International Journal of Training and Development 12:2

ISSN 1360-3736

The impact of practical

relevance on training
transfer: evidence from a
service quality training
program for German bank
clerks
Susanne Liebermann and
Stefan Hoffmann

The management literature provides a variety of recommenda-

tions as to how workers’ customer orientation might be
improved, including through training. Crucial factors in the
process of transferring the contents of service quality training
programs to practice, however, have not yet been sufficiently
analysed. This study proposes and tests a model of transfer
motivation and training transfer via structural equation mod-
elling, validating Baldwin and Ford’s framework and Kirk-
patrick’s levels of evaluation. Following the recommendation
of Alliger et al., the present study analyses the relationship
between Kirkpatrick’s levels of evaluation, paying attention to
the specificity of the measures at each level. The survey collects
data from 213 German bank employees who attended a training
program aimed at improving service quality. As hypothesized,
the perceived practical relevance of the training was found to
exert a strong influence on the reaction of the participants and
had a substantial total effect on the motivation to transfer and
on actual transfer. Subject to the limitations of the research
methodology employed here, it is concluded that trainee

❒ Stefan Hoffman, Research Assistant, Technical University of Dresden, Department of Business

Management and Economics, 01012 Dresden, Germany. Email: stefan.hoffman@tu-dresden.de

© 2008 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2QD,
UK and 350 Main St., Malden, MA 02148, USA.

74 International Journal of Training and Development

 satisfaction needs to be conceptually distinguished from
perceived practical relevance and that the latter is the main
driving force for transfer motivation and transfer.

Introduction
In view of the increasing similarity of product characteristics, service quality has
become crucial in keeping ahead of competitors in various branches of industry. Mar-
keting researchers therefore advise managers to increase the level of market (Homburg
& Pflesser, 2000; Kohli et al., 1993; Narver & Slater, 1990), customer (Hartline et al.,
2000) and service (Homburg et al., 2002) orientation. Deshpandé et al. (1993) defined
customer orientation as the strategy of developing a durably profitable enterprise by
putting customers’ interests first. Previous research has shown that in the long term a
corporate strategy focusing on customers’ needs fosters success (Goff et al., 1997; Peters
& Waterman, 1982). Because of the high level of face-to-face contact with the customer,
customer orientation is particularly important for service companies (Kelley, 1992). The
marketing literature provides a variety of recommendations on how to improve cus-
tomer orientation, which range from the adaptation of processes, structures and incen-
tive systems, to the implementation of formal and informal control mechanisms
(Deshpandé et al., 1993; Hartline et al., 2000; Slater & Narver, 1995). Frontline employ-
ees are responsible for transferring the customer-oriented strategy into service quality
that is visible to the customer (Thomas et al., 2001). Therefore, Berry et al. (1988) advise
companies to conduct training programs for this target group.
The question of how to ensure that service quality training programs actually lead to
better service performance has not yet been sufficiently analysed. The finding that, in
general, trainees only apply about 30 per cent (Robinson & Robinson, 1995) of the
training content draws special attention to the importance of monitoring and evaluat-
ing the transfer process. Although the number of publications addressing training
transfer has increased since Baldwin and Ford published their theoretical framework
in 1988, there is still a lack of studies explaining how transfer can be optimized (Hawley
& Barnard, 2005; Holton & Baldwin, 2000). In particular, the specific challenges of
assuring the transfer of service quality training has not been analysed. This study aims
at closing this gap and discovering crucial influencing factors in the transfer process of
service quality training. The article suggests a model that combines Baldwin and Ford’s
(1988) theoretical framework of training transfer and Kirkpatrick’s (1960) levels of
training evaluation. As Alliger et al.’s (1997) meta-analysis shows that studies still
conceptualize Kirkpatrick’s first level inconsistently, the present article offers a clear
concept of trainee satisfaction, which is conceptually distinguished from perceived
practical relevance of the training as a nonevaluative measure. The study tests the
suggested model in the field of financial services in Germany, where the level of
required service quality has increased in recent years.

Training evaluation criteria

Facing the challenge of assessing the complexity of training outcomes, Kirkpatrick
(1960, 1987, 1998) outlined the four levels for evaluating training programs: reaction,
learning, transfer and result. At the first level (reaction), the trainees give feedback on
how they feel about the training program. At the second level (learning), acquired
knowledge, new skills and attitudinal changes are examined. The third level (transfer)
analyses the trainees’ application of the training content in their working environment.
The fourth level evaluates organizational results, e.g. in terms of return on training
investment.
According to Alliger and Janak (1989), Kirkpatrick’s concept dominates evaluation
research activities because of its simplicity. Although Kirkpatrick (1960) did not explic-
itly propose a causal relationship between the four levels, many researchers assume the

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© 2008 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
four levels to be causally and hierarchically interdependent – or at least positively
correlated (e.g. Hamblin, 1974; Newstrom, 1978). Based on a review of studies using the
four-level concept, Alliger and Janak (1989) conclude that the supposed relationships
cannot be found consistently in empirical research. Consequently, they propose a
modified model that assumes no correlation between the first and second levels. More
recently, meta-analyses reveal at least modest relationships between the first two levels
(Alliger et al., 1997; Colquitt et al., 2000). Alliger et al. (1997) argue that studies that
could not assert correlations measured the two criteria at different levels of specificity.
Thus, the weak relations may partly be a result of statistical artefacts. The authors
recommend that further research on the structure of Kirkpatrick’s criteria need to be
conducted, paying attention to the specificity of the criteria at each level. Accordingly,
the present study measures the three evaluation criteria at the same level of specificity,
expecting hierarchical relations.
H1 The better the trainees’ reaction to the training program, the more they learn in
the training program.
H2 The more the trainees learn in the training program, the more of the training
contents they transfer to their jobs.
Alliger et al. (1997) revealed in their meta-analysis that the cited studies used varying
concepts for the construct of reaction. One group of studies asked about the general
satisfaction with the training (affective reaction), whereas other studies used criteria
estimating the utility of the training contents for the work situation (utility reaction).
Alliger et al. (1997) found positive correlations between the other three levels and both
concepts of reaction. Furthermore, the two reactions correlated with each other. The
authors suggest that, in future, these two forms of reaction need to be distinguished as
two subcategories of the level of reaction (see also Morgan & Casper, 2000). The
relation between the levels of evaluation should be further analysed with a clear
explicit concept and operationalization of the level of reaction. At this level, the present
study uses criteria of the affective reaction for evaluating the training program.
However, instead of ascertaining the utility reaction as a subjective evaluation variable,
the study analyses the variable perceived practical relevance. This construct is con-
ceived as an objective measure for the practicability of the training. Its influence on
Kirkpatrick’s levels and on the transfer process is discussed in the Training transfer
design section.

Factors influencing the transfer process

From a managerial point of view, the investment in training programs is not worth-
while unless trainees succeed in translating training contents into actual performance
(Kozlowski & Salas, 1997; Kuchinke, 1995). The debate on the process of transfer has
changed substantially over recent decades. Whereas classical theories (Judd, 1908;
Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901) focus on the training design, current theories consider
ways of enhancing the transfer process and avoiding transfer barriers (Baldwin & Ford,
1988; Holton, 1996).
Baldwin and Ford (1988) proposed a theoretical framework for conducting research
on training transfer. The authors analysed the transfer process on three levels: training
input, training output and conditions of transfer. Three types of input variables – work
environment, trainee characteristics and training design – influence two output vari-
ables – learning and retention. The degrees of two conditions of transfer – maintenance
and generalization – depend on trainee characteristics and the work environment, as
well as on learning and retention. Holton (1996) proposed that the input variables
motivation to transfer, transfer climate and transfer design have a mediating effect on
the relation between learning and transfer.
In the following, we discuss crucial input variables that are supposed to exert
influence on the transfer process and mediate the relations between Kirkpatrick’s levels
of evaluation.

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 Trainee characteristics
In a meta-analytic path-analysis, Colquitt et al. (2000) identified several trainee charac-
teristics as being significant predictors for training motivation and training outcomes.
The authors revealed that cognitive ability (e.g. Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989), as well as
personality traits like achievement motivation (e.g. Mathieu et al., 1993), internal locus
of control (e.g. Noe, 1986; Noe & Schmitt, 1986) and self-efficacy (e.g. Gist et al., 1991;
Martocchino & Webster, 1992; Quinones et al., 1995) have a positive impact. Further-
more, commitment both to the organization and to one’s own career (e.g. Blau, 1988;
Mowday et al., 1982) is a crucial precondition for training success. The authors con-
firmed the postulated negative influence of anxiety and age (Martocchino, 1994; Gist
et al., 1988; Webster & Martocchino, 1993). The impact of the trainee’s motivation on
training output has often been proved empirically (Wexley & Latham, 1991). Some
authors explicitly distinguish between motivation to learn and motivation to transfer
(Kontoghiorghes, 2002; Ruona et al., 2002). The ‘motivation to learn’ is defined as the
trainee’s desire to achieve a high degree of learning (Noe, 1986). Thus, it is assumed to
have an impact on Kirkpatrick’s (1960) second level of training evaluation. The transfer
motivation, indicating the trainee’s desire to apply and use the training contents in the
job (Noe & Schmitt, 1986), relates to the third level of Kirkpatrick’s concept. Holton
(1996) proposed that transfer motivation is the most crucial precondition for the trainee
to apply training contents to the workplace. However, as the meta-analysis by Colquitt
et al. (2000) shows, transfer motivation has not been included in most evaluation
studies. The present study suggests a positive relation between transfer motivation and
transfer.
H3 The higher the transfer motivation, the higher the transfer of training contents
to the job.
Consequently, if H3 is confirmed it is important to understand which factors influ-
ence the transfer motivation. According to Vroom (1964), a person is motivated to show
a specific behaviour when the person expects this behaviour to help him achieve his
goals. Noe (1986) adapted this concept to the transfer motivation and showed that the
fulfilment of the trainee’s need for personal development influences the transfer moti-
vation. Tannenbaum et al. (1991) showed that the fulfilment of expectations also pro-
motes the trainee’s motivation. Accordingly, the present study presumes that trainees’
reaction to the training, measured via the fulfilment of expectations and need for
personal development, influences the transfer motivation.
H4 The better the trainees’ reaction to the training, the higher their transfer
motivation.
Noe (1986) stated that learning outcome directly influences the transfer motivation.
In accordance, Tannenbaum et al. (1991) discovered that the trainees’ performance
during the training program positively influences posttraining motivation. Thus, the
present study proposes that the more trainees learn and understand the training
contents, the more they are motivated to apply new skills in their job.
H5 The more trainees learn in the training program, the higher their transfer
motivation.

Training transfer design

Olsen (1998) claimed that the main goal for training designers should be to foster the
trainees’ motivation to use new skills on the job. Therefore, characteristics of training
transfer design have to be monitored closely, as they are supposed to have an impact on
the transfer motivation (Yamnill & McLean, 2001).
Even if trainees acquire new knowledge during the training session, transfer might
still not occur because they did not learn how to apply the knowledge in their working
environment (Holton, 1996). Recent studies in cognitive psychology show that

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performance can already be automated during the training if the trainee has the
possibility to practise new behaviour (Goldstein & Ford, 2002; Shiffrin & Schneider,
1977). May and Kahnweiler (2000) recommended that the trainer should provide
opportunities to practise, in order to show the trainee the practical relevance of the
training contents and to ensure transfer. Laker (1990) distinguished two types of
transfer. Far transfer indicates that the learned knowledge is applied in dissimilar
working situations, whereas near transfer refers to working situations similar to the
training program. According to Clark and Voogel (1985), near transfer is more likely to
occur when trainers emphasize the practical relevance of the training contents. In
accordance with this, empirical research has shown that the perceived similarity
between job requirements and training content is crucial for the transfer process
(Garavaglia, 1993; Vosniadou & Ortony, 1989). Moreover, the trainee’s belief that the
training will improve job performance or lead to a higher perception of competency
and/or to a higher salary influences transfer motivation (Colquitt & Simmering, 1998;
Mathieu et al., 1992). For that reason, we expect that motivation will increase when the
trainee perceives that the training is of practical relevance for his work situation.
H6 The higher the perceived practical relevance, the higher the transfer motivation.
Furthermore, we expect that participants will be more satisfied with the training
when they perceive that the training is relevant for their job. According to the
confirmation/disconfirmation model (Oliver, 1980), customer satisfaction is the result
of a cognitive comparison between the expected and the perceived characteristics of a
product or a service. If the perceived characteristics fulfil or overfill the expectations,
customers are satisfied. If the expectations are not fulfilled, customers are not satisfied.
Adopting the confirmation/disconfirmation model to the evaluation of trainings, we
draw the following conclusion: participants in service quality training attend the train-
ing in order to improve their working skills. Thus, they expect the training to be of
practical relevance. The trainee compares this expectation with his actual perception of
the training. If the perceived practical relevance matches or exceeds his expectation, he
will be satisfied. If the training is less relevant, he will be less satisfied.
H7 The higher the perceived practical relevance, the more positive the trainees’
reaction to the training event.

Working environment
Besides individual characteristics and the training transfer design, a supporting trans-
fer climate is crucial for transfer motivation (Forehand & Gilmer, 1964; Goldstein &
Ford, 2002; Holton et al., 1997). A positive transfer climate provides adequate resources
and opportunities to apply the new knowledge, as well as cues to remind the trainee of
lessons learned (Ford et al., 1992; Karl et al., 1993; Noe & Wilk, 1993; Rouiller &
Goldstein, 1993; Tracey et al., 1995). Particularly the support of managers, supervisors
(Birdi et al., 1997; Clark et al., 1993; Clarke, 2002; Facteau et al., 1995; Richman-Hirsch,
2001; Russ-Eft, 2002) and peers (Bates et al., 2000; Hawley & Barnard, 2005), through
feedback and reinforcement, is a decisive factor in transfer. The present study expects
a positive relation between the supervisor support and the transfer motivation.
H8 The higher the degree of supervisor support in the working environment, the
higher the transfer motivation.

Data and method

Design and sample
The present article evaluates a service quality training program for German bank
employees that aims at developing a customer-oriented organizational culture
(Gherson & Moore, 1987). The German financial sector was chosen as the field of
research because of its density of counselling and the high demands on service quality.

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In this sector, the qualifications required of employees have changed substantially over
the years. As most of the traditional work is carried out by machines and through
online banking, the main task of bank employees today is to inform and advise cus-
tomers (Althaus, 2002; Evers & Klaschik, 2000; Grote, 2001). Consequently, the amount
of training in social and interactive skills has increased.
The human resource managers of the bank agreed on two main training goals. First,
the employees are to learn that customer-oriented behaviour is of importance for the
success of the bank. They are supposed to recognize their own responsibility to ensure
a high level of service quality. Second, the trainees are to be encouraged to transfer the
training content to their work environment.
Approximately 12 weeks after the training, all of the 346 training participants were
invited to answer an online questionnaire. With 265 trainees taking part in the survey,
the response rate was 79 per cent. In a retrospective self-estimation, the respondents
evaluated the directly perceived changes. As structural equation modelling does not
accept missing data, we excluded participants that did not answer all of the questions.
These missing values occur randomly. They do not follow a systematic pattern. After
data cleansing, 213 questionnaires were used for further analysis. No statistically sig-
nificant differences were found between the participants of the study and the complete
sample of the trainees, with regard to gender, age and job experience.

Criteria
Criteria for evaluating the training effects are directly derived from the training goals
and structured on the first three levels of Kirkpatrick’s (1960) concept. The three criteria
are measured at the same level of specificity (Alliger et al., 1997).
Reaction was measured on three 6-point Likert-type scales. Subjects reported the
degree to which the training content matched their personal needs of development
(‘needs’), the fulfilment of their expectations (‘expectations’) and their overall satisfac-
tion (’satisfaction’).
Items used to measure the learning effects were directly derived from the training
goals defined by the human resource management. The participants stated the degree
to which they were aware of the management’s expectations in terms of customer
orientation (’demands’). In addition, the subjects indicated how responsible they felt
for selling the bank’s products (’responsibility’) and whether or not they had the
necessary knowledge to cope with their job tasks (‘competence’). All items were mea-
sured on 6-point Likert-type scales, retrospectively judging the direct changes.
To examine the training effects on the transfer level, the participants estimated their
improvement on bipolar 5-point Likert scales. Indicators are based on four crucial
factors that the management of the bank had previously defined: (1) sales performance
(’sale’); (2) appointment rate (’schedule’); (3) number of times the customer is actively
addressed (‘canvassing’); and (4) quality of customer consultancy (‘quality’).

Influencing factors
The items measuring the perceived practical relevance of the training are derived from
the suggestions of Clark and Voogel (1985) and Goldstein and Ford (2002) as well as of
May and Kahnweiler (2000). On 6-point Likert-type scales, subjects stated if they were
given the opportunities to practise new behavioural patterns during the training (‘prac-
tice’) and whether or not they were able to relate the discussed topics to their everyday
work (‘own work’).
The supervisor support was assessed via 6-point Likert scales, measuring the par-
ticipants’ perception of the supervisor’s interest in the training contents (‘interest’)
and his support for the transfer (‘support’) (Richman-Hirsch, 2001; Tracey et al.,
1995).
The transfer motivation was assessed as proposed by Holton (1996) and Noe (1986).
On 6-point Likert-type scales, the subjects reported their effort to transfer the contents

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© 2008 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
to the workplace (‘intention’) as well as the perceived degree to which their work
would be made easier (‘make easier’) and improved by the application of the training
content (‘improvement’).

Method
Structural equation modelling (LISREL 8.7) is applied to test the suggested model. As
some indicators do not follow the normal distribution, unweighted least square is used
(Bollen, 1989; Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2001). Consequently, inference statistics like chi-
square have to be interpreted with reservations (Browne, 1984). All indicator variables
are standardized to assure the comparability between the path coefficients (Long,
1993).

Reliability and validity

Confirmatory factor analysis shows that all factor loadings and path coefficients are
statistically significant. The t values are above the required value of 1.96. All factor
loadings are above 0.60 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). These high and significant factor loadings
indicate good convergence validity (Bagozzi et al., 1991). Chi-square difference tests are
conducted to assure discriminate validity. For all factors, chi-square difference by far
exceeds the critical value of c2diff = 3.84 (p < 0.05; d.f. = 1; Anderson & Gerbing, 1988;
Bentler & Bonett, 1980; Homburg & Dobratz, 1992). Thus, statistically significant dif-
ferences between the base model and the restricted models, as well as discriminate
validity of the measurement scales, can be assumed.

Results
Global fit measures of the complete model indicate a good fit. The quotient of chi-
square and the d.f. is well below the critical value of 2 (c2/d.f. = 1.65; c2 = 171.3;
d.f. = 104; Byrne 1998; Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1982). The goodness-of-fit index (GFI)
(0.993) reveals that the model excellently fits the empirical data (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988).
The adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) (0.989), which corrects the GFI by the
complexity of the model (d.f.), also shows a high fit of the model, as it exceeds the
critical value of 0.90 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1982). The root mean square error of approxi-
mation value of 0.055 (with the 90 per cent confidence interval ranging from 0.045 to
0.073) also indicates a good fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993).
Additionally, measures of local fit support the suggested model. The reliability of all
indicators is higher than 0.40 (Table 1). The values of the factor reliability exceed the
required level of 0.60. The extracted average variance of all factors lies above the critical
value of 0.50 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Perceived practical relevance explains the 73.5 per
cent of the variance of reaction. Reaction explains the 25.1 per cent of the variance of
learning. Taken together, perceived practical relevance, reaction and learning account
for 91.0 per cent of the variance of transfer motivation. Learning and transfer motivation
explain 61.5 per cent of the variance of transfer.
With one exception, all structural paths are statistically significant. No statistically
significant direct correlation can be found between perceived practical relevance and
transfer motivation (t < 1.96; Hair et al., 2006). This path will be discussed later. First, it
is proposed to analyse the magnitude of the parameters of the significant paths in order
to evaluate which direct antecedents are most important for the transfer process. As H1
postulates, the trainee is more likely to learn training contents, the more satisfied he
is with the training program (Figure 1, b = 0.50). Subsequently, the more the trainee
has learned about job requirements, the more likely he is to apply the trained skills
(b = 0.40, H2). As expected, transfer motivation has a positive impact on transfer
(g = 0.49, H3). Furthermore, perceived practical relevance is identified as a crucial factor
influencing trainee reaction (g = 0.86, H7). Transfer motivation is affected mainly by
reaction (b = 0.63, H4). Both learning (b = 0.18, H5) and supervisor support (g = 0.29, H8)

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 Table 1: Local fit measures

Indicators t value Indicator Squared Construct

reliability multiple reliability
correlation

Reaction Need – 0.762 0.735 0.866

Expectations 17.91 0.606
Satisfaction 18.28 0.685
Learning Demands – 0.561 0.251 0.865
Responsibility 14.85 0.692
Competence 15.37 0.795
Transfer Canvassing – 0.608 0.615 0.861
Quality 16.79 0.652
Sale 16.82 0.705
Schedule 15.71 0.474
Transfer motivation Make easier – 0.722 0.910 0.818
Improvement 19.02 0.683
Intention 16.92 0.405
Perceived practical Practice – 0.452 – 0.791
relevance Own work 14.64 0.588
Supervisor support Support – 0.741 – 0.860
Interest 5.46 0.769

Practice Own work Interest Support

0.67 0.77 0.88 0.86

Perceived
practical relevance Supervisor support

Intention
H6 H8 0.64
0.20 (0.76) 0.29 (6.20)
0.83 Improvement
0.91
H7 0.85
0.86 (6.66) transfer motivation
Transfer motivation Make easier

H4 H5 H3
0.63 (2.80) 0.18 (2.80) 0.49 (8.83)
0.73 0.25 0.61
H1 H2
.50 (11.23) 0.40 (6.17)
Reaction Learning transfer
Transfer

0.87 0.78 0.83 0.75 0.83 0.89 0.78 0.81 0.84 0.69

Needs Expectations Satisfaction Demands Responsibility Competence Canvassing Quality Sale Schedule

Figure 1: Complete model (standardized) t values in brackets. Squared multiple correlations

are displayed in bold. Error terms excluded.
exert influence on this endogenous variable. However, the magnitude of these ante-
cedents’ effects is lower than the effect of reaction (Figure 1).
In contrast to hypothesis H6, the relationship between perceived practical relevance
and transfer motivation was not found to be statistically significant (g = 0.20, t < 1.97).
However, practical aspects of the training indirectly lead to transfer motivation.
Accordingly, the perceived practical relevance has a strong total effect on the transfer
motivation. In sum, its direct and indirect effect on transfer motivation is 0.817
(Table 2). Its total effect on transfer is 0.566. Reaction, hence the trainees’ satisfaction
with the training design, exerts a total effect of 0.715 on transfer motivation and a total
effect of 0.545 on transfer. However, perceived practical relevance accounts for 73 per
cent of reaction (Table 2). Therefore, reaction mediates the influence of perceived prac-
tical relevance on transfer motivation.

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 Table 2: Summary of effects

Transfer motivation Transfer

Direct Indirect Total Direct Indirect Total

Perceived practical relevance 0.204 0.613 0.817 – 0.566 0.566

Supervisor support 0.287 – 0.287 – 0.139 0.139
Reaction 0.627 0.088 0.715 0.545 0.545
Learning 0.176 – 0.176 0.396 0.085 0.481
Transfer motivation – – – 0.485 – 0.485

Supervisor support, on the other hand, does not exert considerable influence on
transfer motivation (effect = 0.287). Whereas reaction seems to play an important role in
motivating the participants to transfer the learned behaviour to practise, learning was
found to have a stronger direct effect on transfer (effect = 0.396), whereas its influence
on transfer motivation is rather low (effect = 0.176).

Directions for further research

The present article sheds light on the discussion of the relations between Kirkpatrick’s
(1960) levels of evaluation, revealing positive relations between the first three levels. As
Alliger et al. (1997) recommended, the data were collected at the same level of speci-
ficity for each evaluation level so that existing relations could be found without statis-
tical artefacts distorting the results. Learning was found to have a direct impact on
transfer. Reaction, however, exerted a stronger indirect effect on transfer, mediated by
transfer motivation. This factor needs to be considered in further studies and included
in future models of training evaluation.
The main contribution of this article is to show that a full understanding of training
evaluation can only be achieved if the perceived characteristics of the training are
assessed. Perceived practical relevance is introduced as a crucial influencing factor in
the transfer process. The article shows that perceived practical relevance, not as an
evaluative but as an observed picture of the practicability of the training content, is a
crucial factor influencing the affective reaction, accounting for 73 per cent of its vari-
ance. In future studies, the reaction needs to be operationalized as a pure evaluative
concept and explicitly distinguished from the perceived characteristics of the training
program. It is of high importance to reveal factors influencing the reaction, in order to
understand why trainees are satisfied with training and to design training accordingly.
Therefore, authors should analyse the relation between practical relevance and affective
reactions and apply Oliver’s (1980) confirmation/disconfirmation theory on the evalu-
ation of training. Furthermore, future studies should try to identify further factors that
have an impact on the trainee reaction.
The present paper examined only one training program, which was initiated in one
German bank. To achieve a broader understanding of the crucial factors for service
quality training and to assure external validity of the findings, researchers should
simultaneously analyse different branches of industry as well as different kinds of
training. As the present paper states, the perceived characteristics of a training program
are important to understand trainees’ affective evaluation of the training and their
motivation to transfer. Presumably, the importance of different characteristics varies
between different training programs. Although in-service quality training’s practical
relevance was found to be crucial, training in other skills may require more general
principles to assure transfer (Laker, 1990).
With the antecedents accounting for 61 per cent of the variance of transfer, the
postulated model shows an excellent fit. Thus, the most relevant influencing factors
seem to be included in the model. However, in the present study, some previously

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discussed influencing factors, such as personality traits, cognitive ability and career
commitment are neglected. Including those factors could further improve the expla-
nation of the transfer process. As proposed by Colquitt et al. (2000), future research
should also focus on the interactions of individual and situational factors, as in previ-
ous studies they were also identified as vital. This implication reflects the ‘aptitude X
treatment’ discussion (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989), as well as the ‘person X context’
debate in leadership literature (Howell et al., 1986).

Managerial implications
The present study offers practical hints on how to optimize the training process. The
findings confirm that service quality training should be close to the practical settings of
the trainees and suitable to the trainees’ needs in order to ensure that the content is
applied to the job. Trainers and human resources managers are advised to analyse
trainees’ demands and expectations in the very early stages of developing the training
design. Berry et al. (1988) emphasized the importance of training the frontline employ-
ees as a means of improving service quality. This study confirms that service quality
training can promote employees’ customer orientation. However, companies should
not merely send their employees on training programs hoping they will come back
perfectly customer-oriented. Rather, training should be planned thoroughly and be
tailored to the specific training goal and working environment. An adequate degree of
perceived practical relevance is a crucial factor for guaranteeing acceptance as well as
transfer success.

References
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