CHAPTER I PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 1, PERMUTATIONS 11 r-Permutations of n Distinct Things cs In this chapter the basic and most widely used tools in Combinatorial are introduced. They are permutations and combinations. Most students have been exposed to these concepts at some stage of their high-school career. Definitions (i) An x-permutation of n things is an ordered selection or arrangement of r of them. (ii) An x-combination of n things is a selection of x of them with- out regard to order. The following rules will be useful in proving results concerning permutations and combinations. Rule of Sum: If object A may be chosen in m ways, and B in-n other ways, “either A or B" may be chosen in min ways. Rule of Product: If object A may be chosen in m ways, and there- aiter B in n ways, both "A and B" may be chosen in this order in mn ways. Notice that in the Rule of Sum, only one of the objects is chosen while in the Rule of Product both objects are chosen. In cases where the choices are independent, the order of choosing is immaterial. However,if the choices are dependent i-e., if choosing A affects the number of ways of choosing B, then the order of choosing might be important. The notation P(n,x) will be used for the number of r-permutations of n distinct things. The word "permutation", when unqualified would mean P(nyn). The Rules of Sum and Product can be uséd to obtain explicit formulae for P(n,r). If we must choose r of n distinct objects, then the first object could be chosen in n ways, the second in n-1 ways, the third in n-2 ways and s0 on, until the rth is chosen in n-r+l ways. Therefore we have P(myr) = n(n-l) (n-2) ... 0 (nextel). qa) This can be abbreviated to P(nyr) = (n), - n falling factorial x. file n rin forged By putting r=n in (1) we get 20h viomy farted C+ Ye ater) P(nyn) = n(n-1) (n-2) (n-3) vee Lo nt ceeeeeeeeseeee (2) We define P(n,0) to be unity. Using (1) and (2) we get P(n,n) pele eee so @) P(n-r, n-r) P(n,r) Therefore (n), = _nt We summarise all of this in the following theorem. THEOREM 1.1 The number of r-permutations of n distinct objects is P(n,jx) = n(n-1) (n-2) --. (n-r+l) = __nt a (n=) We could obtain the relation given in equation (3) in another manner. Suppose that we wanted to choose n of n distinct objects - we choose x of them first, then choose n-r of the remaining objects. The x objects could be chosen in P(n,r) ways, since we are choosing r of n distinct objects andWie rei — petetion © cond!” An hm fe ow as, bed : onhrg - The foe Uggs am Be re fade wu (ayy «Woe me borin pasilaing omy Hype & C(menp, a) eh om b gk Clay Cerny, mp) C[nempense, Ag)» Sb-omomenng) the n-r objets could be’ independently chogen*in P(n-r, n-r) ways. There- Roamans t fore ny ara, | Pom easy! tyl i ! =A P(nyn) = P(n,r). Pln-r, nor) (* i) al @- r n,)! Pan) zal and so Ping) = see: eat x (nen, 4 ae THEOREM 1.2 4, P(r) = P(n-l, x) +x P(n-d, rol) = (nel) + x (ned), _).) This ‘result can be easily proved. bb ke oped hyp WH by of od Kaye) (7 Bdiues oe ae The following result gives a formula for the number of permutations "+ psu 1.2- Permutations of Similar Things of n things, when they are not distinct. Br Fey) - Proof Let x be the number of the required permutations. Tf the n things were distinct, then we could have found P(n,n) by taking each of the x permutations and permuting the q), +--+, things, since they are different. Since , things can be permuted in q,! ways, then we would get Pin) = x ay And so x = a! Q-E.D. 1.3 Permutations with Unrestricted Repetition The number of r-permutations of n kinds of things is given-in the following theorem.THEOREM 1.4 ‘The number of r-permutations of an unlimited number of n kinds of things is U(a,r) = Proof The first thing can be chosen inn ways - since there are n of them. ‘he second can be chosen inn ways, since it could be any of the n kinds available. So the number of ways of choosing two things isn’. the third thing can be chosen in n ways. So the number of ways of choosing 3 things is n° (Rule of Product). By continuing in this manner the result follows. oro The above problem is equivalent to that of choosing with replacenent, while in Theorem 1.1, we are choosing without replacement. Opple a 5 (Co) (tab fcrngena) 2. COMBINATIONS : 1.4 r-Combinations of n Distinct Things My) . The notation C(n,r) will be used for the number of r-combinations of n distinct things. P(n,r) could be found by choosing r things arranging them in r! ways, choosing a different set of r things arranging them in ri ways and so on, until we can no longer choose a different set of r things. Since C(n,x) is the number of ways of choosing a set of r things from n distinct things, then xt Cla,x) Pinjz) (nx). 2. (nr) = = n(n-1)_(n-2) (n-r41) ¥THEOREM 1.5 ‘The number of r-combinations of n distinct things is cir) = __n (nx). ri (n-r)! We define C(n,0) to be unity, although it has no combinatorial meaning. Also * C(nyx) =0 for x<0 and x>n. ~ From Theorem 2.1, we can obtain the following results, which are combina- torialy meaningless. Corollary 1.5.1 (4) c(-n,r) ) = -Dt @= . ete om @) cpm es 7 (ii) ¢(-n,-x) nel Proof vs (i) By replacing n by -n in Theorem 2vi-we get ctnyey = -AGR=M_tene2) ve Cnet) (nex) ¢ a = (-2)" (eked) (2)... (nti) /rt 2 ENT wreylateny a. (nary ary -)! GDF tate tye eh RY On ODE uw tort = 1-1) ‘m: : r . = (ws ») 20" Ge! a (021) . Gtr, © WW cl-n,-r) . (on) (en-2)_(-n-2) (-r-2) (r-1)t Now Etre)! (on) (en-1)_(-n=2) = (n-1)_(n-2)_... re) (x-2) UG) Gr) (r-2) eet Gx) (Gr-D (r-2) 22. rt 1 ten) (since n>r) (since -n<-f) | ae(nv) (n-2) weer x(r#1) (x42)... (n-2) (-1)-* Hence C(-n,-r) = (e-1)! (=n)! = ceyrntn pays (=D? Gen)! ner Q-E-D. We can divide the r-combinations of n distinct things into two setsi those containing a given thing and those which do not. The number of those of the first kind is C(n-1, r-1); since we are only choosing r-1 things from the n-I remaining things. The number of those of the second kind is C(n-1,x). Hence from the rule of sum we have THEOREM 1.6 (Pascal's formula) cln,x) C(m-1, r-1) + C(n-1,r) nar. ‘This theorem leads to the following result. Corollary 1 (i) c(n,r) GO Cad C(n-1, r-1) + C(n-2, r-1)+ 2... 4 C(r-1, r-1) = C(n-1,r) + C(n-2, r-1) + C(n-3, £-2)+ 22. Cleve 5) 4C(n-1-r,0). Proof. (a) The first part is straightforward. We simply use C(n-1,r) C(n-2,r) until we reach (i) c(n,r) = C(m-2, x-1) + C(n-2,r) = C(n-3),r-1) + C(n-3,r) ete. , to C(n-(n-r) x) = C(r-1, r-1) + C(r-1,r), C(n-1,x) + C(n-1, r-1) C(n-1,x) + {c(n-2, x-1) + C(n-2, r-2)} Co-RP2) £ loa,"a-bF cf ¢ The = yz Neale 4 camry 7 ome sd an Shak En le rtp 5 aca foray © sh = C(n-l,r) + C(n-2, r-1) + {C(n-3, r-2) + C(n-3, r-3)} +e. ete. By continuing in this manner, we get C(nr) = C(n-1,x) + C(n-2, r-1) + C(n-3, r-2) +...4¢(n-1+r,0). Q-E.D. 1.5 Combinations with Repetition (Redunlet) The following theorem is the basic result for combinations with repetitions. rae 4 a THEOREM 1.7 The number OF r-combinations of n distinct things, each of which may (jo! appear indefinitely often is £(n,r) = (=). r (ee Bs ue Bee Proof Bagt aw ony en Let us label the things from 1 ton. A choice of x things can then s ... be represented by a set of integers representing the labels, e.g. , Hee J. rh {1,1,1,1, 2,2,4,4,4,5 4..}. This means that we select the first thing 44, #3 times, the second twice, the fourth thrice,etc.. Consider any one of the x-combinations say {c,, yr +++, ¢,} in ascending order of elements, where, because of unlimited repetition, any of the c's may be alike. From this, Form the set (a), 4)... /4} with 4, = c, + inl. Hence 4, # a fori #5. ive. the d's are unlike. It is clear that the sets of c's and d's are equinumerous, that is, each distinct r-combination yields a distinct set of d's, and vice versa. Hence we can count the number of sets of c's by counting the number of sets of d's. Now the largest possible value of a; is nir-l, since the largest possible value of c, is n, and the largest possible value of i is r. The smallest possible d value isl. (This COA ry ett x ee, yrth, ¢- Bett A eh sane of vot Se [Fay [EL a, neg ee ik we | bicen 49 ttn and ww rege me Te compen Mtn thet Fort x eat nh tren HC cdi regace bly 6 gular ch Mook wate . by he heat MS me DT Pa occurs when i=1 and c,=1). ‘Therefore thé a's can take any r values } a Pars Com between 1 and ntr -1. ‘Thus, the number of x-combinations of a's is be of oul) ae . Hence f(n,r) =. @=): QuE.D. Example Out of the N2, N3 and N4 classes, in how many ways can 5 students be selected, assuming that there are at least 5 students in each class and that students in the same class are indistinguishable? Solution From Theorem 1.7, the number of ways is es) 5 _ = @s 21. - Answer. { 5 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM 1.6 The Theorem ‘The following theorem should be very familiar. It is called the Binomial theorem for positive integers. THEOREM 1.8 (Binomial Theorem) (eiay® = 4 cin Vata + Cin, 2) x 2a? bee tC (nr) ae ee Has Proof consider the product (eta) (eta)... Geta) of n factors x4a. In the expansion, the term x” “a” occurs whenever a is chosen from r of the n factors (and of course, x from the n-r others). Thus there are C(n,r) terms of the form x” "a". Since all the terms of the expansion will have such form for some r, then the result follows when n is a positive integer. Q-E.D.b - 2 __4j76— cr (hee ae Supplementary Answer Book Candidate’s Number Do not wie ‘oneihor ‘margin Title of Paper yj Lf, 617° (To be inserted in order, at the end of the Principal Answer Book inside the cover. ‘The whole to be securely fastened together with the string supplied.) eee (et) a) eae Question J2/2+2) n=(r-1) = necr+) Peeda alice) Citing —facloc Ua (a2 atL) [npe) = * (ate) A! 2 a(na)(na) +. 52-) Pan = at =(n2 (A-97! Cr Oe Ga Fl c ten) aie Code ernest Ya dyeck os (a=yt ng Wwe gt n-i! (eet) dove He ef rere piepoe) Candidate's Number .... Page NO. 1... ™ Wt on bait ies ine Papor = 7 fa 2) Cfa or Gary = $I > al fa) rf (az) rie (a=! rl Uke Me yeowelr ae natch eesctnheng oreo, +? 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