ROLES PLAYED BY SOME PARTS OF THE EYE IN THE

FORMATION OF IMAGE ON THE RETINA

All the different parts of your eyes work together to help you see.

First, light passes through the cornea (the clear front layer of the eye). The cornea is shaped like
a dome and bends light to help the eye focus.

Some of this light enters the eye through an opening called the pupil. The iris (the colored part
of the eye) controls how much light the pupil lets I n.

Next, light passes through the lens (a clear inner part of the eye). The lens works together with
the cornea to focus light correctly on the retina.

When light hits the retina (a light-sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye), special cells
called photoreceptors turn the light into electrical signals.

These electrical signals travel from the retina through the optic nerve to the brain. Then the
brain turns the signals into the images you see.

Your eyes also need tears to work correctly.

COMPARISON OF THE HUMAN EYE TO A CAMERA

The camera and the human eye have much more in common than just conceptual philosophy --
the eye captures images similar to the way the camera does. The anatomy of the camera bears
more similarities to a biological eyeball than many would imagine, including the lens-like cornea
and the film-like retina. Similarities like these give the camera the appearance of a robotic eye.
However, though there are many similarities between cameras and eyes, they are by no means
identical.

Cornea and Lens

The cornea is the “cap” of the eye. This transparent (like clear jelly) structure sits to the front of
the eye and has a spherical curvature. The lens of a camera is also transparent (glass) and sits at
the front of the body. Like the cornea, the lens also maintains a spherical curvature. The corneal
and lens curvature allows for the eye and camera to view, though not in focus, a limited area to
both the right and the left. That is, without the curve, the eye and camera would see only what is
directly in front of it.

Iris and Aperture

The aperture is to the camera as the iris is to the eye, and this reveals one of many similarities
between cameras vs. eyes. The aperture size refers to how much light is let into the camera and
will ultimately hit the sensor or film. As with the human eye, when the iris contracts itself, the
pupil becomes smaller and the eye takes in less light. When the iris widens in darker situations,
the pupil becomes larger, so it can take in more light. The same effect happens with the aperture;
larger (lower) aperture values let in more light than a small (higher) aperture value. The lens
opening is the pupil; the smaller the opening, the less light let in.

Focus in Eyes and Cameras

Both the eye and camera have the ability to focus on one single object and blur the rest, whether
in the foreground (shallow depth of field) or off at a distance. Likewise, the eye can focus on a
larger image, just as a camera (greater depth of field) can focus and capture a large scape.

Scope and Field of View

As the eye, the camera has a limited scope to take in what is around it. The curvature of the eye
and the lens allow for both to take in what is not directly in front of it. However, the eye can only
take in a fixed scope, while a camera's scope can be changed by the focal length of different
types of lenses.

Retina and Film

The retina sits at the back of the eye and collects the light reflected from the surrounding
environment to form the image. The same task in the camera is performed either by film or
sensors in digital cameras. This process underpins both how cameras work and how eyes work.

Your eyesight is one of your most valuable assets. Because maintaining the health of your eyes is
so important, here are the Top 10 most common issues people experience with their eyes. If any
of these apply to you, please see an ophthalmologist as soon as possible before the condition
threatens your eyesight.

EYE DEFECTS AND CORRECTIONS

1. Cataracts

Characterized by a cloudy, milky white lens in the eye, most cataracts are age-related and more
common in people over 50 (but can develop at any age). Cataracts can be the result of injury, UV
exposure, or protein deterioration over time; this is what causes the eye’s lens to cloud. If left
untreated, cataracts can ultimately cause severe vision loss.

Treatment: Fortunately, cataracts are a common eye problem that can be treated through
surgery. Whether surgery is needed depends on the degree of vision loss and whether it affects
your quality of life and ability to function.
2. Keratoconus

Normally, the cornea (the clear outer lens of the eye) has a dome shape, like a ball. Sometimes,
however, the collagen which holds the cornea in place becomes weak, causing the cornea to
become cone shaped. This condition is called keratoconus. This can cause serious loss of vision
if not treated early and quickly. Left untreated, many people will need a cornea transplant.

Treatment: Treatment usually starts with eyeglasses. Contact lenses, usually rigid gas
permeable ones, may be recommended to strengthen the cornea and improve vision. In addition,
cornea collagen cross linking is often effective to help prevent progression, as well as intacs
(implants placed under the surface of the cornea to reduce the cone shape and improve vision). A
last resort is a cornea transplant.

3. Diabetic Retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy occurs as a result of prolonged high blood sugar associated with types 1 and
2 diabetes and can cause blindness if left untreated. Too much blood sugar can alter the blood
vessels in the back of the eye, preventing the retina from receiving the proper amount of
nutrients it needs to maintain vision. Anyone with diabetes type 1 or type 2 is at risk of
developing diabetic retinopathy. However, the type of diabetes a person has, how often their
blood glucose fluctuates, how well they control their sugars, and how long they have had
diabetes all affects his/her risk.

Treatment: In most cases, laser surgery can prevent significant vision loss associated with
diabetic retinopathy. A procedure called laser photocoagulation can seal or destroy growing or
leaking blood vessels in the retina.

4. Macular Degeneration

This leading cause of blindness is characterized by damage to the macula, the area of the retina
that perceives light. Risk factors include: age, smoking, female gender and family history.
Unfortunately, there is no known cure for macular degeneration. However, current treatments
can slow the progression of the disease.

Treatment: Age-related macular degeneration treatments may prevent severe vision loss or slow
the progression of the disease considerably. Several treatment options are available, including:

 Anti-angiogenic drugs. Injected into the eye, these medications block the development of new
blood vessels and leakage from the abnormal vessels within the eye.
 Laser therapy. High-energy laser light can sometimes be used to destroy actively growing
abnormal blood vessels.
 Photodynamic laser therapy. A two-step treatment in which a light-sensitive drug is used to
damage the abnormal blood vessels. A medication is injected into the bloodstream to be
absorbed by the abnormal blood vessels in the eye. A cold laser is then shone into the eye to
activate the drug, damaging the abnormal blood vessels.
  Vitamins C, E, beta-carotene, zinc and copper can decrease the risk of vision loss in certain
patients with intermediate to advanced dry age-related macular degeneration.

5. Refractive Errors

According to the National Eye Institute, refractive errors are the most common cause of vision
problems. Refraction in the eye occurs when light passes through the cornea and the lens. Errors
can occur as a result of the length of the eyeball, changes in the shape of the cornea or natural
aging of the lens. Nearsightedness, farsightedness and astigmatism are categorized by refractive
errors.

Treatment: The most common forms of treatment are eyeglasses, contact lenses and surgery.

6. Glaucoma

Glaucoma is a condition that causes damage to the eye’s optic nerve and worsens over time.
Associated with a buildup of pressure inside the eye, glaucoma tends to be inherited and may not
show up until later in life. The increased pressure, called intraocular pressure, can damage the
optic nerve, which transmits images to the brain. If damage to the optic nerve from
high eye pressure continues, glaucoma will cause permanent loss of vision. Because most people
with glaucoma have no early symptoms or pain from this increased pressure, it is important to
see your eye doctor regularly so that glaucoma can be diagnosed and treated before long-term
visual loss occurs.

Treatment: Once detected, glaucoma can be treated with either surgery, lasers or eye drops.

7. Presbyopia

Presbyopia is the loss of the ability to clearly see close objects or small print. Part of the natural
aging process of the eye, presbyopia is often confused with farsightedness but the two are not the
same. Presbyopia occurs when the natural lens in the eye loses flexibility, while farsightedness
occurs as a result of the natural shape of the eyeball, which causes light rays to bend incorrectly
once they have entered the eye.

Treatment: Treatment options include wearing corrective lenses, undergoing refractive surgery

or getting lens implants.

8. Floaters

Common among people over 50, floaters are tiny spots or specks that float across the field of
vision. Formed by a deposit of protein drifting about in the vitreous (the clear, jelly-like
substance that fills the middle of the eye), floaters seem to drift in front of the eye but do not
block vision. Usually benign, floaters sometimes can indicate a more serious eye problem such
as retinal detachment, especially if they are accompanied by light flashes. If you notice a sudden
change in the type or number of spots or flashes you see, visit your eye doctor as soon as
possible.
9. Dry eyes

The condition known as “dry eyes” happens when tear glands cannot make enough tears or
produce poor quality tears. Dry eyes can be uncomfortable, causing itching, burning and in rare
cases, some loss of vision.

Treatment: Your eye doctor may suggest using a humidifier in your home, special eye drops
that simulate real tears, or plugs placed in tear ducts to decrease tear drainage.

10. Tearing

If your eyes produce too many tears, this may indicate that your eyes are particularly sensitive to
light, wind or temperature changes. Protecting your eyes by shielding them or
wearing sunglasses can sometimes solve the problem. Tearing may also mean that you have a
more serious problem, such as an eye infection or a blocked tear duct. Your eye doctor can treat
or correct both of these conditions.

These common eye problems can be cured or at least slowed if caught early by an eyecare
professional

Identify the vibrating sources when sound is produced

What is a vibrating source?

Sources of Vibration (Noise) A payload can be disturbed by three primary vibration (noise)
sources: acoustic noise, ground vibration, and “direct force” disturbances. Seismic or ground
vibration exists in all environments in the world

VIBRATION SOURCES WHEN SOUND IS PRODUCED

Vibration sources in rotating machines:
Vibrations Sources Disturbing Frequency fe Hz

Primary out of balance 1 x rpm x 0.0167

Secondary out of balance 2 x rpm x 0.0167

Shaft misalignment 2 x rpm x 0.0167

Bent Shaft 1 & 2 x rpm x 0.0167

Gears(N=number of teeth) N x rpm x 0.0167

Drive Belts (N=belt rpm) N,2N,3N,4N x 0.0167

Aerodynamic or hydraulic forces (N=blades on rotor) N x rpm x 0.0167

Vibrations Sources Disturbing Frequency fe Hz

Electrical (N=synchronous frequency)N x rpm x 0.0167

Typical support natural frequencies (fn) for vibration sources:

Natural Frequency fn Isolator Frequency fni
Structures Isolator type
Hz Hz

Suspended concrete floor 10-15 3-5 Helical, Air Springs

Helical, Air Springs,

Ground Floor 12-34 6-8
Elastomeric

Helical, Air Springs,

Soft Clay 12 6-8
Elastomeric

Medium Clay 15 6-8 Elastomeric Isolators

Stiff Clay 19 8-10 Elastomeric Isolators

Loose Fill 19 8-10 Elastomeric Isolators

Very dense mixed grain

24 10-12 Elastomeric Isolators
sand

Limestone 30 10-12 Elastomeric Isolators

Hard Sandstone 34 10-12 Elastomeric Isolators

Significant problems occur when the disturbing frequency fe is near to or coincident with the
natural frequency of the supporting structure (floor, foundation or subsoil).
 MECHANISM OF PERCEPTION OF SMELL WITH THE HELP OF
OLFACTORY CHEMO-RECEPTOR
The perception of odors begins in sensory neurons residing in the olfactory epithelium that express G
protein-coupled receptors, the so-called olfactory receptors. The binding of odor molecules to olfactory
receptors initiates a signal transduction cascade that converts olfactory stimuli into electrical signals.

The origins of the sense of smell lie in the perception of environmental molecules and go back to
unicellular organisms such as bacteria. Odors transmit a multitude of information about the chemical
composition of our environment. The sense of smell helps people and animals with orientation in space,
warns of potential threats, influences the choice of sexual partners, regulates food intake and influences
feelings and social behavior in general. The perception of odors begins in sensory neurons residing in the
olfactory epithelium that express G protein-coupled receptors, the so-called olfactory receptors. The
binding of odor molecules to olfactory receptors initiates a signal transduction cascade that converts
olfactory stimuli into electrical signals. These signals are then transmitted to the olfactory bulb, the first
relay center in the olfactory pathway, via the axons of the sensory neurons. The olfactory information is
processed in the bulb and then transferred to higher olfactory centers via axons of mitral cells, the
bulbar projection neurons. This review describes the mechanisms involved in peripheral detection of
odorants, outlines the further processing of olfactory information in higher olfactory centers and finally
gives an overview of the overall significance of the ability to perceive smell.

TASTE BUDS AND PARTS PLAYED IN TASTING

On the basis of physiologic studies, there are generally believed to be at least four primary sensations of
taste: sour, salty, sweet, and bitter.

Taste buds are peripheral chemo-receptors found predominantly in the epithelium of the
upper/dorsal surface of the tongue, soft palate as well as pharynx, larynx and upper esophagus.
They are known as gustatory organs which transduce chemical taste stimuli into electrical
signals and then transfer them to one of the three cranial nerves involved in the sense of taste.

WHAT IS ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION?

Ecological succession is the process by which natural communities replace (or “succeed”) one
another over time. For example, when an old farm field in the midwestern U.S. is abandoned and
left alone for many years, it gradually becomes a meadow, then a few bushes grow, and
eventually, trees completely fill in the field, producing a forest.

Each plant community creates conditions that subsequently allow different plant communities to
thrive. For example, early colonizers like grasses might add nutrients to the soil, whereas later
ones like shrubs and trees might create cover and shade. Succession stops temporarily when a
“climax” community forms; such communities remain in relative equilibrium until a disturbance
restarts the succession process.
Understanding how succession happens in a variety of ecosystems—and what kinds of
disturbances and time spans lead to the formation of different plant and animal communities—is
important for scientists who want to understand ecosystem dynamics and effectively protect or
restore natural communities.

For example, many natural communities in North America have adapted to periodic disturbances
from wildfires: This can help maintain prairie or savanna communities that depend on open
habitat and nutrient cycling that might occur as a result of fire.

WHAT ARE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION?

There are two major types of ecological succession: primary succession and secondary
succession.

Primary succession happens when a new patch of land is created or exposed for the first time.
This can happen, for example, when lava cools and creates new rocks, or when a glacier retreats
and exposes rocks without any soil. During primary succession, organisms must start from
scratch. First, lichens might attach themselves to rocks, and a few small plants able to live
without much soil might appear. These are known as “pioneer species.”

Primary succession begins when no plant life is present on the landscape, such as after a lava flow or
glacial retreat. Over centuries, soil forms and deepens and successive communities of plants grow.

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Gradually, the decomposition of those plants contributes to soil formation, and more and larger
plants begin to colonize the area. Eventually, enough soil forms and enough nutrients become
available such that a climax community, like a forest, is formed. If the site is disturbed after this
point, secondary succession occurs.

Secondary succession happens when a climax community or intermediate community is

impacted by a disturbance. This restarts the cycle of succession, but not back to the beginning—
soil and nutrients are still present.

For example, after a forest fire that kills all the mature trees on a particular landscape, grasses
might grow, followed by shrubs and a variety of tree species, until eventually the community that
existed before the fire is present again.

Secondary succession begins after a disturbance, like a fire. Crucially, some soil and nutrients remain
present—fire, in fact, may help recycle those nutrients.

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What is a climax community?

A climax community is the “endpoint” of succession within the context of a particular climate
and geography. In the midwestern U.S., for example, such a community might be a hardwood
forest with oaks and hickories as the dominant tree species.

A climax community will persist in a given location until a disturbance occurs. However, in
many ecosystems, disturbance occurs frequently enough that a matrix of community types may
be consistently present on the landscape.

For example, in an area prone to wildfires like the western U.S., mature forests may exist near
grassy meadows with fewer, scattered trees. Consistent disturbance and variation in factors like
water and nutrient availability over the course of decades thus allows many plant and animal
communities to thrive within a particular climatic and geographic niche—not just those adapted
to the absence of disturbance seen in climax communities.

In "climax communities," like redwood forests on the Pacific coast of North America, the species
composition might change very little for decades or even centuries, with ancient trees dominating the
canopy and infrequent disturbances creating few opportunities for new plants to establish themselves.

What is an example of ecological succession?

Ecological succession can occur in many contexts and over many time spans.

In many regions, secondary succession occurs where wildfires have destroyed conifer forests, or
where former agricultural land is reverting to meadow or scrubland.

What these examples have in common is that the climax community is not the first one present
on the landscape after succession begins: First, intermediate communities occupy the space,
sometimes for many years, creating ideal conditions for the communities that follow.
Parts of a neuron

Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their role and location. However, nearly
all neurons have three essential parts: a cell body, an axon, and dendrites.

Cell body

Also known as a soma, the cell body is the core section of the neuron. The cell body contains
genetic information, maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides energy to drive activities.

Like other cell bodies, a neuron’s soma contains a nucleus and specialized organelles. It’s
enclosed by a membrane that both protects it and allows it to interact with its immediate
surroundings.

Axon

An axon is a long, tail-like structure. It joins the cell body at a specialized junction called the
axon hillock. Many axons are insulated with a fatty substance called myelin. Myelin helps axons
to conduct an electrical signal.

Neurons usually have one main axon.

Dendrites

Dendrites are fibrous roots that branch out from the cell body. Like antennae, dendrites receive
and process signals from the axons of other neurons. Neurons can have more than one set of
dendrites, known as dendritic trees.

How many they have generally depends on their role. For instance, Purkinje cells are a special
type of neuron found in a part of the brain called the cerebellum. These cells have highly
developed dendritic trees which allow them to receive thousands of signals.

Types of neurons

Neurons vary in structure, function, and genetic makeup. Given the sheer number of neurons,
there are thousands of different types, much like there are thousands of species of living
organisms on Earth.

However, there are five major neuron forms. Each combines several elements of the basic neuron
shape.

 Multipolar neurons. These neurons have a single axon and symmetrical dendrites that extend
from it. This is the most common form of neuron in the central nervous system.
 Unipolar neurons. Usually only found in invertebrate species, these neurons have a single axon.
 Bipolar neurons. Bipolar neurons have two extensions extending from the cell body. At the end
of one side is the axon, and the dendrites are on the other side. These types of neurons are
 mostly found in the retina of the eye. But they can also be found in parts of the nervous system
that help the nose and ear function.
 Pyramidal neurons. These neurons have one axon but several dendrites to form a pyramid type
shape. These are the largest neuron cells and are mostly found in the cortex. The cortex is the
part of the brain responsible for conscious thoughts.
 Purkinje neurons. Purkinje neurons have multiple dendrites that fan out from the cell body.
These neurons are inhibitory neurons, meaning they release neurotransmitters that keep other
neurons from firing.

In terms of function, scientists classify neurons into three broad types: sensory, motor, and
interneuron.

Sensory neurons

Sensory neurons help you to:

 taste
 smell
 hear
 see
 feel things around you

Sensory neurons are triggered by physical and chemical inputs from your environment. Sound,
touch, heat, and light are physical inputs. Smell and taste are chemical inputs.

For example, stepping on hot sand activates sensory neurons in the soles of your feet. Those
neurons send a message to your brain, which makes you aware of the heat.

Motor neurons

Motor neurons play a role in movement, including voluntary and involuntary movements. These
neurons allow the brain and spinal cord to communicate with muscles, organs, and glands all
over the body.

There are two types of motor neurons: lower and upper. Lower motor neurons carry signals from
the spinal cord to the smooth muscles and skeletal muscles. Upper motor neurons carry signals
between your brain and spinal cord.

When you eat, for instance, lower motor neurons in your spinal cord send signals to the smooth
muscles in your esophagus, stomach, and intestines. These muscles contract, which allows food
to move through your digestive tract.

Interneuron

Interneurons are neural intermediaries found in your brain and spinal cord. They’re the most
common type of neuron. They pass signals from sensory neurons and other interneurons to motor
neurons and other interneurons. Often, they form complex circuits that help you to react to
external stimuli.

For instance, when you touch something sharp like a cactus, sensory neurons in your fingertips
send a signal to interneurons in your spinal cord. Some interneurons pass the signal on to motor
neurons in your hand, which allows you to move your hand away. Other interneurons send a
signal to the pain center in your brain, and you experience pain.

How do neurons work?

Neurons send signals using action potentials. An action potential is a shift in the neuron’s
potential electric energy caused by the flow of charged particles in and out of the membrane of
the neuron. When an action potential is generated, it’s carried along the axon to a presynaptic
ending.

Action potentials can trigger both chemical and electrical synapses. Synapses are locations where
neurons can pass these electrical and chemical messages between them. Synapses are made up of
a presynaptic ending, a synaptic cleft, and a postsynaptic ending.

Chemical synapses

In a chemical synapse, the neuron releases of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.

These molecules cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors in the postsynaptic ending of a
dendrite.

Neurotransmitters can trigger a response in the postsynaptic neuron, causing it to generate an

action potential of its own. Alternatively, they can prevent activity in the postsynaptic neuron. In
that case, the postsynaptic neuron doesn’t generate an action potential.

Electrical synapses

Electrical synapses can only excite. These synapses form when two neurons are connected by a
gap junction. This gap is much smaller than a chemical synapse and is made up of ion channels
that help transmit a positive electrical signal.

Because of the way these signals travel, signals move much faster across electrical synapses than
chemical synapses. However, these signals can diminish from one neuron to the next. This
makes them less effective at transmitting repeated signals.

Recent research

While research has advanced our understanding of neurons in the last century, there’s still much
we don’t understand.
For instance, until recently, researchers believed that neuron creation occurred in adults in a
region of the brain called the hippocampus. The hippocampus is involved in memory and
learning.

But a 2018 studyTrusted Source found that the production of neurons in the hippocampus
actually drops after birth. This means that virtually no new neurons are created there by
adulthood.

Experts considered this discovery a setback in terms of using neurogenesis to treat diseases like
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. These conditions are both the result of neuron damage and death.

There is still hope, though, that neural stem cells can be used to make new neurons. Neural stem
cells can produce new neurons, according to the

FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION SIZE

 Abiotic Factors. ...
 Seasons. ...
 Food Supply. ...
 Interspecific Competition. ...
 Intraspecific Competition. ...
 Predation. ...
 Parasitism and Disease.

 Competition for resources such as food, oxygen, water, etc. occurs when the population of a
species reaches a large enough level where there aren't enough resources to go around. For
example, some aquatic plants spread rapidly in ponds and use most of the oxygen needed by
other plants and fish. If you have one guppy in your aquarium, food isn't going to be a problem,
unless you forget to feed it. But if you have 50 guppies in a goldfish bowl, there is probably going
to be competition for food, space, oxygen, etc. In nature, shortages of food will cause animals to
die, or move to areas with more food and/or less competition. Unfortunately for your guppies,
they are stuck in their goldfish bowl.
 Predation - if the jackrabbit population in the high desert of Nevada migrates to Arizona in
search of food, the foxes left behind will have less food. The foxes will be unable to maintain
their population density, and some will die. On the other hand, a surplus of predators, such as
wolves, can cause a density limit on the elk herd in Yellowstone National Park. They're eating all
the elk they want, so the elk will not be reproducing as they had been. Predation isn't an issue in
the goldfish bowl, unless you introduce an Angelfish, who will eat the guppies.

Predation affects populations that have reached a certain size.

 Parasitism - this is where one species benefits while harming the other. Parasites work more
slowly than predators. Some don't kill their hosts, but others do. Too many parasites on a single
 host can cause the death of the host. For example, ticks often swarm on young moose in spring,
sucking their blood and introducing infections. This can cause the death of the moose.
 Disease can wreck havoc on crowded populations. In fact, diseases need organisms to be in
close proximity in order to spread from one organism to another. Think about cities like New
York or Hong Kong. Millions of people live there and a new disease can spread rapidly. If you
consider rural areas, such as Nevada or Wyoming, there aren't as many people living closely
together, so diseases aren't able to spread as quickly, if at all.

Density-Independent Factors

Density-independent factors affect all populations the same, regardless of how large or small
they may be. Examples of these types of factors include:

 Natural disasters, such as droughts, floods, hurricanes, and fires, can all influence whatever
populations are in the area at the time. Not only do these occurrences kill individuals in all
populations, they also disrupt the availability of resources for survivors. For instance, your dog,
Cujo, wags his tail and knocks over the goldfish bowl of guppies. Water and guppies go flying all
over the room. Some guppies will be killed outright, while others may survive to be returned to
their bowl.