Essentials of

Microbiology

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 Essentials of
Microbiology

Surinder Kumar
MD DNB MNAMS
Director Professor
Department of Microbiology
Maulana Azad Medical College
New Delhi, India

The Health Sciences Publisher

New Delhi | London | Philadelphia | Panama

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 Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd

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Essentials of Microbiology
First Edition: 2016
ISBN 978-93-5152-380-2
Printed at
 Dedicated to
My father
Late Shri Lachhman Das
My mother
Late Smt Bal Kaur
My wife
Dr (Prof) Savita Kumari
and my sons
Dr Sourabh Kumar and Sanchit Kumar
whose love and affection make everything I do possible.

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 Preface

Microbiology is an extremely diverse discipline and can be a bewildering field to the novice. The
traditional books, seem to be exhaustive of microbiologic facts, are too voluminous and detailed to be
read by a typical medical student, who is trying to keep up with simultaneously several classes of other
subjects. One of the ways to fulfill the goals of the book is to concentrate on understanding concepts—
important fundamental ideas or themes that form a framework of the subject. Essentials of Microbiology
is the result of the author’s 28 years of experience in teaching medical students. The book is readable and
complete enough to meet the students’ needs. The overall objective of this book is to provide students
the basics of medical microbiology as well as a complete coverage of the subject. It contains all of the
information that is pertinent to the medical students who are studying microbiology keeping in mind
their examination.
Although the text has been designed to teach undergraduate and postgraguate medical students, it
would also serve as a review tool for the individuals who are taking medical examinations and persons
working in health-related professions, physicians, and infectious disease scientists.
Microbiology has expanded beyond recognition with various medical specialty, and it is not possible
for any one book to cover all aspects of medical microbiology in depth. This book is divided into
the following seven sections, based on the major disciplines included within microbiology: General
Bacteriology, Immunology, Systemic Bacteriology, Virology, Medical Mycology, Miscellaneous, and
Diagnostic Medical Microbiology. The chapters themselves are comprehensive yet free of unnecessary
detail and provide the reader with a framework for understanding. Mycology and parasitology have
continued to flourish and have blossomed into fields of study of their own rights. Therefore, parasitology
has not been included in this book which has a sturdy independence.
I would be thankful for any comments or suggestions from students, teachers, and all the readers of
this book for further improvements in its future editions.

Surinder Kumar

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 Acknowledgments

This book took years in writing but a lifetime in preparation. I would like to thank those whose example,
teaching, and prodding helped me develop a thirst for knowledge as well as methods for quenching
that thirst. I am greatly indebted to a number of my mentors, friends and colleagues who encouraged
me and gave valuable suggestions for improving the text. I am always indebted to my late brother Sant
Swaran Dev whose advice, guidance and true life philosophy gave me strength and courage to continue
my work in all odds. I would like to thank my family for patiently enduring the writing of this book,
which seemed at times to be an endless process. I am especially grateful to my wife Dr Savita Kumari,
Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Post Graduate Institute and Medical Education and Research
(PGIMER), Chandigarh, for her support and encouragement and to my two sons, Dr Sourabh Kumar
and Mr Sanchit Kumar (medical student) who gave me their valuable moments without any complaint
for completing this book, so I could retain my sanity.
My special thanks is to Dr Sanjeev R Saigal, my PhD student and now my Research Associate Indian
Council of Medical Research (ICMR) for his constant help for this book. Sincere appreciation also goes
to all staff of M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd., New Delhi, for their guidance and support
in this project.

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 Contents

Section 1: General Bacteriology

1. Historical Development of Microbiology 1
∙∙ Infection and Contagion  1
∙∙ Discovery of Microorganisms  1
∙∙ Conflict over Spontaneous Generation  1
∙∙ Role of Microorganisms in Diseases  2
∙∙ Scientific Development of Microbiology  2
∙∙ Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)  2
∙∙ Joseph Lister (1827–1912)  3
∙∙ Robert Koch (1843–1910)  3
∙∙ Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915)  3
∙∙ Discovery of Viruses   4
∙∙ Immunity and Immunization  4
∙∙ Serotherapy and Chemotherapy  5
∙∙ Nobel Prizes Awarded for Research in Microbiology  5
2. Microscopy 8
∙∙ Microscopy: Instruments  8
∙∙ Light Microscopy  8
∙∙ Electron Microscopy  9
∙∙ Scanning-probe Microscopy   10
  3. Morphology of Bacteria 11
∙∙ Comparison between Prokaryotic and Eucaryotic Cells   11
∙∙ Size of Bacteria  11
∙∙ Study of Bacteria  12
∙∙ Arrangement of Bacterial Cells  12
∙∙ Anatomy of the Bacterial Cell   13
∙∙ Pleomorphism and Involution Form  19
∙∙ L-Forms of Bacteria (Cell-wall-defective Organisms)  20
4. Physiology of Bacteria 21
∙∙ Principles of Bacterial Growth  21
∙∙ Bacterial Nutrition  22
∙∙ Bacterial Metabolism  23
5. Sterilization and Disinfection 25
∙∙ Definitions of Frequently Used Terms  25
∙∙ Methods of Sterilization and Disinfection  25
∙∙ Recommended Concentrations of Various Disinfectants  34
∙∙ Testing of Disinfectants  34
6. Culture Media 37
∙∙ Common Ingredients of Culture Media  37
∙∙ Classification of Media  37
7. Culture Methods 43
∙∙ Methods of Bacterial Culture   43
∙∙ Aerobic Culture  44
∙∙ Anaerobic Culture  44
∙∙ Methods of Anaerobiosis  44
∙∙ Methods of Isolating Pure Cultures  46
8. Identification of Bacteria 48
∙∙ Methods Used to Identify Bacteria  48
∙∙ Phenotypic Characteristics  48
∙∙ Genomic Characterization  55
9. Bacterial Taxonomy 56
∙∙ Taxonomy 56
∙∙ Identification 56

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xii  |  Essentials of Microbiology
∙∙ Classification 56
∙∙ Classification Systems   56
10. Bacterial Genetics 58
∙∙ Structure and Functions of the Genetic Material  58
∙∙ Extrachromosomal Genetic Elements  60
∙∙ Genotypic and Phenotypic Variations  61
∙∙ Transmission of Genetic Material (Gene Transfer)  63
∙∙ Genetic Mechanisms of Drug Resistance in Bacteria   68
∙∙ Transposable Genetic Elements   68
∙∙ Molecular Genetics  68
∙∙ Genetic Probes   70
∙∙ Blotting Techniques  71
∙∙ Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)  71
∙∙ Gene Therapy  72
11. Infection 75
∙∙ Microorganisms and Host  75
∙∙ Infection and Infectious Disease  75
∙∙ Classification of Infections  75
∙∙ Sources of Infection  76
∙∙ Modes of Transmission of Infection  77
∙∙ Factors Predisposing to Microbial Pathogenicity  78
∙∙ Determinants of Virulence  78
∙∙ Types of Infectious Diseases  80
∙∙ Epidemiological Terminologies  80

Section 2: Immunology
12. Immunity 81
∙∙ Definition 81
∙∙ Classification 81
∙∙ Mechanisms of Innate Immunity  82
∙∙ Local Immunity  86
∙∙ Herd Immunity  86
13. Antigens 87
∙∙ Types of Antigens  87
∙∙ Antigenic Determinant or Epitome  87
∙∙ Determinants of Antigenicity  87
∙∙ Superantigens   89
14. Antibodies—Immunoglobulins 90
∙∙ Antibody Structure  90
∙∙ Immunoglobulin Classes  92
15. Complement System 96
∙∙ Principle Pathways of Complement Activation  96
∙∙ Quantitation of Complement (C) and its Components  99
∙∙ Biosynthesis of Complement  99
∙∙ Complement Deficiencies   99
16. Antigen–Antibody Reactions 101
∙∙ Antigen–Antibody Interactions  101
∙∙ General Characteristics of Antigen–Antibody Reactions  102
∙∙ Antigen and Antibody Measurement  102
∙∙ Parameters of Serological Tests  102
∙∙ Serological Reactions  102
∙∙ Types of Antigen and Antibody Reactions  102
∙∙ Applications of Agglutination Reaction  106
∙∙ ELISA 112
17. Structures and Functions of the Immune System 117
∙∙ Types of Immune Response  117
∙∙ Organs and Tissues of the Immune System  117
∙∙ Cells of the Lymphoreticular System  119
∙∙ Major Histocompatibility Complex  122
∙∙ Mhc Restriction  123
 Contents  | xiii
18. Immune Response 125
∙∙ Type of Immune Response  125
∙∙ Humoral Immunity  125
∙∙ Fate of Antigen in Tissues  126
∙∙ Production of Antibodies  127
∙∙ Cell-mediated Immune Responses  130
∙∙ Cytokines 131
∙∙ Immunological Tolerance  134
∙∙ Theories of Antibody formation  135
19. Immunodeficiency Diseases 137
∙∙ Classification of Immunodeficiency Diseases  137
∙∙ Primary Immunodeficiencies  137
∙∙ Disorders of Specific Immunity  137
∙∙ Disorders of Complement  140
∙∙ Disorders of Phagocyte  140
∙∙ Secondary Immunodeficiencies  140
20. Hypersensitivity Reactions 142
∙∙ Classification of Hypersensitivity Reactions  142
∙∙ Type I Hypersensitivity (IgE Dependent)  143
∙∙ Type II Hypersensitivity: Cytolytic and Cytotoxic  146
∙∙ Type III Hypersensitivity: Immune Complex-mediated   147
∙∙ Type IV Hypersensitivity—Delayed Hypersensitivity  148
∙∙ Type V: Hypersensitivity (Stimulatory Type) Jones–Mote Reaction or
Cutaneous Basophil Hypersensitivity  149
∙∙ Schwartzman Reaction  149
21. Autoimmunity 151
∙∙ Mechanisms of Autoimmunity  151
∙∙ Classification of Autoimmune Diseases  152
22. Immunology of Transplantation and Malignancy 154
∙∙ Definition 154
∙∙ Types of Transplants  154
∙∙ Allograft Reaction   154
∙∙ Histocompatibility Testing  155
∙∙ Fetus as an Allograft  156
∙∙ Graft-versus-host Reaction   156
∙∙ Immunology of Malignancy  156
∙∙ Tumor Antigens  156
∙∙ Immune Response in Malignancy  157
∙∙ Immunological Surveillance  157
∙∙ Immunotherapy of Cancer  157
23. Immunohematology 159
∙∙ Other Blood Group Systems  160
∙∙ Medical Applications of Blood Groups  160
∙∙ Complications of Blood Transfusion  160
∙∙ Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn  160

Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology

24. Staphylococcus 163
∙∙ Staphylococcus aureus  163
∙∙ Other Coagulate-positive Staphylococci   168
∙∙ Coagulase-negative Staphylococci  169
∙∙ Micrococci   170
25. Streptococcus and Enterococcus 172
∙∙ Streptococcus pyogenes  173
∙∙ Laboratory Diagnosis  178
∙∙ Other Streptococci Pathogenic for Humans  179
∙∙ Enterococcus 180
∙∙ Viridans Streptococci   180
26. Pneumococcus (Diplococcus pneumoniae: Streptococcus pneumoniae) 183
∙∙ Pneumococcus (Diplococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pneumoniae) 183

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xiv  |  Essentials of Microbiology
27. Neisseria and Moraxella 188
∙∙ Neisseria meningitidis (Meningococcus; Diplococcus intracellularis meningitidis)  188
∙∙ Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Gonococcus)  191
∙∙ Nongonococcal (Nonspecific) Urethritis  193
∙∙ Commensal Neisseriae  194
∙∙ Moraxella   194
∙∙ Kingella 195
28. Corynebacterium 197
∙∙ Corynebacterium diphtheriae  197
∙∙ Other Medically Important Corynebacteria  202
∙∙ Diphtheroids 203
∙∙ Other Coryneform Genera  203
29. Bacillus 205
∙∙ General Characterstics of Bacillus  205
∙∙ Bacillus anthracis  205
∙∙ Anthracoid Bacilli  208
30. Clostridium 211
∙∙ General Features of Clostridia  211
∙∙ Classification 212
∙∙ Clostridium tetani   215
∙∙ Clostridium botulinum  218
∙∙ Clostridium difficile  219
31. Nonsporing Anaerobes 221
∙∙ Anaerobic Cocci  221
∙∙ Gram-negative Anaerobic Cocci  222
∙∙ Anaerobic, Nonspore-forming, Gram-positive Bacilli  222
∙∙ Anaerobic Gram-negative Bacilli  223
∙∙ Anaerobic Infections  224
32. Mycobacterium tuberculosis 227
∙∙ M. tuberculosis Complex or MTC  227
∙∙ Mycobacterium tuberculosis  228
33. Mycobacterium leprae 240
∙∙ Mycobacterium leprae   240
∙∙ Mycobacterium lepraemurium  245
34. Nontuberculous Mycobacteria 247
∙∙ Properties of Nontuberculous Mycobacteria  247
∙∙ Classification 248
∙∙ Saprophytic Mycobacteria  249
35. Actinomycetes 252
∙∙ Actinomyces 252
∙∙ Nocardia 253
∙∙ Actinomycotic Mycetoma  254
36. Enterobacteriaceae: Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus and Other Genera 256
∙∙ Characteristics of the Family Enterobacteriaceae  256
∙∙ Classification of Enterobacteriaceae  256
∙∙ Classification of Enterobacteriaceae by Tribes  257
∙∙ Escherichia coli  257
∙∙ Infections 263
∙∙ Edwardsiella 263
∙∙ Citrobacter 263
∙∙ Klebsiella 264
∙∙ Enterobacter 265
∙∙ Hafnia 265
∙∙ Serratia 265
37. Tribe Proteeae: Proteus, Morganella and Providencia 267
∙∙ Proteus   267
∙∙ Morganella 269
∙∙ Providencia   269
∙∙ Erwinia 269
38. Shigella 270
 Contents  | xv
39. Enterobacteriaceae III: Salmonella 274
∙∙ Salmonella 274
∙∙ Diagnosis of Carriers  283
∙∙ Prophylaxis 283
∙∙ Drug Resistance  284
∙∙ Salmonella Gastroenteritis  284
∙∙ Salmonella Septicemia  285
∙∙ Multiresistant Salmonellae  285
40. Vibrio, Aeromonas and Plesiomonas 287
∙∙ Vibrio 287
∙∙ Vibrio cholerae  287
∙∙ Resistance 288
∙∙ Halophilic Vibrios  294
∙∙ Aeromonas 295
∙∙ Plesiomonas 295
41. Campylobacter and Helicobacter 297
∙∙ Campylobacter 297
∙∙ Helicobacter 298
42. Pseudomonas, Stenotrophomonas, Burkholderia 301
∙∙ Pseudomonas aeruginosa  301
∙∙ Burkholderia cepacia (Formerly Pseudomonas cepacia)  304
∙∙ Burkholderia mallei (Formely Pseudomonas mallei)  304
∙∙ Burkholderia pseudomallei   305
43. Legionella 307
∙∙ Legionella pneumophila  307
44. Yersinia, Pasteurella, Francisella 309
∙∙ Yersinia pestis (Formerly Pasteurella pestis)  309
∙∙ Yersiniosis 313
∙∙ Pasteurella multocida (Formerly Pasteurella septica)  314
∙∙ Francisella tularensis (Pasteurella tularensis, Brucella tularensis)  315
45. Haemophilus 317
∙∙ Haemophilus Influenzae  317
∙∙ Haemophili Other Than H. influenzae  320
46. Bordetella 323
∙∙ Bordetella pertussis  323
∙∙ Bordetella parapertussis  326
∙∙ Bordetella bronchiseptica (Bord. bronchicanis)  326
47. Brucella 327
48. Spirochetes 333
∙∙ Classification 327
∙∙ Treponema 334
∙∙ Nonvenereal Treponematoses  341
∙∙ Nonpathogenic Treponemes  341
∙∙ Borrelia 342
∙∙ Leptospira 344
49. Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma 348
∙∙ Classification 348
∙∙ Morphology 349
∙∙ Cultural Characteristics  349
∙∙ Pathogenicity 350
∙∙ Mycoplasma pneumoniae  350
∙∙ Laboratory Diagnosis  351
∙∙ Mycoplasmas and L Forms of Bacteria  352
∙∙ Ureaplasma urealyticum  353
50. Miscellaneous Bacteria 355
∙∙ Listeria monocytogenes  355
∙∙ Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae  356
∙∙ Alcaligenes faecalis   357
∙∙ Chromobacterium violaceum  357

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xvi  |  Essentials of Microbiology
∙∙ Flavobacterium meningosepticum  357
∙∙ Donovania granulomatis (Calym­matobacterium granulomatis) or Klebsiella granulomatis  357
∙∙ Acinetobacter (Mima polymorpha; Bacterium anitratum  358
∙∙ Rat-bite fever (Streptobacillus moniliformis and Spirillum minus)  358
∙∙ Spirillum minus  359
∙∙ Eikenella corrodens  359
∙∙ Cardiobacterium hominis  360
∙∙ Capnocytophaga 360
∙∙ Gardnerella vaginalis  360
51. Rickett­siaceae, Bartonellaceae and Coxiella 362
∙∙ Genus Rickettsia  362
∙∙ Ehrlichia, Anaplasma and Neorickettsia   366
∙∙ Genus Coxiella: Q Fever  367
∙∙ Bartonella 368
52. Chlamydia and Chlamydophila 371
∙∙ Classification 371

Section 4: Virology
53. General Properties of Viruses 378
∙∙ Main Properties of Viruses   378
∙∙ Morphology of Viruses  378
∙∙ Structure and Chemical Composition of the Viruses  379
∙∙ Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents  380
∙∙ Viral Hemagglutination  381
∙∙ Viral Replication  381
∙∙ Eclipse Phase  383
∙∙ Abnormal Replicative Cycles  383
∙∙ Cultivation of Viruses  383
∙∙ Detection of Virus Growth in Cell Culture  385
∙∙ Viral Assay  386
∙∙ Viral Genetics  387
∙∙ Classification of Viruses  388
∙∙ Viroids 390
∙∙ Prions 390
54. Virus–Host Interactions: Viral Infections 392
∙∙ Interactions between Viruses and Host Cells  392
∙∙ Pathogenesis of Viral Diseases  393
∙∙ Transmission of Human Virus Infections  393
∙∙ Spread of Virus in the Body  394
∙∙ Significance of the Incubation Period  394
∙∙ Host Response to Virus Infections  395
55. Laboratory Diagnosis, Prophylaxis and Chemotherapy of Viral Diseases 397
∙∙ Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections  397
∙∙ Immunoprophylaxis of Viral Diseases   399
∙∙ Chemoprophylaxis and Chemotherapy of Virus Diseases  400
56. Bacteriophages 402
∙∙ Role of Bacteriophages  402
∙∙ Morphology 402
∙∙ Life Cycle  402
∙∙ Significance of Phages  404
57. Poxviruses 406
∙∙ Morphology 406
∙∙ Physical and Chemical Properties   407
∙∙ Other Poxvirus Diseases  408
58. Herpesviruses 409
∙∙ Structure 409
∙∙ Classification 409
∙∙ Herpes Virus Simiae: B Virus  411
∙∙ Varicella-Zoster Virus  411
 Contents  | xvii
∙∙ Herpes Zoster (Shingles, Zona)  412
∙∙ Cytomegalovirus   413
∙∙ Epstein–Barr Virus  413
∙∙ Human Herpesviruses 6 (Hhv6) 415
∙∙ Human Herpesvirus 7 (Hhv7) 415
∙∙ Human Herpesvirus 8 (Hhv8) 416
59. Adenoviruses 418
∙∙ Morphology 418
∙∙ Resistance   418
∙∙ Pathogenesis 418
∙∙ Laboratory Diagnosis  419
∙∙ Treatment, Prevention and Control  420
60. Papovaviruses 421
∙∙ Papillomaviruses 421
∙∙ Polyomaviruses 422
61. Parvoviruses 424
∙∙ Parvovirus 424
∙∙ Dependovirus   424
∙∙ Erythrovirus 424
62. Picornaviruses 426
∙∙ Important Properties of Picornaviruses  426
∙∙ Enteroviruses 426
∙∙ Poliovirus 427
∙∙ Coxsackievirus 429
∙∙ Echoviruses 430
∙∙ Other Enterovirus Types  431
∙∙ Rhinoviruses 432
63. Orthomyxovirus 434
∙∙ Influenza Viruses  434
64. Paramyxoviruses 440
∙∙ Morphology and Structural Proteins of Paramyxoviruses  440
∙∙ Classification 440
∙∙ Parainfluenza Viruses   441
∙∙ Genus Rubulavirus  442
∙∙ Genus Morbillivirus  443
∙∙ Nipah and Hendra Viruses  444
∙∙ Genus Pneumovirus  444
∙∙ Metapnemovirus 445
65. Arboviruses 446
∙∙ Classification 446
∙∙ Properties   446
∙∙ Laboratory Diagnosis  447
∙∙ Pathogenesis   447
∙∙ Families of Arboviruses  447
∙∙ Ungrouped Arboviruses  455
∙∙ Arbovirus Known to Be Prevalent in India  455
66. Rhabdoviruses 457
∙∙ Rabies Virus  457
∙∙ Rabies-related Viruses  463
67. Hepatitis Viruses 465
∙∙ Hepatitis A Virus (Infectious Hepatitis)  465
∙∙ Hepatitis B Virus—Serum Hepatitis  467
∙∙ Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)  471
∙∙ Hepatitis D Virus (HDV) (Delta Agent)  472
∙∙ Hepatitis E Virus (HEV)  473
∙∙ Hepatitis G Virus  474
68. Retroviruses: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) 476
∙∙ Retroviruses 476
∙∙ Human Immunodeficiency Virus  476

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xviii  |  Essentials of Microbiology
69. Slow Virus and Prion Diseases 488
∙∙ Characteristics of Slow Viruses  488
∙∙ Classification 488
70. Miscellaneous Viruses 492
∙∙ Rubivirus 492
∙∙ Rubella (German Measles)  492
∙∙ Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers  493
∙∙ Arenaviruses 493
∙∙ Filoviruses   494
∙∙ Coronaviruses 494
∙∙ Reoviridae 496
∙∙ Norwalk Virus  497
71. Oncogenic Viruses 499
∙∙ Properties of Cells Transformed by Viruses  499
∙∙ Types of Tumor Viruses  499
∙∙ Oncogenic Viruses  499
∙∙ Viruses Associated with Human Cancer  501
∙∙ Oncogenes 501
∙∙ Antioncogenes 502
∙∙ Mechanisms of Viral Oncogenesis  502

Section 5: Medical Mycology

72. General Properties, Classification and Laboratory Diagnosis of Fungi 503
∙∙ Differences of Fungi from Bacteria  503
∙∙ General Properties of Fungi  503
∙∙ Classification of Fungi  503
∙∙ Reproduction and Sporulation  504
∙∙ Laboratory Diagnosis  505
∙∙ Classification of Mycoses  506
73. Superficial, Cutaneous and Subcutaneous Mycoses 508
∙∙ Superficial Mycoses  508
∙∙ Cutaneous Mycoses  509
∙∙ Subcutaneous Mycoses  511
74. Systemic Mycoses 515
∙∙ Blastomycosis 515
∙∙ Paracoccidioidomycosis 515
∙∙ Coccidioidomycosis 516
∙∙ Histoplasmosis 516
75. Opportunistic Mycoses 519
∙∙ Opportunistic Fungi  519
∙∙ Yeast-like Fungi  519
∙∙ Aspergillosis 522
∙∙ Other Opportunist Fungi  525
76. Mycotoxicosis 528
∙∙ Mycetism 528
∙∙ Mycotoxicosis 528
∙∙ Psychotropic Agents  529

Section 6: Miscellaneous
77. Normal Microbial Flora of the Human Body 530
∙∙ Role of Normal Microbial Flora  530
78. Infective Syndrome 533
∙∙ Bacteremia, Septicemia and Infective Endocarditis  533
∙∙ Bacteremia and Septicemia  533
∙∙ Meningitis 535
∙∙ Purulent Meningitis (Acute Pyogenic Meningitis)  535
∙∙ Aseptic Meningitis  537
∙∙ Tuberculous Meningitis  538
 Contents  | xix
∙∙ Urinary Tract Infection  538
∙∙ Types of UTI  538
∙∙ Sore Throat  541
∙∙ Pneumonia 542
∙∙ Diarrhea and Dysentery  544
∙∙ Diarrhea 544
∙∙ Dysentery 546
∙∙ Food Poisoning  547
∙∙ Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)  547
∙∙ Wound Infection  550
∙∙ Pyrexia of Unknown Origin (PUO)  551
79. Hospital-acquired Infection 555
∙∙ Sources of Infections  555
∙∙ Factors Influencing Hospital-associated Infections  555
∙∙ Microorganisms Causing Hospital Infection  555
∙∙ Routes of Transmission  556
∙∙ Common Hospital-acquired Infection  556
∙∙ Diagnosis and Control of Hospital Infection  557
∙∙ Infection Control Policy  557
∙∙ Prevention 557
80. Laboratory Control of Antimicrobial Therapy 559
∙∙ Antibiotic Sensitivity Tests  559
∙∙ Kirby–Bauer Disk Diffusion Method  560
∙∙ Stokes Disk Diffusion Method  561
∙∙ Dilution Methods  563
∙∙ Antibiotic Assays in Body Fluids   564
81. Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 565
∙∙ Antimicrobial Agent  565
∙∙ Antibiotic 565
∙∙ Chemotherapeutic Agents  565
∙∙ Antibacterial Agents  565
∙∙ Mechanisms of Action of Antibacterial Drugs  566
∙∙ Antibiotic Resistance  569
82. Immunoprophylaxis 571
∙∙ Vaccines   571
∙∙ Immunization 572
83. Bacteriology of Water, Milk and Air 575
∙∙ Bacteriology of Water  575
∙∙ Bacterial Flora in Water  575
∙∙ Factors Determining the Number of Bacteria in Water  575
∙∙ Water-borne Pathogens  576
∙∙ Collection of Water Samples  576
∙∙ Bacteriological Examination of Water  576
∙∙ Bacteriology of Milk  577
∙∙ Examination of Air  578
84. Hospital Waste Management 580
∙∙ Universal Precautions  580
∙∙ Definition of Biomedical Waste (BMW)  580
∙∙ Categories of Biomedical Waste  581
∙∙ Waste Segregation   581
∙∙ Treatment and Disposal Techno­logies for Healthcare Waste  581
∙∙ Disposal 582
85. Vehicles and Vectors 584
86. Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases 586
∙∙ Re-emerging, or Resurging Diseases  586

Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology

87. Molecular Detection of Microorganisms 589
∙∙ Molecular Methods  589
∙∙ Applications of Molecular Methods in Clinical Laboratory  590

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88. Staining Methods 592
∙∙ Preparing Film or Smear for Staining  592
∙∙ Types of Stain  592
∙∙ Stained Preparations  592
∙∙ Simple Stains  593
∙∙ Differential Stains  593
∙∙ Special Stains  594
89. Practical Microbiology for MBBS Students 596
∙∙ Spots 596
∙∙ Staining for Practical Examination  598
∙∙ Reagents 600
∙∙ Gram-positive and Gram-negative Bacteria  601
∙∙ Identification of Bacterial Culture  601
∙∙ Staphylococcus 605
∙∙ Bacillus, Proteus sp.  606
∙∙ Lactose Fermenter (LF)  607
∙∙ Stool/Feces Examination  609

Index 615
 Section 1: General Bacteriology
Historical Development of Microbiology
Learning Objectives
∙∙ Contributions of Antony van Leeuwenhoek
∙∙ Contributions of Louis Pasteur
∙∙ Contributions of Robert Koch
INTRODUCTION
Microbiology is the study of living organisms of
microscopic size. Medical microbiology is the
subdivision concerned with the causative agents
of infectious disease of man, the response of the
host to infection and various methods of diagnosis,
treatment and prevention.
INFECTION AND CONTAGION
Concept of contagion: Long before microbes
had been seen, observations on communicable
diseases had given rise to the concept of contagion:
the spread of disease by contact, direct or indirect.
This idea was implicit in the laws enacted in early
biblical times to prevent the spread of leprosy.
Invisible living creatures produced disease:
Varro in the 2nd century BC later recorded the
principle of contagion by invisible creatures.
Roger Bacon, in the 13th century, more than
a millennium later, postulated that invisible
living creatures produced disease. Fracastorius
(1546), a physician of Verona, concluded that
communicable diseases were caused by living
agents (germs) ‘seminaria’ or ‘seeds’. Kircher
(1659) reported finding minute worms in the blood
of plague victims, but with the equipment available
to him, it is more likely that what he observed were
only blood cells.
DISCOVERY OF MICROORGANISMS
As microbes are invisible to the unaided eye, direct
observation of microorganisms had to await the
development of the microscope.
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Chap-01.indd 1
1
Chapter
∙∙ Koch’s postulates
∙∙ Contributions of Paul Ehrlich.
Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)
The credit for having first observed and reported
bacteria belongs to Antony van Leeuwenhoek.
Antony van Leeuwenhoek, the Dutchman, was
a draper and haberdasher in Delft, Holland.
His hobby was grinding lenses and observing
diverse materials through them. He was the first
person to observe microorganisms (1673) using
a simple microscope. In 1683, he made accurate
descriptions of various types of bacteria and
communicated them to the Royal Society of
London. He recognized them as living crea­tures
(animalcules) and to Leeuwenhoek the world of
‘little animalcules’ represented only a curiosity
of nature. Their importance in medicine and in
other areas of biology came to be recognized two
centuries later.
Contributions of Antony van
Leeuwenhoek
1. He constructed the first microscope.
2. The first person to observe microorganisms
(1673).
3. Provided accurate description of bacteria.
CONFLICT OVER SPONTANEOUS
GENERATION
Spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis)
John Needham (1713–1781), the English priest
in 1745 published experiments purporting
the spontaneous generation (abiogenesis) of
microorganisms in putrescible fluids. Lazzaro
Spallanzani (1729–1799), an Italian priest and
naturalist opposed this view who boiled beef broth
for an hour, sealed the flasks, and observed no
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 2  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
formation of microbes. Franz Schulze (1815–1873),
Theodore Schwann (1810–1882), Georg Friedrich
Schroder and Theodor von Dusch attempted to
counter such arguments. Louis Pasteur of proved
conclusively that all forms of life, even microbes,
arose only from their like and not de novo.
John Tyndall (1820–1893), the English
physicist finally in 1877 proved and was able
to explain satisfactorily the need for prolonged
heating to eliminate microbial life from infusions.
Intermittent heating, now called tyndallization,
killed both heat-stable form and a heat-sensitive
form of bacteria.
ROLE OF MICROORGANISMS IN DISEASEs
Augustino Bassi (1773–1856) demonstrated in
1835 that a silkworm disease called ‘muscardine’
was due to a fungal infection. MJ Berkeley (1845)
proved that the great potato blight of Ireland was
caused by a fungus. Following his success with the
study of fermentation, Pasteur imeestigated the
pebrine disease of silueosm.
Indirect transmission was recognized
in the 1840s, when American poet-physician
Oliver Wendell Holmes (1843) in Boston, USA
and Ignaz Semmelweis in Vienna (1846) had
independently concluded that puerperal sepsis was
contagious. Semmelweis also identified its mode
of transmission by doctors and medical students
attending on women in labor in the hospital and
had prevented it by the simple measure of washing
hands in an antiseptic solution. Semmelweis was
persecuted by medical orthodoxy and driven
insane for the service to medicine and humanity.
SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENT OF
MICROBIoLOGY
The development of microbiology as a scientific
discipline dates from Louis Pasteur, perfection
on microbiological studies by Robert Koch, the
introduction of antiseptic surgery by Lord Lister
and contributions of Paul Ehrlich in chemotherapy.
LOUIS PASTEUR (1822–1895)
Louis Pasteur (1822–
1895) (Fig. 1.1) was born
in the village of Dole,
France on December 27,
1822, the son of humble
p a re nt s. Hi s f at h e r
was a tanner. He was
originally trained as a
chemist, but his studies
on fermentation led him
to take interest in micro- Fig. 1.1: Louis Pasteur
organisms. His discoveries revolution­ized medical
practice, although he never studied medi­cine.
Chap-01.indd 2
Louis Pasteur (Fig. 1.1) is known as ‘Father
of Microbiology’ because his contribution led to
the development of microbiology as a separate
scientific discipline.
Contributions of Louis Pasteur in
Microbiology (Box 1.1)
∙∙ Coined the term ‘Microbiology’: For the study
of living organnisms of microscopic size.
∙∙ Proposed germ theory of disease: He
established that putrefaction and fermentation
was the result of microbial activity and that
different types of fermentations were associated
with different types of microoganisms (1857).
∙∙ Disapprove d the or y of sp onta­n e ous
generation: He disapproved the theory of
sponta­neous generation in 1860–1861 in public
controversy with Pouchet who was a proponent
of spontaneous generation. In a series of
classic experiments in the swan-necked flasks,
Pasteur proved conclusively by demonstrating
the the ubiquity of microorganisms that all
forms of life, even microbes, arose only from
their like and not de novo.
∙∙ Developed sterilization techniques and
developed the steam sterilizer, hot-air oven and
autoclave in the course of these studies.
∙∙ Developed methods and techniques for
cultivation of microorganisms.
∙∙ Studies on pebrine (silkworm disease),
anthrax, chicken cholera and hydrophobia.
∙∙ Pasteurization: He deviced the process of
destroying bacteria, known as pasteurization.
∙∙ Coined the term ‘Vaccine’: It was Pasteur who
coined the term vaccine for such prophylactic
preparations.
∙∙ Discovery of the process of attenuation
and chicken cholera vaccine: An accidental
observation that chicken cholera bacillus
cultures left on the bench for several weeks lost
their pathogenic property but retained their
ability to protect the birds against subsequent
infection by them, led to the discovery of the
process of attenuation and the development
of live vaccines.
∙∙ Developed live attenuated anthrax vaccine:
He attenuated cultures of the anthrax bacillus
by incubation at high temperature (42–43°C)
and proved that inoculation of such cultures
in animals induced specific protection against
anthrax. The success of such immunization
was dramatically demonstrated by a public
experiment on a farm at Pouilly-le-Fort (1881)
during which vaccinated sheep, goats and cows
were challenged with a virulent anthrax bacillus
culture. All the vaccinated animals survived
the challenge, while an equal number of
unvaccinated control animals succumbed to it.
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 Chapter 1: Historical Development of Microbiology  | 3
∙∙ Developed rabies vac­cine in 1885. He did not
know that rabies was caused by a virus but he
managed to develop a live attenuated vaccine
for the disease.
∙∙ Notic e d pneumo c o c ci: Pneumo co cci
were first noticed by Pasteur and Sternberg
independently in 1881.
JOSEPH LISTER (1827–1912)
Joseph Lister was a professor of Surgery in Glasgo
Royal Infirmary. He applied Pasteur’s work and
introduced antiseptic techniques in surgery (1867).
The approach was remarkably successful effecting
a pronounced drop in mortality and morbidity
due to surgical sepsis. He established the guiding
principle of antisepsis for good surgical practice.
Lister antiseptic surgery innvolved carbolic acid
and was cumbersome and hazardous but was a
milestone in the evolution of surgical practice
from the era of ‘laudable pus’ to modern aseptic
techniques. For this work, he is called the ‘Father
of Modern Surgery’.
Robert Koch (1843–1910) (Fig. 1.2)
Robert Koch (Fig. 1.2) was a German physician.
The first direct demonstration of the role of bacteria
in carrying the disease came by the study of anthrax
by Koch. Winner of the Nobel Prize in 1905, Robert
Koch is known as ‘Father of Bacteriology’.
Contributions of Robert Koch
1. Staining techniqes: He described methods for
the easy microscopic examination of bacteria
(1877).
2. Hanging drop method: He was the first to use
hanging drop method by studying bacterial
motility.
3. He deviced a simple method for isolating
pure cultures of bacteria by plating out mixed
material on a solid culture medium.
4. Discoveries of the causal agents of anthrax
(1876), tuberculosis (1882) and cholera (1883).
Fig. 1.2: Robert Koch
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Chap-01.indd 3
5. Koch’s postulates: His criteria for proving the
causal relationship between a microorganism
and a specific disease are known as Koch’s
postulates.
Koch’s postulates
According to Koch’s postulates, a microorganism can be
accepted as the causative agent of an infectious disease
only if the following conditions are satisfied:
Postulate 1: The organism should be regularly found in
the lesions of the disease.
Postulate 2: It should be possible to isolate the organism
in pure culture from the lesions.
Postulate 3: Inoculation of the pure culture into suitable
laboratory animals should reproduce the lesion of the
disease.
Postulate 4: It should be possible to reisolate the
organism in pure culture from the lesions produced in
the experimental animals.
Subsequently, an additional fifth criterion introduced
states that specific antibodies to the organism should
be demonstrable in the serum of patients suffering from
the disease.
Limitations of Koch’s postulates: These criteria have
proved invaluable in identifying pathogens, but they
cannot always be met, for example, some organisms
(including all viruses) cannot be grown on artificial media,
and some are pathogenic only for men. Mycobacterium
leprae, causative agent of leprosy, has not been cultured
on artificial medium so far and not fulfilling Koch’s
postulates.
6. Koch’s phenomenon: Koch (1890) observed
that a guinea pig already infected with the
tubercle bacillus responded with an exaggerated
expresssion when injected with the tubercle
bacillus or its protein. This hypersensitivity
reaction is known as Koch’s phenomenon.
Important discoveries by other scientists: Hansen
(1874) described the leprosy bacillus; Neisser
(1879) discovered the gonococcus; Eberth (1880)
observed the typhoid bacillus; Alexander Ogston
(1881) described the staphylococci; Loeffler (1884)
described the diphtheria bacillus; Nicolaier (1884)
observed the tetanus bacillus; Rosenbach (1886)
demonstrated the tetanus bacillus; Fraenkel
(1886) described the pneumococcus; in 1887,
Weichselbakum described and isolated the
meningococcus; in 1887 Bruce identified the
causative agent of malta fever; in 1905 Schaudin
and Hoffman discovered the syphilis.
PAUL EHRLICH (1854–1915)
Paul Ehrlich was an outstanding German Scientist
and genius of extraordinary activity. He was also
known as the ‘Father of Chemotherapy’.
Contributions of Paul Ehrlich
1. Applied stains to cells and tissues for the
purpose of revealing their functions.
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 4  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
2. Reported acid-fastness of tubercle bacillus
3. Introduced methods of standardizing toxin
and antitoxin
4. Proposed ‘side chain theory’ of anti­b ody
production
5. Salvarsan introduction: He introduced
salvarsan, an arsenical com­pound, sometimes
called the ‘magic bullet’. It was capable of
destroying the spirochaete of syphilis. Later
on, he discovered neosalvarsan. Thus, he
created a new branch of medicine known as
chemotherapy.
DISCOVERY OF VIRUSES
As a science, virology evolved later than
bacteriology. Although the physical nature of
viruses was not fully revealed until the invention
of the electron microscope, the infections they
cause have been known and feared since the dawn
of history.
1. Infectious Agents Smaller than Bacteria
The infectious agents of numerous diseases
were being isolated and many infectious
diseases had been proved to be caused by
bacteria. But there remained a large number
of diseases for which no bacterial cause could
be established until it was realized that the
responsible agents were smaller than bacteria.
2. Various Infections
i. Rabies in dogs: Pasteur had suspected
that rabies in dogs could be caused by a
microbe too small to be seen under the
microscope.
ii. Tobacco mosaic disease: Iwanowski
(1892), Russian scientist and Martinus
Beijrinck (1898) in Holland attributed the
cause of tobacco—mosaic disease to the
infectious agents in bacteria-free filtrates to
be living but fluidcontagium vivum fluidum
and introduced the term virus (Latin for
‘poison’) for such filterable infectious agents.
iii. Foot-and-mouth disease of cattle: Friedrich
Loeffler and Paul Frosch at the same time in
1898 in Germany found that foot-and-mouth
disease of cattle was also caused by a similar
filter-passing virus.
iv. Yellow fever: The discovery of first human
disease proved to have a viral etiology was
yellow fever. The US Army Yellow Fever
Commission under Walter Reed in Cuba
(1902) showed that this human disease
(yellow fever) was not only a filterable virus
but also transmitted through the bite of
infected mosquitoes.
3. Electron microscope: Viruses could not be
visualized under the light microscope or grown
in culture media. So investigation of viruses
and the disease caused by them were rendered
Chap-01.indd 4
difficult. Larger viruses could be seen under
light microscope after appropriate staining but
their detailed morphology could only be studied
by electron microscope by Ruska (1934).
4. Cultivation of viruses
The technique of growing them on chick
embryos was developed by Goodpasture in
1930s. The use of living human and animal
tissue cells for the in-vitro culture of viruses was
developed by John Enders (1949) and others.
5. Virus infection and malignancy
i. Leukemia: Vilhelm Ellerman and Oluf
Bang (1908) in Copenhagen put forth the
possibility that virus infection could lead to
malignancy.
ii. Sarcoma in fowls: Peyton Rous (1911)
three years later isolated a virus causing
sarcoma in fowls. Several viruses have been
blamed to cause natural and experimental
tumors in birds and animals. Viruses also
cause malignant transformation of the
infected cells in tissue culture.
6. Viral oncogenesis: The discovery of viral and
cellular oncogenes have put forth the possible
mechanisms of viral oncogenesis. Positive
proof of a virus causing human malignancy
was established when the virus of human T-cell
leukemia was isolated in 1980.
7. Bacteriophages: Frederick W Twort (1915)
and Felix D Herelle (1917) independently
discovered a lytic phenomenon in bacterial
cultures. The agents responsible were termed
bacteriophages (viruses that attack bacteria).
IMMUNITY AND IMMUNIZATION
1. Ancient knowledge
The practice of producing a mild form of
smallpox intentionally (variolation) was
prevalent in India, China and other ancient
civilizations from time immemorial.
2. Edward Jenner (1749–1823)
The first scientific attempts at artificial
immunizations in the late eighteenth century
were made by Edward Jenner (1749–1823)
from England. He introduced the technique of
vaccination using a related but mild live virus
of cowpox (1796). Edward Jenner is known as
the ‘Father of Immunology’.
3. Live vaccines
Further work on immunization was carried
out by Louis Pasteur and derived attenuated
(reduced in virulence) live vaccines for fowl
cholera, anthrax, swine erysipelas and rabies.
4. Vaccine for hydrophobia
Pasteur’s development of a vaccine for hydro­
phobia made the greatest impact in medicine.
This was acclaimed throughout the world.
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 Chapter 1: Historical Development of Microbiology  | 5
5. Antibodies and complement
Nuttal (1888) observed that defibrinated
blood had a bactericidal effect and Buchner
(1889) noticed that this effect was abolished
by heating the sera for one hour at 55°C. This
heat-labile bactericidal factor was termed
‘alexine’. The first step in elucidating the
mechanisms of acquired immunity was the
discovery of antibodies by Emil von Behring
and Shibasaburo Kitasato (1890) in the sera
of animals which had received sublethal dose
of diphtheria or tetanus toxoid. Pfeiffer (1893)
demonstrated bactericidal effect in vivo by
injecting live cholera vibrios intraperitoneally
in guinea pigs previously injected with
killed vibrios. Bordet (1895) defined two
components in this reaction, the first being
heat stable substance ‘antibody’ found in the
immune sera and the second being heat labile
subsequently named ‘complement’.
6. Cellular concept of immunity
Elie Metchnikoff (1883) discovered the
phenomenon of phagocytosis and developed
the cellular concept of immunity. Paul Ehrlich
hypothesized that immunity could be explained
by the presence of noncellular components of
blood. Wright (1903) discovered opsonization.
Both Metchnikoff and Ehrlich shared a
Nobel Prize in 1908 for their contributions
to the emerging science of immunology.
The pioneering work of Landsteiner laid the
foundation of immunochemistry.
7. Allergy
Anaphylaxis—Portier and Richet (1902),
studying the effect of the toxic extracts of sea
anemones in dogs, made the paradoxical
observation that dogs which had prior contact
with the toxin were abnormally sensitive to
even minute quantities of it subsequently.
This phenomenon was termed anaphylaxis.
8. Selection theory of antibody
In 1955, Jerne proposed the ‘natural selection
theory’ of antibody synthesis. Burnet (1957)
modified this into clonal selection theory.
9. Immunological surveillance
Burnet (1967) developed the concept of
immunological surveillance based on
Table 1.1  Nobel laureates for research in microbiology
Year Nobel laureates
1901 Emil A von Behring
1902 Ronald Ross
1905 Robert Koch
1907 CLA Laveron
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Chap-01.indd 5
the original suggestion of Thomas (1959).
Malignancy was thought to be a failure of this
function.
10. Transplantation
Understanding of the immunological basis
of transplantation, largely due to the work of
Medawar and Burnet.
SEROTHERAPY AND CHEMOTHERAPY
Antisera: The work of Behring and Kitasato led to
the successful use of antisera raised in animals for
the treatment of patients with diphtheria, tetanus,
pneumonia and other diseases.
Magic bullet: Ehrlich (1909) discovered salvarsan
(arsenaphenamine), sometimes called the ‘magic
bul­let’, was capable of destroying the spirochaete
of syphilis. In 1912, he discovered neosalvarsan.
This gave him the title, ‘Father of Chemotherapy’.
Antibiotics—A Fotunate Accident
The modern era of antibiotics developed only
after Gerhard Domagk (1895–1964) found that
prontosil (the forerunner of sulfonamides) had
a dramatic effect on streptococcal infection in
1935. Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) made
accidental discovery that the fungus Penicillium
notatum produces a substance which destroys
staphylococci. In the 1940s, Florey and Chain and
their associates demonstrates its clinical value. This
was the beginning of the antibiotics era. Selman
Waksman exploited the potential for antibiotic
production among the soil microorganisms in the
1940s.
NOBEL PRIZES AWaRDED FOR
RESEARCH IN MICROBIOLOGY
The number of Nobel laureates in Medicine and
Physiology for their contribution in microbiology
is an evidence of the positive contribution made
to human health by the science of microbiology.
About one-third of these have been awarded to
scientists working on microbiological problems
(Table 1.1).
Contribution
Developed a diphtheria antitoxin
Discovered how malaria is transmitted
Tuberculosis—discovery of causative agent
Discovery of malaria parasite in an unstained
preparation of fresh blood
Contd...
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 6  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Contd...

Year Nobel laureates Contribution

1908 Paul Ehrlich and Elie Metchnikoff Developed theories on immunity
Described phagocytosis, the intake of solid materials
by cells
1913 Charles Richet Anaphylaxis
1919 Jules Bordet Discovered roles of complement and antibody in
cytolysis, developed complement fixation test
1928 Charles Nicolle Typhus exanthematicus
1930 Karl Landsteiner Described ABO blood groups; solidified chemical
basis for antigen-antibody reactions
1939 Gerhardt Domagk Antibacterial effect of prontosil
1945 Alexander Fleming, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey Discovered penicillin
1951 Max Theiler Yellow fever vaccine
1952 Selman A Waksman Development of streptomycin. He coined the term
‘antibiotic’
1954 John F Enders, Thomas H Weller and Frederick C Cultured poliovirus in cell cultures
Robbins
1960 Sir Macfarlane Burnet and Sir Peter Brian Medawar Immunological tolerance, clonal selection theory
1962 James D Watson, Frances HC Crick and Maurice AF Double helix structure of deoxyribonucleic acid
Wilkins (DNA)
1966 Peyton Ross Viral oncogenes (avian sarcoma)
1968 Robert Holley, Har Gobind Khorana, and Marshall Genetic code
W Nirenberg
1969 Max Delbruck, AD Hershey and Salvador Luria Mechanism of virus infection in the living cells
1972 Gerald M Edelman and Rodney R Porter Described the nature and structure of antibodies
1975 David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco and Howard M Interactions between tumor viruses and genetic
Temin material of the cells
1977 Rosalyn Yalow Developed inmmunoassay
1980 Baruj Benacerraf, Jean Dausset and George Snell HLA antigens
1984 Cesar Milstein, Georges Kohler Neils Jerne Developed hybridoma technology for production of
monoclonal antibodies
1987 S Tonegawa Described the genetics of antibody production
1989 J Michael Bishop and Harold E Varmus Discovered cancer-causing genes called oncogenes
1990 Joseph E Murray and E Donnall Thomas Performed the first successful organ transplants by
using immunosuppressive agents
1993 Kary B Mullis Discovered the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to
amplify DNA
1996 Peter C Doherty and Rolf M Zinkernagel Cell-mediated immune defences
1997 Stanley B Prusiner Prion discovery
2001 Leland H Hartwell, Paul M Nurse, and R Timothy Hunt Discovered genes that encode proteins regulating
cell division
2005 Barry J Marshall and J Robin Warren Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic
ulcer disease
2007 Mario R Capecchi, Oliver Smithies and Sir Martin J Evans Creation of knockout mice for stem cell research
2008 Luc Montagnier and Francoise Barre-Sinoussi Discovery of human immunodeficiency virus
Harald zur Hausen Human papillomavirus causing cervical cancer
2011 Bruce A, Beutler and Jules A Hoffmann Ralph M Discoveries concerning the activation of innate
Steinman immunity
Discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in active
immunity

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 Chapter 1: Historical Development of Microbiology  | 7

Key Points 2. Who is the father of microbiology?

a. Louis Pasteur
™™ Microbiology is the study of living organisms of b. Robert Koch
microscopic size. c. Paul Ehrlich
™™ Antony van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to d. Joseph Lister
describe micro-organisms. 3. Who is the father of bacteriology?
™™ Louis Pasteur: He is known as the ‘Father of a. Louis Pasteur
Microbiology’. b. Robert Koch
™™ Joseph Lister: Developed a system of antiseptic c. Paul Ehrlich
surgery. For this work he is called the ‘Father of d. Joseph Lister
Modern Surgery’
™™ Robert Koch: Koch’s postulates are used to prove a 4. Which bacteria is the human pathogen but still
direct relationship be­tween a suspected pathogen does not fulfil Koch’s postulates criteria?
and a disease. a. Staphylococcus aureus
™™ Paul Ehrlich is known as ‘Father of Chemotherapy’. b. Bacillus anthracis
™™ Edward Jenner is known as the ‘Father of Immunology’. c. Mycobacterium leprae
™™ Ehrlich is given the title ‘Father of Chemotherapy’. d. Psedomonas aeruginosa
5. Who is the father of chemotherapy?
Important question a. Louis Pasteur
b. Robert Koch
Write short notes on: c. Paul Ehrlich
a. Contributions of Antony van Leeuwenhoek d. Joseph Lister
b. Contributions of Louis Pasteur 6. Who is the father of immunology?
c. Contributions of Robert Koch a. Louis Pasteur
d. Koch’s postulates b. Robert Koch
e. Contributions of Edward Jenner c. Paul Ehrlich
f. Contributions of Paul Ehrlich d. Edward Jenner
g. Name four Nobel laureates in Microbiology
7. Which first human disease proved to be of viral
origin?
Multiple choice questions (MCQs) a. Smallpox
1. Who was the first person to describe micro- b. Dengue
organisms ? c. Yellow fever
a. Louis Pasteur d. Rabies
b. Robert Koch
c. Paul Ehrlich Answers (MCQs)
d. Antony van Leeuwenhoek Ans. 1. d; 2. a; 3. b; 4. c; 5. c; 6. d; 7. c

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Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Discuss microscopic methods
Introduction
Microscope is an optical instrument used to
magnify (enlarge) minute objects or micro-
organisms which cannot be seen by naked eye.
MICROSCOPY: INStRUMENTS
Microscopic Methods
A. Light Microscopy
1. Brightfield (light) microscopy
2. Darkfield microscopy
3. Phase-contrast microscopy
4. Fluorescent microscopy
5. Confocal
B. Electron Microscopy
–– Transmission
–– Scanning
C. Scanning Probe Microscopes
A. LIGHT MICROSCOPY
Light microscopy refers to the use of any kind
of microscope that uses visible light to observe
specimens. A modern compound light microscope
(LM) has a se­ries of lenses and uses visible light as
its source of illumina­tion.
Principles of Light Microscopy: The
Brightfield Microscopy
In light microscopy, light typically passes
through a specimen and then through a series
of magnifying lenses. The most common type of
light microscope, and the easiest to use, is the
brightfield microscopy, which evenly illuminates
the field of view.
2
Chapter
Microscopy
∙∙ E xplain the principles and describe the uses of the
following: darkfield microscopy; phase-contrast;
microscopy; fluore­scent microscopy and electron
microscopy.
1. Compound Light Microscopy
A series of finely ground lenses forms a clearly
focused image that is many times larger than the
specimen itself. This magnification is achieved
when light rays from an illuminator, the light
source used to illuminate the specimen positioned
on a stage, pass through a condenser, which
has lenses that direct the light rays through the
specimen. From here, light rays pass into the
objective lenses, the lenses closest to the speci­
men. The image of the specimen is magnified again
by the ocular lens, or eyepiece. Three different
objective lenses are com­monly used: low power
(x10); high dry (x40); and oil immersion (x100).
Resolution
The limitation of brightfield microscopy is the reso­
lution (also called resolving power) of the image
(i.e. the ability to distinguish that two objects are
separate and not one). The resolving power of a
microscope is determined by the wave­length of
light used to illuminate the subject and the angle
of light entering the objective lens (referred to as
the numerical aperture).
Immersion oil: Immersion oil is placed between the
glass slide and the oil immersion objective lens. The
immer­sion oil has the same refractive index as glass,
so the oil becomes part of the optics of the glass of
the microscope. The oil enhances the resolution by
preventing light rays from dispersing and changing
wavelength after passing through the specimens.
A specific objective lens, the oil immersion lens,
is designed for use with oil; this lens provides 100x
magnification on most light microscopes.

2. Darkground (Darkfield) Microscopy
Darkfield microscopy is frequently performed on the
same microscope on which brightfield microscopy
is performed. Instead of the normal condenser, a
darkfield microscopy uses a darkfield condenser
that contains an opaque disc. The disc blocks light
that would enter the objective lens directly. Only
light that is reflected off (turned away from) the
specimen enters the objective lens. Because there
is no direct background light, the specimen appears
light against a dark background. This creates a ‘dark-
field’ that contrasts against the highlighted edge of
the specimens and results when the oblique rays are
reflected from the edge of the specimen upward into
the objective of the microscope.
Use
This technique is particu­larly valuable for observing
organisms such as Trep­o nema pallidum, a
spirochete which cannot be observed with direct
light.
3. Phase-contrast Microscopy
Principle: In a phase-contrast microscope, one set
of light rays comes directly from the light source.
The other set comes from light that is reflected
or diffracted from a particular structure in the
specimen. When the two sets of light rays—direct
rays and reflected or dif­fracted rays—are brought
together, they form an image of the specimen on
the ocular lens, containing areas that are relatively
light (in phase), through shades of gray to black (out
of phase). Through the use of annular rings in the
condenser and the objective lens, the differences in
phase are amplified so that in-phase light appears
brighter than out-of-phase light. The special phase
condenser consists of annular diaphragms on a
rotating disk fitted to the bottom of the condenser.
Uses
1. To study unstained living cells.
2. Detailed examination of internal structures in
living microorganisms.
3. To study flagellar movements and motility of
bacteria and protozoans.
4. To study intestinal and other live protozoa such
as amoebae and Trichomonas.
5. To examine fungi grown in culture.
Differential Interference Contrast (DIC)
Microscopy
Differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy
is similar to phase-contrast microscopy in that
it uses dif­ferences in refractive indices. The
resolution of a DIC microscope is higher than that
of a standard phase-contrast microscope.
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Chapter 2: Microscopy  | 9
Fluorescence Microscopy
Fluorescence microscopy takes advantage of
fluorescence, the ability of substances to absorb
short wave­lengths of light (ultraviolet) and give
off light at a longer wavelength (visible). If tissues,
cells or bacteria are stained with a fluorescent dye
and are examined under the microscope with ultra­
violet light instead of ordinary visible light, they
become luminous and are seen as bright objects
against a dark background.
Principal Use
The principal use of fluorescence microscopy is
a di­agnostic technique called the fluorescent
antibody (FA) technique, or immunofluorescence
employed for detection of antigen (direct
fluorescent antibody technique) and antibodies
(indirect fluorescent antibody methods).
Epifluores­cence Microscopy
A common variation of the standard fluorescence
microscope is the epifluores­cence microscope,
which projects the ultra­violet light through the
objective lens and onto the specimen.
Confocal Microscopy
In confocal microscopy, lenses focus a laser beam
to illu­minate a given point on one vertical plane of a
specimen. In effect, this micro­scope is a miniature
CAT scan for cells.
B. Electron Microscopy
∙∙ Electron microscopy is in some ways
comparable to light microscopy. Rather than
using glass lenses, visible light, and the eye to
observe the specimen, the electron microscope
uses electromagnetic lenses, electrons,
and a fluorescent screen to produce the
magnified image. That image can be captured
on photographic film to create an electron
photomi­crograph.
∙∙ The electron beam is focused by circular electro­
magnets, which are analogous to the lenses in
the light microscope. The object which is held
in the path of the beam scatters the electrons
and produces an image which is focused on a
fluorescent viewing screen.
∙∙ The wavelength of electrons used in an EM is
0.005 nm as compared to 500 nm with visible
light, i.e. about 100,000 times shorter than that
of ordi­nary light. Theoretically, the resolv­ing
power of the EM should be 100,000 times (reso­
lution down to 0.0025 nm). In practice, the best
res­olution that can be obtained is 0.3–0.5 nm,
a hun­dred times better than that of the light
microscope.
10  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Types of Electron Microscopes
There are two types of electron microscopes in
gen­eral use:
(i) Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
In transmission electron microscope (TEM),
electrons like light pass directly through the
specimen that has been prepared by thin
sectioning, freeze fracturing, or freeze etching. It
is used to observe fine details of cell structure.
(ii) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
™™ Phase-contrast microscopy: It allows the detailed
observation of the living organisms.
™™ Fluorescence microscopy: Fluorescence microscopy
is used primarily in a diagnostic procedure
called fluorescent-antibody (FA) technique, or
immunofluorescence.
™™ Electron microscopy: Electron microscopes use
electromagnetic lenses instead of glass lenses,
electrons and fluorescent screens to produce a
magnified image. There are two types (i) Transmission
electron microscopes (TEMs); and (ii) Scanning
electron microscopes
™™ Scanned-probe microscopy: Their resolving power is
much greater than the electron microscope.

A scanning electron microscope scans a beam

of electrons back and forth over the surface of a Important question
specimen producing three-dimensional views of Write short notes on:
the surfaces of whole microor­ganisms. a. Darkfield microscopy
b. Fluorescent microscopy
C. SCANNING-PROBE MICROSCOPY c. Phase-contrast microscopy
d. Electron microscopy.
Scanning probe microscopes map the bumps
and valleys of a surface on an atomic scale. Their Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
resolving power is much greater than the electron
microscope, and the samples do not need special 1. Which of the following is not a modification of a
preparation as they do for electron microscopy. compound microscope:
a. Bright microscopy
Among the new scanned-probe microscopes are:
b. Darkfield microscopy
1. Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM): There c. Elecron micrscopy
are used to provide incredibly detailed views of d. Phase-contrast microscopy
mol­ecules, such as DNA. 2. Wavelenth of electrons used in an electron
2. Atomic force microscopy (AFM): These microscopy is:
produce three-dimensional images of the a. 0.001 nm
surface of a molecule. b. 0.005 nm
c. 100 nm
Key Points d. 500 nm
™™ Microscopy: A simple microscope consists of one 3. Theoretically, the resolv­ing power of the electrone
lens; a compound microscope has multiple lenses. micro­scope is:
Compound Light Microscopy a. 10,000 times
™™ The most common microscope used in microbiology b. 100,000 times
is the compound microscope/bright field c. 5,00,000 times
microscope/light microscope. d. 1,000 times
™™ Darkfield microscopy: It is most useful for detecting
the presence of extremely small organisms. Answers (MCQs)
Ans: 1. b; 2. b; 3. b
 3
Chapter

Morphology of Bacteria

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should be ∙∙ Discuss capsule or bacterial capsule
able to: ∙∙ Describe bacterial flagellae
∙∙ Differentiate between prokaryotes and eukaryotes ∙∙ Describe fimbriae or pili
∙∙ Describe anatomy of bacterial cell ∙∙ Discuss bacterial spores or endospores
∙∙ Describe cell envelope ∙∙ Explain L-forms of bacteria.
∙∙ Describe bacterial cell wall

INTRODUCTION Table 3.1  Principle differences between prokar­

yotic and eukaryotic cells
The bacteria are single-celled organisms that
reproduce by simple division, i.e. binary fission. Characteristics Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Whittaker’s system recognizes five kingdoms of
1. Size 0.5–3 µm >5 µm
living things—Monera (bacreia), Protista, Fungi, (approximate)
Plantae, and Animalia. Five kingdoms have been
2. Nucleus
modified further by the development of three
Nuclear Absent Present
domains, or Superkingdoms system—the Bacteria, membrane Absent Present
the Archaea (meaning ancient) and the Eucarya. Nucleolus One (circular) More than one
Chromosome (linear)
COMPARISON BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC
Deoxyribonucleo­
AND EUCARYOTIC CELLS protein Absent Present
Division By binary fission By mitosis
All living organisms on earth are composed of
one or the other of two types of cells: prokaryotic 3. Cytoplasm
cells and eukaryotic cells based on differences in Cytoplasmic Absent Present
streaming Absent Present
cellular organization and biochemistry (Table 3.1). Mitochondria Absent Present
1. Prokaryotes: All bacteria and blue-green algae Golgi apparatus Absent Present
are prokaryotes. Lysosomes Absent Present
2. Eukaryotes: Other algae (excluding blue-green Pinocytosis Absent Present
algae), fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, higher Endoplasmic
reticulum
plants and animals are eukaryotic.
4. Chemical
SIZE OF BACTERIA composition
Sterol Absent Present
Bacteria are very small in size. The unit of Muramic acid Present Absent
measurement in bacteriology is the micron or 5. Examples Eubacteria, Fungi, slime
micrometer (mm) 1 micron (m) or micrometer (mm) Archaea moulds,
= a millionth part of a meter or a thousandth part All bacteria and protozoa,
of a millimeter. blue-green algae higher plants
1 millimicron (mm) or nanometer (nm) = and animals
including
one thousandth of a micron or one-millionth of a humans
millimeter.

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Chap-03.indd 11 15-03-2016 11:09:37
 12  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
1 Angstrom unit (A) = one-tenth of a nanometer.
The diameter of the smallest body that can be
resolved and seen clearly with naked eye is 200
µm. Bacteria of medical importance generally
measure 0.2–1.5 µm in diameter and about 3–5
µm in length. To see bacteria, a light microscope
must be used. The best light microscope, using the
most advanced optics, is capable of magnifications
of 1000–2000 times. The electron microscope
provides superb resolving power. Following types
of micro­scopes are used for the examination of
bacteria:
STUDY OF BACTERIA
Stained Preparations
Live bacteria do not show much structural detail
under the light microscope due to lack of contrast.
Hence, it is customary to use staining techniques
to produce color contrast. Various staining
techniques are commonly used in bacteriology
(See Chapter 87).
4. Spirilla: Spirilla are rigid spiral or helical forms.
5. Spirochaetes: Spirochaetes are flexuous spiral
forms.
6. Mycoplasma: Mycoplasma are cell wall
deficient bacteria and, hence, do not possess
a stable morphology. They occur as round or
oval bodies and interlacing filaments.
ARRANGEMENT OF BACTERIAL CELLS
Pathogenic bacterial species appear as sphere
(cocci), rods (bacilli), and spirals. Bacteria sometimes
show characteristic cellular arrangement or
grouping (Fig. 3.2). The type of cellular arrangement
is determined by the plane through which binary
fission takes place and by the tendency of the
daughter cells to remain attached even after division.
Cocci Arrangement
i. Diplococci: Cocci may be arranged in pairs
(diplococci), when cocci divide and remain
together;

Shape of Bacteria
Depending on their shape, bacteria are classified
into several varieties (Fig. 3.1):
1. Cocci: Cocci (from kokkos meaning berry) are
spherical, or nearly spherical.
2. Bacilli: Bacilli (from baculus meaning rod)
are relatively straight, rod-shaped (cylindrical)
cells. In some of the bacilli, the length of the
cells may be equal to the width. Such bacillary
forms are known as coccobacilli and have to be
carefully differentiated from cocci.
3. Vibrios: Vibrios are curved or comma-
shaped rods and derive the name from their
characteristic vibratory motility.

Fig. 3.2: Arrangement of bacteria: A. Cocci: 1. Streptococci;

2. Pneumococci; 3. Gonococci; 4. Meningococci; 5. Neisseria
catarrhalis; 6. Gaffkya tetragena; 7. Sarcina; 8. Staphylococci.
Fig. 3.1: Shapes of bacteria: 1. Coccus; 2. Bacillus; 3. Vibrio; B. Bacilli: 1. Bacilli in cluster; 2. Bacilli in chains (B. anthrax); 3.
4. Spirillum; 5. Spirochete Diplobacilli (K. pneumoniae)

Chap-03.indd 12 15-03-2016 11:09:39


ii. Long chains: Long chains (Steptococcus,
Enterococcus, and Lactococcus), when cells
adhere after repeated divisions in one plane;
iii. Grape-like clusters: Grape-like clusters
(staphylococci), when cocci divide in random
planes;
iv. Tetrads: Square groups of four cells (tetrads)
when cocci divide in two planes as in members
of the genus Micrococcus;
v. Cubical packets: Cubical packets of eight of
cells (genus Sarcina), when cocci divide in
three planes.
Bacilli Arrangement
Bacilli split only across their short axes. Therefore,
the patterns formed by them are limited. The
shape of the rod’s end often varies between
species and may be flat, rounded, cigar-shaped
or bifurcated. Some bacilli too may be arranged
in chains (streptobacilli). Others are arranged
at various angles to each other, resembling the
letters ‘V’ presenting a cuneiform or Chinese
letter arrangement and is characteristic of
Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
ANATOMY OF THE BACTERIAL CELL
The principal structures of the bacterial cell are
shown in Figure 3.3.
Bacterial Cell Components
These can be divided into:
A. Cell envelope and its appendages.
a. The outer layer or cell envelope consists
of two components:
1. Cell wall
C ytoplasmic or plasma memb­
2. 
rane—beneath the cell wall
b. Cellular appendages: Capsule, fimbriae,
and flagella
Fig. 3.3: Anatomy of a bacterial cell
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Chap-03.indd 13
Chapter 3: Morphology of Bacteria  | 13
B. Cell interior: Those structures and substances
that are bounded by the c ytoplasmic
membrane compose the cell interior and
include cytoplasm, cytoplasmic inclusions
(mesosomes, ribosomes, inclusion granules,
vacuoles) and a single circular chromosome
of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
A. Cell Envelope and its Appendages
a. The Outer Layer or Cell Envelope
Cell wall
The cell wall is the layer that lies just outside the
plasma membrane. It is strong and relatively rigid,
and openly porous.
Functions of the cell wall:
1. It imparts shape and rigidity to the cell.
2. It supports the weak cytoplasmic membrane
against the high internal osmotic pressure of
the protoplasm.
3. It maintains the characteristic shape of the
bacterium.
4. It takes part in cell division.
5. It also functions in interactions (e.g. adhesion)
with other bacteria and with mammalian cells.
6. It provides specific protein and carbohydrate
receptors for the attachment of some bacterial
viruses.
Chemical structure of bacteria cell wall
Chemically the cell wall is composed of
mucopeptide (peptidoglycan or murein)
scaffolding formed by N-acetyl glucosamine and
N-acetyl muramic acid molecules alternating in
chains, which are crosslinked by peptide bonds
(Fig. 3.4).
Difference between cell wall of gram-positive
and gram-negative bacteria
In general, the walls of the gram-positive bacteria
have simpler chemical nature than those of gram-
negative bacteria (Table 3.2).
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 14  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology

Fig. 3.5: Gram-positive bacterial cell wall

ii. Lipopoprotein: Lipopoprotein, or murein

lipoproteins seemingly attach (both covalently
and noncovalently) to the peptidoglycan
Fig. 3.4: Chemical structure of bacterial cell wall
by their protein portion, and to the outer
Table 3.2  Comparison of cell walls of gram- membrane by their lipid component.
positive and gram-negative bacteria iii. Outer membrane: External to the peptidoglycan,
and attached to it by lipoproteins is the outer
Characteristics Gram positive Gram negative membrane. It is a bilayered structure. Its inner
1. Thickness More Less leaflet is composed of phospholipid while in
2. Peptidoglycan Thick layer (16–80 2 nm (thin layer) phospholipids, the outer leaflet are replaced by
nm ) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) molecules.
3. Teichoic acid Present Absent
Functions
4. Variety of Few Several i. A protective barrier.
aminoacids
ii. Porins or transmembrane proteins: Function
5. Aromatic Absent or scant Present in the selective transport of nutrients into the
and sulfur-
cell.
containing
aminoacids iii. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
Lipopolysaccha­r ide (LPS) consists of three
6. Lipids Absent or scant Present
components:
7. Porin proteins Absent Present i. Lipid A: It is the lipid portion of LPS and
8. Periplasmic Absent Present is embedded in the top layer of the outer
region membrane. When gram-negative bacteria
die, they release lipid A, which functions as
an endotoxin. All the toxicity of the endotoxin
Gram-positive bacterial cell wall is due to lipid A which is responsible for the
The gram-positive bacterial cell wall (Fig. 3.5) is endotoxic activities, that is, pyrogenicity, lethal
composed mostly of several layers of peptidoglycan. effect, tissue necrosis, anticomplementary
Peptidoglycans: It is thicker and stronger than that activity, B cell mitogenicity, immunoadjuvant
of gram-negative bacteria. property and antitumor activity.
Teichoic acid: In addition, the cell walls of gram- ii. The core polysaccharide its role is to provide
positive bacteria contain teichoic acids. stability.
iii. O-polysaccharide: It extends outward from
Gram-negative bacterial cell wall
the core polysaccharide and is composed of
The gram-negative bacterial cell wall is structurally
sugar molecules. Polysaccharide represents a
quite different from that of gram-positive cells
major surface antigen of the bacterial cell. It
(Fig. 3.6). It consists of peptidog­lycan, lipoprotein,
is known as O-antigen.
outer membrane, and lipopoly­saccharide.
i. Peptidoglycan layer: Peptidoglycan layer is Demonstration of cell wall
a single-unit thick of gram-negative bacteria. The cell wall cannot be seen by light microscopy
It is bonded to lipoproteins covalently in the and does not stain with simple dyes. It can be dem­
outer membrane and plasma membrane and onstrated by:
is in the periplasm, a gel-like fluid between the i. Plasmolysis: When placed in a hypertonic
outer membrane and plasma membrane. The solution, the cytoplasm loses water by osmosis
periplasm contains a high concentration of and shrinks, while the cell wall retains its
degradative enzymes and transport proteins. original shape and size (bacterial ghost).

Chap-03.indd 14 15-03-2016 11:09:41


Fig. 3.6: Gram-negative cell wall
ii. Microdissection
iii. Exposure to specific antibody
iv. Mechanical rupture of the cell
v. Differential staining procedures
vi. Electron microscopy.
Enzymes that attack cell walls
i. Lysozyme: The enzyme lysozyme, which is
found in animal secretions (tears, saliva, nasal
secretions) as well as in egg white, is a natural
body defence substance which lyses bacteria
of many species.
ii. Autolysins: Bacteria themselves possess
enzymes, called autolysins, able to hydrolyse
their own cell wall substances.
Protoplasts and spheroplasts
Protoplasts
These are derived from gram-positive bacteria.
The gram-positive cell wall is almost completely
destroyed by lysozyme. They contain cytoplasmic
membrane and cell wall is totally lacking. Typically,
a protoplast is spherical and is still capable of carry­
ing on metabolism. Protoplasts cannot revert to
normal bacterial morphology.
Spheroplasts
When lysozyme is applied to gram-negative cells,
usually the wall is not destroyed to the same extent
as in gram-positive cells. Spheroplasts retain outer
membrane and entrapped peptido­glycan from
gram-negative cell. It differs from the protoplast in
that some cell wall material is retained. It is also a
spherical struc­ture. They are capable of reverting
to parent bacterial form when cell wall inhibitor is
removed from the culture me­dium.
2. Cytoplasmic (plasma) membrane
Structure: The cytoplasmic (plasma) membrane
limits the bacterial protoplast. It is thin (5–10 nm
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Chap-03.indd 15
Chapter 3: Morphology of Bacteria  | 15
thick), elastic and can only be seen with electron
microscope. It is a typical ‘unit membrane’,
composed of phospholipids and proteins.
Chemically, the membrane consists of
lipoprotein with small amounts of carbohydrate.
With the exception of Mycoplasma, bacterial
cytoplasmic membrane lacks sterols.
Functions of cytoplasmic membrane:
i. Semipermeable membrane: Controlling the
inflow and outflow of metabolites to and from
the protoplasm.
ii. Housing enzymes : Involved in outer
membrane synthesis, cell wall synthesis,
and in the assembly and secretion of extra­
cytoplasmic and extracellular substances.
iii. Housing many sensory and chemotaxis
proteins
iv. Generation of chemical energy (i.e. ATP)
v. Cell motility
vi. Mediation of chromosomal segregation
during replication
b. Cellular Appendages
I. Bacterial capsule or slime layer
Structure: Many bacteria synthesize large amount of
extracellular polymer in their natural environments.
When the polymer forms a condensed, well-defined
layer closely surrounding the cell, it is called the
capsule as in the Pneumococcus. If the polymer
is easily washed off and does not appear to be
associated with the cell in any definite fashion, it
is referred to as a slime layer as in leuconostoc.
A glycocalyx is a network of polysaccharide
extending from the surface of bacteria and other
cells. Capsules too thin to be seen under the light
microscope are called microcapsules.
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 16  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Composition of capsules and slime layers:
Capsules and slime layers usually are composed
of polysaccharide (for example, Pneumococcus)
or of polypeptide in some bacteria (for example,
Bacillus anthracis and Yersinia pestis). Some
bacteria may have both a capsule and a slime layer
(for example, Streptococcus salivarius). Bacteria
secreting large amounts of slime produce mucoid
growth on agar, which is of a stringy consistency
when touched with the loop.
Capsulated bacteria: Streptococcus pneumoniae,
several groups of streptococci, Neisseria menin­
gitidis, Klebsiella, Haemophilus influenzae,
Yersinia and Bacillus.
Demonstration of Capsule
i. Gram stain: Capsules and slime are usually
not visible in films stained by ordinary
methods except as clear haloes surrounding
the stained smear.
ii. Special capsule-staining techniques :
Usually employing copper salts as mordants.
iii. India ink staining (negative staining): The
capsule appears as a clear halo around the
bacterium, against a dark background in the
film (Fig. 3.7).
iv. Electron microscope.
v. Serological methods: Capsular material
is antigenic and may be demonstrated by
serological methods. When a suspension
of a capsulated bacterium is mixed with its
specific anticapsular serum and examined
under the microscope, the capsule becomes
very prominent and appears ‘swollen’ due to
an increase in its refractivity. It is known as
the capsule-swelling reaction or Quellung
reaction (Quellung-Ger swelling). It was
described by Neufeld (1902), hence called
Neufeld reaction. It was widely employed
Fig. 3.7: Pneumococci negatively stained with India ink to
show capsule
Chap-03.indd 16
for the typing of pneumococci in the pre­
sulfonamide days.
Functions of capsule
i. Virulence factor: Capsules often act as a
virulence factor by protecting the bacterium
from ingestion by phagoc ytosis and
noncapsulate mutant of these bacteria are
nonvirurlent.
ii. Protection of the cell wall: In protecting
the cell wall attack by various kinds of
antibacterial agents.
iii. Identification and typing of bacteria.
II. Flagella
Motile bacteria, except spirochetes, possess one or
more unbranched, long, sinuous filaments called
flagella, which are the organs of locomotion.
Structure: They are long, hollow, helical filaments,
usually several times the length of the cell. They are
3–20 μm long and are of uniform diameter (0.01–
0.013 μm) and terminate in a square tip. It originates
in the bacterial protoplasm and is extruded through
the cell wall. Flagella consists of largely or entirely
a protein, flagellin.
Flagella are highly antigenic and flagellar
antigens induce specific antibodies in high titers.
Flagellar antibodies are not protective but are useful
in serodiagnosis.
Parts and Composition
Each flagellum consists of three parts (Fig. 3.8):
i. Filament: The filament is the longest and most
obvious portion which extends from the cell
surface to the tip.
ii. Hook: The hook is a short, curved segment
which links the filament to its basal body and
functions as universal joint between the basal
body and the filament.
iii. Basal body: The basal body is embedded
in the cell (cytoplasmic membrane). In the
Fig. 3.8: The structure of bacterial flagellum
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gram-negative bacteria, the basal body has four
rings connected to a central rod (L, P, S and M).
The outer L and P rings are associated with the
lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan layers
respectively. S-ring is located just above the
cytoplasmic membrane and the inner M-ring
contacts the cytoplasmic membrane.
Gram-positive bacteria have only two basal
body rings.
Arrangement/Types (Fig. 3.9)
There are four types of flagella arrangement:
i. Monotrichous: Single polar flagellum (e.g.
Cholera vibrio)
ii. Amphitrichous: Single flagellum at both
ends, e.g. Alkaligenes faecalis.
iii. Lophotrichous: Tuft of flagella at one or both
ends, e.g. Spirilla.
iv. Peritrichous: Flagella surrounding the cell
(e.g. Typhoid bacilli).
Demonstration of flagella
Flagella are about 0.02 μm in thickness and,
hence, beyond the resolution limit of the light
microscope. The following methods are used for
its demonstration:
i. Dark ground illumination.
ii. Special staining methods: In this their
thickness is increased by mordanting.
iii. Electron microscopy.
iv. Indirect methods: Indirect methods by
which motility of bacteria can be seen or
demonstrated:
a. Microscopically in fluid suspensions (in a
hanging drop or under a coverslip)
b. By spread of bacterial growth as a film over
agar, e.g. swarming growth of Proteus sp.
c. Turbidity spreading through semisolid
agar, e.g. Craigie’s tube method.
III. Fimbria or pili
Structure and synthesis: Many gram-negative
bacteria have short, fine, hair-like surface
appendages called fimbriae or pili. They are shorter
and thinner than flagella and emerge from the cell
Fig. 3.9: Arrangement of flagella
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Chap-03.indd 17
Chapter 3: Morphology of Bacteria  | 17
wall. They originate in the cytoplasmic membrane
and are composed of structural protein subunits
termed pilins like flagella. Fimbriae are antigenic.
Demonstration of fimbriae
1. Electron Microscopy.
2. Hemagglutination: Most fimbriate bacteria
adhere to guinea pig, fowl, horse and pig-red
cells very strongly, to human cells moderately
strongly, to sheep cells weakly and to ox cells
scarcely at all.
Functions of pilli
Two classes can be distinguished ordinary
(common) pili and sex pili.
A. Ordinary (common) pili: Fimbriae probably
function as organs of adhesions.
B. Sex pili: Sex pili are appear to be involved in
the transfer of DNA during conjugation. They
are found on ‘male’ bacteria.
B. Cell Interior
1. Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm of the bacterial cell is a viscous
watery solution or soft gel, containing a variety
of organic or inorganic solutes, and numerous
ribosomes and polysomes. The cytoplasm of
bacteria differs from that of the higher eukaryotic
organisms in not containing an endoplasmic
reticulum or membrane-bearing microsomes,
mitochondria, lysosomes and in showing signs of
internal mobility. The cytoplasm stains uniformly
with basic dyes in young cultures.
2. Ribosomes
The ribosomes are the location for all bacterial
protein synthesis. Bacterial ribosomes are slightly
smaller (10–20 nm) than eukaryotic ribosomes and
they have a sedimentation rate of 70S (S or Svedberg
unit), being composed of a 30S and 50S subunit.
Types of RNA: Ribosomes are composed of
different proteins associated with three types of
ribonucleic acid (RNA):
i. Messenger (m) RNA: These molecules are
translated during protein synthesis.
ii. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
iii. Transfer RNA (tRNA): Specifically transfers
the genetic information carried in the mRNA
into functional proteins.
3. Mesosomes (Chondroids)
These are convoluted or multilaminated
membranous bodies formed as invaginations of
the plasma membrane into the cytoplasm. These
are of two types:
i. Septal mesosomes; ii. Lateral mesosomes.
15-03-2016 11:09:43
 18  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Functions of mesosomes:
i. Compartmenting of DNA; ii. Sites of the
respiratory enzymes.
4. Intracytoplasmic Inclusions
These are not permanent or essential structures,
and may be absent under certain conditions of
growth. These bodies are usually sources of storage
of energy. They consist of volutin (polyphosphate),
lipid, glycogen, starch or sulfur.
5. Bacterial Nucleus
The genetic material of a bacterial cell is contained
in a single, long molecule of double-stranded
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which can be
extracted in the form of a closed circular thread
about 1 mm (1000 μm) long. The bacterial
chromosome is haploid and replicates by simple
fission instead of by mitosis as in higher cells.
Plasmids
Bacteria may possess extranuclear genetic
elements in the cytoplasm consisting of DNA
termed plasmids or episomes (see Chapter 10).
These can exist and replicte independently of the
chromosome or may be integrated with it. In either
case, they normally are inherited or passed on the
Fig. 3.10: The stages of endospore formation
Chap-03.indd 18
progeny either through conjugation or the agency
of bateriophages.
Functions of plasmids: Plasmids are not essential
for host growth and reproduction they inhibit, but
may confer on it certain properties such as drug
resistance, and toxigencity which may constitute a
survival advantage.
6. Bacterial Spore
A number of gram-positive bacteria, such as those
of the genera Clostridium and Bacillus can form a
special resistant dormant structure called an endo­
spore or, simply, spores. Sporulation in bacteria, is
not a method of reproduction but of preservation.
Sporulation: Spore formation, sporogenesis or
sporulation normally commences when growth
ceases due to lack of nutrients, depletion of the
nitrogen or carbon source (or both) being the most
significant factor.
Stages: It may be divided into several stages
(Fig. 3.10).
∙∙ Spore septum: In the first observable stage
of sporulation, a newly replicated bacterial
chromosome and a small portion of cytoplasm
are isolated by an ingrowth of the plasma
membrane called a spore septum.
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 Chapter 3: Morphology of Bacteria  | 19
∙∙ Forespore: The spore septum becomes a
double-layered membrane that surrounds
the chromosome and cytoplasm. Structure,
entirely enclosed within the original cell, is
called a forespore.
∙∙ Spore coat: The forespore is subsequently
completely encircled by dividing septum as
a dou­ble-layered membrane. The two spore
membranes now engage in active synthesis
of various layers of the spore. The inner layer
becomes the inner mem­brane. Between the
two layers is laid spore cortex and outer layer
is transformed into spore coat which consists
of several layers. In some species from outer
layer also develops exosporium which bears
ridges and folds (Fig. 3.11).
∙∙ Fre e en do sp ore: Finally exosp or ium Fig. 3.11: Bacterial spore (Cross-section)
disintegrates and the endospore is freed.

Properties of Endospores (Fig 3.11)

1. Core; 2. Spore wall; 3. Cortex; 4. Spore coat:
Cortex; 5. Exosporium.

Germination
Germination is the process of conversion of a spore
into vegetative cells under suitable conditions. It
occurs in three stages: activation, initiation and
outgrowth. Once activated, a spore will initiate
ger­mination if the environmental conditions are
favorable.
Shape and Position of the Spore
The shape and position of the spore and its size
relative to the parent cell are species’ characteristics.
Spores may be central (equatorial), subterminal
(close to one end), or terminal (Fig. 3.12). The
appearance may be spherical, ovoid or elongated,
and being narrower that the cell, or broader and
bulging it. The diameter of spore may be same
or less than the width of bacteria (Bacillus), or
may be wider than the bacillary body producing a
distension or bulge in the cell (Clostridium).
Resistance
These structures are extraordinary resistant to
environ­mental stresses. Spores of all medically
important species are destroyed by autoclaving at
120°C for 15 minutes. Endospore heat resistance
probably is due to several factors: calcium-
dipicolinate and acid-soluble protein stabilization
of DNA, protoplast dehydration, the spore coat,
DNA repair, the greater stability of the cell proteins
in bacteria adapted to growth at high temperatures
and others.
Demonstration
i. Gram-staining: Spores appear as an unstained
refractile body within the cell.
Fig. 3.12: Types of spores. 1. Central, bulging; 2. Central, not
bulging; 3. Subterminal, bulging; 4. Subterminal, not bulging;
5. Terminal, spherical; 6. Terminal, oval
ii. Modified Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) stain­i ng:
Spores are slightly acid-fast. Ziehl-Neelsen
staining with 0.25–0.5% sulfuric acid (instead
of 20% sulfuric acid as used in conventional
method) as decoloring agent is used for spore
staining.
Uses of Spores
1. Importance in food, industrial, and medical
microbiology
2. Sterilization control: For proper sterilization,
spores of certain species of bacteria are
e mp l oye d a s i n d i cat o r, e. g. B a cillus
stearothermophilus which is destroyed at a
temperature of 121°C for 10–20 minutes. Proper
sterilization is indicated by the absence of the
spores after autoclaving.
3. Research
PLEOMORPHISM AND INVOLUTION FORM
During growth, bacteria of a single strain may show
considerable variation in size and shape. This is
known as pleomorphism and occurs most readily
in certain species. The abnormal cells are generally
regarded as degenerate or involution forms.
Pleomorphism and involution forms are often
due to defective cell wall synthesis. Involution

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Chap-03.indd 19 15-03-2016 11:09:44
 20  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
forms may also develop due to the activity of 3. Write short notes on:
autolytic enzymes. a. Bacterial cell wall
b. Cytoplasmic membrane
c. Plasmids or episomes
L-FORMS OF BACTERIA (CELL-WALL- d. Capsule or bacterial capsule
DEFECTIVE ORGANISMS) e. Bacterial flagellae
f. Bacterial spores or endospores
The first isolation of a naturally occurring L-form g. L-forms of bacteria
took place when Kleineberger-Nobel, studying
Streptobacillus moniliformis in the Lister MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
Institute, London, observed abnormal forms of the
bacteria and named them L-forms after the Lister 1. Which of the following is not a distinguishing
Institute, London (hence, the “L”). character­istic of prokaryotic cells?
These are abnormal growth forms that may a. They usually have a single, circular chromo-
arise spontaneously or by the inhibition of cell wall some
b. They lack membrane-enclosed organelles
synthesis in bacteria of normal morphology (in the
c. They have cell walls containing peptidogycan
presence of penicillin or other agents that interfere
d. They lack a plasma membrane
with cell wall synthesis).
2. Peptidoglycan layer of cell wall is thicker in:
L-forms may be unstable. They lack a rigid cell
a. Gram-positive bacteria
wall. They are capable of growing and multiplying b. Gram-negative bacteria
on a suitable nutrient medium unlike protoplasts. c. Fungi
L-forms are difficult to cultivate. Colonies of d. Parasites
L-phase organisms on agar media are small and 3. All the following statements are true for
have a characteristic ‘fried egg’ appearance, rather lipopolysaccharide except:
like mycoplasma, L-forms are nonpathogenic a. It consists of three components: Lipid A, core
to laboratory animals. L-forms in the host may polysaccharide and O polysaccharide.
produce chronic infections and are relatively b. Lipid A functions as an endotoxin.
resistant to antibiotic treatment. They present c. It is an integral part of the cell wall of the gram-
special problems in chemotherapy and explain positive bacteria.
relapses after treatment. d. Polysaccharide represents a major surface
antigen of the bacterial cell.
Key Points 4. A tuft of flagella present at one or both the ends of
™™ Bacteria are unicellular, and most of them multiply
bacterial cell is known as:
by bi­nary fission. They are prokaryotes. a. Monotrichous
™™ The structure of the prokaryotic cell b. Amphitrichous
The bacterial cell consists of (A) cell envelope c. Lophotrichous
outer layer (B) cell interior (i) cell wall and (ii) d. Peritrichous
plasma membrane—beneath cell wall and cellular 5. Which of the following is not true about fimbriae?
appendages—capsule, fimbriae, and flagella, and a. They originate in the cytoplasmic membrane
cell interior (and include cytoplasm, cytoplasmic b. They are composed of protein
inclusions (mesosomes, ribosomes, inclusion
c. They may be used for attachment
granules, vacuoles) and a single circular chromosome
d. They may be used for motility
of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
™™ Gram-positive cell wall: The gram-positive cell wall 6. Which of the following bacteria is cell-wall
contains a relatively thick layer of peptidoglycan. deficient?
Teichoic acids stick out of the peptidoglycan layer. a. Escherichia coli
™™ Gram-negative cell wall: Gram-negative bacteria have b. Streptococcus aureus
a lipopolysaccharide­lipoprotein-phospholipid outer c. Mycoplasma
membrane surrounding a thin peptidoglycan layer. d. Treponema pallidum
™™ Endospores are a dormant stage produced by
7. All of the following are spore-forming bacteria
members of Bacillus and Clostridium for survival
except:
during adverse environmental conditions.
a. Clostridium botulinum
b. Bacillus anthracis
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS c. Bacillus subtilis
d. Vibrio cholerae
1. Describe briefly the anatomy of a bacterial cell.
2. Draw a labelled diagram of a bacterial cell. Write ANSWERS (MCQs)
briefly on the cell wall of bacteria. Ans: 1. d; 2. a; 3. c; 4. c; 5. d; 6. c; 7. d

Chap-03.indd 20 15-03-2016 11:09:44


Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
∙∙ Explain generation time of bacteria
∙∙ Describe and draw bacterial growth curve
I. Principles of bacterial growth
A. Bacterial Division
Bacteria divide by binary fission where individual
cells enlarge and divide to yield two progeny
of approximately equal size. Nuclear division
precedes cell division. The cell division occurs by a
constrictive or pinching process, or by the ingrowth
of a transverse septum across the cell. The daughter
cells may remain partially attached after division
in some species.
Generation Time or Doubling Time
The interval of time between two cell divisions, or
the time required for a bacterium to give rise to
two daughter cells under optimum conditions, is
known as the generation time or doubling time.
Examples: In coliform bacilli and many other
medically important bacteria, it is about 20
minutes; in tubercle bacilli, it is about 20 hours and
in lepra bacilli, it is about 20 days.
Colonies: Bacteria growing on solid media form
colonies. Each colony represents a clone of cells
derived from a single parent cell.
Bacterial Count
Bacteria in a culture medium or clinical specimen
can be counted by two methods:
1. Total count: This is total number of bacte­ria
present in a specimen irrespective of whether
they are living or dead.
2. Viable count: This measures only viable
(living) cells which are capable of growing and
pro­ducing a colony on a suitable medium.
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4
Chapter
Physiology of Bacteria
∙∙ D
 efine the atmospheric requirement of microaero­
philic bacteria and capnophilic bacteria
∙∙ Explain redox potential.
Determination of Viable Counts:
1. Dilution method: In dilution method, the
suspension is diluted to a point beyond which
unit quantities do not yield growth when
inoculated into suitable liquid media.
2. Plating method: In the plating method,
appropriate dilutions are inoculated on solid
media by:
i. Pour-plate method
ii. Spread plate method—in which serial
dilutions are dropped on the surface of
dried plates and colony counts obtained.
B. Bacterial Growth Curve
If a suitable liquid medium is inoculated with
bacterium and incubated, its growth follows a
definitive course. Small samples are taken at
regular intervals after inoculation and plotted in
relation to time. A plotting of the data will yield a
characteristic growth curve (Fig. 4.1).
Phases of bacterial growth curve: The bacterial
growth curve can be divided into four major
phases: lag phase, exponential or log (logarithmic)
phase, stationary phase and decline phase.
These phases reflect the physiologic state of the
organisms in the culture at that particular time.
1. Lag phase: When microorganisms are introduced
into fresh culture medium, usually no immediate
increase in cell number occurs, and therefore this
period is called the lag phase. After inoculation,
there is an increase in cell size at a time when little
are no cell division is occurring. During this time,
however, the cells are not dormant. This initial
22  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Fig. 4.1: Bacterial growth curve. The viable count shows lag,
log, stationary and decline phases. In the total count, the
phase of decline is not evident
period is the time required for adaptation to the
new environment, during which the necessary
enzymes and metabolic intermediates are built
up in adequate quantities for multiplication to
proceed.
2. Log (logarithmic) or exponential phase:
Following the lag phase, the cells start dividing
and their numbers increase exponentially or by
geometric progression with time. If the logarithm
of the viable count is plotted against time, a straight
line will be obtained.
3. Stationary phase: After a varying period of
exponential growth, cell division stops due to
depletion of nutrients and accumulation of toxic
products. Eventually growth slows down, and the
total bacterial cell number reaches a maximum and
stabilizes. The number of progeny cells formed is
just enough to replace the number of cells that die.
The growth curve becomes horizontal. The viable
count remains stationary as an equilibrium exists
between the dying cells and the newly formed cells.
4. Decline or death phase: The death phase is the
period when the population decreases due to cell
death. Cell death may also be caused by autolysis
besides nutrient deprivation and build-up of toxic
wastes.
Batch Culture or Closed System
In the laboratory, bacteria are typically grown in
broth contained in a tube or flask, or on an agar plate.
These are consid­ered batch or closed systems.
Continuous Culture: To maintain cells in a state of
continuous growth, nutri­ents must be continuously
added and waste products removed. This is called
continuous culture or open system.
Bacterial Nutrition
The minimum nutritional requirements for growth
and multiplication of bacteria are water, a source
of carbon, a source of nitrogen and some inorganic
salts. The water content of bacterial cells can vary
from 75 to 90% of the total weight and is the vehicle
for the entry of all cells and for the elimination of
all waste products. It participates in the metabolic
reactions and also forms an integral part of the
protoplasm.
Categories of Requirements for
Microbial Growth
The requirements for microbial growth can be
divided into two main categories: (A) Chemical
and (B) Physical.
A. Chemical requirements: Chemical require­
ments include sources of carbon, nitro­gen,
sulfur, phosphorus, trace elements, oxygen, and
organic growth factors.
1. Major Elements (Macroelements or
Macronutrients)
These include carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
sul­fur, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium,
calcium, and iron. Carbon is the structural back
bone of living matter; it is needed for all the organic
compounds that make up a living cell.
i. Autotrophs: Organisms that can use inorganic
carbon in the form of carbon dioxide as their
carbon source are called autotrophs (auto
means self ). They are soil are of no medical
importance.
ii. Heterotrophs: Organisms that use organic
carbon are called heterotrophs (hetero—
different; troph—nourishment). They are
unable to utilize carbon dioxide as the sole
source of carbon and use reduced, preformed
organic molecules as carbon sources.
2. Trace Elements
Some elements, termed as trace elements or micro­
nutrients, are required in very minute quantities
by all cells. They include cobalt, zinc, copper,
molybdenum and manganese.
3. Growth Factors
Some bacteria require certain organic compounds
in minute quantities known as growth factors
or bacterial vitamins. Growth factors are called
‘essential’ when growth does not occur in their
absence, or ‘accessory’ when they enhance growth
without being absolutely necessary for it.
B. Physical Factors Influencing Microbial
Growth
1. Temperature:
Optimum temperature: Each bacterial species
has an optimal temperature for growth and

a temperature range above and below which
growth is blocked. The temperature at which
growth occurs best is known as the ‘optimum
temperature’. Bacteria are divided into three
groups on the basis of temperature ranges
through which they grow:
i. Mesophilic: Bacteria which grow between
10°C and 45°C, with optimal growth
between 20 and 40°C.
Examples: All parasites of warm-blooded
animals are mesophilic.
ii. Psychrophlic: Psychrophilic bacteria
(cold-loving) are organisms that grow
between 5 and 30°C, optimum at 10 to
20°C.
They are soil and water saprophytes.
iii. Thermophilic: Thermophiles (heat-loving)
have growth range of 25–80°C, optimum at
50–60°C.
Examples: Some thermophiles (like Bacillus
stearother­m ophiles) form spores that are
exceptionally thermotolerant.
2. Oxygen: Based on their O 2 requirements,
prokaryotes can be separated into aerobes and
anaerobes.
A. Aerobic bacteria: Require oxygen for
growth and may be:
i. Obligate aerobes: These have an
absolute or obligate requirement for
oxygen (O2), like the cholera vibrio.
ii. Facultative anaerobes: These are
ordinarily aerobic but can also grow
in the absence of oxygen, though less
abundantly. Most bacteria of medical
importance are facultative anaerobes.
iii. Microaerophilic organisms: These
grow best at low oxygen tension (~5%),
e.g. Campylobacter spp.
B. Anaerobic bacteria: Grow in absence of
oxygen.
Obligate anaerobes: These may even die on
exposure to oxygen, e.g. Clostridium tetani.
3. Carbon dioxide: All bacteria require small
amount of carbon dioxide for growth. Some
organisms such as Brucella abortus require
much higher levels of carbon dioxide (5–10%)
for growth, especially on fresh isolation
(capno­philic bacteria), e.g. pneumococci and
gonococci.
4. Moisture and drying: Moisture is very essential
for the growth of the bacteria. However, the
effect of drying varies in different species.
5. pH: Most pathogenic bacteria grow best at a
neutral or slightly alkaline pH (7.2–7.6). Some
acidophilic bacteria such as lactobacilli grow
under acidic conditions while cholera vibrio
grow at high degrees of alkalinity (well above
pH 8).
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Chapter 4: Physiology of Bacteria  | 23
6. Light: Darkness provides a favorable condition
for growth and viability of bacteria. Bacteria
are sensitive to ultraviolet light and other
radiations.
7. Osmotic effect: Tolerance to osmotic variation—
bacteria are more tolerant to osmotic variation.
8. Mechanical and sonic stresses: In spite of
tough walls of bacteria, they may be ruptured by
mechanical stress such as grinding or vigorous
shaking with glass beads.
BACTERIAL METABOLISM
Metabolism of the substance is defined as the series
of changes of substance (carbohydrate, protein
or fat) within the bacterial cell from absorption
to elimination. Metabolism may be aerobic or
anerobic and can be divided into two classes of
chemical reactions: those that release energy and
those that require energy.
Energy Production
There are three critical processes of bacterial
energy production; aerobic respiration, anerobic
respiration and fermentation. There are two
general aspects of energy production: the concept
of oxidation-reduction and the mechanisms of
ATP generation.
Generation of ATP
Much of the energy released during oxidation-
reduction reactions is trapped within the cell by
the formation of ATP.
The addition of P (phosphate group) to a
chemical compound is called phosphorylation.
Mechanisms of phosphorylation: There are
two general mechanisms for ATP production in
bacterial cells.
i. Substrate-level phosphor ylation: In
substrate-level phosphorylation, high-
energy phosphate bonds produced by the
central pathways are donated to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) to form ATP. The specific
fermentative pathways used, and, hence,
end-products produced, vary with dif­ferent
bacterial species. Fermentation is carried out
by both obligate and facultative anaerobes.
ii. Oxidative phosphorylation: In oxidative
phosphorylation, an electron transport
system is involved that conducts a series
of electron trans­fers from reduced carrier
molecules. The process is known as aerobic
respiration when oxidative phosphorylation
uses oxygen as the terminal electron ac­ceptor.
Anaerobic respiration refers to processes
that use final electron acceptors other than
oxygen.
24  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Oxidation–Reduction (O–R) Potential 2. What are the heterotrophic bacteria? Discuss the
nutritional and physical requirements for the
(Redox Potential) growth of the bacteria.
Oxidation is the removal of electrons, and reduction 3. Write short notes on:
is the addition of electrons. In other words, each a. Bacterial growth curve/growth phases of bacteria.
time one substance is oxidized, another one is b. Redox potential.
simultaneously reduced. The pairing of these
reactions is called oxidation-reduction or a redox Muliple choice questions (MCQs)
reaction.
The ability of a substance to take up or part 1. Generation time for Mycobacterium tuberculosis
is:
with electrons is known as oxidation-reduction
a. 20 seconds
or redox or Eh-potential.
b. 20 minutes
Toxic derivatives of oxygen: Aerotolerant c. 20 hours
microorganisms may lack catalase but almost have d. 20 days
superoxide dismutase. All strict anerobes lack both 2. Bacteria which can grow at temperature between
enzymes or have them in very low concentrations 20°C and 40°C are known as:
and, therefore, cannot tolerate O2. It is suggested a. Mesophiles
that in the presence of oxygen, hydrogen peroxide b. Psychrophiles
accumulates in the media and inhibits the growth c. Thermophiles
d. None of the above
of anerobes. Another reason might be that anerobes
3. The bacteria which require much higher level of
possess essential enzymes that are active only in the
carbon dioxide for their growth are known as:
reduced state. The enzyme catalase, which splits
a. Microaerophilic bacteria
hydrogen peroxide, is present in aerobic bacteria, b. Capnophilic bacteria
but is absent in the anerobes. c. Aerobic bacteria
Key Points d. Phototrophs
4. Which of the following acidophilic bacteria can
™™ Bacterial growth curve: The bacterial growth curve grow in acidic conditions?
can be divided into four major phases: lag phase,
a. Escherichia coli
exponential or log (logarithmic) phase, stationary
phase, and decline phase. b. Lactobacilli
™™ The requirements for microbial growth: Chemical and c. Pseudomonas aeruginosa
physical. d. Vibrio cholerae
™™ Chemical requirements: All organisms require a 5. The enzyme catalase is present in:
carbon source, nitrogen, and other chemicals a. Aerobic bacteria
required for microbial growth. b. Obligate anerobic bacteria
c. Aerobic and obligate anerobic bacteria
Important Questions d. None of the above
1. Draw a typical bacterial growth curve and describe Answers (MCQs)
it. 1. c; 2. a; 3. b; 4. b; 5. a

Sterilization and Disinfection
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
∙∙ Define the following terms—sterilization, dis­
infection and antisepsis
∙∙ Describe various agents used in sterilization
∙∙ Describe sterilization by moist heat
∙∙ Describe the different heat methods and their
respective applications
∙∙ Describe the following—pasteurization, tyndaliz­
ation or intermittent sterilization or fractional
sterilization, inspissation or serum inspissator, hot
air oven
∙∙ Explain the principle and functioning of autoclave
Definitions of frequently used
terms
Sterilization: Sterilization is defined as the process
by which an article, surface or medium is freed of
all living microorganisms either in the vegetative
or spore state.
Disinfection: Disinfection is the killing, inhibition,
or removal of microorganisms that may cause the
disease.
Antiseptics: Antiseptics are chemical agents
applied to the tissue to prevent infection by killing
or inhibiting pathogen growth; they also reduce the
total microbial population.
Applications of Sterilization and
Disinfection
1. Aseptic techniques: Used in microbiological
research, the preservation of food and the
prevention of the disease.
2. Sterile apparatus and culture media :
Laboratory work with pure cultures requires
the use of sterile apparatus and culture media.
3. The need to avoid infecting the patient.
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5
Chapter
∙∙ Describe filtration—uses and types
∙∙ Discuss types of radiations and their uses
∙∙ Give the mechanism of action for each type of
chemical agent commonly used in antiseptics and
disinfectants
∙∙ Describe the following—aldehydes as disinfectants,
uses of formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde as
disinfectants
∙∙ Explain vapor-phase disinfectants or gaseous
sterilization and discuss the role of ethylene oxide
in sterilization of disposable items
∙∙ Describe various tests used for testing of
disinfectants.
METHODS OF STERILIZATION AND
DISINFECTION (TABLE 5.1)
A. Physical agents
B. Chemical agents
A. Physical Agents
1. Sunlight
Sunlight has an appreciable bactericidal activity. Its
disinfectant action is primarily due to its content
of ultraviolet rays.
2. Drying
Drying in air has a deleterious effect on many
bacteria.
3. Heat
Heat is the most reliable and universally applicable
method of sterilization and, wherever possible,
should be methods of choice. Either dry or
moist heat may be applied. Materials that may
be damaged by heat can be sterilized at lower
temperature, for longer periods or by repeated
cycles.
26  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Table 5.1  Methods of sterilization and disinfection
A. Physical agents
1. Sunlight
2. Drying
3. Heat
a. Dry heat
b. Moist heat
4. Filtration
5. Radiation
6. Ultrasonic and sonic vibrations
B. Chemical agents
a. Agents that damage the cell membranes
1. Surface-active disinfectants
2. Phenolic compounds
3. Alcohols
b. Agents that damage proteins
  1. Acids and alkalies
  2. Alcohols
c. A
 gents that modify functional groups of proteins and
nucleic acids
1. Heavy metals
2. Oxidizing agents
3. Dyes Fig. 5.1: Hot air oven
4. Alkylating agents

Mechanism of Action heating (Fig. 5.1). It should be fitted with a fan

Dry heat : The lethal effect of dry heat, or to provide forced air circulation throughout
desssication in general, is usually due to protein the oven chamber, a temperature indicator,
denaturation, oxidative damage, and toxic a control thermostat and timer, open mesh
effects of elevated levels of electrolytes. shelving and adequate wall insulation.

Moist heat: It kills microorganisms by coagulation Preparation of Load

and denaturation of their enzymes and structural
proteins.
a. Dry Heat Sterilization (Table 5.1)
i. Red heat: Inoculating wires, loops and points
of forceps are sterilized by holding them
almost vertically in a Bunsen flame until red
hot.
ii. Flaming: Scalpel blades, glass slides, mouth
of culture tubes and bottles are exposed to a
flame for a few seconds without heating them
to become red hot.
iii. Incineration: This is an efficient method for
the sterilization and disposal of contaminated
materials at a high temperature. Such as
pathological waste materials, surgical
dressings, contaminated material, animal
carcasses and other clinical waste.
iv. Hot air oven: Hot air oven is the most widely
used method of sterilization by dry heat.
It is used to process materials which can
withstand high temperatures for length of
time needed for sterilization by dry heat, but
which are likely to be affected by contact with
steam. Hot air oven is electrically heated, with
1. No overloading
2. Articles: There should be thoroughly clean and
dry.
3. Glassware: These should be perfectly dry
before being placed in the oven.
4. Test tubes and flasks: These should be
wrapped in paper.
5. Rubber materials, except silicon rubber, will
not withstand the sterilizing temperature.
6. Cotton plugs: These may get charred at 180°C.
7. Heat-sensitive materials: Dry heat sterilization
is slow and not suitable for heat-sensitive
materials like many plastic and rubber items.
Sterilizing Cycle
i. The sterilization hold time: It is set to 160°C
for 2 hours or 170°C for 1 hour, or 180°C for
30 minutes.
ii. Cutting instruments such as those used
in ophthalmic surgery should ideally be
sterilized at 150°C for two hours.
iii. Oils, glycerol and dusting powder: The
British Pharmacopoeia recommends a
holding time of one hour at 150°C for oils,
glycerol and dusting powder.

Cooling: Cooling may take up to several hours and
do not attempt to open the chamber door until
the chamber and load have cooled below 80°C.
Glassware is liable to crack if cold air is admitted
suddenly while it is still very hot.
Uses of Hot Air Oven
It is a method of choice for sterilization of:
1. Glassware such as tubes, flasks, measuring
cylinders, all-glass syringes, glass Petri dishes
and glass pipettes.
2. Metallic instruments such as forceps, scissors
and scalpels.
3. Nonaqueous materials and powders, oils and
greases in sealed containers and swab sticks
packed in test tubes.
B. At temperature of 100°C
Sterilization Controls
A. Biological control: An envelope containing a
filter paper strip impregnated with 106 spores
of Bacillus subtilis subsp niger is inserted into
suitable packs. No growth of Bacillus subtilis
subsp niger indicates proper sterilization.
B. Chemical indicator: A chemical indicator such
as Browne’s tubes No. 3 containing red solution
is inserted in each load and a color change from
red to green is observed, which indicates proper
sterilization.
C. Thermocouples: These may also be used
periodically.
D. Microwave ovens: No reliable sterilization
process using microwaves is presently available.
b. Moist Heat Sterilization (Table 5.1)
Moist heat is divided into three forms:
A. At temperature below 100°C
B. At a temperature of 100°C
C. At temperature above 100°C
A. At temperature below 100°C: It includes:
1. Pasteurization of milk: Disinfection by
moist heat at temperature below 100°C
is termed pasteurization. Milk can be
pasteurized in two ways. The temperature
is employed either 63°C for 30 minutes
(holder method) or 72°C for 15–20
seconds (flash method) followed by rapid
cooling to 13°C or lower.
All nonspor ing pathogens such as
mycobacteria, brucellae and salmonellae
are destroyed by these processes. Coxiella
burnetii is relatively heat resistant and may
survive the holder method.
2. Vaccine preparatior: Vaccines prepared
from nonsporing bacteria may be inactivated
in a water bath at 60°C for one hour.
3. Inspissation: Media such as Lowenstein-
Jensen and Loeffler’s serum are rendered
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Chapter 5: Sterilization and Disinfection  | 27
sterile by heating at 80-85°C for half-an-
hour on three successive days (fractional
sterilization). This process is called
inspissation and instrument used is called
inspissator.
4. Water bath: Washing or rinsing laundry
or utensils in water bath at 70-80°C for few
minutes will kill most nonsporing micro-
organisms present.
5. Low temperature steam formaldehyde
(LTSF) sterilization: In this method,
steam at subatmospheric pressure at the
temperature of 75°C with formaldehyde
vapor is used. The efficacy of LTSF
sterilizers is tested by using Bacillus
stearothermophilus as biological control.
1. Boiling: Boiling at 100°C for 10–30 minutes
kills all vegetative spores and some bacterial
spores.
2. Steam at atmospheric pressure at 100°C
for 90 minutes
This can be provided by the traditional
Koch and Arnold steamer (or by the
multipurpose autoclave).
Koch and Arnold steamer: Koch and
Arnold steamer consists of upright metal
tank with a removable lid incorporating
a chimney. Water is added on the bottom
and there is a perforated shelf above water
level. Articles to be sterilized are placed on
the perforated shelf. Water in the bottom
of the tank is heated by gas or electricity
(Fig. 5.2). They are exposed to steam at
atmospheric pressure for 90 minutes. One
single exposure to steam for 90 minutes
ensures complete sterilization.
3. Tyndallization: An exposure of steam at
100°C for 20 minutes on three successive
Fig. 5.2: Steamer
28  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
days is called tyndallization or intermittent
sterilization. This is a fractional method of
sterilization. The instrument commonly
used is Koch and Arnold steamer.
Principle: Vegetative cells and some spores
are killed during the first heating and that
the more resistant spores subsequently
germinate and are killed during either
the second or the third heating. Though
generally adequate, this method may
fail with spores of certain anerobes and
thermophiles.
Uses: This method is useful in sterilizing
heat-sensitive culture media containing
such materials as carbohydrates, egg or
serum, which are damaged by higher
temperature of autoclave.
C. At temperature above 100°C
Steam under pressure: Steam above 100°C or
saturated steam is a more efficient sterilizing
agent than hot air.
Autoclave
Autoclaving is the process of sterilization by
saturated steam under high pressure above 100°C.
Steam sterilization is carried out in a pressure
chamber called an autoclave (a device somewhat
like a fancy pressure cooker).
Various components of autoclave: In its simplest
form, the laboratory autoclave consists of a vertical
or horizontal cylinder of gunmetal or stainless
steel, in a supporting sheet iron case. The lid or
door is fastened by screw clamps and made airtight
by a suitable washer. The autoclave has on its lid
or upper side a discharge tap for air and steam, a
pressure gauge and a safety valve that can be set to
blow off at any desired pressure. Heating is done by
gas or electricity (Fig. 5.3). The domestic pressure
cooker serves as a miniature autoclave and may
be used for sterilizing small articles in clinics and
similar establishments.
Fig. 5.3: A simple autoclave
Principle of Autoclave
The principle of the autoclave or steam sterilizer is
that water boils when its vapor pressure equals that
of the surrounding atmosphere. When pressure
inside a closed vessel increases, the temperature at
which water boils also increases. Saturated steam
has penetrative power and is a better sterilizing
agent than dry heat.
Steam condenses to water and gives up its latent
heat to that surface when it comes into contact with a
cooler surface. The energy available from this latent
heat is considerable, e.g. 1600 mL steam at 100°C
and at atmospheric pressure condenses into 1 mL of
water at 100°C and releases 518 calories of heat. The
large reduction in volume sucks in more steam to the
area and the process continues till the temperature of
that surface is raised to that of the steam. The water
of condensation ensures moist conditions for killing
of the exposed microorganisms.
Procedure
1. Water: Sufficient water is put in the cylinder.
Above this is a perforated shelf on which
articles to be sterilized are placed, and the
autoclave is heated.
2. Lid: The lid is screwed tight with the discharge
tap open and the safety valve is adjusted to the
required pressure.
3. Air removal: The steam-air mixture is allowed
to escape freely till all the air has been displaced.
To know when all the air inside the autoclave
has escaped the discharge tap is connected with
one end of a rubber tube and the other end of
it is placed in water. When the air bubbles stop
coming, it indicates that all the air from inside
the autoclave has been removed.
4. The discharge tap is now closed.
5. Holding period: The steam pressure rises
inside and when it reaches the desired set level
(15 psi), the safety valve opens and the excess
steam escapes. From this point, the holding
period (15 minutes) is calculated.
6. Autoclave cooling: When the holding period
is over, the heater is turned off and the
autoclave allowed to cool till the pressure gauge
indicates that the pressure inside is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
7. Air entry in the autoclave: The discharge tap
is opened slowly and air is allowed to enter the
autoclave.
8. Removal of articles: The lid is now opened and
the sterilized arti­cles removed.
Precautions
i. Air escape from the chamber : Since
temperature of air-steam mixture is lower than
that of pure steam, the air must be allowed to
escape from the chamber.

ii. Arrangement of the materials: This should
be done in such a manner which ensures free
circulation of steam inside the chamber.
Uses
i. For sterilizing culture media and other
laboratory supplies, aqueous solutions,
rubber material, dressing materials, gowns,
dressing, linen, gloves, instruments and
pharmaceutical products.
ii. For all materials that are water-containing,
permeable or wettable and not liable to be
damaged by the process.
iii. Particularly useful for materials which cannot
withstand the higher temperature of hot air
oven.
Sterilization Controls
A. Biological control (Bacterial spores):
An envelope contain­ing a filter paper strip
impregnated with 10 6 spores of Bacillus
stearothermophilus is placed with the
load sterilization is over, the strip is removed
and inoculated into. No growth of B. stea­
rothermophilus indicates proper sterilization.
Spores of this organism withstand 121°C for up
to 12 minutes and this has made the organism
ideal for testing autoclaves.
B. Chemical control: A Browne’s tube contai­ning
red solution changes to green when exposed
to temperature of 121°C for 15 minutes in
autoclave. It indicates proper sterilization.
C. Autoclave tapes
D. Thermocouples: These may also be used which
record the temperature by a potentiometer.
4. Filtration
Filtration is the principal method used in the
laboratory for the sterilization of heat labile
materials, e.g. sera, solutions of sugars or antibiotics
used for the preparation of culture media.
Uses
1. Heat-sensitive solutions: For sterilization of
pharmaceuticals, ophthalmic solutions, culture
media, oils, antibiotics and other heat-sensitive
solutions.
2. For separation of bacteriophages and
bacterial toxins from bacteria.
3. Isolation of organisms which are scanty in
fluids.
4. Concentration of bacteria from liquids, e.g.
in testing water samples for cholera vibrios or
typhoid bacilli.
5. For virus isolation.
Types of Filters
i. Earthware filters: These are manufactured in
several different grades of porosity and have
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Chapter 5: Sterilization and Disinfection  | 29
been used widely for purification of water for
industrial and drinking purposes. They are of
two types:
a. Unglazed ceramic filters, e.g. Chamberland,
and Doulton filters.
b. Compressed diatomaceous earth filters,
e.g. the Berkefeld and Mandler filters.
ii. Asbestos filters (Seitz filter): They are made
up of a disc of asbestos (magnesium trisilicate).
It is supported on a perforated metal disc
within a metal funnel. It is then fitted on to a
sterile flask through a silicone rubber bung.
Sterilized fluid is collected from the flask and
filter disc is discarded after use. These discs are
available with different grades of porosity.
Examples: Seitz filter, Carlson and Sterimat
filters.
iii. Sintered glass filters: They are prepared
by size grading powdered glass followed by
heating.
iv. Membrane filters: Membrane filters consist
of a variety of polymeric materials such
as cellulose nitrate, cellulose diacetate,
polycarbonate and polyester. They are
manufactured as discs from 13 to 293 mm
diameter and with porosities from 0.015 to
12 mm. They come in a wide range of average
pore diameters (APD), the 0.22 mm size being
most widely used for sterilization because the
pore size is smaller than that of bacteria.
Uses
1. They are used routinely in water analysis
and purification.
2. Sterilization and sterility testing.
3. For preparing sterile solutions for
parenteral use.
4. Bacterial counts of water:
v. Syringe filters: Membrane of different
diameters are commonly fitted in syringe-like
holders of stainless steel or polycarbonate.
For sterilization, the fluid is forced through
the disc (membrane) by pressing the piston
of the syringe.
vi. Vacuum and ‘in-line’ filters: They are
suitable for the sterilization or disinfection of
large volumes of liquid or air.
vii. Pressure filtration: It may be used for the pro­
duction of very pure water for laboratory use.
viii. Air filters: They are widely used in air
filtration.
5. Radiation
Two types of radiations are used:
I. Non-ionizing radiations : Infrared and
ultraviolet rays are of non-ionizing type.
The effectiveness of UV light as a lethal and
30  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
mutagenic agent is closely correlated with its
wavelength. The most effective bactericidal
wavelength is in the 240–280 nm range, with the
optimum being about 260 nm, the wavelength
most effectively absorbed by DNA and this
interfers with DNA replication.
Microbial sensitivity to UV radiation
i. Bacterial spores are generally more resistant
to UV light than are vegetative cells.
ii. Viruses are also inactivated.
iii. To disinfect drinking water.
iv. Disinfection of enclosed areas such
as entryways, hospital wards, operating
theatres, laboratories and in ventilated
safety cabinets in which dangerous
microorganisms are being handled.
II. Ionizing radiations: These include X-rays, g
(gamma) rays and cosmic rays. These have very
high penetrative power and are highly lethal to
all cells including bacteria. Ionizing radiations
damage the DNA by various mechanisms.
Applications
i. For sterilization in pharmacy and medicine.
ii. Sterilization of packaged disposable
articles such as plastic syringes, intravenous
lines, catheters and gloves that are unable to
withstand heat. Since there is no appreciable
increase in temperature in this method, it is
known as cold sterilization.
iii. Use for antibiotics, hormones, sutures, and
vaccines and to prevent food spoilage.
B. Chemical Agents
Germicidal chemicals can be used to disinfect and,
in some cases, sterilize.
Characteristics of a Disinfectant
An ideal antiseptic or disinfectant should:
∙∙ Have a wide spectrum of activity and must be
effective against a wide variety of infectious
agents (Gram-positive and gram-negative
bacteria, acid-fast ; bacteria, bacterial
endospores, fungi, and viruses)
∙∙ Be active at high dilutions and in the presence
of organic matter;
∙∙ Be effective in acid as well as alkaline media;
∙∙ Have speedy action;
∙∙ Have high penetrating power;
∙∙ Be stable;
∙∙ Be compatible with other antiseptics and
disinfectants;
∙∙ Not corrode metals;
∙∙ Not cause local irritation or sensitization;
∙∙ Not interfere with healing;
∙∙ Not be toxic if absorbed into circulation;
∙∙ Be cheap and easily available;
∙∙ Be safe and easy to use.
Such an ideal chemical is yet to be found.
Factors that determine the potency of dis­
infectants
1. The concentration and stability of the agent
2. Nature of the organism
3. Time of action
4. pH
5. Temperature
6. The presence of organic (especially protein) or
other interfering substances
7. Nature of the item to be disinfected.
Categories of Disinfectants
Disinfection processes have been categorized as
high level, intermediate level and low level.
1. High-level disinfection: High-level disinfections
can generally approach sterilization in
effectiveness, whereas spore forms can survive
intermediate-level disinfection, and many
mi­crobes can remain viable when exposed to
low-level disinfection.
High-level disinfectants are used for items
in­volved with invasive procedures that cannot
withstand sterilization procedures (e.g. certain
types of endo­scopes, surgical instruments with
plastic or other components that cannot be
autoclaved).
Examples:
i. Treatment with moist heat.
ii. Use of liquids such as glutaraldehyde,
hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, chlorine
dioxide, and other chlorine compounds.
2. Intermediate-level disinfectants: Intermediate-
level disinfectants are used to clean surfaces
or instruments in which contamination with
bacterial spores and other highly resilient
orga­nisms is unlikely. These include flexible
fi­beroptic endoscopes, laryngoscopes, vaginal
specula, anesthesia breathing circuits, and other
items. These have been referred to as semi­
critical instruments and devices.
Examples: Alcohols, io­d ophor compounds,
phenolic compounds.
3. Low-level disinfectants: Low-level disinfectants
are used to treat noncritical instruments
and devices such as blood pressure cuffs,
electrocardiogram electrodes and stethoscopes.
They do not penetrate through mucosal surfaces
or into sterile tissues, although these items come
into contact with patients.
Examples: Quaternary ammonium com­pounds.
Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Action
The main modes of action are follows:
A. Agents that damage the cell membrane
1. Surface active disinfectants
2. Phenolic compounds
3. Alcohols

B. Agents that denature proteins
1. Acids and alkalies
2. Alcohols
C. Agents that modify functional groups of
proteins and nucleic acids:
1. Heavy metals and their compounds
2. Oxidizing agents—Halogens
– Hydrogen peroxide
3. Dyes—Aniline dyes
– Acridine dyes
4. Alkylating agents—Aldehydes-formal­
dehyde, glutaraldehyde
– Ethylene oxide
A. Agents that Damage the Cell Membrane
1. Surface-active agents
Substances that alter the energy relationships
at interfaces, producing a reduction of surface
or interfacial tension, are referred to as surface-
active agents or surfactants. They possess both
hydrophobic (water-repelling) and hydrophilic
(water-attracting) groups.
Classification: These surfactants are classified
into anionic, cationic, nonionic and ampholytic
(amphoteric). Of these, the cationic and anionic
compounds have been the most useful antibacterial
agents.
a. Cationic agents: These act on phosphate
groups of cell membrane phospholipids
and also enter the cell. This leads to loss of
membrane semi­permeability and leakage from
the cell of nitrogen and phosphorus-containing
compounds. The agent which enters the cell
denatures its proteins. Quaternary ammonium
compounds (quats) are the most important
cationic compounds. Examples of quaternary
ammonium compounds include cetrimide
(cetavalon), benzal­konium chloride (Zephiran,
a brand name) and cetylpyrimidium chloride
(Cepacol, a brand name). Antimicrobial activity
is affected greatly by organic matter and by pH,
most active at alkaline pH and acid inactivates
them. They are inactivated by hard water and
soap.
Uses
i. They are primarily active against gram-
positive, non-sporing bacteria; lethal
to gram-negative organisms at high
concentrations.
ii. They are also fungistatic and active against
viruses with lipid enve­lopes (e.g. herpes
and influenza) and much less against
nonenveloped viruses (e.g. enteroviruses).
b. Anionic agents: These include soap and fatty
acids. Anionic surfactants such as common
soaps usu­ally have strong detergent but weak
antimicrobial properties. These agents are most
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Chapter 5: Sterilization and Disinfection  | 31
active at acid pH and are active against gram-
positive organisms but are relatively ineffective
against gram-negative species.
c. Ampholytic (amphoteric) compounds:
Known as ‘Tego’ compounds, these possess
detergent properties of anionic and antimi­
crobial activity of cationic compounds. They
are active over a wide range of pH but organic
matter markedly reduces their activity.
Uses: They are effective against a wide range
of gram-positive and gram-negative organisms
and some viruses at a concentration of 1% in
water.
2. Phenols and phenolics
Phenol: Phenols are obtained by distillation of coal
tar between temperatures of 170°C and 270°C. It
is now rarely used as an antiseptic or disinfectant
be­cause it irritates the skin and has a disagreeable
odor. Phenol is bactericidal at a concentration of
1%.
Phenolics: Derivatives of phenol are called
phenolics.
Phenol derivatives: Certain phenol derivatives
like cresol, chlorhexidine, chloroxylenol
and hexachlorophane are commonly used as
antiseptics.
i. Cresols: Cresols, obtained industrially by the
distillation of coal tar, are emulsified with green
soap and sold under the trade names of Lysol
and Creolin. ‘White fluids’ such as Lysol are
effective but are irritant to the skin. They are
active against a wide range of organisms. They
are most commonly used for sterilization of
infected glasswares, cleaning floors, disinfection
of excreta. They are not readily inactivated by
the presence of organic matter.
ii. Chlorhexidine: Chlorhexidine is a member
of the biguanide group with a broad spectrum
of activity. They are more active against
gram-positive than gram-negative bacteria.
They are biocidal against most vegeta­tive
bacteria and fungi; mycobacteria are relatively
resistant; endospores and protozoan cysts
are not affected. The only viruses affected are
certain enveloped (lipo­philic) types.
Uses: Savlon (chlorhexi­dine and cetrimide)
is widely used in wounds, preoperative
disinfection of skin, as bladder irrigant, etc.
However, contact with the eyes can cause
damage.
iii. Chloroxylenol: It is an active ingredient of
dettol. It is less toxic and less irritant.
iv. H e x a c h l o r o p h a n e : G r a m - p o s i t i v e
staphylococci and streptococci, which
can cause skin infections in newborns, are
particularly susceptible to hexachlorophane.
So it is used notably for prophylaxis against
32  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
staphylococcal infection in nurseries. However,
it can cause neurotoxicity (brain damage),
especially in infants, and its use is now severely
restricted.
B. Agents that Denature Proteins
Acids and alkalies: Many aliphatic and aromatic
acids are employed as preservatives, especially
in the food industry, and, to some extent, in
pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. They are
not sporicidal.
Alcohols
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and isopropyl alcohol
are the most frequently used. They rapidly kill
bacteria including tubercle bacilli but they have
no action on spores and viruses. However, human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is susceptible to
ethyl alcohol (70%) and isopropyl alcohol (35%) in
the absence of organic matter. They must be used at
a concentration of 60 to 70% in water to be effective.
They are most frequently used as skin disinfectants
and act by denaturing bacterial proteins.
Isopropyl alcohol is preferred.
Methyl alcohol is effective against fungal
spores and is used for treating cabinets and
incubators affected by them. Methyl alcohol
vapour is toxic and inflammable.
C. Agents that Modify Functional Groups of
Proteins and Nucleic Acids
1. Heavy metals: For many years the ions of heavy
metals such as mercury, silver, arsenic, zinc
and copper were used as germicides.
i. Mercuric chloride: It is very toxic and at
present has limited use
ii. Silver nitrate: The most commonly
employed of the silver salts.
Use
1. Highly bactericidal for the gonococcus.
2. Routinely used for the prophylaxis of
the ophthalmic neonatorum in newborn
infants in a 1% solution.
3. To prevent infection of burns.
iii. Copper derivatives are used as algicides,
fungicides, wood, paint, cellulose and
fabric preservation.
2. Oxidizing Agents
The most useful antimicrobial agents in this group
are the halogens and hydrogen peroxide. They
inactivate enzymes by converting functional-SH
groups to the oxidized S-S form.
i. Halogens: Chlorine and iodine are among
our most useful disinfectants. They are
bactericidal and sporici­dal. They are active
in very high dilutions and their action is very
rapid.
a. Iodine: Iodine compounds are the
most effective halogens available for
disinfection. It is actively bactericidal, with
moderate action against spores. It is active
against the tubercle bacteria and viruses.
Uses
i. Skin disinfectant: Iodine in aqueous and
alcoholic solution has been used widely
as a skin disinfectant. Iodine often has
been applied as tincture of iodine, 2% or
more iodine in a water-ethanol solution of
potassium iodide.
ii. Iodophors: Mixtures of iodine with various
surface-active agents that act as carriers
for iodine are known as iodophors (iodo,
‘iodine’; phor ‘carrier’). Povidine-iodine
(Betadine) for wounds and Wescodyne for
skin and laboratory disinfection are some
popular brands.
b. Chlorine: In addition to chlorine itself, there
are three types of chlorine compounds—
hypochlorites and inorganic and organic
chloramines. The disinfectant action
of all chlorine compounds is due to
the liberation of free chlorine. When
elemental chlorine or hypochlorites are
added to water, the chlorine reacts with
water to form hypochlorous acid (HOCL),
which in neutral or acidic solution is a
strong oxidizing agent and an effective
disinfectant.
The activity of chlorine is markedly
influenced by the presence of organic
matter.
Uses: The usual disinfectant for water
supplies, swimming pools, dairy product
and food industries.
c. Hypochlorites: The hypochlorites have
a bactericidal, fungicidal, virucidal and
rapidly sporicidal action.
i. Bleaching powder or hypochlorite
solution is most widely used for human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected
material. Hypochlorite solution decays
rapidly and should be prepared daily.
Chloramines are used as antiseptics for
dressing wounds.
ii. Hydrogen peroxide: It is used to
disinfect plastic implants, contact lenses
and surgical prostheses.
3. Dyes
Aniline dyes and acridine dyes are two groups of
dyes which are used extensively as skin and wound
antiseptic. Both are bacteriostatic in high dilution
but are of low bactericidal activity.
i. Aniline dyes: Of the aniline dyes, derivatives
of triphenylmethane, especially brilliant

green, malachite green and crystal violet
have many uses.
They are highly selective for gram-positive
than against gram-negative organisms and
have been used in the laboratory in the
formulation of selective culture media. They
have no activity against tubercle bacilli, and,
hence, the use of malachite green in the
Lowenstein-Jenson medium.
ii. Acridine dyes: They are more active against
gram-positive organisms than against gram-
negative but are not as selective as the aniline
dyes. The more important dyes are proflavine,
acriflavine, euflavine and aninacrine. They
show no significant differences in potency.
4. Alkylating Agents
i. Formaldehyde: Formaldehyde is lethal to
bacteria and their spores, viruses and fungi.
It is employed in the liquid and vapor states.
Formaldehyde is commercially available in
aqueous solutions containing 37% formaldehyde
(formalin) or as paraformaldehyde, a solid
polymer that contains 91% to 99 % formaldehyde.
Uses
a. Formalin
i. Used for preserving fresh tissues for
histological examination and is the
major component of embalming fluids.
ii. Used extensively to inactivate viruses in
the preparation of vaccines.
b. Formaldehyde
i. Used for preser ving anatomical
specimens.
ii. Used for destroying anthrax spores in
hair.
iii. Used as an antiseptic mouthwash.
iv. Used for the disinfection of membranes
in dialysis equipment.
v. Used as a preservative in hair shampoos.
ii. Glutaraldehyde: This has an action similar
to formaldehyde. It has a broad-spectrum
action against vegetative bacteria including
mycobacteria, fungi and viruses, but acts more
slowly against spores. It is more active and
less toxic than formaldehyde. It is used as 2%
buffered solution. It can be used for delicate
instruments having lenses. It is available
commercially as ‘cidex’.
Uses
i. Cold sterilant: It has been used increasingly
as a cold sterilant for surgical instruments
and endoscopes such as cystoscopes,
endoscopes and bronchosope.
ii. Used safely to sterilize corrugated rubber
anesthetic tubes and face-masks, plastic
endotracheal tubes, metal instruments and
polythene tubing.
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Chapter 5: Sterilization and Disinfection  | 33
Vapor-phase disinfectants
1. Ethylene oxide: This is a colorless liquid
with a boiling point of l0.7°C and is a highly
penetrating gas with a sweet ethereal smell. It
is highly inflammable and in concentrations
in air greater than 3%, highly explosive. It is
unsuitable for fumigating rooms because of its
explosive property.
It is highly lethal to all kinds of microbes
including spores and tubercle bacilli.
Uses
a. Sterilization of articles liable to be
damaged by heat: It is specially used for
sterilizing heart-lung machines, respirators,
sutures, dental equipment, books and
clothing.
b. Sterilization of a wide range of materials
such as glass, metal and paper surfaces,
clothing, plastics, soil, some foods and
tobacco.
Disadvantages of ethylene oxide
i. It is irritant, and personnel working with it
have to take strict precautions.
ii. Its use as a disinfectant presents a potential
toxicity to human beings, including
mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. Baci­
llus globigi, a red-pigmented variant of
B. subtilis, has been used to test ethylene
oxide sterilizers.
2. Formaldehyde gas: It is used for fumigation of
complex heat-sensitive equipment, including
anaesthetic machine and baby incubators and
for periodic decontamination of laboratory safety
cabinets.
Fumigation of operation theaters and other
rooms: This is also widely employed for
fumigation of operation theaters and other
rooms (such as isolation rooms). After sealing
the windows and other outlets, formaldehyde
gas is generated by adding KMnO4 to formalin.
The reaction produces considerable heat, and
so heat-resistant vessels should be used. After
starting generation of formaldehyde vapour, the
doors should be sealed and left unopened for
48 hours.
Formaldehyde has an extremely unpleasant
odor and is irritant to mucus membranes.
3. B e ta p r o p i o l a c t o n e ( B P L ) : T h i s i s a
condensation product of ketane and formal­
dehyde with a boiling point of 163°C. It also
destroys microorganisms more readily than
ethylene oxide but does not penetrate materials
well and may be carcinogenic. For sterilization
of biological products, 0.2% BPL is used. It is
capable of killing all micro-organisms and is
very active against viruses.
Use: In the liquid form, it has been used to
sterilize vaccines and sera.
34  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
RECOMMENDED CONCENTRATIONS OF Table 5.3  Various procedures of sterilization/
VARIOUS DISINFECTANTS disinfection of some important materials

The recommended concentrations of various Materials Methods

disinfectants commonly used in the hospitals are 1. Metallic inoculating wires Red heat
given in Table 5.2. Table 5.3 shows various mehods 2. Infective materials like Burning (incineration)
of sterilization/disinfection of some important soiled dressings, bed­
materials. 3. Glasswares-syringes, petri Hot air oven
dishes, test tubes, flasks,
universal containers, oily
Testing of Disinfectants fluids (paraffin)
The following tests are used for testing 4. Metal instruments Autoclaving, hot air
disinfectants: oven, infrared radiation
1. Phenol coefficient test
– Rideal-Walker test 5. Serum, body fluids, Waterbath, at 56°C x 1
– Chick-Martin test bacterial vaccines hour, vaccine bath at x
1 hour
2. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)
6. i. Gloves, aprons, Autoclaving
3. Kelsey-Sykes capacity test
dressings, catheters,
4. In-use test surgical instruments
1. Phenol coeffient test: These tests are irrelevant. except sharp
The test organism is inappropriate and the test instruments
irreproducible. ii. Sharp instruments 5% cresol
i. Rideal-Walker test : The best-known 7. i. Suture materials Autoclaving
disinfectant screening test is the phenol except catgut
ii. Catgut lonizing radiation
coefficient test in which potency of a
8. Milk Pasteurization
disinfectant is compared with that of
phenol. 9. Most of the culture Autoclaving
ii. Chick-Martin test: Chick-Martin test is media
modification of Rideal-Walker test. In this 10. Culture media containing Tyndallization
egg serum or sugar
test, the disinfectant acts in the presence
of organic matter (dried yeast or feces) to 11. Toxin, ascitic fluid, serum, Filtration
sugar and antibi­otic
simulate natural situations. solutions
2. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC): This 12 . Rubber, plastic and Gamma radiation,
test measures the lowest concentration of the polythene tubes includ­ing ethylene oxide gas
disinfectant that inhibits the growth of S. typhi in disposable syringes
a nutrient medium. 13. Faeces and urine, vomitus, Bleaching powder,
3. Kelsey-Sykes test (Capacity test): The sputum cresols, formalin
burning, autoclaving
additions are made in increments with or
14. Dispos­able syringes, rubber lonizing radiation
without organic matter and this gives a measure or plastic disposable goods,
of the capacity of the disinfectant to cope with bone and tissue grafts,
successive bacterial invasions. Capacity test adhesive dressings
is designed to simulate the natural conditions 15. Antitoxic sera, serum, urine Merthiolate (1 : 10,00)
16. Operation theatre, wards Formaldehyde gas and
Table 5.2  List and the recommended concentrations and laboratory or floor cresols (Lysol)
of disinfectants commonly used in the hospitals space Sodium hypochlorite
Disinfectant Concentration (1%)
17. Polythene tubing, fabrics, Ethylene oxide
Betadine (Iodophore) 2%
machine
Bleaching powder (calcium 14 g in one liter of water 18. Water Chlorine as
hypochlorite) hypochlorites (0.2%)
Dettol (chloroxylenol) 4% 19. Skin Tincture iodine, spirit
Ethyl alcohol 70% (70% ethanol), savlon
(phenol derivative)
Glutaraldehyde 2%
20. Woollen blankets, wool Formaldehyde gas
Lysol 2.5% and hides
Savlon (chlorhexidine and 2%, 5% 21. Sterilization of operation Formaldehyde gas (50 cc
cetrimide) theatre formalin and 25 g KMnO4
Sodium hypochlorite 1%, 0.1% per 100 cu. ft. space)

under which the disinfectants are used in the
hospitals.
4. In-use test : The in-use test should only
be performed to confirm that the chosen
disinfectant has been effective under the
conditions and period of use. The liquid
phase of disinfectant solutions is examined
quantitatively for viable organisms in actual
use hospital practice.
Important questions
Sterilization of Prions
Prions are infectious proteins without any
detectable nucleic acid. They have properties
distinct from other infectious agents and are
highly resistant to physical and chemical agents,
particularly in their resistance to conventional
inactivation methods. They are nonconventional
transmissible agents that cause transmissible
degenerative ence­phalopathies (TDE).
1. Dry heat: Prions are extremely resistant to dry
heat. A temperature of 360°C for one hour has
been reported not to be completely effective. plications.
2. Wet heat: They are more resistant to steam
sterilization than conventional transmissible
agents (bacteria and their spores, fungi and
viruses). Steam is found to be effective if a
temperature of 134–138°C is maintained for 18 fractional sterilization.
minutes.
3. Chemicals: These agents are inactivated by
sodium hypochlorite (25% available chlorine)
treatment at room temperature for one hour.
They are also sensitive to phenol (90%),
household bleach, ether, acetone, urea (6
mol/L), sodium dodecyl sulfate (10%) and zation.
iodine disinfection. Other chemicals like
aldehydes, potassium permanganate, hydrogen
peroxide, ethylene oxide, β-propiolactone,
ethanol, proteases and ionizing radiations have
been found to be ineffective.
Key Points Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
™™ Sterilization is the process by which an article,
surface, or medium is freed of all living micro-
organisms either in the vegetative or spore state.
™™ Disinfection is the killing, inhibition or removal of
microorganisms that may cause the disease.
™™ Antisepsis is the prevention of sepsis or putrefaction
either by killing microorganisms or by preventing
their growth.
™™ Methods of sterilization and disinfection:
A. Physical agents: Dry heat: a. Flaming; b. Incineration;
c. Hot-air Sterilization
™™ Moist heat: Pasteurization: Heat treatment for milk
(72°C for about 15 seconds) that kills all pathogens
and most nonpathogens.
™™ Tyndallization: An exposure of steam at 100°C
for 20 minutes on three successive days is called
tyndallization or intermittent sterilization
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Chapter 5: Sterilization and Disinfection  | 35
Steam under pressure: Autoclaving—Very effective
method of sterilization; at about 15 psi of pressure
(121°C).
™™ Filtration: Many types of filters are now available.
™™ Radiation: 1. Ionizing; 2. Nonionizing
™™ Chemical agents: Although gen­erally less reliable
than heat, these chemicals are suitable for treating
large surfaces and many heat-sensitive items.
1. Define sterilization and disinfection. Classify the
various agents used in sterilization. Add a note on
the principle and functioning of autoclave.
2. Define the terms sterilization, disinfection and
antisepsis. Name the various agents used for
sterilization and discuss the role of hot air oven in
sterilization.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Hot air oven
b. Inspissation or serum inspissator
c. Autoclave
d. Sterilization by radiation and its practical ap-
4. Write briefly about:
a. Sterilization by moist heat
b. Pasteurisation
c. Tyndallization or intermittent sterilization or
d. Inspissation or serum inspissator
e. Filtration.
5. Name various types of disinfectants and discuss
the role of halogens in chemical disinfection.
6. Write short notes on:
a. Vapour-phase disinfectants or gaseous sterili-
b. Surface-active disinfectants
c. Quaternary ammonium compounds
d. Oxidizing agents
e. Testing of disinfectants
f. Sterilization of prions
1. The holder method of pasteurization is not
effective against:
a. Escherichia coli
b. Coxiella burnetii
c. Staphylococcus aureus
d. Salmonella typhi
2. The bacterial spore that is most frequently used as
indicator of sterilization by hot-air oven is:
a. Bacillus subtilis
b. Clostridium tetani
c. Bacillus pumilis
d. Bacillus globigii
3. Which of the following does not kill endospores?
a. Autoclaving
b. Hot air sterilization
c. Pasteurization
d. None of the above
36  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
4. Sterilization at 100°C for 20 minutes on three
successive days is known as:
a. Tyndallization b. Inspissation
c. Pasteurization d. Vaccine bath
5. Which bacterial spores are used as sterilization
control in autoclave?
a. Bacillus cereus
b. Bacillus stearothermophilus
c. Clostridium perfingens
d. Pseudomonas aeruginosa
6. Autoclave is not useful for sterilization of:
a. Disposable plastic Petri dishes
b. Surgical dressings
c. Metallic instruments
d. Liquid paraffin
7. Which of following is most effective for sterilizing
mattresses and Petri dishes:
a. Chlorine b. Autoclaving
c. Ethylene oxide d. Glutaraldehyde
8. Which of the these disinfectants does not act by
disrupting the plasma membrane?
a. Phenolics b. Ethylene oxide
c. Halogens d. Phenol
9. Ionizing radiation can be used for sterilization of:
a. Plastic syringes b. Gloves
c. Catheters d. All of the above
10. The most widely used disinfectant for human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected material is:
a. Phenol b. Lysol
c. Hypochlorite solution d. Silver nitrate
11. Glutaraldehyde is used as a cold sterilant for
sterilization of:
a. Cystoscopes b. Endoscopes
c. Bronchosope d. All of the above
12. All the following statements are true for ethylene
oxide except:
a. It diffuses through many types of porous
materials
b. It is used for sterilizing heart-lung machines,
respirators, books and clothing
c. It is used for sterilizing glass, metal and paper
surfaces, clothing, plastics, some foods
d. It is suitable for fumigating rooms
13. Which test is used to simulate the natural conditions
under which the disinfectants are used in the
hospitals?
a. Kelsey-Sykes capacity test
b. Rideal-Walker test
c. In-use test
d. Chick-Martin test
Answers (MCQs)
1. b; 2. a; 3. c; 4. a; 5. b; 6. d; 7. c; 8. c; 9. d; 10. c; 11. d;
12. d; 13. a
 6
Chapter

Culture Media

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should be ∙∙ Differentiate between the following: enriched
able to: media and enrichment media; indicator media and
∙∙ Describe classification of media differential media; selective media and differential
media with suitable examples.

Introduction 5. Malt extract: It consists mainly of maltose,

starch, dextrins and glucose, and contains
Culture medium: A nutrient material prepared about 5% of proteins and protein breakdown
for the growth of microorganisms in a laboratory products, and a wide range of mineral salts and
is called a culture medium. growth factors.
6. Blood and serum : Thsese are used for
COMMON INGREDIENTS OF CULTURE enriching culture media.
MEDIA
1. Water: Tap water is often suitable for culture Classification of media
media. Media have been classified into many ways
2. Agar: Agar (or agar-agar) is prepared from a (Table 6.1).
variety of seaweeds. The chief component of
agar is a long-chain polysaccharide. It also A. Phases of Growth Media
contains a variety of impurities, including
inorganic salts, a small amount of protein-like Growth media are used in either of the two phases:
material and sometimes traces of long-chain liquid (broth) or solid (agar).
fatty acids.
At the concentrations normally used, most 1. Liquid (Broth) Media
bacteriological agars melt at about 95°C and In broth media, nutrients are dissolved in water,
solidify only when cooled to about 42°C. A and bacterial growth is indicated by a change
concentration of 1–2% usually yields a suitable
gel. New Zealand agar has more jellifying
capac­ity than Japanese agar. Table 6.1  Classification of media
3. Peptone: It is a complex mixture of partially A. Based on phases of C. Special media
digested proteins. The important constituents growth media i. Enriched media
1. Liquid (broth) media ii. Enrichment media
are peptones, proteoses, amino acids, a variety
2. Solid (agar) media iii. Selective media
of inorganic salts, including phosphates, 3. Semisolid media iv. Indicator or dif­
potassium and magnesium, and certain B. Based on nutritional ferential media
accessory growth factors, such as nicotinic acid factors v. Transport media
and riboflavin. 1. Simple media (basal vi. Sugar media
media) D. Reducing media
Commercially available peptones or digest
2. Complex media Based on phases of growth
broth can be used. Meat extract is also available 3. S ynthetic or defined media
commercially and is known as Lab-Lemco. media 1. Liquid (broth) media
4. Yeast extract: It contains a wide range of amino 2. Solid (agar) media
acids, growth factors and inorganic salts. 3. Semisolid media

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38  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
in broth’s appearance from clear to turbid (i.e.
cloudy).
2. Solid (Agar) Media
Solid media are made by adding a solidifying
agent to the nutrients and water. Agarose is the
most common solidifying agent. The Petri dish
containing the agar is referred to as agar.
3. Semisolid Media
For special purposes where agar is added to media
in concentrations that are too low to solidify them.
and used as a general purpose media, e.g.
peptone water, nutrient broth and nutrient agar
(Tables 6.2 and 6.3).
2. Complex media: Media that contain some
ingredients of unknown chemical composition
are called complex media. One common
ingredient is peptone. Extracts, which are the
water-soluble components of a substance, are
also used.
Nutrient broth: A commonly used complex
medium, nutrient broth (in liquid form). It is a
simple basal liquid medium, supports growth of
many organisms.

B. Based on Nutritional Factors Types of Nutrient Broth ­

1. Simple media (Basal media): Simple media There are three types of nutrient broth:
are those which contain only basic nutrients 1. Meat infusion broth; 2. Meat extract broth; 3.
required for the growth of ordinary organisms, Digest broth.

Table 6.2  Representative types of liquid media

Medium Composition Characteristics
1. Peptone water Peptone—10 g i. Basis for carbohydrate fermentation media
Sodium chloride (NaCl)- 5 g ii. For testing the formation of indole
Water—1 liter
(pH 7.4–7.5)
2. Nutrient broth Peptone water i. For routine culture
Meat extract ii. As a base to prepare many other culture media
iii. To study growth curve
3. Glucose broth Nutrient broth + Glucose Blood culture
(1% most common) Promotes luxuriant growth of many organisms
Glucose acts as a reducing agent
4. Enichment media
i. Tertrathinate Nutrient broth, Enriches salmonellae and sometimes shigellae
broth Sodium thiosulfate,
Calcium carbonate,
Iodine solution
Phenol red
ii. Selenite F broth Sodium selenite It inhibits coliform bacilli while permitting salmonellae and
Peptone many shigellae to grow
Lactose
iii. Alkaline Peptone—10 g Excellent medium for enriching the number of V. cholerae and
peptone water Sodium chloride other vibrio species in a fecal specimen
(NaCl)—10 g
Distilled water—1 liter
5. Anerobic media
i. Thioglycollate Yeast extract, Supports growth of anaerobes, aerobes, microaerophilic and
broth Casein hydrolysate, fastidious microorganisms
Pancreatic digest
Glucose,
L-cysteine,
Agar,
Sodium chloride, sodium
thioglycollate,
Resazurin sodium solution
Water
ii. Robertson’s Nutrient broth, Culture of anaerobic bacteria
cooked meat Predigested cooked meat Preservaton of stock culture of aerobic bacteria
broth (RCM) of ox heart
 Chapter 6: Culture Media  | 39
Table 6.3  Representative types of agar media
Medium Composition Characteristics
A. Simple medium
Nutrient agar Nutrient broth agar (2–3%) Complex medium used for routine laboratory work
B. Enriched media
i. Blood agar Nutrient agar. Sheep blood In addition to being enriched medium, it is an indicator medium
(5–10%) showing the hemolytic properties of bacteria
ii. Chocolate agar Heated blood agar This medium is used to culture fastidious bacteria, such as Hemophilus
(55°C × 2 hours) influenzae, the neisseriae and Pneumococcus
iii. Loeffler’s Nutrient broth Culture of Corynebacterim diphtheriae
serum slope Serum (of ox, sheep or
(LSS) horse)
Glucose
C. Indicator media
MacConkey agar Peptone Isolation and differentiation of lactose fermenting (LF) and nonlactose
Sodium taurocholate, fermenting (NLF) enteric bacilli. It is selective and differential
Agar
Neutral red
Lactose
D. Selective media
i. Deoxycholate Nutrient agar Suitable for the isolation of Salmonella and Shigella
citrate agar Sodium deoxycholate,
(DCA) Sodium citrate,
Lactose,
Neutral red
ii. Bile salt agar Nutrient agar, sodium Culture of Vibrio cholerae
(BSA) taurocholate (0.5%) pH 8.2

Nutrient Agar (Table 6.3 and Fig. 6.1)

Nutrient agar is prepared by adding agar at a
concentration of 2% to the nutrient broth. It
is simplest and most common medium used
routinely in microbiology laboratories, to grow
nonfastidious bacteria nutrient agar is commonly
referred to as “agar medium”.
Semisolid agar: If the concentration of agar is
reduced to 0.2–0.5%, semisolid or sloppy agar
is obtained which enables motile organisms to
spread but not non-motile bacteria.
Firm agar: If the concentration of agar is increased Fig. 6.1: Nutrient agar
to 6%, it is called firm agar.

Examples of Enriched Media

3. Synthetic or Chemically Defined Media
1. Blood agar (Fig. 6.2): Many medically important
They are prepared exclusively from pure chemical bacteria are fastidious, requir­ing a medium that
substances and their exact composition is known. is even richer than nutrient agar commonly
used in clinical laboratories is blood agar.
C. Special Media Blood agar is used for isolation of streptococci,
pneumococci, Haemophilus
i. Enriched Media (Table 6.2)
2. Chocolate agar (Fig. 6.3): A medium used
These are prepared to meet the nutritional to culture even more fastidious bacteria is
requirements of more exacting bacteria by the chocolate agar, (heated blood agar). It is used
addition of substances such as blood, serum or egg for isolation of Neisseria (meningococci and
to a basal medium. gonococci) and Haemophilus.

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40  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology

Fig. 6.2: Blood agar Fig. 6.3: Chocolate agar

3. Loeffeler’s serum slope (Fig. 6.4): Serum is

added for enriching the medium. It is used for
the isolation of Corynebacterium diphtheriae.

ii. Enrichment Media (Table 6.2)

When a substance is added to a liquid medium
which inhibits the growth of unwanted bacteria
and favors the growth of wanted bacteria, it is
known as enrichment media. This medium for an
enrichment culture is usually liquid and provides
nutrients and envi­ronmental conditions that favor
the growth of a particu­lar microbe but not others.
In mixed cultures or in materials containing Fig. 6.4: Loeffler’s serum slope (LSS)
more than one bacterium, the bacterium to be
isolated is often overgrown by the unwanted bacte­
ria. Usually, the nonpathogenic or commensal
bacteria tend to overgrow the pathogenic ones; for
example, S. Typhi being overgrown by Escherichia
coli in cultures from feces.
Examples:
a. Tetrathionate broth: Tetrathionate inhibits
coliforms while allowing typhoid-paraty­phoid
bacilli to grow freely in fecal sample.
b. Selenite F (F for feces) broth: It is used for
dysentery bacilli.
c. Alkaline peptone water: It is used for Vibrio
cholerae from faeces.

iii. Selective Media (Table 6.3)

When a substance is added to a solid medium
which inhibits the growth of unwanted bacteria but
favors the growth of wanted bacteria, it is known as
selective media. These media are used to isolate
particular bacteria from specimens where mixed
bacterial flora is expected.
Examples of selective media
a. Deoxycholate citrate agar (DCA): Addition
of deoxycholate acts as a selective agent for
dysentery bacilli (isolation of Shigellae).
b. Lowenstein-Jensen medium (Fig. 6.5): This
medium is used for Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
c. Bile salt agar (BSA): Bile salt is a selective
agent. It faredurs the growth of only Vibrio
Fig. 6.5: Lowenstein-Jensen medium
cholerae and inhibits the growth of intestinal
organisms.
iv. Indicator Media
These media contain an indicator which changes
colour when a bacterium grows in them.
Examples:
a. Wils on an d Blair m e d ium : Th e re i s
incorporation of sulfite in Wilson and Blair
medium. S. Typhi reduces sulfite to sulfide
 Chapter 6: Culture Media  | 41
in the presence of glucose and the colonies of
S. Typhi have a black metallic sheen.
b. MacConkey agar: MacConkey agar indicates
lactose fermenting property. Lactose fermenter
(LF) produces pink colonies and non-lactose
fermenter (NLF) produces colorless colonies
due to a neutral red indicator.

v. Differential Media
A medium, which has substances incorporated in
it, enabling it to bring out differing characteristics
of bacteria and thus helping to distin­guish between
them, is called a differential medium. Fig. 6.6: MacConkey agar
Example
MacConkey agar (Fig. 6.6): MacConkey agar is
both differential and selective. It contains peptone,
meat extract, NaCl, bile salt, lactose and neutral
red indicator.
Lactose fermenters (LF) form pink or red color
colonies and nonlactose fermenters (NLF) form
colorless or pale colonies.

vi. Sugar Media

For the identification of most of the organisms,
sugar fermentation reactions are carried
out. Carbohydrate fermentation is used ‘for
characterisation and identification of bacteria,
particularly important in the study of Gram-
negative bacilli. Sugar media are used to test
fermentation.
Sugar used for sugar media: The term ‘sugar’ in
microbiology denotes any fermentable substance.
Glucose, lactose, sucrose and mannitol are Fig. 6.7: Sugar media
routinely employed for fermentation tests.
Usual sugar media: The usual sugar media consist
of 1% of the sugar in peptone water along with an specimen to the laboratory or the normal flora may
appropriate indicator (Anrade’s indicator—0.005% over­grow pathogenic flora, such special media are
acid fuchsin in NaOH). A small tube (Durham’s devised to maintain the viability of the pathogen
tube) is kept inverted in the sugar tube to detect gas termed as ‘transport media’.
production (Fig. 6.7). The color of the medium is
light yellow. The test bacterium is inoculated and Examples
incubated. Acid production is indicated by the i. Stuart’s transport medium and Amies
development of pink color. Gas accumulates in the transport medium for gonococci.
inner Durham’s tube. ii. Buffered glycerol saline for enteric bacilli.
Hiss serum sugars: Hiss serum sugars are
used for organisms which are exacting in their Anaerobic Media (Table 6.2)
growth requirements (fastidious organisms) like These media are used to grow anaerobic organisms,
streptococci, pneumococci. and contain reducing substances. These include:
i. Thioglycollate broth; ii. Cooked meat broth.
vii. Transport Media
A transport medium is a holding medium designed i. Thioglycollate Broth
to preserve the viability of microorganisms in the Thioglycollate broth contains reducing agents,
specimen but not allow multiplication. such as sodium thioglycollate, glucose, vitarnin C
Delicate organisms (like gonococci) which (ascorbic acid), cysteine and agar (concentration
may not survive the time taken for transporting the of 0.05%), with methylene blue. Thioglycollate

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42  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
acts as a reducing agent and creates an anaerobic
environment deeper in the tube, and allows
anaerobic bacteria to grow. Glucose and
thioglycollate maintain the anerobic condition.
Agar (0.05%) prevents convection currents of air.
Methylene blue or resazurin act as an oxidation-
reduction potential indicator, which should show
that the me­dium is anerobic except in the surface
layer in addition to a reducing agent and semi­
solid agar.
ii. Cooked Meat Broth or RCM Broth
(Robertson’s Cooked Meat Broth) for more
details, refer to Chapter 7
Media to Test Special Properties
Various media to test special properties like ure­ase
production, and composite media for simultane­
ous demonstration of different features have been
devised. They are dealt with in the appropriate
chapters.
Process of Media Making
It is essential to monitor the quality of culture
media at all stages in their preparation and use.
Culture media used to be prepared in laboratories
themselves, starting with basic ingredients. Not only
was this laborious, but it also led to considerable
batch variation in the quality of media. The process
of media making has become simpler and its
quality more uniform with the ready avail­ability of
commercial dehydrated culture media.
Key Points
™™ A culture medium is any material prepared for the
growth of bacteria in a laboratory
™™ Agar is a common solidifying agent for a culture
medium
™™ Simple media include the nutrient broth and peptone
water, which form the basis of other media (e.g.,
nutrient broth, nutrient agar, etc.)
™™ Enriched media are solid media supplemented with
blood, serum, etc. (e.g. blood agar, chocolate agar,
Loffler’s serum slope, Lowenstein-Jensen medium)
™™ Enrichment media: An enrichment culture is used
to encourage the growth of a particular micro-
organism in a mixed culture and are the liquid media
(e.g. selenite F broth or tetrathionate broth)
™™ Selective media: By inhibiting unwanted organisms
selective media allow growth of only the desired
microbes, e.g. deoxycholate citrate agar (DCA);
Lowenstein Jensen medium (L.J medium)
™™ Differential media or indicator media distinguish one
microorganism from one another growing on the
same media, e.g. MacConkey medium
™™ Sugar media usually consist of 1% sugar in peptone
water along with an appropriate indicator
™™ Transport media are used to maintain the viability of
certain delicate organisms during their transport to
the laboratory e.g. Stuart’s transport medium
™™ Anaerobic media: Reducing media chemically
remove molecular oxygen that might interfere with
the growth of anaerobes.
Important questions
1. Distinguish between a selective medium and a
differential medium.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Enriched media
b. Enrichment media
c. Indicator media
d. Differential media
f. Transport media
g. Anaerobic media
h. Cooked meat broth (CMB) or RCM broth.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. The important source of nutrition for bacteria to
grow is:
a. Agar b. Electrolytes
c. Inorganic salts d. Peptone
2. All the following are examples of enriched media
except:
a. Blood agar b. Chocolate agar
c. Loeffler’s serum slope d. Bile salt agar
3. All the following are examples of selective media
except:
a. Potassium tellur­ite medium
b. Deoxycholate citrate agar
c. Lowenstein-Jensen medium
d. Nutrient agar
4. Which enrichment medium is preferred to grow
Vibrio cholerae?
a. Tetrathionate broth b. Selenite F broth
c. Alkaline peptone water d. All of the above
Answers (MCQs)
1. d; 2. d; 3. d; 4. c.
 7
Chapter

Culture Methods

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should be ∙∙ Explain the principle and describe uses of the
able to: following: Mclntosh and Fildes anaerobic jar;
∙∙ Discuss anaerobic culture methods cooked meat broth (CMB).

Introduction
In the clinical laboratory, the indications for
culture are mainly to:
1. Isolate bacteria in pure culture
2. Demonstrate their properties
3. Obtain sufficient growth for preparation of
antigens and for other tests.
4. Type isolates
5. Determine sensitivity to antibiotics
6. Estimate viable counts
7. Maintain stock cultures.

Methods of bacterial culture

The methods of bacterial culture used in the clini­
cal laboratory include streak culture, lawn culture,
stroke culture, stab culture, pour-plate culture, shake
culture and liquid culture.
1. Streak Culture (Surface Plating)
This method is routinely employed for the isolation
of bacteria in pure culture from clinical specimens.
A platinum loop, No. 23 SWG, 6.5 cm long, is
charged with the specimen to be cultured. Owing
to the high cost of platinum loops for routine work
are made of nichrome resistance wire, No. 24 SWG.
The loop is flat, circular and completely closed with
2–4 mm internal diameter mounted on a handle.
One loopful of the specimen is smeared
thoroughly over area A (Fig. 7.1), on the surface of
a well-dried plate, to give a well-inoculum or ‘well’.
The loop is resterilized and drawn from the well in
two or three parallel lines on to the fresh surface of
the medium (B). This process is repeated as shown
(C, D, E), care being taken to sterilize the loop,
Fig. 7.1: Streak culture (streak plating) on solid media
and cool it on unseeded medium, between each
sequence. At each step, the inoculum is derived
from the most distal part of the immediately
preceding strokes.
Plates are incubated in the inverted position
with the lid underneath. On incu­bation, growth
may be confluent at the site of original inoculation
(well), but becomes progressively thinner, and
well-separated colonies are obtained over the final
series of streaks.
2. Lawn Culture or Carpet Culture
Lawn cultures are prepared by flooding the surface
of the plate with a liquid culture or suspension of
the bacterium, pipetting off the excess inoculum
and incubating the plate. Alternatively, the surface
of the plate may be inoculated by applying a swab

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44  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
soaked in the bacterial culture or suspension.
After incubation, lawn culture provides a uniform
growth of the bacterium.
Uses
i. Antibiotic susceptibility testing
ii. Bacteriophage typing
iii. For preparation of bacterial antigens and
vaccines—when a large amount of growth is
required on solid media.
3. Stroke Culture
Stroke culture is made in tubes containing agar
slope or slant. Slopes are seeded by lightly smear­ing
the surface of agar with loop in a zig-zag pattern,
taking care not to cut the agar.
It is employed for providing pure growth of
the bacterium for slide agglutination and other
diagnostic tests.
4. Stab Culture
For the preparation of stab cultures, a suita­ble
medium, such as nutrient gelatin or glucose agar
is punctured with a long, straight, charged wire
into the center of the medium and withdrawing it
in the same line.
Uses
i. Mainly for the demonstration of gelatin
liquefaction.
ii. For demonstration of oxygen requirement of
the bacterium under study.
iii. For the maintenance of stock cultures.
iv. For studying the motility of bacteria in
semisolid agar.
5. Pour-plate Culture
A measured amount of the suspension is mixed
with molten agar medium in a Petri dish. Either
1.0 mL or 0.1 mL of dilutions of the bacterial
suspension is introduced into a Petri dish. The
nutrient medium, in which the agar is kept liquid
by holding it in a water bath at 45–50°C, is poured
over the sample, which is then mixed into the
medium by gentle agitation of the plate. When the
agar solidifies, the plate is incubated inverted at
37°C for 48 hours. After incubation, colonies will
grow within the nutrient agar as well as on the
surface of the agar plate and can be enumerated
using colony counters.
Uses
i. To estimate the viable bacterial count in a
suspension.
ii. For quantitative urine cultures.
6. Liquid Culture
Liquid cultures in tubes, bottles or flasks may be
inoculated by touching with a charged loop or by
add­ing the inoculum with pipettes or syringes.
Uses
i. Blood culture and for sterility.
ii. Dilution in the medium: For inocula containing
antibiotics and other inhibitory substances.
iii. Large yields.
Disadvantages
i. It does not provide a pure culture from mixed
inocula—the major disadvantage.
ii. Identification of bacteria is not possible.
Aerobic culture
For cultivation of aerobes, incubation is done in an
incubator under normal atmospheric conditions.
Incubation of cultures at 37°C is standard practice
in the culture of bacteria pathogenic to man.
Anaerobic Culture
Anaerobic bacteria require incubation with­
out oxygen and differ in their requirement and
sensitivity to oxygen. Obligate anaerobes will not
grow from small inocula unless oxygen is absent
and the Eh of the medium is low.
Methods of Anaerobiosis
Anaerobiosis can be achieved by a number of
methods such as:
A. Production of vacuum
B. Displacement of oxygen by other gases
C. Absorption of oxygen by chemical or biological
methods.
D. Displacement and combustion of oxygen
E. By reducing agents
F. Other anaerobic culture systems.
A. Production of Vacuum
This was attempted by incubating cultures in a
vacuum desiccator, but proved to be unsatisfactory
because some oxygen is always left behind. This
method is not in use now.
B. Displacement of Oxygen by Other
Gases
Displacement of oxygen with gases, such as hydro­
gen, nitrogen, helium or carbon dioxide is some­times
employed.
Candle Jar
Candle jar is a popular, but ineffective method.
Here inoculated plates are placed inside a large

airtight container and a lighted candle kept in it
before the lid is sealed. Although it is expected that
the burning candle will use all the available oxygen
inside before it gets extin­guished, but in practice
some amount of oxygen is always left behind.
C. Absorption of Oxygen by Chemical or
Biological Methods
i. Chemical methods
a. Pyrogallic acid
b. Mixture of powdered chromium and
sulfuric acid
c. Gaspak
ii. Biological methods
i. Chemical Methods
a. Pyrogallic acid
Buchner (1888) first introduced alkaline pyrogallol
for anaerobiosis which absorbs oxygen. In a large
tube containing solu­tion of sodium hydroxide,
pyrogallic acid is added and the tube is then placed
inside an air-tight jar and provides anaerobiosis
b. Mixture of powdered chromium and sulfuric acid
A mixture of chromium and sulfuric acid can
also be used for producing anaerobiosis. The two
chemicals react in the presence of available oxygen
and produce chromous sulfate.
c. Gaspak
It is commercially available in the form of a
disposable packet of aluminum foil containing
pellets of sodium borohydride and cobalt chloride
and of citric acid and sodium bicarbonate.
After the inoculated plates are kept in the jar,
water is added to the disposable aluminum foil
packet and the packet is immediately put in the
jar and its lid is screwed tight. Reactions then take
place to supply hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Hydrogen combines with oxy­gen in the presence
of a catalyst present in the undersurface of the lid
of the jar to produce an anaerobic envi­ronment.
The Gaspak is simple and effective, eliminat­ing the
need for drawing vacuum and adding hydrogen.
Chapter 7: Culture Methods  | 45
D. Displacement and Combustion of
Oxygen
Anaerobic Jars
Anaerobic jars provide the method of choice when
an oxygen-free or anaerobic atmosphere is required
for obtaining surface growths of anaerobes.
McIntosh and Fildes’ anaerobic jar: Anaerobiosis
obtained by McIntosh and Fildes’ anaerobic jar
(Fig. 7.2) is the most dependable and widely used
method.
The jar (c. 20 × 12.5 cm) should be made
of metal or robust plastic with a lid that can be
clamped down on a gasket to make it airtight. The
lid is furnished with two tubes along with valves,
one acting as gas inlet and the other as outlet. The
lid also has two terminals which can be connected
to an electrical supply. On its undersurface, it
carries a gauze sachet carrying alumina pellets
coated with palladium (palladinized alumina).
It acts as a room tempe­rature catalyst for the
conversion of hydrogen and oxygen into water.
Procedure
Inoculated culture plates are placed inside the jar
with the medium uppermost and lid downwards
and the lid clamped tight. The outlet tube is con­
nected to a vacuum pump and the air inside is eva­
cuated. Approximately 6/7th of the air is evacuated
(pressure reduced to 100 mm Hg, i.e. 660 mm below
atmospheric pressure) and this is monitored on a
vacuum gauge. The outlet tap is then closed and

ii. Biological Methods

With aerobic bacteria, this has been attempted
by incubating aerobic organisms along with
anaerobic bacteria. Two blood agar plates are
taken one is inoculated with aerobic bacteria
(Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and the other with
specimen of anaerobic bacteria. Then these two
plates are placed one over the other and sealed
along the rims and are incubated. Anaerobiosis
produced by such biological methods is slow and
ineffective. Fig. 7.2: Mcintosh and Filde’s anaerobic jar

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46  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
the inlet tube connected to a hydrogen supply.
Hydrogen is drawn in rapidly. As soon as this inrush
of gas has ceased, the inlet tap is also closed and the
jar is held on the bench for 10 minutes.
Catalyst
After the jar is filled with hydrogen, the electrical
terminals are connected to a current supply to heat
the catalyst and if room temperature catalyst is
used, heating is not required. The catalyst will help
to combine hydrogen and residual oxygen to form
water. The jar is then incubated at 37°C.
Indicator
An indicator should be employed for verifying the
anaerobic condition in the jars. Reduced methylene
blue is generally used as indicator (mixture of
NaOH, methy­lene blue and glucose). It becomes
colorless anaerobically but regains blue color on
expo­sure to oxygen.
Disadvantage
Any anaerobic jar system has the major disadvantage
that the plates have to be removed from the jar to be
examined and this, of course, exposes the colonies
to oxygen, which is especially hazardous to the
anaerobes during their first 48 hours of growth.
E. By Reducing Agents
Oxygen in culture media can be reduced by various
agents and these reducing agents include glucose,
ascorbic acid, cysteine, sodium mercaptoacetate
or thioglycollate, or the particles of meat in cooked
meat broth.
i. Thioglycollate broth: (See Chapter 6: Culture
Media)
ii. Cooked meat broth (CMB): Cooked meat
broth (CMB) original medium known as
‘Robertson’s cooked meat (RCM) medium’)
has a special place in anaerobic bacteriology.
It contains nutrient broth and pieces of fat-
free minced cooked meat of ox heart. Meat
particles are placed in 30 mL bottles to a depth
of about 2.5 cm and covered with about 15
mL broth. If test tubes are used, the surface
medium may be covered with a 1 cm layer of
sterile liquid paraffin, but this is not essential.
Principle
i. Unsaturated fatty acids present in meat utilize
oxygen for auto-oxidation, the reaction is
being catalyzed by hematin in the meat.
ii. Certain redu­cing substances, such as gluta­
thione and cysteine present in meat also
utilize oxygen.
iii. Sulfhydryl compounds (present in cysteine)
also contribute for a reduced oxidation-
reduction (OR) potential.
Method
Liquid media should be prereduced by holding
in a boiling water bath for 10 minutes to drive off
dissolved oxygen, then quickly cooled to 37°C just
before use. The surface of the CMB medium may
be covered with a layer of sterile liquid paraffin for
strict anaerobiosis.
Interpretation
It permits the growth of even strict anaerobes and
indicates their saccharolytic or proteolytic activities.
With growth of saccharolytic anaerobes (C. welchi),
color of meat pieces turns red while it becomes
black in case of proteolytic anaerobes (C. tetani).
Uses of CMB
i. CMB is suitable for growing anaerobes in air
ii. Also for the preservation of stock cultures of
aerobic organisms.
The inoculum is introduced deep in the
medium in contact with the meat.
F. Other Anaerobic Culture Systems
a. Anaerobic cabinets: The advantage of anaerobic
cabinets is that all of the processing, includ­ing
periodic examination of plates and preparation
of subcultures, can be done without exposure
to oxygen.
b. Anaerobic bags or pouches: Anaerobic bags are
available commercially.
Methods of isolating pure cultures
1. Surface plating: It is routinely employed in
clinical bacteriology.
2. Use of selective, enrichment or indicator media:
are widely used for the isolation of pathogens
from specimens, such as feces, with varied flora.
3. Selective treatment of the specimen before
culture
i. Heating at 65°C for 30 minutes or at higher
temperatures for shorter periods.
iii. Pretreatment of specimens with appropriate
bactericidal substances: This method is
the standard practice for the isolation of
tubercle bacilli from sputum and other
clinical specimens.
4. Use of selective growth conditions
i. Separation of bacteria with different
temperature optima
ii. Cultivation under aerobic or anaerobic
conditions.

5. Separation of motile from nonmotile bacteria
can be effected using Craigie’s tube.
6. Animal inoculation: Laboratory animals are
highly susceptible to certain organisms; for
example, the mouse to the pneumococcus.
7. Filters: Used for separating viruses from
bacteria.
Key Points
™™ The methods of bacterial culture used in the clini­cal
laboratory include streak culture, lawn culture, stroke
culture, stab culture, pour-plate culture, shake culture
and liquid culture. Special methods are employed for
culturing anaerobic bacteria.
™™ Streak culture (surface plating): This method is
routinely employed for the isolation of bacteria in
pure culture from clinical specimens.
™™ Anaerobic culture methods: Anaerobic bacteria
require incubation with­out oxygen.
™™ Anaerobic jars: Anaerobiosis obtained by Mclntosh
and Fildes’ anaerobic jar is the most dependable and
widely used method.
™™ Cooked meat broth (CMB): Original medium known as
‘Robertson’s cooked meat (RCM) medium’ has a special
place in anaerobic bacteriology.
Important questions
1. Discuss in detail anaerobic culture methods.
2. Enumerate various methods of bacterial culture.
Describe in detail the anaerobic methods of
cultivation.
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Chapter 7: Culture Methods  | 47
3. Write short notes on:
a. Streak culture
b. Lawn culture
c. Stroke culture
d. Pour-plate culture
e. Anaerobic culture methods/culture of anaerobic
bacteria.
f. McIntosh-Fields’ anaerobic jar
g. Cooked meat broth (CMB) or/RCM broth
h. Methods of isolating pure cultures.
MulTiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. The most useful method for obtaining discrete
colonies of the bacteria is by:
a. Lawn culture b. Stab culture
c. Pour-plate culture d. Streak culture
2. The most useful method for obtaining a uniform
layer of bacterial growth on a solid medium is by:
a. Lawn culture b. Stab culture
c. Pour-plate culture d. Streak culture
3. All the following are used for anaerobic culture
except:
a. Robertson’s cooked meat broth
b. Thioglycollate broth
c. Nutrient broth
d. McIntosh and Fildes’ anaerobic jar.
Answers (MCQs)
1. d; 2. a; 3. c
 8
Chapter

Identification of Bacteria

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Explain principle and discuss interpretation of
the following biochemical reactions: 1. Sugar
fermentation; 2. Indole production; 3. Methyl
red (MR) test; 4. Voges-Proskauer (VP) test for
acetoin production; 5. Citrate utilization; 6. Nitrate
reduction test; 7. Urease test; 8. Catalase production;
9. Oxidase test; 10. Phenylalanine deaminase test;
11. Hydrogen sulfide production; 12. Triple-sugar
Iron (TSI)
∙∙ List various examples of bacteria giving positive
bio­chemical reactions for mentioned above.

METHODS USED TO IDENTIFY BACTERIA nature of the culture medium, temperature and
time of incubation, age of the culture and the
Once a bacterium has been obtained in pure culture, number of subcultures it has undergone. The
it has to be identified. Identification schemes are characteristics noted are shape, size, side ends,
classified into one of the two categories (Table 8.1): arrangement, and irregular forms, motility, flagella
1. Phenotypic characteristics fimbriae, spores, capsule and staining.
2. Genotypic characteristics.
B. Staining Reactions
1. PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERISTICS
A number of staining techniques for the identifi­
A. Microscopic Morphology cation of bacteria, are available. Of these, Gram
The morphology of the bacterium depends on stain and Ziehl-Neelson stain are most important.
a number of factors, such as the strain studied, Gram stain: The Gram stain divides bacteria into
gram-positive and gram-negative.
Table 8.1  Methods used to identify bacteria
Ziehl-Neelsen staining: With Ziehl-Neelsen stain­
Phenotypic characteristics Genotypic characteristics ing divides bacteria into acid fast and non-acid fast.
A. Microscopic Nucleic acid hybridization Numerous other stains are used for special
morphology PCR-amplifying specific purposes, such as demonstration of flagella,
B. Staining reactions DNA sequences capsule, spores, and metachromatic granules. The
C. Metabolism differences Sequencing rRNA genes
fluorescent antibody technique enables one to
i. Macroscopic
morphology identify them according to their surface antigens.
or cultural
characteristics C. Metabolic Differences
ii. Fermentation and
The requirements of oxygen, the need for carbon
other biochemical
reactions dioxide, the capacity to form pigments, and the
D. Serology production of hemolysis help in classification.
E. Antibiotic tolerance
(resistance) tests, dye i. Cultural Characterstics or Macroscopic
tolerance, and other Morphology
inhibition tests
F. Bacteriophage and These provide additional information for the
bacteriocin typing identification of the bacterium. The characteristics
G. Pathogenicity revealed in different types of media are noted.

Chap-08.indd 48 15-03-2016 11:10:56

 Chapter 8: Identification of Bacteria  | 49
While studying colonies on solid media, the various
features are noted (Table 8.2).

ii. Biochemical Reactions

A large number of biochemical tests can be emp­
loyed for the identification of different bacteria.
These include:

1. Sugar Fermentation Fig. 8.1: Different elevation of colonies

This is tested in sugar media.
Principle: To determine the ability of an organism
to ferment a specific carbohydrate (sugar)
incorporated in a medium producing acid or acid
with gas.
Method: Test organism is inoculated in a sugar
medium and incubated at 37°C for 18–24 hours.
Glucose, lactose, sucrose and mannitol are widely
used sugars. Sugar media contain 1% sugar. Indicator
used is Andrade’s indicator (a solution of acid fuchsin
to which is added sodium hydroxide).

Interpretation (Figs 8.3 and 8.4)

Positive-pinkish-red (acidic): Acid production Fig. 8.2: Description of edges of colonies
is shown by change in the color of the medium to
pink or red.
Negative: Yellow to colorless (alkaline).

Table 8.2  Description of appearance of growth on

solid or in liquid media
1. Shape: Circular, irregular, or rhizoid
2. Size: In millimeters
3. Elevation: Effuse, elevated, convex; concave, umbonate
or umbilicate (Fig. 8.1).
4. Margins: Bevelled or otherwise
5. Surface: Smooth, wavy, rough, granular, papillate or
glistening.
6. Edges: Entire, undulate, crenated, fimbriate or curled
(Fig. 8.2).
7. Color: Fluorescent, iridescent, opalescent, self-
luminous.
8. Structure: Opaque, translucent or transparent
9. Consistency: Membranous, friable, butyrous or viscid
10. Emulsifiability: Easy or difficult Fig. 8.3: Inverted Durham’s tube showing gas production
11. Differentiation: Differentiated into a central and a
peripheral portion.
Growth in liquid medium
Degree: None, scanty, moderate, abundant or profuse
Turbidity: Present or absent; if present, slight, moderate or
dense; uniform, granular or flocculent
Deposit: Present or absent: If present, slight, moderate or
abundant; powdery, granular, flocculent, membranous
or viscid; disintegrating completely or incompletely on
shaking
Surface growth: Present or absent; if present, ring growth
around wall of tube; or surface pellicle, which is thin or
thick; with a smooth, granular or rough surface and which
disintegrates completely or incomplelely on shaking. All
aerobes have tendency to grow on surface of media due
to more content of oxygen present on the surface, e.g.
Pseudomonas sp. Fig. 8.4: Sugar fermentation tests

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 50  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Gas production can be seen as bubbles in
Durham’s tube.

Examples of Fermentative Bacteria

Glucose fermenters: All members of the family
Enterobacteriaceae
Glucose and lactose fermenters: Escherichia coli,
Klebsiella sp.
Glucose and mannitol fermenter: Salmonella sp.

2. Indole Production
Principle: This test demonstrates the ability of
certain bacteria to decompose the amino acid
tryptophane to indole, which accumulates in the
medium. Tryptophan is decomposed by an enzyme
tryptophanase produced by certain bacteria.
Fig. 8.5: Indole test
Method: Indole production is detected by
inoculating the test bacterium into peptone water
(tryptophan rich) and incubating it at 37°C for 48–96
hours. Add 0.5 mL Kovac’s reagent and shake gently.
Tryptophan Tryptophanase
→ Indole
Kovac’s reagent consists of:
∙∙ Paradimethylaminobenzaldehyde 10 g
∙∙ Amyl or isoamyl alcohol 150 mL
∙∙ Concentrated hydrochloric acid 50 mL.

Interpretation (Fig. 8.5)

Indole positive: A red color in the alcohol layer
indicates a positive reaction.
Indole negative: Yel­low colored ring (color of
Kovac’s reagent) near the surface of the medium.
Indole positive: E.coli, Shigella, Edwardsiella,
Proteus sp. other than P. mirabilis.
Fig. 8.6: Methyl red (MR) test
Indole negative: Klebsiella sp. Enterbacter sp.,
Serratia, Hafnia spp., P. mirabilis.
MR Positive and Negative Bacteria
3. Methyl Red (MR) Test MR Positive: E. coli, Shigella spp., Edwardsiella
Principle: The methyl red test is employed to spp., Yersinia sp., Listeria monocytogenes.
detect the pro­duction of sufficient acid during the
MR negative: Klebsiella, Enter­obacter sp., Serratia
fermentation of glucose so that pH of the med­ium
spp., Hafnia spp.
falls, and it is maintained below 4.5.
Method: Inoculate the test organism in liquid 4. Voges-Proskauer (VP) Test for Acetoin
medium (glucose phosphate broth) and incubate
Production
at 37°C for 2–5 days. Then add five drops of 0.04%
solution of methyl red. Mix well and read the result Principle: Many bacteria ferment carbohydrates
immediately. with the production of acetyl methyl carbinol
(acetoin) or its reduction product 2, 3 butylene
Interpretation (Fig. 8.6) glycol. In the presence of potassium hydroxide
Positive: Bright red color. and atmospheric oxygen, acetoin is converted to
diacetyl, and a-naphthol serves as a catalyst to
Negative: Yellow color. form a red complex (Fig. 8.7).
Note: If the results after 48 hours are equivocal, Method: Inoculate test organism in glucose
the test should be repeated with cultures that have phosphate broth and incubate at 37°C or 30°C for 48
been incubated for 5 days. hours only. Add 1 mL of 40% potassium hydroxide

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Fig. 8.7: Voges-Proskauer (VP) test
and 3 mL of a 5% solution of a-naphthol in absolute
ethanol.
Interpretation of VP Test (Fig. 8.7)
Note: Positive reaction: Development of pink color
in 2–5 minutes, becoming crimson in 30 minutes.
Negative reaction: Colorless for 30 minutes.
The tube can be shaken at intervals to ensure
maximum aeration. Naphthol is a carcinogen.
VP Positive and Negative Bacteria
VP positive: Klebsiella sp., Enterobacter sp., Serratia
spp. Enterbacter spp., Eltor vibrios, Staphylococcus.
VP negative: Esch. coli, Shigella spp., Edwardsiella,
Micrococcus.
5. Citrate Utilization
Principle: This is a test for the ability of an
organism to utilize citrate as the sole carbon and
energy source for growth and an ammonium salt as
the sole source of nitrogen with resulting alkalinity.
Method: Koser’s liquid citrate medium or solid
Simmons’ citrate agar may be used. Simmon’s
citrate medium contains agar, citrate and
bromothymol blue as an indicator. Original color
of the medium is green. A part of colony is picked
up with a straight wire and inoculated into either of
these media. Incubate at 37°C for 96 hours.
Interpretation (Fig. 8.8)
1. Simmons’ Citrate Medium
Positive: Blue color and streak of growth.
Negative: Original green color and no growth.
2. Koser’s Citrate Medium
Positive: Turbidity, i.e. growth.
Negative: No turbidity.
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Chapter 8: Identification of Bacteria  | 51
Fig. 8.8: Citrate utilization test
Citrate Positive and Negative Bacteria
Citrate positive: Klebsiella sp., Enterobacter sp.
Serratia spp, Hafnia spp, Salmonella sp. except S.
typhi, Citrobacter sp.
Citrate negative: E. coli, Edwar­dsiella, Shigella spp,
Salmonella typhi.
6. Nitrate Reduction Test
Principle: This is a test for the presence of the enzyme
nitrate reductase which causes the reduction of nitrate
to nitrite which can be tested for by an appropriate
colori­metric reagent. Almost all Enterobacteriaceae
reduce nitrate.
Method: Inoculate test organism in 5 mL medium
containing potassium nitrate, peptone and distilled
water.Incubate it at 37°C for 96 hours. Add 0.1 mL
of the test reagent to the test culture which consists
of equal volumes of 0.8% sulfanilic acid and 0.5%
a-naphthylamine in 5 N acetic acid mixed just
before use.
Interpretation (Fig. 8.9) of Nitrate Reduction
Test
Positive: Red color develops within few minutes
(indicates the presence of nitrite and hence the
ability of the organism to reduce nitrate).
Negative: No color development.
Nitrate Nitrate
 reductase
→ Nitrite
Nitrate Reduction Positive and Negative
Bacteria
Nitrate reduction positive: All members of
Enterobacteriaceae, Branhamella catarr­halis.
Nitrate reduction negative: Haemophilus ducreyi.
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 52  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Fig. 8.9: Nitrate reduction test
7. Urease Test
Principle
To determine the ability of an organism to produce
an enzyme urease which splits urea to ammonia.
Ammonia makes the medium alkaline and thus
phenol red indicator changes to pink/red in color.
Procedure
The test organism is inocu­lated on the entire slope
of Christensen’s medium which contains urea and
phenol red indicator in addition to other constituents
including agar. It is incubated at 37°C and examined
after 4 hours and after overnight incubation.
Christensen’s urease medium contains:
∙∙ Peptone water
∙∙ Urea (20%)
∙∙ Agar
∙∙ Phenol red.
Interpretation (Fig. 8.10) of Urease Test
Urease positive: Purple-pink color.
Urease negative: Pale yellow color (Fig. 8.10).
Urease Positive and Negative Bacteria
Urease positive: Klebsiella sp., Proteus sp., Yersinia
enterocolitica, Helicobacter pylori.
Urease negative: E. coli, Providencia sp., Yersinia
pestis.
8. Catalase Production
Principle
This demonstrates the presence of catalase, an
enzyme that catalyses the release of oxygen from
hydrogen peroxide.
H2 O2 
→ H2 O + O(Air bubbles)
Catalase
Chap-08.indd 52
Fig. 8.10: Urease test
Method
1. One ml of hydrogen peroxide solution, H2O2 (10
vol), is poured over a 24 hours nutrient agar slope
culture of the test organism and the tube is held
in a slanting position
2. Alternatively, a small amount of the culture to be
tested is picked from a nutrient agar slope with
a clean sterile platinum loop or a clean, thin
glass rod and dip it in a drop of 10% hydrogen
peroxide on a clean glass slide.
Interpretation
Positive test: Immediate bubbling, easily observed
(O2 formed).
Note: A false-positive reaction may be obtained if
the culture medium contains catalase (e.g. blood
agar), or if an iron wire loop is used.
Negative test: No bubbling (no O2 formed).
Positive and Negative Bacteria
Catalase positive: All members of Entero­
bacteriaceae except Shigella dysen­triae type 1;
Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, Bacillus.
Catalase negative: Shigella dysentriae type 1,
Streptococcus, Clostridium.
9. Oxidase Test
Principle
To determine the presence of bacterial cytochrome
oxidase using the oxida­tion of the substrate, a
redox dye, tetramethyl-p-­phenylene-diamine
dihydrochloride (oxidase reagent). The dye is
reduced to a deep purple color.
Method
1. Plate method: A freshly prepared 1% solution of
tetramethyl-p-phenylene-diamine dihydro­
chloride is poured on to the plate so as to cover
15-03-2016 11:11:02

the surface, and is then decanted. The colonies
of oxidase-positive organisms rapidly develop
a purple color.
2. Dry filter paper method: A strip of filter paper
soaked in the oxidase reagent is removed, laid in
a petridish and moistened with distilled water.
The colony to be tested is picked up with a
platinum loop and smeared over the moist area.
Interpretation: Positive reaction: Is indicated by
an intense deep-purple hue, appearing within
5–10 seconds.
Negative reaction: Absence’ of coloration or by
coloration later than 60 seconds.
3. Wet filter paper method: Put a drop of freshly
prepared 1% solution of oxidase reagent on a
piece of filter paper. Then rub a few colonies
of test organism on it.
Interpretation
Oxidase-positive bacteria will produce a deep
purple color within 10 seconds.
Oxidase Positive and Negative Bacteria
Oxidase positive: The test is used for screening
species of Neisseria, Alcaligenes, Aeromonas,
Vibrio, Campylobacter and Pseudomonas, which
give positive reactions,
Oxidase negative: Family Enterobacteriaceae—All
the members of the family Enterobacteriaceae are
oxidase negative.
10. Phenylalanine Deaminase Test
Phenylalanine deaminase determines whether
the organism possesses the enzyme phenylalanine
deaminase that deaminates phenylalanine to
phenylpyruvic acid, which reacts with ferric salts
to give a green color.
Procedure
Agar slants of the medium containing phenylalanine
is inoculated with a fairly heavy inoculum and
incubated at 37°C for overnight. A few drops of
10% ferric chloride solution are added directly to
the surface of the agar. If the test is positive, a green
color will develop in the fluid and in the slope.
Interpretation
Positive: Green color.
Negative: No color change.
Positive and Negative Bacteria
PPA positive: Proteus sp., Morganella sp.,
Providencia sp.
PPA negative: All members of the rest of
Enterobacteriaceae.
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Chap-08.indd 53
Chapter 8: Identification of Bacteria  | 53
11. Hydrogen Sulfide Production
Principle
Some organisms decompose sulfur-containing
amino acids producing H2S among the products. It
detects H2S liberated as a result of the degradation
of sulfur containing amino acids.
Procedure
The organisms can be grown in culture tubes.
Between the cotton plug and the tube insert a
filter paper strip soaked in lead acetate solution
and dried. Browning of the paper indicates H2S
production. When cultured in media containing
lead acetate or ferric ammonium citrate or ferrous
acetate, they turn them black or brown. This
method is more sensitive than lead acetate strip
method.
Interpretation
Positive: Black color.
Negative: No change in color.
Positive and Negative Bacteria
H2S positive: Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris,
Salmonella sp. with some exceptions.
H2S negative: Morganella sp., Salmonella Paratyphi
A, S. choleraesuis.
12. Potassium Cyanide Test
Principle
This tests the ability of an organism to grow in the
presence of cyanide.
Method
Inoculate buffered peptone water medium,
containing 1 in 13,000 con­centration of potassium
cyanide, with test organ­ism. Incubate at 37°C for
24–48 hours.
Interpretation
Positive: Turbidity due to growth.
Negative: Clear (no growth).
Positive and Negative Bacteria
Positive KCN test: Klebsiella sp., Citrobacter
freundii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Negative KCN test : Salmonella sp., E. coli,
Alkaligenes faecalis.
13. Triple-sugar Iron (TSI) Agar
Principle
Triple-sugar iron agar (TSI) is used to determine
whether a gram-negative rod utilizes glucose
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 54  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
and lactose or su­crose fermentatively and forms
hydro­gen sulfide (H2S). TSI medium facilitates
preliminary identification of gram-negative bacilli.
Media
TSI is a composite medium and contains 10 parts
lactose: 10 parts sucrose: 1 part glucose and
peptone. Phenol red and ferrous sulfate serve
as indicators of acidification and H2S formation,
re­spectively. The medium is distributed in tubes,
with a butt and slant.
Procedure
Medium is inoculated with bacterial culture by a
straight wire pierced deep in the butt (stab culture).
Incu­bate the tube at 35° C in ambient air for 18–24
hours.
Glucose-fermenting organism: If the tube is
inoculated with a glucose-fermenting organism
that cannot utilize lactose, only a relatively small
quantity of acid can be obtained from the 0.1%
concentration of glucose in the medium. Initially
the entire medium becomes acidic (yellow) in
8–12 hours. However, within the next few hours,
the glucose supply is completely exhausted and
the bacteria begin oxidative deg­radation of the
amino acids within the slant portion of the tube
where oxygen is present. This results in the release
of amines that soon counteract the small quantities
of acid pres­ent in the slant. The entire slant reverts
to an alkaline pH (color returns to red) by 18–24
hours. The deep (anaerobic portion) of the tube
remains acidic (yellow) because amino acid degra­
dation is insufficient to counteract the acid formed.
Lactose-fermenting organism: If the tube is
inoculated with a lactose-fermenting organism,
then fermentation continues as the organism
is able to use lactose (present in 10 times the
concentration of glucose), even though the glucose
is completely used up after the first 8–12 hours.
Therefore, when, in addition to glucose, lactose
and/or su­crose are fermented, the large amount
of fermentation products formed on the slant will
more neutralize the alkaline amines and render
Table 8.3  Expected results of triple-sugar iron (TSI) agar test
Slant/butt Color
1. Alkaline slant/alkaline butt (K/K) Red/Red
2. Alkaline slant/acid butt (K/A) Red/Yellow
3.Alkaline slant Acid Red/Yellow
(Black) Deep (K/ A/H2S) H2S
4.Acid slant/Acid Deep (A/A) Yellow/Yellow
K-Alkaline; A-Acidic; H2S-Hydrogen sulfide
Chap-08.indd 54
the slant acidic (yellow), provided the reaction
is read in 18–24 hours. Consequently, when the
tube is examined at the end of 18–24 hours, acid
production from fermentation of lactose is still
occurring and both the slant and the deep appear
yellow, resulting in an acid-slant-acid d
­ eep reaction.
Reactions in TSI should not be read beyond 24
hours of incubation, because aerobic oxidation
of the fermentation products from lactose and/or
sucrose does pro­ceed and the slant will eventually
re­vert to the alkaline state.
H2S producing bacteria: Certain bacteria produce
H2S which is a colorless gas. H2S combines with
ferric ions (from ferric salts) to form ferous
sulfide as black precipitate and is manifested by
blackening of the butt of the medium in the tube
Interpretation (Table. 8.3)
Red color (alkaline): No fermentation.
Yellow color (acidic): Fermentation of carbo­
hydrate.
Bubbles in the butt: Gas is also produced during
fermentation of carbohydrate.
Blackening of the medium:­ H2S production.
To determine the ability of an organism to
attack specific carbohydrates incorporated in a
growth medium, with or without the production
of gas, along with the determination of possible
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) production.
D. Serology
By using specific sera we can identify organisms
by agglutination or other suitable serological
reactions.
E. Antibiotic Tolerance Tests, Dye
Tolerance, and Other Inhibition Tests
These range from disk tests of resistance to
antibiotics, such as penicillin, bacitracin,
gentamicin, novobiocin and metronidazole, to
special tests that demonstrate tolerance of dyes
and other chemicals.
Utilization and Interpretation
No fermentation of glu­cose, lactose or sucrose.
Glucose fermented; lactose (or sucrose for TSI medium) not
fermented.
Glucose fermented; lactose not fermented, hydrogen sulfide
produced.
Glucose and lactose (or sucrose with TSI) fermented.
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 Chapter 8: Identification of Bacteria  | 55
F. Bacteriophage and Bacteriocin Typing c. Voges-Proskauer (VP) test
d. Citrate utilization test
These enable intraspecies typing of some bacteria. e. Nitrate reduction test
f. Urease test
G. Pathogenicity g. Catalase test
h. Oxidase test
Pathogenicity tests by inoculation of the test
i. Phenylalanine deaminase test
organism into laboratory animals like the j. Triple-sugar Iron (TSI) agars.
guinea pig, rabbit, rat and mouse were common
procedures for identification of isolates in the past.
The animals may be inoculated by intradermal, MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, 1. Catalase test is primarily used to differentiate
intracerebral or intravenous, or by oral or nasal Staphylococcus from:
spray. They are rarely used now because simpler a. Pneumococcus
in vitro tests are available. b. Meningococcus
c. Streptococcus
2. GENOMIC CHARACTERIZATION d. Gonococcus
2. All are oxidase positive bacteria except:
Molecular methods, such as polymerase chain a. Neisseria
reaction and other amplification procedures b. Escherichia coli
coupled with nucleic acid probes carrying specific c. Campylobacter
DNA or RNA base sequences are now widely used d. Pseudomonas aeruginosa
for identifying microbes. 3. Phenylpyruvic acid (PPA)-positive bacteria are the
followings except:
a. Proteus spp.
Characterization of Strain Differences b. Providencia spp.
1. Biochemical typing c. Campylobacter spp.
2. Serological typing d. Morganella spp.
3. Antibiogram 4. All of the following bacteria are urease test positive
4. Phage typing except:
5. Genomic typing a. Klebsiella sp.
i. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis b. Yerrsinia enterocolitica
c. Helicobacter pylori
ii. Ribotyping.
d. Yersinia pestis
Key Points 5. Which of the following tests detects the production
of acetyl methyl carbinol from pyruvic acid in the
Methods used to identify bacteria
media?
A. Phenotypic characteristics
a. Methyl red test
a.  Microscopic morphology; b. Staining reactions;
c. Metabolism differences; d. Serology; e. Antibiotic b. Voges-Proskauer test
tolerance (resistance) tests, dye tolerance, and other c. Urease test
inhibition tests; f. Bacteriophage and bacteriocin d. Citrate utilization
typing; g. Pathogenicity 6. Triple-sugar iron (TSI) agar medium contains all
B. Genomic characterization: Polymerase chain reaction the following carbohydrates except:
(PCR) and other amplification procedures. a. Glucose
b. Lactose
IMPORTANT QUESTION c. Sucrose
d. Mannitol
Write short notes on:
a. Indole production ANSWERS (MCQs)
b. Methyl red test 1. c; 2. b; 3. c; 4. d; 5. b; 6. d

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Chap-08.indd 55 15-03-2016 11:11:02

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
∙∙ Discuss bacterial classifications.
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science that studies organisms in
order to arrange them into groups; those organisms
with similar properties are grouped together and
separated from those that are different. Taxonomy
can be viewed as three separate but interrelated areas:
1. Identification: The process of characterizing
organisms.
2. Classification: The process of arranging organ­
isms into similar or related groups, primarily to
provide easy identification and study.
3. Nomenclature: The system of assigning of
names to organisms.
1. Identification
To characterize and identify microorganisms,
a wide assortment of technologies, such as
microscopic examination, culture characteristics,
biochemical tests and nucleic acid analysis is used.
2. classification
Three-domain System
The classification scheme currently favored by most
micro­biologists is the three-domain system. This
designates all organ­isms as belonging to one of the
three domains—Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Five-kingdom System
The most widely accepted system was the five-
kingdom system, proposed by RH Whittaker in
1969 before the three-domain classification system
was intro­duced. The five king­doms in this system
are the Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Protista (mostly
single-celled eukaryotes) and Prokaryotae.
Taxonomic Hierarchies
Taxonomic classification categories are arranged
in a hierarchical order, with the species being the
9
Chapter
Bacterial Taxonomy
basic unit. The species designation gives a formal
taxonomic status to a group of related isolates or
strains, which in turn, permits their identification.
Kingdoms are divided successively into division,
class, order, family, genus and species.
Example
The full taxonomical position of is the bacterium
Escherichia coli as follows:
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Proteobacteria
Class Gammaproteobacteria
Family Enterobacteriaceae
Genus Escherichia
Species Coli
Species Concept in Bacteria
Species is the standard taxonomical unit in biology. In
bacteria, the species concept is vague and ill-defined.
Classification systems
Phenetic System
Organisms can be grouped together based on over­
all similarity to form a phenetic system. Computers
may be used to analyze data for the pro­duction
of phenetic classifications. The process is called
numerical taxonomy.
1. Adansonian or Numerical Classification
The Adansonian or numerical classifi­cation, so
called after Michael Adanson who intro­duced it in
the eightenth century. It gives equal weight to all
measurable features, and groups organisms on the
basis of similarities of several characteristics.
The development of computers has extended
the scope of phenetic classification by permitting

comparisons of very large numbers of properties of
several organisms at the same time. This is known
as numerical taxonomy. Information about the
proper­ties of organisms is converted into a form
suitable for numerical analysis and then compared
by means of a computer.
2. Phylogenetic Classification
They can be grouped based on probable
evolutionary relationships to produce a phylo­
genetic system. The hierarchical classifi­cation
represents a branching tree-like arrangement,
one characteristic being employed for division
at each branch or level. These are systems
based on evo­lutionary relationships rather than
general resemblance. While there is no “official”
classification of prokaryotes, microbiologists
generally rely on the reference text Bergey,’s Manual
of Systematic Bacteriology as a guide.
3. Molecular or Genetic Classification
This is based on the degree of genetic relatedness
of different organisms. This classification is said
to be the most natural or fundamental method
since all properties are ultimately based on the
genes present. DNA relatedness can be tested by
studying the nucleotide sequences of DNA and
by DNA hybridization or recombination methods.
The nucleotide base composition and base ratio
(Adenine- Thymine:Guanine-Cytosine ratio) varies
widely among different groups of microorganisms,
though it is constant for members of the same
species. Molecular classification has been employed
more with viruses than with bacteria.
At present no standard classification of bacteria
is universally accepted and applied, although
Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology is
widely used as an authoritative source.
4. Intraspecies Classification
It is often necessary to subclassify bacterial species
for diagnostic or epidemiological purposes on
the basis of biochemical properties (biotypes),
antigenic features (serotypes), bacteriophage
susceptibility (phage types) or production of
bacteriocins (colicin types). A species may be
divided first into groups and then into types.
The application of newer techniques from
immunology, biochemistry and genetics has led to
much greater discrimination in intraspecies typing.
The methods used are of two types: Phenotypic
and genotypic. Phenotypic methods include
electrophoretic typing of bacterial proteins and
immunoblotting. Genotypic methods include
plasmid profile analysis, restriction endonuclease
analysis of chromosomal DNA with Southern
blotting, PCR and nucleotide sequence analysis.
Some of these techniques are considered in
Chapter 10 (Bacterial Genetics).
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Chapter 9: Bacterial Taxonomy  | 57
3. Nomenclature
Nomenclature, the naming of microorganisms
according to established rules and guidelines,
provides the accepted labels by which organisms
are universally recognized. Bacteria are given
names according to an official set of inter­nationally
recognized rules, the International Code for the
Nomenclature of Bacteria.
Casual or Common Name
Two kinds of names are given to bacteria. The first
is the casual or common name which varies from
country to country and is in the local language.
Scientific or International Name
The second is the scientific or international name
which is the same throughout the world. The
scientific name consists usually of two words, the
first being the name of the genus and the second
the specific epithet. In this binomial (“two-name”)
sys­tem of nomenclature, every organism is assigned
a genus and species name. The generic name is
usually a Latin noun.
Key Points
™™ Bacterial taxonomy: It comprises three components:
1. Identification of an unknown isolate with a defined
and named unit; 2. Classification of organism; 3.
Nomenclature or naming of the microbial isolates
™™ Bacterial classifications include Adansonian,
phylogenetic, and genetic classifications
™™ Nomenclature of microorganisms – Nomenclature
refers to the naming of microorganisms
Important Question
Write briefly about bacterial taxonomy.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. Phylogenetic classification denotes:
a. Homology of the DNA base sequences of the
micro­organisms
b. Evolutionary arrangement of species
c. Equal weight to all features and groups of
bacteria on the basis of similarities of several
characteristics
d. A type of classification which makes an at­
tempt to subclassify species of bacteria
2. Which of the following methods may be used in
bacteriology for epidemiological purposes?
a. Biotyping b. Serotyping
c. Phage typing d. All of the above
3. Molecular techniques employed for intraspecies
typing of bacteria include:
a. Polymerase chain reaction
b. Southern blotting
c. Nucleotide sequence analysis
d. All of the above.
Answers (MCQs)
1. b; 2. d; 3. d.

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Explain Lac operon
∙∙ Discuss regulation or control of gene expression
∙∙ Discuss structure and functions of the plasmids
∙∙ Describe mutations
∙∙ Discuss various methods of gene transfer
∙∙ Differentiate among the mechanisms of trans­
formation, transduction, lysogenic conversion
Introduction
Genetics: Genetics is the study of genes, their
structure and function, heredity and variation.
Genomics: The study and analysis of the nucleotide
sequence of DNA is called genomics.
Genome: The complete set of genetic information
for a cell is referred to as its genome.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
GENETIC MATERIAL
Nucleic Acid Structure
A substance called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is
the substance of which genes are made. DNA, and
another substance called ribonucleic acid (RNA),
are together referred to as nucleic acids.
Nucleo­tides: Nucleotides are the structural units of
nucleic acids. Nucleotides are named according to
their nitrogenous base.
Parts of Nucleotide
Each nucleotide has three parts:
i. A nitrogen-containing base
Purines and pyrimidines : The nitrogen-
containing bases are cyclic compounds made up
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms.
The bases are named adenine (A), thymine (T),
10
Chapter
Bacterial Genetics
and conjugation in the transfer of genetic material
from one bacterium to another
∙∙ Discuss resistance transfer factor (RTF)
∙∙ Differentiate between mutational and plasmid-
mediated drug resistance
∙∙ Discuss transposons
∙∙ Describe principle and clinical applications
of the following: Nucleic acid probes; genetic
engineering; polymerase chain reaction
∙∙ Describe gene therapy.
cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U). A and G
are double-ring structures called purines, whereas
T, C, and U are single ring structures referred to as
pyrimidines.
ii. A pentose (five-carbon) sugar called
deoxyribose or ribose
iii. A phosphate group (phosphoric acid):
A. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Structure
Double helix: According to the model proposed by
Watson and Crick, a DNA molecule consists of two
long strands wrapped around each other to form a
double helix (Fig. 10.1). The double helix looks-like
a twisted ladder, and each strand is composed of
many nucleotides. The two strands are held together
by weak hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous
bases of the opposing strands (Fig. 10.1).
Sugar-phosphate backbone: Every strand of DNA
composing the double helix has a “backbone”
consisting of alternating deoxyribose sugar
and phosphate groups. The deoxyribose of one
nucleotide is joined to the phosphate group of the
next. The nitrogen containing bases make up the
rungs of the ladder. Purine A is always paired with
the pyrimidine T and that the purine G is always
paired with the pyrimidine C. The bases are held
together by hydrogen bonds; A and T are held by

Fig.10.1: A schematic drawing of the Watson-Crick structure
of DNA, showing helical sugar-phosphate backbones of the
two strands held together by hydrogen bonding between
the bases
two hydrogen bonds, and G and C are held by three
hydrogen bonds.
Base pairing: The characteristic bonding of A to T
and G to C is called base­ pairing and is fundamental
to the remarkable functionality of DNA.
Complementary: Because the sequence of bases
of one strand is determined by the sequence
of bases of the other, the bases are said to be
complementary.
Code and Codon
Genetic information is stored in DNA as a code.
The unit of code is known as codon. It consists of a
sequence of three bases. Therefore, code is triplet.
Each codon specifies or codes for a single amino
acid, but more than one codon may exist for a
single amino acid. Therefore, code is degenerate.
Thus, the triplet AGA codes for arginine but the
triplets AGG, CGU, CGC, CGA and CGG also code
for the same amino acid. Three codons UAA, UAG
and UGA do not code for any amino acid and are
known as nonsense codons. They act as punctuation
marks, terminating the mes­sage for synthesis of a
polypeptide.
Citron or Gene
A segment of DNA carrying a number of codons
specifying for a particular polypeptide is known as
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Chapter 10: Bacterial Genetics  | 59
cistron or gene. A large number of genes constitute
a locus and a large number of loci constitute cell
genome. DNA can be compared with a book of
infor­mation. Letters represent nucleotides, words
repre­s ent codons, sentences represent genes,
paragraphs represent loci and entire book as DNA
molecule or cell genome.
A DNA mol­ecule consists of a large number
of genes, each of which contains hundreds
of thousands of nucleotides. The bacterial
chromosome consists of a double-strand­e d
molecule of DNA arranged in a circular form. When
straightened, it is about 1,000 μm in length.
Introns and exons: In higher forms of life, several
stretches of DNA that do not appear to function
as codons occur between the coding sequences
of genes. These apparently useless noncoding
intrusions are called introns, while the stretches
of coded genes are called exons.
B. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Structure
Three major kinds of RNA have been identified
in cells. These are re­ferred to as messenger RNA
(mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer
RNA (tRNA). Each type of RNA has a specific role
in protein synthesis.
Gene Expression
Gene expression involves two separate but
interrelated process­es transcription and translation.
A. Transcription: Transcription is the process of
synthesizing RNA from a DNA template. The
DNA acts as a template for the transcription of
RNA by RNA polymerase for subsequent protein
production within the cell. RNA polymerase
attaches itself to the beginning of a gene on
DNA and synthesizes mRNA, using one of the
strands in DNA as a template. This process is
known as transcription. The bases in mRNA will
be complementary to one strand of DNA since
DNA acts as a template for synthesis of mRNA.
B. Translation: Translation is the process of
decoding the information carried on the mRNA
to synthesize the specified protein (Fig. 10.2).
Process of translation: The process of translation
requires three major components—mRNA,
ribosomes, and tRNAs, in addition to various
accessory proteins.
Messenger RNA (mRNA): The mRNA is a temporary
copy of genetic information. It carries the coded
information for making specific proteins from DNA
to ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.
Ribosomes: Serve as the sites of translation, and
their structure facilitates the joining of one amino
acid to another.
60  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology

Fig. 10.2: Synthesis of polypeptide

Transfer RNA (tRNA): The tRNA molecule

contains a triplet at one end and amino acid at
the other end. The ribosome moves along the
mRNA until the entire mRNA molecule has been
translated into corresponding sequences of amino
acids. Finally, the sequence of amino acids in
the resulting polypeptide chain determines the
configuration into which the polypeptide chain
folds itself, which in many cases determines the
enzymatic properties of the completed protein.
Central dogma of molecular biology: The flow
of information from DNA to RNA to protein is
often referred to as the central dogma of molecular
biology (DNA→RNA→ polypeptide) was once
believed that information flow pro­ceeded only
in this direction. These processes are illustrated
schematically in Figure 10.3.
Fig. 10.3: The lac operon of Escherichia coli
Extrachromosomal genetic
elements forms, though this distinction is not usually made
Plasmids now. These are not essential for the normal life
and functioning of the host bacterium. They
Most bacteria possess extra­chromosomal genetic
may confer on it properties leading to survival
element in addition to chromosomal DNA
advantage under appropriate conditions such as
elements known as plasmid. It con­sists of a circular
resistance to antibiotics, bacteriocin production
piece of double-stranded DNA, can replicate
toxigenicity, etc.
autonomously (independent replicons) and can
maintain in the cyto­p lasm of a bacterium for Conjuga­tive or nonconjugative plasmids: Such
many generations. Plasmids DNA sometimes plas­mid that contains the information for self-
may be integrated with chromosomal DNA. The transfer to another cell by conjugation is known
name episome was employed for such integrated as conjuga­tive or self-transmissible plasmid. Those

plasmids which do not possess information for
self-transfer to another cell are known as non-
conjugative or nonself-transmissible plasmids.
Genotypic and phenotypic
variations
There are two types of variation:
A. Phenotypic variation
B. Genotypic variation.
A. Phenotypic Variation
The phenotype (‘Phaeno’; display) is the physical
expression of various characters by bacterial cells
in a given environment. These properties are
determined not only by its genome (genotype),
but also by its environment. Phenotypic variations
are reversible.
Examples of Environmental Influence on
Bacteria
1. Synthesis of flagella: The typhoid bacillus is
normally flagellated. But the flagella are not
synthesized when grown in phenol agar and is
reversed when subcultured from phenol agar
into broth.
2. Synthesis of enzyme: Another example of
environmental influence is the synthesis
by Escherichia coli of the enzyme beta-
g a l a c t o s i d a s e, n e c e s s a r y f o r l a c t o s e
fermentation but the actual synthesis takes
place only when it is grown in a medium
containing lactose.
Such enzymes which are synthesized only
when induced by the substrate are called
induced enzymes. The enzymes which are
synthesized irrespective of the presence or
absence of the substrate are called constitutive
enzymes.
Regulation of Gene Expression
Lac Operon
Originally It was proposed in the early 1960s by
Jacob and Monod. They suggested that segments
of bacterial DNA are organized into functional
units called operons of which the most well-known
example is the lactose operon of Esch. coli (Fig. 10.3).
Lactose fermentation requires three enzymes:
Beta-galactosi­dase, galactoside permease and
transacetylase coded by structural genes LacZ, LacY
and LacA of Lac operon respectively (Fig. 10.4.).
Adjacent to the structural gene is the operator,
which is a sequence of bases that controls the
expression (transcription) of the structural genes
and a promoter next to the operator where the RNA
polymerase binds that will transcribe the structural
genes.
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Chapter 10: Bacterial Genetics  | 61
Fig. 10.4: Frameshift mutation
Also important, but not part of the operon, is a
distant regulatory gene (in this case is LacI) which
codes for a repres­sor protein. It is a protein molecule
which can combine with either operator region on
the chromosome or with the inducer (lactose).
Effect of Lactose on the Control of the Lactose
Operon
For transcription to occur as the first stage in
protein synthesis, RNA polymerase has to attach to
DNA at a specific promoter region and transcribe
the DNA in a fixed direction. In resting stage when
lactose (inducer) is not present in the medium,
repressor molecule is bound to the operator,
preventing the passage of RNA polymerase from
promoter to the structural genes. The repressor
molecule has an affinity for lactose, in the presence
of which it leaves the operator reg­ion free enabling
the transcription to take place. When lactose
present is completely metabolized, the repressor
again atta­c hes to the operator, switching off
transcription. Lactose acts both as an inducer and
the substrate for the enzyme.
B. Genotypic Variation
It is the hereditary constitution of the cell that is
transmitted to its progeny.
Genotypic variations are stable, heritable and
not influenced by the environment. They may
occur by mutation or by one of the mechanisms of
genetic transfer or exchange.
Mutation
It is a random, undirected, heritable variation
caused by an alteration in the nucleotide sequence
at some point of the DNA of the cell. It may be due
to addition, deletion or substitution of one or more
bases (Fig. 10.5).
The molecular mechanism of mutation is that
during DNA replication, some ‘error’ creeps in while
the progeny strands are copied.
62  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Fig. 10.5: Examples of types of mutation. A portion of the wild
type chromosome is shown on the top sequence from which
different mutational rearrangements are derived
Mutation is a natural event, taking place all the
time at its particular frequency in all the dividing
forms of life. Particular mutations occur at fairly
constant rates, normally between once per 104 and
once per 1010 cell divisions.
Though mutations are taking place all the time,
most mutants go unrecognized as the mutation
may involve minor function or it may be lethal.
Mutation is best appreciated when it involves a
func­tion which can be readily observed. Mutants
can be detected by selecting or testing for an altered
phenotype. For example, an E. coli mutant that
loses its ability to ferment lactose can be readily
detected on MacConkey agar but is unrecognizable
on nutrient agar.
Lethal mutation: Some mutations involve vital
functions, and such mutants are nonviable (lethal
mutation). An important type of lethal mutation
is conditional mutation.
Conditional mutation: A condi­tional lethal mutant
may be able to live under certain permissive
conditions but not under other or non­permissive
conditions. The most common type of con­ditional
mutant is the temperature sensitive (ts) mutant,
which is able to live at the permissive temper­ature
(say, 35°C), but not at the restrictive tempera­ture
(say, 39°C).
Recognition of mutation: Mutation can be best
recognized when it involves a function which can
be readily observed by experimental methods like
alteration in colonial morphology, pig­mentation,
alteration in cell surface antigens, sensitivity to
bacteriophages or bacteriocins, loss of abil­ity to
produce capsule or flagella, loss of virulence and
change in biochemical characters.
Types of Mutation
Mutations can be divided conveniently into:
A. Spontaneous mutation: Many mutations occur
spontaneously in nature in the absence of any
mutation-causing agents.
B. Induced mutation: The frequency of mutation is
greatly enhanced by exposure of cells to several
agents (mutagens) which may be physical or
chemical.
Mutagens
1. Physical agents: (i) UV rays; (ii) lonizing
radiation, e.g. X-rays; (iii) Visible light; (iv) Heat
2. Chemical agents: (i) Alkylating agents; (ii)
Acridine dyes ; (iii) 5-Bromouracil; (iv)
2-aminopurine; (v) Nitrous acid.
C. Point mutations: As the name suggests, point
mutations affect just one point (base pair)
in a gene. Such mutations may be a change
to or substitution of a different base pair.
Alternatively, a point mutation can result in
the deletion or addition of a base pair. It is, in
general, reversible and is of two classes:
1. Base pair substitution: This comprises those
mutants in which a single base pair (nucleotide)
has been substituted for another pair, and can
be subdivided into transition (one purine is
replaced by other purine or a pyrimidine is
replaced by other pyrimidine) and transversion
(substitution of a purine for a pyramidine and
vice versa in base pairing).
Normal sequence: The Fat Cat Ate The Rat.
Substitution: The Fat Can Ate The Rat.
Depending on the placement of the substituted
base, when the mRNA is translated this may cause
no change (silent mutation), lead to the insertion
of the wrong amino acid (missense mutation)
or generate a stop codon (nonsense mutation),
prematurely terminating the polypeptide.
Missense mutation: If the triplet code is altered
so as to specify an aminoacid different from that
normally located at a particular position in the
protein. This is called missense mutation.
Nonsense mutation: Deletion of a nucle­otide within
a gene may cause premature polypeptide chain
termination by generating a nonsense codon (UAG,
UAA or UGA). This is known as nonsense mutation.
2. Base pair deletion or insetion
Frameshift mutations: If the number of bases
inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, there
will be shift in the reading frame, i.e. frameshift
mutations. This shifts the normal ‘reading frame’ of
the coded message forming newest of triplet codon.
The coded message is read correctly up to the point
of addition or deletion, but the subsequent codons
will specify the incorrect amino acids (Fig. 10.4).
Survival advantage of mutation: When mutation
confers a survival advantage, it is of vital importance.
For example, if a streptomycin resistant mutant of
the tubercle bacillus develops in a patient under
treatment with the drug, it multiplies selectively
and ultimately replaces the orig­inal drug sensitive
population of bacteria.
 Chapter 10: Bacterial Genetics  | 63
Importance of Bacterial Mutation
1. Drug resistance and develop­m ent of live
vaccines: The practical importance of bacterial
mutation is mainly in the field of drug resistance
and develop­ment of live vaccines.

Mutant Selection in Laboratory

1. Fluctuation test: Luria and Delbruck (1943)
provided the proof that bacteria undergo
spontaneous mutation independent of the
environment by the ‘fluctuation test’. They
found that very wide fluctuations occurred
in the numbers of bacteriophage resistant E.
Fig. 10.6: Fluctuation test
coli colonies when samples were plated from
several separate small volume cultures, as
compared to samples tested from a single large
volume culture. Statistically, this indicated that
mutations occurred randomly in the separate
small volume cultures (Fig. 10.6) some early
and some late, resulting in the wide fluctuation.
In the large volume cultures, fluctuations
were within limits of sampling error. However,
the logic of this experiment was not widely
appreciated by microbiologists, probably due
to the complicated statistical interpretation.
2. Other tests
A. Direct (positive) selection
B. Indirect (negative) selection
C. Conditional lethal mutants
D. The Ames test.
A. Direct selection: Direct selection involves
inoculating cells onto a medium on which the
mutant, but not the parent, can grow.
B. Indirect selection: Indirect selection is required
to isolate an auxotrophic mutant, one that
requires a growth factor which the parent strain
does not. Fig. 10.7: Replica plating method
1. Replica plating: Replica plating, was devised
by the husband-and-wife team of Joshua and D. The Ames test: The test is based on the ability
Esther Lederberg in the early 1950s (Fig.10.7). of a potential mutagen to revert an auxo­trophic
In this technique, a master plate containing mutant to its prototrophic form.
isolated colonies of all cells growing on an
enriched medium is pressed onto sterile velvet Transmission of genetic material
(velvet template). Next, two sterile plates, one (gene transfer)
containing a glucose-salts (minimal) medium
DNA may be transferred between bacteria by the
and the second an enriched, complex medium,
following mechanisms:
are pressed in succession onto the same velvet.
A. Transformation
All cells that do not have a nutritional
B. Transduction
requirement will form colonies on both the
C. Lysogenic conversion
enriched and the glucose-salts medium, but
D. Conjugation.
auxotrophs will only form colonies on the
enriched medium- glucose-salts medium.
2. Penicillin Enrichment. A. Transformation
C. Conditional lethal Mutants Transformation is the transfer of genetic
One class of conditional lethal mutants are information through the agency of free (“naked”)
called temperature-sensitive mutant that can DNA (Fig. 10.8). The initial experiment on
grow only at their lower range of temperature transformation was performed by Frederick Griffith
as a result of defective proteins. in Eng­land in 1928.

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64  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Griffith’s Experiment Demonstrating Genetic
Transformation
i. Griffith (1928) found that injections of living
encapsulated bacteria killed the mouse (Fig.
10.9).
ii. Injections of live nonencapsulated bacteria
or dead encapsulated bacteria did not kill the
mouse.
iii. When the dead encapsulated bacteria were
mixed with live nonencapsulated bacteria and
injected into the mice, many of the mice died.
In the blood of the dead mice, Griffith found
living, encapsulated bacteria. Hereditary
material (genes) from the dead bacteria
had entered the live cells and changed
Fig. 10.8: The mechanism of genetic transformation in
bacteria
Fig. 10.9: Transformation experiment of Griffith
them genetically so that their progeny were
encapsulated and therefore virulent.
The nature of the trans­forming principle was
identified as DNA by Oswald T. Avery and
his associates Colin M MacLeod and Maclyn
McCarty in the United States in 1944.
Transformation and Bacteria: Transformation
occurs naturally among very few genera of bacteria,
including Bacillus, Haemophilus, Neisseria,
Acinetobacter, and certain strains of the genera
Streptococ­cus and Staphylococcus.
B. Transduction
The transfer of a portion of the DNA from one
bacterium to another by a bacteriophage is known
as transduction. Bacteriophages are viruses that
parasitise bacteria and consist of a nucleic acid
core and a protein coat. Most bacteriophages carry
their genetic information (the phage genome) as a
length of double-stranded DNA coiled up inside
a protein coat. When bacteriophages multiply
inside an infected bacterial cell, each phage head is
normally filled with a copy of the replicated phage
genome. During the assembly of bacte­riophage
progeny inside infected bacteria, ‘packaging
errors’ may occur occasionally. A phage particle
may have at its core a segment of the host DNA
besides its own nucleic acid. When this particle
infects another bacterium, DNA transfer is affected
and the recipient cell acquires new characteristic
coded by the donor DNA. Bacterial genes have
been transduced by the phage into the second cell
(Fig.10.10).

Fig. 10.10: Transduction by a bacteriophage (showing generalized transduction)
Types of Transduction
Two major types of transduction are known to
occur in bacteria: Generalized transduction and
specialized transduction.
1. Generalized transduction: Since phages of
this type pick up any portion of the bacterial
chromosome at random are termed generalized
transducing phages.
2. Specialized or restricted transduction: A specific
bac­teriophage transduces only a particular
genetic trait.
Role of Transduction
1. In episomes and plasmids.
2. Penicillin resistance in staphylococci: The
plasmids determining penicillin resistance in
staphylococci are transferred from cell to cell
by transduction.
3. Genetic mapping of bacteria.
4. Treatment of some inborn metabolic defects.
C. Lysogenic Conversion
Bacteriophages exhibit two types of life cycle:
Virulent or lytic cycle; ii. Temperate or nonlytic
cycle:
i. Virulent or lytic cycle: In the virulent or lytic
cycle, large numbers of progeny phages are
built up inside the host bacterium, which
ruptures to release them.
ii. Temperate or nonlytic cycle: In the temperate or
nonlytic cycle, the host bacterium is unharmed.
The phage DNA becomes integrated with
the bacterial chromosome as the prophage
and is replicated stably as part of the host
cell chromosome and is transferred to the
daughter cells. This process is called lysogeny
and bacteria harbouring prophages are called
lysogenic bacteria. In lysogenic bacteria, the
prophage behaves as an additional segment
of the bacterial chromosome, coding for new
characteristic. This process by which the
prophage DNA confers genetic information
to a bacterium is called lysogenic or phage
conversion. In transduction, the phage acts
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Chapter 10: Bacterial Genetics  | 65
only as a vehicle carry­ing bacterial genes
from one cell to another; but in lysogenic
conversion, the phage DNA itself is the new
genetic element. Lysogenic conversion
influences susceptibility to bacteriophages
(immunity to super­infection with the same or
related phages) and anti­genic characteristics.
Lysogeny is extremely fre­quent in nature.
This is a symbiotic relationship in which the
integrated phage DNA imparts immunity to
the lysogenized cell against superinfection by
genetically related phages, as well as certain
unrelated phages.
Medical Importance
1. Toxigenicity in diphtheria bacilli: Of great
medical importance is the lysogenic conversion
in diphtheria bacilli, which acquire toxigenicity
(and therefore virulence) by lysogenization
with the phage beta.
2. Production of staphylococci, streptococci
and Clostridia toxins is also dependent
upon lysogenic conversion by specific
bacteriophages.
D. Conjugation
Conjugation is a process in which one cell, the
donor or male cell, makes contact with another,
the recipient or female cell, and DNA is transferred
directly from the donor into the recipient.
Lederberg and Tatum (1946) first described
bacterial conju­gation in a strain of E. coli called
K12.
Types of Conjugation
Three types of conjugation are described below:
1. Plasmid Transfer
Populations of E. coli can be divided into two types
of cells. One, the donor cell, contains an F or fertility
plasmid and is designated F+. The other, the recipient
cell, does not contain this plasmid and is called
F–. DNA is transferred only in one direction, from
F+ to F– that is in a polar fashion. Consequently, F+
cells are often referred to as males and the F– cells
66  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Fig. 10.11: Conjugation in E. coil
as females. The F plasmid codes for the synthesis of
a struc­ture, the sex or F pilus (Conjugation tube),
the protein appendage that attaches the donor
to the recipient cell (Fig. 10.11) and holds the
two cells together so that DNA can then pass into
the recipient cell. Donor cells can transfer their F
plasmid but not their chromosome into recipi­ent
cells. In this way, a sex factor may spread rapidly
through a whole population of recipient cells. This
process is sometimes described as infectious spread
of a plasmid. The maleness in bacteria is thus a
transmissible or ‘infectious’ characteristic.
F factor (Fertility factor)
The F factor is a transfer factor that contains the
genetic information necessary for the synthesis of
the sex pilus and for self-transfer. Cells that contain
the F plasmid free in the cytoplasm (F+ cells) have
no unusual characteristics apart from the ability
to produce F pili and to transfer the F plasmid
to F– cells by conjugation. It was in E. coli K12
that the role of plasmids in conjugation was first
recognized. When other similar plasmids were also
discovered, the name ‘transfer factor’ came to be
used for all such plasmids which conferred on their
host cells the ability to act as donors in conjugation.
2. Chromosomal Transfer
High-frequency recombination (Hfr)( Fig.
10.12): The bacterial chromosome is sometimes
transferred to F-cells by a few cells in the F
population. The F factor is, actually an episome
and has the ability to exist in some cells in the
‘integrated state’ or inserted into the host
chromosome in a very small proportion of F +
cells. Once inserted, the entire chromosome
behaves like an enormous F plasmid, and hence
chromosomal genes can be transferred in the
normal sex factor manner to a recipient cell
at a relatively high frequency. Cultures of cells
in which the F plasmid has inserted into the
chromosome are consequently termed high-
frequency recombination (Hfr) strains because
such cells are able to transfer chro­mosomal genes
to recipient cells with high frequency.
Fig. 10.12: High-frequency recombination (Hfr)
3. Plasmid and Chromosomal Transfer
There is an additional mechanism by which
chromosomal genes may be mobilized by con­
jugation to a recipient cell. This conversion of
an F+ cell into the Hfr state is reversible. When
the F factor reverts from the inte­grated state to
the free state, the F plasmid is not always excised
accurately, and occasionally an F plasmid is
excised together with some of the neighboring
chromosomal genes. An F plasmid that has picked
up a small portion of the chromosome in this way
is known as an F-prime (F’). When an F’ cell mates
with a recipient, it transfers along with the F factor,
the host genes incorporated with it. This process
of transfer of host genes through the F’ factor
resembles transduction and has therefore been
called sexduction (Fig. 10.13)
Medically Important Factors Transferred
by Conjugation
Colicinogenic (Col) factor and resistance transfer
factor (RTF) are two medically important factors
which can be transferred by conjugation.
A. Colicinogenic (Col) Factor
Several strains of coliform bacteria produce
colicins-antibiotic-like sub­s tances which are
specifically and selectively lethal to other
enterobacteria. Bacteria other than coliforms
also produce similar kind of substances, e.g.
pyocin by Pseudomonas pyocyanea, diphthericin
by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, so the name
bacteriocin has been given to this group of
substances. Colicin production is determined by
 Chapter 10: Bacterial Genetics  | 67

Fig. 10.13: Sexduction

a plasmid called the Col factor, which resembles

the F factor in promoting conjugation, leading to
self-transfer and, at times, transfer of chromosomal
segments.

B. Resistance Factors or R Plasmids

Resistance factors (R factors) are plasmids that
have significant medical importance as it leads
to the spread of multiple drug resistance among
bacteria. They were first discovered in Japan in
1959 after several dysentery epidemics by the
Shigella strains, resistant simultaneously to usual
four drugs. In addition, they observed that patients
excreting such Shigella strains also shed in their
feces other normal bacteria from the patients such
as E. coli strains resistant to the same drugs. The Fig. 10.14: Two regions of an R plasmid. The RTF contains
genes needed for plasmid replication and transfer of the
re­sistance is plasmid-mediated and is transferred
plasmid by conjugation to other bacteria; r determinants
by conjugation. This mechanism of drug resistance carry genes for resistance to different antibiotics
is known as transferable, episomal or infectious
drug resistance.
Characteristics of R factor: This R plasmid consists
of two components : RTF+r determinants. The Factors influencing R factor transfer: The transfer
whole plasmid (RTF+r determinants) is known can be effect­ed readily in vitro. It also occurs in
as the R factor. An R factor can have several r vivo but in the normal gut, it is inhibited by several
determinants, and resistance to as many as eight factors, such as anaerobic conditions, bile salts,
or more drugs can be transferred simultaneously alkaline pH and the abundance of anaerobic. In
(Fig. 10.14). the intestines of persons on oral antibiotic therapy,
Resistance transfer factor (RTF): The transfer factor transfer occurs readily due to the destruction of the
called the resistance transfer factor (RTF) is res­ sensitive normal flora and the selection pressure
ponsible for conjugal transfer. produced by the drug.

Resistance determinant (r): A resistance determinant Features of R Factor

(r) code for resistance against various drugs.
Nonconjugative and conjugative plasmids:
Sometimes the RTF may dissociate from the r
determinants, the two components existing as
separate plasmids. In such cases, though the host
cell remains drug resistant, the resistance is not
transferable. Those plasmids which lack RTF, i.e.
possess only r deter­minants are known as non-
conjugative or nonself­transmissible plasmids but
they still code for drug resistance. Those plasmids
which possess both RTF and r determinants
are known as conjugative or self-transmissible
plasmids.
1. Transfer to antimicrobial and heavy metal-
sensitive bacteria.
2. Wide host ranges and can multiply in a wide
variety of different gram­-negative genera, such
as Shigella, Salmonella, Escherichia, Yersinia,
Klebsiella, Vibrio, and Pseudomonas.
3. Serious problems for the treatment of infectious
diseases with antibiotics.
4. Transmission from animals to man: Hence,
indiscriminate use of antibiotics in veter­inary
practice or in animal feeds can also lead to
an in­crease of multiple drug resistance in the
community.

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68  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Genetic mechanisms of drug Table 10.1  Comparison of mutational and trans­
resistance in bacteria ferable drug resistance
Mutational drug Transferable drug
Mechanisms of Drug Resistance in resistance resistance
Bacteria 1. Resistance to one 1. Multiple drug resistance
A. By mutation (chromosomal) drug at a time at one time
B. By genetic exchange. 2.  Low degree resistance 2.  High degree resistance
3. Can overcome by high 3.  High dose ineffective
A. By Mutation (Chromosomal) drug dose
Mutational resistance is mainly of two types: 4. Development of 4. Development of drug
1. Stepwise mutation: The stepwise mutation, drug resistance resistance cannot be
as seen with penicillin, where high levels of can be prevented prevented treatment
by treatment with with combination of
resistance are achieved only by a series of combination of drug drugs
small-step mutations. 5. Resistance is not 5. Resistance is transferable
2. Single large-step mutation or ‘one-step’ mutation: transferable to other organisms
As seen with streptomycin, the drug target is 6. Mutants may 6.  Not defective
altered by mutation so that it is totally unable be metabolically
to bind a drug. defective
7.  Virulence may be low 7.  Virulence not decreased
Clinical importance in tuberculosis: Mutational
resistance is of clinical importance in tuberculosis.
If a patient is treated with streptomycin alone are larger (4–25 Kb) composite elements
initially, the bacilli die in large numbers but soon containing genes for movement as well as
resistant mutants appear and multiply unchecked. genes that encode for various functions, such
If two or more antituberculous, drugs are used for as drug resistance and toxin production. In the
combined treatment, repopulation by resistant 1950s, American geneticist Barbara McClintock
mutants does not occur, as a mutant resistant to discovered transposons in corn during her studies
one drug will be destroyed by the other drug. on maize genetics, for which she was awarded the
Inadequate or inappropriate treat­ment over the Nobel prize for Medicine in 1983.
years has caused extensive resistance in tubercle
bacilli, leading to a pandemic of multidrug resistant
Structure of Transposons
tuberculosis (MDR TB) across the world. The simplest transposable elements are insertion
sequences (IS), or IS elements. It is a short
B. By Genetic Exchange sequence of DNA that contains a gene that
Transferable antibiotic resistance codes for enzyme. The more complex is called a
1. Transformation: Its significance in nature is not composite transposon.All transposons contain the
known. information for their own transposition.
2. Transduction: Acquisition of resistance by A transposon is a segment of DNA with
transduction is common in staphylococci. one or more genes in the center, and the two
The penicillinase plasmids are transmitted by ends carrying ‘inverted repeat’ sequences of
transduction. nucleotides-­nucleotide sequences complementary
3. Conjugation: Plasmids conferring resistance to each other but in the reverse order. Because of
to one or more unrelated groups of antibiotics this feature, each strand of the transposon can
(R plasmids) can be transferred rapidly by form a single-stranded loop car­r ying the gene,
conjugation. and a double-stranded stem formed by hydrogen
Transferable drug resistance mediated by the bonding between the terminal inverted repeat
R factor is the most important method of drug sequences (Fig. 10.15).
resist­ance. Table 10.1 compares mutational and
Significance of Transposons
transferable drug resistance.
1. Mechanism for amplifying ge­netic transfers
Transposable genetic elements 2. Spread from one organism-or species-to another
3. Antibiotic resistance
Certain structurally and genetically discrete
4. Gene manipulations.
seg­ments of DNA which move around between
chromosomal and extrachro­m osomal DNA Molecular Genetics
molecules within cells are called transposons
(‘jumping genes’). This mode of genetic transfer Genetic Engineering
is called transposition. They vary from simple Genetic engineering is a method of inserting foreign
(insertion sequences) to complex. Transposons genes into a bacterium and obtaining chemically

useful products. Genetic engineering, also known
as recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology, uses the
techniques and tools developed by the bacterial
geneticists to purify, amplify, modify, and express
specific gene sequences.
Genetic Engineering Procedure (Fig. 10.16)
This consists of isolation of the genes coding for any
desired protein from microorganisms or from cells
Fig. 10.15: Structure of transposon
Fig. 10.16: A typical genetic engineering procedure
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Chapter 10: Bacterial Genetics  | 69
of higher forms of life including human beings, and
their introduction into suitable microorganisms, in
which the genes would be functional, directing the
produc­tion of the specific protein. Such cloning of
genes in microorganisms enables the preparation
of the desired protein in pure form, in large
quantities and at a reasonable cost.
Basic Tools of Genetic Engineering
1. Cloning vectors: Cloning vectors can be used
to deliver the DNA sequences into receptive
bacteria and amplify the desired sequence.
Many types of vectors are currently used
such as plasmid vectors, bacteriophages and
other viruses, cosmid vectors, and artificial
chromosomes.
2. Restriction endonucleases (restriction
enzymes): Restriction enzymes are microbial
enzymes which cleave double-stranded DNA at
specific oligonucleotide sequences. Restriction
enzyme recognizes and cuts, or digests, only
one particicular sequence of nucleotide bases
in DNA, and it cuts this sequence in the same
way each time. These enzymes are present in
many prokaryotes organisms, e.g. restriction
endonuclease Eco RI, Hind Ill, obtained from
E. coli, H. influenzae.
3. DNA ligase: The enzyme that links the fragment
to the cloning vector.
70  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Applications of Genetic Engineering
1. Production of vaccines: Foot and mouth disease,
hepatitis B, ra­bies viruses and DNA vaccine.
2. Production of proteins of therapeutic interest:
Human growth hormones, human insulin,
erythropoietin, blood-clotting factor VIII,
tissue plasminogen activator, interferons,
tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-1, 2, and
3, granulocyte colony stimulating factor,
epidermal growth factor, fibroblast growth
factor, somatostatin, growth hormones are
proteins of therapeutic interest.
C l o n e d h u m a n i n s u l i n , i n t e r f e r o n s,
somatostatin, growth hormones and many
other biologicals have already been marketed.
3. Gene therapy.
4. Others: It has also become essen­t ial to
laboratory diagnosis, forensic science, agricul­
ture, and many other disciplines.
Genetic probes
DNA Probes
DNA probes are pieces of radiolabeled or
chromogenically labeled pieces of single-stranded
DNA that will bind to DNA that is complementary
to the probe using hybridizing technique. The
specificity of the interaction in base pairing during
DNA or RNA synthesis enables the production of
specific DNA probes.
Development of nucleic acid probe: All
microorganisms, simple or complex, contain
some unique sequences of DNA or RNA within
their genome that ‘distinguish them from all other
organ­isms. DNA probes are chemically synthesized
or obtained by cloning specific genomic fragments
or an entire vi­ral genome into bacterial vectors
(plasmids, cosmids).
Fig. 10.17: Principles of nucleic acid hybridization
Hybridization: It is the process whereby two single
strands of nucleic acid come together to form a
stable double-stranded molecule.
Detection of hybridization: Hybridization assays
require that one nucleic acid strand (probe)
originates from an organism of known identity
and the other strand (the target) originates from
unknown organisms to be detected or identified.
Identification of unknown organism is
established by positive hybridization (i.e. duplex
formation) between a probe nucleic acid strand
(from unknown organisms) and a target nucleic
acid strand from the organism to be identified.
Failure to hybridize indicates lack of homology
between probe and target nucleic acid. Positive
hybridization identifies the unknown organism
as being the same as the probe-source organisms.
With a negative hybridization test, the organism
remains undetected or unidentified (Fig. 10.17).
Applications of Nucleic Acid Probes
DNA probes have already been used successfully
to identify a wide variety of pathogens, from simple
viruses to pathogenic bacteria and parasites.
1. Antibiotic resistance: Probes have also been
developed which can recognize specific
antibiotic resistance genes.
2. Culture confirmation: DNA probes are being used
for culture confirmation as an alternative to con­
ventional, time-consuming or labor-intensive
meth­o ds in the diagnostic laboratory. For
example, DNA hybridization makes it pos­sible
to rapidly identify Mycobacterium tuberculo­sis,
M. kansasii, M. avium complex, and M. gordonae
isolated in culture, significantly reducing the time
for reporting of the species of the isolate.
3. Direct detection in clinical specimen: For
detection of fas­tidious organisms directly in

clinical specimens, probe technology may also
be used. Examples are Neisseria gonorrhoeae
and Chlamydia trachomatis.
Blotting techniques
1. Southern blotting: Very specific DNA sequences
can be detected us­ing hybridization techniques
with a technique known as the Southern blot.
This highly sensitive technique for identifying
DNA frag­ments by DNA: DNA hybridization is
called Southern blotting, after EM Southern
who devised it. This tech­nique has very wide
applications in DNA analysis.
2. Northern blotting: An analogous procedure for
the analysis of RNA has been called Northern
blotting (as opposed to southern blotting).
Here the RNA mixture is separat­e d by gel
electrophoresis, blotted and identified using
labeled DNA or RNA probes.
3. Western blotting (Western blot assay): A similar
technique for the identificaion of proteins
(antigens) is called immunoblotting (or, in
conformity with other blotting technique,
western blotting). The Western blot detects
antibody instead of DNA.
i. The DNA (or RNA) of a particular etiologic
agent is treated with endonucleases, or the
protein components of an agent are treated
with proteinases to create fragments of
different size.
ii. The nucleic acid or protein fragments are
separated by agarose gel electrophoresis,
i.e. PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulfate-poly­
acrylamide gel electrophoresis).
iii. The patterns are then blotted onto nitro­
cellulose as in the Southern hybridization
assay.
iv. The filter paper containing spe­cific nucleic
acids or proteins is then allowed to react
with antiserum from a patient or animal
sus­pected of containing antibodies against
the agent. If present, antibodies will bind
to the protein or nucleic acid against
which they were created, and they can
then be detected by visual methods for
the detection of antibodies (e.g. enzyme-
labeled probes, fluorescent markers).
Use: Diagnosis of human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) antibody—The Western blot test has
received wide publicity as the confirma­tory test for
the diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) antibody in sera.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or gene
amplification method is a rapid automated method
for the amplification of specific DNA sequences
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Chapter 10: Bacterial Genetics  | 71
(or genes). PCR was invented and patented from
the Cetus Corpo­ration. Kary Mulis invented this
method in 1989. He was awarded Nobel Prize in
1993. It is the most widely used target nucleic acid
amplification method.
Principle: PCR is based on repeated cycles
of high temperature template denaturation,
oligonucleotide primer annealing, and polymerase
mediated extension. It makes avail­able abundant
quantities of specific DNA sequences starting from
sources containing minimal quantities of the same.
Procedure: The reaction consists of three essential
steps:
1. Dena­turation: Heat at 94°C is applied to the
target DNA, breaking the bonds that hold the
strands toge­ther. This is known as denaturation.
2. Primer annealing: The temperature is reduced
to 50–60°C, then oligonucleotide primers
attach to target DNA. This temperature is
called annealing temperature and the process
is known as annealing of primers.
3. Primerextension: Then polymerase enzyme
triggers the forma­t ion of new DNA strand
from the nucleotides. Extension of the primers
is done by a thermo­stable Taq polymerase
(purified from Thermus aquaticus. This
is known as primer extension. When, the
temperature is again raised the new strands
separate and the process begins again.
All of the necessary reagents are added
to a tube, which is placed in a thermocycler.
These pro­g rammable thermal cycles are
used to maintain continuous reaction cycles.
As shown in Figure 10.18, for each target
sequence originally present in the PCR mixture,
two double stranded fragments containing
the target sequence are produced after one
cycle. Therefore, with comple­tion of each cycle
there is a doubling of target nucleic acid and
after 30–40 cycles 107–108 target copies will
be present in the reaction mixture, a sharp
contrast to the days required by conventional
amplification method (culture).
Detection of PCR Products
Amplified sequences of target DNA can be det­ected
by a variety of methods:
1. Gel electrophoresis and ethidium bromide
staining.
2. Southern blot and dot-blot analysis.
Applications of PCR
The development of PCR or gene amplification
method is a major meth­odological breakthrough
in molecular biology. Within a short span, this
method has found its way into nearly every type
of laboratory from forensic to ecology and from
diagnosis to pure research.
72  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
Fig. 10.18: Polymerase chain reaction
1. In clinical laboratory: Applications of PCR in
clinical laboratory are given in Table 10.2.
2. In diagnosis of inherited disorders: Such as sickle
cell anemia, β-thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, etc.
3. In cancer detection: Identification of muta­
tions in oncosuppressor genes, such as
retinoblastoma gene.
4. In medicolegal cases: PCR allows DNA in
a single cell, hair follicle or sperm to be
amplified enormously and analyzed. The
pattern obtained is then compared with that
of various suspects.
Derivations/Modifications of the PCR
Method
Specific examples include multiplex PCR, nested
PCR, quantitative PCR, RT-PCR, arbitrary primed
PCR, and PCR for nucleotide sequencing.
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy is inserting a missing gene or replac­
ing a defective one in human cells. The benefit of
this therapy is to permanently cure the physiological
dysfunction by repairing the genetic defect.
Adenoviruses and retro­viruses are used most
often to deliver genes.
Applications
1. To treat patients with adenosine deaminase
(ADA) deficiency, a cause of severe combined
immunodeficiency disease (SCID); Duchenne’s
muscular dystrophy, a muscle-destroying
disease; cystic fibrosis; and LDL-receptor
deficiency. Results are still being evaluated.
2. Hemophilia: The first gene therapy to treat
hemophilia in humans was done in 1999.
 Chapter 10: Bacterial Genetics  | 73
Table. 10.2  Applications of PCR in clinical laboratory
Diagnosis of infections due to:
A. Viruses HIV-1, HIV-2, HTLV-1, cytomegalovirus, human papillomavirus, herpes simplex viruses, hepatitis B virus, HCV,
HDV, HEV, rubella virus, Epstein-Barr virus, varicella-zoster virus, human herpes virus-6 and 7, parvovirus B19,
enteroviruses, coxsackieviruses/echoviruses, rhinoviruses, measles virus, rotavirus, I adenovirus, respiratory
syncytial virus.
B. Bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium complex, Legionella pneumophila, Chlamydia trachomatis,
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Campylobacter spp., Corynebacterium
diphtheriae, Leptospira interrogans, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Yersinia enterocolitica.
C. Fungi Candida spp., Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus spp. Pneumocystis carinii.
D. Protozoa Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma cruzi, Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Encephalitozoon hellem, Plasmodiumspp.
HIV-1, human immunodeficiency virus; HTLV-1, human T cell leukemia virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HDV, hepatitis D virus; HEV, hepatitis
E virus

3. Other genetic diseases may also be treatable Important questions

by gene therapy in the future, including
1. Describe the structure and functions of the plasmids.
diabetes, sick­le cell disease, and one type of 2. Define mutation. Discuss various types of mutations.
hypercholesterolemia, high blood cholesterol. 3. Name the various methods of gene transfer. Discuss
4. To treat hepatitis, cancers, and one type of anyone of these in detail.
coronary artery disease. 4. Write short notes on:
a. Extrachromosomal genetic elements
Key Points b. Plasmids
c. Lac operon
™™ Genetics is the study of genes, their structure and d. Transformation
function, heredity and variation
e. Transduction
™™ A gene is a segment of DNA, a sequence of
f. Lysogenic conversion
nucleotides, that codes for a functional product,
g. Conjugation
usually a protein
h. Fertility factor (F-factor)
™™ There are three different functional groups of RNA
molecules: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA i. High frequency recombination (Hfr)
(rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA) j. R-plasmids
™™ Plasmids: Bacte­ria often have one or more small k. Resistance transfer factor (RTF)
closed loops of DNA called plasmids. These 5. Differentiate between mutational and plasmid-
structures carry infor­mation that can confer selective mediated drug resistance in a tabulated form.
advantages (e.g. antibiotic resistance, protein toxins) 6. Write short notes on:
to the bacteria that contain them a. Transposable genetic elements
™™ Mutation: Mutation is a permanent change in the b. Genetic engineering
cellular DNA. This can occur spontaneously in nature c. Restriction endonucleases
resulting from a replication error or the effects of 7. Write short notes on:
natural radiation –– DNA probes and their applications.
Mechanisms of Gene Transfer –– Blotting techniques.
1. Transformation: DNA-mediated transformation 8. Discuss polymerase chain reaction. What are the
involves the transfer of “naked” DNA applications of this reaction in clinical practice?
2. Transduction: Transduction involves the transfer of
bacterial DNA by a bacteriophage Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
In generalized transduction, any bacterial genes can
be transferred. 1. The following are non-sense codons except:
3. Lysogenic conversion has two types of life cycles. a. UAA b. UAG
4. Conjugation c. UGA d. AGG
2. The process of transfer of genetic information from
™™ R plasmids code for antibiotic resistance; many are
self-transmissible to other bacteria DNA to RNA is known as:
a. Transformation
™™ Mechanisms of drug resistance in bacteria
b. Transduction
(A) By mutation (chromosomal); (B) By genetic
c. Transcription
exchange
d. Translation
™™ Transposons are small segments of DNA that can
3. The process of transfer of DNA from the donor
move from one region to another region of the
bacterium to the recipient bacterium during the
same chromosome, or to a different chromosome
or a plasmid mating of two bacterial cells is known as
a. Transformation
™™ Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): PCRs are amplified
methods. It can be used to increase the amounts of
b. Transposition
DNA in sam­ples to detectable levels. c. Transduction
d. Conjugation

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74  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
4. Which of the following properties may be plasmid- 10. The transfer of genetic information through the
mediated? agency of free (naked) DNA is called:
a. Antibiotic resistance a. Transformation
b. Enterotoxin production b. Transduction
c. Bacteriocin production c. Conjugation
d. All of the above d. Lysogenic conversion
5. The mutation in which a purine is replaced by 11. The transfer of a portion of DNA from one bacterium
pyrimidine and vice-versa in base pairing, is named: to another by a bacteriophage is known as:
a. Transversion a. Transformation
b. Transition b. Transduction
c. Induced mutation c. Conjugation
d. None of the above d. Lysogenic conversion
6. The mutation in which one purine is replaced 12. Which of the following factors is responsible for
by other purine and a pyrimidine is replaced by transferable drug resistance in bacteria?
another pyrimidine, is named as: a. Resistance transfer factor
a. Transversion b. F factor
b. Transition c. Colicogenic factor
d. All of the above
c. Induced mutation
d. None of the above 13. Resistance transfer factor can be transferred from
7. Frame-shift mutation occurs: one bacterium to another by:
a. When one or more base pairs are added or a. Transformation
deleted in the DNA b. Transduction
c. Conjugation
b. When base substitution in DNA produces a
d. None of the above
terminal codon
c. When one base in the nucleotide sequence is 14. Which of the following statement is true for
inserted in place of another mutational drug resistance?
d. Transposons are integrated into the DNA a. Resistance to one drug at a time
b. Resistance to multiple drugs at one time
8. The DNA is transmitted from one bacterium to
c. High degree resistance
another by all the methods except:
d. Resistance is transferable to other organisms
a. Transformation
b. Transposition 15. Western blotting is done for:
a. Detecting DNA sequesing
c. Transduction
b. Analysis of RNA
d. Conjugation
c. Identification of proteins
9. The process of transfer of DNA from the donor d. All of the above
bacterium to the recipient bacterium during the
mating of two bacterial cells is known as: Answers (MCQs)
a. Transformation b. Transposition 1. d; 2. c; 3. d; 4. d; 5. a; 6. b; 7. a; 8. b; 9. d; 10. a; 11. b; 12.
c. Transduction d. Conjugation a; 13. c; 14. a; 15. c.

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Define the terms saprophytes, parasite, commensal,
pathogen
∙∙ Describe classification of infections
∙∙ Define and differentiate primary, secondary,
opportunistic and reinfections
Introduction
Infection and immunity involve interaction
between the animal body (host) and the infecting
microorganisms.
Microorganisms and host
Based on their relationship to their host, they can
be divided into saprophytes and parasites.
A. Saprophytes
Saprophytes (from Greek sapros-decayed; and
phyton-plant) are free-living microbes that live on
dead or decaying organic matter. They are found
in soil and water. They are of little relevance in
infectious disease.
B. Parasites
Parasites are microbes that can establish themselves
and multiply in the hosts. Parasite microbes may
be either pathogens or commensals:
1. Pathogens
Pathogens (from Greek pathos, disease; and gen, to
produce) are the microorganisms or agents, which
are capable of producing disesase in the host. Its
ability to cause disease is called pathogenicity.
Types of Pathogens
They are of two types: primary and opportunist
pathogens.
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11
Chapter
Infection
∙∙ Name and define various types of carriers
∙∙ Discuss modes of spread of infection giving suitable
examples
∙∙ List the differences between exotoxins and
endotoxins.
a. Primary (frank) Pathogens
Primary (frank) pathogens are the organisms, which
are capable of producing disease in previously
healthy individuals with intact immunological
defences.
b. Opportunist Pathogens
Opportunist pathogens rarely cause disease
in individuals with intact immunological and
anatomical defences. These bacteria are able
to cause disease only when such defences are
impaired or compromised.
2. Commensals
Commensals (organisms of normal flora) are the
microorganisms that live in complete harmony
with the host without causing any damage to it.
Infection and infectious disease
It is necessary to distinguish between the term
‘infection’ and ‘infectious disease.’
Infection
The lodgement and multiplication of a parasite in
or on the tissues of a host constitute infection. It
does not invariably result in disease.
Classification of infections
Infections may be classified in various ways:
1. Primary infection: Initial infection with a
parasite in a host is termed primary infection.
76  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
2. Reinfections: Subsequent infections by the same
parasite in the host are termed reinfections.
3. Secondary infection: When a new parasite sets
up an infection in a host whose resistance is
lowered by a preexisting infectious disease,
this is termed secondary infection.
4. Local infection: The term local infection
(more appropriately local sepsis) indi­cates
a condition where, due to infection or sepsis
at localized sites such as appendix or tonsils,
generalized effects are produced.
5. Cross-infection: When in a patient already suffer­
ing from a disease, a new infection is set up from
an­other host or another external source, it is
termed cross-infection.
6. Nosocomial infections: Cross-infections
occurring in hospitals are called nosocomial
infections (from Greek nosocomion hospital).
7. Iatrogenic infection: The term iatrogenic infect­
ion refers to physician induced infections
resulting from investigative, therapeutic or
other procedures.
8. Inapparent infection: Inapparent infection is
one where clinical effects are not apparent.
9. Subclinical infection: The term subclinical
infection is often used as a synonym to
inapparent infection.
10. Atypical infection: Atypical infection is one
in which the typical or char­acteristic clinical
manifestations of the particular infectious
disease are not present.
11. Latent infection: Some parasites, fol­lowing
infection, may remain in the tissues in a latent
or hidden form proliferating and producing
clinical disease when the host resistance is
lowered. This is termed latent infection.
Sources of infection
A. Human beings
B. Animals
C. Insects
D. Soil and water
E. Food.
A. Human Beings
The most common source of infection for human
beings is human beings themselves. The parasite
may originate from a patient or carrier.
Humans serving as the microbial reservoir:
i. Acquisition of “strep” throat through touching
ii. Hepatitis by blood transfusions
iii. Gonorrhea, syphilis, and AIDS by sexual contact
iv. Tuberculosis by coughing; and the common
cold through sneezing.
Carrier
A carrier is person who harbors the microorganisms
without suffering from any ill effect` because of it.
There are several types of carriers:
1. Convalescent carrier: An individual who has
recovered from the infectious disease but
continues to harbor large numbers of pathogen.
2. Healthy carrier: A healthy carrier is an individual
who harbors the pathogen but is not ill.
3. Incubatory carrier: An incubatory carrier is an
individual who is incubating the pathogen in
large numbers but is not yet ill.
4. Temporary carriers: Convalescent, healthy, and
incubatory carriers may harbor the pathogen
for only a brief period (hours, days, or weeks)
and lasts less than six months.
5. Chronic carriers: They harbor the pathogen for
long periods (months, years, or life).
6. Contact carriers: The term contact carrier is
applied to a person who acquires the pathogen
from a patient.
7. Paradoxical carrier: This refers to a carrier who
acquires the pathogens from another carrier.
B. Animals
Reservoir hosts: Many pathogens are capable
of causing infections in both human beings and
animals. Therefore, animals may act as a source of
infection of such organisms. These, animals serve to
maintain the parasite in nature and act as reservoir
and they are, therefore, called reservoir hosts.
Zoonosis: The diseases and infections, which
are transmissible to man from animals are called
zoonosis.
Examples of zoonotic diseases
Bacterial: Anthrax, brucellosis, Q fever, leptospirosis,
bovine tuberculosis, bubonic plague, Salmonella
food poisoning.
Viral: Rabies, yellow fever, cowpox, monkeypox.
Protozoal: Leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, trypano­
somiasis, babesiosis.
Helminthic: Echinococcosis, taeniasis, trichinellosis.
Fungal: Microsporum canis, Trichophyton verru­
cosum.
C. Insects
Arthropod-borne Diseases
Blood-sucking insects, such as mosquitos, ticks,
mites, flies, and lice may transmit pathogens to
human beings and diseases so caused are called
arthropod borne diseases.
Vectors
Insects that transmit infections are called vectors.
Vector-borne transmission can be of two types
either mechanical (external) or biological (internal).

i. Mechanical vector: The disease agent is
transmitted mechanically by the arthropod.
Examples : Transmission of diarrhea,
dysentery, typhoid, food poisoning and
trachoma by the housely.
ii. Biological vectors: Biological vectors are those
in whom the pathogens multiply sufficiently
or has undergone a developmental cycle.
The interval between the time of entry of
the pathogen into the vector and the vector
becoming infective is called the extrinsic
incubation period.
Examples: Aedes aegypti mosquito in yellow fever,
Anopheles mosquito in malaria.
Reservoir hosts: Besides acting as vectors, some
insects may also act as reservoir hosts (for example,
ticks in relapsing fever and spotted fever). Infection
is maintained in such insects by transovarial or
transstadial passage.
D. Soil and Water
i. Soil
Some pathogens can survive in the soil for long
periods.
Examples
a. Spores of tetanus and gas gangrene: Spores of
tetanus and gas gangrene remain viable in the
soil for several decades and serve as source of
infection.
b. Fungi and parasites: Fungi (causing mycetoma,
sporotrichosis, histoplasmosis) and parasites
such as roundworms and hookworms also
survive in the soil and cause human infection.
ii. Water
Water may act as the source of infection
either due to contamination with pathogenic
microorganisms (Shigella, Salmonella, Vibrio
cholerae, poliomyelitis virus, hepatitis virus)
or due the presence of aquatic vector (cyclops
containing larvae of guinea worm infection).
E. Food
Contaminated food may act as source of infection of
organisms causing food poisoning, gastroenteritits,
diarrhea and dysentery.
Modes of Transmission of Infection
Pathogenic organisms can spread from one host to
another by a variety of mechanisms. These include
as follows:
1. Contact
Infection may be acquired by contact, which may
be direct or indirect.
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Chapter 11: Infection  | 77
a. Direct contact: Diseases transmitted by direct
contact include STD (sexually transmitted
diseases), such as syphilis, gonorrhea, lympho­
granuloma venereum, lymphogranuloma
inguinale, trichomoniasis, herpes simplex type
2, hepatitis B and acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS).
b. Indirect contact: Fomites: Indirect contact may
be through the agency of fomites, which are
inanimate objects, such as clothing, pencils or
toys which may be con­taminated by a pathogen
from one person and act as a vehicle for its
transmission to another.
2. Inhalation
Droplet nuclei: Respiratory infections, such
as common cold, influenza, measles, mumps,
tuberculosis and whooping cough are acquired
by inhalation.
3. Ingestion
Intestinal infections are generally acquired by the
ingestion of food or drink contaminated by path­
ogens. Infection transmitted by ingestion may be
waterborne (cholera), food borne (food poisoning)
or handborne (dysentery). Diseases transmitted
by water and food include chiefly infections of
the alimentary tract, e.g. acute diarrheas, typhoid
fever, cholera, polio, hepatitis A, food poisoning
and intestinal parasites.
4. Inoculation
The disease agent may be inoculated directly in
to the skin or mucosa, e.g. rabies virus depos­
ited subcutaneously by dog bite, tetanus spores
implanted in deep wounds, and arboviruses
injected by insect vectors.
Infection by inoculation may be iatrogenic
when unsterile syringes and surgical equipment
are employed. Hepatitis B and the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
5. Insects
Vector-borne
Vector is defined as an arthropod or any living
carrier (e.g. snail) that transports an infectious
agent to a susceptible individual. In some diseases,
blood-sucking insects play an important role in the
spread of infection from one individual to another
(Refer to Chapter 85).
6. Congenital
Vertical Transmission
Some pathogens are able to cross the placental
barrier and reach the fetus in utero. This is known
as vertical transmission.
Examples: So-called TORCH agents (Toxoplasma
gondii, rubella virus, cytomegalovirus and
78  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
herpes virus), varicella virus, syphilis, hepatitis B,
Coxsackie B and AIDS.
7. Iatrogenic and Laboratory Infections
If meticulous care in asepsis is not taken, infections
like AIDS and hepatitis B may sometimes be
transmitted during administration of injections,
lumber puncture and catheterization. These
are known as iatrogenic or physician-induced
infections. Modern methods of treatment, such
as exchange transfusion, dialysis, and heart and
transplant surgery have increased the possibilities
for iatrogenic infections.
3. Invasiveness
Invasiveness signifies the ability of a pathogen to
spread in the host tissues after establishing infec­
tion. Highly invasive pathogens characteristically
produce spreading or generalized lesions (e.g. strep­
tococcal septicemia following wound infection),
while less invasive pathogens cause more localized
lesions (e.g. staphylococcal abscess).
4. Toxigenicity
Some bacteria cause disease by producing toxins,
of which there are two general types: The exotoxins
and the endotoxins (Table 11.1).

Factors predisposing to microbial a. Exotoxins

pathogenicity Exotoxins are soluble, heat-labile proteins
Pathogenicity and Virulence inactivated at 60°–80°C and diffuse read­ily into
the surrounding medium. These are highly potent
Pathogenicity denotes the ability of a microbial
species to cause disease.
Table 11.1  Differences between exotoxins and
Virulence: The term virulence denotes the ability
endotoxins
of a strain of a species to produce disease. For
example, encapsulated pneumococci are more Exotoxins Endotoxins
virulent than nonencapsulated pneumococci. 1. Proteins 1. Lipopolysaccharide on
outer membrane. Lipid
Exaltation: Enhancement of virulence is known as A portion is toxic
exaltation. This can be induced by serial passage
2. Heat-labile. (inactivated 2. Heat-stable
of a strain in as experimental animal.
at 60°–80°C)
Attenuation: Reduction of virulence is known as 3. Actively secreted by the 3. Form integral part of the
attenuation cells; diffuse into the cell wall; do not diffuse
surrounding medium into surrounding medium
Determinants of virulence 4. Readily separable from 4.  Obtained only by cell lysis
cultures by physical
1. Transmissibility means, such as filtration
The first step of the infectious process is the entry of 5.  Action often enzymatic 5.  No enzymatic action
the microorganism into the host by one of several 6. Specific 6. Nonspecific action of all
ports: the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, pharmacological effect endotoxins
urogenital tract, or through skin that has been cut, for each exotoxin
punctured, or burned. 7.  Specific tissue affinities 7.  No Specific tissue affinities
8. Highly toxic and fatal in 8. Moderate toxicity. Active
2. Adhesion microgram quantities only in very large doses

Adhesins: The initial event in the pathogenesis is 9.  Highly antigenic 9.  Weakly antigenic
the attachment of the bacteria to body surfaces. 10. Action specifically neu­ 10. Neutralization by
This attachment is not a chance event but a specific tralized by antibody antibody ineffective
reaction between surface receptors on host cells 11. Usually do not produce 11. Usually produce
and adhesive structures (ligands) on the sur­face fever fever by release of
interleukin-1
of bacteria. These adhesive structures are called
adhesins. 12. Produced by both 12. Produced by gram-
gram-positive bacteria negative bacteria only
Adhesions may occur as organized structures, and gram-negative
such as fimbriae or fibrillae and pilli, or as bacteria
co­lonization factors. 13. Frequently controlled 13. Synthesized directly by
Adhesins as virulence factors: Adhesins are by extrachromosomal chromosomal genes
usually made of protein and are antigenic in nature. genes (e.g. plasmids)
Specific immunization with adhesins has been 14. Disease examples- 14. Gram-negative
attempted as a method of prophy­laxis in some Botulism diphtheria infections,
tetanus meningococcemia
infections.

in minute amounts and include some of the most
poisonous substances known.
Treatment with formaldehyde converts
exotoxin into toxoids, are thus useful in preparing
vaccines.
They exhibit specific tissue affinity and
pharmacological activities.
They are associated with specific diseases and
have specific mechanisms of action.
They are easily inactivated by formaldehyde,
iodine, and other chemicals to form immunogenic
toxoids.
Exotoxins are generally formed by gram-
positive bacteria but may also be produced by some
gram-negative organisms such as Shiga’s dysentery
bacillus, cholera vibrio and enterotoxigenic E. coli.
b. Endotoxins
These are heat-stable, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
components of the outer membranes of gram-
negative. Their toxicity depends upon the the
component (lipid A).
They are released into the host’s circulation
following bacterial cell lysis.
They are toxic only at high doses.
They cannot be toxoided.
They are poor antigens and weakly immunogenic.
They do not exhibit specific pharmacological
activi­ties.
Intravenous injections of large doses of
endotoxin and massive gram-negative septicemias
cause endotoxic shock marked by fever, leukopenia,
thrombocytopenia, siignificant fall in blood
pressure, circulatory collapse and bloody diarrhea
leading to death (Table 11.1).
5. Avoidance of Host Defence
Mechanisms
a. Capsules
Some bacteria such as Streptococcus pneumoniae,
Neisseria meningitidis, and Haemophilus influenzae
can produce a slippery mucoid capsule that
prevents the phagocyte from effectively contacting
the bacterium.
b. Streptococcal M Protein
Other bacteria evade phagocytosis by producing
specialized surface proteins such as the M protein
on Streptococcus pyogenes.
c. Resistance to Killing by Phagocytic Cells
Some bacteria have evolved the ability to
survive inside neutrophils, monocytes, and
macrophages. These pathogens not only survive
within macrophages and other phagocytes,
but may actually multiply intracellulary, e.g.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
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Chapter 11: Infection  | 79
d. Antigenic Variation
Variation in surface antigen composition during
the course of infection provides a mechanism of
avoidance of specific immune responses directed
at those antigens.
Examples: (i) Pathogenic Neisseria; (ii) The borreliae
generate antigenic variation.
e. Serum Resistance
To survive in the blood, bacteria must be able to
resist lysis.
f. Siderophore and Iron Acquisition
Siderophores can acquire iron from the host’s iron
binding proteins.
6. Enzymes
Many species of bacteria produce tissue-degrading
enzymes that play important roles in the infection
process.
i. Coagulase: Coagulase is produced by
Staphylococcus. aureus. This thrombin-like
enzyme prevents phagocytosis by forming a
fibrin barrier around the bacteria and walling
off the lesion.
ii. Lecithinase-C and collagenase: Clostridiun.
perfringens produces lecithinase-C and
collagenase promoting spread of infection in
tissue.
iii. Hyaluronidases: Hyaluronidases split hyalu­
ronic acid and thus facilitate the spread of
infection along tissue spaces, e.g. Streptococcus.
iv. Streptokinase (fibrinolysin): Many haemolytic
streptococci produce streptokinase (fibri­
nolysin) which promotes the spread of
infections.
v. Cytolysins: These include hemolysins capable
of destroying erythrocytes and leukocidins
damage polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
vi. IgA 1 proteases: These enzymes specifically
cleave immunoglobulin IgA which protects
at mucosal surfaces.
7. Plasmids
Plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA segments
that carry genes for antibiotic resistance known as
R-factors. Multiple drug resistance (R) plasmids
increase the severity of clinical disease by their
resist­ance to antibiotic therapy.
8. Bacteriophages
All the strains of C. diphtheriae produce exotoxin
only when they are lysogenized with a bacteriophage
called betaphage. The elimination of this phage
abolishes the toxigenicity of the bacillus.
80  |  Section 1: General Bacteriology
9. Communicability ™™ Infection: Infections may be classified in various ways.
The ability of a microbe to spread from one host to Sources of infection: A. Human beings; B. Animals; C.
another is known as communicability. Insects; D. Soil and water; E. Food.
Modes of transmission of infection: 1. Contact; 2.
Inhalation; 3. Ingestion; 4. Inoculation; 5. Insects; 6.
10. Infecting Dose Congenital; 7. Iatrogenic and laboratory infections
Adequate number of bacteria is required for ™™ Determinants of virulence: 1. Transmissibility;
successful infections. The dosage may be estimated 2. Adhesion; 3. Invasiveness; 4. Toxigenicity; 5.
as the minimum infecting dose (MID) or minimum Avoidance of host defence mechanisms; Enzymes;
lethal dose (MLD). 7. Plasmids; 8. Bacteriophages; 9. Communicability;
10. Infecting dose; 11. Route of infection
These doses are more correctly estimated as
™™ Types of infectious diseases
statistical expressions, ID50 and LD50 as the dose A. Localized infections may be superficial or deep
required to infect or kill 50 per cent of the animals ­seated
tested under standard conditions. B. Generalized infection: 1. Bacteremia; 2. Septicemia;
3. Pyemia.
11. Route of Infection
Certain bacteria are infective when introduced Important Questions
through optimal route, for example, cholera vibrios
1. Describe in detail the sources of infections to
can produce lesion only when administered by humans beings.
oral route, but unable to cause infection when
2. What are the various modes of spread of infec­tion?
introduced subcutaneously. Describe each in brief giving suitable examples.
3. Describe the factors determining microbial
Types of infectious diseases pathogenicity and virulence.
Infectious diseases may be localized or generalized. 4. Distinguish between exotoxins and endotoxins in
a tabulated form.
A. Localized
Localized infections may be superficial or deep­ Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
seated. 1. The organisms can be transmitted vertically by all
the following ways except:
B. Generalized a. Sexual contact
1. Bacteremia: Circulation of bacteria in the blood b. Through the placenta
c. Within the birth canal
is known as bacteremia.
d. Through breast milk
2. Septicemia: It is the condition where bacteria
2. Which of the following may cause teratogenic
circulate and multiply in the blood, form toxic
infections?
products and cause high, swinging type of fever. a. Toxoplasma
3. Pyemia: It is a condition where pyogenic b. Rubella virus
bacteria produce septicemia with multiple c. Cytomegalovirus
abscesses in internal organs, such as the spleen, d. All of the above
liver and kidney. 3. Which of the following statement is not true for
exotoxins?
Epidemiological terminologies a. They are proteins
b. They are highly antigenic
1. Endemic: The disease which is constantly c. They are heat labile
present in a particular area, e.g. typhoid fever d. They are obtained by cell lysis
is endemic in most parts of India. 4. Which of the statement is not true for endotoxins:
2. Epidemic: The disease that spreads rapidly, a. These are lipopolysacaride components of
involving many persons in a particular area at outer membrane of gram negative bacteria
b. These are heat stable
the same time, is called epidemic disease, e.g.
c. They cannot be toxoided
meningococcal meningitis. d. They are highly antigenic
3. Pandemic: It is an epidemic that spreads through 5. The disease that spreads rapidly, involving many
many areas of the world involving very large persons in a particular area at the same time is
number of persons within a short period, e.g. known as:
cholera, influenza and enteroviral conjunctivitis. a. Sporadic
b. Endemic
Key Points c. Epidemic
™™ Parasites are microbes that can establish themselves d. Pandemic
and multiply in the hosts. Parasite microbes may be
Answers (MCQs)
either pathogens or commensals
1. a; 2. d; 3. d; 4. d; 5. c.
 Section 2: Immunology
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe innate immunity, artificial active immunity,
natural passive immunity, herd immunity
Definition
Immunity [Latin immunis, free of burden] refers to
the resistance exhibited by the host towards injury
caused by microorganisms and their products.
Classification
Immunity against infectious diseases is of different
types:
i. Innate (or natural) immunity
a. Nonspecific Species
Racial
Individual
b Specific Species
Racial
Individual
ii. Acquired (or adaptive) immunity
a. Active Natural
Artificial
b. Passive Natural
Artificial
i. Innate or Natural Immunity
It is the resistance to infections which an individual
possesses by virtue of his genetic or constitutional
make up. Repeated exposure to a pathogen does
not enhance the innate immune system.
a. Nonspecific and Specific Immunity
It may be nonspecific, when it indicates a degree of
resistance to infections in general, or specific where
resistance to a particular pathogen is concerned.
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Chapter
Immunity
∙∙ Differentiate between active and passive immunity.
Innate immunity may be considered at the level of
species, race or individual.
i. Species Immunity
Resistance or susceptibility (lack of resistance) to
infections can vary from one species of animal to
other. It refers to the total or relative refractoriness
to a pathogen, shown by all members of a species.
Example
All human beings are totally unsusceptible to plant
pathogens and to many animal pathogens, such as
rinderplast or distemper.
ii. Racial Immunity
Within a species, different races may show differences
in susceptibility to infections. This is known as racial
immunity. Such racial differences are known to be
genetic in origin, and by selection and inbreeding.
Examples
i. High resistance of Algerian sheep to anthrax is
the classic example.
ii. Susceptiblity to tuberculosis: The people of
Negroid origin in the USA are more susceptible
than the Caucasians to tuberculosis.
iii. Genetic resistance to Plasmodium falciparum
malaria: It is seen in some parts of Africa and
the Mediterranean coast and is attributed to
the hereditary abnormality of the red blood
cells (sickling) prevalent in the area.
iii. Individual Immunity
The difference in innate immunity exhibited
by different individuals in a race is known as
individual immunity.
82  |  Section 2: Immunology
Factors influencing the level of immunity
1. Age
i. Fetus in utero: The two extremes of life
carry higher susceptibility to infectious
diseases as compared with adults. The
higher susceptibility of the young appears
to associate with immaturity of immune
system.
ii. Newborn animals: Newborn animals are
more susceptible to experimental infection
than adult animals, e.g. coxsackievirus
causes fatal infection in suckling mice but
not in adult mice.
iii. In the elderly, besides a general waning
of the activities of the immune system,
physical abnormalities (e.g. prostatic
enlargement leading to stasis of urine)
or long-term exposure to environmental
factors (e.g. smoking) are common causes
of increased susceptibility to infection.
2. Hormonal Influences and Sex
i. Endocrine disorders: There is an increased
susceptibility to infection in endocrine
disorders, such as diabetes mellitus,
hypothyroidism and adrenal dysfunction
(increased corticoids secretion).
ii. Sex: In general, incidence and death rate
from infectious diseases are greater in males
than in females.
3. Nutrition: In general, both humoral and cell
mediated immune processes are reduced
in malnutrition. Experimental evidence in
animals has shown that inadequate diet may
be correlated with increased susceptibility of
a variety of bacterial diseases, associated with
decreased phagocytic activity and leukopenia.
4. Stress: A growing body of evidence has
demonstrated an inverse relation between
stress and immune function. The end result is
an increased susceptibility to infection.
Mechanisms of Innate Immunity
1. Mechanical Barriers and Surface
Secretions
These surfaces include as follows:
A. Skin
B. Mucous membranes.
A. Skin
The intact skin and the mucous membranes provide
mechanical barriers that prevent the entrance of
most microbial species. Even though the structure
of the skin itself undoubtedly gives a great deal of
protection, considerably more important are the
fatty acids secreted by the sebaceous glands and
the propionic acid by the normal flora of the skin.
Secretions from the sebaceous glands contain both
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids that kill many
bacteria and fungi.
B. Mucous Membrane
General protective mechanisms : A major
protective component of mucous membranes is
the mucus itself.
Specific protective characteristics: Besides the
general protective properties of mucosal cells,
the lining of the different body tracts has other
characteristics specific to each anatomic site.
a. Mouth or Oral Cavity
The mouth or oral cavity is protected by the flow
of saliva that physically carries microorganisms
away from the cell surfaces and also contains the
lysozyme, which destroys bacterial cell walls and
antibodies.
b. Gastrointestinal Tract
i. Stomach: The low pH and proteolytic enzymes
of the stomach help keep the number of
micro-organisms low. The pH becomes
progressively alkaline from the duodenum to
the ileum.
ii. Small intestine: In the small intestine,
protection is provided by the presence of bile
salts.
iii. Ileum: The ileum contains a rich and varied
flora and in the large intestine, the bulk of the
contents is composed of bacteria. Abundant
resident microflora in the large bowel also
contributes significantly to protection.
c. Upper Respiratory Tract
i. Architecture of the nose: In the upper
respiratory tract, nasal hairs keep out large
airborne particles that may contain micro-
organisms.
ii. Sticky mucus: The sticky mucus covering the
respiratory tract acts as a trapping mechanism
for inhaled particles.
iii. Ciliary motion: Ciliary motion transports the
trapped organisms back up the respiratory
tract to the external openings.
iv. Cough reflex: Cough reflex is an important
defence mechanism of the respiratory tract.
v. Mucopolysaccharide: Nasal and respiratory
secretions contain mucopolysaccharide
capable of combining with influenza and
certain other viruses.
d. Genitourinary Tract
i. Normal flow of urine: The normal flow of urine
flushes the urinary system, carrying micro-
organisms away from the body.

ii. Spermine and zinc: Spermine and zinc present
in the semen carry out antibacterial activity.
iii. Acidity of the adult vagina: The low pH (acidity)
of the adult vagina, due to fermentation of
glycogen in the epithelial cells by the resident
aciduric bacilli, provides an inhospitable
environment for colonization by pathogens.
A thick mucus plug in the cervical opening is
a substantial barrier.
e. Conjunctiva
Lachrymal fluid: Conjunctiva is kept moist by the
continuous flushing action of tears (lachrymal
fluid). Tears contain large amounts of lysozyme,
lactoferrin, and sIgA and thus provide protection.
2. Antibacterial Substances in Blood and
Tissues
Many microbial substances are present in the
tissue and body fluids. These are non-specific. The
complement system possesses bactericidal activity
and plays an important role in the destruction of
pathogenic bacteria that invade the blood and
tissues.
Other Substances (i) beta lysin; (ii) basic
polypeptides, such as leukins extracted from
leucocytes and plakins from platelets; (iii) acidic
substances, such as lactic acid found in muscle
tissue and in the inflammatory zones; and
(iv) lactoperoxidase in milk. The production of
interferon is a method of defence against viral
infections.
3. Microbial Antagonisms
The skin and mucous surfaces have resident
bacterial flora which prevent colonization by
pathogens. Invasion by extraneous microbes
may be due to alteration of normal resident flora,
causing serious diseases, such as staphylococcal
or clostridial enterocolitis or candidiasis following
oral antibiotics.
4. Cellular Factors in Innate Immunity
Natural defense against the invasion of blood
and tissues by microorganisms and other foreign
particles is mediated to a large extent by phagocytic
cells which ingest and destroy them. Phagocytic
cells, originally discovered by Metchnikoff
(1883), were classified by him into microphages
(polymorpho­nuclear leucocytes) and macrophages.
Macrophages: Macrophages consist of histiocytes
which are the wandering ameboid cells seen
in tissues, fixed re­t iculoendothelial cells and
monocytes of blood.
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Chapter 12: Immunity  | 83
Phagocytosis: Phagocytosis is apart of the innate
immune response, during which microorganisms,
foreign particles, and cellular debris are engulfed
by phagocytic cells, such as neutrophils and
monocytes in the circulation, and macrophages
and neutrophils in interstitial spaces. Phagocytosis
consists of three stages:
1. Attachment of the microorganisms or foreign
material to the phagocytic cell.
2. Ingestion by the cell and drawn into the cell by
endocytosis.
3. Degradation of the foreign material or micro-
organism within the phagocytic cells.
5. Inflammation
If the surface chemical and physiologic def­
ences of the body are breached by a pathogen,
inflammation can result, which is an
important, nonspecific defence mechanism.
Sequences of events in acute inflammation in
response to an injury will be: (i) vasodilation,
(ii) increased vascular permeability; (iii) emigration
of leucocytes; (iv) chemotaxis; (v) phagocytosis.
6. Fever
Following infection, a rise of temperature is a
natural defense mechanism. It not merely helps
to accelerate the physiological processes, but
may, in some cases, actually destroy the infecting
pathogens. Fever aids recovery from viral infections
by stimulating the production of interferon.
7. Acute Phase Proteins
A sudden increase in the plasma concentration
of certain proteins, collectively termed as ‘acute
phase proteins’ occurs as a result of infection or
tissue injury. These include C-reactive protein
(CRP), mannose-binding protein, alpha-I-acid
glycoprotein, serum amyloid P component
and many others. The alternative pathway of
complement is activated by CRP and some other
acute phase proteins. They are believed to enhance
host resistance, prevent tissue injury and promote
repair of inflammatory lesions.
ii. Acquired Immunity
Acquired immunity refers to the resistance that an
individual acquires during his lifetime. Acquired
immunity is of two- types: active immunity and
passive immunity. (Fig. 12.1 and Table 12.1).
a. Active Immunity
Active immunity is induced after contact with
foreign antigens. It is also known as adaptive
immunity. This involves the active functioning
of the host’s immune apparatus leading to the
84  |  Section 2: Immunology
In some infections like syphilis and malaria,
A. Active immunity
the immunity to reinfection lasts only as long as
1. Natural—Clinical
the original infection remains active. Once the
– Subclinical Infection
disease is cured, the patient becomes susceptible to
2. Artificial
the infection again. This special type of immunity
Vaccination—Live
is known as ‘premunition’ or infection-immunity.
– Killed
B. Passive immunity 2. Artificial Active Immunity
1. Natural—Through placenta Artificial active immunity is the resistance induced
– Through breast milk by vaccines. Vaccines are preparations of live or
2. Artificial—Immune serum killed microorganisms or their products used for
– Immune cells immunization. Vaccines are made with either:
Fig. 12.1: Types of immunity
(i) live attenuated microorganisms; (ii) killed
microorganisms; (iii) microbial extract; (iv) vaccine
conjugates; or (v) inactivated toxoids.
synthesis of antibodies and/or the production of
immunologically active cells. Examples of Vaccines
Immune Response I. Bacterial vaccines
a. Live (BCG vaccine for tuberculosis)
A. Primary Response b. Killed (cholera vaccine)
Active immunity sets in only after a latent period. c. Subunit (typhoid Vi antigen)
There is often a negative phase. Once developed, d. Bacterial products (tetanus toxoid)
the active immunity is long-lasting. 2. Viral vaccines
a. Live
B. Secondary Response –– Oral polio vaccine-Sabin
If an individual, who has been actively immunized –– 17D vaccine for yellow fever
against an antigen, experiences the same antigen –– MMR vaccine for measles, mumps, rubella.
subsequently, the immune response occurs more b. Killed
quickly and abundantly than during the first –– Injectable polio vaccine-Salk
encounter. This is known as secondary response. –– Neural and non-neural vaccines for rabies
–– Hepatitis B vaccine
Types of Active Immunity c. Subunit: Hepatitis B vaccine
1. Natural Live Vaccines
2. Artificial In general, live vaccines are more potent immunizing
agents than killed vaccines The immunity lasts for
1. Natural Active Immunity
several years but booster doses may be necessary.
Natural active immunity results from either a
Live vaccines may be administered orally or
clinical or an inapparent infection by a microbe.
parenterally.
Such immunity is usually long-lasting but the
duration varies with the type of pathogen. The Killed Vaccines
immunity is life-long following many viral diseases, Killed vaccines are usually safe and generally less
such as chickenpox or measles. immunogenic than live vaccines, and protection
The immunity appears to be shortlived in some lasts only for a short period. They have, therefore,
viral diseases, such as influenza or common cold. to be administered repeatedly, generally at least

Table 12.1  Comparison of active immunity and passive immunity

Active immunity Passive immunity
1. Produced actively by host’s immune system 1. Received passively. No active host participation
2. Induced by infection or by immunogens 2. Readymade antibody transferred
3.  Durable effective protection 3.  Transient, less effective
4. Immunity effective only after lag period, i.e. time required for 4.  Immediate immunity
generation of antibodies and immunocompetent cells
5. Immunological memory present 5.  No memory
6. Booster effect on subsequent dose 6. Subsequent dose less effective
7.  ’Negative phase’ may occur 7.  No negative phase
8. Not applicable in an immunodeficient 8. Applicable in an immunodeficient

two doses being required for the production of
immunity. The first is known as the primary dose
and the subsequent doses as booster doses. Killed
vaccines are usually administered by subcutaneous
or intramuscular route.
b. Passive Immunity
The immunity that is transferred to a recipient in
a ‘readymade’ form is known as passive immunity.
Here the recipient’s immune system plays no active
role. There is no lag or latent period in passive
immunity, protection being effective immediately
after passive immunization. There is no negative
phase. The immunity is transient. There is no
secondary type response in passive immunity.
Main Advantages of Passive Immunity
i. The prompt availability of large amount of
antibody.
ii. It is employed where instant immunity is
required as in case of diphtheria, tetanus,
botulism, rabies, hepatitis A and B following
exposure because of its immediate action.
Passive immunity is of two types
1. Natural Passive Immunity
This is the resistance passively transferred from
mother to baby through the placenta. After birth,
immunoglobulins are passed to the newborn
through the breast milk. The human colostrum,
is rich in IgA antibodies which are resistant to
intestinal digestion, gives protection to the neonate
up to three months of age.
2. Artificial Passive Immunity
Artificial passive immunity is the resistance passively
transferred to a recipient by the administration
of antibodies. Although this type of immunity is
immediate, it is short lived and lasts only a few weeks
to a few months. The agents used for this purpose
are pooled human gamma globulin, hyperimmune
sera of animal or human origin and convalescent
sera . These are used for prophylaxis and therapy.
Types of Immunoglobulin Preparations
Two types of immunoglobulin preparations are
available for passive immunization.
A. Human Immunoglobulins
a. Human normal immunoglobulin: Human
normal immunoglobulin(HNIG) is used to
provide temporary protection against hepatitis
A infection and to prevent measles in highly
susceptible individuals.
b. Specific (hyperimmune) human immunoglobulin:
These preparations are made from the plasma of
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Chapter 12: Immunity  | 85
patients who have recovered recently from an
infection or are obtained from individuals who
have been immunized against a specific infection.
Preparations of specific immunoglobulins are
available for passive immunization against
tetanus (human tetanus immunoglobulin;
HTIG), hepatitis B (HBIG), rabies (HRIG),
varicella-zoster (ZIG) and vaccinia (AVIG).
Human immune serum does not lead to any
hypersensitivity reaction. Therefore, there is no
immune elimination and its half-life is more than
that of animal sera. It has to be ensured that all
preparations from human sera are free from the
risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
hepatitis B, hepatitis C and other viruses.
B. Nonhuman (Antisera)
The term aniserum is applied to materials
prepared in animals. Equine hyperimmune sera,
such as antitetanus serum (ATS) prepared from
hyperimmunized horses used to be extensively
employed. They gave temporary protection but
disadvantage is that it may give rise to hypersensitivity
and immune elimination.
Indications of Passive Immunization
1. To provide immediate protection : To a
nonimmune host exposed to an infection and
lack active immunity to that pathogen.
2. Treatment of some infections.
3. For the suppression of active immunity when
it may be injurious e.g. administration of
anti-Rh (D) IgG to Rh-negative mother, bearing
Rh-positive baby at the time of delivery to
prevent isoimmunization.
4. Immunocompromised or immunodeficient
individuals, e.g. children with hypogamma­
globulin­emia, individuals with AIDS, patients
receiving chemotherapy, organ transplant
recipients receiving immunosuppressive therapy.
Combined Immunization
Combined immunization is a combination of
active and passive methods of immunization and
sometimes employed. For example, it is often
undertaken in some diseases, such as tetanus,
diphtheria, rabies.
Adoptive Immunity
Injection of immunologically competent
lymphocytes is known as adoptive immunity
and does not have general application. Instead of
whole lymphocytes, an extract of immunologically
competent lymphocytes, known as the ‘transfer
factor’, can be used.
86  |  Section 2: Immunology
Local immunity
Local immunity is conferred by secretory
immunoglobulin A (secretory IgA) produced
locally by plasma cells present on mucosal surfaces
or in secretory glands.
Examples
1. Poliomyelitis immunization: In poliomyelitis,
active immunization provides systemic
immunity with the killed vaccine. Natural
infection or immunization with the live oral
vaccine provides local intestinal immunity.
2. Influenza, immunization: Natural infection
or the live influenza vaccine administered
intranasally provides local immunity.
Herd immunity
It is the level of resistance of a community or
a group of people to a particular disease and
is relevant in the control of epidemic diseases.
Epidemics are likely to occur on the introduction
of a suitable pathogen, when herd immunity is low.
Eradication of communicable diseases depends on
the development of a high level of herd immunity
rather than on the development of a high level of
immunity in individuals.
Key Points
™™ Immunity refers to the resistance exhibited by the
host towards injury caused by microorganisms and
their products
™™ Innate or natural immunity is the resistance to
infections, which an individual possesses by virtue
of his genetic or constitutional make-up. It may be
nonspecific, or specific. Innate immunity may be
considered at the level of species, race or individual.
™™ Factors influencing the level of immunity are age,
hormonal influences and sex, nutrition and stress
™™ Mechanisms of innate immunity are: 1. Mechanical
barriers and surface secretions; 2. Antibacterial
substances in blood and tissues; 3. Microbial
antagonisms; 4. Cellular factors in innate immunity;
5. Inflammation; 6. Fever; 7. Acute phase proteins
™™ Acquired immunity refers to the resistance that an
individual acquires during his lifetime. b-Acquired
immunity is of two types: active immunity and
passive immunity
™™ Natural active immunity results from either a clinical
or an inapparent infection by a microbe
™™ Artificial active immunity is the resistance induced
by vaccines
™™ The immunity that is transferred to a recipient in
a ‘readymade’ form is known as passive immunity
™™ Combined immunization is a combination of active
and passive methods of immunization which is
sometimes employed
™™ Local immunity is conferred by secretor y
immunoglobulin A (secretory IgA)
™™ Herd immunity is the level of resistance of a
community or a group of people to a particular
disease and is relevant in the control of epidemic
diseases.
Important questions
1. Define and classify immunity. Discuss mechanisms
of innate immunity.
2. Tabulate the differences between active immunity
and passive immunity.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Innate immunity
b. Artificial active immunity
c. Natural passive immunity
d. Artificial passive immunity
e. Herd immunity.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. All are acute phase proteins except:
a. C-reactive protein
b. Mannose-binding protein
c. Serum amyloid P component
d. Antibody
2. Clinical or inapparent infection leads to:
a. Natural active immunity
b. Artificial active immunity
c. Natural passive immunity
d. Artificial passive immunity
3. Vaccine induces:
a. Active natural immunity
b. Active artificial immunity
c. Passive natural immunity
d. Passive artificial immunity
4. All the following statements are true for artificial
passive immunity except:
a. Artificial passive immunity is the resistance
passively transferred to a recipient by the ad-
ministration of antibodies.
b. It is shortlived and lasts only a few weeks to a
few months
c. This type of immunity is immediate
d.  This immunity may be induced by maternal anti-
bodies.
5. All the following are live vaccines except:
a. BCG b. Sabin vaccine
c. MMR d. TAB vaccine
6. All the following are killer vaccines except:
a. Salk vaccine
b. Non-neural vaccines for rabies
c. Hepatitis B vaccine
d. BCG
Answers (MCQs)
1. d; 2. a; 3. b; 4. d; 5. d; 6. d

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe haptens, heterophile antigens and
superantigens.
Antigens: Antigens (antibody generators) are the
substances that can stimulate an immune response
and, given the opportunity, react specifically by
binding with the effector molecules (antibodies)
and effector cells (lymphocytes).
Types of antigens
Based on the ability of antigens to carry out these two
functions, they may be classified into different types:
A. Complete Antigen
Complete antigen is able to induce antibody
formation and produce a specific and observable
reaction with the antibody so produced.
B. Haptens (Incomplete Immunogen)
Haptens are low-molecular- weight molecules which
cannot induce an immune response when injected by
themselves but can do so when covalently coupled to
a large protein molecyle called the carrier molecule.
Example: One example of a hapten is penicillin. By
itself, penicillin is not antigenic. However, when it
combines with certain serum proteins of sensitive
individuals, the resulting molecule does initiate a
severe and sometimes fatal allergic immune reaction.
Types of Haptens
Haptens may be simple or complex:
1. S i m p l e h a p t e n s : S i m p l e ha p t e n s a re
nonprecipitating. They can inhibit precipitation
of specific antibodies by the corresponding
antigen or complex hapten.
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Chapter
Antigens
2. Complex haptens: Complex haptens can
precipitate with specific antibodies. Complex
haptens are polyvalent.
Antigenic determinant or epitome
The smallest unit of antigenicity is known as the
antigenic determinant or epitope. Each antigen
can have several antigenic determinant sites or
epitopes. The combining area on the antibody
molecule, corresponding to the epitope, is called
the paratope.
Valence: The number of antigenic determinant
sites on the surface of an antigen is its valence. The
antigen is monovalent or multivalent.
Determinants of antigenicity
A number of properties have been identified which
make a substance antigenic but the exact basis of
antigenicity is still not clear.
1. Size
Molecular Weight
Antigenicity depends upon the molecular weight.
Very large molecules are very powerful antigens.
Particles with low molecular weight (less than
5000) are nonantigenic or feebly so.
2. Chemical Nature
In general, proteins are the best immunogens and
carbohydrates are weaker immunogens. Lipids and
nucleic acids are poor immunogenic.
88  |  Section 2: Immunology
3. Foreignness
Only antigens which are ‘foreign’ to the individual
(nonself ) induce an immune response because
host distinguishes self from nonself and normally
does not respond to self. In general, the greater the
difference between the antigen (Ag) and similar
molecules in the host’s body, the greater the
immune response that is generated.
4. Susceptibility to Tissue Enzymes
Only those substances which can be metabolized
and susceptibility to the tissue enzymes behave as
antigens. Substances unsusceptible to the tissue
enzymes are not antigenic. Substances that are
insoluble in body fluid and not metabolized are not
antigenic. Substances very rapidly broken down by
tissue enzymes are also not antigenic.
5. Antigenic Specificity
Chemical Groupings
Foreignness of a substance to an animal can
depend on the presence of chemical groupings
that are not normally found in the animal’s body.
Antigenic specificity varies with the position of
antigenic determinant, i.e. whether it is in ortho,
meta or para position.
In many cases, an antibody specific for one
antigen may display significant cross-reactivity for
an apparently unrelated antigen.
6. Species Specificities
Tissues of all individuals in a species possess
species-specific antigens. However, some degree
of cross-reactivity is seen between antigens from
related species.
7. Isospecificities
Isoantigens or alloantigens are antigens found
in some but not all members of a species. On the
basis of isoantigens, a species may be divided into
different groups.
Examples of Isoantigens
i. Human erythrocyte antigens: The best
example of isoantigens is human erythrocyte
antigens, on the basis of which all humans can
be divided into different blood groups: A, B,
AB and O. Each of these groups may be further
divided into Rh-positive or Rh-negative.
ii. Histocompatibility antigens: Histocompatibility
antigens are those cellular determinants
specific to each individual of a species.
Histocompatibility typing is essential in organ/
tissue transplantation from one individual to
another within a species. These antigens are
associated with plasma membrane of tissue
cells. These antigens are encoded by genes
known as histocompatibility genes which
collectively constitute major histocompatibility
complex (MHC). MHC products present on the
surface of leucocytes are known as human
leukocyte-associated (HLA) antigens.
8. Autospecificity
Sequestrated Antigens
Autologous or self-antigens are ordinarily
nonantigenic but there are exceptions. Certain
self-antigens are present in closed system and are
not accessible to the immune apparatus and these
are known as sequestrated antigens.
Examples of Sequestrated Antigens
i. Lens protein: Sequestrated antigens that are
not normally found free in circulation or tissue
fluids (such as lens protein normally confined
within its capsule) are not recognized as
self-antigens. When the antigen leaks out
following penetrating injury, it may induce
an immune response causing damage to the
lens of the other eye.
ii. Sperm: Similarly, antigens that are absent
during embryonic life and develop later (such as
sperm), are also not recognized as self-antigens.
When the sperm antigen enters the circulation,
it is immunogenic and is believed to be the
pathogenesis of orchitis following mumps.
9. Organ Specificity
Some organs, such as brain, kidney and lens protein
of different species share the same antigens. These
antigens are known as organ-specific antigens,
characteristic of an organ or tissue and found in
different species. Injection of heterologous organ-
specific antigens may induce an immune response,
damaging the particular organs or tissue in the host.
Example
Neuroparalytic complications: The neuroparalytic
complications following antirabic vaccination
using sheep brain vaccines are a consequence of
brain-specific antigens shared by sheep and man.
The sheep brain antigens induce an immunological
response in the vaccines, damaging their nervous
tissue due to the cross-reaction between human
and sheep brain antigens.
10. Heterogenetic (Heterophile) Specificity
Same or closely related antigens occurring in
different biological species, classes and kingdoms
are known as heterogenetic or heterophile antigens.

Examples of Heterophile Antigens
i. Forssman antigen: It is a lipid carbohydrate
complex widely distributed in man, animals,
birds, plants and bacteria.
ii. Weil-Felix reaction: It is an agglutination test
in which patient sera are tested for agglutinins
to the O antigens of certain nonmotile Proteus
strains OXl9, OX2, and OXK. Cross-reaction
between O antigen of these strains of Proteus
and certain rickettsial antigens is the basis of
this test.
iii. Paul-Bunnell test: During infectious-mono­
nucleosis, heterophile antibodies appear in
the serum of the patient. These antibodies
agglutinate sheep erythrocytes. This test is
known as Paul-Bunnell test.
iv. Cold agglutinin test: Agglutination of human O
group erythrocytes at 4°C by the sera of patients
suffering from primary atypical pneumonia.
v. Agglutination of Streptococcus MG: Agglutin­
ation of Streptococcus MG by the sera of the
patients of primary atypical pneumonia.
Superantigens
Superantigens are bacterial proteins which can
inter­act with antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and
T cells in nonspecific manner. This activity does
not in­volve the endocytic processing required for
typical antigen presentation but instead occurs
by concurrent association with MHC class II
molecules of the APCs and the Vβ domain of the
T cell receptor. This interaction activates a large
number of T cells (10%) than conventional anti­
gens (about 1%), explaining the massive cytokine
expression and immunomodulation. The antigens
which provoke such a drastic immune response are
termed as superantigens.
Examples
1. Staphylococcal enterotoxins, toxic shock syndrome
toxin, exfoliative toxin and some viral proteins.
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Chapter 13: Antigens  | 89
2. Association with diseases: Superantigens should
be considered possible chronic associates in
such diseases as rheumatic fever, arthritis,
Kawasaki syndrome, atopic dermatitis, and one
type of psoriasis.
Key Points
™™ Antigens are the substances that can stimulate an
immune response and, given the opportunity, react
specifically by binding with the effector molecules
(antibodies) and effector cells (lymphocytes)
™™ Types of antigen are: A. Complete antigen; B.
Haptens (incomplete immunogen)
™™ Determinants of antigenicity are: 1. Size; 2.
Chemical nature; 3. Foreignness; 4. Susceptibility to
tissueenzymes; 5. Antigenic specificity; 6. Species;
specificities; Isospecifities; 8. Autospecicity; 9. Organ
specificity; 10. Heterogenetic (heterophile) specificity.
Important questions
1. What is an antigen? Discuss briefly various deter­
minants of antigenicity.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Haptens
b. Heterophile antigens
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. The substances that are least immunogenic are
a. Proteins
b. Polysaccharides
c. Nucleic acids
d. None of the above
2. The test that does not use heterophilic antigen is
a. TPHA test
b. Weil-Felix reaction
c. Paul-Bunnell test
d. Cold agglutination test
Answers (MCQs)
1. c; 2. a
 14
Chapter

Antibodies—Immunoglobulins

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Describe structure and functions of IgG, IgA and
be able to: IgM
∙∙ Define antibody and draw labeled diagram of ∙∙ Discuss properties of IgM, IgG, IgA, IgD and IgE
immunoglobulin ∙∙ Draw labeled diagram of IgG, IgM and IgA.

Antibody or immunoglobulin (Ig): An antibody immunoglobulin molecule, which have led to a

or immunoglobulin (Ig) is a glycoprotein that is detailed picture of its structure. Rabbit IgG antibody to
made in response to an antigen, and can recognize egg albumin was digested by papain in the presence
and bind to the antigen that caused its production. of cysteine. Each molecule of immunoglobulin is
Immunoglobulins provide a structural and split by papain into three parts (Fig. 14.1). Two of
chemical concept, while the term ‘antibody’ is a the fragments are identical and are referred to as
biological and functional concept. All antibodies Fab (Fragment antigen-binding) because they retain
are immunoglobulins, but all immunoglobulins the immunoglobulin’s ability to bind specifically
may not be antibodies. to an antigen. The third fragment Fc (Fragment
crystallizable), which can be crystallized, does not
Properties of antibodies bind antigen, but contributes to the biologic activity.
1. Electrophoretic mobility: Serum proteins can be
separated into soluble albumins and insoluble Pepsin Digestion
globulins. Globulins could be separated into When treated with pepsin, a 5S fragment is
water-soluble pseudoglobulins and insoluble obtained, which is composed essentially of two Fab
euglobulins. Most antibodies were found to fragments held together in position. It is bivalent
be euglobulins. Serum glycoproteins can and precipitates with the antigen. This fragment is
be separated according to their charge by called F(ab)2. The Fc portion is digested by pepsin
movement through a gel in an electric field and into smaller fragments (Fig. 14.1).
classified as albumin and globulin (alpha-l,
alpha-2, beta and gamma globulin).
2. Sedimentation and molecular weight: Most
antibodies are sedimented at 7S (MW 150,000–
180,000) based on sedimentation studies. Some
heavier anti­bodies—19S globulins (MW about
900,000) were designated as M or macroglobulins.
3. Physicochemical and antigenic structure: On the
basis of physicochemical and antigenic structure,
Igs can be divided into five distinct classes or iso­
types, namely IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD and IgE.

ANTIBODY STRUCTURE
Porter, Edelman, Nisonoff and their colleagues Fig. 14.1: Basic structure of an immunoglobulin molecule and
poineered studies involving the cleavage of the the fragments obtained by the cleavage by papain and pepsin
 Chapter 14: Antibodies—Immunoglobulins  | 91

A B
Fig. 14.2: The four-peptide chain structure of the IgG molecule composed of two identical heavy (H) and two identical light
(L) chains linked by interchain disulfide bonds. Loops formed by intrachain disulfide bonds are domains (shown stippled).
Each chain has one domain in the variable region (VH and VL). Each light chain has one domain in the constant region (CL)
while each heavy chain has three domains in the constant region (CH1, CH2 and CH3). Between CH1 and CH2 is the hinge region

Light and Heavy Chains Table14.1  Immunoglobulin classes and H-chains

All immunoglobulins are composed of the same
basic units consisting of four chains: two identical
‘light’ (L) chains and two identical heavy chains. The
L-chain is attached to the H-chain by a disulfide
bond. The two H-chains are joined together by 1–5
disulfide (S-S) bonds, depending on the class of
immunoglobulins (Fig. 14.2). The smaller chains
are called ‘light’ (L) chains and the larger ones
‘heavy’ (H) chains. The variable region contains
the antigen-binding site; the constant region
encompasses the entire Fc (fragment crystallizable)
region as well as part of the Fab (fragment antigen-
binding) region.
1. Classes of L-chains
The L-chains are similar in all classes of immuno­
globulins. The L-chain has a molecular weight of
approximately 25,000 and the H chain of 50,000.
There are two classes of L-chains, designated
kappa (κ) and lambda (l). Both are normally
expressed in every individual. However, each B-cell
expresses (and each antibody contains) only one
type of L-chain—either κ or l but not both. Kappa
(κ) and lambda (l) are named after Korngold and
Lapari who originally described them. Kappa (κ)
and lambda (l) chains occur in a ratio of about 2 :
1 in human sera.
2. Classes of H-chains
The H-chains are structurally and antigenically
distinct for each class and are designated by the Greek
letter corres­ponding to the immunoglobulin class as
shown in Table 14.1.
Immunoglobulin class H-chain
IgG gamma (g)
IgA alpha (α)
IgM mu (μ)
IgD delta (δ)
IgE epsilon (ε)
In humans, there are five classes of heavy chains
designated by lowercase Greek letters: gamma (g),
alpha (a), mu (μ), delta (d) and epsilon (e).
3. Constant and Variable Regions
All immunoglobulin chains possess a constant (“C”)
region that determines the biologic action of an
antibody, and a variable (“V”) region that binds a
unique epitope. Both light and heavy chains contain
two different regions. Of the 220 amino acids, those
which constitute carboxy-terminal half of L-chain,
occur in a constant sequence. This part of the chain
is called constant regions (CL).
The H-chain also has constant region (CH) and
variable regions (VH). While in the L-chain, the
two regions are of equal length, in the H-chains,
the variable region constitutes approximately
only a fifth of the chain and is located at its
aminoterminus. The variable regions (V L and
VH) from different antibodies do have different
sequences. It is the variable regions (VL, VH) that
when folded together form the antigen-binding
sites.The other domains of the heavy chains are
termed-constant domains and are numbered
CH1, C H2, C H3, and sometimes C H4, starting with

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92  |  Section 2: Immunology
the domain next to the variable domain. It is the
portion of H-chains present in Fab fragment.
H-chains carry a carbohydrate moiety, which is
distinct for each class of immunoglobulins.
4. Fc Fragment
The Fc fragment is composed of the carboxyterminal
portion of the H-chains. It can be crystallized, and
is, therefore, called Fc (fragment-crystallizable).
Functions of Fc
Binds complement leading to complement fix­
ation.
∙∙ Binds to cell receptors (FcRs)
∙∙ Determines passage of IgG across the placen­tal
barrier
∙∙ Determines skin fixation and catabolic rate.
5. Immunoglobulin Domain
Each immunoglobulin peptide chain has internal
disulfide links in addition to interchain disulfide
bonds which bridge the H- and L-chains. These
interchain disulfide bonds form loops in the peptide
chain, and each of the loops is compactly folded
to form a globular domain, each domain having
a separate function. The variable region domains,
VL and VH, are responsible for the formation of a
specific antigen-binding site. The CH2 region in IgG
binds C1q in the classical complement sequence,
and the CH3 domain mediates adherence to the
monocyte surface. The areas of the H-chain in the
C-region between the first and second C-region
domains (CH1 and CH2) is the hinge region. It is
more flexible and is more exposed to enzymes and
chemicals. Papain acts here to produce one Fc and
two Fab fragments (Figs 14.3).
IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSES
Human serum contains five classes of immuno­
globulins—IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD and IgE in the
desending order of the concentration. Table14.2
shows their differentiating features.
1. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) ( Fig. 14.3)
1. This is the major immunoglobulin in human
serum, accounting for about 80% of the total
immunoglobulin pool.
2. It has a sedimentation coeffient of 7S and a
molecular weight of 150,000.
3. It contains less carbohydrate than other
immunoglo­bulins.
4. The normal serum concentration of IgG is
about 8-16 mg per mL.
5. It has a half-life of 23 days—the longest of all of
the immunoglobulin isotypes.
6. IgG is the predominant immunoglobulin in
blood, lymph, peritoneal fluid and cerebrospinal
Fig. 14.3: Secretory IgA. 1. Heavy chain; 2. Light chain; 3. J
chain; 4. Secretory component; 5. Disulfide bond
fluid, and it is distributed nearly equally
between extra- and intravascular spaces.
7. Four subclasses of IgG (Ig1, Ig2, Ig3, Ig4) have
been recognized.
8. Catabolism of IgG is unique in that it varies with
its serum concentration. When its level is raised,
as in chronic malaria, kala-azar or myeloma,
the IgG synthesized against a particular antigen
will be catabolized rapidly and may result in
the particular antibody deficiency. Conversely,
in hypogammaglobulinemia, the IgG given for
treatment will be catabolized only slowly.
Functions of IgG: IgG is a very versatile molecule.
It may be considered a general-purpose antibody,
protective against those infectious agents, which
are active in the blood and tissues.
Examples of its Functions
i. Transfer from mother to fetus: IgG is the only
class of Igs that can cross the placenta and is
responsible for the protection of the infant
during the first few months of life.
ii. Opsonization: IgG binds to microorganisms
and enhances their phagocytosis.
iii. Fixing to guinea pig skin.
iv. Immunological reactions: IgG participates
in complement fixation, precipitation and
neutralization of toxins and viruses.
v. Immobilize bacteria.
vi. Suppresses the homologous antibody synthesis:
Passively administered IgG suppresses the
homologous antibody synthesis by a feedback
process.
2. Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
1. It is the second most abundant class, cons­
tituting about 10–13 per cent of serum immuno­
globulins.
2. The normal serum level is 0.6–­4.2 mg per mL.
3. It has a half life of 6–8 days.
4. IgA is the primary immunoglobulin found in
external secretions, such as mucus, tears, saliva,
gastric fluid, colostrum and sweat. It exists in
different forms in these various solutions.
 Chapter 14: Antibodies—Immunoglobulins  | 93
Table14.2  Physical, physiologic, and biologic properties of human serum immunoglobulins
Property lgG IgA* lgM lgD IgE
A. Physical properties

1. Sedimentation coefficient(s) 7 7 19 7 8
2. Molecular weight in 150,000 160,000 900,000, 180,000 190,000
kilodaltons
3.  Carbohydrate (%) 3 8 12 13 12
4. Number of four-chain units 1 1–3 5–6 1 1
per molecule
B. Physiologic properties
1. Normal adult serum 12 2 1.2 0.03 0.00004
concentration (mg/mL)
2.  Half-life (in days) 23 6 5 2–8 1–5
4.  Daily production (mg/kg) 34 24 3.3 0.4 0.0023
5. Intravascular distribution (%) 45 42 80 75 50
C. Biologic properties

1. Complement fixation
Classical ++ – +++ – –
Alternative – + – – –
2. Placental transport to fetus + – – – –
3.  Present in milk + + – – –
4. Selective selection by – + – – –
submucus glands
5. Anaphylactic – – – – ++++
hypersensitivity
6.  Heat stability + + + + –
D. Major characteristics Most Protects Very efficienct Mainly Initiates
abundant Ig; mucosal against lymphocyte inflammation;
Longest half surfaces bacteremia receptor; raised in helminth
life: Crosses major surface infection; causes
placenta components of allergy symptoms
opsonizes B cells
antigen
*
IgA may occur in 7S, 9S and 11S forms

5. IgA occurs in two forms. Serum IgA and
secretory IgA (SIgA).
Serum IgA: Serum IgA is monomeric (one four-
chain unit) 7S molecule (MW about 160,000).
Secretory IgA (SIgA): In contrast, IgA found on
mucosal surfaces and in secretions is a dimer
formed by two monomer units joined together at
their carboxy terminals by a glycopeptide termed
as the J chain (J for joining). This dimeric form
is more important form, known as secretory IgA
(SIgA). Dimeric SIgA is synthesized by plasma
cells situated near the mucosal or glandular
epithelium. J chains are also found in other
polymeric immunoglobulins such as IgM.
Secretory component: Secretory IgA (SIgA)
contains another glycine-rich polypeptide called
the secretory component or secretory piece. This is
not produced by lymphoid cells but by mucosal or
glandular epithelial cells.
The secretory piece is believed to protect IgA
from denaturation by bacterial proteases in sites
such as the intestinal mucosa which have a rich
and varied bacterial flora.
Subclasses: There are two subclasses of IgA in
humans: IgA1 and IgA2.
Functions of IgA
i. Local immunity: Secretory IgA (SIgA) is
believed to play an important role in local
immunity against respiratory and intestinal
pathogens.
ii. Prevention of organisms’ entry into body tissues.
iii. Newborn protection: IgA present in breast milk
provides the newborn with protection against
infection.
iv. Agglutination.
v. Alternative pathways activation.
vi. Phagocytosis and intracellular killing.

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94  |  Section 2: Immunology
3. Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
1. About 10% of normal serum Igs consists of this
class.
2. It is a heavy molecule (19S; MW 900,000 to
1,000,000 daltons, hence called ‘millionaire
molecule’).
3. The normal serum level of IgM is 1.2 mg/mL.
4. It has a half-life of about 5 days.
5. IgM is the first immunoglobulin to appear
after exposure to an antigen.
6. In the circulation, IgM exists as a pentamer
of five four-chain units. The five identical IgM
monomers are connected to each other by
a polypeptide joining (J) chain (Fig. 14.4).
Polymerization of the subunits depends upon
the presence of the J chain as with IgA (Fig. 14.3).
7. Most of IgM (80%) is intravascular in
distribution.
8. IgM is the first class of antibody produced
during the primary immune response. It is also
the earliest to be synthesized by fetus beginning
by about 20 weeks of age. As it cannot cross
the placental barrier, the presence of IgM in
the fetus or newborn indicates intrauterine
infection.
9. They are relatively shortlived, hence their
demonstr­ation in the serum indicates recent
infection.
10. Treatment of serum with 0.12 M 2-mercaptoe­
thanol selectively destroys IgM without
affecting IgG antibodies.
11. Isohemagglutinins (anti-A and anti-B) and anti­
bodies to S. Typhi O antigen and Wassermann
reaction antibodies in syphilis are usually IgM.
12. IgM agglutinates bacteria activates complement
by the classical pathway, and enhances the
ingestion of pathogens by phagocytic cells. IgM
is normally restricted to the intravascular space
because of its high molecular weight.
Fig. 14.4: Pentameric IgM molecule, composed of five
identical monomers
4. Immunoglobulin D (IgD)
1. IgD has a monomer structure similar to IgG.
2. Its molecular weight is 180,000 daltons.
4. IgD is an immunoglobulin found in trace
amounts in the blood serum (0.03 mg/mL).
5. Half-life is about 3 days.
6. IgD antibodies are abundant in combination
with IgM on the surface of B cells and bind
antigens, thus signaling the B cell to start
antibody production.
7. Two subclasses of IgD (IgD1 and IgD2) are known.
5. Immunoglobulin E (IgE)
1. It resembles IgG structurally and also known
as reagin antibody.
2. IgE is an 8S molecule (MW 19,000) and half-
life of two days.
3. It is present in extremely low amounts in serum.
4. It exhibits unique properties such as heat
lability (inactivated at 56°C in one hour).
5. It is susceptible to mercaptoethanol.
6. It does not pass the placental barrier.
7. IgE does not activate complement nor
agglutinate antigens.
8. Allergic reactions: IgE may be elevated in allergic
(atopic) individuals, and is responsible for
many of the symptoms of allergies, bronchial
asthma, and even systemic anaphylaxis.
Allergy mediated by IgE is termed as type I
hypersensitivity response.
9. Immunity against helminthic parasites:
Children living in insanitary conditions, with
a high load of intestinal parasites, have high
serum levels of IgE.
10. Extravascular: It is mostly found extra­
vascularly in the lining of the respiratory and
intestinal tracts.
11. Protection against pathogens: The physiological
role of IgE appears to be protection against
pathogens by mast cell degranulation and
release of inflammatory mediators.
Role of Different Immunoglobulin Classes
IgG: Protects the body fluids
IgA: Protects the body surfaces
IgM: Protects the bloodstream
IgE: Mediates type I hypersensitivity
IgD: Role not known.
Abnormal Immunoglobulins
Other structurally similar proteins are seen in
serum in many pathological processes, and
sometimes even in healthy persons apart from
antibodies in the following pathological conditions:
A. Multiple myeloma
B. Heavy chain disease
C. Cryoglobulinemia
 Chapter 14: Antibodies—Immunoglobulins  | 95
A. Multiple Myeloma
The abnormal plasma cells are myeloma cells
which also collect in the solid part of the bone.
The disease is called “multiple myeloma”. Myeloma
is a plasma cell dyscrasia in which there is
unchecked proliferation of one clone of plasma
cells, resulting in the excessive production of the
particular immunoglobulin synthesized by the
clone. Such immunoglobulins are, therefore, called
monoclonal.
Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia: Multiple
myeloma may affect plasma cells synthesizing
IgG, IgA, IgD or IgE. Myeloma involving IgM-
producing cells (lympho-plasmacytoid cells) is
known as Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia. In this
condition, there occurs excessive production of the
respective myeloma proteins (M proteins) and of
their light chains (Bence-Jones proteins).
Bence-Jones proteins: In most patients, the
myeloma cells also secrete excessive amounts
of light chains. These ex­cess light chains were
first discovered in the urine of myeloma patients
and were named Bence-Jones proteins, for their
discoverer Bence Jones (1847). Bence Jones proteins
can be identified in urine by its characteristic
property of coagulation when heated to 50°C but
redissolving at 70°C. These proteins are the light
chains of immunoglobulins and so may occur as
the kappa or lambda forms. But in any one patient,
the chain is either kappa or lambda only, and never
both, being uniform in all other respects also.
B. Heavy Chain Disease
It is a lymphoid neoplasia characterized by the
overproduction of the Fc parts of the immuno­
globulin heavy chains.
C. Cryoglobulinemia
It is a condition in which there is the formation
of a gel or a precipitate on cooling the serum,
which redissolves on warming. It may not always
be associated with disease but is often found in
myelomas, macroglobulinemias and autoimmune
conditions such as systemic lupus erythematosus.
Most cryoglobulins consist of either IgG, IgM or
mixture of the two.
Key Points
™™ An antibody or immunoglobulin (lg) is a glycoprotein
that is made in response to an antigen, and can
recognize and bind to the antigen that caused its
production
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™™ An antibody molecule consists of two identical
light chains and two identical heavy chains, which
are linked by disul­fide bonds. Each heavy chain has
an amino-terminal vari­able region followed by a
constant region
™™ Within the amino-terminal variable domain of each
heavy and light chain are three complementarity-
determining re­gions (CDRs). These polypeptide
regions contribute the anti­gen-binding site of an
antibody, determining its specificity
™™ Abnormal immunoglobulins are multiple myeloma,
heavy chain disease C and cryoglobulinemia.
Important questions
1. What is an antibody? Draw a labeled diagram of IgG.
2. Name various classes of immunoglobulins and
describe structure and functions of IgG, IgA and
IgM.
3. Write shot notes on:
a. Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
b. Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
c. Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. The immunoglobulin that crosses the placenta is:
a. IgG b. IgM
c. IgA d. IgE
2. The J-chain is present in the immunoglobulin:
a. IgG b. IgM
c. IgA d. IgE
3. All the following immunoglobulins are heat-stable
except:
a. IgG b. IgM
c. IgA d. IgE
4. Which is the earliest immunoglobulin to be
synthesized by the fetus?
a. IgG b. IgM
c. IgA d. IgE
5. The immunoglobulin that mediates type I hyper­
sensitivity reaction is:
a. IgG b. IgM
c. IgA d. IgE
6. Antibodies that are bound to mast cells and involve
in allergic reactions are:
a. IgG b. IgM
c. IgA d. IgE
7. The first antibodies synthesized, especially against
microorganisms:
a. IgG b. IgM
c. IgA d. IgE
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. b; 3. d; 4. b; 5. d; 6. d; 7. b.

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe the sequence of events when the
classical pathway and the alternative pathway of
the complement system is activated
Complement: The term ‘complement’ (C) refers to
a system of factors which occur in normal serum
and are activated characteristically by antigen-
antibody interaction and subsequently mediate a
number of biologically significant consequences.
Complement system
The complement system belongs to the group
of biological effector mechanisms (called
triggered enzyme cascades), which also includes
coagulation, fibrinolytic and kinin systems.
Pfeiffer phenomenon: It was discovered by
Pfeiffer (1894) that cholera vibrios were lysed
when injected intraperitoneally into specifically
immunized guinea pigs (bactereolysis in vivo or
Pfeiffer phenomenon).
General Properties of Complement
1. Present in the sera of all mammals and of most
lower animals:
2. Nonspecific serological reagent: Complement
from one species can react with antibodies from
other species.
3. Serum molecules: The complement system
consists of approximately 30 serum molecules
constituting nearly 10% of the total serum
proteins and forming one of the major defence
systems of the body.
4. Heat labile: Complement as a whole is heat
labile, and being destroyed in 30 minutes at
56°C. A serum deprived of its complement
activity by heating at 56°C for 30 minutes is then
said to be ‘inactivated’.
15
Chapter
Complement System
∙∙ Discuss biological effects of complement
∙∙ Describe complement deficiencies and associated
diseases.
5. Complement fixation, binding or consumption:
Complement (C) ordinarily does not bind to
free antigen or antibody but only to antibody
which has combined with its antigen.
6. Site of complement binding: The site of
complement binding is located on the Fc piece
of the Ig molecule.
Complement Activation
There are nine components of complement
called C1 to C9. The fraction C1 occurs in serum
as a calcium ion-dependent complex, which on
chelation with EDT A yields three protein subunits
called C1q, r and s. Thus, C is made up of a total
of 11 different proteins. C fractions are named C1
to C9 in the sequence of the cascading reaction,
except that C4 comes after C1, before C2. The
components of the classical pathway are numbered
from C1 to C9, although they do not function in
numerical order (C4 comes after C1, before C2).
Activation of the complement system can be
initiated either by antigen–antibody complexes or
by a variety of nonimmunologic molecules.
Complement components react in a specific
sequence as a cascade either through the classical or
alternative pathway.
Principle pathways of complement
activation
Three principle pathways are involved in
complement activation (Classical pathway, alternate
or properdin pathway, and Lectin pathway).

A. Classical Complement Pathway
The chain of events in which C components react in
a specific sequence following activation of C1 and
typically culminate in immune cytolysis is known
as the classical pathway (Fig. 15.1). It consists of
the following steps:
1. Antigen–antibody binding: The first step is the
binding of C1 to the antigen–antibody (AB)
complex. The recognition unit of C1 is Clq,
which reacts with the Fc piece of bound IgM
of IgG. Clq binding in the presence of calcium
ions leads to sequential activation of Clr and s.
In the presence of calcium ions, a trimolecular
complex (CI qrs-Ag-Ab) that has esterase
activity is rapidly formed.
­2. Production of C3 convertase: Activated Cls is
an esterase (C1s esterase), one molecule of
which can cleave several molecules of C4—an
Fig. 15.1: Complement cascade—the classical pathway
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Chapter 15: Complement System  | 97
instance of amplification. Activated Cl cleaves
C4 into two pieces C4a and C4b (C4® C4a + C4b).
C4a is an anaphylotoxin and C4b which binds
to cell membrane along with C1.
C14b in the presence of magnesium ions
cleaves C2 into two pieces (C2® C2a + C2b).
C2a remains linked to cell-bound C4b, and C2b
which is released into fluid phase. The pieces
recombine, forming C4b2a has enzymatic
activity and is referred to as the classical
pathway C3 convertase.
3. Production of C5 convertase: C3 convertase
cleaves C3 into two fragments (C3® C3a + C3b).
C3a is soluble, and is an anahylotoxin, and
C3b which remains cell-bound along with
C4b2a to form a trimolecular complex C4b2a3b,
which has enzymatic activity and is called C5
convertase of the classic pathway.
98  |  Section 2: Immunology
4. Formation of the membrane attack complex
(MAC): The terminal stage of the classic pathway
involves creation of membrane attack complex
(MAC), which is also called the lytic unit.
Initiation of membrane attack complex (MAC)
assembly begins with cleavage of C5 by C5 convertase
into C5a and C5b fragments (C5®C5a+C5b). The C5a
is the most potent anaphylatoxin in the body and
C5b continues with the cascade. C6 and C7 then
join together. A heatstable trimolecular complex
C567 is formed part of which binds to the cell
membrane and prepares it for lysis by C8 and C9
which join the reaction subsequently. This complex
(C5b67) inserts itself into the plasma membrane
of the target cell. Most of C567 escape and serve to
amplify the reaction by adsorbing onto unsensitized
‘bystander cells’ and rendering them susceptible to
lysis by C8 and C9.
The unbound C567 has chemotactic activity,
though the effect is transient due to its rapid
inactivation. C8 and C9 then bind, forming the
membrane at­tack complex (C5b6789) that creates a
pore in the plasma membrane of the target cell. The
mechanism of complement-mediated cytolysis is
the production of ‘holes’, approximately 100° A in
diameter on the cell membrane. This disrupts the
osmotic integrity of the membrane, leading to the
release of the cell contents.
B. Alternative Complement Pathway
In the complement cascade, the central process is
the activation of C3, which is the major component
of C. In the classical pathway, activation of C3 is
achieved by C42 (classical C3 convertase). The
activation of C3 without prior participation of C142
is known as the ‘alternative pathway’ (Fig. 15.2).
1. Production of Alternative Pathway C3
Convertase
This pathway bypasses both the recognition unit
and the assembly of the activation unit as described
for the classic pathway. Instead, there are at least
three normal serum proteins that, when activated
together with C3, form a functional C3 convertase
Fig. 15.2: Complement cascade—the alternative pathway
and a C5 convertase. These are factor B, factor D
and properdin (P).
The binding of C3b to an activator is the first
step in the alternative pathway. Although C3b
is present in the circulation but in the free state
it is rapidly inactivated by the serum protein
factors H and I. However, bound C3b is protected
from such inactivation. The bound C3b, in the
presence of Mg++, interacts with plasma protein
factor B forming C3bB which is also known as ‘C3
proactivator convertase’) to form a magnesium-
dependent complex ‘C3bB’. Factor B in the complex
is cleaved by serum factor D (also called ‘C3
proactivator convertase’) into two fragments—Ba
and Bb. Fragment Ba is released into the medium.
Fragment Bb remains bound to C3b producing
C3bBb. C3bBb acts as the alternate pathway C3
convertase, capable of producing more C3b. This
enzyme C3bBb is extremely labile. The function of
properdin (also called Factor P), a serum protein
is to stabilize the C3 convertase, which hydrolyzes
C3, leading to further steps in the cascade, as in the
classical pathway (Fig. 15.1).
2. Production of Alternative Pathway C5
Convertase and MAC
C3b produced by C3 convertase binds to C3bBb,
producing the alterna­tive C5 convertase (C3bBb3b).
C5 convertase may or may not still have factor P
attached. Properdin enters the reaction sequence
and binds both C3 and C5 convertase to protect
the complex from the action of factor I (a normal
component of serum that is capable of inactivating
C3b). Properdin interaction, therefore, is the
terminal event in the assembly of the activation
unit for this pathway.
Once the C5 convertase is formed, C5 is
cleaved to form C5a and C5b, and the spontaneous
formation of the attack complex (C5b-9) quickly
follows. C5b is necessary for formation of the mem­
brane attack complex and cell lysis. The formation
of this attack complex proceeds in the same
manner as it does in the classic pathway (Fig. 15.1).
Biological Effects of Complement (C)
1. Bacteriolysis and cytolysis: Complement
mediates immunological membrane damage.
This results in bacteriolysis and cytolysis.
2. Virus neutralization: Neutralization of certain
viruses requires the participation of C.
3. Anaphylotoxins: C2 kinins are vasoactive amines
and increase capillary permeability. The cleavage
products of both pathways of complement
activation, C3a and C5a are anaphylatoxic
(histamine releasing) and chemotactic. C4a also
has anaphylotoxin activity but is less potent even
than C3a. C567 is chemotactic and also brings
about reactive lysis.

4. Immune adherence and opsonization :
Opsonization is the process of making a
particulate antigen more easily identified
by a phagocyte. If immune complexes have
activated the complement system, the C3b
bound to them stimulate phagocytosis and
removal of immune complexes. This facilitated
phagocytosis is referred to as opsonization.
5. Chemotaxis: Factors Ba (the split product
from the alternate pathway) and C5a are both
chemotactic for polymorphonuclears (PMNs)
and macrophages, thus contributing to local
inflammation. C5b67, the partially formed
attack complex, has also been implicated as a
chemotactic agent.
6. Hypersensitivity reaction: Complement partici­
pates in:
i. Type II hypersensitivity (cytotoxic) reactions:
ii. Type III (immune complex) hypersensitivity
reactions:
7. Autoimmune diseases: Serum C (complement)
components are decreased in many auto­
immune diseases such as systemic lupus
erythromatosus and rheumatoid arthritis.
8. Endotoxic shock: Endotoxins can efficiently
activate the alternative pathway of the comple­
ment cascade. There is massive C3 fixation and
platelets adherence in endotoxic shock. Large
scale platelet lysis and release of large amounts of
platelet factor lead to disseminated intravascular
coagulation (DIC) and throbocytopenia. In
endotoxic shock with gram-negative septicemia
or dengue, hemorrhagic fever may have a similar
pathogenesis. Depletion of C protects against the
Schwartzman reaction.
Regulation of the Complement System
Several inbuilt control mechanisms regulate the
complement cascade at different steps. These are
mainly of two kinds:
A. Inhibitors
B. Inactivators
A. Inhibitors: They bind to complement compo­
nents and halt their further functioning.
1. C1 esterase: Normal serum contains an
inhibitor of C1 esterase (ClsINH). This heat
labile alpha neuraminoglycoprotein also
inhibits many other esterases found in
blood, such as plasmin, kininogen and the
Hageman factor.
2. Vitronectin: It is also known as the S protein.
The S protein present in normal serum
binds to C567 and modulates the cytolytic
action of the membrane attack complex.
B. Inactivators: They are enzymes that destroy
complement proteins.
1. Factor 1: Normal serum contains an endo­
peptidase, called Factor 1 which cleaves C3b
and possibly C4b.
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Chapter 15: Complement System  | 99
2. Factor H: It has a strong affinity for C3b, and,
after binding C3b, it exerts its control.
3. Anaphylatoxin inactivator: Anaphylatoxin
inactivator is an alphaglobulin that
enzymatically degrades C3a, C4a and C5a
which are anaphylatoxins released during
the C cascade.
4. C4 binding protein: It is a normal human
serum protein that binds tightly to activated
C4 and enhances C4b degradation.
Quantitation of complement (c)
and its components
Measurement of the complement levels in the serum
can be accomplished by estimating the highest
dilution of the serum lysing sheep erythrocytes
sensitized with antierythrocytic antibody. The
hemolytic unit of C (CH50) may be defined as that
amount of complement that lyses 50% of sensitized
erythrocytes under defined conditions.
Biosynthesis of complement
Various complement components are synthesized
in different parts of the body, e.g. intestinal
epithelium (C1), macrophages (C2, C4), spleen
(C5, C8) and liver (C3, C6, C9). The site of synthesis
of C7 is not known. The control mechanism
that controls the synthesis of the complement
component is not known.
Complement deficiencies
Complement deficiencies have been associated
with recurrent bacterial and fungal infections
as well as with collagen-vascular inflammatory
diseases. Human genetic deficiencies of
complement components and associated diseases
are listed in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1  Human genetic deficiencies of comple­
ment components and associated diseases
Complement Association with disease
deficiency
C1 inhibitor Hereditary angioneurotic edema
C1r Systemic lupus erythematosus-
like disease, frequently fatal from
overwhelming infection
C2 Increased susceptibility to infections
C3 Recurrent bacterial infections
C4 Systemic lupus erythematosus-like
disease
C5 Recurrent infections—lupus like disease
C6, C7, C8 Recurrent infections—Disseminated
gonococcal infections
C9 Not more susceptible to disease
than other individuals in the general
population`
Factor 1 Low C3 levels with recurrent bacterial
infections
100  |  Section 2: Immunology

Key Points 2. What is the chemical nature of components of

complement?
™™ The complement system comprises a group of serum a. Protein
proteins, many of which exist in inactive forms. It is b. Lipopolysaccharide
present in all normal individuals in their blood c. Lipid
™™ Complement activation occurs by the classical, d. None of the above
alternative or lectin pathways, each of which is 3. The activation of complement takes place through
initiated differently
either of the following pathways except:
™™ The classical pathway is activated with the formation
a. The classical pathway
of soluble antigen-antibody complexes (immune
b. The lectin pathway
complexes) or the binding of antibody to antigen
c. The alternative pathway
on a suitable target
d. The lipid pathway
™™ Activation of the alternative and lectin pathways
is antibody-independent. The lectin pathway is 4. Classical pathway of the complement is activated
activated by lectins by:
™™ Biological effects of complement: 1. Bacteriolysis and a. Antigen
Cytolysis; 2. Virus neutralization; 3. Anaphylotoxins; 4. b. Antibody
Immune adherence and opsonization; 5. Chemotaxis; c. Antigen Antibody complex
6. Hypersenitivity reaction; 7. Autoimmune diseases; d. None of the above
8. Endotoxic shock 5. The alternative pathway of the complement is
™™ Clinical consequences of inherited complement initiated by:
deficien­cies range from increases in susceptibility a. Endotoxins
to infection to tissue damage caused by immune b. Lipopolysaccharides
complexes. c. Yeast cell walls
d. All the above
Important questions 6. First component of complement which binds to
antigen-antibody complex in classical pathway is:
1. Define complement. What is the sequence of events a. C1q b. C1r
when the classical pathway of the complement c. C1s d. C3
system is activated? 7. Which component of complement is present in the
2. Write short notes on: highest concentration in the serum?
a. Alternative pathway of complement. a. C1 b. C2
b. Biological effects of complement. c. C3 d. C5
8. Factor B and Factor D are important components
Multiple choice questions (MCQs) of:
a. Classical pathway of complement
1.
All the following statements are true for b. Alternative pathway of complement
complement except that these are: c. Both of these
a. Glycoproteins d. None of the above
b. Heat labile substances
c. Found in an active state in the plasma Answers (MCQs)
d. Synthesized primarily by liver cells 1. c; 2. a; 3. d; 4. c; 5. d; 6. a; 7. c; 8. b.

Antigen–Antibody Reactions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Differentiate between precipitation and agglutination
∙∙ Describe prozone phenomenon
∙∙ Discuss mechanism and applications of precipit­
ation reactions giving suitable examples
∙∙ Describe types of precipitation reactions
∙∙ Describe principle and applications of Immuno­
elec trophoresis, radial immunodiffusion,
counter­­i mmunoelectrophoresis (CIE)), rocket
electrophoresis
INTRODUCTION
The antigen–antibody interaction is a bimolecular
association that exhibits exquisite specificity. It is
similar to an enzyme–substrate interaction, with
an important distinction.
Uses
1. In vivo or in the body
i. Protection: The in vivo interaction that
occurs in vertebrate animals are antibody
absolutely essential in protecting the
animal.
ii. Basis of antibody-mediated immunity:
In the body, they form the basis of
antibody-mediated immunity in infectious
diseases, or of tissue injury in some types
of hypersensitivity and autoimmune
diseases.
2. In vitro or in the laboratory
i. These assays can be used to detect the
presence of either antibody or antigen
ii. Vital roles in diagnozing diseases
iii. Monitoring the level of the humoral immune
response
iii. Identifying molecules of biological or
medical interest.
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Chap-16.indd 101
16
Chapter
∙∙ Describe applications of agglutination reactions
and their uses
∙∙ Discuss prin­ciple and applications of agglutination
reactions
∙∙ Describe principle of complement fixation test
∙∙ Discuss principle and clinical applications of
immuno­fluorescence technique
∙∙ Discuss principle, various types and clinical
applications of ELISA technique.
ANTIGEN–ANTIBODY INTERACTIONS
The reactions between antigen and antibody
occurs in three stages:
1. Primary stage: In primary or initial interaction,
there is no visible effect and the reaction is
rapid.
2. Secondary stage: The primary interaction in
most instances, but not all, is followed by the
secondary stage, leading to demonstrable
events such as precipitation, aggluti­nation, lysis
of cells, killing of live antigens, neutralization of
toxins and other biologically active antigens,
fixation of complement, immobilization
of motile organisms and enhancement of
phagocytosis. A single antibody can cause
precipitation, agglutination and most of the
other serological reactions but it is also true
that an antigen can stimulate the production
of different classes of immunoglobulins which
are different in their reaction capacities as well
as in other properties (Table 16.1).
3. Tertiary stage: Some antigen–antibody reactions
occurring in vivo initiate chain reactions
that lead to neutralization or destruction of
injurious antigens, or to tissue damage. These
are tertiary reactions and include humoral
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 102  |  Section 2: Immunology
Table 16.1  Efficacy of the different Immuno­
globulin classes in various serological reactions
Serological Reaction IgM IgG IgA
1. Precipitation Weak Strong Variable
2. Agglutination Strong Weak Moderate
3. Complement Weak Strong Negative
fixation
immunity against infectious diseaseas well
as clinical allergy and other immunological
diseases.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
ANTIGEN–ANTIBODY REACTIONS
1. Highly specific: Antigen–antibody reaction is
highly specific.
2. Lock and key arrangement: Both antigens
and antibodies participate in the formation of
agglutinates or precipitates. The molecules are
held together in lock and key arrangement.
3. No denaturation: There is no denaturation of
antigen or antibody during the reaction.
4. Surface antigens: During combination, only
surface antigens participate.
5. Entire molecules react and not fragments.
6. Combination is firm and reversible: The firm­
ness of the union is influenced by the affinity
and avidity of the reaction.
Affinity denotes the intensity of attraction
between the antigen and antibody molecules.
Avidity is the strength of the bond after the
formation of the antigen–antibody complexes.
7. Combination in varying proportions: Antigens
and antibodies can combine in varying
proportions. Antibodies are generally bivalent.
Antigens may have valencies upto hundreds.
ANTIGEN AND ANTIBODY MEASUREMENT
Measurement may be in terms of mass (e.g.
nitrogen) or more commonly as units or titer.
Titer
Antibody titer of a serum is the highest dilution of the
serum which shows an observable reaction with the
antigen in the particular test. It is usually expressed
as the reciprocals of the dilution of the serum.
PARAMETERS OF SEROLOGICAL TESTS
Two important parameters of serological tests are
sensitivity and specificity:
Chap-16.indd 102
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is defined as the ability of a test to
identify correctly all those who have the disease,
i.e. “true positives”.
Specificity
Specificity has been defined as the ability of a test
to identify correctly those who do not have the
disease, i.e. “true negatives”.
SEROLOGICAL REACTIONS
The study of antigen–antibody reactions in vitro
is called serology [serum and ology]. Antigen–
antibody reactions in vitro are known as serological
reactions.
TYPES OF ANTIGEN AND ANTIBODY
REACTIONS
A. Precipitation reactions
B. Agglutination reactions
C. Complement fixation test (CFT)
D. Neutralization tests
E. Opsonization
F. Immunofluorescence
G. Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
H. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
I. Immunoelectroblot techniques
J. Immunochromatographic tests
K. Immunoelectron microscopic tests.
A. Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation: When a soluble antigen combines
with its antibody in the presence of electrolytes
(NaCl) at a suitable temperature and pH, the
antigen–antibody complex forms an insoluble
precipitate and is called precipitation. Antibodies
that thus aggregate soluble antigens are called
precipitins. Precipitation is relatively less sensitive
for the detection of antibodies.
Flocculation: When instead of sedimenting, the
precipitate remains suspended as floccules, the
reaction is known as flocculation. Precipitation can
take place in liquid media or in gels, such as agar,
agarose or polyacrylamide.
Zone phenomenon: A quantitative precipitation
reaction can be performed by placing a constant
amount of antibody in a series of tubes and adding
increasing amounts of antigen to the tubes. This
plot of the amount of antibody precipitated versus
increasing antigen concentration (at constant total
antibody) reveals three zones (Fig.16.1). This is
called zone phenomenon.
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 Chapter 16: Antigen–Antibody Reactions  | 103
Fig. 16.1: A quantitative precipitation test showing: A.
Prozone (zone of antibody excess); B. Zone of equivalence;
C. Zone of antigen excess
Three Zones
1. Zone of antibody excess or prozone (ascending
part):
The prozone is of importance in clinical
serology,as sera rich in antibody or may
sometimes give a false-negative precipitation
or agglutination result, unless several dilutions
are tested.
2. Equivalence zone (peak): Occurs when the ratio
of antibody to antigen is optimal.
3. Zone of antigen excess or postzone (descending
part): In the tubes containing more antigen, the
amount of precipitate increases up to a point,
after which it decreases as a result of smaller
complexes being formed in the zone of antigen
excess.
Mechanism of Precipitation
The lattice hypothesis was proposed by Marrack
(1934) to explain the mechanism of precipitation.
According to this concept, multivalent antigens
combine with bivalent antibodies in varying
proportions, depending on the antigen–antibody
ratio in the reacting mixture, which is supported
by considerable experimental evidence and is
now widely accepted. Precipitation results when
a large lattice is formed consisting of alternating
antigen and antibody molecules. This is possible
only in the zone of equivalence. Formation of an
antigen–antibody lattice depends on the valency
of both the antibody and antigen. The antibody
must be bivalent; a precipitate will not form with
monovalent antibody fragments. The antigen must
be either bivalent or polyvalent. In the zones of
antigen or antibody excess, the lattice does not
en­large, as the valencies of the antibody and the
antigen, respectively, are fully satisfied .In either
case, extensive lattices cannot be formed and
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Chap-16.indd 103
Fig. 16.2: Mechanism of precipitation by lattice formation. In
A (antibody excess) and B (antigen excess), lattice formation
does not occur. In C (zone of equivalence), lattice formation and
precipitation occur optimally
precipitation is inhibited (Fig 16.2). The lattice
hypothesis holds good for agglutination also.
Applications of Precipitation Reaction
The precipitation test may be carried out as either a
qualitative or quantitative test. It has the following
applications:
1. Forensic application in the identification of
blood and seminal stains.
2. In testing for food adul­terants.
3. To standardize toxins and antitoxins.
Types of Precipitation and
Flocculation Tests
A. Ring test: This consists of layering the antigen
solution over a col­umn of antiserum in a narrow
tube and is the simplest type of precipitation
test. A precipitate forms at the junction of the
two liquids. Ring tests have only a few clinical
applications now.
Examples:
i. Ascoli’s thermoprecipitin test
ii. The grouping of streptococci by the
Lancefield technique.
B. Slide test (Slide flocculation test): When the
drops each of the antigen and antise­rum are
placed on a slide and mixed by shaking, floc­
cules appear.
Example: The VDRL test for syphilis is an
example of slide flocculation.
C. Tube test (Tube flocculation test)
i. The Kahn test for syphilis is an example of
a tube flocculation test.
ii. Standardization of toxins and toxoids.
D. Immunodiffusion (Precipitation Reactions in Gels)
Immunodiffusion refers to a precipitation
reaction that occurs between an antibody and
antigen in an agar gel medium. Immunodiffusion
is usually performed in a soft (1%) agar gel.
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 104  |  Section 2: Immunology
Advantages
1. The reaction is visible as a distinct band of
precipitation, which is stable and can be
stained for preservation, if necessary.
2. These immunodiffusion reactions can be used to
determine relative concentrations of antibodies
or antigens, to compare antigens, or to determine
the relative purity of an antigen preparation.
3. It also indicates identity, cross-reaction and
nonidentity between different antigens
Types of Immunodiffusion Tests
1. Single diffusion in one dimension (Oudin
procedure)
Antibody is incorporated in agar gel in a test
tube. Antigen solution is then layered over
it. The antigen diffuses downward through
the agar gel and wherever it reaches in
optimum concentration with antibody, a line
of precipitation is formed (Fig. 16.3). The
number of bands indicates the number of
different antigens present.
2. Double diffusion in one dimension (Oakley-
Fulthorpe procedure)
Here the antibody is incorporated in gel in a test
tube, above which is placed a column of plain
agar and antigen is layered on surface of this.
Antigen and antibody diffuse (double diffusion)
towards each other (in one dimension) through
the intervening column of plain agar and
forms a band of precipitate where they meet at
optimum proportion (Fig. 16.3).
3. Single diffusion in two dimensions (Radial
immunodiffusion—Mancini method)
The assay is carried out by incorporating
monospecific antiserum into melted agar and
allowing the agar to solidify on a glass plate in a
thin layer. Wells then are punched into the agar,
and different dilutions of the antigen are placed
into the various wells. As the antigen diffuses
into the agar, a ring of precipitation, a precipitin
ring, forms around the well (Fig. 16.4). The
area of the precipitin ring is proportional to the
concentration of antigen.
Uses
i. To quantitate serum immunoglobulins,
complement proteins, other substances.
Fig. 16.3: 1. Single diffusion in one dimension (Oudin
procedure) 2. Double diffusion in one dimension (Oakley-
Fulthorpe procedure)
Chap-16.indd 104
ii. For screening sera for antibodies to influenza
viruses.
iii. For the laboratory diagnosis of multiple
myeloma or agammaglobulinemia.
4. Double diffusion in two dimensions (Ouch­
ter­lony Technique
In the Ouchterlony method, both antigen and
antibody diffuse (hence, double diffusion)
radially form wells toward each other, thereby
establishing a concentration gradient. When
soluble antigen and soluble antibody are placed
in separate small wells punched into agar that
has solidified on a slide or glass plate, the
antigen and the antibody will diffuse through
the agar. The holes are located only a few
millimeters apart, and antibody and antigen
will interact to form a line of precipitate in the
area in which they are in optimal proportions.
In specimens containing several soluble
antigens, multiple precipitin lines are observed,
each occurring between the wells (Fig. 16.5).
The visible line of precipitation permits a
comparison of antigens for identity (same
antigenic determinants), partial identity
(cross-reactivity), or nonidentity against a given
selected antibody.
Example
Elek test for toxigenicity in diphtheria bacilli:
A special variety of double diffusion in two
dimensions is the Elek test for toxigenicity in
diphtheria bacilli.
5. Immunoelectrophoresis
Immunoelectrophoresis is a procedure that
combines electrophoresis and double diffusion
for the separation of antigen–antibody reactions
in gels.
Fig. 16.4: Single diffusion in two dimensions (Radial
immunodiffusion—Mancini method)
Fig. 16.5: Double diffusion in two dimensions (Ouchterlony
technique)
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 Chapter 16: Antigen–Antibody Reactions  | 105
Fig. 16.6: Immunoelectrophoresis
In this procedure, antigens are separated by
electrophoresis in an agar gel. A small drop of
solution containing the antigens (usually proteins)
is placed into a small well punched out of solidified
agar on a small glass plate. The plate then is placed
in an electric field to allow for the electrophoretic
migration of the antigens. A trough is then cut
next to the wells and filled with antibody and
diffusion allowed to proceed for 18–24 hours.The
antibody and the antigens diffuse toward each
other, resulting in the formation of precipitin bands
or arcs wherever they are in optimal proportions
(Fig. 16.6).
Uses
i. To separate many antigens as well as to
indicate the potential purity of an antigen
ii. To separate the major blood proteins in serum
for certain diagnostic tests.
iii. For testing for normal and abnormal proteins
in serum and urine.
6. Electroimmunodiffusion
Immunodiffusion is a slow process. The
development of precipitin lines can be speeded
up by electrically driving the antigen and antibody
in a gel. Various methods have been described
combining electrophoresis with diffusion. Of these,
frequently used methods in the clinical laboratory
are:
1. One-dimensional double electroimmuno­
diffusion (counterimmunoelectrophoresis)
2. One-dimensional single electroimmuno­
diffusion (rocket electrophoresis)
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Chap-16.indd 105
Fig. 16.7: Counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIE)
i. Counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIE) or
Countercurrent eletrophoresis (CIEP)
Counterimmunoelectrophoresis can be used only
for antigens and antibody that migrate in opposite
directions in the electric field. The test is set up
similarly to that for double diffusion in agar. Two
wells are punched about 1 cm apart in an agar
slab on a glass plate. The antigen and antibody
solutions are placed in these wells in such a way
that when the electric fleld is applied across the
plate, the antigen will migrate toward the antibody,
and the antibody will migrate toward the antigen.
A precipitin line will form when the antigen and
antibody meet in optimal proportions resulting in
precipitation at a point between them (Fig 16.7).
Advantages of Counterimmunoelectrophoresis
(CIE)
1. More sensitive: It is 10 times more sensitive than
simple diffusion in agar.
2. More rapid assay: It is a much more rapid assay
(as little as 30 minutes for some antigens) than
is double diffusion in gel.
Clinical Applications
i. For detection of various antigens: such as
hepatitis B surface antigen (HBS antigen) and
alpha-fetoprotein in serum and meningococcal
and cryptococcal antigens in CSF.
ii. To detect the presence of anti-DNA antibody in
the serum of patients with several autoimmune
disorders.
ii. One-dimensional Single
Electroimmunodiffusion (Rocket
Electrophoresis)
As in radial immunodiffusion, small wells are cut
in an agarose gel slab on a glass plate. The agar
contains antibody to one or more antigens of
interest. The antigen, in increasing concentration,
is placed in wells, and an electric potential is
applied across the plate. A negatively charged
antigen is electrophoresed in a gel containing
antibody. The antigens migrate into the gel and
precipitate with the antibody in the gel at the
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 106  |  Section 2: Immunology
appropriate position. The precipitate formed
between antigen and antibody has the shape of
a rocket. (Fig. 16.8). The height (distance from
the antigen well to the top of the precipitin band)
of which is proportional to the concentration
of antigen in the well. is so named because the
precipitin bands resemble rockets.Thus, this
method is primarily a quantitative technique.
Main Application
i. Quantitative estimation of antigens: For
quantitative estimation of antigens and does
permit measurement of antigen levels.
Laurell’s Two-dimensional
Electrophoresis
A variant of rocket electrophoresis is Laurell’s two-
dimensional electrophoresis. In this technique,
the antigen mixture is first electrophoretically
separated in a direction per­pendicular to that of
the final rocket stage. By this method, one can
quantitate each of several antigens in a mixture
(Fig 16.9).
B. Agglutination Reactions
When a particulate antigen is mixed with its
antibody in the presence of electrolytes at a
suitable tempera­ture and pH, the particles are
clumped or agglutinated. When antigen is present
on the surface of a cell or particle, the addition of
Fig. 16.8: Rocket electrophoresis
Fig. 16.9: Laurell’s variant of rocket electrophoresis (two-
dimensional electrophoresis)
1. First run—Antigens are separated by electrophoretic
mobility.
2. The second run is done at right angles to the first which
drives the antigens into the antiserum containing gel
to form precipitation peaks. The area of the peak is
proportional to the concentration of the antigen
Chap-16.indd 106
antibody causes a clumping or agglutination of the
cells. Antibodies that produce such reactions are
called aggglutinin. Agglutination occurs optimally
when antigen and antibodies react in equivalent
proportion.
Agglutination reactions are more sensitive than
precipitin reactions because of the direct nature of
the antigen/carrier/antibody interaction.
Prozone phenomenon: The prozone phenomenon
may be seen when either an antibody or an antigen
is in excess. Just an excess of antibody inhibits
precipitation reactions, such excess can also inhibit
reactions. This inhibition is called the prozone
phenomenon. Several mechanisms can cause the
prozone effect.
Blocking antibodies: Occasionally antibodies
are formed that will react with the antigenic
determinants on a cell but will not cause
agglutination (e.g. anti-Rh and anti-Brucella).
These antibodies are called blocking antibodies
because they inhib­it agglutination by the complete
antibody added subsequently.
APPLICATIONS OF AGGLUTINATION
REACTION
1. Slide Agglutination
A drop of sterile saline is placed on one of the
divisions of the slide or plate and is emulsified in
it bacterial culture. The diagnostic serum is taken
and is then mixed into the latter. The mixing is
completed by tilting the slide to and fro. Distinct
clumping within 60 seconds is a positive result.
On another area of the slide or plate, in parallel
with the test, a control test is performed, adding
only saline, instead of serum, to the bacterial
suspension. If clumping takes place, the bacterial
suspension is autoagglutinable and the reaction
with the serum must be disregarded.
Uses
i. For the identification of unknown bacterial
cultures.
ii. Very rapid: It requires only small quantities of
culture and serum.
iii. Also the method for blood grouping and cross-
matching.
2. Tube Agglutination
Serum from a patient thought to be infected with
a given bacterium is serially diluted in a series
of tubes to which the bacteria is added. The last
tube showing visible agglutination will reflect the
serum antibody titer of the patient. The reciprocal
of the greatest serum dilution that elicits a positive
agglutination is known as the agglutinin titer.
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 Chapter 16: Antigen–Antibody Reactions  | 107
Uses of Tube Agglutination
Tube agglutination is routinely employed for the
serological diagnosis of typhoid, brucellosis and
typhus fever.
i. Widal test: Used for the diagnosis of enteric
fever.
ii. Tube agglutination test for brucellosis.
iii. Weil-Felix reaction: Weil-Felix reaction for
serodiagnosis of typhus fevers is heterophil
agglutination test.
iv. Paul-Bunnel test: It is based on the presence of
sheep cell agglutinins in the sera of infectious
mononucleosis patients. IgM antibodies
capable of agglutinating human red cells
at 0–4°C (cold agglutinins) are sometimes
found in certain human diseases including for
diagnosis of mycoplasmal (primary atypical
pneumonia) streptococcal agglutination test.
3. Antiglobulin (Coombs’) Test
The antiglobulin test for Rh antibodies was
originally devised by British immunologist, RRA
coombs.
Principle of the Antiglobulin Test
When sera containing incomplete anti-Rh
antibodies are mixed with Rh-positive red cells,
the antibody coats the surface of the erythrocytes
but they are not agglutinated.When such
antibody-coated erythrocytes are treated with
a rabbit antihuman antiserum against human
gammaglobulin (antiglobulin or Coombs’ serum),
the cells are agglutinated. This is the principle of
the antiglobulin test (Fig. 16.10).
Types of Coombs’ Test
Coombs test is of two types: direct and indirect.
Direct Coombs’ test: The most direct, Coombs’
test, the sensitization of the erythrocytes with
incomplete antibodies takes place in vivo as in
case of hemolytic disease of the newborn due to
Rh incompatibility.
Indirect Coombs’ test: In the indirect Coombs’
test, sensitization of RBCs with incomplete
antibodies is performed in vitro (Fig. 16.10).
Uses
For demonstrating any type of incomplete or
nonagglutinating antibody, as e.g. in brucellosis.
4. Passive Agglutination Test
A precipitation reaction can be converted into
agglu­tination reaction by coating soluble antigen
on to the surface of carrier particles. The commonly
used carrier particles are red cells, latex particles or
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Chap-16.indd 107
Fig. 16.10: Antiglobulin (Coombs’) tests. Rh-positive
erythrocytes 1. are mixed with incomplete antibody; 2.
The antibody coats the cells; 3. but, being incomplete,
cannot produce agglutination. On addition of antiglobulin
serum; 4. which is complete antibody to immunoglobulin,
agglutination takes places
bentonite. Such test is more convenient and more
sensitive for detection of anti­bodies. Such tests are
known as passive agglutination tests.
Reversed passive agglutination: When instead
of antigen, the antibody is adsorbed to carrier
particles in tests for estimation of antigens,
the technique is known as reversed passive
agglutination.
Examples of Passive Agglutination
i. Hemagglutination test
a. Rose-Waaler test: A special type of passive
agglutination test is the Rose-Waaler test.
In rheumatoid arthritis,RA factor (an
antigammaglobulin autoantibody) appears
in the serum. It acts as antibody to human
IgG. The RA factor is able to agglutinate
red cells coated with globulins. The
antigen used for the test is a suspension
of sheep erythrocytes sensitized with a
subagglutinating dose of rabbit antisheep
erythrocyte antibody (amboceptor).
b. Treponema pallidum haemagglutination
(TPHA): One of the most widely used
passive agglutination tests employing
erythrocytes is Treponema pallidum
hemagglutination (TPHA) for serological
diagnosis of treponemal infection.
ii. Latex agglutination test: Polystyrene latex,
which can be manufactured as uniform
spherical particles, 0.8 mm in diameter, can
adsorb several types of antigens.
Latex agglutination tests (latex fixation tests)
are widely employed in clinical laboratory
for the detection of antistreptolysin –O(ASO),
C-reactive protein (CRP), RA factor, human
chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) and many
other antigens.
iii. Coagglutination.
Principle: Similar to latex agglutination,
coagglutination uses anti­body bound to a particle
to enhance visibility of the ag­glutination reaction
between antigen and antibody Certain strains
of (the Cowan strain, ATCC 12498) have a high
content of surface protein A. Protein A on the
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 108  |  Section 2: Immunology
Fig. 16.11: Coagglutination
Staph. aureus cell wall binds the Fc portion of
the immunoglobulin molecule, leaving the Fab
portion free to bind antigen. Visible agglutination
of the staphylococcal cells serves as a positive test
to indicate antigen-antibody binding (Fig.16.11).
Uses
i. Coagglutination can be used for detecting the
presence of antigens in serum, urine and CSF.
ii. Several commercial suppliers have prepared
coagglutination reagents for identification
of antigens of various streptococcal groups,
including Lancefield groups A, B, C, D, F, G, and N;
Streptococcus pneumoniae; Neisseria meningitidis;
N. gonorrhoeae; and Haemophilus influenzae types
A to F grown in cul­ture.
C. Complement Fixation Test (CFT)
When complement binds to an antigen–antibody
complex. it be­c omes “fixed” and “used up.”
Complement fixation tests are very sensitive and
can be used to detect extremely small amounts of
an an­tibody for a suspect micro-orgamism in an
individual’s serum. This can detect as little as 0.04
µg of antibody nitrogen and 0.01 µg of antigen.
Standardization of Complement and
Amboceptor
Guinea pig serum is first titrated for complement
activity. One unit or minimum haemolytic dose
(MHD) of complement is the highest dilution of
guinea pig serum that lyses one unit volume of
washed sheep RBCs in the presence of excess of
haemolysin (amboceptor) within a fixed time
(usually 30–60 minutes) at a fixed temperature
(37°C). Similarly, amboceptor should also be
titrated. One MHD of hemolysin is defined as
Chap-16.indd 108
highest dilution of the serum that lyses one unit
volume of washed sheep RBCs in the presence of
excess complement within a fixed time (usually
30–60 minutes at 37°C).
Complement Fixation Tests
CFT is a complex procedure consisting of two steps
and five reagents—antigen, antibody, complement,
sheep erythrocytes and amboceptor (rabbit
antibody to sheep red cells). Each of these reagents
has to be sep­arately standardized.
Principle
A known antigen is mixed with test serum lacking
complement. When immune complexes have had
time to form, comple­ment is added to the mixture.
If the patient’s serum contains antibody to the
antigen, the re­sulting antigen–antibody complexes
will bind all of the complement added. In most of
the cases, fixation of complement with antigen-
antibody complex causes in itself no visible effect.
(Antigen + Antibody + Complement).
This test consists of two sep­arate systems and
these two systems are tested in sequence (Fig.
16.12). Appropriate controls should be used,
including the following: antigen and serum controls
to ensure that they are not anticomplementary,
complement control to ensure that the desired
amount of comple­ment is added, and cell control
to see that sensitized erythrocytes do not undergo
lysis in the absence of complement.
Procedure
A. Test system: It consists of (i) Antigen- suspected
of causing the patient’s disease; (ii) Patient’s
serum (antibody); (iii) Complement.
B. Indicator system: It consists of sheep red cells
(antigen) coated with anti-sheep-red cell
antibody and Complement—An exogenous
source of complement (usually guinea pig
serum). Afterward, sen­sitized indicator cells,
usually sheep red blood cells previously coated
with complement-fixing antibodies, are added
to the mixture. Complement lyses antibody-
coated red cells.
Interpretation—Positive CF Test—Absence
of Lysis
The spe­cific antibodies are present in the test serum
and complement is con­sumed by the immune
complexes. Insufficient amount of comple­ment
will be available to lyse the indicator cells.
Negative CF Test Lysis of The Indicator Cells
Lysis of the indicator cells indicates lack of antibody
and a negative CF test. Lysis of the indicator cells
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 Chapter 16: Antigen–Antibody Reactions  | 109
(Fig. 16.12) results if immune com­plexes do not
form in part of the test because the antibodies are
not present in the test serum, complement remains
and lyses the indicator cells.
Uses
1. Diagnosis of syphilis: Complement fixation
was once used in the diagnosis of syphilis (the
Wassermann test).
2. In the diag­n osis of certain viral, fungal,
rickettsial, chlamydial, and proto­zoan diseases,
it is currently used.
3. For diagnosing infection caused by fungi,
respira­tory viruses, and arboviruses, as well as
to diagnose Q-fever. This test is still probably
the most common method.
Anticomplementary Effect
Nonspecific adsorption of complement may give
false positive results. Some sera may develop
anti­complementary properties on aging, and after
bac­terial contamination. Hemolyzed blood serum
also has an anticomplementary effect.
Other complement-dependent serological tests:
i. Immune adherence: Some bacteria, like
Vibrio cholerae and Treponema pallidum,
react with spe­cific antibody in the presence
of complement and particulate material such
as erythrocytes or platelets. The bacteria are
Fig. 16.12: Complement fixation test
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Chap-16.indd 109
aggregated and adhere to the cells. This is
known as immune adherence.
ii. Immobilization test : In the Treponema
pallidum immobilization test, a highly specific
test formerly considered the ‘gold standard’
for the serological diagnosis of syphilis,the
test serum is incubated anaerobically
with a suspension of live treponemes and
complement. If antibodies are present, the
treponemes will be found to be immobilized.
iii. Cytolytic or cytocidal tests: These are also
complement-dependent. When V. cholerae
is mixed with its antibody in the presence
of com­plement, the bacterium is killed and
lyzed. This forms the basis of the vibriocidal
antibody test for the measurement of
anticholera antibodies.
Indirect Complement Fixation Test
Certain avians (for example, duck, turkey, parrot)
and mammalian (for example, horse, cat) sera
do not fix guinea pig com­plement. The indirect
complement fixation test may be employed when
such sera are to be tested. Here, the test is set up
in duplicate and after the first step, the standard
antiserum known to fix complement is added to
one set. If the test serum contained antibody, the
an­tigen would have been used up in the first step
and, therefore, the standard antiserum added
subsequently would not be able to fix complement.
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 110  |  Section 2: Immunology
Therefore, hemolysis indicates a positive result
in the indirect test.
D. Neutralization Tests
These are of two types:
1. Viral neutralization tests
2. Toxin neutralization tests.
1. Viral Neutralization
Neutralization of viruses by their antibodies
can be demonstrated in various systems. This
antibody-mediated viral inactivation is called viral
neutralization.
Indicator systems: Laboratory animals or tissue
culture cells are used as “ indicator systems” in
these tests. The test serum is diluted serially,
incubated with a known amount of virus and
the mixture is then added to indicator cultures:
animals, embryonated hen’s egg and tissue culture.
2. Toxin Neutralization
Bacterial exotoxins are good antigens and
their activity may be com­pletely neutralized by
appropriate concentrations of specific antibody.
Antibody to bacterial exotoxin is usually referred
to as antitoxin which is important clinically, in
protection against and recovery from diseases such
as diphtheria and tetanus. Toxin neutralization can
be tested in vivo or in vitro.
A. Toxin neutralization in vivo
i. Toxigenicity test: The neutralizing capa­
city of an antitoxin can be assayed by
neutralization test in which mixture of toxin
and antitoxin is injected into a susceptible
animal and the least amount of antitoxin
that pre­vents death or disease in the animal
is estimated.
ii. Schick test: With the diphtheria toxin, which
in small doses causes cutaneous reaction,
neutralization test can be carried out on the
human skin. The Schick test is based on the
ability of circulating antitoxin to neu­tralize
the diphtheria toxin given intradermally.
Neutralization (no reaction) indicates
immunity and redness and erythema
indicates susceptibility to diphtheria.
B. Toxin neutralization in vitro: If a toxin has a
demonstrable in vitro effect, this effect can be
neutralized by specific anti­toxin.
Examples
i. Antistreptolysin O (ASO) test: Antistreptolysin
O (ASO)-antitoxin, present in the serum of
the patient suffering from Strep. pyogenes
infection, neutralizes the haemolytic activity
of the streptococcal O hemolysin (toxin).
Chap-16.indd 110
ii. Nagler’s reaction: Cl. perfringens produces
α-toxin and produces opalescence in serum
or egg yolk media. This reaction is specifically
neutralized by the antitoxin.
E. Opsonization
Opsonization is the process in which micro-
organisms or other particles are coated by antibody
and/or complement, and thus prepared for
“recognition” and ingestion by phagocytic cells.
Immune opsonization: Phagocytes, such as
macrophages, monocytes and neutrophils possess
surface receptors (CRI) for C3b and Fc receptors for
antibody. If immune complexes have activated the
complement system, then Fc and CRI receptors,
present on the phagocyte, bind Fc region of
antibody and C3b bound on immune com­plexes
respectively, thus facilitating their phago­cytosis.
This facilitated phagocytosis by antibody and
complement is known as immune opsonization.
Nonimmune opsonization: On the contrary,
nonimmune opsonization requires only C3b
(opsonin) for opsonization. C3b binds to CR1
receptors present on the phagocytes thus
facilitating their phagocytosis (Fig 16.13).
F. Immunofluorescence
Immunofluorescence is a process in which dyes
called fluo­rochromes are exposed to UV, violet or
blue light to make them fluoresce or emit visible light.
Fluorescent molecules absorb light of one wavelength
(exci­tation) and emit light of another wavelength
(emission). Albert Coons and his colleagues (1942)
showed that fluorescent dyes can be conjugated to
antibodies and that such ‘labelled’ antibodies can
be used and identify antigens in tissues. Antibody
molecules bound to antigens in cells or tis­sue sections
can similarly be visualized. The emitted light can be
viewed with a fluorescence microscope, which is
equipped with a UV light source.
Fluorescent dyes: Rhodamine B and fluo­rescein
isothiocyanate (FITC) are the most commonly
Fig. 16.13: Opsonization
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 Chapter 16: Antigen–Antibody Reactions  | 111
used fluorescent dyes. Fluorescein emits an
intense yellow-green fluorescence. Rhodamine
emits a deep red fluorescence. Phycoerythrin
and Phycobilipro­t eins are other highly fluo­
rescent substances and have also come into use.
The most commonly used fluorescent dyes such
as rhodamine B or fluo­rescein isothiocyanate
A
(FITC) can be coupled to antibody mole­cules
without changing the antibody’s capacity to
bind to a specific antigen. Fluorescent dyes may
also be conjugated with complement. Labeled
complement is a versatile tool and can be employed
for the detection of antigen or antibody.

Sandwich Technique
The dyes can be conjugated to the Fc region of an
antibody molecule without affecting the specificity
of the antibody. For detection of antibod­ies by
immunofluorescence, the sandwich technique
can be employed. The antibody is first allowed to
react with unlabeled antigen, which is then treated
with fluorescent labeled antibody. A sandwich, is
thus formed, the antigen being in the middle and
labeled and unlabeled antibodies on either side.
Types of Immunofluorescence
There are two main kinds of fluorescent antibody
assays: direct and indirect.
1. Direct Immunofluorescence (Fig. 16.14A)
Principle: In direct staining, the specific antibody
(the primary antibody) is directly conjugated
with fluorescein. It involves fixing the specimen
containing the antigen of interest onto a slide.
Fluorescein-labeled antibodies are then added
to the slide and examined with the fluorescence
microscope for a yellow-green fluorescence. The
pattern of fluorescence reveals the antigen’s location.
Uses
i. It is used to identify antigens, such as those
found on the surface of group A streptococci.
ii. To diagnose enteropathogenic Es­cherichia
coli, Neisseria meningitidis, Salmonella Typhi,
Shigella sonnei, Listeria monocytogenes,
Haemophilus influenzae type b.
iii. To diagnose rabies virus.
Disadvantage
Separate fluorescent conjugates hence to be
prepared against each entigen to be tested.
2. Indirect Immunofluorescence
(Fig. 16.14B)
In indirect staining, the primary antibody is
unlabeled and is detected with an additional
B
Fig. 16.14: Direct and indirect immunofluorescence.
fluorochrome-labeled reagent. Indirect immuno­
fluorescence is used to detect the presence of
antibodies in serum following an individual’s expo­
sure to microorganisms.
In this technique, a known antigen is fixed
onto a slide. The test antiserum is then added, and
if the specific antibody is present, it reacts with
antigen to form a complex. When fluorescein-
labeled anti-immunoglobulin is added, it reacts
with the fixed antibody. The slide is examined with
the fluorescence microscope. The occurrence of
fluorescence shows that antibody specific to the
test antigen is present in the serum.
Uses
Diagnosis of syphilis: It is used to identify the
presence of Treponema pallidum antibodies in
the diagnosis of syphilis (fluorescent treponemal
antibody absorption (FTA-ABS).
Advan­tages
i. The primary antibody does not need to be
conjugated with a fluorochrome.
ii. Increase the sensitivity of staining.
G. Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
One of the most sensitive techniques for detecting
antigen or antibody is radioimmunoassay
(RIA). The technique was first developed by two
endocrinologists, SA Berson and Rosalyn Yalow, in
1960. The technique soon proved its own value for
measuring hormones, serum proteins, drugs, and
vitamins at concentrations of 0.001 micrograms per
milliliter or less. The significance of the technique
was acknowledged by the award of a Nobel Prize
to Yalow in 1977, some years after Berson’s death.

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 112  |  Section 2: Immunology
Principle of RIA
The principle of RIA is based on competitive
binding of radiolabeled antigen (e.g. 125I and
unlabeled antigen to a high-affinity antibody. The
labeled and unlabeled (test) antigens compete
for the limited binding sites on the antibody. This
competition is determined by the level of the
unlabeled (test) antigen present in the reacting
system.
Procedure
1. Measured quantities of labeled antigen
(radiolabeled) antigen (of the same kind being
tested) and antibody (specific to the antigen
being tested) are mixed and incubated, one
mixture with and one without added test
sample.
The labeled antigen is mixed with antibody
at a concentration that saturates the antigen-
binding sites of the antibody molecule.
2. Then increasing amounts of the test sample
(unlabeled antigen) of unknown concentration
are added. The antibody does not distinguish
labeled from unlabeled antigen, and so the two
kinds of antigens compete for available binding
sites on the antibody.
3. With increasing concentrations of test antigen
(unlabeled antigen), more labeled antigen will
be displaced from the binding sites.
4. The antigen–antibody complex is washed to
remove unbound radiolabeled antigen from the
mixture. The antigen is separated into ‘free’ and
‘bound’ fractions after the reaction and their
radioactive counts measured.
5. The radioactivity associated with the antibody
is then detected by means of radioisotope
analyzers and autoradiography. A little amount
of bound radioactivity indicates that there is
large amount of antigen; and a large amount of
bound radioactivity indicates that there is little
antigen in the sample.
6. The standard dose response or reference
curve has to be prepared first for any reacting
system. This is plotted on graph by taking the
ratio of bound radiolabeled antigen to free
radiolabeled antigen against varying known
amounts of unlabeled antigen and the antigen
concentration of the test sample can be read
from this curve. This curve will allow the
measurement of antigen present by merely
counting the radioactivity present in the test
antigen-antibody precipitated complexes.
Uses
To measure the concentration of certain
i. assay detects antibodies rather than antigens.
hormones: such as insulin, testosterone,
growth hormone, and glucagon because of
Chap-16.indd 112
its extreme sensitivity (measuring picograms
of antigen per milliliter).
ii. To determine the presence of the hepatitis B
antigen.
H. Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay
(ELISA) (Fig. 16.15)
Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay, commonly
known as ELISA or EIA), is similar in principle to
RIA but the radioactive tag used in RIA techniques
can be replaced with an enzyme. When this enzyme
is linked to an antibody and used to detect and
measure other antibodies or antigens, the assay is
called the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA). An enzyme conjugated with antibody
reacts with a colorless substrate to generate a
colored reaction product. Such a substrate is called
a chromogenic substrate.
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay is
highly sensitive, highly specific and less expensive
technique used in serology to detect antigens or
antibodies.
Principle
ELISA is based on two principles:
1. Solid phase immunoassays are more widely
used. It refers to the binding of either antigen or
antibody to a variety of solid materials, such as
polyvinyl or polycarbonate wells or membranes
(discs) of polyacrylamide, paper or plastic or
metal beads or some other solid matrix.
2. Antigens and antibodies can be covalently
attached to an active enzyme (such as alkaline
phosphatase or horseradish peroxidase and
β-galactosidase), with the resulting complexes
still fully functional, both immunologically
and enzymatically. Enzyme activity is used to
measure the quantity of antigen or antibody
present in the test sample. After all the
unreacted material is washed away, the
substrate for the enzyme is added (usually
one that will yield a colored product, such
as p-nitrophenol phosphate for alkaline
phosphatase), and the conversion of the
substrate from colorless to color is a measure of
antigen-antibody interaction. The test is usually
done using microtiter plates (96 w ­ ell) suitable
for automation.
Types of ELISA (Fig 16.15)
1. Indirect ELISA
2. Sandwich ELISA
3. Competitive ELISA
1. Indirect ELISA: The indirect immunosorbent
Serum or other sample containing primary
antiboby is added to antigen-coated microtiter
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 Chapter 16: Antigen–Antibody Reactions  | 113
Fig. 16.15: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
well. Any free antibody is washed away and
the presence of antibody bound to the antigen
is detected by adding an enzyme-conjugated
secondary anti-isotype antibody (antibody 2),
which binds to the primary antibody. Any free
antibody 2 then is washed away, and a substrate
for the enzyme is added. The amount of colored
reaction product that forms is measured by
specialized spectrophotometric plate readers,
which can measure the absorbance of all of
the wells of a 96-well plate in less than a few
seconds.
2. Sandwich ELISA: The most frequently used
ELISA for detecting microbial antigen is the
sandwich solid-phase ELISA. In this technique,
the antibody (rather than the antigen) is
immobilized on a microtiter well. The test
sample is then exposed to the solid-phase
antibody, to which the antigen, if present,
will bind. After the well is washed, a second
enzyme-linked antibody specific for test
antigen is added and allowed to react with the
bound antigen. The conjugated antibody will
react with the antigen held to the solid-phase by
the first antibody, forming an antibody-antigen-
antibody sandwich on the solid phase. After any
free second antibody is removed by washing,
substrate is added, and the colored reaction
product is measured.
If the antigen has reacted with the absorbed
antibodies in the first step, the ELISA test is
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Chap-16.indd 113
positive. If the antigen is not recognized by the
absorbed antibody, the ELISA test is negative
because the unat­t ached antigen has been
washed away, and no antibody-enzyme is
bound.
3. Competitive ELISA: In this technique, antibody
is first incubated in solution with a sample
containing antigen. The antigen–antibody
mixture is then added to an antigen coated
microtiter well. The more antigen present
in the sampIe, the less free antibody will be
available to bind to the antigen-coated well.
Addition of an enzyme-conjugated, secondary
antibody specific for the isotype of the primary
antibody can be used to determine the amount
of primary antibody bound to the well as in
an indirect ELISA. In the competitive assay,
however, the higher the concentration of
antigen in the original sample, the lower the
absorbance.
USES OF ELISA
ELISA has been used to detect antigens and
antibodies of various microorgnisms.
Examples
1. Parasites
∙∙ Entamoeba histolytica antigens in feces.
∙∙ Toxoplasma antigens in the patient serum.
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 114  |  Section 2: Immunology
2. Bacteria
∙∙ Haemophilus influenzae antigens in spinal
fluid.
∙∙ β-hemolytic streptococcal antigen in spinal
fluid.
∙∙ Labile enterotoxin of E. coli in stools.
To detect antibody specific for Mycoplasmas,
Chlamydiae, Borrelia burgdorferi.
3. Viruses
To detect antibody specific for hepatitis virus;
∙∙ Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2
∙∙ Respi­ratory syncytial virus (RSV)
∙∙ Cytomegalovirus
∙∙ Human im­munodeficiency virus (HIV)
∙∙ Rubella virus.
Cassette-based Membrane-bound ELISA
Assays
Cassette-based membrane-bound ELISA assays,
designed for testing a single serum, can be
performed rapidly (often within 10 minutes) as
compared with the 2–4 hours taken for microplate
ELISA. There is no need for microplate washers or
readers. The result is read visually. Inbuilt positive
and negative controls are usually provided for
validation of the test procedure.
Examples of Cassette ELISA
Used for the detection of HIV type 1 and 2 antibodies.
Antibody-capture ELISAs: Antibody-capture
ELISAs are particularly valuable for detecting IgM
in the presence of IgG. Toxoplasmosis, rubella,
and other infections are diagnosed using this
technology.
Slot-blot and Dot-blot Assays
Slot-blot and dot-blot assays force the target
antigen through a membrane filter, causing it to
become affixed in the shape of the hole (a dot or
a slot). When test (pa­tient) serum is layered onto
the membrane, specific anti­bodies, if present, will
bind to the corresponding dot or slot of antigen.
Addition of a labeled second antibody and
subsequent development of the label allows visual
detection of the presence of antibodies based on
the pat­tern of antigen sites.
I. Immunoelectroblot Techniques
Western Blotting (Immunoblotting): Identifi­
cation of a specific protein in a complex mixture
of proteins can be accomplished by a technique
known as West­ern blotting, named for its similarity
to Southern blotting, which detects DNA fragments,
Chap-16.indd 114
and Northern blotting which detects mRNAs. It is a
variation of an ELISA.
A specific antibody in a mixture can also be
identified by Western blotting. Known antigens of
well-defined molec­ular weight are separated by
SDS-polyacrylamide gel (SDS-PAGE), and blotted
onto ni­trocellulose in this case. The separated
bands of known antigens are then probed with
the sample (test sample) suspected of containing
antibody specific for one or more of these antigens.
Reaction of an antibody with a band is detected
by using either radiolabeled or enzyme-linked
secondary antibody that is specific for the species
of the antibodies in the test sample. The enzyme
substrate is subsequently added, which indicates
positive test. The substrate changes color in the
presence of enzyme and permanently stains the
nitrocellulose paper. The position of the band on
the paper indicates the antigen with which the
antibody has reacted.
Application
i. Confirmatory testing for human immuno­
deficiency virus.
ii. Antibodies against microbes with numerous
cross-reacting antibodies.
J. Immunochromatographic Tests
A one-step qualitative immunochromatographic
tech­n ique has found wide application in
serodiagnosis due to its simplicity, economy
and reliability. A description of its use for Hbs
antigen detection illustrates the method. The test
system is a small cassette containing a membrane
impregnated with anti-Hbs antigen antibody
colloidal gold dye conjugate. The membrane is
ex­posed at three windows on the cassette. The
test serum is dropped into the first window. As
the serum travels upstream by capillary action, a
colored band appears at the second window (test
site) if the serum contains Hbs antigen, due the
formation of an Hbs antigen–antibody con­jugate
complex. This is the positive reaction. Absence of
a colored band at the test site indicates a negative
reaction. Simultaneously, a colored band should
ap­pear in every case at the third window, which
forms an inbuilt control, in the absence of which
the test is invalid. The test is claimed to be nearly
as sensitive and specific as EIA tests.
K. Immunoelectron microscopic Tests
1. Immunoelectron microscopy: When viral particles
mixed with specific antisera are observed under
the electron microscope, they are seen to be
clumped. This is known as immunoelectron
microscopy. This finds application in the study
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 Chapter 16: Antigen–Antibody Reactions  | 115
of some viruses such as the hepatitis A virus and
™™ Western blotting is done for the detection of proteins
the viruses causing diarrhea. ™™ Immunoelectron microscopic tests include immuno­
2. Immunoferritin test: Ferritin (an electron- electronmicro­s copy, immunoenzyme test and
dense sub­stance from horse spleen) can be immuno­ferritin test.
conjugated with an­tibody, and such labeled
antibody reacting with an antigen can be
visualized under the electron micro­scope. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
3. Immunoenzyme test: Some stable enzymes,
1. Name the various antigen–antibody reactions.
such as peroxidase, can be conjugated with
Describe the prin­ ciple and applications of
antibodies. Tissue sections carrying the precipitation reactions, giving suitable examples.
corresponding antigens are treat­e d with
2. Define agglutination reaction. Discuss the prin­
peroxidase labeled antisera. If the tissue section ciple and applications of agglutination reactions,
possesses specific antigen, then peroxidase giving suitable examples.
bound to the antigen can be visualized under the 3. Write short notes on:
elec­tron microscope, by microhistochemical a. Zone phenomenon (or) prozone.
methods. In im­m unoenzyme tests, some b. Immunodiffusion (or) gel diffusion
other enzymes, such as glucose oxidase, phos­ c. Immunoelectrophoresis
phatases and tyrosinase may also be included. d. Counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIE) or coun-
tercurrenteletrophoresis (CIEP)
Key Points e. Rocket electrophoresis
™™ The antigen–antibody reaction occurs in three f. Coagglutination
stages g. Neutralization tests
™™ Precipitation test is a type of antigen–antibody h. Opsonization
reaction, in which the antigen occurs in a soluble i. Immunofluorescence tests
form. Immunodiffusion procedures are precipitation
reactions carried out in an agar gel medium. j. Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
Electrophoresis can be combined with precipitation k. ELISA-its principle and application.
in gels in a technique called immunoelectrophoresis.
Immunoelectrophoresis combines electrophoresis
with immunodiffusion for the analysis of serum
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
proteins 1. The prozone phenomenon is:
™™ Agglutination reactions: The interaction of particulate a. Zone of antibody excess
antigens with antibodies leads to agglutination b. Zone of antigen excess
reactions. Direct agglutination reactions can be: c. Zone of equivalence of antigens and antibody
slide agglutination test, tube agglutination test,
d. None of the above
heterophile agglutination tests and antiglobulin
(Coombs) test).Passive agglutination reaction 2. Which immunoglobulin class is the most efficient
depends on the carrier particles used to produce agglutination reaction?
™™ Complement-fixation reactions are serological tests a. IgG b. IgM
based on the depletion of a fixed amount of complement c. IgA d. IgE
in the presence of an antigen–antibody reaction, and are 3. Which immunoglobulin class is the most efficient
(i) Complement fixation test; (ii) Immune adherence to produce precipitation reaction?
test; (iii) Immobilization test; (iv) Cytolytic or cytocidal a. IgG b. IgM
reactions c. IgE d. IgA
™™ Neutralization reactions: In neutralization reactions, 4. Ring test is used for:
the harmful effects of a bacterial exotoxin or virus
a. C-reactive protein test
are eliminated by a specific antibody
b. Streptococcal grouping of Lancefield tecnique
™™ Opsonization is Immune opsonization or nonimmune
c. Both the above
opsonization
d. None of the above
™™ Immunofluorescence: Direct immunofluorescence
test is used to detect unknown antigen in a cell or 5. VDRL test is an example of:
tissue. Indirect immunofluorescence test is used for a. Agglutination test b. Flocculation test
detection of specific antibodies in the serum and c. Immunofluorescence d. All the above
other body fluids 6. Radial immunodiffusion can be used to estimate
™™ Radioimmunoassay (RIA) is a highly sensitive and the following immunoglobulin classes:
quanti­tative procedure that utilizes radioactively a. IgG b. IgM
labeled antigen or antibody c. IgA d. All the above
™™ The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) 7. Counterimmunoelectrophoresis is used for detecting:
de­pends on an enzyme-substrate reaction that a. Hepatitis B antigens
generates a colored reaction product. Types of b. Cryptococcal antigens
ELISA are: 1. Indirect ELISA; 2. Sandwich ELISA; 3.
c. Neisseria meningitidis
Competitive ELISA
d. All the above

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Chap-16.indd 115 15-03-2016 11:12:10
 116  |  Section 2: Immunology
8. Tube agglutination test is used for serological 12. Direct immunofluorescence test may be used for
diagnosis of: detection of:
a. Enteric fever a. Rabies virus antigens
b. Infectious mononucleosis b. Antibodies in syphilis
c. Typhus fever c. Both the above
d. All the above d. None of the above
9. Which of the following is/are example/s of 13. Indirect immunofluorescence test may be used for
heterophile agglutination test? detection of:
a. Weil-Felix reaction a. Rabies virus antigens
b. Paul-Bunnel test b. Antibodies in syphilis
c. Streptococcus MG agglutination test c. Both the above
d. All the above d. None of the above
10. Which of the following is/are example/s of passive 14. ELISA can be used for detection of antibodies in:
agglutination test? a. HIV b. Rubella virus
c. Hepatitis B virus d. All the above
a. Latex agglutination test
b. Haemagglutination test 15. The technique of immunoblotting to analyse RNA
c. Coagglutination is named:
d. All the above a. Southern blot
b. Northern blot
11. Which of the following is/are example/s of c. Western blot
neutralization test? d. None of the above
a. Schick test
b. Antistreptolysin ‘0’ test ANSWERS (MCQs)
c. Nagler reaction 1. a; 2. b; 3. a; 4. c; 5. b; 6. d; 7. d; 8. d; 9. d; 10. d; 11. d; 12. a;
d. All the above 13. b; 14. d; 15. b

Chap-16.indd 116 15-03-2016 11:12:10


Structures and Functions of the Immune System
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Differentiate between T and B cells in a tabulated
form
Introduction
The lymphoreticular system is responsible
for immunity. Lymphoreticular cells consist of
lymphoid and reticuloendothelial components.
The lymphoid cells (lymphocytes and plasma cells)
­are primarily concerned with the specific immune
response. The phagocytic cells (polymorphonuclear
leukocytes and macrophages), forming part of
the reticuloendothelial system, are primarily
concerned with the ‘scavenger’ functions of
eliminating effete cells and foreign particles, thus
contributing to nonspecific immunity by removing
microorganisms from blood and tissues.
Types of immune response
The immune response to an antigen, whatever its
nature, can be of two broad types:
1. Humoral or Antibody-mediated
Immunity (HMI or AMI)
Humoral immunity is mediated by antibodies
produced by plasma cells.
2. Cellular or Cell-mediated Immunity (CMI)
Cellular immunity is mediated directly by
sensitized lymphocytes.
Organs and tissues of the immune
system
A. Primary (Central) Organs or Tissues
The primary organs or tissues are where immature
lymphocytes mature and differentiate into antigen-
sensitive mature B and T cells.
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17
Chapter
∙∙ Describe cluster of differentiation (CD)
∙∙ Discuss the following; Natural killer cells or NK cells;
killer cells or K cells or ADCC cells; human leukocyte
antigen (HLA).
i. Thymus—primary lymphoid organ
ii. Bone marrow—primary lymphoid tissue.
B. Secondary (Peripheral)
Organs and Tissues
The secondary organs and tis­s ues serve as
areas where lymphocytes may encounter and
bind antigen, whereupon they proliferate and
differentiate into fully mature, antigen-specific
effector cells.
Examples: Lymph nodes, spleen, various mucosal
­associated lymphoid tissues (MALT)—such as
gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT), skin
associated lymphoid tissues (SALT)
A. Central (Primary) Lymphoid Organs
1. Thymus: A T-cell Factory
Thymus is a flat, bilobed organ situated above
the heart and is the site of T-cell development
and maturation.
Function of the thymus: Immunological
competence on the lymphocytes
The primary function of the thymus is the
production of thymic lymphocytes. Precursor
cells from the bone marrow migrate into
the thymus to the outer cortex where they
proliferate. As they mature and acquire T-cell
surface markers, they move to the inner cortex
where approx­imately 90% die. The other 10%
move into the medulla, become mature T-cells,
and enter the bloodstream. The reason for this
apparently wasteful process is not known. In the
thymus, the lymphocytes acquire new surface
antigens (‘Thy’ antigens).
118  |  Section 2: Immunology
Thymus (T)-dependent lymphocytes :
Lymphocytes produced in the thymus are called
‘thymus (T) dependent lymphocytes’ or ‘T-cells’.
Lymphocyte proliferation in the thymus is not
dependent on antigenic stimulation,unlike
in the peripheral organs. Differentiation
and maturation are under the influence of
hormones such as thymopoietin and thymosin,
produced by the epithelial elements in the
thymus.
Thymus-dependent antigens: T-lymphocytes
are selectively seeded into certain sites in the
peripheral lymphatic tissues, being found in
the white pulp of the spleen, around the central
arterioles, and in the paracortical areas of
lymph nodes. These regions have been termed
‘thymus-dependent’. While thymectomy affects
CMI primarily, it also diminishes antibody
response to many types of antigens (thymus-
dependent antigens) such as sheep erythrocytes
and bovine serum albumin.
Thymus and immune function: The importance
of thy­mus in lymphocyte proliferation and
development of CMI is evident from the
lymphopenia, deficient graft rejection and
the so called ‘runt disease’ seen in neonatal
thymectomized mice.
A congenital birth defect in humans (DiGeorge’s
syndrome) and in certain mice (nude mice) in
which the thymus fails to develop are other
evidence of the importance of the thymus. In
both the cases, there is an absence of circulating
T-cells and of cell-mediated immunity and an
increase in infectious disease.
2. Bursa of Fabricius: In birds, undifferentiated
lymphocytes move from the bone marraw to
the Bursa of Fabricius where B-cells mature. The
bursa is also a site of lymphocytic proliferation
and differentiation. Stem cells from the yolk sac,
fetal liver and bone marrow enter the bursa,
proliferate and develop into immunocompetent
‘bursal dependent’ or B-cells (to designate their
origin in the bursa). These migrate and seed
selective areas in the peripheral lymphoid
organs—the mantle, germinal follicles and
perifollicular regions of the spleen, and the
far cortical areas and medullary cords of
lymphocytes. These are called ‘bursa-dependent’
or ‘thymus-independent areas’. B-lymphocytes
transform into plasma cells and secretes
antibodies following antigenic stimulation.
3. Bone marrow: In humans and other mammals,
the bone marrow acts as the bursa equivalent
and is the site of B-cell origin and development.
Arising from lymphoid progenitors, im­mature
B-cells proliferate and differentiate within
the bone marrow, and stromal cells within
the bone marrow interact directly with the
B-cells and secrete various cytokines that are
required for development. A selection process
within the bone marrow eliminates B-cells with
self-reactive antibody receptors like thymic
selection during T-cell maturation. Bone
marrow is not the site of B-cell development
in all species.
B. Peripheral (Secondary) Lymphoid Organs
1. Lymph nodes: They are encapsulated bean-­
shaped structures containing a reticular network
packed with lymphocytes, macrophages, and
dendritic cells. Clus­tered at junctions of the
lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes are the first
organized lymphoid structure to encounter
antigens that enter the tissue spaces.
Structure of lymph node: Lymph nodes have an
indentation called the hilus where blood vessels
enter and leave the node. A typical lymph node
is surrounded by a fibrous capsule from which
trabeculae penetrate into the nodes.
Morphology: Morphologically, a lymph node
can be divided into three roughly concentric
regions:,), each of which supports a distinct
microenvironment.
i. Cortex: The outermost layer, the cortex (B-cell
area),, contains lymphocytes (mostly B-cells),
macrophages, and follicular dendritic cells
arranged in primary follicles. After antigenic
challenge, the primary follicles enlarge into
secondary follicles, each containing a germinal
center.
ii. Paracortex (T-cell area): Beneath the cortex
is the paracortex, which is populated
largely by T-lymphocytes and also contains
interdigitating dendritic cells. The paracortex
is sometimes referred to as a thymus-
dependent area in contrast to the cor­t ex,
which is a thymus-independent area.
iii. Medulla: The innermost layer of a lymph
node, the medulla (consisting of cellular cords
containing T-cells, B-cells, abundant plasma
cells and macrophages) In the medulla, the
lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages
are arranged as elongated branching bands
(medullary cords). The cortical follicles and
medullary cords contain B-lymphocytes
and constitute the bursa dependent areas.
Paracortical area contains T-lymphocytes and
constitutes the thymus dependent area.
Functions of lymph node
i. Lymph nodes act as a filter for lymph.
ii. They phagocytose foreign materials, including
microorganisms.
iii. They help in the proliferation and circulation
of T- and B-cells.
 Chapter 17: Structures and Functions of the Immune System  | 119
iv. They enlarge following local antigenic
stimulation.
2. Spleen
The spleen is the large secondary lymphoid organ
located in the abdominal cavity.
Structure of spleen: It has a capsule from that
extends a number of projections (trabeculae) into
the interior to form a compartmentalized structure.
The compartments are of two types, white pulp and
the red pulp.
White pulp: The splenic white pulp surrounds
the branches of the splenic artery, forming a
periarteriolar lymphoid sheath (PALS) populated
mainly by T-lymphocytes. Primary lymphoid
follicles are attached to the PALS. These follicles
are rich in B-cells and some of them contain
germinal centers which develop following antigenic
stimulation. The lymphatic sheath surrounding the
central arterioles is the thymus dependent area
of the spleen. The perifollicular region, germinal
centre and mantle layer form the bursa dependent
(thymus-independent) areas.
Red pulp: The splenic red pulp consists of a
network of sinusoids.
Functions of spleen
i. Functions as the graveyard for blood cells.
ii. Mounting immune responses to antigens in the
blood stream.
3. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
The mucosa lining the alimentary, respiratory,
genitouri­nary and other lumina and surfaces are
constantly ex­posed to numerous antigens. These
vulnerable mem­brane surfaces are defended by
a group of organized lymphoid tissues known
collectively as mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue
(MALT).
Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT): GALT
includes the tonsils, adenoids, and Peyer’s patches
in the intestine.
Bronchial associated lymphoid tissue (BALT):
Also occurs in the respiratory system.
Mucosal or secretory immune system: Mucous
membranes are an effective barrier to the
entrance of most pathogens, which contributes to
nonspecific immunity. This indi­cates the existence
of a common mucosal or secretory immune system.
Cells of the lymphoreticular system
Lymphoid Cells: Cells of the Immune System
The cells responsible for both nonspecific and
specific immunity are the white blood cells called
leukocytes.
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Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes constitute 20%–40%
of the body’s white blood cells and 99% of the cells
in the lymph.Many mature lymphoid cells are long-
lived, and persist as memory cells for many years.
The lymphocytes can be broadly subdivided
into three populations—B-cells, T-cells, and
natural killer cells-on the basis of function and
cell-membrane components. According to their
size, lymphocytes can be clas­sified into small (5–8
μm ), medium (8–12 μm) and large (12–15 μm)
lymphocytes.
Lymphatic recirculation: Lymphopoiesis takes
place mainly in the central lymphoid organs where
they differentiate and mature before entering the
circulation and then the peripheral lymphoid organs
and tissues. These populations of lymphocytes do
not remain distinct but mix together in a process
known as ‘lymphocyte recirculation’. There is
a constant traffic of lymphocytes through the
blood, lymph, lymphatic organs and tissues. This
re­circulation ensures that following introduction of
an­tigen into any part of the body, lymphocytes of
appropriate specificity would reach the site during
their ceaseless wandering and mount an immune
response. Recirculating lymphocytes are mainly
T-cells. B-cells tend to be more sessile. Chronic
thoracic duct drainage will therefore result in
selective T-cell depletion.
Differences between T- and B-Cells
Many tests help in differentiation of T- and B-cells
(Table 17.1). These include:
1. Thymus-specific antigens: Which are absent on
B-cells.
2. T-cell receptor (TCR): Which resembles but
differs from antibody, and CD2- and CD3-
associated proteins on their surface.
3. Surface immunoglobulins: B-cells have
immuno­globulin on their surface.
4. SRBC rosette: T-cells bind to sheep erythrocytes
forming rosettes (SRBC) or E rosette, through
CD2 molecule. B-cells do not bind.
5. EAC rosettes: B-cells bind to sheep erythrocytes
coated with anti­body and complement,forming
EAC rosettes, due to the presence of a C3
receptor (CR2) on the B-cell sur­face.
6. Microvilli: Viewed under the scanning
microscope, T cells are generally free of
cytoplasmic surface projections, while B-cells
have an extensively filamentous surface, with
numerous microvilli
7. Blast transformation: T-cells undergo blast
transformation, evidenced by enhanced DNA
synthesis, on treatment with mitogens, such as
phytohemagglutinin (PHA) or Concanavalin
A (Con A), while B-cells undergo sim­ilar
120  |  Section 2: Immunology
Table 17.1  Comparison of T-cells and B-cells differentiation and functional properties of the
cells. Thus a cell dis­playing CD1 is identified by
Property T cell B cell
the binding of antibodies against CD1. Each class
A. Origin Bone marrow Bone marrow of leucocyte displays a diagnostic pattern of CDs.
B. Maturation Thymus Bursal equivalent: Over 200 CD markers have been identified so far.
bone marrow,
Examples
Payer’s patches
∙∙ CD3 is expressed only by T-cells.
C. Location
∙∙ CD 19 is expressed only by B-cells.
1.  Peripheral blood 65–85% 15–25%
∙∙ CD64 is expressed only by monocytes.
2.  Lymph node 60–75% 30–35% ∙∙ CD66 is expressed only by granulocytes.
3. Spleen 25–45% 55–60% ∙∙ CD68 is expressed only by macrophages.
4.  Thoracic duct 80–90% 10–20% ∙∙ On the other hand, CD18 and CD45 are expr­
5. Thymus 96% Negligible essed by a variety of leucocyte types.
D. Thymus specific + – 2. Antigen recognition receptors
antigens These inc­lude membrane-bound (surface)
E.  CD3 receptor + – immunoglobulins (mlgs or slgs) in B-cells and
F. Surface – + T-cell receptors (TCRs) in T-cells. In contrast to
immunoglobulins CDs, which can serve as diagnostic feature for
G. Receptor for Fc – +
all leukocytes, antigen recog­n ition receptors
piece of IgG are limited to B- and T-lymphocytes only. These
H. SRBC rosette (E + –
receptors are required for B- and T-cells to be
rosette) antigen reactive. Reaction of antigens with mlgs
and TCRs activates B-cells and T-cells respectively,
I. EAC rosette (C3 – +
receptor leading to proliferation and differentiation.
J. Numerous – + b. On the Basis of Functions
microvilli, on
A. Regulatory T-cells
surface
1. Helper /inducer cell(TH): Helper/inducer
K. Blast transform­ + –
cell (TH), with CD 4 surface marker, MHC
ation with:
   a. anti-CD 3 – + class II restriction; generally stimulating
   b. anti-Ig + – and promoting the growth of T-cells and
   c. PHA + – macrophages. They help B-cells make antibody
   d. Concanavalin A – + in response to antigenic challenge; stimulate
   e. Endotoxins
cell mediated immunity. Based on the different
profiles of cytokines produced, two subsets are
transformation with bacterial endotoxins, identified. Th1 and Th2.
Staphylococcus aureus (Cowan 1 strain) or EB Th1 cells: Th1 cells produce mainly the cytokines
virus. interferon gamma (IFN-g) and interleukin-2
(IL2) which activate macrophages and T-cells
T-lymphocytes promoting CMI, destruction of target cells and
Types of T-cells killing of intracellular microbes, such as tubercle
and lepra bacilli.
Based on their surface markers, MHC restriction,
TH2 cells: TH2 cells produce mainly the
target cells and function, the following T-cells sub­
cytokines IL4, 5 and 6 which stimulate B-cells
types are recognised:
to form antibodies.
T-cells may be broadly classified into:
2. Suppressor T-cells (TS cells): These have CD8
surface marker and MHC class I restriction.
a. On the Basis of Surface Markers They can suppress B-cell and T-cell response.
Classification of lymphocytes on the basis of B. Effector cells
surface markers makes use of two important char­
1. Delayed type-hypersensitivity T-cells (T-cells):
acteristics:
They are involved in delayed hypersensitivity
1. Cluster of differentiation or cluster determinant and cell-mediated immune response.
(CD) 2. Cytotoxic T-cells(TC-cells): They are also called
The term cluster of differentiation (CD) refers CD8+ cells with CD8 surface marker and MHC
families of surface glycoprotein antigens that can class I restriction. They can kill and lyse target
be recognized by specific antibodies produed cells carrying new or foreign antigens, including
against them. These markers reflect the stage of tumour, allograft and virus infected cells.
 Chapter 17: Structures and Functions of the Immune System  | 121
ii. B-cells and Plasma Cells
B-cell Maturation
The B-lymphocyte derived its letter designation
from its site of maturation, in the bursa of Fabricius
in birds; and the bone marrow of mammals,
including hu­mans and mice. B-cell differentiation
also takes place in the fetal liver and fetal spleen.
About 5–15% of the circulating lymphoid pool
are B cells defined by the presence of surface
immunoglobulin.
Mature B-cell undergoes clonal proliferation on
contact with its appropriate antigen. Interaction
between antigen and the membrane-bound
antibody on a mature naive B-cell, as well as
interactions with T-cells and macrophages,
selectively induces the activation and differentiation
of B-cell clones of corresponding specificity. In
this process, the B-cell divides repeatedly and
differentiates, generating a population of plasma
cells and memory cells. Plasma cells, synthesize
and secrete antibody. Memory cells circulate until
activated by specific antigen.
Plasma cell: They are fully differentiated
antibody-secreting effector cells of the B-cell
lineage. Antigenically stimulated B-cells undego
blast transformation, becoming successively
plasmoblasts, intermediate transitional cells and
plasma cells. Plasma cells are factories of antibody
production. A plasma cell makes an antibody of a
single specificity, of a single immunoglobulin class
and allotype and a single light chain type only. An
exception is found in primary antibody response,
when a plasma cell producing IgM initiallyand later
it may switch to IgG production. Lymphocytes,
lymphoblasts and transitional cells may also
synthesize Ig to some extent, while plasma cell is
the best antibody producing cell.
iii. Null Cells
A small proportion (5-10%) of lymphocytes
that lack distinguishing phenotypic markers
characteristic of T- or B-lymphocytes are called
null cells. Because of their morphology, they are
also known as large granular lymphocytes (LGL).
The member of this group is the
a. Natural killer (NK)-cells
b. Antibody dependent cellular cytotoxic (ADCC)-
cells
c. Lymphokine-activated killer (LAK)-cells.
The term NK-cell is sometimes used as a
common name for all null cells.
a. Natural Killer (NK) Cells
Natural killer (NK) cells are derived from large
granular lymphocytes (LGL). They differ from
K-cells in being independent of antibody. NK-cells
differ Tc cells in other properties as well:
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i. They are not inducible by antigen.
ii. They lack the classic antigen-specificity of
T-cells and B-cells.
iii. They are not restricted by MHC-encoded
proteins.
iv. NK activity is ‘natural’ or ‘nonimmune’ as
it does not require sensitisation by prior
antigenic contact.
v. They belong to a different lineage from T- and
B-cells.
Functions: They are considered to be important
i. Immune surveillance
ii. Natural defence against virus infected and
maliganant mutant cells.
iii. NK-cells are capable of nonspecific killing
of virus-transformed target cells and are
involved in allograft and tumour rejection.
b. Antibody-dependent Cell-mediated
Cytotoxicity (ADCC)
A subpopulation of LGLs possesses surface
re­ceptors for the Fc part of Ig. They are capable
of lys­ing or killing target cells sensitised with
IgG antibodies. This is an example of a process
known as antibody-dependent cell-mediated
cytotoxicity (ADCC). This antibody dependent
cellular cytotox­icity is distinct from the action of
cytotoxic T-cells, which is independent of antibody.
ADCC-cells were formerly called killer (K)-cells but
are now classified with NK-cells.
c. Lymphokine-activated Killer (LAK)
Cells
Lymphokine activated killer (LAK) cells are
NK-lymphocytes treated with interleukin-2 (lL-2),
which are cytotoxic to a wide range of tumour cells
without affecting normal cells. IL-2 also acts as a
growth factor for NK-cells.
Phagocytic Cells
Phagocytic cells are the mononuclear macrophages
(of blood and tissues) and the polymorphonuclear
microphages.
Mononuclear cells: The mononuclear phagocytic
system consists of monocytes circulating in the
blood and macrophages in the tissues Both types
are highly phago­cytic and make up the monocyte-
macrophage system.
Macrophages: Monocytes leave the circulation and
reach various tissues to become transformed into
macrophages, with morphological and functional
features characteristic of the tissues. Macrophages
spread throughout the animal body and take up
residence in specific tis­sues where they are given
special names, e.g. alveolar macrophages in the
122  |  Section 2: Immunology
lung, histiocytes in connective tissues, Kupffer cells
in the liver, Mesangial cells in the kidney, microglial
cells in the brain and osteoclasts in the bone.
Functions of Macrophages
1. Phagoc ytosis: The primary function of
macrophages is phagocytosis.
2. Antigen presentation to T-cells to initiate
immune immune responses.
3. Secretion of cytokines to activate and promote
innate immune response.
Macrophages secrete interleukin-1, interleukin-6,
tumor necrosis factor, and interleukin-12
in response to bacterial interaction, which
stimulate immune and inflammatory responses,
including fever. One of the most potent activators
of macrophages is interferon gamma (IFN-g)
se­creted by activated TH cells.
Polymorphonuclear Microphages
Microphages are the polymorphonuclear
leucocytes of the blood.Because of the irregular-
shaped nuclei, granulocytes are also called
polymorphonuclear leukocytes or PMNs. Three
types of granulocytes exist: basophils, eosinophils,
and neutrophils.
a. Neutrophils: They are actively phagocytic
and form the predominant cell type in acute
inflammation. The phagocytic property of
neutrophils is nonspecific, except for its
augmentation by opsonins.
b. Eosinophils: They possess phagocytic activity
but only to a limited degree. They are found
in large numbers in allergic inflammation,
parasitic infections and around antigen-
antibody complexes.
c. Basophils: Basophil leukocytes are found in the
blood and tissues (mast cells). Their cytoplasm
has large numbers of prominent basophilic
granules containing heparin, histamine,
serotonin and other hydrolytic enzymes.
Degranulation of mast cells, with release of
pharmacologically active agents, constitutes the
effector mechanism in anaphylactic and atopic
allergy.
Dendritic cells: While macrophages are the
major antigen presenting cells, dendritic cell also
performs this function. Dendritic cells are bone
marrow derived cells of a lineage different from
the macrophages and T- or B-lymphocytes. They
possess MHC class II antigens.
They are more potent antigen-presenting cells
than macrophages and B-cells, both of which need
to be activated before they can function as antigen-
presenting cells (APCs). Dendritic cells are specially
involved in the presentation of antigens to T-cells
during the primary immune response.
Major Histocompatibility complex
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is
a remarkable cluster of genes that control T-cell
recognition of self and nonself. MHC proteins
play a pivotal role in “presenting” antigens to
T-cells. In fact, T-cells do not respond to foreign
peptides unless the antigen peptides are properly
“presented” (that is, offered in combination with
a MHC molecule). In humans, the MHC is called
the human leuko­c yte antigen (HLA) complex.
These proteins were first detected by their effect on
transplant rejection (that is, tissue incompatibility).
In 1980, Snell, Dausset and Benacerrof were
awarded the Nobel prize for their work on MHC
and the genetic central of immune response.
HLA Complex
The major an­tigens determining histocompatibility
in human be­ings are alloantigens, characteristically
found on the surface of leukocytes. Human MHC
antigens are therefore synonymous with human
leucocyte antigens (HLA), and the MHC complex
of genes with the HLA complex.
The HLA complex of genes is located on the
short arm of chromosome 6 (Fig. 17.1). It consists
of three separate clusters of genes:
1. HLA Class I comprising A, B and C loci: HLA
class I comprising A, Band C loci. Class 1
proteins are encoded by the HLA-A, HLA-B and
HLA-C genes in humans. HLA Class I antigens
(A, B and C) are found on the surface of virtually
all nucleated cells and, in some species (i.e.
mice, but not humans), on red blood cells as
well.
They are the principal antigens involved in
graft rejection and cell mediated cytolysis. Class
I molecules may func­tion as components of
hormone receptors.
2. Class II or the D region consisting of DR, DQ
and DP loci: Class II proteins are encoded
by the HLA-D region. There are three main
sets: the DP, DQ and DR-encoded molecules.
HLA Class II antigens are more restricted in
dis­tribution, being found only on cells of the
immune system—macrophages, dendritic cells,
activated T-cells, and particularly on B-cells.
3. Class III or the complement region: Class III or
the complement region containing genes for
complement components C2 and C4 of the
Fig. 17.1: HLA complex loci on chromosome
 Chapter 17: Structures and Functions of the Immune System  | 123
classical pathway, as well as properdin factor B
of the alternative pathway, heat shock proteins
and tumor necrosis factors alpha and beta.
HLA loci are multiallelic, that is, the gene
occupying the locus can be anyone of several
alternative forms (alleles). As each allele
determines a distinct product (antigen), the
HLA system is very pleomorphic. For example,
at least 24 distinct alleles have been identified
at HLA locus A and 50 at B.
HLA Molecules
HL A antigens are two-chain glycoprotein
molecules anchored on the surface membrane
of cells. Class I and class II MHC are membrane-
bound glycoproteins that are closely related in both
structure and function.
Role of MHC Diversity
1. Transplantation : The MHC system was
originally identified in the context of
transplantation, which is an artificial event.
2. For protecting the species from the broadest
possible number of pathogens: The primary aim
of the MHC may be defence against microbes
and not against the graft.
3. Nonimmunological phenomena: Such as
individual odour, body weight in mice and egg
laving in chickens.
HLA Typing
Antisera for HLA typing were obtained principally
from multiparous women as they tend to
have antibodies to the HLA antigens of their
husbands, due to sensitisation during pregnancy.
Monoclonal antibodies to HLA antigens have
been developed.
Typing is done serologically by microcytotoxicity,
which tests for complement mediated lysis of
peripheral blood lymphocytes with a standard set
of typing sera. However, serological typing is not
possible for HLA-DR antigens, which are detected
by the mixed leucocyte reaction (MLR) and primed
lymphocyte typing (PLT), respectively. Genetic
methods are being used increasingly for HLA-typing
in advanced centres. These employ restriction
fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and gene
sequence specific oligonucleotide probe typing
Uses of HLA Typing
1. Tissue transplantation: HLA typing is used
primarily for testing compatibility between
recipients and potential donors before tissue
transplantation.
2. Disputed paternity.
3. Anthropological studies.
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4. An association between HLA types and diseases:
For example, strong association has been found
between ankylosing spondylitis and HLA-B27,
rheumatoid arthritis and HLA-DR4, and many
autoimmune conditions and HLA-DR3.
MHC RESTRICTION
Both CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells can recognize antigen
only when it is presented by a self-MHC molecule,
an attribute called self-MHC restriction. Both class
I and class II antigens operate in this phenomenon.
Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes from immunised mice
are able to kill and lyse virus infected target
cells only when the T-cells and target cells are of
the same MHC type. Helper T-cells can accept
antigen presented by macrophages only when
the macrophages bear the same class II MHC
molecules on the surface. For T-cells participating
in delayed type hypersensitivity the antigen has to
be presented along with class II MHC
Key Points
™™ The immune system is organized into several special
tissues which are collectively termed as lymphoid or
immune tissues
™™ The lymphoid organs, based on their functions,
are classified into primary (central) and secondary
(peripheral) lymphoid organs
™™ There are three types of lymphocytes: B-cells, T-cells,
and natural killer cells (NK-cells)
™™ T-cells perform two important functions: cytotoxicity
and delayed hypersensitivity
™™ T-cells play a key role in regulating antibody
production and CMI, and in suppression of certain
immune responses
™™ Bone marrow-derived lymphocytes are known as
B-lymphocytes or B-cells and perform two important
functions: First, they differentiate themselves into
plasma cells and produce antibodies. Second, they
can present antigen to helper T-cells
™™ NK-cells have the ability to kill certain virally infected
cells and tumor cells without prior sensitization
™™ The MHC in humans is known as HLA complex. In
humans, the HLA complex of genes is located on
short arm of chromosome 6 containing several genes
that are critical to immune function
™™ The genes encode MHC proteins that are classified
into three groups or classes known as the class I, class
II, and class III molecules
™™ HLA typing or tissue typing are usually performed
for 1. Tissue transplantation; 2. Disputed paternity;
3. Anthropological studies; 4. An association between
HLA types and diseases.
Important questions
1. Differentiate between T- and B-cells in a tabulated
form.
2. Give an account of lymphocytes.
124  |  Section 2: Immunology
3. Write short notes on:
a. Subsets of T-lymphocytes
b. B lymphocytes
c. Null cells (or) Large granular lymphocytes (LGL)
d. Natural killer cells or NK-cells
e. Killer cells or K-cells or ADCC-cells
4. Write briefly on:
a. Major histocompatibilty complex (MHC)
b. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)
c. HLA typing
d. MHC restriction
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. All the following are examples of secondary-
lymphoid organs except:
a. Lymph nodes
b. Thymus
c. Spleen
d. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues
2. The CD4+ T-cells that recruit and activate phagocytic
cells acting against intracellular microbes are called:
a. Th-0 cells b. Th-1 cells
c. Th-2 cells d. Antigen-present-
ing cells
3. The molecule expressed on surface of the mature
T-cells is:
a. CD 19 b. CD 8
c. CD 3 d. CD 1
4. All the following statements are true for helper
T-cells except that they:
a. Carry CD4 marker
b. Help or induce immune responses
c. Kill intracellular microorganisms by secreting
cytokines
d. Recognize antigen in association with class I
MHC
5. Class II MHC antigens are present on:
a. Macrophages
b Monocytes
c. Activated T lymphocytes (CD4)
d. All the above
6. Class I proteins are encoded by:
a. HLA-A, -B, and -C loci
b. HLA-DR, HLA-DQ, and HLA-DP loci
c. Complement loci that encode C2 and C4
d. Complement loci that encode factor B
7. Which of the following HLA types is associated
with ankylosing spondylitis?
a. HLA-B27 b. HLA-DR4
c. HLA-DP d. None of the
above
8. Which of the following HLA types is associated
with rheumatoid arthritis?
a. HLA-B27 b. HLA-DR4
c. HLA-Al d. None of the
above
Answers (MCQs)
1. b; 2. c; 3. c; 4. d; 5. d; 6. a; 7. b; 8. b
 18
Chapter

Immune Response

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Discuss monoclonal antibodies—principle, technique
be able to: and applications
∙∙ Differentiate between primary and secondary ∙∙ Describe the following: cytokines; immunological
humoral immune responses tolerance.

Definition iv. It provides immunological surveillance and

immunity against cancer.
The immune response is the specific reactivity
induced in a host by an anti­genic stimulus. For
the generation of immune response, antigen must
Humoral immunity
interact with and activate a number of different cells. Synthesis of Antibody
In addition, these cells must interact with each other. On exposure to antigen, antibody production
follows a characteristic pattern (Fig. 18.1). The
Type of immune response production of antibodies consists of the following
The immune response can be divided into two steps:
types: the humoral (antibody mediated) and the
cellular (cell mediated) types.
1. Lag Phase
A lag phase, the immediate stage following anti­
a. Antibody-mediated Immunity (AMI) genic stimulus during which no antibody is
detectable in circulation.
1. Provides primary defence against most
extracellular bacterial pathogens.
2. Log Phase
2. Helps in defence against viruses that infect
through the respiratory or intestinal tracts. A log phase in which there is steady rise in the titer
3. Prevents recurrence of virus infections. of antibodies.
4. It also partici­p ates in the pathogenesis of
3. A Plateau or Steady State
immediate (types 1, 2 and 3) hypersensitivity
and certain autoimmune diseases. There is an equilibrium between antibody synthesis
and catabolism.
b. Cell-mediated Immunity (CMI)
4. The Phase of Decline
i. Protects against fungi, viruses and facultative
The amount of antibody then declines due to the
intracellular bacterial pathogens like
clearing of antigen–antibody com­plexes and the
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium
natural catabolism of the immunoglobulin, i.e. the
leprae, Brucella and Salmonella, and parasites
catabolism exceeds the production and the titer
like Leishmania and trypanosomes.
falls (Fig 18.1).
ii. It also participates in the rejection of
homografts and graft-versus-host reaction.
iii. It mediates the pathogenesis of delayed (type Primary and Secondary Responses
4) hypersensitivity and certain autoimmune The kinetics and other characteristics of the
diseases. humoral re­sponse differ considerably depending

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126  |  Section 2: Immunology
Fig. 18.1: Primary immune response. An antigenic stimulus
1. Latent period; 2. Long phase (rise in titer of serum antibody);
3. Steady stage of antibody titer; 4. Decline of antibody titer
produced is 10 or more times greater than during
the primary response.
Priming dose and booster doses: A single
injection of an antigen helps more in sen­sitising or
priming the immunocompetent cells pro­ducing the
particular antibody than in the actual elaboration
of high levels of antibody. Only by subsequent
injections of the antigen effective levels of antibody
are usually induced. The first injection is known as
the ‘priming’ dose and subsequent injections as
‘booster’ doses. With live vaccines, a single dose is
sufficient as multiplication of the organism in the
body provides a continuing antigenic stimulus that
acts as both the priming and booster dose.

on whether the hu­moral response results from
activation of naive lymphocytes (primary response)
or memory lymphocytes (secondary re­sponse).
In both cases, activation leads to production of
se­creted antibodies of various isotypes, which
differ in their ability to mediate specific effector
functions.
a. Primary Humoral Response
The first contact of an exogenous antigen with an
individ­ual generates a primary humoral response,
characterized by the production of antibody-
secreting plasma cells and mem­ory B-cells.
When first introduced the antigen selects the
cells that can react with it. In all cases, however, a
primary response to antigen is characterized by a
lag phase, subsequent clonal expansion, and dif­
ferentiation into memory cells or plasma cells. The
duration of the lag phase varies with the nature of
the antigen.
During a primary humoral re­sponse, IgM is
secreted initially, often followed by a switch to an
increasing proportion of IgG. Depending on the
persis­tence of the antigen, a primary response
can last for various periods, from only a few days
to several weeks.
Negative phase: If the same animal is subsequently
exposed to the same antigen al­ready carrying the
specific antibody in circulation, a temporary fall in
the level of circulating antibody oc­curs due to the
combination of the antigen with the preexisting
an­tibody. This is known as the ‘negative phase’. It is
followed by an increase in the titre of the antibody
ex­ceeding the initial level.
Fate of antigen in tissues
The manner in which an antigen is dealt with in
the body depends on factors such as the physical
and chemical nature of the antigen, its dose and
route of entry, and whether the antigenic stimulus
is primary or secondary.
Physical and chemical nature of the antigen:
Particulate antigens are removed from circulation
in two phases. The first is the nonimmune phase
during which the antigen is engulfed by the
phagocytic cells, broken down and eliminated.
The phase of immune elimination begins with the
appearance of the specific antibody, during which

b. Secondary Humoral Re­sponse (Fig. 18.2)

On subsequent exposure, there is a shorter lag
before antibody can be detected: the main isotype
is IgG. The memory B-cells formed during a
primary response stop dividing. These cells have
variable life spans, with some persisting for the life
of the individual.
Activation of memory cells by antigen results
in a sec­ondary antibody response that can be
distinguished from the primary response in several
ways. The secon­dary response has a shorter lag
period, reaches a greater magnitude, lasts longer
Fig. 18.2: Effect of repeated antigenic stimulus. A, B, C
and is also char­acterized by secretion of antibody antigenic stimuli. 1. Primary immune response; 2. Secondary
with a higher affinity for the antigen, and isotypes immune response; 3. Negative phase; 4. High level of antibody
other than IgM predominate. The level of antibody following booster injection

antigen–antibody complexes are formed and are
rapidly phagocytozed, resulting in an accelerated
disappearance of the antigen from circulation.
Soluble antigens: Three phases can be recognised
with soluble antigens-equilibration, metabolism
and immune elimination.
Route of entry: Antigens introduced intravenously
are rapidly localized in the spleen, liver, bone
marrow, kidneys and lungs. They are broken down
by the reticuloendothelial cells and excreted in the
urine, about 70–80% being thus eliminated within
one or two days. In contrast, antigens introduced
subcutaneously are mainly localized in the
draining lymph nodes, only small amounts being
found in the spleen.
Speed of elimination: The speed of elimination
of an antigen is related to the speed at which it
is metabolised. Protein antigens are generally
eliminated within days or weeks, whereas
polysaccharides which are metabolized slowly,
persist for months or years.
Production of antibodies
The majority of antigens will stimulate B-cells
only if they have the assistance of T-lymphocyte
helper (TH) cells. Antigens can be divided into
two categories based on their apparent need
for for T H cells for the induction of antibody
synthesis (i) those that require Th cells, referred
To as T-dependent antigens (TD-antigens) such
as proteins and erythrocytes; and (ii) those that
do not require TH cells, called T-independent
antigens (TI-antigens), such as polysaccharides
and other structurally simple molecules with
repeating epitopes. Immune response to an antigen
is brought about by three types of cells—antigen
processing cells (APC-principally macrophages
and dendritic cells), T-cells and B-cells. The
sequence of events is as follows.
1. Antigen Processing and Presentation
For successful development of antibody response
to a T-dependent antigen, the antigen must be
associated with MHC class II molecules on the
surface of an antigen-presenting cell (APC). APC
can ingest antigen, degrade it and present it to
T-cells. T-cell is able to recognise only when the
processed antigen is presented on the surface of
APC, in association with MHC molecules to the
T-cell carrying the receptor (TCR) for the epitope.
The antigen has to be presented complexed
with MHC Class II in the case of CD4 (Helper T/
TH) cells, and for CD8 (cytotoxic T/Tc) cells with
MHC Class I molecules. B cells, which possess
surface Ig and MHC Class II molecules, can also
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Chapter 18: Immune Response  | 127
present antigens to T-cells, particularly during the
secondary response.
2. T-cell and B-cell Activation
The activation of resting CD4 (Helper T/T H)
cells require two signals. The first signal is a
combination of the T-cell receptor (TCR) with the
MHC class II complexed antigen. The second is
the costimultory signal, i.e. interleukin-1 (IL-1)
which is produed by the APC. The activated TH
cell forms interleukin-2 and other cytokines such
as interleukin-4, IL-5 and IL-6 required for B-cell
activation. These interleukin-4 (formerly known
as B-cell stimulatory factor I), IL-5 (B-cell growth
factor, BCGF) and IL-6 (formerly called B-cell
stimulatory factor, BCSF-2) activate B-cells which
have combined with their respective antigens to
clonally proliferate and differentiate into antibody-
secreting plasma cells.
B-cells carry surface receptors which consist of
IgM or other immunoglobulin classes. A plasma
cell secretes an antibody of a single specificity of a
single antibody class (IgM, IgG or any other single
class) depending upon these receptors. However,
primary antibody response is characterized by the
initial production of IgM, and and later switching
over to form IgG. Class switching is influenced by
different combinations of lyniphokines produced
by helper T (T H)-cells. Under the direction of
cytokines produced by effector T-helper (TH) cells,
some B-cells become programmed to produce
antibodies other than IgM. Following antigenic
stimulus, not all B-lymphocytes are converted into
plasma cells. A small proportion of activated B-cells
become long-lived memory cells which produce a
secondary type of response to subsequent contact
with the antigen. During secondary antigenic
stimulus,the increased antibody response is due to
the memory cells induced by the primary contact
with the antigen.
Cytotoxic T (CD8/Tc)-cells are activated when
they contact antigens presented along with MHC
class I molecules. On contact with a target cell
carrying the antigen on its surface, the activated
Tc cells release cytotoxins that destroy the target,
which may be virus infected or tumour cells. Some
Tc cells also become memory cells.
Monoclonal Antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies : When a clone of
lymphocytes or plasma cells undergoes selective
proliferation, as in multiple myeloma, antibodies
with a single antigenic specificity accumulate.
Such antibodies produced by a single clone and
directed against a single antigenic determinant
are called monoclonal antibodies e.g. plasma cell
tumour (myeloma). In myeloma, antibodies are
128  |  Section 2: Immunology
produced by a single clone of plasma cells directed
against a single antigenic determinant and hence
the antiboies are homogeneous and monoclonal.
Hybridoma technology: The discovery of the
hybridoma technology for the production of
unlimited quantities of identical monoclonal
antibodies of the same Ig class, possessing uniform
specificity, affinity and other properties, created
a revolution in immunology by opening up
numerous diagnostic, therapeutic and research
applications. Monoclonal antibodies against
several antigens are now available commercially.
By laboratory manipulation, Kohler and
Millstein (1975) prepared a hybrid cell line
(hybridoma) by fusion of a mouse myeloma cell
with an antibody producing lymphocyte from
spleen or lymph node of the-same inbred strain
of mouse. In recognition of the great importance
of this hybridoma technology, the Nobel Prize for
Medicine was awarded to them in 1984.
Procedure (Fig. 18.3)
The production of monoclonal antibodies involves
the following steps listed below:
Fig. 18.3: Production of a monoclonal antibody
1. Selection of antigen: Monoclonal antibodies can
be produced against any substance recognized
as an antigen by the immune system of the
animal being injected.
2. Animal immunization: Animal (usually mouse)
is immunised with a pure selec­tive antigen ,it
is killed and B lymphocytes are harvested from
the spleen or lymph node. A suspension of
spleen cells (B cells) is prepared.
3. Fusion of splenic lymphocytes and myeloma
cells: A suspension of splenic cells is then fused
with a myeloma cell-line by incubating in the
presence of polyethylene glycol.
Because cells cannot remain viable in cell cul­
ture for very long, they must be fused together
with cells that are able to survive and multiply
in tissue culture, that is, the continuously
propagating, or immortal cells, of multiple
myeloma (a malignant tumor of antibody-
producing plasma cells).
4. Selection of hybrid lymphocyte-myeloma
cells: Lymphocytes from the spleen of mice
immunised with the desired antigen are fused
with mouse myeloma cells grown in culture
which do not form immunoglobulins and

are deficient in the enzyme hypoxanthine
phosphoribosyl transferase (HPRT). The fused
cells are placed in basal culture medium (HAT
medium containing hypoxanthine, aminopterin
and thymidine) which does not permit the
growth of the enzyme deficient myeloma cells.
Thus, fused hybridoma cells survive in the
selective medium and can be recognized by
their ability to grow indefinitely in the medium.
Unfused anti­body-producing lymphoid cells die
after several multi­plications in vitro because
they are not immortal, and unfused myeloma
cells die in the presence of the toxic enzyme
substrates. The only surviving cells will be true
hybrids. These hybrid cells, called hybridomas
(they are hybrids of the two cells).
5. Cloning the hybridoma cells: The single hybrid
cells producing the desired antibody must be
isolated and grown as a clone. Two techniques
can be used: (a) limiting dilution and (b) growth
in an agar gel medium.
6. Screening for desired antibodies: The growth
medium supernatant from the mi­crodilution
tray wells in which the hybridoma cells are
growing is then tested for the presence of the
desired an­tibody.
7. Mass production of monoclonal antibodies:
Clones producing antibodies against the
desired antigen are selected for continuous
cultivation. Such hybr idomas can be
maintained indefinitely in culture and will
continue to form monoclonal antibodies. They
may also be injected intraperitoneally in mice.
Within days, a tumor known as a hybridoma
develops and monoclonal antibodies may
be obtained by harvesting the ascitic fluid
produced. Ascitic fluid can be re­moved from
mice many times over the animals’ lifetimes.
Uses of Monoclonal Antibodies
1. They are routinely used in the typing of tissue.
2. Use in the identification and epidemiological
study of infectious microorganisms.
3. Use in the identification of tumor and other
surface antigens.
4. Use in the classification of leukemias.
5. Use in the identification of func­tional popul­
ations of different types of T-cells.
Factors Influencing Antibody Production
1. Genetic Factors
Response in different individuals to same antigen
varies due to genetic factors. Persons capable
of responding to a parti­cular antigen are called
responders and those who cannot respond are
termed as nonresponders. The IR (immune
response) genes control this property.
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Chapter 18: Immune Response  | 129
2. Nutritional Status
Malnutrition affects host susceptibility to certain
microorganisms, especially bacteria, e.g. protein
calo­rie malnutrition suppresses both humoral and
cellular immune responses.
3. Route of Administration
There is better humoral immune response
following parenteral administration of antigen than
oral or nasal routes.
4. Age
i. Embryonic life: The embryo is immunologically
immature. The capacity to produce antibodies
starts only with the development and
differentiation of lymphoid or­gans. When
the potential immunocompetent cell comes
into contact with its specific antigen during
embry­onic life, the response is elimination of
the cell or induction of tolerance.
ii. Infant: The infant has to depend on itself for
antibody production from 3–6 months of age.
However, full competence is acquired only by
about 5–7 years for IgG and 10–15 years for
IgA.
5. Multiple Vaccines
Antigenic competition: The effects may vary
when two or more antigens are administered
simultaneously, Antibodies may be produced
against the different antigens, or antibody response
to one or the other of the antigens may be
enhanced, or the response to one or more of them
may be diminished (antigenic competition).
Examples
i. When toxoids are given along with bacterial
vaccines (for example, triple vaccine
containing diphtheria and tetanus toxoids
along with Bordetella pertussis vaccine), the
response to the toxoid is potentiated.
ii. When diphtheria and tetanus toxoids are given
together, with one in excess, the response to
the other is inhibited.
iii. When triple antigen is given to a person
who had earlier received a primary dose of
diphtheria toxoid, the response to the tetanus
and pertussis antigens will be diminished.
6. Adjuvant
Adjuvant is any substance that enhances the
immunogenicity of an antigen.
Types of adjuvants
a. Depot: Repository adjuvants such as aluminium
hydroxide or phosphate, and Freund’s
incomplete adjuvant (water in archis oil).
130  |  Section 2: Immunology
b. Bacterial: Freund’s complete adjuvant is the
Freund’s incomplete adjuvant along with a
suspension of killed tubercle bacilli.
c. Chemical: Silica particles, beryllium sulfate and
endotoxins activate macrophages.
Action of Adjuvants
a. Sustained release of antigen from depot
b. Liberation of lymphocytes activating factor
c. Lymphocytes stimulation-B-cell, T-cell or both.
d. Stimulate CMI.
Freund’s Complete Adjuvant
The most potent adjuvant is Freund’s complete
adjuvant, which is the incomplete adjuvant
along with a suspension of killed tubercle bacilli.
Besides increasing the humoral immune response,
it induces a high degree of cellular immunity
(delayed hypersensitivity) as well. It is unsuitable
for human use as it produces a local granuloma.
7. Immunosuppressive Agents
These inhibit the im­mune response. They are
useful in certain situations like transplantation,
when it becomes necessary to prevent graft
rejection.
Examples: X-irradiation, radiomimetic drugs,
corticosteroids, antimetabolites and other cytotoxic
chemicals, and antilymphocytic serum
i. X-irradiation: Anti­body response is suppressed
by sublethal whole body irradiation.
ii. Radiomimetic drugs: They belong in general
to the class of alkylating agents (for example,
cyclophos­phamide, nitrogen mustard). In
human beings, cyclo­p hosphamide given
for three days after the antigen completely
suppresses the antibody response. It is much
less effective when given before the antigen.
iii. Corticosteroids: Corticosteroids cause depletion
of lymphocytes from the blood and lymphoid
organs. Therapeutic doses have little effect on
the antibody formation in human beings. They
inhibit the induction and manifestations of
delayed hypersensitivity in human beings.
iv. Antimetabolites: They include folic acid
antagonists (methotrexate), alkylating agents
(cyclophosphamide) and analogues of
purine (6-mer­captopurine, azathioprine),
cytosine (cytosine arabi­noside) and uracil
(5-fluorouracil).
Antimetabolites are substances that interfere
with the synthesis of DNA, RNA or both and
thus inhibit cell division and differentiation
necessary for humoral and cellular immune
responses. Many antimetabolites find clinical
application in the preven­tion of graft rejection.
v. Cyclosporine: The drug most widely used
now for immunosup­pression is cyclosporine,
a cyclic polypeptide. It is not cytotoxic for
lymphocytes and has no antimitotic activity.
It selectively inhibits helper T-cell activity.
vi. Antilymphocyte serum (ALS): Antilymphocyte
serum (ALS) is a heterologous antiserum raised
against lymphocytes. Antibody pre­p ared
against thymus cells is called antithymocyte
serum (ATS). The corresponding globulin
prepara­tions are called ALG and ATG. They
were used to prevent graft rejection.
ALS acts primarily against T-lymphocytes
and therefore specifically on cell-mediated
immunity. Humoral antibody response to thymus-
independent antigens is unaffected and may even
be enhanced. ALS acts only against lymphocytes
in circulation and not cells in lymphoid organs.
As ALS is a foreign protein, its ef­fect is decreased
on repeated administration, which may also lead
to serum sickness and other hypersensi­t ivity
reactions.
8. Effect of Antibody
Passive administration of the homologous antibody
will suppress specifically the humoral immune
response to an antigen. The ac­tion appears to be
by a feedback mechanism.
9. Superantigens
Superantigens are certain protein molecules that
activate very large numbers of T-cells irrespective of
their antigenic spe­cificities such as staphylococcal
enterotoxins.
10. Mitogens
Mitogens are certain substances that induce
division of lymphocytes and other cells.
CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSES
The term ‘cell-mediated immunity’ (CMI) refers
to the specific immune responses which involves
T-Iymphocyte-mediated functions that do not
involve antibodies. This form of immunity can
be transferred from donor to recipient with intact
lymphocytes, but not with antisera, hence it is
called cell-mediated immune reaction.
Scope of CMI
CMI participates in the following immunological
functions:
1. Delayed hypersensitivity (type IV hyper­
sensitivity).
2. Immunity in infectious diseases caused by
obligate and facultative intracellular parasites.
3. Transplantation immunity and graft-versus-
host reaction.
4. Immunological surveillance and immunity
against cancer.

5. Pathogenesis of certain autoimmune diseases
(for example, thyroiditis, encephalomyelitis).
Induction of CMI
Antigen-specific cell-mediated immunity is
mediated by T-lymphocytes. A second, smaller
population of cells includes natural killer (NK) and
killer (K) cells. Cell-mediated immune response
can also be divided into primary and secondary
cell-mediated immune responses.
Primary Cell-mediated Immune Response
Foreign antigen is presented by antigen­presenting
celIs (APCs) to T-cells leading to their activation.
Each T-cell bears on its surface a specific receptor
(TCR) for one epitope and combines only with
antigens carrying that epitope. On contact
with the appropriate antigen, T-cells undergo
blast transformation, clonal proliferation and
differentiation into memory cells and effector cells
providing CMI. T-cells recognise antigens only
when presented with MHC molecules.
The T-cell group is composed of:
1. Helper T (Th)-cells which react with antigens
presented on the surface of macrophages
or other cells, complexed with MHC class
II molecules. They then release biological
mediators (lymphokines) which activate
macrophages, enabling them to kill intracellular
parasites; and
2. T-cytotoxic cells (Tc-cells), which recognize
antigen on the surface of cells, in association
with MHC class I molecules, secrete lympho­
kines and destroy the target cells.
Secondary Cell-mediated
Immune Response
If the same host is subsequently exposed to the
same antigen, then the secondary cell-mediated
immune response is usually more pronounced and
occurs more rapidly.
CYTOKINES
Cytokines (Greek cyto, cell and kinesis, movement)
are biologically active substances produced by
cells that influence other cells. Biologically active
substances released by activated T-lymphocytes
were called lymphokines. When released from
mononu­clear phagocytes, these proteins are called
monokines.
The term interleukin was introduced for those
products of leucocytes which exert a regulatory
influence on other cells; and if their effect is
to stimulate the growth and differentiation of
immature leukocytes in the bone marrow, they are
called colony-stimulating factors (CSFs).
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Chapter 18: Immune Response  | 131
Interferons, growth factors and others were
found to have similar effects. Therefore, all of them
have been grouped under the term cytokines.
Recently cy­tokines have been grouped into
the following categories or fami­lies: chemokines,
hematopoietins, interleukins, and members of
the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family. Some
examples of these cytokine families are provided
in Table 18.1.
Features of Important Cytokines
Various cytokines are shown in Table 18.1.
A. Interleukins
Interleukin-1
It is a stable polypeptide retaining its activity up
to 56°C and between pH 3 and pH 11. IL-l occurs
in two molecular forms, IL-l alpha and beta.
IL-l is principally secreted by macrophages and
monocytes but can be produced by most other
nucleated cells also. Its production is stimulated
by antigens, toxins, injury and inflammatory
processes and inhibited by cyc1osporin A,
corticosteroids and prostaglandins.
Immunological Effects of IL-1
i. Stimulation of T-cells for the production of IL2
and other lymphokines
ii. B-cell proliferation and antibody synthesis
iii. Neutrophil chemotaxis and phagocytosis
iv. It mediates a wide range of metabolic, physio­
logical, inflammatory and hematological
effects
Together with the tumor necrosis factor (TNF),
it is responsible for many of the hematological
changes in septic shock
Interleukin-2
It is the major activator of T- and B-cells and
stimulates cytotoxic T-cells and NK-cells. It
converts some null cells (LGL) into lymphokine-
activated killer (LAK) cells which can destroy NK
resistant tumor cells. This property has been used
in the treatment of certain types of cancer.
Interleukin-3
IL-3 is a growth factor for bone marrow stem cells.
It is also known as the multicolony-stimulating
factor (multi-CSF).
Interleukin-4
IL-4 activates resting B-cells and acts as a B-cell
differentiating factor. It also acts as a growth factor
for T-cells and mast cells. It enhances the action
of cytotoxic T-cells. Formerly, it was known as
the B-cell growth factor-l (BCGF-1). It may have a
role in atopic hypersensitivity as it augments IgE
synthesis.
132  |  Section 2: Immunology
Table 18.1  Cytokines: Hormones of the immune system-EDIT
Cytokine Main sources Major functions
A. Interleukins
IL-l (Alpha and b) Macrophages and other cell types Proliferation and differentiation ofT, B and other cells;
pyrogenic; induce acute phase proteins; bone marrow cell
proliferation
IL-2 T-cells Promote growth and differentiation of T- and B-cells,
cytotoxicity ofT and NK cells, secretion of other lymphokines
IL-3 T-cells Multi-CSF
IL-4 TH-cells Proliferation of B- and cytotoxic T-cells; increase IgGI and IgE
production; enhance MHC class II and IgE receptors
IL-5 TH-cells Proliferation of eosinophils, stimulate IgA and IgM production
IL-6 TH-cells Promote B-cell differentiation; IgG production, acute phase
proteins
IL-7 Bone marrow, spleen, stromal cells B- and T-cell growth factor
IL-8 Macrophages, others Neutrophil chemotactic factor
IL-9 T-cell T-cell growth and proliferation
IL-I0 T-, B-cells, macrophages Inhibit IFN production and mononuclear cell functions
IL-11 Bone marrow stromal cells Induce acute phase proteins
IL-12 T-cells Activate NK-cells
IL-13 T-cells Inhibit mononuclear cell functions
B. Colony-stimulating Factors
GM-CSF T-cells, macrophages, fibroblasts T-cell and macrophage growth stimulation
G-CSF Fibroblasts, endothelium Granulocyte growth stimulation
M-CSF roblasts, Fibroblasts, endothelium Macrophages growth stimulation
endothelium
C. Tumor Necrosis Factors
TNF-α Macrophages, monocytes Tumor cytotoxicity, lipolysis, wasting, acute phase proteins,
phagocytic cell activation, antiviral and antiparasitic effects,
endotoxic shock
TNF-β T-cells Induce other cytokines
D. Interferons
IFN-α Leukocytes
IFN-β Fibroblasts Antiviral activity
IFN-γ T-cells Antiviral, macrophage activation; MHC class I and II expression
on cells
E. Others
TGFb T- and B-cells Inhibit T- and B-cell proliferation and hematopoiesis; promote
wound healing
LIF T-cells Proliferation of stem cells; eosinophil chemotaxis

Interleukin-5 B. Colony-stimulating Factors (CSF)

IL-5 causes proliferation of activated B-cells. It also
induces maturation of eosinophils. Formerly, it was
known as the B-cell growth factor-II.
Interleukin-6
IL-6 is produced by stimulated T- and B-cells,
macrophages and fibroblasts. It induces
immunoglobulin synthesis by activated B cells
and formation of IL2 receptors on T cells.
These cytokines stimulate the growth and
differentiation of pluripotent stem cells in the bone
marrow. They have been named after the types of
cell colonies they induce in soft agar culture-for
example, granulocyte (G), or mononuclear (M) CSF
(Table 18.1). IL3 which induces growth of all types
of hematopoietic cells is known as multi-CSF. They
are responsible for adjusting the rate of production

of blood cells according to requirements, for
example, the massive granulocyte response seen
in pyogenic infections.
C. Tumor Necrosis Factors (TNF)
The tumor necrosis factor occurs as two types:
alpha and beta.
TNF-a: A serum factor found to induce hemorr­
hagic necrosis in certain tumors was named the
tumour necrosis factor. It is formed principally
by activated macrophages and monocytes. It
resembles IL-l in possessing a very wide spectrum
of biological activities, such as participation in the
manifestations of endotoxic and other cytokines.
TNF-b: TNF-b is produced principally by T-helper
cells and formerly known as lymphotoxin. Its
effects are similar to those of TNF-a.
D. Interferons (lFNs)
Interferons (IFNs) are a group of related low
molecular weight, regulatory cytokines produced
by certain eucaryotic cells in response to a viral
infection.
There are three classes of IFNs, alpha produced
by leukocytes, beta produced by fibroblasts
and gamma by T cells activated by antigens,
mitogens or exposure to IL-2. IFN-g causes many
immunological effects, such as macrophage
activation, augmentation of neutrophil and
monocyte functions, and antitumour activity.
E. Other Cytokines
Transforming growth factor beta (TGF b): Besides
acting as a growth factor for fibroblasts and
promoting wound healing, it also acts as a down
regulator of some immunological and hemato­
logical processes.
Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF): The leukemia
inhibitory factor (LIF), produced by T cells, helps
stem cell proliferation and eosinophil chemotaxis.
Cytokine production is regulated by exogenous
stimuli such as antigens and mitogens, as well as
by endogenous factors, such as neuroendocrine
hormonal peptides (corticosteroids, endorphins)
and products of lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase
pathways. They also regulate each other by positive
and negative feedbacks.
A number of cytokines (for example, IL-l, 2,
3, colony stimulating factors, interferons) have
already found therapeutic application.
Detection of CMI
Development of CMI can be detected by following
methods:
1. Skin test for DH: The original method for
detecting CMI was the skin test for delayed
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Chapter 18: Immune Response  | 133
hypersensitivity (for example, the tuberculin
test).
2. Lymphocytes transformation test: Transfor­
mation of cultured sensitized T-lymphocytes
on contact with the antigen.
3. Target cell destruction: Killing of cultured cells
by T-lymphocytes sensitized against them.
4. Migration-inhibiting factor (MIF) test: It is
commonly employed. As originally described,
this consisted of incubating in a culture
chamber, packed peritoneal macrophages in
a capillary tube. The macrophages migrate
to form a lacy, fan-like pattern. If the macro­
phages are from a guinea pig sensitized to
tuberculoprotein, addition of tuberculin to the
culture chamber will inhibit the migration.
Transfer Factor
Lawrence (1954) reported transfer of CMI in man
by injection of extract from the leucocytes from
immunized individual. This extract is known as the
‘transfer factor’ (TF). The transferred immunity is
specific in that CMI can be transferred only to those
antigens to which the donor is sensitive.
Properties of transfer factor: TF is a dialyzable,
low molecular weight substance (MW 2000 to
4000), resistant to trypsin, DNAase, RNAase and
freeze thawing. It is stable for several years at 20°C
and in the lyophilized form at 4°C. It is inactivated at
56°C in 30 minutes. It is not antigenic. Chemically,
it appears to be a polypeptide-polynucleotide.
TF is highly potent. The transferred CMI
is systemic and not local at the injected site
alone. Delayed hypersensitivity and various in
vitro correlates of CMI can be demonstrated in
the recipient following TF injection. Humoral
immunity is not transmitted by TF; TF transfers
CMI to all the antigens to which the donor is
sensitive, en bloc. It is possible to transfer CMI from
the recipient to another in a serial fashion.
Mode of action of TF: The mode of action of TF is
not known. It appears to stimulate the release of
lymphokines from sensi­tized T-lymphocytes.
Applications of Transfer Factor
1. It has been used to restore immune capacity in
patients with T-cell deficiency (Wiskott–Aldrich
syndrome).
2. It has also been used in the treatment of
disseminated infections associated with deficient
CMI (lepromatous leprosy, tuberculosis,
mucocutaneous candidiasis).
3. It has been employed in the treatment of
malignant melanoma.
4. Its use has been suggested in some autoimmune
diseases (systemic lupus erythematosus,
134  |  Section 2: Immunology
rheumatoid arthritis) and diseases of unknown
etiology (sarcoidosis, multiple sclerosis).
Immunological tolerance
Immunologic tolerance is defined as the absence
of a specific immune response resulting from a
previous expo­sure to the inducing antigen. The
most notable example is immunologic tolerance
to self. Any antigen that comes into contact with
the immunological system during embryonic life
would be recognized as a self-antigen and would
not induce any immune response.
Burnet and Fenner (1949) suggested that
the unresponsiveness of individuals to self-
antigens was due to the contact of the immature
immunological system with self-antigens during
embryonic life. Any antigen that comes into contact
with the immunological system during embryonic
life would be recognized as a self-antigen and would
not induce any immune response. Medawar and
his colleagues (1953) proved this experimentally
using two strains of syngenetic mice. When a
skin graft from one inbred strain of mice (CBA)
is applied on a mouse of another strain (A), it
is rejected. If CBA cells are injected into fetal or
newborn strain A mice, however, the latter when
they grow up will freely accept skin grafts from
CBA mice. The content of the self antigen appears
to have been enlarged by contact with a foreign
antigen during embryonic life. This phenomenon
is called ‘specific immunological tolerance’.
Types of Immunological Tolerance
Two forms of tolerance are known:
1. Natural tolerance: The body develops immune
tolerance towards self-molecules due to natural
tolerance during growth of fetus. Autoimmune
disease wi11 develop in the event of breakdown
of tolerance to self-tissues.
2. Acquired tolerance: Tolerance in later life may
occur under certain special circum­stances, e.g.
ingestion of bovine myelin in high concentrations
can tolerise an individu­al to myelin.
Parameters that Affect the Induction of
Tolerance
These in­clude age, dose of antigen, route of tolerogen
administra­tion, physical nature of the antigen, and
various treat­ments that reduce activation of positive
regulatory cells of the immune response.
1. Age
The younger the recipient, the easier it is to induce
toler­ance, and, of course, it is easiest in utero.
2. Dose of Antigen
The induction of tolerance is dose-dependent.
With certain antigens, tolerance can be induced by
two types of doses, one high and the other low, with
intermediate doses producing immunity instead of
tolerance. These are known as ‘high zone’ and ‘low
zone’ tolerance respectively. A special type of high
zone tolerance is Felton’s immunological paralysis.
3. Route of Tolerogen Administra­tion
Certain haptens that are immunogenic in guinea
pigs by the intradermal route are tolerogenic orally
or intravenously.
4. Nature of Tolerogen
Soluble antigens and haptens are more tolerogenic
than particulate antigens.
5. Various Treat­ments
When human gammaglobulin is heat aggregated,
it is highly immunogenic in mice but is tolerogenic
when deaggregated.
6. Genetic Background
Rabbits and mice can be rendered tolerant more
rapidly than guinea pigs and chickens.
Mechanism of Tolerance
Tolerance can arise through three possible
mechanisms:
1. Clonal deletion
2. Clonal anergy
3. Suppression.
1. Clonal Deletion
In embryonic life clones of B- and T-cells
possessing receptors that recog­nize self-antigens
are selectively deleted or eliminated and, therefore,
no longer available to respond upon subsequent
exposure to that antigen. This is known as clonal
deletion.
2. Clonal Anergy
Clones of B- and T-cells exp­ressing receptors that
recognize self-antigen might remain but they
cannot be activated. This is known as clonal anergy.
3. Suppression
Clones of B- and T-cells exp­ressing receptors that
recognize self-antigens are preserved. Antigen
recognition might be capable of causing activation,
however, exp­ression of immune response might be
inhibi­ted or blocked through active suppression.

Theories of Antibody formation
Theories of immunity fall into two categories:
instructive and selective.
A. Instructive Theories
1. Direct template theories: According to these,
the antigen or the antigenic determinant enters
the antibody-forming cell and serves as a
template against which antibody mole­cules are
synthesized so that they have combining sites
complementary to the antigenic determinants.
These are therefore known as ‘direct template’
theories.
2. Indirect template theory: This theory was
proposed by Burnet and Fenner (1949).
According to this theory, the entry of the
antigenic determinant into the antibody
producing cell induced in it a heritable change.
A ‘genocopy’ of the antigenic determinant
was thus incorporated in its genome and
transmitted to the progeny cells (indirect
template).
B. Selective Theories
1. Side chain theory: According to side chain
theory, immunocompetent cells (ICCs) have
surface receptors capable of reacting with
antigens which have complementary side
chains. When foreign antigens are introduced
into the body, they combine with those cell
receptors which have a complementary
fit. This inactivates the receptors. There
is an overproduction of the same type of
receptors which circulate as antibodies as a
compensatory mechanism.
2. Natural selection theory: This theory was
proposed by Jerne (1955) which postulates that
about a million globulin (antibody) molecules
were formed in embryonic life, which covered
the full range of antigenic specificities. These
globulins were the ‘natural antibodies’. When
an antigen was introduced, it combined
selectively with the globulin that had the
nearest complementary ‘fit’. The globulin,
with the combined antigen, homed in on the
antibody-forming cells and stimulated them
to synthesize the same kind of antibody.
3. Clonal selection theory: This theory was
proposed by Burnet (1957). This theory states
that during immunological development, cells
capable of reacting with different antigens
were formed by a process of somatic mutation.
Clones of cells that had immunological
reactivity with self-antigens were eliminated
during embryonic life. Such clones are
called forbidden clones. Their persistence or
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Chapter 18: Immune Response  | 135
development in later life by somatic mutation
could lead to autoimmune processes. Each
immunocompetent cell was capable of reacting
with one antigen (or a small number of
antigens) which could recognize and combine
with antigens introduced into the body. The
result of the contact with the specific antigen
was cellular proliferation to form clones
synthesizing the antibody. This theory is more
widely accepted than other theories.
Key Points
™™ The immune response is the specific reactivity
induced in a host by an anti­genic stimulus and can
be divided into two types—the humoral (antibody-
mediated) and the cellular (cell-mediated) types
™™ The production of antibodies consists of three
steps: 1. Lag phase; 2. Log phase; 3. A plateau or
steady state
™™ The hu­moral response results from activation of
naive lymphocytes (primary response) or memory
lymphocytes (secondary re­sponse)
™™ Monoclonal antibodies: Such antibodies produced by
a single clone and directed against a single antigenic
determinant are called monoclonal antibodies, e.g.
plasma cell tumor (myeloma)
™™ Cell-mediated immunity’ (CMI): The term ‘cell-
mediated immunity’ (CMI) refers to the specific
immune responses which involves T-Iymphocyte-
mediated functions
™™ Cytokines: Cytokines are biologically active
substances produced by cells that influence other
cells. Interferons, growth factors and others were
found to have similar effects. Therefore, all of them
have been grouped under the term ‘cytokines’
™™ Transfer factor: Transfer of CMI in man by injection of
extract from the leukocytes from immunized individual
™™ Immunologic tolerance is defined as the absence of a
specific immune response resulting from a previous
expo­sure to the inducing antigen. Two forms of
tolerance are known. 1. Natural; 2. Acquired
™™ Tolerance can arise through three possible
mechanisms: 1. Clonal deletion; 2. Clonal anergy;
3. Suppression
™™ Theories of immunity fall into two categories:
instructive and selective:
A. Instructive theories: 1. Direct template theories;
2. Indirect template theory
B. Selective theories: 1. Side chain theory; 2. Natural
selection theory; 3. Clonal selection theory.
Important questions
1. Discuss the primary and secondary humoral
immune responses.
2. Discuss briefly about:
Monoclonal antibodies—production and
applications.
Adjuvants
Cytokines
Theories of antibody production
3. Write short notes on:
a. Transfer factor
b. Burnet’s clonal selection theory
c. Immunological tolerance
136  |  Section 2: Immunology
Multiple choice questions (MCQs) 4. Development of cell mediated immunity can be
detected by:
1. The synthesis and production of antibodies a. Skin test for delayed hypersensitivity
typically is dependent on complex interaction of b. Lymphocyte transformation test
all the following cells except: c. Migration inhibiting factor test
a. Macrophages d. All the above
b. Helper T cells 5. Transfer factor shows all the following features
c. Cytotoxic T cells except:
d. B cells a. It is an extract from the leukocytes from the
2. Which animal is used for for monoclonal immnized host
antibodies production: b. Transfers humoral immunity
a. Guinea pig c. Transfers CMI
b. Mouse d. Transferred immunity is systemic
c. Rabbit 6. Clonal selection theory was postulated by:
d. None of the above a. Breinl and Haurowitz
3. Interleukin-l is a protein produced mainly by: b. Burnet and Fenner
c. Ehrlich
a. Macrophages and monocytes
d. Burnet
b. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes
c. Lymphocytes Answers (MCQs)
d. Stem cells 1. c; 2. b; 3. a; 4. d; 5. b; 6. d

Immunodeficiency Diseases
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Classify and enumerate immunodeficiency diseases
Introduction
Immunodeficiency diseases are conditions where
the defence mechanisms of the body are impaired,
leading to repeated microbial infections of varying
severity and sometimes enhanced susceptibility to
malignancies.
Immunodeficiency disease results from the
absence or failure of normal function, of one or
more elements of the immune system. Specific
immunodeficiency diseases involve abnormalities
of T- or B-cells of the adaptive immune system.
Nonspecific immunodeficiency diseases involve
abnormalities of elements, such as complement or
phagocytes, which act nonspecifically in immunity.
Classification of
Immunodeficiency Diseases
Immunodeficiencies may be classified as primary
or secondary.
Primary Immunodeficiencies
The established types of primary immunodeficiency
syndromes are listed in Table 19.1. The lymphoid
cell disorders may affect T-cells, B-cells, or both B-
and T-cells. Deficiencies involving components of
nonspecific mediators of innate immunity, such as
phagocytes or complement, are impaired.
A. Disorders of Specific Immunity
I. Humoral Immunodeficiencies (B-cell
Defects)
a. X-linked Agammaglobulinemia (XLA)
The model B-cell deficiency is X-linked agamma­
globulinemia or Bruton’s hypogammaglobulinemia.
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19
Chapter
∙∙ List primary and secondary immunodeficiency
syn­dromes.
This rare disorder, which appears to selectively
involve very early B-lineage cells, was the first
recognized of all of the primary immunodeficiencies,
and was discovered in 1952 by Colonel Ogden
Bruton. It is seen only in male infants.
Manifestations: The disease presents as recurrent
serious infections with pyogenic bacteria,
particularly with pneumococci, streptococci,
meningococci, Pseudomonas and H. influenzae.
Patients respond normally to viral infections such
as measles and chickenpox.
All classes of immunoglobulins are grossly
depleted in the serum. Tonsils and adenoids are
atrophic. Lymph node biopsy reveals a depletion
of cells of the bursa-dependent areas. Plasma
cells and germinal centers are absent even after
antigenic stimulation. There is a marked decrease
in the proportion of B-cells in circulation.
Cell-mediated immunity: Cell-mediated
immunity is not affected. Delayed hypersensitivity
of tuberculin and contact dermatitis types can be
demonstrated. Allograft rejection is normal.
Management
Its management consists of the maintenance of an
adequate level of immunoglobulins.
b. Transient Hypogammaglobulinemia of
Infancy
This is due to an abnormal delay in the initiation of
IgG synthesis in some patients. By three months of
age, normal infants begin to synthesize their own
IgG. When there is a delay, immunodeficiency
occurs. Recurrent otitis media and respiratory
infections are the common diseases found in these
conditions. It may be found in infants of both sexes.
138  |  Section 2: Immunology
Table 19.1  Classification of primary immuno­
deficiency syndromes
A. Disorders of specific immunity
I. Humoral immunodeficiencies (B-cell defects)
a. X-linked agammaglobulinemia
b. Transient hypogammaglobulinemia of infancy
c. Common variable immunodeficiency (late onset
hypogammaglobulinemia)
d. Selective immunoglobulin deficiencies (lgA, IgM or
IgG subclasses)
e. Immunodeficiencies with hyper-IgM
f. Transcobalamin II deficiency
II. Cellular immunodeficiencies (T-cell defects)
a. Thymic hypoplasia (Digeorge’s syndrome)
b. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis
c. Purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) deficiency.
III. Combined immunodeficiencies (B- and T-cell defects)
a. Cellular immunodeficiency with abnormal
immunoglobulin synthesis (Nezelof syndrome)
b. Ataxia telangiectasia
c. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome
d. Immunodeficiency with thymoma
e. Immunodeficiency with short-limbed dwarfism
f. Episodic lymphopenia with lymphocytotoxin
g. Severe combined immunodeficiencies
1. ‘Swiss type’ agammaglobulinemia
2. Reticular dysgenesis of de Vaal
3. Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency
B. Disorders of complement .
a. Complement component deficiencies
b. Complement inhibitor deficiencies
C. Disorders of phagocytosis
a. Chronic granulomatous disease
b. Myeloperoxidase deficiency
c. Chediak-Higashi syndrome
d. Leukocyte G6PD deficiency
e. Job’s syndrome
f. Tuftsin deficiency
g. Lazy leukocyte syndrome
h. Hyper-lgE syndrome
i. Actin-binding protein deficiency
j. Shwachman’s disease
Treatment: Treatment with gammaglobulin may
be required in some cases but it is not recom­
mended prophylactically, as it may contribute to
prolongation of immunodeficiency by a negative
feedback inhibition of IgG synthesis.
c. Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVID)
CVID is characharteized by a profound decrease
in numbers of antibody-producing plasma cells,
low levels of most immunoglobulin isotypes
(hypogammaglobulinemia), and recurrent
infections. The condition is usually manifested
later in life (in the second or third decade of life)
than other deficiencies and is sometimes called
late onset hypogammaglobulinemia or incorrectly,
acquired hypogammaglobulinemia. Patients with
CVID like males with XLA, are very susceptible to
pyogenic organisms and to the intestinal protozoan,
Giardia lamblia, which cause severe diarrhea. The
B-cells are not defective; instead, they fail to receive
proper signals from the T-cells. B-cells fail to mature
into plasma cells and secrete immunoglobulins.
Treatment: Patients with CVID should be treated
with intravenous gamma globulin.
d. Selective Immunoglobulin Deficiencies
In these conditions, there is selective deficiency
of one or more immunoglobulin classes, while the
others remain normal or elevated.
i. Selective IgA deficiency: Recurrent respiratory
and genitourinary tract infections resulting
from lack of secreted IgA on mucosal surfaces
are common. In addition, problems such as
intestinal malabsorption, allergic disease, and
autoimmune disorders may also be associated
with low IgA levels.
ii. Selective IgM deficiency: Selective IgM
deficiency is a rare condition and has been
found to be associated with septicemia.
e. X-linked Hyper-IgM Syndrome (XHM)
X-linked hyper-IgM syndrome (XHM) is
characterized by a deficiency of IgG, IgA and IgE, and
elevated levels of IgM (hyper M). XHM syndrome is
generally inherited as an X-linked recessive disorder.
They are susceptible to pyogenic infections and
should be treated with intravenous gammaglobulin.
Children with XHM suffer recurrent infections,
especially respiratory infections.
f. Transcobalamin II Deficiency
In this disorder, patients show metabolic effects
of vitamin B12 deficiency including megaloblastic
anemia and intestinal villus atrophy and is
inherited as autosomal recessive. The associated
immunological defects are depleted plasma cells,
diminished immunoglobulin levels and impaired
phagocytosis.
Treatment with vitamin B12 has been reported
to restore hematopoietic, gastrointestinal and
B-cell functions but not phagocytic activity.
II. Cellular Immunodeficiencies (T-cell
Defects)
a. Thymic hypoplasia (DiGeorge’s syndrome):
Thymic hypoplasia results from dysmorphogenesis
of the third and fourth pharyngeal pouches during
early embryogenesis, leading to hypoplasia or
aplasia of the thymus and parathyroid glands.
The immunodeficiency primarily involves
cell mediated immunity. The thymus-dependent
areas of lymph nodes and spleen are depleted of
lymphocytes. Delayed hypersensitivity and graft
rejection are depressed. Thymic transplantation is
of some value for correcting the T-cell defects, but
many DiGeorge patients have such severe heart
 Chapter 19: Immunodeficiency Diseases  | 139
disease that their chances of survival are poor, even
if the immune defects are corrected.
b. Purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP)
deficiency: The enzyme purine nucleoside
phosphorylase (PNP) is involved in the sequential
degradation of purines to hypoxanthine and finally
to uric acid. The lack of enzyme PNP because of a
gene defect in chromosome 14 results in impaired
metabolism of cytosine and inosine to purine.
These patients show decreased T-cell proliferation
leading to decreased T-cell-mediated immunity
and recurrent or chronic infections.
III. Combined Immunodeficiencies (B-
and T-cell Deficiencies)
a. Cellular Immunodeficiency with Abnormal
Immunoglobulin Synthesis (Nezelof
Syndrome)
There is depressed cell-mediated immunity which
is associated with selectively elevated, decreased
or normal levels of immunoglobulin. Affected
individuals suffer from chronic diarrhea, viral and
fungal infections, and a general failure to thrive.
Abundant plasma cells are seen in the spleen,
lymph nodes, intestines and elsewhere in the body.
Thymic dysplasia occurs with lymphoid depletion.
Autoimmune processes, such as hemolytic anemia
are common.
Treatment
Histocompatible bone marrow transplantation,
transfer factor and thymus transplantation have
been used for treatment. Adequate antimicrobial
therapy is essential for the treatment of microbial
infection.
b. Ataxia Telangiectasia
Ataxia telangiectasia is a disease syndrome that
includes deficiency of IgA and sometimes of
IgE. It is inherited as an autosomal-recessive
trait. The most prominent clinical features are
progressive cerebellar ataxia, oculocutaneous
telangiectasias, chronic sinopulmonary disease,
a high incidence of malignancy, and a variable
humoral and cellular immunodeficiency. Death
occurs due to sinopulmonary infection early in
life, or malignancy in the second or third decade.
The defective cell-mediated immunity results
in an impairment of delayed hypersensitivity and
graft rejection. Transfer factor therapy and fetal
thymus transplants have been tried with some
benefit.
c. Wiskott–Aldrich Syndrome (WAS)
This is an X-linked recessive syndrome that is
characterized clinically by the triad of eczema,
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thrombocytopenic purpura, and undue susceptibility
to infection. Affected boys rarely survive the
first decade of life, death being due to infection,
hemorrhage or lymphoreticular malignancy.
Cell-mediated immunity undergoes progressive
deterioration associated with cellular depletion of
the thymus and the paracortical areas of lymph
nodes. Serum IgM level is low but IgG and IgA
levels are normal or elevated. Isohemagglutinins
are absent in the serum. The humoral defect
appears to be a specific inability to respond to
polysaccharide antigens
Bone marrow transplantation and transfer
factor therapy have been found beneficial.
d. Immunodeficiency with Thymoma
This syndrome, occurring usually in adults, consists
of thymoma, impaired cell-mediated immunity
and agammaglobulinemia. This association
of hypogammaglobulinemia with spindle cell
thymoma usually occurs relatively late in adult life.
It is frequently accompanied by aplastic anemia.
e. Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)
The family of disorders termed SCID stems from the
defects in lymphoid development that affect either
T cells or both T and B cells. It is usually congenital,
may be inherited either as an X-linked or autosomal
recessive defect, or may occur sporadically.
i. Swiss type agamma­globulinemia
Agammaglobulinemia with lymphocytopenia
a n d s e v e re d e f e c t i n c e l l - m e d i at e d
immunity was reported by Swiss workers
in 1958. Referred to as Swiss-type agamma­
globulinemia. The basic defect is presumed
to be at the level of the lymphoid stem cell.
ii. Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency
Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency
is the first immunodeficiency disease
associated with an enzyme deficiency. ADA
catalyzes the conversion of adenosine to
inosine, an important step in the purine
metabolic pathway. Its deficiency results in
accumulation of adenosine, which interferes
with purine metabolism and DNA synthesis.
The range of immunodeficiency varies from
complete absence to mild abnormalities
of B- and T-cell functions. The condition is
associated with chondrocyte abnormalities
which can be discerned radiologically.
iii. Reticular dysgenesis: This is the most serious
form of SCID. Here the defect is in the
development of the multipotent bone marrow
stem cell, as a result of which there is a total
failure of myelopoiesis leading to lymphopenia,
neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, anemia and
bone marrow aplasia. A baby with this disorder
140  |  Section 2: Immunology
usually dies within the first year of life from
recurrent, intractable infections.
iv. Recombinase activating gene (RAG 1/2)
deficiency.
v. Interleukin receptor γ chain (γc) deficiency
vi. Janus-associated kinase 3 (JAK3) deficiency
B. Disorders of complement
a. Complement Component Deficiencies
Genetic defi­ciencies have been detected for almost
all the comple­ment components in human beings.
The defects are transmitted as autosomal recessive
traits. Hemolytic and other functional activities
are completely restored by supplying the deficient
factor. Deficiency of C1 and C4 is associated
with sys­temic lupus erythematosus. Recurrent
pyogenic infections were found associated with C3
deficiency and neisserial infections with deficiency
of C6, C7 and C8. So far, there is no known disease
with deficiency of C9.
b. Complement Inhibitor Deficiencies
i. C1 inhibitor: Hereditary angioneurotic edema
(HAE) is due to a genetic deficiency of C1
inhibitor and is transmit­ted as an autosomal-
dominant condition. It manifests clinically as
localized edema of the tissue, often following
trauma, but sometimes with no known cause.
Management: Androgens, aminocap­roic acid
and its analog tranexamic acid have been found
useful in the management of this condition. Plasma
infusions, once recommended for treatment, have
been given up as they were found to worsen the
condition in some cases.
ii. Deficiency of C3b inactivator: The rare defici­
ency of C3b inactivator has been associated
with chronic recurrent pyogenic lesions.
C. Disorders of Phagocyte
Phagocytosis may be impaired by either intrinsic or
extrinsic defects. Intrinsic disorders may be due to
de­fects within the phagocytic cell, such as enzyme
defi­ciencies. Extrinsic disorders may be due to a
deficiency of opsonic antibody, complement or
other factors promoting phagocytosis. Phagocytic
dysfunction leads to increased susceptibility
to infec­tion, ranging from mild recurrent skin
infections to overwhelming systemic infection.
a. Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD): Chronic
granulomatous disease (CGD) is a group of
disorders, most of which are X-linked recessive,
with some that are autosomal recessive.
Individuals with CGD possess polymorpho­
nuclear leucocytes that phagocytize invading
bacteria normally but are un­able to kill many
of the ingested microorganisms.
Bacterial infection: The bacteria involved in
the recurrent infections are catalase-positive
pyogenic pathogens such as staphylococci
and coliforms. Catalase-negative patho­
gens such as streptococci and pneumococci
are han­dled normally. Leukocytes from the
patients are unable to kill catalase positive
bacteria following phagocytosis. The bacteria
multiply in the cells and, being protected from
antibodies and antibiotics by their intracellular
position, set up chronic suppurative infection.
Bactericidal defect: The diminished bactericidal
capacity of the phagocytic cells is associated
with a decrease of some metabolic processes like
oxygen consumption, hexose monophosphate
pathway activity and production of hydrogen
peroxide. The diminished H2O2 production
appears to be the major reason for the bacteri­
cidal defect.
Leukocytes from the patients fail to reduce nitro­
blue tetrazolium (NBT) during phagocytosis.
This property has been used as a screening
method (NBT test) for the diagnosis of chronic
granulomatous disease.
b. Myeloperoxidase (MPO) deficiency: In this
rare disease, leukocytes are deficient in
myeloperoxidase (MPO). Patients are liable to
develop recurrent Candida albicans infec­tion.
c. Chediak-Higashi syndrome: The leukocytes
possess diminished phagocytic activity. The
individuals with this syn­drome suffer from
recurrent infections similar to those seen in
persons with CGD
d. Leukocyte G-6-PD deficiency: Leucocytes are
deficient in glu­cose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.
These patients show diminished bactericidal
activity after phago­cytosis leading to repeated
bacterial infections.
e. Job’s syndrome: It is probably a primary defect
in phagocytic function.
f. Tuftsin deficiency: A leucokinin capable of
stimu­lating phagocytosis, discovered at Tufts
University, Boston, has been designated ‘tuftsin’.
Chemically, it is a small tetrapeptide (Thr-Lys-
Pro-Arg) and patients have been reported to be
prone to local and systemic bacterial infections.
g. Lazy leukocyte syndrome: The basic defect here
is in chemotaxis and neutrophil mobility.
h. Hyper-IgE syndrome: Serum IgE levels are
usually more than ten times the normal level.
i. Actin-binding protein deficiency.
j. Shwachman’s disease.
k. Leucocyte adhesion deficiency (LAD).
Secondary immunodeficiencies
Secondary or acquired deficiencies of immuno­
logical mecha­n isms can occur secondarily to
 Chapter 19: Immunodeficiency Diseases  | 141
a number of disease states, such as metabolic
disorders, malnutrition, malignancy and infections
or after exposure to drugs and chemicals. AIDS
is a secondary immunodeficiency secondary
immunodeficiency is far more common than
primary immunodefi­ciency.
Deficiencies of Humoral and Cellular
Immune Response
Deficiencies of humoral and cellular immune
response may occur secondarily during the course
of many disease processes.
A Humoral immunity depression: Humoral
deficiency results when B cells are depleted as
in lymphoid malignancy, particularly in chronic
lymphatic leukemia; when immunoglobulin
catabolism is increased as in the nephrotic
syndrome; when excessive loss of serum protein
occurs as in exfoliative skin disease and in
protein-losing enteropathies; and when excessive
production of abnormal immunoglobulins occurs
as in multiple myeloma.
B. Cell-mediated immunity depression: Cell-
mediated immunity is depressed in lymphoreticular
malignancies like Hodgkin’s lymphoma, obstruction
to lymph circulation and infiltration of the thymus-
dependent area of lymph nodes with non lymphoid
cells as in leplromatous leprosy; and, transiently,
following certain viral infections, such as measles.
C. Humoral and Cell-mediated immunity
depression: Both types of immune responses
are adversely affected in nutritional deprivation.
Aging also causes waning in the efficiency of
acquired immunity. Immunodeficiency follows
the intentional or unintentional administration of
immunosuppressive agents.
Key Points
™™ Immunodeficiency disorders can occur in T-cells,
B-cells, comple­ment and phagocytes
™™ These can be classified as primary or secondary
immunodefi­ciencies
™™ A primary immunodeficiency may affect either
adaptive or innate immune functions
™™ Secondary immunodeficiencies occur secondary to
numerous diseases or conditions.
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Important questions
1. What are immunodeficiency diseases? Classify
and enumerate immunodeficiency diseases.
2. Write short notes on:
a. DiGeorge’s syndrome
b. B-cell defect
c. T-cell defect
d. Disorders of complement
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. Recurrent infections with certain viruses, protozoa,
and fungi indicate a:
a. T-cell deficiency
b. B-cell deficiency
c. Combined T- and B-cell deficiency
d. Complement deficiency
2. X-linked agammaglobulinemia is:
a. Prototype of ‘pure’ T-cell deficiency
b. Prototype of ‘pure’ B-cell deficiency
c. Prototype of ‘pure’ combined T- and B-cell
deficiency
d. Prototype of ‘pure’ complement deficiency
3. All the following are the examples of T-cell
deficiencies except:
a. DiGeorge’s syndrome
b. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis
c. Chronic granulomatous disease
d. Purine nucleoside phosphorylase deficiency
4. Which of the following defects occur in Nezelof’s
syndrome?
a. T cell defects b. B cell defects
c. Both of the above d. None of the
5. The most common severe form of severe combined
immunodeficiency is:
a. Patients with a defect in adenosine deaminase
enzyme
b.  Patients with a defect in purine nucleoside
phosphorylase enzyme
c. Chediak-Higashi syndrome
d. Swiss type agammaglobulinemia
6. All are disorders of phagocytosis except:
a. Chronic granulomatous disease
b. Myeloperxidase deficiency
c. Chediak-Higashi syndrome
d. Digeorge’s syndrome
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. b; 3. c; 4. c; 5. c; 6. d
 20
Chapter

Hypersensitivity Reactions

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Discuss type I, type II, type III, type IV hypersensitivity
be able to: reactions: Mechanism and examples.
∙∙ Compare major types of hypersensitivity reactions.
∙∙ Differentiate between immediate and delayed
hypersensitivity.

Hypersensitivity: It is an exaggerated immune Classification of hypersensitivity

response that results in tissue damage and is
manifested in the individual on second or subsequent
contact with an antigen.
Immune responses to foreign antigens are, for the
most part, beneficial to the responding individual.
Nevertheless, at times, the response to a seemingly
innocuous antigen can result in tissue damage and
even death. This inappropriate immune response is
termed as hypersensitivity or allergy.
Allergy: The term ‘allergy’ was coined by von
Pirquet merely to indicate an altered reactivity on
second contact with an antigen. In time, however,
the term allergy has become synonymous with
hypersensitivity. Increased resistance, called
immunity, and increased susceptibility, called
hypersensitivity, were regarded as opposite forms
of allergy.
reactions
Hypersensitivity reactions have been classified
traditionally into ‘immediate’ and ‘delayed’ types,
based on the time required for a sensitized host to
develop clinical reactions on re-exposure to the
antigen.
The major differences between the immediate
and delayed types of hypersensitivity reactions are
shown in Table 20.1.
Gell and Coomb Classification
Peter Gell and Robert Coombs developed a
classification system for reactions responsible
for hypersensitivities in 1963. The Gell–Coombs
classification system divides hypersensitivity into
four types: I, II, III, and IV.

Table 20.1  Distinguishing features of immediate and delayed types of hypersensitivity

Characteristic
1. Time of reaction after
challenge with antigen
2. Induction
3.  Immune response
4.  Transfer of hypersensitivity
5. Desensitization
Immediate hypersensitivity
1.  Reaction appears and recedes rapidly
2.  Induced by antigens or haptens
3. Circulating antibodies present and
responsible for reaction; ‘antibody
mediated’ reaction
4.  Passive transfer possible with serum
5.  Desensitization easy, but shortlived
Delayed hypersensitivity
1.  Appears slowly, lasts longer
2. Antigen or hapten intradermally or by
any route
3. Circulating antibodies may be absent
and are not responsible for reaction;
‘cell-mediated’ reaction
4. Cannnot be transferred with serum; but
possible with T-cells or transfer factor
5.  Difficult, but long-lasting

Type I (Anaphylactic, IgE or
Reagin-dependent)
Type I or immediate hypersensitivity is character­
ized by the production of antibodies (‘cytotropic’
IgE antibodies) which bind specifically to a high-
affinity receptor on mast cells and basophils in
sensitized individuals. Subsequent exposure to
the same antigen will combine with the cell­fixed
antibody, leading to release of pharmacologically
active substances (vasoactive amines) which
produce the clinical reaction.
Type II (Cytotoxic or Cell-stimulating)
Type II reaction is initiated by IgG (or rarely IgM)
antibodies that react either with cell surface or
tissue antigens. Cell or tissue damage occurs in
the presence of complement or mononuclear
cells. Combination with antibody may, in some
in­stances, cause stimulation instead of damage.
An example is the ‘long acting thyroid stimulator’
(LATS), an antibody against some determinant on
thyroid cells, which stimulates excessive secretion
of thyroid hormone.
Type III (Immune Complex or
Toxic Complex Disease)
Here the damage is caused by antigen antibody
complexes.
Type IV (Delayed or Cell-mediated
Hypersensitivity)
Type IV or cell-mediated reactions are those in
which specific T-cells are the primary effector cells.
The antigen activates specifically sensitized T-cells,
leading to the secretion of lymphokines, with fluid
and phago­cyte accumulation. The classification
and some of the features of hypersensitivity
reactions are shown in Table 20.2.
Type V: Hypersensitivity (Stimulatory Type)
Jones-Mote Reaction (or)
Cutaneous Basophil Hypersensitivity
This is an antibody-mediated hypersensitivity
and is a modification of type II hypersensitivity
reaction. Antibodies interact with antigens on
cell surface which leads to cell proliferation and
differentiation instead of inhibition or killing.
Antigen-antibody reaction enhances the activity
of affected cell.
Type I Hypersensitivity (IgE
dependent)
A type I hypersensitive reaction is induced by certain
types of antigens referred to as allergens, type I, or
anaphylactic, reactions often occur within 2 to 30
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Chapter 20: Hypersensitivity Reactions  | 143
minutes after a person sensitized to an antigen is
re-exposed to that antigen.
Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis means “the opposite of protected”,
from the prefix ana-, against, and the Greek
phylaxis, protection. Anaphylaxis is an inclusive
term for the reactions caused when certain antigens
combine with IgE antibodies. Anaphylactic
responses can be:
A. Systemic reactions.
B. Localized reactions: Localized reactions.
A. Systemic Anaphylaxis (or Anaphylactic
Shock)
Systemic anaphylaxis is a generalized response that
occurs when an individual sensitized to an allergen
receives a subsequent exposure to it. Antigen enters
the bloodstream and becomes widespread.
Systemic anaphylaxis is a shock-like and often
fatal state whose onset occurs within minutes
of a type I hypersensitive reaction. This was the
response observed by Portier and Richet in dogs
after antigenic challenge.
Sensitizing Dose and Shocking Dose
Sensitization is most effective when the antigen
is introduced parenterally but may occur by
any route, including ingestion or inhalation.
In susceptible species, very minute doses can
sensitize the host. There should be an interval of at
least 2-3 weeks between the sensitizing dose and
the shocking dose.
Target Tissues or ‘Shock Organs’
Tissues or organs predominantly involved in the
anaphylactic reaction are known as ‘target tissues’
or ‘shock organs’. Other changes seen in anaphylaxis
are edema, decreased coagulability of blood, fall in
blood pressure and temperature, leukopenia and
thrombocytopenia.
Experimental animals: Systemic anaphy­laxis can
be induced in a variety of experimental animals
and is seen occasionally in humans. Guinea
pigs are highly susceptible and rats are very
resistant. Rabbits, dogs and human beings are of
intermediate susceptibility.
Systemic Anaphylaxis in Humans
Systemic anaphylaxis in humans is characterized
by a sim­ilar sequence of events that occurs when
an individual sensitized to an allergen receives a
subsequent exposure to it. In human beings, fatal
anaphylaxis is fortunately rare. The reaction is
immediate due to the large amount of mast cell
mediators released over a short period.
144  |  Section 2: Immunology
Because of the reac­tions the individual can die
within a few minutes from reduced venous return,
asphyxiation, reduced blood pressure, and circula­
tory shock.
Antigens: A wide range of antigens have been
shown to trigger this reaction in susceptible
humans, includ­ing the venom from bee, wasp,
hornet, and ant stings; drugs, such as penicillin,
insulin, and antitoxins; and seafood and nuts. If
not treated quickly, these reactions can be fatal.
Treatment: Epinephrine (adrenaline) is the drug
of choice for systemic anaphylactic reac­tions, a
drug that constricts blood vessels and raises the
blood pressure.
i. Cutaneous Anaphylaxis
Small amounts of potential allergens are introduced
at specific skin sites either by intradermal injec­tion
or by superficial scratching. If a person is allergic
to the allergen, there is a wheal and flare (local
anaphylaxis) within 30 minutes.
Use: Cutaneous anaphylaxis is useful in testing
for hypersensitivity and in identifying the allergen
responsible in atopic diseases.
ii. Passive Cutaneous Anaphylaxis (PCA)
This test is an extremely sensitive in vivo method
for detection of antibodies de­veloped by Zoltan
Ovary (1952). In this pro­cedure, a small vol­ume of
the antibody is injected intradermally into a normal
animal. The corresponding antigen is injected
intravenously 4–24 hours afterwards along with
a dye, such as Evans blue that is strongly bound
to serum albumin. There will be an immediate
blueing at the site of intradermal injection due to
vasodilatation and in­creased capillary permeability
(wheal-and-flare reac­tion).
Use: PCA can be used to detect human IgG
antibody which is heterocytotropic (capable of
fixing to cells of other species) but not IgE which
is homocytotropic (capable of fixing to cells of
homologous species only).
iii. Anaphylaxis in Vitro
(Schultz–Dale Phenomenon)
Schultz and Dale (1910) demonstrated that isolated
tissues, such as intes­t inal or uterine muscle
strips from sensitised guinea pigs, held in a bath
of Ringer’s solution will contract vigorously on
addition of the specific antigen to the bath. This is
known as the Schultz–Dale phenomenon.
Mechanism of Anaphylaxis
The immunologic basis for hypersensitivity is
cytotropic IgE antibody. After an initial contact
with an antigen, the individual produces IgE
antibodies. IgE are bound to surface receptors on
mast cells and basophils. IgE molecules attach
to these receptors by their Fc end, leaving two
antigen-binding sites free. Mast cells and basophils
coated by IgE are said to be sensitized, making the
individual allergic to the allergen.
Following exposure to the shocking dose,
the antigen molecules combine with the cell
bound IgE, bridging the gap between adjacent
antibody molecules. This cross-linking increases
the permeability of the cells to calcium ions and
leads to degranulation, with release of biologically
active substances contained in the granules. The
pharmacologically active mediators released
from the granules act on the surrounding tissues.
The manifestations of anaphylaxis are due
to pharmacological mediators, which can be
classified as two types, either primary or sec­
ondary. These mediators trigger smooth muscle
contractions, vasodilation, increased vascular
permeability, and mucous secretion (Fig. 20.1)
A.Primary mediators of anaphylaxis
A. Primary Mediators of Anaphylaxis
These are produced before degranulation and are
stored in the granules. The most significant primary
mediators are histamine, proteases, eosinophil
chemotactic factor, neutrophil chemotactic fac­tor,
and heparin.
1. Histamine: Histamine, which is formed by
decarboxylation of the amino acid histidine
and is localized in the granules of mast cells
and basophils and in the platelets of some
species. Histamine induces smooth muscle
contraction in diverse tissues and organs,
including vasculature, intestines, uterus and
especially the bronchioles. It also stimulates
secretions (secretagogue effect).
2. Heparin: It contributes to anaphylaxis in dogs,
but apparently not in human beings.
3. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine): It is found
in the intestinal mucosa, brain tissue and
platelets. It induces contraction of smooth
Fig. 20.1: Antigen-induced mediator release from mast cell

muscle, increased vascular permeability, and
capillary dilatation.
4. Chemotactic Factors
i. Eosinophil chemotactic factor (ECF-
A): Eosinophil chemotactic factors of
anaphylaxis (ECF-A) are acidic tetrapeptides
released from mast cell granules which are
strongly chemotactic for eosinophils. These
probably contribute to the eosinophilia
accompanying many hypersensitivity states.
ii. Neutrophil chemotactic factors (NCF):
A high molecular weight chemotactic
factor has been identified, which attracts
neutrophils (NCF).
5. Proteases: Enzymatic mediators, such as
proteases and hydrolases are also released
from mast cell granules. These enzymes most
probably are involved in the diges­tion of blood
vessel basement membranes, resulting in
increased permeability to a variety of cell types.
B. Secondary Mediators of Anaphylaxis
1. Platelet-activating factor (PAF): Platelet-
activating factor (PAF) is a low molec­u lar
weight lipid released from basophils which
caus­es aggregation of platelets and release of
their vasoactive amines.
2. Leukotrienes and prostaglandin: They
are derived by two different pathways from
arachidonic acid, which is formed from
disrupted cell membranes of mast cells and
other leukocytes. A substance originally
demonstrated in lungs, producing slow,
sustained contraction of smooth muscles, and,
therefore, termed as slow reacting substance of
anaphylaxis (SRS-A) has since been identified
a family of leu­kotrienes (LTB4, C4, D4, lM).
In humans, the leukotrienes are thought to
contribute to the prolonged bronchospasm
and buildup of mu­c us seen in asthmatics.
Prostaglandin F2-α and thromboxane A2 are
powerful, but transient, bronchoc­onstrictors.
3. Cytokines: Human mast cells secrete IL-4,
IL-5, IL-6, and TNF-α. These cytokines alter the
local microenviron­ment, eventually leading to
the recruitment of inflammatory cells such as
neutrophils and eosinophils.
Other Mediators of Anaphylaxis
Besides the products of mast cells and other
leucocytes, several other biologically substances
are known to induce mast cell degranulation and
have been implicated in anaphylaxis. These include
split products from complement activation, C3a
and C5a and bradykinin and other kinins formed
from plasma kininogens.
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Chapter 20: Hypersensitivity Reactions  | 145
Anaphylactoid Reaction
Intravenous injection of peptone, trypsin and
certain other substances provokes a clinical reaction
resembling anaphylactic shock. This is termed
‘anaphylactoid reaction’. The clinical resemblance
is due to the same chemical me­diators participating
in both reactions.
Anaphylactoid shock has no immunological
basis and is a nonspecific mechanism involving
the activation of complement and the release of
anaphylatoxins which is the only dif­ference.
B. Localized Anaphylaxis (Atopy)
The term ‘atopy’ (literally meaning out of place
or strangeness) refers to naturally occurring
familial hypersensitivities of human beings. It was
introduced by Coca (1923) and typified by hay fever
and asthma. The antigens commonly involved in
atopy are inhalants (for example, plant pollen,
fungal spores, animal dander, and house dust mites
or other types of fine particles suspended in air) or
ingestants (for example, milk, milk products, eggs,
meat, fish or cereal). Some of them are contact
allergens, to which the skin and conjunctiva may
be exposed. The symptoms depend primarily
on the route by which the antigen enters the
body. These atopens are generally not good
antigens when injected parenterally but induce IgE
antibodies, formerly termed as ‘reagin’ antibodies.
Atopic sensitization is developed spontaneously
following natural contact with atopens. It is difficult
to induce atopy artificially.
Predisposition to atopy is genetically deter­
mined, probably linked to MHC genotypes. Atopy,
therefore, runs in families. What is inherited is not
sensitivity to a particular antigen, or a particular
atopic syndrome but the tendency to produce
IgE antibodies in unusually large quantities. All
individuals are capable of forming IgE antibodies
in small amounts but in atopics IgE response is
preponderant. About 10% of persons have this
tendency to overproduce IgE. It has been reported
that bottlefed infants tend to develop atopy in later
life more often than breastfed babies.
Mechanism of Atopy
The mechanism of development of atopy is essen­
tially the same as that of systemic anaphylaxis. The
symptoms of atopy are caused by the release of
pharmacologically active substances following the
combination of the antigen and the cell fixed IgE.
Atopic sensitivity is due to an overproduction
of IgE antibodies. This is often associated with
a deficiency of IgA. When IgA is deficient, the
antigens cause massive stimulation of IgE forming
cells, leading to overproduction of IgE.
146  |  Section 2: Immunology
Clinical Expression of Atopic Reactions
The clinical expression of atopic reactions is
usually determined by the portal of entry of the
antigen-conjunctivitis, rhinitis, gastrointestinal
symptoms and dermatitis following exposure
through the eyes, respiratory tract, intestine or
skin, respectively. Sometimes the effects may be at
sites remote from the portal of entry, for example,
urticaria following ingestion of the allergen.
Specific desensitisation (hyposensitisation) is
often practised in the treatment of atopy. Atopic
allergies, which afflict at least 20% of the population
in devel­oped countries, include a wide range of
IgE-mediated disor­ders, including allergic rhinitis
(hay fever), asthma, food allergies and atopic
dermatitis (eczema).
Methods to Detect Type I
Hypersensitivity Reactions
Formerly, measurement of reaginic antibody could
be done only by an in vivo assay or by skin testing.
1. Prausnitz–Kustner (PK) reaction
Prausnitz and Kustner in 1921 demonstrated
transmission of IgE-mediated type I hyper­
sensitivity by injecting serum containing IgE
antibodies from allergic person into the skin
of a normal or nonallergic person. Serum
from Kustner, who was hypersensitive to
certain species of cooked fish, was injected
intracutaneously in Prausnitz (normal) followed
24 hours later by an intracutaneous injection of
cooked fish, to which Kustner was sensitive, into
the same site in Prausnitz. This led to wheal and
flare reaction within 20 minutes. As IgE antibody
is homocyto­tropic, the test has to be carried
out on human skin. Therefore, there is risk of
transmission of hepatitis B virus and human
immunodeficiency virus.
2. Skin testing: It is done by injecting small
amounts of allergen into the skin of an allergic
individual and looking for a wheal and flare
reac­tion.
3. Radioimmunosorbent test (RIST): This
highly sensitive tech­n ique, based on the
radioimmunoassay, can detect nanomo­lar
levels of total IgE.
4. Radioallergosorbent test (RAST): It detects
the serum level of IgE specific for a given
allergen.
Type II Hypersensitivity: cytolytic
and cytotoxic
These reactions involve a combination of IgG (or
IgM)an­tibodies with an antigenic determinant
on the surface of cells. Antibody can activate
the complement system, creating pores in the
Fig. 20.2: Type II hypersensitivity
membrane of a foreign cell, or it can mediate
cell destruction by antibody-dependent cell-
mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). Type II hyper­
sensitivity is generally called cytolytic or cytotoxic
reactions because it results in the destruction of
host cells, either by lysis or toxic mediators. Type
II hypersensitive reactions involve antibody-
mediated destruction of cells (Fig. 20.2).
Examples
1. Transfusion reactions: A transfusion reaction
can occur if a patient receives erythrocytes
differing antigenically from his or her own
during blood transfusion.
2. Hemolytic disease of the newborn: If the child
is Rh+, Rh– mother can become sensitized to
this antigen during birth causing the mother’s
body to produce anti-Rh antibodies of the IgG
type. If the fetus in a subsequent pregnancy
is Rh+, her anti-Rh antibodies will cross the
placenta and destroy fetal RBCs. The fetal
body responds to this immune attack by
producing large numbers of immature RBCs
call erythroblasts.
3. Drug-induced cytotoxic reactions: Some
persons develop antibodies against their blood
elements, resulting in autoimmune hemolytic
anemia, agranulocytosis or thrombocytopenia.
Blood platelets (thrombocytes) that are
destroyed by drug-induced cytotoxic reactions
in the disease called thrombocytopenic
purpura (quinine is a familiar example).
Drugs may bind similarly to white or red blood
cells (RBCs), causing lo­cal hemorrhaging and
yielding symptoms described as “blueberry
muffin” skin mottling. Immune-caused
destruc­tion of granulocytic white cells is called
agranulocytosis, and it affects the body’s
phagocytic defenses. When RBCs are destroyed
in the same manner, the condition is termed
hemolytic anemia.
4. Anemia due to infectious diseases: A variety
of infectious diseases due to Salmonella

organisms and mycobacteria are associated
with hemolytic anemia.
Type III Hypersensitivity: immune
complex-mediated
Type III reactions involve antibodies against
soluble anti­gens circulating in the serum. The
antigen-antibody complexes are de­p osited in
organs and cause inflammatory damage. The
tissue damage that results from the deposition of
immune complexes is caused by the activation of
complement, platelets and phagocytes; in essence,
an acute inflammatory response (Fig. 20.3).
Models of immune complex-mediated disease:
Two basic models of immune complex-mediated
disease have been well characterized: the Arthus
reaction and serum sickness. These differ
somewhat in both their mode of devel­opment and
their clinical manifestations.
A. Arthus Reaction (Local Immune
Complex Disease)
Arthus (1903) observed that when rabbits were
repeatedly injected subcutaneously with normal
horse serum, the initial injections were without
any local effect, but with later injections, there
occurred intense local reaction consisting of
oedema, indura­tion and haemorrhagic necrosis.
This is known as Arthus reaction and is a local
manifestation of generalized hypersensitivity.
The tissue damage is due to forma­tion of local
precipitating immune complexes which are
deposited on the endothelial lining of the blood
vessels. Antigen-antibody complexes can then
trig­g er and activate complement leading to
release of inflammatory molecules. This leads to
increased vascular permeability and infiltration
Fig. 20.3: Immune complex-mediated hypersensitivity. (1) Immune complexes on the basement membrane of the wall of
a blood vessel, where they: (2) activate complement and attract inflammatory cells such as neutrophils to the site; (3) The
neutrophilis discharge enzymes as they react with the immune complexes, resulting in damage to tissue cells
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Chapter 20: Hypersensitivity Reactions  | 147
of the site with neutrophils. Leukocyte-platelet
thrombi are formed that reduce the blood supply
and lead to tissue necrosis. The Arthus reaction
can be passively transferred with sera containing
precipitating antibodies (IgG, IgM) in high titers.
Clinical syndrome: Arthus reaction forms
a pathogenic component of many clinical
syndromes. Examples:
i. Farmer’s lung.
ii. “Pigeon fancier’s disease”
B. Serum Sickness (Systemic Immune
Complex Disease)
This is a systemic form of type III hypersensitivity.
This appears 7–12 days following a single injection
of a high concentration of foreign serum, such as the
diphtheria antitoxin. The clinical syndrome consists
of fever, weakness, lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly,
arthritis, glomerulonephritis, endocarditis, vasculitis,
urticarial rashes, abdominal pain, nausea and
vomiting.
Pathogenesis: The pathogenesis is the formation
of immune complexes (consisting of the foreign
serum and antibody to it that reaches high
enough titers by 7-12 days) and the circulating
immune complexes deposit in the blood vessel
walls and tissues, leading to increased vascular
permeability and thus to inflammatory diseases
such as glomerulone­phritis and arthritis. Antigen-
antibody aggregates can fix complement leading
to inflammation and tissue damage. The plasma
concentration of complement falls due to massive
complement activation and fix­ation by antigen-
antibody complexes. The disease is self-limited.
The latent period of 7–12 days is required only
for serum sickness following a single injection.
Serum sickness differs from other types of
hypersensitivity reaction in that a single injection
148  |  Section 2: Immunology
can serve as both as sensitizing dose and a shocking
dose.
Diseases associated with immune complexes:
Complexes of antibody with various bacterial,
viral and par­asitic antigens have been shown to
induce a variety of type III hypersensitive reactions.
These include systemic lupus erythematosus,
poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, endo­
carditis, dengue haemorrhagic fever, hepatitis B,
malaria, etc.
Type IV Hypersensitivity—delayed
hypersensitivity
Type IV hypersensitivity reactions (delayed
hypersensitivity) constitute one aspect of cell-
mediated immune response and are caused mainly
by T-cells. It is named delayed hypersensitivity
because it appears in 24–48 hours after the
presensitized host encoun­ters the antigen, while
immediate hypersensitivity reactions develop in
1/2 to 12 hours.
Causes of Type IV Reactions
Type IV reactions occur when antigens, especially
those binding to tissue cells, are phagocytosed
by macrophages and then pre­sented to receptors
on the THI cell surface in the context of class I
MHC. Contact between the antigen and TH I cell
causes the cell to proliferate and release cytokines.
Cytokines attract lymphocytes, macrophages, and
basophils to the affected tissue. Extensive tissue
damage may result (Fig. 20.4).
Delayed hypersensitivity cannot be passively
transferred by serum but can be transferred by
Iymphocytes or the transfer factor.
Types of delayed hypersensitivity: Three types
of delayed hypersensitivity are recognized—the
Fig. 20.4: Type IV (delayed or cell-mediated)
hypersensitivity
tubercu­lin (infection) type and the contact
dermatitis type.
1. Tuberculin (Infection) Type
This form of hypersensitivity was originally
described by Koch. In tuberculin hypersensitivity
tuberculin or purified protein derivative (PPD) is
in­jected into the skin of the forearm. intradermally
in an individual sensitized to tuberculoprotein by
prior infection or immunization. An indurated
(firm and hard) inflammatory reaction, 10 mm or
more in diameter, develops at the site of injection
within 48–72 hours. It is characterized by erythema
due to increased blood flow to the damaged
area and the infiltration with a large number of
mononuclear cells, mainly T-lymphocytes and
about 10–20% macrophages into the injection site
are responsible for the induration. In unsensitized
individuals, the tuberculin injection provokes no
response.
The tuberculin test therefore provides useful
indication of the state of delayed hypersensitivity
(cell-mediated immunity) to the bacilli. The
tuberculin test differs from the skin test for Type I
hypersensitivity not only in the longer interval for
appearance but also in its morphology and histology.
Tuberculin type hypersensitivity develops in
many infections with bacteria, fungi, viruses and
parasites, especially when the infection is subacute
or chronic and the pathogen intracellular. A similar
hypersensitivity is developed in allograft reaction
and in many autoimmune diseases.
2. Contact Dermatitis Type
Allergic contact dermatitis is caused by haptens
that combine with proteins in the skin to form
the allergen that elicits the immune response.
The substances involved are in them­s elves
not antigenic but may acquire antigenicity on
combination with skin proteins. Sub­s equent
contact with allergen in a sensitized indi­vidual
leads to contact dermatitis. As most of the sub­
stances involved are fat soluble, passage along
sebaceous glands may be the method of entry of
the allergens.
Examples: Examples of these haptens include
cosmetics, plant materials (catechol molecules
from poison ivy and poison oak), topical chemo­
therapeutic agents, metals (nickel and chromium),
and chemicals like dyes, picryl chloride and
dinitrochlorobenzene, drugs such as penicillin and
toiletries and jew­elry (especially jewelry containing
nickel).
Mechanism of action: Most of these substances are
small molecules that can complex with skin proteins.
This complex is internalized by antigen-presenting

cells in the skin (e.g. Langerhans’ cells), then
processed and presented together with class II
MHC molecules, causing activation of sensitized
TH cells. The sensitized T cells travel to the skin
site, where on contacting the antigen they release
various lymphokines. Approximately 48–72 hours
after the second exposure, the secreted cytokines
cause macrophages to accumulate at the site. Tissue
damage results from lytic enzymes released from
activated macrophages. Contact with the allergen in a
sensitised individual leads to ‘contact dermatitis’. The
lesions varying from macules and papules to vesicles
that break down, leaving behind raw weeping areas
typical of acute ec­zematous dermatitis.
Detection by ‘patch test’: Hypersensitivity is
detected by the ‘patch test’. The allergen is applied
to the skin un­der an adherent dressing. Sensitivity
is indicated by itching appearing in 4–5 hours, and
local reaction which may vary from erythema to
vesicle or blister formation, after 24–28 hours.
3. Granulomatous Hypersensitivity
Granulomatous hypersensitivity reactions develop
over a period of 21–28 days; the granulomas are
formed by the aggregation and proliferation of
macrophages, and may persist for weeks. In terms
of its clinical consequences, this is by far the most
serious type of Type 1V hypersensitivity response.
Examples are leprosy, tuberculosis, leish­
maniasis, candidiasis and herpes simplex lesions.
Type V: Hypersensitivity
(Stimulatory Type) Jones–Mote
Reaction (or) Cutaneous Basophil
Hypersensitivity
This is an antibody-mediated hypersensitivity and
is a modification of type II hypersensitivity reaction.
Antibodies interact with antigens on cell surface
which leads to cell proliferation and differentiation
instead of inhibition or killing. Antigen-antibody
reaction enhances the activity of affected cell.
Example: Graves’ disease: Thyroid hormones are
produced in excess quantity in Graves’ disease.
Long-acting thyroid stimulating (LATS) antibody
is an autoantibody to thyroid membrane antigen.
It is presumed that LATS combines with a TSH
receptor on thyroid cell surface and brings about
the the same effect as TSH resulting in excessive
secretion of thyroid hormone.
Schwartzman reaction
This is not an immune reaction but rather a
perturbation in factors affecting intravascular
coagulation. It is, however, traditi­onally described
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Chapter 20: Hypersensitivity Reactions  | 149
along with hypersensitivity reac­tions because of
superficial resemblance.
Shwartzman (1928) observed that when a
culture filtrate of S. Typhi (endotoxin) is injected
intradermally in a rabbit, followed by the same
filtrate (endotoxin) intravenously 24 hours later, a
hemorrhagic necrotic lesion develops at the site of
the intradermal injection.
Mechanism
The first dose is called prepara­tory dose. The
second dose is called provoca­t ive dose. The
preparatory injection causes accumulation of
leukocytes which condition the site by re­lease
of lysosomal enzymes. These enzymes damage
capillary walls. Fol­lowing provocative dose, there
occurs intravascu­lar clotting, the thrombi leading
to necrosis of ves­sel walls and hemorrhage. This is
called local form of Shwartzman reaction.
When both injections are given intravenously,
the animal dies 12–24 hours after the second dose.
The animal develops disseminated intravascular
coagulation (DIC). Autopsy reveals bilateral
cortical necrosis of kid­neys and patchy necrosis of
the liver, spleen and other organs. Sanarelli (1924)
described an essentially similar phenomenon in
experimental cholera. The reaction is, therefore,
called the Sanarelli–­Shwartzman reaction or the
generalized Shwartzman reaction.
Clinical Conditions
1. Water­house–Friderichsen syndrome: Pururic
rashes of meningococ­cal septicemia and the
acute hemorrhagic adrenal necrosis found
in overwhelming infections (Waterhouse–
Friderichsen syndrome) mechanisms similar
to the Shwartzman reaction may operate.
2. Septic shock syndrome.
Key Points
™™ Hypersensitivity is an exaggerated immune
response that results in tissue damage and is
manifested in the individual on second or subsequent
contact with an antigen. Hypersensitivity reactions
are of 5 types: Types I, II, III, IV, and V
™™ Type I hypersensitive reaction is mediated by IgE
anti­bodies
™™ Clinical manifestations of type I reactions in­clude
generalized or systemic anaphylaxis or localized
anaphylactic
™™ Type II hypersensitive reactions, or cytotoxic
reactions are caused by antibodies that can destroy
normal cells by complement lysis or by antibody-
dependent cellular cyto­toxicity (ADCC). Transfusion
reactions and hemolytic dis­ease of the newborn are
type II reactions
™™ Type III hypersensitivity reactions are mediated
by small antigen–antibody complexes that activate
150  |  Section 2: Immunology
complement and other inflammatory systems,
attract neutrophils, and contribute to inflammation.
Deposition of im­mune complexes near the site
of antigen entry can induce an Arthus reaction,
(localized reaction) and serum sickness (systems
form)
™™ Type IV hypersensitive reactions involve the cell-
mediated branch of the immune system.
Three types of delayed hypersensitivity are:
i. Tuberculin skin test; ii. Contact
Hypersensitivities; iii. Granulomatous.
Important questions
1. What is hypersensitivity? How do you classify
various types of hypersensitivity reactions? Des­
cribe type I hypersensitivity reactions.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Anaphylaxis
b. Atopy
c. Type III hypersensitivity or immune complex
diseases
d. Arthus reaction
e. Serum sickness
f. Type IV hypersensitivity or delayed hypersensi-
tivity.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. All the following statements are true for type I
hypersensitivity reaction except:
a. It is called immediate hypersensitivity reaction
b. It always involves IgE-mediated degranulation
of basophils or mast cells
c. This reaction is always rapid
d. Atopy is one of the manifestations
2. All are primary mediators of anaphylaxis except:
a. Histamine
b. Proteases
c. Eosinophil chemotactic factors of anaphylaxis
d. Platelet-activating factor
3. Schultz-Dale phenomenon is an example of:
a. Type I hypersensitivity reaction
b. Type II hypersensitivity reaction
c. Type III hypersensitivity reaction
d. Type IV hypersensitivity reaction
4. All the following statements are true for Arthus
reaction except:
a. It is a local manifestation of generalized hyper-
sensitivity.
b. The tissue damage is due to formation of local
precipitating immune complexes.
c. This is systemic form of type III hypersensitivity.
d. It manifests after a single injection of a high
concentration of foreign serum
5. All the following statements are true for serum
sickness except:
a. It manifests after a single injection of a high
concentration of foreign serum
b. Disease is self-limited and clears without
sequelae
c. This is systemic form of type III hypersensitivity.
d. It is a localized inflammatory reaction due to
deposition of immune complexes.
6. Delayed hypersensitivity reaction is mediated by:
a. T-lymphocytes b. B-lymphocytes
c. Macrophages d. Basophils
7. Shwartzman reaction is an example of:
a. Type I hypersensitivity reaction
b. Type II hypersensitivity reaction
c. Type III hypersensitivity reaction
d. None of the above.
Answers (MCQs)
1. b; 2. d; 3. a; 4. d; 5. d; 6. a; 7. d

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe the mechanisms of autoimmunity
INTRODUCTION
One of the classically accepted features of the
immune system is the capacity to distinguish self
from non-self.
Definition
Autoimmunity is a condition in which structural
or functional damage is produced by the
action of immunologically competent cells or
antibodies against the normal components of the
body. Autoimmunity is due to copious production
of autoantibodies and autoreactive T-cells.
Autoimmunity literally means ‘protection against
self ’ but it actually implies ‘injury to self ’ and,
therefore, it has been criticized as a contradiction
in terms.
MECHANISMS OF AUTOIMMUNITY
A variety of mechanisms have been proposed for
induction of autoimmunity.
1. Forbidden Clones
Antibody-forming lymphocytes capable of reacting
with different antigens are formed according to
clonal selection theory. During embryonic life,
clones of cells that have immunological reactivity
with self-antigens are eliminated. Such clones
are called forbidden clones. Their persistence or
development in later life by somatic mutation can
lead to autoimmunity.
2. Neoantigens or Altered Antigens
Cells or tissues may undergo antigenic alteration
as a result of physical, chemical or biological
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Chap-21.indd 151
21
Chapter
Autoimmunity
∙∙ Classify autoimmune diseases
∙∙ List autoimmune diseases.
influences. Such altered antigens or ‘neoantigens’
may elicit an immune response.
Several chemical agents including drugs can
combine with cells and tissues and alter their
antigenic structure. Skin con­tact with a variety of
chemicals may lead to contact dermatitis. Drug-
induced anemia, leukopenia and thrombocytopenia
often have autoimmune basis. Viruses and other
intracellular pathogens may induce alterations of
cell antigens leading to auto­immunity.
3. Molecular Mimicry
A number of viruses and bacteria have been shown
to possess antigenic determinants that are identical
or similar to normal host-cell components. The
fortuitous similarity between some foreign and
self-antigens is the basis of the ‘cross-reacting
antigens’ theory of autoimmunity. Molecular
mimicry by cross-reactive microbial antigens can
stimulate autoreactive B- and T-cells.
Organ-specific antigens are present in several
species. Injections of heterologous organ-specific
antigens may induce an immune response
damaging the particular organ or tissue in the
host. One of the best examples of this type of
autoimmune reaction is postrabies encephalitis.
Infection: Streptococcal M proteins and the
heart muscle share antigenic characteristics.
The immune response induced by repeated
streptococcal infection can, therefore, damage
the heart. Nephritogenic strains of streptococci
possess antigens found in the renal glomeruli.
Infection with such strains may lead to the
glomerulonephritis due to antigenic sharing.
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 152  |  Section 2: Immunology
4. Polyclonal B-cell Activation
While an antigen generally activates only its
corresponding B-cell, certain stimuli nonspecifically
turn on multiple B clones. Such stimuli include
chemicals (for example, 2-mercaptoethanol),
bacterial products (PPD, lipopolysaccharides),
enzymes (trypsin), antibiotics (nystatin) and
infection with some bacteria (mycoplasma), viruses
(EB virus, CM virus) and parasites (malaria).
5. Activity of Helper and Suppressor
T-cells
Enhanced helper T-cell and decreased suppressor
T-cells functions have been suggested as causes of
autoimmunity.
6. Sequestered Antigens
Certain self-antigens are present in closed systems
and are not accessible to the immune apparatus.
These are known as sequestered antigens.
Examples
i. Lens antigen of the eye: The lens protein is
enclosed in its capsule and does not circulate
in the blood. Hence, immunological tolerance
against this antigen is not established during
fetal life. The release of lens protein after eye
damage has been shown to lead on occasion
to the formation of autoantibodies. When
the antigen leaks out, following penetrating
injury, it may induce an immune response
causing damage to the lens of the other eye.
ii. Sperm antigens: Sperms arise late in develop­
ment and sequestered from the circulation. As
spermatozoa develop only with puberty, the
antigen cannot induce tolerance during fetal
life. However, after a vasectomy, some sperm
antigens are released into the circulation
and can induce auto-antibody formation in
some men. This is also believed to be the
pathogenesis of orchitis following mumps.
The virus damages the basement membrane
of seminiferous tubules leading to the leakage
of sperms and initiation of an immune
response resulting in orchitis.
7. Defects in the Idiotype–Anti-idiotype
Network
It is possible that abnormalities in the generation
of appropriate anti-idiotype antibodies, either
at the B- or T-cell level, are responsible for
Chap-21.indd 152
the development of autoimmunity in certain
circumstances.
8. Genetic Factors
Their actual role in autoimmunity, if any, has not
been established.
CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOIMMUNE
DISEASES
Based on the site of involvement and nature of
lesions, autoimmune diseases may be classified
as (Table 21.1):
A. Localized (or organ-specific)
B. Systemic (or nonorgan-specific)
A. Localized (Organ-specific)
Autoimmune Diseases (Table 21.1)
The immune response is directed to a target
antigen unique to a single organ or gland in an
organ-specific autoimmune disease, so that the
manifestations are largely limited to that organ.
B. Systemic (or Nonorgan-specific)
Autoimmune Disease (Table 21.1)
In systemic autoimmune diseases, the response is
directed toward a broad range of target antigens
and meshces a number of organs and tissues.
Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Disease
Many diseases are considered to be of autoimmune
origin, based on their association with cellular or
humoral immune responses against self-antigens.
Humoral and cellular immune processes: The
relative importance of humoral and cellular
immune processes in the etiology of autoimmune
diseases is not known. Antibodies may cause dam­
age by the cytolytic or cytotoxic (type 2) and toxic
complex (type 3) reactions. They are obviously
im­portant in hemocytolytic autoimmune diseases.
A third mechanism of autoimmune tissue
damage is by sensitized T-lymphocytes (type 4
reaction). It is like­ly that humoral and ceIlular
immune responses may act synergistically in the
production of some autoim­mune diseases. For
example, experimental orchitis can be induced
only when both types of immune responses are
operative.
Autoimmune disease are usually treated with
immunosuppressants, or drugs that interfere
with T-cell signaling, steroids and other anti-
inflammatory drugs.
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Table 21.1  Some autoimmune diseases in humans
Disease
Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
Graves’ disease
Goodpasture’s syndrome
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia
Addison’s disease
Idiopathic thrombocyopenia
purpura
Insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus
Myasthenia gravis
Myocardial infarction
Pernicious anemia
Poststreptococcal
glomerulonephritis
Myasthenia gravis
Spontaneus infertility
Systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE )
Multiple sclerosis
Rheumatoid arthritis
Scleroderma
Sjogren’s syndrome
Ankylosing sponkylitis
Chapter 21: Autoimmunity  | 153
Self-antigen Immune response
ORGAN-SPECIFIC AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
Thyroid proteins and cell Autoantibodies
Thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor Autoantibodies
Renal and lung basement membranes Autoantibodies
RBC membrane proteins Autoantibodies
Adrenal cells Autoantibodies
Platelet membrane proteins Autoantibodies
Pancreatic beta cells T DTH autoantibodies
Acetylcholine receptors Autoantibody (blocking)
Heart Autoantibodies
Gastric parietal cells; intrinsic factor Autoantibodies
Kidney Antigen-antibody complexes
Acetylcholine receptors Auto- antibodies (blocking)
Sperm Autoantibodies
SYSTEMIC AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
DNA, nuclear protein, RBC and platelet Autoantibodies, immune complexes
membranes
Brain or white matter T H1 cells and Tc cells, auto-antibodies
Connective tissue, IgG Autoantibodies, immune complexes
Nuclei, heart, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, Autoantibodies
kidney
Salivary gland, liver, kidney, thyroid Autoantibodies
Vertebrae Immune complexes

Key Points 2. Write short notes on:

™™ Autoimmunity is a condition in which structural
or functional damage is produced by the action
of immunologically competent cells or antibodies
against the normal components of the body
™™ A variety of mechanisms have been proposed for
induction of autoimmunity, such as 1. Forbidden
clones; 2. Neoantigens or altered antigens; 3.
Molecular mimicry; 4. Polyclonal B-cell activation;
5. Activity of helper and suppressor T-cells;
6. Sequestered antigens 7. Defects in the idiotype-
antiidiotype network
™™ Autoimmune diseases can be divided into organ
specific or widespread and systemic diseases
™™ Autoimmune diseases are usually treated with drugs
that suppress the immune and/or inflammatory
responses.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
a. Classification of autoimmune diseases
b. Sequestrated antigens or hidden antigens.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. Lens protein of eye is an example of:
a. Sequstered antigen
b. Neoantigen
c. Cross-reacting antigen
d. Molecular mimicary
2. All of the following diseases are examples of organ-
specific autoimmune diseases except:
a. Goodpasture’s syndrome
b. Graves’ disease
c. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
d. Systemic lupus erythematosus

1. What is autoimmunity? What are the mechanisms ANSWERS (MCQs)

of autoimmune diseases, giving suitable examples? 1. a; 2. d.

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Chap-21.indd 153 15-03-2016 11:12:48
 22
Chapter
Immunology of
Transplantation and Malignancy

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Histocompatibility antigens
be able to: ∙∙ Graft versus host (GVH) reaction
Discuss the following: ∙∙ Tumor antigens
∙∙ Types of transplants ∙∙ Immunological surveillance.

Definition morphologically and functionally healthy

during the first two or three days. By about the
Transplantation refers to the act of transferring fourth day, inflammation becomes evident
cells, tissues or organs from one site to another. and the graft is invaded by lymphocytes and
The tissue or organ transplanted is known as the macrophages. The blood vessels within the
transplant or graft. The individual from whom the graft are occluded by thrombi, the vascularity
transplant is obtained is known as the donor and diminishes and the graft undergoes ischemic
the individual to whom it is applied, the recipient necrosis. The graft assumes a scab-like
or host. appearance with extending necrosis and
sloughs off by the tenth day. This sequence of
Types of transplants (Table 22.1) events resulting in the rejection of the allograft
is known as the first set response (also known
i. Autograft: It is self-tissue transferred from one as the ‘first set rejection or reaction’).
body site to another in the same individual. 2. Second set response: If in an animal which has
ii. Isograft: It is tissue transferred between rejected a graft by the first set response, and
genetically identical individuals. In humans, another graft from the same donor is applied,
an isograft performed between genetically it will be rejected in an accelerated fashion.
identical (monozygomatic) twins and in Vascularization commences but is soon
inbred strains of mice, an isograft performed
from one mouse to another syngeneic mouse Table 22.1  Types of grafts
are examples of isografts.
Donor Name Synonyms
iii. Allograft: It is tissue transferred between
genetically different members of the same Self Autograft Autogenous or
autogenic graft
species.
D i f fe re nt i n d i v i d u a l, Isograft Isologous or
iv. Xenograft: It is tissue transferred between geneti­cally identical with syngeneic graft
different species (e.g. the graft of a baboon recipient. Identical twin or syngraft
heart into a human). or member of same inbred
strain
Allograft reaction Genetically unrelated Allograft Allogeneic
member of same species graft. Formerly
1. First set response: When a skin graft from called
an animal (such as a rabbit) is applied on homograft
a genetically unrelated animal of the same Different species Xenograft Xenogeneic
species, the graft appears to be accepted Formerly called
initially. The graft is vascularized and seems heterograft
 Chapter 22: Immunology of Transplantation and Malignancy  | 155
interrupted by the inflammatory response.
Thrombosis of vessels is a feature. Necrosis
sets in early and the graft sloughs off by the
sixth day. The accelerated allograft rejection is
known as the second set response.
Mechanism of Allograft Rejection
Graft rejection is caused principally by a cell-
mediated immune response to alloantigens
(primarily, MHC molecules) expressed on cells of
the graft.
Histocompatibility Antigens
Tissues that are antigenically similar are said to
be histocompatible; such tissues do not induce
an immunologic response that leads to tissue
rejection. The various antigens that determine
histocompatibility are encoded by more than 40
different loci, but the loci responsible for the most
vigorous allograft-rejection reactions are located
within the major histocompatibility complex
(MHC). In mice the organization of the MHC is
called H2 complex, while in humans it is known as
human leucocyte antigen (HLA) complex.
Immune response against transplants depends
on the presence in the grafted tissue of antigens that
are absent in the recipient and hence recognized as
foreign. If the recipient possesses all the antigens
present in the graft, there will be no immune
response, and consequently no graft rejection.
Histocompatibility Testing
For matching of donor and recipient for transplant­
ation, following procedures are undertaken:
1. ABO grouping: ABO incompatibility is a major
barrier to transplantation, and matching of
donor and recipient for these antigens is of
utmost importance.
2. Tissue typing (detection of MHC antigens):
In serological tissue typing, the laboratory
uses standardized antisera or monoclonal
antibodies that are specific for par­ticular HLAs.
Class I antigens are identified by means of
antisera. Antisera for HLA typing were originally
obtained from multiparous women (i.e. women
who have had multiple pregnancies), placental
fluid and from individuals who have received
multiple transfusions, from individuals who
have received and rejected grafts, and from
volunteers who have been immunized with
cells from another individual with a different
HLA haplotype. These are being replaced by
monoclonal antibodies. Following methods are
used:
i. Microcytotoxicity test: In this test, white
blood cells from the potential donors
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and recipient are distributed into a series
of wells on a microtiter plate, and then
antibodies for various class I and class II
MHC alleles are added to different wells.
After incubation, complement and a dye,
such as trypan blue, are then added. Cells
carrying antigens corresponding to the
HLA antiserum are killed by complement
mediated membrane damage. If antibodies
in the antiserum have reacted specifically
with the lymphocyte, the cell is damaged.
The dam­aged cell will take up the dye
(undamaged cells will not), thus indicating
that the lymphocyte possesses a certain
antigen. This method is simple and rapid.
ii. Molecular methods: Restriction fragment
length polymorphism (RFLP) with
southern blotting, and polymerase chain
reaction(PCR) amplification.
Tissue Matching
A one-way mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR)
can be used to determine identity of class II HLA
antigens between a potential donor and recipient.
Factors Favoring Allograft Survival
1. Blood group and major histocompatibility
antigens: There are three classes of transplant­
ation antigens: (1) ABO group antigens;
(2) MHC antigens; (3) Minor histocompatibility
antigens.
2. Immunosuppression
a. General immunosuppressive therapy
The three nonspecific agents that are most
widely used in current practice are steroids,
cyclosporine and azathioprine.
b. Specific immunosuppressive therapy
Specific immunosuppression reduces
antigraft response without increasing
susceptibility to infection. In humans,
procedures, such as total lymphoid
irradiation (TLI) and use of antilymphocyte
serum (ALS) are widely used in heart
transplant recipients to deplete circulating
T-cells.
3. Immune tolerance to allografts: Obviously,
in the case of tissues that lack alloantigens,
such as cartilage or heart valve, there is no
immunological barrier to transplantation.
4. Privileged sites: An allograft can be placed
without engendering a rejection reaction, in
immunologically privileged sites. These sites
include the anterior chamber of the eye,
the cornea, the uterus, the testes, and the
brain. Each of these sites is characterized by
an absence of lymphatic vessels and in some
cases by an absence of blood vessels as well.
156  |  Section 2: Immunology
Fetus as An allograft
Fetus is always a mixture of maternal and paternal
genes; therefore, fetal MHC antigens are always
different from those of the mother. The fetus can be
considered an intrauterine allograft, as it contains
antigens which are foreign to the mother. In spite
of this, fetus is not treated as foreign transplanted
tissue and rejected. The fetus does not reject the
mother which may be due to the fact that the
developing immune system of the fetus cannot
respond. The reason why the fetus is exempt from
rejection is not clear, though many explanations
have been offered.
1. Immunological barrier: The placenta acts
as an immunological barrier by generating a
hormone which is locally immunosuppressive.
2. Mucoproteins: They are produced by cells of
the placenta which coat fetal cells, thus masking
histo­c ompatibility antigens and prevent
recognition.
3. Soluble inhibitory factor: It can be produced
by placental giant cells which suppresses T-cell
proliferation and antibody production, and
induces a population of T-cells. Hormones
(human chorionic gona­dotropin, produced
by placenta, and the high levels of maternal
progesterone produced during pregnancy) also
cause Immunosuppression.
4. Blocking antibodies: The mother produces
specific blocking antibodies to fetal antigens of
the fetal cells thus blocking immune recognition
and immune attack by maternal Tc-cells.
5. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
antigens: There antigens are present only in
low density on trophoblastic cells and the cell
membranes are relatively resistant to attack by
T- or K-cells.
6. Alphafetoprotein: The high concentration of
alphafetoprotein in fetal blood also may be a
factor, as it has immunosuppressive properties.
Graft-versus-host reaction
Graft rejection is due to the reaction of the host to
the grafted tissue (host-versus-graft response). The
contrary situation, in which the grafted tissue may
react to and reject the host, is known as the graft-
versus-host (GVH) reaction.
The GVH reaction occurs when the following
conditions are present:
1. The graft (bone marrow, lymphoid tissue,
splenic tissue, etc.) contains immunocompetent
T-cells.
2. The recipient possesses transplantation anti­
gens that are absent in the graft.
3. The recipient must not reject the graft. The
host’s immunological responsiveness must
be either destroyed or so impaired (following
whole-body irradiation) that he cannot reject
a graft (allograft or xenograft).
GVHD is a major complication of bone-
marrow-transplantation and affects 50–70% of
bone-marrow-transplant patients. It develops as
donor T-cells recognize alloantigens on the host
cells. The activation and proliferation of these
T-cells and the subsequent production of cytokines
generate inflammatory reactions in the skin,
gastrointestinal tract and liver.
The major clinical features of the GVH in
animals are retardation of growth, emaciation,
diarrhea, hepatosplenomegaly, lymphoid atrophy
and anemia, terminating fatally. The syndrome has
been called runt disease.
Immunology of malignancy
When a cell undergoes malignant transformation,
it acquires new surface antigens. It may lose
some normal antigens and this makes a tumor
antigenically different from the normal tissues of
the host. A tumor can, therefore, be considered an
allograft and be expected to induce an immune
response.
Tumor Antigens
Tumor antigens are antigens that are present in
malignant cells but absent in the corresponding
normal cell of the host. Two types of tumor antigens
have been identified on tumor cells:
1. Tumor-specific transplantation antigens
(TSTAs): Tumor-specific antigens are unique
to tumor cells and do not occur on normal
cells in the body. Different tumors possess
different TSTA, even though induced by the
same carcinogen. In contrast, TSTA of virus
induced tumors is virus specific in that all
tumors produced by one virus will possess
the same antigen, even if the tumor occur in
different animal strains or species.
2. Tumor-associated transplantation antigens
(TATAs): These are present on tumor cells
and also on some normal cells. Since they are
also present on some normal cells, therefore,
they do not evoke an im­mune response and
are of little significance in tumor rejection.
The more common tumor-associated antigens
are oncofetal antigens and increased levels of
normal oncogene products.TATAs fall into three
categories:
i. Tumor associated carbohydrate antigens
(TACAs), such as mucin-associated antigen
detected in pancreatic and breast cancers.
ii. Oncofetal tumor antigens: Oncofetal
tumor antigens, as the name implies,
are found not only on cancerous cells but
 Chapter 22: Immunology of Transplantation and Malignancy  | 157
also on normal fetal cells. These antigens
appear early in embryonic development,
before the immune system acquires
immunocompetece. If these antigens
appear later on cancer cells, they are
recognized as nonself and induce an
immunologic response. Two well-studied
oncofetal antigens are alpha-fetoprotein
(AFP) in hepatoma and cacinoembryonic
antigen (CEA) found in colonic cancer.
iii. Differentiation antigens: They are peculiar
to the differentiation state at which cancer
cell are arrested. For example, CD10, an
antigen expressed in early B lymphocytes,
is present in B-cell leukaemias. Similarly,
prostate specific antigen (PSA) is expreseed
on the normal as well as cancerous
prostatic epithelium. Both serve as useful
differentiation markers in the diagnosisi of
lymphoid and prostatic cancer.
Immune response in malignancy
Tumors can induce potent immune responses. In
experimental animals, tumor antigens can induce
both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses
that result in the destruction of the tumor cells. In
general, the cell-mediated response appears to play
the major role. The immune response to tumor
includes cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) mediated
lysis, natural killer (NK)-cell activity, macrophage-
mediated tumor destruction, and destruction
mediated by antibody-dependent cell mediated
cytotoxicity (ADCC). Several cytotoxic factors,
including, TNF-α and TNF-b, help to mediate
tumor-cell killing.
Immunological surveillance
The immune surveillance theory was first
conceptualized in the early 1900s (1906) by Paul
Ehrlich. He suggested that cancer cells frequently
arise in the body but are recognized as foreign
and eliminated by the immune system. Some 50
years later, Lewis Thomas revived it in 1950s and
was developed by Burnet. It postulates that the
primary function of cell mediated immunity is
to ‘seek and destroy’ malignant cells that arise by
somatic mutation. Such malignant mutations are
believed to occur frequently and would develop
into tumors but for the constant vigilance of the
immune system. Inefficiency of the surveillance
mechanism, either as a result of ageing or in
congenital or acquired immunodeficiencies, leads
to an increased incidence of cancer.
The development of tumors represents a lapse
in surveillance.
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It is evident that tumor cells must develop
mechanisms to escape or evade the immune
system in immuno­competent hosts. Several such
mechanisms may be operative:
1. Weak immunogenicity: Some tumors are
weakly immunogenic, so in small numbers they
do not elicit an immune response. But when
their numbers increase enough to provoke
immune response the tumor load may be too
great for the host’s immune system to mount
an effective response.
2. Modulation of surface antigens: Certain
tumor-specific antigens disappear from the
surface of tumor cells in the presence of serum
antibody and then to appear after the antibody
is no longer present.
3. Masking tumor antigens: Certain cancers
produce copious amounts of a mucoprotein
called sialomucin. It binds to the surface of the
tumor cells. Immune system does not reco­gnize
these tumor cells as foreign since sialomucin is
a normal component.
4. Induction of immune tolerance: Some tumor
cells can synthesize various immunosup­
pressants.
5. Production of blocking antibodies: Antitumor
antibody itself acts as a blocking factor.
6. Low levels of HLA class I molecules: This
impairs presentation of antigenic peptides to
cytotoxic T-cells.
Immunotherapy of cancer
Different approaches have been attempted in
the immunotherapy of cancer-active or passive,
specific or nonspecific.
A. Active
∙∙ Nonspecific
∙∙ Specific
B. Passive
∙∙ Nonspecific
∙∙ Specific
∙∙ Combined
A. Active Immunotherapy
1. Nonspecific active immunotherapy: Biological
response modifiers (BRMs) are used to enhance
immune responses to tumors and fall into four
major groups—(i) Bacterial products; (ii) Synthetic
molecules; (iii) Cytokines; (iv) Hormones.
i. Bacterial products: Broadly speaking,
bacterial products such as BCG and nonliving
Corynebacterium parvum have adjuvant
effects on macrophages. Intralesional BCG
can cause regression of melanoma and
nonspecific local immunization with BCG is
effective against bladder tumors.
158  |  Section 2: Immunology
ii. Synthetic molecules: Dinitrochlorobenzene
has been tried in the treatment of squamous
and basal cell carcinoma of the skin. Glucan, a
pyran polymer derived from micro-organisms,
and levamisole, originally introduced as an
antihelmintic, have been tried for stimulating
cell mediated immunity and macrophage
functions.
iii. Cytokines: Immunotherapy with cytokine can
cause tumor regression.
iv. Hormones: Thymic hormones can be used to
enhance T-cell function.
2. Specific active immunotherapy: This immuno­
therapy includes therapeutic vaccines of tumor
cells, cell extracts, purified or recombinant
antigens, peptides, heat shock proteins or DNA
antigen-pulsed dendritic cells. Specific active
immunotherapy by the injection of tumor cell
‘vaccines’ was tried early in this century but was
given up unprofitable.
B. Passive Immunotherapy
i. Nonspecific (lymphokine-activated killer
(LAK) cells)
ii. Specific (antibodies alone or coupled to
drugs, pro drugs, toxins or radioisotope,
bi-specific antibodies, T-cells)
iii. Combined (LAK cells and bispecific antibody).
Key Points
™™ Transplantation can be defined as the transfer of
cells, tissues, or organs from one site in an individual
to another, or between two individuals
™™ There are four different basic types of transplants:
autograft, isograft, allograft and xenograft
™™ The immune response to tissue antigens encoded
within the major histocompatibility complex is the
strongest force in rejection
™™ The match between a recipient and potential graft
donors is assessed by typing MHC class I and class
II tissue antigens
™™ Graft-versus-host (GVH) reaction to occur requires
three important components:
The donor graft must contain immunocompetent
T-cells. The host must be immunocompromised.
The recipient should express antigens which will be
identified as foreign to the donor
™™ Tumor antigens can be classified as tumor-
specific antigens (TSAs) and tumor-associated
transplantation antigens (TATAs). The TSAs are
unique to tumors and not found on other cells of
the body
™™ Cancer should not occur if immunological
surveillance is effective.
Important questions
1. What is a transplant or graft? Define various types
of grafts.Describe allograft reaction.
2. What are histocompatibility antigens? Describe
various procedures for histocompatibility testing.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Mechanism of allograft rejection
b. Graft versus host (GVH) reaction
c. Tumor antigens
d. Immunological surveillance
Multiple choice questions (mcqs)
1. Tissue transferred between two genetically different
members of the same species are known as:
a. Autografts b. Isografts
c. Allografts d. Xenografts
2. Acute rejection shows all the following features
except:
a. It takes days or weeks after transplantation.
b. It is due to the primary activation of T-cells
c. Acute rejection is the typical first-set rejection
d. Vascular endothelial injury is the most common
feature
3. The following cell may provide the first line of
defence against many tumors:
a. Eosinophils
b. Natural killer cells
c. Monocytes
d. None of the above
Answers (MCQs)
1. c; 2. d; 3. b
 23
Chapter

Immunohematology

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ List various infectious agents transmitted via blood
be able to: transfusion.
∙∙ Describ Rh blood groups
∙∙ Discuss complications of blood transfusion

History
The ABO system is the most important of all
the blood group systems and its discovery made
blood transfusion possible. No other blood group
antigens were discovered for the next 25 years.
Subsequently, other blood groups (MN, P, Rh,
Luthe­ran, Lewis, Kell, Duffy, Kidd, Diego, Yt, Kg,
Dom­broc and Colton) were reported.
ABO Blood Group System
The ABO blood group system was originally
described by Landsteiner (1900) and now contains
four blood groups. The blood group is determined
by the presence or abse­nce of two distinct antigens
A and B on the surface of the erythrocytes. It is
these antigens (also called agglunotigens) that
cause blood transfusion reactions. Red cells of
group A carry antigen A, cells of group B antigen B
and cells of group AB have both A and B antigens,
while group O cells have neither A nor B antigen.
The serum contains the isoantibodies specific
for the antigen that is absent on the red cell. The
serum of a group A individual has anti-B antibody,
group B has anti-A and group O both anti-A and
anti-B, while in group AB, both anti-A and anti-B
are absent (Table 23.1).
The frequency of ABO distribution antigens
differs in different people. Group O is the most
common group and AB the rarest. In India, the
distribution is approximately O–40%, A—22%,
B—33% AB—5%.
H Antigen
Red cells of all ABO groups possess a common
antigen, the H antigen or H substance which is the
precursor for the formation of A and B antigens. H
antigen is not ordinarily important in grouping or
blood transfusion due to its universal distribution.
However, Bhende et al. (1952) from Bombay
reported a very rare instance in which A and B
antigens as well as H antigens were absent from the
red cells. This is known as Bombay or OH blood
group. Sera of these individuals have anti-A, anti-B
and anti-H antibodies. Therefore, they can accept
the blood only from the same rare blood group.
A, B and H antigens are glycoproteins. They
are also present in almost all the tissues and fluids
of the body in addi­tion to erythrocytes. They are
found in secretions (saliva, gastric juice, sweat) of
only about 75% of all persons while these antigens
are always present in tissues. Such persons are
called ‘secretors’ and those who lack blood group
antigens in secretions are called ‘nonsecretors’.
Table 23.1  Distribution of ABO antigens on the
red blood cells and antibodies in the serum
Blood Antigens on Antibodies Occurrence
group red blood cells in serum (%) in India
A A Anti-B 22
B B Anti-A 33
AB A and B None 5
O None Anti-A and 40
Anti-B

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160  |  Section 2: Immunology
Rh (Rhesus) Blood Group System
It was discovered by Landsteiner and Weiner in
1940. Their experiment was to produce an antibody
to the red cells of the Rhesus monkey in rabbits
and guinea pigs, but they discovered that not only
did the antibody in the rodents’ serum agglutinate
the Rhesus monkey red cells, it also agglutinated
the red cells of 85% of the human population. If an
individual’s red cells were clumped together by this
antiserum, they were said to have the Rhesus factor
on their red cells (i.e. Rh positive). If an individual’s
cells were not agglutinated by the antiserum, they
were said to lack the Rhesus factor (i.e. Rh negative).
Rh antigens—“Rh-positive” and “Rh-negative”
people.
There are six common types of Rh antigens,
each of which is called an Rh factor. These types are
designated as C, D, E, c, d, and e. The designations
employed by the two system for the different Rh
types are as follows:
The type D antigen (Rho) is widely present in the
population and considerably more antigenic than
the other Rh antigens. Rh-positive or Rh-negative
blood depends on the presence or absence of
D-antigen on the surface of red cells respectively.
It can be accomplished by testing with anti-D
(anti-Rh) serum. About 15% of the population have
no RhD antigens and thus are “Rh negative”. Among
Indians, approximately 93% are Rh positive and
about 7% negative. The Rh factor can be detected
by testing the blood with anti-D (anti-Rh) serum.
Other blood group systems
Blood group systems other than ABO and Rh are
of little clinical importance as they do not usually
cause transfusion reactions or hemolytic disease.
They have applications in genetics, anthropology,
tissue typing and forensic medicine. As blood group
antigens are inherited from the parents, they are
often useful in settling cases of disputed paternity.
Lewis blood group system: It differs from other
blood group systems in that the antigens are
present primarily in the plasma and saliva and
antigens do not form an integral part of the red
cell membrane.
MN system: The antigens are M, N, S and s.
This system has expanded to include at least 28
antigens.
Medical applications of blood
groups
1. Blood transfusion: Ideally, the donor and
recipient should belong to the same ABO group.
It used to be held that O group cells could be
transfused to recipients of any group as they
possessed neither A nor B antigen. Hence
the O group was designated as the ‘universal
donor’. The anti-A and anti-B antibodies in
the transfused O blood group do not ordinarily
cause any damage to the red cells of the A or B
group recipients because they will be rendered
ineffective by dilution in the recipient’s plasma.
But some O group plasma may contain
isoantibodies in high titers (1:200 or above)
so that damage to recipient cells may result.
This is known as the ‘dangerous O group’. The
AB group persons were designated ‘universal
recipients’ due to the absence of isoantibodies
in plasma.
2. Rh compatibility: An Rh positive person may
safely receive either Rh positive or negative
blood. But an Rh-negative individual receiving
Rh-positive blood may form antibodies against
the Rh-antigen. A subsequent transfusion with
Rh positive blood may then cause a rapid,
serious hemolytic reaction.
Complications of blood
transfusion
The complications of blood transfusion may be divi­
ded into immunological and nonimmunological.
A. Immunological complications: Immunological
complications may be caused by red cell,
leukocyte or platelet incompatibility or allergic
reaction to plasma components. Red cell
incompati­bility leads to acute intravascular
hemolysis or the red cells may be coated
by antibodies and engulfed by phagocytes,
removed from the circulation and subjected to
extravascular lysis. Hemolysis may also be due
to transfusion of group O whole blood or plasma
to group A or group B or group AB recipients.
B. Nonimmunological complications: Non-
immunological complications of blood trans­
fusion include transmission of infectious
agents and circulatory overload. Infectious
agents which may be transmitted during
blood transfusion may be viruses, bacteria and
protozoa (Table 23.2). Massive transfusion may
lead to circulatory overload.
Hemolytic disease of the newborn
When an Rh– woman and an Rh+ man produce
a child, there is a 50% chance that the child will
be Rh+. If the child is Rh +, the Rh– mother can
become sensitized to this antigen during birth,
when the placental membranes tear and the fetal
Rh+ RBCs enter the maternal circulation, causing
the mother’s body to produce anti-Rh antibodies
of the IgG type. During subsequent pregnancy,
Rh antibodies of the IgG class pass from the

Table 23.2  Nonimmunological complications of
blood transfusion
A. Transmission of Infectious Agents
Viruses
•  Hepatitis B virus*
•  Hepatitis C virus**
•  Human immunodeficiency virus 1 and 2*
•  Human T-cell Iymphotrophic virus 1 and 2
•  Cytomegalovirus
Bacteria
•  Treponema pallidum*
•  Leptospira interrogans
•  Borrelia burgdorferi
Parasites
Plasmodium spp.*
•  Babesia spp.
•  Trypanosoma cruzi
•  Leishmania donovanii
•  Toxoplasma gondii
B. Circulatory Overload
* Mandatory tests in India
** Mandatory tests in India since June 2001
mother to the fetus and damage its erythrocytes.
The fetal body responds to this immune attack
by producing large numbers of immature RBCs
called erythroblasts. Thus, the term erythroblastosis
fetalis was once used to describe what is now called
hemolytic dis­ease of the newborn (HDNB). It is
an example of an antibody-mediated cytotoxicity
disorder.
Factors Influencing the Incidence of
Hemolytic Disease
The following factors influence the incidence of
hemolytic disease due to Rh-incompatibility:
1. Immunolo gical unresp onsiveness to
th e Rh-antig en: Fo l l ow i ng a nt ig e n i c
stimulation not every Rh-negative individual
forms Rh-antibodies. Some Rh-negative
individuals fail to do so even after repeated
injection of Rh-positive cells. They are called
nonresponders.
2. Fetomaternal ABO incompatibility: Rh
immunization is more likely to result when the
mother and fetus possess the same ABO group.
Rh sensitisation in the mother is rare when Rh
and ABO incompatibility coexist.
3. Number of pregnancies: The risk to the infant
increases with each successive pregnancy. The
first child usually escapes disease because
sensitisation occurs only during its delivery.
4. Zygosity of the father: An individual may be
homozygous or heterozygous with respect to
D antigen. When the father. is homozygous
all his children will be Rh-positive. When
he is heterozygous, half his children will be
Rh-positive.
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Chapter 23: Immunohematology  | 161
Detection of Rh-antibodies
Most Rh-antibodies are of the IgG class, and they
do not agglutinate Rh-positive cells in saline being
‘incomplete antibodies’. IgG anti-D antibodies
may be detected by the following techniques:
1. Using a colloid medium such as 20% bovine
serum albumin.
2. Using red cells treated with enzymes such as
trypsin, pepsin, ficin or bromelin, and
3. By the indirect Coombs test: This is the most
sensitive method.
Prevention of Rh-isoimmunization
HDNB is usually prevented today by passive immu­
nization of the Rh– mother at the time of delivery
(within 24–48 hours) of any Rh+ infant with anti-
Rh-antibodies, which are available commercially
(Rhogam). To be effective, this should be employed
from the first delivery onwards.
ABO Hemolytic Disease
The majority of cases (65%) of hemolytic disease
of the newborn have minor consequences and
are caused by ABO blood-group incompatibility
between the mother and fetus. Maternofetal
ABO incompatibility is very common and in a
proportion of these, hemolytic disease occurs in
the newborn. Natural antibodies are IgM in nature
in persons of blood group A or B, and so do not
cross the placenta to harm the fetus. However, in
persons of blood group O, the isoantibodies are
predominantly IgG in nature either through natural
exposure or through expo­sure to fetal blood-group
A or B antigens in successive pregnancies. Hence,
ABO hemolytic disease is seen largely in O group
mothers, bearing A or B group fetus.
ABO hemolytic disease is much milder than Rh
disease. The direct Coombs test is, often negative
in this condition, while the indirect Coombs
test (neonatal serum with type-specific adult
erythrocytes) is more commonly positive. Peripheral
blood smear characteristically shows spherocytosis.
Blood Group and Diseases
It has been shown that some diseases may
influence blood group antigens. Blood group
antigens have been reported to become weak in
leukemia.
Red cell suspensions contaminated with certain
bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, become
agglutinable by all blood group sera and even by
normal human sera. This phenomenon is known
as the Thomsen-Friedenreich phenomenon.
It is due to the unmasking of a hidden antigen
normally present on all human erythrocytes called
the T-antigen.
162  |  Section 2: Immunology
It has been shown that duodenal ulcer is more Multiple Choice Questions (Mcqs)
frequent in persons of blood group O than in
1. The ABO blood group system was described by:
others. An association has also been established
a. William Harvey
between group A and cancer of the stomach.
b. Ehrlich and Morgenroth
Key Points c. Philip Levine
™™ Immunohematology is the study of blood group d. Karl Landsteiner
antigens and anti­bodies and their interactions in 2. All the following statements are true for H antigen
health and disease except:
™™ ABO blood group system: The ABO blood group a. It is a glycoprotein
substances are glycopeptides
b. It is structurally an L-sucrose
™™ Rh antigens: There are six common types of Rh
antigens designated as C, D, E, c, d, and e. Of all the c. It is a precursor for the production of A and B
Rh antigens, antigen D (Rho) is most important antigens
™™ Transmission of infectious agents especially HIV I and d. It is present on red blood cells of all ABO groups
II, HBV, and HCV through blood is the most important 3. Hemolytic disease in newborn may occur when:
complication a. An Rh negative mother carries an Rh positive
™™ Hemolytic disease of the newborn. Rh antibodies fetus
of the IgG class pass from the mother to the fetus
through the placenta and damage its erythrocytes. b. An Rh positive mother carries an Rh negative
This disease usually occurs even in the second or fetus
successive child. c. Both of the above
d. All of the above
Important questions 4. All the following infectious agents may be trans­
mitted by blood transfusion except:
1. Name various blood group systems and discuss a. Human immunodeficiency viruses I and II
Rh blood group system. Add a note on hazards of b. Hepatitis A virus
incompatible blood transfusion.
c. Hepatitis B virus
2. Write short notes on: d. Hepatitis C virus
a. Complications of blood transfusion.
b. Hemolytic disease of the newborn (or) erythro­ Answers (MCQs)
blastosis fetalis. 1. d; 2. b; 3. a; 4. b
 Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe species of Staphylococcus
∙∙ Describe morphology and culture characteristics
of Staphylococcus aureus
∙∙ List characteristics of Staph. aureus strains
∙∙ Explain coagulase test
∙∙ List and describe toxins and enzymes of Staphylo­
coccus aureus
Introduction
Staphylococci are gram-positive cocci that occur
in grape-like clusters. Staphylococci were first
observed in human pyo­g enic lesions by von
Recklinghausen in 1871. It was Sir Alexander Ogston,
a Scottish surgeon, who established conclusively the
causative role of the coccus in abscesses and other
suppurative lesions (1880). He also gave it the name
Staphylococcus (Staphyle, in Greek, meaning ‘bunch
of grapes’: kokkos, meaning a berry) due to the typical
occurrence of the cocci “in grape-like clusters in pus
and in cultures.
Species
The genus Staphylococcus contains 33 defined
species and 20 species found in man. Species
of staphylococci are initially differentiated by
the coagulase test and are classified into two
groups: coagulase-positive and coagulase-negative
staphylococci.
Coagulase-positive staphylococci: Staphylococcus
aureus (formerly also called Staph. pyogenes) is
coagulase ­positive.
Coagulase-negative staphylo co cci (CNS):
S. epidermidis and S. saprophyticus are the most
clinically significant species in this group.
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Chap-24.indd 163
24
Chapter
Staphylococcus
∙∙ Describe staphylococcal diseases
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of infections caused
by Staphylococcus aureus
∙∙ Explain methicillin-resistant staphylococci and its
clinical problem
∙∙ D escribe the following: Coagulase-negative
staphylococci (CNS); micrococci
∙∙ Distinguish characteristics of Staph. aureus, Staph.
epidemidis and Staph. saprophyticus.
Staphylococcus aureus
Morphology
They are spherical cocci, approximately 1 μm in
diameter, arranged characteristically in grape-like
clusters (Fig. 24.1). Cluster formation is due to cell
division occurring in three planes, with daughter
cells tending to remain in close proximity. They
may also be found singly, in pairs and in short
chains of three or four cells, especially when
examined from liquid culture. Long chains never
occur.
They are nonsporing, nonmotile and usually
noncapsulate with the exception of rare strains.
Fig. 24.1: Staphylococcus in a smear of pus
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 164  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
They stain readily with aniline dyes and are
uniformly gram-positive.
Cultural Characteristics
They are aerobes and facultative anaerobes. Opti­
mum temperature for growth is 37°C ( range being
12–44°C). Optimum pH is 7.5. They can grow
readily on ordinary media.
1. Nutrient agar: After aerobic incubation for 24
hours at 37°C, colonies are 1–3 mm in diameter
and have a smooth glistening surface, an
entire edge, a soft butyrous consistency and an
opaque, pigmented appearance. Most strains
produce golden-yellow (aureus) pigment. These
white-colonied strains of S. aureus are fully
virulent. Pigmentation is characteristic of this
species when grown aerobically.
Pigmentation is enhanced on fatty media, such
as tween agar, by prolonged incuba­tion, and by
leaving plates at room temperature. The pigment
is believed to be lipoprotein allied to carotene.
2. Blood agar: The colonies have the same
appearances as on nutrient agar, but may
be surrounded by a zone of β-hemolysis
(Fig. 24.2). Hemolysis is more likely to be
present if sheep, human or rabbit blood is used.
3. MacConkey agar: Colonies are smaller and are
pink due to lactose fermentation.
4. Milk agar: On this medium, after overnight
incubation, the colonies of S. aureus are larger
than those on nutrient agar and pigmentation
is well-developed and easily recognized against
the opaque white background.
5. Phenolphthalein phosphate agar: This is an
indicator medium and assists in the iden­
tification of S. aureus in mixed cultures.
Appearance of the colonies of S. aureus on this
medium is similar to those on nutrient agar.
Colonies of S. aureus become bright pink when
culture plate is inverted over the ammonia for
a minute or so.
6. Selective salt media: Selective medium may
be useful for the isolation and enumeration of
staphylococci from materials, such as feces,
Fig. 24.2: Structure of staphylococcal cell wall
Chap-24.indd 164
food and dust, likely to contain a predominance
of other kinds of bacteria. Therefore, 7–10% of
sodium chloride may be added to nutr­ient agar
(Salt agar) or milk agar (salt milk agar); mannitol
salt agar containing 1% mannitol, 7.5% NaCl,
and phenol red in nutrient agar; and Ludlam’s
medium containing lithium chloride and tellurite;
and salt cooked meat broth (10% NaCl.).
Biochemical Reactions
1. Sugar fermentation: S. aureus ferments a range
of sugars producing acid but no gas. Sugar
fermentation is of no diagnostic value except
for mannitol, which is usually fermented
anaerobically by Staph. aureus but not by other
species.
2. Catalase: Catalase positive (un­like streptococci).
3. Lipolytic: When grown on media containing
egg-yolk, produce a dense opacity because
most strains are lipolytic.
4. Phosphatase test: This is a useful screening
procedure for dif­ferentiating Staph. aureus
from Staph. epidermidis in mixed cultures, as
the former gives prompt phos­phatase reaction,
while the latter is usually negative or only
weakly positive. All strains of S. aureus produce
phosphatase which liber­ates phenolphthalein
from sodium phenolph­thalein diphosphate
The culture plate, with the culture, is inverted
over the ammonia for a minute or so. Colonies
of S. aureus become bright pink because
phenolphthalein is pink in alkaline pH. Most
other staphy­lococci form colonies that remain
uncolored.
5. Deoxyribonulease (DNAase) test: It produces a
deoxyribonulease (DNAase), and a heat-stable
nuclease (thermonuclease, TNAase).
6. Other biochemical tests: Indole negative, MR
positive, VP positive, urease positive, hydrolyzes
gelatin and reduces nitrates to nitrites.
Table 24.1 shows the characteristics of
Staphylococcus aureus.
Table 24.1  Characteristics of Staph. aureus strains
Staph. aureus strains usually exhibit the following
characteristics:
1. Beta hemolysis—produce clear hemolysis on blood
agar
2. Golden yellow pigment
3. Coagulase positive
4. Greater biochemical activity, ferment mannite
5. Liquefy gelatin
6. Produce phosphatase
7. Black colonies on potassium tellurite blood agar—
produce black colonies in a medium containing
potassium tellurite by reducing tellurite to metallic
tellurium
8. Produce thermostable nucleases which can be
demonstrated by the ability of boiled cultures to
degrade DNA in an agar diffusion test
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Resistance
S. aureus and the other Micrococcaceae are among
the hardiest of the nonsporing bacteria. Dried on
threads, they retain their viability for 3–6 months.
They have been isolated from dried pus after 2–3
months. It withstands moist heat at 60°C for 30
min but is killed after 60 min. Most strains grow
in the presence of 10% NaCl. These fea­tures are of
significance in food preservation.
It is readily killed by phenolic and hypochlorite
disinfectants, and by antiseptic preparations such
as hexachlorophane, chlorhexidine and povidone-
iodine. They are very sensitive to aniline dyes;
thus they are inhibited on blood agar medium
containing 1 in 500,000 crystal violet, which
permits the growth of streptococci. Staphylococci
are uniformly resistant to lysozyme but some
micrococci are sensitive to it. Staphylococci are
generally sensitive to lysostaphin—a mixture of
enzymes produced by a particular strain of Staph.
epidermidis.
Antigenic Structure of
Staphylococcus aureus
The antigenic structure of S. aureus (Fig. 24.2) is
complex. It is as follows.
A. Cell-associated Polymers
1. Capsule: Capsular polysaccharide surrounding
the cell wall inhibits opsonization.
2. Peptidoglycan: The cell wall polysaccharide
peptidoglycan confers rigidity and structural
integrity to the bacterial cell. It activates
complement and induces release of inflamm­
atory cytokines.
3. Teichoic acids: Teichoic acid, an antigenic
component of the cell wall, facilitates adhesion
of the cocci to the host cell surface and
protects them from complement-mediated
opsonization.
B. Cell Surface Proteins
1. Protein A: Protein A is a group-specific antigen
unique to S. aureus strains.
Biologic properties: Protein A has many
biologic properties including chemotactic,
anticomplementary, and antiphagocytic and
elic­its hypersensitivity reactions and platelet
injury. It is mitogenic and potentiates natural
killer activity of human lymphocytes.
Protein A binds IgG molecules, nonspecifically,
through Fc region leaving specific Fab sites
free to combine with specific antigen. When
suspension of such sensitized cells is treated
with homologous (test) antigen, the antigen
combines with free Fab sites of IgG attached
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Chap-24.indd 165
Chapter 24: Staphylococcus  | 165
to staphylococcal cells. This is known as
coagglutination and has led to numerous
applications (Chapter 16).
2. Cytoplasmic membrane: It serves as an osmotic
barrier for the cell and provides an anchorage
for the cellular biosynthetic and respiratory
enzymes.
3. Clumping factor (bound coagulase): The
component on the cell wall of S. aureus that
results in the clumping of whole staphylococci
in the presence of plasma is referred to as the
clumping factor (also called bound coagulase).
This factor reacts directly with fibrinogen in
plasma, converts it to insoluble fibrin, causing
the staphylococci to clump or aggregate.
Slide coagulase test: Since this factor is detected
by perform­ing the test on a slide, therefore, the
test is known as slide coagulase test.
Toxins and Enzymes
S. aureus produces a number of toxins and
enzymes. They are the virulence factors.
A. Toxins
1. Cytolytic Toxins
At least five cytolytic or membrane-dam­aging toxins
(alpha, beta, delta, gamma, and Panton-Valentine
[P-V] leukocidin are produced by S. aureus.
i. Alpha (a) hemolysin: Alpha (a) lysin is the
most important among them. It is a protein
and is inactivated at 60°C; however, its activity
is reg­ained paradoxically, if it is further heated
to bet­ween 80° and 100°C. This is due to the
fact that the toxin combines with a heat-labile
inhibitor at 60°C but at higher temperature
(80–100°C) the inhibitor is inactivated thus
toxin regains its activity. Above 100°C toxin
itself gets inactivated.
The toxin lyses rabbit and sheep erythro­
cytes. It is leucocidal, dermonecrotic and
lethal.
ii. Beta (b) hemolysin: Beta (b) toxin, also called
sphingomyelinase C, is a heat-labile protein
produced by most strains of S. aureus. b lysin
is strongly active on sheep and weakly active
on rabbit and human red blood cells. It does
not lyse horse red blood cells. It exhibits a
‘hot-cold phenomenon’, the hemolysis being
initiated at 37°C, but becoming evident only
after chilling.
It is not dermonecrotic and kills experi­
mental animals only when injected in large
doses.
iii. Gamma (γ) hemolysin: γ lysin acts on sheep,
rabbit and human red blood cells but not on
those of horse.
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 166  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
iv. Delta (d) hemolysin: It lyses red blood cells of
sheep, rabbit, horse and man.
v. Leukocidin: Leukocidin (called the Panton-
Valentine toxin af­ter its discoverers) is also a
two component toxin, like the gamma lysin,
S (slow) and F (Fast). These components act
synergistically to damage polymor­phonuclear
leukocytes and macrophages and to pro­duce
dermonecrosis.
2. Enterotoxins
This toxin is responsible for the manifestations
of staphylococcal food poisoning n ­ ausea,
vomiting and diarrhea 2–6 hours after consuming
contaminated food containing preformed toxin.
Enterotoxins are commonly produced by about
two-thirds of Staph. aureus strains, growing in
carbohydrate and protein foods. The toxin is
relatively heat stable, resisting 100°C for 10–40
minutes depending on the concentration of the
toxin and nature of the medium.
Eight serologically distinct staphylococcal
enterotox­ins (A-E, G-I) and three subtypes of
enterotoxin C have been identified. Enterotoxin
A is most commonly associated with disease.
Enterotoxins C and D are found in contaminated
milk products, and enterotoxin B causes staphylo­
coccal pseudomembran­ous enterocolitis.
The precise mechanism of toxin activity is not
understood. The toxin is believed to act directly on
the autonomic nervous system to cause the illness,
rather than on the gastrointestinal mucosa. The
toxin is antigenic and neutralized by the specific
antitoxin. Type A toxin is responsible for most cases.
For detection of the toxin sensitive serological tests,
such as latex agglutination and ELISA are available.
These toxins are super­a ntigens, however,
capable of inducing nonspecific activation of T
cells and cytokine release. The toxin is potent,
microgram amounts being ca­pable of causing the
illness.
3. Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin-I (TSTT-1)
S. aureus is associated with toxic shock syndrome
(TSS), a severe and often fatal disorder characterized
by multiple organ dysfunction. TSST-I (formerly
called pyrogenic exotoxin C and enterotoxin F)
is heat and proteolysis resistant, chromosomally
mediated exotoxin. It is antigenic and most persons
over 30 years of age have circulating antibodies.
The enterotoxins and TSST-1 belong to a class
of polypeptides known as superantigens which
are potent activators of T lymphocytes leading to
the release of cytokines such as interleukins and
tumour necrosis factor. This results in clinical
condition of TSS.
4. Epidermolytic Toxins (Exfoliative Toxins)
This toxin, also known as ET or ‘exfoliatin’ is
responsible for the ‘staphylococcal scalded skin
Chap-24.indd 166
syndrome’ (SSSS). Two distinct forms of exfoliative
toxin (ETA and ETB) have been identified, and
either can produce disease. ETA is heat-stable and
the gene is chromosomal, whereas ETB is heat-
labile and plasmid-mediated. SSSS is seen mostly
in young children and only rarely in older children
and adults.
B. Extracellular Enzymes
Staph. aureus produces a number of enzymes such
as coagulase catalase, hyaluronidase, fibrinolysin,
lipases, nucleases and penicillinase.
Coagulase: S. aureus produces an extracel­lular
enzyme called coagulase which brings about
clotting of human or rabbit plasma. It acts along
with a ‘coagulase reacting factor’ (CRF) present
in plasma, binding to prothrombin and converting
fibrinogen to fibrin. Coag­ulase does not clot plasma
of guinea pigs because they lack CRF. Coagulase
test is the standard criterion for the identification
of Staph. aureus isolates.
Eight antigenic types (A-H) have been des­
cribed. Most human strains form coagulase type A.
Coagulase Fibrin (Clotting)
Fibrinogen →
CRF
Coagulase test: Coagulase test is done by two
methods—slide and tube coagulase test. The slide
or tube coagulase test is performed to distinguish
Staph. aureus from coagulase-negative species.
a. Slide coagulase test: The slide test detecting
bound coagulase is much simpler. It can be
detected by emulsifying a few colonies of the
bacteria in a drop of normal saline on a clean
glass slide and mixing it with a drop of rabbit
plasma. Prompt clumping of the organisms
indicates the presence of clumping factor
(bound coagulase). Positive and negative
controls also are set up.
Almost all the clumping factor producing
strains of S. aureus produce coagulase.
b. Tube coagulase test: The tube coagulase test
detects free coagulase. 0.1 ml of an overnight
broth culture or broth suspension from an agar
plate culture made up to the same density is
mixed with 0.5 mL of a 1 in 10 dilution of human
or rabbit plasma. The mixture is incubated in
a water bath at 37°C for three to six hours. If
positive, the plasma clots and does not flow when
the tube is inverted. If clot does not appear it is left
overnight at room temperature and re-examined.
On continued incubation, the clot may be
lysed by fibrinoly­sin produced by some strains.
Controls with plasma alone, known coagulase-
positive and coagulase-negative cultures must
be set up with each batch of tests.
False-pos­itive reaction: Citrated plasma should not
be used because contaminating gram-negative
bacilli (e.g. Pseudomonas) may utilize the citrate
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and produce false-positive reaction. Oxalate, EDTA
or heparin are suitable anticoagulants.
Epidemiology
Staphylococci are ubiquitous. Staphylococcus is a
normal component of man’s indigenous microflora
and is carried asymptomati­cally in a number of
body sites. About 10–30% healthy persons carry
staphylococci in the nose and about 10% in the
perineum and also on the hair. Vaginal carriage is
about 5–10%, which rises greatly during menses, a
factor relevant in the pathogenesis of TSS related
to menstruation. Cross-infection is an important
method of spread of staphylococcal disease,
particularly in hospi­t als. Staphylococci are a
common cause of postopera­tive wound infection
and other hospital infections. Most of these are
due to certain strains of staphylococci the so-called
‘hospital strains’ that are present in the hospital
environ­ment. They belong to a limited number
of phage types and are commonly resistant to
penicillin and other antibiotics routinely used in
hospitals. Epidemics of hospital cross infections
are caused by some of them, the ‘epidemic strains’.
Phage type 80/81 was the first to be recognized
for most of staphylococcal infections in hospitals
throughout the world.
Staphylococcal Diseases
Staphylococcal infections are among the most
common of bacterial infections and range from
the trivial to the fatal. Staphylococcal infections
are characteristically localized pyogenic lesions,
in contrast to the spreading nature of streptococcal
infections. S. aureus causes disease through the
direct invasion and destruction of tissue or through
the production of toxin.
A. Cutaneous infections: These include wound
and burn infection, pustules, furuncles or boils
carbuncles, styes, impetigo and pemphigus
neonatorum.
B. Deep infections: These include osteomyelitis,
periostitis, tonsillitis, pharyngitis, sinusitis,
broncho­pneumonia, empyema, septicemia,
meningitis, endocarditis, breast abscess, renal
abscess and abscesses in other organs.
C. Toxin-mediated diseases
i. Food poisoning: Staphylococcal food
poisoning may follow 2–6 hours after the
ingestion of food in which S. aureus has
multiplied and formed enterotoxin.
ii. Toxic shock syndrome (TSS): Toxin-
producing strains of S. aureus have been
implicated in most cases of TSS, a multi­
system disease that primarily afflicts young
women. Most cases occur in menstruating
women who use tampons. However,
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Chap-24.indd 167
Chapter 24: Staphylococcus  | 167
nonmenstruating women, children, and
men with boils or staphylococcal infections
of wounds can also have TSS. Though
tampon-related TSS is now rare, the
syndrome occurs in other infections of the
skin, mucosa and other sites and also in
some surgical wounds.
iii. Exfoliative diseases: These lesions are pro­
duced by the strains of S. aureus which
produce epidermolytic toxins. This toxin
is responsible for the ‘staphylococcal
scalded skin syndrome’ (SSSS), exfoliative
skin diseases in which the outer layer
of epidermis gets separated from the
underlying tissues. SSSS is seen mostly in
young children and only rarely in older
children and adults. The severe form of
SSSS is known as Ritter’s disease in the
newborn and toxic epidermal necrolysis in
older patients. Milder forms are pemphigus
neonatorum and bullous impetigo. Bullous
impetigo is a localized form of SSSS.
Bacteriophage Typing
Staphylococci may be typed, based on their
suscepti­bility to bacteriophages. An internationally
recogni­zed set of 23 standard typing phages is used
for epidemiological studies and tracing the source
of infection. (Table 24.2).
The strain to be typed is inoculated on a plate of
nutrient agar to form a lawn culture. After drying.
the phages are applied over marked squares in
a fixed dose (routine test dose). After overnight
incubation, the culture will be observed to be lysed
by some phages but not by others (Fig. 24.3). The
phage type of a strain is expressed by designation
of the phages that lyse it, and there is interna­
tional agreement on the interpretation of results.
Thus, if a strain is lysed only by phages 3C, 55
and 71, it is called phage type 3C/55/71. Phage
typing is important in epidemiological studies of
staphylococcal infections.
The reference center for staphylococcal phage
typing in India is located in the Department of
Table 24.2  International basic set of phages for
typing Staph. aureus of human origin
Lytic group
Designation of phages
of phages
I 29 52 52A 79 80
II 3A 3C 55 71 95
III
{ 6 42E 47 53 54
75 77 83A 84 85
V 94 96
Unclassified 81
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 168  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Fig. 24.3: Bacteriophage typing of staphylococci
Micro­biology, Maulana Azad Medical College,
New Delhi.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens: The specimens to be collected
depend on the type of lesion, for example:
pus from suppurative lesions; sputum from
respiratory infec­t ions; food remains and
vomit from cases of food poisoning; nasal and
perineal swabs from suspected carriers.
Swabs of the perineum, pieces of hair and
umbilical stump—may be necessary in special
situa­tions.
2. Direct microscopy: Direct microscopy with
Gram stained smears is useful in the case of
pus, where cocci in clusters may be seen. This
is of no value for specimens like sputum where
mixed bacterial flora are normally present.
3. Culture: The specimens are cultured on a blood
agar plate. Staphylococcal colonies appear
after overnight incubation specimens, where
staphylococci are expected to be outnumbered
by other bacteria (e.g. wound swab and
feces), are inoculated on selective media like
Ludlam’s or salt-milk agar or Robertson’s cooked
meat medium containing 10% sodium. The
inoculated media is incubated at 37°C for 18–24
hours. On blood agar plate, look for hemolysis
around the colonies. The plates are inspected
for golden-yellow or white colonies. Smears are
examined from the culture and coagulase test
done when stahylococci are isolated.
4. Identification: Relatively simple biochemical
tests (e.g. positive reactions for coagulase
(clumping factor), heat-stable nuclease, alkaline
phosphatase, and mannitol fermentation) can
be used to differentiate S. aureus and the other
staphylococci.
Coagulase test: Coagulase test is done by two
methods-slide and tube coagulase test.
5. Antibiotic sensitivity tests: As a guide to
treatment antibiotic sensitivity tests should be
Chap-24.indd 168
performed appropriate to the clinical situation.
This is important as staphylo­c occi readily
develop resistance to drugs.
6. Bacteriophage typing: Bacteriophage typing
may be done if the informa­t ion is desired
for epidemiological purposes. Other typing
methods include antibiogram pattern, plasmid
profile, DNA fingerprinting, ribotyping and
PCR-based analysis for genetic pleomorphism.
7. Serological tests : Serological tests may
sometimes be of help in the diagnosis of
hidden deep infections. Antistaphy­lolysin
(anti-alphalysin) titers of more than two units
per mL, especially when the titer is rising, may
be of value in the diagnosis of deep seated
infections, such as bone abscesses.
Treatment
Benzyl penicillin is the most effective antibiotic,
if the strain is sensitive but most clinical isolates
of S.aureus are resistant to benzyl penicillin due to
production of beta lactamase. Cloxacillin, oxacillin,
flucloxacillin and methicillin are penicillinase-
resistant penicillins.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA) are also resistant to other penicillins
and cephalosporins. Glycopeptides (vancomycin
or teicoplanin) are the agents of choice in the
treatment of systemic infec­tion, but these agents
are expensive and may be toxic.
For mild superficial lesions, topical appli­cations
of drugs as bacitracin, chlorhexidine or mupirocin
may be sufficient.
The treatment of carriers is by local application
of antibiotics such as bacitracin and antiseptics
such as chlorhexidine. In resistant cases, rifampicin
along with another oral antibiotic may be effective.
Control
1. The focus of infection (e.g. abscess) must be
identified and drained.
2. Treatment is symptomatic for patients with
food poisoning.
3. Proper cleansing of wounds and use of
disinfectant.
4. Thorough hand washing and covering of
exposed skin helps medical personnel prevent
infection or spread to other patients.
5. Asymptomatic nasopharyngeal carriage—
the use of chemoprophylaxis consist­ing of
vancomycin and rifampin to prevent spread of
oxacillin-resistant organisms
Other Coagulate-positive
staphylococci
Other staphylocoagulase producing (coagulase
­p ositive) staphylococci are S. intermedius,
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Table 24.3  Characteristics distinguishing three species of the genus Staphylococcus
Character
Anaerobic growth and fermentation of glucose
Mannitol
Acid aerobically
Acid anaerobically
Coagulase
DNAase
Phosphatase
α-Toxin
Protein A in cell wall
Novobiocin sensitivity
V, variable
S. delphini, S. lutrae, and some strains of S. hyicus.
These are often animal-associated species and are
infrequently iso­lated from human samples.
Coagulase-negative
Staphylococci
Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CONS) are
commonly found on the surface of healthy persons.
They are opportunistic pathogens that cause
infection in debilitated or compro­mised patients.
Various species are Staph. epidermidis, Staph.
saprophyticus, Staph. hemolyticus, Staph. hominis,
and Staph. capitis.
Staphylococcus epidermidis
Staph. epidermidis is invariably present on normal
hu­man skin. It is nonpathogenic ordinarily but
can cause disease when the host defences are
breached. S. epidermidis has a distinct predilection
for foreign bodies, such as artificial heart valves,
indwelling intravascular catheters, central nervous
system shunts, and hip prostheses. Their etiological
role is proved by repeated isolation.
Clinical Infection
∙∙ Stitch abscesses; endocarditis of native
and prosth­etic valves; intravenous catheter
infections; CSF shunt infections; bacteremia;
osteomyelitis; wound infections, vascular graft
infections, prosthetic joint infection, etc.
Staphylococcus saprophyticus
S. saprophyticus is a common cause of urinary tract
infections in sexually active young women. It may
also cause ure­thritis in men and women, catheter-
associated uri­nary tract infections, prostatitis in
elderly men, and rarely bacteremia, sepsis and
endocarditis.
This coagulase-negative Staphylococcus can be
distinguished from S. epidermidis by its resistance
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Chap-24.indd 169
Chapter 24: Staphylococcus  | 169
S. aureus S. epidermis S. saprophyticus
+ + –
+ V V
+ – –
+ – –
+ – –
+ –/weak+ –
+ – –
+ – –
Sensitive Sensitive Resistant
to novobiocin and by its failure to ferment glucose
anaerobically. It is nonhemolytic and does not
contain protein A. Table 24.3 lists the features
useful for distinguishing the major species of
staphylococci.
Other Coagulase-negative Staphylococci
S. haemolyticus has been reported in wounds,
bacteremia, endocarditis, and UTIs. Other species
include S. lugdunensis, S. warneri, S. capitis,
S. simulans, and S. schleiferi.
Sensitivity to Antibiotics
Before the introduction of penicillin, most of the
strains of S. aureus were sensitive to this antibiotic.
Staphylococci quickly developed drug resistance
after penicillin was introduced.
Penicillin resistance is of three types:
1. Production of beta lactamase (penicillinase):
Production of beta lactamase (penicillinase)
which inactivates penicillin by splitting the beta
lactam ring. Staphylococci produce four types
of penicillinases, A to D. Penicillinase is an
inducible en­zyme and its production is usually
controlled by plasmids which are transmitted
by transduction or conjugation.
Penicillinase plasmids are transmitted to
the sen­sitive staphylococci by transduction and
also possibly by conjugation.
2. Changes in bacterial surface receptors:
Changes in bacterial surface receptors, reduc­
ing binding of beta-lactam antibiotics to cells.
This change is normally chromosomal in nature
and is expressed more at 30°C than at 37°C. This
resistance also extends to cover beta lactamase-
resistant penicil­lins, such as methicillin and
cloxacillins. Some of these strains may show
resistance to other antibiotics and heavy metals
also and cause outbreaks of hospital infection.
These strains have been called ‘epidemic
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus’
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 170  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Table 24.4  Differentiation between staphylococci and micrococci
Property
Gram staining
Colony characters
Anaerobic acid production from glucose
Aerobic acid production form glycerol
in the presence of erythromycin
Modified oxidase
Bacitracin sensitivity (0.04 unit disk)
Lysostaphin sensitivity
Furazolidone susceptibility (100 µg) of furazolidone disk
or EMR­M. (as methicillin is an unstable drug,
cloxacillin is used for sensitivity testing instead).
3. Development of tolerance: Development of
tolerance to penicillin, by which the bacterium
is only inhibited but not killed.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus (MRSA)
Methicillin was the first compound deve­loped
to combat resistance due to penicillinase (beta
lactamase) production by staphylococci. Due
to the limitations in clinical use of methicillin,
cloxacillins are used instead against penicillinase-
producing strains. But methicillin resistant strains
of Staph. aureus (MRSA) became common, which
were resist­ant not merely to penicillin, but also
to all other beta lactam antibiotics and many
others besides. Isolates that are resistant have
been traditionally termed methicillin-resistant
staphylococci, with S. aureus being called MRSA
and S. epidermidis referred to as MRSE. When
any staphylococcus isolated is identified as being
resistant to meth­icillin, this implies that it is
also resistant to nafcillin and oxacillin and to all
β-lactam antibiotics, including the cepha­losporins.
MRSA is also becoming more common in the
community, especially in long-stay insti­tutions.
Treatment-glycopeptides (vancomycin or
teicoplanin) are the agents of choice in the
treatment of systemic infec­tion, but these agents
are expensive and may be toxic. Concerns with
rising resistance to glycopep­t ides call for the
restrictive use of these drugs.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. For laboratory purposes, oxacillin is generally
used for detection of methicillin resistance.
The use of an oxacillin-salt agar plate, such as
the oxacillin resistance screening agar can be
used as a screening test for MRSA in clinical
Chap-24.indd 170
Staphylococcus Micrococcus
Gram-positive Gram-positive, darkly stained
Grape-like clusters In groups of four (tetrad) or eight
Uniform staining Often staining is not uniform
Colonies are golden Colonies are white in color generally
yellow Size 1 mm Size Larger than staphylococcus
+ –
+ –
– +
Resistant Sensitive
Sensitive Resistance
Sensitive Resistance
samples. A high salt concen­tration (5.5% NaCl)
and polymyxin B make the medium selective
for staphylococci.
2. The gold standard for MRSA detection is the
detection of the mecA gene by using nucleic
acid probes or poly­merase chain reaction (PCR)
amplification.
Control of MRSA: Control of MRSA requires strict
adherence to infection-control practices such as
barrier.
Micrococci
Micrococci are catalase-positive, gram-positive,
coagulase-negative and usually oxidase-positive.
They may ocassionally colonize the skin or mucous
membrane of humans, but they are only rarely
associated with infections.
Only two species, Micrococcus luteus and
Micrococcus lylae, remain in the genus. Micrococci,
especially M. luteus, have a tendency to produce
a yellow pigmented colony. Nine species of genus
Micrococcus have been described.
Table 24.4 gives some differentiating features
of Staphylococcus and Micrococcus.
Key Points
Staphylococcus
™™ Staphylococcus is gram-positive cocci arranged in
clusters
™™ Species of staphylococci are classified by the
coagulase test into two groups: the coagulase-
positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and coagulase-
negative staphylococci. S. epidermidis and S.
saprophyticus
Staphylococcus aureus
™™ Staph. aureus strains usually exhibit following
characteristics: (1) Beta hemolysis; (2) Golden
yellow pigment; (3) Coagulase positive; (4) Greater
biochemical activity, ferment mannite; (5) Liquefy
gelatin; (6) Produce phosphatase; (7) Black colonies
on potassium tellurite blood
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™™ S. aureus produces many virulence factors including:
(1) Cytolytic or membrane-damaging toxins (alpha,
beta, delta, gamma, and Panton-Valentine [P-V]
leukocidin); (2) Exfoliative toxins: (3) Enterotoxins
(A-E, G-I); (4) Toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1)
™™ Diseases: S. aureus causes cutaneous infections
such as folliculitis, boils, carbuncles, impetigo, and
purulent abscesses. These cutaneous infections
can progress to deeper abscesses involving other
organ systems and progress to septicemia and
bacteremia. Toxin-induced diseases, such as food
poisoning, scalded skin syndrome (SSS), and toxic
shock syndrome (TSS), are also associated with this
organism
Other systemic diseases (frequently associated with
bacteremia) include pneumonia, empyema, septic
arthritis, osteomyelitis, acute endocarditis, and
catheter-related bacteremia
™™ Diagnosis: It is done by microscopy, culture, antibiotic
sensitivity tests and serological tests
™™ Bacteriophage typing may be done if the information
is desired for epidemiological purposes
™™ Treatment: The antibiotics of choice are oxacillin
(or other penicillinase-resistant penicillin) or
vancomycin for oxacillin-resistant strains
™™ Methicillin-resistant strains (MRSA). Glycopeptides
(vancomycin or teicoplanin) are the agents of choice
in the treatment of systemic infection
™™ Coagulase-negative staphylococci: Coagulase-
negative staphylococci are opportunistic pathogens
that cause infection in debilitated or compromised
patients. Staph. epidermidis accounts for about 75%
of all clinical isolates. Other species include Staph.
haemolyticus, Staph. hominis, Staph. capitis and
Staph. saprophyticus
™™ Staph. saprophyticus can be distinguished from S.
epidermidis by its resistance to novobiocin and by
its failure to ferment glucose anaerobically
™™ Micrococci may occasionally colonize the skin or
mucous membrane of humans, but they are only
rarely associated with infections.
Important Questions
1. Describe the morphoplogy, cultural characteristics
and antigenic structure of Staphylococ­cus aureus.
2. Name various virulence factors of Staphylococcus
aureus.
3. Classify staphylococci. Discuss pathogenicity and
laboratory diagnosis of Staph. aureus.
4. Write short notes on:
a. Coagulase or staphylocoagulase
b. Clumping factor
c. Toxins and enzymes of produced by Staphylo­
coccus aureus
d. Staphylococcal food poisoning.
e. Toxic shock syndrome
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Chap-24.indd 171
Chapter 24: Staphylococcus  | 171
f. Epidermolytic toxins of Staphyloco­ccus aureus
g. Drug resistance in staphylococci.
h. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA)
i. Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS)
j. Micrococci.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. Staphylococcus aureus shows the following
characters except
a. It produces golden brown pigment on the blood
agar
b. It ferments mannitol
c. It is novobiocin-sensitive
d. It has protein A
2. Protein A is a cell wall components of
a. Staphylococcus aureus
b. Staphylococcus epidermidis
c. All of the above
d. None of the above
3. The enzyme coagulase shows all the following
features except
a. It has eight serotypes
b. It is extracellular
c. It is detected by tube coagulase test
d. Undiluted serum is used in the test
4. Scalded skin syndrome is caused by the
following toxin of Staphylococcus aureus
a. Enterotoxins
b. Toxin shock syndrome
c. Exfoliative toxin
d. Leukocidin
5. Which of the of the following Staphylococcus is
novobiocin resistant?
a. Staphylococcus aureus
b. Staph. epidermidis
c. Staph. saprophyticus
d. None of the above
6. The most common cause of cystitis in a young
healthy sexually active women is:
a. Staphylococcus aureus
b. Staphylococcus epidermidis
c. Staphylococcus saprophyticus
d. Staphylococcus saccharolyticus
7. All are coagulase-negative staphylococci except:
a. Staphylococcus epidermidis
b. Staphylococcus saprophyticus
c. Staphylococcus haemolyticus
d. Staphylococcus aureus
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. a; 3. d; 4. c; 5. c; 6. c; 7. d
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 25
Chapter

Streptococcus and Enterococcus

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Classify streptococci
∙∙ Describe antigenic structure of Str. pyogenes
∙∙ List and describe toxins and enzymes of Strepto­
coccus pyogenes
∙∙ Discuss pathogenicity of streptococci
∙∙ List and describe toxins and enzymes of Strepto­
coccus pyogenes
∙∙ Describe non-suppurative complications of Str.
pyogenes infections
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of streptococcal
infections
∙∙ Discuss group B streptococci, Group D streptococci
and viridans group.

Introduction Classification
The genus Streptococcus comprises a large and Streptococci are first divided into obligate anaerobe
biologically diverse group of gram-positive cocci and facultative anaerobes. Obligate anaerobe are
that grow in pairs or chains (Fig. 25.1). They are designated as peptostreptococci.
normal flora of humans and animals. They inhabit Three different schemes are used to classify the
various sites, notably the upper respiratory tract, organism, as shown in Figure 25.2.
and live harmlessly as commensels.
Streptococci were first described by Billroth
(1874) in exudates from erysipelas and wound
infections, who called them streptococci (streptos,
meaning twisted or coiled; coccus, a grain or
berry). Pasteur (1879) found similar organisms
in the blood of a patient with puerperal sepsis.
Ogston (1881) isolated them in acute abscesses,
distinguished them staphylococci and by animal
inoculation established their pathogenicity.

Fig. 25.1: Streptococci Fig. 25.2: Classification of streptococci

 Chapter 25: Streptococcus and Enterococcus  | 173
1. Hemolytic Activity
The aerobic and facultative anaerobic streptococci
are classified on the basis of their hemolytic
properties. The type of hemolytic reaction
displayed on blood agar has long been used to
classify the streptococci. Brown (1919) categorized
them into three varieties based on their growth in
5% horse blood agar pour plate culture.
A. Alpha-hemolytic (α) Streptococci
They produce a zone of partial hemolysis with a
greenish discoloration around the colonies on
blood agar. The zone of lysis is small (1–2 mm wide)
with indefinite margin, with in this zone unlysed
erythrocytes can be made out microscopically.
The streptococci producing a-hemolysis are also
known as viridans streptococci.
B. Beta (β) Hemolytic Streptococci
They produce a sharply defined, clear, colorless
zone of hemolysis (2–4 mm wide) around the
colony, caused by complete lysis of red blood
cells in the agar medium induced by bacterial
hemolysins. No red blood cell is visible on
microscopic examination in clear zone of complete
hemolysis.
The term ‘hemolytic streptococci’ strictly
applies only to beta lytic strains. β-hemolysis
constitutes the principal marker for potentially
pathogenic streptococci in cultures of throat swabs
or other clinical samples.
C. Gamma (γ) or Non-hemolytic Streptococci
They produce no hemolysis on blood agar.
Enterococcus faecalis is an important organism of
this group.
2. Serological Properties
Lancefield Grouping
The work of Rebecca Lancefield in 1933 laid the
groundwork for the serological classification of
b- hemolytic streptococci. On the basis of group-
specific carbohydrate (C) antigens in the cell
wall, b-hemolytic streptococci are divided into 21
serological groups from A to W (without I and J).
These are known as Lancefield groups. Groups
A, B, C, D, and G are most commonly found
associated with human infections.
Griffith Typing
Hemolytic streptococci of group A are known as
Str. pyogenes. These are further divided into types
based on the protein (M, T and R) antigens present
on the cell surface (Griffith typing). About eighty
types of Str. pyogenes have been recognized so far
(types 1, 2, 3 and so on).
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Biolochemical (Physiologic) Properties
Biochemical and other criteria are also used in
defining various species within a single serogroup,
and some species contain strains of more than one
serogroup.
Table 25.1 shows characteristics and clinical
significance of important streptococci and
enterococci.
Streptococcus pyogenes
Morphology
S. pyogenes are gram-positive, spherical to ovoid
organisms 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. The organism
grows in short or moderately long chains, the chain
length being dependent on the strain and culture
medium. Chain formation is due to the cocci
dividing in one plane only and the daughter cells
failing to separate completely. Chains are longer in
liquid media than in solid media.
Streptococci are nonmotile and nonsporing.
Some strains of S. pyogenes and some group C
strains produce a capsule of hyaluronic acid,
while polysaccharide capsules are encountered
in members of group B and D which may be
demonstrable in very young cultures.
Cultural Characteristics
They are aerobe and facultative anaerobes, growing
best at a temperature of 37°C (range 22–42°C). The
optimal pH for growth is 7.4–7.6. It is exacting in
nutritive requirements, growth occurring only in
media containing fermentable carbohydrates or
enriched with blood or serum.
On blood agar, S. pyogenes colonies are small
(0.5–1 mm in diameter), circular, semitransparent,
low convex disks surrounded by a wide zone
of β-hemolysis, several times greater than the
diameter of the colony after incubation for 24
hours. An enhancement of growth and hemolysis
are promoted by 10% CO 2 . The matt (finely
granular) colonies contain M antigen, which are
virulent strains, while avirulent strains form glossy
colonies. Mucoid colonies may occur when a strain
is heavily capsulate. Very rarely, nonhemoloytic
group A streptococci are encountered, which are
typical of S. pyogenes in other respects.
Crystal violet blood agar and PNF medium
(blood agar containing polymyxin-B, neomycin
and fusidic acid) are selective for beta hemolytic
streptococci. Pike’s medium is a transport
medium for clinical specimens containing Group A
streptococci. Pike’s medium is prepared by adding
crystal violet (1 in 1,000,000) and sodium azide (1
in 16,000) to blood agar.
In liquid media, such as glucose or serum
broth, growth occurs as a granular turbidity with a
powdery deposit. No pellicle is formed.
174  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Table 25.1  Characteristics and clinical significance of important streptococci and enterococci
Species Lancefield Hemolysis Natural habitat Associated diseases Laboratory tests
group
Str. pyogenes A Beta Throat, skin Pharyngitis, scarlet fever, Bacitracin sensitive;
pyo­derma, erysipelas, PYR test positive;
cellulitis, nec­rotizing fasciitis, Ribose not
streptococcal toxic shock fermented
syndrome, bactere­mia,
rheumatic fever, glomerulo­
nephritis
Str. agalactiae B Beta Female genital Neonatal sepsis, meningitis, Hippurate
tract, rectum puerperal fever, pyogenic hydrolysis, CAMP
infections test,
S. equisimilis C Beta Throat Pharyngitis, endocarditis Ribose and
trehalose
fermentation
Enterococcus sp. Group D Variable Gastrointestinal Urinary tract infections, Growth in 6.5%
(Enterococcus hemolysis tract, oral cavity, endocarditis, bacteremia, NaCI; PYR positive
fecalis and other gallbladder, abdominal infections
enterococci) urethra, and
vagina
Nonenterococcal Group D Alpha- Gastrointestinal Neonatal meningitis No growth in 6.5%
Group D species hemolytic or tract NaCI
(Streptococcus nonhemolytic
bovis)
Str. anginosus A, C, F, G, Beta (alpha, Throat, colon, Pyogenic infections Group A strains
group untypable gamma) female genital bacitracin-resistant
tract PYR negative
colony variants of
other groups
Viridans Not typed Alpha Mouth, throat, Dental caries; endocarditis Optochin
streptococci (Str. (gamma) colon, female resistant, species
mitis, Str. mutans, genital tract classification
Str. salivarious, on biochemical
and many other properties
species)

Biochemical Reactions Antigenic Structure (Fig. 25.3)

i. Str. pyogenes is Catalase negative.
ii. Insoluble in 10% bile unlike S. pneumoniae.
iii. It ferments several sugars producing acid and
no gas.
iv. Hydrolysis of pyrrolidonyl naphthylamine
(PYR test) is positive and failure to ferment
ribose distinguishes it from non-group A
hemolytic streptococci.
Resistance
Strep. pyogenes is a delicate organism, can be killed
by heating at 54°C for 30 minutes. It can, however,
survive in dust for several weeks, if protected from
sunlight. It is more resistant to crystal violet than
many other bacteria, including Staphylococcus
aureus; hence, it is used for preparation of selective
media. It is sensitive to benzylpenicillin and a
wide range of antimicrobial drugs. It is susceptible
to sulfonamides, but unlike Staph. aureus does
not develop resistance to drugs. It is sensitive to
bacitracin, and this property is employed as a
convenient method for differentiating Str. pyogenes
from other hemolytic streptococci.
1. Inner layer of Peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan: Peptidoglycan (mucoprotein) is
responsible for cell wall rigidity, pyrogenic and
thrombolytic activity.
2. Group-specific Polysaccharide Antigen
Serologic classification of b-hemolytic streptococci
is based on their cell wall polysaccharide antigen.
As this antigen is integral part of the cell wall, it has
to be extracted for grouping by a precipitation test
with group antisera.
Techniques for the extraction of the group
antigens:
i. Lancefield’s acid extraction method: For the
test, streptococci are grown in Todd-Hewitt
broth and extracted with hydrochloric acid.
ii. Formamide (Fuller’s method).
iii. By enzyme produced by Streptococcus albus
(Maxted’s method).
iv. By autoclaving (Rantz and Randall’s method).
 Chapter 25: Streptococcus and Enterococcus  | 175
Fig. 25.3: Antigenic structure of Str. pyogenes: 1. Hyaluronic
acid capsule; 2. Cell wall comprising; 2A, peptidoglycan, 2B.
group-specific carbohydrate, and 2C. protein lipoteichoic
acid fimbria; 3. Cytoplasmic membrane; 4. Cytoplasm; 5. Pili
covered with lipoteichoic acid
Test performance
The extract and the specific antisera are allowed to
react in capillary tubes. A white disk of precipitation
may be seen within five minutes. Tests may be
performed in the narrowing neck of small Pasteur
pipette. A variety of agglutination techniques using
extracts or whole cells may also be used.
3. Outer layer
a. Type-specific Antigens
Several proteins antigens have been identified
in the outer layer of the cell wall. Streptococcus
pyogenes can be typed, based on the surface
proteins M, T and R.
i. M protein
The M protein is the most important of these three.
It acts as virulence factor by inhibiting phagocytosis.
It is antigenic and specific anti-M antibody develops
after infection. M protein is resistant to heat and
acid but susceptible to trypsin. It can be extracted
by the Lancefield acid extraction method and M
typing is performed by capillary tube precipitation
test using type-specific antisera and acid extract.
About 100 M protein types have been recognized.
ii. T protein
T (Trypsin-resistant) protein is heat and acid-lable
but resistant to trypsin present in many serotypes of
S. pyogenes. It may be specific but many different
M types possess the same antigen. T typing is
performed by a slide agglutination test that uses
trypsin-treated whole streptococci.
iii. R protein
Some strains of S. pyogenes (types 2, 3, 28 and 48)
and some strains of groups B, C and G contain
third antigen R protein. R protein has no relation
to virulence.
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iv. M associated protein (MAP)
A nontype-specific protein, associated with the
M protein. This is known as M-associated protein
(MAP).
b. Other cell surface components
Other important components in the cell wall of
S. pyogenes include M-like proteins, lipoteichoic
acid, and F protein. Lipoteichoic acid, and
F protein facilitate binding of host cells by
complexing with fibronectin, which is present on
the host cell surface.
c. Capsule
The outermost layer of the cell wall is the capsule,
which is composed of hyaluronic acid and is not
immunogenic. It has an antiphagocytic effect like
other bacterial capsule.
Toxins and Enzymes
Str. pyogenes forms several exotoxins and enzymes
which contribute to its virulence.
A. Toxins
1. Hemolysins
Two hemolytic and cytolytic toxins—streptolysin
O (SLO) and streptolysin S (SLS)—are produced
by most strains of group A streptococci and many
strains of groups C and G.
i. Streptolysin O
Streptolysin O is so called because it is oxygen-
labile hemolysin. It is inactivated in the oxidized
form but may be reactivated by treatment with
mild reducing agents. SLO is heat-labile protein,
cytolytic and capable of lysing erythrocytes,
leukocytes, platelets and cultured cells. It is lethal
on intravenous injection into animals and has a
specific cardiotoxic activity.
ASO Test
Streptolysin O is strongly antigenic and anti-
streptolysin O (ASO) antibodies appears in sera
following streptococcal infection. An ASO titer
in excess of 200 Todd units/mL is considered
significant and suggests either recent or recurrent
infection with streptococci.
ii. Streptolysin S (SLS)
Streptolysin S is an oxygen-stable and causes the
hemolysis around the colonies on aerobic blood
culture. It is protein but nonantigenic. It is cell-
bound hemolysin that can lyse erythrocytes, leuko­
cytes, and platelets.
2. Pyrogenic Exotoxins (Erythrogenic, Dick,
Scarlatinal Toxin)
The primary effect of the toxin is induction of fever
and so it was renamed streptococcal pyrogenic
176  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
exotoxin (SPE). This toxin was originally called
‘erythrogenic’ toxins because its intradermal
injection into susceptible individuals produced an
erythematous reaction (Dick test, 1924). Antitoxin
injected into the skin of a patient with scarlet fever
causes localized blanching as a result of neutral­
ization of erythrogenic toxin (Schultz-Charlton
reaction).
Three immunologically distinct types heat-
labile toxins (SPE A, B, and C) have been described in
S. pyogenes. Type A and C are encoded by
lysogenic phages; the gene for B is located on the
bacterial chromosome. SPEs act as ‘superantigens’
interacting with both macrophages and helper T
cells with the release of inflammatery cytokines.
These cytokines cause important effects, including
the fever, shock, the organ failure and the rash
observed in patients with scarlet fever.
B. Enzymes
1. Deoxyribonucleases (streptodornase DNAase)
These enzymes are capable of depolymerizing the
highly viscous DNA which accummlates in thick pus
as a result of disintegration of polymorphonuclear
leukocytes. Streptodornase helps to liquefy the
thick pus and may be responsible for the thin serous
character of streptococcal exudates. This property
has been applied therapeutically for breaking down
blood clots, thick pus and fibrinous exudates in
closed spaces such as joints or pleural cavity.
There are four antigenically distinct nucleases
(A, B, C and D), of which B is the most antigenic in
human beings. Antibody titers to DNase B are of
great value in the serodiagnosis of pharyngeal or
skin infection, especially the latter, where the ASO
titer may be low.
2. Streptokinase (Fibrinolysin)
Streptokinase, also known as fibrinolysin, is
another spreading factor. This acts on plasminogen,
a factor present in normal plasma, which is
converted into plasmin, an active proteolytic
enzyme that lyses fibrin. Fibrinolysin appears to
play a biological role in streptococcal infections by
breaking down the fibrin barrier around the lesions
and facilitates the spread of infection.
An antigenic protein and neutralizing anti­
bodies appear in convalescent sera which provide
retrospective evidence of streptococcal infection.
3. Hyaluronidase
Hyaluronidase splits hyaluronic acid, and might
favor the spread of streptococcal infection along
the intercellular spaces.
4. Proteinase
It destroys several proteins formed by the Strepto­
coccus itself.
5. Serum opacity factor (SOF)
The exact biological significance is not known it is
produced mainly by strains causing skin infections.
6. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotidase (NADase)
It is believed to be leukotoxic.
7. Other enzymes
Many strains of streptococci also produce ATPase,
phosphatase, esterases, amylase, N-acetylglucos­
aminidase, neuraminidase. and other toxins or
enzymes.
Epidemiology
Group A streptococci commonly colonize the
oropharynx of healthy children and young adults.
Person-to-person spread is by respiratory droplets
(pharyngitis) or through breaks in skin after direct
contact with infected person, fomite, or arthropod
vector. Although the organism is ubiquitous, there
are seasonal incidences of specific diseases.
Pharyngitis due to S. pyogenes is primarily a
disease of childhood between the age of 5 and 15
years, but. Crowding, such as in classrooms and
daycare facilities, increase the opportunity for the
organism to spread. No seasonal distribution has
been identified in the tropics. Immunity is type
specific and appears to be associated with antibody
to the M protein. Reinfections occur because of the
multiplicity of the serotypes.
Pathogenesis
Acute diseases associated with Streptococcus
pyogenes occur chiefly in the respiratory tract,
bloodstream, or the skin. Two post streptococcal
sequelae (rheumatic fever following respiratory
infection and glomerulonephritis following
respiratory or skin infection), occur in 1–3% of
untreated infections.
A. Suppurative Streptococcal Disease
1. Respiratory Infections
i. Sore throat is the most common of
streptococcal disease. It may be localized as
tonsillitis or may involve the pharynx more
diffusely (pharyngitis). Tonsillitis is more
common in older children and adults than in
younger children.
ii. Scarlet fever : It is a complication of
streptococcal pharyngitis that occurs when
the infecting strain is ly­s ogenized by a
temperate bacteriophage that stimulates
production of a pyrogenic exotoxin.
iii. Suppurative complications: The infection
may spread to the surrounding tissues which
may cause suppurative complications of
streptococcal pharyngitis, such as periton­
sillar or retropharyngeal abscess, otitis
 Chapter 25: Streptococcus and Enterococcus  | 177
media, mastoitidis, quinsy, Ludwig’s angina, Table 25.2  Distinguishing features of rheumatic
suppurative adenitis and disseminated fever and glomerulonephritis
infections to brain, heart, bone, and joints.
Feature Acute Acute
2. Skin and Soft Tissue Infections rheumatic glomerulonephritis
Str. pyogenes causes a variety of suppurative fever
infections of the skin, including infection of Primary site of Throat Throat or skin
wounds or burns, with a predilection to produce infection
lymphangitis and cellulitis. Infection of minor Latent period Longer Shorter (1–3 weeks)
abrasions may at times lead to fatal septicemia. (2–5 weeks)
The two typical streptococcal skin infections are Prior Essential Not necessary
erysipelas and impetigo. sensitization
i. Erysipelas: Erysipelas is an acute infection of Repeated Common Absent
the skin. It is a diffuse infection involving the attacks
superficial lymphatics. Erysipelas occurs most Genetic Present Not known
commonly in young children or older adults. susceptibility
ii. Pyoderma (impetigo): Pyoderma (impetigo) Serotype of Any Pyodermal types 49,
is seen primarily in young children. Group Str. pyogenes 53–55, 59–61 and
A streptococci causing impetigo are pharyngitis strains 1
frequently nephritogenic, that leads to acute and 12
glomerulonephritis. Immune Marked Moderate
For retrospective diagnosis of pyoderma response
antecendent to acute glomerulonephritis, Complement Unaffected Lowered
antibody to DNAase B and hyaluronidase are level
more useful. Course Progressive or Not indicated
iii. Cellulitis: Typically involves the skin and static
deeper subcutaneous tissues. Prognosis Variable Good
iv. Necrotizing fascitis (Streptococcal gangrene). Penicillin Essential Not indicated
v. Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome. prophylaxis

3. Other Suppurative Infections

a. Puerperal sepsis: Streptococcal puerperal
sepsis used to take a heavy toll of life before
antibiotics became available.
b. Abscesses in internal organs, such as the
brain, lungs, liver and kidneys.
c. Septicemia and pyemia.
B. Nonsuppurative Sequelae
Str. pyogenes infections lead to two important
nonsuppurative sequelae: acute rheumatic
fever (ARF) and acute glomerulonephritis
(AGN). Both are caused by immune reactions
induced by the streptococcal infection. These
complications ensue 1–5 weeks after the acute
infection. They differ in their natural history in
a number of respects (Table 25.2).
1. Acute Rheumatic Fever (ARF)
Rheumatic fever is a non­suppurative inflammatory
reaction that is epidemiologically and serologically
related to antecedent group A streptococcal
infection. Typically, rheumatic fever follows
persitent or repeated streptococcal throat infection
with a srong antibody response. The disease is
caused by specific M types.
Pathogenesis
The pathogenesis of rheumatic fever is poorly
understood. The disease is autoimmune in nature
and is believed to result from the production of
antibodies and T lymphocytes induced by cross-
reactive components of the bacteria and host
tissues.
A common cross-reacting antigen may
exist in some group a streptococci and heart,
therefore, antibodies produced in response to
the streptococcal infection could cross-react with
myocardial and heart value tissues, causing cellular
destruction.
2. Acute Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis
(AGN)
In contrast to rheumatic fever, which occurs only
after pharyngitis, AGN may be seen after either
a pharyngeal or a cutaneous infection. Specific
nephritogenic strains of group A streptococci are
associated with this disease. AGN is most often
seen in children
Pathogenesis
1. Immune complex deposition in the glomeruli.
2. Reaction of antibodies cross-reactive with
streptococcal and glomerular antigen.
3. Alterations of glomerular tissues by strepto­
coccal products such as streptokinase.
4. Direct complement activation by streptococcal
components that have a direct affinity for
glomerular tissues.

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178  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
5. Circulating immune complexes have been
found in the serum of patients with acute
poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis.
Laboratory diagnosis
In acute infections, diagnosis is established by
the isolation and identification of β-streptococci
from the patient, while in non-suppurative
complications, diagnosis is based mainly on the
examination of the patient’s serum for a rising titer
of antibody to one or more streptococcal antigens.
1. Acute Suppurative Infections
A. Specimens
Throat and nose swabs, high vaginal swabs, pus
or pus swabs are the usual specimens collected.
Serum is obtained for antibody demonstration.
B. Microscopy
Presumptive information may be obtained by an
examination of Gram stained films from pus and
CSF. The observation of typical gram-positive
cocci in chains may indicate the likelihood of the
presence of streptococcal infection. In contrast,
smears are of no value in infections of throat or
genitalia, where streptococci may form part of part
of the resident flora and has a poor predictive value.
C. Culture
For culture, swabs should be collected under vision
from the affected site and either plated immediately
or if there is likely to be delay, swab should be sent
to the laboratory in Pike’s medium (blood agar
containing 1 in 1,000,000 crystal violet and in 1 in
16,000 sodium azide). The specimen is plated on
blood agar and incubated at 37°C anaerobically or
under 5–10% CO2, as hemolysis develops better
un­d er these conditions. Sheep blood agar is
recommend­ed for primary isolation because it is
inhibitory for Haemophilus haemolyticus, colonies
of which may be confused with those of hemolytic
streptococci but their hemolysis is stronger on
aerobic than on anaerobic plates.
Crystal violet blood agar and PNF medium
are selective media that inhibit many throat
commensal bacteria and may facilitate the
detection of small numbers of S. pyogenes in throat
swabs.They are rarely used for routine culture. S.
pyogenes does not grow on MacConkey’s bile-salt
medium.
For isolating group A streptococci from throat
swabs the most common medium is blood agar
supplemented with antibiotics trimethoprim­/
sulfamethoxazole to suppress the groth of normal
flora.
D. Identification
Colonies of S. pyogenes on SBA are small,
transparent, and smooth with a well-defined area
of β-hemolysis. A Gram stain will reveal gram-
positive cocci with some short chains. Hemolytic
streptococci are grouped by the Lancefield
technique using serologic methods, or biochemical
tests can be performed. The fluorescent antibody
technique has been employed for the rapid
identification of group A streptococci. A key test
that should be done is bacitracin susceptibility
or PYR hydrolysis.
Bacitracin susceptibility: S. pyogenes is more
sensitive to bacitracin than most other streptococci,
A disk containing 0.04 units of bacitracin is applied
on the surface of an inoculated blood culture plate.
S. pyogenes should show a large inhi­bition zone
(e.g. >15 mm diameter) and most other streptococci
should show little or no inhibition. S. pyogenes is
susceptible to bacitracin and hydrolyzes PYR,
whereas the other β-hemolytic groups are resistant
to bacitracin and are PYR negative.
Typing of Str. pyogenes is required for epidemio­
logical in spe­cialized reference laboratories.
E. Antigen Detection
Detection of Str. pyogenes is done directly in throat
swabs without cultivation. Enzyme immunoassay
(ElA) or agglutination tests are used to demonstrate
the presence of the antigen.
2. Non-suppurative Complications
Serological Tests
Detection of antibodies against antigens of Str.
pyogenes is an important means of establishing
the diagnosis of poststreptococcal rheumatic
fever and glomerulonephritis. Some immunologic
tests used to detect past infection with S. pyogenes
include ASO, anti-DNase, anti­streptokinase, and
antihyaluronidase titers.
Antistreptolysin O (ASO) test is used most
frequently. ASO titers higher than 200 Todd units/
mL are indicative of prior streptococ­cal infection.
High levels are usually found in acute rheumatic
fever but in glomerulonephritis, titers are often low.
Antideoxyribonuclease B (anti­D Nase B)
estimation is also commonly employed. Titers
higher than 300 or 350 are taken as significant.
Anti­DNase B and antihyaluronidase (ASH) tests
are very useful for the retrospective diagnosis of
streptococcal pyoderma, for which ASO is of much
less value.
Commercial products are available for detection
of antistreptococcal antibodies. Streptozyme
test detects a mixture of antibodies.It is a passive
slide he­magglutination test using erythrocytes
 Chapter 25: Streptococcus and Enterococcus  | 179
sensitized with a crude preparation of extracellular
antigens of streptococci, is a convenient, sensitive
and speci­fic screening test. It becomes positive
after nearly all types of streptococcal infections,
whether of the throat or the skin.
Treatment
S. pyogenes is very sensitive to penicillin and
penicillin resistance has not yet been observed in
S. pyogenes. Erythromycin or an oral cephalosporin
can be used in patients with a history of penicillin
allergy. Adequate treatment during acute infec­tion
prevents the complications of acute rhematic fever.
Prophylaxis
Patients with a history of rheumatic fever require
long-term antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent
recurrence of the disease. Those persons who have
recovered from ARF are given oral peni­cillin for many
years to prevent recurrence. Antimicrobial drugs
have no effect on established cases of AGN and ARF.
Other streptococci pathogenic
for humans
Besides Str. pyogenes, streptococci belonging to
groups B, C, D, F, G and rarely H, K, O and R may
also cause human infections.
Group B Streptococci: Streptococcus
agalactiae
Streptococcus agalactiae belongs to Lancefield
group B. Human pathogenic Group B strains
possess a polysaccharide capsule. Nine capsular
serotypes have been identified.
Previously, Streptococcus agalactiae was
recognized primarily as a cause of bovine mastitis
(agalactia, want of milk). It has become the leading
cause of neonatal infections in industrialized
countries and is also important cause of morbidity
among peripartum women and nonpregnant
adults with chronic medical conditions.
Strept. agalactiae is found in the vaginocervical
tract of female carriers. Transmission occurs from
an infected mother to her infant at birth.
Clinical Diseases
1. Infection in the neonate
A. Early-onset disease : It develops during the
first week of life and disease is characterized by
bacteremia, pneumonia, or meninigitis and is
often fatal.
B. Late-onset disease: It develops between
second and twelfth weeks of life. The predominant
manifestation is bacteremia with meningitis, but
septic arthritis.
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Other group B infections in neonates: Osteomy­
elitis, conjunctivitis, sinusitis, otitis media,
endocarditis and peritonitis may also occur.
2. Infections in the adult: Puerperal sepsis,
pneumonia endo­metritis, urinary tract infection,
wound infection, and bac­teremia.
Identification
Pre sumptive identification method is based on
their ability to hydrolyze hippurate. They may be
identified by the CAMP reaction (Christie, Atkins
and Munch-Peterson), which can be demonstrated
as an accentuated zone of hemolysis (arrowhead-
shaped area of enhanced hemolysis) when Str.
agalactiae is inoculated perpendicular to a streak
of Staph. aureus grown on blood agar (Fig. 25.4). S.
agalactiae produces a CAMP factor that enhances
the lysis of sheep red cells by staphylococcal β-lysin.
Group B streptococci are identified definitively by the
demonstration of the group-specific carbohydrate
or the use of commercially prepared molecular
probes. Occasional strains are bacitracin sensitive.
Group C Streptococci
Streptococci of this group are predominantly
animal pathogens and comprise four species: S.
equi, S. equisimilis, S. dysgalactiae and S. zooep­
idemicus. Group C strains isolated from human
sources usually belong to S. equisimilis. It can
cause upper respiratory infections, as well as deep
infections, such as endocarditis, osteomyelitis,
brain abscess, pneumonia and puerperal sepsis.
All species of group C are β-hemolytic, with
the exception of S. dysgalactiae, which may be
a-hemolytic or nonhemolytic. It resembles Str.
pyogenes in fermenting treha­lose but differs in
fermenting ribose. It produces streptolysin O,
streptokinase and other extracellu­lar substances.
Treatment: Treatment is similar to that used for
group A streptococcal infections.
Group G Streptococci
These are commensals in the throats of hu­man
beings, monkeys or dogs. These may cause sore
Fig. 25.4: CAMP reaction
180  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
throat, pneumo­nia, septicemia, endocarditis, and
bone, joint, skin and wound infections.
Group D Streptococci
Until the mid-1980s, the group D strepto­cocci were
divided into the two groups:
1. Enterococcus group (enterococci or fecal
streptococci) which have been reclassified as
a separate genus called Enterococcus.
2. Nonenterococcal group, for example, Str. bovis,
Str. equinus.
Enterococcus
The enterococci (“enteric cocci”) were previously
clas­sified as group D streptococci (Table 25.3). The
enterococci were reclassified into the new genus
Enterococcus, and there are currently 16 species
in this genus.
Species
Entero­coccus faecalis (“pertaining to feces”) is
the Ente­rococcus most often isolated from human
sources.
Enterococcus fae­cium (“of feces”).
Other species: E. durans, E. avium, E. casseliflavus,
E. gallinarum, and E. raffinosus are observed
occasionally.
Characteristics of Enterococci
The enterococci are gram-positive cocci typically
ar­ranged in pairs and short chains, and is nonmotile
and noncapsulate. The cocci are facultatively
anaerobic and grow optimally at 35°C, although
most isolates can grow in the temperature range
10°C to 45°C. They grow read­ily on blood agar
media, with large, white colonies appearing
after 24 hours of incubation; the colonies are
typically nonhemolytic but can be α-hemolytic or
β-­hemolytic. It grows readily on ordinary nutrient
media and on MacConkey agar, on which it forms
small (0.5–1 mm), usually magenta-colored
colonies.
Distinctive Features of Enterococci
The enterococci possess several distinctive
features separting them from sreptocooci: The
enterococci grow in the presence of 6.5% NaCl,
40% bile, at ph 9.6, at 45°C and in 0.1% methelyne
blue. It survives heating at 60°C for 30 min, a
feature distinguishing it from streptococci, and
also grows within a wider range of temperatures
(10–45°C). On MacConkey medium, they produce
deep pink colonies. Enterococci are PYRase test
positive. They do not hydrolyze hippurate.
Identification
The identification of Enterococcus species is made
on biochemical characteristics. E. aecalis can
be identified by its ability to ferment mannitol,
sucrose, sorbitol and aesculin, and to grow on
tellurite blood agar producing black colonies with
gas production. It is VP positive.
Clinical Infections
The enterococci inhabit the gasterointestinal
tract and the genitourinary tract in humans and
other animals. Enterococci are frequent causes of
nosocomial infec­tions and may cause urinary tract
infection, bacteremia, infective endocarditis,
biliary tract infection, intra-abdominal abscess
complicating diverticulitis, peritonitis and
wound infection.
Treatment
Most strains of enterococci are resistant to
penicillin. They are also resistant to sulfona­mides.
Recently they have developed resist­ance to newer
penicillins and cephalosporins, streptomycin and
gentamicin.

Nonenterococcal Species of Group D

Table 25.3  Differences between group D
streptococci and Enterococcus spp Nonenterococcal species of group D (Str. bovis,
Str. equinus) are generally susceptible to penicillin
Characteristics Group D Enterococcus spp and are inhibited by 6.5% sodium chloride or bile.
streptococci
They may cause urinary infection or endocarditis
1. Hemolysis type α , none α, β, none rarely.
2. G
 rowth in 6.5% – +
sodium chloride Viridans streptococci
3. G
 rowth in – +
presence of 40% The viridans streptococci are commensals of
bile mouth and upper respiratory tract. The viridans
4. Growth at 45°C – + group of streptococci are a heterogeneous
collection of α-hemolytic and nonhemolytic
5. PYRase test – +
strepto­c occi. The term viridis means “green.”
6. S usceptibility to + – (Latin for “green”) because many of these bacteria
penicillin
produce a green pigment on blood agar media.
 Chapter 25: Streptococcus and Enterococcus  | 181
Classification
The current clas­sification assigns streptococci
species in the viridans group to one of the four
groups:
1. Anginosus group (S. anginosus, S. constellatus,
and S, intermedius): Organisms of the angi­
nosus group may possess the Lancefield group
A, C, F, G, or N antigen and in some instances
may not be groupable.
2. Mitis group (S. sanguis, S. mitis, etc.)
3. Mutans group (S. mutans, etc.)
4. Salivarius groups (S. salivarius).
Clinical Infections
The viridans streptococci are opportunistic
pathogens but can, on occasion, cause disease.
Two clinically important phenomena are associ­
ated with viridans streptococci. dental caries and
subacute endocarditis. Streptococcus anginosus is
responsible for causing pyogenic infections, They
have also been implicated in meningitis, abscesses,
osteomyelitis, and empyema.
1. Dental Caries
S. mutans is the principal cause of dental caries
(tooth decay). S. mutans adheres to dental surfaces
via extracellular carbohydrates (dextran) and
erodes the teeth by con­verting sucrose to acetic
acid and lactate. It breaks down dietary sucrose,
producing acid and a tough adhesive dextran.
The acid damages dentine and the dextrans bind
together food debris, epithelial cells, mucus and
bacteria to form dental plaques, which lead
to caries. Experimental caries in monkeys has
been prevented by a Str. mutans vaccine, but its
extention to human use is fraught with problems.
2. Subacute Endocar­ditis
Viridans streptococci are the most common cause
of subacute bacterial endocarditis. About two-
thirds of the viridans-associated cases are due to
S. sanguis and S. mutans. Transient bacteremia is
associated with endocarditis. Most patients have
underlying valvular heart disease, and the course
of the endocarditis is generally subacute. Dental
procedures, vigorous tooth brushing or chew­ing,
and use of a water pick to clean teeth can cause
a transient bacteremia that is enough to initiate
valvu­lar infection in a person with damaged
valvular tissue. While viridans streptococci
are generally penicillin-sensitive, some strains
may be resistant. It is, therefore, essential that
in endocarditis, the causative strain is isolated
and its antibiotic sensitivity determined so that
appropriate antibiotics in adequate bactericidal
concentration can be employed for treatment.
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Key Points
™™ Streptococci are gram-positive cocci arranged in
long chains
™™ Three different schemes are used to classify the
organism:
Streptococcus pyogenes
™™ Strep. pyogenes are gram-positive, spherical to ovoid
organisms
™™ Catalase-negative; PYR-positive; bacitracin-
susceptible are important identification tests
™™ Crystal violet blood agar and PNF medium are
selective for beta hemolytic streptococci
™™ Antigenic structure: Many streptococci can be
categorized based on Lancefield group antigens
Diseases:
A. Respiratory infection 1. Streptococcal pharyngitis;
2. Scarlet fever (complication of pharyngitis)
B. Pyogenic cutaneous infections: Impetigo,
erysipelas, cellulitis; necrotizing fasciitis involving
deep subcutaneous tissues; streptococcal toxic
shock syndrome
™™ Nonsuppurative sequelae: Rheumatic fever and
acute glomerulonephritis
™™ Laboratory diagnosis is done by microscopy, culture,
antigen detection and serological tests such as
ASO, anti-DNase, antistreptokinase, and anti-
hyaluronidase titers to detect past infection with
S. pyogenes
™™ Streptococcus agalactiae is a significant cause of
invasive disease in newborns. Positive CAMP and
hippurate hydrolysis reactions are important
identification tests
™™ Enterococci: Enterococcus faecalis is the Enterococcus
most often isolated from human sources. Enterococci
are frequent causes of nosocomial infections and
may cause urinary tract infection, bacteremia,
infective endocarditis, biliary tract infection, intra-
abdominal abscess complicating diverticulitis,
peritonitis and wound infection
™™ Viridans streptococci: The viridans streptococci are
commensals in mouth and upper respiratory tract
that are regarded as opportunistic pathogens. Two
clinically important phenomena are associated with
viridans streptococci: dental caries (tooth decay)
and infective endocarditis.
Important Questions
1. Classify streptococci. Describe the laboratory
diagnosis of streptococcal sore throat.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Antigenic structure of Str.pyogenes
b. Lancefield grouping
c. Toxins and enzymes of Streptococcus pyogenes
d. Pathogenicity of streptococci
e. Nonsuppurative complications of Str. pyogenes
infections
3. Write briefly about:
a. Group B streptococci
b. CAMP reaction
c. Group D streptococci
d. Enterococci (or) fecal streptococci
e. Viridans streptococci
f. Heat test.
182  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Multiple choice questions (MCQs) 4. Which of the following is selective medium for
Streptococcus pyogenes?
1. Which type of hemolysis is produced by Strepto­ a. Blood agar
coccus pyogenes on blood agar?
b. Crystal violet blood agar
a. Alpha hemolysis b. Beta hemolysis
c. Gamma hemolysis d. None of the above c. Potassium tellurite blood agar
2. Group-specific antigen extraction of Streptococcus d. Chocolate agar
pyogenes by treating with hydrochloric acid 5. Susceptibility to bacitracin can be used to identify:
method is known as
a. Streptococcus pyogenes
a. Lancefield’s method b. Fuller’s method
b. Streptococcus viridans
c. Maxted’s method d. Randall’s method
3. Erythrogenic toxin is responsible for: c. Streptococcus mitis
a. Pyoderma d. Streptococcus agalactiae
b. Schultz-Charlton reaction
c. Necrotising facititis Answers (MCQs)
d. All of the above 1. b; 2. a; 3. b; 4. b; 5; a
 26
Chapter
Pneumococcus (Diplococcus pneumoniae:
Streptococcus pneumoniae)

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Explain C-reactive protein
be able to: ∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of pneumococcal
∙∙ Describe morphology and cultural characters of infections
pneumococci ∙∙ Differentiate between Str. pneumoniae and Str.
∙∙ Describe Quellung reaction viridans.

Introduction for which some strains have a strict requirement.

Optimum temperature being 37°C (range 25–40°C)
Pneumococcus, a gram-positive lanceolate and pH 7.8 (range 6.5–8.3). Pneumococcus has
Diplococcus, formerly classified as Diplococcus complex nutritional requirements and grow only
pneumomiae, has been reclassified as Str.
pneumoniae because of its genetic relatedness to
streptococcus. Pneumococcus differs from other
streptococci chiefly in its morphology, bile solubility,
optochin sensitivity and possession of a specific
polysaccharide capsule. Pneumococci are normal
inhabitants of the human upper respiratory tract.

Pneumococcus
(Diplococcus Pneumoniae,
Streptococcus Pneumoniae)
Morphology
Pneumococci are gram-positive cocci in pairs Fig. 26.1: Str. pneumoniae in pus
(diplococci). The cocci are about 1 μm, slightly
elongated cocci, with one end broad or rounded
and the other pointed, presenting a flame-shaped
or lanceolate appearance (Fig. 26.1). They are
nonmotile and nonsporing.
All freshly isolated strains are capsulate. The
capsule encloses each pair. The capsule may
be demonstrated as a clear halo in Indian ink
preparations (Fig. 26.2) or may be stained directly
by special techniques or by use of homologous
type-specific antibody in the Quellung reaction.

Cultural Characteristics
They are aerobes and facultative anaerobes. It Fig. 26.2: Pneumococci. Indian ink preparation to show
grows best in air or hydrogen with 5–10% CO2 , capsules

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184  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
in enriched me­dia. It grows on ordinary media, but
better on media with serum, blood or heated blood.
On blood agar, after incubation for 18 hours,
the colonies are small (0.5–1 mm), dome-shaped
and glistening, with an area of green discoloration
(alpha hemolysis) around them. On further
incubation, the colonies become flat with raised
edges and depressed centrally, so that concentric
rings are seen on the surface when viewed from
above (draughtsman or carrom coin appear­ance)
which is due to autolysis of bacteria within the flat
pneumococcal colonies.
Under anaerobic conditions, however, a zone of
beta hemolysis is produced around the colony by
an oxygen­labile pneumolysin O. In liquid media
such as glucose broth, growth occurs as uniform
turbidity. The cocci readily undergo autolysis in
cultures due to the activity of intracellular enzymes.
Autolysis is en­hanced by bile salts, sodium lauryl
sulfate and other surface active agents.
Biochemical Reactions
1. Inulin fermentation: Pneumococci ferment
sever­al sugars with the production of acid and
no gas. Fermentation of inulin by pneumococci
is a useful test for dif­ferentiating them from
streptococci as the latter do not ferment it.
Fermentation is tested in Hiss’s serum water
or serum agar slopes.
2. Bile solubility test:
Basis: Bile solubility test for identifying
pneu­m ococci is based on the presence in
pneumococci, of an autolytic amidase that
cleaves the bond between alanine and muramic
acid in the peptido­g lycan. The amidase is
activated by surface-active agents such as bile
or bile salts, resulting in lysis of the organisms.
Procedure: When sodium deoxy­c holate
solution is added to broth culture, the culture
clears due to lysis of cocci. Pneumococci are
soluble in bile; viridans and other streptococci
are not.
Alternatively, touch a suspected pneumo­
coccal colony with a loopful of 2% sodium
deoxycholate solution, it disappears, leaving
an area of α-hemolysis on the blood agar.
3. Pneumococci are catalase and oxidase
negative.
Resistance
Pneumococci are delicate organisms and are killed
by moist heat at 55°C in 10 min, and readily by most
disinfectants. Most strains are highly sensitive to
benzylpenicillin, other penicillins. A drug resistant
Strep. pneumoniae (DRSP) strain originating in
Spain has spread to most parts of the world posing
problems in treament.
Optochin Sensitivity: Pneumococci are highly
sensitive to killing by optochin (ethyl hydrocuprein
hydro­chloride), and is useful in distinguishing
on an area of a blood agar plate inoculated with
pneumo­coccus-like colonies from the primary
diagnostic plate. A growth of Pneumococcus will
be inhibited in a zone extending radially for at least
5 mm from the margin of the disc on incubation.
Viridans streptococci will grow right up to the disc.
Antigenic Structure
1. Capsular Antigens
The most important antigen of the Pneumococcus
is the type specific capsular polysaccharide. It is
also called the ‘specific soluble substance’ (SSS)
as this polysaccharide diffuses into the culture
medium or infective exudates and tissues. These
polysaccharides are antigenic and form the basis
for the separation of pneumococci into different
serotypes. A total of 90 different capsular serotypes
have been identified. The serotypes are designated
by numbers, and those that are structurally related
are grouped together (I, 2, 3. 4, 5, 6A, 68, etc.).
The tests may be done by :
1. Agglutination of washed capsulate cocci.
2. Precipi­tation of SSS from culture supernates.
3. Quellung reaction or capsule swelling reaction
It was described by Neufeld (1902). In the
capsule swelling or ‘quellung’ reaction (quellung
= swelling), a suspension of pneumococci is mixed
on a slide with a drop of the type specific antiserum
and a loopful of methylene blue solution and then
examined using the oil-immersion objective. The
capsule becomes apparently swollen, sharply
delineated and refractile in the presence of the
homologous antiserum. This reaction can be used
to identify the organism directly from ‘sputum, CSF,
and other sources. It used to be a routine bedside
procedure in the past.
2. Somatic Antigen
a. C polysaccharide: The cell wall of S. pneumoniae
contains a species specific carbohydrate
antigen, referred to as C substance. C-reactive
protein (CRP) is an abnormal protein (beta
globulin) that precipi­tates with the somatic ‘C’
antigen of pneumococci. It appears in acute
phase sera of cases of pneumonia but dis­
appears during convalescence. It is known as
C-reactive protein because it precipitates with
C antigen of pneumococci. CRP is present in
low concentrations in healthy people but in
elevated concentrations in patients with acute
inflammatory diseases.
It is an ‘acute phase’ substance, produced
in hepatocytes. Its production is stimulated by
bacterial infections, inflammation, malignancies
 Chapter 26: Pneumococcus (Diplococcus pneumoniae: Streptococcus Pneumoniae)  | 185
and tissue destruction. It disappears when the
inflammatory reactions subside. It is used as
an index of response to treatment in rheumatic
fever and certain other conditions.
CRP testing, by passive ag­glutination using
latex particles coated with anti-CRP antibody
is a routine diagnostic procedure.
b. F antigen: The lipid ­bound teichoic acid in the
bacterial cytoplasmic mem­brane is called the
F or Forssman antigen because it can cross-
react with the Forssman surface antigens on
mammalian cells.
c. M protein: Type-specific protein antigens
analogous to the M protein of Streptococcus
pyogenes.
Genetic Variation
1. Smooth-to-rough (S–R) variation: On repeated
subculture, pneumococci undergo a smooth-
to-rough (S–R) variation.
2. Transformation: Rough pneumococci derived
from capsulated cells of one serotype may
be made to produce capsules of the same or
different serotypes, on treatment with DNA
from the respective serotypes of pneumococci.
Virulence Factors
1. Capsule: The capsular polysaccharide is a crucial
virulence factor. The capsule is antiphagocytic,
inhibiting complement deposition and
phagocytosis. Noncapsulated strains are avirulent.
The antibody to the capsular polysaccharide
affords protection against in­fection.
2. IgAI protease: Pneumococci produce an
extra­cellular protease that specifically cleaves
human IgA I in the hinge region.
3. Pneumolysin: A cytotoxin similar to the
streptolysin O in S. pyogenes and so may be a
virulence factor.
4. Autolysin: When activated, the pneumococcal
auto­lysin breaks the peptide cross-linking of the
cell wall peptidoglycan, leading to lysis of the
bacteria.
Pathogenesis
Pneumococci are one of the most common
bacteria causing pneumonia, both lobar and
bronchopneumonia. They also cause acute
tracheobronchitis and empyema. Bacteremia
may complicate pneumococcal pneumonia.
This can result in metastatic involvement of the
meninges, joints and, rarely, the endocardium.
1. Pneumonia
i. Lobar pneumonia: In adults, types 1–8
are responsible for about 75% of cases of
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pneumococcal pneumonia. In children, types
6, 14, 19 and 23 are frequent causes.
ii. Bronchopneumonia: It is almost always a
secondary infection. This may be caused by
any serotype of Pneumococcus. Other causative
agents responsible for bronchopneumonia
include Staph. aureus, K. pneumoniae, Str.
pyogenes, H. influenzae, Fusobacterium species
and Bacteroides.
2. Acute Exacerbations in Chronic Bronchitis
Pneumococci are commonly associated with
the acute exacerbations in chronic bronchitis.
Another bacterium commonly associated with this
condition is Haemophilus influenzae.
3. Meningitis
S. pneumoniae is among the leading causes of
bacterial meningitis. It can spread into the central
nervous sys­tem after bacteremia, infections of the
ear or sinuses, or head trauma.
4. Bacteremia
Bacteremia occurs in 25–30% of patients with
pneumococcal pneumonia and in more than 80%
of patients with meningitis.
5. Other Infections
Pneumococci may also produce suppurative
lesions in other parts of the body—empyema,
pericarditis, otitis media, sinusitis, conjunctivitis,
suppurative arthritis and peritonitis, usually as
complications of pneumonia.
Epidemiology
S. pneumoniae is a common inhabitant of the throat
and nasopharynx in healthy people. Pneumonia
occurs when the endogenous oral orga­nisms are
aspirated into the lower airways. Cases are more
common in winter and affect the two extreme age
groups more often.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
Sputum, lung aspirate, pleural fluid, cerebrospinal
fluid, urine or blood are collected according
to the site of lesion. Blood culture is useful in
pnemococcal septicemia.
2. Collection and Transport
All the specimens should be collected in sterile
containers under all aseptic conditions. They
should be processed immediately. CSF specimen
should never be refrigerated in case of delay and
should be kept at 37°C (H.influenzae, another
causative agent of pyogenic meningitis may die at
cold temperature).
186  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
3. Microscopy and Antigen Detection Table 26.1  Differential characters of pneumococci
A centrifuged deposit of the CSF should be and viridans streptococci
examined immediately in a Gram film in case of Character Pneumococcus Viridans
meningitis and presumptive diagnosis may be streptococci
made by finding gram-positive diplococci both Morphology Ovoid or Short or long
inside the poly­morphs and extracellularly. lanceolate chains of
Pneumococcal antigen is often detectable by diplococci; some rounded cocci
short chains
coagglutination (COA), latex agglutination (LA) or
counterimmuno­electrophoresis (CIE) and ELISA. Capsule Present Usually absent
In addition to CSF, capsular polysaccharide Colonies Become Convex
can be demonstrated in the blood and urine by flattened
or draughtsman
counterim­munoelectrophoresis
Effect on Narrow zones of Wide or narrow
blood agar a-hemolysis zone of
4. Capsule Swelling Tests a-hemolysis
If typing sera are available, the most simple, rapid, Optochin Sensitive Resistant
and accurate method for the identification of sensitivity
pneumococci by direct examination is the quellung Bile solubility + –
reaction. Inulin + –
fermentation
5. Culture Virulence in mice + –
Specimen is inoculated on plates of blood agar and
heated-blood agar incubated in air with 5–10%
CO2 for 18–24 hours. Typical colonies develop Prophylaxis
with α-hemolysis. The colonies are small (0.5–1 Immunity is type-specific and associated
mm), dome-shaped and glistening, with an area with antibody to the capsular polysaccharide.
of green discoloration (alpha hemolysis) around The existence of some 90 serotypes makes a
them. On further incubation, the colonies have complete polyvalent vaccine impracticable. The
draughtsman or carrom coin appear­ance. current vaccine contains 23 different capsular
polysaccharides which is stated to give 80–90%
6. Identification protection. The vaccine is immunogenic in normal
Procedures commonly used to distinguish S. adults, and the immunity is long-lived. It is not
pneumoniae from the viridans strep­tococci are meant for only in persons at enhanced risk of
optochin susceptibility, bile solubility, and the pneumococcal infection, such as patients with
quellung reaction. S. pneumoniae is susceptible to absent or dysfunctional spleen, sickle cell dis­ease,
optochin, whereas other α-hemolytic species are celiac disease, chronic renal, lung, heart and liver
resistant (Table 26.1). diseases, diabetes mellitus and immunodeficien­
cies, including human immunodeficiency virus
7. Intraperitoneal Injection into Mice (HIV) infection and renal transplant.
Vaccination is contraindicated in young
Isolation may be obtained by intra­p eritoneal
children and elderly with lymphoreticular malig­
inoculation in mice from specimens where
nancies and immunosuppressive therapy.
pneumococci are expect­ed to be scanty. Inoculated
mice die in 1–3 days, and pneu­mococci may be
demonstrated in the peritoneal exu­date and heart Treatment
blood. Penicillin is the drug of choice for susceptible
strains, al­t hough resistance is increasingly
8. Blood Culture common. Cephalosporins, er ythromycin,
chloramphenicol, or van­comycin are used for
In the acute stage of pneumonia, the organism may patients allergic to penicillin or for treatment of
be obtained from blood culture in glucose broth. penicillin-resistant strains.
The finding of pneumococci in the blood is much
better evidence of their pathogenic role in the Key Points
lung than is their finding in sputum. Isolation of ™™ Streptococcus pneumoniae are elongated or
pneumococci from blood indicates bad prognosis. “lancet-shaped,” gram-positive cocci arranged in
pairs (diplococci). They are capsulated
™™ The Pneumococcus has complex nutritional
9. Antibiotic Sensitivity Test
requirements. On blood agar, the colonies are small
It is especially useful in strains which are resistant.
 Chapter 26: Pneumococcus (Diplococcus pneumoniae: Streptococcus Pneumoniae)  | 187
(0.5–1 mm), dome-shaped and glistening, with an
area of green discoloration (alpha hemolysis) around
them. On further incubation, the colonies become
flat with raised edges and depressed centrally, so
that concentric rings are seen on the surface when
viewed from above (draughtsman or carrom coin
appear­ance)
™™ Pnemococci differs from viridans streptococci in
their morphology (lanceolate diplococci), optochin
sensitivity, bile solubility, inulin fermentation and
virulence in mice
™™ Bacteria are inhibited by optochin (useful identi­
fication test)
™™ Diseases: Pneumonia, meningitis, sinusitis and otitis
media. It can cause a variety of systemic infections,
including bacteremia and endocarditis.
Important questions
1. Describe the laboratory diagnosis of pneumococcal
infections
2. Differentiate between Str. pneumoniae and Str.
viridans in a tabulated form.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. Which of the following bacteria produce alpha
hemolysis on blood agar?
a. Staphylococcus aureus
b. Streptococcus pyogenes
c. Streptococcus pneumoniae
d. All of the above
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2. Draughtsman appearance colony is a characteristic
feature of:
a. Streptococcus pyogenes
b. Strep. pneumoniae
c. Enterococcus jacecalis
d. Viridans streptococci
3. Streptococcus pneumoniae causes following
infections except:
a. Otitis media
b. Urinary tract infections
c. Meningitis
d. Sinusitis
4. Streptococcus pneumoniae shows following
characteristics except:
a. Optochin sensitivity test positive
b. Bile solubility test positive
c. Inulin fermentation test positive
d. Bacitracin test positive
5. Pneumococcal 23-valent polysaccharide is given
to following persons except:
a. Child younger than 2 years
b. Persons older than 65 years
c. Persons with HIV infections
d. Persons with diabetes mellitus
Answers (MCQs)
1. c; 2. b; 3. b; 4. d; 5. b
 27
Chapter

Neisseria and Moraxella

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology, culture characteristics,
biochemical reactions and antigenic structure of
Neisseria meningitidis
∙∙ Discuss pathogenicity and lab diagnosis of
meningococcal meningitis
∙∙ Describe morphology, culture characteristics,
biochemical reactions of Neisseria gonorrhoeae
∙∙ Discuss pathogenicity of N. gonorrhoeae
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of gonorrhoea
∙∙ Explain nongonococcal urethritis (or) nonspecific
urethritis
∙∙ Describe Morexella (Branhamella) catarrhalis.

Introduction Cultural Characteristics

Meningococci have exact­ing growth requirements
Members of the genus Neis­s eria are aerobic,
and do not grow on ordinary media. Growth occurs
gram-nega­tive cocci typically arranged in pairs
on media enriched with blood, serum or ascitic
(diplococci) with adjacent sides flattened together
fluid. Strains will grow on Mueller–Hinton me­dium
(resembling coffee beans). All species are oxidase-
without the addition of blood or serum.
positive, and most produce catalase-properties.
They are strict aerobes, no growth occurring
Species anaerobically. The optimum temperature for
growth is 35–36°C. No growth takes place below
Important spe­c ies of the genus Neisseria are:
30°C. Opti­mum pH is 7.0–7.4. Growth is facilitated
N. meningitidis, N. gonorrhoeae, N. flavescens, N.
by 5–10% CO2 and high humidity. Blood agar,
subflava, N. sicca, N. mucosa, N. lactamica and
chocolate agar and Mueller–Hinton starch casein
N. polysac­chareae. N. gonorrhoeae and N. menin­
hydrolysate agar are the media common­ly used for
gitidis are the primary human pathogens of the
genus.

Neisseria meningitidis
(Meningococcus; Diplococcus
intracellularis meningitidis)
Morphology
Meningococci are gram-negative oval or spherical
cocci (0.6–0.8 μm in size), typically arranged
in pairs, with the adjacent sides flattened or
concave opposing edges and the long axes parallel.
They are typically seen in large numbers inside
polymorphonuclear leukocytes (Fig. 27.1).
Most fresh isolates are capsulated. They are Fig. 27.1: Neisseria meningitidis in cerebrospinal fluid.
nonsporing and nonmotile. Inset—enlarged view showing flat adjacent side of cocci

culturing meningococci. Modified Thayer -Martin
(with vancomycin, colistin and nystatin) is a useful
selective medium.
On blood agar after 24 hours incubation,
colonies are 1–2 mm in diameter, round, convex,
gray, translucent and nonhemolytic. Heated blood
(chocolate) agar-colonies are slightly larger on
heated blood (chocolate) agar than on ordinary
blood agar. Growth is poor in liquid media, producing
a granular turbidity with little or no surface growth.
Biochemical Reactions
1. They are catalase and oxidase positive.
Oxidase test: When 1% solution of oxidase
reagent (tetramethyl­paraphenylene-diamine-
dihydrochloride) is poured on culture media,
Neisseria colonies quickly turn deep-purple.
This prompt oxidase reaction helps in the
identification of meningococci and gonococci
in mixed cultures.
The test may also be performed by rubbing
a little of the growth with a loop on a strip of
filter paper moistened with the oxidase reagent
(Kovacs’ method). A deep purple color appears
immediately.
2. Sugar fermentation: Meningococci ferment
glucose and maltose with the production of
acid but no gas, but not lactose or sucrose
(gonococci ferment glucose but not mal­tose).
3. Indole and hydrogen sulfide are not produced
and nitrates are not reduced.
Antigenic Classification
Based on their capsular polysaccharide antigens,
meningococci are classified into at least 13
serogroups: A, B, C, X, Y, Z, Zl (29E) and W135.
Further serogroups H, I, K and L have also been
described. A group D was described but no
capsular polysaccharide specific for this group has
yet been demonstrated. Groups A, B and C are the
most important. Serogroups are further classified
into serotypes and subtypes.
Resistance
Meningococci are very delicate organ­isms, being
highly susceptible to heat, dessication, alterations
in pH and to disinfectants. They die within a few
days at room temperature. They are killed by
heating at 55°C in 5 minutes.
Pathogenicity
Meningococci are strict human parasites
inhabiting the nasopharynx. Infection is usu­ally
asymptomatic.
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Chapter 27: Neisseria and Moraxella  | 189
Stages of Meningococcal Infections
There are three stages.
First Stage—Nasopharyngeal Infection
The organisms appear in naso­pharynx leading
to nasopharyngeal infection, which is usually
asymptomatic.
Second Stage—Meningococcal Septicemia
In a small percentage of cases, the meningococci enter
the bloodstream from the posterior nasopharynx.
This stage is called meningococcemia. The patient
develops fever, malaise and petechial skin lesions.
The organisms may also cause lesions in the
joints and lungs and rarely cause massive bilateral
hemorrhages in the adrenals (Waterhouse–
Friderichsen syndrome). It is an overwhelming
and usually fatal condition, characterized by shock,
disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
and multisystem failure. Meningococcal dis­ease is
favored by deficiency of the terminal comple­ment
components (C5–C9).
Third Stage—Meningitis
In the third stage of meningococcal infection, the
or­ganisms can cross the blood–brain barrier and
infect the meninges. The route of spread from the
nasopharynx to the meninges is controversial. The
spread may be directly along the perineural sheath
of the olfactory nerve, through the cribriform plate
to the subarachnoid space, or more probably,
through the bloodstream. In certain cases, the site of
entry of the Meningococcus may be the conjunctiva.
On reaching the central nervous system, a
suppurative le­sion of the meninges is set up. Case
fatality is variable but in untreated cases may be as
high as 80%. Survivors may have sequelae such as
blind­ness and deafness.
The pathogenic agent in meningococcal disease
appears to be the endotoxin (LPS) released by
auto­lysis. The vascular endothelium is particularly
sensi­tive to the endotoxin.
Epidemiology
Humans are the only natural carriers for N. menin­
gitidis. The oral and nasopharyngeal carriage rates are
highest for school-aged children and young adults,
are higher in lower socioeconomic populations.
The carrier rate is higher in the members of the
household of a pa­tient with meningococcal disease.
Natural infection is limited to human beings.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
i. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF),
ii. Blood for culture (which may come from a
patient with meningitis, a hemorrhagic rash
or pyrexia of uncertain origin)
190  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
iii. Aspirate from skin lesions or pus from an
infected joint,
vi. Throat or nasopharyngeal swabs from
suspected cases. Swabs should be transported
in Stuart’s transport medium. All speci­
mens where meningococcal infection is
suspected must be submitted to the laboratory
immediately.
2. Examination of CSF
If meningitis is suspected, a lumbar puncture
should be performed as soon as possible unless
there are signs of raised intracranial pressure.
i. Perform a cell count. The exudate in mening­
ococcal meningitis is typically polymor­
phonuclear.
ii. Centrifuge the remaining CSF. Make a
smear of the centrifuged deposit and stain
with Gram-stain. CSF from a typical case of
meningococcal meningitis will show gram-
negative diplococci inside a limited proportion
of the pus cells; many are extracellular.
Stain a second film with methylene blue to
determine the cell type; occasionally, diplococci
may be seen more easily with this stain.
If fluorescein isothiocyanate­ coupled
antiserum is available, a smear of the de­posit
may be examined for the direct identification
of the meningococcal serogroup responsible
for infection.
iii. Divide the supernatant CSF into two aliquots­:
One to be kept if necessary for biochemical
examina­tion, the other to be examined for the
presence of meningococcal polysaccharide
antigen by counter­immunoelectrophoresis,
latex agglutination or coagglutination using
meningococcal antisera. Similar tests are also
available for pneumococcus, H. influenzae
type b and group B Streptococcus antigens.
Antigen detection is particularly useful in
partially treated pa­tients in whom smear and
culture tests may be nega­tive.
iv. Cuture: Plate out the centrifuged deposit on
both blood and heated blood agar (chocolate
agar) and incubate at 37°C in 5–10% CO2.
Colonies appear after 18–24 hours which
may be identified by morphology and
biochemical reactions.
Subculture: Add Robertson’s cooked meat
broth to the remaining deposit, incubate
overnight and subculture in the same way. In
the absence of visible meningo­cocci, glucose
broth may be added to the remaining sed­
iment of the centrifuged deposit to facilitate
the isolation.
v. Biochemical reactions
Sugar utilization tests or commercial kits are
used to identify any gram-negative diplococci.
The oxidase test is performed on colonies on
solid medium.
vi. Antibiotic sensitivity tests
Set up antibiotic sensitivity tests.
vii. Serogrouping is performed by slide agglutina­
tion with hyperimmune sera that provide
important epidemiological information.
3. Blood Cultures
Blood culture is often positive in meningococcemia
and in early cases of meningitis. Cultures should
be incubated for 4–7 days, with daily subcultures.
Subculture to blood agar and heated blood agar.
Incubate cultures in 5–10% CO 2 for 24 hours
and examine oxidase-positive colonies of gram-
negative diplococci as above.
4. Pus, Aspirates and Swabs
Gram-stained films are examined. In addition
to blood agar and heated blood agar, Thayer–
Martin selec­tive medium is used for the culture of
materials expected to yield a mixture of organisms
such as pus, aspirates, and throat, nasopharyngeal
and genital swabs.
5. Petechial Lesions
Meningococci may sometimes be demonstrated in
petechial lesions by microscopy and culture.
6. Serological Diagnosis
Paired sera may be tested for the presence of
complement-fixing antibodies.
Specific antibodies to capsular polysaccha­ride
may be demonstrated by a (i) hemagglutination
test (ii) ELISA tests.
7. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Group specific diagnosis of infection can be made
by detection of meningococcal DNA sequence in
CSF or blood by PCR amplification.
Treatment
Penicillin is currently the antibiotic of choice.
Chloramphenicol is effective, but risks of blood
dyscrasia have limited its use. Either chloramphenicol
or a third-generation cephalosporin, such as
cefotaxime or ceftriaxone is used in persons allergic
to penicillin allergy.
At the end of a course of therapy with penicillin,
it is important to give eradicative treatment with
rifampicin or ciprofloxacin.
Prophylaxis
1. Chemoprophylaxis: Minocycline and rifampin
have been used effectively for antibiotic-
mediated chemoprophylaxis. Ciprofloxacin is

widely used as a prophylactic for adolescents
and adults as a single, oral dose.
2. Immunoprophylaxis: A polyvalent vaccine
effective against serogroups A, C, Y, and W135,
which can be administered to children older
than 2 years, has been developed. The vaccine
cannot be administered to children in younger
age groups because they do not respond to
polysaccharide antigens. The immunity is
group specific. There is no Group B vaccine
available at present.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
(gonococcus)
N. gonorrhoeae causes the venereal disease
gonorrhea. Gonococci resemble meningococ­ci
very closely in many properties.
Morphology
Morphology and staining of N. gonorrhoeae are
identical to those of N. meningitidis. In smears
from the urethral discharge in acute gonorrhea,
the organism appears as a Diplococcus with the
adjacent sides concave (Fig. 27.2), being typically
kidney-shaped. It is found predominantly within
the polymorphs, some cells containing as many
as a hundred cocci.
Cultural Characterstics
Gonococci are more diffi­c ult to grow than
meningococci They are aerobic but may grow
anaerobically also. Growth occurs best at pH 7.0–
7.4 and at a temperature of 35–36°C. It is es­sential
to provide 5–10% CO2.
They grow well on chocolate agar and Mueller–
Hinton agar. A popu­lar selective medium is
the Thayer–Martin medium (chocolate agar
containing vancomycin, colistin and nystatin)
which inhibits most contaminants, including
nonpathogenic Neisseria. Colonies are small,
Fig. 27.2: N. gonorrhoeae in urethral pus. Inset— enlarged
view showing diplococci with adjacent surfaces concave
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Chapter 27: Neisseria and Moraxella  | 191
round, translucent, convex or slightly umbonate,
with finely granular surface and lobate margins
after incubation for 24 hours..They are soft and
easily emulsifiable. After 48 hours, the colonies are
larger (1.5–2.5 mm), sometimes with a crenated
margin and an opaque raised center.
Types of gonococci: Kellogg divided gonococci
into four types (T1–T4) on the basis of colonial
appearance, auto-agglutinability and virulence.
Types 1 and 2 form small brown colonies and bear
nu­merous fimbriae (piliated types P1 and P2). They
are auto-agglutinable and virulent.
Types T3 and T4 are nonpiliated (P–), form smooth
suspensions and are avirulent.
Tl and T2 types are also known as P+ and P++,
respectively, while T3 and T4 are known as P–.
Biochemical Reactions
Gonococcus is oxidase positive and resembles
menin­g ococci except in the fermentation of
maltose. Gono­cocci ferment only glucose and
not maltose and neither species ferments lactose
or sucrose. This can be remembered by G for
Gonococcus and M+G for Meningococcus.
Antigenic Structure
The structure of N. gonorrhoeae is typical of gram-
negative bacteria. The surface struc­tures include
the following:
1. Pili: Pili are hair-like appendages that extend
up to several mi­crometers from the gonococcal
surface. They act as virulence factors by
promoting attachment to host cells and
inhibiting phagocytosis. The pili are composed
of repeating protein subunits (pilins). Pili
undergo antigenic and phase variation.
2. Por proteins (protein I): The Por proteins
(formerly pro­tein I) are porin proteins that form
pores or channels in the outer membrane. Two
classes of Por proteins (PorA and PorB), have
been identified. Anyone strain carries only
either IA or IB but not both.
3. Opa protein (protein II): These proteins facili­
tate bacterial adherence to each other and to
eukaryotic cells and also for the clumping of
cocci seen in urethral exudate smears.
4. Rmp (protein III): These proteins stimulate
antibodies that block serum bactericidal
activity against N. gonorrhoeae.
5. Lipooligosaccharide (LOS): This antigen
possesses endotoxic activity.
6. Other proteins: Other important gonococcal
proteins are IgA1 protease, β-lactamase,
which degrades penicillin and Fbp (iron-
binding protein).
192  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Resistance
Gonococcus is a very delicate organ­ism, readily
killed by drying, soap and water, and many other
cleansing or antiseptic agents at their correct use-
dilution. Organisms may remain viable for a day or
so in pus contaminating linen or other fabrics. In
cultures, the coccus dies in 3–4 days at room tem­
perature. Freeze-drying is the most reli­able method
for long-term storage of gonococci but storage at
–70°C or in liquid nitrogen may be more convenient
for intermediate storage.
Pathogenesis
Gonorrhea
Gonorrhea is a venereal disease. The disease is
acquired by sexual contact. The incubation period
is 2–8 days.
A. Disease in men: The most common clinical
presentation is acute urethritis in the male.
Dysuria and a purulent penile discharge
make most sufferers seek treatment rapidly.
The infection extends along the urethra to the
prostate, seminal vesicles and epididymis.
Chronic urethritis may lead to stricture
formation. The infection may spread to the
periurethral tissues, causing abscesses and
multiple discharging sinuses (‘watercan
perineum’).
B. Disease in women: Asymptomatic carriage
in women is common, espe­c ially in the
endocervical canal. The infection may extend
to Bartholin’s glands, endometrium and
fallopian tubes to give rise to acute salpingitis,
which may be followed by pelvic inflammatory
disease and a high probability of sterility.
Peritoneal spread occasionally occurs and may
produce a perihepatic inflammation (Fitz–
Hugh–Curtis syndrome).
Proctitis occurs in both sexes. Gonococcal
pharyngitis may follow oro­genital contact in
either sex. Conjunctivitis may occur usually by
autoinoculation with fingers.
C. Disseminated gonococcal disease: Blood
invasion may occur from the primary site of
infection and may lead to metastatic lesions
such as arthritis, ulcerative endocarditis and
very rarely meningitis.
D. Disease in childern
i. Ophthalmic neonatorum: A nonvenereal
infection is ophthalmia neonatorum in
the newborn, in which the eyes are coated
with gonococci as the baby passes down
the birth canal. A severe purulent eye
discharge with periorbital edema occurs
within a few days of birth. If untreated,
ophthalmia leads rapidly to blindness.
Once ver y common, this has been
controlled by the practice of instilling 1%
silver nitrate solution into the eyes of all
newborn babies (Crede’s method).
ii. Vulvovaginitis: In prepubertal girls,
vulvovaginitis may be caused by gonococci.
This occurs either in conditions of poor
hygiene or by sexual abuse.
Epidemiology
Gonorrhea occurs only in humans. It has no other
known reservoir. N. gonorrhoeae is transmitted
primarily by sexual contact. A higher incidence of
gonorrhea has been observed in persons belonging
to blood group B. The basis for this is not known.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis can be established readily in the acute
stage but chronic cases some­times present great
difficulties.
1. Specimens
A. Specimens in Men
1. Urethra: In men, urethral samples usually suffice
(with rectal cultures in homosexual males).
In acute gonorrhea, the urethral discharge
contains gonococci in large num­b ers. The
meatus is cleaned with a gauze soaked in saline
and a sample of the discharge collected with a
platinum loop for culture, or directly on slide for
smears. Purulent discharge may be exp­ressed at
the anterior urethra and collected with a swab.
In chronic infections, there may not be any
ure­t hral discharge. The morning drop of
secretion may be examined or some exudate
may be obtained after prostatic massage. It may
also be possible to demon­strate gonococci in
the centrifuged deposits of urine in cases where
no urethral discharge is available.
2. Anal canal: In homosexual males.
B. Specimens in Women
1. Endocervical swab: In women, ure­t hral,
cervical and rectal specimens should always be
examined. A single well taken endocervical swab
will detect approximately 90% of gonococcal
infec­tions in women. A high vaginal swab is
not suitable. Throat infection also occurs and
should be sought where appropriate.
2. Urethral
3. Anal canal and
4. Throat.
C. Blood, Swabs of skin lesions, or pus aspirated
from a joint.
D. Conjunctival Swab: Particularly in neonatal
ophthalmia.

E. Urine Specimen: Any urine specimen showing
gram-negative diplococci in a Gram stain should
be cultured on an appropriate selective medium.
2. Transport
For culture, specimens should be inoculated on
prewarmed plates, immediately on collection. If
this is not possible, specimens should be collected
with char­coal impregnated swabs and sent to the
laboratory in Stuart’s transport medium.
3. Direct Microscopy
Do the Gram staining shows characteristic kidney-
shaped gram-negative diplococci lying within
polymorphonuclear leukocytes with a few extra­
cellular. Approximately 95% of infected men will
yield a positive smear. It has to be emphasized that
diagnosis of gonorrhea by smear examination is
unreliable in women as some of the normal genital
flora have an essentially similar morphology.
Immunologic methods employing monoclonal
anti­bodies may be used for the identification of
N. g onorrho eae. These methods include
coagglutination and fluorescent antibody testing.
4. Culture
In acute gonorrhea, cul­tures can be obtained
readily on chocolate agar or Mueller–Hinton agar
incubated at 35–36°C under 5–10% CO2. In chronic
cases, where mixed infection is usual and in the
examination of lesions, such as proctitis; however,
it is better to use a selective medi­um such as the
Thayer–Martin medium. Examine plates after 24
hours incubation and the growth is identified by
morphology and biochemical reactions. Incubation
of primary isolation plates is continued for 48 hours.
Colonies are small, round, translucent, convex
or slightly umbonate, with finely granular surface
and lobate margins. They are soft and easily
emulsifiable. After 48 hours, the colonies are larger
(1.5–2.5 mm), sometimes with a crenated margin
and an opaque raised center.
Smear is made from the colony and Gram
staining is done. Gonococci are gram-negative
cocci arranged in pairs (diplococci) with adjacent
sides concave (pear or bean shaped).
5. Identification
N. gonorrhoeae is identified preliminarily on the
basis of the isolation of oxidase-positive, gram-
negative diplo­cocci that grow on chocolate blood
agar or on media that are selective for pathogenic
Neisseria species.N gonorrhoeae is oxidase positive.
It ferments glucose with acid only. It does not
ferment maltose unlike meningococci.
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Chapter 27: Neisseria and Moraxella  | 193
6. Genetic Probes
Probes specific for the nucleic acids of N. gonorr­
hoeae have been developed for the direct detec­tion
of bacteria in clinical specimens.
7. Serological Diagnosis
No serological test has been found useful for
routine diagnostic purposes.
Treatment
Penicillin is no longer the antibiotic of choice for
treatment of gonorrhea since the development and
widespread use of penicillin, gonococcal resistance
to penicillin has gradually risen, owing to the selec-
tion of chromosomal mutants, so that many strains
now require high concentrations of peni­cillin G for
inhibition (MIC 2 µg/mL).
Penicillinase ­p roducing gonococci (PPNG):
In 1976, gonococci producing β-lactamase
(penicillinase) have appeared, rendering penicillin
treatment ineffective. Penicillinase production, in
gonococci, is plasmid-mediated.
Chromosomally-mediated resistance (CMRNG):
This chromosomally-mediated resistance
(CMRNG) is not limited only to penicillin but
extends to tetracyclines, erythromycin, and
aminoglycosides.
Empirical therapy: Currently, the Centers for Dis­
ease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends
that ceftriaxone, cefixime, ciprofloxacin, or
ofloxacin be used as the initial therapy for cases
of uncomplicated gonorrhea. Doxycycline or
azithromycin should be added for infections
complicated by dual infections with Chlamydia.
Prophylaxis
Control of gonorrhea consists of early detection of
cases, contact tracing, health education and other
general measures.
As even clinical disease does not confer any
immunity, vaccination has no place in prophylaxis.
Nongonococcal (nonspecific)
urethritis
Nongonococcal urethritis (NGU), also known
as nonspecific urethritis (NSU), refers to chronic
urethritis where gonococci cannot be demonstrated.
Causative Agents
The most important causative agents are as follows:
A. Bacterial
∙∙ Chlamydia trachomatis
∙∙ Ureaplasma urealyticum
194  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
∙∙ Mycoplasma hominis N. flavescens, N. catarrhalis) have been reported
∙∙ Gardnerella vaginalis occasionally as having caused meningitis. N.
∙∙ Acinetobacter wolfii sicca, N. subflava, N.cinera, N. mucosa, and N.
∙∙ Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. flavescens are also members of the normal flora of
the respiratory tract, because of its carbohydrate
B. Viral fermentation pattern.
∙∙ Herpes virus
∙∙ Cytomegalovirus. Moraxella
C. Fungi The genus Moraxella is a member of the family
Neisseriaceae.
∙∙ Candida albicans.
Species: The Moraxella spp. of medical importance
D. Protozoa are M. lacunata, M. catarrh­alis, M. osloensis, M.
∙∙ Trichomonas vaginalis. phenylpyruvica, M. atlantae and M. nonliquefaciens.

E. By Mechanical or chemical irritation Moraxella (Branhamella) Catarrhalis

Diagnosis Morphology
1. Demonstration of a leukocyte exudate They are oval gram-negative cocci. They are non-
2. Exclusion of urethral gonorrhea by Gram stain capsulate and non-motile.
and culture.
3. Several rapid tests for detecting Chlamydia in Cultural Characteristics
urine spec­imens are also available. They are aerobes. Most strains grow on nutrient
agar, blood agar or chocolate agar.
Treatment
Treatment is with tetracycline, doxycy­c line, Biochemical Reactions
erythromycin, or sulfisoxazole. ∙∙ It is oxidase positive and catalase positive
∙∙ It does not produce acid from glu­cose, maltose,
Commensal neisseriae sucrose, lactose or fructose
Several species of Neisseriae inhabit the normal ∙∙ It reduces nitrate to nitrite.
respi­ratory tract. They are regularly found in the
throat, nose and mouth and, less frequently, on Pathogenesis
the genital mucosae. The characteristic features They form part of the normal pharyngeal flora
of some of the common species are listed in but can cause respiratory infections, including
Table 27.1. Their patho­g enic significance is otitis media, sinusitis, tracheobronchitis and
uncertain though some of them (for example, pneumonia.

Table 27. 1  Differential characteristics of commonly isolated Neisseriae

Species Colonies Growth Fermentation Serological
classification
On At 22°C Glucose Maltose Sucrose
nutrient
agar
N. menigitidis Round, smooth, shiny, – – A A – Thirteen antigenic
creamy consistency Groups
N. gonorrhoeae Same as above, but – – A – – Antigenically
smaller and more heterogeneous
opalescent
N. flavescens Resemble meningococ- + + – – – Antigenically distinct
cus but pigmented homogeneous group
yellow
N. sicca Small, dry, opaque, + + A A A Autoagglutinable
wrinkled, brittle
N. catarrhalis Variable, smooth and + + – – – Autoagglutinable
(Branhamella translucent or adherent
catarrhalis and opaque, not easily
emulsifiable

Treatment
As many strains produce beta-lactamases,
penicillins are not useful in treatment unless given
in combination with clavulanate or sulbactam.
Moraxella lacunata (Morax–Axenfeld
Bacillus)
Formerly this was included in the genus Haemo­
philus, but it has been separated into the genus
Moraxella as it does not require X or V factor. M.
lacunata was first reported as the cause of angular
conjunctivitis by Morax (1896) and Axenfeld.
Hence, it is also known as the Morax–Axenfeld
bacillus.
Morphology
These are short, plump, gram-negative bacilli
usually arranged in pairs. They are nonflagellated
but have been reported to be sluggishly motile.
Culture
They are strictly aerobes, grow on ordinary
media but require blood or serum for growth. On
Loeffler’s serum slope, the colonies form pit or
lacunae (hence the name lacunata).
Biochemical Reactions
They do not ferment sugars and oxidase and
catalase positive.
Pathogenesis
The moraxellas occur as components of the normal
flora of the upper respiratory tract, the conjunctiva,
the skin and the genital tract.
1. Moraxella lacunata causes a form of purulent
conjunctivitis classically presenting as an
angular blepharoconjunc­tivitis. A few species
of Moraxella cause endophthalmitis, sinusitis,
conjunctivitis, bronchitis, endocarditis,
meningitis septicemia and sytemic infections.
Treatment
M. lacunata is very sensitive to zinc salts. They are
sensitive to penicillin and most other antibiotics.
Kingella
The genus Kingella, comprising some species of
oxi­dase positive, nonmotile, gram-negative rods,
with a tendency to occur as coccobacillary and
diplococcal forms was formerly grouped under the
genus Moraxella. The genus con­tains three species
(K. kingae, K. indologenes and K. denitrificans).
K. kingae is the most commonly isolated
species. It is part of the normal oral flora and has
been associated with endocarditis and infections
of bones, joints and tendons.
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Chapter 27: Neisseria and Moraxella  | 195
HACEK group of oral bacteria: Kingella species
are included in the so-called HACEK group of
oral bacteria (Haemophilus spp, Actinobacillus
actinomycetemcomitans, Cardiobacterium
hominis, Eikenella corrodens and Kingella
spp). These organisms are known to colonize
endovascular tissue and produce vegetations on
heart valves. In common with some other Gram-
negative rods, such as Cardiobacterium hominis,
Eikenella corrodens and Actinobacillus actino­
mycetemcomitans, Kingella species (usually K.
kingae) are sometimes found in endocarditis. They
have also been implicated in joint infections.
Key Points
Neisseria
™™ Important spe­c ies of the genus Neisseria are N.
meningitides and N. gonorrhoeae
Neisseria meningitidis
™™ Gram-negative diplococci with fastidious growth
require­ments
™™ Growth is facilitated by 5–10% CO 2 and high
humidity and grows best at 35°C to 37°C. Blood agar,
chocolate agar and Mueller–Hinton starch casein
hydrolysate agar are the media common­ly used for
culturing meningococci. Modified Thayer–Martin is
a useful selective medium
™™ Oxidase and catalase positive; acid produced from
glucose and maltose oxidatively
™™ Antigenic classification: Based on their capsular
polysaccaride antigens, meningococci are classified
into at least 13 serogroups.
™™ Diseases: Meningitis, meningoencephalitis, bactere­
mia, pneumonia, arthritis, urethritis
™™ For immunoprophylaxis, vaccination is used only for
serogroups A, C, Y, and W135.
N. gonorrhoeae
™™ N. gonorrhoeae appears as a Diplococcus with the
adjacent sides concave, being typically kidney
shaped
™™ It has fastidious growth require­ments. They grow
well on chocolate agar and Mueller–Hinton agar.
A popular selective medium is the Thayer–Martin
medium
™™ Diseases: It causes urethritis, cervicitis, salpingitis,
pelvic inflammatory disease, proctitis, bacteremia,
arthritis, conjunctivitis, pharyngitis
™™ Treatment: Gonococci producing β-lactamase
(penicillinase) have appeared called penicillinase
­p roducing gonococci (PPNG) and is plasmid
mediated. Chromosomally mediated resistance
(CMRNG) have also been iso­lated
™™ Nongonococcal urethritis (NGU), refers to chronic
urethritis where gonococci cannot be demonstrated
™™ Commensal Neisseriae: They are regularly found
in the throat, nose and mouth. Their patho­genic
significance is uncertain (for example, N. flavescens,
N. catarrhalis)
™™ Morexella (Branhamella) catarrhalis: They are now
recognized as an important respiratory pathogen
™™ Kingella: K. kingae is part of the normal oral flora
and has been associated with endocarditis and
infections of bones, joints and tendons.
196  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Important questions
1. Describe the morphology, pathogenicity and
laboratory diagnosis of meningococcal meningitis.
2. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of gonorrhea.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Antigenic structure of Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
b. Nongonococcal urethritis (or) nonspecific ure-
thritis
c. Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. All of the following bacteria are oxidase positive
except:
a. Neisseria gonorrhoeae
b. Neisseria meningitidis
c. Vibrio cholerae
d. Enterobacter
2. The most common infective cause of vaginal
discharge in a sexually promiscuous female is:
a. Trichomonas vaginalis
b. Gardnerella vaginalis
c. Neisseria gonorrhoeae
d. Candida albicans
3. The specimen of choice for isolation of gonococci
from women with gonorrhea is:
a. Vaginal swab b. Cervical swab
c. Urethral swab d. Urine
4. Neisseria meningitidis shows all the following
characteristics except:
a. Oxidase test positive
b. Catalase test positive
c. Ferments maltose with production of acid
d. Ferments sucrose with production of acid
5. Waterhouse–Friderichsen syndrome is caused by:
a. Naieisseria meningitidis
b. Leptospira
c. Streptococcus pyogenes
d. Neisseria gonorrhoeae
6. Causative agent of nongonococcal urethritis is
caused by:
a. Chlamydia trachomatis
b. Ureaplasma urealytium
c. Mycoplasma hominis
d. All of the above
7. Following statements are true for quadrivalent
meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine (MPSV4)
except:
a. The vaccine is given intramuscularly
b. Prevents disease caused by A, C, Y, and W135
serogroups of meningococci
c. Indicated for at risk population during out-
break of meningococcal infection
d. Produce good antibody response in children
below 2 years of age
Answers (MCQs)
1. d; 2. c; 3. a; 4. d; 5. a; 6. d; 7. d

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology, cultural characteristics,
biochemical reactions, toxin production and
pathogenesis of diphtheria
∙∙ Differentiate three biotypes: Gravis, intermedius
and mitis of C. diphtheriae
Introduction
Corynebacteria are gram-positive, nonacid fast,
nonmotile rods with irregularly stained segments,
and sometimes granules. They frequently show
club-shaped swellings and hence the name
Corynebacteria (from coryne, meaning club).
The diphtheria bacillus was first observed and
described by Klebs (1883) but was first cultivated
by Loeffler (1884). It is hence known as the
Klebs–Loeffler bacillus. Roux and Yersin (1888)
discovered the diphtheria exotoxin and established
its pathogenic effect. The antitoxin was described
by von Behring (1890) who was awarded nobel
prize for this work.
Diseases: The major disease caused by C.
diphtheriae is diphthe­ria (greek, diphtheria,
“leathery skin,” referring to the pseudomembrane
that initially forms on the pharynx).
Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Morphology
They are, thin, slender gram-positive bacilli but
are decolorized easily, particularly in old cultures,
measuring approximately 3–6 μm × 0.6–0.8 μm.
They have a tendency to clubbing at one or both
ends. They are highly pleomorphic. They are non-
motile, non-spore forming, and nonacid fast.
The bacilli are arranged in a characteristic
fashion in smears. They are usually seen in pairs,
palisades (resembling stakes of a fence) or small
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28
Chapter
Corynebacterium
∙∙ Discuss diphtheria toxin
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of diphtheria
∙∙ Toxigenicity tests/virulence tests of C. diphtheriae.
∙∙ Describe the following: Schick test; DPT vaccine or
triple vaccine; diphtheroids
∙∙ Differentiate between C. diphtheriae and diphthe­
roids.
groups or as individual cells lying at sharp angles
to another, resembling the letters V or L. This
particular arrangement with C. diphtheriae has
been called the Chinese letter or cuneiform
arrangement (Fig. 28.1). This is due to the
incomplete separation of the daughter cells after
binary fission.
This organism has granular and uneven
staining. When stained with methylene blue
or toluidine blue, the granules in the cell stain
metachromatically reddish–purple. These granules
are known as metachromatic granules, volutin
granules or Babes Ernst granules. They are
often situated at the poles of the bacilli and
are called polar bodies. Special stains, such as
Albert’s, Neisser’s and Ponder’s have been devised
for demonstrating the granules clearly. With
Fig. 28.1: Corynebacterium diphtheriae showing
metachromatic granules and Chinese letter arrangement
198  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Albert’s stain, the granules stain bluish black and of cystine to a tellurite ­containing medium
the protoplasm green. The granules represent (Tinsdale’s medium) has greatly helped the
accumulation of polymerized polyphosphates. isolation of diphtheria bacilli. The growth
The granules formation is best seen on Loeffler’s of diphtheria bacilli may be delayed on the
serum slope. tellurite medium and colonies may take two
days to appear.
Cultural Characteristics Based on colo­nial morphology on the tellurite
medium and other properties, Mc Leod and
C. diphtheriae is an aerobe and facultative anaerobe;
Anderson described three different biotypes:
the optimum temperature for growth is 37°C (range
Gravis, intermedius and mitis (Table 28.1). The
15–40°C) and optimum pH 7.2. It can grow on
names were originally proposed to relate to the
ordinary nutrient agar, but its growth is improved
clinical severity of the disease produced by the
by the pres­ence of animal proteins such as blood
three types—gravis, causing the most serious, and
or serum. Two media are useful for this purpose:
mitis the mildest variety, with intermedius being
1. Loeffler’s serum slope: Diphtheria bacilli
responsible for disease of intermediate severity.
grow on LoeffIer’s serum slope very rapidly
and colonies can be seen in 6–8 hours, long
before other bacteria grow. Colonies are at first Biochemical Reactions
small, circular white opaque disks but enlarge C. diphtheriae ferments glucose and maltose
on continued incubation and may acquire a with the production of acid (but no gas) but not
distinct yellow tint. lactose, mannitol, trehalose or sucrose. Starch and
2. Tellurite blood agar: The addition of potassium glyco­gen are used for biochemical differentiation
tellurite (0.03–0.04%) makes the medium of three biotypes of C. diphtheriae (Table 28.1).
selec­tive for Corynebacteria by inhibiting most Gravis strains utilize glycogen and starch, while
other pathogenic and commensal bacteria. On mitis and inter­medius do not. Fermentation of
this medium, C. diphtheriae give grey/black, sugars are usually done in Hiss’s serum peptone
shiny or dull black colonies. The addition water medium.
Table 28.1  Differentiating features of Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Gravis Intermedius Mitis
1. Morphology i. Usually short rods, with i. Long barred forms with i. Long, curved, rods
uniform staining clubbed ends; ii. Prominent granules
ii. Few or no granules. ii. Poor granulation iii. Pleomorphic
iii. P leomorphism (some iii. Very pleomorphic
degree), with irregularly
barred, snow-shoe and
tear­drop forms
2. Colony on tellurite i. In 18 hours: Colony is i. 18 hour: Colony small, I i. Size variable, shiny black.
blood agar 1–2 mm in size, greyish mm in size, misty.
black centre, paler,
semitranslucent periphery
and commencing ii. i n 48 hours Does not ii. In 2–3 days: Colonies
crenation of edge. enlarge, dull granular become flat, with
ii. In 2–3 days: 3–5 mm in centre with smoother, more a central elevation
size, flat colony with raised glistening periphery and a ‘poached egg’ colony
dark centre and crenated lighter ring near the edge -
edge with radial striation - ‘frog’s egg’ colony
‘daisy head’ colony
3. Consistency of colonies i. Brittle, moves as a whole Intermediate between (i) Soft, buttery, (ii) Easily
on the plate like ‘cold gravis and mitis emulsifiable
margarine’.
ii. Not easily picked out or
emulsifiable
4. Hemolysis Variable Nonhemolytic Usually hemolytic
5. Growth in broth Surface pellicle. Deposit Turbidity in 24 hours, Turbidity diffuse with soft
granular. clearing in 48 hours, with pellicle later
Turbidity little or no fine granular sediment
6. Glycogen and starch Positive Negative Negative
fermentation
7. Toxigenic strains Almost 100% 95–99% 80–85%
8. Virulence Severe Moderate Mild
9. Predominant strains Epidemic areas Epidemic areas Endemic areas

C. diphtheriae is H2S positive and reduces
nitrate to nitrite. It does not liquefy gelatin or
hydrolyze urea or form phosphatase.
Pyrazinamidase (PYZ) test: In pyrazinamidase
(PYZ) test, pyrazinamide is converted into pyrazinoic
acid by the organisms which produce pyrazinamidase
(PYZ). This test is helpful to distinguish ‘C. diphtheriae’
(PYZ-negative) from other Corynebacterium species
(mostly PYZ-positive).
Toxin
Toxigenic strains of C. diphtheriae produce a a
very powerful exotoxin. The toxicity observed
in diphtheria is directly attributed to the toxin
secreted by the bacteria at the site of infection.
Synthesis
Almost all strains of gravis, 95-99% of intermedius
and 80-85% of mitis produce this toxin. Strains of
all three types are invariably virulent when isolated
from acute cases. Avirulent strains are common
among convalescents, contacts and carriers. The
strain almost universally used for toxin production
is the ‘Park Williams 8’ strain, which has been
variously described as a mitis (Topley and Wilson)
and an inter­medius strain (Cruickshank).
Lysogeny and toxin Production
The toxigenicity of the diphtheria bacillus de­pends
on the presence in it of corynephages (tox +),
which act as the genetic determinant controlling
toxin production. Nontoxigenic strains can be
converted to tox+ by infection with the appropriate
bacteriophage. This is known as lysogenic or phage
con­version. The bacillus loses the toxigenicity
when it is cured of its phage, as by growing it in the
presence of antiphage serum.
Iron for toxin Production
Toxin production is also influenced by the
concentration of iron in the medium. The optimum
level of iron for toxin production is 0.1 mg per liter,
while a concentration of 0.5 mg per liter inhibits
the forma­tion of toxin. The toxin is released in
significant amounts only when the available iron
in the culture medium is exhausted.
Properties of toxin
Diphtheria toxin is an iron-free, crystalline, heat
labile protein. The diphtheria toxin is a protein and
has a molecular weight of about 62000. It consists
of two fragments A (active) and B (binding) of
molecular weights 24000 and 38000 respectively.
Both fragments are required for toxicity. Fragment
A has all the enzymatic activity whereas fragment
B is responsible for binding the toxin to the cells
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Chapter 28: Corynebacterium  | 199
and mediates the entry of fragment A into the
cytoplasm. The antibody to fragment B prevents the
binding of toxin to cells and is thus protective. The
toxin is heat labile. It is extremely potent (0.0001 mg
kills a guinea pig of 250 g weight). It is converted into
toxoid by heat (at 37°C for 4–6 weeks), treatment
with 0.2–0.4% formalin or by acidic pH. The toxoid
is a toxin that has lost its toxicity but has retained the
antigenicity. It is capable of producing antitoxin. It
has a special affinity for certain tissues such as the
myocardium, adrenals and nerve endings.
Mode of Action
The diphtheria toxin acts by inhibiting protein
synthesis. It inhibits polypeptide chain elongation
in the presence of nicotinamide adenosine
dinucleotide (NAD) by inactivating elongation
factor 2 (EF-2), an enzyme required for elongation
of polypeptide chains on ribosomes. Inhibition of
protein synthesis is probably responsible for both
the necrotic and neurotoxic effects of the toxin.
NAD+ + EF–2 = ADPR–EF–2 + nicotinamide + H+
Active Inactive
Resistance
They are readily killed, however, by a 1-minute
exposure to100°C or a 10 minute exposure to 58°C.
They are susceptible to most of the routinely used
disinfectants. It remains alive for weeks in dust and
on fomites when dry and protected from sunlight.
It is susceptible to penicillin, erythromycin and
broad spectrum antibiotics.
Antigenic Structure
Diphtheria bacilli possess three distinct antigens:
1. A deep-seated antigen found in all Coryne­
bacterial species
2. A heat-labile protein (K-antigen)
3. A heat-stable polysaccharide (O-antigen).
Serotypes: On the basis of agglutination reaction,
biotypes gravis, intermedius and mitis have been
divided into 13, 4 and 40 serotypes, respectively.
Bacteriophage Typing
The susceptibility of C. diphtheriae to bacterio­
phage strains has been most comprehensively
studied; 22 phages were used to type the gravis
strains into 14 types, the intermedius into 3 and the
mitis into 4. An additional set of 33 phages has also
been used. The only other corynebacteria re­ported
as susceptible to the diphtheria typing phages are
C. ulcerans and C. pseudotuberculosis.
Pathogenesis
The organism is carried in the upper respiratory tract
and spread by droplet infection or hand-to-mouth
200  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
contact. The incubation period of diphtheria is 2–5
days, with a range of 1–10 days. Diphtheria, which
occurs in two forms (respiratory and cutaneous),
is found worldwide.
A. Respiratory Diphtheria
The illness begins gradually and is characterized
by low-grade fever, malaise, and a mild sore throat.
The most common site of infection is the tonsils
or pharynx. The organisms rapidly multiply on
the epithelial cells, and the toxigenic strains of C.
diphtheriae pro­duce toxin locally, causing tissue
necrosis and exudate formation triggering an
inflammatory reaction. This combination of cell
necrosis and exudate forms a tough gray to white
pseudomembrane, which attaches to the tissues-
commonly over the tonsils, pharynx, or lar­ynx. Any
attempt to remove the pseudomembrane results
in bleeding. In nasopharyngeal infection, the
pseudomembrane may involve nasal mucosa, the
pharyngeal wall and the soft palate. In this form,
oedema involving the cervical lymph glands may
occur in the anterior tissues of the neck, a condition
known as bullneck diphtheria. Laryngeal
involvement leads to obstruction of the larynx and
lower airways.
Systemic effects
The toxin also is absorbed and can produce a vari­
ety of systemic effects involving the kidneys, heart,
and nervous system, although all tissues possess
the receptor for the toxin and may be affected.
Intoxication takes the form of myocarditis and
peripheral neuritis, and may be associated with
thrombocytopenia. Visual disturbance, difficulty in
swallow­ing and paralysis of the arms and legs also
occur but usually resolve spontaneously. Complete
heart block may result from myocarditis. Death is
most commonly due to congestive heart failure and
cardiac arrhythmias.
Complications
The common complications are as follows:
1. Asphyxia due to mechanical obstruction of the
res­piratory passage by the pseudomembrane
for which an emergency tracheostomy may
become necessary.
2. Acute circulatorv failure, which may be
peripheral or cardiac.
3. Postdiphtheritic paralysis, which typically
occurs in the third or fourth week of the disease;
palatine and ciliary but not pupillary paralysis
is characteristic, and spontaneous recovery is
the rule.
4. Septic, such as pneumonia and otitis media.
B. Cutaneous Diphtheria
In cutaneous diphtheria, which is prevalent in the
tropics, the toxin also is absorbed systemically, but
sys­temic complications are less common than from
upper respiratory infections with C. diphtheriae.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnostic laboratory tests serve to confirm the
clinical impression and are of epidemiologic
significance but not for the treatment of individual
cases. Specific treatment should be instituted
immediately on suspicion of diph­theria without
waiting for laboratory tests. Any delay may be
fatal. Laboratory diagnosis consists of isolation
of the diphtheria bacillus and demonstration of
its toxicity.
1. Specimens
Swabs from the nose, throat, or other suspected
le­sions must be obtained before antimicrobial
drugs are administered. In suspected cases,
whether of faucial or nasal diph­t heria, swabs
should be taken both from the throat and from the
nose, and preferably two swabs from the site most
affected. Swabs should also be taken from skin
lesions and wounds where diphtheritic infection is
suspected, and both throat and nose swabs should
be taken from suspected carriers.
2. Microscopy
Direct microscopy of a smear is unreliable since
C. diphtheriae is morphologically similar to
other coryneforms. Smears stained with alkaline
methylene blue or Gram’s stain show beaded rods
in typical arrangement. Hence smear examination
alone is not sufficient for diagnosing diphtheria
but is important in identifying Vincent’s angina.
For this, a Gram or Leishman stained smear is
examined for Vincent’s spirochetes and fusiform
bacilli. Toxigen­ic diphtheria bacilli may be
identified in smears by immunofluorescence.
3. Culture
The swab should be in­oculated on Loff­ler’s serum
slope, tellurite blood agar, and blood agar. The
cultures should be incubated aerobically at 37°C.
Unless the swab can be inoculated promptly, it
should be kept moistened with sterile horse serum
so the bacilli will remain vi­able.
i. Loeffler’s serum slope: After incubation for 6
hours or overnight, make a smear of growth from
all parts of the slope mixed in the condensation
water, stain by the Albert-Laybourn method and
look for the presence of slender green-stained
bacilli containing the purple-black granules
characteristic of C. diphtheriae.
ii. Tellurite blood agar: Blood tellurite agar is
examined after 24 hours and after 48 hours,
as growth may sometimes be delayed.
iii. Blood agar: It is used for differentiating
streptococcal or staphylococcal pharyngitis,
which may simulate diphtheria.

4. Identification Tests
Identification is based on carbohydrate ferment­
ation reactions and enzymatic activities. C.
diphtheriae ferments glucose and maltose,
producing acid but not gas, and is catalase positive.
It reduces nitrate to nitrite and is nonmotile.
Commercial kits such as the API Coryne strip
provide a reliable identification.
5. Virulence Tests
Such tests are re­ally tests for toxigenicity of an
isolated diphtheria-like organism. Diagnosis of
diphtheria depends on showing that the isolate
produces diphtheria toxin. Virulence testing may
be by in vivo or in vitro methods.
A. In vivo tests
i. Subcutaneous test
ii. Intracutaneous test
B. In vitro test
i. Precipitation test
ii. Tissue culture test
iii. Enzyme-linked immunosor­bent assays
iv. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
A. In vivo Tests
i. Subcutaneous test: The growth from an
overnight culture on Loeffler’s slope is
emulsified in 2–4 mL broth and 1 mL of the
emulsion injected subcutaneously into
two guinea pigs or rabbits, one of which has
been protected with the diphtheria antitoxin
(500–1000 units) 18–24 hours previously and
was used as control. If the strain is virulent,
the unprotected animal will die within
four days. Postmortem examination would
show hemorrhage at the site of injection
and injected blood vessels, with typically
hemorrhagic adrenal necrosis.
Simple and reliable subcutaneous
toxigenicity tests in rabbits or larger guinea-
pigs were used in the past, at a time when
laboratories had many isolates each day.
The method is not usually employed as it is
wasteful of animals.
ii. Intracutaneous (Intradermal) test: The
broth emulsion of the culture is inoculated
intracutaneously into two guinea pigs (or
rabbits) so that each receives 0.1 mL in two
different sites. One animal acts as the control
and should receive antitoxin (500 units)
the previous day. After four hours the skin
test, the other is given 50 units of antitoxin
intraperitoneally in order to prevent death.
In the test animal, toxigenicity is indicated by
inflammatory reaction at the site of injection,
progressing to necrosis in 48–72 hours and in
the control animal no change.
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Chapter 28: Corynebacterium  | 201
Advantages of the intracutaneous test:
a. The animals do not die
b. As many as ten strains can be tested at a time
on a rabbit.
B. In vitro Test
i. Elek’s gel precipitation test: The in vitro
diphtheria toxin detection procedure is an
immunodiffusion test first described by Elek.
Procedure: A rectangular strip of filter paper
impregnated with diphtheria antitoxin (1000 units/
ml) is placed on the surface of a 20% normal horse
serum agar in a Petri dish while the medium is still
fluid. When the agar has set, the surface is dried.
The plate should be streaked with the test strain as
well as the control positive and negative strains at
right angles to the strip in a single straight line and
parallel to each other. The plate is incubated at 37°C
and examined after 24 and 48 hours.
Interpretation: Toxins produced by the bacterial
growth will diffuse in the agar and where it meets the
antitoxin at optimum concentration will produce a
line of precipitation (Fig. 28.2). A negative control
should be free of any line. No precipitate will form
in the case of nontoxigenic strains.
ii. Tissue culture test : The toxigenicity of
diphtheria bacilli can be demonstrated by
incorporating the strains in the agar overlay of
cell culture monolayers. The toxin produced
diffuses into the cells below and kills them.
iii. Enzyme-linked immunosor­b ent assays
(ELISA): Rapid, enzyme-linked immunosor­
bent assays and immunochromatographic
strip assays are also available for the detection
of diphtheria toxin.
iv. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): In addition,
procedures for detecting the C. diphtheriae tox
gene by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
have been developed. The PCR assay can also
be applied directly to clinical specimens.
Schick Test
Schick (1913) introduced an intradermal test
(Schick test) for distinguishing between susceptible
and immune persons.
Fig. 28.2: Elek’s test
202  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Principle
This test depends upon the principle of toxin-
antitoxin neutralization, in vivo, and the test is
carried out by injecting one Schick test dose of
diph­theria toxin (0.2 mL containing 1/50 MLD)
intradermally on the anterior surface of the left
forearm and a control injection in the right forearm
contains a heat-inactivated dose (70°C for 30
minutes) or preferably, purified diphtheria toxoid.
Results
Readings are taken after 1, 4 and 7 days. Four types
of reactions may occur:
1. Negative reaction: There is no reaction of any
kind in either arm. This indicates that the toxin
has been neutralized by the circulating antitoxin
and the person is immune to diphtheria and
does not need immunization.
2. Positive reaction: In the test arm, there appears
erythema and swelling at the site of inoculation in
24–36 hours, reaching its maximum (1–5 cm) by
the 4th to 7th days and then fading with superficial
scaling and persistent brownish pigmentation. On
the control arm, there is no reaction.
A positive Schick test indicates that the
individual is susceptible to diphtheria and
little or no antitoxin (less than 0.01 unit/mL) is
present. The subject is not immune and should
be immunized.
3. Pseudoreaction: There is erythema occurring
within 6–24 hours and disappearing within four
days. The reaction is the same on both arms.
This indicates that the individual is immune to
diphtheria and also that he is hypersensitive to
one or more antigens in the toxin preparation.
This individual does not need immunization.
4. Combined reaction: Here the initial picture is
that of pseudoreaction, but while the erythema
in the control arm fades, within four days, it
pro­gresses in the test arm to a typical positive
reaction. This indicates that the individual is
susceptible to diphtheria and is sensitive to
one or more antigens in the toxin preparation
making immunization nec­essary but likely to
induce reaction.
Prophylaxis
The meth­ods of immunization available are active,
passive or combined.
A. Active Immunization
The preparations used for active immunization
are as follows:
1. Toxin-antitoxin mixture: It is not without hazards.
2. Single vaccines are less frequently used
3. Combined preparations:
– DPT (diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus) vaccine
– DT (diphtheria-tetanus toxoid)
– dT (diphtheria-tetanus, adult type).
DPT Vaccine: Diphtheria toxoid is usually given
in children as a trivalent preparation containing
tetanus toxoid and pertussis vaccine also as the
DPT or triple vaccine.
Schedule of primary immunization: The schedule
of primary immunization of infants and children
consists of DPT given at the age of 6 weeks, 10
weeks, 14 weeks and 16–24 months followed by
booster dose DT at the age of 5–6 years (school
entry).
B. Passive Immunization
This is an emergency measure to be employed
where susceptibles (nonimmunized) are exposed
to in­fection, as when a case of diphtheria is
admitted to general pediatric wards. It consists of
the subcutaneous administration of 500–1000 units
of antitoxin (antidiphtheritic serum, ADS). As this is
a horse serum, precaution against hypersensitivity
should be ­observed.
C. Combined Immunization
This consists of adminis­tration of the first dose
of adsorbed toxoid on, while ADS is given on the
other arm, to be continued by the full course of
active immunization since protection conferred
by passive immunization is of short duration.
Ideally, all cases that receive ADS prophylactically
should receive combined immunization.
Treatment
Specific treatment of diphtheria consists of
antitoxic and antibiotic therapy. Antitoxin
should be given immediately as soon as clinical
diagnosis is made to neutralize the toxin being
produced. The dosage recommen­ded is 20,000
units intramuscularly for moderate cases and
50,000 to 100,000 units for serious cases, half the
dose being given intravenously.
C. diphtheriae is sensitive to most antibiotics,
including penicillin and erythro­mycin for the
treatment of patients as well as carriers. The
antibiotics do not neutralize circulating toxin.
Penicillin-sensitive individuals can be given
erythromycin. Erythromycin is more active than
penicillin in the treatment of carriers.
OTHER MEDICALLY IMPORTANT
CORYNEBACTERIA
The non-diphtheria corynebacteria are diverse
usually isolated from the environment and
commensals of the skin and mucous membranes.
The principal species involved and the main
clinical syndromes associated with infection are
shown in Table 28.2.
 Chapter 28: Corynebacterium  | 203
Table 28.2  Medically important nondiphtheria corynebacteria and disease associations of these
corynebacteria
Organism Major habitat Disease association
C. ulcerans Human throat and Man: diphtheria (toxigenic strains), pharyngitis and wound
skin; animals; raw milk infection; cattle: mastitis
C. pseudotuberculosis Sheep, horses, goats Man: lymphadenitis
Animals: abscesses and abortion
C. jeikeium Skin Bacteremia, endocarditis; infection of foreign bodies and CSF
shunts
C. urealyticum Skin, urinary tract Urinary tract infection, pyelonephritis, endocarditis
C. amycolatum Man and animals Man: Bacteremia, endocarditis, peritonitis and wound
infection; cattle: mastitis
C. glucuranalyticum Urinary tract of man Urogenital tract infection
and animals
C. minutissimum Skin, urinary tract Erythrasma, bacteremia
C. striatum Respiratory tract, skin Respiratory tract infection, wound infection, bacteremia
C. pseudodiphtheriticum Respiratory tract Respiratory tract infection, endocarditis
Arcanobacterium haemolyticum Throat Pharyngitis, skin ulcers, endocarditis
Rhodococcus equi Animals, soil Pulmonary infection and soft tissue infection

1. Corynebacterium ulcerans history of intravenous drug abuse. It is the most

C. ulcerans has been isolated from patients with
diphtheria-like illness. It resembles gravis type
of C. diphtheriae but it liquefies gelatin, ferments
trehalose slowly and does not reduce nitrate to
nitrite. It is PYZ negative and urease positive. It
commonly produces diphtheria toxin as well as the
separate toxin produced by C. pseudotuberculosis.
It is pathogenic to guinea pigs. The lesions
produced resembling those caused by C. diphtheriae.
It can cause mastitis in cattle and man exposed to
infected animals or milk may develop infection.
2. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis
(C. ovis)
Like C. ulcerans, C. pseudotuberculosis (Preisz-
Nocard bacillus) is primarily an animal pathogen
and rarely infects man. Human infections mainly
occur in patients with animal (sheep) contact.
It causes caseous lymphadenitis in sheep and
goats and abscesses or ulcerative lymphangitis in
horses. Rarely, it may cause subacute and chronic
lymphadenitis involving axillary or cervical lymph
nodes in those with prolonged exposure to sheep
and horses.
3. Corynebacterium minutissimum
It is believed to be the causative agent of erythrasma.
It is a localized infection of the stratum corneum.
4. Corynebacterium jeikeium
Cornybacterium jeikeium, infections have been
limited to patients who are immune compromised,
have undergone invasive proce­dures, or have a
common cause of diphtheroid prosthetic valve
endocarditis in adults.
5. Corynebacterium xerosis
C. xerosis is commonly found on skin and mucocut­
a­neous sites. Human infection with C. xerosis is
rare, and affected patients are invariably immuno­
suppressed.
6. Corynebacterium bovis
C. bovis, commensal of cow’s udder, which may
cause bovine mastitis. Many of them cause
infections in immunocompromised patients.
Diphtheroids
Corynebacteria resembling C. diphtheriae, occur
as normal commensals in the throat, skin and
other areas. These may be mistaken for diphtheria
bacilli and are known as diphtheroids. They
stain more uniformly than diphtheria bacilli,
are arranged in V forms or palisades rather
than Chinese letter arran­g ement and possess
few or no metachromatic gra­nules. They can be
differentiated from C. diphthe­riae on the basis
of biochemical characters and toxigenicity tests
(Table 28.3). The common diphtheroids are C.
pseudodiphtheriticum and C. xerosis.
Other Coryneform Genera
Other genera of irregularly shaped, gram-positive
ba­c illi are Arcanobacterium, Brevibacterium,
Oerskovia and Turicell. They have been found to
colonize humans and cause disease.

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204  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Table 28.3  Differences between C. diphtheriae and diphtheroids
Feature C. diphtheriae
1. Morphology i. Weakly gram-positive and thin bacilli
ii. Metachromatic granules present
iii. Arranged in Chinese letter pattern
iv. Pleomorphism present
2. Culture Grow on enriched media
3. Biochemical tests Ferments glucose only and does not
ferment sucrose
4. Toxin production Toxic
5. Virulence tests Positve
Key Points
™™ Corynebacterium is gram-positive bacilli with an
irregular shape, tendency to clubbing at one or both,
highly pleomorphic with Chinese letter or cuneiform
arrangement. The granules in the cell are known as
metachromatic granules volutin granules or Babes
Ernst granules. With Albert’s stain, the granules stain
bluish black and the protoplasm green
™™ Two media are useful. 1. Loeffler’s serum slope-
tellurite blood agar
™™ Fermentations of sugars are usually done in Hiss’s
serum peptone water medium
™™ C. diphtheriae is H2S positive and reduces nitrate
to nitrite
™™ Toxin: Toxigenic strains of C. diphtheriae produce
a very powerful exotoxin. The toxigenicity of the
diphtheria bacillus de­pends on the presence in it of
corynephages (tox+). Diphtheria toxin is, heat labile
protein, and consists of two fragments. Inhibition of
protein synthesis is probably responsible for both
the necrotic and neurotoxic effects of the toxin
™™ Clinical diseases: Diphtheria occurs in two forms
(respiratory and cutaneous)
™™ Laboratory diagnosis: Depends upon micros­
copy,culture and virulence tests. Virulence testing
may be by in vivo or in vitro methods. In vivo tests
are i. Subcutaneous test; ii. Intracutaneous test.
In vitro test include i) Precip­itation test; ii) Tissue
culture test; iii) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assays (ELISA); iv) Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
™™ Prophylaxis: DPT given at the age of 6 weeks, 10
weeks, 14 weeks and 16–24 months followed by
booster dose DT at the age of 5–6 years (school entry)
™™ Diphtheroids: Cor ynebacteria resembling
C. diphtheriae occur as normal commensals in the
throat, skin and other areas. These may be mistaken
for diphtheria bacilli and are known as diphtheroids.
The common diphtheroids are C. pseudodiphth­
eriticum and C. xerosis.
Important questions
1. Discuss morphology, cultural characteristics
and biochemical characters of Corynebacterium
diphtheriae.
2. Name different species of genus Corynebacterium.
Discuss in detail laboratory diagnosis of diphtheria.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Diphtheria toxin
b. Pathogenicity of C. diphtheriae
c. Toxigenicity tests/Virulence tests of C. diphtheriae
d. Schick test
e. Prophylaxis of diphtheria
Diphtheroids
Strongly gram-positive, short and thick bacilli
Few or absent
Pallisade arrangement
Very little pleomorphism present
Can grow on ordinary media
Ferments both glucose and sucrose
Nontoxic
Negative
f. Nondiphtheria corynebacteria
g. Diphtheroids.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. Corynebacterium diphtheriae is classified into three
distinct biotypes (mitis, intermedius, and gravis)
based on the morphologies of the colonies on:
a. Tellurite blood agar
b. Loeffler’s serum slope
c. Blood agar
d. All the above media
2. Diphtheria toxin shows following features except:
a. It is a protein with a molecular weight of 58,300
Da
b. It consists of two functionally distinct polypep-
tide chain fragments, A and B protein
c. It inhibits synthesis of fatty acids
d. It is a very potent toxin
3. Following statements are true for diphtheria
antitoxin except:
a. It is the mainstay of therapy in diphtheria
b. It is of immense value in cutaneous diphtheria
c. It is of no value in treatment of asymptomatic
carriers
d. It is ineffective after toxin has entered into the cell
4. Diphtheria toxin has a special affinity for which of
the following tissue/s?
a. Heart muscles b. Nerve endings
c. Adrenal glands d. All of the above
5. Which of the following sites is most commonly
affected by diphtheria bacilli?
a. Upper respiratory tract b. Skin
c. Cornea d. Conjunctiva
6. Diphtheroids show following features except:
a. They possess few or no metachromatic granules
b. They are usually arranged in parallel rows
c. Most of them do not produce toxins
d. They do not ferment sucrose
7. A positive Schick test implies that the person is:
a. Immune and nonhypersensitive.
b. Susceptible and nonhypersensitive
c. Immune and hypersensitive
d. Non-immune and hypersensitive
8. Which of the following bacteria can cause infection
in immunocompetent patients?
a. Corynebacterium ulcerans
b. Corynebacterium haemolyticum
c. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis
d. All of the above
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. c; 3. b; 4. d; 5. a; 6. d; 7. b; 8. d

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe the morphology, cultural characteristics
and pathogenicity of Bacillus anthracis
Introduction
The family Bacillaceae has two clinically important
genera are Bacillus (the aerobic and facultative
anaerobic spore-formers) and Clostridium (the
strict anaerobic spore-formers ). In the past
few years, Bacillus has been subdivided into six
genera.
General Characterstics of Bacillus
1. The genus Bacillus consists of aerobic ba­cilli
forming heat resistant spores, are gram-positive,
and are generally motile with peritrichate
flagella, the an­thrax bacillus being a notable
exception. Their spores are ubiquitous, being
found in soil, dust, water and air and constitute
the commonest con­taminants in bacteriological
culture media.
Species: The species that are of medical interest
are as follows:
1. Bacillus anthracis: The organism responsible
for anthrax, is the most important member of
this genus.
2. Bacillus cereus: May contaminate food,
especially rice, in large numbers and is
commonly implicated in episode of food
poisoning.
Bacillus anthracis
Historically, considerable attention was early
focused on the genus Bacillus because of the
economic importance of anthrax, the disease
caused by B. anthracis.
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29
Chapter
Bacillus
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of anthrax
∙∙ Descrbethe following: Anthracoid bacilli; Bacillus
cereus food poisoning.
1. It was the first pathogenic bacterium to be
observed under the microscope (Pollender,
1849).
2. The first communicable disease shown to be
transmit­ted by inoculation of infected blood
(Davaine, 1850) was anthrax.
3. B. anthracis was first bacillus to be isolated
in pure culture and shown to possess spores
(Koch, 1876).
4. It was in studies on anthrax that Koch demon­
strated for the first time a set of criteria or
postulates.
5. The first bacterium used for the preparation of
an attenuated vaccine by Pasteur.
6. Nobel Prize winner Metchnikoff studied
virulent and attenuated strains of B. anthracis,
in his pioneering work on phagocytosis.
Morphology
B. anthracis is one of the largest of pathogenic
bacteria. 3–8 by 1–1.3 µm and is gram-positive
nonacid fast, non-motile straight, sporing
bacillus. It is rec­tangular in shape and arranged
in filamentous chains in culture. In cultures, the
bacilli are arranged end to end in long chains. The
ends of the bacilli are truncated or often concave
and somewhat swollen so that a chain of bacilli
presents a ‘bamboo stick’ appearance.
The spore is oval (ellipsoidal), refractile, central
in position and of the same diameter as the Bacillus
and not swelling the mother cell (Fig. 29.1). Spores
are formed in culture, in the soil, and in the tissue
and exudates of dead animals but never in the
blood or tissues of living animals. Spores seen as
206  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Fig. 29.1: Anthrax bacilli
unstained spaces in Gram-stained bacilli and, when
free, faintly outlined with Gram counterstain. The
anthrax bacillus is nonmotile, unlike most other
members of this genus.
It is found singly, in pairs or in short chains
in tissues. The entire chain being surrounded by
a capsule which is polypeptide in nature, being
composed of a polymer of d (–) glutamic acid.
Capsules are formed in the animal body but in
culture only if the media contain added bicarbonate
or are incubated under 10–25% CO2.
They are gram-positive. When blood films
con­t aining anthrax bacilli are stained with
polychrome methylene blue for a few seconds and
examined under the microscope, an amorphous
purplish material is no­t iced around the blue
bacilli. This represents the capsular material and
is characteristic of the anthrax bacillus. This is
called the M’Fadyean’s reaction and is em­ployed
for the presumptive diagnosis of anthrax in
an­imals. Purple bacillus with red capsule is seen
with Giemsa’s stain. Fat globules may be made
out within the bacilli when stained with Sudan
black B. Spores seen as unstained spaces in Gram-
stained bacilli and, when free, faintly outlined with
Gram counterstain.
Cultural Characteristics
It is aerobe and facultative anaerobe. Temperature
range for growth is 12–45°C (optimum 37°C). Good
growth oc­curs on ordinary media.
1. Nutrient agar: On nutrient agar, colonies are
irregularly round, 2–3 mm in diameter, raised,
dull, opaque, greyish white, with a frosted
glass appearance. The edge of the colony is
composed of long, interlacing chains of bacilli,
resem­bling locks of matted hair under the low
power microscope. This is called the ‘Medusa
head appearance’ (Fig. 29.2).
2. Blood agar: Colonies on horse or sheep blood
agar are virtually nonhemolytic.
Fig. 29.2: Medusa head appearance of anthrax bacilli
Fig. 29.3: Anthrax bacillus in gelatin stab culture showing
inverted fir tree appearance
3. In broth: Growth develops as silky strands, a
surface pellicle and a floccular deposit.
4. In a gelatin stab, there is growth down the stab
line with lateral spikes, longer near the surface,
giving an ‘inverted fir tree’ appearance (Fig.
29.3).
5. Selective medium: A selective medium (PLET
medium), consisting of polymyxin, lysozyme,
ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) and
thallous acetate added to heart infusion agar,
has been devised to isolate B. antracis from
mixtures containing other spore-bearing bacilli.
6. Solid medium containing penicillin: When
B. anthracis is grown on a solid medium
containing 0.05–0.5 units penicillin per mL,
in 3–4 hours the cells become large, spherical,
and occurs in chains on the surface of the
agar, resembling a string of pearls. This string
of pearls reaction useful in differentiation of
B. anthracis from B. cereus and other aerobic
spore bearers. B. anthracis is susceptible to
gamma phage which is another characteristic
that differentiates it from B. cereus.

Biochemical Reactions
B. anthracis ferments glucose, maltose, sucrose,
trehalose and dextrin with the production of
acid and no gas. Nitrates are reduced to nitrites.
Catalase is formed.
Resistance
The spores are resistant to chemical disinfec­tants
and heat. With moist heat, the vegetative bacilli are
killed at 60°C in 30 minutes and the spores at 100°C
in 10 minutes. With dry heat the spores are killed at
150°C in 60 minutes. The spores are also killed by
4% formaldehyde or 4% potassium permanganate
in a few minutes.
The bacilli are sensitive to benzylpenicillin,
streptomycin, tetracyclines, chloramphenicol,
ciprofloxacin, the cephalosporins and sulfonamides.
Antigenic Structure
Three main antigens have been characterized:
1. Capsular polypeptide: It is polypeptide con­
sisting exclusively of D-glutamic acid.
2. Somatic polysaccharide: It is a component of
the cell wall.
3. Complex protein toxin (anthrax toxin):
Anthrax toxin is a complex exotoxin consisting of
three protein components: Protective antigen
(PA), lethal factor (LF), and edema factor (EF).
Each of the separate components is serol­ogically
active and distinct and is also immunogenic.
Virulence Factors
The pathogenesis of B. anthracis depends on two
important virulence factors: A poly (D-glutamic
acid) capsule and a three-component protein
exotoxin. Fully virulent organisms have two large
plasmids that code for these products.
1. Capsule: The capsule interferes with phagocytosis.
2. Anthrax toxin: Anthrax toxin consists of three
proteins called protective antigen (PA), edema
factor (EF), and lethal factor (LF), each of
which individually is nontoxic but together act
synergistically to produce damaging effects.
The three fac­tors have been characterized and
cloned.
Pathegenesis
Cattle, sheep, goats and other herbivores are
naturally infected.
A. Animal Infection
Anthrax is a zoonosis. Animals are infected by the
inges­tion of the spores present in the soil. Direct
spread from animal to animal is rare. The disease
is generally a fatal septicemia but may sometimes
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Chapter 29: Bacillus  | 207
be localized, re­sembling the cutaneous disease
in human beings. Infected animals shed in the
discharges from the mouth, nose and rectum, large
numbers of bacilli, which sporulate in soil and
remain as the source of infection.
B. Human infection
Based on the mode of infection, human Anthrax
presents in one of three ways: (1) cutaneous (2)
pulmonary, or (3) intestinal. All types leading to
fatal septicemia or meningitis.
1. Cutaneous Anthrax
Cutaneous anthrax used to be caused by shaving
brushes made with animal hair. It begins 2–5 days
after infection as a small papule that develops
within a few days into a vesicle filled with dark
bluish black fluid. Rupture of the vesicle reveals
a black eschar at the base, with a very prominent
inflammatory ring of reaction around the eschar.
(The name anthrax, which means coal, comes
from the black color of the es­c har). This is
sometimes referred to as a malignant pustule.
The lesion is classically found on the hands,
forearms, or head and is painless. The disease used
to be common in dock workers carrying loads of
hides and skins on their bare backs and hence was
known as the ‘hide porter’s disease.’ Cutaneous
anthrax generally resolves spontaneously, but
10–20% of untreated patients may develop fatal
septi­cemia or meningitis.
2. Pulmonary Anthrax
Pulmonary anthrax, known as ‘wool-sorter’s
disease, because it used to be common in workers
in wool factories, due to inhalation of dust from
infected wool. It occurs in patients who handle raw
wool, hides, or horsehair and acquire the disease
by the inhalation of spores. This is a hemorrhagic
pneumonia with a high fatality rate. Hemorrhagic
meningitis may occur as a complication.
3. Intestinal Anthrax
Intestinal anthrax, is rare and occurs mainly in
primitive communities who eat the carcasses of
ani­mals dying of anthrax. An individual may suffer
after a day or so from hemorrhagic diarrhea, and
dies rapidly from septicemia.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Human Anthrax
In laboratories unfamiliar with the disease,
additional precautions for staff safety need to be
organized. All procedures connected with the
handling of B. anthracis should be carried out with
greatest care in a safety cabinet.
1. Specimens: Material from a malignant pustule,
sputum from pulmonary anthrax, gastric
aspirates, feces or food in intestinal anthrax and
in the blood in the septicemic stage of all forms
208  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
of the infection. Specimens should be taken
before antibiotic therapy has been instituted.
2. Microscopy: Prepare smears of each specimen
and stain with Gram’s method and McFadyean’s
method or with Giemsa stain. Gram’s stain
may show typical large gram-positive bacilli.
Capsule appears as a clear halo around the
bacterium by India-ink staining.
Direct fluorescent antibody test (DFA) for
capsule specific staining and for polysaccharide
(cell wall) antigen confirms the identification.
3. Culture: Culture the exudate on nutrient agar,
blood agar, PLET medium and nutrient broth.
Incubate at 37°C for 18 hours. Examine plates
for the medusa-head colonies characteristic
of B. anthracis, nonhemolytic on the blood
agar plate. Prepare a smear, stain it by Gram’s
method and look for tan­gled chains of large
gram-positive bacilli some of which have
central, oval, non-bulging spores. In nutrient
broth, look for a pellicle and a deposit.
4. Confirmatory tests
i. Biochemical and physiological reactions:
Demonstration of non-motility, gelatin
liquefaction, growth in straight chains and
enhanced growth aerobically, as seen in the
characteristic inverted fir tree appearance
in a gelatin stab, will generally iden­tify B.
anthracis completely.
Toxin production can be demonstrated by
immunological or gene probe methods in
reference laboratories.
ii. Animal inoculation: Inoculate intraperi­
toneally in mice a 24 hours broth culture.
The animal dies in 48–72 hours. Make
smears from heart blood and spleen, stain
by Gram’s and McFadyean’s methods, and
look for typical anthrax bacilli.
The anthrax bacillus can often be isolated
from contaminated tissues by applying
them over the shaven skin of a guinea
pig. It is able to pen­etrate through minute
abrasions and produce fatal infection.
5. Serological diagnosis: Serological diagnosis by
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELlSA)
is seldom used diagnostically.
Ascoli’s thermoprecipitin test: If the sample
received is putrid so that viable bacilli are
unlikely, diagnosis may be established by Ascoli’s
thermoprecipitin test by demonstration of the
anthrax antigen in tissue extracts.The original
thermoprecipitin test devised by Ascoli (191l)
was a ring precipitation by letting the boiled
tissue extract in a test tube react with the anthrax
antiserum. The tissue is ground up in saline, boiled
for 5 minutes, filtered and layered over anti anthrax
serum in a narrow tube. If tissue contains anthrax
antigen, a ring of precipitation will appear at the
junction of the two liquids within 5 minutes at
room temperature.
With the availability of purified anthrax toxin
antigen, Ascoli’s test has been replaced by highly
sensitive and specific immunoassays. EIA can also
detect antibody in the serum of animals surviving
anthrax infection.
6. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
A sensitive and specific PCR technique has been
developed for the detection of anthrax contami­
nation of animal and agricultural products.
Treatment
Ciprofloxacin is the drug of choice. Penicillin,
doxycycline, erythromycin, or chloramphenicol
can be used (if suscepti­ble).
Prophylaxis
Control of human anthrax ultimately depends on
control of the disease in animals. Animals with
known or suspected anthrax should be handled
with care and carcasses of animals suspected to have
died of anthrax are incinerated or buried deep in
quicklime. Wool, horsehair, and hides coming from
areas where epidemic anthrax is present should be
gas sterilized. A vaccine is available for control of
outbreaks of human anthrax in an ‘industrial setting’.
Immunization
Live-attenuated bacilli were first used by Louis
Pasteur in May 1881. Pasteur’s vaccine was the
anthrax bacillus attenuated by growth at 42–43°C.
The original Pasteur’s anthrax vaccine is of great
historical importance.
Sterne strain of live spore vaccine: Subsequently,
the Sterne strain of live spore vaccine has been
used for animal immunization. The Sterne vaccine
contained spores of a noncapsulated avirulent
mutant strain. Live bacterial vaccines are not
considered safe for man.
Alum-precipitated toxoid prepared from the
protective antigen has been shown to be a safe
and effective vaccine for human use. It has been
used in persons occupationally exposed to
anthrax in­fection. Three doses intramuscularly at
intervals of six weeks between first and second,
and six months be­tween second and third doses
induce good immunity, which can be reinforced if
necessary with annual booster injections. Frequent
booster doses are necessary.
ANTHRACOID BACILLI
Nonpathogen­ic aerobic spore bearing bacilli having
a general resemblance to anthrax bacilli have been

collectively called pseudoanthrax or anthracoid
bacilli. The important species include B. cereus, B.
subtilis, B. stearothermophilus B. licheniformis, B.
pumilus. B. cereus has been recognized as a frequent
cause of foodborne gastroenteritis. Table 29.1 lists
the main differentiating features between Anthracoid
bacilli and B. anthracis.
Bacillus cereus
B. cereus has recently assumed importance as a
cause of food poisoning. It is widely distributed in
nature, may be readily isolated from soil, vegetables
and a wide variety of foods including milk, cereals,
spices, meat and poultary.
Pathogenesis
1. Emetic form (the short incubation type): The
emetic form results from the consumption of
contami­nated rice. The heat-stable enterotoxin
that is released is not destroyed when the rice
is reheated. After ingestion of the enterotoxin
and a 1–6-hour incubation period, a disease of
short duration (less than 24 hours) develops.
Symptoms consist of vomiting, nausea, and
abdominal cramps. Fever and diarrhea are
generally absent.
Two mechanisms of action have been
described for the enterotoxin of B. cereus, one
involving stimulation of CAMP system and the
other independent of it.
2. Diarrheal form: The diarrheal form of B. cereus
food poisoning re­sults from the consumption
of contaminated meat, veg­etables or sauces.
Chapter 29: Bacillus  | 209
There is a longer incubation period occurring
8–24 hours after ingestion, during which the
organism multiplies in the patient’s intestinal
tract and produces the heat-labile entero­toxin.
Then the diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal
cramps develop.
The diarrheal disease is mostly caused
by serotypes 2, 6, 8, 9, 10 or 12 of B. cereus
strains. Isolates from the diarrheal type of
disease produce entero­toxin which causes
fluid accumulation in ligated rab­bit ileal loop,
resembling the heat labile enterotoxin of
Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae.
3. Ocular infection: Common cause of post-
traumatic ophthalmitis.
4. Other opportunistic infections: Intravenous
catheter and central nervous system shunt
infections and endocarditis as well as
pneumonitis, bactere­mia, and meningitis in
severely immunosuppressed pa­tients.
Laboratory Diagnosis
If food is available for testing, confirmation is easy.
High numbers of B. cereus, in the absence of other
food poi­soning bacteria are sufficient to make the
diagnosis.
Large facultatively anaerobic Gram-positive
bacilIi that produce anthracoid colonies on blood
agar after overnight incubation at 37°C are almost
certain to be B. cereus.
Treatment : Both the emetic and diarrheal
syndromes are shortlived and no specific treatment
is needed.

Table 29.1  Differentiating features between B. anthracis and Anthracoid bacilli

Features B. anthracis Anthracoid bacilli
1. Motiliy Nonmotile Generally motile
2. Capsule Capsulated Noncapsulated
3. Chain formation Grow in long chains Grow in short chains
4. Colony on nutrient agar Medusa head colony Not present
5. Growth in penicillin agar (10 units/mL) No growth Grow usually
6. Hemolysis on blood agar Hemolysis absent or weak Usually well-marked
7. Gelatin stab culture Inverted fir tree growth and slow Rapid liquefaction
gelatin liquefaction
8. Turbidity in broth No turbidity Turbidity usual
9. Salicin fermentation Negative Usually positive
10. Growth at 45°C No growth Grows usually
11. Growth inhibition by chloral hydrate Growth inhibited Not inhibited
12. Susceptible to gamma phage Susceptible Not susceptible
13. Pathogenic to laboratory animals Pathogenic Not pathogenic
14. Mc Fadyean’s reaction Positive Negative
15. Ascoli’s precepitin test Positive Negative
16. Fluorescent antibody test with anthrax Positive Negative
antiserum

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210  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Prevention
Prevention is best accomplished by the prompt
refri­geration of boiled rice and other foods because
it is nearly impossible to eliminate B. cereus spores
from food.
Key Points
™™ The genus Bacillus consists of Gram positive, aerobic
ba­cilli forming heat resistant spores
™™ Bacillus has two important species—1. Bacillus
anthracis—the organism responsible for anthrax
and 2. Bacillus cereuus—can cause food poisoning.
™™ Bacillus anthracis
Spore-forming gram-positive, capsulated bacilli.
B anthracis is a M’Fadyean’s reaction positive. It
grows as ‘Medusa head appearance’ on nutrient
agar medium
™™ Diseases: Cutaneous anthrax, inhalation anthrax
and gastrointestinal anthrax
™™ Diagnosis: Isolation of the organism from clinical
specimens (e.g. papule or ulcer, blood)
™™ Animal vaccination is effective, but human vaccines
have limited usefulness
™™ Aerobic spore bearing bacilli having a general resem­
blance to anthrax bacilli which have been collectively
called pseudoanthrax or anthracoid bacilli
™™ Bacillus cereus Infections
People at risk include those who consume food
contaminated with the bacterium (e.g. rice, meat,
vegetables, sauces), those with penetrating injuries
(e.g. to eye), and those who receive intravenous
injections
™™ Diseases: Emetic (vomiting) and diarrheal forms
of gastroenteritis; ocular infection; and other
opportunistic infections
Important questions
1. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of anthrax.
2. Write short notes on Bacillus cereus food poisoning.
Multiple choice questions (Mcqs)
1. McFadyean’ s reaction is employed for the presump­­­
tive diagnosis of:
a. Anthrax b. Tetanus
c. Diphtheria d. Typhoid
2. ‘Medusa head’ appearance of the colonies is
characteristic of:
a. Proteus mirabilis
b. Clostridium tetani
c. Bacillus anthracis
d. Pseudomonas aeruginosa
3. Malignant pustule is characteristic of:
a. Cutaneous anthrax
b. Pulmonary anthrax
c. Intestinal anthrax
d. All of the above
4. Ascoli’s thermoprecipitin test helps in confirming
the laboratory diagnosis of:
a. Anthrax b. Tetanus
c. Typhoid d. Cholera
5. Which of the following foods is most often
associated with emetic type of food poisoning
caused by Bacillus cereus?
a. Meat b. Milk
c. Eggs d. Rice
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. c; 3. a; 4. a; 5. d

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe classification of clostridia and diseases
produced by different clostridia
∙∙ Discuss morphology, cultural characteristics of
C. welchii
∙∙ Discuss Nagler reaction
∙∙ Discuss lab. diagnosis and prophylaxis of gas
gangrene
Introduction
The genus Clostridium includes all anaerobic,
gram-positive bacilli capable of forming
endospores. Spores of clostridia are usually wider
than the diameter of the rods in which they are
formed, giving the bacillus a swollen appearance
resembling a spindle (Clostridium is Latin for ‘little
spindle’). The name Clostridium is derived from
the word ‘Kloster’ (meaning a spindle).
Most of the species are saprophytes that
normally occur in soil, water and decomposing
plant and animal matter. The genus contains bacteria
responsible for three major diseases of human
beings—gas gangrene, food poisoning and tetanus.
General features of clostridia
1. Morphology: The clostridia are gram-positive
typically large, straight or slightly curved rods,
3–8 × 0.6–1 μm with slightly rounded ends.
Most species of Clostridia are motile with
peritrichous flagella except C. perfringens
and C. tetani type VI which are non­motile. All
clostridia are noncapsulated with the exception
of C. perfringens and C. butyricum.
All produce endospores. Spores of clostridia
are usually wider than the diameter of the rods
in which they are formed. In the various species,
the spore is placed centrally, subterminally, or
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30
Chapter
Clostridium
∙∙ Discuss morphology, cultural characteristics of
C. tetani
∙∙ Describe toxins produced by C. tetani
∙∙ Describe the following: Pathogenesis of tetanus;
prophylaxis of tetanus
∙∙ Discuss morphology and cultural characteristics
of C. botulinum
∙∙ Discuss lab. diagnosis of botulinum
∙∙ Describe the following: gas gangrene; botulinum
toxin; Clostridium difficile.
terminally. The position of the developing
spores within the vegetative cell is useful in
identifying the species.
2. Culture: Most species are obligate anaerobes.
Clostridia grow on enriched media in the
presence of reducing agent such as cysteine
or thioglycollate (to maintain a low oxidation-
reduction potential),or in an O2 free gaseous
atmosphere.
A very useful medium is Robertson’s cooked
meat broth (CMB). It contains unsaturated fatty
acids which take up oxygen the reaction being
catalyzed by hematin in the meat. Clostridia
grow in the medium, render­ing the broth
turbid. Most species produce gas.
3. Biochemical reactions: On the basis of
biochemical reactions many clo­stridia can be
divided into: (A) Predominantly saccharolytic
clostridia, (B) Predominantly proteolytic
clostridia, (C) Slightly proteolytic clostridia
Table 30.1.
4. Resistance: Spores of C. botulinum may
withstand boil­ing after 3–4 hours and even at
105°C may not killed be completely in less than
100 minutes. Spores of most strains of
C. perfringens are destroyed by boiling for less
than five minutes, but those of some type A
strains that cause food poisoning survive for
several hours. C.terani spores persist for years
212  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
in dried earth or dust. All species are killed by Table 30.1  Clostridia as human pathogens
autoclaving at 121°C within 20 minutes. Among
A. The gas gangrene group
hospital disinfectants the greatest sporicidal
1. Established •  C. perfringens
activity is shown by alcoholic hypochlorite and pathogens •  C. septicum
glutaraldehyde. •  C. novyi
In general, clostridia are suscepti­ble to 2. Less pathogenic •  C. histolyticum
metronidazole, penicillin chloramphenicol •  C. fallax
3.  Doubtful pathogens •  C. bifermentans
and erythromycin; less so to tetracyclines, and
•  C. sporogenes
resistant to aminoglycosides and quinolones.
5. Diseases produced: Clostridia are more B. Tetanus C. tetani
commonly associ­ated with skin and soft tissue C. Food poisoning
infections, food poison­ing, and antibiotic- 1. Gastroenteritis C. perfringens (Type A)
associated diarrhea and colitis (Table 30.1). 2. Necrotizing enteritis C. perfringens (Type C)
3. Botulism C. botulinum
D.  Acute colitis C. difficile
Classification
The traditional method for classifying an isolate in
the ge­nus Clostridium was based on a combination
of diag­nostic tests, including the demonstration of
spores, op­timal growth in anaerobic conditions, a
complex pattern of biochemical reactivity such as
saccharolytic and proteolytic capacities and the
findings yielded by gas chromatography analysis
of the meta­bolic byproducts. With these methods,
more than 130 species have been defined.
Fortunately, most of the clinically important
isolates fall within a few species. Fig. 30.1: Reverse CAMP test

hu­man blood agar. It results from a narrow zone of

Clostridium perfringens (Clostridium welchii) complete hemolysis due to theta toxin and a much
C. perfringens is a normal inhabitant of the large wider darker zone of incomplete hemolysis due to
intestines of human beings and animals. The the α-toxin. On longer incubation this double zone
spores are commonly found in soil, dust and air. pattern of hemolysis may fade.
C.perfrigens also produces a characteristic
Morphology pattern of synergistic b-hemolysis when streaked
It is a relatively large gram-positive bacillus (about alongside Streptococcus agalactiae (the reverse
4–6 × 1μm) . It is pleomorphic, and filamentous. It CAMP test) (Fig 30.1).
is capsulated and nonmotile.
Spores are typically oval, central or sub terminal Biochemical Reactions
and not bulging but are rarely seen in artificial culture
It is actively saccharolytic. Glucose, maltose, lactose
or in material from pathological lesions, and their and sucrose are fermented with the production
absence is one of the characteristic morphological of acid and gas. It is indole negative, MR positive
features of C. perfringens. Special media normally and VP negative. Hydrogen sulphide is produced
must be used to demonstrate sporulation. abundantly; sulphite is actively reduced; most
strains reduce nitrates to nitrites.
Cultural Characteristics In litmus milk medium, fermentation of
It is an anaerobe. It grows over a pH range of 5.5–­ lactose leads to formation of acid, which is indicated
8.0 and temperature range of 20°C–50°C (optimum by the change in the color of litmus from blue to red.
temperature range 37°C–45°C). It grows on blood The acid clots the milk – casein-(acid clot) and the
agar, cooked meat broth(CMB) and thioglycollate clotted milk is dis­rupted due to the vigorous gas
broth within 24–48 hours. Good growth occurs in production. This is known as ‘stormy fermentation
Robertson’s cooked meat medium. The meat is or ‘stormy clot’ reaction but is not specific for this
turned pink but is not di­gested. The culture has an organism.
acid reaction and a sour odor.
Surface colonies are large, smooth, regular, Resistance
convex, slightly opaque discs. Colonies of most Spores are usually destroyed within five minutes
strains demonstrate a ‘tar­get hemolysis’ after by boiling but those of the ‘food poisoning’ strains
overnight incubation on rabbit, sheep, ox, or of type A and certain type C strains resist boiling

for 1–3 hours. Autoclaving of 121°C for 15 minutes
is lethal. Spores generally resist routinely used
antiseptics and disinfectants.
Toxins
C. perfringens is one of the most prolific of toxin-
producing bacteria, forming at least 12 distinct
soluble substances or toxins, all of which are of
protein in nature and antigenic. Major lethal toxins
include: α (alpha), b (beta), e (epsilon) and i (iota)
and minor lethal toxins include: g (gamma), d
(delta), k (kappa), l (lambda), m (mu), n (nu), q
(theta) and h (eta). The four 'major toxins', alpha,
beta, epsilon and iota, are predominantly respon­
sible for pathogenicity.
Classification
C. perfrin­gens can be divided into five types, A to
E on the basis of four major toxins. Strains of C.
perfringens type A that produce enterotoxin are
associated with a mild form of food poisoning.
Alpha Toxin
The alpha (a) toxin is produced by all types of
C. perfringens and most abundantly by type A
strains, is a lecithinase (phospho­lipase C) that lyses
erythrocytes, platelets, leukocytes, and endothelial
cells. It is lethal, dermonecrotic and hemolytic for
the red cells of most species, except horse and
goat. The lysis is of the hot-cold variety, being best
seen after incubation at 37°C followed by chilling
at 4°C. This toxin increases vascular permeability,
resulting in massive hemolysis and bleeding,
tissue destruction, hepatic toxicity, and myocardial
dysfunction. It is relatively heat stable.
Nagler’s Reaction
Basis: The alpha (a) toxin is lecithinase C (or
phospholipidase C) splits lecithin into phosphoryl
choline and diglyceride, in the presence of Ca++ and
Mg++ ions because the toxin is activated by Ca++ and
Mg++ ions. This reaction is seen as opalescence in
serum or egg yolk media and is specifically neutral­
ized by the antitoxin. This is the basis of Nagler
reaction.
Procedure: For rapid detection of C. perfringens, a
culture plate containing 6% agar, 5% peptic digest
of sheep blood and 20% human serum or 5% egg-
yolk is prepared. The in­corporation of neomycin
sulphate in the medium makes it more selective,
inhibiting coliforms and aer­obic spore bearers.
On one half of the plate, 2–3 drops of C.
perfringens antitoxin are spread and allowed to dry.
The plate is then inocu­lated with the test organisms
or the exudate under investigation and incubated
anaerobically at 37°C for 18 hours.
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Chapter 30: Clostridium  | 213
Fig. 30.2: Nagler’s reaction. C perfringens colonies on the
right half of the plate are surrounded by haloes, while colonies
on the left half (containing antiserum to alpha toxin) have no
haloes around them
Interpretation: On the section containing no
antitoxin, C. perfringens colonies show surrounding
zone of opalescence, i.e. Nagler reaction. There
will be no opacity around the colonies on the half
of the plate with the antitoxin, due to the specific
neutralization of the alpha toxin (Fig. 30.2).
This reaction, however, is not totally specific
for C. perfringens since the opalescence in the egg
yolk media may be produced by other lecithinase
forming bacte­ria (C. novyi, C. bifermentans, some
vibrios, some aerobic spore bearers). The reaction
produced by C. perfringens is speci­fically neutralized
by C. perfringens antitoxin, but serologically related
phospholipases of C. bifermen­tans and ‘C. sordellii
and some other phospholi­pases are also inhibited.
These organisms can be separated by other tests.
Other Major Toxins
Beta (β), Epsi­lon (e) and iota (i) toxins have lethal
and necrotizing properties.
Minor Toxins
Gamma and eta toxins have minor lethal toxins.
Delta toxin has a lethal effect and is hemolytic for
the red cells of even- goat, pigs and cattle. Theta
toxin is oxygen-labile hemolysin antigeni­cally
related to streptolysin O. It is also lethal and a
general cytolytic toxin.
Enterotoxin
C. perfringens type A strains produce a potent
enterotoxin which causes diarrhaea and other
symptoms of food poisoning.
Pathogenesis
1. Soft Tissue Infections
Soft tissue infections caused by C. perfringens
are subdi­vided into (1) cellulitis, (2) fasciitis or
suppurative myositis, and (3) myonecrosis or gas
gangrene.
214  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Clostridial myonecrosis or gas gangrene: The
disease is characterized by rapidly spreading edema,
myositis, necrosis of tissues, gas production and
profound toxemia occurring as a complication of
wound infection. The disease has been referred to in
the past as ‘malignant edema’. Other descriptive terms
that have been used are ‘anaerobic (clostridial)
myositis’ and ‘clostridial myonecrosis.
Etiology: Amongst the pathogenic clostridia,
C. perfringens is the most frequently encountered
(ap­p rox imately 60%), and C . n ov y i and
C. septicum being the next common (20–40%), and
C. histolyticum less often. Other clostridia usually
found are C. sporogenes, C. fallax, C. bifermentans,
C. sordelli, C. aerofoetidum and C. tertium.
Mechanism of infection: Clostridial spores are
introduced into tissue, e.g. by contamination with
dirt, or by endogenous transfer from the intestinal
tract. After injury there is incubation period may
be as short as seven hours or as long as six weeks,
usually of 12–48 hours.
When there is considerable cell injury or
compromise of circulation, germination and
outgrowth of clostria spores occurs. Alpha toxin and
other exotoxins are secreted and extensive cell killing
ensues. The production of enzymes that break down
ground substance facilitates the spread of infection.
Fermentation of tissue carbohydrates yields gas, and
an accu­mulation of gas bubbles in the subcutaneous
spaces produces a crinkling sensation on palpation
(crepitation), hence the name gas gangrene.
2. Septicemia
Invasion of the bloodstream may occur in associ­
ation with malignancy and may involve a localized
myonecrosis in addition to a fulminating clostridial
septicemia.
3. Food Poisoning
The organisms usually involved are strains of type
A. Meat, chicken, fish and their by-products are the
most common vehicles for clostrial food poisoning.
Clostridial food poisoning, is characterized by (i) a
short incubation period (8–24 hours), (ii) a clinical
presentation that includes abdominal cramps and
watery diarrhea but no fever, nausea, or vomiting,
and (iii) a clinical course lasting less than 24 hours.
The illness is self-limited and recovery occurs in
24–48 hours.
4. Enteritis Necroticans (Necrotizing
Jejunitis, Necrotic Enteritis)
This is severe and often fatal enteritis known by
different names in different countries: β-toxin-
producing C. perfringens type C is responsible for
this disease.
5. C. perfringens Colitis
A sporadic diarrheal syndrome, usually occurring in
elderly patients during treatment with antibiotics,
has been described.
6. Clostridial Endometritis
This condition is a grave complication of incom­
plete abortion, or the use of inadequately sterilized
instruments.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Gas gangrene is a medical emergency. The diagnosis
of gas gangrene must be made primarily on clinical
grounds, and the function of the laboratory is only
to provide confirma­tion of the clinical diagnosis
as well as identification and enumeration of the
infecting organisms.
A. Specimens
(1) Edge of the affected muscles; (2) Exudates from
the wound; and (3) Necrotic tissue and mus­cle
fragments.
B. Microscopy
Gram stained films give presumptive information
about the species of clostridia present and their
rela­t ive numbers. If gas gangrene is present,
Gram-positive rods may predominate. Thick,
stubby, Gram-positive rods suggest C. perfringens
or C. sordellii, ‘citron bodies’, boat- or leaf­shaped
pleomorphic bacilli with irregular staining, may
indicate C. septicum; slender rods with round
terminal spores suggest C. tetani and large rods with
oval sub terminal spores indicate C. novyi.
C. Culture
Fresh and heated blood agar are used for aerobic
and anaerobic cultures. To prevent swarming
by some species of clostridia, the use of plates
containing in­creased agar (5-6%) are considered. A
plate of serum or egg yolk agar, with C. perfringens
antitoxin spread on one half is used for the ‘Nagler
reaction’.
Four tubes of cooked meat broth are inoculated
and heated at 100°C for 5, 10, 15 and 20 minutes,
incubated and sub­cultured on blood agar plates
after 24–48 hours, to dif­ferentiate the organisms
with heat resistant spores. Blood cultures are
often positive, especially in C. perfringens and
C. septicum infections. However, C. per­fringens
bacteremia may occur without gas gangrene.
D. Identification
Examine plates for typical colonies. The isolates are
identified based on their morphological, cultural,
biochemical and toxigenic characters.

Animal Pathogenicity
0.1 mL 24 hours growth in cooked meat broth is
injected into a healthy guinea pig by intramuscular
route. The animal dies within 24 hours. A control
animal protected with antiserum prior to test is also
included. On autopsy, bacteria can be recovered
from heart and spleen of the test animal.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Food Poisoning
Prophylaxis and Therapy
1. Surgery: All damaged tissues should be
removed promptly and the wounds irrigated
to remove blood clots, necrotic tissue and
foreign materials. In established gas gangrene,
uncompromising excision of all affected parts
may be life-saving.
2. Antibiotics: Penicillin, metronidazole and
an aminoglycoside may be given in combin­
ation. Alternatively, clindamycin plus an
aminoglycoside or a broad-spectrum antibiotic,
such as meropenem or imipenem, may be
considered.
3. Passive immunization: A polyvalent antiserum
used to be available but it has now been
replaced by intensive antimicrobial therapy.
4. Hyperbaric oxygen: Hyperbaric oxygen may
be beneficial in treatment and is introduced in
the depth of wound to reduce anaerobiosis.
5. Active immunization: Toxoids have been
found to induce antitoxic response but it is not
of practical use.
Clostridium tetani
Clostridium telani is the causative agent of tetanus,
a disease that is now relatively rare in well-
developed countries.
Morphology
It is a gram-positive, slender bacillus, 2–5 × 0.4–1 mm
with rounded ends. The spores are spherical, ter­
minal and twice the diameter of vegetative cells
giving them typical drumstick appearance (Fig.
30.3). It is non-capsulated and motile by peritrichate
flagella (except C. tetani type VI) with peritrichate
flagella. Young cultures of the organism usually stain
Gram-positive, but in older cultures and in smears
made from wounds, they are gram-variable and even
are gram-negative.
Cultural Characteristics
C. tetani is an obligate anaerobe. The optimal
temperature for growth is 37° C, and the optimal pH
is 7.4. It can grow well in cooked meat broth (CMB),
thioglycollate broth, nutrient agar and blood agar.
In cooked meat broth (CMB), growth occurs as
turbidity and there is also some gas formation.
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Chapter 30: Clostridium  | 215
Fig. 30.3: C. tetani, some with spores and
some without spores
The meat is not digested but becomes black on
prolonged incubation. On blood agar the bacilli
produce a swarming (thin spreading film) growth.
On horse blood agar, the colonies of C. tetani
are surrounded by a zone of a-hemolysis, which
subsequently develops into b-hemolysis, due to
the production of an oxygen-labile hemolysin
known as tetanolysin. On egg-yolk agar, it does
not produce opalescence or pearly layer.
In deep agar shake cultures, the colonies are
spherical fluffy balls, 1–3 mm in diameter, made up
of filaments with a radial arrangement. In gelatin
stab cultures a fir tree type of growth occurs, with
slow liq­uefaction.
Biochemical Reactions
C. tetani has feeble proteo­lytic but no saccharolytic
property. It does not attack any sugar. Gelatin
liquefaction occurs very slowly. It is indole positive
and MR, VP, H2S and nitrate reduction negative.
A greenish fluores­cence is produced on media
containing neutral red (as on MacConkey’s medium).
Resistance: The spores are killed by boiling for
10–15 minutes but some resist boiling for up
to three hours. They can, however, be killed by
autoclaving at 121°C for 15 minutes.
Spores are able to survive in soil for years.
They are killed by exposure to iodine (1% aqueous
solution), hydrogen peroxide (10 volumes) and
glu­taraldehyde (2%) within a few hours.
Antigenic Structure
Flagella (H), somatic (O), and spore antigens
have been demonstrated in C. tetani. The spore
antigens are different from the H and 0 antigens of
the somatic cell.
Flagella (H) antigen: Ten serological types have
been rec­ognized based on agglutination (types I
to X) of which type I and III are the most common.
This typing is on the basis of their flagellar (H)
antigens. Type VI contains nonflagellated strains.
216  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Somatic (O) antigen: There is a single somatic
agglutin­ation group for all strains that permits
identification of the organism.
Tetanus Toxin
C. tetani produces at least two distinct toxins—an
oxygen-labile hemolysin (tetanolysin) and a
powerful plasmid-encoded, heat-labile neurotoxin
(tetanospasmin). A third toxin, a nonspasmogenic,
peripherally active neurotoxin, has been identified.
It is not known whether this plays any role in the
patho­genesis of tetanus.
Tetanospasmin
All of the symptoms in tetanus are attrib­utable to an
extremely toxic neurotoxin, tetanospasmin. The toxin
is a heat-labile, oxygen stable, powerful plasmid-
encoded neurotoxin and has been crystallized. It
gets toxoided spontaneously or in the presence of low
concentrations of formaldehyde. It is a good antigen
and is specifically neutralized by the antitoxin.
On release from the bacillus, it is autolyzed to
form a heterodimer consisting of a heavy chain
(93,000 MW) and a light chain (52,000 MW) joined
by a disulphide bond. The purified toxin is active in
extremely small amounts and has an minimal lethal
dose (MLD) for mice of about 50–75 × 10-6 mg.
Tetanolysin
Tetanolysin is a heat labile, oxygen labile hemo­
lysin, antigenically related to the oxygen labile
hemolysins produced by C. perfringens, C. novyi and
Str. pyogens. It is not relevant in the pathogenesis of
tetanus.
Pathogenicity
Tetanus develops following the contami­nation
of wound with C. tetani spores. The most typical
focus of infection in tetanus is a puncture wound.
Introduced for­eign bodies or small areas of cell
killing create a nidus of devital­ized material in
which tetanus spores can germinate and grow.
Germination of spores is dependent upon the
reduced oxygen tension occurring in devitalized
tissue. After germination of the spores, toxin
is elaborated and gains entrance to the central
nervous system.
C. tetani has little invasive power. Infection
strictly remains localized in the wound and the
disease is due to the effect of a potent diffusible
exotoxin (tetanospasmin). The toxin exerts its effects
on the spinal cord, the brainstem, peripheral nerves,
at neuromuscular junctions and directly on muscles.
Toxin diffuses to affect the relevant level of the
spinal cord (local tetanus) and then to affect the
entire system (generalized tetanus). These stages,
including the intermediate one of ‘ascending
tetanus’, are demonstrable in experimental animals,
but the stages tend to merge in their clinical present­
ation in man.
Epidemiology
Tetanus is more common in the developing coun­
tries. In rural In­dia, tetanus was a common cause
of death, parti­cularly in the newborn.
Tetanus was a serious disease with a high rate
of mortality (80–90%), before specific treatment
became available. Tetanus neonatorum and
uterine tetanus have very high fatali­ty rates (70–
100%), while otogenic tetanus is much less serious.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The diagnosis of tetanus is made on clinical
grounds. Laboratory tests only help in confirmation.
A. Specimen: Wound exudate or tissue removed
from the wound.
B. Microscopy: Microscopy is unreliable and the
demonstration of the typical ‘drumstick’ bacilli
in wounds in itself is not diagnostic of tetanus.
It may not also be possible to distinguish by
microscopy between C. tetani and morphologi­
cally similar bacilli such as C. tetanomorphum
and C. sphenoides. Hence, microscopy is
unreliable. Simple light microscopy is often
unsuc­cessful. Immunofluorescence microscopy
with a specific stain is possible but not generally
available.
C. Culture: The material is inoculated on one
half of a blood agar plate. C. tetani produces
a swarming growth which may be detected
on the opposite half of the plate after 1–2 days
incubation anaerobically. The incorporation of
polymyxin B, to which clostridia are resistant,
makes the medium more selective.
The material is also inoculated into three
tubes of cooked meat broth, one of which is
heated to 80°C for 15 minutes, the second
for five minutes, and the third left unheated.
The purpose of heating for different pe­riods
is to kill vegetative bacteria, while leaving
un­damaged tetanus spores, which vary widely
in heat resistance. The cooked meat tubes are
incubated at 37°C and subcultured on one half
of blood agar plates daily for up to four days.
D. Toxigenicity test: Toxigenicity is best tested
in animals. Control mice are protected with
tetanus antitoxin. Two mice, one unprotected
and other protected are used for each test.
One animal is protected by giving 1,000 units of
tetanus antitoxin intraperi­toneally 1 hour before
the test. Inject 0.1 ml of a 48 hours CMB culture
supernate of the organism intramuscularly into
the hind limb of one mouse (the test) and the
same amount in the another animal (control

animals). The protected mouse remains well.
Signs of ascen­d ing tetanus develop in the
unprotected animal after several hours, they
begin in the inoculated leg and extend to the
tail, then the other hind limb is affec­ted and
then generalized signs appear. The animal dies
within 2 days but may be killed earlier as the
appearance of ascending teta­nus is diagnostic.
Prophylaxis
The available methods of prophylaxis are:
1. Surgical attention
2. Antibiotics
3. Immuniza­tion—passive, active or combined.
1. Surgical prophylaxis: This includes prompt and
adequate wound toilet and proper surgical debri­
dement of wound, removal of foreign material,
necrotic tis­sue and blood clots to prevent an
anaero­bic environment for the growth of C. lelani.
2. Antibiotic prophylaxis: Antibiotics destroy
or inhibit C. tetani and pyogenic bacteria
in the wound, so that the production of the
toxin can be prevented. Long-acting penicillin
injection is the drug of choice. An alternative
is erythromycin. Antibiotic prophylaxis does
not replace immunoprophylaxis but serves as
a useful adjunct.
3. Immunoprophylaxis
It includes 3 types of immunization:
i. Active immunization
ii. Passive immunization
iii. Combined immunization
i. Active immunization: Tetanus is best
prevented by active immunization with tetanus
toxoid. Two preparations are available for active
immunization are:
a. Combined vaccine (DPT)
b. Monovalent vaccines
∙∙ Plain or fluid (formol) toxoid
∙∙ Tetanus vaccine, adsorbed (PTAP, APT)
Tetanus toxoid (formol toxoid), which is
available either as ‘plain toxoid’, or adsorbed
on aluminum hydroxide or phosphate (APT),
is commonly used for active immunization.
Three doses of 0.5 ml tetanus toxoid
(APT) each are given intramuscularly,
with an interval of 4–6 weeks between first
two doses and 6–12 months between the
second and third dose. A full course of three
doses confers immunity for a period of at
least 10 years. A ‘booster dose’ of toxoid is
recommended after 10 years.
Tetanus toxoid is given along with diphtheria
toxoid and pertusis vaccine called DPT in
children as tri­ple vaccine. Pertusis vaccine
acts as adjuvant. Three doses are given
intramuscularly at interval of 4–6 weeks,
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Chapter 30: Clostridium  | 217
starting at age as early as 6 weeks. Booster
doses are given at age of 18 months and then
at five years. Thereafter, booster doses of TT
(tetanus toxoid) are given at the age of 10 and
16 years. Subsequently, immunity to tetanus
can be maintained by booster doses of tox­oid
every 10 years.
ii. Passive immunization:
a. Antitetanus serum (ATS): ATS from
hyperim­mune horses was the preparation
originally used. The dose employed was 1500
IU given subcutaneously or intramuscularly
in nonimmune persons soon after re­ceiving
any tetanus prone injury. ATS gives passive
protection for about 7–10 days.
Disadvantages of ATS: Equine ATS carried
two disadvantages implicit in the use of any
heterologous serum - ‘immune elimination
and hypersensitivity reactions. It is,
therefore, mandatory to test for hypersen­
sitivity before administration of ATS.
b. Human antitetanus immunoglobulin
(HTIG): Passive immunity without risk of
hypersensitivity can be obtained by the use
of human antitetanus immunoglobulin
(HTIG). This is effective in smaller doses.
The prophylac­tic dose of hTIG is 250 units
by intramuscular injection.
iii. Combined immunization: It consists of
administering to a nonimmune person ATS or
hTIG at one site, along with the first dose of a
course of active immunization with adsorbed
toxoid at the same time at another site,
followed by second and third doses of TT at
appropriate intervals. The active immunization
course must be subsequently completed.
Treatment
1. The patient remains conscious and requires
skilled seda­tion and constant nursing.
2. Treatment of tetanus requires debridement
of the primary wound, use of metronidazole,
passive immunization with human teta­nus
immunoglobulin, and vaccination with tetanus
tox­oid.
3. Full wound exploration and debridement is
arranged, and the wound is cleansed and left
open with a loose pack.
4. The patient is given 10,000 units of human
tetanus immunoglobulin (HTIG) in saline by
slow intravenous infusion.
6. Penicillin or metronidazole is given for as long
as considered necessary to ensure that bacterial
growth and toxin production are stopped.
7. Vaccination with a series of three doses of
tetanus toxoid followed by booster doses every
10 years is highly effective in preventing tetanus.
218  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Clostridium botulinum
C. botulinum (from the Latin botulus, “sausage”)
causes botulism. Botulism is a severe, often fatal,
form of food poisoning characterized by pronounced
neurotoxic effects. The disease has been caused
by a wide range of foods, the disease can be a pure
intoxication.
Morphology
C. botulinum is a strictly anaerobic gram-positive
bacillus (about 5 × 1 mm). It is non-capsulated,
motile with peritrichous flagella and produces
spores which are oval, subterminal and bulging.
Cultural Characteristics
It is a strict anaerobe. Opti­mum temperature is
35°C but some strains may grow even at 1–5°C.
Good growth occurs on ordinary media. Surface
colonies are large, irregular, semi-transparent,
with fimbriate border. On horse blood agar, all
strains except those of type G are β-hemolytic. On
egg-yolk agar (EYA) all types except G produce
opalescence and a pearly effect.
Resistance: Spores are heat and radiation resistant,
surviving several hours at 100°C and for up to 10
minutes at 120°C. Spores of nonproteolytic types
of B, E and F are much less resistant to heat. The
resistance of the spores to radiation is of special
relevance to food processing.
Classification
The species C. botulinum has been divided into
eight serologically distinct types—A, B, C1, and
C2, D, E, F, and G-on the basis of the type of toxin
produced. The toxins produced by different types
are antigenically dis­tinct but pharmacologically
similar.
Botulinum Toxin
A powerful exotoxin produced by C. botulinum is
responsible for its pathogenicity. It differs, however,
from a classic exotoxin in that it is not released
during the life of the organism but appears in
the medium only after death and autolysis of the
organism. It is believed to be synthesised in­itially
as a nontoxic protoxin or progenitor toxin. Trypsin
and other proteolytic enzymes activate pro­genitor
toxin to active toxin. The production of botulinum
toxin is governed by specific bacteriophages.
Properties of toxin: Botulinum toxin is one of the
most potent toxins known. It is isolated as a pure
crystalline protein with MW 70,000. It has a lethal
dose for mice of 0.000,000,033 mg and lethal dose for
human be­ings is probably 1–2 mg. It is a neurotoxin
and acts slowly, taking several hours to kill.
The toxin is relatively stable being inactivated
at 80°C for 30­–40 minutes and at 100°C for 10
minutes. Food suspected to be contaminated with
bot­ulinum toxin can be rendered completely safe
by pres­sure cooking or boiling for 20 minutes. It can
be toxoi­ded. It is a good antigen and is specifically
neutral­ized by the antitoxin.
Botulinum toxin gains access to the peripheral
nervous system, where it acts preferentially on
cholinergic nerve endings to block the release of
the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, from the nerve
ter­minals of neuromuscular junctions. A symmetric
descending paralysis is the characteristic pattern,
ending in death bv respiratory paralysis.
Pathogenicity
It is noninvasive and its pathogenicity is entirely
due to the toxin produced by it. The dis­ease caused
by this organism is known as botulism. It is of 3
types—foodborne botulism, wound botulism and
infant botulism.
1. Food-borne Botulism
It is due to the inges­tion of preformed toxin. The
source of botulism is usually preserved food such
as meat and meat products, fish, and vegeta­bles.
Food responsible for botulism is usually abnor­mal
in appearance and odour.
Symptoms usually begin 18–36 hours after inge­
stion of food and may include nausea, vomiting,
thirst, constipation, double vision, difficulty in
swal­lowing, speaking and breathing. This may be
fol­lowed by muscular weakness, blurred vision,
and death as a result of respiratory failure. Case
fatality varies from 25–70%.
2. Wound Botulism
Wound botulism is a very rare condition resulting
from wound infection with C. botulinum. Toxin is
pro­duced at the site of infection and is absorbed.
The symptoms are those of foodborne botulism
except for the gastrointestinal components which
are absent. Type A has been responsible for most
of the cases studied.
3. Infant Botulism
This is a toxico-infection. C. botulinum spores are
ingested in food, get established in the gut and
there produce the toxin. The disease typically
affects infants younger than 1 year (most between
me and 6 months). The most common food source
in infant botulism is honey contaminated with
botulinum spores.
Clinically, infant botulism is an acute flaccid
paralysis. After a period of normal develop­ment;
the infant develops constipation, listlessness,
difficulty in sucking and swallowing, weak or

alte­red cry, muscle weakness, ptosis, and loss of
head control. Eventually the baby appears ‘floppy’
(floppy child syndrome) and develops respiratory
insuffi­ciency or respiratory arrest. Fulminant forms
may resemble the sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS or crib death).
Management consists of supportive care and
assisted feeding.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Botulism confirmed by isolating the organism or
detect­ing the toxin in food products or the patient’s
feces or serum.
1. Specimens: Fe­ces, food, vomitus, gastric fluid,
serum, environmental samples and occasionally
wound exudate.
2. Culture: For the isolation of C. botulinum,
the specimen is inoculated on Egg-yolk agar
(EYA), blood agar and CMB. The strains of C.
botulinum associated with human botulism are
characterized by lipase production (appears
as an iri­descent film on colonies grown on
egg-yolk agar) as well as the ability to digest
milk proteins, hydrolyze gelatin, and ferment
glucose.
Presence of bacilli in food or feces in absence
of toxin is of no significance. Hence, toxin
in culture fluid must be demonstrated by
toxigenicity test in mice.
3. Demonstration of toxin: Demonstration
of toxin production must be done with a
mouse bioassay. This procedure consists of
the preparation of two aliquots of the isolate,
mixing of one aliquot with antitoxin, and
intraperitoneal inocula­tion of each aliquot into
mice. Toxin activity is confirmed if the antitoxin
treat­ment protects the mice. Control animals
protected by polyvalent antitoxin re­m ain
healthy. Typing is done by passive protection
with type specific antitoxin.Samples of the
implicated food, stool specimen, and patient’s
serum should also be tested for toxin activity.
A retrospective diagnosis may be made by
detec­tion of antitoxin in the patient’s serum but it
may not be seen in all cases.
Prophylaxis
Control can be achieved by proper canning and
preservation. Children younger than 1 year should
not eat honey.
A prophylactic dose of polyvalent antitoxin
should be given intramuscularly to all persons who
have eaten food suspected of causing botulism.
Active immunization should be considered
for laboratory staff. Two injections of aluminum
sulfate adsorbed toxoid may be given at an interval
of ten weeks, followed by a booster a year later.
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Chapter 30: Clostridium  | 219
Treatment
1. Elimination of the organism from the gastro­
intestinal tract through the judicious use of
gastric lavage and metronidazole or penicillin
therapy.
2. The use of polyvalent antitoxin to neutralize
unfixed toxin.
3. Adequate ventilatory support.
Clostridium difficile
C. difficile was first isolated in 1935 from the feces
of newborn infants. It was so named because of the
unu­sual difficulty in isolating.
Morphology
C. difficile is a motile Gram-positive rod with oval
subter­minal spores. Spores are large, oval and
terminal. It is nonhemolytic, saccharolytic and
weakly’ proteolytic.
Pathogenesis
Toxins: The organism produces an enterotoxin
(toxin A) and a cytotoxin (toxin B).
1. Toxin A is an enterotoxin that is primarily
responsible for diarrhea. It is capable of pro­
ducing fluid accumulation in ligated rabbit ileal
loop assay.
2. Toxin B is a potent cytotoxin capable of
producing cytopathogenic effects in several
tissue culture cell lines.
Pathogenesis: It is a proven cause of antibiotic
associated diarrhea (AAD), and pseudomembranous
colitis (PMC) a life-threatening condition. The
disease develops in people taking antibiotics.
The three drugs most commonly implicated are
clindamycin, ampicillin and the cephalosporins.
The severity of disease varies widely from mild
diarrhea through varying degrees of inflammation
of the large intestine to a fulminant PMC.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Isolation of bacilli: C. difficile can be isolated
from the feces by enrich­ment and selective
culture procedures.
2. Demonstration of toxin: Toxin B can be
demonstrated in the feces of patients by its
characteristic effect on Hep-2 and human
diploid cell cultures or both toxins may be
demonstrated by immunological methods, e.g.
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
Treatment and Prophylaxis
The disease is treated by discontinuing the
antibiotic that is pre­sumed to have precipitated
the disease and by giving oral metronidazole or
vancomycin.
220  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Key Points
™™ The genus Clostridium includes all anaerobic, gram-
positive bacilli capable of forming endospores.
Clostridia are more commonly associ­ated with
skin and soft tissue infections, food poison­ing, and
antibiotic-associated diarrhea and colitis
Clostridium perfringens
™™ Large, rectangular, Gram-positive bacillus. Forms
spores but they are rarely seen in clinical spec­imens
or culture
™™ Blood agar and Robertson’s cooked meat medium
are used. Large spreading colonies are seen within
first day of culture; “double zone” of hemolysis on
blood agar (due to a and 8 toxins)
™™ Toxins: C. perfringens is forming at least 12 distinct
soluble substances or toxins. The four major toxins,
al­pha, beta, epsilon and iota, are predominantly
respon­sible for pathogenicity
™™ Diseases: 1. Soft tissue infections (cellulitis, suppurative
myositis, my­onecrosis). 2. Food poisoning. 3. Septi­
cemia.
™™ Nagler reaction and reverse CAMP tests are useful in
identification of C. perfringens
™™ Systemic infections require surgical debridement
and high-dose penicillin therapy; antiserum against
a toxin not used now
Clostridium tetani
™™ Clostridium tetani is the causative agent of tetanus.
™™ Tetanus toxin: Two distinct toxins–an oxygen–
labile hemolysin (tetanolysin) and a neurotoxin
(tetanospasmin)
™™ Prevention through use of vaccination, consisting of
three doses of tetanus toxoid followed by boosters
every 10 years
Clostridium botulinum
™™ Clostridium botulinum forms a powerful which is
responsible for botulinum
™™ Diseases: The dis­ease caused by this organism
is known as botulism. It is of 3 types: foodborne
botulism, wound botulism and infant botulism
Clostridium difficile
™™ The three drugs most commonly implicated are
clindamycin, ampicillin and the cephalosporins.
™™ Diseases: 1. Asymptomatic colonization; 2. Antibiotic-
associated diarrhea (AAD); 3. Pseudomembranous
colitis.
Important questions
1. Classify clostridia. Discuss the laboratory diagnosis
of gas gangrene.
2. Discuss the pathogenicity and prophylaxis of gas
gangrene.
3. Define gas gangrene and discuss its bacteriology
and pathogenesis
4. Enumerate various pathogenic clostridia. Describe
the pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of
tetanus.
5. Write short notes on:
a. Alpha toxin
b. Stormy clot reaction
c. Nagler reaction
d. Gas gangrene.
e. Toxins of C. tetani
f. Tetanospasmin
g. Prophylaxis of tetanus.
h. Clostridium botulinum
i. Botulism
j. Botulinum toxin
k. Laboratory diagnosis of botulism
l. Clostridium difficile.
m. Pseudomembranous colitis.
n. Antibiotic associated colitis (diarrhea).
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1.  Which of the following types of Clostridium
perfringens produces alpha toxin most abundantly?
a. Type A b. Type B
c. Type C d. Type D
2. Nagler’s reaction is useful for the identification of:
a. Clostridium tetani
b. Clostridium perfringens.
c. Clostridium botulinum.
d. Clostridium difficile.
3. All the following species cause gas gangrene except:
a. Clostridium perfringens
b. Clostridium novyi
c. Clostridium sordellii
d. Clostridium histolyticum
4. Food poisoning is caused by Clostridium perfringens:
a. Type A b. Type B
c. Type C d. Type D
5. Stormy clot reaction is useful in identification of:
a. Clostridium perfringens
b. Clostridium tetani
c. Clostridium botulinum
d. Clostridium difficile
6. Typical drumstick appearance of bacilli is observed
in:
a. Clostridium perfringens
b. Clostridium tetani
c. Clostridium botulinum
d. Clostridium histolyticum.
7. The most potent naturally occurring toxin known
to human­kind is:
a. Botulinum toxin b. Tetanus toxin
c. Cholera toxin d. Diphtheria toxin
8. Antibiotics-associated diarrhea is caused by:
a. Clostridium perfringens
b. Clostridium tetani
c. Clostridium botulinum
d. Clostridium difficile
9. Clostridium botulinum food poisoning is due to:
a. Preformed toxin
b. Invasion of bacteria in the intestine
c. Both of the above
d. None of the above
10. Floppy child syndrome is associated with:
a. Clostridium botulinum infection
b. Clostridium tetani infection
c. Clostridium perfringens infection
d All of the above
11. Which of the following bacteria is responsible for
pseudomembranous enterocolitis?
a. Clostridium perfringens b. C. tetani
c. C. botulinum d. C. difficile
12. Antitoxic therapy is useful in:
a. Gas gangrene b. Diphtheria.
c. Both of the above d. None of the
above
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. b; 3. d; 4. a; 5. a; 6. b; 7. a; 8. d; 9. a; 10. a; 11. d; 12. c
 31
Chapter

Nonsporing Anaerobes

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ List infections caused by nonsporing anaerobes
be able to: ∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of infections caused
∙∙ Describe classification of nonsporing anaerobes by nonsporing anaerobes.

Introduction Table 31.1  Classification of nonsporing anaerobes

The anaerobic bacteria are widespread in nature. I. Cocci
A. Gram-positive
A bewildering range of anaerobes is found in the a. Peptostreptococcus
mouth and oropharynx, gastrointestinal tract b. Peptococcus
and female genital tract of healthy individuals as B. Gram-negative
part of the commensal flora. They constitute the Veillonella
predominant part of our normal indigenous flora II. Bacilli
1. Endosoore forming
on skin and membrane surfaces and outnumber Clostridia
facul­tatively anaerobic bacteria in the gut by a 2. Nonsporing
factor of 1000:1. The numbers of anaerobes present A. Gram-positive
have been estimated to be 104 to 105/mL in the small a. Eubacterium
intestine, 108/mL in saliva and 1011/g in the colon. b. Propionibacterium
c. Lactobacillus
On the skin, in the mouth, in the upper respiratory d. Mobiluncus
tract, and often in the female lower genital tract, e. Bifidobacterium
they outnumber facultatively anaerobic bacteria f. Actinomyces
by a factor of 5: 1 to 10: 1. Many of these anaerobic B. Gram-negative
organisms. Previously considered to be harmless a. Bacteroides
b. Prevotellla
commensals of our indigenous flora, are now c. Porphyromonas
recognized as opportunistic pathogens that may d. Fusobacterium
produce disease when the host’s resistance is e. Leptotrichia
reduced. III. Spirochetes
a. Treponema
b. Borrelia
Classification
Medically important anaerobes may be broadly
Gram-positive anaerobic cocci comprise
classified as shown in Table 31.1.
part of the normal microbial flora of the mouth,
gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary tract and skin.
Anaerobic cocci
Strictly anaerobic gram-positive cocci have Peptococcus
been assigned to the genera Peptococcus, Most of the peptococci have now been reclassified
Peptostreptococcus, Coprococcus, Ruminococcus as peptostreptococci. Peptococcus niger is the
and Sarcina. Strictly anaerobic gram-negative only surviving member of the genus Peptococcus.
cocci are included in Veillonella, Megasphera and They are gram-positive, nonsporing, anaerobic
Acidaminococcus. cocci, that occur singly or in pairs or in clusters.

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222  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
They produce black colonies on blood agar on
prolonged incubation due to the production of
H2S. They occur as normal flora of skin, intestine
and genitourinary tract. They may cause pyogenic
infections of wounds, puerperal sepsis and urinary
tract infections.
Peptostreptococcus
They are cocci of small size (0.2­–2.5 µm). Many of
them are aerotolerant and grow well under 10%
CO2 in an aerobic atmosphere.
Peptostreptococcus anaerobius is most often
responsible for puerperal sepsis and Pst. magnus
for abscesses.
Gram-negative anAerobic cocci
Veillonella
Veillonellae are gram-negative cocci of varying
sizes, and measure 0.3–2.5 μm in diameter.
Occurring as diplococci, short chains or groups.
They are normal inhabitants of the mouth,
intestinal and genital tracts. Veillonella parvula
has been reported from clinical specimens but its
pathogenic role is uncertain.
Anaerobic, nonspore-forming,
gram-positive bacilli
This group contains many genera, of which medically
relevant are Eubacterium, Propionibacterium,
Lactobacillus, Mobiluncus, Bifidobacterium and
Actinomyces.
1. Eubacterium­
Members of the genus Eubacterium are strictly
anaerobic and grow very slowly. They are members
of the normal mouth and intestinal flora. Some
species (E. brachy, E. timidum and E. nodatum)
are commonly seen in periodontitis. E. lentum is
commonly isolated from nonoral clinical specimens.
2. Bifidobacterium
Bifidobacterium is gram-positive bacilli nonmotile,
nonsporing and pleomorphic, showing true and
false branching. They occur as normal flora of
mouth, gastrointestinal tract (GI) tract and genito­
urinary tract. They are usually nonpathogenic.
3. Lactobacillus
Lactobacilli are gram-positive bacilli, straight or
slightly curved which frequently show bipolar and
barred staining. They are nonsporing and most
strains are nonmotile. They form considerable
amount of lactic acid from carbohydrates and grow
best at pH of 5 or less.
They are found as part of the normal flora of
the mouth, stomach, intestines, and genitourinary
tract. Lactobacilli are normally present in the mouth
and have been incriminated in the pathogenesis
of dental caries. It is believed that lactobacilli
ferment sucrose to produce lactic acid, which
dissolves the mineral components of enamel and
dentine causing dental caries.
Several species of lactobacilli are present in the
intestine, the most common being L. acidophilus.
Intestinal lactobacilli are beneficial in synthesizing
vitamins, such as biotin, vitamin B12 and vitamin K,
which may be absorbed by the host.
Lactobacillus species are major members of
the normal flora of the vagina and, typically, in
the adult vagina and these are collectively known
as Doderlein’s bacilli. They ferment the glycogen
deposited in the vaginal epithelial cell and form
lactic acid, which accounts for the highly acidic
pH of vaginal mucus epithelia. They protect
adult vagina from infections. In prepubertal and
postmenopausal vagina, lactobacilli are scanty.
It is generally nonpathogenic though L. cat­
enaforme has been associated with bronchopulmo­
nary infections. Lactobacilli are acidophilic
and grow best at acidic pH. Some species have
strict growth require­ments and are used for the
microbiological assay of growth factors (vitamins).
4. Mobiluncus
Members of the genus Mobiluncus are obligate
anaero­bic, gram-variable or gram-negative, curved
bacilli with tapered ends. Two species, Mobiluncus
curtisii and Mobiluncus mu­lieris, have been identified
in humans.
Mobiluncus curtisii and Mobiluncus mu­lieris
have been isolated from the vagina in bacterial
vaginosis, along with Gardnerella vaginalis. The
organisms colonize the genital tract in low numbers
but are abun­d ant in women with bacterial
vaginosis. Their microscopic appearance is a useful
marker for this disease, but the precise role of these
organisms in the pathogenesis of bacterial vaginosis
is unclear.
5. Propionibacterium
Propionibacterium species are members of the
normal flora of the skin and cause dis­ease when
they infect plastic shunts and appliances. Their
metabolic products include propionic acid, from
which the genus name derives.
Species: The two most commonly isolated species
are Propionibacterium acnes and Propioni­
bacterium propionicus.
P. acnes are responsible for acne and
oportunistic infections in patients with prosthetic
devices or intravascular lines.

Propionibacterium propionicus
Causes lacrimal canaliculitis and abscesses.
6. Actinomyces—See Chapter 35.
Anaerobic gram-negative bacilli
Gram-negative, anaerobic,nonsporeforming,
non motile rods were previously classified in the
the family Bacteroidaceae within three genera,
Bacteroides, Fusobacterium and Leptotrichia.
1. Bacteroides
The genus Bacteroides can be divided.
a. Bile-­tolerant
i. Members of the B. fragilis group—B. fragilis, B.
ovatus, B. distasonis, B. vulgatus, B. thetaiotao­
micron, and others.
ii. Two other species—Bacteroides eggerthii and
Bacteroides splanchnicus.
b. Bile Sensitive species
i. Pigmented: Have been reclas­sified into—the
genera Porphyromonas, Prevotella and
porphyromonas.
ii. Nonpigmented species: Many nonpigmented
species of Bacteroides also have been transferred
to the genus Prevotella.
2. Fusobacterium (Bacilli with pointed ends)
Fusobacterium necrophorum, Fusobacterium
nucleatum, Fusobacterium necrogenes.
3. Leptotrichia (Large bacilli)
Leptotrichia buccalis—the only species.
1. Bacteroides
a. Bile-tolerant Species
Members of the B. fragilis group, which contains
about 10 related species, are especially pathogenic.
B. fragilis is the most common species of anaerobic
bacteria isolated from infectious processes of soft
tissue and anaerobic bacteremia.
B. fragilis is the most frequent of the nonsporing
anaerobes isolated from clinical specimens. It is
often recovered from blood, pleural and peritoneal
fluids, CSF, brain abscesses, wounds and urogenital
infec­tions. Their polysaccharide capsule is an
important virulence factor, conveying resistance
to phagocytosis.
b. Bile-sensitive Species
i. Pigmented species
1. Prevotella
Prevotella spp. appears as gram-negative coccobacilli
or bacilli, very similar to Bacteroides spp. Prevotella
melaninogenica is part of the normal flora of the
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Chapter 31: Nonsporing Anaerobes  | 223
mouth and upper alimentary and respiratory tracts.
Its cell wall contains a strong endotoxin. Prevotella
infections are usually associated with the upper
respiratory tract, causing, for example, dental
and sinus infections, pulmonary infections and
abscesses, brain abscesses, and infections caused
by a human bite.
Laboratory identification is similar to that of B.
tragilis. In addition, P. melaninogenica forms black
colonies on blood agar—a characteristic from which
its name was derived. The color is not due to the
melanin pigment as was once thought. Cultures of
P. melaninogenica and even dressings from wounds
infected with the bacillus give a characteristic red
fluorescence when exposed to ultraviolet light. P.
melaninogenica exhibits less drug resistance than
do the bac­teroides, and are usually susceptible to
penicillin.
2. Porphyromonas
Porphyromonas species can be cultured from
gingival and periapical tooth infections and, more
commonly, breast, axillary, perianal, and male
genital infections.
ii. Nonpigmented Species
Many nonpigmented species of bacteraies have
been transferred to the genus prevotella.
Nonpigmented Prevotella spp. includes
Prevotella bivia, Prevotella buccae, etc.
2. Fusobacterium
Fusobacteria are spindle-shaped gram-negative
bacilli with pointed ends a morphology character­
istically referred to as fusiform. They are found as
part of the normal flora of the mouth, female genital
tract, and colon. They grow slowly in vivo, and are
therefore of limited virulence.
Species: i. F. nucleatum: It is frequently recovered
from mixed infections of the head and neck region,
including dental abscesses and the central nervous
system, from transtracheal aspirates and pleural
fluid.
ii. F. necrophorum: Is an important animal
pathogen.
3. Leptotrichia
They are long, straight or slightly curved rods, often
with pointed ends. This species was originally
classified in the genus Fusobacterium, and was
formerly known as Vin­cent’s fusiform bacillus or
Fusobacterium fusiforme. The genus Leptotrichia
contains the single spe­c ies, L. buccalis. The
association of L. buccalis with disease is not clearcut,
although it has been reported in acute necrotizing
224  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
ulcerative gingivitis (Vincent’s gingivitis) or
Vincent’s angina, together with Treponema,
Porphyromonas and Fusobacterium species. It is
seen in patients with malnutrition, debility and
poor oral hygiene. It is characterized by pain,
hemorrhage, foul odor, destruction of interdental.
Vincent’s angina may resemble diphtheria,
with the inflamed pharyn­geal mucosa showing a
grayish membrane which peels easily. l. buccalis
and T. vincentii are present in the exudate and
pseudomembrane, and diagnosis is made by direct
microscopy. Stained smears show large fusiform
and spiral bacilli.
Anaerobic infections
Most of the anaerobic bacteria that cause infection
are members of our normal indigenous flora.
Anaerobic infections are usually endogenous and
are caused by tissue invasion by bacteria nor­mally
resident on the respective body surfaces. Anaerobic
bacteria are normally present on the skin, mouth,
nasopharynx and upper respiratory tract, intestines
and vagina (Table 31.2).
Anaerobic infec­tions generally follow some
precipitating factor, such as trauma, tissue necrosis,
impaired circulation, he­matoma formation or the
presence of foreign bodies. Diabetes, malnutrition,
malignancy or prolonged treatment with aminoglyco­
side antibiotics, corticosteroids and cytotoxic agents
may act as predisposing factors. Anaerobic infections
are typically polymicrobial.
Table 31.3 lists the common sites and type of
anaerobic infections and the bacteria responsible.
Laboratory Diagnosis
As anaerobes form part of the normal flora of the
skin and mucous surfaces, their isolation from
specimens has to be interpreted cautiously. The
mere presence of an anaerobe does not prove its
causal role.
Table 31.2  Normal anaerobic flora of the human body
Anaerobe Skin Mouth–Nasopharynx Intestine
Clostridium
Actinomyces +
Bifidobacterium + ++
Propionibacterium ++
Bacteroides fragilis
P. melaninogenica ++
Fusobacterium ++
Gram-positive cocci ++
Gram-negative cocci ++
Spirochetes +
A. Specimen Collection and Transport
Specimens should be collected in such a manner as
to avoid resident flora. For example, from a suspected
case of lung abscess the sputum is unsatisfactory for
culture and only material collected by aspiration
would be acceptable. In general, material for
anaerobic culture is best ob­tained by tissue biopsy or
by aspiration using a needle and syringe. Aspirated or
tissue specimens are preferable to swabs whenever
feasible. Swabs are generally un­satisfactory but
where they are to be used, they should be sent in
Stuart’s transport medium.
Ideally, specimens should be placed in an
anaerobic transport device that consists of a
tube or vial containing an anaerobic gas mixture
substituted for air. Specimens should be delivered
immediately (within 20 minutes) for culture.
Recapping a sy­ringe and transporting the needle
and syringe to the lab­oratory is no longer acceptable
because of safety concerns involving needle stick
injuries. Therefore, even aspirates must be injected
into some type of oxygen-free transport tube or vial.
In some laboratories, gas-liquid chro­matography
is carried out directly on pus and other clini­cal
specimens in order to detect metabolic products,
such as butyric and propionic acids, that are
characteristic of certain anaerobes.
B. Direct Microscopy
Examination of a gram stained smear is very useful.
Pus in anaerobic infection usually shows a large
variety of different organisms and numerous pus
cells.
Examination of the specimen under ultraviolet
light may show the bright red fluorescence of P.
melaninogenica.
C. Culture
Several special media have been described for
anaerobes but for routine diagnostic work, freshly
prepared blood agar with neomycin, yeast extract,
Vagina
++
+
++
+ ++
+
++ ++
+ ++

Table 31.3  Selected infections typically involving nonsporing anaerobes
Site
A. Central nervous system
B. Ear, nose, throat
C. Mouth and jaw
D. Respiratory
E. Abdominal
F. Female genitalia
G. Skin and soft tissue
Chapter 31: Nonsporing Anaerobes  | 225
Type of infection Bacteria commonly responsible
Brain abscess B. fragilis; Peptostreptococcus
Chronic sinusitis, otitis media, mastoiditis, Fusobacteria (aerobes frequently
orbital cellulitis responsible)
Ulcerative gingivitis (Vincent’s) Fusobacteria spirochetes, mouth
Dental abscess, cellulitis; anaerobes,
Abscess and sinus of jaw Actinomyces, other mouth anaerobes.
Aspiration pneumonia, lung abscess, Fusobacteria, P. melaninogenica, anaerobic
bronchiectasis, empyema cocci; B. fragilis rarely
Subphrenic abscess, hepatic abscess; B. fragilis
appendicitis, peritonitis;
ischiorectal abscess;
wound infection after
colorectal surgery
Wound infection following P. melaninogenica,
genital surgery; anaerobic occi; B. fragilis
Puerperal sepsis; Genital anaerobes and Cl. perfrinfens
tubo-ovarian abscess,
Bartholin’s abscess,
septic abortion
Infected sebacious cyst. Anaerobic cocci.
Breast abscess, axillary abscess Anaerobic cocci; P. melaninogenica
(Staphylococcus aureus commonest cause)
Cellulitis, diabetic ulcer, gangrene B. fragilis and others

hemin and vitamin K is adequate. Plates are incu­
bat­ed at 37°C in an anaerobic jar, with 10% CO2. The
Gas-Pak system provides a convenient method of
routine anaerobic cultures. Plates are examined after
24 or 48 hours. Some anaerobes, such as fusobacte­
ria, require longer periods of incubation. Since many
anaerobes are relatively slow-growing, it is essential
that cultures are incubated for several days before
being discarded. In mixed infec­tions, fast-growing
aerobic or facultatively anaerobic organisms are
often detected within 24 hours, whereas some
anaerobes may require incubation for 7–10 days
before their colonies can be recognized.
Other anaerobic media, such as cooked meat
broth (CMB) and thioglycollate broth, may also
be used for incoculating the specimens. Parallel
aerobic cultures (such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa
should always be set up. This is nec­essary as a
control for the growth on anaerobic plates and
also because in most anaerobic infections aero­bic
bacteria are also involved.
D. Identification
Colony morphology, pigmentation, and fluorescence
are helpful in identifying anaerobes. Biochemical
activi­ties and production of short-chain fatty acids
as mea­sured by gas-liquid chromatography are used
for labora­tory confirmation. It takes time and is
difficult, but it is possible to report on the following:
1. Whether the infection is solely aerobic, anaerobic
or mixed.
2. The identification of the more common anaero­
bes, particularly of B. fragilis.
3. An indication of antimicrobial agents likely to
be used.
E. Antibiotic Sensitivity Tests
Antibiotic sensitivity tests can be done by disc
diffusion or dilution methods.
F. Other Anaerobic Techniques
Gloved anaerobic chambers with continuous gas
flow may be used for culture of specimens. Pre-
reduced anaerobically sterilised media (PRAS) can
also be employed but are not essential for rountine
diagnostic procedures.
Treatment of Anaerobic Infections
Treatment of mixed anaerobic infections is by
surgical drainage (under most circumstances) plus
antimicrobial therapy.
The most active drugs for treatment of anaerobic
infections are clindamycin and metronidazole.
Clin­damycin is preferred for infections above the
diaphragm. Penicillin G remains the drug of choice
for treatment of anaerobic infections that do not
involve β-lactamase-producing Bacteroides and
Prevotella species.
Key Points
™™ Many anaerobic bacteria are pathogenic for human
beings, and they outnumber aerobic bacteria in
many habitats
™™ Anaerobic gram-positive cocci: Most of important
anaerobic cocci belong to the genus Peptostreptococcus

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226  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
b. Lactobacillus
™™ Anaerobic gram-negative cocci: Veillonella parvula c. Bacteroides
is the species frequently reported from clinical d. Fusobacterium
specimens e. Anaerobic gram-positive bacilli.
™™ Anaerobic nonspore-forming gram-positive
bacilli: Include Eubacterium, Propionibacterium,
Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium and Mobiluncus Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
™™ Anaerobic gram-negative bacilli: Medically
important anaerobic gram-negative bacilli belong 1. The following is an example of gram-negative
to the family Bacteroidaceae and are classified into anaerobic cocci
the genera Bacteroides, Prevotella, Porphyromonas, a. Veillonella
Fusobacterium and Leptotrichia b. Peptococcus
™™ Laboratory diagnosis: Specimens should be placed c. Peptostreptococcus
in an anaerobic transport device. Examination of d. Bacteroides
a Gram stained smear is very useful. The Gas-Pak 2. Lactobacilli constitute the normal flora of:
system provides a convenient method of routine a. Adult vagina
anaerobic cultures. Other anaerobic media, such b. Prepubertal vagina
as cooked meat broth (CMB) and thioglycollate c. Post-menopausal vagina
broth, may also be used. Colony morphology, d. None of the above
pigmentation, and fluorescence are helpful in
3. All the following anaerobic bacteria cause head
identifying anaerobes. Biochemical activi­ties and
production of short-chain fatty acids as mea­sured
and neckinfections except.
by gas-liquid chromatography are used for labora­ a. Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron
tory confirmation. b. Fusobacterium nucleatum
c. Fusobacterium necrophorum
d. Porphyromonas asaccharolytica
Important questions 4. Which of the following bacterial colonies fluoresce
brick-red in UV light?
1. Classify nonsporing anaerobes. Discuss the a. Bacteroides fragilis
laboratory diagnosis of infections caused by b. Bacteroides melaninogenicus
nonsporing anaerobes. c. Bacteroides gingiva/is
2. Give an account of infections caused by nonsporing d. Bacteroides levii.
anaerobes.
3. Write short notes on: Answers (MCQs)
a. Anaerobic cocci 1. (a); 2. (a); 3. (a); 4. (b)
 32
Chapter

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Classify mycobacteria
∙∙ Discuss morphology and culture characteristics
and biochemical characteristics of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
∙∙ Differentiate between Mycobacterium tubercu­losis
and M. bovis
∙∙ Describe pathogenesis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
∙∙ Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of pulmonary
tuberculosis
∙∙ Describe the following: Koch’s phenomenon;
Tuberculin test; BCG vaccine.

INTRODUCTION M. butyricum from butter, M. phlei from grass,

M. stercoris from dung and M. smegmatis from
The genus Mycobacterium belongs to the family smegma (Table 32.1).
Mycobacteriaceae. There are over 80 named
species of mycobacteria. The most familiar of
the species are Mycobacterium tuberculosis M. TUBERCULOSIS COMPLEX OR MTC
(MTB) and Mycobacterium leprae, the causative
M. tuberculosis is a member of the Mycobacterium
agents of tuberculosis (TB) and Hansen’s disease
tuberculosis complex, which also includes M.
(leprosy), respectively. The name mycobacterium,
bovis, M. africanum, M. canettii, and M. microti.
meaning ‘fungus like bacterium’ is derived from
Mycobac­t erium spp. produce a spectrum of
the mould-like appearance of Mycobacterium
infections in humans and animals in addi­tion to
tuberculosis when grow­ing in liquid media.
They are aerobic, nonmotile, noncap­sulated Table 32.1  Classification of mycobacteria
and nonsporing. Growth is generally slow. The
Tubercle bacilli
genus includes obligate parasites, opportunistic 1. Human - M. tuberculosis
pathogens and saprophytes (Table 32.1). They 2. Bovine - M. bovis
do not stain readily, but once stained with hot 3. Murine - M. microti
carbol fuchsin or other aryl methane dyes, they 4. Avian - M. avium
5. Cold blooded - M. marinum
resist decolorization with dilute mineral acids (or
Lepra bacilli
alcohol). Mycobacteria are, there­fore, known as 1. Human - M. leprae
acid-fast bacilli (AFB). 2. Murine - M.lepraemurium
The first member of this genus to be identified Mycobacteria causing skin ulcers
was the lepra bacillus discovered by Armal1er 1. M. ulcerans
2. M. balnei
Hansen in 1868. Robert Koch (1882) isolated
Atypical mycobacteria
the mammalian tubercle bacillus and proved 1. Photochromogens
its causative role in tuberculosis by satisfying 2. Scotochromogens
Koch’s postulates. Tuberculosis in hu­mans was 3. Nonphotochromogens
subsequently shown to be caused by two types 4. Rapid growers
of the bacillus—the human and bovine types, Johne’s bacillus
1. M. paratuberculosis
designated Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M.
Saprophytic mycobacteria
bo­vis respectively. Saprophytic mycobacteria were 2. M. butyricum. M. phlei, M. stercoris. M. smegmatis
isolated from a number of sources. These included

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Chap-32.indd 227 15-03-2016 11:13:50
 228  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
tuberculosis and Hansen’s disease. A large group
of mycobacteria, excluding the M. tuberculosis
complex and M. leprae, normally inhabit the
environment and can cause disease that often
resembles tuberculosis in humans. These organ­
isms are sometimes referred to as atypical
mycobacteria or mycobacteria other than the
tubercle bacillus (MOTI). Classification of mycobac­
teria are shown in Table 32.1.

MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS
Morphology
M. tuberculosis is a slender, straight, or slightly
curved rod with rounded ends, about 3 µm × 0.3 µm, Fig. 32.1: Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Ziehl–Neelsen
in pairs or as small clumps. The bacilli are nonmotile, stained smear
nonsporing, noncapsulated and acid-fast.
When stained with carbol fuchsin by the Ziehl–
Neelsen method or by fluorescent dyes (auramine
O, rhodamine), they resist decolorization by 20%
sulphuric acid and absolute alcohol for 10 minutes
(acid and alcohol fast). With Ziehl–Neelsen acid-
fast stain, the tubercle bacilli stain bright red, while
the tissue cells and other organisms are stained
blue (Fig. 32.1).
Acid fastness has been ascribed variously to
the presence in the bacillus of an unsaponifiable
wax (mycoloic acid) or to a sem­i permeable
membrane around the cell. It is related to the
integrity of the cell and appears to be a property
of the lipid-rich waxy cell wall. Staining may be
uniform or granular. In M. tuberculosis beaded or
barred forms are frequently seen, but M. bovis stains
more uni­formly. M. bovis appear straighter, stouter Figs 32.2: L–J media without growth (A) and with growth (B)
and shorter with uniform stainin (Table 32.2).
other bacteria and to provide a contrasting color
Cultural Characteristics against which colonies of mycobacteria are easily
seen. In this medium egg acts as a solidifying agent.
M. tuberculosis is an obligate aerobe while M. The addition of 0.5% glycerol improves the growth
bovis is microaerophilic on primary isolation, of M. tuberculosis, but has no effect on or may even
beco­ming aerobic on subculture. The optimal impair the growth of M. bovis. Sodium pyruvate
growth temperature of tubercle bacilli is 35–37°C. helps the growth of both types (Figs 32.2A and B).
Optimum pH is 6.4–7.0. The bacilli grow slowly, Human tubercle bacilli produce visible growth
the generation time in vitro being 14–15 hours. on LJ medium in about 2 weeks, although on
Colo­nies appear in about two weeks and may primary isolation from clinical material colonies
sometimes take up to eight weeks. may take up to 8 weeks to appear. On solid media,
M. tuberculosis forms dry, rough, raised, irregular
Solid Medium colonies with a wrinkled surface. They are creamy
Tubercle bacilli are able to grow on a wide range of white, becoming yellowish or buff colored on
enriched culture media and do not have exacting further incubation. They are tenacious and not
growth re­quirements. The solid media contain egg easily emulsified. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has
(Lowenstein Jensen, Petragnini, Dorset), blood a luxuriant growth (eugenic growth) as compared
(Tarshis), serum (Loeffler) or potato (Pawlowsky). to Mycobacterium bovis which grows poor­ly on LJ
The solid medium most widely employed glycerol medium (dysgonic growth) and colonies,
for routine culture is Lowen­stein–Jensen (L–J) in compari­son are flat, smooth, moist, white and
medium. This consists of coagulated hens’ egg, break up easily when touched. The growth of M.
mineral salt solution, asparagine and malachite bovis is much better on LJ pyruvate medium (media
green, the last acting as a selective agent inhib­iting containing sodium pyruvate in place of glycerol).

Chap-32.indd 228 15-03-2016 11:13:51


Table 32.2  Distinguishing features of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. bovis
Character
1. Morphology
2. Growth on LJ medium
3. Effect of glycerol
4. Oxygen requirement
5. Colony morphology
6. Biochemical reactions
• Nitrate reduction
• Niacin production
• Tween 80 hydrolysis
7. Susceptibility to pyrazinamide
(50 µg/mL)
8. Susceptibility to thiophen­
2-carboxylic acid
hydrazide (10 µg/mL )
9. Animal pathogenicity
• Guinea-pig, rabbit
Chapter 32: Mycobacterium tuberculosis  | 229
Mycobacterium tuberculosis M. bovis
Slender, straight or slightly curved Straight, stout, short uniformly
rods with barred or beaded
appearance
Growth is eugonic (luxuriant) Growth is dysgonic
In the concentration of 0.75% In the concentration of 0.75% growth is
enhances the growth inhibited.
Obligate aerobe Microaerophilic on primary isolation but
becomes aerobic on subculture
Dry, rough, raised, wrinkled, off- Moist, smooth, flat, friable and white
white to buff colored and not easily
emulsifiable (rough, buff and tough)
+ –
+ –
Variable –
+ –
– +
+ +
– +

Liquid Media by heat (60°C for 15–20 min, or by autoclaving).

Among the several liquid media described,Dubos’,
Middlebrook’s, Proskauer and Beck’s, Sula’s and
Sauton’s media are the more com­mon. Dubos’
medium and Middlebrook 7H9 are two commonly
used liquid media. Liquid media are not generally
employed for routine cultivation, but are used
for sensitivity testing, chemical analyses and
preparation of antigens and vaccines.
In liquid media without dispersing agents the
growth begins at the bottom, creeps up the sides and
forms a prominent surface pellicle which may extend
along the sides above the medium. Ordinarily,
mycobacteria grow in clumps or masses because of
the hydrophobic character of the cell surface. Diffuse
growth is obtained in Dubos’ medium containing
Tween-80 (sorbitan monooleate). In liquid cultures
they often grow as twisted rope-like colonies termed
serpentine cords. Virulent strains tend to form long
serpentine cords in liquid media, while avirulent
strains grow in a more dispersed manner. The cord
factor itself is not a virulence factor, as it is present
in some avirulent strains as well.
Resistance
Although mycobacteria can survive for several
weeks in the dark, especially under moist
conditions, and for many days in dried sputum
on clothing and in dust, they are rapidly killed
by ultraviolet light (including the component in
daylight and sunlight), even through glass, and
Cultures may be killed by exposure to direct
sunlight for two hours, but bacilli in sputum may
remain alive for 20–30 hours.
Tubercle bacilli are relatively resistant to
chemi­cal disinfectants, surviving exposure to 5%
phenol, 15% sulphuric acid, 3% nitric acid, 5%
oxalic acid and 4% sodium hydroxide. They are
sensitive to formaldehyde and gluteraldehyde.
They are destroyed by tincture of iodine in five
minutes and by 80% eth­anol in 2–10 minutes.
Biochemical Reactions
Several biochemical tests are used in identifying
and differentiation of mycobacterial species.
1. Niacin test: Most mycobacteria possess the
enzyme that converts free niacin to niacin
ribonucleotide. M. tuberculosis lacks this
enzyme and accumulates niacin (nicotinic
acid) in the culture medium. The test is positive
with hu­man type and negative with bovine type
of bacilli.
2. Nitrate reduction test: M. tuberculosis, M.
kansasii, M. fortuitum, M. chelonei, M szulgai,
M. flavescens, M. terrae and M. triviale produce
enzyme nitroreductase. Therefore, all these
reduce nitrate to nitrite. M. avium do not do so.
3. Catalase activity: Catalase is an enzyme that
can split hydrogen perox­ide into water and
oxygen. Mycobacteria are catalase positive.

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 230  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
However, not all srains produce a positive
reaction after the culture is heated to 68° C for
20 minutes.
4. Tween 80 hydrolysis: Some mycobacteria
possess a lipase that can split detergent Tween
80 into oleic acid and polyoxyethylated sorbitol
which modifies the optical characteristics of
the test solution from a straw yellow to pink
whereas pathogenic species do not. This test is
useful in distinguishing scotochromogenic and
nonchro­mogenic mycobacteria. M. tub­erculosis
gives variable result.
5. Arylsulfatase test: The enzyme is present in
most mycobacteria. This test is positive only
with atypical mycobacteria.
6. Neutral red test: M. tuber­culosis, M. bovis, M.
avium and M. ulcerans give positive tests.
7. Amidase tests: Atypical mycobacteria can be
differentiated by their ability to split amides.
A useful pattern is provided by testing five
amides, viz. acetamide, benzamide, carbamide,
nicotinamide and pyrazina­mide.
M. tuberculosis produces nicotinamidase and
pyrazinamidase which splits nicotinamide and
pyrazina­mide.
8. Susceptibility to pyrazinamide: M. tuber­
culosis is sensitive to pyrazinamide, while M.
bovis and other mycobacteria are resistant.
9. Growth inhibition by thiophen-2-carboxylic
acid hydrazide (TCH): This test is used to
distinguish M. bovis from M. tuberculosis,
because only M. bovis is usually susceptible
while M. tuberculosis is usually not susceptible
to this chemical.
Antigenic Structure
Mycobacteria possess two types of antigens,
cell wall (insoluble) and cytoplasmic (soluble)
antigens.
1. Cell Wall Antigens
The cell wall consists of lipids, proteins and
polysaccharides. The lipid content accounts for
60% of the cell wall weight. The cell wall is made
up of four distinct layers (Fig. 32.3).
i. Peptidoglycan (murein) layer: It is the
innermost layer which maintains the shape
and rigidity of the cell.
ii. Arabinogalactan layer: It lies external to the
peptidoglycan layer.
iii. Mycolic acid layer: It is the principal constituent
of cell wall and is a dense band on long chain
a-alkyl and β-­hydroxy fatty acids attached by
ester bonds to the terminal arabinose units of
arabinogalactan.
iv. Mycosides (peptidoglycolipids or phenolic
glycolipids): These form the outermost layer
Chap-32.indd 230
Fig. 32.3: Cell wall of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
of the cell wall. The agglutinogen antigens
have been identified as the sugar moieties on
mycosides.
The cell wall antigens include arabi­nomanan,
arabinogalactan and lipoarabinomannan.
2. Cytoplasmic Antigens
Cytoplasmic antigens are protein antigens which
are employed to type the mycobacteria. These
include antigen 5, antigen 6, antigen 14, antigen
19, antigen 32, antigen 38 and antigen 60. All are
protein in nature except antigen 60 which is a
lipopolysaccharide protein complex.
Mycobacteriophages
Numerous phages with activities on many
mycobacterial species, including M. tuberculosis, have
been isolated from both clinical and environmental
sources. Many mycobacteriophages have been
isolated from soil, water and other environmen­
tal sources as well as from lysogenic strains. Many
my­cobacteria infected with phage are not truly lyso­
genic. Instead of being integrated with the bacterial
chromosome, the phage genome appears free, like
a plasmid. This is called pseudolysogeny.
M. tuberculosis has been classified into four
phage types - A,B,C, and I (a type intermediate
between A and B). Phage type A is the most common
and is present worldwide. Type B is common in
Europe, the Middle East and North America. Type
C is seen rarely. Type I is common in India and
neighboring countries. Phage 33D can lyse M.
tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. afri­canum and M. microti.
Pathogenesis
The source of infection is usually an open case of
pulmonary tuberculosis. The mode of infection is
by direct inhalation of aerosolized bacilli contained
in droplet nuclei of expectorated sputum tubercle
bacilli are acquired from persons with active
disease who are excreting viable bacilli by means
of coughing, sneezing, or talking. Infection also
occurs infrequently by ingestion, for example,
through infected milk, and rarely by inoculation.
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The initial infection with M. tuberculosis is
referred to as a primary infection. Subsequent
disease in a previously sensitized person, either from
an exogenous source or by reactivation of a primary
infection, is known as postprimary(secondary
or reinfection) tuberculosis with quite different
pathological features.
1. Primary Tuberculosis
The site of the initial infection is usually the lung,
following the inhalation of bacilli. These bacilli
engulfed by alveolar macrophages multiply and give
rise to a subpleural focus of tuberculous pneumonia,
commonly located in the lower lobe or the lower part
of the upper lobe to form the initial lesion or Ghon
focus. The Ghon focus, together with the enlarged
hilar lymph nodes, form the primary complex. In
addition, bacilli are seeded by further lymphatic and
hematogenous dissem­ination in many organs and
tissues, including other parts of the lung.
Within about 10 days of infe­ction, clones of
antigen-specific T lymphocytes are produced
interacting with macrophages. These release
cytokines, notably interferon-gam­ma, which activates
macrophages and cause them to form a compact
cluster or granuloma, around the foci of infection.
These activated mainphages are called epitheloid
cells.
If there is little antigen and a great deal of
hypersensitivity reaction, a hard tubercle or
granuloma may be formed. When fully developed,
this lesion, a chronic granuloma, consists of three
zones:
1. A cen­tral area of large, multinucleated giant
cells containing tubercle bacilli.
2. A mid zone of pale epithelioid cells, often
arranged radially, and
3. A peripheral zone of fibroblasts, lymphocytes,
and monocytes.
Later, periph­eral fibrous tissue develops, and the
central area under­goes caseation necrosis. Such a
lesion is called a tubercle. A caseous tubercle may
break into a bronchus, empty its contents there, and
form a cavity. It may subsequently heal by fibrosis
or calcification.
2. Postprimary (Secondary) Tuberculosis
The postprimary (secondary or adult) type
of tuberculosis is due to reactivation of latent
infection (postprimary progression, endogenous
reactivation) or exogenous reinfection and differs
from the primary type in many respects.
Reacti­vation tuberculosis is characterized by
chronic tissue lesions, the formation of tubercles,
caseation, and fibro­sis. Regional lymph nodes are
only slightly involved, and they do not caseate.
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Chap-32.indd 231
The reactivation type almost always begins at the
apex of the lung, where the oxygen tension (PO2)
is highest.
Two special features of secondary tuber­
culosis are the presence of caseous necrosis and
of cavities, which may rupture into blood vessels,
spreading mycobacteria throughout the body, and
break into airways, releasing infectious mycobac­
teria in aerosols and sputum (open tuberculosis).
Epidemiology
Tuberculosis is an ancient disease. Tuberculosis
also remains the leading cause of death among
notifiable infectious diseases. It has been called
the ‘white plague’ and ‘the captain of all the men
of death’.
The most frequent source of infection is
the human who excretes, particularly from the
respiratory tract, large numbers of tubercle bacilli.
The large majority of the cases and deaths are from
the poor nations. India accounts for nearly one-
third of global burden of tuberculosis.
Poverty and tuberculosis go together. Tuber­
culosis had declined rapidly in the affluent nations
with im­provements in standards of living. But with
the progress of the AIDS pandemic, tuberculosis
became a problem for the rich nations also.
M. bovis infection in humans is zoonotic
acquired through direct contact or by ingestion
of raw milk from animals. Bovine tuberculosis is
spread from animal to animal.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The definitive diagnosis of tuberculosis is based on:
Microscopy, culture, by transmitting the infection
to experimen­t al animals, demonstration of
hypersensitivity to tuberculoprotein and mole­cular
diagnostic methods.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis
1. Specimens
a. Sputum: The most usual specimen for diagnosis
of pulmonary tuberculosis is sputum. Patient is
instructed to cough up the sputum into a clean
wide-mouthed container. Disposable waxed
cardboard containers are ideal. If sputum is
scanty, a 24-hour sample may be tested. Three or
more con­secutive samples should be examined,
collected first thing in the morning if possible.
b. Laryngeal swabs or bronchial washings:
Laryngeal swabs or bronchial washings may
be collected where sputum is not available.
c. Gastric lavage: Gastric lavage can be ex­amined in
small children who tend to swallow the sputum.
Tissue biopsies are homogenized by
grinding for microscopy and culture.
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2. Microscopy
Direct or concentration smears of spu­tum are
examined. Smears should be prepared from the
thick purulent part of the sputum. Smears are
dried, heat fixed and stained by the Ziehl–Neelsen
technique (hot stain procedure).
In the Ziehl–Neelsen (Z–N) staining technique,
heat-fixed smears of the specimens are flooded
with a solution of carbol fuchsin (a mixture of basic
fuchsin and phenol) and heated until steam rises
but without boiling. Allow the preparation to stain
for 5 minutes, applying heat at intervals to keep
the stain hot. The slide is then washed with water
and decolorized with 20% sul­phuric acid till no
more stain comes off and then with 95% alcohol
(ethanol) for two minutes. Decolorization may be
carried out as a single step with acid alcohol (3%
HCl in 95% ethanol). After washing, the smear is
counter­stained with Loeffler’s methylene blue, I%
picric acid or 0.2% malachite green for one minute.
Under the oil immersion objective, acid fast
bacilli are seen as bright red rods while the
background is blue, yellow or green depending on
the counterstain used. At least 10,000 acid fast bacilli
should be present per mL of sputum for them to be
readily demonstrable in direct smears.
Smears should be examined carefully by
scanning at least 300 oil immersion fields before
reporting a smear as negative (Table 32.3).
The classic carbolfuchsin (Ziehl­–Neelsen) stain
requires heating the slide for better pene­tration of
stain into the mycobacterial cell wall. Hence it is
also known as the hot stain procedure. Kinyoun
acid-fast stain is similar to the Ziehl–Neelsen stain
but without heat ; hence the term cold stain.
It is more convenient to use fluorescent
microscopy. Smears are stained with auramine
phenol or auramine rhodamine fluorescent
dyes. Screening of specimens with rho­damine or
rhodamine-auramine will result in a higher yield
of positive smears and will substantially reduce
the amount of time needed for examining smears.
In general, specificity of acid-fast smear exami­
nation is very high. Microscopic demonstration of
Table 32.3  Methods for reporting numbers of acid
fast bacilli observed in stained smears
No. of bacilli Observed in (oil Report
immersion field)
0 300 fields Negative
1–2 100 fields ± biochemical studies. When the isolate is niacin
1–9 100 fields 1+
1–9 10 fields 2+
1–9 1 field 3+
More than 9 1 field 4+
Fields—Oil immersion field
Chap-32.indd 232
acid fast bacilli provides only presumptive evidence
of tuberculous infection, as even saprophytic
mycobacteria may present a similar appearance.
3. Concentration Methods
Several methods have been described for the
homogenization and concentration of sputum
and other specimens. Con­centration methods
that do not kill the bacilli and so can be used for
culture and animal inoculation. Several meth­ods
are in use:
i. Petroff’s method: This simple method is widely
used. Equal volumes of sputum and 4% sodium
hydroxide are mixed and incubated at 37°C with
frequent shaking till it gets liquefied and beco­
mes clear. It is then centrifuged at 3,000 r.p.m.
for 30 minutes. The supernatant fluid is pipetted
off and the deposit is neutralized by adding 8%
hydrochloric acid in the presence of a drop of
phenol red indicator and used for smear, culture
and animal inoculation.
ii. Other methods: Instead of alkali, homogenization
can be achieved by treatment with dilute acids (6%
sulphuric acid, 3% hydrochloric acid or 5% oxalic
acid), N acetyl cysteine with NaOH, pancreatin,
desogen, zephiran and cetrimide.
4. Culture
It is a very sensitive diagnostic technique for tu­bercle
bacilli, detecting as few as 10–100 bacilli per mL. The
concentrated material is inoculated onto at least
two bottles of L–J medium. A direct drug sensitivity
test may also be set-up if the specimen is positive
by microscopy.
Inoculated media are incubated at 35–37°C.
Growth of most strains of M tuberculosis may
appear in 2–8 weeks.
Cultures are examined for growth after
incubation at 37°C for four days (for rapid grow­ing
mycobacteria, fungi and contaminant bacteria)
and at least twice weekly thereafter. Any bacterial
growth is stained by the ZN method and, if acid-fast,
it is subcultured for further identification. The first
step in identification is to determine whether an
isolate is a member of the M. tuberculosis complex
(Fig. 32.4).
For routine purposes, a slow growing, nonpig­
mented, ni­acin positive acid fast bacillus is taken
as M. tubercu­losis. Confirmation is by detailed
negative, a battery of tests may be needed for
identification, including growth at 25°C and
45°C, animal pathogenicity and biochemi­cal tests
(Tables 32.2 and 32.4).
In recent years, isolation of mycobacteria from
clinical samples has been improved by newer
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 Chapter 32: Mycobacterium tuberculosis  | 233

Fig. 32.4: Identification of tubercle bacilli and related mycobacteria

Table 32.4  Some differential characteristics of tubercle bacilli causing human disease
Species Oxygen Glycerol Niacin Nitrate TCH Pyrazinamide Pathogenicity
preference enhanced reduction

M. Aerobic Yes Positive Positive Resistantb Sensitive Pathogen

tuberculosisa
M. bovis Micro- No Negative Negative Sensitive Resistant Pathogen
aerophilic
M. bovis BCG Aerobic Yes Negative Negative Sensitive Resistant Opportunistic
pathogen
M. africanum Micro- No Variable Variable Sensitive Sensitive Pathogen
aerophilic
a
Includes the rare M. canetti variant.
b
Strains from south India may be sensitive.
TCH = thiophen-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide.

tech­niques, notably radiometric respirometry. 5. Animal Inoculation

This is usually by means of the Bactec radiometric
tech­nique, using the Bactec 460 TB instrument. The
procedure utilizes vials containing a 14C-labeled
palmitic acid substrate which during microbial
growth releases 14CO2 into the atmosphere above
the medium. The 14CO2 is detected by the instrument
and converted proportionally to a quan­titative
Growth Index (GI) on a scale of 0–999. A vial giving
a positive GI (> 50) is checked by AP and Z–N smears
to determine the presence of acid-fast bacilli. The
sensitivity of radiometric method is slightly more
than that of traditional culture method. This method
allows a mean isolation time for all mycobac­teria of
about 12 days as opposed to 26 days or more.
Mycobacterial growth indicator tube (MGIT) is
another rapid method for detection of mycobacterial
growth. Bact/Alert 3D system is a non-radimetric,
rapid and fully automated.
Sputum is decontaminated and concentrated by
Petroff’s method and 0.5 mL each of the neutralized
and centrifuged deposit is inoculated intramuscu­
larly into the thigh of two healthy, tuberculin-nega­
tive guinea-pigs about 12 weeks old. The animals
are weighed be­fore inoculation and at intervals
thereafter at weekly intervals and tuberculin test
is done after 3–4 weeks. One animal is killed after
four weeks and autop­sied. If it shows no evidence
of tuberculosis, the other is autopsied after eight
weeks.
Necropsy shows the following:
i. Caseous lesion at the site of inoculation.
ii. The draining and internal lymph nodes are
enlarged and caseous. The infection may
spread to lumbar, portal, media­stinal and
cervical lymph nodes.

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 234  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
iii. The spleen is en­larged with irregular necrotic
areas. Tubercles are seen in the peritoneum
and sometimes in the lung, but the kidneys
are unaffected.
The autopsy lesions have to be confirmed as
tuberculous by acid fast staining of smears, to
exclude Y. pseudotuberculosis, Brucella, Salmone­lla
and several fungi which may resemble the lesions of
tuberculosis but will be smear negative. M. tubercu­
losis is highly pathogenic for guinea-pigs and virtu­
ally nonpathogenic for rabbits, while M. bovis is
highly pathogenic for both guinea-pigs and rabbits.
Guinea pig inoculation, is now seldom resorted to
because it is cumbersome, costly and less sensitive
than culture, particularly with catalase negative,
INH resistant strains isolated from south India.
The animal inoculated with strains of low virulence
may have to be observed for 12 weeks or longer and
sometimes the only lesion demon­strable may be an
enlarged lymph node.
Guinea-pig inoculation is very rarely used
nowa­days.
6. Immunodiagnosis
i. Serology: Various serological tests like enzy­
me-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA),
radioimmunoassay (RIA) and latex agglutination
have been tried for the serodiagnosis of
tuberculosis. ELISA is considered to be the
most sensitive and specific. ELISA test has been
attempted using several antigenic materials
such as anti­gen 5, antigen 6, antigen 60, purified
mycobacterial glycolipids, unheated sterile
culture filtrate of M. tuberculosis and purified
protein derivative derived from M. tuberculosis.
ii. Tuberculin testing: Demonstration of hyper­
sensitivity to tuberculo­protein (tuberculin
testing) is a standard procedure. Its scope and
limitations are discussed below.
7. Hybridization and Nucleic Acid Technology
i. Nucleic acid probes: are available for the
identification of the M. tuberculosis complex
and specifically, M. tubercu­losis.
ii. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and ligase
chain reaction (LCR) are used as diagnostic
techniques.
iii. Transcription mediated amplification,
targeting ribosomal RNA has been introduced
as an improvement on PCR based DNA
amplification.
iv. DNA ‘fingerprinting: Methods for epidemio­
logical purposes.
8. Chromatography
The cell walls of Mycobacterium organisms contain
long chain fatty acids called mycolic acids, which
may be detected chromographically. Earlier
Chap-32.indd 234
methods, such as col­umn chromatography and
thin-layer chromatography, have been replaced
by gas–liquid chromatography and, most recently,
high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC).
Chromatography is rapid and highly reproducible,
but the initial cost of equipment is high.
Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis
For diagnosis of extrapulmonary tubercu­losis,
extrapulmonary tuberculosis microscopy, culture
and occasionally animal inocula­tion are also used,
though it is difficult to get conclusive results as the
bacilli are present in far fewer numbers in these
lesions than in pulmonary disease.
CSF from tuberculous meningitis often develops
a spider web clot on standing, examination of
which may be more successful than of the fluid.
The use of PCR and DNA probes may help detect
the bacilli speedily and more often.
Bone marrow and liver biopsy specimens from
miliary tuberculosis and blood from those with
HIV coinfection are useful for culture. Pus from
tubercu­lous abscesses often yields positive results
in smear and culture.
Pleural effusion and other exudates may be
col­lected with citrate to prevent coagulation. If free
from other bacteria, they may be used for culture
after cen­trifugation. If other bacteria are present,
prior concen­tration is necessary.
Urinary excretion of bacilli in renal tuberculosis is
intermittent. Hence it is advisable to test 3–6 morning
samples of urine. Each sample is centrifuged for 3000
rpm for 30 minutes and the sediment used for culture
after concentration.
Sensitivity Testing
Drug-resistant mutants continuously arise at a low
rate in any mycobacterial population. The purpose
of sensitivity testing is to determine whether the
great majority of the bacilli in the cul­ture are
sensitive to the antitubercular drugs cur­rently in
use. Several methods have been described:
1. Absolute concentration method: Resistance is
expressed as the lowest concentration of drug
that inhibits all or almost all of the growth,
that is, the minimum inhibitor concentration
(MIC). This method is inferior to resistance
ratio method because known sensitive strain
is not tested for MIC.
2. Resistance ratio method: The resistance-ratio
method in which test strains and susceptible
controls, i.e. a known sensitive strain (H37Rv)
of M. tuberculosis are inoculated on sets of LJ
medium containing doubling dilutions of drug.
The results are expressed as the ratio of the drug
concentration inhibiting the test strain to that
inhibiting the control strains.
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 Chapter 32: Mycobacterium tuberculosis  | 235
Susceptible strains have ratios of 1 or 2, while
higher ratios indicate resistance.
3. Proportion method: For each drug tested,
several dilutions of standardized inoculum are
inoculated onto control and drug-containing
agar medium. The extent of growth in the
absence or presence of drug is compared and
expressed as a percentage. If growth at the
critical concentration of a drug is >1%, the
isolate is considered clinically resistant.
4. Radiometric method: Employing the principles
of the proportion method, this rapid method uses
liquid medium containing 14C-labeled growth
substrate. Growth is indicated by the amount of
14
C-labeled-carbon dioxide (CO2) released, as
measured by the BACTEC 460 instrument. For
each drug tested, a standardized inoculum is
inoculated into a drug-free and drug-containing
vial. The rate and amount of CO2 to determine
susceptible or resistance produced in the absence
or presence of drug is then compared.
5. Nonradiometric method: Mycobacterial
growth indicator tube (MGIT) can also be used
for sensitivity testing of M. tuberculosis.
6. New approaches
i. Luciferase reporter mycobacteriophage:
Luciferase reporter mycobacteriophage
(containing the firefly luciferase gene) has
been used for susceptibility testing of M.
tuberculosis. The isolate of M. tuberculosis
to be tested is grown in the presence
and absence of drug and the reporter
mycobacteriophage is added. Then a
substrate of luciferase, luciferin is added
following infection. If bacteria are viable, the
luciferin is broken down and light is emitted
which can be measured. This method is
called chemiluminescence. If the isolate is
resistant to drug, light will be emitted, while
bacteria susceptible to the drug will not
emit any light. The amount of light emitted
is directly proportional to the number of
viable bacteria.
ii. Epsilometer test (E-test): It has also been
applied for susceptibility testing of M.
tuberculosis.
iii. Detection of resistance gene: Demonstration
of mutation in specific genes for different
drugs is a useful indicator of drug resistance.
Mutations to rifampicin resistance caused by
mutations in the rpoB gene are commercially
available.
Allergy and Immunity
Two immunologic responses, antituberculous
im­munity and tuberculin hypersensitivity, develop
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Chap-32.indd 235
simultane­ously in the naturally infected host.
Both these are mediated by T-cells sensitized to
bacterial antigen. Although humoral antibodies
are produced in response to naturally occurring
tuberculous infection, they appear to play
no beneficial role in host defense. Acquired
antituberculous immunity is the prototype of
cell-mediated immunity invoked by facultative
intracellular bacteria. In the nonimmune host, the
bacilli are able to multiply inside phagocytes and
lyse the host cells, while in immune host CD4+
helper T cells and CD8+ suppressor T cells are
produced. The former secrete interferon-gamma
which acti­vates macrophages to kill intracellular
mycobacte­ria and the latter kill the macrophages
that are infec­ted with mycobacteria.
Koch Phenomenon
Robert Koch (1890, 1891) originally described the
response of a tuberculous animal to reinfec­tion.
In a normal guinea pig subcutaneous injection of
virulent tubercle bacillus produces no immediate
response, but after 10–14 days a nodule develops
at the site, which breaks down to form an ulcer
that persists till the animal dies of progressive
tuberculosis. The draining lymph nodes are
enlarged and caseous. If on the contrary, virulent
tubercle bacillus is injected in a guinea pig which
had received a prior injection of the tubercle
bacillus 4–6 weeks earlier, an indurated lesion
ap­pears at the site in a day or two. This undergoes
necro­sis in another day or so to form a shallow
ulcer, followed by rapid healing and no lymph
node involvement or other tissues. This is known
as the Koch phenomenon and is a combination of
hypersensitivity and immuni­ty.
Components of Koch Phenomenon
Koch phenomenon has three components:
1. A local reaction of induration and necrosis.
2. A focal response in which there occurs acute
congestion and even hemorrhage around
tuerculous foci in tissues.
3. A systemic response of fever which may some­
times be fatal.
Tuberculin Test
Principle: The principle of this test is delayed
(Type IV) hypersensitivity reaction.
Reagents
i. ‘Original’ or ‘old tuberculin’ (OT): Koch pre­
pared a protein extract of tu­bercle bacillus by
concentrating tenfold by evapora­tion, a 6–8
week culture filtrate of the bacillus grown in
5% glycerol broth. This was called ‘original’ or
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 236  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
‘old tuberculin’ (OT). Initially Koch employed
OT in the treatment of tuberculosis but it was
soon given up.
ii. Purified Protein Derivative (PPD): OT was
first used for allergic (tuberculin) test­ing by von
Pirquet (1906). It was replaced by a partially
purified protein antigen introduced by Seibert
as OT was a crude product. This is known as the
purified protein derivative (PPD).
Dose of PPD: Purified protein derivative (PPD)
is the skin test reagent that is primarily used to
detect hypersensitivity in these persons. One large
batch of PPD made by Seibert (PPD-S) in 1939 was
recognized as the international standard PPD-
tuberculin and arbitrarily designated to contain of
OT or 0.00002 mg of PPD-S.
Another PPD is RT-23 with tween 80. In India,
PPDRT-23 of strength 1TU and 2TU are available
1TU of PPD RT-23 is equivalent to 5TU of PPD-S.
Method
1. Mantoux test: In the Mantoux test, 0.1 mL of
PPD containing 5 TU is injected intradermally
on the flex­o r aspect of the forearm with a
tuberculin syringe.
A PPD dose of 1 TU is used when extreme
hypersensitivity is suspected; and doses of 10
or 100 when 5 TU test is negative.
Interpretation: Tuberculin tests should be
read 48–72 hours after injection. Induration of
diameter 10 mm or more is considered positive,
5 mm or less negative and 6–9 mm is of doubtful
significance because it may be due to other
myco­bacterial infections.
2. Heaf test: Multiple puncture testing as Heaf test
is done with a spring-loaded gun which fires
six prongs into the skin through a drop of PPD
(Heaf method). Single-test disposable devices
with PPD dried onto prongs (tine tests) are also
available for individual testing.
Result
I. Positive Test
A positive tuberculin test indicates hypersensitiv­ity
to tuberculoprotein denoting infection with tuber­
cle bacillus or BCG immunization, recent or past,
with or without clinical disease. The test becomes
positive 4–6 weeks after infection or immunization.
II. False-positive reactions
False–positive reactions may be seen in infections
with relat­ed mycobacteria (‘atypical’ mycobacteria).
III. False-negative Tests (Tuberculin Anergy)
1. Early tuberculosis; 2. Advanced tuberculosis;
3. Miliary tuberculosis; 4. In patients with measles
Chap-32.indd 236
and other exanthema­tous reactions; 5. Occasionally
after chemotherapy and removal of lung lesion; 6.
Advanced age; 7. Immunosuppressive therapy
and defective cell mediated immunity (CMI); 8.
Lymphoreticular malignancy; 9. Sarcoidosis; 10.
Severe malnutrition; 11. False-negative results
may also be due to inactive PPD preparations and
improper injection technique.
Uses of Tuberculin Test
1. To diagnose active infection in infants and
young children.
2. To measure prevalence of infection in an area .
3. To select susceptibles for BCG vaccination.
4. Indication of successful BCG vaccination.
In recent years in vitro interferon-γ release
assay (IGRA) have been introduced sensitive and
more specific to tuberculin test. This test is used in
blood specimens which contains lymphocytes. It
uses ELISA for measuring interferon-γ production
by sensitized T lymphocytes.
Prophylaxis
In the prevention of tuberculosis general measures
such as adequate nutrition, good housing and
health education are as important as specific anti­
bacterial measures. The latter consists of early
detection and treatment of cases, BCG vaccination
and by chemoprophylaxis.
BCG Vaccination
Immunoprophylaxis is by intradermal injection of
the live attenuated vaccine developed by Calmette
and Guerin (1921), the Bacille Calmette Guerin
or BCG. This is a strain of M. bovis attenuated by
239 serial subcultures in a glycerine-bile-potato
medium over a period of 13 years between the
years 1908 and 1920 which was avirulent for man
while retaining its capacity to induce an immune
response. The foller widely used BCG strains
include pasteur 1173 P2, Tokyo-172, copenhagen
1331 and Glaxo-1077.
Aim: The aim of BCG vaccination is to induce
a benign, artificial primary infection which will
stimulate an acquired resistance to possible
subsequent infection with virulent tubercle bacilli.
Dose and administration: BCG vaccine is available
in liquid form and freeze-dried (lyophilized) form.
Freeze-dried (lyophilized) form is more stable
preparation and com­monly used. The lyophilized
vaccine is reconstituted by sterile physiological
saline to make a final con­centration of 0.1 mg
(moist weight) in 0.1 mL of the vaccine and it is
supplied by BCG vaccine laboratory,Chennai.
Vaccine should be uti­lized within 3–6 hours once
reconstituted. The organisms grow to a limited
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extent in the tissues following injection of 0.1 mL
of vaccine intradermally. BCG vaccine should be
administered soon after birth failing which it may
be given at any time during the first year of life.
Phenomena after vaccination: Two to three weeks
after injection a small nodule develops at the
site of inoculation. It increases slowly in size and
reaches a diameter of 4–8 mm by about 5 weeks.
It then subsides or breaks into a shallow ulcer
which heals by scarring. Normally the individual
becomes Mantoux-positive after a period of 8
weeks has elapsed, but sometimes about 14 weeks
are needed.
Protective Efficacy
The duration of protection is from 15 to 20 years.
Several field trials have been conducted to assess the
efficacy of the BCG vaccine. Studies have shown that
the range of protection offered by BCG varied from
0 to 80% in different parts of the world (Table 32.5).
The consensus opinion is that BCG may not
pro­tect from the risk of tuberculosis infection, but
gives protection to infants and young children
against the more serious types of the disease, such
as meningitis and disseminated tuberculosis.
BCG induces a nonspecific stimulation of the
im­mune system providing some protection against
lep­rosy and leukemia. Multiple injection of BCG
has been tried as adjunctive therapy in some
malignan­cies.
Complica­tions of BCG Vaccine
A. Local: Abscess, indolent ulcer, keloid.
B. Regional: Enlargement and suppuration of
draining lymph nodes.
C. General: Fever, mediastinal adenitis, erythema
nodo­sum.
Contraindications: BCG should not be given
to patients suffering from generalized eczema,
infective dermatosis, hypogammaglobulinemia
and to those with a history of deficient immunity.
Table 32.5  Protective efficacy of BCG vaccinations in nine major trials
Immunization period Country or population
1935–38 North American Indian
1937–48 Chicago, USA
1947 Georgia, USA
1949–51 Puerto Rico
1950 Georgia and Alabama, USA
1950–52 UK
Madanapalle, South India
(Rural)
1968–71 Chingleput,
South India (Rural)
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Chap-32.indd 237
Chapter 32: Mycobacterium tuberculosis  | 237
Chemoprophylaxis
Chemoprophylaxis or preventive chemotherapy
is the administration of antituberculous drugs
(usually only isoniazid) to persons with latent
tuberculosis (asymptomatic tuberculin positive)
and a high risk of developing active tuberculosis, or
to the uninfected exposed to high risk of infection.
It is particularly in­dicated in infants of mothers
with active tuberculosis and in children living with
a case of active tuberculo­sis in the house. Isoniazid
5 mg/kg daily for 6–12 months is the usual course.
Trials have shown that this reduces the risk of
developing active disease by 90%. HIV infected
contacts of active tuberculosis also benefit from
this prophylaxis.
Treatment
The bactericidal drugs, along with the bacteri­
static drug ethambutol (E) constitute the first-line
drugs in antituberculous therapy. The old practice
of daily administration of drugs for two years or
so has been replaced by short course regimens of
6–7 months, which are effective and convenient. A
typical example of such a schedule for a new smear
positive case is a combination of four drugs (HRZE)
given three times a week during an initial intensive
phase of two months, followed by 4–5 months of
con­tinuing phase with only two drugs (HR) three
times a week.
Multidrug Resistant Mycobacterium
Tuberculosis (MDR-TB)
A very serious consequence of unchecked drug
resistance has been the emergence and spread
of ‘multidrug resistant tuberculosis’(MDR-TB).
WHO defines a multi-drug resistance (MDR) strain
as one that is at least resistant to rifampicin(R) and
isoniazid (H). This is because R and H form the
sheet anchor of short-term chemotherapy and any
strain resistant to both these drugs is unlikely to
respond to treatment.
Age range of vaccinees Efficacy (%)
0–20 80
Neonates 75
6–17 0
1–18 31
>5 14
14–15 78
All ages 60
All ages 0
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 238  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Risk factors for drug resistance may include
previous treatment for TB, residence in an area
endemic for drug resistance, or close contact with
an individual who is infected with MDR-TB. Drug
resist­ance is usually acquired by spontaneous
mutations as a result of the inappropriate use of
antimicrobial agents to treat M. tuberculosis and
the lack of patient com­pliance. Another serious
condition extensively drug resistant-tuberculosis
(XDR-TB) has emerged recently. XDR-TB is due to
M. tuberculosis strains which are resistant to any
fluoroquinolone and at least one of three injectable
second line drugs (capreomycin, kanamycin and
amikacin) in addition to isoniazid and rifampicin.
Between 50 and 100 million people worldwide
are thought to be infected with strains of drug
resistant tuberculosis. MDR-TB requires an
extended treatment period compared with drug-
susceptible isolates. For cases of resistance to
isoniazid or rifampin, second-line. anti­tuberculosis
drugs may include aminoglycosides (kanamycin,
amikacin, capreomycin), and fluoro­quinolones.
With the numbers of cases of multidrug-resistant
M. tuberculosis increasing, newer agents are
being tested in vitro to determine their efficacy. If
compliance is an issue, a single daily dose of all first
line antitubercular drugs is preferred, and ‘directly
observed treatment strategy’ (DOTS) has been
recommended by WHO. Otherwise resistance may
be assumed and tested for in vitro.
Key Points
™™ Mycobacteria are aerobic, nonmotile, noncap­sulated
and nonsporing. Growth is generally slow
™™ Mycobacteria are, known as acid-fast bacilli (AFB).
Acid fastness has been ascribed variously to the
presence in the bacillus of mycolic acid or to a sem­
ipermeable membrane around the cell
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
™™ Mycobacterium tubercu­losis is weakly gram-positive,
strongly acid-fast, aerobic bacilli
™™ Ziehl-Neelsen acid-fast stain is useful in staining
organisms. With this stain, the tubercle bacilli stain
bright red. Tubercle bacilli may also be stained with
the fluorescent dyes (auramine 0, rhodamine) and
appear yellow luminous bacilli under the fluorescent
microscope
™™ They are aerobes, slow growers, produce luxuriant
eugonic growth after 2–8 weeks
™™ The solid medium most widely employed for routine
culture is Lowen­stein–Jensen (L–J) medium without
starch
™™ On L–J media, M. tuberculosis forms dry, rough, raised,
irregular colonies with a wrinkled surface. They are
creamy white, becoming yellowish or buff colored
on further incubation. They are tenacious and not
easily emulsified. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has
a luxuriant growth (eugenic growth) as compared
to Mycobacterium bovis, which grows poor­ly on LJ
glycerol medium (dysgonic growth)
Chap-32.indd 238
™™ Liquid media are Dubos’, Middlebrook’s, Proskauer
and Beck’s, Sula’s and Sauton’s media are the more
com­mon
™™ They are weakly catalase positive, neutral-red positive,
amidase positive, nitrate reduction test positive, niacin
test negative, and arylsulfatase negative
™™ Pathogenesis and immunity: The source of infection
is usually an open case of pulmonary tuberculosis.
The initial infection with M. tuberculosis is referred
to as a primary infection. Subsequent disease in a
previously sensitized person, known as postprimary
(secondary or reinfection) tuberculosis
™™ Diseases: M. tuberculosis causes primarily pulmonary
tuberculosis
™™ Diagnosis: Bacteriological diagnosis of tuberculosis
can be established by direct microscopy, culture
examination or by animal inoculation test
1. Sputum is the specimen of choice for pulmonary
tuberculosis
2. Microscopy: Z–N staining and auramine-
rhodamine staining for demonstration of AFB in
stained smears is most
3. Culture is the definite method to detect and
identify M. tuberculosis and is sensitive and specific
4. Serology is of limited value in the diagnosis of
pulmonary tuberculosis
5. D irect detection by molecular probes is
relatively insensitive
6. The recent rapid and automated methods include
automated radiometric culture methods (e.g.
BACTEC) , SEPTICHEK, MGITs, etc.
™™ Resistance ratio method, absolute concentration
method and proportion method are used to
determine the sensitivity testing of M. tuberculosis.
Other methods for sensitivity testing include BACTEC
radiometric method, MGIT, chemiluminescence and
Epsilometer test (E-test)
™™ Tuberculin test: This test is delayed (Type IV) hyper­
sensitivity reaction. Many methods such as 1. Mantoux
test and 2. Heaf test had been described for tuberculin
testing
™™ Treatment, Prevention, and Control
Chemotherapy forms the mainstay of treatment of
tuberculosis . Drug resistance in M. tuberculosis is due
to mutation. The emergence of multidrug resistance-
tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a very serious problem. DOT
is a method now being widely followed for treatment
of cases of tuberculosis. Another serious condition
extensively drug resistant-tuberculosis (XDR- TB) has
emerged recently
™™ Preventive measures against tuberculosis include
chemoproph­ylaxis, vaccination, and general health
measures. Immunoprophylaxis with BCG in endemic
countries.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Describe the morphology, cultural characteristics
and pathogenicity of M. tuberculosis.
2. Classify mycobacteria. Describe the laboratory
diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis.
3. Differentiate between Mycobacterium tubercu­losis
and Mycobacterium bovis in a tabulated form.
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 Chapter 32: Mycobacterium tuberculosis  | 239
4. Write short notes on: 5. A positive Mantoux test is indicated by an area of
a. Antigenic structure of Mycobacterium tuberculosis induration of:
b. Pulmonary tuberculosis a. 10 mm or more in diameter
c. Koch’s phenomenon b. 5–9 mm in diameter
d. Tuberculin test c. 3–4 mm in diameter
e. Mantoux test d. None of the above
6. Mantoux test shows false negative reaction in all
f. BCG vaccine
the following patients except:
g. Sensitivity testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
a. Military tuberculosis b. Malignancies
h. Multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis c. Leprosy d. Malnutrition
(MDR-TB).
7. Culture of tubercle bacilli maybe positive if
number of bacteria in the specimen is:
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs) a. As few as 1–4 per mL
1. Eugonic growth on Lowenstein-Jensen medium is b. As few as 5–9 per mL
produced by: c. As few as 10–100 per mL
a. Mycobacterium tuberculosis d. as few as 150–200 per mL
b. M. bovis 8. Mycobacterium. tuberculosis is pathogenic for:
c. Both of the above a Rabbits
b. Guinea pigs
d. None of the above
c. Both of the above
2. LJ medium consists of the following ingredients
d. None of the above
except:
9. Multidrug resistance tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is
a. Egg yolk b. Agar
due to M. tuberculosis strain as one that is:
c. Mineral salts d. Malachite green
a. Resistant to rifampicin only
3. Nitrate reduction test is positive in:
b. Resistant to isoniazid only
a. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
c. Resistant to at least rifampicin and isoniazid
b. M. jortuitum
d. None of the above
c. M. chelonei
10. Extensively drug resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) is
d. All of the above due to M. tuberculosis strains which are resistant to:
4. All the following statements are true regarding a. Any fluoroquinolone
Mycobacterium tuberculosis except: b. Isoniazid and rifampicin
a. They are straight or slightly curved acid-fast ba- c. At least one of three injectable second line
cilli drugs (capreomycin, kanamycin and amikacin)
b. They produce luxuriant eugonic growth after d. All of the above
4–6 weeks
c. They are weakly Gram-positive ANSWERS (MCQs)
d. They are niacin test positive 1. a; 2. b; 3. d; 4. d; 5. a; 6. c; 7. c; 8. b; 9. c; 10. d

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Chap-32.indd 239 15-03-2016 11:13:53

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology of M. leprae
∙∙ Discuss cultivation of lepra bacilli
∙∙ Explain animal models in leprosy
∙∙ Describe pathogenesis of leprosy
Introduction
Leprosy is probably the oldest disease known to
mankind. Leprosy was described as ‘kushta’ in
Sushruta Samhita written in India in 600 B.C. It
is caused by Mycobacterium leprae which was
discovered by Hansen in 1874 in Norway.
Mycobacterium leprae
Morphology
M. leprae is a straight or slightly curved rod, 1–8
mm x 0.2–0.5 mm in size, showing consider­able
morphological variations. The rods may stain
uniformly or show granules and beads that are
slightly larger than the average diameter of the
cell. Polar bodies and other intracellular elements
may be present. Clubbed forms, lateral buds or
branching may be observed. They are nonmotile
and non­sporing.
They are gram-positive and stain more readily
than M. tuberculosis. With Ziehl–Neelsen stain,
they are less acid-fast than tubercle bacilli, so 5%
sulfuric acid is employed for decoloriza­tion after
staining with carbol fuchsin. The bacilli are seen
singly and in groups, intracellularly or lying free
outside the cells. Inside the cells they are present
as bundles of organisms bound together by a lipid-
like substance, the glia. These masses are known as
globi. Large numbers of bacilli may be packed in
the cells in an arrangement that suggests packets of
cigars. The parallel rows of bacilli in the globi give
appearance of a cigar bundle. In tissue sections, the
33
Chapter
Mycobacterium leprae
∙∙ Describe the following:
– Lepromatous leprosy; tuberculoid leprosy;
lepromin test
– Differentiate between lepromatous and tuber­
culoid leprosy
–  Discuss laboratory diagnosis of leprosy.
bacilli are arranged in clumps resembling cigarette
ends. The globi are present in Virchow’s lepra cells
or foamy cells which are large undifferentiated
histiocytes.
Generation time of the lepra bacillus: The
generation time of the lepra bacillus has been found
to be exceptionally long in animal experiments,
12–13 days on the average but may vary from 8 to 42
days, in comparison with about 14 hours in the case
of the tubercle bacillus and about 20 minutes in the
case of coliform bacilli.
Cultivation
In spite of the efforts of many workers it has not so
far been possible to cultivate lepra bacilli either in
bacteriological media or in tissue culture. There
have been several reports of successful cultivation
but none has been confirmed. One of the best
known of such reports (1962) came from the In­dian
Cancer Research Center (ICRC) Mumbai, where
an acid-fast bacillus was isolated from leprosy
patients, em­ploying human fetal spinal ganglion
cell culture. This is known as ICRC bacillus. This
ICRC bacillus has been adapted for growth on
Lowenstein-Jensen medium. Its relation to the
lepra bacillus is uncertain.
There have been many attempts to transmit
lepro­sy to experimental animals. However, the
real break through was in 1960, when Shepard
discovered that M. leprae could multiply in the
footpads of mice kept at a low temperature (20°C).
This observation has been confirmed and has

become the standard procedure for experimental
work with the bacillus. Following animals have been
used for experimental infection with M. leprae.
1. Mouse (footpad)
2. Nine-banded armadillos
3. Chimpanzees,
4. Monkeys
5. Slender loris
6. Indian pangolin
7. Chipmunks
8. Golden hamsters
9. European hedgehog.
Mouse: In the mouse, infections can be initiated with
as few as 1–10 bacilli. A granuloma develops at the
site in 1–6 months following intradermal inoculation
into the footpads of mice. If cell-mediated immunity
is suppressed by thymectomy or the administration
of antilymphocyte serum, a generalized infection is
produced, simulating lepromatous leprosy.
Nine-banded Armadillo: The nine-banded
armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) is highly
susceptible to infection with lepra bacilli. This is
presum­ably due to low body temperature. Following
inoculation into armadilles, a generalized infection
occurs with ex­tensive multiplication of the bacilli and
production of lesions typical of lepromatous leprosy.
Antigenic Structure
Mycobacterial antigens may be classified on the
basis of :
1. Solubility as (a) soluble (cytoplasmic) and (b)
insoluble (cell wall lipid-bound).
2. Chemi­cal structure as (a) carbohydrate and (b)
protein
3. Distribution within the species. Up to 90
soluble antigens have been demon­strated by
counterimmunoelectrophoresis in Mycobac­
teria. They can be divided into 4 groups:
Group I: Common to all Mycobacteria.
Group II: Occur in slowly growing species.
Group III: Occur in rapidly growing species.
Group IV: Unique to each individual species.
M. leprae possesses antigens of groups I and IV.
Table 33.1  Characteristics of lepromatous and tuberculoid leprosy
Feature Lepromatous leprosy
1. Resistance Seen in persons whose resistance is low
2. Infectivity High
3.  Bacilli in skin +++
4.  Bacilli in nasal secretions +++
5.  Granuloma formation +++
6.  Lepromin test – +++
7.  Antibodies to M. leprae Hypergammaglobulinemia
8. Prognosis Poor
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Chapter 33: Mycobacterium leprae  | 241
The cell wall of M. leprae is made up of four
layers like other Mycobacteria. The innermost is a
peptidoglycan layer which gives the cell its shape and
rigidity. External to this is lipoarabinomannan-B
(LAM-B) layer, attached to which is a dense
palisade of characteristic long chain fatty acids
known as mycolic acid. The outermost layer is
composed of mycosides. A major component of this
layer is phenolic glycolipid-l (PGL-l).
LAM-B is a dominant antigen of M. leprae,
is highly immunogenic and is used in the
serodiagnosis of leprosy. Patient, infected with M.
leprae, develops antibodies against polysaccharide
constituent of PGL-I which has been used for the
serodiagnosis of leprosy.
In addition, M. leprae possesses a large number
of protein antigens namely 18 kDa, 28 kDa, 35 kDa,
36 kDa, 65 kDa and so on, according to molecular
weight of antigens in kilodaltons (kDa).
Resistance
In a warm humid environment, lepra bacilli have
been found to remain viable for 9–16 days and in
moist soil for 46 days. They survive exposure to
direct sunlight for two hours and ultraviolet light
for 30 minutes.
Classification
Classification System of Ridley and Jopling
The spectrum of disease activity in leprosy is very
broad, characterized by pronounced variations in
clinical, histopathologic, and immunologic findings.
On the basis of these properties, Ridley and Jopling
(1966) have established a clas­sification scheme
consisting of five forms of leprosy (Table 33.1):
∙∙ Tuber­culoid (TT)
∙∙ Borderline tuberculoid (BT)
∙∙ Borderline (BB)
∙∙ Borderline lepromatous (BL)
∙∙ Lepromatous (LL).
Hyperreactive tuberculoid (TT) leprosy is at
one pole and anergic lepromatous (LL) leprosy
at the other. The type of disease is a reflection of
Tuberculoid (TT) leprosy
Seen in persons whose resistance is high
Low
–
–
–
Normal
Good
242  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
the immune status of the host. It is therefore not
permanent and varies with chemotherapy and
alterations in host resistance. TT and LL are stable.
The others are unstable, especially BT, which in
the absence of treatment can regress to BB or BL.
Pathogenesis
Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a chronic granulo­
matous disease of humans primarily involving
the skin, peripheral nerves and nasal mucosa but
capable of affecting any tissue or organ.
M. leprae is an obligate intracellular parasite
that multiplies very slowly within the mononuclear
phagocytes, especially the histiocytes of the skin
and Schwann cells of the nerves. M. leprae has an
especially strong predilection for nerves and is the
only known human pathogen that preferentially
attacks the peripheral nerves. The two extreme or
polar forms of the disease are the lepromatous and
tuberculoid types TT) types (Table 33.2).
1. Lepromatous Leprosy
Patient develops numerous nodular skin lesions
(lepromata) on face, ear lobes, hands, feet and
less commonly trunk. Skin lesions contain many
macrophages, often seen as large foamy cells
packed with AFB. Skin biopsy specimens may
contain up to 109 bacilli per gram of tissue. This is
known as ‘multi­bacillary disease’. Nodular skin
lesions ulcerate due to repeated trau­ma as a result
of loss of sensation. The ulcerated nodules become
secondarily infected that leads to distortion and
mutilation of extremities.
Bacilli invade the mucosa of the nose, mouth
and up­per respiratory tract and are shed in large
numbers in nasal and oral secretions. Bacillemia
is common. Eyes, testes, kidneys and bones are
also involved.
Lepromatous leprosy is more infectious than
other types and has a poor prognosis. Cell-mediated
immunity is deficient and the lepromin test is
negative in lepromatous leprosy. Humoral antibodies
agai­nst mycobacterial antigens are produced in high
concentrations which play no protective role. Most
cases show biological false positive reaction in
standard serologi­cal tests for syphilis.
Table 33.2  Characteristics of the five forms of leprosy
TT
Bacilli in skin − +/ −
Bacilli in nasal secretions − −
Granuloma formation +++
Lepromin test +++
Antibodies to M. leprae +/ −
TT, tuberculoid; BT, borderline tuberculoid; BB, borderline; BL, borderline lepromatous; LL, lepromatous
2. Tuberculoid (TT) Leprosy
The skin lesions are few and sharply de­marcated,
consisting of macular anesthetic patches. In
tuberculoid leprosy, skin biopsies show mature
granuloma formation in the dermis consisting of
epithelioid cells, giant cells, and rather extensive
infiltration of lymphocytes.
There are very few acid-fast bacilli (AFB) so
that they are generally not seen microscopically
(paucibacillary disease) and infectivity is minimal.
The organisms invade the nerves and selectively
colonize the Schwann cells. The local nerves are
involved in the early stage and gradually the infec­
tion extends into the bigger nerve trunks which are
thickened, hard and tender. This leads to deformi­
ties of hand and feet.
3. Borderline (BT) Leprosy
Borderline leprosy (BB), sometimes called
dimorphous or intermediate leprosy, has features
of both tuberculoid and lepromatous forms. This is
an unstable form of the disease and may shift to the
lepromatous or tuberculoid part of the spectrum
depending on chemotherapy or alterations in host
resistance.
4. Indeterminate Type
There is an early unstable tissue reaction with mild
transient tissue lesion, often resembling maculo-
anesthetic patches which is not characteristic of
either the lepro­matous or the tuberculoid type. In
many persons, the indeterminate lesions undergo
healing spontaneously. In others, the lesions may
progress to the tuberculoid or lepromatous types.
Epidemiology
Leprosy is an exclusively human dis­ease and the
only source of infection is the patient. Disease is
spread by person-to-person contact. The mode
of entry may be either through the respiratory
tract or through the skin. Asymptomatic infection
appears to be quite common in endemic areas.
Bacilli may also be transmitted via breast milk
from lepromatous mothers, by insect vectors, or
by tattooing needles.
BT BB BL LL
+ ++ +++
− + +++
++ + − −
+ +/ − − −
+/ − + ++ +++

Leprosy has a long incubation period, an
average of 3–5 years or more for lepromatous cases.
It is rare in children aged less than 5 years. It has
been estimated to vary from a few months to as
long as 30 years. It is generally held that intimate
and prolonged contact is necessary for infection
to take place. The disease is more likely if contact
occurs during childhood.
Once worldwide in distribution, leprosy is now
confined mainly, but not exclusively, to the under­
developed areas of the tropics and the southern
hemi­sphere. Leprosy is widely prevalent in India.
Although the disease is present throughout the
country, the distribution is uneven.
Immunity
Leprosy is a disease of low infectivity. A high degree
of innate immunity against lepra bacilli seems to
exist in human beings so that only a minority of
those infected develop clinical disease.
Infection with lepra bacilli induces both
humoral and cellular immune responses. Humoral
antibodies do not have deleterious effect on the
bacilli, while cellular immune mechanisms are
a­ble of destroying them. Also, in leprosy there is
a close correlation between the various clinical
forms and the cell-mediated immunity (CMI)
response of the host. When it is adequate, the
lesions are of the tuberculoid type. Patients with
tuber­culoid leprosy exhibit a strong delayed-type
hypersensitivity to lepromin.
The lepromatous type of disease develops
when cell mediated immunity is deficient. Delayed
hyper­sensitivity to the lepra bacillus protein is
absent. A number of abnormal serologic activities
are also associated with lepromatous leprosy,
including a biologic false positive reaction in
routine serologic tests for syphilis.
Reactions
Though leprosy is a chronic disease, its course is
sometimes interspersed with acute exacerbations
due to immune reactions. These are of two types:
1. Type 1 (Reversal reaction or the ‘lepra re­action’)
2. Type 2 (Erythema nodosum leprosum, (ENL))
1. Type 1 (Reversal reaction or the ‘lepra
re­action’): This occurs in borderline cases,
occurring spontaneously or more often during
chemotherapy. It is a cell-mediated immune
reaction, with an influx of lymphocytes into
lesions, and a shift to tuberculoid morphology.
It may rapidly cause severe and permanent
nerve damage.
2. Type 2 (Erythema nodosum leprosum,
(ENL)): This is an immune-complex reaction
seen only in lepromatous and borderline
lepromatous cases, usually a few months after
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Chapter 33: Mycobacterium leprae  | 243
institution of chemotherapy. Clinically crops
of red nodules appear in the skin, lasting for 1
or 2 days. The histological picture is that of an
Arthus reaction or immune complex disease.
The immunological basis of type 2 is vasculitis
associ­ated with the deposition of antigen-
antibody complexes.
Lepromin Test
Till recently, the only method for studying
immunity in leprosy was a skin test for delayed
hypersensitivity, the lepromin test first described
by Mitsuda in 1919.
Lepromins: The lepromins used as antigen in
lepromin test may be of human origin (lepromin-H)
or of armadillo origin (lepromin-A) and are of two
types:
1. Integral lepromin (Mitsuda lepromin): The
original antigen (lepromin) was developed by
Mitsuda in 1919. The original crude Mitsuda
antigens extracted from skin lesions of
lepromatous patients (integral lepromins) were
standardized on the basis of tissue content.
Standard lepromins are being prepared
increas­ingly from armadillo-derived lepra
bacilli (lepromin A ­ ).
2. Bacillary lepromin: This contains more of
bacillary components and less of tissue. An
impor­tant example of bacillary lepromin is
Dharmendra antigen which is prepared by
floating out the bacilli from finely ground
lepromatous tissue with chloro­form, evapo­
rating it dry and removing the lipids by washing
with ether. The antigen is made up in phe­nol
saline for use.
Procedure
The test is performed by injecting intradermally 0.1
ml of lepromin into the inner aspect of the forearm of
the individual. As a routine, the reaction is read at 48
hours and 21 days. The response to the intradermal
injection of lepromin is typically biphasic:
1. Early or Fernandez reaction: The early
reaction is also known as Fernandez reaction.
It consists of erythema and induration at the site
of inoculation developing in 24–48 hours and
usually remaining for 3–5 days. This reaction
indicates that the patient has been infected at
some time in the past and is a measure of pre-
existing delayed hypersensitivity.
2. Late or Mitsuda reaction: This is the classical
Mitsuda reaction. The reaction develops late,
becomes apparent in 7–10 days following the
injection and reaching its maximum in 3 or 4
weeks. At the end of 21 days, if there is a nodule
more than 5 mm in diameter at the site of
inoculation, the reaction is said to be positive.
244  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
The nodule may even ulcerate and heal with
scarring if the antigen is crude. It takes several
weeks to heal. Histologically, there is infiltration
with lymphocytes, epithelioid cells and giant
cells.
Uses of Lepromin Reaction
The test is employed for the following purposes:
1. To classify the lesions of leprosy patients: The
reaction is positive in tuberculoid and negative
in lepromatous leprosy patients.
2. To assess the prognosis and response to
treat­ment: A positive reaction indicates good
prognosis and a negative one bad prognosis.
3. To assess the resistance of individuals to
leprosy: It is desirable to recruit only lepromin
positive persons for work in leprosaria as
lepromin negative persons are more prone to
develop the disease.
4. To verify the identity of candidate lepra
bacilli: Cul­tivable acid-fast bacilli, claimed to
be lepra bacilli, should give matching results
when tested in parallel with standard lepromin.
Laboratory Diagnosis
M. leprae cannot grow in cell-free cultures. Thus,
laboratory confirmation of leprosy requires
histopatho­logic findings consistent with the
clinical disease and either skin test reactivity to
lepromin or the presence acid-fast bacilli in the
lesions. The diagnosis consists of demonstra­tion
of acid-fast bacilli in the lesions.
1. Specimens
For routine examination, specimens are collected
from the nasal mucosa, skin lesions and ear lobules.
Biop­sy of the nodular lesions and thickened nerves,
and lymph node puncture may be necessary in
some cases.
i. Skin Smears
Slit and scrape method: Material from the skin
is obtained from an active lesion, and also from
both the ear lobes by the “slit and scrape” method.
Samples from the skin should be obtained from
the edges of the lesion rather than from the center.
The skin is pinched up tight to minimize bleeding.
A cut about 5 mm long is made with a scalpel,
deep enough to get into the infiltrated layers. After
wiping off blood or lymph that may have exuded,
the blade of the scalpel is then turned at right angle
to the cut (slit) and the bottom and the sides of the
slit are scraped with the point of the blade, sev­eral
times in the same direction so that tissue fluid and
pulp (not blood) collects on one side of the blade
which is smeared uniformly on a slide. When smear
dries, it is fixed by passing the slide twice or thrice
over a flame with the surface carrying the smear
uppermost. About 5–6 different areas of the skin
should be sampled, including the skin over the but­
tocks, forehead, chin, cheek and ears.
ii. Nasal Scrapings
A blunt, narrow scalpel is introduced into the
nose and the internal septum scraped sufficiently
to remove a piece of mu­cus membrane, which is
transferred to a slide and teased out into a uniform
smear.
The skin or nasal smear is immediately fixed by
lightly passing the underslide of the slide over the
spirit lamp flame and transported to the laboratory
for staining with Ziehl­–Neelsen method.
2. Microscopy
Smears are stained by Ziehl–Neelsen method using
5% in­stead of 20% sulfuric acid for decolourization.
Acid­fast bacilli (AFB) arranged in parallel bundles
within macrophages (Lepra-cell) confirm the
diagnosis of lepromatous leprosy. The viable
bacilli stain uniformly and the dead bacilli are
fragmented, irregular or granular.
The smears are graded, based on the number of
bacilli as follows:
1–10 bacilli in 100 fields = 1+
1–10 bacilli in 10 fields = 2+
1–10 bacilli per field = 3+
10–100 bacilli per field = 4+
100–1,000 bacilli per field = 5+
More than 1,000 bacilli,
clumps and globi in every field = 6+
Differentiation of live and dead bacilli: Live bacilli
in the smear appear solid and uni­formly stained,
while dead or dying forms appear fragmented,
beaded and granular.
i. Bacteriological index (BI): The bacteriological
index (the number of bacilli in tissues) is
calculated by totalling the grades (number of
pluses, +s scored in all the smears and divided
by number of smears. Thus if 7 (seven) smears
examined have a total of fourteen pluses (14+),
BI will be 2. For calculating BI, a minimum of
four skin lesions, a nasal swab and both the ear
lobes are to be examined.
ii. Morphological index (MI): It is defined as
the percentage of uniformly stained bacilli
out of the total number of bacilli counted. This
provides a method of assessing the progress
of patients on chemotherapy.
3. Animal Inoculation
Injection of ground tissue from lepromatous
nodules or nasal scrapings from leprosy patient into

the foot pad of mouse produces typical granuloma
at the site of inoculation within 6 months. Nine-
banded armadillo is another animal used for
inoculation of material. The lesions which develop
in these animals can be identified by histological
examination and Ziehl–Neelsen staining.
4. Lepromin Test
It is not a diagnostic test but is used to assess the
resistance of patient to M. leprae infection. The test
can be used to assess the prognosis and response
to treatment.
5. Serological Test
Detection of antibody against M. leprae phenolic
glycolipid antigen has been claimed to be a
specific diagnostic test. Various serological tests
like latex agglutination, Mycobacterium leprae
particle agglutination (MLPA) and ELISA have been
described. Anti-PGL-1 antibody titers are higher in
lepromatous patients but the tuberculoid patients
show low titers. The antibody titers decrease
following effective chemotherapy.
6. Molecular Diagnostic Methods
The PCR is increasingly used to detect M. leprae in
clinical specimens.
Treatment
Dapsone (4, 4’-diaminodiphenyl sulfone; DDS)
was the first effective chemo­therapeutic agent
against leprosy. Due to emergence of dapsone
resistance, WHO recommended multiple drug
therapy (MDT) for all leprosy cases based on
dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine. Patients
with paucibacillary (I, TT, BT) leprosy are given
rifampicin 600 mg once a month (supervised)
and dapsone 100 mg daily (unsupervised) for six
months. For multibacillary (BB, BL, LL leprosy,
rifampicin 600 mg once a month (supervised,
dapsone 100 mg daily (unsupervised), clofazimine
300 mg once monthly supervised and 50 mg daily,
unsupervised are given for two years or until skin
smears are negative.
Immunotherapy
Since lepromatous leprosy patients do not possess
CMI, efforts are being made to induce effective CMI
to M. leprae in these patients. Procedures for trying
to achieve this objective include:
1. Intravenous injection of peripheral blood lym­
phocytes obtained from patients with tuber­
culoid leprosy or from healthy donors possess­ing
vigorous CMI and showing a strongly posi­tive
lepromin (Mitsuda) reaction.
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Chapter 33: Mycobacterium leprae  | 245
2. Intravenous injection of transfer factor, an extract
of lymphocytes, from patients suffering from
tuberculoid leprosy. Sensitized lympho­cytes
secrete certain substances called lym­phokines
which stimulate the macrophages to ingest and
kill the bacilli.
3. Intradermal injection of vaccine.
Prophylaxis
Case finding and adequate ther­apy have been the
methods employed for prophylaxis. Long-term
chemoprophylaxis has given encouraging results
in child contacts of infectious cases in India and
the Philippines.
Immunoprophylaxis
At present no effective vaccine against leprosy
exists. A number of candidate vaccines have been
tried and are still under trial. However, none of
these have reached the stage for universal use.
BCG vaccine: There is now considerable evidence
that BCG vaccine can provide some protection
against clinical leprosy. The results of controlled
trials with BCG vaccine have demonstrated
significant but varying levels of protection in
four different countries—Uganda, Myanmar,
Papua New Guinea and in India, the Chingleput
(Chennai), ranging from 23–80%. Field trials in
Venezuela with killed M. leprae and BCG provided
no better protection than BCG alone.
Candidate vaccines: All the reported “candidate”
vaccines have shown a similar degree of lepromin
conversions in lepromatous patients (50­–70%)
and lepromin negative healthy individuals (90%).
Field trials with different leprosy vaccines (BCG +
killed lepra bacilli; ICRC bacillus) have not given
conclusive results so far.
Mycobacterium lepraemurium
M. lepraemurium, a causative agent of rat leprosy,
was first described by Stefan sky in 1901 at Ode­
ssa. The disease is probably transmitted naturally
from rat to rat by fleas. Rat leprosy characterized
by subcutaneous indurations, swelling of lymph
nodes, emaciation, and sometimes ulceration arid
loss of hair.
DNA studies have revealed that M. leprae
murium and M. leprae are not related spe­cies but
that there is a relatedness between M. lep­raemurium
and M. avium. M. lepraemurium can be maintained
for months in tissue cultures of monocytes, where
it has a generation time of about 7 days. It has also
been cultured in rat fibroblasts, and in vitro in a
cysteine-containing medium.
246  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Key Points
™™ Mycobacterium leprae are weakly gram-positive, less
acid-fast than tubercle bacilli, so 5% sulfuric acid
is employed for decoloriza­tion after staining with
carbol fuchsin
™™ They fail to grow in cell-free culture media. Animal
models for culture include footpads of mice, and
nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)
™™ Leprosy is classified into five types (tuberculoid
leprosy, border­line tuberculoid leprosy, mid-
borderline leprosy, borderline lepromatous leprosy,
and lepromatous leprosy)
™™ Lepromin test: It is a skin test for delayed hyper­
sensitivity for studying immunity in leprosy.
™™ Laboratory diagnosis consists of demonstra­tion of
acid-fast bacilli in the lesions, animal inoculation,
lepromin test, serology and polymerase chain
reaction (PCR)
™™ Dapsone with or without rifampin is used to treat
the tuberculoid form of disease; clofazimine is
added for the treatment of the lepromatous form.
The vaccines have been evaluated against leprosy
with limited success.
Important Questions
1. Describe mycobacteria. Discuss the etiology,
pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of leprosy.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Cultivation of leprae bacilli
b. Animal models in leprosy
c. Lepromatous leprosy
d. Tuberculoid leprosy
e. Differences between lepromatous and tubercu-
loid leprosy
f. Lepromin test
g. Mycobacterium lepraemurium.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. All the following are used as animal models for
leprosy except:
a. Rhesus monkey
b. Nine-banded armadillo
c. Slender loris
d. Indian pangolin
2. The generation time of Mycobacterium leprae is:
a. 20 minutes b. 20 hours
c. 12–13 days d. 12–13 weeks
3. The most infectious form of leprosy is:
a. Tuberculoid leprosy
b. Borderline tuberculoid leprosy
c. Mid-borderline leprosy
d. Lepromatous leprosy
4. Tuberculoid form of leprosy is seen in patients with:
a. Good cell-mediated immunity
b. Good humoral immunity
c. Deficient cell-mediated immunity
d. Poor humoral immunity
5. Lepromin test is used for all the following except:
a. Determine the type of leprosy
b. Confirm diagnosis of leprosy
c.  Monitor leprosy patients to treatment with
chemotherapy
d. Evaluate host resistance to leprosy
6. All the following statements are true for Mitsuda
reaction except:
a. A nodule develops after 3–4 weeks of injection
of lepromin antigen
b. Manifestation of cell-mediated immunity
c. Negative in tuberculoid leprosy
d. Negative in lepromatous leprosy
7. Fernandez reaction in lepromin test appean in:
a. 24–48 hours b. 3 days
c. 2 weeks d. 3–4 weeks
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. c; 3. d; 4. a; 5. b; 6. c; 7. a
 34
Chapter

Nontuberculous Mycobacteria

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Name the diseases caused by nontuberculous
be able to: mycobacteria
∙∙ Classify nontuberculous mycobacteria and ∙∙ Discuss the clinical significance of nontuberculous
examples of different groups of nontuberculous mycobacteria.
mycobacteria

INTRODUCTION Differentiating characterstics of M. tuberculosis

and ‘nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are
Mycobacteria other than human or bovine tubercle shown in Table 34.1.
bacilli, may occasionally cause human disease
resembling tuberculosis. This large group of PROPERTIES OF NONTUBERCULOUS
mycobac­teria have been known by several names;
atypical,anonymous, unclassified, paratubercle,
MYCOBACTERIA (TABLE 34.1)
tuberculoid, environmental or nontuberculous 1. Temperature: They can grow at 25°C, 37°C, and
mycobacteria (NTM), opportunistic MOTT even at 44°C.
(mycobacteria other than tubercle bacilli). 2. Rate of growth: Some of them are rapid
The names ‘environmental’ or ‘opportunistic growers. They produce colonies within 1–2
mycobacteria’ are better suited as their natural weeks of incubation in the Lowenstein-Jensen
habitat appears to be soil or water and they cause (LJ) medium.
opportunistic infec­tions in human beings. The 3. Colony characters: Some of them may produce
name ‘nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM)’ has bright yellow or orange pigments during their
gained wide acceptance in recent years. growth on the L–J medium.
Table 34.1  Differentiating characterstics of M. tuberculosis and ‘nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM)
Characteristics M. tuberculosis Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM)
1. Cuture
Temperature 37° 25–45°C
Rate of growth Slow Slow or rapid
Growth on L–J medium Eugonic Dysgonic
Colony characters Dry, rough, tough, buff colored, Dry, yellow, orange or creamy and easily
difficult to emulsify emulsifiable
Growth in the presence of – +
p-nitrobenzoic acid (PNB) 500 µg/mL
2. Biochemical reactions
Niacin test + –
Nitrate reduction test + –
3. Animal pathogenicity Pathogenic to guinea pig Pathogenic to guinea pig
4. Transmission Person to person Soil or water

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 248  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
4. Staining: They are acid fast as well as alcohol
fast. They may differ or resemble in their
morphology from those of tubercle bacilli.
5. Biochemical reactions: They are arylsulfatase
test positive, but are niacin and neutral red
reactions negative.
6. Animal pathogenicity: They are nonpathogenic
for guinea pigs but pathogenic for mouse.
7. Treatment: They are usually resistant to anti­
tubercular drugs such as streptomycin, INH,
and para-aminosalicylic acid.
8. Transmission: Soil or water
9. Classification: They are classified by Runyon
into four groups on the basis of their rate of
growth and their ability to produce pigments
in the presence or absence of light.
CLASSIFICATION
Runyon(1959) classified NTM into four groups
(Table 34.2) based on phenotypic char­acteristics of
the various species, most notably pigment (yellow
or orange) production and rate of growth. These
include:
∙∙ Group I: Photochro­mogens
∙∙ Group II: Scotochromogens
∙∙ Group III: Nonphotochromogens
∙∙ Group IV: Rapid growers.
Species identification depends on several
additional characteristics (Table 34.2).
Group I: Photochromogens
Photochromogens develop a bright yellow or
orange coloration if young cultures are exposed to a
light source. They are slow growing, though growth
is faster than that of tubercle bacil­li. The important
species in this group are M. kansasii, M. marinum
and M. simiae.
Mycobacterium kansasii (M. kansasii): Myco­
bacterium kansasii, which grows well at 37°C and
Table 34.2  Runyon classification scheme of non-
tuberculous mycobacteria
Runyon group Name Species
I Photochromogens M. kansasii
M. marinum
M. simiae
II Scotochromogens M. scrofulaceum
M. gordonae
M. szulgai
III Non- M. auium
photochromogens M. intracellulare
M. xenopi
M. ulcerans
M. malmoense
IV Rapid growers M. chelonei
M. fortuitum
Chap-34.indd 248
is principally isolated from cases of pulmonary
disease. Natural reservoir is tap water. Pulmonary
disease is the most common clinical form of M.
kansasii infection. It occurs pri­marily in middle-
aged or elderly white men, most of whom have
some pre-existing form of lung disease.
M. kansasii may also occasionally cause
infections of the cervical lymph nodes, penetrating
wound infections, and granulomatous synovitis. It
can produce generalized infection in HIV-positive
patients.
Mycobacterium marinum (M. marinum): M.
marinum (previously termed the fish tubercle
bacillus) the cause of a warty skin infection known
as swimming pool granuloma. Microscopically, it
resembles M. kansasii. but can be differentiated by
its poor growth at 37°C, negative nitratase, positive
pyrazinamide hy­drolase and L-fucosidase activities.
Mycobacterium simiae (M. simiae): M. simiae,
which, like M. kansasii, grows at 37°C and is
occasionally involved in pulmonary disease. Several
photochromogenic mycobacteria were isolated
from monkeys exported from India. They have
subsequently been associated with pulmo­nary
disease in human beings.
Group II: Scotochromogens
The scotochromogens are slow-growing NTM
whose colonies are pigmented (yellow-orange-red)
when grown in the dark or the light. They are widely
distributed in the environment and sometimes
contaminate cultures of tubercle bacilli.
i. Mycobacterium scrofulaceum (M. scrofulaceum):
M. scrofulaceum is principally associated with
scrofula or cervical lymphadenitis in children,
but also causes pulmonary disease.
ii. Mycobacterium gordonae (M. gordonae):
M. gordonae (formerly M. aquae), frequently
found in water and a common contaminant of
clinical material, is a rare cause of pulmonary
disease.
iii. Mycobacterium szulgai (M. szulgai): M.
szulgai, an uncommon cause of pulmonary
disease and bursitis.It is a scotochromogen
when incubated at 37°C but a photochromogen
at 25°C.
Group III: Nonphotochromogens
The nonphotochromogens are slow-growing NTM
whose colonies produce no pigment whether they
are grown in the dark or the light. Colonies may
resemble those of tubercle bacilli.
Of the organisms classified in this group, those
belonging to nonpathogenic for humans are M.
terrae complex and M. gastri. Medically important
species are M. avium. M. intracellulare, M. xenopi
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 Chapter 34: Nontuberculous Mycobacteria  | 249
and the skin pathogen M. ulcerans. The most
prevalent and important opportunistic pathogens of
man are: M. avium and M. intracellulare.
Mycobacterium avium: M. avium (the avian
tubercle bacillus) which causes natural tuberculosis
in birds and lymphadenopathy in pigs. The closely
related M. intracellulare is commonoly known as
the ‘Battey bacillus’ because it was first identified
as a human pathogen at the Battey State Hospital
for Tuberculosis, Georgia, USA. M. avium and M.
intracellulare are so closely similar that these two
species are usually grouped together as the M.
avium complex (MAC).
Organisms of the M. avium complex cause
tuberculosis in birds and lymphadenitis in pigs as
well as occasional disease in various other wild and
domestic animals. In man, they are responsible
for lymphadenopathy, pulmonary lesions and
disseminated disease, notably in patients with the
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
M. xenopi: M. xenopi was first isolated from a skin
lesion in a South African toad (Xenopus laevis). It
grows poorly at 37°C, is a thermophile and grows
well at 45°C. It has been isolated from water, from
both hot and cold taps, and from granulomatous
lesions in swine. M. xenopi produces a chronic
slowly progressive pulmonary disease, which is
clinically and radio­logically similar to tuberculosis.
M. malmoense: M. malmoense grows very slowly,
often taking as long as 10 weeks to appear on
primary culture. It causes pulmonary disease and
lymphadenitis. It was first isolated from patients
from Malmo in Sweden. It is resist­ant to isoniazid
and rifampicin and sometimes also to streptomycin
and ethambutol.
M. ulcerans: The bacillus grows on Lowenstein-
Jensen medi­u m slowly, in 4–8 weeks. The
temperature of incuba­tion is critical; growth occurs
between 30°C and 33 °C. A toxin is produced by M.
ulcerans that causes inflammation and necrosis
when injected into the skin of guinea pigs. This is
the only known instance of toxin produced by any
Mycobacterium species.
Group IV: Rapid Growers
This is a heterogeneous group of mycobacteria
capable of rapid growth, colonies appearing within
seven days of incubation at 37°C or 25 °C. Within
the group, photochromogenic, scotochromogenic,
and non-chromogenic species oc­cur. Most of these
are purely environmental saprophytes. Only two
of the rapidly growing species are well recog­nized
human pathogens: M. chelonae and M. fortuitum.
Mycobacterium chelonae: M. chelonae (the turtle
tubercle bacillus), some isolates of which are
sometimes classified as M. abscessus, M. chelonae
grows better at 25°C than at 37°C.
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Chap-34.indd 249
M. fortuitum: M. fortuitum (the frog tubercle
bacillus), some isolates of which are sometimes
classified as M. peregrinum. M. fortuitum can
further be differentiated from M. chelonei in
reducing nitrate and assimilation of iron from ferric
ammonium citrate.
Disease: Both species occasionally cause
pulmonary or disseminated disease but are princi­
pally responsible for postinjection abscesses and
wound infections. Outbreaks of abscesses following
injection of vaccines and other preparations
contaminated by these mycobacteria have been
reported on a number of occasions.
SAPROPHYTIC MYCOBACTERIA
All the chromogenic rapid growers are sapro­
phytes (for example, M. smegmatis, M. phlei).
Mycobacterium gor­donae and Mycobacterium terrae
are among the saprophytic species that have been
associated with human disease on rare occasions.
Mycobacterium smegmatis: Since M. smegmatis
is normally present in smegma around the orifice
of urethra and is a frequent contam­inant of urine
specimens. Some strains of M. smeg­matis are acid-
fast but not alcohol-fast. Therefore, they are not
seen in a Ziehl–Neelsen smear if acid alcohol is
used as decolorizer.
Mycobacterium phlei: M. phlei is rarely encountered
and is nonpatho­genic. It can be differentiated from
M. smegmatis by its ability to grow at 52°C and
survive heating at 60°C for 4 hours.
Pathogenesis
Four main types of opportunist mycobacterial
disease have been described in man (Table 34.3).
Table 34.3  Principal types of opportunist myco­
bacterial disease in man and the usual causative agents
Disease Usual causative agent
A. Lymphadenopathy M. avium complex
M. scrofulaceum
B. Skin lesions M. chelanae
1. Post-trauma abscesses M. fortuitum
M. terrae
2. Swimming pool granuloma M. marinum
3. Buruli ulcer M. ulcerons
C. Pulmonary disease M. avium complex
M. kansasii
M. xenopi
M. malmoense
D. Disseminated disease
1. AIDS-related M. avium complex
M. genevense
2. Non-AIDS-related M. avium complex
M. chelonae
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 250  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
A. Lymphadenitis: Most patients are chil­dren aged
less than 5 years. The M. avium complex is the
predominant cause worldwide. Some reports claim
a high incidence of M. scrofulaceum.
B. Skin lesions: Three main types have been
described:
1. Postinjection (and posttraumatic) abscesses
2. Swimming pool granu­loma
3. Buruli ulcer.
1. Postinjection abscesses: These are usually
caused by the rapidly growing pathogens M.
chelonae and M. fortuitum. Abscesses occur
when batches of injectable materials are con­
taminated by these bacteria. Abscesses are
painful and last for many months.
2. Swimming pool granuloma: It is caused by
M. marinum and is also known as fish tank
granuloma and fish fancier’s finger. M. marinum
is a natural pathogen of cold-blooded animals,
causing tuberculosis in fish and amphibia.
Human infection originates from contaminated
swim­m ing pools or fish tanks. The lesion,
beginning as a pa­pule and breaking down to
form an indolent ulear, usually follows abrasions.
It was first described from Sweden under
the name ‘swimming pool granuloma’,
and the bacillus was named M. balnei (from
balneum, meaning bath). The disease is usually
self-limiting although chemother­a py with
minocycline, co-trimoxazole or rifampicin with
ethambutol hastens its resolution.
3. Buruli ulcer: This disease, caused by M.
ulcerans, was first described from human skin
lesions in Australia (1948). The name Buruli is
derived from the Buruli dis­trict of Uganda where
a large outbreak was extensively investigated.
Ulcers are usually seen on the legs or arms.
Indurated nodules appear, which break down
forming indolent ulcers which slowly extend under
the skin. Initially, smears from the edge of the ulcer
show large clumps of bacilli which are acid fast and
alcohol fast. Later, the immunoreactive phase sets in
and the bacilli disappear. The ulcers then heal with
disfigur­ing scars.
C. Pulmonary disease: These infections resemble
tuberculosis. In most but not all cases, there is some
predisposoing lung disese. This is most frequently
seen in middle-aged or elderly men with lung
damage. The disease may be caused by many
species, but the most frequent are the M. avium
complex and M. kansasii.
Organism must be isolated repeatedly from the
sputum to diffrentiate true disease from transient
colonization.
D. Disseminated disease: Up to a half of all
persons dying of AIDS in the USA had disseminated
myco­bacterial disease in the 1980s and early 1990s,
almost always due to the M. avium complex.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimen: Sputum, pus or exudates.
B. Microscopy: Ziehl–Neelsen staining of smear
shows acid fast bacilli. Reapeted smear
examination is necessary.
C. Culture: They grow well on LJ medium.
Several LJ media should be inoculated with
the specimen. These are incubated in the dark
and in the light at different temperatures for
distinguishing the species.
D. Identification: There is no universally recognized
identification scheme, although reliance is
usually placed on cultural characteristics (rate
and temperature of growth and pigmentation),
various biochemical reac­tions and resistance
to antimicrobial agents (Table 34.4). The
most discriminative methods are based on

Table34.4  Differentiation between tubercle bacilli and some species of atypical mycobacteria
Test M. M. M. M M M. M. avium M. M. M. M.
tubercu bovis microti kansasii marinum scrofula­ intra­­ fortuitum chelonei phlei smegmatis
losis ceum cellulare
complex
Growth in – – – – – – – + + + +
7 days
Growth at – – – + + + ± + + + +
25°C
Growth at + + + + ± + + + + + +
37ºC
Growth at – – – – – ± – – – + +
45°C
Pigment – – – + + + – – – + –
in light
Pigment – – – – – + – – – + –
in dark
Niacin + – ± – – – – – – – –
Nitrate + – – + – – – + – + +
reduction
Urease + + + – + + – + + + +

Chap-34.indd 250 15-03-2016 11:14:38

 Chapter 34: Nontuberculous Mycobacteria  | 251
the detection of sequence differences in 16S 2. Write short notes on:
ribosomal RNA. a. Atypical mycobacteria.
b. Differentiation of typical mycobacteria from
atypical mycobacteria
Epidemiology c. Photochromogenic atypical mycobacteria
d. Scotochromogenic atypical mycobacteria
Environmetal mycobacteria are widely distributed
e. Mycobacterium ulcerans
in nature. Infection with them is quite common, f. Mycobacteria causing skin ulcers
from soil, water and air. Infec­t ion is mainly g. Swimming pool granuloma.
asymptomatic. In countries in which tuberculosis is
‘uncommon, opportunist mycobacterial infections
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
are relatively common. In addition, the absolute
incidence is increasing as a result of the growing 1. Nontuberculous mycobacteria or atypical
number of immunocompromised individuals, mycobacteria show following features except:
notably patients with AIDS.Some opportunist a. They are acid fast as well as alcohol fast
species may colonise tap water. When staining b. They are arylsulfatase test positive
c. They are niacin test positive
reagents were prepared from contaminated water,
d.  They are usually resistant to antitubercular
false-positive sputum smear examinations for acid- drugs such as streptomycin, INH, and p-ami-
fast bacilli have occurred. nosalicylic acid
2. All the following are scotochromogens except:
Treatment a. Mycobacterium kansasii
b. Mycobacterium scrofulaceum
Most environmental mycobacteria are resistant c. Mycobacterium gordonae
to the usual antituberculosis drugs although d. Mycobacterium szulgai
infections often respond to various combinations 3. All the following species are rapid growers except:
of these drugs. a. Mycobacterium fortuitum
b. Mycobacterium chelonae
c. Mycobacterium abscessus
Key Points
d. Mycobacterium ulcerans
™™ Mycobacteria other than the tubercle and lepra 4. Which of the following bacteria cause/s pulmonary
bacilli are known as nontuberculous mycobacteria disease?
™™ Classification: Runyon(1959) classified NTM into a. Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare
four groups: Group I Photochro­mogens; Group II b. M. kansasii
Scotochromogens; Group III Non­photochromogens c. M. xenopi
and Group IV Rapid Growers d. All of the above
™™ Disease: A. Localized lymphadenitis; B. Skin lesions
5. Swimming pool granuloma is caused by:
following traumatic inoculation of bacteria; C.
a. M. ulcerans
Tuberculosis-like pulmonary lesions; D. Disseminated
disease b. Mycobacterium marinum
c. M. chelonei
™™ Laboratory diagnosis: Ziehl–Neelsen staining of
d. M. ortuitum
smear shows acid fast bacilli. They grow well on
L–J medium.There is no universally recognized 6. Buruli ulcer is caused by:
identification scheme a. Mycobacterium marinum
b. M. fortuitum
c. Mycobacterium ulcerans
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS d. Mycobacterium xenopi
1. Discuss the classification of atypical mycobacteria ANSWERS (MCQs)
and name the diseases caused by these bacteria. 1. c; 2. a; 3. d; 4. d; 5. b; 6. c

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Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology of Actinomyces
∙∙ Explain clinical forms of Actinomyces
Introduction
Actinomycetes are traditionally considered to be
tran­sitional forms between bacteria and fungi.
They form a mycelial network of branching
filaments like fungi but, like bacteria, they are
thin, possess cell walls con­taining muramic acid,
have prokaryotic nuclei and are susceptible to
antibacterial antibiotics. They are there­fore true
bacteria, bearing a superficial resemblance to
fungi. Actinomycetes are related to mycobacteria
and corynebacteria.
They are gram-positive, nonmotile, nonsporing,
noncapsulated filaments that break up into
bacillary and coccoid elements. Although mostly
soil saprophytes, occa­s ionally cause chronic
granulomatous infections in animals and man.
Important genera: The family Actinomycetes
contains three major medically important genera,
Actinomyces, Nocardia and Actinomadura. Another
genus, Streptomyces rarely causes disease in man.
Actinomyces is anaerobic or microaerophilic
and nonacid-fast, while Nocardia is acid-fast and
aerobic. Streptomyces is nonacid-fast and aerobic.
Actinomyces
A mould-like organism in the lesion of ‘lumpy jaw’
(actinomycosis) in cattle was found by Bollinger
(1877).The name Actinomyces was coined by
Harz to refer to the raylike appearance of the
organism in the granules that characterize the
lesions (Actinomyces, meaning ray fungus). This
was named Actinomyces israelii. It causes human
actinomycosis.
35
Chapter
Actinomycetes
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of actinomycosis
∙∙ Differentiate between the genera Actinomyces and
Nocardia
∙∙ Describe the following: nocardiosis, mycetoma.
Morphology
Actinomyces are Gram-positive, nonmotile, non­
sporing, nonacid-fast. They often grow in mycelial
forms and break-up into coccoid and bacillary
forms. Most show true branch­ing.
Cultural Characteristics
They are facultative anaerobes. They grow best
under anaerobic or micro-aerophilic conditions
with the addition of 5–10% CO2. The optimum tem­
perature for growth is 35–37°C. They can be grown
on brain heart infusion agar, heart infusion agar
supplemented with 5% defibrinated horse, rabbit
or sheep blood. Suitable liquid media include brain
heart infusion broth and thioglycollate broth which
may be supplemented with 0.1–0.2% sterile rabbit
serum. Most species show good growth after 3–4
days incubation however, A. israelii may take 7­–14
days.
Pathogenesis
Actinomycosis: The Actinomyces causes the
disease known as actinomycosis. Actinomycosis is a
chronic disease characterized by multiple abscesses
and granulomata, tissue destruction, extensive
fibrosis and the formation of sinuses. Within
diseased tissues the actinomycetes form large
masses of mycelia embedded in an amorphous
protein–polysac­charide matrix and surrounded by
a zone of gram-nega­tive, weakly acid-fast, club-like
structures (Fig. 35.1). The mycelial masses may
be visible to the naked eye and are called sulfur
granules, as they are often light yellow in color. The
sulfur granules may be dark brown and very hard in

Fig. 35.1: Sulfur granule. Section of tissue showing an
actinomycotic clolony, the clubs at the periphery giving a
‘sun-ray’ appearance
older lesions because of the deposition of calcium
phosphate in the matrix.
In man, actinomycosis.is usually caused by
Actinomyces israelii. Less common causes include
A. gerencseriae, A. naeslundii, A. odontolyticus, A.
viscosus, A. meyeri, Propionibacterium propionicum
and members of the genus Bifidobacterium.
Human Actinomycosis
Human actinomycosis may take several forms:
1. Cervicofacial: This is the most common type
and it occur mainly in cheek and submaxillary
regions. The disease is endogenous in origin.
Dental caries is a predisposing factor, and
infection may follow tooth extractions or other
dental procedures.
2. Thoracic: Thoracic actinomycosis commences
in the lung, probably as a result of aspiration of
actinomyces from the mouth.
3. Abdominal: The lesion is usually around the
cecum, with the involvement of the neighboring
tissues and the abdominal wall.
4. Pelvic: Pelvic actinomycosis occasionally
occurs in women fitted with plastic intra-
uterine contraceptive devices.
5. Punch actinomycosis: It is a rare infection of
the hand acquired by injury of the knuckles on
an adversary’s teeth.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
Pus, sinus discharge, bronchial secretions, sputum
or infected tissues are collected aseptically.
2. Microscopy
‘Sulfur granules’ may be demonstrated in pus
by shaking it up in a test tube with some saline.
On standing, the granules sediment may be
withdrawn with a capillary pipette. Granules may
also be obtained by applying gauze pads over the
discharging sinuses.
Granules are crushed between two slides and
stained with Gram and Ziehl–Neelsen staining
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Chapter 35: Actinomycetes  | 253
using 1% sulfuric acid for decolorization. Gram
staining shows a dense network of thin gram-positive
filaments, surrounded by a peripheral zone of
swollen radiating club shaped structures, presenting
a sun-ray appearance (Fig. 35.1). The ‘clubs’ are
believed to be antigen-antibody complexes.Acid
fast staining shows central part as non-acid­fast
surrounded by acid-fast ‘clubs’. In absence of sulfur
granules, Gram’s staining of pus shows gram-positive
branching filaments.
Sulfur granules and mycelia in tissue sections
can also be identified by direct fluorescence
microscopy.
3. Culture
Sulfur granules or pus containing actinomycetes are
washed and inoculated into thioglycollate liquid
medium or streaked on brain h ­ eart infusion agar
(BHI agar) blood agar and incubated anaerobically
at 37°C. On solid media, A. israelii may form
so-called spider colonies that resemble molar teeth
in 48–72 hours that become heaped up, white and
irregular or smooth, large colonies in 10 days. Other
species have different types of colonies.
4. Identification
The identity may be confirmed by direct fluo­
rescence microscopy and biochemical tests or
by gas chromatography of metabolic products of
carbohydrate fermentation.
5. Biopsy
In hematoxylin and eosin stained sections, the
sulfur granules are deeply stained with hematoxy­
lin except in the periphery which is stained by
eosin, which shows short, radiate, club-like
structures. On Gram staining, the fila­ments are
gram-positive and periphery gram-nega­tive.
Epidemiology
Actinomycosis is an endogenous infection.
Actinomycosis is more common in rural areas and
in agricultural workers. Young male persons (10–30
years old) are most commonly affected. About
60% of the cases are cervicofacial and some 20%
abdominal. Pelvic actinomyces is seen mainly in
women using intrauterine devices.
Treatment
Treatment for actinomycosis involves the combin­
ation of surgical debridement of the involved
tissues and prolonged treatment with penicillin or
tetracycline.
Nocardia
Nocardia resemble Actinomycetes morphologically
but are aerobic. Most species (such as N. asetroides
254  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Table 35.1  Differences between the genera
Actinomyces and Nocardia
Actinomyces spp. Nocardia spp.
•  Facultative anaerobes •  Strict aerobes
•  Grow at 35–37°C •  W
 ide temperature
range of growth
•  Oral commensals •  E nvironmental
saprophytes
•  Nonacid-fast mycelia •  Usually weakly acid-fast
•  E ndogenous cause of •  Exogenous cause of
disease disease
and N. brasiliensis) are acid-fast when decolorized
with 1% sulfuric acid. Nocardia are frequently
found in soil and infection may be exogenous.
Differentiating features of Actinomyces and
Nocardia are shown in Table 35.1.
Species: The species most commonly associated
with human disease are N. asteroides, N. brasiliensis,
N. farcinica, N. otitidiscaviarum, N. nova and N.
transvalensis.
Morphology
Nocardiae are gram-positive bacteria and form
a mycelium that fragments into rod shaped
and coccoid elements. Nocardia resembles
Actinomyces, but some species are acid-fast, and a
few are nonacid-fast.
Cultural Characteristics
They are strict aerobes. Nocardiae readily grow in
ordinary media. They are slow growing (require
5–14 days). Nocardiae readily grow on nutrient
agar, Sab­ouraud dextrose agar, brain heart infusion
agar and yeast extract-malt extract agar. The
inoculated plates should be incubated at 36°C
for up to 3 weeks. They can grow at wide range
of temperature. Selective growth is favored by
incubation at 45°C. In addition, the technique of
paraffin baiting may be used. Colonies of nocardiae
are cream, orange or pink c­ olored.
Pathogenesis
Nocardiae produce opportunistic pulmonary disease
known as nocardiosis in immunocompromised
individuals including those with AIDS. Soil is
known to be natural habitat of Nocardia. Man
acquires infection by inhalation of the bacteria from
environmental sources. The infection is exogenous,
resulting from inhalation of the bacilli.
Bronchopulmonary disease: Systemic nocardiosis
usually caused by N. asteroides manifests primarily
as pulmonary disease, pneumonia, lung abscess
or other lesions resembling tuberculosis. Systemic
nocardiosis occurs more often in immunodeficient
persons.
Cutaneous infection: Primary or secondary
cutaneous infection may lead to mycetoma, lymph­
ocutaneous infections, cellulites, subcutane­ous
abscesses.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis is by demonstration of branching fila­
ments microscopically and by isolation in culture.
1. Specimens
Pus or purulent sputum.
2. Microscopy
The smears are stained with Gram staining and
Ziehl–Neelsen (Z–N) technique using decolorization
with 1% sulfuric acid. Gram-positive filamentous
bacteria can be seen on Gram staining. Acid-fast
bacilli are detected on Z–N technique though some
species are nonacid-fast.
3. Culture
The specimens are inoculated on nutrient agar,
Sabouraud’s dextrose agar (SDA) and brain ­heart
infusion agar (BHI agar) and incubated at 36°C for
3 weeks. Colony morphology is seen and bacteria
are identified by staining.
Nocardia can be isolated from sputum by para­
ffin bait technique. The specimen is homogenized
with sterile glass beads and 2 ml of it is inoculated
into carbon-free broth containing paraffin coated
glass rod. The organisms grow on the rod at the
air-liquid surface which may be subcultured onto
agar media.
Treatment
Sulphonamide are the antibiotics of choice. They
are also susceptible to ami­k acin, imipenem,
minocycline, tobramycin and van­comycin.
Actinomycotic mycetoma
Mycetoma is a localized chronic, granulomatous
involvement of the subcutaneous and deeper
tissues, commonly affecting the foot and less often
the hand and other parts. It presents as a tumor
with multiple sinuses. This clinical syndrome was
first described from Madura by Gill (1842) and
came to be known as Maduramycosis. See chapter
73 for “Mycetoma” detail.
Etiology: It can be divided into three types,
eumycetomas, actinomycetomas and botryo­
mycosis. Bacterial mycetomas are usually caused
by actinomycetes­—Actinomyces (A. israelii, A.
bovis), Nocardia (N. asteroides, N. brasiliensis, N.
caviae), Actinomadura (A. madurae, A. pelletierii),
Streptomyces (S. somaliensis).

Diagnosis: Etiological diagnosis of mycetoma
is important in choosing appropriate treatment.
The color of the granules gives some indication. In
actinomycotic mycetoma, the granules are white to
yellow, while in eumycotic mycetomas, the granules
are generally black. Examination of crushed smears
of the granules helps to differentiate actinomycotic
from mycotic mycetomas. In the former, the
filaments are thin (about 1 μm), while in the latter
they are stout (about 4–5 μm). lsolation of the agent
in culture establishes the diagnosis.
Key Points
™™ Actinomycetes are traditionally considered to be
transitional forms between bacteria and fungi
™™ Actinomycetes are gram-positive, nonmotile, non­
sporing, noncapsulated filaments
™™ The family Actinomycetes contains important
genera, Actinomyces, Nocardia, Actinomadura,
Streptomyces
™™ Actinomyces is anaerobic or microaerophilic and
nonacid-fast
™™ Actinomyces causes the disease k nown as
actinomycosis. The disease occurs in five clinical
forms: cervicofacial, thoracic, abdominal, pelvic and
punch actinomycosis
™™ Laboratory diagnosis: The specimens include
sputum, bronchial secretions, and discharges,
and infected tissues which may contain sulfur
granules. Gramstained smear of the granules shows
gram-negative club shaped structures (sun-ray
appearance)
™™ Nocardia: Nocardia resemble Actinomycetes
morphologically but are aerobic. The nocardiae are
branched, strictly aerobic, gram-posi­tive bacteria,
are acid-fast when decolorized with 1% sulfuric acid
™™ Nocardia species cause primary cutaneous nocardiosis,
bronchopulmonary infection, and secondary CNS
infection
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Chapter 35: Actinomycetes  | 255
™™ Actinomycotic mycetoma: Mycetoma is a
localized chronic, granulomatous involvement of
the subcutaneous and deeper tissues, commonly
affecting the foot and less often the hand and other
parts. Mycetomas are usually caused by fungi but
may be caused by bacteria as well.
Important question
Write short notes on:
a. Actinomycosis
b. Laboratory diagnosis of actinomycosis
c. Nocardiosis
d. Laboratory diagnosis of nocardiosis
e. Mycetoma.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. Which of the following bacteria is/are acid fast?
a. Actinomyces b. Nocardia
c. Streptomyces d. All of the above
2. Cervicofacial actinomycosis is caused most
commonly by
a. Actinomyces radingae
b. Actinomyces turicensis
c. Actinomyces gerencseriae
d. Actinomyces israelii
3. Molar-teeth-like colonies are produced by
a. Nocardia asteroides
b. Actinomyces israeli
c. Actinomadura madurae
d. Tropheryma whippelii
4. Paraffin bait technique is used for the isolation of
Nocardia from:
a. Soil b. Sputum
c. Both of the above d. None of the above
Answers (MCQs)
1. b; 2. d; 3. b; 4. c

Enterobacteriaceae: Escherichia,
Klebsiella, Proteus and Other Genera
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe general characters of the family Enter­
obacteriaceae
–  Classify the family Enterobacteriaceae
– Describe morphology, culture characteristics and
biochemical reactions of E. coli
–  Discuss pathogenicity of E. coli
INTRODUCTION
The family Enterobacteriaceae is the largest, most
heterogeneous collection of medically important
Gram-negative bacilli. Because of their normal
habitat in humans, these organisms are referred
to as the “enteric bacilli” or “enterics”
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FAMILY
ENTEROBACTERIACEAE
Members of the family Enterobacteriaceae have
the following characteristics:
i. They are gram-negative bacilli.
ii. They are aerobes or and facultative anaerobes
and grow readily on ordinary laboratory media
including MacConkey’s lactose bile-salt agar.
iii. All species ferment glucose with the production
of acid or acid and gas.
iv. They are either non-motile or motile with
peritrichous flagella.
v. They are catalase positive (except for Shigella
dysenteriae type 1 which is catalase-negative)
vi. They are oxidase-negative.
vii. They reduce nitrate to nitrites
viii. They are typically intestinal parasites of
humans and animals.
Chap-36.indd 256
36
Chapter
–  Discuss various groups of E. coli producing diarrhea
– Differentiate between heat labile toxin (LT) and
heat stable toxin (ST) of E. coli
– Discuss laboratory diagno­sis of urinary tract
infections caused by E. coli
– Discuss morphology, culture characteristics and
biochemical reactions of Klebsiella sp
–  Differentiate between E. coli and Klebsiella sp.
CLASSIFICATION OF
ENTEROBACTERIACEAE
Lactose Fermentation
The oldest method was to classify these bacteria
into three groups based on their action on
lactose. Lactose fermenters (LF), Late lactose
fermenter and non­lactose-fermenting (NLF).
The specimen is plated on a medium containing
lactose and neutral red indicator. (MacConkey
agar). The organisms fermenting the lactose form
acid and in acidic pH, neutral red is red in colour,
therefore, the colonies of lactose-fermenting
bacteria are red or pink and those of nonlactose-
fermenting (NLF) bacteria are pale. All lactose-
fer­m enting enterobacteria, e.g. Escherichia,
Klebsiel­l a, Enterobacter and Citrobacter are
popularly known as ‘coliform bacilli’ as the
most common mem­ber of this group is the colon
bacillus or Escherichia coli. The major intestinal
pathogens, Salmonella and Shigella are non-
Iactose-fermenters (NLF). There remained a
small group which showed delayed fermentation
of lac­tose (2–8 days) and with the exception of
Shigella sonnei, they were all commensals. This
heterogenous group of late lactose fermenters was
called paracolon bacilli.
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 Chapter 36: Enterobacteriaceae: Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus and Other Genera  | 257
Table 36.1  Classification of the family Entero­ It can grow on ordinary media such as nutrient
bacteriaceae agar. Colonies are large, thick, grayish white, moist,
smooth opaque or partially translucent disks. This
Tribe Genus
description applies to the smooth (S) form seen on
i. Escherichiae 1. Escherichia fresh isolation. On blood agar, many strains, are
2. Shigella
hemolytic. On MacConkey’s medium, colonies
ii. Edwardsiella Edwardsiella are red or pink due to lactose fermentation. On
iii. Salmonellae Salmonella selective media such as DCA or SS agar growth
iv. Enterobacteriaceae Citrobacter is largely inhibited used for the isolation of
v. Klebsiellae 1. Klebsiella salmonellae and shigellae. In broth, growth occurs
2. Enterobacter as general turbidity and a heavy deposit.
3. Serratia
4. Hafnia Biochemical Reactions
vi. Proteeae 1. Proteus i. E.coli ferments glucose, lactose, mannitol,
2. Morganella maltose and many other sugars with the
3. Providencia production of acid and gas. Typical strains do
vii. Yersiniae Yersinia not ferment sucrose.
ii. Indole and MR posi­tive, and VP and citrate
negative (IMViC + + – –)
CLASSIFICATION OF iii. It is negative for phenylalanine deaminase
ENTEROBACTERIACEAE BY TRIBES test, urease test, H 2S production, gelatin
Three systems of nomenclature have been liquefication, growth in the presence of KCN,
proposed (Bergey’s manual, Kauffmann, Edwards­ and malonate utilization.
-Ewing) have certain differences, the general
ap­proach is the same. Antigenic Structure
The family is first classified into its major Serotyping of E. coli is based on three antigens—
subdivision—group or tribe. Each tribe consists the flagellar antigen H, somatic antigen O and the
of one or more genera and each genus one or capsular antigen K as detected in agglutination
more subgenera and species. The species are assays with specific rabbit antibodies.
clas­s ified into types—biotypes, serotypes, 1. H antigens: These are thermolbile. So far 75
bacteri­ophage types, colicin types. Table 36.1 antigens have been identified. There are only a
lists the in the family Enterobacteriaceae and their few significant cross-reactions between them
respective tribes and genera. Table 36.2 shows the and with the H antigens of other members of the
biochemical features that differ­entiate different Enterobacteriaceae. Strains may need to be grown
genera of Enterobacteriaceae. in semi-solid agar to induce flagella expression.
2. Somatic antigen (O antigen): These are
ESCHERICHIA COLI heat-stable, lipopolysaccharide antigens of
cell walls. Over 173 different O antigens have
Introduction been described. Serotyping may detect cross-
This genus is named after the German pediatrician reactions because of shared epitopes on the LPS
Theodar Escherich who first identified Escherichia expressed by strains of E. coli and organisms
coli (1885). The genus Escherichia consists of five belonging to the genera Brucella, Citrobacter,
species of which E. coli is the most common and Providencia, Salmonella, Shigella and Yersinia.
clinically most impor­tant. Unlike other coliforms, The normal colon strains belong to the
E. coli is a obligate parasite living only in the human ‘early’ O groups (1, 2, 3, 4 etc.), while the
or animal intestine that cannot live free in nature. enteropathogenic strains belong to the ‘later’ O
groups (26, 55, 86, 111, etc.).
Morphology 3. Capsular antigen (K antigen): K antigen’ refers
to the acidic polysaccharide anti­gen located in
E. coli is a gram-negative, straight, rod measuring the ‘envelope’ or microcapsule. (K for Kapsel,
1–3 × 0.4–0.7 µm arranged singly or in pairs. It German for capsule). It encloses the O anti­gen
is motile by peritrichate flagella, though some and renders the strain in agglutinable by the O
strains may be nonmotile. It is nonsporing and antiserum. It may also contribute to virulence
noncapsulated. by inhibiting phagocytosis.
In the past, these antigens were divided into
Cultural Characteristics three classes—L, A and B (the thermolabile
It is an aerobe and a faculta­tive anaerobe. The L anti­g ens, the thermostable A and B
temperature range is 10–40°C (op­timum 37°C). antigens) according to the effect of heat on

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Chap-36.indd 258
Table 36.2  Important distinguishing features of the different genera of Enterobacteriaceae
Test Escherichia Shigella1 Edwardsiella Klebsiella Enteobacter Serratia Hafnia Citrobacter Salmonella2 Proteus Morganella Providencia
Motility + – + – + + + + + + + +
Gas from glucose + – + + + d + + + d + +
Acid from lactose + – – + + – – + – – – –
Acid from sucrose d – – + + + – d – d – d
Growth in KCN – – – + + + + + d + + +
Indole + d + – – – – d – d + +
MR + + + – – – – + + + + +
258  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology

VP – – – + + + + – – – – –
Citrate – – – + + + + + + d d d
H2S – – + + – – – + + + – –
Urease – – – + d – – – – + + d
Phenylalanine – – – – – – – – – + + +
deaminase (PPA)
Arginine d – – – d – – d + – – –
dehydrolase
Lysine + – + d d + + – + – – –
decarboxylase
Ornithine d d + – + + + d + d + –
decarboxylase
(d = results different in different species or strains)
Important exceptions:
1. Sh. sonnei ferments lactose and sucrose late
2. S. Typhi does not produce gas from sugars

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 Chapter 36: Enterobacteriaceae: Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus and Other Genera  | 259
Table 36.3  K antigens (group I and group II) of
E. coli
Properties Group I Group II
1. Molecular weight >100 000 <50 000
2. O groups 08.09 Many
3. Acidic component Hexuronic acid Glucuronic acid,
phosphate,
KDO, NeuNAc
4. Electrophoretic Low High
mobility
5. Expressed at Yes No
17-20°C
6. Chromosome site His SerA
KDO, ketodeoxyoctonate; NeuNAc, N-acetylneuraminic
acid
the agglutinability, antigenicity and antibody
binding power of bacterial strains that express
them. Later it was shown that the B antigen was
not a separate entity. K antigens are therefore
cur­rently classified into two groups, I and II,
(Table 36.3).
4. Fimbrial antigen (F antigen): These are
thermolabile proteins. Heating the organisms
at 100°C leads to detachment of fimbriae. The
F antigen has no role in antigenic classification
of E. coli.
Virulence Factors
Two types of virulence factors have been recognized
in E. coli—surface antigens and toxins.
A. Surface Antigens
1. Somatic antigen (O antigen): The somatic
lipopolysaccharide surface O antigen, besides
exerting endotoxic activity, also protects the
bacillus from phagocytosis and the bactericidal
effects of complement.
2. K antigen: Most strains of E. coli responsible
for neonatal meningitis and septicemia carry
the KI envelope antigen which is a virulence
factor resembling the group B antigen of
meningococcci.
3. Fimbriae: Like many other members of the
Enterobacteriaceae, strains of E. coli exhibit
common fimbriae which are chromosomally
determined, present in large numbers and
causing mannose sensitive hemagglutination
and probably not relevant in pathogenesis.
Filamentous protein structures resembling
fimbriae cause mannose-resistant hemagglutin­
ation and play an important part in the
pathogenesis of diarrheal disease and in
urinary tract infection. They include the
K88 antigen found in strains causing enteritis
of pigs, the K99 antigen found in strains
causing enteritis of calves and lambs, and the
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Chap-36.indd 259
colonization factor antigens (CFAs) (CFAI,
CFAII, CFA/III) expressed by enterotoxigenic E.
coli (ETEC) causing diarrheal disease in humans.
B. Toxins
1. Exotoxins: E. coli produces two kinds of
exotoxins hemolysins and enterotoxins.
a. Hemolysins: Hemolysins do not appear to
be relevant in pathogenesis.
b. Enterotoxins: Three distinct types of E. coli
enterotoxins have been identified:
i. Heat-labile toxin (LT): Mechanism
of action of LT: E. coli LT is heat labile
protein and is closely related to the
toxin produced by strains of Vibrio
cholerae. There are two main forms,
termed LT-I and LT-II. Different forms
of LT-1 have been described. Similarly,
two forms of LT-II (LT-IIa and LT- lIb)
have been detected.
LT is a complex of polypeptide subunits-
each unit of the toxin consisting of
one subunit A (A for active) and five
subunits B (B for binding). The toxin
binds to the Gm1 ganglioside receptor
on intestinal epithelial cells by means of
subunit B, following which the subunit
A is activated to yield two fragments—A1
and A2. The A1 fragment activates adenyl
cyclase in the enterocyte to form cyclic
adenosine 5’ monophosphate (cAMP),
leading to increased outflow of water
and electrolytes into the gut lumen, with
consequent diarrhea.
LT is a powerful antigen and can
therefore, be detected by a number of
serological as well as biolog­ical tests.
ii. Heat-stable toxin (ST): The heat stable
toxins of E. coli (ST) have a low molecular
weight which is probably responsible for
their heat stability and poor antigenicity.
There are two major classes, designated
ST-I (or STa) and ST-II (or STb). STa is
associated with human disease.
a. ST-I (or STa): STa is a small, monomeric
toxin that binds to guanyl­ate cyclase,
leading to an increase in the level of
cyclic guanosine monophosphate and
subsequent hypersecre­tion of fluids. ST-I
is methanol soluble, is plasmid encoded.
b. ST-II (STb)—ST-II (STb) is distinguished
from ST-I (STa) by its biological activity
and by its insolubility in methanol. It
stimulates fluid accumulation in ligated
intestinal loops of young piglets (upto
nine weeks) but not in the infant mouse
test. The mechanism of action is not
known but it appears not to act via cAMP
or cGMP.
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Table. 36.4  Differentiating proper ties of
verocytotoxins by E. coli
VT1 VT2 VT2v1
• Synonyms SLT1 SLT2 SLT2v
• Cytotoxicity
Vero cells + + + ETEC produce a heat-stable toxin (ST) or a
HeLa cells + + – heat-labile toxin (LT) or both (See under virulence
Genes phage-encoded + + –
1
Human and porcine variants
iii. Verocytotoxin or Verotoxin (VT): The
biological properties, physical char­
acteristics and antigenicity of VT are
very similar to those of Shiga toxin (Stx),
produced by strains of Sh. dysenteriae
type 1 so it is also known as ‘Shiga-like
toxin’ (SLT).
2. VT1 and VT2 form: Serological tests have
revealed two antigenically distinct forms,
termed VTl and VT2. Antibodies prepared to
VT1 neutralize Shiga toxin, while antibodies
specific for VT2 do not. Variant forms of VT2
(VT2v) have been described in strains of human
and porcine origin (Table 36.4).
VT1 and VT2, like Shiga toxin, are cytotoxic for
Vero and HeLa cells, although VT2 variant toxins
do not bind to HeLa cells. Enterotoxicity in ligated
rabbit gut loops and mouse paraliytic lethality can
also be used to detect VTs.
Clinical Infections
Four main types of clinical syndromes are caused
by E. coli.
1. Diarrhea
At least five different types of diarrheagenic E.
coli are now recognized, each associated with
specific serotypes and with different pathogenic
mechanisms.
A. Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC)
These have been associated mainly with diarrhea
in infants and chil­d ren usually occurring as
institutional outbreaks. Certain strains belonging to
characteristically EPEC serogroups, such as O26 and
O111, were later shown to express verocytotoxins.
Pathogenesis of EPEC diarrhea: EPEC neither
ordinarily produce entero­t oxins, nor are they
invasive. In infantile enteritis, the bacilli are seen
to be adherent to the mucosa of the up­per small
intestine, intimately attached to cup-like projections
(pedestals) of the enterocyte membrane, causing
disruption of the brush border microvilli.
B. Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC)
Diarrhea caused by ETEC is endemic in the
developing countries in the tropics, among all
Chap-36.indd 260
age groups in the local population. In developing
countries. ETEC are a major cause of mortality in
children under the age of 5 years.Persons from
developed countries visiting endemic areas often
suf­fer from ETEC diarrhea—a condition known as
‘trav­eller’s diarrhea’.
factors above). The organism must initially be able
to adhere to the mucosal surface of the epithelial
cells of the small intestine. This adhesion is usually
mediated by fimbriae that bind to specific receptors
in the intestinal cell membrane. These adhesins
have been termed colonization factors antigens
(CFAs) of which a number of have been identified
(CFAI, II, III,IV). Plasmids that simultaneously
carry genes for both CFAs and enterotoxin
production have been described.
Though plasmids with enterotoxin genes may
be present in any strain of E. coli, in practice only a
small number of serotypes become enterotoxigenic
(for ex­ample, 06, 08, 015, 025, 027, 0167).
C. Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)
These are closely related by phenotypic and
pathogenic properties to Shigella. Many of these,
strains are non­motile, do not ferment lactose or
ferment it late with acid, but without producing any
gas and do not form lysine decarboxylase. Many of
these show 0 antigen cross- reaction with shigellae.
These ‘atypical’ E. coli strains had earlier been
grouped under the Alkales­cens-Dispar Group
and given names such as ‘Shigel­la alkalescens’
(resembling Sh. flexneri except in fermenting
dulcitol and forming alkali in litmus milk) and ‘Sh.
dispar’ (late lactose fermenter like Sh. sonnei but
indole positive). Besides these atypical strains
many typical E. coli strains can also cause clinical
illness resembling shigellosis. These have been
termed enteroinvasive E. coli because they have
the capacity to invade interstitial epithelial cells
in vivo and pene­trate HeLa cells in tissue culture.
EIEC strains usually belong to serogroups 028ac,
0112ac, 0124, 0136, 0143, 0114, 0152, 0154. The
most common serogroup is 0124.
Pathogenesis
EIEC, like those of Shigella species, can penetrate
the epithelial cells of the large intestine and
multiply intracellularly, giving rise to blood and
mucus in the stool. Infection is by ingestion.
Clinically, EIEC infection resembles shigellosis,
ranging from mild diarrhea to frank dysentery, and
occurs, in children as well as adults.
D. E. coli Verocytotoxin or Verotoxin (VT)
E. coli verocytotoxin or verotoxin (VT) causes
hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic
syndrome. Outbreaks were first recognized in
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 Chapter 36: Enterobacteriaceae: Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus and Other Genera  | 261
the USA in 1982 and strains of VTEC belonging to
serogroup 0157 emerged as the major cause.
Outbreaks of infection with VTEC have occurred
in the community, in nursing homes for the elderly
and in daycare centres for young children. The
most severe clinical manifestations are usually seen
in the young and the elderly.
E. Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)
These strains are so named because they are
characterized by their ability to adhere to particular
laboratory-cultured cells, such as HEp-2, in an
aggregative or ‘stacked brick’ pattern. They have
been associated with persistent diarrhea, especially
in developing countries.
Diagnosis: The only methods currently available for
detecting these bacteria are the HEp-2 cell test for
determining the aggregative phenotype, and DNA
probes. The HEp-2 cell test involves allowing strains
of E. coli to adhere to cell monolayers in vitro and
observing the pattern of adhesion by microscopy.
2. Urinary Tract Infection
E. coli and coliforms account for the large majority
of naturally acquired urinary tract infections. Those
acquired in the hospi­tal, following instrumentation,
are more often caused by other bacteria, such as
Pseudomonas and Proteus.
Most frequently encountered O serotypes of E.
coli in UTI include 01, 02, 04, 06,07, 018 and 075.
These are also known as nephritogenic strains.
Special nephropathogenic potential of these strains
appears to be due to:
a. The polysaccharides of the O and K antigens
protect the organism from the bactericidal
effect of complement and phagocytes in
the absence of specific antibodies. Strains
possessing K1- or K5 antigen appear to be more
virulent.
b. Fimbriae mediate the adherence of the
organism to the uroepithelial cells. The
receptor is part of the P blood group antigen
and therefore the fim­briae have been termed
P fimbriae.
E. coli that cause UTI often originate in the gut
of the patient. The bacteria may gain access to the
urinary tract by the ascending or the hematogenous
route. The ascending route of infection is belie­ved
to be usual one. The bacteria from the fecal flora
spread to the perineum and from there they ascend
into the bladder.
UTI occurs more often in females than in
males. This is due to short urethra, pregnancy,
infrequent voiding and sexual intercourse which
may lead to ‘honeymoon’ cystitis. About 5–7
percent of pregnant women have been reported
to have urinary infection without any symp­toms.
(asymptomatic bacteriuria).
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Chap-36.indd 261
Etiology of UTI
1. Other members of family Enterobacteriaceae
that usually cause UTI are Kiebsiella, Proteus,
Citrobacter, and those which rarely produce UTI
are salmonellae, edwarosiellae and Enterobacter.
2. The gram-positive organisms, which can cause
UTI are Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-
negative staphylococci, Streptococcus faecalis,
S. pyo­g enes, S. agalactiae, S. milleri, other
streptococci and anaerobic streptococci.
3. Rarely, Gardnerella vaginalis may cause UTI.
4. Candida albicans may cause UTI in diabetic
and immunocompromised patients.
5. The hospital-associated infection follow­ing
instrumentation and catheterization is mostly
caused by Pseudomonas and Proteus.
3. Pyogenic Infections
E. coli form the most common cause of intra-
abdominal infections, such as peritoni­t is and
abscesses resulting from spillage of bowel con­tents.
They also cause pyogenic infections in the perianal
area. They are an important cause of neonatal
meningitis, but is much less so in older patients.
4. Septicemia
Bloodstream invasion by E. coli may lead to
fatal conditions like septic shock and ‘systemic
inflammatory response syndrome’ (SIDS). As E.
coli commonly show multiple drug resist­ance,
antibiotic sensitivity testing of strains is impor­tant
in treatment.
Laboratory Diagnosis
a. Laboratory Diagnosis of EPEC
Fresh diarrheal feces is plated on blood agar and
Mac­Conkey media. After overnight incubation,
E. coli colonies are emulsified in saline on a slide
and are examined by slide agglutination with
polyvalent antisera belonging to EPEC-associated
serogroups. Bacteria agglutinated by these sera
are then identified with monovalent antisera to
individual serogroups. At least ten colonies per
plate should be tested as many serotypes are
present in a single culture.
When the outbreak is caused by a strain with
some readily demonstrable feature such as failure
to fer­ment sorbitol, rapid identification is possible
by using appropriate culture media.
b. Laboratory Diagnosis of ETEC
Diagnosis of ETEC diarrhea depends on the dem­
onstration of enterotoxin in E. coli isolates by any
of the methods listed in Table 36.5.
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 262  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Table 36.5:  Methods for detection of ETEC enterotoxins
Assay
In vivo tests
Ligated rabbit ileal loop
Read at 6 hours
Read at 18 hours
Infant rabbit bowel
Infant mouse intragastric (4 hours)
Adult rabbit skin (vascular permeability factor)
In vitro tests
i. Tissue culture tests
ii. Rounding of Y1 mouse adrenal cells
iii. Elongation of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells
iv. Serological tests
ELISA
Passive agglutination tests, passive immune hemolysis,
precipitin (Biken’s) test
v. Genetic tests
DNA probes
c. Laboratory Diagnosis of EIEC
i. Sereny test: For laboratory diagnosis of EIEC,
the Sereny test used to be employed (that is,
instillation of a suspension of fresh­ly isolated
EIEC or Shigella into the eyes of guinea pigs
leads to mucopurulent conjunctivitis and
severe keratitis).
ii. Tissue culture and DNA hybridization
methods: Cell penetration of HeLa or HEP-2
cells in culture is a more humane diagnostic test.
iii. ELISA (VMA ELISA) test: The plasmid codes
for outer membrane antigens called the
virulence marker antigens (VMA) which can
be detected by the ELISA (VMA ELISA) test.
d. Laboratory Diagnosis of VTEC
i. Demonstration of the bacilli or VT in feces:
Laboratory diagnosis of VTEC diarrhea can
be made by demonstration of the bacilli or
VT in feces directly or in culture. Most strains
of 0157 VTEC produce colorless colonies after
overnight incubation and these can be tested
with an O157 LPS-specific antiserum in a
simple agglutination assay.
ii. Sorbitol MacConkey medium: Most VTEC
strains belong to the serotype O157 H7 does
not ferment sorbitol.
iii. Confirmation: Toxigenicity is confirmed by
gene probes, by PCR, by testing strains for a
cytotoxic effect on Vero cells or by a specific
ELISA.
iv. Serology: Demonstration of VT neutralizing
antibodies in convalescent sera may help in
retrospective diagnosis.
Chap-36.indd 262
LT ST
± +
+ −
+ +
− +
+ −
+ −
+ (ST-ELISA with monocolonial antibody)
+ −
+ +
Laboratory Diagnosis of UTI
A. Collection of Specimen
i. Catheter specimen
ii. Midstream urine specimen
iii. Suprapubic stab
i. Catheter specimen: Normal urine is sterile,
but during voiding may become contaminated
with genital commensals. In order to avoid
such contamination urine used to be collected
by catheterization for culture. Catheterization
for this purpose is no longer considered
justifiable because even under ideal conditions,
catheterization leads to urinary infection in at
least two per cent and when precautions are
inadequate, the risk is much higher.
ii. Midstream urine specimen: In, male patients,
retract the prepuce and clean the glans penis
with wet cotton. In case of female, anogenital
toilet is more important and should consist of
careful cleaning with soap and water. Separate
labia majora with fingers of one hand and
collect midstream urine in a sterile wide-
mouthed container. The first portion of urine
that flushes out commensal bacteria from the
anterior urethra is discarded. The next portion
of the urine (midstream sample) is collected
directly into a sterile wide-mouthed container
and transported to the laboratory.
iii. Suprapubic stab: In children and young infants,
urine may be aspirated from the bladder.
B. Transport
Urine is a good medium for the growth of coliforms
and other urinary pathogens. If delay of more than
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 Chapter 36: Enterobacteriaceae: Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus and Other Genera  | 263
1–2 hours is unavoidable, the specimen should be
refrigerated at 4°C,
C. Microscopy of urine: The deposit of the centrifuged
urine can be examined under microscope to find out
the presence of pus cells, red blood cells and bacteria
in it.
D. Semiquantitative culture: For quantitative
culture, serial tenfold dilutions of urine are tested
by the pour plate or surface culture methods. This,
however, is too complicated for rou­tine diagnostic
work, for which semiquantitative tech­niques are
more convenient.
Standard loop method
The most widely used technique employs a
standard loop.Measured quantity of urine with the
help of standarized loop is inoculated on blood
agar and another loopful on MacConkey agar and
incubated overnight at 37°C. Blood agar medium
gives a quantitative meas­urement of bacteriuria,
while MacConkey agar enables a presumptive
diagnosis of the bacterium.
Other methods of semiquantitative estimation
of bacterial counts are filter paper method, dip
spoon, dip slide methods, etc.
Interpretation of results
Kass (1956) gave a criterion for active bacterial
infection of urinary tract as follows:
Significant bacteriuria: When bacterial count is
more than 105/mL of a single species.
Doubtful significance: Between 104 to 105 bacteria
per mL. Specimen should be repeated for culture.
No significant growth: <103 bacteria per mL and
are regarded as contaminant.
E. Identification: The organisms are identified
by colony characters, Gram’s staining, motility,
biochemical reactions and slide agglutination test.
F. Antibiotic sensitivity test: E. coli and other
common urinary pathogens develop drug
resistance that no antibacterial therapy can be
instituted meaningfully without testing individual
strains. Re­sistance is often to multiple drugs and is
of the trans­ferable variety. Antibiotic sensitivity is
necessary to administer proper drugs.
INFECTIONS
Laboratory Diagnosis of Septicemia
Diagnosis depends on the isolation of the organism
by blood culture and its identification by colony
morphology, staining, motility and biochemical
reactions.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Pyogenic Infection
Specimens: The specimens are usually pus and
wound swab.
Culture: Cultures are made on MacConkey’s agar.
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Chap-36.indd 263
Identification: The isolate is identified by colony
morphology, staining, motility and biochemical
reactions.
EDWARDSIELLA
Genus Edwardsiella is separated from Escherichia
by its ability to produce hydrogen sulfide in triple
sugar iron agar. The genus contains the species
Edwardsiella tarda. The name tarda refers to slow
or weak fermentation of sugars by the organism. It
is the only recognized human pathogen.
It is a gram-negative bacillus, motile, non-
capsulated.
It ferments only glucose and maltose with weak
fermentative powers. It is indole and MR positive,
and VP and citrate negative (I MVi C + + – –). It
produces H2S, decarboxylates lysine and ornithine.
Clinical infection: E. tarda is a normal intestinal
inhabitant of snakes and other cold-blooded animals.
It has been cultured from normal and diarrheaic
human feces. It mainly causes wound infection, but
meningitis and septicaemia have also been reported.
CITROBACTER
Members of the genus Citrobacter are motile
enterobacteria confused with both Escherichia
and Salmonella. They are motile, indole positive
or negative, MR positive, VP negative, citrate
positive (I, M Vi C – + – +), urease weak positive
and may or may not ferment lactose but they nearly
always produce β-galactosidase (ONPG positive).
They do not decarboxylate lysine but most strains
decarboxylate ornithine.
Species: Three species are recognised, Citro. freundii
which gives typical reactions and Citro. koseri
(formerly Citro. diversus) and Citro. amalonaticus
which do not form H2S (Table 36.5).
Ballerup-Bethesda group: The genus Citrobacter
was first proposed for a group of lactose-negative or
late lactose-fermenting coliform bacteria that share
certain somatic antigens with salmonellae and
were also known as the Ballerup–Bethesda group.
These organisms are now known as Citrobacter
freundii. They exhibit extensive antigenic sharing
with salmo­nellae and may cause confusion in the
diagnostic laboratory. Some strains (for exmaple,
the Bhatnagar strain) have a Vi antigen serologically
identical to the antigen of S. typhi and S. paratyphi
C. These may be used for the estimation of Vi
antibodies or for raising Vi antisera. However,
they can be distinguished by their negative lysine
decarboxylase and positive KCN reactions.
Clinical infection: Citrobacter may cause infections
of the urinary tract, gallbladder, middle ear and
meninges. C. koseri occasionally causes neonatal
meningitis.
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 264  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
KLEBSIELLA
Introduction
Members of the genus Klebsiella are gram-negative,
nonsporing, non-motile bacilli that grow well on
ordinary media, produce pink mucoid colonies
on MacConkey’s agar. They are usually found in
the intestinal tract of humans and animals or free-
living in soil, water, and on plants.
Classification
Their classification has undergone var­ious
modifications. The name K. pneumoniae is used
for the species as a whole. It is further divided into
4 subspecies. The most frequently encountered,
biochemically typical form of it is known as K.
pneumoniae subsp. aerogenes, K. pneumoniae
subsp. ozaenae, K. pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae
K. pneumoniae subsp. rhinoscleromatis (Table
36.6). Indole-producing strains that resemble
K. pneumoniae subsp. aerogenes biochemically are
classified in a separate species, K. oxytoca.
Morphology
They are short,plump, gram-negative, non-sporing,
capsulated, non-motile bacilli, 1–2 µm long and
0.5–0.8 µm wide with parallel or bulging sides and
slightly pointed or rounded ends.
Cultural Characteristics
Klebsiellae grow well on ordinary media at a
temperatures between 12°C and 43°C (optimum,
37°C) in 18–24 hours. On MacConkey agar, the
colonies typically appear large, mucoid and red in
colour. Mucoid nature of colonies is due to capsular
material produced by the organism.
Biochemical Reactions
They ferment sugars (glucose, lactose, sucrose,
mannitol) with production of acid and gas. They
are urease positive, indole negative, MR negative,
VP positive and citrate positive (IMViC – – ++).
These reactions are typical of K. pneumoniae subsp.
aerogenes.
Glucose Lactose Sucrose Mannitol
+ (AG) + + +
Urease Indole MR VP Citrate
+ – – + + Diarrhea: Some strains of K. pneumoniae isolated
Biochemical reactions of different subspecies of K.
pneumoniae and K. oxytoca are given in Table 36.6.
Antigenic Structure
Klebsiella possess capsular (K) and somatic(O)
antigens.
Chap-36.indd 264
Table 36.6  Distinguishing reactions of Citrobacter
Species Test/substratea
ind mal H2S KCN adon arbtl mel
C. freundii − − ± + − − ±
C. koseri + + − − + + −
C. + − − + − − −
amalonaticus
a
Ind, indole production; mal, utilization of malonate; H2S,
H2S produced in TSI agar; KCN, growth in KCN medium;
adon, arbtl, mel, fermentation of adonitol, D-arabitol,
melibiose.
1. Capsular (K) antigen: On the basis of capsular (K)
antigens, the klebsiellae have been differentiated,
into 80 serotypes. Members of capsular types 1–6
occur most frequently in the human respiratory
tract.
Capsular antigens are usually detected by means
of the capsular ‘swelling’ reaction, countercurrent
immunoelectrophoresis and enzyme-linked
immunosorbent-assay (ELISA).
2. Somatic (O) antigen: Five different somatic or O
antigens (01–05) occur in various combinations
with the capsular antigens. Four of the five
Klebsiella O antigens are identical to or related
to E. coli O antigens.
Typing Methods
1. Bacteriocin (Klebocin or pneumocin) typing;
2. Phage typing; 3. Biotyping; 4. Resistotyping; 5.
Molecular typing methods: Plasmid analysis,
DNA profiling by random amplified polymorphic
DNA (RAPD) and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis.
Pathogenicity: Klebsiella pneumoniae can cause
a primary community-acquired pnuemonia,
nosocomial infections, urinary tract infections,
wound infections, bacteremia and meningitis and
rarely diarrhea. In some hospital, K. pneumoniae
has replaced E. coli as the leading blood culture
isolate. As most strains are resistant to antibiotics,
treatment poses serious problems.
Pneumonia: Klebsiella pneumonia is a serious
disease with high case fatality. The typical patient
is a middle- or older-aged man who have medical
problems. Positive blood cultures can be obtained
in about 25% of the cases.
from cas­es of diarrhea have been shown to produce
an entero­toxin very similar to the heat stable toxin
of E. coli.
K. ozaenae is a bacillus associated with ozena,
an uncommon, chronic disease in which there is
atrophy of the nasal mucosa characterized by foul
smelling nasal discharge.
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 Chapter 36: Enterobacteriaceae: Escherichia, Klebsiella, Proteus and Other Genera  | 265
Table 36.7  Distinguishing reactions of Klebsiella species
Tests K. pneumoniae subspecies K oxytoca
aerogenes pneumoniae ozaenae rhinoscleromatis
Gas from glucose + + V – +
Acid from lactose + + V – +
Urease + + V – +
Citrate + + V – +
Malonate + + – + +
MR – + + + V
VP + – – – V
Lysine + + V – +
decarboxylase
KCN + + + ± +
V, variable

K. rhinoscleromatis causes rhinoscleroma, a
chronic granulomatous hypertrophy of the nose.
K. oxytoca may be rarely isolated from clinical
specimens (Table 36.7).
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis is made by culturing appropriate spec­
imens on blood agar and Mac Conkey agar and
identifying the isolate by biochemical reactions.
Antibiotic sensitivity should invariably be done.
Many strains carry plasmids determining multiple
drug resistance.
Treatment
They are normally susceptible to cephaloporins,
especially β-lactamase stable derivatives
such as cefuroxime and cefotaxime, and to
fluoroquinolones. They are often sensitive to
gentamicin and other aminoglycosides., but
transferable enzymic resistance to aminoglycosides
and other antimicrobial agents has become
common in strains found in some hospitals.
Klebsiella infection of the urine often responds
to trimethoprim, nitrofurantoin, co-amoxiclav
or oral cephalosporins. Pneumonia and other
serious infections require vigorous treatment
with aminoglycoside or a cephalosporin, such as
cefotaxime.
ENTEROBACTER
Enterobacter is a motile, capsulated, lactose
fermenting bacillus which is indole and MR negative
and VP and citrate positive (IMViC – - + +). These
characteristics are similar to those of Klebsiella but
can be differentiated from Klebsiella because it is
motile and ornithine positive. Two clinically relevant
species are E. cloacae and E. aerogenes.
Clinical Infections: They are normally found
in feces, sewage, soil and water and rarely in
urine, pus and other pathological materials. They
may cause urinary tract infections and hospital
infections. They are occasionally associated with
meningitis and septicemia.
Treatment: Aminoglycosides are often effective in
the treatment of Enterobacter infections.
HAFNIA
These organisms are probably best regarded
as non-lactose fermenter (NLF) member of
genus Enterobacter. This is a motile, nonlactose-
fermenting bacillus which is indole and MR
negative and VP and citrate positive. Biochemical
reactions are evident best at 22°C but at 37°C they
may be negative or irregular. Hafnia alvei is the
only species.
Strains are isolated from feces of man and
other animals and are also found in sewage, soil,
water and dairy products. They are occasionally
encountered as opportunistic pathogens that has
been recovered from infected wounds, abscesses,
sputum urine, blood and other sites.
SERRATIA
S. marcescens is the one most commonly
encountered species in clinical specimens. It is
small, motile, gram-negative bacillus. This differs
from Hafnia in forming a pink, red or magenta,
nondiffusible pigment called prodigiosin which
is formed optimally at room temperature.
Pathogenesis
It is a saprophyte found in water, soil and food.
It may grow in sputum after collection and may
suggest hemoptysis because of the pigment formed
(pseudo­hemoptysis).Nosocomial infections due to
S. marc­escens are being reported with increasing
frequency. The bacillus has been associated with

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Chap-36.indd 265 15-03-2016 11:15:19
 266  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
infections of the urinary and respiratory tracts,
meningitis, wound infections, septicemia and
endocarditis. Multiple drug resistance is common
in hospital strains.
Key Points
Escherichia coli
™™ Gram-negative bacilli aerobe and a faculta­t ive
anaerobe. On MacConkey’s medium, colonies are
red or pink due (lactose fermenter). Selective media
such as DCA or SS agar growth
™™ B. Toxins: 1. Exotoxins: Hemolysins and enterotoxins.
™™ Enterotoxins: (e.g. heat-stabile and heat-labile
enterotoxins, and Verotoxin (VT) also known as
Shiga-like toxin (SLT)-
™™ Clinical infections: 1. Urinary tract infection; 2.
Diarrhea, 3. Pyogenic infections, 4. Bacteremia
™™ Diagnosis: Organisms grow rapidly on most culture
media
™™ Edwardsiella: Edwardsiella tarda mainly causes
wound infection, but meningitis and septicemia
have also been reported
™™ Citrobacter: It may cause infections of the urinary
tract, gallbladder, middle ear and meninges. C. koseri
occasionally causes neonatal meningitis
™™ Klebsiella: Members of the genus Klebsiella are
gram-negative, nonsporing, nonmotile bacilli that
grow well on ordinary media, produce pink mucoid
colonies on MacConkey’s agar
™™ The name K. pneumoniae is used for the species as a
whole. It is further divided into 4 subspecies
™™ Klebsiella pneumoniae can cause a primary
communiy-acquired pnuemonia, nosocomial
infections, urinary tract infections, wound infections,
bacteremia and meningitis and rarely diarrhea
™™ K. ozaenae- is associated with ozena
™™ K. rhinoscleromatis causes rhinoscleroma, a chronic
granulomatous hypertrophy of the nose
™™ K. oxytoca may be rarely isolated from clinical
specimens
™™ Enterobacter: They may cause urinary tract
infections and hospital infections, occasionally
associated with meningitis and septicemia
™™ Hafnia: They are has been recovered from infected
wounds, abscesses, sputum urine, blood and other
sites
™™ Serratia: S. marcescens is associated with infections
of the urinary and respiratory tracts, meningitis,
wound infections, septicemia and endocarditis.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss various mechanisms by which Escheri­chia
coli produces diarrhea. Describe the laboratory
diagnosis of bacterial diarrheas.
2. Discuss the pathogenicity of Escherichia coli.
3. Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of various
infections caused by Escherichia coli.
4. Discuss the pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis
of urinary tract infections caused by Escheri­chia coli.
Chap-36.indd 266
5. Write short notes on:
a. Antigenic structure of Escherichia coli
b. Enterotoxins of Escherichia coli
c. Verotoxin (VT) or Shiga-like toxin (SLT)
6. Write briefly about:
a. Citrobacter
b. Klebsiella pneumoniae
c. What are the properties which differentiate E.
coli from Klebsiella
d. Enterobacter
e. Serratia
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. Which of the following properties is/are shown
by the organisms belonging to the family Enter­
obacteriaceae?
a. They are catalase positive
b. They are oxidase negative
c. They ferment glucose
d. All of the above
2. Which of the following bacteria is/are known as
coliform bacilli?
a. Escherichia b. Klebsiella
c. Enterobacter d. All of the above
3. Vero cytotoxin of Escherichia coli is similar to:
a. Shiga toxin
b. Cholera toxin
c. Heat-labile enterotoxin of Escherichia coli
d. Heat-stable enterotoxin of Escherichia coli
4. Traveler’s diarrhea is caused by
a. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli:
b. Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli
c. Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli
d. Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli
5. Haemolytic uraemic syndrome is caused by:
a. Enteropathogenic E. coli
b. Enterotoxigenic E. coli
c. Enteroinvasive E. coli
d. Vero cytotoxin producing E. coli:
6. Sereny test is used for detection of
a. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli
b. Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli
c. Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli
d. Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli
7. Prodigiosin (red pigment) is produced by members
of genus:
a. Serratia b. Enterobacter
c. Hafnia d. Citrobacter
8. Which of the following species/subspecies of
Klebsiella produces indole?
a. K. pneumoniae subspecies aerogenes
b. K. oxytoca
c. K. pneumoniae subspecies pneumoniae
d. K. pneumoniae subspecies rhinoscleromatis
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. d; 2. d; 3. a; 4. b; 5. d; 6. c; 7. a; 8. b
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 37
Chapter
Tribe Proteeae: Proteus,
Morganella and Providencia

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ List various differences among Proteus, Morganella
be able to: and Providentia.
∙∙ Describe morphology, culture characteristics and
biochemical reactions of Proteus sp

Classification name ‘Proteus’ refers to their pleomorphism, after

the Greek god Proteus who could assume any shape.
The tribe Proteeae is classified into three genera
Genus Proteus has four species: P. mirabilis,
­Proteus, Morganella and Providencia. Most of
P. vulgaris, P. myxofaciens and P. penneri. P.
them except for some Providencia strains, produce
mirabilis, P. vulgaris are widely recognized as
a pow­erful urease which rapidly hydrolyses urea
human pathogens. These are motile, gram-negative
to ammonia and carbon dioxide. A characteristic
bacilli, characterized by swarming growth on agar.
feature which dis­tinguishes tribe Proteeae from
other enterobacteria is the presence, in all Morphology
members of the tribe, of the enzyme phenyl alanine
They are gram-negative coccobacilli, 1–3 mm long and
deaminase which converts phenyl alanine to
0.6 mm wide. Pleomorphism is frequent—short
phenyl pyruvic acid (PPA reaction). All members
coccobacilli to long filaments. In young swarming
of this tribe fail to ferment lactose.
cultures, many of the bacteria are long, curved and
The major differentiating features of medically
filamentous. They may be arranged singly, in pairs
important species of proteus bacilli are shown in
or in short chains. They are actively motile with
Table 37.1.
peritrichous flagella. They also have more type of
Proteus fimbriae and are noncapsulated.

Proteus Bacilli Cultural Characteristics

Proteus bacilli are nor­mal intestinal commensals They are aerobe and facultative anaerobes. All grow
and opportunistic pathogens like coliforms. The well on laboratory nutrient media. Proteus organisms

Table 37.1  Biochemcal features of species of Proteus, Morganella and Providencia

Test Pr. vulgaris Pr. mirabilis
Swarming + +
Gas from glucose + +
Indole + –
Phenyl pyruvic acid (PPA) test + +
Urease + +
H2S production + +
Ornithine decarboxylase – +
Fermentation of adonitol – –
Fermentation of trehalose ± +
Morg. morganii Prov. alcalifaciens Prov. stuarti Prov. rettgeri
– – – –
+ + – –
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ – ± +
– – – –
+ – – –
– + ± ±
± – + –

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268  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
are usually first recognized by their characteristic
pu­trefactive odor described as ‘fishy’ or ‘seminal’
and swarming appearance on noninhibitory
solid media, such as nutrient agar and blood agar.
Swarming is a striking feature of Pr. mirabilis and Pr.
vulgaris. Swarming of Proteus appears to be due to
vigorous motility of the organisim although the exact
cause is not yet established.
Swarming growth is a problem in the laboratory
when mixed growth is obtained in which Pro­
teus bacilli are present with other bacteria. A
number of methods have been devised to inhibit
swarming. Swarming of Proteus can be inhibited
by (i) increasing concentration of agar (6%) and
by (ii) incorporation of chloral hy­drale (1 : 500),
sodium azide (1:500), alcohol (5–6%), sulfonamide,
surface. active agents or boric acid (1:1000).
Swarming does not occur on MacConkey’s
medium, on which smooth colorless (NLF) formed.
Proteus produces uniform turbidity with a slight
powdery deposit and an ammonical odor in liquid
medium (peptone water).
Dienes phenomenon: When two identical strains
of Proteus are inoculated at different places of the
same culture plate, the resulting swarms of growth
coalesce and no line is formed between swarming
culture of the same strain. When, however, two
different strains of Proteus species are inoculated,
the spreading films of growth fail to coalesce and
remain separated by a narrow but easily visib1e
furrow. This is known as Dienes phenomenon.
It has been used to determine the identity or
non-identity of various strains of Proteus.
Biochemical Reactions
The distinctive characters of this genus are:
i. PPA test—Deamination of phenyl alanine
to phenyl pyruvic acid (PPA test) is always
positive.
ii. Urea hydrolysis—Urea hydrolysis by enzyme
urease is another characteristic of Proteus, but
is negative in some Providencia strains.
iii. All species of Proteus produce acid from
glucose.
iv. Lactose is not fermented.
v. They are malonate utilization negative.
vi. Indole is formed by Pr. vulgaris but is negative
in Pr. mirabilis.
vii. They are MR positive and VP negative.
viii. H2S is produced by Pr. vulgaris and Pr. mirabilis.
ix. Nitrate reduction positive.
Other biochemical characters of species of
Proteus are given in Table 37.1.
Antigenic Structure
Proteus bacilli possess somatic O and flagellar
H antigens, which are of considerable historical
interest. Weil and Felix (1916) studying Proteus
bacilli ob­served that flagellated strains growing
on agar formed a thin surface film resembling the
mist produced by breathing on glass and named
this variety the ‘Hauch’ form (from Hauch, meaning
film of breath). Nonflag­ellated variants grew as
isolated colonies without the surface film and
were called ‘Ohne Hauch’ (meaning without film
of breath). These names came to be ab­breviated
as the Hand 0 forms. Subsequently, the H and O
were extended to refer to the flagellar and so­matic
antigens of other bacilli as well.
Weil and Felix also observed that certain
nonmotile strains of Pr. vulgaris, called the ‘X
strains’, were agglutinated by sera from typhus fever
patients. This heterophilic agglutination due to the
sharing of an alkali stable carbo­hydrate antigen
by certain strains of Proteus (OX2, OX19 and OXK)
and rickett­siae forms the basis of the Weil-Felix
reaction for the diagnosis of some rickettsial
infections. Three nonmo­tile Proteus strains OX2,
OX19 and OXK are used in the agglutination test.
OX19, OX2 are the strains of P. vulgaris serotype 01
and serotype 02 and OXK is the strain of P. mirabilis
serotype 03.
Typing methods: Phage typing, bacteriocin
(proticin) typing and serotyping schemes have been
developed for Proteus and Providencia species.
Swarming Proteus strains exhibit the Dienes
phenomenon and this forms the basis for a precise
method of differentiation among such strains.
Pathogenesis
Proteus bacilli are widely distributed in nature as
saprophytes, being found in decomposing animal
mat­ter, in sewage, in manured soil and in human and
ani­mal feces. They are frequently present on the moist
areas of the skin. They are opportunistic pathogens,
commonly responsible for urinary and septic infec­
tions, often nosocomial.
P. mirabilis accounts for the majority of human
infections seen with this group of organisms. All
members of the tribe can cause urinary tract
infections (UTI), wound infections, pneumonia,
infection of the ear, respiratory tract infection,
septicemia and nosocomial infections. Strains of
Pr. mirabilis are a prominent cause of urinary tract
infection in children and in domiciliary practice.
UTI caused by Proteus tends to be more serious
than that caused by E. coli and other coliforms.
It produces urease which splits urea into carbon
dioxide and ammonia. Ammonia inactivates
complement, damages renal epithelium and
makes the urine alkaline.This increase in pH causes
precipitation of calcium and magnesium salts from
the urine and results in the formation of urinary
calculi.
 Chapter 37: Tribe Proteeae: Proteus, Morganella and Providencia  | 269
Labortory Diagnosis
Culture: Laboratory diagnosis of the infections
caused by species Proteus can be carried out by
culture of the specimen on MacConkey agar or
DCA.
Identification: The isolate is identified by its
morphological, biochemical and agglutination
reactions.
Treatment
Proteus bacilli are resistant to many of the common
antibiotics. An exception is P. mirabilis which is
sensitive to ampicillin and cephalosporins.
Morganella
Morganella morganii is the only species in the
genus Morganella. It is motile and lactose-non-
fermenting, and do not swarm on solid media.
M. morganii is commonly found in human
and animal feces and causes urinary infection
infrequently. Nosocomial wound infections also
occur.
Providencia
Five Providencia species include P. alcalifaciens,
P. rettgeri, P. rustigianii and P. stuartii and P.
heimbachae.All species may be recovered from
feces. However, only P. alcalifaciens may be
associated with diarrhea. P. rettgeri and P. stuartii
have been associated with hospital-acquired
urinary tract, wound and other infections,
particularly in immunocompromised patients.
P. stuartii may occasionally cause hospital-
associated urinary tract infection, infection of
burns and pneumonia and septicemia in elderly
and immunodeficient patients.
P. rettgeri is part of the normal fecal flora of
reptiles and amphibians, and sometimes causes
nosocomial infection of the urinary tract, wounds,
burns and blood.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Culture: Laboratory diagnosis of the infections
caused by species Proteus, Morganella and
Providencia can be carried out by culture of the
specimen on MacConkey agar or DCA.
Identification: The isolate is identified by its
morphological, biochemical and agglutination
reactions.
Erwinia
These are anaerogenic bacilli forming a yellowish
pigment, usually found in soil and causing plant
infections. E. herbicola has occasionally been
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isolated from respiratory and urinary infections in
predisposed or hospitalized patients.
Key Points
™™ The tribe Proteeae is classified into three genera
­Proteus, Morganella and Providencia
™™ Genus Proteus has four species: P. mirabilis, P. vulgaris,
P. myxofaciens and P. penneri
™™ Cultural characteristics: Proteus organisms are
usually first recognized by their characteristic pu­
trefactive odor described as ‘fishy’ or ‘seminal’ and
swarming appearance on noninhibitory solid media
such as nutrient agar and blood agar
™™ Pathogenesis: All members of the tribe can cause
urinary tract infections (UTI), wound infections,
pneumonia
™™ Morganella morganii causes urinary infection infre­
quently. Nosocomial wound infections also occur
™™ Five Providencia species may be recovered from feces
™™ Erwinia: E. herbicola has occasionally been
isolated from respiratory and urinary infections in
predisposed or hospitalized patients.
Important question
Write short notes on:
a. Classification of tribe Proteeae
b. Pathogenicity of Proteus species
c. Swarming growth
d. Dienes phenomenon
e. Weil-Felix rection
f. Genus Morganella
g. Genus Providencia.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. The bacterium that shows swarming on blood agar
is:
a. Proteus stuartii
b. Proteus mirabilis
c. Providencia rettgeri
d. Morganella morganii
2. Phenylalanine deaminase test is positive in:
a. Proteus b. Morganella
c. Providencia d. All of the above
3. Diene’s phenomenon is used to detect identity of
strains of:
a. Klebsiella b. Salmonella
c. Shigella d. Proteus
4. Swarming of Proteus strains on solid media can be
inhibited by:
a. Increasing the concentration of agar in the me-
dium
b. Incorporation of chloral hydrate in the medium
c. Incorporation of sodium azide in the medium
d. All of the above methods
5. Which of the following Proteus strains is/are used
in Weil-Felix reaction?
a. Proteus vulgaris OX2
b. Proteus vulgaris OX19
c. Proteus mirabilis OXK
d. All of the above
Answers (MCQs)
1. b; 2. d; 3. d; 4. d; 5. d.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology and various culture media
for the isolation of Shigella
INTRODUCTION
The genus Shigella is named after the Japanese
microbiologist Kiyoshi Shiga, who first isolated the
organism in 1896. It was then called S. shigae and is
now known as S. dysenter­iae serotype 1. S. flexneri
by Flexner (1900), S. sonnei by Sonne (1915)and S.
boydii Boyd (1931) were subsequently described.
Morphology
Shigellae are nonsporing, non­capsulate, Gram-
negative rods, 2–4 × 0.6 µm, nonmotile and non­
flagellate.
Cultural Characteristics
They are aerobes and facul­tative anaerobes, with a
growth temperature range of 10–40 °C and optima
of 37°C and pH 7.4. They grow well on conventional
media.
1. Nutrient agar and blood agar: Colonies are
smooth, grayish or colorless, translucent,
often 2–3 mm in diameter, circular, convex,
resembling those of salmonellae.
2. MacConkey agar: Colonies are colorless,
i.e.pale and yellowish (non-lactose-fermenting)
due to the absence of lactose fermentation.
An exception is S. sonnei, a late fermenter
of lactose, become pink when incubation is
prolonged beyond 24 hours.
3. Deoxycholate citrate agar (DCA): Deoxycholate
citrate agar (DCA) is an excellent selective
plating medium. Colonies are pale and similar
to, though usually slightly smaller, and more
translucent than those of salmonellae.
4. Xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD): XLD is
probably the best selective medium for shigellae.
Colonies are red, without black centers.
Chap-38.indd 270
38
Chapter
Shigella
∙∙ Discuss the antigenic structure and toxins of
Shigella
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of bacillary dysentery.
5. Salmonella–Shigella (SS) agar: Salmonella–
Shigella (SS) agar is a highly sel­ective medium
for the isolation of Salmonella and Shigella.
Colonies of Shigella on this medium are
colorless with no blackening.
6. Hektoen enteric (HE) agar: Hektoen enteric
(HE) agar is useful as a direct plating medium for
fecal specimens for the isolation of Shigella and
Salmonella. Colonies of Shigella on this medium
are green while those of Sal­monella are blue green
with black centers due to H2S production.
7. Peptone water and nutrient broth: Good
growth with uniform turbidity on incubation
overnight at 37°C.
8. Enrichment broths
a. Selenite F broth-Selenite F broth will grow
and enrich S. sonnei and S. flexneri serotype
6, but is inhibitory to other shigellae.
b. Gram-negative (GN) broth: Most strains
of Shigella grow well.
Resistance
Shigellae are killed by moist heat at 55°C in 1 hour
and fairly readily by strong disinfectants, e.g. by
1% phenol in 15 min. S. sonnei is more resistant to
adverse environmental conditions as compared
to other species.
Biochemical Reactions
The shigellae are divided into four groups, or
species, by their biochemical reactions and
antigenic structure (Table 38.1 ). The groups A, B,
C and D correspond to the species S. dysenteriae,
S. flexneri, S. boydii and S. sonnei.
Glucose is fermented with the production
of acid, without gas, except for two serotypes, S.
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flexneri serotype 6 and S. boydii serotype 14, which
form gas. Fermentation of mannitol is of importance
in classification and shigellae have tradition­
ally been divided into mannitol fermenting and
nonfermenting species. S. flexneri, S. boydii and S.
sonnei ferment mannitol, while S. dysenteriae does
not. Lactose and sucrose are not fermented, except
by S. sonnei which ferments them late. Dulcitol is
not fermented by the majority of shigellae.
S. dysenteriae serotype 1, S. flexneri serotype 6
and S. sonnei are always indole negative. Shigellae
are MR positive and negative for Voges Proskauer
reaction, citrate and malonate utilization. They
reduce nitrates to nitrites, do not form H2S and are
inhibited by KCN. Catalase is produced, except by
Sh. dysenteriae type 1 which are catalase negative.
Members of groups A, B and C fail to decarbox­
ylate lysine and ornithine. S. sonnei decarboxylates
ornithine but not lysine.
Antigenic Structure
The shigellae are divided into four ‘major’ O antigenic
groups, designated A, B, C, and D. In addition to the
major O antigens, groups A, B and C contain ‘minor’
O antigens, which allow for subgrouping. Some
strains possess K or envelope antigens.
Classification
Shigellae are classified into four species or sub­
groups (A,B,C,D) based on a combination of
biochemical and serological characteristics.
Serotypes are distin­guished within the species.
S. sonnei is serological­ly homogeneous and is
classified by colicin typing (Table 38.1).
Group A (S. dysenteriae)
This species of man­nitol nonfermenting bacilli
consists of 12 serotypes. Serotypes 1 and 2 are
the organisms formerly called S. shigae and S.
schmitzii. S. shigae is indole negative and is the
only member of the family that is always catalase
negative. S. dysenteriae type 2 (S. schmitzi)
forms in­dole and ferments sorbitol and rhamnose.
Serotypes 3–7 were described by Large and
Sachs in India and hence used to be known as the
Chapter 38: Shigella  | 271
Large-Sachs group. Three further serotypes have
been described making a total of ten.
Exotoxin: S. dysenteriae type 1 produces a powerful
exotoxin (Shiga toxin). It acts as enterotoxin as
well as neurotoxin. As enterotoxin, it acts on the
intes­tinal mucosa causing transudation of fluid in
the lumen. As neurotoxin, it damages endothelial
cells of small blood vessels of the central nervous
system which results in neurological complications
like polyneuritis, coma and meningism.
Cytotoxin: S. dysenteriae produces also an cytotoxin
which is active on vero cells and is known as
Verotoxin. This appears to be the same as Verotoxin
1 (or Shiga-like toxin) produced by certain strains of
E. coli (VTEC).
Group B (Shigella flexneri)
This group is named af­ter Flexner, who described
the first of the mannitol fermenting shigellae from
Philippines (1900).
S. flexneri is biochemically heterogeneous and
antigeni­cally the most complex among shigellae.
Based on type specific and group specific antigens,
they have been classified into six serotypes (1-6) and
several subtypes (1a; 1b; 2a, 2b; 3a, 3b, 3c, 4a, 4b, 5a,
5b). In addition, two antigenic ‘variants’ called X and Y
are recognized, which have lost their type antigens and
are distinguished by their different group antigens.
Serotype 6 is always indole negative and occurs in
three biotypes: Boyd 88, Manchester and Newcastle,
some of which form gas from sugars (Table 38.2).
Group C (Sh. boydii)
The group is named after Boyd, who first described
these strains from India (1931). This group consists
of dys­e ntery bacilli that resemble S. flexneri
biochemical­ly but not antigenically. Eighteen
different serotypes of S. boydii are recognized.
Group D (S. sonnei)
This bacillus, first de­scribed by Sonne (1915) in
Denmark, ferments lac­tose and sucrose late. It is
indole negative. It is antigenically homo­geneous.
It may, however undergo an antigenic vari­ation
and may occur in two forms, phase 1 and phase II.

Table 38.1  Distinguishing features of Shigella species

Subgroup A B C D
Species Sh. dysenteriae Sh. flexneri Sh. boydii Sh. sonnei
Mannitol – A A A
Lactose – – – A (Late)
Sucrose – – – A (Late)
Dulcitol – – d
Indole d d d
Ornithine decarboxylase – – – +
Serotypes 10 6 + variants 15 Only one
A, acid; d, delayed

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Chap-38.indd 271 15-03-2016 11:16:01
 272  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Table 38.2  Biotypes of Sh. flexneri type 6
Fermentation of
Glucose Mannitol
Boyd 88 A A
Manchester AG AG
Newcastle A or AG − Complications: Complications are most often seen
A, acid; AG, acid and gas
S. sonnei causes the mildest form of bacillary
dysentery. In many cases the disease may only be a
mild diarrhea. However, S. sonnei infection persists
as the most common shigellosis in the advanced
countries. For epidemiological purposes, S. sonnei
has been classified into 26 colicin types.
Pathogenic Mechanisms
1. Surface properties: Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
has been implicated to entering intestinal cells.
2. Invasiveness: Invasive property is related to
the presence in the bacillus of large plasmids
coding for the outer membrane protein
responsible for cell penetration. These proteins
are called ‘virulence marker antigens’ (VMA).
3. Toxins: S. dysenteriae type 1 forms a produces
a powerful exotoxin (Shiga tox­in) (details see
under heading group A (S. dysenteriae).
Pathogenicity
Shigellae cause bacillary dysentery. Humans are
the only known reservoir of Shigella organisms
infection occurs by ingestion. The minimum
infective dose is low, as few as 10–100 bacilli being
capable of initiating the disease.
Shigella cause disease by invading and
replicating in cells lining the colonic mucosa. After
reaching the large intestine, the shigellae multiply
in the gut lumen. The shigellae multiply within the
epithelial cells and spread laterally into adjacent
cells, where cell-to-cell passage occurs, and deep
into the lamina propria. The infected epithelial
cells are killed and the lamina propria and
submucosa develop an inflammatory reaction with
capillary thrombosis. Patches of nerotic epithelium
are sloughed and ulcer form. The cellular response
is mainly by polymorphonu­clear leukocytes.
The ulcers of the bacillary dysentery are much
shallower than amoebic ulcers. Bacteremia may
occur in severe infections.
Bacillary dysentery has a short incubation
period (1–7 days, usually 48 hours). The main clinical
features are frequent passage of loose, scanty feces
containing blood and mucus, along with abdominal
cramps and tenesmus. Fever and vomiting may be
present. Infection is usually self-limited.
In dysentery caused by S. dysenteria type 1,
patients experience more severe symptoms. Severe
Chap-38.indd 272
illness may also be caused by members of S. flexneri
and S. boydii groups. In contrast dysentery associated
with S. sonnei (Sonne dysentery) in an otherwise
healthy person may be confined to the passage of a
few loose stools with vague abdonimal discomfort
and the patient often continues at school or work.
in patients with S. dysenteriae serotype 1 infection.
These include arthritis, toxic neuritis, conjunctivitis,
paro­t itis, and, in children, intussusception.
Hemolytic uremic syn­drome (HUS) may occur as
a complication in severe cases.
The severity of the disease may vary from acute
fulminating dysentery to mild diarrhea. As the term
bacillary dysentery refers only to the more severe
cases, the term ‘shigellosis’ has been employed
to include the whole spec­trum of disease caused
by shigellae.
Epidemiology
Bacillary dysentery has a global distribution. It is
mostly associated with the overcrowding and bad
hygienic conditions. Humans are the only known
reservoir of Shigella organisms. Transmission may
occur by direct person-to person contact, and spread
may take place via the fecal. oral route, with carriers
as the source. From the carries the organisms can
be spread by flies, fingers, food and feces. Young
children in daycare centers, people living in crowded
and less-than-adequate housing, and young male
homosexuals as part of the gay bowel syndrome who
participate in anal-oral sex are most likely affected.
Sh. sonnei is the predominant infecting agent.
S. sonnei is the main type in the north in the USA,
while S. flexneri is more common in the south. In
India, S. flexneri has been the predominant species,
having formed 50–85% of isolates in different series.
S. dysenteriae (8–25%) and S. sonnei (2–24%) are the
next common species. S. boydii (0–8%) has been
isolated least frequently.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis depends on isolating the bacillus from
feces.
A. Specimens
i. Feces: A specimen of feces is always preferable
to a rectal swab
ii. Rectal swabs: A direct swab may be taken from
the ulcer by sigmoidoscopic examination.
B. Transport
Fresh feces should be inoculat­ed without delay or
transported in a suitable medium such as Sachs’
buffered glycerol saline. pH 7.0–7.4, which prevents
the dysentery bacilli from being destroyed by the
acid produced during the growth of other organisms.
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C. Microscopy
Make a wet film of a suspension of the feces in
saline. This will show numerous erythro­cytes and
polymorphs and some macrophages.
D. Culture
For inoculation it is best to use mucus flakes if they
are present in the sample. The feces are inoculated
on Mac­C onkey agar and DCA. SS agar and
XLD medium can also be used. After overnight
incubation at 37°C, the plates are inspected for pale
(non-lactose-fer­menting) colonies on MacConkey
agar and DCA, and red and colorless colonies with
no blackening on XLD and SS agar, respectively.
Identification
i. Biochemical reactions: These are tested
for motility and biochemical reactions. Any
nonmotile bacillus that is urease, citrate,
H 2S and KCN negative should be further
investigated by biochemical tests (Table 38.1).
ii. Slide agglutination: Identification is confirmed
by slide agglutination with polyvalent and
monovalent sera and then with type-specific
sera (belonging to subgroups A, B, C) unless
the strain is S. sonnei.
E. Colicine Typing
Plasmid pattern analysis and colicine typing may
help elucidate patterns of spread of S.sonnei.
F. Serology
Demonstration of antibodies in sera is not useful
have no place in diagnosis of the disease.
Treatment
Most of the cases of bacillary dysentery especially
those due to S. sonnei, are mild and self-limiting
and do not require antibiotic therapy. Replacement
of fluids and electrolytes by oral rehydration salt
solution is all that is required.
Routine antibacterial treatment is not indicated
in dysentery. Treatment with a suitable antibiotic
is necessary in the very young, the aged or the
debilitated, and in severe infections. Ampicillin,
cotrimoxazole, tetracycline, the quinolone anti­
biotics, such as nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin are
appropriate choices.
Multiple drug resistance plasmids are widely
prevalent in shigellae. The choice of antibiotic should
be based on the sensitivity of the prevailing strain.
Control
Control consists essentially improving personal an
environmental sanitation. Antibiotics have no place
in prophylaxis. No effective vaccine is available.
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Chap-38.indd 273
Chapter 38: Shigella  | 273
Key Points
™™ The genus Shigella gram-negative bacilli, non-motile.
They are facultative anaerobe and grow well on
conventional media
™™ The shigellae are divided into four groups, or
species. The groups A, B, C and D correspond to
the species S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii and
S. sonnei
™™ Shigella causes bacillary dysentery. Bacteria are
acquired by fecal-oral spread. A severe form
of disease is caused by S. dysenteriae (bacterial
dysentery). Hemolytic colitis and hemolytic uremic
syndrome (HUS) associated with Shigella
™™ Diagnosis: Culture of feces reveals nonmotile bacillus
that is urease, citrate, H2S and KCN negative and
should be further investigated by biochemical tests.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the antigenic structure and toxins of
Shigella.
2. Enumerate the various causes of bacillary dysentery.
Discuss laboratory diagnosis of Shigella dysentery.
3. Write short notes on:
Classification of shigella
Pathogenesis of shigella.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. All the following media are employed for isolation
of Shigella except:
a. Hektoen enteric agar
b. Salmonella-Shigella agar
c. Thiosulfate citrate bile salt agar
d. Xylose lysine deoxycholate agar
2. Enrichment medium of choice for isolation of
Shigella is:
a. Alkaline peptone water
b. Selenite F broth
c. Taurocholate peptone enrichment medium
d. Tetrathionate broth
3. All Shigella species ferment mannitol except:
a. Shigella dysenteriae b. Shigella boydii
c. Shigella flexneri d. Shigella sonnei
4. Which of the following bacteria is more resistant to
adverse environmental conditions?
a. S. dysenteriae b. S. flexneri
c. S. boydii d. S. sonnei
5. Verocytoxin is produced by:
a. Shigella dysenteriae serotype 1
b. Shigella dysenteriae serotype 2
c. Shigella dysenteriae serotype 8
d. Shigella dysenteriae serotype 10
6. Shigella species most widely found in India is:
a. Shigella dysenteriae b. Shigella boydii
c. Shigella flexneri d. Shigella sonnei
7. All of the following complications can be associated
with S. dysenteriae type I infection except:
a. Arthritis
b. Toxic neuritis
c. Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
d. Intestinal perforation
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. c; 2. b; 3. a; 4. d; 5. a; 6. c; 7. d
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Enterobacteriaceae III: Salmonella
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology, culture charactrestics and
biochemical reactions of Salmonella sp
∙∙ Describe the following: Antigenic structure of
INTRODUCTION
Genus Salmonella consists of bacilli that parasi­
tise the intestines of a large number of vertebrate
species and infect human beings, leading to enteric
fever, gastroenteritis, septicemia with or without
focal suppuration, and the carrier state.
The most important member of the genus is
Salmonella Typhi, the causative agent of typhoid
fever. Eberth (1880) first observed the typhoid
bacillus. Salmon and Smith (1885) described a
bacillus which was believed to cause hog cholera.
SALMONELLA
For practical purposes, they may be divided into
two groups:
1. The enteric fever group: It consists of the typhoid
and paratyphoid bacilli that are exclusively or
primarily human parasites.
2. The food poisoning group: These are essentially
animal parasites but which can also infect
human beings, pro­d ucing gastroenteritis,
septicemia or localized infections.
Morphology
Salmonellae are gram-negative bacilli, 2–4 × 0.6 µm in
size. They are motile with peritrichous flagella except
S. Gallinarum­-Pullorum which is nonmotile. They
are non-acid-fast, noncapsulate and nonsporing
Cultural Characteristics
Salmonellae are aerobes and facultatively anaer­
obes, growing readily over a range of pH 6–8 and
Chap-39.indd 274
39
Chapter
Salmonella; antigenic variation of Salmonellae;
Kauffmann-White scheme
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of enteric fever
∙∙ Describe vaccination against enteric fever
∙∙ Discuss Salmonella gastroenteritis.
temperature 15–­45°C (optimum 37°C). They can
grow on simple laboratory media. Various media
are as follows:
A. Nutrient agar and blood agar: Colonies of
most strains are moderately large (e.g. 2–3 mm
in diameter), grey-white, moist, circular discs
with a smooth convex surface and entire edge
after 24 hours at 37°C.
B. Peptone water and nutrient broth: In liquid
media most strains give abundant growth with
uniform turbidity.
C. Differential and selective solid media: They
include:
1. MacConkey agar: The colonies are 1–3 mm
in diameter pale yellow or nearly colourless
due to the absence of lactose fermentation.
2. Brilliant green MacConkey agar: Salm­
onellae appear as low convex, pale-green
trans­lucent colonies 1–3 mm in diameter.
3. Deoxycholate-citrate agar (DCA): The
colonies of salmonellae on DCA are similar
to or slightly smaller in size than those on
MacConkey agar.
4. Wilson and Blair’s brilliant-green bismuth
sulfite agar (BBSA): Jet black colonies
with a metallic sheen are formed due
to production of H2S. This is due to the
reduction of sulfite to sulfide. This medium
is particularly valuable for the isolation of S.
Typhi. S. Paratyphi A and other species that
do not form H2S produce green colonies.
5. Xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD) agar:
Most salmonellae produce hydrogen sulfide
which reacts with ferric ammo­nium citrate
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 Chapter 39: Enterobacteriaceae III: Salmonella  | 275
in the medium to produce black centers
in their red colonies. The H 2S-negative
salmonellae (e.g. Paratyphi A) form red
colonies without black centers.
Enrichment media: Tetrathionate broth and
Selenite F broth are commonly used enrichment
media for inoculation of specimens escepially feces.

Biochemical Reactions
1. Salmonellae ferment glucose, mannitol, arabi­
nose, maltose, dulcitol and sorbitol, forming
acid and gas except S. Typhi, Gallinarum and
rare anaerogenic variants in other serotypes form
only acid and no gas.
2. Lactose, sucrose, salicin or adonitol are not
fermented.
3. They are, indole positive, MR positive, VP
negative and citrate positive (IMViC – + – +)
except by S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi A which are
citrate negative as they need tryptophan as the
growth factor.
4. Hydrogen sulfide is produced except by S.
Paratyphi A, S. Choleraesuis, S. Typhisuis and
S. Sendai.
5. Urease is not hydrolyzed.
6. Salmonellae decar­boxylate the amino acids
lysine, ornithine and arginine.
The enteric fever group may be separated
biochemically (Table 39.1).
Resistance
Salmonellae are readily killed by moist heat, at 55°C
in 1 hour or at 60°C in 15 minutes and most strong
disinfectants. Boiling or chlorination of water and
pasteurization of milk destroy the bacilli. They are
killed within five minutes by mercuric chloride (1:
500) or 5% phenol.
Antigenic Structure
Antigenic structure of salmonellae is shown in
Figure 39.1. Salmonellae possess the follow­ing
antigens based on which they are classified and
identified:
1. Flagellar antigen H.
2. Somatic antigen O.
3. Surface antigen Vi, found in some species.
Table 39.1  Biochemical characters of typhoid and
paratyphoid bacilli
Glucose Xylose d-Tartrate Mucate
S. Typhi A d A d
S. Paratyphi A AG − −
S. Paratyphi B AG AG − AG
S. Paratyphi C AG AG AG
A = Acid; AG = Acid and Gas; d = Delayed
Fig. 39.1: Antigenic structure of salmonellae
Several strains carry fimbriae. Fimbrial antigens
are not important in identification but may cause
confusion due to their nonspecific nature and
widespread shar­ing among enterobacteria.
1. H antigen: These antigens represent deter­
minant groups on the flagellar protein. They
are heat-labile and alco­hol-labile, but are well
preserved in 0.04–0.2% formaldehyde. In most
salmonellae, H antigen exists in two alternative
phases called phase 1, and phase 2.
When mixed with antisera, H suspensions
agglutinate rapidly, producing large, loose, fluffy
clumps. The H antigen is strongly immunogenic
and induces antibody formation rapidly and in
high titers follow­ing infection or immunization.
2. O antigens: The somatic O antigen is a
phospholipidprotein-polysaccharide complex
which forms an integral part of the cell wall.
The O antigen is unaffected by boiling (heat-
stable), alcohol (alcohol-stable) or weak acids.
The O antigen is less immunogenic than the H
antigen and the titer of the O antibody induced
after infection or immunization is generally lower
than that of the H antibody. O agglutination takes
place more slowly and at a higher temperature
optimum (50–55°C) than H agglutination (37°C).
3. Vi antigen: Almost all recently isolated strains of
S. Typhi form Vi antigen as a covering layer
outside their cell wall. This antigen is an acidic
polysaccharide.When fully developed it renders
the bacteria agglutinable by Vi antibody and
inagglutinable by O antibody. Felix and Pitt,
who first described this antigen, believed that
it was related to virulence and gave it the name
− ‘Vi antigen’ (Vi for virulence). It is analogous to
the K antigens of coliforms.
The Vi antigen is heat-labile. It can be removed
−
from the bacteria by heating a suspension for 1
hour at 100°C and centrifuging the bacteria from

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 276  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
the Vi-containing fluid. It is also destroyed by N
HCl and 0.5 N NaOH. It is unaffected by alcohol
or 0.2% formol.
Originally observed in S. Typhi, the Vi antigen
with similar antigenic specificity is present in S.
Para­typhi C and S. Dublin, as well as in certain
strains of Citrobacter (the Ballerup-Bethesda
group). The Vi antigen tends to be lost on serial
subculture. The Vi polysaccharide acts as a
virulence factor by inhibiting phagocytosis,
resisting complement activation and bacterial
lysis by the alternative pathway and peroxi­
dase mediated killing. Strains possessing the
Vi antigen were found to cause clinical disease
more consistently than those lacking it in human
volunteer experiments.
The Vi antigen is poorly immunogenic and
following infec­tion only low titers of antibody are
produced. Vi antigen is not employed in the Widal
test because detection of the Vi antibody is not
helpful for the diagnosis of cases. The total absence
of the Vi antibody in a proven case of typhoid fever
indicates poor prognosis. The antibody disappears
early in con­valescence. Its persistence indicates the
development of the carrier state. The Vi antigen
affords a method of epidemiological typing of the S.
Typhi strains based on specific Vi bacteriophages.
Phenolized vaccine induces no Vi antibody
though low titers are produced by the alcohol­ized
vaccine. The protective efficacy of the Vi antigen
is demonstrated by the success of the purified Vi
vac­cine for typhoid now in routine use.
Antigenic Variations
The antigens of salmonellae undergo phenotypic
and genotypic variations.
1. H–O variation: This variation is associated
with the loss of flagella. When salmonellae
are grown on agar containing phenol (1 : 800),
flagella are inhibited. This change is phenotypic
and temporary. Flagella reap­p ear when
the strain is subcultured on media without
phenol. Salmonellae may rarely lose flagella by
mutation resulting in the development of stable
or irreversible mutant. For example, a stable
nonmotile mutant of S. Typhi is the 901-O strain
which is widely employed for the prepa­ration
of O-agglutinable bacterial suspensions.
Craigie’s tube: Gener­ally, the loss of flagella is
not total and there occurs only a diminution
in the number of flagella and the quantity of
the H antigen. Flagellated cells are found in
small numbers in such cultures. To obtain a
population of motile cells, rich in H antigen,
from such cultures, selection may be carried out
by using Craigie’s tube. This consists of a wide
tube containing soft agar (0.2%) at the center of
which is embedded a short, narrow tube open
Chap-39.indd 276
at both ends, in such a way that it projects above
the agar. The strain is inoculated carefully into
the inner tube. After shortest period (8–16 hours)
incubation, subcultures are withdrawn from
the top of the agar outside the central tube. This
yields a population of motile cells (Fig. 39.2).
A U-tube of soft agar may be employed
instead of Craigie’s tube. Inoculation is made into
one limb and subculture taken from the other.
2. Phase variation: The flagellar antigens of most
sal­monellae occur in one of two phases. Phase
1 antigens are either specific for a species or
shared by a few species only. Hence phase I is
called the ‘specific’ phase. Phase 2 antigens are
widely shared and hence phase 2 is called the
‘nonspecific’ or ‘group’ phase. The presump­
tive identification of serotypes, therefore, mainly
depends on the identification of the H antigens
in phase I, which are relatively ‘specific’.
Phase 1 antigens are designated a, b, c, d,
etc., and after z, as z 1, z2, etc. Phase 2 antigens
are far fewer and are termed I, 2, etc. In some
species, antigens belonging to phase 1 may
occur as the phase 2 antigens (for example, e, n,
x, z 15). The strains that possess both phases are
known as ‘diphasic’ and the strains that possess
only one phase are known as monophasic (e.g.
S. Typhi, S. Paratyphi A, S. Enteritidis, etc.).
A culture will contain cells with the flagellar
an­tigens of both phases but generally one or
the other phase will predominate so that the
culture is aggluti­nated only by one of the phase
antisera. It may be necessary to identify the
flagellar antigens of both phases for serotyping
of salmonella isolates. A culture in phase 1 can
be converted to phase 2 by passing it through
a Craigie’s tube containing specific phase 1
antiserum, and the reverse conversion achieved
by using phase 2 antiserum (Fig. 39.2).
3. V–W variation: Almost all recently isolated
strains of S. Typhi form Vi antigen as a covering
Fig. 39.2: Craigie’s tube
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 Chapter 39: Enterobacteriaceae III: Salmonella  | 277
layer outside their cell wall. When fully
developed it renders the bacteria agglutinable
by Vi antibody and inagglutinable by O antibody.
This is called the ‘V form’. The Vi antigen is either
partially or completely lost after a number of
subcul­tures. Such cultures are inaggluttinable
with the Vi antiserum but readily agglutinable
with the O antiserum. This is called the ‘W’form.
With partial loss of Vi antigen, the organisms
are agglutinable with both O and Vi antisera
and these intermediate forms are known as VW
forms.
Other Vi-containing bacilli, such as S.
Paratyphi C and S. Dublin do not completely
mask the O antigen.
4. S–R variation: The smooth(S) to rough(R)
variation is associated with the change in
colony morphology and loss of the O antigen
and of virulence. Conversion into R forms
occurs by mutation. Suspensions in saline
are autoagglutinable The colonies become
large, rough and irregular. Rough variation
is common in laboratory strains maintained
by serial subcultivation. S–R variation may
be prevented to some extent by maintaining
cultures on Dorset’s egg media in the cold, or
ideally by lyophilization.
5. Variation in O antigen: Changes in the structural
formulae of the O antigen may be induced by
lysogenization with some converting phages,
resulting in the alteration of the serotypes. Thus,
S. Anatum (serotype 3,10:e,h:1,6) is converted by
phage 15 into S. Newington (serotype 3,15:e,h:1,
6) and S. Newington into S. Minneapolis
(serotype 3,15, 34:e, h:1,6 ) by phage 34. It is likely
that such changes occurring in nature contribute
to the abundance of Salmonella seroyypes.
Classification and Nomenclature
The classification and nomenclature of salmonellae
have undergone several modifications over the
years. Inclusion in the genus is based on common
biochemical properties. Classification within the
genus is on antigenic characterization based on the
Kauffmann-White scheme.
A. Classification Based on Biochemical
Reactions
On the basis of biochemical reactions, the genus
salmonellae is classified into four subgenera (Table
39.2):
Subgenus 1: It is the largest and medically the most
important group contains all the species which
commonly cause human and animal infections.
Subgenus II: It contains mostly species isolated
from reptiles.
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Chap-39.indd 277
Table 39.2  Biochemical reactions of Salmonella
subgenera
Test Subgenera
1 II III IV
Dulcitol + + – –
fermentation
Lactose fermentation – – + –
Malonate utilization – + + –
d-Tartrate + – – –
Salicin fermentation – – – +
Culture in KCN – – – +
Subgenus III: It contains bacilli, formerly designated
Arizona, originally isolated from lizards but sub­
sequently found in reptiles, birds, domestic animals
and human beings. Many of them are prompt
lactose fermenters.
Subgenus IV: Subgenus IV strains are rarely
encountered and may be considered atypical
members of subgenus II.
Modern taxonomical techniques, have shown
that all the members of the genus Salmonellae
and of the former genus Arizona are so closely
related that they should all be considered as
belonging to a single species. Thus, a new species
name S. enterica has been coined to include all
salmonellae. S. enterica is classified into seven
subspecies named enterica, salamae, arizonae,
diarizonae, houtenae, bongori and indica. Most of
the serotypes that infect mammals are found in a
subspecies also designated enterica. Subspecies
enterica corresponds to the former subgenus 1.
Such classification and nomenclature would
be too complicated for use in clinical bacteriology,
while being taxonomically correct. For example,
the taxonomically correct name for the typhoid
bacillus would be ‘Salmonella enterica, subspecies
enterica, serotype Typhi’, but this is abbreviated
to S. serotype Typhi, or simply S. Typhi. Serotype
name should be given in Roman and not in italics.
Therefore, the old practice of referring to clinically
important salmonellae serotypes by the species
name continues in clinical bacteriology.
B. Kauffmann–White Scheme of Classification
Classification within the genus is on antigenic
characterization based on the Kauffmann–White
scheme. This scheme depends on the identification,
by agglutination, of the structural formulae of the O
and H antigens of the strains (Table 39.3).
This scheme, first developed in 1934, classifies
the salmonellae into different O groups, or O
serogroups, each of which contains a number
of serotypes pos­s essing a common O antigen
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 278  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Table 39.3  Kauffmann–White classification–Antigenic formulae of some representative serotypes of
Salmonella
Serogroup Oantigen Serotype name O antigens and Vi H antigens
group
Phase 1 Phase 2
2 A Paratyphi A 1, 2, 12 a [1, 5]
4 B Paratyphi B 1, 4, [5], 12 b 1, 2
Stanley 1.4, [5], 12, 27 d 1, 2
Typhimurium 1.4, [5], 12 i 1, 2
Heidelberg 1.4, [5], 12 r 1, 2
7 C1 Choleraesuis 6, 7 c 1, 5
Paratyphi C 6, 7 [Vi] c 1, 5
Typhisuis 6, 7 c 1, 5
Virchow 6, 7 r 1, 2
8 C2-C3 Muenchen 6, 8 d 1, 2
Newport 6, 8, 20 e, h 1, 2
Hadar 6, 8 z10 e, n, x
Miami 1, 9, 12 a 1, 5
- Sendai 1, 9, 12 a 1, 5
9 D1 Typhi 9, 12 [Vi] d –
Enteritidis 1, 9, 12 g, m [1, 7]
Dublin 1, 9, 12, [Vi] g, p –
Panama 1, 9, 12 I, v 1, 5
Gallinarum 1, 9, 12 – –
3,10 E1 Anatum 3, 10, [12], [1Q,; H) e, h 1, 6

not found in other O groups. The O groups first
defined were designated by capital letters A to Z
and those discovered later by the number (51–67)
of the’ characteristic O anti­gen. It would be more
logical to name the serogroups according to their
characteristic O antigen factor number rather than
by letters, i.e. to abandon the letters A–Z used to
designate early O groups. Hence, O groups become:
O2 (A), O4 (B), O7 (Cl), O8 (C2–C3), 09, 12 (Dl),
09, 46 (D2), 03, 10 (EI) etc. Some serogroups were
subdivideed into subserogroups (C1–C4; E1–E4).
Serogroups A–Z and 51–67 represented O antigens
2–50 and 51–67 respectively. Groups 02 to 03, 10
(A–EI) contain nearly all the salmonellae that are
important pathogens in man and animals.
Within each O group the different serotypes are
distinguished by their particular H antigen or com­
bination of H antigens (Table 39.3). Kauffmann–
White classification gave species status to each
serotype. The species were named according to
the disease caused (S. Typhi), the animal source (S.
Gallinarium), the discoverer (S. Schottmulleri), the
name of the patient from whom the first strain was
isolated (S. Thompson), or the place of isolation
(S. Poona). This was satisfactory so long as the
serotypes were not too many but now with some
more than 2400 serotypes of salmonellae, giving
individual names is not realistic.
Differentiation of Antigenically Similar
Strains
Serotypes that share the same antigenic formula
may be distinguished from one another by bio­
chemical tests, e.g. Paratyphi C has the same O and
H antigens as Choleraesuis, and Typhisuis. Thus,
Paratyphi C ferments d-tartrate and trehalose,
but not Stern’s glycerol. Choleraesuis ferments
d-tartrate, but not trehalose or Stern’s glycerol, and
Typhisuis only trehalose.
Bacteriophage Typing
Strains within a particular serotype may be differen­
tiated into a number of phage types by their patterns
of susceptibility to lysis by members of a series of
phages with different specificities. Intraspecies
classification of S. Typhi for epidemiolocal
purpose was made possible by bacteriophage
typing, first developed by Craige and Yen (1937).
They observed that a bacteriophage acting on the
Vi antigen of the typhoid bacillus (Vi phage II) is
highly adaptable. The parent phage is called phage

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 Chapter 39: Enterobacteriaceae III: Salmonella  | 279
A. It could be made specific for a particular strain of
typhoid bacillus by serial propagation in the strain.
Such adaptation was obtained by phenotypic or
genotypic variation.Phage type E1, O and A are the
most common in India.
Serotypes that are subdivided in existing
systems of phage typing include Typhi, Paratyphi
A, Paratyphi B, Enteritidis, Hadar, Thompson,
Typhimurium and Virchow. Thus, over 100 different
phage types of Typhi and over 230 phage types
of Typhimurium are distinguished. Among the
Paratyphi A isolated from India, phage types 1 and
2 are the most common.
Phage typing is carried out at the National
Phage Typing Center and is coordinated by the
International Reference center. The National
Salmonella Phage Typing Center for India is located
at the Lady Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi.
Phage types A and E1 are the most common and
present throughout India.However, the relative
prevalence in different regions is subject to change
from time to time.
Biotyping
Biotyping is a useful adjunct to phage typing for
it can subdivide a large group of untypale strains
or members of common phage types. Similarily,
strains of the same biotype may be subdivided into
different phage types.
Pathogenesis
Salmonellae are strict parasites of animals or
humans. All vertbrates appear capable of harboring
these bacteria in their gut and salmonellae can
colonize virtually all animals.
Host-adapted Serotypes
Some serotypes exhibit host specificity. S. Typhi,
S. Paratyphi A and usually,but not invariably S.
Paratyphi B are confined to human beings. Other
salmonellae are parasitic in various animals—
domestic animals, rodents, reptiles and birds.
Clinical Syndromes
Salmonellae cause the following four major
syndromes:
1. Enteric fever.
2. Bacteremia with focal lesion.
3. Gastroenteritis or food poisoning.
4. Asymptomatic carrier state.
1. Enteric Fever
The term enteric fever includes typhoid fever
caused by S. Typhi and paratyphoid fever caused
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Chap-39.indd 279
by Paratyphi A, B or C. The clinical features tend
to be more severe’ with S. Typhi (typhoid fever).
a. Typhoid Fever
The infection is acquired by ingestion. On reaching
the gut, the bacilli attach themselves to the microvilli
of the ileal mucosa on the epithelium. They then
pene­trate to the lamina propria and submucosa,
where they are phagocytized by neutrophils and
macro­p hages. They resist intracellular killing
and multi­ply within these cells. They enter the
mesenteric lymph nodes, where after a period of
multiplication they invade the bloodstream via
the thoracic duct. During this period the bacilli
are seeded in the liver, gall bladder, spleen,
bone marrow, lymph nodes, lungs and kidneys,
where further multiplication takes place. After
multiplication in these organs, bacilli pass into the
blood, causing a second and heavier bacteremia,
the onset of which approximately coincides with
that of fever and other signs of clinical illness.
The salmonellae multiply abundantly in the
gall bladder as bile is a good culture medium for
the bacillus and are discharged continuously into
the intestine where Peyer’s patches and other
gut lym­phoid tissues of ileum become involved.
These become inflamed and infiltration with
mononuclear cells, followed by necrosis, sloughing
and the formation of characteristic typhoid ulcers
occurs. Ulceration of the bowel leads to two
major complications of the disease—intestinal
perforation and hemorrhage. ­
Clinical course: The incubation period is usually
7–14 days. The onset is usually gradual and early
symptoms are often vague: headache, mal­aise,
anorexia, a coated tongue and abdominal dis­
comfort with either constipation or diarrhea.
In the untreated case the temperature shows
a step ladder rise over the first week of the illness,
remains high for 7–10 days and then falls by lysis
during the third or fourth week. Physical signs
include a relative bradycardia at the height of the
fever, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly and often a
rash of rose spots, found on the front of the chest
during the second or third week and fade on
pressure. The white blood cell count is normal or
low. Apparent recovery can be followed by relapse
in 5–10% of untreated cases. Classic typhoid fever
is a serious infection which, when untreated, has
a mortality approaching 20%.
Complications: The most important complications
are intestinal perforation, hemorrhage and
circulatory collapse. Some degree of bronchitis or
bronchopneumonia is always found.
b. Paratyphoid Fever
S. Paratyphi A and B cause paratyphoid fever which
resembles typhoid fever but is generally milder.
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S. Paratyphi C may also cause paratyphoid fever
but more often it leads to a frank septicemia with
suppurative complications.
2. Bacteremia with Focal Lesion
This is associated with S. Cholerae-suis but may
be caused by any Salmonella serotype. Infection
occurs by oral route and there is early invasion of
the bloodstream with possible focal lesions and
in particular may cause septicemic disease (with
focal lesions, in lungs, bones, meninges, etc.) but
intestinal manifectations are often absent. Blood
culture are positive.
3. Gasteroenteritis or Food Poisoning
This is the most common manifestation of
Salmonella infection. In the USA, Salmonella
Typhimurium and Salmonella enteritis are
prominent (For detail see under the heading,
“Salmonella gastroenteritis”.)
4. Asymptomatic Carrier State
Most people infected with salmonella continue
to excrete the organism in their stools for days
or weeks after complete clinical recovery, but
eventual clearance of the bacteria from the body
is usual. A few patients continue to excrete the
salmonellae for prolonged periods.
A. Isolation and Identification of the Bacilli
It may be done by culture of specimens such
as patient’s blood, feces, urine, bone marrow,
duodenal drainage rose spots etc. For the
leborotatory diagnosis of enteric fever, selection
of relevant specimens depends upon duration
of illness, e.g. blood for culture must be taken
repeatedly. Urine culture may be positive after
second week and stool second or third week.
Blood Culture
Blood cultures are positive in approximately 90%
cases in the first week of fever, in approximately
75% of cases in the second week, 60% in the third
week and 25% thereafter till the subsidence of
pyrexia (Fig. 39.3, Table 39.4).
With all aseptic precautions, about 5–10 mL of
blood is collected by venipuncture and inoculated
into a culture bottle containing 50–100 mL of 0.5%
bile broth. Large quantity (5–10 mL) of blood is
required because the number of organisms are not
numerous and may be quite small. The blood is

Epidemiology
The typhoid and paratyphoid bacilli are essentially
human parasites. Man is the reservoir host and
most infections can be traced to a human source,
or at least to a source of human sewage. All other
salmonellae have animal hosts.
S. Paratyphi A is prevalent in India and other
Asian countries, Eastern Europe and South
America, S. Paratyphi B in Western Europe, Britain
and North America; and S. Paratyphi C in Eastern Fig. 39.3: Laboratory diagnosis of typhoid fever. The appro­
Europe and Guyana. Enteric fever is endemic in all ximate percentages of tests found positive during different
parts of India. Paratyphoid B is rare and C very rare. stages of the disease (from 1st to 5th week). A. Widal aggluti­
nation. B. Feces culture. C. Blood culture
The disease occurs at all ages but is probably most
common in the 5–20 year age group.
The source of infection is a patient, or far more
Table 39.4  Positivity of various specimens at
different phases of enteric fever
frequently, a carrier. Food handlers or cooks who
become carriers are particularly dangerous. The Duration Specimen % positivity
best known of such typhoid carriers was Mary 1st week Blood culture 90
Mallon (‘Typhoid Mary’), a New York cook who Feces culture –
caused at least seven outbreaks affecting over 200
Widal test –
persons over a period of 15 years.
2nd week Blood culture 75
Laboratory Diagnosis Feces culture 50
Bactriological dignosis of enteric fever consists of: Widal test Low titer
A. Isolation and identification of the bacilli. 3rd week Blood culture 60
B. Demonstration of circulating antigen.
Feces culture 80
C. Demonstration of antibodies in patient’s serum.
Widal test 80–100
D. Other laboratory tests.

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 Chapter 39: Enterobacteriaceae III: Salmonella  | 281
diluted between 1 in 5 and 1 in 10 in culture medium
to reduce the concentration of natural antimicrobial
constituents to a sub-effective level. The addition of
liqoid (sodium polyanethol sulphonate) counteracts
the bactericidal action of blood.
After overnight incubation at 37°C, the bile
broth is subcultured on MacConkey agar and
blood agar media. These plates are incubated at
37°C for 24 hours. Pale nonlactose fermenting
(NLF) colonies that may appear on MacConkey
agar medium are picked out for biochemical tests
and motility. Salmonellae will be gram-negative
and motile bacilli.
Subcultures repetition: If salmenellae are not
obtained from the first subculture from bile broth,
then subcultures should be repeated every other
day till growth is obtained. If no growth is obtained
after 5–7 days, then the culture is declared negative.
Castaneda’s method of culture: Castaneda’s
method of culture may be adopted to eliminate the
risk of introducing contamination during repeated
subculture, and also for economy and safety. In this
method, a double medium is used. The bottle of bile
broth has an agar slant on one side. After inoculation
of blood, the bottle is incubated in the upright
position. For subculture, the bottle is merely tilted
so that the broth runs over the surface of the agar. It
is reincubated in the upright position. If salmonellae
are present, colonies will appear on the slant.
Clot Culture
An alternative to blood culture is the clot culture.
Here, with strict aseptic precautions, 5 mL of blood
is withdrawn from the patient into a sterile test
tube and allowed to clot. The serum is pipetted
off and used for Widal test. The clot is broken up
with a sterile glass rod and added to a bottle of bile
broth incorportating streptokinase (100 units/mL).
Streptokinase in the broth facilitates lysis of the clot
with release of bacteria trapped in the clot.
Advantage of clot culture: i. Clot cultures yields a
higher rate of isolation than blood cultures.
ii. A sample of serum also becomes available for
Widal test. Even though agglutinins may be absent
in the early stages of the disease, a Widal test
provides a baseline titer against which the results
of tests performed later may be evaluated.
Feces Culture
Salmonellae are shed in the feces throughout the
course of the disease and even in convalescence.
Hence, fecal cultures are almost as valuable as
blood cultures in diagnosis. Feces culture are
generally positive after second week of illness. Iso­
lation from the feces is of less certain significance.
A positive fecal culture may occur in carriers as
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Chap-39.indd 281
well as in patients. The use of enrichment and
selective media and repeated sampling increase
the rate of isolation. Fecal culture is particularly
valuable in patients on antibiotics as the drug does
not eliminate the bacilli from the gut as rapidly as
it does from the blood.
Fecal samples are plated diretly on MacConkey
agar, DCA and Wilson and Blair’s brilliant-
green bismuth sulfite agar media. The last is
highly selective and should be plated heavily.
On MacConkey and DCA media, salmonellae
appear as pale colonies. On Wilson and Blair’s
brilliant-green bismuth sulfite agar media,
S. Typhi forms large black colonies, with a metallic
sheen. S. Paratyphi A produces green colonies due
the absense of H2 S production.
For enrichment, one tube each of selenite F
and tetrathionate broth are also inoculated. These
are also incubated at 37°C for 8–12 hours with
subsequent subculture on MacConkey agar and
DCA media.
Urine Culture
Urine culture is less useful than the culture of
blood and feces because salmonellae are shed in
the urine irregularily and infrequently. Generally
cultures are positive only in the second and third
weeks and then only in about 25% of cases. The
rate of isolation is improved by repeated sampling.
Clean voided urine samples are centrifuged and
the deposit inoculated into enrichment and
selective media as for fecal culture.
Other Materials for Culture
Bone marrow culture is valuable and it is positive
in most cases even when blood culture is negative.
Culture of bile obtained by duodenal aspiration is
usually positive and this may be employed for the
detection of carrirs. Other matrials, such as rose
spots, pus from suppurative lesions, CSF and
sputum may yield isolation at times. At autopsy,
cultures may be obtained from the gallbladder,
liver, spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes.
Colony morphology: Pale nonlactose fermenting
(NLF)colonies that may appear on MacConkey
agar or DCA medium after incubating at 37°C for
24 hours are picked out for biochemical tests and
motility. Salmonellae will be gram-negative and
motile bacilli.
Biochemical reactions: Salmonellae will be
indole and urease negative, catalase positive,
oxidase negative, nitrate reduction positive and
ferment glucose, mannitol and maltose but not
lactose or sucrose. S. Typhi will be anerogenic
and ferments glucose and mannitol with
production of acid only, while paratyphoid bacilli
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(S. Paratyphi A, B and C) will form acid and gas
from sugars.
Identification: Identification of the isolate is by
slide agglutination.
Slide agglutination test: A loopful of the growth
from an agar slope is emulsified in two drops of
saline on a slide. One emulsion acts as a control to
show that the strain is not autoagglutinable. If S.
Typhi is suspected (that is, when no gas is formed
from glucose), a loopful of typhoid O antiserum
(factor 9/group D) is added to one drop of
bacterial emulsion on the slide, and agglutination
looked for after rocking the slide gently. Prompt
agglutination indicates that the isolate belongs
to Salmonella group D. Its identity as S. Typhi is
established by agglutination with the flagellar
antiserum (anti-d serum). Quite often, fresh
isolates of S. Typhi are in the V form and do not
agglutinate with the O antiserum. Such strains may
be tested for agglutination against anti-Vi serum.
Alternatively, the growth is scraped off in a small
amount of saline, boiled for 20 minutes and tested
for agglutination with the O antiserum.
Where the isolate is a nontyphoid Salmonella
(producing gas from sugars), it is tested for
agglutination with O and H antisera for groups A,
B and C. For identification of unusual serotypes,
the help of the ‘National Salmonella Reference
Center’ should be sought. The National Salmonella
Reference Center in India is located at the Central
Research Institute, Kasauli. The reference center
for salmonellae of animal origin is at the Indian
Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar.
B. Demonstration of Circulating Antigen
In the early phase of the disease, typhoid bacillus
antigens are consistently present in the blood
and also in the urine of patients. The antigen can
be demonstrated by sensitized staphylococcal
coagglutination. Staphylococcus aureus containing
protein A (Cowan 1 strain) is stabilized with
formaldehyde and then coated with S. Typhi anibody.
When a 1% suspension of such sensitized cells is
mixed on a slide with serum from patients in the first
week of typhoid fever, the typhoid antigen present in
the serum combines specifically with the antibody
attached to the staphylococcal cells producing visible
agglutination within two minutes. The test is rapid,
sensitive and specific but is not positive after first week
of the disease. ELISA test has also been employed to
detect typhoid antigen in blood and urine.
C. Demonstration of Antibodies in
Patient’s Serum
i. Widal test.
ii. Other serological tests.
Chap-39.indd 282
i. Widal Test
Testing the patient’s serum for Salmonella antibodies
is useful only in the diagnosis of enteric fever (Widal
reaction). Tests for the presence of Salmonella
antibodies in the patient’s serum may be of value
in the diagnosis of enteric fever. This is a test for
measurement of H and O agglutinins for typhoid
and paratyphoid bacilli in the patient’s serum. The
patient’s serum is tested by tube agglutination for its
titers of antibodies against H, O and Vi suspensions
of the enteric fever bacteria likely to be encountered,
e.g. S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi A in India. Two types
of tubes are generally used for the test:
1. Dreyer’s agglutination tube (narrow tubes with
a conical bottom) for the H agglutination.
2. Felix tube (a short round bottomed tube) for
the O agglutination.
Equal volumes (0.4 mL) of serial dilutions of
the serum (from 1/10 to 1/640) and the H antigens
of S. Typhi (TH) and S. Paratyphi A (AH) and O
antigen of S. Typhi (TO) are mixed in Dreyer’s and
Felix’s agglutination tubes respectively. Incubate H
agglutinations for 2–4 hours in water bath at 37°C
and read after standing on the bench for half an
hour. Incubate O agglutinations for 4–6 hours at
37°C and read after overnight refrigeration at 4°C.
Controls tubes containing the antigen and normal
saline are set to check for autoagglutination. The
agglutination titers of the serum are read.
H agglutination leads to the formation of loose,
cotton woolly clumps, while O agglutination is
seen as a disc like pattern at the bottom of the
tube. Control (Felix) tube shows a compact
deposit. In both, the supernantant fluid is rendered
clear. The highest dilution of the serum showing
agglutination indicates the titer of the antibody.
The antigens used in the test are the H and O
antigens of S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi A and B. The
paratyphoid O antigens are not employed as they
cross react with the typhoid O antigen due to their
sharing of factor 12. Although suspensions may be
prepared from suitable stock laboratory cultures,
there is little need for that nowadays because
ready made Widal kits of stained antigens available
commertially are now widely used.
Interpretation of Widal Test
1. Stage of the disease: The agglutinins titer will
depend on the stage of the disease. Usually
agglutinins appear by the end of first week
(seventh to tenth day) of the illness, so that
blood taken earlier may give a negative result
and is inconclusive. The titer then increases
steadily till the third or the fourth week, after
which it declines gradually.
2. Rising titer: Demonstration of a rise in titer of
antibodies by testing two or more samples is
more meaningful than a single test.
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3. Single Widal test: The results of a single Widal
test should be interpretated with caution. Levels
of significance is difficult to lay down though it
is generally stated that titers of 1/100 or more
for O agglutinins and 1/200 or more for H
agglutinins are significant. It is necessray to obtain
information on the distribution of agglutinin
levels in ‘normal sera’ in different areas.
4. Immunization: Serum from an individual
immunized with TAB vaccine will generally
have antibodies to S. Typhi, S. Paratyphi A and
B. However, in case of infection antibodies will
be seen only against the infecting species.
5. O and H agglutinis: H agglutinis persist longer
(for many months) than O agglutinins. Therefore,
rise in O agglutinins indicate recent infection.
6. Anamnestic response: Persons who have
prior infection or immunization may develop
anamnestic response during an unrelated
fever, such as malaria, influenza, etc. This may
be differentiated by repetition of the test after a
week. The anamnestic shows only a transient
rise, while in enteric fever the rise is sustained.
7. Fimbrial antigen: Bacterial suspension used
as antigens should be free from fimbria which
may produce false positive results.
8. Effect of treatment: Patients treated early with
chroramphenicol may show a poor agglutinin
response.
ii. Other Serological Tests
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA),
indirect hemagglutination test and CIEP are other
serological methods of diagnosis.
D. Other Laboratory Tests
i. Total leukocyte count (TLC): Leucopenia
with a relative lymphocytosis is seen.
ii. Diazo test in urine: This test becomes positive
generally between 5th and 14th day of fever
and remains positive till the fever subsides.
Procedure: Equal volumes of patient’s urine and
the diazo reagent are mixed and a few drops of 30%
ammonium hydroxide are added. If the test is positive,
a red or pink froth develops on shaking the mixture
Diazo Reagent
∙∙ Solution A­—Sulfanilic acid; Conc. H 2SO 4;
distilled water;
∙∙ Solution B—Sodium nitrite; distilled water; for
use, 40 parts of solution A are added to one part
of solution B.
DIAGNOSIS OF CARRIERS
The detection of carriers is important for
epidemilogical and public health purposes. It is
also useful in screening food handlers and cooks.
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Chap-39.indd 283
1. Isolation of the bacillus: The identification of
the fecal carriers is by isolation of the bacillus
from feces or from bile. The frequency and
intensity of bacillary shedding vary widely
and it is essential, therefore, to test repeated
samples. Chance of isolation is increased by
cholagogue purgatives. For the detection of
urinary carriers, repeated urine culture should
be carried out.
2. Widal test: Widal test is of no value in the
detection of carriers in endemic countries like
India. The demonstration of Vi agglutinins
(1:10 or more) has been claimed to indicate the
carrier state. Whlie this is useful as a screening
test but confirmation should be made culture.
3. Sewer-swab technique: The tracing of carriers
in cities may be accomplished by the ‘sewer-
swab’ technique. Gauze pads left in sewers
and drains are cultured, and by tracing positive
swabs, one may be led to the house harboring
a carrier.
4. Filtration through millipore membrane:
Another technique of isolating salmonellae
from sewage is filtration through millipore
membrane and culturing the membranes on
highly selective media such as Wison and Blair
media.
PROPHYLAXIS
Control depends essentially on safe water
supply, proper sewage disposal, handling of food
hygienically, and periodic examination of food
handlers to ascer­tain that they are not carriers.
Vaccines against Typhoid Fever
Killed whole Cell Vaccine: TAB Vaccine
Heat-killed, phenol-preserved whole-cell vaccines
con­taining a mixture of cultures of Typhi, Paratyphi
A and Paratyphi B (TAB) have been used for many
years in countries with a high endemic level of
typhoid fever. The TAB vaccine which came into
general use contained S. Typhi 1,000 million and
S. Paratyphi A and B, 750 million each per mL
killed by heating at 50–60°C and preserved in 0.5%
phenol. Acetone-killed vac­cine preserved in the
dry state also provides similar protection.
Dose schedule: The vaccine is given in 2 doses of
0.5 mL subcutaneously at an interval of 4–6 weeks
followed by a booster dose every 3 years.
Protection: Field trials have shown that such
preparations confer protection against typhoid
fever with an effi­cacy of 70–90% for 3–7 years.
Side effects: Local and general reactions lasting for
one or two days are quite frequent.
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 284  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Note: In India a divalent vaccine containing S. Typhi
and S. Paratyphi A are now in use instead of the TAB
vaccine, eliminating S. paratyphi B which is rare in
the country or the monovalent typhoid vaccine is
preferred. In Europe and USA, monovalent vaccine
containing S. Typhi is employed as paratyphoid A
and B infections are rare in these countries.
Oral Vaccine–Live Oral (Ty21) Typhoid Vaccine
The live oral vaccine (typhoral) is a stable mutant of
S. Typhi strain (Ty21a), lacking the enzyme UDP-
galactose-4-epimerase (Gal E mutant). On inges­tion,
it initiates infection but ‘self destructs’ after four or
five cell divisions, and therefore, it cannot induce
any illness. This oral vaccine is available in enteric
coated capsule containing 109 viable lyophilized
mutant bacilli.
Dose schedule: Three doses of the vaccine are
given on alternate days to children. The course
consists of one capsule orally, taken an hour before
food, with a glass of water or milk, on days 1, 3, and
5. No antibiotic should be taken during this period.
Protection: It is safe and confers 65–96% protection
for 3–5 years.
Vaccine of Purified Vi Antigen (Typhim-Vi)
This injectable vaccine (typhim-Vi) contains
purified Vi polysaccharide antigen (25 µg per dose)
from S. Typhi strain Ty2.
It is given as a single subcutaneous or intra­
muscular injection. This vaccine is not recom­
mended for children younger than 2 years.
In the trials conducted the protection conferred
by the vaccine was 64% and 72%.
Treatment
Specific antibacterial therapy for enteric fever
became available only in 1948 with the introduction
of chloram­phenicol, which continued as the sheet
anchor against the disease till the 1970s when
resistance became common. Ampicillin, amoxicillin,
and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole have been used
successfully.
In the past decade, third-generation cephalo­
sporins, particularly ceftri­axone and cefoperazone,
and fluoroquinolones including norfloxacin,
ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, and pefloxacin all are at
least as effective as chloramphenicol in treating
typhoid fever. Ciprofloxacin has emerged as the
drug of choice for the treatment of adult typhoid,
and is proving equally effective and free from side-
effects in children.
DRUG RESISTANCE
S. Typhi resistant to chloramphenicol was first
reported in England in 1950. Resistance to
Chap-39.indd 284
chloramphenicol did not pose any problem
in typhoid fever till 1972, when resistant
strains emerged in Mexico and Kerala in India.
Chloramphenicol resistant typhoid fever appeared
in epidemic form first in Calicut (Kerala) in early
1972. It became endemic and was confined to
Kerala till 1978. Subsequently such strains carrying
drug resistance plasmids appeared in many
other parts of India. Resistance was originally
confined to phage type D1-N, but later to types
C5, A and O. This multidrug resistance was due
to a transmissible plasmid carrying resistance
determinants to chlora­mphenicol, streptomycin,
sulfadiazine and tetra­cycline (CSSuT).
A ciprofloxacin-resistant S. Typhi isolate was
first reported from the United Kingdom in 1992. At
present, the drugs useful in treatment of such multire­
sistant typhoid cases are the later fluoroquinolones
(such as ciprofloxacin, pefloxacin, ofloxacin) and
the third generation celphalosporins (such as
ceftazidime, ceftrioxone, cefotaxime).
SALMONELLA GASTROENTERITIS
Salmonella gastroenteritis (more appropriately
enterocolitis) or food poisoning is generally a
zoonotic disease. The source of infection being ani­
mal products. It may be caused by any salmonella
except S. Typhi. In most parts of the world, S.
Typhimurium is the commonest (30–40%) species.
Some other common species have been S. Enteri­
tidis, S. Haldar, S. Heidelberg, S. Agona, S. Virchow,
S. Seftenberg, S. Indiana, S. Newport and S. Anatum
S. Dublin.
Source of Infection
The most frequent sources of Sal­monella food
poisoning are poultry, meat, milk and milk products.
Of great concern are eggs and egg products.
Food contamination may also result from the
droppings of rats, lizards or other small animals.
Human carriers do occur but their role is minimal.
Clinical Features
Clinically, the disease develops after a short
incubation period of 24 hours or less, with diarrhea,
vom­iting, abdominal pain and fever. It usually
subsides in 2­–4 days but in some cases a more
prolonged enteritis develops.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The laboratory diagnosis depends on the isolation
of the causal organism from samples of feces or
suspected foodstuffs.
Treatment
Treatment of uncomplicated, noninvasive salmo­
nellosis is symptomatic. Antibiotics should not be
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used. Not only do they not hasten recovery but they
may actually increase the period of fecal shedding
of the bacilli. But for the serious invasive cases,
antibiot­ic treatment is needed.­
SALMONELLA SEPTICEMIA
S. Cholerae-suis, in particular may cause septicemic
disease with focal suppurative lesions, such as
osteomyelitis, deep abscesses, endocarditis,
pneumonia and meningitis. Focal lesions may
develop in any tissue.
Salmonella septicemia is prolonged and
characterized by fever, chills, anorexia, and anemia.
Gastroenteritis is minor or even absent, and the
organism is rarely cultured from feces. Infection
occurs by oral route and the incubation period is
short. The case fataliy may be as high as 25%.
Salmonelle may be isolated from the blood
or from the pus from the suppurative lesions.
Feces culture may sometimes may be positive.
Septicemic samonellosis should be treated with
chroramphenicol or other appropriate antibiotics
as determined by sensitivity tests.
MULTIRESISTANT SALMONELLAE
In India, several hospital outbreaks of neonatal
septicemia caused by multiresistant salmonellae
have occurred in recent years. Mortality in
neonates is very high unless early treatment is
started with antibiotics to which the infecting strain
is sensitive.
Key Points
Salmonella
™™ Gram-negative bacilli, nonsporing, and noncapsu­
lated, motile bacilli
™™ Aerobic and facultative anaerobic grow easily on
a variety of nonselective media (e.g. nutrient agar)
and selective (e.g. Wilson and Blair’s bismuth sulfite
medium, xylose, lysine deoxycholate agar, etc)..
Selenite F and tetrathionate broth are enrichment
media
™™ Salmonellae possess the (1) Flagellar antigen H, (2)
Somatic antigen O (3) Surface antigen Vi, found in
some species
™™ Salmonella are classified by Kauffman–White scheme
based on structural formulae of the O and H antigens
of the strains
™™ S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi are strict human pathogens
(no alternative reservoir)
™™ Diseases: Asymptomatic colonization; enteric fever;
enteritis; bacteremia
™™ Diagnosis: Isolation of the S. Typhi or S. Paratyphi
from blood, feces, urine, bone marrow, duodenal
drainage rose spots, etc.
™™ Blood culture is positive in 90% cases in first week
of fever
™™ Widal test is the traditional serologic test used for
the diagnosis of typhoid fever
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Chap-39.indd 285
™™ Infections with S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi or
disseminated infections with other organisms
should be treated with an effective antibiotic
such as fluoroquinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin),
chloramphenicol, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole,
or a broad-spectrum cephalosporin can be used
™™ TAB vaccine, Vi capsular polysaccharide antigen
vaccine, and acetone-inactivated parenteral vaccine
are the killed vaccines and Ty21 a vaccine is the oral
vaccine used for immunization against typhoid fever
™™ Salmonella gastroenteritis is generally a zoonotic
disease. It may be caused by any salmonella except S.
Typhi. The most frequent sources of Sal­monella food
poisoning are poultry, meat, milk and milk products
™™ Salmonella septicemia: S. Cholerae-suis, in
particular may cause septicemic disease with focal
suppurative lesions, such as osteomyelitis, deep
abscesses, endocarditis, pneumonia and meningitis.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Name the salmonellae causing enteric fever.
Describe in detail the laboratory diagnosis of
enteric fever.
2. Describe the pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis
of enteric fever.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Antigenic structure of Salmonella
b. Vi-antigen or surface antigen
c. Kauffmann-White scheme
d. Clot culture
e. Widal test
f. Vaccination against enteric fever
g. Salmonella gastroenteritis
h. Salmonella septicemia.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. All the following enrichment media are used for
isolation of Salmonella except:
a. Alkaline peptone water
b. Selenite F broth
c. Brilliant green tetrathionate broth
d. Tetrathionate broth
2. The selective medium used for isolation of
Salmonella is:
a. Wilson and Blair’s brilliant-green bismuth sulfite
agar
b. Cary-Blair medium
c. Thiosulfate citrate bile salt agar
d. Xylose, lysine deoxycholate agar
3. All the following Salmonella serotypes are motile
except
a. Salmonella Typhi
b. Salmonella Typhimurium
c. Salmonella Choleraesuis
d. Salmonella Gallinarum
4. Hydrogen sulfide is not produced by the following
serotypes of Salmonella:
a. S. Paratyphi A
b. S. Choleraesuis
c. Both of the above
d. None of the above
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 286  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
5. Which of the following serotypes of Salmonella is/
are anerogenic?
a. S. Typhi b. S. Paratyphi A
c. S. Enteritidis d. All of the above
6. Citrate is not used by the following Salmonella:
a. Salmonella Typhi
b. Salmonella Paratyphi A
c. Both of the above
d. None of the above
7. Which of the following Salmonella is/are primarily
human pathogens?
a. S. Typhi b. S. Paratyphi A
c. S. Paratyphi B d. All of the above
8. The most important specimen for isolation of
Salmonella Typhi culture in first week of enteric
fever?
a. Blood b. Urine
c. Feces d. CSF
Chap-39.indd 286
9. Most important complications of enteric fever is/
are:
a. Intestinal perforation b. Hemorrhage
c. Circulatory collapse d. All of the above
10. Most important specimen for detection of carriers
in enteric fever is:
a. Feces b. Urine
c. Blood d. Sputum
11. All the following are the examples of killed vaccines
used against typhoid fever except:
a. TAB vaccine
b. Vi capsular polysaccharide antigen vaccine
c. Acetone-inactivated parenteral vaccine
d. Ty21a vaccine
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. a; 2. a; 3. d; 4. c; 5. a; 6. c; 7. d; 8. a; 9. d; 10. a; 11. d
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 40
Chapter

Vibrio, Aeromonas and Plesiomonas

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Differentiate between classical and El Tor vibrios
be able to: ∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of cholera
∙∙ Describe morphology, cuture characteristics and ∙∙ Describe the following: cholera vaccine; nonagglut­
biochemical reactions of Vibrio cholerae inating vibrios; halophilic vibrios
∙∙ Discuss antigenic structure of Vibrio cholerae
∙∙ Describe the following: pathogenesis of cholera;
mechanism of action of cholera toxin

INTRODUCTION It is actively motile, by means of a single, polar

sheathed flag­ellum. The motility is of the darting
The second major group of gram-negative, type. They are nonsporing, noncapsulated and
facultatively anaerobic, fermentative bacilli are the non­acid-fast (Fig. 40.1).
genera Vibrio, Aeromonas, and Plesiomonas. Vibrio
and Aeromonas are now classified in the families Cultural Characteristics
Vibrionaceae and Aeromonadaceae, respectively.
The cholera vibrio is strongly aerobic, growth being
Plesiomonas is closely related to Proteus and has now
scanty and slow anaerobically. It grows within a
been placed in the Enterobacteriaceae family.
tem­perature range of 16–40°C (optimum 37°C).
VIBRIO Growth is better in an alkaline medium and it
occurs freely between pH 7.4 and 9.6 (optimum pH
Of the 35 Vibrio species recognized,12 have been 8.2). V. cholerae is a nonhalophilic vib­rio. It grows
implicated in gastrointestinal and extraintestinal well on ordinary media.
infections in man. The genus can be divided into
nonhalophilic vibrios, includ­ing V. cholerae and
other species and halophilic species. The species
most frequently isolated from clinical specimens
are strains of V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus, V.
vulnificus, V. mimicus and V. alginolyticus.

VIBRIO CHOLERAE
Morphology
These are gram-negative, short, curved, cylindrical
rods, about 1.5 μm × 0.2–0.4 μm in size. The cell
is typically comma-shaped. S-shaped or spiral
forms may be seen due to two or more cells lying
end-to-end. In old cultures, they are frequently
highly pleomorphic. The vibrios are seen arranged
in parallel rows, described by Koch as the ‘fish in
stream’ appearance in stained films of mucous
flakes from acute cholera cases. Fig. 40.1: Cholera vibrios

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 288  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
A. Ordinary Media
i. Nutrient agar: After overnight growth,
colonies are moist, translu­cent, round disks,
about 1–2 mm in diameter, with a bluish tinge
in transmitted light. The growth has a dis­
tinctive odor.
ii. MacConkey agar: The colonies are color­less,
but become reddish on prolonged incubation
due to the late fermentation of lactose.
iii. Blood agar: Colonies are initially surrounded
by a zone of greening, which later becomes
clear due to hemodigestion.
iv. Gelatin stab culture: At first a white line
of growth appears along the track of the
inoculating wire. Liq­u efaction of gelatin
begins at the top, which spreads downwards in
infundibuli­form (funnel shaped) or napiform
(turnip-shaped) in 3 days at 22°C.
v. Peptone water: When incubated at 37°C in
liquid media, such as peptone water, it forms
a fine surface pellicle because of its affinity for
oxygen.
B. Special Media
a. Holding or Transport Media
1. Venkatraman–Rama­krishnan (VR) medium
A simple modified form of this medium is prepared
by dissolving 20 g crude sea salt and 5 g peptone
in one liter of distilled water and adjusting the pH
to 8.6–8.8. It is dispensed in screw capped bottles
in 10–15 mL amounts. About 1–3 mL stool is to be
added to each bottle. Vibrios do not multiply in
this medium but remain viable for several weeks.
2. Cary–Blair medium
This is a buffered solution of disodium hydrogen
phosphate, sodium thioglycollate, sodium chloride
and agar to distilled water and pH 8.4. It is a suitable
transport medium for Salmonella and Shigella as
well as for vibrios.
3. Autoclaved sea water: Autoclaved sea water also
serves as a holding medium.
b. Enrichment Media
The rapid growth and tolerance of vibrios for alkaline
conditions is exploited in the formulation of media
used for their isolation.
1. Alkaline peptone water: Alkaline peptone water
at pH 8.6 is useful for preliminary enrichment
of vibrios from feces or other contaminated
materials.
2. Monsur’s taurocholate tellurite peptone
water at pH 9.2.
Both these are good transport as well as enrich­
ment media.
Chap-40.indd 288
C. Plating Media
1. Alkaline bile salt agar (BSA); pH 8.2
This is modified nutrient agar medium containing
0.5% sodium taurocholate. The colonies on BSA are
similar to those on nutrient agar medium.
2. Monsur’s gelatin taurocholate trypticase
tellurite agar (GTTA) medium; pH 8.5
After 24 hours incubation, vibrios produce small
(1–2 mm) translucent colonies with grayish­black
center and a turbid halo, due to hydrolysis and
denaturation of gelatin. After 48 hours incuba­tion,
colonies increase in size to 3–4 mm.
3. Thiosulfate-citrate-bile-sucrose (TC­BS) agar—
pH 8.6
This is most used selective plating medi­um for
vibrios. Constituents of this medium are sodium
thiosulphate, sodium citrate, ox bile, sucrose, yeast
extract, peptone, sodium chloride, ferric cit­rate,
thymol blue, bromothymol blue (indicator) and
water. On this differential medium, the colonies
of sucrose-fermenting vibrios, e.g. V. cholerae, are
yellow, those of sucrose-non-fermenting vibrios,
e.g. V. parahaemolyticus, are green.
Biochemical Reactions
1. Sugar fermentation: It ferments glucose,
mannitol, maltose, mannose and sucrose and
ferments lactose only after several days (late
lactose-fermenter).
2. Cholera red reaction: V. cholerae is strongly
indole positive and reduces nitrates to nitrites.
These two properties contribute to the ‘cholera
red reaction’ which is tested by adding a few
drops of concentrated sulfuric acid to a 24-hour
pep­tone water culture at 37°C. A reddish pink
color is developed due to the formation of
ni­troso-indole with cholera vibrios.
3. It is catalase and oxidase-positive, methyl red
and urease negative.
4. It decarbo­xylates lysine and ornithine but does
not utilize arginine.
5. Gelatin is liquefied.
6. Voges-Proskauer reaction and hemolysis of
sheep RBCs are positive in El Tor biotype and
both these reac­tions are negative in classical
biotype.
7. String test: Vibrio colonies may be identified
by the ‘string test’. A loopful of the growth is
mixed with a drop of 0.5% sodium deoxycholate
in saline on a slide. If the test is positive, the
suspension loses its turbidity, becomes mucoid
and forms a ‘string’ when the loop is drawn
slowly away from the suspension.
RESISTANCE
Cholera vibrios are susceptible to heat, drying and
acids, but resist high alkalinity. Vibrios are killed
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by heating at 56°C for 30 minutes or within a few
seconds by boiling. In general, the El Tor vibrio
sur­vives longer than the classical cholera vibrio.
In grossly contaminated water, such as the
Ganges water of India, the vibrios do not survive
for any length of time, due to the appar­ently large
amounts of vibriophages present. They survive in
clean tap water for 30 days. On fruits, they survive
for 1–5 days at room temperature and for a week
in the refrigerator.
Glucose Mannitol Maltose Mannose Sucrose Lactose
A + + + + –
Indole NO3 Catalase Oxidase MR
+ reduction + + –
+ O-1. Therefore, in the diagnostic laboratory
Lysine Ornithine Arginine Gelatin Sheep
+ + – + RBCs
hemo­
lysis*
+ referred to as ‘agglutinable vibrios’). Other vibrio
*In case of El Tor biotypes VP and sheep RBCs hemolysis are
positive and all biochemical reactions are similar.
Antigenic Structure
1. Flagellar antigen (H antigen): Many vibrios
share a single heat-labile flagellar antigen.
2. O antigen (LPS, endotoxin): V. cholerae has
O lipopolysaccharides (LPS, endotoxin) that
confer serologic specificity.
There are at least more than 200 O antigen
groups. V. cholerae strains of O group 1 and O group
139 cause classic cholera. Occasionally, non-Ol/
non­0139 V cholerae causes cholera-like disease.
Classification
In the past, many oxidase positive, motile, curved
rods were rather loosely grouped as vibrios. Precise
criteria have been laid down for differentiating
vibrios from related genera (Table 40.1).
Vibrios were classified by Heiberg (1934) into
six groups based on the fermentation of mannose,
sucrose and arabinose. Two more groups were
added later. Chol­era vibrios belong to Group I
(Table 40.2).
Chapter 40: Vibrio, Aeromonas and Plesiomonas  | 289
Serological Classification
A serological classification was introduced by
Gardner and Venkatraman (1935). Cholera vibrios
and biochemically similar vibrios, possessing a
com­mon flagellar (H) antigen were classified as
Group A vibrios, and the rest as Group B vibrios
comprising a heterogeneous collection.
The somatic (O) antigen structure is of
fundamental importance in the identification
of this organism. Based on the major somatic
(O) antigen, Group A vibrios were classified
into ‘subgroups’ (now called O serogroups or
serovars), more than 200 of which are currently
VP* known. (Flowchart 40.1). All isolates from
– epidemic cholera (till 1992) belonged to serogroup
group O-1 antiserum (commonly called ‘cholera
non­d ifferential serum’) came to be used for
identifying pathogenic cholera vibrios (which are
isolates which were not agglutinated by the O–1
antiserum came to be called nonagglutinable or
NAG vibrios. They were considered nonpathogenic
and hence also called non­cholera vibrios (NCV).
Biotypes of V. cholerae 01
There are two biotypes of V. cholerae 01: classical
and El Tor biotypes. The differ­e nces between
classical and El Tor biotypes V. cholerae are
shown in Table 40.3. El Tor biotype produces
acetoin in the Voges-Proskauer test, agglutinates
fowl erythrocytes, lyses sheep erythrocytes in a
heart infusion broth with glycerol, grows in the
presence of polymyxin (50 unit disk), is resistant
to Mukerjee’s group IV phage and sensitive to the
group V phage of Basu and Mukerjee. The classical
biotype has the opposite pro­perties.
1. Chick red cell agglutination test: A loopful
of the organisms from an agar cultures is
emulsified in a drop of saline on a slide and
a drop of 2.5% chick erythrocyte suspension
is added. Clumping of erythrocytes within a
minute indicates a positive test. The test is
positive with all EI Tor strains but classical
cholera vibrios are negative.

Table 40.1  Differentiation of vibrios from allied genera

Genus Oxidation–Fermentation Utilization of amino acids String test
(Hugh-Leifson Test)
Oxidation Fermentation Lysine Arginine Ornithine
Vibrio + +1 + − + +
Aeromonas + +2 − + − V
Pseudomonas + − V V V −
Plesiomonas + + + + + −
1 = No gas produced; 2 = Gas may or may not be produced; V = Variable reaction

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 290  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Table 40.2  Heiberg grouping of vibrios Table 40.4  Serotypes of cholera vibrios
Group Fermentation Sucrose Arabinose Serotype O antigens
of mannose Ogawa AB
I A A – Inaba AC
II – A – Hikojima ABC
III A A A
IV – A A 3. Sensitivity to cholera phage IV
V A – – All strains of classical cholera vibrio are lysed
VI – – – by Mukherjee’s group IV phage routine test
dilution (RTD), while all EI Tor strains are
VII A – A
not lysed. This is considered to be the most
VIII – – A dependable test for differen­tiating between EI
Tor and classical strains.

Flowchart 40.1: Antigen classification of vibrios (Gardner Subtypes of V. cholerae 01

and Venkatraman, updated)
Strains of V. cholerae 01 may be further subdivided
on the basis of their 0 antigens into three subtypes,
Ogawa, Inaba and Hikojima. This is on the basis
of differences in minor 0 antigens (A, B and C).
Antigen A is present in all the three subtypes. 0
antigens present in Ogawa, Inaba and Hikojima
are A and B, A and C, and A, Band C respectively
(Table 40.4).
Nonagglutinating (NAG) vibrios: Though NAG
vibrios are not agglutinable by the O–1 antiserum,
they are readily agglutinated by their own antisera.
The non–Ol vibrios (the so called NAG vibrios) have
been classified into many serogroups, currently up
to more than 200. V. cholerae O1 and O139 are
responsible for causing classic cholera, which
can occur in epidemics or worldwide pandemics.
Occasionally, non-O1/non O139 V. cholerae causes
cholera-like disease.

V. cholerae 0139
Table 40.3  Differeces between classical cholera In 1992 cases of cholera indistinguishable from that
and El Tor vibrios caused by V. cholerae 01 were reported in Madras
Test Classical cholera El. Tor (Chennai), India. By mid-January 1993 similar
isolates were found in neighboring Bangladesh,
Hemolysis − +*
and these rapidly spread north, following the
Voges-Proskauer − +* course of the major rivers and raising fears of a new
Chick erythrocyte − + pandemic.
agglutination V. cholerae 0139 may have evolved from V.
Polymyxin B sensitivity† + − cholerae 01, but with modified lipopolysaccharide
Group IV phage + − structure. V. cholerae 0139 makes a polysaccharide
susceptibility capsule like other non-O 1 V. cholerae strains, while
El Tor phage 5 − + V. cholerae 01 does not make a capsule. In the
susceptibility affected areas, this strain replaced the El Tor vibrios
* Strain isolated after 1961 give variable results. as the epidemic and environmental serov­ar. It also
†
50 i. u. disk. showed a tendency to be more invasive, causing
bacteremic illness in some. Both O-1 El Tor and
2. Sensitivity to polymyxin B: The organism is O-139 strains began to coexist in endemic areas.
tested by the disc diffusion method using discs
containing 50 units of polymyxin B. All strains Phage Typing
of classical cholera vibrio are sensitive and all Phage typing schemes have been standardized
strains of EI Tor vibrio are resistant. for classical and El Tor biotypes. New molecular

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 Chapter 40: Vibrio, Aeromonas and Plesiomonas  | 291
Table 40.5  Phase types of strains of classical cholera toxin, CT, or CTX). CT production is
biotype of Vibrio cholerae 01 (Mukerjee et al. 1957) determined by a filamentous phage integrated with
the bacterial chromosome.
Phage type Sensitivity to phase group
I II III IV Mechanism of Action
1 + + + +
The toxin molecule, of approximately 84,000 MW
2 − + + + consists of one A and 5 B subunits. The B (binding)
3 + − + + subunit of cholera toxin binds to the ganglio­side
4 − − + + GM1 receptors on the intestinal epithelial cells,
5 + + − +
which promotes entry of subunit A into the cell.
The A (active) subunit, on being transported into
the enterocyte dissociates into two fragments A1
Table 40.6  Phase types of strains of El Tor biotype and A2. The A2 frag­ment only links the biologically
of Vibrio cholerae 01 (Basu and Mukerjee, 1968) active A1 to the B subunit. The active portion (A1) of
Phage type Sensitivity to phase group the A subunit enters the cell and activates adenyl
cyclase. The cholera enterotoxin causes the transfer
I II III IV V
of adenosine diphosphoribose (ADP ribose) from
1 + + + + + nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) to a
2 + + + − + regu­latory protein, which is part of the adenylate
3 + + − + + cyclase enzyme responsible for the generation of
4 + + − − + intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate
(cAMP). The result is irreversible activation of
5 + − − − +
adenylate cyclase and overpro­duction of cAMP.
6 − + − − + This in turn causes inhibition of uptake of Na+
–
and Cl ions by cells lining the villi, together with
–
meth­o ds like ribotyping have added further hypersecretion of Cl and HCO3 ions. This blocks
refinements to strain typing. the uptake of water which normally accompanies
–
Strains of the classical biotype of V. cholerae 01 Na+ and Cl absorption, and there is a passive net
can be divided into 5 types by means of 3 phages outflow of water across mucosal cells, leading to
(I–III) and a fourth phage (IV) lyses all classical serious loss of water and electrolytes.
but not El Tor strains (Table 40.5). On the basis of
lysis by 4, phages, El Tor strains can be divided into Cholera
6 types. All these strains are lysed by a fifth phage
The incubation period varies from less than 24
(V) (Table 40.6).
hours to about five days. The clinical illness may
be­gin slowly with mild diarrhea and vomiting in
Pathogenesis 1–3 days or abruptly with sudden massive diarrhea.
In human infection, the vibrios enter orally through The cholera stool is typically a colorless watery
contaminated water or food. Vibrios are high­ly fluid with flecks of mucus, said to resemble water
susceptible to acids, and gastric acidity provides in which rice has been washed (hence called ‘rice
an effective barrier against small doses of cholera water stools’). It has a characteristic inoffensive
vibrios. sweetish odor. In compo­sition it is a bicarbonate-
The cholera vibrios are ingested in drink or food rich isotonic electrolyte solu­tion, with little protein.
and, in natural infections, the dose must often be Its outpouring leads to diminution of extracellular
small. After passing the acid barrier of the stomach fluid volume, hemocon­centration, hypokalemia,
the organ­isms begin to multiply in the alkaline base-deficit acidosis and shock. There is rapid loss
environment of the small intestine. of fluid and elec­trolytes, which leads to profound
Once in the small intestine, strains of V. cholerae dehydration, circula­tory collapse, and anuria.
O1 migrate towards epithelial cells. A hemagglutinin- The common complications are muscular
protease (former­ly known as ‘cholera lectin’) cleaves cramps, renal failure, pulmonary edema, cardiac
mucus and fibronectin. Adhe­sion to the epithelial ar­rhythmias and paralytic ileus. The mortality rate
surface and colonization may be facilitated by without treatment is between 25% and 50%. The El
special fimbria, such as the ‘toxin co­regulated pilus’ Tor biotype tends to cause milder dis­ease than the
(TCP). classic biotype.

Cholera Toxin (CT) Epidemiology

Vibrios multiplying on the intestinal epithelium Cholera is both an epidemic and endemic disease.
produce a toxin (choleragen, cholera enterotoxin, Seven major pandemics of cholera have occurred

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 292  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
since 1817, resulting in thousands of deaths and by 1994 the El Tor strain regained its dominance
major socioeconomic changes. and the threat of an 0­139 pandemic diminished.
Cholera is an exclusively human disease.
Infection is generally spread by contaminated Laboratory Diagnosis
water or foods. The source of the contamination A. Specimen
is usually the feces of car­riers or patients with
∙∙ Watery stool
cholera.
∙∙ Rectal swabs.
All pandemics of cholera caused by serotype 01,
al­though 0139 can cause similar diseases and may B. Collection of Specimen
cause a pandemic.
a. Stool: A fresh specimen of stool should be
India, more specifically the large deltaic area
collected for laboratory examination. Sample
of the Ganges and Brahmaputra in Bengal, is its
should be collected before the person is treated
homeland, where it has been known from very
with antibiotics. Collection may be made
ancient times. Till early in the nineteenth century,
generally in one of the following ways:
cholera was virtually confined to India, periodically
i. Rubber catheter: Fecal specimens from early
causing large epidemics in different parts of the
acute cases should be collected into a sterile
country. From 1817 to 1923, cholera vibrios had
container, preferably through a soft sterile
spread from Bengal, in six separate pandemic waves,
rubber catheter inserted into the rectum.
involv­ing most parts of the world. After the end of the
ii. Rectal swab: Rectal swabs are useful in
6th pandemic in 1923, till 1961 the disease remained
collecting specimens from convalescents.
con­fined to its endemic areas, except for an isolated
Collection from a bedpan should be avoided
epi­demic in Egypt in 1947. It was largely due to the
because of the risk of contamination or the
threat of pandemic cholera that international health
presence of disinfectant.
organizations came into being.
The seventh pandemic occurred in 1961 and was C. Transportation
first to be caused by the El Tor biotype. It originated
If possible, specimens should be processed without
from Sulawesi (Celebes), Indonesia. V. cholerae 0 I
delay but, if there is to be a delay of more than 6
biotype El Tor was first isola­ted by Gotschlich at the
hours in their reaching the laboratory, feces or
El Tor Quarantine Station in Egypt. After spreading
rectal swabs should be placed in a liquid alkaline
to Hongkong and the Philippines, it spread steadily
transport medium. Stool samples may be preserved
westwards, invading India in 1964. By 1966, it had
in VR fluid or Cary­Blair medium for long periods.
spread throughout the Indian subcontinent and
If the specimen can reach the laboratory in a
West Asia. In the 1970s the pandemic extended to
few hours, it may be trans­ported in enrichment
Africa and parts of Southern Europe.
media, such as alkaline peptone water or Monsur’s
Wherever the El Tor vibrio has caused long­
medium.
standing infection, in all those areas it has
Strips of blotting paper may be soaked in the
displaced the classical vibrio. It supplanted the
watery stool and sent to the laboratory packed
classical bio­type in India during the 1960s and
in plas­tic envelopes if transport media are not
spread into other parts of the country previously
availa­ble.
free from this infec­tion. Similarly, in Bangladesh
Whenever possible, specimens should be
it entirely displaced classical biotype by 1973, but
plated at the bedside and the inoculated plates sent
the latter staged a comeback in 1982 and replaced
to the laboratory.
El Tor vibrio in many areas.
In January, 1991, the pandemic reached Peru, D. Microscopy
thus encircling the globe in 30-year time. By 1994
most parts of Cen­tral and South America had been Direct microscopic examination of feces is not rec­
involved and rendered endemic. ommended. For rapid diagnosis, the characteristic
In 1992, cases of cholera indistinguishable motili­ty of the vibrio and its inhibition by antiserum
from that caused by V. cholerae 01 were reported can be demonstrated under the dark field or phase
in Madras (Chennai), India. By mid-January contrast microscope.
1993 similar isolates were found in neighboring
Bangladesh, and these rapidly spread north, E. Culture
following the course of the major rivers and raising The specimens sent in enrichment media should
fears of a new pandemic. The new strain was be incubated for 6–8 hours, including transit time.
assigned to a new serogroup, 0139 Bengal. The new The specimens sent in holding media should be
strain continued spreading, eastwards to the South inoculated into enrichment media, to be incubated
East Asian coun­tries, and westwards to Pakistan, for 6–8 hours before being streaked on a selective
China and some parts of Europe. But surprisingly, and a nonselective medium.

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 Chapter 40: Vibrio, Aeromonas and Plesiomonas  | 293
Selective Media
The plating media employed usually are bile salt
agar (BSA), MacConkey agar for nonselective and
GTTA and TCBS agar for selective plates. Generally,
the plates are examined after overnight incubation
at 37°C.
Colony morphology: On MacConkey medium,
they form translucent colonies, on GTTA medium
they form translucent colonies with grayish-black
center and a turbid halo and on TCBS, they form
yellow colonies.
Identification: Do the Gram staining from the
suspected colonies and look for gram-­negative
curved or comma-shaped rods. Perform motility
and oxidase tests. Cholera vibrios show characteristic
motility and are oxidase ­positive.
Slide agglutination: Pick up oxidase-positive
colonies with a straight wire and test by slide
agglutination with V. cholerae 0 1 antiserum. If
positive, agglutination may be repeated using
specific Ogawa and Inaba antisera. Hikojima
strains will aggluti­nate well with both Ogawa and
Inaba antisera. If agglutination is negative with
one colony, repeat the test with at least five more
colonies as 01 and non-01 vibrios may co-exist in
the same specimen.
If slide agglutination is positive, the isolate
is tested for chick red cell agglutination. This is
employed for presumptive differentiation between
El Tor and clas­sical cholera vibrios. If no vi­brios are
isolated, a second cycle of enrichment and plating
may succeed in some cases.
Biochemical Reactions
The identity of the organism should be con­firmed
biochemically in a set of conventional tests. The use
of a Hugh and Leifson O/F test, Moller’s arginine
dihydrolase, lysine and ornithine decarboxylases,
arabinose, inosi­tol, mannose and sucrose peptone
water sugars and a test for growth in the absence
of NaCI by inoculating either a 1% tryptone water
with no added NaCl or a CLED plate.
For further characterization of the biotype of
the V. cholerae 01 isolate, do VP test, agglutination
of fowl RBCs, haemolysis of sheep RBCs, and
sensitivity to polymyxin B, Mukerjee phages IV
and V (Table 40.3). The strain may be sent to
the International Reference Centre for vibrio
phage typing at the National Institute of Cholera
and Enteric Disease (NICED) at Kolkata for
confirmation of identity and for O-serotyping.
When the isolated strain is not agglutinated
by V. cholerae 01 antiserum, it should be tested
for agglutination with V. cholerae H antiserum.
Any vibrio which is agglutinated by H antiserum
and not by 01antiserum is considered to be to be
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Chap-40.indd 293
non-Ol cholera vibrio. Specific antiserum against
0-139 is available.
F. Serological Diagnosis
In patients who have not been immunized, a retro­
spective diagnosis of infection can be made by the
demonstration of a rising titer of agglutinins or
vibriocidal antibodies in paired sera; or antibody
against cholera toxin (CT) may be detected in an
ELISA test.
Detection of Carriers
For isolation of vibrios from carriers, essentially
the same techniques are to be followed, except
that more than one cycle of enrichment may be
necessary. As vibrio excretion is intermittent,
repeated stool ex­amination will yield better results.
Serological examination is of little use in the
diagnosis of cases though it may be helpful in
assessing the prevalence of cholera in an area. The
tests availa­ble are agglutination using live or killed
vibrio sus­pensions, indirect hemagglutination,
vibriocidal test and antitoxin assay. Of these, the
complement de­pendent vibriocidal antibody test
is the most useful.
Examination of Water Samples
For examination of water samples for vibrios,
enrichment or filtration methods may be employed.
A. Enrichment method: In this method, 900 mL of
water are added to 100 mL ten­fold concentrated
peptone water at pH 9.2, incubated at 37°C for
6–8 hours and a second enrichment done before
plating on selective media.
B. Filtration method: For the filtration technique
the water to be tested should be filtered through
the Millipore membrane filter, which is then
placed directly on the surface of a selective
medium and incubated. Colonies appear after
overnight incu­bation. Sewage should be diluted
in saline, filtered through gauze and treated as
for water.
Treatment
1. Oral rehydration therapy (ORT): In cholera,
absolute priority must be given to the life­saving
replacement of fluid and electrolytes. Oral
rehy­dration therapy (ORT) is often sufficient,
but severe cases may require intravenous
rehydration.
2. Antibacterial therapy: Oral tetracycline was
recom­mended for reducing the period of vibrio
excretion and the need for parenteral fluids. This
dramatically reduces infectivity. Alternatively,
the long-acting tetracycline (doxycycline) may
be used for chemoprophylaxis, if the prevailing
strains are not resistant.
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 294  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Immunity
Gastric acid provides some protection against
cholera vibrios. In cholera, the vibrios remain
confined to the intestine, where they multiply and
elaborate the enterotoxin which is responsible
for the disease. Immunity, therefore, may be
directed against the bacterium or against the toxin-
antibacterial or antitoxic. Natural infection confers
some amount of immunity but it does not seem to
last for more than 6-12 months and reinfections are
known after this period.
An attack of cholera is followed by immunity
to reinfection, but the duration and degree of
immunity are not known. The presence of antitoxin
antibodies has not been associated with protection.
Immunity may be local, in the intestine, or
systemic. The appearance of local antibodies in the
intestine has been known for a long time. These are
known as ‘coproantibodies as they appear in the
faeces. They consist of IgG, IgM and IgA.
Prophylaxis
1. General Measures
Most important are the provision of safe drinking
water supplies and the proper disposal of human
feces. Control rests on education and on improvement
of sanitation, particularly of food and water.
2. Specific Measures—Vaccines
a. Killed whole organism vaccine
It is killed suspension containing 8000 million V.
cholerae per mL, composed of equal numbers of
Ogawa and Inaba serotypes. The concentration of
the vaccine has been increased to 12,000 million
per mL, in order to improve the anti­genic stimulus.
Primary immunization consists of 2 equal doses,
injected subcutaneously, at an interval of 4–6 weeks.
This vaccine offers about 60% protection for 3–6
months. A single dose of vaccine is ineffective in
children below five years of age while two doses at
1–4 week intervals are protective. However, it confers
protection in adults due to its action as a booster
because of prior natural infection.
Cell free somatic antigen preparations are as
effective as whole cell vaccine.
b. Oral vaccine: Two types of oral cholera vaccines
are available in some countries.
i. Nonliving oral B subunit-whole cell (BS-WC)
vaccine:
This vaccine consists of killed whole-cell V. cholerae
01 in combination with a recombinant B-subunit
of cholera toxin (WC/rBS).
It is given orally in two dose schedule, 10–14
days apart. On an average, the vaccine confers
50–60% protection for at least 3 years.
Chap-40.indd 294
ii. Live oral vaccine
Recombinant DNA vac­cine with expression of V.
cholerae 01 in attenuated strain of S. Typhi Ty21 as
a carrier bacterium has been developed. The live
salmonellae colonize the Peyer’s patches of the
small intestine and induce IgA response by local
imm­une system of the gut.
HALOPHILIC VIBRIOS
Vibrios that have a high requirement of sodium
chloride are known as halophilic vibrios. Their
natural habitat is sea water and marine life. Some
halo­philic vibrios have been shown to cause human
disease—V. parahaemolyticus, V. alginolyticus and
V. vulnificus.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Morphologically, it resembles V. cholerae except
that it is capsulated, shows bipolar staining and
has a tendency to pleomorphism, especially when
grown on 3% salt agar and in old cultures. However,
being a halophilic species, it grows well in pep­tone
water with 8% (but not 10%) sodium chloride.
It grows well on blood agar. On MacConkey agar
it forms pale, nonIactose­fermenting colonies and
on sheep blood agar it produces β-hemolysis. On
TCBS agar, the colonies are green (non-sucrose-
fermenting). Unlike other vibrios, it produces
peritrichous flagella when grown on solid media.
Polar flagella are formed in liquid cultures.
Biochemical Reactions
It is oxidase, catalase, indole and citrate positive.
It reduces nitrate to nitrite. It ferments glucose,
maltose, mannitol, mannose and arabinose with
the production of acid only. Lactose, sucrose
salicin, dulcitol or inositol are not fermented.
It is VP positive and decarboxylates lysine and
ornithine but not arginine.
Pathogenesis
Not all strains of V. parahaemolyticus are patho­
genic for human beings. Strains isolated from
environmental sources (such as water, fish,
crabs or oysters) are nearly always nonhemolytic
when grown on a special high salt blood agar
(Wagatsuma’s agar), while strains from human
patients are al­m ost always hemolytic. This
hemolysis is known as the Kanagawa phenomenon
and is due to a heat stable hemolysin.
Kana­gawa positive strains being considered
pathogenic for human beings and negative strains
nonpathogenic.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus causes acute gastro­
enteritis following ingestion of conta­m inated
seafood, such as raw fish or shellfish. After an
incubation period of 12–24 hours, nausea and
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 Chapter 40: Vibrio, Aeromonas and Plesiomonas  | 295
vomit­ing, abdominal cramps, fever, and watery
to bloody diarrhea occur. Fecal leukocytes are
often observed. The enteritis tends to subside
spontaneously in 1–4 days with no treatment other
than restoration of water and electrolyte balance.
In Calcutta V. parahaemolyticus could be
isolated from 5–10% of diarrhea cases admitted to
the Infectious Dis­eases Hospital.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The feces of patients with a history of recent
consump­tion of seafood may be examined by the
methods used for V. cholerae. In the examination of
seafood and sea or estuarine waters for halophilic
species, including V. parahaemolyticus, enrichment
culture in alkaline peptone water containing 1%
sodium chloride is used.
Vibrio Vulnificus
V. vulnificus, previously known as L+ vibrio or
Beneckea vulnifica, is a marine Vibrio of medical
importance.
This halophilic vibrio resembles V. para­
haemolyticus in forming green, nonsucrose-fer­
menting colonies on TCBS medium. It is VP
negative and ferments lactose but not sucrose. It has
a salt tolerance of less than eight percent. The ability
of. V. vulnificus to ferment lactose (‘lactose positive
vibrios’) a key identifying characteristic.It can grow
in the presence of a 300 unit disk of polymyxin.
Vibrio vulnificus can cause severe wound
infections, bacteremia, and probably gastroenteritis.
It is responsible for rapidly progressive wound
infections after exposure to contaminated seawater.
Following ingestion of the Vibrio, usually in oysters,
it penetrates the gut mucosa without causing
gastrointestinal manifestations and enters the
bloodstream, rapidly leading to septicemia with
high mortality.
Vibrio alginolyticus
Vibrio alginolyticus is a halophilic organism formerly
regarded as biotype 2 of V. parahaemolyticus. It
resembles V. parahaemolyti­cus in many respects
and. It has a higher salt tolerance, is VP positive
and ferments sucrose (Table 40.7). It forms large,
yellow (sucrose ­fermenting) colonies on TCBS.
There is pronounced swarming on nonselective
solid media. It has been associated with infections
of eyes, ears and wounds in human beings exposed
to sea water.
Other Vibrio Species
V. hollisae, V. mimicus, V. fluvialis, V. furnissii, and V.
damsela are responsible for causing gas­troenteritis,
wound infections, and bacteremia.
Single cases of infections with V. metschnikovii
(bacteremia), V. cincinnatiensis (meningitis),
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Chap-40.indd 295
Table 40.7  Some characteristics of V. parahae­
molyticus and V. alginolyticus
V. V. alginolyticus
parahaemolyticus
Indole + +
VP − +
Nitrate + +
reduction
Urease − −
Sucrose − +
fermentation
Swarming − +
− −
Growth in 0%
NaCl
7% NaCl + +
10% NaCl − +
and V. carchariae (wound in­fection) have been
documented.
AEROMONAS
Until recently, Aeromonas was classified in the
family Vibrionaceae. The genus has been placed in
the new family Aeromonadaceae from the family
Vibrionaceae.
Aeromonas is a gram-negative, facultative
anaerobic ba­cillus that morphologically resembles
members of the Enterobacteriaceae. The most
important pathogens are Aero­monas hydrophila,
Aeromonas caviae, and Aeromonas ve­ran; biovar
soma. The organisms are ubiquitous in fresh and
brackish water.
The two major diseases associated with Aero­
monas are gastroenteritis and wound infections
(with or with­out bacteremia).
Gastroenteritis typically occurs after the ingestion
of contaminated water or food, whereas wound
infections result from exposure to contaminated
water. They are opportunistic pathogens.
Aeromonas strains are susceptible to tetra­
cyclines, aminoglycosides, and cephalosporins.
PLESIOMONAS
Plesiomonas are closely related to Proteus and
have now been placed in the Enterobacteriaceae
family. It has only one species, P. shigelloides which
is taxonomically related to Proteus species and
serologically related to Shigella sonnei.
They are oxidase positive, motile, have multiple
polar flagella gram-negative bacilli and may be
mistaken for vibrios. The organism is found in
fresh water and estuarine waters and is ac­quired
through contact with fresh water, the con­sumption
of seafood, or exposure to amphibians or reptiles.
P. shigelloides is ubiquitous in surface waters
and in soil. It has also been isolated from a variety
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 296  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
of mammals, including dogs, cats, goats, sheep h. Kanagawa phenomenon
and monkey. It is rare1y recovered from human i. Aeromonas
fe­ces. It commonly infects various cold-blooded j. Plesiomonas.
ani­mals like frogs, snakes, turtles and lizards. Man
is infected primarily by ingesting contaminated MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
water or food. It causes: 1. All the following Vibrio species require sodium
1. Gastroenteritis, which manifests as a mild, chloride as a growth factor except:
watery diarrhea in which stools are free of blood a. Vibrio cholerae
and mucin. b. Vibrio parahaemolyticus
2. Extraintestinal lesions, including septicemia, c. Vibrio vulnificus
endophthalamitis, septic arthritis, meningitis, d. Vibrio alginolyticus
cellulitis, and acute cholecystitis. 2. Which of the following media can serve a transport
medium for Vibrio cholerae?
Key Points a. Selenite-F broth
b. Tetrathionate broth
™™ Vibrio and Aeromonas are classified in the families
Vibrionaceae and Aeromonadaceae, respectively. c. Venkatraman–Ramakrishnan medium
Plesiomonas are closely related to Proteus and have d. Nutrient broth
now been placed in the Enterobacteriaceae family 3. Classical and El Tor biotypes of Vibrio cholerae can
™™ Vibrio cholerae is short, typically comma-shaped, show be differentiated by which of the following tests?
typical darting type motility. It is strongly aerobic a. Sensitivity to polymyxin B
™™ It grows well on a wide variety of media including b. Agglutination of fowl RBCs
ordinary and special media c. Sensitivity to Mukerjee group IV phage
™™ Transport media such as VR medium and Cary–Blair d. All of the above
medium, o Enrichment media such as alkaline
4. The DNA expressing for production of cholera
peptone water and Monsur’s taurocholate tellurite
peptone, Selective media such as TCBS medium, toxin of Vibrio cholerae is located in:
Monsur’s GTTA medium, and alkaline BSA a. Chromosome b. Plasmid
™™ Two biotypes of V. cholerae 01 strains-EI Tor and c. Transposon d. Phage
classical 5. Cholera toxin resembles which of the following
™™ Classical and El Tor biotype vibrios can be differentiated toxins?
by acetoin in the Voges-Proskauer test, agglutination a. Labile toxin of E. coli
of fowl erythrocytes, lysis of sheep erythrocytes, b. Stable toxin of E. coli.
polymyxin B senisitivity, susceptibility to Mukerjee’s c. Diphtheria toxin
group IV phage and sensitivity to the group V phage
d. Tetanus toxin
™™ Disease: Cholera. Spread is by consumption of
contaminated food or water 6. Stools from suspected cholera cases can be trans­
™™ Laboratory diagnosis: Fresh stool specimen is used for ported to the laboratory in:
dark-field microscopy and direct immunofluorescence. a. Venkatraman–Ramakrishnan medium
The specimen inoculated on a selective and b. Cary–Blair medium
nonselective media. Suspected V. cholerae are tested c. Thick blotting paper
by slide agglutination using specific V. cholerae 01 d. All of the above
antisera. If the colony is identified as V. cholerae 01 7. Which of the following vaccines is/are available for
then it is tested by various tests to determine whether prophylaxis against cholera?
isolated V. cholerae 01 is classical or El tor a. Killed parenteral vaccine
™™ Halophilic vibrios
b. Killed parenteral vaccine
™™ Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio alginolyticus, and
Vibrio vulnificus are three important halophilic vibrios c. Live oral vaccine
species known to cause infection in humans. V. d. All of the above
parahaemolyticus in humans causes gastroenteritis 8. Which of the following bacteria is/are associated
™™ Aeromonas: Aeromonas species in humans cause with food poisoning due to consumption of sea fish?
gastroenteritis and wound infections a. Vibrio alginolyticus
™™ Plesiomonas: P. shigelloides (the only species) in b. Vibrio parahaemolyticus
humans cause gastroenteritis, celullitis, septic c. Vibrio vulnificus
arthritis, septicemia, neonatal meningitis, etc. d. All of the above
9. Acute diarrhea resembling cholera can be caused by:
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS a. Vibrio parahaemolyticus
b. Vibrio vulnificus
1. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of cholera. c. Vibrio alginolyticus
2. Write short notes on: d. Aeromonas hydrophila
a. Classification of vibrios 10. Which of the following conditions can be caused
b. Noncholera vibrios by Plesiomonas?
c. Differences between classical and El Tor vibrios a. Gastroenteritis b. Septicemia
d. Pathogenesis of cholera
c. Cellulitis d. All of the above
e. Cholera toxin
f. Prophylaxis against cholera ANSWERS (MCQs)
g. Halophilic vibrios 1. a; 2. c; 3. d; 4. b; 5. a; 6. d; 7. d; 8. b; 9. d; 10. d

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Campylobacter and Helicobacter
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology, culture characteristics and
biochemical reactions of Campylobacter
Campylobacter
Introduction: Campylobacter and arcobacter are
grouped into the family Campylobacteriaceae.
A total of 18 species and subspecies are now
recognized; 13 have been associated with hu­man
disease. Campylobacter jejuni is the prototype
organism in the group and is very common cause
of diarrhea in humans.
Morphology
The genus Campylobacter (Greek, meaning curved
rod) consists of small, comma-shaped, gram-
negative bacilli that microscopically resemble
vibrios. They are motile by means of a single polar
flagellum. Old cultures are coccoid and pleomorphic.
They are nonsporing.
Cultural Characteristics
Most species are microaerobic, requiring an
atmosphere with decreased oxygen (5% oxygen)
and increased hydrogen and carbon dioxide (CO2)
level for aerobic growth. Many pathogenic species
are thermophilic, growing well at 42°C.
Selective media for isolation of C. jejuni are But­
zler’s selective medium, Skirrow’s Campylobacter
selective medium, Preston Campylobacter selec­tive
medium and Blaser’s medium (Campy-BAP). Plates
are incubated for 48 hours. Colonies are circular and
convex but those of thermophilic group, particularly
C. jejuni, are flat and tend to swarm on moist agar.
Biochemical Reactions
Campylobacters do not ferment carbohydrates and
utilize a respiratory (oxidative) pathway. They are
strongly oxidase positive. They are catalase positive
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4141
Chapter
∙∙ Discuss morphology, culture characteristics and
biochemical reactions of Helicobacter
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori
infections.
and reduce nitrates to nitrites. C. jejuni has the
ability to hydrolyze sodium hippurate.
Pathogenesis
Infection is acquired by ingestion. The jejunum and
ileum are the first sites to become colonized, but the
infection extends distally to affect the terminal ileum
and usually the colon and rectum. The organisms are
invasive and may involve mesenteric lymph nodes
and cause bacteremia. Heat-labile entero­toxin
along with the invasive property of this organism
may contribute to the production of the damage.
Mechanism of Producing Diarrhea
It can produce diarrhea by following mecha­nisms:
1. It produces a heat-labile enterotoxin resem­
bling CT that raises intracellular levels of cAMP
leading to watery diarrhea.
2. Like Shigella and Salmonella, it penetrates gut
epithelium leading to edematous exuda­tive
enteritis of jejunum, ileum and colon, with
infiltration by polymorphonuclear leukocytes
and ulceration of the mucosa.
Clinical manifestations: Clinical manifestations
are acute onset of crampy abdominal pain, profuse
diarrhea that may be grossly bloody, headache,
malaise, and fever. Usually the illness is self-limited
to a period of 5–8 days.
Complications: The complications are reactive
(aseptic) arthritis and Guillain–Barre syndrome, a
form of peripheral polyneuropathy.
Epidemiology
C. fetus is a major cause of abortion in sheep
and cattle worldwide. Campylobacter infections
298  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
are zoonotic, with a variety of animals serving
as reservoirs. Hu­m ans acquire the infections
with C. jejuni and C. coli after consumption of
contaminated food, milk, or wa­ter.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory diagnosis depends on isolation of the
Campylobacter from feces.
A. Specimens
Diarrheal stool is the usual specimen.
B. Microscopy
Gram-stained smears of stool may show the
typical “gull wing”—shaped rods. Dark-field or
phase contrast microscopy may show the typical
darting or tumbling motility of the spiral rods.
C. Culture
Feces or rectal swabs are plated on selective media.
A transport medium has to be employed in case of
delay in culturing. Campylobacters survive for 1–2
weeks at 4°C in Cary–Blair transport medium but
glycerol-saline is not satisfactory. Selective media
for isolation of C. jejuni are But­zler’s selective
medium, Skirrow’s Campylobacter selective
medium, Preston Campylobacter selec­tive medium
and Blaser’s medium (Campy-BAP). Skirrow’s
medium contains vancomycin, polymyxin B, and
trimethoprim to inhibit growth of other bacteria.
Inoculated plates are incubated at 42°C to favor
growth of the ther­mophilic Campylobacters (C.
jejuni, C. coli, C. lari and C. hyointestinalis) over that
of other faecal bacteria. If, however, the presence of
C. fetus (nonthermophile) is suspected, additional
plates should be incubated at 37°C to allow growth
of this nonthermophile. Incubation must be done
in an atmosphere of 5% O2 10% CO2 and 85% N2.
Plates are incubated for 48 hours.
Colonies are typically flat and effuse, with a
tendency to spread on moist agar. They are nonhe­
molytic, gray or colorless, moist, and flat or convex.
D. Identification
Suggestive colonies are screened by Gram staining,
motility and oxidase tests. Confirmation is by
further biochemical tests, including positive
catalase and nitrate reduction tests.
E. Serology
Complement fixation test and enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) are group-specific
tests that can detect recent infection with C. jejuni
or C. coli.
Treatment
Campylobacter gastroenteritis is typically a self-
limited infection managed by the replacement of
lost fluids and electrolytes. Antimicrobial treatment
should be reserved for patients with severe or
complicated infections. Severe gastroenteritis and
septicemia are treated with erythromycin (drug of
choice), tetracyclines and quinolones.
Control: Gastroenteritis is prevented by proper
preparation of food (particularly poultry), and
consumption of pasteurized milk; prevention of
contaminated water supplies also controls infection.
Other Campylobacters
Campylobacter species other than C jejuni are
encoun­tered infrequently.
1. Campylobacter fetus
Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus is a very
important veterinary pathogen. It causes infective
abortion in cattle and sheep.It is an opportunistic
pathogen that causes systemic infections in
man in immuno­compromized patients. It may
occasionally cause diar­rhea.
2. C. concisus
It has been isolated from cases of gingivitis and
periodontal disease. It has also been isolated from
faeces.
C. fetus subsp. venerealis: It causes enzootic
sterility (infectious infertility) of cattle but has not
been associated with human infection.
3. C. jejuni subsp. doylei
This organism can be distinguished from other
campylobacters because it does not reduce nitrate to
nitrite and hydrolyzes hippurate. The pathogenicity
of this organism is unknown. It has been isolated
from human gastric epithelium biopsy and from
faeces of children with diarrhea.
4. C. coli
It causes an infection clinically indistinguishable from
that of C. jejuni. It is commonly found in healthy pigs.
5. C. lari
C. lari (formerly known as e. laridis). It causes
enteritis simulating C. jejuni infections in humans.
6. C. sputorum subsp. sputorum
It constitutes a part of normal flora of respiratory
tract and gingival crevices of man. It has also been
isolated from feces of 2% of healthy people. It may
occasionally cause diarrhea, abscess and septicemia.
Helicobacter
These are strict microaerophiles with a spiral or
helical morphology. They possess sheathed flagella.
Species: Various species included in this genus
are: H. pyl­ori, H. cinaedi, H. fennelliae, H. canis,
 Chapter 41: Campylobacter and Helicobacter  | 299
H pullorum H.rappininae and H. canadensis. Of
these, first three are medically important.
Helicobacter pylori
Warren and Marshall in Australia in 1983 observed
spiral, Campylobacter-like bacteria in close
apposition to the gastric mucosa in several cases of
gastritis and peptic ulcer. They were originally named
Campylobacter pyloridis then C. pylori and now
redesignated as Helicobacter pylori. Features that
distinguish this organism from Campylobacters are
its multiple sheathed flagella, its strong hydrolysis of
urea and its unique fatty acid profile.
Morphology
H. pylori is a gram-negative spirally shaped
bacterium, 0.5–0.9 mm wide by 2–4 mm long. It is
motile by means of a tuft of sheathed unipolar flagella,
unlike the unsheathed flagella of campylobac­ters. It
is non-sporing.
Cultural Characteristics
Like campylobacters, H. pylori is microaerophic.
The optimum temperature for its growth is 35–37°C,
some grow poorly at 42°C but none grows at 25°C. It
can grow in an atmosphere of 5% O2, 10% CO2 and
85% N2. It does not grow anaerobically or in air. It
can be grown on moist freshly prepared chocolate
agar and Skirrow’s Campylobacter selective
medium. H. pylori produce circular, convex and
translucent colonies after incubation at 35–37°C in
a microaerophilic atmosphere for 3–5 days.
Biochemical Reactions
H. pylori givs the following reactions.
i. Abundant urease production: A distinctive
feature is the production of abundant urease,
and this property has been used as a rapid
diagnostic test in gastric biopsy samples. The
urease enzyme produced by H. pylori is almost
100 times more active than that of Proteus
vulgaris.
ii. It produces oxidase, catalase, phosphatase
and H2S.
iii. It does not metabolize carbohydrates or
reduce nitrate.
Virulence Factors
1. H. pylori produce a cytotoxin causing
vacuolation of gastric mucosa. Its production
is determined by Cag A Gene. Virulence has
been associated with certain alleles in genes,
such as cag (cytotoxin associated gene) and
vac (vacuolating cytotoxin gene).
2. Urease released by H. pylori produces ammonia
ions that neutralize stomach acid in the
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vicinity of the organism, thus favoring bacterial
multiplicatfun.
3. The bacterial antigens cross-react with antran
gastric antigens stimulating an autoimmune
response.
4. Protease produced by the organism degrades
gastric mucosa.
5. H. pylori infected patients show hypergast­
rinemia that upsets gastrin-HCI homeostasis.
Pathogenesis
H. pylori colonize the surface of the gastric
mu­cosa, especially of the antrum but any part of
the stomach may be colonized. Colonization often
extends into gastric glands, but the mucosa is not
invaded by the bacteria.
Although gastric acid is potentially destructive
to H. pylori, protection is provided by its powerful
urease. H. pylori produce potent urease activity,
which yields production of ammonia and further
buffering of acid and neutralizes acid around the
bacteria. Where they are numerous, the underlying
mucosa usually shows a superficial gastritis of the
type known as chronic active or type B gastritis.
H. pylori are associated with antral gastritis,
duodenal (peptic) ulcer disease, gastric ulcers.
It is also recognized as a risk factor for gastric
malignancies, namely, ‘adenocarcinoma’ and
‘mucosa associated lymphoid tissue’ (MALT)
lymphomas.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnostic tests are of two kinds:
A. Noninvasive tests
In practice, noninvasive tests are used for initial
screening.
1. Serology: Antibodies to H. pylori or its products
can be detected in the patient serum by ELISA
test.
2. Urea breath test: Urea tagged with an isotope
of carbon (carbon-14 or -13) is fed to the
patient. If the patient’s stomach is colonized
with H. pylori, urea is converted into ammonia
and tagged CO2. The latter appears in the breath
where it can be measured. Patients infected
with H. pylori give high read­ings of the isotope.
3. Fecal antigen test: In this polyclonal antibodies
are used to detect H. pylori antigens in feces.
4. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): Various
DNA probes have been developed for the direct
detection of H. pylori by PCR in gastric juice,
feces, dental plaque and water supplies.
B. Invasive Tests
Specimens: Endoscopic biopsy of gastric mucosa
for examination by microscopy, culture and urease
tests.
300  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
1. Microscopy: The biopsy specimen can be
™™ Helicobacter pylori: Curved gram-negative bacilli.
examined by microscopic examination of Urease production at very high levels is typical of
Gram’s staining, silver staining, hematoxylin gastric helicobacters (e.g., H. pylori)
and eosin (Hand E) staining, Giemsa staining or ™™ Diseases–H. pylori causes gastritis, peptic ulcers,
immunofluorescence for the presence of bacteria. gastric adenocarcinoma
Warthin-Starry silver stain is the most sensitive. ™™ Diagnosis: A. Noninvasive tests: 1. Serology 2. Urea
2. Culture: Culture is done on nonselective breath test. 3. Faecal antigen test 4. Polymerase chain
medium such as chocolate agar and a selective reaction (PCR) B. Invasive tests: 1. Microscopy 2.
medium Skirrow’s campylobacter selective Culture 3. Biopsy urease test.
medium. Plates are incubated for 2–7 days in a
moist, microaerophilic atmosphere at 35–37°C Important questions
in the presence of 5–10% CO2.High humidity
is essential. The organism is identi­fied on the 1. Discuss pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of
basis of its colonial morphology, Gram staining, diarrhea caused by Campylobacter.
biochemical properties and positive urease tests. 2. Write short notes on:
3. Biopsy urease test a. Campylobaeter infections
The biopsy urease test can be performed by b. Helicobacter pylori
c. Helicobacter pylori infections.
crushing biopsy tissue in 0.5 mL urea solution with an
d. Laboratory diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori in-
indicator and incubated at 37°C. If H. pylori is present,
fections
the pH changes within a few minutes to 2 hours due e. Urea breath test.
to the production of ammonia. The abundance of
urease produced by the or­ganism permits detection
of the alkaline byproduct in less than 2 hours.
Multiple choice questions
1. Most common Campylobacter species known to
Treatment cause diarrhea in humans is:
The standard treatment is a combination of a. Campylobacter lari
bismuth subsalicylate, tetracycline (or amoxicillin) b. Campylobacter fetus
c. Campylobacter jejuni
and metronidazole for two weeks. An alternative
d. Campylobacter coli
schedule employs a proton pump inhibitor like
2. All the following media are commonly used for
omeprazole and clarithromycin. cultivation of Campylobacter except:
Prevention and control: Prophylactic treatment a. Butzler medium
of colonized individuals has not been useful b. Skirrow’s medium
and potentially has adverse effects, such as c. Preston’s Campylobacter selective medium
predisposing patients to adenocarcinomas of d. TCBS medium
the lower esophagus. Human vaccines are not 3. Which of the following bacteria is/are microaerophilic?
currently available. a. Campylobacter jejuni
b. Helicobacter pylori
Helicobacter cinaedi c. Mycobacterium bovis
d. All of the above
H. cinaedi (formerly known as Campylobacter 4. Campylobacter and Helicobacter can be different­
cinaedi) has been associated with proctitis in iated on the basis of:
homosexual men. a. Multiple sheathed flagella
b. Strong hydrolysis of urea
Helicobacter fennelliae c. Both of the above
H.fennelliae (formerly known as Campylobacter d. None of the above
fennelliae) like H. cinaedi has been associated with 5. Helicobacter pylori have been implicated in all of
proctitis in homosexual men. the following clinical conditions except
a. Chronic gastritis
b. Peptic ulcer disease
Key Points
c. Septicemia
™™ Campylobacters are thin, curved gram-negative d. Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura
bacilli. They are are micro­a erobic and strongly 6. Which of the following tests is/are useful in
oxidase positive identification of Helicobacter pylori?
™™ Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli have a. Warthin-starry silver staining
emerged as common human pathogens b. Biopsy urease test
™™ Diseasess—Zoonotic infection; improperly prepared c. Urea breath test
poultry is a common source of human infections d. All of the above
™™ Diagnosis—Microscopy is insensitive. Culture
Answers (MCQs)
requires use of specialized media incubated
1. c; 2. d; 3. d; 4. c; 5. c; 6. d
 42
Chapter
Pseudomonas,
Stenotrophomonas, Burkholderia

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology, cultural characteristics,
biochemical reactions and laboratory diagnosis of
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
∙∙ Describe the following: Pigments of Pseudomonas;
pathogenicity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa;
Burkholderia mallei.

Introduction of temperatures, 6–­42°C, the optimum being 37°C.

The term Pseudomonads describes a large group
of aerobic, nonfermentative, nonspor­ing gram-
negative bacilli, motile by polar flagella. They
belong to over 100 species that were originally
con­tained within the genus Pseudomonas. Most
are sapro­phytes found widely in soil, water and
other moist environments.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the most common
pseudomonad and this is the species most com­
monly associated with human disease. Burkholderia
(previously Pseudomonas) pseudomallei is an
important pathogen in tropical areas of the
world. Burkholderia (previously Pseudomonas)
cepacia, which is now encompassed within the
B. cepacia complex, has emerged as an important
pathogen in immunocom­p romised patients,
particularly in individuals with cystic fibrosis or
chronic granulomatous disease. Stenotrophomonas
maltophilia also infects immuno­compromised
patients.
Optimum pH 7.4–7.6. It grows well on ordinary
media and in the laboratory, it can be isolated on
virtually any medium.
1. Nutrient agar: After aerobic incubation on
nutrient agar at 37°C for 24 hours, the colonies are
large, 2–3 mm in diameter, smooth, translucent,
irregularly round and emit a characteristic fruity
odor. (Fig. 42.1). This grape-like smell is due to
the produc­tion of aminoacetophenone from
tryptophan.
2. It grows on MacConkey and DCA media,
forming nonlactose-fermenting colonies.
3. Blood agar: Colonies on blood agar may be
surrounded by a zone of hemolysis.
4. In broth, it forms a dense turbidity with a surface
pellicle.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Morphology
It is a slender gram-negative bacillus, 1.5–3 μm ×
0.5 μm, actively motile usually with a single polar
flagel­lum. Occasional strains have two or three
flagella. It is nonsporing, noncapsulated but many
strains have a mucoid slime layer.

Cultural Characteristics
It is a strict aerobe but can grow anaerobically if Fig. 42.1: Pseudomonas aeruginosa on nutrient
nitrate is available. Growth occurs at a wide range agar

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302  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
5. Cetrimide agar is selective medium for Ps.
aeruginosa
Pigment Production
P. aeruginosa produces at least 4 distinct pigments:
i. Pyocyanin: It is a bluish-green phenazine
pigment soluble in chloroform and water. This
pigment is not produced by other species of
this genus. Demonstration of the presence
of the blue phenazine pigment pyocyanin
is absolute confirmation of a strain as P.
aeruginosa.
ii. Pyoverdin (fluorescein): The yellow/green
pigment pyoverdin (fluorescein) is also
produced by most strains, giving the charac­
teristic blue-green appearance of infected pus
or cultures. It is insoluble in chloroform but
soluble in water.
iii. Pyorubrin: It is a bright red water soluble
pigment and is insoluble in chloroform.
iv. Pyomelanin: It is a brown to black pigment
and its production is uncommon.
Biochemical Reactions
Ps. aeruginosa derives energy from carbohy­
drates by an oxidative rather than a fermentative
metabolism. Special media, such as the O–F
medium of Hugh and Leifson must be used for
diagnostic tests.
It utilizes glucose oxidatively with the pro­
duction of acid only. Lactose and maltose are not
utilized. Indole, MR, VP and H2S tests are negative.
However, all strains give a rapid positive
oxidase reaction (within 30 seconds) and utilize
citrate as sole source of carbon.
It reduces nitrates to nit­rites and further to
gaseous nitrogen.
It is catalase, arginine dihydrolase and
gelatinase positive and lysine decarboxylase and
aesculin hydrolysis negative.
Antigenic Characteristics
O antigens: P. aeruginosa possesses 19 distinct,
group-specific 0 antigens. O antigens are heat-
stable.
H antigens: On the basis of slide agglutina­tion, at
least two heat-labile H antigens have been recog­
nized.
O–F medium Glucose Lactose
of Hugh and A –
Leifson—
Oxidative
Citrate Indole, MR, H2S
+ VP – reduction
– – – –
O–F, oxidative–fermentative
Epidemiological Typing Methods
1. Serotyping: Identification of group-specific
heat-stable lipopolysaccharide antigens by
agglutination forms the basis of O serotyping.
Typically, nine serotypes ac­count for over 90%
of isolates.
2. Bacteriocin (pyocin) typing: Three types
of bacteriocins (pyocins) are produced by P.
aeruginosa which are known as R, F and S.
Depending upon the growth inhibition of these
13 indicator strains, 105 types are recognized.
Pyocin typing is easy to perform, results are
available by the third day and has a reasonable
reproducibility and good discrimination.
3. Phage typing: In bacteriophage typing
considerable difficulties have been encounterd.
4. Molecular methods: Restriction endonuclease
typing wih pulsed field gel electrophoresis
(PFGE) is the most reliable typing method
and discriminatory of the present DNA-based
typing methods and is considered to be the gold
standard.
Virulence Factors
Most strains produce two exotoxins, exotoxin A and
exoenzyme S, and a variety of cytotoxic substances
including proteases, phospholipases; rhamnolipids
and the blue-green pigment pyocyanin; an
alginate-like exopolysaccharide.
1. Capsule: P. aeruginosa produces a polysacch­
aride capsule (also known as mucoid exopoly­
saccharide, alginate coat, or glycocalyx) that
has multiple functions and is responsible for
the mucoid pheno­type.
2. Pili: Adherence of P. aeruginosa to host cells is
mediated by pili and nonpilus adhesins.
3. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS): It has endotoxin
activity.
4. Pyocyanin: It mediates tissue damage through
and also stimulates the inflam­matory response
and impairs ciliary function.
5. Exotoxin A and Exotoxin S: Mechanism
of action of exotoxin A is iden­tical to that of
diphtheria toxin. Exotoxin S Inhibits protein
synthesis and is immunosuppressive.
6. Extracellular enzymes and hemolysins:
P. aeruginosa produces proteases (general
pro­t ease, alkaline protease and elastase),
hemolysins (phospholipase C and heat-stable
Maltose Mannitol Sucrose
– – –
NO3
 Chapter 42: Pseudomonas, Stenotrophomonas, Burkholderia  | 303
rhamnolipid) and lipase. These play a key role
in the formation of local lesions.
7. Antibiotic resistance: P. aeruginosa is inherently
resistant to many antibiotics and can mutate to
even more resistant strains during therapy.
Resistance
The bacillus is not particularly heat resist­ant, being
killed at 55°C in one hour but exhibits a high degree
of resistance to chemical agents. It is resistant to
the common antiseptics and disinfectants such
as quaternary ammonium compounds, chloroxy­
lenol and hexachlorophene. It is sensitive to a
2% aqueous alkaline solution of glutaraldehyde
(cidex), acids, silver salts and strong phenolic
disinfectants.
Ps. aeruginosa possesses a considerable degree
of natural resistance to antibiotics.
Epidemiology
Pseudomonads are opportunistic pathogens.
Its ability to persist and multiply, particularly in
moist envi­ronments and on moist equipment
(e.g. humidifiers) in hospital wards, bathrooms
and kitchens, is of particular importance in cross-
infection control. Pseudomonads are resistant to
many antibiotics and disin­fectants.
Pathogenesis
P. aeruginosa has many virulence factors, including
structural components, toxins, and enzymes (See
under Virulence factors). P. aeruginosa produces
numerous toxins and extracellular products that
promote local invasion and dissemination of the
organism.
Individuals most at risk include those with
impaired immune defenses. A prior antibiotic
therapy that eliminate normal flora can also
provide P. aeruginosa with increased access for
colonizing tissue.
A. Community Infections
1. Otitis externa and varicose ulcers.
2. Corneal infec­tions resulting from contaminated
contact lenses or other sourcesl.
3. Jacuzzi rash or whirlpool rash: Recreational
and occupational conditions associated with
pseudomonas infections include Jacuzzi
rash or whirlpool rash (an acute self-limiting
folliculitis).
4. Industrial eye injuries, which may lead to
panophthalmitis.
B. Hospital Infections P. aeruginosa is intrinsically resistant to most
1. Localized lesions: Localized lesions are com­monly employed antimicrobial agents. Many
commonly infections of wounds and bed­ strains are, however, susceptible to carbenicillin,
sores, eye infections and urinary infections azlocillin, ticarcillin, cefotaxime, ceftazidime,
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following catheterization infection in burns
iatrogenic meningi­t is following lumbar
puncture and post-tracheostomy pulmonary
infection.
2. Septicemia and endocarditis.
3. Ecthyma gangreno­sum and many other types
of skin lesions.
4. Infection of the nail bed.
5. Infantile diarrhea and sepsis.
6. Shanghai fever: Ps. aeruginosa has been
reported to cause a self-limited febrile illness
(Shanghai fever) re­sembling typhoid fever in
some tropical areas.
7. Other infections: Including those localized
in the gastrointes­tinal tract, central nervous
system, and musculoskeletal system.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens: Pus, wound swab, urine, sputum,
CSF or blood.
2. Microscopy: Gram-negative rods are often seen
in smears.
3. Culture: They grow easily on common isolation
media such as blood agar and MacConkey
agar. It may be necessary to use selective
media, such as cetrimide agar for isolation
of P. aeruginosa from feces or other samples
with mixed flora, such as wound swab. As Ps
aeruginosa is a frequent contaminant, isolation
of the bacillus from a specimen should not
always be taken as proof of its etiological
role. Repeated isolations help to confirm the
diagnosis.
4. Identification: The isolates are identified by
their colonial morphology and biochemical
characters. The colonial morphology (e.g.
colony size, hemolytic activity, pigmentation,
odor) combined with the results of selected
rapid biochemical tests (e.g. positive oxidase
reaction) is sufficient for the preliminary
identification of these isolates.
5. Typing method: Bio­chemical profiles, antibiotic
susceptibility patterns, phage typing, production
of pyocins, serologic typing, and the molecular
charac­terization of DNA or ribosomal RNA are
used for the specific classification of isolates for
epidemiologic pur­poses.
6. Antibiotic sensitivity tests: It is useful to select
out proper antibiotic as multiple reistance to
antibiotics is quite common in Ps. aeruginosa
Treatment
304  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
gentamicin and tobramycin. Ciprofloxacin exhibits
good activity against P. aeruginosa and penetrates
well into most tissues.
Control
Prevention of Ps. aeruginosa cross infection in
hospitals requires constant vigilance and strict
attention to asepsis. The inappro­priate use of
broad-spectrum antibiotics should also be avoided.
Immunotherapy in human burns cases with
antiserum to Ps. aeruginosa may be useful. Vaccine
from appropriate types administered to high-risk
patients provides protection against Pseudomonas
sepsis.
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia
(Formerly Pseudo­monas maltophilia)
It is responsible for infections in debili­tated patients
with impaired host defense mechanisms. The
spectrum of nosocomial infections with S. mal­tophilia
includes bacteremia, pneumonia, meningitis,
wound infections, and urinary tract infections.
Burkholderia cepacia (formerly
Pseudomonas cepacia)
Morphology
B. cepacia is a slender, motile, gram-negative rod.
The bacillus accumulates poly-β-hydroxybutyrate
as granules, so stains irregularly.
Culture
It can grow in many common disinfectants and can
even use penicillin G as a sole source of carbon It is
aerobic and grows well on nutrient agar optimally
at 25–30°C. On prolonged incubation, colonies
become reddish-purple due to the formation of a
nondiffusible phen­azine.
Biochemical Reactions
lt is weak oxidase-positive. It utilizes glucose,
maltose, lactose, and mannitol and is lysine
decarboxylase positive, ornithine decarboxylase
positive, and arginine dihydrolase negative. Isolates
are motile by means of polar tuft of flagella.
Pathogenicity
Like P. aeruginosa, B. cepacia can colonize a variety
of moist environmental surfaces and is commonly
asso­ciated with nosocomial infections.
Infections caused by this organism include the
following:
1. Respiratory tract infections in patients with
cystic fibrosis or chronic granulomatous disease.
2. Urinary tract infections in catheterized patients.
3. Septicemia, particularly in patients with
contaminated intravascular catheters.
4. Endocarditis, especially in drug addicts,
pneumonitis, osteomyelitis, dermatitis and
wound infections
Treatment
B. cepacia is susceptible to trimethoprim-
sulfamethoxazole.
Burkholderia mallei (formely
Pseudomonas mallei)
The bacillus was discovered by Loeffler and Schutz
(1882) from a horse dying of glanders. It is the
causative agent of glanders (malleus,in Latin),
a disease primarily of equine animals, such as
horses, mules and asses—but capa­ble of being
transmitted to other animals and to human beings.
Morphology
Ps. mallei is a slender, nonmotile, gram-negative
bacillus, 2–5 μm × 0.5 μm staining irregularly and
of­ten giving a beaded appearance.
Culture
It is an aerobe and facultative anaerobe, growing
on ordinary media. Colonies which are small and
transluscent initially become yellowish and opaque
on aging. On potato, a characteristic am­ber, honey-
like growth appears, becoming greenish yellow
resembling Ps. aeruginosa.
Biochemical Reactions
It is quite inactive biochemically, attacking only
glucose. It is the only nonmotile species in the
genus Pseudomonas.
Animal Pathogenicity
The natural disease in equines occurs in two
forms—glanders and farcy.
1. Glanders: In glanders, respiratory system is
affected. The infected animal develops profuse
catarrhal discharge from the nose and the nasal
septum shows nodule formation. Later the
nodules break down with the production of
irregular ulcers.
2. Farcy: This follows infection through skin with
involvement of superficial lymph vessels and
lymph nodes. The lymph vessels are thick­ened
and stand out as hard cords under the skin which
are called ‘farcy pipes’
Strauss reaction: Guinea-pigs are susceptible
and intraperitoneal injection into male guinea
pigs induces the Strauss reaction. This consists of
swelling of the testes, inflammation of tunica vaginal
 Chapter 42: Pseudomonas, Stenotrophomonas, Burkholderia  | 305
and ulceration of the scrotal skin. The Strauss
reaction is not diagnostic of glanders, as it may
also be produced by inoculation of other bacteria
such as Brucella species, Preisz–Nocard bacillus
Actinobacillus lignieresii and Ps. pseudomallei.
Human Pathogenicity
Humans may become infected via skin abra­sions or
wounds which come into contact with the discharges
of a sick animal. Human disease may take the form of
an acute fulminant febrile illness or a chronic indo­
lent infection producing abscesses in the respiratory
tract or skin. The fatality rate is high. Laboratory
cultures are highly infectious and Ps. mallei is one of
the most dangerous bacteria to work with.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The diagnosis is based on:
1. Culture of the organism from local lesions of
humans or horses.
2. Rising agglutin titers.
Mallein Test
Animals suffering from glanders develop a delayed
hypersensitivity to the bacterial protein. This is
the basis of the mallein test used for diagnosing
glanders. This is analogous to the tuberculin test
and may be performed by the subcutaneous,
intracutaneous or conjunctival methods.
Burkholderia pseudomallei
Burkholderia pseudomallei (formerly Pseudomonas
pseudomallei, also known as W hitmore’s
bacillus, Actinobacillus whitmori, Malleomyces
pseudomallei, Loefflerella pseudomallei).
B. pseudomallei is a saprophyte found in soil,
water, and vegetation. It is endemic in Southeast
Asia, India, Africa, and Australia. This is the causative
agent of melioidosis, a glanders-like disease, (The
name is derived from ‘melis’, a disease of asses—
glanders, and eidos, meaning resemblance). This
organism was isolated by Whitmore and Krish­
naswami (1912) from a glanders-like disease of man
in Rangoon.
Morphology
It resembles Ps. mallei but differs in being motile.
Culture
B. pseudomallei is easily cultured and produces
charac­teristic wrinkled colonies after several days
of growth on nutrient agar. Fresh cultures emit a
characteristic pungent odor of putrefaction.
Biochemical Reactions
It resembles Ps. mallei but differs in liquefying
gelatin and forming acid from several sugars.
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Toxins
Two thermolabile exotoxins, one lethal and the
other necrotizing have been identified in culture
filtrates.
Pathogenesis
Human infection is mainly acquired cutaneously
through skin abrasions or by inhalation of
contaminated particles. It may also get transmitted
from the animals by the bite of hematophagous
insects. Agriculture work­e rs, especially those
who work in moist soil (e.g. paddy fields), are
particularly prone to infection.
The disease may take one of four forms: acute,
subacute, chronic, or latent. It may be an acute
septicemia with involvement of many organs, a
subacute typhoid like disease, or pneumonia and
hemoptysis resembling tuberculosis. In chronic
form, there may be multiple caseous or suppurative
foci, with abscess formation in the skin and
subcutaneous tissues, bones and internal organs.
Acute melioidosis has a high case fatality rate.
Suppurative parotitis is a characteristic
presentation of melioidosis in children.
In India, cases of melioidosis have been repor­
ted from Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Orissa,
West Bengal and Tripura.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Microscopy: A Gram stain of an appropriate
specimen will show small gram-negative bacilli;
bipolar staining (safety pin appearance) is
seen with Wright’ stain or methylene blue stain.
2. Culture: The organism may be observed may
be cultured from sputum, urine, pus or blood
on selective media. The organism is highly
infectious.
3. Serology: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay (ELlSA) for detection of bacterial antigen,
specific IgG and IgM antibody to B. pseudoma­llei,
as well as an indirect hemagglutination test.
4. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Glucose Nonfermenters
The heterogeneous group of aerobic gram-negative
bacilli commonly referred to as glucose nonfermenters
is taxonomically distinct from the carbohydrate
fermenting Enterobacteriaceae and the oxidative
pseu­domonads. They grow easily on common
culture media, but unequivocal identification may
be difficult as most species are relatively inert in the
biochemical tests used in identification of gram-
negative bacteria. Their clinical relevance is based
on their role as opportunistic pathogens in hospital-
acquired infec­tions and their intrinsic resistance
to many antimicrobial agents. Susceptibility
306  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Table 42.1  Some characteristics of nonfermenters
Organisms Oxidase Habitat Pathogenicity
test
Acinetobacter spp. _ Saprophytes found in soil, water Opportunist pathogens, serious infections include
and sewage, and occasionally meningitis, pneumonia and septicemia
as commensals of moist areas of
human skin.
Alcaligenes spp. + Human feces UTI, wound infection
Achromobacter spp. + − CSOM, Postoperative meningitis
Flavobacterium spp. + Saprophyte of soil and mo­ist Opportunistic nosocomial infections, particularly in
envi­ronments infants and associated with meningitis
Eikenella spp. + Commensal of mucosal sur­faces Endocarditis, meningitis, pneumonia, and infec­t­
ions of wounds and various soft tissues.

to antibiotics of glucose nonfermenters is very e. Bacteriocins produced by Pseudomonas

variable, and treatment should be based on the aer­uginosa
results of laboratory tests. These are Acinetobacter, f. Burkholderia mallei
Alcaligenes and Achromobacter, Eikenella g. Pyocin typing
corrodens, Flavobacterium meningosepticum. h. Burkholderia pseudomallei
Some characteristics of these organisms are shown i. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia.
in Table 42.1.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
Key Points 1. All the following statements are true for Pseudo­
monas aeruginosa except that they:
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
a. Are catalase positive
™™ Small gram-negative bacilli. Nonfermenter
™™ It is a strict aerobe. It grows well on ordinary media
b. Are oxidase positive
and in the laboratory. Cetrimide agar is selective c. Are fermenters
medium for Ps. aeruginosa d. Reduce nitrates to nitrogen gas
™™ P. aeruginosa produces at least 4 distinct pigments: (i) 2. Which of the following pigments is diagnostic of
Pyocyanin, (ii) Pyoverdin (fluorescein), (iii) Pyorubrin, Pseudomonas aeruginosa?
(iv) Pyomelanin a. Pyocyanin b. Pyoverdin
™™ Diseases: Burn wound infections and other skin c. Pyomelanin d. Pyorubin
and soft tissue infections tract infections pulmonary 3. Which is the most popular method for typing of
infections external otitis eye infections, etc. Pseudomonas aeruginosa?
™™ Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. The spectrum of
a Pyocin typing
nosocomial infections with S. mal­tophilia includes
bacteremia, pneumonia, meningitis, wound b. Serotyping
infections, and urinary tract infections c. Bacteriophage typing
™™ Burkholderia cepacia: Diseases caused are respiratory d. Antibiogram typing
tract infections, particularly in patients with cystic 4. Which of the following infections can be caused by
fibrosis; uri­nary tract infections; septic arthritis; Pseudomonas aeruginosa?
peritonitis; septicemia; opportunistic infections a. Urinary tract infection
™™ Burkholderia pseudomallei: It causes asymptomatic b. Wound and bum infection
colonization; cutaneous infection with regional c. Respiratory tract infection
lymphadenitis, fever, and malaise; pulmonary disease d. All of the above
ranging from bronchitis to necrotiz­ing pneumonia
5. All the following statements are true for Burkholderia
™™ Burkholderia mallei: Diseases caused is glanders in
livestock.
mallei except that they:
a. Cause glanders in horses
b. Cause farcy in horses
Important questions c. Are motile Gram-negative bacilli
d. Are usually sensitive to chloramphenicol
1. Describe the morphology, cultural characteristics, 6. Human melioidosis manifests as:
pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of a. Benign pulmonary infection
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. b. Multiple abscesses in various organs and tissues
2. Write short notes on: c. A fulminating septicemia
a. Pseudomonas aeruginosa. d. All of the above
b. Pigments of Pseudomonas.
c. Pathogenicity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Answers (MCQs)
d. Enzymes and toxins of Pseudomonas aeru­ginosa 1. c; 2. a; 3. a; 4. d; 5. d; 6. d

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology, culture characteristics and
biochemical reactions of Legionella
Introduction
In the summer of 1976, public attention was
focused on an outbreak of severe pneumonia that
caused many deaths in members of the American
Legion convention in Philadelphia. The disease
was characterized by fever, cough and chest pain,
leading on to pneumonia and often ending fatally.
The causative agent has been called Legionella
pneumophila. Subsequent studies found this
organism to be the cause of multi­ple epidemic and
sporadic infections. It is now recognized to be a
ubiquitous aquatic saprophyte.
Species: Taxonomic studies have shown that
the family Le­gionellaceae consists of one genus,
LegionelIa, with 40 species and more than 60
serogroups. The original isolate in this genus is
designated L. pneumophila serogroup 1 (SG1),
which accounts for nearly all severe infections.
Examples of other species that cause human
infection less often are L. micdadei, L. bozemanii,
L. dumoffii and L. gormanii.
LEGIONELLA PNEUMOPHILA
Morphology
Legionellae are thin, noncapsulated bacilli, 25 mm
× 0.3–0.1 mm coccobacillary in clinical material
and assuming longer forms in culture. Most are
motile with polar or subpolar flagella. They are
gram-negative but stain poorly, particularly in
smears from clinical specimens. They stain better
by silver impregnation, but are best visualized by
direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) staining with
monoclonal or polyclonal sera.
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4343
Chapter
Legionella
∙∙ Describe the following: Legionella pneumophilia;
diseases caused by Legionella.
Culture
Legionellae are nutritionally fastidious. Their
growth is enhanced with iron salts and depends
on the supple­mentation of media the L-cysteine.
They have fastidious requirements and grow on
complex media such as buffered charcoal, yeast
extract (BCYE) agar, with L-cysteine and antibiotic
supplements, with 5% CO2, at pH 6.9, 35°C and 90%
humidity. Growth is slow and colonies take 3–6
days to appear.
Biochemical Reactions
The organisms are nonfermentative. Most species
are motile and catalase-positive, liquefy gelatin,
and do not reduce nitrate or hydrolyze urea.
Epidemiology
The bacteria are commonly present in natural
bodies of water, such as lakes and streams, as well
as in air conditioning cooling towers and condens­
ers and in water systems (e.g. showers, hot tubs).
Legionellae survive and multiply inside free-living
amebae and other protozoa. They also multiply in
some artificial aquatic environments, which serve
as amplifiers.
Human infection is typically by inhalation of
aerosols produced by cooling towers, air conditioners
and shower heads which act as disseminators. Man-
to-man transmission does not occur.
Pathogenesis
Respiratory tract disease caused by Legionella
species develops in susceptible people who inhale
infectious aerosols.
308  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Clinical Diseases
Asymptomatic Legionella infections are relatively
com­mon. Symptomatic infections primarily affect
the lungs and present in one of two forms:
1. Pontiac fever: An influenza-like illness
2. Legionnaires’ disease: A severe form of
pneumonia
1. Pontiac fever: Pontiac fever is a milder, nonfatal
‘influenza-like’ illness with fever, chills, myalgia
malaise, and headache but no clinical evidence
of pneumonia. Outbreaks with high attack rates
may occur.
2. Legionnaire’s disease: The incubation period
is 2–10 days. ‘The disease presents with fever,
nonproductive cough and dyspnea, rapidly
progressing, if untreated, to pneumonia. Multi­
or­gan disease involving the gastrointestinal
tract, central nervous system, liver and kidneys
is common.
Case fatality may be 15–20%. All age groups are
susceptible, though more cases have occurred in
the elderly.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Microscopy
Legionellae in clinical specimens stain poorly
with Gram stain. Nonspecific staining methods,
such as those using Dieterle’s silver or Gimenez’s
stain, can be used to visualize the organisms.
The most sensitive way of detecting legionellae
microscopically in clinical specimens is to use the
di­rect fluorescent antibody (DFA) test, in which
fluores­cein-labeled monoclonal or polyclonal
antibodies directed against Legionella species are
used.
2. Culture
The medium most commonly used for the isolation
of legionellae is buffered charcoal-yeast extract
(BCYE) agar. Anti­biotics can be added to suppress
the growth of rapidly growing contaminating
bacteria. Legionellae grow in air or 3% to 5% carbon
dioxide at 35°C after 3–5 days. Their small (1–3 mm)
colonies have a ground­glass appearance.
3. Antigen Detection
Enzyme-linked immunoassays, radioimmuno­
assays, the agglutination of antibody-coated latex
particles, and nucleic acid analysis studies have
all been used to detect legionellae in respiratory
specimens and urine.
4. Serology
Detection of serum antibody is done by ELISA or
indirect immunofluorescent assay.
Treatment
For treatment, the newer macrolides,ciprofloxacin,
and tetracyclines are effective. Rifampicin is
employed in severe cases.
Prevention
Prevention of legionellosis requires identification of
the environmental source of the organism and reduc­
tion of the microbial burden. Hyperchlorination of
the water supply and the maintenance of elevated
water temperatures have proved moderately
successful. How­e ver, complete elimination of
Legionella organisms from a water supply is often
difficult or impossible. Because the organism
has a low potential for causing disease, reducing
the number of organisms in the water supply is
frequently an adequate control measure. Hospitals
with patients at high risk for disease should monitor
their water supply on a regular basis for the presence
of Legionella and their hospital population for
disease.
Key Points
™™ Legionella pneumophilia serogroup 1 is most
common human pathogen
™™ L. pneumophilia are small, slender, pleomorphic,
Gram-negative bacilli
™™ Human infection is typically by inhalation of aerosols
produced by cooling towers, air conditioners and
shower heads
™™ L. pneumophilia causes Legionnaire’s disease
™™ Laboratory diagnosis depends on direct fluorescent
antibody (DFA) test, culture, detection of antigen and
demonstration of serum antibodies
™™ Hyperchlorination of the water and superheating of
water is of value in preventing the disease.
Important questions
1. Discuss pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of
Legionnaire’s disease.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Legionella pneumophilia
b. Legionnaire’s disease
c. Pontiac fever.
Multiple choice question (mCQs)
1. The causative agent of Pontiac fever is:
a. Legionella pneumophila
b. Pseudomonas putida
c. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
d. Francisella tularensis
2. The natural habitat of Legionella pneumophila is:
a. Water b. Sputum
c. Faeces d. Urine
3. The antibiotic of choice in Legionella infections is:
a. Erythromycin b. Cephalosporins
c. Penicillins d. All of the above
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. a; 3. a
 44
Chapter

Yersinia, Pasteurella, Francisella

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Describe laboratory diagnosis of plague
be able to: ∙∙ Describe the following: prophylaxis against plague;
∙∙ Describe morphology, culture characteristics and Yersinia enterocolitica; Yersinia pseudotuberculosis;
biochemical reactions of Yersinia pestis Pasteurella multocida; Francisella tularensis.

Introduction Yersinia pestis (formerly

The organisms within these three genera (Yersinia, Pasteurella pestis)
Pasteurella, Francisella) are animal pathogens Morphology
that, under certain conditions, are transmissible to
Y. pestis is a gram-negative, short, oval cocco­bacilli
man either directly, or indirectly through food and
with rounded ends and convex sides, about 1.5
water or via insect vectors. They are gram-negative
× 0.7 µm, occurring singly, in short chains or in
coccobacilli, formerly contained within one genus,
small groups. In smears stained with Giemsa or
Pasteurella. Molecular genetics has indicated
methylene blue, it shows bipolar staining (safety
a com­p letely separate identity for the three
pin appearance) with the two ends densely
genera—Yersinia, Pasteurella and Francisella.
stained and the central area clear (Fig. 44.1).
Genus Yersinia: It was so named after Alexandre Pleo­morphism is marked in culture, especially
Yersin, who had isolated the plague bacillus in 1894. in old cultures, involution forms are seen-coccoid,
Yersinia belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae club saped, filamentous and giant forms. This
and the tribe Yersinieae The genus Yersinia involution in culture can be hastened by the
currently consists of 11 named species. addition of 3% NaCI.
Medically important species are:
Y. pes­tis (the causative agent of plague);
Y. pseudotuber­culosis (a primary pathogen of
rodents);
Y. enterocolitica (which causes enteric and
systemic disease in animals and human beings).
Genus Pasteurella: The genus Pasteurella is
now restricted to a number of animal pathogens
and contains several related bacteria causing
hemorrhagic septicemia in different species of
ani­mals and occasionally producing local and
systemic infections in human beings, grouped
under a com­mon species named P. multocida.
Genus Francisella: The third new genus Francisella,
consisting of F. tularensis, is named after Francis for Fig. 44.1: Smear from gland puncture in a case of plague
his pioneering studies on tularemia caused by this showing Y. pestis with bipolar staining (safety pin appearance),
bacillus. a few red blood cell and leukocytes

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310  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
The bacillus is surrounded by a slime layer
(enve­lope or capsule). It is nonmotile, nonsporing
and non­acid fast.
Cultural Characteristics
The plague bacillus is aerobe and facultative
anaerobe. Growth occurs over a wide range of pH
5–9.6 (optimum pH 7.2). Optimum temperature
for primary culture is 27°C (range 14–37°C). Several
phenotypic characteristics are best expressed at room
temperature but the envelope develops at 37o C.
1. Nutrient agar: Colonies are small (as small as
0.1–0.2 mm), delicate, transparent disks and
become opaque on continued incubation.
2. Blood agar: Colonies are dark brown due to
absorption of the haemin pigment.
3. DCA and MacConkey agar: On DCA and
MacConkey agar it grows poorly, producing pin-
point, reddish colonies after 24 hours incubation.
4. In broth, a flocculent growth occurs at the
bottom and along the sides of the tube, with little
or no turbidity. A delicate pellicle may form later.
5. Ghee broth: If grown in a flask of broth with
sterile oil or ghee (clarified butter) floated
on top (ghee broth) a charac­teristic growth
occurs which hangs down into the broth from
the surface, resembling stalactites (stalac­tite
growth) (Fig. 44.2).
Fig. 44.2: Y. pestis in ghee broth culture. Stalactite growth
Table 44.1  Biotypes of Yersinia pestis
Variety Glycerol Nitrate Geographical distribution
fermentation reduction
Y. pestis var. orientalis − +
Y. pestis var. antiqua + +
Y. pestis var. medievalis + −
Biochemical Reactions
It ferments glucose, mannitol and maltose with the
production of acid but no gas. Lactose and sucrose
or rhamnose are not fer­mented.
It is catalase positive, indole negative, MR
positive, VP and citrate nega­tive (IMViC – + – –),
nitrate reduction positive, aesculin positive and
oxidase and urease negative. Gelatin is not liquefied.
Physiological varieties of Y. pestis: Devignat has
distinguished three physiological varieties of Y.
pestis based on the fermentation of glycerol and
reduction of nitrate. These biotypes have been
designated orientalis, medieval and antigua, and
are characterized by differences in their geo­
graphic distribution. This typing appears to be of
epidemiological significance because of the different
geographical distribution of the types (Table 44.1).
Resistance
The plague bacillus is easily destroyed by exposure
to heat, sunlight, drying and chemical disin­
fectants. It is killed by moist heat at 55°C in 5
min and by 0.5% phenol in 15 minutes. It is very
susceptible to drying. It remains viable for long
peri­ods in cold, moist environments.
Antigens, Toxins and
Other Virulence Factors
At least 20 different antigens have been detected
in Y. pestis.
1. F-l antigen or envelope antigen: The heat-
labile Fraction I (FI) protein capsular antigen
is a soluble antigen contained within the
bacterial envelope. It helps the organism to
resist phagocytosis.
2. V and W antigens: These antigens have been
considered to be the virulence factors as they
inhibit phagocytosis. Production of V and W
antigens is plasmid mediated.
3. Pigment binding and iron-regulated surface
proteins: In yersiniae, avirulent and low-
pathogenicity strains require iron overload to
produce septicemia in humans or lethality in
mice.
Primary foci in India, Myanmar, and China. Causative agent of 1894
pandemic. Responsible for wild plague in Western USA, South
America, South Africa
Transbaikalia, Mongolia, Manchuria, perhaps responsible for
Justinian plague
Southeast Russia
 Chapter 44: Yersinia, Pasteurella, Francisella  | 311
4. Pesticin I, coagulase, and plasminogen
activator: Pesticin I is a bacteriocin produced
by Y. pestis. It is thought that these enzymes,
especially the plasminogen activator, may
contribute to the highly invasive fulminant
character of the disease.
5. Other virulence-associated factors
a. Endotoxin: The role of Y. pestis endotoxin
in the disease process is ill-defined.
b. Murine toxins: They are thermolabile and
may be toxoided but do not diffuse freely
into the medium and are released only by
the lysis of the cell. They are called ‘murine
toxins’ as they are active in rats and mice.
The role of plague toxins in natu­ral disease
in human beings is not known.
c. pH 6 Ag: The pH 6 Ag is synthesized by
Y. pestis at a temperature of 37°C and at
pH levels similar to those in macrophage
phagolysosomes or abscesses.
6. Purine synthesis: Virulence has also been
associated with the ability for purine synthesis.
Plague
Plague is one of the oldest recorded infectious
diseases and is an ancient scourge of mankind.
Central Asia is believed to have been the original
home of plague. More than 150 epidemics, most of
them associated with three main pandemics, have
been reponed.
The second pandemic, known as the Black
Death started in the fourteenth century. The third
pandemic originated in Burma, spread to China
in 1894, and from Hong Kong was carried to other
continents. India was one of the countries worst hit
by this pandemic. Plague reached Bombay in 1896
and spread all over the country during the next few
years, causing more than 10 million deaths by 1918.
It grad­ually receded thereafter, though occasional
cases con­tinued to occur in endemic foci till 1967.
No further plague cases were seen in India till 1994,
when in August a nonfatal outbreak of bubonic
plague was re­p orted from Maharashtra (Beed
district). In Septem­ber pneumonic plague was
reported in Surat and adjoining areas of Gujarat
and Maharashtra. More recently as of 19th Feb.
2002, the Ministry of Health reported a total of 16
cases of pneumonic plague (including 4 deaths) in
Hat Koti village, Shimla Dist. Himachal Pradesh.
Pathogenesis
Plague is a zoonotic disease. The plague bacillus
is naturally parasitic in rodents. Infec­t ion is
transmitted among them by rat fleas. When a rat
flea, commonly X cheopsis, bites a diseased rat,
it sucks blood. In the flea, the bacilli multiply in
the stomach to such an extent that they block the
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proventriculus. When such a ‘blocked flea’ bites
another rodent, it cannot suck in blood because the
bacterial mass blocks the passage mechanically.
The blood, mixed with the bacteria is regurgitated
into the bite, transmitting the infection. Infection
may also be trans­ferred by contamination of the
bite wound with the feces of infected fleas.
Forms of human plague: Traditionally, three
severe forms of human plague are described. All
of these may occur at different stages in the same
patient.
1. Bubonic Plague
Incubation period is 2–5 days. As the plague
bacillus usually enters through the bite of infected
flea on the legs, the inguinal lymph nodes are invol­
ved, hence the name bubonic plague (bubo means
enlarged gland in groin). The glands become enlar­
ged and suppurate. The bubo may be preceded
by prodromata of chills, fever, malaise, confusion,
nausea, and pains in the limbs and back. The bacilli
enter the bloodstream and produce septicemia.
The case fatality in unteated cases may be 30–90%.
2. Pneumonic Plague
This can develop in patients presenting with
bubonic or septicaemic plague. It may also be
acquired as a primary infection by inhalation
of droplets infected with Y. pestis. The bacilli
spread through the lungs producing hemorrhagic
pneumonia. The sputum becomes thin and blood-
stained.
This type of plague is highly contagious and
is almost invariably fatal unless treated very early
almost 100% and with treatment it is 5–30%.
3. Septicemic Plague
This may occur as a primary infection or as a
complication of bubonic or pneumonic plague.
Purpura may develop in the skin, giving the skin
a blackish coloration which, in the past, led to the
name “black death”. Disseminated
intravascular coagulation is usually present.
Meningitic involvement may occur rarely.
Epidemiology
Several species of fleas may act as vectors, the
most important being Xenopsylla cheopis. X.
astia and Ceratophyllus fasciatus. X. cheopis, the
predominant species in north India is a more
efficient vector than the south Indian species X.
astia.
Plague is perpetuated by three cycles: (i) natural
foci among commensal rodents with transmission
by fleas (sylvatic plague, wild plague), (ii) urban
rat plague, which is transmitted by the rat flea
312  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
(domestic plague, urban plague), and (iii) human
plague, which may be acquired by contact with
either of the former cycles and which may be
transmitted by pneumonic spread or, rarely, by the
bite of a human flea.
In the 1990s, there has been a re-emergence
of plague in countries where it had ceased to be
noticed for many years. Y. pestis has been employed
as a biological warfare agent.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Plague is confirmed by demonstrating the bacilli
in fluid from buboes or local skin lesions, in the
sputum and in blood films. Blood culture may be
intermittently positive in all forms of the disease.
Postmortem, the bacilli can usually be isolated
from a wide range of tissues, especially spleen, lung
and lymph nodes.
1. Specimens
i. Bubonic plague—pus or fluid aspirated.
ii. Pneumonic plague—sputum and blood.
iii. Septicemic plague—blood.
iv. Meningeal plague—cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
v. On postmortem—splenic tissue.
2. Microscopy
Smears of exudate or sputum are stained with
methy­lene blue or Giemsa stain. Characteristic
gram-negative coccobacilli and bacilli showing
bipolar staining with methylene blue suggest
plague bacilli. The smears are also stained by
Gram’s method and observed for Gram negative,
ovoid coccobacilli with bipolar bodies. The
fluorescent anti­body technique may be of use in
identifying plaguqe bacilli.
3. Culture
Culture the samples on blood agar plates,
MacConkey agar, nutrient agar and ghee broth
and incu­bated at 27°C. Colonies on blood agar
are dark brown. Colonies on MacConkey agar are
colorless. In ghee broth, a characteristic stalactite
growth is produced. The growth is identified by
biochemical tests and slide agglutination tests.
Demonstration of the FI capsular antigen by
immunospecific staining will confirm the presence
of Y. pestis.
4. Animal Inoculation
If exudate is inoculated subcutaneously into
guinea-pigs or white rats, or on to their nasal
mucosa, infection follows and the animals die
within 2–5 days. The bacilli may then be isolated
from the blood or from smears of spleen tissue
taken postmortem.
Postmortem examination shows a marked local
inflammatory condition at the site of inocula­tion
with necrosis and edema. The regional lymph
nodes are enlarged, the spleen is enlarged and
con­gested and may show grayish-white patches
in the tissue. Prepare films from the local lesions,
lymph nodes, spleen pulp and heart blood; stain
and examine for characteristic plague bacilli.
5. Antigen Detection
Demonstration of the FI capsular antigen by
immunospecific staining and ELISA test will
confirm the presence of Y. pestis.
Dipstick test: FI glycoprotein can be detected by
dipstick test using monoclonal antibodies. It is
rapid test and produces reliable result within 15
minutes.
6. Serology
The antibodies to F-I antigen can be demonstrated
in patient’s serum by complement fixation test
(CFT), hemagglutination test and enzyme linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
7. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
A polymerase chain reaction (PCR), with primers
based on FI gene sequences, offers a rapid and less
hazardous means of diagnosis than culture.
Diagnosis of Plague in Wild Rats
Before examining rats that may have died as a result
of plague, immerse them in disinfectant to kill any
infected fleas. Necropsy has the following features
in plague:
i. Enlargement of the lymphatic nodes with
periglandular inflamma­t ion and edema; ii.
Pleural effusion; iii. Enlarge­ment of the spleen; iv.
Liver congested and mottled; v. Congestion and
hemorrhages under the skin and in internal organs.
Make films and cultures of heart blood, lymph
nodes and spleen. Inoculate material from lesions
on to the nasal mucosa of guinea pigs or white
rats as with sputum. Examine stained films and
pure cultures for characteristic morphology and
biochemical reactions of Y. pestis.
Prophylaxis
Plague is one of the internationally quarantinable
diseases, and reporting of cases is mandatory.
Prophylaxis can be carried out by:
A. General Measures
1. Control of fleas and rodents.
2. Spray insecticide (DDT) inside the rodent,
burrows and houses to kill the fleas.
 Chapter 44: Yersinia, Pasteurella, Francisella  | 313
3. After the fleas have been killed, kill the rat with
rat-poison.
B. Vaccination
Two types of vaccine have been in use-killed and
live attenuated vaccines.
1. Killed vaccine: The k­ illed vaccine used in India
(prepared at the Haffkine Institute, Bombay) is
a whole culture antigen. A virulent strain of the
plague bacillus is grown in casein hydrolysate
broth for 2–4 weeks at 32°C and killed by 0.05%
formaldehyde and preserved with phenyl
mercuric nitrate (Sokhey’s modification of
Haffkine’s vaccine). In Asia, Haffkine Institute,
Mumbai is the only vaccine producing center.
Vaccine dose schedule: The vaccine is given
subcutaneously, two doses at an interval of 1–3
months, followed by a third six months later.
Vaccination can confer significant protection
against bubonic but not pneumonic plague. The
protection does not last for more than six months.
Side effects: Fever, headache, malaise, lym­
phadenopathy, and erythema and induration at
the site of inoculation. It may cause fetal damage
and abortion in pregnant women. Vaccination
is not very effective, therefore, even vaccinated
individuals should also be given chemoprophylaxis
when exposed to plague.
2. Live attenuated vaccines: Live vaccines are
prepared from two avirulent strains of Y. pestis,
Otten’s Tjiwidej strain from Jawa and Girard’s
EV 76 strain from Malagasey. Killed vaccine
is recommended for general use because
live vaccines are difficult to prepare and may
provoke unacceptable reactions. Live vaccines
are not in use now.
Chemoprophylaxis
A person exposed to definite risk of infec­tion,
whether vaccinated or not, should be given
chemoprophylaxis-cotrimoxazole or tetracycline
orally for at least five days. Close contacts of
patients with plague should be given a course
of tetracycline (500 mg 6 hourly for one week).
Treatment
Streptomycin is the drug of choice. Chloramphenicol
is recommended in patients with meningitic
symptoms. Tetracycline may be adequate in
uncompli­cated bubonic plague. Gentamicin and
ciprofloxacin are also effective.
Yersiniosis
The term yersiniosis denotes infection with
Yersinia species other than Y. pestis, namely, Y.
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pseudotuberculosis and Y. enter­ocolitica. They are
found in the intestinal tract of a variety of animals,
in which they cause diseases, and are transmissible
to humans, in which they produce a variety of
clinical syndromes. These are zoonotic diseases.
These are nonlactose fermenting gram-
negative rods that are urease-positive and oxidase-
negative. They resemble Y. pestis because they are
small, gram-negative rods with bipolar staining
and rodents, wild and domestic animals are
reservoirs of infection. They differ from Y. pestis by
motility when grown at 22°C (nonmotile at 37°C),
non­capsulated, urease positive, oxidase-negative
and insusceptible to Y. pestis bacteriophage.
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
Y. pseudotuberculosis is a small, oval, Gram-
negative,bipolar-stained bacillus. It is non-sporing,
non-capsulated and slightly acid-fast.
The organisms may be differentiated from
Y. pestis by: by its relatively poor growth on
MacConkey agar.
∙∙ Motility when grown at 22°C (but not at 37°C)
∙∙ Ability to produce urease
∙∙ Fermentation of rhamnose and melibiose
∙∙ Failure to be lysed by the antiplague bac­
teriophage at 22°C.
∙∙ Lack of the FI antigen as shown by immunospecific
staining or PCR.
There are eight major O serotypes, several of
which can be separated into subtypes. The majority
of human cases of Y. pseudotuberculosis infection
are due to serotype 1.
Pathogenesis
Animal infection: It causes pseudotuberculosis
which is a zoonotic diseses. In animals, the natural
mode of infection is by gastrointestinal tract. In
infected guinea pigs, the liver, spleen and lungs
show multiple nodules resembling tuberculosis
lesions (hence the name pseudotuberculosis).
Human infection: Human infection probably
results from ingestion of materials contaminated
with animal feces. Infection may be subclinical, but
occasionally results in a severe typhoid-like illness
with fever, purpura and enlargement of the liver
and spleen, which is usually fatal. More frequently
it causes mesenteric lymphade­nitis and terminal
ileitis simulating acute or subacute appen­dicitis.
It has also been reported to cause immunological
sequelae such as erythema nodosum or reactive
arthritis in some patients.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory diagnosis may be made by isolation
of the organ­ism in culture from blood, local
314  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
lesions or mesenteric nodes, or demonstration
of antibodies in patient serum during the acute
phase of the illness by tube agglutination tests,
hemag­glutination of red cells sensitized with
LPS, or ELISA­.
Treatment
Ileitis and mesenteric lymphadenitis are usually
self-limiting but septice­m ia may be treated
with parenteral ampicillin, chloramphenicol,
gentamicin or tetracycline.
Yesinia enterocolitica
It is a gram-negative coccobacillus showing
pleomorphism in older cultures. This bacillus
resembles Y. pseudotuberculosis in being motile at
22°C but differs from it in fermenting sucrose and
cellobiose and decarboxylating ornithine. It does
not ferment rhamnose or melibiose. Many strains
are indole and VP positive.
Cultural Characters
It is aerobe and facultative anaerobe. Optimum
temperature for growth is 22–29°C. On blood
agar, it forms nonhemolytic, smooth, translucent
colonies, 2–3 mm in diameter in 48 hours. On
MacConkey medium, it forms pinpoint non-
lactose fermenting (NLF) colonies.
Antigenic Structure
Based on O and H antigens, more than 60 different
O antigens and 19 H factors have been identified.
Serotypes O3, O8 and O9 account for most human
infections.
Pathogenesis
Y. enterocolitica has been isolated from a wide
range of domestic and wild animals. Human
disease usuaIly results from ingestion of contam­
inated food or from contact with the environment.
Blood transfusion is a significant hazard.
Types of Disease in Humans
1. Gastroenteritis or enterocolitis, which is self-
limited and occurs in young children.
2. Mesenteric lymphadenitis and terminal ileitis
in older children that may mimic appendicitis
3. Septicemia, which is often fatal.
4. Pneumonia and meningitis are rare present­
ations.
5. Post­infectious complications include erythema
nodosum, polyarthritis, Reiter’s syndrome and
thyroiditis.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The laboratory diagnosis of Y. enterocolitica
consists of isolation of the organism and indirectly
by demonstration of antbodies in the patient
serum. Isolation of the organisms can be done
from feces, blood or from mesenteric lymph
nodes. Blood agar and MacConkey agar are used
for growing this organism. Selective medium for
recovery of Y. enterocolitica from faeces, food
soil etc. is cefsulodin-irgasan novobiocin (CIN)
Yersinia selective agar. Colonies of Y. enterocolitica
have a bull’s eye appearance, colored dark red
and surrounded by a transparent border on CIN
agar. Identify the strain by biochemical tests and
serotype determination.
Pasteurella multocida (formerly
Pasteurella septica)­
A group of related bacteria isolated from hemor­
rhagic septicemia in a variety of animals and birds
had, in the past, been named according to their
spe­cies of origin—Pasterella boviseptica. Pasterella
lepiseptica, Pasterella avisepti­ca, etc. Though they
show some degree of host specificity, they are so
alike in other respects that they are now considered
strains of a single species designated P. multocida.
Morphology
They are gram-negative, nonmotile, nonsporing
coccobacilli which show bipolar staining. Some
strains are encapsulated.
Cultural Characteristics
Pasteurellae are aerobes and facultative anaerobes.
They grow on blood agar and chocolate agar.
Pathogenesis
The bacillus is usually normal inhabitant of the
upper respira­tory tract of a variety of animals
such as dogs, cats, cattle and sheep. Pasteurella
infections are considered zoonoses. The most
common presentation is a history of animal bite.
Human infections usually present as:
1. A local abscess at the site of a cat or dog bite;
2. Infections of the respiratory system.
3. Meningitis or cerebral abscess (usually follow­
ing head injury), endo­carditis, pericarditis or
septicemia.
Animals and birds: P. multocida can be extremely
virulent to many species of animals and birds,
causing fowl cholera; hemorrhagic septicemia. It
respiratory infections and atrophic rhinitis in pigs.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Culture: Swabs from bite wounds, from blood,
from CSF in cases of meningitis and from
secretions in suppurative conditions of the
respiratory tract are cultured on blood agar
 Chapter 44: Yersinia, Pasteurella, Francisella  | 315
plates incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. The
organisms are identified by various cultural and
biochemical tests.
2. Serology: Serology is of no value in diagnosis.
3. Polymerasrs chain reaction (PCR): PCR is
potentially useful but rarely available.
Francisella tularensis
(Pasteurella tularensis, Brucella
tularensis)
Francisella tularensis produces tularaemia in man
and certain small mammals, notably rabbits, hares,
beavers and various rodent species. Tularemia was
originally described in Tulare county, California. It
can be transmitted by direct contact, by biting flies,
mosquitoes and ticks, by contaminated water or
meat, or aerosols.
Morphology
It is a very small, nonmotile, non-sporing, capsulate,
Gram- negative coccobacillus, about 0.3–0.7 µm ×
0.2 µm in size.
Cultural Characters
F. tularensis is strictly aerobic. It will not grow on
ordinary nutrient media, but grows well on blood
agar containing 2.5% glucose and 0.1% cysteine
hydrochlo­r ide. Minute droplet-like colonies
develop in 72 hours.
Pathogenesis
The infection, which is a typical zoonosis, is mainly
spread by insects or ticks among lagomorphs and
rodents. It is transmitted to man through handling
of infected animals.
In human beings, tularemia may present as a
local ulceration with lymphadenitis, a typhoid like
fever with glandular enlargement or an influenza
like respiratory infection.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis may be made by culture or by inoculation
into guinea pigs or mice. A PCR has been
described, but is not widely available. Serology is
most likely to be positive after 3 weeks. Rising titers
of agglutinins to F. tularensis or individual titers
of 160 are diagnostic. An intradermal delayed
hypersensitivity test has been used in the past but
the antigen is not readily available.
Treatment
Streptomycin or gentamicin are the antibiotics of
choice in tularemia and are usually curative.
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Prophylaxis
A vaccine based on the live-attenuated LVS strain
confers some protection. It can be administerd by
scarification to persons who are subject to high
risk of infection.
F. tularensis has been developed as a biological
warfare agent and has potential application in
bioterrorism.
Key Points
™™ Yersinia are gram-negative bacilli that are facultative
anaerobes, positive by the catalase test and negative
by the oxidase test
™™ The genus Yersinia consists of 10 species, with Y. pestis,
Yersinia enterocolitica, and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
the well-known human pathogens
™™ Y. pestis is a gram-negative, shows bipolar staining
(safety pin appearance), pleo­morphic, nonmotile,
and is capsulated
™™ F-l antigen or envelope antigen has been considered
a virulence determinant
™™ Plague is a zoonotic infection in humans. Disease is
spread by flea bites or direct contact with infected
tissues or person-to-person by inhala­tion of infectious
aerosols from a patient with pulmonary disease
™™ Diseases: Yersinia pestis causes plague, which
manifests in one of three forms: Bubonic plague;
pneumonic plague; septicemic plague
™™ Diagnosis: For diagnosis, material is aspirated
from the bubo, for demonstration of bipolar
staining short rods (coccobacilli) using Wright’s or
Gram stain, for demonstration of the bacteria by
immunofluorescence. Culture of the bacteria on
blood agar. Serology can be used to detect antibody
to capsular antigen
™™ Yersinia pseudotuberculosis: It causes pseudotuber­
culosis, a zoonotic disease
Yesinia enterocolitica
™™ It produces in humans-gastroenteritis or enterocol­
itis, mesenteric lymphadenitis and terminal ileitis
in older children, septicemia, pneumonia and
meningitis, erythema nodosum, polyarthritis, Reiter’s
syndrome and thyroiditis
Pasteurella multocida
™™ Pasteurella infections are considered zoonoses
Francisella tularensis
™™ Francisella tularensis produces tularemia in man and
certain small mammals. The infection, is a typical
zoonosis.
Important questions
1. Describe the pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis
of plague.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Prophylaxis against plague
b. Yersinia pseudouberculosis
c. Yersinia enterocolitica
d. Pasteurellosis
e. Pasteurella multocida
f. Francisella tularensis
g. Tularemia
316  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Multiple choice questions (Mcqs)
1. Bipolar staining is characteristic of:
a. Yersinia pestis
b. Yersinia enterocolitica
c. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
d. Proteus mirabilis
2. Bubonic plague is transmitted by:
a. Inoculation b. Inhalation
c. Ingestion d. All of the above
routes
3. Pneumonic plague is transmitted to humans by:
a. Rat flea b. Droplet infection
c. Ingestion d. Inoculation
4. The name black death is given to which of the
following diseases?
a. Tuberculosis b. Diphtheria
c. Plague d. AIDS
5. Which of the following vaccines is/are recommended
for immunization against plague?
a. Live b. Killed
c. Subunit d. All of the above
6. Yersinia enterocolitica shows all the following
characteristics except:
a. They are motile at 22°C
b. They produce hemolytic colonies on blood agar
c. They ferment sucrose and cellobiose
d. They decarboxylate ornithine
7. Which of the following diseases is/are caused by Y.
enterocolitica in man?
a. Gastroenteritis
b. Mesenteric lymphadenitis
c. Septicemia
d. All of the above
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. a; 3. b; 4. c; 5. b; 6. c; 7. d
 45
Chapter

Haemophilus

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology and culture characteristics
of Haemophilus influenzae
∙∙ Describe the following: X and V factors; Satellitism;
Antigenic structure of Haemophilus influenzae
∙∙ Describe pathogenicity of H. influenzae
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of infections caused
by Haemophilus influenzae
∙∙ Discuss Haemophilus influenzae biogroup aegyptius
∙∙ Describe morphology and culture characteristics of
Haemophilus ducreyi
∙∙ Discuss Haemophilus ducreyi or chancroid or soft
sore and its laboratory diagnosis.

Introduction Table 45.1  Growth characteristics of Haemophilus

species
The genus Hemophilus comprises a group of
small, nonmotile, nonsporing, non-acid-fast, Growth Hemolysis on
gram-negative coccobacilli or rods, often markedly Species requirements horse blood
pleo­morphic and sometimes filamentous that are X V CO2 agar
parasitic on human beings or animals. They are H. influenzae + + − −
characterized by their requirement of one or both H. aegyptius + + − −
of two accessory growth factors (X and V) present
H. ducreyi + − Variable Variable
in blood. The name of the genus comes from the
requirement by these organisms for accessory H. parainfluenzae − + − −
growth factors found in blood, that is, haemo H. haemolyticus + + − −
(Greek for blood) and philos (Greek for loving). H. parahaemolyticus − + − −
Species: Haemophilus influenzae-most commonly H. aphrophilus + − − −
associated with disease H. paraphrophilus − + − −
Haemophilus ducreyi
Haemophilus aphrophilus: The other members
of the genus are commonly isolated in clinical
specimens but are rarely pathogenic, being Cultural Characteristics
re­sponsible primarily for opportunistic infections H.influenzae is an aerobe and facultative anaerobe.
(Table 45.1). Growth is enhanced by a moist atmosphere
supplemented with 5–10% CO2. The optimum
Haemophilus influenzae
temperature is 37°C. The accessory growth factors;
Morphology named X and V, present in blood are essential for
H. influenzae is a small, gram-negative rods or growth.
coccobacilli (0.3–0.5 × 1–2 mm size), exhibiting X factor: X factor (hemin) is a heat-stable protopor­
considerable pleomorphism. Cells from young phyrin IX, haemin or some other iron-containing
cultures (18–24 hours) are usually cocco­bacillary, porphyrin. It is required for the synthesis of the
while older cultures are distinctly pleomor­ iron-containing respiratory enzymes cytochrome
phic. Virulent strains are often capsulated. It is c, cytochrome oxidase, peroxidase and catalase.
nonmotile, nonsporing and non-acid-fast. The X factor is not required for anaerobic growth.

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318  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
V factor: V factor is coenzyme, nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide (NAD), NAD phosphate
(NADP) which acts as a hydrogen acceptor in
the metabolism of the cell. It is heat labile being
destroyed at 120°C in a few minutes. It is present in
red blood cells and in many other animal and plant
cells. It is synthesized by some fungi and bacteria
such as Staph. aureus.The differential requirement
of X and V factors help to differentiate various
species of haemophilus (Table 45.1).
The growth is scanty on blood agar because V
factor is present inside the RBC. Chocolate agar
(heated blood agar) is superior to plain blood
agar for the growth of H. influenzae, because V
factor is released from within the erythrocytes
and inactivates serum NADase. Clear transparent
media may be prepared by boiling and filtering a
mixture of blood and nutrient broth (Levinthal’s
medium) or by adding a peptic digest of blood to
nutrient agar (Fildes agar).
Colonies: The colonies are small, translucent and
nonhemolytic on blood agar. Capsulated strains
produce larger, distinctive iridescent colonies.
Fildes agar is best for primary isolation of H.
influenzae and gives a copious growth. Capsulated
strains produce translucent colonies with a
distinctive iridescence on Levinthal’s agar.
Satellitism: The V factor is intracellular and
is present inside the RBC. It is synthesized by
some fungi and bacteria such as Staph. aureus
in excess of their requirements and released into
the surrounding medium. When Staph. aureus
is streaked across a plate of blood agar on which
a spec­imen containing H. influenzae has been
inoculated, af­ter overnight incubation, the colonies
of H. influenzae will be large and well developed
alongside the streak of Staphylococcus, and
smaller farther away. This phenomenon is called
satellitism and demonstrates the dependence of H.
influenzae on the V factor, which is available in high
concentrations near the staphylococcal growth and
only in smaller quantities away from it (Fig. 45.1).
Fig. 45.1: Satellitism. H. influenzae colonies are large near
growth of Staphylococcus, and smaller away from it
This is a routine test in clinical bac­teriology for the
identification of H. influenzae.
Biochemical Reactions
H. influenzae ferments glucose and galactose but
does not ferment sucrose, lactose and mannitol.
Catalase and oxidase reactions are positive. It
reduces nitrates to nitrites. H. influenzae can
be divided into eight biotypes on the basis of
indole pro­duction, urease activity and ornithine
decarboxylase reactions (Table 45.2). Biotypes
I-III are the most common, and biotype I is most
frequently responsible for meningitis.
Antigenic Structure
There are three major surface antigens:
1. Capsular antigens: The major antigenic
determinant of capsulated strains is the capsular
polysaccharide based on which H. influenzae
strains have been classified by Pittman into six
capsular types—types a to f. Typing was orig­inally
done by agglutination but other methods such
as Quellung reaction (swelling of the capsule)
with type-specific antisera, precipitation,
coagglutination, counterimmunoelectrophoresis
(CIE) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA) may also be used. Diagnostic kits for the
identification of H. influenzae type b (Hib) are
com­mercially available.
The type b capsular polysaccharide has
a unique chemical structure, containing the
pentose sugars ribose and ribitol. The capsular
polyribosyl ribitol phosphate (PRP) antigen of
Hib in­duces IgG, IgM and IgA antibodies which
are bacteri­cidal, opsonic and protective. Hib
PRP is, therefore, employed for immunization.
H. influenzae strains lacking a capsule cannot
be typed and are called ‘nontypable strains’.
2. Somatic antigen: The cell envelope of H. influenzae
consists of an outer and inner membrane
containing protein and lipooligosaccharide
(LOS) antigens. Outer membrane protein (OMP)
antigens of Hib have been classified into at least
13 subtypes. OMP and LOS subtyping may be of
epidemiological value.
Table 45.2  Characters of six biotypes of Haemo­
philus influenzae
Biotype
Character I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Indole + + − − + − + −
production
Urease activity + + + + − − − −
Ornithine + − − + + + − −
decarboxylase

Resistance
H. influenzae is a delicate organism. It is readily
killed by moist heat (at 55°C in 30 minutes), refrige­
ration (4°C), drying and disinfectants. It also dies
in 1–48 hours in dried secretions and airborne
drop­let-nuclei. In culture, the cells die within two
or three days due to autolysis.
Variation
Colonies of H. influenzae show a smooth to rough
(S–R) variation associated with loss of capsule and
virulence. As in case of Strepto­coccus pneumoniae,
genetic transformation has been demonstrated in
H. influenzae also. The char­acters transformed are
the capsular antigens and antibiotic resistance.
Virulence Factors
The virulence of H. influenzae is determined by the
following factors:
1. Capsular polysaccharide: This confers on the
bacterium ability to resist phagocytosis.
2. Adherence: Most noncapsulate strains are
adherent to human epithelial cells and may
explain the tendency of these strains to cause
more localized infections. Most serotype b strains
are not adherent and explain the tendency for
type b strains to cause systemic infections.
3. Outer membrane proteins: They also contribute
in adhesion and invasion of host tissues.
4. IgAl protease: Production of IgA1 protease
allows pathogens to inactivate the primary
antibody found on mucosal surfaces and
thereby elimi­nate protection of the host by the
antibody.
Pathogenesis
H. influenzae is exclusively a human parasite,
which resides principally in the upper respiratory
tract. Capsulate strains are present in 5–10%.
H. influenzae causes invasive and non-
invasive infections.
A. Invasive Infections
1. Meningitis: The most serious of the diseases
produced by H. influenzae is an acute bacterial
meningitis. The bacilli reach the meninges
from the nasopharynx, apparently through the
bloodstream. The disease is more common in
children between two ‘months and three years
of age. Case fatality rates are up to 90% in the
untreated. Majority of the cases are due to type b
strains.
2. Epiglottitis: This is an acute inflam­mation of
the epiglottis, with obstructive laryngitis, seen
in children above two years. This condition is
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Chapter 45: Haemophilus  | 319
always asso­ciated with bacteremia and blood
cultures are usually positive.
3. Pneumonia : Haemophilus pneumonia
typically occurs in infants and is accompanied
by empyema and sometimes meningitis as
well. While these are primary infections due
to capsulated strains, bronchop­n eumonia
may occur as a secondary infection with the
noncapsulated strains.
4. Suppurtive lesions: Suppurative lesions such
as arthritis, endocarditis and pericarditis may
result from hematogenous dissemination.
5. Cellulitis: Cellulitis partic­ularly in the buccal
and periorbital areas is seen in young children.
B. Noninvasive Disease
1. Acute sinusitis and otitis media
2. Acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive
airway disease
3. Conjunctivitis
Epidemiology
Infection is transmitted by the respiratory route.
Carriage in the upper respiratory tract is common
particularly in young children. The frequency of
invasive infections is inversely related to age; only
a small percentage occurs in adults and older
children. Infections in the first 2 months of life are
rare, probably because of transplacental transfer
of maternal antibody.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
The following specimens may be collected
depending upon the type of lesion:
i. Blood culture; ii. cerebrospinal fluid; iii. throat
swabs; iv. sputum; v. pus; vi. aspirates from joints,
middle ears or sinuses, etc.
2. Collection and Transport
For optimal yield, specimens should be transported to
the laboratory and seeded on to appropriate cuIture
media without delay. As haemophili are poorly viable
in clinical specimens particularly at 4°C, therefore, the
specimens should never be refrigerated.
3. Direct Microscopy
i. Gram-stained smear
Gram-stained smear of clinical material show­ing
poorly stained gram-negative coccobacilli and
occasionally slender filamentous forms.
ii. Immunofluorescence and Quellung reaction
Immunofluorescence and Quellung reaction
can be employed for direct demonstration of
H. influenzae after mixing with specific rabbit
antiserum type b.
320  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
iii. Antigen detection
Type b capsular antigen can be detected in patient
serum, urine, CSF or pus by several methods.
These include latex agglutination, coagglutination,
countercurrent immunoelectrophoresis radio­
immunoassay (RIA) enzyme linked immonosorbent
assay (ELISA).
4. Culture
i. CSF culture: CSF should be plated promptly
on blood agar or chocolate agar. A strain of S.
aureus should be streaked across the blood
agar plate on which the specimen has already
been inoculated. Plate is then incubated
at 37°C with 5–10% CO2 and high humidity
overnight. It may also be cultured on Levinthal
and Fildes blood-digest agar The growth
is identified by colony morphology, Gram
staining, satellite phenomenon, biochemical
reactions and serotyping.
ii. Blood culture: Blood cultures are often
positive in cases of epiglottitis and pneumonia.
iii. Sputum culture: Sputum should be homo­
genized by treatment with pancreatin or by
shak­ing with sterile water and glass beads
for 15–30 minutes. The rate of isolation is
increased by culturing several samples of
sputum from the patient.
5. Identification
H. influenzae colonies have a characteristic seminal
odour. Confirmation of the identity depends on
demonstrating a requirement for one or both of the
growth factors, X and V H. influenzae requires both.
6. Molecular Techniques
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to
identify Haemophilus species in clinical specimens
and as confirmatory tests on isolates.
7. Antibiotic Sensitivity Tests
Accurate determination of the antibiotic sus­
ceptibility of H influenzae requires careful
standardization of the methodology because of
the fastidious nature of the organism.
Treatment
H. influenzae is susceptible to sulphonamides,
trimetho­prim, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, tetra­
cycline, co­amoxiclav, ciprofloxacin, cefuroxime,
cefotaxime and ceftazidime. Ceftriaxone and
related cephalosporins such as cefo­taxime are
the antibiotics of first choice for the treat­ment
of meningitis. Cefotaxime, cef­u roxime and
ceftazidime are highly effective for the treatment of
H. influenzae infection. Ampicillin resistance is
due to the production of β-lactamase. Amoxycillin-
clavulanate or clarithromycin is more effective.
Prophylaxis
Active Immunization
i. A purified type b capsular polysaccharide
vaccine
It is used in children of 18–24 months. Vaccine
is administered in two doses at an interval of
two months.
ii. Conjugate vaccines: Hib PRP vaccine in which
the polysaccharide is cova­lently coupled
to various proteins (e.g. tetanus toxoid,
Neisseria meningi­t idis outer membrane
protein, and diphtheria toxoid) produce a
lasting anamnestic response. Such Hib PRP
are available for use in young children.
iii. Household contacts of patients
Rifampicin given for four days pre­v ents
secondary infection in contacts and also
eradi­cates carrier state.
Haemophili other than H. influenzae
Haemophilus influenzae Biogroup Aegyptius
(Koch-Weeks Bacillus, Formerly H. Aegypticus)
Koch (1883) observed a small bacillus in conjunc­
tivitis cases in Egypt. It was first cultivated by Weeks
(1887) in New York.This organism, formerly known
as the Koch-Weeks bacillus and H. aegyptius, is
now thought to be a subgroup of H. influenzae.
It is indistinguishable from H. influenzae
biotype III in routine tests, but can be identified
by a PCR method.
Diseases: It causes purulent conjunctivitis and
Brazilian purpuric fever (BPF), a clinical syn­
drome which is characterized by conjunctivitis,
high fever, vomiting, petechiae, purpura, septice­
mia, and shock. It occurs in infants and children
with high fatality.
Treatment
Ampicillin in combination with chlorampheni­
col has been successful when treatment has been
started sufficiently early.
Haemophilus ducreyi
Ducreyi (1890) demonstrated this bacillus in
chancroid lesions.
Morphology
H. ducreyi is a gram-negative short, ovoid bacillus
(1–1.5 um × 0.6 mm) with a tendency to occur in
end to end pairs or short chains and frequently
shows bipolar staining. The bacilli may be

arranged in small groups or whorls or in parallel
chains giving a ‘school-of fish; or ‘rail road track’
appearance.
Cultural Characteristics
It requires X factor but not V factor for its growth. It
can be grown on rabbit-blood agar, fresh clotted
rabbit blood or chocolate agar enriched with
1% Iso Vitalex, and containing vancomycin as
a selective agent. It requires 10% CO2 and high
humidity for primary isolation. Cultures should be
incubated for up to 5 days at 35–37°C in a humid
atmosphere with additional CO2. It may also be grown
on chorioallantoic membrane of the chick embryo.
The colonies of H. ducreyi are small, pinpoint
to 0.5 mm in diameter, nonmucoid, grey, yellow
or tan, translucent or semi­opaque after 24 hours
incubation. After 48–72 hours, the colonies are 1–­2
mm in diameter and semiopaque.
Identification
The species is antigenically homogeneous and
cultures may be identified by agglutination with the
antiserum. Intradermal inoculation of the culture
into rabbits produces a local ulcerative lesion
Biochemical reactions: H. ducreyi is biochemically
inert with the exception of positive nitrate reduction
test.
Pathogenicity
H. ducreyi is the etiologic agent of a highly com­
municable sexually transmitted disease (STD)
chancroid or soft sore or soft chancre character­
ized by tender nonindurated irregular ulcers on
the genitalia. The lesions are generally on the penis
in male and they may be present on the labia and
within the vagina in females. The infection remains
localized, spreading only to the inguinal lymph
nodes which are enlarged and painful.
There is no immunity following infection
but a hypersensitivity develops, which can be
demonstrated by the intradermal inoculation of
killed bacilli.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimens: Take specimens from the base of
an ulcer or aspirate material from bubo.
ii. Direct microscopy: Typical small gram-
negative bacilli can be seen in material from
the ulcers or in pus from lymph node aspirates.
iii. Culture: Inoculate heated blood agar with 1%
Iso Vita­lex. Vancomy­cin 3 mg/L may be added
to make the medium selective. Cultures should
be incubated for up to 5 days at 35–37°C in a
humid atmosphere with additional CO2 and
look for characteristic colonies.
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Chapter 45: Haemophilus  | 321
iv. Agglutination: H. ducreyi is antigenically
homo­geneous and cultures are identified by
agglutination with the antiserum.
Treatment
Chancroid may be treated with azithromycin, ery­
thromycin, ciprofloxacin or ceftriaxone.
Haemophilus parainfluenzae
It can be distinguished from H. influenzae by its
non-requirement of X factor, ability to ferment
sucrose but not D-xylose, and low pathogenicity.
H parainfluenzae is normally present as a com­
mensal in the mouth and throat.
It may occasionally cause conjunctivitis, acute
pharyngitis, infective endocarditis, uretritis and
bronchopulmonary infections in patients with cystic
fibrosis.
Haemophilus haemolyticus
This haemophilus has also been regarded as a
variety of H. influenzae, from which it differs in
forming a zone of β-hemolysis around its colonies
on blood agar. The haemolyis is strongest on sheep
or ox blood, but is also seen on horse or human
blood. Colonies on blood agar may be mistaken for
those of hemolytic strepto­cocci. It requires both X
and V factors.
It is found as a commensal in the throat, but not
mouth, and appears to be non-pathogenic.
Strains that do not require the X factor have
been designated H. parahaemolyticus.
HACEK Group Bacteria
HACEK is an acronym consisting of the first initial
of each genus represented in the group:
1. Haemophilus species (parainfluenzae, aphro­
philus, pamphrophilus)
2. Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans
3. Cardiobacterium hominis
4. Eikenella corrodens
5. Kingella kingae.
The acronym HACEK refers to a group of
fastidious slow growing bacteria, normally resident
in the mouth, which can sometimes cause severe
infections, particularly endocarditis. Members
of the HACEK group include both fermentative
and nonfermentative, gram-negative bacilli.
Members of this group of gram-negative bacilli
have in common the need for an environment with
increased CO2 (capnophilic).
Blood cultures from HACEK patients take 7–30
days to become positive. Antibi­otic sensitivity tests
are essential for effective therapy as drug resistance
is very common.
322  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology

Key Points f. Haemophilus influenzae biogroup aegyptius

g. Haemophilus ducreyi or Chancroid or Soft sore.
™™ The genus Haemophilus comprises a group of small,
pleomorphic, gram-negative bacilli or coccobacilli.
Most species require X and/or V factor for growth.
Multiple choice questions (Mcqs)
Haemophilus influenzae and Haemophilus ducreyi are 1. Following statements are true for morphology of
important pahogens Haemophilus influenzae except:
Haemophillus influenzae a. It is a Gram-negative coccobacillus
™™ Satellitism: This phenomenon demonstrates the b. It rarely shows pleomorphism
dependence of H. influenzae on the V factor c. It is nonmotile
™™ Diseases: H. influenzae is responsible for meningitis, d. The capsule may be present
epiglottitis, cellulitis, arthritis, otitis, sinusitis, lower 2. All the following Haemophilus species require
respiratory tract disease, conjunctivitis both X and V factors for their growth except:
™™ Diagnosis: Microscopy is a sensitive test for detecting a. Haemophilus influenzae
H. infiuenzae in CSF, synovial fluid, and lower b. Haemophilus aegyptius
respiratory specimens. Culture is performed using c. Haemophilus haemolyticus
chocolate agar. Antigen detection: Type b capsular d. Haemophilus ducreyi
antigen can be detected several methods such as 3. Haemophilus influenzae shows the phenomenon
latex agglutination, coagglutination, countercurrent of satellitism on:
immunoelectrophoresis, RIA and ELISA a. Blood agar b. Chocolate agar
™™ Haemophilus influenzae biogroup aegyptius: c. Nutrient agar d. All of the above
causes purulent con­junctivitis and Brazilian purpuric 4. Chancroid is caused by:
feve (BPF) a. Haemophi/us injluenzae
™™ Haemophillus ducreyi: is the etiologic agent of a b. Haemophilus aegyptius
highly communicable sexually transmitted disease c. Haemophilus ducreyi
(STD chancroid or soft sore d. Haemophilus parainfluenzae
™™ Haemophilus haemolyticus: nonpathogenic. 5. Most common Pasteurella species causing human
infections is:
a. Pasteurella canis
Important questions b. Pasteurella multocida
c. Pasteurella bettyae
1. Discuss pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of
d. Pasteurella dagmatis
infections caused by Haemophilus influenzae.
6. Conjunctivitis is caused by:
2. Write short notes on: a. Haemophilus influenzae
a. Hemophilus influenzae b. Haemophilus aegyptius
b. X and V factors c. Haemophilus ducreyi
c. Satellitism. d. Haemophilus parainjluenzae
d. Antigenic structure of Haemophilus influenzae Answers (MCQs)
e. Virulence factors of Haemophilus influenzae 1. b; 2. d; 3. a; 4. c; 5. b; 6. b

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe various factors which determine the
virulence of Bordetella pertussis
∙∙ Describe culture media for Bordetella pertussis
Introduction
The genus Bordetella con­stitutes a group of minute,
gram-negative, non-acid-fast, non-sporing,
coccobacilli, often described as parvobacteria.
Species: The genus contains four species.
1. Bordetella pertussis: Causes whooping cough
(pertussis).
2. Bord. parapertussis can cause a similar
disease and was isolated from mild cases of
whooping cough.
3. Bord. bronchiseptica: It may occasionally
infect human beings, producing a condi­tion
resembling pertussis
4. Bard. avium causes respiratory disease in
turkeys.
5. Bord holmesii.
6. Bord hinzii.
7. Bord. trematum.
8. Bord. ansorpic.
9. Bord. petrii.
Bordetella pertussis
Morphology
The bacteria are small, gram-negative coccobacilli
with slight pleomorphism measuring 0.2–0.3 µm by
0.5–1.0 µm. They appear singly, in pairs, and in small
clusters. It is nonmo­tile and nonsporing. Bipolar
metachromatic staining may be demonstrated
with toluidine blue. Capsules may be demonstrable
in young, freshly isolated cultures only by special
stains. In culture films, the bacilli tend to be arranged
in loose clumps, with clear spaces in between giving
a ‘thumb print’ appearance. Freshly isolated strains
of Bord. pertussis have fimbriae.
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46
Chapter
Bordetella
∙∙ Discuss pathogenesis of pertussis
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of pertussis
∙∙ Describe the following: Cough plate method;
vaccination against pertussis
Cultural Characteristics
It is an obligate aerobe. The optimum temperature
for growth is 35–36°C. Complex media are necessary
for primary isola­tion. The medium in common use
is the Bordet–Gengou medium (potato-blood-
glycerol agar). Primary isolation of B. pertussis
requires the addition of charcoal, ion exchange
res­ins, or 15–20% blood to neutralize growth-
inhibit­ing effects.
The plates are incubated at 35–36°C in a moist
environment. After incubation for 48–72 hours,
colonies on Bordet–Gengou medium are small,
dome shaped, smooth, opaque, viscid, greyish
white, refractile and glistening, resembling
‘bisected pearls’ or ‘mercury drops’. Colonies are
surrounded by a hazy zone of hemolysis. Confluent
growth presents an ‘aluminium paint’ appearance.
Biochemical Reactions
It is biochemically inactive. It does not ferment
sugars, form indole, reduce nitrates, utilize citrate
or split urea (Table 46.1). It produces oxidase and
usually catalase also.
Resistance
B. pertussis is a delicate organism. It can be killed
by heating at 55°C for 30 minutes, drying and dis­
infectants. Outside the body it can survive for five days
on glass, three days on cloth and a few hours on paper.
Antigenic Constituents and
Virulence Factors
B. pertussis produces a number of factors that are
involved in the pathogenesis of disease.
324  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Table 46.1  Differentiatial characterstics of Bordetella species
Characteristics Bord. pertussis Bord. parapertussis Bord. bronchiseptica Bord. avium
1. Motility – – + +
2. Growth on:
Nutrient agar – + + +
Growth on Bordet- 3–6 1–2 1 1
Gengou medium (days)
MacConkey agar – + + +
3. Urease – – + +
4. Citrate utilization – V + +
5. Nitrate reduction – – + –
6. Toxins
Pertussis toxin + – – –
Adenylate cyclase toxin + + + –
Heat labile toxin + + + +
Tracheal cytotoxin + + + +
Lipopolysaccharide + + + +
7. Agglutinogens 1–7,13 7–10,14 7–13 Not known

Adhesins 5% of the cases and by Bord. bronchiseptica very

1. Agglutinogens: Bordetellae possess genus-
specific and species-specific surface 14
agglutinogens associated with the capsular K
antigens or fimbriae. Agglutinogens promote
virul­e nce by helping bacteria to attach to
respiratory epithelial cells. They are useful
in serotyping strains and in epidemiological
studies. Bordetellae are classified into various
types based on the agglutinogens they carry.
2. Pertussis toxin (PT): Pertussis toxin promotes
lymphocytosis, sensitization to histamine, and
enhanced insulin secretion.
It can be toxoided. Pertussis toxoid is the major
component of acellular pertussis vaccines.
3. Filamentous hemagglutinin adhesin (FHA):
It is a protein that acquired its name through its
ability to agglutinate erythrocytes. It mediates
adhesion to ciliated epithelial cells.
4. Adenylate cyclase (AC): At least two types of
AC are known, only one of which has the ability
to enter target cells and act as a toxin. This is
known as AC toxin (ACT).
5. Heat-labile toxin (HLT) or dermonecrotic
toxin: It is a heat-labile toxin its role in disease
is unknown.
6. Tracheal cytotoxin (TCT): Tracheal cytotoxin
has a specific affinity for ciliated epithelial cells.
It induces ciliary damage leading to severe
cough.
7. Lipopolysaccharide (Heat-stable toxin): Their
role in the disease process is unknown.
Pathogenesis
Whooping cough is predominantly a pediatric
disease. Whooping cough in 95% of cases is caused
by Bord. pertussis. Bord. parapertussis causes about
infrequently (0.1%).
Stages of disease: In human beings, after an
incubation period of about 1–2 weeks, the disease
takes a protracted course comprising three stages—
the catarrhal, paroxysmal and convalescent—each
lasting approximately two weeks.
1. Prodromal or catarrhal stage: Clinical diagnosis
in the catarrhal stage is difficult.
2. Paroxysmal stage: After 1–2 weeks, the
paroxysmal stage begins. During the paroxysm,
the patient is subjected to violent spasms
of continuous coughing, followed by a long
inrush of air into the almost empty lungs, with
a characteristic whoop (hence the name).
3. Convalescent stage: After 2–4 weeks, the
paroxysmal stage is fol­lowed by convalescence
stage, during which the frequency and severity
of coughing gradually decrease but secondary
complications can occur.
Complications
1. Subconjunctival hemorrhage, subcutane­ous
emphysema, inguinal hernia or rectal prolapse
due to pressure effects during the violent bouts
of coughing
2. Respiratory (bronchopneumonia, lung collapse).
3. Neurological (convulsions, coma).
Epidemiology
Whooping cough is predominantly a pediatric
disease, the incidence and mortality being highest
in the first year of life. The source of infection is the
patient in the early stage of the disease. Infection is
transmitted by droplets and fomites contaminated
with oropharyngeal secretions. Natural infection

confers protection though it may not be permanent,
and second attacks have been reported.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Microscopy
Microscopic diagnosis depends on demonstration
of the bacilli in respiratory secretions by the
fluores­cent antibody technique.
2. Specimen Collection and Transport
Though the disease is mainly in the lower
respiratory tract, the organism can be recovered
readily from the nasopharynx. ‘Cough plates’ and
postnasal swabs are unsatisfactory because of
overgrowth by commensal bacteria.
i. Cough plate method: Here, a culture plate is
held about 10–15 cm in front of the patient’s
mouth during a bout of spontaneous or
induced coughing so that droplets of respiratory
exudates impinge directly on the medium. This
has the advantage that specimen is directly
inoculated at the bedside.
ii. Postnasal (peroral) swab: Secretions from
the posterior pharyngeal wall are collected
with a cotton swab on a bent wire passed
through the mouth. A West’s post­nasal swab
may be conveniently employed. Cotton swabs
should not be used because they contain
fatty acids that are toxic to B. pertussis so it is
preferable to use dacron or calcium alginate
swabs for specimen collection.
iii. Pernasal swab: A sterile swab on a flexible
wire is passed gently along the floor of the
nose until it meets resistance. The swab,
which will collect muco-pus, is withdrawn
and either plated immediately on charcoal
blood agar, or placed in transport medium.
3. Culture
The swab is inoculated imm­ediately on charcoal-
horse blood agar and Bordet–Gengou medium
both with and without methicillin or cephalexin
and incubated for at least seven days before being
discarded as neg­a tive. The speci­m en may be
transported in Regan–Lowe semiso­lid medium if
delay in transport is unavoidable.
Plates are incu­bated in high humidity at 35–36°C
and colonies appear in 48–72 hours. Typical
‘bisected pearl’ colonies appearing after 3–5 days
must be investigated further.
4. Identification
Identification is confirmed by microscopy and
slide agglutination with specific antisera. lmmuno­
fluorescence is useful in identifying the bacillus in
direct smears of clinical specimens and of cultures.
The differentiating features of bordetellae are listed
in Table 46.1.
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Chapter 46: Bordetella  | 325
5. Detection of Bacterial Antigens
Bordetella antigens may be detected in serum and
urine in tests with specific antiserum. Alternatively,
bacteria in nasopharyngeal secretions are labeled
with fluorescein-conjugated antiserum and
examined by ultraviolet microscopy.
6. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used for the
detection of bordetella DNA in nasopharyngeal
specimens.
7. Serology
Rise in antibody titer may be demonstrated in paired
serum samples by ELISA, agglutination, complement
fixation, immunoblotting, indirect hemagglutination,
and toxin neutralization. Demonstration of specific
secretory IgA antibody in nasopharyngeal secretions
by ELISA has been proposed as a diagnostic method
in culture negative cases.
Treatment
Bord. pertussis is susceptible to several antibiotics
(except penicillin). The drug of choice is erythro­
mycin (or one of the newer macrolides such as
darithromycin). Chloram­phenicol and cotrimoxazole
are also useful.
Prophylaxis
Vaccination
Specific immunization with killed Bord. pertussis
vaccine has been found very effective. It is of
utmost importance to use a smooth phase I strain
for vaccine production. The vaccines in general use
are suspensions of whole bacterial cells, killed by
heat or chemicals.
In India, National policy is to immunize against
diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus (DPT)
simultaneously, by administering 3 doses (each
dose 0.5 mL) of DPT vaccine intramuscularly, at 1–2
months interval, starting when the infant is about
6 weeks old. A booster dose of DPT is indicated at
the age of 18–24 months. Bord. pertussis acts as an
adjuvant for the toxoids (diphtheria and tetanus
toxoid) producing better antibody response.
Adverse reactions: Pertussis vaccination may
induce reactions ranging from local soreness and
fever to shock and neurological complications like
convulsions and encephalopathy. Provocation
poliomyelitis is a rare complication.
Acellular Pertussis Vaccine
Acellular vaccines containing the protective
components of the pertussis bacillus (PT FHA.
agglutinogens 1, 2, 3) first developed in Japan, cause
far fewer reactions, particularly in older children.
Both whole cell and acellular vaccines have a
protection rate of about 90%. Even.
326  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Bordetella parapertussis Important questions
This organism is readily distinguished from B. 1. Discuss various factors which determine the
pertussis by its ability to grow on nutrient agar, with virulence of Bordetella pertussis.
the production of a brown diffusible pigment after 2. Write short notes on:
a. Culture media for Bordetella pertussis
2 days (Table 46.1).
b. Pathogenesis of pertussis
This is an infrequent cause of whooping
c. Laboratory diagnosis of pertussis
cough (5% cases) and disease is mild. The
d. Cough plate method
pertussis vaccine does not protect against Bord.
e. Vaccination against pertussis
parapertussis infection. It usually causes less severe f. Acellular pertussis vaccine.
illness than B. pertussis.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
Bordetella bronchiseptica (Bord.
1. Which of the following species of Bordetella is the
bronchicanis) most important human pathogen?
It differs from the other species by also being a. Bordetella pertussis
motile by peritrichate flagella and by producing an b. Bordetella parapertussis
obvious alkaline reaction in the Hugh and Leifson c. Bordetella bronhiseptica
medium. d. Bordetella avium
2. Bordet–Gengou medium contains all the following
It can grow on nutrient agar and is antigenically ingredients except:
related to Bord. pertussis and Brucella abortus a. Potato b. Blood
(Table 46.1). It has been found to cause a very small c. Glycerine d. Agar
proportion (0.1%) of cases of whooping cough. 3. Pertussis toxin is produced by:
a. Bordetella pertussis
Bord. avium: It causes respiratory disease in
b. Bordetella parapertussis
Turkeys (rhinotracheitis).
c. Bordetella bronchiseptica
Key Points d. All of the above
4. The most infective stage in whooping cough is:
™™ The genus Bordetella con­s titutes a group of
minute, gram-negative, non-acid-fast, non-sporing, a. Catarrhal stage
coccobacilli b. Paroxysmal stage
™™ Three important species of Bordetella include Bordetella c. Convalescent stage
pertussis, B. parapertussis and B. bronchiseptica d. None of the above
™™ B. pertussis are extremely small, ovoid, gram-negative 5. Which of the following methods is most suitable
coccobacilli showing pleomorphism; nonmotile and for culture of Bordetella pertussis?
nonsporing a. Pernasal swab culture
™™ Bordetella pertussis are strict aerobes and nutritionally
b. Postnasal swab culture
fastidious, grow on specialized media such as Bordet–
Gengou agar and charcoal agar with 10% blood c. Cough plate method
™™ B. pertussis produces a number of factors that are d. Sputum culture
involved in the pathogenesis of disease, such as 6. The following Bordetella species cause infections
pertussis toxin (PT) in humans except:
™™ Diseases: Pertussis and is characterized by three a. Bordetella pertussis
stages: catarrhal, paroxysmal, and convalescent b. Bordetella parapertussis
stages. Children younger than 1 year at greatest risk c. Bordetella bronchiseptica
for infection
d. Bordetella avium
™™ Laboratory diagnosis: Depends on microscopy,
culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 7. Vaccines available for prophylaxis of whooping
™™ Treatment with macrolide (i.e. erythromycin, cough is/are:
azithromycin) is effective in. Erythromycin has been a. Whole cell pertussis vaccine
used for prophylaxis. Vaccination with whole-cell b. Acellular pertussis vaccine
vaccines is effective but associated with side effects. c. Both the of the above
Acellular vaccines are effective and associated with d. None of the above
fewer adverse effects 8. The most common clinical manifestation of
™™ Bordetella parapertussis is responsible for only tularemia is:
about 5% of cases of whooping cough and relatively
a. Ulceroglandular tularemia
causes a mild form
™™ Bordetella bronchiseptica: It is responsible to cause b. Glandular tularemia
in very small proportion (0.1%) of cases of whooping c. Oculoglandular tularemia
cough d. Oropharyngeal tularemia
™™ Bord. avium: It causes respiratory disease in Turkeys
Answers (MCQs)
(rhinotracheitis).
1. a; 2. c; 3. a; 4. a; 5. a; 6. c; 7. c; 8. a

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Discuss classification of Brucella
∙∙ Describe culture characteristics and biochemical
reactions of Brucella sp.
Introduction
The genus Brucella consists of very small, nonmotile,
aerobic, gram-negative coccobacilli. Brucellae are
essentially pathogens of goats, sheep, cattle and
pigs. Man acquires infection by direct or indirect
contact with infected animals. Human infection is
a zoonosis that is acquired from animals or animal
products.
Species: Six species are currently recognized: B.
melitensis, B. abortus, B. suis, B. ovis, B. neotomae
and B. canis.
Morphology
Brucellae are coccobacilli or short rods 0.5–0.7 µm
× 0.6–1.5 µm. They are gram-negative nonacid
fast, nonmotile, noncapsulated and nonsporing.
Bipolar staining is usually not ob­served.
Cultural Characteristics
Brucellae are strict aerobes. Many strains of B.
abortus and nearly all of B. ovis are cap­nophilic,
requiring 5–10% CO2 for growth. The optimum
temperature is 37°C (range 20–40°C) and pH 6.6–
7.4. They may grow on simple me­dia, though growth
tends to be slow and scanty. Growth is improved by
serum or blood. The media employed currently are
serum dextrose agar, serum potato infusion agar,
trypticase soy agar, or tryptose agar. The addition
of bacitracin, polymyxin and cycloheximide to the
above media makes them selective. On solid culture
media, colonies may take 2–3 days to develop. They
are small, smooth, transparent, low convex with an
entire margin. In liquid media, growth is uniform.
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47
Chapter
Brucella
∙∙ Discuss pathogenesis of brucellosis
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of brucellosis
∙∙ Describe Castaneda method of blood culture.
Biochemical Reactions
The metabolism is oxidative and not fermentative.
They are catalase-positive, urease positive (variable
in B. melitensis) and usually oxidase-positive
(except B. neotomae, B. ovis and some strains of
B. abortus).
Indole, MR and VP tests are negative. Citrate
is not utilized.
Most Brucella strains reduce nitrates to nitrites
(except B. ovis).
H 2S is produced from sul­p hur-containing
amino acids by B. neotomae, B. abortus (many
strains) and B. suis (some strains).
Resistance
Brucellae are destroyed by heat at 60°C in 10
minutes; therefore, they are killed in milk by
pasteurization. They remain viable for 10 days in
refrigerated milk, one month in ice cream, four
months in butter and for varying periods in cheese
depending on its pH. They can be killed by 1.0%
phenol in 15 minutes.
They are sensitive to many disinfectants and
antibiotics, including ampicillin, co-amoxiclav,
cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines,
chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, sulfonamides and
cotrimoxazole.
Antigenic Structure
There are at least two antigenic determinants—A
(abortus) and M (melitensis)—present on
the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) protein complex.
B. abortus contains about 20 times A as M, B.
328  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
melitensis about 20 times M as A. B. suis has an ∙∙ CO2 requirement
intermediate antigenic pattern. Absorption of the ∙∙ H2S production
minor antigenic component from an antiserum ∙∙ Sensitivity to dyes (basic fuchsin and thionin).
will leave most of the major antibody component ∙∙ Agglutination with monospecific antisera.
and such absorbed A and M monospecific sera are ∙∙ Lysis by specific bacteriophage.
useful for species identification by the agglutination
test. Species and biotype identification depends on Biotypes
a variety of other factors besides antigenic structure The three major species are B. melitensis, B.
(Table 47.1). abortus, B suis infecting primarily goats or sheep,
Antigenic cross reactions exist between brucelIae cattle and swine, respectively. Many biotypes have
and V. cholerae, with E. coli 0: 116; 0: 157, SalmonelIa been recognized in these species (Table 47.1).
serotypes group N (0:30 antigen), Ps. maltophi­la, Y. i. B. melitensis: three biotypes.
enterocolitica and F. tularensis. ii. B. abortus: 7 biotypes (1-6 and 9, biotypes 7
and 8 have been discarded as invalid).
Brucella Bacteriophage iii. B. suis: 5 biotypes.
B. suis strains that produce H 2S are known
The Tblisi (Tb) phage has been designated as the as ‘American’ strains and those that do not as
reference phage and at routine test dose (RTD). It ‘Danish’ strains.
lyses B. abortus at both RTD and 10,000 TTD. B.
suis is lysed at 10,000 RTD, while B. melitensis is Pathogenesis
not lysed at all. They have been classified into six All three major species of brucellae are pathogenic
groups based on their host specificity. to human beings. B. melitensis is the most
pathogenic, B. abortus and B. suis of interme­diate
Classification of Brucellae pathogenicity.
Brucellae may be categorized into species and Mode of infection: The modes of infec­tion are
biovars by the following tests (Table 47.1): by ingestion, contact, inhalation or accidental

Table 47.1  Differential characteristics of the species and biotypes of Brucella

Lysis by phage Growth on dye media Agglutination by mono-
specific serum
Basic Fuchsin 1:50,000

Most common host

Thionin 1:25,000

Thionin 1:50,000
CO2 requirement

H2S production
RTD x 104
Biotypes
Species

RTD

A M R
B. melitensis 1 − − − − + − + − + Sheep,
2 − − − − + − + + − − goats
3 − − − − + − + + + −
B. abortus 1 + + ± + + − − + − − Cattle
2 + + + + − − − + − −
3 + + ± + + + + + − −
4 + + ± + + − − − + −
5 + + − − + + + − + −
6 + + − − + + + + − −
9 + + ± ± + + + − + −

B. suis 1 − + − + − − + + − − Pigs
2 − + − − − − + + − − Pigs, hare
3 − + − − + + + + − − Pigs
4 − + − − + + + + + − Reindeer
B. neotoma'e − + − + − − − + − − Wood rat
B. ovis − − + − + + + − − + Sheep
B. canis − − − − − + + − − + Dogs
RTD: Routine test dilution
A—abortus; M—melitensis; R—rough

inoculation. Person-to-person spread does not
ordinar­ily occur, but very rarely transmission has
been reported through the placenta, breast feeding
and sex.
i. Ingestion: The most important vehicle of
infection is raw milk.
ii. Contact: Contact infection is especially
important as an occupational hazard in agri­
cultural workers, veterinarians, butchers,
animal handlers, and others in occupations that
involve handling of animals or uncooked animal
tissues are at higher risk for direct inoculation.
iii. Inhalation: Infection is transmitted by inhal­
ation of dried material of animal origin such
as dust from wool.
Course of disease: Brucellosis is primarily an
intracellular pathogen affecting reticuloendothelial
system. Brucellae have a special predilection for
intracellular growth and may be demonstrated
inside phagocytic cells. The brucellae spread
from the initial site of infec­tion through lymphatic
channels to the local lymph glands, in the cells of
which they multiply. They then spill over into the
bloodstream and are disseminated throughout the
body. Once liberated into the bloodstream, they
may infect a variety of organs but are most often
localized in the reticuloendothe­lial system, where
they reside within phagocytic cells. Granulomas or
abscesses most often develop in the bone marrow,
liver, spleen, lymph nodes, or lungs. Other sites
of infection may include subcutaneous tissue,
testes, epididymis, ovary, gallbladder, kidneys, and
brain. Meningitis and endocarditis are commonly
reported complications.
Types of Human Infection
The incubation period is usually about 10–30 days.
Human infection may be of three types:
1. Latent or subclinical infection
There is no clini­cal evidence of disease but is
detectable only by serological tests.
2. Acute brucellosis: Acute brucellosis is mostly
due to B. melitensis. It is associated with
prolonged bacteremia and irregular fever. It is
also known as undulant fever or Malta fever
because of the periodic noctural fever that may
occur over weeks, months or years particu­larly
in untreated cases.
3. Chronic brucellosis: Chronic brucellosis is a low
grade infection with periodic exacerbations. It is
usually nonbacteremic. The illness lasts for years.
Epidemiology
Brucella organisms are distributed throughout
the world. Human brucellosis is acquired from
animals, directly or indirectly. The animals that
com­monly act as sources of human infection are
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Chapter 47: Brucella  | 329
goat, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, and swine. Infection
is transmitted among animals directly or through
blood-sucking arthropods, particularly ticks.
Brucellosis is a zoonosis of worldwide impor­
tance, particu­larly in developing countries.
Brucellosis may also be potentially transmitted
in association with biowarfare, bioterrorism, or
biocriminal activities.
Almost all human infections in various parts of
India are due to B. melitensis acquired from goats
and sheep. Animal brucellosis is reported from
practically every state in India.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The clinical manifestations of human brucellosis are
variable, so clinical diagnosis is almost impossible
and laboratory aid is therefore essential. Laboratory
methods include culture of brucellae, serology,
polymerse chain reaction and hypersensitivity type
skin tests.
1. Specimens
Blood culture is most important. Material from
bone marrow or liver biopsy, is also cultured, lymph
nodes, cerebrospinal fluid, urine and abscesses, and
on occa­sion, also from sputum, breast milk, vaginal
discharges and seminal fluid.
2. Culture
a. Blood culture
Blood culture is the most definitive method for
the diagnosis of brucellosis. When brucellosis is
suspected, blood culture should be attempted
repeatedly, not only during the febrile phase.
Because the organisms may be scanty, at least
10 mL of blood should be withdrawn on each
occasion, 5 mL being added to each of two blood
culture bottles containing serum dextrose (SD)
broth. One of these bottles should be incubated in
an atmosphere containing 10% carbon dioxide at
37°C. Subcultures are made on solid media (serum
dextrose agar) every 3–­5 days, beginning on the
fourth day. Growth may often be delayed and blood
cultures should be retained for 6–8 weeks before
being discarded as negative. Preliminary lysis and
centrifugation of the blood improves the isolation
rate. Automated blood culture systems may also
be used.
b. Castaneda’s method of blood culture (Fig.
47.1)
Advantages: The Castaneda method of blood
culture has sev­eral advantages and is recommended.
i. A two-phase Castaneda culture system, in
which the broth is periodi­cally allowed to flow
over agar contained within the blood culture
bottle, may be used. The blood is inoculated
330  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Fig. 47.1: Castaneda's method of blood culture
into the broth and the bottle incubated in the
upright position. For subculture, it is sufficient
if a bottle is tilted so that the broth flows
over the surface of the agar slant. It is again
incubated in an upright position. Colonies
appear on the slant.
ii. This method minimizes materials and
manipulation.
iii. It reduces chances of contamination during
the period of incu­bation and risk of infection
to laboratory workers.
Blood cultures are positive only in about 30–50
per cent cases, even when repeated samples
are tested. B. melitensis and B. suis are more
frequently isolated from blood than are B.
abortus or B. canis.
c. Bone marrow or liver biopsy
Isolation rates can be markedly improved if material
from bone marrow or liver biopsy is also cultured.
Identification: Depends upon biochemical
tests and may be classified into dif­ferent species
and biovars, based on CO 2 requirements, H 2S
production, sensitivity to dyes (basic fuchsin and
thionin), agglutination with monospecific sera,
lysis by specific phage and oxidative metabolic tests
with amino acids and carbohydrates.
3. Serological Tests
In the absence of positive cultures, the diagnosis
of bru­cellosis usually depends on serological tests,
the results of which tend to vary with the stage of
the infection.
Antibodies appear within 7–10 days of onset
of the disease. IgM antibodies appear first which
are rapidly followed and superseded by IgG and
to lesser extent IgA antibodies. These antibodies
reach their maximum titers in the third or fourth
week of disease and then slowly decline but they
usually persist throughout the active phase of the
disease and in some cases long thereafter. As the
disease progresses, IgM antibodies decline, while
the IgG antibodies persist or increase in titer.
In chronic infections, IgM may often be absent
and only IgG can be demonstrated.
The agglutination test iden­tifies mainly the
IgM antibody, while both IgM and IgG can fix
complement. However, as IgG and IgA antibodies
are formed during the course of the infection
some of them bind with antigen, thus preventing
its aggluti­nation by larger IgM molecule. These
IgG and IgA antibodies are known as blocking
or non-agglutinating antibodies which may
prevent agglutination. It is thus evident that the
agglutination test is usually posi­t ive in acute
infection but may be only weakly positive or even
negative in chronic cases.
Brucella antibodies can be detected by a variety
of serological tests.
i. Standard agglutination test (SAT): This is a
tube agglutination test in which equal volumes
of serial dilutions of the patient’s serum and the
standardized antigen (a killed suspension of a
standard strain of Br. abortus) are mixed and
incubated at 37°C for 24 hours or 50°C for 18
hours. It detects antibodies against B. abortus,
B. suis, and B. melitensis but not B. canis. A titer
of 160 or more is considered significant.
Prozone phenomenon: Sera often contains
‘blocking’ or ‘nonaggluti­nating’ antibodies. A
blocking factor may interfere with agglutination at
low serum dilutions (the prozone phenomenon)
although positive in higher dilutions.
The blocking effect may some­times be removed
by prior heating of the serum at 55°C for 30 minutes
or by using 4% saline as the dilu­ent for the test. The
most reliable method for obviating the blocking
effect and detecting the ‘incomplete’ an­tibodies is
the antiglobulin (Coombs) test.
Cross-reactions: Cross-reactions may be observed
with antibodies directed against Francisella
tularensis, Vibrio cholerae, or Yersinia enterocolitica
or immunization. Cholera induced aggluti­nins may
be differentiated by the agglutinin absorption test
and also as they are removed by treatment with
2-mercapto-ethanol. In order that results from,
different laboratories are comparable; it is the
practice to express agglutinin titers in International
Units. This is done by using a standard reference
serum for com­parison.
ii. Mercaptoethanol test: The mercaptoethanol
test is carried out simultaneously and in
the same manner as the standard aggluti­
nation test except that the saline diluent
contains 0.05 M 2-mercaptoethanol. The
agglutinating ability of IgM, and sometimes

IgA, is destroyed by 2-mercaptoethanol, and
therefore agglutination in this test is indicative
of the continuing presence of IgG and the
likelihood of persisting infection.
iii. Complement fixation test: The complement
fixation test is more useful in chronic cases as
it detects IgG and IgM antibody also.
iv. Enzyme-linked immunosorbentassay
(ELISA) and radio immunoassay (RIA): These
tests are very sensitive useful for differentiation
between the acute and chronic phases of
brucellosis. ELISA is sensitive, specific and can
detect IgM and IgG antibody separately.
v. Rose Bengal plate test: This is a rapid slide
agglutination test. It is widely used as a
screening test in farm animals.
vi. Rapid dipstick assay: The rapid dipstick
assay, a relatively simple screening procedure
for Brucella­ specific IgM, shows promise as a
field test in areas without direct access to a
reference laboratory.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Promising results have been obtained in clinical
studies.
Hypersensitivity Test (Brucellin Skin Test)
Delayed hypersensitivity type skin tests with
brucella antigens (‘brucellins’) are not useful in
diagnos­ing acute brucellosis. This test, similar to
the tuberculin test, is no longer recommended.
They parallel the tuberculin test in indicating only
prior sensitization with the antigens, and may
remain positive for years.
Detection of Animal Infection
The methods used for the laboratory diagnosis
of human brucellosis may also be employed for
the diagnosis of animal infections. In addition,
brucellae may be demonstrated microscopically
in pathological specimens by suitable staining or
by immunofluores­cence.
Several rapid methods have been employed for
the detection of brucellosis in herds of cattle. These
include the rapid plate agglutination test and the
Rose Bengal card test. For the detection of infected
animals in dairies, pooled milk samples may be
tested for ba­cilli by culture and for antibodies by
several tech­niques such as milk ring test.
i. Milk Ring Test
1. In the milk ring test a sample of whole milk is
mixed well with a drop of the stained brucella
antigen (a concentrated suspension of killed Br.
abortus stained with hematoxylin).
2. It is incubated in a water bath at 70°C for 40–50
minutes.
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Chapter 47: Brucella  | 331
Result
Positive test: The bacilli are agglutinated and rise
with the cream to form a blue ring at the top, leav­
ing the milk unstained.
Negative: No colored ring is formed and the milk
remains uniformly blue.
ii. Whey Agglutination Test
It is another useful method for detecting the
antibodies in milk.
Prophylaxis
1. Prevention consists of checking brucellosis in
dairy animals.
2. Control of this disease in cattle has been
achieved by serologic surveillance, vaccination
(B. abortus strain 19), and elimination of
reactor cattle.
3. Pasteurization of infected milk or milk products.
4. Vaccines have been developed for use in animals.
The live-attenuated B. abortus strain S19 vaccine
has been is now being replaced by the rough
strain B. abortus RB51, which gives comparable
protection, but does not induce interfering
antibodies and is less hazardous to man.
The live-attenuated smooth strain B. melitensis
Rev I is used to protect sheep and goats from B.
melitensis infection. Strain 2 has been used in
China.
5. Human vaccination is not recommended.
Treatment
Brucella infections respond to a combination of
strepto­mycin or gentamicin and tetracycline or to
rifampicin and doxycycline. Tetracycline alone is
often adequate in mild cases. Treatment should be
continued for at least 6 weeks. Cotrimoxazole and
rifampicin can be used in children.
Key Points
™™ The genus Brucella consists of very small, nonmotile,
aerobic, Gram-negative coccobacilli. They are
essentially patho­gens of goats, sheep, cattle and pigs
™™ Six species are currently recognized and three major
species of the genus Brucella are B. melitensis, B.
abortus, B. suis
™™ They grow best on media employed currently is
serum dextrose agar, serum potato infusion agar,
tryp­ticase soy agar, or tryptose agar. They are
catalase and oxidase positive
™™ Animal reservoirs are goats and sheep, cattle, swine,
and dogs. Individuals at greatest risk for disease are
people who consume unpasteurized dairy products,
people in direct contact with infected animals, and
laboratory workers
™™ Human brucellosis is primarily a zoonotic bacterial
infection
332  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
™™ Laboratory diagnosis: Depends on the culture of
brucellae serology. Detection of Brucella species. Milk
ring test is a screening test used for demonstration
of anti­bodies in the milk of animals
™™ Human disease is controlled by eradication of the
disease in the animal reservoir; pasteurization of
dairy products; and use of proper safety techniques
in clinical laboratories work­ing with this organism.
Important questions
1. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of brucellosis.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Castaneda method of blood culture
b. Serodiagnosis of brucellosis
c. Diagnosis of brucellosis in animals.
Multiple choice questions (Mcqs)
1. All the following statements are true regarding
cultural characteristics of Brucella except:
a. They are strict aerobes
b. They require 5–10% of CO2 for better growth
c. They produce detectable colonies within 24–48
hours
d. Erythritol has stimulatory effect on growth of the
bacteria.
2. Humans acquire Brucella melitensis infection from:
a. Sheep b. Cow
c. Pig d. Wood rat
3. Brucellae are transmitted to humans by:
a. Direct contact with animal tissues
b. Ingestion of contaminated meats
c. Ingestion of raw infected milk
d. All of the above
4. The most common Brucella species causing human
infection in India is:
a. Brucella melitensis b. Brucella abortus
c. Brucella suis d. Brucella canis
5. The specimen of choice for isolation of Brucella is:
a. Blood b. Bone marrow
c. Urine d. Stool
6. Rose Bengal Card’ test is employed for which of the
following infections?
a. Brucellosis
b. Salmonellosis
c. Tularensis
d. None of the above
7. Milk ring test is used for diagnosis of:
a. Bovine tuberculosis b. Brucellosis
c. Salmonellosis d. Anthrax
8. Vaccination of cattle against brucellosis is done
with:
a. Attenuated B. abortus vaccine
b. Attenuated B. melitensis vaccine
c. Attenuated B. ovis vaccine
d. Attenuated B. neotome vaccine
Answers (MCQs)
1. c; 2. a; 3. d; 4. a; 5. a; 6. a; 7. b; 8. a

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
∙∙ Describe diseses caused by different spirochetes
∙∙ Name various pathogenic treponemes
∙∙ Describe morphology of Treponema pallidum
∙∙ Discuss pathogenesis of syphilis
∙∙ Describe diseses caused by Treponema pallidum
their laboratory diagnosis
∙∙ Explain serological tests for syphilis
∙∙ Discuss standard tests for syphilis (STS)
INTRODUCTION
The spirochetes (from Speira, meaning coil and
chaite, meaning hair) are elongated, motile, slender,
helically coiled, flexible organisms with one or more
complete turns in the helix. Multiplication is by
transverse fission. Many are free-living saprophytes,
while some are obligate parasites. They may be
aero­bic, anaerobic or facultative.
Spirochetes are slender unicellular helical
or spiral rods with a number of distinctive
ultrastructural features. They are gram-negative and
are 0.1–3.0 µm wide and 5–250 µm in length. They
are structurally more complex than other bacteria.
The spirochetes have gram-negative type cell wall
composed of an outer membrane, a peptidoglycan
layer and a cytoplasmic membrane. They are
structurally more complex than other bacteria.
Their most distinctive morphologic property is
the presence of varying num­bers of endoflagella.
These endoflagella are polar flagella wound along
the helical protoplasmic cylinder, and situated
between the outer membrane and cell wall.
The spiral shape and serpentine motility of the
spirochaetes depend upon the integrity of these
endoflagella. Motility is of three types: (i) flexion
and extension of cells, (ii) corkscrew-like rotatory
move­ment around the long axis, and (iii) translatory
motion, i.e. from one site to another. Some are very
actively motile’while others are sluggish.
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Chap-48.indd 333
4848
Chapter
Spirochetes
∙∙ Describe the following: fluorescent treponemal
antibody-absorption (FTA-ABS) test; TPHA (or) T.
pallidum hemag­glutination test
∙∙ Discuss BFP (Biological false-positive) reactions
∙∙ Describe the following: i. Endemic syphilis (or)
Bejel; ii. Yaws; iii. Treponema pertenue; iv. Pinta; v.
Borrelia recurrentis; vi. Borrelia vincentii; vii. Borrelia
burgdorferi or Lyme disease; viii. Leptospirosis; ix.
Weil’s disease.
Larger spirochetes like Borrelia are Gram-
negative but other spirochetes cannot be stained
by routine methods. However, the spirochetes
can be seen by dark ground microscopy, silver
impregnation method and immunofluorescence.
CLASSIFICATION
Spirochetes belong to the order Spirochetales. It
has two families:
1. Spirochetaceae: Spirochaetes are anaerobic,
facultative anaerobic or microaerophilic. They
are not hooked.
Family Spirochaetaceae has genera: Borrelia,
Cristispira, Serpulina, Spirocheta and Trepo­
nema;
2. Family Leptospiraceae: These spirochetes are
obligate aerobes and are hooked. It contains
three genera: Leptospira, Leptonema and
Tumeria. Only Leptospira spp. are considered
to be pathogenic for animals or man.
The spirochetes also fall into genera based
loosely on their morphology (Fig. 48.1). Treponema
are slender with tight coils; Borrelia are somewhat
thicker with fewer and looser coils; and Leptospira
resemble Borrelia except for their hooked ends.
Diseased caused by Treponema, Borrelia, and
Leptospira are given in Table 48.1.
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 334  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Fig. 48.1: Species designation of spirochetes based on
morphology
TREPONEMA
The name Treponena is derived from the Greek
words trepo :to turn and nema, meaning thread) are
relatively short slender spiro­chetes with fine spirals
and pointed or rounded ends. Some of them are
pathogenic, while others occur as commensals in
the mouth, intestines, and genitalia.
The two treponemal species that cause human
disease are Treponema pallidum (with three
subspecies) and Treponema carateum. The species
T. pallidum is now considered to include three
subspecies—subspecies pallidum, endemicum
and pertenue.
Treponemes Cause the Following
Diseases in Humans
1. T. pallidum subspecies pallidum causes
Venereal syphilis
2. T. pallidum, subspecies endemicum (T. endem­
icum) causes endemic syphilis.
3. T. pallidum subspecies pertenue causes yaws
4. T. carateum causes pinta.
Treponema pallidum Subspecies pallidum
Treponema pallidum is the causative agent of syphilis.
The name pallidum refers to its pale staining.
Morphology
It is a very delicate, spiral filament 6–14 µm (average
10 µm) by 0.2 µm, with 6–12 coils which are com­
paratively small, sharp and regular. The length of
the coils is about 1 µm and the depth 1–1.5 µm. The
ends are pointed and tapering. Spirochaetes show
rotary corkscrew-like motility and also movements
of flexion; angulation, with the organism bending
almost to 90° near its centre, is highly characteristic
of T. pallidum. During motion, secondary curves
appear and disappear in succession but the
primary spirals are unchanged (Fig. 48.2).
T. pallidum cannot be seen under the light
micro­scope in wet films but can be made out by
negative staining with Indian ink. Its morphology
and motility can be seen under the dark ground
or phase contrast microscope (Fig. 48.2). It does
not take ordinary bacterial stains but stains light
rose red with prolonged Giemsa stain­ing. It can
be stained by silver impregnation methods.
Fontana’s method is useful for staining films
and Le­v aditi’s method for tissue sections.
Immunofluorescence methods can now be used
to detect treponemes in tissues and body fluids.
Ultrastructurally, the cytoplasm of T. pallidum
is surrounded by a trilaminar cytoplasmic
membrane, enclosed by a cell wall containing
peptidoglycan. External to this is the rigid rich outer
membrane layer. Usually three, but occasionally
four, endoflagella lie inside the outer membrane
and are inserted at the tapering portion at each
end of the cell. In contrast to other motile bacteria,
these flagella do not protrude into the sur­rounding
medium but are enclosed within the bacterial outer
membrane. A capsular or slime layer has been
observed occasionally on the surface of T. pallidum.
Cultivation
It is possible to maintain T. pallidum in motile and
virulent form for 10–12 days in complex media
under anaerobic conditions. Virulent T. pallidum
strains have been maintained by serial testicular

Table 48.1  Diseases caused by spirochetes

Genus Species Diseases Transmission
Teponema T. pallidum Syphilis Sexual contact or congenital
T. pertenue Yaws Traumatized skin comes in contact with an infected lesion
T. carateum Pinta Traumatized skin comes in contact with an infected lesion
T. endemicum Endemic syphilis Mouth to mouth by utensils
Borrelia B. recurrentis Epidemic Body louse
Relapsing fever Soft-shelled tick
Endemic Relapsing
fever
B. vincentii Vincent’s angina
B. burgdorferi Lyme disease Tick bites
Leptospira L. interrogans Leptospirosis
L. biflexa Saprophytes

Chap-48.indd 334 15-03-2016 11:18:35


Fig. 48.2: Treponema pallidum-dark ground illumination
passage in rabbits for many decades. One such
strain (Nichol’s strain) was isolated in 1912 from a
patient of general paralysis of the insane.
Cultivable treponemes such as T. phagedenis
(Reiter’s treponeme) and T. refringens (Noguchi
strain) are nonpathogenic. They can be grown
under strict anaerobic conditions.
Resistance
T. pallidum is very delicate, being readily inactivated
by drying or by heat (41–42°C in one hour). It is
inactivated by contact with oxygen, distilled water,
soap, arsenicals,mercurials, bismuth, common
antiseptic agents and antibiotics. It is killed in 1–3
days at 0–4°C, so that transfusion syphilis can be
prevented by storing blood for at least four days in
the refrigerator before transfu­sion. Stored frozen
at –70°C in 10% glycerol, or in liquid nitrogen
(–130°C), it remains viable for 10–15 years.
Antigenic Structure
The antigenic structure of T. pal­lidum is complex.
Treponemal infection induces at least three types
of antibodies. On the basis of these antibodies,
the treponemal antigens may be divided into
nonspecific and specific antigens.
A. Nonspecific Antigen
The first is the reagin antibody in which a hapten
extracted from the beef heart is used as the antigen.
This lipid hapten is known as cardioliom and is
chemically a diphosphatidyl glycerol. This lipid
has been detected in T. pallidum but it is not
known whether the reagin antibody is in­duced
by cardiolipin that is present in the spirochete or
released from damaged host tissues.
B. Specific Antigens
1. Group-specific antigen: It is a protein anti­
gen present in T. pallidum as well as in
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Chapter 48: Spirochetes  | 335
nonpatho­genic treponemes, such as Reiter
treponeme.
2. Species-specific treponemal antigen: It appears
to be polysaccharide in nature. T. pallidum is
used as antigen for detection of species-specific
antibody.
Pathogenesis
Treponema pallidum subsp. pallidum causes
syphilis. Venereal syphilis is acquired by sexual
contact. Syphilis can also be acquired by nongeni­
tal contact with a lesion (e.g. on the lip) or
transplacen­tal transmission to a fetus, resulting in
congenital syphilis. T. pallidum enters tissues by
penetration of intact mucosae or through abraded
skin. Clinical disease sets in after an incubation
period of about a month (range 10–90 days). The
natural course of syphilis can be divided into
primary, secondary, and tertiary stages based
on the clinical manifestations.
i. Primary Disease
The bacte­ria multiply at the initial entry site and
the primary lesion in syphilis is the chancre.
The chan­cre is a painless, relatively avascular,
circumscribed, indurated, superficially ulcerated
lesion. It is covered by a thick, glairy exudate very
rich in spiro­chetes. It is known as ‘hard chancre’.
The chancre is most frequently on the external
genitalia.
The regional lymph nodes are swollen,
dis­c rete, rubbery and nontender. The chan­
cre invariably heals in about 10–40 days, even
without treatment, leaving a thin scar. Chancres
usually occur singly but multiple or persistent
chancres may develop in immunocompromised
individuals, such as those infected with the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
ii. Secondary Syphilis
Secondary syphilis sets in 1–3 months after healing
of primary lesion. The secondary lesions are due
to wide­spread multiplication of the spirochetes
and their dissemination through the blood. In this
stage, patients typically experience a “flu-like”
syndrome, lymphadenopathy, and a generalized
mucocutaneous rash. Characteristic lesions
are roseolar or papular skin rashes, mucous
patches in the oropharynx and condylomata at
the mucocutaneous junctions. Condylomata lata
occur around moist areas, such as the anus and
vagina. The patient is most infectious as with the
primary chancre. There may also be ophthalmic,
osseous and meningeal involvement.
iii. Latent Syphilis
After the secondary lesions disappear there is a
period of quiescence known as ‘latent syphilis’. No
clinical manifestations are evident and diagnosis
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 336  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
during this period is possible only by serological
tests. In many cases, this is followed by natural cure
but in others, after several years, manifes­tations of
tertiary syphilis appear.
iv. Tertiary Syphilis or Late Syphilis
Tertiary or late syphilis, which may develop decades
after the primary infection, is a slowly progressive,
destructive inflammatory disease that may affect
any organ. The three most common forms of late
syphilis are cardiovascular syphilis, gummatous
syphilis and neurosyphilis.
a. Cardiovascular syphilis: These consist of
cardiovascular lesions including aneurysms,
chronic granulomata (gummata) and meningo­
vascular manifestations.
b. Gummatous syphilis: It is a rare granulomatous
lesion of the skeleton, skin or mucocutaneous
tissues.
c. Neurosyphilis: Neurological manifestations,
such as tabes dorsalis or general paralysis of the
insane develop several decades after the initial
infection in a few cases. These are known as late
tertiary or quaternary syphilis.
Congenital Syphilis
In conn­genital syphilis infection is transmitted
from mother to fetus transplacentally. The lesions
of congenital syphilis usually develop only after
the fourth month of gestation. Congenital syphilis
can be prevented if the mother is given adequate
treatment before the fourth month of pregnancy.
Syphilis Acquired Nonvenereally
In syphilis acquired nonvenereally (as occupa­
tionally in doctors or nurses), the natural evolution
is as in venereal syphilis except that the primary
chan­cre is extragenital, usually on the fingers. In
the rare instances where syphilis is transmitted
by blood trans­fusion, the primary chancre does
not occur.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Labo­ratory diagnosis consists of demonstration
of the spi­rochetes under the microscope and of
antibodies in serum or CSF.
Specimen Collection and Handling
Specimens should be collected with care as
the lesions are highly infectious. The lesion is
cleaned with a gauze soaked in warm saline and
the margins gently scraped so that the superficial
epithelium is abraded. Gentle pressure is applied
to the base of the lesion and the serum that exudes
is collected preventing admixture with blood.
Wet films are prepared with the exudate and after
Chap-48.indd 336
applying thin coverslips, examined under the dark
ground microscope.
A. Demonstration of Treponemes
a. Demonstration of Treponemes in the
Exudate
1. Dark Ground Microscopy
Dark field microscopy: Diagnosis by microscopy
is applicable in primary and secondary stages and
in cases of congenital syphilis with superficial
lesions. This bacterium is too thin to be visualized
with a standard Gram stain so two techniques
to visualize it with a light microscope are dark
field microscopy and immunofluorescence. T.
pallidum is recognized by its slender struc­ture,
regularity of its spirals and slightly pointed ends.
A treponemal concen­tration of 104 per mL in the
exudates is required for the test to be positive.
2. Direct Fluorescent-antibody Staining for
Treponema pallidum (DFA- Tp)
For direct fluorescent-antibody staining for T.
pallidum (DFA-TP) test whereby a smear of exudate
is made on a slide, fixed in acetone, and DFA-TP test
is done using fluorescent tagged anti T. pallidum
antiserum. The use of specific monoclonal
antibody has made the test more reliable. The
treponemes appear distinct, sharply outlined and
exhibit an apple green fluorescence. It is a better
and safer method for microscopic examination.
b. Demonstration of Treponemes in Tissues
Treponemes in the tissues can be demonstrated by
immunofluorescence staining or silver impregn­
ation method of staining (Levaditis stain).
c. Demonstration of Treponemal Antigen in
the Lesion
T. pallidum antigen in the lesion can be detected
by enzyme immunoassay and polymerase chain
reaction (PCR).
B. Serological Tests
These tests form the mainstay of laboratory
diagnosis. (Table 48.2). Two major types of serologic
tests exist: nontreponemal tests and treponemal
tests. In nontreponemal tests or standard tests
for syphilis (STS) cardiolipin or lipoidal antigen
is used, while in treponemal tests treponemes are
used as the antigen.
a. Nontreponemal Tests or Standard Tests for
Syphilis
Reagin antibodies are detected by cardiolipin
antigen in standard tests for syphilis (STS).
The antigen used in these tests is an alcoholic
extract of beef heart tissue (cardiolipin) to which
lecithin and cholesterol are added. The STS
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 Chapter 48: Spirochetes  | 337
Table 48.2  Diagnostic tests for syphilis
A. Demonstration of treponemes
   a. D emonstration of treponemes in the 1. Dark ground microscopy
exudate 2. Direct fluorescent-antibody staining for Treponema pallidum (DFA- Tp)
   b. D
 emonstration of treponemes in tissues 1. By immunofluorescence staining
2. Silver impregnation method ( Levaditis stain)
   c. Demonstration of treponemes antigen in 1. Enzyme immunoassay
the lesion 2. Polymerase chain reac­tion (PCR).
B. Serological tests a. Non-treponemal tests
Nonspecific (reagin antibody) tests using the cardiolipin antigen
(standard tests for
syphilis or STS)
1. Wassermann CF reaction
2. Kahn flocculation test
3. Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) test
4. Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) test
5. Toluidine Red Unheated Serum Test (TRUST)
b. Treponemal tests
a. Group specific test using cultivable treponemal (Reiter strain) antigen
I. Reiter Protein CF (RPCF) test (1953)
b. Specific tests using pathogenic treponemes (T. paliidum)
I. Test using live T. pallidum
Treponema pallidum Immobilization (TPI) test
II. Tests using killed T. pallidum
a. Treponema pallidum agglutination (TPA) test
b. Treponema pallidum immune adherence(TPIA) test
c. Fluorescent Treponemal antibody absorption (FTA-ABS) test
III. Tests using T. pallidum extract
a. Treponema pallidum Hemagglutination Assay (TPHA)
Microhemagglutination test for Treponema pallidum (MHA-TP)
b. Treponema pallidum Enzyme Immunoassays (TP-EIA)

includes Wassermann, Kahn, Venereal Diseases
Research Laboratory (VDRL) and the rapid plasma
reagin (RPR) tests. All these tests are flocculation
tests except Wassermann reaction which is a
complement fixation test (CFT). The Wassermann
reaction is no longer in use. Similarly Kahn test is
rarely done these days.
The two nontreponemal tests widely used today
are the Venereal Disease Research Laboratory
(VDRL) and rapid plasma reagin (RPR) tests.
Veneral Disease Research Laboratory
(VDRL) Test
It is more rapid test which gives more quantitative
results (VDRL, for Veneral Disease Research
Laboratory, USPHS, New York, where the test was
developed). These tests are cheaper, more rapid
and simpler to perform and control.
VDRL is the most widely used simple and rapid
test which requires only a small quantity of serum.
The VDRL test uses a cardiolipin antigen that is
mixed with the patient’s serum or CSF. Flocculation
occurs in a positive reaction and is observed
microscopically.
Method
1. The test is done in a specially prepared slide,
with depressions of 14 mm diameter each.
Serum is inactivate heated to it prior to the test,
whereas CSF need not be heated.
2. Inactivated patient serum (0.05 mL) is pipetted
into the paraffin ring on the glass slide. Each
(0.05 mL) of positive and negative control sera
are pipetted into other paraffin rings.
3. One drop of working antigen suspension is
added to each of these paraffin rings from a
syringe delivering 60 drops in 1 mL.
4. Mix with wooden sticks and rotate slide at 180
revolutions per minute for four minutes on a
mechanical VDRL or manually. Flocculation
occurs in a positive reaction and is observed
microscopically.
Interpretation
The results of qualitative test are reported as
‘reactive’, ‘weak reactive’ or ‘nonreactive’.
Reactive’ means positive (large clumps of antigen
with marked background clearing are obtai­ned.)
while ‘nonreactive’ is negative.The reciprocal of
the end point is given as the titer for reporting
of quantitative test, e.g. reactive in 1:4 dilution is
reported as ‘reactive 4 dilution’ or R4.
Sometimes VDRL test may give false-negative
reaction due to high titers of antibody in patient’s
serum (prozone phenomenon). The test is

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 338  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
performed with diluted serum in such cases and
it becomes positive.
Rapid Plasma Reagin Test
The black carbon particles are bound to cardiolipin;
when mixed with a positive serum on a disposable
card, the particles clump together. Agglutination is
easily observed without a micro­scope.
RPR test employs a stabilized VDRL carbon
antigen which make the result more clear cut and
is read macroscopically.
Advantages of RPR Test
i. It enables the result to be read by eye instead
of microscopically.
ii. Useful in field studies in developing countries.
iii. RPR test can be done with unheated serum or
plasma.
iv. A fingerprick sample of blood is sufficient.
Disadvantage
It is not suitable for testing cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF).
Toluidine Red Unheated Serum Test (TRUST)
Instead of carbon particles it uses paint pigment
toner toludine red particles.
Automated RPR test (ART): Automated RPR test
is available for large scale tests.
VDRL–ELISA test: An automated VDRL–ELISA test
has been developed which can measure IgG and
IgM antibodies separately and is suitable for large
scale testing of sera.
Disadvantages of STS
Since cardiolipin antigen tests detect antibodies
against a nonspecific antigen a positive result
is some­times obtained with sera from healthy
individuals or patients without clinical evidence
of syphilis. These reactions are termed biological
false-positives (BFP) rections. These are not
caused by technical faults. They represent
nontreponemal cardiolipin antibody responses.
BFP antibody is usually IgM, while reagin
antibody in syphilis is mainly IgG. Clinically, BFP
reactions may be classified as acute or chronic.
a. Acute BFP reactions: Acute BFP reactions last
only for a few weeks or months and are usually
associated with acute infec­tions, injuries or
inflammatory conditions.
b. Chronic BFP reactions: Chronic BFP reactions
persist for longer than six months. These
may occur in a wide variety of infectious and
noninfectious conditions associ­ated with tissue
Chap-48.indd 338
damage and are typically seen in: 1. SLE and
other collagen diseases; 2. Leprosy; 3. Malaria;
4. Relapsing fever; 5. Infectious mononu­cleosis;
6. Hepatitis; 7. Tropical eosinophilia
b. Treponemal Tests (Table 48.2)
Treponemal tests in which treponemes are
used as the antigen. These are of two types:
1. Those using cultivable treponemes, such
as Reiter treponemes (T. phagedenis) as the
antigen-Reiter protein comple­ment fixation
(RPCF) test
2. Species tests using pathogenic T. pallidum
(Nichol’s strain)
i. Using Live T. Pallidum
Treponema pallidum immobilisation (TPI)
test
ii. Using Killed T. Pallidum
a. Treponema pallidum immune
adherence (TPIA) test.
b. Treponema pallidum agglutination
(TPA) test.
c. Fluorescent treponemal antibody-
absorption (FTA-Abs) test.
iii. Using an extract of T. pallidum
a. Treponema pallidum
hemagglutination assay (TPHA) test.
b. Enzyme immunoassay (EIA).
1. Group-specific Tests
Using Reiter Treponeme
Reiter Protein Comple­ment Fixation (RPCF)
Test
The principle of this test is the same as that of
Wassermann test. These employed the cutivable
Reiter treponemes for prepation of antigen. Its
sensitivity and specificity were lower than those
of tests using T. pallidum. RPCF and other Reiter
treponeme tests are not now in general use.
2. Species Tests Using Pathogenic
T. Pallidum (Nichol’s Strain)
i. Tests Using Live T. pallidum
Treponema pallidum immobilization (TPI) test
The test serum is incubated with complement and
T. pallidum maintained in a complex medium
anaerobically. If an­t ibodies are present, the
treponemes are immobilized, that is, rendered
nonmotile, when examined under dark ground
illumination. The test is considered posi­tive if the
percentage of treponemes immobilized is 50 or
more, negative if 20 or less, and inconclusive if in
between.
TPI was the most specific test availa­ble for
diagnosis of syphilis and was considered the gold
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standard in syphilis serology. Because the TPI test
employs live treponemes it is time-consuming,
expensive and technically de­manding.
ii. Tests Using Killed T. pallidum
The Treponema pallidum immune adherence
(TPIA) test and Treponema pallidum agglutination
(TPA) test were used for some time but have now
been given up.
a. Treponema pallidum Immune Adherence
(TPIA) Test
A suspension of T. pallidum, inactivated by
formalin, is mixed with the test serum and
examined under dark ground microscopy. The
treponemes are found agglutinated in the presence
of antibodies. The test is not very specific and false-
positive reactions are common.
b. Treponema pallidum Agglutination (TPA)
Test
A suspension of inactivated T. pallidum is mixed
with the test serum, complement and fresh
heparinized whole blood from a normal individual
and incubated. The treponemes will be found
to adhere to the erythrocytes in the presence of
antibodies. Both TPA and TPIA are not used in
diagnostic laboratories.
Fluorescent Treponemal Antibody (FTA) Test
It is an indirect immunofluorescence test using as
antigen, smears prepared on slides with Nichol’s
strain of T. pallidum. The slides can be stored for
sev­eral months in deep freeze. The currently used
modi­fication of the test is the FT A-Absorption (FT
A-ABS) ~ in which the test serum is preabsorbed
with a son­icate of the Reiter treponemes (sorbent)
to eliminate group specific reactions. FTA-ABS is
as specific as the TPI test and is now accepted as
a standard refer­ence test. However, as it can be
done only in suitably equipped laboratories, it is
not available for routine testing.
c. Fluorescent Treponemal Antibody-
absorption (FTA-ABS) Test
It is an indirect immunofluorescence test. Smears
are prepared on slides with Nichol’s strain of T.
pallidum as antigen. The slides can be stored for
sev­eral months in deep freeze. The currently used
modi­fication of the test is the FTA-Absorption (FTA-
ABS) test in which the test serum is preabsorbed
with a sonicate of the Reiter treponemes (sorbent)
to eliminate group specific reactions. After specific
antibody from the patient is allowed to react with
the organisms, unbound antibodies in the serum
are removed by washing. The presence of anti-T
pallidum antibody is then detected by application
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Chap-48.indd 339
Chapter 48: Spirochetes  | 339
of fluorescein-labeled, anti-human globulin and
examination of the slide with an ultraviolet (UV)
microscope. Positive results are indicated by
fluorescence of the T. pallidum organisms. An
FTA-ABS 19S-lgM test has also been developed for
evaluation of congenital syphilis.
FTA-ABS is as specific as the TPI test and is
now accepted as a standard refer­ence test and
is highly specific and sensitive at all stages of
syphilitic infection although a small percentage
of false positive reactions occurs. The FTA-Abs
test is positive in approximately 80, 100 and
95% of primary, secondary and late syphilitics,
respectively, and, unlike the VDRL test, remains
positive following successful therapy. However,
as it can be done only in suitably equipped
laboratories, it is not available for routine testing.
iii. Tests Using an Extract of T. pallidum
a. T. Pallidum Hemagglutination Assay
(TPHA)
The Treponema pallidum hemagglutination as­say
(TPHA) uses tanned erythrocytes sensitized with
a sonicated extract of T. pallidum as antigen.
When these sensitized erythrocytes are mixed with
patiet’s serum (test sera) containing antireponemal
antibodies it causes hemagglutination. As in the
FTA-Abs assay, sera are pre­absorbed with a non-
pathogenic treponeme to remove antibody against
commensal spirochetes.
The test sera for TPHA are absorbed with a dilu­
ent containing components of the Reiter treponeme,
rabbit testis and sheep erythrocytes. Sera are
screened in an initial dilution of 1 : 80 but titers of
5120 or more are common in the secondary stage.
Advantages
i. TPHA is just as specific as FTA-ABS and almost
as sensitive, except in the primary stage.
ii. This assay can be used to detect localized
production of antitreponemal antibodies in
cerebrospinal fluid.
iii. It is also much simpler and more economical.
iv. No special equipment is needed. Kits are
available commercially.
Microhemagglutination test (MHA-TP): TPHA
may be performed in microtiter plates and is
called microhemagglutination test (MHA- TP).
Hemagglutination teponemal test for syphilis
(HATTS) is an automated conversion of TPHA test.
The only disadvantage of MHA-TP and HATTS is that
they lack sensitivity in primary syphilis.
b. Enzyme Immunoassays (EIA)
Enzyme immunoassays (EIA) have been devel­
oped using T. pallidum antigens and are available
commercially (Bio-Enza Bead test ; Captia
Syphilis-G test). Assays that detect either IgM or
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 340  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
IgG are available and are increasingly replacing
the TPHA and VDRL tests for routine screening.
Treponema pallidum Particle Agglutination
(TP-PA)
The TP-PA test has largely replaced the
microhemag­glutination assay for antibodies to
T. pallidum (MHA-TP) test. The TP-PA test uses
gelatin particles sensitized with T. pallidum
antigens instead of the sensitized red blood cells
used in the MHA-TP assay. The TP-PA test is
simpler to perform than the FTA-ABS test, does
not require an absorption step or expensive UV
microscope, and is more specific than the MHA-TP
test. Table 48.3 shows the relative sensitivities of
the serological tests in common use.
Interpretation of Various Serological Tests
1. Serological Screening
Because of their simplicity and accuracy, the
cardiolipin antigen tests are used as screening or
first ­line procedures for both routine diagnosis
and mass screening programs. When used together,
the VDRL and TPHA tests provide a highly efficient
screen for the detection or exclusion of treponemal
infection.
2. Response to Treatment
Reagin tests usually become negative 6–18 months
after effective treatment of syphilis, depending
on the stage at which treatment is given. Serial
quantitative VDRL testing provides the best means
of measuring response to treatment in most stages
of treponemal infection. Treatment in the primary
stage leads to serore­versal in about four months; in
the secondary and early latent stages, it takes 12–18
months; in later stages, it may take five years or
more. In some cases low titer reactivity may persist
indefinitely, in spite of effective treatment. Specific
treponemal tests tend to remain positive in spite of
treatment so they are of little value as indicators of
clinical cure. TPHA titers may fall rapidly following
treatment in sec­ondary syphilis but remain positive
for life in low titers.
3. Biological False-positive (BFP) Reactions
TPHA and FTA-ABS are helpful in excluding
or confirming the diagnosis of syphilis and for
identify­ing BFP reactions.
Table 48.3  Frequency of reactive serological tests
in untreated syphilis (percentage) in common use
Stage VDR/RPR FTA-ABS TPHA
Primary 70–80 85–100 65–85
Secondary 100 100 100
Latent/late 60–70 95–100 95–100
Chap-48.indd 340
4. Diagnosis of Congenital Syphilis
In the diagnosis of congenital syphilis it
is necessary to differentiate between passive
transplacental trans­fer of maternal antibody to the
fetus and production by the fetus of endogenous
antitreponemal antibody. As IgM does not cross the
placenta, its presence in neonatal serum confirms
con­g enital syphilis. If IgM-FTA-ABS test gives
a reactive test result with infant blood then it is
strong evidence of active congenital disease. Serial
testing is also useful because the titer of passively
transferred antibody decreases rapidly, the VDRL
test becoming negative by three months.
Syphilis Associated with Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infections
HIV-infected patients who acquire syphilis may fail
to produce antitreponemal antibodies. This has
extremely serious implications for the diagnosis
and control of syphilis.
Epidemiology
Syphilis is found worldwide in distribution.
Natural syphilis is exclusive to humans and has
no other known natural hosts. The most common
route of spread is by direct sexual contact. The
disease can also be acquired congenitally or by
transfusion with contaminated blood. Syphilis is
not highly contagious. High-risk sexual behavior
and coinfection with HIV continue to complicate
syphilis control efforts.
Immunity
The immune mechanisms in syphilis are not
adequately understood. Humoral immune
response against the treponeme does not appear
to be effective but Cell-mediated immunity may
be more rele­vant.
In a person already having active infection
reinfections do not appear to occur. It was believed
that premunition or infection immunity, as seen
in some parasitic infections, holds good in syphilis
also and that a patient becomes susceptible to
reinfection only when his original infection is cured.
Prophylaxis
1. As transmission is by direct contact, it is possible
to protect against syphilis.
2. When this is not complied with, the use of
physical barriers (such as condoms), antiseptics
(potassium permanganate) or antibiotics may
minimize the risk.
3. Educating people about sexually transmitted
dis­eases.
4. Protective vaccines are not available.
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Treatment
Penicillin is the drug of choice for treating
infections with T. pallidum. So far there have been
no reports of penicillin-resistance. In early cases,
a single injection of 2.4 million units of benzathine
penicillin is adequate. For late syphilis, this may be
repeated weekly for three weeks. In pat­ients allergic
to penicillin, erythromycin or tetracy­cline may be
used. Only penicillin can be used for the treatment
of neurosyphilis.
Jarisch–Herxheimer reaction: Antibiotic
therapy of syphilitics, particularly with penicillin,
characteristically induces a systemic response
called the Jarisch–Herxheimer reaction. This is
characterized by the rapid onset (within 2 hours
fever, chills, myalgia, tachycardia, hyperventilation,
vasodilatation and hypotension. It is believed to be
due to the liberation of toxic products like tumor
necrosis factors from the massive destruction of
treponemes or due to hyper­sensitivity.
NONVENEREAL TREPONEMATOSES
Nonvenereal treponemal diseases are found in
developing countries where hygiene is poor, little
clothing is worn, and direct skin contact is common
because of overcrowding. Infection is usually
transmitted by direct body to body contact. The
three nonvenereal treponemal diseases are:
1. Endemic syphilis
2. Yaws
3. Pinta
1. Endemic Syphilis (Bejel)
Endemic syphilis or bejel sphilis, transmitted
nonvenereally, was endemic in several foci and
mainly affects children in rural populations where
living conditions and personal hygiene are poor.
The etiologic agent is T. pallidum subspecies
endemicum and closely resembles yaws in clinical
manifestations.Transmission is by direct person-
to-person contact and by sharing of contaminated
eating or drinking utensils.
Clinical Manifestations: The primary chancre is
not usually seen, except sometimes on the nipples
of mothers infected by their children. The disease
is usually seen with mani­festations of secondary
syphilis, such as mucous patches in the mouth
and skin eruptions. The dis­ease progresses to
tertiary lesions particularly syphi­litic gummata
on the skin, bone and nasopharynx. As in yaws,
the cardiovascular and central nervous systems
are not involved, and congenital infection is
rare because of the early age of infection. The
laboratory diagnosis and treatment are as for
venereal syphilis.
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Chapter 48: Spirochetes  | 341
2. Yaws (Frambesia)
Yaws is a disease that is endemic among rural
populations in tropical and sub­tropical countries.
In India, cases of yaws have been identified in
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.
Causative agent : T. palli­d um subspecies
pertenue (still known as T. pertenue) which is
morphologically and antigenically indistin­
guishable from T. pallidum.
Clinical Manifestations: The primary lesion
(mother yaw) is an extragenital papule. It enlarges
and breaks down to form an ulcerating granuloma.
As in syphilis, secondary and tertiary manifesta­
tions follow but neurological and cardiovascular
involvement is rare. In the late stages of yaws,
ulcerative skin lesions and bone lesions develop.
Transmission: Infection is acquired by direct
contact with open ulcers. Flies may act as
mechanical vectors.
Laboratory diagnosis and treatment are similar to
those of venereal syphilis. There appears to be some
cross immunity be­between yaws and syphilis, in
that venereal syphilis is rare in communities where
yaws is endemic.
3. Pinta
Pinta (carate, mal del pinto) is a contagious
inoculable disease endemic in Central and South
America and the neighboring islands. It is caused
by T. carateum which is morphologically and
antigen­ically indistinguishable from T. pallidum
so cross immunity between pinta and syphi­lis is
only partial.
Spread of infection is by direct contact with
infectious lesions. Transmission appears to require
direct person to person contact. Incubation
ranges from 7 to 21 days.The pri­mary lesion is
an extragenital papule, which does not ulcerate
but develops into a lichenoid or psoriaform.
Secondary skin lesions are characterized by
hyperpigmentation or hypo­pigmentation. The
laboratory diagnosis and treatment are similar
to those of venereal syphilis.
NONPATHOGENIC TREPONEMES
Several commensal treponemes occur on the
buccal and genital mucosa and may cause
confusion in the di­agnosis of syphilis by dark field
examination. Best known among them is the oral
spirochete, T. dentium, which can be readily cul­
tivated.
T. refringens and T.gracilis may be found as
normal commensal in genitalia. In experimental
work on T. pallidum in rabbits, T. paraluiscuniculi
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 342  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
(formerly, T. cuniculi), which has a very similar
appearance and causes natural venereal infection
in rabbits, may pose problems.
BORRELIA
Species of Borrelia
Borreliae of medical importance are:
1. B. recurrentis causing relapsing fever
2. B. vin­centi sometimes causes fusospirochetosis
3. B. burgdorferi—causative agent of Lyme
disease.
Morphology
Borrelia are helical organisms 0.2–0.5 mm wide
and 8–20 mm in length. They are gram-negative,
actively motile and possess 5–8 irregular spirals at
intervals of 2 mm with pointed ends (Fig. 48.3).
Spirals are coarser and more irregular than those of
the treponemes or leptospires and usually can be
seen with light microscopy in preparations stained
with aniline dyes, such as Wright’s or Giemsa stains.
Cultural Characteristics
Borrelia are microaerophilic. Optimum temperature
for growth is 28–30°C. The organism can be grown
on Noguchi’s medium (ascitic fluid containing
rabbit kidney), chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) of
chick embryos and in mice or rats intraperitoneally.
Antigenic Properties
An­tigenic variations: The most striking property
of relapsing fever is the capacity of Borrelia to
undergo several antigenically distinct variations
within a given host during the course of a single
infection. This is believed to be the reason for the
occurrence of relapses in the disease. Ultimate
recovery after a number of relapses may be due to
Fig. 48.3: Borrelia recurrentis in peripheral blood smear
Chap-48.indd 342
the development of immunity to all the anti­genic
variants.
Agglutinating, complement fixing and lytic
antibodies develop during infection but their dem­
onstration is not possible as a routine diagnostic
test due to the difficulty in preparing satisfactory
antigens.
Pathogenicity
Relapsing Fever
Relapsing (RF) is an arthropod-borne infection,
and two types of which occur ­louse-borne and
tick-borne. The borreliae causing them are
indistinguishable in morphology and many other
features but differ in their arthropod hosts.
1. Epidemic or Louse-borne Relapsing Fever
The causative agent of louse-borne or epidemic RF
is B. recurrentis. It is an exclusive human pathogen,
being transmitted from person to person through
body lice (Pediculus humanus corporis). Humans
are the only reser­voir for B. recurrentis.
2. Endemic or Tick-borne Relapsing Fever
The second form of relapsing fever is endemic and
tick-borne. It is caused by as many as 15 species
of borreliae and cause RF (B. dut­tonni, B. hermsii,
B. parkeri B. turicatae, etc.) and is spread by
infected soft ticks of the genus Ornithodoros that
vary according to the country where the infection
occurs.
Pathogenicity
After an incubation period of 2–10 days relapsing
fever sets in as fever of sudden onset. During this
period, borreliae are abundant in the patient’s
blood. The fever subsides in 3–5 days. Another bout
of fever sets in after an afebrile period of 4–10 days
during which borreliae are not demonstrable in
blood. The borreliae reappear in blood during the
re­lapses of fever. The disease ultimately subsides
after 3–10 relapses. Subsequent relapses are usually
milder and of shorter duration.
Epidemiology
The etiologic agent of louse-borne epidemic
relapsing fever is B. recurrentis. The vector is
the human bodylouse, and humans are the only
reservoir. The infection is transmitted not by the
bite of lice but by their being crushed and rubbed
into abraded skin.
Louse-borne relapsing fever tends to occur as
epidemics whenever poverty, overcrowding and
lack of personal hygiene encourage louse infesta­
tion.
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Tick-borne endemic relapsing fever is a
zoonotic disease, with rodents, small mammals,
and soft ticks (Ornithodoros species) the main res­
ervoirs and many species of Borrelia responsible for
the disease. The infection is transmitted to humans
through the bite of ticks or their discharges.
Several species of soft ticks belonging to the
genus Ornithodorus act as vec­t ors. In India,
the vector species are O. tholozoni, O. crossi., O.
lahorensis and the fowl tick, Argas ver­sicus.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Routine laboratory diagnosis of relapsing fever
depends on demonstrating the spirochetes in
peripheral blood samples, either in the living state
or after staining.
i. Dark Ground Microscopy
During the pyrexial phase of the illness a drop of
blood may be examined as a wet film under the
dark ground or phase contrast microscope and
borreliae detected by their lashing move­ments.
ii. Giemsa or Leishman Stain
Blood smears are stained with Giemsa or Leishman
stain and examined for borreliae.
iii. Animal Inoculation
Inoculate intraperitoneally 1–2 mL blood into
six young white mice. Examine drops of blood
obtained by clipping the tip of the tail 48 hours later
and daily thereafter for up to 1 week. Examine by
darkfield microscopy for living spirochetes or after
staining by Giemsa.
iv. Culture and Serology
Cultivation of the borreliae and demonstration of
antibodies are too difficult and unreliable to be
used in diagnosis. Patients with relapsing fever
sometimes develop false-positive serological tests
for syphilis.
Prophylaxis
Prevention of louse-borne relapsing fever consists
of prevention of louse infestation along with the use
of insecticides whenever necessary.
Prevention of tick-borne disease is less easy and
consists of identification of tick infested places and
their avoidance, or eradication of the vectors. No
vaccine is available.
Treatment: Tetracyclines, chloramphenicol,
penicil­lin, and erythromycin are effective.
Borrelia vincentii (Treponema vincentii)
T. vincentii (old name Borrelia vincentii) is a motile
spirochete, about 5–20 mm long and 0.2–0.6 mm
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Chap-48.indd 343
Chapter 48: Spirochetes  | 343
wide, with 3–8 coils of variable size. It is easily
stained with dilute carbol fuchsin and is gram-
negative.
T. vincentii is a normal commensal of mouth.
It may give rise to ulcerative gingivostomatitis
or oropharyngitis (Vincent’s angina) under
predisposing conditions such as malnutrition or
viral infections, In Vincent’s angina, T. vincentii
is often associ­ated with anaerobic gram-negative
‘fusiform bacillus known as Fusobacterium fusiforme
(now known as Leptotrichia buccalis). This symbiotic
infection is known as fusospirochetosis.
Diagnosis
1. Microscopic examination: Diagnosis may
be made by demonstrating spiro­chetes and
fusiform bacilli in stained smears of exudates
from the lesions.
2. Culture: B. vincentii may be cultivated with
difficulty in enriched media anaerobically.
Treatment: Penicillin and metronidazole are
effective in treatment.
Lyme Disease: Borrelia burgdorferi
Lyme disease was identified in 1975. Lyme disease
or Lyme borreliosis (originally Lyme arthritis), as
it was first observed in Lyme, Connecticut., USA.
The disease is widespread in the USA. It is caused
by Borrelia burgdorferi, transmitted by the bite of
Ixodid ticks.
Morphology: It measures 4–30 mm × 0.2–0.25 mm.
It is flexible, helical and gram-negative.
Culture: It is a microaerophilic spirochete. It
is fastidious bacterium and can be grown in a
modified Kelley’s (BSK-Barbour, Stonner Kelly)
medium, after incubation for two weeks or more.
Optimum temperature for growth is 33°C.
Pathogenesis
The natural hosts for B. burgdorferi are wild and
domesticated animals, including mice and other
rodents, deer, sheep, cattle, horses and dogs. B.
burgdorferi is transmitted to man by ixodid ticks
that become infected while feeding on infected
animals. The bacterium grows primarily in the
midgut of the tick, and trans­mission to man occurs
during regurgitation of the gut contents during the
blood meal.
Stages of Lyme disease: Lyme disease may be a
progressive illness, and is divided into three stages:
Stage 1: The first stage of ‘localised infection’
appears as a small red macule or papule at the site
of bite (erythema migrans or EM) after an incu­
bation period of 3–30 days.
Stage 2: The second stage of ‘disseminated
infection’ develops with headache, fever, myalgia
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 344  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
and lymphadenopathy. Some develop meningeal
or cardiac involvement.
Stage 3: The third stage of ‘persistent infection’
sets in months or years later with chronic
arthritis, polyneuropathy, encephalopathy and
acrodermatitis.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Isolation of the borrelia: The borrelia has been
iso­lated from ticks as well as from skin lesions,
CSF and the blood of patients, but culture is too
slow and diffi­cult to be of use in diagnosis.
B. Serology: Serological tests such as ELISA and
immunofluorescence (IF) have been described
and immuno­b lotting recommended for
confirmation. Antibodies take 1–2 months to
appear.
False-positive syphilis serology may be seen,
with FTA-ABS being positive and VDRL test
negative.
Treatment
Penicillins, the newer macrolides, cephalosporins
and tetracyclines have all been used successfully in
Lyme disease.
LEPTOSPIRA
Introduction: Leptospires are actively motile,
delicate spirochetes, possessing a large number of
closely wound spirals and characteristic hooked
ends. They are too thin to be seen under the light
microscope (leptos, meaning fine or thin). They
may be visualized under dark ground illumination.
They do not stain readily.
Classification
The family Leptospiraceae belongs to the order
Spirochetales and can be subdivided into three
morphologically indistinguishable genera:
Leptospira, Leptonema and Tumeria. Only
Leptospira spp. are considered to be pathogenic
for animals or man.
General characteristics: The genus Leptospira is
now classified into two species L. interrogans, and
L. biflexa. Pathogenic species are called Leptospira
interro­gans, and most saprophytic leptospires are
called L. bifiexa.
1. Leptospira interrogans: It comprises the
parasitic and pathogenic leptospires. L.
interrogans is classified into 23 serogroups
(Icterohemorrhagiae, Canicola, Pyrogen­es,
Autumnalis, Australis, Pomona, Hebdomadis,
Grippotyphosa, etc.). Within each serogroup
over 200 serovars are recognized.
2. L. bifiexa: It contains saprophytic leptospires.
Chap-48.indd 344
Morphology
Leptospires are delicate spirochetes about 6–20
mm long and 0.1 mm thick. They have numerous
closely wound primary coils, so closely set together
that they are difficult to demonstrate in stained
preparations although they are quite obvious in the
living state by darkfield microscopy or by electron
microscopy. Their ends are hooked and resemble
umbrella handles (Fig. 48.4). They are actively
motile, Gram-negative, but take up conventional
stains poorly. They can be visualized by Giemsa or
silver deposition methods or by use of fluorescent
antibody.
Cultural Characteristics
They are aerobic and microaerophilic. Optimum
temperature is 25–30°C and optimum pH 7.2–7.5.
Leprospires can be grown in media enriched with
rabbit serum.
Liquid medium consists of Stuart’s or Korthof’s
medium. Semisynthetic media, such as EMJH
(Ellinghausen, McCullough, Johnson, Harris)
medium are now commonly used. A simple
semisolid medium is Fletcher’s medium which
consists of nutrient agar and rabbit serum. In
semisolid media, growth occurs characteristically
a few millimeters below the surface.
Leptospires may be grown on the chorioallantoic
membrane (CAM) of chick embryos.
Resistance
Leptospires are susceptible to heat; 10 min at
50°C or 10 seconds at 60°C kills them. They are
also sensitive to acid and are destroyed by gastric
juice in 30 minutes. They are rapidly killed by bile
or trypsin.
They are also readily destroyed by chlo­rine and
most other antiseptics and disinfectants. Their
Fig. 48.4: Dark ground microscopy shows the appearance
of living leptospires
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 Chapter 48: Spirochetes  | 345
Table 48.4  Important leptospiral infections
Serotype Disease Clinical picture Animal reservoir Distribution
Icterohemorrhagiae Weil's disease Fever, jaundice, Rat Worldwide
Canicola Canicola fever hemorrhages influenza like, Dog Worldwide
aseptic meningitis
Grippotyphosa Swamp or marsh Fever, prostration, aseptic- Field mice Europe, Africa,
fever men­i­ngitis SE Asia, USA
Pomona Swineherd’s disease Fever Pig America, Europe, Middle
East, Indonesia, Australia
Hebdomadis Seven day fever Fever, lymphadenopathy Field mice Japan, Europe, USA
Fortbragg Pretibial fever, Fever, rash over tibia Not known Japan, SE
Fort Bragg fever Asia, USA
Pyrogenes Febrile Fever Pig SE Asia, Europe, USA
spirochetosis
Bataviae Indonesian Weil’s Fever Rat SE Asia, Africa, Europe
disease
Hardjo Dairy farm fever Fever Cattle UK, USA, New Zealand

survival in water or soil depends on tempera­
ture, acidity, salinity and nature and amount of
pollu­tion, dying rapidly in acid urine, nonaerated
sewage, saltish or brackish water. They can survive
for days in moist conditions at pH 6.8–8.
Antigenic Properties
Leptospires exhibit considera­ble antigenic cross
reaction. A genus specific somatic antigen is
present in all members of the genus. Classi­fication
into serogroups and serotypes (now referred to
as sero-varieties or serovars) is based on sur­face
antigens.
Pathogenesis
In natural reservoir hosts, leptospiral infection is
asymptomatic. It is transmitted to humans when
the leptospires in water contaminated by the urine
of carrier animals enters the body through cuts or
abrasions on the skin or through intact mucosa of
mouth, nose or conjuctiva. During the acute phase
of the disease, leptospires are seen in the blood but
can seldom be demonstrated after 8–10 days. They
persist in the internal organs, and most abundantly
in the kidneys, so that they may be demonstrated in
the urine in the later stages of the disease.
Diseases: Mild virus-like syndrome. The incubation
period is usually about 10 days (range 2–26 days).
The onset of clinical illness is usually abrupt,
with nonspecific, influenza-like constitutional
symptoms such as fever, chills, headache, severe
myalgia, and malaise.
Systemic leptospirosis with aseptic meningitis.
The patient may develop a more advanced disease-
including aseptic meningitis.
Severe systemic disease (Well’s disease)
includes renal failure, hepatic failure, and intra­
vascular disease, and may result in death.
Duration of the illness varies from less than
1 week to 3 weeks. Late manifestations may be
caused by the host immunologic response to the
infection (Table 48.4).
Serious cases of leptospirosis are caused most
often by serotype icterohemorrhagiae, though
they m­ ay also be due to coenhageni and less
often batavitae, gripotyphosahosa, pyrogenes
and some others. Asep­tic meningitis is common
in canicola infection and abdominal symptoms in
grippotyphosa infections.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis may be made by 1. Demonstration of
the leptospires microscopically in blood or urine;
2. Isolation in culture; 3. Animal inoculation; 4.
Serological tests.
1. Demonstration of Leptospiras in Blood
or Urine
Microscopy
As leptospires disappear from the blood after the
first week, blood examination is helpful only in
the early stages of the disease. Leptospires may be
demonstrated by examination of the blood under the
dark field microscope or by immunofluorescence
but this is of little practical value.
Leptospires may be found in the urine during
the second week and intermittently for 4–6 weeks
or even longer. Centrifuged deposit of the urine
may be examined under dark ground illumination.
2. Culture
Three or four drops of blood are inoculated into
each of several bijou bottles containing EMJH
or similar medium. The bottles are incubated
at 37°C for two days and left thereafter at room

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 346  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
temperature in the dark for two weeks. Samples
from the cultures are examined every third day
for the presence of leptospires under dark ground
illu­mination.
Direct culture of urine is seldom successful but
isolation is usually possible by inoculation into
guinea pigs.
3. Animal Inoculation
The blood or urine from the patient is inoculated
intraperitoneally into young guinea pigs. The
animals develop fever and die within 8–12 days
with jaundice and hemorrhage into the lungs
and serous cavities with virulent serotypes like
icterohemorrhagiae.
4. Serological Diagnosis
Tests for detection of leptospiral antibodies in sera
are of two kinds: i.Genus-specific tests; ii. Sero-
group­specific tests
A. Genus-specific Tests
The antigens for these tests are prepared from the
nonpathogenic L. biflexa Patoc 1 strain. The tests
employed include sensitized erythro­cyte lysis
(SEL), complement fixation, agglutination and
indirect immunofluorescence. ELISA has been
used to detect IgM and IgG antibodies separately,
in order to indicate the stage of infection. A simple
and rapid dip-stick assay has been developed for
the assay of leptospira-specific IgM antibody in
human sera.
B. Serogroup-specific Tests
Serogroup-specific tests are reactive mainly with
strains of the same serogroup as the infecting
strain. They comprise agglutination tests that
are either macroscopic, or microscopic. In
macroscopic agglutination tests, formalinized
suspensions of prevalent leptospira serovars are
tested for macro­scopic agglutination with serial
dilutions of the test serum.
The micro­s copic agglutination test (MAT)
generally uses live cultures of different serotypes
and agglutination is observed under the low power
dark field microscope. This test is more specific and
is generally accepted as “gold standard”.
Examination of Water for
Pathogenic Leptospires
If a shaved and scarified area of the skin of a young
guinea pig is immersed in water for an hour,
infection takes place through the abrasions.
Epidemiology: Leptospirosis is most common
zoonotic bacterial disease throughout the
world. Rodents are most important reservoirs.
Chap-48.indd 346
Pathogenic lepto­spires survive for long periods in
the convoluted tubules of the kidneys in natural
hosts, multiply and are shed in the urine. Humans:
accidental end-stage host. People at risk are those
exposed to urine-contaminated streams, rivers,
and standing water; occupational exposure to
infected animals for farmers, meat handlers,
veterinarians.
When human beings come into contact with
such water, the leptospires enter the body through
abraded skin or mucosa and initiate infection.
Several animals act as carriers. Rats are particu­
larly important as they are ubiquitous and carry
the most pathogenic serotype icterohemorrhagiae
in the convoluted tubules of the kidney long-term,
resulting in chronic excretion of viable leptospires
in their urine. Field mice carry grippotyphosa, pigs
pomona and dogs can­icola serotypes.
Prophylaxis
General measures of prevention such as:
i. Rodent control
ii. Disin­fection of water
iii. Wearing of protective clothing.
Vaccination: Vaccination has been at­tempted with
some success in dogs, cattle and pigs. Immunity
following vaccination or infection is sero­type
specific. Vaccination has also been tried in per­sons
at high risk such as agricultural workers.
Treatment
Penicillin is given intravenously (IV), 1–2 million
units 6 hourly for 7 days in serious cases. For milder
infections a 7–10-day course of oral amoxicillin is
appropriate. Patients allergic to penicillins can be
treated with erythromycin. Doxycycline 200 mg
orally once a week is effective in prophylaxis.
Key Points
™™ Spirochetes are slender unicellular, motile, helical or
spiral rods. They are motile because of endoflagella.
™™ The members of genera Treponema, Borrelia and
Leptospira are pathogenic to man
Treponema pallidum
™™ Treponema pallidum is the causative agent of syphilis.
™™ T. pallidum is thin, coiled spirochete and is observed
by dark field or phase contrast microscopy
™™ Diseases: Venereal syphilis. Syphilis is a sexually
transmitted disease
™™ Lab diagnosis: Dark field microscopy is useful for
demonstration of treponemes in the clinical specimen.
Direct fluorescent antibody T. pallidum (DFA-TP) is a
sensitive method for direct detection of treponemal
antigen in the exu­dates for diagnosis of syphilis
Serological tests: Two major types of serologic tests
exist: nontreponemal tests and treponemal tests.
In nontreponemal tests or Standard tests for
syphilis (STS) cardiolipin or lipoidal antigen is
used. Nontreponemal tests are Venereal Diseases
Research Laboratory (VDRL) test and rapid plasma
reagin (RPR). These are flocculation tests
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™™ VDRL or RPR tests are used for screening or for
diagnostic purposes of large number of sera
™™ Biological false positive (BFP) reactions may occur
in certain conditions because of use of nonspecific
antigen (cardiolipin) in STS
™™ Treponemal tests in which treponemes are used
as the antigen. These tests use live T. pallidum
strains (e.g., T. pallidum immobilization test), killed
T. pallidum (e.g., T. pallidum aggluti­nation test, T.
pallidum immune adherence test, and fluorescent
treponema antibody test), or T. pallidum extracts as
antigens(e.g., Treponema pallidium hemagglutination
(TPHA test) and enzyme immunoassay (EIA)]
™™ IgM-FTA-ABS test can detect IgM antibodies in
congenital syphilis and helps to differentiate it from
seropositivity due to passively transferred maternal
antibodies
™™ Endemic syphilis or bejel is caused by T. pallidum
subspecies endemi­c um;Yaws by T. pallidum
subspecies pertenue and Pinta caused by Treponema
carateum
Borrelia
™™ The important pathogenic borreliae of medical
importance include B. recurrentis, B. vincentii and
B. burgdorferi. B. recurrentis is the causative agent
of relapsing fever while B. vincentii causes vincent’s
angina. Lyme disease is caused by B. burgdorferi
™™ Diseses: Epidemic relapsing fever: transmitted
person to person; vector-human body louse.
Endemic relapsing fever: transmitted rodents to
humans; vector-soft ticks
™™ Lyme disease: Transmitted by hard ticks from mice
to hu­mans; vectors ixodid ticks.
Leptospira
™™ They stain poorly with aniline dyes (e.g. Gram stain)
but stain well with silver impregnation methods
(e.g., Levaditi’s and Fontana’s staining). They are
obligate aerobes
™™ Diseases: Leptospirosis is most common zoonotic
bacterial disease. Rodents are most important
reservoirs. It causes-Mild virus-like syndrome;
Systemic leptospirosis with aseptic meningitis.
Overwhelming disease (Weil’s disease) with vascular
collapse, thrombocytopenia, hemorrhage, and
hepatic and renal dysfunction.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Classify spirochetes. Name different spirochetes
and diseases caused by them. Discuss the
laboratory diagnosis of syphilis.
2. Discuss pathogenesis of syphilis.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Standard tests for syphilis (STS)
b. VDRL test
c. Treponemal tests for serodiagnosis of syphilis
d. Biological false positive (BFP) reactions.
e. Fluorescent treponemal antibody-absorption
(FTA-ABS) test.
f. TPHA (or) T. pallidum hemagglutination test.
g. Nonvenereal treponematoses
h. Borrelia recurrentis
i. Lyme disease
j. Leptospirosis
k. Weil’s disease
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Chapter 48: Spirochetes  | 347
4. Name the diseases spread by rats. Describe
the pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of
leptospirosis.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. Spirochaetes exhibit:
a. Flexion and extension motility
b. Corkscrew like rotatory movement
c. Translatory motion
d. All of the above
2. Treponema pallidum can be cultivated in:
a. Thayer-Martin medium
b. Blood agar medium
c. Chocolate agar medium
d. Rabbit testes
3. Hard chancre is characteristic of:
a. Primary syphilis
b. Secondary syphilis
c. Latent syphilis
d. Tertiary syphilis
4. Which of the following serological tests is employed
for diagnosis of congenital syphilis?
a. FTA-ABS test
b. IgM FTA-ABS test
c. TPHA test
d. Reiter protein complement fixation test
5. The spirochete that can easily be cultured is:
a. Treponema pallidum
b. Borrelia recurrentis
c. Borrelia burgdorferi
d. Leptospira interrogans
6. Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction is a complication
observed following therapy with antibiotics in:
a. Syphilis b. Relapsing fever
c. Lyme disease d. Leptospirosis
7. The causative agent of louse-borne relapsing fever
is:
a. Borrelia recurrentis b. B. duttoni
c. B. Vincentii d. B. Burgdorferi
8. Erythema chronicum migrans is seen in:
a. A. Syphilis b. Relapsing fever
c. Lyme disease d. Leptospirosis
9. All the following diseases are transmitted non­
venereally except:
a. Syphilis
b. Pinta
c. Yaws
d. Congenital syphilis
10. Which serogroup of Leptospira interrogans is
responsible for causing Weil’s disease?
a. Icterohemorrhagiae b. Hebdomadis
c. Australis d. Canicola
11. Which of the following serological tests is accepted
as gold standard for diagnosis of leptospirosis?
a. Microscopic agglutination test
b. Macroscopic agglutination test
c. Both of the above
12. Which of the following tests can be performed for
the serodiagnosis of leptospirosis?
a. Macroscopic agglutination test
b. Microscopic agglutination test
c. Complement fixation test
d. All of the above
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. d; 2. d; 3. a; 4. b; 5. a; 6. a; 7. a; 8. c; 9. a; 10. a; 11. a; 12 d.
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Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe the general characteristics of the
Mycoplasma spp. and how they differ from other
bacterial species
∙∙ Describe morphology and characteristies of
Mycoplasma spp
∙∙ Compare the clinical diseases caused by Mycoplasma
INTRODUCTION
Mycoplasmas are the smallest prokaryotes capable
of self replication. The first to be recognized,
Mycoplasma mycoides ssp. mycoides was
isolated by Nocard and Roux in 1898 from cattle
with pleuropneumonia. As other pathogenic
and saprophytic isolates accumu­lated from
veterinary and human sources they were known
as pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO).
‘Mycoplasma’ (Greek: mykes = fungus; plasma =
something moulded) refers to the filamentous
(fungal-like) nature of the organisms of some
species and to the plasticity of the outer membrane
resulting in pleomorphism.
CLASSIFICATION
Mycoplasmas are members of the class
Mollicutes (mollis, soft; kutis, skin), and the order
Mycoplasmatales. The class Mollicutes contains
five families.
1. Family Mycoplasmataceae: It is subdivided
into two genera:
a. Genus Mycoplasma: It utilizes glucose or
arginine but do not split urea. It has more
than 110 named species.
b. Genus Ureaplasma: It hydrolyzes urea. It
has six species.
2. Family Acholeplasmataceae: It contains a
single genus. Acholeplasma. comprising at least
Chap-49.indd 348
4949
Chapter
pneumoniae, Mycoplasma hominis, and Ureaplasma
urealyticum
∙∙ Analyze the diagnostic methods appropriate for
detection of mycoplasmal and ureaplasmal infections
∙∙ Discuss the use of serologic tests for diagnosing M.
pneumoniae infections
∙∙ Compare mycoplasmas and L forms
∙∙ Describe Ureaplasma urealyticum.
14 species, of which Acholeplasma laidlawii
was the first to be named.
3. Family Spiroplasmataceae: It contains
the Genus Spiroplasma, which parasitize
arthropods and plants.
4. Family Anaeroplasmataceae: Genus Anaero­
plasma, found in the rumen of cattle and sheep.
5. Family Entomoplasmataceae: It contains the
genera Entomoplasma and Mesoplasma found
in insects and plants.
More than 60 species of Mycoplasma are known
to cause disease in a variety of mammalian, in­sect
and plant hosts. About sixteen species, belonging
to three families are found in human beings.
General Characteristics
1. Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma, organisms are
the smallest free-living bacteria.
2. Mycoplasmas differ from other bacteria in that
they lack a rigid cell wall and due to absence
of a cell wall are highly pleomorphic, with no
fixed shape or size.
3. These organisms are bounded by a soft
trilaminar unit membrane containing sterols.
4. They lack even cell wall precursors like
muramic acid or diaminopimelic acid.
5. The mycoplasmas form pleomorphic filaments
and many can pass through the 0.45 µm, filters
used to remove bacte­ria from solutions.
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 Chapter 49: Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma  | 349
6. The organisms divide by binary fission (typical
of all bacteria), grow on artificial cell—free
media, and contain both RNA and DNA.
7. Mycoplasmas are generally slow-growing, high­ly
fastidious, facultative anaerobes requiring
complex media containing cholesterol and fatty
acids for growth.
8. Mycoplasma species grow embedded beneath
the surface of solid media. On solid media,
some species, (e.g. M. hominis) form colonies
with slightly raised centers giving the classic
“fried egg” appearance” .
9. The mycoplasmas adhere to the epithelium
of mucosal surfaces in the respiratory and
urogenital tracts and are not eliminated by
mucous secretions or urine flow.
10. The human mycoplasmas are susceptible to
ad­verse environmental conditions, such as
heat and drying.
11. Transmission of mycoplasmas and ureaplas­
mas in humans may occur via direct sexual
contact, from mother to child during delivery
or in utero, and by respiratory secretions or
fomites in cases of M. pneumoniae infections.
Morphology
Mycoplasmas are the smallest free living micro­
organisms. They can pass through bacterial
filters. They lack cell wall but are bounded by a
trilaminar membrane 8–10 nm thick which is rich
in cholesterol and other lipids. They are very small
pleomorphic cells and range in size from 0.2 to 0.8
mm in diameter which may range from spherical
through coccoid, coccobacillary, ring and dumb-
bell forms, to short and long branching , beaded
or segmented filaments. The filaments are slender,
of varying lengths and show true branching. Myc­
oplasmas are gram-negative but are better stained
by Giemsa stain. Replication is basically by binary
fission.
Mycoplasmas do not possess spores, flagella
or fimbria. Some mycoplasmas, including M.
pneumoniae, exhibit a gliding motility on liquid-
covered surfaces.
Cultural Characteristics
Most mycoplasmas are facultatively anaerobic but,
since organisms from primary tissue specimens
fre­quently grow only under anaerobic conditions,
an atmo­sphere of 95% nitrogen and 5% carbon
dioxide is preferred for primary isolation. They
grow within a temperature range of 22–41°C, the
parasitic species growing optimally at 35–37 °C and
the saprophytes at lower temperatures.
Media for cultivating Mycoplasma are enriched
with 20% horse or human serum and yeast extract.
The high concentration of serum is necessary
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Chap-49.indd 349
as a source of cholesterol and other lipids.
Mycoplasmas may be cultivated in liquid or solid
media. A medium widely used pleuropneumonia
like organisms (PPLO) broth for the isolation of
mycoplasmas consists of bovine heart to which
are added 20% horse serum and 10% fresh yeast
extract along with glucose and phenol red as a
pH indicator. This medium can be solidified by
the addition of agar. Penicillin, ampicillin and
polymyxin B may be added in the medium to
inhibit contaminating bacteria and amphotericin
B to inhibit fungi. A diphasic medium in screw-
capped bottle containing an agar phase that is
overlain with broth medium of similar composition
may also be used. Colonies appear after incubation
for 2–6 days and are about 10–600 µm in size. On
agar, colonies are typically biphasic that have a
‘fried egg’ appearance, with an opaque central
zone of growth within the agar and a translucent
peripheral zone on the surface (Fig. 49.1).
Colonies may be seen with a hand lens but are
best studied after staining by Dienes method. For
this, a block of agar containing the colony is cut
and placed on a slide. It is covered with a cover slip
on which has been dried an alcoholic solution of
methylene blue and azure.
Colonies cannot be picked with platinum loops.
Subculture is done by cutting out an agar block
with colonies and rubbing it on fresh plates. Most
Mycoplasma colonies are hemolytic.
Biochemical Reactions
1. Mycoplasmas are mainly fermentative. Most
mycoplasmas use glucose (or other carbohy­
drates) or arginine as a major source of energy.
2. Urea is not hydrolyzed, except by ureaplasmas.
3. They are generally not prote­olytic.
Fig. 49.1: Typical large Mycoplasma colony showing ‘fried
egg” appearance
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 350  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Antigenic Structure
The surface antigens presented to the infected host
are components of the cell membrane and consist
of glycolipids and proteins.
A. Glycolipid antigen: The glycolipid antigens of
M. pneumoniae are major membrane antigens
found in the lipid fraction. The purified
glycolipids act as antigens in the complement-
fixation test and other in vitro antigen–antibody
reactions.
B. Protein antigens: During the course of
infection a number of protein antigens are
recognized. Among them are two major surface
antigens, one of which is the PI protein that
mediates attach­ment. Antibody to these surface
proteins is found consistently in convalescent
human sera and in respiratory secretions by
radioimmunoprecipitation, gel electrophoresis,
and Western blot analysis.
The cold agglutinins that are induced in
patients with M. pneumoniae infection are directed
against the I antigen deter­minant of erythrocytes,
which is also present on the surface of other blood
cells.
Resistance: Mycoplasmas are killed by heating at
56°C for 30 minutes. For long-term preservation,
lyophilization or freezing broth cultures at-70°C
(or in liquid nitrogen) are the preferred storage
methods.
M. pneumoniae can grow in the presence of
0.002% methylene blue in agar, while many other
species are inhibited. Antiseptic solutions, such as
chlorhexidine and cetrimide inhibit the growth of
mycoplasmas.­
They are resistant to penicillin and cepha­
losporin as well as to lysozymes that act on the
bacte­rial cell walls but are sensitive to tetracycline
and many other antibiotics that inhibit protein
synthesis.
Pathogenicity
Parasitic mycoplasmas exhibit host specificity. They
generally produce surface infections by adhering
to the mucosa of the respiratory, gastrointestinal
and genitourinary tracts. Mycoplasma causes
two types of diseases in humans—peumonia and
genital infections.
A. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Infection with M. pneumoniae typically produces
mild upper respiratory tract disease. More
severe disease with lower respi­r atory tract
symptoms occurs in less than 10% of pa­tients.
Tracheobronchitis can occur. Pneumonia
(referred to as primary atypical pneumonia or
walking pneumonia) can also develop. School age
Chap-49.indd 350
children and young adults are especially susceptible
to infection. Clinical disease is uncommon in very
young children and older adults. Other groups at
risk include closed-in populations such as prisoners,
college students and military personnel. Epidemics
are known to occur in these populations. Infection
is not considered seasonal, but many cases occur
in autumn and early winter. Transmission is proba­
bly through aerosol droplet spray produced while
coughing.
Pneumonias not attributable to any of the
common bac­terial causes were labeled historically
as primary atypical pneumonias. Eaton (944) was
the first to isolate the causative agent of the disease
and because it was filterable, it was considered
to be a virus (Eaton agent). The most important
species is Mycoplasma pneumoniae (also called
Eaton’s agent after the investigator. Who originally
isolated it.
The disease has an incubation period of 1–3
weeks, and early symptoms are nonspecific,
consist­ing of headache, low-grade fever, malaise,
and anorexia. Sore throat, dry cough, and earache
are accompanying symptoms. However, patients
usually do not appear seriously ill and few warrant
admission to hospital.
The disease is characterized by paucity of
respi­ratory signs on physical examination but
radiological evidence of consolidation, which is
usually patchy involving one of the lower lobes,
starting at the hilum, and fanning out to the
periphery. About 20% of patients suffer bilateral
pneumonia, but pleurisy and pleural effusions
are unusual. The disease is usual­ly self-limited,
recovery occurring in 1–2 weeks, but can be
prolonged.
Extrapulmonary complications, including
cardio­vascular, central nervous system, dermato­
logic, and gastrointestinal problems, are rare
occurrences. Secondary complications include otitis
media, erythema multi­forme (Stevens–Johnson
syndrome), hemolytic ane­mia, myocarditis, peri­
carditis, and neurologic abnor­malities.
Epidemiology
M. pneumoniae is worldwide in its distribu­
tion and is found at all ages. Transmission is by
droplets of nasopharyngeal secretion. Disease is
most common in school aged children and young
adults (5–15 years). Close contact is necessary for
transmission, and the infection usually occurs
among classmates or family members. Spread is
favored by close contact, as in families and most
typically among military recruits. Mycoplasma may
remain in the throat for two or more months after
recovery from the disease.
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 Chapter 49: Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma  | 351
Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory diagnosis Mycoplasma pneumoniae
infections may be established either by isolation of
the Mycoplasma or by serological methods.

1. Specimens
M. pneumoniae may be recovered from throat
swabs, nasopharyngeal swabs, sputum, throat
washings, bronchoalveolar lavage, tracheal
aspirate and lung tissue specimens.

2. Culture
In the laboratory, if inoculation is not possible
immediately, then the specimen may be held up
to 24 hours at 4°C. If delay more than 24 hours is
expected, then the specimen should be frozen at
– 70°C. A widely used isolation medium contains
bovine heart infusion (PPLO broth) with fresh
yeast extract and horse serum supplemented with
penicillin (to inhibit other bacteria), thallium
acetate, glucose and with phenol red as a pH
indicator because mycoplasmas do not produce
turbidity in broth media. For genital Mycoplasma,
polymymin B and amphotericin B and lincomycin
are also added to mycoplamal broth.
1. Isolation and Identification
In general, the growth of M. pneumoniae from
clinical specimens is detected by the ability of
these organisms to produce acid from glucose.
Most broth media are dipha­sic such as methylene
blue-glucose dipha­sic medium. Broth cultures are
incubated at 35°C with the caps tightened. Tubes
are inspected daily for color changes (from salmon
to yellow) in the medium. A slight, gradual shift in
the pH indicator over an 8–15 day period without
gross turbidity suggests a true-positive culture.
The broth must be subcultured to appropriate agar
me­dium as soon as color changes in the medium
are appar­ent. Inspection of the agar surface under
the low power of the microscope will reveal small
colonies of the organisms. In the absence of
obvious color change in diphasic media, a blind
subculture to agar media should be performed after
1 and 3 weeks of incubation.
i. Colonies: M. pneumoniae may take 21 days or
more, while M. hominis colonies may appear
within 2–4 days. Colonies of M. pneumoniae are
small, betahemolytic and have a homogeneous
granular appearance (“mulberry shaped”),
unlike the fried-egg morphology of other
mycoplasmas. Because the organisms do not
stain well with gram or acridine orange stains,
Mycoplasma ­like colonies are stained with the
Dienes or methylene blue stains. M. hominis
colonies have a typical large “fried egg”
appearance (Fig. 49.2 ).
Fig. 49.2: Typical large Mycoplasma pneumoniae colony
showing “mullberry shaped” appearance. (Courtesy
Dr Surinder Kumar, Director Professor, Department of
Microbiology, Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, India)
ii. Species identification: These colonies may
be identified by:
a. Hemadsorption test: The characteristic
of guinea pig red blood cells is adhering to
colonies of M. pneumoniae.
b. Tetrazolium reduction test: Colonies of
M. pneumoniae appear red when these
are flooded with solution oftetrazolium
compound which is colourless. M.
pneumoniae reduces tetrazolium (colour­
less) to red coloured compound.
c. Serological techniques: Identification of
isolates can be con­firmed by inhibition of
their growth with specific antisera.
2. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Amplification
M. pneumoniae in respiratory exudates or secretions
is detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
amplification of a chosen sequence in its genome.
3. Antigen Detection Techniques
Detection of antigen in respiratory exudates by
direct immunofluorescence and counterimmuno­
electrophoresis techniques, immunoblotting
with monoclonal antibodies and antigen capture
enzyme immunoassay (EIA).
4. DNA Probes
DNA probes can be used to detect M. pneumoniae
RNA in sputum specimens.
5. Serological Tests
Serologic tests are available only for M. pneumoniae
Serological diagnosis may be made by:

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 352  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
A. Specific tests using mycoplasmal antigens
B. Nonspecific methods.
A. Specific Tests Using Mycoplasmal Antigens
The development of antibody to M. pneumoniae by
infected subjects may be measured by a range of
techniques of widely differing sensitivity, viz. com­
plement fixation, metabolic inhibition, inhibition
of tetrazolium reduction, immunofluorescence on
sections of chick embryo lung, direct or antibody
capture enzyme- immunosorbent assays (EIA), or
agglutination of antigen-coated erythrocytes, latex
or gelatin particles.
i. Complement fixation test : Detection of
antibodies directed against M. pneumoniae by
complement fixation is a useful. Titers peak in 4
weeks and persist for 6–12 months; diagnostic titer
is ≥ 1: 32, or a fourfold increase.
ii. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays: The
tests are easier to perform and are highly sensitive
if both immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG are mea­
sured.
B. Nonspecific Serological Tests
The nonspecific serological tests are Streptococ­cus
MG and cold agglutination tests.
i. Sterptococcus MG test
It is done by mixing serial dilutions of the patient’s
un­heated serum and a heat killed suspension of
Strepto­coccus MG, and observing agglutination after
overnight incubation at 37°C. A titer of 1 : 20 or over
is considered suggestive.
ii. Cold agglutination test
The cold agglutination test is based on the appear­
ance in a high proportion of cases with primary
atypical pneumonia, of macroglobulin antibodies
that agglutinate human group O cells at low
temperature. Cold agglutinins appear about one
week after infection with a peak at 4–5 weeks.
Thereafter, titer declines rapidly and the test beco­
mes negative after about 5 months.
This test is easily performed by mixing serial
dilutions of the patient’s serum with an equal volume
of a 0.2% washed human O group erythrocytes and
clumping observed after incubating the mixture
overnight. The test is based on the development
of hemagglutination, which can be reversed by
placing the tubes at 37oC. A titer of 1 : 32 or over
is suggestive but demonstration of rise in titer in
paired serum samples is more reliable. Because
paired sera are not always available, a single
antibody titer of 64–128 or more with either test, in
a suggestive clinical setting, should be sufficient to
institute therapy.
Cold agglutinins are occasionally induced in
other diseases such as infectious mononucleosis,
Chap-49.indd 352
rubella, adenovirus infections, psittacosis, tropical
eosinophilia, trypanosomiasis, cirrhosis of liver,
paroxysmal hemo­g lobinuria and haemolytic
anemia.
Treatment
Tetracyclines and erythromycin are drugs of choice
for the treatment of Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma
infections. Patients with NGU should receive one
of the tetracy­clines and ureaplasmas resistant to
tetracyclines, patients should then be treated with
erythromycin, to which most tetracycline-resistant
ureaplasmas are sensitive.
Infections in Immunocompromised Patients
M. pneumoniae may cause severe pneumonia
in immunodeficient patients and may persist
for many months in the respiratory tract of
hypogammaglobulinemia patients, despite
apparently adequate treatment.
Mycoplasma and HIV Infection
Mycoplasmas tend to cause more severe and
prolonged infections in the human immuno­
deficiency virus (HIV) infected and other
immunodeficient subjects. A synergetic effect
had been proposed between HIV and Mycoplasma
(particularly M. fermentans).
MYCOPLASMA AS CELL CULTURE
CONTAMINANTS
Few primary cell cultures become infected with
mycoplasmas, but continuous cell lines do so
frequently. The contamination may originate from
the worker or from animal sera or trypsin used in cell
culture. The mycoplasmas most responsible are M.
arginini. M. fermentans, M. hyorhinis, M. orale, M.
salivarium and A. laidlawii.
Contamination generally does not pro­duce
cytopathic effects but may interfere with the
growth of viruses in such cell cultures and may
also produce misleading results in serological
tests. Eradication of mycoplasmas from infected
cells is difficult.
MYCOPLASMAS AND L FORMS OF
BACTERIA
Kleineberger (1935) found pleuropneumonia-like
forms in a culture Streptobacillus moniliformis
and termed them L forms, after Lister Institute,
London, where the observation was made. It was
subsequently shown that many bacteria, either
spontaneously or induced by certain substances
like penicillin, lost part or all of their cell wall
and develop into L forms. Such L forms may
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 Chapter 49: Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma  | 353
be ‘unstable’, when they revert to their normal
morphology, or ‘stable’ when they continue in the
cell wall deficient state permanently.
Cell wall deficient forms (L forms, protoplasts,
spheroplasts) may not initiate disease but may be
important in bacterial per­sistence during antibiotic
therapy and subsequent recurrence of the infection.
Differenecs between L-forms and
Mycoplasma
It has been suggested that mycoplasmas may
represent stable L forms of bacteria. L-forms also
produce ‘fried egg’ colonies like Mycoplasma, but
they differ in the following respects:
1. L-forms are not filterable.
2. Do not require sterol for growth.
3. The remnants of cell wall components can be
demonstrated in L-forms though they lack cell
walls.
4. The stable L-forms continue in the cell wall
deficient state permanently but resemble
parent bacteria both biochemically and
antigenically.
5. L-forms play an important role in persistence
of chronic infection during antibiotic therapy
and subsequent recurrence of the infection but
may not initiate disease.
6. Nonpathogenic to laboratory animals.
As agglutinins to Streptococcus MG are
frequently detected following infection with M.
pneumoniae, it is thought that the latter is an
L-form for the former, but several investigations
of postulated L-phase-bacterial relationships (e.g.
Strep­tococcus MG and M. pneumoniae) have failed
to show the same G + C ratio or sequence homology
between the genomes of the pairs of organisms.
Atypical Pneumonia
Atypical pneumonia was defined as lower
respiratory infection that did not resemble classic
lesions that had been described. Around the
turn of century, any patient who pre­sented with
a sudden onset of fever with shaking chills,
pleuritic pain and the production of rust-colored
sputum was thought to have typical pneu­monia
attributable to Streptococcus pneumoniae. All
other patients who did not show this characteristic
picture were referred to as patients with ‘atypical
pneumonia or walking pneumonia. The primary
pathogen responsible for atypical pneumonia
are Mycoplsasma pneumoniae, chlamydophia
pneumoniae and Legionella pneu­mophila.
Atypical pathogens do not respond to β-lactam
antibiotics and their presence is often overlooked
until patients fail to respond to standard penicillin
or cephalosporin therapy.
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Chap-49.indd 353
B. Urogenital Infections
M. hominis, M. genitalium, M. fermentans, M.
penetrans, M. salivarium, M. spermatophilum and
ureaplasmas have been isolated from urogenital tract.
Genital infections are caused by U. urealyticum
and M. hominis. They are transmitted by sexual
contact, and may cause urethritis, proctitis,
balanoposthitis and Reiter’s syndrome in men,
and acute salphingitis, pelvic inflammatory
disease, cervicitis and vaginitis in women. They
have also been associ­ated with infertility, abortion,
postpartum fever, chor­ioamnionitis and low birth
weight of infants.
Mycoplasma hominis
M. hominis is found in the lower genitourinary
tracts of approximately 50% of healthy adults and
has not been reported as a cause of nongonococcal
urethritis (NGU). The organism may, however,
invade the upper genitourinary tract and cause
salpingitis, pyelonephritis, pelvic inflammatory
disease (PID), or postpartum fevers.
Mycoplasma genitalium
M. genitalium has been associated with some
cases of non-gonococcal urethritis and pelvic infla­
mmatory disease.
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Some strains of mycoplasma frequently isolated
from the urogenital tract of human beings and
animals form very tiny colonies, generally 15–50
µm in size. They were called T strain or T
form mycoplasmas (T for tiny) because of the
small colonies they produce. They are peculiar
in their ability to hydrolyze urea, with the
production of ammonia, which is an essential
growth factor in addition to cholesterol. Human
T strain mycoplasmas have been reclassified as
Ureaplasma urealyticum.
Clinical Manifetations
1. U. urealyticum may cause nonchlamydial,non-
gonococcal urethritis (NGU), epididymitis,
vaginitis and cervicitis.
2. They may cause chorioamnionitis, prematurity,
postpartum endometritis, chronic lung disease
of the premature infant and infection of wounds
and soft tissues.
3. Ureaplasmas are the most common organisms
isolated from the central nervous system (CNS)
or lower respiratory tract of sick premature or
newborn infants.
4. Ureaplasmas have also been blamed to cause
male and female infertility and low birth weight
but there are conflicting reports.
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 354  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology

Key Points b. Mycoplasma pneumoniae or PPLO or Eaton’s

agent.
™™ Mycoplasmas are the smallest free-living bacterium. c. Streptococcus MG agglutination test.
They were previously named as pleuropneumonia like d. Cold agglutinin test for Mycoplasma infection
organisms (PPLO) e. Ureaplasma urealyticum.
™™ Absence of cell wall and a cell membrane containing f. Atypical pneumonia.
sterols are unique among bacteria. Due to lack of
rigid cell wall, they are extremely pleomorphic. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
Three-layer (trilaminar) cell membrane contains
sterols 1. Which of the following media is/are used for
™™ Mycoplasmas may be cultivated in liquid or solid isolation of Mycoplasma?
media A medium widely used for the isolation of a. PPLO broth
mycoplasmas is PPLO broth. This medium can be b. PPLO agar
made solid by the addition of agar. On agar, colonies c. Both of the above
are typically biphasic that have a ‘fried egg’ ppearance d. None of the above
™™ Pathogenesis 2. The following Mycoplasma species produce fried-
Mycoplasma pneumoniae: Primarily infects children egg-like colonies except:
aged 5–15 years. Transmitted by inhalation of a. Mycoplasma hominis
aerosolized droplet. Strict human pathogen
b. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
™™ Diseases: Upper respiratory infections
c. Mycoplasma fermentans
Lower respiratory infections-, including tracheobron­
d. Mycoplasma genitalis
chitis and pneumonia (referred to as primary
atypical pneumonia or walking pneumonia) 3. Which of the following statements are true for
™™ Laboratory diagnosis: Laboratory diagnosis of Ureaplasma urealyticum except:
Mycoplasmal infections may be carried out by a. They do not hydrolyze urea
isolation of the organism or by serological tests b. They require supplementation with urea for their
growth
Culture: Test is slow and insensitive
c. They utilize arginine as an energy source
DNA probes can be used to detect M. pneumoniae
d. They are nonproteolytic
RNA in sputum specimens
4. Which of the following pathogens cause nongonoco­
Serology-nonspecific test: Streptococcus MG and
ccal urethritis except
cold agglutination tests are non-specific test used
a. Mycoplasma hominis
for detection of antibody in serum. Complement
b. Chlamydia trachomatis
fixation fixation test and enzyme immunoassay (EIA)
c. Ureaplasma urealyticum
are specific tests to detect antibody against M.
d. Mycoplasma genitalium
pneumoniae
5. Atypical pneumonia is caused by all the following
Ureaplasma urealyticum bacteria except:
™™ They were called T strain or T form mycoplasmas a. Streptococcus pneumoniae
(T for tiny) because of the small colonies, peculiar b. Chlamydia pneumoniae
in their ability to hydrolysis urea. Human T strain c. Legionella pneumophila
mycoplasmas have been reclassified as Ureaplasma d. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
urealyticum. 6. Which of the following tests can help in the laboratory
diagnosis of primary atypical pneumonia?
a. Cold agglutination test
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS b. Streptococcus MG agglutination test
c. Culture on Mycoplasma broth medium
1. Classify mycoplasmas. Describe the morphology, d. All of the above
cultivation pathogenicity and Laboratory diagnosis 7. Which of the following drugs is most suitable for
of Mycoplasma infections. the treatment of Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma
2. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of Mycoplasma and infections?
Ureaplasma infections. a. Penicillins b. Cephalosporins
3. Write short notes on: c. Tetracyclines d. Nalidixic acid
a. Morphology and general characters of Myco­ ANSWERS (MCQs)
plasma and Ureaplasma. 1. c; 2. b; 3. a; 4. b; 5. a; 6. d; 7. c

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology and culture characteristics
of Listeria
∙∙ Describe infections caused by Listeria monocytogenes
and their laboratory diagnosis
LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES
Organisms of the genus Listeria are nonsporing
gram-positive bacilli. The genus contains eight
species, but almost all cases of human listeriosis
are caused by L. monocytogenes.
Morphology
Listeria monocytogenes is a small, coccoid, Gram-
positive bacillus measuring approximately 0.5
× 2–3 µm. They occur singly or in pairs which
are often angled at the point of contact and may
resemble diphtheroids or diplococci. It exhib­its a
characteristic, slow; tumbling motility when grown
at 25°C but at 37°C is nonmotile. This is be­cause
peritrichous flagella are produced by the bacil­lus
optimally at 20–30°C but only scantily or not at all
at 37°C. They are noncapsulate, nonsporing and
nonacid-fast.
Cultural Characters
Listeriae are aerobes and facultative anaerobes.
They can grow over a temperature range of
2–43°C, the optimum temperature for the growth
is 35–37°C. They can grow on ordinary media
containing fermentable carbohydrate, but growth
is better on blood agar or tryptose phos­phate agar.
After 24 hours incubation at 37°C, colonies are
0.5–1.5 mm in diameter, smooth, translucent and
emulsifiable and non-pigmented.
On blood agar, L. monocytogenes develops
zones of slightly hazy β-hemolysis.
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Chap-50.indd 355
50
Chapter
Miscellaneous Bacteria
∙∙ Discuss rat-bite fever
∙∙ Describe Klebsiella granulomatis and disease caused
by it
∙∙ Acinetobacter spp.
Biochemical Reactions
L. monocytogenes ferments glucose, maltose,
L. rhamnose and alpha methyl D-mannoside,
producing acid without gas. It is catalase positive.
It grows in the presence of 0.1 % potassium tellurite,
10% salt and at pH 9.6.
Various Species
On the basis of a few tests the genus Listeria can
be divided into 8 spe­c ies (Table 50.1). Many
serovars have been rec­ognised. Two major tests of
differentiation of various species include D-xylose
fermentation and CAMP test with Staph. aureus and
Rhodococcus equi. L. monocytogenes gives a positive
CAMP test with Staph. aureus.
Pathogenicity
Listeria monocytogenes is commonly ingested
in food. L. ivanovii and L. seeligeri have been
associated with a very small number of human
infections.
Experimental inoculation in rabbits causes
a marked monoc ytosis (hence the name
monocytogenes). Monocytosis is a feature of human
listeriosis also. In­stillation into the eyes of rabbits
produces keratocon­junctivitis (Anton test).
Human infection is believed to result from
contact with infected animals, inhalation of
contaminated dust or ingestion of contaminated
milk or food. Hospital acquired infections have
also been reported. L.monocytogenes produces
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 356  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Table 50.1  Distinguishing characters of Listeria spp
Species Hemolysis CAMP test with Acid production from Nitrate
reduction
S t a p h . Rhodococcus D-Mannitol L-Rhamnose D-Xylose a-Methyl
aureus equi D-mannoside
L. monocytogenes + + −a − + − + −
L. innocua − − − − +/− − + −
L. ivanovii ++ − + − − + − −
L. seeligeri ± + − − − + +/− −
L. welshimeri − − − − +/− + + −
L. grayi − − − + +/− − NK +/−
L. murayi − − − + V − NK +
L. denitrificans − − − − − + NK +
a
Regarded as ±; + = Positive reaction; – = Negative reaction; V = Variable; NK = Not known

a hemolysin known as listeriolysin-O, which 3. Culture

is a virulence factor anti­g enically related to
streptolysin-O and pneumolysin.
Clinical Features
1. Intrauterine and neonatal infection: Intra­
uterine infection of the fetus may result in
abortion, stillbirth, premature delivery, or
acute-onset disseminated infection in the
newborn infant (including the form known as
granulomatosis infantiseptica). Asymptomatic
infection of the female genital tract may cause
infertility. Meningitis or septicemia may occur
in neonates.
2. Adult and juvenile infection: It may cause
meningitis or meningoencephalitis, particularly
in neonates and in the elderly.
3. Disease in healthy adults: Most Listeria infections
in healthy adults are asympto­matic or occur in the
form of a mild influenza-like illness. Several food-
borne outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis with fever
have been described.
4. Other infections: Listeriosis may also present as
abscesses, conjunctivitis, pharyngitis, urethritis,
pneumonia, infectious mononucleosis like
syndrome, endocarditis or septicemia.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
Blood, CSF, amniotic fluid, placenta, pus and
biopsy material from the organs involved may be
collected. Specimens may also be collected from
neonate, stillbirth or products of conception.
2. Microscopy
If the Gram stain shows organisms, they are
intracellular and extracellular gram-positive cocco­
bacilli.
Specimens should be inoculated on blood agar,
chocolate agar and tryptose phosphate agar, and
incu­bated at 35–37°C for 1–3 days. Greater success
in isolation is achieved if the materi­als are stored
in tryptose phosphate or thioglycollate broth at 4°C
and subcultures are done at weekly inter­vals for 1–6
months (cold enrichment ).
Blood agar shows small colonies surrounded
by a narrow zone of b-hemolysis. The bacteria are
actively motile when grown at 25°C. The isolate is
identified by its morphology and biochemical tests
(Table 50.1).
Treatment
Currently, penicillin or ampicillin, either alone
or with gentamicin, is the treatment of choice for
infections with L. monocytogenes. Erythromycin
can be used in patients allergic to penicillin.
ERYSIPELOTHRIX RHUSIOPATHIAE
The genus Erysipelothrix contains two species, of
which Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is responsible
for human disease.
Morphology: E. rhusiopathiae is a slender, non-
motile, nonspor­ing, noncapsulated, straight or
slightly curved, gram-positive rod, measuring 1–2
× 0.2-0.4 mm with tendency towards formation of
long filaments.
Cultural Characteristics
It is microaerophilic on primary isolation but
on subcul­ture, grows as an aerobe or facultative
anaerobe and growth is improved by 5–10% CO2.
It can grow on nutrient agar but the growth is
improved by added glucose, serum or blood. Black
colonies are devel­oped in tellurite media.

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Biochemical Reactions
E. rhusiopathiae ferments glucose without gas pro­
duction, and forms acid from fructose, galactose
and lactose. It is catalase negative, with negative
reactions for oxi­dase, indole production, urease,
nitrate reduction, Voges-Proskauer and methyl red
tests. H2S is produced in triple sugar-iron agar (TSI).
Pathogenicity
Erysipelothrix is a natural parasite of many animals.
Disease is common in swine but rare in humans. It
causes various diseases and syn­dromes in animals,
notably a form of erysipelas in pigs and arthritis in
pigs and sheep.
Human infection: Human infection is an occupat­
ional hazard and usually occurs on the hand or
fingers of persons handling animals fish or animal
products.
Three forms of human infection with E. rhusi­
opathiae have been described:
1. Localized skin infection (erysipeloid): Inocul­
ation of the organism through the skin causes
erysipeloid.
2. Generalized cutaneous form
3. Septicemia: Septicemia and/or endocarditis
may occur.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimen: A full-thickness skin biopsy tissue
fluid from the periphery of the lesions.
2. Culture: Specimen is inoculated in for primary
culture in glucose or serum broth. Subcultures
care made on blood agar. Blood cultures
are diagnostic in cases of septicaemia or
endocarditis. E. rhusiopathiae is identified by
its microscopic and colonial appearances and
biochemical reactions confirm the diagnosis.
Treatment: Penicillin G is the drug of choice.
E. rhusiopathiae is also highly susceptible to
ampicillin, methicillin, piperacillin, cephalothin,
cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin and clindamycin.
ALCALIGENES FAECALIS
Alcaligenes faecalis refers to gram-negative, short,
nonsporing bacilli, which are strict aerobes and
do not ferment sugars. They are motile by means
of peritrichous flagella. They are usually oxidase
positive. Nitrate reduction is variable. It does
not ferment any of the sugars in peptone water.
It produces alkaline reaction in litmus milk and
sugar media.
Alc. faecalis is a saprophyte found in water and
soil contaminated with decaying organic matter.
They are also commensals in the intestines of
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Chap-50.indd 357
Chapter 50: Miscellaneous Bacteria  | 357
man and animals. They have been considered
responsible for a typhoid-like fever, urinary
infections, infantile gastroenteritis and suppuration
in various parts of the body.
CHROMOBACTERIUM VIOLACEUM
Chromobacterium violaceum is a gram-negative,
nonsporing bacillus, motile by means of single
polar and scanty lateral flagella.
It is a facultative anaerobe. It grow­s readily
on simple nutrient agar at 35–37°C including
MacConkey agar producing violet pigment soluble
in ethanol and insoluble in water and chloroform.
It is catalase and oxidase positive and indole and
urease negative.
It occurs as a saprophyte in soil and water in
the tropical and subtropical regions. It causes rare
but dangerous infection and consist of skin lesions
with pyemia and multiple abscesses.
It is sensitive to aminoglycosides chloramphenicol
and tetracycline.
FLAVOBACTERIUM MENINGOSEPTICUM
Flavobacterium meningosepticum is a gram-
negative nonmotile rod. It can grow on nutrient
agar. It forms a yellow nondiffusible pigment after
incubation at room temperature for 48 hours. It
is catalase- and oxidase-positive, proteolytic and
weakly fermentative.
F. meningosepticum is a saprophyte whose
natural habitat is soil and moist environments,
including nebulizers. It may cause opportunistic
nosocomial infections, particularly in infants. It
has been responsible for outbreaks of meningitis
in newborn infants. Infection in adults leads to a
mild febrile illness.
It is usually sensitive to co­t rimoxazole,
novobiocin, rifampicin, clindamycin and cefoxitin.
DONOVANIA GRANULOMATIS (CALYM­
MATOBACTERIUM GRANULOMATIS) OR
KLEBSIELLA GRANULOMATIS
Morphology
K. granulomatis is a small, capsulate, gram-nega­
tive, coccobacillus. Diagnosis can be made by
demonstration of Donovan bodies in Wright-
Giemsa stained impression smears from the lesions.
They appear as rounded cocobacilli, 1–2 µm, within
cystic spaces in large mononuclear cells. They
show bipolar condensation of chromatin, giving a
closed safety pin appearance in stained smears.
Capsules are usually seen as dense acidophilic
areas around the bacilli. They are gram-negative,
nonmotile, nonsporing and nonacid-fast.
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 358  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Culture
It can be cultured readily in the egg-yolk medium
and on a modified Levinthal agar.
Pathogenicity
Donovanosis is a venereal disease, first described
by McLeod in India in 1882 and seen mainly in the
tropics. It can be transmitted after repeated exposure
through sexual intercourse or non­sexual trauma to
the genitalia. The incubation period ranges from
1 to 12 weeks. It begins as a painless papule on
the genitalia, which leads to a slowly progressive,
autoinoculable ulcers. The disease runs a chronic
course.It causes a chronic granulomatous disease
known as granuloma inguinale, granulomatous
venereum or donovanosis.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory confirmation of granuloma inguinale
is made by scraping the border of the lesion, by
spread­ing the collected tissue on a slide, and
by staining it with Giemsa or Wright’s stain.
Pathognomonic Dono­van bodies are observed
within mononuclear phago­cytes.
Treatment
Cases of donovanosis respond well to tetracycline,
chloramphenicol, erythromycin, clindamycin,
cotrimoxazole, streptomycin and other aminogly­
cosides. ­
ACINETOBACTER (MIMA POLYMORPHA;
BACTERIUM ANITRATUM
The genus Acinetobacter contains strictly aerobic
short, stout, often capsulate, nonmotile gram-
negative bacilli or coccobacilli that grow well on
simple media. They are oxidase negative.
The genus contains only one species, Acinet­
obacter calcoaceticus, which embraces two variants:
A. calcoaceticus var. anitratus produces acid
oxidatively from glucose whereas A. calcoaceticus
var. lwoffii does not.
A. baumannii
These form pinkish colonies on MacConkey medium.
Acid without gas is formed in glucose, arabinose,
xylose, and occasionally in rhamnose. A characteristic
reaction is the formation of acid in 10%, but not 1%
lactose. Several serotypes have been identified by
capsule swelling and immunofluorescence.
A. lowffi
This forms yellow colonies on MacConkey medium
and does not acidify sugars. Some strains are
oxidase positive.
Chap-50.indd 358
Pathogenesis
The organisms survive well in the hospital environ­
ment, and are increasing in importance as opportunist
pathogens. Serious infections, including meningitis,
pneumonia and septicemia, are most commonly
associated with Acinetobacter baumannii.
Treatment
Most strains are resistant to sulphonamides,
penicillins, erythromycin, the tetracyclines and
chloramphenicol. But empirical therapy for seri­ous
infections should consist of a b-Iactam antibiotic (e.g.,
ceftazidime, imipenem) and an aminoglycoside.
RAT-BITE FEVER (STREPTOBACILLUS
MONILIFORMIS AND SPIRILLUM MINUS)
Streptobacillus moniliformis and Spirillum minus
are the causative agents of two distinct diseases
referred to collectively as rat-bite fever. Rat-bite fever
(RBF) is characterized by relapsing fever, rash and
arthralgia occurring days or weeks after a rat-bite.
Two different bacteria can cause this condition—
Streptobacillus moniliformis and Spirillum minus,
both of which are natural parasites of rodents.
Streptobacillus moniliformis
Morphology
S. monili­formis is a long, thin (0.1–0.5 × 1–5 µm),
gram- negative bacillus that tends to stain poorly
and to be more pleomorphic in older cultures.
Granules and bul­b ous swellings resembling a
string of beads may be seen hence the species
name ‘moniliformis’. It may lose its cell wall and
exists as L-form. In fact, L-forms were originally
discovered during the study of this bacillus.
Culture
S. moniliformis is a nutritionally exacting aerobe and
facultative anaerobe. Growth requires the presence
of blood or other body fluids. It grows well on moist
Loef­fler’s serum slope or moist plate of nutrient
agar containing 20% horse serum and in 20% serum
broth. Colonies appear on the surface after 48 hours
incubation and are discrete granular and greyish
yellow. L phase variants show minute colonies
(0.1–0.2 mm diameter) with a fried egg appearance.
They con­sist mainly of small coccoid bodies.
Biochemical Reactions
It attacks sugars fermentatively and produces
acid without gas from glucose, galactose, dextrin,
raffinose and starch. It is catalase, oxidase, indole
production, urease and nitrate reduc­tion negative.
Pathogenesis
In humans, it causes streptobacillary rat-bite fever.
Another type of clinically indistinguishable, rat-bite
fever is caused by Spirillum minus.
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In man, the organisms enter the body through
the wound caused by the bite of rat or other
animals. The disease can also occur as outbreaks,
in the absence of rat-bite. This condition, first
observed in Haverhill, USA, is called Haverhill
fever or erythema arthriticum epi­demicum. It is
believed to be caused also by consumption of raw
milk or water contaminated by rat excrement.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
i. Blood—during acute phase of disease.
ii. Joint fluid—when arthritis develops.
2. Culture: Specimen is inoculated on blood agar
or Loeffier’s serum slope.
3. Animal pathogenicity test: Mice are highly
susceptible to intraperitoneal inoculation of
infected material. The animals develop a rapidly
fatal generalized condition or a more progressive
disease with swelling of feet and legs.
4. Serology: Diagnosis may also be established
by serological tests including agglutination,
complement fixation and fluorescent antibody tests.
Treatment
Penicillin is the antibiotic of choice for treating rat-
­bite fever. S. moniliformis is also sensitive to cep­
halosporins, erythromycin, clindamycin, tetracycline
and aminoglycosides. The L phase variant is peni­
cillin-resistant but sensitive to tetracycline.
SPIRILLUM MINUS
The organism commonly known as Spirillum
minus, one of the causes of rat-bite fever in man
is of uncer­tain taxonomic position. It was once
regarded as a spirochaete but was later placed in
the genus Spirillum.
Morphology
S. minus is a short, spiral, gram-negative organism
about 3–5 μm × 0.2–0.5 μm in size, with two or
three regular spirals and 1–7 amphitrichous
flagella. It is very actively motile, showing darting
movements like those of a vibrio.The organisms can
be demonstrated with the dark ground microscopy
or by staining with Leishman or Giemsa stain.
Culture
The organism has not been cultivated on artificial
media. S. minus is best isolated by intra­peritoneal
inoculation of specimens (infected tissue or blood)
into mice and guinea pigs.
Pathogenesis
It was first observed in a rat by Carter (1888)
in India. Japanese workers identified it as the
causative agent of one type of RBF, called Sodoku.
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Chap-50.indd 359
Chapter 50: Miscellaneous Bacteria  | 359
S. minus is a natural parasite of wild rats and other
rodents. The organism is inoculated into humans
through the bite of a rat. Local lymphadenopathy
and lymphangitis develop with the onset of fever and
systemic disease. A generalized rash with large brown
to purple macules is usually observed, but some
patients present with urticarial lesions. A roseolar
rash may spread from the area of the original bite.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Microscopic Examination
Darkfield microscopy examination of blood, ulcer
exu­dates, or lymph node aspirates is used to detect
S. minus. Blood smears can be stained with Giemsa’s
or Wright’s stain.
2. Animal Inoculation
S. minus can be isolated by intraperitoneal
inoculation of blood or material from lymph
node into mice and guinea pigs. Spirilla may be
demonstrated by dark field microscopy in blood
and peritoneal fluid of animal 1–3 weeks after the
intraperitoneal inoculation.
Treatment
Infections with S. minus respond to treatment with
peni­cillin and tetracyclines.
EIKENELLA CORRODENS
Morphology
E. corrodens is a fastidious , small, non­motile,
non-spore-forming, facultatively anaerobic
Gram-negative bacillus. It lacks flagella and shows
twitching motility which is due to contractile
fimbria-like filamentous appendages
Culture
It is an aerobe and facultative anaerobe. A slow-
growing, fastidious organism, E. corrodens re­quires
5–10% carbon dioxide to grow. It can grow on blood
agar or chocolate agar. After 48 hours incubation on
blood agar or chocolate agar, the colonies are small
(0.5–1 mm in diameter) with characteristic pitting
or corroding of blood agar, hence the species name
corrodens. The organism also produces a charac­
teristic bleach like odor.
Biochemical Characters
It is oxidase positive and catalase negative. It does
not produce acid from carbohydrates. It is indole
and urease negative but lysine and ornithine
decarboxylase positive.
Pathogenesis
Eikenella corrodens is normally present in the mouth,
upper respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract of
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 360  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
human beings. It is an opportunistic pathogen that
causes infections a human bite wound or fist fight
injury, endocarditis, sinusitis, meningitis, brain
ab­scesses, pneumonia, and lung abscesses.
Treatment
E. corrodens is susceptible to penicillin, ampicillin,
extended-spectrum cephalosporins, tetracyclines,
and fluoroquinolone.
CARDIOBACTERIUM HOMINIS
This gram-negative bacilli are nonmotile, char­
acteristically small (1 × 1–2 mm) but some­times
pleomorphic. The organism grows slowly in culture.
On blood agar the colonies are small, 1–2 mm in
diameter, smooth, glistening, circular and opaque
after 48 hours incubation at 35°C. The organism
does not grow on MacConkey agar or other selective
media commonly used for gram-negative bacilli.
The bacteria are fermentative, indole- and oxidase-
positive, and catalase and nitrate negative.
C. hominis occurs commonly as a commensal
in the human nose and throat may cause endo­
carditis, particularly in those with pre-existing
cardiovascular disease.
It can be diagnosed by isolation of the causative
agent in blood culture.
C. hominis is susceptible to multiple antibiotics,
and most infections are successfully treated with
penicillin or ampicillin for 2–6 weeks.
CAPNOCYTOPHAGA
The Capnocytophaga species are gram-negative,
slow-growing, capnophilic, fusiform or filamentous
bacilli. They are fermentative and facultative
anaerobes that require CO2 for aerobic growth. They
may show gliding motility which can be seen as
outgro­wths of colonies.
C. ochracea, C. gingivalis and C. sputigena are
members of the normal oral flora of humans. They
have been associated with severe periodontal disease
in juveniles. They occasionally cause bacteremia and
severe systemic disease in immunocompromised
patients, especially granulocytopenic patients with
oral ulcerations.
Most Capnocytophaga infections can be
treated with broad-spectrum cephalosporins,
fluoroquinolones, or penicillin.
GARDNERELLA VAGINALIS
Gardnerella vaginalis is a small, gram-negative,
nonmotile, pleomorphic rod which shows
metachromatic granules. It was formerly known as
Haemophilus vaginalis or Corynebacterium vaginale.
It grows on blood or chocolate agar aerobically under
5% CO2, minute colonies appear in 24–48 hours and
Chap-50.indd 360
are hemolytic on human or rabbit blood agar. It is
catalase, oxidase, indole and urease negative.
G. vaginalis is considered responsible for
bacterial vaginosis, a mild but common condition
characterized by raised vaginal pH > 4.5, foul smelling
discharge and the presence of ‘clue cells’, which are
vaginal epithelial cells with their surface studded
with numerous small bacteria. Bacterial vaginosis is
also associated with anaerobic bacteria, particularly
Mobiluncus. Metronidazole is effective in treatment.
Key Points
™™ Listeria monocytogenes is a small, coccoid, Gram-
positive bacillus and exhib­its a characteristic, slow,
tumbling motility when grown at 25 °C but at 37 °C
is nonmotile
™™ The disease chiefly affects pregnant women, unborn
or newly delivered infants, the immunosuppressed
and elderly. It is predominantly transmitted by the
consumption of contaminated food
™™ Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae: Disease is common in
swine but rare in humans. Three forms of human
infection-erysipeloid, generalized cutaneous form
and septicemia
™™ Alcaligenes faecalis: It causes urinary tract infection,
infantile gastroenteritis, and typhoid-like fever in
humans
™™ Chromobacterium violaceum: It is associated
with intestinal and genitourinary infections and
septicemic illnesses with pneumonia
™™ Flavobacterium meningosepticum: causes oppor­
tunistic infections, neonatal meningitis in prema­ture
infants and pneumonia in immuno­compromised
hosts
™™ Calymmatobacterium (Donovania) granulomatis
is the causative agent of granuloma inguinale, a
sexually transmitted disease
™™ Acinetobacter species Acinetobacter species may
cause nosocomial infections
™™ Rat bite fever is caused by two different bacilli:
Streptobacillus moniliformis and Spirillum minus
™™ Eikenella corrodens: Causes a human bite wound
or fist fight injury, endocarditis, sinusitis, meningitis,
brain abscesses, pneumonia, and lung abscesses
™™ Cardiobacterium hominis: C. hominis may cause
endocarditis, particularly in those with preexisting
cardiovascular disease
™™ Capnocytophaga species have been associated
with severe periodontal disease in juveniles,
bacteremia and severe systemic disease in immuno­
compromised patients
™™ Gardnerella vaginalis is considered responsible for
bacterial vaginosis, a mild but common condition
characterized by raised vaginal pH >4.5, foul
smelling discharge and the presence of clue cells’.
Metronidazole is effective in treatment.
IMPORTANT QUESTION
Write short notes on:
a. Listeria monocytogenes
b. Elysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
c. Donovan bodies
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 Chapter 50: Miscellaneous Bacteria  | 361
d. Rat-bite fever 3. Which of the following bacteria can cause rat bite
e. Eikenella corrodens fever?
f. Acinetbacter spp. a. Streptobacillus moniliformis
g. Alkaligenes faecalis b. Listeria monocytogenes
c. Chromobacterium violaceum
d. Flavobacterium meningosepticum
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs) 4. Causative agent of donovanosis is:
a. Klebsiella pneumonia
1. Tumbling motility is seen in: b. Klebsiella oxytoca
a. Listeria monocytogenes c. Klebsiella granulomatis
b. Enterobacter cloacae d. None of the above
c. Proteus vulgaris 5. Which of the following bacteria does not produce
pigment?
d. Salmonella Typhi
a. Staphylococcus aureus
2. In adults, listeriosis may lead to: b. Chromobacterium violaceum
a. Meningitis c. Flavobacterium meningosepticum
b. Meningoencephalitis d Listeria monocytogenes
c. Encephalitis ANSWERS (MCQs)
d. All of the above 1. a; 2. d; 3. a; 4. c; 5. d

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 51
Chapter

Rickett­siaceae, Bartonellaceae and Coxiella

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of rickettsial
be able to: infections
∙∙ Describe diseases caused by different rickettsiae ∙∙ Describe Weil–Felix reaction
∙∙ Describe Brill–Zinsser disease ∙∙ Discuss Q fever, Trench fever and Oroya fever.

INTRODUCTION Table 51.1  The family Rickettsiaceae causing

human diseases
Rickettsiae are small. Gram-negative bacilli
adapted to obligate intracelIular parasitism, and Genus Species
transmitted by arthropod vectors. A. Rickettsia R. prowazekii
R. typhi
The family Rickettsiaceae is named after R. rickettsii
Howard Taylor Ricketts who discovered the spotted R. conorii
fever rickettsia (1906) and died of typhus fever R. australis
contracted during his studies. These bacteria R. sibirica
were originally thought to be viruses because R. akari
they are small, stain poorly with the Gram stain, B. Orientia O. tsutsugamushi
and grow only in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells. Nevertheless, these organisms have the GENUS RICKETTSIA
characteristics of bacteria:
Morphology
Characteristics Similar to Bacteria In smears from infected tissues, rickett­siae appear as
pleomorphic coccobacilli, 0.3–0.6 mm × 0.8–2 mm
1. They are structurally similar to gram-negative in size. They are nonmotile and noncap­sulated.
bacilli. They are gram-negative, though they do not take
2. Their cell wall contains muramic acid. the stain well. They stain bluish purple with Giemsa
3. They contain both DNA and RNA. and Castaneda stains and deep red with Machiavello
4. They contain enzymes for the Krebs cycle and and Gimenez stains.
ribosomes for protein synthesis.
5. They multiply by binary fission. Cultivation
6. They are inhibited by antibiotics (e.g. Rickettsiae are unable to grow in cell­free media.
tetracycline, chloramphenicol). The optimum temperature for growth is 32–35°C.
1. Yolk sac: They are readily cultivated in the yolk
sac of developing chick embryos.
CLASSIFICATION
2. Cell culture: They grow on mouse fibroblast,
The family Rickett­siacae currently comprises two HeLa, HEp-2, Detroit 6 and other continuous
genera­ Rickettsia and Orientia (Table 51.1). cell lines but tissue cul­tures are not satisfactory
Coxiella is now included in the family Coxiellaceae. for primary isolation.
Ehrlichia and Anaplasma are included in family 3. Labo­ratory animals, such as guinea pigs and
Anaplasmataceae. mice are useful for the isolation of rickettsiae

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 Chapter 51: Rickett­siaceae, Bartonellaceae and Coxiella  | 363
from patients. They may also be propagated in
arthropods.
Resistance
They are rapidly de­stroyed at 56°C and at room
temperature when sepa­rated from host components,
unless preserved in skimmed milk or a suspending
medium containing su­crose, potassium phosphate
and glutamate (SPG me­dium). Rickettsiae are
susceptible to tetracycline, chlo­ramphenicol and
ciprofloxacin.
Antigenic Structure
Rickettsiae possess at least three types of antigens:
1. Group specific soluble antigen: It is present
on the surface of rickettsiae.
2. Species specific antigen: It is associated
with the bodies of rickettsiae. In case of scrub
typhus, it is strain specific.
3. Alkali stable polysaccharide: It is an alkali
stable polysaccharide found in some rickettsiae
and in some strains of Proteus bacilli. This
sharing of antigens between rickettsiae and
pro­teus is the basis for the Weil–Felix reaction
used for the diagnosis of rickettsial infections
by the demon­stration of agglutinins to Proteus
strains OX 19, OK 2 and OK.
Pathogenesis
Rickettsiae normally enter the body through
the bite or feces of an infected arthropod vector.
On entry into the human body, the rickettsiae
multiply lo­cally and enter the blood. They become
localized chiefly in the vascular endothelial cells,
which en­large, degenerate and cause thrombus
formation, with partial or complete occlusion of
the vascular lumen.
A. Typhus Fever Group
Typhus group rickettsiae cause:
1. Epidemic typhus
2. Brill–Zinsser disease
3. Endemic typhus (Murine typhus).
1. Epidemic Typhus (Louse-borne Typhus,
Classical Typhus)
Epidemic typhus is a louse-borne disease and
had a tremendous impact on the history of man.
The disease has been reported from all parts of
the world but has been particularly common in
Russia and Eastern Europe. In India, the endemic
spot is Kashmir.
The etiologic agent of epidemic typhus is-R.
prowazekii.
The principal vector is the human body louse
Pediculus humanus cor­poris. The head louse may
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Chap-51.indd 363
also transmit the infection but not the pubic louse.
Unlike with most other rickettsial diseases, humans
are the primary reservoir of typhus.
The lice become infected by feeding on
rickettsiaemic patients. The rickettsiae multiply
in the gut of the lice and appear in the feces in
3–5 days. Lice defecate while feeding. Infection is
transmitted when the contaminat­ed louse feces
is rubbed through the minute abrasions caused
by scratching. Occasionally, infection may also be
transmitted by aerosols of dried louse feces through
inhalation or through the conjunctiva.
The incubation period typically ranges from
10 to 14 days. Usually the onset is abrupt, with
generalized myalgias, chills, fever and headache.
Other symptoms, such as gastrointestinal comp­
laints, weakness, cough and meningismus may also
be present and lead to diagnostic confu­sion. One of
the hallmarks of epidemic typhus, skin rash, usually
appears from 4 to 7 days after onset characteristically
first on the trunk and later spreads to the extremities.
The pa­tient becomes stuporous and delirious
towards the second week and develops the cloudy
state of consciousness in the disease (from typhos,
meaning cloud or smoke). The case fatality may
reach 40% and increases with age.
2. Brill–Zinsser Disease (Recrudescent Typhus)
The rickettsiae may remain latent in the lymphoid
tissues or organs for years in some who recover
from epidemic typhus. Such latent infection may, at
times, be reactivated leading to recrudescent typhus
(Brill–Zinsser disease). Brill (1898) first recognized
and Zinsser (1934) isolated R. prow­azekii from such
cases and proved that they were recrudescences of
infections acquired many years previously.
Brill–Zinsser disease is a milder illness than that
of epidemic typhus and the duration of the disease
is shorter. Case fatality is lower.
3. Endemic Typhus (Murine Typhus, Flea-
borne Typhus, Rat Typhus)
Endemic or murine typhus is a milder disease than
epidemic typhus.
It is caused by Rickettsia typhi (R. mooseri).
The primary reservoir is rodent, and the
principal vector is the rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis).
Most cases occur dur­ing the warm months.
The rickettsia multiplies in the gut of the flea
and is shed in its feces. The flea is unaffected but
remains infectious for the rest of its natural span
of life. Man is infected by the contamination of
abraded skin, respiratory tract or conjunctiva
with infective flea feces. Ingestion of food recently
contaminated with infected rat urine or flea feces
may also cause infection. Human infection is a
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 364  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
dead end. Man to man transmission does not
occur. In Kashmir and China, lice have been known
to transmit endemic typhus in human beings,
producing smouldering outbreaks. Endemic
typhus is worldwide in prevalence.
Differences between R.typhi (R. mooseri) and
R. prowazekii
R.typhi and R. prowazekii are closely similar
but may be differentiated by biological and
immunologi­cal tests.
i. Neill–Mooser or the tunica reaction
When male guinea pigs are inoculated
intra­peritoneally with blood from a case of
endemic typhus or with a culture of R. typhi,
they develop fever and a characteristic scrotal
inflammation. The scrotum be­comes enlarged
and the testes cannot be pushed back into the
abdomen because of inflammatory adhesions
between the layers of the tunica vaginalis. This
is known as the Neill–Mooser or the tunica
reaction. The Neill-Mooser reaction is negative
with R. prowazekii.
ii. Other methods used include-IFA, ELISA and
PCR ­based DNA tests.
B. Spotted Fever Group
They are all transmitted by ticks, except R. akari,
which is mite-borne. Rickettsiae of this group
possess a common soluble antigen and multiply
in the nucleus as well as in the cytoplasm of host
cells. The basic pathologic process in the spotted
fever group is widespread vasculitis involving the
skin (with production of a rash) and internal organs
(producing dysfunctions of the brain, heart, lungs,
and kidneys).
Tick Typhus
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
Rocky mountain spotted fever (RMSF) is a potent­
ially life-threatening infection. R. rickettsii is the
etiologic agent of Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
Vector: Ixodid (hard) ticks are the vectors. It is
transmitted by Dermacentor andersoni and related
species of ticks. The ecology and epidemiology of
spot­ted fever are directly related to the life cycle of
four species of ixodid (hard) ticks vectors. Humans
are only accidentally infected.
Clinical diseases: The incubation period is about
one week. Clinical picture is similar to that of
typhus fever but the rash appears earlier and is
more pronounced. It is prevalent in many parts of
North and South America.
Other Spotted Fever Rickettsiae (Table 51.2)
R. siberica causes the Siberian tick typhus which
is mild rickettsial disease. Boutonneuse fever is
caused by R. conorii. R. conori strains are isolated
from the Mediterranean littoral; Kenya, South
Africa and India are indistinguishable. Australian
tick typhus is caused by R. australis. All these
three rickettsiae are maintained in nature in ixodid

Table 51.2  Human disease caused by Rickettsia and Orientia species

Group Species Diseases Vector Vertebrate Geographical
reservoir distribution
Typhus group R. prowazekii Epidemic typhus Louse Human beings Worldwide group
Brill–Zinsser disease Louse Human beings America, Europe
R. typhi Endemic typhus Rat flea Rat Worldwide
R. felis Endemic typhus Cat flea Opossum USA
Spotted fever group R. rickettsii Rocky mountain Tick Rabbit, dog N. America
spotted fever
R. siberica Siberian tick typhus Tick Wtld Animals cattle Russia, Mongolia
R. conorii Boutonneuse fever Tick Dog, rodents Mediterranean
S. African tick typhus Tick Dog, rodents S. Africa
Kenyan tick typhus Tick Rodents Kenya
Indian tick typhus Tick ? Rodents India
R. australis Queensland tick Tick Bush rodents N. Australia
typhus
R. japonica Oriental spotted Tick ? Japan
fever
R. akari Rickettsial pox Gamasid mite Mouse USA, Russia
Scrub typhus group: O. tsutsugamushi Scrub typhus Trombiculid mite Small rodents, East Asia, Pacific

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 Chapter 51: Rickett­siaceae, Bartonellaceae and Coxiella  | 365
ticks. Humans accidentally enter the natural cycle.
Diseases produced by these rickettsiae resemble
RMSF but are of milder form. A black spot having a
necrotic center (Eschar) frequently occurs at the site
of the tick bite in all spotted fever group infections
except Rocky Mountain spotted fever. The tick
Rhipicephalus sanguineus is the most important
vector. Haemaphysalis leachi, Amblyomma and
Hyalomma ticks can also transmit the infection.
Rickettsial pox
Rickettsial pox is a relatively mild infection transmitted
by mites. Rickettsial pox is characterized by a local
eschar, a papuloves­icular rash, and a benign clinical
course. It is also called vesicular or varicelliform
rick­ettsiosis.
The causative agent is R. akari (from akari,
meaning mite). The reservoir of infection is the
domestic mouse, Mus musculus. The vector is
the mite, Liponyssoides sanguineus, in which
transovarial transmission occurs.
C. Scrub Typhus Group
Genus Orientia [Scrub Typhus (Chigger-
borne Typhus), Tsutsugamushi Disease]
Scrub typhus is caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi.
It was first observed in Japan where it was found to
be transmit­ted by mites. The disease was therefore
called tsu­g amushi (from tsutsuga, meaning
dangerous, and mushi meaning insect or mite). It
occurs all along East Asia, from Korea to Indonesia,
and in the Pacific Islands including Australia.
The vectors are tromiculid mites belonging to
the genus Lep­totrombidium. O. tsutsugamushi is
transmitted to man by the larval stages of mites of
the genus Leptotrombidium- L. akamushi in Japan
and L. deliensis in India.
Clinical diseases: The incubation period is 1–3
weeks. Patients typ­ically develop a characteristic
eschar at the site of the mite bite, with regional
lymphadenopathy and mac­ulopapular rash. The
disease sets in with fever, head­ache and conjunctival
injection. Death may result from encephalitis,
respira­tory failure and circulatory failure.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Rickettsial diseases may be di­a gnosed in the
laboratory either
1. Isolation of rickettsiae.
2. Direct detection of the organisms and their
anti­gens.
3. Serology.
1. Isolation of Rickettsiae
Isolation of the organism provides conclusive proof
of rickettsial infection. As rickettsiae are highly
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Chap-51.indd 365
in­fectious and have caused several serious and
fatal in­fections among laboratory workers, their
isolation should be attempted with utmost care
and only in lab­oratories equipped with appropriate
safety provisions. Rickettsiae can be isolated in
labora­tory animals such as mice or guinea-pigs,
in embry­onated chicken eggs and in cell culture.
i. Labora­tory animals
Rickettsiae may be isolated in male guinea pigs
or mice from patients in the early phase of the
disease. Blood clot ground in skimmed milk or
any suitable suspending medium is inoculated
intraperitoneally. The animals have to be observed
for 3–4 weeks and their temperature recorded daily.
1. In Rocky Mountain spot­ fever (RMSF):
Guinea-pigs develop fever, scrotal necrosis and
may even die due to overwhelm­ing infection of
R. rickettsii.
2. In R. typhi, R. conorii and R. akari infection:
Guinea-pigs develop fever and tunica reaction.
3. In R. prowazekii infection: The animals deve­
lop fever without any testicular inflammation.
For isolation of O. tsutsugamushi, mice are
preferred over guinea-pigs. The infected animals
become ill and develop ascites.
Smears from peritoneum, tunica and spleen
of infected animals may be stained by Giemsa or
Gimenez methods to demonstrate the rick­ettsiae.
ii. Embry­onated chicken egg: Rickettsiae can also
be grown in the yolk sac of chick embryo.
iii. Cell culture: Rickettsiae grow well in vero
cell MRC 5 cell cultures and can be identified
by immunofluroscence using group and strain
specific monoclonal antibodies.
2. Direct Detection of the
Organisms and Their Antigens
a. Detection of rickettsiae in tissue
Skin biopsies from the centre of petechial lesions can
be examined for rickettsiae by immunofluorescence
or immuno-enzyme methods. Biopsy specimens
may be stained with Giemsa, Macchiavello or
Gimenez stains and with direct and indirect
immuno­fluorescence techniques. In tissue smears,
rickett­siae are usually seen as bipolar rods occurring
near cells or free in the cytoplasm. R. rickettsii may
also be seen within the nuclei of infected cells.
b. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): Detection of
rickettsial DNA by PCR is more rapid than isolation.
3. Serology
Serological diagnosis may be by the heterophile
Weil-Felix reaction or by specific tests using rickett­
sial antigens.
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i. Weil–Felix (WF) reaction
The Weil–Felix reaction is an agglutina­tion test
in which sera are tested for agglutinins to the
a-antigens of certain nonmotile Proteus strains OX
19, OX 2 and OX K.
Basis of the test: The basis of the test is the sharing
of an alkali-stable car­bohydrate antigen by some
rickettsiae and by certain strains of Proteus, P.
vulgaris OX 19, and OX 2 and P. mirabilis OX K.
Procedure: The test may be performed as a micro-
agglutination reac­tion in microtiter plates with
round bottomed wells with hematoxylin-stained
antigen or as a tube agglutination test, though rapid
slide agglutination meth­ods have been employed
for screening.
Interpretation
Sera from epidemic and endemic typhus aggluti­
nate OX 19 and sometimes OX 2 also. The test is
neg­ative or only weakly positive in Brill–Zinsser
disease. In tick-borne spotted fever both OX 19 and
OX 2 are agglutinated. OX K agglutinins are found
only in scrub typhus. (Table 51.3).
The Weil–Felix reaction is a simple and useful
test for the diagnosis of some rickettsial diseases.
The antibody appears rapidly during the course of
the dis­ease, reaches peak titers of up to 1 : 1000 or
1 : 5000 by the second week and declines rapidly
during conva­lescence. False-positive reaction may
occur in some cases of urinary or other infections
by Proteus and at times in typhoid fever and liver
diseases. Hence it is desirable to demonstrate a rise
in titer of antibodies for the diagnosis of rickettsial
infection.
ii. Specific tests using rickettsial antigens
Serological methods using rickettsial antigens are
specific, which include complement fixation test,
latex agglutination test and enzyme immunoassay.
Treatment
Rickettsial infections may be treated with tetracyc­
lines or chloramphenicol. Both these drugs are
rick­ettsiostatic.
Table 51.3  Weil–Felix reaction in rickettsial diseases
Disease Agglutination pattern with
OX 19 OX2 OXK
1. Epidemic typhus +++ + –
2. Brill–Zinsser disease usually or weak
negative positive
3. Endemic typhus +++ +/- –
4. Tickborne spotted ++ ++ – 2. Ehrlichia ewingii
fever
5. Scrub typhus – – +++
Chap-51.indd 366
Prophylaxis
1. General measures: General measures, such
as control of vectors and animal reservoirs are
useful to prevent rickettsial diseases.
2. Vaccination: Immunization is useful in special
situations. There is no safe, effective vaccine for
any of the rickettsial diseases.
i. Weigl’s vaccine: In earlier days, phenolized
intestinal contents of lice infected per
rectum with R. prowazekii (Weigl’s vaccine)
was developed. It was too complicated for
mass production.
ii. A live vaccine: Containing attenuated E.
strain of R. prowazekii grown in yolk sac have
been found to be effective but a proportion
of vaccines develop mild disease.
iii. Formalin inactivated R. rickettsii has
been used but does not prevent the disease
completely.
iv. Recombinant vaccines may be more
successful.
EHRLICHIA, ANAPLASMA AND
NEORICKETTSIA
Ehrlichia and Anaplasma are small, obligate
intracellular, gram-negative bacteria. They infect
circulating leukocytes, erythrocytes, and platelets,
where they multiply within phagocytic vacuoles,
forming clusters with inclusion-like appearance.
These clusters of ehrlichiae resemble mulberries
and are called morulae (Latin morum = mulberry).
Species
The ehrlichiae that cause disease in humans have
been classified in a limited number of species
which are as follows: (i) Ehrlichia chaffeensis,
causes human monocyte ehrlichiosis (HME); (ii)
Ehrlichia ewingii causes E ewingii ehrlichiosis;
(iii) Anaplasma phagocytophilum causes human
granulocyte anaplasmosis (HGE) (Table 51.4). The
same genera contain additional species that infect
animals but apparently not humans. The human
pathogens in the group have animal reservoirs and
can cause disease in animals as well.
1. Ehrlichia chaffeensis
It is tick-borne ehrlichiosis. Deer and rodents are
believed to be reservoir hosts. Ehrlichia chaffeensis
causes human monocyte ehrlichiosis (HME). E
chaffeensis frequently causes severe or fatal illness.
E. ewingii has a geographic distribution similar to
E. chaffeensis. Ehrlichia ewingii, causes E. ewingii
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 Chapter 51: Rickett­siaceae, Bartonellaceae and Coxiella  | 367
Table 51.4  Ehrlichia, Anaplasmaa and Neorickettsia species responsible for human disease
Species Disesase
E. chaffeensis Human monocycte ehrlichiosis (HME)
E. ewingii Ewingii ehrlichiosis
Anaplasma. Human granulocyte ehrlichiosis
phagocytophilum (HCG)
Neorickettsia sennetu Sennestu fever
ehrlichiosis; It is transmitted by ticks. Leukopenia
and thrombocytopenia are seen in patients.
3. Anaplasma phagocytophilum
It infects human granulocytic cells. Anaplasma
phagocytophilum, causes human granulocyte
anaplasmosis (HGE). The human pathogens in
the group have animal reservoirs and can cause
disease in animals as well
4. Neorickettsia sennestu
It was previously called Ehrlichia sennestu, an
intraleukocytic bacterium. It causes sennestu
ehrlichiosis, an illness resebling glandular fever
(sennetsu being the Japanese name for glandular
fever). No insect vector has yet been implicated in its
transmission. It is associated with ingestion of raw fish
infested with infected flukes. Similar cases have been
reported in Malaysia and Philippines.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Identification of characteristic morulae: Typical
morulae in white blood cells is diagnostic in
Giemsa stained peripheral blood smear.
2. Specific antibodies can be demonstrated by
indirect immunofluorescence methods.
3. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for ehrlichial
DNA.
GENUS COXIELLA: Q FEVER
The name Q fever (Q for “query”) was first used when
Derrick (1935) was investigating an outbreak of
typhoid-like fever in abattoir workers in Australia. Q
fever is caused by Coxiella burnetit. Coxiella burnetii,
is an obligately intracellular prokaryote.
Morphology
Cox. burnetii is pleomorphic, occurring as small
rods 0.2–0.4 μm × 0.4–1.0 μm or as spheres 0.3–0.4
μm in diameter. It is filterable. Generally regarded
as gram-negative. It is better stained with Giminez
and other rickettsiae stains.
Resistance
C. burnetii may be the most infectious of all
bacteria. In dried feces or wool it survives for a
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Chap-51.indd 367
Vector or Source
Amblyomma americnnum (Lone Star tick)
Amblyomma americnum
Ixodes (including 1. scapularis,1. pacificus, 1.
ricinus)
Ingestion of raw fish infested flukes
year or more at 4°C and in meat at least for one
month. It is not completely inactivated at 60°C or
by 1% phenol in one hour. In milk it may survive
pasteurization by the holding method, but the
flash method is effective. It can survive in dust
and aerosols, therefore, can be transmitted as an
airborne infection. It can be inactivated by 2%
formaldehyde, 5% hydrogen peroxide and 1% lysol.
Antigenic Variation
An important characteristic of Coxiella infections
is the ability to undergo antigenic variation in
expres­sion of the cell wall LPS antigen. Cox. bumetii
shows phase variation. Fresh isolates are in Phase I.
It becomes Phase II on repeated passage in yolk sac,
but reverts to Phase I by passag­ing in guinea pigs.
Pathogenesis
Coxiella burnetii causes Q fever which has a world­
wide distribution, as a zoonosis solidly established
in domestic livestock.
Cycles of infection: In nature there are two cycles
of infection of C. burnetii. One involves arthropods
(especially ticks) and a variety of vertebrates. The
other cycle is maintained among domestic animals
(cattle, sheep and goats).
Reservoirs of the disease: The primary reservoirs
of the disease are wild and domestic ungulates,
including cattle, sheep, goats, rabbits, cats and dogs.
It is transmitted among them and to cattle, sheep
and poultry by ixodid ticks.
Animal infection: Domestic animals have
inapparent infections but may shed large quantities
of infec­tious organisms in their urine, milk, feces,
and especially, their placental products.
Human infection: Human infection may occur
occupationally through consumption of infected
milk, handling of contaminated wool or hides,
soil contaminated by infected animal feces,
infected straw, and even to dusty clothing. Coxiella
proliferate in the respiratory tract and then
disseminate to other organs. Person-to-person
transmission is a rarity. Ticks do not seem to be
important in human infection.
Incubation period is 2–4 weeks. Acute diseases
include influenza-like syndrome, atypical
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 368  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
pneumonia, hepatitis, pericarditis, myocarditis,
meningo­encephalitis. Chronic diseases include
endocarditis, hepatitis, pul­monary disease, and
infection of pregnant.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Isolation: Isolation of C. burnetii from patient
specimens is a specialized procedure and is
not generally recommended because of the
extremely infectious nature of the organism.
2. Serology: Using complement fixation test
(CFT) or indirect immunofluorescence assay.
Treatment: Tetracyclines are the drugs of choice
for acute infections. Rifampin combined with either
doxycycline or trimetho­prim-sulfamethoxazole is
used to treat chronic infections.
Prophylaxis
Prevention of disease is by observing basic hygienic
precautions while dealing with infected animals.
Pasteurization of raw milk helps prevent milk-
borne transmission. Vaccines have been developed
from formalin killed whole cells.
BARTONELLA
Family Bartonellaceae contains two genera:
Bartonella and Grahamella.
Members of genus Bar­tonella are very small
gram-negative bacilli. The genus Bartonella, which
now consists of 11 species, including 5 that cause
human disease (Table 51.5). Members of the
genus Grahamella preferentially grow within the
erythrocytes of vertebrates, but do not infect humans.
1. Bartonella bacilliformis
It is a pleomorphic gram-negative rod, which is
motile by a tuft of polar flagella. It can be cultivated in
semisolid agar with rabbit or human blood. Growth
is slow and becomes visible after 10 days incubation.
Table 51.5  Bartonella species associated with
human infections
Species Diseases
1. B. bacilliformis Oroya fever (bartonellosis, Carrion’s
disease)
2. B. qintana Trench fever; cutaneous, subcutaneous,
and osseous manifestations of bacillary
angiomatosis; endocarditis
3. B. henselae Cat-scratch disease; bacteremia;
cutaneous, lymphatic, and
hepatosplenic (peliosis hepatis)
manifestations of bacillary
angiomatosis; endocarditis
4. B. clarridgeiae Endocarditis, cat-scratch disease (rare)
5. B. elizabethae Endocarditis (rare)
Chap-51.indd 368
Pathogenesis
Oroya fever: Bartonella bacilliformis is responsible
for bartonellosis, an acute febrile illness consisting
of severe anemia (Oroya fever) fol­lowed by a
chronic cutaneous form (verruga). Oroya fever
presents as fever and progressive anemia due to
bacterial invasion of erythrocytes. Mortality is high
in untreated cases.
Verruga peruana: Some of the survivors developed
nodular ulcerating skin lesions, called verruga
peruana. It is a late sequel in survivors or in those
with asymptomatic infection.
Carrion’s disease: Oroya fever and verruga
peruana are also known as Carrion’s disease.
Etiology: It is spread by the sandfly vector Phlebo­
tomus.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. B. bacilliformis can be demonstrated in blood
smears stained by Giemsa. Organisms are
seen in the cytoplasm as well as adhering to
the cell surfaces.
ii. Organisms may be isolated from the blood,
in semi-solid medium containing rabbit
serum and he­moglobin. Identification can be
achieved by PCR or by cultural and serological
tests.
iii. Guinea pig inoculation leads to verruga
peruana but not Oroya fever.
iv. Other tests
a. Polymers chain reaction (PCR)
b. Serology: Indirect hemag­g lutination,
indirect immunofluorescence and ELISA.
Treatment: B. bacilliformis is susceptible to
penicillin, strepto­mycin, tetracycline and chloram­
phenicol.
Prophylaxis: Insecticides such as DDT should be
used to eliminate the sandfly inside and outside
the houses.
2. Bartonella quintana
B. quintana is a small, gram-negative bacillus. It
does not possess flagella, although it may exhibit
twitching movement caused by fim­briae. It grows
slowly on rabbit or sheep blood agar at 35°C in
5% CO2 in air. Colonies appear after two weeks
in primary culture and 3–5 days in sub­sequent
passages.
Pathogenesis
Trench fever or five-day fever: B. quintana
causes trench fever or five-day fever occurred
among soldiers fighting in the trenches in Europe
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 Chapter 51: Rickett­siaceae, Bartonellaceae and Coxiella  | 369
during the First World War. The disease was not
fatal but because of its slow course and prolonged
convalescence, it caused very considerable loss of
manpower.
Trench fever is an exclusively human disease
and no animal reservoir is known. It is transmitted
by the body louse. Infec­tion is acquired when
infected lice feces are scratched into the skin. The
lice are unharmed and remain infectious for life.
Vertical transmission does not occur in lice.
Clinical diseases: Clinically, after an incubation
period of 14–30 days patient develops headache,
malaise, fever, chills, severe pain in the back and
legs and a rose­olar rash on the chest, abdomen or
back. Recov­ery is frequently followed by relapses
occurring at five day intervals (hence the species
name, quin­tana). The infection is mild, recovery is
slow and fatalities are rare.
More recently, B. quintana has been associ­
ated with bacillary angiomatosis, a vascular
proliferative disor­der seen primarily in immuno­
compromised patients.
The disease frequently leads to a chronic or
latent infection. Relapses have been reported as
long as 20 years after the primary disease. The
chronic infection and late relapses help to maintain
the bartonella in the absence of animal reservoirs.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. B. quintana can be isolated by allowing
healthy lice to feed upon the patient and
the bartonellae may be detected in the gut
of these lice. It can also be cultivated from
patient’s blood on rabbit or sheep blood agar.
ii. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): B.
quintana has been detected in the tissues by
PCR.
3. Bartonella henselae
Bart. henselae is responsible for cat­scratch disease.
It is small, slightly curved gram-negative bacillus.
It shows twitching motility. It can be grown on
chocolate agar, Columbia agar with 5% blood
and trypticase agar. The optimum temperature
for growth is 35–37°C in 5% CO2, Growth is slow
and takes 5–15 days. Colonies are white, dry,
cauliflower-like and embedded in the agar.
Pathogenesis
1. Cat scratch disease: The disease is acquired
after exposure to cats (e.g. scratches, bites, and
contact with cat fleas). Cat­scratch disease is a
severe condition of regional lymphadenopa­thy
and fever resulting from the scratch or bite of
an infected cat. Bart. clarridgeiae, can cause
an identi­cal syndrome. An organism known as
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Chap-51.indd 369
Afipia felis has also been implicated in a small
proportion of cases of cat scratch disease.
2. Bacillary angioma­tosis: B. henselae is also
responsible for bacillary angiomatosis, but
primarily involving the skin, lymph nodes, or
liver and spleen (peliosis hepatis).
3. Subacute bacterial endocarditis.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. It can be demonstrated in lymph node biopsy
smears and sections by Warthin–Starry staining
show clusters of bacilli.
2. B. henselae has been isolated from the blood
of patients, in blood media after prolonged
incubation and is now considered as its
etiological agent.
Treatment: Cat scratch dis­ease is usually self
limiting disease and does not appear to respond
to antimicrobial therapy.
Key Points
™™ The family rickettsiaceae comprises two genera­-
Rickettsia and Orientia
™™ Coxiella and Ehrlichia are now included in the family
coxiellaceae and family Anaplasmataceae
™™ Genus Rickettsia: Rickettsiae are gram-negative,
small, intracellular bacteria. Replication occurs in
cytoplasm of infected cells. They grow in various
tissue cultures and in yolk sac of embry­onated egg
™™ Pathogenesis: A. Typhus fever group: 1. Epidemic
typhus; 2. Brill–Zinsser disease; 3. Endemic ty­phus
™™ Rickettsia prowazekii
™™ Diseases: 1. Epidemic typhus-caused by R. prow­
azekii. The principal vector is the human body louse.
2. Brill-zinsser disease (Recrudescent typhus)-caused
by R. prowazekii
3. Endemic typhus is caused by R. mooseri (R. typhi).
Vector is rat flea (Xenopsyella cheopis)
™™ R. mooseri can be differentiated from R. prowazekii
by Neil-Mooser or tunica reaction
™™ R. rickettsii causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever
™™ R. conori is responsible for boutonneuse fever and
transmitted by ixodid ticks
™™ Rickettsia akari causes rickettsial pox. Infection is
transmitted by the bite of mites
™™ O tsutsugamushi causes scrub typhus. The disease
is transmitted by trombiculid mite
™™ Laboratory diagnosis of rickettsial diseases may
be carried out by isolation of rickettsiae and serology.
Rickettsiae can be isolated in cell culture, in labora­
tory animals such as mice or guinea-pigs, or in
embry­onated chicken eggs
a. Detection of rickettsiae in tissue by immuno­
fluorescence or immuno-enzyme methods and
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
The Weil–Felix reaction is an agglutina­tion test
which detects anti-rickettsial antibodies in which sera
are tested for agglutinins to the antigens of certain
nonmotile Proteus strains OX 19, OX 2 and OX K
b. Specific tests using rickettsial antigens: Include
complement fixation test, latex agglutination test
and enzyme immunoassay
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 370  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
Ehrlichia
™™ These tick-borne bacteria cause three human
infections: E sennetsu causes a type of glandular fever;
E chaffeensis causes human monocytic ehrlichiosis,
E phagocytophila causes human granulocytic
ehrlichiosis
Coxiella burnetii
™™ It is small, pleomorphic coccobacillary bacterium
with a gram-negative cell wall, intracellular bacteria
™™ Disease: Q fever is a worldwide zoonosis. Most
disease acquired through inhalation; possible
disease from consumption of contaminated milk
Bartonella
™™ The genus Bartonella contains B. bacilliformis,
B. quintana and B. henselae which cause Oroya
fever, trench fever and cat scratch disease in man
respectively.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Write short notes on:
a. Typhus fevers
b. Brill-zinsser disease (Recrudescent typhus)
c. Rocky mountain spotted fever
d. Scrub typhus
e. Trench fever
f. Coxiella burnettii or Q fever
g. Weil-Felix reaction
h. Cat scratch disease
i. Neil–Mooser reaction or Tunica reaction
j. Ehrlichia
k. Oroya fever
2. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of rickettsial infections.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. Which of the following bacteria does not require
an arthropod vector for its transmission?
a. Coxiella burnetii
b. Rickettsia akari
c. Bartonella quintana
d. Rickettsia prowazekii
2. The causative agent of epidemic typhus is:
a. Rickettsia prowazekii
b. Rickettsia rickettsii
c. Coxiella burnettii
d. Rickettsia akari
3. Human body louse is responsible for transmission
of which of the following diseases?
a. Epidemic typhus b. Murine typhus
c. Rickettsial pox d. Q fever
4. Mites are responsible for transmission of diseases:
a. Epidemic typhus b. Murine typhus
c. Scrub typhus d. Trench fever
5. The rickettsial disease transmitted by ixodid ticks
is:
a. Rickettsial pox:
b. Rocky Mountain spotted fever
c. Trench fever
d. Scrub typhus
6. Weil-Felix reaction is positive in all the following
diseases except:
a. Epidemic typhus b. Endemic typhus
c. Brill–Zinsser’s disease d. Q fever
7. Coxiella differs from rickettsial pathogens as it:
a. Has typical Gram-negative cell walls
b. Contains both DNA and RNA
c. Is susceptible to antibiotics
d. Is transmitted by inhalation or ingestion
8. Human infections due to Coxiella can be acquired
by:
a. Consumption of infected milk.
b. Handling of infected wool or hides.
c. Soil contaminated with feces of infected ani-
mals
d. All of the above
9. Oroya fever is caused by:
a. Capnocytophages ochracea
b. Legionella pneumophilia
c. Streptobacillus moniliformis
d. Bartonella bacilliformis
10. The causative agent of cat scratch disease is:
a. Bartonella henselae
b. Bartonella quintana
c. Coxiella burnettii
d. Rickettsia prowazekii
11. All the statements are true for Bartonella quintana
except:
a. It is nonmotile
b. It requires 1–2 weeks to produce demonstrable
colonies on rabbit blood agar
c. It is transmitted by hard ticks
d. It is the causative agent of trench fever
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. a; 2. a; 3. a; 4. c; 5. b; 6. d; 7. d; 8. d; 9. d; 10. a; 11. c

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 52
Chapter

Chlamydia and Chlamydophila

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe differences between chlamydiae and viruses
∙∙ Describe serotypes of various chlamydiae and
diseases produced by them
∙∙ Associate each of the major diseases with the three
most important human species of Chlamydia and
Chlamydophila
∙∙ Discuss morphology and the unique growth cycle
of Chlamydia, describing elementary body (EB) and
reticulate body (RB) bodies
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of chlamydial infections
∙∙ Describe the following: TRIC agents, inclusion
conjunctivitis lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV),
Frei’s test.

INTRODUCTION
Chlamydiaceae is a family of obligate intracellular
bacterial parasites, small, nonmotile and gram-
negative with a tropism for columnar epithelial
cells lining the mucous membranes.
Based on the human diseases they were then
known to cause, they were called psittacosis-
lymphogranuloma-trachoma (PLT) viruses, or
noncommittally as ‘PLT agents’ or TRIC (trachoma-
inclusion conjunctivitis) organisms.
CLASSIFICATION
Genus Chlamydia is in the order Chlamydiales
and the family Chlamydiaceae. The proposed new
taxonomic classification for the family Chlamy­
diaceae consists of two genera: (1) Chlamydia to
include C. trachomatis and (2) Chlamydophila to
include C. pneumoniae, C. psittaci, and C. pecorum.
Other species have been placed into the two genera,
but they are uncommon human pathogens and are
not discussed in this chapter (Table 52.1).

Chlamydia Species
Differences between Chlamydiae and Chlamydia trachomatis: C. trachomatis is divi­
Viruses ded into two biovars—those causing trachoma,
The Chlamydiaceae were once considered viruses. inclusion conjunctivitis (the so-called TRIC agents)
However, they differ from viruses in many respects and oculogenital infection.
and the organisms have the following properties
Chlamydophila Species
of bacteria:
1. Chlamydophila psittaci: It may lead to severe
1. They possess inner and outer membranes and sometimes fatal pneumonia in man (psittacosis
similar to those of gram-negative bacteria. or ornithosis).
2. They contain both DNA and RNA.
Table 52.1  Revised classification of the family
3. They possess prokaryotic ribosomes.
Chlamydiaceae
4. They synthesize their own proteins, nucleic
acids, and lipids. Genus Chlamydia Genus Chlamydophila
5. They multiply by binary fission. C. trachomatis C. pneumoniae
C. muridarum C. psittaci
6. They do not have ‘eclipse phase’ following C. suis C. pecorum
cellular infection. C. abortus
7. They are susceptible to numerous antibacterial C. caviae
antibiotics. C. felis

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 372  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
2. Chlamydophila pneumoniae: It is a common
cause of acute respiratory disease worldwide (Table
52.2).
Morphology
Reticulate body: The reticulate body is the intra­
cellular growing and replicative form, 500–1000 nm
in size (larger than the EB).
The chlamydiae are nonmotile, lacking flagella,
and non­piliated.

Chlamydiae are small, nonmotile bacteria. Although Growth Cycle

they stain poorly with gram’s stain they have the The Chlamydia growth cycle is initiated by the
typical LPS of gram-negative bacteria. There are attachment of an infectious elementary body to
two morphologically distinct forms of chlamydiae: the surface of a susceptible epithelial cell, followed
elementary body (EB) and reticulate body (RB). by its endocytosis (Fig. 52.1). Inside the host cell,
There are two morphologically distinct forms of the elementary body lies within the endosome,
chlamydiae: elementary body (EB) and reticulate being separated from the host cell cytoplasm by
body (RB). the endosomal membrane throughout its active
growth cycle.
Elementary body: It is a spherical particle, 200–300 By about eight hours, the elementary body
nm in diameter, with a rigid trilaminar cell wall. within the endosome undergoes spheroplast-
like transformation to the large reticulate body,
Table 52.2  Human diseases caused by Chlamydiae which be­gins to divide by binary fission and are
and Chlamydophila converted to elementary bodies.The developing
Species Serotype* Disease
chlamydial microcolony within the host cell is
called the inclusion body. The mature inclusion
C. trachomatis A, B, Ba, C Endemic blinding
body contains 100–500 elementary bodies which
trachoma
are ultimately released from the host cell. The
C. trachomatis D, E, F, G, H, I, J, Inclusion
host cell is severely damaged and release of the
K (D to K) conjunctivitis
(neonatal and adult) elementary bodies occurs within 48 hours by host
Genital chlamydiasis cell lysis in C. psittaci in­fections (Fig. 52.1).
Infant pneumonia
Laboratory Propagation
C. trachomatis L1, L2, L2a, L3 Lymphogranuloma
venereum Chlamydiae can be propagated in the mouse,
C. psittaci Many Psittacosis
chick embryo or in cell culture though they
serotypes show in­dividual variations in susceptibility. The
presence of chlamydial inclusions is determined by
Chlamydophila Only one Acute respiratory
pneumoniae serotype disease microscopy in conjunction with a suitable staining
*Predominant types associated with the disease
method, prefer­ably fluorescence microscopy with
labeled monoclonal antibody.

Fig. 52.1: The Chlamydia growth cycle

Chap-52.indd 372 15-03-2016 11:21:33

 Chapter 52: Chlamydia and Chlamydophila  | 373
Antigenic Structure
Chlamydiae possess three major groups of antigens:
genus-specific antigens, species-specific anti­gens,
and serotype-specific antigens.
1. Genus-specific antigens: The heat-stable genus-
specific antigen common to all Chlamydia is LPS,
with an acidic polysaccharide as the antigenic
determinant. The antigen, can be detected by the
complement fixation test, SDS polyacrylamide
gel electrophoresis, and by polyclonal or epitope
specific monoclonal antibodies.
2. Species-specific antigens: Several species-
specific antigens have been detected on or near
the envelope surface.They help in classifying
chlamy­diae into the species—trachomatis,
psittaci, pneumoniae and pecorum.
3. Serotype-specific antigens: Serotype-specific
determinants are common only to cer­t ain
isolates within a species and help in intraspecies
typing. They are located on the major outer
membrane proteins (MOMP) and can be
demon­strated by microimmunofluorescence. By
micro-IF, chlamydiae have been classified into
many serological variants (serovars, serotypes).
C. trachomatis: Chlamydia trachomatis has been
divided into three biovars (biological variants)
which cause trachoma, inclusion conjunctivitis
(the so-called TRIC agents) and lymphogranuloma
venereum (LGV), and mouse pneumonitis
(renamed C. muridarum). Both the trachoma and
the LGV biovars can be divided into serotypes
(serovars) on the basis of epitopes carried on their
major outer membrane protein (MOMP).
Trachoma biovar: There are 15 serovars in the
trachoma biovar (with variants within them) which
are given the letters serovars A through K (A, B, Ba,
C, D, Da, E, F, G, Ga, H, I, la, J, and K). Serovars A,
B, Ba and C cause blinding trachoma in endemic
areas, and serovars D to K associated with the less
serious ocular in­fection, inclusion conjunctivitis
and with various genital infections.
LGV biovar: Four serovars L1, L2 and L3, in the
LGV biovar. Serovars L1’ L2, L2a’ and L3 are associated
with LGV, an invasive urogenital tract disease and
hemorrhagic proctitis.
C. psittaci: The serological classification of C. psittaci
is complex, many serotypes having been identified.
C. pneumoniae: C. pneumoniae has not been
subclassified yet (Table 52.2).
Chlamydia trachomatis
C. trachomatis is a leading cause of ocular and
genital infections worldwide.
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Chap-52.indd 373
1. Ocular Infections
i. Trachoma
Trachoma is a chronic kerato­conjunctivitis. It is
characterized by follicular hypertrophy, papillary
hyperplasia, pannus formation and in the late
stages, cicatrisation. caused by C. trachomatis
serotypes A, B, or C. Trachoma is transmitted eye-
to-eye by droplet, hands, contaminated clothing,
and eye-seeking flies. The pathogen may also be
transmitted by respiratory droplet or through fecal
contamination. Trachoma generally is endemic
in communities where the living conditions are
crowded, sani­tation is poor, and the personal
hygiene of the people is poor.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Direct Cytopathologic Examination
The characteristic inclusion (Halberstaedter-
Prowazek or HP bodies) may be dem­onstrated in
conjunctival scrapings, after staining by Giemsa,
Castaneda or Macchiavello methods. They may
be stained with iodine solution also because they
possess a glycogen matrix. The fluorescent antibody
method enhances the sensitivity of smear diagnosis.
2. Culture
i. Embryonated egg: The chlamydia may be
grown in the yolk sac of 6–8 days old eggs.
ii. Cell culture: Tissue culture using stationary
phase cells (nonreplicating cells) is the method
of choice for isolation.The bacteria infect a
restricted range of cell lines in vitro (e.g. HeLa-
229, McCoy BHK-21, Buffalo green monkey
kidney cells), similar to the narrow range of
cells they infect in vivo. McCoy cells rendered
nonreplicating by irradiation or antimetabolites
are used. HeLa or HL cells treated with DEAE
dextran may also be used. The inoculum has to
be driven into the cells by centrifugation up to
15,000 g to get a good growth.
Treatment and control: Local application and oral
administration of erythromycin and tetracycline or
other suitable an­tibiotics should be continued for
several weeks. Single-dose azitromycin treatment
has been used with good results.
Vaccines that are efficacious and safe are not
available Basic. however, to the ultimate control
of trachoma, are good standards of hygiene that
accompany improvement in standards of living.
ii. Inclusion conjunctivitis
The natural habitat of C. trahomatis types D to K is
the genital tract in both sexes.
a. Inclusion blennorrhea: Inclusion blennorrhea,
is the neonatal form of inclusion conjunctivitis.
The disease in the newborn usually becomes
clinically apparent 5–12 days after birth. The
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 374  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
organisms are acquired from the mother during
birth. The disease can be prevented by local
application of antibiotics.
b. Inclusion conjunctivitis: Inclusion con­
junctivitis (paratrachoma) is most prevalent in
sexually active young people, being spread from
genitalia to the eye and occurs worldwide. It
was known as ‘swimming pool conjunctivitis’
as infection was associated with bathing in
community swimming pools which presumably
get contaminated with chlamydia from the
genital secretions of bathers. Contamination of
the eye with the patient’s own genital secretion
may be the cause more often. The disease is
much milder, is usually self-limiting and rarely
causes visual loss, presumably because, unlike
trachoma, repeated infection is less common.
2. Genital Infections
C. trachomatis infections of the genital tract are of
two types and are sexually transmitted:
1. Those caused by the oculogenital serotypes
D through K collectively referred to as ‘genital
chlamydiasis’
2. LGV caused by serotypes L1, L2, L2a and L3.
I. Genital chlamydiasis
Ch. trachomatis D to K are called genital chlamy­
diasis.
i. Infection in men: In men, they cause urethritis
(nongonococcal urethritis), epididymitis,
proctitis, conjunctivitis and Reiter’s syndrome.
Reiter’s syndrome is a triad of recurrent
conjunctivitis, polyarthritis and urethritis
or cervicitis. Anal intercourse may cause
chlamydial proctitis in either sex. Associated
symptoms include rectal pain and bleeding,
mucopurulent discharge and diarrhea.
ii. Infection in women: Most genital tract
infections in women are asymptomatic (as
many as 80%) but can nevertheless become
symptomatic. The clinical manifestations
include acute urethral syndrome, bartholinitis,
mucopurulent cervicitis, endometritis,
salpingitis, pelvic inflamma­tory disease (PID),
conjunctivitis, perihepatitis (Fitz–Hugh–
Curtis syndrome) and Reiter’s syndrome.
Genital chlamydiasis may cause infertility,
ectopic pregnangy, premature deliveries,
perinatal morbidity and postpartum fever.
II. Lymphogranuloma Venereum
Lymphogranuloma inguinale, climatic bubo,
tropical bubo, and esthiomene are synonyms of
this sexually transmissible disease. It characterised
by suppurative inguinal adenitis. Humans are the
Chap-52.indd 374
sole natural hosts of this infection caused by the
LG V biovar of C. trachomatis, Ll, L2 and L3 most
commonly L2. (Table 52.2).
Clinical Manifestations
The usual incubation period of LGV is 1–4 weeks.
1. Primary lesion: The primary lesion is
painless, small, inconspicuous, and vesicular
and often escapes notice. Characteristically the
presenting complaint concerns the enlarged
matted inguinal and femoral lymph nodes
which are moderately painful and firm and may
become fluctuant.
2. Secondary stage: The secondary stage results
from lym­phatic spread to the draining lymph
nodes. In men the inguinal lymph nodes
are involved most often and in women the
intrapelvic and pararectal nodes. Women and
homosexual men may develop hemorrhagic
proctitis with regional lymphadenitis. The
nodes enlarge, suppurate, become adherent
to the skin and breakdown to form sinuses
discharging pus. Metastatic complications may
sometimes occur, with involvement of joints,
eyes, and meninges.
3. Tertiary stage: The tertiary stage is chronic,
lasting for several years, representing the
sequelae of scarring and lymphatic blockage.
Rectal stricture and rectal perforation are
recognized late sequelae to LGV proctitis. The
course of the disease is variable. Late sequelae
are more distressing in women and lymphatic
obstruction in women can lead to elephantiasis
of the vulva, called esthiomene.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The primary lesion usually goes unnoticed and
the disease is seen commonly first in the stage of
inguinal adenitis (bubo).
A. Microscopy
Smears of material aspirated from the bubos
may show the elementary bodies (Miyagawa’s
granulocorpuscles). The sensitivity of microscopic
diagnosis is very low.
B. Culture
Isolation of the Chlamydia by intracerebral
inocula­tion into mice and into yolk sac of eggs has
been replaced by cell cultures.
C. Serology
LGV patients develop high titers of circulating
antibodies, with titers of 1:64 or more in CF test
and 1:512 or more in micro-IF.
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 Chapter 52: Chlamydia and Chlamydophila  | 375
D. Intradermal Test (Frei’s Test)
An intradermal test (Frei’s test) originally described
by Frei in 1925 was commonly used formerly. The
crude chlamydial antigen originally obtained
from the bubo pus, and later from mouse brain
or yolk sac cul­tures (lygranum), was inoculated
intradermally in the forearm, with a control on
the other arm. A positive reaction is indicated by
indura­tion of 7 mm or more in 2–5 days. This test
beco­mes positive 2–6 weeks after infection and
remains positive for several years.
Frei’s test is now not in use due to the frequent
occurrence of false positive reactions. At present,
the test has few diagnostic indications.
Treatment
Treatment is with tetracycline, which should be
giv­en for at least three weeks.
Chlamydophila psittaci
Chlamydophila psittaci is the cause of psittacosis
(psittacos means parrot) among psittacine birds,
also known as ornithosis (derived from the Greek
word ornithos for “bird”) or parrot fever. Human
infections are mostly occupational. The respiratory
tract is the main portal of entry, and infection
usually is acquired by inhalation of organisms from
infected birds and their droppings. The incubation
period is about 10 days. The illness ranges from an
‘influenza-like’ syndrome, to a severe illness with
de­lirium and pneumonia. Psittacosis is a septicemia
and there may be meningoencephalitis, arthritis,
pericarditis or myocarditis, or a predominantly
typhoidal state with enlarged liver and spleen.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Culture
Chlamydia can be isolat­ed from blood during the
early stages of the disease and from sputum later
on. Infected cells, including alveolar macrophages
from patients, and mouse brain, yolk sac and cell
cultures show inclusion bod­ies (Levinthal-Cole-
Lillie or LCL bodies).
B. Antigen Detection
Antigen detection is done by direct fluorescent
antibody staining or by immunoassay or molecular
diagnosis by polymerase chain reaction.
C. Serology
A four-fold increase in titer, shown by the group
specific CF testing of paired acute and convalescent
phase sera, is suggestive of C. psittaci infection, but
the species-specific MIF (micro-IF) test must be
performed to confirm the diagnosis.
Treatment and Prevention
Infections can be treated successfully with tetracy­
clines or macrolides.
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Chap-52.indd 375
Psittacosis can be prevented only through the
control of infections in domestic and imported
pet birds.
Chlamydophila pneumoniae
Chlamydophila pneumoniae was formerly known
as Chlamydia sp., strain TWAR, and it was originally
identified in 1965 from a conjunctival culture of a
child (TW) enrolled in a Taiwan trachoma vaccine
study. In 1983 at the University of Washington, a
similar organism was isolated in HeLa cells from
a pharyngeal specimen of a college student (AR).
Grayston and colleagues (1986) isolated a chlamydial
strain from acute respiratory disease in adults in Tai­
wan and designated it as C. psittaci strain TWAR
{from Taiwan Acute Respiratory). It possessed the
group-specific antigen in common with. C. psittaci
and C. trachomatis but could be distinguished from
both of them by species-specific antigens, DNA
hy­bridisation and restriction endonuclease analysis.
This new organism was initially called TWAR, then
classified as Chlamydia pneumoniae, and finally
placed in the new genus Chlamydophila. Infection
is transmitted by respiratory secretions; no animal
reservoir has been identified.
Spectrum of Disease
1. C. pneumoniae has been associated with
pneumonia, bronchitis, pharyngitis, sinusitis,
and a flu-like illness.
2. It has been implicated in other chronic afflictions
such as asthma and cardiovascular diseases.
3. It has also been linked to chronic illnesses such
as atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, and
stroke.
4. Infection with C. pneumoniae has been established
as a risk factor for Guillain-Barré syndrome
CGBS) and also appears to be a relationship
between sarcoidosis and C. pneumoniae
Laboratory diagnosis
Diagnosis of C. pneumoniae infections is difficult.
1. Cultivation
C. pneumoniae will grow in the HEp-2 cell line.
C. pneumoniae species-specific monoclonal
antibodies can detect the organism in cell culture.
2. Serology
Complement fixation (CF) or microimmuno­
fluorescence (MIF) tests can be used to make a
serologic diagnosis. More recently, some partially
automated enzymelinked immunosorbent assays
(ELISAs) have become commercially available.
3. Direct Detection Methods
Detection of C. pneumoniae by nucleic acid
amplification techniques has been successful.
Several C. pneumoniae-specific primers have been
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 376  |  Section 3: Systemic Bacteriology
used in PCR assays to detect organisms and appear
to be more sensitive than cell culture.
Treatment
Macrolides (erythromycin, azithromycin, clarithro­
mycin), tetracyclines (tetracycline, doxycycline), or
lev­ofloxacin administered for 10–14 days has been
used to treat infections.
Control of exposure to C. pneumoniae is likely
to be difficult because the bacterium is ubiquitous.
Laboratory Diagnosis of Chlamydia
Infections
The laboratory diagnosis of Chlamydia infections
can be ac­c omplished by various approaches:
(1) microscopic demonstration of inclusion or
elementary bodies, (2) isolation of the organisms,
(3) demonstration of chlamydial antigen and
(4) detection of specific antibodies (5) Skin test-
Hypersensitivity against these bacteria.
The specimens collected are conjunctival
scrapings, sputum, throat swab, bubo pus, genital
swabs and blood.
1. Demonstration of Inclusion or Elementary
Bodies
i. Light microscopy: Smears may be prepared
from conjunctival scrapings or bubo pus and
stained by Giemsa, Castaneda, Machiavello or
Giminez stains to demonstrate characteristic
inclusion bodies under light microscope.
Chlamydia are gram-negative but are stained
better by, Castaneda, Machiavello or Giminea
stains. Chlamydial elementary bodies and
inclusions are large enough to be seen under
the light microscope.
Glycogen-containing inclusions of C. tracho­
matis can be stained with Lugol’s iodine. The
inclusion bodies of trachoma and inclusion
conjunctivitis are named Halberstaedter
Prowazek or HP bodies whereas the elementary
bodies of C. psittaci are called Levinthal Cole
Lillie or LCL bodies.
ii. Immunofluorescence (IF): Immunofluore­
scence (IF) can iden­tify not only inclusions
but also extracellular elementary bodies.
Besides ocular infections, IF is useful also in
examination of cervical or urethral spec­imens,
which may contain elementary bodies.
2. Isolation of the Organisms
Traditionally the isolation of Chla­mydia has been
accomplished by the inoculation of infected material
into either embryonated eggs, experimental
animals, or selected tissue culture cell lines.
a. Yolk sac inoculation
All known strains of Chlamydia will infect the
chick embryo, and group-specific antigen and
Chap-52.indd 376
characteristic inclusions can be found in yolk sac
material from infected 6–8 day embryos. However,
this procedure is impractical for use by clinical
laboratories since it is tedious, time-consuming,
and less sensitive than tissue culture.
b. Animal inoculation
Chlamydiae can be propagated in experimental
animals such as mice. C. psittaci strains infect
mice by intracere­bral, intranasal, intraperitoneal
and subcutaneous routes. Among C. trachomatis
strains, only the LGV serovars (Ll, L2, L3) infect
mice when injected intracerebrally, but other C.
trachomalis strains (The TRIC serovars) will not
infect mice by any route of infection.
c. Tissue culture
The most widely used method of cultivation is by
the use of tissue cultures. Monkey kidney cell lines,
McCoy and HeLa cell lines and, more recently, the
heteroploid HL cell line are commonly used.
Cell cultures used for isolation are pretreated
by irradiation or chemicals such as 5-iodo-2-
deoxyuridine, cytochalasin B, or cycloheximide to
enhance chlamydial replication and to allow easier
recognition of inclusions. Pretreatment of the cells
with diethylaminoethyl­dextran (DEAE-dextran)
or centrifugation of the chlamydiae onto the host
cells increases contact between the infectious
chlamydial particles and the host cell monolayer,
with a subsequent increase in infectivity.
LGV strains grow well, while TRIC strains are
less in­fective. C. psittaci can be isolated from
infected material by methods similar to those used
for other Chlamydia.
Propagation of C. pneumoniae in cell culture
has proven to be difficult. HeLa 229 cells and, more
recently, the heteroploid HL cell line have been
described as being more sensitive than McCoy cells
for the isolation of this organism.
3. Demonstration of Chlamydial Antigen
a. Immunofluorescence (IF): For diagnosis by
demonstration of chlamydial antigens, the
method commonly used is micro-IF. This test
approaches cultures in sensitivity.
b. ELISA : The ELISA method is preferred for
screening as it enables rapid testing for LPS
antigen in large numbers of specimens.
c. Molecular methods: Molecular methods like
DNA probes and amplification techniques
(polymerase chain reaction, ligase chain
reaction) have greatly increased the sensitivity
and specificity of antigen detection.
4. Detection of Specific Antibodies or
Hypersensitivity Response
The diagnosis of chlamydial infections can
be accomplished by either the group-specific
complement-fixation (CF) test or type-specific
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 Chapter 52: Chlamydia and Chlamydophila  | 377
microimmunofluorescence (micro-IF) technique.
Like the CF test, EIAs are genus-specific, and
measurements of IgG and IgM can be accomplished.
i. Complement-fixation (CF) test: The CF test
uses the genus-specific antigen (LPS) and is
applicable for the diagnosis of infections caused
by C. psittaci, C. pneumoniae, and the LGV
strains of C. trachomtis. In the majority of patients
for whom the identity of the infecting serovar of
C. trachomatis is known, there is a type-specific
antibody response with a titer of 1:8 or greater.
ii. Microimmunofluoroscence (Micro-IF):
Micro-IF can test IgG and IgM antibody separately.
Type-specific antibodies are demonstrated by this
method.
iii. ELISA test: Measurements of IgG and IgM
can be accomplished like the CF test. They are
comparable in sensitivity to the micro-IF test
but may have limited specificity. The assay has
been used successfully to detect chlamydial
IgM in infants with pneumonia.
5. Skin Test
The Frei test is an intradermal skin test that detects
a delayed hypersensitivity response to chlamydial
antigen was widely used formerly for diagnosis of
LGV but has been given up because false-positive
results are very frequent.
Key Points
™™ Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular parasites which
are small, nonmotile and gram-negative
™™ The family Chlamydiaceae has been divided into
two genera, Chlamydia and Chlamydophila:
(1) Chlamydia to include C. trachomatis and (2)
Chlamydophila to include C. pneumoniae, C. psittaci,
and C. pecorum
™™ Chlamydia trachomatis infections: Two human
biovars: trachoma (with 15 serovars) and lympho­
granuloma venereum (LGV; 4 serovars)
™™ Diseases: C. trachomatis is the most common
sexually transmitted bacterial pathogen. Trachoma
biovar responsible for ocular trachoma, adult
inclusion conjunctivitis, neonatal conjunctivitis, infant
pneumonia, and urogenital infections. LGV biovar
responsible for lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV)
™™ Diagnosis: Culture is highly specific but is relatively
insensitive. Antigen tests (DFA, ELISA) are relatively
insensitive. The molecular amplification tests are the
most sensitive and specific tests currently available
™™ C. psittaci: C. psittaci is the cause of psittacosis, also
known as parrot fever or ornithosis
™™ Diagnosis is often made by serologic assays
™™ C. pneumoniae: C. pneumoniae, recognized as
a significant community acquired respiratory
pathogen, has been implicated in other chronic
afflictions such as asthma and cardiovascular dis­
eases. It has also been linked to chronic illnesses, such
as atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, and stroke
™™ Laboratory diagnosis of chlamydial infections
depends on direct detection of antigens, isolation
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Chap-52.indd 377
of organism and serology for antibody detection.
Frei’s test is a skin test previously employed for
diagnosis of LGV.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of chlamydial infec­
tions.
2. Discuss the pathogenicity of chlamydiae.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Developmental cycle of chlamydiae
b. Antigenic structure of chlamydiae
c. TRIC agents
d. Inclusion conjunctivitis
e. Frei’s test
f. Lymphogranuloma venereum
g. Chlamydia pneumonia.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. Chlamydia organisms are not viruses because of
all the following properties except:
a. They contain both DNA and RNA
b. They contain prokaryotic ribosomes
c. They can grow on cell-free media
d. They are susceptible to a wide range of anti­
biotics
2. Trachoma is caused by C. trachomatis serovars:
a. A. A, B, Ba, C b. D-K
c. Ll-L3 d. All the serovars
3. Man acquires psittacosis from:
a. Parrots b. Ducks
c. Pigeons d. All of the above
4. Tests which can aid in the laboratory diagnosis of
chlamydial infections is/are:
a. Light microscopy
b. Immunofluorescence test
c. ELISA for detection of antigen
d. All of the above
5. Which of the following serovars of Chlamydia are
responsible for inclusion conjunctivitis?
a. A, B, Ba, C b. D-K
c. Ll-L3 d. None of the above
6. All the following statements are true for chlamy­
dophila pneumoniae except:
a. It is an important cause of respiratory disease in
olderchildren and adults
b. Infection is transmitted by respiratory secretions
from animal reservoirs
c.  Direct fluorescent antibody test is used to
detect C. pneumoniaea antigen in specimens
d.  Tetracycline, doxycycline, erythromycin, etc.
are effective against C. pneumoniae infection
7. Frei’s test is an intradermal skin test used for the
diagnosis of:
a. Lymphogranuloma venereum
b. Adult inclusion conjunctivitis
c. Neonatal conjunctivitis
d. Infant pneumonia
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. c; 2. a; 3. a; 4. d; 5. b; 6. b; 7. a
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 Section 4: Virology

5353
Chapter

General Properties of Viruses

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ List various cell cultures
be able to: ∙∙ Discuss detection of virus growth in cell cultures
∙∙ Describe size, shape and symmetry of viruses ∙∙ List DNA and RNA viruses
∙∙ Describe cultivation of viruses ∙∙ Describe prions and viroids.

Introduction Morphology of viruses

Viruses are the smallest known infective agents
and are perhaps the simplest form of life known.
Viruses do not possess a cellular organization
and they do not fall strictly into the category of
unicellular micro­organisms.
Main properties of viruses
1. Viruses do not have a cellular organization
2. They contain only one type of nucleic acid,
either DNA or RNA but never both
3. They are obligate intracellular parasites
4. They lack the enzymes necessary for protein
and nucleic acid synthesis and are dependent
for replication on the synthetic machinery of
host cells
5. They multiply by a complex process and not by
binary fission
6. They are unaffected by antibacterial antibiotics.
The major differences between viruses and
microorganisms are shown in Table 53.1.
Size
Viruses are much smaller than bac­t eria. The
extracellular infectious virus particle is called the
virion. It was their small size and ‘filterability’
(ability to pass through filters that can hold back
bacteria) that led to their recognition as a separate
class of infectious agents. Hence they were for
a time known as ‘filterable viruses.’ They were
called ‘ultramicro­scopic’ as they were too small
to be seen under the light microscope. Some of
the larger viruses, such as poxvirus­es can be seen
under the light microscope when suitably stained.
The virus particles seen in this manner are known
as ‘elementary bodies’.
The unit for measurement of virion size is
nanometers (nm). Viruses vary widely in size from
20 nm to 300 nm. The largest among them is pox
virus (300 nm) and is as large as the smallest bacteria
(myc­oplasma). The smallest virus is the parvovirus
(about 20 nm) and are nearly as small as the largest
protein molecules such as hemocyanin.

Table 53.1  Properties of prokaryotes and viruses—Ananthnarayan

Cellular Growth on Binary Both DNA Ribosome s Sensitivity to Sensitivity
organization inanimate fission and RNA antibacterial to interferon
media antibiotics
Bacteria + + + + + + –
Mycoplasmas + + + + + + –
Rickettsiae + + + + + + –
Chlamydiae + - + + + + +
Viruses – – – – – +

Chap-53.indd 378 15-03-2016 11:33:18 AM

 Chapter 53: General Properties of Viruses  | 379
Measuring the Size of Viruses
A. Passage them through Collodion membrane.
B. Electron microscopy.
C. Sedimentation in the ultracentrifuge.
D. Comparative measurements: It can be done
with reference to: Staphylococcus, bacterial
viruses (bacteriophages) and representative
protein molecules.
Shape of the Virus
The overall shape of the virus particle varies in
different groups of viruses. Most of the animal
viruses are roughly spherical, some are irregular
and pleo­morphic. Poxviruses are brick-shaped,
rabies virus is bullet-shaped, tobacco mosaic virus
is rod-shaped. Bacteriophages have a complex
morphology. The extracellular infectious virus
particle is known as virion.
Structure and chemical
composition of the viruses
A. Viral Capsid
Viruses consist of nucleic acid core surrounded by
a protein coat called capsid. The capsid with the
enclosed nucleic acid is known as nucleocapsid.
The capsid is composed of a large number of
capsomers, which form its morphological units.
The chemical units of the capsid are polypeptide
molecules which are arranged symmetrically to
form molecules to form an impenetrable shell
around the nucleic acid core (Fig. 53.1).
A B
C D
Fig. 53.1: Schematic diagram illustrating the components of
the complete virus particle (the virion). (A) Naked icosahedral
virus, consisting of an inner core of nucleic acid enclosed by a
capsid, which is made of capsomers; (B) Enveloped virus; (C)
Naked helical virus composed of capsomers wound round the
nucleic acid to form a tubular structure; (D) Envelope helical
virus in which the tubular capsid is pliable and is enclosed
within an envelope
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Chap-53.indd 379
Functions of Capsid
i. Protection: It protects the viral genome
from physical des­truction and enzymatic
inactivation by nucleases in biological material.
ii. Binding sites
iii. It facilitates the assembly and packaging of
viral genetic information.
iv. Vehicle of transmission: From one host to
another.
v. Antigenic
vi. Host’s defence
vii. It provides the structural symmetry to the
virus particle.
B. Virus Symmetry
Viral architecture can be grouped into three
types based on the arrangement of morphologic
sub­units: (1) Icosahedral symmetry (2) helical
symmetry (3) complex struc­tures.
1. Icosahedral Symmetry
An icosahedral ( icosa, meaning 20 in Greek) is a
polygon with 12 vertices or corners and 20 facets
or sides. Each facet is in the shape of an equilateral
trian­g le. There are always 12 pen­tons but the
number of hexons varies with the virus group, e.g.
adenoviruses (Fig. 53.2).
2. Helical Symmetry
The nucleic acid and the capsomers are wound
together in the form of a helix or spiral.
Examples: Single-stranded RNA viruses such as
influenza (Fig. 53.2), the parainfluenza viruses,
and rabies.
3. Complex Symmetry
Viruses (e.g. poxviru­ses) which do not show either
icosahedral or helical symmetry due to complexity
of their structure are referred to have complex
symmetry.
C. Viral Envelope
Virions may be enveloped or nonenveloped
(naked). Enveloped Virus: The envelope or
outer covering of virus containing lipid is derived
from the plasma membrane of the host cell during
their release by budding from the cell surface. The
envelope is glycoprotein in nature. The lipid is largely
of host cell origin while the protein is virus-encoded.
Peplomers: In mature virus particle, the glyco­
proteins often appear as projecting spikes on the
outer surface of the envelope. These are known as
peplomers. A virus may have more than one type
of peplomers, e.g. the influenza virus carries two
kinds of peplomers, the hemagglutinin which is
a triangular spike and the neuraminidase which
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 380  |  Section 4: Virology
Fig. 53.2: Shapes and relative sizes of animal viruses of families that infect vertebrates
is a mushroom-shaped structure. Envelope confer
chemical, antigenic and biological properties on
viruses.
Functions of Peplomers
i. Mediate attachment of the virus to the host-
cell receptors.
ii. Attach to receptors on red blood cells.
iii. Enzymatic activity
iv. Major antigens: For protective immunity.
D. Viral Nucleic Acids
Viruses contain a single kind of nucleic acid—
either DNA or RNA—that encodes the genetic
Chap-53.indd 380
information necessary for replication of the virus.
The genome may be single-stranded or double-
stranded, circular or linear, and segmented or
nonsegmented. The type of nucleic acid, its
strandedness, and its size are major characteristics
used for classifying viruses into families.
Susceptibility to physical and
chemical agents
1. Heat and Cold
i. Heat-labile: With few exceptions, viruses are
very heat-labile. They are inactivated within
seconds at 56°C, minutes at 37 °C and days at
4°C.
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 Chapter 53: General Properties of Viruses  | 381
ii. Stable at low temperatures: They are stable
at low temperatures. For long-term storage,
they are kept fro­zen at – 70°C. A better method
for prolonged storage is lyophilization or
freeze drying (drying the frozen virus under
vacuum).
2. pH
Viruses are usually stable between pH values of
5.0 and 9.0.
3. Stabilization of Viruses by Salts
Molar concentrations of certain salts (MgCl 2
Na2 SO4) also protect some viruses (for example,
poliovirus) against heat inactivation.
4. Radiation
Ultraviolet, X-ray, and high-energy particles
inactivate viruses.
5. Disinfectants
i. Bacteria are killed in 50% glycerol saline but
this acts as a preservative for many viruses (for
example, vaccinia, rabies).
ii. Phenolic disinfectants are only weakly
virucidal.
iii. Oxidizing agents: The most active antiviral
disinfectants are oxidizing agents, such as
hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate
and hypochlorites. Chlorination of drinking
water kills most viruses. Some viruses (such as
hepatitis virus, polio viruses) are relatively
resistant to chlorination. Formaldehyde and
beta-propiolactone are actively virucidal and
are commonly employed for the preparation
of killed viral vaccines.
6. Lipid Solvents
Enveloped viruses which possess lipid-containing
envelope are sensitive to lipid solvents, such as
ether, chloroform and bile salts and the naked
viruses are resistant to them.
7. Antibiotics
Antibiotics active against bacteria are completely
ineffective against viruses.
Viral hemagglutination
A large number of viruses contain hemagglutinin
spikes (peplomers) on the capsid or envelope
which can agglutinate red cells of different
species. Hemagglutinin of influenza virus is due
to the presence of hemaggluti­nin spikes on the
surface of the virus. When RBCs are added to
serial dilutions of viral suspension, the RBCs and
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Chap-53.indd 381
the viruses collide in the suspension and adhere
to each other resulting in hemagglutination.
The hemagglutination reac­tion is important in
laboratory work. Hemagglutina­tion inhibition
(HI) provides a convenient test for the anti­viral
antibody, as hemagglutination is specifically
inhibited by the antibody to the virus. This test can
be used for detection and quantitation of antibody
to virus.
The influenza virus also carries on its surface
another peplomer, the enzyme neuraminidase
which acts on the receptor and destroys it.
Neuraminidase is, therefore, called the ‘receptor
destroying enzyme’ (RDE). RDE is pro­duced by
many viruses including cholera vibrios, and is also
present in many vertebrate cells. Destruction of the
receptor leads to the reversal of hemagglutination
and the release of the virus from the red cell surface.
This is known as elution. Hemagglutination and
elution also help in purifying and concentrating
the virus.
Viral Hemaggluti­nation Test
The hemagglutination test can be carried out in
test tubes or special plastic trays. When RBCs are
added to serial dilutions of viral suspension, the
highest dilution that produces hemagglutination
provides the hemagglutination titer which is
defined in the form of HA units. Red cells which
are not agglutinated settle at the bottom in the
form of a ‘button,’ while the agglutinated cells are
seen spread into a shield-like pattern (Fig. 53.3).
The test serves to titrate killed influ­enza vaccines
as the inactivated virus can also hemagglutinate.
Hemagglutination is a convenient method of
detection and assay of the influenza virus.
Hemagglutination is stable with other viruses.
Hemagglutination appears to be a reversible state
of equilibrium between the virus and erythrocytes
in the case of arboviruses, being influenced by
slight variations in pH and temperature.
Viral replication
The genetic information necessary for viral replica­
tion is contained in the viral nucleic acid but lacking
biosynthetic enzymes, the virus depends on the
Fig. 53.3: Viral hemagglutination. Virus containing fluid is
diluted in doubling dilutions and 0.5% suspension of chick
red cells added. There is diffuse widespread even pattern
on the bottom of the wells in the plastic plate where virus is
present. The cells settle down to a button like aggregate with
sharp edges where no virus is present
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 382  |  Section 4: Virology
synthetic machinery of the host cell for replication.
The viral multiplication cycle can be divided
into six sequential phases, though the phases
may sometimes be overlapping: (1) adsorption
or attachment, (2) penetration, (3) uncoating,
(4) biosynthesis, (5) maturation, and (6) release.
1. Adsorption and Absorption
Virions come in contact with cells by random
collision but adsorption or attachment is specific
and is mediated by the binding of virion surface
structures, known as ligands, to receptors on
cell surface. In case of influenza virus, a surface
glycoprotein (the hemagglutinin) binds specifically
to sialic acid residue of glycoprotein receptor sites
on the surface of respiratory epithelium. In case
of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV1),
surface glycoprotein gp120 acts as a ligand. It binds
to the CD4 60 kDa glycoprotein on the surface of
mature T lymphocytes.
2. Penetration
After binding, the virus particle is taken up inside
the cell.This is accomplished by receptor-medi­
ated endocytosis (viropexis), with uptake of
the ingested virus particles within endosomes.
Enveloped viruses fuse their membranes with
cellu­lar membranes to deliver the nucleocapsid
or genome directly into the cytoplasm.
3. Uncoating
This is the process of stripping the virus of its
outer layers and capsid so that the nucleic acid is
released into the cell. With most viruses, uncoating
is affected by the action of lysosomal enzymes of
the host cell.
4. Biosynthesis
This phase includes synthesis not merely of the
viral nucleic acid and capsid protein but also of
enzymes necessary in the various stages of vi­ral
synthesis, assembly and release. In addition,
cer­tain ‘regulator proteins’ are also synthesized
which serve to shut down the normal cellular
metabolism and direct the sequential production
of viral compo­nents. In general, most DNA viruses
synthesize their nucleic acid in the host cell
nucleus. The excep­tions are the poxviruses. Most
RNA vi­ruses synthesize all their components in
the cyto­plasm, except for orthomyxoviruses, some
paramyxoviruses and retroviruses. Viral protein is
synthesized only in the cytoplasm.
Steps of Biosynthesis
Transcription of messenger RNA (mRNA)
i. lead to transformation of the cell and development
from the viral nucleic acid.
Chap-53.indd 382
ii. Translation of the mRNA into ‘early
proteins’. These are enzymes which initiate
and maintain synthesis of virus components.
They may also induce shut down of host
protein and nucleic acid synthesis.
iii. Replication of viral nucleic acid.
iv. Synthesis of ‘late’ or structural proteins,
which are the components of daughter virion
capsids.
Viruses have been categorized into six classes
by Baltimore (1970) based on thier replication
mechanisms (Table 53.2).
5. Maturation
Newly synthesized viral genomes and capsid
polypep­tides assemble together to form progeny
viruses. Assembly of the various viral components
into vir­ions occurs shortly after the replication
of the viral nucleic acid and may take place in
either the nuc­leus (herpes and adenoviruses) or
cytoplasm (pic­orna and poxviruses). In case of
enveloped viruses, the envelopes are derived from
Table 53.2  Baltimore classification of viruses
based on replication
Class
1. Double stranded DNA viruses: In the case of fully
double stranded DNA viruses, the DNA enters the
host cell nucleus and uses the host cell enzymes
for transcription.
Examples: (i) Hepadnaviruses, (ii) Poxviruses
2. Single stranded DNA viruses: The DNA molecule
moves into the host cell nucleus and is converted
into the duplex form. Transcription is achieved by
host enzymes, for example, parvovirus
3. Double stranded RNA viruses: The double
stranded RNA is transcribed to mRNA by viral
polymerases, e.g. reoviruses
4. Single stranded RNA viruses: are classified into
two categories
(i) Positive strand (plus strand, positive sense):
The viral RNA itself act as the mRNA. Viral RNA
is infectious by itself and is translated directly
into viral proteins in the host cell cytoplasm e.g.
picorna-, togaviruses
(ii) The negative strand (minus sense) RNA
viruses: The RNA is ‘antisense’, with polarity
opposite to mRNA. They possess their own RNA
polymerases for, mRNA transcription. Extracted
nucleic acids from these viruses are not infectious
for example rhabdo-, orthomyxo-, paramyxo­viridae
5. Retroviridae exhibit a unique replicative strategy.
Their single stranded RNA genome is con­verted
into an RNA: DNA hybrid by the viral reverse
transcriptase (RNA directed DNA polymerase)
enzyme. Double stranded DNA is then synthesized
from the RNA: DNA hybrid. The double stranded
DNA form of the virus (provirus) is integrated into
the host cell chromosome. This integration may
of neoplasia
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 Chapter 53: General Properties of Viruses  | 383
the host cell nuclear membrane (herpes virus) and
from plasma membrane when the assembly occurs
in the cytoplasm of the host cell (orthomyxoviruses
and paramyxoviruses).
6. Release
Viruses can be released from cells after lysis of
the cell, by exocytosis, or by budding from the
plasma mem­brane. Viruses that exist as naked
nucleocapsids may be released by the lysis of the
host cell (polioviruses) or they may be extruded by
a process which may be called reverse phagocyto­
sis. Release of many enveloped viruses occurs
after budding from the plasma membrane with­out
killing the cell.
Eclipse phase
The virus cannot be dem­o nstrated inside the
host cell from the stage of penetration till the
appearance of mature daughter virions. This period
is known as the ‘eclipse phase.’ The time tak­en for
a single cycle of replication is about 15–30 minutes
for bacteriophages and about 15–30 hours for
animal viruses.
Abnormal replicative cycles
1. Incomplete Viruses
A proportion of daughter virions that are produced
may not be infective. This is due to defective
assembly. Such ‘incomplete viruses’ are seen in
large pro­portions when cells are infected with a
high-dose of the influenza virus. The virus yield will
have a high hemagglutinin titer but low infectivity.
This is known as the von Magnus phenomenon.
2. Abortive Infections
Abortive infections fail to produce infectious
progeny, either because the cell may be
nonpermissive and unable to support the expression
of all viral genes or because the infecting virus may
be defective, lacking some functional viral gene.
3. Latent Infection
A latent infection may ensue, with the persistence
of viral genomes, the expression of none or a few
viral genes, and the survival of the infected cell.
4. Defective Viruses
Viruses which are genetically deficient and
therefore incapable of producing infectious
daughter virions without the helper activity of
another virus are known as’defective viruses’.
Some viruses are genetically defective and they
are unable to give rise to fully formed progeny.
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Chap-53.indd 383
Yield of progeny virions occurs only if the cells are
simultaneously infected with a helper virus, which
can supplement the genetic defi­ciency.
Example: (i) Hepatitis D virus and adeno-
associated satellite viruses which replicate only
in the presence of their helper viruses - hepatitis
B and adenoviruses respectively.
Cultivation of viruses
Because viruses are obligate intracellular
parasites,their growth requires susceptible host
cells capable of replicating them. They cannot be
grown on any inanimate culture medium. Three
methods are employed for the cultivation of viruses:
A. Animal inoculation
B. Embyronated eggs
C. Cell culture.
A. Animal Inoculation
Uses of Animal Inoculation
i. Primary isolation of certain viruses
ii. For the study of pathogenesis, immune
response and epi­demiology of viral diseases
iii. For the study of oncogenesis.
Animals
1. Monkeys: Monkeys find only limited appli­
cation in virology.
2. Mice: Infant (suckling) mice are very suscep­
tible to coxsackie and arboviruses. Mice may
be inoculated by several routes—intracerebral,
subcutaneous, intraperitoneal or intranasal.
The growth of the virus in inoculated animals
may be indicated by death, disease or visible
lesions. The viruses are identified by testing
for neutralization of their patho­genicity for
animals, by standard antiviral sera.
B. Embyronated Eggs
The embryonated hen’s egg was first used for the
cultivation of viruses by Goodpasture (1931) and
the method was further developed by Burnet. The
embryonated eggs (8–11 days old) are inoculation
by several routes for the cultivation of viruses such
as chorioallantoic membrane (CAM), allantoic
cavity, amniotic cavity and yolk sac (Fig. 53.4). After
inoculation, eggs are incubated for 2–9 days.
1. Chorioallantoic membrane (CAM): Inocul­
ation on the chorioallantoic membrane
(CAM) produces visible lesions (pocks). Each
infectious virus particle can form one pock.
Pock counting, there­fore, can be used for
the assay of pock-forming viruses. Different
viruses have different pock morphology, e.g.
herpesvirus, smallpox virus (variola), vaccinia.
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 384  |  Section 4: Virology
Fig. 53.4: Cross-section of an embryonated hen’s egg
2. Allantoic cavity: Inoculation into the allanto­ic
cavity provides a rich yield of influenza and
some paramyxoviruses for vaccine production.
Other chick embryo vaccines are yellow fever
(17D strain) and rabies (Flury strain) vaccines.
Duck eggs are bigger and provide a better
yield of rabies vi­r us and were used for the
preparation of the inactivated, non-neural
rabies vaccine.
3. Amniotic sac: Inoculation into the amniotic
sac is employed for the primary isolation of the
influenza virus.
4. Yolk sac: Yolk sac inoculation is used for the
cultivation of some viruses, chlamydiae,
Coxiella burnetti and rickettsiae.
C. Tissue Culture
Three types of tissue cultures are available:
1. Organ culture: Small bits of organs can be
main­tained in vitro, preserving their original
architecture and function. Organ cultures are
useful for the isolation of some viruses which
appear to be highly specialized parasites of
certain organs. For example, the tracheal ring
organ culture for the isolation of coronavirus,
a respiratory pathogen.
2. Explant culture: Fragments of minced tissue
can be grown as ‘explant’ embedded in plasma
clots. This method is now seldom employed in
virology.
3. Cell cultures: This is the type of culture
routinely employed for growing viruses. Tissues
are dissociated into the component cells by the
action of proteolytic enzymes, such as trypsin
and mechanical shaking. The cells are washed,
counted and suspended in a growth medium.
The cell suspension is dispensed to the glass
surface and on incubation, divide to form a
con­fluent monolayer sheet of cells covering the
surface within about a week.
Growth me­dium: The essential constituents of
the growth me­dium are physiologic amounts of
essential amino acids and vitamins, salts, glucose,
Chap-53.indd 384
and a buffering system generally consisting of
bicarbonate in equilibrium with atmosphere
containing about 5% carbon dioxide. This is
supplemented with upto 5% calf or fetal calf serum.
Antibiotics are added to prevent bacterial con­
taminants and phenol red as indicator.
Classification of Cell Cultures
Cell cultures are classified into three types based
on their origin, chromosomal characters and the
number of generations through which they can be
maintained, (Table 53.3).
1. Primary cell cultures: These are normal cells
fresh­ly taken from the body and cultured. They
are capable of only limited growth in culture (5–10
passages). Primary cell cultures are useful for the
isolation of viruses and their cultivation for vaccine
production. Important examples are monkey
kidney; human embryonic kidney, human amnion
and chick embryo cell cultures.
2. Diploid cell strains: These are cells of a single
type that retain the original diploid chromosome
number and karyotype during serial subcultivation
for a limited number of times. They undergo
‘senescence’ after about fifty serial passages.
They are useful for isolation of some fastidious
pathogens and for the production of viral vaccines,
e.g. rabies vaccine is produced by cultivation of the
fixed rabies virus in WI-38 human embryonic lung
cell strain.
Table 53.3  Some cell cultures in common use
Type Name of the cell culture
A. Primary cell 1. Rhesus monkey kidney cell
cultures culture
2. Human amnion cell culture
3. Chick embryo fibroblast cell
culture
B. Diploid cell 1. WI-38 (Human embryonic lung
strains cell strain)
2. HL-8 (Rhesus embryo cell strain)
C. Continuous cell 1. HeLa (Human carcinoma of
lines cervix cell line)
2. HEP-2 (Human epithelioma of
larynx cell line)
3. KB (Human carcinoma of
nasopharynx cell line)
4. McCoy (Human synovial
carcinoma cell line)
5. Detroit-6 (Sternal marrow cell
line)
6. Chang C/I/L/K (Human
conjunctiva (C),
Intestine (I), Liver (L) and Kidney
(K) cell lines)
7. Vero (Vervet monkey kidney
cell line)
8. BHK-21 (Baby hamster kidney
cell line)
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 Chapter 53: General Properties of Viruses  | 385
3. Continuous cell lines: These are cells of a
single type, usually derived from cancer cells,
that are capa­ble of continuous serial cultivation
indefinitely. Standard cell lines derived from
human cancers, such as HeLa, Hep-2 and KB cell
lines have been used in laboratories throughout
the world for many years. These cell lines may be
maintained by serial subculti­vation or stored in
the cold (–70°C) for use when nec­essary. Some
cell lines are now permitted to be used for vaccine
manufacture, for example, Vero cell for rabies
vaccine. Other cell lines (and their sources) are in
common use (Table 53.4).
Detection of virus growth in cell
culture
Virus growth in cell cultures can be detected by the
follow­ing methods:
1. Cytopathic Effect
Many viruses cause morphologi­c al changes
in cultured cells in which they grow. These
changes can be readily observed by microscop­ic
examination of the cultures. These changes are
known as ‘cytopathic effects’ (CPE) and the
viruses causing CPE are called ‘cytopathogenic
viruses.’ Most viruses produce some obvious
cytopathic effect in infected cells that is generally
characteristic of the viral group (Figs 53.5A to D).
A B
C D
Figs 53.5A to D: A. Normal vero cell monolayer. B. Vero cell monolayer infected with Coxsackie B virus C. HeLa cell
monolayer. D. HeLa cell monolayer infected with Coxsackie virus B3, stained after 48 hours
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Chap-53.indd 385
Main Types of CPE
i. Rounding of cells: Viral replication may lead
to nuclear pyknosis, rounding, refractility,
degenera­tion. This is seen in pic­ornaviruses.
ii. Cell necrosis and lysis: Enteroviruses pro­
duce rapid CPE with crenation of cells and
degeneration of the entire cell sheet.
iii. Syncytium formation: Some viruses (measles,
respiratory syncytial virus, human immuno­
deficiency virus (HIV) lead to syncytium
formation in which infected cells fuse with
neighboring infected or uninfected cells to
form giant cells containing several nuclei.
iv. Discrete focal degeneration: In Herpes virus.
v. Rounding and aggregation: Adenovirus
produces large granular clumps resembling
bunches of grapes.
2. Metabolic Inhibition
When viruses grow in cell cultures, cell metabolism
is inhibited and there is no acid production. This
can be made out by the color of the indicator
(phenol red) incorporated in the medium.
3. Hemadsorption
When hemagglutinating viruses (such as influenza
and parainfluenza viruses) grow in cell cultures,
their presence can be indicated by the addition
of guinea pig erythrocytes to the cultures. The
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 386  |  Section 4: Virology
erythro­cytes will adsorb onto the surface of cells
if the viruses are multiplying in the culture. This is
known as ‘hemadsorption.’ This reaction becomes
positive before cyto­pathic changes are visible and
in some cases occurs in the absence of cytopathic
effects.
4. Interference
The growth of a noncytopathogenic virus in cell
culture can be tested by the subsequent challenge
with a known cytopathogenic virus. The growth of
the first will inhibit infection by the sec­ond virus
by interference.
Example: Rubella virus does not produce cytopathic
changes, although they multiply within the cell.
A known cytopathogenic challenge virus is then
introduced into the cells. No CPE will be seen in the
cell culture as replication of challenge virus will be
prevented because of interference by rubella virus.
5. Transformation
Tumor forming (oncogenic) viruses induce cell
‘transformation’ and loss of contact inhibition,
so that growth appears in a piled-up fashion
producing microtumors. Some herpes viruses,
adeno­viruses, hepadnaviruses, papovaviruses and
retro­viruses (human T cell lymphotropic virus type
I) can transform cells.
6. Immunofluorescence
Cells from virus infected cultures can be stained by
fluorescent conjugated antiserum and examined
under the UV microscope for the presence of
virus antigen. This gives posi­tive results earlier
than other methods and, there­fore, finds wide
application in diagnostic virology.
7. Detection of Virus-specific Nucleic Acid
Molecular-based assays, such as polymerase chain
reaction, provide rapid, sensitive, and specific
methods of detection.
8. Detection of Enzymes
The virus isolate can be identified by detection
of viral enzymes, such as reverse transcriptase in
retroviruses, in the culture fluid.
9. Electron Microscopy
Viruses have distinctive appearances and can be
detected by electron microscopy of ultra thin sec­tions
of infected cells.
Viral assay
The virus content of a specimen can be assayed in
two ways: Either with reference to the total virus
particles or with reference to infectious virion only.
Chap-53.indd 386
1. Total Virus Particles
A. Electron Microscopy
By simple negative staining, the virus particles in
a suspension can be counted directly under the
electron microscope. The virus suspension can
be mixed with a known latex particles. The ratio
between particles under the electron microscope
gives an indication of the virus count.
B. Hemagglutination
A convenient method of quantitation is the
determination of hemagglutination titers with
hemagglutinating viruses. Hemagglutination is not
a very sensitive indicator of the presence of small
amount of virus particles. Thus, approximately
10 7 influenza virions are required to produce
macroscopic agglutination.
2. Infectious Virion Assay
Two types of infectivity assays can be carried out—
­quantitative and quantal assays.
A. Quantal Assays
Quantal assays only indicate the pres­e nce or
absence of infectious viruses. Quantal assays of
infectivity can be carried out in animals, eggs
or tissue culture for those viruses that do not
form plaques, and the effects of the virus can
be observed. Examples of endpoints used for
infectivity titration are the death of the animal,
production of hemagglutinin in allantoic fluid or
the appearance of CPE in cell cultures. The titer is
usually expressed as the 50 percent infectious dose’
(1D50) per mL, which indicates the highest dilution
of the inoculum that would produce an effect in
50% of animals, eggs or cell cultures inoculated.
B. Quantitative Infectivity Assay
Quantitative assays measure the actual number of
infectious particles in the inoculum. Two methods
are available—plaque assay in monolayer cell
culture and pock assay on chick em­bryo CAM.
i. Plaque Assay
A viral suspension is add­ed to a monolayer of
cultured cells in a bottle or Petri dish, and after
allowing time for absorption, the medi­u m is
removed and replaced with a solid agar gel to
prevent virus spreading throughout the culture,
to ensure that the spread of progeny virions is
confined to the immediate vicinity of infected cells.
In this system, each infectious viral particle gives
rise to a localized focus of infected cells that can
be seen with the naked eye. Such foci are known as
‘plaques’ and each plaque indicates an infectious
virus (Fig. 53.6).
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 Chapter 53: General Properties of Viruses  | 387
Fig. 53.6: Plaque formation in monkey kidney cells by
poliovirus
ii. Pock Assay
Certain viruses, e.g. herpes and vaccinia, form
pocks when inoculated onto the chorioallantoic
membrane of an embryonated egg. Such viruses
can be assayed by counting the number of pocks
formed on CAM by appropriate inocula of vi­rus.
This is known as pock assay.
Viral genetics
Viruses obey the laws of genetics like all other ‘living
beings’. Several properties of viruses, such as virulence
and antigenicity are under genetic control. Main
mechanisms for genetic modification in viruses are:
A. Mutation.
B. Recombination.
C. Nonheritable variations: In addition, viruses
may exhibit many nonheritable vari­ations due
to gene product interactions.
A. Mutation
It is a random, undirected and heritable variation.
The frequency of mutation in viruses is about 10-4
to 10-8, approximately the same as in bac­teria.
Mutations, therefore, occur during every viral
infection. Many mutations are lethal, because
the mut­ated virus is unable to replicate. A mutant
becomes evident only if the mutation confers some
readily observable property or affords the mutant
virus some selection or survival advantage. Mutation
may occur spontaneously or may be induced by
mutagens, physical agents, such as UV light or
irradiation or chemical agents such as 5-fluorouracil.
Conditional lethal Mutant
Mutations in essential genes are termed lethal
mu­tations. A class of mutants that are of great
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Chap-53.indd 387
importance in laboratory studies is the conditional
lethal mutant. These are mutants which are able to
grow under certain conditions (called permissive
conditions), but are lethal, that cannot grow
under certain other specified conditions (called
nonpermis­sive or restrictive conditions). There
are different types of conditional lethal mutants
but the types most widely employed in genetic
studies are the ‘tempera­t ure sensitive’ (ts)
mutants. These can grow at low (permissive)
temperature (28–31°C), but not at a higher
(restrictive) temperature (37°C). Because of their
low virulence, these mutants have been used
extensively in att­empts to produce attenuated live
virus vaccine.
B. Recombination
When two different, but related, viruses infect a
cell si­multaneously, genetic recombination may
take place. The two viruses exchange segments
of nucleic acid between them so that a hybrid
is formed possessing genes from both parents.
Recombinants may occur between (1) two active
(infectious) viruses, (2) one active and one inactive
virus, and (3) two inactive viruses.
i. Recombinants between two active (infect­
ious) viruses: When two inactive viruses
markers (such as pock morphology or antigenic
properties) are grown together, recombinants
may be derived that possess the distinctive
properties of both parents. Thus, if a human
and an avian strain of influenza virus (whose
hemagglutinin and neuraminidase antigens
are different and easily identifiable) are grown
together, a hybrid may be obtained with
the he­magglutinin of one parent and the
neuraminidase of the other. This may be one
of the ways by which the pandemic strains of
the influenza virus originate in nature.
ii. Recombinants between one active and one
inactive virus: Cross-reactivation or marker
rescue
When a cell is ‘infected’ with an active virus
and a different but related inactivated virus,
progeny pos­sessing one or more genetic traits
of the inactivated vi­rus may be produced. This
phenomenon is known as cross-reactivation
or marker rescue.
iii. Recombinants between two inactive viru­
ses: Multiplicity reactivation: When a cell is
‘infected’ with a large dose (high multiplicity)
of a single virus inactivated by UV irradiation,
live virus may be produced. The different
virions that cause multiple infection of a
cell may have suffered damage to different
genes. Thus from the total genetic pool it may
be possible to obtain a full complement of
undamaged genes. This phenomenon is called
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 388  |  Section 4: Virology
multiplicity reactivation. There is the potential
danger of multiplicity reactivation taking place
following the administration of UV irradiated
vac­cines.
Pseudovirion: As a general rule, virus capsids
enclose viral nucleic acids. Sometimes segments
of host nucleic acid become encapsidated instead.
This is known as pseudovirion. For example, in
a papovavirus capsid, a linear piece of host DNA
rough­ly the same size as the papovavirus genome
may be found.
C. Nongenetic interactions
1. Phenotypic Mixing
When two different viruses infect the same cell, some
‘mix up’ may take place during assembly so that
progeny genome of one virus may be surrounded by
the capsid belonging entirely or partly to the other
virus. This is known as phenotypic mixing. This is
not a stable variation. On subsequent passage, the
capsid will be found to be of the original type only. If
the genome is encased in a completely heterologous
protein coat, this extreme example of phenotypic
mixing may be called “pheno­typic masking” or
“transcapsidation.”
2. Genotypic Mixing or Heterozygosis
It results from the incorporation of more than
one complete genome into a single virus particle.
There is no recombination be­tween the different
genomes so that the two kinds of viral progeny are
formed on passage.
3. Complementation
The basis for complementation is that one virus
provides a gene product in which the second is
defective, allowing the second virus to grow. The
geno­types of the two viruses remain unchanged.
If both mutants are defective in the same gene
product, they will not be able to complement each
other’s growth.
4. Interference
Infection of either cell cultures or whole animals
with two viruses often leads to an inhibition of
multiplica­tion of one of the viruses, an effect called
interference.
Viral interference has been applied in the field in
controlling poliomyelitis outbreaks by introducing
into the population, the live attenuated poliovirus
vaccine. The vaccine virus interferes with the spread
of wild poliovirus and halts the outbreak.
5. Enhancement
Mixed infection of cells may some­times lead to
increased virus yield or greater CPE. This is known
as ‘enhancement’.
Chap-53.indd 388
Classification of viruses
Main Criteria Used for the Classification
of Viruses
1. Type of nucleic acid: Viruses are classified
into two main divisions depending on the type
of nucleic acid they possess: Riboviruses are
those containing RNA and deoxyriboviruses
are those containing DNA.
2. Number of strands of nucleic acid: Single-or
double-stranded, linear, circular, circular with
breaks, segmented;
3. Polarity of the viral genome: RNA viruses in
which the viral genome can be used directly
as messenger RNA are by convention termed
‘positive-stranded’ and those for which a
transcript has first to be made are termed
‘negative-stranded’
4. The symmetry of the nucleocapsid
5. The presence or absence of a lipid envelope.
Short Descriptions of the Major Groups
of Viruses
DNA Viruses (Fig. 53.7)
1. Herpesviridae family: Human herpesviruses
include herpes simplex types 1 and 2 (oral
and genital lesions), vari­c ella-zoster virus
(chickenpox and shingles), cytomegalovirus,
Epstein-Barr virus (infectious mononucleosis
and association with human neoplasms),
human herpesviruses 6 and 7 (T Iymphotropic),
and human herpesvirus 8 (associated with
Kaposi’s sarcoma). Other herpesviruses occur
in many animals.
2. Hepadnaviridae family: This consists of
the human hepatitis type B virus and related
viruses of animals and birds. (The name comes
from hepa = liver, and dna for DNA core.)
3. Papovaviridae family: Two genera have been
recognized. Papillomavirus and Polvomavirus.
Papillomavirus is also a former member of the
Papovaviridae family. Polyomaviruses were
formerly a part of the Papovaviridae family
before it was split into two families.
4. Adenoviridae family: Members have been
classified into two gen­era: Mastadenovirus
(mammalian adenoviruses) and Aviadenovirus
(adenoviruses of birds).
5. Parvoviridae family: Three genera have been
described: Parvovirus, Adenosatellovirus and
Densovirus.
6. Poxviridae family: The family is divided into
several genera. All poxviruses tend to produce
skin lesions. Some are patho­genic for humans
(smallpox, vaccinia, molluscum conta­giosum);
others that are pathogenic for animals and can
infect humans (cowpox, monkeypox).
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 Chapter 53: General Properties of Viruses  | 389

Fig. 53.7: Summary of the classification of DNA viruses

Fig. 53.8: Summary of the classification of RNA viruses

RNA Viruses (Fig. 53.8) 4. Bunyaviridae Family

1. Picornaviridae Family
Three genera are of medical importance:
i. Enterovirus, including polio, coxsackie, echo
and several other related viruses.
ii. Rhinovirus, including human, bovine and
equine rhinoviruses.
iii. Hepatovirus: Hepatitis A virus.
2. Orthomyxoviridae Family
Only one genus lnfluenzavirus has been recognised.
Influenzavirus type C possesses several distinctive
features and may have to be sepa­rated into a new
genus.
3. Paramyxoviridae Family
Three genera have been recognized:
i. Paramyxovirus which consists of the
Newcastle disease virus, mumps virus and
parainfluenza viruses of humans, other
mammals and birds.
ii. Morbillivirus, containing measles, canine
distem­per, rinderpest and related viruses.
iii. Pneumovirus, containing respiratory syncytial
vi­rus of humans and related viruses.
Five genera are established—the large genus
Bunyavirus containing about 150 species-and four
other genera—Hantavirus, Nairovirus, Phlebovirus,
Ukuvirus, and many unas­signed viruses.
5. Arenaviridae Family
Only one genus Arenavirus has been recognized.
Species include lym­phocytic choriomeningitis
virus, Lassa and members of the Tacaribe complex.
6. Rhabdoviridae Family
Two genera have been recognized:
i. Vesiculovirus, containing vesicular stomatitis
virus, Chandipura virus (isolated from human
in India) and re­lated species.
ii. Lyssavirus, containing the rabies virus and
related viruses such as Lagos bat, Mokola,
Duvenhage and oth­ers.
7. Togaviridae Family
Three genera have been described:
i. Alpha virus, consisting of viruses formerly
classi­fied as Group A arboviruses.
ii. Rubivirus, consisting of the rubella virus and
has no arthropod vector.

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Chap-53.indd 389 15-03-2016 11:33:24 AM
 390  |  Section 4: Virology
iii. Pestivirus, consisting of the mucosal disease
virus, hog cholera vi­rus and related viruses.
8. Coronaviridae Family
Only one genus Coronavirus has been recognized.
Toroviruses, which cause gastroenteritis, form a
distinct genus.
9. Retroviridae Family: (Re = reverse, tr =
transcriptase)
These are RNA tumor viruses and related agents.
The characteristic biochemical feature is the
presence of RNA-dependent DNA polymerase
(reverse transcriptase) within the virus that
produces a DNA copy of the RNA genome. This
DNA becomes circularized and integrated into host
chromosomal DNA. The virus is then replicated
from the integrated “provirus” DNA copy. Three
subfamilies are recognized:
1. Oncovirinae, the RNA tumor virus group.
2. Spumivirinae, the foamy virus group (Spuma =
foam)
3. Lentivirinae, (Lenti = slow) visna and maedi
viruses of sheep belonging to the slow virus
group.
10. Flaviviridae Family
This group of arboviruses includes yellow fever
virus and dengue viruses.
11. Caliciviridae Family
An important human pathogen is Norwalk virus,
the cause of epidemic acute gastroenteritis.
12. Filoviridae Family
This contains the Marburg and Ebola viruses
causing human hemorrhagic fevers.
13. Reoviridae Family
Three genera have been recognized:
1. Reovirus, containing reoviruses from humans,
other mammals and birds.
2. Orbivirus, containing several species of
arboviruses such as blue tongue virus, African
horse sickness virus.
3. Coltivirus includes Colorado tick fever virus of
humans.
4. Rotavirus including human rotaviruses, calf
di­arrhea virus and related agents. Other genera
may have to be defined to include plant and
insect viruses belong­ing to this family.
Viroids
Viroids are small infectious agents which are
circular single stranded RNAs (MW 70,000–120,000)
Chap-53.indd 390
without a protein coat. They cause disease of plants.
Viroids are agents that do not fit the definition of
classic viruses.
PRIONS
Prions (proteinaceous infectious particles) are
infectious particles composed solely of protein
with no detectable nucleic acid. Unlike viruses, the
agents are resistant to a wide range of chemical and
physical treatments. They are highly resistant to
inactivation by heat, formaldehyde, and ultraviolet
light that inacti­vate viruses. The prion protein is
encoded by a single cellular gene.
Prion diseases: Prion diseases, called “transmissible
spongiform encephalopathies,’’ include scrapie in
sheep, mad cow disease in cattle, and kuru and
Creutzfeldt–­Jakob disease in humans. Prions do
not appear to be viruses. It has been suggested that
they may also be responsible for some other chronic
neuro­logical degenerative diseases of humans.
Key Points
™™ Viruses are the smallest known infective agents
™™ The viruses are obligate intracellular parasites
™™ They do not grow in inanimate media. They are
resistant to antibiotics
™™ The extracellular infectious virus particle is the virion
™™ The viruses vary widely in their size: Range from 20
nm virus (arboviruses) to 300 nm virus (poxvirus)
™™ The virion consists of a nucleic acid core, the genome,
surrounded by a protein coat, the capsid
™™ Viruses may have icosahedral (cubical) symmetry,
helical symmetry, or complex symmetry
™™ The capsid together with the enclosed nucleic acid
is known as the nucleocapsid. Some viruses are
surrounded by envelopes
™™ Three methods are employed for cultivation of
viruses namely animal inoculation, embryonated egg
inoculation and tissue culture
™™ Embryonated egg inoculation is done by one of the
several routes such as chorioallantoic membrane
(CAM), allantoic cavity, amniotic sac and yolk sac
™™ Tissue culture are of three types: Organ culture;
explant culture and cell culture
™™ The viruses show variation in their genomic structure
by mutations and recombination
™™ Depending on the type of nucleic acids viruses
possess, they are classified into two groups:
Deoxyriboviruses that contain DNA (DNA virus) and
riboviruses that contain RNA (RNA virus)
™™ Prions (proteinaceous infectious particles) are
infectious particles composed solely of protein with
no detectable nucleic acid
™™ Prion diseases, called “transmissible spongiform
encephalopathies,’’ include scrapie in sheep, mad
cow disease in cattle, and kuru and Creutzfeldt­Jakob
disease in humans.
Important questions
1. Describe the various methods of isolation of
viruses in the laboratory.
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 Chapter 53: General Properties of Viruses  | 391
2. Describe the classification of viruses.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Morphology of viruses
b. Determination of size of viruses
c. Viral hemagglutination
d. Recombination in viruses
e. Cultivation of viruses
f. Detection of virus growth in cell cultures
g. Prions
h. Viroids
Multiple choice questions (Mcqs)
1. The viruses show all the following features except:
a. They are filterable agents
b. They are obligate intracellular parasites
c. They contain either DNA or RNA, but not both
d. They multiply inside the living cells by using
their synthe­sizing machinery
2. The symmetry of poxviruses is:
a. Icosahedral
b. Helical
c. Complex
d. None of the above
3. Which of the following is the largest virus?
a. Smallpox virus b. Adenovirus
c. Coronavirus d. Parvovirus
4. Which of the following viruses is/are relatively
thermostable?
a. Hepatitis A virus
b. Human immunodeficiency virus
c. Rubella virus
d. All of the above
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Chap-53.indd 391
5. All the following are the examples of enveloped
viruses except:
a. Polio virus b. Rubivirus
c. Adenovirus d. Herpesvirus
6. Which of the following disinfectants is/are effective
against viruses?
a. Hypochlorite b. Formaldehyde
c. Hydrogen peroxide d. All of the above
7. Suckling mice are used for the isolation of:
a. Poxviruses b. Herpesviruses
c. Arboviruses d. All of the above
8. All are continuous cell lines for growing viruses
except:
a. HeLa
b. HEp-2
c. KB
d. Rhesus monkey kidney cell culture
9. The following routes of inoculating embryonated
hen’s egg is/are used for cultivation of viruses:
a. Chorioallantoic membrane
b. Amniotic cavity
c. Allantoic cavity
d. All of the above
10. Which of the following agents is/are prions?
a. Agent causing kuru
b. Agent causing scrapie
c. Agent causing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
d. All of the above
Answers (MCQs)
1. d; 2 c; 3. d; 4. a; 5. b; 6. d; 7. c; 8. d; 9. d; 10. d
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Virus–Host Interactions: Viral Infections
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe inclusion bodies
∙∙ Describe routes of transmission of human virus
infections
Interactions between viruses and
host cells
Virus–host interactions may be considered at
different levels—the cell, the individual and
the community. The cellular response to viral
infection may range from no apparent effect to
cytopathology with accompanying cell death to
hyperplasia or cancer.
Some vi­ruses, like poliovirus cause cell death
(cytocidal ef­fect) or even lysis (cytolysis). Others
may cause cellular proliferation (as molluscum
contagiosum) or malignant transformation (as
oncogenic viruses). In some instances, the virus
and host cell enter into a peaceful coexistence,
both replicating independently without any
cellular injury, a condition known as ‘steady state
infection.’
1. Cellular factors: The presence of appropriate
receptors on the surface of the cell determines
whether virus can adsorb to it and the virus
gets into the cell. It must replicate in order to
establish infection, which may take several
forms.
2. Cytopathic effects: Many viruses kill the
cells in which they replicate, sometimes with
characteristic appearances or cytopathic effects
(CPEs). These are often distinctive enough to
give an idea of the virus concerned, a property
that is useful in the diagnostic laboratory.
a. Cell lysis: Death of the cell is followed by
lysis and release of large numbers of virions.
b. Cell fusion: Some cause fusion of
adjacent cell membranes, leading to
5454
Chapter
∙∙ D
 escribe the following: Immunity in virus infections;
interferons.
syncytium formation by paramyxoviruses.
Herpesviruses and some retroviruses also
give rise to syncytia.
c. Inclusion bodies : Inclusion bodies
are structures with distinct size, shape,
location and staining properties that can be
demonstrated in virus infected cells under
the light microscope. The appearance of
inclusion bodies is the most characteristic
histological feature in virus-infected cells.
They may be acidophilic (stained by eosin)
or baso­philic (stained by hematoxylin),
single or multiple, large or small and round
or irregular. The presence of inclusion bodies
may be of consider­able diagnostic aid. The
intracytoplasmic inclusion in nerve cells,
the Negri body, is pathognomonic for rabies.
They may be situated in the nucleus, in the
cytoplasm or in both.
Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies: Those
viruses that have cytoplasmic assembly (mainly
RNA vir­uses) yield cytoplasmic inclusions.
These are found in cells infected with rabies
virus (Negri bodies), vac­c inia (Guarnieri
bodies), fowlpox (Bollinger bodies), molluscum
contagiosum (molluscum bodies), para­
myxoviruses and reoviruses.
Intranuclear inclusion bodies: In general,
those viruses that are assembled in the nucleus
(usu­ally DNA viruses) produce intranuclear
inclusions. They are found in cells infected with
herpesviru­ses, adenoviruses and parvoviruses.
Intranuclear inclusion bodies were classi­fied
into two types by Cowdry (1934). Cowdry type
 Chapter 54: Virus–Host Interactions: Viral Infections  | 393
A inclusions are of variable size and granular
appear­a nce (as with herpesvirus, yellow
fever virus), while type B inclusions are more
circumscribed and often multiple (as with
adenovirus, poliovirus).
Intranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusion
bodies: Some viruses, such as measles virus and
cytomegalovirus may produce both intranuclear
and intracytoplasmic.
Nature of the inclusion bodies: The nature of
the inclusions varies with the virus concerned.
In many viral infections, the inclusion bodies are
the site of development of the virions (the viral
factories) or made up of virus antigens present at
the site of virus synthesis, or simply degenerative
changes produced by viral infection which
confer al­tered staining properties on the cell.
Varia­t ions in the appearance of inclusion
material depend largely upon the tissue fixative
used.
3. New cell-surface antigens: These antigens
may confer new properties on the cells. This is
particularly important in the case of enveloped
viruses that bud from the cell surface (e.g.
herpes-, myxo-, paramyxo-, and retroviruses).
Virus coded anti­gens also appear on the surface
of cells transformed by oncogenic viruses.
4. Dam­age to the chromosomes of host cells:
Certain viruses such as measles, mumps,
adenovi­ruses, cytomegalovirus and varicella
virus cause dam­a ge to the chromosomes
of host cells. Chromatid gaps and breaks in
chromosome 17 occur frequently in cul­tured
cells infected with adenovirus types 12 and 31.
5. Latent and persistent infections: Viruses have
evolved mechanisms to continue to survive in
the face of a strong host immune respo­nse.
Examples
i. Herpes simplex types 1 and 2 and varicella-
zoster viruses: The viruses remain latent in
the ganglia, to be reactivated periodically in
some indi­viduals causing recurrent lesions.
ii. Cytome­galovirus (CMV) and Epstein-Barr
virus (EBV): are also known to establish
latent infection.
iii. Hepatitis B virus (HBV): Some vir­uses like
hepatitis B virus (HBV) may cause chronic
infections which may remain clinically
inapparent for many years.
iv. Subacute sclerosing panencephali­t is
(SSPE): An important example of this type
of persist­ent infection is subacute sclerosing
panencephali­tis (SSPE). This disease develops
between 1 and 10 years after recovery from
measles virus infection.
v. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV):
Viruses that produce slowly progressive fatal
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diseases in man are human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) which causes acquired immuno­
deficiency syndrome; kuru agent and
Creutzfeldt-Jakob agent which cause slowly
progressive encephalo­pathy.
Pathogenesis of viral diseases
To produce disease, viruses must enter a host,
come in contact with susceptible cells, replicate,
and produce cell injury. Understanding of viral
pathogenesis at the mole­cular level is necessary
to design effective and specific antiviral strategies.
Much of our knowledge of viral pathogenesis is
based on animal models, because such systems
can be readily manipulated and studied.
Transmission of human virus
infections
Viruses enter the body through the following routes
(Table 54.1).
1. Respiratory Tract
Many viruses enter the body through inhaled drop­
lets expelled from the nose or mouth of infected
persons during talking, coughing or sneezing. This
Table 54.1  Transmission of human virus infection
Route of Viruses
transmission
1. Respiratory tract Respiratory viruses: Influenza A, B
and C, parainfluenza types 1–4, RSV,
rhinovirus, coronavirus, adenovirus
and coxsackievirus A
Systemic viruses: Measles, mumps,
rubella, varicella-zoster, CMV and EBV
2. Alimentary tract Many enteroviruses including
poliovirus types 1–3, HAV, HEV,
adenoviruses, rotaviruses, Norwalk
and related viruses, coronavirus,
astrovirus, coxsackievirus A and B
and echovirus
3. Skin Minor abrasions: Papillomaviruses,
molluscum contagiosum, cowpox,
orf, milker’s nodes viruses, herpes
simplex viruses and HBV
Insect bite: Arboviruses
Animal bite: Rabies virus, herpes
B virus
Injection: HBV, HCV, HIV-1, HIV-2,
HTLV, CMV, EBV and ebola virus
4. Genital tract Papillomaviruses, herpes simplex
viruses, HIV, HTLV, HBV, HCV
5. Conjunctiva Some adenoviruses and few
enteroviruses
RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; CMV, cytomegalovirus; EBV, Epstein-
Barr virus; HAV, hepatitis A virus; HEV, hepatitis E virus; HIV, human
immunodeficiency virus; HTLV, human T cell leukemia virus
394  |  Section 4: Virology
is the most frequent means of viral entry into the
host. Some viruses, such as influenza A, B and C,
parainfluenza types 1–4, respiratory syncytial virus
(RSV), Rhinovirus, Coronavirus, adenovirus and
coxsackievirus are restricted to respiratory tract
where they multiply and produce local disease.
Other viruses, multiply locally to initiate a silent
local infection which is followed by lymphatic or
hematogenous spread to other parts of the body
where more extensive multiplication takes place
before producing genera­lized disease.
2. Alimentary Tract
The alimentary tract is the next most important
route of entry for viruses. The viruses that initiate
infection of humans via the alimentary tract are
many enteroviruses inc­luding poliovirus types 1–3,
hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis E virus (HEV),
adenoviruses, rota­viruses, Norwalk and related
viruses, Coronavirus, Astrovirus, coxsackie A and
B and echovirus. Polioviruses, HAV and HEV do
not produce any intestinal symptoms, but cause
generalized inf­ection.
3. Skin
Of the viruses that enter through the skin, only a few
produce local lesions. Some obtain entry through
small abra­sions of the skin (papillomaviruses,
molluscum contagiosum, cowpox, orf, milker’s
nodes viruses, herpes simplex and HBV), insect
bite (arboviruses), animal bite (ra­b ies virus,
herpes B virus) or injection (HBV, HCV, HIV, HTLV,
CMV, EBV and Ebola virus) (Table 54.1).
Viruses that are introduced deeper into the
dermis have access to blood vessels, lymphatics,
dendritic cells, and macrophages and usually
spread and cause systemic infections. Rabies virus
travels along the nerves to the spinal cord or brain.
4. Conjunctiva
The conjuctiva also may act as a portal of entry for
viruses. This may lead to local disease (adenovirus)
or to systemic spread (measles).
5. Genital Tract
Papillomaviruses and herpes simplex viruses are
sexually transmitted and produce lesions on the
genitalia and perineum. HIV, HTLV, HBV and HCV
are also sexually transmitted but do not produce
local lesions.
6. Congenital Viral Infections
Congenital infection may occur at any stage from
the development of the ovum up to birth. If the
virus crosses the pla­centa and infection occurs in
utero, serious damage may be done to the fetus.
Rubella virus and cytomegalovirus are presently
the primary agents responsible for congenital
defects in humans and produce maldevelopment
or severe neonatal disease.
Spread of virus in the body
Generalized Infections
Sequence of events: The sequence of events,
summarized as follows:
1. Entry: Virions enter through an epithelial
surface, where they undergo limited replication.
2. Migration: They then migrate to the regional
lymph nodes where some are taken up by
macrophages and inactivated, but others enter
the bloodstream.
3. Primary viremia: Virions which enter the
bloodstream. This is the primary viremia
4. Secondary viremia: From the blood, the virus
gains access to the large reticuloendothelial
organs—liver, spleen, and bone marrow—in
which it again multiplies, and a large amount
of virus is pro­duced which again spills over into
the bloodstream, causing a secondary viremia.
This heralds the onset of clinical symptoms (the
prodromal phase in eruptive fevers).
5. Target organ: The virus reaches the target
organ through the bloodstream. Multiplication
in the target sites produces the distinctive
lesions.
Significance of the
incubation period
The incubation period represents the time taken
for the virus to spread from the site of entry to
the organs of viral multiplication and hence to
the target organs for the production of lesions. Its
duration is therefore influenced by the relation
between the sites of entry, multiplication and
lesion. They are classifed into four main groups:
short, medium, long, and very long.
1. Short means less than a week and primarily
applies to viruses causing localized infections
that spread rapidly on mucous sur­faces.
2. Medium incubation periods range from about
7–21 days.
3. Long refers to periods measured in weeks or
months (e.g. 2–6 weeks for hepatitis A and 6–20
weeks for hepatitis B). Rabies may also have
incubation periods extending for many months.
4. Very long incubation periods are measured
in years, which is why the agents involved were
originally termed ‘slow’ viruses. This group
comprises the prions and a few’con­ventional’
viruses, such as papovaviruses and measles,
which very occasionally cause delayed disease
of the central nervous system.
 Chapter 54: Virus–Host Interactions: Viral Infections  | 395
Host response to virus infections
The outcome of a virus infection is influenced
by the virulence of the infecting strain and the
resistance offered by the host. Mechanisms of host
resistance may be immunological or nonspecific.
A. Immunological Response
Virions in general are good antigens and induce
both antibody- and cell-mediated immunity (CMI).
For some diseases such as poxviruses, measles,
herpes sim­plex virus and CMV infections, CMI
appears to be the main immunospecific defence,
for others, such as enterovirus and arbovirus
infections, antibody production appears to be the
main immunospecific defence. However, some
viruses have evolved strategies to evade detection
and persist in their host.
1. Antibody-mediated Immunity
In mediating humoral antiviral immunity, the
important classes of antibodies are IgG, IgM
and IgA. IgG and IgM play a major role in blood
and tissue spaces, while secretory IgA antibody
is important in protecting against infection by
viruses through the respiratory or gastrointestinal
tracts. Humoral immu­nity protects the host against
reinfection by the same virus. Mechanisms of
antibodies effecting virus neutralization
Antibodies effect virus neutralization by several
mechanisms:
i. They may prevent adsorption of the virus to cell
receptors, cause enhanced virus degradation
or prevent release of the progeny virus from
infected cells.
ii. Opsonization of virions for phagocytosis and
killing by macrophages.
iii. Complement acts in conjunction with
antibodies in causing surface damage to
enveloped virions and in producing cytolysis
of virus infected cells.
2. Cell-mediated Immunity
Cell-mediated immunity prevents infection of
target organs and pro­motes recovery from disease
by destroying virus and virus-infected cells by any
of the following four different processes:
1. Cytolysis by cytotoxic T cells(Tc) cells.
2. Cytolysis by natural killer (NK) cells.
3. Antibody-complement-mediated cytotoxicity.
4. Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity
(ADCC).
B. Nonimmunological Responses
1. Phagocytosis: Polymorphonuclear leukocytes
do not play any significant role in the defence
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against viral infections. On the other hand,
macrophages phagocytose viruses and
are important in clearing viruses from the
bloodstream.
2. Fever: Fever may act as a natural defence
mechanism against viral infections as most
viruses are inhibited by temperatures above
39°C.
3. Hormones: Corticosteroid administration
enhances most viral infections. Injudicious
use of steroids in the treatment of herpetic
keratoconjunctivitis may cause blindness.
4. Malnutrition: Malnutrition can exacerbate viral
infections, for example, mea­sles produces a much
higher case fatality in mal­nourished than in well-
fed children.
5. Age: Most viral infections are commoner and
more dangerous at the two extremes of age.
6. Interferon: Interferons are a family of host
coded proteins produced by cells on induction
by viral or nonviral inducers. Isaacs and
Lindenmann in 1957 discovered that virus
­infected cells produce a soluble factor that
protects other cells from infection and they gave
the name interferon to this antiviral substance.
Mode of action of interferon: On exposure to
interferon, cells produce a protein (translation
inhibiting protein, TIP) which selectively inhibits
translation of viral mRNA, without affecting cellular
mRNA. What has been called TIP is “actually
a mixture of at least three different enzymes (a
protein kinase, an oligonucleotide synthetase and
an RNAase) which together block translation of
viral mRNA into viral proteins. It has also been
suggested that inhibition of viral transcription
may also be responsible for the antiviral activity
of interferon.
Synthesis of Interferons
Interferons are produced by all vertebrate species.
Nor­mal cells do not generally synthesize interferon
until they are induced to do so. Viruses also vary
in their capacity to induce interferon, cytocidal
and virulent viruses being poor inducers and
avirulent viruses being good inducers. Infection
with viruses is a potent insult leading to induction;
RNA viruses are stronger inducers of interferon
than DNA viruses.
Types of Interferon
There are multiple species of interferons that fall
into three general groups, designated IFN-a, IFN-
b, and IFN-g.
1. Alpha-interferon (IFN-a): It is produced by
leukocytes following induction by suitable
viruses.
396  |  Section 4: Virology
2. Beta-interferon (IFN-b): It is produced by fibro­ ™™ Interferons are a family of host coded proteins
blasts and epithelial cells following stimulation produced by cells on induction by viral or nonviral
by viruses or polynucleotides. It is a glycoprotein. inducers. Interferons fall into three general groups,
3. Gamma-interferon (IFN-g): It is produced by designated IFN-a, IFN-b, and IFN-g
T lymphocytes, on stimulation by antigens or
mitogens. Important Questions
1. Discuss various methods by which viruses can be
Main Biological Effects of Interferons transmitted to human beings.
1. Antiviral effects: Induction of resistance to 2. Write short notes on:
infections. a. Inclusion bodies b. Interferons
2. Antimicrobial effects: Resistance to intracellular
infections, for example, toxoplasma, chlamydia, Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
malaria. 1. Syncytium formation is the typical cytopathic
3. Cellular effects: Inhibition of cell growth and effect produced by:
proliferation; and of DNA and protein synthesis; a. Adenovirus b. Herpes virus
c. Measles virus d. SV40
increased expression of MHC antigens on cell
2. Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies are found in
surfaces.
cells infected with:
4. Immunoregulatory effects: Enhanced cytotoxic a. Rabies virus
activity of NK, K and T cells; activation of b. Vaccinia virus
macrophage cytocidal activity; modulation of c. Molluscum contagiosum virus
antibody formation; activation of suppressor T d. All of the above
cells; suppression of DTH. 3. All of the following viruses are transmitted by the
respiratory route except:
a. Mumps virus b. Measles virus
Key Points c. Rubella virus d. Norwalk virus
4. All of the following viruses may be transmitted
™™ Virus-host interactions may be considered at the
level of the cell, individual and community through genital tract except:
™™ The cellular response to viral infection may range a. Papillomavirus
from no apparent effect to cytopathology with b. Herpes simplex virus
accompanying cell death to hyperplasia or cancer c. Hepatitis C virus
™™ Inclusion bodies are structures with distinct size, d. Coronavirus
shape, location and staining properties that can be 5. Which type/s of interferon is/are produced by T
demonstrated in virus infected cells under the light lymphocytes?
microscope a. a b. b
™™ Viruses enter the body through the respiratory tract, c. g d. g and b
the alimentary tract, the skin, conjunctiva and the 6. Which type/s of interferon are produced by virus
genital tract; many viruses (cytomegalovirus and infected cells?
rubella) can also be transmitted vertically from a. a
parent to progeny b. b
™™ The immune response is the best and most c. Both of the above
important means of controlling virus infections. d. None of the above
™™ Nonimmunological responses include age;
phagocytosis, fever, hormones, age and interferon Answers (MCQs)
1. c; 2. d; 3. d; 4. d; 5. c; 6. c.

Laboratory Diagnosis, Prophylaxis and
Chemotherapy of Viral Diseases
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe laboratory diagnosis of viral infections
Laboratory diagnosis of
viral infections
1. Indications for Labora­tory Diagnosis
of Viral Infections
i. Diagnosis of diseases caused by viruses
for which antivi­ral chemotherapy is already
available (herpes­viruses, human immuno­
deficiency virus (HIV).
ii. For proper management of the patient
Example:
– Rubella, rabies diagnosis
– Rabies in the animal and postexposure
immunization of the patient prevents the
development of rabies
– Primary genital herpes
– Baby born to an HBsAg positive mother.
iii. Screening of blood donors: For the prevention
of some diseases (such as screening for HBV
and HIV in blood donors).
iv. Early detection of dangerous epidemics:
Such as yellow fever, encephalitis, influenza,
poliomyelitis, etc.
v. To discover new viruses: HIV was discovered
in 1983.
2. Specimens
The appropriate specimens should be collected
from patients, preserved and transported to
the laboratory in the proper manner along with
pertinent clinical and epidemiological information.
3. Methods for Laboratory Diagnosis of
Viral Infections
Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections can be
carried out by the following methods:
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55
Chapter
∙∙ Describe immunoprophylaxis of viral diseases
∙∙ Describe the following: Live viral vaccines; killed
viral vaccines.
A. Direct detection of virus
B. Virus isolation and growth
C. Detection of viral proteins
D. Detection of viral genetic material
E. Serology.
A. Direct Detection of Virus
1. Electron Microscopy (EM)
Clinical applications of electron microscopy include
detection of rotavirus and hepatitis A virus in fecal
speci­mens, poxviruses in vesicle fluid and herpes
virus in brain biopsy tissue.
2. Immunoelectron Microscopy
The addition of virus-specific antibody to a
sample can cause viral particles to clump, thereby
facilitating the detection and simultaneous
identification of the virus (immunoelectron
microscopy). This method is useful for the
detection of enteric viruses, such as rotavirus.
3. Fluorescence Microscopy
Direct or indirect fluorescent antibody technique
can be used to detect virions or viral antigens in
frozen tissue sections, acetone-fixed cell smears,
cells from virus infected cultures or vesicles fluid.
Fluorescence microscopy of brain biopsy can
be used for the verification of rabies in the brain
of animals suspected to be rabid. This method is
also useful for the rapid diagnosis of respiratory
infections caused by paramyxoviruses, orthomyxo­
viruses, adenoviruses and herpes viruses.
4. Light Microscopy
Demonstration of the inclusion body is a routine
diagnostic method. Rabies may be detected
398  |  Section 4: Virology
through the finding of Negri bodies (rabies virus
inclu­sions) in brain cells of animals.
B. Virus Isolation
For virus isolation it is imperative that the specimen
be collected properly and transported with least
delay to the laboratory. The reasons are that many
viruses are labile and that the samples are sus­ceptible
to bacterial and fungal overgrowth. Viruses are best
transported and stored on ice and in special media.
In general, the methods used for isolation
consist of inoculation into animals, eggs or tissue
culture, after the specimen is processed to remove
bacterial contaminants.
The isolates are identified by neutralization
or other suitable serological procedures. Many
viruses (for example adenoviruses, enteroviruses)
are frequently found in normal individuals. The
results of isolation should always be interpreted
in the light of the clinical data.
C. Detection of Viral Proteins
The viral proteins can be assayed by the following
methods:
i. Protein patterns (by electrophoresis)—HSV.
ii. Enzyme activities (e.g. reverse transcriptase)—
Retrovirus.
iii. Hemagglutination and hemadsorption—
Influenza virus.
iv. Antigen detection: Viral antigens on the cell
surface or within the cell can be detected by
immunofluorescence and enzyme immuno­
assay (EIA). Virus or antigen released from
infected cells can be detected by enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), radio­
immunoassay (RIA), and latex agglutination
(LA).
D. Detection of Viral Genetic Material
i. The electrophoretic patterns of RNA (influ­
enza, reovirus) or restriction endonuclease
fragment lengths from DNA viral genomes
are like genetic fingerprints for these viruses.
ii). Different strains of HSV-l and HSV-2 can
be distinguished in this way by restriction
fragment length polymorphism.
ii. DNA probes: DNA probes with sequences
complementary to spe­c ific regions of a
viral genome can be used, like anti­bodies,
as sensitive and specific tools for detecting
a virus. Enzyme-labelled or radiolabeled
nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) sequences
complementary to unique reg­ions in nucleic
acid sequences of most viruses are now
manufactured commercially. These labeled
complementary sequences are known as
nucleic acid probes. Two strands of the target
DNA mole­cule in the clinical specimens are
first separated, then, allowed to hybridize with
a labeled single-stranded DNA or RNA probe
present in excess. Depending on the type
of label attached to the probe, hybridized-
labeled probe can be detected by radiography,
gamma-counting or a simple colorimetric
evaluation (dot-blot hybridiza­tion). The DNA
probes are detected with autoradiography
or with fluorescent or EIA-like methods. By
use of nucleic acid probes cytomegalovi­rus,
papillomavirus and Epstein-Barr virus have
been identified.
iii. Southern, Northern andd Dot blot analy­sis:
Viral genomes can also be detected in clinical
sam­ples with the use of dot blot or Southern
blot analy­sis. Electrophoretically sepa­rated
viral RNA (Northern blot-RNA: DNA probe
hybridization) blotted onto a nitrocellulose
filter can be detected in a similar manner.
iv. Polymerase chain reaction: The polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) for DNA, reverse
transcriptase polymerase chain reaction(RT-
PCR) for RNA, and branched-chain DNA
(DNA, RNA) assays are becoming very
important for viral detection.
Use of the appropriate primers for PCR can
promote a million-fold amplification of a
target se­quence in a few hours. This technique
is especially useful for detecting latent and
integrated sequences of viruses, such as
retroviruses, herpes viruses, papillomavi­
ruses, and other papovaviruses as well as
the sequences of viruses present in low
concentrations.
v. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain
reaction (RT-PCR) for RNA: This appro­ach
was very useful for identifying and disting­
uishing the Hantaviruses.
vi. Branched-chain DNA assays: Quantitate
viral DNA or RNA much like ELISA.
E. Serological Diagnosis
The demonstration of a rise in titer of antibodies
to a virus during the course of a disease is strong
evidence that it is the etiological agent. For this,
it is essential to examine paired sera, the ‘acute’
sample collected early in the course of the disease
and the ‘convalescent’ sample collected 10–14
days later. Examination of a single sample of serum
for antibodies may not be meaningful except
when IgM specific tests are done which is present
during the first 2 or 3 weeks of a primary infection,
generally indicates a recent primary infection.
The serological techniques employed would
depend on the virus but those in general uses
are neutralization, complement fixation, ELISA,
 Chapter 55: Laboratory Diagnosis, Prophylaxis and Chemotherapy of Viral Diseases  | 399
hemagglutination inhibition tests, indirect fluore­ ∙∙ Recombinant live viral or bacterial vectors, e.g.
scent antibody test, latex agglutination test. influenza.

Immunoprophylaxis of Advantages of live-virus Vaccines

viral diseases 1. Single dose: A single dose is usually sufficient
because they multiply in the human host and
A. Acive Immunization provide conti­nuous antigenic stimulation over
Viral vaccines are of the following types (Table 55.1). a period of time resulting in durable immunity.
2. Local immunity: They can be administered
I. Live-virus Vaccines by the route of natural infection so that local
These are prepared from: immunity is induced.
∙∙ Attenuated strains, e.g. yellow fever 3. Wide spectrum of immunoglobulins: Including
∙∙ Temperature sensitive (ts) and cold-adapted secretory IgA to whole range of viral antigens.
(ca) mutants, e.g. influenza 4. Cell-mediated immunity
5. long-lasting immunity
Table 55.1  Viral vaccines in common use 6. Primary vaccine failures are uncommon.
Disease Type of Mode of preparation 7. More economical.
vaccine
Poliomyelitis Live Avirulent strains grown Disadvantages of live-virus Vaccines
Killed in monkey kidney cell 1. Reversion of virulence
culture
2. Heat-labile: and have to be preserved under
Virulent strains grown
in monkey kidney cell strict refrigeration.
culture, formalin-killed 3. Interference: Interference by coinfection with a
Rabies Killed (sample Fixed virus grown naturally occurring, wild-type virus may inhibit
type) in sheep brain and replication of the vaccine virus and decrease
inactivated by phenol or its effectiveness, e.g. with the vaccine strains of
beta propiolactone poliovirus inhibited by concurrent infections by
Killed Virus grown in cell various enteroviruses.
culture and inactivated 4. Contamination: with poten­tially dangerous
with beta propiolactone viruses, such as oncogenic viruses or other
Yellow fever Live (17D) Attenuated virus grown infectious agents.
in chick embryos and 5. Local remote complications
lyophilized
6. Virus may spread from the vaccines to contacts.
Japanese Killed Virus grown in mouse
encephalitis brain and inactivated by
formalin II. Killed Viral Vaccines
Varicella Live Attenuated virus Killed vaccines have been prepared by inactivating
grown in chick embryo viruses with heat, phenol and formalin or beta
fibroblast culture propiolactone. Adverse reactions may also be
Mumps Live Attenuated virus grown reduced by the use of ‘subunit vaccines’ in which
in human diploid cell the virus is split by detergents or other chemicals
culture and only the relevant antigens incorporated in
Influenza Killed Virus disintegrated with the vaccine. Vaccine production by cloning the
(subunit) sodium deoxycholate desired antigen in bacteria or yeast is becoming
Live Virus attenuated by
(attenuated) serial passage in eggs
increasingly common, as in hepatitis B vaccine.
Live (mutant) (ts) mutants which are
Live avirulent Advantages
(recombinant) Recombinants with
surface antigens
1. Stability and safety.
of new strains and 2. They can be given in combination as polyvalent
growth characters of vaccines.
established strains 3. There is also no danger of the spread of the virus
Measles Live Attenuated virus grown from the vaccinee.
in tissue culture
Rubella Live Attenuated virus grown Disadvantages
in tissue culture
1. Extreme care is required in their manufacture
Hepatitis B Cloned HBsAg cloned in yeast to make certain that no residual live virulent
subunit
virus is pres­ent in the vaccine.

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400  |  Section 4: Virology
2. The immunity conferred is often brief and must Table 55.2  Major antiviral compounds used for
be boosted. treatment of viral infections
3. Parenteral administration of killed-virus
Drug Viral spectrum
vaccine, even when it stimulates circulating
Viral polymerase inhibitors
antibody (IgM, IgG) to satisfactory levels, has
sometimes given limited pro­tection because Acyclovir Herpes simplex, varicella-
zoster
local resistance (IgA) is not induced ade­quately.
4. Cell-mediated response to inactivated vac­cines Cidofovir Cytomegalovirus, herpes
simplex
is generally poor.
Foscarnet Herperviruses, HIV-1, HBV
5. Some killed-virus vaccines have induced hyper­
sensitivity to subsequent infection. Ganciclovir Cytomegalovirus
Valacyclovir Herpesviruses
B. Passive Immunization Vidarabine Herpesviruses, vaccinia,
HBV
Passive immunization with human gammaglobulin,
convalescent serum or specific immune globulin Blocking of viral uncoating
gives temporary protection against many viral Amantadine Influenzavirus A
diseases such at. measles, mumps and infectious HIV protease inhibitors
hepatitis. These are indicated only when Indinavir HIV-1, HIV-2
nonimmune individuals who are as special risk
Ritonavir HIV-1, HIV-2
are exposed to infection. Combined active and
passive immunization is an established method Saquinavir HIV-1, HIV-2
for the prevention of rabies. Reverse transcriptase inhibitors
Lamivudine HIV-1, HIV-2, HBV
Chemoprophylaxis and (dideoxythiacytidine)
chemotherapy of virus diseases Nevirapine HIV-1
Stavudine HIV-1, HIV-2
Because viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, (didehydrodexoythymidine)
antiviral agents must be capable of selectively
Zidovudine HIV-1, HIV-2, HBV
inhibiting viral functions without damaging the
(azidothymidine, AZT)
host, making the development of such drugs very
Zatcitabine HIV-1, HIV-2, HBV
difficult. Viral infection may be checked at the
(dideoxycytidine, ddC)
level of attachment, transcription of viral nucleic
acid, translation of viral mRNA, replication of viral Didanosine HIV-1, HIV-2
(dideoxyinosine, ddl)
nucleic acid and’ assembly and release of viral
progeny. Blocking of capping of mRNA

Available antiviral agents can be considered Ribavirin Respiratory synchtial virus,

Influenzaviruses A and B
under the following categories (Table 55.2). Lassa fever

1. Nucleoside Analogs 2. Protease Inhibitors

Examples of nucleoside analogs include acyclovir
(acycloguanosine), lamivudine (3TC), ribavirin,
vidarabine (adenine arabinoside), and zidovudine
(azi­dothymidine; AZT).
Acyclovir (Acycloguanosine)
Acyclovir (acycloguanosine) is acting against
herpes viruses. The related drug ganciclovir is more
active against CMV.
Amantadine and Rimantadine
These synthetic amines specifically inhibit
influenza A viruses by block­ing viral uncoating.
Amantadine (adamantanamine hydrochloride,
symmetrol) blocks host cell penetration by
influenza A virus but not B or C. A derivative
rimantadine is less toxic and equally effective.
Saquinavir was the first protease inhibitor to be
approved for treatment of HIV infection. Other
protease inhibitors include indinavir and ritonavir.
Azidothymidine (Zidovudine, AZT)
The widely publicized drug azidothymidine
(zidovudine, AZT) used against HIV infection is
a thymidine analogue. AZT is used widely in HIV
infection, but is toxic and costly.
A series of did eoxynucleosides (didanosine,
zalcitabine, stavudine and lamivudine) have been
synthesized and found to possess anti-HIV activity
by blocking reverse transcriptase.
Interferons
Beneficial effect of interferons has been obtained
in persistent infections such as hepatitis B and C,
 Chapter 55: Laboratory Diagnosis, Prophylaxis and Chemotherapy of Viral Diseases  | 401
laryngeal papilloma and against CMV infections 3. If Polymerase chain reaction is useful in the
in transplant recipients. High doses of interferon diagnosis of which of the following infec­tions?
lead to toxic effects. a. Hepatitis B virus
b. HIV
Key Points c. Human papilloma virus
d. All of the above
™™ Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections can be carried 4. Fluorescence microscopy can be used for the
out by the methods, such as I. Direct detection of laboratory diagnosis of:
virus; II. Virus isolation; III. Detection of viral protins; a. Herpes simplex encephalitis
IV. Detection of viral genetic material and serology b. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
™™ Immunoprophylaxis of viral diseases is by active and c. Rabies
passive immunization d. All of the above
™™ Viral vaccines are used for active immunization 5. Which of the following vaccines is/are live?
which may be may be live or killed a. Measles vaccine
™™ Passive immunization with human gamma globulin, b. Mumps vaccine
convalescent serum or specific immune globulin c. Rubella vaccine
gives temporary protection against many viral d. All of the above
diseases. 6. Antiviral drugs are available against all the
following viral infections except:
a. Herpes simplex virus
Important Questions b. Human immunodeficiency virus
c. Rubella vaccine
1. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of viral infections. d. Measles virus
2. Discuss viral vaccines. 7. All the following are the examples of protease
3. Write short notes on: inhibitors antiviral agents except:
a. Live viral vaccines a. Saquinavir
b. Acquired immunity in viral infections b. Amantadine
c. Antiviral therapies. c. Indinavir
d. Nelfinavir
Multiple choice questions (MCQs) 8. Acyclovir is used for treatment of which of the
following infections?
1. Electron microscopy can be used for the laboratory a. Herpes simplex b. Hepatitis B
diagnosis of: c. AIDS d. Influenza
a. Rotavirus infections 9. Amantadine is used for the treatment of:
b. Hepatitis A virus infections a. Varicella-zoster b. Hepatitis B
c. Adenovirus infections c. Influenza d. AIDS
d. All of the above 10. Which of the following drugs is/are effective against
2. Fluorescence microscopy can be used for the HIV?
laboratory diagnosis of: a. Zidovudine b. Ganciclor
a. Rabies c. Acyclovir d. All of the above
b. subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
c. Herpes simplex encephalitis Answers (MCQs)
d. all of the above 1. d; 2. d; 3. d; 4. d; 5. d; 6. d; 7. b; 8. a; 9. c; 10. a

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Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology of bacteriophage
Introduction
Viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages,
or simply phages. Phages can readily be isolated from
a wide range of environments such as feces, sewage
and other natural sources of mixed bacterial growth.
Role of bacteriophages
1. They play an important role in the transmission
of genetic information from one bacterium to
another by the process of transduc­tion.
2. They also play a role in the evolution of
bacterial types and in the transmission of some
virulence characters.
3. Phages may indeed be effective in treating
bacterial infections, including those caused by
antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
4. Phages have been used as cloning vectors in
genetic manipulations.
5. They may have a role in the control of bacterial
populations in natural waters.
Morphology
Certain bacteriophages that infect E. coli, called the
T even phages (T2, T4, T6), have been studied in
great detail and traditionally serve as the prototypes
in describing the properties of bacterio­phages.
Most phages are tadpole-shaped, possess a
hexagonal head and a cylindrical tail.
1. Head: The head consists of a tightly packed
core of nucleic acid (double stranded DNA)
surrounded by a protein coat or capsid. The
head of phage T4 has a diameter of 65 nm and
is 100 nm long.
56
Chapter
Bacteriophages
∙∙ Discuss lytic and lysogenic cycle of bacteriophage
∙∙ Describe phage typing.
2. Tail: The tail is cylindrical and is composed of a
central hollow core or tube, a con­tractile sheath
surrounding the core and a terminal base plate
which has attached to it prongs or tail fibers
(usually six in number) or both (Fig. 56.1) that
bind to specific receptor sites on the bacterial
surface.
The type of nucleic acid present in the phage
particle varies, but no phage has more than one
type. Although double-stranded DNA is the most
common, single­stranded RNA or DNA is present
in some phages.
Life cycle
Phages exhibit two different types of life cycle.
In the virulent or lytic cycle, intracellular mul­
tiplication of the phage culminates in the lysis
of the host bacterium and the release of progeny
virions. In the temperate or lysogenic cycle the
Fig. 56.1: Morphology of bacteriophage. A. hexagonal head,
B. DNA core, C. demarcation between head and tail, D. tail,
E. base plate, F. tail fibers, G. prongs; right, process of injection
of phage DNA into host cell

phage DNA becomes integrated with the bacterial
genome, repli­cating synchronously with it, causing
no harm to the host cell (Fig. 56.2).
1. Lytic Cycle
Replication of a virulent phage can be considered
in the following stages adsorption, pene­tration
and synthesis of phage components, assembly,
maturation and release of progeny phage particles.
i. Adsorption
By random collision, phage particles attach to
virus-specific receptors on the host cell by its tail.
Adsorption is a specific process and depends on
the presence of complementary chemical groups
on the receptor sites on the bacterial surface and on
the terminal base plate of the phage. The infection
of a bacterium by the naked phage nucleic acid is
known as transfec­tion.
ii. Penetration
After adsorption, most phages inject their nucleic
acid into the bacterial cytoplasm and leave their
Chapter 56: Bacteriophages  | 403
protein capsid outside. The process of penetration
resembles injection through a syringe. Following
adsorption, six tail pins make contact with the host
cell surface and firmly attach the phage plate to it.
The contractile tail sheath then contracts forcing
the hollow interior tail tube into the bacterial cell
wall. The phage DNA then passes through the
hollow interior tail tube. The empty head and tail
of the phage remain outside the bacterium as the
shell or ‘ghost’ after penetration.
When bacteria are mixed with phage particles at
high multiplicity (that is very large number of phages
per bacterial cell), multiple holes are produced on
the cell with the consequent leakage of cell contents.
Bac­terial lysis occurs without viral multiplication.
This is known as ‘lysis from without’.
iii. Synthesis of Phage Nucleic Acid and Proteins
The synthesis of the phage components is ini­tiated
immediately after penetration of the phage nucle­ic
acid. The first products to be synthesized (called
early proteins) are the enzymes necessary for the
building of the complex molecules peculiar to the
phage. Subsequently, late proteins appear which

Fig. 56.2:  Lytic and lysogenic life of bacteriophage. 1. Adsorption, 2. Injection of phage DNA, 3. Circularization of phage
DNA, 4. Replication of phage DNA, 5. Production of phage components, 6. Assenbly of phage, 7. Release of progeny phage,
8. Integration of phage DNA with host chromosome, 9. Binary fission of lysogenic bacterium, 10. Daughter bacteria carrying
prophage, 11. Excision of prophage, 12. Same stage as 3 (1 to 3 injection; 4 to 7 lytic; 8 to 10 lysogenic cycle; 11 and 12 induction)

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404  |  Section 4: Virology
in­clude the protein subunits of the phage head and
tail. During this period, the synthesis of bacterial
protein, DNA and RNA ceases and the cell is forced
to make viral constituents.
iv. Assembly and Maturation
Phage DNA, head protein and tail protein are
syn­thesized separately in the bacterial cell. The
DNA is condensed into a compact polyhedron
and ‘packaged’ into the head and, finally, the tail
structures are added. This assembly of the phage
components into the ma­t ure infective phage
particle is known as maturation.
v. Release
Release of the mature progeny phages typically
occurs by lysis of the bacterial cell. Phage enzymes act
on the weakened cell wall causing it to burst or lyse
resulting in the release of mature daughter phages.
Eclipse Phase
The interval between the entry of the phage nucle­ic
acid into the bacterial cell and the appearance of
the first infectious intracellular phage particle is
known as the eclipse phase. The interval be­tween
the infection of a bacterial cell and the first release
of infectious phage particles is known as the latent
period (20–40 minutes). Immediately following the
latent peri­od, the number of phage particles released
increases for a few minutes till the maximum number
of daugh­ter phages is attained. This period, during
which the number of infectious phages released
rises, is known as the rise period. The average yield
of progeny phag­es per infected bacterial cell is
known as the burst size (100–300 phages).
2. Lysogenic Cycle
Unlike virulent phages which pro­duce lysis of the
host cell, temperate phages enter into a symbiotic
relationship with their host cells without destroying
them. Following entry into the host cell, the
temperate phage nucleic acid becomes integrated
with the bacterial chromosome. The integrated
phage nucleic acid is known as the prophage.
The prophage behaves like a segment of the
host chromosome and replicates synchronously
with it. This phenomenon is called lysogeny
and a bacterium that carries a prophage within
its genome is called a lysogenic bacterium or
lysogen.
The prophage confers certain new properties
on the lysogenic bacterium. This is known as lyso­
genic or phage conversion.
i. Toxin production in Corynebacterium
diphthe­riae is determined by the presence in
it of the pro­phage b. The elimination of this
prophage abolishes the toxigenicity of the
bacillus and nontoxigenic strains can be made
toxigenic by lysogenization.
ii. Clostridium botulinum types C and D produce
toxin only if these are infected with phage CE
b and DE b, respectively.
iii. A wide variety of temperate phages of Salmo­
nella can modify the antigenic properties of
somatic O antigen. When Salmonella is infected
by an epsilon phage, the structure of its outer
lipopolysaccharide layer may be modified.
The prophage may become ‘excised’ from
occasional cells during the multiplication of
lysogenic bacteria. The excised prophage initiates
lytic replication and the daughter phage particles
are released, which infect other bacterial cells
and render them lysogenic. This is known as
spontaneous induction of prophage. While this is
a rare event, all lysogenic bacteria in a population
can be induced to shift to the lytic cycle by
exposure to certain physical and chemical agents.
Such inducing agents include UV rays, hydrogen
per­o xide and nitrogen mustard. A lysogenic
bacterium is resistant to reinfection by the same
or related phages. This is known as super­infection
immunity.
Significance of phages
1. Virulent Phage
i. Phage Assay
When a phage is applied on the lawn culture of
a susceptible bacterium, areas of clearing occur
after in­cubation. These zones of lysis are called
plaques. The size, shape and nature of plaques are
characteristic for different phages. Plaque assay
can be employed for titrating the number of viable
phages in a preparation.
ii. Phage Typing
Bacteriophage (phage) typing is based on the
specificity of phage surface receptors for cell surface
receptors. The limited host range of many phages
enables them to be used as an epidemiological
marker to discriminate between bacterial strains
that are bio­chemically or serologically indisting­
uishable.
The strain to be typed is ino­culated on a plate
of nutrient agar to produce a lawn culture. After
drying, the phages are applied over marked squares
in a fixed dose (routine test dose). The highest
dilution of the phage preparation that just produces
confluent lysis known as the routine test dose
(RTD). After overnight incubation, the culture will
be observed to be lysed by some phages but not by
others. The phage type of the strain is expressed by
the designation of the phage/phages that lyse it.
Area of lysis caused by phage is known as plaque.
 Chapter 56: Bacteriophages  | 405
The most important application of phage typing
(virulent) cycle, intracellular multiplication of the
is for intraspecies typing of bacteria, as in the phage phage ends in lysis of the host bacterium and release
typing of Salmonella Typhi and staphylococi. of progeny virions
Phages are available that lyse all members of ™™ In the lysogenic (temperate) cycle, phage DNA
a bacterial genus (for example genus-specific becomes incorporated within the bacterial genome
bacteri­ophage for Salmonella), all members of and then replicates synchronous with it, causing no
harm to the host cell
a species (for example specific bacteriophage
™™ Phage typing has been used for Staphylococcus
for B. anthracis), and all members of a biotype aureus, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella, and many other
or subspecies (for example Mukerjee’s phage IV bacteria.
which lyses -all strains of classical V. cholerae but
not V. cholerae biotype EI Tor).
Important questions
1. Draw a labeled diagram of a T-even phage.
2. Temperate Phage 2. Discuss the life cycle of bacteriophages.
i. Transduction: Bacteriophages may act 3. Write short notes on:
as carriers of genes from one bacterium a. Lysogenic cycle of phages
to another. This is known as transduc­tion. b. Lysogenic conversion
Two types of transduc­tion are recognized: c. Phage typing
d. Significance of phages.
generalized transduction, in which any
portion of the donor DNA can be transferred,
and specialized transduction, in which only Multiple choice questions (Mcqs)
a specific set of genes can be carried to a 1. T-even bacteriophages possess
recipient cell. a. Single-stranded RNA
ii. Toxin production: Toxin production in b. Double-stranded RNA
Coryne­bacterium diphthe­riae and Clostridium c. Single-stranded DNA
botulinum are determined by genes carried in d. Double-stranded DNA
prohage DNA. 2. All the following statements for stage of adsorption
iii. Antigenic property: A wide variety of in lytic cycle of bacteriophage are true accept
a. It is a specific process
temperate phages of Salmo­nella can modify
b. It depends upon the susceptibility of the bacte-
the antigenic properties of somatic O antigen. rium to the specific phages
Such acquisition of new properties by c. It occurs by random collision
bacterial cells following phage infection is d. It is a very slow process
called “phage conversion”. 3. All the following are the examples of phage
iv. Cloning vector: Bacteriophages have been used conversions except
as cloning vectors in genetic manipulations. a. Phage-mediated conversion of somatic anti-
gens of Salmonella spp.
Key Points b. Toxigenicity of Corynebacterium diphtheriae
™™ Bacteriophages are bacterial viruses. They are c. Toxicity of Clostridium botulinum
associated with transmission of genetic material d. Toxigenicity of Vibrio cholerae
from one bacterium to another 4. Which of the following bacteria can be typed by
™™ Morphology: Most phages are tadpole-shaped, phage typing method?
possess a hexagonal head and a cylindrical tail. Most a. Staph. aureus
of the phages usually consist of single, linear, and b. Salmonella typhi
double­stranded DNA molecule genome. The phages c. Vibrio cholerae
show high host specificity d. All of the above
™™ Life cycle: Phages exhibit two different types of
life cycle: lytic cycle and lysogenic cycle. In the lytic Answers (MCQs)
1. d; 2. d; 3. d; 4. d.

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 57
Chapter

Poxviruses

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Describe molluscum contagiosum.
be able to:
∙∙ Describe structure of vaccinia virus

Introduction Table 57.1  Poxviruses that infect humans

Poxviruses are the largest and most complex of Genus Virus Primary Clinical
host(s) features
viruses that infect verte­brates, large enough to be
in humans
seen under the light micro­scope.
Orthopoxvirus Variola Man Smallpox
Smallpox, the great success story in the fight
against infectious disease and one that provides Vaccinia Man Vesicular
many valuable lessons. This epic provides at least vaccination
lesion
three ‘firsts’: the first vaccine, the first disease to be
totally eradicated by immuniza­tion, and the first Cowpox Cattle, Lesions on
virus infection against which chemotherapy was cats, hands
rodents
clinically effective.
Monkeypox Monkeys, Resembles
squirrels smallpox
Classification
Parapoxvirus Pseudocowpox Cattle Localized
The family Poxviridae contains two subfamilies: the nodular
Chordo­poxvirinae, the poxviruses of vertebrates, lesions
(‘milkers’
and Entomopoxvirinae, the poxviruses of insects.
nodules’)
Chordopoxvirinae are placed in eight genera-
Orthopoxvirus, Para poxvirus, Molluscipoxvirus, Yatapoxvirus Orf Sheep, Localized
Yatapoxvirus, Capri poxvirus, Leporipoxvirus, goats vesiculo.
Granulo­
Avipoxvirus (fowlipox, pigeonpox, canarypox, matous
turkeypox) and Sui poxvirus. Poxviruses causing lesions
diseases are enumerated in Table 57.1.
Tanapox Monkeys Vesicular skin
lesions and
Morphology febrile illness
Yabapox Monkeys Human
These are the largest viruses of all. The orthopox­ infections
viruses are brick-shaped. They measure about very rare and
230 × 270 nm and when suit­ably stained can just accidental;
be seen with an ordinary light microscope. The localized skin
poxviruses is referred to as complex. Inside there tumors
is a core structure shaped like a dumb­bell, and two Molluscipoxvirus Molluscum Man Multiple
accompanying lateral bodies, so named after their contagiosum small
location in the virion (Fig. 57.1). skin nodules

Fig. 57.1: Structure of vaccinia virus. The nucleic acid is
contained within a dumb-bell shaped core. Fitting into the
concavities of the core are two lateral bodies. The virion is
enclosed within a protein shell which has an irregular surface
Physical and Chemical Properties
Poxviruses survive for years in the cold or when
freeze dried. They are susceptible to ultraviolet
light and other irradiations. They are resistant
to 50% glycerol and 1% phenol but are readily
inactivated by formalin and oxidizing disinfectants.
Antigenic Structure
All pox viruses share a common nucleoprotein (NP)
antigen. Some twenty different antigens have been
identified by immunodiffusion. These include the LS
antigens (a complex of two antigens, the heat labile
L and the heat stable S anti­gens), agglutinogen, and
hemagglutinin.
Cultivation and Host Range
A. Chick Embryo
Virus isolation is carried out by inoculation of
vesic­ular fluid onto the chorioallantoic membrane
(CAM) of chick embryos. Both vaccinia and variola
viruses grow on the CAM of 11–13-day-old chick
embryo producing pocks in 48­–72 hours. Variola
pocks are small, shiny, white,.convex, non-
necrotic, non-hemorrhagic lesions. Vaccin­ia pocks
are larger, irregular, flat, greyish, necrotic lesions,
some of which are hemorrhagic (Fig. 57.2).
B. Tissue Culture
Variola and vaccinia viruses can be grown in
tissue cultures of monkey kidney, HeLa and chick
embryo cells. Cytopathic effects are produced by
vaccinia in 24–48 hours and more slowly by vari­ola.
Eosinophilic inclusion bodies—Guarnieri bodies—
can be demonstrated in stained preparations.
Vaccinia virus produces plaques in chick embryo
tissue cultures but not variola virus.
C. Animals
Monkeys, calves, sheep and rabbits can be infected
by scarification leading to vesicular lesions.
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Chapter 57: Poxviruses  | 407
A B
Fig. 57.2: Variola and vaccinia pocks on cam. A. Variola,
showing small, uniform pocks; B. Vaccinia, showing large,
irregular pocks
Variola and Vaccinia Viruses
Variola viruses: The variola virus is the causative
agent of smallpox. Variola has a narrow host range
(only humans and monkeys). Smallpox used to
occur in two distinct clinical varieties.
a. Variola major or classical smallpox: The
florid, highly fatal disease typically seen in Asia.
b. Variola minor or alastrim: The mild, nonfatal
disease (alastrim) typically seen in Latin
America.
Variola major and mi­nor was antigenically
identical but they differed in certain biological
characteristics. They were stable variants as
the disease produced by each always bred true.
Alastrim did not lead to smallpox and vice versa
Vaccinia virus: Vaccinia virus, the agent used
for smallpox vaccination, is a distinct species
of Ortho­p oxvirus. At some time after Jen­n er’s
original use of “cowpox” virus, the vaccine virus
became “vaccinia virus”. Vaccinia virus is unique
in that it is an ‘artificial virus’ and does not occur
in nature as such. It may be the prod­uct of genetic
recombination, a new species derived from cowpox
virus or variola virus by serial passage, or the
descendant of a now extinct viral genus.
Variola has a narrow host range (only humans
and monkeys), whereas vaccinia has a broad
host range that includes rabbits and mice. It
is safer to work with vaccinia virus. For the
development of recom­binant vaccines, vaccinia
virus is being em­ployed as a vector. Many genes
have been inserted, including those coding for
the antigens of hepatitis B virus, HIV, rabies and
for pharmaco­logically important products such
as neuropeptides.
Control of Smallpox
The story of Edward Jenner’s discovery in 1796 that
inocula­tion with cowpox would prevent smallpox
is well known. To Jenner, however, goes the credit
for showing that, following the inoculation of young
James Phipps with cowpox virus on May 14, 1796,
408  |  Section 4: Virology
deliberate inoculation with smallpox material
failed to induce the disease.
For thousands of years, smallpox raged as a
scourge of mankind, causing death and disfigure­
ment. The global eradication of smallpox, achieved
after 10 years of concerted campaigns under the
auspices of the WHO, has been a most impres­
sive medical achievement. Naturally occurring
smallpox came to an end in 1977. On May 8,
1980, the WHO formally announced the global
eradication of smallpox.
OTHER POXVIRUS DISEASES
1. Cowpox
Cowpox is, a zoonosis. Cowpox lesions are seen on
the udder and teats of cows and may be transmitted
to humans during milking. The lesions in humans
usually appear on the hands or fingers. The natural
reservoir of cowpox seems to be a rodent.
2. Monkeypox
This orthopoxvirus zoonosis causes an illness in
humans very similar to smallpox, squirrels seem to
be the main reservoir of infection, and the infection
is seen mainly in chil­dren who may acquire it from
playing with captive animals.
3. Buffalopox
Buffalopox was identified in cattle in India in 1934
and was considered an outbreak of vaccinia in
them. Epizootics had occurred in buffaloes and
lesions had been observed on the hands of persons
in contact with infected animals.
4. Milker’s Node
Milker’s node (paravaccinia) is a trivial occupa­
tional disease that humans get by milking infected
cows. The lesions are small ulcerating nodules.
5. Orf (Contagious Pustular Dermatitis or
Sore Mouth)
Orf is a disease of sheep and goats transmitted to
human beings by contact. It is an occupational
disease of sheep handlers. In humans, the disease
occurs as a single papulovesicular lesion with a
central ulcer usually on the hand, forearm, or face.
6. Tanapox
This virus takes its name from the Tana River in
Kenya, where it was first diagnosed. It is prevalent
in monkeys and appears to be spread by insect
bites. Monkeys are the only animals susceptible.
There is usually only one vesicular lesion but its
appear­ance is preceded by fever and quite severe
malaise. Recovery is uneventful.
7. Molluscum Contagiosum
Molluscum contagiosum is a benign epidermal tumor
that occurs only in humans. The causative agent is
molluscum contagiosum virus. It is a contangious
disease. The lesions of this disease are small, pink,
wart-like tumors on the face, arms, back, and buttocks
are more frequent in children than in adults. It is
spread by direct contact [e.g. sexual contact, wrestling
or fomites (e.g. towels)]. The disease is more common
in children than adults but its incidence is increasing
in sexually active individuals.
The diagnosis of molluscum contagiosum can
usu­ally be made clinically. Sections of skin lesions
show large, eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions,
which displace the nuclei to the margin, known as
molluscum bodies under light microscope. It can
be detected under electron microscope and PCR
can detect viral DNA sequences. The virus cannot
be grown in animals or tissue cultures.
Key Points
™™ The family Poxviridae is a large family of ovoid or
brick-shaped viruses, and large enough to be just
visible under a light microscope
™™ The genus Orthopoxvirus includes the viruses
causing cowpox, vaccinia and variola. The variola
virus is an orthopoxvirus and the cause of smallpox
™™ They can grow in chorioallantoic membrane CAM)
of chick embryos and tissue culture
™™ Smallpox was the first viral disease to be eradicated
from the world
™™ Molluscum contagiosum: The virus causing mollus­
cum contagiosum is a poxvirus. The virus is spread by
close contact, often through sexual contact. It causes
small, pink, papular, pearl-like benign tumors of the
skin or mucous membranes.
Important question
Write short notes on:
a. Variola virus. b. Vaccinia virus
c. Molluscum contagiosum
Multiple choice questions (mcqs)
1. All the statements are true for vaccinia virus except:
a. It is an artificial virus
b. It is used for preparation of smallpox vaccine
c. It produces small, shiny, white, convex colonies
on the chorioallantoic membrane
d. It can be cultured in vitro on chorioallantoic
membrane of ape
2. The last case of naturally occurring smallpox was
detected in:
a. India in 1980
b. Bangladesh in 1979
c. England in 1978
d. Somalia in 1977
3. What is/are the route/s of transmission of Molluscum
contagiosum virus?
a. Direct contact. b. Sexual contact.
c. None of the above. d. Both of the above
Answers (MCQs)
1. c; 2. d; 3. d

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology of herpesvirus
∙∙ Classify of human herpesviruses
∙∙ Describe infections caused by herpes simplex virus
type 1 and herpes simplex virus type 2
Introduction
The herpesvirus family contains over a hundred
spe­c ies of enveloped DNA viruses that affect
humans and animals. The outstanding property
of herpesviruses is their ability to establish latent
infections, lifelong persistent infections in their
hosts and to undergo periodic reactivation.
Structure
The herpesvirus capsid is icosahedral, composed of
162 capsomers, and enclosing the core containing
the linear double stranded DNA genome. The
nucleo­capsid is surrounded by the lipid envelope.
The envelope carries surface spikes, about 8 nm long.
Between the envelope and the capsid is an amor­
phous structure called the tegument, containing
sever­al proteins (Fig. 58.1). Herpesviruses replicate
in the host cell nucleus. They form Cowdry type A
intranuclear (Lipschutz) inclusion bodies.
Classification
The family Herpesviridae is divided into three
subfamilies based on biological, physical and
genetic properties (Table 58.1).
Eight different types of herpesviruses are known
whose primary hosts are human (Table 58.1).
Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) was the first human
herpesvirus to be recognized.
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58
Chapter
Herpesviruses
∙∙ D
 escribe the following: Varicella-zoster virus;
cytomegalovirus
∙∙ Discuss clinical manifestations of Epstein-Barr virus
(EBV)
∙∙ Describe Paul-Bunnell test.
Properties of the Viruses
There are two distinct herpes simplex viruses:
type 1 and type 2 (HSV-1, HSV-2) (Table 58.1).
They differ in their mode of transmission. HSV
type 1 (Hu­man herpes virus type 1 or HHV type
1) is usually isolated from lesions in and around
the mouth and is transmitted by direct contact
or droplet spread from cases or carriers. HSV
type 2 (HHV type 2) is transmitted sexually or from
a maternal genital infection to a new­born.
In­tracerebral inoculation in rabbits and mice
leads to encephalitis, and corneal scarification
produces keratoconjunctivitis in rabbits. The virus
grows in a variety of primary and continuous cell
cultures (monkey or rabbit kidney, human amnion,
HeLa) producing cytopathic changes, well defined
foci with heaped up cells and syncytial or giant cell
formation. On chick embryo CAM, small (diameter
less than 0.5 mm) white shiny non-necrotic pocks
are produced. The two types of the virus cross react
Fig. 58.1: Typical structure of the herpesviruses
410  |  Section 4: Virology
Table 58.1:  Classification of human herpesviruses
Subfamily Virus Primary target cell Site of latency Mode of spread
Alphaherpesvirinae
Human herpesvirus 1 Herpes simplex type 1 Mucoepithelial cells Neuron Close contact
Human herpesvirus 2 Herpes simples type 2 Mucoepithelial cells Neuron Close contact (sexually
transmitted disease)
Human herpesvirus 3 Varicella-zoster virus Mucoepithelial cells Neuron Respiratory and close
contact
Gammaherpesvirinae
Human herpesvirus 4 Epstein-Barr virus B cells and epithelial cells B cell Saliva (kissing disease)
Human herpesvirus 8 Kaposi’s sarcoma- Lymphocyte and ? Close contatct (sexual),
related virus other cells saliva?
Betaherpesvirinae
Human herpesvirus 5 Cytomegalovirus Monocyte, lymphocyte, Monocyte, Close contact,
and epithelial cells lymphocyte, transfusions, tissue
and ? transplant, and
congenital
Human herpesvirus 6 Herpes lymphotropic T cells and ? T cells and ? Respiratory and close
virus contact?
Human herpesvirus 7 Human herpesvirus 7 T cells and ? T cells and ? ?

serologically. They can be differentiated by the
following features:
1. Antigenic differences can be made out using
type specific monoclonal antibodies.
2. On chick embryo CAM type 2 strains form
larger pocks resembling variola.
3. Types 2 strains replicate well in chick embryo
fibroblast cells, while type 1 strains do so
poorly.
4. The infectivity of type 2 is more temperature
sensitive than that of type 1.
5. Type 2 strains are more neurovirulent in labora­
tory animals than type 1.
6. Type 2 strains are more resistant to antiviral
agents like IUDR and cytarab­ine in culture.
7. Restriction endonuclease analysis of viral DNA
enables differentiation between the two types
as well as between strains within the same type.
Pathogenesis
The mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of
HSV-1 and HSV-2 are very similar. Both viruses
initially infect and replicate in mucoepithelial cells
and then establish latent infection of the innervating
neu­rons. Skin and mucous membranes are the
portals of entry in which the virus also multiplies,
causing lysis of cells and formation of vesicles.
Soon after replication is under way in the skin
or a mucous membrane, virions travel to the root
ganglia via the sensory nerves supplying the area.
Primary infections of the orofacial and genital
areas involve respectively the trigeminal and
lumbosacral dorsal root ganglia. The virus then
becomes latent in the ganglia.
Once HSV has established itself in a ganglion in
vivo, reactivations are liable to take place at inter­
vals of weeks or months thereafter trig­gered by a
variety of stimuli. The virus follows axons back to
the peripheral site, and replication proceeds at the
skin or mucous membranes.
HSV-1 is usually associated with infections
above the waist, and HSV-2 with infections below
the waist, consistent with the means of spread for
these viruses.
Clinical Features
1. Cutaneous infections: (i) The most common
site is the face—on the cheeks, chin, around
the mouth or on the forepead; (ii) Napkin
rash; (iii) ‘Fever blister’ or herpis febrilis. In
some sensitive persons, very minor stimuli, like
common cold, exposure to sun or even mental
strain or menses may bring on such reactivation;
(iii) Herpetic whitlow- an infection of the
finger; (iv) Herpes gladiatorum an infection
of the body; (v) Eczema herpeticum.
2. Oral infection: Acute gingivostomatitis,
herpetic stomatitis, pharyngitis, tonsillitis and
localized lymphadenopathy may occur.
3. Ophthalmic: Severe keratoconjunctivitis,
follicular conjunctivitis with vesicle formation
on the lids, dendritic keratitis or corneal
ulcers or as vesicles on the eyelids, corneal
scarring and impairment of vision.
4. Nervous system: (i) HSV encephalitis; (ii)
Sporadic encephalitis; (iii) HSV meningitis;
(iv) Sacral autonomic dysfunction; (v) rarely
transverse myelitis or the Guillain–Barre
syndrome and Bell’s palsy.

5. Visceral: (i) HSV esophagitis; (ii) tracheo­
bronchitis and pneumonitis; (iii) hepatitis; (iv)
Erythema multiforme; (v) disseminated HSV
infection.
6. Genital infections: Genital disease is usually
caused by HSV-2. Genital herpetic ulcers are
known to increase the risk of transmission of
infection with human immunodeiciecy virus
(HIV).
(i) In male patients: The lesions typically
develop on the glans or shaft of the penis and
occasionally in the urethra; (ii) In female
patients: The lesions may be seen on the vulva,
vagina, cervix, perianal area, or inner thigh;
(iii) Inguinal lymphadenopathy: In patients
of both sexes; (iv) Herpetic proctitis: in
homosexuals; (v) Association between HSV-2
and carcinoma of the cervix uteri: There have
been several reports of an association between
HSV -2 and carcinoma of the cervix uteri but a
causal relationship has not been established.
7. Neonatal Herpes: Transplacental infection with
HSV1 or 2 can lead to congenital malformations.
8. Infections in immunocompromised hosts.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
2. Microscopy
i. Tzanck smear: Characteristic cytopathologic
effects (CPEs) can be identified in a Tzanck
smear, Papanicolaou smear, or biopsy
specimen. CPEs include syncytia, “ballooning”
cytoplasm, and Cowdry type A intranu­clear
inclusions.
The Tzanck smear is a rapid, fairly sen­sitive
and inexpensive diagnostic method. Smears
are prepared from the lesions, preferably
from the base of vesicles and stained with
1% aqueous solution of tolu­idine blue ‘0’ for
15 seconds. Multinucleated giant cells with
faceted nuclei and homogeneously stained
‘ground glass’ chromatin (Tzanck cells)
constitute a positive smears.
ii. Electron mi­croscopy: The virus par­ticle may
also be demonstrated under the electron
mi­croscope.
iii. Fluoroscent an­t ibody technique: The
fluorescent antibody test on brain biopsy
specimens provides reliable and speedy
diagnosis in encephalitis.
B. Virus Isolation
Primary human embryonic kidney, human amnion
and many other cells are susceptible, but human
diploid fibroblasts are preferred. Specimen such
as vesicle fluid, spinal fluid, saliva and swab may
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Chapter 58: Herpesviruses  | 411
be used. Typical cytopathic changes may appear
as early as in 24–48 hours but cultures should be
observed for two weeks before being declared
negative.
HSV isolates can be typed by biochemical,
biologic, nucleic acid, or immunologic methods.
The restriction endonuclease cleavage patterns
of the DNA of HSV-1 and HSV-2 are unique allow
unequivocal typing of the isolates. HSV type-
specific DNA probes, spe­cific DNA primers for PCR
and antibodies are also available for detecting and
differentiating HSV-1 and HSV-2.
C. Serology
Rise in titer of antibodies may be demonstrated by
ELISA, neutralization or complement fixation tests.
D. Polymerase Chain Reaction
Polymerase chain reaction is useful for detecting
viral DNA in cerebrospinal fluid when herpetic
infection of the CNS is suspected.
Treatment
Idoxuridine used topically in eye and skin infections
was one of the first clinically successful antiviral
agents. Acyclovir and vi­darabine enabled the effective
management of deep and systemic infections.
Intravenous, oral, and topical preparations are
available. Drug-resistant virus strains may emerge.
Early treatment with intravenous acyclovir has
improved the outcome of encephalitis.Valaciclovir
and famciclovir are more effective oral agents.
When resistance to these drugs develop, drugs like
foscarnet which are independent of viral thy­midine
kinase action may be useful.
Herpes virus simiae: B virus
Herpes B virus of Old World monkeys is highly
patho­genic for humans. This virus was isolated
by Sabin and Wright (1934) from the brain of a
laboratory worker who developed fatal ascending
myelitis after being bitten by an appar­ently healthy
monkey. It came to be known as the ‘B’ virus from
the initials of this patient.
The virus is transmitted to humans by monkey
bites or saliva or even by tissues and cells widely
used in virology labo­ratories.
Virus isolation or serologic tests can be used to
establish the diagnosis of B-virus infections.
Varicella-zoster virus
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes chickenpox
(varicella) and, with recur­rence, causes herpes
zoster, or shingles. Vari­cella (chickenpox) and
412  |  Section 4: Virology
herpes zoster are different manifestations of the
same virus infection. Thus, chickenpox is ‘caught’
but not zoster.
Properties of the Virus
Varicella-zoster virus is morphologically identical
to her­pes simplex virus. It can be grown in cultures
of human fibroblasts, human amni­on or HeLa cells.
Cytopathic changes are more focal and spread
much more slowly than those induced by HSV. Only
one antigenic type of VZV is known.
Varicella (Chick­enpox)
Varicella (chick­enpox) is one of the mildest highly
communicable and most common of childhood
infections.
It is usually a mild disease of childhood and is
normally symptomatic, although asymptomatic
infection may occur. The portal of entry of the
virus is the respiratory tract or conjunctiva. After an
incubation period of about two weeks (7–23 days)
the lesions begin to ap­pear.
In children, there is little prodromal illness and
the disease is first noticed when skin lesions ap­pear.
Initially macular, the rash rapidly evolves through
papules to the characteristic clear vesicles. The
rash is characteristically cen­tripetal in distribu­tion,
affecting mainly the trunk, and is very superficial
without in­volving the deeper layers of the skin. The
rash appears in successive crops, so that all stages
of the eruption can be seen at the same time. It
matures very quickly, beginning to crust within 48
hours.Recovery is usually uneventful.
Complications: Primary infection is usually more
severe in adults than in children. The rash may
become hemorrhagic. Varicella pneumonia is
more common in adults. A variety of organs may
be affected with complications like myocarditis,
nephritis, acute cere­bellar ataxia, meningitis
and encephalitis. Secondary bacterial infections,
usually due to staphy­lococci or streptococci, may
occur. Reyes’ syndrome may follow varicella in
some cases with a history of administration of
salicylates.
Herpes zoster (Shingles, Zona)
The name is derived from Heroein, meaning to
creep; Zoster, meaning girdle.
While varicella is typically a disease of child­
hood, herpes zoster is one of old age.
Pathogenesis
Herpes zoster usually occurs in persons who
had chickenpox several year earlier. The virus
remaining latent in the sensory ganglia, may leak
out at times but is usually held in check by the
residual immunity. It is believed that years after the
initial infection, when the immunity has waned,
the virus may be reactivated, and triggered by
some precipitating stimulus, travel along the sen­
sory nerve to produce zoster lesions on the area of
the skin or mucosa supplied by it. It usually starts
with severe pain in the area of skin or mucosa
supplied by one or more groups of sensory nerves
and ganglia. The most common sites are the areas
innervated by spinal cord segments D3 to L2 and
the trigeminal nerve, particularly, its ophthalmic
branch. Within a few days after onset, a crop of
vesicles appears over the skin supplied by the
affected nerves.
Complications
1. Postherpetic pain: In the affected area is
frequent, particularly in the elderly.
2. Ophthalmic zoster.
3. Generalized zoster
4. Ramsay Hunt syndrome: It is a rare form of
zoster affecting the facial nerve, with eruption
on the tympanic membrane and external
auditory canal, and often a facial palsy.
Immunity
Previous infection with varicella is believed to
confer lifelong immunity to varicella.
The development of varicella-zoster virus-
specific cell-mediated immunity is important
in recovery from both varicella and zoster.
Appearance of local interferon may also contribute
to recovery.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis is usually clinical.
1. Microscopy: Multinucleated giant cells and type
A intranuclear in­clusion bodies may be seen
in smears prepared by scraping the base of the
early vesicles (Tzanck smear) and stained with
toluidine blue, Giemsa or Papanicolou stain.
Direct examination by electron microscopy will
reveal herpes particles.
2. Virus isolation: Virus isolation can be
attempted by inoculating human amnion,
human fibroblast, HeLa or Vero cells.
3. Virus antigen: The virus antigen can be
detected in scrapings from skin lesions by
immunofluorescence, and in vesicle fluid by
counterimmunoelectrophoresis with zoster
immune serum. ELISA and PCR tech­niques
are also in use.
4. Serological diagnosis: A rise in specific
antibody titer can be detected in the patient’s
serum by various tests, including fluorescent
antibody, latex agglutination, and enzyme
immunoas­say.

Prophylaxis and Treatment
Active Immunization
A live-attenuated varicella vaccine was developed
by Takahashi in Japan in 1974 by attenuating a
strain of varicella virus (Oka strain, so named after
the patient) by serial passage in tissue culture.
This vaccine, given by subcutaneous injection,
has been found to be immunogenic with good
antibody response but it was very labile and had
to be stored frozen. A modified lyophilized form of
the vaccine is now available, which can be stored
between 2°C and 8°C. It is recommended as a single
subcutaneuos dose for childern 1–12 years old, and
for those older as 2 doses 6–10 weeks apart. It is safe
and effective. It is not considered safe in pregnancy.
Passive Immunization
Varicella-zoster immunoglobulin (VZIG) prepared
from the patients convalescing from herpes zoster
seems to be of some use in preventing or modifying
severe disease in immunodeficient patients.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis is easily made clinical. Laboratory
diagnosis is as for chickenpox.
Treatment
It is as for chickenpox.
Cytomegalovirus
Cytomegaloviruses (CMV), formerly known as
salivary gland viruses, are a group of ubiquitous
herpes­viruses of humans and animals.
Pathogenesis
The congenital, oral, and sexual routes, blood
transfusion, and tissue transplantation are the major
means by which CMV is transmitted. Congenitally
infected infants have viruria for upto 4–5 years. They
are highly infectious in early infancy.
A. Normal hosts: Primary cytomegalovirus
infection of older children and adults is
usually asymptomatic but occasionally causes
a spontaneous infectious mononucleosis
syndrome.
B. Immunocompromised hosts: This occurs
in transplant recipients, cancer patients on
chemotherapy, and more particularly in the
HIV infected.
C. Congenital and perinatal infections: Intra­
uterine infection leads to fetal death or
cytomegalic inclusion disease of the newborn
which is often fatal. Cytomegalic inclusion
disease of newborns is characterized by
involvement of the central nervous system
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Chapter 58: Herpesviruses  | 413
and the reticuloendothelial system. Clinical
features—include intrauterine growth retar­
dation, jaundice, hepatosplenomegaly, throm­
bocytopenia, microcephaly, chorio­retinitis and
cerebral calcification resembling congenital
toxoplasmosis.
Perinatal infection may be acquired from the
infected mother through genital secretions or
breast milk.
D. Postnatal infection: This can be acquired in
many ways-such as saliva, sexual transmission,
blood transfusion and donated organs
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens: CMV can be isolated from the
urine, saliva, breast milk, semen, cervical
secretions and blood leucocytes.
B. Demonsration of cyto­m egalic cell: The
histologic hallmark of CMV infection is the
cyto­megalic cell, which is an enlarged cell
that contains a dense, central, “owl’s-eye,”
basophilic intranuclear inclusion body. The
inclusions are readily seen with Pa­panicolaou
or hematoxylin-eosin staining
C. lsolation of virus: Human cytomegaloviruses
can be grown in human fibroblast cultures.
Cultures have to be incubated for prolonged
periods as the cytopathic effects (swollen
refractile cells with cytoplasmic granules) are
slow in appearance.
D. DNA probes: DNA probes are used to directly
detect the CMV antigens in tissues or fluids.
E. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): To directly
detect the genome in tissues or fluids.
F. Serology: IgM antibodies suggests a current
infection and can be detected in serum by
ELISA.
Treatment and Prevention
Ganciclovir (dihydroxypropoxymethyl guanine)
and foscarnet (phosphonoformic acid) have been
approved for the treatment of CMV infections.
Prevention is indicated only in high risk
cases. Screening of blood and organ donors and
administration of CMV immunoglobulins have
been employed in prevention.
No vaccine is available.
Epstein–Barr virus
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is in some respects the
most sinister herpesvirus, for its association with
malignant disease is now well established. Only
human and some subhuman primate B cells have
receptors for the virus. EBV infected B cells are
transformed so that they become capable of con­
tinuous growth in vitro.
414  |  Section 4: Virology
Pathogenesis
Epstein–barr virus (EBV) is commonly transmitted
by infected saliva and initiates infection in the
oropharynx. The virus enters the pharyngeal
epithe­lial cells through CR2 (or CD21) receptors.
It multiplies locally, invades the bloodstream
and infects B lymphocytes in which two types
of changes are produced. In most cases, the virus
be­comes latent inside the lymphocytes, which
become transformed or ‘immortalized so that
they become ca­pable of indefinite growth in vitro.
Lytic infection is a second type of effect, shown by
a few infected B cells with cell death and release of
mature progency virions.
The classic lymphocytosis associated with
infectious mononucleosis results mainly from the
activation and proliferation of T cells. These appear
as atypical lymphocytes (also called Downey
cells).
Intermittent reactivation of the latent EB virus
leads to clonal proliferation of infected B cells. In
immunocompetent subjects, this is kept in check
by activated T cells. In the immunodeficient, B
cell clones may replicate unchecked, resulting in
lympho­mas. Hyperendemic malaria prevalent in
Africa is believed to be responsible for the immune
impairment in children with Burkitt’ lymphoma.
The frequency of lymphomas seen in many types of
immunodefi­ciencies, most typically in AIDS, may
have a similar pathogenesis.
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma seen in men of
Chinese origin. Genetic and environmental factors
are said to be important in the and EB virus DNA
is regularly found in the tumour cells.
Epidemiology
Epstein–Barr (EB) virus is ubiq­uitous in all human
populations. Infection with EBV is transmitted by
saliva, and requires intimate oral contact.
The source of infection is usually the saliva
of in­fected persons who shed the virus in
oropharyngeal secretions. Saliva sharing between
adolescents and young adults often occurs during
kissing; thus, the nickname “kissing disease” for
infectious mononucleosis. Chil­dren can acquire
the virus at an early age by sharing contaminated
drinking glasses. Infection may also follow blood
or marrow transfusion but these are rare events.
Clinical conditions
1. Infectious mononucleosis.
2. EBV associated malignancies:
a. Burkitt’s lymphoma.
b. Lymphomas in immunodeficient persons.
c. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
A. Infectious Mononudeosis (Glandular Fever)
This is an acute self-limited illness usually seen
in nonimmune young adults. The incubation
period is 4–8 weeks.Infectious mononucleosis is
charac­terized by high fever, malaise, pharyngitis,
lymphade­nopathy (swollen glands), and, often,
hepatosplenomeg­aly. A mild transient rash may
be present. Some patients treated with ampicillin
may develop a maculopapular rash due to immune
complex reaction to the drug. In most patients
the spleen is pal­pable and there is some liver
dysfunction, occasionally with frank jaundice. The
typical illness is self-limited and lasts 2–4 weeks.
Complications are rare but some are serious:
i. Acute airway obstruction.
ii. Splenic rupture.
iii. Neurological complications include meningitis,
encephalitis and the Guillain-Barre syndrome.
B. Oral Hairy leukoplakia
This lesion is a wart-like growth that develops
on the tongue in some HIV-infected persons and
transplant patients. It is an epithelial focus of EBV
replication.
C. Chronic Disease
Epstein-barr virus (EBV) can cause cyclic recurrent
disease in some people. This disorder is different
from chronic fatigue syn­drome, which has another
etiology.
D. Burkitt’s lymphoma
Epstein–barr virus (EBV) is associated with the
development of Burkitt’s lymphoma (a tumor of
the jaw in African children and young adults).
Most African tumors (>90%) contain EBV DNA
and express EBNA1 anti­gen. Malaria, a recognized
cofactor.
E. Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
This cancer of epithelial cells is common in males
of Chinese origin. It mainly affects people aged
20–50 years, males preponderating. EBV DNA is
regularly found in nasopharyngeal carcinoma
(NPC) cells. Genetic and environmental factors
are believed to be important in the development
of nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
F. Lymphoproliferative Diseases in
Immunodeficient Hosts
Immunodeficient patients are susceptible to EBV
­induced lymphoproliferative diseases that may
be fatal. AIDS patients are susceptible to EBV-
associated lymphomas and hairy oral leukoplakia
of the tongue.

Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Differential White Cell Count
Blood examination during the initial phase may
show leucopenia. Later there is a prominent
leu­cocytosis with the appearance of abnormal
mononuclear cells. These atypical mononuclear
cells are lymphoblasts derived from T cells reactive
to the virus infection. The blood picture may
sometimes resemble lymphocytic leukemia.
2. Paul–Bunnell Test
B cells transformed by EBV undergo polyclonal
expansion. These anti­b odies include an IgM
heterophile antibody. Agglutination of horse or
sheep red cells by serum absorbed to exclude a
natural antibody is the basis of this test.
Procedure
Inactivated serum. 56°C for 30 minutes in doubling
dilutions is mixed with equal volumes of a 1%
suspension of sheep erythrocytes. After incubation
at 37°C for four hours the tubes are examined for
agglutination. An aggluti­nation titer of 100 or above
is suggestive of infectious mononucleosis.
Confirmation
For confirmation, differential absorp­t ion of
agglutinins with guineapig kidney and ox red cells
is necessary. The Forssman antibody induced
by injection of horse serum is removed by
treatment with guineapig kidney and ox red cells.
Normally occur­ring agglutinins are removed by
guineapig kidney, but not by ox red cells. Infectious
mononucleosis anti­body is removed by ox red cells
but not guinea pig kid­ney (Table 58.2).
3. Epstein–Barr Virus-specific Antibodies
Tests are also available for the demonstration of
specific EB virus antibodies. Immunofluorescence
and ELISA are commonly employed.
The IgM antibody to VCA (virus capsid antigen)
appears soon after primary infection and disappears
in 1–2 weeks and indicative of current infection. The
Table 58.2:  Differential absorption test for Paul-
Bunnell antibody
Result of absorption Ox red cells
on guinea pig kidney
Normal serum Absorbed Absorbed
Antibody after Absorbed Not absorbed
serum therapy
Infectious Not absorbed Absorbed
mononucleosis
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Chapter 58: Herpesviruses  | 415
IgG anti-VCA antibody indicates past or recent
infection and persists throughout life.
Early antigen (EA) antibodies are often found in
patients with Burkitt’s lymphoma or nasopharyngeal
carcinoma.
Antibodies to the EB nuclear antigen (EBNA)
reveal past infection with EBV, though detection
of a rise in anti-EBNA antibody would suggest a
primary infection.
4. Antigen Detection
Epstein-barr virus (EBV) antigen can be detected
by immunofluorescence using monodonal
antibodies.
5. Nucleic Acid Hybridization
It is the most sensitive means of detecting EBV in
patient materials.
6. Virus Isolation
Epstein-barr virus (EBV) can be isolated from
saliva, peripheral blood, or lymphoid tissue by
immortalization of normal human lymphocytes,
usually obtained from umbilical cord blood.
7. Polymerase Chain Reaction.
Human Herpesviruses 6 (HHV6)
Human herpesviruses 6 was first isolated from the
blood of patients with AIDS and grown in T-cell
cultures. HHV6 is lymphotropic and ubiquitous. It
is present in the saliva of most adults and is spread
by oral secretions. Two variants are recognized,
A and B. Variant B is the cause of the mild but
common childhood illness ‘exanthem subitum’
(roseola infantum or ‘sixth disease’). In older age
groups, it has been associated with infectious
mononucleosis syndrome, focal en­cephalitis and,
in the immunodeficient, with pneumonia and
disseminated disease.
Laboratory dignosis: HHV6 can be isolated
from peripheral blood mononuclear cells in early
febrile stage of the illness by co-cultivation with
lymphocytes.
Virus antigen-can be detected by immuno­
fluroscence using monoclonal antibodies. ELISA
is used for detecting both antigen and antibidies
in patient serum.
Human Herpesvirus 7 (HHV7)
Like HHV6, HHV7 also appears to be widely distri­
buted and transmitted through saliva. However,
HHV7 remains an orphan virus with no disease
association. It shares with HIV the same CD4
receptor on T cells.
416  |  Section 4: Virology
It may cause an illness resem­bling infectious
™™ Laboratory diagnosis—Atypical lymphocytes are
mononucleosis, some cases of exanthem subitum. probably the earliest de­tectable indication of an
EBV infection
Human Herpesvirus 8 (HHV8) ™™ Paul-Bunnell test is most frequently used test
to detect hetero­p hile antibodies in infectious
A new herpesvirus, also called Kaposi’s sarcoma- mononucleosis patients
associ­a ted herpesvirus (KSHV) is the cause Human Herpesvirus 8 (HHV8)
of Kaposi’s sarcomas, vascular tumors of mixed ™™ It is the cause of Kaposi’s sarcomas, vascular tumors
cellular composition, and is involved in the of mixed cellular composition, body cavity-based
lymphomas occurring in AIDS patients and of
pathogenesis of body cavity-based lymphomas multicentric Castle­man’s disease.
occurring in AIDS patients and of multicentric
Castle­man’s disease.
It appears to be sexually transmitted among Important questions
men who have sex with men. Infections are
common in Africa with infections acquired early in 1. Name various viruses of the family Herpesviridae.
life by nonsexual routes, possibly through contact Discuss the various infections caused by her­pes
with oral secre­tions. simplex virus types 1 and 2.
Diagnosis depends mainly on detection of viral 2. Classify human herpesviruses. Discuss briefly
DNA by PCR. their pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis.
3. Describe the lesions caused by herpes simplex
virus and their laboratory diagnosis.
Key Points
4. Write short notes on:
™™ Herpesviruses are DNA viruses a. Varicella-zoster virus
™™ Human herpesviruses include human herpesvirus b. Varicella or chickenpox
1 (HV1) to human herpesvirus 8 (HV-8). HHV 3, HHV c. Cytomegalovirus
4 and HHV 5 are varicella-zoster virus, Epstein-Barr d. Epstein-Barr virus (or) EB virus
(EB) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) respectively. Herpes e. Infectious mononucleosis
simplex virus type 1 and 2 are designated as HHV 1 f. Paul-Bunnel test
and HHV 2
g. Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV6)
Clinical syndromes
™™ HSV-l is generally transmitted orally; HSV-2 is gener­
ally transmitted sexually Multiple choice questions (mcqs)
™™ HSV-1 causes acute herpetic gingivostomatitis, acute
herpetic pharyngotonsillitis, herpes labial is, herpes 1. Which of the following infection/s is/are caused by
encephalitis, eczema herpeticum, and herpetic herpes simplex virus type I?
whitlow. HSV-2 causes genital herpes, neonatal a. Acute gingivostomatitis
infection, and aseptic meningitis b. Keratoconjunctivitis
Laboratory diagnosis: (A) Direct microscopic examin­ c. Encephalitis
ation of cells from base of lesion; (B) Cell culture; d. All of the above
(C) Assay of tissue biopsy, smear, or vesicular fluid 2. All the following infections are caused by HSV-2
for HSV antigen; (D) HSV type distinction (HSV-l vs. except:
HSV-2) type a. Neonatal infection
™™ Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV)—causes chickenpox b. Aseptic meningitis
(varicella) and herpes zoster or shingles, two distinct
c. Herpetic whitlow
clinical entities in humans
d. Genital herpes
™™ Virus causes lifelong infection
3. All the following infections are caused by HSV-2
Cytomegalovirus
except:
™™ Virus is transmitted orally and sexually, in blood
a. Neonatal infection
trans­fusions, in tissue transplants, in utero, at birth,
and by nursing b. Aseptic meningitis
™™ Clinical syndromes—Congenital CMV infection,
c. Herpetic whitlow
acquired CMV infection, CMV infec ­t ion in d. Genital herpes
immunocompromised patients, and CMV infection 4. Ramsay–Hunt syndrome can be caused by:
in immunocompetent adult hosts. CMV generally a. Herpes simplex virus
causes subclinical infection b. Herpes-zoster virus
Epstein–Barr Virus c. Cytomegalovirus
™™ EBV causes heterophile antibody-positive infec­tious d. Epstein–Barr virus
mononucleosis and has been causally associated
5. Shingles is caused by:
with Burkitt’s lymphoma, Hodg­k in’s disease, and
a. Varicella–zoster virus
nasopharyngeal carcinoma
b. Cytomegalovirus
™™ Transmission occurs via saliva, close oral contact
(“kiss­ing disease”), or sharing of items c. Epstein–Barr virus
d. Herpes simplex virus type 1
 Chapter 58: Herpesviruses  | 417
6. Owl’s eye is the characteristic feature of the cell 8. Paul–Bunnell test is used for serodiagnosis of:
infected by: a. Infectious mononucleosis
a. Herpes simplex virus b. Genital herpes
b. Epstein-Barr virus c. Neonatal infection
d. Aseptic meningitis
c. Cytomegalovirus
9. Which of the following viruses is associated in
d. Human herpesvirus 8
causation of Kaposi’s sarcoma?
7. Which of the following malignancies is/are associated a. Herpes simplex virus
with Epstein–Barr virus? b. Herpesvirus simiae
a. Burkitt’s lymphoma c. Human herpesvirus 8
b. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma d. Human herpesvirus 6
c. B cell lymphoma Answers (MCQs)
d. All of the above 1. d; 2. c; 3. c; 4. b; 5. a; 6. c; 7. d; 8. a; 9. c.

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 59
Chapter

Adenoviruses

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Describe diseases associated with adenovirus
be able to: ∙∙ Describe adenovirus-associated viruses (AAV).
∙∙ Describe morphology of adenovirus

Introduction capsomers which consists of hexons, while the 12

capsomers at the vertices have five neighbors and
Adenoviruses are a group of medium sized, are called pentons.
nonenvel­oped, double stranded DNA viruses that
Each penton unit consists of a penton base
share a com­mon complement fixing antigen. The
anchored in the capsid and a projection or fiber
name “adenovirus” (adeno, from adenoid) reflects
consisting of a rod like portion with a knob
the recovery of the initial isolate from explants of
attached at the distal end. Thus, the virion has the
human adenoids. All human serotypes are included
appearance of a space vehicle. The DNA is linear
in a single genus within the family Adeno­viridae.
and double­stranded.
Classification
Resistance
The family Adenoviridae comprises two genera.
A. Mastadenovirus: Infects mammals. Human Adnoviruses are relatively stable, remain­ing
adenoviruses are further subdivided into viable for about a week at 37°C. They are readily
six species A–F (also called subgroups or inactivated at 50°C. They resist ether and bile salts.
subgenera) (Table 59.1).
B. Aviadenovirus: Infects birds. Pathogenesis
Adenoviruses infect and replicate in epithelial cells
Morphology of the respiratory tract, eye, gastrointestinal tract,
Adenoviruses are 70–90 nm in diameter and urinary blad­der, and liver.
display icosahedral symmetry (Fig. 59.1). There Several distinct clinical syndromes are associ­
is no envelope. The capsid is composed of 252 ated with adenovirus infection (Table 59.2)
Table 59.1:  Classification of human adenoviruses
Group Serotype (Species) Total Hemagglutination pattern with Oncogenicity in
(Subgenus) red cells of newborn hamsters
A 12, 18, 21 3 Rat (Partial) High
B 3, 7, 11, 14, 16, 21, 34, 35 8 Monkey (Complete) Low
C 1, 2, 5, 6 4 Rat (Partial) None
D 8–10, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 29 Rat (Complete ) None
22–30, 32, 33, 36–39, 42–47
E 4 1 Rat (Partial) None
F 40, 41 2 Rat (Partial) None
Total 47
 Chapter 59: Adenoviruses  | 419
B. Eye Infections
1. Phar yngoconjunctival fever : Phar yn­
goconjunctival fever tends to occur in outbreaks,
such as at children’s summer camps (swimming
pool conjunc­tivitis), and is associated with
serotypes 3, 7 and 14.
2. Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis (EKC): This
is a seri­ous condition which may appear as an
epidemics, usually caused by type 8 and less
often by types 19 and 37. This disease occurs
mainly in adults and is highly contagious.
3. Acute follicular conjunctivitis: Types 3, 4 and
11 are commonly re­sponsible. Adenoviral and
chlamydial conjunctivitis are clinically similar.

Fig. 59.1: Morphology of advenovirus
A. Respiratory Diseases
1. Pharyngitis: Adenoviruses are the major cause
of nonbacterial pharyngitis and tonsillitis,
presenting as febrile common cold. Types 1–7
are commonly re­sponsible.
2. Pneumonia: Adenovirus types 3 and 7 are
associated with pneumonia in adults resembling
primary atypical pneumonia. Adenoviruses,
particularly types 3, 7, and 21 are thought to be
responsible for about 10–20% of pneu­monias
in childhood. In infants and young children
type 7 may lead to more serious and even fatal
pneumonia.
3. Acute respiratory diseases: Adenoviruses are
the cause of an acute respiratory disease (ARD)
syndrome among military recruits. Serotypes 4,
7 and 21 are the agents commonly isolated.
C. Gastrointestinal Disease
Diarrhea: Some fastid­ious adenoviruses can cause
diarrheal disease in children (for example, types
40 and 41).
D. Other Diseases
Mesenteric adenitis and intussusception in children,
pertussis­-like illness, acute hemorrhagic cystitis with
dysuria and hematuria in young boys, musculoskeletal
disorders, genital and skin infections.
E. Systemic Infection in Immunocompromised
Patients Include Pneumo­nia and Hepatitis
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens
Depending on the clinical disease, virus may be
recovered from stool or urine or from a throat,
conjunctival, or rectal swab.

Table 59.2:  Disease associated with adenovirus serotypes

Disease Those at risk Associated serotypes
1. Acute febrile pharyngitis
Endemic Infants, young children 1, 2, 5, 6
Epidemic Infants, young children 3, 4, 7
2. Pneumonia Infants 1, 2, 3, 7
3. Acute respiratory disease Military recruits 4, 7, 14, 21
4. Pharyngoconjunctival fever Older school-age children 3, 7
5. Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis (ship yard Adults 8, 19, 37
eye)
6. Follicular (swimming pool) conjunctivitis Any age 3, 4, 11

7. Diarrhea and vomiting Infants, young children 40, 41

8. Intussusception Infants 1, 2, 5
9. Hemorrhagic cystitis Infants, young children 11, 21
10. Disseminated infection Immunocompromised, e.g. AIDS, renal, bone 5, 11, 34, 35, 43–47
marrow and heart-lung transplant recipients

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420  |  Section 4: Virology
B. Direct Demonstration of Virus
i. Electron microscopy: Virus particles may
be seen directly in stool extracts by electron
microscopy.
ii. Virus antigen: The presence of viral antigen
in the nasopharynx may be identified by
immunofluorescence with group-specific
antibodies (polyclonal or monoclonal) directly
on aspi­rates. Alternatively, viral antigen may be
detected by enzyme immunoassays.
iii. Viral DNA: It is also possible to detect viral
DNA directly from feces by polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis.
iv. La­tex agglutination method: It uses latex
particles coated with specific antibody to each
virus.
C. Virus Isolation
The clinical specimens are inoculated in tissue
culture such as HeLa, Hep., KB and human embryo
kidney cells. The development of char­acteristic
cytopathic effects-rounding and clustering of
swollen cells—indicates the presence of adenovirus
in inoculated cultures.
Isolates can be identi­fied as adenoviruses by
immunofluorescence tests using an antihexon
antibody and infected cells hemagglutination
inhibition and neutralization tests.
Characterization of viral DNA by hybridization
or by restriction endonuclease digestion patterns
can identify an isolate as an adenovirus and group it.
D. Polymerase Chain Reaction
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays can be
used for diagnosis of adenovirus infections.
E. Serology
For serological diagnosis, rise in titer of antibodies
should be demonstrated in paired sera. Comple­
ment fixation and neutralization tests may be used
by reference laboratories or in research.
Treatment, Prevention and Control
There is no known treatment for adenovirus
infection. Live oral vaccines have been used to
prevent infections with adenovirus types 4 and
7 in military recruits. The widespread use of
live adenovirus vaccines is unlikely. However,
genetically engineered subunit vaccines could be
prepared and used in the future.
Gene Therapy
There is growing interest in the potential use of aden­
o­viruses as gene delivery vehicles for gene therapy or
DNA vaccination. Adenoviruses have been used and
are being considered for more applications of gene
delivery for correction of several human diseases,
including immune deficiencies (e.g. adenosine
deaminase deficiency), cystic fibrosis, lysosomal
storage diseases, and even cancer.
Adenovarus-associated Viruses
The adenovirus-associated viruses (AAVs) are
members of the parvoviridae. They are about 22
nm in diameter, appear to be more hexagonal
than circular in outline and contain insufficient
single-stranded DNA to replicate on their own.
They form a genus, dependoviruses, indicating their
dependence on adenoviruses (or herpes simplex
virus) to provide the missing functions.
They can be detected by electron microscopy
and complement fixation or immun­ofluorescence
with specific antisera. Types 1, 2 and 3 are of human
origin and cause natural infection, while type 4 is of
simian origin. Their pathogenic role is uncertain.
True AAV (also known as adenovirus satellite
virus) has not been implicated in clinical disease
and its pathogenic role is uncertain.
Key Points
™™ Adenoviruses are nonenveloped, icosahedral, DNA
viruses. The virion has the appearance of a space
vehicle
™™ Adenoviruses infect and replicate in epithelial cells
of the respiratory tract, eye, gastrointestinal tract,
urinary blad­der, and liver.
™™ Adenovirus-associated viruses (AAVs) are members of
the parvoviridae. They form a genus, dependoviruses,
indicating their dependence on adenoviruses
(or herpes simplex virus) to provide the missing
functions.
Important questions
1. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of infections caused
by adenoviruses.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Adenoviruses.
b. Adenovirus-associated viruses.
Multiple choice questions (mcqs)
1. What is the symmetry of adenoviruses?
a. Icosahedral b. Helical
c. Complex d. None of the above
2. Which of the following viruses morphology appear
as a space vehicle?
a. Rabies virus
b. Adenoviruses
c. Cytomegalovirus
d. Herpes simplex virus
3. Which of the following cell lines can be used for
the growth of adenoviruses?
a. HeLa. b. HEp-2.
c. KB. d. All of the above.
4. All the following infections are caused by adeno­
viruses except:
a. Pharyngoconjunctival fever
b. Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis
c. Acute hemorrhagic cystitis
d. Cancer
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. b; 3. a; 4. d

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
∙∙ Describe the following: Papillomaviruses; Polyomaviruses.
Introduction
The term ‘Papova’ is a sigla indicating the names
of viruses included in this group: (Pa, papilloma;
po, polyoma; va, vacuolating virus) belong to
the family Papovaviri­dae and has two genera—
Papillomavirus and Polyomavirus.
Papillomaviruses
Papillomaviridae family includes papillomaviruses.
Papillomaviruses are slightly larger in diameter
(55 nm) than the polyomaviruses (45 nm) and
contain a larger genomea. All papil­lomaviruses
induce hyperplastic epithelial lesions in their host
species. Over seventy types of human papilloma­
viruses (HPVs) are now recognized.
Pathogenesis
Papillomaviruses cause several different kinds
of warts in humans, including cutaneous warts,
genital warts, respiratory papillomatosis, oral
papillomas and cancer.
1. Cutaneous Warts
These are frequently seen in young children and
adolescents. The viruses associated with such
lesions are HPV types 1 and 4 (plantar warts); 3 and
10 (flat warts); 2, 4 and 7 (common warts).
Epidermodysplasia Verruciformis
Multiple warts that do not regress, but instead
spread to many body sites.
2. Anogenital Warts
These lesions (also known as condylomata
acuminata) are commonest in sexually active
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60
Chapter
Papovaviruses
adults. In women, they are found on the vulva,
within the vagina and on the cervix. In men, the
most common sites for lesions are the shaft of the
penis, perianal skin and the anal canal.
Human papillomavirus types 6 and 11 are
commonly found in benign vulval or penile warts.
Cervical and anogenital warts may be due to HPV
types 16 or I8.
3. Recurrent Respiratory Papillomatosis
This is a rare condition characterized by the presence
of benign squamous papillomata on the mucosa of
the respiratory tract, most commonly on the larynx.
It has peaks of incidence in children under 5 years
of age and adults after the age of 15 years. Children
acquire the disease by passage through an infected
birth canal, while adults acquire the disease from
orogenital contact with an infected sexual partner.
It is caused by infection of the respiratory mucosa
with HPV types 6 and 11.
4. Oral Papillomatosis
A variety of papillomata and benign lesions
associated with HPV occur on the oral mucosa and
tongue. Multiple lesions may develop on the buccal
mucosa, a condition known as oral florid papillo­
matosis. Infection is acquired during orogenital
contact with an infected sexual partner. Several
HPV types, including types 2, 7, 13 and 32, have
been found.
5. Cancer
HPV DNA can be detected in all grades of the
premalignant lesions of the female and male genital
tract. HPV types 6 and 11 are most commonly
found in low-grade disease whereas. HPV types 16
422  |  Section 4: Virology
and 18 are more commonly associated with lesions
of greater severity and invasive cancer.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Morphological identification: HPV infection
may be readily diagnosed when there are
typical clinical lesions.
Subclinical infection requires lab­o ratory
confirmation using:
1. Cytological and histological detection.
2. Immunocytochemical detection: HPV capsid
antigen in sections of tissues or in cell smears
can be detected by immunoperoxidase test
using antiserum. It detects all the genital
HPV types.
3. Molecular methods: Amplification of HPV
DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
B. Serology: Are appropriate for epidemiological
studies.
Polyomaviruses
These are small viruses (diameter 45 nm) that
possess a circular genome of double-stranded DNA
enclosed within a nonenveloped capsid exhibiting
icosahedral symmetry.
The name is derived from ‘poly’ (many) and
‘oma’ (tumor). The viruses are species-specific.
Recognized members of this group include:
1. Mouse polyomavirus
2. Simian vacuolating virus 40 (SV 40)
3. JC virus (JCV)
4. BK virus (BKV)
1. Mouse Polyomavirus
It causes harmless infections in mice by natural
routes. However, it induces different types of
malignant tumors when injected into infant rodents.
2. Simian Vacuolating Virus 40 (SV 40)
The simian vacuolating virus (SV 40) was isolat­ed
from uninoculated rhesus and cynomolgus
monkey kidney tissue cultures. SV40 is oncogenic
in newborn hamsters. Its only medical importance
is that because of its oncogenic potential, live viral
vaccines should be manufactured only in monkey
kidney tissue cultures tested and found free from
SV 40 infection.
3. JC Virus (JCV)
The JC virus was isolated from the brain of a patient
with Hodgkin’s disease and progressive multifocal
leukoencephalopathy (PML). It was named
after the initials of the person from whom it was
first isolated. JC virus is the cause of progressive
multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML).
4. BK Polyomaviruses
The human polyomaviruses (BK and JC) have been
isolated from immunocompromised patients. It
was named after the initials of the person from
whom it was first isolated. BK virus isolated from
the urine of a patient with kidney transplant.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Electron Microscopy
Human polyomavirurses can be detected by
electron microscopy from brain tissue in a case
of PML (JC virus) and from the urine of a renal
transplant case (BK virus).
2. Virus Isolation
Human fetal glial cell culture and human diploid
fibroblasts are used for the isolaton of JC polyomavirus
BK virus respectively. Hemaggltination inhibition is
used to differentiate these two viruses.
3. Viral Antigen Detection
The brain biopsy or autopsy material can be examined
directly for JCV antigen by immunofluorescence or
immunoperoxidase staining.
4. Viral nucleic Acid Detection
Viral nucleic acid can be detected by nucleic acid
hybridization and polymerase reaction (PCR).
5. Cytopathology
Exfoliated urinary epithelial cells show the
presence of enlarged deeply stained basophilic
nuclei with a single inclusion.
Key Points
™™ Papovaviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses and
has two genera, Papillomavirus and Polyomavirus
™™ Papillomaviruses are species-specific DNA viruses
that infect the squamous epithelia and mucous
membranes of vertebrates, including man
™™ Over seventy types of human papillomaviruses
(HPVs) are now recognized
™™ Papillomaviruses cause several different kinds of
warts in humans, including cutaneous warts, genital
warts, respiratory papillomatosis, oral papillomas
and cancer
™™ Polyomaviruses include: Mouse polyomavirus, simian
virus 40 (SV 40) of monkeys, JC virus (JCV) and BK
polyomavirus.
Important question
Write short notes on:
a. SV40
b. Papovavirus
c. Polyomavirusess
 Chapter 60: Papovaviruses  | 423
Multiple choice questions (Mcqs) c. SV40 virus
d. Polyomavirus of mice
1. Cervical papillomas and dysplasia in human is 3. BK polyomavirus is isolated from urine by culture
associated with human papillomaviruses: in:
a. HPV-l b. HPV-16 a. Human diploid fibroblasts
c. HPV-26 d. HPV-28 b. Human fetal glial cell culture
2. The polyoma virus that causes progressive multifocal c. Vero cell culture
leukoencephalopathy (PML) in humans is: d. HeLa cell culture
a. BK virus Answers (MCQs)
b. JC virus 1. b; 2. b; 3. a

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Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
∙∙ Describe Parvoviruses.
Introduction
The parvoviruses are the smallest of the DNA
viruses (about 20 nm) and have been isolated
from a wide range of organisms, from arthropods
to humans.
The family Parvoviridae is divided into two
subfamilies: the Parvovirinae and the Densovirinae.
The Parvovirinae contains three genera: Parvovirus,
Dependovirus and Erythrovirus.
A. Parvovirus
Parvovirus genus contains the autonomous par­
voviruses, which are widespread in nature and
capable of autonomous replication. The group
includes feline and canine parvoviruses (FPV
and CPV) which are so important in veterinary
medicine that immunization against them is a
routine practice in developed countries.
B. Dependovirus
In contrast to par­voviruses, dependoviruses require
helper virus functions for replication. The most
studied are the human adeno-­associated viruses
(AAV), to assist in replication.
C. Erythrovirus
There is only one parvovirus (B19) known to cause
disease in humans.
Parvovirus (B19): The cell receptor for parvovirus
B19 is the P antigen. This is present on red blood
cells, erythroid progenitors, vascular endothelium
and fetal myocytes. Infection is acquired in
childhood and is often asymptomatic. Transmission
of parvoviruses appears to be by the respiratory
route. Parvovirus 19 is highly contagious.
61
Chapter
Parvoviruses
Clinical Diseases
1. Minor illness: Nonspecific respiratory tract
illness is the next most common illness, at least
in boys.
2. Erythema infectiosum (Fifth disease): B19
virus causes an erythematous maculopapular
rash, which in its most clinically distinct form
is called erythema infectiosum. It is common
in children aged 4–11 years, and is sometimes
called fifth disease. Classically, it starts with an
intense erythema of the cheeks, hence another
of its names—‘slapped-cheek disease’. The rash
then proceeds to involve the trunk and limbs.
There may be associated lymphadenopathy
and joint symptoms.
3. Joint disease: In addition to a rash, a compli­
cation accompanying B19 infection is an acute
arthritis.
4. Aplastic crisis: Parvovirus B19 induces in
childern with aplastic crisis with chronic
hemolytic anemia (e.g. sickle cell anemia or
thalassemia).
5. Infection during pregnancy: It may result in
nonimmmune fetal hydrops.
6. Infection in immunosuppressed: Persistent
infections have been described in patients with
underlying immunodeficiency states.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis may be made by detection of virus in the
blood in early cases, and of antibody later.
1. Virus isolation: Parvovirus B19 may be cultured
in cells from human bone marrow or fetal liver.
It can be detected in patient’s blood by electron
microscopy.
 Chapter 61: Parvovirus  | 425
2. Detection of viral nucleic acid: Nucleic acid Multiple choice questions (Mcqs)
can be deteted by nucleic acid dot blot hybridiz­
1. Which of the following viruses is also known as
ation or by polymerase chain reaction-based “adeno-associated virus”?
assays. a. Parvovirus
3. Antigen detection: Detection of viral antigen b. Erythrovirus
is done by counterimmunoelectrophoresis, c. Dependovirus
ELISA, RIA or indirect immunofluoescence. d. JC polyoma virus.
4. Antibody detection: IgM antibodies or a 2. B19 virus infection is associated with all the
significant rise in IgG antibodies can be deted by following infections except:
ELISA or RIA. It is the most successful technique. a. Erythema infectiosum
b. Fulminant hepatitis
Key Points c. Aplastic crisis
d. Hydrops fetalis
™™ Parvoviruses are the smallest of the DNA viruses
(about 20 nm) 3. B19 virus infection is transmitted by all the
™™ The family Parvoviridae is divided into two following routes except:
subfamilies: the Parvovirinae and the Densivirinae a. Sexual transmission
™™ The Parvovirinae contains three genera: Parvovirus, b. Aerosol droplets
Dependovirus and Erythrovirus c. Feco-oral route
™™ Erythrovirus: It is only one parvovirus (B19) known
d. Transfusion of blood and blood products
to cause disease in humans.
4. Which of the following viruses is associated with
“slapped cheek” syndrome?
Important question a. Parvovirus
b. Erythrovirus
Write short notes on: c. Dependovirus
a. Parvovirus d. JC polyoma virus
b. Dependovirus
c. Erythrovirus or Parvovirus (B19) Answers (MCQs)
d. Erythema infectiosum or fifth disease. 1. c; 2. b; 3. c; 4. b

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 6262
Chapter

Picornaviruses

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe enteroviruses
∙∙ Discuss prophylaxis against poliomyelitis
∙∙ Differentiate live and killed polio vaccines
∙∙ Differentiate coxsackie A and coxsackie B viruses
∙∙ Describe diseases caused by coxsackie viruses
∙∙ D escribe the following: acute hemorrhagic
conjunctivitis; Rhinoviruses.

INTRODUCTION Genome: Single-stranded RNA, linear, positive-

sense.
The family Picornaviridae comprises a large
number of very small RNA (pico, meaning small, Proteins: Four major polypeptides cleaved from a
RNA: rna) viruses with a diameter of 27–30 nm large pre­cursor polyprotein. Surface proteins VPl
and containing single-stranded RNA. They are and VP3 are major antibody-binding sites. Internal
nonenveloped viruses, re­sistant to ether and other protein VP4 is associated with viral RNA.
lipid solvents. Envelope: None
Replication: Cytoplasm
CLASSIFICATION Culture: Many enteroviruses (polioviruses,
The Picornaviridae family has more than 230 echoviruses, some coxsackieviruses) can be grown
members that are divided into six genera: at 37°C in human and monkey cells. Most rhinovirus
Enterovirus, Rhinovirus, Cardiovirus, Aphthovirus, strains can be recovered only in human cells at 33°C.
Hepatovirus and Parechovirus (Table 62.1). Coxsackieviruses are pathogenic for newborn mice.
Important properties of picornaviruses are
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF summerized in Table 62.2.
PICORNAVIRUSES
ENTEROVIRUSES
Size: 28–30 nm in diameter.
Enteroviruses of medical importance include
Virion: Icosahedral, contains 60 sub­units. polioviruses, coxsackieviruses and echoviruses
Table 62.1:  Picornaviridae Table 62.2:  Some properties of picornaviruses
1. Enterovirus Property Enteroviruses Rhinoviruses
Poliovirus types 1, 2 and 3
Size (nm) 22–30 30
Coxsackie A virus types 1–22 and 24
Coxsackie B virus types 1–6 Capsid
Echovirus (ECHO virus) types 1–9, 11–27, and 29–34
Form Icosahedral Icosahedral
Enterovirus 68–72
Polypeptides VP1, VP2, VP3, VP4 VP1, VP2, VP3, VP4
2. Rhinovirus types 1–100+ most important cause of
RNA type Single-stranded, Single-stranded,
the common cold positive-sense positive-sense
3. Cardiovirus of mice, including the
encephalomyocarditis virus Optimal 37°C 33-34°C
4. Aphthovirus causing the foot and mouth disease of cat­tle temperature for
5. Heparnavirus—Hepatitis A virus growth
6. Parechovirus (pare­choviruses)—Echovirus 22 and 23. Acid Stable (pH 3–9) Labile (pH 3–5)

Chap-62.indd 426 15-03-2016 11:22:28


because they are all found in the intestines and
are excreted in the faeces. At least 72 serotypes
of human enteroviruses exist, including the
polioviruses types 1–3, coxsackieviruses A types
1–24, coxsackievirus B types 1–6, echovirus types
1–34 and enterovirus types 68–72.
Enterovirus 72 is the virus causing infectious
hepatitis (Hepatitis type A), which has been
reclassified as a separate genus Hepatovirus.
Because of its special status, it is considered in the
chapter on Hepatitis Viruses.
POLIOVIRUS
Morphology
Size: The virion is a spherical particle, about 27
nm in diameter.
Capsid: It consists of a capsid shell of 60 subunits,
each consisting of four viral proteins (VP1–VP4),
arranged in icosahedral symmetry.
Genome: The genome is a single strand of positive
sense RNA.
Resistance
1. Poliovirus is resistant to ether, chloroform, bile,
proteolytic enzymes of the intestinal con­tents
and detergents.
2. It is stable at pH 3.
3. In feces, virus can survive for months at 4°C, for
years at –20 or –70°C and at room temperature
for several weeks.
4. They are inactivated when heated at 55°C for
30 min­u tes, but molar MgCl 2 prevents this
inactivation.
5. Drying rapidly inactivates enteroviruses by
ultraviolet light, and usually by drying.
6. Formaldehyde and oxidizing disinfectants
destroy the virus.
7. Chlorination destroys the virus in water but
organic matter delays inactivation.
8. Poliovirus does not survive lyophilization well.
Antigenic Properties
Two antigens C and D (C = coreless or capsid; D =
dense) can be recognized by complement fixation,
enzyme-linked immunosobent assay (ELISA) or
precipitation tests.
Types: There are three types (1, 2 and 3) of
poliovirus, identified by neu­tralization tests. The
three types are antigenically distinct, but overlap
occurs in neutralization tests. The prototype strains
are as follow.
Host Range and Cultivation
Primary monkey kidney cultures are used for
diagnostic cultures and vaccine production.
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Chap-62.indd 427
Chapter 62: Picornaviruses  | 427
The infected cells round up and become refra­
ctile and py­k notic. Eosinophilic intranuclear
inclusion bodies may be demonstrated in stained
preparations. Well-formed plaques develop in
infected monolayers with agar overlay.
Pathogenesis
The virus is transmitted by the fecal-oral route
through ingestion. Inhalation or entry through
conjunctiva of droplets of respiratory secre­tions
may also be possible modes of entry in close
contacts of patients in the early stage of the disease.
Virus is ingested and multiplies initially in the
lym­phoid tissue of the tonsil or Peyer’s patches in
the small intestine. It then spreads to the regional
lymph nodes and enters the bloodstream (mi­nor or
primary viremia). Primary vire­mia spreads the virus
to receptor-bearing target tissues, where a second
phase of viral replication may occur, resulting in
symptoms and a secondary viremia.
Clinical Features
The incubarion period is usually 7–14 days, but
it may range from 3 days to 35 days. Following
exposure to poliovirus, 90–95% of susceptible
individuals develop only inapparent infection,
which causes seroconver­sion alone. It is only in
5–10% that any sort of clinical illness results.
1. Asymptomatic illness : At least 90% of
poliovirus infections are asymptomatic.
2. Abortive poliomyelitis, the minor illness:
is a nonspecific febrile illness occurring in
approximately 5 % of infected people.
3. Nonparalytic poliomyelitis or aseptic
meningitis: It occurs in 1–2% of patients with
poliovirus infec­tions. In this disease, the virus
progresses into the cen­tral nervous system and
the meninges, causing back pain and muscle
spasms in addition to the symptoms of the
minor illness.
4. Paralytic poliomyelitis, the major illness:
Paralytic polio, the major illness, occurs in
0.1–2.0% of persons with poliovirus infections.
The predominating complaint is flaccid paralysis
resulting from lower motor neuron damage.
Depending on the distribution of paralysis, cases
are classified as spinal, bulbar or bulbospinal.
Mortality ranges from 5–10% and is mainly due
to res­piratory failure.
5. Progressive postpoliomyelitis muscle atrophy
That may occur much later in life of the original
victims.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens
Many speci­mens can be used, including blood,
CSF, throat swabs and feces.
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 428  |  Section 4: Virology
B. Culture
Primary monkey kidney cells are usually employed,
though any other human or simian cell culture may
be used. The virus growth is indicated by typical
cytopathic effects in 2–3 days. An isolated virus is
identified and typed by neutralization with specific
antiserum.
The mere isolation of poliovirus from feces does
not constitute a diagnosis of poliomyelitis. Virus
isolation must be inter­preted along with clinical
and serological evidence.
C. Serological Tests
Serodiagnosis is less often employed. Antibody rise
can be demonstrated in paired sera by neutralisa­
tion or complement fixation tests.
Immunity
Immunity is permanent to the type causing
the infec­tion. Humoral immunity provided by
circulating and secre­tory antibody is responsible
for protection against po­liomyelitis.
The virus also induces cell mediated immunity,
but its impor­tance appears to be uncertain.
Prophylaxis
Immunization
Both killed and live attenuated vaccines are
available. Two types of vaccines are used throughout
the world; they are:
1. Inactivated (Salk) polio vaccine (lPV)
2. Oral (Sabin) polio vaccine (OPV).
1. Inactivated polio vaccine(IPV)—Salk’s killed
polio vaccine
By 1953, Salk had developed a killed vaccine.
Salk’s killed polio vaccine is a formalin inactivat­ed
preparation of the three types of poliovirus grown in
monkey kidney tissue culture. Killed vaccine is given
by injection and is therefore called inactivated or
injectable poliovaccine (lPV). The primary or initial
course of immunization consists of 4 inoculations.
The first 3 doses are given at intervals of 1–2 months
and 4th dose 6–12 months after the third dose. First
dose is usually given when the infant is 6 weeks old
to ensure that immune response is not impaired by
residual maternal antibod­ies. Additional doses are
recommended prior to school entry and then every.
5 years until the age of 18.
IPV induces humoral antibodies (lgM, IgG
and IgA serum antibodies) but does not induce
intestinal or local immunity. The circulating
antibodies protect the individual against paralytic
polio, but do not prevent reinfection of the gut by
wild viruses. In the case of an epidemic, IPV is
unsuitable.
Chap-62.indd 428
2. Oral polio vaccine (OPV) (Sabin vaccine)
Oral polio vaccine (OPV) was described by Sabin
in 1957. It contains live attenuated virus (types
1, 2 and 3) grown in primary monkey kidney or
human diploid cell. cultures. The use of molar
MgCl2 or sucrose stabilizes the vaccine against heat
inactivation, partic­ularly under tropical conditions.
It can be given to young infants, as the maternal
antibody has little effect on in­testinal infection.
The shelf life of the vaccine at 4–8°C is four
months and at –20°C is two years. Improper storage
conditions and ‘cold chain’ failure may be partly
responsible for the apparent failure of OPV to
control poliomyelitis in the developing countries.
Criteria of attenuated strains for live vaccine
1. They should not be neurovirulent.
2. They should be able to set up intestinal infect­
ion following feeding and should induce an
immune response.
3. They should not acquire neurovirulence after
serial enteric passage.
4. They should possess stable genetic character­
istics (markers) by which they can be differenti­
ated from the wild virulent strains.
Markers for differ­entiating the wild from the
attenuated strains
1. d marker: Wild strains will grow well in low
levels of bicar­bonate but avirulent strains will
not.
2. rct 40: Wild strains grow well at 40°C, while
avirulent strains grow poorly.
3. MS: Wild strains grow well in a sta­ble cell line
of monkey kidney, while avirulent strains grow
poorly.
4. McBride’s intratypic an­tigenic marker shown
by the rate of inactivation by specific antiserum.
Immunization Schedule
The WHO Program on Immunization (EPI) and
the National Immunization Program in India
recommend a primary course of 3 doses of OPV
at one-month intervals, commencing the first
dose when the infant is 6 weeks old. One booster
dose of OPV is recommended 12–18 months later.
It has been recommended that in the tropics, the
number of doses of vaccine be increased to five, in
order to enhance seroconversion in the vaccinees.
It is very important to complete vaccination of all
infants before 6 months of age. This is because most
polio cases occur between the ages of 6 months
and 3 years.
There has been much controversy about the
rel­ative merits of killed and live vaccines. The
differences between IPV and OPV are given in
Table 62.3.
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Table 62.3:  Differences between killed (IPV) and live polio vaccines (OPV)
Virus
Route of administration
Nature of immunity
Useful in controlling epidemics
Manufacture
Duration of immunity
Cost
Storage
Contraindicated in
immunodeficiency states or
pregnancy
Killed polio vaccine (Salk type)
Killed formolized virus
Given subcutaneously or 1M
Induces circulating antibody, but
no local (intestinal) immunity
Prevents paralysis, but does not
prevent reinfection by wild polio
viruses
Not useful in controlling
epidemics
More difficult to manufacture
Life long
The virus content is 10,000 times
more than OPV; hence costlier
Does not require stringent
conditions during storage, and
transportation
Has a longer shelf-life.
No
Chapter 62: Picornaviruses  | 429
Live polio vaccine (Sabin type)
Live attenuated virus
Given orally
Immunity is both humoral and intestinal.
Induces antibody quickly
Prevents not only paralysis,
but also intestinal reinfection
Can be effectively used in controlling epi­demics.
Even a single dose elicits substantial immunity
(except in tropical countries)
Easy to manufacture
Booster vaccine needed for lifelong immunity
Cheaper
Requires to be stored and transported at
subzero temperatures, unless stabilized
Yes

Global Eradication COXSACKIEVIRUS

By global immuniza­tion with OPV, it is possible
to eradicate the disease. A major campaign by
the World Health Organization is underway to
eradicate poliovirus from the world as was done
for smallpox virus. The Americans were certified
as free from wild poliovirus in 1994, the Western
Pacific Region in 2000, and Europe in 2002. Progress
is being made globally, but several thousand cases
of polio still occur each year, principally in Africa
and the Indian subcontinent.
Epidemiology
Poliomyelitis is an exclusively hu­man disease and
the only source of virus is humans. The virus is
transmitted by fecal oral route through ingestion.
The disease occurs in all age groups, but
children are usually more susceptible than adults.
In India, polio is essentially a disease of infancy
and childhood. In developed countries, before the
advent of vaccination, the age dis­tribution shifted
so that most patients were over age 5 and 25% were
over age 15. The case fatality rate is variable. It is
highest in the oldest patients.
Most infections are subclinical. It is estimated
that for every clinical case, there may be 1000
subclinical cases in children and 75 in adults.
Poliovirus type I is responsible for most
epidemics of paralytic poliomyelitis. Type 3 also
causes epidemics to a lesser extent. Type 2 usually
causes inapparent infections in the western coun­
tries but in India paralysis due to type 2 is quite
common. Immunity is type-specific.
The prototype strain was isolated by Dalldorf and
Sickles (1948) from the village of Coxsackie in
New York. Coxsackieviruses are classified into two
groups, A and B based on the path­ological changes
produced in suckling mice (Table 62.4).
Properties of the Virus
Coxsackieviruses are highly infective for newborn
mice. Following inoculation in suckling mice,
Group A viruses produce widespread myositis in
the skeletal muscles of newborn mice, resulting
in flaccid paralysis without other observable
lesions leading to death within a week.Group
B viruses may produce a patchy fecal my­ositis,
spastic paralysis, necrosis of the brown fat and,
often, pancreatitis, hepatitis, myocarditis and
encephalitis (Table 62.4).
Antigenic Characters
Thirty antigenic types have been defined by cross-
neutralization tests in mice or cell culture, and
cross-complement fixation reactions. Twenty-three
have the features of group A and six have those
of group B. Coxsackie A 23 is the same as echo 9
(Coxsackievirus A23 has now been reclassified
as echovirus 9) and Coxsackie A24 the same as
ECHO 34.
Clinical Features
Like other enteroviruses, coxsackie­viruses inhabit
the alimentary canal primarily and are spread

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 430  |  Section 4: Virology
Table 62.4:  Features of coxsackieviruses A and B children and adults but are most threatening in
infection in the laboratory newborns.
Features Coxsackievirus A Coxsackievirus B 3. Aseptic meningitis with paralyisis.
1. Growth in + + 4. Juvenile diabetes
monkey Juvenile diabetes has been claimed to be associated
kidney with coxsackie B4 infection.
2. Effect in Generalized Patchy focal
suckling myositis my­ositis 5. Neonatal infections
mice Flaccid paralysis Spastic paralysis, Transplacental and neonatal transmission has
Death within a Necrosis of the been demonstrated with coxsackie B viruses,
week brown fat and, resulting in a serious disseminated disease that
often, pancreatitis,
may include hepatitis, meninoencephaIitis and
hepatitis,
myocarditis and adrenocortical involvement.
encephalitis
6. Chronic fatigue syndrome
3. Types 23 (1–24*) 6 (1–6) There is some evidence of a possible association
*Coxsackievirus A23 now classified as echovirus 9. between chronic fatigue syndrome and infection
with enteroviruses, particularly coxsackie B viruses.
by the fecal–oral route. Young infants are most
commonly affected. The incubation period of Laboratory Diagnosis
coxsackievirus infection ranges from 2 days to 9 A. Virus Isolation
days. The clinical manifestations of infection with
yarious coxsackieviruses are diverse and may The virus is isolated readily from throat washings
present as distinct disease entities (Table 62.4). conjunctival swabs, throat swabs and feces.
i. Inoculation into suckling mice: Specimens
Group A Viruses are inoculated into suckling mice. In suckling
mice, signs of illness appear usually within 3–8
1. Herpangina (vesicular pharyngitis)
days with group A strains and 5–14 days with
Herpangina is a severe febrile pharyngitis and is a
group B strains. Identification is by studying
common clinical manifestation of coxsackie group
the histopathology in infected mice and by
A infec­tion in children.
neutralization tests.
2. Aseptic meningitis ii. Tissue culture: Specimens are inoculated into
Aseptic meningitis is caused by all types of tissue cultures. Of group A coxsackieviruses,
group B cox­sackieviruses and by many group A only A7 and A9 grow in monkey kidney cells,
coxsackieviruses, most commonly A7 and A9. and coxsackievirus A21 can be grown in
3. Hand-foot-and-mouth disease HeLa, HEp2 or human embryonic kidney cell
Hand-foot-and-mouth disease is a vesicular exan­ cultures. All group B coxsackieviruses grow
them and is characterized by oral and pharyngeal readily in monkey kidney cell cultures.
ulcerations and a vesicular rash of the palms and
soles. This disease has been associated particularly B. Serology
with coxsackievirus A16, but A5 and Al0 have also Serologic tests are difficult to evaluate (because of
been implicated. the multiplicity of types).
4. Respiratory infections
A number of the enteroviruses have been asso­ C. Nucleic Acid Detection
ciated with common colds; among these are Reverse transcrip­tion–polymerase chain reaction
coxsackieviruses A21, A24, B1, and B3–5. tests can be broadly reactive.
Group B Viruses Prevention: Vaccination is not practi­cable as there
1. Epidemic myalgia or Born­holm disease are several serotypes and immunity is type-specific.
It is so called because it was first described on the
Danish island of Bornholm. It is an acute illness ECHOVIRUSES
in which patients have a sudden onset of fever Echoviruses (enteric cytopathogenic human
and unilateral low tho­racic, pleuritic chest pain orphan viruses) are grouped together because
that may be excruciating. Coxsackie B virus is the they infect the human enteric tract. They were
causative agent. called orphans as they could not be associated
2. Myocardial and pericardial infections with any particular clinical disease then. There is
Myocardial and pericardial infections caused still no clear association of some types with specific
by coxsackie B virus occur sporadically in older diseases.

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 Chapter 62: Picornaviruses  | 431
Clinical Features 3. Serology
Most echovirus infections are asymptomatic but Serological diagnosis is impractical.
some have been associated with clinical syndromes 4. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
(Table 62.5). Nucleic acid detection assays, such as polymerase
1. Aseptic meningitis chain reaction, are more rapid than virus isolation
2. Respiratory illnesses in children for diagnosis.
3. Infantile diarrhea has not been established.
4. Occasionally, there is con­junctivitis, muscle OTHER ENTEROVIRUS TYPES
weakness and spasm. Four enteroviruses (types 68–71) grow in monkey
kid­ney cultures, and three of them cause human
Laboratory Diagnosis disease (Table 62.5).
1. Specimen
Acute Hemorrhagic Conjunctivitis
The procedure of choice is isolation of virus from
A pandemic of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis,
throat swabs, stools, rectal swabs, and, in aseptic
apparently arising in West Africa in 1969 spread
meningitis, cerebrospinal fluid.
widely involving several parts of Africa, the Mid­dle
2. Virus isolation East, India, South-East Asia, Japan, England and
Specimens may be inoculated into monkey Europe. The disease is most common in adults,
kidney tissue cul­tures and virus growth detected with an incubation period of 1 day. The symptoms
by cytopathic changes. The large number of are sudden swelling, congestion, watering and
serotypes makes identification by neutralization pain in the eyes. Sub­conjunctival hemorrhage is
tests laborious. a characteristic feature. Complete recovery is the
rule. There is transient corneal involvement but
Table 62.5:  Illness associated with recently recovery is usually complete in 3–7 days.
identified enteroviruses Enterovirus 70 is the chief cause of acute
Enterovirus type Clinical illness
hemor­r hagic conjunctivitis. It grows only on
cultured human cells (human embryonic kidney or
68 Pneumonia and bronchiolitis
HeLa) on primary isolation, but can be adapted to
69 Isolated from an ill person in Mexico grow on monkey kidney cells. Coxsackievirus type
70 Acute hemorrhagic conjuctivitis A 24 also produces the same disease.
70, 71 Paralysis, meningoencephalitis Enterovirus 71 has been isolated from patients
71 Hand-foot-and-mouth disease
with meningitis, encephalitis and paralysis res­
embling poliomyelitis.
72* Hepatitis A
Various clinical syndromes associated with
*Reclassified as Hepatavirus enteroviruses are given in Table 62.6.

Table 62.6  Summary of clinical syndromes caused by major enterovirus groups

Syndrome Polioviruses Coxsackie A Coxsackie B Echoviruses Enterovirus
virus virus types 68–71
Aseptic meningitis 1–3 Many 1–6 Many 71
Paralysis 1–3 7, 9 2–5 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 30 70, 71
Paralysis
Encephalitis 71 1–3 2, 5–7, 9 1–5 2, 6, 9, 19 70, 71
Fever with rash – 9, 16, 23 – 4, 6, 9, 16 –
Herpangina – 1–6, 8, 10 – – –
Hand, foot and – 5, 10, 16 – – 71
mouth disease
Upper respiratory – 21 – 11, 20 –
infection
Pneumonitis, – – – – 68
bronchiolitis
Bornholm disease – – 1, 5 – –
Myocarditis, 1, 5 – –
pericarditis
Acute hemorrhagic – 24 – – 70
conjunctivitis

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 432  |  Section 4: Virology
RHINOVIRUSES
Rhinoviruses are the common cold viruses and
are the most important cause of the com­mon cold
and upper respiratory tract infections. They are
usually iso­lated from nasal secretions but may also
be found in throat and oral secretions.
Properties of the Virus
They differ from enteroviruses in being more
acid labile, but more heat stable. Inactivation of
rhinoviruses occurs below pH 6.0 and is more rapid
the lower the pH. They are relatively stable in the
range from 20 to 37°C (Table 62.2).
By neutralization tests, they have been classified
into over 113 serotypes. Immunity is type-specific.
Host Range and Growth
Rhinoviruses can be grown in tissue cultures of
human or simian origin with cytopathic changes.
Rhinoviruses were classified into three groups, H,
M and O, depending upon growth in tissue culture,.
H strains grew only in human cells, while M strains
grew equally well in human and monkey cells. Zero
strains could be grown only in nasal or tracheal
ciliated epi­thelium.
Pathogenesis
The virus enters via the upper respiratory tract.
Local inflammation and cytokines may be
responsible for the symptoms of common cold.
Clinical Syndromes
The incubation period is brief from 2 days to 4
days. The acute illness usually lasts for 7 days.
Usual symptoms in adults include sneezing, nasal
obstruction, nasal discharge, and sore throat; other
symptoms may include headache, mild cough,
malaise and a chilly sensation. There is little or
no fever.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The clinical syndrome of the common cold is
usually so characteristic that laboratory diagnosis
is unneces­sary.
A. Specimens: Nose, throat swabs and nasophary­
ngeal aspirates.
B. Culture: Cell cultures of human origin such as
MRC5 or WI38 are preferred for the isolation
of rhinoviruses. Cultures are incubated at 33°C
and observed microscopically for a CPE.
C. Serology: Serology is not feasible.
D. Nucleic acid detection: Likely to become a
significant tool in diagnosis.
Chap-62.indd 432
Treatment and Prophylaxis
Antiviral drugs are thought to be a more likely
con­trol measure for rhinoviruses. Pleconaril is one
such drug showing activity against rhinoviruses
and enteroviruses.
Hand washing and the disinfection of contamin­
ated objects are the best means of preventing the
spread of the virus.
Key Points
™™ The Picornaviridae family has divided into six genera:
Enterovirus, Rhinovirus, Cardiovirus, Aphthovirus,
Hepatovirus and Parechovirus
™™ Enteroviruses include the polioviruses, echoviruses,
coxsackieviruses
Polioviruses
™™ Poliovirus is the causative agent of poliomyelitis
™™ Prevention of poliomyelitis is accomplished by an
inactivated (killed) injectable vaccine (Salk vaccine)
or an attenuated live, orally administered vaccine
(Sabin vaccine), which confers immunity by raising
neutralising antibody
Coxsackieviruses
™™ Based on the pathological changes produced in
suckling mice, they are classified into two group
A and B
™™ The clinical manifestations of infection with yarious
coxsackieviruses are diverse and may present as
distinct disease entities
Echoviruses
™™ Echoviruses are found in the intestinal tract of the
infected humans
™™ Most echovirus infections are asymptomatic but
some have been associated with clinical syndromes
Rhinoviruses
™™ Rhinoviruses are the most important causative
agents of the common cold and upper respiratory
tract infections.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Name the picornaviruses. Discuss pathogenesis
and laboratory diagnosis of poliomyelitis.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Prophylaxis against poliomyelitis
b. Coxsackie­viruses
c. Echoviruses
d. Enterovirus 70
e. Acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis
f. Rhinoviruses.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. The following statement is not true for polioviruses:
a. Poliovirus was the first animal virus to be ob-
tained in crystalline form
b. They are enveloped viruses
c. They have single-stranded RNA genome
d. They have three serotypes
2. The prototype strains for type 1 poliovirus are:
a. Brunhilde and Mahoney strains
b. Lansing and MEFI strains
c. Leon and Saukett strains
d. None of the above
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 Chapter 62: Picornaviruses  | 433
3. How much percentage of poliovirus infections 6. Which of the following statement is true for coxsa­
may develop into paralytic poliomyelitis? ckie A virus?
a. 90–95% b. 4–8% a. It has six serotypes
c. 1–2% d. 0.1–2% b. It causes herpangioma
4. Which of the following vaccines induces
c. It shows predilection for visceral organs
production of local secretory IgA antibodies?
a. Salk polio vaccine d. It produces spastic paralysis
b. Sabin polio vaccine 7. All the following enteroviruses are associated with
c. Both the above human infections except:
d. None of the above a. Enterovirus 68
5. Which of the following statements is true for rhino­
b. Enterovirus 69
viruses:
a. It has three antigenic types c. Enterovirus 70
b. Amantadine is effective against the virus d. Enterovirus 71
c. It is the most common cause of common cold
d. It is transmitted by transfusion of blood and ANSWERS (MCQs)
blood products 1. b; 2. a; 3. d; 4. b; 5. c; 6. a; 7. a

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 63
Chapter

Orthomyxovirus

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Differentiate between orthomyxoviruses and
paramyxo­viruses
∙∙ Describe morphology of influenza virus
∙∙ Discuss types and subtypes of orthomyxoviruses
∙∙ D escrbe the following: Hemagglutinin (H) and
neuramini­dase (NA); Antigenic variation in Influenza
virus; Antigenic shift and antigenic drift
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of influenza
∙∙ D escribe the following: Influenza pandemics;
prophylaxis against influenza; influenza vaccines.

Introduction occur within the type A group of influenza viruses

and to a lesser degree in the type B group, whereas
The name ‘Myxovirus’ was used originally for a type C appears to be antigenically stable.
group of enveloped RNA viruses characterized by
their abil­ity to adsorb into mucoprotein receptors
on erythrocytes, causing hemagglutination. The Influenza viruses
name referred to the affinity of the viruses to
mucins (from myxa, meaning mucus). Despite Morphology
having certain similarities, the orthomyx­oviruses
Virus: The influenza virus is typically spheri­cal,
and the paramyxoviruses are separated into two
with a diameter of 80–120 nm but pleomorphism
distinct groups because of fundamental differences
is common.
in their structures and their patterns of replication.
Table 63.1 lists the important differences between Genome: The virus core consists of ribonucleoprotein
orthomyxovirus and paramyxovirus. in helical symmetr y. The negative sense
singlestranded RNA genome is segmented and
Properties of Orthomyxovirus exists as eight pieces. Also present within the virion
The family Orthomyxoviridae comprises four is the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase; this
genera : influenza A , B and C viruses and is essential for infectivity as the virion RNA is of
thogotoviruses. Antigenic changes con­tinually negative sense.
Table 63.1:  Differences between orthomyxovirus and paramyxovirus
Property Orthomyxovirus Paramyxovirus
Size of virion 80–120 nm 100–300 nm
Shape Spherical; filaments in fresh isolates Pleomorphic
Genome Segmented; eight pieces of RNA Single linear molecule of RNA
Diameter of nucleocapsid 9 nm 18 nm
Site of synthesis of ribonucleoprotein Nucleus Cytoplasm
DNA-dependent RNA synthesis Required for multiplication Not required
Effect of actinomycin D Inhibits multiplication Does not inhibit
Antigenic stability Variable Stable
Hemolysin Absent Present

Envelope: The nucleocapsid is surrounded by an
M1 protein shell, immediately exterior to which
is a lipid envelope derived from the host cell. The
M2 protein projects through the envelope to form
ion channels. The protein part of the envelope is
virus coded but the lipid layer is derived from the
modified host cell membrane, during the process
of replication by budding.
Peplomers: Projecting from the envelope are
two types of spikes (peplomers): hemagglutinin
(HA) spikes which are triangular in cross-sec­tion
and the mushroom-shaped neuraminidase (NA)
peplomers which are less numerous (Fig 63.1).
These two surface glycoproteins are the important
antigens that determine antigenic variation of
influenza viruses and host immunity.
Resistance
The influenza virus withstands slow drying at room
tem­perature on articles such as blankets and glass.
It can be preserved for long periods at –70°C, and
remains viable indefinitely when freeze-dried.
Influenza viruses are relatively hardy in vitro
and may be stored at 0–4°C for weeks without loss
of via­bility. Exposure to heat for 30 minutes at 56°C
is sufficient to inactivate most strains. The viruses
are inactivated by a variety of sub­stances, such as
20% ether in the cold, phenol, formaldehyde, salts
of heavy metals, detergents, soaps, halogens and
many others. Iodine is particularly effective.
Antigenic Structure
The antigens of the influenza virus can be classified
as the internal antigens and the surface antigens.
A. Internal Antigens
1. Ribo­n ucleoprotein (RNP) antigen: The
internal antigen is the ribo­nucleoprotein and
is hence called the RNP antigen. It was also
called the ‘soluble’ (S) antigens because it is
found free in infected tissues and occurs in the
supernatant when the virus containing fluid is
centrifuged.
Fig. 63.1: Diagrammatic representation of influenza virus
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Chapter 63: Orthomyxovirus  | 435
It is type-specific and based on its nature,
influenza vi­ruses are classified into types A, B
and C.
2. Matrix (M) protein: M protein antigen is also
type-specific. The M1 proteins line the inside
of the virion and promote assembly. The M2
protein forms a proton channel in membranes
and promotes uncoating and viral release.
B. Surface Antigens
The term ‘viral’ or V antigen was formerly used to
describe the surface antigen of the influenza virus.
The V antigen is actually com­posed of at least two
viruscoded proteins, the haemagglutinin and the
neuraminidase.
1. Hemagglutinin (HA): Hemagglutinin (HA) is
a glycoprotein composed of two polypeptides
—HA1 and HA2. The HA has several functions.
It is the viral attachment protein responsible for
hemaglutination and hemadsorotion. It enables
the virus to adsorb to mucoprotein receptors on
red cells as well as on respiratory epithelial cells.
Anti­hemagglutinin antibodies are produced
following infection and immunization.
Mutation-derived changes in HA are responsi­
ble for the minor (drift) and major (shift)
changes in antigenicity. Fifteen distinct HA
subtypes, named H1 to H15 have been identified
in avi­an influenza viruses, but only four of them
have been found in human isolates so far. Shifts
occur only with influenza A virus.
2. Neuraminidase (NA): Neuraminidase is
a glycoprotein enzyme which destroys cell
receptors by hydrolytic cleavage. Neura­mini­
dase activity is also thought to be important in
the final stages of release of new virus particles
from the infected cells. The antineuraminidase
antibody is formed following infection and
immunization. It is not as effective in protection
as the antihemagglutinin antibody. It does not
prevent the adsorption of virus onto cells but
can inhibit the release and spread of progeny
virions and may thus contribute to limiting
the infection. It is a strain-specific antigen and
exhibits variation. Major differences acquire the
designations NI, N2, and so on. Nine different
subtypes have been identified (Nl–N9).
Antigenic Variation
Influenza viruses are remarkable because of the
frequent ‘antigenic changes that occur in HA and
NA. This is of great importance in the epidemiology
of the disease. Antigenic variability is highest in
influ­enza virus type A and less in type B, while it
has not been demonstrated in type C.
The internal RNP antigen and M protein
antigen are stable but both the surface antigens,
436  |  Section 4: Virology
hemaggluti­n in and neuraminidase, undergo
independent anti­genic variations, which may be of
two types a
­ ntgenic drift (minor anti­genic changes)
and antigenic drift (major antigenic changes) in HA
or NA result in the appearance of a new subtype.
Antigenic drift: Antigenic drift is the gradual
se­quential change in antigenic structure occurring
reg­u larly at frequent intervals. Here the new
antigens, though different from the previous
antigens, are yet related to them. Antigenic drift
is due to mutation and selection. Antigenic drift
accounts for the periodical epidemics of influenza.
Antigenic shift: Antigenic shift is an abrupt,
drastic, discontinuous variation in the antigenic
structure, resulting in a novel virus strain unrelated
antigenically to predecessor strains. Such changes
may involve hemagglutinin, neuraminidase or both.
The mechanism for shift is genetic reassortment
between human and avian influenza viruses.
Antibodies to predecessor viruses do not neutralise
the new variants and can, therefore, spread widely
in the population causing major epidemics or
pandemic. Influenza B and C viruses do not exhibit
antigenic shift because few related viruses exist in
animals.
Antigenic Classification
Antigenic differences exhibited by two of the inter­
nal structural proteins, the nucleocapsid (NP) and
matrix (M) proteins, are used to divide influenza
viruses into types A, B and C. These proteins
possess no cross reactivity among the three types.
Antigenic variations in the surface glycoproteins,
HA and NA, are used to sub­type the viruses. Only
type A has designated subtypes. Influenza virus
type A strains can be classified into subtypes based
on variations in their surface antigens.
Host Range
1. Animals: Intranasal inoculation in ferrets
produces an acute respiratory disease.
2. Egg inoculation: The virus grows well in
the amniotic cavity of chick embryos. After
a few egg passages, the virus grows well in
the allantoic cavity also, except for the type
C virus which does not generally grow in the
al­lantoic cavity. Virus growth is detected by the
appearance of hemaggluti­nin in the allantoic
and amniotic fluids.
3. Cell culture: The virus grows in primary
monkey kidney cell cultures, as well as in some
continuous cell lines.
von Magnus phenonomenon: When passaged
serially in eggs, using as inocula undiluted infected
allantoic fluid, the progeny virus will show high
hemagglutinin titers, but low infectiv­ity. This has
been called the von Magnus phenomenon­and is
due to the formation of incomplete virus particles
lacking nucleic acid.
Pathogenesis
Influenza virus spreads from person to person
by air­borne droplets. The viral neuraminidase
facilitates infection by reducing the viscosity
of the mucous film lining the res­piratory tract
and exposing the cell surface receptors for virus
adsorption. The ciliated cells of the respiratory
tract are the main sites of viral infection. Within a
short time, many cells in the respiratory tract are
infected and eventually killed. Influenza infections
cause cellular destruction and desquamation of
superficial mucosa of the respiratory tract. This
renders the respirato­r y tract highly vulnerable
to bacterial invasion, especially staphylococci,
streptococci, and Haemophilus influenzae. Viral
pneumonia is seen only in more severe cases.
Clinical Features
A. Uncomplicated Influenza
The incubation period is 1–3 days. The disease
varies in severity from a mild coryza to fulminating
and rapidly fatal pneumonia. Most in­fections are
subclinical.
Symptoms of classic influenza usually appear
abruptly and include chills, headache and dry
cough, followed closely by high fever, generalized
muscular aches, malaise and anorexia. The fever
usually lasts 3–5 days, as do the systemic symptoms.
Complications
Complications of influenza include primary viral
pneumonia, secondary bac­terial pneumonia,
myositis and cardiac complica­t ions, such as
congestive failure or myocarditis and, neurological
involvement, such as Guillain–Barre syndrome,
encephalopathy, encephalitis and Reye’s syndrome
may occur.
Reye’s Syndrome
Influenza, particularly infection with type B, has
been associated with Reye’s syndrome. It is an
acute encephalopathy of children and adolescents,
usually between 2 and 16 years of age and is
characterized by acute degenerative changes in
the brain, liver and kidneys. Type B infections
may sometimes cause gastrointes­tinal symptoms
(gastric flu).
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis of influenza relies on isolation of the
virus, identification of viral antigens or viral nucleic

acid in the patient’s cells, or demonstration of a
specific immuno­logic response by the patient.
1. Demonstration of the Virus Antigen
Rapid diagnosis of influenza may be made by
demonstration of the virus antigen on the surface of
the nasopharyngeal cells by immunofluorescence.
This test is rapid but is not as sensitive as viral
isola­tion.
Detection of influenza RNA by reverse trans­
criptase polymerase chain reaction may be more
sensitive than antigen detection but is not widely
available in diagnostic laboratories.
2. Isolation of the Virus
Nasal washings, gargles and throat swabs are the
best specimens for viral isolation and should be
obtained within 3 days after the onset of symptoms
but less often in later stages. Throat gar­glings
are collected using broth saline or other suita­ble
buffered salt solution. The sample should be held at
4°C until inoculation into cell cul­ture, or if the delay
is long, at –70°C. The specimen should be treated
with antibiotics to destroy bacteria. Isolation may
be made in eggs or in monkey kidney cell culture.
The material is inoculated into the amniotic
cavi­ty of 11–13 day-old eggs, using at least six eggs
per specimen. After incubation at 35°C for three
days, the eggs are chilled and the amniotic and
allantoic fluids harvested separately. The fluids
are tested for hemag­glutination using guinea pig
and fowl cells in parallel, at room temperature and
at 4°C. Some strains of the influenza virus type A
agglutinate only guinea pig cells on initial isolation.
The type B virus agglutinates both cells, while type
C strains agglutinate only fowl cells at 4°C. Subtype
identification is made by hemagglutination
inhibition test. Some of the recent type A strains
can be isolated by direct allantoic inoc­ulation of the
clinical specimen into 9–11-day-old eggs. However,
type Band C viruses will be missed if only allantoic
inoculation is used.
For primary isolation the most suitable cells are
primary monkey kidney or human embryo kidney
cells, but most labora­tories now use secondary
baboon kidney cells or Madin–Darby canine
kidney cells. Incubation at 33°C in roller drum
is recommended. The presence of virus may be
detected by hemadsorption with human O group,
fowl or guinea­pig red blood cells. Rapid results
can be obtained by demonstrating virus antigen
in infected cell cultures by immunofluoroscence.
3. Serology
Complement fixation tests (CFTs) and hemaggluti­
nation inhibition (HI) tests are employed for the
serological diagnosis of influenza. Paired acute
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Chapter 63: Orthomyxovirus  | 437
and convalescent sera are necessary. A fourfold
or greater increase in titer must occur to indi­cate
influenza infection.
Neutralization tests are the most specific and
the best predictor of susceptibility to infection.
ELISA test is more sensitive than other assays.
It is possible to estimate the neuraminidase
anti­body by enzyme neutralization tests.
Immunity
Immunity to influenza is long-lived and subtype­-
specific. Antibodies against HA and NA are
important in immunity to influenza, whereas
antibodies against the other virus-encoded proteins
are not protective.
An attack of influenza confers protection
effective for about one or two years. The apparent
short duration of immunity is due to the antigenic
var­iation that the antigenic variation that the virus
undergoes frequently. Following infection and
immunization, circulating antibodies are formed
against the various antigens of the virus. However,
it the local concentration of anthaemagglutinin
and, to a smaller extent, of anineuraminadase
antibodies (mainly IgA) in the respiratory tract that
is more relevant in protection.
When an individual experiences repeated
infections with different antigenic variants of
influenza virus type A, he responds by forming
antibodies not only against each infecting strain
but also against the strain that he first comes into
contact with. The dominant antibody response
will be against the strain that caused the earliest
infection. This phenome­non called the doctrine
of “original antigenic sin”.
Influenza virus infection induces cell-mediated
immunity also but its role in protection has not
been clarified.
Epidemiology
Influenza viruses occur worldwide and occurs
sporadically, as epidemics or in pandemic form.
The source of infection is an infected individual.
Influenza infection is spread readily via small
airborne droplets expelled during talking,
breathing, and coughing. Influenza C is least
significant; it causes mild, sporadic respiratory
disease but not epidemic influenza. Influenza B
sometimes causes epidemics, but influenza type A
can sweep across continents and around the world
in massive epidemics called pandemics.
What makes influenza an important and
challenging disease is its propensity for causing
pandemics. Domestic birds like ducks can get
infected from wild birds and carry the infection to
pigs.The genetic reassortment may take place in
pigs that have receptors for both human and avian
438  |  Section 4: Virology
Fig. 63.2: Sequential changes in influenza A antigens
associated with antigenic shift. Antigenic drift occurs after
the appearance of a new subtype
strains, and may act as a mixing vessel from which
certain subtypes may transmit to humans and such
hybrid strains may lead to human infection with
potential pandemic spread.
Influenza pandemics have been recorded at
irregular intervals from 1173. Pandemics of modern
times date from 1889. The most severe pandemic in
recorded history occurred in 1918–1919 (‘Spanish
flu’). India suffered the most, with some 10 million
deaths. The next pandemic occurred in 1957 when
the ‘Asian strain’ H2N2 originated in China and
spread throughout the world. The Hong Kong H3N2
strain appearing in 1968 also caused a pandemic.
Figure 63.2 lists the sequence of appearance of
these various subtypes.
Cases of influenza have appeared in Mexico
and then in USA in April 2009. These were first
thought to be due to swine influenza A virus (H1N1)
but it had been identified as a new HINI virus which
was different from swine influenza virus. It can be
transmitted from human to human and spread to
many countries including India across the world.
WHO declared this situation as pandemic. On
August 10, 2010, WHO announced the end of HINI
pandemic and also declared that it has moved
into post pandemic period. However, localized
outbreaks of various magnitudes are likely to occur.
More than 214 countries have reported laboratory
confirmed cases including over 18,449 deaths as of
1st August 2010. This pandemic had occured 41
years after the last pandemic in 1968.
Prophylaxis
A. Chemoprophylaxis
Chemoprophylaxis has been reported to be
successful with the antiviral drugs amantadine
and rimantadine which block the viral M2 protein
which functions as an ion channel. These act only
with type A virus and not with type B, which lacks
the M2 components.
B. Influenza Vaccines
Influenza vaccines have been in use for many
decades. The aim of immunization is to produce
hemagglutina­t ion inhibiting or neutralizing
antibody in all vaccinees. However, cer­t ain
characteristics of influenza viruses make prevention
and control of the disease by immunization
especially difficult. Existing vaccines are continually
being ren­dered obsolete as the viruses undergo
antigenic drift and shift. Vaccines are of two types
as follow.
a. Inactivated Viral Vaccines
Vaccines are either whole virus (WV), subvirion
(SV), or surface antigen preparations.
Whole virus (WV) vaccine: Inactivated vaccines
are prepared from appropriate strains of influenza
A and B grown in the chick embryo allantoic cavity.
Subunit vaccines: The H and N antigens(purified
HA and NA) may be separated from the whole virus
by treatment with ether and detergent, and these
subunit or split-virus vaccines are better tolerated,
especially in young children.
Indications
1. Annual influenza vaccination is recommended
for high-risk groups: These include individuals
at increased risk of complications associated
with influenza infection.
2. Pandemic threat : The most important
indication for immunoproph­ylaxis is when a
pandemic is threatened by a new virus.
Contraindication: The only contraindication
to vaccination is a history of allergy to egg protein.
b. Live-virus Vaccines
1. The earliest live vaccine was the virus attenuated
by repeated egg passage. It was admin­istered by
intranasal instillation. However, it sometimes
gave rise to clinical disease, especially in
children. These vac­cines have been generally
effective in provoking a good local (IgA) antibody
response but are not at presently widely used.
2. Use of temperature-sensitive mutants: A cold-
adapted donor virus, able to grow at 25°C but not
at 37°C—the temperature of the lower respiratory
tract—should replicate in the nasopharynx,
which has a cooler temperature (33°C). A live
attenu­ated, cold-adapted, trivalent influenza
virus vaccine administered by nasal spray has
proved effective in clin­ical trials in children.
 Chapter 63: Orthomyxovirus  | 439
Treatment 3. Write short notes on:
a. Hemagglutination
The antiviral drug amantadine and its analogue
rimantadine inhibit an uncoating step of the b. Antigenic shift
influenza A virus but do not affect the influenza c. Antigenic drift
B or C virus. The target for their action is the M2 d. Laboratory diagnosis of inflenza
protein. Resistance to these drugs develops rapidly. e. Prophylaxis against influenza.
Zanamivir and oseltamivir inhibit both influ­
enza A and B as enzyme inhibitors of the neuramini­ Multiple choice questions (mcqs)
dase. Zanami­vir is inhaled, whereas oseltamivir is 1. The influenza virus that is not responsible for
taken orally as a pill. These drugs are effective pandemics or epidemics is:
for prophylaxis and for treatment during the first a. Influenza virus A
24–48 hours after the onset of influenza A illness. b. Influenza virus B
Treatment cannot prevent the later host-induced c. Influenza virus C
immunopathogenic stages of the disease. d. None of the above
2. All the following statements are true for influenza
Key Points viruses except that:
a. They are spherical or filamentous, enveloped
™™ The family Orthomyxoviridae comprises four genera:
influenza A, B and C viruses and thogotoviruses
particles, 80–120 nm in diameter
™™ The influenza viruses are of three types: A, B and C b. The virion contains an RNA-dependent RNA
™™ The antigens of the influenza virus can be classified polymerase
as the internal antigens and the surface antigens c. Viral genome is a single-stranded unsegmented
(Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA) RNA
™™ Antigenic drift is the gradual se­quential change in d. The virion has hemagglutinin and neuramini-
antigenic structure occurring reg­ularly at frequent dase peplomers
intervals and is due to mutation and selection. 3. Antigenic drift in influenza viruses results from
Antigenic drift accounts for the periodical epidemics mutations in:
of influenza
a. Haemagglutinin genes
Antigenic shift is an abrupt, drastic, discontinuous
variation in the antigenic structure, resulting in b. Neuraminidase genes
a novel virus strain unrelated antigenically to c. Both the above
predecessor strains d. None of the above
™™ Influenza virus is transmitted from person to person, 4. Which of the following can be used for isolation of
primarily by air­borne respiratory droplets influenza virus from clinical specimens:
Adults: classic flu syndrome a. Madin-Darby canine kidney cell lines
™™ Laboratory diagnosis depends on demonstration b. Monkey kidney cell cultures
of virus antigens, isolation of the virus and serology
c. Amniotic cavity of chick embryo
™™ Influenza virus vaccines have been used to prevent
influenza, primarily influenza A and B. Vaccines are d. All the above
either inactivated viral vaccines or live virus vaccines 5. All the following statements are true for the
™™ Amantadine, rimantadine, zanamivir, and oseltamivir treatment of influenza by amantadine except:
(Tamiflu) have been approved for prophylaxis or a. It is effective against both influenza A and B
early treatment. b. It reduces severity of the disease
c. It hastens the disappearance of fever and other
Important questions symptoms
d. Emergence of viral resistance can occur during
1. Tabulate the differences between orthomyxoviruses treatment
and paramyxoviruses.
2. Discuss the morphology and pathogenesis of Answers (MCQs)
influenza virus infection. 1. c; 2. c; 3. c; 4. d; 5. a

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Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Classify paramyxoviruses
∙∙ Describe morphology of paramyxoviruses
Introduction
Family Paramyxoviridae causes a variety of
diseases, predominantly involving the respiratory
tract, in humans, birds, and other animals.
In humans, they include measles, respira­t ory
infections caused by respiratory syncytial virus
(RSV) and parainfluenza viruses, and the more
innocuous salivary gland infection of mumps.
Morphology and structural
proteins of Paramyxoviruses
Paramyxoviruses resemble orthomyxoviruses in
morphology but are larger and more pleomorphic.
(Fig. 64.1). They are roughly spherical in shape and
range in size from 100 to 300 nm, sometimes with
long filaments and giant forms of up to 800 nm.
The helical nucleo­capsid is much wider than in
orthomyxoviruses, with a diameter of 18 nm (except
in Pneumovirus where it is 13 nm). The nucleocapsid
consists of the negative-sense; sin­gle-stranded RNA
Fig. 64.1: Schematic diagram of a paramyxovirus showing
major components
64
Chapter
Paramyxoviruses
∙∙ D
 escribe the following: Para influenza viruses;
Measles virus; Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
∙∙ Discuss pathogenicity and complications of measles
∙∙ Discuss measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine.
associated with the nucleoprotein (NP), polymerase
phosphoprotein (P), and large (L) protein. Unlike
the or­thomyxoviruses, the par­amyxoviruses with
their unsegmented genome do not undergo genetic
recombination’s or antigenic varia­tions. Hence, all
paramyxoviruses are antigenically stable.
The nucleocapsid associates with the matrix
(M) protein at the base of the lipid envelope. The
virion envelope contains two glycoproteins, a fusion
(F) protein, which promotes fusion of the viral
and host cell membranes, and a viral attachment
protein (hemagglutinin–neuraminidase [HN],
hemagglutinin [H], or G protein). The F or fusion
protein, mediates the fusion of infected cells which
then form the syncytia so characteristic of infections
with this group of viruses.
Classification
Within the family Paramyxoviridae two subfamilies
(Table 64.1). Paramyxoviridae and Pneumovirinae
are recog­nized.
Subfamily Paramyxoviridae
1. Respirovirus (para-influenza viruses 1, 3).
2. Rubulavirus (mumps virus, para-influenza
viruses 2, 4a, 4b).
3. Morbillivirus (Measles).
4. Henipavirus—Nipah virus and Hendra virus.
Subfamily Pneumovirinae
1. Pneumovirus (respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
2. Metapneumovirus—Human metapneumo­
virus.
 Chapter 64: Paramyxoviruses  | 441
Table 64.1:  Characteristics of genera in the subfamilies of the family Paramyxoviridae
Paramyxovirinae Pneumovirinae
Property Respirovirus Rubulavirus Morbillivirus Henipavirus 1
Pneumovirus Metapneumovirus
Human Parainfluenza Mumps, Measles Hendra, Respiratory Human
viruses 1,3 parainfluenza Nipah syncytial metapneumovirus
2, 4a, 4b virus
Serotypes 1 each 1 each 1 ? 2 ?
Diameter of 18 18 18 ? 13 13
nucleocapsid
(nm)
Membrane + + + + + +
fusion
(F protein)
Hemolysin2 + + + ? 0 0
Hemaglutinin +3 +3 +4 0 0 0
Hemadsorption + + + 0 0 0
Neuraminidase +3 +3 0 0 0 0
Inclusions 5
C C N, C ? C ?
1
Zoonotic paramyxoviruses
2
Hemolysin activity carried by F glycoprotein
3
Hemagglutination and neuraminidase activities carried by HN glycoprotein
4
Hemagglutination of monkey erythrocytes only, by H glycoprotein that lacks neuraminidase activity
5
C, cytoplasm; N, nucleus

Differentiation of Genera Primary infections in young children usually

Para­influenza viruses, NDV and mumps virus
have a surface hemagglutinin and neuraminidase,
while measles virus has a hemagglutinin but no
neuraminidase, and pneu­movirus has neither.
In addition, measles virus has a haemolysin not
possessed by the others, while RS virus has a large
surface glycoprotein, G, which has a similar cell-
attaching function as a hemagglutinin (Table 64.1).
Unlike the orthomyxoviruses, the paramyxoviruses
with their unsegmented genome cannot exchange
genetic information by recombination and variation
depends on mutational change.
result in rhinitis and pharyngitis, often with fever and
some bronchitis. However, children with primary
in­fections caused by parainfluenza virus type 1, 2, or
3 may have serious illness, ranging from laryngotra­
cheitis and croup (particularly with types 1 and 2)
to bronchiolitis and pneumonia (particularly with
type 3). The severe illness associated with type 3
occurs mainly in infants under the age of 6 months.
Croup or laryngotracheobronchitis is more likely to
occur in older children.
Parainfluenza virus type 4 does not cause
serious disease, even on first infection.

Parainfluenza viruses Laboratory Diagnosis

Parainfluenza viruses are respiratory viruses that A. Direct Identification
usually cause mild cold like symptoms but can
Immunofluorescence or ELISA: Antigens may
also cause serious respi­ratory tract disease. There
be detected in exfoli­ated nasopharyngeal cells by
are four types of para-influenza viruses (1–4) with
immunofluorescence or ELISA.
antigenically distinct epitopes.

Pathogenesis B. Virus Isolation

Paramyxoviruses are acquired by droplets and
contact with respiratory secretions. Incubation
period varies from 2–6 days.
Parainfluenza viruses 1, 2, and 3 may cause
respiratory tract syndromes ranging from a mild
coldlike upper respiratory tract infection (coryza,
pharyngitis, mild bronchitis, wheezing, and fever) to
bronchiolitis and pneumonia.
Throat and nasal swabs are inoculated in primary
monkey kidney cell cultures or continuous
monkey kidney cell lines (LLC-MK2) with trypsin.
Parainfluenza viruses grow slowly and produce very
little cytopathic effect. Virus growth is detected by
hemadsorption. Typing is by immunofluorescence,
he­madsorption inhibition, or hemagglutination
inhibition.

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442  |  Section 4: Virology
C. Serology
Serodiagnosis should be based on paired sera and
can be tested by neu­tralization, enzyme linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or Hemagglutination
inhibition test (HI) or complement fixation test for
rise in titre of antibodies.
Genus Rubulavirus
Mumps Virus
Mumps is an acute contagious disease commonly
affecting children character­ized by nonsuppurative
enlargement of one or both parotid glands.
Morphology: Mumps virus is a typical paramyxo­
virus; possess both hemagglutinin and neuramini­
dase (HN) or a fusion (F) protein. The envelope
also contains a matrix (M) protein. It agglutinates
the erythrocytes of fowl, guinea pig, humans and
many other species. Hemagglutination is followed
by hemo­lysis and elution at 37°C.
Pathogenesis
Transmission is from person to person by large
droplets. Primary replication occurs in nasal or
upper respiratory tract epithelial cells. Virernia
then dissem­inates the virus to the salivary glands
and other major organ systems and infects the
parotid gland. The virus is spread by the viremia
throughout the body to the testes, ovary, pancreas,
thyroid, and other organs. Infection of the central
nervous system, especially the meninges, immunity
is life­long.
Clinical features: Infection is acquired by inhalation,
and probably also through the conjunctiva. The
incubation period may range from 7 days to 25 days
but is typically about 16–18 days. The generalized
phase is the usual ‘flu-like’ illness with fever
and malaise, followed by developing pain in the
parotid glands, which then swell rapidly. Parotitis is
nonsuppura­tive and usually resolves within a week.
However, involvement of the extraparotid sites may
be more serious.
Complications: Epididymo-orchitis, aseptic
meningitis, post­infection encephalitis, mumps
meningitis. Other less common complications
are arthritis, oophoritis, nephritis, pancreatitis,
thyroiditis and myocarditis.
Epididymo-orchitis: Is a complication seen in
about a third of postpubertal male patients and
rarely causes sterility.
Immunity
There is only one antigenic type of mumps virus,
and it does not exhibit significant antigenic
variation. Immunity is permanent after a single
infection.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory studies are not usually required to
establish the diagnosis of typical cases.
The diagnosis may be established by virus
isolation and serological tests.
A. Direct Demonstration
Direct demonstration by immunofluorescence on
secretions is very rarely successful.
B. Virus Isolation and Identification
Virus can be recovered from the saliva and CSF.
Monkey kidney cells are preferred for viral isola­
tion. For rapid di­agnosis, immunofluorescence
using mumps-specific antiserum can detect
mumps virus antigens as early as 2–3 days after the
inoculation of cell cultures in shell vials.
Isolation can also be made by inoculation into
six to eight day old chick embryos by the amniotic
route and testing the amniotic fluid after 5–6 days
for hemagglutinins. The virus can be identified
by hemagglutination inhibition using specific
antisera.
C. Serology
Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or
hemagglutination inhibition test is commonly used.
Mumps specific IgM antibodies can be detected in
serum by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA) for rapid diagnosis.
Prophylaxis
1. Vaccination
An effective attenuated live Mumps virus vaccine
based on the Jeryl Lynn or Urabe strains. Mumps
vaccine is available in monovalent form (mumps
only) or as combined vaccine, viz. combined
mumps-rubella (MR) or into a triple vaccine
against measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) live-
virus vaccines. The vaccine is recommended for
children over age 1 year.
The vaccine is given as a single dose (0.5 mL)
intramuscularly. It provides effective protection for
at least ten years. Contraindications are pregnancy,
immunodeficiency, severely ill and hypersensitivity
to neomycin or egg protein.
2. Immunoglobulin
A specific immunoglobulin (mumps immuno­
globulin) is available and is of no value either for
postexposure prophylaxis or treatment.

Fig. 64.2: Schematic diagram of measles virus
Genus morbillivirus
Measles (Rubeola)
Measles is one of the five classic childhood exant­
hems, along with rubella, roseola, fifth disease, and
chicken­pox.
Morphology
The virus has the general morphology of paramyxo­
viruses (Fig. 64.2). It is a roughly spherical but often
pleomorphic particle, 120–250 nm in diameter. The
tighdy coiled helical nucleocapsid is surrounded
by the lipoprotein envelope carrying on its surface
hemagglutinin (H) spikes. The envelope also
has the F protein which mediates cell fusion and
hemolytic activities. The measles virus agglutinates
monkey erythrocytes but there is no elution as the
virus does not possess neuraminidase activity.
Pathogenesis
The virus gains access to the human body via the
respiratory tract, or the conjunctiva where it multiplies
locally. The in­fection then spreads to the regional
lymphoid tissue, where further multiplication occurs.
Primary viremia disseminates the virus, which then
replicates in the reticuloendothelial system. Finally,
a secondary viremia seeds the epithelial surfaces
of the body, in­cluding the skin, respiratory tract, and
conjunctiva, where focal replication occurs.
Clinical Features
Measles is a serious febrile illness. Incubation
pe­riod is 9–11 from the time of exposure to infection
for the first signs of clinical disease to appear. After
2 days of illness, the typical mucous mem­brane
lesions, known as Koplik’s spots, appear most
commonly on the buccal mucosa across from the
molars. Their appearance in the mouth establishes
with cer­tainty the diagnosis of measles.
Before the rash there is a prodromal stage
lasting 2 or 3 days, with high fever and CCC and
P-cough, co­ryza, and conjunctivitis, in addition to
photophobia.
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Chapter 64: Paramyxoviruses  | 443
Complications
1. Complications may be due to the virus
(croup, bronchitis) or to secondary bacterial
infection (pneumonia, otitis media). Giant
cell pneumonia, particularly in children with
immunodeficiencie’s or severe malnutrition.
2. Post-measles encephalitis.
3. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE)
Is an extremely serious, very late neurologic
sequel of mea­sles. It occurs in children or
early adolesents who have measles early in life,
usually less than 2 years of age. This disease
occurs when a defective measles virus persists
in the brain and acts as a slow virus. The virus
can replicate and spread directly from cell to
cell but is not released. Within infected cells
is a defective form of measles virus, which,
because it is unable to induce the production
of a functional M protein, is not released as
complete virus from the cell.
4. Protracted diarrhea in children in the poor
nations.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Typical measles is reliably diagnosed on clinical
grounds, usually in the patient’s home. Laboratory
diagnosis may be necessary in cases of modified or
atypical measles.
A. Demonsration of Virus Antigen
A simple diagnostic test, which can be used even
before the rash appears, is the demonstration of
multinucleated giant cells in Giemsa stained smears
of nasal secretions. The measles virus antigen can
be detected in these cells by immunofluorescence.
B. Virus Isolation
The virus can be isolated from the nose, throat,
conjunctiva and blood during the prodromal phase
and upto about two days after the appearance of the
rash. The virus may be obtained from the urine for
a few more days. Primary human or monkey kidney
and amnion cells are most useful. Cytopathic
changes may take up to 7–10 days to develop
but earlier diagnosis of viral growth is possible
by immunofluorescence. Typical cytopathic
effects (multinucleated giant cellscontaining
both intranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusion
bodies) suggests the presence of measles virus.
C. Serological Diagnosis
Demonstration of measles-specific IgM in a single
specimen of serum drawn between one and two
weeks after the onset of the rash is confirmatory.
Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA),
hemagglutination inhibition (HI), and neutralization
444  |  Section 4: Virology
(Nt) tests all may be used to measure measles
antibodies, though ELISA is the most practical
method. A four fold rise in titer is diagnostic.
High titer measles antibody in the CSF is
diagnostic of SSPE.
Epidemiology
The key epidemiologic features of measles are as
follows: the virus is highly contagious, there is a
sin­gle serotype, there is no animal reservoir, in
apparent infections are rare, and infection confers
lifelong im­munity. Transmission is person-to-
person, probably by respir­atory droplets, but the
associated conjunctivitis may also be a source. In
gen­eral, epidemics recur regularly every 2–3 years.
Prophylaxis
A. Passive immunization
Passive protection with normal immunoglobulin
(NHIG) given within six days of exposure can
prevent or modify the disease, depending on the
dose. Passive immunization is recommended in
children with immunodeficiency, pregnant women
and others at risk.
B. Active Immunization
A highly effective, safe, attenuated live measles
virus vaccine is available. The original live vaccines
used the Edmonston strain developed by multiple
passage through human kidney, amnion and chick
embryo cultures. The Schwartz and Moraten
strains so developed were safe but effective only
in children older than 15 months. In the tropics,
measles is common and serious in children below 12
months. Recent observations have suggested that the
Edmonston–Zagreb strain, attenuated by passage in
human diploid cells, may protect children from 4 to
6 months of age. The recommended age for measles
vaccination in the developing countries is 9 months,
while in the advanced countries it remains 15 months.
The vaccine is given either by itself, or in
combination as the MMR vaccine. A single
subcutaneous injection of the measles vaccine
provides protection beginning in about 12 days
and lasting for over 20 years, probably for life.
Contraindications are pregnancy, acute illnesses,
immunodeficiency and untreated tuberculosis.
A live attenuated vaccine has been developed
which can be given by intranasal aerosol in young
babies and gives good protection irrespective of the
presence of maternal antibodies.
Nipah and Hendra viruses
Nipah virus is distinct genetically from all the other
paramyxoviruses and is most closely related to
Hendra, causing epidemic fatal res­piratory disease
in horses and which can be transmitted to man,
resulting in at least one fatal infection in human
in Australia.
The taxonomic position of these new viruses
has yet to be established, but they will most
probably be put in a sep­arate genus within the
Paramyxoviridae. Fruit bats appear to be the
natural reservoir of both viruses, with transmis­sion
to mammals (including man) an exceptional event.
Genus pneumovirus
Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) first isolated from
a chimpanzee was named respiratory syncytial
virus (RSV) because it caused cell fusion and the
formation of multinucleated syncytia in cell cultures.
Description
RSV is pleomorphic and ranges in size from 150­–
300 nm. The viral envelope has two glycoproteins—
the G protein by which the virus attaches to
cell surfaces, and the fusion (F) protein which
brings about fusion between viral and host cell
membranes. The F protein is also responsible for
cell-to-cell fusion, which leads to the characteristic
syncytial cytopathic changes in RSV infection.
It is placed in a separate genus—Pneumovirus
because of these minor physical differences (Table
64.1).
RSV does not grow in eggs but can be propagated
on heteroploid human cell cultures, such as HeLa
and Hep-2. It is highly labile and is inactivated
rapidly at room temperature. It is antigenically stable
and for most purposes there is only one serotype.
Clinical Features
The spectrum of respiratory illness ranges from the
common cold in adults, through febrile bronchi­tis
in infants and older children and pneumonia in
in­fants, to bronchiolitis in very young babies.
1. Common cold: In adults RSV infection may
present as a febrile common cold. It can cause
pneumonia in the elderly.
2. Febrile rhinitis and pharyngitis
3. Bronchiolitis, pneumonia, or both: The most
serious illness caused by RS virus are bronchi­
olitis in young babies.
4. Sudden infant death syn­drome: A relation
between RSV and the sudden death syndrome
in infants has been proposed but not proven.
Epidemiology
Respiratory syncytial virus is distributed world­wide
and is recognized as the major pediatric respira­tory
tract pathogen. It is the most com­mon cause of viral
pneumonia in children under age 5 years. RSV is
highly contagious.
 Chapter 64: Paramyxoviruses  | 445
RSV infections almost always occur in the ™™ Within the family Paramyxoviridae two subfamilies-
winter.It causes nosocomial in­fections in nurseries Parmyxoviridae and Pneumovirinae are recog­nized
and on pediatric hospital wards. ™™ Parainfluenza viruses 1, 2, and 3 may cause respiratory
tract syndromes ranging from a mild coldlike upper
Laboratory Diagnosis respiratory tract infection to bronchiolitis and
pneumonia. Parainfluenza virus type 4 does not
A. Demonstration of Virus Antigen cause serious disease, even on first infection
Immunofluorescence and enzyme immunoas­say ™™ Mumps virus causes mumps
tests are available for direct detection of the viral ™™ Measles virus causes measles, atypical measles, and
subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE)
antigen in infected cells and nasal washings.
™™ Measles vaccine is a live attenuated vaccine which
now uses Schwartz and Moraten attenuated strain
B. Virus Isolation of the original Edmonston B strain
Human heteroploid cell lines HeLa and HEp-2 are ™™ Measles vaccine along with mumps and rubella
the most sensitive for viral isolation. The presence of (MMR) vaccine is currently used for universal
immunization of the children
respiratory syncytial virus can usu­ally be recognized
™™ Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes infection
by development of giant cells and syncytia in of the respiratory tract, ranging from the common
inoculated cultures but cytopathic effects may take cold in adults, through febrile bronchi­tis in infants
as long as 10 days for to appear. Definitive di­agnosis and older children and pneumonia in in­fants, to
can be established by detecting viral antigen in bronchiolitis in very young babies.
infected cells using a defined antiserum and the
im­munofluorescence test. Important questions
C. Serology 1. Classify and discuss the morphology of paramyxo­
Serological diagnosis is by demonstration of viruses.
rising antibody titers in paired serum samples by 2. Write short notes on:
enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), a. Parainfluenza viruses
b. Mumps virus
complement fixation (CF), neutralization or
c. Measles virus
immunofluorescence tests.
d. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
e. Measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine.
Prophylaxis
f. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE)
No vaccine is currently available for RSV prophy­ g. Atypical measles.
laxis. The use of recombinant DNA technology for
making RSV vaccine is now being studied.
Multiple choice questions (mcqs)
Treatment 1. The paramyxovirus virus that possesses a fusion
In otherwise healthy infants, treatment is protein but lacks both hemagglutinin and neura­
supportive care. Ribavirin is administered by minidase activities is:
in­halation (nebulization) and has been found a. Mumps virus
b. Measles virus
beneficial in hospitalized patients, decreasing the
c. Parainfluenza virus
duration of illness and of virus shedding. d. Respiratory syncytial virus
2. Which of the following conditions can be caused
Metapnemovirus by infection with mumps virus?
Human metapneumovirus is a respiratory a. Swelling of parotid glands
pathogen and is an important cause of respiratory b. Orchitis
tract infection in children. It can also cause disease c. Meningoencephalitis
in adults. It causes a disease similar to that of d. All of the above
human respiratory syncytial virus. 3. Koplik’s spots are characteristic of:
It is a single stranded RNA virus like other a. Mumps
paramyoviruses. Respiratory secretions are clinical b. Measles
specimen for test. The virus is difficult to grow. c. Herpes
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can be used d. Rubella
for diagnosis. No specific antiviral treatment or 4. MMR vaccine is:
vaccine is available. a. a live attenuated vaccine
b. a killed vaccine
Key Points c. a subunit vaccine
d. a synthetic peptide vaccine
™™ Unlike the or­thomyxoviruses, the par­amyxoviruses
with their unsegmented genome do not undergo
Answers (MCQs)
genetic recombinations or antigenic varia­tions
1. d; 2. d; 3. b; 4. a

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 65
Chapter

Arboviruses

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Classify arboviruses
∙∙ Describe laboratory diagnosis of arboviruses
∙∙ List mosquito-borne and tick-borne arboviruses
∙∙ List the arboviruses prevalent in India
∙∙ Describe the following: Chikungunya; Japanese B
encephalitis; Dengue fever (or) Break bone fever;
Kyasanur forest disease (KFD).

INTRODUCTION Table 65.1:  Taxonomy of some important arbo­

Arboviruses (Arthropod-borne viruses) are viruses
define as viruses “which are maintained in nature Family Genus Important species
principally, or to an important extent through Togaviridae Alphavirus Eastern, Western and
biological transmission between susceptible Venezuelan equine
vertebrate hosts by hematophagous arthropods. encephalitis viruses,
They multiply in the tissues of arthropods, and Chikungunya, O’nyong-
are passed onto new vertebrates by the bites of nyong, Mayaro, Semliki
Forest, Sindbis, Ross River.
arthropod after a period of extrinsic incubation.
Certain viruses within the six families contain­ Flaviviridae Flavivirus St. Louis encephalitis,
ing arboviruses are not transmitted by arthropods, tiheus, West Nile, Murray
Valley encephalitis,
but are maintained in nature within rodent Japanese encephalitis,
reservoirs that may transmit infection directly to Yellow Fever, Dengue
humans. These include the Hantavirus genus of types 1, 2, 3, 4,
the family Bunyaviridae Kyasanur forest disease
Russian spring summer
CLASSIFICATION encephalitis complex,
Louping ill, Powassan.
Arboviruses are classified within five families (Table Omsk hemorrhagic fever
65.1). Most are members of the families Togaviridae, Bunyaviridae Bunyavirus California encephalitis,
Flaviviridae and Bunyaviridae. Within each family, Phlebovirus Oropouche, Turlock
they are­classified into genera, and antigenic Nairovirus Sandfly fever viruses, Rift
groups, based on serological relationships. valley fever virus
Hantavirus Crimean Congo hemor­
PROPERTIES rhagic fever viruses,
Nairobi sheep disease
Arboviruses share common biological attributes virus, Ganjam virus
(Table 65.2). Hantan, Seoul, Puumala,
1. Intracerebral inoculation in suckling mice is the Prospect Hill, Sin Nombre
viruses
most sensitive method for their isolation in the
laboratory. Reoviridae Orbivirus African horse sickness,
Coltivirus Blue tongue viruses
2. Most arboviruses agglutinate the red cells of
Colorado tick fever
goose or day-old chicks.
3. They can be grown in the yolk sac or chorio­ Rhabdoviridae Vesiculovirus Vesicular stomatitis virus,
Chandipura virus
allantoic membrane of chick embryo, in tissue

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 Chapter 65: Arboviruses  | 447
Table 65.2:  Properties of Arboviruses
Properties Alphavirus Flavivirus Bunyavirus Rhabdovirus Reovirus
1. Symmetry Cubic Cubic Helical Bullet-shaped Cubic
2. Size (Diameter in nm) 60–65 40–60 80–100 180 x 85 60–80
3. Nucleic acid Single stranded Single stranded Single stranded Single stranded Double
positive sense positive sense negative sense negative sense stranded RNA
RNA RNA RNA RNA
4. Inactivation by + + + + -
diethyl ether/sodium
deoxycholate

cultures of primary cells and in cul­tures of
appropriate insect tissues.
4. Many arboviruses multiply in continuous tissue
cultures of mosquito cells when incubated at
34°C or lower tem­peratures.
5. Mosquito-borne arboviruses multiply after oral
feeding or intrathoracic injection of several
Aedes and Culex mosquito species.
6. Tick-borne arboviruses multiply after oral
feeding to larval or nymphal ixodes ticks.
7. In general, arboviruses are labile, being readily
inactivated at room temperature and by bile
salts, ether and other lipid solvents.
LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS
A. Specimen
As all arbovirus infec­t ions are viremic, blood
collected during the acute phase of the disease may
yield the virus. Isolation may also be made from
the CSF in some encephalitic cases but the best
specimen for virus isolation is the brain.
B. Virus Isolation
i. Suckling Mice
Specimens are inoculated intracerebrally into suck­
ling mice. The animals develop fatal encephalitis. This
is the most sensitive method for isolation of viruses.
ii. Tis­sue Cultures
Some viruses may also be isolated in tis­s ue
cultures or, less readily, in eggs. Specimens are
inoculated into Vero, BHK-21 and mosquito cello
lines. Isolates are iden­tified by hemaglutination
inhibition, complement fixation, gel precipitation,
immunofluorescence, im­munochromatography,
ELISA or neutralization with appropriate antisera.
iii. Virus Isolation from Insect Vec­tors and
Reservoir Animal
C. Arbovirus-specific RNA Detection
Viral RNA is extracted from serum or suspensions
of tissues from patients, or from tissue culture cells
or mosquito homogenates. This is amplified by
reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction
(RTPCR).
D. Serology
Diagnosis may also be made serologically by
demonstrating rise in antibody titer in paired
serum samples by hemagglutination inhibition,
complement fixation or neutralization tests. Virus-
specific IgM antibody may be detected within I day
of onset of clinical symptoms using an IgM capture
ELISA test.
PATHOGENESIS
The virus enters the body through the bite of the
insect vector. After multiplication in the re­ticulo­
endothelial system, viremia of varying duration
ensues and, in some cases, the virus is transported
to the target organs, such as the central nervous
system in encephalitides, the liver in yellow fever
and the capillary endothelium in hemorrhagic
fevers. Arboviruses cause the following clinical
syndromes (Table 65.3).
∙∙ Fever with or without rash and arthralgia
∙∙ Encephalitis
∙∙ Hemorrhagic fever
∙∙ The characteristic systemic disease, yellow
fever
Arboviruses are maintained in natural trans­
mission cycles involving reservoir hosts and
arthropod vectors, typically: ticks, mosquitoes and
other biting flies.
FAMILIES OF ARBOVIRUSES
A. Family Togaviridae
Togaviruses
Morphology
Togaviruses are spherical enveloped viruses with
a diameter of 50–70 nm. The genome is single
stranded RNA. The name Togavirus is derived from
‘toga’, meaning the Roman mantle or cloak, and
refers to the viral envelope.
Classification
The family Togaviridae contains two genera:

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Table 65.3:  Arboviruses associated with different clinical syndromes
Family Genus Virus Vector Geographic Reservoir
distribution
Fever with or without rash and arthralgia
Togaviridae Alphavirus Chikungunya Mosquito Africa, Asia Not known (? Monkeys)
Alphavirus Onyong-nyong Mosquito Africa Not known
Alphavirus Ross River Mosquito Australia Small animals
Alphavirus Sindbis Mosquito Africa, Asia Birds, mammals
Alphavirus Mayaro Mosquito South America Monkeys, marsupials
Flaviviridae Flavivirus Dengue, types 1–4 Mosquito Widespread, Not known
especially (? Monkeys)
Asia Pacific,
Caribbean
Flavivirus West Nile Mosquito Asia, Africa, USA Birds
Bunyaviridae Phlebovirus Sandfly fever Sandfly Mediterranean, Asia, not known
Tropical America (? Small mammals)
Phlebovirus Rift valley fever Mosquito Americas Sheep, cattle
Bunyavirus Oropouche Mosquito South America Not known
Reoviridae Orbivirus Colorado tick fever Tick USA Rodents
Encephalitis
Togaviridae Alphavirus Eastern equine Mosquito Americas Birds
encephalitis
Alphavirus Western equine Mosquito Americas Reptiles (? Birds)
encephalitis
Alphavirus Venezuelan equine Mosquito Americas Rodents
Flaviviridae Flavivirus St. Louis encephalitis Mosquito Americas Birds
Flavivirus West Nile Mosquito Africa, Europe, USA, Birds
West Asia
Flavivirus Japanese encephalitis Mosquito East and South East Birds
Asia
Flavivirus Murray valley Mosquito Australia Birds
encephalitis
Flavivirus RSSE complex Tick East Europe, USSR Rodents, other
mammals, birds, ticks
Flavivirus Louping ill Tick Britain Sheep
Flavivirus Powassan Tick North America Rodents
Bunyaviridae Bunyavirus California Mosquito North America Rodents
Hemorrhagic fever
Togaviridae Alphavirus Chikungunya Mosquito Africa, Asia Not known
(? Monkeys)
Flaviviridae Flavivirus Dengue types 1–4 Mosquito Tropics Not known
(? Monkeys)
Flavivirus Yellow fever Mosquito Africa, South America Monkeys, man
Flavivirus Kyasanur forest Tick Southwest India Rodents (? Ticks)
disease
Flavivirus Omsk hemorrhagic Tick USSR Small mammals
fever
Flavivirus Crimean Congo Tick USSR, Central Asia, Small mammals
hemorrhagic fever Africa

Alphavirus Rubivirus
The Alphavirus genus consists of about 32 viruses Rubivirus, which is not arthropod-borne and which
of which at least 13 are known to infect humans. causes rubella.
All of them are mosquitoborne.

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Viruses of Togaviridae
1. Alphavirus (Mosquito -borne)
A. Encephalitis viruses
i. Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE)
ii. Western equine encephalitis (WEE)
iii. Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE)
B. Viruses causing febrile illness
i. Chikungunya virus (CHIKV)
ii. Onyong-nyong virus (ONNV)
iii. Semliki Forestvirus
iv. Sindbis virus
v. Ross river virus
Rubivirus
Rubella virus.
1. Alphavirus
Encephalitis viruses: Three members of this
group, Eastern, Western and Venezuelan equine
encephalitis viruses, cause encephalitis in horses
and humans.
Reservoirs: Several species of Culex and Anopheles
mosquitoes are the vectors, and wild birds the
reservoirs.
Vaccine: Formalinized vaccines have been
developed for EEE and WEE and a live attenuated
vaccine for VEE.
B. Viruses Causing Febrile Illness
1. Chikungunya Virus
In Swahili, ‘chikungunya’ means ‘that which bends
up’, and refers to the posture assumed by patients
suffering from severe joint pains.
The incubation period is 1–12 days with an aver­
age of 2–3 days. The disease presents as a sudden
onset of fever, crippling joint pains, lymphadenopathy
and conjunctivitis. A maculopapular rash is common
and some show hemorrhagic manifestations.
Vector: The vector is Aedes aegypti. No animal
reservoir has been identified.
In India the virus first appeared in 1963 and
caused very extensive epidemics in Calcutta,
Madras and other areas. Chikungunya outbreaks
occurred at irregular intervals along the east coast
of India and in Maharashtra till 1973.
2. Onyong-nyong Virus
Onyong-nyong virus (ONNV), is confined to
Africa, is closely related to the chikungunya virus
antigenically and causes a similar disease.
This is transmitted by the Anopheles species
(Anopheles funestus and Anopheles gambiae). The
Mayaro virus causes a similar disease in the West
Indies and South America.
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Chapter 65: Arboviruses  | 449
3. Semliki Forest Virus
This virus has not been associated with clinical
illness in humans though neutralizing antibodies
to the virus have been demonstrated in Aricans.
4. Sindbis Virus
The Sindbis virus, originally’ isolated from Culex
mosquitoes in the Sindbis district of Egypt in 1952,
has subsequently been recovered from other parts
of Africa, India, Philippines and Australia. In Africa,
it is known to be associated with febrile illness
in human beings. In India, antibodies have been
detected in human sera but no association has
been established with human disease.
5. Ross River Virus
The closely related Ross River virus has been
associated with epidemic polyarthritis in Australia.
B. Family Flaviviridae
The family Flaviviridae contains three genera:
1. Flavivirus; 2. Pestivirus; 3. Hepacivirus.
Flavivirus
The name Flavivirus refers to the type species,
the yellow fever virus (Flavus, L = yellow). The
Flaviviridae family consists of about 70 viruses.
Morphology
They are 40 nm in diameter. They contain a single
stranded positive sense RNA. Inner viral core is
surrounded by a lipid envelope which is covered
with glycoprotein peplomers and matrix or
membrane protein.
They may be considered under two sections,
the mosquito-borne and the tick-borne viruses
(Table 65.3).
A. Mosquito-borne Group
a. Encephalitis viruses: St. Louis encephalitis,
Ilheus, West Nile, Murray Valley encephalitis,
Japanese encephalitis.
b. Yellow Fever
c. Dengue types 1, 2, 3, 4.
B. Tick-borne Group
These viruses produce—two clinical syndromes,
encephalitis and hemorrhagic fevers.
A. Mosquito-borne Group
a. Encephalitis viruses: Five members of this
group cause encephalitis, each of them limited to
a geographic zone.
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1. St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV): This is
prevalent in North and Central America and is the
most important mosquito-borne disease in the
USA.
Wild birds act as the reservoir and Culex tarsalis
as the vector. No vaccine is yet available.
2. Ilheus virus: This occurs in South and Central
America, maintained in forests by a cycle involving
mosquitoes, wild birds and monkeys. Human
infection is largely subclinical or leads to febrile
illness. Encephalitis is rare.
3. West Nile virus (WNV): WNV was first isolated
from a febrile human in the West Nile district of
Uganda in 1937, has since been reported from many
African countries, Israel, Cyprus, France and India.
Vector—both mosquitoes and ticks have been
reported as vectors. The principal vectors are
considered to be mosquitoes of the Culex genus.
4. Murray valley encephalitis virus (MVEV): This
is confined to Australia and New Guinea. Vector-
Natural cycles of transmission of MVEV involve Cx.
annulirostris as the principal mosquito vector and
water birds as reservoirs.
5. Japanese encephalitis: Japanese encephalitis
(JE) is a mosquito-borne encephalitis caused by a
group B arbovirus (Flavivirus) and transmitted by
culicine mosquitoes. It is a zoonotic disease, i.e.,
infecting mainly animals and incidentally man.
Culex tritaeniorhynchus, a rural mosquito that
breeds in rice fields, is the principal vector.
Geographical Distribution
The disease has been recognised in Japan since
1871 and was named Japanese ‘B’ encephalitis to
distinguish it from ‘encephalitis A (encephalitis
lethargica, von Economo’s disease) which was
then prevalent. The virus was first isolated in Japan
during an epidemic in 1935.
Problem in India
Recognition of JE was first made in 1955 when the
virus was isolated from mosquitoes of the Culex
vishnui complex from Vellore. From 1976, there have
been periodical outbreaks of the disease in various
parts of India—Dibrugarh (Assam), Gorakhpur (Uttar
Pradesh) and Haryana and Goa and Maharashtra,
Kolar in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, in Tamil
Nadu, in Pondicherry and lately in Kerala. Japanese
encephalitis has become a major public health
problem of national importance in India.
Clinical Features
The incubation period in man probably varies from
5–15 days, following mosquito bite. The course
Chap-65.indd 450
of the disease in man may be divided into three
stages:
a. Prodromal stage: The onset of illness is usually
acute and is heralded by fever, headache, and
malaise.
b. Acute encephalitic stage: The prominent
features are fever, nuchal rigidity, focal central
nervous system (CNS) signs, convulsions and
altered sensorium progressing in many cases
to coma.
c. Late stage and sequelae: Convalescence may
be prolonged and residual neurological deficits
may not be uncommon. The case fatality rate
varies between 20 and 40%.
The large majority of infections are, however,
asymptomatic.
Epidemiology: Unlike the dengue viruses, JE virus
infects several extrahuman hosts, e.g. animals and
birds. The disease is transmitted to man by the bite
of infected mosquitoes. Available evidence indicates
that the basic cycles of transmission are:
a. Pig → Mosquito → Pig
b. The Ardeid bird → Mosquito → Ardeid bird
a. Animal host: Pigs considered as “amplifiers” of
the virus.
b. Birds: Natural infection has been demonstrated in
Ardeid birds (herons and egrets), as well as bird-to-
bird transmission through Culex tritaeniorhynchus.
Vectors of JE: Culicine mosquitoes, notably C.
tritaenior­hynchus, C. vishnui and C. gelidus have
been incriminated as the vectors of JE.
Control of Japanese Encephalitis
Preventive measures include mosquito control and
locating piggeries away from human dwellings.
i. Formalin Inactivated Mouse Brain Vaccine
A formalin inactivated mouse brain vaccine
using the Nakayama strain has been employed
successfully for human immunization in Japan
and, in a small scale, in India also. For primary
immunization, 2 doses of 1 ml each (0.5 mL for
children under the age of 3 years) should be
administered subcutaneously at an interval of
7–14 days. A booster injection of 1 mL should be
given after a few months (before one year) in order
to develop full protection. Protective immunity
develops in about a month’s time after the second
dose. Revaccinations may be given after 3 years.
ii. Live Attenuated Vaccine
A live attenuated vaccine has been developed in
China from JE strain SA 14-14-2, passed through
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weanling mice. The vaccine is produced in
primary baby hamster kidney cells. Administered
in two doses, one year apart, the vaccine has been
reportedly effective in preventing clinical disease.
Vaccination of pigs: Vaccination of pigs has been
proposed in view of their importance as amplifier
hosts. During major epidemics, slaughter of pigs
have been employed as a measure of containment.
b. Yellow Fever
Yellow fever virus is the prototype member of the
Fla­viviridae family. lt causes yellow fever, an acute,
febrile, mosquito-borne illness that occurs only in
Africa and Central and South America. It does not
exist in India.
Pathogenesis and Pathology
The virus is introduced by a mosquito through the
skin and spreads to the local lymph nodes where
it multi­plies. From the lymph nodes, it enters the
circulating blood and becomes localized in the
liver, spleen, kidney, bone marrow, and lymph
glands, where it may persist for days. The lesions
of yellow fever are due to the localization and
propagation of the virus in a particular organ.
Infec­tions may result in necrotic lesions in the liver
and kid­ney.
Histologically,the liver shows cloudy and
fatty degeneration and necrosis which is typically
midzonal. The necrosed cells coalesce and become
hyalinized leading to the formation of characteristic
eosinophilic masses known as Councilman bodies.
Acidophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies (Torres
bodies) may be seen in the infected liver cells in
the early stages.
Clinical Findings
The incubation period is 3–6 days. The disease
starts as a fever of acute onset with chills, headache,
nausea and vomiting. Jaundice, albuminuria, and
hemorrhagic manifestations develop and the
patient may die of hepatic or renal failure.
Epidemiology
Two major epidemiologic. Cycles of transmission
of yel­low fever are recognized:
1. Urban yellow fever: In the urban cycle,
humans at both as the natural reservoir, and as
the definitive case, the virus being transmitted
by the domestic Aedes aegypti mosquito.
2. Forest or sylvatic cycle: in the forest or sylvatic
cycle, wild monkeys act as the reservoirs and
forest mosquitoes (Haemagogus spegazzinii
in South America and Aedes africanus and A.
simpsoni in Africa) as the vectors. Human cases
occur only when humans trespass into the
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Chapter 65: Arboviruses  | 451
forest or when the monkeys raid villages near
the forest.
Yellow fever is largely confined to Central and
South America and Africa. Yellow fever has never
invaded Asia, even though the vector. A. aegypti, is
widely distributed there. It is likely that stray virus
introduced may have been kept out, due to the
prevalence in the local Aedes aegypti of Dengue virus,
and of antibodies to a wide range of Arboviruses in
the local population. Another reason could have
been that in Africa, yellow fever was mainly in the
west, and in India, Aedes mosquitoes were along the
east coast, so that even stray importations of virus
by sea may not have found suitable vectors. Yellow
fever does not exist in India and it is important to us
for this paradoxical reason.
Control
1. Vector Control
2. Vaccination:
a. French Neurotropic Vaccine (Dakar)
The infected mouse brain was used as a vaccine in
former French West Africa (Dakar vaccine) was
thermostable and administered by scarification
and hence convenient for use under tropical field
conditions. However, the vaccine carries a high
risk of producing encephalitis in the vaccines,
especially in children. It was later replaced by a
non-­neurotropic (17D) vaccine.
b. 17D Vaccine
A safe and equally effective vaccine, the 17D
vaccine was developed by Theiler in 1937 by
passaging the Asibi strain serially in mouse embryo
and whole chick embryo tissues and then in chick
embryo tissue from which the central nervous
tissue has been removed and has been used as a
vaccine for over 40 years.
The 17D vaccine is thermolabile and is
administered by subcutaneous inoculation.
Immunity develops within 10 days of vaccination.
Vaccination which is mandatory for travel to or
from endemic areas is valid for 10 years beginning
10 days after vaccination. Serious side effects are
rare with the 17D vaccine. In India, the 17D vaccine
is manufactured at the Central Research Institute,
Kasauli.
c. Dengue
Dengue virus is widely distributed throughout
the tropics and subtropics. The term ‘break-
bone fever’ was coined during the Philadelphia
epidemic in 1780.
Four types of dengue virus exist : DEN 1,
DEN 2, and DEN 3 and 4. Immunity is type
specific. However, the febrile clinical symptoms
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 452  |  Section 4: Virology
associated with dengue are similar to those of other
Arboviruses from other families.
Clinical Findings
Classic dengue usually affects older children and
adults.After incubation period of 2–7 days, pat­ient
develops fever of sudden onset and often bip­hasic
with severe headache, chilies, retrobulbar pain,
conjunctivitis and severe pain in the back, muscles
and joints (breakbone fever). A maculopapular
rash generally appears on the trunk in 3–5 days of
ill­ness and spreads later to the face and extremities.
Lymph nodes are frequently enlarged. Leukopenia
with a relative lymphocytosis is a regular occurrence.
Complications and death are rare.
Complications of Dengue: Dengue may also
occur in more serious forms, with hemorrhagic
manifestations (dengue hemorrhagic fever) or
with shock (dengue shock syndrome). They are
more common in previously healthy children in the
indigenous populations of endemic areas.
Pathogenesis: The pathogenesis of the severe
syndrome involves preexisting dengue antibody.
It is postulated that virus–antibody complexes
are formed within a few days of the second
dengue infection and that the non-neutralizing
enhancing antibodies promote infection of
higher num­bers of mononuclear cells, followed
by the release of cytokines, vasoactive mediators,
and procoagulants, lead­ing to the disseminated
intravascular coagulation seen in the hemorrhagic
fever syndrome.
Dengue hemorrhagic fever: Dengue hemorrhagic
fever (DHF) may occur in individuals (usually
children) with passively acquired (as maternal
antibody) or preexisting non-neu­t ralizing
heterologous dengue antibody due to a previous
infection with a different serotype of virus.
Dengue shock syndrome (DSS), a more severe
form of the disease characterized by shock and
hemoconcentration, may ensue. Circumstantial
evi­dence suggests that secondary infection with
dengue type 2 following a type 1 infection is a
particular risk factor for severe disease.
Laboratory Diagnosis
(a) Specimens
For antibody detection—Serum
For isolation of virus and PCR. Serum, plasma,
whole blood (washed buffy coat), autopsy tissues
and, mosquitoes collected in nature.
A. Virus detection: Isolation of the virus is
difficult. Virus isolation can be done by
inoculating clinical specimen into mosquitoes,
mosquitoes cell lines (C6/36 or AP-61 cells), or
Chap-65.indd 452
suckling mice. Further identification is done by
using fluorescent antibody test. Live mosquito
inoculation is the most sensitive technique for
isolation of virus.
B. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): PCR ­based
methods are available for rapid identification
and subtyping.
C. Serology: Demonstration of circulating
IgM antibody provides early diagnosis, as it
appears within two to five days of the onset of
illness and persists for one to three months.
IgM ELISA test offers reliable diagnosis. A
strip immunochromatographic test for IgM is
available for rapid diagnosis.
IgG antibody appears later than IgM antibody.
ELISA is used for detection of IgG antibody.
Detection of four fold rise in IgG titer in paired
sera taken at an interval of ten days or more is
confirmatory.
Hematological diagnosis: Thrombocytopenia
(100,000 cells or less per mm3); Hemoconcentration
(720% in hematocrit).
Epidemiology
Dengue virus is transmitted from person to person
by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Most subtropical and
tropical regions around the world where Aedes
vecrors exist are endemic areas. Dengue was
initially confined to the east coast of India and has
caused epidemics. All four types of dengue virus
are present in this country.
Control
Control depends upon antimosquito measures, as
no vaccine is currently available.
A live attenuated vaccine containing all four
dengue serotypes is under clinical trial in order to
avoid DHF/DSS in immunized persons.
B. Tick-borne Group
These viruses produce two clinical syndromes,
encephalitis hemorrhagic fevers.
a. Tick-borne Encephalitis Viruses (TBEV)
Russian spring summer encephalitis (RSSE)
complex: A number of viruses belonging to the
Russian spring summer encephalitis (RSSE)
complex cause encephalitis along a wide area of
the northern landmass from Scotland to Siberia.
The names given to the disease vary from one area
to another. Thus, in Scotland, it is called ‘louping ill’
as the disease occurs primarily in sheep in which
it causes a curious ‘leaping’ gait. Human cases that
result from contact with these sheep are mild and
present as aseptic meningitis. It is called Central
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European Encephalitis in Central Europe, biphasic
meningoencephalitis in Eastern Europe and RSSE
in USSR.
Human infections by TBEV may range in
severity from mild biphasic meningoencephalitis
to a severe form of polioencephalomyelitis.
Biphasic meningoencephalitis may be trans­
mitted to human beings by drinking the milk of
infected goats. Rare erosol transmission may occur.
Russian spring-summer encephalitis (RSSE):
Infection is transmitted by the bite of lxodid ticks.
The virus is transmitted transovarially in ticks so
that they can act as vectors as well as reservoir
hosts. Wild rodents and migrating birds are other
reservoirs.
Control
The control of infection depends on the avoidance
of tick bites. A formalin inactivated vaccine is
commercially available for the Western subtype
and for the Eastern subtype.
ii. Powassan virus: Powassan virus causes
encephalitis in Canada and Northern USA.
b. Tick-borne Hemorrhagic Fevers
1. Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD)
Kyasanur forest disease (KFD) is a febrile disease
associated with hemorrhages caused by an
Arbovirus flavivirus and transmitted to man by bite
of infective ticks. A new Arbovirus antigenically
related to the RSSE complex, was isolated by
investigators from the National Institute of Virology
(then Virus Research Centre), Pune, from the
patients and dead monkeys. The disease was later
named after the locality ­Kyasanur Forest from
where the virus was first isolated.
History
KFD was first recognized in 1957 in Shimoga district
of Karnataka state in South India. The situation
changed suddenly in 1982 with the appearance
of an epizootic and epidemic. The outbreak,
known locally as monkey fever’, started with dead
monkeys. The ecological disturbance caused by
clear felling of the virgin forest is believed to have
activated a silent enzootic focus of the virus.
Epidemiology
a. Agent-Flavivirus: The agent KFD virus is a
member of group B Togaviruses (Flaviviruses).
b. Natural hosts and reservoirs—Main reservoirs
of the virus are small mammals particulairly
rats and squirrels and forest birds. Monkeys are
only amplifier hosts.
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Chapter 65: Arboviruses  | 453
c. Vectors: Infection is transmitted by the bite of
ticks, the principal vector being Haemaphysalis
spinigera.
Clinical Features
Incubation period is between 3 and 8 days. The
disease appears with a sudden onset of fever,
headache and severe myalgia, with prostration in
some patients. The acute phase lasts about 2 weeks.
Gastrointestinal disturbances and hemorrhages
from nose, gums, stomach and intestine may occur
in severe cases.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Virus isolation: Virus can be isolated from
the blood up until the12th day in suckling mice,
hamster or monkey kidney cells or HeLa cells with
cytopathic effect.
B. Serology: Serological diagnosis can be made
with rising antibody (IFA, HI and N) titers in acute
and convalescent sera, as well as by EIA tests.
Control
Control is essentially a breaking of the tick-human
contact. Personal protection involves regular
de-ticking of the body and the use of repellents and
protective clothing.
Vaccine: A killed KFD virus vaccine was used in
a small field, trial and appeared to provide some
degree of protection.
2. Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever
This occurs in Russia and Romania. It is clinically
similar to KFD and is caused by a related virus.
Dermacentor ticks are the vectors.
Family Bunyaviridae
The Bunyaviridae family contains more than 300
viruses is the largest group of arboviruses, mostly
arrhropod-rransmitted.
Morphology: The virus is about 100 nm in diameter
and has a complex structure, with a triple segmented
genome of single stranded RNA.
Classification
The family Bunyaviridae contains four genera of
medical importance:
A. Bunyavirus—Mosquito-borne
B. Phlebovirus—Sandfly
C. Nairovirus—Tick borne
D. Hantavirus—Non-arthropord borne.
A number of viruses are yet ungrouped.
A. Bunyavirus
The genus contains over 150 species, of which only
a few cause human infections. This genus includes
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California encephalitis virus, La Crosse virus, and
Chittor virus. California encephalitis virus and La
Crosse virus are isolated from the United States
and Chittor virus from India. The clinical disease
caused is encephalitis, aseptic meningitis and fever.
All are mosquito-borne infections.
B. Phlebovirus
a. Sandfly fever (Phlebotomus fever): Sandfly
fever (Phlebotomus fever) also known as
Pappataci fever and three-day fever, is a
self­, nonfatal fever transmitted by the bite of
sandfly Phlebotomus papatasii. It occurs along
the mediterranean Coast and Central Asia,
extendIng as far east as Pakistan and North
West India. Cases have also been reported from
South and Central America.
Natural vectors are Phlebotomus papatasi and
other phlebotomine sandflies.
Twenty antigenic types of the virus exist, of
which only five cause human disease—Naples,
Sicilian, Punta Toro, Chagres, Candiru. Its
occurrence in India was thought to be doubtful.
b. Rift valley fever: The agent of this disease,
a bunyavirus of the Phle­b ovirus genus, is a
mosquito-borne zoonotic virus path­ogenic
primarily for sheep, cattle, and goats. Humans
are secondarily infected.
C. Nairovirus
Members of the Crimean Congo hemorrhagic
group are the major human pathogens in this
genus.
Crimean Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF)
virus: is distributed widely. Cattle, sheep, goats
and other domesticated animals act as natural
reservoirs. It is transmitted by Hyalomma ticks.
During the acute phase of the disease, the blood
of the patients is highly infectious and direct
transmission may occur through contact.
Hazara virus: A related virus, Hazara, has been
isolated in Pakistan.
Nairobi sheep disease: It is an acute, hemorrhagic
gastroenteritis caused by a Nairovirus in sheep and
goats in East Africa. It is transmitted by Rhipice­
phalus ticks.
Ganjam virus: Ganjam virus, isolated from ticks
collected from sheep and goats in Orissa, India, is
closely related to the Nairobi sheep disease virus.
D. Hantavirus
1. Hantaviruses: Hantaan viruses are classified
in the Hantavirus genus of the Bunyaviridae
family. The viruses are found world­wide and
cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome
Chap-65.indd 454
(HFRS). Principal vertebrate reservoirs com­
prise Apodemus agrariusrodents in Asia and
Clethrionomys glareolus (bank vole) in Europe.
Species: The genus contains at least four’
species:
(i) Hantaan virus; (ii) Seoul virus; (iii) Puumala
virus; (iv) Prospect hill virus. Hantavirus
species are natural pathogens of rodents-field
mice (Apodemus agrarius) being the major host
for Hantaan. Transmission to humans occurs by
inhaling Aerosols of rodent excreta. The disease
occurs in two forms—the milder epidemic
nephritis (EN) common in Scandinavia and the
more serious epidemic hemorrhagic fever (EHF)
in the far east. The clinical picture resembles
typhoid, leptospirosis and scrub typhus.
Domestic rats appear to be the source of
infection in urban cases of HFRS. HFRS should
be considered a robovirus and not stricly an
arbovirus infection in the absence of proved
arthropod transmission.
2. Sin nombre virus (SNV): In 1993 an outbreak
of severe respiratory illness in the United States,
now designated the hantavirus pul­monary
syndrome (HPS), was found to be caused by a
novel hantavirus.
The disease is caused by a newly identified
hantavirus, the Sin nombre (meaning nameless)
virus, which is associated with the deer mouse and
other rodents.
Infection appears to be caused by inhalation
of the virus aerosols in dried rodent feces. Person-
to-person trans­mission of hantaviruses seldom
occurs.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory diagnosis depends on detection
of viral nucleic acid by reverse transcription-
polymerase chain reaction or detection of specific
antibodies using recom­binant proteins of different
hantaviruses. Hantaviruses can be isolated in
cultured cells.
Reoviridae
Family Reoviridae contains four genera-Orbivirus,
Coltivirus, Orthoreovirus, and Rotavirus
The genus Orbivirus contains arthropod
borne viruses. Rotaviruses and reoviruses have no
arthropod vectors.
A. Genus Orbivirus: The genus Orbivirus contains
arthropod borne viruses which infect animals
and humans.
i. African horse sickness virus: African horse
sickness virus, transmitted by Culicoides.
It caused extensive disease among army
horses and mules in India.
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 Chapter 65: Arboviruses  | 455
ii. Palyam, Kasba and Vellore viruses: Palyam,
™™ Arboviruses are classified within six families. Most
Kasba and Vellore viruses belonging to the are members of the families Togaviridae, Flaviviridae
Orbivirus group have been isolated from and Bunyaviridae
mosquitoes in India but their pathogenic ™™ Arboviruses cause the clinical syndromes such
significance is not known. as fever with or without rash and arthralgia
B. Genus Coltivirus: Colorado tick fever is encephalitis, hemorrhagic fever, the characteristic
systemic disease, yellow fever
classified in the genus Coltivirus.
™™ The family Togaviridae contains two genera:
Colorado tick fever: Colorado tick fever, is
Alphavirus and rubivirus
transmitted by a tick. It is spread by the wood
1. Alphavirus (Mosquito-borne)-A. Encephalitis
tick Dermacentor andersoni. viruses: (i) Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE); (ii)
C. Orthoreovirus: Cause asymptomatic infections Western equine encephalitis (WEE); (iii) Venezuelan
in humans. equine encephalitis (VEE) B. Viruses Causing Febrile
D. Rotavirus: Causes human infantile gastroemeritis. Illness; 1. Chikungunya virus (CHIKV); (ii) Onyong-
nyong virus (ONNV); (iii) Semliki Forestvirus; (iv)
Rhabdoviridae Sindbis virus; (v) Ross River virus
2. Rubivirus; Rubella virus
Chandipura virus: Chandipura virus, belonging
™™ The chikungunya virus has been implicated in
to the vesiculovirus genus of Rhabdoviridae, was
epidemics in India. Humans are the host, and Aedes
isolated in 1967 from the blood of patients during aegypti mosquitoes the vectors
an epidemic of dengue­ chikungunya fever in ™™ Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a mosquito-borne
Nagpur. The virus appears to multiply in sandflies encephalitis caused by a group B arbovirus
and Aedes mosquitoes. Antibodies are common in (Flavivirus) and transmitted by culicine mosquitoes.
human sera from different parts of India, as well as Culex tritaeniorhynchus, a rural mosquito that breeds
in animal sera. The pathogenic significance of this in rice fields, is the principal vector.
virus has not been established. ™™ Yellow fever virus is the prototype member of the
Fla­viviridae family. lt causes yellow fever, an acute,
febrile, mosquito-borne illness that occurs only in
UNGROUPED ARBOVIRUSES Africa and Central and South America. The disease
yellow fever does not occur in India
Wanowri virus: This was isolated from Hyalomma ™™ The dengue virus causes classic dengue or
ticks in India. breakdown fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF),
Bhanja virus: This was isolated from hemophysalis and dengue shock syndrome (DSS). Both dengue
virus and chikungunya virus are transmitted by Aedes
ticks from goats in Ganjam, Orissa.
aegypti mosquito
™™ Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) is a febrile disease
ARBOVIRUS KNOWN TO BE PREVALENT associated with hemorrhages caused by an arbovirus
IN INDIA flavivirus and transmitted to man by bite of infective
ticks
Some of the arboviruses known to be prevalent in ™™ Hantaviruses are classified in the Hantavirus
India are as shown in Table 65.4. genus of the Bunyaviridae family. The viruses cause
hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). The
Table 65.4:  Some of the arboviruses known to be genus contains at least four species:
prevalent in India
A.Group A (Alphaviruses) C.Others
Sindbis Umbre
Chikungunya Sathuperi
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Chandipura 1. Classify arboviruses. Discuss various methods
B.Group B ( Flaviruses) Chittoor used for laboratory diagnosis of arboviruses.
Dengue Ganjam
KFD Minnal
2. Name the arboviruses which cause encephalitis.
JE Venkatapuram Describe briefly Japanese B encephalitis.
West Nile Dhori 3. List the arboviruses prevalent in India. Describe
Kaisodi the pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of
Sandfly fever dengue virus.
African horse sickness 4. Write short notes on:
Vellore
a. Chikungunya
b. Yellow fever
Key Points c. Dengue fever (or) Break bone fever
™™ Arboviruses are viruses “which are maintained in d. Kyasanur forest disease (KFD)
nature principally, or to an important extent through e. Bunyaviruses
biological transmission between susceptible f. Sandfly fever (phlebotomus fever)
vertebrate hosts by hematophagous arthropods
g. Hantavirusess.

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 456  |  Section 4: Virology
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs) 5. All the following statements are true for dengue
hemorrhagic fever except:
1. Which of the following viral genera is/are not a. This occurs in children with passively acquired
arthropod-borne? maternal antibodies
a. Alphavirus b. Flavivirus b. It is a most severe manifestation of the disease
c. Rubivirus d. All of the above c. This condition shows a fatality rate as high as
2. All the following viruses are transmitted by 10%
arthropod vectors except: d. Immunization is carried out by, a heat-killed
a. Hantavirus vaccine
b. Chandipura virus
6. The vaccine is not available for:
c. Rift Valley fever virus
a. Dengue fever
d. Sandfly fever virus
b. Japanese encephalitis
3. Mosquitoes act as the vector in all of the following
c. Yellow fever
viruses except:
a. Chikungunya virus d. Russian spring-summer encephalitis
b. Dengue virus 7. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome is caused by:
c. Semiliki Forest virus a. Nairobi sheep disease virus
d. Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus b. Chittor virus
4. Arbovirus transmitted by tick is: c. Sin Nombre virus
a. Western equine encephalitis d. West Nile virus
b. B. Kyasanur Forest disease
c. Russian spring-summer encephalitis ANSWERS (MCQs)
d. Omsk hemorrhagic fever 1. c; 2 a; 3. d; 4. a; 5. d; 6. a; 7. c

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 66
Chapter

Rhabdoviruses

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe morphology of rabies virus
∙∙ Describe the following: Street virus vs. fixed virus;
pathogenesis and clinical features of rabies; Negri
bodies
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of rabies
∙∙ Discuss prophylaxis against rabies
∙∙ Describe neural and non-neural vaccines against
rabies.

Introduction of the virus which may be invaginated at the

Bullet shaped, enveloped viruses with single stranded
RNA genome are classified as rhabdoviruses (from
rhabdos, meaning rod) in the family Rhabdoviridae.
Classification
Rhabdoviruses infecting mammals belong to two
genera in Rhabdoviridae family
A. Lyssavirus
It contains rabies virus and related viruses
(Lagos bat virus, Mokola, Duvenhage).
B. Genus vesiculovirus: It con­tains vesicular
stomatitis virus (VSV) and related viruses like
Chandipur (arbelius).
planar end. (Fig. 66.1).
4. Genome: The core of the virion consists of
hel­ically arranged ribonucleoprotein. The
genome is single-stranded RNA, linear, non-
segmented, negative-sense. RNA-dependent
RNA polymerase enzyme which is essential
for the initiation of replication of the virus, is
enclosed within the virion in associa­tion with
the ribonucleoprotein core.

Rabies virus
Morphology
1. Virion: The rabies virion consists of a helical
nucleocapsid contained in a bullet-shaped
lipoprotein envelope 180 × 75 nm, with one
end rounded or conical and the other plane or
concave (Fig. 66.1).
2. Proteins: Protruding from the lipid envelope
are approximately 200 glycoprotein (G) spikes
of the virus, hemagglutinin activity. Spikes do
not cover the planar end of the virion.
3. Membrane or matrix (M) protein: Beneath Fig. 66.1: Rabies virus: Bullet-shaped virion, showing tightly
the envelope is the membrane or matrix (M) wound helix of ribonucleoprotein in the core, and bilayered
protein and is the major structural protein membranous envelope carrying glycoprotein spikes

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458  |  Section 4: Virology
Resistance
Rabies virus is sensitive to ethanol, iodine prepar­
ations, quaternary ammonium compounds,
soap, detergents and lipid solvents such as ether,
chloroform and acetone. It is inactivated by phenol,
formalin, beta propiolactone, ultraviolet irradiation,
sunlight and heat at 50°C for 1 hour or 60°C for 5
minutes. Rabies virus survives storage at 4°C for
weeks and at –70°C for years or by lyophilization It
is inactivated by CO2 so on dry ice it must be stored
in glass-sealed vials.
Antigenic Properties
There is a single serotype of rabies virus.
A. Glycoprotein G: The surface spikes are
composed of glycoprotein G, which is important
in pathogenesis, virulence and immunity.
Purified spikes containing the viral glycoprotein
elicit neutralizing antibody in animals. The
purified glycoprotein may therefore provide a
safe and effective subunit vaccine.
Hemagglutinating activity: Rabies virus
possesses hemagglutinating activity, optimally
seen with goose erythrocytes at 0–4 °C and
pH 6.2. Hemagglutination is a property of
the glycoprotein spikes. The hemagglutinin
antigen is species specific and distinct from the
antigens on rabies related viruses.
B. Nucleocapsid protein: Complement fixing
antibodies are induced by the nucleocapsid
protein and are not protective. This antigen
is group specific and cross-reactions are seen
with some rabies related viruses. Antiserum pre­
pared against the purified nucleocapsid is used
in diag­nostic immunofluorescence for rabies.
C. Other antigens: Other antigens identified
include two membrane proteins, glycolipid
and RNA dependent RNA polymerase.
Host Range and Growth Characteristics
A. Animals
Rabies virus has a wide host range. All warm-
blooded animals, including humans, can be
infected. All mammals are susceptible to rabies
infection, though differences in susceptibility
exist between species. Suscepti­bility varies among
mammalian species, ranging from very high
(foxes, coyotes, wolves) to low (opossums); those
with intermediate susceptibility include skunks,
raccoons, and bats. Humans and dogs occupy an
intermediate position. Pups are more susceptible
than adult dogs. Experimental infection can be
produced in any laboratory animal but mice are
the animals of choice. They can be infected by any
route. After intracerebral inoculation, they develop
encephalitis and die within 5–30 days.
Street Virus
The rabies virus isolated from natural human
or animal infection is termed the street virus.
Following inoculation by any route, it can
cause fatal encephalitis in laboratory animals
after a long and variable incubation period of
about 1–12 weeks (usually 21–60 days in dogs).
Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies (Negri bodies)
can be demonstrated in the brain of animals dying
of street virus infection.
Fixed Virus
After several serial intracerebral passages in rabbits,
the virus undergoes certain changes and becomes
what is called the fixed virus that no longer multiplies
in extraneural tis­sues. The fixed (or murant) virus
is more neurotropic, though it is much less infective
by other routes. After intracerebral inoculation, it
produces fatal encephalitis after a short and fixed
incubation period of 6–7 days. Negri bodies are
usually not demonstrable in the brain of animals
dying of fixed virus infection. The fixed virus is used
for vaccine production.
B. Chick Embryos
The rabies virus can be grown in chick embryos.
The usual mode of inoculation is into the yolk sac.
Serial propagation in chick embryos has led to the
development of attenuated vaccine strains like
Flury and Kelev.
C. Tissue Culture
The rabies virus can grow in chick embryo
fibroblast, porcine or hamster kidney cells human
diploid cell and vero cell cultures.
Pathogenesis
Rabies infection usually results from the bite of
rabid dogs or other animals. The virus can also be
transmitted following nonbite exposures through
the inhalation of aerosolized virus (as may be found
in bat caves), in transplanted infected tissue (e.g.
cornea), and by inoc­ulation through intact mucosal
membranes. The virus present in the saliva of the
animal is deposited in the wound.
The virus appears to multiply in the muscles,
connective tissue or nerves at the site of deposition.
The virus remains at the site for days to months
(Fig. 66.2) before progressing to the central
nervous system (CNS). Rabies virus travels by
retrograde axoplasmic transport to the dorsal root
ganglia and to the spinal cord. Once the virus gains
access to the spinal cord, the brain becomes rapidly
infected. The virus then disseminates from the CNS
via afferent neurons to highly innervated sites, such
as the skin of the head and neck, salivary glands,

Fig. 66.2: Pathogenesis of rabies virus infection
retina, cornea, nasal mucosa, adrenal medulla,
renal paren­chyma, and pancreatic acinar cells.
The presence of the virus in the saliva and
the irritability and aggression brought on by the
encephalitis ensure the transmission and survival
of the virus in nature. The virus ultimately reaches
virtually every tissue in the body, though the
centrifugal dissemination may be interrupted at
any stage by death. The virus is almost invariably
present in the cornea and the facial skin of patients
because of their proximity to the brain. The virus
may also be shed in milk and urine.
With rare exception (three known cases), rabies
is fatal once clinical disease is apparent.
Clinical Features
A. Humans
Rabies is primarily a disease of lower animals and
is spread to humans by bites of rabid animals or
by contact with saliva from rabid animals. The
infection has also been acquired from aerosols in
bats’ caves.
The incubation period in humans is typically
1–2 months but may be as short as 1 week or as long
as many years (up to 19 years). It is usu­ally shorter
in children than in adults.
Phases of Clinical Spectrum
The clinical spec­trum can be divided into three
phases:
a. Prodro­mal phase: The prodrome, lasting
2–10 days, may show any of the nonspecific
symptoms.
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Chapter 66: Rhabdoviruses  | 459
b. Acute neurologic phase: During the acute
neurologic phase, which lasts 2–7 days, patients
show signs of nervous system dysfunction such
as nervousness, apprehension, hallucinations,
and bizarre behavior.
Hydrophobia: The pathognomonic feature
is difficulty in drinking, together with intense
thirst. Patients may be able to swallow dry solids
but not liquids. Attempts to drink bring on
such painful spasms of the pharynx and larynx
producing choking or gagging that patients
develop a dread of even the sight or sound of
water (hydrophobia). Generalized convulsions
follow.
c. Coma: Patients who survive the stage of acute
neurological involvement lapse into coma.
Death usually occurs within 1–6 days due to
respiratory arrest during convulsions.
B. Rabies in Dogs
Clinical Picture
Rabies in dogs may manifest itself in two forms—
Furious rabies and Dumb rabies.
a. Furious rabies: This is the typical “mad dog
syndrome”, characterized by (i) A change in
behavior; (ii) Running amuck; (iii) Change in
voice; (iv) Excessive salivation and foaming at
the angle of the mouth; (v) Paralytic stage—
Paralysis, convulsions and death follow.
b. Dumb rabies: In this type, the excitative or
irritative stage is lacking. The dumb form is as
infectious as the furious type.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Diagnosis of Human Rabies
Tests are performed on samples of saliva, serum,
spinal fluid, and skin biopsies of hair follicles at the
nape of the neck.
A. Rabies Antigens by Immunofluorescence
The method most commonly used for diagnosis
is the demonstration of rabies virus antigens by
immunofluorescence. The specimens tested are
corneal smears and skin biopsy (from face or neck)
or saliva antemortem, and brain postmorterm.
Direct immunofluorescence is done using antirabies
serum tagged with fluorescein isothiocyanate. The
use of monoclonal antibody instead of crude
antiserum makes the test more specific.
B. Virus Isolation
a. Mouse Inoculation
Samples of brain tissue, saliva, CSF, or urine may
be injected intracerebrally into newborn mice for
460  |  Section 4: Virology
isolation of the virus. Infection in mice results in
encephalitis and death. The inoculated mice are
examined for signs of illness and their brains are
examined at death or at 28 days postinoculation
for Negri bodies, or by immunofluorescence rabies
antigen.
b. Isolation in Cell Culture
A more rapid and sensitive method is isolation
of the virus in tissue culture cell lines (WI38,
BHK21,CER). Virus isolations is identified by
immunofluorescence. A positive IF test can be
obtained as early as 2–4 days after inoculation.
The identity of the isolate can be established by the
neutralization test with specific antirabies antibody.
C. Serology
Rabies antibodies can be detected in the serum and
CSF of the patient by ELISA. High titer antibodies
are present in the CSF in rabies but not after
immunization.
D. Detection of Nucleic Acid
Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction
(RT-PCR) test­ing can be used to amplify parts
of a rabies virus genome from fixed or unfixed
brain tissue for detection of rabies virus RNA. This
technique can confirm dFA results and can detect
rabies virus in saliva and skin biopsy samples.
2. Animal Rabies
The head of the animal is cut off and sent to the
nearest testing laboratory, duly packed in ice in an
air-tight container. Alternatively, the brain may be
removed with antiseptic precautions and sent in
50% glycerol-saline for examination and the other
in Zenker’s fixative, sent for biological test and
microscopy, respectively. The portion of brain sent
should include the hippocampus and cerebellum
as Negri bodies are most abundant there. The
following tests are done in the laboratory:
1. Demonstration of rabies virus antigen by
immuno­fluorescence
This is a highly reliable and the best single test
currently available for the rapid diagnosis of rabies
viral antigen in infected specimens. This test
can establish a highly specific diagnosis within
a few hours. Examination of salivary glands by
immunofluorescence is useful.
2. Demonstration of inclusion bodies (Negri
bodies)
A definitive pathologic diagnosis of rabies can be
based on the finding of Negri bodies in the brain
or the spinal cord. Negri bodies, named after the
Italian physician who first discovered them. This is
still the method most commonly used as facilities
for immunofluorescence and biological tests are
not available in many laboratories.
Impression smears of the brain are stained by
Seller’s technique (basic fuchsin and methylene
blue in methanol), which has the advantage that
fixation and staining are done simultaneously.
Negri bodies are seen as intracytoplasmic, round
or oval, purplish pink structures with characteristic
basophilic inner granules. Negri bodies vary in size
from 3–27 µm. Other types of inclusion bodies may
sometimes be seen in the brain in diseases such
as canine distemper but the presence of inner
structures in the Negri bodies makes differentiation
easy. Failure to find Negri bodies does not
exclude the diagnosis of rabies. The microscopic
examination for Negri bodies identifies 75–90% of
cases of rabies in dogs. Failure to find Negri bodies
does not exclude the diagnosis of rabies.
Negri bodies contain rabies virus antigens and
can be demonstrated by immunofluores­cence.
Both Negri bodies and rabies antigen can usually
be found in animals or humans infected with
rabies, but they are rarely found in bats.
If impression smears are negative, the tissue
should be sectioned and stained by Giemsa or
Mann’s method.
3. Isolation of the rabies virus (biological test)
This is done as described above, for human rabies
diagnosis.
4. Corneal test
Rabies virus antigen can be detected in live animals
in corneal impressions or in frozen sections of skin
biopsies by the flueroscent antibody test.
Prophylaxis
This may be considered under:
A. Postexposure Prophylaxis
B. Preexposure Prophylaxis
A. Post-exposure Prophylaxis
This consists of: a. Local treatment , b. Antirabic
vaccines, c. Hyperimmune serum.
a. Local treatment of wound:
i. Cleansing: Immediate flushing and
washing the wound(s), scratches and the
adjoining areas with plenty of soap and
water, preferably under a running tap, for
at least 5 minutes as soap inactivates virus
by destroying its envelope.
ii. Chemical treatment: After cleansing
wound should be inactivated by irrigation
with virucidal agents - either alcohol

(400–700 ml/liter), tincture or 0.01%
aqueous solution of iodine or povidone
iodine.
iii. Suturing: Bite wounds should not be
immediately sutured.
iv. Antirabies Serum: The local application of
antirabies serum or its infiltration around
the wound has been shown to be highly
effective in preventing rabies.
v. Antibiotics and antitetanus measure:
When indicated should follow the local
treatment recommended above.
b. Antirabic vaccines: Antirabic vaccines fall into
two main categories: neural and non-neural
(Table 66.2). The former are associated with
serious risk of neurological complications and
have been replaced by the latter.
I. Neural Vaccines
These are suspensions of nervous tissues of
animals infected with the fixed rabies virus.
1. Semple Vaccine
Semple (1911) developed this vaccine at the Central
Research Institute, Kasauli (India), had been the
most widely used vaccine for over half a century.
It is a 5% suspension of sheep brain infected with
fixed virus and inactivated with phenol at 37°C,
leaving no residual live virus.
2. Beta propiolactone (BPL) vaccine
This is a modification of the Semple vaccine,
in which beta propiolactone is used as the
inactivating agent instead of phenol. It is prepared
from fixed virus grown in the brains of adult sheep
(Semple type) or other animals. It is believed to be
more antigenic.
Table 66.2:  Rabies vaccines
I. Neural vaccines
1. Pasteur vaccine
2. Fermi vaccine
3. Semple vaccine
4. Beta-propiolactone (BPL) vaccine
5. Suckling mouse brain vaccine
II. Non-neural vaccines
A. Duck egg vaccine
B. Cell culture vaccines
a. First-generation cell culture vaccine
– Human diploid cell vaccine (HDCV)
b. Second-generation cell culture vaccines
– Purified chick embryo cell vaccine (PCEC)
– Purified Vero cell rabies vaccine (PVRV)
III. Third-generation rabies vaccine
Poxvirus-rabies glycoprotein recombinant vaccine
(undergoing clinical trials in humans)
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Chapter 66: Rhabdoviruses  | 461
3. Infant brain vaccines
The encephalitogenic factor in brain tissue is a
basic protein associated with myelin. It is scanty
or absent in the nonmyelinated neural tissue of
newborn animals. So vaccines were developed
using infant mouse, rat or rabbit brain.
II. Non-neural Vaccines
1. Egg vaccines
a. Duck embryo vaccine (DEV): It was disconti­
nued because of its poor immunogenicity. (b)
Live attenuated chick embryo vaccines—These
vaccines were used for vaccination of animals.
Two types of vaccines were developed with the
Flury strain.
i. Low Egg Passage (LEP) vaccine: at 40–50 egg
passage level for immunization of dogs.
ii. High Egg Passage (HEP) vaccine: at 180
passage level for cattle and cats. These are not
in use now.
2. Cell culture vaccines
The cell culture vaccines are of two types:
i. Human origin
Human diploid cell vaccine (HDCV)
The first cell culture vaccine was the human diploid
cell (HDC) vaccine developed by Koprowsky,
Wiktor and Plotkin. It is a purified and concentrated
preparation of fixed rabies virus (Pitman–Moore
strain) grown on human diploid cells (WI 38 or
MRC 5) and inactivated with beta propiolactone
or tri-n-butyl phosphate. It is highly antigenic and
free from serious side effects. Its only disadvantage
is its high cost. HDC vaccine is now licensed for use
in a number of countries including India for both
pre- and postexposure immunization.
ii. Nonhuman origin
iii. Second generation tissue culture vaccines
(Table 66.2): Second generation tissue culture
vaccines are cheaper than HDC vaccines.
Cell culture vaccines in India: In India the
following cell culture vaccines are available:
i. Human diploid cell (HDC) vaccine
ii. Purified chick embryo cell (PCEC) vaccine
iii. Purified vero cell (PVC) vaccine.
All three of them are equally safe and effective.
3. Subunit Vaccine
The glycoprotein subunit on the virus surface,
which is the protective antigen, has been cloned
and recombinant vaccines produced. They are still
in the experimental stage.
462  |  Section 4: Virology
Indications for Antirabies Treatment
Antirabies treatment should be started immediately:
i. If the animal shows signs of rabies or dies
within 10 days of observation.
ii. If the biting animal cannot be traced or
identified.
iii. Unprovoked bites.
iv. Laboratory tests (e.g. fluorescent rabies anti­
body test or test for Negri bodies) of the brain
of the biting animal are positive for rabies.
v. All bites by wild animals.
Vaccination Schedules
Neural Vaccines
The dosage of the vaccine depends on the degree
of risk to which the patient has been exposed.
Accordingly, patients are classified as follows.
Classification of Exposures
One of the factors determining the dose of anti-
rabies vaccine is the degree of risk of rabies to
which the person is exposed. Accordingly, patients
are classified as follows.
Class I (Slight risk)
a. Licks on healthy unbroken skin.
b. Licks on intact mucous membrane or conjunctiva.
c. Bites or scratches which have raised the
epidermis but have not drawn blood, on all
parts of the body except the head, face, neck or
fingers.
d. Consumption of unboiled milk or handling raw
flesh of rabid animals.
Class II (Moderate risk)
a. Licks on definitely remembered fresh cuts or This is indicated for persons at high risk of contact
abrasions on the fingers.
b. Scratches with oozing of blood.
c. All bites except those on head, neck, face, palms
and fingers.
d. Minor wounds less than 5 in number.
Class III (Severe risk)
a. Licks on definitely remembered fresh cuts or
abrasions on head, face or neck.
b. All bites or scratches on the head, face or neck.
c. All bites or scratches on the fingers which are
lacerated, more than half centimeter long or
have penetrated the true skin.
d. All bites penetrating the true skin and drawing
blood, when there are five teeth marks or more.
e. All bites on any part of the body causing
extensive laceration.
f. Bites from wild animals—All jackal and wolf
bites.
g. Any Class II patient who has not received
treatment within 14 days of exposure.
Dosage Schedules
Two dosage schedules (one recommended by
the Central Research Institute, Kasauli and the
other recommended by the Pasteur Institute of
Southern India, Coonoor) are followed in India.
A full schedule consists of 7–10 daily inoculations
followed by 1–2 boosters.
Site for Vaccination
The ideal site for vaccination is the anterior
abdominal wall, for this area offers enough space
to accommodate the large quantity of vaccine
to be injected. The injections are given deep
subcutaneously.
Adverse Reactions
1. General: Headache, insomnia, giddiness,
palpitation, diarrhea.
2. Local: Itching irritation, pain, tenderness,
redness and swelling at the site of injection.
3. Allergic: Urticaria, syncope, angioneurotic
edema, anaphylactic reaction.
4. Neuroparalysis: Post-vaccinial paralysis due to
sensitization.
Cell Culture Vaccines
All three cell culture vaccines available in India
(HDC, PCEC and PVC) have the same dosage
schedule, which is the same for both adults and
children.
i. Preexposure Prophylaxis
with rabies virus such as laboratory workers
handling rabies virus or with rabid animals
(veterinarians). Preexposure prophylaxis requires
three doses of the vaccine injected on day 0, 7, 21 or
0, 28 and 56. A booster dose is recommended after
one year and then one every five years.
ii. Postexposure Prophylaxis
Postexposure prophylaxis requires five or six doses,
on days 0, 3, 7, 14, 30 and optionally 90. The vaccine
is to be given intra muscular (1M) or subcutaneous
(SC) in the deltoid region, or in children on the
anterolateral aspect of the thigh. Gluteal injections
are to be avoided as they are found to be less
immunogenic. This course is expected to give
protection for at least five years, during which
period any further exposure may need only one or
two booster doses (on days 0, 3) depending on the
degree of risk. After five years, it is advisable to give
a full five injection course if exposed to infection.
 Chapter 66: Rhabdoviruses  | 463
C. Passive Immunization Table 66.3:  Lyssavirus sera/genotypes
Passive immunization is an important adjunct to Genotype/ Virus Isolated Disribution
vaccination and should be invariably employed Serotype from
whenever the exposure is considered of high risk. Virus
Two preparations of anti rabies serum are available 1. Rabies Warm Worldwide
for passive immunization: blooded with few
animals exceptions
i. Horse Antirabies Serum: It should be given on 2. Lagos bat/ Bat/cat Nigeria/
day 0 in a single dose of 40 IU/kg of body weight Natal bat Central and
subject to a maximum of 3000 Units. South Africa
3. Mokola Shrew/ Nigeria/
ii. Human Rabies Immune Globulin cat/dog/ other African
human countries
Human rabies immune globulin (HRlG) has
now replaced equine antirabies serum in many 4. Duvenhage Human/ South Africa
countries. The dose recommended is a single bat
administration of 20 IU per kg of body weight. 5. European Bat/human Europe
bat
Vaccine for Animals lyssavirus:
Type I
Concentrated cell culture vaccines containing 6. European Bat/human Europe
inactivated virus are now available, which give bat
good protection after a single IM injection. lyssavirus:
Injections are given at 12 weeks of age and repeated Type II
at 1–3 year intervals. 7. Australian Bat/human Australia
bat
lyssavirus:
B. Preexposure Prophylaxis
This is indicated for persons at high risk of contact
with rabies virus or with rabid animals. It is rec­
Rabies in India: Rabies is endemic in India.
ommended that antibody titers of vaccinated
Rabies is not a notifiable disease and the 30,000
individuals be monitored periodically and that
deaths reported by national authorities may not be
boosters be given when required.
complete picture. Every year approximately 1.1–1.5
million people receive post-exposure treatment with
Epidemiology either nerve tissue or cell culture rabies vaccine.
Rabies is the classic zoonotic infection, spread More than 95% of these cases are bitten by dogs.
from animals to humans. Rabies virus is present in
terrestrial animals in all parts of the world except Control
Australasia and Antartica, and some islands like Human rabies can be checked by control of rabies
Britain. in domestic animals, by registration, licensing and
All warm blooded animals including man are vaccination of pets and destruction of stray animals.
susceptible to rabies. Rabies in man is a dead-end
infection, and has no survival value for the virus. Rabies related viruses
Major source of virus is saliva in bite of rabid
animal. Direct person-to-person transmission of The genus Lyssavirus consists of the rabies virus and
rabies has not been recorded. An unusual mode other serologically related viruses. The relevance of
of transmission of rabies has occurred in some rabies related viruses in human diseases is not clear,
recipients of corneal grafts. Minor source is aerosols though some of them have caused illness and death
in bat caves containing rabid bats. in humans. They are considered to represent a
biological bridge between the rabies virus and other
Epidemiological forms of rabies: Rabies exists
rhabdoviruses. Lyssaviruses have been classified
in two epidemiological forms: a. Urban rabies: b.
into seven serotypes (Table 66.3).
Wild-life or sylvatic rabies:
In certain Latin American countries and parts Key Points
of U.S.A. the vampire bat is an important host
and vector of rabies. Vampire bats have not been ™™ Rhabdoviruses are bullet or rod shaped, enveloped
viruses with single stranded RNA genome
reported in India.
™™ The rabies virus causes rabies in humans and a wide
Reservoir of rabies—Reservoir of rabies are variety of animals
wild animals.

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464  |  Section 4: Virology
™™ The rabies virus isolated from natural human or
animal infection is termed the street virus
™™ After several serial intracerebral passages in rabbits,
the virus undergoes certain changes and becomes
what is called the fixed virus (or murant) virus
™™ Rabies virus is transmitted to humans by primarily
a bite of a rabid dog or by other infected animals.
The infection has also been acquired from aerosols
in bats’ caves
™™ Laboratory tests for human rabies—Viral antigens
can be demonstrated in the corneal smear, skin
biopsy, and saliva (antemortem) or in the brain
tissue (postmortem) directly by direct fluorescent
antibody (DFA) test
™™ Isolation of rabies virus can be done by mouse
inoculation and isolation in cell culture. Reverse
transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)
test­ing can be used for detection of rabies virus RNA
™™ Demonstration of Negri bodies in neural tissues by
microscopy is diagnostic of rabies
™™ Postexposure prophylaxis is started in the persons
immediately after exposure to infection and consists
of (a) Local treatment of wound; (b) Antirabic
vaccines and (c) Hyperimmune serum
™™ Cell culture vaccines such as human diploid cell
vaccine (HDCS), puri­fied chick embryo cell (PCEC)
vaccine, and purified vero cell (PVC) vaccines are now
increasingly used. These are non-neural vaccines
™™ Postexposure prophylaxis requires five or six doses,
on days 0, 3, 7, 14, 30 and optionally 90
™™ Human rabies can be checked by control of rabies
in domestic animals, by registration, licensing and
vaccination of pets and destruction of stray animals.
Important questions
1. Describe the morphology and draw a labeled
diagram of rabies virus. Discuss the laboratory
diagnosis of rabies.
2. Discuss the pathogenesis and clinical features of
rabies.
3. Describe the prophylaxis of rabies.
4. Write short notes on:
a. Street virus vs. fixed virus or Differences between
street virus and fixed virus.
b. Negri bodies.
c. Neural vaccines against rabies.
d. Non-neural vaccines used against rabies.
e. Cell culture vaccines.
f. Rabies related viruses.
Multiple choice questions
1. Which of the following species of animals is most
susceptible to rabies infection?
a. Dog b. Man
c. Cat d. Fowl
2. The inclusion bodies found in rabies are called:
a. Bollinger bodies
b. Councilman bodies
c. Cowdry type a bodies
d. Negri bodies
3. Negri bodies can be demonstrated in infection with:
a. Fixed rabies virus
b. Street rabies virus
c. Both of the above
d. None of the above
4. Which of the following clinical specimens can be
used for the demonstration of rabies antigen by
direct immunofluorescence antemortem?
a. Salivary smears b. Corneal smears
c. Conjunctival smears d. All of the above
5. All of the following antirabies vaccine are inactivated
vaccines except:
a. Human diploid cell strain vaccine
b. Purified vero cell vaccine
c. Purified chick embryo cell culture vaccine
d. Chick embryo vaccine
Answers (MCQs)
1. c; 2. d; 3. b; 4. d; 5. d

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Classify various hepatitis viruses
∙∙ Tabulate differences between various hepatitis
viruses
∙∙ Compare various features of hepatitis A virus (HAV)
and hepatitis B virus (HBV)
∙∙ Describe the following: Morphology of hepatitis
B virus; antigenic structure of hepatitis B virus;
Introduction
Viral hepatitis is a systemic disease primarily
involving the liver. At least six viruses, A through E
and a newly discovered G, are considered hepatitis
viruses. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) and Hepatitis B
vi­rus (HBV) are the best known, but three non-
A, non­-B hepatitis (NANBH) viruses (C, G, and
E) have been described, as has hepatitis D virus
(HDV), the delta agent (Table 67.1).
Hepatitis A Virus
(Infectious hepatitis)
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) causes infectious hepatitis
and is spread by the fecal–oral route. It is a subacute
disease of global distribution, affecting mainly chil­
dren and young adults.
Morphology
HAV is a 27 nm nonenveloped RNA virus be­longing
to the Picornavirus family (Fig. 67.1). Although it
was first provisionally classified as enterovirus 72,
but it has been placed into a new genus, Heparna­
virus, on the basis of its unique genome. Only one
serotype is known.
Resistance
HAV is stable to treatment with 20% ether, acid
(pH 1.0 for 2 hours), and heat (60°C for 1 hour).
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6767
Chapter
Hepatitis Viruses
modes of transmission of hepatitis B virus; hepatits
B carriers
∙∙ Describe laboratory diagnosis of hepatitis B virus
∙∙ Discuss prophylaxis of hepatitis B infections or
hepatitis B vaccine
∙∙ Describe the following:Hepatitis C virus or Type C
hepatitis; Hepatitis D virus or Delta agent; Hepatitis
E virus; Hepatitis G virus.
The virus is destroyed by autoclaving (121°C for 20
minutes), by boiling in water for 5 minutes, by dry
heat (180°C for 1 hour), by ultraviolet irradiation
(1 minute at 1.1 watts), by treat­ment with formalin
(1:4000 for 3 days at 37°C, or by treatment with
chlorine (10–15 ppm for 30 minutes). It survives
pro­longed storage at a temperature of 4°C or below.
Pathogenesis
Hepatitis A virus is ingested and probably enters
the bloodstream through the oropharynx or the
epithelial lining of the intestines to reach its target,
the parenchymal cells of the liver. The virus can be
localized by immunofluorescence in hepatocytes
and Kupffer’s cells. Virus is produced in these cells
and is released into the bile and from there into
the stool. Virus is shed in large quantity into the
stool approximately 10 days before symptoms of
jaundice appear or antibody can be detected.
Epidemiology
The HAV transmission is by the fecal–oral route in
con­taminated water, in food, and by dirty hands.
HAV outbreaks usually originate from a common
source (e.g. water supply, restaurant, daycare center).
Under crowded conditions and poor sanitation,
HAV infections occur at an early age. In India, type A
hepatitis is the most common cause of acute hepatitis
in children, but is much less frequent in adults.
466  |  Section 4: Virology
Table 67.1:  Comparative features of hepatitis viruses
A B C D E
Virus structure HAV, 27 nm RNA, HBV, 47 nm DNA HCV, 30–60 nm HDV, 35–37 nm HEV, 32–34 nm RNA
Picornavirus (Hepadnavirus) RNA, Flavivirus Defective RNA Herpes virus
(Hepatovirus) (hepacivirus) Deltavirus
Modes of Fecal-oral Parenteral Parenteral Parenteral Fecal–oral
infection Vertical, sexual
Age affected Children Any age Adults Any age Young adults
Incubation 15–45 30–180 15–160 30–180 15–60
period (days)
Onset Acute Insidious Insidious Insidious Acute
Illness Mild Occasionally Moderate Occasionally severe Mild, except in preg-
severe nancy
Carrier state Nil Common Present Nil (only with HBV) Nil
Oncogenicity Nil Present specially Present Nil Nil
after neonatal
infection
Prevalence Worldwide Worldwide Probably Endemic areas Only developing
worldwide (Mediterranean, N, countriest lndia,
Europe, Central and Asia, Africa, Central,
N. America) America)

Laboratory Ig and vaccine Ig and vaccine Nil HBV vaccine Nil

diagnosis
Specific
prophylaxis

vomiting and liver tenderness. These usually

subside with the onset of jaundice. The patient
starts to feel better within the next week or so and
the jaundice disappears within a month. Re­covery
is slow, over a period of 4–6 weeks.
Hepatitis A is nearly always self-limiting, but
relapses have been reported. The disease is milder
in children, in whom many infec­tions may be
anicteric.

Fig. 67.1: The picornavirus structure of hepatitis A virus. The
icosahedral capsid is made up of four viral polypeptides (VP1–
VP4). Inside the capsid is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA
single stranded RNA (ssRNA) that has a genomic viral protein
(VPg) on the 5’ end
Natural infection with HAV is seen only in
humans. Though primates, such as chimpanzees
have been shown to acquire the infection from
humans and transmit it to human contacts, there
is no evidence of any extrahuman source of the
virus in nature.
Clinical Features
The incubation period is 2–6 weeks. Disease in
children is generally milder than that in adults
and is usually asymptomatic. The clinical disease
consists of two stages: the prodromal or preicteric
and the icteric stages. The onset may be acute or
insidious, with fever, malaise, anorexia, nausea,
Laboratory Diagnosis
Etiological diagnosis of type A hepatitis may be
made by demonstration of the virus or its antibody.
A. Demonstration of the virus: The virus can be
visualized by immune electron microscopy
(IEM) in fecal extracts during the late incubation
period and the preicteric phase.
B. Demonstration of antibody: The best way
to demonstrate an acute HAV in­fection is by
finding anti-HAV immunoglobulin M (IgM), as
measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay (ELISA) or radioimmunoassay. Antibody
IgM anti-HAV antibody appears during the
late incubation period, reaches peak levels in
2–3 weeks and disappears after 3–4 months.
IgG antibody appears at about the same time,
peaks in 3–4 months and persists much longer,
perhaps for life (Fig. 67.2). Demonstration of
IgM antibody in serum indicates current or
recent infection, while IgG antibody denotes

Fig. 67.2: Typical course of hepatitis type A
recent or remote infection and immunity. ELISA
kits for detection of IgM and IgG antibodies are
available.
C. Virus isolation: It is not routinely performed.
Prophylaxis
A. General Measures
The spread of HAV is reduced by interrupting the
fecal–oral spread of the virus by avoiding potentially
contaminated water or food, water.
B. Immunization
1. Passive protection: Specific passive prophylaxis
by pooled normal human immunoglobulin
(16% solution in a dose of 0.2–0.12 mL/kg body
weight) intramuscular (IM), before exposure
or in early incubation period, can prevent or
attenuate clinical illness, while not necessarily
preventing infection and virus excretion.
2. Hepatitis A vaccine
i. Formalin inactivated, alum conjugaged
vaccine: A safe and effective formalin
inactivated, alum conjugated vaccine
containing HAV grown in human diploid
cell culture is available for use in children
and adults at high risk for infection,
especially travelers to endemic regions. A
full course consists of two intramuscular
injections of the vaccine. Protection begins
4 weeks after injection and lasts for 10–20
years.
ii. Live HAV vaccine: It has been developed
in China.
Treatment
Treatment is symptomatic. No specific antiviral
drug is available.
Hepatitis B Virus—serum hepatitis
Type B hepatitis is the most widespread and the
most important type of viral hepatitis. Hepatitis B
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Chapter 67: Hepatitis Viruses  | 467
Fig. 67.3: Hepatitis B virus structure
virus (HBV) infects the liver and, to a lesser extent,
the kidneys and pancreas of only humans and
chim­panzees.
Classification
HBV is assigned to a separate family Hepadnaviridae
(Hepatitis DNA viruses) which consists of two
genera:
i. Orthohepadnavirus: It containing HBV as
well as the woodchuck and ground squirrel
hepatitis viruses. HBV is Hepadnavirus type 1.
ii. Avihepadnavirus: It containing the Pekin
duck and gray heron hepatitis viruses.
Structure
The HBV is a 42 nm DNA virus with an outer
envelope and an inner core, 27 nm in diameter,
enclosing the viral genome and a DNA polymerase
(Fig. 67.3) which is circular double stranded DNA.
Australia antigen: In 1965, Blumberg, studying
human serum lipoprotein allotypes, observed in
the serum of an Australian aborigine, a new antigen
which gave a clearly defined line of precipitation
with sera from two hemophiliacs who had received
multiple blood transfusions. This was named the
Australia antigen. By 1968 the ‘Australia antigen’
was found to be associated with serum hepatitis.
It was subsequently shown to be the surface
component of HBV. Therefore, the name Australia
antigen was changed to hepatitis B surface antigen
(HBsAg).
Types of particles: Under the electron microscope,
sera from type B hepatitis patients show three types
of particles (Fig. 67.4).
i. Spherical particle: The predominant form is
a small, spherical particle with a diameter of
22 nm.
ii. Tubular particle: The second type of particle
is filamentous or tubular with a diameter of 22
nm and of varying length. The particles carry
the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg).
468  |  Section 4: Virology
iii. Dane particle: The third type of particle, far
fewer in number, is a double walled spherical
structure, 42 nm in diameter. This particle
is the complete hepatitis B virus. It was first
described by Dane in 1970 and so is known
as the Dane particle.The outer surface, or
envelope, contains HBsAg and surrounds a
27-nm inner nucleocapsid core that contains
HBcAg. The variable length of a single-
stranded region of the circular DNA genome
results in genetically heterogeneous parti­cles
with a wide range of buoyant densities.
Genome: The nucleocapsid encloses the viral
genome consisting of two linear strands of DNA held
in a circular configuration. One of the strands (the
plus strand) is incomplete, so that the DNA appears
partially double stranded and partially single
stranded. Associated with the plus strand is a viral
DNA polymerase, which has both DNA-dependent
DNA polymerase and RNA-dependent reverse
transcriptase functions. Although a DNA virus,
it encodes a reverse transcriptase and replicates
through an RNA intermediate. This polymerase
can repair the gap in the plus strand and render the
genome fully double stranded (Fig. 67.3).
Antigenic Structure
1. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg): The
envelope proteins expressed on the surface
of the virion and the surplus 22 nm diameter
spherical and filamentous particles constitute
the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg).
Fig. 67.4: Different types of particles of HBV: Spherical 22
nm particle, double shelled 42 nm particle (Dane particle),
tubular 22 nm particle
Table 67.2:  Genes coding for antigens of HBV
Gene Regions Antigen
S
(Having three regions S,
Pre-S1 and Pre-S2)
S
S + Pre-S2
S + Pre-S1 and S2
Major protein (S) Surface
Middle protein (M) antigen (HBsAg) }
Large protein (L)—Present only in virion
C C Core antigen (HBcAg)
(Having two regions C and C + Pre-C HBeAg
Pre-C)
P DNA polymerase
X HBx Ag (Nonparticulate antigen which leads to enhanced replication
of HBV)
2. Hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg): The antigen
expressed on the core is called the hepatitis B
core antigen (HBcAg).
3. Hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg): Hepatitis Be
antigen (HBeAg) is a soluble nonparticulate
nucleocapsid protein. The HBeAg and HBcAg
proteins share most of their protein sequence.
4. Viral genes and antigens: The genome has
a compact structure with four overlapping
genes. These include structural proteins of the
virion surface and core, a small transcriptional
trans­activator (X), and a large polymerase (P)
protein that includes DNA polymerase, reverse
transcriptase, and RNase H activities (Table
67.2, Fig. 67.5).
HBV Subtypes
The particles containing HBsAg are antigenically
complex. It contains two different antigenic
components—the common group reactive antigen
a, and two pairs of type specific antigens d-y and
w-r, only one member of each pair being present at
a time. HBsAg can thus be divided into four major
antigenic subtypes: adw, adr, ayw and ayr.
They show a distinct geographical distribution.
(Table 67.3).
Cultivation
HBV does not grow in any conventional culture
system. However, limited production of the virus
and its proteins can be obtained from several cell
lines transfected with HBV DNA. HBV proteins have
been cloned in bacteria and yeast. The chimpanzee
is susceptible to experimental infection and can be
used as a laboratory model.
Stability
The HBV is a relatively heat-stable virus. It remains
viable at room temperature for long periods. Heating
to 60°C for 10 hours inactivates virus by a factor of
100–1000-fold. Exposure to hypochlorite (10,000
ppm available chlorine) or 2% glutaraldehyde for 10
minutes will inactivate virus 100,000-fold, though
HBsAg may not be destroyed by such treatment.

Fig. 67.5: The HBV genes and gene products
Table 67.3:  Antigenic types of HBsAg
Antigenic types Distribution
adw Worldwide
adr Asia
ayw India, Africa, Russia
ayr India, Africa, Russia
Clinical Syndromes
Acute Infection
The clinical presentation of HBV in children is less
severe than that in adults, and infection may even
be asymptomatic. Clinically apparent illness occurs
in as many as 25% of those infected with HBV.
1. Preicteric phase: HBV infection is characterized
by a long incubation period (about 1–6 months)
and an insidious onset. Symptoms during the
prodromal period may include fever, malaise,
and anorexia, followed by nausea, vomiting,
abdominal dis­comfort, and chills.
2. Icteric phase: The classic icteric symptoms of
liver damage (e.g. jaundice, dark urine, pale
stools) follow soon thereafter.
3. Convalescent phase: About 90–95% of adults
with acute hepatitis B infection recover within
1–2 months of onset and eliminate the virus from
the body within about six months, remaining
immune thereafter. Mortality is about 0.5–2%.
Chronic infection: A proportion of cases (1–10%)
remain chronically infected. They may be asympto­
matic carriers or may progress to recurrent or chronic
liver disease or cirrhosis. A few of them may develop
hepatocellular carcinoma after many decades.
Pathogenesis
The pathogenesis of hepatitis appears to be immune
mediated. HBV replicates in the hepatocytes,
reflected in the detection of viral DNA and HBcAg
in the nucleus and HBsAg in the cytoplasm and at
the hepatocyte membrane.
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Chapter 67: Hepatitis Viruses  | 469
Hepatocytes carry viral antigens and are subject
to antibody-dependent NK cell and cytotoxic T
cell attack. In the absence of adequate immune
response, HBV infection may not cause hepatitis,
but may lead to carrier state.
Epidemiology
The HBV is worldwide in distribution. Natural
infection occurs only in humans. There is no animal
reservoir. The virus is maintained in the large
pool of carriers whose blood contains circulating
virus for long periods, in some even lifelong.
The prevalence of HBV infection varies widely in
different parts of the world.
India falls in the intermediate group, with
higher carrier rates in the southern part of the
country and lower rates in the northern part. The
rich and the poor countries also differ in the age
and modes of infection.
Mode of Transmission
The HBV is a blood borne virus and there are three
important modes of transmission:
1. Parenteral transmission
2. Perinatal transmission
3. Sexual transmission.
1. Parenteral transmission: HBV is transmitted
only in blood and other body fluids, including
cervical secretions, semen, and breast milk. Many
other therap­eutic, diagnostic, prophylactic and
even nonmedical procedures are now the main
modes of infection. HBV is very highly infectious
far more that HIV.
2. Perinatal transmission: Vertical transmission
from mother to child is one of the most
important routes. HBV can be transmit­ted to
babies through contact with the mother’s blood
at birth and in mother’s milk.
3. Sexual transmission: Since HBV is present in
semen and vaginal secretions, therefore, it can
be transmitted by sexual contact. The risk of
transmission by heterosexual and homosexual
contact increases with the number of partners
and the duration of such relationships.
Hepatitis B Carriers
Carriers are of two types:
1. Super carriers: They have HBeAg, high titters
of HBsAg and DNA polymerase in their blood.
HBV may also be demonstrable in their blood.
Very minute amount of serum or blood from
such carriers can transmit the infection. About a
quarter of the carriers in India are HBeAg positive.
2. Simple carriers: These are more common
types of carriers who have low titer of HBsAg
in blood, with negative HBeAg, HBV and DNA
polymerase. They transmit the infec­tion only
470  |  Section 4: Virology
when large volumes of blood are transferred
as in blood transfusion. Many super carriers in
time become simple carriers.
HBV Markers
The main antigens HBsAg, HBcAg, and HBeAg
each induce corresponding antibodies. With
the exception of HBcAg, all these antigens and
antibodies, together with the viral DNA polymerase,
can be detected in the blood at various times after
infection and are referred to as ‘markers’ (Table
67.4). HBcAg is readily detectable only in the
hepatocyte nuclei.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specific Diagnosis
Specific diagnosis of hepatitis B tests on serological
demonstration of the viral markers and can be
carried out by detection of HBsAg, anti-HBs,
HBeAg, anti-HBe, IgM anti-HBc, IgG anti-HBc
and HBV DNA in the serum. The sequence of
appearance of viral markers in the blood is shown
in Figure 67.6. These can be detected by sensitive
and specific tests like ELISA and RIA.
1. Detection of Viral Markers
i. HBsAg: HBsAg is the first marker to appear
in blood after infection. HBsAg is usually
detectable 2–6 weeks in advance of clinical
and biochemical evidence of hepatitis and
persists throughout the clinical course of
the disease. In the typical case, it disappears
within about 2 months of the start of clinical
disease, but may sometimes last for 6 months
and even beyond but typically disappears by
the sixth month after exposure.
ii. HBcAg: High levels of IgM-specific anti-HBc
are frequently detected at the onset of clinical
illness. Because this anti­b ody is directed
against the 27 nm internal core compo­
nent of HBV, its appearance in the serum is
Table 67.4:  Interpretation of serological markers in HBV infection
Clinical condition
HBsAg HBeAg
Late incubation period or early hepatitis + +
Acute hepatitis + +
Late/chronic HBV infection + ±*
Simple carrier + –
Super carrier + +
Past infection – –
Immunity following vaccination – –
*When +, it indicates high infectivity while – indicates low infectivity.
indicative of viral replication. HBcAg is not
demonstrable in circulation. It is the earliest
antibody marker to be seen in blood, long
before anti-HBe or anti-HBs. As anti-HBc
remains lifelong, it serves as a useful indicator
of prior infection with HBV; even after all the
other viral markers become undetectable.
Initially, anti-­H Bc is predominantly IgM,
but after about 6 months, it is mainly IgG.
Selective tests for IgM or IgG anti-HBc
therefore enable distinction between recent
or remote infection respectively.
iii. HBeAg: HBeAg presence denotes high
infectivity and its absence, along with the
presence of anti-HBe, indicates low infectivity.
HBeAg appears in blood concurrently with
HBsAg, or soon afterwards. Circulating HBeAg is
an indicator of active intrahepatic viral replication,
and the presence in blood of DNA polymerase,
HBV DNA and virions, reflecting high infectivity.
Before HBsAg disap­p ears, HBeAg is replaced
by anti-HBe, signaling the start of resolution of
the disease. Anti-HBe levels often are no longer
detectable after 6 months.
2. Viral DNA Polymerase
DNA polymerase activity, HBV DNA, and HBeAg,
which are representative of the viremic stage of
hepatitis B, occur early in the incubation period,
con­currency or shortly after the first appearance
of HBsAg.
3. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Like HBeAg, HBV DNA is also an indicator of viral
replication and infectivity. Molecular methods,
such as DNA:DNA hybridization and PCR, at
present used for HBV DNA testing are highly
sensitive and quantitative. HBV DNA level in serum
reflects the degree of viral, replication in the liver
and so helps assess the progress of patients with
chronic hepatitis under antiviral chemotherapy.
Serological tests
Anti-HBS Anti-HBe Anti-HBc
IgM IgG
– – – –
– – + –
– – – +
– – – +
– – – +
+ + _ +
+ – _ _

Fig. 67.6: Hepatitis antigens, antibodies and DNA in a
patient recovering from acute HBV infection
4. Biochemical Tests
In acute viral hepatitis caused by various hepatitis
viruses, levels of serum transaminases (amino­
transferases) are increased 5–100-fold. Both
alanine and aminotransferase and aspartate
aminotransferase, rise together late in the incubation
period. Peak level is obtained about the time jaundice
appears and reverts to normal in next 2 months.
Serum bilirubin levels may rise up to 25-fold.
Prophylaxis
Measures for the control of HBV infection are the
same as those for HIV infection.
A. General prophylaxis: consists in avoiding
risky practices like promiscuous sex, injectable
drug abuse and direct or indirect contact with
blood, semen or other body fluids of patients
and carriers.
B. Immunization:
I. Passive immunization: Hyperimmune
hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG)-
Hyperimmune hepatitis B immune globulin
(HBIG) prepared from human volunteers
with high titer anti-HBs, administered 1M in
a dose of 300–500 iu soon after exposure to
infection constitutes passive immunisation.
It may not prevent infection, but protects
against illness and the carrier state.
HBIG must be given as soon as possible
after an accident and preferably within 48
hours. A second dose is given 4 weeks later to
those who do not respond to current vaccines.
If the victim has not been vaccinated, HBIG
should be used and a course of active
immunization started, injecting the two
materials into different body sites.
II. Active immunization:
1. Plasma-derived hepatitis B vaccine:
The initial vaccine was prepared by
purifying HBsAg associated with the
22 nm particles from healthy HBsAg-
positive carriers and treating the particles
with virus-inactivating agents (formalin,
urea, heat). This was immunogenic,
but became unacceptable because its
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Chapter 67: Hepatitis Viruses  | 471
source was human plasma, limited in
availability and not totally free from
possible risk of unknown pathogens.
2. Recombinant yeast hepatitis B vaccine:
The currently preferred vaccine is
genetically engineered by cloning the S
gene of HBV in baker’s yeast. It consists
of nonglycosylated HBsAg particles
alone. This vaccine is safe, antigenic, free
from side effects and as immunogenic
as plasma-derived vaccine. It is given
with alum adjuvant, IM into the deltoid
or, in infants into the anterolateral
aspect of the thigh. Gluteal injection is
not recommended as it may result in
poor immune response. Three doses
given at 0, 1 and 6 months constitute
the full course. Seroconversion occurs
in about 90% of the vaccinees.
3. Recombinant Chinese hamster ovary
(CHO) cell hepatitis vaccine: Expression
system of CHO cells has been successfully
used and the product is commercially
available. This is the first vaccine using
mammalian cell expression system.
4. Synthetic peptide vaccines: These are
chemically synthesized polypep­t ide
vaccines and are safe and cheap. These
are still under experimental stage.
5. Hybrid virus vaccine: Potential live
vacc­ines using recombinant vaccinia
virus have been prepared for hepatitis
B, influenza,rabies, Epstein–Barr and
human immunodeficiency viruses.
Treatment
No specific antiviral treatment is available for acute
HBV infection. Hepatitis B immune globulin may
be ad­ministered within a week of exposure and
to newborn infants of HBsAg-positive mothers.
Interferon alpha, alone or in combination, with
other antiviral agents, such as lamivudine and
famcyclovir, has been beneficial in some cases of
chronic hepatitis.
Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) resembles flaviviruses
in structure and organization, and has been
classified as a new genus Hepacivirus in the family
Flaviviridae. HCV is a 50–60 nm virus with a linear
single stranded RNA genome, enclosed within
a core and surrounded by an envelope, carrying
glycoprotein spikes.
The virus shows considerable genetic and
antigenic diversity. Various viruses can be
differentiated by RNA sequence analysis into at
least six major genotypes (clades) and more than
472  |  Section 4: Virology
70 subtypes. Because of this diversity there is little
heterologous or even homologous postinfection
immunity in hepatitis C.
The virus has not been grown in culture, but
has been cloned in Escherichia coli
Mode of infection: Infection is mainly by blood
transfusion and other modes of contact with infected
blood or blood products. Injectable drug abusers,
transplant recipients and immunocompromised
persons are at high risk. Sexual transmission
is probably less important. The virus can be
transmitted from mother to infant.
Infections by HCV are extensive throughout the
world. HCV infection is seen only in humans. The
groups at risk are broadly similar to those listed
for hepatitis B but their relative proportions are
different.
Clinical Features
The incubation period is long, 15–160 days, with a
mean of 50 days.
HCV causes three types of disease:
i. Acute hepatitis with resolution of the infect­
ion and recovery in 15% of cases.
ii. Chronic persistent infection with pos­sible
progression to disease much later in life for 70%.
iii. Severe rapid progression to cirrhosis in 15% of
patients—Many patients develop cirrhosis and
are at high risk for hepatocellular carcinoma
(5–25%) decades later.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Antobody detection: The diagnosis and
detection of HCV infection are based on ELISA
recognition of antibody. The antigens used are
various structural and nonstructural proteins
cloned in E. coli. Confirmation by immunoblot
assay is therefore recommended. In HCV
infection antibodies appear irregularly and late,
limiting their diagnostic utility.
B. HCV RNA identification: Reverse transcriptase-
polymerase chain reaction, branched-chain
DNA, and other genetic techniques can detect
HCV RNA in seronegative people and have
become key tools in the diagnosis of HCV
infection.
Prophylaxis
Only general prophylaxis, such as screening of
blood and blood products prior to transfusion, is
possible. No specific active or passive immunizing
agent is available.
Treatment
Recombinant interferon-alpha, alone or with
ribavarin is the only known treatment for HCV.
HEPATITIS D virus (HDV) (DELTA agent)
This curious little agent was first detected in
people undergoing exacerbations of chronic HBV
infections. In 1977, Rizzetto et al. in Italy identified
a new viral antigen in the liver cell nuclei of patients
infected with hepatitis B virus. This has been
shown to be due to the hepatotropic virus delta or
hepatitis D. HDV is unique in that it uses HBV and
target cell proteins to replicate and produce its one
protein. Delta is a defective RNA virus dependent
on the helper function of HBV for its replication
and expression. It acquires an HBsAg coat for trans­
mission. Therefore, it has no independent existence
and can survive and replicate only as long as HBV
infection persists in the host. It is often associated
with the most severe forms of hepatitis in HBsAg-
positive patients. It is a viral parasite, proving that
“even fleas have fleas.”
The HDV is enclosed within the hepatitis B
surface antigen, HBsAg, and has no recognizable
morphology of its own.
The HDV is a defective satellite virus requiring
HBV as helper virus. HDV is a spherical, 36 nm
particle with an outer coat composed of the
hepatitis B surface antigen surrounding the circular
single stranded RNA genome. The HDV RNA
genome is very small, single­stranded RNA and
circular. Delta agent is thus an incomplete virus,
reminiscent of the Dependoviruses (Fig. 67.7).
It has been classified in a new genus Deltavirus,
because of its special features.
Pathogenesis
Its mode of transmission is the same as for HBV.
Similar to HBV, the delta agent is spread in blood,
semen, and vaginal secretions. However, it can
repli­cate and cause disease only in people with
active HBV infections.
Fig. 67.7: Delta hepatitis virion

Types of infection: Two types of infection are
recognized:
1. Coinfection: In coinfection, delta and HBV are
transmitted together at the same time.
2. Superinfection: In superinfection, delta
infection occurs in a person already harboring
HBV. More rapid, severe progression occurs in
HBV carriers super­infected with HDV than in
people coinfected with HBV and the delta agent.
No association has been noted between HDV
and hepatocellular carcinoma. In simultaneous
acute HBV and HDV infec­tions, IgM anti-HBc
will be detectable, while in acute HDV infection
superimposed on chronic HBV infections, anti-
HBc will be of IgG class.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The only way to determine the presence of the
agent is by detecting the delta antigen or antibodies.
ELISA and radioimmunoassay procedures are
available for do­ing this. Anti-delta antibodies
appear in serum and can be identified by ELISA.
The IgM antibody appears 2–3 weeks after infection
and is soon replaced by the IgG antibody in acute
delta infection.
For the rapid identification of delta particles in
circulation, RNA sequences have been cloned and
DNA probes have been developed. The woodchuck
has been found to be a suitable experimental
model for the study of HDV infection.
Treatment
There is no known specific treatment for HDV
hepati­tis.
Prophylaxis
Because the delta agent depends on HBV for repli­
cation and is spread by the same routes, prevention
of infection with HBV prevents HDV infection.
Immuni­zation with HBV vaccine protects against
subsequent deltavirus infection.
Hepatitis E Virus (HEV)
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has been provisionally
classified in the genus Hepevirus under the family
Caliciviridae. HEV is a spherical nonenveloped
virus, 32–34 nm in diameter, with a single
stranded RNA genome. The surface of the virion
shows indentation and spikes. HEV (E-NANBH)
(The E stands for “Enteric” or “epidemic”) is
predominantly spread by the feco-oral route,
especially in contaminated water.
Clinical Features
The incubation period ranges from 2–9 weeks with
an average of six weeks. Most cases occur in the
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Chapter 67: Hepatitis Viruses  | 473
young to middle aged adults (15–40 years old). The
symptoms and course of HEV disease are simi­lar
to those of HAV disease; it causes only acute dis­
ease. However, the symptoms for HEV may occur
later than those of HAV disease, and response
to se­rum immunoglobulin G may be poor. The
mortality rate associated with HEV disease is 1–2%.
HEV infection is especially serious in pregnant
women and during pregnancy may cause a high
rate of abortion, intrauterine death and increased
perinatal mortality in babies born to women with
fulminant hepatitis.
Epidemiology
HEV is predominantly spread by the feco-oral
route, especially in contaminated water. Hepatitis
E has been shown to occur in epidemics, endemics
and sporadic forms almost exclusively in the
less developed parts of the world. A substantial
proportion of cases of acute viral hepatitis occurring
in young to middle-aged adults in Asia and the
Indian subcontinent appear to be caused by HEV.
The largest such epidemic occurred in Delhi
during the winter of 1955–56, following a breakdown
in the water supply and sewage systems of Delhi,
affecting over 30,000 persons. The cause was
eventually identified as a new agent, HEV. A similar
epidemic of hepati­tis E occurred between December
1975 and Janu­ary 1976 in Ahmedabad city, India.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Several antibody assays are being developed,
mostly based on ELISA methods.
1. Exclusion of hepatitis A and hepatitis B:
Exclusion of hepatitis A by IgM serology and
hepatitis B by absence of HBsAg and IgM anti-
HBc.
2. Immunoelectron microscopy: Immunoelectron
microscopic examination of patient feces for
aggregated calicivirus-like particles using
monoclonal antibodies.
3. ELISA tests: for IgM and IgG anti-HEV.
4. Western blot assay: A Western blot assay for
IgM and/or IgG anti­HEV.
5. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): Polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) assay for the detection of
HEV RNA (as cDNA) in patient feces or in acute-
phase sera.
Prophylaxis
General measures: These depend on the mainten­
ance of a clean water supply, and generally
resemble those used to control HAV.
Immunization: Vaccines based on recombinant
antigens are under develop­ment, and show some
promise.
474  |  Section 4: Virology
Hepatitis G Virus
Two flavivirus-like isolates were’ obtained in 1995
from Tamarin monkeys inoculated with blood from
a young surgeon (GB) with acute hepatitis. It was
termed GB, the patient’s initials. A similar virus was
isolated from another human specimen the same
year. These isolates were called GB viruses A, B
and C respectively.
In 1996, an isolate closely resembling GBV-C
was obtained from a patient with chronic hepatitis.
This has been called hepatitis G virus (HGV).
Hepatitis G virus resembles HCV in many ways.
HGV is a flavivirus, is transmitted in blood, and has
a predi­lection for chronic hepatitis disease. It has not
been grown, but its RNA genome has been cloned.
The HGV RNA has been found in patients with
acute, chronic and fulminant hepatitis, hemophiliacs,
patients with multiple transfusions and hemodialysis,
intravenous drug addicts and blood donors. HGV
appears to be a blood borne virus resembling HCV.
Its role in hepatitis is yet to be clarified.
The virus is present worldwide. Majority of the
individuals with HGV infection have no detectable
evidence of liver disease. There have been, how­ever,
cases of acute, fulminant and chronic hepatitis
where HGV is presently the only explanation for
their liver disease. There is no evidence of a causal
relationship between HGV infection and hepato­
cellular carcinoma. HGV infection results frequently
in chronic viraemia. It often subsides after several
years and anti-HGenv antibody develops.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. HGV is identified by detection of the genome by
reverse transcriptase ­polymerase chain reaction
(RT-PCR) or other RNA detection methods.
2. An immunoassay has been developed to detect
anti-HG env. Serum HGV RNA indicates viremia,
whereas anti-HGenv is associated with recovery.
Key Points
™™ At least six viruses, A through G (A, B, C, D, E and G.)
are hepatitis viruses
™™ All the hepatitis viruses are RNA viruses, except
the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which is a DNA virus
belonging to the family Hepadnaviridae
™™ Hepatitis A virus (HAV)
™™ Hepatitis A virus (HAV) can be demonstrated in the
stool by immunoelectron microscopy (IEM). ELISA is
the method for detection of IgM and IgG antibodies
in the serum
™™ Prevention of HAV infection depends on: vaccines
containing formalin-inactivated HAV
Hepatitis B Virus
™™ HBV is associated with hepatocellular carcinoma
™™ Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a double-walled spherical
structure and measures 42 nm in diameter (Dane
particle). The outer surface or envelope of virus
contains hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). It
encloses an inner icosahedral 27 nm nucleocapsid
(core), which contains hepatitis B core antigen
(HBcAg). Inside the core is the genome, a circular
double stranded DNA and a DNA polymerase
™™ Hepatitis B surface antigen (H BsAg) is also named
as Australia antigen
™™ Mode of transmission: HBV is a blood borne
virus and there are three important modes of
transmission: 1. Parenteral transmission; 2.
Perinatal transmission; 3. Sexual transmission
™™ Laboratory diagnosis: Specific diagnosis of hepatitis
B rests on serological demonstration of the viral
markers and can be carried out by detection of
HBsAg, anti-HBs, HBeAg, anti-HBe, IgM anti-HBc, IgG
anti-HBc and HBV DNA in the serum. These can be
detected by sensitive and specific tests like ELISA
and RIA. Molecular methods such as DNA: DNA
hybridization and PCR are used for HBV DNA testing
are highly sensitive and quantitative
Prophylaxis: General prophylaxis consists in
avoiding risky practices
Immunization: I. Passive immunization: Hyper­
immune hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG)
administered 1 M in a dose of 300–500 iu soon after
exposure to infection
II. Active immunization: such as plasma-derived
hepatitis B vaccine, recombinant yeast hepatitis
B vaccine (Three doses given at 0, 1 and 6 months
constitute the full course), recombinant Chinese
hamster ovary (CHO) cell hepatitis vaccine,
synthetic peptide vaccines and hybrid virus vaccine
Hepatitis C Virus
™™ HCV can cause acute HCV infection, chronic HCV
infection, and cirrhosis and other complications
induced by hepatitis
™™ Blood or blood products and also organs of infected
patients are the major sources of infection
™™ For diagnosis, antibody to HCV antigen can be
detected by enzyme immunoassay
™™ The HCV RNA can be amplified by RT-PCR
Hepatitis D Virus
™™ The hepatitis D virus (HDV) is unique in being an
incomplete virus, that requires hepadnavirus helper
functions for propagation in hepatocytes
™™ Transmission of HDV occurs parenterally
™™ HDV superinfections in patie nts with HBV results in
chronic HDV infection
™™ Vaccination with HBV vaccine protects against
subsequent HDV infection
Hepatitis E virus (HEV)
™™ Hepatitis E virus is the primary cause of enterically
transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis
™™ It usually causes an acute, self-limiting disease similar
to HAV. Pregnant women—high mortality associated
with HEV
™™ Hepatitis G virus (HGV) is a flavivirus, is transmitted
in blood, and has a predi­lection for chronic hepatitis
disease.
Important questions
1. Name the hepatitis viruses. Describe the morphology
and antigenic structure of hepatitis B virus.
2. Classify hepatitis viruses. Discuss the laboratory
diagnosis of infections caused by hepatitis B virus.
 Chapter 67: Hepatitis Viruses  | 475
3. Write short notes on: 8. Which of the following viral markers is first marker to
a. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) or type A hepatitis or appear in biood after infection with hepatitis B virus?
infectious hepatitis. a. HBsAg
b. Hepatitis B virus or Dane’s particle. b. HBcAg
c. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) or Austral­ c. HBeAg
ia antigen. d. Antibody to HBsAg
d. Draw a neat labeled diagram of hepatitis B virus. 9. Which of the following viral markers is/are positive
e. Hepatitis B virus markers. in simple carriers of hepatitis B?
f. Hepatitis C virus or type C hepatitis. a. HBsAg
g. Hepatitis D virus or Delta agent. b. HBeAg
h. Non-A, Non-B hepatits c. Both of the above
i. Hepatitis E virus d. None of the above
j. Hepatitis G virus 10. In super carriers of hepatitis B which of the following
k. Pathogenesis of HBV or type B hepatitis or viral markers is/are positive?
serum hepatitis or serum jaundice or transfu­ a. HBsAg
sion hepatitis. b. HBeAg
l. Laboratory diagnosis of type B hepatitis. c. Both of the above
m. Prophylaxis of hepatitis B or hepatitis B vaccine. d. None of the above
11. High infectivity of hepatitis B virus is indicated by
which of the following markers when positive?
Multiple choice questions (mcqs) a. HBsAg
1. Which of the following hepatitis viruses is DNA b. HBeAg
c. HBcAg
virus?
d. None of the above
a. Hepatitis A virus
12. For preparation of recombinant hepatitis B vaccine
b. Hepatitis B virus
which of the following hepatitis B genes are used?
c. Hepatitis C virus
a. HBsAg gene b. HBeAg gene
d. Hepatitis E virus
c. HBcAg gene d. All of the above
2. Which of the following hepatitis viruses can be
13. The carrier state in hepatitis B virus infection is
transmitted by sexual route?
demonstrated by:
a. Hepatitis A virus a.  Persistent presence of HBsAg in blood for at
b. Hepatitis C virus’ least 6 months
c. Hepatitis E virus b.  Persistent presence of H and Ab in blood for at
d. All of the above least 6 months
3. Which of the following hepatitis viruses may cause c.  Persistent presence of HBeAg in blood for at
hepatic carcinoma? least 6 months
a. Hepatitis A virus d.  Persistent presence of H and Ag in blood for at
b. Hepatitis C virus least 6 months
c. Hepatitis E virus 14. All the following statements are true for hepatitis C
d. Hepatitis G virus virus except:
4. Which of the following hepatitis viruses is non­ a. It is closely related to hepatitis D virus
enveloped? b. It is a leading cause of cirrhosis
a. Hepatitis A virus c.  Blood transfusion is the most important mode
b. Hepatitis B virus of trans­mission of HCV
c. Hepatitis C virus d. A live vaccine is available against HCV
d. Hepatitis D virus 15. Which statement is true for hepatitis D virus:
5. All the following statements are true for hepatitis A a. An incomplete virus
virus (HA V) except: b. Related to hepatitis B
a. It is most commonly transmitted by fecal-oral c. A single-stranded DNA
route d. Transmitted by fecal-oral route
b. It causes chronic disease or fatal disease 16. Hepatitis E virus is:
c. t has a short incubation period of 3–4 weeks a. Related to hepatitis C virus
d. There is only one serotype of HAV b. Yet to be cultured
6. Which of the following methods is preferred for c. Associated with chronic liver infection
diagnosis of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection? d. A major cause of hepatitis transmitted by blood
a. Alanine aminotransferase levels 17. Which of the following statement is true for hepatitis
b. Detection of IgM antibody to HAV by ELISA G virus (HGV):
c. Detection of IgG antibody to HAV by ELISA a. HGV is a flavivirus
d. Cell cultures for growing HAV b. Hepatitis G virus resembles hepatitis C virus
(HCV)
7. Which of the following antigens is present in
c. Hepatitis G virus is transmitted in blood
the envelope of hepatitis B virus?
d. All of the above
a. HBsAg
b. HBcAg Answers (MCQs)
c. HBeAg 1. b; 2. b; 3. b; 4. a; 5. b; 6. b; 7. a; 8. a; 9. a; 10. c; 11. b; 12.
d. None of the above a; 13. a; 14. d; 15. a; 16. b; 17. d

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Retroviruses: Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Classify retroviruses.
∙∙ Describe morphology of human immunodeficiency
virus
∙∙ Describe the antigenic structure of human immuno­
deficiency virus (HIV) and draw labeled diagram of
HIV-I
∙∙ Describe modes of transmission of human immuno­
deficiency virus
∙∙ Describe types of exposure and their relative risks
Retroviruses
These are RNA viruses that belong to family
Retroviridae (Re = Reverse, tr = transcriptase).
Members of this family possess an RNA genome
and the characteristic biochemical feature is the
presence of RNA­dependent DNA polymerase
(reverse transcriptase) within the virus.
Classification
The family Retroviridae is classified into three
subfamilies (Table 68.1).
Human immunodeficiency virus
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) types,
derived from primate lentiviruses, are the etiologic
agents of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS). The illness was first described in 1981,
and HIV-l was iso­lated by the end of 1983. The
first indication of this new syndrome came in the
summer of 1981, with reports from New York and
Los Angeles (USA), of a sudden unexplained out­
break of two very rare diseases—Kaposi’s sarcoma
and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) in
young homosexuals or addicted to injected narcot­
ics. They appeared to have lost their immune
compe­tence. This condition was given the name
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
68
Chapter
∙∙ D iscuss opportunistic infections associated with
human immunodeficiency virus infection
∙∙ D escribe the laboratory diagnosis of human
immuno­deficiency virus infection
∙∙ D escribe the laboratory tests for detection of
specific antibodies in human immunodeficiency
virus infection
∙∙ Describe strategies of human immunodeficiency
virus testing
∙∙ Describe the following: Antiviral therapy for HIV;
postexposure prophylaxis.
In 1983, Luc Montagnier and colleagues from
the Pasteur Institute, Paris, isolated a retrovirus
and called it lymphadenopathy associated virus
(LAV) In 1984, Robert Gallo and colleagues from
the National Institutes of Health, USA, reported
isolation of a retrovirus from AIDS patients and
called it human T cell lymphotropic virus-III
(HTLV-III). The International Committee on Virus
Nomen­clature in 1986 decided on the generic
name—human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
for these viruses. HIV occurs in two types: HIV-1
and HIV-2. Luc Montagnier was awarded Nobel
prize in 2009 for the discovery of HIV.
Human immunodeficiency virus-2 (HIV-2): A
fourth human retrovirus, HIV-2, was isolated from
mildly immunosuppressed patients in West Africa
and appears to be less pathogenic.
Structure
1. Enveloped virus: HIV is a spherical enveloped
virus, about 90–120 nm in size (Fig. 68.1).
2. Nucleocapsid: The nucleocapsid has an outer
icosahedral shell and an inner coneshaped
core, enclosing the ribonucleoproteins.
3. Genome: There are two identi­cal copies of the
positive sense, single-stranded RNA genome in
the capsid (retroviruses are diploid). Also found
within the capsid are the enzymes reverse
 Chapter 68: Retroviruses: Human Immunodeficiency Virus  | 477
Table 68.1:  Human retroviruses Viral Genes and Antigens
Subfamily Genus Virus Disease The genome organization is similar for all
Oncovirinae Retrovirus HTLV-1 Adult T cell leu­k­­ retroviruses in that their genomes contain in the
emia/lym­phoma same order the genes gag, pol and env, which code
HTLV-2 Prevalent in for the three groups of structural proteins (Figs 68.2
intravenous and 68.3). The genome of HIV contains the three
drug users, not structural genes (gag, pol and env) characteristic of
associated with
disease all retroviruses, as well as other nonstructural and
regulatory genes specific for the virus (Fig. 68.3).
Lentivirinae Lentivirus HIV-1 AIDS
HIV-2 AIDS
The products of these genes, both structural and-
nonstructural, act as antigens (Table 68.2). Sera
Spumavirinae Spumavirus Human Nil
foamy
of infected persons contain antibodies to them.
virus Detection of these antigens and antibodies is useful
in the diagnosis and prognosis of HIV infections
HTLV: Human T-cell lymphotropic virus
HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus (Table 68.3).
AIDS: Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

Table 68.2:  Major antigens of HIV

A. Envelope antigens:
1. Spike antigen—gp120
(Principal envelope antigen)
2. Transmembrane pedicle protein—gp 41
B. Shell antigen
1. Nucleocapsid protein—p18
C. Core antigens
1. Principal core antigen—p24
2. Other core antigens—p15, p55
D. Polymerase antigens—p31, p51, p66

Table 68.3:  Retrovirus genes and their function

Gene Virus Function
gag All Group-specific antigen—core and
capsid proteins
Fig. 68.1: Structure of HIV (diagrammatic representation):
pol All Polymerase—reverse transcriptase,
1. Envelope glycoprotein spike (gp120), 2. Transmembrane
protease, integrase
pedicle glycoprotein (gp41), 3. Outer icosahedral shell of
nucleocapsid (p18), 4. Cone shaped core of nucleocapsid env All Envelope—glycoproteins
(p24), 5. Inner core, 6. Viral proteins associated with RNA, tax HTLV Transactivation of viral and cellular
7. Viral RNA, 8. Reverse transcriptase, 9. Envelope lipid bilayer genes
tat HIV-1 Transactivation of viral and cellular
genes
transcriptase, (which is a characteristic feature
of retroviruses). rex HTLV Regulation of RNA splicing and
promotion of export to cytoplasm
4. Lipoprotein envelope: During viral replication,
when the naked virus buds out through the rev HIV-1 Regulation of RNA splicing and
promotion of export to cytoplasm
host cell surface membrane, it ac­q uires a
lipoprotein envelope, which consists of lipid nef HIV-1 Alteration of cell activation signals;
derived from the host cell membrane and progression to AIDS (essential)
glycoproteins which are virus coded. The vif HIV-1 Virus infectivity, promotion of
major virus coded envelope proteins are the assembly
projecting knob-like spikes on the surface and vpu HIV-1 Facilitation of release of virus,
the anchoring transmembrane pedicles. The decrease of cell surface CD4
env polypeptide is composed of two subunits, vpr (vpx*) HIV-1 Transport of complementary DNA to
the outer glycoprotein knob (gp120) and a nucleus, arresting of cell growth
trans­membrane portion (gp41) which joins the LTR All Promoter, enhancer elements
knob to the virus lipid envelope. The receptor *In HIV-2
binding site for CD4 is present on gp120. HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HTLV, human
Transmembrane pedicles cause cell fusion. T-lymphotropic virus; LTR, long-terminal repeat (sequence)

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478  |  Section 4: Virology
A. Genes Coding for Structural Proteins
(Table 68.2)
1. The gag (group-specific antigen) gene: The
gag gene determines the core and shell of the
virus. It is expressed as a precursor protein,
P55. This precursor protein is cleaved into
three proteins, P15, p18 and p24. The four
proteins coded for by the gag gene of HIV are all
found in the virion , including p24. The ma­jor
core antigen is p24 which can be detected in
se­rum during the early stages of HIV infection
before antibodies appear. Late in the course of
infection, the decline of free anti-p24 antibody
and reappearance of p24 antigen in circulation
point to exacerbation of the illness.
2. The env: The env determines the synthesis of
envelope glycoprotein gp160, which is cleaved
into the two envelope components—gp120
which forms the surface spikes and gp41, the
transmembrane anchoring protein. The spike
glycoprotein gp120 is the major envelope
antigen, and antibodies to gp120 are present
in circulation till the terminal stage of the
infection.
3. The pol gene: The pol gene codes for the
protease, endonuclease, integrase and reverse
tran­scriptase. It is expressed as a precursor
protein, which is cleaved into proteins p31, p51
and p66.
B. Nonstructural and Regulatory Genes
There are at least six regulatory genes in HIV and
at least two in HTLV-I (Fig. 68.3).
1. tat (transactivating gene) enhancing the expres­
sion of all viral genes.
2. nef (negative factor gene) down regulating viral
replication.
3. rev (regulator of virus gene) enhancing
expression of structural proteins.
4. vif (viral infectivity factor gene) influencing
infec­tivity of viral particles.
5. vpu (only in HIV-1) and vpx (only in HIV-2)
enhancing maturation and release of progeny
virus from cells. (Detection of the type-specific
sequences vpu and vpx is useful in distinguishing
between infection by HIV-1 and 2).
6. vpr stimulating promoter region of the virus.
The Vpr protein increases transport of the viral
preintegration complex into the nucleus and
also arrests cells in the G2 phase of the cell cycle.
7. LTR (long terminal repeat) sequences, one
at either end, containing sequences giving
promoter, enhancer and integration signals.
Classification
Lentiviruses have been isolated from many species,
including at least 26 different African nonhuman
primate species. There are two distinct types of
human AIDS viruses: HIV-l and HIV-2.
HIV-1 groups: Based on env gene sequences, HIV-1
comprises three distinct virus groups—M (for
‘major’), O (for ‘outlier’) and N (for new).
M group: The predominant M group, which cause
the large majority of HIV-1 infections worldwide,
contains nine subtypes or “clades” (A-K, omit­ting
E and I).
O group: A few HIV-l strains isolated from West
Africa (Cameroon, Gabon) do not fall within the
Group M and have been designated group O.
N group: Some recent iso­lates of HIV-1 from
Cameroon, distinct from M and O groups have
been called group N.
Human immunodeficency virus-2 (HIV-2): HIV
strains, first isolated from West Africa in 1986,
which react with HIV type 1 antiserum very weakly
or not at all have been termed HIV type 2. The
envelope antigens of the two types are different,
though their core polypeptides show some cross
reactivity. HIV-1 and the chimpanzee virus carry
a vpu gene, whereas HIV-2 and most SIVs have a
vpx gene. The sequences of the gag and pol genes
are highly conserved. It is much less virulent than
HIV-1. It is large­ly confined to West Africa, though
isolations have been reported from some other
areas, including west­ern and southern India.
HIV-2 subtypes: Six subtypes of HIV-2 (A-F) have
been identified. HIV-2 has only 40% genetic identity
with HIV-I. It is more closely related to simian
immunodeficiency virus than to HIV-1.
HIV-1 subtypes show a geographical distribu­
tion. All known HIV virus groups and subtypes are
present in Cameroon, West Africa. Subtype A is the
most prev­alent, being found worldwide, while B
is the most common in the Americas and Europe.
The common subtypes in Africa are A, C and D,
while in Asia the common subtypes are E, C and
B. Subtype E is the most common in Thailand. In
India and China, subtype C is the most prevalent.
Resistance
1. Temperature: HIV is inactivated by heat, in the
autoclave or hot air oven. HIV is thermolabile,
being inactivated in 10 minutes at 60°C and in
seconds at 100°C.
2. Lyophilization: It withstands lyophilization.
3. Disinfectants: HIV is completely inactivated by
treatment for 10 minutes at room temperature
with any of the following: 10% household bleach,
50% ethanol, 35% isopropanol, 1% Nonidet
P40, 0.5% Lysol, 0.5% paraformaldehyde, or
0.3% hydrogen per­oxide. The virus is also
inactivated by extremes of pH (pH 1.0, pH
 Chapter 68: Retroviruses: Human Immunodeficiency Virus  | 479
13.0). For treatment of contaminated medical The presence of other sexually transmitted
instruments, a 2% solution of glutaraldehyde is diseases such as syphilis, gonorrhea, or herpes
useful. simplex type 2 increases the risk of sexual HIV
The virus is not inactivated by 2.5% Tween 20. transmission. Transmission may be more likely
from male to female. Asymptomatic virus­positive
Routes of Transmission individuals can transmit the virus.
Virus is present in the blood, semen, and cervical
and vaginal secretions, and these sources are 2. Blood and Blood Products
important in transmission. HIV is spread only by Transfusion of infectious blood or blood products
three modes (Table 68.4): is an effective route for viral transmission.
1. Sexual contact with infected persons (hetero­
sexual or homosexual). Contaminated needle: It can transmits the
infection. This is particularly relevant in drug
2. By blood and blood products.
addicts. The use of unsterile syringes and needles
3. From infected mother to babies (intrapartum, by qualified and unqualified health workers makes
perinatal, postnatal). iatrogenic infection likely.
The modes of transmission of HIV and their
relative risks are shown in Table 68.5. 3. Mother-to-child Transmission
1. Sexual Intercourse Transmission of infection from mother to baby can
HIV is primarily a sexually transmitted infection. take place before, during or after birth. Mother-to-
Both sexes are affected equally. Transmission in the infant transmission rates vary from 13 to 40% in
developing countries is almost always heterosexual untreated women. Infants can become infected in
and can take place in both directions. utero, during the birth process, or, more commonly,
through breastfeeding. Transmission during
breastfeeding usually occurs early (by 6 months).
Table 68.4:  Transmission of HIV infection
Routes Specific transmission Pathogenesis
Known routes of transmission Infection is transmitted when the virus enters
1. Inoculation in blood Transfusion of blood and the blood or tissues of a person and comes into
blood products contact with a suitable host cell, principally the
Needle sharing among
CD4 lymphocyte. The major determinant in the
intrave­nous drug abusers
Needlestick, open wound, pathogenesis and disease caused by HIV is the
and mucous membrane virus tropism for CD4-ex­pressing T cells and cells
exposure in healthcare of the macrophage lineage.
workers HIV genome is uncoated and internalized into
Tattoo needles
the cell after fusion of the virus with the host cell
2. Sexual transmission Anal and vaginal intercourse membrane Viral reverse transcriptase mediates
3. Mother to baby Intrauterine transmission transcription of its RNA into double stranded
Peripartum transmission DNA, which is integrated into the genome of
Breast milk
the infected cell through the action of the viral
Routes not involved in transmission enzyme integrase, causing a latent infection. HIV
Close personal contact Household members causes lytic and latent infection of CD4 T cells
Healthcare workers not and persistent infection of cells of the monocyte
exposed to blood
macrophage family and disrupts neurons. The
outcomes of these actions are immunodeficiency
and acquired immuno­d eficiency syndrome
(AIDS) dementia. From time to time, lytic
Table 68.5:  Efficiency of different routes of trans­
infection is initiated releasing progeny virions
mission of HIV
which infect other cells. The long and variable
Route Efficiency incubation period of HIV infection is because of
Blood transfusion >90% the latency. HIV can be isolated from the blood,
Perinatal 13−40%
lymphocytes, cell-free plasma, semen, cervical
secretions, saliva, tears, urine and breast milk in
Sexual intercourse
an infected individual.
• Anal intercourse 1% per episode The primary pathogenic mechanism in HIV
• Vaginal intercourse 0.1% per episode
infection is the damage caused to the CD4+ T
Intravenous drug use 0.5−1% lymphocyte. The T4 cells decrease in numbers

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480  |  Section 4: Virology
and the T4:T8 (helper: suppressor) cell ratio is Table 68.7:  Summary of classification system for
reversed. An important feature in HIV infection is HIV infection (Centers for Disease Control, USA)
the polyclonal activation of B lymphocytes leading
Group I Acute HIV syndrome
to hypergam­maglobulinemia.
In peripheral blood, lymphoid tissue and other Group II Asymptomatic infection
tissues such as brain where HIV replication occurs, Group III Persistent generalized
HIV targets CD4 positive (CD4+) cells and cells of lymphadenopathy
the monocyte­-macrophage lineage. The principal Group IV Other diseases:
immunological abnormalities seen in HIV infection Subgroup A Constitutional disease—ARC
are listed in Table 68.6.
Subgroup B Neurologic diseases
Clinical manifestations in HIV infections are
Subgroup C Secondary infectious diseases
due not primarily to viral cytopathology but are:
secondary to the failure of immune responses. This Category C1 Specified infectious
renders the patient susceptible to opportunistic diseases listed in the CDC
surveillance definition
infections and malignancies. for AIDS, such as P. carinii
pneumonia, cryptosporidiosis,
Clinical Features of HIV Infection toxoplasmosis, generalized
strongyloidiasis,
The Centers for Disease Control (USA) have classified cryptococcosis CMV or herpes
the clinical course of HIV infection under various diseases.
groups (Table 68.7). The natural evolution of HIV Category C2 Other specified secondary
infection can be considered in the following stages. diseases, such as oral hairy
leukoplakia, salmonella
Group I—Acute HIV Infection bacteremia, nocardiosis,
tuberculosis, thrush
The acute seroconversion illness: It resembles
Subgroup D Secondary cancers, such as
glandular fever, with adenopathy and flu-like Kaposi’s sarcoma, lymphomas
symptoms.Within 3–6 weeks of infection with HIV,
Subgroup E Other conditions.
about 50% of persons experience low grade fever,
malaise, headache, lymphadenopathy, sometimes
with rash and arthropathy resembling glandular fever. Group III—Persistent Generalized
Tests for HIV antibodies are usually negative at lymphadenopathy
the onset of the illness but become positive during This has been defined as the presence of enlarged
its course. HIV antigenemia (p24 antigen) can be lymph nodes, at 1east 1 cm in diameter, in two
demonstrated at the beginning of this phase. or more noncontiguous extrainguinal sites, that
persist for at least three months, in the absence of
Group II—Asymptomatic or latent infection any current ill­ness or medication that may cause
A clinically asymptomatic or “latent” period follows lymphadenopathy.
the acute infection. They show positive HIV anti­
body tests during this phase and are infectious. Group IV—AIDS Related Complex
This group includes patients with considerable
Table 68.6:  Immunological abnormalities in HIV immunodeficiency, suffer­ing from various
infection constitutional symptoms or minor opportunistic
I. Features that characterize AIDS
infections. The typical constitutional symptoms
1. Lymphopenia. are fatigue, unexplained fever, persistent diarrhea
2. Selective T cell deficiency—­Reduction in number and marked weight loss of more than 10% of body
of T4 (CD4) cells, inversion of T4:T8 ratio. weight. The common opportunistic in­fections
3. Decreased delayed hypersensitivity on skin are oral candidiasis, herpes zoster, hairy cell
testing.
4. Hypergammaglobulinemia—­predominantly IgG
leukoplakia, salmonellosis or tuberculosis.
and IgA; and IgM also in children. General­ized lymphadenopathy and splenomegaly
5. Polyclonal activation of B cells and increased are usually present. ARC patients are usually
spontaneous secretion of Ig. severely ill and many of them progress to AIDS
II. Other consistently observed features: in a few months. With no treatment, the interval
1. Decreased in vitro lymphocyte proliferative
response to mitogens and antigens.
between primary infec­tion with HIV and the first
2. Decreased cytotoxic responses by T cells and NK appearance of clinical dis­ease is usually long in
cells. adults, averaging about 8–10 years. Death occurs
3. Decreased antibody response to new antigens. about 2 years later.
4. Altered monocyte/macrophage function. The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
5. Elevated levels of immune complexes in serum.
(AIDS) presents in many ways, all due to the
 Chapter 68: Retroviruses: Human Immunodeficiency Virus  | 481
underlying severe loss of the ability to respond is probable that transmission can also take place
to infectious agents and to control tumors. The during delivery or from breast milk.
features classified as group IV include what was
known as the AIDS-related complex or ARC. Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory procedures for the diagnosis of HIV
AIDS: This is the end-stage disease representing
infec­tion include specific tests for HIV and tests for
the irreversible breakdown of immune defence
immunodeficiency as well as. Evidence of infection
mechanisms, leaving the patient prey to progressive
by HIV can be detected in three ways:
oppor­t unistic infections and malignancies.
1. Specific tests for HIV infection.
AIDS may be manifested in several different
2. Nonspecific tests.
ways, including lymphadenopathy and fever,
3. Tests for opportunistic infections and tumor.
opportunistic in­fections, malignancies, and AIDS-
related dementia (Table 68.8).
A. Specific Tests for HIV Infection (Table 68.9)
Pediatric AIDS: About one-third to half the 1. Antigen Detection
number of babies born to infected mothers are
The virus antigens may be detectable in blood
infected with HIV. In most cases, infection is
after about two weeks following a single massive
transmitted to the baby in the perinatal period. It
in­fection. The major core antigen p24 is the earliest
virus marker to appear in blood and is the one
Table 68.8:   Opportunistic infections and malign­ tested for IgM antibod­ies appear in about 4–6
ancies commonly associated with HIV infection weeks, to be followed by IgG antibodies (Fig. 68.2).
After­wards, free p24 antigen disappears from
I. BACTERIAL circulation and remains absent during the long
1. M. avium complex
asymptomatic phase, to reappear only when severe
2.  Mycobacterium tuberculosis—disseminated or
extrapulmonary clinical disease sets in. The p24 antigen capture
3. Salmonella—recurrent septicemia assay (ELISA) which uses anti-p24 antibody as the
II. VIRAL solid phase can be used for this antigen.
1. Cytomegalovirus
2. Herpes simplex virus
3. Varicella-zoster virus 2. Virus Isolation
4. Epstein-Barr virus The virus is present in circulation and body fluids,
5. Human herpesvirus 6 within lymphocytes or cell-free. It can be isolated
6. Human herpesvirus 8
III. FUNGAL
from CD4 lymphocytes of peripheral blood, bone
1. Candidiasis marrow and serum. The technique of isolation
2. Cryptococcosis is by cocultivation of the patient’s lymphocytes
3. Aspergillosis with uninfected lymphocytes in the presence of
4. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia interleukin-2. Virus presence is detected by assays
5. Histoplasmosis
6. Coccidioidomycosis
for reverse transcriptase and p24 antigen in the
IV. PARASITIC culture fluids.
1. Toxoplasomosis Virus titers parallel p24 titers, being high soon
2. Cryptosporidiosis after infection, low and antibody ­bound during
3. lsosporiasis the asymptomatic period, and again high towards
4. Microsporidiosis
5. Generalized strongyloidiasis
the end.
V. MALIGNANCIES
1. Kaposi’s sarcoma 3. Detection of Viral Nucleic Acid
2. B cell lymphoma or non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
VI. SLIM DISEASE
As the most sensitive and specific test, PCR has
become the gold standard for diagnosis in all stages

Table 68.9:  Evolution of serological markers during HIV infection

State of infection
Early infection
Acute (seroconversion) illness
Carrier asymptomatic
PGL
AIDS
Markers
p24 Ag (free) Anti-HIV IgG Anti-HIV IgM Western blot pattern
− − − −
+→− −→+ + Partial: p24 and or gp120
− + − Full pattern
+ + − Loss of p24/p55
+ Absence of p24: loss of other
reactivities

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482  |  Section 4: Virology
Fig. 68.2: Sequence of appearance of p24 antigen and
antibodies after a massive HIV infection (as by blood
transfusion)
↑ exposure: A = p24 antigen; B = IgM antibody; C = IgG
antibody; 2, 4, 8, 12 = week after exposure.
↓ n ↓ = virus readily isolated from blood. linked to a suitable enzyme is added, followed by a
of HIV infection. Two forms of PCR have been used,
DNA PCR and RNA PCR.
i. DNA PCR: In the DNA PCR, peripheral
lymphocytes from the subject are lysed and
the proviral DNA amplified using primer
pairs from relatively constant regions of HIV
genome. The test is highly sensitive and
specific when done with proper controls.
ii. RNA PCR: A related test, HIV RNA PCR can
be used for diagnosis as well as for monitoring
the level of viremia.
4. Antibody Detection
Demonstration of antibodies is the simplest and
most widely employed technique for the diagnosis
of HIV infection. The mean time to seroconversion
after HIV infection is 3–4 weeks. Most individuals
will have detectable anti­bodies within 6–12 weeks
after infection, whereas virtually all will be positive
within 6 months.
Serological tests for anti-HIV antibodies are of
two type-screening and confirmatory tests (Table
68.10).
A. Screening Tests (Table 68.10)
a. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA)
tests
Table 68.10  Laboratory tests for detection of
specific antibodies in HIV infection
1. Screening (E/R/S) tests
a. ELISA
b. Rapid tests
– Dot blot assays
– Particle agglutination (gelatin, RBC, latex,
microbeads)
– HIV spot and Comb tests
– Fluorometric microparticle technologies
c. Simple tests
These are also based on ELISA principle but take 1–2
hours
2. Supplemental tests
a. Western blot assay
b. Immunofluorescence test
HIV-1 ELISA tests were the earliest approved
serologic tests for HIV infection and remain the
most sensitive approved commercial assays for
infection. Direct solid phase antiglobulin ELISA
is the method most commonly used. The antigen
is obtained from HIV grown in continuous T
lymphocyte cell line or by recombinant techniques
and should represent all groups and subtypes
of HIV-1 and HIV-2. The antigen is coated on
microtiter wells or other suitable solid surface.
The test serum is added, and if the antibody is
present, it binds to the antigen. After washing away
the unbound serum, antihuman immunoglobulin
color-forming substrate. If the test serum contains
anti-HIV antibody, a photometrically detectable
color is formed which can be read by special ELISA
readers. Conversion of substrate to product is
quantitated by spectrophotometry.
Modifications of ELISA in which the antibody
in test serum either competes with enzyme
conjugated anti-HIV antibody, or is captured by
antihuman immunoglobulin onto solid phase are
more specific. Third­generation assays employ
a sandwich technique using enzyme-cou­p led
HIV antigens and take advantage of the bi- or
multivalent nature of antibodies to improve
specificity.
ELISA specific for IgM antibody is also available.
Immunometric assays are highly sensitive and
specific.
b. Rapid tests: These tests take less than 30
minutes and do not require expensive equipment.
A number of ‘rapid tests’ have been introduced for
this purpose:
∙∙ Dot blot assays
∙∙ Particle agglutination (gelatin, RBC, latex,
microbeads)
∙∙ HIV spot and comb tests
∙∙ Fluorometric microparticle technologies
Tests using finger-prick blood, saliva and urine
have also been developed.
c. Simple tests
They take 1–2 hours. They also do not require
expensive equipment.
B. Confirmatory Tests
a. Western blot test: In this test, HIV proteins
separated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
are blotted onto strips of nitrocellulose paper. The
antigen impregnated nitrocellulose is then cut into
strips. Each strip is then incubated with a dilution
of patient serum. Antibodies which attach to the
separated viral antigens on the strip are detected
by antihuman immunoglobulin antibody to which
enzyme has been attached followed by application
of a substrate. The substrate changes color in
 Chapter 68: Retroviruses: Human Immunodeficiency Virus  | 483
the presence of enzyme and permanently stains
the strip. The location or position on the strip at
which a patient’s antibodies attach to viral antigens
indicates whether antibody is specific for viral
antigens or directed against nonviral material from
the cells in which the virus was grown.
Interpretation of Western Blot Test Results
Western blot results are scored as negative, positive,
or indeterminate (Fig. 68.3).
i. Negative result: The WHO has suggested that
a weakly reactive p17 band may be consid­ered
negative. Antibodies to viral core protein p24
or envelope glycoproteins gp41, gp120, or
gp160 are most commonly detected.
ii. Positive result: In a positive serum, bands will
be seen with multiple proteins, typically with
p24 (gag gene, core protein), p31 (pol gene,
reverse transcriptase) and gp41, gp120 or
gp160 (env gene, surface antigens). A positive
reaction with proteins representing the three
genes gag, pol, env is conclusive evidence of
HIV infection. The test may be considered
positive even if it shows bands against at
least two of the following gene products: p24,
gp41, gp120/160. However, interpretation
becomes difficult when bands that appear do
not satisfy these criteria. This may happen in
early infection but may also be nonspecific.
iii. Indeterminate result : Indeterminate
results are not uncommon. Indeterminate
results may arise from either insensitive
Fig. 68.3: Diagrammatic representation of Western blot
test for HIV
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detection of true reactivity (window period)
or false reactivity with principally single-band
reactivity. In such cases the Western blot may
be repeated a later. If no definitive result can
be given even then, it may be necessary to
have p24 assay done.
b. Immunofluorescence test: In this test, HIV
infected cells are acetone fixed on to glass slides and
then reacted with test serum follo­wed by fluorescein
conjugated antihuman gammaglobulin. A positive
reaction appears as apple-green fluorescence of
cell membrane under fluorescence microscope.
Strategies of HIV Testing
There are three strategies of HIV testing:
Strategy I: The serum is tested with one E/R/S
test and if reactive, sample is considered positive
and if non-reactive it is considered negative. This
strategy is used for transfusion safety. For this pur­
pose, a highly sensitive and very reliable test kit
must be used.
Strategy II: The serum reactive with one E/R/S test
is retested with a second E/R/S test with higher
specificity, based on a different antigen prepara­tion
and/or different test principle. If found reac­tive
on second E/R/S test also, it is reported as posi­
tive, otherwise as negative. This strategy is used
for HIV surveillance. The majority of individuals
seroconvert within 2 months after viral exposure.
HIV infection for longer than 6 months without a
detectable antibody response is very uncommon
Strategy III: The serum reactive with two E/R/S
tests is retested with a third E/R/S test. The third
test should again be based on different anti­gen
preparation or test principle. A serum testing
reactive with all three E/R/S tests is reported
posi­tive. A serum sample nonreactive in third
E/R/S is considered equivocal/borderline. Such
individuals should be retested after three weeks. If
this sample also provides an equivocal result, the
person is consi­dered to be HIV antibody negative.
For asympto­matic HIV infection, it is necessary to
confirm the diagnosis with three tests. Symptomatic
infections with opportunistic infections, however,
may be sub­jected to two tests.
The first test selected for any of the strategies
should be of highest sensitivity and second and
third E/R/S test selected should be of highest
specificity.
B. Nonspecific Tests
Immunological Tests
The following parameters help to establish the
immunodeficiency in HIV infec­tion.
484  |  Section 4: Virology
a. Total leukocyte and lymphocyte count to
demon­strate leukopenia and a lymphocyte
count usually below 2000/mm3.
b. T cell subset assays. Absolute CD4+ T cell count
will be usually less than 200/mm3. T4:T8 cell
ratio is reversed.
c. Platelet count will show thrombocytopenia.
d. Raised IgG and IgA levels.
e. Diminished CMI as indicated by skin tests.
f. Lymph node biopsy showing profound
abnormali­ties.
C. Tests for Opportunistic Infections and
Tumors
Apart from diagnosing HIV infection, the laboratory
would be called upon to identify the opportunistic
infections that are a feature of AIDS. Routine
microbiological methods would suffice for this.
However, serological diagnosis of infections may
not always be reliable in AIDS as antibody formation
may be affected by the immune deficiency.
Applications of Serological Tests (Table
68.11)
Serological tests for HIV infection are employed in
the following situations:
1. Screening: Screening is defined as the systematic
application of HIV testing, whether voluntary or
mandatory, to entire populations or selected
target groups. It should be mandatory that all
donors of blood, blood products, semen, cells,
tissues and organs be screened. As antibody
Table 68.11:  Potential antiviral therapies
for HIV infection
Nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors
Azidothymidine (AZT) (Zidovudine)
Dideoxycytidine (ddC) (Zalcitabine)
Dideoxyinosine (ddI) (Didanosine)
d4T (Stavudine)
3TC (Lamivudine)
ABC (Abacavir)
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
Nevirapine (Viranune)
Delavirdine (Rescriptor)
Efavirenz (Sustiva)
Protease inhibitors
Saquinavir (Invirase/Fortovase)
Ritonavir (Norvir)
Indinavir (Crixivan)
Nelfinavir (Viracept)
Amprenavir (Agenerase)
Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)
(combination)
Indinavir/AZT/3TC
Ritonavir/AZT/3TC
Nelfinavir/AZT/3TC
Nevirapine/AZT/ddI
Nevirapine/indinavir/3TC
tests are negative during the early stage of HIV
infection when the individual is infectious,
screening may not detect all dangerous donors
but can still eliminate a large majority of them.
Screening for p24 antigen can detect those in
the window period also.
A person found positive for HIV antigen or
antibody should never donate blood or other
biological materials. As the infection can be
transmitted from mother to baby before, during
or after birth, antenatal screening is useful.
2. Seroepidemiology: Antibody surveys have been
most useful in identifying the geographical extent
of HIV infection and in other epidemiological
studies.
3. Diagnosis: Serology is almost always positive
in persons with clinical features of AIDS. It
may, however, be negative in acute illness
and sometimes in the very late cases where
the immune system is nonreactive. Routine
serology may also be negative when the
infection is with a different AIDS virus. For
example, HIV-2 infections are likely to be
missed if antibody testing is done with the HIV-l
antigen alone.
4. Prognosis: In a person infected with HIV,
loss of detectable anti-p24 antibody indicates
clinical deterioration. This is also associated
with HIV antigenemia and increased virus titer
in circulation.
Laboratory Monitoring of HIV Infection
Some laboratory tests are important in monitoring
the course of HIV infection.
1. CD4+ T cell count: When the count falls below
500, it is an indication of disease progression
and the need for antiretroviral therapy. Counts
below 200 denote risk of serious infections.
2. Direct measurement of HIV RNA: Direct
measurement of HIV RNA becomes necessary,
particularly in the course of treatment. This
is done usually by two methods, the reverse
transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) assay and the
branched DNA (bDNA) assay.
3. Beta-2-microglobulin and Neopterin: Beta-2-
microglobulin and Neopterin can be measured
in serum or urine. Their concentrations are
low in asymptomatic infection and rise with
advancing disease.
Epidemiology
Routes of Transmission
HIV is spread only by three modes—sexual
contact with infected persons; by blood and blood
products; and from infected mother to babies
(intrapartum, perinatal, postnatal).
 Chapter 68: Retroviruses: Human Immunodeficiency Virus  | 485
Geographic distribution: HIV -1 infections are
spreading worldwide, with the largest number
of AIDS cases in sub-Saharan Africa but with
a growing number of cases in Asia, the United
States, and the rest of the world. HIV-2 is more
prevalent in Africa (especially West Africa) than
in the United States. Heterosexual trans­mission is
the major means of spread of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in
Africa, HIV-2 produces a disease similar to but less
severe than AIDS.
AIDS in the developing countries differs from
the disease in the western countries clinically too.
In Africa, the major manifestation is pronounced
wasting so that it has been called the ‘slim disease’.
The high prevalence of tuberculosis and parasitic
infections complicate the clinical picture.
HIV infection in India: HIV infection was detected
rather late in India, the first cases having been
found in female sex workers in Madras (Chennai)
in 1986 and the first AIDS patient the same year
from Bombay (Mumbai). Since then in every high
risk group, the rate of infection has been mounting.
By the end of 2003, India is believed to have about
5 million HIV-infected people, the second largest
such population after South Africa.
Control
i. Sexual transmission: The best method of
checking sexual transmission of infection is
health education The use of condoms and
vaginal antiseptics could have an impact.
ii. Exposure to blood: Drug injectors can avoid
risk by not injecting, or can reduce risk by
using only clean equipment. status of the source patient is essential.
iii. Mother to child transmission: This can be
reduced by identifying infected mothers and
giving specific therapy in the later stages of
pregnancy and to the baby after birth. All
women who have been potentially exposed
should seek HIV antibody testing before
becoming pregnant and, if the test is pos­itive,
should consider avoiding pregnancy. HIV
­infected mothers should avoid breastfeeding
to reduce transmission of the virus to their
children.
Prophylaxis
The prevention of AIDS rests at present on general
measures, such as health education, identification
of sources and elimination of high risk activities. No
specific vaccine is available.
Vaccine development: No vaccine against HIV is
available despite several trials.
Treatment
The anti-HIV drugs approved can be classified as
nucleoside analog reverse transcrip­tase inhibitors,
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non-nucleoside reverse transcrip­tilse inhibitors, or
protease inhibitors (Table 68.11). Other anti-HIV
drugs being developed
In the current guidelines, AZT is recommended
for the treatment of asymptomatic or mildly
symptomatic people with CD4 counts of less than
500/µL and for the treatment of infected pregnant
women to reduce the likelihood of transmission
of the virus to the fetus. Unfortunately, the high
mutation rate of HIV promotes the development
of resistance to these drugs.
A cocktail of several antiviral drugs (e.g. AZT,
3TC, protease inhibitor) termed highly active
antiretroviral treatment (HAART), each with
different mechanisms of action, has less potential to
breed resistance and has become a recommended
therapy. Multidrug therapy can reduce blood levels
of virus to nearly zero and reduce morbidity and
mortality in many patients with advanced AIDS.
Although HAART is a difficult drug regimen, many
patients return to nearly normal on this therapy.
Apart from specific antiretroviral therapy,
other measures in the treatment of AIDS include
(i) treatment and prophylaxis of opportunistic
infections and tumors (ii) general management
and (iii) immunorestorative measures.
Postexposure Prophylaxis (Pep)
If an accidental exposure occurs, any wound
should be washed with soap and water, or mucous
membranes flushed with water. The accident must
be reported so that, if necessary, prophylaxis can
be started as soon as possible. Knowledge of the
Exposure to blood, body fluid, other potentially
infected material or an instrument contaminated
with one of these materials may lead to risk of
acquiring HIV infection. The risk of infection varies
with the type of exposure and other factors. Most
exposures do not result in infection. Health workers
are normally at very low risk of acquiring infection
during management of infected patients. Following
exposure, postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) may be
required depending upon the category of exposure
and HIV status of exposure source (Table 68.12).
Basic PEP regimen consists of two drug
combination while expanded PEP regimen is a
combination of three drugs. Zidovudine 300 mg
BD and Lamivudine 150 mg BD are used in basic
two drug regimen. In expanded three drug PEP
regimen, a protease inhibitor is added to this
combination of drugs. Among protease inhibitors,
lopinavir 400 mg BD or 800 mg OD or ritonavir 100
mg BD or 200 mg OD are preferred as third drug.
To be effective these drugs must be started within
the first 72 hours and ideally within 2 hours. The
PEP should be continued for a period of four weeks.
486  |  Section 4: Virology
Table 68.12:  PEP regimen according to exposure and status of source
Category of exposure HIV positive and HIV positive HIV staus not known
asymptomatic and clinically
symptomatic
i. Mild exposure (Mucous Consider two drug PEP regimen Start two drug PEP Usually no PEP or
membrane/non-intact skin with regimen consider two drug
small volumes). PEP regimen
ii. Moderate exposure (Mucous Start two drug PEP regimen Start three drug PEP Usually no PEP or
membrane/ nonintact skin with regimen consider two drug
large volume or percutaneous PEP regimen
superficial exposure with solid
needle)
iii. Severe exposure (Percutaneous Start two drug PEP regimen Start three drug PEP Usually no PEP or
with large volume) regimen consider two drug
PEP regimen

Both risk of infection and possible side-effects of
antiretroviral drugs should be carefully considered
when deciding to start PEP. Besides PEP, injured
site on the wound should be thoroughly washed
with soap and water. Antiseptics may also be used.
Therapy should be continued for 4 weeks and
the victim followed with testing for virus for the
next 6 months. Exposed persons should have post-
PEP HIV testing, at three months and at 6 months. If
the test at six months is negative, no further testing
is required.
Key Points
™™ Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes AIDS,
belongs to retroviruses
™™ HIV is a spherical enveloped virus measuring up to
120 nm in diameter and consists of two identical
copies of single-stranded positive sense RNA
genome
™™ The three important enzymes contained in the virion
are reverse transcriptase, protease and integrase.In
association with viral RNA is the reverse transcriptase
enzyme
™™ Important structural components of the virus include
the surface antigen gp120, the transmembrane
antigen gp41, the matrix protein p17 and the capsid
antigen p25
™™ The genome of HIV contains the three structural
genes (gag, pol and env) characteristic of all
retroviruses, as well as other nonstructural and
regulatory genes specific for the virus (tat, rev, nef,
vif, vpr and vpu). both
™™ HIV shows two distinct antigenic types—HIV-1 and
HIV-2
™™ There are three modes of transmission of HIV
infection. Sexual contact, parenteral and perinatal
™™ HIV infects principally the CD4 lymphocytes.
The infection causes damage to T helper (T4)
lymphocytes. T4 cells are depleted in numbers and
the T4:TB (helper: suppressor) ratio is reversed
™™ HIV causes acute infection, AIDS related complex
(ARC), and AIDS
™™ When CD4+ cells fall below 200 per mm3, the titer
of virus increases markedly and there is irreversible
breakdown of immune defence mechanisms
™™ Laboratory diagnosis of HIV infection includes specific
tests for HIV as well as tests for immunodeficiency.
Specific tests include antigen (P24) detection, virus
isolation, detection of viral nucleic add and antibody
detection
™™ The p24 antigen is the earliest virus marker to appear
in the blood. HIV infected persons remain negative
for antibodies during window period. Viral isolation,
detection of viral nucleic acid by polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) and p24 antigen detection are useful
for diagnosis in window period
™™ HIV can be cultured by co-cultivation of lymphocytes
with poten­tially infected and uninfected mono­
nuclear cells
™™ The diagnosis of HIV infection is made by detecting
serum antibodies to viral proteins. There are two
types of serological tests for anti-HIVantibodies are of
two types—screening tests and supplementary tests
™™ Screening tests—ELISA, rapid test, and simple test
(E/R/S) are usually highly sensitive tests
™™ There are three strategies (strategy I to III) for HIV
testing in India
™™ Prevention and control include health education,
screening of blood and blood products for HIV
antibodies or antigens, and infection control
™™ Antiretroviral treatment (ART) is the mainstay in HIV
treat­ment
™™ Postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) may be required
when there is exposure to blood, body fluid, other
potentially infected material or an instrument
contaminated with HIV.
Important questions
1.
Describe the structure and laboratory
diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus.
2. Describe the antigenic structure of human
immunodeficiency virus and draw labeled
diagram of HIV-1.
3. Discuss the modes of transmission and
pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency
virus.
4. Write short notes on:
a. Human immunodeficiency virus.
b. Antigens of human immunodeficiency virus.
 Chapter 68: Retroviruses: Human Immunodeficiency Virus  | 487
c. Opportunistic infect­ions associated with hu- 7. Which type of cells are most often infected by HIV?
man immunodeficiency virus infection. a. CD4+T lymphocytes
d. Strategies of human immunodeficiency virus b. CD8+T lymphocytes
testing. c. Null cells
e. Control HIV d. None of the above
f. Antiviral therapy for HIV 8. Which of the following opportunistic parasitic
infections is/are associated with HIV infection?
g. Postexposure prophylaxis
a. Toxoplasmosis
b. Cryptosporidiosis
Multiple choice questions (mcqs) c. Isosporiasis
d. All of the above
1. All of the following statements are true for the 9. Which of the following tests may be used for
viral genome in HIV except that they: diagnosis of HIV infection?
a. Are diploid a. P24 antigen detection
b. Consist of DNA-dependent DNA polymerase b. Virus nucleic acid detection
activity c. Antibody detection
Consist of three major genes gag, pol, and env;
c.  d. All of the above
character­istic of all retroviruses 10. All of the following are the examples of screening
d. Are most complex of human retroviruses tests in HIV except:
2. What is the characteristic feature of viruses a. Western blot
b. ELISA
belonging to family Retroviridae?
c. HIV spot test
a. Presence of enzyme reverse transcriptase d. Latex agglutination test
b. Presence of envelope
11. Which of the following tests is/are confirmatory
c. Presence of nucleic acid
test for HIV infection?
d. Presence of lipid
a. Virus isolation.
3. Which structural genes are present in the genome b. Detection of p24 antigen.
of human immunodeficiency virus-I and not in c. Detection of viral nucleic acid.
immunodeficiency virus-2? d. All of the above.
a. gag gene 12. In HIV testing in India, the strategy I is used for:
b. pol gene a. Diagnosis of HIV infection in asymptomatic
c. env gene persons
d. All of the above b. Diagnosis of HIV infection in symptomatic per-
4. Which is the principal envelope spike antigen of sons
HIV-1? c. HIV surveillance
a. gp120 d. Ensuring safety of blood, organ, and tissue do-
b. gp140 nations
c. gp41 13. Which of the following antiviral agents has been
d. gp38 most widely used to inhibit HIV replication?
5. Which is the transmembrane pedicle antigen of a. Azidothymidine b. Zintevir
HIV-1? c. Nevirapine d. Indinavir
a. gp120 14. All of the following statements are true for highly
b. gp140 active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) except:
c. gp41 a. Inhibition of HIV replication
d. gp38 b. Improved efficacy of the therapy
c. Prevents emergence of drug resistance
6. HIV cannot be transmitted by: d. Minimize toxicity following thearpy)
a. Sexual contact
b. Kissing Answers (MCQs)
c. Intravenous drug abuse 1. b; 2. a; 3. d; 4 a; 5. c; 6. b; 7. a; 8. d; 9; d; 10. a; 11. d; 12.
d. Blood transfusion d; 13. a; 14. c

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Slow Virus and Prion Diseases
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe slow virus and prion diseases
∙∙ Describe the following: Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
Introduction
The term ‘slow virus disease’ is applied to a group
of infections in animals and human beings,
characterized by a very long incubation period
and a slow but relent­less course, terminating
fatally. This usually ends months later in disability
or death.
The concept of ‘slow infection’ was originally
proposed by Sigurdsson (1954), a veterinary
pathologist for slowly progress­ing infections of
sheep, such as scrapie, visna and maedi.
Characteristics of slow viruses
1. Incubation periods: Long incubation period
ranging from months to years.
2. Course of illness: Lasting for months or years.
3. Predilec­tion for involvement of the central
nervous system.
4. Absence of immune response or an immune
response that does not arrest the disease.
5. A genetic predisposition.
6. Invariable fatal termination.
Classification
Slow virus diseases may be classified into three
groups: Group A, group B, group C (Table 69.1).
Group A: Group A consisting of slowly progressive
infections of sheep, caused by serologically related
nononcogenic retroviruses called lentiviruses
(from Latin. lentus, meaning slow). Examples:
Visna; Maedi (progressive pneumonia).
69
Chapter
(CJD); Kuru; Bovine spongi­form encephalopathy
(BSE) or mad cow disease; subacute sclerosing
panencephalitis (SSPE); progressive multifocal
leukoencephalopathy (PML).
Group B: Group B comprising prion diseases of the
central nervous system (CNS) collectively known as
the subacute spongiform viral encephalopathies.
Animal Diseases
i. Scrapie.
ii. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
(mad cow disease).
iii. Chronic wasting disease (in mule, deer, and
elk).
iv. Transmissible mink encephalopathy.
Human Diseases
i. kuru.
ii. Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD).
iii. Gerstmann–Straussler–Scheinker (GSS) dis­
ease.
iv. Fatal familial insomnia (FFI).
Group C: Some chronic degenerative diseases of
the central ner­vous system in humans are caused
by “slow” or chronic, persistent infections by
classic viruses. Group C consists of two unrelated
CNS diseases of human beings:
i. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
ii. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy
Group A
Visna
Visna, a demyelinating disease of sheep and has
an incubation period of about two years. It has an
insidious onset with pareses, progressing to total
pa­ralysis and death.
 Chapter 69: Slow Virus and Prion Diseases  | 489
Table 69.1:  Slow virus and prion diseases
Disease group Agent Hosts Incubation period Nature of disease
Group A
Visna Retrovirus Sheep Months to years Central nervous system
demyelination
Group B
(a) Animal diseases
i. Scrapie Prion Sheep, goat, Months to years Spongiform encephalopathy
mice
ii. Bovine spongiform Prion Cattle Months to years Spongiform encephalopathy
encephalopathy (BSE)
iii. Chronic wasting disease Prion Mule, deer, elk Months to years Spongiform encephalopathy
iv. Transmissible mink Prion Mink, other Months Spongiform encephalopathy
encephalopathy animals
(b) Human diseases
i. kuru Prion Humans, Months to years Spongiform encephalopathy
chimpanzees,
monkeys
ii. Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease Prion Humans, Months to years Spongiform encephalopathy
(CJD) chimpanzees,
monkeys
iii. Gerstmann–Straussler– Prion
Scheinker (GSS) dis­ease
iv. Fatal familial insomnia (FFI) Prion
Group C
(a) Subacute sclerosing Measles virus Humans 2–20 years Chronic sclerosing
panencephalitis variant panencephalitis
(b) Progressive multifocal Polyomavirus Humans Years Central nervous system
Leukoencephalopathy JCV demyeli­nation

The virus can be grown in sheep choroid plexus
tissue cultures, from the CSF, blood and saliva of
affected animals.
Maedi (Progressive Pneumonia)
Maedi (progressive pneumonia) is a slowly pro­
gressive fatal hemorrhagic pneumonia of sheep,
with an incubation period of 2–3 years.
Visna and maedi (progressive pneumonia)
viruses are closely related and are classified as
retroviruses (genus Lentivirus).
Group B (Prion Diseases)
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies
(Prion Diseases)
Prion diseases of animals
i. Scrapie: Scrapie is the prototype prion disease
and shows marked differences in susceptibility
of different breeds of animal. The incubation
period is about two years. The affected animals
are irritable and develop in­tense pruritus,
scraping themselves against trees and rocks,
hence the name scrapie. Emaciation and
paralysis set in, leading to death.
The causative agent has been maintained in
brain tissue explant cultures through several
serial passages.
ii. Transmissible mink encephalopathy: Trans­
missible mink encephalopathy is a scrapie-
like disease of farm-raised mink. It is believed
to have spread to mink by feeding them on
scrapie infected sheep meat.
iii. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
or mad cow disease:
A disease similar to scrapie, designated bovine
spongi­form encephalopathy (BSE), or “mad
cow disease,” emerged in cattle in Great
Britain in 1986. This out­break was traced to the
use of cattle feed that contained contaminated
bone meal from scrapie-infected sheep and
BSE-infected cattle carcasses.
The epidemic of “mad cow disease” peaked
in Great Britain in 1993.
It is now accepted that the new variant forms
of CJD and BSE are caused by a common
agent, indicating that the BSE agent had
infected humans. Through 2002, of 129 people
who had been diagnosed with new variant CJD
in England, 121 had died.
iv. Chronic wasting disease: A scrapie-like
disease, designated chronic wasting disease, is
found in mule deer and elk in the United States.
Human prion diseases
1. Kuru: Kuru was a fatal neurologic disease
with cerebellar signs exclusive to the Fore

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490  |  Section 4: Virology
tribes in Papua New Guinea. Kuru (means
“shivering” or “trembling,”) was first described
by Gajdusek and Zigas in 1957 as a mysterious
disease seen only in the Fore tribe inhab­iting
the eastern highlands of New Guinea. The dis­
ease had an incubation period is 5–10 years
and led to progressive cerebellar ataxia and
tremors, ending fa­tally in 3 to 6 months. A
total of 3700 cases occurred in a population of
35,000.
Transmission from human to human was
associated with ritual cannibalism involving
the consumption of the body of a dead member
of the family after ritual nonsterilizing cooking.
When Gajdusek began his study, he noted
that women and children in particular were
the most susceptible to the disease, and he
deduced that the reasons were that the women
and children pre­pared the food and they were
given the less desirable viscera and brains to
eat. Their risk for infection was higher because
they handled the contaminated tissue, making
it possible for the agent to be introduced
through the conjunctiva or cuts in the skin, and
they ingested the neural tissue, which contains
the highest concentrations of the kuru agent.
No cases have been seen in those born since
1957, when cannibalism ceased.
Carlton Gajdusek was awarded the Nobel
Prize for Medicine in 1976 for his important
contributions on Kuru.
2. Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease(CJD): Creutzfeldt-
Jakob disease is a rare chronic encephalopathy
of humans with associated dementia. CJD in
humans develops gradually, with progressive
dementia, ataxia, and myoclonus, and leads to
death in 5–12 months. The disease was known
as both sporadic and inherited forms.
The natural mode of transmission of
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (GJD) is unknown,
and it does not appear to be acquired from
sheep. Iatrogenic CJD has been transmitted
accidentally by contaminated growth hormone,
by corneal transplant, by contaminated surgical
instruments, and by cadaveric human dura
mater grafts.
A protein very similar to scrapie PrPsc is
present in brain tissue infected with classic CJD.
It has been spec­ulated that the agent of CJD
was derived originally from scrapie-infected
sheep and transmitted to humans by ingestion
of poorly cooked sheep brains.
An epidemic of mad cow disease in the United
Kingdom and the unusual incidence of CJD
in younger people (younger than 45 years)
prompted con­cern that contaminated beef was
the source of this new variant of CJD.
3. Gerstmann–Straus­s ler–Scheinker (GSS)
disease: It is rare neurologic diseases of humans
due to prion-type agent.
4. Fatal familial insomnia (FFI): It is also a rare
neurologic diseases of humans are due to prion-
type agent. In fatal familial insomnia there is loss
of ability to sleep and death within 1 to 2 years.
5. Alzheimer’s disease: There are some neuro­
pathologic similarities between CJD and
Alzheimer’s disease. However, the disease has
not been transmitted experimentally to primates
or rodents, and the amyloid material in the
brains of Alzheimer’s patients does not contain
Prpsc protein.
Group C
i. Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) is an
extremely serious, very late neurologic sequela
of mea­sles. This disease occurs when a defective
measles virus persists in the brain and acts as a
slow virus. It has been reported that SSPE may
also develop as a very rare late complication of
live measles virus vaccination. A similar picture
has also been described as a rare complication of
rubella infection.
The SSPE is most prevalent in children who
were initially infected when younger than 2 years.
The disease begins insidiously 5 to 15 years after a
case of measles. It is characterized by progressive
mental deterioration, involuntary movements,
muscular rigidity, and coma. Death occurs 1 to 3
years after onset of symptoms.
ii. Progressive Multifocal
leukoencephalopathy (PML)
Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML)
is a rare, degenerative CNS infection that usually
occurs in persons with severe immunodeficiency
disorders. The disease is characterized by
memory loss, difficulty in speaking, and a loss of
coordination. Death occurs in 3–4 months.
Causative agent: The causative agent is a human
polyomavirus (JC virus), a member of the family
Polyomaviridae. PML has been seen in several
pa­tients with AIDS-associated neurologic compli­
cations.
Key Points
™™ The term ‘slow virus disease’ is applied to a group
of infections in animals and human beings,
characterized by a very long incubation period and
a slow but relent­less course, terminating fatally
 Chapter 69: Slow Virus and Prion Diseases  | 491
™™ Slow virus diseases are classified into:
–  Group A; such as visna and medi.
–  Group B; prion diseases of the CNS (subacute
spongiform viral encephalopathies). Human
diseases include kuru, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
(CJD), Gerstmann–Straussler–Scheinker (GSS)
dis­ease and fatal familial insomnia (FFI) Scrapie,
bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) (mad cow
disease), chronic wasting disease, and transmissible
mink encephalopathy occur in animals.
–  Group C diseases include subacute sclerosing
panencephalitis and progressive multifocal
leukoencephalopathy.
™™ SSPE is a very rare delayed sequel to infection with
measles virus, many years after the initial infection.
Papova virus is responsible for PML.
Important Questions
1. Write briefly on slow virus diseases.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
b. Kuru
c. Bovine spongi­form encephalopathy (BSE) or
mad cow disease
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d. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE)
e. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy
(PML)
Multiple choice questions (mcqs)
1. The prion-mediated disease in humans is
a. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy
b. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
c. Gerstmann–Straussler–Scheinker syndrome
d. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
2. Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease is transmitted by
a. Cuts in the skin
b. Transplantation of contaminated cornea
c. Ingestion of infected tissue
d. Blood transfusion
3. All the following are slow diseases transmitted by
conventional viruses in humans except
a. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
b Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy
c. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
d. Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
Answers (MCQs):
1. c; 2. d; 3. d

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe Rubella virus
∙∙ Describe the following: Lassa fever; severe acute
respiratory syndrome (SARS)
RUBIVIRUS
Rubella virus has been classified in the family
Togaviridae as the only member of the genus
Rubivirus. It resembles togaviruses structurally and
in many other features.
RUBELLA (GERMAN MEASLES)
Rubella or German measles is a mild exanthematous
fever characterized by transient macular rash and
lymphadenopathy.
Morphology: Rubella virus is a pleomorphic,
roughly spherical particle, 50–70 nm in diameter,
with single stranded RNA genome and surrounded
by an envelope carrying hemagglutinin peplomers.
Properties: It aggluti­nates goose, pigeon, day-
old chick and human erythrocytes at 4°C, a
characteristic which is utilized in the hemag­
glutination inhibition test for specific antibodies.
Resistance: The virus is inactivated by ether,
chloroform, for­maldehyde, beta propiolactone and
desoxycholate. It is destroyed by heating at 56°C,
but survives for sev­eral years at –60°C.
Clinical features: Humans are the only host for
rubella infection is transmitted by the respiratory
route. Incubatian period is 2–3 weeks. The
characteristic clinical features are:
1. Rash: A generalized rash develops.
2. Lymphadenopaty of posterior cervical glands.
3. Common complications: Are arthralgia
and arthritis, commoner in women and with
increasing age.
Chap-70.indd 492
70
Chapter
Miscellaneous Viruses
∙∙ Describe structure of rotavirus
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of rotavirus infections
∙∙ List the viruses causing diarrhea.
4. Rare complications: Include thrombocy­
topenic purpura and encephalitis.
Congenital rubella: Based on the results of in
vitro studies, rubella infection is presumed to
cause chromosomal breakages and inhibition of
mitoses in infected embryonic cells. Fetal damage
caused by maternal rubella is related to the stage
of pregnancy.
Classical congenital rubella syndrome: The virus
may spread to the fetus through the bloodstream,
causing death due to infection in early pregnancy,
congenital malformations in infection during the
first trimester and more subtle damage in later
infections. The most common malformations
caused by rubella are cardiac defects, cataract and
deafness, which constitute the classical congenital
rubella syndrome.
Epidemiology
Rubella has a worldwide distribution. Humans are
the only host for rubella infection is transmitted by
the respiratory route. Currently, only 2–3% of young
adult females are susceptible.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Virus Isolation
The virus may be isolated from blood during the
early stage or more successfully from throat swabs
in rabbit kidney or vero cells. Various tissue culture
cell lines of monkey (BSC-I, Vero) or rabbit (RK-
13, SIRC) origin, as well as primary African green
monkey kidney cultures, may be used. Rubella
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produces a rather inconspicuous cytopathic effect
in most of the cell lines. Therefore, rubella virus,
in cell culture, is detected by interference with the
CPE of a challenge virus (coxsackievirus A19) and
by immunofluorescence or immunoperoxidase
staining for detection of antigen. The virus
grows better if cultures are incubated at a lower
temperature, 33–35°C. Rubella virus isolation is
not commonly employed for diagnosis because of
the dif­ficulties and delay involved.
B. Serology
ELISA for IgM and IgG antibodies gives valuable
information. IgM antibody alone, without IgG
means current acute infection. In case of rubella
IgG antibody, four fold or more rise in titer in paired
sera has a diagnostic value. IgG antibody alone,
without IgM means past infection or vaccination
and denotes immunity, as there is only one
serotype of rubella virus.
Prophylaxis
Passive prophylaxis: There is little evidence that
administ­ering normal human immunoglobulin after
contact reduces the risk of mater­nal rubella and fetal
infection.
Active Prophylaxis
Rubella vaccines: Live attenuated vaccine in use
now is the RA 27/3 strain grown in human diploid cell
culture and administeted by subcutaneous injection
in a single dose of 0.5 mL. The vaccine is available
as a single antigen or combined with measles and
mumps components as MMR vaccine. Vaccine-
induced immunity persists in most vaccinees for at
least 14–16 years and probably is lifelong.
The vaccine virus is apparently not teratogenic.
Inadvertent administration of the vaccine to
a pregnant women may not therefore lead to
congenital defects in the baby.
VIRAL HEMORRHAGIC FEVERS
Hemorrhagic manifestations are sometimes seen
in many viral fevers, such as exanthematous fevers
-­smallpox, chickenpox and measles; mosquito borne
diseases—yellow fever, dengue and chikungun­ya;
tick-borne fevers—Kyasanur forest dis­e ase,
Omsk hemorrhagic fever and the Crimean­Congo
hemorrhagic fever. However, the term hemorrhagic
viral fevers is not applied to them, but only to a group
of diseases, apparently zoonotic in nature, with typical
hemorrhage features caused by viruses belonging to
two families: Arenavirus and Filovirus.
ARENAVIRUSES
Arenaviruses are typified by pleomorphic particles
that contain a segmented RNA genome; are
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Chapter 70: Miscellaneous Viruses  | 493
surrounded by an envelope with large, club-shaped
peplomers; and measure 50-300 nm in diameter
(mean, 110–130 nm). Electron microscopy of
thin sections shows characteristic electron-dense
granules resem­bling grains of sand within virus
particles. Hence, the name arena (L), meaning
sand. These particles are cellular ribosomes picked
up by the virus presumably during maturation by
budding from host cells.
Arenaviruses establish chronic infections in
rodents. Each virus is generally associated with a
single rodent species. Humans are infected when
they come in contact with rodent excreta. Some
viruses cause severe hemor­rhagic fever.
Arenaviruses Causing Human Diseases
At least seven arenaviruses cause human disease-­
lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM), Lassa, Junin,
Machupo, Guanarito, Sabia, Whitewater Arroyo.
1. Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus (LCM)
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCM) virus
has a worldwide distribution, It is endemic in
mice and other animals (dogs, monkeys, guinea
pigs, hamsters) and is occasionally transmitted to
humans. It may chronically infect mouse or ham­
ster colonies.
Human infections: Most human infections are
acquired by contact with laboratory mice or
hamsters, presumably via mouse droppings.
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis in humans is an
acute disease manifested by aseptic meningitis
or a mild sys­temic influenza-like illness. Rarely
there is a severe encephalomyelitis or a fatal
systemic disease. Many infections are subclinical.
LCM has been reported to account for 5–10% of
sporadic viral meningitis in human beings. The
incubation period is usu­ally 1–2 weeks.
2. Lassa Fever
The first recognized cases of Lassa fever occurred
in 1969 among Americans stationed in the Nigerian
village of Lassa.
Natural reservoir is the multimammate rat,
Mastomys natalensis. Rodent excreta probably act
as the source of infection. The incubation period is
3–16 days. The virus is present in the throat, urine
and blood of patients. Nosocomial infection has
occurred frequently.
The antiviral drug ribavirin is the drug of choice
for Lassa fever and is most effective if given early
in the dis­ease process. A potential vaccine is under
study.
3. South American Hemorrhagic Fevers
The South American arenaviruses are all con­sidered
to be members of the Tacaribe group of arenaviruses.
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Rodents act as reservoirs and transmission is
believed to occur through rodent excreta. Serious
human pathogens are the closely related Junin,
Machupo, Guanariro, and Sabia viruses.
a. Junin hemorrhagic fever (Argentine hemo­
rrhagic fever).
b. Machupo hemorrhagic fever (Bolivian hemo­
rrhagic fever).
c. Guanarito virus (the agent of Venezuelan
hemor­rhagic fever).
Laboratory Diagnosis of Arenaviruses
1. Virus Isolation: Blood, CSF, throat washings,
pleural fluid and urine are the specimens used
for diagnosis. Arenaviruses can be isolated from
specimens by inoculation of suckling mice,
hamsters and guinea pigs. Virus can also be
isolated by inoculation of Vero E6 and BHK-21
cells.
2. Antigen Detection: Viral antigen can be
detected by Indirect immunofluorescence is
used for detection of viral antigen in the blood.
3. Serology: For detection of IgM antibody and/or
a rising titre of antibody in paired sera indirect
immunofluorescence test may be used.
FILOVIRUSES
They have been classified as filoviridae.These are
long threadlike viruses, hence the name (filum
means thread). They range in size from 80 to
800–1000 nm. Marburg and Ebolaviruses causing
hemorrhagic fever belong to the genus Filovirus.
Morphology: Marburg and Ebola viruses are
enveloped nega­tive sense single stranded RNA
viruses with long tu­bular or filamentous forms
(Fig. 70.1).
Marburg Virus
Marburg disease is a hemorrhagic fever that
occurred simultaneously in laboratory workers
Fig. 70.1: Ebola virus (long thin filamentous form)
Chap-70.indd 494
in Marburg, Frankfurt (Germany) and Belgrade
(Yugoslavia) in 1967.In each case the infection
arose from tissues of African green monkeys to
which the laboratory workers had been exposed
imported to laboratories from Uganda via London.
Ebola Virus
In 1976, two severe epidemics of hemorrhagic fever
occurred in Sudan and Zaire with high fatality. The
causative virus was morphologically identical to
the Marburg virus but antigenically distinct. The
virus responsible was named Ebola virus after the
Ebola river. In 1979 Ebola re-emerged in Sudan,
with serial person­t o-person spread. Another
epidemic occurred in Kikwit, Zaire, in 1995.
Three distinct strains of Ebola virus have been
recognized.
1. Zaire strain (EBO- Z)
2. Sudan strain (EBO-S)
3. Reston strain (EBO-R)
Pathogenesis
It is probable that Marburg and Ebola viruses have
a reservoir host, perhaps a rodent or a bat, and
become transmitted to humans only accidentally.
Trans­mission among humans generally requires
direct contact with blood or body fluids, although
droplet infections can occur.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Electron microscopy: In the blood and in the
cytoplasm of the affected cells filamentous
viruses can be seen by electron microscopy.
2. Isolation of virus: Virus can be cultured in
vero cells from the blood during the febrile
phase. Virus isolate is identified by electron
microscopy and direct immunofluorescence.
Virus culture must only be attempted in
laboratories with required biosafety level.
3. Serology: Indirect immunofluorescence can be
used for detection of antibodies in the serum.
CORONAVIRUSES
A group of spherical or pleomorphic enveloped RNA
viruses, carrying petal or club shaped peplomers on
their surface has been classified as coronaviruses
(Corona, meaning crown) resembling the solar
corona (Fig. 70.2). It has been classified in the
family coronaviridae with two genera: Torovirus
and Coronavirus.
Torovirus: The toroviruses are wide­spread in ungul­
ates and appear to be associated with diarrheas.
Coronavirus: There seem to be two serogroups of
human coro­naviruses. Coronaviruses of domestic
animals and rodents are included in these two
groups. There is a third distinct antigenic group
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Fig. 70.2: Coronavirus
which contains the avian infectious bronchitis
virus of chickens.
The novel coronavirus recovered in 2003 from
patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome
(SARS) appears to represent a new (fourth) group
of viruses.
Human coronavuiruses: Coronavirus infections
in humans usually remain limited to the upper
respiratory tract. The human coronaviruses cause
common colds and have been implicated in
gastroenteritis in infants. Inoculation in human
volunteers induces common cold after an incubation
period of 2–5 days. The resulting immunity is poor
and reinfections can occur even with the same
serotype. They appear to be the second most
common cause of common cold, par­ticularly in
winter, next only to rhinoviruses. Coronaviruses
are suspected of causing some gas­troenteritis in
humans, but the agents have not been iso­lated.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Isolation of virus: Nasopharyngeal washings
are used for the isolation of virus. Human
coronaviruses can be cultured in human fetal
tracheal organ culture. Some strains may grow
on monolayers of diploid human embryonic
fibroblasts, with minimal cytopathic effects.
ii. Demonstration of antigen: ELISA test is
used for detection of coronavirus antigens in
respiratory secretions.
iii. Antibody detection: Antibodies in serum may
be detected by ELISA.
Animal coronaviruses: Coronaviruses are esta­
blished agents of diarrhea in calves, piglets and
dogs.
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
In November 2002, Guangdong province in South
China experienced an outbreak of an unusual
respiratory infection, with many deaths. The
world outside knew about it only in February 2003,
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Chapter 70: Miscellaneous Viruses  | 495
when a physician from Guangdong visited Hong
Kong, fell ill and died there, after infecting twelve
persons who had stayed in the same hotel. They in
turn, went to their separate countries to fall ill and
initiate outbreaks there.
In February in Hanoi, Vietnam, a private hospital
sought the help of a WHO local office about an
unusual case of pneumonia. Dr Carlo Urbani,
the nearest WHO infectious disease specialist
volunteered. Sensing the danger, he immediately
arranged for isolation and quarantine, but by then
outbreaks had begun in many countries: Canada,
USA, Ireland and some European countries, Hong
Kong, China, Taiwan and most countries in South
East Asia. The new disease was named severe acute
respiratory syndrome (SARS). It had affected
over 30 countries, with many thousand cases and
over 800 deaths by July, when the pandemic was
controlled. India escaped the SARS epidemic;
though a few suspect cases were detected and
quarantined.
A coronavirus was found in the respiratory
secretions of patients, identified by electron
microscopy, and confirmed by growth in Vero cell
culture, animal inoculation, cloning, sequencing
and histology. This appears to be a new virus
distinct from other coronaviruses, which had been
classified into three types: Mammalian viruses in
types 1 and 2 and avian viruses in type 3. The new
SARS virus becomes coronavirus type 4. It may be
a recombinant of some animal and human virus.
Causative agent: It has been suggested that the
causative agent isolated be designated ‘Urbani
SARS associated coronavirus’ in memory of Dr
Carlo Urbani who identified the new epidemic,
initiated early steps for its control and died of it
within a month.
Mode of infection: SARS spreads by inhalation
of the virus present in droplets or aerosols of
respiratory secretions of patients. Fecal aerosols
also may be infectious.
Clinical features: The incubation period is under
10 days. The disease starts as fever with cough or
other respiratory symptoms. The outbreak of SARS
was char­acterized by serious respiratory illness,
including pneu­monia and progressive respiratory
failure. Diarrhea is sometimes seen. The chest
radiograph shows pneumonic changes. Death is
due to respiratory failure.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specimen: Nasopharyngeal swab or aspirate,
throat swab or stool specimens may be collected
for laboratory diagnosis. Serum is used for antibody
detection.
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 496  |  Section 4: Virology
1. Reverse transcription PCR—Reverse trans­
cription PCR (RT-PCR has been used for early
diagnosis).
2. Virus culture: Virus in clinical specimens can
be cultured on Vero cell lines.
3. Serology: Demonstration of rise in titer of
antibodies by “ELISA or indirect immuno­
fluorescent test in paired serum samples are
useful later. However, for early diagnosis PCR is
preferred.
Treatment and Prophylaxis
No specific therapy or prophylaxis has been
identified. The virus is highly mutable and so
vaccine prophylaxis may not be easy. Control has
been achieved by strict isolation and quarantine.
However, ribavirin and steroids have been shown
to be useful in treatment of critical patients.
REOVIRIDAE
Reoviridae constitutes a diverse family of viruses that
infect humans, many mammals, other vertebrates
(including birds), plants and insects. The family
Reovi­ridae derives its name from the pro­totype
virus which was known as the Respiratory enteric
orphan virus, because it could be isolated fre­
quently from the respiratory and enteric tracts,
and it was considered ‘orphan’ because it was not
associated with any disease.
Classification
The family Reoviridae is divided into nine genera.
Four of the genera are able to infect humans and
animals: Orthoreovirus, Rotavirus, Coltivirus, and
Orbivirus. Four other genera infect only plants and
insects, and one infects fish.
Morphology: All reoviruses have a double-
shelled capsid, no envel­ope and measure 75–80
nm in diameter. The genome consists of double
stranded RNA in 10–12 pieces, a feature unique
among animal viruses. They are nonenveloped and
re­sistant to lipid solvents.
Rotaviruses
Morphology: Morphologically, rotaviruses are
polyhedrons of 75 nm diameter displaying char­
acteristic sharp-edged double ­shelled capsids,
which in electron micrographs look like spokes
grouped around the hub of a wheel. The name is
derived from rota, in Latin, meaning wheel. Both
‘complete’ and ‘incomplete’ particles are seen.
The complete or ‘double shelled’ virus measures
about 70 nm in diameter and has a smooth surface.
The incomplete or ‘single shelled” virus is smaller,
about 60 nm, with a rough surface and is rota
virus that has lost the outer shell. ‘Empty’ particles
Chap-70.indd 496
without the RNA core are also seen. The genome
of rotaviruses is located inside the inner core and
consists of 11 segments of double-stranded RNA.
All segments, except one, code for only one virus-
specific protein (VP).
Classification
Rota­viruses share a common group antigen situated
in the inner capsid layer. So far, rotaviruses have
been classified into at least seven antigenic groups
(A to G) based on antigenic epitopes on the internal
structural protein VP6. For groups A-E complete
lack of serological cross-reactivity has been proven.
These can be detected by immunofluores­cence,
ELISA, and immune electron microscopy (IEM).
Multiple serotypes have been identified among
human and animal rotaviruses.
Group A strains: Cause the majority of human
infections have been classified into subgroups
(I and II) by ELI­SA, CF or immune adherence
agglutination, and into many serotvpes (1, 2, 3, etc.)
by neutralisation tests.
Group B strain: The Chinese ADRV is of group B.
Group C rotaviruses: Cause occasional outbreaks
in humans.
Animal Susceptibility
Rotaviruses have a wide host range. Human
rotavirus infection has been transferred to piglets,
calves and monkeys. Swine rotavirus infects both
newborn and weanling piglets.
Propagation in Cell Culture
Rotaviruses are fastidious agents to culture. As calf
and simian viruses grow readily in cell cultures, they
have been used as antigens for serological studies.
Epidemiology
Rotaviruses are the most common cause of
diarrhea in infants and children the world over.
Rotavirus infections usually predominate during
the winter season. In tropical areas infections occur
evenly throughout the year.
Rotavirus diarrhea is usu­ally seen in children
below the age of five years but symptomatic
infections are most com­mon in children between
ages 6 months and 2 years. By the age of five years,
most children have had clinical or subclinical
infection. Transmission appears to be by the fecal–
oral route. Nosocomial infections are frequent.
Clinical Features
Infection is by the fecal-oral route. The incubation
period is 2–3 days. Vomiting and diarrhea occur
with little or no fever. Stools are usually greenish
yellow or pale, with no blood or mucus. The disease
is self-limited and recovery occurs within 5–10 days.
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Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Demonstration of virus: At the peak of the
disease as many as 1011 virus particles per
milliliter of feces are present. Virus in stool is
demonstrated by immune electron microscopy
(IEM), latex agglutination tests, or ELISA.
B. Genotyping: Genotyping of rotavirus nucleic acid
from stool specimens by the polymerase chain
reaction is the most sensitive detection method.
C. Virus isolation: Rotaviruses can be propagated
in secondary or continuous cultures of monkey
kidney cells. Cell culture, however, is not used
for routine diagnosis.
D. Serologic tests: Can be used to detect after
antibody titer rise, particularly ELISA.
Treatment
Management consists of replacement of fluids
and restoration of electrolyte balance either intra­
venously or orally, as feasible.
Control
In view of the fecal–oral route of transmission,
waste­water treatment and sanitation are significant
control measures.
Rotavirus Vaccine
An oral live attenuated rhesus-based rotavirus
vaccine was licensed in the United States in 1998
for vaccination of infants. It was withdrawn a year
later. A number of different candidate vaccines of
live ­attenuated rotavirus of bovine or human origin.
Other Viruses Causing Diarrhea
In addition to rotaviruses and noncultivable aden­
oviruses, members of the family Caliciviridae are
important agents of viral gastroenteritis in humans.
The most significant member is Norwalk virus and
others are adenoviruses, astrovirus and coronavirus.
NORWALK VIRUS
Norwalk virus has been included in the family
Calicivi­ridae. Caliciviruses are similar to picorna­
viruses but are slightly larger (27–40 nm).
Norwalk virus is the most important cause of
epidemic viral gastroenteritis in adults. A 27 nm
virus was shown to be responsible for an epidemic
of gastroenteritis affect­ing school children and
teachers in Norwalk, Ohio, in 1972. The virus
induced diarrhea in human volun­teers. Serological
surveys have shown that infection with Norwalk
virus is widespread in many countries. The viruses
are most often associated with epidemic outbreaks
of waterborne, food-borne, and shellfish-asso­
ciated gastroenteritis.
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Chapter 70: Miscellaneous Viruses  | 497
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Electron microscopy: The virus can be demon­
strated in feces by electron microscopy.
2. Antigen detection: Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
and ELISA can detect the virus and viral antigen.
3. Serology: Radioimmunoassay (RIA) and ELISA
can detect antibody to norwalk agent.
Adenoviruses
Several outbreaks of diarrhea in children have been
associated with the presence of large numbers of
adenoviruses in feces. Serotypes 40 and 41 are
most commonly associated with acute diarrhea
in infants.
Astrovirus
These star shaped (Greek, astron = a star, 28 nm
isometric particles which have been associated
with some epidemics of diarrhea in children.
They are recognized as pathogens for infants and
children, elderly institu­tionalized patients, and
immunocompromized persons.Similar viruses
have also been identified in lamb and calf diarrhea.
Coronavirus
These are well established causes of acute diarrhea
in calves, piglets and dogs. They have been observed
in human feces also but their relation to diarrhea is
uncertain.
Key Points
™™ Rubella virus has been classified in the family
Togaviridae as the only member of the genus Rubivirus
™™ Rubella or German measles is a mild exanthematous
fever characterized by transient macular rash and
lymphadenopathy. Infection is acquired by inhalation
™™ Diagnosis of rubella infection can be established by
isolation of virus from blood or throat swabs in RK13
or Vero cells or by serology (commonly done by ELISA)
™™ Prophylaxis is relevant only in women of child-
bearing age is best carried out by immunization
with a live attenuated vaccine. (RA 27/3 strain grown
in human diploid cell culture) is administered by
subcutaneous injection to children 15 months of
age as such or in combination (mumps-measles-
rubella vaccine)
™™ Hemorrhagic viral fevers is applied only to a
group of diseases, apparently zoonotic in nature,
with typical hemorrhage features caused by
viruses belonging to two families: Arenavirus and
Filoviruses
Coronaviruses: There are two genera in the
Coronaviridae family: Torovirus and Coronavirus
Torovirus: Coronavirus: There seem to be two
serogroups of human coro­naviruses- of domestic
animals and rodents. There is a third distinct
antigenic group which contains the avian infectious
bronchitis virus of chickens. The novel coronavirus
recovered in 2003 from patients with severe acute
respiratory syndrome (SARS) appears to represent
a new (fourth) group of viruses
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 498  |  Section 4: Virology
2. Which of the following can cause congenital
™™ Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) refers
infections?
to a severe atypical pneumonia that assumed
pandemic proportions in 2003 a. Toxoplasma gondii
™™ Reoviridae: There are three genera in this family: b. Rubella virus
Reovirus, Orbivirus and Rotavirus: c. Cytomegalovirus
– Orbivirus: The only known orbivirus infection of d. All of the above
human beings is Colorado tick fever, a minor febrile
3. All of the following viruses can cause haemorrhagic
illness.
fevers except:
–  Rotaviruses are the most common cause of
diarrhea in infants and children. The human a. Junin virus
rotavirus is related to the viruses of epidemic b. Machupo virus
diarrhea of infant mice (EDIM), Nebraska c. Ebola virus
calf diarrhea and the simian virus SAIl. Swine
d. Norwalk virus
rotavirus infects both newborn and weanling
piglets. 4. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) can be
™™ Laboratory diagnosis is by demonstrating of virus by diagnosed by which of the following tests?
IEM, latex agglutination tests, or ELISA. On clarified a. Electron microscopy
fecal samples. Polymerase chain reaction is the b. Growth in Vero cell culture
most sensitive detection method. Development of
c. Cloning
a rotavirus vaccine has been difficult.
Viruses causing diarrhea
d. All of the above
™™ Viruses that are important causes of diarrhea include 5. Which of the following viral agents can cause
rotaviruses, the Norwalk virus, certain adenoviruses diarrhea?
and coronaviruses, and astroviruses. a. Norwalk agent
b. Astroviruses
c. Rotaviruses
IMPORTANT QUESTION
d. All of the above
Write short notes on:
6. All the followings are the causative agents of South
a. Rubella or German measles
American hemorrhagic fever except:
b. Viral hemorrhagic fevers
c. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCM) a. Lassa virus
d. Ebola virus b. Junin virus
e. Coronaviruses c. C. Machupo virus
f. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) d. Ebola virus
g. Viruses causing diarrhea
h. Rotaviruses. 7. Which of the following techniques can be used for
detecting rotavirus infection?
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs) a. Latex agglutination test.
b. ELISA.
1. Which of the following viruses can cause cervical
c. Immune electron microscopy.
cancers?
a. Norwalk virus d. All of the above.
b. Herpes simplex virus
ANSWERS (MCQs)
c. Epstein-Barr virus
d. Human papilloma virus 1. d; 2. d; 3. a; 4. d; 5. d; 6. d; 7. d

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe oncogenic viruses
∙∙ Classify oncogenic viruses
INTRODUCTION
The association of viruses with malignancy dates
from the observation by Ellerman and Bang
(1908). Peyton Rous (1911) showed that a virus
causes fowl sarcoma, a discovery for which he was
awarded the Nobel prize belatedly in 1966. Shope
isolated the rabbit fibroma virus in 1932 and the
papilloma virus in 1933. Bittner (1936) proposed
that breast cancer in mice could be caused by a
virus transmitted from mother to offspring through
breast milk. It is now acknowl­edged that at least
15% of all human tumors worldwide have a viral
cause.
Oncogenic Viruses
Oncogenic viruses are viruses that produce tumors
in their natural hosts or in experimental animals,
or induce malignant trans­formation of cells on
culture.
PROPERTIES OF CELLS TRANSFORMED
BY VIRUSES
Transformation from nor­mal to malignant cell is a
multistep process and may be partial or complete.
Table 71.1 shows properties of cells transformed
by viruses.
TYPES OF TUMOR VIRUSES
Both DNA and RNA viruses are oncogenic.
DNA tumor Viruses: All known tumor viruses
either have a DNA genome or generate a DNA
provirus after infection of cells. DNA tumor viruses
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Chap-71.indd 499
71
Chapter
Oncogenic Viruses
∙∙ Describe oncogenes and mechanism of viral
oncogenesis
∙∙ List of viruses associated with human cancers.
Table 71.1:  Properties of cells transformed by
viruses
I. Altered cell morphology
II. Altered cell metabolism
III. Altered growth characteristics—Transformed cells
are altered in shape and lose the property of ‘contact
inhibition’ so that, instead of growing as monolayer,
they grow piled up, one over another, forming
‘microtumors’
IV. Antigenic alterations—Appearance of new virus-
specified antigens (T-antigen ­TSTA)
V. Tumourogenicity—Capacity to induce tumors in
susceptible animals
are classified among the papil­loma-, polyoma-,
adeno-, herpes-, hepadna-, and poxvirus groups
(Table 71.2).
RNA tumor viruses: Most RNA tumor viruses
belong to the retrovirus family. Retroviruses are
re­sponsible for naturally occurring leukemia and
sarco­ma in several species of animals.
ONCOGENIC VIRUSES (TABLE 71.2)
A. Oncogenic DNA Viruses
I. Papovaviruses (See Chapter 60)
1. Papilloma viruses: Papilloma viruses cause
benign tumors in their natu­r al hosts but
some of them (e.g. condyloma acumina­urn in
humans, rabbit papilloma) may turn malignant.
The association between human papilloma
virus (HPV) infection and cancer of cervix uteri,
particular­ly HPV types 16 and 18 have been
established.
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 500  |  Section 4: Virology
Table 71.2:  List of oncogenic viruses
A. DNA viruses
I. Papovavirus
1. Papillomaviruses of human beings, rabbits and
other animals
2. Polyomavirus
3. Simian virus 40
4. BK and JC viruses
II. Poxvirus
1. Yaba virus (Yaba monkey tumor virus)
2. Shope fibroma virus
3. Molluscum contagiosum virus
III. Adenovirus
Many human and nonhuman types
IV. Herpes virus
I. Marek’s disease virus
2. Lucke’s frog tumour virus
3. Herpes virus pan, papio, ateles and saimiri
4. Epstein–Barr virus
5. Herpes simplex Virus types 1 and 2
6. Cytomegalovirus
V. Hepatitis Band C viruses
B. RNA viruses
I. Retroviruses
1. Avian leukosis viruses
2. Murine leukosis viruses
3. Murine mammary tumor virus
4. Leukosis-sarcoma viruses of various animals
5. Human T-cell leukemia viruses
2. Polyoma virus: The polyoma virus causes
natural latent infection in laboratory and
domestic mice. However, it induces a wide
variety of histologically diverse tumors, when
injected into infant mice or other rodents.
3. Simian virus 40 (SV 40): See Chapter 60.
4. BK and JC virus: The papovaviruses BK and
JC, which cause wide­spread asymptomatic
human infection, can induce tumors in
immunodeficient subjects (see Chapter 60).
II. Poxvirus
Yaba virus produces benign tumors (histiocytomas)
in its natural host, monkeys. Shope fibroma virus
produces fibromas in some rabbits and is able to
alter cells in culture.
Molluscum contagiosum virus produces small
benign growths in human.
III. Adenovirus
Though some types (12, 19,21) of human
adenovirus may produce sarcomas in newborn
rodents after ex­perimental inoculation, they do not
appear to have any association with human cancer.
IV. Herpesvirus
1. Marek’s disease: Marek’s disease is a highly
contagious lymphoproliferative disease of
chickens.
Chap-71.indd 500
Marek’s disease can be pre­vented by vaccination
with an attenuated strain of Marek’s disease
virus.
2. Lucke’s tumor of frogs: A herpesvirus is consi­
dered to be the etiological agent of a renal
adenocarcinoma in frogs.
3. Herpesvirus saimiri: It causes fatal lymphoma
or reticulum cell sarcoma when injected into
owl monkeys or rabbits.
4. Epstein–Barr virus: Epstein–Barr (EB) herpes­
virus causes acute infectious mononucleosis
when it infects B lymphocytes of susceptible
humans. EB virus is etiologically linked to Burkitt’s
lymphoma; to nasopharyngeal carcinoma
(NPC); to post-transplant lymphomas; and to
Hodgkin’s disease. Malaria may be a cofactor of
African Burkitt’s lymphoma.
5. Herpes simplex and cancer cervix: An associ­
ation has been proposed between herpes
simplex type 2 infection and cancer of the
uterine cervix, though not proved.
Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus is also
known as human herpesvirus 8 (KSHV/HHV8).
It is suspected of being the cause of Kaposi’s
sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma, and a
particular lymphoproliferative disorder.
6. Cytomegalovirus: Cytomegalovirus infection
has been associated with carcinoma of the
prostate and Kaposi’s sarcoma.
V. Hepatitis B Virus
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) following
chronic infection with hepatitis B virus is one of
the most prevalent forms of cancer. HBV has been
claimed to be directly or indirectly in­volved in the
etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma.It is also the
only malignant disease of humans preventable by
immunization against the causal agent.
B. Oncogenic RNA Viruses
Retroviruses: Retroviruses contain an RNA genome
and an RN-A­directed DNA polymerase (reverse
transcriptase). RNA tumor viruses in this family
mainly cause tumors of the reticuloendothelial and
hematopoietic systems (leukemias, lymphomas) or
of connective tissue (sarco­mas).
Oncogenic retroviruses:
1. Avian leukosis complex: A group of antigen­
ically related viruses which induce avian
leukosis (lymphomatosis, myeloblastosis and
erythroblastosis viruses) or sarcoma in fowls
(Rous sarcoma virus, RSV).
2. Murine leukosis viruses: This group consists of
several strains of murine leukemia and sarcoma
viruses.
3. Mammary tumor virus of mice: This virus
occurs in certain strains of mice having a high
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 Chapter 71: Oncogenic Viruses  | 501
natural inci­dence of breast cancer. It used to related human virus, HTLV-2, has not been
be known as the ‘milk factor’ or ‘Bittner virus’. conclusively associated with a specific disease.
It multiplies in the mammary gland and is 6. Hepatitis C virus: Chronic infection with
transmitted from mother to offspring through hepatitis C virus is also consid­ered to be a
breast milk. causative factor in hepatocellular carcinoma.
4. Leukosis-sarcoma viruses of other animals:
A number of viruses have been isolated from VIRUSES ASSOCIATED WITH HUMAN
leukosis and sarcomas in various species of CANCER
animals—cat, ham­ster, rat, guinea pig and
monkey. Viruses associated with cancer in human beings
are shown in Table 71.3.
5. Human retroviruses: Human T-cell leukemia
(lymphotropic) viruses (HTLV)
Retroviruses named human T-cell leukemia ONCOGENES
viruses were isolated. HTLV-l has been establi­
“Oncogene” is the general term given to genes
shed as the causative agent of adult T cell
that cause cancer. Viral oncogenes (V-onc),
leukemia-lymphomas (ATL) as well as a ner­vous
commonly known as ‘can­cer genes’ are genes
system degenerative disorder called tropical
which encode proteins triggering transformation
spastic paraparesis. The virus preferentially
of normal cells into cancer cells. Normal versions
infects T4 (CD4) cells. Infect­ed T-cells express
of these transforming genes are present in normal
large quantities of interleukin-2 re­ceptors. A
cells and have been desig­nated proto-oncogenes
Table 71.3:  Viruses implicated in human cancers or c-onc. They are not of viral origin. Oncogenes
are not essential for the replication of the virus
Virus family Virus Tumor
DNA viruses and mutants lacking them occur, which replicate
normally without being oncogenic.
Papovaviridae Human Cervical, vulvar, penile
papilloma cancers Apparently viral oncogenes originated at
virus (HPV) Squamous cell some distant past from proto-oncogenes by
carcinoma recombination between retroviral and cellular
Herpesviridae Epstein–Barr Nasopharyngeal genes. Transduction of the cellular genes was
virus (EBV) carcinoma probably an accident, as the presence of the
African Burkitt’s cellular sequences is of no benefit to the viruses.
HSV type 2 lymphoma
Human B-cell lymphoma
Proto-oncogenes are widespread in vertebrates
herpesvirus 8 Cervical carcinoma and metazoa—from human beings to fruitflies.
Kaposi’s sarcoma They have been found to code for proteins involved
Hepadnaviridae Hepatitis B Hepatocellular in regu­lating cell growth and differentiation.
virus carcinoma Incorrect expression of any component might
RNA viruses: interrupt that regulation, resulting in uncontrolled
growth of cells (cancer). The presumed functions of
Flaviviridae Hepatitis C Primary liver cancer
virus many oncogenes have been identified (Table 71.4).
Retroviridae Human T-cell Adult T-cell leukemia/ Transfection: Transfection is a useful method for
lymphotropic lymphoma the study of oncogenes. Certain mouse fibroblast
virus (HTLV-1)
cell lines, such as NIH 3T3, can take up foreign
Table 71.4:  Some oncogenes* and their chromosomal locations in humans
Viral oncogene Origin Natural tumor Human gene Chromosomal location in human
beings
V-src Chicken Sarcoma C-src 20
V-ras Rat Sarcoma C-ras 11
V-myc Chicken Leukemia C-myc 8
V-fes Cat Sarcoma C-fes 15
V-sis Monkey Sarcoma C-sis 22
V-mos Mouse Sarcoma C-mos 8
*Oncogenes are given three-letter codes from the animal or tumor from which they are derived, preceded by either V- or C-, for viral or
cellular genes, respectively
src, sarcoma of chicken; ras, rat sarcoma; sis, simian sarcoma

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 502  |  Section 4: Virology
DNA, incorporate them into their genome and
express them. This method of gene transfer is called
transfection.
ANTIONCOGENES
A class of genes has been identified in normal human
cells, whose function appears to be inhibition of
malignant transformation. They have been termed
antioncogenes, tumor-suppressor or growth-
suppressor genes.
Examples
i. Retinoblastoma (Rb) gene: The loss of
Rb gene function is causally related to the
development of retinoblastoma-a rare ocular
tumor of children-and other human tumors.
ii. p53 gene: The p53 gene is mutated in over half
of all human cancers. Specific chromosomal
deletions, recognized in associ­ation with
certain types of human cancers may reflect
the loss of tumor-suppressor genes.
MECHANISMS OF VIRAL ONCOGENESIS
DNA genome: Some viruses that possess a DNA
genome, or that synthesize DNA during repli­
cation (the retroviruses), are able to induce malig­
nant changes in cells, both in vivo and in vitro
(transformation). The viral DNA (or a portion of
it) is integrated with the host cell genome in the
case of oncogenic DNA viruses. The viral DNA
being incomplete or ‘defec­tive’, no infectious virus
is produced. However, under its influence, the host
cell undergoes malignant trans­formation. A virus-
transformed cancer cell is in many ways analogous
to a bacterium lysogenized by a de­fective phage.
Retroviruses: Retroviruses carry an RNA-directed
polymerase (reverse transcriptase) that constructs
a DNA copy of the RNA genome of the virus. The
DNA copy (provirus) becomes integrated into the
Chap-71.indd 502
DNA of the infected host cell, and it is from this
integrated DNA copy that all proteins of the virus
are translated.
Key Points
™™ Oncogenic viruses are viruses that produce tumors
in their natural hosts or in experimental animals, or
induce malignant trans­formation of cells on culture
™™ DNA tumor viruses are classified among the papil­
loma-, polyoma-, adeno-, herpes-, hepadna- and
poxvirus groups
™™ Most RNA tumor viruses belong to the retrovirus
family. Retroviruses are re­sponsible for naturally
occurring leukemia and sarco­ma in several species
of animals
™™ Viral oncogenes (V-onc), commonly known as
‘can­cer genes’ are genes which encode proteins
triggering transformation of normal cells into cancer
cells
™™ The main oncogenic DNA viruses are papillo­
maviruses, Epstein-Barr virus, and hepatitis B. Most
of the oncogenic RNA viruses are retroviruses.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Define and classify oncogenic viruses.
2. Enumerate RNA and DNA oncogenic viruses.
Describe mechanism of viral carcinogenesis.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Viral oncogenes.
b. Viruses associated with human cancer.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. Which of the following viruses can be oncogenic?
a. Polyomavirus b. Simian virus 40
c. Marek’s disease virus d. All the above
2. All of the following viruses are associated with
human cancercepy:
a. Human papilloma viruses b. Epsten Barr virus
c. Hepatitis C virus d. All the above
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. d; 2. d
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 Section 5: Medical Mycology
General Properties, Classification and
Laboratory Diagnosis of Fungi
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
∙∙ Differntiate between fungi and bacteria
Introduction
Mycology is the study of fungi.
Differences of fungi from bacteria
1. They pos­sess rigid cell walls containing chitin,
mannan and other polysaccharides.
2. The cytoplasmic membrane contains sterols.
3. Cytoplasmic contents include mitochondria
and endoplasmic reticulum.
4. They possess true nuclei with nuclear membrane
and paired chromosomes.
5. They may be unicellular or multicellular.
6. They divide asexually, sexually or by both the
processes.
7. Most fungi are obligate or facultative aerobes.
8. They are chemotrophic.
9. The cells show various degrees of specialization.
General properties of fungi
Fungi grow in two basic forms, as yeasts and molds.
Yeast: The simplest type of fungus is the unicellular
bud­ding yeast.
Hypha: Elongation of the cell produces a tubular,
thread like structure called hypha.
Hyphae may be septate or nonseptate.
Mycelium: A tangled mass of hyphae constitutes
the mycelium. Fungi which form mycelia are called
moulds or filamentous fungi.
In a growing colony of filamentous fungus,
the mycelium can be divided into the vegetative
mycelium and the aerial mycelium.
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72
Chapter
∙∙ Classify fungi
∙∙ Describe laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections
∙∙ Discuss diseases caused by fungi.
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
Fungi are placed in the phylum Thallophyta. It
is divisible into two groups, algae and fungi. See
Flowchart 72.1.
Algae: Algae produce their own food by means of
chlorophyll possessed by them.
Fungi: Fungi do not possess chloro­phyll and are,
therefore, saprophytes or parasites.
A. Morphological classification
B. Systematic classification.
A. Morphological Classification
On the basis of morphology, there are four groups
of fungi:
1. Yeasts: Yeasts are round, oval or elongated
unicellular fungi. Most reproduce by an asexual
process called budding. (Fig. 72.1). Some
reproduce by fission. On culture, they form
smooth, creamy colonies.
Examples: Cryptococcus neoformans.
2. Yeast-like fungi: Yeast-like fungi grow partly as
yeast and partly as elongated cells resembling
hyphae. The latter form a pseudomycelium.
Example: Candida albicans.
3. Molds or filamentous fungi: Molds or filament­
ous fungi form true mycelia and reproduce by
the formation of different types of spores.
Examples of molds: Dermatophytes, Aspegillus,
Penicillium, Mucor and Rhizopus.
4. Dimorphic fungi: Many fungi pathogenic to
man have a yeast form in the host tissue and
504  |  Section 5: Medical Mycology
Flowchart 72.1: Classification of Fungi
Fig. 72.1: Basic fungal morphology
in vitro at 37°C on enriched media and hyphal
(mycelial) form in vitro at 25°C.
Examples: Histoplasma capsulatum, Sporothrix
schenckii, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Coccidioi­
des immitis, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, and
Penicillium marneffei.
B. Systematic Classification
On the basis of formation of sexual spores, fungi
have been divided into four classes (See Flowchart
72.1).
1. Zygomycetes: Examples: Rhizopus, absidia,
mucor, pilobolus.
Other three classes, Ascomycetes, Basi­diomy­
cetes and Deuteromycetes or Fungi Imperfecti
possess septate hyphae.
2. Ascomycetes: Ascomycetes include both yeasts
and filamentous fungi.
3. Basidiomycetes: Examples: Mushrooms, Filo­
basidiella neoformans (anamorph, Cryptococcus
neo­formans.
4. Deute­romycetes (Fungi Imperfecti): Most
fungi of medical importance belong to this class.
Examples: Coccidioides immitis, Paracocci­
dioides brasiliensis, Candida albicans.
Reproduction and sporulation
Types of fungal spores: Fungal spores are of two
types- sexual and asexual spores.
A. Sexual spores: Sexual spore is formed by
fusion of cells and meiosis as in all forms of higher
life. Sexual spores are of four types—oospore,
ascospore, zygospore and basidiospore (Fig. 72.2).
B. Asexual spores: These spores are produced by
mitosis. These may be vegetative spores or aerial
spores
a. Vegetative spores (Fig. 72.3)
i. Blastospores: These are formed by budding
from parent cell, as in yeasts.
ii. Arthrospores: These are formed by the pro­
duction of cross-septa into hyphae resulting
in rectangular thick-walled spores.
iii. Chlamydospores: These are thick-walled
resting spores developed by rounding up and
thickening of hyphal segments.
b. Aerial spores (Fig. 72.4)
i. Conidiospores: Spores borne externally on
sides or tips of hyphae are called conidiospores
or simply conidia.
ii. Microconidia: When conidia are small and
single, these are called microconidia.
iii. Macroconidia: These are large and septate
conidia and are often multicellular.
iv. Sporangiospores: These are spores formed
within the sporangium. They develop on
the ends of hyphae called sporangiophores.
Examples: Mucor and Rhizopus.
 Chapter 72: General Properties, Classification and Laboratory Dignosis of Fungi  | 505
of mycoses can be identified by the following
methods.

B. Direct Microscopy
I. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Preparation
A portion of the treated specimen should be
examined microscopically to determine whether
hyphal elements are present. Most specimens
can be exam­ined satisfactorily in wet mounts
after partial digestion of the tissue with 10–20%
potassium hydroxide. The alkali digests cells
and other tissue materials, enabling the fungus
elements to be seen clearly. Newer preparations
for the KOH test may provide easier and more
reliable results.

II. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) with Calcofluor

Fig. 72.2: Sexual spores White
Addition of Calcofluor white and subsequent
examina­tion by fluorescence microscopy enhances
the detection of most fungi.

III. Gram-staining
It is used for the diagnosis of yeast infections of
mucous membranes.

IV. India Ink Preparations

It may be used for detecting encapsulated yeast
Cryptococcus neoformans in cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF).
Fig. 72.3: Vegetaive spores
V. Histology
Common tissue stains used for detection of fungal
elements are the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS), Grocott–
Gomori methenamine-silver (GMS), hematoxylin
and eosin (H and E), Giemsa, and the Fontana–
Masson stains, are based on the presence of chitin
and polysaccharides in their cell wall.

Fig. 72.4: Aerial spores
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Collection and Processing of
Specimens
The sampling proce­dures vary according to the
area and type of tissue involved. Causative agents
C. Culture
1. Culture Media: The commonest culture media
used in mycology are Sab­ouraud’s dextrose agar
(SDA, pH 5.4), SDA with antibiotics, potato
dextrose or the slightly modified potato flakes
agar (PFA), and brain heart infusion (BHI) agar
with blood and antibiotics. The antimicrobials
usually included in SDA with antibiotics are
chloramphenicol and gentamicin to inhibit
bacterial growth and cycloheximide (actidione)
to inhibit saprophytic fungi. The pH of Emmons’
modification of SDA is close to neutral and is
more efficient medium for primary isolation
than the original for­mulation.
2. Incubation: Cultures are routinely incubated
in parallel at room temperature 25°C (room

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506  |  Section 5: Medical Mycology
temperature for weeks) and at 37°C for days.
Cultures should be retained for at least 2-3
weeks before being discarded.
D. Identification of Fungi
Once an organism has grown, it is examined for
characteristic gross and microscopic structures,
so that identification can be made (Fig. 72.5).
1. Gross or macroscopic examination of
cultures: Growth characteristics useful for
identification are the rapidity of growth, colour
and morphology of the colony on the obverse
and pigmentation on the reverse.
2. Microscopic examination
i. Tease mount: For microscopic examination
slide mounts should be made in lactophenol
cotton blue (LCB) from fungal colony (in
teased mounts or slide cultures) to study
the morphology of hyphae, spores and other
structures. Teased mounts are prepared
in lactophenol cotton blue (LCB) which
contains lactic acid, phenol and cotton blue.
Microscopic characteristics that should be
obtained as the following:
a. Septate versus sparsely septate hyphae
b. Spores or conidia
ii. Cellophane tape preparation: It should be
read within 30 minutes and then dis­carded.
iii. Slide culture: Slide culture provides a
useful technique for demonstrating the
natural morphology of fungal structures.
3. Tests for the identification of molds:
i. Hair perforation test: It is done to differtiate
T. rubrum, from T. mentagrophytes,.
ii. Urease test: It is done to help differentiate T.
menta­gro­phytes from T. rubrum
iii. Thiamine requirement
iv. Trichophyton agars
v. Growth on rice grains.
4. Tests for the identification of yeasts
Germ tube production, carbohydrate assimilation,
chromogenic substrates, cornmeal agar, potassium
nitrate assimilation, temperature studies and urease.
E. Serologic Tests
The most common tests for
a. Fungal anti­bodies:
1. Immunodiffusion; 2. countercurrent immuno-
electrophoresis (CIE); 3. whole cell agglutination;
4. complement fixation; 5. Enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
b. Antigen detection:
1. Latex particle agglutination; 2. ELISA.
F. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detection of
fungal DNA in clinical material.
Fig. 72.5: Asexual forms and asexual spores of fungi
Mycoses (Fungus Infections)
Infection caused by fungus is known as mycosis
(plural mycoses).
Classification of mycoses
Classification of fungal disease according to
primary sites of infections is as follows (Table 72.1):
A. Superficial mycoses: These infections are
limited to the outer­most layers of the skin and
hair. These include:
a. Infection of skin caused by Malassezia
furfur (pityriasis versicolor) and Exophiala
werneckii (tinea nigra), and
b. Infection of hair caused by Piedraia hortae
(black piedra) and Trichosporon beigelii
(white piedra).
B. Cutaneous mycoses: Infections that extend
deeper into the epidermis as well as invasive
hair and nail diseases.
Examples
a. Infection of skin, hair and nail caused by
der­matophytes.
b. Infection of skin, nail and mucous membrane
caused by C. albicans and other Candida
specicies.
C. Subcutaneous mycoses: These infections
involve the dermis, subcutaneous tissues,
muscle, and fascia.
Examples: Mycetoma, chromomycosis, sporotri­
chosis and rhinosporidiosis.
D. Systemic mycoses: Systemic mycoses-infections
that originate primarily in the lung but that
may spread to many organ systems. Systemic
mycoses are caused by inhalation of airborne
spores.
Examples: Blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, cocci­
dioidomycosis and paracoccidioidomycosis.
 Chapter 72: General Properties, Classification and Laboratory Dignosis of Fungi  | 507
Table 72.1  The major mycoses and causative fungi
Type of mycosis Mycosis Causative Fungal Agents
A. Superficial Pityriasis versicolor Malassezia species
Tinea nigra Hortaea werneckii
White piedra Trichosporon species
Black piedra Piedraia hortae
B. Cutaneous Dermatophytosis Microsporum species, Trichophyton species, and
Epidermophyton floccosum
Candidiasis of skin, mucosa, or nails Candida albicans and other candida species
C. Subcutaneous Sporotrichosis Sporothrix schencki
Chromoblastomycosis Phialophora verrucosa, Fonsecaea pedrosoi, others
Mycetoma Pseudallescheria boydii, Madurella mycetomatis, others
Phaeohyphomycosis Exophiala, bipolaris, exserohilum, and others
D. Systemic (prlmary, Coccidioidomycosis Coccidioides immitis, C. posadasii
endemic) Histoplasmosis Histoplasma capsulatum
Blastomycosis Blastomyces dermatitidis
Paracoccidioidomycosis Paracoccidioides brasiliensis
E. Opportunistic Systemic candidiasis Candida albicans and other candida species
Cryptococcosis Cryptococcus neoformans
Aspergillosis Aspergillus fumigatus and other aspergillus species
Mucormycosis (zygomycosis) Species of Rhizopus, Absidia, Mucor, and other
zygomycetes
Penicilliosis Penicillium marneffei

E. Opportunistic mycoses: Opportunistic infection Important Questions

occurrs in patients with debilitating dis­eases.
1. Describe the laboratory diagnosis of fungal diseases.
Opportunistic infections are caused mainly by 2. Write short notes on classification of fungi.
fungi that are normally avirulent.
Examples: Aspergillosis, penicilliosis, zy­gomycosis Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
or mucormycosis, candidiasis and cryp­tococcosis.
1. All the following fungi are mold except:
F. Miscellaneous mycoses: Penicilliosis, otomy­ a. Aspergillus fumigates
cosis and keratomycosis. b. Rhizopus
c. Absidia
Key Points d. Cryptococcus neoformans
2. All the following are examples of dimorphic fungi
™™ Mycology is the study of fungi except:
™™ The cell wall of fungi possesses two characteristic a. Coccidioides immitis
cell structures: chitin and ergosterol b. Cryptococcus neoformans
™™ Fungi grow in two basic forms, as yeasts and molds.
c. Sporothrix schenkii
Elongation of the cell produces a tubular, thread like
d. Blastomyces dermatitidis
structure called hypha (septate or nonseptate). A
tangled mass of hyphae constitutes the mycelium. 3. Which of the following methods can be used for
Fungi which form mycelia are called molds or laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections?
filamentous fungi a. Direct microscopy of specimens
™™ The fungi are classified in the phylum Thallophyta. b. Culture
The phylum consists of four classes of fungi c. Histology
Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, and d. All the above
Deuteromycetes or Fungi Imperfecti 4. Which of the following culture media can be used
™™ The fungi can also be classified as yeast, yeast-like for growing fungi?
fungi, molds, and dimorphic fungi depending on a. Sabouraud’s dextrose agar
their morphology b. Brain heart infusion agar
™™ Laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections depends
c. Both the above
on: Direct microscopy, culture, serological tests,
nonculture methods and molecular methods
d. None of the above
™™ Mycoses (fungus infections): Infection caused by Answers (MCQs)
fungus is known as mycosis (plural mycoses). 1. d; 2. d; 3. d; 4. c

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Superficial, Cutaneous and
Subcutaneous Mycoses
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ List superficial, cutaneous and subcutaneous
mycoses
A. SUPERFICIAL MYCOSES
These infections are limited to the outer­most layers
of the skin and hair. These include:
a. Infection of skin: Caused by Malassezia furfur
(pityriasis versicolor) and Exophiala werne­ckii
(tinea nigra)
b. Infection of hair: Caused by Piedraia hortae
(black piedra) and Trichosporon beigelii (white
piedra).
a. Infection of Skin
Pityriasis Versicolor (Tinea Versicolor)
Pityriasis versicolor (Tinea versicolor) is a chronic,
usually asymptomatic, involvement of the stratum
corneum, characterized by discrete or confluent
macular areas of discoloration or depigmentation
of the skin. The areas involved are mainly the chest,
abdomen, up­per limbs and back. The disease is
worldwide in distribution.
Causative agent: A lipophilic, yeast-like fungus
Pityro­sporum orbiculare (Malas­sezia furfur).
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Direct microscopy: The diagnosis is confirmed
by direct microscopic examination of scrap­ings
of infected skin, treated with 10–20% KOH or
stained with calcofluor white. Demonstration of
clusters of the characteristic round yeast cells with
short, stout hyphae, which may be curved and
occasionally branched, is diagnostic (Fig. 73.1).
B. Culture: The fungus can be grown on Sabour­
aud’s agar, covered with a layer of olive oil.
Chap-73.indd 508
73
Chapter
∙∙ Describe causative agets of ectothrix and endothrix
∙∙ Describe the following: mycetoma; chromoblasto-
mycosis; sporotrichosis; rhinosporidiosis.
Fig. 73.1: Morphology of pityriasis versicolor
Creamy colony develop within 5–7 days at 37°C.
Lactophenol cotton blue mount of the colonies
show budding yeast cells along with a number
of bottleshaped cells. Hyphae are occasionally
seen in culture.
Tinea Nigra
Tinea nigra (or tinea nigra palmaris) is a localized
infection of the stratum corneum, particularly of
the palms, producing black or brownish macular
lesions. It is caused by the dematiaceous fungus
Hortaea (Exophiala) werneckii.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Direct microscopy: Microscopic examination
of skin scrapings from the periphery of the
lesion will reveal brownish, branched, septate
hyphae and budding cells (Fig. 73.2).
B. Culture: On Sabouraud agar the fungus
develops as grey, yeast-like colonies, which
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 Chapter 73: Superficial, Cutaneous and Subcutaneous Mycoses  | 509
Fig. 73.2: Hortaea werneckii
gradually become, more mycelial and darker
coloured with age.
b. Infection of Hair
Piedra
Piedra is a fungal infection of the hair, characterised
by the appearance of firm, irregular nodules
along the hair shaft. Two varieties of piedra are
recognised–black piedra caused by Pie­draia hortae
and white piedra caused by Trichospo­ron beigelii.
Black Piedra
This condition, caused by Piedraia hortae. It
is characterized by the presence of black, hard
nodules up to 1 mm in diameter, mainly on the
hairs of the scalp.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Direct microscopy: Crushing the nodules
reveals the sexual reproductive phase, club-
shaped asci, each with eight ascospores.
B. Culture: Culture is not necessary.
White Piedra
White piedra, an infection of the hair, is caused by the
yeast-like organism Trichosporon beigelii. Axillary,
pubic, beard, and scalp hair may be infected.
B. CUTANEOUS MYCOSES
Infections that extend deeper into the epidermis as
well as invasive hair and nail disease.
Examples:
a. Infection of skin, hair and nail caused by der­
matophytes.
b. Infection of skin, nail and mucous membrane
caused by C. albicans and other Candida
specicies.
Dermatophytes
The dermatophytes are a group of closely related
filamen­t ous fungi that infect only superficial
keratinized tis­sues—the skin, hair and nails.
Dermatophytoses are among the most prevalent
infections in the world. Being superfi­cial, dermatophyte
(ringworm) infections have been rec­ognized since
antiquity.
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Chap-73.indd 509
Classification
Dermatophytes have been classified into three
genera:
A. Trichophyton: Tri­chophyton species infect hair,
skin or nails.
B. Microsporum: Microsporum species infect only
hair and skin.
C. Epidermo­phyton: Epidermophyton attacks the
skin and nails but not the hair.
About 40 species of dermatophytes are known
to cause infection in humans and animals.
Dermatophytes are probably restricted to the non­
viable skin because most are unable to grow at 37°C
or in the presence of serum.
Classification depeding on habitat: Dermato­
phytes are classified as anthropophilic, geophilic,
zoophilic, or depending on whether their usual
habitat is soil, animals or humans.
1. Anthropophilic species: Human beings are
the main or only hosts for anthropophilic
dermatophytes. Exam­ples are T. rubrum, M
audouinii and Epidermo­phyton floccosum.
2. Zoophilic spe­cies: These are natural parasites
of animals. Examples are T. verrucosum in cattle
and M. canis in dogs and cats.
3. Geophilic species: They occur naturally in soil
and are relatively less pathogenic for human
beings. Ex­amples are M. gypseum and T. ajelloi.
Identification
In skin, they are diagnosed by the presence of
hyaline, septate, branching hyphae or chains of
arthroconidia. In cultures on Sabouraud’s agar,
they form characteristic colonies consisting of
septate hy­phae and two types of asexual spores,
microconidia and macroconidia. Differentiation
into the three genera is based mainly on the nature
of macro­conidia (Fig 73.3). In culture, the many
species are closely related and often difficult to
identify.
Morphology and Identification
Dermatophytes are identified by their colonial
appear­ance and microscopic morphology after
growth for 2 weeks at 25°C on Sabouraud’s dextrose
agar.
Trichophyton
Colonies may be powdery, vel­vety or waxy, with
pigmentation characteristic of dif­ferent species.
Microconidia are abundant and are arranged in
clusters along the hyphae or borne on co­nidiophores.
Macroconidia are relatively scanty. They are
generally elongated, with blunt ends (Figs 73.3
and 73.4). Macroconidia have distinctive shapes in
different spe­cies and are of importance in species
identification. Some species possess special hyphal
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 510  |  Section 5: Medical Mycology
Fig. 73.3: Characteristic macroconidia of dermatophytes. (1)
Cylindrical in Trichophyton; (2) Fusiform in Microsporum; and
(3) Club-shaped in Epidermophyton
characters, such as spiral hyphae, racquet mycelium
and favic chandeliers (Fig. 73.4).
Important Species
T. rubrum, T. mentagrophyte, T. tonsurans, T.
schoenleinii, T. violaceum.
T. rubrum: The typical colony of T. rubrum has a
white, cottony surface and a deep red, nondiffusible
pigment when viewed from the reverse side of the
colony. The microconidia are small and piriform
(pear-shaped) and clubshaped thinwalled macro­
conidia (scanty).
T. mentagrophyte: T. mentagrophyte has grape-
like clusters of microconidia (Fig. 73.4) and cigar
shaped macroconidia.It has no red pigment and
urease positive. Hair perforation test is positive.
T. tonsurans: T. tonsurans produces a flat,
powdery to velvety colony on the obverse surface
that becomes reddish-brown on reverse. The
microconidia are mostly elongate (Fig. 73.4).
Microsporum
Colonies are cotton-like, velvety or powdery, with
white to brown pigmentation. Micro­conidia are
relatively scanty and are not distinctive. Macroconidia
are the predominant spore form. They are large,
multicellular, spindle shaped structures, borne singly
on the ends of hyphae. Both types of conidia are
borne singly in these genera. Microsporum species
infect only hair and skin but usually not the nail.
Important species are M. audouinii, M. canis,
M. gypseum
M. audouinii
M. audouinii rarely forms conidia in the culture but
many thick-walled chlamydospores (chlamydo­
conidia) may be present. It is anthropophilic.
Chap-73.indd 510
Fig. 73.4: Trichophyton species. Macroconidium, spiral
hypha and typical microconidia
M. canis
M. canis forms numerous thick-walled, 8–15 celled
macroconidia with curved or hooked spiny tips. A
lemon-yellow or yellow-orange pigment develops
on the reverse of the colony. It is zoophilic.
M. gypseum
M. gypseum colonies grow rapidly producing a flat,
spreading, powdery surface that is cinnamonbuff to
brown which consists of abundant macroconidia.
They are boat-shaped, rough walled with 4 to 6
septa. It is geophilic.
Pathogenicity
Dermatophytes grow only on the keratinised
layers of the skin and its appendages and do not
ordinarily penetrate the living tissues. Lesions vary
considerably according to the site of the infection
and the species of fungus involved.
Dermatophytids (or ‘id’ reaction): Hypersensitivity
to fungus antigens may play a role in pathogenesis
and is probably responsible for the sterile
vesicular lesions, sometimes seen in sites distant
from the ringworm. These lesions are called
dermatophytids (or ‘id’ reaction). Hypersensitivity
can be demonstrated by skin testing with the fungus
antigen, trichophytin.
Types of hair infections: Three types of hair
infection can be seen in 10% KOH wet mounts:
1. Ectothrix: In this, the hyphae are sparsely
distributed within hair shaft with a sheath
of arthrospores on the surface of hair shaft.
It is caused by M. audouinii, M. canis and T.
mentagrophytes (Fig. 73.5A).
2. Endothrix: In this, the arthrospore forma­tion
occurs entirely within the hair completely filling
the hair shaft. This is caused by T. tons­urans and
T. violaceum (Fig. 73.5B).
3. Favus: In this, there is sparse hyphal growth and
formation of air spaces within the hair shaft.
This is caused by T. schoenleinii (Fig. 73.5C).
Clinical Findings
Dermatophyte infections were mistakenly termed
ring­worm or tinea. Table 73.1 lists the clinical
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 Chapter 73: Superficial, Cutaneous and Subcutaneous Mycoses  | 511
Table 73.1:  Clinical types of dermatophytoses and
their common causative agents
Disease Common causative agents
Tinea capitis Microsporum any species,
Trichophyton most species
Favus T. schoenleinii, T. violaceum,
M. gypseum
Tinea barbae T. rubnun, T. mentagrophytes,
T. verrucosum
Tinea imbricata T. concentricum
Tinea corporis T. rubrum and any other
dermatophyte
T. cruris E. floccosum, T. rubrum
T. pedis T. rubrum, E. Boccosum
Ectothrix hair infection Microsporum species,
A B C
T. rubrum, T.menrngrophytes
Figs 73.5A to C: Various forms of hair invasion by dermato­
Endothrix hair infection T. schoenieinii, T. tonsurans,
phytes as seen in longitudinal and transverse sections of hair
T. violaceum
shaft: (A) Ectothrix with hyphae sparsely distributed within
hair shaft and a sheath of arthroconidia on the outside; (B)
Endothrix with heavy arthroconidia formation completely with or without calcofluor white. In skin or nails,
filling hair shaft; (C) Favus showing sparse hyphal growth and branched septate hyphae or chains of arthroconidia
formation of air spaces (arthrospores) are seen.
Selection of infected hair for examination is
types of dermatophytoses and their common
facilitated by exposure to UV light (Wood’s lamp).
causative agents.
Infected hair will be fluorescent. Two types of hair
The clinical forms are based on the site of
infection may be distinguished in wet mounts,
involvement.
‘ectothrix’ (Figs 73.5A to C) and ‘endothrix’.
1. Tinea corporis (Tinea glabrosa): It is ringworm
of the smooth or nonhairy skin of the body. A C. Culture
special type Tinea imbricata is characterized by
Specimens are inoculated onto inhibitory mold
extensive con­centric rings of papulosquamous
agar or Sabouraud’s agar slants containing cyclo­
scaly patches.
heximide and chloramphenicol to suppress mold
2. Tinea cruris or jock itch: When the infection
and bacte­rial growth, incubated for 1–3 weeks at
occurs in the groin and the perineum.
room temperature, and further examined in slide
3. Tinea manus: Ringworm of the hands or fingers.
cultures if necessary. Species are identified on the
4. Tinea barbae or barber’s itch: It is involvement
basis of colonial morphol­ogy (growth rate, surface
of the bearded areas of the face and neck.
texture, and any pigmenta­t ion), microscopic
5. Tinea pedis or ath­letes’ foot: It is ringworm of
morphology (macroconidia, micro­conidia), and,
the foot.
in some cases, nutritional requirements.
6. Tinea unguium (onychomycosis): Nail
infection may follow prolonged tinea pedis. Epidemiology
7. Tinea capitis: Ringworm of the scalp and hair.
Dermatophytosis occurs throughout the world
8. Favus: It is a chronic type of ringworm in which
Tinea pedis is rare in the tropics where most walk
dense crusts (scutula) develop in the hair
barefoot. In India, tinea capitis occurs more often
follicles, which lead to alopecia and scarring.
in the native children than in Europeans.
9. Kerion: Scalp infection sometimes produces
severe boggy le­sions with marked inflammatory Treatment and Prevention
reaction called kerion. Topical therapy is satisfactory for most skin
infections. Topical agents include azole compounds,
Laboratory Diagnosis
terbinafine, amorolfine and ciclopirox olamine.
A. Specimens Oral griseofulvin is useful for scalp, skin and
Specimens consist of scrapings from both the skin fingernail infections. Relatively little has been done
and the nails plus hairs plucked from involved areas. to control the spread of ringworm.
B. Microscopic Examination
C. SUBCUTANEOUS MYCOSES
The routine method of diagno­sis is by the examin­
ation of KOH mounts. Specimens are placed on The principal subcutaneous mycoses are mycetoma,
a slide in a drop of 10–20% potassium hydroxide, chromomycosis, sporotrichosis and rhinosporidiosis.

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 512  |  Section 5: Medical Mycology
1. Mycetoma Table 73.2  Important causative agents and color
Mycetoma is a chronic, granulomatous infection of the grains of various types of mycetoma
of the skin, subcutaneous tissues, fascia and bone, Causative agent Color of the grains
which most often affects the foot or the hand. A. Eumycetoma
The disease was originally reported by Gill (1842) •  Madurella mycetomatis Black
from Madurai, South India, and Carter (1860)
•  M. grisea Black
established its fungal etiology. It is, therefore,
•  Exophiala jeanselmei Black
commonly known as Maduramycosis or Madura
foot. •  Pseudallescheria boydii White-yellow
Mycetoma occurs worldwide. The disease is •  Acremonium falciforme White-yellow
most prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions •  Aspergillus nidulans White
of Africa, Asia and Central America. In India, it is B. Actinomycetoma
quite common in Tamil Nadu but rare in Kerala. •  Actinomadura madurae White-yellow
•  A. pellitieri Red-yellow
Etiology
•  Nocardia asteroids White-yellow
It can be divided into three types, eumycetomas,
•  N. brasiliensis White
actinomycetomas and botryomycosis. A similar
condition called ‘botryomycosis’ is caused by •  Streptomyces somaliensis Yellow
Staphylococcus aureus and some other bacteria. C. Botryomycosis
Important causative agents of these are given in •  Staphylococcus species White
Table 73.2. •  Streptococcus species White
•  Escherichia coli White
Pathogenesis •  Proteus species White
Triad of symptoms: Infection follows traumatic •  Pseudomonas aeruginosa . White
inoculation of the organism into the subcutaneous Actinobacillus lignieresi Yellow
tissue from soil or vegetable sources, usually on
thorns or splinters and results in tume­factions,
Treatment
deformities and draining sinuses discharg­ing
fungal colonies called grains or granules (triad of The management of eumycetoma is difficult,
symptoms). Subcutaneous tissues of the feet, lower involving surgical debridement or excision and
extremities, hands, and exposed areas are most chemotherapy. Actinomycetoma responds well to
often involved. rifampicin in combi­nation with sulfonamides or
cotrimoxazole.
Grains: Within host tissues the organisms develop
to form compacted colonies (grains) 0.5–2 mm 2. Chromoblastomycosis
in diameter, the color of which depends on the This disease, also known as chromomycosis, is a
organism responsible. The color and consistency chronic, localized disease of the skin and subcutan­
of the grains vary with the different agents causing eous tissues. The disease is mainly encountered in
the disease (Table 73.2). the tropics.
Laboratory Diagnosis Etiological agents: The etiological agents are soil
inhabiting fungi of the family Dematiaceae.
A. Direct Examination All are dematiaceous fungi which are darkly
The presence of grains in pus collected from pigmented fungi. These include: Phialophora
draining sinuses or in biopsy material is diagnostic. verrucosa, Fonse­caea pedrosoi, Rhinocladiella
The grains are visible to the naked eye and their aquaspersa, Fonsecaea com­pacta, and Cladophial­
color may help to identify the causal agent. Grains ophora carrionii.
should be examined microscopically to differentiate They enter the skin by traumatic implantation.
between actinomycetoma and eumycetoma. The lesion develops slowly around the site
Material from actinomycetoma grains may be Gram of implantation. The infection is chronic and
stained to demonstrate the gram-positive filaments. characterized by the slow development of progres­
sive granulomatous lesions that in time induce
B. Culture hyperplasia of the epidermal tissue.
Samples should also be cultured, at both 25–30°C
and 37°C, on brain-heart infusion agar or blood Laboratory Diagnosis
agar for acti­nomycetes and on Sabouraud agar A. Microscopic examination: Histologically, the
(without cyclohex­imide) for fungi. The fungi that lesions show the presence of the fungus as
cause eumycetoma are all septate molds that round or irregular, dark brown, yeast­like bodies
appear in culture within 1–4 weeks. with septae, called sclerotic cells (Fig. 73.6).

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 Chapter 73: Superficial, Cutaneous and Subcutaneous Mycoses  | 513
Fig. 73.6: Chromoblastomycosis: KOH mount of lesion
large septate ‘sclerotic bodies’
Diagnosis can be established by demonstration
of these sclerotic bodies in KOH mounts or in
sec­tions, and by culture on Sabouraud’s agar.
B. Culture: Culture on Sabouraud agar at 25–30°C
yields slow-growing, greenish grey to black,
compact, folded colonies. Cultures should be
incubated for 4–6 weeks.
Phaeohyphomycosis
Phaeohyphomycosis is a term applied to infections
char­acterized by the presence of darkly pigmented
septate hyphae in tissue. The sites of lesions may be
cutaneous, subcutaneous, deeper tissues, or organs
like the brain or lung. Sclerotic cells or granules are
not found. The fungi appear in lesions as distorted
hyphal strands.
3. Sporotrichosis
Sporotrichosis is a chronic, pyogenic granulomatous
infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissues
which may remain localized or show lymphatic
spread. The disease is worldwide and is rare in
Europe.
Causative agent: Sporothrix schenckii, a saprophyte
in nature.
Pathogenesis
The fungus is a sapro­phyte found widely on plants,
thorns and timber. Infec­tion is acquired through
thorn pricks or other minor injuries.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis is made by culture as frequently the
fungus may not be demonstrable in pus or tissues.
A. Microscopic examination: Direct microscopy
is of little value.
B. Culture: SDA or blood agar are the media used.
S. schenckii is a dimorphic fungus occurring
in the yeast phase in tissues and in cultures at
37°C, and in the mycelial phase in nature and
in cultures at room temperature. The septate
hyphae are very thin (1-2 mm diameter) and
carry flower-like clusters of small conidia borne
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Chap-73.indd 513
Fig. 73.7: Sporothrix (Sporotrichum) schenckii: culture mount
showing fine branching hyphae and pear shaped conidle
borne in rosette clusters at tips of lateral branches and singly
along sides of hyphae
on delicate sterigmata (Fig. 73.7). Conidia are
also produced along the sides of the hyphae.
C. Serology: A latex agglutination test is of value
for the diagnosis of the extracutaneous forms of
sporotrichosis.
D. Skin test: A skin test with sporotrichin antigen
is positive in almost all patients with cutaneous
sporotrichosis.
E. Animal inoculation: Rats are highly susceptible
and can be infected by intraperitoneal or
intratesticular inoculation.
4. Rhinosporidiosis
Rhinosporidiosis is a chronic granulomatous
disease characterized by the development of large
polyps or wart-like lesions in the nose, conjunctiva
and occ­asionally in ears, larynx, bronchus, penile
urethra, vagina, rectum and skin. More than 90% of
the cases have been reported from India, Sri Lanka
and South America.
Etiology: The causative fungus Rhinosporidium
seeberi.
Mode of infection: The mode of infection is not
known, though infection is believed to originate
from stagnant water or aquatic life. It is believed
that fish may be the natural hosts of R. seeberi.
Laboratory Diagnosis
It has not been cultured and animal inoculation is
also not successful.
Demonstration of Sporangia
Diagnosis depends on the demonstration of
sporangia. Direct examination of the surface of
the polypoid growth and histologic examination
are the only ways to make a diagnosis. R. seeberi
can be identi­fied in hematoxylin and eosin-stained
sections, but sometimes one may need special
stains. Histologically, the lesion is composed of
large numbers of fungal spherules embedded in
a stroma of connective tissue and capillaries. The
spherules are 10–200 mm in diameter and contain
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 514  |  Section 5: Medical Mycology

™™ Rhinosporidiosis is a chronic granulomatous

disease characterized by the development of large
polyps or wart-like lesions in the nose, conjunctiva
and occ­asionally in ears, larynx, bronchus, penile
urethra, vagina, rectum and skin. The causative
fungus is Rhinosporidium seeberi
™™ Subcutaneous phycomycosis: The causative agent
is Basio­diobolus haptosporus.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the morphology, cultural characters and
Fig. 73.8: Rhinosporidiosis: Sporangium with numerous pathogenicity of dermatophytes.
endospores 2. Describe the etiology, pathogenesis and laboratory
diagnosis of mycetoma.
thousands of endospores (6–7 μm in diameter) 3. Discuss different kinds of subcutaneous mycoses.
(Fig. 73.8). These spores develop into new 4. Write short riotes on:
sporangia when released. a. Superficial mycoses
b. Dermatophytes
5. Subcutaneous Phycomycosis c. Mycetoma or Madura foot or maduramycosis
In this condition, a painless subcutaneous nodule d. Chromoblastomycosis or verrucous dermatitis
develops which enlarges to involve a whole limb e. Sporotrichosis
or large areas of the body. f. Rhinosporidiosis.
Causative agent: is Basio­diobolus haptosporus,
a saprophytic phycomycete. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
Key Points 1. Black piedra is a superficial infection of the hair
caused by:
Superficial Mycoses a. Malassezia furfur
™™ Pityriasis versicolor or tinea versicolor is caused by
b. Cladosporium werneckiib
Malassezia furfur (Pityrosporum orbiculare)
™™ Tinea nigra is an infection of keratinized layer of skin
c. Trichosporon beigelli
caused by Hortaea (Exophiala) werneckii d. Piedraia hortae
™™ Black piedra is a superficial infection of the hair 2. All the following are anthropophilic dermatophytes
caused by Piedroiohortae, a dematiaceous fungus except:
™™ White piedra is an infection of the hair caused by a. Trichophyton violaceum
yeast-like organism, Trichosporon beigelii b. Trichophyton rubrum
Cutaneous Mycoses c. Epidermophyton floccosum
™™ The dermatophytes infect only superficial keratinized d. Microsporum audouinii
structure such as skin, hair and nail but not deeper 3. Urease test is positive by:
tissues
a. Trichophyton violaceum
™™ Dermatophytes belong to three genera: Trichophyton,
Microsporum and Epidermophyton
b. Trichophyton rubrum
™™ Clinical findings: Dermatophyte infections were c. Trichophyton mentagrophytes
mistakenly termed ring­worm or tinea because of d. Epidermophyton floccosum
the raised circular lesions 4. The major causative agent of mycetoma in India is:
™™ Laboratory diagnosis is based on microscopy and a. Actinomadura madurae
culture. The differentiation of the three genera is b. Streptomyces somaliensis
based mainly on nature of macroconidia c. Nocardia brasiliensis
Subcutaneous Mycosis d. Actinomyces pelletieri
™™ Mycetoma is a chronic, granulomatous infection
5. The sclerotic bodies are useful for diagnosis of:
of the skin, subcutaneous tissues, fascia and bone,
a. Sporotrichosis b. Mycetoma
which most often affects the foot or the hand
™™ It can be divided into three types, eumycetomas,
c. Chromoblastomycosis d. Rhinosporidiosis
actinomycetomas and botryomycosis 6. Which of the following fungi has not been cultured:
™™ Chromoblastomycosis or chromomycosis is caused a. Sporothrix b. Rhinosporidium
by fungi collectively called dematiaceous fungi c. Blastomyces d. Acremonium
™™ Sporotrichosis is caused by Sporothrix schenckii, a
saprophyte in nature
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. d; 2 a; 3. c; 4. a; 5. c; 6. b

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Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ List of fungi causing systemic infections
Introduction
These are the include blastomycosis, histoplasmosis,
coccidioidomycosis and paracocci­dioidomycosis.
1. Blastomycosis
Blastomycosis is a chronic infection of the lungs
which may spread to other tissues, particularly
skin, bone and genitourinary tract.
It is caused by Blastomyces dermatitidis, a
dimorphic fungus. The disease has been called
North American blastomycosis, because it is
endemic and most cases occur in the United States
and Canada.
Pathogenesis
Soil is considered to be the source of infection,
which is acquired by inhalation. Human infection
is initiated in the lungs.
1. Asymptomatic
2. Chronic pneumonia
3. Disseminated diseases: They form multiple
abscesses in various parts of the body.
4. Cutaneous blastomycosis: The cutaneous
disease is usually on the skin of the face or other
exposed parts of the body.
Morphology
Blastomyces dermatitidis is a dimorphic fungus. In
tissue and in cultures at 37°C, the fungus appears
as budding yeast cells, which are large (7–20 μm)
and spherical, with thick, double-contoured walls.
Each cell carries only a single broad-based bud
(Fig. 74.1). At room temperature, the culture is
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74
Chapter
Systemic Mycoses
∙∙ Descrbe histoplasmosis
Fig 74.1: Blastomyces dermatitidis: yeast and mycelial
forms
fila­mentous with septate hyphae and many round or
oval conidia, and in older cultures, chlamydospores
also.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens: Sputum or pus, exudates, urine
and biopsy lesions.
B. Microcopic examination: Potassium hydro­xide
(10%) mount of specimens may show char­
acteristic thick-walled yeast cells with a single
broadbased bud.
C. Culture: Colonies usually develop on Sabouraud’s
dextrose agar or enriched blood agar at 30°C
within 2 weeks.
D. Serology: Antibodies can be measured by
complement fixation (CF) test, immuno­diffusion
(ID) tests and enzyme immunoassay (EIA).
Treatment: Severe cases of blastomycosis are
treated with amphotericin B.
2. Paracoccidioidomycosis
This is a chronic granulomatous disease of the skin,
mucosa, lymph nodes and internal organs. As the
516  |  Section 5: Medical Mycology
A B
Figs 74.2A and B: Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. (A) yeast
phase; (B) mycelial phase
disease is con­fined to South America, it is called
‘South American blastomycosis’.
Causative fungus: It is caused by Paracoccidioides
brasiliensis, a dimorphic fungus.
Pathogenesis
It is charac­terized by primary pulmonary infection
that spreads by hematogenous route to mucosa
of the nose, mouth and the gastrointestinal tract,
skin, lymphatic system, and the internal organs
producing chronic granulomatous reaction.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens: Sputum or pus, crusts and biopsies
from granulomatous lesions.
2. Direct microscopy: Microscopy of sputum or
pus, crusts and biopsies from granulomatous
lesions usually reveals numerous yeast cells (10–
60 μm) with multiple buds, which is diagnostic
(Figs 74.2A and B). Tissue sections should be
stained with H and E, PAS and GMS.
3. Culture: P. brasiliensis grows in the mycelial
phase in culture at 25–30°C, and in the yeast
phase in tissue or at 37°C. Blood agar (without
cyclohexi­m ide) and incubation at 37°C is
recommended for isolation of the yeast phase
(tissue form). Mycelial (mold) phase of the
fungus devel­ops on SDA incubated at 25–30°C.
3. Coccidioidomycosis
This is primarily an infection of the lungs caused by
Coccidioides immitis, a dimorphic fungus found in
the soil of semi-arid areas, mainly in the south-west
USA and northern Mexico.
Clinical Features
1. Asymptomatic
2. Primary pulmonary disease: This condition is
called valley fever, San Joaquin Valley fever or
desert rheumatism.
A B
Figs 74.3A and B: Coccidioides immitis: (A) Arthrospores
formation; (B) Spherule formation with endospores
3. Disseminated disease: Chronic progressive
disseminated disease (coccidioidal granuloma)
which is highly fatal.
Morphology
The fungus is dimorphic. The mycelial phase consists
of hyphae which fragment into arthrospores which
are highly infectious. In culture and in soil C. immitis
grows as a mould, producing large numbers of barrel-
shaped arthrospores (4 × 6 μm diameter) which are
highly infectious. They characteristically alter­nate
with smaller intervening empty cells (Fig. 74.3A).
The yeast form is a spherule (15–75 μm diameter)
with a thick, doubly refractile wall and filled with
endospores. Endospores develop to form new
spherules in adjacent tissue or elsewhere in the
body (Fig. 74.3B).
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
Sputum, pus and biopsy material.
2. Microscopic Exami­nation
Diagnosis may be made by microscopic exami­
nation of specimens.
3. Culture
Specimen is inoculated on SDA medium in the test
tube and incubated at 25–30°C. The arthroconidia
are highly infectious. Consequently, Petri dishes
should never be used for isolation of the organ­ism.
4. Serological Tests
Serological tests, such as precipitin test, latex
agglutina­tion test and complement fixation test
play an important part in diagnosis.
5. Skin Tests
Skin test is done with coccidioidin, a culture filtrate
antigen from fungus. The test becomes positive
between 3 and 21 days of symptoms.
4. HISTOPLASMOSIS
Histoplasmosis is an intracellular infection of
the reticuloendothelial system caused by the
dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum.

Pathogenesis
Infection is acquired by inhalation. Most infections
are asymptomatic. Some infected persons develop
pulmonary disease which resembles tuberculosis.
1. Pulmonary Infection
A chronic form of histoplasmosis occurs mainly
in adults. The clinical picture- closely resembles
tuberculosis.
2. Disseminated Histoplasmosis
Disseminated infection occurs most often in old
age and infancy, or in individuals with impaired
immune responses. The reticuloendothelial system
is involved with resultant lymphadenopathy,
hepatosplenomegaly, fever, anemia and a high
rate of fatality.
3. Skin and Mucosa
Granulomatous and ulcerative lesions may develop
on the skin and mucosa.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
Blood films, bone marrow slides, and biopsy
specimens may be examined microscopically.
Specimens for culture include sputum, urine,
scrapings from superficial lesions, bone marrow
aspirates, and buffy coat blood cells.
2. Microscopic Examination
Microscopy of smears of sputum or pus should be
stained by the Wright or Giemsa procedure. Liver
or lung biopsies stained with PAS or methenamine-
silver may provide a rapid diag­nosis of disseminated
histoplasmosis in some patients. H. capsulatum
is seen as small, oval yeast cells (2–4 μm in
diameter), typically packed within the cytoplasm
of macrophages or monocytes (Fig. 74.4).
3. Culture
Specimens are cultured in rich media, such
as glucose­cysteine blood agar at 37°C and on
Sabburaud’s agar or inhibitory mold agar at
Fig. 74.4: H. capsulatum: yeast cells in macrophage
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Chapter 74: Systemic mycoses  | 517
25–30°C. On SDA, it forms white to tan fluffy colony
with septate branching hyphae with two types
of unicellular, asexual spores. (1) Large round,
tuberculate macroconidia (8–14 μm) are most
prominent and are diagnostic. (2) Small spores or
microconidia are sessile or stalked, smooth-walled,
round to pyriform, 2–4 μm in diameter (Fig. 74.5).
4. Serological Tests
Serological tests like latex agglutination, precipita­
tion and complement fixation become positive two
weeks after infection. Tests for antigen detection
by radioimmunoassay or ELISA are useful, but are
not widely available.
5. Histoplasmin Skin Test
Delayed hypersensitivity to the fungus can be
demonstrated by histoplasmin skin test. The test
is similar to tuberculin test but antigen used is
histoplasmin. Histoplasmin is a culture filtrate
antigen of mycelial phase of H. capsulatum.
The histoplasmin skin test becomes positive
soon after infection and remains positive for years.
A positive ‘histoplasmin skin test’ indicates past or
present infection, but does not differentiate active
and past infections.
Epidemiology
The disease has a worldwide distribution but is
most common in the USA. Twenty-five authentic
cases of his­toplasmosis have been reported from
India. The etiologic agent of histoplasmosis,
H. capsulatum var. capsulatum, grows in soil
with a high nitrogen con­tent, especially in areas
contaminated with the excreta of bats and birds.
Treatment
Amphotericin B is the treatment of choice for
most forms of disseminated histoplasmosis;
this is followed by oral itraconazole in immuno­
compromised patients.
African Histoplasmosis
This disease is caused by H. capsulatum val. dub­
oisii. H. capsulatum val’. duboisii is morphologically
Fig. 74.5: H. capsulatum: mycelial form
518  |  Section 5: Medical Mycology
identical to H. capsulatum in its mycelial phase but
differs in the yeast phase both in vivo and in vitro
and H. duboisii is morphologically identical to H.
capsulatum in its mycelial phase but the yeast phase
has larger cells (12–15 μm diameter).
African histoplasmosis is mainly restricted to
the continent of Africa. It involves mainly the skin,
subcutaneous tissues and bones. The lungs are not
commonly affected and the disseminated disease
is infrequent.
Key Points
™™ Blastomycosis: Blastomycosis is caused by Blasto­
myces dermatitidis, a dimorphic fungus. It is also
known as North American blastomycosis.
™™ Coccidioidomycosis is primarily an infection of the
lungs caused by Coccidioides immitis, a dimorphic
fungus. Infection is acquired by inhalation of dust
containing arthrospores of the fungus.
™™ Histoplasmosis: It is primarily a disease of reticulo­
endothelial system caused by an intracellular fungus
Histoplasma capsulatum, a dimorphic fungus.
™™ H. capsulatum causes acute pulmonary histoplasmosis,
chronic pulmonary histoplasmosis, and progressive
disseminated histoplasmosis.
Important Questions
1. Enumerate dimorphic fungi. Describe the morphology,
pathogenicity and lab diagnosis of dimorphic fungi.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Blastomycosis
b. Coccidioidomycosis or Coccidioides immitis
c. Histoplasmosis or Darling’s disease
d. Paracoccidioidomycosis or Paracoccidioides
brasiliensis
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. All the following statements are true for spherule
of Coccidioides immitis except:
a. It is infective stage of the fungus
b. It reproduces byendosporulation
c. It contains endospores
d. It is not found in culture
2. Which of the following fungi infects reticuloendo­
thelial system?
a. Aspergillus fumigatus
b. Histoplasma capsula tum
c. Trichophyton rubrum
d. All the above
3. The diagnostic form of Histoplasma capsulatum is:
a. Arthrospore b. Spherule
c. Macroconidia d. Microconidia
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. b; 3. c
 75
Chapter

Opportunistic Mycoses

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe diseases caused by Candida albicans
∙∙ Describe the following: thrush or oral thrush; Germ
tube test or Reynaulds–Braude phenomenon
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of candidiasis
∙∙ List opportunistic fungi
∙∙ Discuss cryptococcosis
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of Cryptococcus
neoformans
∙∙ Describe species of Asperillus
∙∙ Describe the following: Aspergillosis; mucormycosis;
pneumocystosis; otomycosis; mycotic keratitis.

OPPORTUNISTIC FUNGI pseudohy­phae when the buds continue to grow but

fail to detach, producing chains of elongated cells
Patients with compromised host defenses, who are that are pinched or constricted at the septations
sus­ceptible to ubiquitous fungi, are referred to as between cells (Figs 75.1 and 75.2).
opportunistic fungi. Healthy people, if exposed to
ubiquitous fungi are usually resistant. Species of Candida
Important species of Candida found in man are:
Causative Fungal Agents (i) C. albicans; (ii) C. stellatoidea; (iii) C. tropicalis;
A. Yeast and yeast-like fungi: Cryptococcus, (iv) C. krusei; (v) C. guilliermondii; (vi) C. parapsilosis;
Candida spp., Torulopsis. (vii) C. glabrata (viii) C. viswanathii
B. Filamentous fungi: Aspergillus, Mucor,
Absidia, Rhizopus, Cephalosporium, Fusarium, Pathogensis
Penicil­lium, Geotrichum, Scopulariopsis. A. Superficial (cutaneous or mucosal) candidiasis
C. Others: Pnuemocystis jiroveci. B. Systemic can­didiasis
A. Superficial (cutaneous or mucosal) candidiasis
A. YEAST AND YEAST-LIKE FUNGI
Candidiasis
Candisois (candidiasis, moniliasis) is an infection
of the skin, mucosa, and rarely of the internal
organs, caused by a yeast-like fungus Candida
albicans, and occasionally by other Candida
species. Several species of the yeast genus Candida
are capable of causing candidiasis. Candido­sis
is an opportunistic endogenous infection, the
com­monest predisposing factor being diabetes.
They are members of the normal flora of the skin,
mucous membranes, and gastrointestinal tract.

Morphology
In culture or tissue, Candida species grow as oval, Fig. 75.1: Sputum specimen illustrating budding yeast cells
budding yeast cells (3–6 μm in size). They also form and pseudohyphae of Candida species

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 520  |  Section 5: Medical Mycology
Fig. 75.2: Candida albicans: yeast form and pseudohyphae
a. Mucocutaneous Lesions
1. Oral thrush: Oral thrush can occur on
the tongue, lips, gums or palate. It is found
commonly in bottle-fed infants and the
aged and debilitated. Creamy white patches
appear on the tongue or buccal mucosa,
that leave a red oozing surface on removal.
2. Vulvovaginitis
3. Balanitis
4. Conjunctivitis
5. Keratitis.
b. Skin and Nail Infections
i. Intertriginous infection: Intertriginous
infection occurs in moist, warm parts of
the body such as the axillae, groin, and
intergluteal or inflamammary folds.
ii. Interdigital involvement: Inter­d igital
involvement between the fingers follows
repeated prolonged immersion in water.
iii. Onychomycosis: Candidal invasion of
the nails and around the nail plate causes
onychomycosis.
iv. Napkin dermatitis in infants.
B. Systemic candidiasis
1. Intestinal candidosis: It is a frequent sequel
to oral antibiotic therapy and may present as
diarrhea not re­sponding to treatment.
2. Bronchopulmonary candidosis
3. Septicemia
4. Endocarditis
5. Meningitis
6. Kidney infections
7. Urinary tract infections
C. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis: Most
forms of this disease have onset in early childhood,
are associated with cellular immunodeficiencies
and endocrinopathies, and result in chronic
superficial dis­figuring infections of any or all areas
of skin or mucosa.
Laboratory Tests
Diagnosis can be established by microscopy and
culture.
Chap-75.indd 520
Fig. 75.3: Gram stained smear of Candida albicans
A. Specimens: Specimens include swabs and
scrapings from superficial lesions, blood, spinal
fluid, tissue biopsies, urine, exu­dates, and material
from removed intravenous catheters.
B. Direct microscopy: Tissue biopsies, centrifuged
spinal fluid, and other spec­imens may be examined
in Gram-stained smears for pseudohyphae
and budding cells. Wet films or Gram-stained
smears from lesions or exudates show budding
gram-positive cells. As Candida can be seen on
normal skin or mucosa as well, only its abundant
presence is of significance. Demonstration of
mycelial forms indicates coloniza­tion and tissue
invasion.
C. Culture: Cultures are obtained on Sabouraud’s
dextrose agar (SDA) and on ordinary bacteriological
culture media, e.g. blood agar at room temperature
or at 37°C. Colonies are creamy white, smooth
and with a yeasty odor. Gram-stained smear from
colonies shows gram-positive budding yeast cells
(Fig. 75.3).
D. Identification: The following tests are done to
differentiate C. albicans from other species.
i. Germ tube test: C. albicans has an ability
to form germ tubes within two hours when
incubated in human serum at 37°C (Reynolds
Braude phenomenon) (Figs 75.4).
ii. Chlamydospores: Chlamydospores develop
in a nutritionally deficient medium, such as
cornmeal agar at 20°C. They can be seen at
the end of pseudohyphae (Fig. 75.5).
iii. Carbohydrate fermentation and carbohydrate
assimilation tests.
These are used in identification of C. albicans
and other species of Candida.
E. Serology: The detection of circulating cell wall
mannan, using a latex agglutina­tion test or an
enzyme immunoassay, is much more spe­cific.
F. Skin test: Delayed hypersensitivity to Candida is
so universal that skin testing with Candida ex­tracts
is used as an indicator of the functional integrity of
cell-mediated immunity.
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Fig. 75.4: Candida albicans showing germ tubes
Treatment
Management of candidosis is mainly by removing the
predisposing causes. All Candida strains are sensitive
to Nystatin. Ampho­tericin B, 5-fluorocytosine
and clotrimazole may be used for disseminated
candidosis.
Cryptococcosis
Cryptococcosis (torulosis, European blastmycosis,
Busse–Buschke disease) is subacute or chronic
infection caused by the capsulate yeast Cryptococcus
neoformans. It is most frequently recog­nized as a
disease of the central nervous system (CNS), although
the primary site of infection is the lungs. The disease
occurs sporadically throughout the world but it is now
seen most often in patients with AIDS.
Morphology
In culture, C. neojormans produces a whitish mucoid
colony in 2–3 days. Microscopically, in culture
or clinical material, C. neoformans is a spherical
budding yeast (5–10 μm in diameter), surrounded
by a thick polysaccharide capsule (Fig. 75.6).
Serotypes
Adsorbed antisera have defined five serotypes
(A–D and AD) and three varieties—C. neofor­mans
vargrubii (serotype A), C. neoformans var neofor­
mans (serotype D), and C. neoformans var gattii
(serotype B or C). Most infections are caused by C.
neoformans var. neoformans, which is commonly
found in the excreta of wild and domesti­cated birds
throughout the world.
Epidemiology
Cryptococcosis is worldwide in distribution.
Bird droppings (particularly pigeon droppings)
enrich for the growth of C. neoformans and serve
as a reservoir of infection. The organism grows
luxuriantly in pigeon excreta. The birds them­selves
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Chapter 75: Opportunistic Mycoses  | 521
Fig. 75.5: Formation of chlamydospores by Candida
albicans when cultured on cornmeal agar at 25°C
Fig. 75.6: Cryptococcus neoformans: India ink preparation of
spinal fluid showing yeast cells surrounded by a large capsule
do not appear to become infected, probably
because of their high body temperature. In addition
to patients with AIDS or hematologic malignancies,
patients being maintained on corticosteroids are
highly susceptible to cryptococcosis.
Pathogenesis
Infection is usually acquired by inhalation but may
sometimes be through skin or mucosa. The primary
pulmonary infection may be asymptomatic or may
mimic an influenza-like respira­tory infection, often
resolving spontaneously. Pulmonary cryptoccoc­
osisis may lead to a mild pneumonitis. In patients
who are compromised, the yeasts may multiply
and disseminate to other parts of the body but
preferen­t ially to the central nervous system,
causing cryptococ­cal meningoencephalitis. Other
common sites of dis­semination include the skin,
eye, and prostate gland.
Cryptococcal meningitis
Cryptococcal meningitis is the most serious type
of infection and can resemble tuberculous or other
chronic types of meningitis.
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 522  |  Section 5: Medical Mycology
Other Sites of Dis­semination
Although predominantly a disease of the CNS,
lesions of the skin, mucosa, viscera and bones may
also occur. Visceral forms simulate tuberculosis
and cancer clinically. Bones and joints may be
involved. Cutaneous crypto­coccosis varies from
small ulcers to large granulomas.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens
Specimens include spinal fluid, tissue, exudates,
spu­tum, blood and urine.
B. Micrscopic Examination
India ink or nigrosine preparation: In unstained,
wet preparations of CSF mixed with a drop of
India ink or nigrosine, the capsule can be seen
as a clear halo around the yeast cells (Fig. 75.6).
The yeast cells of C. neoformans are round,
5–10 μm in diameter, and are surrounded by a
mucopolysaccharide capsule.
Tissue sections: For examination of tissue sections,
it is best to use a specific fungal stain such as PAS.
Alciari blue and mucicarmine which stain the
capsular material.
C. Culture
On Sabouraud agar (without cycloheximide)
cultured at 25–30°C and 37°C, colonies normally
appear within 2–3 days. In culture, C. neoformans
appears as smooth, mucoid, cream colored
colonies. Cultures can be identified by growth at
37°C and detection of urease.
Niger seed (bird seed) agar is a differential
medium for presumptive identification of C.
neoformans. It produces brown colonies on this
medium within one week when incubated at
30°C. C. neoformans produces phenoloxidase,
which oxidises the caffeic acid in the niger seed
into melanin.
D. Serological Tests
Cryptococcal capsular polysaccharide antigen can
be detected in CSF and blood by latex aggluti­nation
and ELISA test. A whole-cell agglutination test
for serum antibody is positive in less than 50% of
proven cases of cryptococcal meningitis
E. Animal Inoculation Test
Intracerebral or intraperitoneal inoculation into mice
leads to a fatal infection in case of C. neoformans.
Capsulated budding yeast cells can be demonstrated
in the brain of the infected mice.
Differentiation of pathogenic (C. neoformans)
from other nonpathogenic crypto­cocci
Pathogenic C. neoformans can be differentia­ted
from nonpathogenic species by its ability to:
1. Grow at 37°C.
2. Hydrolyze urea.
Chap-75.indd 522
3. Produce phenol oxidase—produce black colo­
nies on niger seed agar, bird seed agar and
caffeic acid agar.
4. Produce disease in mice on intracerebral and
intraperitoneal inoculation (animal inoculation
test positive). Capsulated budding yeast cells can
be demonstrated in the brain of infected mice.
Treatment
Combination therapy of amphotericin B and flucyto­
sine has been considered the standard treatment
for cryptococcal meningitis. Fluconazole offers
excellent penetration of the central nervous system.
B. FILAMENTOUS FUNGI
Aspergillosis
Aspergillus species are ubiquitous saprophytes in
nature, and aspergillosis occurs worldwide. The
most important species are A. fumigatus, A. niger,
A. flavus, A. terreus and A. nidulans.
Pathogenesis
Following inhalation of conidia, atopic individuals
often develop severe allergic reactions to the
conidial antigens. In im­m unocompromized
patients, the conidia may germinate to produce
hyphae that invade the lungs and other tissues.
A. Localized infections
Sinusitis: A. flavus and A. fumigatus.
Mycotic keratits: A. flavus and A. fumigatus.
Otomycosis: A niger.
B. Systemic aspergillosis
1. Pulmonary aspergillosis
a. Allergic asthma: In some atopic individuals,
de­v elopment of IgE antibodies to the
surface antigens of aspergillus conidia
elicits an immediate asthmatic reac­tion
upon subsequent exposure.
b. Bronchopulmonary as­p ergillosis: The
conidia germinate and hyphae colonize
the bronchial tree with­out invading the
lung parenchyma. This phenomenon
is characteristic of allergic broncho­
pulmonary as­pergillosis.
c. Colonizing aspergillosis (aspergilloma):
Colo­nizing aspergillosis usually develops
in preexisting pulmonary cavities, such as
in tuberculosis or cystic disease. It is also
referred to as fungus ball. The fungus grows
into large ‘balls’ (as­pergilloma). Cases of
as­pergilloma rarely become invasive.
2. Invasive aspergillosis: This form occurs in
severely immunocompromised individuals.
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Disseminated aspergillosis involving the brain,
kidney and other organs is a fatal complication.
3. Endocarditis
4. Paranasal granuloma.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens: Sputum, other respiratory speci­
mens, or lung biopsy tissue provide good specimens.
B. Microscopic examination: On direct exami­
nation of sputum with KOH or calcofluor white
or in histologic sections, the fungus appears
as nonpigmented septate mycelium, 3–5 μm
in diameter, with characteris­t ic dichotomous
branching and an irregular outline.
In tissue sections, Aspergillus species are best
seen after staining with PAS or methenamine-silver.
C. Culture: Aspergillus species grow readily on
Sabouraud agar without cycloheximide at 25–37°C.
Colonies appear after 1–2 days.
Species are identified according to the
morphology of their coni­dial structures. Asexual
conidia are arranged in chains, carried on elongated
cells called ‘sterigmata’, borne on the expanded
ends (vesicles) of conidio­phores (Fig. 75.7).
D. Skin tests: Skin tests with A. fumigatus antigen
are useful for the diagnosis of allergic aspergillosis.
E. Serological tests: Immunodiffusion, CIE and
ELISA are widely used for the detection of antibodies
in the diagnosis of all forms of aspergillosis.
For diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis, antigen
detection has also been used successfully by
techniques such as ELISA and latex agglutination.
F. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-1: This is
now increasingly used for diagnosis of invasive
aspergillosis.
A B
C D
Figs 75.7A to D: Aspergillus spp. (A) A. fumigatus; (B) A.
flavus, (C) A. niger, (D) A. terreus
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Chapter 75: Opportunistic Mycoses  | 523
Mucormycoses (Zygomycosis)
Mucormycosis is an opportunistic mycosis caused
by a number of molds classified in the order
Muco­rales of the class Zygomycetes. The leading
pathogens among this group of fungi are species
of the genera Rhizopus, Rhizomucor, Ab­s idia,
Cunninghamella and Mucor. These fungi are ubiq­
uitous, thermotolerant saprophytes.
The conditions that place patients at risk include
acidosis—especially that associated with diabetes
meIlitus-leukemias, lym­phoma, corticosteroid
treatment, severe burns, immunodeficiencies, and
other debilitating diseases as well as dialysis with
the iron chelator deferoxamine.
Clinical Manifestations
There are a number of different clinical varieties
of mucormycosis
1. Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: The major
clinical form is rhinocerebral mucormy­cosis,
a rapidly fulminating infection. It results from
germination of the sporan­giospores in the nasal
passages and invasion of the hy­phae into the
blood vessels. The disease can progress rapidly
with invasion of the sinuses, eyes, cranial bones
and brain.
2. Thoracic mucormycosis: Thoracic mucor­
mycosis follows inhalation of the sporangio­
spores with invasion of the lung parenchyma
and vasculature.
3. Other sites of invasion: Primary cutaneous
infections have also been reported, but these
are extremely rare. Subcutaneous forms of
zygomycosis are less serious.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens: Material, such as nasal discharge
or sputum seldom contains much fungal material
and examination of a biopsy is usually necessary
for a firm diagnosis.
2. Microscopy: Direct examina­tion of curetted or
biopsy material in potassium hydroxide (KOH) may
reveal the characteristic broad, aseptate, branched
mycelium and sometimes distorted hyphae.
However, they are seen much more clearly when
stained with methenamine-silver. The hyphae of
these fungi do not stain with PAS.
3. Culture: The fungi are readily isolated on
Sabouraud agar without cycloheximide at 37°C
producing abundant cottony colonies.
4. Identification: Identification is based on the
sporangial structures (Fig. 75.8).
i. Mucor shows nonseptate myc­elium without
rhizoids (root-like structures). Sporangiophores,
which may be branched, terminate in large
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 524  |  Section 5: Medical Mycology
Fig. 75.8: Zygomycetes: (A) Mucor; (B) Rhizopus; (C) Absidia
globose spor­a ngia containing numerous
spores.
ii. Rhizopus shows nonseptate mycelium with
rhizoids . Unbranched spor­angiophores arise
in groups directly above the rhiz­oids.
iii. Absidia has also rhizoids but sporangiophores
arise from the aerial mycelium in between the
rhizoids.
Treatment
Treatment consists of aggressive surgical debride­
ment, rapid administration of amphotericin B, and
control of the underlying disease.
Penicilliosis
There are more than 150 known species of the
genus Penicillium. Infections are caused by
Penicillium marnefei.
Pathogenesis
It causes penicillosis, keratitis, otomycosis and
rarely deep infections. Penicillium marneffei causes
serious disseminated disease with characteristic
papular skin lesions in AIDS patients in South-
East Asia. Cutaneous lesions and subcutaneous
abscesses have been reported.
Identification
Fungi belonging to this genus are characterized by
producing conidiophores at the tips of branching
sep­tate hyphae, which in turn may produce
secondary structures termed metulae, from which
flask-shaped structures called phialides bearing
smooth or rough ­shaped conidia are produced in
chains, giving the en­tire structure a brush-like or
broom-like appearance (Fig. 75.9).
Chap-75.indd 524
Fig. 75.9: Penicillium
C. OTHER FUNGAL AGENTS
Pneumocystis jiroveci
Until recently, P. jeroveci was thought to be a proto­
zoan. Molecular studies indicate that Pneumocystis
carinii is a fungus with a close relationship to
ascomycetes. It has yet to be fully embraced by
mycologists.
Morphology
P. carinii has three stages:
Trophozoites thin­walled (1–4 μm).
Precyst: It is 5–8 μm.
Cysts: Cysts are thick-walled and spherical (4–6 μm)
and contains 4 to 8 nuclei.
Pathogenesis
P. jiroveci is normally a commensal in the lung, spread
by respiratory droplets. In immunocompetent
individuals, infection is asymp­tomatic. However,
in inimunocompromised patients, serious life-
threatening pneumonia can develop (Fig. 75.10).
Until the AIDS epidemic, human disease was
confined to inter­stitial plasma cell pneumonia
in malnourished or premature infants and
immunosuppressed patients. Since the early 1980s,
it has remained one of the primary opportunistic
in­fections found in patients with AIDS.
The multiplication of the parasite in the lungs
induces a hyaline or foamy alveolar exudate. In
stained sections, the exudate filling the alveoli
shows a characteristic honeycomb pattern. Chest
radiographs may be normal or show a diffuse
interstitial infiltrate.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens: Traditionally, diagnosis was made
by finding the cyst or trophozoite in tissue
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Fig. 75.10: Life cycle of Pneumocystis jiroveci. The parasite
enters the lung in respiratory droplets and gets attached to
alveolar epithelium. It divides by binary fission. Some form
a thick-walled cyst within which sporozoites develop. When
mature cyst ruptures, sporozoites are released, which initiate
fresh cycles of infection
obtained through open lung biopsy. To establish
the diagnosis of P. jiroveci pneumonia, specimens
of bronchoalveolar lavage, lung biopsy, or
induced sputum are stained and examined for
the presence of cysts or trophozoites.
2. Staining: Appropriate stains include Giemsa,
toluidine blue, methenamine silver and
calcofluor white. Cyst wall stains black with
methenamine silver staining. With the Giemsa
stain, the organism appears round, and the
cyst wall is barely visible. Intracystic bodies
are seen around the interior of the organism.
Fluorescent monoclonal antibody staining
shows ‘honeycomb’ appearance of the cyst. P.
jiroveci cannot be cultured.
3. Serology: Complement fixation titres of 1:4
or more is indicative of active disease. Latex
agglutination test is also used.
4. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): It is a rapid
method for detection of early infection.
Treatment
Acute cases of pneumocystis pneumonia are treated
with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ)
or pentamidine isethionate. Prophylaxis can be
achieved with daily TMP-SMZ or aerosolized
pentamidine.
OTHER OPPORTUNIST FUNGI
Almost any fungus may invade a severely immuno­
compromized host and infections with many
common fungi, including Fusarium species,
Trichosporon beigelii and Pseudallescheria boydii
have been reported. Diagnosis is made by culture
of the causative organism from clinical specimens
and serological tests play little part.
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Chapter 75: Opportunistic Mycoses  | 525
Otomycosis
Otomycosis is a fungal infection of the external ear.
It is a very common disease and is usually caused
by species of A. niger, A. fumigatus, Penicillium,
Candida albicans, C. tro­picalis and C. krusei.
The symptoms are itching, pain and deafness.
Secondary bacterial infection, commonly due to
Pseu­domonas and Proteus, causes suppuration.
Diagnosis can be made by demonstration of the
fungi in scrap­ings and by culture.
Keratomycosis (Mycotic Keratitis or
Fungal Keratitis)
Keratomycosis or mycotic or fungal keratitis is an
invasive fungal infection of the cornea, secondary
to injury, bacterial infection and treatment with
antibacterial agents and steroids. They occur most
often in hot cli­mates and are caused by common
saprophytic molds.
Causes
It is most frequently caused by A. fumigatus, A.
flavus, A. glaucus and A. niger. In addition, species
of Fusar­ium, Curvularia, Candida, Acremonium,
Paecilomyces, Penicillium, Alternaria, Fonsecea,
Pseu­dallescheria, Drechslera and Aureobasidium
may also cause keratomycosis.
Pathogenesis
It usually follows trau­ma. Fungal spores colonize the
injured tissue and initiate an inflammatory reaction
leading to hypop­yon, ulcer and endophthalmitis.
Increased incidence of keratomycosis is due to
widespread use of cor­ticosteroids.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis can be made by microscopic examination
and culture of scrapings taken from the base or edge
of the ulcer. Local application of amphotericin B,
Nystatin and Pimaricin (Natamycin) may be useful.
Key Points
™™ Patients with compromised host defenses, which
are sus­ceptible to ubiquitous fungi, are referred to
as opportunistic fungi. Candida albicans, Aspergillus
fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium sp., Rhizopus
and Mucor are some examples of opportunistic fungi.
Candidiasis
™™ Candidosis (candidiasis, moniliasis) is an infection of
the skin, mucosa, and rarely of the internal organs,
caused by a yeast-like fungus Candida albicans,
and occasionally by other Candida species. It
causes (a) Mucocutaneous lesions (Oral thrush); 2.
Vulvovaginitis, conjunctivitis keratitis; Skin and nail
infections
™™ Gram-stained smear of the exudates or tissue
shows gram­- positive, oval, budding yeast and
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 526  |  Section 5: Medical Mycology
pseudohyphae. Germ tube is a rapid method for
identification of C. albicans
Cryptococcosis
™™ Cryptococcosis is caused by the capsulate yeast
Cryotococcus neoformans
™™ C. neoformans causes: Pulmonary cryptococcosis in
immunocompromised hosts. Central nervous system
(CNS) cryptococcosis. Disseminated nonpulmonary
non-CNS cryptococcosis
™™ Laboratory diagnosis: In unstained, wet preparations
of CSF mixed with a drop of India ink or nigrosine,
the capsule can be seen as a clear halo around the
yeast cells
™™ A specific fungal stain, such as PAS, Alciari blue
and mucicarmine stain the capsular material of
C. neoformans in tissue specimens. The culture of
centrifuged CSF specimens confirms diagnosis of
the condition
™™ Cryptococcal capsular polysaccharide antigen can
be detected in CSF and blood by latex aggluti­nation
and ELISA test
Aspergillosis
™™ Aspergillus species most frequently involved in human
infections are A. fumigatus, A. flovus and A. niger
™™ In immunocompetent hosts, Aspergillus species
may primarily affect the lungs causing four main
syndromes including allergic bronchopulmonary
aspergillosis, chronic necrotizing aspergillus
pneumonia, aspergilloma and invasive aspergillosis
™™ In immunocompromised host, Aspergillus cause a
disseminated disease
Zygomycosis
™™ Zygomycosis (mucormycosis or phycomycosis) is an
infection caused by saprophytic molds of the class
Zygomycetes (mainly Mucor, Rhizopus and Absidia)
™™ Zygomycetes can cause rhinocerebral zygomycosis,
pulmonary zygomycosis and gastrointestinal
zygomycosis
™™ The fungi appear in biopsy material as broad-
branched hyphae with no cross-walls. They grow as
molds on ordinary culture media
Pneumocystis jiroveci
™™ Pneumocystis jiroveci, is the causative agent of
Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP). Transmission
of infection occurs by inhalation
™™ PCP is the most common opportunistic infection in
HIV-patients
™™ Otomycosis is a fungal infection of the external
ear. and is usually caused by species of A. niger, A.
fumigatus, Penicillium, Candida albicans, C. tro­picalis
and C. krusei
™™ Keratomycosis or mycotic or fungal keratitis: It is
most frequently caused by A. fumigatus, A. flavus, A.
glaucus and A. niger.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Describe the morphology, pathogenicity and
laboratory diagnosis of Candida albicans.
2. Describe the morphology, cultural characters and
laboratory diagnosis of Cryptococcus neoformans
3. Write short Notes on:
a. Candidiasis, candidosis or moniliasis
b. Cryptococcosis
c. Opportunistic systemic mycoses
d. Aspergillosis
Chap-75.indd 526
e. Opportunistic fungi
f. Mucormycosis or zygomycosis
g. Pneumocystosis
h. Pneumocystis carinii (jiroveci)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. Which of the following species of Candida is most
frequently responsible for human infections?
a. Candida albicans b. C. krusei
c. C. glabrata d. C. stellatoidea
2. Candida albicans can be differentiated from other
species of candida by:
a. Germ tube test
b. Chlamydospore formation on corn meal agar
c. Carbohydrate fermentation and assimilation
tests
d. All the above
3. Which of the following fungi is a capsulated?
a. Aspergillus fumigatus
b. Cryptococcus neoformans
c. Candida albicans
d. None of the above
4. Cryptococcus neoformans shows all the following
features except that:
a. It assimilates inositol b. It assimilates
lactose
c. It produces urease d. It produces
melanin
5. Which animal is used for pathogenicity test in
Cryptococcus neoformans:
a. Rabbit b. Mice
c. Guinea pig d. None of the
above
6. Differentiation of pathogenic Cryptococcus neofor­
mans from nonpathogenic cryptococci by:
a. Growth at 37°C
b. Urea hydrolysis
c. Production of brown colonies on niger seed
agar
d. All the above
7. The diagnosis of allergic bronchopulmonary
aspergillosis is established by the following tests
except:
a. Demonstration of Aspergillus hyphae in the
sputum
b. Positive skin test for Aspergillus fumigatus
c. Highly increased level of serum IgE
d. Positive serology for Aspergillus precipitation or
Aspergillus-specific IgG
8. Which of the following species of Aspergillus
is most often oportunistic pathogen in human
disease?
a. Aspergillus fumigates b. A. niger
c. A. flavus d. None of the
above
9. Which of the following fungi is/are associated with
zygomycosis:
a. Mucor b. Rhizopus
c. Absidia d. All the above
10. The most useful test for diagnosis of zygomycosis is:
a. Serology b. Fungal culture
c. Histopathology d. Blood cultures
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 Chapter 75: Opportunistic Mycoses  | 527
11. All the following statements are true for Penicillium 13. Which of the following fungi can cause otomycosis?
marneffei except: a. Aspergillus niger
a. It is a mold b. A. fumigatus
b. It is an important opportunistic pathogen in
AIDS patients c. Penicillium species
c. It causes tuberculosis-like disease in patients d. All the above
with AIDS 14. Keratomycosis may be caused by:
d. Few case reports have also been documented a. A. fumigatus
from India
b. Aspergillus niger
12. The method that is useful to demonstrate a foamy-
appearing eosinophilic material surrounding c. Fusarium
Pneumocystis for diagnosis of PCP is: d. All the above
a. Methenamine silver stain
b. Gram-Weigert stain ANSWERS (MCQs)
c. Cresyl violet stain 1. a; 2. d; 3. b; 4. c; 5. b; 6. d; 7. a; 8. a; 9. d; 10. c; 11. a;
d. Papanicolaou smear 12. d; 13. d; 14. d

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 76
Chapter

Mycotoxicosis

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Describe the following: my­cotoxicosis; aflatoxin
be able to:
∙∙ Describe mycotic poisoning

Many fungi form poisonous substances. Mycotic Other Mycotoxicoses

poi­soning is of two types.
Mycetism
A fungus which is eaten for itself causes toxic
effects. Mycetism may cause gastrointestinal
disease, dermatitis or death.
Mycotoxicosis
The diseases that result from ingestion of food
or feed that contains myco­toxins are known as
mycotoxicoses.
Classic examples of human diseases caused
by Fusarium mycotoxins include alimentary
toxic aleukia, Urov or Kashin–Beck disease and
Akakabibye (scabby grain intoxication). Two
of these are yellow rice toxicosis in Japan and
alimentary toxic aleukia in the former Soviet Union.
There are also other fungi responsible for
mycotoxicosis (Table 76.1).
Table 76.1  List of some mycotoxins and myco­
toxin-producing fungi
Mycotoxin Mycotoxin-producing fungi

A variety of mycotoxins are produced by Aflatoxin A. flavus, A. parsiticus, etc.

mushrooms (e.g. Amanita species), and their Ascladiol A. clavatus
ingestion results in a dose-related disease called Butenolide F. tricinctum, F. nivale, F. equiseti
mycetismus. Ergot alkaloid Claviceps sp.
Fumigatin A. fumigatus
Aflatoxin Chlorine-containing P. islandicum
One of the most potent is aflatoxin, which is peptide
elaborated by Aspergillus flavus and is a frequent Muscarine, etc. Amanita muscaria, etc
contaminant of peanuts, corn, grains and other Ochratoxin A A. ochraceus
foods.
Patulin P. urticae, A. clavatus, P.
Effect of aflatoxin: It is highly toxic to animals and claviforme, P. expansum, A.
giganteus, etc.
birds, and probably to human beings as well. It
can cause hepatomas in ducklings and rats, and its Penicillic acid P. puberculum, P. cyclopium, P.
thomii, etc
possible carcinogenic effect in human beings has
caused great concern. Phalloidine Amanita phalloides
Psilocybine Psilocybe sp.

Ergot Alkaloids Psoralens Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

Ergotoxicosis (ergotism) is due to the toxic alkaloids Rubratoxin B P. rubrum, P. purpurogenum

produced by the fungus Claviceps purpurea, while Scirpenols (nivalenol, F. nivale, F. tricinctum
growing on the fruiting heads of rye. fusarenon)
 Chapter 76: Mycotoxicosis  | 529
Psychotropic agents ™™ Psychotropic agents: Toxic metabolites produced by
fungi such as psilocybin and psilocin, as well as the
Toxic metabolites produced by fungi have been semisynthetic derivative lysergic acid diethylamide
used by primitive tribes for religious, magical (LSD).
and social purposes. The hallucinogenic agents
(d-lysergic acid, psilocybin) are produced by the Important Question
Psilocybe species and other fungi. In the 20th
rite short notes on:
W
century, problems involving toxins of fungi were
a. Mycotoxicosis
seen with the recreational use of psychotropic b. Aflatoxin
agents such as psilocybin and psilocin, as well
as the semisynthetic derivative lysergic acid die­ Multiple choice questions (mcqs)
thylamide (LSD). 1. Which mycotoxin is produced by Aspergillus flavus:
a. Aflatoxin
Key Points b. Ergot alkaloids
c. Penicillic acid
™™ Mycotic poi­soning is of two types: d. Muscarine
1. Mycetism 2. Ergot alkaloids are toxins produced by:
2.  My­cotoxicosis a. Fusarium nivale
™™ Aflatoxin is elaborated by Aspergillus flavus and b. Aspergillus flavus
related molds c. Claviceps purpurea
™™ Ergot alkaloids: Ergotoxicosis (ergotism) is due to d. Penicillium rubrum
the toxic alkaloids produced by the fungus Claviceps
purpurea Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. c

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 Section 6: Miscellaneous
Normal Microbial Flora of the Human Body
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe the role of normal flora in a human body
Introduction
The term ‘normal microbial flora’ denotes the
popula­tion of microorganisms that inhabit the
skin and mucous membranes of healthy normal
persons. The skin and mucous membranes always
harbor a variety of micro-organisms that can be
arranged into two groups:
1. Resident Flora
The resident flora consists of relatively fixed types
of microorganisms regularly found in a given area
at a given age.
2. Transient Flora
The transient flora consists of nonpathogenic
or potentially pathogenic microorganisms that
inhabit the skin or mucous membranes for hours,
days or weeks. Members of the transient flora are
gener­ally of little significance so long as the normal
resident flora remains intact.
Role of normal microbial flora
The microorganisms that are constantly present on
body surfaces are commensals. Their presence is
not essential to life.
A. Beneficial Functions of Normal Flora
1. Prevent colonization by pathogens: On
mucous membranes and skin.
2. Antimicrobial substances production: For
example, colicins, have a harmful effect on
pathogens.
77
Chapter
∙∙ L ist organisms present as normal microbial flora
in normal flora of upper respiratory tract and
gastrointeinal tract
3. Stimulus for the development of the immune
system: Bacterial colonization of the newborn
infant acts as a powerful stimulus for the
development of the immune system.
4. The microflora of the intestinal tract synthesize
vitamin K and several B vitamins.
5. Normal flora may liberate endotoxins, which
may activate alternate complement pathway
and help the defense mechanisms of the body.
B. Harmful Effects of Normal Flora
1. When the organisms are displaced from
their normal site in the body to an abnormal
site, e.g. the introduction of the normal
skin bacterium, Staphylococcus epidermidis,
into the bloodstream, where it can colonize
catheters and heart valves, resulting in bacterial
endocarditis.
2. When potential pathogens gain a competitive
advantage due to diminished populations of
harmless competitors, e.g. when normal bowel
flora is depleted by antibiotic therapy leading to
over­growth by the resistant Clostridium difficile,
which can cause a severe colitis.
3. When some harmless, commonly ingested food
substances are converted into carcinogenic
derivatives by bacteria in the colon. A well-
known example is the conversion by bacterial
sulfa­tases of the sweetener cyclamate into the
bladder carcinogen cyclo­hexamine.
4. Immunocompromized individuals: Normal
flora can overgrow and become pathogenic
when individuals are immunocompromized.
5. Drug resistance: Penicillinase-producing
micro­organisms can aggravate infection by
 Chapter 77: Normal Microbial Flora of the Human Body  | 531
conferring drug resistance against antibiotics
for example, increase in carriage of antibiotic
resistant staphylococci.
Certain alpha hemolytic streptococci, that
live as commensals in the mouth may cause
dental caries.
6. Confusion in diagnosis: They cause confusion
in diagnosis due to their ubiquitous presence
in the body, and their morphological similarity
with some pathogens.
Normal Flora of the Skin
The predominant resident microorganisms of
the skin are aerobic and anerobic diphtheroid
bacilli (e.g. Corynebacterium, Propionibacterium);
nonhemolytic aerobic and anerobic staphylococci
(Staphylococcus epi­d ermidis, occasionally S.
aureus, and Peptostreptococcus species); gram-
positive, aerobic, spore-forming bacilli; alpha­
hemolytic streptococci (viridans streptococci)
and ente­rococci (Enterococcus species); and gram-
negative col­iform bacilli and Acinetobacter.
Hair frequently harbors Staph aureus. Often
the skin of the face, neck, hands and but­tocks
carries pathogenic hemolytic streptococci and
staphylococci. Penicillin-resistant staphylococci
are seen in individuals working in hospitals.
Among the factors that may be important in
elimi­nating nonresident microorganisms from the
skin are the low pH, the fatty acids in sebaceous
secretions, and the presence of lysozyme.
Normal Flora of the Conjunctiva
The predominant organisms of the conjunctiva
are diphtheroids (Corynebacterium xerosis.), S.
epidermidis, and nonhemolytic streptococci.
Neisseriae and gram­-negative bacilli resembling
hemophili (Moraxella species) are also frequently
present. The conjunctival flora is normally held
in check by the flow of tears, which contain anti­
bacterial lysozyme.
Normal Flora of the Nose, Nasopharynx
and Accessory Sinuses
The floor of the nose harbors corynebacteria,
staphy­lococci and streptococci. Haemophilus
species and Moraxella lacunata may also be seen.
The nasopharynx of the infant is sterile at
birth but, within 2–3 days after birth, acquires the
common commensal flora and the pathogenic
flora. The nasopharynx can be considered the
natural habitat of the common path­ogenic bacteria
which cause infections of the nose, throat, bronchi
and lungs. Certain gram-negative or­g anisms
from the intestinal tract such as Pseu­domonas
aeruginosa, E. coli, paracolons and Proteus are also
occasionally found in normal persons.
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Normal Flora of the Mouth
The mouth contains a plethora of organisms—
pig­mented and nonpigmented micrococci, some
of which aerobic, gram-positive aerobic spore-
bearing bacilli, coliforms, Proteus and lactobacilli.
Within 4–12 hours after birth, viridans streptococci
become established as the most prominent
members of the resident flora. Early in life, aerobic
and anerobic staphylococci, gram-negative
diplococci (neisseriae, Moraxella catarrhalis),
diph­t heroids, and occasional lactobacilli are
added. When teeth begin to erupt, the anerobic
spirochetes, pre­v otella species (especially P
melaninogenica), Fusobac­terium species, Rothia
species, and Capnocytophaga species establish
themselves, along with some anerobic vibrios and
lactobacilli. Yeasts (Candida species) occur in the
mouth.
Normal Flora of the Upper Respiratory
Tract
Within 12 hours after birth, alpha hemolytic strep­
tococci are found in the upper respiratory tract and
be­come the dominant organisms of the oropharynx
and remain so for life. Small bronchi and alveoli are
normally sterile. In the pharynx and trachea, flora
similar to that of the mouth establish themselves.
Normal Flora of the Gastrointestinal Tract
At birth: At birth the intestine is sterile. In all cases,
within 4–24 hours of birth, an intestinal flora is
established partly from below and partly by invasion
from above.
Breastfed children: In breastfed children, the
intestine con­tains lactobacilli, enterococci, colon
bacil­li and staphylococci. In bottlefed children,
a more mixed flora exists in the bowel, and.
lactobacilli are less prominent. In artificilly fed
(bottlefed) chil­dren intertine contains lactabaulli
enterococci, colon bacilli and staphylococci. With
the change of food to the adult pattern, the flora
change. Diet has a marked influence on the rela­
tive composition of the intestinal and fecal flora.
Normal adult: In the normal adult, the micro-
organisms on the sur­face of the esophageal wall
are those swallowed with saliva and food. Because
of the low pH of the stomach, it is virtually sterile
except soon after eating. The stomach’s acidity
keeps the number of microorganisms at a mini­
mum (l03–105/g of contents) unless obstruction at
the pylorus favors the proliferation of gram-positive
cocci and bacilli.
As the pH of intestinal contents becomes
alkaline, the resident flora gradually increases. The
number of bacteria increases progressively be­yond
the duodenum to the colon, being comparatively
532  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
low in the small intestine. In the adult duodenum,
there are 103–106 bacteria per gram of contents; in
the jejunum and ileum, 105–108 bacteria per gram;
and in the cecum and transverse colon, 108–1010
bacteria per gram. In the upper intestine, lac­tobacilli
and enterococci predominate, but in the lower ileum
and cecum, the flora is fecal. In the sigmoid colon
and rectum, there are about 1011 bacteria per gram
of contents, constituting 10–30% of the fecal mass.
Aner­obes outnumber facultative organisms by 1000-
fold. In diarrhea, the bacterial content may diminish
greatly, whereas, in intestinal stasis, the count rises.
In the normal adult colon, 96–99% of the resident
bacterial flora consists of anerobes: Bacteroides
species, especially B. fragilis; Fusobacterium
species; anerobic lac­tobacilli, e.g. bifidobacteria;
clostridia (C perfringens, 103–105/g); and anerobic
gram-positive cocci (Pep­tostreptococcus species).
Only 1–4% are facultative aer­obes (gram-negative
coliform bacteria, enterococci, and small numbers
of Proteus, pseudomonads, lactobacilli, candidae,
and other organisms). More than 100 distinct types
of organisms occur regularly in normal fecal flora.
Normal Flora of the Genitourinary Tract
Mycobacterium smegmatis, a harmless commensal,
is found in the smegma of the genitalia of both
men and women. This may, by its presence in the
voided speci­mens of urine, cause confusion with
tubercle bacilli. From apparently normal men,
aerobic and anerobic bacteria can be cultured
including, lactobacilli, Gard. vaginalis, alpha
hemolytic streptococci and Bacteroids species. Chlam.
trachomatis and Ureaplasma urealyti­cum may also
be present. The female urethra is either sterile or
contains a few gram-positive cocci.
At birth: At birth, the vagina is sterile. In the
first 24 hours, it is invaded by micrococci,
enterococci and diphtheroids. In 2–3 days, the
maternal estrin induc­es glycogen deposition in
the vaginal epithelium. This facilitates the growth
of a Lactobacillus (Doderlien’s bacillus), which
produces acid from glycogen, and the flora for a
few weeks is similar to that of the adult. After the
passively transfected estrin has been eliminated
in the urine, the glycogen disappears, along with
Doderlien’s bacillus and the pH of the vagina
becomes alkaline. This brings about a change in
the flora to micrococci, alpha and nonhemolytic
streptococci, coliforms and diph­theroids.
At puberty: At puberty, the glycogen reappears
and the pH changes to acid due to the metabolic
activity of Doderl­ien’s bacilli, E. coli and yeasts.
This appears to be an important mechanism in
preventing the establish­ment of other, possibly
harmful, microorganisms in the vagina. During
pregnancy, there is an in­crease in Staphylococcus
epidermidis, Doderlien’s bacilli and yeasts.
Occasionally, other members of the in­testinal
flora may be present. After menopause, lactobacilli
again diminish in number and a mixed flora returns
and the flora resembles that found before puberty.
Key Points
™™ The term ‘normal microbial flora’ denotes the
population of microorganisms that inhabit the
skin and mucous membrane of normal healthy
individuals
™™ The resident flora consists of relatively fixed types
of micro-organisms regularly found in a given area
at a given age. and cannot be removed permanently
™™ The transient flora inhabit the skin or mucous
membranes and does not pro­duce disease, and
does not establish itself permanently on the surface.
The normal flora is composed principally of bacteria
™™ A resident, actively proliferating, microbial flora
occurs in the skin, nose and oropharynx, the mouth
and large intestine, the anterior parts of the urethra
and the vagina.
Important questions
1. What is normal microbial flora of the human body?
Write briefly on beneficial and harmful effects of
normal flora.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Normal bacterial flora.
b. Difference between resident and transient flora.
c. Normal flora of the skin.
d. Normal flora of the intestine.
e. Normal flora in the mouth and upper respiratory
tract.
f. Normal flora of the genitourinary tract.
Multiple choice questions (mcqs)
1. The majority of normal bacteria flora are present in:
a. Conjunctiva b. Skin
c. Nasopharynx d. Large intestine
2. Which bacteria is responsible for producing acidic
pH in adult vagina:
a. Lactobacillus
b. Bacteroides species
c. Diphtheroids
d. Gardnerella vaginalis
Answers (MCQs)
1. d; 2. a

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Define bacteremia, septicemia, pyemia and
endotoxemia
∙∙ List causative organisms of septicemia, infective
endo­carditis and subacute endocarditis
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of subacute endocarditis
∙∙ List causative organisms of meningitis
∙∙ Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of acute pyogenic
meningitis
∙∙ Describe characterstics features of cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) in different forms of meningitis
∙∙ List causative organisms of urinary tract infection
∙∙ Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of urinary tract
infection
∙∙ Describe characterstics features of cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) in different forms of meningitis
∙∙ Describe the following: aseptic meningitis; tuber­
culous meningitis
∙∙ List causative organisms of sore throat
∙∙ Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of sore throat
1. Bacteremia, Septicemia and Infective Endocarditis
Bacteremia and Septicemia
1. Bacteremia: Bacteremia may be defined as
presence of bacte­r ia in blood without any
multiplication.
2. Septicemia: Septicemia is a condition in which
bacteria circulate and actively multiply within
the blood stream. Microorganisms causing
septicaemia are given in Table 78.1.
3. Pyemia: Pyemia is essentially septicemia with
metastatic infection.
*This chapter was contributed by Dr Savita Kumari, Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Postgraduate
Institute and Medical Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh-160 012, India.
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78
Chapter
Infective Syndromes*
∙∙ List microbial pathogens that cause pneumonia.
∙∙ Define diarrhea and dysentery
∙∙ List causative organisms of diarrhea and dysentery
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of dirrhea
∙∙ Discuss laboratory diagnosis of dysentery
∙∙ List causative organisms of food poisoning
∙∙ Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of food poisoning
∙∙ List microbial pathogens that cause pneumonia
∙∙ List causative organisms of (i) sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs); (ii) painless genital ulcer; painful
genital ulcer; urethral discharge
∙∙ Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of gonorrhea
∙∙ Describe the following; Non-gonococcal urethritis
(NGU)
∙∙ Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of syphilis
∙∙ List causative organisms of wound infection
∙∙ Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of wound infection
∙∙ List causative organisms of pyrexia of unknown origin
(PUO)
∙∙ Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of pyrexia of
unknown origin (PUO)
4. Endotoxemia: Endotoxemia is a condition
in which bacterial endotoxin circulates in the
blood.
Infective Endocarditis (Table 78.2)
Infective endocarditis denotes a condition of
proliferation of microorganisms on the endothelium
of the heart. Damaged endocardium provides a
site for the aggregation of platelets and fibrin is
deposited to build up a sterile vegetation. This
is then liable to be colonized by blood-borne
534  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Table 78.1  Causative organisms of septicemia Table 78.3  Causative agents of subacute endocar­
ditis
A. Gram-negative bacilli (60–70% cases)
Salmonella Typhi (A) Bacteria
S. Paratyphi A Viridans group of streptococci- responsible for 60–80%
S. Paratyphi B of cases?
S. Paratyphi C Streptococcus sanguis
Brucella spp. Str. mutans
Haemophilus influenzae Str. mitis
Escherichia coli Enterococcus faecalis
Klebsiella pneumoniae Staph. epidermidis
Proteus spp. Coxiella burnetii
Enterobacter spp. Chlamydia psittaci
Bacteroides spp. (B) Fungi
Pseudomonas spp. Candida albicans
B. Gram-positive bacilli Aspergillus spp.
Listeria monocytogenes
C. Gram-negative cocci
Neisseria meningitidis vegetations comprising of dense fibrin, platelet
D. Gram-positive cocci (20–40% cases) aggregates with bacterial colonies are formed.
Staphylococcus aureus It runs a chronic course. It is more common
Staph. epidermidis and comprises of almost 70% cases of bacterial
Streptococcus pyogenes
Str. pneumoniae
endocarditis. Causative agents of subacute
bacterial endocarditis are shown in Table 78.3.

Table 78.2  Causative agents of infective endocarditis Pathogenesis

A. Bacteria Endocarditis is an endogenous infection acquired
• Viridans group of streptococci when organisms entering the bloodstream
– Streptococcus sanguis
– S. mutans
establish themselves on the heart valves. About
– S. intermedius 70% patients have one or the other predisposing
– S. mitis cardiac lesion and other abnormalities that
• Groups F and G streptococci . predispose to endocarditis. These include:
• Staphylococcus epidermidis 1. Rheumatic valvular disease
• Enterococcus faecalis
• S. aureus
2. Congenital valve deformities
• Diphtheroids 3. Cardiac valve prosthesis
• Haemophilus spp. 4. Degenerative cardiac disease
• Coliforms 5. Drug abuse.
• Pseudomonas
• Coxiella burnetii
• Chlamydia psittaci Laboratory Diagnosis
B. Fungi Diagnosis of infective endocarditis depends on
• Candida spp. isolation of the causative agent from blood. Blood
• Aspergillus spp.
culture is the most important test for diagnosing
infective endocarditis
organisms. It may occur as an acute rapidly
progressive disease or in a subacute form. 1. Specimen
Three to six samples of blood, 10 mL each should
1. Acute Endocarditis be collected from antecubital vein over 24 hours.
Virulent species such as Staphylococcus aureus and Samples should be collected before antimicrobial
Streptococcus pneumoniae are usually the cause, therapy is administered. Each sample should be
and they infect both normal and abnormal heart inoculated into 50­–100 mL of glucose broth.
valves. They can often produce a rapidly progressive Large amount of blood is required because the
disease, often with valve destruction and formation number of organisms in the blood may be very few.
of abscesses in the heart muscle, lead­ing to heart In addition, blood provides nutrition for the growth
failure. of organisms. Repeated blood cultures are made
because the bacteremia is intermittent.
2. Subacute Endocarditis
Subacute bacterial endocardi­tis is usually caused 2. Cultures
by organisms with little virulence. These organisms Cultures are incubated at 37°C for at least 3 weeks.
of relatively low virulence cause infection on Subcultures are made on solid media such as blood
damaged or defective valve cusps, and large firm agar and MacConkey agar after 24 hours, 48 hours

and once a week thereafter. These solid media are
incubated at 37°C for 24 hours.
3. Identification
The isolated organism is identified by colony
morphology, Gram staining, biochemical reactions
and serological tests. Refer to the corresponding
chapters for details of these agents.
4. Antibiotic Sensitivity Tests
Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and
minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of
the antimicrobial agent for the isolated organism
must be determined. The measurement of MIC and
MBC helps to determine the adequate dose of the
antibiotic to be used for ensuring the serum levels
that can penetrate the valves and kill the organisms.
5. Culture Negative Endocarditis
Blood cultures are persistently negative in about
10-20% cases. It may be due to following reasons:
i. Recent antibiotic therapy
ii. Inadequate number of specimens
iii. Infection with Coxiella burnetii or Chlamydia
spp.
Blood cultures may be negative because
Coxiella burnetii and Chlamydia spp. cannot
grow on cell-free media.
6. Other Tests for Diagnosis
i. Erythocyte sedimentation rate (ESR): It is
elevated.
ii. Normocytic normochromic anemia
iii. Total leukocyte count : Leukocytosis is
common.
iv. C-reactive protein (CRP): More reliable than
ESR in assessing progress.
v. Proteinuria
vi. Microscopic hematuria: Usually present.
vii. Echocardiography.
Treatment
The antibiotic treatment regimen for infective
endocarditis depends upon the infecting organism
For penicillin-susceptible streptococci, high-
dose penicillin is the treatment of choice. Patients
with a good history of penicillin allergy can be
treated with clindamycin or with a macrolide.
2. Meningitis
Meningitis is an inflammation of the membranes
surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Most cases
of meningitis fall into one of the two cat­egories:
purulent meningitis and aseptic meningitis. The
causative agents of these types are given in Table
78.4.
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Chapter 78: Infective Syndromes  | 535
These organisms and entero­cocci, which are always
more resistant to penicillin, should be treated with
a combination of penicillin (or ampicillin) and an
aminoglycoside.
Staphylococcal endocarditis-A β-lactamase
stable penicillin, such as cloxacilIin is often suitable
and may be given in combination with an amino­
glycoside, rifampicin or fusidic acid. Vancomycin
or teicoplanin should be used for penicilIin-
alIergic patients and for treating methicillin-
resistant staphylococci.
Prevention
No scientifically proven preventive methods are
available.
i. Importance of maintaining good dental hygiene.
ii. Prophylactic antibiotic—the accepted practice
is to give prophylactic antibiotic before dental
extraction and other surgical procedures.
Key Points
™™ Bacteremia may be defined as presence of bacte­ria
in blood without any multiplication
™™ Septicemia is a condition in which bacteria circulate
and acti­vely multiply within the bloodstream
™™ Pyemia is essentially septicemia with metastatic
infection
™™ Infective endocarditis denotes a condition of prolifer­
ation of micro-organisms on the endothelium of
the heart
™™ Acute endocarditis—Virulent species, such as
Staphylo­coccus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae
are usually the cause
™™ Subacute endocarditis with viridans group of
streptococci-responsible for 60–80% of cases
™™ Diagnosis of infective endocarditis depends on
isolation of the causative agent from blood. Blood
culture is the most important test for diagnosing
infective endocarditis.
Important Questions
1. Define bacteremia, septicemia, pyaemia and
endotoxemia. Name various organisms causing
septicemia. How will you diagnose it in the
laboratory?
2. Enumerate causative. agents of infective endocar­
ditis. How will you proceed to diagnose it in the
laboratory?
3. Write short notes on subacute endocarditis.
1. Purulent meningitis (acute
pyogenic meningitis)
In purulent meningitis, the CSF is typically turbid
due to the presence of large numbers of leukocytes,
from 100 to several thousands/mm3, most of which
536  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Table 78.4  Causative agents of purulent and B. Laboratory Examination of CSF for Cells
aseptic meningitis and Microorganisms
Purulent meningitis Aseptic meningitis 1. Naked eye examination: Naked eye examin­
•  Neisseria meningitidis A. Viruses ation is done for the presence of turbidity and
• Streptococcus • Enteroviruses any sign of contamination with blood from the
pneumoniae (echoviruses, polioviruses, puncture wound.
•  Haemophilus coxsackieviruses)
2. Cell count: The leucocytes in the CSF are
influenzae •  Mumps
•  Escherichia coli •  Herpes simplex counted by microscopical observation. The
•  Group B streptococci •  Varicella-zoster relative numbers of polymorphs and lympho­
•  Pseudomonas •  Measles cytes should be noted, and the number of
•  Salmonellae •  Adenoviruses erythrocytes in specimens contaminated with
• Staphylococcus aureus •  Arboviruses
blood (Table 78.5).
•  S. epidermidis B. Spiral bacteria
• Listeria • Syphilis (Treponema A wet film of centrifuged CSF deposit mixed
monocytogenes pallidum) with India ink will, when examined under oil-
•  Klebsiella • Leptospira immersion, demonstrate the characteristic
•  Anaerobic cocci Interrogans serovars capsulate yeast cells of Cryptococcus neofor­
•  Bacteroides Icterohaemorrhagiae and
mans and a wet film examined on a warm
In neonates and canicola
infants C. Other bacteria stage will show the slowly motile trophozoites
E. coli Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium of Acanthamoeba (Hartmanella) or Naegleria.
Group B streptococci tuberculosis)
Pseudomonads, Partially treated with Dilution
salmonellae antibiotics
Staph. aureus Brain abscess
CSF that is clear or only slightly turbid should be
H. influenzae D. Fungi examined undiluted but when the speci­men is
Listeria monocytogenes Cryptococcus neoformans highly turbid and its cell count very high, it may
Streptococcus Candida albicans be necessary to dilute it 1 in 10 or 1 in 100 before
pneumoniae E. Protozoa examination.
Klebsiella spp. •  Acanthameba
•  Naegleria
•  Toxoplasma gondli Gram Film of CSF
F. Noninfective After taking some CSF for the cell count, the
Lymphoma remain­d er should be centrifuged to deposit
Leukemias
Metastatic and primary
any cells and bacteria and a film of the deposit
neoplasms should be stained by Gram’s method. The finding
Collagen-vascular disease of bacterial forms resem­b ling meningococci,
pneumococci, haemophili, co­liform bacilli,
streptococci or listeriae be reported.
The supernatant from the centrifuged CSF should
are polymorphs. The majority of cases are caused be tested for its content of glucose and protein.
by one or other of three bacteria: Meningo­coccus,
Pneumococcus and Haemophilus influenzae. In Culture
neonates and infants, coliform bacilli, group B i. CSF Culture
streptococci and, less commonly, pseudomonads, Immediately after centrifugation of the CSF and the
salmonellae and Listeria monocytogenes may be the removal of some of the deposit for the Gram film, the
cause (Table 78.4). remainder of the deposit should be seeded heavily
on to culture media, blood agar and chocolate agar
Laboratory Diagnosis for incubation in humid air plus 5–10%, CO2 and
A. Collection of Specimens a-tube of cooked-meat broth. A further blood agar
The principal specimen to be examined is of CSF plate should be seeded for incubation for 2–5 days
collected by lumbar puncture under strict aseptic in an anerobic atmosphere with 5-10% CO2.
conditions. Only 3–5 mL of fluid should be collected The cultures should be inspected after overnight
in a fresh sterile screw-capped containers. The incubation. The isolated organisms are identified
specimen must be dispatched to the laboratory as by colony morphology, Gram staining from
quickly as possible, for delay may result in the death colonies, biochemical reactions and/or serological
of delicate pathogens, such as meningococci, and the tests. Tests with appropriate antibiotics should be
disintegration of leukocytes. It should not be kept in a done on the isolate.
refrigerator, which tends to kill H. influenzae. If delay If no growth is apparent after overnight
for a few hours is unavoidable, the specimen is best incubation, the plates should at once be reincubated
kept in an incubator at 37°C. for another day and then again inspected for growth.
 Chapter 78: Infective Syndromes  | 537
Table 78.5  Typical CSF findings in different types of meningitis
CSF in
Characteristic Normal CSF Acute pyogenic Tuberculous meningitis Viral meningitis
meningitis
I. Pressure Normal Highly increased Moderately increased Slightly increased
II. Direct examination
A. Cell count
1. Total cell 1–3 1,000–20,000 50–500 10–500
(per cu. mm
2. Predominant Lymphocytes Neutrophils (90–95%) Lymphocytes (90%) Lymphocytes
B. Biochemical analysis
1. Total 30–45 100–600 (Highly 80–120 (moderately 60–80 (slightly
proteins increased) increased) increased)
(mg%)
2. Sugars 40–80 Diminished or absent Diminished (30–50) Normal
(mg%) (10–20)
III. Bacteriological examination
A. Microsocopy
1. Gram Nil Gram-negative cocci, — —
staining Gram-positive cocci,
Gram-negative bacilli
or gram-positive bacilli
may be found depending
upon the causative agent
responsible.
2. Ziehl– Nil Nil Acid-fast bacilli (AFB) —
Neelsen may be found
staining
B. Culture Nil According to the M. tuberculosis may grow Viruses may be
causative agent, specific on L–J media grown on cell
organism may grow on cultures
appropriate media.

If the plate cultures remain free from growth,
and turbidity develops in the cooked-meat broth,
the broth should be filmed and subcultured
on to blood agar and heated-blood agar plates,
incubated aerobically and anerobically.
tests are used for rapid diagnosis of meningitis and
are particularly useful in partially treated patients
in whom smear and culture may be negative. These
are available for N. meningitidis, Str. pneumoniae,
H. influenzae type b and Group B streptococcus.

ii. Blood Culture Agglutination

Blood culture is particularly useful in meningitis
due to N. meningitidis, H. influenzae and Str.
pneumoniae. About 50% of these cases have
positive blood culture.
Biochemical Tests
The supernate from the centrifuged CSF should
be tested for its content of glucose and protein
(Table 78.5).
Antigen Detection
The supernatant part of CSF contains antigen,
which may be demonstrated by the performance
of a latex agglutination test or co­agglutination or
counter-immunoelectrophoresis (CIEP) test. These
The isolated organisms may be grouped by
agglutination with appropriate antisera.
Demonstration of Bacterial Endotoxin
This is especially useful when a patient has been
partially treated and culture shows no growth.
Bacterial endotoxin in blood can be detected by
the limulus lysate test.
For detailed identification of different
organisms, refer to the respective chapters.
2. Aseptic Meningitis
In aseptic meningitis, the CSF is clear or only
slightly turbid and contains only moderate
numbers of leucocytes, e.g. 10–500/mm3, most of

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538  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
which are lymphocytes, except in the earliest stage.
The great majority of cases are due to viruses (viral
meningitis), particularly enteroviruses of the echo,
coxsackie and polio groups. (Table 78.4).
A few cases with CSF findings resembling
those of viral meningitis are caused by leptospires
(serovars canicola and icterohemorrhagiae), fungi
(Crypto­coccus neoformans or Candida albicans)
and amoebae (Naegleria or Hartmanella) and an
underlying viral encephalitis may give a moderate
lymphocytic exu­date in the CSF.
It should also be noted that when antibiotic
therapy is started at an early stage in a bacterial
meningitis, the CSF findings may be like those of
aseptic meningitis (Tables 78.4 and 78.5).
Laboratory Diagnosis
CSF is used for:
Cell count and biochemical tests, microscopy,
culture and other tests according to suspected
causative agents (viruses, fungi or protozoa).
3. Tuberculous meningitis
The CSF findings often resemble those of aseptic
meningitis, but the cell count is usually slightly
higher, e.g. 100–500 leucocytes/mm 3 , mostly
lymphocytes, and a veil clot (fibrin web) often
develops when the CSF is allowed to stand
undisturbed (Table 78.5).
When a tuberculous infection is suspected, the
cen­trifuged deposit of the CSF should be examined
in an auramine or Ziehl–Neelsen-stained film for
acid­fast bacilli and cultured on one or two slopes
of Lowenstein–Jensen medium.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimen
CSF is collected by lumbar puncture in a sterile
container under aseptic conditions. When CSF
is allowed to stand, a fibrin web (cobweb) often
develops. Cell count and biochemical analysis can
be done as described earlier.
3. Urinary Tract Infection
Urinary tract infection (UTI) may be defined as the
presence of bacteria undergoing multiplication
in urine within the urinary drainage system.
Urinary tract infection is the second most common
infection after respiratory tract for bacterial
infection. Microorganisms causing UTI are shown
in Table 78.6.
Types of UTI
Acute infections of UTI can be subdivided into two
anatomic categories:
2. Microscopy
The cen­trifuged deposit of the CSF should be
examined in an auramine or Ziehl–Neelsen-stained
film for acid­fast bacilli.
3. Culture
Centrifuged deposit of CSF is inoculated on Lowen­
stein–Jensen (L–J) media and incubated at 37°C
for 6–8 weeks. Identification of M. tuberculosis
depends on colony morphology, Z–N staining from
colonies and biochemical reactions.
If facilities are available, some of the CSF should
be inoculated into a guinea-pig. As in purulent
meningitis, the glucose con­t ent of the CSF is
reduced and the protein content increased.
Key Points
™™ Meningitis is an inflammation of the membranes
surrounding the brain and spinal cord
™™ Most cases of meningitis fall into one of the two cat­
egories: purulent meningitis and aseptic meningitis
™™ Acute pyogenic or purulent meningitis. The majority
of cases are caused by one or the other of three
bacteria: Meningo­c occus, Pneumococcus and
Haemophilus influenzae
™™ Laboratory examination: CSF is the specimen of
choice. Direct microscopy by Gram staining, antigen
detection and culture are key methods in laboratory
diagnosis of acute pyogenic meningitis
™™ Aseptic meningitis of the great majority of cases
are due to viruses (viral meningitis), a few cases are
caused by leptospires, fungi and amebae
™™ Tuberculous meningitis-The CSF findings often
resemble those of aseptic meningitis
™™ When a tuberculous infection is suspected, the
CSF should be examined in an auramine or Ziehl–
Neelsen-stained film for acid­fast bacilli and cultured
Lowenstein–Jensen medium.
Important Questions
1. Name the various organisms causing meningitis.
Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of acute pyogenic
meningitis.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Aseptic meningitis
b. Tuberculous meningitis.
1. Lower UTI
i. Urethritis
ii. Cystitis
iii. Prostatitis
Lower UTI is due to ascending infection.
2. Upper UTI
i. Acute pyelitis—infection of pelvis of kidney
ii. Acute pyelonephritis—infection of parenchyma
of kidney.

Table 78.6  Causes of urinary tract infection
A. Gram-negative Bacilli
A. Gram-negative bacilli are by far the most common
infecting agents.
1. Escherichia coli causes approximately 80% of acute
infections in patients without catheters
2.  Proteus mirabilis
3. Klebsiella
4.  Enterobacter (occasionally)
5. Serratia
6.  Pseudomonas aeru­ginosa
B. Gram-positive cocci—lesser role in UTIs
1.  Staphylo­coccus saprophyticus (10–15%),
2.  S. epidermidis (1–5%),
3.  S. aureus (1–5%),
4.  Enterococcus spp. (1­5%)
C. Other organisms which may occa­sionally cause UTI
1.  Mycobacterium tuber­culosis
2. Enterobacter
3. Citrobacter
4.  Salmonellae
5.  Streptococcus pyogenes
6.  S. agalactiae
7.  Gard­nerella vaginalis
D. Fungus
Candida albicans may cause UTI in diabetics and
immunocompromized patients
Pyelonephritis is probably due to hematogenous
infection.
Predisposing Factors
1. Gender and sexual activity: The females are
more frequently affected by UTI.
Sexual intercourse causes the introduction of
bac­teria into the bladder.
2. Pregnancy: Pregnancy UTI is are detected in
2– 8% of pregnant women.
3. Obstruction: Any impediment to the free flow
of urine—tumor, stricture, stone, or prostatic
hypertrophy-results in hydronephrosis and a
greatly increased frequency of UTI.
4. Neurogenic bladder dysfunction.
5. Vesicoureteral reflux.
6. Genetic factors.
Clinical Features
1. Asymptomatic bacteuria: Symptomless
urinary tract infection is not uncommon and
can be detected only by urine culture.
2. Symptomatic: The common symptoms of
urinary tract infection are urgency and frequency
of micturition, with asso­ciated discomfort or
pain.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimen Collection
1. Midstream specimen of urine (MSU): Speci­
mens of urine are generally collected in plastic
universal containers.
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Chapter 78: Infective Syndromes  | 539
In males: From male patients, a midstream
specimen of urine (MSU) is collected. Before
collecting a sample, retract the prepuce,
clean it with sterile normal saline and collect
midstream specimen.
In females: In case of females, anogenital
toilet is more important. Wash perineum and
periurethral area with soap and water. Then
clean with nonirritant antiseptic, such as
chlorhexidine. Separate apart labia with fingers
of one hand and collect midstream urine.
2. Catheter specimen of urine (CSU): Catheter
specimen of urine (CSU) was com­m only
collected in the past from females, but
catheterization for this purpose is no longer
considered justifiable because it carries a 2–6%
risk of introducing and initiating infection.
3. Suprapubic stab: from children and young
infants.
4. Noninvasive method: A noninvasive method
of stimulating urine flow in a baby is by tapping
just above the pubis with two fingers at 1 hour
after a feed.
5. Early morning urine (EMU): If tuberculosis of
the urinary tract is suspected.
6. Initial flow of urine: In the investigation of
urethritis and prostatitis.
B. Transport of Specimen
Once collected, a specimen of urine must be
transported to the laboratory with­out delay, for
urine is an excellent culture medium. If a delay
of more than 1–2 hours storage is done in a
refrigerator at 4°C.
C. Laboratory Methods
Part of the specimen is used for bacteriological
culture and the rest is examined immediately
under the microscope.
1. Microscopy
The deposit of the centrifuged urine can be examined
under microscope to find out the presence of pus
cells, red blood cells and bacteria in it. Presence
of more than 3 pus cells per high- power field is
suggestive of infection.
Nowadays centrifugation is not recommended.
Wet film examination: The finding of 1 leucocyte
per 7 high-power fields corresponds with 10 4
leukocytes per mL and the larger number than
this indicates significant pyuria. Therefore,
centrifugation is not recommen­ded.
2. Culture
A. Quantitative
It is too laborious for routine use and thus not used
routinely.
540  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
B. Semiquantitative methods
These are quicker mehods:
I. Standard loop Method
Measured quantity of uncentricuged urine with
the help of standardized loop is inoculated on
blood agar and MacConkey media and incubated
overnight at 37°C. The number of colonies is
counted to get the bacterial count per mL of urine.
Interpretation of Results
Kass (1957) gave a criterion of active bacterial
infection of urinary tract as follows:
i. Count more than 10 5 bacteria of single
species per mL: significant bacteriuria which
indicates active UTI.
ii. Less than 104 organisms/mL and usually less
than 103/mL accounts contamina­tion.
Identification and Sensitivity Tests
If similar colonies are found in numbers suggesting
significant bacteriuria, a separate colony or a
portion of apparently pure growth should be
subcultured for identification and testing of its
sensitivity to antibiotics.
II. Filter Paper Method
This method of semiquantitative culture is rapid
and very economical in the use of culture medium.
III. Dip-slide Method
The dip-slide is small plastic tray carrying a layer
of an appropriate agar culture medium. Opposite
sides of the tray may carry different media, e.g.
cysteine lactose electrolyte-deficient (CLED) agar
medium on one side and MacConkey, brainheart
infusion or pseudomonas selective agar on
the other. The dip-slide is withdrawn from the
container and briefly immersed in the urine. It is
then incubated at 37°C overnight and examined
for a growth of colonies. This method is relatively
expensive.
Screening Techniques
Several screening techniques have been introduced
for the presumptive diagnosis of significant
bacteriuria. These include the following:
i. Griess nitrite test: It is based on nitrite-
reducing enzymes produced by bacteria
present in urine. The presence of nitrite,
detectable by a simple test, indicates the
presence of nitrite-reducing bacteria in urine.
ii. Catalase test: The pres­ence of catalase as
evidenced by frothing on addi­tion of hydrogen
peroxide indicates bacteriuria, though a
positive result is obtained also in hematu­ria.
iii. Triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) test:
It is ­based on the production of a pink-red
precipitate in the reagent caused by the
respiratory activity of the growing bacteria.
iv. Glucose test paper: It is based on the
utilisation of the minute amounts of glucose
present in normal urine, by bac­teria causing
the infection. Hence, it indicates bacteriuria.
v. Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs):
PMNs are counted in uncentrifuged urine
specimen with the help of hemacytometer. 8
PMN/mm3 is indicative of infection.
vi. Leukocyte esterase: Presence of this enzyme
in urine is indication of bacteriuria.
vii. Gram staining: Presence of at least one
bacteria per oil immersion field (examining 20
fields) correlates with significant bacteriuria
(>105 bacteria/mL).
viii. Dip-slide culture methods: Agar-coated
slides are immersed in urine or even exposed
to the stream of urine during voiding,
incubated and the growth estimated by colony
counting or by color change of indicators.
None of the screening methods is as sensitive
or reliable as a culture.
Differentiation of Upper UTI and Lower UTI
The antibody-coated bacteria test has been
employed for the localization of the site of urinary
infection. This is based on the assumption that
bac­teria coated with specific antibodies are present
in the urine only when the kidneys are infected
(upper UTI) and not when the infection is confined
to the bladder (lower UTI). Anti­b ody-coated
bacteria are detected by immunofluo­rescence
using fluorescent-tagged antihuman globulin or
by staphylococcal coagglutination.
Tuberculosis of Kidney and Urinary Tract
Tuberculosis of kidney is a blood-borne infection.
The patient presents with frequency and painless
hematuria and routine urine culture does not show
any pathogen. Tuberculosis must be considered in
cases where pyuria is present without bacteriuria.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimen
Excretion of M. tuberculosis from kidney is
intermittent. Hence, midstream urine specimen
is not useful. Early morning urine specimens
should be collected in sterile container on three
consecutive days.
2. Direct Ziehl–Neelsen Staining
Smear made from centrifuged deposit of urine
is stained with Ziehl–Neelsen staining and may
reveal acid-fast bacilli. Saprophytic mycobacteria

(e.g. M. smegmatis) may be present in normal urine
which may be excluded by using acid-alcohol
as decolorizing agent in staining procedure. M.
tuberculosis is acid-alcohol-fast while M. smegmatis
is only acid-fast.
3. Culture
Culture is performed on Lowenstein–Jensen
medium and incubated for 6–8 weeks. Growth
is identified by Ziehl–Neelsen staining and
biochemical tests.
Key Points
™™ Urinary tract infection (UTI) may be defined as the
presence of bacteria undergoing multiplication in
urine within the urinary drainage system
™™ Lower UTI includes) Urethritis, cystitis and prostatitis
and due to ascending infection
™™ Upper UTI includes acute pyelitis and acute pyelone­
phritis.
4. Sore throat
Sore throat is essentially an acute tonsillitis
or pharyngitis. It is characterized by redness
and edema of mucosa, exudation of tonsils,
pseudomembrane formation, edema of uvula,
grey coating of tongue and enlar­gement of cervical
lymph nodes. Causative agents of sore throat are
given in Table 78.7.
Pseudomembrane formation: Corynebacterium
diphtheriae, Can­dida albicans, β-hemolytic group A
Streptococ­cus, Treponema vincentii and Leptotrichia
buc­calis may lead to pseudomembrane formation.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The signs and symptoms of sore throat (pharyngitis)
caused by streptococci and viruses are similar.
Table 78.7  Causative agents of sore throat
A. Bacteria
• Streptococcus β-hemolytic group A and occasionally
groups C and G
•  Corynebacterium diphtheriae
•  Haemophilus influenzae
•  Bordetella pertussis
•  Neisseria gonorrheae
•  Treponema vincentii
•  Leptotrichia buccalis
B. Fungi
•  Candida albicans
C. Viruses
•  Epstein–Barr virus
•  Adenoviruses
•  Coxsackievirus A
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Chapter 78: Infective Syndromes  | 541
™™ Laboratory diagnosis: For specimen collection,
various methods used are: 1. Midstream specimen
of urine (MSU); 2. Catheter specimen of urine (CSU);
3. Suprapubic stab; 4. Noninvasive method; 5. Early
morning urine (EMU); 6. Initial flow of urine
™™ Part of the specimen is used for bacteriological
culture and the rest is examined immediately under
the microscope
™™ Culture: Semi-quantitative methods (Standard loop
technique) are used for culture
™™ Count more than 105 bacteria of single species per ml
is called significant bacteriuria. It indicates active UTI
™™ None of the screening methods is as sensitive or
reliable as a culture.
Important Questions
1. Name the various organisms causing urinary tract
infection. Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of this
condition.
2. Write short notes on:
Midstream specimen of urine (MSU).
Viral pharyngitis or other causes of pharyngitis/
tonsillitis must be differentiated from that caused
by Streptococcus pyogenes since it is treatable with
penicillin whereas viral infections are not.
A. Specimen
For bacteriological sampling, a plain, albumen-
coated or charcoal-coated cotton-wool swab should
be used to collect as much exudate as possible from
the tonsils, posterior pha­ryngeal wall and any other
area that is inflamed or bears exudate. Two throat
swabs are collected. If it cannot be delivered to the
laboratory within about 1 hour, it should be placed
in a refrigerator at 4°C until delivery.
B. Direct Microscopy
From one swab, make two smears for Gram
staining and Albert-staining.
1. Gram Staining
It is not helpful unless Vincent’s organisms or
Candida albicans are suspected. Vincent’s infection
shows gram-negative spirochaetes (Borrelia
vincentii) and gram-negative fusiform bacilli
(Fusobacterium spp.). When Candida albicans is
suspected, it appears as gram-positive oval budding
yeast cells.
2. Albert Staining
It shows green-colored, V and L-shaped (Chinese
letter pattern) bacilli with bluish-black metachromatic
granules in infection due to C. diphtheriae. Albert-
staining is helpful for presumptive diagnosis of C.
diphtheriae.
542  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
C. Culture Elek’s gel precipitation test .
Culture media are selected according to the Animal inculation test
organism suspected to be the causative agent iii. For Candida albicans
of sore throat. Following media may be used for a. Germ tube test
culture. b. Carbohydrate fermentation and assimil­
ation tests.
Blood agar: All the organisms will grow on this iv. For other causative agents
medium. Special culture media and different biochemical
reactions or serological tests may be required
Crystal violet blood agar: It is selective for Str.
as described in respective chapters. For
pyogenes especially when incubated anaerobically.
details of tests mentioned above, refer to the
Loeffler’s serum slope: For isolation of C. corresponding chapters.
diphtheriae, grow very rapidly (in 6–8 hours).
Potassium tellurite blood agar: Selective media E. Antibiotic Sensitivity
for isolation of C. diphtheriae. All β-hemolytic group A streptococci are sensitive to
Sabouraud’s dextrose agar (SDA): When penicillin G, and most are sensitive to erythromycin.
suspecting Candida albicans, SDA should be C. diphtheriae is sensitive to penicillin.
included.
These culture media should be incubated at 37°C Pneumonia
for overnight. In case of potassium tellurite blood
agar, it should be incubated for 48 hours. After 6–8 Pneumonia may be defined as inflammation and
hours, a subculture should be made from Loeffier’s consolidation of the lung substance. Bacterial
serum slope onto potassium tellurite blood agar, causes for pneumonia are listed in Table 78.8.
which is then incubated at 37°C for 48 hours.
Table 78.8  Microbial pathogens that cause pneu­
D. Identification monia
1. Morphology A. Community-acquired pneumonia
i. Str. pyogenes: Colnies are small (pin-point), Common organisms
circular, semitransparent, low convex discs Streptococcus pneumoniae
having β-hemolysis. Chlamydophila pneumoniae
ii. C. diphtheriae: On potassium tellurite blood Mycoplasma pneumoniae
agar, gray or black coloured round colonies Legionella pneumophila
Uncommon organisms
are seen.
Haemophilus influenzae
iii. Candida albicans: White or cream colored
Staphylococcus aureus
colonies may be seen.
Chlamydophila psittaci
Coxiella burnetii
2. Gram Staining or Albert Staining Kleb. pneumoniae
i. Gram Staining Actinomyces israillae
Primary viral pneumonia
∙∙ Small Gram: Positive spherical cocci occurring Influenza, parainfluenza virus and measles
in chains is characteristic of Str. pyogenes. Respiratory syncytial virus in infancy
∙∙ Candida albicans reveals gram-positive budding Varicella (chickenpox)
yeast cells. B. Hospital-acquired pneumonia
C. Diphtheriae is seen as gram-positive bacilli. Gram-negative bacilli (60%)
Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella species
ii. Albert Staining Gram-positive organisms (16%)
Staph. aureus
Diphtheriae shows green-colored V-or L-shaped
Anaerobes
bacilli with bluish-black metachromatic granules.
Legionella spp.
C. Pneumonia in immuno­compromised patients
3. Other Tests for Confirmation Pnemocystis carinii
i. For β-hemolytic streptococci Gram-negative bacteria—Ps. aeruginosa
a. Bacitracin sensitivity test—for Str. pyogenes Mycobacteruim tuberculosis
b. Lancefield grouping—for all β-hemolytic Streptococcus pneumoniae
streptococci Haemophilus influenzae
ii. For C. Diphtheriae Candida albicans
Aspergillus fumigatus
a. Biochemical tests
Viruses–Cytomegalovirus
b. Toxigenicity tests

1. Classification
A. Community-acquired Pneumonia
Community-acquired pneumonia has been thought
to present as either of the two syndromes—typical
or atypical.
Typical Pneumonia Syndrome
Typical pneumonia syndrome is usually caused
by the most bacterial pathogen in community-
acquired pneumonia, Streptococcus pneumoniae,
but can also be due to other bacterial pathogens.
Atypical Pneumonia Syndrome
Atypical pneumonia is classically produced by
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila.
Chlamydophila pneumoniae. There is patchy
consoli­dation of lungs.
Lobar Pneumonia
It is an acute inflammation characterized by homo­
geneous consolidation of one or more lobes. It is
caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Bronchopneumonia
It is almost always a secondary infection and
generally follows viral infections of the respiratory
tract. It is an acute inflammation of bronchi and
the consolidation is scattered. It is caused by
Streptococcus pneumoniae Haemophilus influenzae
(rarely Kleb. pneumoniae, Staph. aureus).
Respiratory syncytial virus, Mycoplasma
pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae and
Bordetella pertussis cause bronchitis and bronchiolitis.
B. Hospital-acquired Pneumonia
Hospital-acquired or nosocomial pneumonia
refers to a new episode of pneumonia occurring
at least two days after admission in the hospital.
C. Pneumonia in lmmuno­compromized
Patients
The common causative agents include Pneumocystis
carinii, Staph. aureus, Ps. aeruginosa, viral
infections (CMV and herpes) and M. tuberculosis.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimen
Sputum; blood; pleural fluid; blood for serological
tests.
B. Direct Microscopy
1. Gram Staining: Adequate number of pus
cells alongwith the presence of predominant
organisms gives a clue to the probable pathogen.
2. Ziehl–Neelsen staining: Presence of acid-fast
bacilli (AFB) gives a presumptive diagnosis of
tuberculosis.
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Chapter 78: Infective Syndromes  | 543
3. Giemsa staining: Giemsa stain of sputum.
is useful to detect cysts and trophozoites of
Pneumocystis carinii.
C. Culture
Sputum, blood and pleural fluid can be cultured
on blood agar and chocolate agar. Purulent portion
of sputum is best for culture. If the sputum is too
viscid, it may be homogenized.
1. Blood agar: It is incubated aerobically at 37°C
under 5–10% CO2.
2. Chocolate agar: It is also incubated at 37°C
with 5–10 percent CO2.
3. Lowenstein–Jensen (L–J) medium: Three
specimens of sputum are collected on three
successive days for culture on L–J media which
are then incubated at 37°C for 6–8 weeks.
4. Selective media are required for culture of L.
pneumophila (see Chapter 37).
5. Isolation of chlamydia can be done on cell-lines.
D. Detection of Bacterial Antigens
Direct Immunofluorescence Test
Direct immunofluorescence examination of sputum
is done to detect antigens in L. pneumophila.
E. Serology
1. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
–– Complement fixation test (CFT)
–– Cold agglutinin test
2. Chlamydia pneumoniae
–– Microimmunofluorescence
–– TWAR antigen
–– CFT
–– Immunofluorescent antibody test
4. Coxiella burnetii
–– CFT
Key Points
™™ Sore throat is essentially an acute tonsillitis or
pharyngitis
™™ Laboratory diagnosis of sore throat caused by
bacteria depends on direct microscopy and culture.
For bacteriological sampling, two throat swabs are
collected
™™ Pneumonia may be defined as inflammation and
consolidation of the lung substance, which may
be classified as community-acquired pneumonia,
hospital-acquired pneumonia and pneumonia in
immuno­compromized patients
™™ Laboratory diagnosis of pneumonia depends on
direct microscopy and culture.
Important Questions
1. Name the various organisms causing sore throat.
How will you diagnose it in the laboratory?
2. Name the various bacterial causes of pneumonia.
Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of pneumococcal
pneumonia.
544  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous

5. Diarrhea and Dysentery

A. Diarrhea Table 78.9  Causative agents of infective diarrhea
Diarrhea is defined as the passage of loose, liquid A. Bacteria C. Protozoa
or watery stools. These liquid stools are usually •  Vibrio cholerae •  Entamoeba histolytica
passed more than three times a day. Infective •  V. parahaemolyticus •  Giardia lamblia
diarrhoea may be caused by viruses, bacteria, • Escherichia coli (ETEC, •  Cryptosporidium parvum
EPEC) •  Isospora belli
protozoa and Fungi (Table 78.9). •  Salmonella enteritidis D. Cestodes
•  S. Typhimurium •  Hymenolepis nana
B. Gastroenteritis •  Other Salmonella spp. E. Nematodes
Gastroenteritis may be defined as inflammation of •  Campylobacter spp. •  Trichuris trichiura
the mucous membrane of stomach and intestine •  Yersinia enterocolitica •  Strongyloides stercoralis
•  Shigella spp. •  Ascaris lumbricoides
resulting in frequent loose motions with or without • Clostridium •  Hookworms
mucus and with or without blood, pain abdomen perfringens F. Trematodes
and with or without fever. It is often used as a •  C. difficile Schistosoma mansoni
synonym for acute diarrhea, especially when • Staphylococcus
associated with vomiting. aureus
•  Bacillus cereus
C. Dysentery • Aeromonas
hydrophila
Dysentery is a disease marked by frequent • Plesiomonas
watery stools, often with blood and mucus, and shigelloid es
characterized clinically by cramping abdominal B. Viruses
•  Rotavirus
pain, tenesmus, fever and dehydration. •  Astrovirus
For all practical purposes, the terms diarrhea, •  Calicivirus
gastroenteritis and dysentery are collectively •  Norwalk virus
included as diarrheal diseases. •  Adenovirus

D. Traveller’s Diarrhea iii. EIEC

Persons from the developed countries visiting
endemic areas may acquire various exotic intestinal
pathogens and cause diarrheal illness soon after
the traveller has returned by air—a condition
known as “Traveller’s diarrhea”.
Diarrhea
Causative agents of diarrhea are shown in Table
78.9.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Bacteria
1. Vibrios
i. Vibrio cholerae
ii. Vibrio parahaemolyticus
iii. Other halophilic vibrios
V. mimicus and V. vulnificus cause sporadic
cases of diarrheal disease.
a. Specimen: Feces
b. Culture: Selective media, such as TCBS or bile
salt agar are used. Plates are incubated at 37°C
for 24–48 hours. Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a
halophilic vibrio, in media containing sodium
chloride.
c. Identification: Colony morphology, biochemical
reactions and slide agglutination test.
2. E. coli
i. ETEC
ii. EPEC
iv. EAEC
a. Specimen: Feces
b. Culture: On blood agar and MacConkey’s agar.
These media are incubated at 37°C for 24 hours.
c. Identification
Colony morphology, biochemical reactions, slide
agglutination with antisera.
Sereny test is used for the identification of
EIEC strains. Invasion of cultured HeLa cells is
another method for identification of these strains.
Production of verocytotoxin (VT) is confirmed by
testing the strains on Vero cells, in which they cause
cytopathic effects.
3. Salmonellae
S. Typhimurium, S. Enteritidis, S. Dublin, S.
Cholerae-suis, S. Heidelberg and S. Thompson.
Laboratory diagnosis
i. Specimen: Feces or any suspected foodstuff.
ii. Culture: Specimen is inoculated in enrichment
medium and on the selective media, such as
MacConkey’s agar, deoxycholate agar (DCA)
and XLD agar. Wilson and Blair’s medium may
also be used.
Selective media are incubated at 37°C for 24
hours. After 6 hours incubation of enrichment
medium, subculture is made onto the selective
medium. Pale nonlactose fermenting colonies
develop on MacConkey’s agar and DCA or

black shiny colonies on Wilson and Blair’s
medium. On XLD medium, colonies are red
in color.
iii. Identification: Colony morphology and
biochemical reactions.
The species is identified by agglutination test
with polyvalent antisera using that of H and O.
4. Shigellae
All four serogroups of shigellae (Shigella dysenteriae,
S. fiexneri, S. boydii and S. sonnei) cause bacillary
dysentery.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimens: Feces
ii. Culture: on MacConkey’s agar and DCA
medium. S. sonnei is a late lactose
iii. Identification
It depends on Colony morphology, biochemical
reactions and agglutination test by group specific
polyvalent antisera.
5. Campylobacter jejuni
C. jejuni occurs in intestinal flora of many animals,
especially poultry which probably serves as
the major source of human infection. Milk and
waterborne outbreaks of diarrhea have been
reported. Incubation period varies from 3 to 10
days. The disease is sometimes associated with
vomiting and bloody mucoid stools.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimen: Feces
ii. Culture
Selective medium containing vancomycin and
polymyxin. The inoculated culture medium is
Incubated at 43°C under microaerophilic
conditions. C. jejuni and C. coli selectively
grow against other faecal bacteria.
iii. Identification
Curved, Gram-negative bacilli exhibiting
darting motility oxidase positive.
6. Yersinia enterocolitica
Y. enterocolitica has been identified as an important
cause of diarrhea. Sources of infection are birds and
animals. Foodborne outbreaks have been reported.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimens: Feces, blood
ii. Culture: Isolated from faeces or blood
cultures. Non-lactose fermenting (NLF).
7. Clostridium perfringens
Cl. perfringens gastroenteritis or food poisoning
is characterised by diarrhea and abdominal pain
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Chapter 78: Infective Syndromes  | 545
following ingestion of contaminated food (meat,
poultry products). Most cases of human clostridial
gastro­enteritis are caused by type A strains. The
incubation period is 6–12 hours. Type A strains
produce a heat-labile enterotoxin which acts on
the membrane permeability of the small intestine.
Enterotoxin production has also been reported for
type C and type D strains.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Since Cl. perfringens type A forms a part of normal
flora in 5–30% of the population, it is difficult to
interpret its causative role. When the same serotype
is isolated from large number of the victims of
an outbreak and from the suspected food, a
presumptive diagnosis can be made.
i. Specimens: Feces, food
ii. Culture: Culture is done on blood agar and
incubated anaerobically at 37°C for 24 hours.
iii. Identification: Colonies are either beta-
hemolytic or non­hemolytic.
Gram staining: Gram-positive bacillus with
subterminal spore.
Further identified by Naegler reaction and
serotyped by agglutination test.
8. Clostridium difficile
Cl. difficile is associated with antibiotic­-associated
diarrhea and pseudomem.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimen: Feces
ii. Culture: Feces is cultured on selective media
with subsequent toxigenicity test.
iii. Demonstration of toxin:
Toxin-characteristic effects on HEp-­2 and
human diploid cell cultures, or by ELISA.
Toxin is specifically neutralized by antiserum.
9. Staphylococcus aureus
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimens: Vomit, feces, suspected food.
ii. Culture: On selective medium (mannitol salt
agar) or on ordinary media.
iii. Identification:
Colony morphology, Gram staining, catalase
test and coagulase test. Phage-typing may be
done for epidemiological purposes.
iv. Demonstration of enterotoxin: Reverse passive
latex agglutination assay (RPLA) or ELISA.
10. Bacillus cereus
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimen: Vomit, feces, suspected food
ii. Culture: Ordinary media (nutrient agar or
blood agar) and incubated at 37°C for 24
hours. A special mannitol-egg yolk-phenol
546  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
red-polymyxin agar (MYPA) medium may also
be used.
iii. Identification: Colonies have curled hair
appearance. Gram-staining shows gram-
positive spore bearing bacilli.
11. Other Bacteria
Aeromonas hydrophila and Plesiomonas shigelloides
have been reported to cause diarrheal diseases.
B. Viruses
1. Rotavirus
2. Norwalk virus
3. Adenoviruses
4. Other viruses:
Astroviruses and caliciviruses.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimen: Feces
ii. Electron microscopy
iii. Fluorescent antibody test and ELISA.
C. Protozoa
1. Entamoeba histolytica
2. Giardia lamblia
3. Cryptosporidium parvum
4. Balantidium coli: This is a rare cause of chronic
recurrent diarrhea, with dysenteric episodes in
some.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimen: Feces
ii. Microscopy
a. Saline Preparation and Iodine Mount
In saline preparation, motility of trophozoites
can be observed while cysts take up iodine and
appear distinct in iodine mount. Cysts and motile
trophozoites of E. histolytica can be observed in feces
of amebic dysentery. Giardia lamblia cysts in formed
stools, or trophozoites in fresh diarrheal stools can be
seen in giardiasis. Trophozoites of Balantidium coli
are found in liquid stool of this parasitic infection.
Rarely cysts may be seen in formed stools.
b. Acid-fast Staining
Feces smear shows acid-fast oocyst of Crypto­
sporidium parvum.
iii. Serological tests: Indirect hemagglutination
assay (lHA) and ELISA are used to detect
antibody titer in sera of patients with amebiasis.
D. Fungus
There have been reports of diarrhea associated
with Candida albicans.
Dysentery
Dysentery is a disease marked by frequent
watery stools, often with blood and mucus, and
characterized clinically by cramping abdominal
pain, tenesmus (painful straining when passing the
stools), fever and dehydration. Dysentery results
from ‘enteroinvasive’ microorganisms (Table 78.10).
that penetrate through the mucosa and cause
inflammation of the intestinal wall. The differences
between proto­zoal (amebic) and bacterial (bacillary)
dysentery are given in Table 78.10. For laboratory
diagnosis, see under “Diarrhea”.
Table 78.10  Microorganisms causing dysentery
A. Bacteria
•  Shigella dysenteriae
•  S. fIexneri
•  S. boydii
•  S. sonnei
•  Escherichia coli (EIEC, EPEC, EHEC)
B. Protozoa
•  Entamoeba histolytica
•  Balantidium coli
Key Points
™™ Diarrhea is defined as the passage of loose, liquid or
watery stools. These liquid stools are usually passed
more than three times a day
™™ Gastroenteritis may be defined as inflammation of
the mucous membrane of stomach and intestine,
resulting in frequent loose motions with or without
mucus and with or without blood, pain abdomen
and with or without fever. It is often used as a
synonym for acute diarrhea, especially when
associated with vomiting
™™ Bacterial diarrhea Vibrio cholerae, E. coli, Salmonellae
are some important bacterial causes of diarrheal
diseases. Rotavirus is the most important viral
etiology of diarrhea
™™ Dysentery is a disease marked by frequent
watery stools, often with blood and mucus, and
characterized clini­cally by cramping abdominal pain,
tenesmus, fever and dehydration
™™ Laboratory diagnosis of diarrhea, and dysentery
depends on isolation of organism from the relevant
specimen.
Important questions
1. Enumerate the different causes of diarrhea. How will
you diagnose a case of diarrhea in the laboratory.
2. Enumerate the etiological agents of dysentery.
Discuss in detail the laboratory diagnosis of
dysentery.
3. Write short notes on:
a.  Traveller’s diarrhea
b.  Viral diarrhea
 Chapter 78: Infective Syndromes  | 547

6. Food poisoning
The term bacterial food poisoning is restricted to 8–24 hours. The typical example of this type of food
acute gastroenteritis due to the presence of bacteria, poisoning is by salmonellae.
usually in large numbers, or their products in food.
It is of three types (Table 78.11). B. Toxic Type
In this type, the disease follows ingestion of food
A. Infective Type with preformed toxin. Incubation period is short
In this type, multiplication of bacteria occurs in (2 to 6 hours).Example is staphylococcal food
vivo when infective doses of microorganisms are poisoning.
ingested with food. Incubation period is generally
C. Infective-toxic Type
Table 78.11  Causative agents of food poisoning In this type, bacteria re­lease the toxin in the bowel.
The incubation period is 6–12 hours. The typical
1. Infectlve type example is Cl. perfringens food poisoning.
• Salmonella Typhimurium For the laboratory diagnosis, refer to the corres­
• S. Enteritidis ponding chapters. It has also been described under
• S. Heidelberg “Laboratory diagnosis of diarehea”.
• S. Indiana
Key Points
• S. Newport
™™ The term ‘bacterial food poisoning’ acute in is of
• S. Dublin
three types A. Infective type, B. Toxic type, and
• Vibrio parahaemolyticus Infective-toxic type.
• Campylobacter jejuni ™™ Laboratory diagnosis of food poisoning depends on
isolation of organism from the relevant specimen.
2. Toxic type
• Staphylococcus aureus
Bacillus cereus Important questions
• Clostridium botulinum 1. Name the various organisms causing food
poisoning. Describe briefly the laboratory diagnosis
3. Infectlve-toxic type
of this condition.
Clostridium perfringens
2. Write short notes on food-borne botulism.

7. Sexually transmitted Diseases (STDs)

The sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are A. Syphilis
a group of communicable diseases which are Syphilis is caused by Treponema pallidum.
transmitted predominantly or entirely by sexual
contact. The causative organisms include a wide 1. Specimens
range of bacterial, viral. protozoal and fungal (i) Fluid from chancre; (ii) Scrapings from ulcerated
agents. STDs may present as genital ulcers, genital secondary lesions; (iii) Blood for serology.
discharge without any genital lesion or only as
2. Microscopy
systemic manifestations.
Dark-ground microscopy or phase-contrast micro­
scopy is used for demonstration of T. pallidum in
Etiology exudate. The direct fluorescent antibody test for T.
pallidum (DF ATP) is a better and safer method for
Organisms causing sexually transmitted diseases
microscopic diagnosis.
(STDs) and their clinical presentations are shown
in Table 78.12. 3. Serological tests
i. Nonspecific tests:
Laboratory Diagnoses a. VDRL test
Laboratory diagnoses of these diseases has already b. Rapid plasma reagin (RPR) test
been described in the corresponding chapters. ii. Specific tests:
However, the salient features of laboratory a. TPHA (Treponema pallidum hemagglutin­
diagnoses of important STDs are mentioned here. ation assay).

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548  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Table 78.12  Organisms causing sexually trans­ 2. Isolation: Isolation of the Chlamydia by
mitted diseases and their clinical presentations intracerebral inoculation into mice and into yolk
sac of eggs has been replaced by cell cultures.
Sexually transmitted Organisms
diseases (STDs) 3. Serological tests: LGV patients develop high
titers of circulating antibodies, with titers of 1:64
A. Painless genital ulcers
or more in CF test and 1:512 or more in micro-IF.
• Syphilis Treponema pallidum
• Lymphogranuloma Chlamydia trachomatis Serological diagnosis is, therefore, feasible.
venereum (LGV) 4. Frei test: It is a skin test using LGV antigen and
• Donovanosis Calymmatobacterium shows delayed type of hypersensitivity.
granulomatis
B. Painful genital ulcers C. Donovanosis
• Chancroid Haemophilus ducreyi
• Herpes genitalis Herpes simplex viruses Donovanosis is caused by Calymmatobacterium
(HSV) type 2 and 1 granulomatis.
1. Specimen: Tissue smear from the ulcer
C. Urethral discharge
• Gonorrhea Neisseria gonorrhoeae 2. Staining: Diagnosis can be made by demon­
• Nongonococcal Chlamydia trachomatis stration of Donovan bodies in Wright-Giemsa-
urethritis (NGU) (types D-K) stained impression smears from the lesions.
Ureaplasma urealyticum They show bipolar condensation of chromatin,
Mycoplasma genitalium
giving a closed safety pin appearance in stained
M. hominis
smears. Capsules are usually seen as dense
D. Vaginal discharge acidophilic areas around the bacilli.
• Gonorrhea N. gonorrhoeae
• NGU C. trachomatis
M. hominis D. Chancroid
• Trichomoniasis Trichomonas vaginalis Chancroid or soft chancre is caused by H. ducreyi.
• Vaginitis Gardnerella vaginalis
Mobiluncus sp.
1. Specimen: Exudate
• Vulva-vaginal Candida albicans 2. Gram staining: Gram-negative coccobacilli are
candidiasis seen in Gram staining.
E. Genital warts Human papilloma viruses 3. Culture: Exudate is cultured onto chocolate agar
enriched with isovitalex and fetal calf serum,
F. No genital lesions HIV-1 and HIV-2
but only systemic Hepatitis B virus (HBV)
and containing vancomycin as a selective agent.
manifestations Hepatitis C virus (HCV) Culture plates are incubated at 35°C under 10
percent CO2 and in high humidity in 2–8 days.
G. Miscellaneous Group B streptococci
Molluscum contagiosum 4. Identification: For identification of the organism,
virus colony morphology and Gram staining are
Cytomegalovirus useful.
Phthirus pubis i. Colony morphology: H. ducreyi forms small,
Sarcoptes scabei
Shigella sp. gray, translucent colonies.
Campylobacter sp. ii. Gram-staining: It shows gram-negative
Giardia lamblia coccobacilli.
Entamoeba histolytica

b. FTA-ABS (fluorescent treponemal antibody
absorption test).
c. TPI (Treponema pallidum immobilization
test)
VDRL and TPHA are two most commonly
used tests.
B. Lymphogranuloma Venereum (LGV)
It is caused by C. trachomatis serotypes L1, L2 and L3.
1. Direct microscopy: Smears of material aspirated
from the bubos may show the elementary
bodies (Miyagawa’s granulocorpuscles). The
sensitivity of microscopy is very low.
E. Herpes genitalis
Herpes simplex virus (HSV), types 1 and 2, is the
etiological agent but type 2 strains are more com­
monly associated.
1. Specimens
i. Scrapings from base of the lesions
ii. Blood for serology
2. Microscopy: Intranuclear type A inclusion
bodies may be seen in Giemsa-stained smears.
The virus particle may also be demonstrated
under the electron microscope.
3. Virus isolation: Diagnosis is confirmed by
tissue culture in human diploid fibroblast cells.
Typical cytopathic changes may appear as early
as in 24–48 hours.

4. Serology: ELISA, neutralization or complement
fixation tests are used for antibody detection
and are useful in the diagnosis of primary
infection.
F. Gonorrhea
It is caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
1. Specimens: Specimens used are: (i) Urethral
discharge; (ii) An endocervical swab; (iii) In
chronic cases; (iv) Rectal swab.
2. Direct Gram-staining: Gram-stain of the penile
exudate shows characteristic and diagnostic
gram-negative intracellular diplococci (GNID)
in granulocytes.
3. Culture: Commonly used selective media are
modified Thayer–Martin and Martin–Lewis
plates. Inoculated plates should immediately
be placed in an incubator at 37°C for 24–48
hours in the presence of CO2. Cultures with no
visible growth must be held for 72 hours before
discarding.
4. Identification: Identification of an organism
is based on colony morphology, Gram staining
from colonies and biochemical reactions.
i. Colony morpholo g y: Small, gray,
translucent, raised colonies.
ii. Gram-staining: Gram-negative diplococci
iii. Biochemical reactions: They are oxidase
positive and produce acid from glucose but
not lactose, maltose or sucrose.
iv. Direct detection methods, such as
fluorescent antibody and agglutination
tests, are also available.
v. Nucleic acid probes for the direct detection
of N. gonorrhoeae from clinical specimens.
G. Nongonococcal Genital Infection
Symptoms of discharge and dysuria clinically
indistinguishable from gonorrhea caused by
organisms other than N. gonorrhoeae is called
nongonococcal urethritis (NGU). Causative agents
are shown in Table 78.13. A significant proportion
of nongonococcal genital infection in women is
generally due to chlamydia trachomatis.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
(i) Swabs from exudate of urethra; (ii) Cervical
discharge.
2. Direct examination
i. Giemsa stain: It shows intracytoplasmic
inclusion bodies suggestive of C. tracho­
matis.
ii. Antigen detection: For detection of ele­
mentary bodies of C. trachomatis, smears
are made from exudate and examined by
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Chapter 78: Infective Syndromes  | 549
immunofluorescence test with a mono­
clonal antibody or by ELISA.
3. Culture: The exudate is inoculated on McCoy or
HeLa cell cultures treated with cycloheximide.
Intracytoplasmic glycogen-rich inclusions
are detected by Giemsa stain or by immuno­
fluorescence. These are suggestive of C.
trachomatis.
4. Serology
i. Complement fixation test (CFT)
ii. Microimmunofluorescence or ELISA is useful
for detection of serovar-specific antibody.
H. Trichomoniasis
It is caused by Trichomonas vaginalis.
1. Specimen: Swab of vaginal discharge is exami­
ned freshly. Specimen should be collected in
stuart’s transport medium if delay in transport
is inevitable.
2. Direct microscopy: Direct wet film shows
motile trichomonads. Direct microscopy is at
least 80 percent as positive as culture.
3. Culture: Fineberg’s medium is used for culture
of specimen and it is incubated for 5 days and
examined for motile protozoa.
I. Bacterial Vaginosis-associated Organisms
The diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis does not depend
on the isolation of a particular microorganism, e.g.
Gardnerella vaginalis or Mycoplasma hominis, but on
the replacement of the predominantly lactobacillary
flora with a mixture of aerobes; and anaerobic
organisms, a shift of pH to neutral or alkaline, and
the presence of ‘clue’ cells. These changes are most
easily assessed from the Gram stained film.
For diagnosis of Shigella sp, Campylobacter
sp, Group B streptococci refer to corresponding
chapters.
J. Vulvovaginal Candidiasis
It is caused by various species of Candida but C.
albicans accounts for 80% of cases.
1. Specimen: Swab from vaginal secretions
2. Direct microscopy
i. KOH mount: It shows yeast cells.
ii. Gram-staining: Gram staining shows
characteristic gram-positive budding yeast
cells and pseudohyphae.
3. Culture: Sabouraud’s dextrose agar (SDA) is
inoculated with the specimen and incubated
at 37°C for 48 hours.
4. Identification
i. Colony morphology: Colonies are creamy
white and smooth.
550  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
ii. Gram staining: Gram-stained smear shows
budding gram-positive yeast cells.
Germ tube formation: C. albicans forms
iii.
germ tube within two hours when incubated
in human serum at 37°C.
iv. Chlamydospores formation: On cornmeal
agar C. albicans forms chlamydospores.
K. Genital Warts
Genital warts, also known as condyloma acuminata,
are common in sexually active adults. These are
usually due to human papillomavirus (HPV) types
6 and 11.
For detection of inclusion bodies of HPV,
cytological or histological examination of cells in
urine is used.
For diagnosis of Shigella sp, Campylobacter spp,
Group B streptococci, refer to the corresponding
chapters.
8. Wound Infection
Wound infections may be endogenous or exogenous.
It may be caused by a variety of aerobic and
anerobic species of bacteria (Table 78.13).
Laboratory Diagnosis
Pus or exudate is often submitted on a swab for
laboratory investigation. If possible, send two
swabs taken from the depths of the wound or
lesion, so that one can be used for the preparation
of a smear for microscopy and the other for the
seeding of cultures
The basic procedures usually include a
naked-eye examination of the specimen, the
microscopical examination of a Gram film, and
culture on aerobic and anerobic blood agar plates,
on MacConkey agar and in cooked-meat broth.
Table 78.13  Microorganisms causing wound
infection
A. Aerobes
Staphylococcus aureus
β-haemolytic streptococci
•  Enterococcus spp
•  Streptococcus pneumoniae
•  Escherichia coli
•  Other coliform bacilli
•  Proteus spp
•  Pseudomonas aeruginosa
•  Mycobacterium marinum
•  Nocardia spp
B. Anerobes
•  Peptostreptococci
•  Bacteroides spp
•  Clostridium perfringens and other clostridia.
•  Actinomyces israelii
Key Points
™™ The sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are a group
of communicable diseases which are transmitted
predominantly or entirely by sexual contact. The
causative organisms include a wide range of
bacterial, viral. protozoal and fungal agents
™™ For laboratory diagnosis and treatment according
to the suspected organism responsible for the
manifestations of that particular STD.
Important Questions
1. Name the various organisms causing sexually
transmitted diseases. Discuss the laboratory
diagnosis of syphilis.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Laboratory diagnosis of gonorrhea
b. Nongonococcal urethritis (NGU)
c. Chancroid
d. Lymphogranulum venereum (LGV)
e. Donovanosis
f. Vulvovaginal candidiasis.
Gas chromatography may be performed directly
on liquid specimens to indicate the presence of
anerobes.
A. Naked-eye Examination
The pus of a staphylococcal lesion is typically
creamy and thick in consistency.
The pus of a Streptococcus pyogenes infection
is generally straw-coloured and watery.
The pus of proteus infection has a fishy smell.
The pus of pseudomonas infection a sweet,
musty odor and often a blue pigmentation.
Pus containing anerobic organisms often has
an offensive putrid smell, and that of actinomycosis
may contain small microcolonies that appear as
‘sulfur granules’. In some fungal infec­tions such
as mycetoma, black or brown granules may be
present. The pus of an amoebic abscess is said to
resemble anchovy sauce.
B. Microscopy
Smear Stained by Gram’s Method
Gram-positive cocci in typical clusters may
suggest a staphylo­coccal infection,
In chains, streptococcal infection.
Gram-positive diplococci may be given by either
pneumococci or enterococci.
Gram-variable filaments of Actinomyces may
appear like chains of cocci and their fragments as
diphtheroid bacilli.
Examination of a wet film may reveal the presence
of fungi or motile bacteria.

Darkground microscopy of a wet film is useful in
the diagnosis of primary syphilis.
A smear stained by the auramine or Ziehl–Neel­
sen method—for tubercle bacillus, another
Mycobacterium or a Nocardia.
C. Culture
The specimen should be inoculated onto two
plates of blood agar, the one for incubation at
37°C aerobically, preferably in air plus 5–10% CO2,
the other for incubation anaerobically in nitrogen
hydrogen plus 5–10% CO2, It should also be plated
for aerobic incubation on MacConkey agar or
CLED agar and be inoculated into a tube of cooked-
meat broth for the enrichment of exacting aerobes
and anerobes. The culture plates are examined
after overnight incubation at 37°C for 18–24 hours.
If at 24 or 48 hours there is growth in the
cooked-meat broth, but no growth on the plates,
the broth should be filmed and subcultured, both
aerobically and anerobically. If tuberculous or
fungal infection is suspected, the specimen should
be cul­tured by the appropriate methods on the
appropriate special media.
D. Identification of Isolates
After the bacteria cultured have been obtained
in pure subcultures, any further necessary tests
9. Pyrexia of Unknown Origin (PUO)
Pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO) may be defined
as (a) any febrile illness (body temperature greater
than 38°C) on several occasions, (b) duration of
fever of more than 3 weeks, and (c) failure to reach a
diagnosis despite 1 week of inpatient investigation.
It is also known as ‘fever of unknown origin’
(FUO).
Causes of PUO
Infection is the most common cause of PUO.
However, there are important non-infectious causes
of fever. The causes of PUO are given in Table 78.14.
Laboratory Diagnosis of PUO
Tests should first be done for the more likely infec­
tions and then, if these are negative, tests for the
less likely should be done.
A. Bacterial Infections
1. Specimens
Blood: for blood culture, peripheral blood smear,
haematology, serology and other tests.
Urine, Sputum, Pus.
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Chapter 78: Infective Syndromes  | 551
for their identification should be done, e.g. the
coagulase test on staphylococci, Lancefield’s
grouping of β-hemolytic streptococci, and
biochemical tests on coliform bacilli and anerobes.
For detailed laboratory diagnosis, refer to the
corresponding chapters.
E. Antibiotic Sensitivity
At the same time, the pure cultures should be tested
for sensitivity to an extended range of antibiotics
useful in therapy.
Key Points
™™ Wound infections may be caused by a variety of
aerobic and anerobic species of bacteria
™™ Laboratory Diagnosis: Pus or exudate is often
submitted on a swab for laboratory investigation.
The basic procedures usually include a naked-
eye examination of the specimen, microscopical
examination of a Gram film, and culture on aerobic
and anerobic blood agar plates, on MacConkey agar
and in cooked-meat broth. Gas chromatography
may be performed directly on liquid specimens to
indicate the presence of anerobes.
Important questions
1. Name the various microorganisms causing wound
infection. Write briefly on laboratory diagnosis of
wound infection.
2. Collection
These specimens must be collected in sterile
containers under aseptic conditions. Blood is
collected in blood culture bottles for culture and in
a sterile vial for serology. Blood culture should be
collected before antibiotics are given. Midstream
urine specimen of urine (MSU) should be collected
in a sterile universal container.
3. Culture
i. Blood culture
For blood culture, 5 mL of blood is collected in
each bottle of 50 mL glucose broth and 50 mL
taurocholate broth. These broths are incubated at
37°C for 24 hours and then subcultures are made on
blood agar (from glucose broth) and MacConkey
agar (from taurocholate broth). Blood agar and
MacConkey agar plates are incubated at 37°C for
24 hours.
ii. Urine culture
A calibrated volume of midstream urine specimen
is inoculated on blood agar and MacConkey agar.
These media are incubated at 37°C for 24 hours.
552  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Table 78.14  Causes of pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO)
A. Infective causes
a. Bacterial
• Urinary tract infections
• Lung, subdiaphragmatic, appendix and other deep
abscesses
• Septicemia associated with cryptic abscesses,
pneumonia, pyelonephritis, biliary tract infection,
infective endocarditis and immuno­deficiencies
• Enteric fever
• Tuberculosis
• Brucellosis
• Syphilis
• Relapsing fever
• Rheumatic fever
• Leptospirosis without jaundice or meningitis
• Typhus fever
• Nonmeningitic meningococcal infection
• Q fever
b. Parasitic
• Malaria
• Hepatic amebiasis
• Leishmaniasis
• Trypanosomiasis
• Toxoplasmosis
• Filariasis
c. Viral
• EBV infection
• CMV infection
• HIV infection
• Rubella and other infectious fevers without typical
rash
Culture should be performed on Lowenstein–
Jensen (L–J) medium in case of renal tuberculosis.
iii. Sputum culture
Specimen is inoculated on blood agar and
MacConkey agar plates and incubated at 37°C
for 24 hours. Specimen should be cultured on
Lowenstein–­J ensen (L–J) medium in case of
tuberculosis and incubated at 37°C for 6 weeks.
iv. Pus culture
Pus is inoculated in glucose broth, blood agar and
MacConkey agar. These media are incubated at
37°C for 24 hours. Pus should be cultured on L–J
media for M. tuberculosis. Culture of pus should
be performed under anaerobic conditions when
suspecting anaerobic organisms.
4. Identification
Organisms may be identified on the basis of
colony morphology, Gram-staining, biochemical
reactions and agglutination, etc. Ziehl–Neelsen
(Z–N) staining is performed to detect acid-fast
bacilli (AFB) for M. tuberculosis. This is further
confirmed by culture and biochemical reactions.
For details of individual organisms, refer to
corresponding chapters.
B. Noninfective causes
a. Neoplasms
• Hodgkin’s lymphoma
• Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
• Leukemia
• Hypernephroma
• Hepatoma
• Disseminated malignancy
b. Connective tissue disorders
• Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
• Polyarteritis nodosa
• Temporal arteritis
c. Granulomatous diseases
• Sarcoidosis
• Crohn’s disease
• Granulomatous hepatitis
d. Drug reactions
Drug-induced fevers
5. Serology
Paired sera should be collected for serological
tests for antibody responses to a range of possible
pathogens, e.g. cytomegalovirus, hepatitis B
virus, Coxiella, Salmo­nella, Brucella, Leptospira,
Toxoplasma, Aspergillus and Entamoeba. HIV
infection should also be con­sidered. The anti­
streptolysin-O (ASO) test should be done for
cryptic Streptococcus pyogenes infection.
B. Parasitic Infections
Stained peripheral blood films smears (thin
and thick) will help in diagnosis of malaria,
leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis and filariasis.
Wet blood film may show microfilaria in cases of
filariasis. Serology is useful in amebiasis.
C. Viral Infections
Peripheral blood smear may be helpful in infectious
mononucleosis. Viral infections may be detected
either by tissue culture or by serology. Paul–Bunnel
test is useful in infectious mononucleosis.
D. Fungal Infections
Specimens may be cultured on Sabouraud’s
dextrose agar or brain–heart infusion agar.
 Chapter 78: Infective Syndromes  | 553
E. Other Tests for Diagnosis 4. The most common viral agent causing aseptic
meningitis is:
1. Skin Tests a. Enteroviruses
Mantoux test: A tuberculin test and a chest X-ray b. Adenoviruses
should be done to detect tuberculosis. c. Cytomegalovirus
Skin tests for histoplasmosis, coccidioido­ d. Parainfluenza virus
mycosis, sarcoidosis should also be done. 5. Which of the following bacteria is the most
comrnon cause of UTI:
2. Hematological Investigations a. E. coli
Hematological investigations should be done b. Ps. aeruginosa
to detect leukocytosis, suggestive of a cryptic c. Staph. aureus
abscess; eosinophilia, suggestive of helminthiasis; d. Staph. saprophyticus
and atypical lymphocytes, suggestive of infectious 6. All the following are causative agents of sore throat
mononucleosis. except:
a. Streptococcus pyogenes
3. Immunologic Tests b. Haemophilus influenzae
LE cell phenomenon and antinuclear antibody c. Borrelia vincenti
test in SLE. d. Staphylococcus aureus
7. Which of the following organisms may lead to
4. Biopsy pseudomembrane formation in throat:
a. C. diphtheriae b. Strep. pyogenes
Biopsy of liver and bone marrow and other tissues
c. Candida albicans d. All the above
such as skin, lymph nodes and kidney.
8. Which of the following agents can cause diarrhea?
Key Points a. Rotavirus b. Vibrio cholerae
c. S. Typhimurium d. All the above
™™ Pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO) may be defined
as (a) any febrile illness (body temperature greater 9. Which of the following protozoa can cause diarrhea:
than 38°C) on several occasions, (b) duration of a. Entamoeba histolytica
fever of more than 3 weeks, and (c) failure to reach a b. Cryptosporidium parvum
diagnosis despite 1 week of inpatient investigation.
c. Giardia lamblia
It is also known as ‘fever of unknown origin’ (FUO)
d. All the above
™™ The causes of PUO include infections bacterial, parasitic
and viral) neoplasms, connective tissue disorders, 10. Which of the following agents can cause dysentery:
granulomatous diseases and drug reactions a. Escherichia coli (EIEC)
™™ Tests should first be done for the more likely infec­ b. Shigella dysenteriae
tions and then, if these are negative, tests for the less
c. Entamoeba histolytica
likely should be done.
d. All the above
11. Which of the following bacteria can cause infective
Important Question type of food poisoning:
Define and enumerate the causes of pyrexia of unknown a. S Enteritidis
origin (PUO). Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of PUO. b. Clostridium botulinum
c. Staph. aureus
Multiple choice questions (MCQs) d. All the above
12. Infective-toxic type of food poisoning is caused by:
1. Presence of bacteria in blood without multiplication
a. Staph. aureus
is known as:
b. Salomonella Enteritidis
a. Bacteremia b. Septicemia
c. Clostridium perfringens
c. Pyemia d. Endotoxemi
d. Salmonella Dublin
2. Which of the following bacteria can cause purulent
meningitidis: 13. Ulcer/s is/are painless I n which of the following
a. H. influenzae sexually transmitted diseases:
b. Strep. pneumoniae a. Syphilis b. Chancroid
c. N. meningitis c. Herpes genitalis d. All of the above
d. All the above 14. Genital ulcer is painful in:
3. Which of the following agents cause/s aseptic a. Syphilis
meningitis? b. Chancroid
a. Herpes simplex b. Enteroviruses c. lymphogranuloma venereum
c. Arboviruses d. All of the above d. Donovanosis

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554  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
15. Which of the following bacteria is/are implicated 17. Which of the following anerobes can cause wound
as causative agents of nongonococcal urethritis: infection:
a. C. trachomatis a. Bacteroides spp
b. Peptostreptococci
b. Ureaplasma urealyticum
c. Clostridium perjringens
c. Mycoplasma hominis. d. All the above
d. All of the above 18. Which of the following conditions can result in PUO:
16. Urethral discharge is present in: a. Urinary tract infection b. Enteric fever
a. Chancroid c. Malaria d. All the above
b. Gonorrhea Answers (MCQs)
c. Herpes genitalis 1. a; 2. d; 3. d; 4. a; 5. a; 6. d; 7. d; 8. d; 9. d; 10. d; 11. d;
d. Lymphogranuloma venereum 12. c; 13. a; 14. b; 15. d; 16. b; 17. d; 18. d.

Hospital-acquired Infection
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Define hospital-associated infection
∙∙ List of routes of transmission of hospital-associa­ted
infections
Introduction
The terms hospital infection, hospital-acquired
infection or nosocomial infection (from nosoco­
meion, meaning hospital) are applied to infections
developing in hospitalized patients, not present or
in incubation at the time of their admission.
Sources of infections
Hospital infection may be exogenous or endogen­
ous in origin.
A. Exoge­nous
Exogenous source may be another person in the
hospital (cross­-infection) or a contaminated item
of equipment or building service (environmental
infection).
1. Contact with other patients and staff.
2. Environmental sources: These include inani­
mate objects, air, water and food in the hospital.
B. Endogenous
A high proportion of clinically apparent hospital
infections are endogenous (self-infection), the
infecting organism being derived from the patient’s
own skin, gastrointestinal or upper respiratory flora.
FACTORS INFLUENCING HOSPITAL-
ASSOCIATED INFECTIONS
1. Age: Natural resistance to infection is lower in
infants and the elderly, who often constitute the
majority of hospital patients.
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79
Chapter
∙∙ Describe common hospital-associated infections
and causative organisms responsible for these
conditions
∙∙ Describe diagnosis and control of hospital-
associated infections.
2. Susceptibility to infection: Preexisting disease,
such as diabetes, or other conditions, and
the medical or surgical treatment, including
immunosuppressive drugs, radiotherapy or
splenectomy, may also reduce the patient’s
natural resistance to disease.
3. Hospital environment: Patients shed them
from their bodies; hospital personnel spread
them through their hands and clothes. Bedding,
linen and utensils act as fomites. Equipment
may be contaminated. Patho­gens are present
in the hospital dust and air, and sometimes
even in antiseptic lotions and ointments.
Contamination of hospital food or water may
cause outbreaks of infections.
4. Diagnostic or therapeutic procedures.
5. Drug-resistance: The hos­pital microbial flora
is usually multidrug resistant due to injudicious
use of antibiotics, thus limiting the choice of
therapy.
6. Transfusion: Blood, blood products and
intravenous fluids used for transfusion, if not
properly screened, can transmit many infections.
7. Advances in medical progress: Advances in
treatment of cancer, organ transplanta­tion,
implanted prostheses and other sophisticated
medical technologies enhance the risk of
infection to patients.
Microorganisms causing hospital
infection
Almost any microbe can cause a hospital-acquired
infection, but those that are able to survive in
556  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
the hos­pital environment for long periods and
develop resist­ance to antibiotics and disinfectants
are particularly important in this respect. Though
protozoal infections are rare. Strep. pyogenes was,
per­haps, the most important cause of hospital
infection formerly but is hardly ever encountered
now as it is highly susceptible to antibiotics.
1. Staph. aureus: Staph. aureus strains, resistant
to multiple antibiotics and belonging to
phage type 80/81, spread globally in the 1950s
and 1960s, colonizing hospitals and causing
nosocomial infection. Subsequently, epidemic
or pandemic strains characterized by resistance
to methi­cillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA) have been found in many hospitals
world­w ide.Staph. epidemidis and Group D
streptococci also are sometimes respon­sible
for hospital infections.
2. Pseudomonas species: Ps. aeruginosa and
other Pseudomonas species have always been
important causes of hospital infec­tion.
3. Tetanus spores: Hospital tetanus is usually due
to faulty sterilization techniques or other lapses
in asepsis.
4. Viral infections: Viral infections probably
account for more hospital-acquired infections
than previously realized.
i. HIV and hepatitis B and C viruses are
transmitted by contaminated blood or
blood products. Screening of blood donors
has reduced the risk to a large extent.
However, HIV escapes detection during
the window period.
ii. Viral diarrhea and chickenpox are other
viral infections that spread in hospitals.
iii. Cytomegalovirus, herpesvirus, influenza,
enteroviruses and arenaviruses may also
cause hospital infection.
5. Fungus and parasites: The range of hospital
pathogens also includes yeasts (Candida
albicans), moulds, (Aspergillus, Mucor) and
protozoa (Entamoeba histolytica, plas­modia,
Pneumocystis carinii, Toxoplasma gondii).
ROUTES OF TRANSMISSION
1. Contact
Direct contact: Spread from person to person
(staphylococcal and streptococcal sepsis).
Indirect contact: Spread via contaminated
hands or equipment (enterobacterial diarrhoea,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa sepsis).
2. Airborne spread
i. Droplets
ii. Dust: Dust from bedding, floors; exudate
dispersed from a wound during dressing
and from the skin by natural shedding of
skin scales, spread to the susceptible site,
e.g. Ps aeruginosa, Staph. aureus.
iii. Aerosols: Aerosols produced by nebulizers,
humidifiers and air condi­tioning apparatus
transmit certain pathogens to the
respiratory tract. Occurrence of legionellae
in hos­pital water supply and a number of
persons with an impaired immune system
has led to outbreaks of infection mainly
with Legionella pneumophila.
3. Oral route: Hospital food contains gram-­
negative bacilli which are most often antibiotic
resistant (P. aeruginosa, E. coli, Klebsiella spp.
and others), which may colonize the gut and
later cause infection in susceptible patients.
4. Parenteral route (inoculation): Certain
infections may be transmitted by blood
transfusion or tissue donation, contaminated
blood-products (factor VIII), contaminated
infusion fluids and from accidental injury
with contamina­ted sharp instruments (HIV,
hepatitis B and C).
5. Self-infection and cross-infection: Self-
infection may occur due to transfer into the
wound of staphylococci (or occasion­a lly
streptococci) carried in the patient’s nose and
dis­tributed over the skin, or of coliform bacilli
and anaerobes released from the bowel during
surgery. Alternatively, cross-infection may result
from staphylo­cocci or coliform bacilli derived
from other patients or healthy staff carriers.
Common hospital-acquired
infection
1. Urinary Tract Infection
Most hospital-acquired infections of the urinary tract
are associated with urethral catheterization. Urinary
tract infection is caused by Esch. coli, Klebsiella,
Proteus, Serratia, Pseudomonas, Providencia, coagu­
lase negative staphylococci, enterococci and Candida
albicans.
2. Respiratory Infections
Aspiration in unconscious patients and pulmonary
ventilation or instrumentation may lead to
nosocomial pneumonia, particularly in those
with preexisting cardiopulmonary disease. The
major pathogens include Staph. aureus, Klebsiella
spp., Enterobacter, Serratia, Proteus, Esch. coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter, Legionella
pneumophila and respiratory viruses.
3. Wound and Skin Sepsis
The incidence of postoperative infection is higher
in elderly patients. Most wound infections manifest

within a week of surgery. Staph. aureus is the
predominant pathogen, followed by Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and then Esch. coli, Proteus, enterococci
and coagulase negative staphylococci.
4. Gastrointestinal Infections
Food poisoning and neonatal septicemia in hospital
have been reported. These infections are mainly
associated with salmonella and Shigella sonnei.
5. Burns
Staph. aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ,
Acinetobacter and Strept. pyogenes are responsible
for hospital-acquired infections in cases of burns.
6. Bacteremia and Septicemia
These may be conse­q uences of infections at
any site but are commonly caused by infected
intravenous cannulae. Gram-negative bacilli are
the common pathogens.
Staph. epidermidis bacteremia is seen
commonly in patients with artificial heart valves.
Bacteremia in those with valvular defects may lead
to endocarditis.
Diagnosis and control of
hospital infection
The most important steps in’ preventing
nosocomial infections are to first recognize their
occurrence and then establish policies to prevent
their development. Hospital infection may occur
sporadically or as out­breaks.
Etiological diagnosis is by the routine bacterio­
logical methods of smear, culture, identification
and sensitivity testing. When an outbreak occurs,
the source should be identified and eliminated.
This requires the sampling of possible sources of
infection. Typing of isolate—phage, bacteriocin,
antibiogram or biotyping—from cases and sites
may indicate a causal connection.
The provision of sterile instruments, dressings
and fluids is of fundamental importance in hospital
practice. The cause of infection may be a defective
autoclave or im­proper techniques, such as boiling
infusion sets in ward sterilizers. A careful analysis of
the pattern of infection may often reveal the source
but sometimes it eludes the most diligent search.
Infection control policy
The establishment of an effective infection
control orga­nization is the responsibility of good
management of any hospital. There will normally
be two parts:
1. Infection control com­mittee (ICC): Every
hospital should have an infection control com­
mittee (ICC). The committee will consist of a
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Chapter 79: Hospital-aquired Infection  | 557
medical microbiologist who will usually serve
as chairman, a physician, a surgeon, nurse
teachers, nurse repre­sentatives for surgery,
obstetrics, gynecology and medicine, and
sterile service manager. The ICC should meet
regularly to formulate and update policy for the
whole hospital matters having implications for
infection control and to manage outbreaks of
no noso­comial infection.
Roles of the infection control committee
i. The surveillance of hospital infection.
ii. The establishment and monitoring of policies
and proce­dures designed to prevent infection,
e.g. catheter care policy, antibiotic policy,
disinfectant policy.
iii. The investigation of outbreaks.
2. Infection control team: An infection control
team of workers, headed by the infection
control doctor (usually the microbiologists).
The functions of this team include surveillance
and control of infection and monitoring of
hygiene practices. The infection control nurse
is a key member of this team.
Prevention
The hospital-acquired infections can be prevented
by following means:
1. Sterilization: The provision of sterile
instruments, dressings, surgical gloves, face-
masks, theater clothing and fluids.
2. Cleaning and disinfection: The general
hospital environment can be kept in good
order by attention to basic cleaning, waste
disposal and laundry. The use of chemical
disinfectants for walls, floors and furniture is
necessary only in special instances.
3. Skin disinfection and antiseptics: Procedures
for preoperative disinfection of the patient’s
skin and for surgical scrubs are mandatory
within the operating theater.
4. Rational antibiotic prophylaxis
5. Protective clothing
6. Isolation source isolation and protective
isolation.
7. Hospital building and design: The routine
maintenance.
8. Equipment
9. Personnel: Hepatitis B vaccine should be
given to all health care workers.
10. Monitoring: Monitoring of the physical
performance of air-conditioning plants
and machinery used for disinfection and
sterilization is essential.
11. Surveillance and the role of the laboratory:
The detection and characterization of hospital
infection incidents or outbreaks rely on
laboratory data.
558  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Key Points
™™ Hospital-acquired infections or nosocomial
infections are infec­tions occurring in hospitalized
patients who were neither infected nor were in
incubation at the time of their admission
™™ The sources of hospital-acquired infection may be
exogenous or endogenous
™™ Nosocomial infections are transmitted by air,
direct contact, oral route, and parenteral route.
UTls, nosocomial pneumonia, and surgical wound
infections are the common examples of hospital
infections
™™ Diagnosis of hospital-acquired infections is made by
routine bacteriological methods
™™ The source of infection may be traced by performing
phage typing, bacteriocin typing, biotyping, or
molecular typing
™™ Active hospital surveillance is the key for successful
hospital infection control
™™ Every hospital must have an effective hospital-
acquired infection control committee (ICC).
Important questions
1. Define hospital-associated infection. Enumerate
organisms causing it. What are the factors which
influence development of this infection?
2. Write short notes on:
a. Routes of transmission of hospital-associa­ted
infections
b. Diagnosis and control of hospital-associated
infections
c. Prevention of hospital-associated infections
d. Disinfection policy
e. Infection control committee
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. Bacteria that are most commonly transmitted by
direct hand contact, causing nosocomial infection
are
a. Escherichia coli
b. Enterococcus species
c. C. Staphylococcus aureus
d. Clostridium perfringens
2. Hospital-associated respiratory infections are
caused by which of the following bacteria?
a. Staphylococcus aureus b. Klebsiella
c. Enterobacter d. All of the above
3. The pathogen that is transmitted by air in a hospital
is
a. Hepatitis A virus
b. Legionella species
c. Shigella species
d. Human immunodeficiency virus
4. The control of hospital-acquired infection is the
main responsibility of:
a. Medical superintendent of hospital
b. Head of department of medicine
c. Head of department of microbiology
d. Hospital infection control committee
Answers (MCQs)
1. c; 2. d; 3. b; 4. d

Laboratory Control of Antimicrobial Therapy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ List different methods of antibiotic sensitivity
testing
∙∙ Describe disk diffusion methods
∙∙ Explain Stokes disk diffusion method and its reporting
∙∙ Differentiate between Stokes disk diffusion and
modified Stokes disk diffusion method
INTRODUCTION
It is essential to determine the susceptibility of
isolates of pathogenic bacteria to antibiotics that
are likely to be used in treatment. As strains of most
pathogenic organisms differ from one another
within their species in their antibiotic sensitivities,
sensitivity tests are required as a routine.
ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY TESTS
Antibiotic sensitivity tests are of two types:
A. Diffusion methods
1. Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method
2. Stokes disk diffusion method
B. Dilution methods
1. Broth dilution method
2. Agar dilution method
Diffusion methods: Here the drug is allowed
to diffuse through a solid medium so that a
gradient is estab­lished, the concentration
being highest near the site of application of
the drug and decreasing with distance. The
test bacterium is seeded on the medium and
its sensitivity to the drug determined from the
inhibition of its growth. Several methods have
been used for the application of the drug. The
method most commonly em­ployed is to use
filter paper disks, impregnated with antibiotics.
Disk Diffusion Methods
These methods are suitable for organisms that
grow rapidly overnight at 35°C.
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80
Chapter
∙∙ Explain the meaning of sensitive, intermediate and
resistant applied to antimicrobial susceptibility
test results
∙∙ Describe the following: Epsilometer or E-Test;
Minimum inhibitory concentration of antimi­crobial
agents;Minimum bactericidal concentration of
antimicrobial agents.
Medium
Mueller–Hinton broth and agar may be used for
testing aerobic and facul­tative anaerobic isolates.
The medium is and poured to a depth of 4 mm
(25 mL medium) in flat-bottomed 9 cm Petri dishes
on a level surface. When set, the plates may be
stored for up to a week at 4°C and their surfaces
should be dried with their lids ajar before use. The
pH of the medium must be close to 7.3. A more acid
reaction decreases the activity of amino­glycoside
and macrolide antibiotics. A more alkaline pH
favors the action of tetracyclines, novobiocin
and fusidic acid, but interferes seriously with the
activity of nitrofurantoin.
The addition of 5% lysed horse blood is needed
to support the growth of fastidious species such
as Haemophilus influenzae. Lysed horse blood
should also be added for tests with sulfonamides
and trimethoprim; its content of thymidine
phosphorylase is needed to neutralize the inhibitory
effect of thymidine in the medium on the action of
these drugs. Low levels of free Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in
the medium increase the action of aminoglycoside
antibiotics against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
The addition of 5% NaCl to the medium
is needed in one of the methods for detecting
resistance to methicillin in strains of staphylococci .
Inoculum: Prepare the inoculum from material
picked up with a loop from five to ten colonies
of the species to be tested. Inoculate them in a
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 560  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Table 80.1  Control strains for Kirby–Bauer and
Stokes disk diffusion methods
Test bacteria Control strain
Kirby–Bauer Stokes
Coliform E. coli ATCC 25922 E. coli NCTC
organisms 10418
Pseudomonas P. aeruginosa P. aeruginosa
ATCC 27853 NCTC 10662
Haemophilus H. influenzae H. influenzae
spp ATCC 49247 NCTC 11931
Gonococci N. gonorrhoeae N. gonorrhoeae
Fig. 80.1: Principle of antibiotic diffusion in agar. The ATCC 49226 (sensitive strain)
concentration of antibiotic decreases as the distance from Enterococci E. faecalis ATCC E. faecalis
the disk increases 29212 NCTC 12697
Other organisms S. aureus ATCC S.aureus
that can grow 25923 NCTC 6571
suitable broth medium. Incubate at 35–37°C for
aerobically
4–6 hours when the growth is considered to be in
logarithmic phase. The density of the organisms is
adjusted to approximately 108 colony-­forming units Table 80.2  Diluents used for various antibiotics
(cfu)/mL by comparing its turbidity with that of 0.5
Antibiotic Diluent
McFarland opacity standard (Fig. 80.1).
Chloramphenicol Ethanol

Control Strains Rifampicin Ethanol

Control strains for Kirby–Bauer and Stokes disk
diffusion methods are given in Table 80.1.
Antibiotic Disks
Commercially, prepared disks 6 mm in diameter
should be used. Manufac­turers produce disks with
accurate antibiotic content. If disks are prepared
locally in the laboratory, then pure antimicrobial
agents obtained from the manufacturers and
not the ones for clinical use should be used.
Proper diluents should be used. Distilled water
serves to dissolve most antibiotic powders, but
chloramphe­nicol, rifampicin and erythromycin
must first be dis­s olved in a small amount of
ethanol, nitrofurantoin and sulfonamides in
small volume of NaOH solution, trimethoprim in
weak acid (acetic or lac­tic), and amoxicillin and
ceftazidime in a small vol­ume of saturated NaHC03
(Table 80.2).
Disks and disk dis­pensers should be stored in
sealed containers with a desiccant. Before they are
opened for use, the containers should be allowed to
warm up slowly at room temperature to minimize
condensa­t ion of moisture, which may lead to
hydrolysis of the antibiotic. Therefore, they should
be taken out from refrigerator 1–2 hours before
applying on the culture medium. Disk contents of
antimicrobial agents are given in Table 80.3.
Drugs to be tested against each species of bac­
teria should be grouped in sets of six or seven, the
maximum number that can be accommodated
on a single 100 mm diameter plate by Stokes and
Kirby–­Bauer methods, respectively.
Erythromycin Ethanol
Nitrofurantoin NaOH solution
Sulfonamides NaOH solution
Trimethoprim Acetic acid
Amoxicillin NaHCO3 (saturated)
Ceftazidime NaHCO3 (saturated)
KIRBY–BAUER DISK DIFFUSION METHOD
Procedure
A. Preparation of Inoculum (Growth Method)
Dip a sterile nontoxic cotton swab into the
inoculum suspension and rotate the swab several
times with firm pressure on he inside wall of the
tube to remove excess fluid. Inoculate the dried
surface of a Mueller–Hinton agar plate that has been
‘brought to room temperature by streaking the swab
three times over the entire agar surface. Replace the
lid of the dish. Allow at least 3–5 minutes but no
longer than 15 minutes for the surface of the agar
to dry before adding the antibiotic disks.
B. Testing of Antibiotics
The appropriate antimicrobial-impregnated disks
are placed on the surface of the agar, using either
sterile forceps or multidisk dispenser. Disks must
be evenly distributed on the agar so that they are
no closer than 24 mm from center to center. On
a plate of 100 mm diameter, seven disks may be
applied, one in the center and six in the periphery
(Fig. 80.2). The plates are then incubated at
35°C for 16–18 hours (24 hours when testing

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 Chapter 80: Laboratory Control of Antimicrobial Therapy  | 561
Table 80.3  Disk contents of various antimicrobial
agents for the comparative methods
Antimicrobial agent (and test option) Disk content
Benzylpenicillin
staphylococci 2 IU (1.2 mg)
pneumococci and meningococci 0.25 IU (0.15 mg)
Ampicillin
Enterobacteriaceae and 10 mg
enterococci 2 mg
Haemophilus and Moraxella spp
Amoxycillin/clavulanate
Enterobacteriaceae 20 mg/10 mg
Haemophilus spp, Moraxella spp Fig. 80.2: Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method
and staphylococci 2 mg/1 mg
Piperacillin 30 mg staphylococci against methicillin or oxacillin or
Mezlocillin 30 mg enterococci against vancomycin).
Azlocillin 30 mg C. Interpretation
Cephalothin 30 mg Examine the plates after overnight incubation. With
Cephalexin 30 mg the use of sliding calipers, a ruler, or a template,
Cephadroxil 30 mg the zones of complete growth inhibition around
Cephradine 30 mg each of the disks are carefully measured to within
Cefuroxime 30 mg the nearest millimeter. The diameter of the disk is
Ceftazidime 10 mg included in this measurement.
Cefotaxime 10 mg The interpretation of zone size into susceptible
Cefsulodin 30 mg (infection treatable with nonnal dosage), moderately
Methicillin 5 mg susceptible (infection that may respond to therapy
Carbenicillin 100 mg with higher dosage) or resistant (not treatable with
Ticarcillin 75 mg this agent) is based on the inter­pretation chart
Imipenem 10 mg
(Table 80.4). Reference strains of S. aureus, E. coli,
P. aeruginosa, etc. should be tes­ted each time a new
Gentamicin 10 mg
batch of disks or agar is used.
Amikacin 30 mg
Kirby–Bauer test results are interpreted using
Tobramycin 10 mg a table that re­lates zone diameter to the degree of
Neomycin 30 mg microbial resistance.
Netilmicin 10 mg
Erythromycin 5 mg STOKES DISK DIFFUSION METHOD
Clindamycin 2 mg For Stokes disk diffusion method, the plate is divided
Tetracycline 10 mg into three parts. The control inoculum should be
Fusidic acid 10 mg spread in two bands on either side of the plate,
Chloramphenicol leaving a central band uninoculated. The test orga­
Enterobacteriaceae 30 mg nism is inoculated on central one-third and control
haemophili, pneumococci and 10 mg on upper and lower thirds of the plate. However, in
meningococci modified Stokes disk diffusion method, the test org­
Colistin 10 mg anism is inoculated in the upper and lower thirds
Nalidixic acid 30 mg and control on central one-third. An uninoculated
Nitrofurantoin 50 mg gap 2–3 mm wide should separate the test and
Sulfafurazole control areas on which antibiotic disks are applied
Enterobacteriaceae and 100 mg (Fig. 80.3). A maximum of six antibiotic disks can
enterococci 25 mg be accommodated on a single 100 mm diameter
meningococci
plate. Plates should be incubated in air at 35-37°C
Trimethoprim 2.5 mg overnight (ideally for 16–18 hours). Tests should not
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole 1.2 mg/23.8 mg be read earlier.
Spectinomycin 100 mg
Vancomycin 30 mg Reading and Reporting Results
Rifampicin 5 mg Measure the inhi­bition zones of the control strain,
i.e. the distance in millimeters from the edge of the
Ciprofloxacin 1 mg
disk to the zone edge if that is obvious.
Mupirocin 5 mg
Each zone size is interpreted as follows:

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 562  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Table 80.4  Interpretation chart used in Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method
Antibiotic* Diameter of zone inhibition (in mm)
Resistant Intermediate sensitive Sensitive
Benzylpenicillin ≤28 — ≥29
Ampicillin
Methicillin ≤9 10–13 ≥14
Carbenicillin
Gentamicin ≤12 — ≥13
Amikacin ≤14 15–16 ≥17
Erythromycin ≤13 14–17 ≥18
Tetracycline ≤14 15–18 ≥19
Chloramphenicol ≤12 13–17 ≥18
Nalidixic acid ≤13 14–18 ≥19
Trimethoprim ≤10 11–15 ≥16
Ciprofloxacin ≤15 16–20 ≥21
* Only limited antibiotics have been shown in the table.

should be reported as resistant to penicillin irre­

Fig. 80.3: Stokes disk diffusion method
Categories of sensitivity: Three categories of
sensitivity can be recognized:
1. Sensitive: The zone size of the test strain is
larger than, equal to or not more than 3 mm
smaller than that of the control strain.
2. Intermediate: The zone size of the test strain is
at least 2 mm, but also 3 mm smaller than that
of the control strain.
3. Resistant: The zone size of the test strain is
smaller than 2 mm.
Exceptions
1. Penicillinase-producing strain of Staphylo­
coccus: It will show an inhibition zone but, it will
be smaller and colonies at the edge are large and
well developed and there is no gradual fading of
growth towards the disk. These penicillinase-
producing staphylococci show heaped­up zone
edges in tests of penicillins; accordingly they
spective of zone size.
2. Motile organisms: Such as Proteus mirabilis
and P. vulgaris may swarm when growing on
agar surface resulting in a thin veil that may
penetrate into the zones of inhibition around
antibiotic disks. The zones of swarm­ing should
be ignored and the outer margin, which is
usually clearly outlined, should be measured.
3. Polymyxins: Diffuse poorly in agar so that
zones are small. In this case, by Stokes method,
report as:
Sensitive: Zone radius equal to, wider than, or
not more than 3 mm smaller than the control.
Resistant: Zone radius more than 3 mm smaller
than the control.
4. Zones around ciprofloxacin: Zones around
ciprofloxacin disks are large with some control
strains. These are interpreted as follows:
a. When sensitive control used is Staphylo­
coccus aureus or Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Sensitive: Inhibition zone of the test
bacterium is equal to, greater than, or not
more than 7 mm smaller than that of control.
Intermediate sensitive: Inhibition zone of
the test bacterium is more than 2 mm but
is smaller than that of the control by more
than 7 mm.
Resistant : Inhibition zone of the test
bacterium is 2 mm or less.
b. When sensitive control used is Esch. coli or
H. influenzae.
Sensitive: Inhibition zone of the test bacterium
is equal to, greater than, or not more than 10
mm smaller than that of the control.

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 Chapter 80: Laboratory Control of Antimicrobial Therapy  | 563
Intermediate sensitive: Inhibition zone of growth of an organism after overnight incubation.
the test bacterium is more than 2 mm but The minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) is
is smaller than that of the control by more the amount of agent that will prevent growth after
than 10 mm. sub­culture of the organism to antibiotic-free medium.
Resistant : Inhibition zone of the test
bacterium is 2 mm or less. DILUTION METHODS
5. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Dilution tests may be done by the tube dilution or
(MRSA): Will often appear fully sensitive when agar dilution methods.
tested in ordinary way. Many of these organisms
grow more slowly in the presence of methicillin
Broth Dilution Method
and growth will only appear within the zone when
the incubation is continued for 48 hours. This Serial dilutions of the drug in Mueller–Hinton broth
difficulty can be overcome either by incubat­ing are taken in tubes and a standardized suspension
the culture at 30°C or test may be reliable when of the test bacterium inoculated. The inoculum is
incubated at 37°C if 5% NaCl has been added to prepared as in case of disk diffusion methods by
the medium. comparing with 0.5 McFar­land opacity standard.
An organism of known sensitivity should also be
6. Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole
titrated. Incubate at 35–37°C for 16–18 hours and
disks: For sen­sitivity tests trimethoprim and
read the results. Incubate at 30°C for determination
sulfamethoxazole disks containing both drugs
of MIC of methi­cillin (Fig. 80.5).
are widely used. Such disks may be misleading,
MIC is the lowest concentration of antimicrobial
it is impossible to know whether the organism
agent at which there is no visible growth. For deter­
is sensitive to both or only to one of them
mination of MBC, subculture from each tube show­
when both drugs are present. To overcome this
ing no growth over a quarter of a nutrient medium
problem, each drug should, therefore, be tested
free from antimicrobial agent. Incubate and exam­
separately.
ine them for growth. The tube containing lowest
concentration of the antimicrobial agent that fails
Primary Sensitivity Tests to yield growth, on subculture, is the MBC of the
In primary sensitivity tests the specimen serves as antimicrobial agent for the test strain. MIC inhibits
the inoculum. A portion of it is spread uniformly the bacterial growth while MBC kills the bacterium.
over part or whole of the primary culture plate and
antibiotic disks are applied. Principal Uses of MIC
In practice, it appears that primary sensitivity
1. In the determination of antibiotic sensitivities
tests are of most value for specimens of urine,
of organisms from patients with serious
of some value for swabs or pus from patients
infections, e.g. infective endocarditis.
attending acci­dent and emergency departments.
2. In measuring the antimicrobial sensitivities of
slow-growing organisms, e.g. Mycobacterium
Epsilometer or E-test
tubercu­losis).
The E-test, a modification of the disk diffusion
test, utilizes a strip impregnated with a gradient of
concentrations of an antimicrobial drug. Multiple
strips, each containing a different drug, are placed
on the surface of an agar medium that has been
uniformly inoculated with the test organism so that
they extend out radially from the center (Fig. 80.4).
Each strip contains a gradient of an antibiotic
and is labeled with a scale of minimal inhibitory
concentration values. The lowest concen­tration in
the strip lies at the center of the plate. After 24–48
hours of incubation, an elliptical zone of inhibition
appears. The MIC is determined by reading a
number off the numerical scale printed on the strip
at the point where the bacterial growth intersects it.

Minimum Inhibitory and Bactericidal

Concentrations Fig. 80.4: E-test (Courtesy Dr Krishna Prakash, Ex-Director
The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is the Professor, Department of Microbiology, Maulana Azad Medical
least amount of antimicrobial that will inhibit visible College, New Delhi, India)

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 564  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Fig. 80.5: Broth dilution methods showing MIC and MBC
3. Reference points in the evaluation and com­
parison of new and existing antimicrobial
agents.
Agar Dilution Method
Here, serial dilutions of the drug are prepared in
agar (Mueller–Hinton agar) and poured into plates.
The ‘agar dilution’ method is more convenient when
several strains are to be tested at the same time. The
advantage is that many strains can be inoculated on
each plate containing an antibiotic dilution.
Automated versions of sensitivity tests are
available and are in use in large laboratories.
ANTIBIOTIC ASSAYS IN BODY FLUIDS
These are required to verify whether adequate drug
concentrations are achieved in blood and other
body fluids. Likewise, new drugs must be tested to
determine achievable levels in the blood, urine, or
other body fluids.
The assays are generally done by making serial
dilutions of the specimen and inoculating standard
suspensions of bacteria of known MIC. Assays
by the agar diffusion method can also be done.
A technique called the diffusion assay is used to
measure the concentration of an antimicrobial
in a fluid specimen. The test relies on the same
principle as the Kirby–­Bauer test, except in this case
it is the concentration of drug, not the sensitivity of
organism, being assayed. This depends on the direct
relationship between antibiotic concentration
and the diameter of the zone of inhibition with a
standard sensitive strain of bacterium.
Key Points
™™ Antibiotic susceptibility tests are of two types:
Diffusion tests and dilution tests
™™ Diffusion tests consists of Kirby–Bauer and Stokes
disk method. Stokes disk method incorporates built-
Chap-80.indd 564
in controls against many variables and therefore
provides dependable results.
™™ Dilution tests: There are two types of dilution tests:
Broth dilution method and agar dilution method.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Name different methods of antibiotic sensitivity
testing. Discuss in detail Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion
method for antimicrobial sensitivity testing.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method
b. Stokes disk diffusion method
c. Minimum inhibitory concentration of antimi­
crobial agents.
d. Minimum bactericidal concentration of antimi-
crobial agents.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. Which of the following media is most suitable for
antibiotic sensitivity testing?
a. Mueller–Hinton medium b. Nutrient agar
c. Blood agar d. MacConkey agar
2. The pH of the medium for antibiotic sensitivity
testing should be:
a. 6.0–6.2 b. 6.8–7.0
c. 7.2–7.4 d. 7.6–7.8
3. In Stokes disk diffusion method, if the zone size
is larger than, equal to or not more than 3 mm
smaller than the control a strain is considered:
a. Sensitive b. Intermediate
c. Resistant d. None of the above
4. Addition of 5% salt in the medium is done when
testing antibiotic susceptibility of :
a. Methicillin resistant staphylococci
b. Pneumococci
c. Coliforms
d. Non fermenting gram-negative bacilli
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. a; 2. c; 3. a; 4. a
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 81
Chapter

Antimicrobial Chemotherapy

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Describe mechanism of drug resistance
be able to: ∙∙ List cephalosporins of first, second, third and fourth
∙∙ Describe mechanism of action of antibacterial generation.
drugs

ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT Table 81.1  Mechanisms of antibacterial drug action

Antimicrobial agent is a chemical substance 1. Inhibitors of bacterial cell wall synthesis
inhibiting the growth or causing the death of a Penicillins
mi­croorganism. Cephalosporins
Vancomycin
ANTIBIOTIC Bacitracin
Antibiotic as origin­ally defined was a chemical Cycloserine
substance produced by various species of micro­ Fosfomycin
organisms that was capable of inhibiting the
2. Inhibitors of bacterial cytoplasmic membrane
growth or causing death of other microorganisms function
in low concentration. Polymyxins
Gramicidin
CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS Tyrocidine
Chemotherapeutic agents are the chemical
3. Inhibition of bacterial nucleic acid synthesis
substances used to kill or inhibit the growth of
Quinolones
microorganisms already estab­lished in the tissues
Rifamycins
of the body. Nowadays the term antibiotic is
Nitroimidazoles
used loosely to describe agents (mainly, but not
Nitrofurans
exclusively, antibacterial agents) used to treat
Novobiocin
systemic infection.
Antimicrobial agent (AMA): The term Anti­ 4. Inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis
microbial agent (AMA) is to designate synthetic Aminoglycosides
Chloramphenicol
as well as naturally obtained drugs that attenuate
Tetracyclines
microorganisms.
Macrolides
Antiseptics or disinfectants: Antimicrobial Lincosamides
substances that are too toxic to be used other Fusidic acid
than in topical therapy or for environmental Streptogramins
decon­tamination are referred to as antiseptics or Mupirocins
disinfectants.
5. Metabolic antagonism
ANTIBACTERIAL AGENTS Sulfonamides
Trimethoprim
The principal types of antibacterial agents are
Dapsone
listed in Table 81.1. These have been grouped
Isoniazid
according to their site of action.

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 566  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
MECHANISMS OF ACTION OF
ANTIBACTERIAL DRUGS
Mechanisms of action of antibacterial agents can
be placed under the headings:
1. Inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis.
2. Inhibition of bacterial cytoplasmic membrane
function.
3. Inhibition of bacterial nucleic acid synthesis.
4. Inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis.
1. Inhibititon of Bacterial Cell Wall
Synthesis
Inhibitors of bacterial cell wall synthesis act on
the formation of the peptidoglycan layer. Bacteria
that lack peptidoglycan, such as mycoplasmas, are
resistant to these agents.
The anti­b iotics which inhibit cell wall
synthesis are b-Iactam antibiotics (penicillins and
cephalosporins), glyco­peptides, bacitracin, cyclo­
serine, fosfomycin and isoniazid.
A. b-Iactam Agents
This group includes penicillins, cephalosporins
and other compounds that feature a b-lactam ring
in their structure. All these compounds bind to
proteins situated at the cell wall–cell membrane
interface. These penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs)
are involved in cell wall con­struction, including
the cross-linking of the peptidoglycan strands that
gives the wall its strength. Opening of the b-lactam
ring by hydrolytic enzymes, collectively called
b-lactamases, abolishes antibacterial activity. Many
such enzymes are found in bacteria.
2. Those with high activity against both gram-­
positive and gram-negative organisms
but des­troyed by b-lactamases: Ampicillin;
amoxicillin; carbenicillin; ticarcillin; piperacillin.
3. Those stable in gastric acid and suitable for
oral administration: Penicillin-V; cloxacillin;
ampicillin.
4. b-Iactamase resistant penicillins: Methicillin;
nafcillin; oxacillin; cloxacillin; dicloxacillin;
flucloxacillin.
5. Penicillins active against Pseudomonas:
Apalcillin, carbenicillin; ticarcillin; azlocillin;
mezlocillin; piperacillin.
Cephalosporins
Cephalosporins are a family of antibiotics and
their b-lactam structure is very similar to that of
the penicillins (Figs 81.1A and B). In place of
6-aminopenicillanic acid, they have a nucleus of
7-aminocephalosporanic acid. They are broad-
spectrum drugs frequently given to patients with
penicillin allergies.
They are grouped as the first, second, third, and
fourth ­generation cephalosporins. These include
cephalexin and cephradine (first generation),
cefaclor and cefprozil (second gen­e ration),
cefixime and ceftbuten (third generation), and
cefepime (fourth generation) (Table 81.2).
First-generation cephalosporins are more
effective against Gram-positive than gram-negative

Penicillins
Penicillins are a group of antimicrobial substances,
all of which possess a common chemical nucleus
(6-aminopenicillanic acid) which contains a
b-­lactam ring essential to their biologic activity. A
side chain is attached to the b-lactam ring which
determines many of the antibacterial and pharma­
cological characteristics of a particular type of
peni­cillin.
All b-lactam antibiotics inhibit formation of
bacterial cell wall. They particularly block the
final transpeptidation reac­tion in the synthesis of
cell wall peptidoglycan and also activate autolytic
enzymes in the cell wall.
Penicillins can be divided into several groups:
1. Those with highest activity against gram-posi­
tive organisms but susceptible to hydrolysis by Figs 81.1A and B: The β-lactam ring of penicillins and
b-lactamases: cephalosporins the core chemical structure of (A) a penicillin
(B) a cephalosporin. The β-lactam rings are marked by an
• Penicillin-G orange circle. The R groups vary among different penicillins
• Penicillin-V and cephalosporins

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 Chapter 81: Antimicrobial Chemotherapy  | 567
Table 81.2  Important cephalosporins and their antibacterial spectrum
Class Compounds Antibacterial spectrum
First generation Cephalothin S. aureus, streptococci (other than enterococci), E. coli, Klebsiella
Cephalexin H. influenzae and P. mirabilis
Second generation Cefamandole First generation spectrum expanded to indole positive Proteus, Enterobacter,
Cefotaxime Citrobacter, Serratia and many gram-negative anaerobes
Third generation Cefotaxime Spectrum of second generation expanded to give high activity against
Cefoperazone H. influenzae, gonococci including b-lactamase producing strains and activity
against P. aeruginosa and many gram-negative anaerobes
Fourth generation Cefepime Spectrum similar to that of third generation compounds, but highly resistant to
Cefpirome b-lactamases, hence active against many bacteria resistant to the earlier drugs. P.
aeruginosa is also inhibited by cefepime

pathogens. Second ­generation drugs act against
many gram-negative as well as Gram-positive
pathogens. Third-generation drugs are particularly
effective against gram-negative pathogens, and
often also reach the central nervous system.
Other b-Lactam Antibiotics
Two other groups of β-lactam drugs, carbapenems
and monobactams, are very resistant to β-lactamases.
Carbapenems
The carbapenems are effective against a wide range
of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Two
types are available, imipenem and meropenem.
Glycopeptides
Two glycopeptides, vancomycin and teicoplanin,
are in clinical use. Their chief importance resides
in their action against gram-positive cocci with
multiple resistance to other drugs. They are mainly
used in serious infections with staphylococci and
enterococci that are resistant to other drugs.
Other Inhibitors of Bacterial Cell Wall
Synthesis
These include bacitracin, cycloserine, fosfomycin
and isoniazid.
2. Inhibition of Bacterial Cytoplasmic
Membrane Function
Only polymyxins have been regularly used
systemically among membrane active agents used
in human medicine. Two members of the family
are in therapeutic use: poly­myxin B and colistin
(polymyxin E).
They exhibit potent antipseudomonal activity,
but toxicity has limited their usefulness, except in
topical preparations and bowel decontamination
regimens.
3. Inhibitors of Nucleic Acid Synthesis
Quinolones
The quinolones are syn­thetic drugs that contain
the 4-quinolone ring. Quinolones act on the α
subunit of DNA gyrase, an enzyme that engineers
the breaking and rejoin­ing of super coiled DNA.
Nalidixic acid and its early congeners are narrow-
spectrum agents active only against gram-negative
bacteria.
Newer quinolones like ciprofloxacin, norflox­
acin, ofloxacin, pefloxacin and lomefloxacin are
broad spectrum quinolones. These have been
success­fully used in a wide variety of infections, but
resist­ance is becoming more prevalent.
Rifamycins
Rifamycins inhibit bacterial growth by binding
strongly to the DNA-dependent RNA polymerase of
bacteria thus inhibiting transcription of RNA from
DNA. This group of antibiotics is characterized
by excellent activity against mycobacteria.
Staphylococci in particular are exquisitely sensitive.
Rifampicin and rifabutin are most widely used.
Nitroimidazoles
Azole derivatives have wide-ranging antimicrobial
activity against fungi, protozoa, helminths, as well
as bacteria. Those that exhibit antibacterial activity
are 5-nitroimidazoles which are active only against
anaerobic bacteria and anaerobic protozoa. The
representative of the group most commonly used
clini­cally is metronidazole, but similar derivatives
include tinidazole, ornidazole and nimorazole.
They are primarily anti­protozoal agents, but they
exhibit potent activity against anaerobic bacteria.
Nitrofurans
Various nitrofuran derivatives are in use around
the world as antibacterial agents. These include
nitro­furantoin and furazolidone.
Nitrofuran­toin: It is bacteri­cidal to most urinary
pathogens at concentrations achievable in urine.
Furazolidone: Furazolidone is used in enteric
infections. The mode of action of nitrofurans
has not been elucidated, but it is probable that
a reduced metabolite acts on DNA in a manner
analogous to that of the nitroimidazoles

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 568  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Novobiocin
Novobiocin acts on the β subunit of bacterial DNA
gyrase. It is quite active against staphylococci and
streptococci, but is no longer favored because of
problems of resistance and toxicity. Staphylococ­cus
saprophyticus is novobiocin resistant.
4. Inhibition of Bacterial Protein Synthesis
The major classes of antibiotics that inhibit
protein syn­thesis are the aminoglycosides, the
tetracyclines, and the macrolides. Others include
the lincosamides and chlorampheni­col. Of these,
only the aminoglycosides are bactericidal; the
oth­ers are all bacteriostatic. Two classes of drugs
that have recently been approved for use are
the oxazolidi­nones and the streptogramins. A
synergistic combination of two streptogramins is
bactericidal against some organisms.
Aminoglycosides
The aminoglycosides irreversibly bind to the
30S ribosomal sub­unit, causing it to distort and
malfunction. This blocks the ini­tiation of translation
and causes misreading of mRNA by ribosomes that
have already passed the initiation step. Examples of
aminoglycosides include streptomycin, kanamycin,
neo­mycin, gentamicin, tobramycin, amikacin, etc.
Use: They are bactericidal compounds, and some,
notably gentamicin and tobramycin, exhibit good
activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The
group also has in common a ten­dency to damage
the eighth cranial nerve (ototoxicity) and the
kidney (nephrotoxicity).
Chloramphenicol
Chloramphenicol binds to the 50S ribosomal
subunit. It is mainly bacteriostatic.
Use: Use of chlo­ramphenicol has been limited to
typhoid fever, meningi­tis and a few other clinical
indications because of the occurrence of a rare but
fatal side-effect, aplastic anemia.
Tetracyclines
The tetracyclines reversibly bind to the 30S
ribosomal subunit, blocking the attachment of tRNA
to the ribosome and prevent­ing the continuation of
protein synthesis. Doxycycline and minocycline are
in most common use.
Tetracyclines are broad-spectrum agents with
important activity against chlamydiae, rickettsiae,
mycoplasmas and, sur­prisingly, malaria parasites,
as well as most conventional gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacteria. Tetracyclines can cause
discoloration in teeth when used by young children.
Chap-81.indd 568
Macrolides
The macrolides reversibly bind to the 50S ribosomal
subunit and prevent the continuation of protein
synthesis. Macrolides include erythromycin,
azithromycin, clarithromycin, dirithromycin and
spiramycin.
Macrolides as a group are effective against a
variety of bacteria, including many gram-positive
organisms as well as the most common causes of
atypical pneumonia (walking pneumonia). They
often serve as the drug of choice for patients who
are allergic to penicillin.
Lincosamides
Lincosamides bind to the 50S ribosomal subunit
and resemble macrolides in binding site,
antibacterial activity, and mode of action.
Fusidic Acid
It blocks factor G, which is involved in peptide
elongation. It has excellent activity against
staphylococci, good activity against Corynebacterium
diphtheriae and modest activity against streptococci,
Gram-nega­tive anaerobes, Nocardia asteroides, and
Myco­bacterium tuberculosis.
Streptogramins
Derivatives suit­able for parenteral administration,
quinupristin and dalfopristin, have been developed
as a combination product. The combination is
effective against a variety of gram-positive bacteria,
including some of those that are resistant to
b-lactam drugs and vancomycin.
Mupirocin
This is an antibiotic, produced by Pseudomonas
fluorescens. Its useful activity is restricted to
staphylococci and streptococci and used only in
topical preparations.
5. Metabolic Antagonism
Antibacterial medications that inhibit metabolic
pathways.
Sulfonamides and Diaminopyrimidines
These agents affect DNA synthesis because of their
role in folic acid metabolism.
Mechanism of Action of
Sulfonamides (Fig. 81.2)
Sulfonamides are ana­logs of para-aminobenzoic
acid. Be­c ause of their similar structures
(Fig. 81.3), there occurs competition between the
sulfonamides and the PABA for the active site on
the surface of the enzyme initiating the conversion
of PABA to dihy­drofolic acid. When sulfonamides
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 Chapter 81: Antimicrobial Chemotherapy  | 569
Fig. 81.2: Mechanism of action of sulfonamides
Fig. 81.3: Structure of p-aminobenzoic acid and basic ring
of sulfonamides
enter into reac­tion in place of PABA, nonfunctional
analogs of folic acid are formed, preventing
further growth of bacterial cell. Human tissue cells
and sulfonamide ­resistant bacteria also require
folic acid for synthe­sis of nucleic acids but are
capable of taking up preformed folic acid from the
environment and their growth is independent of
the conversion of PABA to folic acid. Other analogs
of PABA are diami­nodiphenylsulfone (dapsone)
and p-aminosalicy­lic acid (PAS) which are active
against lepra and tubercle bacilli, respectively.
Diaminopyrimidines, which include the broad-
spectrum antibacterial agent trimethoprim and
the antimalarial compounds pyrime­thamine and
cycloguanil (the metabolic product of proguanil),
prevent the reduction of dihydrofolate to
tetrahydrofolate. Sulfonamides and diaminopyrim­
idines thus act at sequential stages of the same
metabolic pathway and interact synergically, but
in bac­terial infections trimethoprim is generally
sufficiently effective, and less toxic, when used
alone.
Sulfonamides are broad-spectrum antibacterial
agents, predomi­n antly bacteriostatic, but
resistance is common and the group also suffers
from problems of toxicity. They are now lit­tle used
alone, but the combination of sulfametho­xazole
with trimethoprim (cotrimoxazole) is still widely
used, notably in the prophylaxis and treat­ment of
Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. They have some
activity against protozoa, including Plas­modium
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Chap-81.indd 569
spp. and Toxoplasma gondii. Sulfa­d oxine or
sulfadiazine combined with pyrimetha­mine are
used in malaria and toxoplasmosis respectively.
ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
Understanding the mechanisms and the spread
of antimicrobial resistance is an important step in
curtailing the problem.
Mechanisms of Drug Resistance
A. Acquired Antimicrobial Resistance
1. Drug-inactivating Enzymes
Some organisms produce enzymes that chemically
modify a spe­cific drug in such a way as to render it
ineffective.
i. Penicillinase: The best-known example is
the hydrolysis of the β-lactam ring of many
penicillins by the enzyme penicillinase.
ii. Chloramphenicol acetyl transferase: The
enzyme chloramphenicol acetyl trans­ferase
chemically alters the antibiotic chloram­
phenicol.
2. Alteration in the Target Molecule
Examples
i. Alterations in the penicillin-binding proteins
prevent b-lactam drugs from binding to them.
ii. Similarly, a change in the ribosomal RNA, the
target for the macrolides, prevents those drugs
from interfering with ribosome function.
3. Decreased Uptake of the Drug
Many gram-negative bacteria are unaffected
by penicillin G because it cannot penetrate
the envelope’s outer mem­brane. A decrease in
permeability can lead to sulfonamide resistance.
Mycobacteria resist many drugs because of the high
content of mycolic acids in a complex lipid layer out­
side their peptidoglycan.
4. Increased Elimination of the Drug
The systems that bacteria use to transport detrimental
com­pounds out of a cell are called efflux pumps. This
resistance strategy is to pump the drug out of the cell
after it has entered.
B. Genetic Basis of Antibiotic Resistance
Antimicrobial resistance can be due to either
spontaneous mutation, which alters existing genes,
or acquisition of new genes.
1. Spontaneous Mutation
Drugs such as streptomycin used in tuberculosis
treatment to which single point muta­t ions
can confer resistance are sometimes used in
combination with another drug to prevent survival
of resistant mutants. The chance of an organism
simultaneously developing mutational resistance
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 570  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
to each drug is extremely low. If any organism
spontaneously devel­ops resistance to one drug,
the other drug will still kill it.
2. Gene Transfer
i. Conjugation: R plas­mids frequently carry
several different resistance genes, each one
mediating resistance to a specific antimicrobial
drug. Thus, when an organism acquires an R
plasmid, it acquires resistance to several different
medications simultaneously.
ii. Transduction: Acquisition of resistance by
transduction is common in staphylococci.
The penicillin plasmids (carrying gene for
β-lactamase production) enclosed in a
bacteriophage is transferred from a penicillin-
resistant staphylococcus to a susceptible
staphylococcus.
iii. Transformation: Resistance transfer can
be demonst­r ated experimentally but its
significance is not known.
iv. Transposons: Many of the resistance genes
on R plasmids are carried on transposons that
can move from a plasmid to the chromosome,
from one plasmid to another, or from the
chromosome to a plasmid. Thus, if one organism
has two dif­ferent plasmids, an antibiotic-
resistance gene can move from one to the other.
Key Points
™™ Antimicrobial agent is a chemical substance
inhibiting the growth or causing the death of a mi­
croorganism
™™ Antibiotic as origin­ally defined was a chemical
substance produced by various species of
microorganisms that was capable of inhibiting the
growth or causing death of other microorganisms
in low concentration
™™ Chemotherapeutic agents are the chemical
substances used to kill or inhibit the growth of
microorganisms already estab­lished in the tissues
of the body
™™ Mechanisms of action’ of antibacterial agents can
be: 1. Inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis;
2. Inhibition of bacterial cytoplasmic membrane
function; 3. Inhibition of bacterial nucleic acid
synthesis; 4. Inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis
and 5. Metabolic Antagonism
™™ Mechanisms of drug resistance are: 1. Drug-
inactivating enzymes; 2. Alteration in the target
molecule; 3. Decreased uptake of the drug; 4.
Increased elimination of the drug
Chap-81.indd 570
™™ Antimicrobial resistance can be due to either
spontaneous muta­tion, or acquisition of new genes
™™ The most common mechanism of transfer of resis­
tance is through the conjugative transfer of R
plasmids (resistance plasmids).
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Define the terms antimicrobial agent, chemothera­
peutic agent and antibiotic. Describe the various
mecha­nisms of action of antibiotics with examples.
2. Describe the structure and functions of bacterial
cell wall. Name various antibiotics which affect cell
wall synthesis.
3. Write short notes on:
a.  Antibiotics inhibiting bacterial cytoplasmic
membrane function.
b. Antibiotics inhibiting bacterial nucleic acid
synthesis.
c. Antibiotics that act as metabolic antagonists.
4. Discuss genetic basis of drug resistance in bacteria.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. Which of the following antibiotics act/s by
inhibiting cell wall synthesis?
a. Penicillins b. Vancomycin
c. Bacitracin d. All of the above
2. Which of the following antibiotics acts by inhibiting
cytoplasmic membrane:
a. Polymyxin b Thyrocidine
c. Gramicidin d. All of the above
3. Which antibiotic/s act/s by inhibiting bacterial
nucleic acid synthesis?
a. Quinolones b. Novobiocin
c. Nitrofurans d. All of the above
4. Which of the following antibiotics act/s by
inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis?
a. Aminogycosides b. Tetracycline
c. Macrolides d. All of the above
5. Which antibiotic/s act/s as metabolic antagonists
for their action?
a. Sulphones b. Trimethoprim
c. Isoniazid d. All of the above
6. What is the genetic basis of drug resistance in
Mycobacterium tuberculosis?
a. Transformation b. Transduction
c. Mutation d. Conjugation
7. Staphylococcus aureus acquire drug resistance by:
a. Transformation b. Transduction
c. Mutation d. Conjugation
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. d; 2. d; 3. d; 4. d; 5. d; 6. c; 7. b
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Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ List of immunizing agents
∙∙ Describe the following: live attenuated vaccines;
killed vaccines; toxoids
Introduction
An important contribution of microbiology to
medi­cine has been immunization, which is one of
the most effective methods of controlling infectious
diseases.
Immunizing Agents
The immunizing agents may be classified as:
A. Vaccines.
B. Immunoglobulins.
A. VACCINES
A vaccine (Latin vacca, cow) is a preparation
from an infectious agent that is administered to
humans and other animals to induce protective
immunity against a given disease. It stimulates
the production of protective antibody and other
immune mechanisms. Vaccines may be prepared
from live modified organisms, inactivated or killed
organisms, extracted cellular fractions, toxoids or
combination of these. More recent preparations
are subunit vaccines and recombinant vaccines.
Types of Vaccines
1. Live Vaccines
Live vaccines are prepared from live (generally
attenuated) organisms. In general, live vaccines
are more potent immunizing agents than killed
vaccines. Live attenuated example are BCG,
smallpox vaccine, oral polio vaccine (OPV),
mumps, measles and rubella (MMR) vaccine and
yellow feller vaccine.
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82
Chapter
Immunoprophylaxis
∙∙ Explain immunization schedule
∙∙ Discuss national immunization schedule
∙∙ Describe passive immunization.
Live vaccines should not be administered
to persons with immune deficiency diseases
or to persons whose immune response may be
suppressed.
In the case of live vaccines, immunization
is generally achieved with a single dose. The
exception is polio vaccine. Live vaccines usually
produce a durable immunity.
2. Killed (Inactivated) Vaccines
Organisms killed by heat or chemicals, when
infected into the body stimulate active immunity.
They are usually safe but generally less efficacious
than live vaccines. Killed vaccines usually require a
primary series of 2 or 3 doses of vaccine to produce
an adequate antibody response, and in most cases
“booster” injections are required. Killed vaccines
are usually administered by subcutaneous or
intramuscular route. Examples of killed vaccumes
are typhoid, cholera, pertussis, pneumococcal,
rabies, hepatitis B and influenza vaccines.
3. Toxoids
Certain organisms produce exotoxins, e.g.
diphtheria and tetanus bacilli. The toxins produced
by these organisms are detoxicated and used in
the preparation of vaccines. In general, toxoid
preparations are highly efficacious and safe
immunizing agents.
4. Cellular Fractions
Vaccines, in certain instances, are prepared from
extracted cellular fractions, e.g. meningococcal
572  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
vaccine from the polysaccharide antigen of the
cell wall, the pneumococcal vaccine from the
polysaccharide contained in the capsule of the
organism and hepatitis B polypeptide vaccines.
5. Mixed or Combined Vaccine
If more than one kind of immunizing agent is
included in the vaccine, it is called a mixed or
combined vaccine. The aim of combined vaccines
is to simplify administration, reduce costs and
minimize the number of contacts of the patient
with the health system. The following are some of
the well-known combinations:
∙∙ DPT (Diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus)
∙∙ DT (Diphtheria-tetanus)
∙∙ DP (Diphtheria-pertussis) .
∙∙ DPT and typhoid vaccine
∙∙ MMR (Measles, mumps and rubella)
∙∙ DPTP (DPT plus inactivated polio)
Plain vaccines are less efficacious than adjuvant
vaccines. Freeze-dried vaccines (e.g. BCG, yellow
fever measles) are more stable preparations than
liquid vaccines.
6. Recombinant-vector Vaccines
Recently several microorganisms have been used
in the pro­duction of these recombinant-vector
vaccines.
Examples: Adenovirus, vaccinia virus, canarypox
virus, attenuated poliovirus, and attenuated strains
of Salmonella and Mycobacterium.
7. DNA Vaccines
A DNA vaccine elicits protective immunity against
a microbial pathogen by activating both branches
of the immune system: humoral and cellular.
Examples: At present, there are human trials
under way with several dif­ferent DNA vaccines
against malaria, AIDS, influenza, hepatitis B, and
herpesvirus. Vaccines against a number of cancers
(lym­phomas, prostate, colon) are also being tested.
IMMUNIZATION
Immunization is of three types: active immunization,
passive immunization and combined passive and
active immunization.
A. Active Immunization
Active immunization is the protection of susceptible
humans from communicable diseases by the
administration of vaccines (vaccination).
Immunoprophylaxis may be in the form of:
1. Routine immunization: There are some
infectious diseases whose control is solely
based on active immunization, e.g. polio,
tetanus, diphtheria and measles. Vaccination
against these diseases is given as a routine
during infancy and early childhood, with
periodic boosters to maintain adequate levels
of immunity.
2. Immunization of individuals or selected
groups: There are immunizations against certain
diseases which are offered to high-risk groups or
restricted to definite geographic areas where the
disease is endemic or a public health problem
(e.g. yellow fever).
Immunization Schedules
National Immunization Schedule
The National Immunization Schedule is given in
Table 82.1. The first visit may be made when the
infant is 6 weeks old; the second and third visits,
at intervals of 1–2 months. Oral polio vaccine may
be given concurrently with OPT. BCG can be given
with any of the three doses but the site for the
injection should be different. The schedule also
covers immunization of women during pregnancy
against tetanus.
Expanded Program on Immunization
In May 1974, the WHO officially launched a global
immunization program, known as Expanded
Program on Immunization (EPI) to protect all
children of the world against six vaccine-preventable
diseases, namely diphtheria, whooping cough,
tetanus, polio, tuberculosis and measles by the year
2000. EPI was launched in India in January 1978. This
is given in Table 82.2. The Program is now called
Universal Child Immunization Program, 1990.
The Indian version is the Universal Immuniz­
ation Program.
B. Passive Immunization
Passive immunization is used when it is considered
necessary to protect a patient at short notice and
for a limited period. Antitoxic, antibacterial or
antiviral antibodies in human (homologous) or
animal (heterologous) se­rum are injected to give
temporary protection.
Preparations for passive immunization: Three
types of preparations are available for passive
immunization:
1. Normal Human Immunoglobulin
Normal human immunoglobulin is used to
prevent measles in highly susceptible individuals
and to provide temporary protection (up to 12
weeks) against hepatitis A infection for travellers
to endemic areas and to control institutional and
household outbreaks of hepatitis A infection.
 Chapter 82: Immunoprophylaxis  | 573
Table 82.1  National immunization schedule 3. Antisera
a. For infants The term antiserum is applied to materials prepared
At birth – BCG and OPV-O dose in animals. Originally passive immunization
(for institutional – BCG (if not given at birth) was achieved by the administration of antisera
deliveries – DPT-1 and OPV-1 or antitoxins prepared from non­human sources
At 6 weeks – DPT-2 and OPV-2
At 10 weeks – DPT-3 and OPV-3
such as horses. Since human immunoglobulin
At 14 weeks – Measles preparations exist only for a small number of
At 9 months diseases, antitoxins prepared from nonhuman
b. At 16–24 months – DPT and OPV sources (against tetanus, diphtheria, botulism, gas
gangrene and snake bite) are still the mainstay of
c. At 5–6 years – DT—the second dose of DT
should be given at an interval passive immunization.
of one month if there is no Administration of antisera may occasionally
clear history or documented give rise to serum sickness and anaphylactic shock
evidence of previous due to abnormal sensitivity of the recipient. The
immuanization with DPT
current trend is in favor of using immunoglobulins
d. At 10 and 16 years – Tetanus toxoid—The second wherever possible.
dose of TT vaccine should be
given at an interval of one
month if there is no clear history C. Combined Passive and
or documented evidence of Active Immunization
previous immunization with
DPT, DT or TT vaccines In some diseases (e.g. tetanus, diphtheria, rabies)
passive immunization is often undertaken in
e. For pregnant
women conjunction with inactivated vaccine products, to
provide both immediate (but temporary) passive
Early in – TT-1 or Booster
pregnancy immunity and slowly developing active immunity.
One month after Individual Immunization
TT-1–TT-2
Vaccines offered under national programs are
Note: i. Interval between 2 dose should not be less
than one month.
limited by economic considerations and so some
II. Minor cough, cold and mild fever are not a important vac­c ines may be omitted because
contraindication to vaccination. they are costly. These may be supplemented by
iii. In some states, hepatitis B vaccine is given as individual initiative, whenever pos­sible.
routine immunization.
Hepatitis B vaccine: Three doses of killed vaccine
are given at 0,1 and 6 months intramuscularly
Table 82.2  World health organization (WHO) EPI into the deltoid or, in infants into the anterolateral
immunization schedule (when early protection is aspect of thigh.
a must) Typhoid vaccine: Two re­cent typhoid vaccines,
the live oral galactose epimeraseless (Gal-E)
Age Vaccine
mutant vaccine and the injectable purified Vi
Birth BCG, oral polio polysaccharide vaccine are recommended for
6 weeks DPT, oral polio immunization of those five years old or above and
10 weeks DPT, oral polio so may be employed at school entry.
14 weeks DPT, oral polio
Key Points
9 months Measles
™™ Immunoprophylaxis is the prevention of disease by
the production of active or passive immunity
™™ The immunizing agents are vaccines and immunoglo­
2. Specific Human Immunoglobulin bulins
These preparations are made from the plasma ™™ Active immunization can be achieved by natural
of patients who have recently recovered from an infection with a microorganism administration of
a vaccine
infection or are obtained from individuals who
™™ Vaccines may be live attenuated, killed, or in the form
have been immunized against a specific infection. of toxoids
They therefore have a high antibody content against ™™ Live attenuated vaccines—BCG, smallpox vaccine,
an individual infection and provide immediate oral polio vaccine (OPV), mumps, measles, and
protection, e.g. for passive immunization against rubella (MMR) vaccine, and yellow fever vaccine are
tetanus (human tetanus immu­noglobulin, HTIG), some of the examples of live vaccines
™™ Killed inactivated vaccines—Typhoid, cholera,
hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG), rabies (HRIG),
pertussis, pneumococcal, rabies, hepatitis B, and
varicella-zoster (ZIG) and vaccinia (AVIG).

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574  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
2. An example of killed inactivated vaccine is:
influenza vaccines are the examples of killed inacti­
vated vaccines a. MMR vaccine
™™ Toxoids: Tetanus toxoid and diphtheria toxoids are b. Influenza vaccines
two most widely used toxoids for immunization c. Oral polio vaccine
™™ Subunit vaccines: Hepatitis B subunit vaccine d. BCG vaccine
™™ Passive immunization is carried out by administration 3. An example of live attenuated vaccine is:
of human and animal sera a. Hepatitis B vaccine
™™ Combined active and passive immunization is often b. Rocky Mountain spotted fever vaccine
carried out to confer slowly developing immunity
c. Yellow fever vaccine
and immediate passive immunity, respectively,
against certain diseases, such as diphtheria, tetanus,
d. Rabies vaccine
and rabies. 4. Which of the following vaccines is/are subunit
vaccine/s?
a. Hepatitis B vaccine (plasma derived)
Important question b. Vi typhoid fever vaccine
rite short notes on:
W c. Meningococcal vaccine
a. Vaccines d. All of the above
b. Live attenuated vaccines 5. Toxoid is used for active immunization against:
c. Killed vaccines a. Pertussis b. Diphtheria
d. Toxoids c. Typhoid fever d. Tuberculosis
e. National Immunization Schedule 6. Specific immunoglobulins are available for passive
f. WHO EPI Immunization Schedule. immunization against:
a. Tetanus b. Rabies
Multiple choice questions (MCQs) c. Hepatitis B d. All of the above
7. Combined passive and active immunization is
1. Which of the following vaccines is/are killed available against all the diseases except:
vaccines? a. Poliomyelitis b. Tetanus
a. Cholera vaccine c. Rabies d. Diphtheria
b. Pertussis vaccine
c. Japanese encephalitis vaccine Answers (MCQs)
d. All of the above 1. d; 2. b; 3. c; 4. d; 5. b; 6. d; 7. a
 8383
Chapter

Bacteriology of Water, Milk and Air

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should ∙∙ Describe the following: Water-borne pathogens;
be able to: presumptive coliform count; Eijkman test
∙∙ Describe bacteriological examination of water ∙∙ Describe settle plate method and slit sampler
∙∙ Discuss bacteriological examination of milk method for bacteriology of air.

BACTERIOLOGY OF WATER 2. Salinity: In saline water number of bacteria

Introduction
Safe and wholesome water is defined as water that
is free from pathogenic agents, free from harmful
chemical substances, pleasant to the taste and usable
for domestic purposes. The aim of microbiological
examination of water supplies is to detect whether
pollution of the water by pathogenic organisms has
occurred or not. Reliance is placed on testing the
supply for microorganisms which indicate that fecal
pollu­tion has taken place.
BACTERIAL FLORA IN WATER
Bacterial flora can be divided into three groups:
1. Natural water bacteria.
2. Soil bacteria.
3. Sewage bacteria: Bacterial flora in water is
given in Table 83.1.
FACTORS DETERMINING THE NUMBER
OF BACTERIA IN WATER
1. Surface or deep water: Surface water is more
likely to be contaminated.
is less as compared to fresh water.
3. Mineral springs: These are usually pure and
most of the organisms found in water derived
from them come from imperfectly sterilized
bottles.
4. Nutrition: When organic matter is plentiful,
organisms are abundant, when it is scarce
they are few, and tend to die out.
5. Temperature: When nutrition is available,
rise in temperature leads to multiplication,
oth­e rwise, the number decreases. Low
temper­ature favors survival of bacteria.
6. Light: Day light is bactericidal.
7. Acidity: Acidity of water has a bactericidal
action.
8. Dissolved oxygen: It is essential for survival
of aerobes.
9. Protozoal content: Certain flagellates exter­
minate bacteria in water and bring down their
number.
10. Rain: Early rain washes large number of
bacteria from the soil which may contaminate
water sources. Subsequent rains dilute the
bacterial population.

Table 83.1  Bacterial flora in water

Natural water bacteria Micrococcus, Pseudomonas, Serratia, Flavobacterium, Chromobacterium, Acinetobacter and
Alcaligenes
Soil bacteria Bacillus subtilis, B. megaterium, B. mycoides, Enterobacter aerogenes and E. cloacae
Sewage bacteria Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens, Salmonella Typhi and Vibrio
• Intestinal bacteria cholerae
• Sewage bacteria Proteus vulgaris, Clostridium sporogenes, Zoogloea ramigera, Sphaerotilus natans, Haliscomeno­
proper bacter hydrossis, Nostocoida limicola, Microthrix parvicella, Hexiaecter, Micro­scilla and Nocardia

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576  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Table 83.2  Water-borne diseases
1. Those caused by the presence of an infective agent:
a.  Viral: Viral hepatitis A, hepatitis E, poliomyelitis,
rotavirus diarrhea in infants
b.  Bacterial: Typhoid and paratyphoid fever,
bacillary dysentery, Escherichia coli diarrhea,
cholera
c. Protozoal: Amebiasis, giardiasis
d.  Helminthic: Roundworm, threadworm, hydatid
disease.
e. Leptospiral: Weil’s disease
2. Those due to the presence of an aquatic host
a. Snail: Schistosomiasis
b. Cyclops: Guinea worm, fish tape worm
11. Storage: Storage of water decreases bacterial
count due to sedimentation and devitalization.
Water-borne Pathogens
Water-borne diseases are give in Table 83.2.
COLLECTION OF WATER SAMPLES
For collection, use heat-sterilized bottles containing
a sufficient volume of sodium thiosulfate to
neutralize the bactericidal effect of any chlorine
or chloramine in the water. Each bottle of 100 ml
capacity should contain 0.1 ml of a fresh 1.8%
(w/v) aqueous solution of sodium thiosulfate.
1. Sampling from a Tap or Pump Putlet
When collecting the sample from taps, exercise
extreme care to avoid contaminating it with bacteria
from the environment. Allow water to run to waste
for 2–3 min before running it into the bottle.
2. Sampling from Reservoir (Streams,
Rivers, Lakes and Tanks)
When sampling from streams or lakes, open the
bottle at a depth of about 30 cm with its mouth
facing the current. Collect at least 100 ml in each
bottle.
3. Sampling from a Dug Well
A stone of suit­able size is tied with the bottle.
Then a clean cord of suitable length is tied with
the bottle and lowered into the well. Immerse the
bottle completely in the water. When the bottle is
filled, pull it out, stopper it and wrap it in a kraft
paper. The bottle should not touch the sides of the
well any time.
Transport
Stopper the bottle, label it with full details of the
source of the water and time and date of collec­
tion, and deliver it to the laboratory as quickly as
possible, at least within 6 hours, keeping it in a cool
container and protected from light.
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF
WATER
The following tests are generally done for routine
bacteriological analysis of water.
a. Multiple Tube Test
1. Total coliform count or presumptive coliform
count.
2. Fecal coliform and confirmed Escherichia coli
count: Eijkman test.
3. Count of fecal streptococci.
4. Count of Clostridium perfringens.
b. Membrane Filtration Tests
A. Plate Count
The plate count expresses the number of all colony
­forming bacteria in 1 ml water. It is of limited value
by itself.
B. Counting of Indicator Organisms
Two methods are available for this purpose, the
multiple tube method and the membrane filtration
method.
a. Multiple tube test
1. Total Coliform Count or Presumptive
Coliform Count
Indicator medium: The indicator medium used
most has been MacConkey broth containing
bromocresol purple as indicates the for­mation
of acid from the lactose in the broth. An inverted
Durham tube is placed in each bottle or tube of the
medium for indication of gas production.
The following range is put up:
∙∙ One 50 ml quantity of water added to 50 ml
dou­ble strength medium
∙∙ Five 10 mL quantities each to 10 ml double
strength medium
∙∙ Five 1 ml quantities each to 5 ml single
strength medium
∙∙ Five 0.1 ml quantities each to 5 ml single
strength medium.
Incubate the seeded media aerobically at 37°C.
After 24 hours and 48 hours of incubation, Note
the number of cultures of each volume of water
that show the production of acid and gas. These
acid- and gas-producing cultures are con­sidered
‘presumptive positive’ growths of coliform bacilli.
By reference to tables of most probable number
of coliforms with the combination of positive
and negative results observed, read off the most
probable number (MPN) of presumptive coliform
bacilli present in 100 ml of the sampled water (Table
83.3). The presumptive coliform count of 0, 1-3,
4-10 and > 10 per 100 mL is interpreted as excellent,
satisfactory, suspicious and unsatisfactory.
 Chapter 83: Bacteriology of Water, Milk and Air  | 577
Table 83.3  Most probable number (MPN) values From the combination of positive and nega­tive
results for gas and indole production at 44°C, read
No. of tubes giving a positive reaction
off the most probable number of E. coli per 100 ml
1 × 50 mL 5 × 10 mL 5 × 1 mL MPN/100mL
of water. This latter value is known as the confirmed
0 0 0 <1 E. coli count.
0 0 1 1
0 0 2 2
0 1 0 1 3. Count of Fecal Streptococci
0 1 1 2
0 1 2 3 If there is difficulty in interpreting the results of
0 2 0 2 the presumptive coliform and confirmed E. coli
0 2 1 3 tests, a demonstration of the presence of fecal
0 2 2 4 streptococci will confirm the fecal origin of the
0 3 0 3
coliform bacilli. Subcultures are made from all the
0 3 1 5
0 4 0 5 positive bottles in the presumptive coliform test
1 0 0 1 into tubes containing 5 ml of glucose azide broth.
1 0 1 3 The presence of Enterococcus. faecalis is indicated
1 0 2 4 by the production of acid in the medium within 18
1 0 3 6
hours at 45°C. The positive tubes should be plated
1 1 0 3
1 1 1 5 onto MacConkey’s agar for confirmation.
1 1 2 7
1 1 3 9 4. Count of Clostridium perfringens
1 2 0 5
1 2 1 7 This is tested by incubating varying quantities of the
1 2 2 10 water in litmus milk medium (anaerobically) at 37°C
1 2 3 12 for five days and looking for stormy fermentation.
1 3 0 8
1 3 1 11
1 3 2 14 b. Membrane Filtration Tests
1 3 3 18
1 3 4 21 In this method, a measured volume of the water
1 4 0 13 sample is filtered through a membrane which retains
1 4 1 17 the indicator bacteria on its surface. The membrane
1 4 2 22 is then placed and incubated on a selective indicator
1 4 3 28
1 4 4 35 medium at the appropriate temperature, so that
1 4 5 43 the indicator bacteria grow into colonies on its
1 5 0 24 upper surface. These colonies are counted and the
1 5 1 35 bacteriological content of water calculated.
1 5 2 54
1 5 3 92
1 5 4 161 Tests for Pathogenic Bacteria
1 5 5 > 180
Specific pathogens such as typhoid bacilli or
cholera vibrios may have to be looked for in water
by employing enrichment and selective media.
2. Eijkman Test Isolation of Salmonella Typhi: For iso­lation of
Some spore-bearing bacteria give false-positive Salmonella Typhi, equal volume of water is added to
reac­tions in the presumptive coliform test. It is double strength selenite broth followed by incu­bation
necessary, therefore, to confirm the presence of and subculture on Wilson and Blair’s med­ium.
true (‘fecal’) coliform bacilli. Isolation of vibrio cholerae: For isolation of
The Eijkman test is usually employed to vibrio cholerae, alkaline peptone water is mixed
find out whether the coliform bacilli detected in with nine times its volume of water, incubated
the presumptive test are E. coli. After the usual and subcultured on bile salt agar. A sim­pler and
presumptive test, subcultures are made from all more sensitive method is to filter the water sample
the tubes/bottles showing acid and gas to fresh through membrane filters and incubate the fil­ters
tubes of single strength MacConkey’s medium on appropriate solid media.
al­ready warmed to 44°C. Incubation at 44°C should
be carried out in thermostatically controlled
BACTERIOLOGY OF MILK
water baths. Those showing gas in Durham’s
tubes contain E. coli. Further con­firmation of the Human infections may be caused by the ingestion of
presence of E. coli can be obtained by testing for animal milk which contains microorganisms de­rived
indole production and citrate utilization. either from the animal, e.g. by contamination with

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578  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
its feces, or from the environment or from milk
handlers such as dairy workers.
Milk-borne Diseases
Milk is a goodmedium for bacteria and good
vehicle for many pathogens. Milk-borne diseases
are shown in Table 83.4.
Bacteriological Examination of Milk
1. Viable Count
This is estimated by doing plate counts with serial
dilutions of the milk sample. Raw milk always
contains bacteria, varying in number from about
500 to several million per ml.
2. Test for Coliform Bacilli
This is tested by in­oculating varying dilutions
of milk into three tubes of MacCo­n key’s fluid
medium with Durham tube and noting the
production of acid and gas after incubation at 37°C
for 48 hours. All coliforms are killed by adequate
pasteurization and their presence in pasteur­
ized milk indicates faults in pasteurizer or post­
pasteurization contamination.
3. Chemical Tests
Table 83.4  Milk-borne diseases
1. Infections of animals that can be transmitted to
man
Primary importance
• Tuberculosis
• Brucellosis
• Streptococcal infections
• Staphylococcal enterotoxin poisoning
• Salmonellosis
• Q fever
Lesser importance
• Cowpox
• Foot and mouth disease
• Anthrax
• Leptospirosis
• Tick-borne encephalitis—transmitted through goat
milk
2. Infections primary to man that can be transmitted
through milk
• Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers
• Shigellosis
• Cholera
• Enteropathogenic Escherichi coli (EEC)
• Nondiarrheal diseases
a. Streptococcal infections
b. Staphylococcal food poisoning
c. Diphtheria
d. Tuberculosis
e. Enteroviruses
f. Viral hepatitis
i. Methylene Blue Reduction Test
It depends on the reduction of methylene blue
by bacteria in milk when incubated at 37°C in
complete darkness.
Procedure: The test is performed by adding 1 ml of
standard me­thylene blue solution to 10 ml of milk
in a test tube. The tube is closed with a sterile rubber
stopper, inverted once or twice and incubated in the
dark at 37°C. The milk is considered sat­isfactory, if
it fails to reduce the dye in 30 minutes.
Resazurin test: The Resazurin test is similar but
the dye resazurin, on reduction, passes through a
series of color changes.
ii. Phosphatase Test
The enzyme phosphatase normally present in milk
is inactivated if pasteurization has been carried
out properly. The test depends upon the ahility of
the enzyme to liberate p-nitrophenol from diso­
dium p-nitrophenyl phosphate and thereby pro­
duce a yellow color that can be quantitated by a
colorimeter. Residual phosphatase activity indicates
that pasteurization has not been adequate.
iii. Turbidity Test
This is the definitive test for sterilized milk. If milk
has been boiled or heated to the tem­perature
prescribed for ‘sterilization’, all heat coag­ulable
proteins are precipitated. If ammonium sulfate
is then added to the milk, no turbidity results.
Absence of turbidity indicates that the milk has
been heated to at least 100°C for at least 5 min.
4. Examination for Specific Pathogens
a. Tubercle bacillus
Centrifuge 100 ml of milk at 3,000 rpm for 30
minutes and ino­culate two guinea pigs. Keep the
animals under observation for signs of tuberculous
lesions. Tubercle bacilli may also be isolated in
culture. Microscopic examination for tubercle
bacilli is unsatisfactory.
b. Brucella
Brucella may be isolated by inoculating cream
from the milk sample on serum dextrose agar or
by injecting centrifuged deposit of the milk sample
intramuscularly into guinea pigs. The animals are
sacrificed after six weeks and the serum tested for
agglutinins and the spleen inoculated in culture
media for brucellae. Brucellosis in animals can be
detected also by demonstrating the antibodies in
milk, by the milk-ring or the whey agglutination tests.
EXAMINATION OF AIR
A person inhales over 15 cubic meters of air in the
course of a day. Hence the bacterial content of the
air one breathes is important, particularly when it
 Chapter 83: Bacteriology of Water, Milk and Air  | 579
contains pathogens. The bacterial content of air Important question
depends on the location, i.e. whether it is outdoor
rite short notes on:
W
air or indoor air.
a. Bacterial flora in water
Essential conditions for bacteriological examin­ b. Water-borne pathogens
ation of air c. Bacteriological analysis of water
1. Surgical operation theater. d. Bacteriology of milk
e. Presumptive coliform count
2. In hospital wards in which there is an outbreak
f. Eijkman test
of cross-infection.
g. Bacteriology of air.
3. Premises where food articles are prepared and
packed.
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
4. Premises where pharmaceutical materials are
prepared. 1. Which of the following organisms can serve as
indicators of fecal pollution of drinking water?
a. E. coli
Measurement of Air Contamination b. Bacillus subtilis
The methods for bacteriological examination of air c. Corynebacterium diphtheriae
d. All of the, above
are of two types.
2. All the following bacteria are indicators of bacterial
contamination of water except:
1. Settle Plate Method a. Escherichia coli
Petri dishes containing an agar medium of known b. Enterococcus species
c. Staphylococcus aureus
surface area are left open for a measured period d. Clostridium perfringens
of time. Large bacteria-carrying dust particles
3. Drinking water is considered satisfactory if the
settle on to the medium. The plates are incubated presumptive coliform count of water is:
at 37°C for 24 hours and a count of the colonies a. 0/100 mL b. 1–3/100 mL
formed shows the number of settled pastulle. Blood c. 4–10/100 mL d. > 10/100 mL
agar medium may be used for the count of the 4. The test done for the routine bacteriological
pathogenic, com­mensal and saprophytic bacteria analysis of water is:
in the air. The method is specially used for testing A. Slit sampler method b. Turbidity test
the air in surgical theatres and hospital wards. C. Phosphatase test d. Eijkman test
5. All the following bacteria can be normally present
2. Slit Sampler Method in the milk except:
a. Streptococcus lactis
By this method, the number of bacteria in a meas­ b. Enterococcus species
ured volume of air is determined. c. Lactobacillus bulgaricus
d. Streptococcus cremoris
Procedure: In this, a known volume of air is 6. All the following tests are used for detection of
directed onto a plate through a slit 0.33 mm wide bacterialcontamination of milk except:
and 27.5 mm long with vertical parallel sides about a. Eijkman test
3 mm deep. At the correct negative pressure, air will b. Methylene blue reduction test
enter through a slit of these dimensions. The culture c. Phosphatase test
medium is incubated and colonies counted which d. Turbidity test
gives the number of bacteria present in the air. 7. The method used for estimation of number of
bacteria in a measured volume of air is:
a. Settle plate method
Key Points b. Phosphatase test
c. Turbidity method
™™ Methods of water analysis include presumptive
d. Methylene blue reduction test method
coliform count, differential coliform count,
membrane filtration method, and detection of fecal 8. In operation theaters bacterial count of air should
streptococci and C. perfringens not exceed:
™™ Pathogenic microorganisms in milk can transmit
a. 50 per cubic foot
milk-borne dis­e ases such as tuberculosis, and b. 10 per cubic foot
typhoid fever c. 5 per cubic foot
d. 1 per cubic foot
™™ Bacteriological examination of milk can be carried
out by colony counts, coliform counts; chemical tests 9. What is the acceptable limit of bacterial count in
such as methylene blue reduction test, phosphatase air in operation theatre for neurosurgery?
test, and turbidity test; and detection of specific a. 50 per cubic feet b. 10 per cubic feet
pathogens c. 4 per cubic feet d. 1 per cubic feet
™™ Settle plate method and slit sampler methods are Answers (MCQs)
used for bacteriological examination of air. 1. a; 2. c; 3. b; 4. d; 5. b; 6. a; 7. a; 8. b; 9. d

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Hospital Waste Management
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe universal precautions
∙∙ Describe the following: Categories of biomedical
Let the wastes of “the sick” not contaminate the lives of the healthy”
INTRODUCTION
Hospitals regularly generate waste which may be
a potential health hazard to health care workers,
the general public and the environment. Therefore,
adequate management and disposal of waste is
essential.
UNIVERSAL PRECAUTIONS
Concerns about transmission of the hepatitis
B virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) led to the introduction of ‘universal
precautions’, to minimize the infections in medical
laboratory workers and health care personnel.
These universal precautions include:
1. Assume that all specimens/patients are
potentially infectious for HIV and other blood
borne pathogens.
2. All blood specimens or body fluids should
be placed in a leak-proof impervious bags for
transporation to the laboratory.
3. Use gloves while handling blood and body
fluid specimens and other objects exposed
to them. If there is a likelihood of spattering,
use face masks with glasses or goggles.
4. Wear laboratory coats or gowns while working
in the laboratory. Wrap-around gowns should
be preferred. These should not be taken
outside.
5. Never pipette by mouth. Mechanical pipetting
devices should be used.
Chap-84.indd 580
84
Chapter
waste; Waste egregation; Waste treatment and
disposal
∙∙ Describe treatment and technologies for health
care waste.
6. Decontaminate the laboratory work surfaces
with an appropriate disinfectant after the
spillage of blood or other body fluids and
when the procedures are completed.
7. Limit use of needles and syringes to situations
for which there are no other alternatives.
8. Biological safety hoods should be used for
laboratory work.
9. All the potentially contaminated materials
of the laboratory should be decontaminated
before disposal or reprocessing.
10. Always wash hands after completing
laboratory work and remove all protective
clothings before leaving the laboratory.
Agents which are associated with laboratory
acquired infections: Most common agents which
are associated with laboratory acquired infections
include hepatitis B virus, Coccidioides immitis,
Bacillus anthracis, Brucella species, Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, Francisella tularensis and Shigella
species.
DEFINITION OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE
(BMW)
According to Biomedical Waste (Management
and Handling) Rules, 1998 of India, “Biomedical
waste” means any waste, which is generated
during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization
of human beings or animals or in research activities
pertaining thereto or in the production or testing
of biologicals.
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 Chapter 84: Hospital Waste Management  | 581
CATEGORIES OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE translucent bags for shredding/mace­ration and
disinfection before disposal (recy­cling or landfill).
The detail categories of biomedical waste as given
in schedule 1 of BMW’98 annexture A (Box 84.1).
Black
WASTE SEGREGATION Incineration ash and solid chemical waste such as
It is important that hazardous waste component is discarded medicines should be collected in black
separated from non hazardous waste and to collect bags for disposal in secured landfill.
these in appropriate receptacles. Mixing of waste Proper segregation will minimise the waste
will render the entire waste potentially hazardous. stream needing special treatment i.e. infectious
The wastes are segregated preferably at the point waste. This practice also helps in safe handling and
of generation. This is the most important step to transporation of waste.
safeguard the occupational health of healthcare
personnel. Waste should be segregated in bags of TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL TECHNO­
different colors to facili­tate appropriate treatment
LOGIES FOR HEALTHCARE WASTE
and disposal (Table 84.1).
Waste Treatment
Yellow Bags
Following techniques are in use for treatment of
Infectious non-sharp waste should be put in yellow infected material.
bags. 1. Incineration
2. Autoclaving
Red Bags 3. Microwaving
Red bags may be used for non-sharp waste (except 4. Hydroclaving
anatomical tissues) if micro­waving/ autoclaving/ 5. Plasma torch
chemical treatment fol­lowed by landfill is the 6. Chemical treatment.
disposal option.

Blue/White Translucent 1. Incineration

Plastic disposable items such as used gloves, Incineration is a high temperature dry oxidation
catheters and IV sets should be put into blue/white process, that reduces organic and combustible
waste to inorganic incombustible matter and
Box 84.1  Schedule 1: Category of biomedical
results in a very significant reduction of waste.
waste in India
Category No. 1 Human anatomical waste
Advantage of incinerator
The incinerator has an advantage of dealing with
Category No. 2 Animal waste
all pathological and cytotoxic wastes. Body parts,
Category No. 3 Microbiology and biotechnology
waste animal waste, microbiological waste and soiled
Category No. 4 Waste sharps dressings can be treated with this technique.
Category No. 5 Discarded medicines and cytotoxic Disadvantage of incinerator
drugs 1. It generates highly toxic gases (e.g. dioxins and
Category No. 6 Solid waste furans, if PVC plastics are present).
Category No. 7 Infectious solid waste 2. It adversely affects the health of the community.
Categroy No. 8 Liquid waste 3. Recycling and reprocessing of materials cannot
Categroy No. 9 Incineration ash be done.
Categroy No. 10 Chemicals used in production 4. Burning of plastic waste or sharps is also not
of biologicals, chemicals used in
disinfection, as insecticide, etc.
recommended.

Table 84.1  Color coding and type of container for disposal of biomedical wastes
Color coding Type of container Waste category Treatment option as per
schedule 1
Yellow Plastic bag 1, 2, and 5, Cat. 6 Incineration/deep burial
Red Disinfected container/plastic 3, 4, 7 Autoclaving/microwaving/
bag chemical treatment
Blue/white translucent Plastic bag/puncture proof Autoclaving/microwaving/
container chemical treatment and
destruction/shredding
Black Plastic bag Cat. 5 and Cat. 9 and Cat. Disposal in secured landfill
10 (solid)

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Chap-84.indd 581 15-03-2016 11:28:48
 582  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Types of incinerators
Three basic kinds of incineration technology are of
interest for treating health-care waste:
i. Double-chamber pyrolytic incinerators which
may be especially designed to burn infectious
healthcare waste.
ii. Single-chamber furnaces with static grate,
which should be used only if pyrolytic
incinerators are not affordable, and
iii. Rotary kilns operating at high temperatures,
capable of causing decomposition of genotoxic
substances and heat-resistant chemicals.
Double chambered incineration
An incinerator should consist of 2 cham­b ers,
primary and secondary. Waste is burnt in one
chamber (primary chamber) at 800°C. Combustion
of gases emitted from the first chamber, occurs in
the second or secondary chamber which has a
high temperature of 1000°C. The negative pressure
is maintained inside the incinerator by the system,
thereby forcing the end-gases out of the chimney.
2. Autoclaving
Autoclaving, at 121°C for 60 minutes, is an effec­tive
method for treating infectious waste before disposal.
A separate autoclave dedicated for waste treatment
should be used. Waste arising from microbiology
and biotechnology laboratories includ­ing cultures
and stocks must be autoclaved before disposal by
incineration. Plastic disposables includ­ing blood
bags, urine bags, etc. should be autoclaved followed
by shredding. It is not recommended for pathological
waste. Autoclaved material is typically land-filled,
therefore, it has a large strain on land fill capacity.
Types of autoclaves: There are two kinds of
autoclaves:
i. Prevacuum type: In the prevacuum type,
steam is created outside the chamber loaded
with waste. Air in the chamber is then gradually
removed and steam is injected in. This type of
autoclave eliminate ‘cold spots’ and ‘air pockets’
(where the steam is unable to penetrate) by
creating this vacuum. This ensures quicker
heating. A temperature of 121°C and pressure
of 15 pounds per square inch is used.
ii. Gravity autoclave: For gravity autoclave,
the waste material should be subjected to
autoclave residence time of not less than 60
minutes, while in a vacuum autoclave time
period should not be less than 45 minutes.
Biological (Bacillus stearothermophilus
spores) or chemical indicators (strips/tapes)
should be used for validation test of autoclave.
3. Chemical Disinfection
The most economical and effective disinfectant
is hypochlorite. For clean conditions available
Chap-84.indd 582
chlo­rine required is 0.1% and for dirty conditions
available chlorine should be 1.0%.
4. Wet and Dry Thermal Treatment
Wet thermal treatment
Wet thermal treatment or steam disinfection is
based on exposure of shredded infectious waste
to high temperature, high pressure steam, and is
similar to the autoclave sterilization process.
Screw-feed technology
Screw-feed technology is the basis of a non-burn,
dry thermal disinfection process in which waste is
shredded and heated in a rotating auger.
5. Microwave Irradiation
Most microorganisms are destroyed by the
action of microwave of a frequency of about 2450
MHz and a wave length of 12.24 cm. The water
contained within the waste is rapidly heated by
the microwaves and the infectious components
are destroyed by heat conduction. This cannot be
used for animal or human body parts, metal items
or toxic or radioactive material.
6. Inertization
The process of “inertization” involves mixing waste
with cement and other substances before disposal,
in order to minimize the risk of toxic substances
contained in the wastes migrating into the surface
water or ground water.
DISPOSAL
Land filling, deep burial and sewage are used for
disposal. Infectious waste after treatment can be
disposed of by land-filling or deep burial. Liquid
waste can be disposed in sewage drains. Besides
treatment, incineration is also a method of disposal.
Treatment methods used for different types of
infectious wastes are shown in Table 81.1.
Waste Management Program
All laboratories should develop waste management
program according to the specific needs of the
individual laboratory. The policies and procedures
should be incorporated in the laboratory’s
operating manuals. Emphasis should be on waste
minimization (by reducing waste, reuse and
recycling), proper segregation, and health and
safety of the workers. All personnel generating,
collecting, transporting and storing infectious
waste must be trained under the programme.
Key Points
™™ Biomedical waste (BMW) means any waste, which
is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or
immunization of human beings or animals or in
research activities pertaining there to or in the
production or testing of biologicals
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 Chapter 84: Hospital Waste Management  | 583
2. Waste sharps belong to:
™™ Categories of biomedical wastes are eight waste; a. Category No 1 b. Category No 2
animal waste; microbiology and biotechnology c. Category No 3 d. Category No 4
waste; waste sharps; cytotoxic waste; solid waste;
3. Which color plastic bag is used for non-infectious
liquid waste, incineration ash; chemicals used in
waste?
production of biologicals
a. Yellow b. Red
™™ Waste segregation: Waste should be segregated
in bags of different colours to facili­tate appropriate c. Black d. Blue
treatment and disposal 4. Steam autoclaving is recommended for treatment
™™ Treatment and disposal technologies for health care all the followings except:
waste include incineration, autoclaving, microwaving, a. Laboratory waste
hydroclaving, plasma torch and chemical treatment. b. Waste sharps
c. Human anatomical waste
d. Human blood
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS 5. The chemical decontamination is not
recommended for treatment of:
1. Describe various techniques used for the treatment a. Laboratory waste
and disposal of hospital waste. b. Anatomical waste
c. Human blood
2. Write short notes on:
d. Body fluid waste
a. Universal precautions.
b. Segregation of waste. 6. The only disposal technology proven to be capable
c. Hospital waste management of biomedical of handling all components of the biomedical
waste. waste stream is:
a. Incineration
b. Steam autoclaving
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs) c. Microwave treatment
d. Chemical decontamination
1. Animal waste does not include:
a. Body parts b. Hair and nails ANSWERS (MCQs)
c. Carcasses d. Body fluids 1. b; 2. d; 3. c; 4. c; 5. b; 6. a

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 85
Chapter

Vehicles and Vectors

Learning Objectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should

be able to:
∙∙ Role of various vehicles and vectors in disease spread.

Introduction ∙∙ Cholera
∙∙ Poliomyelitis
To maintain an active infectious disease in a human ∙∙ Hepatitis A virus infection
population, the pathogen must be transmitted ∙∙ Food poisoning
from one host or source to another. Transmission ∙∙ Intestinal parasitic infestation.
is the third link in the infectious disease cycle and
occurs by four main routes: airborne, contact, B. Diseases Transmitted by Blood
vehicle, and vector-borne.
1. Viruses
Vehicles and vectors ∙∙ Hepatitis B
∙∙ Human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV)
The agents of transmission that bring the ∙∙ Human T cell lymphotropic viruses
microorganism from the reservoir to the host may ∙∙ Infectious mononucleosis
be a living entity, in which case they are called ∙∙ Cytomegalovirus
vectors, or they may be a nonliving entity referred
to as a vehicle or fomite. 2. Bacteria
Modes of transmission ∙∙ Syphilis
A. Direct: Transmitted by direct contact between ∙∙ Brucellosis
reservoir and host.
B. Indirect: Transmitted to host (human host) 3. Parasites
via intervening agent(s) such as vectors ∙∙ Malaria
(animals, insects, other humans and vehicles ∙∙ Trypansomiasis (Chaga’s disease)
(water, food, air, medical devices, various other ∙∙ Trypanosoma cruzi.
inanimate objects).
2. Vector-borne
1. Vehicle-borne In infectious disease epidemiology, vector is
Vehicle-borne transmission implies transmission defined as an arthropod or any living carrier (e.g.
of the infectious agent through the agency of water, snail) that transports an infectious agent to a
food, ice, blood, serum plasma or other biological susceptible individual. Transmission by a vector
products such as tissues and organs. Of these may be mechanical or biological. In the latter case,
water and food are the most frequent vehicles of the disease agent passes through a developmental
transmission, because they are used by everyone. cycle multiplication in the vector.

A. Diseases Transmitted by Water and Food A. Mechanical Transmission

∙∙ Acute diarrheas A crawling or flying arthropod mechanically
∙∙ Typhoid fever transports the infectious agent. There is no
 Chapter 85: Vehicles and Vectors  | 585
development or multiplication of the infectious c. Cyclodevelopmental: When the disease
agent on or within the vector. agent undergoes cyclical change but does
not multiply in the body of the arthropod, e.g.
B. Biological Transmission filarial parasite in culex mosquito and guinea
The infectious agent undergoing replication worm embryo in Cyclops.
or development or both in vector and require Transovarial transmission
incubation period before vector can transmit, When the infectious agent is transmitted vertically
biological transmission is of three types: from infected female to her progeny in the vector,
a. Propagative: When the disease agent it is know transovarial transmission.
undergoes no cyclical change, but multiplies
in the body of the vector, transmission is said Medical Entomology
to be propagative, e.g. plague bacilli in rat fleas.
A study of the arthropods of medical importance
b. Cyclopropagative: The disease agent under­
is known as medical entomology which is an
goes cyclical change, and multiplies in the
important branch of preventive medicine.
body of the arthropod, e.g. malaria parasite in
Arthropods act as vectors or carriers of diseases
anopheles mosquito.
(Table 85.1).
Table 85.1  Arthropod-borne diseases Key Points
Arthropod Diseases transmitted ™™ Transmission of the infectious disease occurs by
1. Mosquito Malaria, filaria, viral encephalitis (e.g. four main routes: airborne, contact, vehicle, and
Japanese encephalitis), viral fevers (e.g. vector-borne
dengue, West Nile, viral hemorrhagic ™™ The agents of transmission that bring the
fevers (e.g. yellow fever, dengue microorganism from the reservoir to the host may
hemorrhagic fever) be a living entity, in which case they are called
2. Housefly Typhoid and paratyphoid fever, diar­ vectors, or they may be a nonliving entity referred
rhea, dysentery, cholera, gastroenteritis, to as a vehicle or fomite
amoebiasis, helminthic infestations, ™™ Modes of transmission: The mode of transmission
poliomyelitis, conjunctivitis, trachoma, is A. Direct; B. Indirect.
anthrax, yaws, etc.
3. Sandfly Kala-azar, oriental sore, sandfly fever,
oroya fever Important questions
4. Tsetse fly Sleeping sickness 1. Discuss the role of vehicles and vectors in
5. Louse Epidemic typhus, relapsing fever, transmission of infectious agents.
trench fever, pediculosis 2. Write short notes on:
a. Water-borne diseases
6. Rat flea Bubonic plague, endemic typhus, b. Diseases transmitted by blood and blood prod-
chiggerosis, hymenolepis diminuta ucts
7. Blackfly Onchocerciasis c. Diseases transmitted arthropods as vectors.
8. Reduviid Chagas disease
bug Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
9. Hard tick Tick typhus, viral encephalitis, viral
1. All diseases can be transmitted by food and water
fevers, viral hemorrhagic fever, (e.g.
except:
Kyasanur forest disease), tularemia,
tick paralysis, human babesiosis a. Cholera
b. Polimyelitis
10. Soft tick Q fever, relapsing fever c. Hepatitis A virus infection
11. Trombiculid Scrub typhus, Rickettsialpox d. Hepatitis C virus infection
mite 2. Which of the following diseases can be transmitted
12. Itch-mite Scabies by blood?
a. Hepatitis b. HIV infection
13. Cyclops Guinea-worm disease, fish tapeworm c. Syphilis d. All of the above
(D. latus)
Answers (MCQs)
14. Cockroaches Enteric pathogens
1. d; 2. d

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Emerging and Re-emerging
Infectious Diseases
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
∙∙ Describe the following: Emerging infectious diseases; re-emerging infectious diseases.
Introduction
Sometimes infectious agents that have not
been pre­viously recognized appear. Emerging
infectious diseases are those whose incidence in
humans has increased during the last two decades
or which threaten to increase in the near future.
The term also refers to newly-appearing infectious
diseases, or diseases that are spreading to new
geographical areas—such as cholera in South
America and yellow fever in Kenya. During the past
20 years, at least 30 new diseases have emerged
to threaten the health of hundreds of millions of
people. For many of these diseases there is no
treatment, cure or vaccine and the possibility of
preventing or controlling them is limited.
Examples of Emerging Pathogens
Table 86.1 summarizes the etiological agents and
infectious diseases in humans and/or animals
recognized since 1973. The year may differ from
first appearance and first identification of cases.
Approximately 75% of emerging pathogens
are zoonotic, that is, communicated by animals to
humans. HIV/AIDS, avian influenza, monkeypox,
Nipah, SARS, and Ebola are all the result, to a
greater or lesser extent, of interactions with animals
that led to the emergence and re-emergence of
deadly diseases.
The diseases in question involve all the major
modes of transmission—they are spread either
from person to person, by insects or animals, or
through contaminated water or food.
1. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): The
most dramatic example of a new disease is
AIDS, caused by the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV).
86
Chapter
2. A new breed of deadly hemorrhagic fevers, of
which Ebola is the most notorious, has struck
in Africa, Asia, the United States and Latin
America.
3. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome: The United
States has seen the emergence of hantavirus
pulmonary syndrome, other hantaviruses
have been recognized for many years in Asia,
where they cause hemorrhagic fever with renal
involvement in humans.
4. Foodborne and waterborne diseases: Epide­
mics of foodborne and waterborne diseases due
to new organisms such as cryptosporidium or
new strains of bacteria such as Escherichia coli
(0157:H7 strain of E.coli) have hit industrialized
and developing countries alike. A completely
new strain of cholera, 0139, appeared in south­
eastern India in 1992 and has since spread north
and west to other areas of India, into western
China, Thailand and other parts of South-East
Asia.
5. Influenza pandemic: The threat of a new global
influenza pandemic is increasing. Epidemic
strains of influenza viruses originate from China.
The influenza virus is carried by ducks, chickens
and pigs raised in close proximity to one another
on farms. The exchange of genetic material
between these viruses produces new strains,
leading to epidemics of human influenza, each
epidemic being due to a different strain.
Re-emerging, or resurging
diseases
Reemerging, or resurging, diseases are those that
have been around for decades or centuries, but
have come back in a different form or a different
 Chapter 86: Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases  | 587
Table 86.1  New infectious diseases recognized since 1973
Year Agent Type Disease/comments
1973 Rotavirus Virus Major cause of infantile diarrhea worldwide
1975 Parvovirus B19 Virus Aplastic crisis in chronic hemolytic anemia
1976 Cryptosporidium parvum Parasite Acute and chronic diarrhea
1977 Ebola virus Virus Ebola hemorrhagic fever
1977 Legionella pneumophila Bacterium Legionnaires' disease
1977 Hantaan virus Virus Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HRFS)
1977 Campylobacter jejuni Bacterium Enteric pathogen distributed globally
1980 Human T-Iymphotropic virus 1 Virus T-cell lymphoma-leukemia
(HTLV-1)
1981 Toxin-producing strains of Bacterium Toxic shock syndrome
Staphylococcus aureus
1982 Escherichia coli 0157:H7 Bacterium Hemorrhagic colitis; hemolytic uremic syndrome
1982 Borrelia burgdorferi Bacterium Lyme disease
1982 HTLV-2 Virus Hairy cell leukemia
1983 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) Virus Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
1983 Helicobacter pylori Bacterium Peptic ulcer disease
1985 Enterocytozoon bieneusi Parasite Persistent diarrhea
1986 Cyclospora cayetanensis Parasite Persistent diarrhea
1986 BSE agent? Non- Bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle (Mad
conventional cow disease)
agent
1988 Human herpes virus 6 (HHV-6) Virus Exanthem subitum
1988 Hepatitis E virus Virus Enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis
1989 Ehrlichia chaffeensis Bacterium Human ehrlichiosis
1989 Hepatitis C virus Virus Parenterally transmitted non-A, non-B liver hepatitis
1991 Guanarito virus Virus Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever
1991 Encephalitozoon hellem Parasite Conjunctivitis, disseminated disease
1991 New species of Babesia Parasite Atypical babesiosis
1992 Vibrio cholerae 0139 Bacterium New strain associated with epidemic cholera
1992 Bartonella henselae Bacterium Cat-scratch disease; bacillary angiomatosis
1993 Sin Nambre virus Virus Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
1993 Encephalitozoon cuniculi Parasite Disseminated disease
1994 Sabia virus Virus Brazilian hemorrhagic fever
1995 Human herpesvirus 8 Virus Associated with Kaposi's sarcoma in AIDS patients
1996 nvCJD Australian bat lyssavirus Virus −
1997 H5N1 Virus Avian flu (Bird flu)
1999 Nipah virus Virus −
2003 Corona virus Virus SARS

cholera in 1995 and dengue hem­orrhagic fever

location. Re-emerging Pathogens are anthrax
(Bacillus anthracis), Botulism (Clostridium
botulinum), Plague (Yersinia pestis), smallpox
virus, tularemia (Francisella tularensis).
Important Examples of Re-emerging
Infections in India
Appearance of plague in an explosive form in 1994
after a period-of quiescence of almost 27 years,
in 1996. New and previously unknown diseases
continue to emerge (Table 86.2).
The emergence of drug-resistant strains of
microorganisms or parasites is promoted by
treatments that do not result in cure. The reasons
for outbreaks of new diseases, or sharp increases
in those once believed to be under control, are
complex and still not fully understood. The fact
is however, that national health has become an

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588  |  Section 6: Miscellaneous
Table 86.2  Re-emerging infectious diseases and vaccines; and above all by strengthening
epidemiological surveillance and drug-resistance
Disease Causative agent
surveillance mechanisms and procedures with
A. Bacterial appropriate laboratory support for early detection,
tuberculosis Multidrug resistant
confirmation and communication. The laboratory
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
technologist must relearn information once
Typhoid fever Multidrug resistant
thought to be out of date. Media selection,
Salmonella Typhi
identification tech­niques, and safety precautions
Leptospirosis Leptospira interrogans must all be re-examined and implemented.
Melioidosis Burkholderia Interaction with the infection control program
(Pseudomonas) strengthens the establishment of prevention and
pseudomallei
control strategies.
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis The category of diseases—“new diseases—
Plague Yersinia pestis new problems”—such as Ebola and other viral
B. Parasitic hemorrhagic fevers, is probably the most frightening.
Malaria Drug resistant Much of this already applies to HIV/AIDS, one of the
Plasmodium falciparum most serious diseases to emerge in recent decades.
Leishmaniasis Leishmania donovani
Lymphatic filariasis Wuchereria bancrofti, Key Points
Brugia malayi and B. timori
™™ Emerging infectious diseases are those whose
incidence in humans has increased during the last
international challenge. An outbreak anywhere two decades or which threaten to increase in the
must now be seen as a threat to virtually all near future
™™ Re-emerging, or resurging, diseases are those that
countries, especially those that serve as m have been around for decades or centuries, but have
come back in a different form or a different location.
Antimicrobial Resistance ™™ Resistance by disease-causing organisms to
Resistance by disease-causing organisms to antimicrobial drugs and other agents is a major
antimicrobial drugs and other agents is a major public health problem world­wide.
public health problem world­w ide. It is having
a deadly impact on the control of diseases Important Questions
such as tuberculosis, malaria, enterococci,
staphylococci, streptococci, pneumococci and 1. Write an essay on emerging and re-emerging
infections.
Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria gonorrhoeae,
2. Discuss various factors responsible for the emer­
Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella Typhi. gence and re-emergence of infectious diseases.
Factors responsible for emergence and
re-emergence of infectious diseases Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Economic development and land use, 1. Factors responsible for the emergence and
unplanned and under-planned urbanization. re-emergence of communicable diseases is/are:
2. Overcrowding and rapid population growth. a. Unhygienic living conditions
b. Encroachment by humans to areas so far unin-
3. Poor sanitation.
habited leading to ecological changes.
4. Inadequate public health infrastructure. c. Development of insecticide resistance in vec-
5. Resistance to antibiotics. tors.
6. Increased exposure of humans to disease d. All of the above
vectors and reservoirs of infection in nature, 2. The problem of drug resistance has assumed
and alarming proportions in:
a. Tubercle bacilli
7. Rapid and intense international travel.
b. Pseudomonas aeruginosa
c. Klebsiella pneumoniae
Responding to Epidemics d. All of the above
The strategy for controlling re-emerging diseases is 3. Following are the examples of re-emerging
through available cost-effective interventions such infections except:
as early diagnosis and prompt treatment, vector a. Plague
control measures and the prevention of epidemics, b. Malaria
for malaria ; and DOTS—directly observed c. AIDS
treatment, short-course—for tuberculosis; by d. Ebala hemorrhagic fever
launching research initiatives for treatment Answers (MCQs)
regimens and improved diagnostics, drugs 1. d; 2. d; 3. c
 Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
Molecular Detection of Microorganisms
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe molecular methods for microbial
identification
Introduction
The deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic
acid (RNA), or proteins of an infectious agent in
a clinical sample can be used to help identify the
agent. Molecular methods have been found to be
advantageous in situations in which conventional
methods are slow, insensitive, expensive or not
available. Additionally, nonnucleic acid-based
analytic methods that detect phenotypic traits
not detectable by con­ventional strategies (e.g.
cell wall components) have been developed to
enhance bacterial detection, identification, and
characterization.
Molecular Methods
Molecular methods are classified into three
categories:
A. Hybridization
B. Amplification
C. Sequencing and enzymatic digestion of nucleic
acids.
A. Hybridization (See Chapter 10 for detail)
DNA probes can be used like antibodies as sensitive
and specific tools to detect, locate, and quantitate
spe­c ific nucleic acid sequences in clinical
specimens. Nucleic acid probes are segments of
DNA or RNA labeled with radioisotopes or enzymes
that can hybridize to complementary nucleic acid
with high degree of specificity.
Principle of nucleic acid probes is described in
Chapter 10 under heading ‘DNA probes’.
A number of DNA probes have been developed
for direct detection of microorganisms in clinical
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87
Chapter
∙∙ Describe the following: Nucleic acid probes,
polymerase chain reaction (PCR); Transcription
mediated amplification ( TMA); Nucleic acid
sequence based amplification (NASBA); Ligase
chain reaction (LCR).
specimens and for identification of organisms after
isolation of culture. Applications of DNA probe
technology in microbiology are:
i. Nucleic acid probes for direct detection of
group A streptococci, Chlamydia trachomatis
and Neisseria gonorrhoeae are available.
ii. Probes for identification of group A strepto­cocci,
group B streptococci, enterococci, Haemophilus
influenzae, mycobacteria, N. gonorrhoeae,
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumo­
niae, Campylobacter sp., Histoplasma cap­
sulatum, Blastomyces dermatitidis and
Coccidioides immitis isolated in culture are
also available.
iii. DNA probes for detection of LT and ST toxins
of Esch. coli are also available.
B. Amplified Methods
1. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
2. Transcription mediated amplification (TMA)
3. Nucleic acid sequence based amplification
(NASBA)
4. Ligase chain reaction (LCR)
1. Polymerase chain reaction: It is the target
amplification system. The polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) can detect single copies of viral
DNA by amplifying the DNA many million-fold
and is one of the newest techniques of genetic
analysis. The basic principle of polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) and its application in clinical
laboratory for diagnosis of various infectious
agents has been described in Chapter 11.
Besides originally described PCR, other
types of PCR include reverse-transcriptase PCR
(RT-PCR), nested PCR and multiplex PCR.
590  |  Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
i. Reverse-transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR):
Reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR)
amplifies an RNA target. The unique step
to this procedure is the use of the enzyme
reverse transcriptase that directs synthesis
of DNA from the viral RNA tem­plate. Once
the DNA has been produced, relatively rou­
tine PCR technology is applied to obtain
amplification.
ii. Nested PCR: Nested PCR involves the
sequential use of two primer sets. The first
set is used to amplify a target se­quence.
The amplicon obtained is then used as the
target sequence for a second amplification
using primers inter­nal to those of the first
amplicon. Essentially this is an amplification
of a sequence internal to an amplicon.
The advantage of this approach is extreme
sensitivity and confirmed specificity
without the need for using probes.
iii. Multiplex PCR: Multiplex PCR is a method
by which more than one primer pair is
included in the PCR mixture. This will help
in amplification of more than one target
sequence in a clinical specimen. The control
amplicon should always be detectable after
PCR. Mutliplex PCRs are usually less sensi-
tive than PCRs with single set of primers.
iv. Arbitrary primed PCR: Arbitrary primed
PCR uses short primers that are not
specifically complementary to a particular
sequence of a target DNA. By comparing frag­
ment migration patterns following agarose
gel elec­trophoresis, strains or isolates can be
judged to be the same, similar, or unrelated.
v. Real-time PCR: Real-time PCR combines
rapid thermocycling with the ability to detect
target by fluorescently labeled probes as the
hy­brids are formed, i.e. in real time. This
technology al­lows for high throughput of
samples, multiplexing reac­tions, quantitation
of target, and on-line monitoring.
2. Transcription mediated amplification
(TMA): Transcription mediated amplification
(TMA) is an isothermal RNA amplification
method and use three enzymes; reverse
transcriptase (RT), RNAase H, and T7 DNA
dependent RNA polymerase. RNA target is
reverse transcribed into cDNA and then RNA
copies are synthesized with the help of RNA
polymerase. A 109 fold amplification of the
target RNA can be achieved in about 2 hours.
TMA based assays are available for detection of
M. tuberculosis, C. trachomatis, N. gonorrhoeae,
HCV and HIV-l.
3. Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification
(NASBA) or self-sustained sequence replicat­
ions (3SR).
B o t h T M A a n d NA S BA a re e x a mp l e s
of transcription-mediated amplification.
These isothermal assays use three enzymes:
transcriptase (RT), RNAase H, and T7 DNA
dependent RNA polymerase. Like TMA, it is also
an isothermal RNA amplification method. The
method is similar to TMA. RNA target is reverse
transcribed into cDNA and then RNA copies are
synthesized with the help of RNA polymerase.
It also does not require thermal cycler. NASBA
based kits for detection and quantitation of
HIV-1 RNA and CMV RNA are available.
4. Ligase chain reaction (LCR): Ligase chain
reaction (LCR) is an amplification of probe
nucleic acid rather than target nucleic acid. By
this approach an amplified probe is the final
reaction product to be detected, while the target
sequence is neither amplified nor incorporated
into this product.
The LCR uses two pairs of probes that span
the target sequence of interest, Once annealed
to the target se­quence, a space remains between
the probes that is en­zymatically closed using a
ligase (i.e. a ligation reaction). On heating, the
joined probes are released as a single strand that
is complementary to the target nucleic acid. These
newly synthesized strands are then used as the
tem­plate for subsequent cycles of probe annealing
and liga­tions. Through the process, probe DNA is
amplified to a level readily detectable using assays
similar to those de­scribed for the biotin-avidin
system. Like PCR, LCR also requires thermal cycler.
The LCR based amplification has been used
to detect Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria
gonorrhoeae.
C. Sequencing and Enzymatic Digestion
of Nucleic Acids
1. Nucleic acid sequences.
2. High density DNA probes.
3. Enzyme digestion and electrophoresis of
nucleic acids.
Applications of molecular
methods in clinical laboratory
Molecular methods have a significant role in
the following situations in clinical microbiology
laboratory.
1. Detection of uncultivable growing micro­
organisms.
2. Role in clinical virology.
3. Disease prognosis.
4. Response to treatment.
1. Detection of Uncultivable and Slow
Growing Microorganisms
Molecular methods have been used to detect
previously unknown agents di­rectly in clinical
specimens by using broad-range primers for a
 Chapter 87: Molecular Detection of Microorganisms  | 591
number of microorganisms. HCV, Sin nombre virus
and Human herpes virus 8 (HHV-8), Bartonella
henselae are some examples of human pathogens
first identified from clinical specimens using
molecular methods.
These methods are also useful for fastidious
microorganisms which may die in transit or may
be overgrown by contaminants when cultured. N.
gonorrhoeae is one such example whose nucleic
acid can be detected under circumstances in which
it cannot be cultured. The use of improper collection,
inappropriate transport conditions or delay in
transport can reduce the viability of the organism but
do not affect the nucleic acid detection.
These can detect and identify organisms
that can­not be grown in culture or are extremely
difficult to grow (e.g. hepatitis B virus and the
agent of Whip­ple’s disease) and also more rapid
detection and identification of organ­isms that grow
slowly (e.g. mycobacteria, certain fungi).
2. Role in Clinical Virology
Molecular methods are limited to replace culture
for detection of bacteria in routine practice
because of need to isolate the organisms for
antibiotic sensitivity testing. The culture can
actually be replaced by these methods only in
those microorganisms which have predictable
antibiotic susceptibility, and consequently, routine
susceptibility testing is not performed.
Molecular approaches are often faster, more
sensitive, and more cost-effective than the
conventional approaches in clinical virology.
Enteroviral meningitis, HSV encephalitis and CMV
infections in immunocompromised patients are
examples for which nucleic acid-based tests are
relevant and cost effective for diagnosis.
3. Disease Prognosis
Molecular methods are able to quantitate infectious
agent burden di­rectly in patient specimens, an
application that has particular importance for
managing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV
infections). Thus, it provides important information
which may predict disease progression.
Molecular methods can be used for subtyping
of certain viruses which may provide information
about the severity of infection. HPV causes
dysplasia, neoplasia and carcinoma of cervix in
women. HPV types 16 and 18 are associated with a
high risk of progression to neoplasia, whereas HPV
types 6 and 11 have a low risk.
4. Response toTreatment and Drug Resistance
Molecular methods have been developed to detect
the genes responsible for drug resistance that
may not always readily be detected by phenotypic
methods. Examples include detection of the van
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genes, which mediate van­c omycin resistance
among enterococci, and the mec gene, which
encodes resistance among staphylococci and
rifampicin resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Molecular techniques have a significant role
in predicting and monitoring patient responses to
antiviral therapy. HIV-1 viral load assays have been
developed to monitor the response of antiretroviral
therapy. Viral load assays have also been used in
monitoring the response to therapy in patients who
are chronically infected with HBV and HCV.
Molecular methods can be used to detect drug
resistance mutations in RT and protease genes
of HIV-1. These mutations lead to lower levels of
sensitivity to antiretroviral drugs and are important
causes of treatment failure. This helps to determine
an appropriate treatment in patients who do not
respond to therapy.
Key Points
™™ Molecular methods are classified into three
categories: A. Hybridization; B. Amplification; C.
Sequencing and enzymatic digestion of nucleic acids
™™ Amplified methods: 1. Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR); 2. Transcription mediated amplification (TMA);
3. Nucleic acid sequence amplification (NASBA); 4.
Ligase chain reaction (LCR).
™™ Molecular methods have a significant role in 1.
Detection of uncultivable growing microorganisms;
2. Role in clinical virology; 3. Disease prognosis; 4.
Response to treatment
Important Question
rite short notes on:
W
a. Detection of microorganisms by molecular methods
b. Nucleic acid probes
c. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in diagnosis of
infectious agents.
d. RT-PCR
e. Applications of molecular methods in clinical
microbiology
Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
1. DNA probes can be applied for:
a. Detection of microbes in specimens
b. Identification of resistant markers
c. Identification of culture isolates
d. All of the above
2. All of the following molecular methods is/are
amplified methods for detection of microorganisms
except:
a. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
b. Ligase chain reaction (LCR)
c. RT-PCR
d. ELISA
3. How many pairs of amplification primers are used
in nested PCR?
a. One b. Two
c. Three d. Five
Answers (MCQs)
1. d; 2. d; 3. b

Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe common staining techniques
Introduction
Because most microorganisms appear almost
colorless when viewed through a standard light
microscope, we often must prepare them for
observation. Live bacteria do not show much
structural detail under the light microscope due
to lack of contrast. Hence, it is customary to use
staining techniques to produce color contrast.
Preparing film or smear for staining
Slides
Film preparations are made either on cover-slips or
on 3 × 1 in glass slides, usually the latter. It is essential
that the cover-slips or slides be perfectly clean and
free from grease, otherwise films will be uneven.
Smear preparation: A thin film of material
containing the microorganisms is spread over the
surface of the slide. This film, called a smear, is
allowed to air dry.
Fixation: Before the microorganisms can be
stained, however, they must be fixed (attached) to
the microscope slide. In most staining procedures
the slide is fixed by passing it through the flame of
a Bunsen burner several times, smear side up, or by
covering the slide with methyl alcohol for 1 minute.
Air drying and flaming fix the microorganisms
to the slide. Fixing simultaneously kills the
microorganisms and attaches them to the slide. It
also preserves various parts of microbes in their
natural state with only minimal distortion.
Staining: Stain is applied and then washed off
with water; then the slide is blotted with absorbent
paper. Without fixing, the stain might wash the
88
Chapter
Staining Methods
∙∙ Describe the following: Simple stains; Differential
stains; Gram stain; Acid fast stain (Ziehl–Neelsen
staining of acid­fast bacilli); Albert’s stain.
microbes off the slide. The stained microorganisms
are now ready for microscopic examination.
Types of Stain
Basic dyes: Stains are salts composed of a positive
and a negative ion, one of which is colored and is
known as the chromophore. The color of so-called
basic dyes is in the positive ion; in acidic dyes, it is
in the negative ion. Bacteria are slightly negatively
charged at pH 7. Thus, the colored positive ion in
a basic dye is attracted to the negatively charged
bacterial cell.
Basic dyes, which include crystal violet,
methylene blue, malachite green, and safranin, are
more commonly used than acidic dyes.
Acidic dyes: Acidic dyes are not attracted to most
types of bacteria because the dye’s negative ions are
repelled by the negatively charged bacterial surface,
so the stain colors the background instead. Examples
of acidic dyes are eosin, acid fuchsin, and nigrosin.
Negative staining: Preparing colorless bacteria
against a colored background is called negative
staining. It is valuable in the observation of overall
cell shapes, sizes, and capsules because the cells
are made highly visible against a contrasting dark
background. Distortions of cell size and shape are
minimized because heat fixing is not necessary and
the cells do not pick up the stain.
To apply acidic or basic dyes, microbiologists
use three kinds of staining techniques: simple,
differential, and special.
A. Stained preparations
Staining simply means coloring the microorganisms
with a dye that emphasizes certain structures.

Bacteria may be stained in the living state, but
this type of staining is employed only for special
purposes. Routine methods for staining of bacteria
involve drying and fixing smears, procedures
that kill them. Fixing simultaneously kills the
microorganisms and attaches them to the slide. It
also preserves various parts of microbes in their
natural state with only minimal distortion.
Common Staining Techniques
A. Simple stains
B. Differential stains
a. Gram stain
b. Acid-fast stain (Ziehl–Neelsen staining of
acid fast bacilli)
C. Special stains
a. Negative staining for capsules
b. Endospore (spore) staining
c. Flagella staining.
A. Simple stains
A single stain is used in simple staining. A simple stain
is an aqueous or alcohol solution of a single basic dye.
Some of the simple stains commonly used in
the laboratory are methylene blue, carbol fuchsin,
crystal violet, and safranin.
1. Loeffler’s methylene blue: The films are
stained for 3 min, then are washed with water.
This preparation does not readily over-stain.
Sections are stained for 5 min or longer.
Loeffler’s methylene blue is generally the
most useful of the many preparations of this
dye. It shows the characteristic morphology of
polymorphs, lymphocytes and other cells more
clearly than do stronger stains such as the Gram
stain or Z–N staining (dilute carbol fuchsin.)
2. Polychrome methylene blue: The preparation is
used in a manner similar to Loeffler’s methylene
blue. It is also employed in McFadyean’s reaction
for the identification of anthrax bacilli in blood
films.
3. Dilute carbol fuchsin: Dilute carbol fuchsin
is made by diluting Ziehl–Neelsen’s stain with
10–20 times its volume of water. Stain for 10–25
seconds and wash well with water.
B. Differential stains
These stains impart different colors to different
bacteria or bacterial structures. Gram stain and the
acid fast stain are two most widely used differential
stains.
a. Gram Stain
Gram stain is the principal stain used for
microscopic examination of bacteria. It was first
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Chapter 88: Staining Methods  | 593
devised by the histologist Hans Christian Gram
(1884) as a method of staining bacteria in tissues.
It is one of the most useful staining procedures
because it classifies bacteria into two large groups:
gram-positive and gram-negative.
Method
The staining technique consists of four steps:
1. Primary staining with a basic pararosaniline
(triphenylmethane) violet dye.
2. Application of a dilute solution of iodine.
3. Decolorization.
4. Counterstaining.
Procedure (see chapter 89)
b. Acid Fast Stain (Ziehl–Neelsen Staining
of Acid Fast Bacilli)
Acid fast stain was discovered by Ehrlich (1882),
who found that after staining with aniline dyes,
tubercle bacilli resist decolorization with acids.
The method, as modified by Ziehl and Neelsen, is
in common use now.
Principle
Some bacteria, such as mycobacteria are resistant
to aniline dyes and do not readily penetrate the
substance of the tubercle bacillus and are therefore
unsuitable for staining it. The dye can be made
to penetrate the bacillus by the use of a powerful
staining solution that contains phenol, and the
application of heat. Once stained the tubercle
bacillus cannot be decolorized even with powerful
decolorizing agents for a considerable time and
thus still retains the stain when everything else in
the microscopic preparation has been decolorized.
Hence, they are called Acid–fast bacilli (AFB).
The stain used consists of basic fuchsin, with
phenol (acts as a-mordant) added. The dye is basic
and its combination with a mineral acid used as
decolorizer produces a compound that is yellowish
brown in color which is readily dissolved out of
all structures except acid-fast bacteria. Any strong
acid can be used as a decolorizing agent, but 20%
sulfuric acid (by volume) is usually employed. In
order to show structures and cells, including non-
acid-fast bacteria, that have been decolorized, and
to form a contrast with the red-stained bacilli, the
preparation is counterstained with methylene blue
or malachite green.
Acid fastness has been ascribed to the high
content and variety of lipids, fatty acids and higher
alcohols found in tubercle bacilli. A lipid peculiar
to acid fast bacilli, a high molecular weight hydroxy
acid wax containing carboxyl groups (mycolic
acid) is acid fast in the free state. Acid-fastness
depends also on the integrity of the cell wall
besides lipid contents.
594  |  Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
Procedure-See chapter 89 page 598.
Fluorochrome Staining for
Acid Fast Bacteria
A stain containing the fluorescent dye, auramine
O, is substituted for the hot carbol fuchsin in
the Ziehl–Neelsen method. Tubercle bacilli
are rendered fluorescent and becomes easy to
detect by fluorescence microscopy. Heating is
unnecessary.
Tubercle bacilli are seen as yellow luminous
rods in a dark field. When detected under low
power, the morphology of the bacilli is confirmed
with an oil-immersion objective.
C. Special Stains
Special stains are used to color and isolate specific
parts of microorganisms, such as endospores and
flagella, and to reveal the presence of capsules.
1. Negative Staining for Capsules
Here, bacteria are mixed with dyes such as Indian
ink or nigrosin that provide a uniformly colored
background against which the unstained bacteria
stand out in contrast. This is particularly useful in
the demonstration of bacterial capsules which do
not take simple stains.
Capsules stain poorly, a characteristic exploited
with a capsule stain, an example of a negative stain.
It colors the background, allowing the capsule to
stand out as a halo around an organism.
To observe capsules, a liquid specimen is
placed on a slide next to a drop of India ink. A thin
glass coverslip is then placed over the two drops,
causing them to flow together. At the optimum
concentration of India ink, the fine dark particles
of the stain color the background enough to allow
the capsule to be visible.
2. Endospore (Spore) Staining
Endospores cannot be stained by ordinary methods,
such as simple staining and Gram staining, because
the dyes do not penetrate the wall of the endospore.
A spore stain is used to make endospores more
readily noticeable. Generally, malachite green is
used as a primary stain. Its uptake by the endospore
is facilitated by gentle heat. When water is then
used to rinse the smear, only endospores retain the
malachite green. The smear is then counterstained,
most often with the red dye safranin. The spores
appear green amid a background of pink cells.
3. Flagella Staining
Bacterial flagella are too small to be seen with a
light microscope without staining. A tedious and
delicate staining procedure uses a mordant and
the stain carbol fuchsin to build up the diameters
of the flagella until they become visible under the
light microscope.
Staining of Volutin-containing Organisms
Certain bacilli possess volutin granules in the
protoplasm which aid in the identification of
diphtheria bacilli. Well developed granules of
volutin (polyphosphate) may be seen in unstained
wet preparations as round refractile bodies within
the bacterial cytoplasm. They tend to stain more
strongly than the rest of the bacterium with basic
dyes, and with toluidine blue or methylene blue
they stain metachromatically, a reddish-purple
color. They are demonstrated most clearly by
special methods, such as Albert’s and Neisser’s,
which stain them dark purple but the remainder
of the bacterium with a contrasting counterstain.
Special Stains for Corynebacterium
diphtheriae (Stains to Demonstrate
Metachromatic Granules)
Certain bacilli possess volutin granules in the
protoplasm which aid in the identification of
diphtheria bacilli. Several special and differential
stains are used to stain diphtheria bacilli and to
demonstrate their metachromatic granules.
1. Albert’s stain
2. Neisser’s stain
3. Ponder’s stain
4. Pugh’s stain.
1. Albert’s Stain
It is used for routine use (See chapter 89, page 599).
2. Neisser’s Stain
By this method the bacilli exhibit deep blue
granules and the bacterial protoplasm takes pink
color.
3. Ponder’s Stain
The volutin granules stain dark blue, whereas the
Bacillus pale blue.
4. Pugh’s Stain
The volutin granules stain reddish purple and the
remainder of the organism light blue.
Key Points
™™ Staining means coloring a microorganism with a dye
to make some structures more visible.
™™ Fixing uses heat or alcohol to kill and attach
microorganisms to a slide.

™™ Differential stains, such as the Gram stain and acid-
fast stain, differentiate bacteria according to their
reactions to the stains.
™™ The Gram stain procedure uses a purple stain (crystal
violet), iodine as a mordant, an alcohol decolorizer,
and a red counterstain. Gram-positive bacteria stain
purple and Gram-negative bacteria stain pink.
™™ The acid-fast stain is used to stain organisms
such as Mycobacteria, which do not take up stains
readily; acid-fast organisms stain pink and all other
organisms stain blue.
™™ Special stains: 1. The endospore stain and flagella
stain are special stains that color only certain parts
of bacteria. 2. Negative staining is used to make
microbial capsules visible.
Important questions
1. Describe in detail the Gram’s staining. Descibe
Gram staining mechanism.
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Chapter 88: Staining Methods  | 595
2. Give an account of differential stains.
3. Write short notes:
a. Simple staining.
b. Acid-fast stain or Ziehl-Neelsen’s stain.
c. Negative staining.
d. Impregnation methods.
e. Albert’s stain.
Multiple choice questions (mcqs)
1. All include basic dyes except:
a. Crystal violet b. Methylene blue,
c. Malachite green d. Nigrosin
2. Special stains are used to color and isolate various
structures such as:
a. Capsule b. Endospore
c. Flagella d. All of the above
Answers (MCQs)
1. d; 2. d
 89
Chapter

Practical Microbiology for MBBS Students

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
∙∙ Describe various spots for practical examination
with identification with relevant questions to answer
∙∙ Prepare exercises for practical in microbiology for
undergraduate students
∙∙ Describe the following: Gram staining; Ziehl–
Neelsen staing; Alber staining
∙∙ Discuss identification of bacterial culture
∙∙ Describe stool/feces examination for isolation and
identification of pathogenic findings.

INTRODUCTION Table 89.1 shows specimen copy of practical

Practical examination in microbiology for MBBS
(2nd Prof.) may include the following exercises:
1. Spots
2. Staining
3. Identification of bacterial culture
4. Stool/feces examination
1. Spots: Five different spots in the form of
specimens-slides, glassware, media, etc. are
kept for identification with relevant questions
to answer in one or two sentences.
2. Staining: Two smears are provided for staining
i.e. one for Ziehl–Neelsen (Z–N) staining and
other for Albert’s staining.
3. Identification of bacterial culture: Bacterial
growth is provided for identification on a
culture plate as well as in liquid medium.
4. Stool/feces examination: Feces specimen is
given for isolation and identification of two
pathogenic findings i.e. ova and/or cysts.
question paper of microbiology for MBBS (2nd
Prof.) examination.
1. SPOTS
Question for spots—Identify the spots displayed.
In general, five spots are displayed for identification
in the MBBS 2nd Professional microbiology
practical examination. At times one question
pertaining to the spot is also asked. There is
no specific pattern for the spots.Therfore, the
spots may be from bacteriology (in the form of
culture media without growth and with growth,
biochemical reactions, animal pathogenicity
tests), parasitology (specimens of parasites,
wet preparation of stool specimen Microscopic
slides), mycology (fungal growth and, microscopic
slides), glassware, equipments, swabs and some
miscellaneous items such as anaerobic jar, chrome
wire or loop, microtiter plate, VDRL slide, agar-agar
shreds, etc. It is not possible to give a complete list

Table 89.1  Specimen Practical question paper of Microbiology for MBBS 2nd Professional examination
Total Marks:25
Ques. No. 1 Identify the spots displayed. (2 × 2 + 3 × 1) = 7
Ques. No. 2 (a) Stain smears “A” by Ziehl–Neelsen technique. Draw and comment on this smear and show your findings
to the examiner. (3)
(b) Stain smear “B” by Albert’s technique. Draw and comment on this smear and show your findings tto the examiner. (2)
Ques. No. 3 You have been provided with a pure bacterial culture on plate and in broth. Do Gram’s staining from plate
and hanging drop preparation for motility from broth. Comment on the growth and mention other tests needed to
identify this bacterium. Show your findings to the examiner. 9(3+3+3)
Ques. No. 4 Identify and draw two abnormal findings (ova and cysts) in the given specimen of feces. Show your findings
to the examiner. 4(2+2)

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 Chapter 89: Practical Microbiology for MBBS Students  | 597
of spots for examination because spots may be possible questions asked are not given here due to
given from any component of Microbiology. space constraint and students are advised to read
The spots which may be generally selected the respective chapters for these spots which will be
in the examination are shown in Table 89.2. The useful for answering the questions related to a spot.

Table 89.2  List of important spots for MBBS practical examination

I. Bacteriology
a. Culture media without growth 4. Nutrient agar with Pseudomonas sp.
1. Nutrient agar 5. Potassium tellurite blood-agar with growth of
2. Blood agar Corynebacterium diphtheriae
3. Chocolate agar c. Biochemical reactions for bacteria
4. MacConkey's agar 1. Glucose with acid and gas (with Durham’s tube)
5. Loeffler's serum slope 2. Carbohydrate fermentation tests
6. Lowenstein-Jensen (LJ) medium 3. CAMP reaction
7. Blood culture set containing glucose broth and 4. Indole test
taurocholate broth 5. Methyl red test
8. Potassium telluride blood agar 6. Vogus Proskauer (VP) test
9. Castaneda blood culture medium 7. Citrate utilization test
10. Glucose broth 8. Urease test
11. Peptone water 9. Nitrate reduction test
12. Robertson cooked meat (RCM) broth 10. Phenylpyruvic acid (PPA) test
13. Selenite F broth 11. Triple sugar iron (TSI) agar
b. Culture media with growth d. Microscopic slides
1. Blood agar with growth of Streptococcus, 1. Gram-positive cocci
Staphylococcus or Proteus sp. 2. Gram-negative bacilli
2. Lowenstein-Jensen (LJ) medium with growth of M. 3. Corynebacterium diphtheriae
tuberculosis or atypical mycobacteria. 4. Intracellular diplococci
3. MacConkey's agar with growth of Escherichia coli, 5. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Klebsiella sp.—lactose fermenter(LF) or nonlactose 6. Mycobacterium leprae
fermenter (NLF) colonies
II. Parsitology
a. Specimens of adult parasites 4. Egg of Taenia
1. Hookworm 5. Trichuris trichiura
2. Roundworm 6. Egg of Enterobius vermicularis
3. Hydatid cyst 7. Egg of hookworm
4. Tapeworm 8. Egg of Hymenolepsis nana
b. Wet preparation of stool specimen c. Microscopic slides
1. Cyst of Entamoeba histolytica 1. Different stages of Plasmodium vivax or P. falciparum
2. Cyst of Giarddia lamblia 2. LD bodies
3. Egg of roundworm 3. Microfilaria bancrofti
III. Mycology
a. Fungal Growth b. Microscopic slides
1. Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA) 1. Candida albicans,
2. Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA) with growth of 2. Germ tube of Candida albicans
Candida sp. 3. Cryptococcus neofrmans
3. Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA) with growth of 4. Histoplasmosis
Cryptococcus neofrmans 5. Rhinosporidiosis
4. Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA) with growth of
Aspergillus, sp (Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus fumigatus)
5. Slide culture test used in mycology
IV. Virology
1. Hemagglutination plate Microscopic slides
2. Specimen of pocks on chorioallantoic membrane Negri bodies
(CAM)
V. Glassware
1. Bijou bottle 6. Petri dish
2. Desiccator 7. Tuberculin syringe
3. Glass syringe 8. Universal container
4. Graduated pipette 9. Medically flat bottle or McCartney bottle
5. Pasteur pipette

Contd...

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 598  |  Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
Contd...
VI. Immunology
1. Latex agglutination tile 5. Counter immunoelectrophoresis
2. Microtitre plate 6. HIV-Comb test
3. VDRL slide 7. HIV-Tri-dot test
4. Radial immunodiffusion
VII. Disposable items
1. Presterilized disposable container 3. Presterilized disposable swab
2. Presterilized disposable syringe
VIII. Equipments/instruments
1. Incubator 5. Water bath
2. Hot air oven 6. VDRL rotator
3. Autoclave 7. Lovibond comaparator
4. Centrifuge
IX. Miscellaneous spots
1. Agar-Agar shreds 8. West’s postnasal swab
2. Gas-Pak 9. Stoke’s method of antibiotic sensitivity testing
3. Craigie's tube 10. Kirby-Bauer’s method of antibiotic sensitivity
4. McIntosh-Filde's jar testing
5. Nichrome wire loop 11. Tissue culture bottle
6. Seitz filter 12. Candle jar
7. NIH swab 13. Epsilometer or E-test
XI. Medical entomology
1. Mosquito 6. Ticks
i. Anopheles i. Hard tick
ii. Aedes ii. Soft tick
iii. Culex 7. Mite
2. Housefly i. Trombiculid mite
3. Sandfly ii. Itch mite
4. Louse 8. Cyclops
5. Fleas

2. STAINING FOR PRACTICAL 3. The stained smear is decolorized with 20%

EXAMINATION
In general, two smears are provided for two staining
to students-Albert’s staining and Ziehl–Neelsen
staining.Gram staining is done for identification
of bacteria.
A. Ziehl–Neelsen (Z–N) Staining or Acid
Fast Staining
A fixed smear is provided for Ziehl–Neelsen (Z–N)
staining. If the smear is unfixed, it is fixed by passing
the dried slide, film downwards, three times slowly
through the flame, or by heating through the glass
slide (the slide is held, film upwards) in the top of
the Bunsen flame for a few seconds so that the slide
becomes hot.
Procedure
1. The slide containing fixed smear is covered with
carbol fuchsin. The carbol fuchsin is left on the
slide for 5–10 minutes with intermittent heating
during that period. Heat the slide until the steam
rises, but without boiling. (Do not allow the stain
to dry, to counteract drying more solution of stain
is added to the slide and the slide reheated).
2. Wash in tap water.
sulfuric acid. The red color of the preparation is
changed to yellow brown. After about 1 min in
the acid, wash the slide with water, and pour on
fresh acid. Repeat this procedure several times.
When it is complete, the film, after washing, is
only very faintly pink.
(In case of lepra bacilli 5% sulfuric acid is
used as Mycobacterium leprae is less acid-fast.
Another alternative for decolorization is acid-
alcohol (3 mL HCI and 97 mL ethanol).
4. The smear is counterstained with a contrasting
dye such as methylene blue for 1–2 minutes.
Malachite green can also be used as counterstain
instead of methylene blue.
5. Wash with water, blot with clean paper, dry and
mount.
6. Examine under oil immersion (× 100) objective.
Acid-fast bacilli appear red (color of carbol
fuchsin) while other organisms, tissue cells and
debris are stained blue or green according to the
counterstain used (Fig. 89.1).
Important Points in Observation
1. Acid-fast bacilli such as Mycobacterium
tuberculosis appear red while other organisms,

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 Chapter 89: Practical Microbiology for MBBS Students  | 599
tissue cells and debris are stained blue or green
according to the counterstain used (Fig. 89.1).
2. Show your observations to the examiner by
focusing a good stained field of your smear as
such and by drawing a well labeled diagram
using colored pencils.
3. Study in detail Chapters 32–34 for all possible
questions asked by examiner.
Acid-fast Organisms
1. All mycobacteria are acid-fast e.g. Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobacter­
ium leprae, atypical mycobacteria.
2. Nocardia asteroides, Nocardia braziliensis.
3. Cryptosporidium-a protozoan coccidian
parasite, which causes opportunistic infections
in AIDS, is acid-fast.
4. Bacterial spores are weakly acid-fast.
Fig. 89.1: Acid-fast bacteria
B. Albert’s stain
A fixed smear is provided for Albert’s staining. If the
smear is unfixed, it is fixed by passing the dried slide,
film downwards, three times slowly through the
flame, or by heating through the glass slide (the slide
is held, film upwards) in the top of the Bunsen flame
for a few seconds so that the slide becomes hot.
Staining Solution
A. Albert 1 or Albert stain
1. Toluidine blue 1.5 g
2. Malachite green 2g
3. Glacial acetic acid 10 mL
4. Alcohol (95% ethanol) 20 mL
5. Distilled water 1 liter
B. Albert II or Albert’s iodine
Iodine 6g
Potassium iodide 9g
Distilled water. 900 mL
Procedure
1. Make film, dry in air, and fix by heat.
2. Cover slide with Albert’s stain (Albert’s solution
A) and allow to act for 3–5 min.
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Chap-89.indd 599
3. Wash in water and blot dry.
4. Cover slide with Albert’s iodine (Albert’s
solution B) for 1 min.
5. Wash with water and blot dry. Observe under
the oil-immersion objective (× 100).
The metachromatic (volutin) granules of
Corynebacterium diphtheriae stain bluish black,
and the bacterial protoplasm green and other
organisms mostly light green (Fig. 89.2).
Important points in observation
1. In case of Corynebacterium diphtheriae, green
colored bacilli with bluish black metachromatic
(volutin) granules are observed.
2. Bacilli are arranged in Chinese letter or
cuneiform arrangement (Fig. 89.2).
3. Show your observations to the examiner by
focusing a good stained field of your smear as
such and by drawing a well labeled diagram
using colored pencils.
4. Study in detail Chapter 28 for all possible
questions asked by examiner.
Fig. 89.2: Albert’s stain
Gram Staining (See Also Chapter 88)
Gram staining is done for bacterial culture (solid
material, such as cultures on agar) which is provided
to the student along with liquid culture of the same
material in a test tube which is used for hanging
drop preparation to observe the motility of bacteria.
Preparing film or Smear for Staining
1. Film preparations are made on clean and free
from grease glass slides.
2. Place a loopful of clean water on the slide and
the loop is then sterilized.
3. A minute quantity of material, obtained by
just touching the growth (with solid material,
such as cultures on agar), is transferred to the
drop, thoroughly emulsified to make a smooth
suspension, and the mixture is spread evenly
on the slide. A thin film of material containing
the microorganisms is spread over the surface
of the slide with the help of wire loop. This film,
called a smear, is allowed to air dry.
4. The slide is then held in the palm of the hand
high over a Bunsen flame and dried. The
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 600  |  Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
film is fixed by passing the dried slide, film
downwards, three times slowly through the
flame, or by heating through the glass slide.
In the latter method the slide is held, film
upwards, in the top of the Bunsen flame for a
few seconds so that the slide becomes hot. Care
must be taken not to char the film, and when
the slide is just too hot to be borne on the back
of the hand, fixation is complete. Air drying and
flaming fix the microorgan­isms to the slide.
Reagents
A. Violet Dye
Crystal violet or methyl violet is used at concentra­
tions of 0.5–2%. Solution is facilitated if the dye is first
dissolved in alcohol and then added to the water.
1. Crystal violet or methyl violet 6B 10 g
2. Absolute alcohol (100% ethanol) 100 mL
3. Distilled water 1L
B. Gram’s Iodine
1. Iodine 10 g
2. Potassium iodide 20 g
3. Distilled water 1L
C. Decolorizer
i. Acetone.
ii. Absolute alcohol (100% ethanol).
iii. Acetone-alcohol. This is a mixture of 1 volume
of acetone with 1 volume of 95% ethanol. It
requires application for about 10 seconds.
D. Safranine Counterstain
Safranine 0.5% in distilled water.
Procedure
1. Heat-fixed smear is covered with a basic purple
dye, usually crystal violet (primary stain) for
one minute. (Other dyes such as gentian violet or
methyl violet may also be used as primary stain).
2. Wash the smear thoroughly with water.
3. Cover the smear with Gram’s iodine for one
minute.
4. Wash again with water.
5. Decolorize the smear with acetone for 10
seconds or less taking care not to overdecolorise.
(Alcohol can be substituted for acetone).
6. Immediately wash with water to remove the
decoloriser.
7. Cover the slide with dye safranin (counterstain)
for 1 minute. (Dilute carbol fuchsin or neutral
red may also be used as counterstain).
8. Wash off the smear with water, blot and dry.
9. Examine the stained smear under the 100 ×
(oil) immersion objective of the microscope
(Fig. 89.3).
Chap-89.indd 600
Interpretation of Gram Staining
Two broad groups
∙∙ Gram-positive
∙∙ Gram-negative
Gram-positive: Gram-positive bacteria are those
that resist decolorization and retain the primary
stain, appearing violet.
Gram-negative: Gram-negative bacteria are
decolorized by organic solvents (acetone/alcohol)
and, therefore, take the counterstain, appearing red.
Gram reactivity is of considerable importance
as the gram-positive and -negative bacteria
differ not merely in staining characteristics and
in structure but also in several other properties
such as growth requirements, susceptibility to
antibiotics and pathogenicity.
Gram Staining Mechanism
The exact mechanism is not understood. It may,
however, be attributed to following:
1. Protoplasm: There is a more acidic protoplasm
(pH 2–3) in the gram-positive cells, which is
responsible for retaining the basic dye more
strongly than the Gram-negative bacteria.
2. Cell wall structure: Different kinds of bacteria
react differently to the Gram stain, because
structural differences in their cell walls affect
the retention or escape of a combination of
crystal violet and iodine, called the crystal
violet-iodine (CV-I) complex.
Iodine makes the protoplasm more acidic and
serves as mordant, i.e. iodine combines with dye
to form a dye-iodine complex and fixes the dye in
bacterial cell. When applied to both gram-positive
and gram-negative cells, crystal violet and then
iodine readily enter the cells. Inside the cells, the
crystal violet and iodine combine to form crystal
violet-iodine (CV-I) complex.
Gram-positive Cells
Gram-positive bacteria have a thicker peptido­
glycan cell wall than Gram-negative bacteria. The
complex crystal violet-iodine (CV-I) complex is
larger than the crystal violet molecule that entered
the cells, and because of its size, it cannot be washed
out of the intact peptido­glycan layer of gram-positive
cells by acetone/alcohol. Conse­quently, gram-
positive cells retain the color of the crystal violet dye.
Gram-negative Cells
Gram-negative bacterial cell walls are thinner, have
a smaller amount of peptidoglycan, less exten­
sively cross-linked and contain a high percentage
of lipids. There is a layer of lipopolysaccharide
as part of their cell wall. They dissolve during
treatment with acetone alcohol, forming larger
pores in the cell wall, and the CV-I complex is
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Fig. 89.3: Gram staining

washed out through the thin layer of peptidoglycan –  Clostridium

causing out-flow of dye-iodine complex and take –  Lactobacillus
up counter stain, thus appearing red/pink (gram- –  Mycobacterium
negative). As a result, gram-negative cells are –  Actinomyces
color­less until counterstained with Safranin, after –  Nocardia
which they are pink. B. Gram-negative bacteria
This is not all-or-none phenomenon. The gram- 1. Cocci—Neisseria
positive cells may be decolorized by prolonged 2. Bacilli
treatment with acetone/alcohol. In contrast, a. Enterobacteria
inadequate decolorization may cause cells to – Escherichia coli
appear gram-positive. – Klebsiella
– Salmonella
Cell Wall Integrity – Shigella
It has been found that Gram positivity depends on – Proteus
the integrity of cell wall and presence of specific – Yersinia
magnesium–ribonucleate–protein complex. The b. Vibrio
gram-positive bacteria become gram-negative c. Pseudomonas
when cell wall is damaged. Thus, gram-positive d. Parvobacteria
bacteria may become gram-negative, if the cell is – Hemophilus
aging, mechanically ruptured or by the action of – Bordetella
ribonuclease. – Brucella
e. Bacteroides.
GRAM-POSITIVE AND GRAM-NEGATIVE
BACTERIA 3. IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIAL CULTURE
A. Gram-positive bacteria A. Identification of Bacterial Culture:
1. Cocci—Staphylococcus; Streptococcus; An Overview
Enterococcus: Streptococcus pneumoniae Bacterial growth on a culture plate and in a liquid
2. Bacilli—Corynebacterium culture medium will be provided to student for
–  Bacillus identification of bacterial culture.

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 602  |  Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
Table 89.3  Description of appearance of growth
on solid media
1. Shape—circular, irregular, or rhizoid.
2. Size—in millimeters. Pin-head size is characteristic
of staphylococci and pin-point size is a feature of
streptococcal colonies.
3. Elevation—effuse, elevated, convex; concave,
umbonate or umbilicate.
4. Margins—bevelled or otherwise.
5. Surface—smooth, wavy, rough, granular, papillate or
glistening.
6. Edges—entire, undulate, crenated, fimbriate or
curled.
7. Color—pigment production
8. Structure—opaque, translucent or transparent
9. Consistency—membranous, friable, butyrous or
viscid.
10. Emulsifiability—easy or difficult.
11. Differentiation—Differentiated into a central and a
peripheral portion
Table 89. 4  Description of appearance of growth
in liquid media
1.  Degree: None, scanty, moderate abundant or profuse
2. Turbidity: Present or absent; if present, slight,
moderate or dense; uniform, granular or flocculent.
Most of the gram-negative bacteria grow in uniform
turbidity form.
3. Deposit: Present or absent: if present, slight,
moderate or abundant; powdery, granular, flocculent,
membranous or viscid; disintegrating completely or
incompletely on shaking, e.g. Strepto­cocci growth
occurs as a granular turbidity with a powdry deposit.
4. Surface growth: Present or absent; All aerobes
have tendency to grow on surface of media due to
more content of oxygen present on the surface, e.g.
Pseudomonas sp.

Identification Scheme
The following scheme of identification should be
adopted.

A. Culture Plate
Culture medium is identified and cultural
characteristics of bacterial growth are noted.
1. Culture Medium
Culture media provided may be nutrient agar,
blood agar or MacConkey’s agar. A
i. Cultural characteristics: Then the cultural
characteristics (Table 89.3) of bacterial
growth is described. This may help in some
provisional identification of the bacteria.
ii. Gram staining: Gram staining is done from
culture plate and notes the following:
i. Gram reaction—Gram-positive or gram- B
negative Figs 89.4: (A) Hanging drop preparation;
ii. Morphology—Cocci, bacilli or coccobacilli, (B) Hanging drop examination
approxi­mate size. If bacilli, then describe
Various characterstics are noted such as degree,
whether these are thin, stout, long or short
turbidity, deposit and surface growth (Table 89.4).
bacilli.
Hanging drop preparation—is done to find out.
i. Motility—Motile or non-motile.
B. Liquid Medium ii. Morphology—Cocci, bacilli or coccobacilli.
Liquid medium is prepared from the same culture
plate which is given for examination and has the same Hanging Drop Preparation
bacteria. Therefore, first identify the liquid culture
This experiment is done to demonstrate motility
medium and describe the characteristics of growth
and to study morphology of bacteria (Fig. 89.4). It
(Table 89.4). Hanging drop preparation is made
is prepared from the bacterial growth provided in
from this liquid media for motility and morphology
liquid culture medium in a test tube.
of the bacteria.
Requirements: 1. A clean cavity (depression) slide;
i. Liquid Culture Medium 2. A clean coverslip; 3. Young broth culture; 4. Wire
Liquid culture medium may be in peptone water loop; 5. Bunsen burner/spirit lamp; 6. Microscope.
or glucose broth. Glucose broth is darker and more
yellowish in color as compared to peptone water. Procedure
Generally, streptococci are provided in glucose broth 1. A ‘hollow ground’ slide, (a glass slide with a
whiles all other bacteria are given in peptone water. shallow, circular concavity in its center) is used

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 Chapter 89: Practical Microbiology for MBBS Students  | 603
for hanging drop preparation (a plasticin ring
can also be used).
2. Encircle the concavity with a line streak of soft
petroleum jelly applied with a glass rod to the
surface of the slide just outside the concavity.
3. Place drop of culture using the sterile wire loop
on the center of the coverslip.
4. Invert the cavity slide over the coverslip so
that the drop of the culture is in the center of
the cavity; press it lightly, so that the coverslip
adheres to the vaseline ring.
5. Then quickly turn round the slide so that the
cover-slip is uppermost. The drop will then be
hanging from the cover-slip in the center of the
concavity, that is why it is called hanging drop.
6. Proceed to examine first with a low-power
objective and then with a high-power one.
7. First focus the edge of a hanging drop
preparation under low power objective (× 10)
of microscope, after reducing the light intensity
(by partial closing of iris diaphragm).
8. Turn high power objective (× 40) into position
and focus the edge of the hanging drop and
observe for the motility of bacteria.
Note: Instead of slide with a shallow, circular
concavity, in many institutions, plasticin is
provided to students. Make a ring of plasticin and
place it in the center of a clean glass slide. Invert the
glass slide containing the plasticin ring and place it
on the coverslip. Rest procedure is the same.
Important Points for Observing Motility
of Organisms
When examining living organisms for the property
of active locomotion, it is essential to distinguish
true motility, whereby the organisms move in
different directions and change their positions
in the field, from either (1) Passive drifting
of the organisms in the same direction in a
convectional current in the fluid or (2) Brownian
movement, which is an oscillatory movement
about a nearly fixed point possessed by all small
bodies suspended in fluid and due to irregularities
in their bombardment by molecules of water.
C. Provisional Diagnosis
A provisional diagnosis can be made on the basis of
culture media and liquid medium findings. Further
tests such as fermentation and other biochemical
reactions, serology, etc. should be used to confirm
the identification of bacteria.
D. Final Identification of Bacteria
This depends on a number of tests which may vary
from one bacterium to another.
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Chap-89.indd 603
E. Interpretation and Practical Examination
Record your findings on answer sheet as above and
show to the examiner. Examiner may ask a number
of questions related to culture medium, Gram’s
staining, hanging drop prepara­tion and bacterial
growth. Student should prepare questions related
to individual bacterium and is instructed to read
in detail the related chapters of important bacteria
for practical examination.
Points to Remember for Identification of
Bacteria in Practical Examination
1. Culture medium should be identified correctly.
2. Colony characteristics—especially the size,
shape, elevation, opacity, color, hemolysis and
consistency should be described.
3. Gram reaction should be drawn and labeled
along with the morphology of bacteria before
showing finding to the examiner.
4. Liquid medium is from the given solid culture
which is used for growth characteristics and
hanging drop preparion to differentiate certain
bacteria.
5. In hanging drop preparation, show motility as
well as morphology of bacteria, e.g. cocci or
bacilli. Draw a labeled diagram before you show
the examiner.
B. Bacterial Culture Identification ­
Question No. 3—You have been provided with a pure
bacterial culture on plate and in broth. Do Gram’s
staining from plate and hanging drop preparation
for motility from broth. Comment on the growth
and mention other tests needed to identify this
bacterium. Show your findings to the examiner.
Answer—First, the ability to determine which
organisms grow on selective and nonselective
media aids in making an initial distinction between
Gram-positive and Gram-negative isolates.
One of the following media with bacterial
growth may be provided for identification:
1. Nutrient agar: Pseudomonas aeruginosa
2. Blood agar: Staphylococcus, aureus, Streptococcus
pyogenes and Proteus species.
3. MacConkey’s agar
A. Lactose fermenter-
– Escherichia coli
– Klebsiella sp.
B. Nonlactose fermenter—Salmonella sp.- Shigella
sp.
1. Nutrient Agar
It is often difficult to identify the organism by
examining only the morphology of colony on
nutrient agar plate. In general, bacterial growth
with green pigment on nutrient agar is provided
for examination along with liquid broth.
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 604  |  Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
Fig. 89.5: Green pigmented growth of Pseudomonas
aeruginosa on the nutrient agar
Observations (Fig. 89.5)
A. Solid Media
i. Medium: Nutrient agar.
ii. Colony morphology: The colonies are large,
2–3 mm in diameter, smooth, translucent,
irregularly round and emit a characteristic
fruity or grape-like smell.
iii. Pigment : It is a bluish-green diffusible
pigment. This pigment diffuses into the
surrounding medium. Demonstration of
the presence of the pigment is absolute
confirmation of a strain as Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and thus the major diagnostic test.
B. Liquid media (Peptone water)
Growth in broth: Dense turbidity with a surface
pellicle green pigment. Surface pellicle gives’ a
clue that bacteria are aerobic nature because
bacteria have tendency to accumulate at the
top due to more oxygen content available at
surface.
C. Gram staining and Hanging Drop Preparation
Proceed for gram staining (from solid media)
and hanging drop preparation (from liquid
media). Note the following finding in case of
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Gram staining—gram-negative bacilli
Hanging drop preparation (motiliy): Actively
motile.
D. Presumptive diagnosis-Pseudomonas sp.
E. Confirmatory test: P. aeruginosa is identified by
colonial characteristics and simple biochemical
tests (e.g. positive oxidase reaction). All strains
Pseudomonas euruginosa give a rapid positive
oxidase reaction (within 30 seconds) and this
is a useful preliminary test for non-pigmented
strains. Pseudomonas are nonfermenter and
break down glucose oxidatively with acid
production. They reduce nitrates to nitrites and
further to gaseous nitrogen and utilize citrate
as sole source of carbon.
Chap-89.indd 604
Confirmatory Biochemical Reactions for
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
1. Oxidative–fermentation
medium of Hugh
and Leifson
(OF medium) Oxidative
2. Glucose Oxidatively with the
pro­duction of acid
only
3. Lactose Negative
4. Maltose Negative
5. Indole Negative
6. MR Negative
7. VP Negative
H2S Negative
8. Oxidase reaction (within 30 seconds)
9. It reduces nitrates to nit­rites and further to
gaseous nitrogen.
10. It is catalase, arginine dihydrolase and gelatinase
positive
11. Lysine decarboxylase Negative
12. Aesculian hydrolysis Negative
Note your observations on your answer sheet
with well labeled diagrams of your observations
with color pencils and show to the examiner.
2. Blood Agar
Blood agar supports the growth of a variety of
fastidious and nonfastidious organisms, gram-
positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria. Gram-
positive cocci (Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus
pyogenes) or gram-negative bacilli such as Proteus
species may also be provided on blood agar plate
A. Gram-positive cocci Observations
A. Solid Media
i. Medium: Blood agar
ii. Colony morphology: In case of a bacterial
growth with hemolysis on blood agar,
proceed further as under Staphylococcus and
Streptococcus below.
Staphylococcus and Streptococcus are further
processed as follows.
B. Liquid media-Growth in broth.
C. Gram staining and Hanging Drop Preparation
Proceed for gram staining (from solid media) and
hanging drop preparation (from liquid media). Note
the following finding.
Gram staining: Gram-positive cocci in clusters
(Staphylococcus)-gram-positive cocci in chains
(Streptococcus).
Hanging drop: Non-motile cocci
D. Presumptive diagnosis: Staphylococcus and
Streptococcus are further processed as follows.
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 Chapter 89: Practical Microbiology for MBBS Students  | 605
Fig. 89.6: Growth of Staphylococcus aureus showing beta
hemolysis and golden pigment on blood agar
Staphylococcus
Observations
A. Solid Media
1. Medium: Blood agar
2. Colony morphology: Colonies are 2–4
mm in diameter (pin-head size), surface
smooth glistening, edge entire, a soft butyrous
consistency and an opaque and easily emulsi­
fiable, pigmented appearance surrounded by a
zone of β-hemolysis (Fig. 89.6).
B. Liquid Media
Growth in broth: (in peptone water): Uniform
turbidity.
C. Gram Staining and Hanging Drop
Preparation
C. Proceed for gram staining (from solid media) and
hanging drop preparation (from liquid media). Note
the following finding.
i. Gram’s staining: Gram-positive cocci (1 mm
diameter) arranged in grape like clusters.
ii. Hanging drop prepation: Non-motile cocci
in clusters.
D. Presumptive Diagnosis- Staphylococcus sp
E. Confirmatory Tests
1. Catalase: Positive
2. Mannitol fermentation: Positive
3. Oxidative–Fermentation
medium of Hugh and
Leifson (OF medium): Fermetative
4. Phosphatase test: Positive
5. Deoxyribonulease
(DNAase) test: Positive
6. Tellurite reduction: On potassium
tellurite blood agar-
black colonies
7. Gelatin liquefaction: Positive
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Chap-89.indd 605
Fig. 89.7: Growth of Streptococcus pyogenes showing beta
hemolysis on blood agar
8. Other biochemical tests: Indole negative,
MR positive, VP positive, urease positive and
reduces nitrates to nitrites.
All the above tests confirm the isolate as a
pathogenic strain of Staphylococcus, i.e. Staphylo­
coccus aureus.
F. Draw well labeled diagrams of your obser­vations
with color pencils to show Gram reaction.
Streptococcus pyogenes
After observing the colony morpho­logy on solid
medium, growth in liquid medium, Gram’s staining
and hanging drop preparation, findings should be
recorded as follows:
Observations
A. Solid Media
1. Culture Medium: Blood agar
2. Colony morphology: Colonies are small,
0.5–1.0 mm in diameter (pin-point in contrast
to pin-head size of Staphylococcus), circular,
semi-transparent, low convex discs surrounded
by a wide zone of b-hemolysis) (Fig. 89.7).
B. Liquid Media
i. Growth in broth: (in glucose or serum):
Granular turbidity with powdery deposite.
C. Gram Staining and Hanging Drop
Preparation
i. Gram’s staining: Cocci are Gram-positive,
spherical to ovoid organisms 0.5–1.0 mm in
diameter, in short or moderately long chains.
ii. Hanging drop prepation: Non-motile cocci
in chains.
D. Presumptive Diagnosis
Streptococcus sp.
E. Confirmatory Tests
i. Catalase test-Negative. (It differentiates
Streptococcus from Staphylococcus).
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 606  |  Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
ii. Insoluble in 10% bile unlike Streptococcus.
pneumoniae. To differentiate Streptococcus
at species level, following tests are to be
performed: the
1. Lancefield technique: Hemolytic strepto­
cocci are grouped by the Lancefield
technique using serologic methods, or
biochemical tests can be performed.
2. Fluorescent antibody technique: For the
rapid identification of group A streptococci.
3. Str. pyogenes (Group A) Sensitive to
bacitracin (0.04 unit disk).
A key test that should be done is bacitracin
susceptibility or PYR hydrolysis.
4. Pyrrolidonyl naphthylamine (PYR)
hydrolysis –Positive.
iii. Group ‘B’ streptococci-CAMP reaction and
hippurate hydrolysis is positive.
iv. Group ‘D’ streptococci-Heat resistant test is
positive. The enterococci grow in the presence
of 6.5% NaCl, 40% bile, at ph 9.6, at 45°C and in
0.1% methelyne blue and survives heating at
60°C for 30 min. On MacConkey medium they
produce deep pink colonies. Enterococci are
PYRase test positive. They do not hydrolyze
hippurate.
E. Draw well labeled diagrams of your observations
with color pencils to show Gram reaction.
BACILLUS PROTEUS SP.
If the student is provided with a culture media with
swarming growth on noninhibitory solid media
such as nutrient agar and blood agar, the same
procedure is adopted for identification of bacteria.
A. Solid Media
1. Culture medium: Blood agar (Fig. 89.8)
2. Colony morphology: Swarming appearance on
noninhibitory solid media, such as nutrient agar
and blood agar with characteristic putrefactive
odor (‘fishy’ or ‘seminal’) then genus Proteus is
Fig. 89.8: Growth of Proteus sp. showing swarning on
blood agar
Chap-89.indd 606
suspected because swarming does not occur
on MacConkey’s medium, on which smooth
colorless (NLF) formed.
B. Liquid Media
Growth in broth (in peptone water): Uniform
turbidity’ with slight powdery deposit and an
ammonical odor in liquid medium (peptone water).
C. Gram Staining and Hanging Drop
Preparation
i. Gram staining: Gram-negative coccobacilli,
1–3 mm long and 0.6 mm wide. Pleomorphism is
frequent – short coccobacilli to long filaments.
ii. Hanging drop preparation: Actively motile.
D. Presumptive Diagnosis
Proteus sp.
E. Confirmatory Tests
Keeping in view all the observations your
presumptive diagnosis is Proteus sp. It is confirmed
with the following tests.
i. Phenyl pyruvic acid (PPA) test: Positive
ii. Urease test: Positive
iii. Glucose: A/G (acid/gas)
iv. Lactose: Negative
v. Malonate utilization: Negative
vi. Indole test : Positive in P. vulgaris but is
negative in P. mirabilis.
vii. MR: Positive
viii. VP: Negative.
ix. H2S: Positive in P. vulgaris and P. mirabilis.
x. Ornithine decarboxylase: Positive in P.
mirabilis but negative in P. vulgaris
F. Final Diagnosis
The given bacterium may be identified as P. vulgaris
or P. mirabilis depending on biochemical reac­tions.
Typing methods (phage typing, bacteriocin typing
and serotyping schemes) have been developed for
Proteus species. Swarming Proteus strains exhibit the
Dienes phenomenon and this forms the basis for a
precise method of differentiation among such strains.
3. MacConkey’s Agar
1. Gram-negative rods are better described on
MacConkey agar because these organisms
produce similar-looking colonies on blood agar
plate and chocolate agar media. MacConkey
is best used, however, to differentiate lactose
fermenters (LF) from nonlactose ferment­
ers (NLF). Therefore, on MacConkey’s agar,
colonies may be either pink (lactose fermen­
ter) or pale (non-lactose fermenter).
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 Chapter 89: Practical Microbiology for MBBS Students  | 607
Fig. 89.9: MacConkey agar with smooth, lactose fermenter
(non-mucoid) colonies of Escherichia coli
2. The LF colonies may be E. coli or Klebsiella
sp., while NLF colonies generally given are
Salmonella sp. or Shigella sp.
3. Examine the colony characters on solid
medium and growth in liquid medium.
4. Gram staining from culture plate and hanging
drop preparation from liquid broth are to be
made.
5. The following features may be observed on
Gram’s staining and hanging drop preparation.
Lactose Fermenter (LF)
A. Solid Media
1. Culture medium: MacConkey’s agar (Figs
89.9 and 89.10).
2. Colony morphology: red or pink, nonmucoid
colony—Escherichia coli.
Large, mucoid pink colonies—Klebsiellaj sp.
B. Liquid Broth
Growth in broth: General turbidity and a
i. mannitol) with production of acid and gas, urease
heavy deposit or uniform turbidity.
C. Gram Staining and Hanging Drop
Preparation
i. Gram staining: Gram-negative straight rod-
Escherichia coli; gram-negative short and
plump bacilli Klebsiellaj sp.
ii. Hanging drop preparation: Motile or non­
motile.
D. Identification
The bacteria may be identified by correlating the
colony characters, Gram staining and hanging
drop preparation and then by various biochemical
reactions.
E. Presumptive Diagnosis
Presumptive diagnosis of Esch. coli or Klebsiella sp.
can be made on the basis of above features.
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Chap-89.indd 607
Fig. 89.10: MacConkey‘s agar with lactose fermenter
(mucoid) colonies of Klebsiella sp.
Escherichia coli: Red or pink, nonmucoid colony,
gram-negative straight, rod and motile.
Klebsiella sp: 2 Red or pink, mucoid colonies, short
and plump bacilli on Gram staining and nonmotile.
F. Confirmatory Tests by Various
Biochemical Reactions (Table 89.5)
Escherchia coli: Biochemical reactions
i. E. coli ferments glucose, lactose, mannitol,
maltose and many other sugars with the
production of acid and gas. Typical strains do
not ferment sucrose.
ii. Indole and MR posi­tive, and VP and citrate
negative (IMViC + + – –)
iii. It is negative for phenylalanine deaminase
test, urease test, H 2S production, gelatin
liquefaction, growth in the presence of KCN,
and malonate utilization.
B. Klebsiella sp: Biochemical reactions (Table 89.3)
They ferment sugars (glucose, lactose, sucrose,
positive, indole negative, MR negative, VP positive
and citrate positive (IMViC – – ++). These reactions
are typical of K. pneumoniae subsp. aerogenes.
Final diagnosis of Esch. coli or Klebsiella sp. can be
made based on the above-mentioned biochemical
reactions. Further tests, such as serotyping should
be done for confirmation. Typing mehods, such as
bacteriocin typing, phage typing, resistotyping and
molecular typing methods (Plasmid analysis, DNA
profiling by random amplified polymorphic DNA
(RAPD) and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis) can
be used for Klebsiella strains.
B. Nonlactose Fermenter (NLF) Colonies
1. For undergraduate practical examination the
students are provided either of two important
NLF bacteria—Salmonella sp. or Shigella sp
(non­lactose-fermenting bacteria are pale).
Liquid broth of the same bacteria is also given
alongwith it.
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 608  |  Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
Table 89.5  Differentiating features of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella sp
Characteristics Escherichia coli Klebsiella sp
1. Colony morphology on MacConkey’s Colonies are red or pink due to lactose Colonies are red or pink in color due
agar fermentation (LF or lactose fermenter to lactose fermentation (LF or lac­tose
colonies), nonmucoid, circular moist, fermenter colonies), large and mucoid.
smooth with entire margin (Large, mucoid and red in color)
2. Growth in broth (peptone water) Growth occurs as general turbidity and Uniform turbidity.
a heavy deposit.
3. Gram staining Gram-negative, straight, rod Gram-negative, short, plump,
measuring 1–3 x 0.4–0.7 µm nonsporing, capsulated, 1–2 µm long
arranged singly or in pairs. and 0.5–0.8 µm wide.
4. Motility (Hanging drop preparation) Motile bacilli Nonmotile bacilli
5. Biochemical reactions
1. Acid from glucose Acid and gas (AG) Acid and gas (AG)
2. Lactose + +
Mannitol + +
Sucrose Variable +
Indole + –
Methyl red (MR) + –
Voges–Proskauer (VP) – +
Citrate – +
Urease – +
Growth in KCN – +

Fig. 89.11: Nonlactose fermenter colonies of Salmonella sp Fig. 89.12: Nonlactose fermenter colonies of Shigella sp
on MacConkey‘s agar on MacConkey‘s agar

A. Solid Media D. Presumptive Diagnosis

1. Culture medium: MacConkey’s agar. (Figs
89.11 and 89.12)
2. Colony morphology: See Table 89.6.
B. Liquid Broth
Growth in broth: Abundant growth with uniform
turbidity.
C. Gram Staining and Hanging Drop
Preparation
i. Gram staining: Gram-negative bacilli.
ii. Hanging drop preparation: Motile or non-
motile.
The bacteria may be identified by correlating the
colony characters, Gram staining and hanging
drop preparation and then by various biochemical
reactions.
Presumptive diagnosis of Salmonella sp. or
Shigella sp. can be made on the basis of above
features.Differentiating feature of these two bacteria
is motility (Shigella sp. is nonmotile and Salmonella
sp. is motile). Differentiating features of Salmonella
sp. and Shigella sp. are shown in Table 89.6.
E. Confirmatory Tests
Confirmatory tests of Salmonella sp. and Shigella
sp: The fermentation of carbo­hydrates and other

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 Chapter 89: Practical Microbiology for MBBS Students  | 609
Table 89.6  Differentiating features of Shigella sp. and Salmonella sp.
Characteristics Shigella sp
1. C
 olony morphology on MacConkey’s Colonies are 2–3 mm in diameter,
agar circular, translucent, convex,
colorless, i.e. pale and yellowish
(nonlactose-fermenting-NLF)
An exception is S. sonnei, a late
fermenter of lactose (LLF)
2. Growth in liquid media (peptone water) Good growth with uniform
turbidity
3. Gram staining Gram-negative bacilli, 2–4 x 0.6
mm
4. Motility (Hanging drop preparation Nonmotile bacilli
Salmonella sp.
Colonies are 1–3 mm in diameter
circular, translucent, moist, pale
yellow or nearly colorless (NLF),
entire edge
Abundant growth with uniform
turbidity
Gram-negative bacilli, 2–4 × 0.6 µm
in size
Motile bacilli

Table 89.7  Distinguishing features of Shigella vi. They reduce nitrates to nitrites, do not form
species H2S and are inhibited by KCN.
Subgroup A B C D vii. Catalase is produced, except by S. dysenteriae
type 1 which are catalase negative.
Species Sh. Sh. Sh. Sh.
dysenteriae flexneri boydii sonnei viii. Members of groups A, B and C fail to decar­
Mannitol – A A A boxylate lysine and ornithine. S. sonnei decar­
boxylates ornithine but not lysine.
Lactose – – – A (Late)
Salmonella sp. Biochemical Reactions (Table
Sucrose – – – A (Late)
89.8)
Dulcitol – – d
Salmonellae will be indole and urease negative,
Indole d d d
catalase positive, oxidase negative and ferment
Ornithine – – – + glucose, mannitol and maltose but not lactose or
decarboxylase
sucrose. S. Typhi will be anaerogenic and ferments
Serotypes 10 6+ 15 Only glucose and mannitol with production of acid only,
variants one
while paratyphoid bacilli (S. Paratyphi A, B and C)
A = Acid; d = Variable will form acid and gas from sugars. Identification
of the isolate is by slide agglutination.
biochemical reactions are very important to
F. Show your findings to the examiner after
differentiate these Salmonella sp. and Shigella sp.
drawing well labeled diagrams of your observations
up to species level (Tables 89.6 to 89.8).
of Salmonella sp. or Shigella sp.
Shigella sp: Biochemical reactions (Table 89.7)
i. The shigellae are divided into four groups, or IV. Bacterial Growth on any Other Medium
species, by their biochemical reactions and
antigenic structure (Table 89.7). The groups Usually bacterial growth is given on the medium
A, B, C and D correspond to the species S. such as nutrient agar, blood agar and MacConkey’s
dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii and S. sonnei. agar. If the media other than nutrient agar, blood
agar and MacConkey’s agar is provided for
ii. Glucose is fermented with the production of
examination, then proceed using the same basic
acid, without gas, except for two serotypes:
method of processing, i.e. colony morphology,
Sh. flexneri serotype 6 (Newcastle and
liquid broth, Gram staining, hanging drop
Manchester varieties) and S. boydii serotype
preparation, presumptive diagnosis and further
14. Fermentation of mannitol in Sh. flexneri,
confirmatory tests. In vivo examiner may ask any
Sh. boydii and Sh. sonnei
question related to the specific bacteria along with
Mannitol nonfermenting—Sh. dysenteriae questions related to culture media, Gram staining,
iii. Lactose and sucrose are not fermented, except hanging drop preparation.
by Sh. sonnei which ferments them late.
iv. Dulcitol is not fermented by the majority of
shigellae. Adonitol, inositol and salicin are 4. STOOL/FECES EXAMINATION
not fermented. In this exercise, stool specimen is provided to
v. IMV, C––– + +–– (S. dysenteriae serotype 1, S. isolate two pathogenic parasitic findings. Stool
flexneri serotype 6 and S. sonnei are always examination is done to find out ova and cysts of
indole negative). different parasites.

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 610  |  Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
Table 89.8  Biochemical reactions of Salmonella species
Subgroup S. Typhi S. Paratyphi A S. Paratyphi B S. Paratyphi C
Catalase + + + +
Oxidase – – – –
Urease – – – –
Glucose A AG AG AG
Mannitol A AG AG AG
Maltose A AG AG AG
Lactose – – – –
Sucrose – – – –
Indole – – – –
Methyl red + + + +
Voges- Proskauer(VP) – – – –
Citrate – – + +
H2 S production + – + +
+, positive; negative; A, acid; AG, acid and gas

Fig. 89.14: Stool examination: It should be done in the

direction of arrows starting from one end
Fig. 89.13: Stool preparation

Method any suspicious structures for identification/

Wet preparations of stool specimen are prepared
as follows (Fig. 89.13):
1. Saline preparation as well as iodine preparation
of stool are made on the same glass slide.
2. A drop of physiologic saline (0.9%) is placed at
one end and a drop of iodine at the other end
the same slide.
3. A small amount (2 mg) of feces is added to each
drop and mixed well with the help of a small
wooden stick to make a uniform suspension.
4. Each preparation (saline and iodine) should
be covered with a square coverslip, taking care
that no air bubble forms.
5. The film should not be too thick. A convenient
rule of thumb is to prepare the film just thin
enough so that ordinary newsprint can easily be
read through it and should not overflow beyond
the edges of the coverslip.
6. Examination (Fig. 89.14): Examine the
preparation under low power objective lens of
microscope (10X).
i. Examine both the preparations (saline and
iodine) under low power objective (10X),
starting at one corner and following a
systematic ver­tical or horizontal pattern until
the entire preparation has been examined.
A high-power objective is used to identify
confirmation of the ova, tropho­zoites or cysts.
ii. Show your findings to the examiner under
high power objective (40X) after drawing a
labeled diagram.
Note: Student may isolate cysts or eggs of the
following parasites:
i. Eggs: Roundworm, hookworm, Enterobius
vermicularis, Trichuris trichiura, Hymenolepis
nana, Taenia species.
ii. Cysts: Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia.
Saline preparation: It is useful for detection of
helminth eggs or larvae, motile trophozoites and
refractile protozoan cysts.
Iodine preparation: Iodine stains the cysts of
amebae (e.g. Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia
lamblia) and other protozoa, revealing some details
that cannot be seen in the unstained preparation
but kills trophozoites.
Caution
1. It is easier to identify eggs of cestodes (Taenia
sp.), helminthes (roundworm, hookworm,
Enterobius vermicularis, Hymenolepsis nana)
and protozoa (cyst of Giardia lamblia, Therefore,
always prefer to search for these abnormal
findings.

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 Chapter 89: Practical Microbiology for MBBS Students  | 611
2. Cyst of Entamoeba coli is nonpathogenic and
may also be present in the stool specimen.
Never show Entamoeba coli to the examiner
because it is normally present in the feces and
is nonpathogenic and student is asked to show
abnormal findings.
3. Always report your findings under high power
objective (40X). Draw well labeled diagrams of
your observations.
Precautions
i. Before adding feces either to saline or iodine
drops, feces in container should be mixed
properly with wooden stick. Sometimes ova
or cysts may settle down in the container,
mixing ensures the uniform distribution of
these within the feces.
ii. If preparation has dried up, prepare another
slide for examination purposes.
Identification of Eggs and Cysts
A. Eggs—Bile stained: Roundworm, Trichuris
trichiura, Taenia.
B. Nonbile stained (colorless): Hookworm,
Enterobius vermicularis, Hymenolepis nana.
B
Figs 89.15A and B: (A) Fertilized egg of Ascaris lumbricoides;
(B) Unfertilized egg of Ascaris lumbricoides (Roundworm)
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Chap-89.indd 611
A. Eggs—Bile stained
1. Roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides)
Eggs are of two types; fertilized eggs and unfertilized
eggs.
The characteristics of a fertilized egg are as follows:
Fertilized egg (Fig. 89.15A)
It is round or oval in shape measuring 60–75 µm in
length and 40–50 µm in breadth.
i. It is bile stained and thus brownish in (golden
brown) color.
ii. It is surrounded by a thick, smooth translucent
shell with an outer albuminous coat in
the form of rugosities. This outer coat is
sometimes lost (decorticated egg).
iii. It contains a very large unsegmented ovum
with a clear crescentric area at each pole.
Unfertilized Egg (Fig. 89.15B)
i. It is narrower and longer measuring 80 µm in
length and 55 µm in breadth.
ii. It is bile stained (brownish in color)
iii. It has a thinner shell with an irregular coating
of albumin.
iv. It contains a small atrophied ovum with
a mass of disorganized, highly refractile
granules of various sizes.
2. Trichuris trichiura (Fig. 89.16)
i. Size about 50 µm in length by 25 µm in breadth.
ii. Color-brown (bile-stained).
iii. It has a double shell, the outer one is bile-
stained.
iv. Barrel-shaped with a mucous plug at each
pole.
v. Contains an unsegmented ovum.
Fig. 89.16: Egg of Trichuris trichiura
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 612  |  Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
Fig. 89.17: Egg of Taenia
Fig. 89.18: Egg of Ankylostoma duodenale (Hookworm)
3. Taenia sp. (Fig. 89.17)
i. Spherical and brown in color (bile-stained).
ii. 31 to 43 µm in diameter.
iii. The inner embryophore is brown in color,
thick­walled and radially striated.
iv. It contains an oncosphere (measur­ing 14–20
µm in diameter) with 3 pairs of hooklets.
B. Eggs—Nonbile Stained (colorless)
1. Hookworm (Fig. 89.18)
i. The egg is oval or elliptical in shape, measuring
65 µm in length and 40 µm in breadth.
ii. Colorless (not bile-stained).
iii. It is surrounded by a transparent hyaline shell-
membrane.
iv. It contains a segmented ovum with four
blastomeres.
v. It has a clear space between the egg shell and
the segmented ovum.
2. Enterobius vermicularis (Fig. 89.19)
i. Colorless, i.e. not bile-stained.
ii. Shape is asymmetrical, being planoconvex,
i.e. flattened on one side (the ventral side) and
convex on the other (dorsal side).
iii. Mesures: 50–60 µm in length and 30 µm in
breadth.
Chap-89.indd 612
Fig. 89.19: Egg of Enterobius vermicularis (Threadworm)
Fig. 89.20: Egg of Hymenolepsis nana
iv. Surrounded by a transparent shell.
v. Contains a coiled tadpole-like larva.
3. Hymenolepis nana (Fig. 89.20)
i. Spherical or oval in shape.
ii. Measuring 30–45 µm in diameter.
iii. It has two distinct membranes: Outer mem­
brane and inner embryophore
a. The outer membrane is thin and colorless
b. The inner embryophore encloses an
oncosphere with three pairs of lancet-
shaped hooklets.
iii. The space between the two membranes is
filled with yolk granules and polar filaments
emanating from little knobs at either end of
embryophore.
Cysts
Entamoeba histolytica (Fig. 89.21)
i. It is spherical, 10 to 15 µm in diameter and is
surrounded by a highly refractile membrane,
called the cyst wall.
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 Chapter 89: Practical Microbiology for MBBS Students  | 613
Fig. 89.21: Cyst of Entamoeba histolytica
Fig. 89.22: Cyst of Giardia lamblia
ii. It starts as a uninucleate body, but later the
nucleus divides to form two and then four
nuclei (quadri­nucleate).
iii. Uninucleate and binucleate cysts also possess
a glycogen mass, which stains brown with
iodine and 1 – 4 chromidial or chromatoid
bars and do not stain with iodine but appear
as refractile bars with rounded ends in normal
saline preparations.
Giardia lamblia (Fig. 89.22)
i. The cyst is oval in shape and measures 12 µm
long and 7 µm broad.
ii. The axostyles lie more or less diagonally,
form­ing a dividing line within the cyst­wall.
iii. It contains four nuclei. Which may remain
clustered at one end or lie in pairs at opposite
poles.
Trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica or
Giardia lamblia may also be present in the stool
specimens. However, fresh stool specimens are
required to examine trophozoites to appreciate the
motility. Trophozoites should always be examined
in normal saline preparation.
Key Points
Practical examination in microbiology for MBBS (2nd
Prof.) examination may include the exercises: 1. Spots;
2. Staining; 3. Identification of bacterial culture; 4. Stool/
feces examination
1. Spots: There is no specific pattern for the spots.
Therfore, the spots may be from bacteriology,
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Chap-89.indd 613
parasitoloy, mycology, glassware, equipments, swabs
and some miscellaneous items.
2. Staining:
Differential stains, such as the Gram stain and acid-fast
stain, differentiate bacteria according to their reactions
to the stains.
a. Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) staining or acid fast staining
The acid-fast stain is used to stain organisms, such
as mycobacteria, which do not take up stains readily;
acid-fast organisms stain pink and all other organisms
stain blue.
Procedure
i. The slide containing fixed smear is covered with carbol
fuchsin. The carbol fuchsin is left on the slide for 5–10
minutes with intermittent heating during that period.
ii. Wash in tap water.
iii. The stained smear is decolourised with 20% sulphuric
acid. The red colour of the preparation is changed
to yellow brown. When it is complete, the film, after
washing, is only very faintly pink.
iv. The smear is counterstained with methylene blue for
1–2 minutes.
v. Wash with water, blot with clean paper, dry and mount.
vi. Examine under oil immersion (100 X) objective.
Acid-fast bacilli appear red while other organisms,
tissue cells and debris are stained blue or green
according to the counterstain used.
b. Gram staining
The Gram stain procedure uses a purple stain (crystal
violet), iodine as a mordant, an alcohol decolorizer,
and a red counterstain.Gram-positive bacteria stain
purple and gram-negative bacteria stain pink.
Procedure
i. Heat-fixed smear is covered with crystal violet for one
minute.
ii. Wash the smear thoroughly with water.
iii. Cover with Gram’s iodine for one minute.
iv. Wash again with water.
v. Decolourise the smear with acetone for 10 seconds or
less (alcohol can be substituted for acetone)
vi. Wash with water .
vii. Cover the slide with dye safranin for 1 minute.
viii. Wash off the smear with water, blot and dry.
ix. Examine the stained smear under the 100X(oil)
immersion objective of the microscope.
c. Albert’s stain
Procedure
i. Make film, dry in air, and fix by heat.
ii. Cover slide with Albert’s stain((Albert’s solution A )and
allow to act for 3–5 minutes.
iii. Wash in water and blot dry.
iv. Cover slide with Albert’s iodine ((Albert’s solution B)
for 1 minutes.
v. Wash with water and blot dry. Observe under the oil-
immersion objective(X100).
The metachromatic (volutin) granules of Coryne­
bacterium diphtheriae stain bluish black, and the
bacterial protoplasm green and other organisms
mostly light green
3. Identification of Bacterial Culture
Bacterial growth on a culture plate and in a liquid
culture medium will be provided to student for
identification of bacterial culture.
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 614  |  Section 7: Diagnostic Medical Microbiology
Hanging drop preparation
Procedure:
i. A ‘hollow ground’ slide is used for hanging drop
preparation.
ii. Encircle the concavity with a line streak.
iii. Place drop of culture using the sterile wire loop on the
centre of the cover slip.
iv. Invert the cavity slide over the coverslip.
v. Then quickly turn round the slide so that the cover-slip
is uppermost.
vi. First focus the edge of a hanging drop preparation
under low power objective (10 X) of microscope.
vii. With high power objective (40 X), focus the edge of the
hanging drop and observe for the motility of bacteria.
It is essential to distinguish true motility and and
(1) Passive drifting of the organisms or (2) Brownian
movement.
4. Stool/feces examination
Stool examination is done to find out ova and cysts of

different parasites
Chap-89.indd 614
Method
i. A drop of physiologic saline is placed at one end and
a drop of iodine at the other end the same slide.
ii. A small amount of feces is added to each drop and
mixed well with the help of a small wooden stick to
make a uniform suspension.
iii. Each preparation (saline and iodine) should be covered
with a square coverslip.
iv. The film should not be too thick.
v. Examination
a. Examine both the preparations (saline and iodine)
under low power objective (IOX). A high-power object­
ive is used to identify any suspicious structures for
identification/ confirmation of the ova, trophozoites
or cysts.
b. Saline preparation—is useful for detection of
helminth eggs or larvae, motile trophozoites and
refractile protozoan cysts.
c. Iodine preparation-Iodine stains the cysts of amebae
(e.g. Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia.) and other
protozoa, revealing some details that cannot be seen
in the unstained preparation but kills trophozoites.
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Index
Page numbers followed by f and t refer to figure and table, respectively.

A Alpha (a) hemolysin 165 Forssman 89

Alzheimer’s disease 490 histocompatibility 88
ABO antigens 159 Amantadine 400 human erythrocyte 88
ABO hemolytic disease 161 Amidase tests 230 sequestrated 88
Acid fast stain 593 Aminoglycosides 568 Antigen–antibody interactions 101
Acinetobacter 358 Amphitrichous 17 primary stage 101
treatment 358 Ampicillin, for Koch-Weeks secondary stage 101
Acinetobacter baumannii 358 bacillus 320 tertiary stage 101
Acinetobacter lowffi 358 Anaerobic culture 44 Antigen–antibody reactions,
Acquired immunodeficiency Anaerobic Jar 45 general characteristics 102
syndrome 476 McIntosh and Filde’s 45f Antigen-binding site 91
Actinomyces 223 Anaerobiosis, methods of 44 Antigenicity, determinants of 87
Actinomyces israillae 542t Anaphylactic shock 143 Antigen-presenting cells 89
Acute poststreptococcal Anaphylactoid shock 145 Antiglobulin (Coombs’) test 107
glomerulonephritis/AGN 177 Anaphylaxis 143 Antioncogenes 502
pathogenesis 177 cutaneous 144 Antirabies treatment,
Acute rheumatic fever/ARF 177 in humans 143
indications for 462
Acyclovir 400 in vitro 144
Antiseptics 25
Adenosine deaminase (ADA) passive cutaneous 144
deficiency 72 Antisera 5, 573
primary mediators 144
Adenoviruses 418, 497, 500 Antistreptolysin O/ASO test 107, 178
secondary mediators 145
associated viruses 420 Antiviral compounds 400t
systemic 143
classification of 418t Arboviruses 446
Anaplasma 366
disease associated with 419t Anaplasma phagocytophilum 367 associated clinical
Adhesins 78 Andrade’s indicator 49 syndromes 448t
Adjuvant 129 Anthracoid bacilli 208 classification 446
Aedes aegypti 77, 449, 451, 452, 455 Anthrax 208 families of 447
Aerobic culture 44 cutaneous 207 properties of 446t
Aeromonas 295 intestinal 207 Arenaviruses 493
Aflatoxin 528 laboratory diagnosis of 207 Arthritis 89
African histoplasmosis 517 prophylaxis 208 Arthropod-borne diseases 76
Agar pulmonary 207 Arthus reaction 147
bile salt 40 vaccine 208 Arylsulfatase test 230
blood 39t, 39, 40f Antibacterial drugs, mechanisms of Ascoli’s thermoprecipitin test 208
chocolate 39t, 39, 40f action of 566 Aspergillosis 522, 526
deoxycholate citrate 40 Antibiotic sensitivity tests 559 Astrovirus 497
dilution method 564 Antibiotic tolerance tests 54 Ataxia telangiectasia 139
firm 39 Antibiotics 5 Atopy 145
MacConkey 41 Antibody/antibodies 90 ATP, generation of 23
media 39t formation theories 135 Attenuated anthrax vaccine 2
nutrient 39, 39f, 39t monoclonal 127, 135 Attenuation 78
semisolid 39 production of 127, 128f Autoclave 28, 28f
Agglutination properties of 90 sterilization controls 29
passive 107 structure of 90 Autograft 154, 158
reactions 106 synthesis of 125 Autoimmune diseases 152, 153t
slide 106 uses of 129 localized 152
tube 106 Antibody-dependent cell-mediated systemic 152
Albert’s stain 594, 599, 599f cytotoxicity 121 Autoimmunity 151
Alcaligenes faecalis 17, 357, 360 Antigen and antibody reactions, mechanisms of 151
Allergy 5, 142 types of 102 Autolysins 15
Allograft 154, 158 Antigen/antigens 87 Autotrophs 22
fetus 156 complete 87, 89 Azidothymidine 400

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616  |  Essentials of Microbiology
B Bacteriophages 4, 64, 65f, 79, 402
Bacillary dysentery 272
Bacilli/bacillus 12f, 12, 205
arrangement 13
general characterstics of 205
Bacillus anthracis 205, 210
antigenic structure 207
differentiating features between
B. anthracis and anthracoid
bacilli 209
morphology 205
resistance 207
Bacillus cereus 205, 209
infections 210
Bacteremia 80, 533, 535
Bacteria 11-20
aerobic 23
anaerobic 23, 221
capsulated 16
fermentative 50
genotypic characteristics of 48, 48t
gram-positive and gram-
negative 14t
methods used to identify 48t
phenotypic characteristics 48t, 48
shape of 12, 12f
transformation in 64
mechanism of genetic 64f
Bacteria capsule 15
demonstration of 16
Bacteria cell 11
anatomy of 13, 13f
cellular appendages 13, 15
chemical structure of 13
components 13
cytoplasm 17
gram-positive and gram-
negative 13
mesosomes 17
ribosomes 17
RNA 17
Bacteria cell wall
chemical structure 13, 14f
comparison of
gram-positive bacteria 13, 14t
gram-negative bacteria 13, 14t
functions 13, 14
gram-negative 14, 15f
gram-positive 14, 14f
Bacterial count 21
Bacterial cultures
identification of 601, 603
methods of isolating 46
Bacterial division 21
Bacterial flora, in water 575
Bacterial growth curve 21, 22f
Bacterial metabolism 23
Bacterial nucleus 18
Bacterial nutrition 22
Bacterial spore 18, 19f
Bacteriology of milk 577
Bacteriolysis 98, 100
lysogenic cycle 403, 404f
lytic cycle 403, 403f
morphology 402, 402f
role of 402
significance of 404
Bacteroides spp 223, 534t
Bartonella 368
Bartonella bacilliformis 368
Bartonella henselae 369
Bartonella quintana 368
Batch culture 22
B-cell 119, 121
activation 127
maturation 121
BCG vaccination 236, 245
Bence–Jones proteins 95
Benzyl penicillin 168
Beta (β) hemolysin 165
Betapropiolactone/BPL 33
Bifidobacterium 222
Biomedical waste /BMW 580
black bags 581
blue/white translucent bags 581
disposal 582
red bags 581
segregation 581
treatment of 581
yellow bags 581
BK polyomaviruses 422
Blastomyces dermatitidis 515
Blastomycosis 515, 518
Bleaching powder 32
Blood group systems 160
ABO 159
Lewis 160
MN system 160
Rh (rhesus) 160
Blood transfusion 160
complications of 160
nonimmunological
complications of 161
Blotting 71
northern 71
southern 71
western 71
Bone marrow 117, 123
Bordetella ansorpic 323
Bordetella avium 323, 326
Bordetella bronchicanis 326
Bordetella bronchiseptica 323, 326
Bordetella holmesii 323
Bordetella petrii 323
Bordetella trematum 323
Bordetella hinzii 323
Bordetella parapertussis 323, 326
Bordetella pertussis 323, 326, 541
adhesins 324
antigenic constituents 323
morphology 323
prophylaxis 325
resistance 323
treatment 325
virulence factors 323
Bordetella species, differentiatial
characterstics of 324
Borrelia 342, 347
laboratory diagnosis 344
morphology 342
Borrelia burgdorferi 342, 343
Borrelia recurrentis 342; 342
Borrelia vincenti 342
Botulinum toxin 218
Botulism 218
food-borne 218
infant 218
wound 218
Bovine spongiform
encephalopathy 489
Brazilian purpuric fever/BPF 320
Brill–Zinsser disease 363, 369
Broth dilution method 563, 564f
Broth, nutrient 38t
Brucella 327, 534
antigenic structure 327
classification of 328
differential characteristics of 328
laboratory diagnosis 329
morphology 327
pathogenesis 328
resistance 327
Brucella abortus 23, 326
Brucella bacteriophage 328
Brucella melitensis 328
Brucella suis 328
Brucella tularensis 315
Brucellin skin test 331
Brucellosis 329
blood culture in 329
course of disease 329
prophylaxis 331
treatment 331
types of infection 329
Bruton’s hypogammaglobulinemia
137
Burkholderia cepacia 304, 306
pathogenicity 304
treatment 304
Burkholderia mallei 304
Burkholderia pseudomallei 305
Burkitt’s lymphoma 414, 500
Buruli ulcer 250
Busse–Buschke disease 521
C
California encephalitis virus 454
Calymmatobacterium
granulomatis 360
Camp test 355
Campylobacter 297
Campylobacter jejuni 545
Candida 519
C. albicans 519, 520, 525
C. glabrata 519
C. guilliermondii 519
C. krusei 519
 Index  | 617
C. parapsilosis 519 Cholera toxin 291 fixation test 102, 108, 109f
C. stellatoidea 519 Christensen’s urease medium 52 indirect 109
C. tropicalis 519 Chromobacterium uses 109
C. viswanathii 519 violaceum 357, 360 inhibitor deficiencies 140
Candidiasis 519, 525 Chromoblastomycosis 512 system 96
superficial 519 Chronic granulomatous disease 140 Conjugation 65, 68
systemic 519, 520 Chronic mucocutaneous chromosomal transfer 66
treatment 521 candidiasis 520 in E.coil 66f
Candle Jar 44 Chronic wasting disease 489 plasmid and chromosomal
Capnocytophaga 360 Ciprofloxacin, for Legionella transfer 66
Capsule-swelling reaction 16 pneumophila 308 Contagious pustular dermatitis 408
Carbapenems 567 Citrate utilization test 51, 51f Continuous culture 22
Cardiobacterium hominis 360 Koser’s citrate medium 51 Cooked meat broth/CMB 42, 46
Carrier 76 Simmons’ citrate medium 51 Coombs’ test
Cellulitis, due to H. inflenzae 319 C1 esterase 99 direct 107
Central dogma of molecular Clostridial endometritis 214 indirect 107
biology 60 Clostridial myonecrosis 214 types of 107
Cephalosporins Clostridium 211 Coronaviruses 494, 495f
antibacterial spectrum 567t classification 212 severe acute respiratory
for lyme disease 344 diseases produced 212 syndrome 495
for Pneumococcus 186 general features of 211 Counter immunoelectrophoresis 105
Chlamydophila psittaci 542t Clostridium botulinum 218, 219, Cowpox 408
220, 404 Coxiella 367
Chediak-Higashi syndrome 140
treatment 219 antigenic variation 367
Chemotactic factors 145
Clostridium difficile 219, 220
eosinophil 145 Coxiella burnetii 367, 370, 542t
antibiotic associated
neutrophil 145 prophylaxis 368
diarrhea 219
Chemotherapy 5 Coxsackievirus 429
pseudomembranous colitis 219
Chicken cholera vaccine 2 antigenic characters 429
toxins 219
Chickenpox 412 clinical syndromes associated
treatment and prophylaxis 219
Chick-Martin test 34 with 431t
Clostridium perfringens 212, 214,
Chigger-borne typhus 365 features of 429, 430t
220, 545, 577
Chikungunya virus 449, 455 group a viruses 430
colitis 214
Chlamydia 371 group B viruses 430
food poisoning 214
antigenic structure 373 morphology 212 C-reactive protein/CRP 83
classification 371 prophylaxis 215 Cresols 31
C. pecorum 371 resistance 212 Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease/CJD 490
C. pneumoniae 371 soft tissue infections 213 Cryoglobulinemia 95
C. psittaci 371 toxins 213 Cryotococcus neoformans 526
differences between treatment 215 Cryptococcal meningitis 521
chlamydiae and viruses 371 Clostridium tetani 215, 220 Cryptococcosis 521, 526
growth cycle 372, 372f Cluster of differentiation 120 Culex tritaeniorhynchus 451, 455
Chlamydia and chlamydophila; Coagglutination 108f Culture media
diseases caused by 372t Coagulase 79 anaerobic media 41
Chlamydia pneumonia 375, 543 Cocci 12, 12f classification of 37, 37t
Chlamydia trachomatis 371, 373 anaerobic 221 complex media 38
biovars of 373 arrangement 12 differential media 41
genital infections 374 Coccidioides immitis 516, 518 enrichment media 37t, 39, 40
inclusion conjunctivitis 373 Coccidioidomycosis 515, 516, 518 indicator media 37t, 40
infections 377 Code 59 ingredients of 37
trachoma 373 Codon 59 liquid media 37, 37t, 38t
Chlamydophila pneumoniae 372, Cold agglutinin test 89 selective media 40
375, 377 Colicinogenic/Col factor 66 semisolid media 38
Chlamydophila psittaci 371, 375, 377 Collagenase 79 simple media 38
Chloramphenicol Collagen-vascular inflammatory solid media 38
for Neisseria meningitidis 190 diseases, complement sugar media 41
for plague 313 deficiencies in 99 transport media 41
for Pneumococcus 186 Colony-stimulating factors 132t, 132 Cystic fibrosis 72
Chlorhexidine 31 Commensals 75 Cytokines 131, 132t, 135
Chlorine 32 Complement 96 Cytolysins 79
Chloroxylenol 31 activation 96, 100 Cytolysis 100
Cholera 291 principle pathways 96 Cytolytic/cytocidal tests 109
prophylaxis 294 biological effects of 98 Cytomegalovirus 393, 413, 416, 500
treatment 293 complement deficiencies 99t, 140 Cytopathic effects 385

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618  |  Essentials of Microbiology
D Ectothrix 510 Epidermolytic toxins/exfoliative
Edward jenner 7 toxins 166
Dapsone; for leprosy 245 Ehrlichia 366 Epiglottitis, due to H. influenzae 319
Delta (δ) hemolysin 166 Ehrlichia chaffeensis 366 Epitome 87
Dengue 451 Ehrlichia ewingii 366 Epsilometer or E-test 563
clinical findings 452 Eijkman test 577 Epstein–barr virus 413, 416, 500
Dengue hemorrhagic fever 99, 452, Eikenella corrodens 359 360 associated malignancies 414
453, 455, 585 treatment 360 infectious mononucleosis 414
Dental caries 181 Electroimmunodiffusion 105 specific antibodies 415
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 58 countercurrent eletrophoresis/ Erwinia 269
structure 58 CIEP 105 Erysipelas 177
Deoxyribonulease (DNAase) counterimmuno­- Erysipelothrix 357
test 164 electrophoresis/CIE 105 Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae 356,
Dependo virus 425 one-dimensional double 105 360
Dermatophytes 509 one-dimensional single 105 human infection 357
classification 509 Electrophoresis Erythro virus 424
Diarrhea 544 Laurell’s two-dimensional 106, Erythromycin, for Pneumococcus 186
causative agents of 544t Escherichia coli 534t
106f
traveller’s 544 differentiating features of
Elisa 112f
Dienes phenomenon 268 Escherichia coli and
cassette-based
Digeorge’s syndrome 138 Klebsiella sp 608t
membrane-bound 114
Dilute carbol fuchsin 593 Ethylene oxide 33
competitive 112
Dimorphic fungi 503 Eubacterium 222
indirect 112, 113
Diphthericin 66 Eukaryotic cells 11
sandwich 112, 113
Diplococci 12 differentition from
uses of 113
Diplococcus pneumoniae 183 prokaryotes 11t
Endemic 80
Disinfectants Exaltation 78
Endemic typhus 363, 369
categories of 30 Exons 59
Endocarditis
characteristics of 30 Exotoxins 78t, 78
acute 534
low-level 30
subacute 534
skin 32
used in hospitals 34t
Endospore (spore) staining 594 F
Endospores 19
Disinfection 25, 35 Fab fragments 90
Endothrix 510
high-level 30 Farmer’s lung 147
Endotoxemia 533
methods of 25, 26t Fatal familial insomnia/FFI 490
Endotoxins 78t, 79
Disseminated histoplasmosis 517 Favus 510, 511
Entamoeba histolytica, cysts 612
DNA probes 70 FC fragment 90, 91
Donovania granulomatis 357 Enteric fever 279
functions of 92
Donovanosis 358, 548 Enterobacter spp 534
Fertility factor 66
treatment 358 Enterobius vermicularis 597,
Fever 83
Double helix 58 611,612
Filamentous fungi 503, 519
DPT vaccine 325 Enterococcus/enterococci 174,
Filamentous hemagglutinin
Drug resistance 180,181
adhesin/FHA 324
in bacteria 68 characteristics of 180
Filoviruses 494
mutational CE 68, 68t clinical infections 180
Filters 29
transferable 68, 68t differences between group d
asbestos 29
Duchenne’s muscular streptococci and earthware 29
dystrophy 72 Enterococcus spp 180 membrane 29
Dyes identification 180 sintered glass 29
acridine 33 treatment 180 Filtration 29
aniline 32 Enterococcus avium 180 Fimbria 17
Dysentery 546 Enterococcus casseliflavus 180 Fixed virus 458, 460, 464
microorganisms causing 546t Enterococcus durans 180 Flagella 16
Enterococcus faecalis 174, 180 demonstration of 17
Enterococcus gallinarum 180 Flagellin 16
E Enterococcus raffinosus 180 Flagellum 16f
Eastern equine encephalitis/EEE Enterotoxins, of Staphylococcus Flavobacterium meningosepticum
448t, 455 aureus 166 357, 360
Ebola virus 494 Enteroviruses 394, 398, 426 Flocculation 102
Sudan strain 494 Enzyme immunoassay/EIA 338, 339 Flocculation tests, types of 103
Zaire strain 494 Enzymes 79 Fluctuation test 63, 63f
Echoviruses 430 Epidemic 80 Fluorescent treponemal antibody/
clinical features 430 Epidemic typhus 363 FTA test 339

Fluorochrome staining 594
Food poisoning 547
Foot-and-mouth disease of cattle 4
Formaldehyde 33
Formalin 33
Fort bragg fever 345t
F-prime 66
Fragment-crystallizable See FC
Frambesia 341
Francisella tularensis 315
morphology 315
prophylaxis 315
Frei’s test 375, 377
French neurotropic vaccine 451
Fungal keratitis 525, 526
Fungi 503
classification of 503, 503fc
general properties of 503
identification of 506
Fusidic acid 568
Fusobacterium 223
G antigenic structure 318
Gamma (γ) hemolysin 165
Gardnerella vaginalis 360
Gas gangrene 214
Gaspak 45
Gastroenteritis 544
due to Salmonella infection 280
Gastrointestinal tract 82
Gene expression 59
Gene therapy 72
applications 72
Genetic engineering 68
basic tools of 69
procedure 69, 69f
Genetics 58
Genital chlamydiasis 374
Genitourinary tract, role in
immunity 82
Genome 58, 59
Genomics 58
Gentamicin, for plague 313
German measles 492
Gerstmann–Straussler–Scheinker/
GSS disease 490
Giardia lamblia 613
Glomerulonephritis 177
distinguishing features
of rheumatic fever and
glomerulonephritis 177t
Glomerulonephritis, due to Str.
pyogene 176
Glucose nonfermenters 305
characteristics of 306t
Glutaraldehyde 33
Glycopeptides 567
Gonorrhea 192
prophylaxis 193
treatment 193
Index  | 619
Grafts 154 Hepatitis A virus 465, 474
Graft-versus-host reaction 156 antigenic structure 468
Gram stain 48, 593 immunization 467
Gram staining 599, 601f prophylaxis 467
interpretation of 600 treatment 467
mechanism 600 Hepatitis B carriers 469
Gram-negative bacteria 601 Hepatitis B virus 467, 474
active immunization 471
Gram-positive bacteria 601
acute infection 469
Granuloma inguinale 358
avihepadnavirus 467
Granulomatosis infantiseptica 356
chronic infection 469
Griffith typing 173
hepatocellular carcinoma 500
Gut-associated lymphoid tissue 119 interpretation of serological
markers 470t
H markers 470
orthohepadnavirus 467
H antigen 159, 302
passive immunization 471
Hacek group bacteria 321
prophylaxis 471
Haemophilus aphrophilus 317 structure 467
Haemophilus ducreyi 317, 320, 322 subtypes 468
Haemophilus haemolyticus 321, 322 treatment 471
Haemophilus influenzae 317, 318t, Hepatitis c virus 471, 474
322, 534 clinical features 472
prophylaxis 472
characters of six biotypes of 318t treatment 472
cultural characteristics 317 Hepatitis D virus/HDV 472, 474
growth characteristics of 317 Hepatitis E virus/HEV 473, 474
invasive infections 319 clinical features 473
laboratory diagnosis 319 prophylaxis 473
morphology 317 Hepatitis G virus 474
noninvasive disease 319 Hepatitis viruses, comparative
prophylaxis 320 features of 466t
resistance 318 Herpangina 430, 431t
treatment 320 Herpes genitalis 548
Haemophilus parainfluenzae 321 Herpes gladiatorum 410
Halberstaedter-Prowazek/HP Herpes simplex virus 393, 409
bodies 373 association with cervical
Halophilic vibrios 294 cancer 500
Hand-foot-and-mouth clinical features 410
disease 430, 431t encephalitis 410
Hansen’s disease 228, 242 See also sporadic encephalitis 410
leprosy treatment 411
Herpes virus 409, 411, 500
Hantavirus 454
classification of 410
Haptens 87, 89
structure 409
complex 87
typical structure of 409f
simple 87
Herpes zoster 412
HbcAg 470
Herpis febrilis 410
HbeAg 470
Heterotrophs 22
HbsAg 470, 474 Hexachlorophane 31
Heavy chain disease 95 Hib PRP vaccine 320
Hemolysins 175 Histamine 144
Hemolytic disease of newborn 146, Histocompatibility antigens 155
160, 162 Histocompatibility complex 122
Hemophilia 72 Histoplasma capsulatum 516, 518
Hemorrhagic fever with renal Histoplasmin skin test 517
syndrome 454, 455 Histoplasmosis 515, 516, 518
Hemorrhagic viral fevers 497 HIV infection
Hendra viruses 444 clinical features of 480
Henipavirus 440 confirmatory tests 482
Hepadnaviruses 382 infections and malignancies
Heparin 144 associated 481t
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620  |  Essentials of Microbiology
postexposure prophylaxis 485 Immune response 125 Immunodiffusion 103
prophylaxis 485 cell-mediated 130 Immunodiffusion tests, types of 104
treatment 485 deficiencies of humoral and Immunoelectron microscopic
screening tests 482 cellular 141 tests 102
serological markers 481 primary 131 Immunoelectrophoresis 104
HIV virus 393, 476 secondary 131 Immunoenzyme test 115
major antigens of 477t type of 117, 125 Immunofluorescence 110
resistance 478 Immunity 4, 5, 81, 125 direct 111, 111f
routes of transmission 479, 479t acquired 81, 83, 86 indirect 111, 111f
HIV-1 476, 486 active 83, 84, 84t Immunoglobulin A/IgA 92
HIV-2 476, 486 artificial 84, 86 Immunoglobulin classes 92, 92t
HLA complex 122 natural 84, 86 Immunoglobulin D/IgD 94
HLA molecules 123 adoptive 85 Immunoglobulin deficiencies,
HLA typing 123 antibody-mediated 125 selective 138
Hookworm 544t, 597t, 610, 611, 613 cell-mediated 117, 125, 135 Immunoglobulin domain 92
Hortaea werneckii 509f humoral 125 Immunoglobulin E/IgE 94
Hospital-acquired infection 555 primary (central) organs 117 Immunoglobulin G/IgG 92
factors influencing 555 secondary (peripheral) Immunoglobulin M/IgM 94, 94f
Hot air oven 26, 26f, 27 organs 117 Immunoglobulin preparations 85
sterilization controls 27 cell-mediated 137 Immunoglobulin/Ig 90, 91
Human herpesvirus 6 415 cellular concept of 5 abnormal 94
Human herpesvirus 7 415 HERD 86 H-chains 91
Human herpesvirus 8 416 humoral or antibody- human 85
mediated 117 human serum 93t
Human T cell lymphotropic
individual 81
virus-III/HTLV-III 476 L-chains 91
innate 86
Human T-cell leukemia nonhuman 85
cellular factors in 83
(lymphotropic) Immunological response 395
mechanisms of 82
viruses/HTLV 501 Immunological tolerance 134; 135
local 86
Human virus infection, acquired tolerance 134
mechanical barriers 82
transmission of 393 natural tolerance 134
natural 81, 86
Humoral response Immunosuppressive agents 130
nonspecific 81
primary 126 Immunotherapy
passive 84t, 85
secondary 126 active 157
passive artificial 85
Hyaluronidase 79, 176 of cancer 157
passive natural 85
Hybridization 70, 589 racial 81 passive 158
Hydrogen peroxide 32 species 81 Impetigo 177
Hymenolepis nana 613 specific 81 Inactivated polio vaccine/IPV 428
Hyperimmune hepatitis B immune Immunization 4, 572 Inactivators 99
globulin/HBIG 471 active 572 Incineration 26
Hypersensitivity 142 combined 85 Incomplete immunogen 87
cell-mediated 143 influenza 86 Indole test 50f
classification of 142 National Immunization Kovac’s reagent 50
delayed 142, 148 Schedule 572, 573t Indonesian Weil’s disease 345t
granulomatous 149 passive 572 Infant death syndrome 444
immediate 142 indications of 85 Infections 75
type I 143, 146 Immunochromatographic tests atypical 76
type II 146 102, 114 cross 76
type III 147 Immunodeficiencies 137; 138 iatrogenic 76
type IV 148 cellular 138 inapparent 76
type V 149 combined 139 latent 76
Hypochlorites 32 common variable local 76
immunodeficiency 138 modes of transmission of 77
I humoral 137 nosocomial 76
primary 137, 141 primary 75
IgA, functions of 93 secondary 140, 141 route of 80
IgA, secretory 93 severe combined secondary 76
IgA, serum 93 immunodeficiency/SCID 139 subclinical 76
IgG, functions of 92 with thymoma 139 Infectious disease 75
Ilheus virus 450 Immunodeficiency diseases 137 types of 80
Immune complex disease classification of 137 Infective endocarditis 533, 535
local 147 Immunodeficiency syndromes, treatment 535
systemic 147 primary 138 Inflammation 83

Influenza
chemoprophylaxis 438
complications 436
diagnosis of; immunity
against 437
pandemic 586
vaccines 438
uncomplicated 436
Inhibitors 99
Inspissation 27
Interferons 132t, 133, 395
biological effects of 396
synthesis of 395
types of 395
Interleukins 131, 132t
Intestinal candidosis 520
Introns 59
Iodophors 32
Isoantigens 88
Isograft 154, 158
Isolation, virus 398
Isospecificities 88
J forms of 241
Japanese ‘B’ encephalitis 450
Japanese encephalitis 446t, 448t,
449, 450
Jarisch–Herxheimer reaction 341
JC virus 422,490, 500t
Job’s syndrome 140
Joseph Lister 3
K Leptospiral infections 345
Kaposi’s sarcoma 476
Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated
herpesvirus 500
Kawasaki syndrome 89
Kelsey-Sykes test 34
Keratomycosis 525, 526
Kerion 511
Killed viral vaccines 399
Kingella 195
Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion
method 559, 560, 561f
interpretation chart 562t
Kissing disease 414, 416
Klebsiella granulomatis 357
Klebsiella pneumoniae 534, 542t
Koch and Arnold steamer 27
Koch’s phenomenon 3, 235
Koch’s postulates 3
Koch-Weeks bacillus 320
treatment 320
Kuru 489
Kyasanur forest disease 453
L Listeria seeligeri 355
LA crosse virus 454
Lac operon 61
of Escherichia coli 60f
Index  | 621
Lachrymal fluid, role in Listeriosis 355
immunity 83 clinical features 356
Lactobacillus 222 Live-virus vaccines 399
Lactoperoxidase 83 advantages of 399
Lactose fermenter 607 disadvantages 399
Lamivudine 485 Loeffler’s methylene blue 593
Lassa fever 493 Lopinavir 485
Latex agglutination test 107 Louis Pasteur 2, 7
Lawn culture 43 contributions in microbiology 2
Lazy leukocyte syndrome 140 Louse-borne typhus 363
LDL-receptor deficiency 72 Lowenstein-Jensen medium 40, 40f
Lecithinase-C 79 Lyme disease 343
Lectin pathway 96, 100 stages of 343
Legionella pneumophila 307 treatment 344
clinical diseases 308 Lymphadenitis 250
morphology 307 Lymphatic recirculation 119
treatment 308 Lymphocytes 119
Legionnaire’s disease 308 Lymphocytic choriomeningitis
Lens protein 88, 152 virus 493
Lepromin test 243, 246 Lymphogranuloma venereum 374,
Leprosy 241 548
borderline 242 clinical manifestations 374
classification system of Ridley Lymphoid cells 119
and Jopling 241
Lymphokine-activated killer/LAK
cells 121
immunoprophylaxis 245
Lysogenic conversion 65
indeterminate type 242
Lysozyme 15
lepromatous 242
Lyssavirus sera 463t
prophylaxis 245
tuberculoid (TT) 242
Leptospira 344, 347 M
antigenic properties 345
MacConkey’s agar 606
classification 344
Macrolides 568
resistance 344
Macrophages 83, 121
functions of 122
Leptospirosis 345
polymorphonuclear 122
treatment 346
Maedi 489
Leptotrichia 223
Magic bullet 5
Leptotrichia buccalis 541
Major histocompatibility
Leukemia 4
complex 88
Leukemia inhibitory factor 133
Leukocidin 166 Malignancy
Leukocyte G-6-PD deficiency 140 immune response in 157
Leukocyte-associated antigen 88 immunology of 156
Leukosis-sarcoma viruses 501 Mallein test 305
Leukotrienes 145 MALT See mucosa-associated
LFNS See interferons 132t lymphoid tissue
LGV biovar 373 Marburg virus 494
LIF See leukemia inhibitory Marek’s disease 500
factor McCrady probability table 577t
Ligase chain reaction/LCR 589 Measles 443
Lincosamides 568 clinical features 443
Liquid culture 44 complications 443
Listeria ivanovii 355 morphology; prophylaxis 444
Listeria monocytogenes 355, Membrane attack complex 98
360, 534 Meningitis 535
laboratory diagnosis 357 aseptic 537
morphology 355 causative agent 536t, 537t
treatment 356 CSF findings in 537
due to H. influenzae 319
Listeria, distinguishing examination of CSF 536
characters of 356t purulent 535, 538
Listeriolysin-O 356 tuberculous 538
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622  |  Essentials of Microbiology
Meningococcal septicemia 189 Morbillivirus 440, 441t Nasopharyngeal carcinoma 414
Mercuric chloride 32 Morganella 269 Negative staining for capsules 594
Messenger RNA 59 Morganella morganii 269 Neisser’s stain 594
Metapneumovirus 445 Mouth or oral cavity, role in Neisseria 188
Methyl red/MR test 50, 50f immunity 82 commensal 194, 195
Metronidazole; for Clostridium Mucormycoses 523 differential characteristics of 194r
difficle 219 clinical manifestations 523 Neisseria gonorrhoeae 191, 195
Microbial growth, requirements rhinocerebral 523 cultural characterstics 191
for 22 thoracic 523 morphology 191
Microbiology 2 treatment 524 opa protein 191
contributions of Louis Mucosa-associated lymphoid pili 191
Pasteur in 2 tissue 119 por proteins 191
scientific development of 2 Multiple myeloma 95 proctitis 192
Micrococci 170 Multiresistant salmonellae 285 resistance 192
Microorganisms 2 Mumps 441t, 442 rmp 191
role in diseases 2 Murray valley encephalitis types of 191
Microphages 122 virus 450 Neisseria meningitidis 188, 195, 534
Microscope 8 Mutagens 62 cultural characteristics 188
electron 10 Mutation 62 laboratory diagnosis 189
scanning 10 conditional 62 prophylaxis 190
transmission 10 frameshift 61f, 62 resistance 189
Microscopy 8 induced 62 stages of infections 189
lethal 62 treatment 190
atomic force 10
missense 62 Neorickettsia 366
compound light 8
nonsense 62 Neorickettsia sennestu 367
confocal 9
recognition of 62 Neosalvarsan 4, 5
darkground 9
spontaneous 62 Neutralization tests 110
differential interference
types of 62 toxin neutralization 110
contrast 9
Mycetism 512, 528 viral neutralization 110
electron 9, 10, 397
causative agents 512 Nichol’s strain 338
epifluorescence 9
Mycobacteria 227 Nicotinamide adenine
fluorescence 9, 397
classification of 227t dinucleotidase 176
immunoelectron 397
Mycobacteriophages 230 Nipah virus 440, 444
light 8, 397 Mycobacterium gordonae 248 Nitrate reduction test 51, 52f
phase-contrast 9 Mycobacterium leprae 240, 246 Nitrofurans 567
scanned-probe 10 morphology 240 Nitroimidazoles 567
scanning tunneling 10 Mycobacterium lepraemurium 245 NK-cells 121, 123
scanning-probe 10 Mycobacterium marinum 248 Nonsporing anaerobes
Microsporum 510 Mycobacterium szulgai 248 classification of 221t
M. audouinii 510 Mycobacterium tuberculosis 70, Nongonococcal urethritis 193, 195
M. canis 510 228, 238 Nonlactose fermenter/NLF
M. gypseum 510 cell wall of 230f colonies 607
Mild virus-like syndrome 345 cultural characteristics 228 Nonphotochromogens 248
Milk ring test 331 distinguishing features of Nonsporing anaerobes 221
Milk mycobacterium tuberculosis Nontuberculous mycobacteria 247
bacteriological and M Bovis 229t differentiating characterstics
examination of 578 multidrug resistant 237 of M. tuberculosis and
pasteurization of 27 Mycoplasma 12, 12f nontuberculous
Milk-borne diseases 578, 578t pneumoniae 542, 542t, 543 mycobacteria 247
Milker’s node 408 Mycoses 506 Runyon classification
Minimum infecting dose 80 classification of 506 scheme 248
Minimum inhibitory cutaneous 509 treatment 251
concentration/MIC 34 subcutaneous 511 Normal flora 530
Minimum lethal dose 80 superficial 508 harmful effects of 530
Mitogens 130 Mycotoxicosis 528 of conjunctiva 531
MMR vaccine 84, 444, 445, 493, 571 Mycotoxins 528t of gastrointestinal tract 531
Mobiluncus 222 Myeloperoxidase/MPO of genitourinary tract 532
Molluscipoxvirus 406t deficiency 140 of nose, nasopharynx and
Molluscum contagiosum 408 accessory sinuses 531
Monkeypox 408 of upper respiratory tract 531
N
Monocytosis 355 role of 530
Mononuclear cells 121 Nagler’s reaction 220, 213f Novobiocin 568
Moraxella lacunata 195 Nairovirus 389, 453, 454 Nucleic acid probes 70

Nucleic acid sequence based Paul Ehrlich 3, 6t, 7
amplification/NASBA 589 Paul-Bunnel test 89, 107, 416
Nucleic acid structure 58 PCR, applications of 71, 73t
Nucleotides 58 Penicillin
Null cells 121 for Clostridium perfringens 215
Nutrient agar 38 for lyme disease 344
Nutrient broth 38 for Pneumococcus 186
for syphilis 341
mechanisms of action 566
O neisseria meningitidis 190
Oncogenic viruses 499, 500t, 502 Penicilliosis 524
DNA viruses 499 Peplomers 380
RNA viruses 500 Pepsin digestion 90
Onychomycosis 520 Peptococcus 221
Onyong-nyong virus 449 Peptone water 38
Ophthalmic neonatorum 192 Peptostreptococcus 222
Opportunist mycobacterial Pertussis toxin/PT 324, 326
disease 249t Pertussis vaccine, acellular 325
Opportunistic fungi 519 Pfeiffer phenomenon 96
Opsonization 99, 102, 100, 110 Phaeohyphomycosis 513
Oral hairy leukoplakia 414 Phagocyte, disorders of 140
Oral polio vaccine/OPV 428 Phagocytic cells 121
differences between killed/IPV Phagocytosis 83
and live polio Phenylalanine deaminase test 53
vaccines/OPV 429 Phlebovirus 389, 446t, 453, 454
Orbivirus 498 Phosphorylation 23
Orthomyxovirus 434 oxidative 23
differences between substrate-level 23
orthomyxovirus and Photochromogens 248
paramyxovirus 434t Picornaviridae 389, 426, 432
properties of434 classification 426
Orthopoxvirus 406t properties of 426t
Orthoreovirus 454, 496 Piedra 509
Oseltamivir, for influenza 438 Piedraia hortae 508, 509
Otomycosis 525, 526 Pigeon fancier’s disease 147
Oxidase test 52 Pili 17
Pinta 334, 341
Pityriasis versicolor 508
P morphology of 508f
Pandemic 80 Plague 311, 315
Papillomatosis bubonic 311
oral 421 chemoprophylaxis 313
recurrent respiratory 421 laboratory diagnosis 312
Papillomaviruses 421 pathogenesis 311
Papovaviruses 499 pneumonic 311
Paracoccidioides brasiliensis 516 prophylaxis 312
Paracoccidioidomycosis 515 septicemic 311
Parainfluenza viruses 441 treatment 313
Paramyxoviruses 440 vaccine 313
morphology 440 Plasma cells 121
Parapoxvirus 406t Plasmid transfer 65
Parasites 75 Plasmids 18, 60, 79
Paratyphoid bacilli 275 conjugative 60, 67
Paratyphoid fever 279 nonconjugative 60
Parvovirus 424, 587t Platelet-activating factor 145
Pasteurella multocida 314, 315 Pleomorphism 19
morphology 314 Plesiomonas 295
Pasteurization 2 Pneumococcus 183
Pathogens bacteremia 185
opportunist 75 biochemical reactions 184
primary 75 bronchopneumonia 185
types of 75 cultural characteristics 183
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Index  | 623
differential characters of
pneumococci and viridans
streptococci 186t
laboratory diagnosis 185
meningitis 185
pathogenesis 185
pneumonia 185
prophylaxis 186
resistance 184
treatment 186
virulence factors 185
Pneumocystis carinii
pneumonia 476
Pneumocystis jiroveci 519, 524, 526
life cycle of 525f
Pneumonia 542
community-acquired 543
due to H influenzae 319
hospital-acquired 542
in immunocompromized
patients 543
Pneumonia syndrome
atypical 543
typical 543
Pneumovirus 440, 444
Poliomyelitis
abortive 427
global eradication 429
nonparalytic 427
paralytic 427
progressive
postpoliomyelitis 427
Poliovirus 427, 432
antigenic properties 427
clinical features 427
resistance 427
Polychrome methylene blue 593
Polymerase chain reaction 71, 72f,
589
Polyomaviruses 388, 421, 422
Ponder’s stain 594
Pontiac fever 308
Porphyromonas 223
Potassium cyanide test 53
Pour-plate culture 44
Poxvirus 382, 406, 500
antigenic structure 407
morphology 406
Prausnitz–Kustner/PK reaction 146
Precipitation 102
mechanism of 103
reaction 103
types of 103
Primary sensitivity tests 563
Primary tuberculosis 231
Prion diseases 489
Prions 35, 390
Progressive multifocal
leukoencephalopathy/
PML 490
Prokaryotes 11
differentiation from eukaryotic 11t
624  |  Essentials of Microbiology
Properdin pathway 96
Propionibacterium 222
Prostaglandin 145
Proteases 145
Proteinase 176
Proteus bacilli 267
Proteus sp 267, 534t, 606
Providencia 269
Prozone phenomenon 330
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 301, 306
antigenic characteristics 302
pathogenesis 303
pigment production 302
resistance 303
treatment 303
Psoriasis 89
Psychotropic agents 529
Pugh’s stain 594
Purines 58
Pyemia 80, 533, 535
Pyocin 66
Pyocyanin 302
Pyomelanin 302
Pyorubrin 302
Pyoverdin 302
Pyrimidines 58
Pyrogallic acid 45
Q
Q fever 367
Quaternary ammonium
compounds/QUATS 31
Quellung-Ger swelling 16
R prevention of 161
R plasmids 67, 79, 570
Rabies 4, 459
clinical features 459
postexposure prophylaxis 460,
462, 463
preexposure prophylaxis 460,
462, 463
vaccines 3, 461
Rabies virus 457, 459f
antigenic properties 458
resistance 458
Radiations 29
ionizing 30
non-ionizing 29
Radioimmunoassay 111
Rapid plasma reagin/RPR
tests 337, 338
Rat-bite fever 358
Reagents 600
Redox potential 24
Reiter protein complement
fixation/RPCF test 338
Reiter’s syndrome 374
Relapsing fever 342
endemic
or louse-borne 342
or tick-borne 342
Reoviridae 496 Rose-Waaler test 107
classification 496 Ross river virus 449
Reovirus 498 Rotavirus 496, 498
Replica plating 63 Rotavirus diarrhea 496
Resistance factors/R factors 67 treatment 497
characteristics of 67 Rubella 492
features of 67 clinical features 492
Resistance transfer factor /RTF 67 prophylaxis 493
Resolution 8 Rubella vaccines 493
Respiration Rubella virus 449, 492, 497
aerobic 23 Rubivirus 492
anaerobic 23
Respiratory syncytial virus 440, S
441, 444
clinical features 444 S. delphini 169
treatment 445 S. dysenteriae 271
Respirovirus 440, 441t S. epidermidis 163
Retroviruses 476 clinical infection 169
genes 477, 478t S. haemolyticus 169
structure 476 S. hyicus 169
Retroviruses 477t, 501 S. intermedius 168
Reye’s syndrome 436 S. lutrae 169
Rh (rhesus) blood group S. saprophyticus 163
system 160 S. sonnei 271
Rh antigens 162 Salmonella 274, 285
Rh compatibility 160 antigenic structure of 275, 275f
Rh factor 160 morphology 274
Rhabdoviridae 455 syndromes due to 279
Rhabdoviruses 457 Salmonella gastroenteritis 285
Rheumatic fever 89 Salmonella septicemia 285
due to STR Pyogene 176 Salmonella Typhi 534t
Rhinosporidiosis 513 Salvarsan 4, 5
Rhinoviruses 432 Saprophytes 75
clinical syndromes 432 Saprophytic mycobacteria 249
Rh-isoimmunization 161 Sarcoma, in fowls 4
SARS See Severe acute
Ribavirin 496 respiratory syndrome
Ribonucleic acid 58 Satellitism 318, 318f, 322
structure 59 Scarlet fever 176
Ribosomes 59 Schultz-Dale phenomenon 144
Rickettsia 362 Schwartzman reaction 149
antigenic structure 363 Scotochromogens 248
morphology 362 Scrapie 489
resistance 363 Semliki forest virus 449
Rickettsia akari 365, 369 Sensitivity 102
Rickettsia conorii 365, 369 Septic shock syndrome 149
Rickettsia mooseri 369 Septicemia 80, 533
Rickettsia prowazekii 369 Serotherapy 5
Rickettsia rickettsii 369 Serotonin 144
Rickettsia typhi 363 Serum opacity factor 176
differences between R. typhi Serum sickness 147
(R. mooseri) and Severe acute respiratory
R. prowazekii 364 syndrome 495, 497, 498
Rickettsial diseases 365 Severe combined
treatment 366 immunodeficiency disease/
Rickettsial pox 365 SCID 72
Rideal-Walker test 34 Sexduction 66
Rifamycins 567 Sexually transmitted diseases/
Rimantadine 400 STDs 547
Ring test 103 organisms causing 548t
Ritonavir 485 Shanghai fever 303
Robert Koch 3, 5t, 7 Shigella 270
Rocky mountain spotted cultural characteristics 270
fever 364, 365 laboratory diagnosis 272

Shigella boydii 271
Shigella flexneri 271
Shock organs 143
Shwachman’s disease 140
Silver nitrate 32
Sindbis virus 449
Skin, role in immunity 82
Slide test 103
Slides 592
Slot-blot and dot-blot assays 114
Slow virus disease 488, 490
classification 488
Smallpox 406
control of 407
Sore mouth 408
Sore throat 541
causative agents of 541t
South American hemorrhagic
fevers 493
Specificity 102
antigenic 88
autospecificity 88
heterogenetic 88
organ 88
species 88
Spirilla 12, 12f
Spirillum minus 359
morphology 359
treatment 359
Spirochetes 12, 12f, 333
classification 333
diseases caused by 334
Spleen 119
functions of 119
Spontaneous generation 1
Sporotrichosis 513
Spotted fever group 364
Stab culture 44
Stain
differential 593
special 594
types of 592, 593
Staphylococcal diseases 167
cutaneous infections 167
deep infections 167
toxin-mediated diseases 167
Staphylococcus 163, 605
bacteriophage typing 167
differentiation between
staphylococci and
micrococci 170
epidemiology 167
Staphylococcus aureus 163, 170, 535
biochemical reactions 164
cell surface proteins 165
cell-associated polymers 165
cultural characteristics 164
enzymes 165
methicillin-resistant 170
morphology 163, 163f
resistance 165
sensitivity to antibiotics 169
toxins 165
Index  | 625
Staphylococcus aureus 534t Stroke culture 44
Staphylococcus epidermidis 169 Subacute endocarditis 181
Staphylococcus saprophyticus 169 causative agents of 534t
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia 304 Subacute sclerosing
Sterilization 25, 35 panencephalitis/SSPE 393, 490
dry heat 26, 26f Subcutaneous phycomycosis 514
intermittent 28 Sugar fermentation 49, 49f
low temperature steam Sulfonamides, mechanism of
formaldehyde/LTSF 27 action of 568
methods of 25, 26t Superantigens 89, 130
moist heat 27 Superinfection immunity 404
procedures of 34t Suppurative streptococcal disease 176
Sterilizing cycle 26 Surface-active agents 31
Stokes disk diffusion Swimming pool granuloma 250
method 559, 561 Swineherd’s disease 345t
Streak culture 43, 43f Syphilis 334, 335, 547
Street virus 458 acquired nonvenereally 336
Streptobacillus moniliformis 358 associated with human
morphology 358 immunodeficiency virus/
treatment 359 HIV infections 340
Streptococcal gangrene 177 congenital 336
Streptococcal toxic shock diagnosis 109
syndrome 177 diagnostic tests for 337t
Streptococci 172, 174 endemic 334
immunity in 340
Alpha (α) hemolytic 173
latent 335
beta (β) hemolytic 173
classification 172 primary 335
gamma (γ) or prophylaxis in 340
non-hemolytic 173 secondary 335
group B 179 tertiary 336
group C 179 treatment 341
group D 180 venereal 334
group G 179
Streptococcus agalactiae 174, 179, 181 T
Streptococcus bovis 174
Streptococcus equisimilis 174 Taenia sp. 612
Streptococcus mitis 174 Taxonomy 56
Streptococcus mutans 174 T-cell activation 127
Streptococcus pneumoniae 183, T-cells 119, 120
534t, 535 basis of functions 120
Streptococcus pyogenes 173, 174t, basis of surface markers 120
181, 534t, 605 blast transformation 119
acute suppurative infections 178 cytotoxic 120
antigenic structure 174, 175f delayed type-
cultural characteristics 173 hypersensitivity 120
enzymes 176 differentiation from B-cells 119
laboratory diagnosis 178 regulatory 120
morphology 173 suppressor 120
non-suppurative types of 120
complications 178 TEGO compounds 31
nonsuppurative sequelae 177 Tetanolysin 216
pathogenesis 176 Tetanospasmin 216
prophylaxis 179 Tetanus 216
pyrogenic exotoxins 175 laboratory diagnosis 216
resistance 174 prophylaxis 217
toxins 175 treatment 217
treatment 179 Tetanus toxin 216, 220
Streptococcus salivarious 174 Tetracycline, for plague 313
Streptokinase 79, 176 TGF See tumor necrosis factors
Streptolysin O 175 Th1 cells 120
Streptolysin S /SLS 175 Th2 120
Streptomycin, for plague 313 Thioglycollate broth 41, 46
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626  |  Essentials of Microbiology
Thymus 117 Treponema pallidum immune Vancomycin
Tick typhus 364 adherence/TPIA test 339 for Clostridium difficle 219
Tick-borne encephalitis viruses/ Treponema pallidum particle for Pneumococcus 186
TBEV 452 agglutination/TP-PA 340 Varicella 412
Tick-borne hemorrhagic fevers 453 Treponema vincentii 541 Varicella-zoster
Tinea barbae 511 Treponemal tests 338, 347 immunoglobulin 413
Trichophyton 509 Varicella-zoster virus 393, 411, 416
Tinea corporis 511
Trichosporon beigelii 508 properties of 412
Tinea cruris 511
Trichuris trichiura 597t, 610, 611 prophylaxis and treatment 413
Tinea nigra 508 Triple-sugar iron/TSI agar 53, 54t Vectors 76, 77, 584
Tinea pedis 511 Tsutsugamushi disease 365 Vectors-borne diseases 584
Tinea unguium 511 Tube flocculation test 103 Vehicles 584
Tissue culture 384, 390 Tuberculin test 235, 238 Veillonella 222
Tobacco mosaic disease 4 Tuberculosis 231 Veneral disease research
Togaviruses 382, 447, 453, 492 extrapulmonary 234 laboratory/VDRL test 337
Toluidine red unheated serum test/ postprimary (secondary) 231 Venezuelan equine encephalitis/
TRUST 338 pulmonary 231 VEE 446t, 449, 455
Torch agents 77 Tuberculosis complex 227 Vertical transmission 77
Toxic shock syndrome toxin-I/ Tumor antigens 156 Vesicoureteral reflux 539
TSTT-1 166 oncofetal 156 Vibrio cholerae 287, 290, 544
Tumor associated carbohydrate morphology 287
Toxoids 79
antigens 156 pathogenesis 291
Trachoma 373
Tumor necrosis factors 132t, 133 resistance 288
Trachoma biovar 373, 377
Tumor-associated transplantation subtypes of 290
Transcobalamin II deficiency 138 antigens/TATAs 156 Vibrio parahaemolyticus 294, 544
Transcription 59 Tyndallization 28. 35 Vibrio vulnificus 295
Transcription mediated Typhoid fever 279 Vibrios 12, 12f
amplification/TMA 589, 590 laboratory diagnosis of 280 Vincent’s angina 343
Transduction 64, 68 prophylaxis 283 Viral assay 386
generalized 65 vaccines against 283 Viral capsid 379
role of 65 Typhus fever 369 Viral diseases
specialized 65 immunoprophylaxis of 399
types of 65 U pathogenesis of 393
Transfer factor 133, 135 Viral envelope 379
Ulcerative gingivostomatitis 343 Viral genetics 387
Transfer RNA/TRNA 60
Urease test 52, 52f Viral hemagglutination 381
Transformation 68
Urinary tract infection 538 Viral hemorrhagic fevers 493
Transforming growth factor causes of 539t Viral hepatitis 465
beta 132t, 133 clinical features 539 Viral infections
Transient differentiation of upper UTI and indications for 397
hypogammaglobulinemia of lower UTI 540 laboratory diagnosis of 397
infancy 137 lower 538 Viral nucleic acids 380
Transmissible spongiform tuberculosis of kidney and Viral oncogenes 502
encephalopathies 489 urinary tract 540 Viral oncogenesis 4
Transplantation 5, 158 upper 538 Viral proteins, detection of 398
Transplants 154 Viral replication 381
types of 154 V Viral vaccines, in common use 399t
Transposons 68 Viridans streptococci 180
structure of 68, 69f V factor 318 classification 181
Treponema 334 334 Vaccines 2, 84, 571 clinical infections 181
attenuated anthrax 2 Viroids 390
nonpathogenic 341
bacterial 84 Virulence 78
Treponema carateum 334
cellular fractions 571 determinants of 78
Treponema endemicum 334
chicken cholera 2 Virus diseases
Treponema pallidum 9, 334 killed 84, 85, 571 chemoprophylaxis and
agglutination/TPA test 338, 339 live 4, 84, 571 chemotherapy of 400
antigenic structure 335 mixed or combined 572 Virus infections 395
hemagglutination/TPHA multiple 129 antibody-mediated
107, 338, 339 recombinant-vector 572 immunity 395
immobilisation/TPI test 338 subunit 84 cell-mediated immunity 395
morphology 334 toxoids 571 immunological response 395
pathogenesis 335 viral 84 nonimmunological
resistance 335 Vaccinia virus 407 responses 395

Virus neutralization 98
Virus symmetry 379
complex symmetry 379
helical symmetry 379
icosahedral symmetry 379
Viruses 4, 390, 378
baltimore classification of 382
cultivation of 383
direct detection of 397
discovery of 4
DNA, double stranded 382
double stranded 382
incubation period of 394
morphology of 378
properties of 378
RNA 389, 389f
single stranded 382
Visna 488
Vitronectin 99
Voges-Proskauer/VP test 50, 51f
W Xenograft 154, 158
Waldenstrom’s
macroglobulinemia 95
Warts 421
anogenital 421
cutaneous 421
Index  | 627
Water, peptone 38t Yaws 334
Water-borne diseases 576t Yeast 519, 503
Waterhouse–Friderichsen Yeast-like fungi 503, 519
syndrome 149 Yeasts 503
Watson-Crick structure, of Yellow fever 4
DNA 59f Yellow fever virus 449, 451, 455
Weil-Felix reaction 89, 107, 366, 369 Yersinia 309
West nile virus 450 Yersinia enterocolitica 314, 315, 545
Western blot test 482 Yersinia pestis 309
Western equine encephalitis/WEE biotypes of 310f
448t, 449, 455 morphology 309
White piedra 509 resistance 310
Whooping cough 324 toxins 310
complications 324 virulence factors 310
stages of 324 Yersinia pseudotuberculosis 313
Widal test 107, 282 treatment 314
Wilson and Blair medium 40 Yersiniosis 313
Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome 139
Z
X
Zaire strain 494
Zanamivir, for influenza 439
X-linked agammaglobulinemia 137
X-linked hyper-IgM syndrome 138 Zidovudine 400, 485
Ziehl-Neelsen staining 48, 593, 598
Zone phenomenon 102
Y Zoonosis 76
Yatapoxvirus 406t Zygomycosis 523, 526
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