Universal suffrage

Universal suffrage (also called universal franchise, general suffrage, and common suffrage of the
common man) gives the right to vote to all adult citizens, regardless of wealth, income, gender, social status,
race, ethnicity, or any other restriction, subject only to relatively minor exceptions.[1][2] In its original 19th-
century usage by reformers in Britain, universal suffrage was understood to mean only universal manhood
suffrage; the vote was extended to women later, during the women's suffrage movement.[3][4]

There are variations among countries in terms of specifics of the right to vote; the minimum age is usually
between 18 and 25 years (see age of majority) and "the insane, certain classes of convicted criminals, and
those punished for certain electoral offenses" sometimes lack the right to vote.[2]

In the first modern democracies, governments restricted the vote to those with property and wealth, which
almost always meant a minority of the male population.[5] In some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such
as requiring voters to practice a given religion.[6] In all modern democracies, the number of people who could
vote has increased progressively with time.[7][8] The 19th century saw many movements advocating "universal
[male] suffrage", most notably in Europe, Great Britain and North America.[9][7]

In the United States, after the principle of "one man, one vote" was established in the early 1960s by U.S.
Supreme Court under Earl Warren,[10][11] the U.S. Congress together with the Warren Court continued to
protect and expand the voting rights of all Americans, especially African Americans, through the Civil Rights
Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965 and several Supreme Court rulings.[12][13] In addition, the term
"suffrage" is also associated specifically with women's suffrage in the United States; a movement to extend the
franchise to women began in the mid-nineteenth century and culminated in 1920, when the United States
ratified the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, guaranteeing the right of women to
vote.[14]

Contents
Expanding suffrage
Dates by country
Women's suffrage
Youth suffrage, children's suffrage, and suffrage in school
See also
Notes
References
External links

Expanding suffrage
France, under the 1793 Jacobin constitution, was the first major country to enact suffrage for all adult males,
though it was never formally used in practice (the constitution was immediately suspended before being
implemented, and the subsequent election occurred in 1795 after the fall of the Jacobin government in 1794
discredited most ideas associated with them, including that
constitution). Elsewhere in the Francophone world, the Republic of
Haiti legislated for universal male suffrage in 1816.[15] The Second
French Republic instituted adult male suffrage after the revolution of
1848.[7]

Following the French revolutions, movements in the Western world

toward universal suffrage occurred in the early 19th century, and
focused on removing property requirements for voting. In 1867
Voting is an important part of the
Germany (the North German Confederation) enacted suffrage for all
formal democratic process.
adult males. In the United States following the American Civil War,
slaves were freed and granted rights of citizens, including suffrage for
adult males (although several states established restrictions largely,
though not completely, diminishing these rights). In the late-19th and
early-20th centuries, the focus of the universal suffrage movement
came to include the extension of the right to vote to women, as
happened from the post-Civil War era in several Western states and
during the 1890s in a number of British colonies.

On 19 September 1893 the British Governor of New Zealand, Lord

Glasgow, gave assent to a new electoral act, which meant that New
Zealand became the first British-controlled colony in which women The European Parliament is the only
supranational organ elected with
had the right to vote in parliamentary elections.[16] This was followed
universal suffrage (since 1979).
shortly after by the colony of South Australia in 1894, which was the
second to allow women to vote, but the first colony to permit women
to stand for election as well.[17] Twelve years later, the autonomous
Russian territory known as Grand Duchy of Finland (which became the Republic of Finland in 1917) became
the first territory in the world to implement unrestricted universal suffrage, as women could stand as
candidates, unlike in New Zealand, and without indigenous ethnic exclusion, like in Australia. It also lead to
the election of the world's first female members of parliament the following year.[18][19] Federal states and
colonial or autonomous territories prior to World War I have multiple examples of early introduction of
universal suffrage. However, these legal changes were effected with the permission of the British, Russian or
other government bodies, which were considered the sovereign nation at the time. For this reason, Australia
(1901), New Zealand (1908) and Finland (1917) all have different dates of achieving independent nationhood.

The First French Republic adopted universal male suffrage briefly in 1792; it was one of the first national
systems that abolished all property requirements as a prerequisite for allowing men to register and vote. Greece
recognized full male suffrage in 1844.[20] Spain recognized it in the Constitution of 1869 and France and
Switzerland have continuously done so since the 1848 Revolution (for resident male citizens). Upon
independence in the 19th century, several Latin-American countries and Liberia in Africa initially extended
suffrage to all adult males, but subsequently restricted it based on property requirements. The German Empire
implemented full male suffrage in 1871.[21]

In the United States, the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1870 during the
Reconstruction era, provided that "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or
abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."
This amendment aimed to guarantee the right to vote to African Americans, many of whom had been enslaved
in the South prior to the end (1865) of the American Civil War and the 1864-1865 abolition of slavery. Despite
the amendment, however, blacks were disfranchised in the former Confederate states after 1877; Southern
officials ignored the amendment and blocked black citizens from voting through a variety of devices, including
poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses;[22] violence and terrorism were used to intimidate some
would-be voters.[23] Southern blacks did not effectively receive the right to vote until the Voting Rights Act of
1965.[22]

In 1893 the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world (except for the short-
lived 18th-century Corsican Republic) to grant active universal suffrage by giving women the right to vote. It
did not grant universal full suffrage (the right to both vote and be a candidate, or both active and passive
suffrage) until 1919.[24]

In 1902 the Commonwealth of Australia become the first country to grant full suffrage for women, i.e. the
rights both to vote and to run for office.[25]

However, Australia did not implement universal suffrage at this time - Aboriginal Australians did not get the
right to vote until 1962, because in the early 20th century Australian law did not consider them human.

Several European nations that had enacted universal suffrage had their normal legal process, or their status as
independent nations, interrupted during and after the First World War of 1914–1918.

Many societies in the past have denied or abridged political representation on the basis of race or ethnicity,
related to discriminatory ideas about citizenship. For example, in apartheid-era South Africa, non-white people
could generally not vote in national elections until the first multi-party elections in 1994 (except under the
Cape Qualified Franchise, which was replaced by a number of separate MPs in 1936 (Blacks) and 1958
(Coloureds), later by the Tricameral Parliament). Rhodesia enacted a similar statute in its proclaimed
independence of 1965, which however allowed a smaller number of representatives for the considerably larger
Black majority (under its 1961 constitution, the voting classes had been based on socio-economic standards,
which marginalized most Black and a few White voters to a separate set of constituencies, under the principle
of weighted voting; this was replaced in 1969 by an openly racial franchise, with delegated all Blacks to the
'B' voters roll).

Dates by country
States have granted and revoked universal suffrage at various times. This list can be organised in three ways:

Universal There are no distinctions between voters over a certain age in any part of its
territories due to gender, literacy, wealth, social status, religion, race, or ethnicity.
Male is for all males over a certain age in the majority ethnic or sectarian group irrespective of
literacy, wealth, or social status.
Female is for when all women over a certain age can vote on the same terms as men
Ethnicity is for when all eligible voters over a certain age can vote on the same terms as the
majority group irrespective of religion, race, or ethnicity.
 Universal suffrage by country or territory
Country or
Universal Male Female Ethnicity Notes
territory
1964 Constitution of Afghanistan transformed
1977 1977 1977 1977 Afghanistan
Afghanistan into a modern democracy.[26]
Universal male suffrage was instituted in 1853.
Universal, secret and mandatory suffrage for
male citizens over 18 years of age was granted
1952 1853 1952 1853 Argentina
by the Sáenz Peña Law (General Election Law)
of 1912. It was amended to include female
citizens in 1947 but became effective in 1952.

1921 1919 1921 1920 Armenia Joined the nascent Soviet Union[nb 1] in 1920.
In 1855, the parliament of the self-governing
Colony of South Australia enacted legislation
providing for universal male suffrage. The
parliaments of the Colony of Victoria and the
Colony of New South Wales followed suit by
enacting legislation providing universal male
suffrage in 1857 and 1858, respectively.

In 1894 the parliament of the Colony of

South Australia enacted legislation
providing female adults franchise;
giving all adults of the age of majority
the right to vote in elections, and for
any elector to stand for high office. In
1901, the self-governing colonies of
Australia joined together in a federal
structure of states. In 1902, the new
1967 1901 1902 1967 Australia federal parliament legislated for a
white adult franchise and the right of
electors to stand for and occupy any
office for which they could directly
vote. Indigenous people were explicitly
excluded. True universal suffrage was
not achieved until 1967 when the
Commonwealth Electoral Act
extended the right to vote to all
Australians regardless of race.
However, Australia was first united as
a federation in 1901[27].Hence, white
female voting rights were not enabled
until the nation was united. Voting
rights for all white men and women
were established in 1902.[28]

Universal suffrage 1896, universal and equal

suffrage (removing multiple voting) 1907.
Before 1907 unmarried landholding women
1918 1896 1918 1907 Austria
were allowed to vote. After the Central Powers'
defeat in World War I universal suffrage
including women.

1919 1919 1919 1919 Azerbaijan Joined the nascent Soviet Union[nb 1] in 1920.
1961 1958 1961 1807 Bahamas Legislation passed in the house in 1961
allowing for Universal adult suffrage in The
Bahamas. All men could vote equally in The
Bahamas in 1958. In 1807 legislation passed in
the house of assembly giving free persons of
color the right to vote.
Universal suffrage in 1973, although parliament
was suspended and dissolved in 1975 for
1975 1975 1975[29] - Bahrain
approximately 30 years. Non-Sunni Muslims
cannot vote.
Universal census suffrage for all men aged 25
and above since 1893. Depending on education
and amount of taxes paid, males could cast
between 1 and 3 votes. Widows were also
1948 1893 1948 1893 Belgium
allowed to vote but lost their voting rights after
remarrying. Universal single suffrage for males
since 1918. Universal suffrage for women was
finally introduced in 1948.
2008 2008 2008 2008 Bhutan
Universal suffrage granted by decree of 1952;
first elections in 1956; women's suffrage
1952 1938 1952 1952 Bolivia
coincided with abolition of literacy
requirements.
Male suffrage from Brazilian Constituition of
1891 excluding the beggars, women, illiterates,
lowest ranking soldiers and members of
1985 1891 1932 1891 Brazil monastic orders. [30][31][32] Women from 1932.
Suffrage was further expanded to all but
illiterate people in 1946.[33] Illiterates remained
without the right to vote until 1985[34].
– – – – Brunei No elections.
Universal suffrage including women and men
1945 1945 1945 1945 Bulgaria serving in the Army was instituted by the
government of the Fatherland front.

Last free elections held in 1990.[35] New

1990 1990 1990 1990 Burma/Myanmar elections held in 2015, which elected 75% of
legislators, while 25% remain appointed by the
military.
In 1920, Canada enacted suffrage for federal
elections for male and female citizens, with
exceptions for Chinese Canadians and
Aboriginal Canadians;[36] for provincial
elections, female suffrage was established
1960 1920 1920 1960 Canada between 1916 (Manitoba, Alberta,
Saskatchewan) and 1940 (Quebec). Chinese
Canadians, regardless of gender, were given
suffrage in 1947, while Aboriginal Canadians
were not allowed to vote until 1960, regardless
of gender. Newfoundland which joined Canada
in 1949 had universal male suffrage in 1925.
1970 1970 1970 1970 Chile From 1888 suffrage for men of any race over
21 who can read. From 1925 full suffrage for
men aged 21 and above and able to read and
write. 1934 women get to vote on Municipal
Elections. From 1949 universal suffrage for
men and women aged 21 and above and able
to read and write. From 1970 suffrage for men
 and women aged 18 and older whether or not
they can read.
Universal male suffrage starting in 1853,
1954 1936 1954 1936 Colombia restricted in 1886. Electorate defined on the
basis of adult franchise and joint electorate.
Within Austria, universal suffrage 1896,
First universal and equal suffrage (removing multiple
1918 1896 1918 1896 Czechoslovak voting) 1907. After the Central Powers' defeat
Republic in World War I, universal suffrage including
women.
The King granted limited voting rights in 1834
but only to property owners and with limited
power. First proper voting rights came in 1849
to "men over 30 of good reputation" but in the
subsequent years the rules were changed a
number of times, and it was not until the
1915 1849 1915 1849 Denmark change of the constitution in 1915 that all men
and women living within the kingdom had
influence on all chambers.[37] Danish law does
not operate with any notion of "ethnicity," but
Non-resident citizens are still excluded from
voting after two years abroad.[38]
Jorge Radhamés Zorrilla Ozuna proposed the
Dominican inclusion of the military vote in the
2015
Republic constitutional reform of Dominican Republic, to
be effective in the elections of 2016.[39]
Two tiered elections were held, with 62
representatives from rural communities and
1918 1917 1918 1917 Estonia
towns elected in May–June and July–August,
respectively.
Elections to the European Parliament have
1979 1979 1979 1979 European Union
taken place since 1979.
As an autonomous Grand Principality in the
Russian Empire, Finland achieved universal
suffrage in 1906, becoming the second country
1906 1906 1906 1906 Finland in the world to adopt universal suffrage.[40] The
Finnish parliamentary election of 1907 was the
first time when women were elected (19 of 200
MPs). After becoming independent in 1917,
Finland continued its universal suffrage.
In 1792, the Convention assembly was elected
by all French males 21 and over.[41][42] Over
the subsequent years, France experienced
profound political upheaval, with republican,
monarchist and bonapartist government
governing at various times. Through these
changes, suffrage increased and decreased
1945 1848 1944 1792 France based on the introduction, repeal and
reintroduction of various degrees of universal,
property and census-based suffrage. Universal
male suffrage was given in 1848, with the
exception of the military who obtained the right
to vote in 1945. This was supplemented in
1944 by full universal suffrage, including
women as voters.
1919 1919 1919 1919 Georgia The first democratic elections were held on 14–
16 February 1919. 5 women were elected in
total (for Menshevik party) to take part in
national legislature numbering 130MPs. In
 1921, Georgia became a part of the nascent
Soviet Union[nb 1].
The German Empire from 1871 until 1918 (and
the North German Confederation before it from
1867) had universal male suffrage, one of the
more progressive election franchises at the
1919 1871 1919 1919 Germany
time.[43] After the German Revolution of 1918–
19, the Weimar Constitution established
universal suffrage in 1919 with a minimum
voting age of 20.
Universal suffrage was granted for the 1951
1951 1951 1951 1951 Ghana legislative election. This was the first election
to be held in Africa under universal suffrage.[44]
After the Revolution of 3 September 1843, the
Greek Constitution of 1844 with the electoral
law of 18 March 1844 introduced universal
1952 1844 1952 1844 Greece male suffrage with secret ballot.[45] Women
were given the right to vote in local elections in
1930 and in parliamentary elections since
1952.
Held its first legislative elections in 1991,
elected part of the legislators. Until now Hong
1991 1991 1991 1991 Hong Kong
Kong can still only elect half of the legislators.
All registered voters are eligible to vote.
After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I.

Somewhat reverted in 1925: women's

voting age raised to 30, education and
1918 1918 1918 1867 Hungary wealth requirements were raised. In
rural constituencies open voting was
reinstated. The rate of eligible citizens
fell to 29%.[46]

All adult citizens as recognized by the

Constitution of India, irrespective of race or
1950 1950 1950 1950 India
gender or religion on the founding of the
Republic of India.
1955 1955 1955 1955 Indonesia
Under "Constitutional Revolution". The White
1963 1906 1963 1906 Iran Revolution gave women the right to vote in
1963.[47]
When Ireland was a part of the United
Kingdom, the removal of a voting ban based on
religion occurred in 1793 and 1829. Then
1923 1918 1923 1829 Ireland
known as the Irish Free State, the country
changed previous British law to enfranchise
women equally with men in 1923.[48]
Universal suffrage since the founding of the
1948 1948 1948 1948 Israel
State of Israel.
1945 1912 1945 1912 Italy 1912, introduction of the first universal male
suffrage, extended to all citizens aged 30 and
older, with no restrictions. It was applied in the
elections of 1913[49]. In 1918 the electorate
was expanded with all male citizens aged 21
and older or who had served in the army.
Universal adult suffrage, including women,
 introduced in 1945, and applied for the first
time in the referendum of 1946. Suffrage for
men and women aged 18 granted in 1975.
1944 1944 1944 1944 Jamaica Universal adult suffrage introduced.
Universal adult male suffrage for those over 25
was introduced in 1925. Universal adult
suffrage for both sexes over 20 introduced in
1947 1925 1947 1925 Japan
1946, ratified by the new Constitution which
adopted on 3 May 1947. The Voting age was
reduced to 18 in 2016.
Universal adult male suffrage since 1962, for
citizens who are 21 or older, with the exception
of those who, at the time of elections, serve in
2005 1962 2005 1962 Kuwait
the armed forces. As of 2005, women who
satisfy the age and citizenship requirements
are allowed to vote.
Universal suffrage introduced in Law of
1919 1919 1919 1919 Latvia
elections to the Constituent assembly.
Universal suffrage for all adult males and
females since the independence of Lebanon
(The Chamber of Deputies is shared equally
1943 1943 1943 1943 Lebanon
between Christians and Muslims, rather than
elected by universal suffrage that would have
provided a Muslim majority).
Liberia denies political rights for non-Black
1951 1946 1946 – Liberia
people. See: Liberian nationality law
1984 1984 1984 1984 Liechtenstein
1922 1922 1922 1922 Lithuania
Universal voting rights introduced in May 1919,
first applied in a referendum on September 28,
1919 1919 1919[50] 1919 Luxembourg
then the parliamentarian elections on October
26, 1919.
1957 1956 1957 1956 Malaysia
The 1947 election was the first election without
1947 1947 1947 1947 Malta property qualifications for voters, and women
were also allowed to vote for the first time.
The 1959 election was the first election when
women were also allowed to vote for the first
time. The 1948 Mauritian general election was
1959 1948 1959 1948 Mauritius the first instance when any adult who could
write their names in any of the island's
languages was allowed to vote, without
property qualifications for voters.[51]
Universal suffrage given to men in 1917 after
the Mexican Revolution; suffrage given to
women in municipal elections in 1947 and
1953 1917 1953 1917 Mexico
national elections in 1953.[52] In 1996,
Mexicans living in the United States were given
the right to vote in Mexican elections.[53]
From 1917 full suffrage for men aged 23 and
above. From 1919 universal suffrage for men
1919 1917 1919 1917 Netherlands
and women aged 23. From 1971 suffrage for
men and women aged 18 and older.
1893 1879 1893 1879 New Zealand With the extension of voting rights to women in
1893, the self-governing British colony became
 one of the first permanently constituted
jurisdictions in the world to grant universal adult
suffrage,[24] suffrage previously having been
universal for Māori men over 21 from 1867, and
for white men from 1879.[54] Plural voting
(impacting men) was abolished in 1889.
Full male suffrage in 1898, with women
included in 1913. Tax-paying Sami men were
granted suffrage in a revision of the
constitution in 1821.[55] The so-called Jew
1913 1898 1913 1851 Norway clause in the Constitution of 1814 explicitly
banned Jews from entering and residing in the
kingdom. It was repealed in 1851, paving the
way for Jews to live, pay taxes and vote in
Norway.
In 1956, women were granted the right to vote
in national elections. *Pakistan adopted
universal adult suffrage for provisional
assembly elections soon after it became
1956 1951 1956 1951 Pakistan
independent in 1947. The first direct elections
held in the country after independence were for
the provincial Assembly of the Punjab between
10–20 March 1951
Suffrage was granted for women in 1955 but
1979 1979 1979 1979 Peru suffrage for the illiterate was only granted with
the 1979 Constitution.
Males who were over 25 years old and could
speak English or Spanish, with property and
tax restrictions, were previously allowed to vote
1946 1935 1937 1946 Philippines as early as 1907; universal male suffrage
became a constitutional right in 1935. Women's
suffrage was approved in a plebiscite in
1937.[56]
Prior to the Partition of Poland in 1795, only
nobility (men) were allowed to take part in
political life. The first parliamentary elections
were held on 26 January 1919 (1919 Polish
1918 1918 1918 1918 Poland legislative election), according to the decree
introducing universal suffrage, signed by Józef
Piłsudski on 28 November 1918, immediately
after restoring independent Polish state.
Universal suffrage for men and women over 21.
By 1878, 72% of the male adult population had
access to vote; this number was restricted by
the policies of the last years of the monarchy
and first years of the republic (transition in
1910 with the 5 October 1910 revolution), being
1974 1974 1974 1974 Portugal reinstalled only in the 1920s. Restricted female
suffrage was firstly allowed in 1931; it was
further extended in 1933, 1946, and finally
1968. Due to the 1933–74 dictatorship of
Estado Novo, universal suffrage was only fully
attained after the 1974 Carnation revolution.
Municipal elections are open for active and
2013 Qatar passive participation for men and women since
1999.
1948 1918 1948 1918 Romania The universal suffrage for men established by
Royal Decree in November 1918, the first
elections using universal suffrage took place in
November 1919. Literate women were given the
 right to vote in the local elections in 1929 and
the electoral law of 1939 extended the active
voting rights to all literate citizens which were
30 years old or older. The universal suffrage
was granted by the 1948 Constitution of
Romania.[57][58]
Universal suffrage established by Declaration
of the Provisional Government of 15 March
1917 1917 1917 1917 Russia
1917 and Statute on Elections of the
Constituent Assembly of 2 August 1917.[59]
1991 1990 1991 1990 Samoa
2015 2005 2015 2005 Saudi Arabia Municipal elections only
Suffrage for male voters who paid taxes was
granted in the Constitution of 1869, and in the
Constitution of 1888 the right to vote was given
1945 1888 1945 1888 Serbia
to all males of age 21. Women were allowed to
vote with the Communist constitution of
Yugoslavia.
White women's suffrage granted in 1930 and
suffrage for all white adults regardless of
property in 1931. Universal suffrage not
1994 1910 1931 1994 South Africa
regarding race or colour of skin; Blacks and
Coloureds were denied the right to vote before
and during the apartheid era (1948–1994).
Universal suffrage since the founding of the
Republic of Korea. However, voting was initially
1948 1948 1948 1948 South Korea limited to landowners and taxpayers in the
larger towns, elders voting for everyone at the
village level.[60]
The Constitution of 1812 enfranchised all
Spanish men of Iberian or indigenous American
descent in both hemispheres irrespective of
property, but explicitly excluded
Afrodescendent men.

Extended to all men from 1869 to 1878

(First Spanish Republic and three first
years of Bourbon Restoration) and
1933 1812 1933 1869 Spain
from 1890 to the end of the Second
Spanish Republic (1931–36).[61] On
19 November 1933 women were
granted the right to vote. Revoked
during Franco era (1939–75) and
recovered since 1977 in the new
Spanish Constitution.

Universal suffrage for all irrespective of race,

1931 1931 1931 1931 Sri Lanka ethnicity, language, or gender. Sri Lanka is the
oldest democracy in Asia.
1945 1909 1919 1873 Sweden During the years 1718–72 burgher men and
women of age and with income were able to
elect members of parliament, but women's
suffrage was abolished in 1772. Jews were
given the right to vote in 1838, but not given
the right to stand for election until 1870.
Catholics were given the right to vote in 1873,
 but not given the right to be eligible as cabinet
minister until 1951. Full male suffrage 1909 for
those aged 25 and above, but only to one of
two equally weighed houses of parliament.
Universal suffrage for men and women aged 23
enacted in 1919,[62] and the first election took
place in 1921. Until 1924 men who refused to
do military service were excepted from
universal suffrage. Until 1937 courts were able
to punish crimes by revoking a convict's right
to vote. Until 1945 persons living on benefits
were excepted from universal suffrage. Voting
age changed to 21 in 1945, to 20 in 1965, to 19
in 1969 and to 18 in 1975.
At the formation of the federal state in 1848,
Switzerland introduced universal male suffrage.
Jews did not have the same political rights as
Christian citizens until 1866. Women's suffrage
was introduced, by (male) referendum, on the
federal level in 1971. On the level of the
constituent states of the Old Swiss
1971 1848 1971 1866 Switzerland
Confederacy, universal male suffrage is first
attested in Uri in 1231, in Schwyz in 1294 and
in Unterwalden in 1309 (Landsgemeinde). The
first canton to introduce women‘s suffrage was
Vaud in 1959, the last canton, Appenzell
Innerrhoden, had to do so by federal court order
in 1990.
Universal suffrage under the Constitution of the
Republic of China. First National Assembly
1992 1992 1992 1992 Taiwan (disbanded 2005) elections held in 1947, first
multi-party legislative elections held in 1992.
First presidential election held in 1996.
Universal suffrage for all since the first general
1933 1933 1933 1933 Thailand
election in 1933.
Universal suffrage for all since the first post-
1959 1957 Tunisia
independence constitution.
1934 1876 1934 1876 Turkey
United Arab
– 2006 2006 2006 Limited suffrage for both men and women.
Emirates
In the United Kingdom the removal of voting
rights based on religion occurred with the
Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791 and Roman
Catholic Relief Act 1829. The right to vote has
never since been based on race or
religion.[nb 2] All adult men were enfranchised
by the Representation of the People Act
1918.[64] This Act granted women over 30 the
1928 1918 1928 1829 United Kingdom right to vote in national elections,[nb 3] but
about 60% of women (those under 30 or not
meeting property qualifications) were excluded
until the Equal Franchise Act 1928, when
women were granted the vote on the same
terms as men.[70] The Representation of the
People Act 1948 removed plural voting rights
held by about 7% of the electorate.[71][nb 4] The
Representation of the People Act 1969 reduced
the voting age from 21 to 18.
1948 1948 1948 1948 United Nations Provision of "universal and equal suffrage" in
Universal Declaration of Human Rights [Article
 21(3)]

1965[nb 5] 1856[nb 6] 1920[nb 7] 1965[nb 8] United States

In the colonial era, there had been various
restrictions on suffrage in what is today the
United States. Property restrictions on
voting disenfranchised more than half of
the white male population in most
states.[75]
After the American Revolution, the
Constitution did not originally define who
was eligible to vote, allowing each state to
determine who was eligible. In the early
history of the U.S., most states allowed
only white male adult property owners to
vote (about 6% of the population).[76][77]
Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky were
the three states to have full adult suffrage
for white males before 1800. New Jersey
allowed women's suffrage for landowners
until the early 1800s.
In the 1820 election, there were 108,359
ballots cast. In the 1840 election,
2,412,694 ballots were cast, an increase
that far outstripped natural population
growth. Poor voters became a huge part of
the electorate. By 1856, after the period of
Jacksonian democracy, all states had
almost universal white adult male suffrage
regardless of property ownership. Tax-
paying requirements remained in five
states, and two into the 20th century.[78][79]
In 1868, the 14th Amendment altered the
way each state is represented in the House
of Representatives. It counted all residents
for apportionment including former slaves,
overriding the three-fifths compromise, and
reduced a state's apportionment if it
wrongfully denied men aged 21 and above
the right to vote. However, this was not
enforced in practice. In 1870, the 15th
Amendment granted suffrage to all males
of any race, skin color, and ethnicity,
including former slaves (freedmen),
meaning that male African Americans in
theory had the right to vote throughout the
United States.[80]
Starting in 1888, former Confederate states
passed Jim Crow laws and amendments to
effectively disfranchise black and poor
white voters through poll taxes, literacy
tests, grandfather clauses and other
restrictions, applied in a discriminatory
manner. During this period, the Supreme
Court generally upheld state efforts to
discriminate against racial minorities; only
later in the 20th century were these laws
ruled unconstitutional. Black males in the
Northern states could vote, but the majority
of African Americans lived in the South.
Wyoming was the first territory to
enfranchise all women in 1869. From then
until 1916, all Western states legalized
women suffrage, but few Eastern states
followed suit. However, in 1920 the 19th
 Amendment extended the franchise to
women in all states.[81]
In 1924 the Indian Citizenship Act gave
suffrage to all Native Americans, nearly
two-thirds of whom already had citizenship
and the right to vote.[82]
In 1943 Chinese immigrants were given the
right to citizenship and the right to vote by
the Magnuson Act. It allowed Chinese
immigration for the first time since the
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, and
permitted some Chinese immigrants
already residing in the country to become
naturalized citizens.
In 1962–1964, the nationwide "one man,
one vote" electoral system was lawfully
established mainly through the Warren
Court's rulings in Baker v. Carr (1962),
Reynolds v. Sims (1964), as well as
Wesberry v. Sanders (1964).[83][84][85]
In 1964–1965, the 24th Amendment, which
abolished the use of poll taxes as a
requirement for voting in federal elections,
was passed.[86][87] Full enfranchisement
was revived in 1965, with the passage of
Cvil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights
Act of 1965, which provided for federal
enforcement of rights.[12] For state
elections, it was not until the Warren Court
ruled 6–3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of
Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes
were unconstitutional as violating the Equal
Protection Clause of the Fourteenth
Amendment.[13] This removed a burden on
the poor.[73][74]
In 1971, the 26th Amendment ratified,
which granted suffrage for men and women
aged 18.

1918 Uruguay With the 1918 Uruguayan Constitution.

Universal suffrage was introduced in the 1978
Internal Settlement between Ian Smith and
Abel Muzorewa. The 1979 Lancaster House
constitution agreed to accommodate the
nationalists and also affirmed universal
suffrage but with a special role for whites.
Universal suffrage with no special
1987 1919 1987 Zimbabwe
consideration for race came in 1987. Before
1978, Rhodesia (the name for the region that
would become Zimbabwe in 1980) had a merit
qualification in order to vote. This was
controversial because it excluded the vast
majority of native Africans. Though white
women were granted the right to vote in 1919.

Women's suffrage
In Sweden-Finland, women's suffrage was granted during the Age of Liberty from 1718 until 1772.[88]

In Corsica, women's suffrage was granted in 1755 and lasted until 1769.[89]
Women's suffrage (with the same property qualifications as for men) was granted in New Jersey in 1776 (the
word "inhabitants" was used instead of "men" in the 1776 Constitution) and rescinded in 1807.

The Pitcairn Islands granted restricted women's suffrage in 1838. Various other countries and states granted
restricted women's suffrage in the later half of the nineteenth century, starting with South Australia in 1861.

The first unrestricted women's suffrage in a major country was granted in New Zealand in 1893.[24] The
women's suffrage bill was adopted mere weeks before the general election of 1893. Māori men had been
granted suffrage in 1867, white men in 1879. The Freedom in the World index lists New Zealand as the only
free country in the world in 1893.[89]

South Australia first granted women suffrage and allowed them to stand for parliament in 1894.

The autonomous Grand Principality of Finland, a decade before becoming the republic of Finland, was the
first country in the world to implement full universal suffrage, by giving women full political rights, i.e. both
the right to vote and to run for office, and was the second in the world and the first in Europe to give women
the right to vote.[18][19] The world's first female members of parliament were elected in Finland the following
year, 1907.

In 1931, the Second Spanish Republic allowed women the right of passive suffrage with three women being
elected.

During a discussion on extending women's right to active suffrage, the Radical Socialist Victoria Kent
confronted the Radical Clara Campoamor. Kent argued that Spanish women were not yet prepared to vote
and, since they were too influenced by the Catholic Church, they would vote for right-wing candidates.
Campoamor however pleaded for women's rights regardless of political orientation. Her point finally prevailed
and, in the election of 1933, the political right won with the vote of citizens of any sex over 23. Both
Campoamor and Kent lost their seats.

Youth suffrage, children's suffrage, and suffrage in school

The movement to lower the voting age is one aspect of the Youth rights movement. Organizations such as the
National Youth Rights Association are active in the United States to advocate for a lower voting age, with
some success,[90] among other issues related to youth rights.

Democratic schools practice and support universal suffrage in school, which allows a vote to every member of
the school, including students and staff. Such schools hold that this feature is essential for students to be ready
to move into society at large.[91][92]

See also
Democracy Index
Equality before the law
List of suffragists and suffragettes
List of women's rights activists
One man, one vote
Suffragette
Timeline of women's suffrage
Umbrella Movement
2014 Hong Kong protests
 Voting age
Youth suffrage

Notes
1. While the USSR was not formally founded until 1922, a group of socialist republics under the
influence of Soviet Russia existed for several years before that.
2. While local government gerrymandering in Northern Ireland was one of the factors which led to
the Troubles,[63] parliamentary elections still took place for all British citizens. In 1972 the
British Parliament was unwilling to grant the mostly Protestant unionist Northern Ireland
government more authoritarian special powers since it was now convinced of its inability to
restore order. So they suspended the Parliament of Northern Ireland and the post of Governor
and made provision for direct rule by the elected government of the United Kingdom.
3. Until the Reform Act 1832 specified 'male persons', a few women had been able to vote in
parliamentary elections through property ownership, although this was rare.[65] In local
government elections, women lost the right to vote under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835.
Unmarried women ratepayers received the right to vote in the Municipal Franchise Act 1869.
This right was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1894 and extended to include some
married women.[66][67][68] By 1900, over 1 million women were registered for local government
elections in England.[69]
4. Graduates of universities lost the right to vote in university constituencies as well as
parliamentary boroughs and property owners lost the right to vote both in the constituency
where their property lay and that in which they lived, if the two were different. For elections to
the Parliament of Northern Ireland, these changes were made under the Electoral Law Act
1968.[72]
5. While constitutionally given the right to vote by the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870 and 19th
Amendment in 1920, the reality of the country was such that most African Americans and some
poor whites could not vote until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Starting in 1888
Southern states legalized disenfranchisement by enacting Jim Crow laws; they amended their
constitutions and passed legislation to impose various voting restrictions, including literacy
tests, poll taxes, property-ownership requirements, moral character tests, requirements that
applicants interpret a particular document, and grandfather clauses that allowed otherwise-
ineligible persons to vote if their grandfathers voted (which excluded many African Americans
whose grandfathers had been ineligible). During this period, the Supreme Court generally
upheld state efforts to discriminate against racial minorities. In Giles v. Harris (1903), the Court
held that irrespective of the Fifteenth Amendment, the judiciary did not have the remedial power
to force states to register racial minorities to vote.
6. The 1828 presidential election was the first in which non-property-holding white males could
vote in the vast majority of states, but this was not consistent across the country until the last
state, North Carolina, abolished property qualification in 1856 resulting in a close
approximation to universal white male suffrage (however tax-paying requirements remained in
five states in 1860 and survived in two states until the 20th century). The Fourteenth
Amendment in 1868 altered the way each state is represented in the House of
Representatives. It counted all residents for apportionment including slaves, overriding the
three-fifths compromise, and reduced a state's apportionment if it wrongfully denied males over
the age of 21 the right to vote; however, this was not enforced in practice. Some poor white men
remained excluded at least until 1965.[73][74] For state elections, it was not until the U.S.
Supreme Court ruled 6-3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes
were unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
This removed a burden on the poor.
7. 19th Amendment in 1920 prohibited any United States citizen from being denied the right to
vote on the basis of sex, but most African-American women some poor white women remained
 excluded at least until 1965.[73][74] For state elections, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court
ruled 6-3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes were
unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This
removed a burden on the poor.
8. Following the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870, disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era
began in 1888. The Indian Citizenship Act in 1924 gave Native Americans the right to vote and
officially recognized them as citizens, nearly two-thirds of whom already had citizenship and
the right to vote. African Americans and others gained full enfranchisement through passage of
the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

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88. Karlsson Sjögren, Åsa, Männen, kvinnorna och rösträtten: medborgarskap och representation
1723-1866 [Men, women and suffrage: citizenship and representation 1723-1866], Carlsson,
Stockholm, 2006 (in Swedish)
89. A. Kulinski, K. Pawlowski. "The Atlantic Community - The Titanic of the XXI Century". p. 96.
WSB-NLU. 2010
90. Conner, Brian (14 March 2019). "Congress Votes on Lowering Voting Age to 16" (https://www.y
outhrights.org/blog/congress-votes-on-lowering-voting-age-to-16/). youthrights.org. National
Youth Rights Association. Retrieved 4 April 2019. "NYRA has been campaigning for a lower
voting age since we were founded in 1998, and we are overjoyed that pro-youth policies are
finally close to passing on the national level thanks to our years of local advocacy in towns
such as Takoma Park, MD where we helped lower the voting age in 2013."
91. Greenberg, D. (1987) The Sudbury Valley School Experience, "Subtleties of a Democratic
School." (https://books.google.com/books?id=-UMqvLEcH0wC&pg=PA173&dq=Universal+suff
rage+the+sudbury+valley+school+experience&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false) Retrieved 21
February 2010.
92. Greenberg, D. (1987) The Sudbury Valley School Experience "Back to Basics – Political
basics." (http://www.sudval.com/05_underlyingideas.html#09) Archived (https://web.archive.or
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the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 21 February 2010.

External links
Limited suffrage in England prior to the 1832 reforms (http://www.election.demon.co.uk/prerefor
m.html)
Finnish centennial celebration (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5036602.stm)
"Have you heard the news?", a pamphlet published by an anonymous English freeman in 1835
An address to the middle and working classes engaged in trade and manufactures throughout
the empire on the necessity of union at the present crisis (1842) by Richard Gardner

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