What is soil?

Soils form the skin of the Earth. Their thickness varies from a few millimetres – there where the
soil is very young or scraped-off by external forces (e.g. water, wind, human activity) – to
several metres – there where they occur in protected or stable places. They comprise of layers or
soil horizons, each with their own characteristics. Soil material consists of a variable and often
complex mixture of organic matter, sand, silt and clay particles, or is composed of dominantly
organic debris.

Soils are formed under the influence of climate, the material they occur on, the flora and fauna
(including human activity), the topography of the terrain, and time. These five factors are
commonly known as the Soil forming factors.

Functions of soil
Soil is our life support system. Soils provide anchorage for roots, hold water and nutrients. Soils
are home to myriad micro-organisms that fix nitrogen and decompose organic matter, and armies
of microscopic animals as well as earthworms and termites. We build on soil as well as with it
and in it

Soil plays a vital role in the Earth’s ecosystem. Without soil human life would be very difficult.
Soil provides plants with foothold for their roots and holds the necessary nutrients for plants to
grow; it filters the rainwater and regulates the discharge of excess rainwater, preventing flooding;
it is capable of storing large amounts of organic carbon; it buffers against pollutants, thus
protecting groundwater quality; it provides Man with some essential construction and
manufacturing materials; it also presents a record of past environmental conditions

Soil functions are general capabilities of soils that are important for various agricultural,
environmental, nature protection, landscape architecture and urban applications. Six key soil
functions are:

1. Food and other biomass production

2. Environmental Interaction: storage, filtering, and transformation
3. Biological habitat and gene (DNA) pool
4. Source of raw materials
5. Physical and cultural heritage
6. Platform for man-made structures: buildings, highways
Soil formation
Soils have a life cycle; they are born, mature and become of age. In cases, they may even "die"
(disappear or get buried).

Soil formation starts by desintegrating the rock under the influence of climate. Rainwater will
dissolve rock elements, temperature fluctations will cause differential expansion and contraction
of rock-forming crystals, and the freezing and thawing of water captured in the rock will widen
existing cracks and cavities. Pioneer vegetation, at first lichens, will settle and their roots will
further loosen the rock. Moreover, decaying plant debris will produce organic acids, which
further attack the rock. Organic matter will start to accumulate and be mixed with the mineral
material provided by the rock. A soil is born.

Over time, rock minerals will be dissolved or transformed. Elements released from the rock will
precipitate and new minerals may be formed. For example, iron will be oxidized and precipitate
as iron oxides or hydroxides, giving the soil reddish or yellowish-brownish colours. Soil fauna
will settle and mix (‘homogenize’) the soil. The soil will grow in depth through newly formed
soil material at the bottom. The soil matures.

Given sufficient time under stable environmental conditions, soils will reach a steady state,
whereby soil build-up matches their breakdown. Production of humus from decaying
vegetational debris will equal its consumption by soil microbae, fauna and flora. Transformation
of rock minerals into soil minerals will keep pace with the removal of earlier formed soil
minerals. Slow surface wash of topsoil is matched by new formation of soil material from the
bedrock. The soil has aged.

Dramatic events can interrupt the life cycle of soils. A soil may be covered suddenly by a
volcanic eruption or by submergence under water. They may disappear in part or altogether by
water or wind erosion.

On steep slopes the newly formed loose soil material will be removed fairly easily by runoff of
rainwater or gravitational forces. Therefore, soils in mountainous regions are often shallow. On
footslopes and in more level areas soil material will accumulate and this leads to deeper soils.
Components of soil
Soil Components: Soils consist of four major components:
(1) mineral (or inorganic),
(2) organic,
(3) water and
(4) air.
The relative proportions of these four soil components vary with soil type and climatic conditions. Review
the approximate proportions (by volume) of the four soil components in a mineral soil under optimum
conditions for plant growth.

Image Source: : Leslie Dampier

Soil Components:

1. Mineral Components

Mineral particles are inorganic materials derived from rocks and minerals. They
are extremely variable in size and composition.

1.1.Composition

1.1.1. Types of primary and secondary minerals

Primary minerals are formed at high temperature and pressure, under reducing
conditions without free oxygen. These minerals are mainly present in soils as sand
and silt particles. They are not crystallized and deposed from molten lava.

Slide Show Images - Source:� Amethyst Galleries Inc. All Rights

Reserved http://mineral.galleries.com/

Secondary minerals are formed at low temperature and pressure through

oxidation. They are the weathering product of primary minerals, either through
alteration of their structure or through re-precipitation. Secondary minerals are
usually present in soil as clay particles.

Slide Show Images - Source:� Amethyst Galleries Inc. All Rights

Reserved http://mineral.galleries.com/ and � USDA
http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/

1.1.2. Weathering

Weathering refers to the breakdown and changes in rocks and sediments at or

near the Earth's surface brought about by biological, chemical, and physical
agents or combinations thereof. Weathering also involves the synthesis of new
(secondary) minerals that are of great importance in soil (e.g. clay minerals).
Weathering

Image Source: : � USDA http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/

Examples of physical weathering include processes such as crystal growth,

thermal expansion, moisture swelling, abrasion, etc.

Chemical weathering consists of the following processes:

1) Hydration � intact water molecules bind to a mineral transforming hematite

into ferrihydrate:

2) Hydrolysis � water molecules split into their hydrogen and hydroxyl

components and hydrogen replaces a cation from the mineral structure (e.g.
transformation of feldspar to kaolinite):

3) Dissolution (or solution) � water is capable of dissolving many minerals by

hydrating the cations and anions until they become dissociated from each other
and surrounded by water molecules. (e.g. dissolution of gypsum):

4) Carbonation : weathering is accelerated by the presence of acids that increase

the activity of hydrogen ions in water. For example, when carbon dioxide dissolves
in water (a process enhanced by microbial and root respiration) the carbonic acid
(H2CO3) produced hastens the chemical dissolution of calcite into limestone (or
marble):
5) Oxidation-reduction : minerals that contain Fe, Mn, or S are especially
susceptible to oxidation-reduction reactions. When for example, iron is oxidized
from divalent to trivalent form, the change in valence and ionic radius causes
destabilizing adjustments in the crystal structure of the mineral.

Biological weathering effects includes:

 the break up of rock particles by roots

 the transfer and mixing of materials by burrowing animals and
 the formation of organo-mineral complexes (soil biological processes
produce organic acids that can solubilize Al and Si ions, which are
removed from a mineral by this process).

Biological Weathering

An example of biological weathering of a

rock under the influence of clams
Image Source: Maja Krzic

1.1.3. Most common elements in soils

The median and range of various elements present in soils from around the world
are given in Table 1. The elements that are found in soils in the highest quantities
are O, Si, Al, Fe, C, Ca, K, Na, and Mg. These are also major elements found in
the Earth’s crust and in sediments. Oxygen is the most prevalent element in the
Earth’s crust and in soils. It comprises about 47% of the Earth’s crust by weight
and more than 90% by volume.

Table 1. Contents of some elements in soils, the Earth�s crust and

sediments (exert from Sparks 2003)
 Element Soils (mg/kg) Earth’s Sediments
crust (mean)
(mean)
Median Range
O 490,000 - 474,000 486,000
Si 330,000 250,000- 277,000 245,000
410,000
Al 71,000 10,000- 82,000 72,000
300,000
Fe 40,000 2,000- 41,000 41,000
550,000
C (total) 20,000 7,000- 480 29,400
500,000
Ca 15,000 700-500,000 41,000 66,000
Mg 5,000 400-9,000 23,000 14,000
K 14,000 80-37,000 21,000 20,000
Na 5,000 150-25,000 23,000 5,700
Mn 1,000 20-10,000 950 770
Zn 90 1-900 75 95
Mo 1.2 0.1-40 1.5 2
Ni 50 2-750 80 52
Cu 30 2-250 50 33
N 2,000 200-5,000 25 470
P 800 35-5,300 1,000 670
S (total) 700 30-1,600 260 2,200

1.1.4. Particle and bulk density

Particle density () is mass of solids (Ms) per volume of solids (Vs).

= Ms/Vs

In most mineral soils the mean density of the particles is about 2.6-2.7 gm/cm3 (or
2600 - 2700 kg/m3). Soils with a high content of iron oxides and various heavy
minerals have a particle density of 5.2-5.3 gm/cm3, while soils with high organic
matter content can have a particle density as low as 1.3 gm/cm 3.

Bulk density (b) is the mass of solids (Ms) per total soil volume (Vt).

b = Ms / Vt

b= Ms / (Vs + Va + Vw)

Vs=volume of solids; Va=volume of air; Vw=volume of water

Bulk density is always smaller than rs. Since in a general case pores constitute
half the volume, rb is about half ofrs, namely 1.3-1.35 g/cm3 (or 1300-1350
kg/m3).
Volume Density: Animation is to illustrate relationships among the weight and
volume of soil air, water, and solids

Click on the image to view flash animation

1.2 Size of soil particles

The mineral particles present in soils vary enormously in size from boulders and
stones down to sand grains and minute clay particles that cannot be seen by an
optical microscope. An arbitrary division is made by size-grading soil into material:

a) that passes trough a sieve with 2-mm diameter holes - the fine earth
(consisting of sand, silt, and clay particles),

b) that is retained on the sieve (> 2 mm) - the coarse fragments (gravel, cobbles,
and stones).

Coarse fragments (diameter > 2 mm) are defined as rock fragments and do not
include fragments of pads or concretions.

1.2.1. Soil Texture

Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay in a soil. It is
often the first and most important property to be determined when describing a
soil, since many conclusions can be drawn from this information (water intake or
infiltration, water storage in the soil, soil aeration, soil fertility, trafficability, etc.).

A number of different classification systems have been devised to divide soil

particles according to their size. The figure below shows the limits of different size
classes in three systems of soil particle size classification. Although Canadian
classification system is not shown, it is very similar to the USDA system, with the
exception of sub-classes of silt and clay size classes.

Particle Size Classification

Click on the image to view a larger

Particle Size Classification
Image Source: Lesley Dampier

Textural names are given to soils based on the relative proportions of each of the
three soil particles - sand, silt, and clay. Soils that contain predominantly clay size
particles are called clay (textural class), those with high silt content are called silt
(textural class), and those with a high sand content are called sand (textural
class). A more complicated soil textural class that is called a loam is a mixture of
sand, silt, and clay particles and it exhibits the properties of those particles in
about equal proportions.

Soil Texture Determination

Click on the image to view a larger image of the soil

texture determination.

Image Source: by permission:

Centre for Teaching, Learning and Technology, UBC

1.3. Soil colloids

1.3.1. Types of soil colloids

When suspended in water, colloids do not readily settle out due to Brownian
motion (when particles are moved around by collisions with other small particles).
In chemistry, colloids where particles smaller than 0.001 mm (or 1 m), but it has
been observed that soil particles smaller than 0.002 mm (or 2 m) still behave in
the same manner, hence they are called soil colloids.

Most common soil colloids are:

1) Phyllosilicate clay minerals

2) Oxides and hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum (e.g., gibbsite, goethite,
hematite)

3) Amorphous minerals (e.g., allophane and imogolite)

4) Organic colloids

Phyllosilicate clay minerals are a sub-group of silicates (an extensive group of

minerals which are derived from silica SiO2). All silicates are based on the SiO44-
tetrahedron with partial or complete sharing of oxygen atoms. Different silicate
structures arise from the various ways in which SiO44- tetrahedra combine with
one another. Two types of building blocks are present in phyllosilicates:

a) tetrahedron (4-faced structure) where each silicon (Si) is surrounded

with 4 oxygen atoms

b) octahedron (8-faced structure) where each aluminum atom is

surrounded by 6 oxygen atoms

Two types of phyllosilicate clay minerals that are commonly present in soils are
montmorillonite and kaolinite.

MONTMORILLONITE is a 2:1 phyllosilicate mineral where there is one Al-

octahedral sheet sandwiched between two Si-tetrahedral sheets (one such
sandwich is called a layer, while many layers make a micelle or crystal). The
layers in montmorillonite crystals are loosely held together by very weak oxygen-
to-oxygen and cation-to-oxygen bonds. Hence, water molecules and various ions
are attracted between layers (into the interlayer space) causing expansion of the
crystal. Montmorillonite is characterized by pronounced swelling when wet and
shrinkage on drying. Wide cracks commonly form as montmorillonite dominated
soils (e.g. Vertisols) are dried. Typically, montmorillonite particles are thin
(thickness ~1 to 3 nm and width ~500 nm), flat disks.

Montmorillonite Clay Minerals

Image Source: Centre for Teaching, Learning and Technology, UBC

KAOLINITE is a 1:1 phyllosilicate mineral in which there is one Al-octahedral
sheet bonded to one Si-tetrahedral sheet by shared (apical) oxygen atoms of the
tetrahedral sheet. Two adjacent layers are held together by hydrogen bonding.
Consequently, the structure is fixed and no expansion occurs between layers
when the clay is wetted. The effective surface of kaolinite is restricted to its
external surface area. The typical kaolinite particle is fairly large (thickness ~ 50
nm and width ~ 1-3 nm) in comparison with other clay particles and hexagonal in
shape. Because of the strong binding forces between their structural layers,
kaolinite particles are not readily broken down into extremely thin plates. Kaolinite
exhibits very little shrinkage and swelling.

Kaolinite Diagram

Models of the 1:1-type clay kaolinite

Image Source: Clay Minerals Group
Kaolinite Photo

Photo of kaolinite crystals

Source: Clay Minerals Group

Amorphous minerals (imogolite and allophane)

Imogolite and allophane are minerals found in many soils including soils formed
on volcanic ash parent material and Podzolic soil type. They are very small (about
2 nanometers in diameter) and a very reactive component of soils.
 Imogolite and allophane are amorphous, which means that they do not have a
repetitive structure with atoms arranged in a regular pattern over relatively long
distances (at least tens of nanometers). Because their structure is somewhat
ordered on a few nanometers scale, they are said to be 'paracrystalline' or to have
'short range order'.

Imogolite and allophane are both aluminosilicates, which means that they are
made of variable amounts of aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), oxygen (O), and hydrogen
(H) ions. They have a rather similar composition but their morphology is different.
Imogolite forms tubes while allophane forms hollow spheres:

1.3.2. Specific surface area

Specific surface area is defined as the surface area of particles per unit mass or
unit volume of particles. Because of their large size, sand particles have small
specific surface area (e.g., 0.1 m 2/g). Clay particles, on the other hand, have a
very large specific surface area, giving them a tremendous capacity to adsorb
water and other substances (e.g. 10-1,000 m2/g).

1.3.3. Charges on soil colloids

The �ideal� montmorillonite composition is HSi2AlO6, which results in an

�ideal� net charge of [1(+1)+2(+4)+1(+3)+6(-2)] = 0. However, the real
composition of montmorillonite involves isomorphic substitution of Mg for some Al
in the octahedral sheet. With Mg2+ substituting for Al3+ there are fewer positive
charges to neutralize the negative charges and a large permanent (negative)
charge results (it is called permanent charge since it takes place during
crystallization and it is not a subject to changes). In contrast, there are also
variable or pH-dependent charges that are formed by protonation and
deprotonation of functional groups like -OH.

�Ideal� kaolinite composition is H4Si2Al2O9, which results in an �ideal� net

charge of [4(+1)+2(+4)+2(+3)+9(-2)] = 0. Composition of kaolinite is close to ideal,
since there is very little or no isomorphic substitution, resulting in no permanent
charges. Kaolinite in soil usually has some surface contamination, and net
negative charge is about 8 cmolc/kg soil. In addition, kaolinite has a small amount
of variable charge related to dissociable OH groups attached to Al at the edges
of the crystal, where the structural regularity ends.

Phyllosilicate Clay Minerals

 Click on the image to view a large image of
the phyllosilicate clay minerals.

Image Source: Centre for Teaching, Learning and Technology, UBC

Faculty of Land and Food Systems
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

SOIL COMPONENTS
Soil Components:
INTERACTIONS AMONG SOIL
COMPONENTS
2. Organic Components
NUTRIENT CYCLES

2.1 Types of Organic Compounds

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

SOIL MANAGEMENT 2.1.1. Non-humic substances

2.1.2. Humic substances
SOIL ORGANISMS

2. Soil organic components

2.1. Types of organic compounds

Soil organic matter (SOM) can be of plant, animal, or microbial origin and may
be relatively fresh or highly decomposed and transformed. In this course, terms
�soil organic matter� and �humus� are considered synonyms.

One of many definitions of soil organic matter states that �it is a complex and
rather resistant mixture of brown or dark brown amorphous and colloidal organic
compounds that result from microbial decomposition and synthesis and has
chemical and physical properties of great significance to soils and plants�.

Many species of fungi and bacteria soil particles decompose soil organic matter.
The fungi and bacteria that can break down the woody tissues and cellulose of
intact leaves, stems and dead roots of plants perform the function of
decomposition of organic matter that often builds humus and returns nutrient
back to the soil. When the species that are capable of decomposition are
lacking, leaves and other organic matter remain intact and the food energy they
contain are not released to drive the foodweb.

Soils may vary greatly in their organic matter contents. For example, a typical
prairie grassland soil (Chernozem) may contain 5-6% SOM (by weight) in surface
horizons, sandy desert soil may have <1% of SOM, while Organic soils (by
definition) contain >30% SOM (by weight).

A simple test that allows qualitative comparison of soil organic matter content
 Organic matter is an important soil component because it:

a) holds soil particles together and stabilizes the soil, thus reducing the risk
of erosion;

b) aids crop growth by improving the soil's ability to store and transmit air
and water;

c) stores and supplies many nutrients needed for the growth of plants and
soil organisms;

d) prevents or minimizes soil compaction;

e) retains carbon from the atmosphere;

f) reduces the negative environmental effects of pesticides, heavy metals,

and many other pollutants.

2.1.1. Non-humic substances

The physically and chemically heterogeneous mixture of materials that make up

SOM varies substantially in terms of quantity and resistance to biological
decomposition.

SOM includes primary components that are inherited from plant and animal
residues entering the soil. Primary components are sometimes referred to as
non-humic substances. These compounds are relatively easily decomposed by
microorganisms and they persist in soil for a brief time (e.g. several months or
years). They make about 20-30% of total SOM. These include
  carbohydrates and several derivatives (monosaccharides, and
polisaccharides such as cellulose, hemiscellulose)
 amino acids and several derivatives (proteins)
 lignin (condensed polyphenil-propane structures of extremely large
molecular weight, very resistant to microbial decomposition)
 lipids (a class of organic compounds which is a convenient analytical
group rather than a specific type of compound. They include fats, oils,
waxes, phospholipids, and resins)
 a variety of other compounds.

RELATED LINK:
Agricultural University of Wroclaw
Non- humic substances characteristics

 Detailed characteristics:
 http://www.ar.wroc.pl/~weber/no.htm

2.1.2. Humic substances

SOM also includes secondary compounds, compounds formed within the soil by
breaking down organic structures and synthesizing new ones. The secondary
components include carbohydrates, amino acids, lipids and others, more or less
resembling many primary components. In addition, secondary components also
include humic substances, which are rather different from most primary
components.

Humic substances are products of biochemical decomposition. They are complex

substances of high molecular weight, which are resistant to further decomposition.
Consequently they tend to accumulate in the soil. Most are dark and are hence
responsible for the dark soil color that is commonly associated with soils of high
organic matter content. Humic substances make up 60-80% of total SOM.

Humic substances can be classified based on their behavior in acids and bases.
There are three general groups of humic substances: (1) fulvic acids, (2) humic
acids, and (3) humin. These three groups are nondescript mixtures of many
chemical compounds and should not be considered as distinct chemical entities.

Humins are particles with large molecular weight, relatively small specific surface
area, relatively low number of carboxyl groups, and are inactive.

Humic acids are smaller in size then humins (approximately colloid-sized) and
have more carboxyl groups than humins.

Fulvic acids are the smallest in size among humic substances, and have a large
number of carboxyl groups per unit mass. For this reason they are the most
active among humic substances.

The humic substances posses carboxyl groups (*R-COOH), which give them their
acidic character and make them effective in buffering soil pH:

R-COOH ↔ R-COO- + H+

*R represents any number of organic compounds.

In a common range of soil pH the overall charge on SOM is negative, due to

dissociation of hydrogen ions from carboxyl and other functional groups.

The percentage of the humus which occurs in the various humic fractions varies
considerably from one soil type to another. The humus of forest soils is
characterized by a high content of fulvic acids while the humus of peat and
grassland soils is high in humic acids (see figure). The humic acid / fulvic acid
ratio usually, but not always, decreases with increasing depth.

RELATED LINK:
Agricultural University of Wroclaw
Properties of humic substances

 Detailed characteristics:
http://www.ar.wroc.pl/~weber/kwasy2.htm
 FEEDBACK
Comments or
Questions

Faculty of Land and Food Systems

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

SOIL
COMPONENT Soil Components
S
INTERACTIO
NS AMONG
SOIL
3. Soil Water
COMPONENT
S
NUTRIENT 3.1 Soil Water Content
CYCLES 3.2 Soil Solution
SOIL
CLASSIFICAT 3.3 Soil Water Flow
ION
SOIL
3.4 Qualitative Description of Soil Wetness
MANAGEMEN
T
SOIL Water is the major transport agent for fluxes within and between terrestrial ecosystems. It is a
ORGANISMS prerequisite for all active life, and participates in geochemical cycles by weathering geological

substrates, by leaching materials to groundwater and by moving ions and particles through the
soil profile.

Soil water is part of the global hydrological cycle, which shows how water that falls as
precipitation returns to the atmosphere through transpiration and evaporation. On a local scale,
how well the soil stores water is of great importance to crop production and the vitality of the
land.

Hydrological Cycle
 FEEDBACK
Comments or
Questions
SOIL COMPONENTS
INTERACTIONS AMONG Soil Components:
SOIL COMPONENTS
NUTRIENT CYCLES
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SOIL MANAGEMENT
4. Soil Air
SOIL ORGANISMS

Soil pores, the voids between minerals, organic matter, and living organisms, are filled
with air or water. There is a dynamic equilibrium between water and air content within
a soil. When water enters the soil, it displaces air from some of the pores.

4.1.Composition of soil air

4.2. Movement of gasses within soil
4.3. Soil porosity

Source: Lesley Dampier

4.1. Composition of soil air

The composition of soil air is different from that of the atmosphere because it cannot
readily mix with air above the soil. The metabolic activity of plant roots, microbes and
soil fauna all affect the composition of soil air. For example, the concentration of
carbon dioxide (CO2) in soil (between 0.3 and 3%) is often several hundred times
higher than the 0.03% found in the atmosphere. In extreme cases oxygen can be as
low as 5-10%, compared to 20% in the atmosphere. Soil air has a higher moisture
content than the atmosphere, with relative humidity approaching 100% under optimum
conditions. (humidity is not as variable in soil as it is in the atmosphere). The amount
and composition of air in soil are dynamic and to a large degree are determined by
water content and activity of soil organisms.

CO2 chambers
CO2chamber is used to measure soil's respiration
Source: UBC Biometeorology Group
Faculty of Land & Food Systems
CO2 chambers

CO2 chamber is used to measure soil's respiration

Source: UBC Biometeorology Group
Faculty of Agricultural Science

4.2. Movement of gasses within soil

The exchange of gases between the atmosphere and soil is facilitated by two
mechanisms:

1) Mass flow (convection) of air - the moving force is a gradient of total gas
pressure, and it results in the entire mass of air streaming from a zone of
higher pressure to one of lower pressure. Mass flow of air is much less
important than diffusion, except perhaps in layers at or very near the soil
surface.

2) Diffusion - moving force is gradient of partial pressure of any constituent

member of air to migrate from a zone of higher to lower pressure, even while
air as a whole may remain stationary. In other words, through diffusion each
gas moves in a direction determined by its own partial pressure.

The oxygen flux density due to diffusion is proportional to the oxygen concentration
gradient along the axis, and the proportionality factor is called the (oxygen) diffusion
coefficient (D). This statement is an example of Fick�s Law of Diffusion, which can
be expressed as follows:
where J is the diffusive flux density of the gas (oxygen in this example) (mg/m 2/s)
along the x-axis, C is oxygen concentration in the soil air (units are g/m 3), x is distance
along x-axis (m), dC/dx is the oxygen concentration gradient (g/m 4), and D is the
(oxygen) diffusion coefficient (m 2/s).

The oxygen diffusion coefficient (D) for diffusion in air is about 10,000 times as large
as the coefficient for diffusion in water. Thus the oxygen diffusion coefficient (D) of a
soil is very strongly influenced by three factors:

1) air-filled porosity (Va/Vt), which decreases with increasing soil water content

2) the continuity of air-filled pores, which decreases with increasing soil water
content

3) the tortuosity of air-filled pores, which increases with increasing soil water
content.

Growth of most plants and survival of their roots normally requires maintenance of
adequate soil oxygen. This in turn requires maintainance of soil water well below
saturation, to enable rapid gas diffusion in the soil.

4.3. Soil porosity

Soil porosity (f) is the ratio of pore volume (Vf) to total soil volume (Vt)

f = Vf / Vt
It is generally between 30-60%. Porosity tells us nothing about the relative amounts of
large and small pores, and should be interpreted with caution. Generally, high porosity
(e.g. 60%) is an indicator of lack of compaction and good soil conditions.