‘Taylor Francis “International Journal of Food Sclences esd Nutron (2002) $3, 55-6 healthsclences | | Factors associated with caffeine consumption Carolyn F. Brice and Andrew P. Smith Centre for Occupational and Health Psychology. School of Psychology, Ca Cardiff CF 3¥G, UK if University, PO Box 901, “The main aim of this research was to identify factors that were related to caffcine consumption. From this investigation it can be concluded that coffee is the main source of caffeine and that consumption Varies with time of day. Individuals may be utilising the arousing effects of caffeine by consuming it at times when arousal is Iow for instance to counteract sleep inertia or a post-lunch dip in alerness. There is, however, very little evidence to suggest that psychological characteristics such 2s personality traits or psychosocial factors are important in influencing caffeine ‘consumption, although smoking was found to be related to the amount of caffeine ‘consumed, Introduction Caffeine is present in a wide range of products, namely coffee, tea, soft drinks, hot chocolate, ‘confectionery such as chocolate and many over- the-counter medications including cold reme- dies and analgesics. The concentration of caf- feine differs between each product and furthermore the caffeine content within cach of the products can also vary due to a combination of factors. It is important to recognise that caffeine content is extremely variable within products due to growth and quality of plants, ‘manufacturing and brewing techniques. As a result of this there are many problems asso- ciated with assigning a content value to each caffeine source. The need to standardise these caffeine content values was highlighted by Barone and Roberts (1996), who in their review paper provided the most recent updated standar- dised caffeine concentrations typically found in ‘American products, However, concentrations Correspondence to: Andrew P Stith. SSN 0963-7486 priegnSSN 1465-3478 online (2/010085-10 © 20n2 Taylor & Francs Lad ‘BOE. 10.1080108637480120057000 can also vary between countries, again due to factors ranging from raw materials 0 differ- ences in the production process. Scott et al (1989) described levels of caffeine concentra- tions present in products available in the UK. Approximate caffeine concentrations for UK products based upon those reported by Barone and Roberts (1996) and Scott et al. (1989) are shown in Table 1 Quantity of caffeine consumption Barone and Roberts (1996) reviewed data available on caffeine consumption level. In this paper caffeine content and trends in consump- tion across a range of population groups including adults, teenagers, children and preg~ nant women were discussed. Data from several countries including the USA, Canada, Den mark, the UK and Australia were also con sidered. They found the mean total daily intake56_ C.F Brive and A. Smith “Table 1. Esimated caffeine concentrations for UK caffinated products Poe Approximate mg per brverage Produet Type (500m fpredce cottee Insant 6 Filter 85 Tea Lest 35 Bag 3 Hot chocolate Instant 0 Soft inks Crea Cola 20 ILicorade 5 Chovolte Solid bar oper 308, ‘Chocolate biscuit ‘Chocolate biscuit ‘per biseit ‘Chocolate bar (Coste chocolate bar [pe bar ‘OTC analgesics “Tableveapsate 38 eee ‘Source: From Barone and Roberts (1996). Soot eral. (1989). from all caffeinated products to be approx mately 4 mg/kg (equivalent to 280mg) for both. a US and UK adult sample of the general population, Intake was reportedly higher in Denmark than in all other countries examined ‘where a mean fotal daily level of 7.0 mg/kg was found. For the UK, this level is lower than that suggested by Griffiths and Woodson (1988) who found the average daily consumption of caffeine in the UK to be 444mg, whilst Scott et al. (1989) calculated the mean total daily caffeine intake to be 359mg (s.¢. 189). "AS has been shown in these studies daily levels of caffeine intake can fluctuate greatly between products and between the population ‘groups and samples examined. One must now consider why these variations in consumption levels occur between individuals. The desire 10 elevate low levels of arousal at certain times of day, via self-administration of caffeine, may be ‘a factor influencing levels of caffeine intake and patterns of consumption. Therefore, itis impor- fant to address temporal influences on caffeine consumption. Temporal influences on caffeine consumption Barone and Roberts (1996) state that caffeine ingestion by humans occurs gradually and is normally distributed throughout the day, vie ‘multiple servings and that self-administration of coffee starts in the moming (Barone & Roberts, 1984) when the stimulant effects of caffeine are ‘most wanted, However, there are few data available to assess the detailed diumal profile, In addition to caffeine source and temporal influences, caffeine intake may vary from one individual fo the next according to age. lifestyle cor personality. It is also important, therefore, to consider the role of these factors in caffeine ‘consumption, Individual differences and caffeine ‘consumption Gender. Landrum (1992) surveyed an American student population and found that females recorded a lower intake of caffeine than males fon @ measure of mean weekly caffeine con- sumption from all sources (713.72mg and '822,20mg, respectively). In_ contrast to this, Jacobson and Bouher (1991) found that females ‘consumed more caffeine than males (393.4 mg and 349.1 mg per day, respectively), a finding ‘which was also reported by Verner and Krupka (1982). However, in a study assessing a sample of the British general public, Scott et al. (1989) observed no gender differences for overall consumption although it was found that caffei- nated coffee was consumed in greater amounts by males than females (227.3 mg and 179.5mg per day, respectively). ‘Age. In assessing a UK sample from the general public, Scott er al. (1989) observed no age differences for overall levels of caffeine con- sumption, In contrast to this, Jacobson and Bouher (1991) examined an American sample ‘and found significant differences between levels ‘of caffeine consumption according to age. ‘Those between 60 and 69 years of age con-sumed the most caffeine per day (472.3me) ‘whereas those aged between 20 and 29 years had the lowest consumption levels (284.6mg). Occupation. Findings from a study carried out by Jacobson and Bouber (1991) support the reaults on age differences in caffeine consump tion, Students consumed much lower levels of caffeine dian other occupational groups, 2. labourers, in the general population (198.1 mg and 518.2mg respectively). In addition, John- son-Greene et al. (1988) found that older students consumed more caffeinated products than younger students, once again supporting previous results and suggesting that age is an important influence. Health-related behaviours. Several studies have reported an association between smoking and consumption of caffeinated products. Scott et al. (1989) identified that for overall levels of caffeine consumption smokers consumed far ‘eater amounts of caffeine than non-smokers G21 mg.s.d. 248 and 329mg, sd. 152, respec tively) and that smokers consumed higher {quantities of caffeine from tea compared to non- smokers (190mg and 145.7 mg, respectively). ‘This association between elevated levels of caffeine consumption and smoking is consistent with findings by Istvan and Matarazzo (1984). Personality traits. In 1992, Landrum reported caffeine use to be significantly positively corre- lated with the extroversion scale on the Eysenck Personality Inventory. However, using the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule and 20 acjective scales, Primavera ef al. (1975) found that caffeino consumers and non-consumers did not differ significantly on the personality meas- ures used, ‘The majority of studies addressing this area have assessed the influence of the morningness/eveningness personality construct (Horne & Ostberg, 1976) on caffcine consump- tion. The results are generally consistent, with evening types usually consuming more caffeine than morning types (Mitchell & Redman, 1993; Adan, 1994), Ishihara et al. (1985) studied a Japanese sample of students and replicated this finding. Areas requiring further investigation. Firstly, it is important to highlight that little research has been carried out assessing British Caffeine consumption 57 samples. Therefore, further research of this topic is necessary in the UK. In terms of quantities of caffeine consumed, previous stud- ies assessing caffeine consumption have tepor- ted total daily, weekly or monthly intake of caffeine. From the literature we can gain a general indication of preferred consumption times; however, there is no evidence in the literature of specific diumal trends or pattems of caffeine consumption and quantities con- sumed within these pattems for an adult popula- tion. This highlights the need for a compre hensive profile of pattems of caffeine intake. Tn terms ofthe many factors that are involved in influencing caffeine consumption there is limited information available regarding the role of personality traits and psychosocial factors on caffeine intake. Therefore, a more detailed investigation of individual differences is required in order to examine @ more in-depth psychosocial profile of individuals together with regular caffeine consumption in order (0 assess the extent to which individual differences are related to caffeine consumption, Methodological considerations within caffeine consumption research Jn general the majority of studies cited in the literature review collected data regarding caf- feine consumption retrospectively. Several problems are associated with the retrospective Inethod of data collection, specifically ditfical- ties in remembering what products have been consumed (and when), which can lead to imaccurate accounts of consumption. This major criticism applies to most of the studies carried out t0 date. In addition studies have tended to examine the influence of a single factor on caffeine intake and a more appropriate inves- tigation would be to a examine all of the relevant factors in a single study. ‘The first aim of the present research was to identify factors that influence caffeine con- sumption. A second aim was 10 use differeat methodologies to examine this ise (diaries Nersts rettospective reports), This was carted out in two different populations (@ student Sample versus a general population sample). The research aimed to measure the source and amount of caffeine consumed: temporal infi- fences: demographics: the role of psychological ‘characteristics, and associations between health related behaviours and caffeine consumption.58_G.F Brice and A. P Smith ‘Table 2. Demographics and personality scores of student and general pabic samples Sutmined ina say fnvetigatng factors ffluencing caeie Consumption eee ‘Stunt General pubic some mean sample mean ee) (ee) Sample size a me Malema rato 51a core, ane 2132035 4136 (1.28) Spielberg Tat Ansty Inventory 3652 (060) S184 08) Boverion 1343033) 1173 (040) Soci i904) 645 (025) Impusiviy 483019 461 (19) Morrngacsfeveningnss 4636 073) wm —— Methods measures. Using this dataset caffeine consump- Participants tion was assessed for both student and general ‘A sample of students carsied out both a diary study and provided retrospective reports. A sample from the general population also pro- vided retrospective reports of caffeine con- sumption. Both samples were recruited from the volunteer panel of the Health Psychology Research Unit. Details of the characteristics of the samples are shown in Table 2 Caffeine diary data ‘The issues considered were, firstly, levels of caffeine intake from each source of caffeine and total amount of caffeine consumed on a weekly basis. ‘Temporal influences of caffeine con- sumption were also considered, Caffeine intake may vary across days, so in order to obtain a ‘more sealistic level and pattem of consumption itwas important to examine caffeine intake over an extended period of time, This also enabled temporal factors such as day of week and time of day to be taken into account. In addition, the relationship between caffeine consumption and 4 wide range of personality and psychosocial factors were examined. Retrospective reports of caffeine consumption In the literature differences in caffeine con- sumption are apparent between populations. As highlighted earlier there may be several reasons for his, including inconsistent methods used t0 obtain these data and also varying caffeine concentrations assigned 10 products. It was important, therefore, to compare caffeine intake from two populations assessed on identical public samples in terms of the amount of ‘eaffeine consumed from each source and total daily caffeine intake. Personality, health-related behaviours and psychosocial factors were also examined to once again identify any relation- ship with caffeine consumption, but_more importantly from this data set to observe whether the effects are consistent from one sample to another, Measures In order to examine these issues data were collected from three main sources: a caffeine diary, a retrospective questionnaire and a detailed personality and psychosocial profile. Each set of measures is described below. Caffeine diary. The diary provided a detailed profile of 7 days’ consumption of caffeine from all available sources. Caffeine consumption was calculated using the product caffeine concentra- tions described in Table 1, In order to obtain an accurate account of caffeine consumption all participants were briefed as to all caffeinated products and they were also made aware of these categories prior to completion of the diary. Retrospective recordings of caffeine consump- tion. The caffeine consumption data recorded retrospectively were collated from information provided in a health-related behaviours ques- tionnaire completed for recruitment into the Health Psychology Volunteer Panel. This ‘questionnaire provided information about dailyCaffeine consumption 59 “Table 3, Mean weekly caffeine and beverage consumption from each source for student samp, colleted via caffeine diary panini acne Mean ma of Moan numberof eine per week beverages per eck Capen source (se) ee Coffee 77855 (4820) 198 068) Tea 26282 0634) 751.00) Hot ehoctate ‘686 (4) 004) Sot deaks 6492 (692) 225035), Other prods 5188 639, < coer levels of caffeine consumption for tea, coffee Results and soft drinks, However, information abu Gaping diary study times of consumption were not available for this, data set Psychological characteristics. All participants completed a booklet of questionnaires that profiled personality, health-related behaviours and psychosocial factors. Personality was examined using the Eysenck Personality Inventory which meas- ured three components of personality, namely fextroversion, sociability and impulsivity (Eysenck & Fysenck, 1968), and the SpieTber- get Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spiclberger er al, 1970). ‘These personality dimensions were examined because they reflect two independ- tent aspects of personality (Smith ef al, 1995). Data from the Home and Ostberg. (1976) momingness questionnaire were also available for the students "The health-telated behaviours examined included alcohol consumption, sleeping. pat- tems, smoking, exercise and eating behaviours. A detailed psychosocial profile of each individ- ual was ascertained via the administration of several questionnaires measuring social support (Cohen & Hoberman, 1983), self-esteem (Flem- ing & Wats, 1980), control (Paulhus, 1983), ‘menial and physical health (Broadbent et a, 1984; Cohen & Hobermann, 1984; Ray eal 1992) and aspects of stress (Kanner etal, 1981; Cohen et al, 1983, 1991). Analysis, ‘The diary data and the retrospective reports were analysed using analyses of variance and correlations. ‘The results of the caffeine diary study are presented so as to consider caffeine consump- tion for each source, amounts of caffeine consumed, temporal influences and finally the relationship between psychological character istics and caffeine consumption. Caffeine consumption by source Consumption levels of caffeine for each source of caffeine were calculated over the whole week in order to identify the main indicators of caffeine usage. Au analysis of variance revealed ‘significant effect of caffeine source (F (4,480) = 219.82, P < 0.001, for means and standart errors see Table 3). A post hoc analysis (Bonferroni) revealed that the main sources of caffeine were from coffee and tea (at the 5% level). Although this result seems to reflect the high caffeine concentration of these two prod- ucts additional analysis carried out to identity the mean number of beverages consumed per week showed coffee and tea products were consumed most frequently (see Table 3). From this analysis it can therefore be seen that coffee ‘and tea are the main sources of caffeine. More specifically, coffee was consumed in the great fest quantities, with a mean consumption of 11.98 (Se. 0.68) cups per week. Quantity of caffeine consumed Weekly caffeine intake from all caffeinated products was calculated. From these profiles large Variations in total weekly caffeine con- sumption were found; mean 1164.8 mg: range 158-2286 mg. From the caffeine profile further analysis was carried out to ascertain where the60 CE Brice and A. P. Smith variations in consumption lay, with the further im of identifying patterns of caffeine consump- tion, Two areas were examined, namely tempo- ral factors and individual differences. Temporal influences on consumption Having established coffee as the main source of caffeine intake there was a need to identify Whether temporal factors influenced caffeine consumption. Using data collected from the caffeine profiles, analysis was carried out 10 establish quantities of caffeine consumed throughout the daily cycle and whether there ‘was any preferential time of day that individuals self-administer caffeine. These dala were ana- lysed in six time bins across the 24 hour period and the mean caffeine consumption for each time bin across the 7 days were calculated. An analysis of variance revealed significant diurnal trends in caffeine consumption, (F(S, 600) = 119.37, P < 0.001). The periods of peaks and troughs in Jevels of consumption can be clearly observed in Figure 1. Consumption levels peaked between 8,00 am. and 12.00 midday (mean = 358.97 mg, se. 21.42). This peak in consumption suggests that individuals may be consuming caffeine in order to increase alert~ ness ata time when circadian arousal is low, and to counteract sleep inertia. The trough in caffeine intake which can be seen between ‘midnight and 8.00 am. (mean = 26.17 mg, S¢. 5.01 and mean = 47.20mg,se, 7.52, respec tively) reflects sleeping habits. A’ significant time-of-day effect remainted when this period of low caffeine intake was excluded from the analysis (F @,360) = 30.77, P < 0.001). ‘The analysis showed that consumption did not change with day of week and nor were differences between weekdays and weekonds apparent. Individual differences ‘The aim of this analysis was to examine associations between both levels and patterns of caffeine usage and demographics, personality, health-related behaviours and psychosocial fac- tors. Caffeine consumption did not vary as a function of age or gender. Correlations were calculated between weekly total caffeine con- sumption for each time of day, each caffeine source and measures of personality, health- related behaviours and psychosocial factors, ‘Analysis revealed there to be few significant relationships between caffeine consumption and each of the individual difference measures assessed. In a correlation matrix of 768 only 60 (781%) were found to be significant. In a correlation matrix of this size it would be expected 0 identify a few significant findings by chance. The significant correlations must, therefore, be treated with caution. Daily caffeine consumption: retrospective reports ‘The retrospective data of daily caffeine con- sumption were analysed separately for the student and general public samples. The analy- ses frsly considered caffeine consumption for each source, followed by total amounts of caffeine consumed, and finally examined the role of psychological characteristics in caffeine consumption Daily quantities of caffeine consumed from ‘each source were calculated to identify the main indicators of caffeine usage for the two samples (see Table 4). Tt-can be seen from the number of beverages ‘drunk per day that coffee is consumed in greater amounts than the other beverages. This con- firms the previous diary dats. ‘Total daily caffeine intake from all caffei- nated products was calculated for each sample. For the student population a mean daily caffeine total of 193.58mg (se. 10.39) was reported, whilst for the general public sample the mean total daily caffeine intake was slightly higher at 204.51 mg, (s.e. 16.54). It is also important to note that for student sample the mean daily caffeine toials differ slightly between the two methods of data collection, although the differ- ence was small (less than half @ cup of coffee). From this analysis it has been shown that oily small differences exist in the quantities of caffeine consumed by a student sample and a sample of the general public, Analyses were then carried out to identify measures of incivid- ual differences that might influence consump- tion in the two samples, Age and gender did not have a significant influence on caffeine con- sumption. Correlations between measures of total daily caffeine consumption, daily caffeine from coffee, daily caffeine from tea, daily caffeine from soft drinks and the same person- lity, health-related behaviour and psychosocial measures, were computed for the three samples.Caffeine consumption 61 400 380 300+ Mean caffeine (mg) g 3 100 50 0.00-04.00 04.00-08.00 08,00-12.00 12.00-16.00 16.00-20.00 20.00-25.00 Figare 1. Mean oa caffeine consumed from all affine sources during a woo for six allocated time slots (scores are means from ANOVA, Se. a bars)62_C.F Brice and A. P. Smith ‘Table 4. Mean dsily caffeine and beverage consumption from eash source fr bout ‘toden end general pubic populations collected revorpectively CE Caffeine source Daaly caffeine from coffee (ong) Mean number of ear of coffee Daily caffeine fem ta (og) Meon mamber of ews of Dally caffeine frm soft drinks (ng) Mean mumber of sft drinks ‘Student mean General public mean (ee) (ee) at.92 (102) 147.95 (1638) 218 16) 3.10 (025), Si.R6(419) Th.a6 6.47) 148 12) 2.21.18) 1190 4.94) e724) 0.60 (010) 9340007) ee ee Ee Very few significant correlations were found between daily caffeine consumption and meas~ ures of personality, psychosocial measures of social support, sress and mental and physical hhealth factors for each of the samples. In terms of the health-related behaviour ‘measures an interesting association was ident fied with smoking. About 25% of the partici- pants were smokers (23.14% student sample and 26.23% in the general population sample). Significant correlations were obtained between the total daily cigarettes smoked and the daily amount of caffeine consumed for both the student (r(118) = 0.2151, P < 0.05) and the general public samples (r (120) = 0.2797, P < 0.01). An analysis of variance was performed to establish whether quantity of caffeine consump- tion varied between smokers and non-smokers, Jt is important to note that those participants in the ‘smokers’ group reported themselves to smoke on a regular basis either every day or most days of the week. For the measure of total daily caffeine, smokers in both samples were found to consume significantly more caffeine than non-smokers (student sample: smokers mean = 247.32mg,s.e. 19.99; non-smokers mean = 171.80mg,s.e. 12.75, F(, 104) = 9.56, P< 0.01; general public sample, smokers mean = 296.56mg,s.c. 29.45, non-smokers mean 204.24mg,se. 19.87, FU, 115) = 6.19, P< 001). Discussion (This investigation assessed factors that were influential in the consumption of caffeinated beverages. After reviewing the existing lit erature it was apparent that several issues required further investigation, specifically the tole of temporal influences and psychological factors in caffeine consumption: ‘These issues slong with others relating to caffeine con- sumption levels were investigated using a diary study and retrospective reports of daily consumption. In the present investigation coffee was found to be the main source of caffeine consumption for both students and the general public, ‘replicating findings reported in the literature by Gilbert (1981). Despite the large variations in caffeine consumption levels cited in the lite ‘erature the data presented in this study found comparable quantities of caffeine intake for two populations. The slight difference in the levels. reported by the two samples was representative ‘of the general trend seen in studies in the Jiterature, with students found to be consuming slightly less caffeine than members of the general public (lacobson & Brouher, 1991). ‘Temporal patterns in caffeine consumption were also found, Whilst caffeine intake was not found to vary according to the day of the week, the time of day at which caffeine was consumed ‘was found to be a significant factor, The findings from the present analysis, which exam- ined caffeine consumption in six 4-hour time intervals from midnight, suggested that individ uals are consuming caffeinated products. in ‘greater amounts at time of low diumal arousal, eg. on waking and early afternoon. These findings conflict with those reported by Land- rum (1992) who found no. fluctuations in caffeine consumption throughout the day. How- ever, Landrum’s data were collected retro- spectively and therefore inaccuracies may be present. ‘The current finding is therefore a new ‘and important contribution to furthering our Understanding of the reasons for self-admin-istration of caffeine, It is suggested that individ- uals may selfadminister caffeine 10 maintain alertness. A finer analysis of caffeine consump- tion hour by hour would elucidate the temporal patterns of consumption more clearly and may provide verification of this view. ‘This investigation also identified that psycho- logical characteristics had very little influence on caffeine consumption. However, in terms of health-related behaviours the findings suggest that there is a relationship between caffeine and smoking, with smokers consuming caffeine in far greater amounts compared to non-smokers. ‘This relationship could be explained in terms of caffeine metabolism. The metabolism of caf- feine is accelerated by smoking (Amaud, 1984) and therefore greater intake of caffeine would be required to maintain preferred levels. Tt can be seen from these data that between individuals consumption levels vary consider- ably. Rapoport et al. (1984) has suggested that Caffeine consumption 63 individuals may vary in terms of their sensitiv ity to caffeine and Chait (1992) suggests that these differences in caffeine intake may be due to inherent physiological characteristics of the individual end not just a consequence of choice. Th summary, the results from the present investigation showed that coffee is the main source of caffeine and that consumption varies with time of day. Individuals may be utilising caffeine to counteract low arousal, for instance to remove sleep inertia or a post-lunch dip in alertness. There is, however, very little evidence to suggest that psychological characteristics such as personality traits or psychosocial factors are important in influencing caffeine consump- tion, although smoking was found to be related to the amount of caffeine consumed. “Aclnowledgements-Dr Brice was supported by an ESRC PD stsdenship. References ‘Adan A (1984): Chronetype and persons factors in the aly consompiion of skootah and peychossimalants, ‘Aadiciom $9, 455-02 ‘Aimand MI (1984; Products of the etabolisn of caine. Tn. Cafeine, ed, P Devs, pp. 3-28. New York: 5 [Rarone JT & Roberts HR. (1984): Human consumption of talline. Caffeine: Perspectives from Recent Research. Berlin: Springer-Verg. parone JJ & Roberts HR (1996): Caffeine consumption. Foro! Chem. Teriol. 34, 119-129, ‘Broadbent DE, Broadbent MEP, Prllpots RY & Wallace J 98s): Some ftber studies on the prediction of txpedincatal colds in volunicere by psychological fac tors J Prychosom. Res. 28(6), St1-523. 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