ACTIONS ON

AIR QUALITY
Policies & Programmes for Improving
Air Quality Around the World
Where is the world in taking action to improve air quality? Air Quality Policy
Actions World-Wide
Non-solid
Indoor Air fuels access
In 2012, the World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated that poor air quality causes between 7 and
Pollution
8 million premature deaths every year. This makes air pollution the leading environmental cause of
Cook/
heating stoves premature deaths. Exposure to indoor and outdoor air pollution is closely linked to increased occurrences
of cardiovascular diseases, such as strokes and heart disease, as well as cancer and respiratory diseases.

Fuels & Vehicle emission

standards Recognising the growing global threat of air pollution, the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA)
Vehicles
adopted resolution 1/7: Strengthening the Role of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in
Promoting Air Quality in June 2014. UNEP was requested to make an overview of the actions taken by
Fuel sulphur
content governments to promote better air quality. The results are shared in an online catalogue of 194 countries1.
Based on the catalogue, fourteen sub-regional reports and this global summary were prepared describing
Public
ten key actions being undertaken by governments around the world to improve air quality.
Transport Public transport
From the analysis of the data provided by governments and other publicly available materials on air quality,
a set of ten key policy actions were identified that if adopted would significantly improve air quality. This
Industrial energy
efficiency
report presents an overview of these ten policy actions and indicates how many countries have adopted
Industry
these actions (green), are on the way to adopting them (orange), or have yet to adopt or implement these
actions (red). Although “green’ indicates countries that have adopted these policy actions, it does not
Clean production
Incentives necessarily indicate that these countries have already fully implemented these policies.

Waste These ten policy actions are organized into six categories; 1) indoor air pollution, 2) vehicle emissions, 3)
Waste
Burning burning public and non-motorized transport, 4) industrial emissions, 5) open burning of waste, and 6) national
air quality standards and regulations. World maps indicating where all countries are in regard to the six
categories are provided in the global snapshot at the end of this report.
Laws &
Air Quality regulations
Progress has been made across these categories in different countries and there are illustrative case studies
Laws/
demonstrating good practices to be found across all geographic regions. When analysing the air quality
Regul ations Air quality
standards policies and programmes for the 194 countries a few crosscutting challenges were distilled: ineffective
implementation and enforcement of existing policies and regulations; limited cooperation between
national and city administration; the universal need for monitoring and assessment; and the importance
0 194 of behavioural change and public participation through awareness and stakeholder involvement.
No. of Countries

This publication provides a snapshot of the progress being made to adopt and implement key actions that This report takes stock of the progress being made globally in introducing ten key policy actions to improve
can significantly improve air quality. Many of the 194 countries have implemented policies and activities indoor and outdoor air quality.
(green) and others are in process (orange), while others still have to adopt or implement them (red). Grey
means data was not available. 1 Details can be found at: http://www.unep.org/transport/airquality/
 In the United Kingdom, The Quality Assured Fuel Scheme
Indoor Air Pollution provides recognised standards for wood and biomass fuel
quality, and a scheme for testing and approving solid fuel
and biomass appliances. A national information campaign
was implemented in 2015 to provide information and
Access to Non-Solid Fuels encourage uptake of more efficient and cleaner wood
burning stoves.
More than 85% of the population have Between 35 and 85% of the population have
access to non-solid fuels access to non-solid fuels

Less than 35% of the population have No data

access to non-solid fuels
Efficient Cook / Heating Stoves

Countries with programmes to promote Countries without programmes to promote

efficient cookstoves efficient cookstoves

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

No. of Countries
Around half of the estimated 7-8 million premature deaths annually are caused by indoor
air pollution, the main source being cooking and heating with solid fuels - wood and
other biomass based fuels - over open fires. The two actions that can dramatically lower
biomass use and improve indoor air quality are the use of efficient cook/heating stoves
To promote the use of clean fuels,
and cleaner burning fuels.
Costa Rica provides tax benefits The Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy launched
and subsidies for LPG (cooking gas). a programme in December 2009 aimed at distributing more
Out of the 194 countries, 97 countries have increased the percentage of households that The national electricity company than 2.7 million cook stoves in the country. Several initiatives
have access to cleaner burning fuels to greater than 85%, as indicated in the above figure. provides solar panels for lighting to ensured that the cook stoves were culturally acceptable and
However, more than half of the world’s population live in countries that have significantly households that are not connected locally appropriate. In addition, the cook stoves had to be
lower access rates to cleaner burning fuels. As a result, more than 3 billion people to the grid. efficient, cost effective, durable and easy to use. To achieve
continue to use solid fuels and open fires for cooking and heating.
these requirements, the ministry increased investment in
research and development and established a state-of-the-art
Even with increased access to cleaner fuels, households may opt for solid fuels due to facility for testing, certifying and monitoring the cook stoves. 
affordability and / or reliability. For example, more than 85% of households in eleven out
of twelve Caribbean countries have access to non-solid fuels. Despite this, the use of solid The Sustainable Heating Programme under
fuels to meet household energy demand is the predominant driver of air quality-related the Ministry of Environment in Chile
health impacts in the sub-region. A similar situation is found in Central and South America. exchanges old wood stoves with new
efficient stoves such as wood pallet stoves,
133 of the 194 countries have programmes to promote the use of efficient cook/heating gas stoves and certified wood stoves. This
stoves. In most OECD countries these programmes are aimed at promoting efficient programme is mainly implemented in
heating stoves, while in most developing countries they are aimed at promoting efficient polluted cities where one of the principal
cook stoves. Although these programmes exist, they do not always translate into a wide causes of air pollution is residential wood
uptake of the clean stoves due to issues of culture, affordability and marketing. Therefore, burning.
the “green” in the figure above indicates countries that have programmes to promote
efficient cook/heating stoves and does not indicate the effectiveness of these programmes.

Fuels & Vehicles
Vehicle Emission Standards
Euro 4 and above Less than Euro 4 No Standards No data
Fuel Sulphur Content
50ppm and less Between 51-500ppm Greater than 500ppm
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
No. of Countries
Reducing vehicle emissions is an important intervention to improve air
quality, especially in urban areas. Policies and standards that require
the use of cleaner fuels and advanced vehicle emissions standards can
reduce vehicle emissions by 90% or more. 29% of countries worldwide
have adopted Euro 4 and above (or its equivalent) emissions standards
(22% are actually on Euro 5 or 6). However, half of the countries in the
world (90) have not adopted any vehicles emissions standards.
Fuels and vehicles work as a system and therefore to achieve maximum
benefits both have to be improved simultaneously. One key measure
for fuel quality is its sulphur content. A maximum allowable sulphur
content of 50 parts per million (ppm) is the level at which advanced clean
vehicle technologies can bear significant air quality benefits. Out of 194
countries, 66 countries (34%) have a 50 ppm or better standard.
North America, some of North Asia and most of Europe have stringent
standards for both light and heavy duty vehicles, and provide ultra-
low sulphur fuels. This has resulted in decreased emissions from the
transport sector. However, transport is still a significant source of outdoor
air pollution, especially in urban areas, due to the sheer number of
vehicles. Therefore, policies that have successfully reduced urban air
pollution from transport have combined the introduction of cleaner fuels
and vehicles with actions to promote alternatives to private car use.
Norway is actively promoting the purchase of electric
vehicles. Incentives such as purchase tax and VAT
exemptions, as well as bus lanes access and exemptions
from road tolls, are considered major drivers of the
increased electric vehicle ownership. In 2015 a quarter
of all new vehicles sales were electric.
By implementing the European Commission
directives on vehicle emissions, the 28 European
Union member states have tightened their vehicle
No data emission standards to Euro 6 /VI (for light and
heavy duty vehicles). A directive from the European
180
Commission moved all countries to low sulphur fuels
and ultimately to ultra-low sulphur (10ppm) fuels for
both petrol and diesel.
Discussions on implementing Euro 4 light-duty
vehicle emission standards and low sulphur fuel
(50ppm petrol and diesel) started in Thailand in
2008. The initiative was led by the Pollution Control
Countries with low Sulphur fuels (50ppm) and advanced vehicle Department and supported by other government
emission standards (Euro 4)
agencies, oil companies and stakeholders. These
Countries with either low Sulphur fuels (50ppm) or advanced vehicle standards were implemented in 2011 and the level
emission standards (Euro 4)
of air pollutants (SO2, CO, TSP, PM10 and NOx) in
Countries with neither low Sulphur fuels (50ppm) nor advanced vehicle
emission standards (Euro 4) Bangkok decreased notably as a result, despite the
No data sharply increasing vehicle population.
Although the national standard in Mexico In 2013, the East African Community (EAC) initiated
is 500 ppm sulphur content in diesel, discussions on the implementation of harmonized low
ultra-low (15 ppm) sulphur diesel is used sulphur fuel standards for East Africa. The EAC Secretariat
in three major metropolitan areas, the gazetted the harmonized low sulphur standards by the
northern border cities and eleven national end of 2013 with an effective implementation date of 1
freight corridors. This provides the benefits January 2015. As a result, the five East African member
of cleaner fuels to high-density population states – Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda
centres in advance of a country-wide – moved as a block to low sulphur (50 ppm) fuels as of
introduction of a national low sulphur January 2015.
standard.

Public Transport
Public Transport
Countries that have made major investments in public transport in the last 5 years
Countries that have made some investments in public transport in the last 5 years
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
No. of Countries
Given the increased congestion experienced in many urban areas, maintaining
and increasing the modal share of public transport is essential for increasing
mobility while decreasing transport emissions. The above figure indicates that
many countries have made significant investments in expanding public transport
systems over the past five years. In the figure, a ‘red’ rating in some cases indicates
countries that have well-established and efficient public systems that did not
required major investments in the last five years. Conversely, a ‘green’ rating
doesn’t suggest that the public transport system is sufficient; rather it indicates
that significant efforts are underway to expand public transport. 65 out of the
194 countries have made significant investments in expanding and / or upgrading
public transport systems in the past five years.
In the last five years major investments in public transport were carried out in
highly urbanised countries in South America and Europe. In addition, countries
with megacities - cities with more than 10 million inhabitants - recorded increased
investments in public transport. For countries experiencing rapid urbanisation
rates, investments in public transport were meager in the last five years, with only
seven countries in Africa making major investments in public transport.
For public transport systems to be efficient, consideration must be given to how
people travel from home to the bus/train stations and vice versa. Consequently,
investments in Non-Motorised Transport (NMT) infrastructure must go hand
in hand with public transport investments. In most instances, NMT is often
not prioritised, even though significant proportions of the population in many
countries walk or use bicycles.
Singapore has a comprehensive public and non-motorized transport system with a citywide network of walking
and biking paths, trains and buses. The Transport Master Plan will double the rail network by 2030 to 360km,
increase the number of trains, buses and bus routes, and give buses priority on the road. In addition, the city
will build 200km of sheltered walkways, add more integrated transport hubs so people can easily switch between
different modes, and expand the cycling path network to over 700km in length
TransJakarta is a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in Jakarta,
Indonesia. The buses run in dedicated lanes, and ticket prices are
subsidized. In 2014, the buses carried 111.6 million passengers.
Currently TransJakarta has the world's longest BRT system (208 km
in length), with 12 primary routes and 10 cross-corridor routes, with
160 180
three more corridors being added. In addition, there are 18 'feeder'
routes that continue into the municipalities surrounding Jakarta.
Japan’s four major islands, Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, are covered by an extensive and reliable
network of railways. 72% of passenger-km in Japan is by rail, while only 13% is by motor vehicles. Globally, the
country has the fourth highest distance travelled by passengers on railways in a year (after India, China and the
European Union). The privatised network requires few subsidies and runs extremely punctually; it is a cheaper
and faster option compared to driving within major cities. NMT is also popular, and Tokyo is doubling the amount
of bicycle lanes to encourage cycling; 16% of commuters already use bicycles. There is a Cycling Embassy of Japan
to further promote cycling.
In Bolivia, a new municipal bus system in La Paz serves remote
hillside neighbourhoods with three routes, with another four
to follow. To further reduce emissions from transport, the
government of Bolivia is offering loans to taxi and mini-van unions
to purchase modern buses that run on natural gas, while diesel-
powered buses are being converted to compressed natural gas as
part of a national project.
Curitiba, Brazil has integrated its zoning laws and transportation planning to promote high-density development
adjacent to high-capacity transportation systems. The city uses participatory city planning that emphasizes public
education, discussion and agreement. As a result, 80% of Curitiba’s commuters use the bus rapid transit system
to travel to work, causing a reduction of about 27 million auto trips per year. Compared to eight other Brazilian
cities of similar size, Curitiba uses about 30% less fuel per capita and has one of the lowest rates of ambient air
pollution in the country. There are 50 times more people using public transport now than 20 years ago; 1,100
buses make 12,500 trips every day, serving more than 1.3 million passengers.
 In South Africa, energy production from coal power plants is
Industry a leading cause of air pollution. To minimise this dependency
on coal, the South African government has initiated several In Sweden, potential air pollution
incentives and support schemes to encourage investments impacts are a factor taken into
in renewable energy production, including various funds, tax account when issuing industrial
Industrial Energy Efficiency allowances and deductions.  permits. In addition, a sulphur tax
is charged for electricity and heat
More than 9 USD per kg of oil equivalent Between 5 and 9 USD per kg of oil equivalent
production from sulphur containing
Less than 5 USD per kg of oil equivalent No data
fuels. The tax can be reduced if
Clean Production Incentives
the sulphur emissions are mitigated
Sub regional energy efficiency (GDP per unit of energy use)
through exhaust emission control
100%
Countries with incentives for energy efficiency, clean technology, pollution control, renewable energy systems.
90%
Countries with no incentives

Percentage of countries
80%
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 70%
No. of Countries 60%

Economic incentives can spur investments in cleaner technologies that 50%

reduce air pollution. In many countries, energy production is one of the 40%
leading sources of air pollutants. Therefore, policies and programmes aimed 30% Companies in Denmark are obliged
at increasing energy efficiency and production from renewable sources are 20% to use the best available technology,
considered to have a direct impact on a country’s air quality. In addition, 10% and this contributed to a 26.3%
some countries are putting in place programmes and incentives to clean up 0% improvement in energy efficiency
existing power plants that use fossil fuels. between 1990 and 2010, and a 20.2%
improvement in overall final-consumer
Based on publically available data and government reports, at least 82 efficiency.
countries (42%) out of 194 have incentives that promote investment in
renewable energy production, cleaner production, energy efficiency and /
or pollution control equipment.
More than 9 USD per kg of oil equivalent Between 5 and 9 USD per kg of oil equivalent

Energy efficiency is an indicator of the potential of a country’s industrial Less than 5 USD per kg of oil equivalent No data
sector to impact air quality. Low energy efficiency generally indicates the use
of outdated technologies which tend to emit more air pollutants. In 2012, Brazil’s national emission standards were applied retroactively to
Singapore provides tax incentives to encourage the switch
older industrial facilities, including boilers, electrical turbines, oil refineries,
to cleaner, energy efficient equipment and to install pollution
In the top figure above, the green colour indicates countries that have high steel mills, aluminium smelters, lead foundries, cement kilns and fertiliser
control equipment. In order to monitor air pollution emissions
industrial energy efficiency, measured as GDP per unit of energy used. Some factories. The Brazilian Energy Efficiency Program requires electricity
from stationary sources, there are industrial CCTV systems and
countries in this category have taken actions to encourage investments in producers to spend 0.5% of their net income in energy efficiency projects.
telemetric in-stack continuous monitoring systems. Air quality
cleaner and efficient production. However, the green also indicates countries Brazil has several regulatory, institutional and economic incentives to spur
data is updated hourly on the National Environment Agency’s
with limited industrial base and therefore their GDP is primarily derived from investments in renewable energy especially wind, solar and mini hydro.
website.
less energy intense sectors such as agriculture. However, future economic
growth could lead to increased industrial activity and increased air pollution
if outdated technologies are used

WASTE
BURNING
Open Burning of Agricultural and/ or Municipal Waste
Burning of both agricultural and municipal waste is strictly regulated
Burning of either agricultural or municipal waste is regulated but still practised
Burning of both agricultural and municipal waste is not regulated and is commonly practised
No data
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
No. of Countries
Open burning of waste emits air pollutants that are known to have severe health
impacts. An estimated 166 out of 194 countries (86%) practice open burning of
agricultural and / or municipal wastes, as shown in the figure above. In countries
where municipal waste burning is frequently practiced, some or all waste streams
are not collected by the authorities. This increases the likelihood of households
burning their solid wastes on their own premises, despite regulations banning the
practice.
Open burning of agricultural waste is also a major driver of deteriorating air quality,
both locally and regionally. Due to long range transport of these emissions, their
impacts can be experienced in other regions.
The green colour indicates countries were open burning of municipal waste is
regulated and generally not practiced, and open burning of agricultural waste is
controlled and allowed with special permits. The orange colour indicates countries
where policies and regulations prohibiting open burning of municipal and or
agricultural waste may exist but are not implemented or enforced, and thus open
waste burning of either (municipal or agricultural waste) is commonly practised.
The red colour indicates countries where open burning of both municipal and
agricultural waste is commonly practiced.
The figure above only summarizes open burning of wastes, and therefore emissions
from forest and savannah fires are not included.
The Environment and Energy Management Agency of
France aims at producing more than 100 TWh of energy
from biogas annually by the year 2050. To achieve this,
it plans to build at least 600 biogas plants every year
to handle various waste streams. Most of the biogas
produced will be injected into the national grid, and
approximately a third of it will be used for electricity
generation, while 20% of it will be used to produce heat.
Meanwhile, on-farm and centralised biogas plants are
used as a means for managing agricultural waste.
140 160 180
In the last decade, the District of Caterina, Italy
has been able to increase its waste recycling rate
from 35% to over 80%. The District was also the
pioneer in waste separation at source, and has
instituted several waste prevention policies. Among
them is the “pay as you throw” policy, where the
cost of waste collection varies depending on the
amount of waste generated.
In 2005-2006, more than 25 million hectares in Brazil
were under conservation agriculture. Under conservation
agriculture, crop residue from the previous harvest is left
on the land rather than burned. In addition to lowering air
pollution, this practice significantly improves soil quality,
water conservation and harvest yields. The production of
conservation agriculture equipment in Brazil has enabled
the adoption of the practice.
 Israel’s Clean Air Law of 2008 is the principal legislative instrument for controlling air pollution in
AIR QUALITY LAWS / the country. It sets requirements for emission permits from major industrial polluters. Emissions
permit regulations require applications to be based on Best Available Techniques. To improve
REGULATIONS enforcement of laws and regulations, the Ministry of Environmental Protection implements
spot checks. Violations of emission standards lead to any of a number of penalties, including
temporary or permanent shutdown of a business, clean up and remediation orders, permit
revocation, fines and / or possible imprisonment. Industries are also required to report on the
Laws & Regulations results of their self-monitoring once a year.

Countries with nationwide air quality laws/regulations

No nationwide air quality laws or regulations / No data
Air Quality Standards

Countries with ambient air quality standards

Countries without ambient air quality standards / No data

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

No. of Countries
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (AAQS) provide a framework under which
local and state policies, actions and programmes can be harmonised. 109 out of 194
countries (56%) have established AAQS. However, some of these countries do not have In South Africa, the Air Quality Act
the accompanying laws and regulations that would facilitate the implementation and includes a national air quality framework
enforcement of the AAQS. Only 73 countries (38%) have a specific air quality policy, that establishes air quality management
Act or Rules. measures. Areas where air quality is of
particular concern can be designated as
Although 109 countries have established AAQS, not all the countries have standards for Countries with AAQS and air quality laws & regulations priority areas for air quality management.
the six criterion pollutants that are considered most harmful to human and ecosystem Once these areas have been established,
Countries with either AAQS or air quality laws & regulations
health. These six criterion pollutants are Carbon monoxide (CO), Ozone (O3), Sulphur regulations for implementing and
oxides (SOx), Nitrogen oxides (NOx), Particulate Matter (PM) and lead. In addition, the Countries without AAQS and air quality laws & regulations enforcing air quality management plans
AAQS in some countries do not meet the WHO recommended standards. are put in place. This ensures that
No data
resources, both human and monetary,
In many countries, particulate matter is regulated as PM10 (particulate matter with can be mobilised and used to improve air
a diameter less than 10micro meters). Several studies have indicated that PM2.5 quality in the priority localities.
The USA Clean Air Act provides the principal framework for national, state,
(particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 micro meters) is more detrimental tribal and local efforts to protect air quality, public health and welfare
to human health than PM10, and therefore there is a need to also regulate PM2.5 nationwide. The law requires the US Environmental Protection Agency
concentrations. (EPA) to establish national ambient air quality standards based on the latest
science and to regulate emissions of listed toxic air pollutants. It requires
In addition to the establishment of AAQS, air quality monitoring and modelling are states to adopt enforceable plans to achieve the standards. Penalties can
important tools necessary in air quality management. In most countries, air quality be levied on states where the standards are not being met. The EPA uses
monitoring is conducted sporadically, if at all. With little air quality data, it is difficult civil and criminal enforcement for violations that threaten communities and
to evaluate the potential air quality impacts on a country from various sources, and the environment.
therefore impacts can be underestimated
 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT Indoor Air Pollution

Information presented here was obtained from

governments and publicly available materials
and can be found on the UNEP Air Quality Policy
Catalogue via www.unep.org/transport/airquality.
Countries with good access to non solid fuels and For comments and updates please contact:
programmes to promote efficient cook/heating stoves
air.quality@unep.org
Countries that lack either good access to non solid fuels or
programmes to promote efficient cook/heating stoves

Countries that have no good access to non solid fuels and do

not have programmes to promote efficient cook/heating stoves

No data

Fuels & Vehicles Public Transport

Countries with low Sulphur fuels (50ppm) and advanced vehicle

emission standards (Euro 4)

Countries with either low Sulphur fuels (50ppm) or advanced vehicle Countries that have made major investments in public transport in the last 5 years
emission standards (Euro 4)
Countries that have made some investments in public transport in the last 5 years
Countries with neither low Sulphur fuels (50ppm) nor advanced vehicle
emission standards (Euro 4)
No data
 GLOBAL SNAPSHOT Industry

Information presented here was obtained from

governments and publicly available materials
and can be found on the UNEP Air Quality Policy
Countries with incentives and high industrial energy efficiency Catalogue via www.unep.org/transport/airquality.
Countries with incentives and low industrial energy efficiency
For comments and updates please contact:
or no incentives but have high industrial energy efficiency air.quality@unep.org
Countries with low industrial energy efficiency and no incentives

No data

Waste Burning Air Quality Laws/ Regul ations

Countries with AAQS and air quality laws & regulations

Burning of both agricultural and municipal waste is strictly regulated Countries with either AAQS or air quality laws & regulations

Burning of either agricultural or municipal waste is regulated but still practised Countries without AAQS and air quality laws & regulations
Burning of both agricultural and municipal waste is not regulated and is commonly practised
No data No data
 For a detailed description of actions taken by countries to improve air quality,
fourteen sub-regional reports and a methodology note on how this report was
prepared, please go to http://www.unep.org/transport/airquality/

Contact us

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

Transport Unit
Energy, Climate, and Technology Branch
Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE)
P.O. Box 30552-00100 Nairobi, Kenya.
Website: www.unep.org/transport/