MES Unit 1 12aug20

MAIT EEE Dept.
3rd Semester
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Materials in Electrical Systems

Aug. 2020-Dec. 2020
Mail assignment at my mail ID: neelamkassarwani@mait.ac.in Faculty: Neelam Kassarwani

Assistant Professor
EEE Department
Syllabus
This has been referred from GGSIPU site (page 13)

Unit -I
Conducting Materials
Lesson Plan
Contents
1. Energy band diagram of conductors, semiconductors and insulators
2. Conductivity and resistivity
3. Factors affecting the resistivity
4. Classification of conducting materials
5. Electrical, mechanical and thermal properties and applications of low
resistance materials like (i) copper, (ii) aluminium, (iii) steel, (iv) silver, (v)
gold, (vi) platinum, (vii) brass, and (viii)bronze
6. Electrical, mechanical and thermal properties and applications of high
resistance materials like (i) manganin, (ii)constantan, (iii) nichrome, (iv)
mercury, (v) tungsten, and (vi) carbon
7. Introduction to superconductors
1 ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM OF CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS,
AND INSULATORS
1.1 ENERGY BAND THEORY
 At absolute zero, all valence electrons in a material take part in the bonds
between the atoms.
 A valence electron becomes free upon the absorption of a sufficient
amount of energy implying that:
Energy of a free electron > energy of a bound valence electron
 In a single isolated atom, the electron in any orbit possess definite energy.
ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM…
 The similar broadening of energy levels is true for conduction electrons.
 The energy level picture for a specific material is presented in figure
1.1(a):
Atomic levels
(r→∞)
Empty
in free atoms
Occupied
in free atoms
Fig 1.1(a) Electronic energy levels broaden into bands when

the atoms are brought close together
 In a solid:
neither all the valence electrons possess the same energy
nor all the conduction electrons possess the same energy
 Atoms when brought together to form a solid, the discrete atomic energy
levels broaden into a band of very closely spaced energy levels.
 This broadening of energy level results due to interaction between the
atoms.
 In the energy level diagram of a material there are three energy states:
1) Valence Band (VB): The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by valence
electrons is known as valence band.
Valence electrons are electrons in the outermost orbit of
an atom. In a normal atom, VB has the electrons of
highest energy. This band may be partially filled or
completely filled, eg:
In the case of inert gases, the VB is completely filled
In the case of other materials, the VB is partially filled
Partially filled VB can accommodate more electrons Fig 1.1(b) Energy level diagram of a material
in crystalline state derived from Fig. 1.1(a)
3) Forbidden energy gap (Wg): The separation between conduction band and
valence band is known as forbidden energy gap.
No electron of a material of solid can stay in forbidden gap because of the

absence of any energy state in this region. The width of forbidden energy gap
is the measure of the bondage of valence electrons to the atom.
Greater the energy gap, more tightly the valence electrons are bound to
the nucleus
To push an electron from VB to CB (to make valence electron free), external
energy equal to the forbidden gap, Wg must be supplied
1.2 ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM OF CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS, AND
INSULATORS:
 Based on electrical conductivity, materials are classified as:
(1) conductors,
(2) semiconductors, and
(3) insulators
 The difference in the behavior of solids regarding electrical conductivity is
can be explained in terms of energy bands.
 Electrons in VB are tightly bound to nucleus and do not take part in
conduction process.
 The CB and VB along with the Wg have particular
importance in ascertaining the electrical behavior of
various solids.
1.1.1 Energy band diagram for insulators
 Insulators are the materials that do not allow
conduction of current of current through them. Wg ≈ 15 eV
such as wood, glass, etc.

 In terms of energy band, the VB is completely full
while the CB is completely empty.
 Wg is very large (≈15 eV) as in Fig. 1.2(a).
Fig. 1.2(a) Energy band diagram
for insulators
 A very strong electric field is required to push the valence electrons to the
conduction band leading to extremely small electrical conductivity which
is regarded zero under ordinary conditions.
 At
(1) room temperature, the valence electrons have insufficient energy to
cross over to the CB.
(2) With the increase of temperature, some electrons acquire enough
energy to cross over to the CB (showing decrease of resistance of the
insulator with the increase of temperature). This shows:
negative temperature coefficient of resistance for insulators
2) Conduction Band (CB): The range of energies possessed by conduction

electrons is known as conduction band.
Some materials have valence electrons that are loosely attached to the
nucleus. At ordinary temperature, some valence electrons get detached to
become free electrons. These free electrons are responsible for the
conduction of current in a conductor and hence known as conduction electrons.
All the electrons in CB are free electrons. Any material having empty CB means
no conduction is possible in the substance made of that material. [Insulators
have empty CB whereas conductors have partially filled CB]
1.1.2 Energy band diagram for conductors
 Conductors are the materials that easily allow Energy of electrons
conduction of electric current through them such as

copper, aluminium, gold, steel, silver, etc. These
materials have significant amount of electrons
No forbidden
band
available for conduction.

 In terms of energy band, the VB and CB overlap each Fig. 1.2(b) Energy band diagram
for conductors
other as in Fig. 1.2(b).
 There is no forbidden band (energy gap) in the energy
band diagram.
 At room temperature, due to overlapping of VB and CB, a slight potential
difference of voltage across the conductor causes free electrons to
constitute electric current (high conductivity or less resistivity).
 With the rise of temperature, conduction electrons experience collision
with other conduction electrons leading to increase in the resistance of
conductor. This shows:
positive temperature coefficient of resistance for conductors
1.1.2 Energy band diagram for semiconductors
 Diamond, a form of carbon is an insulator whereas Energy of electrons
graphite, a crystalline form of carbon, having crystal
symmetry different from diamond, has Wg of small value
but in the category of semiconductor.
 Semiconductors are the materials having small forbidden
energy gap of about 1 eV.
 Germanium and Silicon are two important semiconductors
used having Wg of 0.785 eV and 1.21 eV respectively at 0 K.
Fig. 1.2(c) Energy band diagram
for semiconductors
 Additional energies equal to 0.785 eV for Ge and 1.21 eV for Si cannot be
obtained from applied electric fields. This shows that semiconductors in
intrinsic form, behave as insulators at low temperatures.
 As the temperature increases, the conductivity of semiconductors
increases. This shows:
negative temperature of coefficient of resistance for semiconductors
Books Recommended
Text Books:
[T1] Electrical properties of materials by L. Solymer, Oxford University Press,
2014
[T2] An introduction to Electrical Engineering Materials by C. S. Indulkar, S.
Thiruvengadam, S. Chand Publishing, 4th edition, 2004
Reference Books:
[R1] Electrical Engineering Materials, Dekker Adrianu, PHI, 1st edition, 2011
[R2] A Course in Electrical Engineering Materials, Seth S P, Dhanpat Rai, 3rd
edition, 2011
[R3] Electrical and Electronic Engineering Materials by Bhattacharya S K,
Khanna Publishers, New Delhi
2 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY & RESISTIVITY
2.1 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Consider a conductor of length l meters and cross -
sectional area A square metre ( Figure 2.1).
Let n= no. of free electrons available per m3 of the
conducting material
= electron density
Figure 2.1: Electrical conduction
E= applied electric field
Due to the applied electric field E, let the axial drift
velocity of the electron be v m/sec.
The electric force F acting on electron charge e due
to electric field applied E is:
F= e E ……………………………………………….(1)
Also F= m a ……………………………………………….(2)
2 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY & RESISTIVITY…
Where m = mass of electron
a = acceleration of electron due to the applied field E.
Equating (1) and (2) we get
a= eE/m ……………………………………………..(3)
Due to the collisions of electrons during motion, the electrons will not get
accelerated indefinitely. In fact, their velocity will fall to zero. If τ is the
relaxation or collision time, the average velocity of electrons, known as drift
velocity is given by
v = drift velocity
= a× τ
= (eE/m) τ …………………………………............(4)
Now, let I be the current flowing through the conductor on the application of
electric field, E, corresponding to drift velocity v. In time dt, the electrons will
travel a distance vdt and the no. of electrons crossing the cross-sectional area
A in time dt will be contained in volume Avdt. Thus,
Total charge flowing through the section in time dt = dq

= ne×Avdt
= envAdt ……………..…….(5)
Therefore, current I in a conductor
d
= q
dt
= envA ………………………….…….(6)
Current density, J = I/A = env ……………..…….(7)
Substituting the value of v from equation (4) in (7) we get
J= en× eE/m τ = (ne2E 𝜏 )/m = (ne2𝜏 /m)E ………………….…….(8)
For a given material, the quantity ne2 𝜏 /m is constant at a particular
temperature and is known as ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY, ‘𝜍’ of the material
and thus,
Current density J= 𝜍 E ………..…………….…..(9)
Unit is siemens/m
So, the current density J is proportional to the conductivity of the material 𝜍
and the magnitude of applied field E.
Since, resistivity 𝜌 = 1/ conductivity 𝜍
Therefore J= E/𝜌 …………………………..……(10)
Since, Resistance R of a conductor = 𝜌 l/A where 𝜌 is the resistivity of the
material and l is the length of conductor.
Therefore, I= JA = (E/𝜌)A = E×(l/R) …………………….….(11) [R= 𝜌(l/A)]
Since V= El or, E= V/l
I= (V/l) × (l/R) = V/R ………………………….(12)
This is ohms law
Electrical conductivity of the material is also given as
𝜍 = ne2 𝜏/m = ne𝜇𝑒
where 𝜇𝑒 = (e𝜏)/m = mobility acquired by electrons due to presence of electric
field = v/E (Since, v= (eE/m)× 𝜏)
Questions
1. What is conductance and transconductance?
2. What is capacitance and elastance?
Answers:
1. (a)Transconductance or mutual conductance, is the electrical characteristic
and is defined as the ratio of the change in current at the output terminal to
the change in the voltage at the input terminal of an active device.
Transadmittance is the AC equivalent of transconductance.
(b) Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.
2. Elastance (= 1/capacitance) is an electrical property of an electric circuit and
its unit is daraf (reading reverse of farad).
3 FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (or
RESISTIVITY…
3.1 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
The resistance of metallic conductor increase
with the increases of temperature. Where is the
resistance of insulated and not metallic
materials (semi conductors) generally
decreases with the increases of temperature.
Figure 3.1 is a plot of resistance versus Figure 3.1: resistance versus temperature
temperature over a temperature range from

0°C to 100°C and it is a straight line. Straight
line when extended, cut the temperature axis
at temperature –t0°C.
RESISTIVITY
The electrical resistivity or conductivity of materials is not a constant. The
factors affecting the electrical resistivity are:
1. Temperature
2. Alloying
3. Mechanical Stressing
4. Age hardening
RESISTIVITY…
[This temperature is known as inferred zero resistance temperature (this
means that –t0°C is the temperature at which the resistance would be zero is
the rate of decrease of temperature between 100°C and 0°C were
maintained constant at all temperatures.] From similar triangles:
R2/R1 = (t0 + t2)/ (t0 + t1) ………………………………….......(1)
where R1 and R2 resistances at temperatures t1°C and t2°C respectively.
Note: The variation of resistance with temperature is utilized in determining

temperature variations. [e.g.: In testing of electrical m/c, the resistance of the
coil is measured for both before and after the test run, an increase in
resistance is a measure of the rise in temperature which is given by:
RESISTIVITY…
t2 - t1 = {(R2-R1)/R1}(t0+ t1) …………………………….......(2)]
A temperature of 20°C is taken as standard reference temperature for
measurement of resistance and hand books give resistance of various
material at that temperature.
Temperature coefficient of Resistance
A Metallic conductor of resistance R0 at 0°C when heated at t° C has its
resistance Rt at that temperature.
From expression (1)
Rt/R0= (t0+t)/t0
or, Rt=R0 {1+(t/t0)}= R0 + (1/t0)R0t ………………….…....(3)
RESISTIVITY…
or, (Rt-R0) = (1/t0)R0t =𝛼0R0t
where 𝛼0= 1/t0= temperature coefficient of resistance of the material at 0°C.
𝛼0= (Rt-R0)/(R0t) = ∆R/R0t …………………………............(4)
And 𝛼 can be defined as the change in resistance per degree rise of
temperature per unit initial resistance is known as TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE at temperature t0. Hence,
Rt = R0+R0 (𝛼0t)= R0(1+ 𝛼0t) ………………………….......(5)
Important
1. The temperature coefficient of resistance of all pure metallic conductors is
positive i.e. the resistance of all pure metallic conductors increases with the
increases in temperature.
RESISTIVITY…
2. Temperature coefficient of resistance for non metallic materials, e.g.
Carbon is negative.
3. The temperature coefficient of resistance is not constant but depends on
the initial temperature on which the increment in resistance in based. When
increment is based on resistance measured at 0°C, then the temperature
coefficient of resistance has a value of 𝛼0. At any other temperature t°C,
value of temperature coefficient of resistance is 𝛼t and so on.
Temperature coefficient of resistance at temperature t0
= 𝛼0 = (1/t0)
Temperature coefficient of resistance at any other temperature t1
= 𝛼1 = 1/(t0 + t1)
RESISTIVITY…
Temperature coefficient of resistance at temperature t2
= 𝛼2 = 1/(t0 + t2) = 1/((t0 + t1) + (t2 - t1))
= 1/(1/𝛼1 + (t2 - t1))
Resistance of conductor at t2°C in terms of t1°C and 𝛼1 is:
R2 - R1= {1/(t0 + t1)}R1(t2 - t1)
= 𝛼1R1(t2 - t1)
or, R2 = R1 + 𝛼1R1(t2 - t1)
= R1[1+ 𝛼1(t2 - t1)]
4. For any material the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C i.e. 𝛼0 has
the maximum value. As the resistance of material changes with change in
temperature, resistivity of material depends on temperature.
RESISTIVITY…
3.2 EFFECT OF ALLOYING ON RESISTIVITY
● With the addition of traces of some impurities to a metal, its resistivity
increases (or conductivity decreases). Resistivity of alloys is higher than
that of pure base metal.
e.g. at room temperature:
Pure Cu has 𝝆𝑪𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝜴𝒎
Alloy Cu has (60% Cu + 40%Zn) i.e. brass has 𝝆𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝜴𝒎
● Alloying element greatly increase the lattice imperfections that in turn
increases the scattering of electrons and phonons and hence the
resistivity of metal increases with alloying.
RESISTIVITY…
● Important:
Increase of resistivity with alloying elements can be explained as:
(1) atoms of different sizes cause a variation of lattice parameters which
result into scattering of electrons.
(2) The valence difference between atoms of base metal and alloying metal
introduces local charge difference that increases the scattering.
(3) Alloying element having different electron concentration than the base
element changes the position of Fermi energy and hence the resistivity of
the metal alloy.
RESISTIVITY…
[Phonon:
One quantum of thermal energy associated with the vibration of the atoms
in a crystal lattice. If frequency of vibration is 𝜈, Planks constant is ℎ, then the
phonon is equal to ℎ𝜈.]
RESISTIVITY…
3.3 EFFECT OF MECHANICAL STRESSING ON RESISTIVITY
● The resistivity of a material changes under the influence of mechanical
treatment. The fabrication of conductor from ingot to the final stage
[comprises of initial hot working and final cold working operation
(stressing)] distorts the crystal structure of the metal. This generally tends
to (a) harden the material, (b) increase its tensile strength, and (c) slightly
increase its resistivity.
● The increase in tensile strength is very useful for many purposes like OH-
conductors. Many conductors are finally drawn in cold stage and are said
to be hard drawn.
RESISTIVITY…
● Although mechanical stressing increases the resistivity (i.e. decrease in
conductivity) of the metal, but annealing (heat treatment process in which
metal first heated and then slowly cooled in order to make it stronger)
restores the electrical conductivity by establishing a regularity in crystal
structure of metals. Click to add text
● When a metallic conductor is strained (put under pressure), there is a
change in its resistance due to change in the length and cross sectional
area of the conductor. The effect of strain on resistance of metallic
conductors is utilized in manufacture of strain gauges [to measure minute
deformations of test specimen caused by tension, bending or twisting]
that has many applications like measurement of stress, force, tension,
and torque in structures.
RESISTIVITY…
3.4 EFFECT OF AGE HARDENING ON RESISTIVITY
With the increase of age, crystal lattice undergoes distortion due to which
electron mobility is decreased which in turn decreases the mean free path.
The effect of this is that:
electrical resistivity of the metal increases
4 CLASSIFICATION OF CONDUCTING MATERIALS
Based on resistivity, conducting materials are classified into two categories:

1. low resistivity materials
2. high resistivity materials
4.1 LOW RESISTIVITY MATERIALS
Low resistivity materials are used in
(a) house wiring,
(b) as conductors for power transmission and distribution,
(c) the windings of transformer and machines like motors and generators
4 CLASSIFICATION OF CONDUCTING MATERIALS …
● Low resistivity material are used in all such applications where power loss
and voltage drops should be low when power is transmitted from a
generating station [say Damodar Valley Corporation generating station] to
any place, [say Delhi] care is taken to select the conducting material for
the transmission wire having such a value of resistivity that the voltage
drop and the power loss in the wire along the way is as low as possible.
● Cu and Al are examples of commercially accepted low resistivity material.
Ag (silver) has lower resistivity than Cu but because of its prohibitive cost,
its use as a conductor is not commercially viable.
4 CLASSIFICATION OF CONDUCTING MATERIALS…
A low resistivity material, besides possessing very low value of resistivity
should also possess the following additional properties for reasons
mentioned against each:
1. Low temperature co-efficient:
Low temperature coefficient means that the change of resistance with
change in temperature should be low. This is necessary to avoid variation in
voltage drop and power loss with changes in temperature.
e.g.: The resistance of transmission lines, which are very long, increases
when exposed to hot summer Sun. This causes increase in voltage drop and
power loss in the transmission line. The winding of electrical machines and
apparatus become hot when loaded. This causes temperature rise and if the
conducting material of the winding has high temperature coefficient of
resistance, the voltage drop and power loss in winding will be high.
2. Sufficient mechanical strength:
OH-line conductors used for transmission and distribution of electrical power
are subjected to stresses due to wind, ice loading, and their own weights. The
conducting material used for the windings of transformers motors and
generator develop mechanical forces when loaded, which becomes very
large if high current flows due to short circuit. When the coils for the winding
of such equipments are made on formers, the conducting materials are
subjected to mechanical stresses. Therefore to withstand such mechanical
stresses, the conducting materials must possess sufficient mechanical
strength.
3. Ductility:
It is the property of a material which allows to be drawn out into thin wire
shape. Since conductors are required in different shapes and sizes, like some
are round wire, some are rectangular wires as per application. Therefore
conducting materials should be ductile enough to be drawn into different
shapes and sizes.
4. Solderability
Conductors are often jointed and joint should offer minimum resistance. A
simple joint is formed by twisting the conductor materials to be jointed. This
gives high resistance. Soldering provides minimum contact resistance. As all
the material cannot be soldered, but this issue has to be kept in mind.
5. Resistance to corrosion
The conducting material must not get corroded when exposed to outdoor
atmosphere.
4.2 HIGH RESISTIVITY MATERIALS
● High resistivity materials are used for making
(a) resistance elements for heating devices,
(b) starters for electric motors,
(c) resistances used in precision measuring instruments,
(d) loading resistances and Rheostat, and
(e) filaments for incandescent lamps.
● High resistivity materials are used in the above-mentioned applications
where large value of resistance is required. If low resistivity materials
were used in place of high resistivity materials for the same application,
the length of the wire would be inconveniently too large and so the size of
equipment. High resistivity material besides possessing high value of
resistivity should also possess the following additional properties for the
reasons mentioned against each:
1. Low temperature coefficient
High resistivity materials are used as shunts in electrical measuring
instruments, in making wire-wound precision resistances, and resistance
boxes. For such practical (precision) applications, the material of the element
should have negligible temperature coefficient of resistance as otherwise the
accuracy of measurements will be affected.
2. High melting point
● In applications like loading rheostats and starters for electrical motors,
the material for the resistance element should be able to withstand high
temperatures for long time without melting. The consideration of the
resistance temperature coefficient in these cases is also important but
comparatively higher value than those mentioned in (1) above are
permissible.
● The consideration of high MP is important for resistance materials used in
electrical heating devices like room heater, furnaces, etc.
3. No tendency for oxidation
materials used as high resistance elements in heating appliances should be
able to withstand high temperature for a long time without oxidation. This is
because if an oxide layer is formed on the heating element, the amount of
heat radiation will reduce.
4. Ductility
High resistance material are required to be made in the shape of
-very thin wires in the case of precision wire-wound registers, and
-thick wires in the case of elements used in ovens, heaters, starters, etc. High
resistance materials to be used for such applications, should be capable of
being drawn into wires of different sizes and further be capable of being
coiled.
4. High Mechanical Strength:
High resistivity materials to be used for applications where wires must be
very thin, are required to have high tensile strength as otherwise they may
break during the (1) drawing of the wire or during the assembly, and (2)
subsequent operation.
5 Super Conductivity
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Equation 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅20 [1 + 𝛼(𝑡 − 20)]
holds for temperature below 20⁰ C. But at very low temperature (near 0 K),
some materials acquire zero electrical resistance and zero magnetic
induction. This property is known as superconductivity.
[e.g. Mercury becomes superconducting at approximately 4.5 K (-268.5⁰ C)]
5.2 SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS

At their respective transition temperatures 𝑇𝑐 ,
superconducting elements: Al, Zn, Cd, Hg, Pb
superconducting compounds and alloys: PbAu, PbTl2, SnSb, CuS, NbN,
NbB, ZrC, and MoN.
5 Super Conductivity…
5.3 CHARACTERISTIC TEMPERATURE AND IT'S DEPENDENCY
The characteristic temperature at which a metal becomes superconducting
depends on:
Strength of magnetic field, 𝑯 whether it is

applied externally or is the result of current
used to measure the resistance.
5.4 METALS ARE NOT SUPERCONDUCTORS
● It is interesting that metals such as Cu, Au, Ag and alkali metals which are
very good conductors do not show superconducting properties. Whereas
metals and compounds which are superconducting are rather bad
conductors at room temperature. [monovalent metals (Li, Na, K),
ferromagnetic metals (Fe, Ni, Co), and antiferromagnetic metals (MnF2,
MnO2, MnS) are not superconducting. ]
● Phenomenological theories based on thermodynamics and
electrodynamics have provided some insight into the relationships
between the various physical properties of superconductors. An atomic
interpretation for superconductors was given by Frohlich and Bardeen in
1950 which provides framework of the modern theory of metals to
explain superconductivity.
5.5 Hg AS SUPERCONDUCTORS
Superconductivity was discovered in 1911 by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes at the
University of Leiden in the Netherland when he observed that the electrical
resistivity of mercury (Hg) disappeared completely at temperatures
approximately 4.2 K. Figure 1 shows the resistance of Hg as a function of
temperature.
Figure 1: Variation of resistance of Hg

specimen as a function of temperature
5.6 TRANSITION TEMPERATURE

The temperature at which there is transition of conducting material from
‘normal’ state to ‘superconducting’ state is called ‘transition temperature’ 𝑇𝑐 .
Note: After Hg, many elements and some 30 compounds and alloys have
been found to exhibit superconducting properties. Thus, it has been
experimentally established that the resistance of superconductors is zero
(i.e. 𝜌 = 0) and is one of the characteristic properties of the superconducting
state.
If an induced current of several hundred amperes is applied to a
superconductor ring (i.e. lead ring), it flows unreduced for years.
𝑻𝒄 As function of magnetic field, 𝑯
The transition temperature 𝑇𝑐 , of a superconductor can
be reduced/varied by the application of a magnetic
field as shown in Figure 2.
Let a superconductor has a temperature 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑐 . If a
magnetic field 𝐻 is applied, the material remains superconducting u
Figure 2: Schematic representation of the critical
critical field 𝐻𝑐 is reached such that
Magneticfor
field 𝐻 >a 𝐻
𝐻𝑐 as 𝑐 , the
function material
of temperature 𝑇 is in the n
state. The curve in Figure 2 represents schematically the func

relationship of critical magnetic field 𝐻𝑐 and critical temperature o
superconductor, 𝑇𝑐 .
The transition from superconducting state to the normal state unde
influence of a magnetic field is reversible.
The function 𝐻𝑐 (𝑇) follows with good accuracy the relation
𝑇2
𝐻𝑐 𝑇 = 𝐻0 (1 − )
𝑇𝑐2
where 𝐻0 and 𝑇𝐶 are constants and characteristic of the material. The order
of 𝐻𝑐 for most of the superconducting materials is a few 10−4 𝐴/𝑚.
[𝐻0 = 𝐻𝑐 0 = critical field at 0 K]
5.7 SILSBEE'S RULE
It is not necessary that magnetic field which causes a superconductor to
become normal is an externally applied field; it may also arise as a result of
electric current flowing in the conductor. The superconductivity in a long
circular wire of radius ‘r’ may be destroyed when the current 𝐼 exceeds the
value of 𝐼𝑐 which at the surface of the wire would produce the critical
magnetic field, 𝐻𝑐 . The critical current 𝐼𝑐 producing critical magnetic field 𝐻𝑐 is
given by 𝐼𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐻𝑐
This is known as Silsbee’s rule. This rule prohibits the use of superconductor
in the coil form for the purpose of producing strong magnetic fields.
[Cryotron (a switch) is based on the fact of disappearance
of superconductivity for fields above the critical field]
Figure: A single cryotron in which the current I in superconductor A
is controlled by the current in superconductor B
5.8 MEISSNER EFFECT
Meissner and Ochsenfeld in 1933 found that if a long superconductor is
cooled in a longitudinal magnetic field to below the value of critical
temperature corresponding to that field, then the lines of induction, 𝐵 are
pushed out of the body of the superconductor at the transition (Figure 3).
This phenomenon is called the
Meissner effect.
In Figure 3, an applied magnetic field can
exist inside a superconductor above 𝑇𝑐 .
When the superconductor is cooled below
𝑇𝑐 , surface currents appear, whose effect
is to expel the magnetic field from the
Figure 3
interior of the superconductor.
Such flux exclusion is also observed if the superconductor is first cooled
below 𝑇𝑐 and then placed in the magnetic field. The effect is of fundamental
importance as it shows that a bulk superconductor behaves in a external
magnetic field 𝐻 as if inside the specimen 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝑀 = 0 or susceptibility
( 𝑀 𝐻 ) i.e. 𝜒 = −1 . This shows that a superconductor exhibits perfect
diamagnetism.
[Note: The perfect diamagnetism of superconductors is an independent
property not related to zero resistivity.
Explanation: From ohm's law 𝐸 = 𝜌𝐽, we see that if the resistivity 𝜌 goes to
zero while 𝐽 is held infinite, then 𝐸 must be zero. Using Maxwell's equation:
𝜕
∇×𝐸 =− 𝐵
𝜕𝑡
we obtain 𝐵 = constant. This concludes that the flux through the specimen
cannot change on cooling through the transition. This means that when a
perfect conductor (𝜌 = 0) is cooled in the magnetic field until its resistance
becomes zero, the magnetic field in the material gets frozen and cannot
change subsequently irrespective of the applied field. This is in contradiction
to the Meissner Effect. Thus, perfect diamagnetism and zero resistivity are
the independent essential properties of the superconducting state (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Magnetic behavior of a perfect conductor

5.9 TYPES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

When a magnetic field is applied to a material in superconducting state, the
material repels all the magnetic lines of force through it. However at a critical
magnetic field strength 𝐻𝑐 , the material reverts from the superconducting
state to the normal state and is penetrated by the magnetic lines force. The
value of the critical field depends on temperature. It is also zero at 𝑇𝑐 and
increases with decreasing temperature below 𝑇𝑐 . [Some superconductors let
the magnetic lines of force to penetrate through them abruptly and fully at
𝐻𝑐 . These are called type I superconductors.
5.9 TYPES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS…
Figure 5: Magnetic properties of superconductors by temperature

Other superconductors gradually let the magnetic field lines of course to
penetrate through them, starting from a lower critical field 𝐻𝑐1 , and allowing
full penetration at the upper critical field 𝐻𝑐2 . These are called type II
superconductors.
[𝐻𝑐2 for a type II superconductor can be several orders of magnitude larger
than 𝐻𝑐 for a type I superconductor. Hence, type II superconductors are of
great practical interest.]
5.10 APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

1. Superconductors are used for producing very strong magnetic field of
about 20-30 T which is much larger than the field obtained from an
electromagnet and such high magnetic fields are required in power
generators
[Efforts are being made to develop electrical machines and transformers
utilizing superconductivity. Calculations have shown that if superconductors
are used as conducting material, in addition to superconducting magnets,
which are already being produced, it may be possible to manufacture
electrical generators and transformers in exceptionally small size having an
efficiency as high as 99.99%.]
2. Magnetic energy can be stored in large superconductors and drawn as

required to counter the voltage fluctuations during peak loading.
3. Superconductors can be used to perform logic and storage functions in
computers.
4. A superconductor can be suspended in air against repulsive forces from
permanent magnet. The levitation can be used in transportation (Magnetic
Levitation i.e. Maglev train).
5. As there is no heat loss in superconductors (i.e. 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 0), so power can be

transmitted through the superconducting cables. [Superconducting materials
if used for power cables enable transmission of power over very long
distances using a diameter of a few centimeters without any significant
power loss]
Note: Superconducting solenoids which do not produce any heat during

operations have been produced. However, superconductivity can be
destroyed if the magnetic field exceeds a critical value. It has been possible
to design electromagnets using superconductivity for use in laboratories and
for low temperature devices like maser (microwave amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation)
Numerical
Q-1
Numerical
Q-2
Critical current density Jc = 195.01× 106 A/𝑚2

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MAIT EEE Dept.

Materials in Electrical Systems

Mail assignment at my mail ID: neelamkassarwani@mait.ac.in Faculty: Neelam Kassarwani

This has been referred from GGSIPU site (page 13)

Energy of a free electron > energy of a bound valence electron

Fig 1.1(a) Electronic energy levels broaden into bands when

neither all the valence electrons possess the same energy

nor all the conduction electrons possess the same energy

No electron of a material of solid can stay in forbidden gap because of the

such as wood, glass, etc.

2) Conduction Band (CB): The range of energies possessed by conduction

conduction of electric current through them such as

available for conduction.

Total charge flowing through the section in time dt = dq

temperature over a temperature range from

Note: The variation of resistance with temperature is utilized in determining

Based on resistivity, conducting materials are classified into two categories:

5.2 SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS

Strength of magnetic field, 𝑯 whether it is

Figure 1: Variation of resistance of Hg

5.6 TRANSITION TEMPERATURE

state. The curve in Figure 2 represents schematically the func

Figure 4: Magnetic behavior of a perfect conductor

5.9 TYPES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

5.9 TYPES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS…

Figure 5: Magnetic properties of superconductors by temperature

5.10 APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

2. Magnetic energy can be stored in large superconductors and drawn as

5. As there is no heat loss in superconductors (i.e. 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 0), so power can be

Note: Superconducting solenoids which do not produce any heat during

Critical current density Jc = 195.01× 106 A/𝑚2

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