2.2 Materials Science 2.1 Magnetic Materials 2.1 Introduction : j terials, which get magnetized in etic materials are the mat 7 ; ase eee having the ability to create a self magnetic field in the presg = fay magnetic field. There are nearly eleven types of magnetic materials. Some impor ote are diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrima ay ‘Tho vamnatsm arses from the magnetic moment of the magnetic materials. Where’ "4 particle has an angular momentum, it contributes to the permanent magnetic moment nt there are three contributions to the angular momentum of an atom. Be 1. Orbital angular momentum of the electrons This corresponds to permanent orbital angular magnetic dipole moments, 2. Electron spin angular momentum This corresponds to electron spin magnetic moments. 3. Nuclear spin angular momentum This corresponds to nuclear magnetic moments. (Note: Since the magnitudes of orbital magnetic moments and nuclear m moments are small, it is assumed that the permanent magnetic dipoles arise duet electron spin only). Let us see some of the important terms involved in this chapter. 2.2 Basic Definitions Magnetic dipole constitute a magnetic Any two opposite magnetic poles separated by a distance Magnetic dipole moment (j1,,) If ‘m’ is the magnetic igh t! moment is given ty samete Pole strength and ‘Tis the length of the magnet then its & B= m x1 Itcan also be defined as follows: When an electri a ving a ve cyttent of “i? amperes flows through a circular wire of 1 turn ha ross section ‘a’ m?. it is i ‘on ‘a’ m’, then it is said to have a magnetic moment of, a La Fig.2.1 Magnetic momentMagnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.3 ; Bm =i Xa ‘Unit: ampere (metre)? : le moment is a vector quantity. Its direction is normal to the plane of the loop to the right, if current is clockwise. etic Flux (9) It is defined as the total number of magnetic lines of force passing perpendicular through a n area. It can also be defined as the total number of lines of force emanated from north pole. nit: weber. Magnetic flux density or Magnetic Induction (B) | __ Itis defined as the number of magnetic lines of force passing through an unit area of cross ‘section. It is given by, _ Magnetic Flux _ ® 2 ee Unit ca a, Webern? (on) Tesla Itis also defined as the magnetic force (F) experienced by an unit north pole placed at the i {given point in a magnetic field. ie. B= m oi field strength or Magnetic field intensity (H) Magnetic field intensity or magnetic field strength at any point in a magnetic field is equal | to ) times the force acting on a unit north pole placed’ at the point. i ()- ampere turns / metre where, \t = permeability of the medium in which the wm) p magnetic field is situated. | | Magnetization or Intensity of Magnetization (M) | The term magnetization is the process of converting a non-magnetic material into a | Magnetic material, It measures the magnetization of the magnetized specimen. Intensity of | Magnetization (M) is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume. It is expressed in ampere/metre, | Magnetic susceptibility (2) | It is the measure of the ease with which the specimen can be magnetized by the Magnetizing force. It is defined as the ratio of magnetization produced in a sample to the a 7 ‘ M i Magnetic field intensity. i.e. magnetization per unit field intensity. =a ‘no unit) Magnetic Permeability (1) tis the measure of degree at which the lines of force can penetrate through the material. Le2.4 Materials Science It is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux density in the sample to the applieg = B ie intensity. ie. U= Hor = Fr Relative permeability (H:) It is the ratio of permeability of the medium to the permeability of fe. S| eget a ie. Wee Ho Relation between p and X i ial i i i id (H), then two - ‘Whe magnetic material is kept in a magnetic fiel a, types of k jen a magi |. One is due to the magnetic field (H) and the other induction passes through the material... Or (H) and induction Prvggnetization ofthe material itself. Therefore, total flux density (B) in a soldcay qy given as, B = }lo (H+) We know that H Flor) B=yH Equating (1) and (2), we get, ; HH = yo(H+M) = HoHtpoM HobkH = HoH + eM few =HoH,] Hol | HoM M ow, =F FO 14S te, walt HoH lo Hw Te Br x Bohr Magneton (UB) Bohr magneton is the magnetic i a gnetic moment produced by one unpaired electron " Itis the fundamental quantum of magnetic moment. ” " 1 Bohr magneton =—2-,2 =e, eneton = = IMB=9.27 x 10 ampere metre”Magnetic and Dielectric Materials 2.5 “Rymo[s wonvea ater srotp asoy Karp “Burreay Suuinq, anoyaryoq| anaudeuos193 49> Log (7 7 moravypq| we Jo souasqe au) ut uaAa poonposd popoummmend| st uoneznauseu snoauejuods 93.2] & un o< L404 (1 ‘souanbasuos v se pue uoNsazIp oures oI pure 3eqo9 ‘2: ur poudiye A[uons am sojodip qaueutiad ora amp ‘Play yeuraym a8ze] ap oy ang. | “syeiouy — =%| 0105 sqevareny quea ose pure uonisuen sug] 2 Jo sau] Sneuseu joeme A[SuoNs fay] ,| neusewou| “quay SED snauSeuiouad - 9| , yueysuo9 aum9 - O} 4 “sx0ym| (ae sstoq-arn5) ork “oxo ‘unnmé nian ‘umyurosyo ayy] sure omy aauisod 81e7] _quasaud st quawow sjodip yusuewusd «| ore] a 4OSIN “OSUN “Osea seul] Apr, 0103 syepareny| UonIsueL] Pue sie amv Red quapuodapuy| aanisod jews] jo sour oneuSeu yoenye Apfeam AoW], 4| onauseurereg| unOdWOS Sif pue In ‘aampereduiay [ESN] opr srewovein Sujronpuodisdny 8 mojaq Atuo sysixg| aaneSou ‘ose Tews 4194 are syooyyo oneuseW «| 302| ssojaq omyexodutay| 1 pur pjoy snauseut aanedau| By ‘no “nuns ‘syste tpi souea| _‘overpaunrayuy| “quasqe s] uaWoW sjodip jwoueuuId 00% 8 Hy ON! srenayeny poeaee ee ‘o1ues10| yuopuodapuy} saneou qeurg| aosoy Jo soul] seuSeu jadas Aayy y| —_ oneuseure!q| sojduexg syaemoy repos adh |2.6 Material Science Ieusrew onauseuueg 1 leuoreu: snougewouss-nuy —1 aanyesoduray yyy Antqndassns Jo opeTA 77 Bid Jeusrew snauBewou4 Jeuarew snaudeweseg =—!t 0 sol WORST 1 iD u x 0 Rae sqevoyeu onauseur yuozayyip uy samyesoduoy yyia Autigndaosns Jo uonvuea ayp sayensnyyt 7°z “B1q SuMoII0y OU, “onoudeuntay ausosag Katp| SHOU WORIsHED WaT Jo sj9s a10u1 10 om Jo pasoduioo axe ag “sesue uoneznouseu ‘Guv] v axoyouoy “sapnyrusew penbaun ypiay Kt tit “NL> Luoym nq Ayaifezed nue soajaswioyp wStpe sojodip FL oousew oy Yoryas ut sonaugeUOLa} “oy.149y} NL <1 Joy ‘——=% aansod|. jue Jo asto jeloads v axe speta}eu asouLL g| sjeyoreul} [eY9IN pur oy1U193 snowo,] a “o81r] A194 quaseud juawiour sfodip juaueuneg ,| onausewnuog| 7 “GL PON" “01023 arya uoneznouseu yueynsad ayy og ‘opnyruseur Wh a uy yenba pue rered nM ae ssjodp UL “py9 “apixo wniuuoay ‘apixo| (otk “uonesayul a8ueyoxs ue =0 Properties « The susceptibility (;,) is very large and positive. It is represented by, = C/ (T+0), when T> Tw * When T after the loss of two 4s electrons and one 3d electron. It is showed ee ZA. electronic configuration in ¢ 6 the fash 5 Table2.2 3d electronic configuration of Fe™* and Fe* Yon | Nf 3a ctectronic configuration | onic magnets electrons moment Fe | 24 wet [tft [| 4uB Fe! |. .23 t [tt [tle SuB * Since each unpaired 3d electron has a magnetic moment of one jB, the Fe int moment of 4uB, and Fe™ ion has a moment of 5pB. . ; sae + Hf parallel alignments of ferrous and ferric ions are considered, the total dipole nna", 4+ (2x5)=14 UB. This observed value doesn’t coincide with the experimental i. |. * Consider anti parallel alignment of ferrous and ferric ions in inverse spinel structure, a * If one ferrous ion and one ferric ion are in one direction and another ferric ion) are opposite direction then the dipole moment is, {{(5x1) + 4] - (Sx1)} = 4uB Ee : 1 * This observed value is in good agreement with the experimental value and hen®} fy confirms the anti parallel alignment of dipoles in ferrites. 2.4.3 Applications of Ferrites ae st receiv * Ferrite is used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of he 4 + Ferrites are used as cores in audio and TV transformers. aes we" * Ferrites are used in digital computers and data processing circuits. Fer Produce low frequency ultra sonic waves by magnetostriction principle. es fr * Ferrites are widely used in non-reciprocal microwave devices. Exam? C reciprocal microwave devices are Gyrator, Isolator and Circulator. * Ferrites are also used in power limiting and harmonic. gyration devices- i caguaee Ferrites can also be used in the design of ferromagnetic amplifiers of mir Ferrite core can be used as a bitable element. \» registel ‘The rectangular shape ferrite cores can be used as a magnetic shift regis Hard ferrites are used to make permanent magnets. The permanent ma ammeter, voltmeter, io oo van! Tike 2 yess hets (hard ferrites) are used in instruments 2 eco flex meters, speedometers, wattmeter, compassMagnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.11 5 Garnets Gamet is a group of minerals that have been used si abrasives. Gamets species are found in many colors incl purple, brown, black, pink and colorless, ince the Bronze Age as gemstones and luding red, orange, yellow, green, blue, Gamets are nesosilicates having the general formula X3Y,(SiO,)s. The X site is usuall | nl 7 a + + - y eeupied by divalent cations (Ca’*, Mg”, Fe’, Mn) and the Y site by trivalent cations (AI, e, Cr, Mn”, V"*) in an octahedral/tetrahedral framework with (SiO,]* providing the rahedra. They crystallize in the isometric system, having three axes that are all of equal length and erpendicular to each other. + Garnets do not show cleavage, so when they fracture under stress, sharp irregular pieces are ormed. Because the chemical composition of garnet varies, the atomic bonds in some species are stronger than in others. As a result, this mineral group shows a range of hardness on the Mohs cale of about 6.5 to 7.5. Gamets can be made in the lab by powdering MgO, Al,Os, and SiO,. The powder is then laced inside gold or platinum tubes which are welded shut. (Gold and platinum are used since ey do not melt and corrode at high temperatures and do not suffer oxidation), The capsule in en placed in a hydraulic press and brought to a pressure of 80 - 50,000 atm. An electrical Current is run through the sample to attain temperatures of 1200 to 1400 °C. Examples: _ Pyralspite garnets - Aluminium in Y site © Almandine : FesAl(SiO.)s © Pyrope _ : MgsAl,(SiO,)s © Spessartine : MnsAl,(SiO,)s Ugrandite group - calcium in X site © Andradite : CasFe,(SiOs)s * Grossular : CasAl(SiO,)s © Uvarovite : CasCrx(SiO«)s / Less common species Calcium in X site © Goldmanite : CasV(SiO4)s © Kimzeyite : Cax(Zr,Ti)a[(Si,AlFe")Ou]s * Morimotoite : CasTi*Fe"(SiO.)s © Schorlomite: Cas(Ti**,Fe™ )al(Si,Ti)Os]s Hydroxide bearing - calcium in X site © Hydrogrossular: CasAlz(SiO4)s.x(OH)ax © Hibschite —; CasAlz(SiO,)3.(OH)ax (where x is between 0.2 and 1.5)2.12 Materials Science Magnesium or manganese in X site Yttrium iron garnet (YIG), YsFe,(FeO,)s, another important garnet, the five iron) ig occupy two octahedral and three tetrahedral sites, with the yttrium(II1) ions coordinated by gi oxygen ions in an irregular cube. The iron ions in the two coordination sites exhibit diftes spins, resulting in magnetic behaviour. YIG is a ferrimagnetic material having a (x temperature of 550 K. By substituting specific sites with rare earth elements, for exanph, Gadolinium, interesting magnetic properties can be obtained. Applications of Garnets: © Katoite : Ca3AI,(SiOg)3.x(OH)sx (where x is greater than 15) ‘© Knorringite : MgsCra(SiO,)s * Majorite : Mgs(Fe,Al,Si)2(Si04)s © Calderite : MnsFex** (SiOx); Gadolinium gallium gamet, GdsGa,(GaO.)3, which is synthesized for use in mage bubble memory. Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG), Y3Al(AIO4)s, is used for synthetic gemstone. Wt doped with neodymium (Nd**), these YAl-garnets are useful as the lasing mediunit lasers. The Gamet group is a key mineral in interpreting the genesis of many igneous! metamorphic rocks. Gamets are also useful in defining metamorphic facies of rocks. Pure crystals of garnet are used as gemstones. as! Garnet sand is a good abrasive, and a common replacement for silica sand in blasting, i. it P tersls # Mixed with very high pressure water, garnet is used to cut steel and other mat water jets. Garnet sand is also used for water filtration media. 2.6 Magnetic bubbles Definition with other li dark serpentine patterns when viewed between er by an external magnetic field, changing the is a tiny movable magnetized cylindrical volume in a thin magneti e . 7 putet) volumes can be used to represent a bit of information (as in a com? A thin water of Ferromagnetic Garnet reveals its magnetic domain aller ed polarizer, These oma! pattern structure, cab car std «anaterial OH light ents lied allMagnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.13 BUBBLE WALL cwoeomae HAD 4 [| noses ii “SOUTH NORTH SOUTH } Fig. 2.7 Formation of Magnetic bubbles Fig. 2.8 Serpentine patterns of magnetic bubbles | The magnetic bubble apparatus consists of a thin (8-12Hm) single crystal film of Ferromagnetic Garnet (FMG) sandwiched between a pair of crossed Polaroids. The FMG crystals ate magnetically anisotropic, that is, they have a strong tendency to orient themselves in fixed itections under the influence of an external magnetic field. The preferred or "easy" axis of Orientation is perpendicular to (in or out of) the crystal surface. With no external magnetic field, the|domains in the crystal orient up or down in roughly equal amounts. Polarized light passing ugh the crystal will have its plane of polarization rotated by due to interaction with the Magnetic field of the domains (an effect called Faraday rotation). For the 'up' domains, the light Will be crossed with respect to the exiting Polaroid therefore appearing dark, and for ‘down’ domains uncrossed (or vice versa) so appearing bright. The domains appear as serpentine ‘Patems (Fig. 2.8} of alternating bright and dark. Application of an external magnetic field (Provided by a built-in electromagnet) flips the domains to one preferred orientation. As the field sitesse, the serpentine patterns gradually disappear and isolated magnetic bubble may be Mable, reg H A P T d= R 12)2.14 Materials Science Applications and Advantages of Magnetic bubbles Applications A memory device is formed by lining up tiny electromagnets at one end with dy the other end. Bubbles written in would be slowly pushed to the other. forming ag Twisters lined up beside each other. Attaching the output from the detector back cleetromagnets tums the sheet into a series of loops. which can hold the infomation gai duration. Bubble memory is a non-volatile memory. Even when power was removed, the by remained, just as the patterns do on the surface of a disk drive. Better yet, bubble nes devices needed no moving parts: the field that pushed the bubbles along the sutic generated electrically, whereas media like tape and disk drives required mechanical movene, Finally, because of the small size of the bubbles. the density was theoretically much than existing magnetic storage devices. The only downside was speed; The bubbles had tos to the far end of the sheet before they could be read. Advantages of bubble memories he future growth of distributed process systems will be greatly impacted by mage bubble memories. These microprocessor-based systems demand high-density mass stonge2 cost, Magnetic-bubble memories satisfy all of these requirements with definite advantages the existing magnetic storage technologies. MBM's advantages over moving-head disks of disks are low access time (the time necessary to retrieve the desired data), small physi! low user entry cost, no maintenance, and higher reliability. i _ The advantages of MBM's over random-access memories (RAM'S) are noi potentially lower price per bit, and more bits per chip. The RAM has the advantage better access time, higher transfer rate, and simpler interfacing, Si sg, it summary. the main MBM advantages are the low price, nonvolatly, #4 density storage in a small physical space. Because magnetic bubble memories ae nomolatile technology: they are ideally suited for portable applications as well 9 Pr memory for traditional processing systems. Industrial applications include memory fOr" ae control machines and various types of process control. Solid-state bubble memories reliable in harsh environments: they are affected much less by. shock, vibration, dif» . . it ls than electromechanical magnetic memories. Innovative new products include da'# calculators, word processing, voice storage, and measurement equipment. 2.7.1 Magnetoresistance its Oy Mi is i ii oie é resistan en toresistance is the property of a material to change the value ooo Wiles {when an external magnetic field is applied to it. The effect was firs able " 2 ee ybomson (more commonly known as Lord Kelvin) in 1856, but he Was called the electrical resistance of an c > thing b %. Thi yas later magnetoresistance (OM), NINE PY more than 5%. This effect wMagnetic. Dis),,.,.. egnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.15 The magnetoresistance has been known for many i it is Ear? ts bean 'Y Years in ordinary metals and is due to the ‘Or ve in helical trajectories about sn nc i 5 : it an applied The effet becomes evident only ven the magnetic eld ane ne io eave tate or ithe electron within a length equal to its Mean free path. The ma; si effect oct a 7 ignetoreisitance effect occurs in metals only at very high magnetic fields and low temperatures. For e; i ; . For example, in pure copper at 4 afield of 10 T produces a factor of 10 ch: fe resistance. Because of the trge felds and The magnetoresistance of convention magnetoresistance have been synthesized Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) or Colos ial materials is quite small; but materials with large now. Depending on the magnitude, it is called either as sal magnetoresistance (CMR). Parallel or antiparallel with an applied magnetic field in equal numbers, and therefore suffer less magnetic scattering when the magnetizations of the ferromagnetic layers are parallel.The effect is exploited commercially by manufacturers of hard disk drives,The 2007 Nobel Prize in physics Was awarded to the European Albert Fert and Peter Griinberg for the discovery of GMR. Non Magnetic Metal Non Magnetic Metal Fig. 2.9, Schematic representation of layered structure for GMR ) As i ture and the altemating orientation of the magnetization in + the feromapae ie estowa in the Fig.2.9, The effect was first observed in films made of alternating layers of iron and chromium, but since then other layered materials composed of alternating layers of cobalt and copper have been made that display much higher - Magnetoresistive effects. The magnitude of the change in the resistance depends on the thickness Of the iron layer and it reaches a maximum at a thickness of 7 nm, H2.16 Materials Science Colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) It is a property of some materials, mostly manganese-based . . a “* Perovskite Oxides them to dramatically change their electrical resistance in the Presence of 4 mage magnetoresistance of conventional materials enables changes in Tesistance 9 etic f el materials featuring CMR may demonstrate resistance changes by orders Of magia by, discovered in 1993 by von Helmolt et al. CN Colossal Magnetoresistance has been predominantly discovered in mangin, Perovskite oxides. This arises because of strong mutual coupling et spin, chars ef degrees of freedom. Hence not only high temperature Superconductivity, by a, magnetoelectronic properties are increasingly discovered in materiale With perovskite sy The perovskite like material LaMnO, has manganese in the Mn™ valence state Whe Partially replaced with ions having a valence of 2+, such as Ca, Ba, Sr, Pd or Cd, some ng Hansform to Mn** to preserve the elcetrical neutality, The recult is « mixed valence sjseq been shown to exhibit very large magnetoresistive effects. The unit cell of the crystal isso Fig. 2.10. istance Fig. 2.10 Crystal structure of LaMnOs which displays colossal magnetoresistan when the La site is doped with Ca or Sr. ' ange jaihe Particular system LayesCay;MnO, displays more than a thousandfold fesStance with the application of a 6 T DC magnetic Rel Applications of CMR and GMR materials ties f° * he understanding and application of CMR offers tremendous OPPO at development of new technologies such as read/write heads for high-caP: Storage, sensing elements in magnetometers and spintronics. The largest technological application of GMR is in the data storage eras * On-chip GMR sensors are available commercially from Non-Volatile E 5 Other applications are as diverse as solid-state compasses, automo! volatile magnetic memory and the detection of landmines. tive setMagnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.17 Read sensors that emiploy the GMR effect available regions of magnetization. These tiny sensors can be made in such a way that a very small magnetic field causes a detectable change in their resistivity; such changes in the resistivity produce electrical signals corresponding to the data on the disk. «It is expected that the GMR effect will allow disk drive manufacturers to continue increasing density at least until disk capacity reaches 10 Gb per square inch. At this for detecting the fields from tiny 1 May density, 120 billion bits could be stored on a typical 3.5-inch disk drive, or the equivalent » hi of about a thousand 30-volume encyclopedias. z pe ity - “Whiegl 8 Dielectric Materials © Stale lig} ) Dielectric materials are also called as insulators. In dielectric materials, all the electrons C4, sonpf are tightly bound to their parent molecules and there are no free charges. In addition, the lene of forbidden energy band gap (e.g.) for dielectric materials is more than 3eV. Therefore, it is not € cys possible for the electrons in the valence band to excite to the conduction band, by crossing the energy gap, even with normal voltage or thermal energy. Because of this, no electrical ‘conduction takes place. Generally, dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high specific _resistance and negative temperature coefficient of resistance. 28.1 Active and Passive Dielectrics The dielectric materials can be classified into active and passive dielectric materials. Active dielectrics When a dielectric material is kept in an external electric field, if it actively accepts the electricity, then it is known as active dielectric material. Thus, active dielectrics are the dielectrics, which can easily adapt themselves to store the electrical energy i Examples: Piezo- electrics, Ferro-electries etc., i, Passive dielectrics Passive dielectrics are the dielectrics, which restrict the flow of electrical energy in them. So, these dielectrics act as insulators. Examples: All insulating materials such as glass, mica, rubber etc., 28.2 Basic Definitions in Diclectries Let us see now the important terms and basic definitions in dielectrics. Electric Field The region around the charge within which its effect is felt or experienced is known as sleetrc field,2.18 Materials Science = . A d to consist of imaginary electric lines of fo The electric field is assume h inary ele = pe sitive charges and terminate to the negative char te of force originate from the pos a = Fig.2.11. ; Fig. 2.11. Electric field The direction of the electric field at any point is determined by drawing a tangent ng line of force at that point. Electric field strength or electric field intensity (E) Electric field strength at any point is defined as the force experienced by an unit pos charge placed at the point. It is denoted by ‘E’. If ‘q’ is the magnitude of the charge in coulo, and ‘f is the force experienced by that charge in Newton, then the electric field strengths, =£ ts unit is Newton / Coulomb (or) volt / metre. q Electric flux (6) It is defined as the total number of electric lines of force passing through a given st the electric field. (Emanated from the positive charge). Unit: Coulomb Electric flux density or electric displacement vector (D) It is defined as the number of electric lines of force passing normally through 1! 2 area of cross section in the field. The electric flux density = D= 2 . Its unit is Coulomb/™ A where, = total electric flux in Coulombs, and A = Area of cross section Permittivity (e) — in a det Permittivity is defined as the ratio of electric displacement vector (D) in # Q medium to the applied electric field strength (E). Mathematically the permittivity #5 °5 unit is Farad /metre ee erst ra aetmitivty indicates the degre to which the medium ean resist the 09 charge and i always greater than unity, The permittivity (¢) can also be given as E= Ey.Magnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.19 s The dielectric constant or relative permittivity (¢,) of a material determines its dielectric acteristics. It is the ratio of the permittivity of the medium (e) and the permittivity of free _ negative charge of the electrons coincides with the positive nuclear charge, which means that the atom has no net dipole moment. However, when this atom is placed in an extemal electric field, the centre of the positive charge is displaced along the field direction while the centre of the negative charge is displaced in the opposite direction Thus an electric dipole is produced, and an induced dipole moment is developed. When a dielectric material is placed inside an electric field, such dipoles are created in all the atoms inside, This process of producing electric dipoles, which are oriented along the field direction, is called polarization in dielectrics. When the electric field strength ‘E’ is increased, the strength of the induced dipole is also increased. Thus, the induced dipole moment is proportional to the intensity of the electric field. Hee waa Where, a, the proportionality constant is known as polarizability. Polarizati ? ‘arization vector ( P ) The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is called polarization vector, If." is the average dipole moment per molecule and ‘N’ is the number of molecules "| berunt volume then the polarization vector is given by, P=Nppole ™ ¥ ielectric material he dipole moment pe! olume of the di dividual dipole moments within that volume. is i dE ion between P,f,6+ aM ; f ar js related to the electric flux density Das, Ne Sno ; The polarization ‘P” D = &E+P Since D = tofE, the above relation becomes, e&E = &E+P (or) P= tae Eco | ie. P = e(-1)E Electric susceptibility (x) _ ; The polarization P is proportional to the applied electric field intensity E and it ising same direction of “E’ It can be written as, P«E(or) P=e9%eE Al where “y." is known as the electric susceptibility. pele : “ cE 7 fo(6,-DE i 1) Since P = e(¢ ~ 1) E, the above equation becomes, 7,.=="“"——— = (¢, E 2.9 Various Polarization mechanisms in Dielectrics . . ; ction of Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charged particles under i external electric field. Several microscopic mechanisms are responsible for electri ia ses , . non ris Specially, in the case of d.c. electric field, the macroscopic polarization vector Pa following four types of microscopic polarization mechanisms. @ Electronic polarization (i) Ionic polarization (iii) Orientation polarization and (iv) Space-charge polarization, i. Electronic Polarization Electronic Po! negatively charged thereby 4 dipole m a cleus ww larization occurs due to the displacement of positively charge annie ¢lectrons in opposite directions, when an external electric field ! joment is created in the dielectric. «The induced dipole momer nth aE where a, = electronic polarizability, Monoatomic gases exhibit this ki proportional to the volume of the nil! « polariza ind of polarization, Electronic P® ‘atoms and is independent of temperature.Magnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.21 The electronic polarizability = 0, = AncoR? ( Farad.m?) where R is the radius of the atom. ‘Nucleus Nucleus Displaced Equilibrium Position Sphere of electronic +Ze —— Field direction charge Original Position @ (b) Fig 2.12 (a) Position of +ve and —ve charges in an atom without field (b) Position of +ve and ~ve charges in an atom with field ii, Ionic Polarization Ionic polarization arises due to the displacement of -ve ions and + ve ions in opposite diretions and it occurs in ionie solids in the presence of electric field as shown in Fig.2.13 (a) and 2.13 (b). The displacement is independent of temperature. Example : NaCl crystal OOD. @ ca Na cl Na x x 5 (a) (b) Fig.2.13 (a) Without field (b) With field 2 i 1d The ionic polarizability = 0, = = it) polarizability = o., ofl M here eis the charge of the electron, «0 is the angular frequency, m, mass ofthe positive ea pa / mass of the negative ion. So, the ionic polarizability (c,) is inversely proportional to : Square of the natural frequency of the ionic molecule and directly proportional to its reduce Mass Which is given (Lot). m2.22 Materials Science iii, Orientation Polarization Polar Molecules are the molecules, which have permanent dipole momen absence of an electric field as shown in Fig. 2.14a. Oaing The orientation polarization arises due to the presence of polar molecule in the medium. When a dielectric, which consists of polar molecules, is kept in an ett ti molecules align themselves along the field direction. So there is a resultant di the field direction, as shown in Fig.2.14b. ec electric § . {os a b) + Fig. 2.14 (a) Without field (b) With field Explanation: In the case of a CH;C| molecule, the positive and negative charges do not coin | The CI has more electro negativity than hydrogen. Therefore, the chlorine atoms pull the bon! electrons towards them more strongly than hydrogen atoms. Therefore, even in the absence! field, there exists a net dipole moment. _Now, when the field is applied, positive portion align along the direction of fie! negative portion align in the opposite direction of the field. This kind of polarization is cal orientation polarization. . ® This depends on temperature; when temperature is increased, the thermal energy te randomize the alignment. nb From Langevin’s theory of Paramagnetism, net intensity of magnetization = 34,7 Since, the same prineiple can be applied to the application of electric field we can write, eee — NwE Orientation polarization (P,) = NH 3K,r — NuoF a where Oo = 3K T He . . “ of! Therefore, orientational Polarizability is inversely proportional to the temperat material,Magnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.23 gpace-Charge Polarization x «ot ‘The space-charge polarization ‘occurs due to the diffusion of ions, along the field direction, hereby giving rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectrics, as shown in the Fig. 2.15 (a) and AD x) Li} @ \ Fig. 2.15 (a) Without field (b) With field Explanation Without the application of external field, the ions are orderly arranged as shown in the Fig. 2.15 (a). Now, when the field is applied, the ions diffuse with respect to the direction of applied field. Thus the polarization occurs, known as space charge polarization. Normally, this type of polarization occurs in ferrites and semiconductors and will be very small, Total Polarization Since space charge polarization is very small when compared fo other kinds of polarization itcan be neglected. Therefore, the total polarizability is given by e , any ar 1.1) 3K,T @= a, + a, + a = 4neR + We know that, total polarization P = NEa g 1 1 2 aps 242 P wt i (Lot) es| This equation is called as Langevin — Debye equation, O2742F=z02.24 Materials Science 10 Frequency and Temperature Dependence of Polarization Mechan When field is applied, the polarization occurs as a function of time, as a function of time t is given by im The polar; Tizati on Pi) =P fi-e/%] whee Bis the maximum polarization which occurs at a tat il apple foley jp isthe relaxation time. i. the time taken for polarization. It is a measure of. time geal polarization process. af Relaxation time is the time taken for the polarization process to reach 0,3 maximum value of polarization. Of te The relaxation times are different for different kinds of polarization mechanisms, (a) Frequency dependence Electronic Polarization is very rapid and will complete at the instant the Vola applied: the reason is that the electrons are very light elementary particles than ions, Ther even for very high frequency applied voltage in the optical range (=10'°Hz) as shown, Fig.3.25a. This kind of polarization occurs during every cycle of the applied voltage. Tonic polarization is slightly slower than the electronic polarization. Because ions xe heavier than the electron cloud. In addition, the frequency of the applied electric field vit which the ions will be displaced is equal to the frequency of the lattice vibrations (-10” Hi, At optical frequencies, there is no ionic polarization, If the frequency of the applied voles less than 10"? Hz, i.e. infrared range as shown in Fig.3.25a, the ions have enough time to respoad during each cycle of the applied field, Orientation Polarication is even slower than ionic polarization. The relaxation tine f this case varies with respect to the dielectric materials (i.e. solids or liquids) used. Here the polt molecules in a liquid easily reorient themselves compared to solids. This type of polarize occurs at audio and radio frequency ranges ( =10°Hz) as shown in Fig.2.16. P Space charge polarizati Orientation polarization lonic polarization Polarization Electronic polarization oe f Power’ Audio Radio Infrared Optical Frequency —_ Fig.2.16. Frequency dependence of various polarization mechanismsMagnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.25 MN é = Electrical: ~ trequencies Frequency-—— Fig. 2.17. Frequency versus Power loss of various polarization mechanisms Space charge polarication is the slowest process, because in this case the ions have to ‘diffuse (jump) over several interatomic distances. Also this process occurs at very low frequency inthe order 10° Hz as shown in Fig.2.16. Therefore from the Fig 2.16, we can observe that, at Toner frequencies all the four types of polarizations occur and the total polarization is maximum. addition, the total polarization value decreases with the increase in frequency and becomes Thinimum at optical frequency range. The power loss during various polarization processes as a finction of frequency is also given in Fig,2.17 for reference. (b) Temperature Dependence The electronic and ionic polarizations are independent of temperature, whereas the orientation and space charge polarizations are temperature dependent. The orientation polarization decreases with the increase in temperature because the randomizing action of thermal energy decreases the tendency of the permanent dipoles to align along the field direction. Hence, in this case the ¢, decreases. However, in space charge Polarization, when the temperature is increased, the ions can easily overcome the activation barrier and hence they diffuse through the inter atomic distances. Thus, it gives rise to | polarization. So in this case the ¢, will increase with the increase in temperature. 211 Dielectric loss electric field, the electrical energy is absorbed by the Ifa dielectric is subjected to an a I energy is dissipated in the form of heat energy. This dilecrie and certain quantity of electrical known as dielectric loss. _ The dielectric loss can occur both in direct and alternating voltages, The dielectric loss is lessin dj . "Sin direct voltage than that of alternating voltages. Loss in Purified Gas the If an altemating voltage is applied across the capacitor having vacuum (or) purified gas then the resulting current leads the applied voltage by 90°, as shown in Fig.3.2%(a) If ‘I’ lends actly by 90°, we can say that no electrical energy is lost | | | | h , AmMAV> TO2.26 Materials Science Explanation We know that, power loss Py, = VI cos 8, then 6 = 90°; P= 0 Fig. 2.18 (a) Fig. 2.18 (b) Loss in Commercial dielectric Now, when a practical dielectric is present, the current leads the voltage by (90-5); shows that there is some loss in electric energy and-8 is called loss angle, as show it Fig.2.18 (b). Explanation In this case, the power loss L = VI cos Since 6 = (90-5), we have P, = VIcos (90 - 8) 2-PL=VIsin 8 v ButV=IR (or) les R Ifthe capacitive reactance is X. then we can write, re Xs Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get, es Power loss p= sin 5 We know, capacitive reactance, X,= Ca where C= capacitance and © = angular frequencyMagnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.27 @) "cay “o= 2n f] @ substituting equation (4) in equation (3), we get "p= 2xfCV" sin 5 is very small, then sin § = tan 5 Power loss Py. = 20 CV? tan S Here tan 8 is called the power factor of the dielectric. iff, C, V are constants, then : Py © tand Naturally, the power loss varies with frequency. In the radio frequency region the power loss is high, due to the diffusion of ions from one equilibrium position to another. In the optical region the power loss is less because here the felectric loss is associated with the electrons. 2.12 Piezoelectric materials The word Piezo in Greek means pressure and therefore piezoelectricity means pressure lectricty. In certain crystals which lack certain symmetrical properties, a mechanical stress produces an electric polarization and reciprocally an applied field produces a mechanical strain. These effects are called the direct and the inverse piezoelectric effect. The materials which hibit the piezoelectric property are called as piezoelectric materials. Certain crystals like quartz (crystalline SiO,) and BaTiO; become polarized when they ue mechanically stressed. Charges appear on the surfaces of the crystal as shown in Fig. This eads to a voltage difference between two surfaces of the crystal. The same crystals also exhibit nechanical strain or distortion when they experience an electric field. The direction of extension compression depends on the direction of the applied field or polarity of the applied voltage. he two effects are complementary. Only certain crystals which have no center of symmetry can xhibit piezoelectricity. ——, P= Glass transition 3 Shinkage dae to oe 3 tivezing ‘Tn - Melting point a ~ Ciysallne slid Tj Tm Temperature (T) Fig, 2.27 Solldification of metallicMagnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.37 Fig.2.28 Melt spinning unit A melt spinner consists of a disc, usually of copper, which is rotated at a high speed to generate a rim velocity of more than SOms", A properly super heated molten alloy is ejected under pressure through a fine nozzle at the bottom of a refractory tube on to the spinning disc. The alloy is melted by induction heating under an inert helium or argon atmosphere. The ejection of melt is achieved by increasing the gas pressure. The dynamic melt puddle impinging on the moving substrate is solidified and thrown out of the wheel by the centrifugal force after traveling with it over a short distance A continuous ribbon is thus obtained and is wound on a spool. This technique produces a continuous ribbon of metallic glass of 0.002Sem thick and 1Sem wide. Applications Table 2.4 Applications of metallic glasses Property of the metallic glass Application Soft magnetic 'TV and audio transformers, memory cores in computers Strong Reinforcement of pressure vessel shieldings Malleable and ductile ‘Springs Corrosion resistant Surface corrosion prevention coatings for reactor vessels and marine cables High resistively with zero temperature _|Magneto-resistance sensors, standard resistances Coefficient of resistance Some metallic glasses are Production of high magnetic field Superconductors 1 affected by nuclear radiation [Containers for radioactive waste disposals uo H A Ae a E is2.38 Materials Science s Ceramics can be defined as inorganic non metallic materials which consist of, metallic elements. ‘metallic ang, te Unique properties of ceramics * They are hard and brittle * They exhibit low toughness and ductility © They have high melting point They possess high chemical stability in many hostile environment and, * They are good electrical and thermal insulators Ceramic materials Ceramic materials used for engineering applications can be classified into two groups, (i) Traditional Geramics and (ii) Advanced ceramics (@ Traditional ceramics The traditional ceramics are made from th traditional ceramics include bricks, files us used in electrical industry. ree basic elements: clay, silica and feldspar. Tk ed in the construction industry and electrical porcelsia (ii) Advanced ceramics Mi a “eran ne ttvanced ceramics are typically pure compounds such as silica carbide (SiC), silico |! & nitride (SisN,) and aluminium oxide (IOs). Advanced ceramics also include compounds 4 | «C, ZrOs, MgO, AIN, BaTiO. rae 3aTiO3, PbZITiOs etc. The advanced ceramics have bas, re ferroelectric, piezoelectric, pyro electric, superconducting, electrical and gas setsisf properties, In addition, advanced ceramies have superior combination of thermal, insulting * mechanical properties. Because of these properties they find huge applications in the pach#s'* comes aelectronics and power semiconductors, Thus the advanced ee aerial becon comer stone for advanced technologies j tte ud it in the thrust ar ergy, transpo' manufacturing, information and medical eas such as energy, Processing of advanced ceramics Ceramic processing involves three Steps. They are (i) Material preparation (ii) Forming or casting and (ii) Thermal treatmentMagnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.39 terial Preparation jc products are made by th i i i ‘Most ceramic pro me he aggolomeration of particles. The processing of Jes involves steps such as milling and sizing to produces powder with desied particle size, pend particle size distribution. In some advanced ceramics, ceramic particles re produced by Peal means. Then fine particles and binders or lubricants are blended wet or dry or both wet of ar. For example, to produce Alumina insulator, the fine particles are milled with a wax binder. (gi Forming Ceramic products are formed by pressing the dry, plastic or wet condition into a die to form *saped products. It is formed by dry pressing technique. Dry pressing technique is defined as the simultaneous uniaxial compression and shaping of granular powder along with small amount of ater and/or organic binder. After cold pressing the parts are usually fixed (sintered) to achieve the required strength and microstructural properties. (ii) Thermal treatment It is an‘essential step in the manufacturing of most ceramic products. It consists of two steps. a) Drying and b) Sintering p The purpose of drying ceramic is to remove water from the plastic ceramic body 1g to remove water and binder is carried out in the Drying: before itis fired at high temperature. Dryin; range 200 to 300°C. Sintering: It is the process by wi solid-state diffusion. During this process coherent product. fhich small particles of a material bonded together by fy ramic porous product is made into a dense are coalesced by solid state diffusion at very hi f the compound being sintered. In sintering, atomic faces of the particles so that they become During sintering, the ceramic particle: temperature but below the melting point o difision takes place between the contacting su chemically bounded together. les are formed at the expense of the smaller particl i d. The driving force for As the sintering process continues larger reformed att librium grain size i attaines Ones. Finally at the end of the process an equil process is the lowering of the energy of the system. f Sintering is commonly used to produce ceramic products made of alumina, ferrite and itanate ete, | iC, densifiention is enrried out by chemical reaction at "Renetion’ Sintering as shown in Fig.5.16, The powder desired shapes and exposed to high femperature (0 Si vigy ( 89Me advanced crams lke S mngghPerature, This proces sealed vaittte of Si and C is formed into the Pour or molten Si, The reaction with Si produces S FC which bonds to the original SiC product, O2znas>=02.40 Materials Science and the excess Si infiltrates the product's pores.at a controlled rate. The result is non composite (SiC/C) with varying degree of strength and elasticity. Properties and applications of some advanced ceramics Table 2.5 reveals the properties and applications of some advanced ceramic materials, Table 2.5 Properties and applications of some advanced ceramics S.No] Field Property Applications Geel T Thermal [Insulation [High temperature furnace AO, S10 gs [2r0,, Sid. * IRefractoriness High temperature furnace 10. Si. inings * [Thermal Heat sinks for electronic ALN [Conductivity Ipackaves > Electrical — [Conducting [Heating element for Fummaces Si 105i: HInsulator in hostile ISpark plug IAl.0;" [Envizonment fon Conducting ISensor, fuel cells \2r0,.B —. [Ferro electric” Capacitors Ba. io Ce [Semi Conducting |Thermistor heating elements [Oxides ofMaFe, lon — linear 1- V |Variastor [doped sic [Characteristics lAnd 2n0; [Gas sensitive Ges gente [Gas sensors Sn0,, Zn0 5 Mechanical Hardness (Cutting tools Sc whe Wear resistance [Bearings Ken igh temperature and Stators, Turbine blades ISisNe JF fHegnetie S08 magnet Transformer Comes, (oaneor Soe os Magnetic tapes \Waer M=Na | lHard magnet Ferrite ma Ba, 8106 - rite magnets a, 8190 Super conductivity [Wires and SQUID Meee, [5 —_|Nuclear —TFisston Seemometers cI luclear fu addi , Ul | ful cladding "8 beresic / Imoderator CBO Eo [Fusion [Tritium breeder material frosts sal is ILiO, tical | Visible Transparency Wao Sg Te IR transpay ptical fibre Pure SiO: sci INon linearity nltared laser windows cars SN) Switching devices {A103 Met | —[ohemical —Jomaa in optical communication Filters Purivcation of” eoTies lAnticorrosion fpataust gas : Property, at exchangers sic [Biocompatability araiesion environment Hificial joints prostheses JALOsMagnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.41 SEO Noe < 144 Composites Jptroduction site materials (or composites for short) are engineered materials made from two fifferent materials in which one of the materials, called the reinforcing phase, is in the form of fer, shees, or particles, and is embedded in the other materials called the matrix phase, The reinforcing ‘material and the matrix material can be metal, ceramic, or polymer. Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with low densities while the matrix is usually a ductile, or tough, material. If the composite is designed and fabricated correctly, it combines the strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to achieve a combination of desirable properties pot available in any single conventional material Comp | Mechanies of composite materials The physical properties of composite materials are generally not isotropic (independent of direction of applied force) in nature, but rather are typically orthotropic (different depending on the direction of the applied force or load). For instance, the stiffness of a composite panel will ofien depend upon the orientation of the applied forces and/or moments. Panel stiffness is also dependent on the design of the panel. For instance, the fiber reinforcement and matrix used, the method of panel build, thermoset versus thermoplastic, type of weave, and orientation of fiber axis to the primary force. In contrast, isotropic materials (for example, typically have the same stiffness regardless of and/or moments. aluminium or steel), in standard wrought forms, the directional orientation of the applied forces ents and strains/curvatures for an isotropic material can be The relationship between forces/mom« ‘Young's Modulus, the Shear Modulus and the described with the following material properties: ear Mod od the Poisons ratio, in relatively simple mathematical relationships. For the anisotropic material, it requires the mathematics of a second order tensor and up to 21 material property constants. For the special case of orthogonal isotropy, there are three different material property constinks for each of Young's Modulus, Shear Modulus and Poisson's ratio~a total of 9 constants to describe the relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures. Failure of composites Shack, impact, or repeated cyclic stresses can cause the laminate (0 separate at the interface between two layers, a condition known as delamination. Individual fibers can separate from the Matrix e.g. fiber pull-out. Composites can fail on the microscopic or macroscopic scale. Compression failures can occur at th the macro scale or at each individual reinforcing fiber in compression buckling, Tension flares can be net section failures ofthe part or degradation of the composite a a mit ATOR Scale where one or more of the layers in the composite fail in tension of the matrix or failure the Sond between the matrix and fibers. Some composites are brite and have litle reserve strength beyond the itil onset of Talive Mhile othe Si 1d he serve energy absorbing capacity past the TS may I deformations and have res g i Seo danas Te aceon in fier and mares tat fe avaiable and he stretch Made with bl] broad range of | properties that can be designed into a composite ‘cture. The Tea aye a ce occured ‘when the carbon-fiber wing of the Space Shuttle Put bed ies ea)2.42 Materials Science Columbia fractured when impacted during take-off. It led to catastrophic break-y PF the ve when it re-entered the earth's atmosphere on February 1, 2003. Examples of composite materials Fiber reinforced polymers or FRPs include wood (comprising cellulose fibers in a lignin hemicellulose matrix), carbon-fiber reinforced plastic or CFRP, and glass reinforced plas GRP. If classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short fiber thermoplasg long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics. There are numerous themosg |/ composites, but advanced systems usually incorporate aramid fibre and carbon fibre in an ara | resin matrix. Y Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in metal matrix compost | MMC. Magnesium is often used in MMCs because it has similar mechanical properties as epory. |" The benefit of magnesium is that it does not degrade in outer space. Ceramic matrix composts} include bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers), Cermet (ceramic and meta) ani |®™ concrete. Ceramic matrix composites are built primarily for toughness, not for strength. Organic matris/ceramic aggregate composites include asphalt concrete, mastic asphalt, mastic roler | ie hybrid, dental composite, syntactic foam and mother of pearl. Chobham armour is a spel composite used in military applications. Additionally, thermoplastic composite materials can be formulated with specific metal powdes | I resulting in materials with a density range from 2 g/cc to 11 g/cc (same density as lead) Thee materials can be used in place of traditional materials such as aluminum, stainless steel, bas bronze, copper, lead, and even tungsten in weighting, balancing, vibration dampening, ani | i radiation shielding applications. High density composites are an economically viable optim When certain materials are deemed hazardous and are banned (such as lead) or when secondary he operations costs (such as machining, finishing, or coating) are a factor. Engineered wood includes a wide variety of different products such as plywood, oriented strand} Ik board, wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix), Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix), Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles, Arborite, Formica (plastic) id Micarta. Other engineered laminate composites, such as Mallite, use a central core of end grain balsa wood, bonded to surface skins of light alloy or GRP. These generate low-weight, high rigidity materials, Typical products =~ 2 fas Composite materials have gained popularity (despite their generally high cost) in bis performance products that need to be at lightweight, yet strong enough to take harsh leant conditions such as aerospace components (tails, wings, fuselages, propellers), boat and Tae se ge, Hames and racing car bodies. Other uses include fishing nods and storage | So eeceet ine 787 Dreamliner stricture including the wings and fusciage is composed of 50 percent composites, Carbon composite is a key material in today’s launch vehicles and spacecrafts. It is widely vs in solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes of spacecrafis. It is also used in p*Y adapters, inter-stage structures and heat shields of launch vehicles,Magnetic, Dielectric and Modern Engineering Materials 2.43 , Solved Problems magnetic material has a magnetization of 2300Am" and produces a flux density of + 00314Wbm”. Calculate the magnetizing force and the relative permeability of the material. Given data ‘Magnetization M=2300Am" Flux density B=0.00314Wbm” Solution The magnetic flux density B = zo (M+H) _ B : ‘The magnetizing force H=2.—y¢ =29314- _4399-198.7326 Am" Me An x10™ The susceptibility x = oom — : M 2300 where j,i the relative permeability, ie. yu,= “2-41 = 1=12.57334 ere ji, is the ive pi ility, Le. 4, re 198703 3. The magnetizing force H_= 198.7326 Am" The relative permeability pt, = 12.57334 . A paramagnetic material has a magnetic field intensity of 10° Am’. If the susceptibility of the material at room temperature is 3.7x10" calculate the magnetization and flux density in the material . Given data ‘The magnetic field intensity H=10'Am™ The susceptibility y= 3.7410? Solution The susceptibilit ” susceptibility = Fy The magnetization M_= yH= 3.710°x10'=370 Am! Thefluxdensity B= po(M+H)= 4107 x10370= 1,30313%10? Wom? The magnetization in the material = 370 Amt The lux density inthe material = 1.30313*10" Wom?2.44 Materials Science i Short Questions = <———————__ Define: Magnetic dipole moment Define magnetic flux density. Define: magnetic field strength. Define: Intensity of Magnetisation Define magnetic susceptibility. Magnetic permeability (1) Relative permeability (,) Define: Bohr Magneton (1B) What are the properties of dia magnetic materials? Write the properties of paramagnetic materials. What are the properties of Ferro magnetic materials? What are the properties of Antiferro magnetic materials? What are the properties of ferri magnetic materials? Write a note on regular spinel structure of ferrites. Write a note on inverse spinel structure of ferrites. What are the applications of ferrites? What are garnets? Write few examples for garnets. What are the applications of garnets? ‘What are magnetic bubbles? What are the applications of magnetic bubbles? What is magnetoresistance? What is Giant Magnetoresistance? What is Colossal Magnetoresistance? Write few applications of GMR and CMR materials. What are dielectrics? Define Active diclectries Define : Passive dielectrics Define: Electric field strength or electric field intensity (E) Define: Electric flux () Define: Electric flux density or electric displacement vector (D) Define: Permittivity (e)Define: Dielectric Constant (¢,) Define : Electric polarization, Define :Polarizability (c.) Define: Polarization vector Define: Electric susceptibility (y.) What are electronic and ionic polarization mechanisms? What are orientation and space charge polarization mechanisms? Explain the temperature dependence of various polarization mechanisms. What is dielectric loss? What is piezoelectric effect? Define: Electromechanical coupling factor. Name few important piezoelectric materials; What are the applications of piezoelectric materials? What are ferroelectric materials? What is ferroelectric curie temperature? Name few important ferroelectric materials. What are the applications of ferroelectric materials? What are shape memory alloys? What is pseudo — elasticity? What is shape memory effect ? What are the advantages and disadvantages of shape memory alloys? Write few applications of shape memory alloys? What are metallic glasses? Write the unique properties of metallic glasses. Write the properties and applications of metallic glasses. What are ceramics? Write the properties of ceramics. Write some important applications of ceramics. Magnetic, Dielectric and ‘Modern Engineering Materials 2.452.46 Materials Science ————____—_——— Descriptive Questions 13, 14, 18. 16. Classify the magnetic materials on the basis of their spin and based on the ay of hysteresis loop. : What are ferrites? Explain their different types of structures. Write their applications. Write a note on properties, synthesis and applications of garnets. Write a note on magnetic bubbles and their applications. Write a note on Giant Magnetoresistance and Colossal Magnetoreistance. Name the four types of polarization mechanisms in dielectric materials and explain. Explain (i) frequency dependence and (ji) frequency versus power loss of various polarization mechanisms. Write a note on piezoelectric materials and their applications. Write a note on ferroelectric materials and their applications. What are shape memory alloys? Explain Shape memory effect and pseulo elasticity. Write a note on SMA materials and their applications. What are the advantages and disadvantages of shape memory alloys? What are metallic glass alloys? Explain the properties of metallic glasses? Wilt their applications. Write melt spinning method of preparing metallic glasses, What are ceramic materials? Distinguish between traditional and advanced ceramics, What are advanced ceramics? Give examples, How they are synthesized? ‘What are the applications of advanced ceramics? Explain them,