a) Distinguish between osmosis and diffusion. differs from passive transport is
(b) Compare what makes osmosis and diffusion similar. that it moves particles against a
concentration gradient rather than
3. Explain why facilitated diffusion is considered a form of passive transport, down a concentration gradient. In
even though it requires the use of membrane proteins. your notebook, explain how active
transport might affect equilibrium
4. List four ways in which semi-permeable membranes are used in medical, across the cell membrane.
industrial, or other applications.
5. Thinking Critically Paramecium, a single-celled fresh-water organism,
takes in water by osmosis. Paramecium uses an organelle called a contractile
vacuole to remove excess water from the cell.
(a) Describe what would happen to Paramecium if it did not have
a contractile vacuole.
(b) Predict the effect of placing Paramecium in salt water.
6. Apply
(a) Design an experiment to find out if a fluorescent dye can pass
through a cell membrane.
(b) Assuming the fluorescent dye could pass through a cell membrane,
how would you determine if the dye was transported by active or
passive transport?
7. Thinking Critically When materials enter the cell by passive or active
transport, these materials literally cross through the cell membrane. Can
the same be said of materials that enter the cell by phagocytosis? Explain
your answer.
8. Apply A researcher wants to use bacteria to make a protein that will be
added to food. How can the researcher use a semi-permeable membrane
to obtain a pure sample of the protein?

8.3 Cell Size and Function
Once a particle is transported across the cell membrane, it is available for use
by the cell. The particle then diffuses throughout the cytoplasm to reach the
Assume that the rate of diffusion
of a molecule within a hypothetical areas inside the cell where they are used. Diffusion occurs without any input
cell is 2 nm (nanometres — of energy, but it has one major limitation: it takes time.
billionths of a metre) per second. One factor that permits diffusion across cell membranes is a concentration
How long would it take the molecule
gradient. In general, however, concentration gradients within the cell are not
to diffuse from the cell membrane
to the centre of a cell with a diam- nearly as great as those across the cell membrane. Once molecules have diffused
eter of 1#m (1#m ! 1 millionth through the cell membrane, their rate of diffusion within the cell tends to
of a metre)? What about a cell slow abruptly. Diffusion over long distances inside the cell is slow and inefficient.
with a diameter of 100#m? Which
cell is more likely to survive?
For example, as shown in Figure 8.21, oxygen passing into a hypothetical cell
with a diameter of about 1.65 m would take more than a week to reach a
mitochondrion at the cell’s centre. A cell this large would die long before
oxygen and nutrients could reach the organelles that need them.
To ensure access to oxygen and nutrients, cells must minimize the distance
over which substances diffuse. As a result, there is an upper limit on cell
size. The relative magnitude of a cell’s surface area to its volume is called its
surface area-to-volume ratio. In this section you will see how cell surface
area, volume, shape, and function are affected by size limitations. In the Find
Out Activity on the next page you will see how surface area changes in relation
According to the fossil record, to a cell’s volume.
dinosaurs shared Earth with
metre-long millipedes and Substances diffuse
cockroaches as big as house rapidly through the
cats. What made “gigantism” cell’s thin membrane
possible three hundred million (in less than a second).
years ago? Some scientists
think that the existence of the
prehistoric giants can be 0.6 m
explained by the concentration 1.65 m
of oxygen in the air. Instead of
using lungs, insects breathe
oxygen through long tubes
called tracheoles. The distance 0.5 m
oxygen travels down the
tracheoles depends on the
oxygen concentration gradient.
Today, the air is made up of 21
percent oxygen. Paleozoic air,
however, was composed of 1.65 m
about 35 percent oxygen. The
higher concentration of oxygen Substances diffuse very slowly throughout
in the air resulted in a steeper the cell’s internal fluid (taking more than a
concentration gradient down the week to reach the centre).
tracheoles. Therefore, oxygen
could have travelled farther into Figure 8.21 A human-sized amoeba? An amoeba could never be human-sized for two reasons:
the insects’ bodies, making (1) It would take a very long time for molecules critical to its survival, such as oxygen, to reach
larger body sizes possible. its centre via diffusion. (2) Relative to its volume, an amoeba does not have much surface area
(cell membrane) across which substances can move in and out.

Find Out
Charting Cell Size
What is the relationship between cell surface area surface area, volume, and surface area-to-
and volume? In this activity, you will calculate cell volume ratios. Experiment with different ways
surface area and volume for cells of different of looking at these relationships. You may
sizes. You will then determine how the surface draw your graph by hand or use a computer.
area-to-volume ratio changes as the cells grow.

For tips on creating spreadsheets or graphs on your
1. Draw a table or set up a computer spreadsheet computer, turn to Skill Focus 7.
to calculate surface area and volume for cube-
shaped cells. Your table or spreadsheet should
have four columns: cell width, surface area, What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
volume, and surface area-to-volume ratio. 1. Describe how surface area and volume
change as cell width increases.
2. In separate rows, calculate surface area
and volume for cells 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 2. Describe how the surface area-to-volume
and 4 mm wide. ratio changes as cell width increases.
3. Using your results for surface area and volume, 3. (a) What did you learn from each of
calculate the surface area-to-volume ratio for the graphs?
each cell. (b) Which were most helpful for illustrating
how changing cell size affects surface
4. Create line graphs to illustrate the data.
area-to-volume ratio? Explain your answer.
There are several ways of plotting the data to
investigate relationships between cell width,
The Importance of Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio

As a cell grows, its volume increases much faster than its surface area.
2 mm
How does the surface area-to-volume ratio affect cell function? 1 mm
The 2 mm wide cell pictured in Figure 8.22 would require eight
times more nutrients and would have eight times more waste to Figure 8.22 Shown here are imaginary cube-
eliminate than the 1 mm wide cell. The surface area of the 2 mm shaped cells. A cell with 1 mm sides has a
cell, however, would increase only by a factor of four. Therefore, surface area of 6 mm2 and a volume of 1 mm3.
the cell membrane might not have enough surface area to transport This gives the cell a surface area-to-volume
ratio of 6 : 1. If the width of the cell is doubled
oxygen, nutrients, and wastes.
to 2 mm, the surface area increases four times
A very large cell with a very low surface area-to-volume ratio to 24 mm2. The volume, however, increases to
could either starve to death or be poisoned from the buildup of 8 mm3, eight times greater than in the 1 mm
its own wastes. Such a cell would not survive to reproduce. cell. Therefore, the surface area-to-volume
ratio is 24 : 8, or 3 : 1, half that for the 1 mm
wide cell.

The relationships between variables are not always linear. Non-linear relationships occur when
one of the variables changes by a factor that includes an exponent. For example, when the width
(W ) of a square increases, the area of the square increases by a factor of W 2. When the width
of a cube increases, the area of the cube increases by a factor of W 3. Brainstorm a list of other
relationships that change by non-linear, or exponential, factors. Write the list, and any relevant
mathematical formulas you know, in your notebook.
Cell Shape and Surface Area

One way to express surface area- Certain cell shapes boost surface area-to-volume ratios. Some bacteria are
to-volume ratio is as a fraction, almost cube-shaped, much like the imaginary cell in Figure 8.22. However,
with surface area as the numerator cells come in an endless variety of shapes. Some shapes have a high surface
and volume as the denominator.
How can the numerator and area-to-volume ratio. For example, infoldings of the membrane and flattened
denominator be changed to either cell shapes produce cells with large surface areas and relatively low volumes.
increase or decrease this ratio? The higher the surface area-to-volume ratio, the more transport is possible
Relate these changes to the shape
across the cell membrane. Cells specialized for transporting nutrients, such
and size of cells.
as those lining your digestive tract seen in Figure 8.23, have shapes that result
in high surface area-to-volume ratios. Plant root hairs, such as those in
Figure 8.24, also have a high surface area-to-volume ratio. This increases
the absorption of nutrients across the root. In the next activity you will
experiment with cell shape and size.
When a cell divides, it distributes its cytoplasm roughly

equally between the two daughter cells. How is cell division
important in keeping surface area-to-volume ratio from
microvilli
getting too low? Write an explanation in your notebook.
mitochondria
Figure 8.23 Microvilli are projections of cells that line the

digestive tract. The large surface area of the microvilli helps
them to absorb nutrients and water from digested food as it
passes by.
Figure 8.24 Plant root hairs

perform a similar function to
microvilli by taking in nutrients from
the soil. The slender shape of the root hair
provides a high surface area-to-volume ratio
for the passage of nutrients into the cell.

S K I L L C H E C K

8–C
Exploring Surface h = height

Area-to-Volume w = width
l = length
r
h
l
Ratios in Model Cells
w
r = radius Spheroid Cuboid
r
In this investigation, you will experiment with different Formulas for surface area: l
cell shapes to see which shapes and sizes maximize or Spheroid area ! 4$r2($ ! 3.14159) Cylinder
minimize the surface area-to-volume ratio. Cuboid area ! 2wl " 2hl " 2hw
Cylinder area ! 2$rl " 2$r2
Challenge
Create model cells with different shapes that produce Formulas for volume:
4
very high or very low surface area-to-volume ratios. Spheroid volume ! %3% $r3($ ! 3.14159)
Apparatus Cuboid volume ! lwh

ruler Cylinder volume ! $r2l
table knife
calculator (optional) Sample calculation:
A sphere with a radius of 2 cm has a surface
Materials area of 50.26 cm2
modelling clay
4 & 3.14159 & (2cm & 2cm) ! 50.26 cm2
and a volume of 33.5cm3
Design Specifications 4
%% & 3.14159 & (2cm & 2cm & 2cm) ! 33.5 cm3
A. Your model cell will be built from modelling clay. 3
B. The amount of modelling clay you work with 4 Make two other cells that are cuboid, spherical,
will remain constant; only the shape of your or cylindrical (shaped like a cylinder). You may
cell will change. also alter the size of the cell while keeping the
same shape. Repeat steps 2 and 3.
C. Identify shapes that give the highest and lowest
surface area-to-volume ratios. Evaluate
Plan and Construct 1. Using the surface area and the volume of each
cell, determine the surface area-to-volume ratios.
1 Create a model cell using the modelling clay.
Record the values in your notebook.
Make a cell that is cuboid (six-sided, but not
necessarily square), spheroid, or a cylinder. 2. Based on your results and those of your class-
mates, which shapes produced the highest and
2 Sketch the shape of the cell in your notebook.
lowest surface area-to-volume ratios?
3 Use the formulas provided on this page to
measure and record the volume and surface Extension
area of your cell in your notebook. If you make 3. (a) Which cell shapes are most likely to be
a sphere, use the table knife to carefully cut found in cells specialized for transporting
your sphere in half so that you can accurately materials across the cell membrane?
measure the radius. (b) Which cell shapes are most likely to restrict
cells to very small sizes?

From One Cell to Many Cells
Although certain shapes allow some cells to be much
larger than other cells, there is a limit to how large
cells can be. How, then, do some organisms, such
as the redwood tree shown in Figure 8.25, achieve
such outstanding size? Multicellular organisms such
as humans and trees, have millions of cells of many
different types. Multicellular organisms grow by
adding more cells instead of simply growing larger
cells. Because the sizes of their individual cells are
small, rapid diffusion within the cells of multicellular
organisms is possible.
In single-celled organisms, one cell must perform
all the functions of a living organism. Having many
cells makes it possible for different groups of cells to
become specialized. In multicellular organisms, cells
are organized into tissues that do specific jobs. The
cells within each tissue are specialized to carry out a
subset of the organism’s functions. For example, a
redwood tree has cells in its roots that are specialized
for absorbing water and minerals from the soil.
Cells in the trunk are specialized for transporting
water from the roots to the leaves. Cells in the leaves
are specialized for absorbing the energy of sunlight
to synthesize sugars. In the next investigation you
will see how cell shape relates to its function.
Figure 8.25 Reaching heights over 90 m,

redwood trees are thought to be the tallest
trees in the world. These massive organisms
depend on the functioning of individual
specialized cells.
In some organisms, such as

the aquatic alga Volvox, many
Earlier in this chapter, you learned individual cells live together in
that placing cells in different kinds colonies. Each cell in the colony
of solutions can cause them to swell must perform nearly all the
or shrink. How would a human functions of a single-celled
cheek cell’s surface area-to-volume organism. However, the group
ratio change if it were placed in of cells also functions together
a strong salt solution? How would as one “organism.” Each Volvox
it change in a solution of pure colony forms a hollow ball.
water? Explain your response to Inside, a daughter colony will grow. When the daughter colony reaches maturity,
this question in your notebook. it digests a passageway through the side of its parent colony and swims away.

S K I L L C H E C K

8–D
Comparing Specialized
Earlier in this unit, you examined several different 2 Based on your observations, predict what the
types of cells. You then made inferences about the specialized function of each cell might be.
relationship between a cell’s function and its size and Explain your prediction.
shape. In this investigation, you will examine several
specialized plant and animal cells. You will then relate
their specific shapes to the specialized function of Analyze
transport across the cell membrane.
1. (a) How were you able to determine which
of the cell types had the highest surface
Question area-to-volume ratios?
How does a cell’s shape relate to its specialized (b) What other information would you need
function? to confirm your answer?
Hypothesis 2. What was the reasoning behind your predictions

Formulate a hypothesis to explain how a cell’s shape about the cells’ functions?
relates to the function of membrane transport. 3. Compare the two plant cell types with the two
animal cell types. Discuss any similarities and
Safety Precaution
differences you saw between the two.
• Handle microscope slides carefully to avoid
breaking them and cutting yourself.
Conclude and Apply
Apparatus 4. Gather information about the cells you
compound light microscope observed from your teacher, or search the
prepared slides of intestinal villi, adipose tissue cells, library or Internet.
root hair cells, and leaf spongy tissue cells
(a) In your notebook, write a few sentences
about the specialized function of each
of the four cell types.
For tips on making scientific diagrams and drawings, turn to (b) How are their sizes and shapes important
Skill Focus 9. to their functions?
5. Compare the cells’ actual functions with

Procedure your predictions. How did the two differ?
Observe each of the slides under the microscope. How sound was your reasoning in
1 formulating the predictions you made?
Identify the following cells on the appropriate
slides. Draw two or three of each kind of cell
in your notebook.
• cells of intestinal villi
• adipose (fat) tissue cells
• root hair cells
• leaf spongy tissue cells

Dr. Pierre Côté is a civil engineer whose interest in and micro-organisms. These fibres are mounted in an
environmental engineering, specifically water treatment, open frame that can be immersed directly in the water to
led to his development of a new “membrane.” ZeeWeed be treated. The fibres float freely like seaweed. ZeeWeed
is a unique filtration membrane that represents a requires little energy. A light stream of air bubbles keeps
revolution in water treatment. Typical water treatment the ZeeWeed fibres moving, thereby exposing the fibre
involves passing water through clean sand, followed membranes to incoming water currents. A slight suction
by gel-like coagulants. Chlorine is then added to kill on the clean-water side draws water through the pores
bacteria. Dr. Côté’s ZeeWeed can be used to treat of the membranes into the hollow interior of the fibres,
ground water or surface water for drinking or to purify municipal leaving the micro-organisms and viruses behind. ZeeWeed has
and industrial waste water before discharge to the environment. won an innovation award for Dr. Côté and his team.
ZeeWeed is composed of thin, hollow fibres. The membrane of • Research further to discover how civil engineers are solving
the fibres has pores small enough to block the passage of viruses other real-world environmental problems.
Section 8.3 Summary

Once molecules diffuse into the cell, their diffusion rate slows. Because of this,
it is inefficient for cells to become too large — it would take too long for critical
nutrients to reach cell organelles and the cell could die. As well, as cells grow,
their volume increases much faster than their surface area. So, smaller cells,
or cells with a high surface area such as the microvilli in the human intestine,
have a higher surface area-to-volume ratio. Small cells are more efficient.
Multicellular organisms grow so large by having thousands of small cells,
rather than fewer very large cells.

1. Which cell has a higher surface area-to-volume ratio: a spherical cell
Throughout this chapter, you have with a diameter of 10 nm, or a spherical cell with a diameter of 15 nm?
seen how the characteristics of Explain your answer.
solutions, membranes, and cell
shapes affect transport across 2. Describe two features of multicellular organisms not seen in single-
the cell membrane. List three celled organisms.
ways these properties can be
manipulated to increase the rate 3. Thinking Critically To keep warm on a cold day, dogs often lie down
of transport of a solute into a cell. curled up in a round ball. To cool off on a hot day, they stretch flat
on the floor, bellies exposed. Why would this behaviour help dogs to
regulate their body temperature?
4. Thinking Critically Explain why cells the size of basketballs do not exist.
5. Apply As blood circulates through your arteries and veins, it exchanges
material with the surrounding tissues. When blood vessels enter a tissue,
they branch from one wide vessel into many smaller vessels. How does
this branching influence the delivery of nutrients and removal of wastes
to and from the tissues?
6. Apply The ZeeWeed water filtration system described above filters water
through many thin tubes. Suppose an engineer wishes to redesign the
ZeeWeed system with fewer and wider tubes. Will the design improve
the efficiency of the filter? Explain your reasoning.
7. Thinking Critically In terms of minimizing the surface area-to-volume
ratio, there are clear benefits to a cell if it is small. Why then are all
organisms not microscopic single-celled organisms?

(a) Describe the structure of a cell membrane. (8.1) (i) Explain how a cell’s shape influences its surface
area-to-volume ratio. (8.3)
(b) What is a semi-permeable membrane? (8.1)
(j) Explain why large organisms must be multicellular
(c) Explain why semi-permeability is important rather than single-celled. (8.3)
to the function of cell membranes. (8.1)
(d) Describe some of the functions of membrane

proteins. (8.1, 8.2)
(e) Describe the distribution and behaviour of

particles that are in equilibrium. (8.2)
(f ) Describe how materials move across a cell

membrane against a concentration gradient. (8.2)
(g) Explain how the concentration of solutes in

solutions affects the direction of osmosis. (8.2)
(h) Describe the function and mechanisms of

endocytosis and exocytosis. (8.2)
Summarize this chapter by doing one of the • Write a letter to a classmate who has been
following. Use a graphic organizer (such as a away, explaining how cell membranes control
concept map), produce a poster, or write the the internal environment of cells. Explain why
summary to include the key chapter concepts. you think this is important for cell survival.
Here are a few ideas to use as a guide: • Create a chart that lists the ways in which types
• Draw a concept map to summarize what you of materials are transported in and out of cells.
learned about membranes in this chapter. One Describe how each method of transporting
branch of the map should address membrane materials works, and what factors influence the
structure; another should address the role of direction of transport.
membranes in transport in and out of the cell; a • Write a short poem or rap song to help you
third should address the role of membrane remember some of the new terms you
surface area. Look for links between different learned in this chapter.
branches of the map.

8
C H A P T E R
Review
Key Terms
macrophage equilibrium channel protein receptor-mediated

phospholipid passive transport active transport endocytosis
hydrophilic diffusion membrane transport exocytosis
hydrophobic osmosis protein reverse osmosis
bilayer hypotonic endocytosis kidney dialysis
fluid-mosaic model hypertonic vesicle dialysis tubing
semi-permeable isotonic vacuole transdermal patch
selective transport transport proteins phagocytosis liposomes
Brownian motion facilitated diffusion pinocytosis surface area-to-volume ratio
concentration gradient carrier protein receptors multicellular organisms
Understanding Key Concepts 4. Name the type of transport and cell structures
If you need to check an item, section numbers are that would most likely be used to move the
provided in brackets below. following materials into or out of a cell. (8.2)
(a) bacterial cell
1. Explain why a cell membrane is called a bilayer.
(b) carbon dioxide
(8.1)
(c) water
2. Which of the following are open systems? (8.1) (d) sodium ion
(a) a school cafeteria
5. How does the particle model of matter help
(b) a sealed glass jar to explain the process of diffusion? (8.1)
(c) a cell
6. List three types of membrane proteins and
(d) a plant vacuole their roles. (8.2)
(e) a closed metal box
7. Explain why the structure of phospholipid
3. (a) In the diagram below a protein in the cell molecules causes them to spontaneously form
membrane recognizes a glucose molecule and membrane bilayers. (8.1)
changes its shape to receive it. Which type of 8. Explain how a dialysis membrane is used to filter
cell transport is being represented? the blood of patients with kidney failure. (8.2)
outside 9. What limits cell size and why? (8.3)

cell 10. Compare and contrast receptor-mediated endo-
cytosis and active transport. Discuss at least one
similarity and one difference between the two. (8.2)
Developing Skills
11. Three cubes of potato are placed in beakers
containing solutions of different concentrations.
inside
Compared with the fluid in the potato cells, the
cell
solutions are hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic.
(b) Redraw the diagram in your notebook and (a) Make diagrams to illustrate the movement
label the components of the cell membrane. of water across the cell membranes of the
(8.1, 8.2) potato cells.

(b) Predict any changes that will occur in the 15. Imagine that you have been given two solutions
potato cubes over a period of two days. of unknown concentrations and a piece of dialysis
tubing. Devise a way to experimentally determine
12. Make a model cell membrane that shows its which solution has the higher solute concentration.
different components. Include a legend that
makes your model easy to understand. Use 16. A bird’s egg is surrounded by a thin biological
modelling clay or make a computer model. membrane and enclosed by a shell. Both the
membrane and the shell are semi-permeable. If
13. Beet root cells can be used to study the effects of the shell is carefully removed from an egg, the
different solvents on membrane permeability. As membrane underneath is left intact. Design a lab
each solvent dissolves the cell membrane, coloured to explore osmosis with this living membrane.
pigments inside the cells leak out, tinting the
solution. Slices of beet root were placed in 17. Some organisms live in shallow ponds that dry
three different solutions for 10 min. A special up after a few weeks of hot, dry weather. This
device was then used to measure the absorbance means that the concentration of solutes in the
(measure of pigment concentration) in each water will change. How will this affect the cells
solution, as shown below. of organisms living in the ponds?
Absorbance for each alcohol

Alcohol Critical Thinking
concentration (%) Methanol Ethanol Propanol
18. Explain why a cell can be considered an open
0 250 250 250
system even though a membrane barrier
20 300 270 262 surrounds it.
40 500 350 299
19. What would happen to a cell if its cell membrane
60 625 453 366
were permeable rather than semi-permeable?
80 625 630 500
100 628 628 600 20. Your lungs are made up of millions of tiny sacs
that fill with air when you breathe in. Among
the air sacs are many blood vessels that pick up
(a) Make a line graph of the data. Identify the
oxygen to be carried throughout the body. The
manipulated and responding variables.
cells making up the air sacs are very flat and are
(b) At lower concentrations, which alcohol was only one cell layer thick. Using your knowledge
most damaging to beet cell membranes? of the influence of cell shape on diffusion, infer
(c) Which alcohol appears to affect beet cell why this cell shape is beneficial.
membranes the most? Explain how you
arrived at your conclusion.
14. List three common household items that
contain or have features of a semi-permeable 21. Give two reasons why scientists believe that cell
membrane. Explain how the semi-permeability membranes have a fluid structure.
of each item relates to its function.

9
C H A P T E R
From Cell to
• How do plants use specialized

cells to accomplish the same
functions as a single cell, but
on a larger scale?
• How do transport systems move
matter in, throughout, and out
of plants?
• What are the mechanisms that
enable plants to respond to
their environment?
318
318 MHR
MHR •• Flow
Unit of
3 Matter
CyclinginofLiving
MatterSystems
in Living Systems
Organism:Focus on Plants
T he railroad in Canada
stretches from coast to coast. It
Groups of specialized leaf cells create
sugars for the plant. Other cells form
covers thousands of kilometres and the vessels that transport water,
leads through prairies, valleys, and nutrients, and wastes throughout the
mountain passes. Building the railroad plant. The flower itself contains egg
was a monumental task. Clearly, it cells, sperm nuclei enclosed in pollen
could not have been built without grains, and other cells specialized for
teamwork. In fact, its construction sexual reproduction. The striking
required the skill and labour of difference between the bloom and
hundreds of individuals. the stalk shows the great variety of
The collective activities of many cells as the basic unit of life.
cells can also make extraordinary In Chapter 9, you will apply
things possible — for example, the your understanding of cells as you
functioning of the human body, investigate multicellular organisms.
which is extremely complex. In Using plants as model organisms,
multicellular organisms, numerous you will examine how specialized
specialized cells function together to cells and structures perform basic life
accomplish the same tasks as a single processes. You will learn how plants
cell, but on a larger scale. The people with vascular systems transport
who helped build the railroad included matter
oki such as gases and fluids, and
o
n
land surveyors, engineers, smiths to even how plants themselves move.

L
head
make the spikes, and hundreds of
A
people to lay the tracks. Just as all o

oki
n
Look ahead to “Des

L
of these people had specialized tasks, ign Your Own

head Investigation: Inside
Out: The Parts of
A
the different types of cells in Plants” at the end

of this unit. In this
investigation you wi
a multicellular organism have ll examine the struc
organization of plants ture and
— from the microsc
specific functions. the entire plant. Ge opic cell to
t a head start by co
types of specimen llecting the
s you may need for
The prairie lily, shown on the gation. Put aside liv your investi-
e plants or note wh
them, so that the pla ere to find
facing page, has a complex structure. nt materials are fre
sh when
you conduct your
research. Make draw
different plant struc ings of the
tures. As you read
annotate your draw this chapter,
ings with informatio
the structures you n about how
have observed relate
structures’ function to these
s.
Chapter 9From
FromCell
CelltotoOrganism:
Organism:Focus
FocusononPlants
Plants• • MHR
MHR
Solar Energy and Climates • MHR
319
319
319
9.1 Specialized and Organized
How does a plant, a multicellular organism, obtain
food, water, and minerals? How does it respond to its
environment? Most plants take up water and minerals
through their roots and produce food in their leaves. In
winter, some plants lose their leaves, and if they do not
receive enough water, some plants may wilt. These actions
are complex. What exactly are the structures that allow
plants to perform these activities? How are these structures
organized and how do they function?
In single-celled organisms, one cell must be able
Figure 9.1 Shown here is a to perform all the functions of life. Each organelle in the cell carries out
photomicrograph of a cross
a specific set of activities. By functioning together, the organelles meet all of
section of a leaf. Notice how
similar types of cells are the cell’s needs.
grouped together. In multicellular organisms, similar specialization takes place at the level
of the cell. Many cells working together meet the needs of the organism.
Groups of specialized cells, often with particular structures, perform specific
tasks. For example, the cells lining the intestines are specialized to transport
nutrients across their membranes and into the bloodstream. Other specialized
cells of the body include muscle cells, nerve cells, and skin cells. Plants also
show specialization of cells, as you can see in Figures 9.1 and 9.3.
Specialized cells have particular traits that help them to carry out their
activities efficiently. Those traits can include a particular cell shape, size, and
location within the organism, as well as the types of organelles within the cell.
simple sugars
A chloroplast
C6H12O6
Cell Specialization in Leaves
Leaves contain several types of specialized cells that function
in one of the leaf’s most important activities: photosynthesis
(see Figure 9.2). Light energy powers this biochemical process,
in which carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil are
combined to create glucose. Glucose is a carbohydrate that both
plant cells and animal cells use as a source of energy. Oxygen gas,
an essential component of the air for plants and animals, is
photosynthesis II
produced as a by-product during photosynthesis.
As shown in Figure 9.3, different types of leaf cells have
carbon dioxide
CO2 different structures and arrangements. How does a specific
NADPH
structure enable a leaf cell to perform specific activities?

ATP
oxygen
O2 How does the location of a leaf cell within a leaf affect that
cell’s function? Discover the answers to these questions in
photosynthesis I the Find Out Activity on page 322.
water
H2O
Figure 9.2 Most photosynthesis in a plant occurs in its leaves. Chloroplasts

light
photosynthesis inside the leaf cells contain a pigment molecule, chlorophyll, which traps
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + light energy light energy. This energy is used in a series of reactions that produce
C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) glucose and oxygen.

A Epidermal Cells
Just as skin cells protect your inner tissues, B Palisade Tissue Cells
a protective layer covers a plant’s leaf. This One of the main types of photosynthetic A palisade is a fence made of
layer, called the epidermis (also the scientific cells of plants are palisade tissue cells. sharpened poles or stakes that
name for skin), is made up of epidermal cells. This cell type forms a distinct layer within forms a defensive barrier. Canada’s
The epidermis covers the upper and lower the leaf. The palisade tissue cells are early forts were surrounded by
palisades. In your notebook, write
surfaces of the leaf. The epidermal cells are long and narrow, like columns, and are
a few sentences comparing the
flat and arranged in a tightly knit sheet that packed closely together. Their shape and
appearance of a palisade fence to
is one cell layer thick. A waxy substance organization make photosynthesis within the appearance of palisade tissue
(the cuticle) coats the cells to prevent the palisade tissue cells very efficient. cells. Include drawings, if you like.
evaporation of water from the leaf. Because These cells lie just under the leaf’s upper
their main function is to protect the leaf, rather surface, where they are exposed to sunlight
than to perform photosynthesis, the epidermal striking the leaf. Palisade cells are packed
cells do not have chloroplasts. They are with chloroplasts, thus, this
mostly transparent to allow solar energy to is where most of leaf’s cuticle
pass through them to the layers of photosynthesis occurs.
photosynthetic cells underneath.
upper A
C Spongy Tissue Cells epidermis
Spongy tissue cells also contain chloroplasts
and carry out photosynthesis. The spongy palisade B
cells are layered just below the palisade tissue cells
tissue cells. These cells are round and
loosely packed and have many air vascular
spaces between them, like a sponge. bundle
Their structure helps the cells to
exchange gases and water with E
xylem
the environment.
phloem
D Stomata and Guard Cells
The epidermis provides leaf cells
with valuable protection from the
environment. However, if the epidermis
prevented carbon dioxide from entering lower epidermis A
the leaf, photosynthesis could not occur.
stomata
Small openings in the epidermal layer, D
called stomata (singular, “stoma”), guard cells spongy tissue cells C
allow gases in and out of the leaf.
Carbon dioxide comes in to the leaf Figure 9.3 Pictured here is a cross section through
and oxygen is released from the leaf a leaf showing specialized leaf cells. Try to recognize
through the stomata. Water vapour also these cells in the photomicrograph shown in Figure 9.1.
diffuses out of the leaf through these
openings. Most stomata are on the E Vascular Tissue Cells
underside of the leaf. Each stoma is In addition to carbon dioxide and light energy, The word “stoma” comes from
flanked by two guard cells that leaves need water to perform photosynthesis. the Greek word stoma, meaning
regulate the stoma’s size. The shape Vascular tissue cells form a series of tubes that “mouth.” This term is also used
of the guard cells can change to open transport fluids throughout the plant. In the leaves, to name the small openings in
these are visible as leaf veins. Two kinds of vascular some membranes and mouth-
or close the stomata.
tissue, called xylem and phloem, make up the tubes. like openings in some animals,
such as microscopic worms.
Xylem carries water and minerals from the roots to
the leaves. Phloem carries sugars produced by the
leaves to various parts of the plant. The tissues are
arranged together in vascular bundles.
Chapter 9 From Cell to Organism: Focus on Plants • MHR 321

Find Out
Turn Over a New Leaf
In this activity, you will use a microscope 3. Prepare a wet mount of epidermis from a
to examine the specialized cells of leaves. Tradescantia or Kalanchoe leaf. Tear one leaf
at an angle perpendicular to the leaf veins.
Materials
prepared slides of leaves in cross section
Tradescantia (Spiderwort) or Kalanchoe
(Bryophyllum) leaves
tweezers
2–3 microscope slides
medicine dropper
tap water
2–3 cover slips 4. Find a section of the torn leaf edge where
a thin layer of the epidermis has been pulled
Safety Precautions away from the tissue beneath. Using tweezers,
• Handle microscope slides and cover slips place a bit of the epidermis on a clean micro-
carefully so they do not break and cut you. scope slide. Using a medicine dropper, put
• Be careful when using sharp objects such a drop of water on the tissue. Cover the
as tweezers. sample with a cover slip.
5. Examine the epidermal tissue under the

microscope. Start at low power, and then
1. Place a prepared slide of a cross section of
gradually increase to high power, until the
a leaf under the microscope. Examine the
stomata and guard cells are visible.
specimen under low power, and gradually
increase the magnification as necessary.
2. Use the photomicrograph of stained cells 1. On which part of the leaf did you observe
below to help you identify the following stomata?
cell types and structures:
• epidermal cells 2. If you observed both closed and open stomata,
• palisade tissue cells describe the difference in appearance of the
• spongy tissue cells guard cells in each case.
• stomata and guard cells 3. (a) What were the colours and shapes
• vascular tissue cells of the cells that you observed?
palisade tissue epidermal cells (b) Explain how the colours and shapes
of the cells relate to their functions.
4. (a) What was the arrangement of cells in

the leaf?
(b) Explain how the arrangement of cells
vascular in the leaf contributes to the efficiency
tissue spongy tissue stoma of photosynthesis.

Cell, Tissue, Organ, System
Being a multicellular organism has many advantages. Compared with single-
celled organisms, multicellular organisms can have:
A carnivorous plant plays the
• a larger size leading role in the musical Little
• a variety of specialized cells Shop of Horrors. In this fictional
• an ability to thrive in a broader range of environments tale, the plant, which resembles
a Venus’s-flytrap, has a taste for
However, multicellularity also creates a new demand: organization. The human blood. As it gobbles up its
human body, for example, contains an estimated 100 trillion cells. For so many fellow cast members, it grows
from a modest houseplant into
cells to function in a co-ordinated way, a high degree of organization is needed. a people-eating giant intent on
Within a cell, different functions are performed by specialized organelles. In world domination. If such a plant
multicellular organisms, groups of specialized cells are organized so that they can really existed, what kinds of
specializations would it have?
perform their functions efficiently. There are multiple levels of organization
Describe some of the features
in organisms: cells, tissues, organs, and systems (see Figure 9.4). Cells are the its cells and systems would
most basic level of organization, while systems are the most complex. require to be able to stalk and
eat prey the size of humans.
B Tissues
Cells that are similar to each
other are often clustered together
to form tissues. For example,
vascular tissue is formed from
bundles of many vascular tissue
cells. The epidermal tissue
pictured here is made from
layered sheets of epidermal
A Cells cells. The cells making up
Cells are the most basic unit of organization a particular tissue share the
in organisms. same structure and function.
C Organs D Systems
Multiple tissues can be arranged in combination to form Organs, too, can function together at an even higher level of organization.
organs. An example of an organ is your heart, which In a system, organs and tissues throughout the body perform a shared
contains muscle tissue, nerve tissue, and connective complex function. For example, your teeth, tongue, stomach, and intestines
tissue. Plant organs include roots, stems, and leaves. The are all part of your digestive system. The vascular system of plants, which
different tissues forming an organ work together to carries water to all of the plant’s tissues, makes use of the roots, stem,
enable the organ to perform a specific function. and leaves.
Figure 9.4 There are successive levels of organization in multicellular organisms.

Humans are not the only organisms that reap health benefits from cell research. The study
of plant cells helps scientists learn why some plants get sick. Plant pathologists
specialize in the study of plant health. They work to understand the diseases of www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/sciencefocus10
plants, the organisms that cause them, and how these diseases affect plant
Find out more about career opportunities in the
growth and survival. By improving plant health, plant pathologists contribute to
field of plant pathology. Go to the web site above
the quality of our food and environment. The field of plant pathology combines
to find out where to go next. Investigate one such
botany, crop science, ecology, biochemistry, and genetics. Plant pathologists
career more fully and give a brief presentation to
work in universities, government agencies, industries, and private consulting.
your class, telling the class about the type
Research a disease that affects plants. Find out what causes the disease, the
of work involved in this career.
name of the disease agent, and the plants it affects. What are the economic or social
consequences of this plant disease? Summarize your findings in a short paragraph.
Section 9.1 Summary

in
In a multicellular organism, cells are specialized and work together to meet
ok the needs of the organism. For example, a leaf has epidermal, palisade tissue,
g
Lo
spongy tissue, and vascular tissue cells. Epidermal cells make up a thin sheet
A that protects the leaf’s interior. Most photosynthesis takes place in the palisade
d
hea
tissue cells, which are packed with chloroplasts. Much of the leaf is filled with
How do we know that plants
are organized into cells, tissues,
round, loosely packed spongy tissue. Vascular tissues, the xylem and phloem,
organs, and systems? How can transport fluids throughout the plant.
you tell the difference between Multicellular organisms can grow larger and survive in a wider range of
each kind of structure? Suggest environments than unicellular organisms. However, multicellular organisms
a way of using plant samples
to demonstrate how plants must also organize their cells in a co-ordinated way. Cells are organized into
are structured and organized. tissues, organs, and systems.
Re-read “Design Your Own
Investigation: Inside Out: The
Parts of Plants” at the end of Check Your Understanding
this unit. In this investigation,
you will have an opportunity 1. How are the activities of single-celled organisms similar to the activities
to answer these questions by
of a specialized cell within a multicellular organism?
designing your own experiment.
With your group, brainstorm 2. Explain how a plant tissue differs from a plant organ.
possible techniques you
could use to address these 3. The epidermal cells of most leaves are transparent. Why is this beneficial
questions. Record your to the plant?
ideas for future reference.
4. Describe the roles of the two types of leaf cells that perform photosynthesis.
5. Thinking Critically Some leaf cells specialize in the exchange of water
and gases with the environment. Other leaf cells do the opposite and
prevent exchange of materials with the environment. Explain why leaves
need both types of cells to survive and grow.
6. Apply Consider the following materials: a flowering African violet, a
light, and an opaque piece of cloth. How could you demonstrate which
plant organ is responsible for photosynthesis in the African violet? Indicate
your controls, and the manipulated variable in your procedure.
7. Apply Some people wipe a thin layer of petroleum jelly on the leaves
of houseplants to make the leaves shiny. What would be the effects
of using petroleum jelly to cover: (a) the entire surface of each leaf;
(b) the underside of the leaves; (c) the upper surface of the leaves.
Explain your reasoning.

9.2 Gas Exchange in Plants
To supply oxygen to our body cells, we breathe. Air leaf hair
enters our lungs and oxygen diffuses into our blood and
is distributed throughout our body. Plants, however, Water and
lack lungs and blood to take in gases from the air. How, minerals enter
leaf through palisade
then, do they exchange gases with their environment? tissue cells
xylem.
The stomata in the outer tissues of the plant’s leaves air space
allow gases to diffuse in and out of the leaf. Inside the leaf vein
leaf, between the upper and lower leaf surfaces, there Sugar exits spongy
are spaces between some of the cells. Gases move in and leaf through tissue cells
out of these intercellular spaces. Here, carbon dioxide, phloem.
oxygen, and water vapour move by passive transport
between the plant cells and the surrounding air. guard cell
CO2 enters leaf O2 and H2O
Something in the Air through stomata. exit leaf
through stomata.
The air we breathe is a mixture of oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour,
nitrogen, and other gases. However, the ratio of these gases is different in the Figure 9.5 Gases diffuse
through the cell membranes of
air we inhale and the air we exhale. To break down glucose and release its energy,
the spongy tissue cells. Carbon
our body cells consume oxygen and produce carbon dioxide waste. Therefore, dioxide enters the leaf through
the air we exhale has lower levels of oxygen and higher levels of carbon dioxide stomata and diffuses into the
than the air we inhale. spongy tissue cells. Oxygen
Plant cells, like animal cells, consume some oxygen and produce carbon diffuses out of the spongy tissue
dioxide and water during cellular respiration. During photosynthesis, however, cells and is released from the leaf
through the stomata. Water, which
plants also consume carbon dioxide and water and produce oxygen. In fact,
enters the leaf through the network
when plants photosynthesize, they consume far more carbon dioxide than they of xylem, also exits through the
produce due to cellular respiration. Far greater volumes of gases are exchanged stomata as vapour.
during photosynthesis than during any other cellular process in plants.
Leaves and Lenticels

The most important gas-exchange organ in plants is the leaf. How
does carbon dioxide enter a leaf? As Figure 9.5 shows, leaves contain
air spaces that are connected to the external environment by stomata.
Air diffuses through the stomata and into the leaf. It circulates in the
spaces between the spongy and palisade tissue cells. Carbon dioxide
diffuses down its concentration gradient, dissolving into the watery
film around the cells and diffusing into the cells themselves. There, the
chloroplasts use the carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. Oxygen produced
during photosynthesis passes out of the cells and into the air spaces.
The oxygen then diffuses through the stomata and out of the plant. Figure 9.6 A lenticel. Lenticels
In the roots and stem, some gas exchange can also occur in cells near the usually appear as small white
surface. However, in woody plants, such as trees, layers of dead cork cells spots on the woody stems of
and waxy substances prevent direct gas exchange between the external tree trunks.
environment and living cells below the wood. Lens-shaped openings, called
lenticels, perforate the bark of these plants (see Figure 9.6). Air can diffuse
through the lenticels. Lenticels enable cells within the roots and stem to
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment.

S K I L L C H E C K

9-A
Carbon Dioxide Consumption

by Cabomba
As plants exchange gases with the environment, they alter the composition of the air around
them. One way to measure a plant’s gas exchange with its environment is to determine how
much carbon dioxide levels change in the surroundings. In this investigation, you will
indirectly observe carbon dioxide consumption by the aquatic plant Cabomba.
Question
How can you detect gas exchange in plants?
Hypothesis
Formulate a hypothesis about how light affects the amount of carbon dioxide
consumed by plants.
Safety Precautions
For tips on designing data tables, turn to Skill Focus 5.

• Bromothymol blue is poisonous if ingested and can
irritate your skin. Always wear safety goggles, a lab
apron, and gloves when handling this solution.
• Avoid spilling bromothymol blue on your clothes, as Procedure
it stains.
1 Read the entire procedure. Prepare a data table
• Follow your teacher’s instructions for handling and for collecting and recording all the information
disposing of bromothymol blue.
you will need during this experiment.
• Wash your hands at the end of the investigation.
2 Working with a lab partner, place four test tubes
Apparatus in a test tube rack. Using a permanent marker,
safety goggles label them 1 through 4. Fill each test tube with
4 glass test tubes with stoppers tap water.
test tube rack
3 Use a medicine dropper to add 20 drops of
permanent marker
bromothymol blue to each test tube. Bromothymol
2 medicine droppers
blue is an indicator solution that changes colour
rubber gloves
in the presence of carbon dioxide. High carbon
dioxide concentrations produce a yellow colour.
Materials
Low carbon dioxide concentrations produce
100–200 mL tap water
a blue colour.
50 mL bottle bromothymol blue solution
2–4 sprigs of Cabomba
20–50 mL carbonated water

4 Use a different medicine dropper to add 10 drops Analyze
of carbonated water to test tubes 2 through 4.
1. How did adding carbonated water affect the
carbon dioxide concentration in the test tubes?
20 drops On what observation is your answer based?
bromothymol blue
2. What was the purpose of including test tube 1?
Test tube 4?
10 drops 3. What does the change in colour of the solutions
carbonated water tell you about what occurred in the plant cells?
Cabomba 4. Was your hypothesis valid? Explain any

differences between your predictions and
your observations.
test tube Conclude and Apply

5. Relate your observations to the effects of
1 2 3 4 photosynthesis on plant gas exchange and
environmental carbon dioxide levels.
6. Based on the results of your experiment,

name one factor that influences the amount
5 Add a sprig of Cabomba to test tubes of photosynthesis in Cabomba.
3 and 4 and stopper all of the tubes.
7. Write some other questions that you could
6 Record the colour of the water in investigate using the equipment from this
each tube. experiment. In point form, outline your
controls, manipulated variable, and procedure.
7 Place test tubes 1 through 3 in bright
sunlight, and place test tube 4 in a
dark location.
8 Based on your hypothesis, predict

how each treatment condition in
your data table will affect the colour Carbon dioxide is the most plentiful greenhouse gas in the
atmosphere. As plants take in carbon dioxide from the air, they
of the solution. also reduce the harmful effects of this gas on the environment.
What might be a possible effect of removing forests for housing,
9 Observe test tubes 1 through 3 farms, or because of forest fires? How could plants be used
periodically for 60 min. In your to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
notebook, record the colours of the Provide some possible answers in your notebook.
solutions in the test tubes during
this period. After 60 min, observe
the solution in test tube 4 and note
Today, the air is made up of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen,
its colour.
and less than 1 percent carbon dioxide. When life on Earth began, the
atmosphere had almost no oxygen. When the first plants evolved,
0 Observe all four test tubes again they began releasing oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis.
the following day. Record your results. Slowly, the oxygen content of the air increased to much higher levels.

Gas Exchange Is Tied to Water Loss
The evaporation of water has a As you know from seeing your breath on a cold day, the air you exhale contains
cooling effect. That’s why people
water vapour. Plants, too, lose water during gas exchange. Palisade and spongy
perspire and dogs pant on hot
summer days. Plants can use tissue cells are coated with a thin layer of water. The water evaporates, saturating
evaporative cooling to create the air spaces within the leaf with water vapour. As air diffuses out of the
their own “air conditioning.” stomata, some of that water is lost. The evaporation of water from leaves is
Transpiration can cool a leaf
as much as 10 to 15°C below
called transpiration. Transpiration can cause a plant to lose as much as 99
the surrounding air temperature. percent of the water absorbed by the roots. Figure 9.7 shows a large cloud
Although the plant may lose a lot of water vapour produced by transpiration.
of water, evaporative cooling can
prevent heat damage.
During summer, an average-sized

maple tree loses 200 L of water per
hour as a result of transpiration.
How much water must a maple
tree take up from the soil to provide
water for both transpiration and
photosynthesis? Assume that
transpiration causes the tree to lose
90 percent of the water it absorbs
from the soil. Figure 9.7 The combined effect of evaporation from the leaves of thousands of trees produced
this visible cloud of water vapour, which rose up from the forest in the early morning hours.
Plants that lose so much water through transpiration might seem to be

in danger of drying out and dying. What keeps these plants from rapidly
exhausting their water reserves? As you read earlier, guard cells can change
their shape to cause the stomata to open or close. The size of the stomata
controls the amount of gas exchange and transpiration. When the stomata
are open, carbon dioxide can enter the leaf and oxygen and water vapour
exit. Therefore, high rates of photosynthesis are possible when the stomata
are open. When the stomata are closed, gas exchange and water exchange
are reduced. Less photosynthesis occurs when the stomata are closed.

The opening and closing of the stomata are determined by the amount of
water in the guard cells. Water moves into and out of the guard cells by osmosis. During droughts, dry, non-turgid
As water moves into guard cells, the water pressure inside the cells increases guard cells keep the stomata
and causes the cells to swell. The high water pressure, called turgor pressure, closed and reduce further water
loss. However, as a result, many
pushes the elastic cell membrane against the rigid cell wall. The swollen guard plants photosynthesize less
cells change shape, opening the stoma. Water vapour then passes out of the because they get less carbon
leaf through transpiration. Transpiration causes water to be lost from the plant’s dioxide from the air. This is one
reason crop yields are lower
cells. As the amount of water in the guard cells decreases, the cells deflate and
during droughts.
change shape again, as shown in Figure 9.8. This action closes the stoma.
In plant cells, the cell wall limits

the amount of water that can flow
into the cell by osmosis. Water
stops diffusing into the cell when
the cell’s turgor pressure reaches
an upper limit. Compare how
plant and animal cells respond
to the continued inflow of water
by osmosis.
Figure 9.8 In the centre of this micrograph, you can see an open stoma surrounded by turgid
(swollen) guard cells. On the right, is a closed stoma. How does the stomata being open during
the day and closed at night affect photosynthesis and water loss in plants?
In most plants, the stomata open during the day

and close at night. However, in plants adapted to
extremely dry conditions, the stomata only open
at night. In desert plants, carbon dioxide is stored
in a different chemical form until it can be used in
photosynthesis during daylight hours.
Although stomata can help prevent excess water
loss, a plant can still dry out if its water source (soil,
for example) is depleted. The plant’s leaves droop
and wither, and the stem softens and bends as shown
in Figure 9.9. What happens to the plant’s cells that
cause it to wilt? Like the guard cells, other cells
throughout the plant have reduced turgor pressure as
a result of water loss. If they are supplied with more Figure 9.9 Turgor pressure can act as a plant’s “skeleton.” Cells
water, the limp cells have their turgor pressure with high turgor pressure have firm, rigid shapes. Cells in the
restored, which renews their shape and rigidity. stems of non-woody plants need high turgor pressure to hold
the plant upright.
You can learn more about turgor pressure in the
next Find Out Activity.

Find Out
Open and Shut
In this activity, you will test the effect of salt place a cover slip on the slide.
water on the turgor pressure in guard cells.
3. Prepare another onion specimen as in steps 1
Safety Precautions and 2, but use three drops of salt water instead.
• Be careful when using sharp objects such 4. Allow your specimens to sit for 5 min or more
as scissors and tweezers. and then examine them under the microscope.
• Handle microscope slides and cover slips Use low power first, before moving to higher
carefully so they do not break and cut you. magnifications. Draw what you see.
Materials What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting

scissors green onion stalk 2 cover slips
1. Describe the shape of the guard cells in tap
tweezers 2 microscope slides salt water
water and in salt water. Explain what happened
tap water 2 medicine droppers microscope
to make the guard cells look different.
Procedure Performing and Recording 2. Did the activity provide a good model system
1. Cut the stalk of a green onion. Use tweezers to for studying the effect of drought on guard
peel off a thin section of the epidermis. Place cells? What were its limitations?
the specimen in the centre of a slide.
3. Which other green onion cells, if any,
2. Use a medicine dropper to add about three appeared to be affected by the salt water?
drops of tap water to the specimen. Carefully What do you infer happened to these cells?
Section 9.2 Summary

The lower epidermis of a leaf may The stomata allow carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapour to diffuse
have between 10 000 and 100 000 through the leaf. Plant cells and animal cells consume oxygen and produce
stomata per cm2. How many carbon dioxide and water during cellular respiration. During photosynthesis,
stomata would be present on a plants consume carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Water evaporation from
leaf with a surface area of 10 cm2
and an average of 50 000 stomata leaves is called transpiration. Stomata can change their size to regulate gas
per cm2? How many guard cells exchange and prevent excessive water loss. The water pressure, or turgor
would there be? pressure, in the guard cells surrounding the stomata regulates the stomata.
If transpiration is high, pressure in the guard cells is reduced, and the
stomata close to minimize gas exchange and conserve water.

1. Which gases are produced and consumed during photosynthesis in plants?
2. The cells of some plant stems are surrounded by a protective layer of
cork or waxy material. Describe how the cells of stems exchange gases
across this barrier.
3. Apply How could you demonstrate which leaf structure regulates the
amount of transpiration that occurs in a plant?
4. Thinking Critically Why do plants require oxygen?
5. Apply Design an experiment to test the effect of a range of water
temperatures on the amount of photosynthesis in an aquatic plant.

9.3 Water Transport in Plants
Within individual cells, water is transported mainly by osmosis. In an entire
multicellular organism, water must often be transported over much longer
distances than across a single cell. Some trees, such as the one in Figure 9.10,
transport water as far as 100 m or more from the root tips to the highest leaves.
In this section, you will investigate the transport of water and nutrients in the
plant vascular system. You will also identify the cells, tissues, and organs that
make up this system.
Xylem Vessels and Phloem Vessels

Vascular plants have a system of vessels that transport water, minerals, and sugars
throughout the plant. Like the circulatory system that carries blood throughout
your body, the plant vascular system is made up of a series of interconnected
tubes that extend throughout the plant. Xylem and phloem are the specialized
tissues that make up this system of transport. You have seen xylem and phloem
in leaves. These tissues are also found in the roots and stems of many plants.
The xylem tissue transports water and dissolved minerals from the soil to the
leaves. In a mature plant, most xylem cells are dead. They form hollow tubes
consisting of only the cell walls. The cells are linked end to end, forming long
continuous tubes called xylem vessels. Xylem vessels extend from near the tips
of the roots up into the rest of the plant. Without the water transported by the
xylem vessels, the plant would die, since water is used in photosynthesis. In some
non-woody plants, the water transported by the xylem vessels also prevents wilting.
Some of the sugars produced during photosynthesis are transported
throughout the plant by cells of phloem tissue. As with xylem, phloem is
Figure 9.10 How do plants
composed of cylindrical cells joined end to end to form phloem vessels.
transport water and nutrients
Unlike xylem, however, phloem cells are living cells. Their cell walls are porous, over long distances? How do
allowing them to exchange materials with neighbouring cells. Sugary sap flows individual plant cells function
down the phloem vessels by passing through these pores. Figure 9.11 illustrates in these processes?
how xylem vessels and phloem vessels are grouped together in bundles in
roots and stems of plants.
xylem phloem vascular bundles with xylem and phloem
A B
Figure 9.11 Cross sections through A the root of a plant and B the stem of a plant show that
strands of xylem and phloem are grouped together in bundles.

Figure 9.12 gives a more detailed look at the parts of xylem
and phloem tissue. The long hollow cells within xylem vessels
are called tracheids or vessel elements. Some types of plants
pit have only tracheids, while others have both tracheids and vessel
elements. Both of these structures begin as living cells, which
grow end-to-end in a young plant. When these cells mature, the
content of their cells die, leaving only the cell walls. Fluids pass
from one tracheid or vessel element to the next within the xylem,
to move water through the plant. Small pits, thin areas in the
end walls, connect the tracheids. Perforations in the end walls
tracheid
connect vessel elements. Phloem cells consist of sieve tubes and
xylem companion cells arranged end-to-end. These cells connect in
vessel
element long tubes, separated by sieve plates, to make the phloem vessels.
sieve plate Water Uptake in Roots

Water and minerals enter a plant from the roots. At the core of
the root are the xylem and phloem, encircled by several other
layers of cells. Epidermal tissue covers the root. At its tip, the
sieve-tube
element phloem epidermal cells are permeable to water, and this location is
companion cell where most water uptake occurs. Water enters the cells of the
root epidermis by osmosis. The surface area for absorbing water
and dissolved minerals from the soil is increased by hundreds of
parenchyma cells root hairs (see Figure 9.13). Each tiny root hair is an outgrowth
of a single epidermal cell. Water continues diffusing through
sieve plate the root tissue until it reaches the xylem vessels.
Figure 9.12 Shown here are illustrations of xylem

vessels and phloem vessels superimposed on
phloem xylem
electron micrographs of these structures. Xylem
transports water and dissolved minerals from the
roots to the leaves. Phloem carries sugar-rich sap
from the leaves throughout the plant. waterproof
seal
root hair
Figure 9.13 Water and dissolved minerals enter the roots by

osmosis through the root hairs. On the left is a scanning electron
micrograph of a radish seed root hair. As shown above, water and
minerals move from the root hairs into or between cells farther
in the root. At the innermost layer of these cells, substances
are prevented from moving between the cells because of
a waterproof seal around each cell.

Although water readily diffuses across the cell membranes, minerals do not.
Root cells use facilitated diffusion or, if working against a concentration gradient,
active transport to move minerals across their membranes.
The solution of water and minerals that accumulates in the root xylem is
called xylem sap. Xylem vessels carry the xylem sap upward from the roots,
through the stem, and into the leaves. As the xylem tissue enters the leaves, the
vessels branch into the many veins often visible on the leaf surface. At the end
of each xylem vessel, water and minerals are absorbed by the cells for the leaf.
In the next Find Out Activity you will investigate the properties that allow
fluid in the xylem to flow against gravity.
Find Out
Modelling Water Transport:
Pushing and Pulling
You have learned how root cells transport water and 3. While you are pulling
minerals from cell to cell using diffusion and active the water column up
transport. Once xylem sap enters the xylem vessels, from above, have your
how does the fluid flow upward against gravity? lab partner use scissors
to snip a small hole in
Safety Precautions the side of the plastic
tubing. Continue
pulling the water up.
• Never eat or drink anything in the laboratory. Note what happens
• Handle the glass microcapillary tubes carefully. to the water column.
They break easily and, if broken, could injure
4. Touch the tip of a microcapillary tube to
you or a classmate.
the surface of the water. What happens?
• Follow your teacher’s instructions for disposing
of the glass microcapillary tubes.
Materials 1. Which method of water transport moved

100 mL beaker 20 cm clear plastic tubing the water column the highest?
tap water scissors 2. What limited how high the water column
food colouring glass microcapillary tube could go?
plastic syringe
3. How did cutting a hole in the plastic tubing
Procedure Performing and Recording affect your ability to move the water upward?
1. With your lab partner, set up the model system. Explain your observations.
Fill a beaker with water and add 2–3 drops of 4. Cohesion is the property of water that caused it
food colouring. to rise in a continuous column when you pulled
it from above. Based on your observations,
2. Using a syringe and a piece of plastic tubing,
write your own definition for cohesion.
experiment with different ways of moving the
water against gravity. Try methods that push 5. Adhesion is the property of water that caused
the water from below as well as methods that it to rise in the microcapillary tube. Based on
pull the water from above. your observations, write your own definition
for adhesion in your science notebook.

Properties of Water
How can xylem sap rise in such a long, continuous column? The force holding
the column together is the same force that allows you to pull water upward
with a syringe or drink through a straw. The shape of water molecules, and
the weak electrical forces between them, cause water molecules to be attracted
to each other. Cohesion, the tendency of water molecules to stick to other
water molecules, transmits the upward pull from the tip of the leaves to the
tip of the roots.
What would happen if the column of water within a xylem vessel were to
break? The effect would be similar to removing a link from a chain. If you pulled
the chain up from one end, only the chain links above the point of the break
could be lifted. In a xylem vessel, a break in the water column, such as a bubble,
blocks the rising xylem sap. Bubbles can form in the xylem sap as a result of
freezing in winter. Only the water molecules above the point of the break can be
pulled upward. (You may have witnessed the same phenomenon in the previous
Find Out Activity, when you cut a hole in the plastic tubing.)
Another property of water, adhesion, helps water fight the force of gravity.
Adhesion is the tendency of water molecules to stick, or adhere, to certain
surfaces. Just as water molecules are attracted to each other, they are also attracted
to the molecules of other substances, such as the glass of a microcapillary tube,
or the cellulose wall of a xylem vessel. The clinging of xylem sap to the xylem
walls helps to prevent the sap from falling back down to the roots.
Root Pressure Pushes

If you did the previous Find Out Activity, you saw that water can move upward
over long distances by two main mechanisms: pushing and pulling. In the roots,
one force that pushes fluid upward is turgor pressure inside the root xylem.
This is called root pressure. As root cells bring minerals into the xylem
through active transport, the mineral concentration in the
xylem sap increases. This increases the tendency of water
to diffuse into the root xylem by osmosis. Water flows
in, building root pressure in the xylem vessels. This
pressure forces fluid up the xylem. Adhesion of the
xylem sap to the xylem vessel walls helps the fluid
climb upward. Figure 9.14 shows xylem sap oozing
from a plant’s cut stem. In the next Find Out
Activity you can set up a model system to study
root pressure.
Figure 9.14 This tomato plant has been severed near the
bottom of its stem. Xylem sap is oozing from the cut. What
effect does this injury have on the transport of substances
through the xylem?

Find Out
Up with Root Pressure
Can root pressure really provide enough force to
push a column of water upward against gravity?
In this activity, you will answer this question by
using a dialysis bag to model a root xylem vessel.
Safety Precautions
• Handle the glass tubing gently. If the tubing

breaks, you could easily cut your hands.
• Dispose of any broken tubing according
to your teacher’s directions.
Materials 3. Immerse the bag in a beaker filled with tap

string water. Use the metal stand to support the
10 cm dialysis tubing glass tube so that it is held upright.
concentrated sugar solution 4. Observe the fluid level in the glass tubing
5 cm glass tubing (5 mm diameter) over several minutes.
250 mL beaker
tap water
metal stand with a small clamp
1. What happened to the fluid inside the
Procedure Performing and Recording bag? Why?
1. Work together with a lab partner to use string 2. By what process did water flow across
to tie closed (tightly) one end of the dialysis the dialysis membrane?
tubing. Fill the tubing with concentrated
sugar solution. 3. How successful was root pressure in your
model system in moving water against gravity?
2. Place a piece of glass tubing in the open end
of the fluid-filled dialysis bag. Use string to tie 4. Compare the fluid movement you observed
the open end of the bag around the glass in this activity with the flow of xylem sap.
tube. Tie it tightly to prevent leaks.
Transpiration Pulls
Root pressure can move water upward a few metres at most. Therefore, root Xylem sap can flow upward faster
pressure can account for the flow of xylem sap only in some small plants. For than 15 m/h. At this rate, how long
the roots of a tall tree to raise a column of water 100 m, the root pressure would would it take for water to travel
from the roots to the leaves in
have to be more than 10 times greater than atmospheric pressure. Such root a tree 80 m tall with roots
pressures have never been demonstrated. Indeed, many tall trees show no 20 m deep?
measurable root pressure at all. How, then, does xylem sap make the rest of
the journey upward to the leaves?

The remaining work of water transport is accomplished by pulling from
above. Transpiration from the leaves generates this pulling force, or tension.
Therefore, although too much water loss through stomata can put a plant at
risk of drying out, transpiration is very beneficial to plants.
As water vapour exits the leaf tissue, the air within the leaf becomes slightly
drier. This causes water to diffuse out of the leaf cells and into the fluid between
the cells, where solutes are more concentrated. As a result, more water evaporates
Look up the meanings of the
from the surface of the cells. Cohesive forces between the water molecules
prefixes “ad-” and “co-.” How
do they distinguish the meanings cause more water to be pulled up the xylem vessels in the leaf, replacing the
of the words “adhesion” and water that has evaporated. In turn, more water travels along the xylem vessels
“cohesion”? Can you think of toward the leaf cells. Ultimately, this transpirational pull is exerted throughout
any other words beginning with
these prefixes? Write them in
the xylem vessels and to the plant’s water source — the soil. Like an unbroken
your notebook. chain, the entire column of fluid is pulled upward. Figure 9.15 demonstrates
the roles of transpiration, cohesion, and adhesion in this pulling-upward process.
The Sun causes water to evaporate.

The energy for xylem transport comes from the Sun.
xylem in leaf vein
water molecules
outside air
stoma
Transpiration (evaporation) of water from leaves creates

tension that pulls the water column in xylem from the roots.
cohesion
xylem between water
molecules
cell wall
adhesion of water
molecules to cell wall
Water column is held together by cohesion;

adhesion keeps water column in place.
root hair
soil particles
xylem
water molecule
Water from soil enters xylem in root;

tension in water column extends from leaves to root.
Figure 9.15 Tension created by transpiration at the leaves creates a force

that pulls the water in the xylem in the roots and stems upward to the
leaves. Leaves absorb the energy in sunlight, which causes water
evaporation through stomata.

S K I L L C H E C K

9-B
Transpiration in
Different Plant Types
In this investigation, you will design your own
experiment to compare the amount of transpiration
in different types of plants.
Question
Is there a difference in the amount of transpiration Analyze
from different plant types? 1. Summarize the results of your experiment in a
table. Are your results qualitative or quantitative?
Hypothesis
2. Discuss the data with the other group members.
Choose four to six different types of plants to use
Were the results similar to your predictions?
in your experiment. With your group members,
formulate a hypothesis about how the type of plant 3. What can you infer about the difference in the
affects the amount of transpiration in plants. amount of transpiration by different plant types?
Safety Precautions 4. Do your data support your hypothesis?
• Never eat or drink anything in the laboratory. Explain why or why not.
• Wash your hands with soap and water after
you have completed the investigation. 5. Suggest one or two ways that your experiment
could have been improved. If you were to do
Materials the experiment again, what changes would
small potted plants you make?
water 6. How valuable was working in a group in
clear plastic bags developing your experiment and carrying out
For tips on designing scientific
(large enough to investigations, turn to Skill Focus 5. your investigation?
fit over plants)
Conclude and Apply
Procedure
7. How did the structure of the different plants
1 With your group, decide how you will test your
affect the amount they transpired?
hypothesis. Identify the manipulated variable
and the responding variable. Be sure to include 8. Based on the results of your experiment, what
a control in your experimental design. is your advice to home gardeners about the
water requirements of different houseplants?
2 Based on your hypothesis, predict what the
outcome of your experiment will be.
3 Write a step-by-step outline for your experi-
9. Some plants must be able to survive in chal-
mental procedure. Describe exactly how you
lenging environmental conditions. Research
will use the materials listed.
a region on Earth where one environmental
4 Prepare a data sheet for recording your data variable is particularly extreme. What kinds
and notes. of plants are native to the region? Do these
plants have special adaptations that make
5 Perform your experiment.
them well suited to their surroundings?

Sugar Transport in Phloem
Some scientists use insects called After water and minerals have been delivered to the leaves, the plant is ready
aphids as research assistants to
to carry out photosynthesis. The sugars produced by the palisade tissue cells
study phloem! Aphids drink the
water and nutrients in phloem. and spongy tissue cells provide energy for the whole plant. Before the sugars
They tap the phloem with a long, can be used by cells in other parts of the plant, they must make the trek from
needle-like mouthpart, called a the leaves to the stem, roots, and growing shoots and fruits.
stylet. The stylet pierces a single
phloem cell, and the pressure in
The phloem vessels transport the sugars and other substances throughout the
the phloem force-feeds the aphid. plant. Sugar, minerals, and other nutrients are pumped into the leaf phloem by
Researchers can anaesthetize an active transport. As the sugar concentration increases within the phloem cells,
aphid and cut off its stylet. The water follows the sugar by osmosis. The cells swell with the increase in turgor
aphid’s body is removed, and the
stylet is left in place, where it pressure. The sugar, nutrient, and water mixture, called phloem sap, flows
continues tapping the phloem. down the concentration gradient. The fluid pressure forces the phloem sap
The scientists can then collect through the pores in the phloem cell walls and into neighbouring cells, where
and analyze the phloem that
pressure is lower.
oozes through the stylet.
A leaf
A Sucrose enters the

phloem in the leaf, increasing
the concentration of the B Sucrose is removed from the
sucrose solution in the phloem by the tissues of the plant
phloem. This causes water stem and root. This causes the
to move by osmosis into concentration of sucrose solution
the phloem. In turn, the to decrease, and therefore water
movement of water leads B stem moves out of the phloem by
to an increase in pressure osmosis. Pressure in the phloem
in the phloem. decreases.
sugar
water
Figure 9.16 A simplified C The pressure gradient
illustration of how sugar between the leaf and root
is transported in a typical causes a flow of solution
plant. Dots represent the through the phloem from
concentration of sucrose, the leaf to the root.
while the diagonal lines C root
represent pressure.
As the phloem sap travels down to the roots, some of it leaves the phloem
and nourishes the surrounding tissue. The nutrients are taken up by growing
shoots and roots, as well as by fruits and other organs that store energy. Thus,
in these tissues, the pressure within the phloem remains low. Because the
pressure in the roots is almost always lower than in the leaves, phloem usually
flows downward. Figure 9.16 illustrates the transport of sugar throughout
a plant from leaf to root.

S K I L L C H E C K

9-C
The Flow in Phloem

Think About It
What happens to a plant if the flow in vascular
tissue is interrupted? In 1686, an Italian scientist
named Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) asked this
question. He investigated it by removing a ring
of phloem tissue from a tree.
What to Do
1 Read the following account of Malpighi’s
experiment. Then answer the Analyze
questions below. trunk is
ring of tree bulging above
In trees, phloem forms the layer of living tissue bark removed stripped ring
just beneath the bark. Xylem lies beneath the
phloem. In his experiment, Malpighi peeled
away a ring of bark and the outer layer of
living tissue from a tree.
Shortly after this treatment, a swelling
appeared in the bark of the tree immediately
above the stripped ring. Sweet-tasting fluid
oozed out from this swelling.
Although it appeared at first that Malpighi’s
manipulations had not seriously damaged the
tree, the tree died a few weeks later.
Analyze
1. What do the results of Malpighi’s experiment
tell you about the function of phloem?
2. Why did the tree die?
3. What would the results of Malpighi’s experi-

ment have been had he blocked transport in
the xylem instead of the phloem?
4. The removal of a ring of tree bark and

phloem is called girdling. Farmers sometimes
girdle trees to produce sweeter fruit.
(a) Why would this practice increase sugar
transport to the fruit?
(b) How would it affect the health of the tree?
Trees damaged by removing rings of phloem tissue

Across Canada
Dr. Malcolm King comes from a long line of A winner of many awards for his scientific research and work with
people whose life’s work involved healing. Aboriginal students, Dr. King is currently a professor of the pulmonary
His grandfather was a traditional division in the department of medicine at the University of Alberta.
Aboriginal healer who learned about Dr. King and his students have been using extracts from rat
medicines from his own mother. Dr. King root and varieties of licorice root in experiments to find out what
is carrying on the tradition. Much of his works best in assisting the lungs to clear themselves of mucus
work involves exploring herbal medicine, and infection. In his model system, licorice root worked especially
specifically the use of traditional Aboriginal well in helping to clear mucus; Dr. King believes this is due to the
peoples’ remedies to treat respiratory complex sugars that give licorice its distinctive sweetness.
illnesses, his area of specialization. Dr. King researches diseases
such as asthma, bronchitis, and cystic fibrosis, and his work has
led him to patent two therapies for chronic respiratory disease.
Section 9.3 Summary

Long continuous tubes, xylem vessels and phloem vessels, transport fluids
throughout the plant. Xylem tissue transports water and dissolved minerals
from the soil to the leaves. Xylem vessels are made of long, hollow, dead cells
called tracheids or vessel elements. Phloem vessels transport sugars produced
during photosynthesis throughout the plant. Phloem cells are living cells.
Water first enters plant roots by osmosis. Hundreds of root hairs increase
the surface area over which osmosis occurs. Minerals are moved into the root by
facilitated diffusion or active transport. Fluid can flow through the xylem against
The processes of diffusion gravity, because of the water properties of cohesion and adhesion. Upward fluid
and active transport both play movement through plants is also facilitated by the pushing pressure created
important roles in water transport
by turgor pressure in the root xylem and the pulling force of transpiration
in plants. List several examples
in which diffusion and active through the leaves.
transport allow for the movement
of water as it travels from the soil
and through the plant. Name the Check Your Understanding
part of the plant where diffusion
or active transport occurs, and 1. Describe the structure of the cells that make up phloem tissue.
describe how the process
transports water. 2. Will a daisy plant transpire more in a humid environment or in a dry
environment? Explain your reasoning.
3. Explain why root pressure alone cannot transport water from the roots
to the leaves of most stems.
4. Apply If the stem of a plant is bent or snapped, the part of the plant
above the bend will usually die, even if it is propped up with a support.
Explain why.
5. Is transpiration part of the gas exchange system in plants, the water
exchange system in plants, or both? Explain your answer.
6. Thinking Critically Maple syrup is a sweet treat harvested from maple
trees. Which part of the tree produces the syrup and from which part of
the tree is the sap tapped? Explain your reasoning.
7. Thinking Critically Root cells actively transport minerals from the soil.
In doing so, they promote water transport in the xylem. Explain why
mineral transport influences water transport.

9.4 Plant Control Systems
The movement of matter in living systems is not restricted to transport
at the level of the cell. In addition to internally transporting fluids,
gases, and other materials, many multicellular organisms can move
their entire bodies. In many cases, these movements are a response
to events or conditions in the environment. A child dances to the
sound of music. A moth flies toward a bright street light at night.
A zebra runs away from a lion on the prowl. In each case, an
organism is responding to environmental factors called stimuli
(singular, “stimulus”).
All of the examples above describe movements, including locomotion
in animals. In plants, of course, pulling up roots and moving to another
location is not an option. However, you have probably observed that
plants are not inactive. Plants have control systems that allow them
to respond to changes in the environment. Stomata open and close,
new branches grow, flowers bloom, leaves fall. What are the stimuli
that cause reactions in plants? What are the control systems that Figure 9.17 Phototropism is the growth of
regulate plants’ responses? In this section, you will investigate some a plant toward light. How does phototropism
of the responses, or tropisms, that make up plant control systems. benefit the plant?
Phototropism
Light is an important stimulus to plants. As shown in Figure 9.17, a plant on a
windowsill will respond to light by growing toward the light source. The growth Beans and other plants change
of a plant toward a light source is called phototropism. Phototropism maximizes the position of their leaves over
the amount of light absorbed by the plant’s leaves. Increased absorption of light the course of a day. In the morning,
the plants raise their leaves to a
makes more photosynthesis possible, which fuels further plant growth.
horizontal position, where they
How do plants bend and grow toward a light source? Unlike animals, plants catch the most sunlight. In the
do not have muscles to flex their stems. Instead, plant cells respond by growing evening, the leaves drop to a
at different rates. When the cells on one side of a stem grow more elongated vertical position. These sleep
movements are controlled by
than the cells on the other side, the stem curves. To grow toward light, which changes in turgor pressure in
side of the stem must have the elongated cells? Figure 9.18 can help you answer cells at the base of the leaves.
this question. Investigation 9-D further explores phototropism.
light
source
elongated cells
Figure 9.18 Tropisms result when external stimulation

is unequal. For example, the stem of this plant is receiving
much more light on its right surface than on its left surface.

S K I L L C H E C K

9-D
The Darwins’ Experiment

To respond to light, plants must be able to sense where the light is coming from. What
part of a plant acts as its “eyes”? In 1880, Charles Darwin, the noted evolutionary
biologist, and his son, Francis, performed experiments on oat seedlings to find the
answer to this question. In this investigation, you will repeat the Darwins’ experiment.
Question
How do plants sense light?
Hypothesis
With your group members, formulate a hypothesis about which part of a growing
plant senses light.
Safety Precautions
• Some seeds are poisonous. Never eat anything in
the laboratory.
For tips on the process of scientific inquiry, turn to Skill Focus 5.
• Always handle scissors with care to avoid injuring
yourself or a classmate.
• Wash your hands after handling the soil and seeds.
Apparatus Materials • Prepare a three-sided box to place over your

shallow tray 4 peat pots
seedlings. Turn an open box on its side, or
scissors potting soil
cut away one side of a box to allow light to
protractor 20 bean seeds
strike the plants from only one direction.
tap water
• Cut several squares of aluminium foil to
small cardboard box
cover the tops of the seedlings.
20 cm ! 20 cm aluminium foil
• Cut several strips of aluminium foil to wrap
around the stems of the seedlings.
Procedure
1 Label four peat pots with your name and place 3 Divide the seedlings into four treatment groups.
them in a shallow tray. Fill each one about two In each group, choose a few healthy sprouts to use
thirds full with potting soil. Plant seeds in the pots in your experimental manipulations. If possible,
according to the directions on the seed packet. select sprouts that are growing straight upward.
Cover the seeds with soil. Wet the plants • In the first group, use scissors to cut the leaves
thoroughly. Avoid disturbing the seeds. Place from the top of each seedling.
the pots in an environment with dim artificial • In the second group, place foil caps over
light and let them grow for several days. the tops of the seedlings.
2 As soon as there are several upright sprouts • In the third group, place foil tubes around
growing in the pots, prepare the materials the base of each seedling.
for your experiment. • In the fourth group, do not manipulate
the seedlings.

foil
Analyze
cap 1. What was the purpose of the unmanipulated
foil treatment group (Group 4)?
tube
2. What factor did each of the other three
treatment groups test?
3. What were the results of the experiment for

each group? In which treatment groups did
the seedlings’ angles of growth change?
1 2 3 4
4. What was the purpose of treating several
seedlings in each treatment group? Would
4 Use a protractor to measure the angle of growth
you have been as confident in your results if
of each seedling in your experiment. Record
you had used only one plant in each group?
the data in your notebook.
5. Compare your results with those of other
5 Cover the plants with the three-sided box. The
students in your class.
box should allow light to enter from one side only
and prevent light from entering the top or other (a) Were the results similar? If not, why not?
three sides. (b) How does this comparison affect your
confidence in your conclusions?
6 Place the plants near a window or other light
source, with the open side of the box facing
Conclude and Apply
the light.
6. Based on your results, form a conclusion about
7 The next day, remove the box and observe your which part of the plant senses light. Explain
plants. Note the direction of stem growth in each how your data support this conclusion.
group. Use the protractor to measure the angle
of the seedlings’ growth again and record the 7. When Charles and Francis Darwin conducted
data in your notebook. this experiment, they included a fifth treatment
group. In this group, the seedling tips were
covered with a transparent cap.
(a) What was the value of this fifth
If plants can sense light, does that
mean they have other senses, too? treatment group?
“Your plants know what you are (b) How do you think the seedlings in
thinking,” claims Cleve Backster, an
expert in the use of lie detectors. In the late 1960s, Backster did
this fifth group responded?
an experiment in which he attached a lie detector to a plant. A lie
detector measures the galvanic skin response, the resistance to
an electrical current through skin. In humans, very small changes
in the amount of sweat on our skin cause this current to increase
during stressful events, such as telling a lie.
Backster wanted to know if plants had a response to stress. He Humans have specialized cells, tissues, organs, and systems
investigated his question by measuring the galvanic skin response that produce psychological responses. What sort of specialized
in a plant whose leaves he had injured by burning with a match. structures would a plant require to respond psychologically to
The plant’s response looked similar to the emotional response of stress? How could you investigate whether plants possess such
a human subject that had lied. Backster therefore concluded that structures? What are some other ways in which you could test
plants have emotions. Is this a valid conclusion? Why or why not? the validity of Cleve Backster’s claims?

light rays Shedding Light on Phototropism
Based on the results of their experiments with oat seedlings,
Charles and Francis Darwin concluded that the tip of the
seedling somehow detects light. It then transmits that infor-
gelatin block mica
mation to the stem and controls the rate of growth of the stem
cells. How does this control occur? The Darwins speculated
that a signal was sent downward from the plant tip.
Decades later, a Danish scientist named Peter Boysen-Jensen
(1883–1959) did an experiment to test the Darwins’ idea. If
there was a signal being sent from the seedling’s tip, what was
the nature of that signal? Boysen-Jensen cut away the tip of
a seedling and placed a block of gelatin on top of the cut end.
Figure 9.19 Boysen-Jensen found that the signal He then replaced the cut tip on top of the block of gelatin.
produced by the tips of the seedlings could pass The gelatin prevented the plant cells from contacting each
through gelatin, but was blocked by mica. These other. However, chemicals were able to diffuse through the
results suggested that the signal was indeed some
gelatin. Seedlings treated this way behaved normally and
type of growth chemical.
bent toward the light.
Boysen-Jensen treated another group of seedlings by placing a thin piece
of mica between the plant and its tip. Mica is a type of rock through which
chemicals cannot diffuse. These plants did not respond to the light, but
grew straight up, as shown in Figure 9.19.
Auxins: Plant Growth Chemicals

In 1926, a Dutch scientist named Frits Went (1903–1990) confirmed the
hypothesis that a growth chemical is produced in the plant tips. He extracted the
Phototropism causes some cells to chemical by removing the tips from many young stems. He then placed them on
grow rapidly and become elongated.
In these elongating cells the cell a block of agar. (Agar is a gelatin-like substance that permits chemicals to diffuse
walls and vacuoles undergo major through it.) The growth chemical diffused out of the plant tips and into the agar.
changes. Using your knowledge of Went removed the tips of oat seedlings, and then placed small pieces of the
the functions of these organelles,
chemical-soaked agar on the cut stems. When the agar was placed directly on top
make a list explaining what changes
would have to occur, and why they of the cut surface, the plants grew straight up. However, when Went placed the
would be particularly important agar on only one side of the cut end, the plant stem curved. The plants curved
in growing cells. away from the side on which the agar had been placed. As a control, Went
used squares of agar that did not contain any extract from the plant tips.
When these squares were placed on the cut stems, the plants did not grow
at all. From these results, Went concluded that a chemical produced in the
plant tips stimulates growth. Went named the chemical auxin, from the
Greek word meaning “to grow.”
Turgor pressure explains leaf movements

in Mimosa, also known as the “sensitive
plant.” Mimosa leaves respond to touch.
If you brush your fingers over the leaves,
they fold inward. A similar response occurs
in the Venus’s-flytrap. The mechanical
stimulus of an insect brushing the leaves
causes the Venus’s-flytrap to close, trapping
the fly. This type of plant response to touch
is called nastic response.

If light shines on a plant from one side, the auxin moves from the plant tip
to the shaded side of the stem. Active transport moves the auxin through the
cells and downward. The auxin causes cells on the shaded side of the stem to
grow longer than the cells on the lighted side. This causes the stem to curve List the basic characteristics of
living organisms discussed on the
toward the light. first page of Chapter 7. Based on
what you have now learned, is
there another characteristic that
should be added to the list?
Compare your answers with
those of your classmates.
After tips are placed on agar,
agar is cut into blocks.
Coleoptile tip Block of agar

Coleoptile tip is removed. is placed Curvature
is intact. to one side of occurs beneath
coleoptile. the block of agar.
Figure 9.20 Oat seedlings, shown here, are protected by a hollow sheath called a coleoptile.
After a tip is removed and placed on a block of agar, a block of agar placed on one side of
the coleoptile can cause it to curve even in the absence of light. The agar blocks contain
the hormone produced by the original coleoptile.
Gravitropism
Gravitropism is a plant growth response to another environmental stimulus
— the force of gravity. The stem of a plant placed on its side will respond by
growing away from the pull of gravity. Therefore, stems show negative gravit-
ropism. Figure 9.21 shows an example of negative gravitropism. Roots, on the
other hand, show positive gravitropism. They grow toward the force of gravity.
Like phototropism, gravitropism involves the effects of auxin on cell growth.
When a plant is placed on its side, more auxin collects in the cells on the stem’s
lower side. As a result, the cells on the lower side grow longer than those on
the upper side. The growth response causes the stem to curve upward.
In roots, the effects of auxin are different from those in the stem. Increases
Figure 9.21 Despite being
in auxin concentration inhibit root growth. If a root is placed sideways, auxin blown onto its side, this tree has
collects along its lower side. Cell growth is inhibited on that side, whereas redirected its growth upwards as
the cells along the upper side continue to grow longer. As a result, the root a result of negative gravitropism.
turns downward.
The effects of auxin are complex, and scientists still cannot fully
explain the mechanism of positive gravitropism in roots. Many
scientists think starch grains in the cells of the root tip may
influence the direction of growth. Starch grains stored
within the cells could signal the direction of gravity by Most plant movements are so slow that they happen
without us noticing. Time-lapse movies make plant
settling to the bottom of the cells. responses to stimuli easier to visualize, and they are fun
to watch. To view short movies of plants exhibiting
phototropism, gravitropism, sleep movements (also called
“nutation”), and other movements, go to the web site
above. In your notebook, describe examples of
situations in which plants move.

Find Out
Spinning Seeds
You know that plant control systems allow plants
to respond to changes in the environment. The
plastic
force of gravity is constant. However, a plant’s
zip-up bag
position in space can change. A potted plant
might be toppled over by accident. A scratching moist folded
bird might dislodge a germinating seedling. If the paper towels
roots and stem are already growing in a particular
drop of glue
direction, can they change to respond to the
being applied
plant’s new orientation? to seed
Safety Precaution
• Handle quick-drying glue carefully to avoid bean seeds
getting it on your skin.
4. Use a thumbtack to anchor the sandwich bag
Materials
to a bulletin board. Handle the sandwich bag
permanent marker very gently to avoid dislodging the seeds. The
plastic zip-up sandwich bag bag should be left unsealed to allow air to
several sheets of paper towel circulate around the seeds.
tap water
5. Using a permanent marker, draw an arrow
about 5 seeds (e.g., green beans, peas,
on the sandwich bag to indicate the direction
or navy beans)
of the force of gravity. Observe the growth of
strong, quick-drying glue
the seeds over several days.
1–3 thumbtacks
bulletin board 6. After the roots have grown to at least 2–3 cm
long, gently turn the bag to a different angle
Procedure and re-anchor it to the bulletin board. Draw
a second arrow on the sandwich bag to show
1. Do this activity with a partner. Use a perma- the direction of gravity. Predict how you think
nent marker to write your name and your lab the roots and stem will respond to the change
partner’s name at the top of a plastic zip-up in orientation.
sandwich bag.
7. Two days later, observe the growth of the
2. Fold several layers of paper towels so that roots and stem.
they will fit inside the plastic bag. Wet them
with water, and then gently squeeze out the What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
excess water. The towels should be very moist,
1. How did turning the bag affect the direction
but not dripping wet.
of root and stem growth?
3. Place the folded towels inside the bag. Place
2. Were your predictions accurate?
5–6 seeds on top of the paper towels. On top
of each seed, apply a small drop of glue, as 3. Explain how the activities of individual cells
shown in the diagram above. Press the plastic caused the changes you observed in entire
bag flat to attach the seeds to the plastic. plant organs.

Cells and Complex Responses in Plants
How would a seventeenth-century observer have interpreted the bending of
plant roots and shoots in response to external forces? Before the discoveries
of Hooke, van Leeuwenhoek, and other early scientists, it would have been
difficult to explain how the leaf of a Venus’s-flytrap closes shut. Figure 9.22
depicts a Venus’s-flytrap with leaves both open and shut. However, with the
development of knowledge about cells, their functions, and interactions came
the ability to explain — even predict — such events. As you now know, many
seemingly complex responses are actually a series of predictable cellular activities.
Using basic scientific knowledge and principles, each step of a plant response
can be examined (and to some extent, explained) in detail. These responses,
performed by many co-ordinated cells, combine to create a fantastic whole:
a living, respiring, moving, multicellular organism.
Euglena is a single-celled protist.

In the past, scientists debated
whether to classify Euglena with
plants or animals because it has
both plant-like and animal-like characteristics. Many types of
Euglena are photosynthetic. Each cell has chloroplasts and
a light detector. Euglena swims using a flagellum to regions
where the light intensity is best for photosynthesis.
Figure 9.22 An unwitting insect brushes the leaf of the

Venus’s-flytrap. This triggers a sudden drop in turgor
pressure, which causes the hinged leaf to close.
Section 9.4 Summary

Plants respond to stimuli in their environment, such as light, gravity,
and mechanical stimuli (e.g., touch). Plant responses are called tropisms.
Phototropism is the growth of a plant toward light. This response maximizes
the amount of light absorbed by plants’ leaves. Plants bend and grow toward
a light source because the cells on the side of the stem farther from the light
grow more elongated. A growth chemical called auxin, which is produced in
the plant tips, triggers this response. Some plants, including the Venus’s-flytrap,
respond to touch. This is called a nastic response. Plants also respond to gravity.
Roots show positive gravitropism, which means they grow toward the pull
of gravity. Stems show negative gravitropism because they grow opposite the
force of gravity.

Type 1 juvenile diabetes, or JD, is an example of an autoimmune Dr. Ma reasoned that if an individual with JD was fed GAD-
disorder. In individuals with JD, the cells that produce insulin have producing potatoes, that person’s immune system might recognize
a surface marker called GAD that acts like a flag to the immune GAD as a food protein instead of a foreign protein. GAD-specific
system. The immune system in effect attacks itself, targetting the cells would then be generated to tell the killer cells to stop their
GAD-marked cells and destroying them. As a result, JD patients response to anything bearing the GAD protein. Thus, the autoimmune
do not produce insulin naturally and must take insulin daily (usually response against the insulin-producing pancreas cells would be halted.
by injection or an insulin pump). Since these cells would no longer be destroyed, the patient’s insulin-
Imagine if there were plants, such as tomatoes and potatoes, producing cells would re-grow and the person’s pancreas would once
containing genes that could either grant immunity or suppress immu- more be able to produce insulin.
nity to a disease. Well, thanks to researchers like Dr. Shengwu Ma, Dr. Ma’s trials have shown that mice develop oral tolerance
such “edible vaccines” may become a reality. to GAD-producing potatoes. The next phase is to move into human
Using a process called transgenic plant technology, scientists trials. If the same results are seen, there is great hope for an effective
can introduce new genes into plants. Dr. Ma and his team have used and inexpensive treatment for JD.
this technique to generate potatoes that produce high levels of the Do all the proteins we eat cause
GAD protein. oral tolerance? With a partner,
do some research to find any
Edible vaccination to autoimmune diseases works on the principle
proteins that do not cause oral
of oral tolerance. When we eat, we take in many proteins not found
tolerance. What happens when
in the human body, but our immune system does not attack them.
people with allergies to these
It is able to produce special cells that tell the killer cells not to attack
proteins ingest them? Explain
the food protein. This is called oral tolerance.
what happens and why.

1. Name the stimuli that result in the following plant responses:
(a) phototropism
(b) gravitropism
(c) nastic response in Mimosa
2. How does phototropism benefit plants?
3. Describe the effects of auxins on the cells of plant stems.
4. Using any one type of plant response as an example, explain how plants
are able to bend their stems and roots.
5. Apply Imagine that you are doing an experiment with plants that are
unable to produce auxins. You place the plants on a bright windowsill
in a dark room. Five days later, you plan to make observations about the
position of the plants’ stems. Make a prediction about what you will see.
6. Thinking Critically Suppose scientists wanted to grow plants in space.
Inside a spacecraft, the scientists affixed pots of sunflowers sideways on
the walls, right side up on the floor, and upside down on the ceiling. Once
the spacecraft had left Earth’s gravitational pull, would the sunflower stems
grow toward the walls, floor, or ceiling? Explain your reasoning.
7. Thinking Critically Compare and contrast phototropism with nastic
movements, such as the closing of the Venus’s-flytrap’s leaf. How are
the two types of responses carried out?
8. Apply A pea plant will respond to the stimulus of touching a pole by
gradually twining around the pole. How could you investigate the role
of pea plant cells in the plant’s response to touch?

(a) Compare the structures and functions of the (i) Describe the functions of xylem and phloem
cells of single-celled organisms with those of tissue. (9.3)
multicellular organisms. (9.1)
(j) Explain how water reaches the leaves of
(b) Identify the various specialized cell types found tall plants. (9.3)
in leaves. (9.1)
(k) Explain how the properties of water aid its
(c) Define tissue, organ, and system. (9.1) transport throughout plants. (9.3)
(d) Describe how gas exchange occurs in leaves. (9.2) (l) Describe the effects of at least two environmental
factors that influence the rate of transpiration in
(e) Define transpiration. (9.2) plants. (9.3)
(f ) Explain why some water is always lost from (m) Describe the function of plant tropisms. (9.4)
plants during transpiration. (9.2)
(n) Describe the major finding of Charles and Francis
(g) Describe the role of turgor pressure in: Darwin’s experiment with oat seedlings. (9.4)
• guard cells
• plant structure (o) Describe the function of auxin in plant growth.
• water transport (9.2, 9.3) (9.4)
(h) Explain how water is transported from the soil

into the roots of plants. (9.3)
Summarize this chapter by doing one of the indicate the forces, conditions, or processes
following. Use a graphic organizer (such as that affect the transport of water in that part
a concept map), produce a poster, or write the of the plant.
summary to include the key chapter concepts. • Draw a picture of a plant with a schematic
Here are a few ideas to use as a guide: illustrating at least three environmental effects
• Draw cross sections of a leaf, stem, and root, on plant water transport.
labelling as many types of specialized cells as
possible. Next to each label, briefly describe
the function of that cell type.
• Draw a schematic diagram of a leaf cell, showing
what materials flow in and out of the cell during
gas exchange and photosynthesis.
• Draw a diagram of a whole plant, showing the
pathway of the vascular tissue through each
organ. In at least four places on the diagram,

9
C H A P T E R
Review
Key Terms
photosynthesis guard cell transpiration sieve plates tropism

glucose xylem turgor pressure root hair phototropism
chlorophyll phloem xylem vessel xylem sap sleep movements
epidermis vascular bundles phloem vessel cohesion auxin
cuticle tissue tracheids adhesion nastic response
palisade tissue cell organ vessel elements root pressure gravitropism
spongy tissue cell system sieve tubes phloem sap
stomata lenticel companion cells stimuli
Understanding Key Concepts 6. Match each cell type with its function:
If you need to check an item, section numbers are (9.1, 9.2, 9.3)
provided in brackets below. Cell types Functions
1. Note whether each of the following items is (a) palisade tissue cells protect the inner tissues of the leaf
a cell, tissue, organ, or system: (9.1) (b) guard cells site of photosynthesis
(a) xylem vessel (c) xylem vessels transport sugars throughout the plant
(b) leaf (d) leaf epidermal cells transport water throughout the plant
(c) root hair (e) phloem vessels take up water from the soil
(d) sheet of epidermal cells (f) root hair cells control the opening and closing of
(e) stem the stomata
2. Describe the function of the stomata and guard 7. List three types of plant responses to stimuli. (9.4)
cells. (9.1)
8. (a) List the basic materials that a plant needs to
3. In your notebook, name the structures indicated perform photosynthesis. Describe how the
in the stylized drawing of a leaf in cross section plant obtains these materials. (9.1, 9.2, 9.3)
shown here. (9.1)
(b) What materials are produced by the plant
II
I as a result of photosynthesis? (9.1, 9.2)
III
Developing Skills
IV V 9. Sketch a diagram to show how water and
VI
nutrients enter a plant, and how the material
VI
I
II is transported from the roots to the leaves.
Write a description of the process, referring
4. Compare the similarities and differences to your diagram.
between gas exchange from leaves and from
lenticels. (9.2) 10. A researcher wanted to know if environmental
conditions would affect water loss from plants.
5. (a) Explain how guard cells prevent excess water She set up an experiment using three potted
loss from plants. (9.2) geranium plants as follows: plant one was placed
(b) How do guard cells function to allow plant in a clear plastic bag; plant two was placed in
cells to exchange water and gases with the front of a fan; plant three served as a control.
environment? (9.2)

Rate of water loss (b) How could you extend this principle to
A determine which structures of a whole
plant participate in photosynthesis?
Water loss
B
14. How can researchers distinguish between
C the effects of light and the force of gravity
on the direction of stem growth? Design an
Time experiment to demonstrate the differing effects
of phototropism and gravitropism. Be sure
(a) Which line best represents the control? to include appropriate controls.
(b) Which line best represents the plant in 15. Explain how the direction of flow of phloem
the bag? sap is determined.
(c) Which line best represents the plant placed
in front of the fan? Critical Thinking
(d) Do environmental conditions affect the rate 16. Describe the benefits and risks of a high rate
of plant water loss? Write a conclusion for of transpiration.
the experiment.
17. Compare the water permeability of the root
11. The graph that follows shows data on daisies and leaf epidermis. Why are they different?
collected in four different provinces.
18. Which cell has the greater chance of survival,
Study the graph and answer the question an amoeba in pond water, or a cell that has been
that follows. isolated from a multicellular plant and placed in
Comparison of numbers of stomata pond water? Explain your reasoning.
Number of stomata/leaf
19. The diffusion of carbon dioxide into plant cells

depends on the presence of a concentration
gradient between the inside and the outside
of the cell. If carbon dioxide is constantly
diffusing into the cells of a leaf, what prevents
Province A Province B Province C Province D its concentration from building up inside the
Origin of leaves cell and destroying the concentration gradient?
20. It is common for plants native to dry climates
In which province would you expect the least,
to have smaller, fewer leaves. Explain how this
and the most rainfall? Why?
adaptation aids survival in an environment with
little water. How does this adaptation affect
Problem Solving/Applying a plant’s ability to carry out photosynthesis?
12. Is a flower a tissue, organ, or system? Describe
two types of evidence you could use to support
your argument.
13. To be able to perform photosynthesis, cells need

Now that you have completed your study of this chapter,
chlorophyll-containing chloroplasts. return to the Focussing Questions on page 318. How has
(a) Using this knowledge, describe the difference your perspective on the functioning of multicellular organisms
between the cells specialized for photosyn- changed? Using the new information you have learned, update
your answers to the questions.
thesis and non-photosynthetic cells.

U N I T
3
Ask an Expert
Dr. Freda Miller has studied and worked in several
renowned institutions in Canada and the United States.
She earned a master’s degree and a PhD in medical
sciences at the University of Calgary. After her post-
doctoral work, Dr. Miller spent eight years at the University
of Alberta, and then moved to the Montréal Neurological
Institute and Hospital. In July 2002, she moved to the
Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto. In the mid-1970s,
Dr. Miller found herself in the field of biochemistry almost
by accident. In 2001, her discovery that stem cells can
be harvested from adult skin made worldwide headlines.
Q Have you always loved science? Q Conducting experiments can sometimes be frustrating
A No, I wasn’t very good at it when I was in high

and discouraging. How do you handle that?
school in Calgary. In fact, when I was given A When I was young, I struggled with being
a specimen to dissect in biology class, I got a scientist, because science involves a lot of
all the parts wrong because I thought it was failure. But I’ve adjusted. Actually, the discovery
a chicken. Turned out it was a lobster! My plan of stem cells in the skin grew out of a failure.
at that time was to become a writer. I loved to My colleagues and I had a hunch that we could
read, but my high-school English classes didn’t harvest these cells from the nose because the
provide opportunities for me to read and work epithelium in the nose constantly makes new
on my writing. cells. Nose cells didn’t work particularly well.
Fortunately, I eventually had a chemistry teacher
who was very enthusiastic and encouraging about
Q What did you do then?
lab work. I really loved the hands-on lab work, A Well, we did some recycling. We found the
and I got hooked on experimenting as a result. stem cells we had been looking for in little bits
Q What got you involved in molecular biology?
of skin from the scalp that had been left over
from neurological probes. Scientists are dreamers
A Well, I discovered it by accident, but once I got who often experience failure before experiencing
into it, I found that it allowed me to do the basic success. Some of the time, your ideas don’t seem
science that I loved, but there were practical to work, but sometimes they can lead to great
applications for people. It was all about tangible discoveries or beneficial applications.
problem solving, and I really enjoy that.

Q What are the practical applications of your work? Q You became pretty famous as a result of your stem
A It could eventually lead to treatments for

cell discovery. Does all the attention bother you?
Parkinson’s disease and the regeneration of A No, in fact I really hope it will get the attention
damaged spinal cords and brains. It could also, of young people, girls in particular, and inspire
potentially, make unnecessary the harvesting of them to follow a career in science. It is possible
stem cells from human embryos. This could to achieve balance and have a full life outside
resolve a very controversial ethical debate. the lab. I have a husband and two children, and
I don’t think I’m the exception. I’m also involved
in athletics …and I still like to read as many
novels as I can!
Dr. Miller has published more than 70 scientific papers

based on her research. In many of her studies, she
deals with the way particular neurons in the brain
function and communicate with one another. The
practical application of this kind of work is possible
drug treatment for mental illness and for improving
surgical techniques for removing brain tumours.
With a partner, find some basic information about
how neurons in the brain function and communicate.
Prepare an illustrated “research paper” that you could
present to younger students so that they would have
some understanding of this topic.
Unit 3 Ask an Expert • MHR 353

Inside Out: The Parts of Plants
Think About It
The discovery of cells was a groundbreaking event that in multicellular organisms. Using the process of
laid the foundation for many more scientific discoveries. scientific inquiry, you will investigate the hypothesis
In the centuries that followed this discovery, scientists that plants are:
built on their basic understanding of cells to determine • made of specialized cells
how the cells of multicellular organisms interact. They
• have cells organized into tissues
argued that multicellular organisms contain specialized
cells that are organized into larger structures such as • have tissues organized into organs
tissues, organs, and systems.
Imagine how early researchers such as Hooke,
van Leeuwenhoek, and Schleiden would have For tips on making flow diagrams, turn to Skill Focus 1.
responded to these claims. What information
would they have needed to be persuaded that
the new ideas were accurate?
In this investigation, you will collect evidence and
develop your own hypothesis about the role of cells
Safety Precautions
• Use caution when handling glass microscope slides
and cover slips so they do not break and cut you.
• Handle razor blades very carefully to avoid cutting
yourself or a classmate. Always place your specimen
on a flat, solid surface, such as a cutting board, before Initiate and Plan
cutting it. Never cut an object held in your hand. With your team, discuss the meanings of the
1
• Many plants contain toxins. Never eat anything in claims you will be investigating. Review what
the laboratory, and wash your hands with soap and
water after handling the plant material. You may want you have learned so far about cells, tissues,
to wear laboratory gloves when handling some plants. and organs.
• Be cautious of stains, as many are irritants.
2 Work with your group members to formulate
Apparatus a clear statement of the hypothesis to be tested.
3 Brainstorm a number of different ways that you
microscope slides
could test the hypothesis, given the time and
cover slips
resources you have available. What kind of
medicine dropper
cutting board or other appropriate cutting surface evidence will you need either to support or
refute the hypothesis?
Materials
4 Design an experiment to test your hypothesis.
whole plants
The steps of your procedure should clearly
single-edged dissection knives
tap water explain how the experiment will be carried out.
methylene blue Use flow diagrams to outline the procedure.
disposable laboratory gloves
5 Based on your hypothesis, predict what the
other materials of your choice
specific results of your experiment will be.

6 Decide which team members will perform each
Experimental Design Checklist
step in the experiment. All team members should
contribute to cleaning up your work area when 1. Have you clearly stated the purpose of your
you have finished the experiment. experiment? What is the question you want
to answer?
7 Share your experimental design with your
teacher and other classmates for feedback. 2. What is your best guess about what the
Make any changes necessary to your design answer to your question, or your hypothesis,
before you proceed. will be? What do you predict the results of
your experiment will be if your hypothesis is
Perform and Record correct? What are some possible alternative
(Test Your Hypothesis) outcomes of the experiment?
8 Create a table or other system for organizing
3. Have you obtained all the information you
your data as you collect it.
need from a variety of sources?
9 Set up and perform your experiment. If
4. Have you written clear definitions for cell,
necessary, carry out second or third trials. Make
tissue, and organ, and developed criteria for
modifications to your experiment if they are
identifying them?
needed. Gather and record data and observations
as you conduct your experiment. 5. Have you written a step-by-step procedure?
Analyze and Interpret 6. Did you make a complete list of all the materials
(Draw Conclusions) you will need?
0 Present your data in a clear format (table,
7. Did you repeat your experiment several
graph, diagram, etc.).
times? How many?
! Draw conclusions based on the results of your
8. Identify all the sources of error that you can
experiment. Discuss your conclusions with
think of in your design.
your team.
@ Was your hypothesis supported? If so, what

evidence supported it? If not, why not?
# Identify a new question that was generated by

your experiment. If other students wanted to
take your project further, what questions could
they investigate?
$ Write up a laboratory report. Be sure to include

the following:
• Introduction
• Hypothesis and/or Prediction(s)
• Procedure, listed step by step
• Data/Observations in suitable form
(e.g., drawings, tables, graphs, etc.)
• Conclusion(s) (including new questions)
Unit 3 Design Your Own Investigation • MHR 355

U N I T
3 Review
Understanding Key Concepts 11. Copy the following diagram
1. What are the origins of the term “cell”? into your notebook. Label
the organelles involved in
2. What is the particle model of matter? packaging, processing, and
transporting proteins
3. Distinguish between diffusion and osmosis.
within the cell.
4. What is a concentration gradient?
12. Explain why Schwann
5. Distinguish between passive and active transport: thought all animals were
composed of cells. How did
(a) What kinds of materials does each process
he test his hypothesis?
transport?
(b) What cell structures are involved in each 13. Describe the activity of channel proteins.
type of transport?
14. Describe how the vascular tissue is distributed
(c) Give one example of each type of transport
within plants.
occurring in the plant vascular system.
15. Describe how the size and shape of a cell affect
6. Define the following terms:
its surface area-to-volume ratio.
(a) gravitropism
(b) turgor pressure 16. Explain why oxygen production is greater than
oxygen consumption in plants.
(c) sleep movements (in plants)
(d) cohesion 17. Describe the structure of a cell membrane.
(e) auxin What kinds of molecules does it contain? How
do these molecules interact with each other?
7. Describe the function of phloem sap.
18. Explain how root pressure transports water in
8. (a) Identify three different molecules that the plant vascular system.
diffuse into cells.
19. Describe Peter Boysen-Jensen’s contributions
(b) Name one characteristic of each molecule
to the plant vascular system.
that you listed that enables the molecule
to diffuse across the cell membrane.
Developing Skills
9. Give an example of the kind of materials cells 20. (a) Draw a concept map that includes all
transport using each of the following mechanisms: the organelles of a plant cell. Show how
(a) phagocytosis different organelles might interact with
(b) receptor-mediated endocytosis each other, by drawing lines between the
bubbles. Write a short phrase above each
(c) diffusion
line, describing the nature of the interaction.
(d) active transport
(b) How would your diagram differ for
(e) carrier proteins a diagram of an animal cell?
10. Explain how cell culture is used to study cells. 21. Draw a diagram to illustrate the movement of
sugars and water in a vascular plant. Label the
xylem tissue and phloem tissue.

22. A raisin was left overnight in a dish of apple (a) What is the manipulated variable?
juice. The next day the raisin was swollen. (b) What is the responding variable?
(a) Was the apple juice hypertonic, hypotonic, (c) Is there a control in this experiment?
or isotonic relative to the inside of the raisin? If so, what is it? If not, how could you
(b) Illustrate what happened to the raisin design a control?
using circles to represent water molecules, (d) What do the results of the experiment indicate
triangles to represent sugar molecules, about the movement of water? How do the
and arrows to show the direction of results relate to the different mechanisms
molecule movement. for the movement of water within a plant?
23. The following diagrams illustrate an experiment
conducted in the nineteenth century to explore Problem Solving/Applying
the movement of water within a plant. The 24. Selectively permeable membranes have a variety
accompanying graph records the results. of applications in health and industry. Invent
a new use for selectively permeable membranes.
A B
What function will your membrane perform?
water branch
in tube stripped What structure must it have to do its job?
water of leaves
branch in tube
25. What would your hand look like under a confocal
water water laser scanning microscope (assuming that your
in pan in pan
hand were small enough to be viewed using one
of these microscopes)? Draw a series of images
C D
that a researcher might see if she were to study
branch stripped branch with
of some leaves leaves intact your hand using a CLSM. What information
water water would these images provide?
in tube in tube
water water 26. Two students have wilted houseplants. The

in pan in pan first student waters his plant’s soil. The second
student mists her plant’s leaves with water.
(a) How will these treatments affect transpiration
in each plant?
(d) (b) Which plant is more likely to survive?
Movement of water in
the tube (mm/hr)
27. A student has two beakers, each containing one

litre of water. She dissolves 10 g sugar in beaker
(c)
A, and 50 g sugar in beaker B. She then removes
500 mL of the solution from beaker A and places
it inside a bag made of dialysis tubing. She
(b) (a)
immerses the bag in 500 mL of the solution
50 100 from beaker B.
Leaf coverage (percentage
of leaf coverage intact) (a) Which solution has the higher solute
concentration?
(b) Will osmosis occur? If so, in which direction?

28. A cell is immersed in a solution with the same 33. Scientists exposed a plant in a clear, sealed
solute concentration as the fluid filling the cell. container to radioactive carbon dioxide (14CO2)
Suddenly, active transport proteins in the cell for one hour. Later the scientists made a thin cross
membrane start working, and the cell begins to section of the stem of the plant and placed the
shrink. What did the active transport proteins cross section against photographic film. The
do? Why did their activity cause the cell volume radioactive carbon, which exposed the film (visible
to change? as black grains on the film), occurred only in the
phloem tubes of the stem. Explain these results,
29. (a) Explain how electron microscopes could be
using your knowledge of photosynthesis and how
used to investigate how viruses get inside cells.
gases enter and exit plants.
(b) How might research into cell membrane
function help scientists understand how Critical Thinking
viruses get inside cells?
34. Explain how the complex interactions between
(c) Present one other research question that could cells in a multicellular organism are mirrored
be investigated using electron microscopes.
in the workings of society.
30. Cystic fibrosis is caused by a mutation in
35. Which organelles would you expect to be most
a gene called the cystic fibrosis transmembrane
numerous in cells specialized for secreting
conductance regulator (CFTR). CFTR codes
a protein?
for a channel protein. Scientists conducted an
experiment to identify which ion(s) the CFTR 36. If cells were closed systems, how would their
channel protein would transport. The researchers functions and activities be altered?
compared cytoplasmic levels of different ions
between normal cells and cystic fibrosis cells. 37. Cell walls and cell membranes perform several
Interpret the results below and give a possible similar or related functions. Identify some of
explanation for them. the similarities and differences in their functions.
Why do plant cells need both?
Cytoplasmic ion concentration (mmol/dL)
Ions Normal CFTR Cystic fibrosis CFTR 38. Both of the micrographs below
Mg2! 0.02 0.02
illustrate cells. What kind
of microscope was used
Na! 0.05 1.55
to capture each image?
Cl" 1.2 0.001
Explain your reasoning.
31. Canadian researchers discovered a gene respon- 39. Semi-permeable membranes

sible for programmed cell death (apoptosis). This are used to concentrate milk
gene codes for a protein that initiates apoptosis solids during cheese making.
in embryo cells. How could this new research Explain how a semi-permeable
help scientists fight the uncontrolled growth membrane would make this process possible.
of cancer cells? Compare a semi-permeable membrane, such
as dialysis tubing, with cheesecloth.
32. Imagine that a fellow researcher has just
published an article in which she argues that 40. How might having a particularly high surface
a mutation in the gene called split causes lung area-to-volume ratio benefit a cell? Would it
cells to divide uncontrollably, forming tumours. influence a cell’s ability to perform certain
What are some ways you could verify her claim? functions? Explain why or why not.

41. Cell membranes and stomata are very different pose a challenge to the fishes’ cells: the solute
structures that share a similar function: they concentrations in the water differ from the
regulate transport across a barrier. Compare solute concentration inside the cells. Explain how
and contrast the functions and structures of fresh and salt water differ in their effects on the
cell membranes and stomata. Are both selective? fishes’ cells. Why might these environments
present a problem? Try to suggest some ways
42. Describe the path of a water molecule as it that the fish cells could respond to maintain
moves from the soil, into a plant, and out of water balance and good health.
the plant as water vapour.
50. In kidney dialysis, it is essential for the dialysis
43. Imagine an organism that contains no cell tubing to (a) have pores of the right size and
membranes. What would this organism be (b) be immersed in a solution with the right
like? How would the absence of cell membranes solute concentration. Explain how problems
affect the activities that take place in the with each of these two conditions might affect
organism’s “cells”? the filtering of a patient’s blood.
44. What limits would be placed on cells that 51. How would a very high mineral concentration
depended entirely on diffusion to transport in the soil affect water uptake in plant roots?
materials in and out of the cell? How would this influence root pressure and the
45. Explain why blocking the flow of xylem sap plant’s ability to transport water from the roots
in a plant stem will kill the plant. to the leaves?
46. The lives of Virchow and Aristotle were separated 52. The palo verde tree is native to hot, dry regions
by 1500 years and by many changes in scientific of Mexico and the southwestern United States.
thought. Imagine, nevertheless, that the two were It has very tiny leaves that fall during summer
able to meet. What kind of scientific conversation and its bark, which is green, contains chlorophyll.
do you think they might have? What might How do you think these traits affect water
Virchow want to say to Aristotle? How might transport and photosynthesis in the plant?
Aristotle react to Virchow’s ideas? How do these traits help the plant survive
in its harsh environment?
47. What characteristics of a plant influence its rate
of transpiration? Using that knowledge, design 53. Why are the palisade tissue cells found closer to
a new plant that has a very high or very low the upper side of the leaf than the lower side of
transpiration rate. the leaf? Relate your answer to the role of the
palisade tissue cells.
48. The invention of electron microscopes made it
possible for scientists to collect new evidence
to support the fluid-mosaic model of membrane
structure. What kind of evidence would have
become accessible with electron microscopes
that had not been previously available? Review what you have learned in this unit by returning to the
unit opener on page 254. Now that you understand the basis for
49. Some fish, such as salmon, are born in fresh- cell specialization and the function of response systems in plants,
re-visit the questions asked in those paragraphs. How do the
water streams, and then migrate to the open cells of a Venus’s-flytrap work together to enable the plant to
ocean. To spawn, the fish return to the streams. capture and digest its food? Record your responses.
Both the fresh-water and salt-water environments

U N I T
Energy Flow in
Global Systems
I f you could live anywhere that you chose, how would the climate of
the area affect your decision? Would you prefer a humid climate or a dry
climate? Would you like cool winters and warm summers? Would you like
the temperature to be almost the same all year? Think about the type of
vegetation that is likely to be found in the climate you select. Would your
choice of climate relate to your health? Would you take into account eco-
nomic and social factors such as earning a living? How would you decide?
Human activities might be changing climates throughout the world.
The average global temperature is higher today than it was 100 years ago.
Is the increase cause for concern? Which human activities might contribute
to climate change?
To explore these questions, you need to understand what climate is, which
factors affect it, and the characteristic weather patterns in different climates.
You need to consider how human activities might contribute to climate
change and what environmental and economic consequences might result.
As well, you must assess the scientific evidence, technological developments,
and variety of perspectives that emerge as you investigate climate change.
In this unit you will have the opportunity to expand your understanding
of global weather and climate systems. You can apply your knowledge to
make informed decisions not only about the state of weather and climate
today, but also about how they may change in the future.
360
Chapter 10
Solar Energy
and Climates 362
Chapter 11
Climates and
Biomes 400
Chapter 12
Climate Change
and Humans 434
10
4
C H A P T E R
C H A P T E R
Solar Energy and
• Is Earth heated to the same

extent at all times and in
all places?
• What is the role of water in
determining climates on Earth?
• How do winds and ocean currents
transfer thermal energy?
362 MHR • Energy

MHR Unit 4 Flow in Global
Energy Flow inSystems
Global Systems Solar Energy and Climates • MHR 362
Climates
N early every resident of

Canada has shivered through a “cold
In this chapter, you will learn
how the temperature range on Earth
snap” in the winter. Some cold snaps is maintained. You will learn why
are so long that you think you will average temperatures vary from one
never feel warm again. Summer place on the globe to another. You
always comes, though, and you will discover the cause of the change
might then have to endure a heat in seasons, especially in the temperate
wave. These extremes of temperature zone where you live. You will study
probably seem very great. However, some unique properties of water and
when compared to other planets in the many ways in which water influ-
the solar system, Earth’s temperature ences the climates around the world.
range is quite small. For example, on You will also learn about wind
the planet Mercury, the daytime currents and ocean currents and how
temperature can be as high as 430°C they help to distribute thermal energy
but it drops to !180°C at night. On throughout the globe. These concepts
Venus, the temperature is often will help you understand the reasons
480°C — hot enough to melt lead. for the diverse climates in various
On Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto, the parts of the world.
average temperatures range between
!215°C and !230°C. Earth is o
oki
n
Read the Issue An

L
uniquely suited to life. Nevertheless, alysis: Proof or

head Consequences on
A
pages 476–477 at
conditions of temperature, humidity, the end of this unit.
You will be examini
the controversy ov ng
wind, and precipitation vary signifi- er predicting future
changes and the de climate
cantly from place to place. cision making asso
ciated
with those prediction
s. You can begin pr
by doing the follow eparing
ing:
• Start a file of ne
ws clippings about
change controversy the climate
from newspapers, ma
and the Internet. gazines,
• Develop a know
ledge base. Pay sp
to those factors ne ecial attention
cessary for maintain
constant average tem ing a
perature.
• With your teach
er’s help, begin a pr
line to help schedu oject time-
le various stages of
the task.
Chapter 10 Solar Energy and Climates • MHR 363

10.1 Global Systems and
Solar Energy
While studying different fields of science, you have encountered the term
“system” used in a variety of ways. You have probably read about the solar
system, the digestive system, and several other systems. The title of this unit
is “Energy Flow in Global Systems.” What do scientists mean by the word
system? What is meant by “global system” in terms of climate and weather?
Defining Systems
Scientists define a system as precisely the object or group of objects that they
wish to study. Everything other than the system is called the surroundings.
This implies that a system has a boundary. An astronomer might study the
solar system. A biologist known as a physiologist might choose to study the
digestive system. A physicist might study a thermodynamic system. After you
have determined what constitutes a particular system, you can design your
experiments to fit that system. Researchers can learn a lot about a particular
system by observing what enters and leaves it. They make observations on
how the matter and energy that interact with the system affects it.
Scientists classify systems according to the interactions of a particular system
with its surroundings. The three classes of systems are defined as follows.
• An open system allows energy and matter to cross the system’s
oxygen and boundary. An aspen poplar tree, shown in Figure 10.1, is an
water vapour open system.
sun
• A closed system allows only energy but not matter to cross
carbon solar the boundary. Earth is a closed system with the exception of
dioxide energy the relatively small amount of matter that enters and leaves the
system (see Figure 10.2). This matter includes meteors that
burn up in the atmosphere, and meteorites that strike Earth’s
surface. This matter also includes spacecraft that leave Earth
to probe the solar system and universe.
thermal • An isolated system allows neither matter nor energy to
energy
water and flow across the boundary. Since it is so difficult to isolate
other forms any system absolutely, some scientists say that the only truly
of matter isolated system is the universe.
Figure 10.1 An aspen poplar tree is an example of Figure 10.2 This view of Earth from
an open system in which matter and energy flow to space allows you to see the boundary
and from the surrounding soil and air. For example, of the system known as Earth — the
water, mineral nutrients, and carbon dioxide enter the atmosphere. Solar energy enters the
tree. Water vapour, oxygen and other gases exit the atmosphere, where some of this
tree. Solar energy enters the tree and thermal energy energy is reflected and some is
both enters and exits the system. absorbed. The remaining energy is
transmitted to Earth’s surface, where
some is reflected and some absorbed.
Ultimately all the energy absorbed by
the atmosphere and the surface of
Earth is radiated back into space.
364 MHR • Unit 4 Energy Flow in Global Systems

The Biosphere
The most important global system that you will examine in this
chapter is the biosphere. When radiant energy from the Sun reaches
Earth, it interacts with just a thin layer of air, land, and water on
or near Earth’s surface. This layer is called the biosphere because
all life on Earth exists in this thin layer. Scientists often define and
use the following terms when discussing the air, land, and water.
• The atmosphere (air) is a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen and
other gases that extend 800 km above Earth’s surface. Most of
the atmosphere is concentrated in the lower two layers — the
troposphere (0 km–12 km) and the stratosphere (13 km–50 km).
• The lithosphere (land) is Earth’s crust that forms land
(continental crust) above sea level and at the ocean bottom
(oceanic crust), as well as the uppermost part of Earth’s mantle. Figure 10.3 Which two gases make up over
The lithosphere varies in thickness from 100 km to 200 km. 90 percent of Earth’s atmosphere?
continental crust
Figure 10.4 Parts of the

lithosphere move relative to
each other at the rate of a few
centimetres per year. Continental
drift is the slow movement of the
thinner crust on the sea floor. Here
new crust is formed and crustal
oceanic crust upper mantle plates meet and move apart.
• The hydrosphere (water) is water on or near Earth’s surface. The hydrosphere

includes water in oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, underground reservoirs, and The highest temperature ever
in the atmosphere. Clouds are water droplets found mostly in the troposphere. recorded on Earth is 56.7°C.
Clouds reflect much of the incoming solar radiation. Earth’s surface is This record high occurred on
July 10, 1913 in Death Valley,
70 percent water and only 30 percent land. Therefore, the hydrosphere California. The coldest tempera-
plays an important role in the absorption of sunlight and the distribution ture ever recorded was !89.4°C.
of thermal energy. Some scientists define another component within the This record low temperature
was recorded on July 21,
hydrosphere — the cryosphere. The cryosphere consists of water that is
1983 at a research station
temporarily frozen in polar ice caps, snow, permafrost, and glaciers. in Vostok, Antarctica.
As stated above, the land, water, and gases in the air absorb radiant energy
from the Sun, warming the biosphere. However, if the biosphere continued
to absorb radiant energy without losing any of it, the temperature would
continue to increase indefinitely. Life could not exist on Earth. However,
conditions in the biosphere remain uniquely suited for life. Why does
Earth’s average temperature remain fairly constant?

Earth’s Radiation Budget
Imagine that you have $500 in the bank. If you continue to earn money but
spend the same amount that you earn, you will always have $500 in the bank.
This method of budgeting money is similar to the way in which the biosphere
budgets thermal energy.
Radiation is the process by which solar energy reaches Earth. Radiation
is the mechanism of energy transfer in which atoms or molecules emit electro-
magnetic waves. These waves carry the energy through space and release the
energy only when they interact with some form of matter. Solar energy consists
of radiation of various wavelengths that are each affected differently as they
enter Earth’s atmosphere (see Figure 10.5).
Visible light passes through the atmosphere and reaches Earth’s surface more
or less unchanged. When the visible light reaches Earth’s surface, some of it is
reflected and some is absorbed. The absorbed sunlight warms the surface. All
warm objects emit infrared radiation. Although the atmosphere cannot absorb
visible light, it does absorb the infrared radiation from the ground. The
atmosphere absorbs and temporarily traps some of this infrared radiation from
Earth’s surface. The warm air now re-emits the infrared radiation. Some of
this radiation leaves the atmosphere but some of it causes additional warming
of Earth’s surface. Ultimately this infrared radiation from the surface passes
through the atmosphere and back into outer space. Earth maintains an energy
balance and a temperature balance by radiating as much energy into space as
it absorbs from the Sun. This balance is known as the radiation budget.
Incoming and Outgoing Radiation

Of the solar energy that enters the atmosphere, 49 percent is absorbed by the
land and oceans. Forty-two percent is absorbed, reflected, and scattered by the
atmosphere. Nine percent is reflected by Earth’s surface. These percentages are
annual averages for the entire Earth (see Figure 10.6). Clouds and Earth’s surface
reflect solar energy back to space. Dust particles and gases such as water vapour
scatter sunlight, resulting in a blue sky and reddish orange sky at sunset. Higher
radiation that Earth solar radiation

releases into space reaching Earth’s surface
Wavelength
102 10 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 (metres)
radio waves microwaves infrared visible ultraviolet X rays gamma rays

radiation light radiation
Figure 10.5 Much of the highly energetic, short-wave radiation, such as gamma rays, X rays, and ultraviolet
light, is absorbed by the middle to upper regions of the atmosphere. Much of the longer wavelength infrared,
microwave, and radio wave radiation is absorbed by carbon dioxide and water vapour in the lower atmosphere.

in the atmosphere where there is less dust and gas to scatter sunlight, the blue
sky fades to the black of outer space. Regardless of whether solar energy is
The term “albedo” comes from the
absorbed, reflected, or scattered, all of it is eventually radiated to space. The Latin word albus, meaning white.
solar radiation budget shows the incoming and outgoing solar radiation. It What other word from the same
also indicates how much and where the radiation is absorbed and reflected. root indicates white, or lack of
The colour of a surface affects the amount of energy it will absorb or pigment in skin and hair?
reflect. Dark surfaces absorb energy and lighter surfaces reflect energy. The
reflectivity of a surface is known as its albedo. A snow-covered field, for
example, has a high albedo. It might reflect 70–80 percent of the energy
striking it. During summer, the same field growing crops will have a lower
albedo. It will reflect only 20 percent or less of the incoming energy.
Outgoing Incoming Outgoing

Outer
solar solar long-wave Do you look forward to skiing,
Space
radiation radiation radiation snowboarding, or snow-shoeing
31 100 69 in the mountains? Fresh, clean
snow may have an albedo greater
9 15 7 25 15 22 7 than 90 percent. This very high
albedo, together with the higher
Reflected
elevation and thinner atmosphere
by aerosols
in the mountains, makes it
extremely important to protect
your eyes and skin against both
Atmosphere the direct and reflected rays
Absorbed by of the Sun, especially the
Reflected
atmosphere Absorbed by ultraviolet radiation.
by clouds
17 20 atmosphere
Absorbed by 15
clouds
Reflected 3 Infrared Latent Sensible
by surface Absorbed radiation heat heat
by surface 20 22 7
Earth’s 49
surface
Figure 10.6 The solar radiation budget is based on 100 units of solar energy entering Earth’s
atmosphere and shows the approximate amounts of energy reflected and absorbed. The red
arrows show the infrared energy emitted from Earth. The gaps in the two arrows on the right
indicate that the energy leaving Earth’s surface and the atmosphere does not happen directly
and may contribute to warming of Earth’s surface. (Note: Sensible heat is heat that you can
“sense” or feel. Latent heat is heat that melts ice or snow, or evaporates water. When the
water condenses or freezes, the latent heat is released.)
Dust, ash, and sulfur dioxide from erupting volcanoes reflect solar
energy and prevent it from reaching and warming Earth’s surface.
Depending on the size of the eruption, dust particles and gases
can remain in the atmosphere for two or more years. For example,
the 1815 eruption of the volcano Tambora in Indonesia sent 40 billion t of dust high into the
atmosphere. As the dust spread around the world, it reflected solar energy and caused the
average global temperature to drop 0.7°C. As a result, 1816 became known as the year without
summer. By comparison, in 1982, Mount St. Helens in Washington state erupted, releasing
500 million t of dust, about one eightieth the amount of Tambora.

Keeping in the Heat
Why doesn’t heat just radiate into space at night,
cooling off Earth once the Sun sets?
argon 0.93% Of the many gases that make up the atmosphere
carbon (see Figure 10.7), only a few absorb the infrared radi-
dioxide 0.03% 21% 78%
oxygen nitrogen ation released from Earth’s surface. These few are the
neon greenhouse gases. These gases include water vapour,
helium
methane carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide (dinitrogen
krypton trace 1%
xenon monoxide), ground level (tropospheric) ozone, and the
hydrogen halocarbons such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
ozone
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Greenhouse gases absorb
Figure 10.7 Only two gases, infrared radiation and transmit it in all directions,
nitrogen and oxygen, make up including back to Earth’s surface. This radiation warms the surface and the
99 percent of the atmosphere. atmosphere before it is eventually lost to outer space. Thus the greenhouse
Water vapour is not included in gases cause the lower atmosphere to retain more heat than would occur if
the graph because of the large these gases were not present. The retention of heat by the greenhouse gases
variation in amounts present.
is known as the greenhouse effect.
The average global temperature is about 14˚C, which is warm enough to
sustain life. Without the greenhouse gases, solar energy would warm Earth
The term “greenhouse effect” is only to an average global temperature of !19˚C, a difference of 33˚C. Without
useful to describe the warming of greenhouse gases, Earth would be too cold to support life as we know it.
the atmosphere. However, there are What might result if the greenhouse effect were enhanced and more infrared
differences between the warming
of the air in an actual greenhouse
radiation were retained by the atmosphere? You will investigate this question
and what occurs in the atmosphere further in Chapter 12.
at Earth’s surface. As the Sun
warms the air inside a greenhouse
or in a car, the glass prevents the
Climates and Seasons
warm air from rising and leaving. You have been examining the interaction of the biosphere with energy from
Unlike a glass greenhouse, the the Sun. You have discovered how the average temperature of Earth remains
greenhouse effect does not
prevent the physical movement
relatively constant. However, thus far in the chapter, no mention has been
of warm and cooler air. made of climates and seasons. Your own experience tells you that the average
temperatures change a great deal from summer to winter. You also know that
the average temperatures are quite different in various parts of the world.
These characteristics are part of what we call climate. Climate is the trend in
temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, and precipitation over a period
of many years. The term weather applies to these conditions as they are at one
place and time. Why does the weather change with the seasons? Why is climate
so different from place to place in the world? You will find some answers to
these questions when you complete the following activity and investigation.
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy. Infrared radiation (IR) is emitted by

all objects that have a temperature above absolute zero. IR is part of the
electromagnetic spectrum and can be transmitted through “empty” space.
Therefore, IR radiant heat can heat objects without having to heat the air
between them. The molecules in substances that have a temperature above
absolute zero are in constant motion. The energy of this motion is called
kinetic energy. The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules move
and the higher is the kinetic energy. Temperature is a measurement of the
average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules.

Find Out
Earth’s Curvature
How do latitude (degrees north or south of the 5. Position the flashlight so that the bottom
equator) and Earth’s curvature affect the amount edge of the beam is on the equator. Measure
of solar radiation that reaches each square metre the bottom edge and one side of the square
of Earth’s surface area? where the light is brightest. Calculate the
area in square centimetres.
Safety Precautions
• Use care in clamping the flashlight. Ensure that 6. Record the distance between the edge of the
it is securely clamped. tube and the globe’s surface.
Materials 7. Move the flashlight to the latitudes 20˚N,

40˚N, 60˚N, and 80˚N so that the bottom edge
flashlight with a strong, narrow beam
of the beam is on the line of these latitudes.
black construction paper With each movement keep the front edge of
scissors the tube the same relative distance from the
tape globe’s surface as it was at the equator.
ruler or tape measure Keep the beam perpendicular to the equator.
Measure the lit region and calculate the area
support stand
in square centimetres.
clamp
globe 8. In the third column
record the ratio of
Procedure Performing and Recording the area at the
equator to the
1. Prepare a table like this one. 80°N
areas of the other 60°N
Latitude Area (cm2) Ratio latitudes (e.g., 40°N
20°N
equator ratio " lit area in equator
20°N
cm2 at the equator
# lit area in cm2
40°N
at 20˚N). Record
60°N the ratio to two
80°N decimal places.
2. Roll a piece of black paper into a tube. What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
Attach it to the bulb end of the flashlight.
1. About 660 J/m2 of solar energy reaches Earth’s
3. Cut out a 1.5 cm square from the middle of surface each second when the Sun is directly
another piece of black paper. Attach the overhead, such as when it is perpendicular to
paper to the tube, with the square hole the equator. Calculate how much energy would
positioned over the end of the tube. be received at each of the latitudes based on
your ratios (660 J/m2 $ the ratio).
4. Attach the flashlight to a support stand with a
large clamp. Position the flashlight so the 2. Write a brief paragraph describing how Earth’s
beam of light is perpendicular to the globe’s curvature affects the amount of energy
equator and the edge of the beam is sharp. absorbed per square metre of Earth’s surface.
The opening of the tube will be about 3–5 cm
away from the globe.

S K I L L C H E C K

10-A
Tilt and Turn

Earth rotates on its axis every 24 h, producing day and night. Earth’s annual
revolution around the Sun and the 23.5° tilt of its axis produce the variation
in the length of day and night and the changes in seasonal heating. In this
investigation, you will use Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) as a reference
time. UTC is the time at zero longitude, the imaginary line from the North
Pole to the South Pole, that passes through Greenwich, England.
Question
How do two movements of Earth and the tilt of its axis cause the seasons and
hours of daylight?
Safety Precaution Use adhesive dots, to label globe. Position the globe so
• Ensure that the flashlight is 2 that the North Pole is directed
securely clamped. the following points on the
meridian of longitude near away from the flashlight.
Apparatus your community that you 6 Rotate the globe so that the
globe identified in step 1. “Sun” (flashlight) shines
strong flashlight (a) 60˚N latitude directly on the International
protractor (b) your community Date Line (180˚W or E
metre stick longitude). The prime
(c) 30˚N latitude
support stand and clamp to hold meridian (0˚ longitude)
the flashlight (d) equator should be in the centre of
(e) 30˚S latitude the dark area. Record the
Materials (f ) 60˚S latitude reference time as midnight
removable adhesive dots UTC. Record whether
(g) North Pole
masking tape your dot is in daylight,
(h) South Pole dark, dawn, or dusk.
Procedure 3 Assign one or more dots to
7 Tape a small strip of masking
Part 1 each person in your group. tape (about 2 mm wide) on
On the globe, find the Each person will record
1 information about the loca-
the exact top and bottom
meridian of longitude that of the globe. These are
passes near your community. tion represented by the dots the locations that are just
when you start to collect data. between darkness and light.
4 Earth rotates 360˚ in 24 h. Estimate the point at the
Determine the number of
8
very centre of the globe,
degrees it rotates in 1 h. where the “sunlight” is
Put the globe on a table, and striking perpendicular to
5 the surface of the globe.
set up the flashlight about
2 or 3 m away. Position the Place a small strip of masking
flashlight so that it shines tape at this point.
directly on the centre of the

Rotate the globe to the East Part 2 Use the values you deter-
9 4
(counterclockwise) the equiv- 1 Make three tables (one for mined in Step 3 to plot
alent of 1 h (the number of each orientation of the three graphs, one for each
degrees you determined in globe) as seen below. orientation of the globe. Put
step 4) so that it is 1:00 A.M. “Day length” on the vertical
2 Put all of the data that your
UTC. Record the reference axis and “Latitude” on the
group collected in the tables.
time. Also record whether horizontal axis. For units on
Give each table a title. Each
your dot is in daylight, dark, the horizontal axis, start with
member of your group
dawn, or dusk. 90°N, go down to 0˚ for the
should make his or her own
equator, and then continue
0 Continue to turn the globe copy of the tables.
to 90°S. Plot a point for each
the equivalent of 1 h, until location (dot) on the globe.
3 Decide what season of
you have completed one full Name each graph “First
the year, in the Northern
“day.” Record the data for Day of ,” and fill
Hemisphere, is simulated by
each position, and tape strips in the season(s).
each orientation of the globe.
of masking tape as directed
(Each orientation represents
in steps 7 and 8.
the first day of a season.)
! Turn the base of the globe For each orientation, deter-
90˚. Repeat steps 5–9, but do mine the day length at each
not tape the strips of masking location represented by a
tape to the top, centre, or dot. Record the latitude
bottom of the globe. of each location.
@ Re-orient the globe so that the

North Pole is slanting directly
toward the “Sun.” Repeat
steps 5–9, including taping
the strips of masking tape.
Global Position: Global Position: Global Position:

N pole away from the Sun Globe turned 90° from the Sun N pole towards the Sun
Location UTC Condition Location UTC Condition Location UTC Condition
(Long. and time at dot (Long. and time at dot (Long. and time at dot
Lat.) at dot Lat.) at dot Lat.) at dot
00:00 (light or dark)
01:00
02:00
… …
24:00
CONTINUED

Analyze
1. Which regions on Earth have the longest and 5. The strips of masking tape that you taped at the
shortest days? Explain. top, centre, and bottom of the globe form circles.
2. Do the regions that have the longest day also These circles separate the globe into five regions,
have the warmest summers? Explain. or zones. Describe the characteristics of day
length and angle of the Sun that make each
3. Which regions have the least variation in day zone different from the other zones.
length? Describe the climate in these regions.
Conclude and Apply
6. Imagine that Earth’s axis has no tilt. Describe
4. Which regions do you think have the greatest
how this orientation of Earth’s axis would affect
temperature differences between winter and
day length and seasonal changes at several of
summer? Explain your reasons for your choices.
the locations you investigated.
Earth’s Tilted Axis

In the previous activity and investigation you learned that two motions and
the tilt of Earth’s axis, together with the curvature of Earth’s surface, result in
different amounts of solar energy absorbed. The 24 h rotation of Earth on its
axis results in warming during the day and cooling during the night. The tilt
of Earth’s axis is called its angle of inclination. This angle is the angle of the
equator with respect to the plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun. Throughout
Earth’s year-long revolution around the Sun, the angle of inclination determines
Earth’s orbit around the Sun is the length of day and night at different latitudes. At the equator, day and night
slightly elliptical. Earth is closest are each 12 h long throughout the year. The mid- to higher latitudes have longer
to the Sun on January 3 (about summer days and longer winter nights. The very high latitudes have the longest
147 million km) and farthest from
the Sun on July 4 (about 152
summer days and the longest winter nights.
million km). At the North and South Pole, Earth’s axis is tilted towards the Sun for
about 182 days or about half a year. It is tilted away from the Sun for the
other 182 days. When the axis is tilted towards the Sun in the North during
spring and summer, it is tilted away from the Sun in the South. Conversely,
when the axis is tilted away from the Sun in the North during fall and winter,
it is tilted towards from the Sun in the South.
At the North Pole the Sun is fully above horizon on March 20 and can be
seen until September 24. That’s about 189 days with 24 hours of daylight.
Then on September 24 the Sun sets and is below the horizon for 176 days of
darkness. The reverse of darkness and daylight dates occur at the South Pole.
Why are the days of daylight and darkness not equal?
The seasons have an unequal number of days because Earth’s orbit is
slightly elliptical, or oval shaped. The Sun is not exactly at the centre of the
orbit. Earth moves faster when it is close to the Sun than when it is farther
away. As a result, the seasons that occur when Earth is close to the sun pass
more quickly. Earth is closest to the Sun in January and farthest away in July.

Therefore, summer is longer than winter in March 21
the northern hemisphere. In the southern equal day and night lengths
spring winter
hemisphere winter is longer than the summer.
If the axis was not tilted, the Sun would shine
directly over the equator. Then the amount
of solar energy received by different latitudes
would remain the same throughout the year.
However, because the axis is tilted, the Northern
Hemisphere faces the Sun from about March 20 June 21 December
to September 23, resulting in spring and summer longest 21 shortest
(see Figure 10.8). As the Earth continues to day day
revolve around the Sun from September 23 summer fall
September 22
through March 20, the Northern Hemisphere equal day and night length
faces away from the Sun, resulting in fall and
Figure 10.8 The dates and time of the shortest day
winter. What do you think happens in the
and longest day may vary by several hours from year
Southern Hemisphere? to year. Earth spins on its axis like a toy top, and since
Earth is not perfectly spherical (it “bulges” at the
Warming of Earth Is Unequal equator), the axis “wobbles” as it spins. This slight
Analyze the conditions when the North Pole is tilted towards variation in Earth’s axis produces the differences in
dates and times.
the Sun. The Sun’s rays are perpendicular to a line in the
Northern Hemisphere. Therefore, it is summer in the
Northern Hemisphere. Nevertheless, Earth’s curvature causes solar energy
to be distributed unequally. As you go toward the North Pole, the Sun’s rays
become more and more slanted relative to Earth’s surface (see Figure 10.9).
Solar radiation is spread out over a larger area. Consequently, a smaller amount
of solar energy is absorbed by each square metre of surface area. Although day
length is 24 h at the North Pole, it is not warm because the solar energy is
spread over a very large area. In addition, the solar rays pass through much
more atmosphere near the poles and less energy reaches the surface.
Earth axis
Rays spread over larger area

5% of Sun’s energy reaches the surface
Rays concentrated over smaller area Look up the meaning of the terms
50–60% of Sun’s energy reaches the surface
“solstice,” “equinox,” “autumnal,”
Rays most concentrated over smallest area
75% of Sun’s energy reaches the surface and “vernal” in a dictionary or on
the Internet. What days do these
terms describe? How do the days
vary from the Northern to the
Southern Hemisphere?
Figure 10.9 Warming of Earth is unequal because of its shape and axis.
The timing of the seasons is just
the opposite for the Southern
Geographers identify three major climate regions, or zones. They are Hemisphere compared to the
named according to their general climates: polar, temperate, and tropical. Northern Hemisphere. When
it is summer in the Northern
Latitudinal lines on maps mark out these climate zones. These lines are Hemisphere, it is winter in the
called the Arctic Circle, the Tropic of Cancer, the Tropic of Capricorn, Southern Hemisphere.
and the Antarctic Circle (see Figure 10.10, on the next page).

The Sun’s rays are perpendicular to Earth’s surface
at some location in the tropical zone throughout the entire year.
polar Therefore, the average temperatures in this zone are generally
Arctic Circle
warmer than those in the other zones.
temperate
Tropic of
Cancer The Sun’s rays are never perpendicular to Earth’s
tropical 23.5°
surface in the temperate zones. The temperature and weather
conditions are quite variable. There is usually a significant difference
Tropic of
temperate in the weather during the summer and the winter.
Capricorn
polar Antarctic Circle
Figure 10.10 Climate zones The polar zones have 24 h of darkness during parts of
the winter and 24 h of sunlight during parts of the summer. The 24 h
of sunlight, however, do not cause significant warming. This is because
the Sun’s rays make such a small angle with Earth’s surface that
the energy is spread over a very large area.
Section 10.1 Summary

Solar radiation is absorbed, reflected and transmitted by the biosphere. The
biosphere is the thin layer of air, land, and water where life exists. The rotation of
Earth on its axis produces day and night. Solar energy warms Earth’s surface and
the surface warms the atmosphere during the day. At night some cooling occurs,
but the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere retain much of the thermal energy.
Earth’s average temperature remains relatively constant because Earth radiates
the same amount of energy as it receives. The amount of solar energy absorbed
by each square metre of Earth’s surface is influenced by: (1) Earth’s revolution
around the Sun, (2) the tilt of Earth’s axis relative to the Sun, and (3) Earth’s
spherical shape.

1. How do open and closed systems differ?
2. Describe three examples of the flow of energy or matter among the
lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
3. If the solar rays are perpendicular to a line that is 10° south of the
equator, what will be the season in the Northern Hemisphere? Describe
the orientation of Earth relative to the Sun when it is winter in the
Northern Hemisphere.
4. Apply Certain places on Earth are sometimes called “the land of the
midnight Sun.” Where are these places? How do they earn this name?
5. How does the angle between Earth’s axis and the plane of its revolution
around the Sun affect the seasons?
6. Why is only about 50 percent of the solar energy that reaches the outer
atmosphere absorbed by Earth’s surface?
7. How does Earth maintain its relatively constant average temperature?

10.2 Thermal Energy Transfer
Our planet could be called Planet Water instead of Planet Earth because
nearly 70 percent of Earth’s surface is covered with water. Most of this
water is in the oceans. Water is also in streams, rivers, lakes, the ground,
glaciers, and the atmosphere. Water plays a major role in the absorption and
distribution of thermal energy. Thus it influences both weather and climates.
How is thermal energy linked to the circulation of water among the oceans,
land, and atmosphere? In this section you will answer that question by first
considering the specific heat capacities of air and water and then exploring
the role of phase changes. You will also study the three basic mechanisms
of energy transfer.
Specific Heat Capacity

Solar radiation is the principal source of energy that heats land
and water. How does the atmosphere absorb solar radiation? Is
the absorption of solar energy the predominant method for warming
air? To answer these questions you need to consider the specific
heat capacity of substances. Specific heat capacity is the amount
of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1°C.
Table 10.1 below lists the specific heat capacities for dry and moist air and Figure 10.11 The air is cool and
dry in the Atacama Desert, even
three phases of water. You will notice that water has a much higher specific
though it is located near the ocean.
heat capacity than air. Using the measured value of specific heat capacities (c) Contrast the dry desert air with
and the formula below, you can calculate the amount of heat (Q) required to the moisture content in the air at
raise the mass of a substance (m) by a given temperature change (&T). St. John’s, Newfoundland, one of
the foggiest places in the world.
Which do you think has a higher
Q " mc&T where Q is the amount of heat in joules (J)
specific heat capacity, dry air or
m is the mass in grams (g) moist air? Why?
c is the specific heat capacity in J/g•°C
&T is the change in temperature in °C
If data are given in initial (T1) and final (T2) temperatures instead
of the change in temperature, calculate &T using: &T " T2 ! T1
It is often easier to rearrange an

equation before substituting num-
Study the Model Problems on Table 10.1 Specific Heat Capacities
bers for the variables. For example,
the next page. Then enhance Substance in nature Specific heat the relationship formula a " bc
your problem-solving skills by capacity (J/g•°C) a a
can be written as b " %% or c " %%.
completing the Practice Problems pure water 4.19 c b
The formula Q " mc&T can be
on page 377. While solving the steam 2.02 rearranged to calculate any of the
Practice Problems, think about ice 2.00 variables in the equation. Rewrite
the influence of water and air sea water 3.89 the formula in your notes with m,
in absorbing energy. c, and &T alone on the left side of
“dry” air 1.00
the equation.
“moist” air 1.15 (varies)

Model Problem 1
Part A Part B
A house contains 170 kg of dry air. The furnace Suppose that the 170 kg of air in the house is moist.
has broken, and the temperature of the air has How much energy is released if the temperature
fallen to 2.0°C. How much energy is needed of the air drops from 20°C to 2.0°C?
to heat the air to 20°C?
Given
Given mass of air, m " 170 kg " 1.70 $ 105g
Mass of air, m " 170 kg " 1.70 $ 105g J
specific heat capacity of moist air, c " 1.15 %%
J g•°C
Specific heat capacity of dry air, c " 1.00 %%
g•°C change of temperature,
Change of temperature, ∆T " 18°C ∆T " 2.0°C ! 20°C " !18°C
Required Required
Energy needed to warm the air in the house, Q energy released when the air in the house cools
Analysis Analysis
Use Q " mc∆T. Solve for Q. Use Q " mc∆T. Solve for Q.
Solution Solution
Q " mc∆T Q " mc∆T
J J
!
" (1.70 $ 105g) 1.00 %% (18°C)
g•°C " !
" (1.70 $ 105g) 1.15 %% (!18°C)
g•°C "
6
" 3.06 $ 10 J 6
" !3.52 $ 10 J
# 3.1 $ 106 J $ !3.5 $ 106 J
Paraphrase Paraphrase
It takes 3.1 $ 106 J (3.1 MJ) of energy to warm 3.5 $ 106 J (3.5 MJ) of energy are released when the
the air from 2.0°C to 20°C. temperature of the air drops from 20°C to 2.0°C.
Moist air has a specific heat capacity slightly greater than that of dry air. The
amount of water vapour in air can vary from almost none to five percent of the
Calculate the percentage increase
in energy required to heat the
mass of the air. Therefore, the specific heat capacity of moist air can vary.
moist air compared to the dry air
in Model Problem 1.
The symbol & (pronounced delta) is the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet. Delta is the closest
Greek letter equivalent to D (for difference). It is used in science to indicate a change or calculated
difference. For example, &T indicates a change in temperature. How can you remember the meaning
of this symbol? You might recall from geography studies that a delta is a triangular tract of deposited
earth at the mouth of a river. The shape of the letter is similar to a spreading river delta. Since deltas
continuously change with the flow of the river, it is easy to remember that & indicates change.

Practice Problems
Solve the following problems for energy.
1. How much energy is released when 35 g of water cools from 25°C A house full of moist air takes
to 10°C? more thermal energy to heat than
the same house filled with dry air.
2. How much energy is required to heat 5 ice cubes each with a mass Why, then, are humidifiers and
water-evaporating pans used in
of 30 g from !25°C to !5°C? homes and workspace environ-
ments? Wouldn’t this practice
3. How much heat is absorbed by 1000 kg of seawater in a large hole waste thermal energy and increase
on the beach as the seawater’s temperature rises from 20°C to 25°C? heating costs? Are there factors
that would offset the increased
Rearrange the equation to calculate the missing value and answer cost? Research and analyze the
the following questions. basis on which a decision such as
this one might be made. Identify
4. What mass of water could have its temperature raised 35°C by at least two perspectives on the
absorbing 100 kJ of energy? issue, other than cost (economic).
5. If 2.09 $ 103 J of energy raised the temperature of moist air from

23°C to 37°C, what was the mass of the air?
6. Assume that the tissues of the human body have an average specific
heat capacity of 3.50 J/g•°C. A 55 kg person goes for an hour-long,
brisk walk and generates 6.50 $ 105 J of thermal energy. If the body
had no mechanisms for removing the thermal energy, what would be
the temperature increase of the person’s body? (Why is it important
to perspire?)
7. What is the specific heat capacity of a substance if it requires 2334 J

of energy to change the temperature of 40 g of the substance by 15°C?
8. If 300 g of a substance releases 3.8 kJ of energy while cooling 15°C,

what is its specific heat capacity?
9. How much energy is released when 25 kg of moist air cools from 22°C
to 16°C?
Water’s Large Specific Heat Capacity

You can now apply your knowledge of specific heat capacity to investigating
the properties of soil and air as well as water. While performing the next
investigation, think about the significance of the properties of soil and water
and their influence on their surroundings. In the Find Out Activity that follows
the investigation, you will learn more about the heating of soil and air.

S K I L L C H E C K

10–B
The Heat Is On
The different responses of soil and water to radiant energy have a great influence
on the weather and climate of a region. In this investigation you will observe and
analyze the temperature changes of soil and water when they absorb energy.
Hypothesis
For tips on making line graphs,
Formulate a hypothesis about the ability of soil and water to absorb and turn to Skill Focus 7.
release heat.
Safety Precautions Conduct your investigation. Remember to

5
control the variables you are not testing.
• Use heat gloves when touching the lamp. 6 Represent your data as line graphs. Show the
• Do not let the lamp or its cord make any contact rate of heat absorption and heat release for
with the water. both soil and water.
• Ensure the lamp is securely clamped.
Analyze
Apparatus
retort stand overhead light with clamp
1. Which material — soil or water — had the
ruler thermometers
greatest temperature increase during the
period that the light was on?
clear plastic containers watch or clock
other apparatus as 2. What other information do you need in order
approved by your teacher to determine which material absorbed more
light energy? How might you obtain that
Materials
information?
water dry, dark soil masking tape
3. What two factors might influence the amount
Procedure of energy absorbed by the soil and the water?
1 As a group, agree upon and record your 4. Which material do you think absorbed the
hypothesis. most energy? Explain your reasoning for
List the steps you will need to take to test your identifying this material.
2
hypothesis. Include in your plan how you will 5. Compare the increase in the temperature
safely use your equipment to (a) compare the of the air over the water and over the soil.
rates of heat absorption of soil and water and
(b) compare the rates of release of heat through Conclude and Apply
measurement of the air temperature above the
6. Did your results support or contradict your
soil and water. Include two different depths
hypothesis? Explain.
for both soil and water in your investigation.
Identify and record your manipulated variables 7. Predict the way in which a large body of water
and your control variables. might influence the climate of a region.
3 Create a data table for collecting your data. 8. Describe one feature of weather that you have
noticed in your personal experiences that you
4 Have your teacher approve your investigation
can now explain, based on your results.
method, data table, and safety precautions.

Infrared technology has been used to create many tools of science. Infrared detectors respond Earth absorbs less than half a billionth
to sudden changes in the amount of infrared radiation in a room. They can detect a person in of the Sun’s total radiation. The solar
the room because humans give off more radiation than their surroundings. Scientists also use constant is the amount of radiant
infrared technology to measure moisture and oil in foods. Infrared light is shone onto the food. energy that passes through 1.0 m2 of
Some of the light is absorbed and the rest is scattered. Food that has a larger moisture content Earth’s atmosphere every second. It
absorbs more infrared radiation. is established as 1367 J/m2•s.
Find Out
From the Ground Up
How much solar energy heats the air before it 2. Suppose the atmosphere absorbs 20 percent
reaches Earth’s surface? Moisture is normally of the solar energy. Calculate how much energy
present in the atmosphere in varying amounts is absorbed by the atmosphere in 1.0 h.
depending on where the air is sampled. For this
activity, assume that the air is dry and has a 3. Suppose Earth’s surface absorbs 49 percent of
specific heat capacity of 1.00 J/g•°C. Consider the solar energy. Calculate how much energy is
a column of dry air with a cross sectional area absorbed by the top 10 cm of soil in 1.0 h.
1.0 m2 that extends to the top of the atmosphere. 4. Use the formula Q " mc&T to calculate the
Assume that the amount of solar energy reaching temperature changes of
the column is equivalent to the solar constant
(a) the air
(1367 J/m2•s). What are the changes in the
temperature of the air and the soil after a (b) the soil
period of 1.0 h? Note: The masses of the soil and air are given
solar constant in the figure. The specific heat capacity of soil
1367 J varies depending on the type of soil. Use the
m2 • s approximate value of c " 0.85 J/g•°C.
dry air
10 000 kg What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
20% of solar 1. Compare the temperature changes you calcu-
energy
lated for soil and air. Would you conclude that
absorbed
the absorption of solar energy is the primary
source of energy for heating air? Explain why
49% of solar you would or would not.
energy
absorbed
Extension
ground
10 cm 1.0 m 150 kg 2. Consider what you have learned about
1.0 m albedo. Would your results differ if the
air were over water instead of soil?
Procedure
1. Using the solar constant, calculate the amount
of solar energy that reaches the column of air
at the top of the atmosphere during 1.0 h.

Conduction, Convection, and Radiation Transfer Energy
In the last Find Out Activity you discovered that if the absorption of solar
energy were the only source of energy for heating air, the air would be
extremely cold. So what heats the air?
After the land and water absorb solar energy, several mechanisms of energy
transfer play a role in heating the air. One mechanism is conduction. Energetic
molecules from the land and water collide with molecules in the air that are
close to the surface. These collisions transfer energy from Earth’s surface
to the air. The temperature of this lowest level of air eventually comes close
to the temperature of the land or water beneath it. Then convection occurs
as air circulates and distributes the heat. As the lowest layer of air warms, it
expands, becoming less dense. Recall from your earlier studies of fluids that
less dense fluids rise and more dense fluids fall. So, as the warm air rises,
cooler air descends and takes its place close to the ground.
Radiation also plays a part in transferring thermal energy to the air. The
Most radiation entering Venus’s components of air are very inefficient at absorbing the medium-wavelength
atmosphere is retained by thick solar radiation such as visible light. However, water vapour, carbon dioxide,
gases and clouds, making Venus
and other greenhouse gases absorb the longer wavelength, or infrared radiation,
an extreme example of the green-
house effect. On Mars, a thin emitted by Earth. This absorption of long-wave radiation from Earth is the
atmosphere allows much of the major source of heat for the air close to the surface. Figure 10.12 illustrates
radiation to escape. Earth’s atmo- the mechanisms for transferring solar energy. The differences between the
sphere creates a delicate balance
between energy received and
mechanisms for the warming of land, water, and air and their differing specific
energy lost. heat capacities result in a variety of different temperatures for substances on
and just above Earth’s surface.
medium-wavelength solar radiation heats ground cold

(higher air)
convection cool
(air)
conduction by
collisions with
molecules in
ground
lake long-wave infrared radiation
warm (water) warmer (ground)
Figure 10.12 Medium-wavelength (mostly visible light) radiation penetrates the atmosphere and
is absorbed by the ground and water. Here the radiant energy is converted into thermal energy. The
ground and water then transfer thermal energy to the air by conduction. As well, the heated ground
emits infrared radiation that is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the air.

Phase Changes
You have just learned how to calculate the amount of
energy needed to cause water and other substances to
increase and decrease their temperature. As well, when
the substance cools, it releases the same amount of energy
that was used when the temperature was increased. Did
you know that water and other substances can absorb or
release energy with no change in temperature? Energy is
required to melt ice and to cause liquid water to evaporate.
The same amount of energy is released when water vapour
condenses into a liquid or when the liquid freezes to a Figure 10.13 Water is the only substance that occurs in all
solid. When these changes occur, the temperature does three states, or phases, of matter — solid, liquid, and gas —
not change. For example, ice at 0°C changes to water at at normal temperatures and pressures found on Earth.
0°C. The energy is used to break the bonds between
Table 10.2 Heats of Fusion and Vaporization
water molecules in ice. When liquid water at 0°C
of Some Common Substances
freezes, it releases energy.
Each of the changes mentioned above — freezing, Substance Heat of Fusion Heat of Vaporization
melting, evaporating, or condensing — is called a phase H fus (J/mol) H vap (kJ/mol)
change. The amount of energy required to melt one water 6.01 40.65
mole of a substance is called the heat of fusion (Hfus) ammonia 5.66 23.33
of the substance. The amount of energy required to methanol 3.22 35.21
convert one mole of a substance from a liquid to a gas is nitrogen 0.71 5.57
called the heat of vaporization (Hvap) of that substance. oxygen 0.44 6.82
The amount of energy that is released when a mole of substance freezes is

the same as the amount required to melt it. Similarly, the amount of energy
that is released when a substance condenses from a gas to a liquid is the
same as the amount that was required to convert the liquid to a gas.
Each substance has its own heat of fusion and heat of vaporization. A few
examples are listed in Table 10.2. If you have not yet learned the definition of a
mole, read the Chemistry Connect on the next page before going any further.
As you can see in Table 10.2, the heat of fusion and the heat of vaporization
for water are higher than they are for the other substances listed. As you perform
calculations and complete some activities in this unit, you will begin to see the
significance of these high values. The formulas that allow you to calculate the
amount of heat that is necessary to change the phase of a given amount of any
substance are shown in the box below. Study the Model Problems and then
solve the Practice Problems on the following pages.
Energy Required for Melting Energy Required for Converting

from Liquid to Gas
Q " nHfus Q " nHvap
where Q is the amount of heat or energy in joules (J)
n is the number of moles (no units)
Hfus is the heat of fusion in joules per mole (J/mol)
Hvap is the heat of vaporization in joules per mole (J/mol)

Chemistry
Tables listing values of heats of fusion and heats of vaporization for substances use the units of kilo-
joules per mole rather than joules per gram. One mole of any substance has 6.02 $ 1023 molecules.
Chemists often prefer to use moles instead of mass because they want to use samples that have
the same number of molecules rather than the same mass. Since one mole of any compound has
the same number of molecules, it is very convenient to use moles for many applications. You can
find the number of moles in any mass of a given substance by using the following formula.
m
n " %%
M
The symbol, n, represents the number of moles, m represents the amount of the substance in
grams, and M represents the molar mass of the compound in units of grams per mole. You can
find the molar mass of any compound by adding the atomic masses of all atoms in the compound.
Consult a periodic table to find the atomic mass of any element. The following calculation shows
you how to determine the number of moles in 42.5 g of methanol (CH3OH).
Find the molar mass of methanol: Find the number of moles:
m
Element Atomic Number of Total mass n " %%
M
Mass atoms in of the element
42.5 g
methanol n " %%
g
carbon 12.011 1 12.011 32.042 %%
mol
Large containers of water are hydrogen 1.008 4 4.032
sometimes placed in green- n " 1.3264 mol
oxygen 15.999 1 15.999
houses to help protect plants n $ 1.33 mol
from freezing in cold weather. Total 32.042
When the water freezes, the heat
that is released warms the air. For more practice working with the mole, turn to Section 3.4 on page 116 of your textbook.
Model Problem 2
Part A Required
A beaker contains exactly 360.4 g of water in heat, Q
the liquid state at 100ºC. How much energy Analysis
is required to convert the liquid water to water Use Q " nHvap. Solve for Q.
vapour at 100°C?
Solution
Given Q " nHvap
mass of water, m " 360.4 g
kJ
molar mass of water " 18.02 g/mol !
" (20.00 mol) 40.65%%
mol "
m " 813.0 kJ
number of moles of water, n " %%
M
360.4 g Paraphrase
" %% g It takes 813.0 kJ of thermal energy to convert
18.02%%
mol 360.4 g of liquid water at 100°C to water vapour
" 20.00 mol at 100°C.
heat of vaporization of water, Hvap " 40.65 kJ/mol

Part B Required
A container holding exactly 360.4 g of ice at 0ºC heat, Q
melts to form liquid water at 0°C. How much Analysis
energy must be added to convert the ice at 0°C Use Q " nHfus.
to liquid water at 0°C?
Solve for Q.
Given
Solution
mass of water (solid), m " 360.4 g
Q " nHfus
molar mass of water " 18.02 g/mol kJ
m
number of moles of water, n " %%
M
!
" (20.00 mol) 6.01 %%
mol "
" 120.2 kJ
360.4 g
" %% g $ 120 kJ
18.02%%
mol Paraphrase
" 20.00 mol It takes 120 kJ of thermal energy to melt 360.4 g
heat of fusion of water, Hfus " 6.01 kJ/mol of ice at 0°C to liquid water at 0ºC.
Practice Problems
10. How much thermal energy is required to melt 4.525 mol of ice at 0°C
to liquid water at 0°C? (Hint: The units in the question are moles.
Every spring and winter
You do not have to convert units.) in Canada, many of our
rivers and lakes change
11. How much energy is required to boil 48.8 mol of liquid water at 100°C
phase. In cold winters, ice
to steam (gaseous form of water) at 100°C? on our lakes may freeze to
1.0 m in thickness. Calculate
12. How much energy is released when 42.3 mol of nitrogen gas condenses the energy required to melt a
into liquid nitrogen without any change in temperature? 1.0 m3 block of ice. Assume
that 1.0 cm3 has a mass
13. How much energy is required to convert 48.8 mol of liquid methanol of 1.0 g.
into a gas, at the same temperature?
14. How much heat is lost when 63.07 g of steam at 100°C condense and
form liquid water at 100°C? (Hint: You must convert from g to mol.)
15. How much heat is released when 2.0 kg of water at 0°C freezes and
forms ice at 0°C? (Hint: Notice that the units of water are kg not g.)
16. A pot containing 3.0 kg of water is left in a greenhouse to keep the
air moist. How much thermal energy is required to just evaporate
the water completely?
17. How much energy is required to melt 18 ice cubes in a tray at 0°C to
liquid water at 0°C? Assume that the ice cubes are identical and each
has a mass of 29 g.
18. If 187 kJ of heat caused a chunk of ice at 0°C to melt to liquid water
at 0°C, how many moles were in the ice? How many grams of ice
were in the chunk?
In the next activity, you will observe the temperature of an ice-water mixture
while the ice melts and also when the water boils.

Find Out
Observing the Phase Changes of Water
In this activity you will observe, record, and graph 4. Record the time when boiling begins. Record
the temperature of ice as it changes phase from a temperature reading every 30 s until the
a solid to a liquid, and then from a liquid to a gas. water has been boiling vigorously for 8 min.
5. Prepare a graph of your results. Put time on
Safety Precautions the horizontal axis and temperature on the
• Take care not to burn yourself when measuring vertical axis.
the temperature of the boiling water.
• Avoid contact with the steam. Do not touch the
hot surface of the hot plate. 1. How did the temperature of the
ice/water change
• Never stir with a thermometer.
(a) while the ice was melting?
Materials (b) after all the ice was melted?
(c) once the water started to boil?
crushed ice and cold water paper
400 mL beaker hot plate 2. Mark on your graph the spot where you
thermometer stirring rod think energy was being used for:
pencil graph paper (a) heat of fusion
(b) heat of vaporization
3. What property of the graph indicates that
1. Place 150 mL of crushed ice in the beaker.
a temperature change was taking place?
Add cold water to just cover the ice and stir.
4. What was the melting point of the ice?
2. Record the initial temperature. What was the boiling point of the water?
3. Place the beaker on the hot plate and 5. What was happening to the energy from the
turn the element on high. Stir the ice/water hot plate when the temperature of the water
mixture constantly with a stirring rod to was not changing?
keep the temperature uniform. Record the
time when the ice completely disappears. 6. Why did the water boil at a temperature other
than 100°C?
From a Solid to a Gas

Water and other substances usually change phase from solid to liquid to gas
and vice versa. However, water, as well as other substances, can change from
a gas directly into a solid in a process called sublimation. For example, water
If steam condenses on skin, it vapour sublimes on cold surfaces and forms frost. Water also sublimes from
can cause a very serious burn. a solid to a gas. When snow and ice “disappear” during a warm spring wind,
Use the concept of heat of the solids have changed directly into water vapour. For a summary of the
vaporization to explain the
cause of the burn. phase changes of water, see Figure 10.14.
Unique Properties of Water Influence Climate

In nature, water freezes to form ice, snow, and hail. These processes release
heat into the surroundings. As well, when snow and ice melt or when liquid
water evaporates, heat is absorbed. How does this absorption and release of
heat affect weather and climate?

Oceans, lakes, and rivers have a low albedo and absorb about Gas
93 percent of the incoming solar radiation. Since water absorbs (water vapour)
so much solar energy, you might expect the temperature of the
water to vary greatly between day and night and between winter Sublimation Condensation
heat released heat released
and summer. However, the temperatures of oceans and very
(heat of (heat of
large lakes are relatively constant. As well, the temperature sublimation) Sublimation Evaporation vaporization)
of the air near large bodies of water does not vary as much heat absorbed heat absorbed
as does the air at great distances from bodies of water.
Water has a high specific heat capacity (4.19 J/g•°C), and Freezing
heat released
therefore large amounts of energy are needed to change the
Solid Liquid
temperature. Large bodies of water such as oceans and large (ice and snow) (heat of fusion) (water)
lakes have a moderating effect on the air temperature of nearby
Melting
land communities. Water temperatures change slowly and by heat absorbed
a small amount. The reason for this is that the water absorbs
a large amount of heat during the day and during the summer. Figure 10.14 The type of phase
Water releases heat slowly at night and during the winter. change that occurs for a given
Water has a high heat of vaporization (40.68 kJ/mol). For water to evaporate, substance depends on the
a large amount of energy is needed to break the attractive forces among water temperature of the substance
and the pressure exerted on the
molecules. The opposite occurs during condensation. For water to form a liquid,
substance. The heat of sublimation
it must lose a lot of energy to allow enough molecules to come together and is equal to the sum of the heats
form bonds or attractive forces. Water evaporates when the molecules absorb of fusion and vaporization.
enough heat to have sufficient kinetic energy to break loose from their
neighbouring molecules. This heat can be absorbed from sunlight, from air at
the water’s surface, or from other water molecules. When heat is absorbed from
other water molecules, they lose energy and cool. This is known as evaporative Some scientists prefer to
cooling and it causes bodies of water to remain at a relatively stable temperature. reserve the term sublime for the
Many fish can tolerate only a narrow range of temperatures. When they move process of changing from a solid
higher or lower in a body of water, fish are seeking the optimum temperature. to a gas. These scientists use the
term deposition to describe the
conversion from a gas to a solid.
A In the spring, days become longer

and the Sun begins to warm the land.
If large amounts of snow and ice remain
from the winter, then much of the Sun’s
energy is used to melt them. Therefore,
the air temperature does not rise as
much as it would in the absence of
snow and ice.
B As winter sets in, the days get shorter and the

Sun provides less heat than in summer. As liquid
water freezes, however, it releases heat. Therefore,
the air temperature does not drop as much as it
would if there were no water to freeze. Figure 10.15

Water has a high heat of fusion (6.01 kJ/mol). Water must lose a large amount
of energy for the molecular motion to slow down enough so the motion does not
break the attractive forces with neighbouring molecules. When sufficient heat
is lost, water forms a crystal-like lattice with other water molecules and freezes.
Like most other liquids, water expands when heated and contracts when it
cools. However, when water cools below 4°C, it begins to expand and continues
to do so until it freezes at 0°C. Thus, ice floats on the surface of water because
its density is lower than the density of liquid water. On a lake or pond in winter,
surface ice forms an insulating layer that slows the transfer of heat from the
warmer water beneath it to the cooler air above. This permits most aquatic
organisms to survive until the following spring. What would happen if water
continued to contract below 4°C until it froze? How would this affect aquatic
freshwater organisms?
The Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle (water cycle) describes the circulation of water among the
A cornfield 1 ha in size can oceans, land, and the atmosphere (see Figure 10.16). Each year over 100 000 km3
transpire as much as 37 000 L of water evaporates from the oceans, lakes, rivers, soil, and plants into the air.
of water every day. A term often used with the hydrologic cycle is evapotranspiration. The term refers
to the evaporation of water just from plants and from the soil. Soil is included
because it is difficult to measure evaporation from soil and from leaves separately.
Transpiration of water vapour from leaves helps pull water from the roots up
the stem to the leaves where it is used as a raw material for photosynthesis.
Some of this water and the water released by cellular respiration transpires
from leaves. Evapotranspiration contributes about 10 percent of all the
water that enters the atmosphere.
Water vapour rises in the atmosphere and
releases its heat to the colder air aloft, particu-
condensation moist air moves larly over land surfaces. When water vapour
to land loses heat to the surrounding air, or when the
air becomes oversaturated with water vapour,
precipitation
s the water vapour condenses and forms clouds.
er evaporation
ri v Tiny dust particles, smoke, sea salt particles,
pl s
nts
m from oceans
ke
fr o m la
and even spores collect water molecules that
a
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po
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ro m
a i
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po ti o
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ev
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r a crystals. When these droplets or ice crystals
ti o
ns
ir a
rt a become too heavy to remain in the air, they

sp
o
ap
an
e v o t r fall to the ground as precipitation — rain, hail,

run-off ap
ev snow, or sleet. The journey to the ground might
ocean not be straight down. Sometimes air currents
ground water moves to carry water droplets upward where they com-
rivers, lakes, and oceans bine with other droplets until they fall as rain.
When ice crystals are repeatedly swept upward
by strong updrafts, they may receive several
Figure 10.16 The total amount of water in the air, in the form of vapour coatings of moisture before they fall as hail-
or clouds, is enough to cover Earth with a layer about 2.5 cm deep. This
stones. Precipitation on the sea returns water
water has a residence time of approximately 10 days. Residence time is
the time that is needed for all the atmospheric water to fall to Earth as rain directly to the ocean. Precipitation on land
or snow and to be replaced by evaporation. Since solar energy causes evap- can accumulate in streams, rivers, and lakes
oration, you can say that the Sun is the engine that drives the water cycle. that flow to the oceans. It might also seep into

the ground and collect in large underground aquifers. Precipitation might also
resurface and flow to the ocean where the cycle continues.
Notice that the hydrologic cycle transports energy as well as water. When
water evaporates, energy is absorbed. The water vapour sometimes travels great
distances before condensing. When it does condense and form rain or snow,
thermal energy is released into the surroundings.

Water plays a major role in the absorption and distribution of thermal energy
on Earth, which influences weather and climate around the world. Energy is
transferred by radiation, conduction, and convection.
• Absorbed radiation heats an object and the resulting thermal energy is
emitted as infrared radiation that warms other objects.
• In conduction, thermal energy is transferred when rapidly moving molecules
collide with molecules moving more slowly. Within an object, warm regions
conduct thermal energy to cooler regions.
• Convection involves the distribution of thermal energy by moving bodies of
air and water.
The hydrologic cycle distributes water by evaporation, condensation, and
precipitation. When water changes phase from a liquid to a gas or to a solid,
heat is absorbed or released. Heat of vaporization is the amount of thermal
energy that is required to change a liquid to a vapour, or released when a
vapour condenses to a liquid. Heat of fusion is the amount of thermal energy
that is required to change a solid to a liquid, or that is released when a liquid
freezes and becomes a solid.
Water has several unique properties. These include a high specific heat
capacity, and high heats of vaporization and fusion. These unique properties
influence the distribution of heat and weather and climates on Earth.

1. Explain how the specific heat capacity of water influences the temperature
of a large lake.
2. Define heat of vaporization and heat of fusion.
3. How much energy is released when 974 g of water at 0°C freezes and
forms ice at 0°C?
4. How much energy would be required to raise the temperature of 1.25 kg
of water from 17°C to 31°C?
5. Thinking Critically In Model Problem 1 on page 376, you calculated
the amount of thermal energy necessary to raise the temperature of the
air in a house. How would you find out the amount of thermal energy
required to raise the temperature of the walls and contents of the house?

10.3 Distributing the Heat
In Section 10.1, you learned that Earth’s spherical shape, the tilt of its axis, and its
Only about 0.023 percent of the revolution around the Sun cause solar energy to be absorbed unequally. Solar
solar energy that reaches Earth heating is greater in the tropics than it is at latitudes greater than 40° north or
is captured by green plants and south. Tropical regions absorb more heat than is radiated to space. Latitudes
used for photosynthesis. The
remainder is available to drive
greater than 40° north and south have a heat deficit (loss) because more heat
weather systems. is radiated to space than is absorbed from solar radiation. This heat imbalance
is responsible for most of our weather and climate. Ocean currents and currents
of air redistribute the heat across Earth’s surface. In this section, you will explore
how the oceans and the air distribute heat. You will see how this distribution
is influenced by Earth’s rotation on its axis as well as geographic land features.
How Oceans Distribute Heat

There are several reasons why the oceans are such large heat reservoirs. Water
has a low albedo and absorbs more than 90 percent of the solar energy striking it.
You will recall that water has a large specific heat capacity and a large heats of
Figure 10.17 Solar energy vaporization and fusion. Therefore, a lot of energy is required to make it change
absorbed by the oceans is
temperature and phase. The oceans cover about 70 percent of Earth’s surface and
distributed by complex patterns
of currents. Ocean currents are they have a very large volume. The energy absorbed by water is distributed
caused by surface winds, the throughout a greater depth than it is on land. Water is a fluid. Once heated at the
water’s salinity and heat content, surface of the ocean the water can be mixed downward by waves, turbulence, and
the contours of the ocean bottom, subsiding ocean currents. That mixing cannot happen over a solid land surface.
and Earth’s rotation.
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The Effect of Ocean Currents on Climate
Ocean currents have a large effect on the weather in coastal areas and influence
The technical name for the Great
worldwide climate. Like a 100 km-wide river, the Gulf Stream is a large surface Ocean Conveyor Belt is thermoha-
current that starts in the warm, shallow seas of the Caribbean. From there, it line circulation. You probably know
follows the eastern coastline of the United States and Canada, curving east just the meaning of “thermo.” Find the
south of Newfoundland. It ends up near the British Isles, where it is called the meaning of “haline” in a dictionary
or on the Internet. Then write
North Atlantic Drift. The waters of the Gulf Stream are so warm that tropical a paragraph to explain why the
fish can be caught offshore at New York or Boston! When the Gulf Stream water name “thermohaline circulation”
reaches North Carolina, it is warmer than the surrounding water, making the is appropriate for the Great Ocean
Conveyor Belt.
air above the current warmer than the air on either side. This air contains more
water vapour, sometimes creating dense fogs as the water condenses.
Oceans are considered heat reservoirs for the entire planet because they
change temperature much more slowly than the atmosphere or the land. The
Gulf Stream is actually part of a global ocean current called the thermohaline If you think oceanographers
circulation or the Great Ocean Conveyor Belt. This global pattern of currents spend their time watching
was discovered in the 1990s. Another recent discovery is the importance of the whales, you are only partly
correct. Oceanographers have
El Niño — Southern Oscillation (ENSO). also traced the ocean currents.
What technology did the early
El Niño and La Niña oceanographers use to chart
El Niño is a disruption of the ocean-atmosphere system in the tropical Pacific the movements of the currents?
that typically occurs every three to seven years. During an El Niño year, the What technology do they use
today to learn more about thermal
wind direction over the South Pacific reverses and the winds flow eastward. This energy transfer in oceans? What
wind reversal causes an increase in the sea-surface temperature in the eastern else do oceanographers do?
equatorial Pacific Ocean. This change in ocean temperature causes heavy rains
over the west coast of South America and drought conditions in Southeast Asia
and northern Australia. It is not known why the winds reverse direction.
El Niño can affect weather patterns across
25 percent of Earth’s surface and is believed to be
responsible for many unusual weather conditions
(see Figure 10.18). In western North America,
El Niño produces a pronounced warming during
the winter months of January, February, and March.
Whereas the impacts of El Niño are mostly negative,
(for example, floods, drought, and famine), some
impacts are beneficial. Research shows that El Niño
reduces the intensity and number of Atlantic
hurricanes as well as the number of tornadoes
in Canada and the United States.
Figure 10.18 The effects of El Niño are felt

around the world. Cattle are nearly starving
because of a drought in Australia (above). At
the same time, there are storms and flooding
in the usually dry areas of California (left).

El Niño is Spanish for “the little boy.” The name was first used by fishers to
describe the warmer waters off the west coast of South America that usually
occur in late December. El Niño events occurred in 1986–1987, 1991–92,
1993–94 and 1997–98. It is unusual for El Niños to occur in succession as they
did in 1991–94. The El Niños of 1982–83 and 1997–98 were the warmest in
five decades.
La Niña, meaning “the little girl”, is the opposite of El Niño. La Niña is
characterized by an increase in the strength of the normal patterns of westward
moving winds. This is accompanied by a cooling of the surface waters of the
eastern equatorial Pacific. Cool water from the ocean depths near the west coast
of South America rises, warms, and flows westward across the Pacific Ocean to
Southeast Asia and Australia. La Niña produces wetter than normal conditions.
In North America, cold air from Alaska moves southward across western Canada
and the western United States. By contrast, eastern North America becomes
warmer and drier than in non-La Niña years. La Niña events occurred in
1989 and 1996.
As yet, scientists cannot fully explain the causes of El Niño and La Niña or
whether there is a connection to climate change or to recent global warming.
Patterns of Wind Movement

You might have heard some terms used to describe global wind patterns, such
as the prevailing westerlies. “Prevailing” simply means happening most of the
time. In Canada we commonly experience winds moving generally from west
to east, so “westerlies” come from the west.
How can prevailing westerlies and other wind patterns be explained? You can
create a mental model for understanding patterns of wind movement in a way
that is often used by scientists. You can begin with a simplified model, then add
details and make more complex models. Figure 10.19 takes into account the
heating of the air at the equator. As the warm air rises, the
cooler air at the poles flows toward the equator. Then the
warm air aloft flows toward the poles. In this model, the air
currents would move in the straight line shown by arrows
60° in Figure 10.19. An area of low pressure occurs as warm
air expands, becomes less dense, and rises from the surface.
30° High pressure occurs as cold air contracts, becomes denser,
and descends to the surface. This movement of air forms
convection currents that circulate and distribute heat around
the world.
Convection Currents
Earth has a much larger surface area at the equator than at
the Poles. In fact, half of Earth’s surface lies between the
latitudes of 30°N and 30°S. As air begins to move toward
the Poles, it cools, becomes more dense, and begins to sink
before it reaches the Poles. It does not travel all the way
from the Poles to the equator as Figure 10.19 suggests.
Figure 10.19 If the only factor in the wind patterns was Air descends at three separate latitudes in each hemisphere:
the greater heating of Earth at the equator, winds would 30°(N and S), 60°(N and S), and the Poles, as shown in
move in north-south lines as shown. Figure 10.20.

60°
The atmosphere transports large amounts of heat from the
warmer subtropical regions at 35° latitude toward the Poles in
both hemispheres. However, between 0° and 17° latitude the
30°
ocean currents transport most of the heat. Can you suggest
any reason why this might be so?
30°
Satellite images of global wind patterns can help
you infer how thermal energy is transferred through the
60° atmosphere. Go to the web site above, and click on Web Links
to find out where to go next. You can view both
still pictures and animated ones.
Figure 10.20 Meteorologists refer to the convection current

model as the “three-cell model.”
Convection Currents on Rotating Earth

The Earth is constantly rotating and the atmosphere rotates with it at the same
speed. (Otherwise, if you were standing in the southern part of Canada, you
would feel a rather strong breeze of about 300 m/s!) Air maintains this speed
as it rises and as it moves north or south.
Convection currents or any moving objects on the surface of Earth tend
to veer sideways from their original course due to Earth’s rotation on its axis.
This tendency is called the Coriolis effect. Because Earth is a sphere rotating
eastward on its axis, the equator is rotating at a greater speed than regions
nearer the poles.
Imagine that you are looking down on the North Pole as shown in Figure
10.21. Earth makes one-quarter of a complete rotation in 6 h, from the line
shown as longitude A to the same line of longitude shown as B. Visualize how
much faster a point on the equator at A will move to reach the line at B relative
to a similar point on the same line of longitude at 30°N. Likewise, a point on
line A at latitude 30°N will move faster to line B than a point on the same line at
60°N latitude.
B A
equator
30° N latitude
North
Pole 60° N latitude
Figure 10.21 The three arrows represent

the distance that three points on Earth’s
surface move in 6 h.

Now consider a current of air moving northward from 30°N to 60°N latitude.
The air will veer eastward because it retains the greater eastward rotational
speed of the 30°N latitude as it passes over the more slowly rotating Earth
towards the 60°N latitude. At latitudes 30°N to 60°N, these eastward-blowing
winds are called prevailing westerlies because they come from the west (see
Figure 10.22).
Figure 10.22 Notice how the Coriolis

effect influences wind direction.
Next, consider a current of air moving southward from 30°N latitude to

the equator. The slower rotational speed of Earth at 30°N latitude causes the
air to fall behind and veer to the west relative to the more rapidly rotating Earth
at lower latitudes close to the equator. These winds are called prevailing easterlies
because they come from the east. In general, for these large-scale prevailing
winds, a current of air moving towards either the North or South Pole will
veer to the east as a prevailing westerly. Currents of air moving towards the
equator, such as the trade winds in the northern or southern hemispheres,
will veer to the west as a prevailing easterly.
Here is a way to remember the direction of the motion of the air due to
Earth’s rotation. Objects moving in the Northern Hemisphere have a tendency
to veer to the right, while objects moving in the Southern Hemisphere veer
The Coriolis effect is named after to the left. Although the westerlies and easterlies are major air currents, they
the French mathematician Gustave
are influenced by more localized heating of Earth’s surface and by geographic
Gaspard de Coriolis (1792–1843).
Coriolis developed the mathemat- features such as mountains and lakes that produce variable local winds.
ical description of motion on The Coriolis effect applies to any body moving on or above Earth’s surface,
a rotating sphere (Earth). He such as air and ocean currents. Earth’s rotational motion influences projectiles
also proposed the terms “work”
and “kinetic energy” as they are
travelling distances of several kilometres or more. Airplanes, guided missiles,
currently used in physical science. and space shuttles are capable of guided flight. People who calculate the flight
paths of these objects must take the Coriolis effect into account.
Notice in Figure 10.22 the terms “horse latitudes,” “doldrums,” and “trade winds.”
Consult a dictionary, the Internet, or an atlas to find the meaning of each term.
Record your findings in your notebook.

Jet Streams
Jet streams are currents of extremely fast-moving air
about 10–15 km above Earth’s surface. They generally
flow from west to east in both the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres. Jet streams form at the boundaries of cold
and warm air (see Figure 10.23). In winter, when the
temperature difference between cold and warm air masses
is greatest, the jet streams are usually larger and they
travel faster than they do in the summer.
The polar jet stream, which affects Canada’s weather,
forms at the junction of the prevailing westerlies and polar
easterlies (see Figure 10.22). When the prevailing westerlies
are far enough north, they encounter the cooler polar
easterlies. The combination of convection and the Coriolis Figure 10.23 Jet streams travel at speeds of 100–300 km/h.
They often dip south in winter below the Prairies or the
effect intensifies the speed of the air and eventually creates
Great Lakes.
a jet stream.
Intense winds within the jet stream influence precipitation
and thunderstorms. Recent studies suggest a link between
the jet stream and climate conditions. Analyses of prairie high low
Heat
lake sediments dated to 700 A.C.E. indicate an abrupt shift pressure radiates pressure
in climate characterized by several years of drought. This to space
Cool, dry
shift was attributed to the jet stream. Warm, moist air sinks
air rises and and warms
cools
Oceans and Mountains Influence Climate Air flows from high to
low pressure and picks
What role do geographic features such as oceans and up heat and moisture
low high
mountains play in the global distribution of heat? First, pressure pressure
consider two properties of air shown in Figure 10.24.
Earth’s Surface
• When moist air cools, it cannot hold as much water
and that water condenses and might fall as precipitation. Figure 10.24 A summary of the role of convection currents
• Warm air rises and cooler air moves in to replace it. and the atmospheric circulation in distributing heat and
water around our planet.
This produces a current of moving air.
The current of moving air creates a sea breeze on the shores of oceans and
even large lakes. When the Sun rises, it starts to warm the land and the water.
The land warms faster than the water. Because water has a larger heat capacity
J J
! g•°C " ! g•°C "
4.19 %% than soil 0.85 %% , the air above the land also becomes warmer
than the air above the water. This warmer air rises, bringing in cooler air
from over the water to replace it, as shown in Figure 10.25 on the next page.
At night, the water cools more slowly than the land, so the air over the water
is warmer. The sea breeze reverses itself to become a land breeze.
The proximity (closeness) to water can have at least two effects on climate.
First, remember that ocean currents can be either cold or warm. Labrador and
Scotland are at approximately the same latitude. Refer back to Figure 10.17,
on page 388. Which kind of ocean current flows beside each of these land
areas? Consult an atlas or other source to compare the climates of Labrador
and Scotland.

Sea Breeze
Land Breeze
Figure 10.25 During the day a sea breeze blows toward the land.
At night, a land breeze flows out to sea.
Second, closeness to an ocean can be a source of moisture in the air. In the

Alberta also gets orographic case of British Columbia’s fog, prevailing westerlies blow over the Pacific Ocean.
precipitation with easterly winds. They bring moist air onshore and, in some cases, pushing it up mountainsides.
However, because the source of Not very much of the moisture in the air that blows onshore in British
the air is the Prairies rather than
the ocean, there is generally less
Columbia finds its way into Alberta. As the air moves farther up the mountains,
moisture in the air to precipitate. most of that moisture is released as orographic precipitation. This type of
precipitation develops when warm, moist air cools and condenses as it rises
against mountains. The air is now relatively dry, and the prevailing westerlies
continue to push it toward Alberta. There, the dry air moves down the eastern
side of the mountains. As it does so, it becomes warmer because the pressure
increases. There is little opportunity for the air to pick up any more moisture.
Rain occurs only on rare occasions. The region that receives little rain under
these conditions is called a rain shadow (see Figure 10.26 on the next page).
The direction of the prevailing winds in a location will determine which side
of a mountain receives the orographic precipitation and which side forms a rain
shadow. Consult a map or globe and predict at least three locations along the
western part of North America (other than Alberta) where areas of rain shadow
would form.

Chin
ook
snow warm
dry air
moist air
Rain
fog Shadow
ocean Calgary
Vancouver
Orographic Precipitation
Figure 10.26 Orographic precipitation and a rain shadow. This rapid descent of air has many
names in various parts of the world. You would likely know of it as the chinook, an Aboriginal
word meaning “snow eater.”
Across Canada
For decades, Dr. Marie Sanderson has been
forging a trail in climatology in Canada. She
began teaching in 1965 when there was not
much scientific interest in such topics as
climate and weather. Since then, climatology
has become more popular as issues like
global warming hit the headlines. Marie has
accomplished a great deal since the 1960s. She
is a world-class climatologist and hydrologist,
a person who studies water. Her first research
experiments were on evapotranspiration. She
studied how much water evaporated and re-
entered the atmosphere. People had measured
the amount of precipitation that fell before, but
few measured how much returned to the air.
Marie travelled to the Northwest Territories to and biographies about important members
conduct experiments on water evaporation. of her profession. Through the years, Marie
has been awarded honorary degrees including
Marie then conducted similar experiments in one from the University of Lethbridge in 2000.
Ontario’s Great Lakes region. Water balance and Marie is a pioneer in the field and a role
what causes a change in water levels intrigued model for Canadian women. In her 30 years
Marie. She set out to discover climatic reasons of teaching, however, she has educated mostly
for these changes. Using data collected from male students. “There were very few females
weather stations twice a day — measurements in my classes — maybe 10 percent. I thought
of wind, precipitation, temperature, and ‘What’s the matter? This is such an interesting
other climatic parameters — Marie and her field!’” she says. She has seen even fewer
students determined changes in climate that female students go on to pursue a career
affected water. in climatology. As people continue to realize
In her retirement, Marie works at the Institute how important climate is, she hopes that
for Environmental Studies in Toronto and writes more women will get involved in this
books about both climate issues in the country fascinating profession.

• Currents in the oceans and atmosphere distribute the solar heating from
the tropics to the higher latitudes.
• Ocean currents are caused primarily by the surface winds.
• Ocean currents are influenced by the water’s salinity and heat content,
the contours of the ocean’s bottom, and land surfaces.
• Earth’s rotation produces a Coriolis effect that causes air currents to veer
to the east when moving towards the poles and to the west when moving
towards the equator.
• El Niño and La Niña disrupt air and ocean circulations in the equatorial
Pacific and influence weather patterns over much of the world.
• The unequal heating and cooling of coastal lands and oceans produce
sea and land breezes.
• Mountains influence coastal air movement as well as inland precipitation
and weather patterns.

1. How do differences in surface heating at the equator and at latitudes
greater than 40°N and S influence the movement of air?
2. How does the Gulf Stream help keep Europe warm?
3. Describe El Niño, La Niña and the jet stream.
4. How does the Coriolis effect influence the global convection currents?
5. Why is a rain shadow always found downwind from a mountain range?
6. What causes a land breeze? What causes a sea breeze?

(a) Explain the difference between latitude and (i) Describe the role of the hydrologic cycle in
longitude. (10.1) distributing heat. (10.2)
(b) List three climate zones on Earth and explain (j) Explain why oceans are such large heat reservoirs.
how seasonal change affects each zone. (10.1) (10.3)
(c) Describe how a location’s latitude affects the (k) Describe the effect on climate of the Gulf
amount of radiant energy it receives. (10.1) Stream, the North Atlantic Drift, El Niño,
and La Niña. (10.3)
(d) Describe Earth’s radiation budget. (10.1)
(l) Explain how the Coriolis effect determines the
(e) Explain how Earth’s tilted axis affects the direction of prevailing winds. (10.3)
amount of radiant energy the Northern
Hemisphere receives. (10.1) (m) What is a jet stream? (10.3)
(f ) Explain and give formulas for specific heat capac- (n) Describe how areas of low and high pressure
ity, heat of vaporization, and heat of fusion. (10.2) contribute to the distribution of heat. (10.3)
(g) Describe three mechanisms of energy transfer. (o) Draw a mountain range and use it to illustrate
(10.2) and explain orographic precipitation and the
rain shadow. (10.3)
(h) Explain how phase changes of water are related
to weather and climate. (10.2)
Summarize this chapter by doing one of the • How do surface features combined with latitude
following. Use a graphic organizer (such as a create climate?
concept map), produce a poster, or write the • What roles do convection, conduction, and
summary to include key chapter concepts. radiation play in distributing the heat on Earth?
• How does the Sun and position of Earth affect
seasonal climate?
The photograph at the left was
taken by exposing the same film
once every hour for most of a day.
At what location and at what time
of year do you think the photo-
graph was taken? Explain what
is happening in the photograph.

10 Review
C H A P T E R
Key Terms
system hydrosphere weather La Niña

surroundings clouds specific heat capacity low pressure
open system cryosphere phase change high pressure
closed system radiation heat of vaporization Coriolis effect
isolated system radiation budget heat of fusion jet streams
biosphere angle of inclination sublimation sea breeze
atmosphere albedo hydrologic cycle land breeze
troposphere greenhouse gases Gulf Stream orographic precipitation
stratosphere greenhouse effect North Atlantic Drift rain shadow
lithosphere climate El Niño
Understanding Key Concepts 7. What would Earth be like if there were no

1. Decide whether each of the following is an open, greenhouse gases in the atmosphere?
a closed, or an isolated system. Explain your 8. What causes seasons to change?
reasoning. (Note: Although it is nearly impossible
to perfectly isolate a system, consider a nearly 9. Why are seasons in the Southern Hemisphere
isolated system as isolated.) opposite to the seasons in the Northern
(a) a pot of potatoes boiling on top of the stove Hemisphere?
(b) a chemical reaction taking place inside 10. What characteristic of the Sun’s rays determines
a sealed vessel the boundaries of the polar, temperate, and
(c) a bird sitting in a birdhouse tropical zones? What are the names of those
(d) hot soup inside of a thermos jug boundaries?
(e) the coffee grounds inside an unopened 11. What term describes the amount of thermal
coffee can energy that is required to raise the temperature
(f ) Earth of a substance by 1.0°C?
2. What is the biosphere? 12. You read that the Sun’s rays pass through the air
and reach the ground having very little interaction
3. Describe one way in which radiant energy from with the air. If this is the case, how can energy
the Sun interacts with each of the following: the from the Sun warm the air?
atmosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere.
13. How are conduction and convection involved in
4. Explain how the Sun can provide nearly all of warming or cooling the atmosphere?
the energy used on Earth if Earth radiates as
much energy back into space as reaches Earth 14. Explain how a substance can absorb or release
from the Sun. thermal energy without having a change in
temperature?
5. Why is it important for Earth’s radiation budget
to be balanced? 15. Illustrate and describe the hydrologic cycle.
6. Name three things that happen to sunlight that 16. Use the concepts of heat of fusion and heat of
prevent some of it from being absorbed by vaporization to explain how the hydrologic cycle
Earth’s surface. can transport heat from one place to another.

17. How are ocean currents affected by the Problem Solving/Applying
Coriolis effect? 27. How much heat is required to change the
18. Describe the similarities and differences between: temperature of a 50 t iceberg from !15°C
to 0°C? (One tonne is 1,000 kg).
(a) climate and weather
(b) Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift 28. How much heat is required to increase the
(c) El Niño and La Niña temperature of 750 g of seawater by 30°C?
(d) heat of fusion and heat of vaporization 29. A house contains 145 kg of dry air. How much
(e) greenhouse effect and what happens in more energy is required to heat the house from
a greenhouse 10°C to 22°C if a humidifier makes the air moist?
(f ) high pressure and low pressure (Specific heat capacity of moist air " 1.15 J/g•°C.)
19. Describe the origin and direction that the air 30. (a) How much heat is released when 720.8 g of
would move due to convection currents, if Earth steam at 100°C condenses to form water?
were much smaller than it actually is and did not (b) How much additional heat is released if the
rotate on its axis. water is then cooled to 20°C?
20. In the Southern Hemisphere, between latitudes Critical Thinking

of 30°S and 0° (the equator), convection currents
31. If Earth were to rotate in the opposite direction,
cause the air to move from south to north. What
what would the prevailing winds be like in
direction does that air move due to Earth’s rota-
Alberta? Why would these winds flow in
tion (the Coriolis effect)? What is the name of
this direction?
the prevailing winds described in this question?
32. When the temperature of the air surrounding the
21. Illustrate and describe how a sea breeze forms.
body is lower than 33°C, the body loses heat to
22. Summarize the major components that the surrounding air. The rate of heat loss depends
contribute to climate. on the difference between the skin temperature,
which is usually 5–7°C below the core body
23. What are three ways a mountain range could temperature of 37°C, and the temperature of the
influence the precipitation of a region? air. The greater the difference, the faster the heat
loss. Heat loss occurs by the following processes:
Developing Skills radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation
24. What roles do the specific heat capacity of water (perspiration). Explain which of these processes is
and heat of vaporization play in the absorption involved in the following cooling mechanisms:
and distribution of heat and the movement of air (a) using a fan
and water currents? (b) applying a wet towel to the neck
25. Construct a Venn diagram or a concept map to
show the relationships among the following:
biosphere, atmosphere, troposphere, strato-
sphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere.
Go back to the beginning of the chapter and check your original
answers to the Focussing questions. How has your thinking
26. Where do jet streams form?
changed? How would you answer those questions now that you
have read this chapter?

11
C H A P T E R
Climate and Biomes
• How does climate influence the

distribution of plants and animals
on Earth?
• How does climate create similar
regions in different parts of
the world?
• What are some natural causes of
climate change and how do these
changes affect the distribution of
plants and animals?
• Do the natural zones of vegetation
found on Earth change?

S cientists recently discovered
bacteria that live at the South Pole,
survive in nearly every climate on
Earth. What is the relationship
where mid-summer temperatures between climate and the types of
rarely go higher than !18°C. In the vegetation throughout the world?
tree canopies of the Amazon rain Are similar vegetation patterns found
forest there are animals that never in different parts of the world?
touch the ground. Some plants In this chapter, you will investigate
survive in the desert even though and explore the way in which climate
it might rain only every few years. determines the distribution of plants
What do these examples illustrate? and animals around the planet. What
Environments are shaped and influ- are the major patterns of vegetation
enced by climate, and species survive found on Earth? Do climates change
if they adapt to their environments. over time? These are only a few of
The photographs shown here are the questions that you will explore
examples of different climates that in this chapter.
are found in various locations on
Earth. The desert looks barren o
oki
n
because many animals that live in the In what ways do cli

L
mates change natur

head In what ways do hu ally?
desert come out only at night when
A
man activities contr

to climate change? ibu te
it is cool. The monkeys thrive in the You will be discuss
these questions in ing
the End of Unit Iss
ue Analysis:
rainforest but would not survive in Proof or Conseque
nces. As you read
Chapter 11, you wi thr ough
the prairies. Elk, moose, and bear are ll discover ways of
cla
Earth’s climate region ssifying
some of the species that are common s and consider natur
al climate
change. Watch for
information in this
to the mountains. A variety of plant in the media about ch ap ter and
evidence of past ch
and animal species are adapted to climate. Think abou an ge s in
t how these change
way species survive s affect the
and adapt. Continu
your news clipping e to add to
s file.
Chapter 11 Climate and Biomes • MHR 401

11.1 Climate and Biomes
In Chapter 10, you focussed on global systems. You learned that Earth is heated
unevenly due to its shape. You learned that the tilt of Earth on its axis causes
the seasons. You saw that air and ocean currents redistribute the thermal energy
around the globe. In this chapter, you will narrow your focus to smaller zones
on Earth’s surface as indicated by Figure 11.1. You will use the knowledge that
you have gained about the factors that influence climates and apply it to smaller
regions of Earth. You will also examine the forms of plant and animal life that
thrive in various climates.
Figure 11.1 When you look at Earth from

space, you can see apparent movements of
air by the shape of the clouds. You can infer
weather conditions around the world. If you
could look down from space with a very
powerful telescope, you might see an elk
grazing near the forest in Banff National
Park in Alberta.
Describing Climate
If you are going to study the plants and animals that thrive in a variety
of climates, you need to know how to describe different climates. You
often hear the terms tropical, cool, temperate, dry, or polar used to
describe the climate of a region. How can you summarize specific
factors that will define a climate?
Temperature is a critical element in defining a climate. In
Chapter 10, you learned that the temperature of a region is determined
primarily by the amount of thermal energy reaching the ground in
the region. In addition, the movements of air and water near the region
will carry thermal energy to or from a region. Another important
factor that influences climate is altitude. If you have ever hiked or
climbed in the mountains, you know that as you climb higher, the
temperature drops. On the average, temperature drops about 4.5°C
with every kilometre increase in altitude. The reason for the cooling
is that solar energy warms the ground, not the air. When a mass of
air moves toward a mountain range, it is forced up the mountain.
Figure 11.2 The climate on a mountain
When warm air rises, the height of air above it decreases and the
will be cooler than the climate at sea level
at the same latitude. As you can see in this pressure drops. The air expands when the pressure decreases and
photograph, high altitude has a dramatic expansion causes cooling. Cool air at high altitudes affects the
effect on plant growth. plants that grow there (see Figure 11.2).

In addition to temperature, water is one of the most important factors
affecting the climate of an area. Humidity is the amount of water vapour in
the air. Humidity is usually reported as percent humidity — the percent of
the maximum amount of water vapour in the air that is possible at that specific
temperature. In Chapter 10, you learned about phase changes. You discovered
that when water molecules gain enough kinetic energy, they can escape from
a liquid and become a gas. Therefore, at higher temperatures, more water
molecules have enough kinetic energy to exist as a gas than at lower tempera-
tures. For example, imagine that the humidity is 65 percent on days with
temperatures of 30°C and 10°C. The total amount of water vapour in the
air will be much greater on the 30°C day than on the 10°C day.
If the humidity is low, organisms can dry out and die. For example, each year
many trees in southern Alberta die during the winter when warm, dry chinook
winds reduce the percent humidity of the air.
Temperature and Precipitation Patterns

When a mass of air cools for any reason, thermal energy is removed from
the water vapour as well as the air. Often, the water vapour cannot all remain
in the gaseous state at that lower temperature. Water begins to condense and
form a liquid. The temperature at which water condenses and begins to fall as
rain or snow is called the dew point temperature. Precipitation is the amount
of water that condenses and falls in the form of rain, snow, sleet, and hail.
Precipitation is recorded in millimetres of liquid water.
Differences in temperature have an important effect on precipitation patterns.
In areas where the solar energy heats the ground to a high temperature, the
ground heats the air. Water from the ground, plants, ponds, or lakes, evaporates
into the warm air. The air warms, expands, and rises, eventually reaching cooler
air above. When the moist air cools, the water vapour condenses and falls as rain.
You usually think of rain forests as being near the equator. However, it is possible
to have a rain forest in the temperate zone. As you learned in Chapter 10, air
typically rises near 60°N. Rising moist air generates frequent rain. Orographic
precipitation adds to the moisture on the coast of British Columbia as shown
in Figure 11.3.
In Chapter 10, you saw regions of falling air. In these regions, the cool upper Figure 11.3 The annual
precipitation in some regions
air warms as it descends and thus has a greater capacity for water vapour. As
of the Pacific Coast temperate
a result, the percent humidity decreases. Hot deserts are typically found in rainforest in British Columbia
tropical zones where air is descending. Two examples of such deserts are is typically more than 3200 mm
shown in Figure 11.4. (over 3 m) per year.
Figure 11.4 The Sonora Desert (left) in the

Southwest U.S. and the Sahara Desert (right)
have similar climates but different vegetation.

Climatographs
Scientists have developed a tool called a climatograph to compare the
climates of different regions. A climatograph is a graphical representation
of climate data for a specific region and time period. The climate data include
a region’s average monthly temperature and the total monthly precipitation.
Both the average monthly temperature and the total monthly precipitation are
usually averaged over 30 years. Temperature is recorded in degrees Celsius
(°C) and precipitation is in millimetres of rain (mm). Snowfall is converted
to rain. Usually 10 mm of snow is equivalent to 1 mm of rain. Figure 11.5
shows data and a climatograph for Calgary, Alberta.
Some features of the climatographs you will find in this unit include:
• The horizontal axis is for the months. These graphs normally begin in
January and end in December.
• There are two vertical axes; the left one is for precipitation and the right
one is for temperature.
• “Precipitation (mm)” is the total precipitation for the month and “Temperature
(°C)” is the average daily temperature averaged for each month.
• The bar graph displays the average monthly rainfall. Use the left hand
scale to determine the amount of precipitation (mm) that falls in the
region each month.
• The line graph displays the average monthly temperature in the area. Use
the right hand scale to determine the average temperature (°C) for this
region each month.
You will make a climatograph in the next investigation.
Calgary, AB 51˚N (1961–1990)

Climatograph
Month Precipitation Temp Calgary, AB, 51!N
(mm) (˚C) 180 25
J 12 !10
160
F 10 !6 15
140
M 15 !3
120
Precipitation (mm)
Temperature (!C)
A 25 4
100
M 53 10 ! 5
80
J 77 14
60 !15
J 70 16
40
A 49 16 !25
20
S 48 11
0 !35
O 16 6 J F MAM J J A S O N D
Month
N 12 !3
Precipitation (mm)
D 13 !8 Temperature (°C)
Figure 11.5 Calgary climate data and example climatograph

S K I L L C H E C K

11-A
How to Make a Climatograph

Think About It
How do you make a climatograph from climate data?
Month Precipitation Temp 4 Enter the data for each month’s average precipi-
(mm) (˚C) tation as a bar graph. Use a blue pencil to shade
J 23 !14 in the bar graph.
F 18 !10 Enter the data for each month’s average
5
M 18 !5 temperature in the middle of the space allocated
A 20 4 for that month. Use a red pencil to draw a curve
M 41 11
between the points.
J 82 15 6 Add a title to your climatograph.
J 95 17
A 67 16 Analyze
S 40 10 1. For the climatograph you made:
O 17 5 (a) Which month has the lowest average
N 16 !5 temperature?
D 22 !12 (b) What was the average temperature for
the month of May?
(c) Which month was the driest?
Apparatus Materials
ruler graph paper (d) Which month was the wettest?
coloured pencils 2. Assume that a growing season must have
(red, blue, green, black)
average temperatures above "5°C. For how
many months of the year can plants grow in
What to Do this location?
1 On graph paper, mark 12 intervals on the
3. With a partner or in a group, try to make
horizontal axis. Label each interval with
a reasonable inference about which Alberta
the first letter of the month starting with
city is represented by this climatograph.
“J” for January. Label the axis, “Month.”
2 On the left vertical axis for precipitation, mark Extend Your Skills
nine intervals beginning at 0 and extending to 4. Suppose each month’s average temperature
180. Each interval has a value of 20. Label this increased by 4°C. How long would the growing
axis “Precipitation (mm).” season be under these conditions?
3 Draw a second vertical axis for temperature

on the right. On this axis mark seven intervals
beginning with !35° and extending to "25°.
Each interval has a value of 10°. Label this
Review Skill Focus 7 for using a computer to make graphs.
axis “Temperature (°C).”

Organization of the Biosphere
Although the biosphere is a relatively thin layer on
biome Earth’s surface, it is much too large to study as a whole.
Scientists usually break it down into more manageable
components. Climatographs are an excellent tool to help
define smaller components of the biosphere that have similar
climates. Scientists can study the plant and animal life in these
ecosystem
regions called biomes. A biome can be defined as a major
geographic region with similar environmental conditions and
life forms. It is the largest geographical biotic unit.
You have probably heard the terms habitat and ecosystem. You
might wonder how they are related to a biome. One way to visualize
the relationship is to use an inverted (upside down) triangle, as shown
in Figure 11.6. The top of the triangle represents a biome. The next
level down represents an ecosystem. An ecosystem is usually described
habitat
as the community of living organisms that interact with each other and with
the non-living, physical environment. Earthworms that live in the soil
provide an example of these interactions. They feed on dead plants and
Figure 11.6 The biosphere
consists of a number of biomes
release nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen into the soil, thus providing
that, in turn, contain many nutrients that help other plants grow. The worms also dig tunnels through
ecosystems. Each ecosystem the soil which allow air and water to reach the roots of plants.
has many habitats. At the bottom of the inverted triangle is an organism’s habitat. The habitat
is most commonly defined as the place where an organism lives, or the place
where the organism is usually found. The habitat of an organism could be the
physical environment, such as a bird’s nest at the edge of a pond. The habitat
could be another living thing. For example, the habitat for a certain species of
mite is the feathers of a bird.
Types of Biomes
Freshwater and ocean (aquatic) biomes dominate the biosphere. However, you
will now focus on terrestrial biomes. The vegetation in a biome is determined
by the climate of that region. For example, a warm, arid climate in the rain
shadow of a mountain range can result in the development of a desert with
characteristic plants. A warm, moist climate would encourage the growth of a
forest and the likelihood of forest dwelling plants. All terrestrial biomes have
certain characteristic microorganisms, fungi, and animals that have adapted to
their particular environment.
Classifying Terrestrial Biomes

Some scientists recognize 10 distinct terrestrial biomes. Others divide the
biosphere into 16 or more categories. In this unit you will use a classification
system based on six biomes (see Figure 11.7 on the next page). Grassland and
desert are familiar terms. Sometimes you hear people speak of “the frozen
tundra,” which tells you something about that biome. Taiga is the home of
coniferous evergreen forests that grow where there is a moderate amount of
rain and cold winter temperatures. Deciduous forests contain trees that lose
their leaves in the fall and grow new ones each spring. Tropical rain forests
can be found in regions near the equator, where the temperature is warm and
there is a great deal of rain.

The term “aquatic biome” is used to describe oceans and fresh water. Over 75 percent of the
biosphere is made up of aquatic biomes. Marine algae are a major source of oxygen for the world.
These algae also consume huge amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere. Aquatic biomes include rivers,
lakes, estuaries, intertidal zones, coral reefs, oceanic pelagic zones, and abyssal zones.
Examine the map in Figure 11.7. As you can see, a single biome can be widely
scattered around the planet. For example, the northern boreal forest forms a
circumpolar band across Canada, through northern Europe and Asia. Why do
many widely separated regions of the world have similar biomes? Although there
are countless interactions in the biosphere, the simple answer is climate. Patterns
of climate result in similar biome distributions over the Earth’s surface.
Tundra Desert Deciduous forest

Taiga Grassland Tropical rain forest
Figure 11.7 This map shows one system of classifying the biomes of the world. Which biomes
are found in Canada? Identify the biome where you live. At what other location in the world is
the same biome found?
Figure 11.8 Biomes in different locations might Figure 11.9 Deserts are found on most continents.
contain different species. For example, in the Cactus plants, similar to the one in this photograph, are
coniferous (cone bearing) forests of North only found in North and South American deserts. However,
America, red spruce is common in the east. small trees or shrubs are found in many deserts. This
Black spruce and white spruce are abundant stunted vegetation usually has very small leaves that are
in more western regions. Even though the often shed during the hottest part of the year. They also
plants are different species, the dominant have extensive root systems that often penetrate as far
vegetation is the coniferous tree. as 50 m into the ground in search of water.

Vancouver, BC Yellowknife, NWT
Vancouver and Yellowknife are both located in the taiga biome.

On a typical wintry day in January, the average daytime high temperature in Vancouver is
5.7°C, and the low is 0.1°C. Although these temperatures might not seem cold to most
Canadians, they seem cold to many people.
On a typical wintry day in January, the average daytime high temperature in Yellowknife is
–23.9°C, and the low is –32.2°C.
Which factor — latitude or altitude — seems to be more significant for understanding the
difference in the average daytime temperature in Vancouver and Yellowknife during January?
What other factors might be involved? Record your ideas in your notebook.

In this section, you discovered that scientists classify regions of the globe
according to climate. A climatograph is a good tool to help describe the climate
of a region. When scientists study climatographs for the terrestial regions of the
globe, they sometimes group them into six groups called biomes. The climate in
a biome determines the type of plants that grow there. Animals that are adapted
to thrive in that climate and on those plants live in the biome. Biomes can be
subdivided into ecosystems. Many habitats coexist in an ecosystem.

1. What are the two main factors that determine the climate of a region?
2. (a) What is a climatograph?
(b) What types of data are included on a climatograph?
3. How does altitude affect temperature?
4. How might humidity influence the type of organisms found in a region?
5. How do you construct a climatograph?
6. What is a biome?
7. What is the relationship among biomes, habitats, and ecosystems?
8. There are a number of systems used to classify biomes. List the six
biomes identified in this chapter.
9. Thinking Critically Examine Figure 11.4. How are the two deserts alike?
How do they differ? What factors might account for their differences?

11.2 Adaptations and Biomes
All organisms have specific adaptations that allow them to survive in some
climates, but not in others. An adaptation is any characteristic that enables an
organism to better survive and reproduce in an environment. There are three
types of adaptations — physiological, structural, and behavioural.
• Physiological adaptations are those that occur primarily inside an organism.
For example, the physiological changes that occur when ground squirrels
hibernate allow these animals to survive a long, cold winter. The four
stomachs of ruminant animals such as elk enable these animals to obtain
nutrients and energy from very tough plant fibres.
• Structural adaptations are the physical features of an organism. For example,
the fur of mammals insulates them from cold temperatures. Another example
is the relatively short legs of Rocky Mountain Big Horn Sheep. Shorter legs
help this mammal maintain its balance when walking on steep mountain slopes.
• Behavioural adaptations are the things organisms do to survive in some Figure 11.10 A cactus has a
climates. For example, in colder climates, garter snakes migrate to their thick, fleshy stem. This structural
hibernation sites (hibernaculum) in the fall. Garter snakes must hibernate adaptation helps it hold water.
during the winter to escape the cold temperatures. The number of snakes The waxy texture of the stem
keeps water inside the plant from
found in the hibernaculum increases from southern to northern latitudes.
evaporating. Another structural
This is probably an adaptation to the shorter summers with less time for adaptation of a cactus are spines.
males and females to find each other and mate. Breeding usually takes place The spines of a cactus are modified
close to the hibernaculum in the spring. leaves. The spines further reduce
water loss and protect them from
How have species adapted to specific biomes? You will explore this question being eaten by some animals.
in the following investigation. The remainder of this section will provide the
background information that you will need to complete the investigation.
Humans have made behavioural

adaptations that allow us to
live anywhere on the planet,
regardless of the climate. There
are communities of people living
in deserts, on mountain slopes,
and in the tundra. There are even
small communities of people,
mostly scientists and researchers,
living in Antarctica.
Figure 11.11 Snowy owls live in the tundra Figure 11.12 During the hot, sunny hours
of northern Canada. The feathers of the snowy of the day, desert lizards and snakes
owl have no pigment in winter. This structural seek shade and a cooler temperature
adaptation allows the feathers to have more air under rocks. At night when it is cooler,
space, making them better insulators against they leave their dens and look for food.
the cold. Another structural adaptation is the Being active at night is an example of
feathers on the feet of the snowy owl. These a behavioural adaptation.
feathers reduce heat loss.

S K I L L C H E C K

11-B
Terrestrial Biomes
Think About It
Humans, other animals, and plants have adaptations
to different climates in different biomes. For example,
humans have adapted to different climates through
clothing. A person living in a desert needs different
types of clothes than one living in the rain forest. In
the biomes of Canada and Europe, people need more
changes of clothing because the weather in taiga,
grassland, and temperate deciduous forest biomes
varies with the seasons. Humans have made similar
adaptations in shelter and transportation.
Plants and animals have also adapted to conditions
4 Meet with your group to decide on a plan,
of extreme heat, cold, dryness, humidity, and wind.
including how to share the tasks. Decide on
How do the characteristics of the climate in a biome
the role of each member of your team. Be sure
determine the types of plant and animal activities
to consider everyone’s ideas and encourage
found there? Which structural and behavioural
participation by all group members.
adaptations can you identify?
5 Use print, electronic, and human resources
What to Do for your research. Remember to cite your
Your teacher will determine the format that sources correctly.
1
you should use to complete this assignment.
For example, you might write a report, develop Analyze
a multimedia presentation, make a diorama, After all the projects are complete, write a
build a computer database, or make a formal summary paragraph for each biome, describing
presentation to your class. Your teacher will its location, climate, and adaptations of plants,
also provide you with an outline that specifies humans, and other animal species.
the components you will include.
2 Your group might be assigned to research and Extension

report on a biome. Read through all of the Create a class database of information on each
following instructions before starting to plan biome. Include data on temperature range and
the report. precipitation, as well as descriptions and adaptations
of the plants and animals.
3 Begin by reading through the biome descriptions
on the following pages. You will notice that each
description includes a climatograph of the region,
a map of the biome’s location, a photograph of
a typical scene, and a few points regarding the
Use the chart-making capabilities of spreadsheet software to
biome’s features. You will also find a chart of
construct your climatographs. In Microsoft Excel™ enter the data
data for you to create your own climatograph in three columns and select all of the data. Under the Custom
for the biome. Chart Types menu, select Line — Column on 2 Axis. Follow the
prompts to construct your climatograph.

Tundra
The tundra biome is found just south of the ice-covered polar seas and
is circumpolar in the northern hemisphere.
Climatograph
Alert, NU, 84!N
180 25
160
15
140
Precipitation (mm)
Temperature (!C)
120 5
100
5
80
60 !15
40
!25
Figure 11.13 Tundra biomes 20
0 !35
J F MA M J J A S O N D
The tundra includes the following features: Month
• winters are long and can last six to nine months Figure 11.14 Climatograph
• summers are short and cool for Alert, Northwest Territories.
• precipitation averages less than 25 cm per year Compare the precipitation of
this region with that of a desert.
• winter temperatures drop to !40ºC
• during the summer, only the top few centimetres of soil actually thaw;
the frozen soil is called permafrost
• during the short summer growing season, plants must synthesize an entire
year’s food supply
• grasses and sedges are resistant to the dry, cold climate and dominate the
tundra landscape
• in the winter, photosynthetic activity is minimal
• animals include lemmings, caribou, arctic hare, arctic fox, and wolf
• insects such as black flies and mosquitoes are abundant in spring and summer
Location Iqaluit, Nunavut
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Precip- 22 19 22 28 30 37 58 64 52 42 31 20
itation
(mm)
Temper- !26 !27 !24 !15 !4 3 8 7 2 !5 !13 !22
ature (°C)
Figure 11.15 The land is so flat

in the tundra that water does not
drain away. Because frozen soil
prevents water from soaking
into the soil, part of the tundra
becomes wet and marshy during
the summer. Frozen soil also
prevents trees and other deep-
rooted plants from growing in
the tundra biome.

Climatograph Taiga
Cold Lake, AB, 54!N
180 25 Just south of the tundra, at latitudes between about 50°N and 60°N
160 and stretching across Canada, northern Europe, and Asia, lies the great
15
140 coniferous forest biome called the taiga.
Precipitation (mm)
120 5
Temperature (!C)
100
! 5
80
60 !15
40
!25
20
0 !35
Month
Figure 11.17 Climatograph for

Cold Lake, Alberta. Compare the Figure 11.16 Taiga biomes
average monthly temperatures
and the amount of precipitation
to those of the tundra. Why do Features of the taiga include:
you think this biome can support
the world’s largest forests? • in summer the ground thaws completely
• winters are long and cold
• precipitation is mostly snow and averages 35–100 cm per year
• coniferous trees are so dense that little sunlight penetrates through the trees
• most of the photosynthesis takes place in the upper parts of the trees
• fur-bearing mammals such as the beaver, rabbit, and muskrat are abundant,
The taiga is Canada’s largest biome which is one of the key reasons why fur traders flocked to this biome early
or environmental community. It in Canada’s history
occupies 35 percent of the total
• in the winter, the shade of the coniferous trees prevents the snow from melting
Canadian land area and 77 percent
of Canada’s total forested land. • many animals survive the long winters by hibernating,
while others migrate to warmer climates
Location Thompson, Manitoba
Precip- 20 14 21 28 46 72 84 78 63 48 34 28
itation
(mm)
Temper- !25 !21 !13 !2 6 12 16 14 7 0 !12 !22
ature (°C)
Figure 11.18 The plant commu-

nity of the taiga is dominated by
coniferous trees such as fir and
pine. Mammal populations include
moose, black bears, lynx, squirrels,
and wolves.

Temperate Deciduous Forest
The temperate deciduous forests are found in both the northern hemisphere
and in the southern hemisphere at latitudes below 50° north or south.
Climatograph
Toronto, ON, 44!N
180 25
160
15
140
Precipitation (mm)
120 5
Temperature (!C)
100
! 5
80
60 !15
40
!25
Figure 11.20 Temperate deciduous forest biomes 20
0 !35
Features of temperate deciduous forests include the following: Month
• temperate regions usually have four distinct seasons each year Figure 11.19 Climatograph for
• precipitation ranges from about 75–150 cm and is evenly distributed Toronto, Ontario. How does the
throughout the year climate of this biome compare
to that of the taiga?
• temperatures range from below freezing in winter to 30°C or more during
the warmest days of summer
• droughts are uncommon and not usually severe
• although the snow may be heavy in winter, it melts rapidly in the spring
and the ground thaws completely each spring
• the tallest trees in the forest form a canopy, an upper layer of leaves that catch
most of the solar energy reaching this biome
• the understorey is made up of shorter plants that tolerate shade, along with the
organisms that depend on these plants for food and shelter
• the forest floor is dark and moist
Location Dresden, Ontario
Precip- 49 46 61 77 70 85 77 76 96 62 77 68
itation
(mm)
Temper- !6 !5 1 7 14 19 21 21 16 10 4 !2
ature (°C)
Figure 11.21 The mild climate and

rich soil of the temperate deciduous
forest support a wide variety of organ-
isms. Animals include deer, foxes,
squirrels, mice, snakes, and many bird
and insect species. Why do you think
the diversity of life is so much greater
in this biome compared to the tundra?

Grassland
Climatograph Almost every continent has a grassland biome. The prairies of North
Manyberries, AB, 49!N
180 25 America, the steppes of Asia, the veldts and savannas of Africa, and
160 the pampas of South America are all grasslands.
15
140
Precipitation (mm)
120
Temperature (!C)
5
100
! 5
80
60 !15
40
!25
20
0 !35
Month
Figure 11.23 Climatograph for Figure 11.22 Grassland biomes

Manyberries, Alberta. How does
the climatograph of the grassland
biome compare to the climato- Features of the grassland biome include the following:
graph of the temperate deciduous
forest biome? • precipitation ranges between 25 cm and 75 cm annually
• usually has a prolonged dry season when little or no rain falls
• the lack of precipitation prevents the development of forests
• grasses are the main producers, but stands of trees may be found along
rivers or near sloughs
• the soil is rich and fertile
Location Brooks, Alberta
Precip- 18 12 17 27 39 66 38 36 39 16 15 18
itation
(mm)
Temper- !13 !8 !3 5 11 16 18 18 12 6 !4 !10
ature (°C)
Figure 11.24 Grasslands, like

this one in southern Alberta, are
inhabited by pronghorn, ground
squirrels, pheasants, and
burrowing owls.

Desert
The world’s major deserts are located between 15° and 35° latitude in both
the northern and southern hemispheres.
Climatograph
Yuma, AZ, 32!N
180 35
35˚N 160
25
140
15˚N
Precipitation (mm)
120 15
Temperature (!C)
equator
100
15˚S !5
80
35˚S 60 !5
40
Figure 11.26 Desert biomes !15
20
0 !25
Features of the desert include the following: J F MA M J J A S O N D
Month
• the driest biome on Earth Figure 11.25 Climatograph of
• receives less than 25 cm of precipitation annually a desert biome. How does the
• supports limited plant life amount of precipitation received
• soil retains little or no moisture in this biome compare to that
of the tundra? How does the
• infrequent rains tend to be heavy but brief
average temperature of the desert
• rate of evaporation of water exceeds precipitation compare to the average tempera-
• North American desert animals include numerous species of lizards, ture of a grassland? Note the
rattlesnakes, vultures, desert tortoise, coyotes, and gila monsters temperature scale is different
from the previous climatographs.
Location Yuma, United States
Precip- 9 6 5 4 1 1 7 16 8 7 6 11
itation
(mm)
Temper- 14 16 18 22 26 31 34 34 30 25 18 14
ature (°C)
Deserts cover approximately

22 400 000 km2, which is about
15 percent of Earth’s total land
surface. Estimate the total land
surface of Earth.
Figure 11.27 Some deserts may not receive any rain for years. Plants and animals of the
desert have adapted to the hot, dry days and the cold nights.

Climatograph
Manokwari, Indonesia, 0!N
Tropical Rain Forests
In regions along the equator, vast areas of land are covered with lush,
300 35
green plant growth that form the tropical rain forests.
250 25
Precipitation (mm)
Temperature (!C)
200 15
150 5
100 !5
50 !15
0 !25
Month
Figure 11.29 Climatograph of the Figure 11.28 Tropical rain forest biomes
rain forest biome. What are two
characteristics of the climate of this
region? Note the precipitation and Tropical rain forests include the following features:
temperature scale is different from
the previous climatographs. • rain falls nearly every day
• the temperatures vary little from month to month
• the soil of the rain forest is nutrient poor because of heavy
rains that leach nutrients out of the soil and the rapid action
of decomposers
• the highest part of the canopy is formed by the leaves and
branches of trees that may reach 30–50 m in height
www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/ • a section of rain forest may contain more than 700 species
sciencefocus10/
of trees and more than 1000 species of flowering plants
What is the difference between a rain forest and • only about two percent of the sunlight that falls on the trees
a cloud forest? What type of rain forest exists in
Canada? Where is it located? Find and record of the canopy reaches the forest floor
the answers. Go to the web site above, • rainforests support great diversity; animals include monkeys,
to find out where to go next. birds, snakes, rodents, frogs, and lizards
• countless species of insects inhabit this biome
Location Manokwari, Indonesia
Precip- 306 262 308 300 200 187 145 140 131 115 163 272
itation
(mm)
Temper- 26 26 26 26 26 27 26 26 27 27 27 27
ature (°C)
Figure 11.30 Although the rain

forest and temperate deciduous
forest have a similar structure,
the vegetation is much lusher
in a rain forest.

Is a Biome an Open System?
In Chapter 10, you learned that an open system allows
for the movement of matter and energy across the Energy
system’s boundary. A closed system is one in which
Immigrating
only energy can pass across the system’s boundary. animals
Air and water
Use Figure 11.31 and the description of a grassland
biome to determine if a biome is an example of
an open or a closed system. Boundary
Plants
The following list describes the movements of
Fire
matter and energy relative to a grassland biome.
Biome
Energy Nutrient
• Incoming solar radiation passes through the cycles
Decomposition
atmosphere and strikes the grassland biome. Some
wavelengths of solar radiation are used to warm the Animals
grassland while other wavelengths are transformed

into chemical energy by green plants (photosynthesis). Emigrating
animals
• Some outgoing, long-wave radiation passes through
the atmosphere and back into outer space.
Matter Figure 11.31 This diagram

• A grassland biome is characterized by different species of grasses illustrates the movement of
matter and energy across
and small shrubs. These producers provide food and oxygen for
the boundary of a biome.
other organisms.
• Animals, such as white-tailed deer, are free to enter and leave the
grassland biome.
• Migrating birds can be in the grassland biome one day and then in
the tundra biome several days later. These animals move matter and
energy across the boundary of this biome.
• Air and water can pass into and out of the grassland biome.
• Disturbances, such as fire, release large quantities of matter and energy.
As you can see, a biome receives a continual supply of energy from

the Sun and some of this energy is released back into outer space.
Some organisms can pass freely back and forth across its boundaries.
Matter moves across biome boundaries. In other words, a biome is
an example of an open system.
The fact that biomes are open systems is one factor that shows they
are dynamic and continually changing. With what other open system
can a biome be compared? Find out in the next activity.

Find Out
Cells and Biomes
In this activity, you will investigate nucleus rough endoplasmic
an animal cell and the tundra biome reticulum
ribosome
to determine if they are open or
closed systems.
From your work in this or previous
science courses, you might be
familiar with this illustration of an
animal cell. The functions of a few
of the organelles are provided for you.
mitochondrion
Golgi
apparatus
vesicle cell membrane
Organelle Function
cell membrane • is a membrane that separates the cell interior from the surroundings
• it controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell, for example, glucose passes
into the cell and waste products pass out of the cell
rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) • synthesizes and packages proteins in vesicles for transport to other parts of the cell
Golgi apparatus • receive vesicles from the ER and packages these for transport to the cell membrane
• vesicles transport macromolecules across the cell membrane
mitochondrion • energy from glucose is used to make ATP, which is the chemical energy used by the cell
for all of its life processes
• thermal energy is a by-product of this process
Procedure
1. Prepare a data chart similar to the one
shown below.
Characteristics of Animal Cell Tundra Biome

an Open System
(a) Energy input
(b) Energy output
(c) Matter entering
(d) Matter entering
(e) Matter leaving
Materials (f) Matter leaving
notebook to record your observations
illustration of an animal cell
photograph of tundra biome

2. Examine the illustration of the cell and the What Did You Find Out?
photograph of the tundra. 1. Define the terms open system and
3. Complete the chart by doing the following: closed system.
(a) Identify any energy that crosses the 2. Is a cell an open or a closed system? Explain.
boundary and enters each system.
(b) Identify one form of energy that passes 3. Is the tundra biome an open or a closed
through the boundary as it leaves system? Explain.
each system.
Extension
(c) and (d) Identify two examples of matter
that can enter each system 4. How do you think the flow of matter and
(e) and (f) Identify two examples of matter energy in a tundra biome compares to the
that can leave each system. flow of matter and energy in a tropical rain
forest biome?

In this section, you researched biomes. You discovered that all organisms
have physiological, structural, and behavioural adaptations that allow them to
survive and reproduce in specific climates. Many scientists arbitrarily divide Turn through the pages of
this textbook, looking at the
the biosphere into six distinct biomes: tundra, taiga, temperate deciduous photographs. Make a list of
forest, grasslands, desert, and tropical rainforests. Each biome is characterized five open systems (other
by stable vegetation and animals adapted to survive in the biome. than a cell or biome) and
A biome is an open system. Matter and energy are free to cross the boundary five closed systems that
you find. Compare your list
of the biome. A cell is another example of an open system. In the next section, you with that of your classmates.
will explore factors that cause climates and therefore biomes to change naturally. Challenge each other to
explain why you thought
each was either an open
Check Your Understanding or a closed system.
1. (a) Compare the structural and behavioral adaptations animals have in

order to live in a desert biome to the kinds of adaptations animals
have that allow them to survive in the Arctic tundra.
(b) Compare the structural and behavioral adaptations plants have that
enable them to live in a desert biome to the kinds of adaptations
plants have that allow them to live in the tundra.
2. How does looking at a location’s climatograph provide you with clues
about which biome you might find there?
3. (a) List the biomes as if you were travelling from the equator toward
the Pole in the northern hemisphere.
(b) Rank the six biomes in order of increasing diversity of organisms
(biodiversity). How does this list compare with the one you generated
in part (a)?
4. Thinking Critically There are desert biomes in North America. However,
in Canada, deserts extend into only a very small portion of southern
British Columbia. Why are there no major desert biomes in Canada?
5. Thinking Critically Why is there no tundra biome in the
southern hemisphere?

11.3 Biomes Change Naturally
Although some years are warmer, colder, drier, or wetter than
others, Earth’s climate remains fairly consistent for long periods
of time. In Earth’s distant past, however, the climate was some-
times much colder and sometimes much warmer than it is today.
Geological and fossil records show that the climate of different
areas has changed dramatically. Fossils of tropical plants and
animals found in polar and temperate regions indicate warmer
worldwide climates in the past (see Figure 11.32). Glacier erosion
and deposition around the world show that within the past two
million years, glaciers covered large parts of Earth’s surface during
periods that we call the ice ages. During Earth’s past, ice ages lasting
60 000 and 12 000 years have alternated with warm periods called
interglacial periods. Ice cores drilled in Greenland show that cold
spells, lasting 1000 years or more, changed rapidly to warm spells
that lasted just as long. Today, Earth is in an interglacial period that
began about 11 500 years ago at the end of the last ice age.
Figure 11.32 Would you have
thought that Alberta was once Canada’s Paleoclimate
a dense, tropical rain forest?
When scientists want to make predictions about the future, they often look at
Why or why not?
the past. Paleoclimatology is the study of past climates. A change in lake levels,
for example, can reveal the past balance between rainfall and evaporation. Other
stories about Earth’s climate are contained in time capsules such as glacier ice
— air bubbles in Antarctic and Greenland ice cores. Scientists get information
from pollen preserved in amber or from lake sediments and tree rings.
The Geological Survey of Canada has recently completed a reconstruction
of Canada’s paleoclimate, including vegetation zones, from 6000 years ago
(see Figure 11.33). Scientists used pollen, plant fossils, and lake sediments to
reconstruct the lay of the land and subsequent climatic conditions in Canada.
They inferred conditions from 6000 years ago. They compared those conditions
to today’s climates and discovered an apparent change in climate. From Alberta
to the Maritimes, vegetation zones moved northward; fires happened more often;
and the water table declined. In the Rocky Mountains, plant life moved further
up the slopes. The average annual temperature increased from one to two
degrees throughout Canada, with the exception of British Columbia,
Yukon, and the islands of the high Arctic.
In the following Find Out Activity you will take on the role of
climate researcher.
Figure 11.33 A journey to the
Canadian Arctic is like a journey
back in time. Much of the rest of www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/sciencefocus10/
Canada looked like this after the
Did Earth spend about 10 million years as a cosmic snowball covered in
last ice age ended, about 10 000 a kilometre of ice? And if so, did carbon dioxide play a role in melting the ice? Find
years ago. out more about the “snowball theory” and other theories of past climate change.
Then write the theory in your own words. Go to the web site above
to find out where to go next.

Find Out
Analyzing Tree Rings
Climate records going as far back as 8000 years
have been obtained from Earth’s oldest trees.
Dendochronology is the study that measures the 1. How did the length of the growing season
width of annual growth rings in trees. Wet years change as the tree grew older? Describe
produce wide rings, while dry years produce narrow what evidence you found for this.
rings. Tree rings are also affected by cloud cover, 2. If scientists examine growth rings in petrified
competition for resources, soil wood samples from different geologic times,
nutrients, and pests. what can they learn about climates of earlier
periods? What other ways can scientists
Materials
learn about these paleoclimates?
a cross-section of a tree
grown in your biome Extension
ruler 3. Research the changes in climate that
notebook to record measurements have occurred in your biome over the last
30 years. Do these changes in temperature
Procedure Performing and Recording and amount of precipitation make sense in
terms of the growth rings in your piece of
1. Examine the growth rings of the cross-section.
wood? List the other factors that must be
Note that the oldest wood is in the centre.
taken into consideration when examining
2. Measure the thickness of several rings near the width of tree rings.
the centre and near the perimeter in your
sample. Record the measurements. Wash
your hands when you have completed
the activity.
By examining air bubbles trapped in glaciers, scientists learn about

climates of earlier geologic eras. Scientists use long drills to remove
cores of ice-age samples from ice sheets. Then they examine the trapped
air by cutting the core into small pieces and putting the pieces in a vacuum
chamber. In the sealed chamber, steel needles crush the ice. The trapped
air escapes and is sucked into a tube. A laser beam of infrared light
shoots through the tube to measure the amount of carbon dioxide
in the sample of air.
Scientists have discovered that the amount of carbon dioxide varies
within ice cores. During warmer periods in the past, when ice formed
slowly, concentrations of carbon dioxide ranged from 260–280 parts
per million (ppm). In colder times, when ice layers formed quickly,
concentrations of carbon dioxide ranged from 190–200 ppm.

Causes of Natural Climate Change
Though sometimes difficult, it is possible to collect and analyze data and deter-
mine how climates have changed throughout the world. However, it is much
more difficult to explain why these changes occurred. Scientists have suggested
several possibilities but cannot fully explain natural climate change. Some of
the possible causes of climate change are discussed over the next few pages.
Earth’s Tilt
You discovered in Chapter 10 that the amount of solar radiation reaching any
specific location on Earth depends on the tilt of Earth (and the time of the year).
As shown in Figure 11.34, Earth today is tilted on its axis at 23.5° to the plane
of its orbit around the Sun. In the past, this tilt has fluctuated between 22.3° and
24.5°. When Earth’s tilt is at its maximum, the poles receive more solar radiation.
As a result, the regions farther from the equator are, on the average, warmer than
at other times. When the tilt is at its minimum, the poles receive less solar radi-
ation, which results in a colder climate for the regions farther from the equator.
22.3° 23.5° 24.5°
Figure 11.34 Scientific evidence

shows that Earth “wobbles” very
gradually on its axis. minimum tilt present tilt maximum tilt
Earth’s Orbit
The shape of Earth’s orbit fluctuates over periods of about 100 000 years.
Sometimes the orbit is almost a perfect circle. About 50 000 years later, the orbit
has an oval shape. These changes in the shape of its orbit change the amount
of solar energy reaching Earth during different seasons. Some scientists think
that these changes distances from the Sun are partially responsible for the
periods of glaciation.
Continental Drift
You might have studied continental drift in previous science courses. According
to this theory, all land-forms sit on tectonic plates that float on the hot, liquid
core of Earth. The theory further proposes that about 225 million years ago,
the tectonic plates all formed a single supercontinent (see Figure 11.35).
Scientists call this continent Pangaea, which comes from the Greek word
meaning “all lands.”
About 200 million years ago, as the tectonic plates moved, the continents
began to split apart. By 65 million years ago, most of the continents were in
a form that you could recognize (see Figure 11.35). The best examples of
continents fitting together are the east coast of Brazil and the southwest coast
of Africa. Strong evidence that these continents were once attached is revealed
in the similar fossils of plants and animals found in the east coast of Brazil
and the west coast of Africa.

The slow movement of the continents and the opening and closing of ocean
basins affect the transfer of thermal energy on Earth’s surface. In turn, this
transfer affects wind and precipitation patterns. Through time, these altered
patterns can change climates. As well, if the continents moved from one latitude
to another, the climate would certainly change. The movement of tectonic plates
could explain some of the evidence for climate change over the last several
million years.
PA N G A E A
Equator Equator Equator
225 million years ago 200 million years ago 65 million years ago
Figure 11.35 Strong evidence, found by scientists, indicates that over millions of years, the
continents “drifted” until they reached their current locations. What evidence suggests that
the plates are still moving?
Weathering
One role that the lithosphere plays in removing excess carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere is not easily recognized. Weathering is the process that breaks
down rocks into smaller pieces. Weathering involves both physical and chemical
processes. Chemical weathering usually involves carbonic acid. This acid can
be formed when carbon dioxide gas reacts with water vapour in the atmosphere.
Chemical weathering uses up atmospheric carbon dioxide by a chemical reaction
in which calcium carbonate is the product. Erosion transports the material to
oceans and lakes. Some of the calcium carbonate is used to build the skeletons
of phytoplankton. Much of the calcium carbonate that enters oceans eventually
forms sedimentary rocks.
Catastrophic Events
Catastrophic events, such as a large meteor or asteroid colliding with Earth,
or a major volcanic eruption, would put enormous volumes of dust, ash, and
smoke particles into the atmosphere (see Figure 11.36 on the next page). Many
scientists suggest that such events in the past, could have caused a dark thick
cloud of soot, dust or smog to form. The cloud would reflect or absorb sunlight,
preventing it from reaching Earth’s surface. Photosynthesis in plants and algae
would slow down considerably and temperatures would drop. The sudden
reduction of plant material might have caused starvation for many animal species.
Such an event might have led to the mass extinction of animals including the
dinosaurs. In addition, some scientists suggest that the climate would have
warmed up due to the increase in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.

Figure 11.36 Evidence in the rock record indicates
that a large meteorite might have struck Earth in
the Yucatan peninsula (shown on the map) about
65 million years ago. The crater in the photograph
was taken in New Zealand. It shows the force with
which meteors can strike Earth.
Feedback
Responses, or feedbacks, to climate change can result in additional changes to
the climate. These responses can include changes in cloud cover, the extent of
glaciers, and concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. An example
of a negative feedback loop is related to the concentration of carbon dioxide
and water vapour (see Figure 11.37A). These natural greenhouse gases trap
long-wave infrared radiation, keeping Earth warm. An increase in Earth’s
temperature can lead to an increase in the evaporation of water. More water
in the atmosphere will result in the formation of more clouds. Clouds reflect
incoming solar radiation back into space before it can reach Earth’s surface.
The result is global cooling. Thus, increased cloud cover that is a result of
global warming can eventually lead to global cooling.
Another example of feedback is related to the amount of ice and snow on
Earth’s surface. Earth’s temperature and the subsequent formation of sea ice are
controlled by a positive feedback loop (see Figure 11.37B). A drop in Earth’s
temperature results in the formation of sea ice. An increase in sea ice would
result in more solar radiation being reflected back into space. This would result
in further cooling of Earth’s atmosphere and the formation of more sea ice.
Any or all events described above might be responsible for natural climate
change. See what you can learn about a change that occurred in northern
Africa about 10 000 years ago by completing the following activity.
Increased carbon
dioxide and water Increased Increased Increased Decrease in Increased Increased
vapour (natural global evaporation cloud global amount of reflection of
greenhouse temperatures of water cover temperatures sea ice solar radiation
gases)
Negative
A feedback B Positive
Increased feedback loop
Decreased Futher drop
reflection of
global in global
incoming
temperatures temperatures
solar energy
Figure 11.37 (A) Negative feedback describes a situation in which a change in one direction
(warming) triggers another condition that reverses the direction of the change (cooling).
(B) Positive feedback describes a situation that perpetuates itself. In this example, cooling
causes a new condition (more ice), which causes more cooling.

Find Out
From a Savanna to the Sahara
The tropical savanna is a biome characterized by Procedure
tall grasses and occasional trees. Savannas are 1. Use a variety of print and electronic
always found in tropical climates where the annual resources, including the Internet, to research
rainfall ranges from 50 to 130 cm per year. Rainfall the desertification of the savanna that lead
occurs in six to eight months of the year. The rainy to the formation of the Sahara Desert.
season is followed by a long period of drought
when fires can occur. If rains were distributed 2. Prepare a short position paper that answers
throughout the year, many savannas could become this question: Was the formation of the
tropical forests. Sahara Desert the result of natural climate
A desert biome is characterized by daily temper- change or human activity?
ature extremes and rainfall that is usually very low
3. Your position paper should include
and/or concentrated in short bursts between long
the following:
rainless periods. Evaporation rates usually exceed
(a) an introduction to the issue
rainfall rates. Desert surfaces receive more solar
(b) a description of the climate of this region
radiation than humid regions and they re-emit
before and after desertification
almost twice as much heat at night. Deserts are
(c) the possible causes of desertification of
characterized by sparse vegetation. The organisms
this area due to natural climate changes
that live in deserts are specially adapted to with-
(d) the possible connection of human activities
stand or avoid water stress.
in this region to the formation of the
The Sahara, the world’s largest desert,
Sahara desert
stretches across most of North Africa. However,
(e) a final section summarizing your position
ancient cave paintings in the mountains of southern
on this issue
Algeria show that the Sahara desert was a lush and
hospitable place 5000 to 10 000 years ago. Over
a very short time, in terms of geologic history,
1. What evidence supports the view that human
this region changed from a savanna to a desert.
activity changed the savanna biome into
Summer temperatures increased rapidly, the rate
what is now the Sahara desert?
of evaporation increased, and rainfall decreased
dramatically to about 1.5 cm per year. 2. What evidence supports the view that natural
Why did these changes occur? It was once climate change caused the savanna biome to
thought that that the Sahara desert changed become the Sahara desert?
from a savanna to a desert due to the way that
people farmed and used the land in that region.
Now evidence suggests that North Africa dried
out as a result of natural climate change after the
last ice age. Could it have been a combination of
natural climate change and human activity that
led to the desertification — the formation of
a desert — of this region?

Mass Extinction Events
As you now know, living organisms respond to seasonal climatic change.
How might they respond to a greater, sudden change?
Earth’s biological history includes many examples of “mass extinctions,”
during which many of the world’s species were wiped out. Perhaps the largest
mass extinction occurred 245 million years ago. About 80 percent of all species
died. Another mass extinction followed 37 million years later or about 208
million years ago. This event marked the beginning of the age of dinosaurs.
This event might have removed the competition and thus ensured the success
of early reptiles, which were then no larger than small dogs.
The most famous mass extinction is that of the dinosaurs about 65 million
years ago. Most of these events coincide with relatively dramatic changes in
climate. Scientists hypothesize that asteroid collisions with Earth at those times
filled Earth’s atmosphere with dust particles.
When a climate changes, species that are best adapted to the new conditions
are most likely to survive. Climate change that happens quickly, such as the
one that wiped out the dinosaurs, usually kills organisms before species have
a chance to adapt. Climate change that occurs over a longer period can cause
different scenarios. These scenarios include animal migrations, evolution of
physical characteristics, changes in diet, a decrease in the population, and
forests moving farther north or south (see Figure 11.38).
Arctic Ocean
Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean
Figure 11.38 The boreal forest today is shown in green. The red outline shows the boreal
forest 6000 years ago. A long-term increase in temperature stimulated northward movement
of the boreal forest and an increase in forest fires. The amounts of charcoal in samples of
pollen and plant fossils helped scientists determine forest fire frequencies.

Across Canada
Dr. Robert (Bob) Schemenauer has done a fair
bit of travelling since his early days in Prince
Albert, Saskatchewan. His office is now at
Environment Canada in Toronto, but you might
find him in a developing country helping to
provide a simple and inexpensive solution to
water supply problems. What does he do? He
collects fog.
When clouds interact with Earth’s surface, they
become fog. Fog droplets are much smaller than
rain droplets. Because they are so light, they
can travel horizontally in a light breeze. A vertical
surface, such as a tree, can make a good fog
collector as fog droplets drift onto the surface,
then run down to the base. However, in an arid
climate there might not be any trees or other
vertical structures. For example, the coastal area
of Chile is extremely dry, even though it is often above our collectors.” Because the fog water is
foggy. In 1987, Dr. Schemenauer worked with used close to where it is collected, it does not
other scientists to design fog collectors using leave the ecosystem.
simple local materials to make screens with Other fog collecting projects are now underway
gutters along the bottom to collect and channel in South Africa, the Dominican Republic, Israel,
the water. The results were very impressive — and Nepal. Plastic mesh (shown behind Dr.
each square metre of collecting surface gathered Schemenauer in the photo) is usually used as
an average of 3 L a day of water. That project has the screening material because it is efficient
since been expanded and now supplies about and inexpensive. Dr. Schemenauer points out
15 000 L of water each day. that fog collecting is not just a technology for
Does it upset the balance in the ecosystem arid coastal regions. It is also useful in foggy
to collect fog? “We take such a tiny amount areas where the ground water is contaminated
of fog water out that it has no effect,” says with bacteria. “Only wind and gravity are
Dr. Schemenauer. “The fog is maybe 200 m required to collect and deliver fog water,” says
thick going over the ridgeline, and we work Dr. Schemenauer. “It is an environmentally
in the bottom 4 or 5 m, so 196 m goes by friendly, sustainable water resource.”
The study of past climates requires the analysis and interpretation of data gathered by researchers
in many fields. For example, a cave scientist might examine layered mineral cave formations, an
oceanographer might collect deep sea cores, and an anthropologist might research oral records
of past harvests. Work with a partner to make a list of different careers that might contribute to
paleoclimatology. Then choose the career you think is most interesting. Research to discover the
training and skills required, and the contributions the position could make to paleoclimatology.
Summarize your research on an index card and add it to a class bulletin board.

Earth’s biomes experience natural climate change. At different times in its
geologic history, Earth was warmer and colder than it is today. Paleoclimatology
is the study of ancient climates. Paleoclimatologists have found evidence for a
climate change in Canada by studying pollen and plant fossils and lake sediments.
Some possible causes of natural climate change are listed here.
• Earth’s tilt: The angle of inclination of Earth’s axis varies between 22.3° and
24.5°. At Earth’s minimum tilt, the areas near the poles become colder. At
its maximum tilt, the poles become warmer.
• Earth’s orbit: The shape of Earth’s orbit fluctuates. This fluctuation changes
the distance from Earth to the Sun.
• Continental drift: The movement of continents on tectonic plates has
changed the distribution of land and water on Earth’s surface, thus changing
the wind and ocean currents. Continents have moved from one major climate
zone to another.
• Weathering: As rocks break down the new surfaces can react with carbonic
acid and remove carbon dioxide from the air.
• Catastrophic Events: The impact of meteorites from space or the eruption
of volcanos can fill the air with tonnes of dust and soot. This dust in the
air can reflect sunlight and cause the temperature to decrease.
• Feedback: A change in the climate due to any cause can trigger
another change.

1. (a) What is paleoclimatology?
(b) List four sources of data that paleoclimatologists use to find information
about past climates of a region.
2. Describe the climate of Canada 6000 years ago.
3. Describe how the theory of Continental Drift could be used to explain
why Canada’s climate changed from tropical to temperate over the past
225 million years.
4. How might an asteroid striking Earth cause a dramatic climate change?
5. How could a sudden change in global temperatures trigger a mass extinction
of plants and animals?
6. Apply Predict what might happen to the climate of Alberta if Earth’s tilt
decreased from 23.5° to 22.3°.
7. Apply Draw a positive feedback loop summarizing the impact that
increasing global temperature might have on sea ice and subsequent
global temperatures.
8. Thinking Critically What would be some of the problems of using
ancient climate data to predict future climate change?

(a) Describe a climatograph. (11.1) (i) Why are humans found in all types of biomes
while many species are found in only one or
(b) Define humidity and dew point temperature. (11.1) two different biomes? (11.2)
(c) How is the biosphere organized? (11.1) (j) Define paleoclimate. (11.3)
(d) Explain why it is that the higher the altitude, (k) Explain two methods used by scientists to
the colder the climate. (11.1) measure past climate change. (11.3)
(e) Name and describe the six major biomes. (l) How can Earth’s tilt bring about climate
(11.1 and 11.2) change? (11.3)
(f ) Define physiological adaptation, structural (m) How does weathering affect climate? (11.3)
adaptation, and behavioural adaptation. Give
an example of each type of adaptation. (11.2) (n) Describe how cloud cover can act as a feedback
to climate change. (11.3)
(g) What are the differences between an open and
closed system? Explain whether biomes are (o) Explain how catastrophic events can cause
closed or open systems. (11.2) climate change. Provide two examples. (11.3)
(h) Why are biomes of the same category found in (p) What is a mass extinction event? (11.3)
many different parts of the world? (11.2)
Summarize this chapter by doing one of the

following. Use a graphic organizer (such as
a concept map), produce a poster, or write
a summary to include the key chapter concepts.
• Use an inverted pyramid to explain how the
biosphere is organized.
• Compare and contrast cells and biomes.
• Compare and contrast each of the six biomes
in terms of location, climate, and plant and
animal life.
• What are the theories of natural climate change?
• How do studies of paleoclimates help people
predict future climate change?
• What is the relationship among ecosystems,
climate, and biomes?

11
4 Review
C H A P T E R
Key Terms
humidity biome adaptation behavioural adaptation

dew point ecosystem physiological adaptation paleoclimatology
climatograph habitat structural adaptation weathering
Understanding Key Concepts 15. Explain how a volcano could affect the climate
1. Under what conditions does it begin to rain? of a region.
2. Which are the major biomes found in Canada? 16. What is meant by natural climate change?
3. Which two factors are the most important 17. What is the meaning of the term mass extinction?
for determining a region’s climate?
Developing Skills
4. Data are usually averaged over what time period 18. Use the following data to construct a climato-
to define the climate of a region? graph then answer the questions that follow.
5. Explain the relationship between the altitude Month Precipitation Temperature
of a location and its climate. (mm) (°C)
J 115 21
6. Why do the same biomes exist in different
locations, latitudes, and altitudes? F 110 22
M 86 19
7. Compare the kinds of adaptations an animal has
A 38 17
to live in a tropical rain forest with the kind of
adaptations an animal has to live in a temperate M 24 14
deciduous forest. J 5 11
J 2 12
8. Compare the structure of the temperate deciduous
forest to that of the tropical rain forest. A 6 14
S 22 17
9. Why is a biome considered an open system?
O 24 19
10. What kind of data do paleoclimatologists collect? N 105 20
11. How do we know that climates of earlier geologic D 123 20

eras were much different from today’s climates?
(a) In what type of biome might this city
12. Explain how comparing past to present-day be located?
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels may help
(b) In what hemisphere might this city
predict the future climate.
be located?
13. Describe two different ways in which continental (c) Explain the reasons for your answers
drift might cause climate change. to (a) and (b).
14. Give an example of feedback in response to 19. List three adaptations grass has to survive in
a climate change such as a drop in Earth’s the dry conditions of the grassland biome.
average temperature.

20. Kangaroo rats are small rodents that live in desert Climatograph
Cold Lake, AB, 54!N
biomes. Predict one behavioural adaptation and 180 25
one physiological adaptation that kangaroo rats 160
might have. Do research to check your predictions. 15
140
21. Make a chain-of-events chart to explain the
Precipitation (mm)
120 5
Temperature (!C)
effect of a major volcanic eruption on climate. 100
! 5
Volcanic eruption 80
60 !15
40
!25
20
0 !35
Month
Critical Thinking
28. List four ways people have adapted to living
in particular biomes. Choose one of these ways
Problem Solving/Applying and explain how it applies to each biome.
22. Why has the incidence of forest fires in western 29. How do you think different climates have
Canada been increasing in recent years? affected the development of different
23. Choose two biomes that you have studied. civilizations around the world?
How have the plants, animals, and people 30. Why are deserts generally found between 15°
adapted to that region? and 35° North and South latitude?
24. What can you infer if you are digging in 31. Why was the taiga biome important to the early
a desert and find fossils of tropical plants? exploration and development of Canada?
25. Why would you expect it to be cooler if 32. Different species of rabbits and hares live in the
you climb to a higher elevation in a desert? desert and the tundra. Compare the adaptations
26. How does looking at a climatograph for of a desert rabbit or hare to those of a rabbit or
a location provide you with clues as to hare living in the tundra.
what biome you might find there?
27. Use the climatograph that follows to answer

these questions:
a) Which biome is represented by the Go back to the Focus questions at the beginning of this chapter.
climatograph? Answer each question without referring to your earlier answers.
Then compare the two sets of answers. Is there anything you
b) In your own words, summarize the climate learned that surprised you? Which topics would you like to
of this region. learn more about? Record your answers in your notebook.

12
C H A P T E R
Climate Change
• What evidence suggests our

climate may be changing more
rapidly than some species
can adapt?
• Can human activities cause
climate change?
• How can we reduce our
impact on the biosphere and
the global climate and still meet
human needs?

and Humans
T he polar bear has adapted to

possibly the harshest environment on
Some people say if we have to
change our activities to reduce green-
Earth — the Arctic ice pack. These house gases, the social and economic
bears hunt for seals, mate, and even consequences could be worse than
give birth on the ice. They are totally a changing climate. Others think that
dependent on sea ice for their reducing these gases by improving the
existence. The sea ice, however, is way we use energy will raise standards
shrinking. It is taking longer for the of living.
ice packs to form in the winter. Thus An important concern about
the bears must wait longer before climate change is its effect on the
they can hunt for seals. The polar ability of organisms to adapt to the
bears that pass through Churchill, changes to biomes. How might life
Manitoba have been getting leaner in biomes be affected if the average
and smaller over the past ten years. global temperature continues to
Due to the receding ice pack, the bears increase? Which species might be able
are having a harder time finding to adapt to change and which will not?
enough food to survive. Is global As techniques for evaluating
warming threatening the polar bear? climate change improve, new
Globally, the 1990s was the evidence will help individuals,
warmest decade of the 20th century companies, and governments
and the 20th century was the warmest make better-informed decisions.
century in the millennium. This trend
appears to be continuing. The o
oki
n
Some of the discu

L
concentration of the greenhouse ssion about climate

change centres on
head uncertainty about
A
gases is at its highest level in over projections for futur

e climate conditions
How accurate are mo .
100 000 years. A debate has arisen dels based on past
How can we know climates?
whether enough fac
been included? Ma tors have
over whether humans might be influ- global climates are
ny scientists agree
that the
warming, but some
encing climate change at a rate never question whether wa
rming is due to huma
scientists
Evidence has been n activities.
before recorded. You have probably of the question. Ex
obtained to suppor
t each side
amine some of the
heard about global warming and polar yourself in this chap evidence for
ter. Think about wh
decisions are impo at kinds of
icecaps thinning. Are these phenomena rtant to make now
change will affect fut if climate
ure life on our plane
caused by human activities? consider the role of t. Then
evidence in the Un
Analyze: Proof or Co it Issue to
nsequences, on pa
ge 476.
Chapter 12 Climate Change and Humans • MHR 433

12.1 Are Climates Changing?
Understanding and making predictions about climate change is a challenging
process because climate is influenced by so many different factors. In addition,
most observed climate records go back less than 150 years. Therefore, scientists
must rely on indirect evidence of climate change such as gases trapped in ice
cores, size of tree rings, composition of corals, and lake sediments. The evidence
makes it clear that climates have changed in the past. The causes of past climate
changes, whatever they are, will most likely continue to change climates in the
future. The reason for the current concern is the rate at which global temper-
atures have increased in the last 50 years, as well as the rate at which greenhouse
gases have increased in the last 100 years. When you consider all of the
factors that influence climate, how can scientists determine whether there
is a connection between increasing greenhouse gases and what appears to be
global warming? What, if anything, should society do about global warming?
Rate of Global Warming

The graph in Figure 12.1 shows average annual global temperatures between
1856 and 2002. Air temperatures near the surface of land and sea were averaged
and recorded for each year. The centre line labelled 0.0 represents the 30-year
average for the years 1961 to 1990. All of the vertical lines are compared to
this value. For example, a value of !0.25 would mean that for that year the
average temperature was 0.25°C higher than the 30-year average. The smooth
line represents five-year average temperatures.
Earth’s average surface temperature has risen by 0.6°C during the last century.
Although 0.6°C may not seem like a large increase, this rate of increase has
not occurred in over 10 000 years. Scientists predict the increase in average
global temperature in this century could be between 1.4°C and 5.8°C. It is
important to understand that this increase is an average. In some areas there
may be cooling, and in others, the warming could be much greater. For example,
the Northern Hemisphere, with its larger land mass, is projected to warm more
0.8
Global air temperature -
2002 shows a +0.5°C change
0.6
(2nd warmest on record)
Temperature change (°C)
0.4
0.2
0.0
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
Figure 12.1 The warmest global
air temperature (!0.58°C) 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000
occurred in 1998. Year

than the Southern Hemisphere. Land has a lower specific heat capacity and
lower albedo than the oceans. Therefore, land absorbs more solar energy and
heats more readily.
When does the warming occur? Is it a uniform warming from day to day over
the years? For example, are the summers warmer or are they just longer? Are the
winters less severe and shorter? Are the daytime temperatures higher or is there
less cooling in the evenings? Check the data in Table 12.1 and see which of
these questions you can answer.
Table 12.1 The Mean Temperature Changes for the Provinces

(i.e., southern Canada) from 1901–2000
Seasons and Change in mean Change in mean Difference between

months daily maximum daily minimum daily max. and min.
(°C) (°C) (°C)
Spring +0.9 +1.7 0.8

(March–May)
Summer +0.4 +1.2 0.8
(June–August)
Fall "0.2 +0.6 0.8
(September–November)
Winter +0.9 +1.7 0.8
(December–February)
Mean change +0.5 +1.3 0.8
Data from Environment Canada, 2002
If the projected increase occurs during the 21st century, it could have both
positive and negative effects for Canadians. What are some of the positive effects
of a warmer climate? Warmer winters will reduce heating costs. However, the
reduced heating costs could be offset by increased cooling costs if the summers
are also warmer. Climates would shift northward. Thus, land in the northern
half of the province would be suitable for growing crops and raising livestock as
the taiga is reduced and replaced by grassland and temperate deciduous forest.
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

If global climates have changed so much in the past, why
is there so much concern that significant climate change is
occurring now? To answer this question, take a closer look at
greenhouse gases and how their concentrations are changing,
possibly due to human activities. Recall that the greenhouse
gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, dinitrogen
monoxide, halocarbons, and tropospheric (ground-level) ozone
(see Figure 12.2). With the exception of water vapour, these
gases make up less than one percent of the atmosphere.
The next section will discuss the role of the various greenhouse
gases in what is known as the “enhanced greenhouse effect.”
Figure 12.2 Sensors in satellites can detect specific greenhouse gases.

Computers convert the information about gas concentrations into colours.

Water Vapour
Water vapour is part of the natural greenhouse effect. Water vapour has an
average lifetime of 10 days in the atmosphere before falling as precipitation.
Water vapour does not accumulate in the atmosphere. Nevertheless, it is the
most abundant greenhouse gas and is responsible for about 65 percent of all the
infrared radiation absorbed by and radiated to Earth’s surface (see Figure 12.3).
Water Vapour
65% Carbon Dioxide
25%
Other*
10%
Figure 12.3 The percentage

*Includes: methane, nitrous oxide, contribution of greenhouse
CFCs, and tropospheric ozone gases to the greenhouse effect.
The enhanced greenhouse effect results from greenhouse gases that are
added to the atmosphere mostly by human activities. Although water vapour
is not increasing, it can produce a feedback that is both positive and negative.
If the greenhouse effect is being enhanced, will a warmer surface increase the
evaporation of water from oceans, lakes, rivers, soil, and vegetation? And if the
atmosphere is warmer, will it contain more water vapour and thus increase
the greenhouse effect and the warming?
The answer to the first question is yes, and to the second question, maybe. This
is an example of positive feedback whereby an increase in one factor (increased
warming) causes an increase in another factor (increased water vapour), which
in turn causes an increase in the first factor (increased warming). This is known
as positive water vapour feedback.
What if the increased water vapour results in the formation of more clouds
that reflect sunlight before it reaches Earth’s surface and therefore has a cooling
effect? This is known as negative water vapour feedback. The net water
vapour feedback depends on many variables. Therefore, predicting the effect
of water vapour on surface warming is uncertain.
Warming Potential of Greenhouse Gases

Greenhouse gases other than water vapour differ in several important ways.
These include the following:
• their global warming potential (a measure of how well a gas absorbs
and emits infrared radiation compared to carbon dioxide)
• the length of time that each gas remains in the atmosphere before undergoing
a chemical change
• the rate of increase since 1850

The global warming potential of a greenhouse gas depends on the
following factors:
• the amount of the gas entering the atmosphere each year
• the lifetime of each gas in the atmosphere Droughts caused by climate
change could set off a bio-
• the effects of each gas on the atmospheric chemistry chemical process in northern
• the effect of each gas on other gases soils that would release large
amounts of carbon dioxide into
the air. More droughts could
Carbon and Carbon Dioxide activate a dormant enzyme in
Carbon occurs in various forms. Some examples are carbon dioxide in the moist, peaty northern soils,
atmosphere, carbonates in limestone and Earth’s crust, carbon in fossil fuels triggering decomposition of
their organic matter. This decay
such as coal, and various hydrocarbons in oil and natural gas. Carbon also might release large amounts of
occurs in compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in all organisms, carbon dioxide. The soils are
and in decaying organic matter in soils. The oceans, lakes, and rivers contain believed to contain 460 Gt
(gigatonnes) of carbon, or
dissolved carbon dioxide in the form of hydrogen carbonates.
about 60 percent of the amount
Carbon dioxide is the most abundant greenhouse gas that contributes to in the atmosphere, as carbon
the enhanced greenhouse effect. It is released when fossil fuels such as coal, dioxide. What could this mean
oil, and natural gas are burned, when forests are removed and burned, and for climate change?
when soil is cultivated.
Carbon cycles through the biosphere as shown in Figure 12.4. Next to the
hydrologic cycle, the carbon cycle has the largest annual exchange of matter.
Each year about 158 Gt of carbon are exchanged among the atmosphere, oceans,
and land. (A gigatonne, Gt, is 109 tonnes.) Of those 158 Gt, about 6 Gt are
released annually from burning fossil fuels. Deforestation accounts for 2 Gt
because of the carbon dioxide that would otherwise be absorbed by trees during
photosynthesis. Of the approximately 8 Gt that humans release annually, about
half remains in the atmosphere. The other half is absorbed by vegetation, soils,
and the oceans.
Atmosphere (750)
(90)
Combustion (6)
Deforestation (2)
(92)
Photosynthesis (62)
Respiration (60)
Fossil fuels Surface ocean (1000)
(5000)
Vegetation (610)
River transport (1)
Earth’s crust Intermediate and
Soil and litter deep oceans
(75 000 000)
(1600) (38 000)
Figure 12.4 Amounts of carbon that move through the carbon cycle in one year are
shown in italics. The amounts of carbon (as described on the next page) are shown
in regular type. All values are in gigatonnes (Gt). When 1 t of carbon is in the form of
CO2, the mass of the CO2 is 3.7 t. Therefore, the 8 Gt of carbon produced by human
activities, such as combustion and deforestation, are equivalent to 30 Gt of CO2.

Increasing CO2 in the Atmosphere
Atmospheric carbon dioxide has risen by 31 percent from 1750 to 2002. The
concentration of carbon dioxide has not been as high as it is now in at least
420 000 years and probably not in the last 20 million years. An important
concern is the rate of the increase. About three-quarters of this increase has
occurred in the last 75 years. Figure 12.5 shows the increase in atmospheric
carbon dioxide from 1960 to 2002 as measured at the observatory at Mauna
Loa, Hawaii.
The reason for the increase is the unprecedented rate at which humans
are burning coal, oil, and natural gas. Humans are using the energy for
transportation, electrical energy generation, heating and cooling buildings,
and industrial processes such as the manufacture of steel and cement.
380 Carbon dioxide concentration
at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, 1960–2002
370
Concentration (ppmv)
360
350
340
330
320
310
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
Data from Keeling, C.D. and T.P. Whorf. 2002. Atmospheric CO2 records from
sites in the Scripps Institute of Oceanography air sampling network. In Trends:
A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis
Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge. Tenn., U.S.A.
Figure 12.5 Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide in parts per million by

volume (ppmv) from 1960 to 2002
Carbon Sinks
A carbon sink is a major source or a reservoir of carbon compounds. The
carbon compounds include carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and carbon
dioxide dissolved in water. Carbonates are found in oceans and in limestone
deposits in Earth’s crust. Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, are
composed of carbon and hydrocarbons. Most of the carbon in living organisms
is found in plants in the form of the carbohydrate, cellulose. Other biological
forms of carbon include a variety of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.
Some carbon sinks are both a source and a reservoir for carbon. For example,
plants, both on land and in water, take up carbon as carbon dioxide from the
air or as carbonates from water during photosynthesis. When it is dark, plants
use cellular respiration to obtain energy and therefore release carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is also released when plant matter decays. Oceans absorb carbon
dioxide from, and release it to, the atmosphere. Other carbon sinks are large
reservoirs such as Earth’s crust and the deep oceans. In these places, most of
the carbonates are not part of the annual carbon cycle.

Forests and CO2 Buildup
How can the environment be in a state of CO2 equilibrium, or balance? For
this to happen, the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere must
be about the same as the amount absorbed by CO2 sinks. Forests primarily
absorb CO2. However, large amounts of leaves, twigs, and dead tree trunks
build up on forest floors. These materials release CO2 when they decompose.
As global temperatures rise, the decomposers produce greater amounts of CO2.
Some scientists predict that by the middle of the 21st century, the world’s
forests will actually produce more CO2 than they absorb.
The natural balance of carbon cycling between oceans, land, and the
atmosphere may be changing due to human activities. Human activities account
for about five percent of the total annual carbon cycled between the oceans,
land, and atmosphere. You will learn more about the carbon cycle in the
next investigation.
Shortly after the formation of Earth, the early atmosphere was composed of ammonia, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, methane, and water vapour. Since then the atmosphere has changed to what
we have today — 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen, and about 1 percent water vapour,
and traces of the other gases. This change occurred over millions of years largely as a result of
chemosynthetic and photosynthetic bacteria. As green plants evolved, photosynthesis became the
primary influence on the composition of the present atmosphere. Today, photosynthesis by plants
and respiration by animals are nearly in balance at 62 and 60 Gt (gigatonnes) of carbon per year.
Worldwide, the activities of humans release about 8 Gt (gigatonnes) of

carbon per year. Of that amount, 4 Gt remain in the atmosphere and 2 Gt
are absorbed into the oceans. What about the other 2 Gt? Scientists thought
it was absorbed by land vegetation, but they were not sure. Finding an answer
took the co-operation of many researchers.
The Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study (BOREAS) was a project that
involved 85 science teams from five nations. The science teams selected
two large regions of boreal (northern) forest in Manitoba and Saskatchewan
to study. Using sophisticated sensing equipment, they collected data from
the forest floor and from towers standing high above the forest canopy.
They also collected data from remote sensors aboard aircraft and satellites.
They measured such variables as soil temperature and moisture, the amount
of CO2 released from the forest floor, and the amount of cloud cover.
The scientists estimated that trees living in the taiga contain about
13 percent of the world’s carbon. As well, the soil in the taiga, which
contains a large amount of fallen leaves and spruce needles, holds about
43 percent of the world’s carbon that is stored in soil. Further calculations
show that the taiga has been building up an average of 0.6 Gt of carbon
per year for the last 7000 years!

S K I L L C H E C K

12–A
Carbon Dioxide and 3 Use the data in the table below to make three
separate line graphs, showing the relationship
Global Temperature between
(a) year and CO2 production
(b) year and CO2 concentration in the
Think About It
atmosphere
Globally, the combustion of carbon in fossil fuels (coal,
(c) year and average global temperature change
oil, and natural gas) and the burning of forests produce
about 30 Gt of carbon dioxide per year. About half of Note: CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is
this carbon dioxide is absorbed by carbon sinks. The given in parts per million by volume (ppmv).
other half accumulates in the atmosphere. Although
4 Describe the pattern of changes over time in
this amount of carbon dioxide seems large, it is about
one-twentieth of the total carbon dioxide produced (a) the quantity of CO2 emissions from burning
by nature as part of the global annual carbon cycle. fossil fuels
Still, the rate at which carbon dioxide is increasing due (b) the concentration of atmospheric CO2
to human activities is a cause for concern. (c) average global temperature change
In this investigation, you will compare changes in
the global emissions of carbon dioxide with the changes Use terms such as “trend,” “increase,”
in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmo- “decrease,” “constant,” “random,” and “cyclic.”
sphere, and changes in the global temperature from (Trend means moving in one direction. Random
1860 to 2000. means no pattern or trends. Cyclic means the
data repeats again and again, and again, such as
up and down, and up and down.)
CO2 Levels and Average Global Temperature Change
Year C02 C02 concentration Temperature

emissions* in the change
(Gt) atmosphere compared to
(ppmv) 1861 (°C)
1860 0.67 285 0.00
1880 1.15 292 0.00
What to Do 1900 2.63 298 0.05
1 Write a hypothesis about the effect of fossil fuel 1920 3.42 303 0.29
combustion on levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. 1940 4.95 307 0.46
1960 9.98 318 0.35
2 Based on what you already know about the
greenhouse effect, write a second hypothesis 1980 20.72 340 0.41
about the effect of increased CO2 levels on 2000 23.42 365 0.63
average global temperatures.
*Global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel burning, cement production,
and natural gas flaring (does not include CO2 from burning of forests)
Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC)
For tips on how to make a line graph, turn to Skill Focus 7.

Analyze • Are the effects of human activities on the
1. Do the patterns of changes support each of atmosphere and climate significant compared
your two hypotheses? Explain. with long-term natural trends, such as those
that have produced past ice ages?
2. To see the relationships among variables more • CO2 forms nearly 0.04 percent of the atmo-
easily, all the data can be plotted on a single sphere. Is there anything to worry about, even
graph. Decide how you would do this, and if this small amount increases by one-third?
then make your graph. How does your graph
• An increase of only one or two degrees in
help you interpret the data?
average temperature does not seem to be
very significant.
Extend Your Knowledge and Skills
Form small groups and discuss these points.
3. Climate is the result of complex interac-
Determine whether the majority of your group
tions among Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere,
agrees or disagrees with the following statement:
hydrosphere, and living organisms in the
“There is very strong evidence that combustion
biosphere. Most scientists agree that CO2
of fossil fuels is causing a significant increase the
and other greenhouse gases are affecting the
global average temperatures. Human activities
climate. However, some critics argue that the
are causing global warming.” Prepare a summary
enhanced greenhouse effect is oversimplified.
statement of your group’s position on the cause
They claim that the data may be explained in
of global warming.
other ways. Some of the ideas and arguments
are listed below.
• Similar trends in two measurements, such as
CO2 concentration and temperature, do not Enter the data in the table into a spreadsheet, and generate
your graphs using a software program.
mean that one causes the other.
• There is evidence that the quantity of atmo-
spheric CO2 has varied over geological time.
How was this evidence obtained?
• Historical temperature data are distorted by www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/
sciencefocus10
the locations of the measuring instruments.
Data about climate change may be presented in
• Gases other than CO2 also contribute to many different ways, which can lead to very different
the greenhouse effect. conclusions. In order to assess the relationship among
variables correctly, you need to be able to interpret the
• Can increased growth of vegetation (forests) data properly. To examine data on climate change, go to
or increased absorption of CO2 in ocean the web site above to find out where to go next. Study
water compensate for increased CO2 levels the data you find and draw your own conclusions.
in the atmosphere? Consider how the data are presented and why.
Do the conclusions given agree with
your conclusions?

Methane
Methane is often called “natural gas” because it is
produced by the bacterial decay of organic matter.
It is used extensively to heat homes and buildings, and
to generate electricity. Methane is an important part of
the enhanced greenhouse effect because it has a global
warming potential 21 times that of carbon dioxide. It
contributes about 20 percent to the enhanced green-
house effect. The concentration of methane in the
atmosphere has increased by 146 percent since 1800
(see Table 12.2, page 439). Methane is released from
a number of sources (see Figures 12.6 and 12.7). It
comes from coal, oil, and natural gas deposits during
Figure 12.6 Cattle feedlot
mining and drilling. Some methane escapes during
transmission in natural gas pipelines, although efforts
Sources of Global Methane Emissions are being made to prevent these emissions. Methane is
also released from rice paddies, wetlands, and landfill
Biomass Landfill 8% Wetlands sites during bacterial decay of organic matter. It is
Burning 8% 24% similarly produced in the digestive tracts of cattle,
Other sheep, and termites as intestinal gas. About 75 percent
10% of methane emissions come from human activities.
The remainder is released naturally from wetlands.
Rice
Methane Hydrate
Fields 12% Methane hydrate is a unique structure of methane
Fossil combined with water. It forms under specific
Animals 17% Fuels 21% temperatures and pressures. Methane hydrate was
Environment Canada, 2000
discovered only a few decades ago. Until recently,
little research has been done on methane hydrate.
Figure 12.7 Sources of methane emissions The methane is very concentrated in these deposits,
primarily in deep oceans. Therefore, scientists think
that the energy the deposits contain is more than twice
the amount of all conventional natural gas, oil, and
www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/sciencefocus10 coal deposits combined. Research may determine if
Methane hydrate is a potential source of energy as well methane can be obtained from methane hydrate
as a potential threat to the environment. To learn
deposits without risking an unwanted release of this
more about methane hydrate, go to the
web site above. potent greenhouse gas. Some methane may escape
into the atmosphere naturally from these deposits.
Other Greenhouse Gases

Nitrous oxide has a global warming potential that is nearly 300 times that of
carbon dioxide. This gas contributes about 6 percent to the enhanced greenhouse
effect (see Table 12.2) and has increased by 15 percent since 1800. Nitrous oxide
is released when fossil fuels and wood are burned at very high temperatures. It
is also released when soil bacteria chemically alter nitrogen-containing fertilizers.
(Although dinitrogen monoxide is the correct IUPAC name for this gas, nitrous
oxide is the name most widely used in publications and on the Internet.)

Halocarbons are carbon compounds that contain halogens, such as chlorine,
fluorine, or bromine. The most common halocarbons are chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and their replacements, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and the
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Halocarbons have a global warming potential
thousands of times that of carbon dioxide (see Table 12.2). CFCs were developed
in the early 1930s and were widely used as coolants in fridges, freezers, and air
conditioners and as propellants in aerosols. Because CFCs cause thinning of the
stratospheric ozone layer, their use has been banned in most countries.
Ground-level (tropospheric) ozone is a powerful greenhouse gas unlike the
stratospheric ozone that blocks harmful ultraviolet light. Ozone is formed when
oxides of nitrogen and vapours of gasoline, solvents, and oil-based paints react
in heat and sunlight. This combination of compounds is known as photochemical
smog. Ground-level ozone does not mix well in the atmosphere. Its effect on
global warming has been difficult to quantify.
Table 12.2 Comparison of the Greenhouse Gases Emitted Through Human Activities
Greenhouse gas Heat-trapping Atmospheric Concentration Contribution to Origin

ability related to lifespan (years) (ppmv)* global warming
CO2 (GWP) 1850 2002
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1 Variable 280 370 60% mostly human
Methane (CH4) 23 8 0.700 1.760 20% natural & human
Dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) 296 120 0.275 0.316 6% natural & human
CFCs R-11 12 400 50 0.000 0.000272 4% human
CFCs R-12 15 800 102 0.000 0.000532 10% human
Note: GWP is global warming potential as related to carbon dioxide. *ppmv is parts per million by volume.
Source: Adapted from L.D. Danny Harvey, Climate and Global Environmental Change, (Harlow: Prentice Hall, UK), page 32.
What do meteorologists do? Physical meteorologists study aspects of the atmosphere, such
as clouds, rain, and lightning. Synoptic meteorologists investigate weather systems. Dynamic
meteorologists study winds and atmospheric motion. Agricultural meteorologists explore the
relationships among weather, crops,
and vegetation. Some meteorologists
forecast the weather or study severe
weather or storms. Others use their
training to suggest causes and effects
of weather and climate. What training
do meteorologists need? What skills
and abilities do they use in their
occupation? Research to find the
answers, then make a list of qualities
you have that would be useful in the
field of meteorology.

Chlorinated rubber (CR) is an important component of industrial coatings. It is also used in road
paints, on ship hulls, and in factory paints. It is resistant to solvents and water, and is insensitive to
temperature changes. However, production of CR most often uses carbon tetrachloride, CCI4 (CTC),
as a solvent in the manufacturing process. Unfortunately, CTC is an ozone-depleting substance.
A new technology has been developed by Rishiroop Rubber International Limited, in Gujarat, India.
This technology uses an aqueous solvent process to manufacture CR, which eliminates the need
to use CTC at all. This process has recently been implemented by Rishiroop Organic Limited, also
in Gujarat, India, in its chlorinated rubber plant.

Atmospheric greenhouse gases have increased significantly in the last 150 years,
largely due to human activities. Many scientists link this increase in greenhouse
Systematic global temperature
gases to recent global warming. The average global temperature increase in
records have been available only
since about 1860. These include the past century was 0.6ºC. The temperature increase has been greater in the
land-based air and sea-surface Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere. This difference is due
temperature measurements. to the larger landmass in the Northern Hemisphere. The greenhouse gases such
Such data need to be checked
carefully for any inaccuracies
as carbon dioxide, methane, and dinitrogen monoxide have increased in the last
that may be introduced by 100 years due to fossil fuel combustion, use of agricultural fertilizers, cement
changes in observation methods making, and deforestation. Carbon sinks, particularly the ocean, absorb about
or sites. What kinds of changes half of the atmospheric carbon dioxide released as a result of human activities.
might affect the records?

1. Distinguish between the natural and enhanced greenhouse effect.
2. Describe how water vapour can produce both a positive and a negative
water vapour feedback.
3. What carbon sinks play a major role in absorbing atmospheric carbon

dioxide released by human activities?
4. Name the greenhouse gases. Describe the role each plays in the
enhanced greenhouse effect.
5. Thinking Critically On a summer day, why might a beach be cooler

than a meadow a few kilometres away?

12.2 Climate Affects Life/
Life Affects Climate
Humans have been changing their surroundings for thousands of years to
fulfill their needs. For example, forests are harvested and the land is used
for growing crops. Farmers use irrigation in dry areas to increase yields.
Rivers are dammed and wetlands are drained. How have these changes
affected biomes? Do these changes affect climate? In this section, you will
investigate both intended and unintended climate changes that have resulted
from human actions.
Deforestation
Deforestation, the clearing of trees from land, is a practice that can affect the
climate of an area (see Figure 12.8). Globally, deforestation affects biodiversity,
climate, the atmosphere, and the survival of indigenous peoples. Forests are
harvested for lumber and firewood and are cleared to make land available for How do humans contribute to
crops and cattle grazing. When trees are cut and burned, the carbon stored in climate change? Record as many
ways as you can identify in your
the wood is released as carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The roots decay,
notebook. Continue to add to your
releasing carbon dioxide from the soil. In the previous section, you read that list throughout this chapter.
globally, the annual photosynthetic activity of forests removes about 62 Gt
of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Deforestation decreases this value. Of the
8 Gt of carbon dioxide released by human
activities annually, deforestation accounts
for 2 Gt or about 25 percent of global
carbon dioxide emissions.
Consider the types of climate changes
that might occur from deforestation. How
would those changes affect life in the area?
The ancient city of Carthage on the African
coast of the Mediterranean was an area
that experienced deforestation, salinization
from irrigation, and loss of soil fertility.
Discover what can be learned from the
experience of ancient civilizations as you
investigate the results of these changes in
the next investigation.
Figure 12.8 Large-scale
deforestation affects local
and global climates.
The people of ancient Carthage suspected that they were experiencing changes in their climate.
Around 250 C.E., St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, wrote that the “world has grown old and does
not remain in its former vigour.… The rainfall and the Sun’s warmth are both diminishing; the
metals are nearly exhausted; the husbandman [farmer] is failing in his fields. Springs which
once gushed forth liberally … now barely give a trickle of water.”

S K I L L C H E C K

12–B
Warning Signs for Climate Change

Think About It
Imagine that you are a United Nations spokesperson.
You have been sent with a group to Canada, Brazil,
Russia, or the United States to talk to governments
and communities about deforestation and climate
change. Your job is to research and gather data that
establishes a link between deforestation and climate
change. Can deforestation on a small scale change
the local climate of a small region? Can a change
in the local climate of a small region cause the climate
to change in a larger region? In time, will the climate
change cause the biome to change from forest to
grassland to desert?
What To Do
Carthage was an ancient city on the Mediterranean near what is
1 With your group, read all the steps below. Decide
now Tunis. Can you believe that this desert area was once rich
how you will share the tasks for each step. with fertile grasslands and forests?
2 Use the Internet and other resources to research

some historical results of human activity changing
Analyze
an area and how it affected people. Examples
of civilizations that changed the land and 1. What kinds of parallels did you draw
consequently changed themselves include: between the historical civilization and
the country you researched?
• the Phoenicians at Carthage
• the civilization on Easter Island 2. What do you think modern civilizations
• the Fertile Crescent/Mesopotamia can learn from historical examples?
3 Research the forest cutting rates in Canada,

Extend Your Skills
Brazil, Russia, or the United States. Record the
kinds of human activity that are changing the 3. What might citizens of a country do to
forests in the country. What are people doing reduce deforestation? What might other
to stop deforestation? countries do to help them?
Based on your research, draw parallels between 4. Will afforestation (planting trees on land not
4 previously forested or recently deforested)
the actions of the historical countries (such as
those above) and modern examples. reduce the rate at which atmospheric carbon
dioxide is increasing?
5 Present your information to the class. Include
pictures, charts, slides, and other visual material.

Cities, Forests, and Climate Table 12.3 Albedo Changes
Why is it better to have more forested green areas than areas covered in According to Ground Cover
concrete? When sunlight strikes an object, some of the energy is reflected Type of ground cover Albedo
and some is absorbed. The composition of the ground cover determines %
albedo. As you can see from Table 12.3, the amount of solar radiation snow, fresh-fallen 75–95
reflected from a desert is higher than that of a forested area.
snow, several days old 40–70
The large cities of industrialized countries are urban heat islands because
they absorb and release solar energy to the surrounding atmosphere. Some ice, sea 30–40
of this heat is released by vehicles and space heating of buildings. Large urban sand dune, dry 35–45
areas have their own microclimates that have different temperatures and sand dune, wet 20–30
wind flow patterns than that of nearby rural areas. When solar radiation
soil, dark 5–15
strikes areas of vegetation, much of the energy is used to evaporate moisture.
soil, dry clay or grey 20–35
Sunlight that strikes cities is absorbed by streets, parking lots, and buildings.
These structures heat up and radiate energy to the atmosphere. Summer soil, dry light sand 25–45
temperatures in a city can be 10°C higher than in surrounding rural areas. concrete, dry 17–27
The temperate and boreal forests spanning much of Canada and Russia road, blacktop 5–10
play a complex role in their effect on climate. Reforestation and afforestation desert 25–30
help to counter deforestation and can help remove carbon dioxide from the
savanna, dry season 25–30
atmosphere. However, the boreal forests have a low albedo and therefore
absorb solar radiation and have a surface warming influence. Also, the shape savanna, wet season 15–20
of conifers in the boreal forests helps them to shed snow. Therefore, the albedo meadows, green 10–20
of the forest remains lower than a snow-covered grassland. On the other forest, deciduous 10–20
hand, forests absorb and transpire large amounts of moisture. Some of this
forest, coniferous 5–15
moisture forms clouds that reflect sunlight, resulting in surface cooling.
tundra 15–20
Studies show that the decrease in surface albedo by the presence of a forest
is as important as carbon dioxide absorption in its influence on climate. Some crops 15–25
argue that if forests are to be included as a carbon sink in measuring a country’s
carbon dioxide reduction, then their influence on surface albedo should also
be considered.
Figure 12.9 Much of the radiation

that reaches sand or snow is reflected
and does not warm the surrounding
air. Forests have lower albedo and
absorb most of the solar radiation.
Figure 12.11 Why is the air above

Figure 12.10 City centres that a meadow warmed more than the air
have highrises are often warmer above a desert? How do plants, like
than areas in cities with trees this oak tree, help decrease carbon
and parks. dioxide levels?

Humans have been changing their environments for thousands of years. Only
recently have we begun to understand how these changes are affecting the world.
The air over a city is usually Efforts are being made to reduce deforestation and increase reforestation and
warmer than the air over rural
afforestation in order to increase the carbon sink.
communities. Consequently
convection currents develop at The albedo of the ground cover also influences the solar radiation absorbed.
the boundary of cities and rural Light-coloured surfaces with a high albedo reflect sunlight and do not warm
areas. Copy the drawing below the atmosphere as much as dark-coloured surfaces. The buildings and pavement
into your notebook. Illustrate
the drawing with arrows showing
in cities absorb solar energy and transfer more heat to the surrounding air than
the direction the convection does the land that is covered in vegetation. Living plants evaporate water from
currents move. leaves, thus removing thermal energy. The warming that results from the lower
albedo boreal forest may offset the carbon stored by reforestation. Snow cover
on grasslands is likely to have a higher albedo than snow on coniferous trees
due to their irregular surfaces.

1. Name three ways in which human activity affects the climate.
Explain the positive and negative results of each.
2. How does deforestation influence atmospheric carbon dioxide?
3. What role does albedo play in climate change?
4. Apply What is meant by the statement that large cities are “heat
islands”?
5. Thinking Critically At international meetings on climate change,
the government of Canada has argued that it should receive credit for
the carbon dioxide absorbed by the boreal forests. Describe the points
that should be considered in making this argument.

12.3 How Might Climates
and Biomes Change
in the Future?
The Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and
Analysis of Environment Canada prepares and analyzes
models of future climate. General circulation models
(GCMs) are complex mathematical models. These
models use supercomputers to analyze and make
quantitative projections of future climate change. GCMs
create detailed three-dimensional models of the land,
oceans, and atmosphere. These models use the laws
of conservation of momentum, mass, moisture, and
energy. GCMs simulate how various factors such as
temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, ocean
currents and salinity, soil moisture, and many other
Figure 12.12 GCM managers create scenarios from the past
factors may affect climate. and compare them to current scenarios. They use information
In Figure 12.13, data from one of the Canadian from such studies as the Geological Survey of Canada. They also
General Circulation Models were used to prepare apply information from groups including Ocean Project, SHEBA
the predicted temperature change for the twenty-first (Surface Heat Budget Arctic), NASA, and the International
century. The models divide Earth’s land surface and Research Institute for Climate Change.
oceans into a grid. The grid is extended vertically to
provide a three-dimensional representation of Earth’s 6
surface and atmosphere. Observed
Temperature change (°C)
5
CGCM1
4
Predicting Climate Change
3
There are two major uncertainties in predicting
future climate change. One is predicting the amounts 2
of greenhouse gases that will be emitted in the future. 1
This factor will largely determine future greenhouse 0
gas concentrations of the atmosphere. The amount
"1
of emissions depends on future human population 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
growth, energy use per person, the types of energy Year
that are used, and the amount of greenhouse gas that Data from Environment Canada, 2000
the energy use produces. The second uncertainty is Figure 12.13 The observed temperature change from 1900 to
how climates will respond to an increase in greenhouse 1997 and the projected temperature change from 1990 to 2100
gas concentration. This factor involves a whole series of the Canadian General Circulation Model 1 for changes in global
of climate feedbacks, including: average surface temperature. Predictions that include changes
in greenhouse gases and aerosols suggest an increase of more
• the melting of snow and ice and the degree to which than 4°C over the 21st century.
the resulting change in albedo will increase surface
warming, and
• the increase in the amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere as the climate warms and the resulting
cloud feedbacks.

The general circulation models enable scientists to make projections of the
temperature changes that might occur over North America, Europe, and
Eurasia during different time intervals. These projections are shown in
Figures 12.14A, B, and C, for the combined effects of projected greenhouse
gas and sulfate aerosol increases.
How would the forests of the Canadian taiga adapt to the predicted climate
changes? In order to answer that question, scientists investigate how species
have adapted in the past. You can analyze some of the evidence in Inquiry
Investigation 12–C: Grains of Truth.
Figure 12.14A
Projected temperature changes between 1975–1995 and 2010–2030.
The Canadian GCM projects greater warming over land than oceans,
and over high latitudes than low latitudes. Land surfaces have a
lower specific heat capacity than oceans. Reduced snow and ice
cover in the north reduces the albedo. Therefore, more solar energy
Temperature
Change °C
is absorbed, contributing to greater warming. Warming by about 2020
–1 - 0 would average 1–2°C over most of the northern hemisphere land
0-1 areas and 2–4°C over Arctic ice-covered waters. European tempera-
1-2 tures are moderated by movement into the region of warm tropical
2-3
3-4
ocean currents. Snow and ice feedbacks are the primary reasons for
4-5 enhanced polar warming.
Figure 12.14B
Scientists are currently working
to reduce the dimensions of the Projected temperature changes between
grid so that they get a clearer 1975–1995 and 2040–2060.
“picture” of the climate. Consider
a two-dimensional picture. If you By about 2050, projected warming by the
Temperature
print a picture at a resolution of Change °C Canadian GCM exceeds 3°C, with ice-covered
600 dots per 2.5 cm, you get a –1 - –2
waters in the Arctic Ocean warming by more
clearer picture than if printed at 0 - –1
300 dots per 2.5 cm. More and 0-1 than 5°C. A slower ocean circulation and
smaller dots mean a clearer, 1-2 reduced flow of warm water from the tropics
2-3
higher-resolution picture. As the northward would cause an area of cooling
3-4
resolving capabilities of models 4-5 near Labrador.
improve, it will be possible to 5-10
predict regional climate changes 10-15
with greater accuracy than is
currently possible.
Figure 12.14C
Projected temperature changes between

1975–1995 and 2080–2100.
Temperature
Change °C
–1 - –2 By about 2090, most continental regions of the
0 - –1 northern hemisphere are projected to warm by
0-1 more than 5°C, and Arctic waters by 10–20°C.
How many GCM squares of 1-2 The area of cooling near Labrador is still evident.
400 km on a side are required 2-3
to cover Earth’s surface 3-4 European warming would continue to be
(5.1 # 108 km2)? How many 4-5 moderated by a weaker Gulf Stream. The Arctic
are required to cover Alberta’s 5-10 Ocean would be entirely ice-free in summer.
10-15
surface (661 190 km2)? 15-20 Source: Diagrams from Environment Canada

S K I L L C H E C K

12–C
Grains of Truth
Scientists study pollen left in layers of lake sediment.
These pollen grains from plants that grew centuries
ago tell us what plants lived in the area and the
climate that existed at the time. If plants grew in an
area that used to be warmer than it is now, scientists
can more accurately predict the types of plants that
will thrive if human-caused climate change is a reality.
Question
What can you tell about the climate that existed at
the time specific samples of pollen were shed from
surrounding plant life?
Safety Precautions
• Wash your hands thoroughly after completing

this investigation.
Materials
samples of sediment containing “pollen”
pie tin
key to the different pollen colours showing which
colours represent which plants, and information
about the climatic requirements for each
worksheet (provided by your teacher) Empty the sediment into the pie tin. Sift and
4
dig until you have found all of the pollen grains.
Procedure Keep the pollen grains separated by colour.
1 Examine the illustrations of the different pollen
types, noting the structural differences in each. 5 Use the pollen key to determine what species of
Discuss how scientists could use these differ- plants are represented in your sample and what
ences to identify plants from which they came. percentage of the total pollen comes from each
species. Fill in the worksheet for the sediment
2 Your teacher will show you a model sediment layer on which you are working.
core containing five separate layers, each laid
down at a different time in the past. Pay atten- 6 Use the pollen key to figure out what the climate
tion to the colour and texture of each layer to was when your layer was deposited. Be sure to
help you identify the samples from each layer compare your sediment sample to those in the
with which you will be working. entire sediment core. By doing so, you will know
what level your sample is from and how old it is.
3 Each pair of students will be given a sediment
sample, a pie tin, and a worksheet. Each sample 7 Compare your conclusions with others in your
contains “pollen” from plants that grew in the class who were assigned the same sediment layer.
area at the time the sediment was deposited. CONTINUED

Pollen Key and Climatic Characteristics of the Vegetation
Dot colour Species Climatic characteristics
white western hemlock • principal dominant tree of many lowland, temperate sites
• requires very moist, temperate conditions for growth
brown Douglas fir • broadly distributed throughout Pacific Northwest from moderately cool to warm sites
• grows best under temperate, somewhat moist conditions
dark green grasses and sedges • typically found in very cool alpine/subalpine meadow sites characterized by very
cool summers, harsh winters, and short growing seasons
red alder • widespread throughout the Northwest, often colonizing gravel bars or other poor
soils, prefers abundant water, and can grow in cool climates
pink grand fir • found at mid-elevations in Cascade Mountains
• grows in cool climates, but not as cold-tolerant as trees found at higher altitudes
light green Englemann spruce • found in cold, usually subalpine sites
• an important timberline species in the Rocky Mountains
light blue lodgepole pine • found in areas of very cool climates typically growing on poor soils, often at high
altitudes (above 1065 m) under the present climate
yellow alpine sagebrush • woody, low-growing shrub
• found only at high-altitude, cold sites
Analyze
1. Did all students who were assigned the same
sediment layer find the same plant types? If Changes in temperature and precipitation come with climate
not, why not? Do all students agree on the change, but more than these two factors determine the types
of plants and animals that can inhabit an area. Imagine the
climate that probably existed at the time? Northwest Territories as warm as Alberta by the year 2100.
If not, why not? Could the crops that now grow in Alberta be raised in the
Northwest Territories in 2100? In your notebook, write down
2. Fill in the rest of your worksheet with the at least two reasons why this might not be possible.
information provided by other students who
studied different sediment layers. Determine
what the overall pattern of climate change
was during these last 20 000 years. Speculate
what might have caused the changes.

Changes to Canadian Biomes Tundra
Taiga
How is global warming expected to affect Deciduous
Canadian biomes? Climate determines Grassland
where certain plant species are likely to Desert
grow and flourish. Hence, as the climate
changes, biomes, with time, will change.
For example, projected doubling of
carbon dioxide is expected to reduce
the taiga and increase the grassland and
temperate deciduous forest biomes. The
taiga could be lost to insects, diseases, Doubled CO2
Present Day
and fire in regions where climate change
imposes greatest stress. These regions
Figure 12.15 Changes expected
are expected to be at the southern boundaries where higher temperatures and in present-day biome boundaries
reduced precipitation could be more common than elsewhere (see Figure 12.15). if the preindustrial levels of carbon
Changes to biomes and their ecosystems are likely to be much more complex dioxide double from 280 ppmv to
than those shown here. Direct effects of increased carbon dioxide and other 560 ppmv.
factors such as changes in precipitation also influence ecosystems. Changes
in ecosystems can also, in turn, significantly affect regional climates.
Some Specific Effects of Global Warming

Changes to the global climate are predicted to
Changes to the amounts and patterns of
be greater in the Northern Hemisphere than in precipitation would affect the snowpack, stream flow,
the Southern Hemisphere, and greater in the and the replenishment of ground water. These changes could
continental regions than in the coastal areas. affect agricultural regions that rely on irrigation. Crops vary greatly
What changes might occur? Read the examples in their response to climate change. An increase in atmospheric
that follow, then predict other changes that carbon dioxide can stimulate crop growth and yield. However,
might occur over many decades. this may be offset by increased heat, drought, insect
pests, and reduced mineral nutrients.
Coastal zones and marine ecosystems

would be affected if the increase in sea surface tem-
perature and average sea level continues. Changes in
salinity and ocean circulation would likely cause shoreline
erosion, loss of wetlands, and the mixing of
Human settlements and industries seawater with freshwater sources.
could be at risk from rising sea levels and
coastal storms. Primary resource industries such Abrupt shifts in terrestrial and freshwater
as agriculture, forestry, and fisheries, would be ecosystems and biomes are unlikely. Instead, changes
more vulnerable to climate change than in composition and dominance of species at the edges of
diversified economies. biomes would occur. Freshwater fish populations are likely
to migrate to the higher latitudes following the
Human health could be affected. Heat changes to water temperatures.
stress and urban air pollution would put the elderly
and those with respiratory conditions at risk. Infectious
diseases, such as malaria and dengue fever, and water-
borne diseases, could affect those who do not
have clean drinking water and access
to health care.

Addressing the Risk
In light of the second assessment report, the United
Addressing the risk of climate change requires a
Nations Framework Convention on Climate
global solution. Several recent global assessments
Change was improved by another agreement at
are described below.
a meeting that took place in Kyoto, Japan in 1997.
This agreement is known as the Kyoto Protocol.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate It is a set of new terms for the reduction of green-
Change (IPCC) was formed in 1988 by the United house gas emissions. Some specifics of the Kyoto
Nations Environment Program and the World Protocol include:
Meteorological Organization to assess the existing
knowledge about climate and climate change. The • over 160 countries signed the Protocol,
panel consists of 2500 scientists from 70 countries. • the goal is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
It is the largest gathering of scientists to work on of the industrialized countries by an average
one issue. The IPCC nominates lead authors who 5.2 percent below 1990 levels to be achieved
develop regular assessment reports. The process over the period from 2008 to 2012,
of developing these reports involves review by • the agreement will take effect if it is ratified by
a panel of science experts. at least 55 countries whose emissions make up
The Third Assessment Report prepared in 2001 55 percent of the 1990 emissions from the
projects a global temperature rise of between 1.4°C industrialized countries,
and 5.8°C by 2100. The Report summarizes recent • some reduction targets are: Canada (6 percent),
climate changes as follows: European Union (8 percent); United States was
7 percent, but opted out in 2001,
• an increasing set of observations gives a collective • no binding emission-reduction targets were made
picture of a warming world and other changes for developing countries such as India and China
to the climate, to allow for fossil fuel-based economic growth,
• the global average surface temperature has • If by 2012 a country has not met its reduction
increased by about 0.6°C over the twentieth target, it must make up the difference in
century, the second commitment period, plus a 30
• temperatures have risen during the past four percent penalty.
decades (1960–2000) in the lowest 8 km of • The developing nations, such as China, India,
the atmosphere, and the Latin American countries, who were
• snow and ice cover have decreased, and not required to make reductions during the first
• the global average sea level has risen 0.1–0.2 m commitment period, 1997– 2012, will be required
and the ocean heat content has increased. to do so in the second commitment period after
2012. Countries that signed the Kyoto Protocol
may start negotiating the specifics of the second
commitment period in 2004,
• reduction mechanisms will take into account
those factors that have an impact on atmospheric
carbon dioxide, such as agriculture, deforestation,
850
reforestation, and afforestation.
Business as usual projection 810
800
Possible reduction
750
Mt 700 240 Mt
730
of gap Figure 12.16 Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions as carbon
CO2 650 dioxide equivalents in megatonnes (Mt) with respect to the Kyoto
600
1990 Baseline 570 Protocol. The dotted line shows the rate of change required to
550 610 Mt Kyoto target achieve Canada’s reduction in greenhouse gas emissions for
570 Mt 2nd
500 the Kyoto target. The shaded area (2008–2012) indicates when
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 commitment
period the greenhouse gas reductions are to be achieved.
Year Source: Climate Change for Canada, Government of Canada, 2002.

S K I L L C H E C K

12–D
How Do You Compare?

Canadians produce about 2.5 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions. We are
among the largest users of energy use and highest per capita emitters of greenhouse
gases. How does your family’s carbon dioxide output compare with that of other
Canadians? What steps could you take to reduce these emissions?
Question
How much carbon dioxide do you produce annually? How does this amount
compare with the amount produced by other Canadians?
Materials value in the annual consumption per year column.

at least two electricity bills (one summer, one winter) If your bill does not measure consumption per
at least two heating bills (one summer, one winter) year in GJ, convert to this unit.
atlas
calculator 3 Divide the annual consumption by the
number of people in your household with
whom you share the amount of heat
Procedure
(and carbon dioxide produced).
1 Copy and complete the table below as
accurately as possible. 4 Copy the table below. Record the conversion
factor for this heating source (see below) in the
Carbon dioxide source Annual Amount conversion factor column. This is how much
consumption of carbon carbon dioxide is produced for every GJ of
(per year) dioxide (kg) heat produced.
Home heating (see chart at right)
Type of heating Conversion factor Amount of carbon
Electricity (kW•h)
dioxide (kg)
Garbage bags
Natural gas 58.37 kg CO2/GJ
Recycling bags
Electricity 1.03 kg/kW•h
Local travel (km car)
Heating oil 3.0 kg/L
Local travel (km bus
or public transit)
5 To determine the amount of carbon dioxide
Holiday travel (km car)
produced in providing heat for an entire year:
Holiday travel (km rail)
annual consumption
! conversion factor
Holiday travel (km bus) # people that share this source
Total Record this value in the Amount of CO2 column.
6 Repeat the steps for your electricity bills.

2 To determine your consumption of natural gas
Electricity is usually measured in kW•h
or heating oil per year, find the heading that
(kilowatt-hours). The conversion factors for
states the energy amount used. Find the average
electricity depend on how your province generates
consumption per month (add the amounts used
electricity. For Alberta, the conversion factor is
and divide by the number of bills). Multiply by
1.03 kg/kW•h. Record this value in the Amount
12 to get the consumption per year. Record this
of CO2 column.
CONTINUED

7 To calculate the carbon dioxide production Analyze
due to garbage, multiply the number of bags of
1. The results below are for the “average”
garbage your household creates each year by the
Albertan and “average” Canadian. Construct
conversion factor of 0.0085 kg. If you recycle,
a bar graph to compare your results with the
each bag of recycling produces as much carbon
averages (graph all of your holiday travel as
dioxide as half a bag of garbage, so multiply the
one bar).
number of bags of recycling your household
creates each year by the conversion factor of C02 (g) source Average annual Average annual
0.0042 kg. emission per emission per
capita (Alberta) capita (Canada)
8 To calculate your annual carbon dioxide (kg) (kg)
production due to travel, follow these steps:
Heating 2 800 1 600
(a) To calculate your yearly consumption of
Electricity 2 600 768
gasoline, ask the drivers in your household
how often they fill up the car, and determine Local travel 2 600 2 112
how many tanks of gas they use in a year. Holiday travel 1 700 1 280
Multiply the number of tanks of gas per year Garbage 700 640
by the size of the gas tank to find the annual Total 10 400 6 400
consumption of gasoline. (A good guess will
be close to the actual value.) Include only
2. Which of your annual emissions are higher
your gasoline consumption; multiply the
than the average Albertan’s? Lower than the
actual consumption of gasoline by the
average Albertan’s? Higher than the average
percentage of time you are in the car. (Don’t
Canadian’s? Lower than the average Canadian’s?
count the time when someone else is using
the car.) If your family has two cars, include
both in the calculation. Conclude and Apply
(b) If you take the bus, determine the length 3. Compare each of your results with other
of your bus trips in kilometres over an Albertans’ and other Canadians’. Are your
entire year. results more similar to other Albertans’ or
to other Canadians’? Discuss reasons for
(c) Include any holidays you have taken in the last
why your values are higher or lower.
year. The amount of carbon dioxide depends
on how far you travelled and your method of 4. If you could choose one carbon dioxide source
transportation. Estimate trip length using an to reduce over the course of next year, which
atlas if necessary. would you choose? List three initiatives you
could take to reduce the amount of carbon
Type of Conversion factor Amount dioxide you produce from this source.
Transportation of CO2 (kg)
Car: gasoline 2.5 kg/L
diesel 2.9 kg/L
propane 1.6 kg/L
Airplane 0.25 kg/km You may wish to use computer software to construct your
bar graph.
Train 0.17 kg/km
Bus 0.04 kg/km

An Environment-Energy-Economy Issue
The Kyoto Protocol has received criticism for reasons such as the following:
• a greenhouse gas reduction of 5.2 percent below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012
will not reduce future emissions of carbon dioxide,
• under a “business-as-usual scenario,” carbon dioxide emissions are projected
to rise throughout the twenty-first century,
• to avoid a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide from pre-Industrial
Revolution levels of 280 ppmv to 560 ppmv, emission reductions from both
industrialized countries and developing countries will be needed, and
• greenhouse gas emissions will have to be reduced by more than 50 percent
over this century if climate change is to be averted.
Industrial 34% Residential

16%
Commercial
13%
Agricultural
3%
Transportation 34%
Source: Data from Natural Resources Canada, 2000.
Figure 12.17 Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions by sector. Industry includes

fossil fuel production, mining and smelting, pulp and paper, industrial chemicals,
and cement making. About 55 percent of emissions from transportation come
from personal vehicle use of cars, SUVs, and light trucks.
Reducing global greenhouse gas emissions will be a long process. The Kyoto
Protocol’s reduction of global emissions by 5.2 percent of 1990 levels is a start.
Explain the analogy of a “level
Future international agreements that involve the industrialized nations and the
playing field” and how it applies to
developing nations are expected to continue the reductions. the Kyoto recommendations.
Reducing Emissions
How will nations reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases? Most reductions
focus on energy, since a large percentage of greenhouse gases come from the
production and use of energy. These reductions include conserving and using
energy wisely, improving energy efficiency, reducing fossil fuel use, and using
alternative fuels. Other measures include expanding renewable energy sources
such as wind, solar and geothermal energy. Other greenhouse gas emission
reductions focus on agricultural and industrial practices. Some of these changes
can occur by looking at low cost practices that can be implemented easily. Others
that require significant financial investments will occur over a longer period of
time. A number of industries and federal, provincial, and municipal governments
in Canada are developing action plans to reduce their emissions. They are also
investing in renewable energies.

Climate scientists use general circulation models (GMCs) that make
projections about future temperature and precipitation. There are two
significant uncertainties in predicting future climate:
1. The first is the difficulty in predicting the change in concentration of
greenhouse gases in the future.
2. Even if it were possible to predict the concentrations of greenhouse
gases, it would still be difficult to predict how these gases would influence
the climate. Current projections show a greater warming in the higher
latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere.
This projection is based largely on the greater land mass and greater
absorption of solar energy in the Northern Hemisphere due to the
reduction of snow and ice.
In 1997, over 160 countries entered into an agreement (the Kyoto Protocol)
to reduce the concentration of greenhouse gases to a level 5.2 percent below
that of 1990. Further reductions are expected when developing nations are
scheduled to make reductions in their greenhouse emissions. Most greenhouse
gas reductions will come from energy conservation and more efficient use
of energy. Scientists and engineers will continue to develop renewable
energies and new technologies to reduce the concentration of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.

1. Describe how a general circulation model projects future climate changes.
2. What are the two uncertainties in predicting future climate change?
3. Describe the factors involved in determining future greenhouse

gas emissions.
4. Summarize the projected temperature changes for the northern hemisphere

for the 20-year periods ending in 2030, 2060, and 2100.
5. How are Canadian biomes predicted to change if a doubling of carbon

dioxide over the pre-industrial level of 280 ppmv occurs?
6. Thinking Critically Describe how marine ecosystems may be affected

if climate changes projected for 2100 occur.

12.4 Human Response
to Climate Change
How might individuals and communities respond
to the effects of climate change? How might they
respond to the causes of climate change?
People can respond to the effects of climate
change more easily than other organisms through
behavioural adaptation. Individuals and communities
can also take action to reduce or prevent the cause
of climate change.
Adapting to Climate Change

Adapting to climate change means making adjust-
ments that reduce vulnerability to the anticipated
negative impacts, while at the same time taking
advantage of the opportunities. This could be like Figure 12.18 Is this likely to become a familiar sight in the future
where you live?
adjusting to seasonal changes that persist over a
long period of time. For example, in the case of
global cooling, adjustments could be made to a prolonged or a
colder-than-normal winter. More snow might need to be removed
more often (see Figure 12.18). There may be an increase in the
budget for home heating. A shorter growing season or cooler
summers may reduce locally grown crops.
In the case of global warming, adjustments might need to be
made similar to those for a prolonged or warmer-than-normal
summer. Savings in the winter heating budget could be offset by
increased costs of cooling or air conditioning in the summer. A
longer growing season could increase crop yields. If precipitation
was reduced, an increase in the demand for irrigation would result.
Long-term Adaptation
Figure 12.19 Climate change
In the long term, adaptation may mean revising building codes to conserve could increase the risk of flooding
energy used for heating and cooling. Different crops might be grown to in some areas.
match the growing season and available soil moisture. If there is an increase in
precipitation, the risk of flooding may require controlling inland water flow.
Such control would involve building dikes, river diversion channels, and dams
(see Figure 12.19).
How can effective adaptation strategies be developed? Potential risks
need to be identified and early planning needs to be implemented. In order
to minimize the long-term costs, communities, industries, and all levels of
government need to be involved. Representatives from all sectors of society Make a list in your notebook of
are needed in the discussions and decision-making processes. Understanding ways that you could adapt to your
biome becoming warmer and dryer.
and co-operation will help to minimize the economic, social, and environmental
costs of adapting to climate change.

Reducing the Amount of Climate Change
Most methods for lessening climate change include activities that reduce green-
house gas emissions and that capture greenhouse gases as they are produced.
For example, carbon dioxide emissions can be reduced by using energy supplied
by fossil fuels more efficiently. Energy could be conserved by using more
efficient fossil fuel-fired power plants, buildings, vehicles, and appliances.
Similarly, greenhouse gases can be reduced by using alternative energy sources,
In an emissions-reduction trade such as solar and wind energy, and nuclear power. Carbon dioxide emissions
a company earns “credits” for can also be reduced by switching from coal and oil to low-carbon fuels. These
carbon dioxide emissions that are fuels include natural gas, methanol and ethanol-based fuels, and zero-carbon
either not released or are removed
from the atmosphere. In June
fuels such as hydrogen.
2000, an Alberta electric company In over 30 landfill sites in Canadian cities, including Edmonton, Montreal,
bought a carbon dioxide emission- Toronto, and Vancouver, methane is collected and used to generate electricity
reduction credit from a German or produce heat. This use prevents the equivalent of 6 Mt of carbon dioxide
electric company. The credit
prevented the release of 24 000 t
per year from entering the atmosphere. It also consumes one-quarter of methane
of carbon dioxide by producing released from Canadian landfills. Most large waste water treatment plants use
electricity from wind energy. As part the methane produced as a fuel to heat and power the plant.
of the Kyoto Protocol guidelines,
the Alberta company can release
this much carbon dioxide without Storing Carbon Dioxide
having to count it as part of its Various research projects are underway for capturing and storing greenhouse
total emissions.
gases as they are produced. These projects include removing carbon dioxide
from flue gases in the smokestacks of electrical power plants that burn coal.
Similarly, scientists are studying the removal of carbon dioxide from industrial
processes such as steel and cement production. Following removal, carbon
dioxide must be safely transported and placed in long-term storage. Storage
in the oceans and in underground geologic formations, such as oil and gas
reservoirs, is one possibility. So is storage in deep, unminable coal formations.
Research is ongoing into the ecological, safety, and economic issues concerning
marine and geologic storage. Reforestation also helps absorb carbon dioxide
(see Figure 12.20). However, forests might increase surface warming when
they have a lower albedo than the open areas.
Apply your understanding of adaptation and climate change as you imagine
the future in the next Find Out Activity.
Should cattle and sheep be fed

grain instead of forage crops
such as grasses in order to
reduce the intestinal methane
they produce? The production
of a cattle feed supplement is
underway that will help cattle
produce less intestinal methane.
This emission reduction program
starts in 2005. It is expected to
save the equivalent of nearly
1 million t of carbon dioxide
per year over the 32 years of
the project.
Figure 12.20 Reforestation programs and individual tree planting are important ways to remove
atmospheric carbon dioxide. The amount of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere can also be
reduced by using soil cultivation procedures that minimize tillage and preserve soil texture.

Find Out
Put Yourself in the Future
What possible consequences will climate change Possible Disadvantages of Climate Change
pose for society and the economy? How will climate • The frequency of extreme weather events is
change affect you? likely to increase. Run-off from heavy rains
Procedure Performing and Recording and melting glaciers could lead to extensive,
Analyzing and Interpreting repeated flooding in areas near rivers. Severe
thunderstorms could be more frequent,
1. Envision your life 15 and 30 years from now
increasing the amount of damage created
by describing your age, your home, your job,
by high winds, hail, and tornadoes.
and your lifestyle.
• Altered weather patterns could create water
2. Research the climate conditions the IPCC shortages and extended drought in some
predicts for the area in which you will live. regions of the world. The dry conditions
will likely make extensive areas of forest
3. Describe the possible effect of the following
vulnerable to fires. Forest fires, in turn,
advantages and disadvantages of climate
would release even greater amounts of
change on your life.
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Possible Advantages of Climate Change • Higher summer temperatures could
• Winters will likely be warmer. As a result, promote the formation of smog in large
heating costs should decrease, as should the cities. Higher temperatures could lead
amounts of fossil fuels burned for heating. to higher rates of heat-related deaths.
• A greater percentage of precipitation will fall • As warm-climate ecosystems shift northward,
as rain instead of snow in the most heavily insects and insect-borne diseases might
populated areas of Canada. This should spread northward, too.
decrease snow clearance costs. • Present coastlines are likely to move
• Shipping could benefit from extended open- inland as sea level rises. People living
water seasons in northern channels and ports. along these shores could lose their
• Increased levels of CO2 could promote plant homes and businesses.
growth. This, combined with a longer growing
season, should improve crop yields and lead
to more vigorous coniferous forest growth.
Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Most of the annual production of greenhouse gases comes from the The city of Shanghai, China, has a population
of 13 million, with 650,000 cars and trucks,
production and use of energy, mostly from fossil fuels. The amount of a number well below most cities of similar
energy used in each sector depends on several factors. These factors income. While its population is not expected
include the level of economic activity (e.g., production by industry, or to increase greatly, the number of vehicles on
floor space in the residential or commercial sector); structure (the mix Shanghai’s roads is expected to increase. The
municipal government of Shanghai, in coopera-
of activities that consume energy); and how efficiently energy is used. tion with both the Chinese auto industry and
The transportation sector is the largest contributor of greenhouse gas the state government, has developed a plan to
emissions in both total megatonnes of carbon dioxide and in projected minimize greenhouse gas emissions from the
projected increase in vehicles. The city is invest-
growth to 2020 (see Figure 12.21 on the following page). This increase
ing in a 165 mile rapid transit system. In 2002,
is shared equally by passenger vehicles and freight transport. The increase Shanghai’s fleet of 40,000 taxis was converted
in emissions from the industrial sector is also significant, but the pace is to cleaner-burning liquefied petroleum gas.
somewhat slower.

Canada’s Annual and Projected Figure 12.21 shows a projected slight increase
Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector in the commercial sector and a decrease in the
250
1990 residential sector of greenhouse gas emissions.
2000 This increase and decrease is due to the projected
CO2 Equivalent (Mt)
200
34 2010
2020 impact of energy efficiency regulations and
150
10
programs on buildings, heating systems, and
64 25 other energy-using equipment.
100 In the transportation sector, passenger vehicles
16 and light trucks are the largest source of green-
-2
50 31 46 house gases. Efforts at changing personal
transportation habits to walking, cycling,
0 l l s n s s
a l a n e o r car pooling, and public transit have had some
nt
i a tr i io tri at
i m he
e rci us r tat u s e r s te o t
sid
e o d y s/ success. However, as the population increases,
m In
d
sp l in en os te
Re o m
a n e ity
g e c as particularly in the cities, there are more vehicles
C Tr isl f
u ro W
rtic Ag
on the roads. This increase in vehicles, greater
s ec
Fo El driving distances, and faster highway speeds have
Figure 12.21 The projected offset the improved fuel efficiencies that have
percentage growth from 1990 to occurred since the 1970s. Electric, gasoline-electric hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles
2010 is shown in the numbers hold some promise for curbing transportation greenhouse gas emissions.
above each sector’s graph.
Fuel cell research in the last decade has produced several applications
Source: Data from Natural
Resources Canada, 1998 for electric power. Fuel cells use a hydrogen- or carbon-based fuel such
as gasoline or methanol to produce electric power. The carbon dioxide
emissions vary depending on the fuel used and how the fuel is produced.
For example, if hydrogen (a zero-carbon emission fuel by itself) is produced
Efforts at reducing greenhouse from electricity produced by a coal-fired power plant, then there are no savings
gases will involve energy effi-
ciency. What training will be in
in greenhouse gas emissions. On the other hand, if the electricity can be
demand for the development, produced from non-carbon renewable energy sources, then greenhouse
refinement, and maintenance gas emissions could be reduced.
of new technologies? Work
with a partner to create a list
of careers related to energy Renewable Energy Sources
efficiency. Then choose one Which renewable energy sources can you name? Is each an example of
that interests you and prepare
a poster advertising the career.
adaptation or of lessening climate change?
Be sure to include the necessary
training and skills and a job
Large-scale hydro-electric dams across rivers produce a
description on your poster.
headwater that falls by gravity through turbine electric
generators. About 15 percent of Alberta’s electricity is
produced by hydro-electric turbines. Smaller river-flow
hydro-electric generators are built in rivers that do not
dam the river, but harness the energy of the river’s flow
over the riverbed.
Biomass consists of biologically produced matter that is

used as fuel or used to produce fuel. Methane is
Solar energy is used for heating and electricity generation.
produced by decomposition of organic matter in landfill
Rooftop solar water-heating systems provide hot water
sites and waste water-treatment centres. Methane is
and space heating. Solar electric (photovoltaic) cells
burned to produce steam and generate electricity. Ethanol
convert light into electricity and are used in cottages,
can be used as a gasoline additive and is produced by
telecommunications equipment, water pumps on farms,
fermenting starch from grains. Firewood, wood chips,
and for navigation.
and sawdust are used for cooking and space heating.

Small wind turbines generate electrical
energy for houses in remote areas where Wave and tidal power harness the movement of water
there are no electrical power lines. Large and generate electricity. Wave action in a sea wall moves
wind turbines produce electrical energy an air column back and forth across air turbine electrical
that enters the local distribution grid. Wind generators. Research and application of wave energy is
turbines are located in the Gaspé region active in Europe.
of Québec, southern Saskatchewan, and
Tidal power is generated by the
Pincher Creek, Alberta.
twice-daily movement of tides
Geothermal or ground-source heat through turbine electric generators.
pumps use the difference in temperature The Bay of Fundy between New
between the air and the ground below Brunswick and Nova Scotia has
the frostline. Although called geothermal one of the world’s highest tides,
energy, this ground-source heat is due sometimes rising as high as 18 m.
to solar heating of Earth’s surface.
Relating Climate Change to Scientific Inquiry

How should humans respond to the prospect of climate change? Will that In the early 1960s, meteorologist
response create economic hardship and a decrease in our standard of living? Edward Lorentz ran his weather
model on two different computers.
How will Canada’s response affect international trade and competitiveness? He used the same data. The fore-
While searching for answers to these questions, it is helpful to understand casts for the first several days were
the scientific process. the same. He was surprised,
however, when he discovered that
Scientific research involves the development and testing of hypotheses and
the forecasts began to disagree
models. The resulting data are analyzed and interpreted. Often hypotheses are about two weeks into the future.
revised and retested, and the new data are analyzed again. When scientists collect How could this be? The model and
what they believe to be significant findings, they report their research in scientific the data were identical. Eventually
he learned that one computer used
journals. Before the information is published, the findings are reviewed by a panel 8 decimal places while the other
of science experts who work in the same area of research. This process, called used 16. This tiny difference in
peer review, is an important part of scientific inquiry. computers resulted in a large
Conclusions are based on verifiable evidence, reasoned arguments, and repro- difference in the long-term fore-
casts. The same situation arises
ducible results. Peer review can involve challenges that expose weak assumptions, when data with very small differ-
methods, or arguments. When conclusions are reported, they are accompanied ences are entered into the same
by a stated level of certainty, usually 95 percent or 99 percent. A conclusion has computer using the same model.
Since it is impossible to measure
a predictive value. For example: “If greenhouse gases continue to increase, it is
data perfectly, long-term forecasts
virtually certain that they will be a dominant factor in the increase in warming cannot be reliable. From these
in the 21st century” (IPCC, Third Assessment Report, 2001). The phrase “virtually concepts, Lorentz developed the
certain” is used by the IPCC to mean a 95 percent level of certainty. chaos theory. On one occasion,
Lorentz jokingly asked, “Does the
flap of a butterfly’s wings over
Societal Decision Making and Climate Change Brazil cause a tornado in Texas?”
Social and economic decisions involve managing risks by seeking consensus Since then, many people have
referred to the chaos theory as
between different viewpoints. Using scientific understanding can help the
“the butterfly effect.”
decision-making process. Do any of the major decisions you make require
95 percent or 99 percent certainty?
Climatology is a complex science. Its uncertainties generally relate to the areas
in which the scientific understanding is low. For example, scientists are uncertain
about how clouds, snow, ice, aerosols, and the oceans interact to affect climate.
Some people oppose taking action on climate change because there is no “proof”
that global warming will occur. Others argue that although there are uncertainties,
climatologists have enough information to make reasonable predictions. Who is
right? You will consider various viewpoints in the next activity.

Find Out
Multiple Futures
Not everyone thinks the IPCC’s version of (c) On what data is the organization basing
twenty-first–century climate is correct. Entire its interpretation? What evidence does it
newpaper editorials and web sites are devoted to consider to be important? Does the web
discrediting the IPCC’s conclusions. Those who site refer to peer-reviewed scientific studies?
disagree with the IPCC’s position believe we have (d) Estimate what percentage of the web site
a very different future in store. Whose version is is devoted to: (i) presenting scientific
most likely to come true? evidence to back up their interpretation;
(ii) debating political aspects of climate
change; and (iii) warning about the expense
involved in taking steps to minimize climate
change and its impacts.
(e) What is the organization’s funding source?
2. Decide which information is mythical,

misleading, or confusing. Develop a video,
slide show, or a PowerPoint™ presentation.
Describe your findings and why you think as
you do. Present what you think is accurate
information about the topic.
3. Listen to other groups’ presentations and

Procedure Analyzing and Interpreting
be ready to question or support the points
they make.
1. Find the IPCC web site and the sites of at
least two organizations sceptical about global Communication and Teamwork
climate change. You may find that a misleading
or confusing issue is discussed on one or more 1. What made you decide that the information
sites. For example, some groups confuse the you found was or was not completely accurate
climate impact of old-growth forests, which or truthful?
absorb little carbon dioxide but are critical for
2. Did you find other sites or opinions that
biodiversity, with the climate impact of tree
supported the inaccurate information?
farms, which have little biodiversity but are
excellent absorbers of CO2. 3. Were you able to persuade your class that
you were presenting accurate, reliable
Collect the following information from each site:
information? How did you do it?
(a) Name of the organization
(b) Does the organization predict that climate 4. If you had more time, what else would you
change will occur over the next 100 years? like to do in order to make a stronger case
If so, by how much will the average global for your point of view?
temperature rise or fall?

What Are the Choices?
The IPPC’s Third Assessment Report has gained wide acceptance by the inter-
national science community. Still, it has been criticized for the questions it
does not answer. Some of the unanswered questions are: How large will the
climate change be? How damaging will its effects be? How expensive will
it be to meet the emission-reduction goals?
It is difficult to predict the environmental and socioeconomic consequences
of climate change. But it is likely that, for those who live on lands that are prone
to drought, floods, and tropical storms, the consequences would be serious.
Some people worry that meeting the greenhouse gas reductions required by
the Kyoto Protocol will become a large economic burden. They think it will
cause a decline in standards of living for Canadians. Others suggest we should
move more actively toward renewable energies, energy efficiency, and new
technologies. These technologies might be able to help developing countries
avoid the greenhouse gas emissions common to many industrialized countries,
such as Canada and the United States.
The Precautionary Principle

The United Nations and many countries suggest that when
faced with an uncertain future, the “precautionary principle”
should guide our actions. The Rio Declaration at the 1992
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
describes the precautionary principle as follows: “In order to
protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be
widely applied by states according to their capabilities. Where
there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full
scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing
cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.”
Economic issues arise from how much, by whom, and
how quickly greenhouse gases should be reduced. Should an
environmental cost be placed on all our activities? Or would
the public object to the additional cost that would result?
Social issues relate to lifestyle and standard of living that
are often at odds with environmental preservation. How
can standards of living for people in poverty be maintained
and improved without adversly affecting the climate and
the environment?
Figure 12.22 At present, it
Political issues centre on the global aspect of climate change. There is only
is impossible to predict with
one atmosphere and it is without political boundaries. If the goal is to reduce accuracy the future climate
greenhouse gas emissions and stabilize climate change, then should not the of a specific city or town.
effort to do so be a global one? Currently, industrialized nations account for
more than half of global greenhouse gas emissions. However, developing nations
are becoming more industrialized. It is expected that in 10 or 15 years they
will account for more than half of global emissions. Should developing
countries invest in research into technologies that reduce greenhouse emissions?
What roles should governments, industry, and the public play in reducing
greenhouse gas emissions? You will consider some of these questions in
the next investigation.

S K I L L C H E C K

12–E
Risky Business Procedure

1 Describe the present climate of the location
in which you live. Next, use your answers from
Think About It “Find Out Activity: Put Yourself in the Future,”
One aspect of the Rio Declaration is the cost- to describe how the area’s climate will change
effectiveness of taking action. Often the decision according to IPCC predictions.
to proceed or not to proceed with an action is made Determine four to six physical, economic, or
by evaluating the severity of the threat versus the
2
social threats that climate change would pose
economic and social consequence of the action. to your area. For each threat, decide in which
This evaluation process is called risk management. square it would fall on the following Relative
While many people are in favour of following Risk Assessment chart. Assign it the risk value
the precautionary principle in response to the indicated in that square. List each of the threats
threats associated with climate change, some across the top of a page in order of their risk
industries and countries oppose it. They argue value, from highest to lowest.
that they cannot justify the costs of cutting back
greenhouse gas emissions without definitive proof 3 Decide the risk value that you or your family
that doing so would help slow or halt climate would be willing to accept. For example, would
change. How should we proceed? they be comfortable risking a threat that poses
a major problem but is not very likely to happen
How Can Science Help? (a risk value of 5)?
Climatologists are constantly providing information
about how and why our climate is changing. Such
studies are used as information on which we base
the decisions we make about our future. (In this
investigation, you may wish to consider ways to
reduce CO2 emissions before making a decision.)
Relative Risk Assessment
Probability of threat happening

Severity of threat Not very likely Somewhat likely Likely Highly likely Almost certain Certain
Fatal for everyone in area 8 9 10 11 12 13
Fatal for some in area 7 8 9 10 11 12
Incapacitating 6 7 8 9 10 11
Major problem 5 6 7 8 9 10
Minor problem 4 5 6 7 8 9
Major inconvenience 3 4 5 6 7 8
Minor inconvenience 2 3 4 5 6 7

4 For each threat, identify a course of action 5 Estimate the relative cost of each course of
you or your family would be technologically action listed. Would it be free, inexpensive,
capable of doing in order to help: moderately expensive, very expensive, or far
(a) lower the risk value to the number too expensive for you and your family to
determined in step 3 (assuming it pursue? Record the cost next to each action.
exceeds that number)
(b) eliminate the risk entirely
Your course of action can lower the risk value

by reducing the probability and/or the severity
of the threat. This might involve anything from
implementing various ways of cutting CO2
emissions to relocating the population. On your
sheet of paper, write the course of action for each
scenario, (a) and (b), under the corresponding
threat. Describe how your understanding of
science will help you in following either course
of action.
Analyze
1. Identify the course of action that would reduce 4. Assume there is a 100 percent probability of
the risk the most by spending the least amount each threat being realized before the end of
of funds. Assign this a rank of 1. Repeat the this century. Would you modify your plan?
exercise with the remaining courses of action, If so, describe how.
giving the next course of action identified
a rank of 2. Continue until you have ranked 5. Compare your plan with those developed
each course of action’s cost efficiency with by others in the class. Be prepared to defend
respect to the others. your plan.
2. Develop a plan for reducing to an acceptable Extend Your Skills

level the risks to your area associated with 6. Choose one version of your plan and describe
global warming. Include the timing of imple- how it would be monitored and enforced.
mentation for each step of the plan. List what
you would do first, second, third, etc.
3. Assume it is only “somewhat likely” that all

the threats associated with climate change
will be realized before the end of the 21st
century. Which steps of your plan would
be impractical to implement?

The Gaia Hypothesis
Dr. James Lovelock, a scientist under contract to NASA
in the 1960s, developed a hypothesis about the intercon-
nectedness of life. He wrote, “The entire range of living
matter on Earth from whales to viruses and from oaks to
algae could be regarded as constituting a single living
entity capable of maintaining Earth’s atmosphere to suit
its overall needs and endowed with faculties and powers
far beyond those of its constituent parts.” He described
how the biosphere can be viewed as a complex series of
systems. The systems interact to maintain the best possible
physical and chemical environment for life on Earth.
Figure 12.24 The Gaia concept
Dr. Lovelock’s hypothesis that Earth is a single, living organism is called
has been compared to a giant
redwood tree. Just as the
the Gaia Hypothesis. How does the Gaia Hypothesis fit into your new
redwood has only a thin living understanding of climate change and humans?
layer around its wood fibres,
Earth has only a thin layer of life. Section 12.4 Summary
Humans can respond to climate change in two ways. First, we can adapt to the
change by taking action to minimize the effects of the change. Second, we can
work to reduce the rate and extent of potential climate change by reducing or
removing the causes of the change. Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions has
centred on reducing the amount of energy we obtain from using fossil fuels.
Using energy efficiently and developing and using renewable energy sources are
Gaia is the ancient Greek word for
Earth, and for the goddess of important ways to reduce emissions. Researching and reporting in climate science
Earth. The novelist William involves using the processes of peer review and reporting levels of certainty. The
Golding, Dr. Lovelock’s neighbour, decision-making process involves understanding the probabilities, risks, and
suggested he name the climate
control system after the ancient
consequences associated with climate change. The precautionary principle is
Greek Earth goddess. a way of guiding our actions when facing an uncertain future, while taking
into account the environmental, social, economic, and political issues involved.

1. Describe behavioural adaptation and climate change reduction. Give
an example of each.
2. What are some possible difficulties in requiring the same percentage
reduction of the release of greenhouse gases by all nations?
3. What can the process of scientific inquiry contribute to the decision-making
process? Give an example from the field of climate change.
4. Apply Describe two different renewable energy sources that you could
use in your life. Explain how their use would reduce greenhouse gases.
5. Thinking Critically State the Rio Declaration’s precautionary principle
in your own words. Do you think it is a wise position to take? Explain
why or why not.
6. Thinking Critically What are the strong points of the Gaia Hypothesis?
What are its weaknesses?

(a) Define the term “enhanced greenhouse effect” (h) Describe specific effects of climate change.
and explain why people are concerned about (12.2)
this phenomenon. (12.1)
(i) Describe the main activity of the
(b) Describe the effects of climate change on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
seasonal temperatures over the last 100 years. (IPCC). (12.3)
(12.1)
(j) Explain why some people want to adopt
(c) List the greenhouse gases and describe one the precautionary principle with respect to
source of each. (12.1) greenhouse gases and other people prefer a
“wait and see” approach. (12.3)
(d) Identify Earth’s two major carbon dioxide sinks.
Describe how the sinks help prevent the atmo- (k) Describe how climatologists use general circula-
sphere from being even warmer than it is. (12.1) tion models (GCMs) to predict what the climate
will be like decades in the future. (12.3)
(e) Describe at least two ways in which humans can
cope with climate change. (12.3) (l) Identify reasons why:
(i) countries prone to drought, floods, and
(f ) Explain why climate change could lead to severe storms might not be able to cope with
summer droughts in some parts of the world and the climate changes projected for the
floods in other parts. (12.3) twenty-first century
(g) How are Canada’s biomes expected to change (ii) industrialized countries might be able
if concentrations of carbon dioxide in the to cope with climate change. (12.4)
atmosphere increase? (12.3) (m) Describe the Gaia Hypothesis. (12.4)
Summarize this chapter by doing one of the • Summarize the climate change understandings
following. Use a graphic organizer (such as described in the Third Assessment Report of the
a concept map), produce a poster, or write a Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
summary to include the key chapter concepts. • Describe the advantages/disadvantages and
Here are a few ideas to use as a guide: the strengths/weaknesses of the Kyoto Protocol.
• Make a labelled illustration or flowchart of the
carbon cycle and carbon sinks. Atmosphere (750)
• Design a pamphlet or poster that provides guide-
(90)
lines for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Combustion (6)
• Explain why different computer models often
produce somewhat different predictions for the Deforestation (2)
degree of climate change that will occur in the Photosynthesis (62)
(92)
twenty-first century. Respiration (60)

Fossil fuels Surface ocean (1000)
• Identify the variables that will have an impact (5000)
Vegetation (610)
on greenhouse gas emissions over the next River transport (1)
Intermediate and
Earth’s crust
100 years. (75 000 000)
Soil and litter
(1600)
deep oceans
(38 000)

12 Review
C
C H
H A
A P
P T
T E
E R
R
Key Terms
positive water vapour carbon cycle general circulation models Kyoto Protocol
feedback carbon sink (GCMs) peer review
negative water vapour deforestation Intergovernmental precautionary principle
feedback Panel on Climate
reforestation Change (IPCC) Gaia Hypothesis
Understanding Key Concepts 12. Provide two pieces of evidence for or

1. By how much did Earth’s average temperature against human activity being responsible
increase in the twentieth century? for climate change.
2. What is the most likely cause of the increase 13. What actions could people in your town take
in atmospheric concentration of CO2? to reduce greenhouse gas emissions without
causing serious inconveniences if climate
3. Who are the members of the IPCC? Why change predictions prove false?
are they generally considered to be scientific
authorities regarding climate change? 14. As a class, make a chart comparing the effects of
climate change to the effects of taking action to
4. What are the limitations of computer models prevent climate change. Based on the evidence
of future climate? from your chart, what action, if any, do you
think should be taken?
5. What is the precautionary principle?
15. Do the similarities in the graphs of rising global
6. In your own words, describe the Gaia Hypothesis.
carbon dioxide levels and rising temperatures
mean that rising carbon dioxide levels cause
Developing Skills rising temperatures? Why or why not?
7. What is the difference between scientific
uncertainty regarding the extent of climate Problem Solving/Applying
change and political disagreement on
16. If it were known with complete certainty that
climate change?
the average temperature everywhere in Alberta
8. What weaknesses in climate data make some would rise by exactly 7°C by 2100, what steps
people sceptical that humans are responsible could be taken to prepare for this change?
for current and future climate change?
17. What is the difference between the average
9. Evaluate the following statement: “People today global temperature increase in the twentieth
should take action to reduce the risk of climate century and the increase projected for the
change so that future generations have the same twenty-first century?
opportunities that they have.”
18. What are three advantages and three disadvantages
10. Research at least three web sites and identify of predicted climate change in Canada?
any biases that the makers of the web site
19. Why do scientists give a range of predictions
have related to climate change.
when they are forecasting future climates?
11. What perspectives could people have that might
affect how they interpret data about global
climate change?

Critical Thinking 26. How does the current increase in global popula-
20. How does peer review support the process tion add to the enhanced greenhouse effect?
of scientific inquiry? 27. If Alberta warmed by an average of 5°C by
21. Describe three technologies that have been 2050, how would life be different for one of
developed in the last 30 years to reduce your grandchildren born 65 years from now?
the amount of carbon dioxide entering
the atmosphere.
22. Make a chart summarizing the evidence for

and against the statement that “The enhanced
greenhouse effect is real.”
23. Make a chart summarizing the evidence for

Go back to the beginning of the chapter on page 434. Answer the
and against the statement that, “If it exists, the
three Focussing Questions without referring to your earlier answers.
enhanced greenhouse effect is a serious problem.” Once you have responded to the questions, compare your answers.
How has your thinking changed? What questions do you now have
24. Compare the charts made in the previous two about climate change that you would like to investigate?
questions. What are the differences between them?
25. What challenges does Canada face in reducing

greenhouse gas emissions that other nations
may not have?

U N I T
4
Ask an Expert
For the past 35 years, David Phillips has studied climate and
climate change. As the Senior Climatologist at Environment
Canada, David is the foremost national spokesperson for
issues involving Canadian weather and climate. For his work,
David has received the Order of Canada, the Patterson Medal
for Distinguished Service to Meteorology, the Commemorative
Medal for the 125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada,
and the Public Service Merit Award.
Q How did you become interested in climatology? Q How do you do that?
A Most people involved with meteorology remem- A I give lectures 60–70 times a year to organizations.
ber a particular storm or a day of wild weather I also give frequent interviews on radio and
that turned them on to the subject. That didn’t television. I have published six books and several
really happen to me. In fact, since the age of four, articles about climate and weather. For 15 years,
I’ve wanted to be a schoolteacher. However, in I have also published a calendar of weather trivia.
my final year of university, I was offered a job I think the best way to educate people about
studying the Great Lakes with Environment climate and weather is to draw them in with
Canada, then known as the Meteorological interesting facts and stories. For example, did
Branch of the Department of Transit. I envi- you know that the average sneeze has the same
sioned hanging out on the beach and couldn’t force as a category 2 hurricane? Once you grab
turn it down. I’ve been with Environment someone’s attention, you can start talking about
Canada for 35 years now. Come to think of it, more serious issues, such as climate change.
though, I was born and brought up in Windsor,
the thunderstorm capital of Canada. Ironically,
Q Why is it so important to educate Canadians about
weather and climate?
my mother was terrified of thunderstorms.
Maybe on some level I wanted to be able to do A Everyone benefits from knowing more about
something about that. their climate. Someone planning a snowboarding
Q What is your role as the Senior Climatologist at
trip to Lake Louise might want to know whether
to go in December or March. A farmer trying
Environment Canada?
to decide whether a new crop will thrive must
A In a way, I am fulfilling my childhood goal of compare the needs of the plant to the climate
becoming a teacher. The people of Canada are conditions. If someone wants to build a home,
my students. My goal is to make all Canadians they need to know what building materials are
better aware of the issues surrounding weather appropriate. People involved in work ranging
and climate and of the wealth of related services from fishing to tourism to city planning all
available from their weather services. benefit from having good information about
weather and climate.

Q In addition to your work with Environment Canada, Q Do you have any advice for students who are studying
you serve on the board of the World Meteorological the issue of rapid climate change?
Organization. What does that work involve?
A Keep an open mind. There are many sides to the
A To study climate, you need to know what is debate, and it is a very complex issue. Every year
happening all over the world. The World there is more information, but every year brings
Meteorological Organization is a U.N. organi- new questions as well. In general, the science of cli-
zation involving 185 countries. For 52 years, mate change has become very sound very quickly.
the WMO has shared forecasts and data. It may It had to stand up to intense scrutiny. At the same
sound extreme, but I see the WMO as a model time, it is very hard to be clear and definitive about
for humanity. People from almost every country climate change, because there is a great deal of
in the world gather and share data for the circumstantial evidence and uncertainty.
common good of everyone. Even countries
at war will share meteorological information.
Q Where do you stand on the issue of climate change?
A You could wait decades for all the uncertainty to

Q How does the WMO achieve such co-operation? be cleared up. We don’t have all the answers, but
A We can assist people in countries with a less I think sometimes you just have to look at the
information you have, make a decision, and act
developed system for data collection how to
gather weather data. For example, we can teach upon it. There seems to be a great deal of com-
people how to use rain gauges, automatic weather pelling evidence to support that human activities
stations, and satellite data. We can also help to are changing the climate in a potentially harmful
way, and I think we should act based on that
provide them with the necessary equipment.
evidence. The Kyoto Protocol may be a small
Q How is the data used? step in that direction but at least it is a step.
A A current, important example is to study climate Q What should students do if they are interested in
change. You need reliable data from all over the studying climate?
world to analyze global patterns, to research
how society may be affecting climate, and to
A Get a solid grounding in the sciences. Physics,
biology, chemistry, math, statistics, and computer
decide whether something should be done and
science are all important to the study of climate.
what can be done.
But don’t forget that a key aspect of climate and
climate change is the effect that it has on people.
Therefore, students should be careful not to
neglect the social sciences. Those people who
have made the greatest difference in the field
of climatology have understood the impact that
weather and climate have on people.
Programs of the WMO

An important part of David Phillips’ work Another important part of the WMO
as a climatologist is his involvement with is the World Climate Programme (WCP).
the World Meteorological Organization. Established in 1979, this program
Use a search engine to find the web site monitors world climate in order to
of the WMO. The core program of the predict or detect changes in climate.
WMO is World Weather Watch. Search The program also involves researching
the site to find out more information the causes of change. Search the WMO
about World Weather Watch (WWW). site to find out more about the World
What is the role of the World Weather Climate Programme.
Watch? How does it operate?
Unit 4 Ask An Expert • MHR 473

UNIT 4 AN ISSUE TO ANALYZE
Proof or Consequences:
Assessing Climate Change Reports
Climate Change May Be "Sudden"

Global Warm
ing? So Wh
o c o l : a t ?
Kyoto Pr o t
than Future Damage ing Warm
Plan Would Cost Less
About
TRIGGE rning
RING A Wa
A BIG CH
ILL
atastroph e
C li m a t e C
n t is t s R a is e Alarm of
Scie
Think About It
If you follow the topic of climate change in the media what the writer is saying. Is the information relating to
and journals, you will find there are many different climate science accurate and factual? Does it report
views. This is largely because climate change covers current research? Is it balanced and without bias? The
a wide variety of topics. For example, there is the information on the social, economic, and political
science of how climates will respond to an increase issues should likewise be subjected to the same ques-
in greenhouse gases. Then there is the topic of tions. Articles that report on these issues may often
how local and global societies should respond to give as much opinion as they do a reporting of events.
predictions of climate change. These topics have One of the most important questions to ask when
important environmental, social, economic, and assessing an article is “Who is writing the article?”
political consequences. Many journalists carefully investigate the topic and
Many people get most of their information from provide a balanced assessment of the information
the popular media — radio, television, newspapers, they report. However, some journalists who report
the Internet, and perhaps some weekly news maga- on science events have little background in science.
zines. The challenge every reader faces is to assess What are the writer’s credentials?

Plan and Act Analyze
1 Your teacher will assign each group a topic and 1. Where is the article published?
a type of writer:
If the source is a newspaper, is it local or
• Editorial writer — writes from a particular national? Does the paper have a particular
point of view. There may be no acknowl- bias, e.g., pro business, pro labour, right wing,
edgement of the other side of the story or left wing?
the counterargument.
2. Describe the type of article. Does it report
• News reporter — often describes the current
new information on climate change science?
events on a topic. These reporters may not be
Are data presented and can data be verified?
able to do a complete investigation of a topic.
Are sources of the data described? What is
Some reporters may sensationalize their reports
the scope of the article? Does it report a local,
or suggest controversy that is not present.
national, or international event?
• Science writer — may have a background
in science. If he or she is reporting research 3. Summarize the article. What is the article
from science journals, it is important to note about? Does it report an event? Is it a
whether the journal and the original author(s) commentary on an issue?
is (are) cited. (a) Are different views on the topic presented?
• Expert — a scientist involved in research in the Is a range of perspectives presented or is
topic who writes for peer-reviewed journals. the article biased? Bias in an article could
occur in several ways:
• Pseudo-expert — may be a scientist, but is
writing outside his or her primary field of i. introducing inaccuracies or presenting
research (for example, a biologist writing facts that are not correct
about climate science). ii. interpreting the data to favour one
• Non-expert — this person has no expertise in perspective over another
the topic. Facts may be used (either inadver- iii. claiming information as true but does
tently or deliberately), incompletely, out of not have data or facts to support it
context, or to present a single point of view. iv. omitting facts
2 Each group will research to find an article on (b) What are the arguments?
the topic written by the assigned type of writer. (c) What assumptions are made?
You can use various print and electronic sources (d) How are the arguments manipulated?
to find a written article. Before you start to
search, as a group identify the types of keywords 4. What clues did you use to identify the type
or other clues that will help you decide the of writer and his or her credentials?
author’s credentials. 5. What would you predict would be the effect
Each member of the group can locate an article of this article on a reader? Why?
3
that might be appropriate. Discuss who will 6. What additional information do you think
use which resources to search for an article. a reader should be aware of when he or she
Consider and discuss all articles before making reads this article?
your choice as a group which to use. Then
complete the questions in the Analyze section.
Unit 4 An Issue to Anylize • MHR 475

U N I T
4 Review
Understanding Key Concepts 13. What is the name of the amount of energy that
1. What are the differences between an open, is need to convert 1 mol of a substance from
a closed, and an isolated system? Name one a liquid state into a gas?
example of each. 14. Water has a much larger heat of fusion than
most similar substances. When large amounts
2. Define biosphere. List and define the three
of ice and snow are melting in the spring, how
spheres that are associated with the biosphere.
does this large heat of fusion of water affect
3. Explain the meaning of the term “radiation the temperature?
budget.” Explain why it is important that
15. What happens when water vapour rises and cools?
Earth “balance” its radiation budget.
16. Describe the hydrologic cycle. In what way does
4. Since sunlight passes through the entire atmo- the hydrologic cycle transport thermal energy
sphere before it reaches Earth’s surface, why from one place to another on Earth?
is the lower atmosphere warmer than the
atmosphere at an altitude of 10 km. 17. How do ocean currents affect climates around
the world?
5. What is the most common greenhouse gas
in the atmosphere? 18. In some locations, deserts are found very close
to a coastline. How can the atmosphere be dry
6. Describe how greenhouse gases warm the near so much water?
atmosphere.
19. How does El Niño affect climate? What effect
7. What characteristics of Earth’s motion could this have on climate in the northern
are responsible for the changing seasons? hemisphere?
Explain how these characteristics cause
20. Describe the patterns that the prevailing winds
seasons to change.
would follow if Earth was not spinning on its axis.
8. What is the difference between weather 21. Explain how the Coriolis effect can cause
and climate? prevailing westerly winds between latitudes of
30° and 60° but cause prevailing easterly winds
9. What is the relationship between the Sun’s rays
between the equator and 30° latitude.
and the three general climate zones: tropical,
temperate, and polar zones? 22. Explain why types of plants and animals found
on different sides of the same mountain range
10. What does the specific heat capacity of a
might differ.
substance tell you about that substance?
23. What is the jet stream and where does it form?
11. The specific heat capacity of water is much
larger than that of most other similar 24. What information does a climatograph display?
compounds. How does this large specific heat 25. Define a biome.
capacity of water influence the climate of a
region that is near a large body of water? 26. Describe the subsystems within a biome.
12. Name three mechanisms of heat transfer. 27. Name four biomes found in Canada.
Explain one way in which each mechanism 28. How do altitude and latitude affect the climate
is used to distribute heat on Earth. of an area?

29. What are some behavioural adaptations that Developing Skills
allow animals to stay warm? 48. Explain how plants and animals cope with
30. Define and give an example of a structural gradual climate change. Describe what might
adaptation of some living organism. happen to them if climate change is rapid.
31. Why is a biome considered an open system? 49. Air at 24°C can retain nine times the moisture
of air at !9°C. Use this fact to explain why
32. How can scientists know what past climates a room kept at 18°C year round may need
were like before written climate records existed? a humidifier in the winter and a dehumidifier
33. Give an example of a catastrophic event that in the summer.
could cause a climate change.
50. Give some evidence that water vapour is
34. Explain the difference between positive and a greenhouse gas.
negative feedback.
51. What careers are associated with the study
35. Explain how a catastrophic event could cause of climates?
mass extinction.
52. What evidence exists that climates are warming
36. Describe the steps that would occur in negative in some parts of Canada?
water vapour feedback.
53. How have humans adapted to different climates?
37. Describe one piece of evidence that shows that
global warming is occurring. 54. How does the greenhouse effect support life
on Earth?
38. What is the difference between the natural and
the enhanced greenhouse effect? 55. Compare some natural sources for greenhouse
gases with some human sources. Which are
39. What is the main reason for the increase in the
more important, and why?
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
40. Define and give an example of a carbon sink. 56. Why is the projected climate change resulting
from the enhanced greenhouse effect considered
41. When a scientists says that “methane has a problem?
a global warming potential 21 times that
of carbon dioxide,” what does it mean? 57. How do scientists evaluate the accuracy of
computer models of future climates?
42. How might deforestation affect climate?
58. How do burning fossil fuels and cutting down
43. Describe two specific effects that global warming forests add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere?
could have on humans or other animal species.
44. How might climate change affect a biome? Problem Solving/Applying
59. Why can some plants or animals from other
45. Give one example of how the rate of global
continents survive in Alberta?
warming might be reduced.
60. After the last ice age, plants and animals were
46. How do some glaciers show evidence of
able to adapt to changing climates. Why are
a warming climate?
people predicting that this may be more
47. State the precautionary principle. difficult if humans are altering the climate?

61. Give two reasons why southern Alberta is (a) What is the warmest month?
expected to become more like a desert if the (b) How much precipitation falls in the
predictions for enhanced greenhouse warming driest month?
are true.
(c) If plants grow only when the average
62. Scientists have recently discovered that the Gulf temperature is over 5ºC, approximately when
Stream is part of a larger ocean current called does the growing season begin and end?
the thermohaline circulation. Do research to (d) Which biome does this climatograph
find out what factors cause the thermohaline represent?
circulation. What might happen to the thermo-
haline circulation if global warming continues? 68. List six factors that make biomes different from
How could this cause northern Europe to each other.
become colder? 69. How much energy would it take to increase
63. How does scientific inquiry contribute to the the temperature of 500 kg of air (the mass of
decision-making process? a column air over 5 m2 of Earth’s surface) by
22°C? This air is dry, so, c " 1.00 J/g.
64. Explain how the precautionary principle can
be applied to climate change. 70. How much would the temperature of 35 kg
of water increase if 1.4 # 106 J of energy were
65. Explain how riding a bicycle to school instead added to the water?
of driving a car helps decrease the enhanced
greenhouse effect. 71. What mass of ice would thaw if you added
5.2 MJ of energy?
66. What evidence exists that the current climate
has not always been the climate in your region? 72. How much energy would be required to evaporate
175 kg of water at 100°C to vapour at 100°C?
67. Construct a climatograph from the following
data and answer the questions that follow. 73. List the evidence that scientists give when
they claim that the climate is warming. List
Month Temperature Precipitation the arguments that sceptics give when they
(°C) (mm) say that the climate is not warming or that
January –9 21 the warming is not created by human activity.
Which list is more convincing, and why?
February –6 25
March –1 39 74. After comparing the advantages and disadvan-
April 6 42
tages of global warming, conclude whether you
think global warming will hurt or help the
May 13 38
Canadian economy.
June 23 26
July 27 21
75. Go to the area in front of your school and
measure a height of 88 cm from the ground.
August 25 11
This is the average rise of sea levels under
September 19 15 projected global warming. If your school was
October 8 27 located at a seashore, how much of what you
November 1 34 can see would be under water? How could
people adapt to this situation?
December –4 22

76. Make a graphic organizer to show the sources the air. Dinitrogen monoxide is also released
of the various greenhouse gases. when land is fertilized with nitrogen-containing
chemicals or manure. The cultivation of rice
77. What may be some potential problems related paddies is a considerable source of methane
to an increase of temperature of 8°C by 2100 because organic matter decays below the water
in the region where you live? in the absence of oxygen. Burning off native
plant life to make way for croplands also releases
Critical Thinking N2O into the air. How could these situations be
78. What would the atmospheric circulation pattern improved? Keep in mind that your suggestions
of an Earth-like planet probably look like if it should be applicable to developing nations that
were the size of the Moon? If it were twice might have limited resources and technology.
Earth’s size?
84. Cattle and sheep ranching contribute to global
79. Use your understanding of climate and climate warming. Ruminant (cud-chewing) animals
change to explain the following statement: “In produce and release large quantities of methane
the twentieth century, wars were fought over oil. (CH4) during the process of digesting their food.
In the twenty-first century, they will be fought Overgrazing these animals can deplete the ground
over water.” cover over large areas. Producing 1 kg of beef
removes 10 times more energy from the ecosystem
80. How can a scientist claim not to be certain
than it would take to produce 1 kg of wheat.
about the extent of climate change by the year
What suggestions do you have for reducing the
2100 and then say that it will warm between
greenhouse gas emissions resulting from cattle
2°C and 6°C?
and sheep ranching? Take into account the
81. If greenhouse gases increase at the current rate, importance of cattle and sheep ranching in
a projected reduction in greenhouse gases of over both economic terms and in providing food
25 percent would be needed to meet Canada’s for millions of people.
Kyoto agreement by 2008–2012. Is this
85. Write a report telling how a desert region might
achievable and, if so, how will it occur?
be reclaimed and turned back into grassland. What
82. Imagine that a classmate made the following would have to happen, and how would those
statement to you. “Many species have become steps help return the desert to its original state?
extinct over the past million years due to natural What would be the difficulties in this project?
causes. Extinction is natural. Why are so many Consider economic, environmental, political,
people concerned about endangered species?” cultural, and technical issues in your report.
Prepare a response to this person. Provide
86. People say that life has changed more in the twen-
good reasons for your position.
tieth century than in any other period of time.
83. The necessity to feed the world’s growing popu- If the predictions for climate change are correct,
lation also affects the environment in ways that what might life be like for a teenager where
release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. you live in 2100? What do you think a teenager
Turning new sod to cultivate land releases would like to ask you about your daily life that
carbon dioxide and dinitrogen monoxide into may not be part of his or her life experience?

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U N I T

• How can you determine how

4 MHR • Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

T he desk you sit at, the clothes

tiny particles has been around for of matter.

thousands of years. It began in ancient

How has scientific

In the past several centuries, however, inquiry into chemica

particles that make up matter.

Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements,

North American Aboriginal Peoples and Chemistry

To tan leather, Aboriginal peoples from

Dyes for decorating fabric, wood, and other

To treat illnesses and alleviate pain,

6 MHR • Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

Safety in the Chemistry Laboratory

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET

Figure 1.3 What safety precautions would you

Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds • MHR 7

8 MHR • Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

5. As you proceed, keep a list of any words that

6. Record the appropriate information about

Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds • MHR 9

Figure 1.5 Try to use this system to classify examples

2. State whether each of the following mixtures is homogeneous or heterogeneous.

3. State whether each of the following pure substances is an element or a compound.

4. Classify each of the following substances.

10 MHR • Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

Check Your Understanding

Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds • MHR 11

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

12 MHR • Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

Many of Dalton’s conclusions were based on assumptions.

Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds • MHR 13

14 MHR • Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

(!) cathode (!) cathode

to vacuum pump to vacuum pump

(") A “neon” sign is a modern version of a gas

Figure 1.10 Based on his experiments with cathode ray tubes,

Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds • MHR 15

positively charged sphere

16 MHR • Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds • MHR 17

18 MHR • Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

0 " " 0 0 " of two protons and two neutrons.

" " " " "

Because they have no electric charge, neutrons were extremely difficult to

Evidence of Energy Levels

Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds • MHR 19

gas discharge tube detector

Figure 1.18 Each coloured line in this hydrogen spectrum is produced by

Atomic Theory Evolves

20 MHR • Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

particles called quarks. Instead of just three subatomic particles (neutrons,

Chapter 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds • MHR 21

1 proton 1 proton 1 proton

6 protons 6 protons 6 protons

22 MHR • Unit 1 Energy and Matter in Chemical Change

number of neutrons % mass number # atomic number

For example, how many neutrons are in lithium-7?

6. State the number of each of the following subatomic particles in

7. A certain isotope has a mass number of 35. The isotope has

8. How many nucleons are in sodium-23?

Section 1.2 Summary