Meaning, types and Sources of Data Q. 1. What do you understand by “Research”? Explain. Ans.Commonly Research refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research asa scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. Research is also an art of scientific exploration. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts any branch of knowledge.” Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” Many people consider research as a transfer, a transfer from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research. Research & Methodology is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.” Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the Formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation. Q. 2. What are the types of research? Ans. The basic types of research are as follows: (i) Descriptive vs. Analytical : Descriptive research includes surveys and fact- finding enquiries of different kinds. The purpose of descriptive research is @ate ee 2 AMAR: Research Methodology nt. In social science and business description of the state of affairs as it exists at pr research we often use the term Ex post facto researc h for descriptive research studies, The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control cover the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening, Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of buying things, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables, The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of al kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material (ii) Applied vs. Fundamental : Research can either be applied research and fundamental research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an\immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory, “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or‘basic’ research.” Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge. (iii) Quantitative vs, Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity . It is applicable to phenomena that can be showed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e, why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e, reseal designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing, It may be stated, however, that to apP!Y ae!Unit-1: Meaning, types and Sources of data 3 qualitative research in practice is relatively a 7 srefore, Whi bing such research, one should seek guidance rm experimental psychologists (iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical : Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing, certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis. (v) Some Other Types of Research : Other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as ‘one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time- period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time- periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation ment in which it is to be carried out. research, depending upon the environi Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic Causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very smal. samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick upa probe redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is ne ‘ot free to embark upon research according to his ownfe AMAR: Research Methodology J f decision oriented research sincy departments with a quantitative their control. inclination. Operations research is an example O! it is a scientific method of providing executive basis for decisions regarding operations under Q. 3. What are the types and sources of data? Ans. Broadly there are two types of data: 1. Qualitative 2. Quantitative 1. Qualitative : Qualitative data is defined characterizes. Qualitative data can be observe’ non-numerical in nature. This type of data is col Ze anda observations, one-to-one interviews, conducting focus groups, similar methods. Qualitative data in statistics is also known as categorical data ~ data that can be arranged categorically based on the attributes and properties of a thing or a phenomenon. 5 2. Quantitative : Quantitative data is the type of data whose value is measured in the form of numbers or counts, with a unique numerical value associated with each data set. Also known as numerical data, quantitative data further describes numeric variables. And on the basis of data collection method, there are two types of data:- 1. Primary Data 2. Secondary Data 1. Primary Data :- Primary data is the data collected for the first time through personal experiences or evidence, particularly for research. It is also described as raw data or first-hand information. The mode of assembling info is costly, as the analysis is done by an agency or an external organisation and needs human resources and investment. The investigator supervises and controls the data collection process directly. Mostly the data is collected through observations, physical testing, mailed questionnaires, surveys, personal interviews, telephonic interviews, case studies and focus groups, etc 2. Secondary Data :- Secondary data are second-hand data that is already collected and recorded by some researchers for their purpose and not for the current research problem. It is accessible in the form of data collected from different sources such as government publications, censuses, internal records of the organisation, books, journal articles, websites and reports, etc. This method of gathering data is affordable, readily available, saves cost and time. However, the one disadvantage is that the information assembled is for some other purpose and may not meet the present research purpose or may not be accurate. x, Sources 7 Pa A Sources of Data can be classified into 2 types. Statistical refer to data that are gathered for some official purposes and incorporate censuses and officially administered surveys, Non-statistical sources refer to the collection of data for other administrati i ° administrative purposes or for the private sector. Following are the two sources of data: 1. Internal Source: When data are collected from repor 9 the ication i 5 ts and records o! organisation itself, it is known as the internal source. as the data that approximates ang d and recorded. This data type ig lected through methods ofUnit-1: Meaning, types and Sources of data 5 For example, a company publishes its ‘Annual 4 i poor comes wal Report’ on Profit and Loss, Total 2. External Source : Wher per f Paaentaa arse paontee are collected from outside the organisation, it For example, ifa Tour and Travels Company obtains information on ‘Karnataka Tourism’ from Karnataka Transport Corporation, it would be known as external sources of data. Q.4 What is a measurement scale and it's types? Ans. A measurement scale is used to qualify or quantify data variables in statistics. It determines the kind of techniques to be used for statistical analysis. There are different kinds of measurement scales, and the type of data being collected determines the kind of measurement scale to be used for statistical measurement. These measurement scales are four in number, namely; nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale, and ratio scale. The measurement scales are used to measure qualitative and quantitative data. With nominal and ordinal scale being used to measure qualitative data while interval and ratio scales are used to measure quantitative data. ‘Types of Measurement Scale : There are two main types of measurement scales, namely; comparative scales and non-comparative scales. 1, Comparative Scales : In comparative scaling, respondents are asked to make a comparison between one object and the other. When used in market research, customers are asked to evaluate one product in direct comparison to the others. Comparative scales can be further divided into the pair comparison, rank order, constant sum and q-sort scales. 1.1 Paired Comparison Scale : Paired Comparison scale is a scaling technique that presents the respondents with two objects at a time and asks them to choose one according to a predefined criterion. Product researchers use it in comparative product research by asking customers to choose the most preferred to them in between two closely related products. For example, there are 3 new features in the last release of a software product. But the company is planning to remove 1 of these features in the new release. Therefore, the product researchers are performing a comparative analysis of the most and least preferred feature. Which feature is most preferred to you between the following pairs? Filter - Voice recorder Filter - Video recorder Voice recorder - Video recorder 1,2 Rank Order Scale : In rank order scaling technique, respondents are simultaneously provided with multiple options and asked to rank them in order of priority based on a predefined criterion. It is mostly used in marketing to measure preference for a brand, product, or feature. When used in competitive analysis, the respondent may be asked to rank a group of brands in terms of personal preference, product quality, customer service, etc, The results of this data collection are usually obtained in the conjoint analysis, as it forces customers to discriminate among options.™ AMAR: Research Methodology The rank order scale is a type of ordinal scale bec use It orders Lal attributes from the most preferred to the least preferred but does not have a specific distancy between the attributes, eferred For example : Rank the following brands from the most preferred to the leay preferred. Coca-Cola Pepsi Cola ) Mountain Dew 1.3 Constant Sum Scale : Constant Sum scale is a type of measurement scale where the respondents are asked to allocate a constant sum of units such as points, dollars, chips or chits among the stimulus objects according to some specified criterion. The constant sum scale assigns a fixed number of units to each attribute, reflecting the importance a respondent attaches to it, This type of measurement scale can be used to determine what influences a customer’s decision when choosing which product to buy. For example, you may wish to determine how important price, size, fragrance, and packaging is toa customer when choosing which brand of perfume to buy. Some of the major setbacks of this technique are that respondents may be confused and end up allocating more or fewer points than those specified. The researchers are left to deal with a group of data that is not uniform and may be difficult to analyze. Avoid this with the logic feature on Form plus. This feature allows you to add a restriction that prevents the respondent from adding more or fewer points than specified to your form. 1.4 Q-Sort Scale : Q-Sort scale is a type of measurement scale that uses a rank order scaling technique to sort similar objects with respect to some criterion. The respondents sort the number of statements or attitudes into piles, usually of 11 The Q-Sort Scaling helps in assigning ranks to different objects within the same group, and the differences among the groups (piles) are clearly visible. It is a fast way of facilitating discrimination among a relatively large set of attributes. For example, a new restaurant that is just preparing its menu may want to collect some information about what potential customers like: The document provided contains a list of 50 meals. Please choose 10 meals you like, 30 meals you are neutral about (neither like nor dislike) and 10 meals you dislike. 2. Non-Comparative Scales : to only evaluate a single object. Hin non-comparative scaling, customers are asked 0 e ° is evaluation is totally independent of the other objects unde investigation Sometimes called monadic ernie scale, Non parative scale can be f i {rai Comp turther divided into continuous and the itemized rating 2.1 Continuous Rating Scale : In conti asked to rate the objects by placing a mark anne ynin® Seale, one extreme of the criterion to the oth rating, scale, it gives the respondent the free reece hee based on personal preference, lom to place the mark anywhere i respondents are PPropriately on a line running fromUnit-1; it-1: Meaning, types and Sources of data 7 Once the ratings F categories and WinBs are obtained, the researcher splits up the line into several oatiage fall This eating on te, Scores depending on the category in which the Although easy to ee a Visualized in both horizontal and vertical form. though eas ct, the conti . t f giving it limited usage in market ae fanny sctle has some misjor seibacks, 2.2 Itemized Rati ee fist assigns ized Rating Scale: The itemized rating scale isa typeof ordinal cae that assigns numbers each attribute, Respondents are usually asked to select an alae best desc s ee feelings regarding a predefined criterion. scale is further divided i efi . cca mized rating seale i further divided ino 2, namely Likert scale Stapel ae What are eed source of data and institutions? a eee secondary data include books, personal sources, journal, readily Pee - , government record etc. Secondary data are known to be eaereae mpared to that of primary data. It requires very little research ; npower to use these sources. With the advent of electronic media and the internet, secondary data sources have become more easily accessible. Some of these sources are highlighted below. Books : Books are one of the most traditional ways of collecting data. Today, there are books available for all topics you can think of. When carrying out research, all you have to do is look for a book on the topic being researched on, then select from the available repository of books in that area. Books, when carefully chosen are an authentic source of authentic data and can be useful in preparing a literature review. 2 Published Sources : There are a variety of published sources available for different research topics. The authenticity of the data generated from these sources depends majorly on the writer and publishing company. Published sources may be printed or electronic as the case may be. They may be paid or free depending on the writer and publishing company’s decision. Unpublished Personal Sources : This may not be readily available and easily accessible compared to the published sources. They only become accessible if the researcher shares with another researcher who is not allowed to share it with a third party. For example, the product management team of an organization may need data on customer feedback to assess what customers think about their product and improvement suggestions. They will need to collect the data from the customer Scrviee department, which primarily collected the data to improve customer service. Journal : Journals are gradually becoming more important than books these lata collection is concerned. This is because journals are updated days when di This is bec at regularly with new publications on a periodic basis, therefore giving to date information. ; ‘Also, journals are usually more specific when it comes to research. For example, we can have a journal ‘on, “Secondary data collection for quantitative data” while vw pook will simply be titled, “Secondary data collection”.ee 8 AMAR : Research Methodology In most cases, the information passed through a newspap, er is Newspapers : making, it one of the most authentic sources of of usually very reliable. Hence, collecting secondary data. The kind of data commonly shared in newspapers is usually more politica economic, and educational than scientific. Therefore, newspapers may not Beir best source for scientific data collection. " Websites : The information shared on websites are mostly not regulated and as such may not be trusted compared to other sources. However, there are some regulated websites that only share authentic data and can be trusted by researchers. ¥ Most of these websites are usually government websites or private organizations that are paid, data collectors. Blogs : Blogs are one of the most common online sources for data and may ‘even be less authentic than websites. These days, practically everyone owns a blog and a lot of people use these blogs to drive traffic to their website or make money through paid ads. Therefore, they cannot al good things about a product because he or sl manufacturer even though these things are not true. Diaries : They are personal records and as such rarely used for data collection by researchers. Also, diaries are usually personal, except for these days when people now share public diaries containing specific events in their life. ‘A common example of this is ‘Anne Frank's diary which contained an accurate record of the Nazi wars. Government Records : Government records are a very important and authentic source of secondary data. They contain information useful in marketing, management, humanities, and social science research. », census data, health records, education institute Some of these records include; records, ete. They are usually collected to aid proper planning, allocation of funds, and prioritizing of projects. Podcasts : Podcasts are gradually becoming very common these days, anda lot of people listen to them as an alternative to radio. They are more or less like online radio stations and are generating increasing popularity. Information is usually shared during podcasts, and listeners can use itasa source of data collection. Some other sources of data collection include: Letters Radio stations Public sector records. Q. 6. What are the categories of Research? ‘Ans. There are two broad categories of research with which researchers must be familiar. Quantitative vs. Qualitative © Quantitative research involves studies that make use of statistical analyses to obtain their findings. Key features include formal an systematic measurement and the use of statistics. ways be trusted. For example, a blogger may write he was paid to do so by theUnit-1: Meaning, types and Sources of cata 9 © Qualitetive research i arene a fnvelves studies that do not attempt to quantily Rete recute theca eat tical summary or analysis, Qualitative studies Saar olve interviews and observations without formal A case study, which is an in-depth examination of one person, is a torn of qualitative research, Qualitative research is often tised as a source of hypotheses for later testing in quantitative research, Nomothetic vs. Idiographic # The nomothetic approach uses the study of groups to identify general laws thatapply toa large group of people. The goal is often to identify the average member of the group being studied or the average performance of a group member, . The idiographic approach is the study of an individual, An example of the idiographic approach is the aforementioned case study: The choice of w hich research approaches to use largely depends on the types of questions being asked in the research study, and different fields of research typically rely on different categories of research to achieve their goals. Social science: research, for example, typically relies on quantitative research and the nomothetic approach. In other words, social scientists study large Broups of people and rely on statistical analyses to obtain their findings Q.7. What is the criteria of good research? ‘Ans. Good research can be justify, if it satisfy the following criteria ® 1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined & clarified. 2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been done. 3, The design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible. 4, The researcher should report wil and estimate their effects upon the findings. 5. The analysis of data should be st ficiently adequate to rev eal its: significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate, The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. 6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. 7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity. In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under: 1. Good research should be systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in. specified sequence in accordance with the Well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule Sut creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions. 2. Good research shoul rules of logical reasoning an‘ th complete frankness, flaws in design be logical: This implies that research is guided by the dd the logical process of induction and deduction are ofi __) 10 AMAR : Research Methodology great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a Part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some Premise fo a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making. 3. Good research should be empirical: It implies that research is related basically ne OF More aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that Provides a basis for external validity to research results. 4. Good research should be replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions. Q. 8 Write short notes on: (1) Design of the research project; (2) Ex post facto research; (3) Motivation in research Ans. 1. Design of the research project: The researcher will be required to Prepare a research design before executing research work, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted, The Preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz,, () Exploration, (ii) Description, (ii) Diagnosis (iv) Experimentation A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But when the Purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed. There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non- experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-only with control, before- and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select one for his own project. The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following: (@) the means of obtaining the information; (ii) the availability and skills of the res (iii) explanation of the way in which sel will be organised and the reasoning leadin too ‘earcher and his staff (if any); * lected means of obtaining information 8 to the selection;Unit-1: Meaning, types and Sources of data ul (iv) the time available for research; and cone cost factor relating to research, ie., the finance available for the nding ertpaviee of altfernt i Descriptive research includes surveys and fact- Pee eect eeeeer inds. The major purpose of descriptive research is I irs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlation methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material. 3. Motivation in research : The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following : 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits; 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research; 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work; 4. Desire to be of service to society; 5. Desire to get respectability. However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.Questionnaires in Data Q 1. What points should be in constructing an appropriate and effective questionnaire or a schedule? ‘Ans. The researcher must pay attention to the following points in constructing an appropriate and effective questionnaire or a schedule : 1. The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for it provides the starting point for developing the Questionnaire/Schedule. He must be clear about the various aspects of his research problem to be dealt with in the course of his research project. 2. Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of information sought, the sampled respondents and the kind of analysis intended. The researcher must decide whether to use closed or open-ended question. Questions should be simple and must be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan. The units of enumeration should also be defined precisely so that they can ensure accurate and full information. . Rough draft of the Questionnaire/Schedule be prepared, giving due thought to the appropriate sequence of putting questions. Questionnaires or schedules previously drafted (if available) may as well be looked into at this stage. Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the rough draft for a better one. Technical defects must be minutely scrutinised and removed. Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire. The questionnaire may be edited in the light of the results of the pilot study. 6. Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions for the respondents so that they may not feel any difficulty in answering the questions. Q. 2. What are different types of Questionnaire? ‘Ans.There are two different types of questionnaires. These are: 1. Closed ended or structured . 2. Open ended or semi-structured or unstructured questionnaires. Closed ended or structured : A closed-ended questionnaire developed for @ research purpose typically consists of a number of sections. The sections depend on the study topic and its objectives. But the questions contained in these sections can broadly be classified into two categories. These are 2 S s (12)Unit-2 : Questionnaires in Data 13 Questions for inferential analysis : ‘The questions for descriptive analysis collect information on the demographic profile (age, gender, educational qualification among others) and general background of the survey participants. In contrast, the questions for inferential analysis are framed to collect data on the dependent and independent variables of the study. However, each question in a questionnaire uses one of the specific measurement scales. Open ended or semi-structured or unstructured questionnaires ; Open-ended questions are free-form survey questions that allow respondents to answer in open text format so that they can answer based on their complete knowledge, feeling, and understanding. It means that the response to this question is not limited to a set of options. Unlike a closed-ended question that leaves survey responses limited and narrow to the given options, open-ended question allows you to probe deep into the respondent's answers, gaining valuable information about the subject at hand The responses to these questions can be used to attain detailed and descriptive information on a topic. Open-ended questions are an integral part of Qualitative Market Research. This research technique depends heavily on open and subjective questions and answers on a given topic of discussion with room for further probing by the researcher, based on the answer'given by the respondent. In a typical scenario, closed-ended questions are used to gather qualitative data from respondents. Q.3. What are the Types of measurement scales in survey questionnaires? ‘Ans. Measurement scales while framing a questionnaire play an important role to understand the characteristics of the variables. A questionnaire is a collection of a set of questions. A survey, on the other hand, includes the process of making the questionnaire, collecting the responses, aggregating the data and analysing it . Therefore, the questionnaire is a subset of a survey. The following measurement scales can be used for different variables in the questionnaire. Nominal scale: A nominal scale classifies variables that do not involve any numerical value. Ordinal scale: An ordinal scale is used to measure variables that involve an order or a rank, However, these variables are not measurable by a standardized unit. Likert scale is an example of ordinal scale. It is typically a 5 point or a7 point scale that includes a number of options. The following statements use a Likert scale. The corresponding variables are organizational factors and job satisfaction. Interval scale: An interval scale is used when the variable involves an order ora rank. In addition, the variable involves numerical values and is measurable by a standardized unit. The following question uses an interval scale. Here, the corresponding variable is annual income which is measurable in a currency unit. What is your annual income in Indian Rupees? Less than 4,00,000 4,00,000 - 6,00,000 6,00,001 — 8,00,000AMAR : Research Methodology 14 8,00,001 - 10,00,000 ‘scale wie Moré than 10,0000) ical scale. It isan interval scale with thy Rati sales A rato scales numeri sae. Is an inerya le with jable can tal i sditienal property ais ceriespanding variables are age and duration of tio scale. The question uses a ral employment. What is your age? A ; - 45, Above ‘ Below 25, 25 ~ 35, 36 - 45 between questionnaire and schedule? Q.4. What are the difference be! £ collect; ; - leare popularly used methods of collecting Ans, Both questionnaire and schedule are pop : f th el is fh resemblance in the nature of these two data in research surveys.There is much r le to remark that from a practical methods and this fact has made many people i Point of view, the two methods can be taken to be the same. But from the technical point of view there is difference between the two. The important points of differenceare as under: | | 1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions when necessary. 2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents. Here no field staff tequired. To collect data through ongponse is generally very low in case of schedules because these are filled by cnumerators who are able to get answers to all questions. But there remains the danger of interviewer bias and cheating. 4. In case of questionnaire, itis not always cl of schedule the identity of Tespondent is known, 5. The questionnaire method is likel do not return the questionnain schedules the information is enumerators, ar as to who replies, but in case Y to be very slow since man dents is lil : \y responden ein time despite several Teminders, but in case of collected well in time ag they are filled in by " ossible in case o ionnai 3s questionnaires are sent to responden po atestionnaire method ts by post who Iso i the | same by post. But in case of schedules dr sect eran eum. the Sone direct personal Contact is established with 7. Questionnaire method can be used only u a when i cooperative, but in case of schedules the information

as parameter(s), a ply the study of a small Portion of| tally be a certain amount of) P‘ pai i in accuracy may be termed as| a z ‘er words, saj i s count of samp mpling errors are those errors Li Variations (in case of random sa arate Benerally happen to be random 7 mpling) i ‘ Population values Pling) in the sample estimates around the trueErrors in Survey Q.1. What are the different types of errors in surveys? Ans. In survey research, it is common to hav: pare from different source. Broadly, we can classif Types of error in survey research : i A. Random Sampling Error in : ‘ ised on sample. But isnot posible tha the sample wil ull pees of the population. As a result, error will occur such aes : is kn sie sampling error of random sampli: es Sena e e rt ampling error. In other words, using sample rather than population results in errors which is known as sampling error. This error is obvious & can’t be eliminated unit a large sample or the whole population is bein, studied. Different statistical techniques are used to determine the significance of the errors. B. Systematic error/Non-sampling error : The other major source of survey error, systematic error, results from some imperfect aspect of the research design or from a mistake in the execution of the research design or from a mistake in the execution of the research. The many source of error that in some way systematically influence answers can be divided into two general categories: e errors. Survey errors may arise these errors into two types. 1. Respondent error 2. Administrative error. 1. Respondent error : Surveys ask people for answers. If people co-operate and give truthful answers, a survey will likely accomplish its goal. If these conditions are not met, the two major categories of respondent error, may cause sample bias. * Non-response error in survey research © Response Bias Non response error in survey reezarch : Few surveys have 100 percent response rates. In fact, surveys with relatively low response rates many still accurately reflect the population of interest. The applied math variations between a survey that has solely people who responded and a survey that additionally enclosed people who didn’t respond area unit mentioned as non response error. Response Bias : A response bias occurs when respondents tend to answer questions with a certain slant people many consciously or unconsciously misrepresent that truth. When researchers identify response bias, they should include a corrective measure response bias may occur. in the following ways: Deliberate Falsification: Occasionally people deliberately give false answer. Itis difficult to assess why people knowingly misrepresent answers. A response (33)M AMAR : Research Methodology bias may occur when people misrepresent answer to appear intelligent, conce, personal information, avoid embarrassment, and so on. For example, Tespondeny may be able to remember the total amount of money spent on Brocery shoppin but they any forget the exact prices of individual items that they purchased Unconscious Misrepresentation ; Even when a respondent is conse trying to be truthful and cooperative, response bias can arise from the Weston, format the question content, or some other stimulus, For example, bias can be introduced by the situation in which the survey is administered, Types of Response Bias: Response bias falls into acquiescence bias, extremity bias interviewer bias, ‘These categori ously four specific categorie, and social desirability biag s overlap and are not mutually exclusive. * Acquiescence Bias: Some respondents are very agreeable. They seem tp agree to practically every statement they are asked about. A tendency to agree (or disagree) with all or most questions is known is acquiescence bias. This bias is particularly prominent in new product research, Extremity Bias:Some people tend to use extremes once responding to queries. for instance, they will opt for solely “1” or “10 on a ten-point scale. Others consistently refuse to use extreme Positions and tend to respond more neutrally “i never givea 10 because nothing is really perfect, Response styles vary from Person to person, and extreme responses may cause an extremity bias in the data. Interviewer Bias : Response bias might arise from the interaction between querier and respondent. If the interviewer's presence influences respondents to give untrue or modified answers, the survey will be marked by interviewer bias. Many homemakers and retired people welcome an interviewer's visit as a break in routine activities. Other respondents may give answers they believe will please the interviewer rather than the truthful response. Social Desirability Bias : Social desirability bias might occur either consciously or unconsciously as a result of the respondent desires to make @ good impression or save face within the presence of AN enquirer, Incomes may be inflated, education overstated, perceived respectable answers given to gain prestige. * Administrative error: The results of improper administration or execution of the analysis task is termed Associate in Nursing body error. Administrative errors are caused by carelessness, confusion, neglect, omission, or some other blunder. Four types of administrative errors are data-processing selection error, interviewer error, and interviewer cheating. Data processing error : Processing data by computer, like any arithmetic °F procedural proces is subject to error because data must be edited, coded, and entered into the computer by People. The accuracy of dat Processed by computer depends op correct data entry and programming. * Sample selection error : Many kinds of error involve failure to select @ representative sample. Sample choice error is systematic error that endsUnit-4 : Errors in Survey 35 up in Associate in Nursing untypical sample owing to a slip-up in either the sample style or the execution of the sampling procedure. Interviewer error : Interviewers’ abilities very considerably. Interviewer error is introduced when interviewers record answers but check the wrong response or are unable to write fast enough to record answers verbatim. Interviewer or cheating : Interviewer cheating occurs when an interviewer falsifies entire questionnaires or fills in answers to questions that have been intentionally skipped. If interviewers are suspected of faking questionnaires, they should be told total that a small percentage of respondents will be called back to confirm whether the initial interview was actually conducted. This practice should discourage interviewers from cheating. Q. 2. How we can, solve the problems of non-response in survey ? Ans .Here are six ways you can increase survey response by not annoying your respondents : Personalise Interactions : Don’t ask questions that you already know. By using information you already have (j.e., demographic information) you can improve survey experience and email communication. Target Intelligently : No one wants to be screened out in the middle of your survey. If someone doesn’t meet your criteria, screen them out before they begin. This way, you only send the right surveys to the right respondents. Automate Rewards : Send rewards as soon as your respondents complete the survey, not a month later. Automate this process so it's easy for your respondents and for you. Control Contact Frequency : This can get jumbled and chaotic in a hurry. Let Qualtrics Target Audience do it for you. Respect Global Opt-Outs : Continuing to send surveys when your Tespondents unsubscribe means you're spamming them with survey requests. Doing this not only results in less responses—it also harms your brand. Keep Your Promises :Avoid the temptation of asking too many questions in your surveys. If you tell a respondent that your survey takes 5 minutes but it teally takes 10, you lose trust and goodwill. Q. 3.What are the common Questionnaire making mistakes? Explain. Ans.Most experienced researchers and consultants can put together an effective Survey instrument, but even then, small issues can creep into the questionnaire that can compromise quality, introduce bias or lead to misleading results. While many of the common mistakes listed here may seem obvious, it is always good Practice to review a questionnaire with these potential issues in mind. Here are some of the common questionnaire mistakes market researchers should avoid: Mistake Leading the Respondent : This issue results when an adjective is Used that can cause bias. While often unintentional, itis sometimes seen in political Polling when trying to provoke a certain reaction to an issue. When it occurs in Bia= 36 AMAR : Research Methodology market research surveys, it tends to inflate ratings in aspects like custome; satisfaction or product research. Overlapping, Incomplete or Unclear Response Choices : Response option; should almost always be mutually exclusive and definitive. Any ambiguity wiq, confuse and/or frustrate respondents. Vague Questions : Having respondents guess what response the study jg looking for is a wasted opportunity. This most often occurs in open-ends when looking for something specific, but the respondent takes the question in a different direction. Also, be specific with timeframes. Ignoring Cultural Differences and Sensitivities : As mentioned in our post3 | Things to Consider When Asking Sensitive Questions respondents in different regions can be sensitive about certain topics related to income, sexual orientation, religion, personal care, and consumption/use of certain products and services, Combining Questions/Attributes : As mentioned previously, it is important that the respondent clearly understands the question they are answering or the attribute they are rating. Make sure each question focuses on one attribute/ behavior. Too many open-ended questions : Open ends can be revealing, but often they are used when response options have not been well-thought-out or as a substitute | for qualitative examination. Too many open-ends results in faster respondent | | fatigue, which means higher drop-out rates and/or less consideration when answering. Both issues compromise data quality. If real unstructured data is the goal, consider a different methodology such as in-person qualitative or an online community. Not Considering the Respondent Experience : As Jun Uematsu, Chief Operating Officer at dataSpring, mentions in the blog Understanding Questionnaire Design in Japan, market research participation rates are declining significantly, in part due to poor respondent experience: long surveys, confusing questions, multiple attribute matrix, and multiple open-ends try the patience of ‘even the most dedicated respondent. Q. 4. What are the Response Bias in reaserch & methodology? ‘Ans, Response Bias is a general term that describes the ways a respondent may be influenced when self-reporting their answers on a survey. Bias affects the accuracy and reliability of the results. There are several ways in which an individual's response may be inaccurate. The inaccuracy, or bias, may be deliberate ‘or subconscious on the part of the respondent; it is the result of a respondent being unduly influenced to respond a certain way, or a respondent's unwillingness to answer the questions honestly. Bias can be caused when items are unclear of poorly constructed but can also occur as a result of the response scale selected for participants to use when they provide their answers. Never underestimate the propensity of individuals to misunderstand what is being asked or otherwise provide information ee is tescrurete to some degree. ‘Gome common forms of Response Bias include : Soci its Conformity bias:-Itcan be hard for respondents to epealy ee deepen a IUnit-4 : Errors in Survey — when asked to self-report their behavior, beliefs and opinions; this is especially tue when the respondent believes they may be ridiculed or despised. In such cases, respondents will tend to provide a socially acceptable response (sometime subconsciously) over their true feelings. For example, a respondent may tend to agree with a statement more strongly than is factual when the item addresses something that is generally seen in society as desirable or expected. Prestige bias:-This bias is related to social desirability bias as it is based on an individual's personal desire to be seen in a positive light. However, with this bias it is personal, not based on a general instinct for conformity. For example, respondents may round up their income or report exaggerated amounts of time spent on worthy endeavors (noting, the reverse would be true for endeavors the individual feels may diminish how they are perceived). This may not involve outright lying, the individual may actually remember the facts inaccurately. Respondents often tend to view or recall their own situation in a more favorable light than is actually the case —subconsciously protecting their self-image or inflating their ego. It is often good practice to assume that, if a question has a potential prestige component, the responses are likely inflated to present the respondents in a more favorable light. Exactly how much they are inflated will depend on the question, context, and respondents. Acquiescence or Agreement bias : This bias is like conformity bias. However, unlike conformity bias, in this case the respondent will, in general and inadvertently, agree with statements. With this bias, participants tend to select a positive response option or disproportionately indicate a positive connotation. This bias will skew results towards the positive. Item and Option Order Effect bias : Order bias can be the result of both item order and response option order. The order in which survey items are presented can affect a respondent’s answers due to a priming effect. People tend to contextualize their responses. Because of this, survey questions that come just before a particular query may provide information that respondents will use as context in formulating their subsequent answers. If a different primer was presented, the responses may be significantly different. ‘Two common response biases associated with response option order are Primacy and Recency bias. Primacy bias is the tendency for respondents to pick one of the first options presented to them. This can happen when a respondent quickly reads through the survey and pick one of the first response options they agree with. Recency bias is the tendency to pick an answer option presented at the end of a list. For example, in a long list of options, the ones respondents read last are more memorable to the respondent as they select an answer. Mood bias and Emotional Mind Sets : One's mood or mind set will affect the way responses are provided. For example, if a participant is exceptionally happy or angry for some reason while taking a survey, their emotional state affects the general pattern of responses provided. Given time, the respondents current extreme emotions may subside which will modify the intensity of the responses provided. Emotional responses can be intense in either a positive or negative direction. You i,» a+ 38 AMAR: Research Methodology will also see this when the survey addresses an tha responce salle pots Responses may tend to be on the sarem ends of strong opinions; Kore because those who choose to complete the st 7 ted bw enc’ T, mood bias becomes a problem when opinions are exaggerated by one’s current emotional state. f Pere Central Tendency bias : This bias refers to the tendency of some individuals toavoid responding in extreme ways. For example, some people may never indicate they strongly agree or are extremely dissatisfied (i.e., nothing is perfect and nothing is completely without merit). This is the opposite of a mood bias in that reponses from those who have this bias will trend closer to the center of the response scale, | Demand Characteristic bias:- A demand characteristic is used to describe specific cues in research that may inadvertently influence a participant's response. | A demand characteristic can manifest in a number of different ways if the researcher is not careful when designing and proceeding with a study. In social science research, demand characteristics can create bias when the subject becomes aware of the purpose of the study. This may potentially bias or invalidate the ‘outcomes. When a respondent becomes aware of the reason or purpose of the | study they may intentionally provide answers they feel would influence the | results. For example, if a respondent figured out that the results of a survey will be used to set policy, the individual may attempt to answer in.a way that they feel | would be beneficial to them. Random Response bias : Random response bias can occur when a respondent honestly does not know the answer to the question but answers anyway. This can happen when you ask a respondent to answer a question for which they would not reasonably know the answer, Respondents resort to guessing or speculating rather reporting factual information. For example, asking someon to indicate the motive of another individual prompts a guessing bias. Another way this bias can manifest is when an individual has an opinion but hasn’t considered their true feeling carefully. Like a central tendency bias, these individuals also tend to choose options toward the middle of the response scale. At times, people with this bias will choose the exact middle point (on an odd numbered response scale) simply because they don't want to think about the issue or don’t really care. This bias can also manifest itself maliciously when an individual intentionally responds in a random fashion without actually reading the items. This can happen when there is an incentive involved and people simply want to complete the survey for the promised reward, Ifyou suspect the possibility that a random response bias might occur, trigger items can be added to identify suspect response patterns. For example, adding an item that is the opposite of another item or reverse scoring an item can be used to identify Potential problems. Note however, the practice of reverse scoring some items but not allofthe legitimate | items is not advised as this can cause an response bias which can affect the analysis and interpretation of the results . | | | |Processing of Survey Data Q.1.What are the important steps of data processing? Ans. It is no secret that the results obtained from surveys, play a very crucial role in shaping any organization’s long term objectives. However, survey data entry and processing can be very time consuming and tedious for businesses. Hence, choosing an outsourcing service provider for survey data entry services requirements can help organizations to better focus on their core activities. Survey data processing consists of four important steps. Survey Designing : Devise suitable surveys/questionnaires to help organizations modify their products/services in order to gain higher profits in future. It involves working closely with client to understand and analyze their business needs as well as the target audience. Survey designing includes establishing obiective, determining sample, deciding upon the survey mode and finally creating questionnaire. A thoughtfully designed survey questionnaire can provide better insights on the research topic and prove very useful in improving business. Data Entry and Data Capture : Survey forms data entry basically means capturing data from paper/ web based questionnaires or survey forms and storing it in electronic format. This process requires a combination of professional skills and latest cutting edge technology to collate relevant information from all types of surveys. These days, OCR and other scanning techniques are being used for survey form scanning, which has been incremental in reducing data entry errors to a great extent. The data so collected is‘then stored in suitable digital formats including MS Excel, SAS, SPSS, MSWord, MySQL, etc. Data Quality Assurance and Analysis : One of the fundamental goals of survey data processing is to make quality data available to organizations for the purpose of analysis. Survey form data is always prone to errors, omissions and other inconsistencies. This data inconsistency and incompleteness, if not edited and corrected on time, ‘can complicate the analysis and may even result in wrong analysis. Hence, to avoid this problem, survey data entry service providers must have an effective quality assurance framework in place. Quality of data can be assured by following a proven methodology, such as:Survey forms are first categorized based on certain defined criteria. Forms are scrutinized for their code structure, and those with open ended responses are standardized and recoded at this stage. Check all questionnaires after data entry to make sure that all the data fields have been accurately filled in.Use double keying process to avoid any discrepancies in data.Check data for inconsistencies and resolve issues relating to missing, duplicate, incomplete data, etc. Reporting and Data Tabulation : Survey data in its raw form is not likely to make much sense to organizations, unless it is presented in a way that is easy to understand. Extensive reporting and statistics is required to help businesses (39) @e. fiSilda hp) Oe 0 ca ‘esearch Methodology ok 40 AMAR: s can be of various t gly. Reports can | i YPes cordingly. as presentation quality reports, ports are a great way to hayy, analyze situations and take actions accordingly. depending upon theneeds of an Sa Survey re cross tabulations, frequency analyst a bird’s eye view of survey responses. ta and it’s coding? Q. 2. What do you understand by Sa als particularly when yoy Ans, Data cleaning is a crucial part of data analysis, part you must enter jt Fee a aecraaanlliative data ie yee cali During tala process, whether into a computer program such as SAS, S "ies it there will be errors, No matter it is done by hand or a computer scanner does it, ¢ inevitable. This could mst how carefully the data has been entered, errors are orrect sensing of blacker) incorrect coding, incorrect reading of written codes, ee raceas*of detecting anq marks, missing data, and so on. Data cleaning is the p' J correcting these coding errors. . There are two types of data cleaning that needs to be penonned to aaa sets, They are possible code cleaning and contingency cleaning, Both are crucial to the data analysis process because if ignored, you will almost always produce misleading research finding, = Possible-Code Cleaning : Any given variable will have a specified set of answer choices and codes to match each answer choice. For example, the variable gender will have three answer choices and codes for each: 1 for male,? for female, and 0 for no answer. If you have a respondent coded as 6 for this variable, it is clear that an error has been made since that is not a possible anewer eocle, Possible- code cleaning is the process of checking to see that only the codes assigned to the answer choices for each question (possible codes) appear in the date file Some computer programs and statistical software packages available for data entry check for these types of errors as the data is being entered. Here, the user defines the possible codes for each question before the data is entered. Then, if a number outside pf the pre-defined possibilities is entered, an error message appears. For example, if the user tried to enter a 6 for gender, the computer might beep and Tefuse the code. Other computer programs are designed to test for illegitimate codes in completed data files. That is, if they were not check! during the data check the files for coding errors 4 computer program that checks for coding errors during the data entry process, you can locate some errors simply by examining the distribution of repPonses to each item in the data set. For example, you could generate a frequency table for the variable gender and here you would See the number 6 that was mis-entered. You could then search for that entry in the data file and correct it. Contingency Cleaning : The second type of data cleaning is called contingency cleaning and is a little more complicated than Possible-code cleaning. The logical structure of the data may place certain limits on the responses of certain respondents or on certain variables. Contingency leaning is the process of checking that only those cases that should have data on a particular variable do in fact have such data. For example, let’s say that you have a questionnaire in which you ask respondents how many times they have been Pregnant. All female respondents should have a response coded in the data. Males, however should either be left blank or should have a special code for failing to answer. If any males in the data are coded as having 3 Pregnancies, for example, you know there is an error and it needs to be corrected.Ethics and Scientific Integrity Q. 1, What do you understand by scientific integrity? Ans. Research integrity may be defined as active adherence to the ethical principles and professional standards essential for the responsible practice of research. By active adherence we mean adoption of the principles and practices asa personal credo, not simply accepting them as impositions by rule makers. By ethical principles we mean honesty, the golden rule, trustworthiness, and high regard for the scientific record. NAS report definition: “For individuals research integrity is an aspect of moral character and experience. It involves above all a commitment to intellectual honesty and personal responsibility for ones actions and to a range of practices that characterize responsible research conduct.” These practices include: * Honesty and fairness in proposing, performing, and reporting research; Accuracy and fairness in representing contributions to research proposals and reports; Proficiency and fairness in peer review; Collegiality in scientific interactions, communications and sharing of resources; * Disclosure of conflicts of interest; © Protection of human subjects in the conduct of research; * Humane care of animals in the conduct of research; Adherence to the mutual responsibilities of mentors and trainees.” While science encourages (no, requires) vigorous defense of one’s ideas and work, ultimately research integrity means examining the data with objectivity and being guided by the results rather than by preconceived notions. We will return to the importance of preserving the integrity of the scientific record in the section on misconduct. Q. 2. What are protection issues for researchers to consider? Ans. Good data protection practice and ethics are essential in research in order to not only comply with the law but also the expectations of individuals that may be the subject of research. In developing a trusted relationship researchers need to follow ethical principles as well as expectations of confidentiality and privacy. In 2020 more data protection laws are being developed around the world and General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) has focused many researchers’ minds on compliance there are more than 140 countries with data protection laws and many have similar approaches to the GDPR. Furthermore Regulators (41) Ls42 AMAR : Research Methodology around the world are enforcing the rights of individuals against organisation, that process personal data unlawfully or without transparency. The five important issues to consider are: . : : 1. Transparency and Accountability : Data Protection Principles require that when any personal data is being processed Researchers must provide transparent and plain language information to individuals whose data may be collected ang analysed. Researchers should ensure that they have available a Fair Processing Notice or Privacy Notice that informs individuals of who is processing the persona] data, with whom that personal data may be shared, the purposes for which the data will be used, for kow long it will be retained and what rights and privileges individuals have in terms of their personal data. In order to demonstrate accountability, the researcher as a controller must have appropriate policies and procedures in place such as not only the Privacy Notice but also a record of processing activities, a process for dealing with individuals rights requests, a process for using data protection impact assessments, a data retention and destruction policy and a policy for the control of sub contracted research organisations and any international transfers of personal data in the course of research. The above is not an exhaustive list of policies and procedures. 2. Understanding the nature of the personal data : It is essential to identify the nature of the personal data that is being collected during research as the more sensitive the nature of the data, the greater the obligations are for compliance. The GDPR defines personal data as, “any information relating to identified or identifiable natural persons who can be identified directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identification number or to one or more factors specific to their physical, psychological, genetic mental economic cultural or social identity”. The concept of personal data includes any sort of information about a person whether objective or subjective. The GDPR lays out more stringent obligations for researchers to consider where the personal data consist of “special categoriés of data” or “information relating to suspected criminal activities”. These particular sensitive data categories are those revealing racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs, trade union membership, genetic data, biometric data, data concerning health or data relating to sexual orientation or activity. If as a researcher you are intending to process these special categories of data or information relating to criminal activity you will need to satisfy stricter conditions to be able to lawfully process that data. : 3. Controller or Processor : Researchers should consider whether in the course of their work they are acting as a controller or as a processor in relation to personal data because there are differences in the obligations and liabilities between @ controller and a processor. If the researcher is independently carrying out research where the outcomes will be marketed to customers then the researcher is likely to bea controller and as such will need to comply with all of the controller obligations of the GDPR and other similar legislation in other parts of the world should theyUnit-6 : Ethics and Scientific Integrity 43 apply. If however, the researcher is actin on the i i i i apoly however '8 on the instructions of a client and is Sa ae individuals or categories of individuals and then the outcot Cred as a report to the client then the researcher is a processor and most or the liability for data protection compliance rests with the client, If the research company is acting as a processor it will still have obligations.under the GDPR (where that applies) and should ant te that clients will want yl nticipate that cli I Zi as well as contractually that the research company will support the client in its role as a controller and meet its own obligations as the processor, 4. Lawful grounds for historical research pury w. Another lawful-ground that may be of value is that of legitimate interest provided that the legitimate interest of the research business to carry out research is not overridden by the individual rights of data subjects who may be the target of the research. 5. Ethics by design : Whilst privacy by design and security by default are still somewhat cliché phrases which highlight the need to embed. data protection by design into processes and systems, whilst at the same time ensuring technical, organisational and physical security into businesses and their management of Processing personal data, ethics by design is emerging as the next standard. Researchers need to not only address privacy and security but also consider how to embed ethics into their operations particularly with regard to processing of Personal data in circumstances that might not be anticipated by individuals Q. 3.What are the standards of conduct in research and methodology? Ans. Research standards provides guidelines for the responsible and meaningful research. Honesty : Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and Publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Objectivity : Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.44 AMAR : Research Methodology Integrity :Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action. Carefulness : Avoid careless errors and negligence; Se wand really examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good re research activities. Openness : Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to Ctiticism, and new ideas. Respect for Intellectual Property : Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, permission. Give credit where credit is due. N Confidentiality : Protect confidential comm records, Responsible Publication : scholarship, publication. , Tace, ethnicity, or other fas Human Sup; ai ub} . minimize hares Protection ; and rij 4 and autonomy, isks and Maxi ever plagiarize. junications, such as papers or submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or milita ry secrets, ite, mentor, and N against collea ‘ctors that are n or results Without rants and Patient Publish in order to advance research and { not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative advise students, eir own decisions, \ gues or students | ‘ot related to their 7 professional competence and farning; take st | j eps to oy }