Topic 1 Notes

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we
wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the
unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man
employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.
Research aims to discover knowledge, and postulate laws and theories which then become
important sources of knowledge. This topic will equip the students with knowledge in definitions
of research, importance of research, types of research, different between research methods and
methodology.
Word “science” is derived from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge. Science refers to a
systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry that is acquired using “the
scientific method” . Science can be grouped into two broad categories: natural science and social
science. Natural science is the science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as
light, objects, matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the human body. Social science is the science of
people or collections of people, such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their
individual or collective behaviors.
Natural science and social science
Natural sciences are very precise, accurate, deterministic, and independent of the person making
the scientific observations. Social sciences tend to be less accurate, deterministic, or
unambiguous. For instance, if you measure a person’s happiness using a hypothetical instrument,
you may find that the same person is more happy or less happy (or sad) on different days and
sometimes, at different times on the same day. In other words, there is a high degree of
measurement error in the social sciences and there is considerable uncertainty and little
agreement on social science policy decisions. For instance, you will not find many disagreements
among natural scientists on the speed of light or the speed of the earth around the sun, but you
will find numerous disagreements among social scientists on how to solve a social problem such
as reduce global terrorism or rescue an economy from a recession.
Scientific Knowledge
The purpose of science is to create scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge refers to a
generalized body of laws and theories to explain a phenomenon or behavior of interest that are
acquired using the scientific method. Laws are observed patterns of phenomena or behaviors
theories are systematic explanations of the underlying phenomenon or behavior. The goal of
scientific research is to discover laws and postulate theories that can explain natural or social
phenomena, or in other words, build scientific knowledge. We arrive at scientific laws or
theories through a process of logic and evidence. Logic (theory) and evidence (observations) are
the two, and only two, pillars upon which scientific knowledge is based. Theories provide
meaning and significance to what we observe, and observations help validate or refine existing
theory or construct new theory. Any other means of knowledge acquisition, such as faith or
authority cannot be considered science
Scientific Research
Given that theories and observations are the two pillars of science, scientific research operates at
two levels: a theoretical level and an empirical level. Both theory and observations are essential
components of scientific research. For instance, relying solely on observations for making
inferences and ignoring theory is not considered valid scientific research.
Inductive or deductive
In inductive research, the goal of a researcher is to infer theoretical concepts and patterns from
observed data. In deductive research, the goal of the researcher is to test concepts and patterns
known from theory using new empirical data. inductive research is also called theory-building
research, deductive research is theory-testing research Though both inductive and deductive
research are important for the advancement of science, it appears that inductive (theory-building)
research is more valuable when there are few prior theories or explanations, while deductive
(theory-testing) research is more productive when there are many competing theories of the same
phenomenon and researchers are interested in knowing which theory works best and under what
circumstances. Unlike theories in the natural sciences, social science theories are rarely perfect,
which provides numerous opportunities for researchers to improve those theories or build their
own alternative theories. Conducting scientific research, therefore, requires two sets of skills –
theoretical and methodological – needed to operate in the theoretical and empirical levels
respectively. Methodological skills ("know-how") are relatively standard, invariant across
disciplines, and easily acquired through doctoral programs. Theoretical skills ("know-what") is
considerably harder to master, requires years of observation and reflection, and are tacit skills
that cannot be “taught” but rather learned though experience. All of the greatest scientists in the
history of mankind, such as Galileo, Newton, Einstein, Neils Bohr, Adam Smith, Charles
Darwin, and Herbert Simon, were master theoreticians, and they are remembered for the theories
they postulated that transformed the course of science. Methodological skills are needed to be an
ordinary researcher, but theoretical skills are needed to be an extraordinary researcher.
Meaning Of Research (Scientific Research)
Research refers to investigation or experimentation aimed at discovery, interpretation of facts,
and revision of accepted theories or laws in the right of new facts. Research is a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. Research is a systematic
investigation into and study of materials in order to establish facts and reach new conclusion. It
is a systematic method consisting of problem definition, formulation of hypothesis, collection
and analysis of data, and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solution(s) towards
the concerned problem or in certain generalizations or theory
Other definitions of research
Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge
 1. Burns (1994:4) defines research as a systematic investigation to find answers to a
problem.
2. Kerlinger (1986:10) defines scientific research is a systematic, controlled empirical and
critical investigation of propositions about the presumed relationships about various
phenomena.
3. Research has been considered as a systematic, controlled collection analysis and
interpretation of data about phenomena to differentiate it from other ways of acquiring
knowledge.
4. There are may ways through which knowledge can be obtained though they may not
qualify to be called scientific research.
What are the Objectives of Research?
The prime objectives of research are 
1. to discover new facts
2. to verify and test important facts
3. to analyze an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect
relationship to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and
understand scientific and nonscientific problems
4. to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and
5. to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.

Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life new problems,
events, phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically, implementable solutions and
suggestions are required for tackling new problems that arise. Scientists have to undertake
research on them and find their causes, solutions, explanations and applications. Precisely,
research assists us to understand nature and natural phenomena
Importance of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may
think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

Discovery
The main purpose of research is to unearth new knowledge. This involves discovery of new
facts, their interpretation and practical application.
Prediction
Research helps people to determine the effect of a particular variable on another. Prediction is
the ability to estimate a phenomenon
Controlling
Control is concerned with the ability to regulate a phenomenon under investigation. Research
enables to estimate impact of a variable on another.
Theory Development
Research helps to formulate concepts, laws, and generalizations about a given phenomenon. It is
also conducted in an attempt to confirm or validate existing theories
Explanation
It involves accurate observation and measurement of a given phenomenon. In order to explain a
phenomenon one should be able to describe it, predicts its occurrence and observe factors that
cause its occurrence with certainty and accuracy.
Important avenues of research knowledge
1. A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community or
an industry or a government organization or a society experiences. It may be a
theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding and possible
solution.
2. Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and applications of
them.
3. It is the fountain of knowledge and provide guidelines for solving problems.
4. Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the
needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs
helps a government to prepare a budget.
5. It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve
the quality of products.
6. Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the problems in
them.
7. It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things, new
stars, etc.
8. Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and novel phenomena
and processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been discovered only through
research.
9. Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena
and seek solution to social problems.

Research Methods and Research Methodology

Question
Is there any difference between research methods and research methodology?
Research methods
Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and algorithms used in research.
All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as research methods .
They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral.
They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical
approaches, etc.
Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem. Particularly,
scientific research methods call for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and
observations and not on reasoning alone. They accept only those explanations which can be
verified by experiments. May be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations. Research methods can be put into the following three groups: In
the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data. These
methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required
solution; The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns; The third group consists of those
methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained

Research methodology
Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how
research is to be c Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of
describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It is also
defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan
of research. Is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a
science of studying how research is done scientifically. It is the study of steps that are generally
adopted by a researcher in studying his/her. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only
the research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know
how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the
standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need
to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would
they mean and indicate and why
Creswell (2003) understands methodology as the strategy or plan of action that links methods to
outcomes. Methodology governs our choice of research designs, techniques and procedures we
proposed to use in the study. Methodology include all facets of the of the research process.
Therefore, the research design, the approach taken, the particular data collection methods chosen
and the means of analysis, are all considered to be part of the methodology. Methodology helps
us to understand the research process in the broadest terms possible.
Importance of Research Methodology in Research Study
It is necessary for a researcher to design a methodology for the problem chosen. One should
note that even if the method considered in two problems are same the methodology may be
different. It is important for the researcher to know not only the research methods necessary for
the research under taken but also the methodology. For example, a researcher not only needs to
know how to calculate mean, variance and distribution function for a set of data, how to find a
solution of a physical system described by mathematical model, how to determine the roots of
algebraic equations and how to apply a particular method but also need to know
1. Which is a suitable method for the chosen problem?,
2. What is the order of accuracy of the result of a method?,
 3. What is the efficiency of the method? and so on. Consideration of these aspects
constitutes a research methodology.
More precisely, research methods help us get a solution to a problem. On the other hand,
research methodology is concerned with the explanation of the following:
(1) Why is a particular research study undertaken?
(2) How did one formulate a research problem?
(3) What types of data were collected?
(4) What particular method has been used?
(5) Why was a particular technique of analysis of data used?
The study of research methods gives training to apply them to a problem. The study of research
methodology provides us the necessary training in choosing methods, materials, scientific tools
and training in techniques relevant for the problem chosen.
Cohen et al (2007:100) suggests that one’s decision of research design and methodology should
address the following questions:-
i. What are the specific purposes of the research?
ii. How are the general research purposes and aims operationalized into specific research
questions?
iii. What are the specific research questions?
iv. What needs to be the focus of the research in order to answer the research questions?
v. What is the main method of the research (e.g. a quantitative survey, qualitative research,
an ethnographic study, an experiment, a case study, a piece of action research etc.)?
vi. How will validity and reliability be addressed?
vii. What kinds of data are required?
viii. From whom will data be acquired (i.e. sampling)?
ix. Where else will data be available (e.g. documentary sources)?
x. How will the data be gathered (i.e. instrumentation)?
xi. Who will undertake the research?

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research is broadly classified into two main classes:
1. Fundamental or basic research or pure research
2. Applied research
Basic Research
Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for occurrence of a
particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research . Study or
investigation of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as basic
research. Basic researches sometimes may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not
concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or basic
in character. It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates extraction of
scientific and logical explanation and conclusion on it. It helps build new frontiers of
knowledge. The outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied research.
Researchers working on applied research have to make use of the outcomes of basic research
and explore the utility of them.
Research on improving a theory or a method is also referred as fundamental research. For
example, suppose a theory is applicable to a system provided the system satisfies certain specific
conditions. Modifying the theory to apply it to a general situation is a basic research.
Attempts to find answers to the following questions actually form basic research.
1. Why are materials like that?
2. What are they?
3. How does a crystal melt?
4. Why is sound produced when water is heated?
5. Why do we feel difficult when walking on seashore?
6. Why are birds arrange them in ‘>’ shape when flying in a group?
Fundamental research leads to a new theory or a new property of matter or even the existence of
a new matter, the knowledge of which has not been known or reported earlier. For example,
fundamental research on astronomy may leads to identification of new planets or stars in our
galaxy, elementary particles results in identification of new particles, complex functions may
leads to new patterns or new properties associated with them, differential equations results in
new types of solutions or new properties of solutions not known so far, chemical reactions leads
to development of new compounds, new properties of chemicals, mechanism of chemicals
reactions, etc., medicinal chemistry leads to an understanding of physiological action of various
chemicals and drugs, structure, contents and functioning of various parts of human body helps
us identify the basis for certain diseases.
Applied Research
In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well known and accepted theories
and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary research
are essentially applied research. Applied research is helpful for basic research. A research, the
outcome of which has immediate application is also termed as applied research. Such a research
is of practical use to current activity. For example, research on social problems have
immediate use.
Applied research is concerned with actual life research such as research on increasing efficiency
of a machine, increasing gain factor of production of a material, pollution control, preparing
vaccination for a disease, etc. Obviously, they have immediate potential applications.. Some of
the differences between basic and applied research are summarized in table in the next slide.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to find a solution for a practical problem which
warrants solution for immediate use, whereas basic research is directed towards finding
information that has broad base of applications and thus add new information to the already
existing scientific knowledge.

Other Types of Research

Descriptive research
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. The
main characteristic of this type of research is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto
research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such
items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post
facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot
control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
Exploratory Research
Exploratory Research-It is a study conducted into a problem where there is no earlier studies to
refer to. The main focus is to gain insights and familiarity for later investigations. It is also a
preliminary research conducted to increase understanding of a concept, to clarify the exact nature
of the problem to be solved or to identify important variables to be studied.
Experimental Research
Experimental Research- This type of research is guided by hypothesis showing expected
relationship between variables. Such research is conducted in laboratory where conditions are
manipulated to strengthen conclusion. Experimental research is time consuming and requires a
lot of resources.
Revision Questions
1. Alluding to the suitability for each in a relevant study area of your choice, differentiate
between experiment and survey research methods
2. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research methods
3. Using suitable examples differentiate between natural and social science research