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RobertE. Solomon,PE
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NationalFireProtectionAssociation
Quincy , Massachusetts

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16 15 14 13 12 JO 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
CONTENTS
Preface vii
Acknowledgments ix
Ab out the Auth ors xi

SECTION 1 GENERAL 1
Chapter l The Fire In sp ecto r David Lind 2
Chapter 2 Inspecti o n Procedures David Lind 7
Chapter 3 Hou sekeeping and Building Procedures Jon Nisja 20
Chapter 4 Rep or t Writing and Record Keeping Ronald R . Farr 34
Chapter 5 Education, Training, Certification, and the Fire Insp ector Larry McDonald 43
Ch apter 6 Sustainable Design and Green Technologies Tracy Golinveaux , MSFPE
and Robert E. Solomon , PE 50

SECTION 2 BUILDING SYSTEMS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 69

Ch apt er 7 Building Co nstru ctio n Elements Richard J. Davis, PE, FSFPE 71
Chapter 8 Classific ation of Co nstructi on Types Richard J. Davis , PE, FSFPE 89
Chapte r 9 Co nstructi on, Alteration, and Demolition Operations
Richard J. Davis , PE, FSFPE 101
Ch apter 10 Pro tectio n of Openings in Fire Rated Assemb lies
Kristin Collette Bigda , PE, MSFPE 112
Chapte r l l Electric al Systems Jea n M. Blanc 129
Chapter 12 Heating Systems Allan B. Fras er 149
Chapter 13 Air-Conditioning and Ventil atin g Syst em s Allan B. Frase r 164
Cha pt er 14 Smoke -Con trol Systems Michael J. Ferreira, PE, MSFPE 173
Chapter 15 Fire Alarm and Carb on Monoxide Systems Lee Richardson 19 1
Ch apter 16 Water Suppli es Victoria B. Valentine, PE, MSFPE 229
Chapte r 17 Auto mati c Spr inkl er and Other Water -Based Fire Protection Systems
Bob Caputo and Roland Huggins 250
Ch apter 18 Water Mist Systems Jack R. Mawhinn ey, PE 270
Chapte r 19 Specia l Agent Ext in guishin g System s Gerald R. Back III 300
Chapt er 20 Clea n Agen t Exting uishin g Systems Tom Wysocki 3 12
Chapt er 2 1 Porta ble Fire Extinguis hers Mark Conroy 323
Ch apt er 22 Means of Egress Ron Cote, PE 337
Ch apte r 23 Interior Finish, Co nt ent s, and Furni shin gs
Kri stin Collette Bigda, PE, MSFP E 343
Chapter 24 Comm ission ing Process for Fire Protection Systems
Matth e w J. Klaus , MSFPE 35 1
Chap ter 2 5 Accessibility Requirements All a n B. Fraser 366
Chapter 26 Grass, Brus h, and Forest Fire Hazards Michele Steinberg 376
Chapter 27 Road Tunnel s William G. Connell and Matthew J.Klaus, MSFPE 386
 Contents

SECTION 3 OCCUPANCIES 401

Chapter 28 Assembly Occupancies Josepl, Versteeg 402
Chapter 29 Educational Occupancies Josepl, Versteeg 412
Chapter 30 Daycare FacilitiesJosep/r Versteeg 418
Chapter 3 l Healthcare FacilitiesJoseph M. Jordi11
, PE 422
Chapter 32 Ambulatory Healthcare FacilitiesJoseph M. Jnrdi11,PE 437
Chapter 33 Detention and Correctional Occupancies Josep/rM. Jm-din, PE 445
Chapter 34 Hotels Josep/rM. ]'11rdi11,PE 458
Chapter 35 Apartment Buildings Joseph M. J11rdi11, PE 465
Chapter 36 Lodging or Rooming Houses Josep/rM. Jordi11,PE 477
Chapter 37 Residential Board and Care Occupancies JosephM. Jnrdi11,PE 485
Chapter 38 One- and 'I\1•0-Fami!)' Dwellings Joseph M. Jnrdi11
, PE 496
Chapter 39 Mercantile Occupancies Joseph Versteeg 503
Chapter 40 Business Occupancies Joseph Versteeg 509
Chapter 4 I Industrial Occupancies Joseph Versteeg 517
Chapter 42 Storage Occupancies Joseph Versteeg 527
Chapter 43 Special Structures and High-Rise Buildings Joseph Versteeg 538

SECTION 4 PROCESS AND STORAGE HAZARDS 551

Chapter 44 Waste-Handling and Processing Systems Sl,nro11S. Gilyeat,PE 553
Chapter 45 Radioactive i\faterials Wayne D. Ho/111es , PE, 1\!I
SFPE,FSFPE 562
Clu1pter 46 J'vlaterials-Handling Srstcms L, Jeffrey Mnllem 569
Chapter 47 General Storage Kristi11Collette Bigda, PE, MSFPE 586
Chapter 48 Slornge and Handling of Flammable and Combustible Liquids
A11tl,011y M, Ordile, PE 614
Chapter 49 Gas Hazards Denise Bench 633
Chapter 50 Combustible Dusts G11yColomrn,PE 645
Chapter 51 ""d
Combustible Metals Ke1•i11Kreilma11 Martha H. C11rlis 655
Chapter 52 Hazardous Materials Phillip A. Frida;\ PE 677
Chapter 53 Plastics and Rubber Ste11e11E. Yo1111is,PE 692
Chapter 54 Explosivesand Blasting Agents Lou D. Sn11tis 708
Chapter 55 Fireworks and Prroteclrnics Jol,11R, Steinberg,1'rIDn11dTTrnmnsHandel 715
Clrnpter 56 Heal-Utilization Equipment Ricl111rd A. Gnllng/Jer 73 I
Chapter 57 Spray Painting and Powder Coating Ste1•e11 J, Gr111sel,
PE 749
Chapter 58 Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work 1l11g11st F.Manz nnd De11iseBeac/1 771
Chapter 59 Hazards of Manufactu ring Processes Peter J. Gore Wil/se, PE, FSFPE 782
Chapter 60 Aerosol Manufacturing and Storage Midwel J.Madden, PE, FSFPE 797
Chapter 61 Protection ofC0111111ercial Cooking Equip111cntR. T. Leicht 814

Pholo Credits 830

l11d
ex 831

iv
 Contents

www.Fire.jbpub.com/InspectionManual

111is text is packaged with a companion website access code that provides free access
to inspection forms, which accompany specific chapters in the manual, as listed below.
1l1eseresources will help you remember and record import ant details during your field
inspections. Redeem your access code today.

Form A-1 Ch,1pter 2, lnspec.tion Procedures

Form A-2 Chapter 9, Cons truction, Alternlion, and Demolition Operations
Form A-3 Chapter 10, Protection of Openi ngs in Fire Rated Assemblies
Form A-4 Chapter 11, Electrical Systems
Form A-S Chapter 12, Heating Systems
Form A-6 Chapter 13, Air-Conditioning and Ventilating Srstems
Form A-7 Chapter 14, Smoke-Control Systems
Form A-8 Chapter IS, Fire Alarrn Systems
Form A-9 Chapter 16, Water Supplies
Form A - IO Chapter 17, Automatic Sprinkler and Other Waler-Based Fire Protection
Systems
FormA - 11 Chapter 18, Water Mist S)'Stems
FormA - 12 Chapter 19, Special Agent Extinguishing Systems
FormA - 13 Chapter 20, Clean Agent Extiugui hing Systems
form A- 14 Chapt er 21, Port,1ble Fire Extinguishers
Form A- IS Chapter 23, Interior Finish, Contents, and Furnishings
Forms A-16 Chapte r 24, Commissio ning Process for Fire Protection S}'stcms
and 17
Form A- 18 Chapter 25, Accessibility Requirements
form A-19 Chapter 26, Grass, Brush, <1ndForest Fire Hazards
Form A-20 Chapter 28, Assembl)' Occupancies
Form A-21 Chapte r 29, Educationa l Occupancies
Form A-22 Chapter 30, Day-Care Facilities
Form A-23 Chapter 31, Health Care Facilities
Form A-24 Chapter 32, Ambula tory Health Care Facilities
Form A-25 Ch<1pter33, Detention and Correctional Occupancies
Form A-26 Chapter 34, Hotels
Form A-27 Chap ter 35, Apartment Buildings
Form A-28 Chapter 36, Lodging or Rooming Houses
Form A-29 Chapter 37, Residential Board and Care:Occupancies
Form A- 30 Chapte r 38, One - and Two-Family Dwellings
FormA -31 Chapter 39, 1'v
lercantile Occupancie s
Form t\-32 Chap ter 40, Business Occupancies
Form A-33 Chapter 41, Industrial Ocrn pancies
Form A-34 Chapter 42, Stornge Occupa ncies
Form A-3S Chapte r 43, Special Struc tures and High-Rise Buildings

V
 PREFACE

INSPECTrON (in-'spek-shan) is defined by Webster's as the net of i11specti11g, which in

turn means to view closelyin critical appraisal. You may be inspec tin g, sur veying, audit -
ing, reviewing, or examin ing. Regard less of wha t you call it, the important elem en t is
that you gain familiarity wit h and kn ow where to seek out mor e in -depth information
for you r inspectio n pro cess and pro cedur e. ln this context, the inspection pro gram
can encompass new co nstn 1ction , buildin g renovation or rep air, and ongoing periodic
rev iew and assessmen t of exis ting build ings, processes, and systems.
i\foc h ha s transpired in the lire protection and life safety arena since the eigh th
edi tion of th is ma nual was up da ted in 2002. Relatively new concep t like system com-
miss ioni ng, expanded use of car bon monoxide detect ion systems, new sp rink ler tech -
nologies, implementa tion of mass notifi cation concepts, marria ge of fire alarm and
sec urity systems, and susta inable design prac tices are just a few of the eme rging techni -
cal and system -oriented ad vances that have been made in the last 10 years. 1here are
dozens more that co uld be added to thi s list. Inspection reports in some jurisdiction s
are no lo nger being filled ou t in triplicate with a copy being mailed to the owner. 1he y
are being comp leted o n a table t computing device, uploaded to the jurisdiction's Web
site, cross-c hecked with other reports from the heal th departme nt or zon ing board ,
and made part of the public record.
I would venhu e to say that every area of fire and life safety-systems, features, ma -
terials, how we tra ck performance- is expand ing and growing except for one: the re-
sourc es to carry out an effective inspect ion pro gra m.
City, county, town, town ship, boro ugh, and state author ities have had to closely
scrutiniz e their bud gets jus t as tho se in the private sector have had to do. lvlany juri s-
d ict ions have needed to scale back on their employee rosters, thus resu lting in fewer
inspec tor s to keep up with the same nu mber of inspections . Budg et adj ustm en ts often
become newswo rth y wh en the jobs of lire fighters, police officers , or teachers are on
th e line. Becaus e adequate staffing from all thr ee makes a community safe, sec ure, and
vibrant, all thr ee are importan t. "Insp ection Program Cu tback Foreseen" is not likely to
get too much attention in the da ily print or on -line edition of the local newspaper until
an occupa nt is inj ured in a fire or buildi ng emergency, a lire fighter is severe ly injured
at a lire in a buildi ng with a prev iously unknown hazardous materia l, or a downtown
city bl.ock is destroyed because the kitchen hood in a comm erc ial res taura nt was not
clea ned and inspec ted .
While there is no guarantee that an inspection can find and identify every code
violation and ensure tha t every S)'Ste m will fun ction pre cisely as int ended, every rea-
sonable effort to achieve tha t goal mu st be mc1de. TI1e inspector is not there 24 hours
a da}', ln fact, the inspector may on ly be there once a year or less frequently. A code -
comp lying occupancy ca n be ou t of comp liance in less than 24 hours after the inspe c-
tor leaves. Jn mo st cases, build ing owners or tenants don 't usually say, "Hey, let's create
 Preface

some code violat ions in here:' 1l1ey may actually have good intent ions- to increase
production, increase efficienq', mitigate an inconvenient process, or improv e th e char~
acter of a sµace.
Building and fire codes are not unr easonab le, and most likely, the code developers
have de termi ned the best ways to do what the owne r ultimately wants. The permitting
and plan -revie w pr ocess is th ere as a mea sure to prot ect the own er from doin g so me -
thing that may create a dangerous situation . The inspe ctio n process is there to make
sure the work was done in accorda nce with the approved pla ns. The ongoi ng inspection
process is there to make sure that co ndit ions are not mod ified and that the installed
system s and feah1res cont inue to remain functional, operational, and appropriate for
the hazard.
How the n can the success of an ins pect ion program be measured and what too ls
are available to strive for that success? In July o f 2008, the Fire Protectio n Research
Foundation issued a report entitled MeasriringCode Compliance Effectivenessfor Fire-
Related Portionsof Codes.1 One statement in the Executive Summary notes that:
In 2002 -2005, an estim ated an nual average of 519,000 structure fires were
reported to municipal fire department s. These fires resulted in an average
of 3, 140 civilian fire deaths, 15,520 civilian fire injuries and an estimated
$8.7 billion in direct property loss, an nually. Approximately I 0-25% of these
structure fires, less than 5% of deaths, less than I 0% of injuries, and 20-30% of
prop erty dam age occ urred in areas in buildin gs subject to fire-code inspection s.
It is not a coincide n ce that the correspondi ng losses are lowe r in jurisdictions tha t
do have an inspection program of so me sort. The inspect ion program is but one of
several mechanisms that can be used to identify a potential probl em with a building
or a system . As J not ed in the preface of the 2002 edition of this manual, "The best fire
inspec tio n program is o ne nobody hears about; such a program ident ifies and correc ts
proble ms before they can have a nega tive im pact on the building or the public:'
TI1e information contained within the ninth edition of this manual offers the in-
spector the fundam en tal under sta nd ing of the system or feature to initiate an effective
insp ection program. TI1isinform ation should be viewed as a gateway to the awareness,
knowledge, and expert ise that the inspe ctor needs to br ing to customers. The compan -
ion forms online that accompany the manu al can be used as the guid e for your in spec-
tion techniq ue. Over time, you may even develop your own set of cus tom ized forms.
TI1ere may not be a lot of fame, fortu ne, :rnd glory as an inspector, but there should
be a tremendous amount of p ersonal satisfactio n. Just knowing that you keep many
hundred s or maybe eve n man) ' m illions of building occupants and first respo nders
safe from the potent ial hazards th at are around us every day means a lot to all of us.
Regardless if we venture out to our jobs, movie thea tr es, shoppi ng malls, or anywhe re
tha t we may enc ount er a potenti al hazard, it is likely tha t someone has inspected the
premises to keep us safe.
Robert E. Solomon , PE

1h tip:// www.nfpa.org/assets/files/POF/Rcsearch/CCEReport.pdf

viii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Jones & Bartlett Learning and the National Fire Protection Association appreciate the
time and effort the contributing authors and reviewers have made to the development
of this ninth edition of the Fire and Life Safety lllspection Mmrna/. A knowledgeable
group of contributors offered their perspectives on the topics at hand. \ Vhether updat-
1

ing or revising an existing chapter, developing text for a new chapter, or updating and
revising the on line forms, each chapter author has given inside information from his or
her perspective. Their individual biographies are listed in the following pages.
A special note of thanks is due to the team at Jones & Bartlett Learning for keeping
us all on schedule and in sync with the project. At the NFPA, Mike Barresi and Jo-
siane Dom enici kept the workflow moving, by helping with scheduling and cop)'right
permiss ions.
The editors and product management staff wish to thank all the individuals who
revised, wrote, reviewed, or otherwise made a contribution, in one form or another, to
this ninth edit ion of the Fireand L/fe Safety Inspection Manual.
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Gerald R. Ilack III , PE, MSFPE, a senior engineer with Hughes Associates, Inc. re-
ceived a BS degree in ivlechanical Engineering and an MS degree in Fire Protection
Engineering from the University of Maryland. He has served as the project manager/
lead engineer on a wide range of R&D fire protection programs for over 28 years. He
has extensive knowledge (having designed and tested) of the spectrum of fire suppres-
sion system technologies including aerosols, gaseous agents (halocarbons and inert
gases), powders, water mist, water spray/deluge systems, low,medium and high expan-
sion foam systems, and sprinkler systems. Recent eflorts have focused on fires caused
by the reactions oflit hium -ion batteries, including those that have occurred in electric
and hybrid vehicles.

Deni se Beach, BS, is a Senior Engineer with the NFPA who serves as the staff liaison
to several NFPA technical committees, including the National Fuel Gas Code Commit -
tee, the Liquefied Petroleum Gases Comm ittee, the Liquefied Natura l Gas Comm ittee,
and the LP-Gases at Utility Gas Plants Committee, where she is a technical resource for
NFPA members through the NFPA Advisory Service. In addition, she represents NFPA
on other associations' technical committees, including the International Association
of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials, the Compressed Gas Association, and the Na-
tional Propane Gas Association. She received a Bachelor's of Mechanical Engineering
from the Georgia Institute of Technology.

Kristi.11Collette Bigda, PE, MSFPE, is a senior fire protection engineer in the NFPA
Building Fire Protection and Lite SafetyDepartment and serves as staff liaison to several
Safety to Life and T3uiklingCode technical committees. She also assists in the develop-
ment ofN FPA L, Fire Code, and other documents pertaining to fire doors and windows,
contents and furnishings, and fire risk assessment methods. Prior to joining the NFPA
staff in 2007,she attended \Vorcester Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts, where she re-
ceived a BSdegree in Civil Engineering and an MS degree in Fire Protection Engineer-
ing. She is also a registered Professional Engineer in Fire Protection in Massachusetts.

Jean M. Blanc, BS, is an associate electrical engineer in NFPA's Electrical Engineer-

ing Department. He received a BS degree in Electrical Engineering from Northeastern
University. He assisted in the development of the Nnfio1in/ E/eclricnl Code®. He is also
an active member of IAEI and IEEE (GOLD Committee) and serves on several UL
Standard Technical Panels.

Bob Caputo, CFPS, CET, has been working in the fire protectio n indust ry for more
than 35 years. He is a member of the NFPA 13 Sprinkler Installation and Discharge
commit tees as well as the NFPA 4 (Standard for J11t
egmted Testing of Fire Protection
 About the Authors

Sysle111s)and NFPA 25 (Standardfor tlie fospectio11,Testing,and lvlai11te11a 11ceof Water-

based Fire Protectio11S)1sfe111s)
committees.
As a member of both NFPA and AFSA faculties, he has written and presented semi-
nars and webinars throughout the world 011 fire protection and life-safety systems de-
sign and installation , hydraulic calcu lations, plan review, fire pumps, standp ipes, and
special haza rds. He is a regular speaker at NFPA and AFSA'sannual conventions and
is the author of AFSA'sProject Management Tools program. He was named San Diego
County Fire Prevention Officer of the Year in 1994 and Fire Protection Contractor
l\ilagazine's Person of the Year in 1997. He attended the University of Albuquerque,
New Mexico.

Guy Colonna, PE, is the Division Manager of the Indu strial and Chemical Engineer-
ing department for the NFPA. A registered Professional Engineer in Chemica l Engi-
neering in Massachusetts, he has been with NFPA for 25 years and holds engineering
degrees from the U.S. Coast Guard Academy and Stanford University.
His responsibilities at NFPA include management of the Marine Chem ist TrainiJ1g
and Certificat ion Program and NFPA activities dealing with marine fire prot ection. He
also serves as Staff Liaison to committees dea ling with safeguards at dust hazard pro -
cess locations, explosives, indu strial fire brigades, explosion protection systems, and
pyrotechnics and specia l effects.
He developed and instructs NFPA's confined space safety training courses offered
to both the maritime and general industry and combustible dust and explosion pro -
tection seminars. He is the author of technical papers and presentations on confined
space safe practices, hot work safe practices, chemical hazard identification and clas-
sification, combustible dusts fire and explosion hazard protection, and pyrotechnics
and special effects.

\-Villiam G. Connell is the Technical Director of Mechanical Engineering and an As-

sistant Vice President for Parsons Brinckerhoff. He has more than 30 years' experience
working on major transportation infrastructur e projects and is an internationally rec-
ognized expert in the requirements of fire and life-safety related systems for road tun-
nels and has served as the Chairman of the Technical Committee for NFPA Standard
502 for Road Tunnel, Bridges and Limited Access Highways since 2005. In addition,
Bill has served on infrastructure safety research projects, including the Memorial 1\111-
nel Fire Ventilation Test Program, International Road Tunnel Fire Detection Research
Project, and Vulnerabilil}' of Bridges and other Critical Transportation Infrastructure
to Extreme Fire and BLEVEs.

Mark Conroy, BS, is the senior engineer of technical services for Brooks Equipment
Com pan}' of Charlotte, North Carolina. He received a BS degree in Marine Engineer-
ing from the Massachusetts Maritime Academy. He serves as a principal member of
the NFPA Technical Committee on Portable Fire Extinguishers, which is respon sible
for NFPA IO. While working as an eng ineer at NFPA for 20 years, he developed many
products on portable fire extinguishers including books, magazine artic les, videos, and
brochures.
xii
 About the Authors

Ron Cote, PE, BS, Ml3A, is a Principal Life Safety Engineer in the National Fire Pro -
tection Association Buildin g Fire Protection and Life Safety Division , Quincy, Mas -
sachuse lt , USA. He joined the NFPA staff in 193l; serves as staff liaison and secre tary
to many of the Committees on the Life Safety Code ® and Committe es on the Building
Construct.ion and Sarety Code ®; and is co -editor of the Life Safety Code J--Iandbook.
Prior to bis employm ent with NFPA, Ron worked for seven years for the factory lvlu-
tual Engi neeri ng Association and the Factory Mutual Research Corporation (now FM
Global). He earned a BS degree in engineering and an MBA. Ron is a regis tered pro-
fessional engi neer in the discipline of tire protection in the Com monw ea lth of Mas-
sachusetts.

Martha H. Curtis, BS, is a Senior Chemical Specialist in NFPA's Industrial and Chemi-
cal Engineering Departm ent. She serves as staff liaison to 8 tech nical committ ees that
are respons ible for 11 codes and standards. She has been with NFPA for 30 years in
the Engineering Division as staff liaison lo many of N.rPA's hazardous chemicals and
combustible dusts committees.
She is curre ntly responsible for aerosol produ cts fire protection (NFPA 3013);dry -
clea n ing plants (N FPA 32); chem ical laboratories fire protection (NFPA 45); agricul -
tura l dusts (NFPA 61); combus tible metals and me tal dusts (NFPA 484); woodworking
and wood processing facilities (NFPA 664); underground coa l mining (NFPA 120);
underground non-metal mining (NFPA 122); and electri cal equipm ent in chemical
proces sing areas (NFPA 497, NFPA 499, and NFPA 496). She earned a BS in che mistq '
at Wheaton College in Norton, 1vlassachusetts.

Richard J, Davis, PE, FSFPE, is an AVP and Senior Engineering Technical Special -
ist with FM Global's Eng ineering Standards Division and is responsibl e for training
and wri ting engi neerin g standards related to bu ildin g con truction. He is a Member
of NFPA and its Buildi ng Cons tructi o n; Co nstructio n, Alterations and Demolition;
Smoke Manage ment; and Fire Test Committees. A Fellow and past -president ofSFPE,
as well as a Member of its Engineering Licensing Committe e and Chair of its Higher
Educat ion Committee, he is a member of rec and a registered Profess ional Engineer
in Fire Prot ect ion Engin eer ing and Structural Eng ineerin g.

Ronald R. Farr, Lead Regulatory Engineer at Underwriters I aborator ies, is the form er
Michigan State Fire Marshall and Fire 1vlarshal with the Kalamazoo Township Fire De -
partment in Kalamazoo, Michigan. He ha s more than 30 years ' experience in fire safety.
He is a membe r of NFPA an d the International Fire 1vlarshals Association.

Michael J. Ferreira, PE, MSFPE, is a senior Fire Prot ection Engi neer and project man-
ager at Hughes Associates, a fire science and engineering consu lting company . He has
pub lished several articles on the innovativ e use of computer models for smoke manage -
ment syste m design, using the CO NTAJ'vlbuilding air flow and cont amina nt dispersal
model to evalua te the performance of pressur ization systems an d the Fire Dyna mics
Simulator CFD model to eva luate smoke tenab ility conditions. He received a BS degree

xiii
 About the Authors

in Mechanical Engineering and an MS degree in Fire Protection Engineering from

Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts. As a member of the NFPA'sCommit-
tee on Smoke Management Systems, he is responsible for contributing to the develop-
ment ofNFPA 92A and NFPA 928.

Allan B. Fraser,CBI, CPCA, is NFPA'sSenior Building Code Specialist in the Building

Fire Protection and Life Safety Department . He staffs seven technical committees and
NFPA'sDisability Access Review and Advisory Committee (DARAC).
He authored NFPA'sE111e1gency Evnwatio11P/n1111i11gGuidefor People with Disabili-
ties and created e-ACCESS,NFPA'squarterly newsletter on fire and life safety infonna-
tion for people with disabilities. He represents NFPA on A NSl/lCC A 117.1, Stnndard
for Accessiblennd Usable Buildings and Facilities, ASHRAE's Standards Committee,
SSPC 90.l, SSPC 90.2, and its Code Interaction Subcommittee and RESNA'sStandards
Committee on Stair Descent Devices.

Phillip A. Friday, PE, has more than 14 years' experience in the industry. He is an
expert in fire protection system design, building and fire code analysis, fire origin and
cause determination, forensic fire reconstruction and computer fire modeling, and
fire protection system failure analysis. Phil is also an active member of National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA), serving as a voting member of the NFPA Hazardous
Chemicals Committee. He is Professional Member of Society of Fire Protection Engi-
neers (SFPE). He has a BS in Chemistry from the University of Tennessee and an M.S.
in Fire Protection Engineering from the University of Maryland.

Richard A. Gallagher, BS, is a Line of Business Director for Zurich Services Corpo-
ration with more than 30 years' experience fo the loss control industry. His primary
responsibilities include development of technical knowledge, policies, and procedures
for the property line of business. He has a BS in Civil Engineering from the University
of Delaware. He is a member ofNFPA, is a principal member on the Technical Com-
mittee on Fundamentals of Combustion System Hazards, and is a principal member
and chair of the Technical Committee on Ovens and Furnaces.

Sharon S. Gilyeat, PE, has a BS degree in Fire Protection Engineering from the Uni-
versity of Maryland and is a principal for Koflel Associates, Inc., a fire protection and
engineering consulting firm headquartered in Columbia, MD. She has also served as a
Fire Protection Engineer and manager for the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and
the U.S. Government Printing Office.
She serves on the NFPA 99 Technical Committee on Health Care Management and
Security and is a past chair of the Technical Committee on Incinerators and Waste
Handling Systems. She has developed and taught courses on NFPA 101®, Life Safety
Code®, the Fire Safety Evaluation S)'stem, and NFPA 99, Hen/th Care FacilitiesCode.
She currently is an instructor for the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid, Basic Life
Safety Code course. She is a registered Professional Engineer in Maryland, Virginia,
and Washington, DC, and was recently appointed to her final term as a Maryland State
Fire Commissioner.
xiv
 Abou t the Aut hors

Naval Facilities Engineering Command in Charleston, SC. Since corning to NFPA in

1986, he has hel d several positions, including staff liaison for the NFPA water extin-
guishing systems projects. He has been an ed itor for sevenil tech nical handbooks for
NFPA including th e A11to111ntic Sprinkler Systems Hn11dbook,and as an associa te ed itor
for the NFPA FireProtectionI-ln11dbook, 20th Ed ition.

John R. Steinberg, iVID,holds a BS in Biochemistry fro m Mich iga n State Un iversity

and was awarded th e degree of Doctor of Medicine by the University of Maryland
School of Medic ine . He ha s served as Presid ent and Second vice -president of the Py-
rote chni cs Gui ld International and is at present th e PG! regulatory representative to
NFPA, ATF, and ot her entitie s. A licensed pyrote chnic display op rator in ivlaryl and,
he serves as a member of th e Mary lan d Explosives Advisory Cou ncil within the Office
of th e State Fire J\farshal. He is a principal member of the NFPA Technical Co mmitt ee
on P)•rotechnics and an alternate member on th e NFPA Special Eflects Technical Com-
m ittee. He is currently the pr esident of his own con sulting bu sine ss and conduct s in -
vestigatio ns, provides expert forensic services, designs pyrotechnic co mpo sitions and
component s, and provides train ing and teaching for law enforcement , fire enforcemen t
officials, an d pyrotechnic disµlay operators.

Michele Steinberg, MA, is the Firew ise® Co mmunitie s Program manager for the
NFPA in Quincy, Massachusetts. She oversees th e national Firewise Communities/
USA® Recognition Program, wh ich reaches more tban one m illion res idents of wild-
fire -prone comm uniti es in 40 states . Since 1989, she ha s work ed in the areas of natural
hazards and land use planning, as well as disaster safety out rea ch. She has worked
for NFPA since 2002 an d has also served as staff liaison to the Technical Co mmitt ee
on Fo rest and Rural Fire Protection. lvlichele is th e author of num ero us articles and
technica l do cuments on disaster safety and m itigation pla nning, and received a degree
in Eng lish from Brandeis University and an advanced degree in urban planning from
Boston University.

Victoria B. Valentine , PE, MSFPE, works with th e National Fire Sprinkler Associa -
tion. She is a gradua te of Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts, with a BS in
Civil Engineering and an MS in Fire Protection Engineering . She serves on numerou s
techn ical committees for NFPA, ASCE, and TSO. Her exper tise lies in water -based fire
protection product standards and eart hqua ke µrotect ion of water-based fire protection
systems. She lrns written many articles for SQ Magazine as well as other publications.

Joseph Versteeg is a code comp liance and fire safety consultant based in Torrington,
Co nn ect icut. He was with th e Co 1rnect icut Department of PublicSafetyforover 20 years;
most recent!) ' he was th e Ch ief of th e Technical Serv ices for the State Fire Mars hal's
Office.
He curre ntl y serv es on several Technical Committees for the NFPA in addition to
being the cha irpe rson for th e Technica l Committee on Building Construction within
NFPA 5000, B11ildi11g Construction nnd Safety Code; NFPA 220, Stn11dard011 1)'pesof
Building Co11slructio11, and N FPA 101A, Guide 011 Alfernativc Approachesto L!le Safety.
xix
 About the Auth o r

Tracy Goliuveaux, MSFPE, is an associate Fire Protection Engineer in the Building

Fire Protection and LifeSafety group at NFPA. She joined the NFPA staff in 2010 and
serves as staff liaison to several technical committees, including the Building Construc-
tion and Structures, Construction, and Materials committees. She received a BSdegree
in Civil Engineering and an MS degree in Fire Protection Engineering from Worcester
Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts.

Steven J,Gunsel, PE, is a safety consultant with more than 30 years' experience in fin-
ishing operations, including liquid and powder electrostatic applications. He is a reg-
istered professional engineer and the curren t chairman of the National Fire Protection
Association Finishing Processes Committee for NFPA 33, Sta11rlnrdforSpray Appfirn-
tio11Usi11gFfam111able or Combustible Materials, and NFPA 34, Standardfor Dipping
m,d Coati11g ProcessesUsingFlammable or CombustibleLiquids. He is an active member
on the Teclrnical Committee for Static Electricity for NFPA 77, Reco111me11derlPractice
fo r Static Electricily and the ANSI Z9 AccreditedSta11dardsCa111111ittee011 Health and
Safety Standardsfor VentilationSystems.

Thomas Handel, BS,has been involved with fireworks for almost 50 years. He is a mem -
ber and past First Vice-President of the Pyrotechnics Guild International, Inc., a member
and past Publications Vice-President of the Crackerjacks, Inc. (mid-Atlantic p)•rotech-
nics association), and a member of the International Association of Bomb Technicians
and Investigators. He has developed and provided extensive training in pyrotechnics
and explosives for law enforcement organizations at the federal, state and local level,
including among others the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, and
the New York City Police Department Bomb Squad. He is also an accomplished and
published fireworks photographer.
A graduate of the Universit)' of Mar)•land (Computer Science, 1981), he spent his
professional career in the United States intelligence community, primarily serving the
US Navy (as a civilian) in analytic, management and executive functions. He retired
from foderal service in 2004.

·wayne D. Holmes, PE, J\l[SFPE,FSFPE, provides independent consulting services for

complex, high-technology facilities. He is a former Vice President ofHSB Professional
Loss Control and Technical Director for American Nuclear Insurers. He earned an
MS degree in Fire Protection Engineering from V"orcester Polytechnic Institute, Mas-
sachusetts, and is a Fellow of the Society of Fire Protection Engin eers. He has been a
member of numerous NFPA technical commi ttees and has been awarded the NFPA
Standards Medal and the NFPA Committee Service Award.

Roland Huggins, PE, BS, is the vice president of engineering and technical services
for the American Fire Sprinkler Association. He obtained his BS degree in Fire Pro-
tection Engineering from the University of Maryland, is a registered professional en-
gineer, and is a member oft he NFPA. Roland is a member of multiple NFPA technical
commi ttees, including NFPA 13, NFPA 25, and NFPA 5000. He has been instrumental
in expanding the use of fire modeling to support changes to NFPA 13. Other NFPA
 About the Authors

activities include participating in the editing of the NFPA Automatic Spri11klerSys-

tems Handbook. Other nation al activities involve the NFPA Fire Protection Research
Foundation, UL Standard Technical Panels, and NICET. He is a member of the NFPA
Standards Council.

Joseph M. Jardin, PE, is a Battalion Chief with the New York City Fire Department. A
former member of the NFPA Standards Council and former Chair of the Safety to Life
Residential Occupancies Committee, he current I>•chairs the Building Service and Fire
Protection Equipment Technical Committee .

Matthew J. Kl.iu , MSFPE, i a en ior Fire Protection Engineer at the NFPA, where he
is responsible for NFPA documents addre ssing systems commissioning, inspection
testing and maintenance of water-based systems . He presently holds a BS i.n Civil
Engineering and an MS in Fire Protection Engineering from Worcester Polytechnic
Institute.
Serving as project manager for projects in Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Qatar, and the King-
dom of Bahrain, as well as projects across the United States, has given him extensive
fire protection engineering consulting experience. His proj ect work includes the use
of lire and egress modeling software for engineering analyses of roadway tunnel s, rail
systems, football stadiums, high-rise buildings, shopping malls, and transportation
hubs.

Kevin Kreitman is a fire chief in Redding, California, with 32 years' experience in fire
service and dealing with the hazards of combustible metals. He has been an instructor
at the National Fire Academy and is a graduate of the National Fire Academy Executive
Fire Officer program. He is principal member of the NFPA 484 and 400 committees
and is Chair of the Combustible Dust Technical Correlating Committee. He has as-
sisted NIOSH with an Injury Investigation Repor t involving combus tible metals and is
the author of several papers, articles, and presentations on the hazards of combustible
metals and dusts.

R. T. Leicht is the Chief Fire Protection Specialist in the Delaware State Fire Marshals
Office. He holds a BS degree in Fire Protection and an MS degree in Public Safety.
Having jo.ined in 1973, he is both a Professional lvlember of SFPE and a Life Member
ofNFPA. He is cur rently Vice President of the International Fire Marshals Association
and serves on numerous NFPA committees including NFPA 96, Standard for \1e11tila -
tio11Control and Fire Protectio11of Co111mercinl Cooking Opemtio11s,currently serving
as Chairman .

David Lind has more than 28 years' experience as a Building and Fire Code Official.
He is currently the Fire Marshal for the North Shore Fire Department and is Secretaq 1/
13oard tvlember for the International Fire Marshals Association. His credentials in -
clude: Certified Fire Protection Specialist (CFPS), Certified Building Inspector (CBI),
Cert ified Fire lnspector II (CFJ-II), and Certified Fire Plans Examiner (CFPE)

xvi
 About the Authors

He has also served as Subject iVfallerExpert for the NFPA for the CFPS, CPE, and
CFT-I & II Credentialing Exams and is actively involved as a member of5 NFPA Tech-
nical Committees.

Michael J.Madden, PE, FSFPE,is a Senior Engineer for Hughes Associates, Inc., work-
ing out of their Los Angeles area Office. I e has been a member of the NFPA Technical
Comm ittee on Aerosol Products for 24 years, including 10 years as Committee Chair.
A member of NFPA and the International Code Council, he is a Fellow of the Society
ofFire Protection Engineers.

August F. Manz, J\tIS,president of A. F. .Manz Associates, Union, NJ, a consultant in

welding and cutting safety and technology, is chair of ANSIZ49.l technical committee
and a past chair ofNFPA's Technical Committee on Hot Work Operations. The author
of several welding books and a contr ibutor to safety chapters in more than two dozen
other welding-related books, he holds an MS in electrical engineer ing from New Jersey
Institute of Technology.

L. Jeffrer Mattern, FSFPE,now retired, was employed for 36 years by FM Global, last
serving as Operations Chief Engineer and Senior Account Engineer. A Life Member
ofNFPA, he served for 6 years on the NFPA Standards Council. He also chaired and
served on various NFPA Technical Committees. He is a Fellow of the Society of Fire
Protection Engineers.

Jack R . .i\fawh inn ey, PE, is a senior engineer at Hughes Associates, Tnc. in Baltimore,
Maryland , where he works on fire suppress ion systems research and development
and forensics. Prior to joining Hughes Associates in 1996, he was a senior research
officer at the Institute for Research in Construction, in Ottawa, Canada, where he
conducted research on the development of water mist S}'Slems. He has authored nu -
merous papers on water mist systems technology. including the NFPA and SFPE
Handboo k chapters.

Larry McDonald is the certification project manager for the NFPA. Before join ing
NFPA in 2007, he served as the director of the Massachusetts Firefighting Academy.
Appointed the first full-time fire chief in the Town of Dudley, Massachusetts, he served
from 2004- 2006. He is a retired Senior Master Sergeant from the U.S. Air Poree, where
he served in Fire Protection for 21 years. During his Air Force career he held positions
from entq ' level firefighter to Deputy Fire Chief His last assignment was as the Fire
Protection Career Field i\ilanager at Headquarters Air Force Civil Engineer Support
AgenC)', Tyndall AFB, Florida. Tn this capacity he also managed the Department of
Defense Firefighter Certification System.

Jon Nisja has more than 33 years' fire service experience. He has served as Fire Mar-
shal for two commu nities and has been a Fire Safety Superv.isor with the Minnesota
State Fire Marshal Division since 1990. He supervises fire code development, the fire

xvii
 About the Aul hors

protection section, fire loss data section, and public fire safety education for the State
Fire Marshal Division.
A former President of the Fire Marshals Association of Minnesota and also a past
president of the International Fire Marshals Association, his areas of fire protection
interest include fire safety histoq 1, means of egress, fire protection systems, building
construc tion, and using performance measures to show effectiveness.

Anthony M. Ordile, PE, is a principal engineer employed by Haines Fire & Risk Con-
sulting Corporation, a fire protection, process safety, and code consulting and engi-
neering firm located in Southampton, New Jersey, but doing work worldwide. With
37 years' fire protection engineering experience, he is a member of NFPA and SFPE
and has served as a principal member on the NrPA 'lechnical Committees on Flam-
mable and Combust ible Liquids and Hazardous Chemicals since 1993. He also served
as chair of the NFPA'Technical Committee on Storage and Warehousing of Containers
and Portable Tanks from 1996to 2006.

Lee Richardson, BS, is a Senior Electrical Engineer at NFPA, where he is responsible

for NFPA 72®,Natio11nlFireAlarm n11dSig11a/i11g Code®; and NFPA 720, Stn11dmdfor
the I11stal/atio11
of Cnrbo11Monoxide (CO) Detection and Wnming Eq11ip111e11t. He is a
member of the ASME Al 7.1 Elevator and Escalator Safety Code, Emergency Opera-
tions Committee .
He received a BS degree in Electrical Engineering from Lowell Technological Insti-
tute (now part of the University of Massachusetts). Prior to being employed by NFPA,
he worked for more than 20 years as an instrumentation and controls engineer in the
engineeri ng and design of comme rcial power plants, particularly nuclear power plants.
He is coeditor of the 2002 & 2007 editions of the National Fire Alarm Code fla11d-
book and the 2010 edition of the Nalio11a/FireAlnr111and Sig11ali11gCode Ha11dbook.

Lon D. Santis, MS, graduated from the University of Pittsburgh with an MS in Min-
ing Engineering. He worked a short time for the Ensign-Bickford Company as an
explosives sales representative before 12 years of employment at the Pittsburgh Re-
search Laboratory of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, now operated by NIOSH.
In 1998 he became the .Manager of Technical Services at the Institute of Makers of
Explosives (HvIE)in \Vashington, DC. At IM£, he manages the IME Technical Com-
mittee, the Transportation and Distribution Committee, and the Security Comm it-
tee. He interacts with all federal agencies with interest in commercial explosives, has
testified before Congress on explosives safety and secu rity, and oversees IME's safety
library. He is the chair of the NFPA Technical Committee on Explosives and a member
of the NFPA Lightning Protection and Static Electricity Technical Committees. He is
also the chair of the ANSI A 10.7 Subgroup on Explosives safety in construction.

Robert E. Solomon, PE, is the Division Manager for NFPA'sBuilding Fire Protection
and Life Safety Department . He oversees the operations of the department, whose
projects include NFPA 101, Life Safety Code and the NFPA Building Co11stmctio11
n11d
Safety Codew. Upon graduation from the University of Maryland, he worked for the
xviii
 About the Authors

A coauthor of Pe1formi11g Pinn Reviewsfor Compliancewith the L!feSafety Code,he

is also a cert ified Fire Marsha l and Building Official in Connecticut.

Peter J. Gore Willse, PE, FSFPE, is the Directo r of Research at XL GA PS and Deputy
Fire Marshal, Portland, Connecticut . A graduate of the University of Rhode Island
with a BS degree in Civil Engineering , he is currently a graduate student at Worces-
ter Polytechnic Institute majoring in Fire Protection Engineering. He has been with
XL GAPS (formerly Industrial Risk Insurers) for the past 33 years and has conducted
inspections of industrial and commercial properties in the United States, Europe, and
Africa . He serves on many NFPA committees as well as ASCE and SFPE committees
and is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Connecticut Fire !vlarshal
Association, International Association of Arson Investigators, Middlesex County Fire
Chiefs, NFPA, and Society of Fire Protection Engineers.

Tom lVysocki is President and Senior Consultant at Guardian Services Incorporated

in Frankfort, Illinois. Since 1973, he has work ed in developing system hardware and
design software for most of the major manufacturers of special hazards systems in the
United States and many international clients. He has supervised design, installation,
and testing of systems protecting a wide variet) ' of hazards including commercial kitch -
ens, oil pipelines and pump stations, steel and aluminum mills, both fossil-fueled and
nuclear power plants, and data processing centers.
He is a member of the NFPA Technical Committees on Carbon Dioxide, Clean
Agents, Halon 1301, and Protection of IT Equipment. A member of the Society of
Fire Protection Engineers, he current!)' serves as Technical Director for the Fire Sup-
pression Systems Association. In 2003, he was awarded the NFPA Standards Council
Special Achievement Award for significant contributions to the development of U.S.
national fire codes and standards.

Steven E. Younis, PE, is a Registered Professional Fire Protection Engineer. He has

been involved on a wide variety of NFPA Technical Comm ittees for over 15 years.
He was employed at NFPA as a Senior Fire Protection Engineer, where he served as
Staff Liaison for a multitude ofTCs to include Life Safety Code, Air Conditioning, Fire
Doors & Windows, Aerosols, Fire Tests, and the development of NFPA 5000, among
others. Recently, he has been involved in NFPA Gases TCs, as well as safety instrnction
and training development for gases to include LP-Gas, natural gas, compressed gases,
and cryogenic fluids . He is also active in other safety organizations such as ASTM, UL,
and SFPE. One of his main missions is working with the U.S. Arlll) ' on weapon S)'Stems
fire protection and safety for soldiers.

x..x
SECTION GENERAL

1
CHAPTER
1 lhe Fire Inspector
David Li11d
2
CHAPTER Inspection Procedures
David Lind
CHAPTER
3 Hou sekeeping and Building Pro cedur es
Jon Nisja
CHAPTER
4 Report Wdting and Record Keeping
RonaldR. Farr
CHAPTER
5 Education, Training, Certification, and the Fire
Inspector
Lany McDonald
CHAPTER6 Sustainable Design and Green Techno logies
Tracy Golinveaux,MSFPE1111dRobert E. Solomon,PE
 CHAPTER

THE FlRE INSPECTOR

David Lind

T11efire inspector is key to a community's goal of reducing the effects of fire and the
injuries, deaths, and property damage associated with it. Fire inspection is a process
in which deficiencies that pose a threat to life and property are identified and caused
to be corrected . TI1e goal of a successful fire inspection program is to eliminate all
deficiencies. T11efire inspector typically is under the jurisdiction of the public sec-
tor (municipal, county, or state government) but alternatively may work in the private
sector as an employee of an inspection company. Some large industrial complexes or
secure facilities may have their own fire inspection personnel. In addition to fire in-
spection, today's fire inspectors may have other functions delegated to them, such as
conducting fire investigations, educating the public, and reviewing various kinds of
construction, alarm, and/or suppres sion plans.
T11esingle most important skill set a fire inspector must possess is excellent com -
munication skills, both written and verbal. T11efire inspector must be knowledgeable
about the properties in his or her jurisdiction: the types of occupancy use, the variety
of building contents, any special operations or processes, and all fire protection/life
safety systems contained within the buildings. A working knowledge of building and
fire codes and knowledge of the various installation standards are tools that will be
needed during the inspection process. Fire inspection is the one inspection discipline
that you will need some knowledge of for almost every construction trade. Inspec-
tors must demonstrate exceptional judgment and should understand the role they will
play in the life safety and property protection of a building, its occupants, and of first
responders. Fire inspectors will wear many hats and play many different roles dur-
ing an inspection: detective, reporter, technica l consultant, diplomat, educator, and
salesperson.

PHYSICAL CONDITION
Fire inspect ion duti es are not confined to the office setting. T11etypical inspection en-
vironment will require the inspector to climb ladders or stairs in buildings, walk long
 CHAPTER1: TI1eFirelnsped or

distances for long du ratio ns, cra wl in to co nfined spaces, and possibly lift or push heavy
objects . ·n1e inspec tor will need to possess the strength, agility, and stamina to perform
the physical activities assoc iated with these duties.

COMMUNI CATION SKILLS

A vital part of th e inspectio n process is in teraction wit h owners, property m anag-
ers, archite cts, engineers, lawyers, contracto rs, vendors, the fire service, and rep -
resentatives from the insu rance ind ustry and discussio n of any and all prob lems
or deficiencies discovered during th e inspec tion and th eir potential solutions. It is
throu gh this discussion and interaction th at the inspec tor edu cates b)' explainin g
why some thin g is a deficiency and offering poss ible sol ution s to correct the item(s).
Alwa)'S ask if your explanat ion(s) and sol ut ion(s) were und erstoo d. 1his will he lp
you reach your goal of eli minating al l deficiencies . Inspectors will need to record,
throu gh doc umen ta tion or photographs, the con d itio ns found and th act ion s th at
need to be taken . Whenever possible, always start and finish your inspec tio n in the
sa me man ner. Start on the o utside and work ins ide; start at the top of the building
and wo rk down or start at the bottom and work up. 1his me thodo logy will help you
be co n islenl no matter what type or size of building you are inspecting. As stated
earli er, )'Ottr ability to comm uni cate clear ly, both orally and in writin g, and your use
of tact and cliscretion will help you to maintain a calm interaction with the owner/
agent and to demonstrate your authorit y through your knowledge. 1l1is part of the
process is cr itical to the d evelopm ent a nd ma inten ance of an effective, well-run fire
prevention program.

AUTHORITY
Fire ins pectors must know where their direct au thori ty comes from. It may hav e
been delegated from th e office or entity that has th e ult imate autho ri ty having juris -
diction, typically th e head of th e organization (i.e., fire chief, head of the inspection
departm en t, or perhaps a state or muni cipa l departm ent or official). Other sources
of authorit) ' may be de rived from loca l codes/ or d inances and stat e statutes. Local
ordinances are the most commo n types of documents and ma ny tim es are wri tten to
strengthe n state sta tute lang uage by ident ifying which edi tions of t he codes and stan -
dards are adopted, the process by which these codes and sta nda rds will be enforced,
and the pro cess that may be necessary to gain compliance locally. 1l1ere needs to be
a clearly defined process o r procedure in place if you are not abl e to gain compli -
ance by using yo ur co mmu nicat ion skills. You may have to take legal act ion to force
complia nce, suc h as by serving th e pr oper !)' owner with a ser ies of written noti ces
or orders th at document each v iolation and includ e a dead line for complia nce or by
issu ing citations (i.e., ti ckets) . Typ ica lly, ce rtified mail is used to serve a property
owner. ff you still have not gained compliance after serving the owne r with notices
or or d ers of viola tion s, you will p robab l)' have to consu lt with a local or sta te govern-
me n t attorney to start the appropria te lega l ac tion specified in the local ordinance
or state statute .
3
 SECTION1: General

In some situations, you may require/order imme diate compliance from an owner ,
owner's agent, or occupant, such as unlocking exit doors in an occupied assembly
space . In ext reme cases, the inspector may have cause to order a building evacuated
and closed because of what is commonly described as a situation that poses imminent
danger to the occupants or public.
TI1eorganization the inspector represents must support the inspector with clear au-
thorit}' and consistent policy enforcement. To aid in that support, the inspector should
communicate problems or potential problems internally so everyone in the organiza-
tion has lrnowledge of what actions or items were identified in the field. Make sure you
reference only enforceable ordinances and laws and that your state or jurisdiction has
adopted national!}' recognized codes and standards, such as the National Fire Protec-
tion Association (NFPA) National FireCodes®.

KNOWLEDGE
TI1e breadth of knowledge fire inspectors need is determined by the duties they are
expected to perform and the types of facilities they will be inspecting, the materials
contained in those facilities, and the operations the facilities house. Inspectors must
also be familia r with construction practices, nationally recognized fire and life safety
codes and standards, and other agencies they can consult for advice, solutions to prob-
lenis, or corrections for specific hazards.
The most important thing for any inspector to be aware of is his or her own limi -
tations about any subject or item. Know when to ask questions of co-workers or to
reach out to your code organizations. TI1e NFPA provides free support to public sector
officials and its members through its technical questions service. As is often said, there
are no stupid questions, only stupid mistakes. If an owner asks a question that you do
not know the answer to, do not try to fake it or make something up. You run the risk
of compromising your credibility if the information you provide is not accurate . Best
practice would be to tell the owner that you will research the question or item and will
get back to him or her with the answer or information in a timely manner.
TI1einterior layouts (egress patterns) and other aspects of buildings are often altered
with the introduction of new processes , new product lines, or new tenants. During
periods of construction, renovation, or demolition, properties are especially vulner-
able to fire, and life safety concerns are heightened. Inspectors should have sufficient
knowledge of building construction and materials to be able to recognize potentially
hazardous conditions and to recommend temporary steps that can be taken during
construction or renovation to provide for the fire protection and life safety of the struc-
ture . NFPA 1, Fire Code,and NFPA 101®,Life Safety Code®,can provide information
to help assessment and about life safety measures that should be in place .

Building Services
Building services can represent a fire hazard if they are not installed and maintained
properly. Inspectors should be familiar with the fire hazards associated with electrical

4
 CHAPTER1: The foe Inspector

systems, heating systems, air-conditioning and ventilation systems, waste-handling

srstems, and materi als-handl ing srstems. It may be helpful for you to con tac t your
local bu ildi ng, electrical, o r heating, ventilation, and air -cond ition ing inspec tor s to
answer questions you may have about exist ing systems.

Hazardous Materials
Inspec tors should be fami liar with the proper handli ng, storage, a nd protectio n
of a wide varie t)' of hazar d ous m ateria ls they might encoun ter during an inspec-
tion. Typical hazardou s materials includ e flammable and combu sti ble liqu id s, com -
press ed or liquefi ed flammable gases, explosives, corro sives, reactive materials ,
unstable materials, toxi c materials, ox idi zers , radi oac tive materials, na tura l and
synthetic fibers, combustible me tals, and combustible d usts . Th is is an area tha t
continues to grow bo th in size and complexity as new products and chem ical com -
binations are crea ted .

Process Hazards
Industrial processes can intro duc e or heighten hazards with in t he facili ty. In spec -
tor s should be able to recognize thos e p rocess hazards, know or und ersta nd how to
minimize their impact, and understand the appropriat e fire protection method(s)
or pra ctice(s) for the hazar ds. The in sp ec tor may n eed to see k out indu stry expe rt s
or other sources of info rma tio n to best understand and de al with hazar dou s
pro cesses.

Fire Protection Equipment

Ther e are many types of lire prot ec tion eq uipment tha t mig ht be installed or available
on the prem ises. The most commo n types are por table lire extinguis hers, sp rinkler
systems, and different type s of standpipe and hose systems. Some areas and pro cess-
es may be protected by speci al fixed extinguishing systems. For example, a dipping
or coatin g process mi ght be protected by a system that uses carbon dioxide, dry
chemical, or foam as the ext inguis hing agent. TI1e type of sys tem and type of agent
protect ing certa in pro cesses will depend on the spec ific hazard of the produc t and the
process involved. Inspec tor s sho uld und erstand the app lication and th e opera tion and
maintenanc e requirement s of all extingu ishing syst em eq uipment on the premise s
and should be able to evaluate the operational readines s of the private or public water
supply S)'Stems.
A property might also be equipped with hea t, smoke, and flame detection equip -
ment. 111is equipm ent is desig ned to prov ide occupants with an early warning of a
developing fire. The fire alarm system and associated devices will alert the occ upant s
and, in most cases, also alert the fire department. Insp ec tors should be acquainted
with the purpose, opera tion , and maintenance requ ire men ts of such devices and
systems .

5
 SECTION1: General

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., ed., FireProtectionH1111d/Jook,
20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, 1v1A,2008.

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 1031, Stm1dnrdforProfessionalQ11nlificntio11s
for Fireinspector n11dPinn Exn111i11
er
NFPA l 033 , Standardfor ProfessionalQunl(firntio11s
for Fire l11vestigntor
NFPA I 035, Standardfor ProfessionalQunlificntio11sfor Public Fireand L(!eS1fety Ed11
-
rntor

6
 CHAPTER

2
INSPECTION
PROCEDURES
David Lind

An inspection should inspir e othe rs to report potential pro blems or to make and take
corrective action(s) to redu ce or eliminat e fire ,1nd life safety hazards within their facil-
ity. 1l1e desired outcome will be to foster and encourage an impr oved atti tude toward
fire safety and bu ildin g safe ty by the owner, management, and employe es. 1l1e inspec -
tion process will genera te a detailed record of all findings and the corr ective action s
necessary to resolve all ide ntified items.

INSPECTOR'S EQUIPMENT
Personal Equipment
A safe and effective fire inspec tion relies on prop er eq uipm ent. Pro per equipment
start s with a visible means of iden tification, such as ,111identificiltion card or badge. If
you have a uni form, wear it; if not, wear other appropriate professional attire in order
to be easily identifiabl e. Because inspectors usually get dir ty during inspec tions, cov-
eralls and pe rhaps overshoes may be needed to prote ct their uniforms or street clothes
and sho es. Boots ma)' be necessary when conduc ting water -flow tests.
Inspec tor s sho uld be equ ipped with and use the same type of persona l safety equip -
ment as the jurisdiction requires the workers in the area bein g inspected to use. This
could include a hard hat, safe ty shoes, safety glasses, gloves, and ea r protection . In
some environm en ts, inspectors may have to use respira tory prot ect ion devices.

Inspection Too ls
1l1e basic tool s fire inspec tors need are a flashlight, a notebook or clipboar d 011 which
to make sketches or record ob servation s, report forms, and a pen or pencil. A digital
camera is also a common tool to hel p illustrate and document items. Some juri sd ictions
now equ ip the ir inspec tors wi th PDAs, smartphones, laptop computers, or tablet de-
vices, allowing for q uick access to information about prev ious inspectio ns, curre nt
 SECTION1: General

2-1Pitot tube assembly used for making water-flow measurements.

FIGURE

building data, and code requirements. If a sketch is to be drawn , the accuracy of di -

m ension s m easure d by pa cing is often adequate. ·when greater accuracy is requ ired, a
6-ft (182.9 -cm) ruler or a 50-ft (1524-cm) measuring tap e may be helpful. The insp ec-
tor may also ask the owner for "as built" drawings, if they are available, from which
accurate measurements can be taken.
More sophisticated equipment that inspectors might occasionally need includes
gauges and connections for making water -flow measurem ents, a combustible gas
dete ctor for test ing potentially hazardous environments, and other instruments for
testing fire protection equipment and other safety items (FIGURE 2·1).

INSPECTION PREPARATION
If they are inspecting residential properti es, inspectors will need little in the way
of preparation after th ey have made a few inspections, except to remind themselves of
chronicall) ' non corrected trouble areas within the buildings that need to be checked
carefully. If they are inspecting nonresidential properties, however, they should pre-
pare them selves by:
• Reviewing previous inspection reports and compliance history , violation notices/
orders, surveys, and any construction or alteration plans.
• Refreshing th emselves about the operations or process activities carried out on
the premises .
• Prepar ing a list of the more important points to be investigated before starting
the insp ec tion.
If they are inspecting a property for the first time, inspectors can add items to the
inspe ction list from th e National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Fire Protectio11
Hn11dbook;NFPA 1, Fire Code; NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®; local building codes,
if app licable; and other NFPA codes and standards on specific occupancies, hazards,
or fire prote ction features, such as sprinkler and standpipe systems . Inspectors may
have less preparation before inspecting small properties, such as one -story mercantile
or busin ess occup ancies. They shou ld, how ever, review information on larger, more
complex propertie s and the processes they contain before beginning the inspection.
8
 CHAPTER2: Inspection Procedures

Inspections are usuall>' conducted dming normal business hours, although appoint-
ments may be necessary for certain types of occupancies or facilities that have high
security procedures in place. For example, the inspector may visit a doctor's or den-
tist's office before or after work hours so that patients are not d isturbed . An in spection
may also be done after hours (at night) to observe conditions during the night shift
or at other times to check on special operations or as part of a permit. Normal busi-
ness hours for man>' occupancies, such as nightdubs or theaters, may be observed a nd
evaluated at night.
When possible, the initia l inspection shou ld be performed by appointment. If an
inspection time is likely to harm a good re lation ship between the inspector and the
owner or manager, it might be prudent to rescbedlLle the inspection, provided there
is no evidence of an immediate fire or life safety hazard. For subsequent follow -up
inspections, the element of surpr ise can be effective in determining true operat ing con -
ditions. However, checking a restaurant's hood and duct system during peak mealtime
hours is a good example of when not to conduct an inspe ction. Briefly walking through
th e facility to make su re exits are not blocked in the dining area during this busy time
is appropriate, however. Follow-up inspections can be done with no appointment, but
again, use common sense about what you will need to see and the effect (if any) on the
operation of the building, the workers in the building, or on the public.

INTRODUCT IONS
Inspectors should make some genera l menta l observations as they approach and enter
a premises. 1l1ey can observe the general occupancy, the condition of the building
exterior-spec ifically housekeeping and maintenance - some building construction
features, and the height of the facility. Inspectors should not begin an exterior inspec-
tion without first introducing themselves to management and seeking permission to
inspect the premises.
1l1e inspector should make every effort to create a favorable impression to he.Ip en-
sure cooperation and courteous treatment Inspectors should enter the premises by the
main entrance, seek out someone with authority, introduce themselves, and state the
nature of their business. Inspectors should ask for permission to inspect the premises,
not demand it. Remember, you have no reason to be irritated ifrequired to wait before
receiving attention, especially if you arrived without an appointment. TI1e person the
inspector needs to see may have other important matters to attend to first.
It would be wise to spend a reasonable amount of time making sure that the indi-
vidual in charge of the property understands wh)' the facility is being inspected and
answering any questions the property owner or manager might have, particularly dur-
ing your first inspection of a property. Most properties have been inspected at some
t ime, and records of such inspections can usually be obtained from the jurisdiction's
files. TI1e records often contain plans that cou ld save the inspector much time or ef-
fort if they are reviewed prior to doing the inspection. TI1ey will show where facility
services are located and a general layout of all walls, doors, and the means of egress.
Inspections should always be conducted in the company of the property owner or a
designated representative because you want to get into all rooms and spaces, including
9
 SECTION1: General

those usually locked. This representative will help the inspector gain access to all parts
of the property and will be able to provide or obtain answers to questions asked dur-
ing the course of the inspection. Jf the inspector is an employee of the occupant (such
as a city inspector at a city facility), there will be no need for a guide once the initial
inspection has been made. Inspectors should work in l)airs when inspecting residential
properties to eliminate any potential complaints of impropri ety. The second person is
there to support what was done and what was said should the need ever arise. If hav-
ing a second person present is not possible or even an option, consider using a small
recorder, and let the person(s) you are with know you are recording the dialogue.

INSP C ION O S VATIO NS

The inspector either has or will be developing his or her own technique and methodology
for inspecting a facility,and this methodology must be flexibleto allow for variations and
unexpected observations dming the inspection. Either before or during the inspection,
the inspector must ascertain both general and specific information in order to review
and generate the appropriate recommendations or code compliance requirements. In ad-
dition to the custolllary information inspectors will obtain about the specific occupancy
classification, they must determine several general facts before they can completely
evaluate the occupancy and determine which code requirements it Jllust meet.

Occupancy C lassification
Inspector s should evaluate how the facility is used and determin e which specific oc-
cupanC)' classification it best or most directly falls under. Some facilities will be difficult
to determine because within the building, you may be able to identify two, three, or
maybe more occupancy classifications. Doing so will enable the inspector to choose
the appropriate checklist and code requirements to conduct the inspection accurately
and to make the appropriate evaluations based on the NFPA Fire Code, NFPA 101®
Life Safety Code®, or the local regulations as appropriate and will help in classifying
the occupancy.

Sequence
The inspector should start by touring the outside of the facility to observe how the
building or buildings relate to one another and to adjacent properties. A site plan of
the property will help )'Ou lo visualize its layout. Obtaining an overall view of the prop -
erty from the top of the tallest building might also be helpful. You may be able to do
this from your office computer using Global Positioning System software. Inspectors
equipped with PDAs or smartphones can also do this while on the premises.
Whether a building is inspected from lop to bottom or from bottom to top is of
little consequence; it is the inspector's choice. It is important, however, to conduct the
inspection S)'Stematically and thoroughly the same way in every building. No area
should be omitted. Every room, closet, attic, concealed space, basement , or other
place where fire could start should be inspected . If the inspector is barred from an
area for security reasons, he or she should note it on the inspection report. It may be
10
 CHAP ER 2: Inspection Procedures

advisable to obtain U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S. Department of Defense,

Federal Aviation Administration, or other appropriate clearances to gain access to
these particular areas.
The following gives a general indication of what the inspector should look for while
going through the property. More specific information is contained in subsequent
chapters of this text and from the list the inspector prepared during his or her prelimi -
nary research.

xterior
While touring the exterior are.1s of the property, the inspector should record the
address (including su ite numbers), the business mimes of each occupied space and type
of occupanq• or use, overall observation of exterior housekeeping and maintenance,
exterior evidence of building-construction type(s), all)' construction problems such
as missing or incomplete features, and the building height. The inspector should note
the location and chara cter of potential exposures and the arrnngement and condition
of any outdoor storage. He or she should also note the conditions that could affect fire
department response and fire-ground operations, including the location of public and
private fire hydrants.
Fire department vehicle access is an important factor. If not already designated by
signage, fire lanes should be well marked, as well as unobstructed and wide enough to
allow fire apparatus to pass. In locations such as shopping malls and mercantile occu-
pancies, vehicular activity shou ld be limited to the pickup and discharge of passengers,
and parking should be prohibited in these areas. Hydrants and other sources of water
must be readil}' visible and accessible. Sprinkler valves must be open, and sprinkler
and standpipe connections must be capped, free of debris, .ind accessible.Jfflam rnable
or combustible liquids are on site, the inspector should determine in which direction
flammable or cmnbus tiblc liquids would flow if spilled and what sort of drainage facili-
ties if any are present.

Construction Classifications
An important point of all inspections is to determine accurately the construc tion clas-
sification of the building or structure. Such a determination will usually be based on
NFPA 220, Stn11dnrd011 Typesof Building Co11structio11, or on the local regulations. 111e
inspector will need to be familiar with the definitions of the individual construction
types defined in NFPA 220 or the local building code accurately to classify the differ-
ent types of construction being inspected.
Once the inspector is familiar with the exact definitions of the difterenl construc -
tion types, he or she will need to determin e the similarities and distinguishing features
of each category. A facility will often be composed of multiple construction types,
and it is common for construction classifications to change as the building undergoes
renovations, including alterations and additions. These factors can make the overall
classification process complicated, and ii may be impossible to determine one over-
all construction classification if the building is composed of multiple construction
types. However, inspectors can simplify the classification process by dividing the
11
 SECTION1: General

structure during the inspection into sections based on building configurations and
construction, renovations, alterations, and additions. Classifying the structure accu-
rately is essential because the construction classification(s) will significantly affec t the
code requirements for the overall level oflife safety and property conservation that can
be provided inherently within the structure.
The type of construction and the materials used wilJ influence the ease of ignition
and the rate of fire spr ead. 'fl1e integrity of fire-resistive walls and floor/ceiling as-
semblies must be ensured. Openings in fire-rated walls must be protected to retard
or prevent the spread of smoke and fire to other areas . Doors in fire-rated walls must
be kept closed or close automatically to ensure a reasonably safe avenue of escape for
the occupants and to restrict th e spread of fire. If holes are rnade in any fire-ra ted wall
assemblies for the passage of services and utilities and the voids are not sealed, they
could allow smoke and fire to spread horizontally and vertically throughout the facility.
Inspecting the integrity of exit enclosures is very important. Inspectors should check
the door , penetrations, and other openings into each exit enclosure while inspecting
each floor. 'Then, they should inspect each exit stair enclosure for its full length. In taller
buildings , it is recomm ended that this be done from the top down for ease. Inspectors
should use a different elevator to go back to the top each time , taking this opportunity
to note if phase II fire fighter service is provided for that elevator car.
Many of thes e items are not readily obvious, and inspectors may find it necessary to
examine concealed spaces, such as the voids above suspended ceilings, the interiors of
vertical shafts, and stair enclosure s, to make sure that the integrity of these fire protec -
tion features has not been breached.

Building Facilities
Water distribution systems, heating systems, air-conditioning and ventilation systems,
electrical distribution systems, gas distribution systems, refuse -handling equipment,
and conveyor S}'Stemsall play an important role in the fire hazard potential of the prem-
ises. They must be properly installed, used, and maintained to minimize any hazard. Al-
though inspectors are not responsible for maintaining such systems, they should be able
to determine whether the equipment is being proper!>' used and maintained. TI1is may
mean reviewing the equipment's maintenance records as part of the inspection process.

Hazards of Contents
TI1elevel of hazard of the contents of a building are categorized as low, ordinary, and
high in NFPA JOJ®, Life Snfely Code®. TI1eevaluation of the hazard level of the build-
ing contents will have an impact on the inspection and building evaluation and the
resulting recommendations. TI1erefore, it is critical for inspectors to be familiar with
the following definitions of each category. (See Section 6.2 of the L!fe Snjely Code,2012,
for the exact definitions.)

Low Hazard. Low hazard contents are classified as those of such low combustibility
that no self-propagating fire therein can occur. Storage of noncombustible materials
is classified as low hazard . fn occupancies not otherwise defined as low hazard, it
12
 CHAPTER2: Inspection Proced
ures

is assumed tha t, even where the actual contents hazard is usually low, there is suf-
ficient likelih ood that some comb ustible mater ials or hazardo us operat ions will be
intro duced in connection with building repa ir or maintenan ce or some psychologi-
cal factor might crea te conditions conducive to panic. Because of thi s likelihood , life
safety featur es can not safely be reduced below those specified for ord inary haza rd
conten ts.

Ordinary Hazard, Ord inary hazard con tents are classified as those that are likely
to burn with moderate rapidity or to give off a considera ble volum e of smoke. The
ord inary hazard classification represents the condi tions found in most buildings and
is the basis for the genera l requ ireme nts of NFPA JO/®, U/e Snj< ity (:ode®. 11,e fear
of poisono us fum es or explosions is necessarily a relative matter to be determined
on the basis of judgment. All smoke con tains some toxic fire gases bu t, under condi-
tions of ordinary hazard, there shou ld be no undu ly da ngerous exposure during the
period necessary to escape from the lire area, assuming there are ample and properly
arrang ed exits.

High Hazard. High hazard contents shall be classified as thos e that are likely to burn
with extreme rapidity or from which explosions are likely. High hazard contents in-
clude occupancies where flammable liquids are hand led or used or are stored und er
cond itions involving possible release of flammab le vapors; where grain dust, wood
flour, plastic dust, aluminum or magnesium dust, or other explosive dus ts are pro -
duced; where hazardous chem icals or explosives are manufactured, stored, or handled;
where cotton or other comb ustible fibers are processed or handled und er cond itions
produc ing flammable flyings; and other situations of similar hazard.
Inspectors should be aware that the classifications used b)' NFPA 13, Sta11dnrdfor the
J11stnl/ntio11of Sprinkler Systems, may be different. For example, business occupancies
typically will have "ordinary hazard contents;' as defined by the Life Safety Code. For
pur poses of selecting a sprinkle r design density, however, NFPA 13 will define an office
as "light hazard occ npanc)'."
At the time of the inspection, inspectors must determin e the hazard level of the
buildi ng's conten ts based on their observations of the actual contents of the build ing
or structure. 1l1is is another reason to review the inspection file and recor ds of previ-
ous insp ections to see if what is on site and being stored is the same as or difterent
than what was noted during the previou s inspec tion. The hazard classification may be
directly affected by a change in product. Contro lling the hazards of materia ls depends
on storin g, h andling, using, and dispos ing of them properly. In th is regard, inspectors
should pay particula r attention to housekeeping and storage practices . TI1ey shou ld be
fam iliar with any process(es) that might cause a fire hazard. 1l1ey sho uld also be famil-
iar with any special features the building or property has that might requ ire further
analysis.
Dur ing the inspect ion, inspectors might want to use the process of elimination ac-
curately to determine the hazard level of the conten ts. They should begin by asking the
questio n, "Could a self-propagat ing fire occur withi n that space?" This question shou ld
be based on the type and burn ing characteris tics of the fuel located in the building
13
 SECTION 1: General

rmd its specific arrangement in relation to other fuel sources. The low hazard level of
co ntent s categoq 1 does not imply that no fire can occur; it implies only that fire will not
spread from one combustible item to another. Low hazard contents are rarely found
in mo st occ upancies ; thus, this condition usually would not be a major classification
during most inspections. The vast majority of structures have contents classified as
ordinary hazard; therefore it is usuaIIy best to skip this category and determine if the
con tents foll into the high hazard category.
In making this determination, inspec tors must use a grea t deal of judgment based
on their expe rience in the field and their ability to make observations and assess
burning characte risti cs of various fuels. To classify contents as having a high hazard,
th e co 11t, nts would have to bur11 .it a very fost rate 1111d
have drnmati burning char -
ac teristics that could render th e occupied space unsafe at a faster rate than that at
which the occupants cou ld evacuate. High hazard contents could explode in the oc-
cupied area and also produce significan t and unusual amounts of poisonous fumes,
thu s exposing the occupants to a high level of persona .I hazard. Flammab le liquids,
gases, dusts, or solid combustib les with a very high rate of heat release are included
in this category.
lnsµectors wiII often be able eas ily to eliminate categories of low and high hazard
contents, which leave only ordinary hazard con tents. To verify that the conte nts fall
under this classification, inspecto rs need to determine if the contents in the building
are liable to burn with moderate rapid ity or give off a considerable volume of smoke
but would not necessarily produce poisonous fumes or exp losions. 1l1is classifica -
tion includes typical combustion products such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen
cyan ide.
It is common ly believed that the most hazardou s classification wi!I prevail as the
overall classification for the building, but this is not usually the case. Typically, when
so me of the contents are high hazard, the area is protected as a subcategory with its
own set of spec ialized protection features, but this will not be used to determine the
overall ha zard level of con tents classificatio n. Inspectors must make sure that the pro -
visions for specia l protection are provided and are adequate before any areas of high
haz ard co ntents can be seg regated from the overall classification.
To make this concept tangib le, consider the foliowing example of an educatio nal
facility. In a college, typical classrooms and office areas would usually have a sufficient
amount of fuel in a configuration that would allow a self-propagating fire to occur,
but neither poisonous fumes nor exp losion s would be produced. As a result, this area
would be classified as huving ordi nary haz ard contents.
Restrooms probably have some amo unt of fuel that could allow a fire to beg in; but
in the appropriate type of construction, the fire most likely would burn without sig-
nificant!) ' affecting the structure or the egress time of the occupants. As a resu lt, these
areas can be classified appropr iately as having low hazard contents . 1l1ere ma}' also be
laboratories that use high -p ressure reactors for research purposes, that store consider-
able amo nnts of flammable liqnids or flammabl e gases, or that store a host of other
hazardous materials that would classify that part of the occupancy as having high haz-
ard contents.

14
 CHAPTER2: Inspection Procedures

If the following requirements are met, the appropriate hazard level of contents clas-
sification would be ordinary, but inspectors must consider all three classificationswhen
making their evaluation:
1. 1he high hazard items are appropriately protected and segregated from other
areas using rated fire barriers.
2. ·:nielow hazard items do not contribute significantly to the overall square foot-
age of the facility.
3. 1l1eordinary hazard items predominate.
It is common for a structure to have either two or all three hazard categories because
the hazard level of contents may change as one moves th rough the facility.Determin-
ing the hazard level of contents will allow inspectors to make a more precise assessment
of the facility, and the correct occupancy classification will direct inspectors to the
use of the appropriate code requirements.

Fire Detection and Alarm Systems

Man)' properties wilJ be equipped with fire detection and alarm devices and systems.
The purpose of such equipment is to detect the presence of fire, alert the occupants to
expedite evacuation, notify the fire department, activate fire suppression systems, and
perform other functions such as close fire doors, turn off air-handling equipment, acti-
vate smoke control systems, or any combination of these functions. Inspectors should
understand the function of alarm system components, be able visually to identify de-
vice differences, and understand the major components of these systems. Routine in-
spections should ensure that manually operated fire alarm devices are clearly marked,
accessible to occupants, and properly maintained. Tests should be performed by a rep-
resentative of the owner and witnessed by the inspector to confirm that the systems are
in operating condition.

Fire SuppressionEquipment
Carefully check the fire suppression equipment on the premises. Typical equipment
includes sprinklers and standpipe systems and portable fire extinguishers. Routine in-
spections should determine that sprinkler valvesare open, sprinklers are unobstructed,
the system has not been altered, and the sprinkler system has been extended to cover
all areas of the building, including additions or renovated spaces. Standpipes should
be checked for proper operation and to ensure that caps are in place and hose valves
are closed.
Inspectors should determine that portable fire extinguishers of the proper size and
type are provided for any given hazard and that they are serviceable, clearly identified,
and accessible to the occupants when the occupants have had proper training. Inspec-
tors should also check special extinguishing systems for individual hazards to ensure
that they have been maintained and are serviceable, and inspectors should conduct or
witness periodic operational tests of fire-extinguishing equipment. (See NFPA 1, Fire
Code,for further information on these systems.)

15
 SECTION 1: General

INSPEC IO N SUMMA Y
Surveying and Mapping
During the initial in spectio n, inspectors should gat her in formation tha t will be used
lo pr epar e a site plan if one does not alread y exist. Such information will include
con struction features, occupanq ' data, fire prot ection features, an d exposures .
'fl1e site plan is a sca led drawin g that indicates the loca tions and dimensions of the
build ings and fire protection eq uipment (incl ud ing water -distribut ion systems) and
the specific hazards and haza rdou s processes in each building (FIGURE 2·2). To sho w
detail s of the fire pro tec tion (eatur es, th e inspector may have to draw a se ries of side
sketches, which need not be drawn to sca le. 1l1ese map s should be in co rporated into
the fire department prefire plan.

Closing Interview
At the conclusion of th e facility tou r, th e inspec to r shou ld discuss th e result s in detail
with the owner or the owner's represe ntativ e. Con ditions that serious ly jeopa rdi ze th e
safe ty of the occupants and the property itse lf sho uld be correc ted imm ediatel y. In
the case of an in-house fire insp ec tor, the in spec tor or hi s or her supervisor often has
the authority to remedy hazardous situations. Imminent safety -to -life issues should
be addre ssed imm ed iately; others may be co rr ecte d over a predetermined time. Your
timeline need s to be consistent with each in spec tion. J\llake sure that you ind icate to the
owner or representative that as long as there is evidence that progress is being made,
additi ona l time m ay be reques ted, but it must be requested in writing. 'l11e request must

1
N

6 s Steel
(0 deck Mach .
shop
Manufacturing
building .S Sewing
and
assembly
(/)
-o
c-
(l) (/)

c:E2
·- Q) (/)

26 ft brick
co u ro
Sewing and
assembly
stee l deck
12 in. 12 in.
Main Street

NS = Nonsprinklered
AS = Automatic sprinkler

2-2 A typical site plan.

FIGURE
16
 CHAP ER2: Inspection Procedures

includ e the new timeli ne and the reason for the request. However, all iJJSpectors will
have to rely on their regulatory authority to convince the owner or the represent ative
that co rrective action should and must be taken at o nce.

Reports
All violations noted during the inspection need to be included in the written report to
the own er and filed in the buildin g file. TI1iswou ld include an on line repo rting system, if
such systems are used in the jur isdiction. Item s corrected during the in pection shou ld
be noted as such on the report. There will be times when items that do not present an
immediate thr eat to life safety will have to be corrected over a longer l'ime period and , in
some cases, at a substantia l cost to the owner. ln such cases, inspecto rs shou ld go back to
their offices, research the adopte d codes and standa rds to ensure lhat they have accura te-
ly noted the code violation, and prod uce a typewritte n correct ion order . 'l11e in spector
should call the owner or the owner's representative to schedu le a meeting, to deliver the
correc tion order in person, and to fully explnin the reason ing behi nd the requirement.
Duri ng th e inspection process. inspec tors may be asked to clarify a provis ion of a
code or standard o r be asked a technical ques tion. In a field of knowl edge as complex
and diversified as fire pro tection, it is imp ossible for anyone to know all the answers.
For examp le, NFPA deve lops more than 300 codes and standards . It is better for in -
spec tor s to ad mit they do no t know the answer than to try to bluff their way through.
Remember, the inspe cto r must have the tru st of those respon sible for making and fi-
na ncing corr ect ions to viola tions. To gain and maintain that trust. the inspector must
always be comp lete!}' honest.
TI1einspec tor should write do wn th e question and the name and telephone number
of the individu al and should tell the person that he or she will provid e an answer. The
inspec tor now has the time needed to researc h the question, consult with other en-
forcemen t officials, talk to h is or he r superv isor, or lo call the organization responsible
for the requ ireme nt. If so equ ipped with on line access to the code provis ions, a re-
spo nse might be given before the inspector leaves the prem ises. As soon as poss ible, the
inspector shou ld call back with an answer. E-mail is another goo d option for providing
information. It also prov ides a documentation trai l of inform ation from the inspector
to the respons ible or requesting party.
For less urg ent condi tions or conditions that will take time to correc t, inspectors
should explain their recommendations clearl y so that the own er fully un de rstand s the
problem and the op tions available to correct them. Inspectors sho uld express their
view in easy -to -understan d terms. Inspectors should clea rly lay out tim elines (if within
your scope) . Never engage in argu ments, tech nicalities, or p etty faultfindi ng, any of
which will antagonize the peop le inspectors most want to in fluence. In all cases, in-
spec tors should explain any appea l pro cess or procedures for gran ting equiva lencies.
A written report shou ld be prepared for each inspection. lh e amou nt of detail
requir ed will depe nd on the character and purpose of the inspection and the loca l re-
quirements. In genera l, ever)' report should include the following information:
1. Date of inspection.
2. Name of inspector.
17
 SECTION1: General

3. Name and address of the property, noting the name and title of the person(s)
interviewed, e-mail address, and phone numbers .
4. Name and address of owner (or agent if a different location) and phone
number.
5. Names of tenants of a multiple occupanq' building (but not necessarily the
name of every tenant in an apartment building or office building).
6. Type of occupancy (if mixed occupancy, each principal occupancy and its lo-
cation; if an industrial plant , the principal raw materials and finished product).
7. Dimensions of buildings , including height and construction type.
8. Factors that could contribute to the spread of fire inside buildings, such as
op en stairw ays, elevator and 11tility shafts, and lack of vertical and horizontal
cutoffs.
9. Common fire hazards, such as open flames, heaters, and inadequate wiring.
10. Special fire hazards, such as hazardous materials and their storage, handling,
use, and proce sses .
11. Extingui shing, detection, and alar.m equipment.
12. Employee fire safety organization .
13. Adequacy and accessibility of exits.
14. Exposures, including factors making fire spread possible between buildings.
15. Recommendations or notations of violations .
The purpose of this report is to describe the property and its use, hazards, and fire
protection without going into unnecessary detail. An inspection repo r t should give
the reader a clear understanding of the conditions found and the corrections needed.
A checklist might be adequate for routine procedures, such as determining whether
a sprinkler valve is open, \i\7hen a measurement, such as water or air pressure, is to be
checked, however, provision should be made for entering the actual measurement.
Hazardous practices and conditions are best treated in the narrative form. Inspec -
tors who arc required to describe the conditions they have observed are likely to do a
more thorough job than those who merely complete a checklist. A checklist cannot be
devised to take into account every situation that could conceivably arise, and an in-
spector could easily miss some hazard that a checklist does not include. Some agencies
computerize data from the inspections they conduct.
TI1einspector's recommendations or correction orders for reducing hazards and im -
proving protection constitute an important part of the reporting process . Recommen-
dations or correction orders can be prepared as a separate document and submitted
to the property owner or manager for consideration . A copy should be filed with the
inspection report.
If the purpose of the inspection is cod e enforcement, the inspector should identify
the code violations and give a date by which compliance is expected . Follow -up inspec-
tions should then be conducted to ensure proper compliance with the requirements .

DAILYINSPECTIONS
In many facilities, there are items that should be checked quarterly, monthly, daily, or
at some other interval. These items should be compiled into a list that inspectors can
18
 CHAPTER 2: Inspec tio n Procedure s

use to guide them and to ensure that each item is checked. TI1efollowing is a partial list
that might apply to an individual facility:
I. Check that exit doors are not improperly locked or blocked.
2. Check the control valves, fire department connec tions, and gauges on sprinkler
and standp ipe systems.
3. Check the status lamps on fire pump control panels to be certain the equipment
i energized.
4. Check the status lamps and trouble lights on the fire alarm panels.
5. Check that .ill fire doors are self-closing and latch.
In addition, there could be other items in the various departments of the facility that
require a daily or periodic check. One convenient routin e is to provide a card for each
item to be checked. These cards should be kept at the location to be checked, and the
employee responsible for the inspection should be required to initial, check, and record
the necessary observations on the appropriate card. Entries shou ld show the date, the
time, and the name of the person making the observation. Bar-code readers also can be
used for this purpose in manr cases.
Tt .is not enough for management to specify that daily checks must be conducted.
The ind ividua ls assigned to make the checks must feel that if the matter is important
enough to be recorded, it must be don e correctly. TI1eproperty manager or on-site fire
inspector should review the cards or records weekl)', and the results shou ld be sum-
marized in the weekly report ofloss prevention activities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., ed., FireProtectionHn11dbook
, 20th ed., NFPA, QuinC)', MA, 2008.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availabilit)' of current editions of the
following doc uments.
NFPA 1, Fire Code
NFPA 13, Sta11dnrdfor tl,e l11stn/latio11
of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®
NFPA 170, Stnndnrdfor FireSnfety Symbols
NFPA 220, Stnndnrd 011Types of Building Comlrnction
NFPA 1031, Stnndnrdfor ProfessionalQ11alifi for Firebrspectormui Pinn
cntio11s
Exa111i11er
NFPA 1201, Reco111111e11dntionsfor DevelopingFire Protectio11 Servicesfor the Public
NFPA 1452, Guide.for Tmi11ingFire Service Perso1111el to Co11duct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys

19
 CHAPTER

3
HOUSEKEEPING AND
BUILDING PROCEDURES
Jon Nisja

TI1epractice of good housekeeping can be described as plain common sense and is an

effective fire prevention measure. People do not need an extensive background in fire
protection to recognize poor housekeeping practices that pose a fire safety risk. Poor
housekeeping practices should serve as a caution to the inspector; places that have
poor housekeeping practices often have other fire safety deficiencies.
Effective indoor and outdoor housekeeping practices accomplish the following
major objectives:
l. Eliminating unwanted or excessive fuel loads.
2. Removing obstructions.
3. Controlling sources of ignition.
4. Improving safety for firefighting and emergency response personnel.
Cert a in aspects of housekeeping are common to a Imost all types of occupancies; other
aspects are unique to certain occupancies. To describe every aspe ct of housekeeping
for all of the various occupancies would be impossible. Inspection personnel must be
able to recognize housekeeping problems and take actions to eliminate them and to
educate property owners about the importance of reducing these types of hazards. In-
spectors who take the time to educate property owners will find that the incidence of
housekeeping problems will decrease.
Unlike other fire code provisions, housekeeping provisions are not found in a single
chapter in the fire code; they are scattered throughout multiple chapters in the code book .

PRINCIPLESOF GOOD HOUSEKEEPING

Tiuee basic requirements of good housekeeping are equipment arrangement and la}10ut;
material storage and handling; and operational neatness, cleanliness, and orderliness.
 CHAPTER3: Housekeeping and Building Procedures

Equipm ent Arrangem nt and Layout

Inspections can reveal housekeeping problems with the eq uipment being used and
with related storage and workspace areas. Finished goods in the production process
can cause aisles to be blocked or obstructed with stored items. TI1esestorage problems
can often be corrected with relatively simple modifications to the working area, eq uip -
ment, or operational procedures .

Material Storage and Handling

Fire inspectors often find that adequate storage provisions are lacking in bui lding s that
they inspect. TI1is lack of storage space enco urages people to place rnnterials wher ever
it is convenient for them to do so. Many occupancies use car ts or powered equipment
to move materials from one area in a building to another. Often, the carts or moving
equipment are left in undesirable locations when not in use.
TI1ese housekeepin g practices can
cause egress aisles and exit doors to be
partial!) ' obstructed or even blocked.
Another egress concern is storage under
stairways (FIGURE 3·1). 'I11e area un-
der stairs should not be used for storage
unless it is separated from the stairs
by fire-rated construction. Improperly
stored materials can also obstruct ac-
cess to fire protection equipment, such
as fire extinguishers, control valves, and
3·1Combustible material stored under a
FIGURE
fire-alarm pull stations (FIGURE3·2). wooden stairway.
Stored items can also impair the proper
operation of passive fire prot.eclion equipment , such as fire doors.
Fire -fighter safety is also a concern that can be addressed with proper housekeep -
ing. One example is high -p iled, combustible stored material. In cases where the storage
arrangement uses very narrow aisles and unstable stora ge methods, the piles could
collapse on fire fighters, especially when the boxes became saturated with water or are
weakened by fire damage.
TI1e fire code requires that material stored in buildings be kept at least 2 ft (61 cm)
below the ceiling or 18 in. (45 .7 cm) below sprinklers if the building is sprinkler-
protected. In a warehouse env ironm ent, other sprinkler clearance rules might be
applicable depending on the type of sprinkler being used, the type and height of stor-
age and the overalJ ceiling height. In a nonsprinklered building, the reason for this
requirement is to keep materials a safe distance below the ceiling so that when the
rnaterial is burning, it will not cause inten se burning on the ceiling or roof structure
and lead to a premature collapse . In sprink ler-protected buildings, 18 in . (45.7 cm)
is needed for sprink ler s to develop their character istic umbrella-shaped pattern and

21
 SECTION1: General

FIGURE
3·2Access to fire extingu isher blocked by stored mate rial.

control the fire. Stored material that en-

croaches on this separation distance is
shown in FIGURE 3·3.
Indoor storage of wood or plastic
pallets poses a severe risk to a building.
Idle pallet storage that exceeds 6 ft ( 182.9
cm) in height poses a challenge to stan-
dard sprinkler protection (FIGURE 3-4).
'TI1ese stored pallets burn very hot
and fast.
Combustible stored material should
also be separated from heat -producing
FIGURE 3-3Stored material encroaching upon
appliances, such as furnaces, water
the separat ion distance required for sprinklers
heaters, incinerators, and solid fuel- to develop their characte ristic umbrella-shaped
burning appliances to prevent ignition pattern.
of the combustibles. For low -heal appli -
ances, such as furnaces and water h eaters, there should be at least 18 in. (45.7 cm) of
separation distance (FIGURE 3·5). For high-h ea t appliances, such as incin era tors and
solid fuel - burni11g appliances , there should be at least 3 ft (91.4 cm) of separat ion
distance.

22
 CHAP ER3: Housekeeping and Building Procedures

Operational
Neatness, Cleanliness,
and Orderliness
Good housekeeping practices can be as
simple as keeping all areas as neat and
clean as possible. Partic ular emphasis
should be pla ced on maintaining egress
aisles-including paths to egress doors
and access to criti c;1l equipment-and
on maintaining separatio n di tance
beh,•een stored material and sources of
ignition.
One example of an eftective house-
keeping practice is emptying trash and
waste on frequ en t-eno ugh intervals to
prevent accumulation. The frequency of
trash removal may vary substantially de-
pending on the amount oft rash or waste
generated. Some occupancies, such as
FIGURE 3-4Storageof pallets that exceeds
large retail stores, have very complex
recommended storageheight posesa
tra sh - and waste -handling operations to
challenge to standardsprinklerprotection.
remove, compact, and/or bale materials
generated in their oµcration. Seasonal and business needs can make housekeeping
a problem during certain periods of time. For example, retail stores ma)' have more
product on hand during certain holidays; this increase in product generates more
combustibles from the sh ipping, handling , and display process. Another example is a
theater scene shop before or during a production. A production area in a scene shop
that needs to be cleaned and organized is shown in FIGURE 3-6.
In recent years, many states and jurisdictions have been required to participate in
environmental recycling programs. Although these materials are not cons idered trash
or waste by traditional definitions, they can present the same types of housekeeping
problems . 1l1ey often involve combustible materials, and they are frequently stored
in undesirnble arrangements or locations . The quantity, size, and location of recycling
containers can pose housekeeping concerns. Often, individual containers are located
at each work area, with larger collection points in key areas elsewhere in a building.

HOUSEKEEPINGPROBL MS
General building cleanliness should be checked by inspection personnel as part of
their walk-through of the facility. Obviously, the level of cleanliness is relative to the
operation or type of business. Some busin esses , such as wood shops, repair garages,
and agricultural mills, will be messier than a typical restaurant, healthcare, school, or

23
 SECTION 1: General

office occupancy. A business that keeps

its operation neat and clean will have
less risk of fire, because there will be less
material that may burn, and the mate-
rial will be further away from ignition
sources. Different t)'pes of occupancies
or businesses have different housekeep-
ing problems, depending on the nature
and type of processes taking place in
them . Also, certain rooms or spaces in
th building, such as storage rooms,
mechanical rooms, process rooms, and
production rooms, might tend to be
more cluttered than other areas.

Flammable /
Combust ible Liquid
Spills
There is a risk of spills whenever llamma- FIGURE 3-5 Com bustib le sto red mate rial w ith
ble or combustible liquids are handled recomm ended separat ion distance from low -
or used. Businesses handling flammable heat appl iances, such as fu rnaces and wa ter
or combustible liquids should have an heaters.

FIGURE
3·6 Produ ction area in a shop w ith bloc ked aisles and debr is everywh ere.
24
 CHAPTER3: Housekeepingand Building Procedures

adequate supply of absorbent materials and tools to control, contain, or clean up spills.
TI1emost common type of absorbent material is a granular product similar to cat litter.
It is available from automotive parts stores, hardware stores, and safety supply stores.

Flammable / Combustible Liquid Waste Disposal

If the business uses flammable or combustib le liquids as a regular part of the oper -
ation, fire inspectors shou ld review the Oarnmable liquid storage, use, and disposal
procedures with the facility's management. 1he plan may involve contracting with a
lrnzardous waste dispo sal contrac tor. En vironmental concerns have made many types
of flammable and combustible liquids expensive and somewhat difficult to dispose of
Flammable liquid wastes should never be drained into sewers or <lumped onto the
ground. Also, these waste materials should not be left in open containers either inside
or outside of the buildin g.

Paintings, Coatings, Finishes, and Lubricants

Paints, grease, oil, and similar materials often leave combustible residues. 1l1ese resi -
dues can be solid materials or continue to be a semi- liquid form. Man)' motors, en -
gines, compressors, conveyor belts, bearings, and similar equipment require frequent
lubrication for proper operation. Although some lubrication is necessary, an excessive
amount can become a source or foel. Excessive lubrication can also attract dirt and dust
and cause overheating of t11eequipment.
Spray-finish rooms, booths, and their related exhaust ducts, fans, and motors need
to be cleaned frequently to prevent dangerous accumulation of residues. Filters in
spray-finis h operations should be installed and replaced frequently to minimize resi-
due accumulation. A paint -spray booth where the filters have deteriorated and need to
be rep laced is shown in FIGURE 3-7,
Because of the h igh number of fires associated with spray -finishing operations, the
area or spray booth is required to have an automatic fire suppression system. Fire in-
spectors need to not e how sprinklers are protected against residue accumulation in
spray -finish booths and ducts. One method is to cover the sprinkler with cellophane
or a paper bag that is changed on a regular basis to avoid excessive accumu lation or
residue.

Oily Waste and Rags

Certain types of oils can cause spontaneous healing. Some of the mor e common ma-
terials that can spontaneous ly heat include tung oil, linseed oil, peanut oil, and fish
oil. Rags and cloths are often used to apply or clean up these oils. Oily waste and rags
are commonly found in restaurants for clea nin g cooking equipment, in veh icle repair
ga rages, industrial occupancies, paint -spraying operations, and building maintenance
areas. Because these materials can spontaneous!)' ignite, oily waste and rags are a fire
satet), hazard. Clean cotton waste or wiping rags represent less of a Ii.re problem but
st ill pose a risk becau se of contamination with certa in types of oils. Oily waste and
rags shou ld be stored in metal containers with tight -fitting covers. Commercially made
25
 SECTION1: General

3-7Spray-finish booth with deteriorated filters.

FIGURE

containers are available for this purpose

(FIGURE 3·8).

Packing and Shipping

Materials
Almost all packing and shipping ma-
terials are combustible and represent
a severe fire risk. Cardboard, paper,
Styrofoam, expanded plastics , natural
excelsior, straw, and similar materials
are used for packing and shipping . 1hese
materials are all relatively easy to ignite
and have relatively high rates of heat re- 3·8Container for oily waste and rags.
FIGURE
lease. 1hey are treated as clean waste: Large quantities should be kept in special vaults
or storerooms.
Fire inspectors should note the condition of shipping and receiving rooms. 1hey
should pay particular attention to large quantities of accumulated waste around pack-
aging or unpackaging operations . When excessive quantities of the se materials are
noted, a regularly scheduled program for cleaning and waste removal should be insti -
tuted immediately. J\faintenan ce and upkeep procedures inside the building can reduce
the probability of ignition and limit the available fuel supply.

26
 CHAPTER3: Housekeeping and Building Procedures

BUILD IN G CARE AND MAIN NANCE

Floor Cleaning and Treatment
Floor cleaning. treatmen t, or refinishing can be a fire hazard if flammable sol-
vents or finishes are used. Fortunately, the use of flammable solvents and finishes
has diminished in recent decades as newer, less volatile products have been devel-
oped. However, a remaining concern is the removal, sanding, and refinishing of
floor surfaces-especially wood floors-whi ch can generate combustible dusts and
residues.
Tfa floor- I ;111i
11
g or -refinishing operation i condu cted, there should be adequate
ventilation, and only materials having a flash point above the highest room tempera -
ture shou ld be used. In addition, nonsparking equipment should be used, and there
should be no open flames in the area. The containers for the storage of solvents or
cleaning compounds should be labeled as to their flammability or combustibility. If no
labels are present, material safety data sheets should be reviewed. If these materials are
determined to be flammable liquids, specialized storage requirements, such as storage
in specialized cabinets or rooms, may be necessary.
In recent years, floor-cleaning
machines powered by liquefied petro-
leum gas (LP gas) have been developed
(FIGURE 3-9). 1l1ese machines should be
used only when there is adequate venti-
lation and when the building has a li m-
ited number of occupants inside. When
not in use, these LP gas- powered floor-
cleaning machines should be stored in
rooms that are fire-separated from the
building. FIGURE3-9Floor-cleaning machine powered by
LPgas.
Some floor treatments and dTessings
conta in oils or compou nds that can spon taneously ignite. Oily mops, towels, or rags
used to apply these treatments or dressings shou ld be stored in the same manner as oily
rags; that is, in metal containers with tight-fitting lids.

Flammable Cleaning Solvents

The use of flammable cleaning solvents is becoming fairly rare today, because many
nonflammable solvents have been developed that have high flash points, are very stable,
and have limited toxicity problems. Flammable liquids are still used for some cleaning
purposes; examples are alcohols and paint thinners. Flammable liquids used for clean-
ing shou ld be stored in safety cans with tight-fitting lids and used only for dispensing
small quantities. Flammable liquids should not be stored in open pails, buckets, dip
tanks, or in containers that may be degraded by the liquid.

27
 SECTION 1: General

Kitchen Cooking Hoods, Exhaust ucts,

and Equipment
Grease accumulation 011 kitchen cooki ng hood s, on a hood's grease filters, or inside
the exhaust duct represents a serious fire safety risk. This accumulated grease ca n be
ignited from the spa rks or heat from the cooki ng operation or from a small fire on the
cooking surface .
1l1e kitchen hood and filters shoul d be inspected and cleaned on a regular basis.
Inspections by the owner will reveal how often cleaning will need to occur. Tt is rec -
ommended that these inspections be conducted at least weekly. The hood and filters
may have to be inspected and cleaned daily dependin g nn lhe amoun t of food cooked
and the met hod of cooking. Frying operations, especially deep-fa t frying, tend to pro -
duce the most grease -laden vapors and need more frequent cleaning.
The entire hood, grease-re moval appliances , filters, exhaust ducts, fans, and related
equ ipmen t need to under go a thorough cleaning on a regular basis. This can be a very
messy and difficult job, especia lly in the ductwork itself~ Commercial firms tha t spe -
cialize in thi s type of cleaning should be used. Once again, the amount of food cooked
and the method of cooking will determine the necessary cleaning frequency. If any
grease is observed dripping from the kitchen hood , fillers, exhaust duct, or the exterior
of the building, an immed .iate cleaning is needed. It is important that filters be in place
and clean to ensure proper operation.

Dust and Lint Removal

Dust and lint can accumulate in combustible or even ex.plosive quantities 011 walls, ceil-
ings, motors, heating equ ipment, struc tural members, or insid e ducts and conveying
equipment. Combustible dusts are cornmon l)' found in woodworking operations, coa l
plants, and agricultural mills. Lint accumulations can be found in laundr) ' operations,
including large -sca le commercial laundrie s and commercial occupancies such as ho -
tels, nursing home s, hospital s, and schools.
1l1e removal of dust can be dangerous - an explosion can occur ifit is not done cor -
rectly. Dust or lint accumulation can be removed using vacuum-cleaning equipment
that has an explosion -proof motor. It is not recommended that compressed air be used
for dust removal, because this will cause th e particles to become suspended in air and
increase the risk of a dust explosion.

Compressed Gas Cylinders

Many facilities need to use comp ressed gases, such as oxygen, propane, acetylene,
and nitrogen, as part of their operations. ·n 1ese compressed gases are often stor ed in
pressurized cylinders. Because some of these gases are flammable or have oxidizing
properties, there are restr ictions on the amounts of certain types of compressed gases
permitted in an area.
Compressed gas cylinders sho uld be sec ured in a mann er that prevents them from
being knocked over. An example of an unsecured compress ed gas cylinder is shown in

28
 CHAP ER 3: Housekeepingand OuildingProcedures

FIGURE 3-10. If the cylinder tips over and

the neck of the cylind er ruptures, the
cylind er can be propelled like a rocket
and do considerable damage. In most
instances, the securing of these com-
pressed gas cylinders to a wheeled cart to
permit mobility is an acceptable means
of securing them. Compressed gas cylin-
ders that are in storage and not currently
con nected to equipment shou ld have a
protective caµ or seal on them .

CO NTROL 0
SMOKING
By con trolling smoking, a common
ignition source can be elimin ated.
Smo king introdu ces a flame (lighter or
matches) and a smolde rin g heat source FIGURE MOUnsecured compressed gas
(the cigarette or cigar). Cigare tte smok- cylinders.
ing is generally 0 11 the decline in the
United Stales. ln add ition, many states and commun ities have enacted smoking regu-
latio ns that limit smoking in public buildings and workplaces. 'll1ese factors have led to
a decrease in the emphasis that fire inspectors need lo place on the con tro l of smoking.
II has, however, also led lo an increase in people smoki ng in areas i.nside of buildings
where smo king represents a fire hazard.
The fire inspector sho uld look for evidence of smoking -asht rays, ashes, or ciga rett e
bul'ls- in prohibited areas. An emerging trend that fire .inspectors need to be aware
o( however, is smoking outside of buildings and the disposal of discarded smoking
materials into combustible materials. Recentl) ', there has been an increase in fires
started by smoking outside of buildings and spreading on the comb ustible exterior
bu ilding materials.
There are situations where smoking shou ld definitely be prohibited, and "No Smok-
ing" signs should be prominen tly displayed. Smoking should always be forbidden near
flammable liquids, both indoors and outdoors; near flammable gases, suc h as LP gas
and acetylene; and in areas where there are large quantities of co.mbustibles, such as
retai l and mercantile occupa ncies. Smoking should also be prohibited in areas where
dust accumulation is present, such as woodworking plants, and in areas where there
are combustible decorations .
ln areas where smoking is allowed, approved smoki ng receptacle s should be provid -
ed. This type of receptacle keeps the cigarette inside the rece ptacl e rnther than allowing
it to fall out as it burn s down. TI1esesmoking receptacles ca n also be filled with sand to
assist in extingui shing the smoking materials. Control of smokin g materials is a topic

29
 SECTION1: General

that fire inspectors can cover when giving public fire safety education presentations to
community, civic, or workplace groups. Emphasis must be placed on not smoking in
bed and on having working smoke alarms when in your own home.

OU DOOR HOUSEKEEPING
Outdoor hous ekeeping issues are typ ically easy to correct. One example might be
premises identifi cation-that is, the posting of an address-to aid emergency respond-
ers in finding th e building. Often, the identification numbers are missing or the posted
address has deteriorated. Larger complexes may have separate stree ts or roads and a
private bu ildin g-numberiJ1g srstem.
Poor housekeeping outside of a facility can threaten the fire safety of accessory
struc tures, products stored outside, building utility equipment, and the structure itself.
Accumulations of rubbish, tall grass, weeds, and waste material s adjacent to structures,
exterior storage, and utility equ ipment are common problems.
At manufacturing, storage, and "big-box" mercantile occupancies, the storage of idle
pallets can be a fire safety concern both outside and inside the building. Both plastic
and wooden pallets should be limited in pile height and separated from combustible
buildings and from all building openings by a suitable distance to prevent fire travel
into a building. An example of outdoor pallet storage that could impact an adjacent
building is shown in FIGURE 3·11.

Wildland Interfac e
Chapter 26 provides a high level of specific information on this topic and should be
reviewed in deta il. Wildland interface buildings and faci lities constructed near large
wildland areas without an intervening firebreak are of growing concern. Several

3·11Outdoor pallet storage that could impact an adjacent building.

FIGURE

30
 CHAPTER3: Housekeeping and Building Procedures

businesses and apartment s have been lost as the result of fast-moving wildland or
forest fires. Plans should be developed for the protection of these vulnerable areas.
When there is a high fire danger potential, open burning candles, flames, fireworks,
incinera tors, and similar operations should be prohibited in wildland interface
areas.

Weeds, Grass, and Vegetat ive Materials

Weeds, grass, shrubs, and trees can cause various concerns for the fire inspector. These
materials can block the view of or impair access to fire protection equipment, such as
hydrants and fire department connections. Trees or bushes can become overgrown and
block exit doors.
Tall grass and weeds should never be allowed to grow near flammable or combus-
tible liquid storage or LP gas installations. A fire involving grass or weeds could have a
disastrous outcome if it reaches the tanks containing the product. TI1esesituations can
be corrected by cutting the weeds or grass, trimming the shrubs and trees, or applying
herbicides or weed killers.
Many chemicals used as herbicides are chlorate compounds. Chlorate compounds
are oxidizing agents and can contribute to fire conditions, especially dur.ing protracted
dry periods when the vegetative materials have dried out.

Waste, Rubbish, and Refuse Disposal

Goods, production materials, and waste products stored in piles outdoors should be
separated from one another and kept away from combustible buildings. The separation
will help prevent the spread of fire from one pile to another and will provide a means
of fire apparatus access.
\'\ 7aste, rnbbish, and similar combus-
tibles should never be stored or allowed
to accumulate next to flammable or
combustible liquid or flammable gas
storage tanks or containers. An example
of combustibl.e debris stored next to an
LP gas tank is shown in FIGURE 3-12.
Dumpsters, combustible recycling
containers, and similar recepta-
cles should be located at least 10 ft
(304.8 cm) from combustible eave over-
FIGURE3·12Excessive stored material and debris
hangs, combustible walls, or building
under and adjacent to an LPgas storagetank.
openings. Combustible waste materials
from industr ial and manufacturing operations are common ly stored on-site before be-
ing hauled away.TI1eseaccumulations should be at least 20 ft (610 cm) from buildings,
but it may be preferable to increase this distance to 50 ft (15.2 m) if there are relatively
large quantities of combustible materials. Having these outdoor storage areas fenced

31
 SECTION1: Gen eral

to prevent access by unwanted persons is a good idea. Ignition sources, such as from
smoking or from cutting, welding, and other hot-work operating tools, should be kept
al a s~fe distance of20 ft (610 cm) or more.

Hoarding
A growing concern in residential occupancies is the subject of hoarding. TI1isbehav-
ior causes an individual to hold on to or collect objects and possessions to the point
of excess. ~n1ematerials are not organized and are permitted to accumulate in what-
ever available open space can be found. A hoard ing environm ent presents a highly
concen trated fire hazard, makes search and rescue responsibilities for first responders
very difhcult, and creates the equivalent of a deep -seated fire that can be diflicult to
extinguish. Generally, inspectors are not given access to private residential units un -
less a prior agreement between the building owner and the individual tenant has been
determined. Inspection programs might consider suggesting ways to work with 1.ocal
health departments and building management firms to identify and manage such resi-
dential units.

Snow and Ice Removal

In some areas of the United States, snow accumulation can pose add itional fire
problems. Snow and ice must be removed from around fire hydrants and fire pro -
tection equipment. For larger buildings, it may be necessary to plow snow from fire
lanes and fire apparatus access roads. Ice accumulations on gas meters can cause
the meter or regulator to overpressure and fail. O ne of the most common prob lems,
however, is the failure to keep exits and outside egress paths shoveled or cleared
of snow.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., ed., Fire Protectio11Hnndbook, 20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
Cote, A. E., and Linville, J.L., eds., l11dustrinlFire Hnznrds Hn11dbook,3rd ed., NFPA,
Quincy, MA, 1990.
"Good Housekeeping as a lvieans of Protection." ln: TI1eHandbook of Property Conser-
vation, Factory !vlutual System, Norwood, NIA, 1983, p.169-172.
Oven iew 1vfmiual,3rd ed., Industrial Risk Insurers, Hartford, CT, 1989.
1

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA l, Fire Code
NFPA 13, Stm1dardfor the I11stallatio11
of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 25, Sta11dardfor the T11spectio11,
Tesfi11g,n11dJ\lfni11/enn11ce
of Wnter-Based Fire
Protection Systems

32
 CHAPTER3: Hou~ekecping and lluilcling Procedures

NFPA 33, Stnndnrdfor Spray Applicntio11UsingFla11111wble or Co111b11s1ible

Mnterinls
NFPA 58, Stn11dardforthe Storagea11dHa11dli11g of Liq11cfiedPetrole11mGases
NFPA 101®, L/fe Safely Code®
NFPA 241, Stm1dnrrlfor SnfeguarrlingCo11s/rnclion,Alleratio11,a11dDe1110/itio11
Opem-
tio11s
NFPA 914, Coriefor FireProtectiono_fHistoricStrucl11res

33
 CHAPTER

REPORTWRITING
AND RECORD KEEPING
Ronald R. Farr

Fire safety inspections are a valuable component of a complete fire prevention pro-
gram. In the opinion of many fire safety experts, fire safety inspections are one of the
most important non-firefighting functions the fire service provides. Important compo-
nents in the inspection process are identifying deficiencies that are observed during the
inspection , communicating those deficiencies to the person responsible for corrective
action, and maintaining a record of the inspection. Solutions are discussed with the
owner, architect, engineer, and others who may be a part of the corrective action pro -
cess. Documenting the conditions found during the inspection and the actions taken
and communicating these issues both orally and in a written form are necessary to the
procedure. vVritten reports are also an integral part of a plan review process to docu -
ment approvals or deficiencies found during a plan review.

DOCUMENTING THE INSPECTION

The findings of fire safety inspections and all information pertaining to contacts with
the facility must be documented. Providing a formal inspection report each time is
not always necessary; furnishing details of the contact for the files, however, is impor-
tant. Fire inspectors must develop good writing skills to communicate important issues
they have uncovered during the inspection. A written overview of the issues-whether
in the form of a memo, a written inspection report, or a formal letter-is important
for appropriate documentation. Policies within the fire prevention bureau may dictate
whether an inspection report or formal letter is to be used.
lfthe inspector decides to use the written inspection report format, he or she should
style the document like a "who, what, where, why, and how" investigative report, indi-
cating the following:
• Who are the responsible parties (i.e., who has been made aware of the deficiency
and who will be the responsible party to provide corrective action)?
 CHAPTER 4: R por t Writing and Record Keeping

• ·what issue need s to be corrected (i.e., what has been identified as the deficiency
or violation)?
• Where the deficiency was located (i.e., it could be internal or externa l to the
facil ity)?
• ·why thi s issue was identified as a hazard (i.e., what section of the fire code
regulates this issue)?
• How this issue can be corrected (i.e., what needs to be done to correc t the
problem)?

Rath er than a written inspec tion report, there are various form ats that may be used
to do cum ent deficienci es th at were found, such .is a checklist. More commonly, the fire
inspe ctor will choose lo sen<l a leller tlia l i<le nlifies lhe deficiencies and the requir ed
corrective act ion . Such a letter is generally prepare d in a form al style. In some cases, it
may be appropriate for the inspector to use both formats; that is, to write an inspection
report and to follow it up with a formal letter.

WRITTEN INSPECTION REPORT/

FORMALLETTER
The purp ose of providing a written inspection report is to relay to th e reader information
regardin g code enforc eme nt that has been obtained durin g the inspec tion. Without go -
ing into detail, the inspection report describ es the prope rty and its use, the hazards, and
the fire protection systems. Tna written inspect ion report or form al letter, the inspector
is generally concerne d with presenting facts and evidence to prove a point , draw a con-
clusion, or justify a recomm endation. In some instan ces, the inspection report will be
used only to document the inspection and the action to be taken to correct the problem.
The inspector may use the inspection report to develop the formal inspection let-
ter that is sent to the owner or manager of the prope rty 1l1is inform at ion, whether
as a wr itten report or forma l letter, must be presented in a professional and business-
like mann er. It should n ot be opinionated, biased, emotional, or unfair. Code violations
should be identified, and a date must be given by which compliance is expected or a plan
of correctiv e action to aba te the violations is estab lished. Follow-up inspec tions should
then be cond Ltcted to ensme proper com pliance with the requi rements. It is also impor-
tan t to document any follow -up activity in the sam e mann er as the ori gina l inspec tion .
Written documentation should be prepared for each inspection. 1l1e amount of de-
tail requi red will depend on the character and purpos e of the inspection . In general,
eveq' lett er or report should include the follow ing inform ation:

1. Name, ad dre ss, and phone nu mber of the property inspec ted.
2. Name, address, phone number, and e-mail address of lhe owner. ('foe inspector
should obtain th e name of a local con tact person or repre sent ative if th e owner
is not on site or is not readily available .)
3. Name of the person present during th e insp ection if not the owner.
4. Da te of the inspect ion.

35
 SECTION1: General

5. Type of occupancy. (If the building has multiple or mixed occupancies, the
inspector should gather in formation for all of the occupancies within it or treat
each occupant as an independent facility.)
6. Fire protection features such as automatic fire suppression systems, portable
fire extinguishers, and fire alarm and detection systems.
7. Deficiencies or violations found and corrective actions required or taken.
8. Date for a reinspection or when a plan of corrective action is to be provided.
9. Name of the inspector(s).

The inspector may also wish to include additional information on an inspection

report that pertains to the occupancy, such as the means of egress; special hazards or
processes that are occurring within the facility; dimensions of the building, including
the height, area, and construction type; fire brigades or internal fire safet}' teams; hours
of operation and anticipated occupant load during business hours; and exposure prob -
lems with adjacent buildings.
When the inspector provides recommendations (for issues not required by code),
the inspector should group them and place them at the end of the report or letter.
The inspector must make sure the owner or business representative understands that
recommendations are just that and not code requirements. When a deficienq 1 is identi-
fied and the inspector is responding with a formal letter, he or she should identify the
violation, identify corrective action, and identify the section number from the fire code
relating to the issue in the narrative section of the letter. In the final portion of the writ-
ten report or formal letter, the inspector should offer to answer any questions regarding
the inspection the owner might have.
If the inspector has prepared a handwritten report in the field, he or she may leave
a copy of it at the facility. Field written reports are generally checklists and may also
include an area to be used to identify minor deficiencies. If the inspector returns to the
office to prepare the written report or formal letter, he or she must write it in a timely
fashion. The written report or formal letter can then be mailed . If necessary, depending
on legal requirements for due notice, it can be sent by certified or registered mail so
there is a receipt of delivery.
For less urgent conditions or conditions that will take time to correct, the inspector
should explain the recommendations clearly so that the owner understands the prob-
lem and the options available to correct the problem. Inspectors should express their
views in easy-to-understand terms and should not engage in arguments, technicalities,
or petty faultfinding, any of which will antagonize the people they most desire to influ-
ence. In all cases, inspectors should explain the appeal processes or the procedures for
granting equivalencies when asked .
An inspection report should give the owner a clear understanding of the conditions
found and the corrective action necessa1y A checklist may be adequate for routine pro-
cedures, such as determining whether a sprinkler valve is open or whether portable fire
extinguishers are present. When a measurement, such as water or air pressure, is to be
checked, it is recommended the report provide a place for entering the actual measure-
ment data. Checklists can be a good guide and can be used as a basis for information
collection.
36
 CHAPTER 4: ReportWriting and Record Keeping

Hazardous practi ces and conditions are best recorded in the narrative form rath-
er than on a checklist. Inspectors who are required to describe the conditions they
have observed are like])' to do a more thorough job than those who merely com -
plete a checklist. A checklist cannot be devised to take into account every situation
that could conceivably arise, and an inspector could easily miss some hazard that a
checklist does not include. Some agencies computeri ze data from the inspections
they conduct. In these situations , the terminology and data classifications contained
in NFPA 90 1, Stnndnrd Clnssificntion for lncidenl Reporting nnd Fire Protection Dnta,
can be helpful.
Recommendations or correction orders given for reducing hazards and improving
protection constitute an important part of the reporting process. Recommendations
or correction orders (in the form of a formal inspection letter) can be prepared as a
separate document and submitted to the property owner or manager for consideration.
A copy should be fil.ed with the inspection report.

OLLOW-UP INSPECTIONS
Follow-Up Inspection Letter
Follow-up inspections are made to ensure that the deficiencies noted in the inspection
report have been corrected. In an effort to conduct a timely reinspection, it is recom-
mended that the fire inspectors confirm the time and date of the follow-up inspection
with the owner or facilit)' operator prior to their arrival. In other cases, the inspector
may not want to make an appointment for a follow-up inspection ifhe or she believes
it is necessary to view the operation as it is being used on a daily basis.
When performing a follow-up inspection, you do not need to inspect the entire oc-
cupancy again. Instead, you may choose to inspect only the problem areas included in
the original inspection report to verify that the hazards have been corrected. It~ how-
ever, a violation is discovered during a follow-up inspection that was not found during
the initial inspection or if a new violation is discovered, you should identify it. All of
this information should then be noted in the follow-up inspection report. It is critical
that follow-up inspections be documented with the same level of importance as the
original inspection.
If all deficiencies have been corrected, you should indicate this to the owner and
thank him or her for taking the appropriate actions. lhen, to close out the file, send a
follow-up letter stating that the follow-up inspection found the violations to have been
corrected. Inspectors should exercise caution, however, when issuing such a letter so
they do not give the owner the impression that the facility is hazard-free. It is always
possible that something was missed that could cause a problem later. lhis letter also
gives you a second opportunity to thank the owner/occupant for his or her cooperation.
1f the owner/occupant is making a conscientious effort to comply, but some defi-
ciencies remain to be corrected, the inspector should commend the owner/occupant
on the progress made to that point. The inspector should then set a date and time for
yet another follow-up inspection and should add a written update of the findings to the
inspection files, with the original copy going to the owner/occupant.
37
 SECTION1: General

Final Notice
If the hazards have not been corrected and it is apparent that the owner/occupant
has made no effort to correct them, you should issue a final notice with a date for
another inspection. The final notice should inform the owner/occupant exactly what
legal action will be taken if full compliance is not attained by the date specified. You
must follow through with appropriate legal action. If you discover a hazard during an
inspection that requires immediate corrective action , and the hazard was corrected at
tha t time , you still need to record the hazard on the report and make a note that the
issue was corrected at the time of the inspect ion.

REPORTWRITING
The majority of report writing consists of documenting fire code violations that were
discovered during the inspection and the conditions found in the building. Reports
are designed to provide vital and useful information to the building owner/occupant
and the fire department or inspection agency. TI1e information in the report should
be factual and should be delivered in a manner that is easily understood and not
misleading. Although difficult to do at times, do not inject your personal feelings into
the document. Doing so could reduce your credibility.
Producing a well-written report requires the use of complete sentences, proper
grammar, and an appropriate choice of words. TI1ese basic writing techniques apply
to any type of report writing. A report mar appear to contain the necessa ry informa-
tion, but improper grammar or incomplete sentences may render it incomprehensible
to the reader. Two methods to remedy report -writing problems are to practice writing
skills and to enlist someone else's assistance in proofreading the report. It is extremely
important to proofread your written communications in an effort to prevent informa-
tion from being misunderstood.
Misspelled words reflect poorly on the writer and will make the reader question
the report's technical content. Questions regarding spelling should be resolved by con-
sulting a dictionary. Most word-processing programs have built-in spelling-correction
features. Caution, however, should be exercised when spell -check programs are used,
because such programs identify only misspelled words, not misused words; for ex-
ample, words that sound the same but are spelled differently. Run-on sentences or
sentence fragments make understanding the writer's meaning difficult. Good report
writing calls for short, clear sentences. For correct word usage and punctuation, a good,
easy -to -use manual should be consulted.
Taking extra time to prepare and write a report will help in catching common writ-
ing mistakes. Once the report is grammatically correct and the proper use of words and
the appropriate punctuation have been ensured, effort should be devoted to making the
report neat in appearance and legible. In genera l, typewritten or computer-generated
reports are preferable.
Following these basic report-writing guidelines will enable fire inspectors to pres-
ent themselves and their agency in a positive and professional manner. Written and
verbal communications are an integral part of a fire inspector's everyday activity, so it
38
 CHAPTER4: Report Writing and Record Keeping

is crncial that clear and effect ive communications become secon d nature. It is beyond
the scope of this text to provide extensive instruc tions in bus iness comm unications;
therefore, individ uals in fire inspector posi tions are urged to complete a business
communica tions cours e.

INSPECTION INFORMATION
NOT TAKIN
During the inspec tion, fire inspectors sho uld reco rd sufficient information pertaining
to the identified issues so they can prepare accurate reports. Each inspector will de -
velop his or her own method or style of note taking. If the inspec tor writes incomple te
notes , he or she may not be able to remembe r what th e deficiency, cond ition, or haz -
ardous issue was. Th is is especially true if the inspector cond ucts several inspections
durin g a sh ift and then ret urns to the office to prepare written rep orts or respo nses
for each. To avoid such a situation, notes shou ld be easy to und erstand and should
provid e an orderly and systematic approach to inspe ction inform ation. Specific loca-
tions should be ide nt ified to assist the inspec tor in remem beri ng the details of the is-
sue . Once inspec tors find a note-taking style they prefer , they shou ld follow that style
through out all inspec tion s to provide consis tency.
There willbe time s durin g an inspection when the inspecto r will be unabl e to give an
inunediat e answer to a question. The inspector should not feel emb arrassed to inform the
questio ning person that a period oftime will be needed to obtain an answer. If that hap -
pens, the inspector should write down what informa tion is needed and should inform
the person that he or she will receive a response shortly. 111einspector will then have time
to research the question and provide a correc t answer. TI1einspector must remember to
respond to the query. TI1e inspec tor should never guess at an answer to a question,

WRI ING REPORTSAND LETTERS

Draft Letter
In today's business world, a large number of issues are ha ndled orally. Writing, how -
ever, is still the preferre d and mos t accurate method of comm unicatio n. A well-written
report or letter that documents the issues can help in demonstrating a high level of
profes siona lism . Most people can, with a little practi ce, write a report or Jetter that
intelligently describes an issue or hazard .
Inspectors who have never written letters or insp ec tion repor ts before shou ld fa-
miliarize themselves with bas ic letter-writing techn iques and should practice writing
letters and repor ts. Inspectors need to have a basic understanding of the mechanics of
letter writing and the req uired content necessary for a letter. They can obtain several
samples of well-written letters to use as a guide and can follow a basic format or style
the departme nt may have instituted.
Once the inspector sett les down to write the letter, he or she may first want to de-
velop a draft lette r and review the draft to make sure all the information is included
39
 SECTION 1: General

and necessary corrections have been made. The inspector also needs to make sure the
content of the letter is understandable. Having another inspector read the letter will
provide a check on the letter 's accuracy and clarity. Another method of ensuring the
owner will understand the document is to have someone not familiar with inspection
issues read the letter and give the inspector feedback. 'TI1esechecks are ways of ensuring
that the inspector has not written something inappropriate, misleading, or inaccurate.

Mechanics of Letter Writing

The mechanics of letter writing identifies issues such as what type of stationery to use,
how to set up the letter 011 the page, and whether to use a memo format or a formal let-
ter style. Department policies may dictate what style of written communication to use
and when to use it. Generally, fire prevention bureau letterhead and use of the formal
letter style of written communication to describe fire safety issues are preferred.
\ ·\Then developing the content of a formal letter, the inspector needs to understand
the principles of good lett er writing , corr ect grammar, and appropriate word usage.
1he content of the letter must be reviewed to ensure that unnecessary words and phras -
es are eliminated and that all necessary information is included . The inspector must
remember that a piece of communication will become an official document and part of
the property's file and could also become evidence in legal proceedings.
Fire inspectors must also remember that a piece of correspondence is a reflection of
them and of the department or agency that employs them. TI1eappearance of the letter
can lead the reader to form an opinion regarding an inspector's level of professionalism
and attention to details.

Elements of Inspection Letters

Fire inspection letters wiJl contain most of the following: return address (if not written
on department letterhead), date, ins ide address, referenc e/subject, salutation, body of
the letter, closing/signature/name/title, enclosure(s), and copies.
A basic letter-writing format, in order of appearance, is as follows:

1. Leiterhend or ret11mc1ddress:If fire prevention bureau letterhead is not used,

the inspector shou ld include the complete return address of the agency.
2. Dnte: The date the letter is written. The preferred method is to spell out the
month with numerical identification for the day and year (Ivfay5, 200l) rather
than a total numerical identification (5/5/0 I). Using the numerical identifica -
tion, however, is acceptable for a memo.
3. inside nddress:The person's name with the title. If the title is short (e.g., Dr.), it
generally appears on the first line; if the title is long or has multiple words (e.g.,
Senior Project l'vlanager), it should be placed on the next line . TI1e address,
including the business name, follows. If the inside address is long, it should
also be separated and placed on two lines to provide a balanced appearance.
4. S11bject/r~/ere11ce:This line states in a few words the reason or purpose of the
letter. ft may also contain an inspection reference number, case number, or the
address where the inspect ion was conducted.
40
 CHAPTER 4: Report Writin g and Record Keeping

Snf11tntio11:
5. Contai ns the name of the pe rson to whom th e letter is being written.
The sal utati o n can also includ e the person's title.
6. Body of the letter: In general it cont ains th e issues or deficienci es that are be-
ing addressed. When listing violations, th e inspector may do so by following
the route taken during the inspection. This can also assist the recipient in
identif ying the location of the n eeded corrective action. The inspector should
remember to include the section from the fire code that ident ifies th e issue as
a defic iency. At the conclus ion of the body of the letter, the inspector need s
to identify what type of response is expec ted and when a reinspect ion will be
made to verify corrective action.
7. Closi11 g/sig11nt11re/11n
mc/litle: A comp limentary closur e, such as "Sincerely;'
followed by four lin e spaces and then the inspec tor 's name and title.
8. E11c/osure(s): Lists the items included with th e letter or indicates the numbe r of
item s enclosed with the lette r after the word "enclo sure(s):'
9. Copies:In dicates who has been sent copies of the letter.

RECORD KEEPING
Cross-Referenced Filing System
Ano ther impo rt ant and valuab le part of the fire prevention program involves main -
tain ing a reco rd -kee ping or record-filing system and accounting for all activities that
may pertain to a particular business or address . Mai ntaining accurate inspec tion infor-
mat ion of past and current activities about occupa ncy is a cr itical component . These
records can pro vide a historical overview of what has happened or what is happening
with the building o r add ress. Such issues as alterations to the building, violations and
corre ctive actions that have taken place, and permits that may have been issued can
prov ide the fire department with valuable informat ion.
Ge nera lly, a file will be maintained for each occu pancy within the jurisdiction and
kept in the fire prevention bureau offices. These files will contain materials such as the
following:
•Inspect ion reports, fo rm s, and written commu nications.
•Permits or licenses.
•Complaint inform ation or investigati ons.
•Cour t not ices or no tices of violations.
•Plan reviews, approvals, or denials.
•Modifications , varia nces, equ ivalencies, or alternat ive methods used to achiev e
complia nce.
• Fire in spection report s.
• Fire investigations.
Files will also contain information relative to fire suppression or detection systems
in the occupa ncy, hazardo us materials or operations that are pres en t, and information
gathered during a prefire survey. All of this informa tion is valuable when operational
procedures for a fire departmen t respon se are being planned.
41
 SEC ION 1: General

The preferred method of filing information is by the street address of the facility.
A building will und ergo many changes during its life in its use, its owner, and the
building name, but the address will remain constant. When a filing or record-keeping
system is established, it should include a cross-referenced filing system that enables in-
spectors to locate facilities by either the business name or the address of the occupancy.
Depar tmental policy and any legal requirements of the jurisdiction determine what
is to be included in the departmenta l files and require that filing be done on a timely
basis. The inspector must remember that departmental files are officialdocuments that
are open to the public for review and must be prop erly maintained.

Electronic Records
Many fire service agencies document fire safety inspection information and other im-
portant departmental information electronically. The use of computerized inspection
forms and record-keeping systems has been credited with improving efficienC)'in the
overall record-keeping process. Computerized programs have helped inspectors better
to track and schedule required inspections, including follow-up inspections. Most fire
service agencies find it easier to use prepared ("offthe shelf") software progn1ms rather
than invest the required resources into developing their own programs.
As electronic technology improves, inspectors will use vehicle-mounted and/or
handheld computers in the field to record inspection information and other impor tant
data, and then, when they return to their offices, will download this information into
their main computer systems for further processing.
Inspec tors should take care to back up electronic information and, where necessary
or required, have paper copies to guard against the possibility of electronic failure.
Departmental policy should determine who has access to computer files and what the
limits of such access are. The agency must also provide all employees with proper train-
ing to ensure the program's efficiency and accuracy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., ed., FireProtectionHandbook,20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
IFSTA, Fire Inspection and Code Enforcement, 7th ed., Fire Protection Publications,
Stillwater, OK, 2009.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 901, Sta11dardClassificatio11
for IncidentReporti11g and Fire ProtectionData
NFPA 1031, Standardfor Professiona
l Qualificationsfor FireInspectorand PlanExaminer

42
 CHAPTER

5
EDUCATION, TRAINING,
CERTIFICATION,AND
THE FIREINSPECTOR
Larry McDonald

Any discussion regarding the pursuit of a career in fire inspection should include
educat ion, training, certification, and accreditation. These terms are often used inter -
changeabl) ', but they have significantly different meanings in the fire inspection field
of practice. These diflereuces are import ant to understand, as fire protection organiza -
tions requi re that fire inspectors have great analytical skills and that they build on the
tech n ical skills they have acquired through their various levels of training.
1l1is chapter will describe the differences between these separate, disti11ct,and often
misunderstood topics; descr ibe what accreditation is; and will review the typical edu-
cation, training, and certification requirements for entry into the fire inspection field
of practice.

EDUCATION
1he 2008 edition of the Encyclopedia Britanni ca Online defines education as the "disci-
pline that is concerned with methods of teaching and learning in schools or school-like
environments as opposed to various informal means of socialization (e.g., rural devel-
opment projects and edu cation through parent -child relationship s):'
1l1e National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) FireProtectionHandbook states
that "education is learning that provides the student with a foundation of general
knowledge that h elps in problem solving and effective thinking . Education involves
lea rning to think and reaso n" (Cote, 2008, pp. 12-166 ).
1l1e various levels of ed ucation are further defined and broken down into the catego-
ries of primary, secondary, and postsecondary educational program s.

Primary and Secondary Education

In mo st countries, including the United States, students between the ages of 6 and
l8 years are required to attend primary and seconda ry educational institutions. For
 SECTION1: General

most of us, this phase begins when we enter elementary school and progress through
middle school and high school. This is where we receive instruct ion in history, reading,
writing, mathematics, and other topics.
Elementary school and middle school are referred to as primary education, and high
school is where we receive our secondary education. It is at this level that our basic
reasoning, listening, reading, and writing skills that prepare us for the working world
are developed. Completion of high school or receiving a general educational develop-
ment (GED) cert ificate are typical requirements for entry into the fire in pection field
of pract ice along with courses i11chemistr y, general science, and mathematics as desir-
able core components.

Postsecondary Education
Although not necessarily required for entry into the fire inspection field of pract ice,
some inspectors may attend institutions of higher learning to pur ·ue vocational, under-
graduate, or postgradua te educational programs. Vocational training or an advanced
degree in fire science technology helps prepare individuals for a career in other areas
of tire protection. An advanced fire protection degree is especially helpful for someone
simply seeking to glean more information about fire protection and lite safety, helping
with a promotion or to assi I him or her in qualifying for positions in an organization.

VOCATIONAL TRAINING
Vocational train ing prepares individuals for career paths that are related to a specific
trade, occupation, or vocation. Some examples of vocational trainin g include trades
such as electrical, plumbing, automotive, cosrndo logy, and firefighting. Vocational
education can be al-the secondary or poslsecondaqr level or can be part of a combined
training and apprent iceship program .
Fire inspector training is designed to increase knowledge and proficiency in a par-
ticular area and skill. Training begins with a specifically defined behavioral objective
and learn ing outcome. Training is complete when a trainee is able to perform a demon-
strable skill in accordance with the behavioral objective or when knowledge has been
retained as demonstrated by successfully passing a summative written examination .
vVhen the trainee fails lo perform in accordance with the stated behavioral objective,
the instruc tional cycle cont inues through remedial train ing. TI1isis often referred to as
the training feedback loop. A fiJe inspection and code enforcement class is an example
of training.
The requirements for fire inspectors to be trained for their specific duties as inspec-
tors Gill be found in some federal regulations and national standards of competency,
such as NFPA 1500, Standard 011 Fire Depart111e 11/Ocwpa lio11nlSafely and Health
Progm111. An entire chapter of NFPA 1500 addresses training and education require-
ments as both an organizational and personal responsibility. Paragraph 5.1.9 states: "As
a duty function, members shall be responsible to maintain proficiency in their skills
and knowledge, and to avail themselves of the professional development provided to
the members through departm ent training and educatio n programs."
44
 CHAPTERS: Education, Training, CertificJtion, and the Fire Inspector

'foe specific educat ion, training, and certification requirements for fire inspectors
are further detailed in NFPA 1031, Sta11dardfor Professio11al Q11alificatio11s
for Fire
lllspector and Pla11Examiner. This standard is used to develop both training and certi-
fication programs for the Ii re inspection field of practice.

UNIV YAN D 0 PROG AMS

AND TH FIR AND EM N y
S VIC HIGH DU N
CO NSORTIUM
An increasing numbe r of colleges and universities throughout the United States and
Canada ofter some t)'pe of degree in fire science, fire protection technology, fire service
administration, or fire protection engineering . For many years, emergenC)'services-
related educat ion and train ing providers believed that a standard college-level fire
protection curricu lum that was national in scope was needed. To address this concern,
the staff at the U.S. Fire Administration's National Fire Academy (NFA) established the
Fire and Emergency Services Higher Education (PESHE) consortium.
The FESHEmission is to "establish an organization of postsecondary institutions to
pron 101e higher education and to enhance the recognition of the fire and emergency
services as professions to reduce loss of life and property from fire and other hazards:'
To accomplish this mission, the NFA has instituted several initiatives. Of particular
import ance i.s the annual FESHE conference, in which representatives from education-
al institutions, state and local fire service training agencies, and national fire service
organizations work to develop model curricul um and course outlines for degree pro-
grams. The curricu la are written for both the associate and baccalaureate levels.

Associate's Degree Programs

Associate's degree fire science programs offered in community colleges combine stud}'
in general education subjects such as English, math, social sciences, and chemistry
with specialized fire protection courses. The FESHE consortium has identified six core
courses for associate-level programs including:
• Building Construction for Fire Protection
• Fire Behavior and Combustion
• Fire Prevention
• Fire Protection Systems
• Principles of EmergenC}'Services
• Principles of Fire and Emergency Services Safety .ind Surviv.il
FESHE has also identified noncore course outlines for program s that are commonly
offered in fire sci.ence programs. TI1ese noncore courses include:
• Introduction to Fire and Emergency Services Administration
• .Fire ln vestig.ition 1
45
 SECTION1: General

• Fire Investigation II
• Fire Prote ction Hydrauli cs and Water Supply
• Hazardou s lvlaterials Chemistry
• Legal Aspects of the Emergency Services
• Occupational Health and Safety
• Strategy and Tactics
Some institutions allow transfer credit for on-the-job experience, and others often
allow credit for previous accredited state nre training certifications. Many fire service
management program s also offer training courses that lead to fire service professional
qualific ation certifications as part of their degree curricula.

Bachelor's Degree Programs

Several univers ities thro ughout the United States offer fire protection programs at the
baccalaureate level. Fire prote ction bachelor's programs ome in many different forms
of specialization; some are geared toward fire science and fire service administration,
and others are focused on fire protection techno logy or fire protection engineering .
Many of thes e programs are designed to be compatible with associate-level fire protec-
tion degree programs from community colleges, making it much easier to use credits
already earned by students.
As with associate-level program s, the FESHE consortium has ide ntified core
and noncore courses for baccalaureate programs. The entire FESHE Baccalaureate
Curriculum comprises 13 courses .

Core Courses
• Political and Legal Foundations of Fire Protection
• Applications of Fire Research
• Fire Prevention Organization and Management
• Personnel Management for the Fire and Emergency Services
• Fire and Emergency Services Administration
• Community Risk Reduction for the Fire and Emergency Services

Noncore Courses
• Analytical Approaches to Public Fire Protection
• Disaster Planning and Control (formerly Disaster and Fire Defense Planning)
• Fire Dynamics
• Fire Investigation and Analysis (formerly Incendiary Fire Analysis and Investi -
gation)
• Fire Protection Structures and Systems
• Fire -Related Human Behavior
• Managerial Issues in Hazardous Materials
Although a degree may not be a requirement for entry into the fire inspection field, it is
a typical requirement to reach a supervisory level. Even if a degree is not a requirement

46
 CHAPTER5: Education, Training, Certific3tion, and the Fire Inspector

for promotion or transfer into more advanced areas of fire pro tection, many agencies
give greater consideration to personnel who have an undergraduate degree.

C R I ICA ION, ACCREDI A ION,

AND CREDENTIA ING
Over the past 30 years, the professionalization of the fire service i11general and of
the fire protection field of practice in parti cular has brought forth terminology that at
times has come to be used interchangeably, causing some degree of confusion. i\fost
notable are the terms certification, certified, and accredited. The Institute for Creden -
tialing Excellence provides the following definitions for terms you have already or will
encounter in )'Our career as a fire and life safet)1 inspector.
Accreditation is the process whereby an association or agency grants public recogni-
tion to a school, institute, college, university, or specialized program of study that has
met certain established qualifications or standards as determined through initial and
periodic evaluations.
A certificateprogmm is a training program on a topic for which participants receive
a certificate after attendance and/or completion of the coursework. Some programs
also require successful demonstration of attainment of the course objectives. One who
completes a professional certificate program is known as a certificate holder. A creden-
tial is usuall}' 11otgranted at the completion of a certificate program.
A fire inspector ma}' pursue a certificate program to enhance his or her knowledge
of certain topic areas. At the completion of the program, a certificate is typically pro-
vided as proof of completion of the program. Some certification bodies may accept
these programs as continuing education and professional development points but not
as a basis for certification to a professional qualification standard .
A certificateof <1tte11d11n
ce or participation is issued after an individual attends or
participates in a part icular meeting or course. Usually,there is no knowledge assessed
prior to issuing this t}'pe of certificate. A certificate of attendance or part icipation is
not a credential, because the recipients are not required to demonstrate competence
according to professional or trade standards.
As with certificate programs, some certification bodies may accept these programs
as continuing education and professional development points but not as a basis for
certification to a professional qualification standard.
A certification normally requires the incumbent to show an in-depth knowledge of
the subject. Certification might be defined as:
1. A process, often voluntary, by which individuals who have demonstrated the
level of knowledge and skill required in the profession, occupation, role, or
skill are identified to the public and other stakeholders.
2. The voluntary process by which a nongovernm ental entity grants a time-
limited recognition and use of a credential to an individual after verifying that
he or she has met predetermined and standard ized criteria. It is the vehicle
that a profession or occupation uses to differentiate among its members, using

47
 SECTION 1: General

standards, sometimes developed through a consensus-driven process, based

on existing legal and psychometric requirements.

The Purpose of Certification

vVhere education and training serve to provide a foundation of knowledge and analyti -
cal skills for an individual, certification serves to show a person meets the minimum
competencies in a field of practice as set forth by a certification body.
The motivation for achieving a certification is typically predicated on the protec-
tion and safety of the public. TI1ere are a number of professions and occupations that
have developed certification programs with the intent of increasing credibility and pro -
fessionalism of their fields and protecting the public they serve: building inspectors,
real -estate agents, public accountants, the healthcare professions, including emergency
medical technicians, and the fire service are just a few.

The Purpose of Accreditation

Whereas certification is geared toward measuring the competency of an individual,
accreditation serves to evaluate the credibility and quality of an organization's train -
ing delivery system. Accreditation in the fire inspection field of practice is a system
of evaluating the institutions that train and certify the people who will conduct fire
inspections . 'TI1eaward of accreditation to a training institution is a "written seal of
approval" that the agency meets minimum standards for program performance and
quality improven1ent processes according to the NFPA FireProtectio11 Hn11dbook.
TI1e creation of accreditation bodies, such as the National Board on Fire Service
Professional Qualifications system and the International Fire Service Accreditation
Congress, serve to make fire service training in general and fire inspector training in
particular more valid and reliable.

Levels of Certification for Fire Inspectors

NFPA 1031, Stnndnrdfor ProfessionalQual(ficntionsfor Fire Inspector nnd Plan Exam-
iner, establishes the job performance requirements for fire inspectors and plan examin-
ers . It is used to develop both training and certification programs for the fire inspection
field of practice and serves as a guide in the accreditation of institutions that train fire
in spec tors.
NFPA 1031 establishes three levels of job performance requirements for personnel
who conduct fire and life safety inspections of facilities: Fire Inspector I, Fire Inspector
II, and Fire Inspector III .
According to NFPA 1031, a Fire Inspector 1 is someone who performs basic fire and
life safety inspections. TI1is includes entry -level fire inspectors and personnel who are
not usually assigned to fire inspection duties, such as a fire fighter or company officer
assigned to fire suppression forces.
A Fire Inspector II performs fire and life safety inspections where moderate technical
challenges may be encountered. The Fire Inspector TI level can include Fire Inspector
I individuals who through experience and formal continuing education have achieved
48
 CHAPTERS:~ducation, Training, Certifica1io11
, and che Fire lnspeccor

the prerequisite knowledge and skills and grad uates of college-level degree programs
in associated fields who can demonstrate the prerequisite know ledge and skills detailed
in NFPA 1031. Form al cont inuing educat ion is essent ial to maintain the skill level of a
Fire Inspector II and to conti nue an individual's advancement to the more skilled Fire
Inspector HJ level.
Personne l at the Fire Inspector llI level perform fire and life safety inspections that
have advanced techn ical cha llenges. 111islevel can include Fire Inspector II individuals
who through experience and formal education have achieved the prerequisite knowl-
edge and sk.ill.s and graduates of college-level degree programs in a technical field who
can demonstrate the prerequisite know ledge and skills set forth in NFPA 1031. As with
the Fire Inspector I and 11levels, continuing educat ion in formal programs is essential
to maintaining the skill levels necessary for Fire Inspector m.
Because the duties and responsibili ties of this position are greater than those of Fire
Inspector IT,it is assumed that the tasks and responsibilities performed at this level will
be at a higher technical level and wlll require more professional expert ise. The combi -
nation of college-level education and prol·essional experience is essential to the success
of individu als holding this level of certification .
More detailed information on the duties and responsibilities of Fire Tnspector I, TT,
and III levels of cert ification can be found in Annex A of NFPA I 031.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ande rson, L., Knapp, J.,and \l\7ild, C., eds., Certificatio11:
The ICE Handbook.Institute
for Credentialing Excellence, 2009.
Cote, A. E., ed., FireProtectionHandbook,20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, 1v1A,2008.
Definition: "Education." Dictionar)'.com. © Enq 1cloped ia Britannica, Inc. Available at:
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/education. Accessed October 7, 2011.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See th e latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 1031, Sta11dard
for Professio11alQualificatioirs
for Firelnspectorand PlanExa111i11er
NFPA 1500, Sta11dard011 Fire Department Ocwpationaf Safety and Health Program

49
 CHAPTER

6
SUSTAINABLE DESIGN
AND GREEN
TECHNOLOGIES
Tracy Golinveaux,1\iISFPEand Robert E. Solomon, PE

Any discussion of sustainable design requires the use of some unique or purpose-
specific terms and definitions . Some of those terms are as follows.
• Climate changerefers to 311)' significant change in measures of climate (such as
temperature, precipitation, or wind) lasting for an extended period (decades or
longer) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008).
• Composite wood consists of wood or plant particles or fibers bonded by a
synthetic resin or binder. Examples include particleboard, medium-density
fiberboard, plywood, oriented -strand board, wheat board, and strawboard (U.S.
Green Building Council [USGilC], 2009).
• An electric vehicle(EV) is one that is powered using electric motors and motor
controllers for propulsion in place of more common propulsion methods, such
as the internal combustion engine (Leitman, 2009, p. 8).
• Emissions reduclio11reporting is the calculating, tracking, and documenting of
the greenhouse gas emissions that result directly from energy use and other op -
erations of a building (USGI3C, 2009).
• Geothermalenergyis electricity generated by harnessing hot water or steam from
within the earth (USGI3C, 2009).
• Green b11ildi11g is the practice of creatiJ1g structures and using processes that are
environmentally responsible and resource efficient throughout a building's life
cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenan ce, renovation,
and deconstruction. 1l1is practice expands and complements the classical build -
ing design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort. Green building
is also known as a sustainable or high-p erformance building (http://www.epa.
gov/greenbuilding/pubs/about.htm) .
• Greenhousegmes absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the
spectrum of thermal infrared radiation emitted by the earth's surface, clouds,
and the atmosphere itself. Increased conc entrations of greenhouse gases are a
root cause of global climate change (USGBC, 2009).
 CHAPTER 6: Sustainable De,iy11and Green Technologif>,

• Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a vehicle powered by two or more energy

sources, one of which is electricity HEVs may combine the engine and fuel of
a conventional vehicle with the batteries and electric motor of an EV in a single
drive-train (Glossaq', n.d.).
• indoor air r111ality
is the nature of air inside a space, which may affect the health
and well-being ofbuilding occupants. It is considered acceptable when there are
no known contaminant s at harmful concentrations and a substantial majority
(80 percent or more) of the occupants do not express dissatisfaction [American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
62 .1-200 7].
• O.ffsite re11e11•nble e11e1~r:yis derived from renewable energy sources and gener-
ated outside the project site perimeter; it is delivered through private agreement
with an energy-generating entity (U.S. Green Building Council, 2009) .
• Photovoltaic(P\I) e11e1gy is electricity from PV cells, which convert the energy in
sunlight to electricity (USGBC, 2009),
• Poll11ta11t s include emissions of carbon dioxide (CO) , sulfur dioxide (SO),
nitrogen oxides (NO), .mercury (Hg), small part iculates (PM 1), and large
particulates (USGBC, 2009).
• Preco11sw11er recycledco11tentis the percentage of material in a product that was
consumer waste. The recycled material was generated by household, commercial
industria l, or institutional end-users and can no longer be used for its intended
purpose. It includes returns of materials from the distribution change. Examples
include construction and demolition debris, materials collected through recy-
cling programs, discarded products (e.g., furniture, cabinetry, decking), and
landscaping waste (e.g., leaves, grass clippings, tree trimmings) flnternational
Organization for Standardization (lSO) 14021 ].
• Recycling is the collection, reprocessing, marketing, and use of materials that
were diverted or recovered from the solid-waste stream.
• Renewable e11e1gycomes from sources that are not depleted by use. Examples
include energy from the sun, wind, small (low-impact) h)•dropower plants, and
wave and tidal systems, plus geothermal energ)'· \ 1\Taysto capture energy from
the sun include PV cells, solar thermal systems, and bioenergy S)'Stems based
on wood waste, agricultural crops or residue, animal and other organic waste, or
landfill gas (USGBC, 2009).
• Reuse returns materials to active use in the same or a related capacity as that of
their original use, thus extending the lifetime of materials that would otherwise
be discarded. Examples of construction materials that can be reused include ex-
tra insulation , dry,v.111, and paints (USGBC, 2009).
• Solar themrnl systems collect or absorb sunlight via solar collectors to heat water
that is then circulated to the building's hot water tank. Solar the rmal systems can
be used to warm swimming pools or heat water for residential or commercial
use {USGBC,2009).
• S11stninn/,ilityis defined by Webster's dictionary as a method of harvest-
ing or using a resource so that the resource is not depleted or permanently
damaged.
51
 SECTION 1: General

• Volatile orgnnic compounds (VOCs) are carbon compounds that participate in

atmospheric photochemical reactions (excluding carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, carbonic acid , metallic carbides and carbonates, and ammonium car-
bonate). 1l1e compounds vaporize (become a gas) at normal room temperatures
(USGBC, 2009).

BACKGROUND
1l1e ideals of conserving resources, developing innovative ways to improve efficiencie s,
and managing processes and procedures betler to protect the environment have been
ingrained in safety codes and standards for decades. Ttca n be argued that development
of early model building codes such as the Building CodeReco111111e11ded by TheNational
Board of Fire Underwriters,edition of 1905, indeed considered some of these conser -
vation concep ts. Many of the provisions of this code directed th e use of construction
m at rial s that were of non omb 1stible or "fire proof" qu ality. The ·dea was to 1i i-
mize the spread of fire between adjacent structures, thereby reducing or eliminating
the potential for conflagration-an occurrence that plagued urban areas that had high -
density built-up area s. By following such provisions, the impact of a fire was generally
limited to the building of origin as opposed to a wide swath of destruction that left
many dozens of buildings in ruin.
In other areas involving codes and standards, the National Fire Protection Associa -
tion (NFPA) has been an active participant in identifying fire suppression/extinguishing
agents that are considered to be harmful to the environment. 1he fire suppression agent
HALON 1301, known to be harmful to the earth's stratospheric ozone layer, was for -
mally targeted by the Montreal Protocol in 1989 as one type of chlorofluorocarbon
that should be phased out because of its impact on climate change. 1his led to broader
use of existing technologies, such as automatic sprinkler systems, but it also prompted
development of innovative alternatives such as water mist and the family of clean agent
systems that are extensively used today.
l'vlodern -era discussion is prirnaril) ' focused on construction materials, use of syn-
thetic materials and chemicals th at may lessen fire and burning characteristics, and
alternative energy sources that may introduce new ignition sources . In the broadest
sense, a fire itself can release many tons of airborne pollutants, cause hazardous materi-
al runoff into groundwater sources, and result in such severe destruction to a structure
that the on ly course of action is to demolish the building and rebuild.
An example of this is the Television Cultural Center (TVCC) fire that occurred in
Beijing in February 2009. 1l1is single fire event involving the partiall) ' opened 522-ft-talJ
(159-m-tall) iconic TVCC mixed-us e building was estimated by the Beijing Environmental
Protect ion Bureau to have increased the regional air pollution level to three times · the
normal level for several days. Although the building originall)' was scheduled to open in
September 2009, a total rehabilitation of the structure commenced after the fire, resulting
in the need to remove and replace essentially all of the interior cons tr uction materials,
furnishings, and contents. Although the focus of mu ch of the green/sustainable discussion

52
 CHAPTER6: Sustainable Design and GreenTechno!ogies

is on materials, effectiveinspection programs that prevent or minimize the impact of fire

in any building should perhaps be given credit as a green initiative.
Other concepts to consider include alternative or renewable forms of energy, such as
wind and solar power, which were once the only forms of energy for early civilizations.
As new fuel sources emerged and technology increased, these sources of energy were
no longer relied upon as heavily. However, with new technology and fuels came con-
sequences. For more than 50 years, environmentalists and the public in general have
expressed their concerns about depletion of the world's fossilfuels and natural resourc-
es and about the increase of pollutants found in the atmosphere and water supplies.
While topics such as global warming, climate change, and depletion of oil sources are
widely being debated, many consum ers and business owners are turnin g toward green
investments. '01e push toward a green future has created a strong market demand for
both sustainable infrastruc ture and alternative energy.

0 L ITV
Green technology and construction should not be viewed as a passing trend. It has
been qu.ickl}' gaining popularity in the past few years, as green technologies and con-
struction have become more affordable and more readily available. Building owners in
many jurisd ictions across the countqr are investing in green alternatives for cost ben-
efits. Reducing the amount of energy a building consumes may result in smaller utility
bills, therefore creating an attractive long-term investment for the building owner. As
an incentive to invest in green technologies, the government offers tax rebates forcer -
tain green purchases, such as PY cells. Society generally favors green and sustainable
design enterprises, but the underlying deliberations include:
• Should government agencies mandate use of green technologies?
• What elements and factors should be considered?
• How is the equilibrium between safety and sustainability maintained?
Goals and objectives .in modern-era building codes now include provisions that
both implicitly and explicitly consider sustainability-related topics. An example of
these criteria can be found in NFPA 500 0, 1311i/di11g
Co11structio11and Safety Code, and
include the following:
4.1.4 Health. The intent of the health goal of this Code is to reduce the probability of
an illness or injury caused by the indoor environment, vibrations and noise, surface
water, release of hazardou s materials, uncontrolled moisture, inadequate light, or
inadequate sanitation facilities.
4.1.6 Public Welfare. The inten t of the public welfare goal of this Code is to ensure
that the design, construc tion, and opera tion of the building is consistent with the
reasonable expectations of society with respect to energ)' efficiency, cultural heritage
preservation, mission continuity, and environment.
4.1.6.1 Energy Efficiency.

53
 SECTION1: General

4.1.6.1.J Energy Efficiency Goal. The energy efficiency goal of this Codeis to ensure
that a building, in its design , construction, and operation, uses energy efficiently.
4.1.6.1.2 Energy Efficiency Objective. Buildings shall be designed and constructed
to be reasonably efficient in the use of energy from dcpletable sources .
4.1.6.4 Environment.
4.1.6.4.1 Environment Goal. The environment goal of this Code is to ensure that
a building , in its design and construction, does not impact the environment in an
unreasonably negative manner.
4.1.6.4.2 Environment Objective. Buildings shall be designed and constructed to
reasonably ensure that the probability of harm to the external environment sur-
rounding the building is minimized.
The method, arrangement, and approach to achieve these types of goals and objec-
tives will vary from Jur isdiction to jurisdiction and even between building projects
within the jurisdiction. Ongoing inspection programs must be robust enough and
flexible enough to integrate any spec ial review of emerging technology, whether it is
energy related, materials related, construction related, or systems related.
In addition, inspection programs must be sensitive to competing regulations that
address air qualit)' and conservation of resources. Air quality rules , such as the well-
known California Air Resources Board rules, focus on point sources of airborne
contaminants such as stationary diesel engines. Inspection programs involving fire
pumps (NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-
Based Fire Protection Systems) and emergency generators (NFPA 110, Standard for
Eme1ge11cyand Standby Power Systems) may need to consider the precise circum-
stances that any loca l or state rules might impose on operation of such equipment.
Any supplemental ru les may inadvertently mandate the equipment to run on a less
frequent basis and for a shorter time period than specified by th e requirements of
NFPA 25 or NFPA 110.
Test protocols involving sprinkler, fire pump, and standpipe systems as mandated by
NFPA 25 have various procedures that result in the discharge of water. Local or state
regulations that closely manage water usage may also impose community restrictions
on the quantities (if any) of water that can be discharged during a test. T11eseare just
two examples of where the inspection program needs to work congruently with other
rules that fit into the realm of sustainable design.

GREEN ORGANIZATIONSAND RATING

SYSTEMS
In addition to cost benefits, building owners may find that green investment is a mar-
ketable asset for their company. There are many organizations that will inspect and
certify a bui lding, such as the USGBC's LEED Rating System (FIGURE 6·1). When a
building is LEED certified, it receives a classification (i.e., silver, gold, or platinum)

54
 LEED 2009 for New Co nstru cti on and Major Renovations Project NUmo
Project Checklist o,uc
[II] Sus!alnab lc Sites Possible Points: 26 Materials and Resources, Cont inued
? N Y 1 N
Conmructlon Actl1,1lty
Pollution Provonuon Cn></1
" Rocyclod Contont 11 02
Slto Scloctlon Cl1!Cll!i RogiOMI MOIOrl3:l& 1 to 2
Dovolopmcnt Oon::;llyo.ndCommunity ConncctMty Ct«!,l(l Rapidly Rcnow.aolo Matonal!.
Brownl1eldRodevolopmoril 1 Crodlt7 Cortlllod Wood
Allomottve 1'ran590rt1tlon-Public Transpono on Acc~5 6
Altomotlvo Tran:.portotlon-Blcy clo S1omgo and Ch.:inglng Room:. 1 [II] Indoor Environmen ta l Quality Possible Points : 15
Altomo.tlvoTronsportntloo-l.ow Emlnlng and Fuol-Ethcum1Vocn1e1 0::-. 3
Al1omo1ivoTronsporto.tio n-P orkmg Co.paclty 2 MJmmum lnaoo r Air Ou~ hty Por'formanc o
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ugn1Pollution Reduct ion low-El'liittlngM..i.:ortol~n!nl:}, and Co.,1Jng:;
Low-Emlttlng Ma ;eria lc-Floonng Syctt'ms
[II] Wator Efficio ncy Poss iblc Points: 1O Low-Emlnlng Mn:c rL.11~-Com~to Wood .;:indAgnf1bor Product:;

b Pr(),~~,
0-001,
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Wut or Effldont Land~p lng
l1'1novut1veWo~towo1or Tccl"lnolog•o:.
Wn tor U::.-0Reduction
2 to4
2
210 4
Indoor Chom lc.l l .:ind P0Uut..1.n1

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Sourc o Control
Co ntrolloblllty o f Systems-Ligh ting
Controllob11ityol $)'$tom::.-Thormal Ccmfon

b
Daylight ond V ICW" .,-Ooyt lght
[II] Energy and Atmosphere Possible Points: 35 Crodl16.2 D.nylJ 9 h1and V ! ~V iew~

I
Ptci,eq., Fundomonta.lCommls::.,onlng or Building l:.norgy Sy::.tcm::. [II] Innovati on and Design Process Possll>ie PolnJs: 6
Prnieq:::! Minimum EnorrwPOt'lormoni:::
o
~oq 3 Fundamonbl Rolngor.,111Management Cmdil 1.1 lnnovolton m Oo:'.!J gn : Spocd1c T1Uc
crooI1, Op!imlzo Enorgy Poi1ormo.nc
o 1 lo 19 C1od1t 1.2 ln nov otlon m Do.olgn ; Spocillc Title
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Croa.ll4 Enh.lncod Aolrigornnl Monogomcnt 2 5 lnnovnuor,In Oc:;:.
Croon1.1 ,gn: Spoc1!lc Tl!lo
OOOil5 Moa!'.Uromonl and Vcr 1tlc.1Uon Cmdll 2 lEEO AccrcditOOProlos:-Jonol
c,oo,tO Groan P'owor
C::::CO Regional Prior ity Crodits Possible Points: 4

b
C::::CO MaterJols and Resources Possible Points: 14 C\
croc1111., Regional Priorit y: Spocll lc Cr edit ;.
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:,
Crodit1., Bullding Ro::.uo-M.1fntol n Exl~tlng Walls, Floom, ona Roof 1 lo 3 c,ooH1.~ Rogi on.o.1Pnorl ty : Spoc1fic Cr od ll
Bwkiing Rosuo-M.1lntol n s~ -:.ol Interior Nono.1ruc1urol E10mcn1s
croc11.11.2 Cfco.Ll .<I. Roglonol Pnorlty SpQ-CificCr Od•I ;;;I
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cnx:nz Con:;.tn.JC!io
n WOS!oM.onagomont 110 2
Crook :i Motorlnl::. Rou~o 1 to 2 [II]T otal Possible Points: 110 5
0
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a
lO
U'1
U'1 ~-
FIGURE6-1 LEEDRating System. U.S.Green Building Council, http://www.usgbc.org/Disp1ayPage.aspx?CMSPagelD=220.
 SECTION 1: Generul

depending on how many credits it receives for the green aspects of the building.
This is something that companies consider a compelitive advantage, as it attracts
environmentally conscious inve stors, building tenants, and is generally viewed as a
good neighbor policy.
There are hundreds of other organizations that certify green buildings and green
products, such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Environment, Energy Star, and
Green -e. It is important for inspectors to review th e requirements for these certifications,
become familiar with the terms, determine if the certification programs consider fire
performance of the material or system, and to mak e sure that an unintended consequence
does not present itself. An example of this last condition is the use of photoluminescent
exit signs. Such signs are permitted by NFPA 101, and although a source of electr icity
to illuminate the sign is not required-thereby saving energy-a nearby light source
is necessary to provide the requisite charging of the photoluminescent material. The
increasing popularity of motion sensors to control lighting levels (such devices shut off
the lights after some predetermined time passes where no movement is detected) must
be carefully reviewed and considered so as not to defeat the effectiveness of the photo-
lumin esce nt exit sign.
There are a few organizations that have noticed the growing trend and have respond -
ed b)' creating new technical documents and new code provisions to ensure these tech-
nologies are safe. 1l1ese organizations include NFPA, the ASHRAE, UL, the American
Society for Testing and J\tlaterials (ASTM), and the International Code Council (ICC) .
More information about the se organizations is included in th e "Resources" section of
this chap ter.

GREEN MATERIALS
AND CONSTRUCTION
A wide range of materials, components, assemblies, and building configurations can
influence the attributes associated with sustainab le design.1l1e use of innovative mate -
rials, composites, and renewable resources, recycling and reuse of materials, adaptive
reuse and rehabilitation of existing buildings, and use of on-premises power genera-
tion options introduce new vulnerabilities to a bui ldin g that must be addressed by the
inspection process.

Materia ls
Construction materials used to provide structural stabil ity include sustainable materi-
als such as wood. Model building and fire codes regulate and restrict the use of wood
frame and heavy timber construction methods primarily through the height and area
tables found in the model codes. Insulated concrete form (JCF) technology uses ICFs
[ICFs are made from expanded polystyrene (EPS)] to shape concrete walls. The JCFs
remain in place after the concrete is set, and they become a part of the structure . In -
spection programs should ensure that either the EPS material has been treated with an
inhibitor to modify its fire characteristics or that the ICF has been covered with gyp-
sum board or other suitable material to prevent it from contributing to a fire.
56
 CHAP ER6: SustainableDesign and GreenTechnologies

Composite Wood Structural Assemblies

W'ood and wood composites, sometimes known as engineered lumber, is a favored ex-
ample of a suslainable, renewable resource. As noted earlier, use of wood frame, heavy
timber, and other types of wood construction has been regulated by building codes since
the first codes were developed. Newer wood-based composite malerials combined to
form joists and wood 'T' beams offer superior structural support over that of sawn-
lumber materials. Performance under fire conditions, however, has been identified as a
fire-tightersafety concern. To mitigate the e concerns, some jurisdictions have mandated
that buildings with engineered lumber (including composites) install automatic sprin-
kler protection; install a half-inch layer of gypsum board; use a building marking system
tu iclentif")
, the construction type on the exterior of Lhc building; or use a combination of
these requirements. Inspection programs should make note of any special construction
features and ensure that the proper protection or marking foatures are in place.

urni hi gs d n n
Construction techniques that have made building envelopes tighter have had the sec-
ondary effect of sensitizing the building occupants to certain off-gassing that occurs
from diflerent materials- carpet and other floor coverings, furniture, paint, and wall
coverings. Low VOC materials used for these purposes have been developed and have
emerged on the market in the past decade. Inspection programs should ensure that
such products still meet the requisite criteria for flame spread (wall/ceiling finish),
critical radiant flux (floor coverings), and ignition resistance (upholstered furniture).

Flame Retardant Treatments and Health

Concerns
Awareness of both short-term and long-term health eftects of synthetic agents used to
modif), the ignition and burning characteristics of materials- primarily furniture-has
increased in the past IO )'Cars.One class of material, polybrominated diphenyl ethers
(PBDEs), has been in use for this purpose since the 1970s and has provided an eftec-
tive means at improving the fire behavior and fire performance of furniture . Efforts to
develop alternatives to PBDEsare under way,and some alternatives do exist. TI1eusefol-
ness of a litesaving material versus possible long-term health eftects must be carefully
considered before any such material is banished from lhe marketplace. Inspection pro -
grams ma)' need to consider a procedure to track where furniture is produced, as some
individual states have recently implemented bans on the use of PBDEs as a viable fire
retardant treatment. As noted in the previous section, this does not relieve the require-
ment of the code, and the inspection program must be vigilant i11order to verify that the
appropriate fire test protocol has been applied to the furnishing or component.

Reuse of Building Materials

Building demol ition- also referred to as building deconstruction-is no longer always
a simple tear it down and haul ii away process. Novelconstruction projects have become
57
 SECTION1: General

involved with recovery, recycling, and reuse of materials taken from deconstructed
buildings. Such materials are refurbished and then used in new projects. Although
much of this effort will be most obvious during the plan review stage, installation of
reused plank flooring or exposed heavy timber wood columns, perhaps removed from
a mill building to be reused in the new building, shou ld be noted in the initial inspec -
tion report to help verify the lineage of the materials.

Green Roofs/Vegetative Roofs

Rooftop environments have been iden-
tified as a great way to showcase green
designs with the secondary advantages
of providing added insulation to the
buildings and offering an aesthetically
pleasing buildin g featur e (FIGUR E 6-2).
Although vegetative roofs do not nec-
essari ly present any highly unusual fire
problems, if not properly maintained,
the dried-out vegetation on the roof can
introduce a fire hazard that otherwise
FIGURE 6·2Vegetative roofs.
is not common to a roof Any built-in
smoke or heat vents on the roof must be kept free and accessible as well. Rooftop stand-
pipe hose connections must also be readily visible or otherwise marked so they can
be used when needed . In some circumstances , green roofs may be used as a public
gathering area for the building occupants. Normal ru les that would generally apply for
assembly occupancies can be applied in this case. Beyond verifying maintenance of the
plantings and access to vents and hose connections, inspection procedures do not need
to be highly complex. Green roof designs are an increasingly popular option in many
cities, and even as new standards on vegetative roof designs are promulgated, inspec -
tors will be given new tools to evaluate all aspects of such designs.

BUILDING REHABILITAT ION

(CHAPTER 43, NFPA 101®, LIFESAFETY
CODE®: CHAPTER15, NFPA 5000
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND
SAFETYCODE)
The idea of building renovation, although not a new concept, was oftentimes not the
first choice for many buildings that had become abandoned or that were underuti -
lized. Demolition and replacement with newer, more modern sleek designs was fre-
quently the preferred route. fn the 1970s, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) embarked on a program to develop and streamline a set of
58
 CHAP ER 6: Sustainable Designand GreenTechnologies

rehabilitation guidelines. Published in 1980 and known simply as RehnbilitntionC11ide-

li11es1980, this eight-part series was intended to ofter a road map for jurisdictions to
ease into a rehabilitation code or standard. TI1eidea behind this concept was to see
what middle ground might exist for a building that complies with the prevailing code
in existence when it was built but that may no longer meet modern- era code provi-
sions. Prior to the development of such guidelines, the rehabilitation approach was ba-
sically "make the building comply with all of the requirements for new construction:•
In 1997, the HUD guidelines morphed into the .Nntio11nlApplicnble Reco1m11end-
ed Relrnbi/itatio11Provisio11sand have become the basis for much of the content o(
modern-em rehabilitation codes and provisions. With concise code requirements in
place, this trend, as well as the points that can be acquired as pnrt of a LEED rating,
makes adaptive reuse and rehabilitation a current!)' attractive option. Inspection pro -
grams involving rehabilitation projects must be able to distinguish between existing
features that might be impractical to update and those that are expressly permitted to
remain as original work. TI1erehabilitation provisions, such as those found in NFPA
101®, Chapter 43, and NFPA 5000, Chapter 15, offer a crosswalk to establish these lim-
its and to describe dear!)' what elements of the project must be upgraded or otherwise
improved upon.

UNUSUAL BUILDING LAYOUTS

Many discussions and articles focus on the impact of roof designs because of PV
system arrays, green roof designs, and convenient surfaces on which to mount wind
h1rbines. Building fa~ade sy tems offer a large surface area that can be tapped to man-
age building heating and cooling loads and that can be used to site other types of PV ar-
rays. Some building designs create a secondary space between a building's interior and
exterior to form a gap that can be used
to improve energy efficienC)'and usage.
Known as ventilated, double skin,
or standoff fa~ades, these configu-
rations allow a defined space to be
created between two sets of curtain
walls (FIGURE 6-3). The resulting space
can be conditioned by collecting gains
from solar heating in cooler months to
contribute to building heating. TI10se
same gains collected during the warmer
months can be ventilated through the
top of the fa\ade to disperse the un- FIGURE 6-3Exampleof a ventilated,double skin,
wanted heat. In addition, innovative or standoff fa~ade: ChristchurchCivic Building,
New Zealand.
phase change materials can be used to
regulate further the temperature in this space. Inspection rules for such building de-
signs should prilnarily focus on the geometry of the space; for instance, can it inad-
vertently accumulate trash or other forms of combustible material? Does it create a
vertical opening that might cause smoke to accumulate 011 the upper levels?
59
 SECTION1: General

POWER- GENERATING EQUIPMENT

lhe most recognizable gree n techno logies are those that generate power from renew-
able resources such as the sun and wind. lv!any of these green technologies have been
around for decades, and each year new advances make them more efficient and more
affordable. Inspectors should be aware that power -generating equipment is being
installed not only in power-generation plants but also in high-rise structures, mercan-
tile buildings, residential homes, and parking structures .

PV Systems
A PV panel, al o known as a , olar panel, is a group of PV cells mounted together.
Grouping many solar panels together creates a solar array (FIGUR E 6·4). Arrays can
range in size from two to l million panels. The array size depends on the location

Photovoltaic so urce circuits

Photovolta ic
output circuit

.- Array or photovoltaic
power source

~- ~+-- -+~ --+--

\~-• Dedicated branch ci rcuit
of the electric productio
and distribut ion network
1 11 1 Inverter output circuit
ac module (includes inve rter)
..________Array
(of ac modu les)
ac modules stem
Notes:
1. These diagrams are intended to be a means of identification for
pllotovollaic system components, circuits, and connec tions.
2. Disconne cting means required by Article 690, Part 111,
are not shown.
3. System ground ing and equipment grounding are not shown.
See Article 690, Part V.

6·4 Ident ificat ion of solar PV system componen ts. Source:

FIGURE Figure (A)from
690.1 NFPA
70®,Noti
onal
Electr
icalCod
e®.
60
 CHAPTER6: Sustainable Design and GreenTechnologi es

where the array is being installed. A residential home might install an array made up
of two or three panels, whereas a solar power plant in the Las Vegasdesert might have
more than 75,000 panels. Regardless of the size of an installation, it must be designed
and installed with safety in mind.
'TI1ePV cells are made up of cq•stalline silicone crystals that act as semiconduc-
tors. Photons from the sun's light are absorbed by the cells and charge electrons, which
then produce an electric curre nt (direct curre nt). PV panels are capable of producing
anywhere from l to 300 W when placed in direct sunlight. The current is sent thro ugh
an inverter and changed into alternating current, which is the type of current that can
be used by buildings and electrical equipment. There are a few different types of PV
S)'Stems and configurations, as described in FIGURE 6·5.

Photovoltaic source circuits Inverter input circuit

~ / Inverter output circuit
__JI/
. .
,h'.,
.
./..~Electric
1_1 --
produc tion
~ and d istribution
Photovoll arc output crrcurt \ network connection
Inverter
Interactive system!

Wind, engine -generator,

micro-hydro-electr ic, and Energy storage, charge controller,
other P ver sources and system control

q-t '
I verier input circuit
o,tp,t otre, 11

Hybrid system dcloads Inverter

Charge controlle r
t
Photovoltaic output !/ Inverte r input circuit
circuit Inverter output circuit
r-r / Main supp ly
~ equipment for
It.Inverter ac loads
J,-- - • Main supply equipment
for de loads
Stand-alone s stem Energy storage

Notes:
1. These diagrams are intended to be a means ot identification tor
photovolta ic system co mponents , circuits, and connections.
2. Disconnectiong means and overcurrent protection required by
Article 690 are not sllown .
3 . System grounding and equipment grounding are not shown.
See Article 690, Part V.
4. Custom designs occur in each configuration, and some component s
are optional .

FIGURE6-5 Identificatio n of solar PV syste m compone nts in common system con figu ration s.
Source:
Figure
690.1(B)fromNFPA70®,Notioaol Efect,icol
Code®
.
61
 SECTION 1: General

Inspectors should be aware of the hazards associated with solar power generation.
Solar panels continuously produce current when exposed to the sun . lt is possible to
stop the flow of electricity from the connection boxes to the inverters; however, the
panels themselves cannot be turned off (when exposed to sunlight). The only way to
stop the panel from producing a current during daylight hours would be to cover the
entire panel. TI1erefore, it is important to recognize and understand that even if the
power to a building is shut down, PV panels could still be energized . When solar arrays
are installed on rooftops, it is also important to cons ide r roof access. The panels should
be arranged to allow personnel to access the pnnels and fire fighters to provide proper
rooftop venting if a fire were to occur.
NFPA 70®, Nnlivnnl ElectricnlCode®, Article 690, has specific requirements for the
electrical components within PV systems. Article 690 describes the installation, wiring
methods, and marking requirements to ensure that PV installations wiU perform safely.

Wind T rbine
A wind turbine uses the wind's energy to produce electricity. TI1ewind's kineti c energy
is converted into mechanical energy through the rotation of large blades that are con-
nected to a shaft. As the shaft turns, a generator is charged, and electricity is produced.
The various components within a wind turbine are shown in FIGURE 6-6.NFPA 70'JiJ con -
tains requirements for the electrical components within a wind turbine.

ma rn
6-6Wind turbine componen ts. Source:
FIGURE http://wv/\'/
l.eere.energy.go'l/l'l
indandhydro/wind_how.h
tml
62
 CHAPTER6: Sustainable Design and Green1ichnologies

Wind turbines may be stand-alone struc-

tures or may be iutegrated into a building, like
the wind turbines of the \,VorlclTracie Center
in Bahrain (FIGURE 6·7). Power generation can
rnnge from less than 100 kW lo several mega-
watts depending on the size (Wind and Water
Power Program, n.d.). A small wind turbine,
capable of producing 500 kW, may have a blade
diameter of l00 (L (30.5 m) while the total
height of the stru cture is 150 ft (45.7 111).Some
of the largest turbines, capable of producing
more than 6 MW, reach over 500 ft ( 152.4 m)
in height with blade diameters measuring over
450 ft (137.2 m) (FIGURE6-8).

MAL
FIGURE
6·7Integra ted wind turbine s
Geotherma l S}'Stemsuse the consistent ground of the World Trade Center, Manama,
temperature to heat and cool a building. Un- Bahrain.
derground temperatures are much more stable
than air temperahires. Across the United States,
the ground temperature IOn(3.05 m) below the surface is maintained at approximately
50°P to 60°P (l0 °C to 15.6°C), whereas air temperatures can range from more than
l00°F (37.8°C) to below 0°F (- 17.8°C) (Geothermal Technologies Program, n.d.).
A geothermal system takes advantage of the consistent ground temperature by use
of a series of und erground pipes and a heat pump. A Huid or gas is passed through

450 .,.-- -- - - - - - - -- -- - - -- -- - - -
400 -+-- --~ -- -- -- - - - - - - -- - ----
350+-- - - - -H--
- -- ----- - - -- - -

g
250
E
Ol
"iii 200
I
150
100
50
0
Wind Turbine Statue of Liberty Transmission Residential
Lines Home

FIGURE
6·8 Wind turb ine heigh t comr arison.

63
 SECTION1: General

the pipes until it reaches the un- Closed Loop Systems

derground temperature. It is then Vertfcal
pumped back into the build ing
and through a hea t pump. In the
cool er months, the ground tem -
perature acts like a heat source for
the building. 111e heat pump uses
the S0°F to 60°F (10°C to 15.6°C)
underground temp eratur e to pro -
vide heat to the building. During
sum mer 1non ths, the geother-
mal system uses the ground tem -
pera tur e as a heat sink. 11,e heat
pump tran sfers the hot air into
the ground and coo ls it to 50°F
to 60°F (l0 °C to 15.6°C) befor e
brin ging it back up into the build -
ing. Additional heating and cool- FIGURE 6·9 Closed-loop geotherma l system. Source
: www.
ing sources can be used to supple- ec,e.energy
.gov/basics/iene
vable
_ene1gy/geothe1rna
l_heat
_purnp1.htrnl
ment the geothermal system, bu t
the amount of energy needed to
reach comfortable temperatures Open Loop Systems
will be greatly reduced compared
with that for a traditional heating,
ventilation, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) system.
111ere are many different con -
figurations for geothermal systems
as illustrated by FIGURE 6·9 and
FIGURE 6-10.Some use pipes filled
with pressurized refrigerant gas or
liqu ids or even groundwater . Oth-
er configurations use open -ended
wells to exchange heat. Local juris -
dictions may have specific codes
and standards for the installation
of geothermal S)'Stems .

FIGURE6·10Open-loop geot hermal system. Source: 1·1ww.

VEHICLES ecre.
energy
.gov/ba
sics/renewable_energy/geothe,mal
_heat_purnps.htrn
l
There are a variety oflow -emitting
and efficient veh icles on the road today. TI1ese vehicles help reduce the quantity of
greenhouse gases and pollutants being released into the atmosphere compared with
the quantity of those released by typical combustion engine vehicles . These vehicles

64
 CHAPTER 6: Sustainable Designand Green fechnologie,

are popular w.ith enviro nm entally co nscious ind ividuals and with peop le who want to
avoid incr eas ing fuel costs. Build ing inspectors should be awa re of these vehicles and
consider the hazar ds associated with the
different power sources.
Some energy -efficient vehicles rel}'
on alternative so urces of fuel to pow er
combustion engines . ll1e types of fuel
ca n range from natura l gas and pro pane
to eth anol. Although t he automot ive in -
dustry can ensure !hat these vehicles are
sa fe to drive, the vehicles may introdu ce
n ew hazards in spaces such as parki ng
lots or un dergrou nd parking structures.
EVs are becom ing mor e and m ore
popular as the technolo gy con tinu es to
expand . EVs use an electrica l charge to
power the car's engine. 1h e storage ca-
pacity depends on the type of battery in
the car. Some batte ries are comparabl e
with the ones found in typical vehicles,
and some are high-voltage lithi um -ion
batteries. To charge these batteries, the
vehicle needs to be plugged into a power
source. Some vehicles are designe d to
charge using reside ntial powe r supplies,
and so me requi re dedicated charging sta -
tion s (FIGURE 6-11). Jt is possible to find
charg ing stat io ns in residential garages, FIGURE 6·11An EV-dedicated charging station.
parking lots, and dedicated parking structures-both indoors and outdoors.
NFPA teamed up with automotive manu factur ers to create an EV safety tra inin g
program for first respo nd ers. The program's vVebsite contain s more inform ation about
EVs and ca n be fou nd at www.evsafe trtra in ing.or g.

RESOURCES
A variety of reso urces are available for more information on gree n buildings, rating
systems, and safety regulations .
• ASTM International maintains a Web site with a list of more than 500 ASTM
standard s involved with sustainability. 1he site also references standards and
progra ms from other organizations. TI1e site can be found at w1vw.astm.org/
CO MMIT/ sustain.h tml.
• The IC C publishes the International Green Const ru ction Co de (IGCC), wh ich
focuses on gree n building design and performance for commercia l buil d ings.
More informatio n on the IGCC can be found at www.iccsafe.org/igcc.

65
 SECTION1: General

• NFPA 70'.F> , Nntionnl ElectricnlCode®, has specific electrical requirements for PV

installations. NFPA 70'.F> is available on line at www.nfpa.org/70.
• 1he National Association of State Fire Marshals maintains a vVeb site with infor-
mation about fire safety and green buildings for emergency responders and for
code officials. TI1eir site can be found at w,vw.greenbuildingfiresafety.org.
• UL Environment is a company that tests and verifies the environmental friendli-
ness of products claimed to be green products . UL Environment works directly
with product manufacturers and can be contacted at www.ulenvironment.com.
• 111e USGBC publishes one of the most popular green building ranking sys-
tems: LEED. The USG BC also certifies green buildings according to the LEED
point system . Mor e informat ion about LEED and USGBC can be found at
www.usgbc.org.
• The Solar America Board for Codes and Standards (Solar ABCs) is an organiza-
tion that provides technical services relating to solar installations and related
codes and stand ard s. Inform atio n about Solar ABCs can be found at www.so -
larabcs.org.
• The ASHRAE develops standards and handbooks dealing with HVAC design
and en erg}' efficiency. ASH RAE Standard 189.1, Str111dnrd for the Designof High-
Pe1formnnceGreenBuildings,offers a set of requirements for green building de-
sign and can be found at www.ashrae.org/greenstandard.
• The National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) offers a platform where rep -
resentatives of government, the professions, industry, labor and consumer inter -
ests, and regulatory agencies can come together to focus on the identification and
resolution of problems and potential problems that hamper the construction of
safe, affordable structures for housing, commerce, and industn• throughout the
United States. TI1e NIBS High-Performance Building Council has developed a
report entitled Assessment to the U.S.Congressnnd U.S.Depnrlment of Energy on
High-Pe1formnnceBuildings. TI1is report describes the need to balance sustain -
able design concepts along with all of the other design features such as usability
and environmental, economic, and social impact and can be found at www.nibs .
org/index.php/hpbc/.
• In Europe, the European Commission publishes a vVeb site with information
about sustainable development. TI1e \i\Tebsite can be found at http://ec .europa.
eu/ environment/ eussd/.
• Fivl Global Group: Approval Standard for Vegetative Roof Systems - Class 4477
(http://www.fmglobal.com/assets/pdf/tinapprovals/4477.pd.)

BlBLIOGRAPHY
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration , and Air -Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRA E) 62.1 -2007. Geothermal Technologies Program. U.S. Department of
Energy. Available at http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/geothermal _basics.
html. Accessed November 14, 2011. n.d.

66
 CH APT R 6: Sustainable Design ancJGreen Technologies

Glossarr Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center. U.S.Department ofEnergy.
Availableat: http:f/www.afdc.enerm~gov/afrlc/glossary.html.Accessed November 14,
2011. n.d.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14021 j.
Leitman, S., Build Yo11r011111 P/11g-i11
HybridElectric\leliide, McGraw-Hill,NY,2009,p. 8.
U.S. Green l3uilding Council. Green B11ildi11g Desig11a11d Co11strrictio11.
USGBC,
Washington, DC, 2009.
U.S.Environmenta l Protection Agency, 2008.
'v\lind and Water Power Program. U.S. Department of Energy. Available at http://
wwwl.eerc.cnergy.gov/winda ndhydro/ . n.d.
http://www.epa.gov/greenbui Iding/pu bs/abou t.hlm.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See::the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 25, Standard for t/ie /11spectio11,
Testing,nnd Mai11te11a11ce
of Water-Based Fire
Proteclio11
Systems
NFPA 70'.E!,
National ElectricalCode®
NFPA 101®, L!{eSafety Code®
NFPA 110, Standardfor E111erge11cyand Standby Power Systems
NFPA 5000, Building Co11stmctio11and Safety Code

67
 BUILDING
SYSTEMS AND
2 FIRE PROTECTION
SYSTEMS
CHAPTER
7 Building Construction Elements
/. fJai i·, PE, FSFPE
Ricl,11rd 1

CHAPTER8 Classification of Construction Types

Richard/. Davis, PE, FSFPE
CHAPTER
9 Construction, AJteration, and Demolition
Operations
Richard J.Dn11is,PE, FSFPE
CHAPTER
10 Protection of Opening s in Fire Rated Assemb lies
Kristin Collette Bigda, PE, MSFPE
CHAPTER
11 Electrical Systems
Jea11M. Blanc
12
CHAPTER Heating Systems
Allan B. Fraser
ER13
CHAPT Air-Conditioning and Ventilating Systems
Alim, B. Fraser
CHAPTER
14 Smoke -Control Systems
lv!ic/l(le/]. Ferreira, PE, J\llSFPE
15
CHAPTER Fire Alarm and Carbon Monoxide Systems
Lee Richardson
CHAPTER
16 Water Supplies
Victoria B. Vale11ti11
e, PE, MSFPE
17
CHAPTER Automatic Sprinkler and Othe1· Water -Based Fire
Protection Systems
Bob Caputo mid Rola11dHuggins
18
CHAPTER Water Mist Systems
Jack R. Mn111/,i1111
ey, PE
CHAPTER
19 Special Agent Extinguishing Systems
Gerald R. Back III
20
CHAPTER Clean Agent Extinguishing Systems
Tom Wy.~ocki
CHAPTER
21 Portable Fire Extingui sher s
Mark Conroy
CHAPTER
22 Mean s of Egres s
Ron Cote, PE
CHAPTER
23 Interior Finish, Contents , and Furni shing s
Kris tin Collette Bigda, PE, MSFPE
CHAPTER
24 Commis sioning Proce ss for Fire Prote ction System s
Matthew J.Klaus, MSFPE
CHAPTER
25 Accessibility Requirements
Allan B. Fraser
CHAPTER
26 Grass, Brush , and Forest Fire Hazard s
Michele Steinberg
CHAPTER
27 Road Tunn els
Will iam G. Conne ll and Matthew J.Klaus, MSFPE
 CHAPTER

\.
7
BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
ELEMENTS
Richard J Davis, PE, FSFPE

The type of constructi on and the materials used in a building influence th e building 's
life safety and property pro tectio n requirements. In spec tors have a maj or respo nsibil -
ity in determining th at those requirement s are met through out the life of the building.
To dischar ge th at responsibility, the y must kn ow the functi ons of the various struc-
tural elem ents of a building (which is th e topic of this chapter) and und ers tand th e
significant characteristics of th e various constructi on type s. Because space in this text
is limited, inspect ors should refer to th e National Fire Protection Assoc iation (N FPA)
Fire Prot ection H andboo k and Frank Brannig an's Building Construction for the Fire Ser-
vice, both of wh ich cont ain sign ificant additional inform ation.

DEFINITIONS
Knowing th e meaning of key term s is essenti al to an und ersta ndin g of h ow the differ-
ent building con stru ction eleme nt s int era ct.
• Bear ing wall: A bearing wall is any wall m eeting eith er of th e following two clas-
sifications: (1) any m etal or wood stud wall th at supp ort s m ore th an 100 lb/linear
ft (1400 Nim) of vertical loa d in additi on to its own weight or (2) any concre te
or m asonry wa ll th at supp orts m ore th an 200 lb/lin ear ft (2900 N/m) of verti cal
loa d in additi on to its own weight.
• Dead loads: Dead loa ds are loads consisting of th e weight of all materials of
constructi on incorporated int o th e building, includin g but n ot limit ed to walls,
floors, roofs, ceilin gs, stairw ays, built-in partiti ons, finishes, claddin g, and oth -
er similarl y incorporated archit ectura l and struc tu ral items, and fixed serv ice
equipm ent, includin g th e weight of cranes.
• Env ironmental loads: Environmen tal loads are loads caused by the environme nt,
includin g wind load, snow load, ice load, rain load, ear thqu ake load, and flood load .
• Foundati on syst ems : Found ation syste ms includ e found ation walls, footings,
posts, pier s, piles, caissons, or slabs-o n- grade .
SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

• Live loads: Live loads are loads, other than dead or environmental loads,
produced by the use and occupancy of the building. This includes those loads
produced:
l. During maintenance, suc h as by workers, maintenance equipment, and
materials.
2. During the normal use of the building, such as by other equipment, other
contents, and people.
• Non bearing wall: A nonbearing wa ll is any wall that is not a bearing wa ll.

FRAMINGMEMBERS
In general, the structural components of a building can be divided into two groups:
l. Those elements that support the structure or its framing members.
2. Those that enclose the worki ng, storage, and livin g spaces, that is, its nonbear -
ing walls, floors, ceilings, and roofs.
The framing m embers form the skeleton of a building, which supports the bui lding
and everything attached to it and is part of the dead load. The frame also supports
the live load, or the building's contents and its occupants, as we ll as the environ-
mental loads.

Foundation Systems,
Columns, and Bearing
Walls
The structura l frame is supported on
foundation systems, which transfer the
loads imposed on the building to the
ear th below. Co lumns or bearing walls
are located on top of these footings and
support the floor or floors above a nd th e FIGURE 7-1Steel anchor bolts are used to secure
roof. Steel columns are typically welded steel columns to the footings.
to steel bas e plates that are secured to
footings using steel anchor bolts (FIGURE 7-1). The failur e of a column or columns from
fire exposure is critical because it can resu lt in the collapse of a floor or, in extraordinary
cases, of th e entir e building.

Horizontal Structural Members

Trusses, beams, girders, joists, and rafters are all typ es of structural members that sup-
port a ceilin g, floor, or roof . Live loads and environm ental loads must follow a load
path and are typically applied to the cladding or decking. These loads are transferred
th ro ugh various roof or floor struct ural members to columns or bearing walls, into
foundation systems, and into the earth .
72
 CHAPTER 7: Building Construction Elements

Trusses are composed of stee l, wood,

comb in ations of steel and wood, or con-
crete. They include elements of upp er
and lower chord members connected
to each oth er with vertical and/or di-
agona l web members to span large dis-
tances and to transmit the load directly
or indirectly to the building's columns
or bearing walls. Beca use of their rela-
tively light weig ht and the type of con-
nect ions, wood trus s members are m ore
commonly used in residentia l construc-
FIGURE7-2 Solid wood web trusses.
tion or in sma ll commercia l projects.
Bot h solid web wood trusses and
open web wood trusses are particularly
vulnerable to fire and, when unprotect-
ed (by a fire-res istive coverin g or sprin -
klers), can collapse after a few minutes
of fire exposure (FIGURE 7-2). Open web
wood trusses may fail at connection
plates, and solid web trusses may fail at
the junction of the web and the flanges.
This is a common situation in basement
areas, which may not be protected by
sprinklers or a gyps um board or plaster
ceilin g. If a fire originates in the base - FIGURE7-3 Wood beam.
ment, unprotected wood trusses sup-
porting the first floor may be ready to collapse at the tim e of initial fire response . Lim -
ited testing wit h residential spr inkl ers h as been successfu l.
A beam is a relatively large horizontal structural member [e.g., 4 by 6 in. to 6 by 10 in.
(10 by 15 cm to 15 by 25 cm) ] into which other m embers, suc h as jois ts [e.g., 2 by 8 in.
or 2 by 10 in. (5 by 20 cm or 5 by 25 cm); wood members], can be framed (FIGURE 7-3).
If a beam is supported on ly at its ends, it usually is called a simp le span beam . If it spans
three or more supports, it is a continuous span beam .
A girder is a deep beam, such as a stee l beam or glued and laminated (glu-l am) wood
beam, into or over which other beams or joists are framed . A joist is one of a series of
sma ller, para llel members used directly to support eith er the floor or roof, in which
case they are ca lled floor or roof joists, or the ceilin g, where they are called ceiling
joists . Joists genera lly are framed into beams or bearing walls (FIGURE 7-4). Wood joists
are usually spaced 16 in . (40 cm) on center .
A rafter is similar to a joist, except that it supports the roof. Rafters are closely spaced
and are usually framed int o beams or bearing walls.
For industrial and larg er commercia l construction, stee l framing and concrete con -
struction are often us ed . For construction such as an insulat ed stee l deck, th e deck is
supported by secondary stru ctural framing such as open web steel joists. The depth
73
SECTION 2: Building Syst ems and Fire Protectio n Systems

FIGURE
7-4 Joists.

of th e joists var ies considerab ly, depend-

ing primarily on its span but also on the
design load and its spaci n g on center.
The first number in a stee l joist des igna-
tion is its dept h in inches . For examp le,
a 24K6 joist is 24 in. (60 cm) deep. The
"K" indicates th at the stee l has a yield
stress of 50,000 lb/in.2 (35.2 kg/mm2).
The last n umber in this examp le, "6;' is
the chord designat ion, which is the rela-
tive ranking of the joist's strength. Ev-
eryt h ing else being equa l, th e hi gher the
FIGURE 7-5 Op en we b steel j oists.
chord designation, the stronger the joist.
Open web steel joists are supported by primary structura l members, such as wide -
flange, solid web stee l beams or open web joist girders (FIGURE 7-5) . Steel joists are usu -
ally spaced 6 ft (1.8 m) or more on center when used to support roofs [2 ft (0.6 m) when
supporting concrete mezzanines ] and often span 40 to 50 ft (12.2 to 15.2 m) .
Measuring the depth of the joist and its spacing on center is relative ly easy. For
new construction, this measurement should be taken and the results checked against
the design drawings . For additional information , see the Standard Specifications by the
Steel Joist Institute.
For wide-flange beams, the "W" indicates that it is a wide flange (FIGURE 7-6). The
first number in its designation is the approximate depth in inches; the second number
74
 CHAPTER 7: Building Construction Elements

is the exact weight in pounds per linear

foot. For examp le, a WlO x 49 is 10 in.
(25 cm) deep and we ighs exac tly 49 lb/
lin ear ft (73 kg/m). For deeper heavier
beams, h owever, the actua l depth may
vary considerably from the first number
in the designation. Exact dimensions
can be fou nd in the American Insti -
tute of Steel Construction's Steel Design
Manual.
FIGURE
7-6 Wide-flange beams.

Fire-Protective
Coverings
Fire-resistance ratings for steel structural fram ing are usually achieved by the application
of a spray-applied fire-resistive material. Rated assemb lies are tested in accordance with
American Society for Testing and Materia ls (ASTM) E-119 or Underwriters Laborato -
ries (UL) 263. The actual coating thickness may be adjusted to account for differenc es
between the tested steel fram ing member and the actua l steel member in the construc-
tion, using formu las noted in the NFPA Fire Protection Handbook . For certain buildings,
such as high-rise buildings, the building owner's representative shou ld provide field test
data for spray-app lied fire-protective coatings. Two tests that shou ld be used are ASTM
E-605 for thickness and density and ASTM E-736 for cohesion and adhesion.
Verifying that the thickness of the coating meets the minimum required for the
specified fire rating and size of the structural memb er is important and relatively easy.
To measure the thickn ess, specia l gauges are available, or a piece of wire or a straight-
ened paper clip can be used and pushed into the coating up to the steel, marked,
and then measured after it is taken out (FIGURE 7-7). Measured thickn esses should be
checked against listin g req uirements, such as thos e in the UL Fire Resistance Dir ectory,
with adjustments made as noted in this chapter .
Verifying that the density of the coating meets specified criteria is also important.
If th e listed coating is modified from its test ed formulation, it may still meet th e
thickness cr iter ia but may not be completely effective because it is too light or lack s

FIGURE
7-7 Gauge to measure thi ckness of fire protect io n coat ing .

75
SECTION 2: BuildingSystems and Fire Protection Systems

cohes ive strength. Likewise, if the surface is not compatible with the coat ing, the
adhesive strength will not be adequate, and the coating may peel off prematurely. It is
recommended that an independent laboratory perform these density, adhesion, and
cohes ion tests, that it check the results against listing requirements, and that it give
the report and the conclusions to the inspector for review.
In many cases, it may be practical for the same procedure to be followed for the
coating thickness. In some cases, the coat in g thickness needed may be adjusted up
or down because the actua l steel member differs in size from the member shown in
the listing. This situation is acceptable, provided that the design professional speci-
fies that the assembly will still attain the intended rating; that is, 1 hour, 2 hours,
3 hours, or 4 hours.
Typically, structural steel framing is not required to have primer paint prior to the ap -
plication of spray-applied fire-resistive coatings. The surface should be free of dirt, oil, or
loose mill scale. If a primer paint is used, it must be compatib le with the coating. There
have been cases in the past where a primer that was not listed for use with the specific fire-
resistive coating was used, and almost no adhesive strength was provided. If an improper
paint is used or the surface is not properly cleaned, the coating may fall off prematurely.
Inspectors shou ld be particularly aware of any building renovation/rehabilitation
projects that cou ld alter the applied coatings. Coat ings may be in advertent ly removed
when ductwork is added or modified, when new communication wiring is added to
above-ceiling areas, and even when new pipe for automatic sprinkler systems is in-
sta lled. Any holes in the fire-resistive coatings must be repair ed before the work area
is cleared to be occup ied (FIGURE 7-8 and FIGURE 7-9). When stee l deck is used below
poured-in-place concrete, it may be used as a composite deck or a noncomposite deck.
When used as a composite deck, the stee l deck is int ended to act structura lly with the
concrete deck , and so the steel deck must have a fire-resistive covering below it. When
used as a noncomposite deck, the steel deck is simply acting as a form deck until the
concrete has reach ed its design strength; ther efore, th e stee l deck does not requir e a
fire-resistant covering below it.
Braces are typically provided perpendicular to purlins, and joists are intended to
provide latera l support for th e purlins or joists for snow or wind loads and may not be
required to have a fire-resistive coating, even if one is required for the purlins/joists
(FIGURE 7·10).

WALLS, FLOOR/CEILING ASSEMBLIES,

AND ROOFS
Walls
Walls serve a variety of functi ons , includin g security, privacy, weather resist ance, fire
resistance, and structural resistance. They can be classified as bearing or nonb ea rin g
walls, common (or party) walls , shear walls, or fire wa lls or fire barri er walls. Often -
tim es, a single wall will have two or mor e of th ese functions and may have multipl e
classifications.
76
 CHAPTER 7: Building Construct ion Elements

FIGURE 7-8 Fire resistive material removed from structural member to facilitate sprinkler
installation .

FIGURE 7-9 Fire resistive mat erial reinstalled on a structural member following sprink ler
installation.

77
SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

FIGURE
7-10Bracing provid es lateral support for the purlins o r j o ists.

A bearing wall supports more than its own weight, suc h as a floor or roof; a nonbear -
ing wall typically supports only its own weight. More specifically, a metal or wood stud
wa ll that supports more than 100 lb/lin ear ft (1400 N/m) of vertica l load, in add iti on to
its own weight, is cons idered a bearing wall. A concrete or masonry wall that supports
more than 200 lb/linear ft (2900 N/m), in addition to its own weight, is also considered
a b ear ing wall.
A common, or party, wall is a single wall that is common to two separate areas or
buildings. In some cases, the wood floor joist s of bot h buildings that sh are a common
wa ll are placed in the same open ing, providing a hidden pat h for fire to spread .
A shear wall acts to brace a portion of a building against the latera l forces of wind,
earthquake, or simi lar loads . It resists, by its stiffnes s, th e forces app lied paralle l to its
length .
Fina lly, a fire wa ll is used to subdivide a building or to separate buildings from each
oth er. It has both a fire-resistance rating and structura l stability . Fire walls may be free-
sta ndin g (cantil evered), doub le walls, or tied wa lls, as defined by NFPA 22 1, Standard
for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls. Wh en a fire wall is
used in a single -story bui ldin g or on the top floor of a building, it typica lly pe netrates
th e roof and forms a parapet. A fire barri er wa ll is a fire-resistant wall that does not
have the structura l stability of a fire wall and is often used to isolate a specia l hazard
within a building, suc h as a flam mable liquids storage area.
Openings in thes e fire wa lls and fire barrier walls are protected wit h automatic -clos -
ing or self-closing devices. Fire wa lls usua lly have a fire-resistance rating that ranges
from 1 to 4 hours, but their differentiation from fire barrier walls is not with regard to
78
 CHAPTER 7: Building Constructio n Element s

fire resistance. Requir ed fire-resistan ce ratings are determined from code requir em ents
and are typically based on the occ upancy use .
Fire walls should remain structurally sound and sho uld not permit the spread of fire
through, und er, over, or around the wall, even if the stru cture on on e sid e of it burns
out and collapses. The efficiency of a fire wall depends on its own inte grity and on the
reliability of its closing devices . Only certai n types of fire wall design will provide such
stability. For more information, the inspector should refer to NFPA 221.
Pipe and conduit penetrations shou ld be checked to ensure the piping pene-
trates the wall at points permitted in the listed assembly. In walls rated for 3 hours
and greater, the penetrations must be not more than 3.0 ft (0.9 m) above the floor .
Ductwork sho uld be checked to ensure that slip joints are provided near the wall
and dampers are provided wi thin the wall. To ens ur e that a true fire wall has been
provided, the inspector should check for a parapet, which is a vertical extens ion of
the fire wall th at divides the roof and extends at least 30 in. (76.2 cm) above the top
surface of th e roof cover.
Fire barrier wa lls have fire-resistance ratings ranging from 20 minutes to
4 h ours, but they are usually not structurally ind ependent. Fir e barrier walls rely
on the building frame for support, and so their structural integrity is dependent
on passive protection of the building frame, automatic spr inkl er protection, or
some combination of the two . "Smoke barriers;' which may or may not have a
fire-resistance rating, are primarily intended to limit the passage of smoke. Other
terms commonly used are "bu ildin g separat ion wa lls;' "area separatio n wa lls;' "fire
partitions;' and "occupancy separation walls." Cr it eria for fire barrier walls can be
found in NFPA 221.
A veneered wall consists of a sing le wythe, or thickness, of brick facing that is later -
ally supported by wood or steel studs, by concrete, or by masonry. Fire performance
is based on the construction of this "backing system:' Fire resistance for concrete and
masonry will dep end on the thickness , type of aggregate used, and cover distance for
reinforcing steel. For additiona l information on fire resistance, see American Society of
Civil Engineers /Socie ty of Fire Protection Engineers (ASCE/SFPE) 29-05.
Post -occupancy m od ifications to fire wa lls and fire barri er walls may include instal -
lation of pipe, wiring, ductwork, or simil ar components that m ay breech the wall and
jeopardize its integrity. Insp ector s should verify that any such penetrations have been
properly sea led , prov ided with a damper, or otherwise configured to maintain the rat -
ing that is intended for th e wall.
Exterior walls can serve to protect a neighboring building from an exposure fire or
to prot ect a building from an adjacent expos ur e fire (FIGURE 7·11). The amount of fire
resistance that an exterior wall is required to provide is defined by code and will vary
depe nding on the building occupancy . For additiona l informati on , see FM Global Dat a
Sheet 1-20. It is important to ensure that no unusual fire exposures deve lop over th e
life span of a building that could cause a fire, which is excess ive for the fire rating (or
lack of) for the exterior wall, to spread across a separating space. In some cases, th e
exter ior wall may be combustib le or its fire int egrity may be limit ed by unprotected
openings (FIGURE 7·12). In some cases, th e exterior wall may be loa d-bearing, and, if
compromised, collapse of the struct ur e co uld result.
79
SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

FIGURE7-11 Exterior walls can protect a neighboring building from an exposure fire or a building
from an adjacent exposure fire.

7-12The ext erior wall may be combu stible .

FIGURE

80
 CHAPTER 7: Building Construct io n Element s

Often, exterior walls are neither

load -bearing nor required to have a
fire-r esistance rating. Many industrial
buildings have steel framing with metal
panel walls . Steel girts are used to lat-
era lly support exterior wa ll panels and
lat era lly brace columns (FIGURE7-13).
A common type of exterior wall con -
structi on is the exterior insulati on finish
system (EIFS), whic h typically con sists of
moisture -resistance gypsum board fas-
ten ed to the exterior side of wall studs,
with expanded polystyre ne (XPS) or ex-
trud ed polystyren e (EPS) insulation ad -
here d to or mechanicall y fastened over
the gyps um boar d. The EPS or XPS is
covered with glass fiber m esh, which is
embedded in and covered with a base
coat of po lymer- m od ified cement. A
textured latex finish coa t is usually ap-
plied. Such systems should be tested in 7-13Steel girts.
FIGURE
accordance with NFPA 285, including
any architectura l finish es. It is common
for faux beams and faux columns to be
added over th e flat surface of the EIFS for
aestheti c purpo ses. Often, th ese protru-
sions can be formed using EPS or XPS up
to 1 or 2 ft (0.3 or 0.6 m) in either dim en -
sion, and in some cases finish es other
than that tested and described above
(such as po lyureth ane) m ay be proposed
as a substitute, but th ey are not recom-
mended . Fire loss exper ienc e is not fa-
vorable for such details that were n ot FIGURE 7-14 Fire loss experience is not favorable
successfully tested (FIGURE 7-14). for deta ils that were not successfully tested.

Floor/Ceiling Assemblies
Fire safety in buildings is also influ enced by the floor/ce ilin g assembli es that must sup -
port th e dead and live loads placed on th em. Som e assembli es have b een tested in accor-
dance with nationa lly recognized standards and h ave received a specific fire-resistance
rating. Such assemb lies can be found in the UL Fire Resistanc e Directory (Volum e 1)
or in the Gyps um Association's Fire Resistanc e D esign Manual. This rating does not
mean th at they are impervious to fire for th e full rating period, however. For exampl e,
rated stee l floor/ceiling assemb lies can easily be made ineffective by the remov al of
81
SECTION 2: Building Syst ems and Fire Protect io n Systems

ceiling tiles. The installed assembly must

be identical to the assembly listed. Rated
assemblies are tested only against fire from
b elow when, in fact, fire can enter an as-
sembly without hindrance either later-
ally or from above. When a floor/ce iling
or roof/ceiling assembly is given a fire-
resistance rating, it is a rating for the total
assembly, not the ceiling itself.
Other assemblies ma y be combus-
tible and may contain conc ealed spaces
that are difficult to access and that allow
for rapid fire sp read. The space between
a ceiling and th e floo r or roof abov e may
sometimes be used as part of the build-
FIGURE 7-15 Space above ceiling used to hide ing 's air-h andling system or a convenient
piping, electri cal w iring, and co mmuni catio n loca tion to conceal electrical wiring, pip -
w iring. ing for domestic water supply, automatic
sprinkl er systems, or com munic ation wir-
ing (FIGURE 7-15). Co ntrol of combustible mat eri als in th ese spaces is tightly regulated
by NFPA 90A, Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and Ventilating Systems.

Roofs
Roofing assembli es are constru cted of a combination of m ate rial s and in a varie ty of
configurations . Basically, a roof cons ists of supp orts , such as beams or rafte rs, a deck,
insul ation, and a covering . Environmen tal loads on the roof are carried by the roof
deck and are transmitted along rafters and beams to the column s, founda tion systems,
and soil below. Typical roof deck materials are concre te and steel in indu stri al and
commerc ial construction and stee l and wood shea thin g in residential cons tructi on and
smaller commercial projects.
Insulation is generally mechanically fasten ed to th e top of steel roof decks and is
covered on top by a roof cover ing that provides weatherproofing (FIGURE7-16). Roof
cover in gs can be multi -ply, liquid app lied, or single -ply m embr anes.
It is important to und erstand that there are two fire classifications for a roof assem-
bly: one for underside fire exposure and one for exterior fire exposure. A built-up roof
membrane typically cons ists of three to five layers, known as "plies;' of roof membrane
attached to a wood or concre te roof deck or insulation and to each oth er at th e job site,
with hot asphalt or some other adhes ive secur ing the layers. Ano ther type of multi -ply
roof cover is the modified bitumen (or mod bit). This usually consists of two or three lay-
ers of heavier, polymer-modified asp haltic sheets, which may be sec ured using ad hesives,
mechanical fasteners, or torc h-app lication. Torch -app licat ion of mod bits is a potential
ignition source dur ing construction. Asphalt ad hesive or asphalt felt vapor barriers laid
dir ectly on metal decking can allow fire spread on the deck un derside, which can result
in collapse of unprotected steel framing, and shou ld not be used in this way. The use of
82
 CHAPTER 7: Building Construct io n Element s

7-16 Insulation is mechanically fastened to th e to p of steel roof decks.

FIGURE

gravel surfacing or special coatings, such as asphalt emulsions or fibrated aluminum, will
increase the resist ance of a built -up or m od -bit roof to exterior fire expos ure .
Single-ply roof membranes generally consist of flexible, water -resist ant sheets of a
var iety of plastic- or rubb er -b ased products . These m embran es are typic ally applied
over rigid in sulati on. Reinforced m embranes are usually attached to the de ck with m e-
chanic al fasteners . Unreinforced membranes are usually adhered or are ballasted with
large gravel or concrete paving blocks.
The spaci ng of fasteners is criti cal to th e wind -uplift resistance of th e roof. With
sing le-p ly roof covers that are thin, the outline of the top of th e fasten er pl ate can usu-
ally be seen under th e membrane or b e felt by rubbing th e hand or foot over th e top of
th e cover . Also, with stee l deck roo fs, viewing th e und ersid e of th e deck where fasten ers
pene trate allows for a check of the fastener sp acin g. Differentiating between the vari-
ous typ es of fastene rs used is imp ort ant. With mechanica lly att ached roof covers, som e
fasten ers are used to secur e th e roof cove r to th e d eck; oth ers are used to fasten ri gid
insulation below the cover to the deck. Also, fasteners found at the overlaps of steel
deck sect ions, usua lly abo ut every 3.0 ft (0.9 m), are called side -lay fasteners and are
used to conn ect adjoining deck section s but do n ot add any dir ect sec ur em ent for the
insu latio n or roof cover.
Elas tomer ic coa tin gs, suc h as acry lic, silicon e, po lyur eth an e, an d so on, are used as
spray -app lied roof coverings over ur eth an e foam in sul ation, which is sprayed in place
on top of the roof deck, exist in g roof cover, or therma l barrier.
83
 SEC ION 2: Building Systems and Fire P1otection Systerns

Torch-aµplied roof systems are bitumin ous roofing systems that are heated with
a torch (as it is rolled onto its substrate), which melts the asphalt that saturates the
membrane. ·n1e membrane is then imm ediately secured to the substrate, usually a
base ply, below. Guidance on safet)' in the use of torch-applied roof S)1Stems can be
found in NFPA 24 1, Srn11dnrd }or Snfeg11nrdi11g Co11str11ctio11,Altemtio11,nnd De111oli -
tio11Opemtio11s.Nationally recognized standards exist to evaluate roof assemblies for
interior combus tibility, surface burning over the top surfiKe, wind resistance, and hail
resista nee.
Roof assemblies that are rated as Class l or limited combust ible due to underside
fire exposure are tested to FNI 4450, FM 4470, or NFPA 276 and can be found in FM
Apprnvals RoofNav. I11s1dat cl ·t el decks may contain combustible above-deck compo-
nents, as long as they are listed within the tested assembly. Whereas many aµµroved in-
sulations may be fastened directly over steel deck. thermoplas tic insulation, such as XPS
or EPS, requires a thermal barrier such as gyµsum board directly below the insulation
and above the steel deck to achieve a Class 1 fire rating. Otherw ise, sprink ler protection
may be provided directly below the deck. Some insulated steel deck assemblies that have
not passed the above tests are considered Class 2, or combustible, due to the type and
quantity of combustib le compo nents above the deck. Another classic example is any in-
sulation that is secured clirectl}'to the steel deck with a full mop of asphalt. It is common
in indus trial and commerc ial buildings to have a steel deck roof with a noncombustible
or limited combustible suspended ceiling several feet (about 3 ft, or l m) below the roof
deck and sprinklers below the ceiling. It is important to unders tand that the spri nklers
below the ceiling will not be effective in controlling a fire within the concealed space.
Class 1 insulated steel deck assemblies are suitable for Type I and Tyµe II constr uc-
tion; Class 2 steel deck assemblies are suitable for Type Ill, Type lV, or Type V con-
struction. Thermoplastic insulation used over a therma l barrier on top of steel deck can
be considered li1nited combustible and is acceptable for Type I or Type 1I const ruction.
AST:rv(E 108, FM 4470, and UL 790 are tests used to evaluate fire performance of roof
coverings exposed to e;derior fire and rated as A, B, or C. A Class A rating is the best rating
and is preferred where exterior fire exposure may be significant. Codes allow the use of a
Class 13or a Class Crating in many applications, which explains why some fires i.n urban
areas or wooded areas spread to multiple
buildings. Examµles of fire-retardant
Class A coverings are brick, exposed con-
crete, concrete paver blocks, and concrete
or clay tile; fiber-reinforced cement tile;
slate; and copper or steel panels/shingles.
l arge stone used on ballasted roofs or a
mi11imum of 4 lb/ft2 (20 kg/m2) of pea
gravel (¾to½ in. diameter; 0.95 to 1.25
cm diameter) embedded in a flood coat
of asphalt or coal tar are also considered
to be Class A coverings (FIGUR E 7-17).
Fi.re retardant- treated wood shingles
FIGURE 7-17Class A coverings. are recommended over unt reated wood
84
 CHAPTER7: Build ing Construction Elements

shingles. Also, fire retardants may be lost over time due to weathering; replacement is
recommended at the end of their life span. Untreated wood shingles have been used in
the past but are now proh ibited in many communities because they ignite readily and can
produce fire brands, which may ignite surrounding combustibles and buildings. Some
smooth-surfaced, bituminous roofs use coatings such as fibrated aluminum and asphalt
emulsion to improve exterior fire resistance.
Tests to dete rmine hail resistance include FM 4470 (moderate or severe hail), FM
4473 (Class l, 2, J, or 4 hail), or UL 2218 (Class I, 2, 3, or 4 hail). A Cla s 2 hail rating,
or "moderate" rating, is based on resistance to hail of 1½ in. (3 .8 cm) diameter. A Class
3 hail rating is based on exposure to hail of l ¾ in. (4.4 cm) diam eter, and a Class 4 hail
rating is based on exposu re to hail of2 in. (S cm) diameter. A Class 3 or 4 hail rating
is recommended for areas prone to severe hail. FM 4470 is also used to evaluate wind-
uplift resistance of roof covers. Ratings are 60 psf (2.86 kN/m2), 75 psf (3.58 kN/rn2),
90 psf (4.30 kN/m 2), 105 psf (5.02 kN/m2), 120 psf (5.7'1 ki\l/m 2), and so on. (Note that
psf stands for pounds per square foot.) 1l1e required rating (psf) is based on the roof
height, geographic wind speed, and ground roughness exposure {surrounding terrain).
Environmental concerns have made "vegetative roof systems" or green roofs and solar
photovoltaic roof panels popular recently. Information on green roof systems can be
found in FM Global Data Sheet 1-35, Green Roof Systems. Requirements can also be
found in FivI 4477, Approval Standardfor Vegetative Roof Systems.
Roof-mounted, solar photovoltaic systems are either flexible, which can be adhered
to approved roof systems, or rigid. Rigid systems are usually ei.ther loose-laid or bal-
lasted when used over si11gle-ply or multi-ply roof covers and are clamped to standing
seam roofs (FIGURE 7·18).Such systems can be a potential ignition source and, in some

FIGURE 7-18Rigid systems are either loose-laid or ballasted over single-ply or multi-plyroof
covers and are damp ed to standing seam roofs.
85
 SECTION2: Building Systems dlld Fire Proteclion Sy:.te,11>

cases, an additional so urce of fuel for a roof fire. Rigid systems can also pose a potentia l
obstruction to fire-fighter roar access, making the provision of apµroved aisle spaces
cr itical. Often, rigid systems are installed on existing roofs with minimal excess load
capacity. TI1is limits the amoun t of ballast that can be added and, in some cases , may
make these panels suscept ible to blow off in high wind s. Systems may be tested to UL
1703 for elect rical requirements and Fi\!l 4476 and 4478 for other requirements , includ -
ing wind resis tance. See Chapter 6 for add itional information on g reen roof des igns .

Fabric and M mbran tructur s

Fabric and membran e structures have become more and more popular as either tem-
porary or permanent stru ctur es . Thes e are used comp letely or partially lo enclose a
number of occupanc ies including the top level of park ing structures, sports arenas, and
sports pra ctice facilities. Usua lly, the fabric is either Teflon-coated fiberglass (TCF) or
polyvinyl ch lo ride (PVC)-coated fabric. TCF is not conside red a combustib le material,
whereas PVC-conted fabric has a low softening temp eratur e and will burn to varying
degree s depending on the formulation. Where PVC -coated fabri c is used to enclose a
sprinklered structure, quick-response sprinklers are preferred (FIGURE 7-19).
Structural suppo rt for the se fabrics is either from steel cables or beams, air -supported,
or a combination of air - and cab le-supported.. Fabric structures that are air -supported,
in whole or in part, are historically not structurally reliable . Tiiere have been numerous
occurrences of collapse in wind or snow storms , as they are reliant 011 mechanical and
elect rical power to stay up . For additional informat ion , see publicat ions by the ASCE.
See Building Co11s/ructio11 for the Fire Sen'ice and the Fire Pmtcclio11Hn11dbookfor
additional information on structural elements.

7·19 Quick-response sprinklersare preferred when PVC-coated fabric is used.

FIGURE
86
 CHAP ER 7: IJuilding Construction Efernents

IBLIOGRA HY
AISC SteelDesignlvlan11al,13th ed., American Jnstitute of Steel Construct ion, Chicago,
IL, 2005.
APA, Wood I-JoistsFloors, Firefightersa11dFire, Technical Topic TT-OJSE, September
2010. Available at: http://www.apawood.org.
ASCE/SEI 17-96, Air-Supported Structures.
ASCE/SFPE 29-05, Stn11dardCalculationlvfethodsfor Strnct11rnlFire Protectio11,2005.
ASCE/ T&DI 55-10, Tensile Me111brn11 e Strnctures.
ASTM E- 108, Standard Test1\tlethodsforFire Tests ofRoofCoveri11gs,2010 .
A T 1VI E-605, Standard Test Metlwrlfor 711i (k11ess and De11 sity of Spmy cd Fire-U.esistil'e
Material (SFR.M)Applied to Struct11rallvle111bers, 1993 (2006) .
AST!vl E-736, Standard Test Method for Cohesio11/Adhesio11 of Spmyed Fire-Resistil'e
Materials Applied to Structuml lvfe111bers, 2006 .
Bran n igan, F. L., B11 ilrli11
g Co11
str11c
tio11fo r the Fire Serl'ice, 4th ed., NF PA, Quin cy,
MA,200 7.
Building Materials Directory, Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, IL (issued
annually).
Cote, A. E., ed., FireProtection Handbook, 20th ed ., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2009.
FM Approval Guid e, Building Materials \fol11111 e. An online resource of FM Approvals.
Available at: http://www .approvalguid e.com
FM RoofNav. An onlin e resource of FM Approval s. Available at: https://roofnav.fm -
global.com/RoofNav/Login .aspx
FM 4450, TestStandardfor Class 1 I11srilat ed Steel T<oof Decks, 1989.
F.1v14470, Approl'ed Sta11dard for Si11gle-Ply,Poly111er-111odified Bit11111e11
Sheet, Built-Up
Roof (BUR) a11dLiq11idApplied Roof Asse111blies for Class 1 and No11-Co111b11stible
RoofDeck Constrnctio11,2010.
FM 4473, Specijirntio11Test Sta11dardfor l111pa ct Resistance Testing of Rigid Roofi11g
Materials by Impacti11gwith FreezerIce Balls, 2005.
FM 4476, Appro11alSta11rlnrrlfor FlexiblePhoto11 oltaic Modules, 2011 .
FM 4477, Appro11(1l Sta11rlardfor\legetafil'e Roof Systems, 2010.
FM 4478, Approl'al Stmrdardfor Rigid PhotovoltaicMod11/es,201 1.
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1-15, Roof Mo1111t erlSolarPhotovoltaic
Systems (2011, under development).
FM Globa l Property Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1-20, Proteclio11Against Exterior Fire
Expornre, 2007.
FM Globa l Prope rty Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1-35, Gree11RoofSyste111 s, 2007.
Grant, Casey C., The Fire Protection Research Foundation, Fire-Fighter Safety and
E111erge11cyRespo11sefor Solar Power Systems, lvlay 2010 .
Gypsum Asso ciation, GA-600-2009, Fire Hesista11c e Desig11Mm111al,19th ed., Gypsum
Association, Washington, DC, 2009.
Nationa l Roofing Contraclors' Association, Guidelinesfor Roo/Mo1111ted Photol'oltaic
System I11stallations, 2009.
Steel Joist Institute, Sta11dnrdSpecificatio11s,
42nd ed. , Steel Joist Institute, M)•rtle Beach,
SC, 2005 .
87
 SECTION 2: BuildingSystemsand FireProtection Syste,ns

UL FireResistm1ceDirecto,y, Vol. I, issued annually.

UL 263, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Building Conslrnction and Materinls, April
2003.
UL/ American Nat ional Standards Institute (ANSI) 723, Stm1dnrdfor Testfor Surface
Burning Chnrncteristics of Building Mnterials, 2003, revised 2005 .
UL 1703, Standardfor Flnt-Plnte PhotovoltnicJ\iiodulesnnd Pn11els, 2002 (revised April
8, 2008) .
UL 22 18, Stm1dnrd.forImpact Resistanceof PreparedRoof Cm1ering 1Ha1eria/s,2010.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NI<PA Catalog for availability orcurrent editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 80A, Reco1111J1e11ded
PmcliceJor Protectio11
of Buildingsfrom ExteriorFireExposures
NFPA 90A, Stnndnrdjor the I11stnllationof Air-Conditioning and VentilatingSystems
NFPA 220, Standard on Types of B11ildi11g
Constr11ctio11
NFPA 221, Stm1dardfor High ChallengeFire Walls,Fire Walls,n11dFireBarrier Walls
NFPA 241, Simulard.forSnjeg11arding
Co11str11ctio11
, Alterntio11,
and DemolitionOpemtio11s
NFPA 276, Stnndnrd Method of Fire Testfor Determining the Hen/ ReleaseRnte of Roof
ing Assemblies with CombustibleAbol'e-Deck UoojingComponents
NFPA 285, Standard Fire TestMethod.forEvalrwtionof FirePropagationC/l{lrncleristics
of Exterior No11
-Load-Beari11gWallAssembliesCo11taini11
g Combustible Compo11e11ts
NFPA 703, Stamfordfor Fire-Retnrdm1tTreated Wood and Fire-Retardn11tCoatingsfor
B11ildi11g
Materials

88
 CHAPTER

8
CLASSIFICATIONOF
CONSTRUCTION TYPES
Richard J.Davis, PE, FSFPE

To determine a building's life safety and fire protection requirements, inspectors must
be familiar with the basic construction elements of a building, but they must also know
and understand the fire-resistance rating charac teristics of the various construction
types. A well-established means of codifying fire protection and fire safety require-
ments for buildings is to classify them by types of construction based on the materials
used for the structural system and on the degree of fire resistance afforded by each
structural element. 111is chapter reviews the five basic types of building construction
that are defined in NFPA 220, Stmrdnrd 011'fj,pes of Building Co11str11ctio11, and used
throughout the built environment.
Although building construction types will 1101 change over the life of the building,
the inspection program must take note of the construction type. Certain construction
types involving fire resistive construction must be maintained to ensure that the pro -
tection method retains its integrity. Alterations, modifications, or addi tions made to
a building that might affect the constrnction type must be carefully reviewed to make
sure the construction type is consistent with the occupancy use of the building.

BACKGROUND OF BUILDING
CLASSIFICATIONTYPES
Terminology
Jnearly codes, only two classifications of construction were ident ified: ( I) "fireproof"
and (2) "nonfireproof." When it was recognized that no material or building is totally
fireproof and that the building contents can produce a significant fire without involving
the structure, tbe term "fireproof" was replaced by the term "fire resistive:• Designing
buildings that will resist fire without suffering serious structural damage is possible.
Appropriate fire-resi tive design, balanced against anticipated fire severity, is the objec-
tive of structural fire protection requirements in current codes.
 SECTION 2: BuildingSystemsand FireProtectionSyste1ns

In some cases, where sprinklers are required and assumed to control a fire within
the building, the required fire resistance of the building may not be adequate for an
uncontrolled fire should the sprinkler system not be effective for some reason. Other
significant term s related to building classification types include the following:
• No11comb11stible: A material that, in the form in which it is used and under the
condit ions anticipated, will not ignite, burn, suppor t combustion, or release
flammable vapors when subjected to fire or heat.
• Combustible (Material):A material that, in the form in which it is used and un -
der the conditions anticipated, wilJ ignite a11dburn; a material that does not
meet the definition of noncomb ustible or limited-combustible.
• Limited co111b11stible: As applied to a building construction, a material not
comply ing with the definition of noncombusti ble material, which, in the
form in which it is used, has a potential heat value not exceeding 3500 Btu/lb
(8 14 1 kJfkg).
• Low l,aznrd: Contents of such low ornbustibility that no self-propagating fire
therein can occm.
• Ordi11myhazard: Contents that are likely to burn with moderate rapidity or to
give off a considerable volume of smoke.
• Hig/r lrazard: Contents that are likely to burn with extreme rapidity or from
which explosions are likely.

Basic Types of Construction

Several distinct types of onstructio n that use combust ible framing were origi-
nall)' classified based on the materials used in the exterior wall construction (i.e.,
masonr)' or wood) and the type and size of the structura l member s (i.e., heavy
timb er versus conventional framing). As fire-resistance ratings for cons tru ctio n
assemblies began to be recognized in building codes, classifications of building
types were added for both noncombustible and combust ible types of construction,
based 011 the degree of fire resistance prov ided. Current ly, five basic types of con -
struct ion are recognized. !Ji NFPA 5000, B11ildi11g Co11stmctio11a11dSafety Code,
two T}'pe 1 and three Type II options are identified as noncombustible construc -
tion types, and two Type IJJ,one Type IV, and two 'J'}1pe V options are identified as
combustible construction types.
The fire-resistance rnting requirements for struct ural elements, interior bear ing
walls, floor construction, and roof construction of the five basic types of const ruc-
tion are given in TABLE 8·1. Each type of construction has anywhere from one to
three different subcategories, which are indicated by a three -digit Arabic notation.
TI1is notation, which accompanies the construction type, identifies the fire-resis-
tance rating (in hours) required for three basic elements of the building : (1) the
first digit corresponds to the exterior bearing wall, (2) the second digit corresponds
to the primary structural elements, and (3) the third digit corresponds to the floor
construct ion.
The table lists the building componen ts that are considered essential to the !ability
of the building as a whole and that compose the building's primaq structura l system.
1

90
 CHAPTER8: Class
ification of Constru
ctionTypes

_..
,r
- Fire-Resistance Ratings for Type I Through Type V '
-·
_
----
,, ,1:11
:•~--·
»:c:111
Construction (hr)

Type
Type I Type II Type Ill IV TypeV

Construct ion Element 442 332 222 111 000 211 20 0 2HH 111 000

xterior BearingWallsa
2 Qb 2 2 2 Qb
Support ing rnor than one 4 3
floor, columns. or ot her
bearing walls
2 Qb 2 2 2 Qb
Support ing one floor only 4 3
Qb 2 2 2 Qb
Supporting a roof only 4 3
Interior BearingWalls
Supporting more than one '1 3 2 0 0 2 0
floor, columns,or other
bearing walls
Support ing one floor only 3 2 2 0 0 0

Supporting roofs only 3 2 1 0 0 0

Columns
Supporting more than one 4 3 2 0 0 H 0
floor, columns,or oth er
bearing walls
Supporting one floor only 3 2 2 0 0 H 0

Support ing roofs only 3 2 0 0 H 0

Beams,Girders,Trusses,
and Arches
Supporting more than one 4 3 2 0 0 H 0
floor, columns.or other
bearing walls
Support ing one floor only 2 2 2 0 0 H 0

Supporting roofs only 2 2 0 0 H 0

Floor/CeilingAssemblies 2 2 2 0 0 H 0

Roof/CeilingAssemblies 2 1½ 1 0 0 H 1 0

Interior Nonbearing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Walls
Qb Qb Qb Qb Qb Qb Ql> Qb Qb Qb
Exterior Nonbearing
Walls'
: Heavytimberrnembers(seetext of NFPA5000 for requirements).
1-1
aSee7.3.2.1of NFPA 5000.
0See Section 7.3of NFPA5000.
csee7.2.3.2.12, 7.2.4.2.3, and 7.2.5.6.8of NFPA 5000. /
\.
91
 SECTION 2: Building Sys1f'111S
,md Firel'rolection Systcrns

·n1e members of the floor or roof panels that have no couueclion lo the columns are
cousidered parl o[ lhe floor construction or part of lhe roof construction and are not
classified as a part of the stru ctural system.

TYP I CON UC N
Type I construction is constructio n in which the structural members are designated
non combu, tible or limited combu tible and have a fire-resistance rating as pecilied
in Table 8-1. 1\ilonolithic reinforced concrete constru ction, precast concrcle construc-
tion, and protected sled -frame construction are all examples of Type l non combustible
construction. This classi/ication is divided into l wo subcategories: Type I (442) and
1')1pe I (332). ll1e basic diflerence between the subcategories is in the level of hourly
fire-resistance rating specified for the structural S)'Slem.
The fire-resistance rating requirements for Type [ (442 and 332) con trnction were
selected because they ensure reasonable fire sale!)' for the structure in occupm1cies with
low to ordinary hazard i.:onlenls. Depending on th· . ize oft he buiJdi11g,in occupancies
with higher fire loads and high hazard conlen ls or in order to limit fire spread within
the occupancy, codes may require !hat the fire resistance-ra ted construct ion be sup-
plemented by add itional protection, usual!)' including an automatic fire-extinguishing
system. l11e types of construction that are permitted are selecled based on a number
of factors including the story height, maximum fire area, and total fire area. Even in
occupancies with moderat e fire loads, such as in mer anti le and in some factory indus -
trial and storage uses, sprinklers are required regardless of the const ruction type. 'n1ese
include either restrictions on the building's allowable height and area or requirements
for automatic fire-extinguishing equipment. Type T (332) consl ruction is still limited
to buildings not more than 420 ft {128 m) in height when sprinklered, above which
Type I (442) construction is required. ll1is reflects the impor lance of very tall build-
ings in terms of the high occupant load and the challenges associated with gress and
manual firefighting, as well as pressure limitations of many fire department pumpers to
overcome elevation pressure loss. l11isprovides a greater level of passive protection and
redundanC)' in the unlikely event of an impairment lo sprinkle r protection .
Jn Type l construction, only noncombustible materials are perm illed for the struc -
tural elements of the building. l11is is an accepted regulation that appears in practical I)'
every model building code. If combustible structural materials were allowed in non-
combus tible building types, !he whole concept of their allowable use (i.e., the building's
height and area) would be rendered meaningless. However, for practical reasons, the
use of some combustib le materials in Type I and Type IT buildings is permitted for
nonstructural components. Roof coverings, some types of insulating materials, and
conlrolled amounts of interio r finish and flooring have been traditionally recognized
as not adding significantly to the fire hazard or lire load, if lhese materials are properly
regulated and qualified by fire tests.
Some codes have attempted lo regulate combustible materials b) using a slightly
1

different definition of noncombustible materials, which includes two or thre e alter-

natives that allow for the acceptance of materials having relatively low fuel con tent

92
 CHAPTER 8: Classification of Con stru cti on Typ es

and surface-burning characteristics. The p urp ose of this definition was to recog-
nize certain materials or nonhomogenous assemblies containing limit ed amoun ts
of combustible materials; for examp le, gypsum wallboard, which is used as a fire-
resistive material even though it is covered with paper. These alternate definitions
include limits on surface flame spread ind ex [PSI; per American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) E 84, Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Character -
istics of Building Materials] and on the heat content (per NPPA 259, Standard Test
M ethod for Potential Heat of Building Materials). In some applications , fire retar -
dant-treated wood is allowed to be used in Type I and II construction; however, it is
required to be tested to the 30-minute version (as opposed to the usual 10 minutes)
of th e ASTM E 84 test, must have an PSI ~2 5, and flaming cannot extend more than
10.5 ft (3.2 m) beyond the centerline of the burner flame (for addit iona l informa-
tion, see NPPA 703, Standard for Fire-Retardant Treated Wood and Fire-Retardant
Coatings for Building Materials). Rather than complicate the definition for the ac-
commodation of certain materials , a more fundamental approach is to define lim-
ited uses and comb ustibi lity characteristics of material s that may be acceptab le in
buildings of noncombustible construction.

TYPE II CONSTRUCTION
Type II construction is a construction type in which the structura l elements are entirely
of noncombustible or limit ed combustib le mat erials p ermitted by the code and pro -
tected to have some degree of fire resistance, 2-hour [Type II (222)), I -hour [Type II
(111)), or comp letely unprotected except for exterior walls in Type II (000) construc-
tion. Typical of Type II (000) noncombustible construction are steel-framed buildings
with concrete-block wall s and Class 1 insulated stee l deck roofs supported by unpro-
tected steel joists or purlins.
The fire-resist anc e rating requir ed in Type II (222 or 111) construction wi ll afford
adequate passive fire protection for residential, ed uc ationa l, business , and assemb ly
occupancies, with limit ed heights and areas. The provision of automatic sprinkler s will
genera lly extend these limits by allowing an increase to the area of th e building as well
as the height. In occupancies with low hazard contents, the absence of fuel in non-
combustib le construction reduc es potential risk of a fire starting within the structural
memb ers and helps prev ent th e spread of fire if the contents are involved. When Type
II construction is used for occ up anci es with a greate r fire loa ding , the code m ay require
additi onal fire safety preca uti ons , such as m ore stringent building area and height limi -
tations and automatic fire -ext ingui shin g eq uipment.
No matter the haz ard content level, the n on combu stible stru ctural system is inv alu-
able because it prev ents fire from spreading throu gh co ncealed spaces or invo lving
the structure itself. Because of thi s attribute, a fire in a building of n onc ombu stibl e
con stru ction can oftentim es be contro lled m ore readily . A structural syste m of a repr e-
sentative buildin g of Type II n on combus tible constru ction is illustrated in FIGURE 8-1.
Show n is a met al buildin g with a slope d roof and lean -to framin g with structur al ele-
m ents of unp rotec ted stee l.

93
.,..
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Ill
"'
n
...
0
z
"'
0,
~-
0:
s·
tD
V,
':;;
co
~
a,
::,
Q_
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':;;
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~

8-1 Framing system of a representative building ofType II noncombustible construction. Sou

FIGURE rce:FireProtect
ionHandbook,
NFPA,20thed., Figure19.1.1.
 CHAPTER 8: Classificationof Construction Types

TYPE Ill CONSTRUCTION

Type III construction is a construction type in which all or part of the interior struc-
tural elemen ts may be of combustible materials or any other material permitted by the
applicable building code. Type III construction is widely used for mercantile build-
ings, schoo ls, church es, motels, and apartment houses. The exterior bearing walls of
Type III construction are required (1) to be of approved noncombustible or limited-
combustible materials, such as brick, concrete, or reinforced concrete and (2) to have a
degree of fire resistance depending on the horizontal separa tion to adjacent structures
and the fire load.
Type III construction is further divided into protected and unprotected subcatego-
ries. Protected construction, Type III (211), has a 1-hour fire-resistance rating for the
floors and structural elements. Type III (200) construction has no fire-resistanc e rating
for the floors or structural elements. Whether or not fire resistance is provided, it is
essentia l that all concealed spaces be properly fire-blocked in buildings of combustible
construction . Codes require that this be done in all furred spaces, partitions, ceilin g
spaces, and attics. Codes are very specific as to the materials to be used for a fire block
and the locations wh ere a fire block is required. To be effective, a fire block must com-
pletely close off and subd ivid e the combust ibl e constructio n into limit ed areas, thereby
restricting the spread of fire and hot gases and allowing additional time for detection
and evac uation of th e building or area invol ved.
The 1-hour fire-resistan ce rating provided in Typ e III (211) construct ion offers a
measure of safety for firefighting and occ upant evacuation be fore the construction it-
self beco mes involved or loses its structural int egrity. Combustibl e part s of any fire-
rated assemb ly will, however, be burning active ly before the end of the rated time pe-
riod. For this rea son , that portion of the fire loa d repre sented by combustible structural
memb ers must be considered as part of the total potential fire load, whether or n ot th e
cons tru ction is protected.

TYPE IV CONSTRUCTION
Type IV construction is a construction typ e in which structura l members-that is,
column s, beams, arches, floors, and roofs-a re composed of unprotected wood (solid
or laminat ed) with large cross-sectiona l areas. Also known as heavy timber construc -
tion , this construction type stipulat es use of wood m embers with certain minimum
dim ensi ons for th e column s, b eams, arches, and floo r planking. No concea led spaces
are permitted in the floors and roofs or oth er structura l m emb ers, with min or excep -
tions. NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction, and m ost model build-
ing co de s are specific in th e minimum dimen sions permitted for th e various woo d
structur al m emb ers and minimum fire -resistive ratings required for int erior columns,
arches, beams, gird ers, and truss es of materials other th an wood that may b e perm itt ed
as accep table alternatives to wood members (TABLE 8-2).
Walls, b oth int erior and exterior, including stru ctural memb ers framed into them,
can be of appro ved noncombustible or limit ed-combustibl e materials . Brick and stone
were the traditi ona l materials used in early heavy timber or "mill" constru ction. Exterior
95
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

Recommended Minimum Nominal Dimensional

Requirements for Type IV (2HH) Construction

Suppo rting Floors Supporting Roofs

Columns 8 in. x 8 in. 6 in. x 8 in.
Beamsand 6 in. x 10 in. 4 in. x 6 in.
girders
Arches* 8 in. x 8 in. 6in. x 8 in.,
6 in. x 6 in.,
4 in. x 6 in.
Trusses 8 in. x 8 in. 4 in. x 6 in.
Floors 3-in. T&Gt covered wit h l in. T&G
flooring or 112-in. wood structural
panel; or 4-in. laminated planks on
edge with 1-in.T&G flooring or 112-in.
wood structural panel
Roof 2-in. T&G;or 3-in.
assemblies laminated planks on
edge; or l 1!8-in wood
structural panels
For SI units: I in. = 25.'1mm.
' SeeNFPA220, Standardon Typesof BuildingConstruction,for applications of minimum sizeor
members.
tT&-Gis tongu e and groove.

walls may be of heav>' timber construction if they are more than 30 ft (9.1 m) from the
property line and provided th at the 2-hour fire-resistance rating is maintained.
During a fire, heavy timb er construction performs better than do conventional
wood -fnune structur es becaus e the structural m embers are larger, have a smaller sur -
face -to -mass ratio, and take longer to burn , As the wood memb er burns, a layer of
char develops , which acts like insulation and slows down th e rate of burning. The large
wood memb ers, therefore, can continue to catT}' their structural loads for longer dura -
tions due to the mass of unburned wood.
Heav y timb er construction is more appropriately considered a building system, not
ju st a constru ction type using large -size structural m emb ers . It was dev eloped during
the rnid - 1800s by in suran ce int erests for th e purpo se of reducing fire los ses in the
m any lextile factories, pape r mill s, and storag e buildings in the New England states .
Throu gh the intelligent use of co mbustible m aterials of sufficien t ma ss, th e absence of
concealed spaces, and by payin g attention to detail s to avoid sharp corners and ignit -
able projections, fire sp rea d and serious structural damage pot enti al are lessened with
respect to ordinary wood framin g. Examples of heavy timber construction are shown
in FIGURE 8-2 and FIGURE 8·3.
96
 CHAPTER 8: Classification of Constru ction Types

FIGURE8-2Elements of a building of Type IVconstruction. Note the large sizeof the columns
and beamsand the absence of concealed spaces.The exterior wall at far left is of lightweight
corrugated steel.

TYPE V CONSTRUCTION
1)rpe V cons truction is a type of construction in which the structural members are en -
tirely of wood or an}' other approved material (FIGURE 8-4). Depending on the exter ior
horizontal separation, the exterior walls may or may not be requir ed to be fire resistive.
In Type V construction, walls and par tition s are typically framed with 2 by 4 in.
(5.1 by 10.2 cm) wood studs attached to wood sills and plates. \\ 'ood boards, plywood
sheets, various compos ition boards such as oriented strand boards (OSB) or other
approved materials are th en nailed to the studs. Over this underlayment is placed a
layer of building paper and then th e finished material. The exterior wall cover ing can
be any one of a variety of mat eria ls, including wood shingles, wood clapboards, plastic
(polyvinyl ch lorid e), metal clapboards, matched boards, brick veneer, sheet metal clad -
d ing, stucco, or fiber-rein forced cement pane ls.
97
 SECTION2: Build ing Systems i!ll(I FireProtection Systems

FIGURE8-3 Variation ofType IVconstruction. Shown are haunched archesmade of laminated

wood (glue-laminated construction). Beamsare anchored to the arches by steel hangers.
Framing system of a representative building of Type II noncombust ible construction.

Type V construction is more vulnerable to fire, both internally and externally, than
any other building type. TI1isis reflected in the height and area limitations that restrict
this construction type to relatively small footprint buildings that typically do not ex-
ceed 4 stories. According!)', it is essential that greater attention be given to the details
of construction of this basically light wood-frame building. The use of fire blocking
in exterior and interior walls at ceiling and floor levels, in furred spaces, and in other
concealed spaces can retard the spread of fire and hot gases in these vulnerable areas.
Type V construction is subdivided into two subcategories: Type V ( 111) construction,
which has I-hour fire-resistance rating throughout, including the exterior bearing
walls, and Type V (ODO)constrnction, which has no fire-protection or fire-resistance
rating requirements, except for the exterior walls, which may not have such a require-
ment depending on the building occupancy and horizontal separation distance to ad-
jacent structures.
98
 CHAPTER8: Classification of Co11
s11uctianTypes

(a) Plank-and-beam framing (b) Conventional wood framing

FIGURE 8-4Twovariations on basicTypeV construction:(a)plank-and-beamframingwith a

few large members replacingmanysmallmembers used in typical wood framingand (b)
conventional wood framing(western or platformconstruction).Sou
1c
e:RreP
101eaionH011dboot
llFPA
,
20thed.,Figure
19.1.4,(a)and(b).

MIXED TYPESOF CONS RUCTION

Where two or more types of construction are used in the same building, it is generally
recognized that the requirements for a particular occupancy or the height and area combi-
nation would apply for the least fire-resistivetype of construction. However,in cases where
each buildi11gtype is separated by adequate fire walls (see NFPA 221, Stnndnrdfor High
ChnllengeFire Walls,Fire Wn/1s,and FireBMrier Walls)having appropriate fire resistance,
each portion may be considered as a separate building. In most cases, the codes will re-
quires that this separation have a rating ofat least 2 hours.
Another general limitation included in some model building codes prohibits con -
struction types of lesser fire resistance to support const ruction l}rpes having higher
required tire resistance. Jn the event of a fire, the risks of a major structural collapse
are generally too great to permit this type of design. TI1is limitation does not necessar-
il}' apply where construction supports nonbcaring separating partitions tha t provide
protection for exit corridor s or tenant space .

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ASTM E 84, Stnndard Test 1vlet/10dfor Surface Burning Cliamcteristics of Building
1Waterinls,2010.
AST.M E 119, Standard Test 1Wet/10ds
for Fire Tests of Building Co11structio11
n11d
Mnterinls, 2009.
99
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

Brannigan, F.L., Building Constructio11for the FireService,4th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA ,

200 7.
Building Materials Directory, Underwriters Laboratories, Inc ., Northbrook, IL (issued
annually).
Cote, A. E., ed. , FireProtectionHandbook, 20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, l'vlA, 2008 .
FM Approval Guide, Building Materials Volume. An on line resource of FM Approvals.
Fire Resistance Directory, Vol. 1, Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, IL
(issued annually).

NFPA Codes, Standards , and Recommended Practices

Sec the latest version of th e N FPA Catalog for availability o f curren t editi ons o f th e
following documents.
NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction
NFPA 221, Standardfor High ChallengeFire Walls,Fire Walls,a11dFireBarrier Walls
N FPA 24 1, Standardfor SafeguardingConstruction, Altemtion, and Demolition Opemtions
N FPA 259, Standard Test Methodfor Potentinl Hent of BuildingAfaterials
NFPA 703, Standardfor Fire-Retardant Treated Wood and Fire-Retardant Coatingsfor
Building i\foterials

100
 CHAPTER

9
CONSTRUCTION,
ALTERATION,AND
DEMOLITION OPERATIONS
Richard]. Davis, PE, FSFPE

Fire inspectors are frequently faced with hazards introduced during construction,
altera tion, and demolit ion operations. Most buildings are more vul nerab le to fire at
these times than at any other because the amount of combustibl es and hazardous
material s and the number of potential igniti on so urces pre sent are often grea ter
th an usual, and the facility's fire protec tion systems may be impaired or not yet
operative. Many of the comme nts to follow cou ld apply to two or even all three of
these factors .

CONSTRUCTION
Construction projects progress more rapidly in areas import ant to fire protection
once basic foundation walls are completed and the building begins to take shape.
Thus, they should be insp ected more frequently after framing is under way. How -
ever, planning and scheduling to ensure tha t water supplies are available for fire
con tro l during construction must be reviewed during the planning and permit
stages. Myriad other systems and features are needed, such as access roads, water
mains, temporary water storage, sprink ler systems, hydrants, and sta ndpipe sys-
tems for multistory buildings. Use and availability of portable extingui shers for
contractors, fire watch services, and timely comp leti on of fire walls are proper!}'
planned and physically in place when needed. Making sure that the fire protection
stra tegy during cons truction is clearl y laid out in the plans and specificat ions or is
included in the permit conditions can prevent many prob lem s, ra ngin g from dis -
agreements to major fire loss during construct ion . All of these points are eq uall y
important during bui lding deconstruction or demolition operations as sho wn in
th e 2007 De utsch e Bank fire in New York City tha t resulted in the death of two fire
fighters. TI1ebuilding owner or contractor shou ld appoint one individua l to oversee
all fire protection duties.
 SECTION 2: 13uildingSystems and Fire Protec tion Systems

Site Preparation
In large projects, site preparation should include not only the removal of vegetation and
combustible debris from the site, but also the appropriate layout of the contractors' tem-
porary buildings, trailers, material storage yards, and waste storage so that they wiJI be
neither a fire exposure to new construction nor obstruct accessroutes for fire fighters and
their equipment. Most codes contain provisions that can be invoked to cover problem
areas, but such after-the-fact solutions are seldom as satisfactoryas planned layouts.
Roadways with an all-weather driving surface should be provided for fire apparatus.
1l1eyshould have an unobstructed width of at least 20 ft (6.1 m) and have at least 13 ft
6 in. (4.1111)of vertical clearance.
rf permanent water mains and hydrants cannot be installed during the site prepa-
ration and foundat ion phases of the project, temporary water supplies, such as on-
site tanks or tank trailers, temporary or surface mains (temperature permitting), and
pumps, may have to be included in the project cost. Aboveground swimming pools
make excellent temporary water storage and can be moved easily as needed. It is im-
portant that these items, which could involve substantial cost, be included in the over-
all project cost. Temporary water supplies must be properly located to protect against
damage from constr uction equipment or activities, and they should be designed with
protection against freezing or other site-specific perils.
If special equipment, such as pumps or normally closed water supply lines, is pres-
ent, guards, a fire watch, or other persons on site 24 hours per day might be recom-
mended and they must know how to operate any such equipment. 1l1ismeans knowing
not on!)' how to start a pump but also how to prime it, if necessary, and understanding
which valves need to be kept open or closed.

Temporary Structures
Nearly all temporary strnctures associated with construction projects are made of
combustible construction, whether they have a metal or plywood skin or ride on trailer
wheels or skids. They will burn rapidly and can be the source of a major loss.
In the worst situation, a temporary stru cture, such as a job office, a tool or supply
shed, a warming or locker room, or a carpenter or paint shop, is set up within the struc-
ture under construction. A fire in such a temporary structure can quickly spread to or
otherwise damage the major structure. Because this approach is favored by contractors
for ease of travel, security, economy, and weather protection, it can become the norm
unless the regulatory agencies resist it. TI1esituation is more difficult to handle at an
urban site, where space in the streets is limited or nearby buildings must be rented at
significant cost. If space is available, the temporary units should be separated by 30 ft
(9.1 111)or more (depending on the size of the exposing unit) from the main building
and from each other to minimiz e the loss potential from a "shack" fire. However, this
amount of space can easily require many acres, so a compromise is generally necessary,
depending on the hazard, value, protection, and construction features of both the tem-
porary and permanent structures .
Tempora ry enclosures of coated fabric or plastic are often used to protect workers
and construction operations from the weather until the building is enclosed. They
102
 CHAPTER9: Construction , Alteration, and Dem olit ion Operations

can help to maintain heat within the building frame area, as well as keep debr is and
dirt o ut. It is important that they remain int act so tha t the)' help prevent freeze-up of
mat erial or eq uipn1ent within and to show that they are not torn and blown against
temporary heating eq uipment. If fabric is used, the inspec tor sho uld make sure th at
it is made of a material that will not allow fire propagat ion withi n itself. If plastic is
used , it should be flame resistant and pass Test No. 2 not ed in NFPA 70 1, Standard
Methods o.fFire Tests.for Flame Propagationo.fTextilesand Fi/111 s. Depending on the
length of time the enclosure will remai n in place and the potential exposure to wind,
a material that is resistant to ultravio let rays and reinforced or othe rwi se of su itab le
strengt h is desirable so that it does not fall apart or tear before it is no lon ger needed.
The mater ial should be fastened secur ' ly to the building frame to preven t it from
being torn by the wind and comi ng i.n contact with an ignition source, such as a
temporary heater.

Pro e Ha za rd
Although some process hazards are inherent in such job-site shops as ca rpenter, weld -
ing, pipe, and pa int facilities, the inspec to r can encourage segregati on of incompatible
uses, such as ca rp entry and welding, and discourage th e accumulation of flammable
liquids in paint, fuel, and lubrica tion areas. Substandard heating appliances, stovepipes,
bonfires, and substa nda rd liquid or gas fuel- hand Ii ng systems are proven fire hazards
and sho uld not be tolerated.
If local fire codes do not provide the au thorit y to cope with these problems, the
adopt ion of stronge r codes should be enco uraged . Nationa l. Fire Protect ion Associa-
tion {NFPA) codes and standards that provi de specific fire safety criteria add ressing
specific hazard s, such as NFPA 1, are available (see the Bibliography) .

Housekeeping
Prompt removal of trash and construc tion debris from a construction or remode ling
site is critical to fire safety. Because it is an overhead cost to the con tract or, however,
the inspector mus t often take a firm stand to ensure reasonable compl iance . Jf trash
chutes are used, they shou ld be located on the outside of the building . They shou ld be
of noncombus tible construction and as straight as possible to prevent debri s from pil-
ing up inside .
Storage of combus tible consh· uctio n mate ria ls, scaffolding materials, or formwork
on site can present both a fire exposure and an imp ediment to first responder and
emergency access. It can eq ually hind er the escape ro utes for workers who would have
to leave durin g a fire emergency. To prevent this from happ ening, large amou nts of
combus tible mater ials should be well separa ted from the build ing. An inspector can
have consid erable influ ence on material storage and delivery practices.

Theft and Vandalism

Althoug h there is no one absolute prevention measure, a clean job site that is fenced,
secured, lighte d where needed, nnd nttended by guards is mu ch less likel>'to experien ce
103
 SECTION2: Building Systems and FireProtectionSystems

a fire started by a th ief or vanda l. Where on-site watch service is not practical, con-
sideration may be given lo providing remote-site video surveillance. Again, a realistic
balance of cost and exposure is necessary.

Other Hazard s
TI1enumber and size of engine-driven forklifts, crew lifts, excavators, and so on, all of
which must be refueled on site and all of which contain hot exhaust S)'Stems capable
of igniting trash, spilled fuel, or plastic weather enclo ures, are significant. The person
handling job-site safety for the general contractor should en force and require in wril-
ingjob -sile safety rules on fuel storage and handling, equipment shutdown during fuel-
ing, and fire extinguisher availability.
A fuel-dump arran gement and fuel-handling rules also must be designed for the
site. Fuel should be stored separately from the building under construction and from
major temporary structures, and indoor fueling should be restricted to devices that
ca111iolbe moved readily. Only those fueling S)'Slems that minimize accidental spills,
such as safety cans, automatic shut-off nozzles, and approved pump systems, should be
used, and extinguishers should be provided according to NFPA 10, Stnndnrdfor Por-
table FireExtinguishers. Further discussion of fuel storage and handling can be found
in this text and in NFPA 30, Fln111 111nbl
e and Co111b11stible Liquids Code.
Hot work including open flame and spark-producing equipment , such as cutting
torches, arc welders, soldering and grinding tools, and roofing fusion machines, must
be strictly controlled. TI1ebasics of fire prevention are simple: combustibles within a
35-ft (10.7-m) radius of or below work areas must be monitored, the equipment used
must have the proper safety controls, a fire watch must be used, and extinguishers and
ho ses must be readily available (FIGURE 9-1). Still, hot-work fires in construction proj-
ects are frequent. In situations where it is not practical to remove all combustibles that
may be exposed to hot work, they may be covered with approved welding pads, blan-
kets, or curtains as tested in accordance with American National Standards Institute
(ANSI)/FM 4950, A111erica11 Nntio11nlStnndnrd for Evnl11nti11g WeldingPnds, Welding
Bln11ketsn11dWelding C11rtni11s for Hot Work Opemtio11s.Definitions and uses for weld~
ing pads, welding blankets, and welding curtain s are as follows.

Welding Blanket. This is a heat-resistant fabric designed to be placed in the vicinity

of a hot-work operation. It is .intended for use in horizontal applications with light
to modera te exposures, such as that resulting from chipping, grinding, heat treating,
sandblasting, and light horizontal welding. It is designed to protect machinery and
prevent the ignition of combustibles, such as wood, that are located adjacent to the
underside of the blanket.

Welding Curtain. TI1is is a heat-resistant fabric designed to be placed in the vicin-

ity of a hot-work operation. Tt is intended for use in vertical applications with light
to modera te exposures, such as that resulting from chipping, grinding, heat treating,
sand blasting, and light horizontal welding. It is designed to prevent sparks from escap-
ing a con.finedarea.

104
 CHAPTER9: Construction, Alteratio11,and Demolition Operatio11s

FIGURE 9-1 Fire watch monitori ng a hot -work area.

Welding Pad. This is a heat -resistant fabric designed to be placed directly und er a
hot -work operation such as welding or cutting. It is intend ed for use in horizontal
applications with severe exposures such as that resulting from molten substances or
heavy horizontal welding. It is designed to prevent th e ignition of combustibles that are
located adjacent lo the underside of the pad.
further discussion of hot-work hazards and contro ls can be found in Nf PJ\ 5 1, Stn11-
dard for the Design and lustnllatio11of Oxygen-Fuel Gns Systemsfor Welding, Cutting,
and Allied Processes;NFPA 518, Stn11dnrdforFirePrel'e11tio11D11ri11g
Weldi11g,
C11/lil1g,
n11dOther Hot Work; and NFPA 241, Standardfor Safeguarding Co11strnctio11, Altem-
tio11
, a11dDemolitio11Opemliom.
Roofing materials, whether the older ho t-mopped felt, tar, and gravel system, the
torch -app lied modified bitumen, or the cold-applied cut back asphalt system, all have
a common problem-much of the work is don e with flammable materials that are
heated near or above their flash points. \iVorkers who a re care less with torches, inac -
curate or nonexistent controls for aspha lt po ts, or cigare tte smoking provide potential
sources of ignition. The inspector should not allow torches to be used near areas in
whi ch combustible dusts or oils may accumulate, such as exha ust hoods. Propane
tanks on which frost has built up should not be heated with the torch flame . Instead,
a large r tank should be recom mended. Strict contro ls are necessary on the location
and temperatur e co ntrol for a phalt pots. The pots should never be placed on the roof

105
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protec tion Systems

or under roofs or canopies, and their temperature controls must be automatic and
working properly.
NFPA 241 contains guidelines for fire-safe roofing operations. For additional infor-
mation, refer to FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheet 1-33, Snfeguarding
Torch-Applied Roof lnsta/latio11s.
Needless to say, application and kettle areas must have a sizable (2-A:20-B:C)
portable extinguisher within 25 ft (7.6 m) to 20 ft (6.1 m) (the latter for torch-
application equipmen t) of the immediate work area because a roofing fire can be
just as hot and spread just as rapidly as any flammable liquid fire. If attempts to
extinguish a kett le fire with hand extinguishers are unsuccessful, water from a hose
lin e must be appli ed in a fine spra y because of the po ten tial frothing action of hot
asphalt. Roofing mops soaked with tar have been known to ignite spontaneously
and cause fires. Used mops should not be left indoors or near ignition sources or
combustible materials. Rather, they should be "spun" or cleaned thoroughly and
safely store d or properly disc arded.
Although exterior cavity walls have been used for decades, they have become more
popular over the past few years to prevent the development of mold within exterior
walls. 1l1ese walls typ ically have a 2 in. (5 cm) space between the exterior side of the
insul ation and the interior side of the fac;ade. Often, the insulation within these cavities
is highly combustible foam plastic. Although expanded glass and mineral wool (rock
wool) can be used in cavity walls and are noncombustible, extruded or expanded poly -
styrene is often used, as is expanded polyurethane. 1l1ere also may be no fire-stopping
in either the horizontal or vertical direction in existing construction, so extreme cau-
tion is necessary regarding hot work. Although such insulation may be protected from
an exterior or interior fire because of a fire-resistive fac;ade or interior sheathing, the
insulation could be ignited from hot work within, above, or near the cavity. Exterior
wall assemblies may be tested in accordance with NFPA 285, Standard Fire TestMethod
for Evaluation of Fire Propagation Characteristicsof Exterior Non-Load-Bearing Wall
Assemblies Containing Combustible Components, but that test does not include any
fire exposure within the cavity space. For additional information, see FM Global Data
Sheet 1-12 and FM Approval Standard 4411 .

Fire Protection
When NFPA 101®, L(leSafety Code®,or the building code requires that a building have
standpipes, they should be installed on a floor -by-floor basis and in accordance with
NFPA 14, Standardfor the Installation of Standpipe, Pri11ate Hydrant, and Hose Systems.
NFPA 14 provides a specific set of design and installation rules for buildings under
construction. TI1e standpipe can be either temporary or permanent (and rigged as a
dry standpipe in cold climates) until the building is enclosed and heated. In most cases,
the fire department connection must be temporary, because the permanent location
will not be completed and might not be accessible during much of the construction.
Regardless of the type of building under construction, portable extinguishers must be
provided in rating and spacing suitable to the construction activit}' and in accordance
with NFPA 10, Sta11dardforPortableFireExtinguishers.
106
 CHAPTER 9: Const ruction, Alteration , and Deniol ition Operations

Sprinklers should be put into serv ice and fire walls or fire barrie r walls should be
buil t as soon as poss ible afte r the building she ll is finished . Only steel, fire retardant -
treate d wood, or limited amounts of combustibl e form work , scaffolding , or shor ing are
acceptable in unsprinklered areas.

ALTERATIONS AND AD IONS

More o lder buildi ngs are bei ng altered or renovated, some to p reserve th e arc hit ecture
of an age gone by. As ol.der bu ildin gs are rehabi lit ated, every effort shou ld be made to
brillg them i11tocompli ance with pr esen t-day buil d ing and fire codes. However, this is
not always possible. In such cases, eq uivalen t prot ect ive measures might be acceptab le
il1 lieu of meeting certa in code requir ements. l11ese equ ivalencies might involve the
installat ion of auto matic sprinkler protection, smoke detection systems, and smoke
con tro l features. Fire insp ectors are res pons ible for policing th ose prot ect ion system s
as th ey would th ose in a new bu ildi ng.
Some tim es, renovations are made while a build ing is part ially or folly occup ied. lt
is extremely impo rt ant for life safe ty purposes that exits for occupan ts are properly
maintained. lt is the inspector's job to make sure that the exits are accessible from th e
work area and have been properly iden tified. In addition to exits for occupants, suf-
ficient means of egress should be provided for construction workers in th e area under
renovatio n, in accordance wi th the Life Safety Code®. Remember, these same egress ac-
cess ro utes will also be used by first responders to gain access to the work area should a
fire or other emergency occur. Inspecto rs should be just as dili gen t in inspecting these
means of egress as they are in inspec ting the p ublic exits in any building .
If a build in g cons truction/ demolition proje ct blocks an existing exit, an alternate
mean s of egr ess must be provided. The inspecto r must scrutinize the alterna te route
to make sure it is usab le in case of an emer gency. TI1e exit should be free of debris and
stored materials; it shoul d be properly identifie d and illum inated and the exi t d ischarge
should be clea r of parked vehicles and oth er obstructions.
In some cases during alterations , existing fire-resistive floor or wall assemblies may
be penetrated by new piping or condui t or old piping or conduit may be removed . In
either case, it is impo rt ant that fire-resistive p enetratio n seals be provided after this is
done to maintain th e fire in teg rity of the subdivisi on (see FIGURE 9-2).
In so me cases, plastic wrap s are used in the interior of an existing building to protect
existing equipment and supplies from dust and debri s. Such wraps must be sim ilar!)'
tested pe r NFPA 701, as described earlier. In addition, it is imp ortant that these wraps
do not potentially obstruct spri nkler water flow to combustibl es below. Otherwise, all
combustibles should be remove d from the area.
If the altera tio ns involve hot work , such as cutt ing, welding, and heating, a permit
system sho uld be used; for furth er inform ation, see NFPA SIB . Whenever practica l,
combustibles should be removed from at least 35 ft ( 10.7 m) in all directions. If this can -
not be done, th e in spec tor sho uld recommend covering combu stibles with an approved
fire-resistant tarp, sweepi n g up combustible dusts, and wetting down wood floors. Use
tarps that have been tested to ANSI/FM 4950. Products tha t have passed this test can be
found in th e Fi'vlApproval Guid e, and th ese items were describ ed ear lier.

107
 SECTION2 : Building Systems and FireProtection Systerns

9-2Fire-resistive penetration seal.

FIGURE

A fire watch provid ed with extinguishers or hoses should be assigned to the area for
the duration of the work and at least 30 minute s after the work has been finished; this
time period sho uld be extend ed to 2 hours for torch-applied roof installation s.

DEMOLITION
Demolition operations have many of the previously noted attendant hazard s of con-
struction operations, as well as a few others. 'foe hazards of cutting torches, flammable
liquids, and tra sh accumulations are as common in demolition operations as they are
in construction operations.
Before demolition beg ins, gas pipes sho uld be turned off and capp ed outside the
building. Explosives shou ld be sto red and used in accord ance with NFPA 495, faplo-
sil'e lvfnterialsCode.
Early in a demolit ion project, flammabl e liquids and combustible oils should be
drained from tank s and machin ery and imm ediately removed from the buil d ing. The
removal o f residue and sludg e deposit s and purging of flamm able vapor s is also impor -
tant, especially in areas where cuttin g torches are used. Torches should no t be used to
cut through walls, floo rs, ceilings, or roofs con taining comb ustib le materials.
Fixed fire protec tion systems and fire walls shou ld be maintained in service for as
long as po ssible. Sprin kler and sta ndpip e systems should be modified so they can be
dismantled floor by floor as demolition progr esses downward from the top floor or
108
 CHAPTER 9: Cor,struct ion, Alteration , and Demolition Operations

system by system in large one-story buildings. 1h is will preserve protection in the adja-
cent floors or areas. Either type of protection can be converted readily from a wet-pipe
system to a dry-pipe system if minima l heat (40°F, or 4.4°C) cannot be maintained at
remote parts of the building.
Generally, chutes are provided to carry demolition rubble and debris from the up-
per floors to trucks or mobile trash receptacles below. These should be constructed as
described in the earlier section on housekeeping. The use of inside chutes, which would
necessitate cutting holes in the floor, thereby creating an unprotected vertical opening
through which fire coul.d spread rapid!)' from floor to floor, should be discouraged.
Implosion is sometimes used to complete demolition of multistory buildings. De-
sign and implementation of such an event should be limited to those trained and
experienced in it. [n addition to providing safety for explosives as described earlier,
this requires a thorough review of the structural framing system and proper sequenc-
ing of explosives initiation to allow the building to come virtual!)' straight down. This
also requires an evaluation of the separation from adjacent structures and potential im-
pact to the surrou nding infrastructure. Sometimes, this requires the removal of some
of the struc tural eleme11tsand/or the addition of cabling to ensure the frame collapses
inward. Depending on the building height and weight and exposure to underground
services, in some cases sand has been provided on the surrounding grade level to
dampen the imp act and prevent damage to underground water mains, gas lines, and so
forth. Charged hose lines of sufficient length to extinguish any subsequent small fires
should be readied prior to demolition.

UNDERGROUND OPERATIONS
General
A num ber of the guidelines mentioned earlier for construction, alteration, and demoli-
tion operations apply to underground operations as well. However, other concerns also
apply to these operations. Strnctures and equipment should be constructed of noncom-
bustible materials as much as is practical. Because of possible changes in underground
operations, it is important to maintain current written procedures for evacuation, fire
prevention inspections, and other emergency procedures.

Fire Protection
A water supply should be provided wherever combustibles are present. Outlets with
standard fittings compatible with local fire departm ent equipment should be provided
so that the maximum travel distance to a hose connection does not exceed 150 ft (46 m).
Drainage systems should be provided to remove sprinkler and fire hose discharge.
Underground operations that use equipment or components that transport ma-
terials to the surface using a conveying system will require specialized protection
measures. Extinguishing equipment should be provided for belt conveyors at their
head, tail, drive mechanism, and take-up pulley areas and at maximum intervals of
300 ft (91 m) along their length and along the tunn el, such that the maximum travel
109
SECTION 2: Bui ld ing Systems and Fire Protec t ion Systems

distance on a h orizont al plan e does not exceed 300 ft (91 m). Ar eas n ear and und er
belt conv eyors sh ould be kept free of accumulating combu stibl es. Int erlocks should be
prov id ed to shut down th e conveyo r dri ve on activ ation of any fire pro tec tion system
or on stopp age or slowd own of th e conv eyor belt.

Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Class I flamm able liquid s sh ould n ot b e permitt ed und ergro und or within 100 ft
(30.5 m) of a tunn el p ort al or shaft openin g. Storage of oth er flamm ab le liquid s should
be dik ed or oth er wise p ositi oned so th at spill s will n ot flow away from th e storage area.

Security and Compartmentation

A check-in /ch eck-o ut system should be provid ed at each und ergro un d entr ance for
each person in tr an sit to and from the und ergro un d op er ation . Sections of und er-
gro und that are n o long er in use should be b arrica ded and m arked. Fire and sm oke
ba rri ers sh ould be used to limit fire spr ead and to prov id e areas of refuge for occ up ant s
wher e egress is n ot pra ctical.

Electrical Equipment
Electri cal equi pm ent sh ould be pro tected agai nst physica l dam age and suitable for
damp loca tions. Oil -filled tr ansfor m ers sh ould not be used und ergro und unl ess th ey
are en close d by fire-r esistant m ateri als, vent ed to th e ou tside, and dik ed to cont ain the
ent ire con tent s of th e tr ansformer.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
AN SI/ FM 4950 , American National Standard for Evaluating Weld ing Pads, Welding
Blank ets and Weld ing Curtains fo r Hot Work Op erations.
Co te, A. E., ed., Fire Protection Handbook, 20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
Fisher, G. L. "Gettin g Thro ugh Co nstru ction ;' Fire Prevention , No. 248, Apr il 1992,
pp. 20- 22.
FM 44 11, Insu lated Wall Cons truction, 20 11.
FM Global Property Loss Preventi on Data Sheet 1- 12, Ceilings and Conc ealed Spa ces,
May 2008 .
FM Globa l Prop erty Loss Preve ntion Data Sheet 1-33, Safeguarding Torch-Appli ed Roof
Insta llations, Septembe r 2000 .
Gray, J. A., and Ardit i, D., "Fire Pr evention and Protect ion Du ring Const ru ction; '
Journal of Appli ed Fire Science, Vol. 4, No. l , 1994- 1995, pp. 53- 68.
Tremblay, K. J., "Sparks fro m Saw Ignite Chur ch Balcony;' NFPA Journa l, Nove mb er/
December 1999, p. 17.
Wolf, A., "Sevente en Die in Dus seldorf Airp ort Termina l Fire;' NFPA Jour nal, July!
August 1996.

110
 CHAPTER 9: Constructi on, Alterati on, and Demolition Ope rations

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 1, Fire Code
NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers
NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipes and Hose Systems
NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code
NFPA 51, Standard for the Design and Installation of Oxygen-Fuel Gas Systems for
Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes
NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work
NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code
NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®
NFPA 122, Standard for Fire Prevention and Control in Metal/Nonmetal Mining and
Metal Mineral Processing Facilities
NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction, Alteration, and Demolition Opera -
tions
NFPA 285, Standard Fire Test Method for Evaluation of Fire Propagation Characteristics
of Exterior Non -Load -Bear ing Wall Assemblies Containing Combustible Components
NFPA 495, Explosive Materials Code
NFPA 701, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Flame Propagation of Textiles and Films

111
 CHAPTER

10
PROTECTION OF
OPENINGS IN FIRE
RATEDASSEMBLIES
Kristin Collette Bigda, PE, MSFPE

Limiting the spread of fire and smoke is critica l to both life safety and property protec-
tio n. One met hod of limiting the spread of fire and smoke in a structure is to subdivide
the interior of the structure into compartments using fire walls and fire barrier walls
and rated floor/ce iling assemblies . The addition of fire compartments to a building or
structure is expected to de lay the spread of fire from th e room or area of fire origin to
oth er parts of the structure only if th e compartments are cons tructed and maintained
properly and if the openings in them are properly protected .
Fire compartments are formed by fire barri ers (this includes fire walls and fire
barrier walls and horizonta l fire-resistance rated assemblies) that are both vertically
and horizonta lly continuous. This continuity ensures that the compartment where
the fire originates will limit , if not prev ent, th e spread of fire and smoke into adjacent
spaces. Properly maintained opening protectives in fire walls and fire barrier walls
(see NFPA 101 ®, Lif e Safety Code ®, NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety
Code, and NFPA 221, Standard for Hig h Chall enge Fire Walls , Fire Walls, and Fire
Barrier Walls) is essent ial to contain a fire unti l automatic or manua l fire suppression
is effective and ensures that the continuity of the fire barriers has not been brok en.
Part of the inspect or's responsib ility, th erefore, is to determine th at these openings
rem ain properly protected and that nothing has been done to null ify or defeat their
prot ec tion. Several Nati ona l Fire Protection Association (NFPA) documents provide
requirements for the inspection, testing , and maint enanc e of particu lar opening pro-
tectives . The inspector's responsibility is also to be aware of where these requir eme nt s
are located and how and when they are applied.
A variety of ope ning protectives in fire walls and fire barrier walls is available. The
method selected will depend on th e type, function, and configuration of the open -
ing . Typical protection methods includ e firestopp ing, fire-resistive construction ,
fire-protection rated doors, fire dampers, and fire-rated glazing materia ls, although spe-
cial probl ems ma y require other forms of protection . Fire walls are intended to retain
their structural int egrity and remain stab le in th e event of bui lding collapse as th e result
of an un contro lled fire on either side of th e wall. Fire barri er walls rely on the building
 CHAPTER1 O:Protection of Openings in FireRated Assemblies

framing for structural stability. See Ch apter 7, Building Construction Element s, for
additional information on the detail s of fire barriers, fire barrier walls, and fire walls.

HORIZO N AL OPENINGS
If left unpro tec ted, opening s in fire walls and fire barri er walls, referred to as Jwrizo11/n/
openings, will p ermit fire to spr ead in the horizon tal dir ection throughout the floor of
or igin. For exampl e, opening s in fire-resi stan ce rated corridors mu st be protected, not
on l)' because the}' are a path for the ho rizon tal spread of fire, smoke, and toxic gases,
but also because thq are a part of the means of egress through which the occupa n ts
must pass in order to exit the buildin g. Minimi zing fire and smo ke movemen t from a
room of orig in to a corrido r is, therefore, an impo rtan t goal of the barr ier as well as the
opening protective feature .

Fire Door Assemblies

One of the most wide!}' used open ing protectives in fire-res istan ce rate d walls is the fire
door assembly. (Fire barrier walls and fire walls are given a fire-resistance rating, wher e-
as ope n in g protectives are given a fire-pro tect ion rating). Fire-protection rated door
assemb lies are tested in accordance with NFPA 252, Standard Metliods of Fire Tests of
Door Assemblies,also comm only known as Am erican Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) E 2074, Stn,1dnrdTestMethodfor FireTestsof DoorAssemblies,IncludingPositive
Pressure Testi11gof Side-Hinged and Pil'otedSwi11 ging Door Assemblies. Such assembli es
must be installed in accordance with the requi rem ent s of NFPA 80, Standardfor Fire
Doorsn11dOther OpeningProtectives.Tests conducted by independ ent testing laborato -
ries in accordance with these accepted test methods determine the fire-protection rat-
ing of a fire door assembl)'- Fire door assemblies are given an hourly rating designation
based on the duration of the fire test exposu re for which the door has bee n tested. l11e
requir ed houri}' fire-protection rating is based on th e required hourly fire-resistan ce
rating of the component in whi ch th e assembli es are located , as illustrated in TABLE 10-1.
Fire doors must be identified by a label. Labels on fire doors must be maintained in leg-
ible condition. Lab els or classification marks may be of metal, paper, or plast ic or th e)'
may be stamped or die-cas_t into the item. Very large fire doors may not have a listing
mark if they exceed the size of the door the testing labora tory can physically test. How -
ever, the laboratory may furni sh the do or with a certifica te of inspection that states that
it conforms to the same requir ement s of design , materials, and construction as a rat ed
fire door, even thoug h it has not been subjected to an actua l test.
If the label on an existing fire door has been removed or is no longe r legible, it is
acceptable to verify the ratin g of the fire door through other mean s accept able to the
au tho rity having jur isdiction (AHJ), such as an inspection or certificat ion service that
provides acceptable docum entat ion.

Ratings, Each fire door classification has specific appli cat ions. One war to class ify
fire-pro tec tion rated doors is by the ir hourly rating. For example, where a fire wall is
provided to sepa rat e two buildings or divide a building into two fire compartments, th e
use of a 3-hour fire door assembly is requ ired. In indust rial and storage buildings that
113
 1,1\
m
t"'I
Minimum Fire Protection Rating s for Opening Protectives in Fire Resistance-Rated Assemblies ::!
0
and Fire-Rated Glazing Markings z
IJ

Minimum Side Light / Fire-Ra t ed Glazing

Transom Assemb ly Markin g Side ight/ Fire Window
Rating (hr) Tran som Pane l Assembliesb , c
Fire -Rated
Door Vi sion Glazing Fire-Rated
Wall s and Fire Door Panel Marking Glazing
Partitions Assem blie s Maximum Door Vision Fire Pro- Fire Re- Fire Pro- Fire Re- Marking
Component (hr) (hr) Size {in2}" Panel tection sistanc e tection sistance (hr) Window
Elevator ho,srways 2 1/.:- 1551n) d D-H-90or NP 2 NP D-H-W-120 NP W-120
D-H-W-90
1 1 155in,2d D-H·60or NP 1 NP D-H-W-60 NP W-60
D·H·W-60
'h yj 85 in.2,_. D-20or D-W-20 ½ v., D-H-20 D-W-20 NP W-30
Elevator Lobby (per I 1 100 in.~b ,:;l00 in. ], NP 1 NP D-H-W-60 NP W.«!
7.2.13.4) D·H•T•60or
D-H-W-60->
>100in. •,
D-H-W-6QO
Vertical shafts, 2 1½ MaximJm size D-H·90 or NP 2 NP D·H·W-120 NP W-120
including stairways, tested D-H-W-90
exits. and refuse MaximJm size O·H-60-:ir p 1 p D·H•W-60 NP W-60
1 1
chutes ested u- H-W-60
Replacement panels 1/, Y, Maxim um size D·20o r D-W-20 Y., ~J O·H-20 O-W-20 NP W-30
In existing vertical tested
shafts
 Fire barriers 3 3 100in,2b s 100 In. 2,0 -H- NP 3 NP 0-H-W-180 NP W-180
180or
D-H-W- l SQh
>100 in. 2,
D- H-W-lS()h
2 1½ Maximum size D-H-90or NP 2 NP D-H-W-120 NP W-120
tested D-H-W-90
1 ·1/.t Maximum size 0 -H-45 or -)(,f ¾i O-H-45 O-H·W-45 ~l.1 OH-45or
testedf D·H·W-45 W-60

v, 1/, Maximum size D-20 or D-W-20 Y, Y, D-H-20 0-W-20 Y, OH-20or

tested W-30
Horizaf'\tafexits 2 11/, Max,mum size D-H-90 or NP NP D-H-W-120 NP W-120
tested D·H·W-90
Horizantal exits 2 -)(, Maximum size D·H-45 or ~~f ,;.,f D-H-45 D-H-W-45 % OH-45 or
served by bridges testedi D-H-W-45 W-120
betweer1 buildings
Exit access 1 1/, Maximum size 0-20 or D-W-20 ¾ ¾ D-H-45 D·H•W-20 ¾ OH-45 or
corrido rs9 tested W-60

' v, Maximu m size D-20 or D-W-20 Y, 1/, D-H-20 D-H·W-20 v, OH-20 or

tested W-30
Smoke barriers• 1 1/J Maximum size D-20 or D-W-20 ~4 -!~ D-H-45 D-H-W-20 J/4 OH-45 or
tested W-60
Smoke partitionsQ.h ½ v, Maximum size D-20 or D-W-20 Y, ½ D-H-20 D·H·W-20 V, OH-20or
tested W-30

NP:Not permnted.
0 Note: 1 1
nch2 ~ .000645I 6 m2. ::,
bFirereslstilnce tsof Buitd,ngConmucr,on
-rated glazing tes ed to ASTME 119.SrondordTm Merhodsfor F1tcTesrsof Bui/dingConsrruct,oncndMaterials.or ANSINL 60, Standardiar FireTl>s and Moter,ats.shall
be permittedIn the maximumsizetested.lsee8.3.3.1.)
cF1re-rated glaz,ngIn exteriorwindowsshallbe markedIn accordanceWithTable8.3.3.12.
o~ ASMEA17.1.SafetyCode for Elevato/5 s.for additionalInformation.
and Escalalor
OSeeASTMA17.3,Safety Codefor ExistingElevatorsand Escalators . for additionalinformation.
'Maximum areJof Individualexposedlightsshallbe 1296in.1(0.84m2) with no dimensionexceeding54 In.(1.37m) unlesso herwlserested[80:Table4.4.5,Noteb,and 80:4.4.S.1 J
9Firedoors arenot required co have a hose streamtest per NFPA252, StandardMe/hodsof FireTesrs ASTME2074.Standard TestMerhod for F1teTemof Door Assembhes.tncludingPos,t,ve
of DoorAssemblies;
Pressure TesNngof Side-Hinged and PivotedSw,ng,ngDoorlmembJres;ANSI/ULl OB.Standardior FireTcmof DoorAssemblies; or ANSVUL1OC:.Standardfor PositivePressure F,reTestsof DoorAssemblies.
V,
hForresidential boardand care.see32.2.3.1and 33.2.3.1.
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

have vehicle openings, two fire doors are normally required for reliability of closure
and are mandated by NFPA 221 on 4-hour rated fire walls. Openings in double fire
walls should have one fire door in each separate wall or two fire doors in a freestanding
fire-resistive vestibule (FIGURE10·1). If the corridor is provided as a smoke barrier only,
a 20-minute rated fire door is acceptable.
NFPA 101® and NFPA 5000 require that hazardous areas be separated from all ad-
jacent areas in a building by 1-hour fire barriers as one method for protecting the haz-
ardous area. Openings in these fire barrier walls enclosing hazardous areas also can be
protected with fire door assemblies, whose rating would depend on the fire-resistance
rating of the walls. Depending on the 1.ocal codes or ordinances in effect, the fire-resis-
tance rating required for a specific app lication may vary.
Doors in openings in exterior walls that might be subjected to severe fire exposure
from outside the building as well as doors protecting openings in 2-hour enclosures of
vertical building openings ar e required to have a l ½-hour fire-protection rating. One -
hour rated stair enclo sures are protected by 1-hour fire door s. Rated ¾-hour fire door
assemblies are used to protect openings in the exterior walls of buildings that might be
subjected to a light or moderate fire exposure from outside the building. Rated ¾-hour
fire door assemblies are used in some room -to -corridor openings, especially to isolate
a hazardous area from the corridor.
Fire door assemblies with ½-hour and 20-minute fire-protection ratings are intend-
ed primarily for limiting or controlling the passage of smoke. TI1ese doors are used
across corridors in which a smoke barrier is required and to protect openings in walls
with fire-resistance ratings of up to 1 hour that are installed between a room that could
be occupied and a corridor.

1 layer of building
paper between
vest ibule mantel
and wall mantel

Roll-up fire doors

Fire door guide rails

FIGURE 10-1Doub le fire walls wit h one fire door in each separate wall or two fire doors in a
NFPA
freestanding fire-resistive vestibule. Source: 221,2012.

116
 CHAP ER 10: Protection of Openings in Fire Rated Assemblies

Because many inspectors will be working with exis ting fire doo rs, it is also necessar)'
to recognize the classificatio n of fire doors by an alphabet ical letter scheme, which at
one time was one of the methods used to classify the opening for which th e fire door is
considered sui table. From NFPA 80, Annex D, the relationship between the alphabeti-
ca l designation and its use is as follows:
l. Class A: Openings in fire walls and in walls that divide a single building into
fire areas.
2. Class B: Openings in enclosures of vertical communications through buildings
and in 2-hour rated par titio ns providing horizonta l fire separat ions.
3. Class C: Open ings in walls or partitions between rooms an d corridors havin g
a fire resistanc e ratin g of 1 hour or less.
4. Class D: Openings in exter ior walls subject lo severe fire exposure from out-
side the bu ilding .
5. Class E: Openings in exterior walls subject to mode rate or light fire exposure
from o utside the building.

Construction. Severa l types of construction are used in the manufacture of fire doors.
See NFPA 80, Annex G, for additional details. Compos ite door s are flush doors made
of a manufactured core material with chemicall}' impregnated wood edge banding.
They are faced with untreated wood veneer or laminated plastic or they are encased in
steel. Hollow metal doors are made in flush and panel designs of 20-gauge (0.036 in.,
or 0.9 mm) or heavier steel. J\'1etal-clad doors are flush or panel-design swinging doors
with metal -covered wood cores or stiles and mils ,md insulated panels cove red with
24-gauge (0.024 in., or 0.6 mm) or lighter steei. Sheet metal doo rs are made in cor -
rug ated, flush, or panel designs of22-gauge (0.028 in., or 0.7 mm) steel or lighter, and
rolling steel door s are fabricated of interlocking steel slats or plate stee l (FIGURE
10·2).
Meta l- or tin -clad doors are of two - or three -ply wood core construction . They are
covered with 30-gauge galvanized steel plate or terne plate with a max.imum size of
14 by 20 in. (356 by 508 mm) or wilh 24-gaug e (0.024 in., or 0.6 mm) galvanized
steel sheets with a maximum width of 48 in. (1220 mm). Curtain -type doors consist of
interlocking steel blades or a continuous formed -spring steel curta in installed in a steel
frame. \-\'ood core doors consist of wood, hardboard, or plastic face sheets bonded to a
wood block or a wood particleboard core material with untreated wood edges.
Special-purpose fire door assemblies called horizontal sliding accordion or folding
doors also are available. They are self- or au tomat ic-closing doors, and some of them are
power operated . Under some codes, folding doors are permitted within a means of egress
as horizontal exits or in smoke barriers under certain restriclions, such as the provision
of backup power for power-operated doors. Materials used in these types of doors vary.

Door Closing. Fire do ors must be self-closing or close automa tically in the event
of fire. A suitable door hold er/re lease device can be used, provided the automatic -
rele ase feature is actuated by automatic fire detection devices. Power-operated fire
doors must be equipped with a releasing device that shall au tomatically disconnect
the power operator at the time of fire, allowing the door to become self-closing or
automatically closing. Generally, automatic release that is accomplished with fusibl e
117
0:,

Fire-resistive or noncombustible construction Face of wall mount

-<- - - -- Opening width -- - -- ->v

Curtain

Hood

Bottom bar Wall bolt

PLAN S ECTI O N
(Sin g le Doo r)
Note: Drop lever
arrangements can
vary with different
manufacturers. Guide-

Expansion
clearance·
Floor ~ _J 0 : ~
/ / / / // / /.
-a __.,_.._
...-+-'
~/-t Guide Bottom bar J PLA N SECTI O N
S ingle Doo r ELEVA TI ON Do uble Doo r (Double Doo r)

• Expans ion clearance per door listing. Doors with downward expans ion are Wall bolt for masonry constr uction:
as shown . Doors with upward expans ion requi re expansion clearance above Through-bolt. or expans ion anchor. as permitted by door listing .
the top of the door.
Wall bolt for nonmason ry wall construction:
Note: Fusible links are needed on both sides of the wall-configurat ion Through-bolt, or machine sc rew into steel jamb . or lag screw into
could vary. wood ja mb, as permitted by door listing .

FIGURE10-2 Rolling steel doors:surfacemounted. Source:

NFPA80,2010.
 CHAPTER1 O:Proceclion of Openings in Fire RatedAssemblies

links is permitted only in limited areas. NFPA 101® permits door leaves in the means
of egress of buildings with low or ordinary conten ts, or where permitted b)' the AHJ, to
be held open by an automatic releasing device. TI1e triggering of the automatic release
is done through the operation of smoke detectors installed in accordance with the re-
quirement s for smoke detectors for door release service as specified in NFPA 72®,
Nntio11nlFireAlnr111mui Sig11n/i g Code. Fusible links are not an acceptable trigger in
11
this S)'Stem, because untenable smoke condition s could easily render an exit enclosure
or adjoining fire compartme nt unusable long before the temperature in the vicinity of
the door opening has r isen enough to operate the fusible link. Tfthere is any significant
distance in elevation between the top of the opening and the underside of the ceiling or
rooi: fire detection devices used to ncluate the doo r should be located near the top of
the opening and the underside of the ceiling or roof
Some types of automatic-closing fire doors are sometimes required to begin closing
not more than 10 seconds after the release device has actuated. ·where applicable, this
should he verified, becau ea door holder/release device with an excessive time-delay
feature could allow a large volume of smoke to pass through the opening before the
door closes.

Maintenance and Inspection. Added to the standard in the 2007 edition, NFPA 80
requires all fire doors to be inspected and tested at least annually. TI1istest and inspec-
tion frequency is applicable to all new and existing fire door installations. A written
record of the inspection is required to be signed and kept for inspection by the AHJ.
·n1ree parties have an important role in the fire door inspection process: the build-
ing owner/property manager, the fire door inspector, ,md the AHJ. The building owner
must ensure tha t the fire door inspect ions are scheduled and completed according to
the annual inspection requirement. TI1ebuilding owner is responsible for maintaining
the records of the inspections for review by the AHJ. Fire door inspectors must have
the knowledge and understanding of the opera ting components of the fire door being
tested. TI1efire door inspector must also be aware of the minimum testing and inspec-
tion requirem ents prescribed by NFPA 80. TI1eAHJ must be aware of the inspection,
testing, and maintenance requirements as prescribed by NFPA 80 and must enforce
the annual inspection requi rements. TI1eAHJ is responsible for verif)'ing that build-
ings are up to dale on their fire door inspections and for ensuring that inspections are
performed by someone with an acceptable level of knowledge of the fire door assembly.
Two parts are required for the annual inspection of fire doors: a visual inspection
and a functional test. For swinging fire doors, at a minimu m, the following items must
be verified during the visual test:
l. No open holes or breaks exist in surfaces of either the door or frame.
2. Glazing, vision light frames, and glazing beads are intact and securely fastened
in place, if so equipped.
3. TI1e doo r, frame, hinges, hardware, and noncombustible threshold are secured,
aligned, and in working order with no visible signs of damage.
4. No parts are missing or broken.
5. Door cle11rancesat the door edge to the frame, on the pull side of the door, do
not exceed clearances listed in NFPA 80.
119
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and FirePmtection Systems

6. 1l1e self-closing device is operational; that is, the active door completely closes
when operated from the full open position.
7. If a coordinator is installed, the inactive leaf closes before the active leaf.
8. Latching hardware operates and secures the door when it is in the closed position.
9. Auxiliary hardware items that interfere with or prohibit operation are not
i11stalledon the door or frame.
10. No field modifications to the door assembly have been perform ed that void the
label.
l J. Gaskets and edge seals, where requir ed, are inspected lo verify their presence
and integrity.
For hor izontally sliding, vert ically sliding, and rolling fire door s, at a mi11ina1111,
the
following items must be verified dur ing the visual inspection:
I. No open holes or breaks exist in surfaces of either the door or frame.
2. Slats, endlocks , bottom bar, guide assemb l}', curtain entry hood, and flame
baffle are correctly installed and intact.
3. Glazing, vision light frames, and glazing beads are intact and sewrely fastened
in place, if so equipped .
4. Curtain, barrel, and guides are aligned , level, plumb, and true.
5. Expansion clearance is maintained in accordance with the manufacturer's
listing.
6. Drop release arms and weights are not blocked or wedged.
7. Mounting and assembly bolts are intact and secured.
8. Attachment to jambs are with bolts, expans ion anchors, or as otherwise
required by the listing.
9. Smoke detectors, if equ ipped, are installed and operational.
10. No parts are missing or broken.
I I. Fusible links, if equipped, are in the location; chain/cable, S-hooks, eyes, and
so forth, are in good condition (i.e., no kinked or pinched cable, no twisted or
inflexible chain); and links are not pain ted or coated with dust or grease.
12. Auxiliary hardw are items that interfere with or prohibit operation are not
instal led on the door or frame.
13. No field modifi catio ns to the door assembly have been perform ed that void the
label.
After the visual inspection , a functional test is done to verify that the door operates
properly. 1l1is includes verifying operational functions such as door swing, closing,
latching, and prope r operation of all closing devices. For sliding doors , the inspector
should check the automatic -closing mechanism by lifting the counterbalance weight or
dropping the suspended weight. \1\lhen door closers are equipped with a fusible link,
the test may be limited to general observation of the device; however, if spare links
are available, a preferred test method is to fuse it using an electric heat gun . It is also
important to ensure that the link is exposed so heat can reach it. Rolling steel doors
should be tested when an opening is not in use and reset only by qualified personnel
so that any malfunction that might occur will not interfere with the normal activities
on the premises. Vertical guides for rolling steel fire doo rs should be bolted to the
120
 CHAPTER1O: Protection of Openingsin FireRated Assemblies

framing through slotted holes to allow for expansion during fire exposure. Likewise,a
gap should be provided between the bottom of the guides and the floor.
Metal- or tin-clad doors have some special features that require attention. Inspec-
tors should make sure that the door has proper lap over the opening. TI1e binders are
sometimes filled with blocking to make the door easier to open. TI1eseblocks must be
removed. The door should have chafing strips, which help maintain its fire resistance.
Inspectors should note the condition of the door. 1sthe metal covering corroded, torn,
or battered? Is there evidence of dry rot? Indications of dry rot include edges caving in
and screws pulling out. Tapping the door with a weighted object such as a hammer can
give some indication of the extent of the rot damage.
Inspectors .~hould make sure that fire doors are not obstructed or blocked in any
way or intentionally wedged open so that proper closing is not possible (FIGURE 10·3).
Should they find that fire doors have been intentionally blocked or wedged, they
should determin e the reason for it and take appropriate action. Where doors have

10-3Fire door wedged open.

FIGURE
121
 SECTION 2: lluil ding Systems and Fire Protection Systems

been fastened open to improve ventilation, other ventilating means should be pro-
vided . Guards or railings should be provided where necessary to prevent damage
from materials-handling equipment. Doing so also discourages employees from piling
stock against or near the door. Inspectors should ensure that the movement of balance
weight s is free and unobstructed and that fusible links are of the proper temperature
rating. They should also verify that fusible links have not been made inoperative by
paint, corrosion, or other external conditions . For example, they may have wires that
would prevent closure, even if the links did activate, rendering the elements inoperative .
Self-closing device s must be kept in work ing condition at all times . Swinging doors
normally held in the open position and equipped with automatic-closing devices are
to be op erated at frequ ent interva ls to ensur e opera tion , and resetting of the release
mechanism shall be done in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. A sepa -
rate written record of the tests to the closing device must be maintained and made
available to the AHJ in addition to the testing and inspect ion record for the inspection
and ope ration of the door itself.
When conducting th e annual test for operation and full closure, rolling steel fire
doors are to be drop tested twice . ·n,e first test is to check for operation and full closure.
A second test is done to verify that the automati c-closing device has been properly
reset. Fusible links or other heat-actuat ed devices and release devices should not be
painted, and paint shall be prevented from accumulating on any movab le part.
In addition to the annual inspection and testing requirement for fire doors, other
routine maintenance issues may occur throughout the life span of the door. Any repairs
that may need to be made to the door should be identified and completed in an expedi -
ent manner without delay. \•Vhere it may be necessary lo replace fire doors, hardware,
and closing mechanisms, replacements are to be installed in accordance with NFPA 80
for new installations.
In the case where a modification to a fully functional and compliant fire door is
desired, the laboratory with which the original product or component being modified
is listed must be contacted and prov ided with a description of the desired modification .
If that laboratory determines that the modifications will not compromise the integrity
and fire-resistance capabilities of the fire door assembly, then the modifications are
permitted . If the laboratory determines that the desired modifications will compromise
the integrity of the fire doo r, then a field visit from the laboratory will be necessary in
order to comple te the modification.

Fire Shutters
Fire shutters are often used to protect op ening s in exte rior walls. If the potential fire
exposure from outside the build ing is severe, shutters rated for l ½-hours are used.
\-\There the potential fire exposure is moderate or light , shutters rated for %-hour
are used . If fire shutters are installed on the outside of the opening, they should be
protected against the weather to ensure proper operation. Shutters must be equipped
to close automatically in case of fire.
TI1esedevices should not be overlooked on the inspection tour . Like fire doors, where
it is necessary, shutter replacements have to meet the requirements for new installations
122
 CHAPTER1O: Protection of Openings in FireRated A semblies

and be installed as required by NFPA 80. Fire shutters are to be inspected at the same
frequencr as swinging, sliding, and rolling fire doors. Although fire shutters are no lon-
ger used lo any great extent in new construction, they are still found on older structures.

Fire Win do w s and Vision Panels

Fire window assemblies are designed to protect openings in corridors, rooms, and
exterior walls where the potent ial exposure is moderate or light. Some fire window
assemblies are Ct]uipped with autornat ic closing devices that are actuated by automatic
fire detection equipment. \1\lhen inspecting fire window assemblies, inspectors should
be sure the closing devices are in opera ting condition.
\!\' ired glass of¼ in.(6111111)
thickness and labeled for fire-protection purposes is per-
mitted to be used in approved opening protectives, if the maximum size specified b)' the
!isling is not exceeded. Wired glass was frequent!)' used as a vision panel in smoke-stop
barriers and in fire door assemblies that protect stairway enclosures (FIGURE 10·4). Other
glazing materials that have been tested and labeled to indicate the type of opening to be
protected for tire-protection purposes are permill ed to be used in approved opening
protectives in accordance with their listing, and for the maximum sizes tested. See NFPA
JOJ® for additional permissions for the use of wired glass. NFPA 80 now requires that
onl)' labeled fire-protection rated or fire-resistance rated glazing material be used in fire
door assemblieswhen perm itted by the door listing. Glazing material in fire windows is
to be either fire-protection rated or tire-resistance rated and also must be labeled. It is no
longer permissible by NFPA 80 to use wired glass for new installations. Fire-protection

10·4Visionpanel in a fire door.

FIGURE
123
SECTION 2: Building System s and Fire Prot ect io n System s

rated glazing is glazing that has a fire-pro tection rating, indicating it has been tested to
th e criteria ofNFPA 257, Standard on Fire Test for Window and Glass Block Assemblies.
Glazing that can prove to pass the test criteria for NFPA 251, Standard Methods of Tests
of Fire Resistan ce of Building Construction and Materials, is given a fire-res istance rat-
ing like that of a wall exposed to the same test criteria. The acceptance criteria for fire-
protecti on rated assemblies, such as fire doors, differ from those for fire-resistance rated
construction, such as a wall or floo r/ce iling assemb ly. A multitude of glazing products
have entered the field over th e past decade, including many products that are capable of
passing the criteria of NFPA 251. These products are permitted in applications where a
solid wall would be used. NFPA 80 continues to update its requirements to reflect the
curr ent industry practic e. Insp ectors should be aware of the existing and new instal -
lation and maintenanc e requirements for glazing mat erials and be able to identify the
various types of glazing that are installed and their permitted uses.

Sills
In buildings with nonc om bu stible floo r construction, sills should also be constructed
of nonco mbu stibl e mat erials. Special sill construction is n ot requir ed, provid ed th at the
floo r structure is extend ed through the door opening . Prior to the 2007 edition, NFPA
80 listed the clearance requirements under the bott om of a fire door based on the pres -
ence of floor covering and sills. Currently, NFPA 80 limits the maximum cleara nce
und er the b ottom of all fire doors to ¾ in. (1.9 cm) . Co mbu stible floo r coverings may
extend und er do or openings requir ed to be protected by ½-hour or 20-minute fire-
rated assembli es. Combustible floo r cove rin gs are also permitted to extend throu gh
ope nin gs req uired to be protected by 1½-h our, 1-h ou r, or ¾- hour rated fire-protec tion
fire doo r assemb lies without a sill where th ey have a minimum critica l radiant flux of
0.22 W I cm2 in accordance with NFPA 253, Standard Method of Testfor Critical Radi an t
Flux of Floor Cove ring Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source .
Unprotected opening s in floors and ceilings, referred to as ver tical openi ng s, may
permit th e sprea d of fire from one floor to another. Esca lators , moving walks, exp an-
sion and seismic joints, vertical exit stairs , chute s, elevators, shaft s, and atria are all
exampl es of vertic al ope nings found in buildings.

VERTICAL OPENINGS
Floor/Ceiling Penetrations
Unsealed gaps, crea ted when holes are made th ro ugh floor/ce ilin g assemblies for
routin g cab les, co nduit s, or pipes, permit th e pa ssage of fire, heat and smoke from
floo r to floor. On e m eth od us ed to sea l these gaps inv olves m od ular devices th at
are sized for the pipe, conduit , or cab le and that conta in an organ ic compo und that
expa nd s when heated to sea l th e penetration. Other m ethods of sea lin g suc h pen-
etr ation s includ e th e use of foamed -in -place fir e-resistant elas tomer s, var ious ca ulk -
in g materials, and poured - or trowe led -in -plac e compo und s. In addi tion, there are
bags of fire -res istant material that can be placed around penetrating pipes, cab les, or
124
 CHAPTER 10: Protectio n of Openings in Fire Rated Assemb lies

conduits. When exposed to fire, these bags expand and fuse to prevent the passage
of the fire products.
When plastic pipes or conduits penetrate a fire subdivision, they will melt and create a
large opening. In some cases, noncombustible piping can be used at the transition point
where the piping penetrates the subdividing wall. In other cases, special penetration
seals, such as in tumescent types, are needed that will expand as the result of fire exposure
and will fill the void. Many of these materials have been tested and listed or approved ,
and all can provide the required protection if they are properly installed and maintained.
The penetrating object(s) should be supported well enough to keep them from plac-
ing any mechanical stress on the seal that could pull the sealant from the opening.
Where "temporary" routing of utilities or control cables is a fairly common occurrence,
workers tend to neglect to seal the gaps (FIGURE 10-5). The inspector should be alert for
such conditions. Often, utility lines are hidden in closets or above drop ceilings and
are not obvious during a casual visual inspection. The locations of these concealed, but
accessible, fire barrier penetrations should be noted so that they are not overlooked
during the inspection process. Over the life of a building, it is important to maintain
the integrity of barriers to protect against fire penetration and spread. Renovations
or any changes to building utilities will tend to violate the desired compartmentation
rules when a building is first occupied; th erefore, vigilance is in order to ensure that all
such penetrations are identified and properly protected.
One source of information on tested materials, devices , and systems for protecting
through -penetrations of fire-resistance rated barri ers that inspectors may use is Volume 2

10-SPipe penet ration through fire wa ll wit h no penetration sealant.

FIGURE

125
SECTION 2: Build ing Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

of the Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Fire Resistan ce Dir ectory . Thes e devices and
systems are designed to resist the spread of fire through openings in fire-resistance
rated floor or wall barriers that can accommodate penetrating items, such as electrical
cables, cable trays, conduits, and pipes. UL classifies such devices and systems with
respect to installation in a wall only, in sta llation in a floor only, or installation in a
wa ll or floor. The basic standard used by UL to investigate products in this category
is American National Standards Institute (ANSI) /UL 1479, Standard for Fire Tests of
Throug h-Penetration Firestops, which is simi lar to ASTM E 814, Standard Test Method
for Fire Tests of Through-Penetration Fire Stops.

Stair Enclosures, Shafts, and Chutes

Certain vertica l openings cannot be sealed becau se their purpose requires them to
communicate between floors . Examp les include stair enclosures, elevator shafts, utility
shafts, and chutes for mail, laundry, or trash. Such openings should be enclosed in fire-
resistive construction . Openings in the wa lls of utility shafts shou ld be protect ed with
self-closing fire -protection rated doors approved or list ed for th e purp ose. Op ening s
in the walls of stair enclosures and elevator shafts mu st be protected by fire-protection
rated self-closing or automatic-closing fire do or assemblie s.
NFPA 101® contains strict provisions for what can and cannot open or p en etrat e
int o an exit stair enclosure. These strict requirements are there to ensure that the exit
stair remain s a prot ected vestibule for occupants to use to safely egress th e building as
well as to ensur e that fire starting in th e buildin g does not m ake its way int o th e exit
stair encl osure and risk spreading to other floors. This protection also works in the op-
po sit e direction by pro viding a sheltered and prot ecte d area for fire fighters to stage and
gain access to th e fire floor . The only ope nin gs permitted in the fire barri ers between
th e exit and the building spaces are those for entering the exit from any n orma lly occ u-
pied space or corridor and th ose for leaving th e exit to reach th e exit dischar ge. In oth er
words, only openin gs provid ed for an occ up ant to ent er and leave th e exit encl osure are
permitted . No ope ning th rough the exit enclosure walls-including a door op ening-i s
permitt ed from storage rooms, closets, boiler rooms, equipm ent spaces , utilit y rooms,
electri cal vaults, or simil ar spaces th at are n ot norm ally occ upied. Penetrations int o,
and ope ning s th ro ugh , an exit enclos ure assembly are limit ed to the followi ng:
1. Permitted door asse mbli es.
2. Electri cal conduit servi ng th e exit en closure.
3. Requir ed exit doo r ope nin gs.
4. Ductwork and equ ipm ent necessary for independent sta ir pressurizati on.
5. Water or steam piping necessary for th e heatin g or coo ling of the exit enclos ur e.
6. Sprinkl er piping .
7. Standp ipes.
8. Existing, prop erly prot ec ted, pene tr ations.
9. Penetrations for fire alarm circuit s, wh ere th e circuit s are inst alled in m etal
condu it and the p ene tr ati ons are properly protected.
It is n ot uncommon for occ up ants to prop ope n stair door s for th e sake of conve-
nien ce. Woo d blocks, wedges , or pieces of wir e or rope n ear a fire doo r indi cate that
126
 CHAPTER1O:Protectionof Openings in Fire Rated Assemblies

the occupants are blocking or holding the fire door open. This, of course, defeats the
purpose of a fire door and is a condition that must be identified by an inspec tor and cor-
rected immediately. If this situa tion become s common and impossible to enforce, you
may conside r requiring the installation of magnetic hold -open devices with appropriate
actuation devices. NFPA 101® permits the use of magnetic hold -ope n devices in any
building of low or ordin.iry hazard contents or where approved by the AHJ. The auto -
matic releas ing device is activated by a required smok e detector, and upon activation,
the door is released and becomes self-closi ng. Doors into and out of stair enclos ures
that are fire-p rotection rated must follow the appli cable provisions previou s!)• discussed.
The door assemb lies in walls of exit enclosures are to be .I -hour fire-protection rated
door assemb lies when used in 1-hour fire-resistanc e rated enclo sures and 1½-hour fire-
protection rated door assemblies when used in 2-hour fire-res istance rated enclosures .

Escalators
Openings made in floor/ ceiling assembli es to accommodate es alators present a
unique protection probl em because enclo sing them in fire-resistive constrnction is not
practical (FIGURE10·6).
However, there are alterna tive form s of protec tion. In a fully sprinkle red build -
ing, NFPA 13, Standardfor the I11stnllntio11of Sprinkler Systems, provide s a protection
scheme for escala tors known as the sprinkler-draft curtain method.

10·6Sprinklers around escalators.Source:

FIGURE NF
PA13,2010,A.S13.4
.
127
 SECTION2: Building Syste ms and Fire Protec tio n Syste m s

Another method relies 011 a combination of automatic fire or smoke detection equip-
ment , an automatic exhaust system, and an automatic deluge water curtain. Yet another
method involves filling the opening with a dense water spray pattern from open, high-
velocity water-spray nozzles. The water-spray system is operated automatically by heat
or smoke detection and is equipped with manual control valves to minimize water
damage. (Details on these systems can be found in the L!feSajety Code Handbook and
the Automatic Sprinkler Systems Handbook.) Inspectors should examine the control
valves in these systems as they would those in other water -based fire-protection sys-
tems to make sure that they are open.
One more method is to protect the opening with a partial enclosure of fire-resistive
construction in a "kiosk" configuration . 1l1is enclo sure is equipped with self-closing
doors. TI1e inspector should check that the doors are in operating condition and
that the self-closing feature has not been circumvented in any way. See NFPA 13 for
additional details. Duct - and materials-handling systems that penetrate walls, parti-
tion s, floors , and ce ilings contrib ute to both the hori zontal and vertic al spr ead of fire.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., ed ., FireProtectionHandbook, 20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
Cote, R., and Harrington, G., L!feSafety Code Handbook, 12th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA,
2011.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 13, Standardfor the Installation of Spri11kler
Systems
NFPA 80, Standardfor FireDoors and Other Opening Protectives
NFPA 82, Standardon Inci11emtorsand Wasteand Linen Ha11dli11gSystemsand Eqclipme11t
NFPA 90A, Standardfor the J11stallatio11
of Air-Conditioningand VentilatingSystems
NFPA 90B, Sta11dardfor the Installation of Warm Air Heati11ga11dAir-Co11ditio11i11g
Systems
NFPA 91, Standardfor Exhaust Systemsfor Air Conveying of Vapors,Gases,Mists, and
Noncombustible ParticulateSolids
NFPA 92, Standard for Smoke-Control~)'stems
NFPA 101®,L{fe Safety Code®
NFPA 105, Recommended Practicefor the lnstallation of Smoke-ControlDoor Assemblies
NFPA 221, Standardfor High ClwllengeFire Walls,Fire v\!alls,and FireBarrier Walls
NFPA 251, Standard lvfethodsof Tests of Fire Resistanceof Building Construction and
Materials
NFPA 252, Standard Methods of Fire Tests o_{DoorAssemblies
NFPA 253, Standard Method of Testfor CriticalRadia11tFlux o_{FloorCoveringSystans
Usinga Radiant Heat Energy Socirce
NFPA 257, Standardfor Fire Testsof Wi11dowAssemblies
NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code
128
 CHAPTER

11

ELECTRICALSYSTEMS
JeanJvl.Blanc

Electrical .inspections are a vital publ.ic safety function because they contribute to the
saving of property and lives. Electrical systems are examined by qualified electrical
inspectors, who have learned the special skills and expertise required to identify and
correct electrical system deficiencies that may lead to fires or other hazards. Fire inspec -
tions are typically carried out more frequently than electrical inspections, however, and
it is likely that a fire inspector, rather than an electrical inspector or a qualified electri-
cian, will detect potential problems. 'fl1e fire inspector must be aware of the signs and
symptoms of potential fire hazards presented by electrical systems .
1he causes of electrical fires can be placed in four broad categories: damaged electri-
cal equipment, improper use of electrical equipment, accidents, or defective installa -
tions. Tiie fire inspector can eliminate the various sources of electrical failure that cause
fire by .learning to recognize the signs of potential hazards.

WIRING AND APPARATUSHAZARDS

Electrical fires are primarily the result of arcing faults and overloads in circuits. Arcing
occurs when electrical current flows across gaps in otherwise conductive pathways.
TI1ese gaps may be created in the normal operation of equipment, such as in switches
or in motors. Spacings may also be created at loose splices and terminals or where wire
or conductor insulation has been impaired and is in close proximity to other damaged
conductors or grounded metal enclosures or surfaces. Arcing produces enough heat
to ignite nearby combustible materials, such as insulation, and can throw off particles
of hot metal that can caus e ignition. Arcing is dangerous because it can also melt the
insulation off conductors. When electric current passes through the air between un-
grounded conductors or between ungrounded conductors and grounded conductors,
temperatures can reach up to 35,000°F (19,426°C). Exposure to these extreme tem-
peratures can result in irreversible third -degr ee burns and may have fatal effects.
TI1e conditions that create an arc usually cause overcurrent protective devices (such
as fuses and circu .it breakers) to trip, making the duration and excess heat exposure
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

from a possible blast brief However, intermittent arcing, as may occur due to accidental
damage, can arise without tripping circuit breakers or fuses. Special devices, referred
to as arc-fault circuit-interrupters (AFCls), are designed to detect such arcing, but
they are currently required only to be installed in certain residential and commercial
applications.
Overheating in compression is more subtle, difficult to detect, and slower to cause
ignition, but it is equally capable of causing a fire. Conductors and other electri-
cal equipment may generate a dangerous level of heat when they carry a current in
excess of rated amperage. Overloading may cause conductors to overheat to the point
at which the temperature is able to ignite nearby combustible materials; overheating is
also caused in part by improp er ventilation . Insulation failur e caused by overh eating
also can lead to arcing between conductors and adjacent grounded objects.

Common Faults
Conduits , Raceways, and Cables . Aside from the faults discussed, other hazards
exist in electrical systems, such as deteriorated and improperly supported conduits,
raceways, and cables. Where these items enter boxes, cabinets, and other equipment,
they should be terminated in proper fittings that hold them securely in place without
damaging the conductor insulation. Conduits that are not supported properly may pull
apart and expose conductors and insulation to damage.
Cables should be protected from mechanical damage where they pass through walls
or floors. 1he cables and conductors should also be protected from an overload, which
may not be as evident as physical damage to the insulation. 1he proper way to deter -
mine whether a cable or conductor in a conduit has had an overload condition is by
conducting a test or measurement through a device listed and suitable for that purpose.
Depending on the load, the cable or conduit may be unsafe to touch; therefore, physi -
cal contact is not recommended. Many conductors and equipment in normal use may
operate at temperatures of up to 1678°F (758°C). Because of these high temperatures,
when overheating is suspected during an investigation, the inspection should be fur -
ther pursued by a qualified person. Infrared scanning equipment is encouraged and
also available to make a more objective assessment of actual and relative temperatures
in a system. 1his method does not require any physical contact from the inspector,
which makes for safer work practices.

Circuit Conductors. Single conductors usually are installed in raceways, but they
may be installed on insulators in free air or in cable trays. Open conductors are more
common in industrial occupancies and in older buildings. Like cables, branch circuit
conductors must be supported properly along their length and at the point at which they
terminate in junction, switch, and outlet boxes. Conductors should not be exposed to
excessive external heat, which will accelerate the deterioration of their insulation. Faults
can occur from a hot conductor to a ground conductor (short circuit) or from a neu-
tral to a hot conductor . Circuit conductors also may be subjected to electrical overload
where fuses or circuit breakers are of the incorrect value. To detect overloaded conduc-
tors , look for discoloration of the terminals or of the surfaces of conduits and boxes.
130
 CHAPTER11: Electrical Systems

Flex ible Cords. Several unsafe practice involving flexible cords may result in fires.
One of the mosl common unsafe practices is use of Jlexible cords or extension cords
in place of what should be the fixed wiring of a building. Extension cords should be
used only to connect temporary portable equipmen t, not as part of a permanent wiring
method. No r should extension cords be used to supply equipment that will exceed their
full-load current rating. Extension cords arc nol required to have the same current car-
rying capacity as the branch circuit wiring supplying a wail receptacle outlet. Therefore,
it is extremely important to ensure that the equipment supplied by the cord has a lower
current rating than that of the extension cord. 'TI1 e terminations of the conductors in
a flexible cord should nol be relied upon lo provide mechanical support. Rather, cords
should be clamped iu a connector or secured in an approved man ncr lo keep stresses
from being transferred to the conductor terminals. Flexible cords should never be run
where they can be damaged by vehicles, mobile earls, or pedestrian traffic. Nor should
they be left coiled or run under rugs or carpets. Extension cords and other Ilexible
cords should not be attached to building surfaces, woodwork, pipes, or other equip-
ment or run through doors or windows or through holes in walls, floors, or ceilings.
Damaged cords should always be replaced and never repaired or spliced. However,
broken or damaged cord ends may be replaced using listed devices. Mishandling and
improper use of these cords will result in fines for violating Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) requirements.
There are many legitimate uses for flexible cords. Flexible cords can be used for
pendants, for connecting portable appliances or lamps, and for some permanent
equipment such as submersible pumps or equipment that must be frequently moved
or interchanged. Some devices, such as relocatable power taps (power slrip s), may be
attached to building surfaces or furniture, but the cords themselves should not be at-
tached to the building and never used as a substitute for the fixed wiring of a strncture.

Boxes and Cabinets. Outlet, switch, and junction boxes as well as cabinets are used
to protect the equipment and connections they house while withstanding the sparks,
arcs, or hot metal that may be produced in the equipment . All such boxes should be
equipped with the proper cover. Boxes and cabinets are made with prepunched con-
centric and eccentric knockouts that can be removed to allow the installation of cable
connectors and the entrance of a cable. On l}' those "knockouts" lhal are necessary to
accommodate the conductors entering the box should be removed. All other openings
must be closed, including any knockouts that may have been removed in error or that
result from modification to an existing installation. T11enumber of wires in a box or
cabinet must not exceed the number for which it was originally designed. V\lhenob-
serving outlet and switch boxes, inspectors should look for physically damaged switch
and outlet assemblies, discolored devices, or covers that indicate overheating. If any
are located, the}' should be replaced promptly. Lastl}1, as with all electr ical equipment,
inspectors must also ensure that the equipment being used has been proper!}' listed,
labeled, and is suitable for use.

Switchboards and Panelboards . On some switchboards and panelboards, there are

exposed live parts from which occupants must be protected (FIGUR
E11-1). T11iscan be
131
 SECTION2: Building Syste,ns and File Protection Systems

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 11-1(a) Generator panelboard. (b) Panelboard with motor control center (MCC) and
smaller panelboardsalong the same wall.

done by placing a cage or barrier around these open switchboards. Such boards usu-
ally also use bus bars, which shou ld be adequate ly supported . During the inspection,
switchboa rds and panelboards shou ld be examined for deterioration, dir t, moisture,
tracking, and poor maintenance. Inspectors should also make sure that the surround-
ing area is kep t clear to allow qu ick and ready access and prohibits the storage of com-
bustible as well as noncombustible materials. Nothing shou ld be stored in this working
space or on top of switchboards or pane lboard s. 1l1e working space is intended to pro-
vide an area for personnel to perform any operation or required maintenance without
jeopardizing worker safety. NFPA 70E, Stm1dardfor Eleclricnl Safety in the Workplace,
covers electrical safety requirements for personnel, focusing on practical safeguards for
electrical safety.
132
 CHAPTER11: Electrical Systems

Lamps and Luminaires. Luminaires are subject to deterioration and poor mainte-
nance. vVith age, the insu lation on luminair e wires can dry, crack, and fall away, leaving
bare or exposed cond uctors. Sockets may become worn and defective, and the lumi -
naires themselves may loosen in the mountings. l uminaires should not be mounted
clirectl>'on combustible ceilings unless specifically listed for that purpose. Lamps often
operate at temperatures high enou gh to ignite com busti ble material. They should be
mounted far enough away from combustible materials such as paper or cloth , which
may be used as window shades or placed nearby, so that their con tinuou s operation
does not ignite them. Oversized lamps can cause excessive temperature increas es in
luminaires, and th ese co nditions can damag e the supply conductors or ignite nearby
com bustibles . ll1e inspector shou ld take care lo ensure that lamps nre of the prop er size
and type and that the fiberg lass thermal barrier is in the lmninair e's canopy. Discolored
globes or len ses may indicate an improp er lamp size application. Most luminai res are
marked with the appropriate lamp types and maximum ratings. Newer, recessed lum i-
n aires have th ermal pro tectors that will de-energize the lumin aires if incorrect lamp
sizes result in high temperatures. Unguarded portable lamp s may ignite combusti bles
if placed in contact with them, and a broken lamp may ignite combustible dusts in sus-
pension or flammable vapors in the atmosphere. A Ithough halogen lamp elements now
come in lower ratings, combustible building materials should be kept away from such
luminaires. Because bulbs may be hot, it is not recom mend ed that they be touched,
and hands should be kept away from sockets if the inspector is not a qualified person.

Grounding and Bonding

Grounding and bonding are essential for mailltaini 11gsafety when dealing with elec-
trical systems . Bonding is done to establish electrical continuity and conductivity
to create an effective path for fault current that, in turn , facilitates the operation of
the overcurrent prot ective device. Equipment bonding min imizes the differences in
electr ical potential behveen metallic objects. For instance, minimal differences exist
between hvo metal objects connec ted via an equipment bonding conductor. TI1eequip -
ment bondi ng conductor is used to dissipate electr ical charges that might otherwise
accumulate on equipment and that may lead to the enclosure becoming energized.
Furthermore, grounding describes connections made to minimiz e the difference in
electrical potential between objects and th e ground and to provide a low-resistance
path t. In such cases, the groundi ng conductor ca u carq, th current from power circuits
that are much larger than static current. Ground con nectio ns must be exami ned when
they are installed and frequently thereafter to de tect corrosion, loose connectio ns, or
damaged insulation .
Flowing gases, liquids, or granular solids, such as sand, generate static electricity.
TI1Us,their containers should be bonded or gro und ed (FIGURE 11-2).When gasoline is
transferred from a drum to a can, for example, the drum and the can should be bonded
together by an electrically conductive tube that is firmly in contact at both ends or
securely attached to a grounding conductor before the liquid is tran sferred.
ll1e electrical currents involved in static discharge or stray voltage are quite small,
even though th e voltage may be h igh; for that reason, small conductors are adequate
133
SECTION 2: Build ing Systems and ~ire Protection Systems

Building sta tic ground ing "bus"

/
r )~ in. stainles s steel
grounding cable

%i n.- ----' "'1

slain less steel
grounding cable

Conn ector

2 in. x 3 in. x ;;. in.

gmund ing tab

~ Open pail

#1/0--1/C stranded wire

building gmund "bus"

Portable ground ing reel

with 20 fl of 5/22 in.
diameter stai nless steel
cable ratchet latch ing

Grounding
Standard clamp
wall-mounted - - - -1--h- 1;11.
ground ing lab

Open pall grounding

arrangem ent

FIGURE
11-2Recommended meth ods of bondi ng nammab le liquid containers during container
tilling.

134
 CHAPTER11: Electrical Systems

to dissipate the voltages. Grounding and bonding conductors and connections should
be installed in a manner in which there are not any loose connections and in an area in
which there is no potential for frequent mishandling. Installations should be installed
in a professional manner so they can be easily verified and inspected.

Grounding
Groundi ng facilitates the operation of the overcurrent devices installed in ungrounded
conductors. One of the system's condu ctor is grou nded, and all the metal parts that
could be energized are connected to it through equipment-groundin g conductors and
bonding jumpers. ff a ground fault occurs, this wiIIprovide a path to the grounded sys-
tem conductor, which will cause the overcurrent device to open. Grounded conductors
are usually identified by either a white or gray insulation. Equipment grounding con-
ductors are usually bare or identified by a green finish.
Metal cable armor, ra eways, boxe , and fittings, as well a the frame and housings
of electrical machinet'}', are required to be grounded . Certain electrical tools and cord-
and-p lug-conn ected appliances, such as washers, dryers, air-conditioners, pumps, and
so on, must be grounded through a third contact in the line plug.
A grounding electrode is connected to the system to stabilize the voltage to ground
and to limit voltages due to lightning, line surges, or unintentional contact with higher
voltage lines. A metallic underground water-piping system must be used as the ground-
ing electrode where it is available and where the buried portion of the pipe is more
than 10 ft (3.05 m) long. If a metal underground water pipe is the only ground ing
electrode, it must be supplemented by an additional electrode to ensure the integrity
of the grounding electrode system. Grounded steel building frames, concrete-encased
electrodes installed in footings, grounding rings or grids, and driven grounding rods
are other electrodes that may be used. 11,ese may be used either as the main grounding
electrode or as a supplement to the water pipe electrode (FIGURE 11-3).
Fire sprinkler system piping is prohibited by NFPA 13, Standard for the Installa-
tion of Sprinkler S)'stems, and NFPA 24, Stn11dard.forthe Installation of Private Fire
Sen 1 ice 1\tfni11s
and TheirAppurte11a11ces, from being used as an electrode for ground-
ing of electrical systems in buildings. However, this prohibition does not relieve the
NFPA 70®, National Electrical Code®, requirem ent for bonding of metal piping sys-
tems in a building. Although sprinkler piping cannot be used for grounding the system,
the piping must be connected (bonded) to the system to prevent the piping from be-
coming a fire or shock hazard if it inadvertently becomes energized. Bonding ensures
that a pathway is available that will allow enough curren t to flow to trigger the over-
curren t protection device (fuse or circuit breaker) if stray current were to energize the
sprinkler piping.
Ground clamps and connectors should be checked periodically to ensure that
they are tightened and that the ground connection is being maintained. When new
electrical machinery or equipment is installed on the premises, it should be inspected
to see that it has been connected properly and does not interfere with the grounding
system.

135
SECTION 2: Building System s and Fire Prot ect io n System s

Service raceway
A = Supply-side bonding jumper
Meter B = Load-side bonding jumper
C = Main bonding jumper

Service raceway

Service "LB"
conduit body
A

Feeder
c+- ~~~
Grounding electrode conductor _______.--:,1~-----~

~~L~c
Additional supplementa l
electrode (can be
located elsewhere)

FIGURE 11-3 Grounding at a ty pical small service [alternating cu rrent (AC), singl e-phase,
thr ee-w ire, 120/2 40 Y].

Overcurrent Protection Devices

Conductors and electrical equipment are provided with overc urrent protection, which
ope ns a circuit if the curr ent rating exceeds the maximum temperature ratin g of the
conductor. Fuses and circuit br eaker s are the m ost commonly used overcurrent devices
for the protecti on of electrical equipment. Thermal overload devices or electronic sen-
sors may be used in conjun ction with circuit breakers and fuses to protect equipm ent
such as motors.

Plug Fuses. There are two types of plug fuses, the Edison base an d the type S fuse.
Both can be eith er of th e quick -ac tin g or th e tim e-delay typ e. The Edison base plug fuse
is familiar to most people. Edison base fuses were widely used in older insta llations,
but th eir use is now restricted to replacements in exist ing in sta llati ons where there is
no eviden ce of overfusin g or tamp erin g. Typ e S fuses m ay be used in n ew installations.
The type S plug fuse is designed to prevent th e use of coin s or other bridging schemes
to byp ass the fuse and to prevent the use of in cor rect ly sized fuses.
136
 CHAPTER 11: Electri cal Systems

Cartridge Fuses. Cartridge fuses are made in quick-acting and time-de lay types . They
are available for one- time us e or with renewable links. However, the renewab le link
cartridge fuses have two drawbacks: two or three links can be installed simultaneous ly,
th ereby increasing the fusing current and defeating the purpose of the fuse, and the
fuse can be left with loose connections when a link is replaced, which results in over-
heating . Generally, the two or three fuses installed in a switch wi ll all have the same
rat ing. If one fuse has a differe n t rating from the others, this may be an ind ication of
overfusing and should be investigated further. Fuses are sometimes replaced by the
m ost readily available fuse rather than by the proper size fuse for the application .

Circuit Breakers. Circuit breakers are available in a number of styles. The m os t

common type has two n onadjustable tr ips, one of which is a thermal trip to detect
overloads, and th e other is th e magnetic trip to det ec t short cir cuits. Th ese are called
inverse-time or thermal-magnetic circuit breakers . Another type has adjustable trip
units, which may have either conventiona l or solid-state sensing units. Some circuit
breakers hav e shunt-trip features that allow them to be operated from remote loca-
tions. An example is the type of circuit breaker used to shut down equipment und er
kitchen hoods in restaurants . Among the special typ es of circuit breakers us ed are
motor -opera ted breakers, ground-fau lt sens in g br eake rs, and motor -circuit protectors.
Circuit breakers may also include ground-fault circuit-interrupter (GFCI) protection
or AFCI protection. Any of these devices ma y feel warm under normal loads, but non e
should be too hot to touch.

Thermal Overload Devices. These devices are n ot int ended to protect against sh ort
circuits. Rather, the y protect against overl oad. Examples are the therma l overload
devices included in many small motors, the thermal protectors in recessed luminaires,
and the thermal protectors in fluorescent ballasts.

Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters. These devices detect when the current passes

to ground through any path ot h er than the correct path . When this occurs, the GFCI
trips almost instantly, stopping all current flow in the circuit. GFCis are extreme ly
important for life protection in wet locations. GFCI protection is provided by a special
cir cuit breaker located in the pane lboard or by a GFCI receptacle inst alled in the outl et
box. Unfo rtun ately, no statistics are available for the actual number oflives saved or in-
juries prevented by GFCI devices. GFCis are primarily intended to protect people from
sh ock hazards; how ever, GFCis are also used to prevent fires caused by faults in "heat
tape" used for freeze protection of water piping in mobile home s and manufactured
housing. Ground -fault protection of equipment (GFPE) is used for the same purpose
in ot h er occupa ncies where pipeline h eating or deicing and snow -melting equipment is
installed. GFPE does not provide acceptable shock protection for people; it is int ended
on ly to protect equ ipm ent.

Arc-Fault Circuit -Interrupters. AFCis are devices that can detect the presence of
arcing fau lts on circuits even where the current does not rise to a valu e that will trip the
overcurrent device. An AFCI does this through recognition of characteristics unique to
arcing and by functioning to de -energize the circuit when an arc fault is detected . They
137
SECTION 2: Build ing Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

are int end ed to help prevent fires by disconnecting the circuits where such damag e
occurs. The first requirement in NFPA 70® for these devices was effective in 2002 and
app lied only to circuits supp lying receptacle outl ets in bedro oms of dwelling units.
Now they are required in all 120-V, single-p hase, 15- and 20-A branch circuits supp ly-
ing ou tlets insta lled in dwelling unit fami ly rooms, dining rooms, living ro oms, parlors,
libr aries, dens, bedrooms, sunrooms, recre ation rooms, closets, and hallways , or simi -
lar rooms or areas shall be protected by a listed AFCI, combina tion-type, installed to
provide protection of the branch circuit.

INDUSTRIAL EQUIPMENT
Transformers
Dry -type and fluid -filled transform ers are us ed in both industria l and large commer -
cial occ upanci es. Dry -type transform ers are the most common in n ewer commercial
construction , alth ough other types may be encount ered, whereas fluid-filled transformers
are m ore comm on in indu strial plants or older bui ldin gs. In most cases, dry-typ e
transformer s do n ot require a separate room or vau lt, but th ey mu st be separated from
combustible materia ls, and the area in which they are loca ted must be adequately ven-
tilated wi th the correct air circu lation . Oil -filled transformers usuall y are requir ed to be
installed in a vault with 3-hour fire rated floo r, walls, doors , ceilings, and sills to contain
th e contents of the transformer should the y spill.
New transform er fluids, classified as less flammable or nonflammab le, are available.
When the se new fluid s are used, the requirem ents for vaults are reduced or eliminated.
Some older transformers might contain askar el and will have to be mark ed and eventu -
ally replaced because of env ironm ental conc erns.
Under conditions of full load, transformers opera te at elevated temperatures . Many
will be too hot to touch for more than a few seconds . All transformers shou ld be
provided with adequate ven tilation , and th e clearance requiremen ts marked on the
transformer should be maintained. Obstructions should not be in the way of trans-
formers nor shou ld materia ls be stored nearb y or on top of transform er en closures .
Outd oo r pad -m ount ed tr ansfor m ers are to be loca ted in such a way th at lea kin g
fluid s will drain away from building s or be co nt ained in an iso late d area. They should
be placed so th at th ey do n ot obstruct exits or windows in the even t of tr ansfor m er
failure and fire.

Motors
Motors and ro tatin g m achin es can cause m echanical injury as well as a shock h azard
and should be treated with caution (FIGURE 11-4). Man y m otors start aut omatic ally, so
even a motor at rest sh ould be tr eated as though it was in operation.
Cau tion shou ld be taken with arcs th at arise wh en a m otor h as a short circuit , as this
can ignite n earby combu stible s and cause a fire. Bearing s can over heat if th ey are not
prop erly lubri cated , and du st depo sits or accum ulations of textile fibers can pr event
heat from diss ipating from th e m oto r.

138
 CHAPTER 11: Electrical Systems

The inspection of a motor should

indicate that there are no combustibles
in the i..rnmediate vicinity of the mo-
tor or its controls, that the equipment
is cleaned properly and maintained,
and that it has the proper overcurrent
protection (FIGURE 11-5). Motors are
designed to operate without overheat-
ing under norm al conditions , but they
also are designed to operate with a tem -
perature rise well above ambi ent under
normal full-load conditions. A hot cas-
ing may indic ate a potential problem
and should be examined closely.

Med ium -Voltag e

Equipm ent
Most of the equipment discussed ear -
lier can operate on medium-voltage
and low-voltage systems. Medium
voltage usually is considered to be in (a)

excess of 600 V (FIGURE 11·6). Equip-

ment rated as high as I 5,000 V is
common in large buildings and in -
dustrial complexes. Because of th e se-
vere shock hazard associated with this
equipment, the inspector must use
extreme caution when insp ect ing it.

HAZARDOUS
AREAS
Electrical hazardous location (or clas - (b)

sified)areas are those in which flam ma - FIGURE 11·4(a) Cooling tower motors. (b) Pump
ble liquids, gases, combustible dusts, motors with panelboard in background.
or readily ignitable fibers or flyings are
present in sufficient quantities to represent a fire or exp losion hazard . Special electrical
equipment is necessary in these areas. The special equipment is intended to keep the
electrical system from becoming a source of ignition for the flammable or combustible
atmosphere. This equipment is usually specifically listed or identified for the class, divi -
sion, and, in Class I and II, for the group of materials or chem icals that creates the classified
area. Portable equipment should be listed similar ly or identified for suitable use. Complete
definitions of the classes and divisions of hazardous locations and of the wiring methods

139
SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

FIGURE
11-STypical motor wiring method.

FIGURE
11·6Engineering supervision w ill be req uired to determi ne th e sizing or overload and
short -circuit protective devices for motors in excess of 600 V.

140
 CHAPTER11: Electrical Systems

and types of electri cal equ ipn1ent to be used in each are covered in Article 500 of
NFPA 70'll.

Class I, Division1
Class l, Division l locations include areas in which igni table concentrations of flam -
ma ble gases or vapors exist under norma l conditions; areas in which ignitable conce n-
trations of flamm able gases or vapors may exist frequently because of repair or mainte-
nance operations or leakage; and areas in which the breakdown or faulty opera tion of
equipment or proce sses may cause the simult aneous failure of electrical equipm ent.
Electrical equipment used in thes e locations mu st be the explosiou -proof type or the
p urged-and-pressuriz etl l)'Pe approved fur lass l location s.

Class I, Division2
Cla ss I, D ivision 2 locations include areas in which volatile flammab le liquids or flam -
mable gases, wh ich usuall)' are confined to closed containers or systems that allow
them to escape only during accidental ruptur e, breakdow n, or abnormal operation of
equ ipment , are handled, processe d, or used. They also includ e areas in which positive
mechanical ventilati on usually prevent s the development of ignitabl e conce ntrations of
gases or vapors that could become hazardous shou ld the ventilating equ ipme nt fail or
opera te abnormall) ', as well as areas adjacent to, but not cut off from , Class r,Division 1
locations to whic h ign itab le concent rations of gases or vapors could be communicated,
unless such communication is prevented br adequate positive -pressure ventilatio n from
a source of clean air, and effective safeguards against ventilation failure are provided.

Class Il, Division1

These classified locations include areas in which com bustible dust is, or may be, in
suspens ion in the air cont inuo usly, intermit tently, or periodical!}' under norm al oper -
at ing condit ions in large-enough qua ntities to p roduce explosive or ignitable mixtures .
Areas in wh ich mechanical failure or abnormal operat ion of equ ipment might result in
explosive or ignitable m ixtures and provide a source of ignition th ro ugh simultaneous
failure of electrica l equipment are also classified as Class II, Division l, as are areas in
which combustible dusts of an electrically conduc tive nature might be present. Class
II, Division I locations also include areas in which a buildup of combust ible dust on
horizontal surfaces over a 24-hour period exceeds ¼ in . (3.1 mm) .

Class 11,Division2
Tilese classified .location s include areas in which combust ible dust usually is not sus-
pended in the air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures
and in which dust accu mulations usually are not sulli.cient to interfere with the normal
operatio n of electrical equi pment or other apparatus. They also include areas in which
the infrequent malfunction of hand ling or processing equ ipment might result in dust
in suspension in the air and in which these dust accu mu lations could be igni ted by

14 1
SECTION 2: Building System s and Fire Prot ect io n System s

the abnormal operat ion or failure of electrica l equipment or other apparatus. Areas in
which a buildup of combustib le dust on horizontal surfaces is 1/sin. (3. 1 mm) or less,
obscuring the surface co lor of the equipment, are also classified as Class II, Division 2
locations .

Class 111,Division 1
This classified location includ es areas in which easily ignitable fibers or materials pro-
ducing combustible flyings are handled, manufactured, or used.

Class 111,Division 2
These locations include areas in which easily ignitable fibers are stored or handled,
except during the manufacturing process.

Class I, Zones 0, 1, and 2

The zone classification system provides an alternative to the Division 1 and 2 classifica-
tions in Class I areas. This classification system provides for some alternate protection
m ethod s. The classification of areas must be don e by a qualified registere d prof ession-
al engineer. The area classification should be well doc umented, and the documenta-
tion should be readil y available . Zones O and 1 correspond roughly to Divisi on l, and
Zone 2 corresponds roughly to Divi sion 2.

STATIC ELECTRICITY
Precautions against sparks from static electricity should be taken in locat ions in which
flammabl e vapors, gases, or dusts or easily ignit ed mat erials are present. On ly qualified
individu als should be allowed to test for static charges in th ese loca tions, as unintended
discha rges can ignit e th e hazard ous atm osp here.
Meas ur es th at will bring th e h azard of static electricit y und er reason able control are
humidific ation, b onding, gro undin g, ionization, conductive floors , or a combination
of thes e methods.

Hum id ification
Humidity alone is not a comp letely reliable means of elimin ating static charges. To
reduce th e danger of static, however, th e relative humidit y sh ould be high. If practical,
relative humiditi es sho uld be as high as possible, even up to 75 percent, as long as thi s
does not create undue ha rdsh ip.
Som e indu str ial operat ion s cannot be performed at humiditi es hi gh enough to
miti ga te th e danger of static.

Ionization
Ionization is the process of in creas ing the co ndu ctivity of air so that it will conduct
static charges away from an area.
142
 CHAPTER 11: Electr ical Systems

One ionizati on techniqu e uses th e tendency of static to conc entr ate on th e surfac e of
least radius of curvature, such as a sharp point. A metal bar with n eedle points (static
comb) or with metallic tinsel rem oves static from m oving sh eet mat erials. An ot her
technique uses a so-ca lled electrical neutrali zer, which produ ces an alternating elec tri -
cal field through which th e electrified sheet material passes. Yet an other technique ,
used on printing pr esses, uses a flame to ioniz e th e sur roundin g air. Stati c m ay also be
ionized by alpha radi ation from a radioactiv e surface.
The hazards introduc ed by th ese vari ous techniqu es, as well as th eir respective
effectiveness in rem ovin g static charges, mu st b e con sidered.

LIGHTNING PROTECTION
The risk of dam age cau sed by lightnin g is very high in so m e areas and low in oth ers.
The in cid en ce of lightnin g varie s greatly by geogr aphi c loca tion. For exampl e, light -
nin g is comm on in Florida , yet rare in Alaska. Lightning risks also vary by th e typ e of
constru ction or the use of a buildin g, because som e system s and processes are m ore
vuln erable to lightning th an oth ers. For th ese reaso ns, lightning prot ection is usually
no t required by local codes. H owever, wh ere requir ed or used, lightni ng pro tection
mu st be pro perly installed and m aint ained for fire safety.
Lightnin g protecti on system s are installed to provid e an altern ate, nond estru ctive
path for lightnin g to follow to th e ear th. Wh en lightnin g follows thi s path , buildin g
m aterials are spared th e heat and m echani cal forces th at result wh en th e energy of th e
lightnin g stro ke p asses thro ugh a structur e. Any p art of a buildin g th at is likely to be
struck , such as chimn eys, ventilat ors, steeples, dorm ers, and oth er proje ctions, sh ould
be pro tected. This is done by installing a series of air termin als, down condu ctors, and
second ary conduct ors and gro und termin als. Sur ge ar restors also m ay be inst alled to
pro tect th e buildin g's electri cal system.
Air termin als are installed on th e edges of a buildin g's roof and on its ver tical pro -
jec tion s and conn ected by condu ctors. Dow n co ndu ctors are used to provi de at least
two path s to th e gro und termin als. Metal objects n ear by are bond ed to th e system
with secon dary condu ctors, which preve nt damage from sid e flashin g. Bondin g also
helps to redu ce th e risk of indu ced voltages in m aterials n ear lightnin g condu ctors. In
som e cases, th e m etal fram e of a build ing m ay b e use d as th e dow n condu ctor. In all
cases, th e condu ctors mu st be resistant to corros ion and h ave the m echani cal str ength
ne cessary to fun ction as intended . Most compo nent s, includ ing air ter min als, down
cond uc tors, and conn ecto rs, mu st be listed for the pu rpose (FIGURE 11-7). All of th ese
condu ctors are cons tru cted of heavy-ga uge copp er or aluminum to resist corros ion.
Lightnin g, acci dental cont act with a high-vo ltage sour ce, and surface leakage du e to
condu ctive dirt or m oistur e can cause hazardo us voltages in electri cal distribut ion sys-
tem s an d equipm ent. If th e affected equipm en t is pe rmitt ed to "floa t" at a dangerous
voltage, anyon e who comes in contac t with it and a po in t of differen t po tenti al, such
as gro un d, will rece ive a serious, if n ot fatal, shock. Gro und ing of electrica l equi pm ent
helps to elimi nate thi s shock hazard.
Mater ials th at are used for lightnin g protect ion system s are strongly buil t: They re -
qui re very littl e m ain tenan ce, so inspectors m ay n ot have to inspec t th ese system s as

143
SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

G)

Typical air terminal

for metal or masonry Bonding conductor
flat roof to purlin

Bonding column
to ground

11-7Grounding and bonding of lightning down conductors.

FIGURE

frequ ently as th ey do other system s. In fac t, N FPA 780, Standa rd for the Installa tion of
Lightn ing Protection Systems, recomm end s inspec tin g th em every 5 yea rs. Wh en th ey
are in spec ted, condu ctors should be checke d for excessive corr osion or m echani cal
dam age. Down conduct ors n ear the gro und m ay be dam aged by vehicl es, and con -
nections to gro und termin als m ay be distur be d by m owers or oth er land scapin g too ls.
Co nnec tions should be ch ecked thr ough out for tightn ess, and air term in als should be
inspecte d to m ake su re th ey are sec ur ed and in place.
144
 CHAPTER11: Elecuical Systems

RENEWABL ENERGY
ELECT ICAL YS M
Solar Photovoltaic Systems
The widespread increase in renewable energ}' electrical S}'Slemshas added to the re-
sponsibility of the fire or electrical inspector. It is apparent that the benefits of these
innovative systems outweigh the potent ial hazards that exist; therefore, the inspector
must always be aware of the underlying dangers that may transpire when these systems
are nol thoroughly examined by a qualified person.
Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems can be composed in multiple arrangement types, so
the identification of the system's components, circuits, and connections is essential to
understanding the functions and to performing proper inspections (FIGURE 11-8).The PV
module units usually consi t of solar cells, optics, an inverter, and other components.
PV systems use either an alternating current or direct curre!lt output(s) and may be inter-
active, stand-alone, or operate with or without batteries for energy storage (FIGURE 11-9).
Because of the variation of PV modules available, the accepted grounding and
bonding methods among PY installers, manufachJrers, and even other inspectors
may differ. PY systems and wiring are also exposed to severe weather conditions rang-
ing from wind to snow and polarizing temperatures, which can aflect the grounding

11·8 Perspective on a PVsystem.

FIGURE
145
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

FIGURE
11-9Mo dules in landscape orient ation.

and bonding. Inspectors are obligated to identify poor grounding methods through
abraded cables or conductors, improper conductors and lugs, and dissimilar metals
(copper conductors and aluminum module frame) that come into contact with each
other, which lead to corrosion. Appropriate interpretations of both the adopted version
ofNFPA 70'El(Article 690) and the applicable product standard(s) must always be used
to determine the grounding and bonding requirements.

Small Wind Electric Systems

Similar to PY systems, use of wind -driven turbines has increased substantially, and these
can act as a stand-alone or interconnected power generation system (FIGURE 11-10);
however, wind -powered systems present a much different set of hazards. Wind-
powered S)'Stems have an increased chance of ignition due to overload and introduce
new dangers to qualified individuals and personnel working in elevated confined
spaces. NFPA 70® (Article 694) provides the installation requirements for small (an
individual turbine rated 100 kW or less) wind electric systems to promote safe use of
this renewable energy source with premises wiring systems.
Inspectors must ensure that warning signs/labels are visibly located where required. For
instance, where terminals of a disconnecting means are capable of being energized in the
open position, a warning sign should be mounted or adjacent to the disconnecting means,
because this is a shock hazard. Terminals on the line and the load sides may be energized
in the open position . A warning label will also be displayed for ungrounded systems.
146
 CHAPTER11: E.lewica
l Systems

FIGURE 11-lOWind energy is expected to double its production from its current rate in the next
3 years.

A warning label may say:

'" 'ARNING
ELECTRIC SHOCK HAZA RD.
THE DC CONDUCTORS OF THIS
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM ARE UNGROUNDED
AND ivIAY BE ENERGIZED .

Electric Vehicles
An electric vehicle (EV) is defined as an automotive -type vehicle for on-road use and is
primarily pow ered by an electric motor that draws current from a rechargeable storage
battery, fuel cell, PY array, or other source of electric current.
The requirement s for EVs are in 625 ofNFPA 7cfiJ . Voltages that are used to supply
EVs range from 120 to 600 V. Although thi s range is relatively high, the above-normal
voltage system is cornplete .ly isolated from the chass is of the vehicle. Some EVs are backed
upby a 12-V battery disconnection, and int egrated shutdowns of these vehicles occur in
147
SECTION 2: Build ing Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

the event of a crash or other catastrophic event. This prevents much of the initi al hazard
from ever becoming a major concern to first responders involved with accidents. First
respond ers and fire inspectors who will be dealing with emergency operations with EV s
are strong ly encouraged to undergo professiona l safety traini ng. This recommendation
is a result of the recent influx of these EV sand to comprehend the procedures inv olved
with identifying, immobilizing, and disabling EV s. As EV supply equipment becomes a
growing part of the U.S. infrastructure, it will prompt new technical issues and questions
that fire and life safety inspectors must an ticip ate and be prepared for.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., ed., Fire Protection Handbook, 20th ed ., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
Electrical Applian ce and Utiliz ation Equipment Directory, Underwriters Laborat ories,
Inc., Northbrook, IL (issued annua lly). A listing of the electrica l appliances and
devices that have been tested and found to be safe for use.
Electrical Construction Materials Dir ectory , Underwriters Laboratorie s, Inc., North-
brook, IL (issued annually) . A directory of tested and listed construction m ateri als
such as circuit breakers, wires, transformers, industrial control equipment, electrical
service equipment, and fixtur es and fittings.
Ha zardous Location Equipm ent Dir ectory, Underwriters Laboratori es, Inc ., North -
brook , IL (issued annually). A listing of electrical components and equipment that
have be en tested and listed for use in hazard ous atmospheres.
Sargent, J. S., and Wi lliams, N., NFPA Electrical Insp ection Manual wi th Checklists,
NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2010.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Ca talog for availability of curr ent edition s of the
following documents .
NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Syst ems
NFPA 24, Standard for the Inst allation of Privat e Fire Servic e Mains and Their Appur -
tenances
NFPA 70®, National Electrical Code ®
NFPA 70B, Recomme nd ed Practic e for Electrical Equipm ent Maint enanc e
NFPA 70E, Standard for Elect rical Safety in the Workpla ce
N FPA 77, Recommended Pra ctice on Static Electricity
NFPA 79, Electrical Standa rd for Industrial Ma chin ery
NFPA 496, Standard for Purge d and Pressuri z ed Enclosures for E lectrical Equipm ent
NFPA 497, Recomm end ed Practic efo r the Classification of Flammab le Liquids, Gases, or
Vapors and of Ha z ardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemica l
Process Ar eas
NFPA 499, Recommended Practice for th e Classifica tion of Combustib le Dusts and of
Ha z ardous (Classified) Locations for Electrica l Installa tions in Ch emical Process Ar eas
NFPA 780, Standard for the Installation of Ligh tning Protection Systems

148
 CHAPTER

12

HEATING SYSTEMS
Allan B. Fraser

This text is specifically focused on fire and life safety inspections; therefore, it is not
an exhaustive inspection checkl ist for all heating systems. It is not concerned with the
efficiency, effoctiveness, or desirability of any system, but rather on ly with those items
or conditions that have the potential for causing fires or other life-threatening condi -
tions . Why is this type of inspection important? Isn't it redundant? Haven't building
or mechanical inspectors already checked to ensure that the install er insta lled the
system properly? 1l1e answer is yes, they probably have, but fire and life safety are
important enough to warrant a second inspection on soine items. Call it a good fail-
safe procedure. In addit ion, as any system of moving parts ages, things malfunction
or break .
1l1e vast majority of heating systems, as one would expect by their very name and
nature , create veq, hot areas within their systems by burning fossil fuels like oil, gas,
and coal. These are fires, albeit in relatively safe and secure enclos ures , and need to be
treated as potentia l hazards. Even electric heat will start fires or burn the flesh when
people or combustible materia ls get too close. There are a few systems, like geothermal
heat pumps, that are high I)' unlikely to be a source of ignition because of their rela-
tively low temperatures, but the electr i.cal pumps and wiring for those systems are still
capa ble of causing fires.
This chapter is intend ed to provide a fire and life safety inspector with sufficient
information about which items, devices, and clearances need to be inspected and how
to assess when a qualified contractor or engineer should be consu lted to assess further
and/or repair the part( s) in question.
It will also address various types of heating systems, heati ng fuels, and the instal -
lation of heat-pro ducing equipment with particu lar focus on the inspector's role in
inspecting the fire and life safety protections that are an important part of the heatin g
system. It is not intended to be a comprehensive discussion of the complete installation
or inspection requirements for heating systems, but rather of typical requ iremen ts and
devices related to these systems that are specifically designed to reduce potential fire
and life safety hadrds inh erent to the particular type of S)'Stem.
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand FireProtection Systems

BUILDING SIZE
Large Buildings
Most large buildings use oil or gas in boilers that in turn generate hot water or steam
that circulates through pipes to provide heat to the building. 1he pipin g systems con-
nect to various units located throughout the building including, but not limited to, air-
handling units, unit heaters, finned tube radiation units, radiators, and even ice- and
snow -melting systems.
Many, if not most, large buildings have abandoned their heavy oil-fired or coal-fired
boiler plants because installing and operati ng the necessary pollution abatement devices
have become too expensive. In many cases, the savings between the different fuels sim-
ply does not offset the higher installation and operating costs. The spaces that had been
used to store coal were much more valuable as rentable space, and in most communities,
removing the coal ash became a major cost, as well as an environmenta l problem .
Building owners are becoming more acutely aware of their energy costs every day.
Both construction codes and business economics now dictate more insulation in the
exterior walls, replacing single-pane windows with insulating glass, and covering min-
imally insulated or noninsulated pipe with energy -saving insulation. Repairing and
replacing leaking, noncompatible, and noninsulated chimneys and exhaust flues make
sense as well. Boilers and heating units are regularly being replaced with more efficient
units so that even less energy escapes up the exhaust stacks.
Many of these changes have also resulted in improved fire safety, general building
safet)', and building value. For example, the added insulation on pipes and other hot sur -
faces reduces the transmission of heat to adjacent surfaces, which lessens the likelihood
of igniting a building fire. More efficient boilers and heating units have greatly reduced
stack temperatures, which have resulted in less chance of chimney, chase, and roof fires.
In addition, reduced clearances have added to a building's rentable square footage.
Improved passive protection around equipment now required by the codes has also
reduced fire risks. Large fuel-fired heating equipment above a certain energy input
capacity is often required to be located in rooms separated from other parts of the
building by fire-resistive barriers . All of the changes noted above have helped reduce
the fire hazard from heating systems in both new buildings and renovated buildings,
but problems remain in a large number of existing buildings, as well as in some newer
buildings that are not properly inspected and maintained.

Small Buildings
Many smaller buildings use packaged equipment, although the same type of systems
used in larger buildings may be appropriate as well. These packaged systems, often
referred to as unitary equipment, contain an extended combustion chamber, called
a heat exchanger, to heat the air passing over it without the use of an intermediate
fluid such as steam or hot water. Warm-air furnaces and air-conditioning units are
integrated into ducted distribution systems to control both temperature and humidity.
1l1ey are now engineered and built so that they are energy efficient.
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 CHAPTER12: I !eating Systems

FU TYP S
Oil
'TI1ere are various grades of fuel oil used by oil-fired furnac es and steam boiler s
(FIGURE 12·1), with No. 1 and No. 2 being the most common. No. 5 and No. 6 fuel oils
are known as "heavy" oils and must be heated if they are to flow. TI1ecombu stion and
heating values for some common fuel oil grades are indi cated in TABLE 12-1.
The heavi.er the grade of fuel used in an oil burner, the greater the care that must be
taken to ensure that oil is supplied to the combu stion process at the prop er atom izing

Jacket

Waler
heating
coil

Flue
Gas baffles
or
oil
Combustion
burner
chamber

FIGURE12·1 Oil-fired steam boiler.

Combustion and Heating Values for Some Fuel Oil Grades

Fuel Oil Grade Heating Value (Btu/gal) Comments

No. I 132,900-1 37,000 Small space heaters
No.2 137,000- 141,800 Residential heating
No.4 143, 100- 148,100 Industrial burners
No.5 (Light) l 46,800-150,000 Preheating in general required
No.5 (Heavy) 149.400-152,000 Heating required
No. 6 151,300- 155,900 BunkerC
No. I and No. 2 fuel are both used (or residential heating purposes.No. 2 is slightl11 more expensive,
but the fuel gives more heat per gallon used.No. I fuel oil is used in vaporizing pot-type burners.
No. 2 is used in atomizing gun-type and rotary fuel oil burners.

151
 SECTION 2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

temperature. If the temp era h1re is too low, the fuel oil will not atomize and evaporate,
and the burn er will not operate efficiently.
As a result, systems using No. 5 or No. 6 fuel oils have complex systems for heating
the oil that usually require extensive pollution-abatement equ ipment to deal with the
impuriti es in the oils. If such system s are present, the inspector should verify that this
equipment is test ed periodically.
Oil tanks, including their fill and vent pipes, should be checked for use of the proper
materials and any signs of deterioration. Any leaks should be repaired, and spills should
be cleaned immediately when necessary. Sawdust should not be used to absorb a spill
because it adds to the risk of fire. Every oil supply line where it leaves the tank should
have a safety valve that has a lead or other soft metal core that rnelts and closes the valve
so that the system will not keep feeding oil to the heating equipment if the area is on fire.

Gas
Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Liquefied petroleum gas, also called LPG, GPL, and LP
gas, is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in heating appliances
and vehicles . TI1ereare numerous variet ies of LP gas, including mL,es that are primarily
propane, mixes that are primarily but ane, and, most commonly, mixes including both
propane C 3 H 8 and butane C4 H 10 depending on the season-in the winter more pro -
pane and in the summer more but ane. Propylene and butylenes are usually also present
in small concentrations.
LP gas can be transported , stored, and used almost anywhere in the world. ft does
not require a fixed network and will not deteriorate over time. LP gas is a clean-burning
fuel. Originating mainly from natural gas production, it is also nontoxic and will not
contaminate soil or aquifers in the event of a leak. Although it is nontoxic, it is an as-
phyxiant and is highly dangerous.
It is a multipurpose energy so urce with more than a thousand applicat ions, from
cooking, heating, air-conditioning, and transportation, to cigarette lighters and even
the Olympic torch .
Cautions are as follows:

• TI1eflue gas temperatures of some units have become so cool that condensat ion
of combustion gases within flues has become a major problem . Units with low
temperature flue gases can generate highl}' corrosive gases that condense and
can eat through masonry -lined or clay tile-lined flues causing a significant risk
of fire and/or structural failure of the chimney.
• LP gas is flammable like all petroleum fuels. It must be stored away from sources
of ignition and in a well-ventilated area.
• LP gas can be detected by a typically unpleasant odor of gas.
• LP gas vapor is heavier than air. Any leakage will sink to the ground and accu -
mulate in low-lying areas.
• TI1ereare special LP gas tanks that are specifically designed for use underground.
• LP gas expands rapidly when the temperature rises, so whenev er a container is
filled, sufficient space is left for expansion.
152
 CHAPTER 12: Heating Systems

• LP gas will cause natura l rubber and some plastics to deter iorate. Only use hoses
and oth er equipme nt specificall}' designed for LP gas.

Natural Gas. Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon gases. Although

natural gas is formed primarily of methane, it can also include ethane, propane, butane,
and pentane . TI1e composition of n atural gas can var}' widely, but TABLE 12·2outlines
the typical makeup of natural gas before it is refined.
In its purest form, such as the natural gas that is delivered to your home, it is almost
pure methane . Metha ne is a mo lecule made up of one ca rbon atom and four hydrogen
atoms and is referred to as CH 4 • TI1edist inctive "rotten egg" smell that is often associ -
ated with natural gas is ac tual!}' an odorant called mercaptan that is added to the gas
before it is delivered to the end-user. iv1crcaptan aids in detecting any leaks.

Electricity
Elec tr ic heating is an)' pro cess in which electr ical energy is converte d to heat. Common
applications include heat ing of buildings, cooking, and industr ial processes. An elec-
tric heater is an app lian ce that converts elect rical energy into heat. T11eheating element
inside every electr ic heater is simply an electrical resistor and works on the principle
of Joule heating; an electric current through a resistor converts electrical energy into
heal energ y.
Alternative ly, a heat pump uses an electric motor to drive a refrigeration cycle,draw -
ing heat from a source such as the ground or outside air and directing it into the space
to be warmed. Such systems can be desirable in that thq can deliver two or three units
of heating energy for every unit of electricity purcha sed . As a "fuel" supply, inspectors
need to check for excess heat of wires and breakers, because such may indicate over -
loading of the circuit, which can be a fire hazard,

. -- - "'
TABLE
·,12j -~;, Typical Composition of Natural Gas
• - •• • • • M,I
-J' .,., - .. - .,

Compound Chemical Formula Percentage

Methane CH4 70%to 90%
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8 0 to20 %
Butane C_,
H,0
Carbon dioxide co, 0to8 %
Oxygen o} Oto 0.2%
Nitrogen N1 0 to 5%
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 0to5%
Raregases A,He, Ne.Xe Trace

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SECTION 2: Building System s and Fire Prot ect io n System s

Solid Fuel
Solid fuels are variou s materials used to provide direct heating usually through com-
bustion (burning) in simp le heating systems. They are used in a very small percentage
of buildings but need at least the same level of inspection attention.
Solid fuels typically used to heat buildings include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, and
pellets that can be made from wood, corn, wheat, rye, and other grains. Coa l was the
fuel that powered the Industrial Revolution, from firing furnaces to running steam
engines. Wood was extensively used to run steam locomotives. Both peat and coal are
still used in generating electricity today.
The use of some solid fuels (e.g., coa l) is restricted or prohibited in some urban areas
because of the potential to produc e unsafe levels of toxic em issions. Other solid fuels,
like wood, are being used m ore as heating techn ology improves. They tend to be m ore
environmentally friendly and able to be rep lenished . In some areas, smokeless coal is
often th e only solid fuel us ed. In Ireland, peat briquett es are used as smokeless fuel.
They are also used to start a coal fire.
The use of solid fuels requires carefu l safety in specti ons, becau se they are m ore dif-
ficult to ignit e, to regu late burn rate, and to ext inguish than th e liquid or gaseous fuels.

Geothermal
Geothermal h eat ing relies on an energy exchange b etween th e air within the building
being hea ted and the ground. Below 10 ft (3 m), the earth's temperature is fairly con-
stant (genera lly betwe en 50°F and 56°F, or 10°C and 13°C) . Heat pump s extract heat
from the gro und and use it to heat th e buildin g. Thermal efficiency is high, because no
energy conversion is needed, but capacity fac tors tend to be low (around 20%), because
the heat is mostl y need ed in th e winter . Th e only potentia l for fire is the electrical
wiring at th e heat pumps.

Solar
There are two m ajor con sider ations for fire safety of photovo ltaic (PV) system s:

1. Fires caused by PV compo nent s and systems, which are genera lly caused by
ar cin g conn ect ions, which can be caused by a numb er of issues including, but
not limit ed to, poor electrica l conn ections and buildin g/a rr ay movement.
2. Fires caused by externa l sources but exacerbated by the PV array, as in the case
of a roof fire under th e array, which can be very difficult for fire fighters to gain
access to in order to extin guish .

This is a relatively new techn ological area, and many code and stan dard s developers are
working with fire fighters and indu stry professionals to find approp riat e solutions based
on a number of significant fires that h ave occurr ed. This code work will take a few years
to mature and become standardized. At the moment, it is an area where inspectors simp ly
need to be cogniz ant of con cerns and watch the evolving codes and stand ards closely.

154
 CHAPTER 12: Heating Syst em s

HEATING EQUIPMENT
Furnaces (Warm-Air Systems)
Filters, m otors, and dust build -up are items in which fires within th ese system s can
occur . It is imp ort ant to ensure that du ct-m ount ed sm oke detectors app rove d for th e
appli cation are in stall ed to shut down th e unit in th e event of on e of the se fires on all
system s greater th an 2000 cubic feet p er minut e (cfm) . In th e larger of th ese "sm all"
building s, system s with air handl ers gr eater than 15,000 cfm n eed to h ave sm oke da mp-
er s on th e suppl y and return side, activated by duct-m ounted sm oke det ectors that shut
down th e unit and close th e damp ers to contain sm oke from a fire in th e m otor, filter,
or oth er thin gs in th e system . Imp roved equipm ent efficien cies and tight er buildin g
envelope s have also created oth er n ew hazard s in buildin gs. A lack of adequa te com-
bustion air can cause fossil fuel equipm ent to gen erate deadly carb on m onoxid e (CO)
gas, whi ch can buil d up within a buildin g th rough in compl ete burning of fuel s. In
additi on, th e lack of sufficient combu stion air can cause th e unit to reve rse th e natur al
upw ard action of gravity vents and actu ally pull th e prod uc ts of combu stion back int o
the bu ilding rath er than m ovin g th em out of th e buildin g. CO det ectors are being man-
dated for use in m ore of th e national codes or loca l reg ulations. They are still a goo d
idea even if th ey are not requir ed by th e loca l code. A lack of proper cleara n ces betwee n
unit s, du cts, and combu stible m ateri als can also be dan gero us.

Boilers
Steam. The sight glass on a steam bo iler is an imp ort ant safety and op eratin g device,
as it allows th e h om eown er or inspector to see at a glan ce when th e steam boiler is low
on water. Unlik e a hydronic heatin g boiler, som e of th e water in th e steam boiler is lost
thro ugh th e bu ildin g's ra diator steam vent s at eac h heatin g cycle. Just h ow mu ch wa ter
th e steam boiler will lose vari es wid ely depe ndin g on a numb er of facto rs. If a h eatin g
boiler loses its water wi th out also being shut down , it will cert ainl y be dam aged by th e
heat of the oil or gas bu rne r (or coa l or woo d), an d it co uld lead to a dan gero us explo-
sion or fire. If th e stea m boiler has an autom atic wa ter feeder, you should still check th e
water level (and clarit y) in the sight glass frequ entl y, but th e ri sk of a ru in ed bo iler fro m
lost wa ter is of course mu ch less. A lack of proper clear ances be tween uni ts, du cts, and
comb ustibl e m aterials can also be dan gero us.

Hot Water. Press ure an d temp era tur e reli ef valves are installed on all m ode rn h eatin g
boilers to release hot water an d press ur e should the b oiler's int erna l p ressur e or tem -
pera tur e rise to an unsafe level. A defective re lief valve is a latent safety hazar d, in that
th e valve does n ot by itself cause a boiler to exp lode, but it m ay fail to protec t again st
that event should oth er dangero us con diti ons causing over tempe ratur e or overpress ure
arise in a heating boiler or wa ter heater. A lack of proper cleara n ces betwee n units,
du cts, and combu stible m aterials can also b e dangero us.

155
SECTION 2: Building System s and Fire Prot ect io n System s

Solid Fuel Stoves

Look for signs of structural failure, such as deformation, cracks, or holes. Most fires in
metal factory-bui lt chimneys occur because of improper installation, use, or mainte-
nance and include:
• Improper chimney installation causing ignition of nearby wood framing .
• Structural damage to the chimney caused by burning creosote (a black, tar-like
substance that builds up inside the chimney and then burns).
• Chimney corrosion resulting in wood framing being exposed to excessive
temperatures.
• Buckling and collapsing of the inner liner of the chimn ey. (This can result from
too hot a fire, especially in high-efficiency stoves and in fireplace inserts, or from
a creosote fire.)
• Many serious fires also occur in masonry chimneys, usually from improper
installati on or when the tile inner liner and the surrounding brick or block
structure crack and separate . Such cracks may be caused by the igniti on of
creosote. Smoke and heat can then escape and ign ite mat erial near the chimney.

Portable Units
There seems to be an increasing trend for occ upant s to use portable devices to pro-
vi de indi vidu al or area heating to avoid turning up the thermostat. Thes e devices
are not part of the building's systems, and building owners m ay not even be aware
th at such units are being used by individual occ upant s. The co rds can be trippin g
hazards , and fires are frequentl y reported from th ese units being too close to com -
bu stibl e materials or from wires and exte nsi on cords over he ating. Wh ere they are
permitted, the wires and extension cords sh ou ld be in spec ted. Portable electrical
hea ters with improp erly sized wir es and ex tension co rds can over h eat and cause
fires. Unvented p or tabl e kero sen e hea ters have caused num ero us deaths and fires
and should not be permitted in places of public assembly . NFPA 1OJ®, Life Safety
Code®, and NFPA 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code, b oth prohibit such
dev ices in education al occupancies, daycare faci liti es, hea lthcar e occ up anci es,
detention and correctional occ up ancies, and in all residentia l occupa ncies excep t
one - and two -fami ly dw ellin gs.

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Warm-Air Systems
A forced warm-air system uses ductwork to deliver heated air from a source (furnace,
air handler, etc .) to eac h room. The furnace can produce th at h eat from any number
of fuels: gas, oil, elec tricit y, wood, coa l, or a comb in ation of any fuels. Hybrid systems
are becoming more popular. These syste ms use a boiler to produce hot water th at is
delivered to a coil in the air hand ler of a warm-air system.

156
 CHAPTER 12: Heating Syste m s

Air Duct Syst em Safety. Return air i11takes may draw in CO from the heating equip-
ment if the proper amount of combustion air is not provided . Note that more indirect
building defects and hazards, such as a toxic airborne mold reservoir or toxic gases or
chemicals (such as sewer gas), may be picked up and distr ibuted through a building
from one area to another by duct system defects.

Hydronic System s (Steam and Hot -Water

Systems )
Hydronic heating systems use either hot water or steam as the medium for heat trans-
fer. '.l11emedium is moved through a µiping loop b}' a circulator pump for hot water
or natural pressure for steam to the various spaces to be heated. Some of the common
items installed in the loop for the transfer of heat within spaces throughout the build-
ing are radiators, copper or cast iron baseboard, and radia nt loops.
Hydro-air S)1Stems use a fuel-burning boiler or hot-water heater to produce hot
water. Th e hot water is piped to a coil in an air handler, someti mes called a fan coil.
Inside the air handler is a mu lti row coil, through which the hot water is circulated. Air
is then passed over the coil and ducted to the space. An aquastat or time delay can be
used to allow the coil to heat up before turning the blower on, preventing the discharge
of cool air tha t can feel uncomfortable in heating mode.

Heat Pumps
Because most component s of a heat pu mp system are identical to those of central air-
conditioning systems, readers shou ld review information on air-conditioning system
fire and life safety inspection .

CLEARANCES
A major consideration in the installation of any heat-producing appliance is its effect
on nearby combustibles. \·Vood and other combustibles can ignite at temperatures well
below their usual ignition temperatures if they are cont inually exposed to moderate
heat over long periods of time, as the exposure removes whatever moisture is usnall}'
present in the material. For this reason, installation clearances of equipment, ducts,
piping, vents, and connec tors are of the utmost importa nce.
Listings of tested heating equipment indicate the materials upon which the equipment
can be mounted, such as combustible noors, fire-resistive floors extending specific dis-
tances be}'ondthe equipment, masonry floors,or metal-over-wood floors. For listed appli-
ances, the manufacturer's instaUation instructions contain this information and should be
with the equipment. Check the materials ,md consult the references for specilic products.
Extensive information on clearances is given in NFPA 211, Stm1dardfor Chi11111eys,
Fireplaces, Vents, n11dSolid F11 el-B11rni11g
Applin11ces,and in NFPA 54, Nationnl Fuel Gas
Code. Inspectors should always check these distances during inspections. In addition,
the Fire Protectio11Handbook covers these mater ials thoroughl y by type of appliance;
laboratory listings cover them by manufacturer's model.

157
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand FireProtection Systems

COMBUSTION AIR
As a result of energy conservat ion mea sures, buildings are being insulated more
thoroughly , and cracks and crevices are being sealed. However, there must always be
enough air available for combustion, for ventilation, and for replacing the volume lost
in venting the combustion products to the outdoors. An 0>,11gen-starved fire in a boiler,
furnace, stove, or water heater causes an incomplete combustion reaction, which can
result in the vent becoming clogged with soot accumulations in addition to the pro -
duction of higher than usual quantities of toxic by-products such as CO. Additional air
for ventilation also helps dissipate the heat that develops on the surface of the equip-
ment and within the space that may enclose it.
Eq uipment rooms tha t contain combustion equipment should be inspected to
ensure that they have an adequate, positive means of supplying combustion air. This is
especially important if the room contains any exhaust fans (including those in equip-
ment such as clothes dryers), as they could draw a reverse flow of air down the stack or
flue pulling CO back into the building. NFPA 54 contains specific reco mmendations
on how properly to supply the air required for combustion and ventilation.
A lack of adequate combustion air can be indicat ed by or can result in these heating
system operating and safety concerns:
• Gas burner sooting or odors with small amounts of soot or flame marks right at
the gas bumer may indicate an operating problem but may not be producing CO.
However, any soot produced at a gas-fired appliance, such as chunks of soo t found
around a gas flue vent or draft hood, is a red flag that dangerous CO is potentially
being produced and/or that a chimney may be blocked . Turn off the equ ipment
and contact the heating service company or utility company immediately .
• Improper oil burner system operation such as noises, rumbling, and so forth,
should be fur the r investigated by a qualified contractor.
• O il burner sooting or dirty operation produces the same concerns as with a gas
burner as described above.
• Burn marks on the boiler, furnace, or water heater are conditions that may be
caused by a blocked exhaust flue and inadequate venting. Burn marks can also be
caused by a collapsed or damaged combustion chamber liner, which is a serious
fire hazard needing immediate attention.

SAFETYCO NTROLS
Oil-Fired Equipment
An electric power service shutoff switch is located near the oil burn er for the service
technician, and an electric power emerge ncy shutoff switch, remote from the oil burner,
is best located at the top of the basement stairs or in the nearby living space (you do not
want to have to enter a smoke -filled basement to turn off the heating system in an emer-
gency). The primary control, the most common type on modern heatin g boilers, controls
the oil burner operation, turning the burner on or off as the boiler low-limit or high-limit
temperatures are reached, respectively. A fusible link oil valve in the oil line is a safety
158
 CHAPTER 12: Heating Syst em s

valve that has a lead or other soft metal core that melts and closes the valve so that the
system will not keep feeding oil to the heating equipment if the area is on fire.
A cadmium cell or a stack relay is used to confirm that the furnace oil burner is
operat ing properly and to avoid flooding the combustio n chamber with unburned oil.
Modern heating boilers use a cadmium cell sensor, usually located inside the oil burner
tube, to "see" the presence of flame and thus to ensure that the oil burner assemb ly
stops pumping oil into the combustion chamber if flame ignition is unsuccessful. The
cadmium cell is wired to a relay switch (usually a gray box with a red "reset" button
located on top of the oil burner), which switches the oil burner off when a flame is not
estab lished in the burner. If the red button on the cadm ium cell relay is sticking up
and the oil burner has shut down, try "resett in g" the system by pressing the red reset
button, but only once. If the oil burner does not turn on and run normally and con-
tinuously (no smoke, no loud noises, etc.) for at least 5 or 10 minutes after resetting the
relay or pressing the reset button, do not keep resetting the system, because doing so
can flood the combustion chamber with unburned heating oil, which is a dangerous
condit ion . Have the system evaluated and corrected by a qualified contractor .
Older oil burners may use a stack relay to accomplis h the same purpose of turning
off the oil burner if the flame is not established. The "stack relay" is a bimetallic spring
inserted into the flue vent connector located usually quite close to the heating boi ler
between the boiler top and the chimney. The bimetallic spring warms in response to
hot oil burner exhaust, confirming that combustion is taking place. If combustion is
not occurr ing, a timer inside the stack relay turns off the oil burner to prevent flooding
of the combustion chamber with unburned oil.

Pressure and Temperature Relief Valve

A pressure and temperature relief valve is installed on all modern heating boilers to re-
lease hot water and pressure shou ld the boil er's internal pressur e or temperature rise to
an unsafe level. The relief valve should be piped to a few inches from th e floor with the
end of the discharge tube always in a visible loca tion, so that if it is leaking or open, the
building owner or manager can observe that (unsafe) cond ition. Some very old h eat -
ing boilers may not have a relief valve install ed. Low-water cutoff sensors are installed
on all steam and on some hot-water heating boilers. This is a sensor that turn s off the
gas or oil burner should the water level or pr essur e in th e system fall below a safe level.

CHIMNEY AND VENT CONNECTORS

Chimneys
Chimneys have three primary function s or attributes no matter what type of fuel-
burning equipm ent is attached to them or what th ey are construct ed of:
l. They convey the products of combustion out of the building to keep th em from
contaminating th e air inside th e building.
2. They protect com bustibl e constru ction from catc hing fire.
3. They maintain their structural stab ility while performing the above .
159
SECTION 2: Building System s and Fire Prot ect io n System s

Masonry Chimneys. A m asonry chimne y should be inspected along its entire length,
so far as it is access ibl e. The inspector can exam in e the inside of th e chim n ey by placing
a mirror in a connector opening or the clean-out opening and usin g capt ur ed sunli ght.
A sufficientl y bright flashlight can also be used when su nlight is abse nt or offsets ren-
der it useless . On the roof, the inspector shou ld note the condit ion of th e mortar, the
chimn ey lining, and the flashing and should look for evidence of cracking or settling .
If a solid-fuel app liance is connected to th e chimney, th e in specto r should check to
see that a spark-arrestor cap is installed and shou ld note the number of flues . In the
attic and the bas ement, the inspect or shou ld check for cracks and loose m ortar . All
chimney conn ect ions sho uld also be checked and m atc hed to th e approp riate flues
and liners. If a solid -fuel appliance is connected to the chimney, no gas- or oil-fired
equipment should be connected to it. If m ort ar ha s begun crumbling from between
the bricks, open in gs can be expected to develop all the way through the chimney wall.
The following is a list of common and important chimn ey defects that, individually or
in combination, cons titute sufficient reason for requiring that a ma sonry chimney be
repaired or rebu ilt:
• The design or prop ortionate dimensi ons of the chimney are structurally un so und .
• There is evidence of settling or cracking because of in adequate footings or other
caus es.
• The chimney rests up on , or is wholly or par tly carried by, wooden floo rs, beam s,
or brack ets, or it is hung by m eta l stirrups from wooden construction. The chim-
ney is used to support any wooden floor or roof beams.
• The chimney increases in size, ha s projecting masonry, or is set back within 6 in.
(152 mm) above or below the rafters or roof joists.
• The ch imney is unlined, and its wa lls are n ot as thi ck as required.
• The mas onry is unb onded or improperly bonded, or the sections are not prop-
erly anchored or rein forced .
• The mortar is weak.
• Old mortar is decayed, because of the action of the flue gases, or it is weathering.
The chimn ey is n ot properl y finish ed at top.
• The brickw ork is not laid up aro und th e linin g. In ot her words, th e lining was
dropped into place after the walls were constructe d.
• Linin gs are cracked or broken.
• There is no fire clay or metal thimble s at th e op eni ngs for conne ctors.
• Connector openi ngs are found in more th an one story for a singl e flue, and n o
prov ision h as been mad e effectively to close unu sed ope nin gs.
• The flues show leakage in a smoke test.
• Flue linin gs are not comp let e from 8 in . (20 cm) be low the con nector openi ngs
to the top of th e chimn ey.
• There is a reduction in th e cross-sect iona l area of a flue at any point.
• The flue is positioned at a grea ter th an 308 -degree ang le to ver tical.
• The chimn ey does not extend at least 3 ft (90 cm) above a flat roof or 2 ft (60 cm)
above the edge of a gab le or hipp ed roof.

160
 CHAPTER 12: Heating Systems

• Woo dwork, parti cularly beam s and j oists, is within 2 in. (5 cm ) of the outsid e
surfac e of th e entir e chimn ey.

Factory-Built Chimneys. Factory -built

Q::_:::::::~- - - Diskap
chimn eys are lightweight assembli es and
:::::::::
DC~ =:::;;;--- Exten sion stub
goo d draft pro duc ers (FIGURE12-2). Som e
type s resembl e Type B gas vent s but are
larger and h eavier. The mat eri als used in Housing assembl y

their con structi on me et cert ain requir e-

m ent s for h eat and corro sion resistanc e.
Factory-built chimn eys are available as listed
assembli es for low- and m edium-h eat appli-
anc e servic e. Th ey sh ould be insp ected in
accord ance with the manu factur er's instal-
lation instructi ons , whi ch should be locat-
ed with th e equipm ent.

Metal Chimneys, Metal chimn eys are

suitabl e for all classes of appliance s, but
they are not subj ected to safety testin g of
any kind . The m ajor hazard to loo k for
wh en inspect ing these chimn eys is in ad-
equ ate clearan ce from combu stibl es where
th ey pen etrat e floo rs, ceilin gs, and ro ofs.
The cond itions und er wh ich m etal chim-
neys can b e used are quit e limit ed and are
spelled out in detail in NFPA 211, Stan dard
for Chi m neys, Fireplaces, Vent s, and Solid FIGURE 12-2Typical factory- b uilt (Type L)
Fuel-Burn ing Ap p liances. ch im ney.

Vent Connectors
Flue Vent Connectors for B or L Vents. A vent conn ector conn ects gas equi pm ent
to a flue or chimn ey. Appli ances havin g draft hoo ds an d insta lled in an attic or con -
cealed space mu st use Type B or L conn ectors. Appli an ces installed in base m ents can
use Type B or Typ e L or m etal pip e (0.0304 in . [0.0772 cm] thi ck) or aluminum pip e
(0.0 12 in. [0.0305 cm ] thick). Gas -fired equip men t should no t be connected to any flue
serving so lid fu el ap pliances.

Multiple Gas Vents into a Single Flue. Wh ere two or mor e vent conn ectors ent er a
comm on gas vent , chimn ey flue, or sin gle wall m etal pipe, th e sm aller conn ector shall
enter at the high est level consistent with available h eadroo m and cleara nce to comb us-
tibles. Avoid un necessary b end s and secur e all joint s with shee t m etal screws or other
approved m eans.

161
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

VISIBLEBUILDING CONDITIONS
RISKING CO HAZARDS
The fact that you cannot see or smell dangerous CO gas does not mean that there is
nothing to look for when assessing the safety of heating equipment. Not only are there
easil}' spo tted install ation errors, but also ther e may be more subtle but easil)' visible
error s if you know what to look for. This is by no means the complete list of errors that
can cause dangerous CO exposure in buildin gs, but here are some common errors
that create conditions that can cause dangerous levels of indoor CO:
• Space heaters;T11e improper use of gas- or kerosene-fired heaters can produce
high indoor CO levels. Never go to sleep in an enclosed space with a space heater
left operating. In addition to the CO hazard s, there is a risk of oxygen depletion,
which can also lead to asphyxia tion.
• Gas-fired centralheating equipment combined with:
• Improper venti11gincluding blocked, und ersized, oversized, or missing parts
or improperly sloped chimney or flue. A variety of errors can cause a failure
to vent combustion gases out of the building, allowing dangerous flue gases
to build up indoors.
• Inadequate co111b11stio11 air. Jf a heating appliance is installed in a small
confined space, it must be provided with outside combustion air. A service
technician ma}' tune and inspect a gas-fired boiler with the boiler room door
open, finding that it seems to operate fine. When he or she closes the door
upon leaving , there may be an inadequat e or no openLng for combust ion air
to get into the room and the equipment.
• Velltingsmall appliances into largecold chimlleys.Installation of small, higher
efficiency gas-fired equipment in older homes where the appliance is vented
into a large masonr}' chimney . In such instances , the heater ma)' never develop
sufficient heat to create an updraft actually to vent the exhaust gases up the
chimney. Sometimes, water heaters are Jeft venting into a too -large, too -cold
masonry chimne}' after a gas-fired boiler is converted to a high -efficiency
direct-vent (no chimney) unit.
• Car exhaust seeping into rooms adjoining or even above a garage where car
engines are left running.
• Gas-fired water heaters are often found improperly venting directly into a
basement utility room or even directly into a living area or bedroom.

BlBLIOGRAPHY
ANSI/UL 103, Chim11eys, 7)1pe and BuildingHeatingAppliance,
Factory-BuiltReside11tinl
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, TL.
ANSI/UL 959, Medi11lllHent Appliance Factory Built Chimneys, Underwriters
Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, IL.
Boilern11dPressureVesselCode,Section I\~ American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York, NY.
162
 CHAPTER 12: I !eating Systems

Cote, A. E., ed., FireProtectionHmrdbook,20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.

Gns and Oil Eq11ip111ent Direct01y, Underwriters Laboratories, loc ., Northbrook, IL
(issued annuall y).

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the lalesl version of the NFPA Cata log for availability of curr ent editions of !he
following documents.
NFPA 30, Flammn/Jleand Co111/J 11sti/Jl
e Uq11idsCode
NFPA 31, Standardfor the lnstal/atio11of Oil-B1m1i11g
Eq11ip111e11t
NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code
NFPA 58, Liq11efiedPctrole11111
Ga Code
NFPA 70®, National Electrical Code®
NFPA 85, Boiler a11dCom/Justion Systems Hazards Code
NFPA 86C, Stmrdardfor Ind11 strial FurnacesUsinga Special ProcessingAtmosphere
NFPA 86D, Stmufardfor Industrial Frmwces Usi11x\lt1cu11m as mi Atmosphere
on cf Warm Air Heating and Air-Co11ditio11i11g
NF PA 90Il, Sta11dardfor the l11stallati
Systems
NFPA 97, Stmidard Glossmy of Terms Relati11g
to Chi11111eys,
\lents,and He11t
-Prod11ci11g
Applimices
NFPA 101®, Lije Safety Code®
NFPA 2 1 l, Standardfor Chimneys, Fireplaces
, Vents,and Solid F11
el-B11rni11g
Appliances
NFPA 5000, Building Co11Strnctio111111d
Safety Code

163
 CHAPTER

13
AlR-CON DITION ING
AND VENTILATING
SYSTEMS
Allan B. Fraser

This text is specificall}'focused on fire and life safety inspections; it is not an exJiaus-
tive inspection checklist for all parts of air-conditioning and ventilating S}'Slems.It is
not concerned with the efficienc}',effectiveness,or desirabilit}'of any system, but rather
only with those items or conditions that have the potential for causing or increasing
the danger of fires or other life-threatening condi tions. Why is this type of inspection
important? Isn't it redunda nt? Haven't building or mechanical inspectors already
checked to ensure that the installer installed the system properly? The answer is yes, they
probably have, but fire and life safety are important enough to warrant a second inspec-
tion of some items. Call it a good foil-safeprocedure. In addition, as any system of moving
parts ages, things malfunction or break over time, making regular inspections important.
The vast majority of air-conditioning systems and their components do not have a
lot of potential to create a fire, but there is some potential for a fire in the motor, belts,
or .filtersthat, in the forced-air systems, can magnify the life-threatening effects of even
a small fire by spreading smoke and lethal gases throughout occupied spaces of an en-
tire building very quickly. If the safety devices are not in place and working properly,
escape can be very difficult, if not impossible.
This chapter is intended to provide fire and life safety inspectors sufficient infor-
mation about what items and devices need lo be inspected and to provide snfficient
information for them to be able to assess when a qualified contractor or engineer
shou ld be consulted to assess further and/or repair the part(s) in question.

GENERAL
Air-conditioning systems control the temperature and humidity of air, dean it, and
distribute it to meet the requirements of a conditioned space(s). 1l1ere are many types
of air-conditioning systems that may be used to provide filtered, cooled, and dehumidi-
fied air in summer and heated, hnmidified air in winter.
Some of the mechanical equipment associated with air-conditioning systems can
cause damage to the building's components or the system itself and cause injury
 CHAPTER 13 : Air-Conditioning and Ventilating Systems

Expansion Valve

Zone

Exhaust Air Fan

FIGURE
13·1Three major compone nts of air-co ndi tioning-re lated duc ted, forced-air systems.

to individ uals if imprope r!)' started, stopped, or o r erated . 'D1e status of a piece of
equipm en t or a system shou ld never he changed if its operation is not completely
und erstood. Whe n inspec ting air -conditioni ng and ventilati ng systems, inspectors
must und erstan d what the S)'Stem consists of and how it is supposed to function . TI1is
charter wi ll discuss only air-con ditio ning related to ducted, forced-air systems. TI1ese
systems have three major component s: the ai1·-inta ke system, the conditioni ng equip •
me nt, and the distribution {supply) system (FIGURE 13-1).

COMPONENTS
Air- Intake System
Some system s mLx fresh air with recirc ulated air, wh ereas others may use fresh air
exclusive ly. In either case, there mu st be an air -intak e duct to introdu ce fresh air into
the system . The open ing of this du ct sho uld be protected with a gr ill or screen, with
the prop er net -free vent area to r revent foreign material s from entering the system
while still allowing the system to pull in the required cubi c feet per minute of air
(FIGURE13·2). The most com mon scree nin g is wire mesh with an opening dimension
no smaller than¼ in. (6.4 mm) and no larger than ½ in . ( 12.7 111111),because smaller
d imensions tend to become clogged too eas ily and larger dimensions fail to exclude
many commo n vermin . TI1e inspec tor sho uld make sure tha t the d uct is no t broken,
clogged, or m issing and that it is free of rubbi sh, mold, and debris .
165
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

FIGURE13-2Ducts protected with a grill or screen prevent foreign materials from enteri ng the
system w hile still allow ing the system to pull in the requ ired cu bic feet per n,i nute of air.

Rated Enclosures
Unless the equipment consists of simple rooftop or ground-mounted package units,
fims, air -heating and -cooling units, and filters should be installed in a room that is sep-
arated from the rest of the building by construction with a 1-hour fire-resistance rating.
Doors to these enclosures are to be I-hour labeled assemblies with automatic closers .
Most building codes usually require large units above a certain energy input capacity
to be in separated rooms. Also, units incorporating combustible filtration beds, such
as activated carbon, can pose a serious fire hazard. Automatic sprinklers not otherwise
required to be present in the building may, with the approval of the authority having
jurisdiction, be substituted for such fire-resistive enclosures but are of little effective-
ness if installed only within the room. TI1e fuel and the ignition source are within
the equipment, which is designed to exclude water and any particulates present in
the room .

Automatic Shutdown
Some systems use smoke detectors to stop the fan and close dampers during a fire. In
accordance with NFPA 72:.ID , National Fire Alan11and Signaling Code, it is important
to use this type of detector to provide effective detection and avoid nuisance alarms.
These detectors cannot function properly if there is too little or too much airflow over
them. ll1ese devices should be inspected and tested periodically.
166
 CHAPTER 13: Air-Conditioning and Ventilating Systems

Housekeeping
The inspector should also inspect equ ipm ent rooms to make sure the}' are clean and
that nothing is being stored in them. Such enclos ures are often improperly used to store
air filters, paper products, and light bulbs; they should not be used to store anything.

Cooling Equipment
111ehazards of cooli11g equipment are related to the hazards of electrical installations
and to those of the refrigerant itself. All common refrigerants are toxic to some degr ee,
so a leak in the system can be hazardous to health and life safety. In some instances,
exposure to high conc entrations of halogenated refrig erants can manife st itself in the
victim as card iac arrhythmia and be mistakenly assumed to be a heart attack.
Some refr igerant s present a combustibi lity hazard as well, and all common sys-
tems incorporate combustible liquids as internal lubricants continuously circulated
through o ut th e entir e system . An often unr ecogniz ed probl em assoc iated with refrig-
eration units .is the sudden rupture hazard of the pressuri zed refrigerant.
111efire experience of air-conditioning refrigeration units is generally good as long
as the cooling equipment is properly installed and maintained. The inspector should be
sure to check the frequency and quality of maintenance performed on the equipment
and the housekeeping in the vicinity of the equipment. Aga in, these rooms frequent I>'
end up being used to store everything from oflice supplies to chemicals to lawnmowers.
Refrigeration machinery rooms are not Lobe used as storerooms. Recommendations
for the in stallation of mechanical refrigeratio n equipment are contained in American
Society of Heat ing, Refrigerating and Air-Co nditioning Engineers/ American National
Standards Institute (ASH RAE/ ANSI) 15, Safety Codefor Meclia11ical Refrigemtio11(see
the Bibliography).

Fans
Lack oflubrication and accu mulation of dust are two of the greatest enemies of fans and
motors. fioth can cause the equipment to overheat so much that it actually becomes an
ignition source.
TI1e inspec tor should check the fan belts for wear and proper tensioni ng and
should ensure that the proper number, size, and con.figuration of belts is present.
They should be adjusted or replaced as necessa1y Although fans are often located in
places that are difficult to reach, they should nonetheles s be included in the inspec-
tion program.

Air-Cleaning Equipment and Filters

The purpose of most filters and air cleaners is to remove entrained dust and other par-
ticulate matter from the air stream . TI1e filtered particles accumulate in the filter or on
the air cleaner collector plates and, if ignited, could burn and produce a large volume of
smoke. The products of combustion could be circulated throughout the building by the air
distribution system , posing a threat to life and potential for sign ificant property damage.
167
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

Many systems have pressure difference gauges that visibly or audibly indicate an
excess ive pressure drop across the filters, letting the occupants !mow that the filters
should be cleaned or replaced. Filters should have either a Class l or Class 2 rating
in accordance with Underwriters Laboratories (UL) 900, Test Pe1for111mrce of Air Fil-
ter Units. J\fost systems have disposable filters, which should be discarded when dirty
and replaced with new clean filters. Some systems have a washable medium, which
should be cleaned in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions and recoated
with adhesive . 111isadhesive must have a flash point not lower than 3258°F (1638°C)
as measured in the Pensky-Ivlartens closed tester [American Society for Testing and
Niateria ls (ASTM) D-93, Stmuiard Tes/for FlashPoint by Pensky-MartensClosedTester].
Electronic air cleaners use electrostatic precipitation to remove particu late matt er.
Entrained particles pass through electrostatic fields and are collected either on a filter
or on charged plates. Because electronic air cleaners use potentially lethal voltage and
current combinations, they are equipped with interlocks that shut down the unit if
a door or access pa nel is opened . 111e in.~pector should check that the interlocks ,1re
intact and have not been bypassed . Some systems have an automatic wash cycle for
proper plate operation. These systems should be examined to ensure they are operat-
ing properly and to ascertain that the correct cleaning solvents are being used. Other
systems use disposable filters, which are simply discarded when dirty and replaced
with new, clean ones.
Gas absorption systems are common!) ' used to remove volatile organic compounds
that can have unhealthful effects or cause offensive odors. TI1ese filtration units use
materials that can be fire, health, or reactive hazards. The units should be carefully
examined for compliance with the manufacturer's installation and maintenance
instructions. TI1eir contents should be properly and clearly identified, with the appro-
priate placarding per NFPA 704, Standard Systemfor the Identification of the Hazards
of Materialsfor EmergencyResponse,in place .
Conditioned air is distributed throughout the building b)' means of the duct S)'Stem.
During a fire, this same duct system could disperse smoke and toxic gases instead of
breathable air throughout the building.

Ducts
Generally, ducts are of metal, masonry, fiberglass, or other approved materials.
ASHRAE and the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors National Associa-
tion publish information about the construction of ducts. NFPA 90A, Sta11dardforthe
Installation of Air-Conditioning and \lentilati11gS)•stems, and NFPA 90B, Standardfor
the bistallation of Warm Air Heating and Air-Conditioning Systems, contain informa -
tion about construction and installation practices.
UL 181, Facto1y-J\tlnde Air Ducts and Connectors,classifies duct materials accord -
ing to flame spread, smoke developed, and flame penetration. Class O materials have
a flame spread and smoke developed rating of 0. Class l materials have a flame spread
rating of25 or less, with no evidence of continued progressive combustion, and a smoke
developed rating of not more than 50. Class 2 materials have a flame spread rating
greater than 25 but not more than 50, with no evidence of continued progressive
168
 CHAPTER 13: Air-Cond ition ing and Ventilat ing System s

combust ion, and a smoke develop ed rating of n ot m ore than 50 for the in side sur-
face of the duct and not m ore than 100 for the outside surface . Class O and Class 1
mat erials must pass a 30-minute flam e pen etrati on test, and Class 2 mat erials mu st
pass a 15-minut e flame penetr ation test.
UL 181 also characterizes duct material resistance to fungal growth, becau se duct s
can also harb or health hazar ds in the form of debris and biologicals. All duct systems
shou ld be regularly inspected and, if nec essary, cleaned to mitigate the health and fire
hazards .
Ducts can create b oth ver tic al and h orizontal opening s in fire barriers. Where the
ducts pass through fire barrier s or fire walls, adequate firest oppin g must be provi ded to
seal th e space between th e duct walls and the edges of th e opening. If prop erly install ed
and firesto pped, steel sheet metal ducts in the thickne sses comm only used can protect
an open ing in a fire barrier wa ll for up to 1 hour.

Dampers
Openings in a fire wall, ceiling , or floor ma y have to be prot ected with a fire damp -
er or combin ation fire/sm oke damp er. These damp ers are m ounted in h eavy-ga ug e
metal sleeves, which require cleara nc es aro und them to permit free expansion of th e
damp er and its sleeve in or der not to bind th e mechani sm and int erfere with its prop er
op erati on . The perim eter is fitted with m etal angle s, which keep th e damp er in place
during th e fire and help to seal off the required gap around them. Dampe rs sho uld be
inspec ted, cleaned, and tested for prop er opera tion at leas t once every 4 years . Fire
damper s are listed in accordance with UL 555, Fire Dampers.
Penetrations of ceilings that are part of fire -resistive floor/ce iling or roof/ceiling
assembli es requir e ceilin g damp ers. Ceilin g dampe rs are differe nt from fire damp ers in
that th ey also retard th e passage of he at and not just flam e. Ceiling dampers are listed
in acco rdan ce with UL 555C, Ceiling Damp ers.
Fir e damper s are effective in lim itin g th e passage of flam e, and ceilin g damp ers are
effective in limiting the pa ssage of b oth flame and heat, but n eith er is very effective at
limiting th e passage of sm oke. Sm oke damp ers or combination fire/sm oke dam pe rs are
necessary to protect smoke barr ier penetrati ons. These dampers mu st b e arra nged to
close on the dete ction of smok e. NFPA 72® provide s guid ance for th e proper app lica-
tion of smok e detectors for both early detecti on and proper contro l of these dampers.
This app roac h will limit sm oke migration within buildin gs thro ugh th e du ct system s.
Smo ke dam pers are listed in acco rd anc e wit h UL 555S, L eakage Rat ed Damp ers for Use
in Smoke Contro l Systems. Co mbin ation dampers are listed und er both of th e app licable
categories .
Fire and ceiling damp ers can fail to close prop erly if the airfl ow throu gh them is
not stopped prior to th eir operat ion. In suc h systems, th ese damp ers should be spe-
cifically listed for dynamic ope ration. Smoke and combin ation fire/s m oke damp ers
will always be dynamic operatio n damp ers, because they are opened an d closed wit h
electri c m otors actuate d by smoke detection. Dampers listed for dyn ami c operat ion
will state on their labe ls th e m aximum velocity of air th ro ugh th em. If m ore th an on e
damper is ganged together to pro tect an openin g, th e velocity of air must be calcul ated
169
SECTION 2: Building System s and Fire Prot ect io n System s

on the assumption that on ly the sma llest area damper is receiving th e entire airflow of
the duct.
CAUTION: The inspector must exercise extreme cauti on when testing any damper
for operation, because doing so can be very dang ero us. A sudd en powerful movement
of the mechanism can sever fingers or hands.

Smoke-Control Systems
Two recognized approaches to controlling smoke in buildings make use of the air-
conditioning system. The passive approach requires that smoke dampers be closed in
coordination with do ors and other such assemblies protecting the smoke barriers that
define th e smok e zone involved. In the active approach, the air-co nditioning system
is sometimes used to exhaust the products of combusti on to the outdoors to prevent
smoke migration from th e fire area.
Smoke-control systems are necess arily complex to test and inspect, because they
must involve architectural elements such as floors , wall s, doors, and wind ows. They
also involv e the electrical power system, the fire alarm system, the building manag e-
ment and control system, the fire spri nkl er system, and the building heating, ventila-
tion, and air-conditioning systems.

Ventilating Systems
Special ventilation system s are often needed to rem ove flammable vapo rs, corro sive
vapors or fum es, grease- laden air from cooking equipment, or combustible dusts from
an oc cup ancy . Am ong the hazards such systems present is the possibility th at sparks
generated by fans, foreign material s in the airstream, or overheat ed bearing s will ignite
th e flamm able material s or vapors.
To reduce the hazard of fire, fans should be of noncombustibl e construction, ac-
cessible for m aint en ance , and structurally sound enough to resist wear. Occupants
also should b e able to shut the fans down from a remote location. In systems used to
exhaust flammable so lids or vapors, fan blades and housing s should be constructed of
nonspa rking material to minimize the possibility of spa rk gen era tion. Electric al wiring
and m oto rs are covered in NFPA 70®, Na tional Electrical Code ®. In systems used to
exhaust corrosive vapors, it is often nec essary to use nonmetallic materials suc h as
fiber-rein forced plast ic, comm on ly but imprecisely refer red to as "fiberglass:'
CAUTION: The insp ector mu st exerc ise caution because some labo ratory exhaust
systems can con tain depo sits of extremely ha zar dous materials such as crys tallized
perchloric acid , which can produce violent explosions when sudden ly or sharpl y
disturbed. Lab oratory exhaust systems servin g fum e h oods and the like are n ot permit -
ted by NFPA 45, Standard on Fire Protection for Laboratories Using Chemica ls, to have
automa tic fire dampers incorporated into th e du ctwork. Com m onsen se extr apo lation
would imply that smoke dampers should also be exclud ed .
These specia l exhaust systems should b e ind epe nd ent of oth er ventil atin g systems
and of on e anot h er. They sh ould be vented dir ectly o utd oors or, in som e very sp ecial
cases, to approved containment or incineration systems by the short est ro ute an d
should not pass through fire wa lls. For specific hazar ds, these systems might cont ain
170
 CHAPTER 13: Air-Conditi o ning and Ventilat ing System s

special extinguish ing systems. A schedule for inspecting, testing, and cleaning the sys-
tem should be developed if one is not already in use.

MAINTENANCE
A maintenance and cleaning schedule is the key to safely operating air-conditioning
and vent ilating systems. When inspecting the equipment, the inspector should look
for signs of rust and corrosion, especially on moving parts; check the condition of the
filters and the electrical wiring; examine air ducts for accumulations of combustible
dust and lint; and recommend cleaning if necessary.
The fire protection devices assoc iated with the system, including but not limited to
fire suppression and smoke-control equipment, alarms, and fire and smoke dampers,
should be tested periodically as part of the maintenance program. If inspectors do not
witness these tests or conduct them themse lves, they shou ld ask to see the records
of the tests that were performed. Such records should be specific as to the particular
devices, both individually and the systems as an integrated whole, that were tested.
They should specify by whom and on what dates th ese tests were conducted. The
records should contain the deficiencies discovered and the remedies implemented to
remove and, if possible, avoid such deficiencies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ASHRAE/ANSI 15, Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration, American National
Standards Institute, New York, NY.
ASTM D-93, Standard Test for Flash Point by Pensky -Martens Closed Tester, American
Society for Testing and Materials, Conshohocken, PA.
Cote, A. E., ed., Fire Protection Handbook, 20th ed., NFPA, Quin cy, MA, 2008.
Cote, A. E., and Linville, J.L., eds ., Industrial Fire Ha z ards Handbook, 2nd ed ., NFPA,
Quincy, MA, 1984.
UL 181, Factory-Made Air Ducts and Connector s, Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., North-
brook, IL.
UL 555, Fire Dampers and Ceiling Dampers, 3rd ed., Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.,
Northbro ok, IL.
UL 555C, Ceiling Damp ers, Underwriters Laboratori es, Inc. , Northbrook, IL.
UL 555S, Leakage Rat ed Dampers for Use in Smoke Con trol Systems, Underwrit ers Lab-
orato rie s, Inc ., Northbrook, IL.
UL 900, Test Performance of Air Filter Units, Underwriters Labor atori es, Inc. , North -
bro ok, IL.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of curr ent editi ons of the
following documents .
NFPA 45, Standard on Fire Protection for Laboratories Using Chemicals
NFPA 70®, Natio nal Electrica l Code®
171
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

NFPA 72®, Nntionnl FireAlnrlll n11dSignalingCode

NFPA 90A, Stn11dnrd for the !11stnllntio11
of Air-Conditioning n11d\fc11tilati11g
Syste111s
NFPA 90B, Standard for the I11stallatio11of War111 Air Heating and Air-Co11ditio11i11g
Sysfellls
NFPA 91, Sta11dnrdforExhaust Systemsfor Air Conveying of \fnpors,Gnscs,Mists, {1//d
No11co111b11stible
ParlirnlaleSolids
NFPA 92, Standardfor Smoke Co11trol S/m1d11rds
NFPA 96, Sta11dardfor \fe11tilatio11
Control and Fire Protectio11of Co111111ercinl
Cooking
Operations
NFPA 101®, L!fe Safely Code®
NFPA 704, Standard Syste111for the lde11t!ficatio11
of the Hazards of Materialsfor Elller-
gency Response

172
 CHAPTER

14

SMOKE-CONTROL
SYSTEMS
NJ.ichael]. Ferreira,PE, NISFPE

Smoke -control systems are provided in many buildings as an added measure of protec-
tion over and beyond that provided by traditional fire protection systems, such as auto -
matic sprinkler and fire alarm systems. Smoke -control systems are most often required
for buildings where occupant egress can take an increased amount of time or involves
greater hazard, such as for high-rise or underground buildings. Smoke control is also
required for large-volume spaces such as atria, malls, or theaters, where high ceilings
may impede the ability of the installed sprinkler systems to activate and control or
extinguish a fire. Smukc:-wnlrol systems are therefore provided as a means to control
the large quantity of smoke that can be produced from these fires.
Smoke-control systems are often complex in design and involve various compo -
nents that include building mechanical and heating, ventilation, and afr-conditioning
(HVAC) equipment, electrical equipment, fire alarm systems, and architectural fea-
tures. Historically, two problems have plagued smoke -control systems and affected
their long -term viability as building protection systems. The first is the failure to main-
tain proper design and testing documentation for the smoke -control system over time.
The second is the failure properly to test the system to ensure that it is operable and will
function properly in the event of a fire.
Maintenance of proper design and testing documentation is critical to the long-term
functionality of a smoke -control system. Should fire inspectors seek to test a S)'Stem, it
is important that they first understand how the system was intended to operate. This
requires documentation pertaining to the original design, including design reports,
drawings, and sequences of operations . Periodic testing documentation allows the in-
spectors to assess how the system has been performing over time and whether there
has been any degradation of performance. Often, the failure to maintain this docu-
mentation hinders the ability of the fire inspector to understand the intended system
operation and to perform all of the tests that may be needed.
Inspection and testing must be performed both at the time a smoke -control sys-
tem is first i11stal1edin a building (commissioning testing) and then at predetermined
intervals over the life of the building (periodic testing). Testing may be performed
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Sy'items

by fire inspectors or an approved third party that performs the testing and provides
documentation of the testing for the fire inspectors to review. Too often, periodic
testing is neglected and systems are tested infrequently, if at all, after the building is
commissioned .

DESIGN OBJECTIVES
Over time, smoke-contro l design objectives have evolved from the use of approaches
that involved simple prescriptive features or ones based on prespecified air change rates
to the use of approaches based on more scientific calculations that anticipate and re-
spond to the expected behavior of the smoke . For example, early codes specified that
break-out windows be provided at the perimeter of a high-rise building on each floor
to allow the fire department manually to open the windows to vent smoke. Active me -
chanical systems were often designed to provide a specified air change rate, most often
six air changes per hour , to vent smoke , irrespect ive of the particular geometry of the
space or the fuel load contained within. More recent codes and standards have pro-
gressed to the point where airflow rates to pressurize a space or exhaust smoke within
a space are determined as a function of design fire size or the properties of the smoke
being produced.
Even in the more recent codes and standards, there has been some confusion as to
what objectives a smoke -control system was designed to meet. Terms such as "smoke
control" and "smoke management" were interchangeably used along with more ob-
jective-based language such as pressurization/exhaust/airflow systems. National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) standards used the term Slilokecontrol to refer to pres -
surization systems, as defined in NFPA 92A, Reco111111e11ded Pmclicefor Smoke-Co11lrol
Systems, and the term smoke 111nnnge111e11t to refer to those systems designed to protect
large-volume spaces including atria, as defined in NFPA 92B, Smoke lvln11nge1ne11t Sys-
teins i11Malls, Atrin, and Lnrge Areas. The NFPA Committee on Smoke -i\ilanagemen t
Systems has recently clarified the terminology pertaining to the various types of
smoke-control systems in the new standard NFPA 92, which combines the previously
separate NFPA 92A and NFPA 92B. NFPA 92 uses the overarching term smoke control
to define any active or passive system used to mitigate the impact or spread of smoke.
Two different subclassifications of smoke-control systems were also delineated and are
referred to as s111oke-co11tai11111ent
and snwke-111mwgement systems.

Smoke-Containment Systems
A smoke-containment system is defined as an active or passive system designed to
contain smoke to a single smoke-control zone, the zone of fire origin in the build -
ing. Active systems use mechanical airflow to create pressure differentials across zone
boundaries to contain smoke. Passive systems use smoke-tight barriers to contain the
smoke, generally with no pressure differential impo sed across the barrier.
Examples of smoke -containment systems includ e zoned smoke -control systems in
high -rise buildings, which may include a combination of stair pressurization systems,
elevator pressurization S}'Stems, corridor supply/exhaust, or floor supply/exhaust to
174
 CHAPTER14: Smoke-Control Systems

Stair~~-~
Pressurization
Fan

Plenum

. , Exhaust Dampers (+)

': Closed

Exhaust Plenum
Shaft

xhaust Dampers
Closed

. , Exhaust Dampers (+)

; : Closed

14·1Smoke-control system using positive pressurization to contain the fire to thP fire
FIGURE
floor.

contain smoke, usually to a single floor. Passive smoke -containment systems are often
found in hospital buildings, where two separate smoke compartments are provided on
each floor, separated by a smoke barrier, to allow for horizontal relocation of patients
in the event of a fire.
Two ways to design pressurization systems to provide containment to a single floor
of a building are shown in FIGURE 14-1and FIGURE 14-2.A positive pressurization sys-
tem, where air is supplied to all spaces adjacent to the zone of fire origin, is depicted
in Figure 14- 1. A negative pressurization system, where smoke is exhausted from the
zone of fire origin to create a negative pressure with respect to adjacent zones, is de-
picted in Figure 14· 2. Although both approaches will contain smoke when the system
airflows are properly balanced, the negative pressurization system has the benefit of
removi ng smoke from the building.

Smoke-Management Systems
A smoke-management system is defined as an active or passive system designed to
manage the exposure of occupants within the zone of fire origin to the smoke from
a fire. Smoke -management systems are found in malls, atria, and other large -volume
spaces . Active smoke-management systems use mechanical ventilation to exhaust
175
 SECTION 2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

J 8~cfm !

~~Ij l
-------;
f
111
~_ _
1,1
_ Critical Smoke
Layer Interface
111 11
1
II II
1,1 '1'1 ;t::
SECOND
FLOOR
'II
11
II ~
Id ;s:::
1i' ~ --"<! ---- • •-----a 0 ---- 1:r -- ~ 1/1 r--
11 111 N

I
GROUND
FLOOR I
I
-------------------- ~ ----------- - ---------------
~~ ==-===c!d=== ~ ~

14-2Smoke-contro l system using negat ive pressurization to contain the fire to the fire
FIGURE
noor.

smoke from the zone of origin, whereas passive S)'Stems use roof vents to vent smoke
passively without the need for mechanical systems. A mechanical smoke-control sys-
tem designed to keep a constant smoke layer height above the highest occupied floor of
the atrium is shown in FIGURE 14-3.
For many years, the most common design approach for atrium-type spaces was to
achieve smoke management by keeping smoke above the height of occupants for a
predetermined period of time. Recently, tenability systems have also been recognized
as acceptable by NFPA 92B. Tenability systems allow occupant exposure to smoke pro-
vided that minimum safe criteria can be achieved with respect to visibility conditions,
smoke temperatur e, and smoke toxicity. The advent of complicated computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis tools such as Fire Dynamics Simulator has enabled the
evaluation of the performance of tenability smoke -control systems .

SMOKE-CONTROL SYSTEMEQUIPMENT
Smoke-control systems involve various components that include building mechani-
cal/HVAC equipment, electrical equipment, fire alarm systems, and architectural
features. Smoke-control equipment includes not only end-of-line devices such as fans,
dampers, and operable doors/windows but also the means of initiating the system and
the control panels used to operate equipment and to monitor and display equipment
status.
176
 CHAP ER 14: Smoke Conuol Systems

Exhaust

Stai r
Pressurization
Fan

Plenum

: Exhaust Dampers No Supp ly

; • Closed

Plenum

Exhaust Dampers No Supply

Open H

No Supply
: Exhaust Dampers
; · Closed

FIGURE14·3Smoke-control system using smoke management within the zone of rire origin to
maintain smoke 6 ft ( 1.8 m) above the second-noor level.

Smoke Barriers
A smoke barrier is a continuous wall, floor, or ceiling assemb ly that is designed and
constructed to restrict the movement of smoke in conjunction with a smoke -control
system. Smoke barriers may or may not also have a fire-resistance rating . Smoke -tight
construction is used to limit the potential for air movement across the smoke barrier.
Openings such as doors, HVAC ductwork pene tration s, and other utility penetrations
are prot ected by supplemental means to inhibit the passage of smoke. Doors are pro -
vided with supp lement al gaskets and drop sea ls to make them tigh ter than non-smoke-
rated fire doors. HVAC ductwork penetrations have a combinatio n fire/smoke damper
(FSD) installed where the ductwork passes through the smoke barrier. Other utility
penetrations are typically firestopped where they pass through the smoke barrier to
prohibit the passage of smoke. When testing a smoke -control system, the primary
means for inspecting a smoke barrier is via visual inspec tion, although sometimes the
smoke barrier leakage is quantified using a door fan test or other testing approach.

Initiating Devices
The smoke -control system may be initiated by a number of difterent devices, typically
tied in through the building fire alarm system. Area smoke detectors, beam detectors,
or sprinkl er water -flow switches are common initiating devices. Manual pull-stations are
used only when it is clear that the correct sequence will be identified, such as for a building
177
 SECTIO N 2: Building Systerns and I ire Protection Systems

with only stair pressurization where it is desirable for the system to be activated regardless
of the fire location in the building. Manual pull-stations are not frequently used for zoned
smoke-control systems where it would be possible to activate the wrong sequence depend-
ing on the location of the pull-station with respect to the location of the fire.
Testing of initiating devices most often occurs during testing of the building fire
alarm system. Typically,only a small number of initiating devices (one to two per zone)
are retested in combination with smoke-control system testing. Testing is performed to
verify that representative devices activate the proper smoke-control sequence and that
once a sequence is active, initiating devices in other zones will not cause the system to
realign, because it is desirable to stay in the alignment for the zone of first alarm.

Fans
i'vlechanical suppl)' and/o r exhaust fans are used to induce a pressure differential (for a
smoke-containme nt system) or exhaust smoke (for a smoke-management system) and
are a criti al compon ent for mo t smoke-control ysterns. Passive smoke-control sys-
tems do exist that rely entirely upon containment via smoke barriers to achieve smoke
control, but the vast majority of smoke-control systems use some sort of mechanical
fan to operate.
For roof-mounted fans, it is important to inspect the orien tation of the various sup-
pl)' and exhaust fans to verify that there is no potential to reintrodu ce smoke into the
building because the smoke exfomst outlet is too close to a supply fan inlet.
Fans used for smoke management should incorporate appropria te safety leatures for
their intended use. 1l1e fans that typically require high temperature ratings when used
to exJrnustsmoke are required to be served by both primary and secondary/emergency
power and have redundant belts where applicable for belt-driven fans. It is critical that
fans be provided with a means for positivelyverifying operation of the fan. This may be
accomplished using pressure, flow, or current sensors downstream of any fan discon-
nect switches.

Dampers
Dampers are devices used in ventilation system ductwork for the purpo ses of isolating
or directing airflow. HVAC systems often use volume damp ers to balance or modulate
airflow for the purposes of providing heating and cooling. Smoke dampers are a spe-
cial kind of damper that is gasketed to prohibit the passage of hot smoke across the
damper. Combination FSDs are often used where the damper is located at a penetra-
tion through a rated fire barrie r or smoke barrier. FSDs have an integrated thermal
element that is capable of causing closure of the damper when exposed to a specified
temperature threshold. Smoke dampers may also have an integrated smoke detector to
cause closure of the damper when smoke is present without requir.ing the damper to
be remotely controlled to close using some other initiating device. Smoke dampers (or
FSDs) may also be used at shaft wall enclosures or in air transfer grills between smoke-
control zones to close off an air transfer opening.
Damper position is typically monitored using an end switch mounted where the
damp er blade meets the damper frame or using a proximity switch monitored on the
178
 CHAPTER 14: Smoke-Control Systems

operating arm of the damper. It is critical that an FSD used for smoke control be ca-
pable of providing feedback with respect to both the open and closed position of the
damper.

Operable Doors and Windows

Door, windows, or shutters may be designed to close upon an alarm to maintain
the smoke tightness of a desig nat ed smoke barrier. Doors or windows may also
be desig n ed to open to prov ide a source of outside make -up air for an atrium
smo ke-control system. Operable doors designed to close 111the event of an alarm
are typically held open by magnetic hold -open devices that close th e door when
urrenl is ut off to the magnet. TI1ese devices are relalivei)' eas}' lu lest and commis -
sion. Operable shutters may also be used to close off vertical openings or other large
open ings to create a smoke barrier separation. Doors, windows, and exterior lou -
vers may be opened upon alarm to allow make -up air to enter a buildi ng. Doors are
typi ally operated with devices similar to au tomatic door opening access devices.
For all operable devices used for make -up air, it is cri tical that th e position of the
opening be capable of being monitored to ens ur e that it opens properly in the event
of an alarm.

Control Panels
Depend ing on th e complexity of the smoke -co ntrol system, a number of different types
of control panels may be involved in the proper operation of the systen1. For the sim -
plest type of smoke -control system, perhaps a small atrium with one exhaus t fan and
one supply fan, control of the system is often provided directly at the fire alarm con-
trol panel (FACP), with switches made available to operate the devices on the FACP
along with the appropriate feedback indication (FIGURE 14-4).For simple systems, the
requirement for a separate graphic fire fighter's control panel (FFCP) is often waived.
1he FACP is always present, because this panel is required to monitor the fire alarm
system components for the building. The FACP is often capable of performing simple
functions, such as turning on atrium or stair pressurization fans.

------------,----------
1 I I
I ---~ I I
I 'V
. I
Magnehc1
Release I Smoke
I Detector
I
'V
I
Corridor
Smoke Door I Smoke Damper
I

FACP
(Alarm)

FIGURE
14·4Simp le passive smoke-contro l system monitored by an FACP.
179
 SECTION2: Buildi ng Syste ms and Fire Protection Systems

Stair Press . Fan

Atrium

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I (Atrium)
I
I
I
I
I
j I

1-------- 1------ --- __ I___ ___ ___ I

I ,----------,
I Smoke Fire
I Control Fighter's
L
FACP
Panel Control
(UUKL) Panel

FIGURE 14-5Complex active smoke-control system using smoke-control panel and FFCPin
addition to the FACP.

For a more complex smoke-control system, a separate smoke -control panel is

provided to provide the necessary input/output components to operate all of the
components of the system (FIGURE 14-5).For these complex systems, a graphic FFCP is
most often required to allow operation of the smoke-control system by the responding
fire department personnel. The smoke -control panel is typically the panel having an
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) UUKL listing enabling the performance of the weekly
self-test of system components.
For very large buildings with compli-
cated mechanical systems, a computer-
based building management system
(BiVIS)is often provided to manage the
operation of the system in its various
heating /cooling modes. The BMS system
is often programmed to manage the
funct ions of the smoke-control system.
This requires that ther e be a supervised
connection between the FACP and
BJ'v[Ssystem to hand off signals from
the initiating devices that are part of the
fire alarm system to activate the smoke-
control system and to hand off signals
confirming the status of devices to dis-
play on the FFCP. A typical graphic FFCP,
with hands -oft~auto (H -0 -A) switch
control and status indication , is shown in FIGURE 14·6Graphic FFCPwith H-O-A switch
FIGURE 14-6. control and status indication.
180
 CHAPTER 14: Smoke-Control Systems

COMMISSIO NING TESTING

1l1e intent of the smoke-co ntrol system commiss ioning testing is to ensur e that th e
system meets its intended funct ion as a life safety system, per th e requirements of
the codes and standards, pr ior to th e buildin g being pe rmitted to open to the public.
The pe rson(s) condu cting the commi ssion ing testing may vary depending on the
complexity of the system des ign. For some simple systems, the installing con trac tor
may test and certify the system at the completion of construction, and then the fire
in spector may test the system. For more complicated systems, indep ende nt testing may
be performed by a third party to certify the proper operation of the system. 1l1e result s
of the third-party testing are then typically reviewed by the fire inspecto r or other au-
thor ity having juri sd iction.

Compo nent Inspect ion

Compone nt verification invo lves inspec ting all com pon ents of the smo ke-control
system and making sure they exist and are installed in accordance with their design
spec ification s. 1l1is stage of commissio n ing can be conducted as soon as the physical
installation of the equipment is complete. All components and subsystems that are part
of the smoke-control system should be identified by manufacturer, model number, and
building-specific mark numbe r. TI1e installation of each smoke-control system com-
ponent shou ld be checke d agains t its pro duct data shee t to verify prop er installation.
Passive smoke barriers shoul d be inspected, and penetrat ions shou ld be properly
sea led. Outside air inle ts and ou tlets shou ld be loca ted and in spected to verify that the
risk of smoke and fire being reintrodu ced into the bu ilding is minimal. Standby pow er
systems should be visual!)' inspected to verify their compliance with the applicable
building codes.

Functional Testing
1he goal of equipmen t func tion testing is to verify that the smoke -management sys-
tem is opera tional, properly supe rvised, and given an accurate status indica tion on the
FFCP. To perform functional testing , the smoke -contro l equipment is usually manually
activated from the FFCP. Visual inspection is then performed to verify that each fan,
damper, or auxili,lr) ' device responds appropriately.
For smoke barriers, operable components that require testing and inspection in-
clude door latches , gaskets, and drop seals. It is imp ortant to verify that operable doors
are capable of clos ing prope rl)' when subjec ted to the design press ur e d ifferen tial cre -
ated by a smoke-co ntrol system .
Fans used for smoke man agement sho ul.d be tested for airflow, cu rrent, and voltage
by a test and balance (TAB) contractor. Testing sho uld be performed to verify the
proper supervision of fans by disconnecting power to the fans and confirming that the
proper "Fault" condition is d isplayed on th e FFCP. Jt should be verified that the fan can
be con trolle d by the FFCP and that the correct ind ication of the fan's sta tus is given.
Finally, it shou ld be verified that fans are activa ted within the time required by the loca l
building regu lations.
181
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand fire ProtectionSystems

Dampers and operable doors/windows that are included in the smoke system se-
quence must be in spected to ensure that they operate properly. 'TI1eresponse of each
damper, door, and so forth, sho uld be visually checked to confirm that it has operated
properly and that the appropriate status indication is provided on the FFCP. The time
to operat ion of th e devices should conform to the requirement of the local building
code. Ver ify that dampers and doors are properly superv ised by lifting a lead or by
intentionalJy misaligning a damper/door al a few random locat ions . The FFCP panel
should provide the proper fault indi cat ion for each test.
For the UUKL listed smoke-con trol panel, the automatic weekly self-test sequence may
be tested by manipulating the panel timer to force the automatic actuation of the testing
sequence. Once the testing ha bee n initiated, verify the proper operation of the self-test
by first running the test with all components in proper working order. TI1eself-test should
then report completion of the test with no faults identified. lhe test should then be re-
peated with mult iple components purposely put in a fault cond ition , verifying that the test
correct !)' identifies the faults. Test the reportin g function of the panel b)' viewing the gen-
eration of a report and, if requir ed, the transmittal of a trouble signal to the central station.

Sequence of Operations Testing

TI1e purpose of the sequence of operations testing is to verify that the au tomat ic func-
tions of the smoke-management system function as designed. The smoke-management
system mus t properly align in response to a representative fire event tr .iggered by an
automatic initiati ng device.
Because smoke -management systems are freq uent ly composed of many compo-
nents that require a series of events to occur for proper performance, an event matrix
is often created to facilitate the process . An example sequence of operations matrix is
shown in TABLE 14-1.
Sequence of operations testing is performed to demonstrate that the smoke-
management system aligns properly to respond to the various types of alarms . Given
the initiation of a representative number of automatic devices test, visually verify and
confirm with the FFCP that each fan, damper, and door controlled b)' the smoke-
management system aligns proper ly. Altering the status of randomly selected
smoke -management equipment should result in a "Fault" condition on the FFC P. It
should also be verified that the activation of an alarm in other areas of the building
does not cha nge th e status of the sm oke-control system unless specifically intended to
do so per the design. During sequence of operations testing, it should also be verified
that the FFCP properly overrides the smoke management after automat ic activation.

Performance Testing
System performance testin g is the process where the code-required performance
parameters of the design are measured. An examp le would be the measurement of
differential pressures across a smoke zone to ensme that they exceed the minimum
required design pres sures. Testin g and balancing of mechanical systems are also per -
formed to ver ify that system airflows are in accordance with the design. For atrium
systems, where S)'Stem performance is based on a calcu lated layer height or CFD
182
 CHAPT R 14: Smoke-Con1rol Systems

assessment of tenability, testing and balancing of system airflows should be performed

to verify that the mechanical system airflows meet or exceed the minimum airflows
identified in the design report.
For zoned smoke-control systems, one zone should be put into the smoke-control
mode, and the pressure differences at the boundaries of that zone should be measured.
After smoke-control operation in that zone has been deactivated, another zone should
be tested in the same manner. TI1isshould be repeated until all smoke zones have been
tested. System with automatic actiYation should be activated by putting an appropri -
ate initiating device into alarm. All of the potential sequences of operations need to
be tested. Wherever high pressures are measured, door opening force measurements
should be performed to verify that maximum allowable door opening forces are not
exceeded.
For pressurized stairwelJs, pressure difforences across each stairwell door are typi-
cally measured with all stairwell doors closed (FIGURE 14-7). Door opening forces
are also measured on each floor accessing the stair (FIGURE14-8). For compensating
)'Stems, pressur sen ors are sometim es installed to measure the pressure differences
between the stair and adjacent spaces (e.g., corr idor) on multiple floors. The fan speed
is then adjusted using a variable frequency drive to ensure that a minimum pressure is
achieved on all floors. The intent of using a compensating S)'Stemis to account for the

FIGURE 14-7Measuring differential pressure between stairway and adjacent zone with digital
pressure gauge.
183
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Sprinkler Water Flow X X X X l\ orm al Open Nor mal Open Open Open Ope n Open On
Smoke Detector X X X X l\ormal Open Normal Open Open Open Open Open On
Elevato r Lobby Smoke Detecto r X X X X X l\ orma l Open Normal Ope n Open Open Open Ope n On
First Floor
Sprinkler Water Flow X X X X l\orma l Open Normal Open Open Open Open Open On
Smoke Detect or X X X X Normal Open Normal Ope n Open Open Open Open On
Elevator Lobby Smoke Detector X X X X X l\ormal Open Norma l Open Open I Open Open Open On
 / \
Second Floor
Sprinkler Water Flow X X X X Normal Open Normal Open Open Open Open Open On
Smoke Detector X X X X Normal Open Normal Open Open Open Open Open On
Elevator Lobby Smoke Detector X X X X X Normal Open Normal Open Open Open Open Open On
Third Floor
Sprinkler Water Flow X X X X Normal Open Normal Open Open Open Open Open On
Smoke Detector X X X X Normal Open Normal Open Open Open Open Open On
Elevator Lobby Smoke Detector X X X X X Normal Open Normal Open Open Open Open Open On
Fourth Floor
Sprinkler Water Flow X X X X Normal Open Normal Open Open Open Open Open On
Smoke Detector X X X X Normal Open Normal Open Open Open Open Open On
Elevator Lobby Smoke Detecto r X X X X X Normal Open Normal Open Open Open Open Open On
Fifth Floor
Sprinkler Water Flow X X X X Off Closed On Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Normal
Smoke Detector X X X X Off Closed On Open Closed Closed Closed Closed Normal
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 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

FIGURE 14·8Measuring door opening force for stair door under pressureusing spring-loaded
door force gauge.

impact of sta ck effect. When performing commissioning testing for a compen sating
stair pressuri zatio 11system , it is important to test all potentia l failure modes. In general,
it is more acceptable to have a lower pressure difference in the stair than to overpres -
surize the sta ir, causing excessive door opening forces that imp ede occupant access to
the stairs .
Where elevator shaft pressurization is used, it is typical to use this method with
elevators recalled to the floor of elevator recall to mi11imize the impact of piston effect
on the pressuri zation systems . Pressures across the elevator doors shou ld be made after
elevator reca ll. Tt is important to verify the prop er operation of the elevator doors un -
der the maximum design pressure for the system, including the impact of stack effect.
Manufacturer data on the operation of elevator doors unde r pressure are not readily
available; thus it is important to ensure that door s will operate properly under pres sure
to allow occupant s to exit the elevator cabs.
Demonstrat i.on testi11gis sometimes performed to provide a visual confirmation that
the smoke-management system functions as designed. Visible smoke from a smoke
generato r or smoke "bomb" has been commo11ly used as a means for testing the perfor -
mance of smoke -control systems .
"Cold" smok e testing and "hot " smoke testing have been used in the past to test
many smoke -control systems. Cold smoke testing in high-ceiling spaces has several
186
 CHAPTER14: Srnoke-Conlrol Syslems

limitations. Because the cold smoke has limited buoyancy, visibility conditions at vari -
ous points within the atrium may vary substantially from those expected in real fires.
'The quantity of cold smoke produced would not adequately represent real fire condi-
tions, neither in the amount of buoyanC)' produced nor the optical properties of the
smoke. At best, cold smoke testing in high-ceiling spaces serves as an indication of the
direction of smoke movement because of mechanical smoke exhaust from the space.
Smoke layer position cannot be adequately determined via cold smoke testing .
A testing method known as a "hot smok e test" has been used to show local authori-
ties that atrium smoke -management systems cause smoke to be evacuated as intended.
An example of a hot smoke test is an apparatus used for standard atrium smoke -
management systems where air is heated by a gas burner to produce a buoyant plume.
Cold smoke in the form of smoke bombs is introduced near the base of the plume, so
it may become entrained by the buoyant air to more close!)' simulate smoke movement
generated by an actual fire.
The general intent of demonstration testin g is to provide a visual confirmation that
a smoke-management system is functioning as designed . However, caution must be
taken that the testing method is an accurate simulation of the conditions that would be
produced by a fire condition. If demonstration testing is used, a detailed test methodol -
ogy should be developed that describes the information to be obtained from the test,
the assumptions implied, and the applicabilit) ' of the final results.

Documentation
At the completion of testing, a comprehensiv e commissioning test report should be
prepared that documents the results of the testing. 1he methodology used for test -
ing during commissioning must be clearly dornmented, explaining what constitutes
as pass or fail condition. The report should include a summary of the results obtained,
a compilation of all inspection reports and any noncompliance issues, a collection of
testing and inspection logs, data sheets for all of the inspected components, and sign -
off of the special inspection team members and designer of record.

PERIODIC TESTING
Periodic testing refers to testing performed over the life of a building to verify that
the installed smoke -control S}'Stemshave the capability of operating as originally de-
signed. Periodic testing includes manual testing that involves the ongoing inspection
and maintenance of the smoke -control system at recommended intervals throughout
the life of the building . It also includes automatic testing that may be performed at a
higher frequency to verify that integral equipment is functional and operational.

Manual Testing
Manual testing is crucial to ensure the long-term functionality of a smoke-control
system and life safety protection afforded by that system. NFPA 92 recommends that
dedicated systems be tested at least semi -annually, and nondedicated S)'Stems are only
recommended to be tested annually. Dedicated systems are smoke -control systems
187
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

and compone nts that are ins talled for the sole purpose of providing smoke control,
and upon activation, these systems op era te specifical ly to perform the smoke-co ntrol
functio n. Nondedicated systems are smoke-control system s and comp onents that are
used to provide both typica l HVAC functions and smoke-con trol functions. Because
dedicated systems will be act ivated only during a fire event or when tested, they require
more frequ ent testing . Less freque nt testing requirements exist for nondedicated sys-
tems based on the assumption that pro blems are more Iikely to be detected by build ing
occupants who notice a failure in the H VAC system that is used on a dail}' basis.
Manua l testing should always include witnessed opera tion of all system compo-
nents, usually performed by manipulating devic es (e.g., fans, damp ers, operab le doors/
windows) via the FFCP. Pri nted test report s from the automatic weekly self-testing
should be reviewed to iden tify inoperable or problematic system components.
For complex zoned pr essu rization smoke -contro l systems or atrium smoke-
management systems, S)'Stem documentation should be reviewed to determ ine the lo-
cation of smoke -control zone bound aries in the building . The sequen ce of operat ions
(in table or narrative form) shou ld then be reviewed to verify the intended operation
of devices for an alar m in a given zone. Once an understanding is developed of the in-
tend ed operation of the system , a walkdown sho uld be performed to inspect the sm oke
barr iers at all of the smoke-con trol zone boundari es. The first thing to verify is whether
all of the bou nda ries still exist in their intend ed locations. If a boundary has change d,
it may be necessary to flag this and verify that the smoke-co ntrol system function has
not been compromised . Cha nges would then have to be made to the system to account
for the change in zone boundaries.
Once system devices are manually verified to be operable via the FFCP, individual
sequences for each smoke -con trol zone should be executed to verify that all devices
align properly. This may be performed by activating a system via a smoke detector or
another initiating device . For a complex smoke -contr ol system where zoned system
ac tivation is provided on the FFCP, the sequence should be verified both via an initiat-
ing device and manually via the FFCP. When it ha s been ver ified that a zone is aligned
according to its proper sequence, verification of press ures and door opening forces
may occur via locall}' measuring the pressure and door open ing forces at multiple loca-
tions at the zone boundary, including all door s leading to the exterior or to adjacent
smoke -control zones.
For man)' buildin gs, pressurized stairwells may be the only smoke -cont rol systems
installed in the building . For simp le constant speed pressuriza tion systems, manual
test ing can be performed by simply initiating an alarm, veri.fying th at the fans opera te,
and mea suring pressure d ifferentials and door opening forces at the doors. For mo re
comp lex .modulating systems, care must be given not on ly to verify that the press ure
differentials are in the reqt1ircd range when doors are closed, but also that fans are
not programme d to overpressurize the stair when a door is held open for a prolonged
period of time, as may occur during occupant evacuation.1l1is could inadvertently cause
doors lo slam with the potential for occupant injury or for doors to be overpressurized
to create excessive door opening forces for a per iod of time once the door is closed.
Where pressurized stai rwells exist in combination with other pressurize d stairwells
and/or elevator pressurization S)•stems or as part of a zoned smoke -contro l system, it is
188
 CHAPTER14: Smoke-Control Systems

imperative that pressure and door opening forces be verified for all possible sequences
of operations. A number of different pressure states may exist. 'fl1e stair pressurization
system alone exerts one set of pressures on the stair doors. Other systems may exert
additional complementary or opposing forces on doors that affect whether the pressure
exceeds the required minimums or allowable maximums on the door.
For modulating systems where pressure sensors are used to control fan speeds to
deliver the desired pressure, sensor rnlibration must be verified during manual testing
of pressurized stairwells. Sensors that are beyond their calibration date should be sent
out to an accredited laboratory for recalibration.
Elevator pressurization S)'Stems are tested similarly to stair pressurization systems
with regard to the testing of individual pieces of equipment or the hierarchy of se-
quences. It is important to verify individually that elevator doors are capable of open-
ing and closing properly when subjected to the design overpressure.
1l1e performance of an atrium smoke -control system is prinrnril)' dependent on the
exhaust and supply airflows from and to the zone . 1l·1ese are verified during the initi al
commissioning process by a certified TAB contra ctor. Unless an impairment to the
system that may have an impact on design airflows is suspected as a result of inspect -
ing the fans and ductwork, it may not be necessary to perform TAD testing during
every periodic test. It is often sufficient to review the printed results from the automatic
self-tests, which should verify that all fans are operating within their intended range.
Proper operation of all exterior doors/windows used to provide make-up air from the
exterior should also be visually verified.

Automatic Testing
Unlike fire alarm systems, dedicated smoke-control system components (e.g., fans
and dampers) are dormant until the need arises that requires their function. Fault -
ed wiring or inoperative equipment adversely affecting the intended smoke-control
objective may go undetected until the S)•stem is directed to operate. Electrical moni -
toring methods do not work for pneumatic, hydraulic, and nonaddressable equipment
interoperability typically used to activate smoke-control dampers, fans, and so forth. In
addition, the fans and dampers themselves are listed only according to safety concerns
rather than according to reliability standards applied to fire alarm equipment.
To address this concern, UL 864, Co11trolUnits and Accessoriesfor Fire Alarm
Systems,incorporates a section specifically for smoke -control applications. The equip-
ment listed for smoke-control applications carries the four letter U UKL product clas-
sification. The primary functionality provided by UUKL listed control equipment is a
self-test function that allows performance testing of devices periodical!)' to provide the
end -to-end verification of component functionality. TI1e requirement for performing
the weeklr self-test represents the most significant recent impact on the reliability of
smoke-control S)'Stems over the life of a building.
UL 864 specifically requires that, for dedicated equipment, the automatic self-
test function shall be capable of being performed at least on a weekly bnsis. UL 864
specifies that both audible and visual trouble signal s shall be annunciated at the FFCP
identifying any function that failed to perform as intended. No specific annunciation
189
 SECTION 2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

is mandated when each function operated as intended. Verification shall include posi -
tive confirmation of actuation, testing, manual override, the presence of power down-
stream of all disconnects and, through a preprogrammed weekly test sequence, report
of abnormal conditions audibly, visually, and by printed report .
For the weekly self-test to be performed, sensors need to be in place to enable
monitoring of the performance of the component being tested . The type of sensor
used depends upon the type of component being moni tored . For fans, dampers, and
automatic doors/windows, the se sensors serve as the means for providing supervision
of the device and meet the requirement for verification and presence of power, con -
sistent with th e intent of both NFPA 92A and NFPA 92B, as well as the new NFPA 92
standa rd .

Documentat ion
Testing data (e.g., test procedure, measur ed pressure differentials and door opening
forces, environmental conditions at the tim e of testing) should be recorded for all
manual tests to provide a baseline for comparison for future manual tests. Printed
logs fron1 the UUKL automatic weekly self-test should also be maintained to establish
a history of component functionality during these tests. Testing documentation for
all manual and automatic tests should be maintained in a location easily accessible to
fire inspectors.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
UL 864, Control U11itsfor Fire-ProtectiveSignalingSysten1s,Underwriters Laboratories,
Inc ., Northbrook, IL.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 92, Standard.forS111oke
Co11tro/Syste111s
NFPA 92A, Recommended Practicefor S111oke-Contro/ Syste111s
NFPA 92B, Smoke lvlanagementSystems in 1\tfa/1s,
Atria, and Lmge Areas

190
 CHAPT ER

\.
15
FlRE ALARM AND
CARBON MONOXIDE
SYSTEMS
Lee Richardson

Fire alarm and carb on m onoxid e (CO ) systems are vit al to minimi zing life and prop-
erty losses durin g fires. They p rov ide early fire det ect ion, warn occ up an ts to evac uate
or relocate, initi ate em ergenc y cont ro l (fire safety) functi ons, and n otify the fire depart -
m ent to resp ond .
This chapt er provi des fire insp ection p erso nn el with an overview of fire alarm and
CO system featur es and an und erstandin g of th e key in specti on p oint s n eeded to
ensur e th at fire alarm and CO system in stallations are in compli an ce with applicable
codes and stan dar ds. Alth ough thi s chapter highlights how to determin e th e app licable
regulations th at apply and m ay, th erefor e, be helpful to plan examin ers, it assum es th at
th ese regul ation s have already been identifi ed and th at th e in spec tor has been prov ided
with approved plans.
This chapter assum es that the inspector's role consists of (1) m akin g visual inspections
of th e installation sufficient to ensure th at it compli es with both th e plans approved by th e
plan examin er and the installation req uirem ents of NFPA 72®, National Fire Alarm and
Signa ling Code, an d NFPA 720, Standa rd fo r the Installation of Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Detection and Warning Equipmen t, and (2) witn essing satisfactory acceptance tests of th e
system sufficient to ensure that the system is installed and opera ting properly. Note that
any functiona l testing that is perfor med mu st be done by qu alified inspec tion and test
perso nn el in accorda n ce with NFPA 72® and NFPA 720. References and inform ation in
this chapter concernin g NFPA 72® are based on the 2010 edition.
There are ma ny simil arities between fire alarm system s and CO systems. Althou gh
m any of th e con cep ts for fire alarm system s present ed be low also app ly to CO sys-
tem s, m ore spec ific in form ation on CO sys tem s is provide d at th e en d of this chapter.
Refere nces an d in format ion in thi s chapte r conc ern ing N FPA 720 are bas ed on the
20 12 edi tion.
SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

FIREALARM SYSTEMOVERVIEW
System Components
In a simplified view, fire alarm systems are typica lly composed of initiating devices,
notification appliances, and contro l units. Initiating devices include manua l fire alarm
boxes (pull-stations), smoke detectors, heat detectors, water-flow devices, supervisory
devices, and other types of detection devices that provide input signals to the system.
Notificatio n appliances include horns, speakers, strobes, text displays, and other types
of appliances that provide audible, visible, or tactile outputs. Control units, which are
used to process input and output signa ls, can be configured as a single unit or as a
combination of several units interconnected to act as a sing le system . In add ition, these
units may provide outputs to operate emergency control functions (also called fire safe-
ty functions), such as fan control, smoke damper operation, and door ho lder re lease.
See the Emergency Contro l Functions section later in th is chapter.

Types of Systems
Fire alarm systems installed in buildings or facilities are known as protected premises
(local) fire alarm systems. Protected premises are defined as "the physica l location
protected by a fire alarm system" and can be a sing le bui lding or mu ltiple bui ldings
(such as in a campus arrangement). Protected premises fire alarm systems are further
categorized in NFPA 72® as either building fire alarm systems or dedicated function
fire alarm systems. A building fire alarm system is a system that serves the genera l
needs of a building or buildings and provides occupant notification or fire department
notification or both. A dedicated function fire alarm system is a system installed spe -
cifically to perform emergency control functions where a b uilding fire alarm system
is not required. The distinction between these two types of systems is made because
a dedication function fire alarm system is not required to include the features that
would typically be required for a building fire alarm system. For example, a d ed icated
function fire alarm system may be installed for the sole purpo se of providing supervi-
sion where a sup ervised automatic sprinkler system is required. In that situation, the
fire alarm system is not required to include all the features that might oth erwise b e
required for a building fire alarm sys tem, such as occupant notification.
Protected premis es fire alarm systems are also categorized as "requir ed" systems or
"nonrequired" systems. Required systems are th ose required by other governing laws ,
codes, or standard s. Nonrequired systems are those in sta lled vo luntarily by the build-
ing or system owner. Co mpli an ce with NFPA 72® is required for b ot h categories . These
are discussed further in the System Design Requirements section later in th is chapter.

Occupant Notification
Requirements for occupant notification are genera lly established by other governin g
laws, codes, or standards such as NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®. Occupant n otifica-
tion usually inv olves the provi sion of the genera l evacua tion signa l throughout the
192
 CHAPTER 15: Fire Alar m and Carbo n Mo noxi d e Syst em s

building or selectable portions of the building, depending on what is required for a

given occupancy. Most often, general evacuation is required throughout the entire
building, but for some applications such as high-rise buildings, total evacuation is
unnecessary in most cases, and partial evacuation or dire cted relocation to lower floors
is permitted . The standard audible emergency evacuation signal is used for the general
evacuation signal. The standard evacuation signal is sometimes referred to as the tem-
poral-three signal and involves a repeating pattern of three ½-second pulses followed
by a 1½-seco nd pause. The intention is that the standard evacuation signal be univ er-
sally recognized as a signal to leave the building. For some occu pancies, the building
emergency response plan may allow for occupa nt rel ocat ion instead of evacuation. For
these cases, the standard evacuation signal is replaced with an alert tone followed by
relocation or other voice message instructions . Voice instructi ons can also be used in
conjunction with the standard evacuation signal for total or partial evac uati on. When-
ever partial evac uation or relocation of occupants is implemented, provisions must be
made to selectively notify occupan ts in both the affected zones and in other zones. An
in-building fire emergency voice/alarm communication (EVAC) system, part of the
fire alarm system, is often th e m eans used to provide voice communication and/or
selective occupan t n otificati on. In some applications, use of an EVAC system is specifi-
cally req uir ed by other governing laws, codes, or standards.
Other governing laws, codes, or standards generally require both audibl e and vis -
ible signaling when occupant notificatio n is required. (Note that occ upant n otificati on
may not be required for certain occupancies.) There ma y b e exemptions or allowances
to omit visible signaling for certain occupancies or situations. In addi tion, th e 1990
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) ha s a prominent bearing on the need to have
visible signalin g. The ADA Standards for Accessible D esign is contained in the Code of
Federa l Regulations , 28 CFR Part 36, revised July 1, 1994. TI1isstandard has hist orica lly
been used by the U.S. Department of Justice for ADA enforcement. The basis for thi s
standard was the 1991 ADA Accessibility Guidelin es for Buildings and Facilities, which
was amended in 2002 and was completely updated in 2004 as th e Am ericans with Dis-
abilities Act (ADA) and Archit ectural Barriers Act (ABA) A ccessibility Guidelines for
Buildings and Facilities, often referred to as the ADA/ ABA guid elin es. The m ost recent
version of the guid elines has hist orica lly been us ed by the U.S. Departm ent of Tran s-
portation for enforceme nt of ADA . These guidelines can be ob tain ed from the U.S.
Access Board. Users are ca ution ed to contact th e approp ri ate agency to determin e th e
most up-to-dat e status of th e version and use of th ese documents.

Fire Department Notification

Fire departm ent notificati on (also called emerge n cy forces notification) is an other
feature that can be part of a building fire alarm system. Requir ements for emerg ency
forces n otification are gener ally estab lish ed by oth er governin g laws, codes, or stand ards
and depend on the occ up ancy inv olved . There are four means recognized by NFPA 72®
to impl em ent em ergen cy forces n otification:

l. An auxiliary alarm system .

2. Centra l station (servi ce) alarm system.
193
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

3. Proprietary supervising station alarm system.

4. Remote supervising station alarm system.

An auxiliary alarm system transmits alarm signals by interconnecting the protected

premises fire alarm system to a publ ic emergency alarm report ing system (also calJed
a municipal fire alarm system), where alarm signa ls are received direc tl}' at the com -
munications center used by the public safety agenC)' to dispatch the fire department or
other emergency services. Municipal fire alarm systems are not found i11all parts of the
country but are in common use in certain regions such as the Northeast . They are often
characterized by the use of prominent publicaU)' accessible alarm boxes, red in color,
located throughout a community, and members of the public can "pu ll the alarm" if
they see a fire. The requirements for atLxiliary alarm systems are found in Chapter 27
ofNFPA 72®.
The other three means used to implement emergency forces notification invo lve the
use of a supervisi ng station. T11ese are often improper!)' referred to as central statio ns;
however, central supervising stations are only one of the th ree types of supervis ing sta-
tions recognized by NFPA 72®. These are defin ed in 3.3.266 of NFPA 72®.
The requirements in NFPA 72® for central supervising stat ion s are more extensive
than those for proprietary or remote supervising stations. Central station service must
be provided under contract to a subscriber and inc lude installation, testing, and main-
tenance of the protected pr em ises fire alarm system; monitoring of alarm, supervisory,
and trouble signals; retransmission of alarm signa ls to the communication center
for fire department dispatch and notification to the subscriber and authority having
jurisdiction (AHJ) where applicable; runner service to the premises if needed; and
associated record keeping. The provider of the central station service, the prime con-
tractor, must be e.ither a listed central station or a listed alarm service local compan)',
depending on the contract arrangement . The prime contractor must phys ically post
documentation ind icating code compliance and other information about the service
within 3 ft (91 cm) of the prot ected premises fire alarm contro l unit. TI1erequirements
for central station alarm systems are found in 26.3 ofNFPA 72®.
Although central station service is provided by a company whose commercial in-
terest involves providing services for multiple, separately owned protected premises
systems, proprietary supervising stat ions, by definition, only service facilities that are
un der the same ownership as the superv ising station. TI1erequirements for proprietary
superv ision stat ion alarm systems are found in 26.4 of NFPA 72®.
TI1e most commonly used type of supervising station is the remote supervising
station. Remote station service is most frequent!) ' provided by a company that offers
commercial monitoring service for mult iple, separate!)' owned protected premises sys-
tems. However , remote station service was originally provided, and sometimes still
is provided, by a municipality at a communications center that is equipped to op-
erate as a supe rvisin g station and receive alarm signa ls through one or more of the
communication methods recognized in NFPA 72® for transmission of signals to su-
pervising stations. (This is similar in concept to a municipal fire alarm system but using
communications methods addressed b)' NFPA 72®, Chapter 27.) TI,e requirements for
remote supervision station alann systems are found in 26.5 ofNFPA 72®.

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Communications methods for supervising station alarm systems are addressed later
in the Communication i\ilethods for Off-site Notification section of this chapter.

Categories of Signals
Fire alarm systems use three categories of signal s: alarm signals, supervisory signals,
and trouble signals. TI1esethree categories are generally required to be kept independent
of each other so that signals are not mixed. Fire alarm signals, such as a signal from
a manual fire alarm box, smoke detector, or sprinkl er water -flow device , indicate the
presence of a fire. Supervisory signals are signals that may indicate the inability of a fire
protecti .on S)1Stem to do its job. A valve supervisory device (often called a tamper switch)
of a sprinkl er system is an example of a sup ervisory signal initiating device. Troubl e
signals indicate the presence ofa fault condition in a monitored circuit or component.

SYSTEMDESIGN R QU IREM NTS,

A VAL, AND DOCUMENTA ION
System Design Requirements
TI1e requirements of NFPA 72® appl)' to the performance, installation, inspection,
testing, and maintenance of all fire alarm systems, including those that are required
and those that are not required. TI1e requirement to have a fire alarm system and the
features it must have does not come from NFPA 72®, but from other governing laws,
codes, or standards that have been adopted by the enforcing authority. TI1us, a building
may be required to include a fire alarm system as a part of the features provided for
the building fire protection strategy, depending on the type of occupancy. For these
"required systems:' certain basic attributes of the system are usually specified as a part
of the requirement to have the system. Typically included are the following:
l. Requirements of the type of initiation to actuate the system (manual initiation,
automatic detection, extinguishing system operation).
2. Requirements for occupant notification.
3. Requirements (if needed) for emergency forces notification.
4. Requirements for the actuation of building emergenC)' control functions.
5. Requirements related to the location of operator controls and annunciation .
6. Requirements for the supervision of certain features by on-site or off-site
personnel .
Nonrequi red systems are those that are installed at the option of the owner rather
than because of a mandate from other governing laws, codes, or standards. The perfor-
mance and features for a nonrequired system must be established by the system designer
on the basis of the goals and objectives intended by the system owner. Nonrequired
S)'Stems must also comply with the requirements in NFPA 72® even though the system
is being installed voluntarily .
Once it is determined that a fire alarm system is to be installed, and the basic at-
tributes of the fire alarm system are known, the in lallat ion rules of NFPA 72® are

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 SECTION 2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Sys1erns

applied. 1l1e edition of NFPA 72® that must be used (e.g., the 20 lO or 2007 edition)
will depe nd on the edit ion being enforced by the local jurisdiction. 1l1is will generally
be specified by the adoption reference in the applicable governing laws, codes, or stan -
dards. Because the terms used in NFPA 72® often have special meaning, understanding
the meaning of the terms used is important to int erpret the rnles of the code properly.
Many terms are common to most National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) codes
and standards; for examp le, the terms approved,a11thorityhavingj11risdictio11, and fist-
ed. Other terms, however, are unique to NFPA 72®; for example, the terms operating
mode, public and opemti11gmode, private refer to the way in which notification appli -
ances are used and not to publi c and private buildings. Clarity of the meaning of these
terms is essentia l to proper application of the requir ements for notification applian ces
for public or private mode operation .

Personnel Qualification
NFPA 72® includes requirements in 10.4 for qu alification of personnel who design,
install, or service fire alarm systems. The requirements for design and installation per-
sonnel reflect the need to follow state or local licensur e requirements. 'The 2010 edition
of NFPA 72® also now includes personnel qualification requirements for supervising
station operators.

Approval and Documentation

NFPA 72® requires that the AHJ be notified prior to the installation or alteration of
equipment or wiring and, if requested by the AHJ, requires that system documentation
be submitted for approval. System documentation includes specifications, type of sys-
tem or service, shop drawings, input/output matrix, battery calcu lations, and notifica-
tion appliance circuit voltage drop calculations. Before final approval is requested, the
installation contractor is required to furnish a written statement that the system has
been installed in accordance with approved plans and tested in accordance with the
manufacturer's published instructions and the requirements of the Code, if requested
by the AHJ.
A system Record of Completion is required for eveq 1 fire alarm system and must be
kept up to date when any changes are made to the system . 1he Record of Completion is
a multiple-page form contained in NFPA 72® that requires key information about the
system to be recorded on the form. TI1e responsibility for completing the form is that
of the system installer. The Record of Completion includes a sectio n on certifications
and approvals for sign-olfby th e system installation contractor, system service contrac -
tor, supervising station contractor (if applicable), the system owner (or representative),
and the AHJ. A copy of the Record of Completion must be maintained at the main fire
alarm control unit or other approved location. One of the requirements of the Record
of Completion form is to include copies of the Inspection and Testing form required
by 14.6.2.4 of NFPA 72®. See the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance sec tion later
in this chapter.
Additional documentation that is required for the system includes the owner's
manual an d manufacturer's published instruction for all system equipment; record
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 CHAPTER 15 : Fire Alarm and Carb o n Mo noxi d e Syst em s

drawings; a record copy of site-specific software; and a written sequence of operation.

This documentation must be delivered to the owner or representative upon final ac-
ceptance testing .
The following sections high light some of th e key inspection points that shou ld be
checked . Inspectors should consult NFPA 72® for additional information on specific
requirements.

GENERALSYSTEMREQUIREMENTS
Equipment Listing
One of the fundamental requirements in 10.3 ofNFPA 72® is the requirement that all
fire alarm equipment be listed for the purpose . In most cases, this means that equip-
ment must be listed for the specific fire alarm system application for which it is used.
Furthermore, equipment must be installed and us ed in accordance with the provisions
of the listing and with the manufacturer's published instructions , which are usually
included as the ba sis of equipment listing. Th e manufacturer's instructions should be
consulted as a starting point for any listing issues that m ay arise. The listing agency
and associated product listing direct ories published by listing agencies are additional
sourc es to be consu lted . The insp ector shou ld confirm th at equipm ent has been in -
stalled and is being used wit hin the limits of its listing, including any environmenta l,
performance , or application limits specified by the m anufacturer.

Fire Alarm Control Units (Panels)

and Annunciation
The fire alarm system ma y include one or m ore fire alarm control units . NF PA 72®
do es n ot specify the location requir ed for fir e alarm control units except as may be
req uir ed where annunciation functi ons are integra l to the control unit. Other gov -
erning law s, codes, or standards would determine whether system annunciation is
re quired . The rules in NFPA 72® covering annunciation includ e a requirement that
the annunciation m ea ns be readily accessible to pers onn el responding to a fire and
be loca ted as required by the AHJ. Requirements in NFPA 72 ® related to annuncia-
tion ar e co ntain ed in 10.16. Aside from annun ciati on , other governing law s, codes,
or standard s mi ght dictate the loca ti on of cont ro ls or require th e panel loca tion to
be acceptable to the AHJ .
NFPA 72® includ es requir em ents for a standard em erge ncy service int erface if re -
quired by th e enforcin g authority, govern ing laws, codes, or standards. These provisions
intend that annunciat ors, inform ation display systems, and contro ls pro vid ed for us e
by em ergency serv ice personnel be designed, arr anged , and loca ted in acco rd ance with
the needs of th e organ izations int end ed to use them. The provisions are found in 18.11
of NFPA 72® with related exp lanat ion and indu stry standard provided in A.18 .11 and
Annex E, respectively.
Som e occupa ncies or applications, such as those for hi gh-ris e buildings, requir e th e
use of an in -building fire EVAC system . Wh en these systems are used, provisions are
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SECTION 2: Building System s and Fire Prot ect io n System s

included in NFPA 72® to address the controls and control locations (sometimes called
the fire command center) for these systems. These provisions are found in 24.4.1.5.
The inspector should confirm that fire alarm control units and any required annun-
ciators or system controls are configured and located in accordance with the provisions
discussed earlier and in accordance with the approved installation plans.
Where more than one fire alarm control unit is provided as a part of the system
design, these control units must be arranged to function as a single system. Detailed
provisions for how multiple control units must be arranged and interconnected are
provided in Subsecti on 23.8.2 ofNFPA 72®.
NFPA 72® permits the use of combination systems-fire alarm systems that are also
used for non -fire-alarm functions, such as premises security. Because of concerns that
non-fire-alarm equipment may have an adverse impact on fire alarm system equip-
ment or opera tion , NFPA 72® includes detailed provisions to prevent adverse effects.
These are found in 23.8.4, including requirements that address the use of non -fire-
alarm equipment that meets the basic voltage , temperature, and humidity performance
requirements in 10.14.l and the use of non-fire-alarm equipment that does not meet
thos e basic performance requirem ents. Wh ere combination systems are used, as a
general rule, the fire alarm function s must always take precedence. However, when a
combination system includes mass notification system functions, priority is som etim es
given to thes e functions. This is reflected in the provisions of 23.8.4.5 and in th e provi -
sions for in-building fire EVAC systems and mas s notificati on systems in NFPA 72®,
Chapter 24. A risk analysis is required to establish if and when mass notification system
m essages can override fire alarm system messages . Requir ements relat ed to mess age
priority, th e need for a risk analysis, and system interface are contained in 24.4.1.7,
24.4.2.1, 24.4.2.2, 24.4.2.4, 24.4.2.16, 24.4.2.25, and 24.7.7 of NFPA 72®. All fire alarm
control units, includin g those that are part of comb ination systems, must be listed for
thi s purpose.
The insp ec tor should confirm that arrangements of multipl e fire alarm control unit s
are configured prop erly to act as a single system, th at non-fir e-a larm equipm ent us ed
in a comb in ation system is insta lled with th e necessary precautions to protect fire alarm
system functions, and that any provisions for signal priority are clearly establish ed and
related functi on s operat e accord in gly.

Fire Alarm System Protection

When fire alarm control units, notification appliance circu it power extenders, or
supervising stat ion transmitting eq uipm ent are installed in areas that are not continu -
ously occup ied, th e areas must be protected by an aut omatic smo ke detector installed at
th e loca tion of the fire alarm control unit. In the conte xt of this requir em ent, the term
continuously occupied means occupied 24 h ours per day, 7 days per week, 365 days
per year. The provisions for this protection and related guida n ce for smoke detection
coverage are provided in 10.15 and A.10 .15 of NFPA 72®, respect ively. The inspecto r
shou ld confirm that any required protection has been provided and is suitab le for the
environm en t in which it is located .

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Power Sources
In general, each fire alarm system must be provided with a primary and secondary
power source. The primary supply is usually the normal electrical service for the
building. The secondary supp ly is often a battery system integral to the fire alarm
control unit. The primary supp ly to the fire alarm system must be made through
connection to a dedicated branch circuit. The dedicated branch circuit and its con-
nections must be protected against physical damage. The disconnecting means for
the branch circuit must have a red marking, must be identified with the labe l "FIRE
ALARM CIRCUIT;' and must be accessible only to authorized personnel. The loca-
tion of the disconnecting means must be permanently identified at the fire alarm con-
trol unit. If the secondary supply is through an external connection to the fire alarm
control unit, that circuit must also be protected against physical damage. The 2010
edition ofNFPA 72® now recognizes that a properly sized uninterruptible power sup-
ply can be used in lieu of having independent primary and secondary power supplies.
These provisions, as well as other provisions addressing power supply capacity, opera-
tion, installation, and performance, are located in 10.5 of NFPA 72®. The inspector
should confirm that the branch circuit(s) supp lyin g the fire alarm system equipment
is properly identified and protected. The inspector should also confirm that the ca-
pacity of secondary power supplies is supported by battery calcu lations demonstrat -
ing comp liance with 10.5.6.3.

INITIATING DEVICES

Manual Fire Alarm Boxes (Manual Initiation)

Manual fire alarm boxes, often called manual pull -stations, are used to initiate an alarm
signal manually . Operation of a manual
fire alarm box may require one action,
such as pulling a lever, or two actions,
such as lifting a cover and then pulling
a lever (FIGURE15-1). In some institu -
tional occupancies, local codes may
permit th e use of key-operated manual
fire alarm boxes (FIGURE 15-2) .
When governing law, codes, or
standards require a fire alarm system
to be installed and include provisions
for manual initiati on of the system,
manual fire alarm boxes must be locat -
ed throughout the protected area . Un-
less precluded by environmental con -
ditions, manual fire alarm bo xes must
be red in color. They must be located FIGURE 15-1Manua l fire alarm box.

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 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

on a background of contrasting color

and be installed so they are conspicu -
ous , unobstructed, and accessible.
Manual fire alarm boxes are required
to be mounted so that the operable
part is betwee n 42 and 48 in. (107 and
122 cm) above the floor level and to
be placed within 60 in. (152 cm) of
the exit doorway opening at each exit
on each floor. Additional manual fire
alarm boxes must be placed so that
they can be accessed within 200 ft (61
m) of travel distance on a given floor.
Where there is a group opening ex-
ceedi n g 40 ft ( 12 m), ma nu al fire alarm
boxes must be located within 60 in.
( 152 cm) of each side of the opening. 15·2 Key-operated manual fire alarm box.
FIGURE
The detailed provisions for manual fire alarm boxes are contained in 17.14 of NFPA
72®. Anytime a fire alarm system is connected to a supervising station and includes
an automatic fire detector or water -flow detection device, at least one manual fire
alarm box is required to initiate a signal to the supervising sta tion . Th is requirement,
found in 23.8 .5.1.2 of NFPA 72®, does not app ly to fire alarm sys tems dedicated
to the supervision of elevator recall control and sup ervisory service in accordance
with 21 .3.2. Further information and guidance on this provision are contained in
A.23.8.5.1.2 ofNFPA 72®.
The inspector should confirm that any requir ed manual fire alarm boxes are in-
stalled in locations in accordance with approved plans, at the proper mounting height,
are accessible, conspicuous, and are not obstructed in any way.

Detection Coverage and Cross Zon ing Coverage

NFPA 72® does not specify the type of coverage required for smoke or heat detec-
tion . Coverage requirements are specified by other governing laws, codes, or standards
for required systems or by the fire alarm system designer for nonrequired systems.
NFPA 72® include s provisions for the following types of coverage; total (complete)
coverage, partial or selective coverage, and nonrequired coverage .
Total coverage is typically not required by other govern ing laws, codes, or standards,
unless it is being used as an option in lieu of some other fire protection feature. When
total coverage is being used, NFPA 72® requires detection in virtually all spaces that
are constructed of or contain combustible material. Refer to the provisions in 17.5.3.J
of NFPA 72® for specific requirements and allowances.
When partial or selective coverage is required by other governing laws, codes, or
standards, the specific locations where detection is required are typically deta iled by
these codes. Partial coverag e typically can include common areas and workspaces such
as corridors, lobbies, storage rooms, equipment rooms, and othe r tenantless spaces.
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 CHAPTER15: Fire Alarm and Carbon MonoxideSystems

Selective coverage is specified to address a speci fic hazard. Refer to the provis ions in
17.5.3.2 and the related ann ex explanations in A.17.5.3.2 ofN FPA 72®.
Wh en nonrequired coverage is being provided, the extent of coverage and spacing
must be dete rm ined by the design er such that the goa ls and objectives set by the owner
are achieved. NFPA 72® requ ires detection installed for nonrequire d coverage to meet
all the requirements of the Codewith the excep tion of the prescriptive spacing require -
ments ofNFPA 72®, Chapt er 17. T11isis no t to say that random spacing is inten ded . TI1e
in tent is to allow the use of a single detector or multipk detectors provided for spec ific
protect ion, with spaci n g to meet specific fire safet)' objectives. Note that NFPA 72®
req uires the design documentation for both smoke de tection and he at de tection to
state th e required perfornrnnce objective rega rdless of whether the detection is being
installed as requi red or nonrequired coverage .

Cross Zoning
Cross zoning typi ally involves the actuat ion of two automatic detectors to a hiev an
alarm response. 111isarrangeme nt is ofte n used in detection schemes for specia l hazard
extingui sh ing S)'Stems to minimiz e the possibility of false activation of these systems .
NFPA 72® includ es provisions for these applica tions in 23.8.5 .3. Cross zoning ca n be
used subj ect to all of the followi ng limit ations, if it is permitted by the AHJ, at least
two automat.ic detectors are located in each p rotecte d space, and an alarm verification
feature (desc ribed later) is not used . 'foe detec tor spacing prescribed in accordance
with NFPA 72®, Chapter 17, does not need to be reduced specifically for cross zonin g
unless public mode notifi cat ion will be ac tuat ed . If that is the case, the spac ing must
be reduced by 0.7 times the linea r spacing det er mined in accordance with NFPA 72®,
Chap ter 17. ·nie alarm verification feature, defined in 3.3. 12, is provided on some fire
alarm syste ms, wherein smoke detect ors report alarm co ndition s for a min imum peri -
od of time in order to be accepted as a valid alarm. Provisions for the alarm verificat ion
feature are also contained in 23.8.5.4 and explaine d in A.23.8.5.4.1 ofNFPA 72®.

Smoke Detectors
In many types of fire scenario s, detecta ble levels of smoke will pr ecede dete ctable levels
of heat, and for these situations the use of smoke detectors is prom inen t. In add ition ,
other governi ng laws, codes, or standar ds often include spec ific requ irem ents to use
smoke detection in particular occupan cies or applications.

Types of Smoke Detectors. Devices for the detection of smoke can incl ud e several
types of smo ke d etec tors. The most com mon is a spot-ty pe detector. Other types
of smok e detecto rs includ e projected beam-type smok e detectors and air-samplin g
smo ke de tec tors.
• Spot -type smoke detec tors are individual devi ces tha t usually detect smoke
by means of a photoelectric senso r or ionizat ion cha mb er within the device
enclosure.
• Proje cted beam det ec tors are made up of either two unit s arra nged so that one
uni t sends a beam of light across a space to a separate photoelectric receiving
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 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

unit or a single unit that sends a

beam of light across a space to a
reflector and then receives the re -
flected beam oflight (FIGURE 15·3
and FIGURE 15·4).
• Air-sampling smoke detectors
draw air through an air-sampling
line or lines to the smoke detec -
tion unit .
Location of Smo ke Detectors.
1he following information regar ding
the location of smoke detectors is pri-
marily for spot -type smoke detectors. lS-3Projected beam detector.
FIGURE
For other types of smoke detectors, the
Code should be consu lted for addition -
al rules that apply.
TI1e general location requirements
for spot-type smoke detectors were
changed in the 2010 ed ition ofNFPA
72®. Spot -type smoke detectors must
be locat ed on the cei ling or on a side
wall not more than 12 in. (30 cm)
fro m the ceiling to the top edge of
th e det ect or (FIGURE15-5). In previ -
ous editions, spot-type detectors were
proh ibited from being located within
4 in. (10.2 cm) of the inters ection of
the ,vall and ceiling. This is still re- 1S·4Projected beam detector.
FIGURE
quired for spot -type heat detectors
but not for smoke detectors . Note that the smoke d etec tor listing must indic ate its
suitability for wall or ceiling mounting as appropriate for th e installation.
NFPA 72® requires a nominal spacing of30 ft (914 cm) for spot -type smoke detec -
tors located on a smooth ceiling , unless a specific performance -based design criterion
dictates otherwise. A tolerance of ±5 percent is suggested for consideration with the
term no111i11al. For smooth ceilings, NFPA 72® also requires that all points on the ceil-
ing have a detector within 0.7 times the selected spacing. 'TI1e term selected spaci11gis
used instead of listed spacing because, unlike heat detectors, smoke dete ctors do not
have a listed spacing. 1he selected spacing will generally be the 30 ft (914 cm) nominal
spacing unles s the performance-base criterion specifies something else. Tirns, all points
on the ceiling should be within 21 ft (640 cm) of a detector. Not e that smooth ceilings
are defin ed in 3.3.33 ofNFPA 72® to be a ceiling su rface uninterrupted by continuous
proj ect ions such as solid joists or beams extending down for more than 4 in. (10.2 cm)
below the ceiling surface.

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 CHAPTER15: Fire Alarrnand Carbon Monoxide Systems

Ceiling

Acceptable here

Top of detector
acceptable here

Note :
Measurements shown are lo the
closest edge of the detector.

Sidewall

?§
1//
1S·5 Exampleof proper mounting for smokedetectors.
FIGURE

Additional detailed provisions are specified in NFPA 72® for the spacing and loca-
tion of spot-type smoke detectors in applications of both level and sloping joist and
beam ceilings. The Codedefines solid jo .ist construction as a ceiling that has solid struc -
tural or solid nonstructural member s projecting down from the ceiling surface for a
distance of more than 4 in. ( 10.2 cm) and spaced at intervals of 36 in. (91.4 cm) or less.
Beam cons truction is defin ed as a ceiling that has solid structural or solid nonstruc-
tural members projecting down from the ceiling surface for a distance of more than
4 in. (10.2 cm) and spaced at intervals of more than 36 in . (91.4 cm). These terms apply
to the rules for h eat detectors and for snwke detectors.
The requirements for joist and beam smoke detector spacing have been revised
extensively for the 2010 edition of NFPA 72® prescriptively to address a wide range
of ceiling configurations. TI1e provisions are found in 17.7.3.2.4 and are expressed in
terms of beam depth as a percentage of ceiling height and beam spacing as a percentage
of ceiling height. In the application of these provisions for detector spacing, joists are
treated as equivalent to beams.
TI1e requ .irement s for level (nonsloping ceilings) joist and beam ceilings are con -
tained in 17.7.3.2.4.2 ofNFPA 72®.Level ceilings are defined as ceilings that have slope
less than or equal to l in 8, corresponding to an angle of approx.imatcl}' 7.2 degrees. TI1c
general rules for level joist or beam ceilings can be summarized as follows:
l. For ceilings where !he beam depth is less than 10 percent of the ceiling height,
smooth ceiling spacing is permitted, and detectors can be located either on the
ceiling or on the bottom of the beams.

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SECTION 2: Build ing Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

2. For ceilings where the joist or beam depth is equal to or greater than 10 percent
of the ceiling height, two sub-rules apply:
i. Where beam spacing is equal to or greater than 40 percent of the ceiling
height, detectors must be located on the ceiling in each beam pocket
(in other words, each beam pock et is treated like a separate smooth
ceiling) .
ii. Where beam spacing is less than 40 percent of the ceiling height, smooth
ceiling spacing is permitted in the direction parallel to the beams, one-
half smooth ceiling spacing in the direction perp en dicular to the beams ,
and detectors can be lo cated on either the ceiling or the bottom of
the beam.
In addition to the general rules summarized above, specific provisi ons are included for
three special cases of level ceilings:
l. For ceilings where b eam pockets are formed by int ersecting b eams , including
waffle or pan -type ceilings, the general rule s summarized earlier for level be am
ceilings apply.
2. For corr id ors 15 ft (4.6 m) or less in width, with beam s running across the
width of the corrid or, smooth ceiling spacing is permitted , and det ectors can
be loca ted on th e ceilings, sidewalls, or on the bottoms of th e beam s.
3. For rooms 900 ft2 (84 m 2) or less, smooth ceiling spacing is permitted, and
detectors can be locate d on ceilings or on the b ottoms of the beams.
Th e Code also include s extensive rules to address slop in g joist and beam ceilin gs.
These rul es are variations of the general rule s summ arized above for lev el ceilings. The
r eade r is refer red to 17.7.3.2.4.3 through 17.7.3.2.4.6 of NFPA 72® for the d etailed
provisions.
The Code ad dres ses peaked or sh ed ceilings in 17.7.3. 3 and 17.7.3 .4 and require s
that a detector be locat ed within 36 in. (91.4 cm) of the pe ak m eas ured hor izontall y.
Additional detectors, if any, must b e space d and loca ted in accordance with th e appli-
cable rule s for level sm oot h ceilings or level or slop ing joist or beam ceilings. Spaci ng
is measured along a h orizon tal projection.
The loca tion and in stallati on of sm oke detectors mu st take int o acco unt th e various
ot her facto rs that can influence their performance. NFPA 72 ® provides specific rules
for various conditi on s, including the follow in g:
l. Raised floors an d suspe nded ceilings (17 .7.3.5)
2. Partitions (17.5.2)
3. Heating, ventilating , and air -co nditi onin g system effects (17 .7.4. 1)
4. Plenums (17.7.4.2)
5. Environmenta l limits (17.7.1.8)
6. Stratification (17.7. 1.10)
7. High -rack storag e (17.7 .6.2)
8. High air movement areas (17.7.6 .3)
The Code also includ ed requirement s to address smoke detector s for contro l of the
sp read of smoke in 17.7.5. Applic ations addressed in th e Cod e includ e:
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 CHAPTER 15: Fire Alar m and Carbo n Mo noxi d e Syst em s

l. Area detectors used to contro l the operation of doors, dampers, and ot her
equipment (17.7.5.4.1)
2. Smoke detection for air duct systems (17.7.5.4.2 and 17.7.5.5)
3. Smoke detectors for door release service (17.7.5.6)
The Code also addresses requirements for specific types of smoke detection other
than spot-type detectors including:
l. Smoke detectors listed for door release (17.7.5.6.5 and 17.7.5.6.6)
2. Air sampling type smoke detectors (17.7.3.6)
3. Projected beam type smoke detectors (17.7.3.7)
4. Video image smoke detection (17.7.7)
The inspector sho uld confirm that smoke detectors are installed in locations in
accordance with approved plans and that the mounting location and spacing are
appropr iat e for the ceiling surface involved.

Concealed Smoke Detectors

Where a smoke detector is installed in a concealed location more than 10 ft (3.0 m)
above the finished floor or in arrangements where the detector's alarm or supervisory
indicators are not visible to responding personnel , NFPA 72® requires the use of re-
mote alarm or superv isory indication. This indication must be in a location acceptab le
to the AHJ. The means this indication can be through an indication at the control unit
or th rough the use of separate indicator(s) clearly labeled to identify their function and
installed at an accessib le location. This requireme nt was origina lly app licable on ly to
in-duct smoke detectors but now app lies more broadly.
The inspector should confirm that the installation conforms to the approved plans
and that remote indic ators are properly located and labeled and that they operate
properly.

Heat Detectors
Heat Detector Types. In some types of fire scenarios, heat detection will provide the
best response to the fire situation . Designs for the detection of heat can include several
types of heat detectors , including the following:
l. Fixed-temperature heat detect ors
2. Rat e-compensated fixed -temperatur e heat detectors
3. Rate-of-rise heat detectors
4. Combination detectors
5. Lin e-type he at detectors
Fixed -temperature heat detectors initiate an alarm when the detect ing eleme nt
reach es a predetermined fixed temperature (FIGURE15·6). During a rapid temp er-
ature ri se, the operation of a fixed-temperature h eat detector can lag behind the
actual air temperature because of th e time nee ded for the heat to penetrate the
device enclosur e.
205
SECTION 2: Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

Rate-compensated fixed-temperature
heat detectors are designed to antici-
pate the temperature lag and provide a
response closer to that of the actual air
temperature (FIGURE 15·7). Rate-of-rise
heat detect ors operate at a predeter-
mined rate of temperature change.
Combination det ectors can contain
m ore than one elemen t to respond to
a fire. Examp les of such detect ors in-
clude a combination rate -of-rise and
fixed-temperatur e heat detect or and a
combined smoke-and-heat detector. 15-6 Fixed-temper ature heat detector.
FIGURE
Typical combination detectors are il-
lustrated in FIGURE 15-8 and FIGURE 15-9.
Line -ty pe heat detect ors are typically made of
heat -sensitive cable.

Performance of Heat Detectors. The perfo r-

manc e of heat detect ors is characterized by two
ba sic parameter s: temperature classification and
resp onse time ind ex (RTI).
Fixed-temperature and rate -co mp en sated
fixed-temper atur e he at detec tors are classified in
term s of their operat ing temp eratur e in accor -
dan ce with TABLE 15-1. Th e temp erat ur e rating of
the detector selected for a particular ap plic ation
mu st be at least 20°F (11°C) above the maximum
expec ted temp era tur e at the ceiling. The m axi-
mum ceilin g temperatures for each of the given
temp era ture classifications are includ ed in
Table 15- 1.
The performance of heat detectors includes a
listed spacing, which is based on th e spaci ng that
th e listi ng agen cy has used in th e testin g of th e
heat detector to verify its operation and tempera-
tur e ratin g. When heat detectors are in stalled, th e
installed spaci ng must take int o acco unt thi s listed FIGURE 15-7Rate-compensated heat
spac ing. dete ctor.
The Code has required th at spot -type h eat de-
tectors includ e th eir RTI and ope ratin g tempera tur e as a part of th eir listin g. RTI is
a m easure of th e speed with which the heat can flow int o the detector and rai se the
temp era tur e of th e heat-sensing element. RTI is a performance m etri c th at can be used

206
 CHAPTER 15: Fire Alarm and Carbon Monoxide Systems

by designers more closely to predict the

response of the heat detector to given
fire parame ters using performance-
based design methods in lieu of pre-
scriptive spacing requ irements . 111e
RTI in formatio n and marking has been
required since Jttl)' 1, 2008. Detailed
provisions for the performance, classi-
fication, and marking of heat detectors
are contained in 17.6.l and 17.6.2 of
NFPA 72®.

Location and Spacing of Heat De-

tectors, Requirem ents for the location
and spacing of heat detector s are con-
tained in 17.6.3 of NFPA 72®. FIGURE15-8Combinationrate-of-riseand fixed
temperature heat detector.
Location of Heat Detectors. In gen-
eral, spot-type hea t detectors must
be located on the ceiling at least 4 in. ·. ...
~... .

(10.2 cm) from a side waU or they must ; • . ·-

'- .
be located on a side wall at least 4 in.
(10.2 cm) but not more than 12 in.
(30 cm) from the ceiling. The proper
IP'
mounting lucaliun for heat detectors
is illustrated in FIGURE15-10.Tn appli-
cations where the ceiling falls und er
the definition of solid joist co11strnc -
tion, the detectors must be mounted at
.....--
the bottom of the joist. In applications
where the ceiling falls under the defi-
FIGURE15-9Combination smoke-and-heat
nition of beam co11slructio11, where the
detector.
beams are less than 12 in. (30 cm) in
depth and are spaced less than 96 in. (2.4 m) on center, the detector is permitted to be
installed on the bottom of the beam.

Spacing of Heat Detectors. Where the prescriptive rules of the code are being
used for heat dete ctor spacing, the spacing is based on the listed spacing for th e
detector.
For smooth level ceilings of 10 ft (3.0 m) in height or less, the spacing must be such
that all points on the ceiling are within 0.7 times the listed spacing. 1his is equivalent
to spacing detectors at or within their listed spacing in genera l and at or within one-
half their listed spacing from the last row of detectors to the walls (FIGURE 15-11).If
the ceiling is higher than l0 ft (3.0 rn), the spacing must be reduced in accordanc e

207
 SECTION 2: Building Syste ms and Fire Protection Systems

Temperature Classificationand Color Code for

Heat-Sensing Fire Detectors

Temperature Maximum Ceilin g

Temperature Rating Range Temperature Color
Classification OF oc OF oc Code
Low• 100-134 39- 57 80 28 Uncolored
Ordinary 135- 174 58-79 115 47 Unco lored
Intermed iate 175-249 80- 121 155 69 White
Hig h 250-324 122- 162 230 111 Blue
Extra high 325-399 163- 204 305 152 Red
Very extra high 400-499 205- 259 380 194 Green
Ultra high 500-575 260-302 480 249 Orange
Source: Table 17.6.2.1, NFPA 72-2010.
'I ntended only fo r instal lation in con trolled ambient areas. Unit s shall be marked to indicate
maximum ambi ent instal latio n temp eratu re.

with the adjustments specified in TABLE 15-2.Note that the code puts a limit on spacing
reductions such that detector spacing is not required to be less than 0.4 times the
ceiling height .
For level ceilings with solid joist construction, detector spacing must first be re-
duced for ceiling heights above 10 ft (3.0 m), if applicable, and then reduced further by

4ln.(100mm)

121n.
(300 mm)
maximum

Nole: Measurements silo.ma re lo

tho osest edgeol 1he detector.

FIGURE
15-10Proper mounting location for heat dete ctors.

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 CHAPTER 15: Fire Alarm and Carbon MonoxideSystems

Heat Detector Spacing Reduc tion Based on Ceilin g Height

Ceiling Height Above Up to and Includin g Multiply Listed

ft m ft m Spacing by
0 0 10 3.0 1.00
10 3.0 12 3.7 0.91
12 3.7 14 4.3 0.84
14 4.3 16 4.9 0.77
16 4.9 18 5.5 0.71
18 5.5 20 6.1 0.64
20 6.1 22 6.7 0.58
22 6.7 74 7.3 0.52
21 7.3 26 7.9 0.46
26 7.9 28 8.5 0.40
28 8.5 30 9.1 0.34
Source:Table 17.6.3.5.
1 NFP
A 72-2010.

one -half in the dir ection across th e joists. Note that in the dire ction across the joi sts,
this furth er redu ction must also be applied to the spacing from the last row of detectors
to the wall (d iscussed earlier for smooth ceiling spac ing) , furt her red ucing the spacing
to one -half to on e-quar ter. For level ceilings with beam cons tru ction, detector spacin g
must first be reduc ed for ceiling heights above 10 ft (3.0 m), if applicabl e, and then
reduced by two -thirds in the direction across the beams (with a similar adju stment
in the spacing for the last row of detectors to the wall). However, if the beam depth
is more than 18 in. {45.7 cm) and
the beam spacing is great er than
96 in. (2.4 rn), each bay formed by
beams must be treated as a separa te - Solid joists Vi!
,.
smooth ceiling area and detectors
spaced accord ingly.
For sloping ceilings, the same
mies app ly as for level ceil-
I , I. .
Detectors on
bottom of
f s

!
jois ts
ings, except as mod ified below.
Where the slop e of the ceiling is ,. ' ' •
I\ • t
30 deg rees or greater, the Code
½s
permits the use of the average ceil- _J_
ing height for spac ing of detec -
s = Space between detectors
tors other tha n those at the peak .
Wh ere the slop e of the ceiling FIGURE 15-11Arrangemen t for spot-type heat
is less than 30 degrees, the Code detec tors for squa re or rectangular spaces.
209
 SECTION2: lluilding Systems and Fire Protection Systems

requi res the use of the height at the peak for spacing of all detectors. In both cases,
spacing is measured alon g a horizontal projection rather than along the slope. Also, in
both cases, a row of detectors must first be located along the length of the ceiling within
36 in. (91.4 cm) of the peak.
TI1e inspector should confirm that the type of heat detector called for in the ap-
proved plans is installed in the locations specified in these plans and that the mounting
location and spacing are appropriate for the ceiling surface involved.

Radiant- Energy Detectors

Requirements for the selection, location, and spacing for fire detectors that sense the
rad .iant energy produced by burning substances are contained in 17.8 of NFPA 72@,
Flame detectors and spark/ember detectors fa!I into this categ01y The type and quan -
tity of radiant energ}•-sensing fire detectors must be determined, and the performance
characteristic of the detector and an analysis of the hazard must all be considered be-
fore the system is installed.
The selection and application of radiant energy - sensing fire detectors are some -
what specialized and require an engineering evaluation of several of the conditions
involved. TI1e related annex material in subsections of A.17.8 and in Annex B of
NFPA 72® provides detailed explanation and guidance intended for application by
qualified design professionals. It is critical that the installation conditions assumed
by the designer and documented in the approved plans be verified. For these applica-
tions, a prudent designer will have already verified that the installation and perfor -
mance are as intended. TI1einspector should confirm that the installation conforms to
the approved plans and, if possible, that th e designer is satisfied with the installation
and operation.

Alarms from Suppression System Operation

NFPA 72@does not require a sprinkler system to be monitored by a fire alarm system.
TI1e need for this monitoring is generally specified by other governing laws, codes, or
standards. NFPA 101® addresses this in 9.7.2 using the language "Where supervised
automatic sprinkler systems are required by another sect ion of this code ... :' Tims,
where the requirements for a particular occupancy require the use of a "supervised"
automatic sprinkler S)'Stem, the provisions of 9.7.2 apply including the requirement for
transmission of an alarm signal to a supervising station or a communications center.
Where an automatic sprinkler system is used, the fire alarm system is often required by
other codes and standards to transmit a waterflow alarm to an approved supervising
station or public fire service communications center. When the automatic sprinkler
system operates, the water flow-actuated fire alarm initiating device will initiate a fire
alarm signal. TI1enumber of water-flow switches permitted by NFPA 72:f9on an initiat-
ing device circuit is limited to five.
In a similar fashion, the need to monitor the operation of an automatic fire suppres -
sion S}'Slemother than water flow is addressed in 9.7.3 ofNFPA JOI® and is also often
addressed in the individual suppression system standards . TI1ese suppression systems

210
 CHAPTER15: FireAlarm and Carbon Mor oxide Systems

include wet chemical systems over comme rcial cooking equipment or clean agent
extinguishing systems that might be used in telecom or data centers. ·when monitoring
and supervision of a suppression system are required, the fire alarm system monitors
the normal standby conditi.on of these extinguishing or suppression systems by means
of .Ii ted supervisory initiating devices. If someone closes a sprinkler system control
valve or otherwise impairs the fire protection system, the supervisory initiating device
will cause the fire alarm system control unit to indicate a "supervisor>'off-normal con-
dition." \'\'hen the off-normal condition is cleared, the supervisory initiating device
will cause the Ii.realarm system control unit to indicate a "supervisory restoration to
normal" signal. ·n,e number of sprinkler S}'Stemsupervisory devices permitted on an
initialing device circuit is limited to 20.
Special consideration must be given to the design and installation of automatic fire
suppression system alarm initiating devices and supervisory signal initiating devices
and their circuits, so they are not subject to tampering, opening, or removal without
initiating a trouble signal.
'TI1einspector should confirm that the installation conforms to the approved plans.
Confirm that alarm initiating devices (such as water-flow switches) operate to provide
an appropriate alarm condition and have been tested to ensure proper performance.
Confirm that supervisory devices (such as valve position switches) operate to provide
an appropriate supervisory condition and have been properly tested. Refer to the test
methods in 14(i) and 14(j) in Table 14.4.2.2 ofNFPA 72®.

NOTIFICATION APPLIANCES
\-Vhenother governing laws, codes, or standards requi.re a fire alarm system to have
occupant notification (as discussed earlier), notification appliances must be installed
in accordance with the requirements of NFPA 72®. Typically, occupant notification
will .involve the installation of audible and visible notification appliances {horns and
strobes) throughout the protected premises to provide for total evacuation of the
premises. For some occupancies, total evacuation is not practical, and an in-building
fire EVACsystem is used allowi11gfor voice instru ctions to implement partial or selec-
tive evacuation or directed relocation of building occupants.
Any time a fire alarm system is being used for the purpose of evacuation or reloca-
tion of occupants, NFPA 72® requires one or more notification appliances listed for the
purpose on each floor of the building and located so that they have the characteristics
described in Chapter 18 of N FPA 72® for public mode or private mode operation, as
required.
Different mi es apply depending on whether public or private mode operation is
used. Public mode operation applies when signaling to occupants for total, partial, or
selecti\'e evacuation or directed relocation. \Vhen permitted by local codes, private
mod e operation applies for circumstances such as occupancies where occupants are
not capable of evacuating themselves. Private mode operation involves signaling onl)'
to person nel concerned with implementation of emergency action initiation, such as
attendants or other personnel required to evacuate or relocate occupants.

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 SECTION2: Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

Audible Notification Applianc s

The requirements for audible notification appliances are found in 18.4 of NFPA 72®.
Audible appliances signaling in the public mode must meet the greater of the two fol-
lowing conditions:

• Produce a sound level at least 15 dBA above the average ambient sound level.
• Produce a sound level at least 5 dBA above the maximum sound level having a
duration of at least 60 seconds.

The term a11emgeambient sormd level, defined in 3.3.25 of NFPA 72®, involves an
A-weighted measurement taken over the period of time anyone is present or over a
24-hour period, whichever time period is less. A-weighted measurements are made us-
ing instruments that account for the normal attenuations that occur in human hearing.
TI1enotification appliance sound levelsspecified above are measured 5 ft ( 1.5 m) above
the floor in all areas required to be served by the system. When audible notification
appliances are used to signal sleeping areas, the sound levels must also be measured at
the pillow level, and a third condition-a sound level of at least 75 dBA- must also be
satisfied. For sleeping areas, all three conditions must be satisfied.
Audible appliances signaling in the private mode must have a sound level that meets
the greater of the two following conditions: a sound level at least IO dBA above the
average ambient sound level or a sound level at least 5 dBA above the maximum sound
level having a duration of at least 60 seconds. TI1eselevels are measured 5 ft (l.5 m)
above the floor in the area to be occupied.
For all applications, the code limits the combined sound level of ambient sources
and appliances to a maximum of 110 dBA, measured at minimum hearing distance.
Whenever the average ::imbientsound level is greater than 105 dBA, the code also re-
quires the use of visible notification appliances.
TI1eCode permits the use of listed, wall-mounted audible notification appliances
or listed, ceiling-motmted audible notification appliances. \-\'all-mounted audible no-
tification appliances that are not part of a combination audible/visible appliance must
be mounted such that the top of the appliance is at least 90 in. (2.29 m) above the fin-
ished floor and not closer than 6 in. (15 cm) to the finished ceiling. Different mounting
heights are permitted if the sound pressure level requirements are met for the operating
mode used. Where combination audible/visible appliances are installed, the mounting
requirements for visible appliances must be followed.
TI1ereare no spacing provisions in NFPA 72® for audible notification appliances.
However, audible notification appliances must provide the minimum sound pressure
levels specified for public mode or private mode signaling as applicable. After con-
sidering the ambient sound levels, the designer of the system must decide in advance
where to place the appliance based on the area to be covered and the rating of the appli-
ance. Attenuation through doors, walls, partitions, and furnishings must be taken into
account when determining appliance locations. At the completion of the installation,
the system must provide the sound levels required by NFPA 72®.
TI1einspector should confirm that audible notification appliances have been installed
in conformance with the approved plans and that the sound levels produced have been
212
 CHAPTER1S: Fire Alarm and Carbon Monoxide Systems

properly measured and conform to the minimum and maximum levelsrequired by the
code. Also refer to item 15(a) of Table 14.4.2.2 in NFPA 72®. Where notification appli-
ances (speakers) are installed for voice communications, they must be capable of repro-
ducing voice annou ncements with voice intelligibility.Tbne signals from speakers must
comply with the sound level requirements noted earlier for audible appliances.
Requirements for voice intelligi.bility have been significantly updated in the 2010
edition of NFPA 72®. Specific design and installation requirements are addressed in
18.4.10. A new term, acoustically distingu ishable space (ADS), plays an important role
in framing the requirements for intelligibility. An ADS is a notification zone or portion
of a not ification zone that can be either a specific physically enclosed space or a space
that is distinguished by certain acoustical, environmental, or use characteristics. 1l1e
code requires the system designer to determine and identify ADSs during the planning
and design of the system and to specify whether each ADS will require voice intelligi-
bility. 17ie ADS assignments must be submitted for review and approval if required by
the AHJ. 17ieplanning and design for these assignments should be done in onjunction
with the development of the emerge11y response plan for the protected location. Note
that voice intelligibility may not be achievable in some locations, such as those with
very high levels of ambient noise. Other spaces may not require voice intelligibility if
occupant notification is eftectively addressed for these spaces by the provisions of the
emergency response plan. Note that spaces that do not require voice intelligibility are
not necessarily exempt from requirements for audible signaling (evacuation or alert
tones). Emergency response plan is defined in 3.3.84. Annex D ofNFPA 72® provides
an extensive treatment of speech intelligibility, including many aspects of system de-
sign, acceptability criteria, and methods of testing.
17ie inspector should confirm that audible notification appliances used for voice
communi cations are installed in accordance with approved plans and that voice intel-
ligibility has been verified in the spaces where it is required in accordance with 18.4.10
ofNF PA 72®.

Visible Notification Appliances

When visible signaling is required as discussed in the earlier Occupant Notification
section of this chapter, it is achieved by means of visible notification appliances ar-
ranged for indirect viewing, illumination of the area surrou nding the appliance, or
direct viewing of the appliance. Requirements addressing indirect viewing are ad-
dressed in 18.5.4.3, "Spacing in Rooms:' and requirements for direct viewing are
add ressed in 18.5.4.4, "Spacing in Corridors: ' Indirect viewing is based on the
appliances providing a minimum illumination of 0.0375 lm/ft2 (0.4036 lm/m 2). TI1is
minimum i!Iumination in normal indoor environments is considered sufficient to
draw the attent ion of individuals even if they are not in a position for direct viewing of
an appliance. The rules for direct viewing generally assume that occupants are looking
ahead and are always within direct view of an appliance.
TI1eCode perm its the use of listed wall-mounted visible notification appliances or
listed ceiling-mount ed visible notification appliances. TI1espacing requirements for
wall-mounted visible notification appliances in rooms are provided in TABLE 15-3.TI1e
213
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire ProtectionSyst
ems

Room Spacing for Wall -Mounted Visible Appliances

Maximum Room Minimum Required Light Output [Effectiv e

Size Intensity (cd)]
Two Lights per
Room (Located Four Lights per
One Light on Opposite Room (One Light
ft m per Room Walls) per Wall)
20 x 20 6.l0xG. 10 15 NA NA
28 X 28 8.53 X 8.53 30 Unknown NA
30x 30 9.14 x9 .I4 34 15 NA
40 X 40 I 2.2x12 .2 60 30 15
45 X 45 13.7 X 13.7 75 Unknown 19
50 X 50 15.2 X 15.2 94 60 30
54 X 54 16.5X 16.5 110 Unknown 30
55 X 55 16.8x 16.8 115 Unknown 28
60X 60 18.3 X 18.3 135 95 30
63 x63 19.2 X 19.2 150 Unknow n 37
68 x68 20.7 X 20.7 177 Unknown 43
70 X 70 21.3x2 1.3 184 95 60
80 x80 24.4 X 24.4 240 135 60
90 x 90 27.4 X 27.4 304 185 95
100 X 100 30.5 X 30.5 375 240 95
1l 0X 110 33.5 X 33.5 455 240 135
120 X 120 36.6 X 36.6 540 305 135
130 X 130 39.6 X 39.6 635 375 185
NA: Not allowable.
Source:Table 18.5.4.3.
l (a) NFPA 72-2010.

spacing requirements for ceiling -mounted visible notification appliances in room s are
provided in TABLE 1S-4.The pres criptive spacing provisions of these tables ensure the
minimum illumination levels for indirect signaling. In locating visible appliances in
rooms, it is important that the appliance be located to provide complete coverage for
the room size and strob e intensity. For wall-mounted appliances, this would normally
be at the center of the longest wall. TI1ese prescriptive room spacing provisions can
be used for larger room sizes by subdividing the larger space into smaller spaces to
achieve complete coverage for th e space in a more flexible manner.
TI1e Code also includes provision s to allow the spacing of visible appliances for in-
direct signaling using performance-based designs in lieu of the prescriptive spacing of
214
 CHAPTER 15: Fire Alarm and Carbon Monoxide Systems

Room Spacing for Ceiling-Mounted Visible Appliances

M aximum Lens Minimum Requir ed

Maximum Room Size Height Light Output (Effe ctive
ft m ft m Intensity); One Light (cdJ
20 x 20 6.1 X6. I 10 3.0 15
30 X 30 9.1 X 9.1 10 3.0 30
40x40 12.2 X 12.2 10 3.0 60
44x 44 13.4X l 3.4 lO 3.0 75
SOX 50 l 5.2x lS.2 10 3.0 95
53 X 53 16 2x 16.2 10 3.0 110
55 X 55 l6.8x 16.8 10 3.0 115
59x 59 18.0 X 18.0 10 3.0 135
63 x63 19.2 X 19.2 10 3.0 150
68x68 20.7 X 20.7 10 3.0 177
70x70 2Ux2 1.3 10 3.0 185
20x 20 6.1 X 6,1 20 61 30
30 x3 0 9. 1 X 9.1 20 6.1 45
44 x44 13.4x1 3.4 20 6.1 75
46x4 6 14.0x 14.0 20 6. 1 80
SOX 50 15.2X 15.2 20 6. 1 95
53 X 53 16.2 X 16.2 20 6. 1 110
55 X 55 16.8x 16.8 20 6.1 115
59x 59 18.0 X 18.0 20 6.1 135
63 x63 l9.2x 19.2 20 6. 1 150
68x68 20.7 X 20.7 20 6.1 177
70 x70 21.3 X 21.3 20 6. 1 185
20 x 20 6. 1 x6 .I 30 9. 1 55
30x 30 9.1 X 9.1 30 9. 1 75
50 X 50 15.2 X 15.2 30 9. 1 95
53 x 53 16.2 X 16.2 30 9.1 110
55 X 55 16.8 X 16.8 30 9. 1 115
59 X 59 18.0 X 18.0 30 9. 1 135
63X63 19.2 X 19.2 30 9.1 150
68 x 68 20.7 X 20.7 30 9.1 177
?Ox 70 21.3x2l.3 30 9.1 185

Source:Table 18.5.4.3. l(b) NFPI\72-2010.

215
 SECTION2: BuildingSystemsand FireProtectionSystems

the tables. Performance-based designs still assume the minimum illumination levels
provided in the table values. Designers are required to produce documentation support-
ing these designs that evaluates the polar distribution oflight output established by the
appliance listing. Refer to 18.5.4.5 of NFPA 72® for the detailed requirements for this
alternative approach. The Codeincludes provisions to minimize the potential effect that
visible appliances might have on individuals with photosensitive epilepsy. In general,
whenever more than two visible notification appliances are located in any field of view
in a large room, they must be synchronized. This general rule also applies to groups of
S}1nchronized appliances. Tlrns, it is permissible to have two separate groups of visible
appliances in a given field of view as long as each group is synchronized within itself
In general, the mounting height for wall-mounted visible notification appliances must
be such that the entire lens is at least 80 in. (2.03 m) but not greater than 96 in. (2.4 m)
above the finished floor. \rVhere the minimum height cannot be met because of a low
ceiling height, the Codeincludes a provision to allow lower mounting. It requires mount-
ing within 6 in. (15 cm) of the ceiling and reducing the size of the space covered by the
appliance. The provisions for space reduction are addressed in 18.5.4.2 of NFPA 72®,
and an example is provided at the end of A.18.5.4.1. The Code also includes an allow-
ance for wall-mounted appliances to be at a different height if evaluated as part of the
performance-based alternative permitted by the Code.TI1eheight permitted for ceiling-
mounted visible notification appliances is limited to 30 ft (9.14 rn) in accordance with
TABLE 15-5.

Room Spacingfor Ceiling-MountedVisibleAppliances

Maximum Minimum Required

Maximum Room Size Ceiling Height Light Output (Effective
ft m ft m Intensity); One Light (cd)
20x 20 6.1 x6. 1 10 3.05 15
30 X 30 9.14 X 9.14 10 3.05 30
4Q X 4Q 12.2 X 12.2 10 3.05 60
S0x 50 15.2 X 15.2 10 3.05 95
2Q X 2Q 6.1 X 6.1 20 6.1 30
30 X 30 9.14 X 9.14 20 6.1 45
40 X 40 12.2 X 12.2 20 6.1 80
SQ X SQ 15.2 X 15.2 20 6.1 115
20 X 20 6.1 x6 .1 30 9.14 55
30 X 30 9.14 X 9.14 30 9.14 75
40 X 40 12.2 X 12.2 30 9.14 115
SQX SQ ] 5.2 X 15.2 30 9.14 150
Source:Table 4-4.4.1.1(b), NFPA1999.

216
 CHAPTER 15: Fire Alarm and Carbon Monoxide Systems

Special rules apply to visible notification appliances used for signaling in sleeping
areas. In general, visible notification appliances must be located within 16 ft (4.87 m) of
the pillow. The intensity of the appliance must be at least 110 cd unless the appliance is
mounted less than 24 in. (61 cm) from the ceiling, in which rnse it must be at least 177 ed.
TI1e inspector should confirm that visible notification appliances are installed in
accordance with approved plans and are at the proper mounting height, that appliance
candela ratings (or settings) are as specified in the approved plans, and that proper
operation has been demonstrated.

0 HER FIREALA M SYS EM

UN N
Emergency Control Functions
E mergen cy control function s (also called fire safety funct ions) are those that deal
with building, fire, or other emergencies intended to increase the level of life safety for
occupants or to control the spread of the harmful effects of the fire or other hazard .
Emergency control functions are addressed in Chapter 21 of NFPA 72®. These func -
tions include the following: elevator recall; elevator shutdown; control of smoke
dampers, motorized fire dampers, fans, smoke barrier doors, and fire doors; door
release; and door unlocking. Requirements for two new emergency control functions
have been introduced in the 2010 edition of the Code: first responder use elevators,
and elevators for occup ant -controlled evacuation . The need to incorporate a particular
emergency control function(s) is established by other governing laws, codes, or stan-
dards such as NFPA 101® or by codes and standards for the systems involved such
as American National Standards Institute/ American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ANSI/ASME) Al 7.l/CSA B44a, Safety Codefor Elevatorsn11dEscalators,or NFPA
90A, Sta11dardforthe J11srallatio11 of Ail'-Co11ditio11ing
a11dVe11tilati11g
Systems.
1l1e inspection and testing of emergency control functions have historically not re -
ceived the attention they should . 1l1e requirements in NFPA 72® for inspection and
testing of these functions are found primarily in 14.2.6 and item 23 of Table 14.4.2.2.
Often, the testing of these functions involves testing personnel from multiple dis -
ciplines and therefore requires a significant effort to coordinate and document thi s
testing properly. In addition, the extent of testing of the emergenq' control function
is arguably not well defined in NFPA 72®, and the testing requirements of the equip -
ment standards that govern the performance of the emergency control function are
not as well correlated with NFPA 72® as they could be. These issues have recently
been more clearly identified, and future editions of NFPA 72® and other related equip-
ment standards will be more closely coordinated and defined. A related new document,
NFPA 3, Recom111e11ded Practice011Co111111issio11ing
and IntegratedTesti11g of Fire Pro-
tectio11and Life Safety Systems,otters guidance on how best to handle the coordinated
testing of these interrelated systems. In the meantime, verification that emergency
control functions have been properly inspected and tested will require special atten-
tion of the inspection authority, building owner, and all related disciplines. Ultimately,
217
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

the inspector should verify that systems that interface with the fire alarm system have
been demonstrated to operate properly in response to outputs of the fire alarm system.
This can be done through a complete end-to-end test or a series of overlapping tests
coordinated and documented to ensure that the interconnected systems operate as in-
tended. It is of utmost importance to verify the interconnected systems are left in their
final operational condition-that nothing is left disconnected or bypassed.

Suppression System Actuation

The requirements for suppression system operation are contained in other codes and
standards . However, if au tomatic or manual activation of a fire suppression system is to
be performed through a fire alarm control unit, the control unit must be listed for the
releasing service. Specific requirements for suppression system actuation are contained
in 23.13 ofNFPA 72®.
Each space protected by an automatic fire suppression system actuated by the fire
alarm system must contain one or more automatic fire det ectors . 'These fire detectors
must be installed to sense the fire condition and subsequently initiate the sequence to
allow the suppression system to discharge its agent. Also refer to the earlier Detection
Coverage and Cross Zoning Coverage section for additional information. In gener -
al, the Code requires suppression systems or groups of systems to be controlled by a
single releasing service fire alarm control unit that monitors the associated initiating
device(s), actuates the associated releasing device(s), and controls the associated agent
release notification appliances. If the specific provisions of 23.13 .9 of NFPA 72® are
met, multiple control units can be used if the configuration of those control units is
listed for releasing service. If the releasing panel is located in a protected premises
having a separate fire alarm system, it must be monitored for alarm, supervisory, and
trouble signals by-but not be dependent on or affected by-the operation or failure of
the fire alarm system of the protected premises.
Special provisions are included in 14.2.5 ofNFPA 72® to ensure that suppression
systems are not inadvertently discharged during the testing of the associated fire alarm
system. These provisions as well as those of23.13 should be carefully observed, and the
inspector should confirm that the system design and installation complies with these
provisions and with the approved plans.

Communications Methods for

Off-site Notification
Fire department notification (or emergency forces notification) is most often accom -
plished through the use of a supervising station alarm system. An overview of the
different types of supervising stations and how requirements for emergency forces noti-
fication are established was provided earlier in the Fire Department Notification section.
The discussion that follows focuses on the types of communications methods addressed
in the code for transmitting signals from a protected premises to a supervising station.
The communications methods for transmitting signals to a supervising station
are addressed in 26.6.3 of NFPA 72®. The code includes "General" requirements
218
 CHAPTER15: Fire Alarm and Carbon Monoxide Systems

in 26.6 .3.1, which are performance based and app ly to the "newer" technologies that
are not otherwise specificall}' addressed in 26.6.3.2 or 26.6.3.3. Newer techno logies cur -
rently availab le include tran smit ters using Internet Protocol (IP) transmitting over the
Internet or private IP facilities and transmitters using various (non -dial -up) digital cel-
lular tech nol ogies. The code includes prescriptive requirements specifically to address
digital alarm communicator systems in 26.6.3.2 and radio systems (two -way radio
frequency multiplex S}'Stems and one-way private radio alarm systems) in 26.6.3.3.
Wired IP transmission can be "integrated IP" or "native IP" (integral to the fire alarm
control unit - not need ing further conversion equ ipment) or it can involve additional
convers ion equipment or modules to allow interface with more traditional transmitters
such as digital alarm communicator transm itters (DACTs). 'Tilese conversio n modules
are some tim es called IP communicators (in various forms), are considered to be part
of the fire alarm system, and must be listed as such. In either case, the rules in 26.6.3.1
app ly. 111eoutput of the IP communicator is typically connected to an Internet access
device such as a cable modem or to a local area network with access to the Internet.
111epremises communicat ions equipmenl' downstream from the IP communicator is
not pa rt of the fire alarm S}'Stembut is still required to be listed as general comm unica -
tion s equipment. In addition, this downstream commu nications equipment must be
provided with 24 hours of secondar}' power capacity. 111ecode does not current!}' ad-
dress the means to provide this capacit}'. Commu nicat ions equipment installed under
the provisions of 26.6.3.l must annunciate failure of the communications path at the
supervising station within 5 minutes of the failure.
A digital alarm communicator system invo lves the use of a DACT locat ed at the
protected premises and a digital alarm communicator receiver usually located at the
supervising station. Two commu nications channels are required between the trans -
mitte r and receiver. 111efirst channel must use the public switched telephone network
(PSTN) . The second channel can be a second line (number) of the PSTN or it can be
one of six other communications methods listed in 26.6 .3.2.1.4.
111ereq uired connection of a DACT to a PSTN has historically meant connec tion to
a plain old telephone service line-a pair of copper wires connected to the telephone
central switching cen ter. However, over the years, the telephone companies have used
field-deplo}'ed multiplexing equipment to increase system capacity and, more recently,
for conversion to nontraditional methods for tran sm itting voice signals. Many cable
communications companies have begun also to offer telephone serv ice using nontradi-
tion al methods for transmitting voice signa ls. The 2010 edition ofNF PA 72® includes
an update to the definition of PSTN that recogn izes a broader categor}' of network s
using the term 1m111nged facility-based voice 11et111orks(MFVNs). 111is term is defined
in 3.3.141, and the related annex material in A.3 .3.141 explains what these systems are
and the performance expected from them. A DACT must be connected to the PSTN
upstream of any private telephone system at the protected premises. These connections
mu st be under the control of the subscriber. 111econnec tion must be made to a loop
start, not a ground start, telephone circuit. 111istelephone lin e is not required to be a
dedicated line.
In accordance with the testing methods specified in NFPA 72®, the response time
from the point of actuation of the initiating device at the protected premises to the
219
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

receipt of the signal at the supervising station must not exceed 90 seconds. However,
the rules for DACT operation permit a sequence of attempts for successful transmis -
sion that can greatly exceed 90 seconds. Despite these allowances for DACT trans-
mission, the statistical probability of a successful DACT transmission occurring well
within 90 seconds (on th e first attempt) is very high.
The inspe ctor should determine the type of communications method that has been
used and confirm that it has been properly installed and is operational. If an MFVN is
being use d for a digital alarm communicator system, it should be confirmed that the
service provider meets the expectations iden tified in A.3.3.14; otherwise the networ k
should not be considered an IvIFVN. If an IP communicator is being used, it should
be verified that th e equipment is listed for fire alarm system use and has been installed
in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions and the code. Particular attention
needs to be given to ensure that any (11011-fire-alann system) premises -located com-
munications equipment is provided with a sour ce of seco ndary power in accordance
with 26.6.3.1.1 2. It should be confirmed that proper operation of the communications
channel has been verified in accordance with item IS(a) of Table 14.4.2.2 in NFPA 72®.

FIREALARM SYSTEM
WIRING REQUIREMENTS
The installation of fire alarm system equipment, including wiring, must comply with
NFPA 70®, National Electrical Code®. Article 760 of NFPA 70® addresses fire alarms
systems and specifies requirements for non-power-limited fire alarm (NPLPA) and
power -limited fire alarm (PLFA) circuits. PLFA circuits are distinguished from NPLFA
circuits by the equipment listing. TI1e equipment marking or listing must indicate the
power-limited feature or source.
The wiring methods permitted for the power source of NPLFA circuits must comply
with the requirements of the NFPA 70® 2008 edition, Chapter s 1 through 4. The wiring
methods for NPLFA circuits that are outlined include the use of the various wiring meth-
ods addressed in NFPA 70®, Chapter 3, and the use of multiconductor NPLFA cables.
The wiring methods permitted on the supply side of PLFA power sources must also
comp ly with the NFPA 70® 2008 edition, Chapters l through 4. NFPA 70® permits the
use of either NPLFA wiring methods and materials or the use of PLFA methods and
materials on the load side of a PLFA power source.
NFPA 7()® places limitations on the mi.x.ing of cables and con ductor s used for fire
alarm systems. Specific rule s are provided for both NPLFA circuits and for PLFA
circuits. TI1ese rules preclude the mixing of NPLFA circuits with PLFA circuits. TI1ey
also restrict other combinations, especially with non-fire-alarm applications.
TI1ere are also rules in NFPA 72® that have an impact on fire alarm system wiring.
NFPA 72® includes requirements for pathways (circuits) to be designated as Class A,
Class B, Class C, Class D, Class E, or Class X depending on their performance. The
perfo rm ance for these class designa tions is specified in 12.3 of NFPA 72®. Class des-
ignat ions are generally determined by the fire alarm system designer based on consid-
eration of various factors that may affect the reliability needs of the S)1Slem. NFPA 72®
220
 CHAPTER 15: Fire Alarm and Carbon Monoxide Systems

also specifies requirem ents for fire alarm circuit performan ce in 23.5, 23.6, and 23.7 for
initiatin g device circuits, signa ling line circu its, and notification appliance circuits, re-
spectively. Class A and Class X circuit designations both requi re redundant pathways .
Although both of these classes must continue to operate past a single open, Class X is
also requir ed to operate past a single short circuit. Class A and Class X circ uits must
be run so that the outgoing and return condu ctors of the circuit are routed separa tely.
The code does include allowances for the latter under certai n conditions as specified
in 23.4.2.2.
Jn addit ion, Nf PA 72® requires circuits to be monitored for integrity. The intercon -
necting conductors of the circuit must be monitored so that the occurrence of cer-
tain fault condi tions such as a single ope n or single ground-fault condit ion causes a
trouble indication. As a result, connections for each device or appliance must be made
so that the opening of any connection causes a trouble signa l. Looping the conductor
around the device or appliance terminal :md then continuing to the next device or ap -
pliance can result in an unsatisfactory connection. Listed devices and appliances that
are provid ed with duplicate terminals for each circuit connection must be terminated
by cutting the wire and making each connection separately. The correct wiring method
for pigtail connec tions is demonstrated in FIGURE 15·12.T11eincorrect method is dem -
onstrated in FIGURE 15·13.
A wiring technique called "T-tapping ;' the parallel connection of one or more devic -
es or appliances at the middle of a circuit, is also forbidden for all initiating device and
notification appliance circu its. It is permitted for Class B signaling line circu its if per -
mitted by the designer and equipment listing. As a point of underst anding, initiating
devic e circuits are those that have no means of identifying the initiating device that
operated it. Signaling line circ uits are able to carry multiple signals and can identify
the device or other equipment sending the signal. Addressable systems use signaling
line circuits.
Additional NFPA 72® requirements that can have an impact on wiring are the re-
qui rements for system surv i.vabili.ty.T11esereq uirements .involve the design, protection,

Wire nut

FIGURE
15·12Correct wi ring method for pigtail connections.

221
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

Wire nut

Installed
device

FIGURE
15·13Incorrect wi ring method for pigtai l con nect ions.

and layout of circuits to support continued operation during a fire. NFPA 72® includes
designations for pathway (circuit) survivability in 12.4. Different wiring protection
provisions are specified for Pathway Survivability Level 0, Level I, Level 2, and Level 3.
Requirements to use particular survivability levels are provided in 24.3. 5 for each of
the different emergency communications systems addressed in the code. In-building
fire emergency voice/commun ications systems used for partial evacuation or reloca-
tion and two-way telephone systems are requ ired to have Level 2 or Level 3 pathway
survivability.
TI1einspector should confirm that fire alarm system wiring has been installed in
accordance with approved plans, using methods appropriate for the designated circuit
class and survivability levels. It should be confirmed that no inappropriate T-tapping
has been used and that Class A circuits are routed in accordance with 23.4.2.2. The
proper use of the system (trouble indications) in response to fault conditions should
also be verified .

OTHER WARNING EQUIPM ENT

Smoke Alarms versus Smoke Detectors
Chapter 29 of NFPA 72® addresses fire warning equipment including single- and
multipl e-station smoke alarms and household fire alarm systems. A smoke alarm is
distinguished from a smoke detector by the fact that the smoke alarm is a single unit
that prov ides detection and a warning signal all in on e unit. A smoke detector involves
detection on!)' and requires the use of a fire alarm control unit and separate not ification
appliances as a part of a fire alarm system to complete the warning function.

222
 CHAPTER 15: Fire Alarm and Carbon Monoxide Systems

Residential Requirements
Other governing laws, codes, or standards specify requirements for smoke alarms in
one- and two-family dwellings and other residential t)'pes of occupancies. Often, these
codes will also recognize the use of a fire alarm system to fulfill the functional re-
quirements specified for the smoke alarms. 1l1isallowance is also recognized in 29.5 of
NFPA 72®. For some residential types of occupancies, such as multifamily dwellings,
other govern ing laws, codes, or standards may specify requirements for a building fire
alarm system with additional provisions for smoke alarms (or smoke detectors of a
household fire alarm system) in specific locations in the dwelling unit. 'TI1eseadditional
provisions may specify that the smoke alarms (or smoke detectors of a household fire
alarm S}'Stem) sound onl}' within the individual dwelling or living unit aud not actu-
ate the building fire alarm system unless otherwise permitted by the AHJ. Note that
requirements for the building fire alarm system occupant notification also include sig-
naling to the dwelling or living units. Sound -level requirements for notification appli-
ances must also be met in these spaces, espe ially in I ping areas. It is important to
consult other governing laws, codes, or standards for clarification about the specific
requirements for the occupancy.
Household fire alarm systems are required to have two independent power sources
consisting of a primary source that uses a normal building service and a secondaq 1
source that consists of a rechargeable battery that can operate the system for at least
24 hours in the normal condition followed by 4 minutes of alarm.
Smoke alarms are required to be powered from a normal building service along with
a seco11dar>7power source capable of operating the device for at least 24 hours in the
normal condition followed by 4 minutes of alarm. Alternately, smoke alarms can be
powered by a nomepla ceable primary battery that is capable of operating the device for
at least 10 years followed by 4 minutes of alarm, followed by 7 days of a trouble signal
indicating that there is an ongoing S}'Stemfault.
Und er certai n conditions, local codes may allow the use of smoke alarms pow-
ered by only a replaceable 1-year battery. NFPA 72® allows the use of these types
of smoke alarm only when specifically permitted by other governing laws, codes, or
standards.

Smoke Alarm Installation

Smoke alarms (or system smoke detectors) must be installed in locations that comply
with the locations specified in other governing laws, codes, or standards. NFPA 72®
includes requirements for specific detector locations in 29.5.1. The excerpt below
provides basic location requirements. Refer to the additional provisions of 29.5.1 for
additional detection requirements including requirements addressing larger dwellings.
29.5.1 * Required Detection.
29.5.1. J* Where required by othergoverningJaws, codes, or standardsfor a specific
type of ocwp(llrcy,appro1ed single- n11d11111/tiple-stntio11
1 smoke alarms slw/1 be
installed asfollows:

223
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

(l) *Jn nil sleepingroo111s

and guest rooms
(2}*011tsideof ench separatedwellingunit sleeping area, within 21ft(6.4111)ofn11y
door to a sleepingroo111,
with the distance 111ensured
n/011gn path of tm\le/
(3) 011every le,,elofa dwelling unit, including bnse111e11ts
(4) 011every lel'eiof n residential board nnd cnre ocwpnncy (smn/1facility), includ-
ing base111e11ts
a11dexcludingcrawlspacesand w1fi11ish ed attics
(5) [11the lil'ingnren(s) of a guest suite
(6) In the living area(s) of a residentialboard and rnre occupancy(smallfacility)
In addition to the general siting requirements found in 29.5.l, specific location
requirements are provided in 29.8.3.4. TI1ese requirements are primarily intended to
ensure proper performance for smok e alarms (or S)'Slem smoke detectors) and include
location restrictions to minimize nuisance alarms. These restrictions are important,
be ause frequ ent nuisa nce alarm s ca n cause occupants to disconne ct or remov e alarm s.
Chief among these is a new provision in the 2010 Code restricting any type of smoke
alarm from being installed within IO ft (3.0 m) of a fixed cooking appliance. The spe-
cific provision for this restriction is shown in this excerpt of 29.8.3.4:
(4)*Smokenlnrms and smoke detectorsslm/1not be instnlled within nn area of exclu-
sion determined by a 10ft (3.0 111)radial distance nlo11gn horizontalflow path from a
statio11a,yor fixed cookingappliance,unless listedfor installationin closeproxi111ity
to
cookingapplim1ces.Smoke alarms and smoke detectorsinstalledbetween 10ft (3.0 m)
and 20ft (6.1 111)nlo11gnhorizontalJ7owpathfrom n stntionmy orfixed cookingappliance
shall be equippedwit/1a,1alarm-silencingmeans or usephotoelectricdetection.
Exception: Smoke alarms or smoke detectors thnt use photoelectricdetection shall be
permitted for installation at n radial distancegreater than 6 ft (1.8 111)
from nny sta-
tionary orfixed cookingappliance when thefollowi11gconditionsare met:
(a) 11-ie kitchen or cookingarea and adjacentspaces hnve 110 clearinferiorpartitions
or headers and
(l,) 71,e10 ft (3.0 111)area of exclusion would prohibit the placement of a smoke
alarm or s111oke detector requiredby other sections of this code.
The related annex material in A.29.8.3.4( 4) provides diagrams and additional guid -
ance to explain these provisions. The provisions in 29.8.3.4 also restrict smoke alarms
from being installed closer than 36 in . (91.4 cm) from a bathroom door (if the bath-
room contains a tub or shower) or from supply registers of forced air heating or cooling
systems or from the tip of the blade of a suspended ceiling fan. Provisions are also
included to address conditions such as high or low temperature, humidity, or sources
of smoke that can lead to nuisance alarms.
Chapter 14 ofNFPA 72® requires the replacement of smoke alarms located in one-
and two-family dwellings within 10 years of the date of manufacture. Note that this
rule does not apply to system smoke detectors.

224
 CHAPTER1S: FireAlarm and Carbon Monoxide Systems

The inspector should confirm that smoke alarms are installed in all required siting
locations and that the specific installation provisions in 29.8.3 of NFPA 72® be fol-
lowed. It is especially important that exclusion areas in 29.8.3.4(4) be observed .

Carbon Monoxide Detection and

Warning Equipment
NFPA 720 is derived in large part from NFPA 72® and makes extensive use of ex-
tracts from NFPA 72®. [n many cases, the provisions in NFPA 720 are the same except
that the terminology is tailored to CO detection instead of fire. Where extracted
material has been modified in this way, brackets are used in the t xt to id ntify the
change. Extracted paragraphs are annotated with extract references in brackets (e.g.,
[72:10.3.l]) at the end of each paragraph. Where there is no extrac t reference provided,
the provisions are unique to NFPA 720.
CO detectors are the primaq• initiating devices for NPPA720. There are three types
of sensor technology used in CO detectors made today: biornimetic, electrochemical,
and semiconductor. Biomimetic sensors simulate the reaction of hemoglobin to CO by
darkening in color- a change that can be detected photo -electricall)'· Electrochemical
sensors use an electrolyte to generate electric current, which changes in proportion to
CO exposure. Semiconductor sensors are heated and, when exposed to CO, exhibit
a higher resistance that can then be measured. All three types of sensors have a lim-
ited lite (usuall)' less than 10 years) depending on the technology used, and must be
replaced in accordance with manufacturer's instructions.
CO detection systems ca n bt: separate systems or can be combined with fire alarm
systems. Combined systems can take advantage of sharing componen ts of such notifi-
cation appliances and result in a cost savings; however, note that there are some basic
differences in system requirements.
For CO systems, the secondary power supply is required to have a capacity that sup-
ports the operation of notification appliances for 12 hours rather than the 5 minutes
required for fire alarm S)'Stems.1he 12-hom requirement can be reduced to 5 minutes
if the system is monitored by a supervising station and an appropriate emergency
response (as specified in 7.2.2 of NFPA 720) is provided .
Occupant notification can be limited to the area where the CO alarm was initi-
ated if CO alarm signals are also transmitted to a constantly attended on-site location
or off-premises location. Otherwise occupant notification is required throughout the
premises (similar to fire alarm systems).
The need for retransmission of a CO alarm signal from the supervising station to
the fire department or commu nicat ions center is dependent on whether the emer-
gency response agency requires it. 'The superv i.sing station should have a notification
plan in place for each monitored premises that includes multiple points of contact
with the subscriber. Regardless of whether CO alarm signals are retransmitted to
the fire department or communications center, the supervising station is always
required to contact the responsible party(s) in accordance with the established
notification plan.

225
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

Requirements for the location of CO detectors in commercial applications are pro-

vided in 5.8.5.3 of NFPA 720. A partia l excerpt including related explanatory annex
material is provided below:
5.8.5.3 Req11ire111e11ts
for Cnrbo11J\fonoxide Detectors.
5.8 .5.3.1 Cnrbo11monoxide detectors slwll be i11stnlledns specified i11the mmHijac-
trirer'spublished i11structio11s
in nccordm1cewith 5.8.5.3.1(1) and 5.8.5.3.1(2), or
5.8.5.3.1(3);
(l) 'On Jheceilingi11the same mo111
as per111a11e11tly
i11stalled.f11el-b11mingapplia11c
es
(2)*Ce11tmll
y located 011e11ery habitable level and i11every HVAC zone lf the
building
(3) A pe1fom1n11ce-/Jased
design i11accordancewith 5.8.5.3.2
A.5.8.5.3.1 (1) Detectors are located 011 the ceiling above permane11tlyinstalled
fuel -Imming appliances because of the buoyancy of the heated combustion gases ns
comparedto normal ambient temperatures. Detectorsshould be locatedas closenspmc -
ticnl to the permanently installed.fi,el-burningapplianceconsistentwith considerations
of detectoraccessibility,sourcesof detectorconta111i11ation,
and m1isnncesources.Siting
co11sidemtio11S can i11cludetmnsimt backdmfting spillageof flue gases during startup
and ventilationsupply or exhaust vents.
A.5.8.5.3.1 (2) The purpose of detectors centrally located on every habitable level
is to detect the migration of rnrbo11monoxide _ji-0111 pernw11ently installed ji1el-
b11rni11gappliances and other sources of carbon monoxide. Other sources of rnrbon
monoxide can include vehicles or other eq11ipmentthat uses nn internal co111bus-
tion engine, bnrbeq11egrills, propane operated eq11ip111e11t, and systems used to
genemte hydrogen. Detector location and spacing should be based 011an engineer-
ing e11nluntion tlrat considers potential s011rcesnnd migration of cnrbon monoxide.
HVAC systems shortld be considered in tire locating of rnrbo11111onoxidedetectors
becartse the HVAC systems provide a good means of mixing and tire migration of
carbon 111onoxide.Other considerations when lorn ling cnrbon monoxide detectors
nre areas with closed doors and rated de111isi11g walls, which can isolate or sepa-
rate areas within HVAC zones. Add itional information for tire location of rnrbon
monoxide detectors is a11ailablein the Fire Protection Resenrch Foundation (FPRF)
tech11icalreport Developmen t of a Technical Basis for Carbon Monoxide Detec-
tor Siting.
NFPA 720 also includes an allowance for performance-based detection designs .
CO detectors are requ ired to be marked in accordance with their listing and have
their detect ion thresholds set to respond at the levels specified in ANSI/UL 2034, Sta11-
dnrdfor Single and Multiple Station CarbonMonoxide Alarllls.
CO alarms are different from CO detectors in much the same way as smoke
alarms are different from smoke detectors, as discussed above . CO alarms are re-
quired to be listed to ANSI/UL 2034, Sta11dnrd
for Si11gleand i\tfu/tipleStation Carbon
Monoxide Alarl/ls.
226
 CHAPTER 15: Fire Alarm and Ca,bon Monoxide Systems

Requir ements for the location of CO alarms are provide d in 9.4. l of NFPA 720.
A part ial excerpt including related explanatory annex materia l is provided below:
9.4.1. l* Carbo11111011oxide
alarms or detectorsshall be installedasfollows:
(l) Outside of each separate dwelling 1111it
sleeping area in the i111111
ediate vicinity
of the bedrooms
(2) 011eve,y ocwpia/Jle level of a dwelli11g1111il
, i11c/11di11g
base111e11ts
, exc/11di11g
nttics mid crawlspaces
(3) Other locations where required by applicablelaws, codes,or sta11dards
9.4.1.2 * Each alarm or detector shall be located 0 11 tile ll'all,ceiling, or other location
as specified i11the 111a11ufacturer's
published i11strnctiomthat acco111pa11y the 1111it.
A.9.4.1.2 The locationfor effective pe1for111anceis 110/ generallydependent 011 111ou11t-
g height. 'flw density o.lcarbon monoxide is similar lo that of air at room tempera-
i11
ture, a11dcarbon 1110110:<ide
generally mixes readily with air.
Note that 9.4.l.l( 1) and 9.4.1.1(2) are specific to dwelling unit s. Paragraph 9.4.1.1 (3)
specifies "othe r locations where required by applica ble laws, code, or standa rds." Be-
cause model codes have jus t recent ly beg un includin g occupa ncy-based requirements
for CO alarms/d etector s, enforcing ju risdic tions have h istorically included requir e-
ments dir ec tly in local law or sta tute s. Paragraph 9.4.1.l (3) is intend ed to reflect the se
spe cific req uireme nts as well as any that are included the model codes.

Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance

Chapter 14 of NFPA 72® includes requir ements for inspec tion, testing, and main -
tenan ce of fire alarm S)'Stems. It is the building or system owner's responsibility to
ensure that all .inspec tion, testing, and main tenance provis ions of the Code are met
in accorda nce with 14.2.2. When system defects are identified, they must be hand led in
accordance with 14.2.1.2 and 10.19. NFPA 72® requires that inspecti on, testing, and
maintenance of fire alarm systems be cond ucted onl)' by qualified ser vice personnel.
Before proceeding with any testing , all persons and facilities receiving fire alarm sys-
tem signa ls (includi ng occupants) must be no tified to prevent unn ecessar)' response in
accordance with 14.2.3. TI1eprovisions ofNFPA 72®, Chap ter 14, address req uiremen ts
for visual inspection in 14.3. Requirements for testing are specified for init ial system
acceptance, reacceptance (when chang es are made), and periodic system test ing.
The test methods to be used for fire alarm system testing are outlined primarily in
Table 14.4.2.2. TI1is table includes a "Device" column iden tifying the equipmen t to be
tested and a "Method " column detailing the method required for testing the device.
TI1e frequ enc ies for testi ng the various compo nen ts of the fire alarm system are speci -
fied in Table 14.4.5. 111e "Component" column in this table cor relates roughly with
the "Device" column in Table 14.4.2.2. For each listed component , the last column
in Table 14.4.5 includes the corres pondi ng test method item number relating back to
Table 14.4.2.2. Most but no t all periodic testing is requ ired on an annual basis-some
components requ ire more frequent testing. All system comp onent s are require d to
227
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

be tested during initial system acceptance with the exclusion of sensitivity testing for
smoke detectors, which is addressed separately in 14.4.5.3.
NFPA 72® requires that a record of all inspections, testing, and maintenance be
provided. A specific list of required information is provided in 14.6.2.4. In addition, the
information requested in Figure 14.6.2.4, Fire Alarm and Emergency Communications
System Inspection, is also required. By reference from the Fire Alarm and Emergency
Communications System Record of Completion, as noted earlier, this information
forms part of the documentation package required in 10.18.
Chapter 14 of NFPA 72® also addresses requirements for the inspection, testing,
and maintenance of smoke alarms. For applications in one- and two-family dwell -
ings, inspection , testing, and maintenance are required to be in accordance with the
manufacturer's published instructions . This includes cleaning, testing, and battery
replacement. Some smoke alarm manufacturers require weekly testing ; others may
require only monthly testing. Required testing and maintenance for smoke alarms in
other than one- and two-family dwellin gs and for smoke detectors in household fire
alarm systems includes periodic functional testing with smoke or listed aerosol and
sensitivity testing.
An intensive series of inspection, testing and maintenance protocols are required by
Chapter 14 ofNFPA 72@_NFPA 72®, 14.6.1.3 offers access to the AHJ of the records
of the testing results that have occurred since the previous inspection visit or at any
given time.

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 7CJ®, National ElectricalCode®
NFPA 72®,National FireAlarm a11dSignalingCode
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®
NFPA 720, Standardfor tile Installationof Carbon 1'vfonoxide(CO) Detection and Warn-
ing Equipment

228
 CHAPTER

16

WATERSUPPLIES
Victoria.B. Valentine, PE, MSFPE

All water -based fire protection systems rely on the water supply being available and
adequa te at the time a fire starts. Therefore, the impo rtance of inspecting and main -
tain ing the appropri ate water suppl )' for a system is obvious. When fire protection
systems are installed, thr ee options exist with respect to the type of water supply. -when
available, a public water supply will usually be the most cos t-eflective option, as long as
it can meet the dema nds of the fire protection system. In many areas, pr ivate fire mains
are ins talled to get the water to a facility. Use of a tank is another option for provis ion of
water. O nce the water supply exists, any of the supp ly opt ions may accommodate a fire
pump to boost the pressure of the suppl)'· TI1ekey inspe ctio n concepts and pro cedures
for the thr ee types of water supplies are described in thi s chapt er.
A general understanding of a facility's piping layout will help the inspector evaluate
the protect ion provi ded by individual spr .inkler, standpipe, water spr ay, or foam -water
systems and their waler suppl ies. ll1e inspec tor should therefore inspect the facility's
water suppl y arrangem en ts before going on to inspect its water-bas ed fire protection
system(s).
The first step in insp ec ting a facilit)''s water supply is to identif)' the supply so urces.
Inspectors ca n begi n this step duri ng the initial exterio r inspec tion of the site, as th ey
note the loca tions of system compon ents such as hydrants and exterior con trol valves.
Determinin g where the water comes from, be it elevated water storage tan ks, ground -
water storage reservoir s, public mains, or other sources, is the next step. The inspec -
tor should also note the locat ion of exterio r fire departme nt connections (FDCs).
Visible external attachme nts of sprin kler systems, such as water -motor alarm gongs
and drains, can help the inspector verify the locat ion of system control equipment
within a building compl ex.
When identifying th e water supply sources, the inspector may want to review
building site plans alon g with previous inspec tion report s. Past reports may point out
unlik ely sources of suppl y, such as swimming pools or decorative ponds . Property
ow ners or their repr esen tatives can also be of assistance in th is regard. For large facili-
ties or industrial complexes, maps and other information regarding th e water supplie s
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

should be available at the facility, the local fire department, or from an insurance rating
bureau. The inspector must make sure that the required testing, such as hydrant flow
tests and maintenance, has been and is being carried out and recorded.
After providing information on water supply sources, including both public and
private water supply systems, this chapter examines inspection of valves, yard hydrants,
and monitor nozzles. In addition, the types of water storage tanks and inspection
requirements for fire pumps are reviewed. Along the way, information to help the
inspector conduct the relevant flow tests is prov ided.

FIRE FLOWS
A number of formulas have been used to determine the necessary fire flow in
municipalities for buildings where active systems are not present, but many variables
influence the calculations. For facilities protected by water-based fire protection sys-
tem s, the system design typ ical!y dictates the minimum water supp ly requirements .
NFPA 1142, Standard on Water Supplies.forS11burbn11 nnd R11mlFire Fighting,contains
th e minimum requirements for fire flow for facilities located in areas without public
water supply systems. Insurance companies may have their own formulas to follow for
the required amount of water needed for fire control and/or suppression.

NFPA25
ft is important to begin with NFPA 25, Stnndnrdfor Inspection, Testing, nnd lvfai11te11ance
of Water-Based Pire Protection Systems. 1he first edition of NFPA 25 was published in
1992 by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 'fl1is established, for the first
time, a set of definitive minimum requirements relating to the inspection of water -
based fire protection systems, including their water supply components. NFPA 25 is a
standard and can be a mandatory reference when adopted by another standard or code
or directly into law.
Included in the standard are regulations for inspection, testing, and maintenance.
The inspection of components is typically a visual evaluation of the condition of a
component. The testing of a component is usually a physical operation leading to
the recording of data and comparison with previous values. The maintenance of fire
protection systems involves cleaning and, if needed, repairing or replacement of any
components. All three of these tasks work to keep the system(s) operational for when
a fire occurs .
Inspectors should become familiar with the requirements ofNFPA 25. 1hey should
also be aware that standardized forms are available for use in inspection of automatic
sprinkler systems , standpipe systems, private fire serv ice mains, fire pumps, water
storage tanks , water spray fixed systems, and foam-water sprinkler systems, including
the water supply associated with each feature, in accordance with the requirements of
NFPA 25.
Where NFPA 25 is enforced, the inspe ctor should check to make sme that the prop-
erty owner is keeping the records required by t.he standard to demonstrate compliance
with all inspection, testing, and maintenance requirements. Comparison is a necessary
230
 CHAPTER 16: Water Supplies

part of the inspection. It will reveal all)' degradation as a system ages. The data from
acceptance testing are also valuable for comparison with current conditions. TI1eown-
er is responsible for keeping the records. In some jurisdict ions, it is required to file a
copy of the forms with the fire department, building departme nt, and/or the owner's
insurance compall}'· In all cases, NFPA 25, Section 4.3. l requires the owner to make
those records available to the authorit}' having jurisdiction (AHJ) upon request.
It is understood, however, that the inspector may not be the par ty who actually per-
forms all of the inspection, testing, and maintenance procedures in accordance with
NFPA 25. Some items need to be checked daily,weekly,monthly, quar terly, semiannu -
ally,or annually.In general, the daily and weekly inspections are performed by on-site
personn el. 'D1ismakes communication and accurate record keeping key in reviewing a
system and its performance.

PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES

In a city or developed suburban area, the water suppl)' for fire protection commonly
comes from a public water system. In many locations, the fire protection supply may be
a combination of public and private supplies. rt is also commo n to augment the pres-
sure of a public water supply with a fire pump that supplies the water pressures needed
effective!)' to operate the water-based fire protection system.
Some plumbing and health codes in North America require that public water supply
pressures not be reduced below a minimum positive pressure of lO or 20 pounds per
square inch (psi) (0.7 to 1.4 bar). TI1elocal requirements should be determined ahead of
time. Some large municipal water supplysystems,such as that of Chicago, have fairlylarge
flowsavailablebut only at pressuresof30 to 40 psi (2.08 to 2.78 bar). Other municipal wa-
ter supplies are kept at pressures exceeding lOOpsi (7 bar). The combination of available
flows and pressures determines whether a particular water supply can meet the demand
of a fire protection system or whether pumps and/or on-site tanks will be needed.
Public supplies are maintained by the water authorit}' of that jurisdiction. The
water authority can then be consulted about the availablewater supply values. Typical-
ly, the water authority schedules flow tests to verify its supplies. If a flow test is needed
in a specific location, it may not be permissible to do so without the water authority's
approval. For example, large cities, such as New York City, often have restrictions on
the time of day that a water supply flow test can be conducted. In some areas, the
fire department oversees the flow testing of public mains and may have to be present
during testing.

PRIVATEWATER SUPPLIES
A private fire service main is piping on private properly that runs between a somce
of water and a sprinkler system, standpipe system, water spray system, foam-water
system, hydrant, or monitor nozzle. When it is connected to a public water system,
the private fire service main begins at a point designated by the public water utility;
usually, the separation point occurs at a manually operated valve near the property
line. Sources of water supply may also include surface lakes or rivers, but these are
231
 SEC ION 2: Building Systems and FireProtection Syste111s

considered acceptable for fire protection use only if they are available on a year-round
basis. Jn other areas, the source of water supply may consist of a combinatio n of tanks,
reservoirs, and/or stationary fire pumps. Because of the variability, the inspector should
make a special effort to inspect these sources durin g t)•pical worst-case scenarios, such
as per iods of freezing weather and/or drought.
Water supplied to private fire systems from a public water supply is sometimes
required to be metered. To allow accurate metering of small flows while avoiding
high-pressure losses for large flows, special check valve assemblies are equipped with
a bypass that contains a meter. The norm al or daily water flow is throu gh the small-
metered bypass. Tn the event of a fire and a large flow demand, the large flow will
lift a weighted clapper in the main waterway, allowing water to flow into the system.
Obviously, the fire flow is no t metered in such a case. However, less water is used by
an automat ic fire protection system than would be by the fire departm ent if the build-
ing did no t have active protec tion. The fire departme nt hose usage, because of its large
volume, would also be an unm etered water flow.
]n some cases, a combined service main might serve both domestic and fire protec-
tion demands. Special care must be taken in these situations to ensure that the water
needed for fire protection rurposes will be available even in times of peak domestic
demand. Sources such as NPPA I 3R, Stcmdard.forthe Jnstallatioll of Spril1kler Systems
in Residential Occupancies Up to and Jncl11di11g Four Stories ill Height, can provide a
means of estimating domest ic demand based on the number of fixtures in a residential
environ ment. This situatio n can exist in resident ial or commercial facilities, where a
combined service main serves both fire pro tection and process/domestic demands, but
is more common in residential buildings.
Because most private fire service main piping is located underground, it is not easy
to inspect. However, the resnlts of required flow testing at 5-year intervals can indicate
whether the available water flow and/or pressure has deteriorated. Exposed por tions of
private fire service mains must be inspected annu allr- Leaks, damage, or weaknesses in
restraint methods, where found, must be repaired. Conoded piping must be cleaned or
replaced and coated to prevent any future damage.
A pr ivate fire service main might serve a system of yard hydran ts or monitor noz -
zles that rrotect a factory complex, tank farm, or other special hazard. This system
could include hose or hydrant houses, located over or next to hydrant s, in order to
provide ready access to hose nozzles, hose wrenches, and gaskets. All appurt enances
have schedu les for inspection in NFPA 25. In some cases, it may be necessaq 1 to have a
mainline strainer. Each time the system is flowed for a substantial volume [larger than
2-in. (SO-mm) orifice], the strainer will need to be cleaned and checked for damage,
corrosion, or other failures. The inspector must check the strainer at least ann ually to
make sure it is not plugged or torn . If it is blocked, it must be cleaned. If any corrosion
is evident, the strainer should be repaired or replaced.
'foe inspector should make sure that the property owner is keeping the records
for the items needing inspection. This includes the annua l mainten ance of b)•drants,
hose/hydrant houses, monitor nozzles, and mainline stra iners. These records should
include evidence that the tests have been performed, and the results shou ld be indi-
cated. If any repairs are necessary, this should also be noted. ln addition, when repairs
232
 CHAPTER 16: Water Supplies

and replacements have been completed, this information should be recorded for
future reference .

INSPECTING VALVESAND
COMPON ENTS
There will be valves in any type of water supply. Most common I)' found are control
valves, which either aUow or prevent water to enter the piping and systems, and check
v.ilves, which allow w.tter to flow in only one direction. There nrny also be backflow
preventers, pres sure regulating devices, and FDCs. FDCs are considered to be part
of the water supply because they allow the fire d epartment to suppkm ent or, in some
cases, provide the system demand.

Control Valves
The single most important feature the inspe ctor ca n check is the position of the con-
trol valve(s) . Nearly all water supp ly system con -
trol va lves must be in the "ope n" position so th.it ~~~~ ~ ~ -- Handwheel
water can reach the attached system(s). If redun-
dant nrnltiple water supplies exist, it is possible that -:== ===== Stem
a contro l valve's normal position may be closed. Yoke
Therefore, the normal position of the valves must
be known.
Control valves are available in a vari ety of types:
outs ide screw (or stem) and yoke (OS&Y) valves,
butterfly valves, post -indicator valves (PIVs), and
wall post -indicator valves (WP IVs). OS&Y valves
indicate their position by means of the valve screw
or stern . A visible screw or stem means the valve is
open. TI1e stem protrudes approximately the same
d iamete r of the valve, because th is is a type of gate
valve: as the stem rises, the gate is pulled up and out
of the entire waterway. An OS&Yvalve in the closed FIGURE 16·1 Sectional diagram of an
position (the stem is not visible past the handwh eel) OS&Yvalve.
is illustrated in FIGURE 16·1.
Other types of valves use indicator marks because they do not have a protruding stem .
TI1e butterfly valve disk, or gate, folds in half to let water pass it. 111isalone would not
ind icate to an inspector the position of the valve. TI1erefore, the valve must have a mecha -
n ism, or gear box, attached so that it can easil)' be seen if the valve is open or closed.
PI Vs used in yards indicate their position by means of an "open" or "shut" sign visible
through a window in the valve face. TI1eyare kept 30 ft (9.1 m) or more away from the
structure. TI1isallows for the water to be shut off without anyone having to be near the Ii.re
and/or bui lding. A WPIV works the same wat However, the valve is affixed to the wall of
the bu ilding/ slructure . 'Tl1isarrangement is traditionally used in big cities where the 30-ft
(9.1-m) clearance wou ld locate the valve in the street or on another property.
233
 SECTION2: Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

Because the key-operated gate valves frequently used by public water utilities are
not indicating valves, water must often be flowed through the fire protection system to
verify whether or not these valves are truly open. Each control valve must be identified
and have a sign indicating the system or portion of the system it controls. NFPA 25
requires that each valve be secured in its norma l open or closed position b)' one of four
means. TI1efirst is a seal, and the second is a lock. Both of these need visual inspection
to make sure the conditions have not been altered. TI1ethird and fourth means both
involve electrical supervision in accordance with the applicable NFPA codes or stan-
dards. One type is to send the monitoring signal to an on-site location that is constant)),
attended. The other is to send the monitoring signal to a central station or outside com-
pany that monitors the alarm status. Visual inspection is less frequent with electrical
supervision because the conditions are constantly monitored.
Control valvesmust be inspected weeklywhen they are not locked. If they are locked,
that inspection is done monthly. They are also tested annually. Where a PIV is used, the
valve should be opened until spring or torsion is felt in the rod, indicating that the rod
has not become detached from the valve. Each control valve must annually be operated
through its full range and then returned to its normal position. After control valves are
again open, a main drain test of the attached system is performed to make sure water is
truly flowing from the supply to the system.
When inspectors inspect valves, they must verify that the valves are in the normal
open or closed position and that they are properly sealed, locked, or supervised. 1he
valves must also be accessible, free from external leaks, and provided with appropriate
identification along with the appropriate wrenches.

Check Valves
Check valves are used to make sure that water flows in only one direction through
the piping. TI1eymust be inspected externally when other valves are being examined.
TI1emost important detail is to make sure the flow direction arrow cast on the body
of the valve points in the appropriate direction for water flow into the system(s). An
interior inspection of the valve is needed only ever)' 5 years. TI1isis done to make sure
there is no damage or corrosion inside.

Backflow Preventers
Whatever the pipiug arrangement, the water used for fire protection may be required
by the local water authority to be segregated from the potable water that is delivered
through the public water supply system. TI1isis done to prevent back.flow,a reverse flow
of water that could take place if the pressure of the public water supply system dropped
below that of the private water system(s) it serves, including fii·e protection systems.
A number of studies have shown that potable water from a public supply stored in the
piping of a fire-extinguishing S)'Stemover a long period can become aestheticallyobjec-
tionable. Although the water does not pose a health risk, as shown in many studies, its
back.flowinto a public supply is undesirable. For this reason, fire protection S)'Stemshave
often been separated from public water supplies by means of back.flowprevention as-
semblies. Special back.flowprevention devices may also be required where fire protection
234
 CHAPTERHi: Water Supplies

systems are served b)' add itional nonp otable water supply sources or where additi ves,
such as antifreeze, foam, or corrosion inhibit ors, are used in the system. TI1e FDC to a
sprinkler or standpipe system does not warrant the use of a backflow prevention device
unl ess the fire department's prefire planning includes drafting provisions for supplying
the connec tion from an open pond or other potential source of contaminatio n.
'Diere are th ree types of backflow preventers that are com1nonly used. TI1e first is
a double check valve assembly (DCVA). The next is a reduced pressure zo ne (RPZ)
backflow preventer. 111elast is an air gap. Because the air gap is a total separa tion fro m
the source and not a device, ii is no t covered in NFPA 25 and therefore not covered
in this insp ection information. These devices permit only one-way flow into the fire
protection system piping.
Whenever there is a backflow preventer, it will need to be inspected. Because back-
flow prevention devices have inheren t pressure losses as water flows across them, they
should not be ins talled on existing fire protec tion water supply ma ins unless the avail-
able water supply p ressu res and system demands h ave been ana l)'zed by a qualified
fire protection coutraclur ur fire protection eng ineer. Othe rwi se, the system's ability to
perform its intended fire supp ressio n function cou ld be impair ed .
Both DCVAs and RPZ v.ilves need to be inspecte d week!)' to make sure the control
valves, typically OS&Yvalves, are in the norm al open position. Th is inspection is per-
mitted to be monthly when the valves are locked or supervised electr onica lly.
All backflow preveuters must be tested annually. A forward flow test must be per -
forme d flowing the system deman d, including hose stream demand, where hyd rants
or in side hose stations are insta lled downstrea m of the backflow preventer. On older
systems, provisions may not have been made to accommo date th is full flow. When this
occurs, as much water as possible should be flowed to exercise th e valve. ' 1..Vhenbackflow
preventers are small, 2 in. (SOmm) or less in diameter, the full flow test is done, but the
actual flow does not have to be measured. In areas that have restriction s on water us-
age, an intern al inspection of the backflow device is permi tted . However, the preferred
method is the full flow to use the valve as it is expec ted to be used during a fire scenario.
If another component downstream of the backflow preve nter, such as a fire pump, flows
the system demand, a separa te flow for the backflow preventer is not needed. In other
words, they can be tested at the same time with a single flow of the S)'Stem demand.
In addition, the local authority can call for a backflow performance test after the full
flow test to show that water cannot flow toward the water sourc e. 'fl1ere are test ports
on th e backilow devices to facilitate the testing. TI1echamb ers can be pressurized and
measured with gauges attac hed to the test ports to ensure that flow occurs in only one
direction.

Pressure-Reducing Valves
\,Vhen the pre ssure in a system is too high for its components, pressure -reducing
devices are used. TI1ese devices are inspected quarterly to check their condition. A full
flow test of the valve must be done every 5 years.
TI1e requir eme nts will vary slig htly depending on the type of pressure -reducing
valve tha t is being inspected, such as hose co nnect ion pressure -reduc ing valves or
235
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

master pressure-reducing valves. 'D1eseshould be further evaluated with the systems

they are used in conjuction with in the field. It would be rare for this type of device to
be installed directly in the water supply piping.

Fire Department Connections

FDCs must be inspected quarterly to verify that Ihey are visible and accessible. When
this is not done regularly, vegetation can block the FDC and hide missing or broken
component s. Couplings and swivels must be free to move and not damaged, and plugs
or caps must be in place and intact. Gaskets should be in place and in good condition,
and the automatic drain valve (when provided) should be in place and operating prop-
erl)', The check valve should be examined to make sure it is not leaking in the FDC line
to the system, and the FDC clapper(s) should be checked for proper operation. Lastly,
identification signs shoul.d be in place.
[f the plugs or caps are damaged or absent, the inspector must check the interior
of the FDC for possible obstructions and verify that the valve clapper is operational
over i.t.s full range. 111einspector must remove the plugs or caps and check the inte-
rior of the FDC for debris . Caution is required when this task is performed. FDCs
provide a convenient hiding place for items such as soda cans, tennis balls, or even
drug needles .

FLOW TESTING OF WATERMAINS

Chapter 7 of NFPA 25, 20 l l edition, requires a flow test of underground private fire
service mains. TI1isflow test should be conducted at 5-year intervals, at the minimum,
to determine the internal conditio n of the pipe along with the water availability.TI1e
following procedure can be used for checking the available flow and pressure for either
private or public mains.
Using two hydrants nearest the po int at which the building fire service connects to
the main, the inspector can use the following test procedure to flow test hydrants on
a water main (FIGURE 16·2). \-\' hen public mains are involved, inspectors must be sure
to secure permission for the test from the water utility, which may be the local water
authority or even the fire department depending on the jurisdiction. \,\/here possible,
the direction of flow should be noted .

Gauge auach ed Gauge atla ched to

to hydranl lo hydrant or pilot tube
show slalic and lo register flowing
residual pressures pressure

\_ Public main

16·2 Using two hydrants for a now test.

FIGURE
236
 CHAPTER 16: WaterSupplies

1. Attach the gauge to Hydrant A and obtain the static pressure in the system.
2. Attach a second gauge to Hydrant Band remove the cap from the other 2½-in.
(63.5-mm) outlet.
3. \!Vhile Hydrant B is uncapped, measure the diameter of the outlet to check its
size. Although the inside diameter of the hydrant opening is usually close to
2½ in. {63.5 mm), some may be sufficiently different to require an actual mea-
surement. For convenience, this should be taken to the nearest hundredth of
an inch (0.25 mm).
4. Using a flashlight, look inside the outlet to ensure that it is clear of obstructions
or debris. 'TI1enfeel inside the outlet to determine its shape; that is, smooth,
right angle , or proj ec ting . (1l1is will provide the hydrant oe fficient needed to
determine the flow amou nts through the opening.)
5. Slowly open Hydrant B and flush thoroughly, making sure a full flow is estab -
lished for accurate measurement.
The a urncy of the test is usua lly better if the inspec tor read s the pressure from a
Pitot tube held in the flowing stream instead of on a gauge on Hydrant B. In most open -
ings, the Pitot reading will be best with the tube near the middle of the stream, held
about half the outlet diameter away from the face of the outlet (FIGURE 16·3).TI1e Pitot
tube measures the velocity pressure of the water. TI1ere are devices available that can be
attached with a hose connected to the hydrant, and as water flows through the device, a
built -in Pi tot gauge can be read . In many cases, this is more accurate because the gauge
is fixed in the correct location of the flowing stream. It is always important to make sure
the water is running clear before putting the Pilot tube in the stream, because debris
could harm the inspector or damage the equipment.
Once the velocity pressure is found, the discharge is computed using a formu la. The
inspector can calculate discharge from the hydrant opening or nozzle by using
the formula

where Q is the flow in gallons per minute, CH is a coefficient of discharge for the hy-
drant opening where the water was flowing, d; is the interior diameter of the opening

Pressure gau
i/ Water stream

I
I/
~ ·=
Pitot orifice

~~-~---~a-d-,§-~i
Air-release cock
Cr -._
!.
Hydrant outl~t or
nozzle opening

~
FIGURE
16·3Pitot tub e location relative to the hydr ant opening.
237
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

Outlet smooth and Outlet square Outlet square and

rounded and sharp projecting into barrel
coef. 0.90 coef. 0.80 coef. 0.70

FIGURE
16·4 Hydrant coefficient shapes

in inches, and Pv is the velocity pressure read at the gauge on the hydrant flowing or on
the Pilot tube gauge in psi.
A hydrant coefficient, CH' equal to 1.00 is not possible in the field. If the outlet of
the hydrant barrel has a smooth and rounded edge, a C11 value of 0.9 should be used .
If the outlet of the hydrant barrel has a sharp right -angle edge, a CHvalue of 0.8 should
be used. If th e outlet edge project s into the hydrant barrel, a C11 value of 0.7 should be
used. 1his is depicted in FIGURE 16·4. 1l1e lower CHvalue indicates more turbulence in
the wate r and thereby less flow through the outlet. 1he inspector should use these fac-
tors to modify the flow calculations as needed for the situation .
In some circumstances, it m ay be necess ar y to use a large opening on a hydrant,
sometimes called a steamer outlet or pumper outlet. When this type of opening is used
to flow water and measure the velocity pressure of the stream, an additional coefficient
is nec essary to adequately calculate the flow. TI1ecoefficients can be found in Table 4.8.2
of NFPA 291, Fire Flow Testingand Marking ofHydm11ts,2011 edition. TI1isis a correc-
tion so that the previous formula can be used with the larger -diameter opening.

Hydrants
TI1e AHJ determines the necessary fire flow and hydrant locations for a yard hydrant
system, so they may vary from one inspection to the next. Following NFPA 24, Stan-
dard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and Their Appurtenances, hy-
drants must be placed at least 40 ft (12 .2 m) from buildings. Hydrant outlets must
have the NH (or American National Fire Hose Connect ion Screw TI1reads) standard
externa l threads for the size outlet supplied, as specified in NFPA 1963, Sta11dardfor
Fire Hose Co11nectio11s. Where local fire departments do not use the NH threads, the
AHJ must designate the threads or connection to be used. TI1is should be done at
the time of installation, because there are more than 300 thread combinations in the
United States alone.
NFPA 25 ca lls for quarterly inspection s of any ho se hou ses to check accessibil -
ity, repair physical damage, and/or replace missing equipment. This is often done in
conjunction with hydrant inspections. Fire hose and required equipment in the hose
houses should be maintained annually to ensure that they are in a usable condition .
Annual inspections for both dry barrel and wet barrel hydrants are required. This
includes wall hydrants. All hydrants should also be checked after each operation .
238
 CHAPTER16: Water Supplies

In addition to ensuring that hydrants are accessible and wrenches available, the insp ec-
tor should confirm that the outlet s are tight and that the nozzle threads, as well as the
hydrant -opera tin g nu t. are not worn. Leaks in o utlets or at the top of a hydrant shou ld
be repaired . Finally, for dry -type and wall hydrants. drainage needs to be confir med.
The inspec tor must check draina ge from the barre l of dry bar rel and wall hydrants.
'l11e pr esen ce of water or ice may indicate a faulty d rain, a leaky h)1drant valve, or a
high groundwater table, which can possibly cause severe damage down the road. The
inspector cou ld use the following checklis t when inspecting hydrants:

I. Chec k that the hydra nt is set up plumb with outlets at least 18 in . (457 111111 )
above th e gro und. The hydrant should be unob str ucted, easily accessible, and
clear of snow in the winter.
2. Ope n and close the hydrant to verify that it is working properly . Note the
d irect ion of turn and th e numb er of turns needed to open it fully. Posting
a sign on the hydrant showi ng this informati on is usefu l but not req uir ed .
Caution is requir ed when op ening or shutt ing a hydrani. It should be open ed
an d closed very slowly to pr even t damage to the hydran t and to prevent wa-
ter ham me r. Check that the hydrant drains properly. If the drai n is work -
ing properly, suctio n can be felt at the ou tlets immediat ely after the valve is
closed . A sma ll drain in th e base of th e bar rel of the hydrant is closed when
the main valve is open. It is, however, arranged in such a way as to permit
water to drain ou t of the barre l when the main valve is shu t. If th e hydrant has
been installed properly (with abo ut a barrel of sma ll stones unde r it), water
will drain away.
3. Check for leaks . The ma in valve shou ld close tight!}'-When the main valve is
open wide, with th e hydrant ou tlets capped , ther e should be no flow from the
drain valve. Look for leaks in mains near the hydrant; stethoscope -like listen-
ing devices can be used for this purpose.
4. Check the hydra nt s for freezing during cold weath er by "sounding;' or strikin g
one of the ope n outlets with the hand. Water or ice in the barrel shortens the
length the so un d can travel and raises the pitch of the sound. With expe rience,
the inspector can detect the presence of ice or water. Sometimes, lowering a
weight on a stout cord into th e barrel can help determine the presence of water
or ice in the bar rel.
5. Flush hydrant s ammally to rem ove debri s. Flow for at least 60 seconds or until
the water flows clear.

Jf the dra in on the hydrant is working properly and th e mai n valve is tight (see #4 in
the previou s list), any problems caused by water freezing in the barr el will be avoided.
Drainage sho uld not take more than l hour. If water rem ains after l hour, the water
must be p um ped out. This may be caused by high water table levels or other soil condi-
tions . If water is found in the barrel, it must be pumped out and th e defective drains or
valves repaired. Using sal t or antifreeze in the barrels is of limited value in preventing
freezing, and the corros ive effec t can impair the operation of the hydrant. If th e
hydrant is only slightly bound by ice, tapping the arm of a wrench on the nut can re -
lease the stem. Only moderate blows should be used to prevent breaking th e valve rod.
239
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand FireProtection Systems

11
1 qGauge 1__ -_-_-
_- r<
/ G No.2 --'--{

1
==O:No.1
auge
11
''
11
11
11
II
Water
flowing
I I I I I
I I I I I here
t-1'-~--: :_________
___:: ---------\.
r-r-~ ·'=
1
Yard --

system
: :- ---------

::
-- ::

::
-- 0:
: II I I
4-- Street main ,Q ,Q
JI
, 1

16·5Example layout of a hydrant yard system.

FIGURE

Flow Testing a Yard System

An example of how water flow in a yard system fed by a city connection is checked is
illustrated in FIGURE 16·5. In the figure,Gauge No. 1 illustratesstreet pressure. Gauge No. 2
is located as close to the street connectio n and the water meter as possible. The
amount by which the reading of Gauge No. 2 differs from that of Gauge No. I shows
the pressure loss between the two points . Meters frequently cause large residual
pressure drops.
A Pitot gauge reading is taken at the point at which water is flowing during a test.
The difterence in pressure should be explained by the expected friction losses in the
piping S)'Stem between the Pilot gauge and Gauge No. 2. If the diflerencc cannot be
explained by friction, farther investigation may be needed to look for obstructions or
leakage.
The pressure for a specific flow at the end of the system at the Pitot gauge should be
the same as it is for the same flow at Gauge No. l minus the calculated losses in the pip-
ing between Gauge No. l and the Pitot gauge. If the observed pressure is less than that
calculated, the inspector should take readings at other outlets between Gauge No. l and
the Pilot gauge and calculate the pressure losses to be expected for a given flow until
the obstruction or problem is identified.
With tests such as these, the inspector can plot a hydraulic-grade line for a given run
of piping that will often show otherwise undetectable sources of pressure drop. TI1efol-
lowing list of defects can be found in water supply S)'Stems.These examples demonstrate
the value in carefully checking private fire systems and their underground piping:
l. Not connected to the city main.
2. Connected to the city main, but the gate valve was not opened or only partially
open.
Meter(s) were broken or clogged.
3.
4. Mains smaller than indicated on plans.
5. Cross-sectional areas of the mains reduced because of sedimentation, mud, or
hard deposits on the inside.
6. Leakage in the underground systems.
7. Frozen mains or valves.
240
 CHAPTER 16: WaterSupplies

8. Inoperative hydrants.
9. Valvesentirely or partly closed.
10. Check valves installed in the wrong direction.
11. Check valves leaking.
12. Additional valves and meters on the S)'Stem.
13. Suction on the fire pump was blocked.
14. Frozen pipes feeding to or from a tank.

Monitor Nozzles
.Monitor nozzles must be inspected semiannually. Leakage and damage must be
repaired, and corroded parts must be cleaned or replaced. Monitor nozzles should be
lubricated annually.
Where these nozzles are mounted on hydrants, they are tested in accordance with
the requirements for hydrant tests. 111ey must also be exercised once a year. This i
done by rotating the nozzle through its full range of motion . 'f his verifies that the mon -
itor nozzle can operate when needed.

ANKS
Types of Water Storage Tanks
NFPA 22, Standardfor Water Tanksfor Private Fire Protection,addresses the instal-
lation requirements for three categories of tanks that are used to store fire protection
water: (I) elevated tanks on towers or building structures (gravity tanks), (2) water
storage tanks that are at grade or below grade level, and (3) pressure tanks.

GravityTanks. Gravity tanks are generally made of steel or wood. Steel tanks range
in capacity from 5000 to 500,000 gal (18.93 to 1892.5 1113),and wood tanks typically
range in capacity from 5000 to 100,000 gal (18.93 to 378.5 m3). Depending on the
requirements, these tanks may be located on the roof of a building or raised on an
independent steel tower, so that the tank's bottom capacity line is usually 75 to 150 ft
(22.9 to 30.5 m) above ground. Reinforced concrete towers may also be used. In some
cases, concrete tanks have been constructed within the building or other structure(s)
that they supply.
For a complete inspection of a gravit}' tank, the inspector must usually climb the
tower and descend into the tank itself to check the condition of the interior. Appropri-
ate and legally required precautions should be taken prior to entering confined spaces
such as tanks or valve pits. Typically, OSHA regulations, including confined space
entry rules, would apply in the United States. Inspectors who are inexperienced, how-
ever, should not attempt to descend into a tank or climb a tower until they have received
instruction from an appropriately experienced person and have practiced these actions.

Ground Suction Tanks.Ground suction tanks are made of steel, wood, fiberglass, or
concrete and are set on a foundation of concrete, crnshed stone, or sand. A concrete
ring wall usually surrounds the foundation . These are available in a variety of sizes.
241
SECTION 2: Build ing Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

Embankment-supported rubberized-fabric (ESRF) tanks are also used as ground

suct ion tanks . They are available in 20,000 and 50,000 gal (75.5 and 189.3 m 3) sizes and
in 100,000 gal (378.5 m3) increments up to 1 million ga l (3785 m 3). These tanks have a
reservoir lin er with an int egra l flexible roof. They are designed to be supported by earth
on the bottom and all four sides.
For both elevated and ground suction tanks, a valve pit or house is usually built
to contain va lves, tank heaters, and ot her app urt enances . The inspector sho uld ch eck
th ese houses or pits for appropria te waterproofing, drainage, and for a wat er-level indi -
cator (gauge) or a high- and low-water electrica l alarm. The gauge is normally installed
in a heated room that is readily accessib le. There shou ld also be an over flow pipe at
least 3 in. (76 mm) in diameter.

Pressure Tan ks. Pressure tanks, wh ose capac iti es range from 2000 to 15,000 ga l (7.5 to
56.6 m 3), are another op tion for supp lying sprinkler and standpipe systems, h ose lines,
water mist systems, an d water spray system s. One is sh own in FIGURE 16-6. Somet im es
th ey are connected to fire pumps and gravity tanks. The tank is normally kept about

Building or pit wall

I
Q o ~r~~~d
5
raa~: D
___..
3
4½ in. pressure gauge
/4 in.brass plug
-- 1/• in. plug
Do

1
/ • in. globe valve

0
0
0 /¾ in.
0
OD
0
Sleeve /j;) -- - - +- - ·l=t:l>-1'\
Kept shut 0.63 I( diam.

Manhole

gate valve

a=fl:::(::]:jt)=. == 7j121·,
immum 1 ½: 10 Angle valve
drain pipe

Four-elbow swingJoints or listedexpansionJoints

Specia l EN D ELEVATIO N
2 in. x 3/4 in. x 1 ½ in.
Minimum
fitting 1½in .
fillinginlet

She ll of tank

¼
/
ln. nipple extending
6 in. into tank
Detail of Air and Filling Connections

For SI unit s, 1 in.= 25.4 mm ; 1 ft = 0.3048 m.

FIGURE
16-6 A pressure tank used as th e wate r supp ly for a fire sprinkl er system .

242
 CHAPTER 16: Water Supplies

two-thirds full of water, with an air pressure of typically 75 psi (5.2 bar) or m ore. Tanks
shou ld be housed in noncombustible structures unle ss the y are installed in a heated
room within the building.
When insp ecting a pr essure tank, the inspector should read the water level in th e
sight gauge, check th e pressure gauge, and compare thes e readings with pr eviously
recorded readings and with the fire protecti on system demand criteria. The insp ector
should also make sure that the pump is operating prop erly to fill the tank and shou ld
examine the air compr essor for capac ity and maintenance condition.

Inspecting Water Storage Tanks

The exterior of a tank should be checked at least quarterly for signs of damag e or weak-
ening. The area th at sur rounds the tank and its support structure must also b e checked
qu arterly to ensure that it is free of combustibl e storage, debri s, and other material that
could present a fire exposure . Accumulated material th at co uld accelerate corrosion or
rot along with ice buildup are also of concern. The supp orting embankments of ESRF
tanks n eed to be inspected for signs of eros ion.
Exterior surfac es that have been pain ted, coated , or in sulat ed should be checked
at least annua lly for signs of degradati on. Expansion jo int s should also be inspected
for leaks and crac ks during th e annua l inspection. The hoo ps an d gri llage of woode n
tanks should be checked at least every other year to make sure the tank is stabl e and
not leaking.
All typ es of water storage tank s have to be insp ected for th eir water level. Wh ere
there is a low-wa ter-l evel alarm inst alled that is m onitored electrically to a constan tly
attended location , th e insp ection is don e quart erly. Without the electronic n otificati on,
this inspec tion must be complet ed m onthly. In add ition , if a heating system is pr esent
with a low-temperature alarm for the tank and it is supervi sed, the inspe ction is weekly.
With out the sup erv ision, the insp ection is daily during seaso ns wit h cold temp eratur es.
The minimum permitted water temp era tur e is 40°F (4°C). The low-temp eratur e alarm
can be inspe cted monthly during cold seaso ns but weekly where the temperat ure falls
below 40°F ( 4°C) to en sure the water remains fluid. Temperature can be m aint ain ed
with a heat exchang er and water -circulation system . The high-wat er-temp erat ur e limit
switche s on tank heatin g systems will also need to be inspecte d monthly.
The pressure gauges for th e system must be tested for accur acy at least every 5 years.
In m any cases, th e gauges are replaced in stead of being recalibrated. The water-level
alarms also must be checked for accuracy at th e 5-year interval. This is verification that
th e read ings and records that are collected th rough th e years are an acc ur ate represen -
tation of the performance of th e system(s).
The int erior of most tanks mu st be inspected at least every 5 years. However, th e int e-
rior of steel tanks that have no corros ion protect ion must be checked every 3 years. The
int eri or of pressure tanks should also be inspected at a minimum of 3-year intervals .
The air pressure so urce needs to be inspected qu arte rly. This is inc reased to m onthly
wh en th e air pressure is not sup ervised .
The inspector needs to look for signs of pitting, corros ion, or oth er deteri oration
during th e interior insp ec tion . Presence of the se attr ibut es could lead to leakage or
243
SECTION 2: Build ing Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

damage in the system in the future. It is also important to look for any type of biol ogical
growth in the water that may cause problems down the line. When a tank has interior
coatings, any flaking or peeling should be noted as a concern. If problems, such as
corrosion, are found in a steel tank, NFPA 25 requires additional testing. Included in
these tests are an evaluation of the coating (where applicable), readings to evaluate wall
thicknesses, testing of tank bott oms for metal loss, and close examination of seams for
leakage. The anti-vortex plate used on tanks that are used to supply fire pumps need s to
be checked for signs of deterioration. Cathodic protection, if provided, must be main -
tained in accordance with the manufacturer's instructi ons.
Tank drain valves should be fully opened and closed at least annually and the tank
vents cleaned. Sediment should be drained or flushed from tanks at least semiannually.
This reduces th e risk of sediment getting into the system the water supply is feeding.
In areas subject to earthquakes, the inspect or should make sure that the tank and its
support structure are braced to withstand the possibl e horizontal and vertical forces
in accordance with th e loca l building codes at the tim e of installati on. Water supply
piping from the tank to the system should be braced at appropriate interval s, but
th e piping should also be flexibl e where neede d to accommodate differ ential building
movement.
Inspection forms can assist with collection of information and as a checklist of what
ne eds to be noted for futur e reference over the life of the system. Sample forms are
available from a few companies as noted in the annex of NFPA 25. The following list
describes good informati on to gather when inspecting water storage tanks should spe -
cific forms not be available:

1. Note the names of:

A. The tank manufa ctur er.
B. The install ation company .
2. Note information about:
A. Feature s of structural design , foundati ons, wind, and earthquake loadi ngs
from initial installation.
B. The tank site (clear of weeds, brush, rubbish, and piles of combustible
material) .
C. Ne arby buildings or structures, if app licab le.
3. Note wheth er th e tank is used for any purpos e in add ition to fire protection .
4. Read the mercury gauge or oth er water-level indicator and consu lt th e records
kept of such readings through out the year.
5. Determ in e if the tank h as an over flow (not appli cable to pr essur e tanks) .
6. Test th e water -level indicators and th e tan k-filling arrang ements.
7. Note the gen era l conditi on of the tank struc tur e, the tank, and its accesso ri es.
8. Determin e th e last tim e th e tank was inspected by a tank contractor. (Wh ere
water conditi ons make frequ ent cleaning necessa ry, determine the last tim e
th e tank was cleaned.)
9. Co nsult the record s for weekly valve inspectio ns. Note the positi on of the
valves an d wh eth er th ey are sup ervis ed.
10. Test each valve.
244
 CHAPTER 16: Water Supplies

11. Inspect each va lve p it for the cond ition of:

A. The va lves in the pit.
B. The manhole.
C. The ladder .
D. Waterpro ofing and drainage.
12. Cons ult th e daily records of tank tempera tu re readings kept during cold
weather . Check th e heating system where applicab le.
13. In spect the tank heating system (parti cu larly any sepa r ate above-grade heater
hou ses) .
A. Note the construction of the heater house.
B. Determine whethe r th e roof will properly support frost -proof casing and
any other loads imposed on it.
14. Review the recor ds of tank pa int ing and the condition of the paint.
15. If a stee l tank h as cathodic protecti on, determine when th e supplier last
insp ected th e equipment .
16. For pres sure tank s, make sur e that th e press ur e is at least 75 psi (5.2 bar).

FIRE PUMPS
Fire pumps can be inst alled on public or privat e systems. Their functi on is to increas e
the amo unt of press ure in the system. A pump can be connected to a tank for a single
system or a feed lin e (eit her from a city main or pr ivate fire system ) that serves multipl e
systems. Fire pumps wi ll often be found when performing th e water supp ly inspection.

Types of Fire Pumps

There are man y types of fire pump s available for use in fire protecti on system s. W h en
th e system is insta lled, a specific pump is selected. Wh en inspecting a fire pump, it
is imp ortant to gather information on the in sta lled pump, includin g m anu facturer
information, acceptance test data, and previous inspection, test and maintenance data.
Two common types of pumps are the centrifuga l pump and the verti cal turbine pump.

Centrifugal Pump. The centr ifugal-type pump is the most common choice for pro-
viding water und er pressur e to fire protection systems . These can be singl e-stage
or multistage pumps, depending on th e numb er an d arrangemen t of th e imp ellers.
Horizontal and vertica l centrifugal pumps are available in capacities up to 5000 GPM
(18,925 L/min), wit h a net pressur e ranging from 40 to 400 psi (2.8 to 27.6 bar) .
Horizonta l shaft centrifuga l fire pum ps must be opera ted und er positiv e suction
pressure. This wou ld be any value over zero psi. If the locat ion requires the wa ter to
be drawn upward, whi ch wou ld cause n egative pr essure at th e fire p ump , a vertical
turbine-type pump sh ould be used.

Vertical Turbine Pump. The ver tical turbin e pump is used in str eam s, pond s, and pits .
Such a pump consis ts of a m otor of right -ang le gear driv e, a co lumn pipe and discharg e
fitting , a driv e shaft, a bow l assembly housin g th e impe llers, and a suction strain er. Its
245
SECTION 2: BuildingSystems and Fire Protection Systems

operat ion is simi lar to that of a multistage horizontal pump. When using raw water
sources, it is important to provide a screen, which then in turn has to be insp ected and
regularly cleaned.

Fire Pump Assembly. A fire pump assembly includes the water supply suct ion piping
and discharge piping along with its valves; the pump; the driver, which may be an elec-
tric motor, a diesel engine, or a steam turbine; the controlle r; and auxiliar y equipment.
The auxiliary equipmen t includes the shaft coupling; the automatic air releas e va lve;
pressure gauges; the circulati on relief valve, where applicable; pump test devices; the
pump relief valve and its piping; alarm sensors and their indicat ors; right -angle gear
sets for engine-dr iven vertical shaft turbine pumps; and the pressure maintenance , or
j ockey pump, and accessories .

Inspecting Fire Pumps

A fire pump assembly is usually insp ected weekly to verify that it is in prop er condition
(see NFPA 25, Table 8.1, for a summary of the schedule). This inspecti on is performed
in conjunction with a weekly test of an electric, diese l, or steam-driven pump. The test
for electric mot ors shou ld last for at least 10 minut es; th e test for dies el engines should
last for a minimum of 30 minutes . These tests are conducted with an automatic start,
but without flowing water, called "churn :'
Fire pumps are also tested annually by flowing water at "churn ;• "rated flow;• and
"peak flow" conditions. These three flow points can be plotted on a pump-di scharge
curv e to demonstrat e performanc e. An exampl e can be found in FIGURE 16-7. All fire
pumps are required to meet th e following for manufa cturing purposes:

• The first point of th e pump-discharge curve is churn or no- flow, with the pump
operat ing at rated speed with the discharge valve close d. Th e total press ur e at
churn must n ot exceed 140 percent of the rated pressure at zero capaci ty.
• The second point is rated flow. The curve should pass through or above the rated
capacity and pressure, providing at least 100 percent of th e rat ed pressure at
100 p ercent capaci ty.
• The third point is overloa d. At 150 percent of rated capac ity, the total pr essur e
should n ot be less th an 65 percent of the rated tota l pr essur e.

When a listed pump is purchased, th e ab ove conditions have b een m et. These data are
for manufacturing tolerances on the performance req uir em ent s of fire pumps.
When in spec tin g a fire pump, th e insp ector should first read the m anufa cturer's rat -
ing data and compare the data with the records of recen t tests. Records should be main-
tained on suction pressure, discharg e pressure, pump speed (revo lutions per minu te),
flow (based on Pitot pressure readings from flowing n ozzles or on a test meter), and
current and vo ltage of an electr ic-dri ven motor (when present), usin g a numb er of dif-
ferent flow points, including the churn and overloa d conditions . To mimic the pump
curve, no less th an thr ee data points can be used.
If th e fire p ump is suppo sed to star t automat ica lly, inspectors shou ld test it by ope n-
ing a test connect ion. With th e pump started, in spectors should watch for signs of
246
 CHAPTER16: Water Supplies

Client name
"' " ' 1111 1111 1111 Ill ' II I '' '' 11 1 1 11111, 1111 ' " 11'""1"' '"/IIII II 'I 11 11 1111
120 =
=
110 =
....
....... Relest- May 3, 1990
100
1 ..... original acceptance test
-........_
' August 27, 1983
90 =
'
i 80
=

'
Net pressure "
.....___
1r- original acceptance te~
~
I'-,._ -n ischarge gauge pressure
~ 70 ' • August 27, 1983
II) r--:-.:..... "- ✓ I I I I
~
o. 60
r-.:,
"- I I I
----~ -
'.:- I I I I
50 1 ~
......:::... , Net pressure (discharge-suction)~

-~
=
.....

-
e;-..J retest-May 3, 1990 ~
40
= '
30
r--
-
20 ~
= -r---
-- t
- Suction gauge pressure

-
10
'
'"' ... "' '" 400" "' "' '""'" ""' "" '""' " 900 '"'"
,Nl8 !
O 0100200 300 500 600 700 1000
Flow (gpm)

16·7A fire pump curve.

FIGURE

leakage, overheating, and irregular performance. 1hey should make sure all alarms
and relief va lves an:: operating satisfacto rily. They should also note whether the pump is
aligned correctly with the driving motor or turbine and whether the packing glands are
leaking, as they are intended to do. Inspectors should watch pressure gauges for erratic
performance, which may indicate poor suction, obstructions, inadequate water sup -
pl)~ or insufficient immersion of the suction pipe . Finally, all outlets should be closed ,
iJ1cluding the relief valve. In most cases, the fire pump will have to be manual!)' shut off.
However, when automatic shutoff has been set up and is permitted, the pressure when
the pump does shut off should be not ed.
The purpose of the annual test is to compare the performance of the fire pump
assembly with the performance recorded in earlier tests and at the time of initial field
acceptan ce, thus verifying that all inspections and test results are being properly re-
corded and retained.
Interpreting the results correctly is also important. Reduced pumping capacity and
adjustm ents for changes in pump speed must be evaluated against the fire protection
system demand. TI1einspector must make sure that the fire pump room is kept clean,
dry, orderly, and free of miscellaneous stored materials and that proper temperatures
are maintained. Diesel-driven pump s must be ventilated adequately to supply air to
the engine and to remove hazardous vapors, This means that any louvers in the space
should be free and clear to open if needed.
TI1e inspec tor should ch eck the condition and reliability of any storag e areas, of
the lubrication systems, and of the oil and fuel supplies. If the pump is taking suc -
tion from a public water suppl) ', the annual flow test should verify that the operation
247
 SECTION 2: Building Systemsand Fire Protec lion Systems

of the pump does not reduce the suction pressure at the pump below the minimum
pressure permitted by local au thorities . In areas subject to earthquakes, the inspec-
tor should also make sure that the fire pump assembly and its associated pipes and
valves are properly braced and supported to withstand the possible horizontal and
vertical forces.
In some jurisdictions, the weekly and monthly tests may need to be modified, giv-
en regulatory restrictions that work to limit the discharge of water to the ground or
that regulate diesel engine exhaust as a point source of air pollution. You need to be
aware of any such provisions and dete rmin e the extent to which both goa ls could be
mutually met.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Backjlow Protectionfor Fire Sprinkler Systems, National Fire Sprinkler Association,
Patters on, NY, 1989.
Backjlow Protection for Fire Sprinkler Systems, National Fire Sprinkler Association,
Patterson, NY, 1990.
BackjlowProtectionfor FireSpri11klerSystems, NSF, R.R. No. 17054, 1993.
Carson, W. G., and Klinker, R. L., FireProtectionSystems:illspection, Testd,v Mai11te11ance
Manual, 3rd ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2000.
Cote, A. E., ed., Fire ProtectionHandbook, 20th ed ., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
Jsman, K. E., ed., Layout, Detail and Calculation of Fire Sprinkler Systems, 2nd ed.,
National Fire Sprinkler Association, Patterson , NY, 2010.

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 13, Standardfor the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 13D, Standard for the lnstallatio11of Sprinkler Systems i11One- and Two-Family
Dwellingsand Manufactured Homes
NFPA 13E, Recon1111e11ded
Practicefor Fire Department Operations in PropertiesPro-
tected by Spril1klerand Standpipe Syste111s
NFPA l 3R, Standardfor the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Residential Occupancies
Up to and IncludingFour Stories in Height
NFPA 14, Standardfor the Installation of Standpipe, and Hose Systems
NFPA 15, Standardfor Water Spray Fixed Systemsfor FireProtection
NFPA 16, Standardfor the I11stallatio11
of Foam-Water Sprinkler and Foam-Water Spray
Systems
NFPA 20, Standardfor the Installatio11ofStationary Pwnpsfor FireProtection
NFPA 22, Standardfor Water Tanksfor Private FireProtection
NFPA 24, Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service lvfai11sand Their Ap -
purtenances

248
 CHAPTER16: WaterSupplies

NFPA 25, Stn11dnrd

for the l11spection,Testing,nnd lvlninte11n11ce
of Wnter-Bnsed Fire
Protectio11Systems
NFPA 110, Standardfor Eme1ge11cy and Standby PowerSystems
NFPA 291, Reco111me11dedPmcticefor FireFlow Testingand i\tfarkingof Hydmnts
NFPA 1142, Sta11dnrd on WaterSuppliersfor S11burbn11nnd Rum/ FireFighting
NFPA 1962, Stnndnrdfor t/1eCnre, Use, n11dServiceTesti11g
of FireHose,Co11pli11gs,
a11d
Nozzlesand the Sen•iceTestingof Fire Hose
NFPA 1963, Standardfor FireHose Co1111eclions

249
 CHAPTER

17
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERAND
OTHER WATER-BASEDFIRE
PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Bob Caputo and Roland Huggins

Because water is an efficient and green agent and almost universally available, water -
based fire protec tion systems are widely applied in the built environment. 'Nater-based
fire protection is used in both manual firefighting with standpipe systems and auto-
matic firefighting with sprinkler systems. Automatic sprinkler fire protection systems
provide an unparalleled level of life safety and property protection. Historically, the
installation of sprinkler systems was focused on properr>, protection and was driven by
insurance companies that allowed a reduction in prem iums for their highly -protected
risks . More recently, the application of sprinkler system s was greatly expanded by the
building codes in recognition of the life safety aspect of sprinkler systems. Although
it is rare to require changes to existing buildings retroactively, the improvement in life
safety is great enough that NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®, requires most t} 1pes of exist-
ing high-rise buildings to install sprinkler systems. Use of sprinkler systems not only
affects the design of individual buildings but also the design of communities when
such systems are used throughout a community or portions thereof. TI1isreliance upon
sprinkler systems has grown partly because of their history of great reliability. As we
know with any mechanical system, a certain amount of inspection, testing, and mainte-
nance is required to maintain reliability and functionality; therefore, it is important for
the inspector to verify that any sprinkler and other water-based systems in a building
are in service and fully operational. Tilis requires a broad understanding of how these
systems function and the basis of the sprinkler design along with the ability to iden -
tify the critical aspects that can negate a system's ability to perform adequately. This
chapter describe s the various types of suppression and standpipe systems, describes
the occupancy haz ard classifications and storage arrangements that aflect the ability of
a sprinkler system to control a fire, and provides information about requiremen ts for
proper insp ection of sp rinkler systems.
 CHAPTER 17: Automatic Sprinkler and Other Water-BasedFireProtection Systems

ACKG OUND: SPRINKLER

SYS EM YPES
There are four basic types of sprinkler systems:
Wet-pipe systems, used where temperature is maintained above 40°F (4.4°C).
1.
Antifreeze systems are considered wet-pipe systems.
2. Dry -pipe systems, used in areas where temperature is not maintained above
40°F ( 4.4°C), such as unheated attics and warehouses. Dry-pipe systems re-
quire pitching pipe to drain, which an inspector may question but usually does
not have time or equipment to verify. Dry -pipe systems have a more strin -
gent requirement for low-point drains and their arrangement than that of wet
S)'Stems in heated areas.
3. Preactio11 systems, used in areas where inadvertent system operation may be
detrimental. Preaction systems rely on activation of a detection system (smok e
or heat detection) to open the preaction valve and allow water into the S)'S-
tem piping. Types of preaction systems include: non-interlock systems, single
interlock systems, and double interlock systems (the latter used in freezers/
coolers/sensitive areas).
4. Deluge S)'Stems used for exposures, tank farms, and aircraft hangars.
Preaction and deluge systems require a "trigger" to operate, or to trip the valve that
holds back water from filling the system piping. 'D1e trigger may be an electronic
detection system or pilot line actuation (sprinkJers .located within the fire area un -
der air or water pressure). Subsystems (antifreeze, dry pipe, preaction, or deluge) may
be arranged as "satellite systems" where the water supply is through an adjacent wet
system . 1l1e location of detectors or pilot line sprinklers and their functionality are also
important inspection points.

TYPESOF SPRINKLERS
'foere are mall)' types of sprinklers, and many look alike but function differently. Veri-
fication of the correct sprinkler type is also a critical inspection point. Sprinkler types
include:
• Standard spray: standard response
• Standard spray: quick response
• Standard spray: sidewall sprinklers
• Extended coverage: upright, pendent, and sidewall
• Control mode-specific application (CMSA): storage
• Early suppression fast response (ESFR): storage
Knowledge of the types of sprinklers is necessary to ensure that different types of
sprinklers are not improperly applied or improperly mixed within the same com -
partment. Newer light hazard occupancies are required to have quick response (QR)
sprinklers installed throughout when a system is required. 1l1e combination of a side -
wall spray sprinkler and a pendent spray sprinkler within a compartment is acceptable.
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 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire ProtectionSystems

Residential occupancies protected with NFPA 13, Strmdnrdforthe lnstallntionof Sprin-

kler Systems, are permitted to have either QR spray sprinklers or listed residential
sprinklers installed but not both types. Another characteristic differentiating sprinklers
is the K-factor. In storage occupancies, there is a minimum K-factor requirement based
on the design density. K-factor is a term used to represent the orifice size of the nozzle
or sprinkler. QR spray sprinklers are not permitted .in storage applications unless listed
for such use. The combination of spray sprinklers and CMSA or ESFR sprinklers in
the same portion of the system is not allowed. Having two types of sprinklers adjacent
to each other is permi ssible but can affect the allowable types of contents on the floor
beneath the common boundary (see NFPA 13, Chapte r 8).

WET-PIPE SPRINKLERSYSTEMS
As the name implies, a wet-pipe sprinkler S)'Stem is a system that uses automatic
sp rinklers attached to a piping system filled with water at all times. The system is con -
nected to a water supply, and water will discharge from sprinklers imm ed iately upon
operation. Each individual sprinkler is heat activated, so only those sprinklers affected
by heat will operate or fuse. Open sprinklers will flow water until someone shuts the
control valve. This is the most common and reliable type of system.
An antifreeze sprinkler system is effectively a wet-pipe system, except that the
water ha s been mixed with an antifreeze concentrate. These systems are allowed to
address freeze threats for portions of the system that cannot be maintained at an
ambient temperature of 40°F (4.4°C). Small antifreeze systems connected to wet-
pipe systems are often seen protecting loading docks or trash enclosures. They also
appear as the entire system protecting freezers or unheated portions of residential
buildings.

DRY-PIPE SPRINKLERSYSTEMS
Dry -pipe systems are typicall}' used for areas subject to freezing. These systems differ
from wet-pipe sprinkler systems in several ways. First, there is compressed air or ni-
trogen in the piping system instead of water, which is held back with a dq• -pipe valve.
When air pressure is lost through sprinklers that have operated because of a fire, and
the air compressor cannot keep up with the pressure loss, the valve opens, introduc-
ing water. The water must reach the furthest, highest point in the system (from the
water source) within a prescribed time frame as dictat ed by NFPA 13, Chapter 7. Water
does not enter the system until the system air pressure drops below a predetermined
point, so small air pressure leaks can sound a low-pressure trouble signal, alerting the
owner to facilitate repairs. Once the dry-pipe valve trip s, water fills the piping and is
discharged from any open sprinklers, acting like a wet system from that point on until
drained and reset.
Other differences between dry- and wet-pipe sprinkler systems involve the restrict -
ed use of pendent sprinklers and the required use of other additional components. 1l1e
air pressure in the dry -pipe system may come from a shop system or an automatic air
compressor. It should be noted that the supply is not required to be automatic. The air
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 CHAPTER17: Automatic Sprinkler and Other Water-Based FirePro tection Systems

compressor is one of the few components of a sprinkler system that is required to be

approved (meaning acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction [AHJ)) as opposed
to listed. As part of the air supply assembly, an air maintenance device is provided
(except on small riser-mounted compressors) to .restrict the amount of airflow into
the system to well below the airflow that can be discharged by a single open sprinkler .
1hese devices are listed. Typically, dry -pipe systems use upright sprinklers and hori -
zontal sidewall sprinklers when installed, so no water is trapped if the system oper -
ates. In areas subject to freezing, the dry barrel type of sprinkler can be used; standard
pendent sprinklers are allowed only on return bends in heat ed areas . Check valves are
sometimes installed in the brai1ches of older dry -pipe systems to improve the water
delivery time to op en sprinklers. In su ch cases, dn1in valves are conn ected by a b)1Jass
around each check valve to allow the system to be drained . Where such check valves
are installed, they should be in a heat ed area or enclosure.
Dry -pipe systems with a capacity of more than 500 gal (1893 L) must have quick-
opening devi ce ._Gridded dr y-pip e systems are not permitt ed for new installations, but
they may be encountered in older buildings.1hey were required to have a quick -opening
device when the system's volume exceeded 350 gal (1325 L). TI1isquick-opening device
is usually an accelerator placed close to the dry-pipe valve. There will also be a soft disk
globe or angle valve in the connection between the dry -pipe sprinkler riser and the
accelerator. TI1e maintenance of the quick-opening device is critical to proper system
operation and its ability to protect the hazard . The dry -pipe valve and the supply pipe
must be protected against cold temperatures and mechanical injury. A heated enclo -
sure is required for this purpose.
Additional pressure gauges are inst alleJ on the water and air sides of the dry-pipe
valve, at the source of air pressure, in each independent pipe from the air supply to the
system, and at the exhausters (on older systems) and accelerators. The inspector can
identify these gauges and determine their purpose by consulting the system installer's
plans or the manufacturer's literature. A final item is that vane -type water -flow indica -
tors are not permitted on dry -pipe systems.

PREACTIONAND DELUGESYSTEMS
Preaction and deluge systems are t)•pically used when additional precautions against
accidental discharge of water are desired (preaction systems) or when large quantities
of water are needed to be delivered to the hazard (deluge system). TI1esesystems also
contain air no rmally at atmospheric pressure within the piping, or at an elevated pres-
sure to supervise the pipe network, as well as an automatic water control valve that
requires a supplemental detection system to open this valve. 'The release systems can be
pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric. TI1edifference between the two systems is that a pre-
action system has closed sprinklers, so only one or a fewsprinklers will open as a result
of exposure to higher temperatures, whereas in a deluge system, all the sprinklers are
an open t)1)e and will discharge simultaneously.
TI1ere are thr ee types of preaction systems:
1. A single interlock system, which admits water to sprinkler piping upon
operation of detection devices.
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 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

2. A non-interlock system, which admits water to sprinkler piping upon operation

of detection devices or automatic sprinklers.
3. A double interlock system, which admits water to sprinkler piping upon
operation of both detection devices and automatic sprinklers .

1l1ese systems are basicall)' the same in their overall function, but the trim package
provided with the deluge valve (or preaction valve) creates a difference in the way the
system acts in terms of when water is admitted into the piping system.
Single interlock preaction systems aJlow the water into the piping system when the
detection system activates, so they are treated like a wet -pipe system, as we expect water
to already be at the sprinkl er when heat from a fire allows the sprinkl er to operate. 1l1is
occurs because the detection system is triggered by smoke or products of combustion,
which are usually present long before there is enough heat to operate sprinklers. Of
course, if the fire is small enough, and someone extinguishes it with a hand held fire
extingu isher, waler would nut now [rum lhe system, an d a technician would then drain
the piping and reset the valve and the detection system.
Non-interlock preaction systems allow water to enter the piping system with either
the operation of the detection system or the operation of a single sprinkler. This is not
usually desirable because a broken pipe will also be seen by the system as an operated
sprinkler and allow water to flow just as in a wet-pipe sprinkler system. In this case, no
additional protection for prevention of water flow is necessary.
Double interlock preaction systems require both the detection system and open
sprinkler operation to cause the preaction valve to trip, so water will not flow if a small
fire is manually extinguished before enough heat is present to operate a sprinkler or if
a sprinkler pipe is broken but no products of combu stion are present. This system type
requires a small level of supervisory air pressure to be maintained in the system piping.
All three systems require a panel (similar to a small fire alarm control panel) to
function as the brains of the system. When a detection system is activated, an electric
signal is sent to a solenoid-controlled device , which operates the mechanism opening
the normally closed preaction valve clapper.
In all three cases, you should expect to see a manual pull -station attached to the
system, typically at the system riser. 1l1is manual pull-station will trip the valve, allow-
ing the system to function as a wet-pipe system under emergency situations such as a
loss of power .
In past years, where preaction sprinkler systems were installed in heated areas, the
piping was not required to be installed with the pipe pitched to drain, and pendent sprin-
klers on drops attached directly to the bottom of the branch lines were permitted. The
thinking was that if there was no need to protect the piping from freezing, then there
was no concern about having some water in the pipe. Beginning with the 2007 edition
of NFPA 13, all preaction sprinkler systems are required to be installed with pitch in
the piping, so that water drains as it does in dry -pipe systems. There is concern about
standing water in the piping causing internal corrosion with potential development of
tubercles or other solids that could block water flow or become dislodged when the valve
operates-with the potential to plug sprinklers or branch lines. As with dry -pipe systems,
vane-type water-flow indicators are not permitted on preaction or deluge systems.
254
 CHAPTER17: Automatic Sprinkler and Other Water-BasedFireProtection Systems

OTHER SYSTEMS
Water Spray Systems
Water spray systems are designed to control and extinguish fires and to protect expo-
sures in special situations; they are not meant to replace sprinkler systems, although
they are similar to sprinkler systems except for the pattern of water spray discharge.
·water spray can be designed for a variet}'of discharge rates and patterns, including ul-
trahigh-speed response in milliseconds. The t}•pe of system used depends on the extent
of the hazard and the required water discharge.
\•Valer spray sy terns are ommon ly used to protect vessels in which flammable liq-
uids and gases are stored and to protect electrical transformers, oil switches, rotating
electrical machinery, electrical cable trays and runs, conveyor systems, wall openings,
and similar challenging elements and configurations. TI1eyconsist of fLxedpiping and
water spray nozzles designed specifically to discharge and distribute water over the
area to be protected (FIGUR E17-1).
Water flow is started either manually or automatically, usually by the actuation of
separate detection equipment. \'\1ater spray systems have a heavy demand for water
because simultaneous, high-density discharge from many nozzles is often needed. As
with sprinkler systems, it is important that the water supplies for water spray systems
be adequately designed and reliably maintained.

Foam Systems
Firefighting foam is a combination of water and concentrated liquid foaming agent.
TI1e foam floats on the surface of flammable and combustible liquids and forms a

17-1Waterspray nou les with internal spiralpassages.

FIGURE

255
 SECTION2: Buildi ng System s and Fire Prote ct ion Sy stems

covering that excludes air, cools the liquid, and seals the layer of vapor. It can also
form a blanket over transformers and other irregularly shaped items to smother flames.
There are several kinds of foaming agents, and their effectiveness varies with the type of
application and the properties of the fire being considered.
Foam can be applied by portable devices or fix:ed extinguishing systems. In either
type of application, the resultant solution must be at the right proportion, and the
application must be continuous and consistent. Foam breaks down, and its water con-
tent vaporizes when it is directly exposed to heat and flame. If it is applied in sufficient
volume , however , it can overcome thi s loss and can control and eventually extinguish
the fire. T11e smothering layer can also be broken and dispersed by mechanical or
chem ical action o r by tu rbu len ce from air or fire gases. Neverth eless, auto matic extin-
guishing systems can be designed to apply foam efficiently.
Types of foaming agents include aqueous film -forming, fluoroprotein foaming,
film -forming fluoroprotein, protein foaming, high -expansion foaming, S)•nthetic hy-
drocar bon surfac tant foam ing , lo-w-ternperature foam ing, "alcoh ol type;' chemica l, an d
powder. Tl1ese last two are practically obsolete and are not used in newly designed
systems.
Foam-water sprinkler and spray system s are effective in protecting areas in which
flammab le and combustible liquids are processed, stored, and handled. T11eseinclude
aircraft hangars, oil-water separators , pump areas and oil -piping manifolds, petroleum
piers , warehouses containing large quantities of combustible and flammable liquids,
and similar installations. T11efoam is discharged in essentially the same pattern as
water is discharged from a nozzle .

TYPES OF STANDPIPESYSTEMS
"There are five types of standpipe systems:

l. Automatic wet system: T11is is the most common standpipe system and is
charged at all times.
2. Semiautomatic dry system: This system is equipped with remote-control
devices at each hose station that admit water into the system .
3. Automatic dry-pipe S)'Stem: This system is for unheated buildings. In this
system, which is similar to a dry -pipe sprinkler system, a dry-pipe valve
prevents water from entering the system until the stored air pressure in the
discharge side falls below the water supply pressure.
4. Manual dry system: This system has no permanent water supply. Tl1e system is
composed of a pipe that contains air at atmospheric pressure and receives its
water suppl) ' from a fire department pumper.
5. Manual wet system: T11issystem, which has a permanent water supply, is com-
posed of a small -diameter water supply pipe that is connected to the system
to keep it filled at all times. T11ewater supply for both flow and pressure is pro-
vided by a fire department pumper.

In most buildings, a combined sprinkler/standpipe system riser can be used. For some
combined riser arrangements, the water supply and the pressure for the sprinkler
256
 CHAPTER17: Automatic Sprinkler and Other Water-BasedFireProtection S>•stems

system must be adequate, but the flow and pressure for the standpipe system might
have to be supplied through the fire department connection (FDC). This type of
arra ngement is considered a manual wet standpipe system because it uses a fire depart -
ment pumper to maintain the appropriate standpipe pressures.
Such systems are common on mid - and low-rise buildings but are not allowed on
h igh -rise buildings, for which an automatic water supp ly satisfying the sta ndpip e
system demand must be provided.

HAZA D CAT GO IES

Sprinkler systems are designed hased on the general use of a facility and the relat d 0

hazard classifications pre sented by that use. TI1ese classifications are broken into two
broad categories: the occupancy ha zard approach, which is divided into light, or -
dinary, and extra hazard; and the storage approach, which comprises commodity
classification a nd storage arra ngeme nt. It is important to not e that FPA 13 is a
prescriptive-based design document in which a specific densil)', area, and sp rinkl er
spacing is matched to the fuel load anticipated with a given occupancy. TI1egreater
the fuel load predicted, th e greate r the water demand .in terms of ga llons per minute
(GPM) or densit) ' req uired and the closer the spacing req uired for sprinklers. What
is especiall) ' critical for the inspector is the need to be able to identify changes to the
content s that might negatively imp act the ability of the spr inkl er sys tem to contro l
the fire.
Although NFPA 13, Chapter 5, provides more detail ed definitions and examples,
the followiJ1g bri ef descriptions of hazard classes are provided for discussion related
to understanding the hazard presented and the related water demands created by the
sprinkler system.

Light Hazard Classification

The light hazard classification includ es occupancies such as dwellings, apartments,
churc he s, hotels, schools, offices, and public buildings where the quantity of com-
bustible materials is relative!)' low and fires are expected lo have a low rate of heat
release.

Ordinary Hazard Classification

The ordinary hazard classification includes ordinary mercantile, manufacturing, and
industr ial occupancies, and these fall into two groups. Ordinary Hazard Group l
occupancies are those in which the combustibility of the contents is relatively low,
the quantity of materials is moderate, stockpiles are no higher than 8 ft (2.4 m),
and fires are expected to release heat at a moderate rate. Ordinary Hazard Group 2
occupancies include properties in which the quantity and combustibility of the con -
tents is moderate to high, stockpiles are no higher than 12 ft (3.7 m), and fires are
expected to have moderate to high rates of heat release. TI1is group i.ncludes cereal
mills, textile and printing plants, shoe factories, feed mills, piers and wharves, and
paper-manufacturing plant s.
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 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

Extra Hazard Classification

The extra hazard classification includes two main groups. Extra Hazard Group 1 in-
cludes occupancies that contain little or no flammable or combustible liquids but that
may nonetheless have severe fires. These include die-casting and metal-extruding
plants, sawmills, rubber-production facilities, and upholstering operations using
plastic foams. Extra Hazard Group 2 includes occupancies that contain moderate to
substantial amounts of flammabl e or combustibl e liquids or extensive shielding of
combu stibl es. These include buildings that house asphalt saturating, flammable -liquid
spraying, open-oil quenching, solvent clean ing, plastics processing, or varnish- and
paint -dipping processes or manufactured home or modular building assemb lies (wh ere
enclosures have combustible interiors) . In addition to these broad classifications, there
are special occupancy conditions that may require consideration. Such conditions in -
clude a variety of flammable and combustible liquids, combustible dusts, chemicals,
aerosols, and explosives. Sprinkler requirements from about 40 NFPA codes and stan-
da rds are cons olid ated into Chapter 21 of NFPA 13. It should also be no ted that few
buildings or facilities can be classified as a single occupan cy use, because even a small
restaurant has a light hazard designation for the seating area but ordinary hazard des-
ignation for the kitchen area.

STORAGE
Two pr .imary factors drive the relative fire hazard of a storage facility: the commodity
classification of the goods being stored and the storage arrangement. In defining the
classification of the stored goods, each individual load or pallet is assigned a classifica -
tion depending on the overall contents of the load including packaging material. The
commodity classifications are as follows:

• Class I: Noncombustible products that can be placed within single-layer corrugated

cartons.
• Class II: A Class I product in more combustible packaging, such as slatted or
solid wood crates or multiple-layer corrugated cartons .
• Class III: Standard cellulose combustibles such as wood, paper , and natural
fibers with or without cartons, boxes, or crates. Up to 5% of the load (by weight
or volume) can be a Group A plastic.
• Class IV: A Class III product along with synthetic fibers that contain apprecia-
bly more Group A plastics within the load of up to 15% by weight or 25% by
volume.

Plastics, elastomers, and rubbers are grouped as follows:

• Group A: A very broad family of materials (such as polyethylene, polypropylene,

and butyl rubber) that have twice the rate of heat release developed by standard
cellulos e materials .
• Group B: A lower hazard family of materials (such as nonexpanded natural
rubber , nylon, and cellulosics) that are treated as a Class IV commodity.
258
 CHAPTER 17: Automatic Sprinkler and OtherWater-Based Fire Protection Systems

• Group C: The lowest hazard family of material (such as melamine, polyvinyl

chloride (PVC), and urea) that are treated as a Class III commod ity.
As the definitions indicat e, the higher the Group letter, the greater the fire hazard, with
Group A plastic being the greatest . The determination of hazard is further complicated
for Group A plastics, because the determination is further d ivided by packaging and
the material characteristic of the plastic. Plastic materials with cells, like furniture foam
cushions or pla tic coolers, have less weight-to-mass and burn more vigorously than sol-
id plastic products. Cartoned plastic in a carton presents less of a hazard than exposed
products, because the car ton can absorb water, which helps contain or control the fire.
Another aspect that comp licates the determination of the individual commod -
it)' classification is the use of pallets. Wood pallets can be used to store all products
without affecting the category classificat ion . The use of plastic pallets, however, will
incr ease the assigned classification. TI1is issue is further complicated by the existence
of reinforced plastic pallets. These pallets contain secondary material within the pallet
(su h as metal or fibergla s) that increases the struc tural strength of the pallet. It also
maintains its rigidity during a fire, contributing to a h igher heat release rate and hence
an adjustment to the commodity classification. Class I through IV products, using un -
reinforced pallets, are incr eased one class. Use of reinforced pallets dictates an increa se
of two classes. To differentiate between the two, unreinforced pallets are required to
have a permanent mark designati ng them as such.
The likelihood of encountering a single commodity classification is rare. The norm
is to encounter a mLxed collection of products. Fire testing has shown that as little as
two adjacent pallet loads of a higher commod ity classification will significantly change
the fire characteristics. As such, mixed commodity storage is required to be classified
in accor dan ce with the high est classification present. TI1isdoes not mean that different
portions of a warehouse cannot have separate classifications but rather applies only to
combined so lid piles or racks.
The second factor that drives the relative fire hazard is the storage arrangement.
TI1e majority of facilities will either be solid pile storage, where product is stacked on
top of itself, or rack storage. Because of the greater surface area and opportunity for
airflow around the product, racks present the greater fire challenge of the two arrange-
ment s. Racks also offer a num ber of variab les that complicate the determination of the
required protection. These include the rack type, storage height, the presence of flues
between the pallets, encapsulation of the loads, and the width of the aisles.
Racks are broke n down into three basic types depending on the depth of the rack as
defined by standing in front of it and placing loads within it. TI1esetypes are defined as:
• Single row: These carry a single pallet that can be up to 6 ft ( 1.8 m) deep.
• Double row: These are effectively two single -row racks butted togeth er with a
sing le pallet accessed from each side of the rack and a combined depth of no
more than 12 ft (3.7 m).
• Multiple row: These are deep racks that have multiple pallets load ed from
one side.
The classification of a rack is also affected by the width of the aisles that separate the
racks . If the aisle between eac h rack assembly is not greater than 3.5 ft (l.l m), it
259
 SECTION 2 : Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

is considered one assembly, and the combined depth determines its type. Thus, two
single -row racks that are separated by a 3-ft (91-cm) aisle would be treated as a dou-
ble-row rack. On a related note, even when the aisle is wider than 3.5 ft (1.1 m), it is
still a pertinent variable because it affects the assigned sprinkler design. As the aisle
gets wider, it is harder for the fire to jump to the next rack, so lower densities are al-
lowed for otherwi se identical arrangements. This redu ction stops once the aisle is 8 ft
(2.4 m) wide.
Racks typically have flues that are just gaps of about 6 in. (l 5 cm) around the pallet
loads. Although these flues allow fire rapidly to spread up a rack, they also allow water
discharged from sprinklers to get down to the fire. Such openings also affect the fire
growth with in solid pile storage . v\lhen a rack docs not have adequ ate flues, because
of loads being pushed together or solid barriers installed within the rack, this allows
fire to burn horizontally along the rack. The protection scheme for this configuration
will invariably require in-rack sprinklers to control the fire. Such configurations are
re ferred to as solid shelf racks. Th e pre sence of an encapsu lated load, which is simply
plastic wrapping (shrink wrap) around a load, increas es the challenge by blocking the
benefit of prewetting of the product before it becomes involved in the fire. If the top of
the load is not covered, it is not con sidered encapsulated.

INSPECTION
There are three separate aspects to focus on when performing an inspection of these
types of water -based systems . The first is to ensure that the mechanical components
are sound, the second is to ensure that the system is adequate for the hazard being
protected, and the third is to ensure that the devices used by the responding fire de -
partment can be readily located and used upon arriving at the fire. The first aspect
was greatly affected in 1992 when NFPA adopted NFPA 25, Standardfor the Inspec-
tion, Testing; and ivfainte11nnce of }\Tater-BasedFire Protect/011Systems, which dis-
cusses water supply systems, sprinkler systems , standpipes, fire pumps, water storage
tanks, water spray systems, and foam-water sprinkler systems. v\lith the widespread
adoption of NFPA 25 across the country, the components for most water -based fire
protection systems likely already have been thoroughly inspected. In looking at NFPA
25 inspections items, the inspe ctor should keep in mind that the document is writ-
ten with an eye to the owner and/or occupant of a building in which the water -based
fire protection system is installed as opposed to the insp ection contractor or service
provider or the AHJ. It is the owner's responsibility to ensure the systems are fully
operational.
An even more critica l consideration is that an NFPA 25 inspection confirms only
the mechanical condition of the fire protection system; it does not confirm the ad-
equacy of a system to control the fire hazard. As stated within NFPA 25, "The owner
or occupants shall not make any changes in the occupancy, use or process, or the
materials used or stored in the building without evaluation of the fire protection sys-
tems for their capability to protect the new occupancy, use, or materials. " This change
includes relocating or adding new walls because do ing so often creates unprotected
areas. Changes are of particular concern in storage facilities, because the adequacy of
260
 CHAPTER17: Automatic Sprinkler and Other Water~Based Fire Protection Systems

the system is affected not on ly by a change of contents but also by how the contents
are stored. An NFPA 25 inspection typically includes a question to the owner about
whether any changes have occurred. Jf a system evaluation is performed, it should
be based on the requir ements of NFPA 13. 1he inspector should obtain a copy of the
evaluation.
1he inspector is typicall)' tasked with looking at all the fire protection features of a
facility and not jus t the fire protection systems. As such, the inspector is not expected
to have the level of knowledge required to perform system design or even detailed in-
spection of the system components. Additionally, the inspector's available time is often
extreme ly limited, making it almost impossible to inspect such specific details. The
inspe tor's primaq job is often to look at the big picture to ensm e that the sprinkler
system is capable of controlling the fire and that the standpipes will be able to support
manual firefighting activities. In addition, the inspector can ask lo see copies of all
recent and relevant inspection, test, and maintenance activities. For those inspectors
or inspector programs exceeding this level of review, they should obtain the following
resources:
• TI1e Wnter-BasedFire Protec/ion Systems Hn11dbo ok- NFPA 25 (for those that
will be performing the inspection of the components).
• 11,e Automatic SprinklerSyste111sHa11dbook - NFPA 13 (for those evaluating the
adequacy of the S)1Stem design).
TI1e inspector, however, should verify that the inspection, testing, and maintenance
activities are being performed by conducting a review of the records, performing a spot
check of somt: of the facilities to confirm the thoroughness and accurac)' of the inspec-
tions, and ensuring that identified deficiencies are being corrected or repaired. Typi-
cally, owners of buildings or their tenants tend to switch service inspection providers
after a few years, so it is incumbent upon the AHJ to ensure that long-term inspection
requirements are performed. For instance, every 5 years there should be an internal in-
spection of the system valves (alarm, dry-pipe, and preaction valves) and check valves.
Also, every 5 years, a minimal inspection of the interior of metal pipe is conducted to
ensure there is no evidence of excessive corrosion and potential for interference with
water flow to the sprinklers.
Another long-term testing item is that the operational condition of the sprinklers
must also be periodically evaluated depending on the type of sprinkler . For an older
building, installed sprinklers manufactured before 1920 arc required to be replaced.
Sprinklers that have been in service for 50 years or more must also be replaced or rep-
resentative samples of such sprinklers are required to be submitted for destructive, op-
erational testing to verify that the operating temperature range is still within acceptable
limits and that the sprinkler still operates as intended. QR sprinklers should initiall}'be
tested after 20 years of service and at IO-year i.ntervals thereafter. Dry barrel sprinklers
typically used to extend protection into a cold area from a wet-pipe system are to be
tested at 10-year intervals. Sprinklers with temperature ratings of 325°F (163°C) and
higher that have been exposed on a regular basis to the maximum allowable ambient
temperatures must be tested at 5-year intervals . These requiremen ts can be found in
section 5.3 ofNFPA 25.
261
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

Spot Checking
Having said that the proper mechanical condition is typically ensured by others, if time
is available , a lot can be determined about the general condition of the system from
performing a quick inspection from the floor.
All fire sprinklers, regardless of the type of system, must be in good working condi -
tion, installed in the proper orientation, and free from physical damage; otherwise they
must be replaced . Sprinklers mus t not be loaded or corroded or painted other than by
the manufacturer. Sprinklers must not be caked with dust, grease, or paint, particularly
on the heat-responsive element. Tl1eyshould not be bent or otherwise damaged or have
visible signs of corrosion. Piping, fittings, hang ers, earthquake braces, and their attach -
ment points that are readily visible should be in good condition and free from mechani-
cal damage. Additionally, they should not be used to support nonsprinkler items, such
as signs, light fixtures, ladders , or any other external loads . Although it is not directly
a component condition, while doing a quick check ensure that items have not been
stacke d too close to the spri nkle r deflector, because this can have a significant impac t
on the abilit)' of the system to perform adequately , and although this issue is more com-
monly seen where items are stored on racks, it can occur in places other than storage
facilities . The required clearan ce depends on the type of sprinkler, with 18 in. (45.7 cm)
required for spray sprinklers and 36 in. (91.4 cm) for CMSA and ESFR sprinklers.

Spare Sprinklers
Verifying that a sufficient supply of spare sprinklers of each type and rating used on the
system is stored on the premises in the spare sprinkler cabinet will help ensure systems
can be promptly returned to normal service after an event where sprinklers have oper-
ated or been damaged. To improve the likelihood that the proper sprinkler is used to
replace damaged or operated sprinklers, each sprinkler manufactured after January
2001 is required to be permanently marked with a one- or two- character manufacturer
symbol, followed by up to four numbers. This sprinkler identification number (SIN) is
intended to identify sprinkler operating characteristics and must be included on sprin -
kler shop drawings and plans and on the label inside of the spare sprinkler cabinet,
which has been required since the 2007 edition ofNFPA 13 (FIGURE 17-2).Tl1e cabinet
should also contain any special wrenches needed to replace the individual spr inklers.

Antifreeze Systems
A final NFPA 25 inspection that warrants discussion is antifreeze systems. Some re-
cently studied events and research projects have concluded that high concentrations
of antifreeze solutions are not allowed because the antifreeze solution can act as an
accelerant when discharged over fire under certain conditions. Antifreeze S)'Stems with
factory premixed solutions of up to 40% for propylene glycol and 50% for glycerin
(percent by volume) are acceptable for existing systems. However, if the solution is
ever required to be modified , the maximum allowed concentrations are sligh t lower
with propylene glycol at 38% and glycerin at 48% (as now required for new systems).
These concentration limits do not apply to listed ESFR antifreeze systems installed in
262
 CHAPTER17: Autom atic Sprinkler and Oth er Water-Based Fire Protect ion Systems

Spri nklers Con tai ned in This Cabine t

Sp rinkler Sprinkler
Identification , General Temperature Qua ntity
SIN Descr iption Rating, °F Maintained

Extended
TY9128 Coverage , 155 6
K-25, upright

Concea led
VK425 penden t 145 6
res ident ial

Issued: 10/3/05 Revised :

FIGURE 17·2The sprinkler iden tification number (SIN), w hich identifies sprinkler operati ng
characteristics, must be on a label inside of the spare sprinkler cabinet.

large freeze rs and coo ler buildings. It is also im por tant to note that field-mixed anti -
freeze solutio ns may separa te or come out of solu tion over time, so add itiona l testing
of th e solution at high points and low points witltin the system is now required. Where
these import ant issues cannot be identifi ed, the antifreeze solution should be drained
from the system, properly discarded, and new, premixed antifreeze appropr iate to the
application shou ld be installed. To perform the requ ired testing for the concentration,
it may be necess ary that a test conn ection be adde d to the end of the antifreeze system
[and points in between for systems larger tha n 150 gal (568 L)] to allow for subsequent
inspections and tests. If the concentrati on needs to be modified, the system must be
completely dra ined and then refilled.
Where an antifreeze so lutio n cannot be coun ted o n, a dry-pipe system or other
means of freeze prot ect ion will be requ ired.

Adequate Level of Protection

The sing le most critical fun ct ion performed by the inspector is to ensure that the
sprinkler system's ability to perfonn adequa telr has not been com pro m ised. ln a broad
sense, this sim ply means that enough water will be discharged from the system for
the requi red duration. With available tim e being so limit ed, the focus of this aspect
is on id en tifying undesi rable changes (that even the facility owners may be unawar e
of). Typically, this will be the result of a change .in the water supply or a change in the
building contents .

Water Supply. \!\Tater-based fire protection systems can be designed to meet a variety
of situation s, but they must have an automatic and reliable water suppl)' source. As with
any fire protection system , a spr inkler system mu st be operab le at all tim es. Historically,
the number one cause for insufficient water was a closed valve, whether on the aboveg -
round piping or on the undergrou nd supp l)' ma in. This failure mode has been reduced
by the implementation of NF PA 25 inspectio ns and by the expanded requirement for
263
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand Fire Pro1ectionSystems

electrical supervision by the fire, life safety,and building codes. Although all valves are
not electrically supervised, they should be locked or sealed in the open position. Sealed
valves are perm itted only when located within fenced enclosures under the control
of the owner and inspected weekly. A visual verification that the valves are open is
time well spent. Fortunate!)', checking the aboveground valves is easily accomplished
because of the requirement for indicating type valves (such as an outside screw and
yoke or butterfly type valve). For underground valves, however, this is done mostly by
ensuring that pressure is available on the system gauges and that a main drain test had
been performed and recorded. TI1emain dra in test also provides an indication of other
problems, because it is possible for the water supply to the system to degrade either by
increased water flow lo other nearby facilities, by mineral buildup withiJ1the under-
ground supply main, or by a partially closed valve. No flow measurements are taken
during this test, only readings from the pressure gauges. The pressures noted should be
compared with the results from previous tests, especiallywith the original test pressure
values, and can be used to detect deterioration in the system water supply. Degrada-
tion of 10 percent or more requires an investigation to determine why pressures have
changed, and additional changes may be warranted to ensure the system discharge will
be adequate for the fuel load present.

Changed Contents or Use. With hundreds or thousands of facilities to inspect, it

is a challenge to identify even obvious changes, such as a change in use that .increases
the occupancy hazard classification or the recent installation of racks instead of a solid
pile storage configuration that changes the hazard such that the sprinkler discharge
is no longer adequate. Something as simple as a shipper changing the types of pallets
used to ship materials can have a serious impact on the ability of a system to control
or suppress a fire in an occupied warehouse, because unlisted plastic pallets change the
designation of commodity classification.
Beginning with the 2007 edition of NFPA 13, signage is required to be placed on
the main system riser of all sprinkler systems to provide general information related
to the design criteria for the system installed, including but not limited to the hazard
classification, the storage arrangement and commodity stored where applicable, and
the original flow test data used for system hydraulic calculations and the original main
drain test. An example of this general information sign required by NFPA 13 is shown
in FIGURE 17-l
Ily ensming this sign is permanent !)' marked and in place during the original accep-
tance test, future inspections are easier to perform, because critical data wil.lbe more
readil)' available.
The inspectors do, however, need to be able to recognize what constitutes a
change that can exceed the ability of the sprinkler system. TI1ere.isa huge difference
between the amounts of sprinkler water discharged for the different hazards. Tn an
occupancy hazard approach, the difference in the sprink ler discharge is not only
negatively affected b)' an increase in the sprinkler density but also b)' an increase in
the size of the remote area and the hose demand. For example, a light hazard occu-
pancy could be designed at a density of0.l GPM/ft2 over 900 sf (when QR sprinklers
are used). TI1is presents a minimum sprinkler demand of90 GPM combined with
264
 CHAPTER 17: Automatic Sprinkler and Other Water-Based Fire Protection Systems

SPRINKLER SYSTEM - GENERAL INFORMATION

for

High-piled storage □ Yes □ No Dale:

Rack storage: □ Yes □ No Flow test dala:
Commodity class: Static: psi
Max. storage hi ft Resid: psi
Aisle width (min.) ft Flow: gpm
Encapsulation □ Yes □ No Pilot: psi
Solid shelving: □ Yes □ No Date:
Flammable/ Locallon·
combuslible llqulds: □ Yes □ No
Other slorage: □ Yes □ No
Location of aux/low point drains:
Hazardous materials: □ Yes □ No
Idle pallets: □ Yes D No
Anllfreeze systems □ Yes □ No
Location : Original main drain test results:
Dry or aux systems □ Yes □ No Slalic: _ ___ __ psi
Location: Residual: -- -- - psi

Name of contractor or designer:

Address:- -- -- - - -- --- -- - - -- - - --- - ---

Phone:

17-3 General Information sign required by NFPA13.

FIGURE

a hose deman d of 100 GPM, creati ng a total deman d of 190 GPM. If the contents
were changed to that of an extra hazard group 2, the ne cessa ry den sity would be
0.4 GPM/ ft2 with a 2500 ft2 remo te area and a ho se demand of 500 GPM. This
pres ents a m inimum spri nkler de mand of 1,000 GPM and a total water dema nd
of 1,500 GPM . This is an extreme example to show how much change is poss ible.
Even th e smallest possibl e change of one hazard classificati on level would result in
doublin g the necessary water demand.
Within a storage facility,the tot al water demand presents an even greater poten tial
for variance. TI1elarger part of the variance when there is a change in hazard classifica-
tion is caused by a change in the size of the exp ected fire and corresponding remote
area. ln storag e, the size of the remote area and the hose dem and stay the same, but the
requir ed density can have a much larger variance. 1l1e possible range is from less than
0.1 GPM/ft2 to 1.2 GPM/ft2, which cou ld represent a chang e in just sprinkler demand
of more than 2200 GPM . 1l1e following examples show the needed change in density to
265
SECTION 2: Building System s and Fire Prot ect io n System s

acco unt for a ch ange in a single var iabl e. Starti ng wit h a 20-ft (6.1-m) high Class I com-
modity in a solid pile wi th a 30-ft ceilin g, th e re quir ed density is 0.21 GPM/ft2. If the
product were changed to a Class IV, it wou ld requ ire a density of 0.39 GPM/ft2, and for
an exposed, expanded Group A plastic, it wou ld need 1.2 GPM/ft2. If only the h eigh t
of th e solid pile was increased from 20 ft to 25 ft (7.6 m), then the density would need
to be incr ease d from 0.21 GPM/ft2 to 0.285 GPM/ft2. Simi lar ch anges in demand are
n eeded for ch anges with racks . A 20-ft (6.1-m) high Class I commodity in a sin gle- or
double -row rack wit h an 8-ft (2.4-m) aisle requires a density of 0. 19 GPM/ft 2. A ch an ge
in just one of th e following variables will increase the required density as shown:
Reducing the ais le widt h to 4 ft (1.2 m): 0.225 GPM/ft 2;

Encapsu latin g the product: 0.243 GPM/ft2;

Changing to a multiple row rack: 0.37 GPM/ft2

It mu st be n oted that the inspe ctor is n ot expected to kn ow what th e correct design

criter ia shou ld be under the circumstances ; rather it is the ro le of th e inspector to ad-
vise th e owne r/occu pant that cond iti ons have changed and th at as suc h , a rev iew of the
system design sho uld be performed by a kn ow ledgeable person . NFPA l, Fire Code,
and all model building and fire codes grant th e AHJ permission to requir e a rev iew by
an approved, indep endent third party wit h exper tise in the matter at th e subm itt er's
expense (NFPA l , Sec tion 1.15.1). The independent reviewer will provide an eva lua-
tion to the AHJ and rec ommend n ecessa ry ch anges in th e proposed design, opera tion,
or process, or n ew technol ogy.

EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMSFOR

RESPONDING FIRE DEPARTMENTS
Alth ough th e NFPA 25 inspections also cover cer tain systems used by th e fire depart-
ment wh en responding to an em ergenc y, the imp orta nce of these devices warrants a
greater level of their inspection. This is especia lly tru e beca use of changes in eq uip-
ment; th ese devices can be me chani cally so und but still n ot meet the ne eds of th e fire
department.

Fire Department Connections

The FD C is considered an auxili ary water supp ly source or en hancement when one is
provided. FDCs sh ou ld be located and ar r anged so that hose lin es can be readi ly and
conveniently attached without interference from nearby objects, includin g buildings,
fen ces, posts, landscaping features, or ot her FDCs. Bu ildi n gs loca ted in remote areas
that are inaccessible for fire department sup port, systems composed of large -capacity
deluge systems exceed in g th e pumping capac ity of the fire department eq uipm ent , and
sin gle-story bui ldings not exceeding 2000 ft2 (185.8 m2) in area do not require an FDC
per NFPA 13.
Obstructions to FD Cs can be a ser io us prob lem and sh o uld be a point of inspection
for any system. Obstructions may include (but are not limi ted to) bui ldings, fences,
266
 CHAPTER 17: Aut o mat ic Sprinkler and Oth er Wate r-Based Fire Protec t ion System s

posts, shrubbery, other FDCs, gas meter s, and electrica l equipment. The FDC should
not be in the direct vicinity of gas meters or electrical equipmen t because of the po -
tential hazards that they present during fire-ground operations. It is imp ortant to not e
land scaping plans in the vicinity of the FDC to avoid any potential obstructi ons.
Signs are required to identify the fire protection system(s) served by an FDC. Th e
sign is supp osed to have raised or engraved letter s at least 1 in. (25.4 mm) in height on
a plate or fitting readin g service de sign; for example, AUTO SPKR ., OPEN SPKR., or
STANDPIPE. A sign is also required to indicate the pr essure requir ed at th e inlets to
deliver the grea test system demand; h oweve r, thi s sign is n ot required where the sys-
tem demand pressur e is less than 150 pounds per square inch (psi). The in forma tio n
provid ed on thes e signs at the FDC is direct ed at th e engine er on th e fire departm ent
pumper. Because fire departm ent procedur es normall y require th e pump operator to
provi de 150 psi at th e conn ection, the sign is requir ed to indic ate that some pressur e
beyond 150 psi is necessa ry (see NFPA l 3E, Recomme nd ed Practice f or Fire D epartm en t
Operations in Properties Protected by Sprinkler an d Stand p ip e Systems).
The in spe ctor should rem ove th e outlet caps and examine the threads, ensure the
swivels are free and un obstruct ed, and th en examin e th e int erior for foreign objec ts
such as ra gs, dirt, water bottles, or oth er unw anted object s, which could obstru ct th e
flow of water int o th e system . The in sp ection sh ould verify compatibility of th e thr eads
or oth er connection m ean s with th ose of th e loca l fire departm ent or wh ether adapt ers
are needed. It bears notin g th at so me foreign obje cts have been found in FD Cs th at can
be ha rmful to th e in spec tor, so b e sure to loo k before reaching in. The piping betw een
the check va lve and th e outsid e hose couplin g is also requir ed to have an app rove d au-
tom atic drip in areas subjec t to freezing, so that n o water acc umul ates in thi s sec tion of
th e pipin g. The in sp ector should m ake sur e th e ball valve operates free ly.

Standpipes
Standpipe and hose systems provide a m eans of m anu ally app lying water to fires in
buildings. However, th ey do n ot take th e place of auto m atic fire protection system s.
They are usua lly needed where automa tic protection is not provided and in areas to
which hose lin es from outsid e hydr ants cann ot easily reach . Think of the standpip e as
a ver tical fire hydr ant system used where fires must be fought int ern ally because th e
fire engin e cann ot be brought int o th e elevator and up to high er floors - as such , the
standpip e allows first respo nd ers to provide wa ter and pr essur e to up per floors th ro ugh
the vert ical standp ipe to the fire hose va lves. Thus, the hose va lve hand les, threads, and
caps all need to be inspec ted in th e same manner as any fire hydrant. The in spec tor
should check th e valve at eac h disch arge outl et or hose station for leakage an d sho uld
examine the hose thr eads . Any press ure-reg ulatin g valves provided must be tested once
every 5 years to ensure that they are properly set and adjuste d. Chap ter 6 of NFPA 25
provi des inform ation on inspecting, testing, and m aint ainin g stan dp ip es (TABLE 17·1).

Hose Threads
Fin ally, th e in spec tor sh ould m ake sur e that th e hose thr eads used throughout the
faci lity are th e same . If they are not compat ibl e with the th reads used by the loca l
267
SECTION 2: Building Systemsand FireProtection Systems

Summary of Standpipe and Hose Systems Inspection ,

TABLE
17·1
Testing, and Ma intenance

It em Activity Frequency Reference

Contro l valves Inspection Weekly/mo nth ly Table 12.1
Pressure regulating dev ices Inspection Quarter ly Table 12.1
Piping Inspection Quarter ly 6.2.1
Hose connections Inspec tion Quarte rly Table 12.1
Cabi net Inspection Annually NFPA1962
Hose Inspection Annuall y NFPA1962
Hose sto rage dev ice Inspection Annuall y NFPA1962
Alarm device Test Quarter ly Table 12.1
Hose nozzle Test Annually NFPA1962
Hose storage device Test Annually NFPA1962
Hose Test 5 years/3 years NFPA1962
Pressure co nt rol valve Test 5 yea rs Table 12.1
Pressure reduc ing valve Test 5 yea rs Table 12.1
Hydrostati c test Test 5 yea rs 6.3.2
Flow test Test 5 yea rs 6.3.1
Main d rain test Test Annually Table 12.1
Hose connections Ma intenance Annually Table 6.2.2
Valves (all types) Ma intenanc e Annually/as neede d Table 12.1

public fire dep artment o r with the threads on municipal hydrants, the inspect or
shou ld ensur e that adequate supplies of adapters are available where they will be
ne eded.

Exterior Devi ces

The condition of yard hydrants, post indicat ors for buri ed control valves, or other ap-
purtenance s loca ted outside the facility should always be checked to ensure the y are
in th e appropriate position and properly identifi ed . Vault s or valve pits should be kept
clean and well maintained with lids secured. Again, "look before you leap" is an im-
port ant maxim for inspectors to rememb er, becau se valve pit s and vaults are confined
spaces th at requir e special consid era tion before ent ering . It is n ot enough to look in side
for black spid ers and black snakes-then jump in wh en th ere are potential danger s to
life associated with confin ed spac e entr y.
Where requir ed, th e insp ector should en sur e that street keys or spe cial wrenches
for any und erground va lves are readily accessible and maintained on site . If the system
include s municipal hydrant s, the inspector should verify how the se hydrant s will be
268
 CHAPTER 17: Aut o mat ic Sprin kler and Oth er Wate r-Based Fire Protec t ion System s

operated during a fire. See Chapter 16 of this Manua l for more information on these
appurtenances.

Control Valves
Although not applicable to the responding fire department, where buildings have
multiple tenants, it is important that all tenants have knowledge of the location and
operat ion of the contro l valve(s) to minimize water damage in the event of a broken
pipe or operated sprinkler. The inspector should ensure control valves are accessible to
all tenants and that the tenants understand proper system operations and functions.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current edit ions of the
following documents.
NFPA 1, Fire Code
NFPA 11, Standard for Low -Expansion Foam
NFPA l lA, Standard for Medium- and High-Expansion Foam Systems
NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 13E, Re comm end ed Practice for Fire D epa rtm en t Operations in Prop erti es Pro-
tected by Sprinkler and Standpipe Systems
NFPA 13R, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Residentia l Occupancies
Up to and Including Four Stories in Height
NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe, Private Hydrant, and Hose Systems
NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed Syst ems for Fire Protection
NFPA 16, Standard for the Installation of Foam- Water Sprinkler and Foam- Water Spray
Systems
NFPA 24, Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and Their Ap-
purt enances
NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire
Prot ection Systems
NFPA 72®, National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code ®
NFPA 1963, Standard for Fire Hos e Conn ections
NFPA 1964, Standard for Spray No zz les

269
 CHAPTER

18

WATER MIST SYSTEMS

JackR. Mawhinney, PE

Durin g th e first dec ade of market growth for water mi st systems, th e m arin e sector was
by far the largest m arket for these system s. Prior to the year 2000, water mist system
installations were alm ost entirely in th e m arin e secto r, part icul arly in m arin e m achin -
ery spaces on passenger ships. Large pas senger ships , such as cruise ship s, are required
by Internati onal Maritime Organization (IMO) regu lations to be protect ed th ro ugh -
out by som e form of marin e sprinkler system, and water mi st system s are recogni zed
under IMO regul ations as equivalent to marine sprinkl ers .
Water mi st system s are accep ted as fire protection in land -base d industrial ap-
plication s as well, such as petroleum indu stry m achin ery spaces, turbin e and diesel
engin e encl osures, an d generat or rooms. One can find water mi st systems installed
in equipment roo m s and turbine enclosures on offshore platfor m s in Malaysia and in
oil field proc essing stations in th e remote oil fields of eastern Russia . Water mi st sys-
tem s have been installed in highw ay tunnel s, such as the A86 tunn el system around
Paris, the M30 tunnel systems in Madrid, and severa l oth er tunn el systems in Holland
and Austria.
As of the end of the first decade of th e 21 st century, wa ter mist systems are gaining
recogniti on as equiv alent to stand ard spr inkl er systems in land -based n onindu stri al
app lications, such as in commercia l offices, heritage buildings, and art galleries. In
Scandin avia and Germa ny, water mi st systems provide prot ection in p ubli c space atria
and exhibiti on halls. Systems have be en inst alled in histori c chur ch es in rem ote rur al
areas in Norway and Finl and, in hotels an d heritage buildings, in recor ds storage ar-
chives and art galleries, and in compu ter room sub floors. It is reasonabl e to pr edict th at
over the course of the second decade of th e 2 1st centur y, water mi st system s will com -
pet e with conventiona l sprinkl er system s in many app licatio ns. Competent inspection
of th ese somew hat compli cated systems for comp liance with th eir design requir em ents
and for m aint enan ce p urposes is th erefore becoming in creasingly im po rtan t.
In term s of hardwa re, water mi st systems are typically more compl ex th an standard
spr inkl er systems. It requ ires specia lized kn owl edg e to be able to inspe ct and m aintain a
 CHAPTER 18: Water Mist Systems

particular manufacturer's equipment. The resp onsibility for maintaining thes e systems
over time rests with the "owner;' who often knows little about the technical subtleties
of the hardware and who therefor e will rely on a qualified maintenance contractor .
The fact that there are few simi larit ies betwe en the hardware of one manufacturer and
that of another often limit s the owner of a system to a single maintenance in spection
provider . This chapter focuses on the inspecti on and testing of water mist systems nec-
essary to ensure that a system has been designed and installed properl y and will work
as int ended for many years after installation .

OVERVIEW
Numerous types of water mist sys tem s exist (TABLE18-1). Each type inv olves its
own sp ecial hardwar e and control s, which have sp ecific in spe cti on and test in g
requirements.
Water mist systems inv olve components or features that past fire protecti on industr y
exp eri en ce indicated were either mor e cost ly or m ore failur e pron e, or b oth, com par ed
with th e equipm ent us ed in standard sprinkler systems. Potentially failure-prone featur es
of water mist systems include very small orifice n ozz les (susceptible to blockage) , water
storage in tanks or cylind ers inter connect ed with compressed gas cylind ers, p ositiv e
di splacem ent (PD) pumps, electrically and pneumatically activated primary control
valves, and progra mmable logic contro llers. To ensure a satisfactory degr ee of reli-
ability, dilig ence in th e design, installati on, operation, and maintenanc e of water mi s t
systems is essential. The relative newne ss of water mist sys tems means th at there h as

General Types of Water Mist Systems and Their

TABLE
18-1
Energy and Water Sources

Sprinkler eq uivalent systems Deluge systems, zoned act ivat ion

Closed, therma lly activated, Ope n nozzles
small o rifi ce nozzles Total co mp artm ent or zone
Wet-pip e, dry -pipe, or preaction floodi ng
systems Local application
Zoned detection and releasing Zone d detect ion and releasing
system system

Energy sources Water sources

High pressure Connection to a potab le wate r
Intermed iate and low pressure system
Electri c- o r d iesel-driven pumps Water storage in cy linders,
Comp ressed gas d riven 10-m inut e discharge
Water storage in tanks, extended
discharge
Filters o r strainers

27 1
 SECTION2: Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

not been a lot of time to collect data on long-term reliability and maintainabilit)' of their
component parts. Factors that affect long-term performance, such as deterioration of
quality of stored water, clogged screens and filters, loss of atomizing medium through
slow leakage, deterioration of O-ring seals in nozzles or valves, and corros.ion in tanks
or cylinders and piping, have not had a chance to show up in the service record.
Chapter 12 of NFPA 750, Sfm1dnrd 011 Water Mist Fire Protection Systems, pro-
vides the requirements for acceptance testing of newly installed water mist systems.
Chap ter 12 establishes that all tasks described in NFPA 750 have been performed
and that the system functioned satisfactorily at the completion of its installation. 1he
record of this first inspection sets the baseline to which future inspection data must
be compared. Chapter 13 of NFPA 750 then instru cts that the owner is responsible
for the ongoing inspection, testing, and maintenance of the system and that these
tasks "shall be performed b)' personnel who have developed compe tence through
training and experience ."
1he content of Chapter 13 of 1FPA 750 is also included in the 2011 edition of
NFPA 25, Sta11dardfor the illspectio11,Tesli11g, and Mai11te11011ce of Water-Based Fire
ProtectionSystems(see Chapter 12 of NFPA 25). In industrial facilities, the owner's per-
sonnel ma)' have the expertise necessar)' to conduct weekly and monthly inspections.
However, a representative of the manufacturer of the water mist system (with technical
mastery of the hardware) should be involved in semiannual or annual inspection and
testing that will involve actually operating the equipment and restoring the system to
operating condition. In commercial buildings, the owner typically will rely entirely on
an inspection, testing, and .maintenance company to provide the expertise needed to
maintain a water mist system.
The following text distinguishes between the initial inspection and functional
checkout of a water mist system and the periodi c inspection, testing, and maintenance
required by NFPA 750 and NFPA 25, 2011 edition.

FIRST-TIMEINSPECTION
AND ACCEPTANCETESTING
OF WATERMIST SYSTEMS
Flushing and Cleaning
The inspector must confirm that the system piping has been flushed to remove welding
slag, "purge" paper, metal shavings or filings, thread sealant compounds, or bits of Tef-
lon tape, which are capable of plugging small orifice nozzles or the inner passageways
of complex zone control valves. For S)'Stemsinvolving stainless steel tubing, foam plugs
of the correct diameter should have been pneumati call)' blown through the sections of
tubing as they were fabricated. Mains and dead-end portions of piping must be flushed
with clean water at a sufficient velocity to dislodge debris and carry it out of the pipe.
Fire protection contractors who are installing a water mist system for the first time tend
to underrate the importance of this task, because such diligence in cleaning pipe is not
272
 CHAPTER 18: WaterMistSystems

normally required for spri nkler systems. If th is flushin g is not actually witnessed by
the in spector, evidence that it was performed and how, uch as a signed, witnessed
contractor's material and test cert ificate, must be obtained.

Hydrostatic Test
The hydrostatic test ensmes that the piping system is int act and will not leak or blow
apart under operating condit ions. Typical hydrostatic test requ iremen ts of NFPA 750
are summarized in TABLE 18-2.
The system documenlalion will confirm that the piping system passed the appropri -
ate hydro static test. If any changes have been made to the piµing since the acceptance
tests, the enti re piping system mu st be retested to th e appropriate pressure.
In water m ist systems with open nozzl es, it is no t easy to repeat a hydrostatic test
on a per iodic bas is. Each nozzle mu st be removed and replaced with a plug. After th e
test is conduc ted, the plugs are remo ved and the no zzles reinstalled. It is important
to confirm tha t a piping system is still intact after months or years have passed. An -
nual visual inspection of every meter of system piping may not reveal a loose- fittin g
or failed gaske t. Wher e con ditions p ermit , an annual trip test of a system shou ld be
pe rformed to de mons trate tha t wate r reaches each noz zle and that S)'Ste m pressure
is maint ained . If there is doubt about the co ndition of the piping system, there is no
alternativ e but to remov e the open nozzles, install plugs, and repeat a piping integrity
hydrost atic test.

Hydrostatic PressureTesting of Water Mist System

Piping,Tanks,and Reservoirs

Low-pressurewater mist piping Intermediate-pressurewater mist piping

(LPWM)"
LP:Working pressureis < 175 psig
(< 12 bar).
Test to 50 psig (3.5 bar) over the
working pressurefor 2 hours
[typically 232 psig (16 bar)J.
(IPWM)
IP: Working pressure= 175 psig
(12 bar) to 500 psig (35 bar).
Test to 1.5 times the normal
working pressurefor 2 hours.

High-pressure water mist piping Water tanks and cylinders

(HPWM)
HP:Working pressureexceeds
500 psig (34 bar).
Testto 1.5 times the normal
working pressure for 2 hours.
Test certificates to DOTor ASME
requirements.
Documentat ion on the tanks/
cylinders must be retained in the
project equipment manual.

'Note:So-called low-pressure watermistsystemsoften require pumpsto producepressures

higherthan 175psig( 12 bar)to meetthe minimumrequiredpressureat the remote nozzles.
Hydrostatictestingfor intermediate
-pressuresystemsapplies.

273
 SECTION 2: Build ing System s and Fire Protec tion System s

Review of Mechanical Components

The review of mechanical components of a S}'Stemconducted as part of the acceptance
test is confirmation that the piping system complies with the design and installation
documents and hydraulic calculations . Mechanical components include the nozzles,
the piping, control valves, water storage equipment, pumps, and compressed gas cyl-
inders . It is necessary to have a schemati c diagram of the system, specifically a piping
and instrum entation diagram (P&ID), in order to under stand and inspe ct the system.
Examples of P&IDs for different types of water mist systems are shown later in this
chapter. If a P&ID for the system does not exist as part of the approval documentation,
it will be essential to create one as part of the inspection process. Only by methodically
identifying each device/component in its correct position or sequence in the piping
system and understanding its function will it be possible to evaluate the correctness
of an install ed system . For systems that involve interlocks with other fire protection
equipment, such as automatic shut-down of ventilation systems, it is also helpful to
cons ult a "cause and effect" matrix to guide the final insp ection .
Nozzles must be of the correct type~orifice arrangement and K-factor~for the
application. Nozzles may have been added to an area because of obstructions, with -
out regard for the hydraulic performance of the S)'Stem. For pre-engineered water
mist systems driven by compressed gas cylinders, the quantity of stored water and
compressed gas medium is usually based on supplying a fixed number of nozzles .
Adding a nozzle in the field because of a spacing problem arising from obstructions
will compromise the duration of protection and the operating pressure. Jl1e dilemma
created hy a prohlem of ob.~tructed nozzles , and the constraint of not having capacity
to add a single nozzle, should be anticipated and resolved long before the date of a
final inspection.
Improperly positioned nozzles relative to the hazard or obstructions, inadequate
pipe or tube sizing, and absence of hangers, supports, or cylinder restraints should be
identified and repaired at the time of the original acceptance inspection. From that
point forward, an annual visual inspection of the mechanical components of the system
should be carried out to confirm that important control valves are open, the detection/
control system works, nozzles have not been blocked or obstructed, filters and strainers
are in place, and supervisory switches are in working order.

Review of Electrical Components

J11e importance of the electrical interface to the performance of a water mist system
cannot be overemphasized. 1he requirements ofNFPA 70®,National ElectricalCode®,
NFPA 72®, National Fire Alarm and Sig11ali11g Code, and NFPA 20, Standard for the
Installation of Stationary Pumpsfor FireProtection,that are intended to ensure the reli-
ability of electrical power for fire alarms and fire pumps, among other things, should
have been observed in the system design. Some types of water mist systems depend on
a separate detection system with control panel to release banks of cylinders, open elec-
trical (solenoid) valves, and start fire pumps. Jl1e water mist system may be interlocked
electrically with other mechanical systems to shut down compartment ventilation .

274
 CHAPTER 18: Water Mist Systems

A comprehensive "cause and effect" matrLx will be needed to detail all interlocks. Some
specialized app licatio ns may also interrnpt fuel and lubricating oil flow to a turbine.
To avoid damaging the turb ine, however, the lube -oil supply must be maintained to
allow the turbine time to come to rest (coast-down time). The interface between the
detection system, the water mist S)'Stem, and related electrically controlled systems
are ther efore essential features of the system . The system documentation, including
acceptance test report s, identifies the characteris tics of a particular system that must
be mainta ined.

Preliminary Functional Test

A preliminary functional test involves ensuring that individual components, such as
valves and releasing circuits , and interlock responses are functional. The inspector
needs to confirm that such a functional test has been carried out befo re undertaking
the system operational test.

System Operational Tests

NFPA 750 requires that each water mist system undergo a full discharge test as the
culmination of the accepta nce test procedures. The d ischarge test confirms that the
alarm and detection system works, va lves open or close, nozzle layout is correct,
disch arge patterns are correc t, fi.lters or strainer screens are not plugged, and that
hydraulic performance of the system is as per the design. At the time of acceptance
testing of a system, the peop le with specialized knowledge of each associated system
are available to confirm the functio na lity of electrical and mechanical compone nts of
the system . Dur ing subsequent periodic maintenance inspections, however, it is dif -
ficult or impossible to reu nite the various disciplines to carry out the same thorough
functional checkout. Difficult or not, it is imperati ve that the annual maintenance
inspections confirm that interlocks and interdepend en t electrical systems are still
functioning properly . A specia list service company may have to send several people
to cover the range of exper tise needed to inspect and test to verify its intended per-
formance properly.
On marine systems installed as an equivalent to sprinklers on cruise sh ips, water
is actuall)' flowed through the system by releasing a sing le nozzle on each sectional
system and captu ring the water in a drnm. In machine ry space installations, water-
sensitive equipme nt can be temporarily covered to protect it, so that a full discharge
test can be co nducted. Flowing water through the nozzle system for a discharge
test is a time- and labo r-cons uming task and involves th e cooperation of many parties.
It is often the case tha t a full-system discharge test occurs only once, at the time of the
initial installation acceptance testing. After the installation phase is over, ii becomes
more difficult to condu ct a full discharge test. In many heritage installations, concern
about water damage overrides the recommendation for a discharge test. The alterna -
tive allowed by NFPA 750 is to confirm the water supply by flowing water through test
connections . Where conditions in a facility allow such a test to be condu cted as part of
a schedul ed annual inspection, that oppo rtu nity should be taken.

275
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

1he acceptance test procedures described in Chapter 12 of NFPA 750 capture the
elements of water mist systems in general. Whether a system is installed 011 a ship, on
an offshore drilling platform, or in a land -based application, the general steps to verify
functionality and performan ce are the same. A record of all acceptan ce tests must be
kept as part of the system documentation required by NFPA 750, Chapter 11, "Plans
and Documentation: '

Syste m Documentation and Test Record

'TI1esystem docum entation and test records specified in NFPA 750, Chapter 11, are the
baseline to which ongoing maintenance inspections and tests are compared. A manual ,
ring binder, or file drawer should contain at least the following information:
1. The name, date, and details of the fire test protocol used as the basis for design.
2. A statement of wha t the water mist system is expected to achieve (e.g., fire
control, cooling) .
3. As-built drawings of the water mist system .
4. A copy of the hydraulic calculation documents.
5. As-built drawings of the dete ction system, alarm/releasing panel, and supervi -
sory ci rcui.ts.
6. A "cause and effects matrix " for the system , showing how the detection system
interacts with the water mist system and all ancillary devices or events .
7. A copy of the complete step-by-step description of the acceptance test proce -
dure that was prepared and approved prior to scheduling of acceptance testing,
identifying all devices, controls, and functions that were tested and how the
test was conducted (NFPA 750, Section 12. 1.1 ).
8. Written sequence of operation of the detection/releasing/supervisory system.
9. Written sequence of operation of the water mist system.
10. Detailed data sheets on all mechanical components.
11. Detailed data sheets on all electrical components.
12. A copy of the manufacturer 's design and installation manual.
13. Manufacturer's writt en inspection and maintenance instructions.
14. Copies of all inspection, testing, and maintenance reports since the origina l
acceptance testing.
1l1e record of the original design and installation tests is the foundation on which
future maintenance practice is built.

PERIODIC INSPECTION, TESTING,

AND MAINTENANCE OF WATER MIST
SYSTEMS
Chapter 13 of NFPA 750 state s that it is the responsibility of the property owner
to maintain a water mist fire protect ion system proper!)'. This is don e b)' means of
mandator)' periodic inspection, tests, and maintenance. It is the intent of such

276
 CHAPTER 18: WaterMistSystems

inspections that all componen ts and systems be inspected and tested on a regular ba-
sis to verify that they function as intended. The 2006 and earlier editions ofNFPA 750
contained a table specifying inspection and testing frequencies for generalized equip -
ment likely to be used in water mist systems. Because of the minimal field experience
with water mist systen1s at the time the first edition of NFPA 750 was drafted, th e
table of testing frequencies in NFPA 750 was ge nerated from established prac tice with
sim ilar components in traditional fire protection systems, suc h as sp rinkler , water
spray, carbon dioxide, and dean-agent systems . The result was a set of requirements
for inspection and testing of generic equipment that addressed some, but not all, of
the details specifi c to the various types of water mist systems. It was intended by the
Technical C:ommitte on Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems that eac h manufactur -
er's Design, Installation, Operation, and Maintenance (DIOM) manual, which is part
of the IMO, Underwriters Laboratories, and Factory Mutual (FM) Global approval
documentation, would provide insp ection, testing, and maintenance advice specific
to each manufacturer's product.
ln 2008, the table of testing frequencies from NFPA 750 was reproduced in NFPA 25.
1he 20 IO edition of NFPA 750 states that th e "freque ncy of inspections of components
of water mist systems shall be in conformance with the manufacturer's listing require-
ment and NFPA 25." 1he table was retained in the annex to NFPA 750 for the conve -
nience of the users of NFPA 750. TI1e table is reproduced in this chapter, with some
modificat ion , and uses the terms "Inspect:' "Check:' and 'Test" with specific intended
meaning (see Table 18-3 later in text).

Inspection
Inspecting a component means that a person who is knowledgeable about its intended
function examines it, usual!)' visual!)', to ascertain whether it appears to be in its nor -
mal state and that there is no obvious condition that could imm ediately or at a future
time prevent it from perfo rming as it was intended to perform. If anything is noted that
is out of the ordinaq•, a closer examination is warranted, and the condition should be
correc ted if necessary. TI1e word "check" indicates a form of inspection, usually where
there is a specific condition to confirm, such as a valve handle in a specific position or a
gauge reading in a specific range. However, one would need to "inspect" visually a run
of piping to identify a broken hanger or signs of corrosion.

Testing
Testing involv es the act ual operation of devices and is more involved than inspection
of the components. TI1ereare different levels of testing. Some components can be tested
without involving other components in the system. For example, a fire pump can be
star ted weekly to confirm that electric power or diesel fuel is available to the electric
or diesel motor and that starting circuits work without activating other portions of the
system. TI1ere are other tests, however, that necessitate involving all the elements of
the system. Testing a pressure-regulating valve or an automatic sectional control valve
may req uire rele asing compressed gas cyli nd ers or introducing water into overhead

277
 SEC ION 2: Building Syste,ns and FireProtection Systems

piping. Iii that case, sign ifican t expe rti se is required to drain the system, replace gas
cylinde rs, and put th e system back in operating order.
l11e personnel who do the weekly or monthly inspect ions can perform some of the
pe riodi c tests. For example, the owner's personnel can perform a weekly pump sta rtup
test, but the person who performs the more involved ann ual testing must have the
expert ise necessary to work with all system components and to reset the system after
the testing.
1l1e reconrn1end ations provided in the table in NFPA 25 and manufacturers ' recom -
mended inspection and testin g frequencies for the variety of equipm ent encount ered
in water mist systems are combine d in TABLE 18-3.1l1e table also incorporates recent
field experie nce gai ned from accep tan ce testi ng and co mmissioning of water mist
systems designed by a number of manu facturers . The table gro up s water mist system
feahires under the genera l categor ies of water supp ly, water stora ge tanks and cylinders,
compressed gas C)•lind ers, compressors and receivers, pumps, con trol valves, con trol
equipment , piping , and enclo ure feature s.
1l1e following discussion identifies important features of the different types of water
mist systems and provides commentary on aspects of the systems that require specia l
atten tio n during an inspection.

HIGH -PRESSURE
, SINGLE- FLUID,
COMPRESSEDGAS-DR IVEN SYSTEMS
WITH STOREDWATE
Schematics, or P&TDs, of high -pressure, compressed gas- driven systems with stored
water were shown earlier in FIGURE 18-1 and FIGURE 18-2. 1l1e numbers appear ing on
these illustrations identify key compone nts. High -pressure, gas-driven systems use wa-
ter stored in pressure -rated cyli11ders(no . 15), which are connected by pneumatic lines
to unregu lated comp ressed gas cylinders (no. 2). Although the compressed gas cylin -
ders are maintained at betwee n 2250 an d 2900 psi (155 and 200 bar), the water storage
cylinders and the piping system are typically pressurized to about 1450 psi (100 bar)
when the com pressed gas is released, due to pressure losses in the cylind er headers and
th e pneumatic line. The inspector needs to und erst and that observing a pressure at the
water cylinder head upon discharge that is less than the gas cylinder initial pressure
does not mean the re is "a problem" with the system.
These systems have a "decaying pressu re" discha rge pattern . TI1e system pressure
decays over a specified discharge duration from about 1450 pounds per squa re inch
(psi) (100 ba r) to 290 psi (20 bar) or less.

Compressed Gas Cylinders

It is very important to ensur e that the corre ct size of compresse d gas cylind ers are pro-
vided initia lly and each time cylinders are replaced. The amount of water discharged,
the quality of atomiza tion, and the dura tion of the discha rge are dependent on the

278
 Recommended Frequencies for Inspect ion and Testing of Water Mi st Systems

Semi-
It em Task Weekly Monthly Quarterly annual Annual Other
Water supply Checksource pressure X
(general) Checksourcequality ('first year) X X
Testsource pressure,flow, quantity, duration X
Water storage Checkwater level (unsupervised) X
tanks Checkwater level (supervised) X
Check sight glassvalvesare open X
Checktank gauges,pressure X
Checkall valves.appurtenances X
Drain tank, inspect interior, and refill X
Inspect tank condition (corrosion) X
Checkwater quality X
Checkwater temperature Extreme
weather n
%
~
Water storage Checkwater level (load cells) X "ti
-t
cylinder m
Checkwater level (unsupervised) X =
....
Checksupport frame/ restraints X ~

Checkvent plugs at refilling X ~

~
Checkcylinder pressuredischarge X $'.
~-
Inspect filters on refill connection X -;f'
"'
m
N
--.J
(conrinues) 3
'° "'
lV Ill
00 rn
0 n
....
Continued
0
2
!':'
Semi - 0,
s.
Item Task Week ly M onthly Quart er ly annual Annu al Oth er a:
5·
ID
Addit ive storage Inspect general condition, corrosion X V,
'j;
cylinders Check quantity of additive agent X ,:;;
3
Test quality of additive agent X "'
~
::,
C.
Testadditive injection, full discharge test X .,.,
;§"
Water Checkwater level (unsupervised} X "'C

recirculat ion a;;;

Check water level (supervised) X
(:::
t ank a·
Inspect supports attachments X X ::,
V,
Test low water level alarm X '<
~
Check water quality, Drain,Aush and refill X ~
Test operation offlo at-operated valve X
Test pressure at outlet during discharge X
Test backAow prevention device (if present) X
Inspect & clean filters, strainers,cyclone separator X
Compressed gas Inspect support frame and cylinder rest raints X
cylinders Check cylinder pressure(unsupervised} X
Check cylinder pressure (supervised) X
Check cylinder control valve is open X
Check cylinder capacity & pressurerating X
Check cylinders meet DOTspecifications X
 Confirm compressedgas meets X
specifications(moisture,cylinder pressure)
Hydrostatictest cylinders 5 to 12 yrs
Plant air, Check air pressure(unsupervised) X
compressors, & Check air pressure(supervised) X
receivers
Stan compressor X
Checkcompressor/receivercapacity,changes X
Checkcompressed air moist ure content X
Cleanfilters, moisture traps X
Testfull capacity,duration, and any changes in X
other demands
Pumps and Start pump driver, no flow X
drivers Start pump, full flow test through flow meter or X
systemdischarge
Inspect pump skid, mechanicalcomponents X
Check suction supply valvesare open X
Checksuction NPSH X n
::c
Checkpump oil levels,lubricated packings X l>

Checkamp draw,volts, RPM X "m:a

-4

Inspect filters, strainers X ...

!l;l
Check seawatertransfervalve X ~
"'
Test pressurerelief valve X ~
3::
0.·
(continues) V,
-;;;
Iv ;:;
co
~
--
N Ill
00 m
N n
-I
Continued 0
z..,
co
Semi- ~-
a:
It em Task Week ly Monthly Quar ter ly annual Annu al Ot her 5'
lCl
V'>
Testpressuremaintenancevalves(unloaders) X 'j;
Test programmable controller performance X
ro
~
Test all pressure/flow switches X ""
:)
Cl.
Inspect pressure gauges X :n
in
-0
Standby pump Inspect moisture trap, oil injection (pneumatic) X a
iii
Checkcompressedgas supply, inlet air pressure X ~
0
Checkoutlet water (standby) pressure X :)
V'>
'j;
Test start/stop pressure sett ings for standby X iii
pressure 3
V,

Pneumatic Checkcylinder valves,master releasevalves X

valves Inspect all tubing associated with releasevalves X
Test solenoid release of master release valve X
Test manual releaseof master releasevalve X
Test operation of slave valves X
Reset all pneumatic cylinder releasevalves X
Test on-off cycling of valves intended to cycle X
System control Checkposition (open, closed) unsupervised X
valves
Checkposition (open, closed) supervised X
Check pressureconditions at all valves X
 Testoperation of solenoid valves X
Test setting on Unloader Valves X
Test setting of PressureRelief Valves X
Test back-flow prevention devices X
Control Test funct ionality of releasingpanel X
equipment Test programmable logic controller X
Testautomatic releasing mechanisms X
Test manual releasing mechanisms X
Inspect detector circuits, detector locations, X
pull-stat ions
Test detector system zoning and functionality X
Testpressure& flow switches X
Test troub le (supervisory)signals X
Test remote and local alarms X
Water mist Inspect nozzle locations, potential obstructions X
system piping & Inspect piping, supports X
nozzles
Inspect nozzle screens,strainers X After n
~
discharge l>
'ti
test -I
m
Enclosure Inspect enclosure integrity X ...
:,:,
co
features, Test interlocked systems (e.g., ventilation X
interlo cks ~
shutdown) ~
ventilation :;:
Test shutdown of fuel/ lubrication systems X :a·
VI
';;;
N ;;;
00
(.;.) ~
 SECTION2: Building System, and Fire Protection ':,ystems

To open nozzles Master valve

Detecto rs

Releasing
panel

Water supply

Water cylinders
1. Stee l base and frame
2. Compressed gas cylinder (driving medium)
3. Cylinder control valve
4. Pressure switch, supervise cylinder pressure
5. Burst disc
6(a). Soleno id opera ted master release valve
6(b). Pneumatic release valve
7. Micro-leakage valve
8. Pressure switches , alarm ii system trips
9. Vent por t, for filling wate r cylinders
0
Gas cylinder
10. Primary system or section al control valve
11. Test connection and drain
12. Test orifice (alternative to full discharge)
13. Cylinder discharge header with filling port
14. Cylinder rack with restraints
15. Pressure-rated water cylinders with dip tube
16. Optional load cells to monitor wa ter cylinders
17. Water supply valve, normally closed
18. Filter and hose with adap tor fill ing for
filling cylinde rs

FIGURE
18-1Hig h-pressure, gas-driven system w ith stored wate r (pre-eng ineered system).

press ure and volume of gas stored in the C)'linder. Comp ressed gas cylind ers are avail -
able in a varie ty of heig ht s and diamete rs. TI1e correc t cylinder specifica tions must be
provided in the system documentation. It is possible for a purchaser to ord er the wrong
compressed gas q 1 linder, either in terms of volume or pressure . It should be ob vio us if
the wrong size ofc)'li nder ha s been installed beca use the cr lind er head valve will not be
at the corr ect he ight to con nec t to the flexible tubi ng . Howev er, it is less obviou s when
the press ure in the cylinder is no t correct.
Comp res sed gas cylinder s are purch ased locally from commercial suppli ers (no. 2 in
Figure 18- 1). D iffere nt countries have differ en t pr essure rat ings for cylinders. In Europe,
Asia, and Australia, 2900 -psi (200 -bar) cylinders are standard. In North Am erica, com -
mercially available cylinde rs are typ ically 2250 psi ( 155 bar). It is impo rtan t to check
the actual crlinder pressure whe never a new q 1linder is installed. O ne would th ink that
in Nort h America, where compressed gas cyl ind ers are typica lly pressurized to 225 0
psig (155 bar ), an installation with fill-in pla ce cylinders would be designed to be pre s-
surize d to 2250 psig (155 ba r). Howe ver, becau se th e equ ipm ent had been d esigned for
a global mark et, inclu di ng Ind onesia an d Australia, it was intended to be pressurized
to 2900 psig (200 bar) . The duration of protection would not be ach ieved at a lowe r

284
 CHAP ER 18: Water M ist System s

To open nozzles Delec lors

Conlrol

f
panel

SlaX
~
lve
eumallc interconnectmn
cp
Master valve
~
r - -- - - - -- -- ---- - -- ' -- 4 ••- •• - 9. _

••

Waler cylinders Gas cylinder Water cylind ers Gas cylinder

1. Solenoid operaled masler release valve 4. Pneumatically activated slave valve
(wilh local manual releas e) (no local manual release)
2. Pneumatic lubing inlerconnec ling 5. Pressure switch. alarm when system trips
·master· lo "slave· valve 6. Cylinder rack with restrain ts
3. Discharge header 7. Compres sed gas cylinders (driving medium)

FIGURE 18-2High -pressure, gas-drive n system w ith mult iple units connected for sequential or
simultan eous discharge.

starting pressure and initial volume of gas. This is th e type of detailed information that
need s to be comm unicat ed lo the inspe ctor and the maintenan ce people.

Water Cylinders
Water cylind ers are distin ct from water tanks. They are m o dified gas cylind ers, some -
times provide d with an inter ior lin ing for corro sion pro tec tion and with a special
head assembl y to permit refilling i11sitri. Refilling is do n e via a vent port (no. 9 in
Figure 18-1). 'foe cylind er is known to be full when water starts to flow out of the
open vent ports in adjacent cylinde rs. Only an experie nced technicia n should per -
form the filling operatio n. A perman ently moun ted water supply (no. 17) with filter
and hose valve (no . 18) shou ld be mounted near the unit to provide a sour ce of dean,
filtered water.
On ce the cylinders are filled and the ven t port s sea led, there is no way visually to
confirm tha t water storage q 11ind ers are full of water. Some end users mandat e the use
of load cells to monitor the weight of the cylinders . 1his is the best way to supervise
the water level. Regardless of whether the u nit is inspec ted weekly or annually, it is not
possi ble to confirm the presence of waler in the qdinde rs without either open ing the
vent plugs or using load cells to monitor weight.

285
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

Delect ors

Contro l
panel

;~::i
( ·'·\
Air vent

Sight glass
Level switch
h .
17 f-- -- --++I_. f !

11
...,_.__._,__~~-'-"'--4 ~ ~
Slave Slave Slave Master ~
Compressed gas cy linders
(atomizing medi um)
Water supply
strainer , and drain
1. Stee l base and frame 11. Airline to twin- fluid nozzles (low pressure)
2. Compressed gas cylinders (atomizing medium) 12. Waterline to twin-fluid nozzl es (low pressure)
3. Cylinder control valve 13. Air-actuated globe valve (cycle water line)
4. Pneumatic cylinder release valve 14. Low pressure solenoid valves (for opera ting
5. Pressure supervisory switch with burst disc air-actuated globe valves)
6. Solenoid opera ted mas ter release valve 15. Manual release valve (opens globe valves)
7. Manu ally opera ted mas ter release valve 16. Pressure gauge , pressure relie f valve and
8. 112'' high pressure tubing man ifold ven t valve
9. Air pressure control valve (high to low pressure) 17. Low pressure rated water tank
10. Air-actuated globe valve (cycle air line) 18. Drain and re-fill connection with straine r

FIGURE
18·3 Low -press u re, twin -fluid, compressed gas-driven system.

LOW-PRESSURE,TWIN-FLUID,
COMPRESSEDGAS-DR IVEN SYSTEMS
WITH STORED WATER
Twin-fluid, compres sed gas- driven system s use water and comp ressed gas in two
separate piping streams, which are joined at the nozz le to generate water mist.
A low-pressure , gas-driven system using tanks for storage of water combine d with
high-pr essure compressed gas q 1linders and a pressure-regula ting valve is show n
286
 CHAPTER 18: Water Mist Systems

in FIGURE 18-3. The water storage tank is connected to a bank of compressed gas cyl-
inders, with the compressed gas used to drive the water out of the tank and into the
distribution piping. The pressure at the entry to the water storage tank is regulated
to provide a sustained pressure on the system nozzles for as long as the gas supp ly
lasts. Pressure in the water storage tank and the distribution piping is typically less
than 290 psi (20 bar).

INTERMEDIATE-PRESSURE,SINGLE-
FLUID, COMPRESSED GAS-DRIVEN
SYSTEMSWITH STORED WATER
In intermediate-pressure, single-fluid, compressed gas-driven systems, the compressed
gas is used solely to drive the water out of the tank and into the distribution piping.
Unlik e in the high -pressure systems, the water and air pressure that ente rs th e tank and
piping in an intermediate-pressure system is regulated so that tank pressure does not
exceed a certain value, generally less than 500 psi (34 bar) (no . 8 in FIGURE 18-4). The
discharge pres sure at the nozzl e is maintained at an approximate ly constant level until
the supply of water or compressed gas is depleted. There are therefore both high- and

Detectors

Control
panel

1. Compressed gas cylinder 9. Air-line tubing

2. Steel frame and cylinder restra ints
3. Cylinder co ntrol valve
4. Pneumatic cylinder release valve
5. Pressure switch with burst disc
6. So lenoid operated mast er release valve
7. Manually operate d master release valve
8. Pressure regulating valve, high to low
10. Pressure switch , alarm on discharge
11. Primary system control valve
12. Strai ner on discharge line
13. Water line to nozzles
14. Water level indicator (dipstick)
15. Water tank rated for intermediat e-pressure
16. Drain and refill co nnection with strain er

18-4 Low- o r intermediate -pressure, sing le-fluid, comp ressed gas- driven syste m.
FIGURE

287
SECTION 2: Build ing Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

low-pressure components in the hardware. The system controls include air cylind er
valves, regulating valves, solenoid valves, and a fire alarm and control panel.

TESTING PRE-ENGINEERED
GAS-DRIVEN SYSTEMS
Gas-driven water mist systems sim ilar to those shown in the previous four figures are
referred to as pre -engine ered systems. Each set of water cylinders and compressed
gas cylinders can supply only a fixed number of n ozz les, with a maximum permit-
ted length for each size of tubing. These systems are sometimes assembled with
several se ts of water and compressed gas cylinders conn ected in a "master-slave"
arrangement (see Figure 18-2) . For example , the "master" cylinder may be released
by a solenoid valve upon a signa l from the detecti on system releasing panel. The
"slave" cylinder valve will b e activated pneumat ically by a pr essurized line from the
"master" cylinder.
If mu ltiple banks of water and compressed gas cylinders are dischar ged simu ltane-
ously, the numb er of noz zles that can be supplied is incr ease d. If disch arged sequentially,
multiple units extend the duration of protection, for example, from 10 to 20 minutes.
The pneumatic tubing connecting ma ster and slave va lves (for simu ltaneous release) is
seldom or nev er sup ervise d (no . 2 in Figure 18-2). For that reaso n, pneumatic valves
should be inspected carefully for possible problems with the control tubing. Generally,
it can be determin ed to functi on properly only at th e tim e of an annual trip test of
th e system.

End of Discharge
During discharge testin g of decaying pressure gas-dr iven systems, it is difficu lt to id en-
tify the end of discharge because the noise and mist generati on do not stop abrupt ly, as
the y do when a pump is shut off. The end of disch arge can b e id entifi ed as th e tim e at
which th e pressure at th e remote nozzle falls below th e minimum specified op eratin g
pressure for the n ozzle. The minimum operating pressure for a hi gh-pre ssure, single-
fluid , gas -driven system , h owever, is n ot the sam e as th e minimum opera tin g pr essure
for a n ozzle on a pumped system. The system docu mentati on should specify th e mini-
mum pres sur e th at indicates the end of a 10-minute disch arge.

PUMP-DRIVEN WATER MIST SYSTEMS

Wat er mi st system s using a pumped water suppl y represent a categ ory of"e ngin eered"
wat er mist systems . Pump-driv en systems may be low, int ermed i ate, or high pres-
sure. "Low" pr essure water mist systems m ay be a misnom er, because m ost so -called
low -pressure water mist systems usua lly n eed m ore pressur e th an is delivered from
conventi onal rated fire pumps . Although th e minimum pr essure n eeded for th e n oz-
zle m ay b e at or b elow 175 psig (12 bar), most of th e pipin g system and th e pump
disch arge mu st be higher th an 175 psi g (12 bar), whi ch is the int erm ed iate pressur e

288
 CHAPTER 18: Water Mist Systems

Detectors

15
14 Releasing

0p panel

)( ~ 7
,
,--A--,

<if
---- ►

1. Connection to water supply 9. Air supply and regulator for pneumatic

2. Gauge, low pressure
3. Filters or screens with bypass
4. Stand -by pressure maintenance pump
(pneumatic or electric)
5. NPSH gauge (+/-)
6. Pump and driver (electric or diesel)
7. Programmable Controller (PLC)
8. Primary system control valve
cb cb
pressure maintenance pump (4)
10. Unloader valve discharge line to drain or break tank
11 . Large capacity unloader valve
12. Pressure gauge
13. Pressure (P) and flow (Q) switches connected to PLC (7)
14. Manual isolation valve
15. Sect ional control valves to mist systems (solenoid release)
16. Test connection with flow meter

18-5 Pump-driven high -pressure wate r mi st system.

FIGURE

range . Nozzles that operate in the high -pressure range above 500 psig (34 bar) require
the use of PD pumps to ach ieve the required pressure . Regardl ess of the operat in g
range , pump -driv en water mist systems require pumps, power supplies, and control -
lers . Maintenance and in spec tion req uir em ents relating to pumps and controll ers
must be followed .
P&ID schematics for water mist systems th at use pumps are shown in FIGURE 18·5
and FIGURE 18-6. They illustrate features representative of high- and low -pressure water
mist systems. Engineered systems are designed to suppl y many nozz les over a large
building area for durations of 30 minutes or more; th ey are limit ed only by the water
storage volume . A pump assembly th at inv olves two electr ic m otors each with two
sma ll PD pumps is illu strated in Figure 18·6. The design and comm issionin g of assem-
blies of PD pumps requ ire sp ecialized know ledge and experie nce. Both figures show
pumps supp lem ent ed by gas cylind er- driven subsystems, specifica lly, a pneumatic
pump to mainta in a standby pressure in the system manifold. Sma ll pneumatically
driven wat er pumps are capab le of producing a fairly high standby pressure in the
system m anifold , for examp le 360 psig (25 bar), wit hout the n eed for electric powe r.

289
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and rire Protection Systems

Detectors

Releas ing
panel

3
reshwater
/l- 1'¥ '- ®

□
@z
,,
I•
it
I

+---1,,,·r+
t= Seawater

one0
ralor

I
I__

0)
1. Seawater supp ly wilh cyclone separa tor
2. Fresh waler supply
3. Backflow device {optional)
4. Fillers or screens wiih bypass
5. Air-supp ly and regulator for stand-by pressure
mainten ance pump
6. Suction manifold wit h NPSH gauge (+/- )
7. Pneumatic stand-by pressure pump
8. Pressu re-relief valve
9. Test connection with flow meter
I 0. Isolation valve for seclional valves
1 I. Solenoid actuated sectional conlrol valves
12. Control sensor s, Pressure (P) and Flow (0)
13. Discharge manifold wi th pressure gaug e
14. Unloader valve (one per pump)
15. Unloader valve discharge by-pas s line
(to drain or break lank)
16, Posilive displacement pumps (2 per motor)
17. Prog rammable pump conlro!ler

FIGURE 18·6Positive displacementpump assemblywith unloader valveson each pump and

pressure relief valve on the discharge manifold.

Not many trad itiona l fire protection contractors in North America are fami liar with
pn eumat ic standby pumps.
Th e engineered, pumped S)'Slem consists of one or more water supplies (freshwa-
ter and seawater), in some cases a break tank, recirculation lines, screens and filters,
pumps and drivers, and a controller. TI1e piping system may supply open or closed
nozzles, and the re will be electrically controll ed sectional control valves controUing
flow to the individua l zones. A detection S)'Stem and programmab le logic controller are
needed to comp lete the system controls.
NFPA 25 provides general requirements for main tenan ce of centrifugal fire pump
systems . NFPA 20 now has requirements for PD p ump s. TI1e provisions of NFPA 25
shou ld be followed to the extent they apply to inspection of a part icu lar water mist
system. For mo re complex PD pump assemblies, the manufacturer's DIOM manual
provides inspection, testing, and maintenance advice.

290
 CHAPTER18: WaterMist Systems

Contro llers
Fire pump controllers on water mist systems must meet the requirements ofNFPA 20.
In addition, Annex C of NFPA 750 ofters discussion on the test procedu res and perfor-
mance levels for water m ist systems based on the Factor)' Mutual Research Corporation
Test Protocols. According to th is inform ation, water mist fire pump assemblies involv-
ing multiple motors are controlled by a programmabl e controller, and require one FM
Global-approved controller for each motor. In a conventional sprinkler system, a single
centrifugal pump .is capable of meeting both the largest and the smallest demand . vVith
PD pumps, the cont rol system must be programmed lo either start the correct number
of motors for each precalculaled demand or first to start all motor s and then shut down
those that are not needed, based on the system back pressure. 'D1e normal control ar-
rangement for fire pumps in NFPA 20 is not to .illow a lire pump lo be shut down
automatically. TI1e control logic for the water m ist system may be considerably more
complex than on a typical fire pump installation. TI1e inspector must have enough in-
formation about the intended cont rol logic to be able to verify the proper performance
of the pumps. Tn principle, the FM Global- approved DIOJ\IImanual should provide
guidance on the intended operntion of the equipment.

Break Tanks and Unloader Valve

Recirculation Lines
PD pump systems involve unloader valves that direct unused flow either to waste or
to a recirculation line. Unloader valves are pressure relief valves that circulate unused
flow from the PD pump s back lo a break tank or to a waste drain. [n the latter case, the
drain capacit)' must be sufficient to take the full output from the pump, in the event
that the pump starts without any nozzles open. It will be necessary to hydro-test the
bypass lines to verify their integrity. Variability in unloader valve settings on a high-
pressure pump assembly m.iy be as high as ±75 psig (5 bar), such that it is difficult
to achieve great .iccuracy when flow testing the pump assembly. It takes specialized
knowledge and experience to achieve the proper settings on unloader valves and to
verify the perform.ince of the pump assembly. In testing a PD pump assembl)', a rec-
ommende d check is to require that the pump deliver the rated flow at a back pressure
within ±5 percent of the unloader valve settings, but never less than the greatest calcu-
lated hydraulic demand.
In marine installations, .i break tank separates the water mist system from the po-
table water supply (FIGURE 18-7), A float switch in the break tank opens an automatic
inlet valve. Freshwater enters the bre.ik tank from a filtered water supply, at least until
the potable water supply is exhausted . In marine systems, a seawater transfer valve can
be opened to extend the operation of the water mist system. A cyclone separator is used
to spin out small debris in seawater that might clog the fillers. TI1ebreak t.ink connects
directly to the suction supply line to the pumps.
Frequent inspections of the water qual ity in the break tank .ire essential. In land -
based application s where there is no assurance of regular weekly inspection, some
designers have disallowed the use of break tan ks, which would become pools of
29 1
 SECTION 2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

Double -check valve

Low/high level
switch

Sight glass
C:l==l~= Seawater
or screens supply
with bypass
Unloader bypass
re!urn ~- - ;
L_J

Drain and
To water mist pump suction inlet overl low

FIGURE
18·7Break tank connection in supply to positive displacemen t pumps (marine systems).

algae -laden stagna nt water if water is no t frequently cha nged, as occurs on sh ipboa rd
systems. There is no filtration on the outlet line to the pump suction inlet after the break
tank, and if there were, there is insufficient gravity head from an atmospheric tank to
be able to overcome the head loss created by downstream filters (see Figure 18-7). If
any algae growth or corrosion occurs in the break tank, it would pass into the water
mist system piping and plug valves or nozzles. Degradation in the quality of water
in holding tanks or break tanks ought to be a major concern for water mist systems .

Filters and Strainers

The inspector must verify that the filter size or strainer mesh equipment meets the
manufacturer's DIOM manual recommendation. Water mist systems are likely to fail
completely if debris enters the piping system and is carried to the nozzles. Although
most water mist nozzle manufacturers provide a fine mesh screen on individual noz-
zles, the importance of providing filters or screens on the supply to the pumping system
must be stressed. NFPA 750 requires that filters or strainers prevent the passage of
particles that are 80 percent of the size of the smallest orifice or passageway in any
component. High-pressure systems with very small orifice pressure jet nozzles may
use 100-µm filters at the inlet to the pump assembly. Some low-pressure systems with
relatively large nozzle orifices [e.g., 0.08 to 0.12 in. (2 to 3 mm)I may use basket type
strainers. One option to consider, in some cases, is to specify redundancy in the filtra -
tion line, such as requiring two sets of basket strainers in parallel, each one sized to pass
the full pump flow rate at 50 percent reduced open area.
Filters add hydraulic resistance to the pump suction line. The inspection and main-
tenance plan for a water mist pump system 1nust evaluate the head loss of the filters and
or strainers on the suction supply to the pumps to identify possible net positive suction
head (NPSH) problems. TI1emanufacturer's DIOM manual will provide the minimum
NPSH requirement for the pump or pump assembly. A suitable gauge on the suction
inlet to the pump assembly during flow testing will reveal whether the minimum re-
quired NPSH pressure is met. It is desirable to avoid the need for a suction line booster
pump to overcome friction losses through the filters.
292
 CHAPTER 18: WJter MistSystems

Freshwater/Seawater Transfer
On ma rine systems , water supply to th e fire pumps may be taken from freshwater
or seawater sources. Hardware to accomplish the transitions must be maintained for
reli.ability, which means tha t inspect ion and testin g of the tran sfer valves must be in -
clu ded in the annual tesling. Co ncern abou t corrosion caused by seawate r in the pip ing
system inhibit s th e desir e to conduct a full-scal e flow test from the seawat er source. If
one is not already pre sen t, installing a permanent test connection line th at can be used
to test the seawater source is recommended. Afterwa rd, th e piping shou ld be flushed
with fres hwat er.

Pneumatic ockey ump

A pneumatic jockey pum p is used to mainta in the syste m stand by pr essure on th e
delu ge valves of pumped wat er mist systems such as those shown in Figur e 18-5 and
Figur e 18-6. A clean air supply to run th e pneumati c pump mu st be m aint ained. 111is
source is usuall>7provid ed as a cylinder of com pressed gas (nitroge n) w ith a reg ulator,
al th oug h compressed air from a small elect ric com pressor is accept able .

WATERSTORAGETANK COMPONENTS
Th e following comp onent s are typic all)1 associated with water storage tanks , as illus-
trat ed in Figur e 18-3 and Figure 18-4:
1. Tank rated for at leas t 500 psig (34 bar) pressure and lined to prev en t internal
corro sion.
2. Top-mounted wat er discharg e line with internal dip tube.
3. Top-mounted air inl et line with orifice disk and check valve.
4. Sight glass, dipstick , or weigh -scale for ind icat ion of water level.
5. Air vent valves .
6. Pressur e gauges.
7. Relief valve.
8. Level sw itch (opt ional) .
9. Imm ersi on heat er (opt ional).
10. External insulation (optional).
11. Bottom -mounted combined dr ain and refill line.
12. Strainer on the refill line; in some cases a strai ner on th e out let line.
13. Electrical connection to ground.
Not shown in th e P&ID are devices th at might be required to prevent ba cteriological
activity, such as ultraviolet (UV) light racks . TI1e poss ibility of prov iding antibacterial
equipment is discussed later in text in th e Water Quali ty section.
TI1eowner's maintenance co ncerns with the water storage tank should be to confirm
that (1) it cont ains the right quantity of water, (2) th e water qu ality is acceptable, and
(3) th e con trol valves are set correctly . lt is also impor tant to confirm that the ambient
temperatures at the tank locatio n are within the acceptable range of 40°F to 130°F (4°C
to 54°C) and that there are no signs of leakage or corrosion.
293
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

Tank Sight Glass

In tanks equipped with a tank sight glass, the tank fill level can be checked by inspect-
ing the sight glass . The tank sight glass will be calibrated to show the full, refill, and
low-level status of the water in the tank. In addition to being used to check the capacity
of the tank, discoloration or presence of particulates visible in the sight glass may be
a sign of potential contamination in the water. Although the level in the water storage
tank shoul d be checked weekly (unsupervised arrangement), the manufacturer's prac-
tice or recommend ations may also suggest that the valves on the sight glass be verified
to be in the open position.
A system with both a sight glass and a level switch that indicate that the water tank
is filled to the proper level is shown in Figure 18-3. Because of the level switch, the tank
qualifies as "supervised;" therefore a monthly visual check of the sight glass is all that is
required. TI1elevel switch will be monitored by the fire alarm control panel, which will
indicate a trouble signal if the water level is too low. Presumably, a person will monitor
the pan e! and notic e the troubl e signal.
A low-level trouble signal will require that a maintenance person identify the reason
for the drop in water level, fix the problem , and refill the tank to the proper level. Some
manufacturers have installed a dipstick device to permit regular confirmation of water
level in the vessel. To check the water level, remove a cap and read the level indicator
on the dipstick. Such manual devices do not qualify as supervised and therefore must
be checked weekly. TI1e recomme nded frequency for testing the water level switch is
annually, at the time the tank is scheduled to be drained and refilled . In fact, the opera-
tion of the level switch should be checked any time that the tank is emptied and refilled.

Pressure Relief Valve

Most of the storage tank designs incorporate a pressure relief valve on the tank dis -
charge line, which is intended to protect against overpressurizing the tank if the air
pressure control valve malfunctions. Ordinarily, the tank is at atmospheric pressure
and is pressurized only if the gas cylinders are released or perhaps during filling if the
water pressure is high enough and the air vent valves are not opened .
TI1epressure relief valve should be manually operated semiannually. TI1emanufac-
tm-er's DIOM manual should be consulted on how to confirm the proper performance
of this safety feature.
TI1e relief valves sometimes installed on the discharge side of a pressure-regulating
valve are provided to ensure that system components are not subjected to pressure that
may damage any downstream components. Pressure relief valves should be manually
operated on a semiannual basis to confirm their functionality.

Water Quality
NFPA 750 requires the water source for filling the tank to be of potable water qual -
ity with respect to dissolv ed minerals and particulates. TI1e quality of the refill water
source should be checked before refilling. Early experience with similar storage tanks

294
 CHAPTER18: Water MistSystems

on Alaska's North Slope found that lake water used to fill the tank had bacteria content
that resulted in bacteriological growth (algae) inside the tank. 'TI1 e strainer on the fill
line was of no use to stop bacteria from entering the tank. Algae growth cannot be
detected from outside the tank unless it happens to discolor the sight glass. If it does
occur, and there are no strainers or filters on the discharge line from the tank, there is
not hing to stop algae from being pushed into the piping S}'Stem and plugging nozzles
and special pressure-regulating valves.
Some water storage tanks incorporate a means to prevent the growt h of bacteria in
stagnant water stored in the tank. ll 1is may be especially important in scenarios where
person nel could be exposed to finely atomized spray contai11ingLegio11 elln bacteria.
UV lights have been suspended inside stored water 1t111k s, and in some ·ascs water is
circulated through a UV chamber on a recirculation line. 1l1e inspector must under-
stand the purpose of such equipment and verify its performance.
A combined refill and drai n line with a strainer at the bottom of the tank is used
to ensu r that no large particulate matler enters the lank dnring filling. Tl1edrain line
should not have a strainer, so that debris or algae growth can be flushed out of the tank
without restriction. Some manufacturers install a strainer on the outlet line from the
water storage vessel.In that case, the strainer must pass the full discharge flow without
excessive hydraulic head loss.
To identify whether bacterio logical growth is occurring, a water sample should be
taken from the tank via the drain valve. Over the first year, sampling and inspect-
ing the water for bacteriological activity at quarterly intervals are recommended. It
is recomme nded to send water samples to a laborato ry for analysis. Jf algae growth
is identified during a quarter ly inspect ion, the following changes to maintenance
procedures for systems that use water stored in closed tanks or cylinders should be
considere d:
• Using brominat ion or chlorination during the filling operation to kill bacteria.
(Biocides other than those used in potable water systems should no t be used be-
cause of potential health safety concerns. If the distribution system is composed
o( stainless steel pipe or tube, ozone treatment should be considered instead.
Stainless steel is susceptible to chlorine corrosion ; bromine, being a similar halo-
gen, may have similar adverse effects.)
• Installing additional strainers or filters on the outlet of the tank. Tl1is could
have a negative impact on the h) draulics of the system. ll1e flow capacity and
1

hydraulic resistance of the additional strainer s must be accounted for so that

minimum nozzle pressures are still achieved.
• Ensuring that all strainers are easily accessible for checking (i.e., not located
under the tank) and that the screen can be removed for examination without
having lo empty the tank.
• Inspecting water quality quarter!)' for the first year, then semiannu ally thereafter
only if water quality is consistently acceptable throughout the first year.
• Analyzing water qualil>• (laboratory) semiannually the first year, then annually
thereafter if the water quality is consistently acceptable over the course of the
first year.

295
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

FULL DISCHARGETES
The annual full discharge testing of the water mist system is intended to verify the
operation of all components, from the detection system to the releasing valves and
regulators. Only the manufacturer' s representative should undertake this testing. A full
discharge test is the best way to confirm the performance of al.I components, includ-
ing duration of discharge and timing cycles. Only by flowing water through the actual
distribution system and nozzles can one be sure that both the water supply and the
compressed gas pressure are sufficient to sustain the desired duration and that water is
delivered to the nozzles at the required pressure. ·n1e owner needs to provide the op-
portunity to conduct this disruptive test.

MODIFIED DISCHARGETEST
Although water -sensitive equipment can be covered by plastic, for various reasons it is
not always possible to conduct a full compartme nt discharge test of every water mist
system. Provided that a full discharge test was conducted at the time of the acceptance
testing of the new system, it could be acceptable to conduct a modified discharge test
during the periodic annual testing.
A modified discharge test could be conducted by means of a test connection de-
signed to simulate the hydraulic demands of the system. Orifice disks installed on
separate water and air lines (in a twin -fluid system, for example) and piped to a suit -
able location could be used to simulate the actual flow rates. Test connections for such
purposes are not always a standard feature. A number of the first water mist systems
to be installed did not include test conne ctio ns. If the difficuli-)' of conducting effective
annual tests creates problems for the ongoing maintenance of the system, test connec-
tions should be retrofitted to piping.

CYCLING SYSTEMS
Some wate r mist systems intended for small machinery spaces were designed to dis -
charge water in intervals in order to reduce the amount of water required. Thus, for
example , the system would discharge water for 40 seconds, then stop for 20 seconds;
and repeat this sequence for 10 minutes. TI1isconcept was adopted in order to obtain
10 minutes of protection, as required by the flv1 Global fire test protocol and ap -
proval document, with only a 7- or 8-minute volume of stored water and compressed
gas. The principle relies on "enclosure effects" to be effective. Fire in a sealed engine
room or turbine enclosure will generate heat and will increase the temperature in
the enclosure. As water is discharged, a percentage of mist is evaporated. When the
discharge stops, the fire may not yet be extinguished and will regrow, again raising
the temperature and increasing the amount of water vapor in the environment. After
four or five cycles, there may be enough water vapor present to reduce the mcygen
concentration to below 15 percent, sufficiently low to extinguish some hydrocarbon
fires. The process relies absolutely on confining both heat and water vapor in the
enclosure. TI1e risk is that a fire will regrow in the "off" interval, involve more fuel,

296
 CHAPTER 18: Water Mist Systems

do more collatera l damage to control wiring or other cri tical elements, and perhaps
reach an intensity that is beyond the capability of the mist system to control. Further -
more, the complexity of the control valves needed to stop and start the flow of water
and compressed gas on closely timed intervals iucreases the possibility of a malfun c-
tion occurring in some device. Some ind ustrial end users such as ExxonMobil will
not allow cycling water mist systems.
This author conducted an acceptance test involving full system discharge of a
cycling water mist system on the North Slope of Alaska. Pressure tran sducers were
installed to measure the ystem pres ure in both water and pneumatic lines over
the full six cycles that were supposed to achieve the 10 minut es of protection; how-
ever, the pressure data showed thaL only five of the six interva ls were at the proper
nozzle pressure-both water and air pressures durin g the sixth inter val were below
the m i.nimum. Witho ut having conducted the instrume nted full system discharge,
no one would have been able to tell that the system was not capable of achieving its
requ ired pressur during the final inter val. As a pre-engineered gas-driven system,
it was necessary to expand the gas cylinder rack to add cylinders . TI1e situation was
highly problematic given that the equipme nt had been fitted into a small space with
no room for expansion.

DISCHARGE IME
A 30-minute minimum discharge time is specified by NFPA 750 for almost all situ-
ations, although "hvo consecutive discharges of 10 minutes duration" is accepted for
pre-engineered systems. Systems that use a compressed gas source with stored water
must store a large enough quantity of each fluid (water plus compressed gas) for the
anticipated duration. Any evaluation of the system in future years must be able to show
that the system discharge duration can be met.
Periodic inspection and testing of all functional elements of the water mist system
are recommend ed in Table 18-3.111ese include the sectional control valves, drains, flow
switches and alarm devices, piping, hangers, and nozzles. Procedures for such inspec-
tion or testing are similar to those for other types of fire protection systems. Practices
described in NFPA 72® and NFPA 25 should be followed. TI1ere are several unique
aspects of water mist systems that should be highlighted.

SECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

It is particularly important to test the sectional control valves used in large water mist
systems (see 110. l 5 in Figure 18-5 and no. 11 in Figure 18-6). TI1esevalvesare electrically
activated. Compared with standard fire protection valves,they are of a nonstandard valve
design. TI1eyma}' be nonind icaling; how to operate them manually may not be clear. Even
during a trip test, it is not possible to tell by visual inspection whether they are fully or par-
tially open. On high-pressure systems, friction loss through sectional control valves may
be very high. To keep friction losses within reasonable bounds, the total flow lo a system
may be divided among two or more sectional valves in parallel. TI1issituation introduces

297
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Prolection Systems

the possibilitythat one of the valves in the group could fail to open and cause the hy-
draulic performance of the S)'Stem to be adverse!)'affected.The only way to test sectional
control valves is to open them under full pressure and flow water. The inspector must
study the documentation carefullyto determine how the valvesare intended to operate.
In facilities where a full discharge test can be conducted annually, the performance
of sectional valves can be tested. If it is not possible to do a full system discharge, an
alternative means of testing the functionality of the valvesmust be found. One possibil-
ity is to select nozzles in a limited area where water can be discharged without damage,
and then to flow water through a limited portion of the overall system. Alternatively,
design the system so that there is a test line on each individual zone in a water mist
system on the downstream side of ea h sectional control valve.
If a sectional control valve on a dry-pipe or deluge system does not "seat" properly,
water may leak past the valve and begin to fill the overhead piping. On a large deluge
system with high ceilings, the leakage will not be noticed until water starts to "dribble"
out of the nozzle. In Alaska, where water leaking past the control valve would freeze
and destro)' the piping system, a means of monitoring for leakage should be provided.
A leakage trap is installed 011 the discharge side of each sectional control valve. Any
leakage slowly fills a drum -drain until there is enough to be sensed with a liquid level
sensor. A trouble indication can then be given in the main control room.

NOZZLES
'Nater mist nozzles must be protected against plugging by use of filters and screens.
Annual checking and cleaning of screens or filters are important. Manufacturers have
nozzles with different K-factors, orifice diameters, and orifice patterns. A single sys-
tem may use more than one type of nozzle. It is extremely important that the person
who removes nozzles for inspection, or possibly replaces nozzles for whatever purpose,
knows what characteristics each nozzle must have. Information on the type of nozzles
and where they are installed is contained in the system documentation . As indicated
earlier, the srstem documentation is the foundation for ongoing maintenance and in-
spection. TI1emaintenance personnel must know what types of nozzles were installed
in the facility and should perform the following inspection:
Ensure that correct types of nozzles are installed.
l.
2.
Ensure that thermall)1 activated nozzles with glass bulbs have the correct
temperature rating for the location.
3. Remove several nozzles and inspect the condition of screens and O-ring seals.
4. Ensure that structura l members or stored materials will not obstruct the
discharge patterns.
5. Ensure that nozzle orifices are not becoming plugged with external grime.
6. Ensure that nozzle dustcaps (if used) are in place and that they dislodge as
required upon activation of the S)'Stem.

298
 CHAPTER 18: Water Mist Systems

DETECTION EQUIPMENT, CONTROLS,

INTERLOCKS,AND ANCILLARY
EQUI MENT
Vlith the exception of water mist systems that are sprinkler equivalents and use ther-
mally activated (automatic) nozzles, water mist systems rely on a separate detection
system to activate. Inspection and testing procedures therefore must include the de-
tection system . 'The type of detect ion is often dictated by the listing for the system.
For example, turbine enclosures and machinery space systems listed by FM Global are
requir ed to use thermal detectors as a minimum . Neverthe less, most machinery space
systems in oil industry facilities on the North Slope of Alaska use triple infrared flame
detection .
The listing also indicates that certain shutdown events must be S)'nchronized with
the release of the S)'Stem. TI1eventilation system should be shut down, door holder s
released, dampers closed, and lubrication or fuel lines shut off. Ir is essent ial to have a
"cause and effect" matrix chart to identify how the interlocks and ancillar)' shutdowns
work. TI1eannual testing of a water mist system must confirm the proper operation of
all events associated with release of the water mist S)'Stem.
A written record of all inspection, testing, and maintenance activity on a system
should be kept with the system documentation.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 20, Stm1dnrdfor the J11stnllntion
ofStntionmy Pwnpsfor FireProtection
NFPA 25, Stn11dnrdfor the Jnspectio11,Testing,and Mai11fe11a11ce
of Water-Bnsed Fire
ProtectionSystems
NFPA 70®, National Electrical Code®
NFPA 72®, National FireAlarm and SignalingCode
NFPA 750, Standard 011 WaterMist FireProtectionSyste111s

299
 CHAPTER

19

SPECIALAGENT
EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS
GeraldR. Back III

TI1e most widely used special agent extinguishing systems discharge carbon dioxide,
halogenated agents, dry chemicals, or wet chemicals. Description of other clean agent
extinguishing systems (i.e., halocarbons and inert gases) and additional information
on wet chemical systems used for commercial cooking operations can be found else-
where in this text.
Special agent systems typically have the following components: detection and con-
trol equ ipment, agent release devices, agent storage containers (agent cylinders), agent
distribution systems (pipes, hoses, and nozzles), and ancillary devices such as door
closures and damper releases.
Most of these systems are available as either engineered or pre -engineered systems.
An engineered system is one in which individual rnlculations and designs are required to
determine the agent flow rate, the size of the piping, noz.zle pressures, and so on. A pre-
engineered system, sometimes called a package system, is one in which minimum and
maximum parameters have been predetermined and confirmed by an independent test -
ing laboratory. Installation within the listed limits ensures adequate flow rate, pressure,
and pattern coverage without the need to perform flow calculations. Most installations
will be classified as pre-engineered systems designed for a specific hazard. Because these
systems discharge a fixed agent quantity, it is important that all hazards are adequately
protected. Changes in the hazard, such as the layout of the equipment being protected,
modification to the enclosure surrounding the hazard, and changes in the type of fuel,
could affect the system's ability to extinguish a fire. As a result, the inspection/maintenance
company should assess whether the system is code compliant and that the design meets
the listed parameters prior to entering into an agreement to inspect and maintain the
system. It is also recommended that the S}'Stemdesign be reviewed on a regular basis to
verify that it is still code compliant and designed within the listed parameters.
 CHAPTER 19: Special Agent extinguishing Systems

DESIGN TYP S
Special agent systems can be catego rized into one of three basic t)1pes: tota l floodi ng
systems, loca l application systems, and hose line systems. Many of these systems are
extensio ns/add -ons to larger tota l flooding systems .

Total Flood ing Systems

Total flooding systems d ischarge an extingu ish ing agent into an enclosure lo provide
a u niform fire extinguishing conce nt ratio n throughout the entire enclosure. Ope nings
in th e enclosure somet imes can be compensa ted for b)' p rovidin g au tomatic clos ure
device s or by adding extinguish ing agent. Although Halon 1301 is no longt!r prod uced,
there are sl ill ma ny systems curre ntly in use th at ut ilize the agen t.

Local Appli a i n yst ms

Loca l applicat ion systems clischarge th e agen t d irect ly onto the hazard witho ut relying
on an enclosure to reta in the agent. Local .ipplication systems are t)•pically used to pro-
tec t cooking equipmen t, vehicles (e.g., engine compartme nts of buses), large construc-
tion equipmenl (e.g., eng ine spaces/compa rt ments of compactors, excava tors, dozers,
dump tru cks), pr inting presses, dip an d quench tanks, spray boo ths, oil-filled electri c
transforme rs, and so 0 11.
Around the beg in ning of the 2 I st century, mos t resta urnnl kitchens were protected
with local -applicat ion dry chemical extingu ishing systems. However, because of the
use of new cooking o ils and higher temperatures in the cooking process, dry chemical
exting uishi ng systems are no longer adequa te for this appl icatio n (because of th eir lack
of cooling). Repla cement systems, suc h as wet chemical or other water -based agents,
are n ow the indus try standard. An examp le of a loca l-app lication wet chemica l restau-
rant system is shown in FIGUR E19-1.
Local-application wet and dr y chem ical agent exlinguishing systems are now bei ng
used to p rotect the engine compar tments of mass transpor tation vehicles and large
conslru ction equipm ent.
J\fos t of these systems are dr y chemica l because of the lower temp era tur e ranges th at
th ese systems need to operate in. An example of a dr y chemica l co nstruc tion veh icle
engi ne compartme n t fire ext ingu ishing system is shown in FIGURE19-2.

Manual Extinguishing Systems (Hose Reels)

Hose line S}'Stems consist of a sup ply of ext inguish ing agent, such as carbon d ioxide,
Halon 12 11, or dry chemical, and one or more hose lines that allow ma nu al de livery of
the agent to th e fire (FIGURE19-3). Tl1e hose lines are connec ted to the agent co ntainer
eith er d irectly o r by mea ns of interm edia te pip ing. In many cases , these hose reels are
add -ons to larger total flood ing or local app lication systems.

301
 SECTION2: Build ing Systemsand FireProtection Systems

Duel

Hood

Manual
Actuator

~
~ Nozzle
(typ.)

Agent
Storage
Cabinet

Range Fryer Grill

19-1Typical wet chemical kitchen range, hood, duct, and fryer fire protection system.
FIGURE

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

Special agent extinguishing systems are required to be inspected semiannually by a
trained professional. The manufacturer, installing contractor, or any other qualified
organization can provide regular service contracts. Upon completion of the onsite
inspection and maintenance visit, a report summarizing the work, the findings, and
recommendations (e.g., potential upgrades and changes in maintenance procedures)
should be filed with the owner.
The owner should also be trained to perform routine inspections . Most National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) codes require a visual/physical inspection of the
system on a monthly basis. The service company should review the key areas of the
system that need to be inspected each month. Examples include accessibility to the
activation devices, detector status (cleanliness and damage), nozzle status (cleanliness,
damage, nozzle caps, and positioning), piping status (physical damage), and agent
cylinder status (damage and pressure) .
The tables given in this chapter outline the main aspects of the i.nspection and main-
tenance procedures and should be used for guidance only. For more details on these
procedures and the requirements associated with a specific system type/design, refer
to the applicable NFPA standards at the end of this chapter and to the manufacturer's
system/design manual. Jn addition to inspecting the system and the protected haz -
ard, personnel that could potentially operate the system (e.g., the kitchen staff of the

302
 CHAPTER19: Special Agent Extinguishing Systems

Agent
Distribution
Hoses

ellent
Cartridges

Control Module
with Manual
Actuat or
Remote Manual
Actuator

FIGURE
19·2Dry chemi cal construction vehicle fire protecti on system.

restaurant or the operator of the vehicl e) should be briefed on both the manual and
automatic ac tivat ion devices/loc ation s and proce dure s.

Carbon Dioxide System Inspection

and Maintenance
A number of properties make carbon dioxide a desira ble fire extinguishing agent.
Namely, it does no t react with most substa nces, it d oes not conduct electricity, it
prov ides its own dischar ge pressure, and it does not leave a residu e.
Carb o n dioxide extinguishes a fire by reducing the oxygen concentration at th e
fire location below th e value needed to sustain combustion (i.e., it smothers the fire).
Local-app lication carbon d ioxide systems ca n also have a cooling effect as the agent is
discharged d irect ly on the hazar d.

Safety Considerations. Extinguishin g conce ntrat ions of carbon dioxid e can be fatal.
111erefore, carbon dioxid e total floodin g srs tems should not be used in normally occu -
pied spaces. To preven t accidental discharge, a "lockout " is provided wh en persons not
familiar with the operation of the system are present in the protected space . Authori-
ties respo nsible for con tinu ity of fire protection mu st be notified of the lockout and

303
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection System s

subsequent restoration of the system. For total

flooding hazards that are normally unoccupied
but in which personnel might be present for
maintenance or other purposes, there must be
some means to warn the occupants of an im-
pending discharge. This requires an alarm and
a time delay to ensure evacuation prior to agent
discharge.

Type of Storag e. The carbon dioxide supply

can be stored in high- or low-pr essure co ntain-
ers. High -pr essure containers [-850 psi (5860
kPa)], usually cylinders, are designed to store
liqu id carbon dioxide at ambient temperature.
Because the tempe ratu re affects the pressure,
it is important to store the cylinder in an area
where temperature s will be within the listed
limits. Low-pressure containers [-3 00 psi (2068
kPa)] are pressure vessels designed to maintain
the temperature of carbon dioxide at about 0°F
(18°C) by means of insulation and refrigeration.

Inspection and Maintenance. The main

points of the inspe ction and maintenance pro-
cedure for carbon dioxide systems are listed in
TABLE 19-1. Refer to NFPA 12, Stn11dnrd011 Car- FIGURE19-3Carbondioxide hose reel
ban Dioxide Extinguishing Systems, and to the extinguish ing system.
manufacturer's system/design manual for more
complete information. Inspection and maintenance should be carried out by qualified/
trained personnel.

Halogenated Agent System Inspection

and Maintenance
Halogenated extinguishing agents, or halons, have a number of unique fire protection
qualities. In addition to their ability to extinguish flames, they leave no residue to clean
up after a fire, and they do no t cause thermal shock to delicate equipment. The two
halons most widely used in North America are Halon 1301 [bromotrifluoromethane
(CF 3Br)] and Halon 1211 [bromochlorodifluoromethane (CF 2CIBr)].
Halon fire extinguishing agents have been linked to stratospheric ozone depletion
and are no longer produced. However , many halon systems are still installed/in use and
must be inspected periodically and maintained.

Safety Considerations. Experience and testing have shown that personnel can be
exposed to Halon 1301 and Halon 1211 vapors in low concentration for brief periods

304
 CHAPTER 19: Special Agent ExtinguishingSystems

Testingand Inspection Guidelines for Carbon Dioxide

Systems

Verification or Test Minimum Frequency

Owner
Overallphysicalappearance Every30 days
Accessto activation devices
Detector status
Nozzlesstatus
Pi ing status
Cylinderstatu
Service/Maintenance Organization
I. Initial physical inspection Every6 months
Accessto activallon devices
Detector status
Nozzlesstatus
Piping status
Cylinder status
Changesin the hazard
2. Supervisedcircuits Everyyear
3. Control panel (all functions) Everyyear
4. Powersupply Everyyear
5. Emergencypower Everyyear
6. Detectors(test, c;lean,and check wiring) Every6 months
7. Verificationof the time delay Everyyear
8. Alarms(operation,warning signs properly Everyyear
displa>
<ed)
9. Selector valves(if applicable) Every year
I 0. Ancillary functions (closureof dampersand doors, shut- Everyyear
down of equipment, and so on)
11. Manual releases(operation,accessibility) Everyyear
12. Piping (supports,blockage,integrity, and so on) Everyyear
13. Nozzles Everyyear
14. Containers (physicalcondition, weight) Every6 months
l 5. Releasedevices Everyyear
16. Testingof hoses EveryS >'ears
17. Hydrostatictesting of high-pressurecontainers 12years;after a discharge if more
than 5 yearssince last test
18. Liquid level gauge of low-pressure containers Every week

Note: Forall of theseverifications and tests,the actuating controls must be removed from the agent
containers to avoid accidentaldischarge.
\...
305
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

without serious risks. However, unnecessary exposure is not recommended. Exposure

to high concentrations- IO percent for Halon 1301 and 4 percent for Halon 1211- can
present a health hazard to personnel. Halon 1211 should not be used as a total flooding
agent in enclosures that are normally occupied.

Type of Storage. Total flooding systems can have a modular design or a central stor-
age design. In modular systems, a nozzle is connected to a halon container with little
or no piping. J\foltiple containers are located throughout the space to be protected so
that the concentration of the agent will be uniform upon discharge. In central storage
systems, halon containers are connected to a manifold, and the halon is delivered to
discha rge nozzles through a piping network.

Inspection and Maintenance. The main points of the inspection and maintenance
procedure for halogenated systems are listed in TABLE 19-2.Refer to NFPA 12A, Stnn-
dnrd 011 Halon 1301 Fire Exti11g11ishi11g Systems, and to the manufacturer's system/
design manual for more compl ete information. Full insp ect ion and maint enance
should be carried out by qualified/trained personnel.

Dry Chemical System Inspection

and Maintenance
Dqr chemical extinguishing agents are referred to as either ordinary dry chemicals or
multipurpose dry chemicals. TI1eformer are used to combat fires involving flammable
liqu ids (Class B) and electrical equipment (Class C). The latter are effective on ordina r y
combustibles (Class A), on flammable liquids (Class B), and on electrical equipment
(Class C).
Typical dry chemical agents include sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate,
monoammonium phosphate, and potassium chloride to name a few. Dry chemical ex-
tinguishing agents should not be confused with dry powder agents, which were devel-
oped for use on combustible metals. Extinguishing agents used on combustible metal
fires are discussed elsewhere in this text.
Ordinary dry chemical is used primaril) ' to extinguish flammable liquid fires. As a
result, there are numerous applications for these systems including engine compart-
ments of mass transportation vehicles and large constrnction equipment. With the
exception of the detection system, vehicle extinguishing systems are very similar to
nonvehicle-based systems .
Dry chemicals are not recommended for deep-seated Class A fires and are not suit-
able for fires in materials that supply their own oxygen for combustion. In addition, dry
chemical systems are not recommended for protecting delicate electronic equipment.
Some dq 1 chemicals are corrosive (e.g., monoammonium phosphate) and should be
removed from all undamaged surfaces as soon as possible after extinguishment.

Safety Considerations. The discharge of dry chemicals can create hazards to per-
sonnel by reducing visibility and temporarily making breathing difficult.

306
 CHAPT ER 19: Special Agent Extinguishing Systems

esting and Inspection Gu idelines for Halogenated

Agent Systems

Verifi cation or Test Minimum Frequency

Owner
Overall physical appearance Fvery 30 days
Access to activation devices
Detec tor tatu s
Nozzles statu
Piping status
C~11inder status
Service/Maintenance Organ izat ion
1. Initial physical in~pectio n Every 6 months
Access to activation dev ices
Detector status
Nozzles status
Piping status
Cylinder stat us
Changes in the hazard
2. Detection and actuation system Every 6 months
Detectors checked and cleaned
Supervision features checked
Ope ration of actuat ing contro ls (removed from
contai ners)
Operation or manua l operating controls
3. Containers
Visual examination Every 6 mo nt hs
Verification of agent quan t ity and pressure Every 6 mon ths
4. Piping and nozzles
Visual verification for any evidence of co rrosion or Every 6 months
obstruct ion and prope r position and alig nmen t of
nozzles
Vi ual inspectio n of hoses Every 6 mo nt hs
Hydrostatic testing of hoses Every 5 years
5. Auxiliary equipment Every 6 months

Note: For all of these verifications and tests, the actuating contro ls must be removed from the agen t
conta iner~ to avoid acciden tal di s harge.

307
SECTION 2: Building System s and Fire Prot ect io n System s

Type of Storage. Dry che mic als are stored in pressure vessels (cylind ers) either at
atm osp heric pressure until th e system is actuated or at the pressure of the internally
stored expe llant gas .

Inspection and Maintenance. The main points of the inspection and maintenance
procedure for dry ch em ical systems are listed in TABLE19-3. Refer to NFPA 17, Stan-
dard for Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems, and to the manufacturer's system/ de sign
manual for more complete information . Fu ll inspecti on and maintenanc e should be
carried out by qualified / trained personnel.

Wet Chemical System Inspection

and Maintenance
A wet chemica l extinguishing agent is typically a soluti on of dry chem ical agen ts
dissolved in a liquid (typically water). Wet chemica l systems are used to combat the
same fire ha zards as dry chemica l systems but provide additiona l coo lin g to prevent
reigniti on . Some common wet chemica l agents includ e aqu eo us potassium carbonate,
aq ueo us sodium bicarbonate, aqueous monoammonium phosphate, and aqueo us po-
tassium chloride .
Wet chemical solutions are primarily used to extingu ish flammable liquid fires such
as fuels, oils, and greases. The liquid contained in th e wet chemica l agent provides cool-
ing of the fu el surface and surround ing mat erials reduc ing the likelih oo d of a reigni-
tion. For grease fires (e.g., deep fat fryer fires), the wet chemica l may mix /reac t with the
grease to form a soapy layer over the oil surface of flammable liquids (a process called
saponification) . Wet chemica l extingu ishing agents are typi cally n ot used to protect
Class A hazards and are not suitable for fires in m ateria ls that supply th eir own oxygen.
Because wet chemical soluti ons are electrically conductive, wet chemical agents are
not recommended for protecting electronic eq uipm ent. In additio n, most wet chemi cal
solut ions are corrosive and sh ould be washed from all undamaged surfaces as soon as
possible after discharge/extinguishment.

Safety Considerations. The mist produced during the discharge of a wet chemica l
agent can be an inh alation h azard to personnel (the chemicals are m ore of an irrit ant
th an a toxin) .

Type of Agent Storage. Wet chem ical agents are typically stored in pressurized cyl-
inders.

Inspection and Maintenance. The main points of th e inspect ion and maintenance
procedure for wet chemica l systems are list ed in TABLE 19-4. Refer to NFPA 17A, Stan -
dard for Wet Chemical Extinguishing Systems, and to the manufacturer's system/ design
manual for more comp lete information . Full inspection and maintenance shou ld be
carried out by qualified/trained personn el. Fo r kitchen app lications, specia l attenti on
needs to be placed on cleaning the detection system elemen ts and the discharge noz-
zles, because grease build-up on these devices can render th e system ineffective.

308
 CHAPTER 19: Special Age nt Extinguish ing Systems

Testing and Inspection Guidelines for Dry

TABLE
19·3
Chemical Systems

Verification or Test Minimum Frequency

Owner
Overall physica l ap pearance (owner) Every 30 days
Access to act ivation devices
Detector status
Nozzles status
Piping status
Cylinder status
Service/Maintenance Organization
1. Initia l physical inspect ion Every 6 month s
Access to activation devices
Detector stat us
Nozzles status
Piping status
Cylind er status
Changes in th e hazard
2. Examine all detectors, conta iners, releasing devices, Every 6 months
piping, hose assemb lies, nozzles, alarms, and auxiliary
equ ipment*
3. Verify the operation of the detection system Every 6 month s
4. Remove and clean discharge nozzles, verify discharge Every 6 months
nozzles are not clogged
5. Verify that agent d istribu t ion pip ing is not obstructed Every 6 month s
6. Examine the agen t cylinders Every 6 months
7. Operational test of the system and all of it s functions Every 6 months
(excluding discharge)
8. Replacement of the fusib le links Every year
9. Hydro stati c test Every 12 yea rs

Note: For all of these verifications and tests, t he actuat ing controls must be remo ved from the age nt
containe rs to avoid accidental discharge.
* Nozzle blow-off caps, where provided , shou ld be intact and und amaged . Nozzles should be
correc t ly aimed. All detector s, containers, releasing devices, piping , hose assemb lies, nozzles, alarm s,
and auxiliary equipme nt should be free from damage and in good work ing order. Nozzles that are
located above / near equipment that may cause grease o r other deposits should be removed and
cleaned o r replaced eve ry 6 months .

309
SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

Testing and Inspection Guidelines for Wet

TABLE
19·4
Chemical Systems

Verification or Test Minimum Frequency

Owner
Overall physical appearance (owner) Every 30 days
Access to activat ion devices
Detector status
Nozzles status
Piping status
Cylinder status
Service/Maintenance Organization
1. Initial physical inspection Every 6 months
Access to act ivation devices
Detecto r statu s
Nozzles status
Piping status
Cylinder status
Changes in the hazard
2. Examine all detectors, conta iners, releasing devices, Every 6 months
piping, hose assemblies, nozzles,alarms, and auxiliary
equip ment*
3. Verify the operation of the detect ion system Every 6 month s
4. Remove and clean discharge nozzles, verify discharge Every 6 months
nozzles are not clogged
5. Verify that agent distributi on piping is not obstr ucted Every 6 months
6. Examine the agent cylinders Every 6 months
7. Operationa l test of the system and all of its funct ions Every 6 month s
(excluding di scharge)
8. Replacement of the fusible links Every 6 months
9. Rep lace non-fusible temperatu re sensors Everyyear
10. Hydrostatic test Every 12 years

Note: For all of th ese verification s and tests, the actuati ng contro ls mu st be remove d from the agen t
co ntain e rs to avo id acciden tal di scharge.
*Nozzle blow-off caps, w here prov ided, shou ld be intact and und amaged . Nozzles should be
co rrectly aimed. All det ector s, co ntainers, re leasing devices, pi ping, hose assemblies, nozzles, alarm s,
and auxiliary equipment should be free from damage and in good wo rking order. Nozzles th at are
located above/ near equipment that may cause g rease or ot her dep osits should be remo ved and
cleaned o r rep laced every 6 mo nth s.

310
 CHAPTER 19: Special Age nt Ext inguish ing System s

NFPA Codes, Standards , and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 12, Standard on Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 12A, Standard on Halon 1301 Fire Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 12B, Standard on Halon 1211 Fire Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 17, Standard for Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 17A, Standard for Wet Chemical Extinguishing Systems

311
 CHAPTER

20
CLEAN AGENT
EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS
Tom Wysocki

Gaseous fire extinguishing agents, which are clean, dry, electrically nonconductive,
and "life safe" at normal extinguishing concentrations , are classed as "clean agents:'
Genera lly, clean agent systems are intended to protect the contents of a space and per-
mit quick resumpti on of normal operation of a facility even after a fire and a discharge.
The use of clean agents is covered by NFPA 2001, Standard on Clean Agent Fire Extin -
guishing Systems .

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Clean agents are typically used totally to flood spaces that m ay be occ upied by per -
sonne l where a clean, dr y, electrically n onc onducti ve agent is req uired. A common
appli cation of clean agents is th e protection of electronic equipment found in data pro-
cessing centers, telecommunications facilities, and control roo ms (FIGURE 20-1). Other
app lications include large, pot entially occ upied spaces where flammable liquid s are the
fire haz ard . When such a haz ard requires rapid fire suppression, but th e evac uation of
personnel prior to disch arge of the extinguishing system may not be possible, a clean
agent system ma y be suitable for us e. Flammable liquid s storage and mixing rooms
in large indu strial facilities and pump roo ms in petrochemica l facilities are examp les
of this latter application . "Loca l applic ation" clean agent system s are found protecting
ma chin ery, such as computer num erical cont ro l (CNC) machines, where flamm able
liquids proc essing and handlin g are the potential fir e hazard .

CLASSESOF CLEAN AGENTS

To meet th e definition of a clean agent p er NFPA 2001, an agent must be an electric ally
noncon du ctin g, vo latile or gaseo us fire extin gu ishing agent th at does not leave residue
up on evap oration. Two genera l categori es of clean agent s are recog niz ed :
 CHAPTER 20: Clean Agent Extinguishing System s

l. Halocarbon agents whose primary components include one or m ore organ ic

compounds that contain one or more of the elements fluorine, ch lorine, bro-
mine, or iodine . Ha locarbons include hydrofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluoro-
carbons, perfluorocarbons, fluoroi o docarbons, and fluoroketones.
2. In ert gas agents whose primary compon ents are one or more of the gases heli -
um, argon, nitrogen, or neon. Inert gases may contain a sing le gas or a mixture
of the aforeme n tioned gases. Blends of these gases may also conta in carbo n
dioxide as a seco nd ary component.

Use Considerations
Given sufficient agent concentrat ion, clean agents may be us ed to extinguish fire in a
variety of liquid, gaseous, and solid fuels. The use of clean agents on Class A fuels and

(!) Storage container(s)

@Automatic fire detectors
@ Discharge nozzles installed in room
@ Discharge nozzles installed in subfloor area
@Manual release device
@Aud ible and visual predischarge alarm device
® Control panel
@ Air sampling detection unit (for cabinets)
FIGURE
20-1 Typical c lean age nt system installed in a room wit h a subfl oo r area.

313
SECTION 2: Bui ld ing Systems and Fire Protec t ion Systems

solid mat eri als generally should be limit ed to extingui shm ent of shallow surfa ce burn -
ing. Clean agents are n ot effective for fires involving ch emical s th at contain thei r own
oxygen supply (such as cellulose nitrate) , reactiv e m etals (su ch as so dium, potassium,
ma gnesium, titanium , zirc onium ), or th e m etal hydrid es.
Fires in solid m aterial s that extend und er th e surfac e of th e m ateri al, comm only
kn own as "deep sea ted " fires, pr esent a p arti cular challenge . Th ese fires are usually
extingu ished by reducing the fuel temperature, either directl y by applicati on of a heat -
absorbing m edium , such as water, or by blanketing with an in ert gas. The in ert gas
slows th e reacti on rate to th e p oint whe re heat gen erated by oxidation is less th an heat
losse s to sur ro undin gs. This cau ses the temp eratur e to fall below th e level necessary
for sp ontane ous igniti on after rem oval of th e in ert atm osph ere. The requir ed con -
centrati on for use of an in ert gas to extingui sh "de ep sea ted" fires in solid s mu st be
determin ed by an applic ation-sp ecific test.

SAFETYCONSIDERATIONS
General
On e of the prima ry advant ages of clean agents over oth er gaseo us agent s such as car-
bon dioxid e is the ability of th e clean agent to extingui sh m any fires at con cent rations
th at will supp ort hum an life. Noneth eless, th ere are p otential ha zard s asso ciat ed with
th e discharge of a clean agent system.
The clean agent s are discharged at relatively high pr essur e from nozzles design ed
to distribut e an d mi x th e clean agent with th e atm osph ere ins ide a pro tected area. The
potenti al hazar ds caused by th e high-velocity je t includ e:
1. Noise th at can be startlin g but ordin arily in sufficient to cause injury.
2. Turbu len ce th at m ay be sufficient to dislodge sub stanti al objects dir ectly in the
agent discharge path . En ough genera l tu rbulence in th e pro tecte d area to m ove
un sec ur ed pape r and light objects is typica l.

Cold Temperature
Any cont act with vapo ri zing haloca rb on liquid discharge should be avoided. As the
liquid vap orizes, th e tem pera tur e decreases rapidly and can cause frostbite burn s to the
skin . Because th e liquid vap ori zes r apidl y in air, th e hazar d is limi ted to th e area n ear
th e point of disch arge. The rap id decrease in temp era tur e m ay pro du ce a light fog as the
water vapo r in th e air cond enses, resu ltin g in a red uction of visibili ty.
The limit s for expos ur e (inh alation) of atm osp heres floode d with clean agent s are
given in NFP A 200 1. For halocar bon clean agents used be low their No Observed Ad -
verse Effect Limi t (N OAEL), maximum expos ure tim e is spec ified to b e no longer than
5 minut es. At con cent rat ions above th e NOAEL, m or e strin gent limit ations rela ted to
personn el expos ure are specifie d by NFPA 200 1 an d th e U.S. Enviro n men tal Pro tect ion
Agency.

314
 CHAPTER 20: Clean Agent Ext ingu ishing Syst em s

For in ert gases used at concentrations up to 43 percent (12 percent sea- level eq uiva-
lent oxygen concentration), exposure of personnel to the reduced oxygen concentra-
tion should be no longer than 5 minutes. For more detail on exposure limitations, see
NFPA 2001.
Unnecessary exposure to atmospheres flooded by clean agents should be avoided;
therefore, when possible, personnel should evacuate the protected space prior to the
discharge of a clean agent system .
Personnel who regularly en ter spaces protected by clean agent systems shou ld be
trained to follow the correct response procedures to system alarms and warnings,
proper evacuation procedures, system operati ng procedures, and the health and safety
considerations associated with agent discharge. Visitors who on ly occas ionally enter
protected spaces for brief periods of time shou ld be accompanied by personnel who
are familiar with the system and related safety considerations and will be respons ibl e
for directing a visitor's response in case of a system alarm or discharge. If the visitor
may not be continuously accompanied by a responsible person, the visitor needs to be
trained in the safety aspects related to the clean agent system.

SERVICING
The equipment incorporated in clean agent systems is highl y spec ialized. The agent
is stored in high-pressure containers . Pressures within the containers may be as high
as 4500 psi (310 bar) und er normal conditions. Such pressures are far in excess of the
pressures encountered in fire sprinkler systems as well as most types of water-b ased
fire protection systems; thus, qualification as a sprinkler fitter or fire sprinkler service
professional is not sufficient to service a clean agent system safely. Further, the agent
storage container valve and other release devices are designed to open rapidly and
quickly discharge the agent - for halocarbon agents, the contents of th e container will
discharge in 10 seconds or less. These conta in ers, if not prop erly secured and hand led,
can become projectiles capable of severe ly injurin g or killing people and destroying
propert y (FIGURE 20-2). Personnel with proper training and equipment to service th e
spe cific make and model of clean agen t system are th e on ly ones who shou ld be tasked
with these duties .

IN CASE OF FIRE
Mo st clean agent systems are equipped with predi scharge time delays and alarms.
When th ese alarms sound, personnel should evac uate th e space to avoid the hazards
associated with fire in the protected space and to avoid expos ure to p ossible hazards
assoc iated with th e agent discharge.

AFTER FIRE
After a dischar ge, the ha zar d should be inspected by speci ally tra ined perso nnel
equipp ed with self-contained breathing apparat us. Once it is determ in ed th at the fire

315
SECTION 2: Build ing Syst ems and Fire Protect io n Systems

FIGURE 20-2 This clean agent co nt ainer was not prop erly secured w hen an unq ualified
individual accidentl y o pened t he cylinder valve. The discharging cylinde r propel led it self
thr ough th e ceiling and roo f of the bu ilding and came to rest on the roof as show n in th is
pict ure. Fortunat ely, there we re no inj uries to personnel.

has been extinguish ed and the hazard secured again st reflash, th e space should be
purg ed of products of combusti on and clean agent. The meth od of purgin g th e atm o-
spher e will depend on local conditi ons. Provision should b e made to have th e system
servic ed and re charged by qualifi ed p ersonn el.
If th e prot ec ted sp ace mu st be return ed to operati on pri or to restorati on of th e clean
agent syst em to full operat ing condition , provisions for altern ate fire prot ecti on accept -
abl e to the facility owner and th e auth oriti es h aving juri sdicti on should be enact ed.

INFORMAL AND FORMAL INSPECTIONS

A clean agent fire system is a combin ation of fire extin gui shin g agent and electric al
and m ech ani cal devices th at mu st be regul arly inspe cted and m aint ained to ke ep the
system in good op era tin g conditi on. Form al inspecti ons must be p erform ed by spe-
cially train ed qualifi ed p erso nn el, workin g in conjun ction with th e fire inspector, at
interv als specified by code or regulation. NFPA 2001 pro vides details on th e frequenc y
and natur e of requir ed insp ecti ons (TABLE 20-1). NFPA 72®, Na tional Fire A lar m and
Signaling Code, should also be consulted for inspection and test requir ement s relat ed
to th e elect ronic detec tion and cont ro l unit s th at form a part of th e clean agent extin -
guishing system .
Betwe en form al inspe ction s and m aint enan ce, personn el mu st be alert for obvio us
conditi ons th at could imp air th e proper operati on of th e system in case of fire. As
part of the tr ainin g of p ersonnel in th e op er ation of th e system , personn el should be
instru cted to be alert for obvious conditi ons th at co uld imp air op eration of th e system
or indi cate th at the system m ay need m aint enan ce. Access to m anu al stations mu st
rem ain un obstru cted. Objects includin g equipm ent and partiti ons mu st n ot be place d
close to any sys tem n ozzle, wh ere the objects could possibly obstru ct or divert th e flow

316
 CHAPTER 20: Clean Agent Extinguishing Systems

TABLE
20-1 Inspection and Testing Guidelines for Clean Agent Systems

Verification or Test Frequency (See note A)

1. Re-evaluate the system and make any re- Anytime cha nges are made to the hazard
quired mod ification s to the syst em to retain enclo sure, configuration of equipment
th e intended performance of th e system. or partitions wit hin th e hazard, or fue ls
contained w ithin the hazard, it is the
facil ity owner 's/o perator's responsib ility
to arrange fo r reevaluation of the system
by competent personn el.
2. Thoroughly inspect general condition of the Month ly
system.
3. Check agen t quantit y and co nt ainer pressure Semiannually
(See note b.)
4. Inspect enclosure/hazard, check for change s Annua lly
to bot h.
5. Test supervised circuits. Annua lly
6. Test control panel. Annua lly
7. Test power suppl y including standby batt er- Annua lly
ies. (See not e c.)
8. Inspect, clean, and test detecto rs. Annua lly
9. Test time delay (if appli cable). Annua lly
10. Test alarms. Ann ually
11. Test auxi liary functio ns, such as venti lation Annua lly
co ntrol s, d oo r closers; verify fu nct ionalit y of
equipment shutd owns.
12. Test manual and automatic release devices. Annua lly
13. Inspect system componen t s, includi ng pip - A nnuall y
ing, nozzles, and support s.
14. Inspect system ho se(s). An nually
15. Test system hose(s). Every 5 yrs
16. Com p lete external inspect ion of co ntai ners. Every 5 yrs in accordance w ith Section 3
of CGA C-6, excep t that the cy lind ers
need not be empt ied and shall not be
stamped w hile und er pre ssure.
17. Perfor m hydrost atic testing of inert gas After a d ischarge, if mo re th an 5 yrs since
age nt co ntain ers; perform hydro static test last test or co mpl ete inspect io n.
or comp lete visual inspection of liquefied
comp ressed gas agent co ntainers.
a) Frequ ency is t he minimum recommen ded.
b) For items 3 throug h 17, t he actuat ing con t rols must be removed from the co ntaine r fo llowi ng
man ufact urer's instr uctio ns to p revent accidenta l discha rge.
c) Where engine-dri ven ge nerato rs provide po wer, more freq uent test ing in accorda nce w it h NFPA 110 is
requi red.

3 17
SECTION 2: Building Syst ems and Fire Protect io n Systems

from the nozzle. Tamper seals should

be in place on all manual controls for
the system (FIGURE 20·3). If the fire sys-
tem control panel is located in an area
frequented by personnel, they should
be taught to recognize tro uble alarms
at the control panel. These are examples
of conditions that can be recognized by
ope rating personnel and brought to the
attenti on of m anagement for immedi-
ate corr ective action.
Personnel should be instructed never
to bl ock doors or other openings in
th e enclosur e- in case of a discharge,
(a)
the clean agent will escape through the
opening in the enclosure and possibly
pr event th e system from developing th e
proper fire extinguishing concentration
in the protected space. If it is n ecessary
to be able to keep doors ope n for peri -
ods of time in or der to m ove supplie s or
equipm ent in and out of th e protected
space, doors sh ou ld b e equipp ed with
automatic door h older s interl ocked to
r elease th e d oo rs up on activa tion of the
clean agent system-personnel should
be in stru cted to use the au toma tic door
h old ers and ne ver block doors ope n.
A visual inspection of th e sys tem at
periodic intervals, weekly or monthly
depending on loca l conditions, should
be m ade by personnel who are train ed
to recognize obv ious imp airm en ts.
Items th at sh ou ld be checked during
this periodic wa lk-throu gh includ e: (b)

l. System con tro l panel power in- FIGURE 20-3Tampe r seals help ret ain safety pins
dicator n orma l. in place and serve to ind icate if t he safety pin
2. No abnormal (trouble or had been removed after the last inspecti o n.
alarm) condit ions indicated on A missing tamper seal sho uld be repo rted to
system contro l pane l. manage ment, and a reinspect io n of t he system
3. Nozzles and pipe are intact and sho uld be done at once .
sh ow no signs of damage.
4. Tamper sea ls in place on all manual release devices.
5. Cylind ers sh ow n o sign of physical damage .

3 18
 CHAPTER 20: Clean Agent Ext ingu ishing Syst em s

6. Cylind er gauges in normal (green) range.

7. Overall physical condition of system appea rs good.
8. No changes to the protected area.
If changes are made to the protected area b etween regularly schedu led inspections,
the owner/operator of the facility shou ld engage th e services of a fire protecti on profes-
siona l well versed in clean agent systems to reevaluate the system's adeq uacy in light
of the change, such as a reconfigurat ion of the space, or a change to the type of hazard
being pro tected. Some changes that warrant a reeva luation of the system include:
1. New openings in the enclosure boundary, walls, floors, ceilings.
2. Relocati on or addition of part itions within the protected space.
3. Additi on of equ ipment or other objects withi n the protected space that might
block the free flow of agent from the system nozzles.
4. Expansion of the protected space.
5. Reduction in size of the protected space .
6. Cha nge in th e type of equipment or fuels pr esent in the protected space.

REQUIRED FORMAL INSPECTION

AND MAINTENANCE
The requ irement that th ose who inspe ct and maintain clean agent system equipment
be prop erly qualified to work on the specific mak e and model of equipm ent cannot
be overemphasized. A comp lete set of as-bui lt system insta llation drawings shou ld be
availabl e to the inspector along with the system manufactur er's installati on and main-
tenanc e m anua ls. The inspector should also have access to and have studied all service
bu lletins issued by th e system manufacturer for th e insta lled equipment. The inspector
should use a checklist developed for the spec ific system install ation. The Bibliography
of thi s chapter contains references to publications that are helpful in developing ap-
propriate checklists .
Attempts by unqualified persons to perform insp ect ion, tests, serv ice, and m aint e-
nance of these systems are a cause of unwanted system discharges. Business interrup-
tion, cost of recharge, and unn ecessary hazard to personne l are som e of the undesirabl e
results of unwant ed discharges.
If cylinder reinspection is to be done (see the Five- Year Tests section later in this
chapt er), the insp ector shou ld be familiar wit h th e guid elin es related to cylinder in-
spection an d test criteria in NFPA 200 1, the Compressed Gas Associatio n (CGA) rul es,
and with app licable governmenta l regulations .

PERSONAL SAFETYDURING
INSPECTIONS
Inspectors should wear appropriate personal protection eq uipm ent. Depending on
loca l conditions and the type of inspection work required, personal protective equ ip -
ment m ay include safety glasses, hard hat , safety shoes, and hearin g protection. Hearing

319
SECTION 2: Building System s and Fire Prot ect io n System s

protection should be worn if inspectors are to remain in the vicinity of alarm devices
during their testing.
Wh ereas most clean agent systems are equipped with predischarge warnings, some
systems are not; also, failures of th e predis charg e warnings are possibl e. Inspectors
should be aware of the possibility of a discharge from a nozzle at any time. In particu-
lar, inspectors should never put themselves in the path of th e discharge from a nozzle .
It is generally desirable to perform inspections when the facility is not in operation,
with only personnel involv ed in supervising or performing the inspection present. In
many facilities protected by clean agen t systems, however, it is n ot possible to schedule
inspections during downtime. Facilities requiring clean agent protection are often in
operation "24/7" 365 days per year. Personnel in and around the protected area should
be informed of the inspecti on, provided with hearing pr otecti on if they must be in the
area where alarms will sound, and instructed as to the procedures to be followed dur-
ing the testing. They likewise should be instructed as to proc edures should a fire occur
while the system is being tested . If eq uipment is interl ocked with the system controls,
permission to activate the interl ocks and shut down (or start) the interlocked equip-
m ent should b e sought from the facility manag ement. If actual equipm ent shutdown is
not permitted , prov ision should be made to test the interlocks with the actual control
of equipment bypassed.

SEMIANNUAL INSPECTION
The pressure in agent storage containers and th e qu antity of agent in th e containers
must be checked at least onc e every 6 months. The quantity of hal ocarbon agent in
th e container may be determined by weighing the container or by use of approved
liquid level-i ndicating devices. If a liquid level- indicating device is used, it is essenti al
th at the device be approved for use with the particular mak e, model, and size of agent
storage cont ain er. Compensation for am bient storage temperature mu st be taken int o
account when using liquid level indicat ors. The quantity of n onliquefi ed inert gas in a
cont ain er is directly related to th e pressure corrected for temperat ure in the contain er;
th erefore, determination of the quantity of iner t gas is m ade by accu rately m easurin g
th e pressure in the container and correcting the pressure for temperature .
Ha locarbo n containers showi ng a loss of agent quantity exceedin g 5 pe rcen t or a loss
of pressure exceed ing 10 percent (corrected for temp era tur e) mu st b e reinspected and
tested accor din g to app licab le government regu lations and then refilled . Nonliquefied
inert gas agent con tain ers showing a loss in pressure exceed in g 5 pe rcent corrected
for temp erat ur e mu st be reinspected and tested accordin g to applicable governm ent
regulations and then refilled.
Any obvious signs of damage to a cylind er or signs th at th e cylinder was heated to
extr em e temperature (overheated) m ake it ne cessary for th e cylind er to be emptied
an d either condemned or requalified. Note that halocarbon agents must be collected
and eith er recycled or disposed of in an environme nt ally sound manner in accordance
with applicable laws and governmen tal regulations [see 49 Code of Federa l Regulat ions
(CFR) 180.205 (d), Pipeline and Hazar dous Materials Safety Administration, Depart -
ment of Transportation, United States Government] .
320
 CHAPTER 20: Clean Agent Ext ingu ishing Syst em s

ANNUAL INSPECTION
A comp lete forma l inspection, test, and maintenance of the overall system is required
at least once a year. The yearly inspection includes a thorough check of the enclosu re
for penetrations or other changes that adversely affect the ability of the system to de-
velop and maintain the design concentrat ion. If there is question as to the integrity of
the encl osure, it may be nec essary to perform a door fan test and compa re the results
with those obtained during the system's commiss ioning. It also incl udes an inspection
of the distribution system, wh ich is the hoses, pipe, and nozzles, for physica l damage
and corros ion. Nozzle orifices should be clean and free of obstructions. Hoses must be
tested or replaced if the visual inspecti on indicates any deficiency. Other components
of the distribution system mu st be repaired or rep laced if the inspecti on indicates any
deficienc y.
Tests of detection and control equipment, release devices, and anc illary equipment
should also be performed at least ann ually. Thes e tests inclu de th e testing of the ini-
tiating circuits, control pa n el, power supp ly, automatic detectors , tim e delays, alarms,
ventilation controls, door closers , eq uipment interlocks, and release devices (automa tic
and manual). If th e enclos ur e is eq uipped with pressure relief vents to vent pressure
build -up during a discharge, these vents shou ld be cycled and checked for correct
operation. If abort switches are provided , they should also be tested. To prevent acci-
denta l release of clean agent, it is essentia l that the system discharge be disab led during
testing of detection and contro l equipment.
Particular attention should be given to a system's automatic detection and controls
in order to elimi nate false alarms . A false alarm from th e detec tion and contro l system
of a clean agent system can be particularly serious. Whereas a false alarm from a fire
alarm system is a nuisance and is undesirab le, false alarms from the fire alarm contro ls
of a clean agent system can cause eq uipm ent shutdowns and disc harge of clean agent.
After th e inspection, deficienci es must be corrected and the system returned to full
opera ting status. A report on the in spec tion and correc tive actions taken should be
filed with the owner and appropr iate aut h orit ies.

FIVE-YEARTESTS
Every 5 years, all system h oses must be tested at 1½ tim es the maximum container
pressure at 130°F (54.4°C) or rep laced. A comp lete externa l inspection of the contain-
ers, in accordance with Section 3 of CGA -6, Standard for Visua l Insp ection of Steel
Comp ressed Gas Cylinders, is required by NFPA 200 1 every 5 years. This inspection in-
clud es checking the cylind er for corrosion, physical damage, and distortion or any other
defect that may indi cate the cylind er is unfit for service. The externa l in spection do es
not requ ire containers to be empt ied, and it is forbidd en to stamp conta iners that are
und er pres sur e. Rather than stamp ing the cylind er, an inspection tag on th e cylind er
must be comp leted by th e inspe ctor . And , finally, if a conta in er needs to be rechar ged
because of leakage or because it was discharged, th ere are governm ental requirement s
for reinspection and testing of the cylinder s th at mu st be followed . The requirements
vary by country and also by th e typ e of cylind er and type of agent.
32 1
SECTION 2: Build ing Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

BIBLIOGRAPHY
CGA-6, Standard for Visual Inspection of Steel Compressed Gas Cylinders, Compressed
Gas Association, Arlington, VA, 1993.
Fire Protection System Inspection Guidelines, Fire Suppression Systems Association,
Baltimore, MD, 2010.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Cata log for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 72®, National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code
NFPA 200 1, Standard on Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems

322
 CHAPTER

\.
21

PORTABLEFIRE
EXTINGUISHERS
Mark Conroy

Portab le fire extin guis hers are installed in occupa nci es to give th e building occupa nt s a
means of fighting a fire manua lly. Not all occupa ncie s are req uired to have portable fire
extingui shers. Usually, a building code , an occupa ncy standard, a fire code (NFPA l,
Fire Code) NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®, or an insurance compa ny req uir eme nt will
have a provision that stat es somet hin g sim ilar to, "Por table fire ext ingui shers shall be
installed in accor dance with NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers:' Onc e
it has been estab lish ed that portab le fire extinguishers are req uir ed, the inspector must
ens ure th at th ey are properly selected, placed, and serviced.
In ad diti on , the in spec tor should verify th at a training program is present if occu-
pants are expec ted to use portab le extingui sh ers. It is recommended that this tr aining
program in corpora te th e "fight -or- flight" approac h to usin g a fire extinguisher. A good
reference for suc h a program is a video produced by the National Fir e Protection Asso-
ciation (NFPA) entitled Fire Extinguishers: Fight or Flight. The int enti on of th e fight -or-
flight approac h is simply to size up a fire and determine whether it is safe to fight with
an extingui sher. Also included in this approach is guidance, such as never fight a fire in
a smoke -filled space, always fight th e fire with your back to the escape rou te, and always
make sure that someone is ca lling th e fire depar tment before attemptin g to fight th e fire
with an extinguis her. All of th is information, and more, is contain ed wit hin this video .

SELECTING EXTINGUISHERS
NFPA 10 defines five categor ies of fires, which are used to help with th e select ion of
the correct portable fire exting uisher for the expected condit ions. The categories are :
1. Class A Fires. Fires in ord in ary combus tibl e materia ls, such as wood, cloth,
paper, rubber, and many plastics.
2. Class B Fires . Fires in flammab le liquid s, combustib le liquid s, petroleum
greases, tars, oils, oil-based pa ints, solven ts, lacq uers, alcoh ols, and flamm able
gases .
SECTION 2: Bui ld ing Systems and Fire Protec ti on Systems

3. Class C Fires. Fires that inv olve energized electrica l equipment.

4. Class D Fires. Fires in combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, zir-
conium, sodium, lithium , and potassium.
5. Class K Fires. Fires in cooking app liances that involve combustible cooking
media (vegetable or animal oils and fats).
The size and type of portable fire ext inguisher is based on the amount of Class A
combustible materials, th e amount of Class B flammables, or, for some occupancies,
a combination of both. For many areas, the extinguishing agent must also be compat-
ible with ene rgized electrical equ ipm ent. NFPA 10 provides the following criteria for
determining the classification of hazards.

Light (Low) Hazard

Light (low) hazard occupancies are classified as locations where the quantity and
combustibility of Class A combustibles and Class B flammables are low, and fires with
relatively low rates of heat release are expected. These occupa nci es consist of fire
hazards having typica lly expected quantities of Class A combustib le furnishings. Also,
where flammable liquids are present, the total anticipated quantity of these liquids
must be less than 1 gal (3.8 L) in any room or area.
These occupancies may include buildings or rooms occupied as offices, classrooms,
churches, assembly halls, and guest room areas of hotels. This classification anticipates
that the majority of content items is either noncombustible or so arranged that a fire is
not likely to spread rapid ly. Small amounts of Class B flammables, such as those used
for duplicating machines and art supplies, are permitted, provided that they are kept in
closed containers and safely stored.

Ordinary (Moderate) Hazard

Ordinary (moderate) hazard occupancies are classified as locations where the quantity and
combustibility of Class A combustib le materials and Class B flammables are moderate, and
fires with moderate rates of heat release are expected . These occupancies consist of fire
hazards that only occasionally contain Class A combustible materials beyond normal an -
ticipated furnishings . Where flammable liquids are present , the total anticipated quantity
of these liquids must be from 1 to 5 gal (3.8 to 18.9 L) in any room or area .
These occupancies may consist of dining areas, mercantile shops and allied storage,
light manufacturing, research operations, automob ile showrooms , parking garages,
workshop or support service areas of light hazard occupancies, and warehouses
containing Class I or Class II commodities as defined by NFPA 13, Standard f or the
Installation of Sprinkler Systems .

Extra (High) Hazard

Extra (high) hazard occupancies are classified as location s where the quantity and com -
bustibility of Class A combustible materials are high or where high amounts of Class B
flammable s are pre sent, and rapidly deve loping fires with high rat es of heat release
are expected. Thes e occupanci es consi st of fire hazards involv ed with the storage,
324
 CHAPTER 21: Portable Fire Extinguishers

packaging, handling, or manufacture of Class A combustib les. Where flammable liq -

uids are present, the total anticipated quantity of th ese liquids is expected to exceed
5 gal (18.9 L) in any room or area .
These occupancies may consist of woodworking, vehicl e repair, aircraft and boat
servicing, cooking areas, individual product display showrooms, product convention
center displays, and storage and manufacturing processes, such as painting, dipping,
and coating, includin g flammable liquid handling. Also includ ed is ware housing of or
in -process storage of other than Class I and Class II commodities.

DISTRIBUTING EXTINGUISHERS
After the hazard classification of an occupancy has been determined , the portable
extinguishers can be distributed. Exti nguis hers should be placed in loca tions that are
readily available, provide easy access, are relatively free from temporary blockage, are
near usual paths of travel, are near exits and entrances, and are free from the potential
of physical damage.

Mounting Extinguishers
Most ext inguishers are mounted on wa lls or columns by secure ly fastened hang ers so
that th ey are supported adequately, although so me extinguishers are mounted in cabi-
nets or wa ll recesses . In any case, the operating instructions must face outward, and
the extinguisher shou ld be pla ced so that it can be removed easily. Cabinets shou ld be
kept clean and dry.
In areas where extinguishers may bec ome dislodged, brackets specifically design ed
to cope with this prob lem shou ld be used. In areas such as warehouse aisles, where they
are subject to physical damage, they should be protected from impact. In large open
areas such as aircraft hangars , extinguishers can be mounted on mo vab le pedesta ls or
wheeled car ts whose proper loca tions should be marked on the floor to maintain th e
pattern of distr ibution.
NFPA 10 specifies floor clearance and mounting heights bas ed on extinguish er
weight. Extingu ishers with a gross weight of no m ore than 40 lb (18.14 kg) should be
installed so that the top of the extinguisher is n ot more than 5 ft ( 1.5 m) above the floor.
Extinguishers with a gros s weight greater than 40 lb (18.14 kg) (except whee led types)
should be installed so th at th e top of th e exti nguisher is n ot more than 3.5 ft (1.07 m)
above the floor. In no case should the clearance between the bottom of the extinguisher
and th e floor be less than 4 in. (10.2 cm) .
When extinguishers are m ount ed on industrial trucks, vehicles, boats , aircraft, trains,
and other transportation mod es, specia l mounting brackets, available from the manufac-
tur er, shou ld be used. It is important to inst all an extinguisher at a safe dist ance from a
hazard so that access to the extinguish er does not become blocked by a fire.

Distribution for Class A Hazards

The NFPA 10 requirements for determinin g the minimum number and rating of
extinguishers ne eded in any particular area to cope with Class A fires are provided in
325
SECTION 2: Build ing Systems and Fire Protect ion Systems

TABLE 21-1. Sometimes, extin guishers wit h ratings higher tha n those ind icated in th is
table will be necessary because of process hazards or building configu ration. In no case,
however, should there be fewer than the minimum calcu lated quantity of extinguishers,
nor shou ld the maximum travel distance be exceeded.
The first step in calcu latin g how many Class A extingu ishers are needed is to deter-
mine whether an occupancy is a light, an ordinary, or an extra hazard occupancy. Next,
th e extinguisher rating shou ld be matched with the occupancy hazard to determine the
maximum area an extingu isher can protect. The maximum travel distance, or actual
walking distance, allowed is also specified in Table 21 - l. For Class A extinguishers,
it is 75 ft (23 m). Thus, a 2.5-ga l (9.5-L) stored-pressure water extinguisher rated 2-A
will protect an area of 6000 ft2 (558 m 2) in a light h azard occupancy bu t onl y 3000 ft 2
(279 m2) in an ordinary hazard occupancy.
TABLE 21-2was deve loped from Table 21 - 1 and summarizes what was in tended by the
first three rows of Table 21- 1. The followin g examples show how to place extin guis hers
in accordance with these tables, both of which were taken from NFPA 10.

Example 1. Determine the minimum number of extinguishers required for Class

A fires according to maximum floo r area per extinguisher listed in Table 21 - 1 given
a building area of 67,500 ft2 (6271 m2). The dimensions of the outside walls of the
building are 450 x 150 ft (137 x 46 m).
The maximum floor area per extinguisher for all occupancies is 11,250 ft2 (1045 m2),
according to Table 21 - 1.

Fire Extinguisher Size and Placement for

TABLE
21·1
Class A Hazards

Light (Low) Ordinary Extra (High)

Hazard (Moderate) Hazard Hazard
Occupancy Occupancy Occupancy
Minimum rated sing le 2-At 2-At 4-A*
extingui sher
Maximum floor area per 3000 ft 2 1500 ft 2 1000 ft 2
un it of A
Maximum flo or area fo r 11.250 ft2** 11.250 ft 2** 11.250 ft 2**
exting uisher
Maximum travel 75 ft 75 ft 75 ft
d istanc e to extinguishe r

For SI unit s: 1 ft = 0.305 m; 1 ft 2 = 0.0929 m2

"Two 2½-gal (9.46- L) w ater-ty pe extin g uishers can be used to fulfil l th e req uirement s of
o ne 4-A rated extin g uisher.
**See E-3.3.
t up to two water-ty pe extingui shers, each w ith l ·A rat ing, can be used to fu lfill th e requir ement s of
o ne 2-A rated ext ing uisher.

326
 CHAPTER 21: Portab le Fire Exti ng u ishers

Maximum Area to Be Protected per

TABLE
21·2
Extinguisher (ft2)*

Class A Rating Light (Low) Ordinary Extra (High)

Shown on Hazard (Moderate) Hazard Hazard
Extinguisher Occupancy Occupancy Occupancy
lA
2A 6000 3000
3A 9000 450 0
4A 11,250 600 0 4000
6A 11,250 9000 600 0
l0 A 11,250 11,250 10,000
20A 11,250 11,250 11,250
30A 11,250 11,250 11,250
40A 11,250 11,250 11,250

Fo r SI u nit: 1 ft 2 = 0 .0929 m 2
Not e: 11,250 ft 2 is co nside red a pract ical li m it.

A floor area of 11,250 ft 2 (1045 m 2) per extinguish er requires the extinguis hers to
have a Class A rating of at least 4-A for a light hazard occ upanc y, 10-A for an ordinary
hazard occupancy, or 20-A for an extra hazard occupa nc y, according to Table 2 1-2.
For this examp le, n ote that in sta llin g extinguish ers with hi gher Class A rat in gs wi ll not
affect distribution or placeme nt, because of the guideline s in Table 21 -2 on the maxi-
mum area to b e protected per extinguish er.
67,500 ft2Jl 1,250 ft2 = 6.
Six extingui shers rated 4-A for light hazard occupa n cy.

Six exting uisher s rated 10-A for ordinary hazard occ up ancy.
Six extinguish ers rated 20-A for extra hazard occ up ancy.

Placement of the exting uishers along the outs id e wa lls in thi s examp le wou ld not
be acceptab le because the maximum travel distance wou ld be exceed ed (FIGURE 21·1).
Additional extinguishers are needed , or new calculations need to be cond ucted using
extingui shers of lower ratings.

Example 2. Using the building designated in Example l , determine the minimum

number of extinguis h ers required for Class A fires when a floor area per extingui sher
of 6000 ft2 (557 m 2) is used.
A floor area of 6000 ft2 (557 m 2) per ext inguis her requires the extingu isher s to hav e
a Class A rating of at least 2-A for a light hazard occupancy, 4-A for an ordinary hazard
occupancy, or 6-A for an extra hazard occ upan cy, accord ing to Table 2 1-2.
327
SECTION 2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

450 ft (137.2 m)

21·1 Diagrammatic represe ntat ion of extinguishers located along outside walls of a 45O-ft x
FIGURE
15O-ft(137-m x 46-m) building. [The dots represent extingu ishers. The shaded areas indicate"voids"
that are farther than 75 ft (227 m) to the nearest extingu ishe r.] Source:
NFPA
10,2010,Figure
E-3.6.

67,500 ft2/6OOOft2 = 12
12 ext in guishers rated 2-A for light hazard occupancy.

12 extinguishers rated 4-A for ordinary hazard occupancy.

12 ext in guishers rat ed 6-A for ex tra hazard occupancy.

Extinguishers could be mounted on exterior walls or on building co lumn s or interi-

or walls, as shown in FIGURE 21·2, and conform to both distribution and tra ve l distance
rules .
NFPA 10 also allows up to half the complement of extinguishers for Class A fires to
be replaced by uniformly spaced small hos e [l. 5-in. (3.81 -cm)] stations . H owever, the
h ose stations and the extinguishers should be locat ed so that the h ose stations do not
replace m ore than one of every two ext in guishers previously used.

Distribution for Class B Hazards

In areas in which flammable liquids are n ot expected to reach an appreciable depth ,
extinguishers shou ld b e provid ed according to TABLE21-3, which was taken from
N FPA 10. Th e basic maximum travel distanc e to C lass B ex tin guishers is 30 or
50 ft (9 .15 or 15.25 m) as opposed to 75 feet (23 m) for Class A extinguishers because
flammabl e liquid s fir es r eac h th eir m aximum int ensit y alm os t imm ed iat ely, and thu s

FIGURE 21·2 Configuration rep rese nting 12 fire ext inguishers mounted on building
columns or interior walls, in which requirements for both travel distance and fire exting uisher
distribution are met . Source:
NFPA10,2010, FigureE-3.8.
328
 CHAPTER 21: Portable Fire Extinguishers

Fire Extinguisher Size and Placement for

TABLE
21-3
Class B Hazards

Maximum Travel Distance

Basic Minimum to Extinguishers
Type of Hazard Extinguisher Rating (ft) (m)
Light (low) 5-B 30 9.14
10-B 50 15.25
Ord inary (moderate) 10-B 30 9.14
20-B 50 15.25
Extra (high ) 40-B 30 9.14
80-B 50 15.25
Notes :
(1) The specified ratings do not impl y th at fires of th e magnitudes ind icated by these ratings w ill
occ ur, but rath er th ey are prov ided to give the operators mo re t ime and agent to hand le difficult spill
fires that have the pote ntia l to occ u r.
(2) For fires invo lving wate r-solubl e flamma ble liq uids, see 5.5.3.
(3) For specific hazard applica tions, see Sectio n S.S.

th e extinguisher mu st be used earlier . Lower rated extinguish ers comp lying with the
30-ft (9.15-m) travel distance are typically installed unl ess an exti ngu isher with a SO-ft
(15.25-m) trav el distance can be installed to protect more than one hazard .
Where two hazards are no more than 60 ft (18.3 m) apart , one extingui sh er select ed
from Table 21-3 with a 30-ft (9.15-m) travel distanc e can be placed between the two
hazards , as long as the 30-ft (9.15-m) tra vel distance is n ot exceeded. Where two haz-
ards are m ore th an 60 ft (18.3 m) apart, but not m ore than 100 ft (30.5 m) apart, one
extin guisher selected from Table 21 ·3 with a SO-ft (15.25-m) trav el distance can be
placed between the two hazards as long as the 50-ft (15.25-m) travel dist ance is not
exceed ed. Wher e two ha zards are more th an 100 ft (30.5 m) apart, each hazard is pro -
vided with an extinguisher with a travel distanc e of 30 ft (9.15 m) based on Table 2 1-3.
Wher e flammabl e liquid s are likely to reach an appreciab le depth, a Class B rated fire
extin guisher must be provid ed on th e basis of at leas t two num erica l unit s of Class B
extin guishin g potential per square foot (0.0929 m2) of flammable liquid sur face of the
largest tank hazard in the area .
Extingui shers selected to prot ect coo king appli anc es in which combu stibl e cooking
media (vegetabl e or anima l oils and fats) is pr esent must be listed for Class K fires.
Ext in guis hers list ed for Class K fire s are int end ed to be used in conjunction with
an aut omati c fire protecti on system. A pla card must be install ed that states that th e
fire prot ec tion system must be activ ated pri or to usin g th e fire ex tin guisher. The
maximum trav el distanc e fr om th e exting uisher to th e ha zard for Class K fir es is
30 ft (9.15 m).

329
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and I-ire Protection Systems

Distribution for ClassC Hazards

Extingu ishers with a Class C rating are installed where there is live electrical equipment.
This type of extinguisher contains an agent that is electrically nonconductive, usually
carbon dioxide, dry chemical, or halogenated agent. New water mi t extinguishers are listed
with a Class Crating becau se the}' use distilled water and pass the listing criteria.
Once the power to live electrical equipment has been disco nn ec ted , the fire becomes
a Class A or Class B fire, depending on the nature of the burning elec trical equipmen t
and the burning material in the vicinit}'.

Distribution for Class D lazards

lt is particularly important that th e proper exting uish ers be available for Class D
fires. Because the properties of combustible metals differ, even a Class D dq 1 powde r
ext inguishin g agent can be hazardous if it is used on the wrong metal. Agents shou ld
be chosen carefully according to the manufactur er's recommendations.
TI1e arnoun l of dry powder agent needed normally is figured according to the sur -
face area of th e metal plus the form of the metal, which can contribute to lh e severity
of the fire a nd cause the agent to "bake off." For example, fires in magne sium powder
are more difficult to put out than fires in magnesium shavin gs or ch ips, so more age nt is
needed for fires in magnesium powder. TI1emaximum travel distance to all extinguishers
for Class D fires is 75 ft (23 rn).

TYPESOF FIREEXTINGUISH RS
Listed fire extinguishers are classi-
fied into seven major t)'pes. These are
stored pressure water extinguishers, dry
,,,- Carrying
chem ical e;..,.1inguishers, halogenated
handle
agent extinguishers, carbon dioxide
extinguishers, foam extinguishers, wet
+--+-Anti -overfill
chemical extinguishers, and dry powder tube
extinguishers int ended for use on com-
bustible meta ls. _,___ Water or
Stored-pressure water extinguishers antifreeze
use plain water as the agent, wilh stored solution
pressure in th e same chamber as the
water (FIGURE 21-3).Loaded stream extin -
guishers are stored-pressure water -based
extinguishers that include antifreeze Discharge - __ Siphon tube
.,____
hose and
solutio ns for use in low-t empera ture nozzle
applications. An additive consisting of assembly
alkali -metal sa lt solutions-the loaded
FIGURE 21-3 Stored-p ressure water
strea m-is added to the water. These
extinguisher. Source
: t/FPA
10,2010
, FigureD.4
.1.1.
exti ng uish ers usually have a 2.5-gal
(9.5 -L) capacit}' and a rating of2 -A.

330
 CHAPTER 21 : Portable Fire Extinguishers

Dry chemical extinguishers are the {Nozzle

stored-pressure type or the cartridge- or
Discharge
cylinder-operated type (FIGURE 21·4 and ..--,--- ,ever
FIGURE 21-5). Dry chemical extinguishing -~~~...- Carrying
agents include ordinary dq r chemical, which ~ handle
is sodium bicarbonate- based; multipmpose 11~ Locking
dry chemical, which is monoammonium ringpin
phosphate-based; or dry chemicals with the
Dry
other base ingredients of potassium bicar- chemical
bonate, potassium chloride, and urea-based
potassium bicarhon,1t . Siphon
Halogenated agent extinguishers are the tube
stored-pressure type (FIGURE21-6). TI1ey
contain either Halon 1211 as the extin-
guishing agent or one of the halocarbon
agents. Halocarbon agents include hydro- FIGURE21·4 Storedpressuredry chemical
NfPA10,2010,figureD.4.5(J).
extinguisher.Sou1ce:
chlorofluorocarbon, hydrofluorocarbon,
pertluorocarbon, and tluoroiodocarbon.
When using this type of extin-
guisher in confined spaces, pre-
cautions should be taken to avoid Puncturing
lever
breathing the gases or vapors that
are released. The agent is very
"clean" (i.e., it leaves no residue), Gas
which is useful when it is used on cartridge
electronic equipment. Ratings for
halogenated agent extinguishers Drychemical
are for Class B and C fires. How-
ever, larger units may carry Class
A ratings.
Halon 12 11 has been linked to
the destruction of Earth's strato-
spheric ozone layer. The global FIGURE21·5Cartridge-operated dry chemical
extinguisher.Source:
NfPA10,2010,
FigureD.4.5{b).
production ofhalous is controlled
by the Montreal Protocol; cur rent
supplies of halons are severely limited. New installations of extinguishers where a clean
agent is needed are selected from the available halocarbon agents. Existing installations
of Halon 1211 extinguishers should continue to follow the requirements in NFPA JO
for .inspection, maintenance, and hydrostatic testing.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers use steel cylinders rated for 1800 psi (12.4 MPa) or
higher (FIGURE 21-7). T11ecarbon dioxide is stored as a liquid in the cylinder with
a vapor space at the top. When the agent is discharged, it vaporizes quickly, so the
range is relatively short - 3 to 8 ft (1 to 2.4 m). Carbon dioxide is a nonconductor
of electricity and is effective on Class B fires. Typical ratings range from 5-B:C to
20-B:C.
33 1
 SECTION 2 : Build ing Systems and Fire ProtectionSystems

Foam fire extinguishers are ei-

Pressure
ther the stored-pressure type or the gauge
cylinder-operated (wheeled) type and rca rrying
are intended for use on Class B fires handle
but are also eflective on Class A fires
(FIGURE 21-8). They contain an aqueous
film-forming foam or film-forming
fluoroprotein foam solution as the +-1- - Halon 1211
agent. 1l1e2.5-gal {9.5-L) stored-pres-
sure units are rated 3-A:20 to 40-13. Discharge hose
TI1e33-gal ( I 25-L) cylinder-operated and no22le
units, rated 20-A:160B, are provided
on wheels and are most commonly 14--+-- Slphon lube
used in airports and i.n factories and
warehouses.
Wet chemical extinguishers arc FIGURE 21-6 Halon 1211and halogenated
available in 1.5 gal (6 L) and 2.5 gal agent- type stored-pressure fire extinguisher.
(9.46 L) sizes and are rated for Class Sourc e:NrPA I0, 2010,FigureD.4
.4.1.
K fires (no numerical rating). 'TI1e
extinguishing agent is a solution of
water and potassium acetate, water
Discharge
and potassium carbona te, or water lever
and potassium citrate, or water and
a combination of these chemicals.
TI1ese extinguishers are intended
for Class K cooking oil Ii.res but are
dioxide In
also eftective on Class A fires. TI1e aCarbon
fluid slate
wet chemical agent is discharged
from the extinguisher as a fine spray
and chemically reacts with the fats Discharge
horn
in the cooking oil to create a thick
foam blanket (saponification), which
extinguishes the fire and prevents
reignition.
Dry powder extinguishing agents
for use on combustible metals can
be applied from an extinguisher,
a scoop, or a shovel. 'Ille metals FIGURE 21-7Carbondioxide extinguisher.
Source:
/JFP
A 10,2010
, Figu
reD.4.3
(a).
on which these extinguishers and
agents can be used are specified in
the individual listings and on the extinguisher label.
Examples of the different classification s and ratings of portable extinguishers
are shown in TABLE 21-4.TI1e proper application of the extingu ishers is illustrated
in FIGURE 21·9.

332
 CHAPTER 21: Portab!e I-ire Extinguishers

P TION, MAIN ENANC

HYO O ATIC ESTING
Inspection a.nd maintenan ce have
very specific meanings within the
context of portable fire extinguish-
r Carrying
ers. According lo NFPA 10, an "in- handle
spection" is a qu ick check intended
to provide a reasonable assurance Anti-overfill
that an extinguisher is avc1ilable,is tube
full)' charged, and is operable. This
consists of determining if the ex- Premixed
tinguisher is .in its designated place, solution
that it has not been actuated or tam-
pered with, and that there is 110 ob-
vious physical dc1mageor condition
that would prevent its operation.
"Maintenance;'in contrast, isa thor- Air-aspirating -
foam nozzle ~------, '--- Siphon tube
ough examination of an extinguisher
intended to give maximum assurance
that it will operate effectively and safe-
FIGURE21-8Stored-pressure AFFFor FFFPliquid
ly. Maintenance includes a thorough extinguisher.Sou1ce: NFPA10,2010, figweD.4 .2.l.
examination and any necessary repair
or replacement.lt normal!)' will reveal the need for hydrostatic testing. 111c manufacturer
provides specific inst ructions regardiJ1gperiodic examination and maintenance.

xamples of ExtinguisherClassifications
and Ratings

Description Rating
2.5 gal (9.5 L) water, stored pressure 2-A
20 lb (9.1 kg) carbon dioxide 10-B:C
5 lb (2.3 kg) dry chemical (ammonium phosphate) 2-A:I 0-B:C
10 lb (4.5kg) dry chemical ( odium bicarbonate) 60-B:C
10 lb (4.5 kg) dry chemical (potassium bicarbonate) 80-B:C
125 lb (56.7kg) dry chemical (ammonium '10-A:240-B:C
phosphate)
33 gal ( 125 L) aqueous film-forming foam 20-A:160-B
5 lb (2.3 kg) Halon 1211 10-B:C
9 lb (4.1kg) Halon 1211 I-A:I0-B:C
1.5 lb (0.68kg) Halon 1211/130 1 I-B:C

333
 SECTION 2 : Build ing Systems and Fire Protection Systems

For Class A types

For Class A, B types

For Class 8 , C types

For Class A, B, C
types

For Class K types

For Class D types

Note: Recomme nded colors, per PMS (Pan tone Matching System)
include the following:

BLUE-299
RED -W arm Red

FIGURE21·9 Recommended marking system.Source:

NFPA
10, 2010,Figu1e
B.1.1.

J\IIaintenance must be performed annuaUy by a servicing company or by a trained

industrial safety or maintenance person . NFPA 10 Annex Section A.7.3.2 offers a
list of over 20 items that need to be reviewed, checked, and noted during this yearly
activity.
NFPA 10 (NFPA 10, Section 7.1.2) requi res personnel who perform the mainte -
nance and recharging duties to be certified. This proves familiarity with the minimum
requirements for selection, placement, and servicing of portable fire extinguishers.
Organizations offering these tests online vary from national extinguisher wholesalers
to bui ldin g code organizations. It is important for the technician to make sure that
the certification program is recognized by the AHJ prior to taking the test. A letter

334
 CHAPTER 21: Portable I-ireExtinguishers

from facility management is used as the certification document for industrial safety or
mainten ance personnel (see NFPA 10, Section A.7.1.2.1.2).
Cartridge-operated, q 1w1der-operated, loaded stream, and pump tank extinguishers are
the only types that are required to be examined internally on an aimual basis. Extinguish-
ers with a 5-year hydrostatic test interval are examined internally on the same 5-year basis.
TI10sewith a 12-year interval are examined internallyon a 6-year basis.
Nonrechargeable extinguishers are neither examined internally nor hydrostatica!Jy
tested. 1 hey are removed from service 12 years from the date of mannfacture.
:Maintenance tags or labels must be attached to fire extinguishers to indicate the month,
the year,and the identification of the person and company performing the service. A sepa-
rate label is required to record information on the 6-year teardown requirement.
"Hydrostatic testing" is performed by personnel who have been specifically trained.
Untrained people should not attempt the procedure because serious safety hazards can
easily develop.
TI,e pu rpose of hydrostatically testing fire extinguishers is to protect against the
unexpected failure of the cylinder. ·1he test intervals for fire extinguishers are provided
in TABLE 21-5.
The cylind ers of high-pressure extinguishers that pass the hydrostatic test must
be stamped with the month and year of the test and the Department of Transpor-
tation identification number. Low-pressure extinguishers are not stamped, but a

HydrostaticTest Interval for Extinguisher

Extinguisher Type Test Interval (years)

Stored-pressure water,loadedstream, 5
and/or antifreeze
Wetting agent 5
AFFF(aqueous film-formingfoam) 5
FFFP(film-formingnuoroprotein foam) 5
Drychemical with stainless steel shells 5
Carbondioxide 5
Wet chemical 5
Drychemical,stored-pressure, with mildsteel 12
shells,brazedbrassshells,or aluminum shells
Drychemical,cartridge- or cylinder-opera ted, 12
with mildsteel shells
Halogenated agents 12
Drypowder, stored-pressure,cartridge- or 12
cylinder-operated,with mild steel shells
Note: Stored-pressurewater extinguisherswith liberglassshells(pre-1976)are prohibited from
hydrostatictesting becauseof manufacturer's r call.

335
 SECTION 2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

self-destructive label indicating the month and year of the test and the identification of
the person and company performing the test is affixed to the cylinder.
Inspection, maintenance, and hydrostatic testing must be carried out according to the
minimum requirements established in NFPA 10 and in strict conformance with the manu-
facturer'srecommendations. ]11eminimum frequency for inspections is at 30-day intervals.

RAPHY
Carson, W G., and Klinker, R. L., FireProtectionSyste111s:
Inspection, Test nnd Mninte-
11n11
ce J°vlnnunl,3rd ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2000.
Cote, A. E., ed., FireProtection1-lnndbook,20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
"Rating and Fire Testing of Fire Extinguishers;' Fire Protection Equipment Directo1y
(issued annually), UL/ANSI 711, Underwriters Laboratories/ American National
Standards Institute .

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 1, Fire Code
NFPA 10, Stnndnrdfor PortnbleFireExtinguishers
NFPA 13, Stnndnrdfor tile Jnstnl/ntio11
of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 30A, Codefor Motor Fuel DispensingFncilitiesnnd Repnir Gnrages
NFPA 32, Standardfor D1yclenni11g Plnnts
NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gns Code
NFPA 86, Stn11dnrdforOvens and Furnaces
NFPA 96, Standardfor \fentilntion Control nnd Fire Protectionof Com111ercinlCooking
Operations
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®
NFPA 120, Standardfor FirePreventionnnd Control in Con!1\tlines
NFPA 122, Stnndnrd for Fire Prevention and Control in Metn/!No11metalMining nnd
Metal lv1i11eral
ProcessingFacilities
NFPA 302, Fire ProtectionStandnrdfor Pleasureand Co111111ercinl Motor Craft
NFPA 303, FireProtectionStn11dnrdforMnri11nsand Boatyards
NFPA 385, Standardfor Tn11kVehiclesfor Fln111111nble and CombustibleLiquids
NFPA 407, Stnndardfor Aircraft Fuel Servicing
NFPA 408, Standardfor Aircraft Hn11dPortnbleFireExtinguishers
NFPA 410, Stn11dnrd011Aircmft Mni11tena11ce
NFPA 418, Stn11dnrd for Heliports
NFPA 430, Codefor the Storageof Liquid n11dSolid Oxidizers
NFPA 498, Stmuinrd for Safe 1-lnvensand Interdw11geLots for \fehicles Transporting
Explosives
NFPA 1192, Stnndnrd 011Recrentim1nl\lehicles
NFPA 1194, Stn11dnrdJorRecrentio11nl\lehicleParks and Cnmpgro1111ds

336
 CHAPTER

22

MEANS OF EGRESS
Ron Cote, PE

Chapter 7, "Means of Egress;' of NFPA JOI®, Life Sn_fetyCode®, 2012 edition is the
most impor tant, fundam ental chapter of the code. 1he occupancy chapters of NFPA
101 draw heavily on its concepts and detailed criteria. A stand-alone chapter on in-
specting the means of egress might be a cornerstone around which the life safety-
related portions of the Fire and Life Safety Inspection Manual (the manual) could be
structured. However, the occupancy chapters of the code specify a comprehensive life
safety package made up of a measured mix of egress, fire protection, building service,
and interior finish requiremen ts. Thus, no one should inspect onl>' the means of egress.
The occupancy chapters that follow in this manual correctly stress that the means of
egress is only a part of the life safety package and that the package needs to be inspected
as a whole. TI1e following sections in this chapter highlight !he facets of a life safety
S) Stems inspection that relate specifically to the ineans of egress.
1

INSPECTION TYPES
An inspect ion of the means of egress needs to be tailored to the purpose for which
the inspection is being cond ucted. TI1einspection might be for any of the following
purposes:
1. Determining code compliance with the egress provisions in a jur isdiction that
has adopted, for the first time, a given code-s uch as NFPA 101®, Life Safety
Code®.
2. Signing off on the egress portion of a new construc tion or renovation project
so that the certificate of occupancy can be issued.
3. Investigating the validity of a claim that the means of egress has been
compromi sed by building operators .
4. Ensuring via periodic reexamination that code-compliant, egress-related
features and systems are properly maintai11ed.
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

5. Verifying that egress -related code deficiencies that were not ed during an
earlier inspection have been corrected .

ALL- INCLUSIVE INSPEC IONS

Inspections conducted for the purposes of items l (determining compliance on a
newly adopted code) and 2 (signing off on a new construction or renovation project)
are part of all-inclusive examinations and evaluations that involve plan review, calcu -
lations, and the application of detailed code criteria. Such inspec tions are beyond the
scope of this texl. The preparation needed for all-inclu sive inspections should include
on-the-job trainin g under th e supervision of an experienc ed inspec tor, seminar at-
tendance, and extensive studying of reference materials such as the Life Safety Code®
Handbook.

REINSPECTIONS
Inspections conducted for the purposes of the above items 3, 4, and 5, which are all
basically reinspections, involve the following:
1. Preparing oneself with a working knowledge of the code requirements against
which the facility's means of egress features need to be compared.
2. Assuming that th e earlier comprehensive inspection, such as that conducted
for purposes of issuin g the certificate of occupancy, ensured that the means of
egress system was adequately sized (e.g., that its capacity does not need to be
reevaluated provided that other features and uses have not changed).
3. Allowing intuition and gut reaction to serve as cues for when to stop and pay
attention to a potential problem area .
4. Identifying egress uses, practices, elements, and systems that might have
changed s.ince the facility was last inspect ed.
5. Assimilating the effect that the changes have imposed on the overall level oflife
safety provided by the means of egress system prior to the changes.
6. Incorporating the evaluation of the means of egress system into the overall
inspect ion that will be complete only when it also includes consideration of the
fire protection , building service, and interior finish req uiremen ts required by
the appropriate occupancy chapters of the code.

FAMILIARITYIN INSPECTIONS
Familiarity with a given facility, such as that gained by having conducted the recent
periodic inspections of that building, will often make the inspection process easier.
The inspector who is familiar with a facility experiences fewer distractions by factors
unrelated to the inspe ction task. Observations can be more focused. An inspector who
has previously visited th e faciliLycan more easily identify changes caused by reuse of
the space, minor renovation s, or laxne ss in housekeeping.
The inspector, however, needs to guard against the complacency associated with
feeling too much at home within a facility. Also, a sole in spec tor at a given building
338
 CHAPTER 22: Means of Egress

might fall into the trap of focus ing heavily on subjects of personal int erest whil e
ignorin g eq ually important subje cts with whi ch he o r she ha s limi ted interest or
ex per tise.
An eflective inspect ion process migh t use two insp ectors on an alternat ing basi s for
one facility Each inspector would vis it the site often enough to retain familiarity , yet
no t so often as to lose the inquisitiv e drive tha t often accomp an ies a new assignm en t.
ln effect, the two inspectors would see thin gs through two differe nt pair s of eyes and
would evaluat e them using two different exp erie nce bases.

EFININ MAN 0 G ESS

1he mea ns of egres is everywhere, not jus t at the exit doors. It consists of the exit ac-
cess, the exit, and th e exit d ischarge. 'lh e exit access cover s the vast majority of the floor
area that serves the three-part mean s of egress. Jt is difficult to justify excluding any
usable floor area from bein g within the egress system . Thus , a thoroug h inspec tion of
th egress system ne essilaie. viewing all buil d ing areas that occupants can be expected
to occupy under both emerg ency and nonem ergency uses.

Inspect ion Walk-Throughs

During each insp ection, a complete walk -th roug h will typically be needed. Even if the
exit doors al the front of the building are correc tly maint ained in an unlo cked con -
dition, the insp ec tor should not assum e that the door s at the rea r of the facility are
similarly maintained . TI1e doors at the rear might no t be used on a day-to -day basi s.
They .ilso create secur ity p roble ms beca use they are not watched as easily as are th e
door s at the main entra nce. Thus, they are more pron e to being locked.
Jf the egress path s are maintained clear and unobstrn cted in one wing of the build -
ing , the in spector should not assum e that the egress path s in ano ther wing are similarl}'
maintain ed. ·n1e orderliness noted in o ne area migh t be the result of one individual's
or one department' s efforts and mi ght not reflect an enfor ced, facility-w ide manag e-
ment policy.
An eflective inspection of the egr ess system can be made only by phys ically tra -
versing the myriad travel paths availabl e to th e building occu pant s. TI1ese paths also
include those at the outside o f the building that serve as exit disc harge by con nect -
ing the exit to th e public wa y. An inspec tion co ndu cted in the summer in a locale
know n for its debilitating winter snow storms canno t acc urately eval uat e whether th e
exter ior exi t discharge path s will be kep t usable throu gh ou t th e year, especially for
tho se path s th at are not used 0 11 a daily basis but are prov ided exp ressly for emer-
gency egre ss.

Inspect ing Out-of -Sight Features

Some of the egress path s, such as those within exit stair enclosures, might not be used
on a day-to -day basi . The stair enclosu re that is not used regularly typically loses its
eflect iveness as an egres s path und er two scenarios. The space is seen by occupant s
as unneed ed, which leads to ii becoming a catch- all for the storage of items used
339
 SECTION2: lluilding System s and Fire Protection Systems

infrequently, or it becomes strewn with litter by occupants who make unauthorized

use of the area, for example, for smoking breaks.
Various building features that serve as part of the required means of egress extend
above suspended ceilings and cannot be inspected simply by walking through the oc-
cupied spaces of the building. A smoke barrier, if it is to do its job of preventing the
migra tion of smoke from one smoke compartment to an adjacent compartment, must
be cont inuou s so as to run vertically from the floor slab to the underside of the floor
or roof deck immediately above . 'fo perform a proper inspection, the inspector will
need to climb a ladder, remove a lay-in ceili ng tile, and check above the ceiling for
penetrations in the smoke barrier wall. 'D1e most common place to make penetrations
in a smoke barrier is above the ceiling, where cables and conduit are typically hidden
from the view of building occupants. TI1eabsence of penetrations in the portions of the
smoke bar rier that are positioned below the ceiling cannot be relied on as evidence of
barrier continuity above the ceiling .
Ad equ ate proof for con siderin g a doo r to be a fire door usuall}' rests with a lab el on
the door that attests to the door's listing as a fire door by a recognized testing labora-
tory. If the inspector cannot see the listing label from the floor, he or she should not
automatically assume that the door is not a fire door. Such labels might have been in -
sta lled on the top edge of the door. Limited ceiling heights might prevent the ins pec tor
from standing on a ladd er and looking down on th e top edge of the door. 1he experi-
enced inspector will, the refor e, carry a small pocket mirror to ascertain the presence of,
and informat ion contained on, the fire door label attached to the top edge of the door.

MEANS OF EGRESSINSPECTION
METHODSAND ASPECTS
Visual Observations
When inspecting the means of egress, visual observations alone are not adequate. If a
building feature is meant to be operated, the inspector needs to operate it. For example,
a seldom-u sed egress door located in a wall at th e building perimeter will often have
seized up within its frame in such a way that the average building occupant cannot
exert th e force necessary to free the door so that it can be opened.
Where a door has been equ ipp ed with delayed egress hardware, the inspector needs
to test the specialized un locking system operationally.

• Does pushing on the release device for 3 seconds initiate an irreversible process
that permits the door to be opened after 15 seconds?
• Does an audib le indi cator at the door begin to sound at the end of the 3-sec-
ond period to signify to the occupants that the system is functioning as
intended?
• Does th e door remain unlocked afte r it has been opened and closed?

TI1e inspector needs to confirm all these features by physically exercising the un-
locking mechanism, not just by visually observing it.
340
 CHAPTER 22: Means of Egress

Quantitative Versus Qualitative Evaluation

TI1einspector can often evaluate the open ing force required for a given door against
the maximum values specified by the code without having to measure the force with a
scale. To the experienced inspector, the door opening force either feels right or it does
not. However, where performance is suspected to be marginal, the inspector will need
to use more quantitative methods. An inspection report citing that the door opening
forces seem to be excessive will not be as convincing as one that establishes, for ex-
ample, that the 35-lb force (155 N) that was measmed during the inspection i in exce
of the 30-lb force (133 N) permitted b)' NFPA JO/® for sett ing the door in motion once
the latch has been r t racted.
The inspector, when visiting a factory where the placement of new manufacturing
equipment and mechanized conveyor lines has changed the egress path, might deter -
mine that the travel distance needs to be evaluated . In measuring the travel distan ce
to the nearest exit, the inspector might pace off the distance using an exaggerated step
tha t, th rough expcri 11 e, ha been honed to be an accurate indicator of 3 ft ( I rn). In a
warehouse, the inspector might make use of the fact that the columns supporting the
roof structure are spaced 011 40-ft (I 2-m) centers and might thus count the number of
columns encountered along the egress path. In an office setting, the inspector might
estimate the travel distance by counting the number of consistently sized, 2-ft (0.6-m)
ceiling tiles positioned above the egress path. Each of these methods helps the inspec-
tor to avoid having to lay a tape measure at floor level along the actual path of travel.

Role-Playing
111einspector needs to role-play so as to ensure that the needs are met of all persons
whom the code requirement s are intended to serve. For example, in checking opening
forces for a side-h inged and swinging door, the inspector sho uld steµ into the smoo th-
soled shoes of a small person with low body weight and should not assume the role of
a professional football linebacker with shoe cleats for added tract ion.
In role-playing, the inspector needs to guard against creati ng new requ irements that
are in excess of those that the inspector has been charged with using. In some cases,
the minimum requirements as codified might not ensure that eveq' possible building
occupant will be able to open an exit door. For example, persons with disabilities that
force them to travel by wheelchair might not be able lo exert the 30-lb force (133 N)
permitted by the code for setting the door in motion once the latch has been retract ed.
If the inspector works directly for the building operator and is given some latitude
to evaluate the egress system against the needs of the neediest occupants, a recom -
mendation to do more than that required by code might be in order. 'Il1e inspector
needs to keep in perspective the fact that codes, by their very natur e, are compilations
of minimum requi reme nts.

Timing of Inspections
TI1etiming of inspections depends on the use of the facility being inspected. For ex-
ample, when evaluating whether a nightclub, rumored to be overcrowded, is ~perating
341
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection S~•srems

with occupant loads in excess of the posted maximum, the inspector will need to visit
the fi:,cilityat night. An inspection dur ing the inspector's normal daytime shift will not
answer the question.
In another example, when determining whether the required minimum widths of
egress aisles in a department store are being maintained , the inspector should visit the
store in mid-Dec ember when it is stocked to its fullest extent during the end-of-year
holiday sales period.
In an atrium building that uses the balconies and walkways within the atrium as
part of the requ ired means of egress, a smoke-control system might be required by
code. TI1esmoke-control system becomes a feature that needs to be inspected as part
of a means of egress inspection. The inspection and testing of a smoke-control system
is complicated and time-consu ming. It is often done after normal business hour s when
the building has its lowest occupancy level. 'TI1epresence of building occupants typi-
cally is not needed for a realistic smoke-control illspection. However, where the system
is designed to rely on pressure differentials at barriers to control the migration of
smoke, it might be necessary to wedge a door ope n to simu late the etfect that an open
door would have while it is being used, for example, by 150 occnpants as part of the
egress path.
Not all means of egress leatu res can be evaluated by an instantaneous observation or
measurement. Sometimes an elapsed-time inspection is needed. TI1eemergency light-
ing provisions conta ined in NFPA JOJ® require that an annual test be conducted on
battery-powered emergency lighting systems for not less than 1½ hou rs. The initial il-
lumin ation level and a degraded level at the end of the 1½ hours must be measured. The
inspector will need to be present, at a minimum, for the beginning and end of the test.

Rank- Ordering Code Violations

The product of a good inspection of the means of egress is a report from which in-
formed actions can be taken . Code violations or deficiencies need to be rank-orde red
in terms of importance. A locked egress door and an inoperat ive light bulb in an exit
sign are not equal deficiencies; they have potential for very different effects on the safe
egress of building occnpant s. Proposed solutions, their estimated costs, and ana lysis of
the effect they will have on the overall life safery are additional features that will help to
make the inspection report a useful tool for change.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, R., Harrington, G., ed., Life Safety Code®Hmrdbook,NFPA , Quin cy, MA, 20 12.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

Sec the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of the current edition of the
following document.
NFPA JOJ®, Life Safety Code®

34 2
 CHAPTER

23
INTERIOR FINISH,
CONTENTS, AND
FURNISHINGS
Kristin Collette Bigda, PE, MSFPE

Interior finishes have been a significant factor in rapid flame spread for many of the
deadliest fires in the last century. Inspectors, therefore, must be constantly aware of
the different types of interior finishes that can be installed within a building.
Interior finishes trad itionally are considered to consist of those materials or com-
binations of materials that form the exposed interior surfaces of walls, ceilings, and
floors in a building. Interior floor finishes, specifically, are those exposed surfaces
of floors, ramps, stair treads and risers, and other walking surfaces, and may be
applied over or in lieu of a finished floor. Interior wall finish is the interior finish
of column s, fixed or movable walls, and fixed or movable partitions. Furni shings,
which in some cases may be secured in place for functional reasons, should not be
considered interior finish. Decorations and furnishings generally are not consid-
ered interior finishes but are handled separate ly. Furni shings are addressed later in
th is chapter.
Interior finish relates to a fire in four ways. It can affect the rate of a fire build-up to
flashover conditions, contribute to fire extension by flame spread over its surface, add
to the intensity of a fire by contributing additional fuel, and produce smoke and toxic
gases that contribut e to the life safety hazard and property damage potential. Control-
ling the type of interior finish in a building based on occupancy type will ultimately
increase the occupants' safel)'.

WALLAND CEILING FINISHES

Interior wall and ceiling finishes are the exposed interior surfaces of buildings, includ-
ing, but not limited to, fixed or movable walls and partitions, columns, and ceilings.
Types of interior finish materials are numerous and include some commonly used
materials such as plaster, gypsum wallboard, wood, plywood paneling, fiber ceiling
tiles, plastics, and a variel)' of textile wall coverings.
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

For proper evaluation classifications, assemblies of interior wall and ceiling fin -
ishes should be tested under conditions that simulate their actual in sta llation. If
they are no t tested under such conditions, the test findings may not be accurate. For
example, the flame spread rating of an interior finish material tested without the
adhesive that is actually used to apply it may be more favorable than it is when
the adhesive is used.
'The type and end use of a m ateri al is used to determine the fire test it will undergo .
A material that is used as a wall covering must have both a flame spread index rating
and a smoke developed index rating. The same material used as a drap e or a curtain
mu st be evaluated to determine its flame propagation res ista nc e throu gh a vertical
burn propagation test protocol. And if the material is used on upholstered furniture,
it must undergo an appropriate fire test for resistance to cigarette ignition. There is
no correlation between the three tests; thus, satisfactory performance from one test
cannot be used to draw conclusions about the materials for an)' other purpose. Car-
pets and similar car pe t-like materials canno t be arbitrarily app lied to walls or ceilings .
TI1ese materials may behave well from a fire development perspective when applied
to floors, but when they are either oriented vertically or mounted on a ceiling, many
will perform poorly. To be approved or permitt ed to be used as a textile wall or ceili ng
material, the material must be evaluated as a wall or ceiling covering rather than a floor
covering. Fire test methods and approved applications for textil e, expanded vinyl, and
foamed plastic coverings are addressed later in this chapter.

Flame Spread and Smoke Developed Indices

Interior wall and ceiling finishes are generall)' classified in accordance with the results
of actual fire tests, which record the flame spread and smoke development of the mate-
rial. Flame spread ratings offer a general ind ication of th e relative rate at which fire may
spread across the surface of the material; smoke deve lopment is the degree of visual
obscurity observed during this test.
TI1e tests used for wall and ceiling finishes t)1pically are measured in the Steiner
Tunnel Test, also known as American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E-84,
Standard Test lviethod for Su,fa ce Burning Charnc/eristicsof Building Materials, and
American National Standards Institute/Underwriters Labora tories (ANSI/UL) 723,
Standard for Testfor Swface B11rni11g Characteristicsof Building 1\tlaterials. In this test,
a 24-ft (7.3-m) long by 20-in. (51-cm) wide sample is mounted to the top of a 25-ft
(7.6-m) long "tunnel''. A gas flame is ignited at one end, and a regulated constant draft
is maintain ed through the tunnel. Flame front progress is observed through side win-
dows for a 10-minute period . Onc e the flame front pro gress ha s been charted, the area
under a time-distance curve is used to determine th e material's flame spread ind ex.
The flame spread index represents the relative ra te at which flame spreads across th e
surface of this material compared with its spread across the surface of inorganic rein -
forced cement board and red oak flooring, which exhibit flame spread indi ces of O and
100, respectively .

344
 CHAPTER23: Interior Finish, Contents, and Furnishings

TI1eflame spread and smoke developed rating is indexed into three ch,ssification
as follows:

Flame spread index Smoke developed index

ClassA 0 to 25 Oto 450
ClassB: 26 to 75 0 to 450
ClassC: 76 to 200 0 to 450

The smoke developed index is based on obscuration; that is, on the ability to "see"
illuminat ed exit signs, Smoke developed indices are derived from the flame spread
evaluatio n of the Steiner Tunn el Test. The degree of smoke obscuration is measured
by a photoelectric cell mounted opposite a light source in the tunnel venl pipe. Re-
duction in light caused by passing smoke and particulate is read and recorded b)'
the photoelectric cell, and this information is used to calculate the smoke developed
inde x. The num erical value of 450 was chosen a the point at which ihe means of
egress may become obscured. An interior wall and ceiling finish material with a low
smoke developmen t value should provide better visibility in a given egress route
than a material with a high smoke developm ent value. Given that the smoke devel-
opment value .is a cumulative measurement over the prescribed test duration, it is
based on both quantity and rate of smoke liberation, Some codes refer to Classes
.A, B, and C as I. JI, and III, but the flame spread and smoke developed ratings are
the same.
Occupancy classification dictates the permitted interior finish classifications. As
indicated earlier, the clas ification of an interior finish is that of the basic material
used either by itself or in combination with other materials. TI1ematerial should be
tested in exactly the same configuration in which it will be used in a facilit) '· NFPA
JOI®, L~feSnfety Code®, requ ires the use of specific classes of interior wall and ceiling
finish materials, which are differentiated by their allowable flame spread index, based
on consideration of their installed location within the building, the building's egress
paths, and the occupancy in question. Different classes of interior finish materials are
specified for an office area, for example, as opposed to an exit stair enclosure or exit
access corridor. TI1edifferent classes recognize that, when escaping a building, people
must move away from the flames while traveling through the means of egress toward
an exit. TI1eclasses of interior finishes that are considered acceptable within an open
office, therefore, are different from those that are required for exit enclosures. Paint or
wall coverings applied after the interior finish has been installed are not subject lo in-
terior finish requirements if the)' are no thicker than 1128thof an inch. However, such
materials would require a flame spread rating index if they or their applications pro-
duced significant flame spread or smoke development in and of themselves. Multiple
layers of wall coverings can contribut e to a rapid fire growth and should be subject lo
the requirements for the interior finish of the type of occupancy in which they are used
(FIGURE
23-1).

345
 SECTION 2: Building Sy,tems and rire Protection Systems

FIGURE 23·1DuPont Plazahotel fire. Rapid fire growt h was, in part, caused by the wall finish in
the room of origin. Sou
rce:LifeSafe NFP,\,
ty(ode®Hol/dbook, 2000,Exhibi
t l0.1.

Textiles, Expand ed Vinyl, and Cellular or Foamed

Plastics
TI1e application of textiles and expanded vinyl materials as wall and ceiling finishes
is truly limited. If the materials are rated as Class A when tested in accordance with
ASTM E-84 or ANSI/UL 723, they may be used as wall or ceiling finishes under any
one of the following circumstances:
• In areas protected by approved automatic sprinkler systems.
• On partial height partitions no greater than three-fourths of the floor-to-ceiling
height or less than 8 ft (2.4 m), whichever is less.
• Where the finish item extends no more than 4 ft (1.2 m) from the floor.
• Where previously approved.
Two alternative tests protocols now exist for evaluation of all interior finish materi-
als, including textile materials, expanded vinyl and some of the cellular/foamed plastic
materials. NFPA 265, Standard Methods of Fire Testsfor EvaluatingRoom Fire Growth
Contribution o_{Textile WallCoveringson FullHeight Panelsand Walls,is now a nation-
alJy recognized room -corner fire test to be used specifically for textile and vinyl wall
coverings. If the sample, when mounted as intended, passes this test, its use on walls
and partitions is permitted. An additional nlternative test for interior finish applica-
tions is NFPA 286, Standard lvfethodsof Fire Testsfor Evaluating Co11trib11tion of Wall

346
 CHAPTER23: Interior Finish, Contents, and Furnisl1in
gs

and Ceili11g InteriorFinish to Room FireGrowth.NFPA 286 was developed specifically

to measure the extent of flame spread and burning relative to the realisticallysized and
mounted sample, whether flashover occurs, the peak rate of heat release, and the total
smoke released throughout the test.
The application of cellular or foamed plastic materials on interior walls and on
ceilings should not be permitted unless fire tests can reasonably substantiate the
combust ibility characterist ics of the materials for the particular uses under actual
/-ireconditions. Cellular or foamed plastics may be used as trim if they do not exceed
10 percent of the wall or ceiling.

Trim or Incidental Fini h

Trim or i.ncidental finish applied to interior walls or ceilings may be of a Class C ma -
terial, even when the interior wall or ceiling finish is required to be of a Class A or B
material, as long as they are not applied to more than 10 percent of the aggregate wall
area. ·n1e purpos e of this provision is to permit the use or wood Irim around door and
windows as a decoration or as functional molding, because this type of trim would be
distributed uniformly throughout a room rather than concentrated in one area.

Fire Retardant Coatings

Interior finish materials that do not have the appropriate interior flame spread rating
can be modified by applying fire retardant coatings. These coatings must be applied iu
accordance with the manufacturers' instructions and should possess the desired degree
of permanency, remaining effective when in actual use.
Most fire retardant paints and coatings require an application rate three lo four
times greater than that of ordinary paints. The treatment must be reapplied or renewed
periodically, because the retardant's overall effectiveness could be reduced by regular
maintenance, washing, or cleaning. Fire retardant treatments should comply with the
requirements of NFPA 703, Standardfor Fire Retardm1tImpregnated \,Vooda11dFire
RetardantCoatings for BuildingJ'vfaterials.

INTERIOR FLOOR FINISHES

Interior floor finishes are the exposed floor surfaces of a building, including coverings,
that are appli.ed over the normal finished flooring or stairs, including risers. To obtain
a rating for interior floor finishes, the Flooring Radiant Panel Test Method is used. This
test method is also known as NFPA 253, Standard lvfethodof Test.forCriticalRadim1t
Flux of FloorCoveringSystems Usinga Radiant Heat EnergySource,and ASTM E-648,
Sta11dardMet/rodof Testfor Critical Radiant Flux of Floor CoveringSystems U~i11g n
Rndim1tHeat E,1e1gySource. The test measures burning that occurs on a sample. The
results are then converted into a value, known as the "critical radian! flm,:' of Watts per
square centimeter.
A Class I interior floor finish has a cr itical radiant flux of at least 0.45 W/cm 2, and a
Class II interior floor finish has a minimum 0.22 W/cm2. The greater the critical radi-
ant flux value, the more resistant the floor fii1ishis to ignition and flame propagation.

347
 SECTION 2: BuildingSystemsand FireProteclion Systems

Since April 1971, the federal government has required that all carpets manufactured
in the United States meet a flammabilit)' standard known as the Federal Flammability
Standard, FF-1-70 Pill Test, or simply the Pill Test. In the Pill Test, eight 9-in.-square
(23-cm-square) sections of a carpet are securecl in a test chamber. A methenamine
tablet is ignited and placed in the center of the specimen. Tfthe flame advances to any
point within 1 in. (2.5 cm) of the edge of the sample, the specimen fails the test.
The approp riate floor finish rating is determined by the way in which the facility
is used and the location of tbe finish within the facility; that is, in exits and corr idors.
Interior floor finish ratings apply only when floor finish presents an t11msual hazard or
where the floor finish requirements are specified based on occupancy type.

AUTOMATIC SPRINKLE S
The presence of an automatic sprinkler S)'Stem in a facility provides a degree of safety
that i incorporated into the interior finish requirements. 1l1e rating of a wall, ceiJ-
ing, or floor finish can be reduced by one level if a sprinkler system is in tailed in the
facilit)'· Although floor finish items are permitted to drop to a nomated material, in
no circumstance can wall and ceiling finish items be reduced below a Class C rated
material.

FURNISHINGS AND DECORATIONS

Furn ishings and decorations are not considered interior finishes when one is discuss-
ing flame spreacl characteristics. But these items can contri bute fuel to a fire in an
occupancy and are required under certain conditions to meet certain fire tests. Several
occupancies restrict draperies, curtains, and other loosely hanging fabrics. Only those
articles salisl11ing the applicable provisions ofNFPA 701, Standard Methods of FireTests
for Flame Propagationof Textiles a11dFilms, are permitted .
Upholstered furniture and mattresses also contribute to the fire loading in a fa-
cility. Depending on the type of occupancy in which the furniture is placed, it may
have to unclergo a fire test. Many different types of tests are available to determine
the fire characteristics of upholstered furniture . NFPA 260, Standard Methods of Tests
and Classification Syste111 for Cigarette Ig11itio11
Resistanceof Co111po11e11ts
of Upholstered
Furniture, and NFPA 261, Stnndard Nfethod of Testfor Determining Resistance of Mock-
Up Upholstered Furniture Material Assemblies to Ig11itionby Smolderi11gCigarettes, are
just two of these test standards. Depending on the way the occupants use the facility,
upholstered furniture may be required to meet a certain threshold for rates of heat
release. NFPA 266, Standard Method of Testfor FireCharacteristics of Upholstered Fur-
nit11reE.,1Josedto Fla111i11g lg11ition,provides the necessary testing procedures to obtain
these rates of heat release. NfPA 267, Standard Method of Testfor FireCharacteristicsof
1\tfa
flressesand Beddi11gAssemblies Exposed to Fla111i11g Ignition Source,provides the test
criteria for determinin g heat release rates for mattress and bedding contents. As with
interi.or finishes, upholstered furniture need not be tested if an automatic sprinkler
system has been installed in the facility.

348
 CHAPTER 23: Interior Finish,Contents, and Furnishings

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ASTM D-635, Sta11dardTest Metliodfor Rate of B11rni11g and/or Extent and Time of
Burni11gof Plasticsi11a Horizontal Possitio11 , American Societ)' for Testing and Ma-
terials, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM D-1360, Standard 'lest Metliodfor Fire Retarda11cyof Paints (Cabi11etMetliod),
American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTlvfD-2859, Standard TestMet/10dfor Fla111mability of Finished TextileFloorCover-
i11gMaterials, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM D-2863, Standard Testlvfet/rodfor Measuring tireMi11i11111111 Oxygen Conce11tm-
tio11to Support Candle-Like Co111b11stio11 of Plastics(Oxygen Index), Amt:rican Soci-
ety for Testing and Materials, West Conshoho cken, PA.
AST!vlD-3014, Standard Test Met/rodfor Fla111e Height, Ti111e
of Bumhrg, and Loss of
Weightof Rigid 'fl1en11oset CellularPlastics/11a VerticalPosition, American Societ)'
for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTJ\tfD-4549, Standard Spec(firntio11 for Po{ystyre11e
Molding and Extrnsio11lvfaterials
(PS), American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM E-69, Standard Test Method for Combustible Properties of Treated Wood
by the Fire-1i1beApparatus, American Society for Testing and Materials, \Vest
Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM E-84, Standard Test .Met/rodfor S111fnceBurning Characteristics of Building
Materials,American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM E-648, Stn1JdnrdTestMethodfor CriticalRadiant Flrixof FloorCo1ering Systems
1

Using a Radimrt Heat Energy Source, American Society for 'Jesting and Ivfaterials,
West Conshohocken, PA.
Cote, R., Harrington, G., ed., Life Safety Code® Handbook, NFPA, QuinC)',MA, 2012.
Cote, A. E., ed., Fire ProtectionHn11dbook,20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
"Carpets and Rugs-Notice of Standard," Federal Register,Vol. 35, No. 74 (April 16,
1970). Standard for the smface flammability of carpets and rugs (Pill Test).
UL 723, Testfor Swface B11mi11g Characteristicsof Building Materials, Underwriters
Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, IL.

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents .
NFPA 35, Standardfor the Mm111fact11re of OrgnnicCoatings
NFPA JOI®, Life Snfety Code®
NFPA 253, Standard Met/rodof Testfor CriticalRadiant Flux of FloorCoveringSyste111s
Usi11g a Radia11tHeat E11
ergy Source
NFPA 255, Standard Method a/Test of Sruface B11mi11g Clrnracteristics of BuildingMa-
terials
NFPA 260, Standard Methods of Tests and ClassificationSystem for Cigarettelgnifio11
Resistanceof Co111po11e
11t
s of Upholstered F11mit11re

349
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protectio n System s

NFPA 261, Standard i'vfethodof Testfor DeterminingResistanceof Mock-Up Upholstered

FurnitureNlaterialAsse111blies
to Ignition by S1110/deri11g
Cigarettes
NFPA 265, Standard Methods of Fire Testsfor Evaluati11gRoo111
Fire Growth Co11tribu
-
tio11of Textile Wall Coverings
NFPA 266, Standard lvlethod of Testfor Fire Characteristicsof UpholsteredFrll'niture
Exposed to Flaming lgnitio11
NFPA 267, Sta11dardMethod of Testfor Fire Chamcteristicsof Mattressesand Bedding
AssembliesExposed to Flaming Tg11itio11
Source
NFPA 286, Standard lvlethodsof Fire Testsfor EvaluatingContributio11of Walland Ceil-
i11gInterior Fi11islito Room FireGro,vth
NFPA 701, Standard Methods of Fire Testsfor Flame Propagation o( Textiles and Fi/111
s
NFPA 703, Standardfor FireRetardant Impreg1111ted Wood and FireRetardant Coatings
for Building Materials

350
 CHAPTER

24
COMMISSIONING
PROCESSFOR FlRE
PROTECTION SYSTEMS
1\ttatthew J Klaus, NISFPE

Commiss ioning of fire p rolectio n and life safety sysle ms can best be de fined as a qua l-
ily con trol process used to ens ure that the systems in place will function as intended.
Alt hough commiss ioni ng is com mon !)' be]jeved to be sjm ply the final accepta nce and
verification test for the various active systems, the commissioning process in fact be -
gin s before design drawi ngs are prepared or before grou nd is broken on a project. From
its inception on a given proj ect, the process is high ly administrative and procedural
while responding to and incorporating field ac tivit ies.
'TI1e commis sioni ng process is ai1ned at developin g a team of individua ls with vary -
ing ro les and responsi biliti es in the design, construction, and occupancy phases of a
building project. This is achieved by performance verification and is demonstrated
th rough inspection, testing, and documentation of these activities. The commiss ion ing
process varies from the trad ilional concept of testing and start-up, in tha t comm is-
sioni ng begins at project inception and con tinu es lhrough desig n, construc tion , and
proj ect closeo ut , and th en throughout th e facility's ope rat ions phase.
O ne of the final por tions of the corn missioning p rocess is integrated system testing.
Oftent imes, the integra ted S)'Stem testing tha t occurs at the close of cons truct ion is as-
sum ed to be th e ent ire!)' of"com missioning." ln some instances, this task can be deemed
"system commissioning: ' in the sen se of an acceptance test verifying th at so met hin g is
funct ion ing as desig ned, but it is no l a substit ut e for the comp lele comm issioning pro -
cess. NFPA 3, Reco111111e11ded Pmcticefor Jhe Co111111issi011ing a11dllrtegmted Testing of
FireProtection mid Life SnfelySystems, is very clear, however, that this is o nly one part
of a larger process, and without the approp riate app lication of lhe planning and design
phase steps, success at the integrated test ing and occupanc)' stages may be jeopardized.
NFPA 3 is a new document, having been issue d for the first time in August of 2012.

CO MMI SSIONIN G TEAM

TI1e com missio n ing process is designed to provide a se nse of organization and or-
der to the individuals asked lo carry on l the variou s commissioning tasks. NF PA 3
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

provides a list of potential contributors that may be involved in a commissioning

team . The list is not intended to require that each commissioning team be composed
of the individuals listed, nor is it intended to limit participation in the commissioning
process to these indiv idu als, but rather to provide guidance to owners so that they can
consider the appropriate p ersonnel ba sed on th eir project needs. TI1e commissioning
team may vary in size depending 011 the magnitude of a project, number of systems
involved, or contrac tua l agreements in place for a given project. For smaller projects,
such as a srnall retail outlet or restaun111t, there may not be a need to have 10 to 12
people involved in the process, as 4 or 5 people can satisfactorily execute the process
to a point where all of the goa ls and objectives .u·e met. Meanwhile, a larger project
such as a series of buildin gs on a campus or a hospital , with do zens of interconnected
systems, may require a team of rnore than 20 people with overlapping roles to com-
plete a project successfully.

Owner
TI1e owner of the property plays a crucial role in the commissioning process, because
the owner provides the guidelines for the project in the form of the Owner's Project
Requirements (QPR). TI1e QPR is intended to be the foundation of the project, as it
encompasses the owner 's vision of the project and the general direction for the rest of
the commiss ioni ng team.
The own er's role in the commissioning process is twofold. TI1e first objective of
the owner is to initialize the process by establishing the commissioning team. The
second key rol e that the own er plays is to provide review and approval throughout
the project. It is the responsibility of th e owner to review and approve any changes
to the QPR, cons truction docurnents, c01nm issioning team progress updates, and
the final commissioning report. In many instances , the owner does not have the de -
sire or technical abilities to execute many of these tasks, in which case a designated
owner's representative can facilitate the role of the owner. TI1is is typically addressed
in a contractua l agreement between the owner and the representative. \,Vhere a rep -
resentative is used or technical support is brought in to assist the owner, it does not
preclude the owner from executing the tasks that the owner has proficiency in, and
the role of owner often becomes sha red between multiple entities . Often, the owner
will want to stay involved with the administrative aspects of the process but will not
be comfortable with the technical review. In these instances, the owner's technical
support personnel will provide the owner 's rev iew of project documents and opine
on behalf of th e owner.

Commissioning Authority
TI1e commissioning authority (CxA) is the individual re sponsible for the execution of
the entire total building commissioning process. Most specifically, his or her role is to
execute the commissioning schedule and coordinate between the fire com missioning
agent and other parties involved in the total building commissioning process. TI1eCxA
will be the point of communication between all of the commissioning agents for all of
the building systems, not ju st fire pro tection and life safety.
352
 CHAPTER 24: Commissioning Process for FireProtection Systems

The Fire Co mmi ssioning Agent

The fire commissioning agent (FCxA) is the party mos! responsible for the overall
execution of the commissioning process for the various fire protection and life safe-
ty systems involved. The FCxA provides direction and oversight to the remainder of
!he fire protection and life safety commissioning team; therefore, it is critical that the
FCxA understands the various systems that arc being considered for the project and
has experience in the prop er execution of !he commissioning process. Because of his
or her oversight of the process, it is important for the FCxA to ma intain an unbiased
point of view and to identify and address all potential conflicts of interest with other
comrn..issioning team members prior to kickoff.
As Lhe de facto leader of the conunissioning leam, the FCxA is responsible for coor-
dinating and attending all fire protection and life safety comm issioning team meetings.
The FCxA will work with the owner to develop the OPR and to identify all commission-
ing activity responsibilities of the various parties involved. Although many of the tasks
that need to be executed in the com missioning proce will fall to other team mem -
bers, the preparation and execution of the commissioning plan is the sole responsibility
of the FCxA. TI1e FCxA also serves as the primary liaison between the commissioning
team and the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). TI1eFCxA is the party responsible
for compiling and submittin g to the owner aU fire protection and life safety systems
commis sioning document s required by the AHJ.

Installation Contractor(s)
Most commissioning teams will include several installation contractors who will be
responsible for the individual systems to be included in the project. In addition to install-
ing the individual fire protection and life safety systems in accordance with applicable
codes and standards, the iJ1stallation contrnctors must also comply with the responsi-
bilities assigned to them as part of the commissioning plan. This may include attending
fire protection and life safety commissioning team meetings, implementing training
progra ms, writing test plans, providing submittals to the FCxA, and illustrating that
the systems, as installed, function as intended in the OPR and sequence of operations
matrix. Attendance at commissioning team meetings is often critical for the installing
contrac tors, as this is the opportun ity to interact with other installation contractors Lo
discuss the interconnection of fire protection and life safety systems and their cmnpo-
nents. Although attendance at these meetings often pulls the contractors away from
their on-site responsibilities, it may prove to be a benefit to the construct ion process in
the long run, because last-minute testing and installation issues are often avoided.

Manufacturer's Representative
For common systems such ns standard sprinkler systems or standpipe systems, the
need for a manufacturer's representative on a project may be limited. There are, how-
ever, many instances with more technologically advanced systems or interconnections
between systems where the manufactur er's representative, active in the commissioning
process, can help keep a project on schedule and avoid costly testing failures at the
353
 SECTION 2: Building Syste111
s and Fire Protection Systems

fin.ii stnges of the construction phase. When nsed in the process, the mann factnrer's
representative is most crilicnl during the component and integrated testing portions of
the process. Oftentimes, general contractors and FCxAs will not have int imate details
about a product, which can lead to inappropriate seqnencing or connections. Con-
sulting with the manufacturer's representative about the capabilities and limitations
of the produ cts can eliminate these issues. The interaction between the manufacturer's
representative and the FCxA is especially critical for niche systems that use unique
technology or proprietary S)'Stcmcompon ents.

Register d Design Professionals

The registered design professional (RDP) is another comm issioning parti cipant, and
the number of RDPs involved in a project may vary depending on its size and scope.
Some RDPs are capable of providing design services for multiple systems, such as fire
pro tection sprinkler and fire alarm system design. Other projects may use a different
RDP for each S)'Slemincluded in the project. A qualified RDP should have comprehen-
sive knowledge of the design, installation, operation, and maintenance of all S)'Stems
he or she is responsible for. TI1eRDP will also, along with the manufacturer's represen-
tative, provide insight to the FCxA on how the S)•Ste ms that they are responsible for
should operate and communicate with other building systems. TI1eRDP is typically re-
sponsible for "stamping" or taking ownership of a system design. To that end, the RDP
will play a large role in the development of the basis of design (BOD) and will assist
with the development of the OPR. These documents rely on conceptual direction from
the owner and also technical direction from the design protessionals responsible for
the systems. One of the final responsibilities of the RDP is to validate that the systems
as installed and tested are consistent with the original intent of the system in the BOD
and are consistent with the approved drawings. Oftentimes, where field modifications
are required during the integrated testing portion of the constru ction phase, the RDP
must submit changes or addend a to the constru ction document s so that the documents
on file with the owner and AHJ are consistent with the field conditions . TI1isbecomes
critical as new S)'Stems are added, modifications are made, or a recommissioning plan
is established for the facility.

Construction Manager or General Contractor

The construction manager/general cont ractor typically gets involved during the com-
missioning as the construction schedule is being developed. TI1econstruction manager
will be the liaison between the various subcontractors and the FCxA. Rather than have
every individual trade report up to the FCxA, most commissioning plans will use the
general contractor as the contact point . Many commissioning pl.ans will incorporate
construction milestones into the commissionin g schedule. It is the responsibility of
the construction manager to track these milestones and noti f}'the FCxA when they are
complete and, in cases where they will not be reached in a timely fashion, show how the
etfocts ofmissinga milestone can be minimized.During the installation and construction
phases of the commissioning schednle, the construction manager is intended to rem-
edy deficiencies identified by the fire protection and life safety commissioning team.
354
 CHAPTER24: Commissioning Process for Fire Protection Systems

Once the systems are installed and operational in accordance with the project docu -
ments, the construction manager will sign off on the project before it is occupied.

Facility Manager or Operations Personnel

As stated above, !he commissioning process does not end when the certificate of oc-
cupancy is granted; rather the proc ess moves on into the occupancy phas e. TI1ecriti cal
role in the proc ess shift s to the facility or operations manager. TI1e facility manager
is typically on -site staff responsible for system upke ep and for the ramifications of
modifications or ad dition s to the fire protection and life safety scheme of the facility.
Facilities management personnel should be knowledgeable and qualified in the opera -
tion and maintenance of the lire protection an d life safety systems inst alled in their
facility. Facilities management personnel who perform or oversee the ongoing system
operation and inspection, testing, and maintenance (ITM) should be thoroughly fa-
miliar with the required and recommended operation and maintenance tasks. This is
not to say thnt the fa ilitie manager is required to perform a!! of the testing and main-
tenance on the system. Where these task s are conlracted out to an outside agency, the
facility manager should have an understandin g of what is required and the frequen C)'
with which the outside agency will be involved.

Insurance Representative
The insurance representative(s) is typically involved early in the commissioning proce ss
to provid e recommendations to the RDP and FCxA for inclusion into the BOD and
o ther project documents . TI1e insuran ce representative will provide assurance to the
comm issioning team. that the design is consistent with the insurance risk management
strategy for the facility. 'fois is why the inclusion of the insurance representative early
in the pro cess is important. It is possible for the RDPs to design a system in accor dance
with the appl icable design stan dards enforced by the AHJ; however , if the system is not
consistent with the insurance agenc)"s requirements, it may require redesign later in
the proce ss, which can add cost to the project and cause schedu le delays. The insurance
representative will also make periodic site visits during construction to confirm that the
systems are being installed in accordance with the BOD and construction drawings.
TI1einsurance repres entativ e should also be present to witness system testing as deemed
necessary by the FCxA and the contact between the insurance agency and the owner.

Authority Having Jurisdiction

A key player in the commi ssio ning process is the AHJ. In many cases, this will be the
local building or fire department , or perhaps some combination of the two; however,
the term AHJ is not limited to the representatives from the city or town where the proj -
ect is being constructed. It can also be a government agency, such as a transportation
department, or another stakeholder, such as a financial institution. The AHJ is typically
responsible for signing off on the various aspects of the commissioning process. The
level of involvement of the AHJ in the commissioning process may vary depending on
staffing and budgeting; how ever, it is important to include the AHJ in commissioning
355
 SECTION 2: Building Systemsand FireProtection Systems

team meetings at their desired frequencr One of the goals of the commissioning pro -
cess is to enhance communication between the various parties involved in the design
and construction process. 111isis extreme!)' important when it comes to communica-
tion between the design team and the enforcers on the project. It is also incumbent
upon the AHJ to provide the FCxA with all inspection, testing, and performance crite -
ria required for acceptance and issuance of a certificate of occupancy. l11is information
should be included in the project commissioning plan, because it is the final active
portion of the construction phase .

The Integrated Testing Agent

At the close of the construction phase, the integrated testing agent (lTa) plays the pivotal
role of executing the integrated tests for the fire protection systems in the project. l11e
role of ITa begins much sooner in the process, however, because much of the !Ta's job
involves preparation for the tests . l11e ITa is responsible for planning, scheduling , docu -
menting, coordinating, and implementing the integrated testing of the fire protection
and life safety systems and their associated subsystems. l11e ITa is responsible for con-
firming that the different systems communicate and function together as intended in the
original design; therefore, it is important that the ITa can demonstrate an understanding
of the operating components of all systems and subsystem s that are interconnected .

COMMISSIONING PROCESS
Planning Phase
As previously discussed, commissioning does not begin when the integrated system
test is needed, but rather it begins before shovels are in the ground . As an administra-
tive process, a large component of commissioning is scheduling and organizing the
events that will facilitate a successful project. To complete the project successfully,
the goals and objectives must be laid out in the form of the OPR .

Develop the OPR. l11e foundation of the commissioning process is the OPR. The
OPR provides the commissioning team with the owner 's intentions for the program of
the constructed project. This will include documentation of the size, scope, occupancy
classifications, architectural and technological features, interrelationship with other
buildings or facilities, integration of systems, and general performance criteria for the
project. l11e OPR can be considered the basis from which all de sign, construction,
acceptance, and operational decisions are made for the project . As evident from its
name, the OPR is primarily developed by a team of personnel representing the owner's
interests. It may include financial officers, facilities personnel , trustees, or other stake-
holders in the project. l11is is often the place where the architectural perspective for
the project is put on paper. Because it is the foundation of the commissioning process ,
it is imperative that the document be created in the predesign phase, so that the com-
missioning team members have a reference point as they begin to fulfill their roles and
responsibilities in the process.
356
 CHAPTER24: Commissioning Processfor Fire Protection Systems

1he co ntents of the OPR will vary depending on the size and scope of th e project;
howev er, there is so me general information that should be includ ed in th e OPR irre-
spec tive of size. The OPR shou ld provide a geographical footprint of the proposed proj -
ect ident ifying its location, height, area, and potential necessary infrastructure such as
roa ds, site access, and park ing needs . TI1is inform atio n will provid e th e com m.ission -
ing tea m with an u nde rstandi ng of the magnitude of the proje ct. Another func tion of
the OPR is to provide the com mi ssio nin g team with an und erstandin g of the use
of the building, wh ich woul d includ e the occup ancy classification, the anticipated oc-
cupan t load, po tential hours of operati on , and also futu re antic ipa ted expans ion of
the pro jec t. The OPR also provides the commissioning team with an understanding
of the applicabl e codes and sta nd ards for the project, and it provides a reference back
to the se documen ts as th e designers work on the various S)'Stems that will be put into
the proje ct. Th is is an important link for the co mmissioning team mem bers who are
responsible for getting proj ect sign- offs, especially for th e AHJ th at is enforcing th e ap-
plicable codes and standa rd s.
TI1e OPR is nut solel )' produced to document th e owner's intentions for the proj -
ec t durin g th e design ph ase, but also to outline many of the user functions of th e
facility and how th ey m ay necessita te specific trai ning req uir ements for both facility
personnel and respond ing personnel. TI1is may includ e operations and maintenance
requirem ents for th e facility, as well as integrated system functions that are critical to
day-to -day operations.
l he OPR is a dynamic document th at may require updating by the fire protection
and life safe ty commissioning team throughout the commissioning proc ess. As th e
design and cons truction processes are modified because of budgetary or design con -
straints, certai n systems may be eliminated from or ad ded to th e original design, wh ich
may necessitate a ch ange in the owner's needs . It is important that thes e changes are
captu red in the OPR, becau se thi s docu ment is seen as the foundation for th e adm in -
istrative process that is commissioning.

Commissioning Plan. TI1ecomm issionin g plan is the document in the commissioning

process that contains all of the procedures and processes necessary for a successful com -
miss ion ing process. Not unlik e the OPR, the com missioning plan should be updated by
the commi ssion ing team throughout all phases of the commissioning process. Whereas
the OPR is the foundation of the commiss ion ing process, the commissioning plan is th e
road map that guides th e work of the com mi ssio ni ng team tlu·ough the pro cess. TI1e
com mi ssion ing plan .m ay co ntain some of the general project informa tion and scope
information found in the OPR; however, the plan will provide more of dir ection for the
commi ssio ning process th an project information. The commi ssioning plan will create a
go -to so urce for co mmi ssion ing team members, because it will outline th eir roles and
responsibilities and the overall conunissioning sche du le. The commissioning sch edu le
will identify commi ssionin g tasks and activities, with th eir projected start poillts in th e
commiss ioning process and their du rations, and which com missioning team members
have ownership of them. W here these tasks require spec ific documentation, meet -
ings, field activities, or other deliverables, they will be identified in the commissionin g
plan. This would also include sequen ce of operation m atrices , testing procedures, and
357
 SECTION 2: Building Syste111s
and FireProtection Systems

neces sary training for facilities personnel and emergenq 1 responders. 1he establishment
of integrate d test frequ encies during building occupation may also be identified in the
commissioning plan. Because the commissioning plan is seen as an integral document in
the commissioning proc ess, it is often seen by commissioning team member s as a project
reference; therefore, the annex to the commissioning plan will typically contain other
project documents such as the OPR, the BOD, submittal reviews, meeti.ng schedu les,
specifications, ,md other documents that may be referred to frequently by com mission -
ing team members. At the end of the construction pha se, the commissioning plan is seen
as the final design and const ruction record for the comm issioning team and should be
presente d to the owner when the certificate of occupancy is granted.

Design Phase
Once the comm issioning plan, OPR. and other administrative and schedu ling- related
do cum ents have been finalized , the com mi ssionin g team moves to the design phase.
TI1e design phase is where the OPR becomes a living project in design drawings and
specifications. TI1ere are severa l do cuments and deliverables that are started during the
design phase and continue into the construction phase.

Basis of Design. One of the cri tical documents that is developed during the design
pha se is the BOD. TI1eBOD is a narrative report that provides descriptions of fire pro-
tection and life safety systems and their components. More importantly, the BOD lays
out th e decision -making thought process and logic used by the commissioning team
throughout the commissioning process. TI1ereport will describe the performance ob-
jective s and performance cri teria of the systems, the applicable codes and standards that
require them, and any alternative means and methods for achieving code compliance
in regard to these systems. 1his report also addresses the interrelationships between
th e systems and the sequence of operation as conceived by the system designers.
The BOD, not unlike the OPR and the commissioning plan, will be used as a ref-
erence for commissioning team members. It should identify all applicable codes and
standards that pertain to the design, plan review, test ing, and ITJ\IItasks required by the
A HJ. TI1e references to applicable codes and standards should include all documents
that provide requirements for fire protection and life safety systems . TI1ismay include
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards, building codes, specialized
codes and cri teria (heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning, Occupational Safety and
Health Administration, Americans with Disabilitie s Act compliance, etc.), and green
building design considerations that impact fire prot ect ion systems.
'l11e logic of the design team shou ld be provided in a section outlining the system
objectives and decision s for the project. This sec tion should identif) 1 whether each
individual system is required by adopted codes and standards, installed voluntarily, a
complete or partial installation, and if it is an addition or modification to an existing
system. The report should describe the criteria used by the commissioning team to de -
termin e performance goals for the facility. "Thismay include building occupant notifica -
tion, emergency respons e plans, special system features, methods for comp.letion ofITM
tasks, and other special considerations taken based on the OPR. Other considerations
358
 CHAPTER24: Commissioning Processfor Fire Protection Systems

for this report would include circumstances in which equ ivalencies (alternative means
and methods) were considered for one or more system design methodologies, int er-
pretations rendered by the A HJ, and any docum entation that may have granted a vari -
ance or waiver to part of the proje ct design .
The BOD also provid es the testing criteria to be used for ind ividual system accep -
tance testing and for integrated system tests. 1he procedures and methodologies for
initial and final integrat ed testing sho uld be outlined in the BOD and doc ument ed
for i11clusion in the comm issio nin g plan .
T11e BOD is intended to prov ide the comm issioning team's thought processes and
decision -ma king processe s in narrative for m. TI1e BOD should describe the criteria
used by the commissioning team to determ ine performance objectives for the various
fire prote ct ion and life safety systems proposed for the project. Providing this logic
is crit ical for facility managers using the systems on a day -to -day basis and for ret -
rocon11nissio11ing and recom mis sioning teams that may need to modi fy systems or
interco nnect new buildin g systems at some point.

Design Method ology. 'Ille project design metho dology should include proje ct
documenta tion demon stratin g how the systems operate and communicat e to meet the
performance goals and objectives for the facility. Detailed system drawin gs should be
provided to demonstrate the specific application of the individu al fire prot ectio n systems
used in construction and any spec ific requirements for the interconne ction of systems.
T11e methodology should highlight the locations of the fire pro tection systems and
procedures for verification of the system performan ce and installation . T11emethodol -
ogy applies to both active and passive fire protection systems. It should also assign the
respons ibilities for [TM tasks related to fire pro tection systems during the design phase.

Construction Phase
'Ille constru ction phase is the phase in which the commission ing plan is physically enact-
ed in the field. TI1ecommi ssioning plan established in the design phase is used to guide
the commissioning team through the construction phase. TI1einception of the con struc -
tion phase is import ant to confir m that the commissioning schedule and other design
documents are still valid for the project. 'This wo uld include submi ttals, working plan s,
and product specifications. If dwnges need to be made to any of these documents, they
should be updated prior to the commencement of construction. After the commission -
ing team members have determined that the documentatio n is appropriate, they must
verify that the materials const ru ct ion and installation processes being implemented are
in conformance with the BOD. This will be accomplished via a series of fire protection
and life safety commissioning team meetings, field inspections, and progress reports.

Construction Inspections. Co nstruc tion inspections becom e a crit ical part of the
com missionin g process, beca use they are the measuring slick for the implementa -
tion of the commissioning plan. A preconstruction meeting should be h eld betw een
the commiss ionin g team and all contractors and subcon tra ctor s who are responsible
for the ins tallation of fire protection and life safety systems. It is imperative that all
pa rties involved underst an d the schedule, proc edures, and process as outlined in
359
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

the commissioning plan. This initial preconstruction meeting should identify the
construction inspection process and schedule. Typically, construction inspections
will happen in two parts of the construction process: the rough-in phase and the
finish phase.
The rough-in phase is inten ded to be an inspection prior to the concealment of sys-
tem components in walls and ceilings. Once these systems are concealed, inspection
becomes very difficult, and any req uired remediation can become extremely cost!}', be-
cause it requires the demolition of building assemblies. The rough -in inspection should
be used to verify that ins talla tion is proceeding in accordance with the approved shop
drawings and commissioning plan. The status of constrnction should be documented
and delivered to th e commissionin g team via inspection progress reports . The pro gress
reports should identify the progress of construction compared with the commissioning
schedule and any deficiencies noted in the field compared with project documentation .
All deficien cies noted during the rough-in inspections should be reported to the com-
missionin g tea m and discussed at com missioning team m eetings so that a remediation
plan can be put in place. "D1e number of rough -in inspect ions will vary depending
on the size of the project and phasing of construction. For smaller projects, a single
rough-in inspection may be appropriate. For larger projects, where phase construc-
tion is used, it is conceivable to have numerous rough-in inspections. TI1is is often
done on a floor-by-floor basis for high-rise buildings or building -by-building basis for
cam pus-type facilities.
Once the systems have been concealed, the next inspection phase is the finish phase.
TI1e finish phase will typically occur at approximately 90 percent completion of the
construction process . TI1e inspe ctions should be conducted to ensure that the final
S}'Steminstallation is consistent with the commissioning plan and BOD. Similar to the
rough-in inspections, the number and frequency of the inspection s will vary based on
the size of the project. Based on the progress reports submitted for the finish phase
and the remediation of any noted deficiencies, a final finish phase commissioning
progress report should indicate tha t the installation of fire protection and life safety
systems is consistent with the basis of design, OPR, and commissioning plan.

Documentation. Because the commissioning process is highly administrative, docu -

mentation of the activities in the commissioning proc ess is critical. NFPA 3 provides
12 sample forms that can be used to assist in project documentation during the com -
missioning process. Commissioning teams are encouraged to develop forms and
checklists that allow the tracking of progress and project milestones in an efficient
manner. A sample commissioning submittal/approval form from the Annex ofNFPA 3
is shown in FIGURE 24-1.This submittal form is used for tra cking purposes to docu -
ment the transmittal of project information if the com missioning plan and BOD have
been followed. Another sample form is a commissioning progress report (FIGURE 24-2).
TI1is project progress report can be used by multiple members of the commissioning
team and should be submitted to the FCxA prior to commissioning team meetings.
T11eprogr ess reports, whether in the design or the construction phase, will allow the
FCxA to track project goals and modify the commissioning plan and schedule as nec -
essary, based on issues being brought forth by team members . TI1e number of forms
360
 CHAPTER24 : Commissioning Process for FireProtection Systems

COMMISSIONING SUBMITTA L/ APPROVAL

Pr oj ect: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ Submitt a..lNo .: _ _____ _ _ _

0 New O HesuLmitl al

Fr om (init ial ly): _ _ _ _ ______ _ _ _ _ _ 'l'o: _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _

E'qu .iprncnl / !:iys le m name: ID #:

Cx Secti on No: _ _ __ __ _ __ _

Su bmitt a l 'l'ype:
0 Docum entn lio.1.1 be):____
(d E'$CTi _ _ _ __ _ _ _ ___ _ ___ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

0 Fw1ction9I teat proc«lu r-eforms: _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ ___ __ _ __ _ _ _ __ _

Compl ete d fun ctiona l test procedur e record or r(lport: __ __ __ _ _ _ ____ _ _ __ _ _ _
U PrefunctionoJ theck1ist: _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ __ __ _ ___ _ _
D S t ar t up a nfl ln it in l <'h ('('kOul form s: _ _ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _

Compl eted sta rtu p docum ent a tion or re port : _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ _ __ _

Submi ssions/ Returns

Pulh To: To: To: To: To:
Fr om (in iti al ly): from : From ; F'rom: From:

Comments by
submitter

0 No!es attached U Nut,es fltli:tch- cd a Nol es nttached o N otes ott i:u:hed 0 Nota ott acfo:d

<:01)ies
Su hmitt et
signature
Title
Da te
Code

Submit ti ng Code s : 1 =- Initial s ulm1illu1:T b e :itt n h('<'I1m Lmittal ha.3L'ft."n l"t'"view-i:-d

, :rnd rh e ('quipment, docu ment ! , or
performunce reprC"
sented comJ{)· \,ith the corre<-l ,loru ments .
A ::: A1Jµto,,«J ru coruply in~ with th e ro nfr a d documuts .
C = Xole ro rrt",;li On.s. App n;\"E'fl, hut need lo ..;s uhmit for th,e rECOrd , :1n r corr t:'('ting .
NA = Nol occiepla.Me-.Reru.bm.i
ttal rtqu in--dfoy n: \i e•w.

020 11 f,lational Flra Pro:ect,on As.soci.3'5on NFPA3

FIGURE
24-1Commissioning Submittal/ Approval Form. Source: NFPA3,
Ann (a).
ex,FigureCl.4

and check lists used by the com missioning team will vary depe nd ing on the size of the
projec t that the team is working on and the organ izational and adm in istrative schemes
used by the commiss ionin g te.im . The forms presented in this chapter are ju st sample
forms and can be tailored to better su it a project's specific goa ls and needs.

Acceptance Testing. In add ition to inspecting the iJlStallation of the passive and ac-
tive fire protection and life safe ty systems, the constrnction phase also contai ns system
36l
 SECTION 2: Building Syste1ns and FireProtectionSystems

COMMISSIONING PROGR ESS REPORT

Projc-ct:_ ____ _ _ _ __ _ _ ____ __ _ ___ _ D,lh •: __ _ _ _ _ _

Prepared hy: __ _ ___ _ _ _ Report in g J)f1i(1d: _ __ _ _ _ Repo rt #: __ ___ _

Commi ssi un ing t;J ...

.,ks ,n) rk cd on in CX'la.st r epo rt an d ge neral prn ;,,ri·1:-..;:_ __ ___ _ _ __ __ _ _

Areas \\·here ~ched ul e is not hei n,-::met :___ _ _ _ ___ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ _ _

Rccouum:nd od a ctions: _ _ __ __ _ __ ___ __ _ ___ _ _____ _ _ _ _

Ucqu~slcd scl1C'dule adj ustm ent s: __ __ __ ____ __ _ __ _ _ _ __ __ __ _

Nc-st stepa:__ ____ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ ____ _

Oth er comm enl.'i (include genera l comm nts nnd field note.=;):
______ _ _ __ ____ __ _

I ssues log a ttochetl. o Ye.,;: No

Commiss-ioniog Agmt

0 201 1 Mat<Qna
l F11ePtolec l:00 Assoc/.3tlon NFPA3

24·2 Commissioning Progress Report. Source:

FIGURE t!FPA
3,Ann
ex,figure
C.1.4
(di.

acceptance testing. The testing of fire protection and life safety systems should be con-
sistent with the applicable design standards and with the specific directions provided in
the project documentation. Fire protection systems, typically passive, that do not have
mechanical operating components should be visually inspected for conformance with
the BOD and the manufacturer's installation requirements. All acceptance tests and
visual inspections shou ld be documented, and alJ deficiencies should be identified
and corrected by the responsible part)' of the commission ing team.
362
 CHAPTER 24: CommissioningProcess for FireProtection Systems

Integrated System Testing , Integrated system testing is one of the final activities in
the construction phase and the activity most common !}' linked to the commissioning
process . The design standards for the individual fire protection and life safety systems
(NFPA 13, Standardfor the Installation of Sprinkler Systems;NFPA 72®,National Fire
Alarm and Signaling Code; NFPA 96, Standard for \!e11tilationControl and Fire Pro-
tection of Commercial Cooking Operations; etc.) provide acceptance testing for the
individual systems and their components; however, these documents cannot provide
testing criteria or testing requirements for integrnted system tests, as it has never been
considered part of their scope. Since no specific consideration concerning commission
was ever contemplated in these standards, many individuals have substituted the term
"commissioning" for any integrated test not covered by a design standard . In these in -
stances, 90 percent of the commissioning process has been ignored, and an integrated
test has been carried out as a substitute for "system commissioninf '
NFPA 3 now provides direction with regard to integrated system testing as a commis -
sioning task. Tl1e integrate d test format and test plans are determined by the commis-
sioning team during the design phase and implemented prior to building occupancy.
The responsib ility of executing the integrated tests falls to the lTa. Integrated system
testing can be difficult, because certain systems have components that operate alone for
one purpose and integrate with other systems for another. It is important that the ITa
understands how each system component is intended to act based on a specific build-
ing event. The ITa is responsible for planning, scheduling, documenting, coordinating,
and implementing the integrated testing plan.
Once the building is occupied, it is important that future building modifications or
additions do not negatively affect the interconnection of building systems. TI1erefore,
it is important to establish an ongoing integrated testing frequency. Oftentimes, the
frequency is not stated by number of years but rather by an event that may occur in
the facility. vVhere new components are added to a system or new systems in total are
added to a building, it may be necessary to conduct an integrated test for all of the
systems affected. Where modifications to a building program or occupancy classifica-
tion necessitate the need for changes to the sequence of operations, it may be prudent
to institute an integrated test. TI1ese triggers should be outlined in the commissioning
plan so that facility management personnel understand the implications and ramifica-
tions of modifying building systems . Other triggers that may require the need for an
integrated systems test would be false or repeated failures of system components noted
by facilities personnel. Without the presence of a building activity or trigger requiring
an integrated test, some commissioning plans will cite a frequency (5 years, 10 years,
etc.) where an integrated test must be conducted irrespective of building or system
changes . For buildings that have not been commissioned, retrocommissioning plans
can be developed to incorporate an integrated testing program with specific activities
and triggers based on the function of the facility.

Occupancy Phase
Although the majority of commissioning -related activities and tasks occur prior to
building occupation, once the building is occupied, certain commissioning activities
363
 SECTION 2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

still take place. Facility management personnel are responsible for maintaining and
executing tasks identified in the commissioning plan and in the operations and main -
tenance manuals for the property. These plans and manuals may require modification
based on events that occur at the facility, such as equipment failures, fire events, fail-
ure s in sequence of operation, and cha nges in the building function. As new building
systems are added or existing systems are modified, the effects of the addition s or
modifi cation s mu st be qualified within the commissioning clornmentation. An un-
derstanding of the building's history provided by such documentation will be crit ical
when recommi sioning and retro commissioning activi ties commence.

Retrocommi s ioning nd Recommissioning. Retrocomm issioning is the im -

plementation of the commissioning process into an existing building or facility that
has not been formally commissioned. Retrocommissioning is one way to establish a
benchmark of the building systems and their interconn ectivity. Typical ly, buildings or
facilities und ergoing a retro com missioning process are older and have deficiencies that
have existed for many years. 1herefore, the comm issioning plan implemented for an
existing building may vary greatly from that of a commissioning plan established for
new construc tion. The retrocommissioni ng plan should be developed from a survey
or field evaluation of the fire prote ction and life safety S)'Stems installed in the facility.
This field survey will oftentimes be conduc ted in parallel with a review of facility dorn-
mentation when it is availab le. In many cases, original des ign documentation may not
be available to the commissioning team or may no longer be relevant based on modifi-
cation s made to the building throughout its history.
TI1e retrocommissioni11g process is not necessaril) ' intended to bring these systems
into compl iance wit.h new codes and standards, but rather to give the building own-
er and the commissioning team an understanding of the level of fire protection and
life safety provided. 111eretrocommissioning plan may highlight major faults in the
existing fire protection and life safety scheme for the facilitr- However, because of costs
and feasibility constraints, other noncritical deficienci es identified during the evalu-
ation portion of the retro conunissioning process may not be addressed immediate !)'·
Oftentimes, corrective measures for these deficiencies will be scheduled over a period
of several years or will be scheduled for remediation based on a specific trigger identi-
fied in the retrocommissioning plan. 'foe frequency of integrated system tests is com-
monly based on the triggers established and generat ed by the initial survey or field
evaluation or by setting a frequency in number of )'ears. No matter what level of effort
is anticipated from the commissioning team as defined by the owner, it is cri tical that
the goals for the retrocomm issioning process be identified and clearly communicated
to those expected to carry them out. Because retrocommissioning will vary greatly
from the commissioning of a new building, it is important to highlight the differences
and be clear about the intent of the process.
Buildings that have been formall)' commissioned will typically have a recommis -
sioning schedule built into the original commissioning plan . Depending upon the
modifications made to the building and th e future plans of the owner, the frequenC)'
of recommissioning may vary. v\lhere changes in use or significant alterations or addi -
tions to the building or facility are made, recommissioning of the facility provides the
364
 CHAPTER 24: Commissioning Processfor FireProtection Systems

owner with an understanding of the level of fire protection and life safety that is cur-
rently being provided. Oftentimes, the recommissioning process will be a condensed
version of the original commissioning process, especially where minimal modifica-
tions or additions to lhe fire protection and life safety systems have been made.
Recommissioning can be a costly process for the owner; therefore, owners may
look to minimize the impact of commissioning activities and tasks on their budget.
Similar to the retrocommissioning triggers commonly used, recommissioning triggers
may simpl)' be a new integrated test for the facility when S)'Stems are added, intercon -
nected, or modified. This eliminates 111.Hl)' of the administrative and procedural tasks
commonly associated with commissioning while still providing the owner with the
assurance that the systems in place function and communicate proper!)'·

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of curre nt editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 3, Reco111111e11ded
Pmcticefor the Com111is sio11i11g
mrd l11tegmtedTestingof Fire
Prolectio11
a11dLife Safety Systems
NFPA 13, Sta11dard
for the Installatio11
of SprinklerSystems
NFPA 72®, National FireAlarm and Sig11a/i11g Code
NFPA 96, Standardfor Ve11tilation Controla11dFire Protectio11of CommercialCooking
Opemtio11s

365
 CHAPTER

25
ACCESSIBlLITY
REQUIREMENTS
Allan B. Fraser

More than twenty years after the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA} was signed
into law and more than 40 years since the first publication of the American National
Standard Specificatio11sfor }.-InkingBuildingsand FacilitiesAccessibleto, and Usableby,
The PhysicallyHandicapped,many buildings are not accessible to the level that they
are supposed to be, but progress and advancements have been made. 1l1is is because
of a number of factors, including education of the designers, building owners, and the
public at large.
1l1is text is specificall}' focused on fire and life safet}' inspections; therefore, this
chapter is not an exhaustive inspection checklist for all accessibility requirements. It
is not concerned with the number of accessible toilets, theater seats, the locations of
minor s or towel dispensers, or even the exact slope of ramps, but rather only with
those items or conditions that have the potential to cause delays in emergency noti-
fication, point out obscure or missing information, or the need to maintain an acces-
sible means of egress to allow escape from fires or other life-threatening conditions.
Why is this type of inspection important? Isn't it redundant? Haven't the authorities
having jurisdiction already checked to ensure that the contractor installed the items
or systems properly? TI1eanswer is yes, they probably have, but fire and life safety fea-
tures are important enough to warrant an ongoing inspection on some items. Call it a
good fail-safe procedure. In addition, any system can have parts that age, conditions
that change, and things that malfunction or break, thus making regular inspections
important.
·n1e vast majority of accessibility requirements have virtually no potential to
create fires; however, missing or defective accessibility components can magnify the
life-threatening effects of even a small fire or other emergency by delaying or even
preventing escape for people with disabilities or functional needs. If the required items
and devices are not in place or working properly, escape can be very difficult if not
impossible.
1l1is chapter is intended to provide those who conduct fire and life safety inspec-
tions with sufficient information about what items, devices, and clearances need to be
 CHAPTER 2S: AccessibilityRequirements

inspecte d and to provide them with sufficient information to be ab le to assess when a

qu alified con trac tor or engineer should be consu lted to assess furth er and/or repair the
part(s) in question.

GENERALITEMS (BUILDING BLOCKS)

These are basic items to facilitate accessibility measures that apply in many places and
many cond itio ns. TI1eseitems are listed here o nce for convenience but are referred to in
the following sections. Ot her condit ions that may need to exist for ot her items/devices
to be accessible must also be considered.
1. Floor surfaces sho uld be stable, firm, slip -resi stant , and not have holes or
gaps th at might ca tch a wh eelc ha ir, walker, crutch, cane, or sim ilar ass istive
device.
2. Changes in level of floors, where per milte d, shou ld not exceed ¼ or ½ in. ( 6.4
o r 12.7 111111)if beveled. Changes
greater than½ in. (12.7 mm) need 60min
to be ramp ed.
3. Turnin g spaces should be a circle
l 1525
r ----- ------
r
7
I I
of 60-in. (152.4-cm) diameter or I I
IE El
at a T-shaped space as shown in ,., 01
I I
FIGURE 25-1. I I

4. Clear floor space, where requ ired, 24min L-7 r- ...J

I I
should be 30 by 48 in. (76.2 b)' I I
I I
122 cm). _ L __ b1~ __ J _

5. Protrudin g objects with leading 36 min

edg es between 27 and 80 in. (68.6 9 15
12 min / \ 12 min
and 203.2 cm) above the finished 305 305
floor shou ld not protrude more
tha n 4 in. ( I 0.2 Cin) into a circula- FIGURE25·1Turn ing space geome try.
tion path.
6. Operable parts that are needed to get out of the buildin g or used in an emer -
gency, includin g, but not limit ed to, door locks and latches, elevator controls,
alarm pull -stations, Braille and tactile signage, light switches, telephone, and
intercom devices, should be within the reach range specified in item 7 and
have a clear space (as specified in item 4) next to them .
7. Reach ranges for the operable parts noted in item 6 shou ld be between 15 and
48 in. (38 and 122 cm) above th e finished floor.
8. Operable parts shou ld be op erable with one hand and should not req uire tight
grasping, pinching, or twisting of the wrist. TI1eforce required to ac tivate oper-
able parts should be not more than 5 lbf (22.2 N).

ACCESSIBLE ROUTES
Accessible routes are made up of one or more of the following: walking surfaces, door-
ways, ramps , platform lifts, and stairways.
367
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

l. ,valking surfaces. 24 max 24 max

l. Hems l to 5 of the General ~
, 1 1 1220
48mi n U°
Items (Building Blocks) 1 ,
section.
2. Clear width: 36 in.
(9 l.4 cm), but can be re-
duced to 32 in. (81.3 cm)
for not more than 2 ft
FIGURE25·2Walki ng surfaceminimum width
(61 cm) in the direction measurements.
of travel. This allows for
passing through thick walls or similar
anoma lies (FIGURE 25·2). C
.E 0

3. Clear width of a 180-degree turn - co "'

~
v
around; an object less than 48 in.

~
(122 cm) sliuuld be 42 in. (l 06.7 cm) ,...

A
approaching the turn, 48 in. ( 122 cm)
at the turn , and 42 in. (I 06.7 cm)
leaving the turn (FIGURE 25·3).
4. Passing spaces on an accessible route
42 min
- 42min
less than 60 in. (152.4 cm) in width
1065 1065
shall be provided at intervals of 200 fl f-,-,

(61 m). Passing spaces can be either: ~ 1220

i. A space 60 by 60 in. (152.4 by
180 degree !urn
152.4 cm).
ii. An intersection of two walk- FIGURE 25·3Walki ng surface
ing sur faces providing a dimensions for a 180-clegree
T-shaped space [see item 3 un- turnaround.

-V
der the General Items (Building
32m in
Blocks) section], where the base and arms of the 5
T-shaped space extend 48 in. (122 cm) beyond the
0
intersection.
2. Doors, doorways, and gates.
I. Revolving doors, revolving gates, or turn stiles are not
permi tted. hinged door

2. . At least one door leaf that has a 32-in. (8 l.3-cm) clear FIGURE25.4
width must be provided (FIGURE 25·4). Clear width for
3. Locks, latches, and other hardware placed 34 to 80 in. door leaf.
(86.4 to 203.2 cm) above the floor on the door ma}'
extend into the clear width up to 4 in. (10.2 cm).
4. Stops and closers must be more than 78 in. ( 198 cm) above the floor.
5. J\faneuvering clearances must be provided as shown in FIGURE 25·5.
6. Doors in series need to be spaced as shown in FIGURE 25·6.

368
 CHAPTER25: Accessibility Requirement s

C
·- U)
E I.()"'
o~
<O

(a) {b)
front approach, pull side front approach, push side

36 min

-
915

- - - -- ------ - - - - -- - - - - - -

(c) (d)
front approach, push side, door hinge approach, pull side
provided with both closer and latch

42 min
1065

• --------------·

{e) (f)
hinge approach, pull side hinge approach, push side

24 min
610

{g) (11)
hinge approach, push side, door latch approach, pull side
provided with both closer and latch

25-5Maneuvering clearances.
FIGURE
369
 SECTION2: Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

:~
- - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - -
I~
']
:
:
C
·E ~

---l.
~.
: 24 min :
C
·E ~
;'J;-
24 min
6 10
r_".::L
. ---
----
--- (i)
latch approach , pull side
door prov ided wilh close r (j)
lalcll approach, push side

(k)
latch approach , push side ,
door provided with closer

FIGURE
25-5Cont inued.

7. Door and gate handles, pulls, latches, locks, and so forth, should be 34
to 48 in. (86.4 to 122 cm) above the floor. When sliding doors are in
the fully open pos ition, operating hardware should be usable from both
sides.
8. Door closers should be adjusted so that the tirne required to move the
door from 90 degrees to 12 degrees from the latch is at least 5 seconds .
9. Door and gate spring hinges should be adjusted so that from the open
position of 70 degrees, the door or gate m oves to the closed po sition in not
less than 1.5 seconds.
10. The force for pushin g or pulling open a door or gate other than a fire door
should be no more than :
i. Interior hinged doors and gates: 5 lbf (22.2 N).
ii. Sliding or folding doors : 5 !bf (22.2 N).
, TI1ese forces do not apply to the force required to retract latch
bolts or disengage oth er devices that hold the door or gate in a
dosed position . The maximum force pertain s to the continuous
application of force necessary fully lo open a door, not the initial
force needed to overcom e the inertia of the door .
370
 CHAPTER25: Accessibility Requirements

48 min
1220
48m
1220in ~
<Ff> <Ff>
l I
(a) (b)

48 min
1220

<Ff>
(c)

FIGURE
25-6Spacing for doors in a series.

3. Ramps.
1. Items l and 2 of the General Items (Building Blocks) section.
2. Slope should not be steeper than 1:12.
3. Cross slope should not be steeper than l :48. Cross slope is the slope of the
surface perpendicular to the direction of travel.
4. rvlinimum width between handrails should be at least 36 in. (91.4 cm).
5 Maximum travel between land ings should not be more than 30 ft (9.1 m).
6. Should have:
1. Handrails (FIGURE 25·7).
ii. Edge protection: TI1e floor or ground surface of
the ramp run or landing shou ld extend at least
12 n. (30.5 cm) beyond the inside face of a hand-
rail (FIGURE25-Sa).A curb or barrier that prevents
the passage of a 4-in . ( 10.2-cm) diameter sphere,
)as I ~
where any portion of the sphere is within 4 in. ramps
(10.2 cm) of the finished surface (FIGURE 25-Sb).
iii. Weather protection : Landings subject to wet FIGURf 25-7
conditions shall be designed to prevent the Handrail
measurements.
accumulation of water.
4. Platform lifts.
1. Platform lifts should:
i. Not be attendant-operated.
ii. Provide unassisted entry and exlt from the lift.
iii. Have clearance between the platform sill and the edge of any runway
landing of not more than I ¼ in. (3.2 cm) .
371
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

iv. Have low-energ)' power -

operated door s or gates
12 rnin 12 min
that should remain open 305 \ 305
for at least 20 seconds .
5. Stairwa)'S.
I. Stair tread s and landings sub -
ject to wet conditions should (a)
be designed to prevent the a -
cumulation of water. FIGURE 25·8a Floor/ground surface
2. Handra ils should: extension.
i. Be provided on both side
of stairs.

CJ
ii. Be continuous within the full
length of each stair flight.
iii. Be con tinu ous between flights or
runs for inside handrails on switch -
back or dogleg stairs.
iv. Have the top of gripp ing surfaces
between 34 and 38 in. (86.4 and (b)

96.S cm) above the stair nosings

FIGURE 2S·8bRampbarrier.
and be consistent in height for the
entire run. Note: Bui lding and Life Safety cod es permit handrail s that
form part of a gua rd are permitted to extend up to 42 inches (107cm).
v. Provide 2 1/4 in. (5.7 cm) clearance between handrail gripping surfaces
and adjacen t surfaces.
vi. Not be obstructed along their tops or sides.
vii. Not have the bottom of the gripping surface obstructed for more
than 20 percent of the length.
viii. Provide any noncircu lar cross -section areas with a perimeter dimen-
sion between 4 and 6¼ in. (I0.2 and 15.9 cm) and a cross -section
dimension of not more than 2% in . (5.7 cm) (FIGURE25-9).

4-61~perimeter

/ 100-160

(a) (b)

FIGURE
25·9.

372
 CHAPTER25: Accessibility Requirements

12 min
305

Note: X = tread depth

(a) (b)

FIGURE
25·10.

ix. Have the adjacent surfaces free of sharp or abrasive elements and
have rounded edges.
x. Have gripping surfaces that extend beyond the stair flight in the same
direction (FIGURE 25-10).
xi. Not rotate within the ir fittings.

COMMUN ICATION FEATURES

1. National FireAlnrm and Sig11ali11g
Fire nlarm systems:NFPA 721i>, Code®pro-
vides a number of requirements for the installation of permanently installed au-
dible and visible alarms. ln add ition, alarms in guest rooms required to provide
communi .cation features should comply with 18.4.5 ofNFPA 72®, 2010 edition.
See Chapter 15 of this manual for details on the inspection criteria for these
feah1res.
2. Signs:Special signage that may assist a sight -impaired person with navigation
within the building is an important feature that cannot be neglected. These
signs include "wa>' finding" signs, direction signs, and warning signs, such as
"Exit;• "Elevator;' "Stairs;' and "Danger:• inspections for these elements need to
account for the fol.lowing:
I . Both visual and tactile characters (those that can be perceived using the
sense of touch, which includ es Braille) should be used. There may be ei-
ther one sign with both visual and tactile characters or hvo separa te signs,
one with visual and one with tactile characters.
2. Braille shou ld be positioned below the corresponding text. If text is multi -
lined, Braille shou ld be placed below the entire text.
3. Tactile characters on signs should be located betwe en 48 and 60 in.
(122 and 152.4 cm) above the floor to the bottom of the highest tactil e
character .
373
 SECTION2: Buil ding Systems and Fire Protection Systems

4. Pictograms shou ld have a field height of al

least 6 in. (15.2 cm). Characters and Braille
•
I
should not be located in the pictogram field
(FIGURE25-11
).
At doors, the signs should be located:
1. At a single door localed alongside the latch
side.
not in
At double doors with one c1 c tive lec1f.the
2.

3.
sign should be located on the inactive leaf.
At double door wit·h two active leaL5,
...
••
pictogram
field

the sign should be located to the right of the FIGURE 25·11.

right-hand door.
• If there is no wall space at the latch side of a single door or at the
right side of double doors, signs should be located on the nearest
adjacent wall.
• A clear floor space should exist of at least 18 by 18 in. (45.7 by
45.7 cm) centered on the tnctile chnracters and beyond the arc of
any door swing from the closed posltion to the 45-degree open
position.
Symbols of accessibility and their background should have a nonglare finish. Symbols
of accessibility should contrast with their background with either a light symbol on a
dark background or a dark S)'!llbol on a light background (FIGURE 25-12).
For more detailed information and a complete set of requirements, please see the
U.S. Department of Justice 2010 ADA Standnrds and American National Standnrds
Institute (ANSI)/Interna tional Code Council (lCC) A 117.l, Accessible n11d Usable
Buildingsn11dFncilities.

••••
•••••
(a)
••••• (b)

FIGURE25·12a- b.

374
 CHAPTER 25: AccessibilityRequirements

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANSI/ICC Al 17.1, Accessiblen11dUsableB11ildi11gs n11dFacilities.American National
Standards Institute, Inc., 25 West 43rd Street, 4th floor, New York,NY.
U.S. Department ofJustice, 2010 ADA/ABA Stn11dnrds, September 15, 2010.

NFPA Code, Standa rd, and Recommended Practice

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of the curren t editions of
the following document.
NFPA 72®, Nalio11nlFireAlarm {1//dSignalingCode

375
 CHAPTER

26
GRASS,BRUSH,
AND FORESTFIRE
HAZARDS
1\1.ichele
Steinberg

A recent National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) study of grass, brush, and forest
fires revealed that in the 5-year period from 2004 to 2008, local fire departments in the
United States responded to an average of 356,800 such fires annually- nearly 1000 calls
a day-with roughl}' 4800 buildings or structures involved each year. Records from
the National Jnteragency Fire Center show that the United States loses some 800 to
1000 structures to wildfire in a typical year, with many more destroyed during larger,
less frequent conflagrations. Although wildfires may be difficult or sometimes impos-
sible to control, the way Americans design, site, and build homes and businesses can
minimize the likelihood of structure loss to these kinds of fires. As an inspector, you
can identify opportunities for modifications and improvements to existing structures
that can prevent such fires from causing major damage and building loss. This type
and level of inspection is a relatively new concept, but recent history and the loss data
noted above calls for an inspection program that is able to address the unique hazards
associated with th is type of fire. Documentation of wildfire hazards to buildings can
greatly assist individual property owners and whole communities in taking action to
reduce the likelihood of building loss to wildfires. You need not be a wildfire expert
to understand the basic concepts of wildfire risk to buildings. NFPA and its Firewise
program offer a wealth of information and training resources for inspectors who wish
to increase their kJ10wledgeon this topic.

BUILDINGS LOST TO WILDFIRE:

A BRIEFHISTORY
Wildfire is a natural phenomenon and a normal, seasonal occurrence in much of North
America. Fire is a dynamic process. It obeys the laws of physics and can exist and grow
only with fuel, heat, and mrygen.It does not distinguish among fuel sources: dry grass, a
free, a shrub, a car, a house, or anything that burns can keep a fire alive. Whereas wild-
fire can appear to have a random pattern of fuel consumption because of topography
 CHAPTER 26: Grass,Brush,and Forest FireHazards

and weather conditions, especially wind, the ignition and destruction of a home are
driven by the characteristics of the home itself and of the area around it within a few
hundred feet. \.Yhen homes burn and trees and brush survive, it means the home was
more vulnerable to fire than the vegetation.
For more than 100 years (until about 1990), the national risk reduction strategy
for grass, brush, and forest fires focused on prevention and suppression of all such
fires. TI1is approach has resulted in an unintended yet severe consequence. Smaller
and fewer fires mean that many areas have become overgrown with vegetation, and
as a result, their natural ecologies are out of balance. When paired with just the right
terrain and weather conditions, the dense build -up of vegetation results in fires that
burn hotter, last longer, and spread faster. 'fl1ese fires become difficult to monitor and
control and threaten developed areas more frequently. ·with more and more people
living and building in fire-prone areas, we are seeing mounting losses of life and prop-
erty. Between 1990 and 2000, the United States added more population-32.7 million
people - than during any other cen sus period . Counti es in naturally fire-prone areas
doubled and tripled in size in just a decade .
Fire fighters are very successful in managing more than 95 percent of wildfires, but it
is that small percentage of fires that get away that can have dire consequences for com-
munities in their path. Fire fighters cannot instantly extinguish these large blazes and
save eveq, structure . Extreme wildfire conditions put dozens or hundreds of structures
in danger simultaneously, exposing them to large flames and wind-driven embers from
the rnaiJ1 fire. Limited water supply, difficult access for fire trucks, and simple math -
the number of pieces of apparatus versus the number of homes exposed-mean that
fire suppression alone will not allow buildings to survive.
Structure losses into the thousands in a single fire event seem to be less shocking
with every passing year, as they occur again and again. Unfortunately, research into
global climate change suggests that the future of wildfire losses is going to get worse
before it gets better . Leading researchers have examined a variety of scenarios for how
climate change will affect certain patterns that, in turn, will affect the frequency and
magnitude of wildfires well into this century. Research using different future climate
scenarios predicts that the amount of biomass, such as forests, scrub, grass, and brush,
consumed by wildfire will at least double in the western United States over this century .
TI1e need for sound understanding of how to prevent structure losses has never been
greater.

UNDERSTANDING WILDFIRE
AND STRUCTURE LOSS
Wildfire risk is often categorized as though it were driven by location alone, with much
effort being put into developing maps to show fire "zones:' Although this mapping can
be useful, it belies the reality that structure loss from a wildfire is not contingent on
location, but rather on a set of conditions. Fire itself is a process dependent on three
elements necessary for ignition. TI1ere must be fuel, a heat source, and oxygen for a fire
to ignite and propagate . In a wildfire, the fuel is dry, combustible vegetation including
377
 SECTIO N 2: Building Systems and Fire Pro tection Systems

grasses, brush, trees, shrubs, vines, and dead material. Heat comes from many igni-
tion sources, including a lightning st rike or careless disposa l of cigare ttes, but fires will
get hotte r with more fuel and plenty of oxygen from the air that surrou nds us. Strong
wind s can drive fire up (or down) steep slopes and areas like "saddle s" or "chimn eys;'
pushing the fire along to con sume all the fuel in its path.
In areas pron e to wildfire, human habitation can become fuel-a stru ctur e with
a combustible roof, siding, or decki ng is par ticularly vu lnerable. The co nditi on of a
st ruct ure and its surrou ndi ngs makes the stru cture mo re or less likely to ignite in
a wildfire. Gra ss, brush, and forest fires become serious threats for stru ctures if they
provid e ready fuel for fire. 13uildings sited and built without fire-resistant feature s can
ignit e and cause o ther st ructurc s lo burn .
How can such a disaster be averte d? Unde rstandi ng how stru ctures ignite is the key
to the ans wer, and it goes back to th e simp le/ ire triangle. Wh en one element of the tri -
ang le- fuel, hea t, or ox,,ge n-is removed, th ere can be no combustion , so the fire goes
out. Wh en thinking abou t how to prevent stru cture ignition , we have no control over
th e availabil ity of oxygen. Therefore, we mu st look at the fuel and the h eat sides of the
triang le. In a wildfire, we are concerned with ignitions o n a hom e's exterior.
For wildfire to ignite homes, the same fire tria ngle condit ions app ly. Fuel, in the
form of the hom e itself, ou tbuil d ings, and any combustibles immediately around the
home , is present. Hea t, which is dose enough to the hou se and any combu stible materi -
als arou nd the house to ign ite, is p resen t. And oxrgen, naturally, is present. All of these
are requ irement s for combustion. ln a real-life scenario, the fuel- heat-o:-..,,gen triangle
is complicated by factor s including the type, amount, and arrangement of fuel, the
weath er (temperature, hum idity, precipitation , and wind), and the local topography
(steep slopes versus flat areas) . With regard to fuel, it is import ant to know that "fine"
fuels like grasse s and needles ignit e easily and burn qui ckly. 1l1ese fine fuels can ignite
heavier fuels, like tree bran ches and large shrnbs, which take longer to start burning
but then burn intense ly. Hotter temp erahJres with dry condition s and strong wind s will
intensify and spread fires. The lay of the land will also prov e important in a wildfire.
Steep slopes carry fire uphill at an incre ased rate of spread, and such features as can -
yons act as channels for wind to spr ead fire.

HOW BUILDINGS BURN FROM

WILDFIRES:THE STRUCTURE
IGNITION ZO NE
Even in rm outdo or envi ronme nt, when we talk about fire, we are talking about com-
bust ion. Combust ion occms by tra nsferring energy into a fuel via thermal radiation,
co nvection, or conduc tion. Energy is conveyed to the surfac e of a fuel, usually by
the rmal radiation or conve ction. 1l1erma l rad iation occurs when heat is transferr ed
without the fire touc hing the fuel. Energy is instea d radia ted through space to the sur-
face of the materia l. Convection occ urs when en ergy, usually in the form of a flame,
directly touc hes the surface. Now if only the surface were to ignite, a fuel would burn
ou t very qu ickly. 'TI1erefore, in ord er to keep a tree trunk, a wall, or any other woody
378
 CHAPTER 26: Grass,Brush, and Forest FireHazards

material burning, energy must somehow be conveyed to the object's interior. Tiiat is
where conduction comes in. Once the surfac e of a foe] heats up, the energy is then
transferred directly from the exterior of the object into its interior. 'This process causes
more of the object's mass to com bust and enables the fuel to burn longer. To put this in
the context of wildfire and the exterior of strnctures, consider radiation as heat close
enough to a comb ustibl e wall to ignite it. Convection means that flame or fire gases
contact an exterio r surface, and conduction means the presence of sufficient heat for
a .long eno ugh tim e to cond uct heat from the surface of the wall lo the interior. TI1ese
processes often happen simultaneously during a wildfire. Understanding how heat is
transf erre d leads us to understand how fire spreads-through a process of combustion.
It is important to remember these po ints about wildfire behavior: fire does not spread
to homes like an avalanche or flash flood, where a mass eng ulfs objects in its path; fire
spreads only to locations along its path that meet its combust ion requirements. TI1is
includ es strnctnres.
Fire scienc e research on how these processes occur in a wildfire has important im-
plications for how to keep structures from igniting. U.S. Department of Agriculture
Forest Service fire scientist Jack Cohen co ined the term "home (or structure) ignition
zone" to describe how the structure and everything around it within I 00 to 200 ft (30.5
to 61 m) affect the likeli hood of ignition or survival in a wildfire. Methods to prevent
ignition i11this zone include:

• Keeping large flames (such as those in a forest fire) away from the structure by
incorporating landscape design to bring the flame height to the ground when it
gets closer than 100 to 200 ft (30.5 to 61 111)to the structure.
• Removing dead vegetation near the stmcture and reducing the volume of live
vegetation.
• Keeping concentrations of fuel (like firewood) at least 30 ft (9 m) away from the
str uctu re.
Also imp or tant for preventing structure ignition s are to:

• Establis h a "fuel-free zone" that encircles the st ructure and all its attachments,
going out at least 3 ft (91 cm).
• Reduce the opportunity for firebrands (embers) to collect .in vulnerable places.
• Always start with the structure and move out when embarking on mitigation in
the struct ure's ignition zone.

Observation and media reports of large wildfires may make it hard to believe
that individual struc tures can be saved with modifications to the structure as well as
changes to th e landscape design that are within 100 ft (30.5 m) of the building. But
stud)' after study following devastating fires demonstrates the reality of what happens
to structures . Since the 1960s, post -fire investigations have reported totally destroyed
structures surrounded by or adjacent to unconsumed vegetation. TI1isindicates that:

• High -intensity fire did not "flow" through the area.

• Ignition of structures did not occur because ofadjacent high -intensity wild land fire.
• The fire did not necessarily spread through the vegetation to ignite structures.

379
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

The results of two California case studies showed that for home with noncombustible
roofs, house survival depended significantly on the amount of combustible vegeta-
tion immediately around the structure. In the 1961 Belair- 13rentwood fire, 95 percent
of homes with both a noncombustible roof and between 30 and 60 ft (9 and 18.3 m ) of
clearance of vegetation around the home survived. ln Painted Cave, nearly 30 years
later, 86 percent of homes with similar characteristics survived. In both cases, the re was
no significant intervention to save the homes. Structures survived or were destroyed
based on their condi tion. Two factors significantly dominate the potential for ignition:
firebrand resistance of a noncombu stible roof and the abilit)1 to keep large flames at
least 30 ft (9 m) away.
Researcher Jack Cohen created a model to try to make seuse of what the find.ings
in case studies and post-fire investigations were impl)'ing regarding structure ignition.
Cohen's assumptions in the model included a worst-case scenario large crown fire. His
technical assumptions overestimated what would happen even in a worst-case scenar-
io. His calculations focused on the heat radiating from the flame. toward a wood wall
and the time it would take for the wood wall to ignite. His calculations indicated that at
131 ft (40 m) from the flame to the wall, it would take more than 10 minutes to ignite
the wall. During an actual fire, 10 minutes would be an extraordinarily long time to
have flames from a moving wildfire at one location.
To try to make the model more realistic, Cohen calculated how close the flame
would have to be to a home to ignite the wall durin g a 90-second exposure. He de-
termined that ignition would occur dur ing that time only when the flame was within
100 ft (30 m) of the wall. Later, he was able to conduct experiments to help validate the
calculations of his model. He measured heat exposm e and time to ignition on wood
walls during contro lled crown fires in the Jnternational Crown Fire Modeling Experi-
ment in Canada's Northwest Territories in 1998.
'Theresearch team constructed wood wall sections measuring 8 by 8 ft (2.4 by 2.4 m)
and placed them 33 ft (10 m) from the flaming front of the crown fire. ·n1e wall sec-
tion charred but did not ignite when only 33 ft ( 10 m) away from the large flames. Case
studies, experiments, and models come to the same basic conclusion-the structure and
the area around it are key when determi11i.ngigniti.onpotential. TI1escale of the area we
should be concerned with is of the order 100 ft (30 m ) or so, not thousands of teet or even
a few miles. Although it is true that firebrands can travel from up to a m ile away,the ef-
fectiveness of a firebrand is its ability to ignite the house or its immediate surroundi11gs.
But what about firebrands? Firebrands or embers that result in ignition can originate
from a fire up to a mile nway,dependi ng on the fire intensity and type of fuel burning.
A shower of embers will cause multiple ignitions in grass, shru bs, and on vulnerable
areas of the home. Firebrands also pose a very serious problem on combustible roofs.
A structu re's combustible shingles can potential!)' ignite another structure within 50 ft
( 15 m) of it. Embers can also blow into openings in a structure, gather along fences or
under decks, or pile up on other combustible materials around the structure. Without
intervention, it is this seemingly "little thing" that time and again has brought str uc-
tures and whole neighborhoods to the ground. Removal of fuels that embers can ignite
is a key strategy for preventing stru cture ignition.

380
 CHAPTER 26: Grass,Brush,and Forest Fire Hazards

INSPECTING BUILDINGS FOR GRASS,

BRUSH,AND FORESTFIREHAZARDS
The goal of the inspection is to develop recommended actions for the property owner
or resident to reduce or eliminate hazards that you identify . NFPA 1144, Stm1dardfor
Reducing Struct11reignition Hazardsjimn Wildlnnd Fire,outlines a consistent approach
to such inspections and includes five steps . The steps are ordered in such a way that
you will be guided to observe the overall situation of a building relative to the broader
landscape, then move to a more detailed examination of the structure itself, and then
move back out to the broader landscape. This can help you better to define the struc -
ture ignition zone for that particular property with a comprehensive list of hazards and
to suggest mitigation actions to reduce those hazards.

Step 1: Take an Overview of the Structure's

Surroundings
T11efirst step is to take into account the physical surroundings of the home . 'TI1isexter -
nal set of conditions provides a general idea of the property's relative risk from wildfire.
In this step, you are looking at the property and its surroundings within 200 to 300 ft
(61 to 91 m) for a very broad overview of the area around the structure. Topographic
features such as steep slopes, canyons, cliffs, or overhangs should be noted . T11earea's
weather is an important factor that will inform residents about what they should be
paying attention to during specific seasons. Any nearby structures are important to
note, including their relative location to the inspection site and their general condition.
The proximity of neighboring properties may provide some clues about how much
control the property owner has over his or her structure ignition zone. Nearby fields
or forests may be privately or publicly owned and may have an impact on the inspec-
tion site's vulnerability. Finally, documenting the structure's location relative to slope is
critical for understanding how fire will behave in this area.

Step 2: Inspect from Chimney to Eaves

Moving back to the structure itself, begin from the top. Recall that research demon-
strates that the condition of the roof will dominate the likelihood of structure survival
in a wildfire event. The features you want to consider include roofing materials and
assembly, with a Class A roof and assembly providing the greatest protection from
embers and flames. Even for a noncombustible roof type, however, the condition of
the roofing is critical to observe . The materials and construction of any roof over-
hangs should be noted, as well as the presence and type of skylights in the roof. Finally,
observe the condition of gutters and the presence of any roof litter such as leaves or
needles accumulating in roof valleys or gutters. These "little things" can contribute to
structure loss in a wildfire. T11egood news is that these hazards can be mitigated quite
easily by the property owner.

381
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and FireProtection Systems

Step 3: Inspect from Top of Exterior Wall

to Foundation
Although the roof is the most cr itical structural component for a strncture's wildfire
resistance, the areas from the top of the exterior walls to the foundation offer the in-
spector many opportunities to identify hazard s and recom mend mitigation solutions.
This step takes into account all vertical surfaces and openings in the strn ctme. 1l1e
inspector must examine the type of material s and construction of the exterior walls
and of gutter downspou ts and connectors, windows and oµen ings, and specifica lly the
location, size, an d screen ing of any vent openings. Vulnerability of the exterior walls
will vary (and can often be mitigated by keeping flammable vegetation and other mate-
rials at a distance). Window materials and cond itions are critica l to an understanding
of window vulnerability to radiant heat. Finally, vent openings can allow the entry of
embers, tho se "little things" that can invad e and burn the home from the inside out.
While i nsp cling all sid s of th trncture, you should look at areas next to or und er the
st ructure that could be flame sources . Open areas under decks or porches, for example,
collect debris and leaves and allow the enh')' of embers. Finally, remember the key
phrase about structure hazards in a wildfire: "rf it's attached to the structure, it's part of
the structure." Attached accessory structures such as decks, porches, and fences must
be inspected with an eye to how they may carry fire to the structur e or allow flames
undern eath the structure.

Step 4: Inspect from the Foundation

to the Immediate Landscaped Area
The area within approximately 30 ti (9 m) from the structure's foundation per.imeter
is inspected in this steµ . Recall that this is the minimum distance in modeling and
experiments where radia nt heat effects are reduced significantly. You will want to ob-
serve the presence, arrangement, and condition of vegetation and other combustibles
adjacent to and within 30 ft (9 m) of all sides of the structure. Grasses, shrubs, plants,
trees - any vegetation wiJI burn, but the type and condition will dictate to what de-
gree. Dead or dying plants and grasses are dry fuels presenting greater hazards than
most live vegetation. Look for clumped or massed vegetation that could provide a
major heat so urce. Determi ne whether the arrangement of trees, grasses, and shrubs
is creating a "ladd er" effect, where fine fuels on the surface of the ground could carry
fire up into the tree crowns. Observe any overhanging limbs or tree branches touch -
ing or very close to the structure. Observe any other nearb}' fuel packages, which
could also include propane tanks, stacked firewood, vehicle parking, or storage of
flammable materials. Propane tanks if installed and maintained per code should be of
little concern, because most large residential tanks require a 10- to 25-ft (3- to 7.6-m)
separation from homes. Small tanks used for vehicles or grills should be stored away
from the struc ture.

382
 CHAPTER 26: Grass, Brush, and Forest Fire Hazards

Step 5: lnsp ct from the Imm ed iate Landscaped

Ar a to Extent of Structu re Igniti o n Zo ne
Depending on the size of the property under the owner's control, th ere may be some
hazards you discover that cannot be simply removed or reduced . Based on wildfire
ignition researc h, th e extent of the structure ignit ion zone is 100 to 200 ft (30.5 to 6 1 m)
from the pe rimeter of the foundation, Observe the vegetation and other exposures
from 30 ft (9 m) and beyond the stru cture perimeter, includ ing topograph ic features
such as steep slopes, saddles, or chimn eys, which can help predict the intensity of an
approaching fire.

INSP CTION TIQ UETTEAND USE

FIN PECTI N FIN INGS
Preparing to Cond uct an Inspect ion
Depending on the situation, you may be asked to assess a single stru cture or possibly
an entire neighborhood. More than likely, you will be inspecting residential property
for wildfir e risk. Regardless of the scale, ens ure that you have permission from owners,
residents, or local leaders, especially if you plan to enter private property . Comm unity
leaders may be able to secure permission from ind ividual residents for you to walk
onto their properties for the inspection.
Important tools to have with you include a map of local roads (and a topographic
map if yon can get on e), a camera , and a not ebook to document your findin gs. Depend -
ing on the nature of your work, you may want to invite loca l participation from residents
and the local fire department , and perhaps even owners of adjacent public land. If you
are coordi nating with loca l contacts, have a list of who's who an d a cell phone.

Questions to Ask
If you have the oppor tunity, find out as much as you can abou t the area from owners.
Import ant informat ion incl udes the size of the community (number of stru ct ures),
general character istics of the development, topography and vegetation, con dition of
t he roads and infra stru cture, and th e area's worst-case past fire experience or future
scenario. The history of fire in the community can help you determin e where and
when (seasonally) the next lire might strike an d from what direction it is most likely
to app roach. Curre nt co ndi tions will help you determine the likeliho od of ign itio n and
how the homes and other resources will be at risk in an extreme wildfire.

Inspec tion Etiquette for Residential Areas

You will be tak ing a lot of photos and no tes during the assessme nt, To show respect
for owners' privacy, be caref ul not to include hou se numbers or stree t names in

383
 SECTION 2: Building Systems and !·ire Protection Systems

your photos. Not every resident will understand the purp ose of the assessment dur-
ing your visit, and some may be suspicious of your motives or where the information
you are gather ing will end up. Behaving as a good neighbor will go a long way toward
gaining the comm unity's trust in your assessment of their wildfire risk.
You may have a group of residents with you during your visit or you may encounter
curious residents during the course of your assessment. Choose your words wisel)'when
speaking to them, and help them understand that your judgments about what you observe
are focused on how homes llli:l) ' ignite dur ing wildfires. Some of the things you see-for
instance, combustible materials around the home- may cause }'Oll concern, but be careful
not to characterize this as "junk" or otherwise label residents' habits or behavior.
Your assessment, both the words you say and your written assessment, has the
potential to influence residents to take positive action to improve their safety. Focus
0 11 facts and positive statements rather than opinions or negative comment s. "Fear
appeals" or statements that focus on how dangerous the situation is have proved to be
ineffective in motivating residents to act over the long term. Research has shown that
these kinds of messages induce apathy rather than action, because people conclude that
the situation is so overwhelming that there is nothing they can do.

Documenting and Sharing Inspection Findings

In addition to your findings of risk, it is also important to docum ent successful modi-
fications you observe, such as "fuel-free" space immediately around struc tures, use of
stone or other noncom bustible materials for walkways and driveways, thinned vegeta-
tion, or the presence of noncombustible roofs and other construction features.
If appropriate for your situation, a presentation to the owner or group of owners
can be very effective in communicating what needs to be done to mitigate the fire risk.
TI1e purpo se of this presentation should be to explain in general. nontechnical lan-
guage the way wildfire behaves around struc tures, the concept of the structure ignition
zone, and to clarify how property owners can reduce their wildfire risk.
A written document using clear language and numerous photos is also a very ef-
fective way to present the results of your inspection to a prop erty owner or group of
residents. NFPA'.sFirewise program provides simple checklists and more thorough
templates you can use to document your findings and present them to owners. For
neighborhood s wishing to take collective action to reduce commu nity-wide risk,
NFPA also ofters the Firewise Commu nities/USA® Recognition Program. TI1isseries
of simple steps begins with your inspection and leads residents to take action over time
to reduce wildfire hazards to people and property.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cohen, J. D., "Reducing the Wildland Fire Tiueat to Homes: \-\There and How
tv1uch?ln: Gonzales-Caban, A., and Omi, P. N., technical coordinators. Proceedi11gs of
the Symposi11111 011Fire Eco110111ics,
P(n1111i11gmid Policy: Bottom Lines;1999 April 5- 9,
San Diego,CA (Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-173), US. Department of Agriculture, For-
est Service, PacificSouthwest Research Station, Albany, CA, 1999, pp. 189-195.
384
 CHAPTER 26: Grass, Brush, and ForestFire Hazards

Cohen, J.D., "Preventing Disaster: Hom e Ignit ability in the Wi ld land/Urban Interfa ce;'
Joumal of Forestry,Mnrch 2000.
Cohen, J.D., "The Wildland -Urban Int erface Fire Problem: A Consequence of the Fire
Exclusion Paradi gm :' Forest History Today, Fall 2008.
Foote, E. I. D., Str11
ct11reSurvival i11tire 1990 Sa11taBarbara "Pai11t"
Fire:A Retrospecti,,e
Study of Urba11- Wildla11dbi1e1face Fire Hazard 1Witigatio11 Factors,Mas ter's th esis,
vVildland Resourc e Science, Universit) ' of California at Berkeley Grad uat e Division,
1994.
Howard, R. A., Nort h, D. W., Offense nd , F. L., and Smart, C. N ., Decisio11A11alysi s
of Fire Protectio11 tmtegyfor tire Sa11taMo11icn Mor111tai11s:
A11 l11itialAssess111e11t,

Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA, 1973.

Insurance In stit ute for Business and Home Safety, MegaFires:11,e Casefor l'vlitigntio11-
'flte Witch Creek Wildfire,October2 1-31, 2007, IBHS, Tampa, FL, July 2008 .
Mara nghide s, A., and i'vlell, W., NIST Tec/111icnl
Note 1635: A Case St11riy ofn Co1111111mity
Affected by the Witch arid G11ejitoFires, U.S. Department of Co mm erce, Natio nal
In stit ute of Stm1dard and Technology, Ga ith ers burg, J'vlD,April 2009 .
Nationa l Fire Protection Associa tion , Assessing WildfireHaznrds in the Home Ig11itio11
Zo11e:!11strn ctor G11id
e, NFPA, Quin cy, MA, 2010.
Nat ional Fire Protecl'ion Association, Co11ri11cti11g a Comm1111ity Assess111e
11ti11 the
Wild/m1d/Urbn11lllte1face [online course]. Availabl e at: www.firewise.org . Accessed
December l, 20 11.
Na tional Fire Pro tection Association, UserReference G11ide to the FirewiseCo111111u
11iti
es/
USA® Recog11itio11 Progm111, NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2009.
Perry, M. J.,and Mackun, P. J.,with Baker, J. D., Joyce,C. D., Lollock, L. R., and Pear-
son, L. S., Pop11/atio11 Cluwge and Distrib11tio11 1990 to 2000: Ce11s11s 2000 Brief, U.S.
Census Bureau, C2KBR/ 0l -2. Available at http://www.cen sus.gov/ prod/2 00lpub s/
c2k br01 -2.pdf. Accessed December l , 20 11.

NFPA Code, Standard, and Recommended Practice

See the late st versio n of th e NFPA Cata log for availabi lity of the curre nt editio n of the
following document.
NFPA 1144, Standard.forRed11cing
Strncture Ignition Hazardsfrom Wi/dla11dFire

385
 CHAPTER

27

ROADTUNNELS
1-VilliamG. Connell and NiatthewJ.Klaus, lvISFPE

Th is chapter addresses the importance of ensur ing the operational readiness of fire
protect ion and life safety sys terns within road tunnels and descr ibes some of the unique
challeng es associate d with the impec tion and testing process in these types of facilities.
NFPA 502, Standardfor Road Tunnels, Bridges, and Elevated Highways,addresses the
design and planning concepts surrounding fire protection and life safety systems for
roadway tunnels and prescribes requirements for operational readi ness and perfor -
mance testing of these systems. Road tunn el inspectors shou ld also be familiar with the
U.S. Depa rtm ent of Transport ation , Federal Highway Administration document en-
titled Highway and Rail Tm11sitTu1111el Inspection 1Wamial (2005). This manual provides
guida nce on frequency of road tunnel insp ec tions, what to lo ok for when inspecting
various road tu nnel fire protec tion and life safety syste ms, and how to doc ument and
classify conditional assessme nts.
Fro m a fire protection and life safety perspective, road tunnels pres ent signifi -
cant challen ges that are not seen in typical occupied buildings . .In most buildings,
the fuel loads rema in rel ative!}' stat ic; howev er, in road tunnels, new fuel packages
are introduced into the tu nnel environ me nt minute by minute. The systems, equip -
ment, and features necessary to maintain life safety in road tu nne ls are continuously
expose d to a sign ificant ly harsh at mosph ere that is common in these facilit ies.
Des igning and maintaining eq uipm ent and components criti ca l to life safety and
fire protection for such an aggressive environm ent are extreme!}' challenging, and ,
as a result, these installed S)'Stems will demand a dil igent inspection and operationa l
readiness tes t program.
Beca use of the profile geometry and generally cons trai ned confi nes within most
road tunnels , even a small fire eve nt can creat e a sufficient amount of smoke and
excessive a ir temperatures th at can often be fatal when fire protection S}'Stems
do n ot function properly. In addi tion to the poten tial for loss of life, fires .in road
tun nels can often have significant socioeconomic effects on the regions in which
they are lo cated . Many road tunnels provide the ma in source of access into or
 CHAPTER27: RoadTunnels

through major cities, and when a fire or other majo r incident occurs, these criti -
cal tunnels may need to be temporarily closed for repair. 1l1is can cause significant
strain on a city or region, particularly if municipal budgets and staff are not in place
and prepared to overcome the obstacles presented by the temporary closure of key
infrastructure.

GEN RA VERVI W R A UNN

FACILITIESAND SYSTEMS
Road tunnels can be st be classified as enclosed roadwa}' slruc.;turcs used for vehi cu-
lar transport. Access to road tunnels is t)'pically limited to an en try and exit port al.
Add it ional access points for use by maintenance personnel, emergency responders,
and/or for mo tor ist evac uation are common features in many road tunnels. Road
lu1111elsare not consi dered places of a sembly or occupied space as typical buildings
generally are, because the tunnel users (motorists) are considered a trans ient popu-
lation. 1l1ere are, howeve r, many similarities between tunnel structures and typical
occupied buildings from the perspective of fire protection and life safety. l\fany of the
fire protection and life safety systems, both active and passive, that you will find in a
building can also be found in a road tunne l. Means of detecting a fire and notifying
th e appropriate pe rson nel, as well as rated constrncl ion features and egress, are in -
tegra l features designed into the tunnel environme nt. Although NFPA 502 does not
spec ifically require fixed suppression systems for all roadway tunnels, some tunnels
11sefixed suppression systems, and mo st will use a standpipe system for means of
manual su ppression.
There are many tunn el design alternatives that can be implem ented depending on
the needs of the owner, municipalit)', and/or tran spor tation agency. Several older tun -
nels operate bidirectional (two -way) traffic flow within a single bore, whereas most
new tunnel facilities have been designed with multiple bores, where each bore handles
traffic in a single direction. Generally, twin -bore tunnels are designed so that both
bores are next to one another at the same elevation. Some newer tunnels now consider
stacked arrangements, where one tunnel roadway will sit directly above the other. The
structural arrangement of a road tunnel may be selected for one of many reasons, in-
cl11ding financial considerations, geometric/geographic constraints, or transportation
planning. Each type of road tunnel arrangement and category provides different fire
protection and life safety challenges .
NFPA 502 establishes five catego ries of road tunnel s. 1l1e categories are:

1. Category X-Tnnne l length is less than 300 ft (90 m).

2. Category A- Tunnel length is 300 ft (90 m) or greater.
3. Category B- T11nnel length equals or exceeds 800 ft (240 m) and the
maximum distance from any point within the tunnel to a point of safety
exceeds 400 ft (120 m).
4. Category C- Tunnel length equals or exceeds I 000 ft (300 m).
5. Category D - Tunnel length equals or exceeds 3280 ft ( 1000 m).

387
 SECTION2: Building Systems and Fire Protection Systems

Required fire protection and life safety systems for road tunnels, which require
regular maintenance and frequent operational readiness testing, generally consist of
all or a combination of the following systems/features dep ending on the NFPA 502
categorization:
• Fire alarm
• Incident detection
• Traffic monitoring and control devices
• Emergency communications
• Emergency ventilation
• Fixed firefighting system
• Standpipes
• Portable extinguishers
• Tunnel drainage pumps
• Emerg enC)' lighting
• Emergency and standby power
• Emergency egress

INSPECTOR'SREVIEW
OF DOCUMENTATION
There are many variables that go into the design of a road tunnel, which makes every
one of them generally unique from a fire protection and life safety perspective. Not only
will the specific fire and life safety systems vary, but also the performance objectives
for those systems can vary greatly as well. It is imperative for inspectors to review the
original fire protection and life safety system design documentation to understand its
intended function and performance objectives. Other important documentation that
should be reviewed prior to undertaking inspection of the fire and life safety systems
includes previous equipment maintenance records, equipment manufacturers' data
(shop drawings, test reports, service bulletins, etc.), operation and maintenance manu-
als, and original commissioning reports. Road tunnel life safety systems and features
are typically performance-based and act holistically to achieve certain results; there-
fore, it is critical that inspectors understand the specific performance requirements
of all systems and features, which may also vary depending on location within the
tunnel. It is also important for inspectors to understand that oftentimes these S)'Stems
are designed to operate in a specific sequence or combination to achieve the intended
performance. fn most cases, it is not sufficient simply to inspect a singular component
visually or to conduct individual operational tests that do not sufficiently demonstrate
that the overall system is operating appropriately and achieving the intended result.
Periodic testing is necessary to confirm that the design objectives for the system can
still be met. Oftentimes, these periodic tests are outlined as part of the operations and
maintenance programs, but they are sometimes combined with emergency response
planning and training exercises.
ft is therefore imperative for tunnel inspectors to understand the emergency response
plan for the tunnel. Depending on the emergency response procedures, deficiencies
388
 CHAPTER 27 : RoadTunnels

may be categorized differently (critical, not critical, etc.), depending on their impor-
tance to the overall emergency response p.lan.

POTEN IAL FIRE CONDITIO NS WITHIN

R AD TUNNELS
The potential fuel sources that can be present with in the roadway tunnel environment
are also a major cause for concern. In a typical building environm ent, the maximum
heat release rate ofan individual fuel source would typically not exceed 2 or 3 to 4 MW
(wooden desk. upholstered armchair, etc.). whereas a road tunnel may contain indi-
vidual fuel sources in excess of 100 MW Taking into consideration the potent ial for a
variety of different fuel sources that may be in transit at 311)' one time, the potential for
a catastrophic fire within a road tunnel i significant. The potential fire sizes for road-
wa)' fuel packages are identified in TABLE 27-1.
Most road tunn els are now designed as limited access tunn els. where the transpor-
tation of flammable and combustible liquids and other hazards is either prohibited
or operationally controlled. Even with the prohibition of these hazards. limited ac-
cess tunnels potentially contain hundr eds of megawatts of fuel at any given time. It is
important for inspectors and transportation agencies to understand the limitations

Fire Data for Typical Vehicles

Peak Fire Heat Release

Veh icles Rates (MW) Tim e to Peak HRR (min)
Passenger car 5- 10 0-30
Mu ltiple passeng er cars 10- 20 13- 55
(2- 4 veh icles)
Bus 20-30 7-10
Heavy goods tr uck 70-200' 10- 18
Tanker 200- 300

Notes:
( 1) TI1edesigner should considerthe rare of lire development (peak heat releaserates may be
reachedwithin IO minutes).the number of vehicles that could be involved in rhe fire,and 1he
potential for the fire to spreadfrom one vehicle to another.
(2)Temperaturesdirectly above the fire can be expected to be as high as 1OOO "C to 1400''( ( I 832"F to
2552°F) .
(3) The heat releaserate ma>'be greater than in the table ff more than one vehicle is involved.
(4) A design fire curve should be developedin order to satisfy each specific engineeringobjective in
the design process(e.g., fire and life safety,structural protection, etc.).
'Maximum registered for open truck.
Source;lngason, "DesignFiresin Tunnels; SofeandUeliab!eTunnels, 2006.

389
 SECTION 2: Building5)'Sterns and Fire Protection Systellls

of the fuel permitted within the lunnels. Emergency respond ers, such as police and
fire depar tments, and oftentimes the transpo rtation agency responsib le for the tunnel
facility, will supervise the goods that will be moving in and out of the tunnel environ-
ment. Typically, the road tunn el fire and life safety systems are designed taking into
account the poten tial hazards or fire scenarios established by the authority having
jurisdiction (AHJ).
The potential for fire ignition within a roadway tunnel is also quite different than
that of a typical occupied building. ·n1emost common causes of ignition in a roadway
tunnel are vehicle accidents and overheating vehicles. Oftentimes, a relatively benign
incident such as an overheated engine can evolve i11toa large-scale fire emergency
because vehicles conta in several types of flammable and combustible liquids including
gasoline, diesel fuel, and antifreeze solutions. Add this to the component materials
found on vehicles- rubber tires, upholstered interior fabrics, plastics, and fiberglass-
and a substantial fuel package i created.
As noted above, NFPA 502 curren tly categorizes tunnels based on tunnel length.
Depending on the length and categorization of the tunnel, different systems may be
required for different tunnels. It is impo rtan t that the inspector under sta nd which
systems are required to be insta lled based on the tu1111 el category as defined in
NFPA 502 , Section 7.2. Shorter tu nnels, such as category X tunnels, which are less
than 300 ft (91 111)in length, may require on ly basic traffic contro l systems, whereas
a category D tunnel (in excess of 3280 [ 1000 m] or 0.6 mile) requ ires a more com-
plete array of fire protection systems, including means of detection, radio com111u-
nication systems, ventilation, standpipe syste111s,and means for emergency egress.
Because many of the requir ements identified in NFPA 502 are defined as condition-
ally mandatory requirements, the inspectors shou ld familiarize themselves with the
original docum entation that identifies those requirements deemed mandatory by
the AHJ.

ENVIRO NMENTAL CONDITIONS WITHIN

ROAD TUN NELS
One of the unique concerns for road tunnel fire and life safety components and
equ ipment is their continuous exposure to the ambient environment. Varying air
temperature, moisture, precipitation, soot, dust, wind, and the constant potential for
collision impact are all variables of a road tunn el environment that are not condu-
cive to fire protection systems and equipment. When fires occur in most buildings,
the effects of the outside environment are often negligible because the building en-
velope provides a layer of protection . fn road tunnel fires, the entry and exit porta ls
provide a natur al connection to the outside environment that can have severe eftects on
mechanical and electrical equipment required as a part of the fire and life safety sys-
tems. Of specific concern are underwater road tunnels and/or cold-weather climates,
where a highly corrosive marine atmosphere and/or road salts can rapidly corrode
equipment and cause extensive damage to tunnel systems.

390
 CHAPTER27: Road Tunnels

OAUNN L FIREPR N
AND LI SAFETYSYS MS
General
Depending on the length of a road tunnel, the fire protection features of the tunnel
may vaq•. NFPA 502 categorizes tunnels based on tunnel length and further identifies
mandatory and nonmandatory fire protection systems based on tunnel category. TI1e
requirements for systems based 011 the tunnel category can be found in Table 7.2 of
NFPA 502, which is shown in this chapter as ABLE 27-2.
Pire protection in tunnels considers both active and passive fire protection sys-
tems, as well as emergency response. Dur ing the plmrn ing and design of a road tun-
nel, there are many factors that need to be evaluated in the form of an enginee1fog
analysis to determine what systems will be necessary abov and beyond the mini-
mum requirements established in NFPA 502 based on the specific hazards of the
tunnel. TI1iswould include a review of traffic type and volumes, potential fuels, traf-
fic congestion, tunn el grade, emergency response time, physical dimensions of the
tunn el, and tunnel location in relation to emergenC)' responders (e.g., police, fire
department, emergency medical services). 1l1e following provides a brief description
of some of the more common road tunnel fire protection and life safety systems and
features.

Monitoring and Communication Systems

TI1ereare several means for detecting fires or other vehicle incidents within the tun-
nel. One of the more prevalent means is via closed circuit television (CCTV). Most
mo<lern tunn els are equipped with cameras that report back to a traffic management
or operations control center, where trained personnel view the video feeds from the
various CCTVs, so that they can quickly identify potential problems in the tunnel,
whether it be a fire event, a broken~down vehicle, or a collisipn. Typicallr, CCTV cam-
eras are arranged to provide constant supervision throughout the tunnel and its ap-
proach roadways. CCTV systems do, however, require regular maintenance. Soot from
vehicle exhaust and other contaminants in the tunnel tend to build up on the cam-
era lenses. To clean and maintain cameras proper!)' may require shutdown of traffic
lanes so that maintenance staff can access the cameras and clean them safely.Typically,
maintenance plans willinclude a specified frequency at which this cleaning should take
place. It is important that the tunnel operator, the municipality in which the tunnel is
located, and emergency responders are aware that traffic lanes will be closed for system
maintenance .
Other potential means for incident and/or fire <letection used within road tunnels
include manual fire alann boxes and automatic detection S)'Stcms.Automatic detection
systems may include CCTV cameras with video incident detection capability. linear-
type heat detector cables, or other types of detector technologies. t,,,fostautomatic fire
detection systems requir e licensed fire alarm maintainers to inspect, test, and maintain

391
w U'I
m
'°
t,..)
Road Tunne l Fire Prote ction System Requir ement s Based on Tunnel Categor y n
:;!
0
z
l>J
Tunnel Categorie s co
S.
NFPA502 X A B C D 0:
5·
Fire Protection Systems [See 7 .2 (1 ).] [See 7.2 (2).] [See 7 .2(3).] [See 7.2 (4).) [See 7 .2 (5) .] co
Section s V,
J,
Fire Detection ;;;
Detection, identificat ion, and location 7.4 CMR CMR MR MR MR ~
"'
:,
offire in t unnel Q.
::!:)
Manual fire alarm boxes 7.4.1.2 CMR CMR MR MR MR ro
,:;,
CCTVsystems 7.4.1.1 CMR CMR CMR CMR CMR a;;;
Automatic fire detectio n systems 7.4.1.4 CMR CMR CMR CMR CMR ~
a·
:,
Firealarm control panel 7.4.2 CMR CMR MR MR MR V,
';;;
Commun ications Systems ;;;
Radio 7.5 CMR CMR MR MR MR
a
Telephone 7.4.5 CMR CMR MR MR MR
Traffi c Control
Stop traffic approaching tunnel portal 7.6.1 MR MR MR MR MR
Stop traffic from entering tunnel 's 7.6.2 MR MR MR
direct approaches

Fire Protection
Fire apparatus3 7.7 NMR NMR NM NMR NMR
Fire standpipe 7.7 CMR MR MR MR MR
Water supply 9.2 CMR MR MR MR MR
Fire depa rtme nt co nnectio ns 9.3 CMR MR MR MR MR
Hose connection 9.4 CMR MR MR MR MR
 Fire pumpsb 9.5 CMR CMR CMR CMR CMR
Portable fire exting uishers 7.8 CMR CMR MR MR MR
Water-based fire-fight ing systemc 7.9 NMR NMR NM NMR CMR
Emergency vent ilation systemd 7.10 CMR CMR CMR CMR MR
Tunnel drainage systemd 7.11 CMR CMR MR MR MR
Hydrocarbon detector 7.11.7 CMR CMR MR MR MR
Means of Egress
Emergency egress 7.14.1.1 CMR CMR MR MR MR
Exit identificat ion 7.14.1,2 CMR CMR MR MR MR
Tenable environ ment 7.14.2/7.14.4.3 CMR CMR MR MR MR
Emergency exits (includes cross- 7.14.6 CMR CMR CMR MR MR
passageways)e
Electrical Systems
General 11.1 CMR CMR MR MR MR
Emergency pow er 11.4 CM R CMR MR MR MR
Emergency lig ht ing 11.6 CMR CMR MR MR MR
Exit signs 17.6.8 CMR CMR MR MR MR
Security plan 11.7 CMR CMR MR MR MR
Emergency Response Plan
n
Emergency responseplan 12.3 MR MR MR MR MR :J:
l>
"ti
MR:Mandatory requirement.CMR:Conditionallymandatoryrequirement. NMR:Nonmandatory requirement. -I
m
Note:ThepurposeofTable 27.2is to provideassistance in locating roadtunnelfire protectionrequirementscontainedwithin thisstandard. If there isany conflict between ::c
i-.1
the requirements defined in the standard text and thistable,the standard ext shall alwaysgovern.
~
" Not mandatoryto be a unnel\??\;however,they mustbe nearto minimizeresponsetime. :IJ
b If required,mustfollow Section 9.5. ::i:
Q.
c If installed.mustfollow Section7.9. ~
...,,, d Section10.1allows ~ngineeringanalysis to determine requirements. '2
'-0 ii,
(.;) c Emergency exit spac'lngmust be supportedby an egressanalysis. ;:;.
 SECTION 2: Building Systernsand Fire ProtectionSystems

them. Thi s may require th e tun ne l operator or authority to h ire a profe ssional fire
ala rm maintenance com pany to perform these serv ices. The tu n nel m aint ena nce pla n
sho uld establi sh the required freq uency of maintenance and testing of th ese S)'Slems so
th at the maintenance compa ny and the AHJ, as well as any needed traffic lan e closures,
are scheduled well in advance .
Some road tunn els are also eq uipp ed with notification systems to alert mot or ists that
the re is an emergency even t occurri ng in the tunnel. This is ofte n ac hieved through the
use of horn/strobe systems, public address systems, or var iable-message signage within
the tunnel d irecting motorists when and how lo evacua te. In spec tion and tes tin g of
l.hese systems shou ld be arran ged as part of th e detec tion system testing.

Emerg ency Ventilation Systems

Ventilation systems play a critical role in maintaining a safe environment within road
tu n ne ls. It is ex treme ly important for inspection and ma intenance personne l to under -
stand the purpose of the vent ilat ion system and how the syst em is intended to operate
in a part icular road tunn el. An ins pec tion of a tunnel ventilation system must go be-
yon d simply de term ining the fu nctionality of the mechanical ven tilatio n equ ipme nt ; it
must also verify tha t the enti re system is operating as intended by th e de sign.
Ventilation is req uired in road tunnels to provide a safe, comfor table environment
for motorists. To maintain a safe tunnel environm en t during normal operations, seve ral
facto rs mu st be cons ide red .
• Safe levels of vehicle -em itted polluta nts such as carbon monoxide (CO) and
ox.ides of nitrogen (NOx) must be maint ained.
• Visibility must be maintain ed for safe driving .
• A tenable environment must be maint ained for motorists escaping a fire
emerg ency.
Tunnel ventilation methods are categorized as eit her nat ural or mechanical systems .
Natural systems re ly on the piston -effect of moving vehicles, external wind, and tem-
pera ture and press ur e differential s between th e portals to generate airflow through the
tunnel. Mechanical system s use fans to generate airflow and are generally required for
longer tunnel s. There exis t several types of mechanical ventilatio n systems, which are
t ypically class ified as longi tudi na l, sem itrans verse, transve rse, or point extract.
• Longitudinal systems have air introdu ced to a tunnel or removed from a tunnel
at a limit ed numb er of points, such as at: por tals or at ventilation shafts . A popular
exa mpl e of this type of system uses ceiling-mounted jet fans to produce the re-
qu ired airflow throu gh the tu n nel. Longitud ina l systems are typically used in
tu nn els with unidi rec tional traffic. An example of a longitudinal je t fan system
can be found in FIGURE 27-1.
• Semitran sverse systems use an air du ct eithe r to supply or to remove air uni-
formly along the lengt h of a tunnel ventilation zone . A road tunnel m ay be
serve d b}' one or m or e ventilation zones.

394
 CHAPTER27: Road Tunnels

FIGURE
27-1Longitud inal ventilation using jet fans.

• Trans verse systems use both supply and exh aust air ducts uniforml y to distribute
air to and remove air from a tunn el. Typically, air is supplied low near the road-
way level to promote the rapid dilution of the vehicle-emitted pollutants. Air is
exhaus ted along the hmnel ceiling, which is also advantageous for exhausting
hot smoke in the event of a vehicle fire.
• Point extract systems typ ically use an air duct with dampers spaced periodically
along it. In the event of a fire emergency, the dampers near the fire are opened to
enable the exhaust of smoke and heat from near the fire.
Each tunnel willuse ventilation modes or methods of operation to meet specific objectives.
In the case of a fire emergency, the operational modes of the ventilation system may be
different depe nding on the prec ise location of the fire within the tunnel. TI1etunnel ventila-
tion system operational modes (norma l opera tions and emergency operations) should be
properly understood by the inspector prior to perform.ing inspection and testing.
When inspecting transversely ventilated tunnels, it is also important to verify proper
distribution of airflow lo/from the roadwa) ' level. If all the airflow is entering or leavin g
the air duct near the ventila tion buildi11g, the ventilation object ives may not be met,
and a du ct rebalance could be requi red .
When inspecting longitudinally ventilat ed tunnels, it is also important to verify that
sufficient air velocity is being generated along the length of the tunnel. Sufficient air
velocity is defined as the "critical velocity: • Refer to NFPA 502 for a description of how
to determine the critical velocity value for a par ticula r road tunnel.

395
 SECTION 2: Building S>
•stems and FireProteclion Systems

irefighting Systems
Nlost road tunnels includ e two primary methods for fighting fires, includin g standp ipe
S)'Stems and port able exting uishers . However, many newer tunn els are also being
ou tfitted with water-bas ed fixed firefighting systems.

Standp ipe Systems. Standpipe S)'Stems for road tunnels function very simila rly to
standpipes found in typ.ical occupied building s. Standpipes are permitted to be wet
o r dry based on fire department preference and approval. The system designer must
review cri tical variables, such as water fill time, water supply, and climate condit ions,
to identify the best aµpro.ich to standpipe design in each tunnel. Heat tra ce is often
used as a means for maintaining wet-stand pipes al the appropr iate tempe ratures where
freezing is a concern . Where heat trace is used, it is critica l for the inspector to review
bo th the hydraulic aspects of the systems and the electrical components of the heat
tra ce sy tems to en ure the system functions as intended . The presence of road salts
and other chemicals often can serve to expedi te corro sion of water -based fire protec-
tion system piping. Visual inspec tions of valves and outle ts for standpipe systems arc
important to assure responding person nel that they will have the equ ipment in place to
execu te the response plan when they arrive on scene.

Portable Fire Extingui shers. Multipurpose portable fire extinguishers are required
to be located along the roadway and available for use by motorists . TI1eseext inguishers
should be spaced not more than 300 ft (9 1 m) apart and secu red in approved cabinets.
It is anticipated that these ext inguishers may be used by motorists responding to an
event; therefore, the extinguishers shou ld be limited to a maximum weight of 20 lb
(9.1 kg). In many cases, inspectors are unawar e of this requirement or the inten t of
the requirement and will spec ify replacement portable extinguisher s in excess of20 lb
(9. l kg). 1he maintenanc e of portable extinguishers shou ld be conduc ted in accor -
dance with NFPA 10, S1n11dnrd for Portable Fire Exli11g11ishers,
and the maintenance
a nd operations procedures for the individual tunnel.

Water -Based Firefighting Systems. Although not spec ifically required by NFPA
502, fixed water-based firefighting systems, including foam systems, automatic spr in -
kler syste ms, and water spray systems in road tunnels arc becoming more and more
prevalent because of the increased level of risk presented by fires in road tunnels, a
recent history of serious road hmnel fire incidents, and the grow ing evidence of the
effectiveness of the se types of systems in a road tunnel applica tion . Given the increase
in new road tunnels being constructed around the world and the grea ter fuel loads of
the commodities being tran sported, in some instan ces a fixed water-based firefight ing
system is the mo st effective way to mitigate the potential hazards from a tunnel fire.
Historical!) ', tunn el operators, designers, and responders have expressed concern
regard ing the use and effectiveness of water-based fixed firefighting S)'Slems in road
tunn els. These concerns have .largely been alleviated by recent research and test pro -
grams and by actua l experience. TI1e previous conce rn s included the eflectiveness of
automatic sp rin klers on shielded fires inside covered vehicle containers and in engi ne

396
 CHAPTER 27: RoadTunnels

compartmen ts, the possible production of superheated steam, a concern that water
spraying from the ce.iling of an und erwater tunneJ might induce panic in motorists,
and the delamination of the smoke layer reducing the performance of emerg ency
ventilation.
It is now generally accepted that a water-based fixed firefighting system in a road
tunn el is not needed to necessarily extinguish the fire but to prevent a fire in one vehicle
from spreading to other vehicles, so that the fire does not grow to a siz:e that could not be
ellectively handled by the fire service. Various types of water-based fixed firefighting sys-
tems mar be used in road tunnels, including foam-based systems , standard spray spr inkler
systems, deluge systems, and water mist systems. Each of these system types carries with
it specific compone nt inspection requirements. TI1einspection testing and maintenance of
all water-based fire protection srs tems in tunnels should follow NFPA 25, Stn11dnrd for tlie
Inspectio11,
Testing,and 1Wainte111mce
of Wn/er-BnsedFireProtectio11Systems.

Emergency Egress
'The means of egress from road tunn els may be composed of several different
components. A common method for tunnel egress in twin-bore tunnels includes the
use of cross-passageways from one tunnel into another and an emergency exit pathway
to grade. In some limited -spa n tunnels and older tunn els, where provisions for egress
were not cons idered in the design, motorist evac uat ion through the traffic portals is
the only option.
\•\There required by code and th e environme nt permits, eme rgency exits leading
from the tunnel environment to grade are consi dered to be a sate and effective mean s
for getting motorists out of a road tunn el in the case of a severe fire emergency. These
emergen C)'exits will typically consist offire -rated construction leading from the tunnel
to grade. TI1espacing of the exits may vary based on time and capacity requirements ;
however , a spaci ng of I 000 ft (300 m) is typica l.
TI1ere are several potential issues that can arise with respect to the emergency exits.
Often, debris can be accumulated within the tunnel near or in emergency exit enclo-
sures or vestibules. l11is can often imp ede motorists who intend to use an exit during
an emergency event. Because of smoke and disorientation, the motorist may not see th e
debris and may have difficulty naviga ting it as he or she tries to use the exit. Another
potential issue with emergency exits is failure of door hardware, specifica lly closing
and latching devices. l11e door assemblies will t)•pically be part of a rated enclosure
and therefore carry a fire-protection ratin g. If the door closing device s and latches are
not proper!)' maintained, a breach may be created in the rated enclosure that can allow
smoking hot gases to fill the enclosure while it is being used by motorists or emergency
responders. It is important for inspectors to underst and that although these systems
are passive, they play a critical role in the life safety objectives of the tunn el.
Another means of evacuating motori sts from a tunnel is the use of cross-passage -
ways. Cross -passageways are used to connect adjacent tun nel bores. Typically. adjacent
tunnel .s will be separated by rated construction. Where this rated construction exists,
it may be practical to send motorists from the compromised tunnel into the adjacent

397
 SECTION2: Building Systemsand Fire Protection Systems

tunnels, which should not be subjected to any adverse effects from the fire incident.
Cross-passageways are also used by emergency responders for quick access to the site
of a fire event. Similar to emergency exits, cross-passageway doors are also required
to be rated and should be separated not further than 656 ft (200 m) apart. The cross-
passageway doors are part of a rated assembly and must prohibit smoke and hot gases
from passing into the adjacent tube. It is important that these cross -passageway doors
remain closed and latched at all times. This is typically included as a maintenance
procedure for tunnel operators to ensure that adjacent bores do not become compro -
mised from a single incident.
iVlany older tunnels or tunnels that were designed prior to modern egress
requiremenls rely solely on the tunnel portals a~ a means of escape. In these instan ces,
motorists would typically exit their vehicles and walk to the exit portals either on the
roadway or on walkways off to the sides of the drive Junes. TI1e emergency response
plans for some tunnels will contemplate the use of exit portals for many evacuation
sch emes . Because of varying ages and geometrie s of tunnels , it is important for inspec -
tors to have an understanding of the tunnel evacuation procedures and emergency
plans, because they will vary greatly between tunnel designs.
Exit signage is required in all tunnels for both cross -passageways and emergency
exits per NFPA 502. Oftentimes, these signs can become damaged or fail to remain vis-
ible because of general wear and tear. Maintaining the minimum required luminance
for the signs and a constant supply of power is important, because most motorists will
immediately look for an exit sign once the vehicle is stopped in a fire event.
Maintaining egress paths and enclosed exits free and clear of obstructions is critical
in tunnels for several reasons. TI1e general lack of comfort by motorists to abandon
their vehicles, enter an emergency egress passage, and walk long distances to escape
may cause disorientation and delay them in making decisions and using the exit sys-
tem as it is intended. Another reason why maintaining these systems is critical is that a
relatively small cross-sectional area of a tunnel allows smoke and hot gases from a fire
event to build up quickly and spread longitudinally along the length of the tunnel. This
rapid spread of smoke in the tunnel can significantly cut down the safe egress time for
motorists. If components of the egress system, some of which may include pressurized
enclosures, are not properly maintained, it may have an adverse impact on a motorist's
ability to self-rescue and escape.
In addition to the systems briefly described in this chapter, there are other systems
critical for fire protection and life safety within road hmnels. Fire alarm, emergency and
standby power distribution, emergency lighting, and drainage are all systems that, in
concert, provide a protected and safe environment ,vithin these facilities. It is there-
fore necessary that the maintenance program for any road tunnel includes regular
inspection and testing of these various systems.

398
 CHAPTER27: Road Tunnels

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Highway a11dRail Tm11sil1i11111e/
Inspec//011Maminl, U.S. Department of Transporta -
tion, Federal HighwayAdministration, 2005.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Ca talog for availability of current editions of th e
following documents.
NFPA I0, St1111dardforPortableFireExti11guis/rers
NFPA 25, Standard f or the l11
speclio11, Testing, a11dMai11t e11a11c
e of H'i1ter-Based Fire
Proteclio11Systems
NFPA 502, Standardf or Road 1i11111els, Bridges, a11dEle,•ated Highways

399
ECTION OCCUPANCIES

3
CHAPTER
28 Assembly Occupancies
JosephVersteeg
CHAPTER
29 Educational Occupancies
Joseph Versteeg
CHAPTER
30 Daycare Facilit ies
JosephVersteeg
CHAPTER
31 Healthcare Facilities
Joseph1'vl.Jardin,PE
CHAPTER
32 Ambulatory HealtJ1care Facilities
Joseph1vf. Jardi11,
PE
CHAPTER
33 Detention and Conectional Occupancies
JosephM. Jardi11,
PE
CHAPTER
34 Hotels
JosephM. Jardi11,
PE
CHAPTER
35 Apartment Buildings
JosephM. Jardi11,
PE
CHAPTER
36 Lodg ing or Rooming Houses
Joseph M. Jardi11,
PE
CHAPTER
37 Residential Board and Care Occupancies
JosephM. Jardin,PE
CHAPTER
38 One - and Two-Family Dwellings
JosephM. Jardi11,
PE
CHAPTER
39 Mercantile Occupancies
Joseph Versteeg
CHAPTER
40 Business Occupancies
JosephVersteeg
41
CHAPTER Industrial Occupancies
JosephVersteeg
CHAPTER
42 Storage Occupancies
JQs~h Versteeg
CHAPTER
43 Special Structures and High-Rise Buildings
JosephVersteeg
 CHAPTER

28

ASSEMBLYOCCUPANCIES
Joseph Versteeg

Assembly occupancies are defined by NFPA 101®, L((e Safety Code®, as buildings or
portions of buildings in which 50 or more persons gather for such purposes as delib-
eratio n, worship, entertainment, dining, amusement, or to await transport ation (FIGURE
28·1). The charac ter of an assembly occupancy should never be assumed lo rema in con-
stant, and neither should the occupant load.
Because the many legal ways in which an assembly occupancy can be used are so
d iverse, inspectors should thoroughl y review NFPA JOJ® before beginning an inspec-
tion to ensure that they understand the proper requirements for a particular assembly
occupancy. Unlike most other occupancies, assembly occupancies e'.1compass a wide
range of uses, each of which necessitates different considerations.
It is important to note that occupancy of any room or space for assembly pur poses
by fewer than 50 persons in a building of another occupa nC)', such as, for example, a
30-person conference room in an office building, is considered incidental to the pre-
dominant occupancy. Although subject to the requirements governing the predmni-
nant occupancy, the occupant load of such small assembly uses is to be calculated based
on the actual use of the space. For example, a small employee break room containing
tables and chairs within a factory is to be calculatt:d based on 15 ft2/person (1.4 m2/
person).
lt should also be noted that restaurants or other similar food and drink establish-
ments with an occupant load fewer than 50 persons in a stand -alone building or in
a build ing of ano ther occupancy and not incidental to that predominant occupa ncy,
such as a 20-seat coffee shop, are classified as a mercantile occupanC)'· As above, the
occupant load is calculated on the actual use of the space; that is, 15 ft2/person ( I .4 m2/
person).

OCCUPANCY CHARACTERISTICS
Changes of use, or the multi use of assembly occupancies, could result in the application
of provisions that normally might not be considered necessary. For example, a building
 CHAPTER 28: Assembly Occu pancies

28·1A banquet half.

FIGURE

used as a place of wors hip must meet certa in, bas ic code requirements. Yet this same
building also might be used for dining, dancing, or other purpo ses totally foreign to
a place of worship, thus tr iggeri ng the need to meet additional code requirements,
such as increased width of the main en trance/exit to accomm odate hvo-th irds versus
one- half of the occupan t load. Assembly occ upan cies in schools, such as multipurpose
rooms, are rented or freely used for purpose s ot her than education and often take on
the character of exhibit halls. Such differing stud ent versu s publi c after-hours usage
may create differing main exit/entranc e locat ion and requir emen ts. 'The use of avail-
able space in hotels. banq uet rooms, shopping malls. and exhibit halls can also be very
creative. When inspect ing assem bly occupa ncies, therefore, inspectors must be sure to
ascerta in all intended or possible uses. It is also to remember that many assemb ly uses
will also occur in an ou tdoor environ ment and that many of the same rules govern .

INSPECTING THE PREMISES

As when they inspec t any other type of facility,insp ectors shou ld be seen by the owner
of the assembly occupancy as providing a ser vice to him or her by condu cting a fire
and life safety insp ection . Inspectors should always meet with the manager or owner of
the establishment before begi nning an inspectio n and shou ld encourage him or her to
acco mpany them on the inspection .
403
 SECTION3: Occupancies

Inspecti ng assembly occupancies is no d ifferent from inspect ing other occupancies.

Initially, a general "once-ove r" inspection should be done to spot any immediate con -
cerns, and the floor area of the building should be de termined th rough measurement.
With this information , inspectors can figure out the occupant load of the facility. 'TI1ey
should note any exterior violations, such as accumu lations of trash, obstructed fire
lanes, or imped iments to exit discharge . They shou ld also point out to the manager or
owner any misu se of extension cor ds, sloppy maintenance practices, or other areas of
concern so that these can be corrected before the facility is reinspected.
Specia l attention should be focused on rear or side doors serving as exits that his-
tori caHy are equ ipped with multiple illegal locks or barricades . \i\Then comp leting an
inspection, inspectors should develop and file a sketch or drawing of the facility for
future reference. This sketch shou ld show the exterior and interior wall arrangemen ts;
th e loca tions of all exit doors; the side yard, stree t, and property line clearances; and
any other condit ions of special hazard or conside rati.on of special interest to assembly
occupancies . 'TI1esketch should also .identify any portable sliding or folding partitions
used to divide rooms, as well as the occupant loads allowed for different room lay-
outs, such as tables and chairs, theater-style seating, danc ing, and so on. TI1issketch
is essentia l for future use, not only as a remind er of existi ng conditions but also, more
importantly, as an easy reference to determine if an)' changes have occurred since the
last inspection.
Inspectors sho uld keep a permanent checklist to Indicate the construction of in -
terior and exterior walls, floor and roof coverings, the flame -spread ratings, the type
of heating, the lighting and electrica l systems and their cond itions, the available fire
protection devices and systems, and recent approved alterations. This checklist will be
useful for future insp ections.

Occupant Load
The intended use of the pr emises and the number of ex.its in excess of the minimum
number required will influence the max imum allowable occupant load . If the use of
the occupancy has changed since the last insp ection, the maximum allowab le oc-
cupant load probably has changed, too. If it is a multipurpose space, the inspector
should review an)' changes that \\ ou ld affect the variations described in the origina l
sketches and sho uld change the sketches accordingly . NFPA 101® contains require-
ments for calculating the occupant load. If the allowab le load has changed in any way,
the inspector sh ould ask the ow ner to provide a new "maximum occupant load" sign
and display it as required, provided the means of egress are still acceptab le for the new
occupant load.
In rare instances, a reduced occupant load may have been approved based on the
available egress capacity of the existing egress system. Established occupant loads
sho uld be posted promin ently to ens ure that not only the owner but also the manager ,
opera tor, and occupants are aware of the limitations. Occupa nt loads for multipurpose
rooms shou ld be posted for each approved use, such as tables and chairs, theater seat -
ing, danc ing, and so on. Posting load figures will also help the inspector determine
whether the occupancy is overcrowded.

404
 CHAPTER 28: AssemblyOccupancies

In some cases, a method to meter the number of occupants who come in must be
put in place by the owner. 111ismay be through a ticket admission policy or a restricted
entry policy that keeps account of occupants who arrive and depart.

Means of Egress
Exiting i.s the most cri tical of all requireme nts for any assembly occupancy. Whereas
the probability of a fire in an assembly occupancy might be low, the potential for loss
of life once a fire occurs is extremely high . A fire of any magnitude can easily result
in a large number of injuries and deaths. 111erefore, it is essential that assembly oc -
cupan cies have enougl1 egress capacit}' to accornmoua le the number of people likely
to occupy the space and that they be properly located, easily accessible, and well
maintained.
An NFPA 101® requirement often overlooked when dealing with increased occupant
load s is that eg ress apacity hould b e calculated mor e conserva tively when occupants
are seated in rows of chairs versus other seating arrangements. The egress capacity is
calculated using a factor of 0.22-in. (5.6 -mm) per person when occupants are seated
in rows of cha irs versus a factor of 0.2-in. {5.1-mm) per person for other seating ar-
rangements. A life safety evaluation is an added requirement for assembly occupancies
having an occupant load in excess of 6000 people. The life safety evaluation is an as-
sessment of what is expected to go on in the assembly occupancy along with a yearly
assessment of the following conditions:
l. Nature of events and the participants and attendees.
2. Access and egress movement, including crowd density problems.
3. Medical emergencies.
4. Fire hazards.
5. Permanent and temporary structural systems .
6. Severe weather conditions.
7. Earthquakes.
8. Civil or other disturbances.
9. Hazardous material incidents within and near the facility.
10. Relationships among facility management, event participants, emergenC}' re-
sponse agencies, and others having a role in the events accommodated in the
facility.
Inspectors must ensure that conditions altered since the last inspection have not
compromised or blocked egress routes . If any alterations or renovations have been
made since the last inspection, the inspector must be sure that travel distances to exits
have not been increased beyond the ma xim um allowed. \i\There exit paths merge, the
path of travel must be wide enough to accommodate the combined occupant load that
can be expected to use the individual paths of travel before they merge.
All exit doors must open easil}', with no more than 15 lb (6.8 kg) of force necessary
on the panic bar to release the latch. fnsp ec tors must ensure that exit doors are not
chained or padlocked closed . Attention should be focu sed on the exterior of exit doors
for park ed cars or refus e dumpsters that can prevent the doors from opening fully.

405
 SECTION 3 : Occupan cies

Life safety requirements, particularly those relat ing to egress, mu st be maintained at

all tim es.
Inspec tors must no t allow registra tion booth s, head tables, projection scree ns, ticket
booths, turnstiles, revolving doors, guide ropes, and so on to obstruct any means of
egress . When loos e cha irs are provided, setti ng up and mainta in ing proper aisles is a
par ticularly difficult prob lem. Normally, loose chai rs must be ganged - th at is, con-
nect ed to each other - wh en th e number of chair s exceeds 200.
'The allowable config ura tion of aisles will vary depending on th e type of sea tin g
provided - that is, banqu et or conferenc e-type tables, auditorium/theater sea ting ar-
rangements, bleac hers, g rand stands, and so 011. Spaces between and around such seat-
ing must be adequate to provide access to aisles.
In addition, th e egress routes, as weH as th e exit and directional exit sig ns, should be
illuminated in both the normal and emergenC) ' mode .

Interior Finish
Another major issu e is th e flame spre ad rating of interior finish material s and the com -
bu stibilit y/flammability of decora tive mate ria ls, curtain s, drapes, and sim ilar finish-
ings. Int erior finish in stairways should always be Class A. In corridor s and lobbies,
it may be Class A or B. In th e genera l assembly area itself, it may be Class A or B;
however, .in assem bly occupancies of300 or fewer persons, Class C is permitted. Only
ra ted mater ial is aUowed.
From a practical sta nd point, flame spread rati ngs are difficult to ascerta in durin g
a field inspec tion . If yon are unable to see any markings on the produ cts, you should
ask whether the original constrn ction data, any subsequent installation d ata, or manu-
facturers' test data are available . You should also check th e inspection file for prior ac-
cep tance of exis ting materials. Co mbustib le, decora tive materials should be inhe rent ly
flame reta rd ant or be capable of be ing treated with a flame- reta rdan t compound. You
shou ld ensure that the flame -reta rda nt compound was appro pria te for the material
trea ted and done so in accordance with the product's listiJ1g. It might be possible to ob -
tain a sam pl e of th e decorat ive material from an unob trus ive location-along an inside
seam, for exa mple-and test it in a relatively wind -free lo catio n out side th e building
by placing the sample in a vertical po sition and setting a flame to the lower edge of the
material. If charring does not occur beyond th e flame and no flame or charrin g occurs
after the flame has been removed, the product can be assume d to be reaso nably safe. If
charring, dripping, or flaming co ntinu es, however, the product is suspect and sho uld
be re move d, replaced, or subjected to a standard fire test.

Building Services
The inh erent sources of ignition in assembly occupancies also include air -co nditioning ,
heating, an d refrigeration unit s or systems, electrical wiring, and electrical appliances,
as well as conditions that exist in commercial ki tchens. fq •ing and deep-fat cooking
constitute the greatest si ngle da nger. Because hood and duct fires are very common, the
operating con d ition of the hood and vent extinguishing and exhaust systems shou ld

406
 CHAPTER 28: Assembly Occupancies

be inspec ted carefully. Hoods and vents shoul d be exam ined to determine if there
has been a buil d-u p of grease. 1hese areas mus t be surveye d and cleaned cont inually,
some times da ily. Make sure that the exliaust damper opens when the exhaust fan is
operated, approved filters are in pla ce, cooki ng equipment has not been substituted ,
and th at the fusible link has not been replaced or tampered with .
1he inspecto r should determine the t )'pe of heating system used in the facility and
the type of fuel used in the heating system an d shou ld ask the following que stions :
• l'v[ust the heating un it be sepa rated from the rest of the buil d ing?
• A re the walls, ceiling, and floor of proper construction?
• Arc all op en ings, including du ct open ing s, proper!) ' protected?
• Arc there any smoke detectors ou the downstrean1 side of filters in the air supply
or retur n system?
• Is there sufficient com bustion make-up air for the app liance if recently enclosed
by walls?
If the heating system fuel is liqu efied petroleum gas (LP gas) . the i1JSpector should
find out if the system has shu toff controls that activate automatically if the pilot light
goes out. Ts the system locate d where LP gas will pocke t or become trapped in the
buil d ing in the even t of a gas leak ? LP gas cylinders sho uld never be stored or used
insid e except under vet')' limited conditions. ·where is th e LP gas supply located? If
supply tanks are used, the inspector sho uld make sure th ey are properly ins talled, se-
cured, protecte d , and safegua rded against tam pering or accidenta l damag e and that the
cyli nd ers are stamped and des.igned for use wit h LP gas.
If the fuel is a flammable or combustible liquid , the inspector sho uld determine
wheth er the door openin g is diked. On gra vity feed S)'Stems . the insp ec tor should ver-
ify that there is an anti- siphon device and should m ake sure there is a fusible shutoff
d evice tha t will activate in the event of fire near the heat ing equ ipm ent.
When checking the elec trica l wiring and appl iances, the inspec tor should determine
wh et her any perman ent installation s h ave been mad e using wiring or equ ipment listed
only for temporary use and should ask th e following qu estions:
• Are the electric circu its large enough to handle the expec ted load?
• Are the non-current -carryi ng me tal parts of p ortable and fixed electrically oper-
ated equipment properly grounded?
• Have any electr ical extens ion co rds been approved for th eir intended use and are
they being used properly?
If the inspector has any doubts about these items, h e or she should have the com -
munity's elect rica l inspector make the de term ination.

Smoking
Smoking is not always prohibited in assemb ly occupan cies, with on e excep tion: smok-
ing is never allowed in theaters or assembly occ upancies simila r to theaters, such as
facilities host ing stage shows and concerts. The prohibition or smoking in resta urants
is beco min g more popular, and althou gh thi s esse ntially is a health- related issue, no t

407
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

a fire-related issue, the inspector should be on the lookout for unsafe locations, such
as stock rooms within the building, where smoking occurs during inclement weather
conditions .

SPECIA SAFEGUARDSFOR UNIQUE

OCCUPANCIES
Stages and Projection Rooms
Stages and enclosed platforms present unique hazards associated only with assem-
bly occupancies, and they require special safeguards, such as protection of the pro-
scenium wall, including the proscenium curtain; automatic sprinklers above and
below the stage; and automatic venting. Motion picture projection rooms may re -
quir e special supply and exhaust air, egress, and port openings, all of which must be
protected . They also may require room enclosure and proper working space. Projec-
tion machines require individual exhaust capabilities, which vary with the type of
equipment. Projection rooms, in which cellulose nitrate film is used , must comply
with NFPA 40, Standard for the Stomge nnd Handling of Cellulose Nitmte Motion
Picture Film.

Exhibitsand Trade Shows

Because promoters and exhibitors are often creative in what they want to do and with
the materials they want to use, exhibits and trade shows can be challenging to inspect
(FIGURE 28·2).TI1einspector should review the products that will be displayed, as well
as the exhibits, and closely review special provisions in NFPA IOI® for help with this
difficult assignment.
Most larger facilities accommodating diverse venues will have approved plans for
each venue clearly identifying egress aisles, temporary storage, crowd managers, and
so forth. vVhen inspecting exhibits and trade shows, the inspector should make sure to
have a plan that shows details of the area, the booth arrangement, the fire protection
equipment, and so on . TI1econstruction of exhibit booths should be ofnoncombustible
or limited combustible materials, and curtains, drapes , acoustical materials, decora-
tions, and so on should be flame retardant. Multilevel booths and those greater than
300 ft2 (27.9 m2) should be sprinklered when in sprinklered occupancies. Access must
be plainly visible, and the travel distance inside a booth to an exit access aisle should
not exceed 50 ft (15 m).
Cartons and crates should be stored in a room separated from other portions of the
building with construction that has a 1-hour fire resistance rating and sprinkler protec-
tion. Cooking devices should be limited in number and protected with sprinklers or
some other form of extinguishing agent.
The inspector may also have to deal with motor vehicles displayed in this type of
occupancy. 1he electrical system on vehicles should be disconnected to reduce igni-
tion sources, and fuel tanks should be sealed. Fueling and defueling should not be
408
 CHAPTER 28 : Assembly Occup ancies

28·2Trade show.
FIGURE

allowed insid e the structure . Additional concerns regardi ng sprinkler coverage arise
when structures or buildings are constructed within the facility during events like a
home show.

Special Amusement Buildings

Special amusement buildings present yet another life safety problem because they gen-
erally entertain customers by intentionally confusing them. Nonetheless, the means of
egress must be plainly visible and lighted during an emergency. Under certain condi -
tions, smoke detection systems ma)' be necessary. NFPA 101® requires that every spe-
cial amusement building be protected with automatic sprinklers. Movable or portable
specia l amusement buildings must also be protec ted, and the water supply must come
from sources approved by the au thority having jurisdiction.
NFPA JOJ®con tains specific criter ia within the means of egress port ion of the as-
sembly occupancy chapters for calculating the minimum width of aisle accessways and
aisles serving seat ing arranged in rows, as well as for seating at tables. In addition, spe-
cialized seating arrangemen ts such as grandstands and folding and telescopic seating
are contained within the specia l provisions portion of the assembly chapters.
TI1e requirem en ts governing grandstands, in add ition to establish ing minimum
spacing dimensions to ensure safe egress, contain structura l requirements for portable
grandstands to safeguard against collapse; size limitations on wooden grandstands in
the event of fire; and safeguards against fire for the area immediately beneath all types
of grandstands.

409
 SECTION 3: Occupanc ies

EMPORARYCOO KING
AND OPEN FLAMES
Inaddi tion to the sources of heat and open llame previou ly discussed, restaurant own-
ers often use table candles to enhance the atmosphere. This practice should be discour-
aged. When it is permitted, however, the candles should be placed in stable containers
or holders of noncombu stible construction that are designed not to tip over easily.1he
inspector should test one of the typical candleholders to ensure that the flame does not
come in contact with other combustible materials if it does tip over. Obviously, the test
. hould he performed outsid . Table carts with open llames used as food wnrmers or for
actual cooking are another potential source of ignition. 111many cases, food on these
tables is saturated with alcohol, which is then ignited. This activil)' is generally con-
ducted very close to the restaurant patrons. There is no established means of protection
again t the obvious hazards of this practice, except prohibition .
Both NFPA 101® and Nf PA 58, Liq11efied Petroleu111
Gas Code,limit the indoor use
of portable butane-fueled appliances in restaurant s and .in attended commercial food
catering operations to situations where the appliance is fueled by not more than two
I 0-oz (0.28-kg) LP gas cap.icily, nonrefillable butane containers that have a water ca-
pacity not exceeding 1.08 lb (0.4 kg) per container. Storage of cylinders is also limited
to 24 contai ners, with an addit ional 24 permitted where protected by a 2-hour fire-
resistance rated barrie r. 1he practice of bringing large propane or butane containers
indoors is common in restaurants and presents an extreme life safety hazard.
In places of worship, the congregation occasional!)• holds lighted candles and some-
times marches in procession with them. Whereas limited use of candles by designated
officials can be permitted for religious purposes, the general assembly participants
should not be allowed to hold any open flame devices.
Pyrotechnics and llame effects traditionally have been used on the stages and plat-
forms of assembly occupancies, particularly duri ng magic acts or shows. With the ad-
vent of discotheques and rock concerts, however, there has been a dramatic increase in
the use of features. 111is practice can create extremely hazardous conditions depending
on the type, volume, setting, and control exercised when they are used. See NFPA 160,
Standardfor /he Use of Flame Effects Before <111A11die11ce, and NFPA 1126, Standard
for the Useof Pyrotecl111i cs Beforea Proxi111ate Audience, for more information on this
subject. 111ereis also the tendency to overcrowd such facilities beyond the occupant
load allowed by permit. Limiting both of these conditio ns is essential to minimum life
safely, and this limitation must be enforced on a performance-by-performance basis.

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

On -site or built-in fire protection equipment includes portable fire extinguishers, in-
terior standp ipes and hose lines, automatic sprinkler systems, and fire alarm systems.
New assembly occupancies with occupant loads in excess of 300 persons are required
by NFPA 101® to be fully sprinklered, and some require sprinklers with an occupant
load as few as 50 persons such as nightclubs. Other methods of on-site or built-in fire

410
 CHAPTER 28: Msernb ly Occupanc ies

protection may also be used, and each system or item should be reviewed to determine
whether it is an approved method for the hazard protected. Inspectors should also re -
view the general condition of fire prote ction systems and, where applicable, supervise
performance tests.
When located in a multiple occupancy building, the assembly occupancy might re-
quire separation from the remaining occupancies by fire-resistive assemblies of various
ratings. Under these circumstances, openings in such assemblies must also be protect -
ed. Jn some instanc e , how ever, no separation is needed because the expos ure hazard
is low or nonexistent. In other instanc es, a 1-, 2-, 3-, or even a 4-honr fire-resistance
rated separation will be necessary. The specifics of these requirem ents will depend on
the applicable building code.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

ee the latest version of th e IFPA Ca talog for availabil ity of curre nt ed itions of th e
following docum ents.
NFPA 40, Standardfor the Storageand Handli11gof CelluloseNitrate Motio11Picture
Film
NFPA 58, LiquefiedPetroleumGas Code
NFPA 96, Sta11dardfor Ve11tilatio11
Controland FireProtectionof Co111111ercial
Cooki11g
Operations
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®
NFPA 102, Standardfor Grandstands,Foldingand TelescopicSeating, Te11ts,
a11dMem-
braneStructures
NFPA 160,Standardfor the Useof Flame E_O"ects
Beforean Audience
NFPA 1126, Standardfor the Useof PyrotechnicsBeforea ProximateAudience

411
 CHAPTER

29
EDUCATIONAL
OCCUPANCIES
JosephVersteeg

NFPA 10 / ®, Life Snfety Corle®, defines educational occupancies as buildings used for
gatherlngs of si.x or more persons, for four or more hours a day, or more than 12 hours
a week, for the purpose of instruction through the twelfth grade. Educational occupan -
cies include schools, academies, and kindergartens. Daycare facilities are not classified
as educational occupancies; they must meet the requiremen ts of Chapters 16 and 17
ofNFPA 101®, 2012 edition. Schools for levels beyond twelfth grade are not classified
as educationa l occupancies. TI1ey must comply with the requ irement s for business, as-
sembly, or other appropriate occupancies.

OCCUPANCY CHARACTERISTICS
The activities in educational occupancies can vary from education in a classroom with
contents of a low fire hazard to work in a laboratory or shop area where the contents could
pose a moderate or high fire hazard. Educational occupancies also typicall)' contain as-
sembly areas, such as aud itorium s, cafeterias, and gymnasiums, where the fire hazard is
low or moderate, the concentration of occupants is high, and persons using suc h assembly
areas may not be familiar with the facility. Where suc h assembly areas have an occupant
load of 50 or more persons, an assembly occupancy also exists within the same building
and the requirements of Chaple rs 12 and 13 from N FPA 101® must also be applied.
It is important for the inspector fully to understand the activities taking place and
the munber and ages of the occupants in the facility he or she is inspecting, because
this informat ion will affect whether the facility is subject to the requirements for edu-
cational occupancies or those for daycare occupancies.
The inspector should review applicable codes a nd previous inspection reports
before conducting the insp ection . Existing facilities must meet the requirements of
Chap ler 15 of NFPA JOJ®. New and renovated buildings and buildings whose occu-
pancy classification has changed - such as from residential to educational or daycare-
must meet the 1·equirements for new construction under NFPA 101®. If only part of a
bu ild ing is renovated or the occupancy of that part changes, that portion and its means
 CHAPTER 29! Educational Occupancies

of egress must meet the requirements of Chapter 43 of NFPA 101®, and the rest of the
building must meet the requirements of Chapter 15 for existing construction.
The inspector should cite aU code deficiencies, such as exit enclosure doors that are
propped open, even if they are corrected in the inspector's presence. If such violations
continue to app ear on future inspe ctions, legal action or suspension of the certificate of
occupancy might be required to correct the documented problem.
The insp ector should al o review drawings of the facility before conducting the in-
spection. If none are available, the inspector should suggest that the owner get them
from the architect for his or her own use in planning, as well as for future inspections.
In fact, this may be required by law, especially for public schools. Featur es, such as the
means of egress, are sometimes mor e obvious on a plan than when they are viewed in
th e faciJity. The inspector should check any conditions not in strict compliance with th e
code requirements that have been permilled by the authority having jurisdiction under
an "equivalen cy" agreement.

INSPECTING TH PREMISES
Occupant Load
Occupant load varies in ed ucationa l occupancies. It is based on a minimum of one per -
son for every 20 ft2 {1.9 m2) in classroom areas and one person for every 50 ft2 (4.6 1112)
in shops , laboratories, and similar vocational rooms. In gymnasiums or cafeterias used
for 50 or mor e persons, the occupant load is calculated using occupant load factors
for assembly uses. In conference rooms and teacher break rooms used for fewer than
50 persons, the occupant l.oad is also calcula ted using occupant load factors for an as-
sembly use, even though the room is not an assembly occupancy. TI1e occupant load
in such room s not having fixed seating should be posted at the room's main entrance
door. 1his posted maximum occupant load should be based on the available egress
width for the room's multiple uses and arrangement of furnishings.

Means of Egress
Corridors in schoo ls are a major component of the means of egress, and it is common
for them to be lined on eithe r side by classrooms and education support rooms . TI1e
corridors shou ld lead direct!) ' to exits or to other corridors that lead to exits, unless
previously approved by the authorit) ' having jurisdiction, Usually, corridors must be
enclosed by either 1-hour or 20-minute fire-resistance rated walls. TI1eymust have self-
closing latching doors . Transoms or other glazing that is part of a door assembly must
be either wired glass (permitted for certain ·existing installations only) or 20-minute
fire-protection rated glazing. Corridor wall windows that are not part of a door assem-
bly must be 45-minute fire-protection rated fire window assemblies.
There are exceptions to the required ratings and protection schemes in NFPA 101®,
especially in fully sprinklered buildings . Chapter 8 of NFPA 101® offers the deta ils on
the fire protection ratings of corridor walls and the rated openings therein. Chap ters 10
of this manual should also be reviewed when evaluating the openings.
413
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

The most important action to be taken when fire occurs in a school is evacuation;
thus it is imperative that the means of egress be maintained in a usable condition . Exit
stairways must be unobstructed, and they cannot be used for any other purpose, es-
pecially storage. Combustible materials are often found stored under stairs or in stair
enclosures.
Corridors, which should be at least 6 ft (1.8 m) wide, cannot be restricted. Often,
when a special function is being held, tables are set up and coatracks on wheels are
provided in the corridor. These items should not restrict use of the corr idor and cannot
be placed in such a way that they interfere with the means of egress. Athletic equipment
stored along the walls of the gymnasium must not encroach on the means of egress .
Door s swing ing into corridors must be arranged not to interfere with corr idor travel.
Corridor doors should not be wedged open; any wedges found should be removed , and
this code violation should be cited in the report.
Emergency lighting should be provided in designated portions of the means of
egress or as previou sly approv ed in interior stair s and corridor s, assembly use spac es,
portions of the building that are interior or windowless, and shops and laboratories .
TI1einspector should be sure banners, signs, and similar materials are flame retardant
and do not obstruct or cover exit doors, signs, or other egress components. TI1einspector
should note whether exit signs delineating the exits and paths to exits are illuminated and
visible from any point where the exit or exit access path to reach the exit is not readily
apparent to the inspector. Spotlight-type emergency lighting should be located so that it
illuminates the exit signs; it should not shine in the eyes of those looking for exits.
Security gates or doors chained to secure an area used for events taking place after
normal school hours from the remainder of the facility should not restrict the egress
facilities needed for the in -use area.
Inspectors should make sure that exit doors designed to be kept closed, such as for
enclosed stairways or through fire barrier walls, are self-closing or automatic closing
through the use of a system activated by the operation of approved smoke detectors
installed in accordance with the requirements for smoke detectors for door leaf release
service in NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code. TI1ey should check that
these doors close and latch freely. Inspectors should observe that all egress doors are
accessible, unobstructed, and cannot be locked except as allowed by the appropriate
code requirements. TI1eyshould open each exit and exit access door to determine that
it will open easily and leads to a public way or area of refuge. They should also check
the exit discharges from outside the building to be sure that the exit discharge points
are not blocked and that the paths to public ways are clear.
To facilitate law enforcement arrest and detention activities in schools having "re-
source officers;' educational occupancies permit the use of lockup facilities as outlined
elsewhere in this text.
A recent addition to NFPA 101® requires principals, teachers, or staff to inspect all
exit facilities daily to ensure that all stairways, doors, and egress routes function properly.
Doors in required smoke barriers should not be wedged open. If they are, have the
wedges removed and cite them in your report. If violations persist, the inspector may
require the installation of smoke detectors and magnetic hold-open devices. Smoke
barriers should be continuous from outside wall to outside wall and floor slab to floor
414
 CHAPTER 29: Educational Occupancies

or roof deck above. Because of the frequent high impact use of cross-corridor doors,
they should be inspected closely for proper operation when opening and closing.
Preschool, kindergarten, and first-grade students must not be located above or be-
low the floor of exit discharge. Second-grade students must not be more than one story
above the floor of exit discharge, unless independent egress dedicated for their use is
provided.
Inspectors should review fire drill records to ensure that drills have been conducted
regularly. If school lockdown procedures require relocation within the building instead
of egress to the exterior, the inspector should review the protocols and procedures, as
well as the records for the relocation drills.
ff there are any signs of remodeling or renovation, the inspector should check that
all egress areas still meet requirements for egress capacity, travel distance, illumination,
and marking. Travel distances to exits must still be within required limits, and exits
must not have been eliminated where they are required.

Windows
There must be a window or door for ventilation and rescue in each room greater than
250 ft 2 (23.2 1112)occupied by students in buildings not protected by automatic sprin-
klers. This requirement does not apply lo toilet rooms and offices. The window or door
must be at least 20 in. (510 mm) wide and 24 in. (610 mm) high and have an area ofat
least 5.7 ft2 (0.53 1112). Existing educational occupancies allow for an alternative to the
window or door in nonsprinklered buildings.

Hazardous Areas
Fire experience has shown that hazardous areas in schools include janitor rooms, base -
ments, boiler rooms, storerooms, and closets. Fires have also started in workshops,
laboratories, classrooms, and auditoriums . In all educational occupancies, good house -
keeping is basic to safety to life from fire.
Housekeeping in basements must be of the highest order. Storage should be con-
fined to sprinklered areas or to separate storerooms that are properly segregated and
equipped with fire doors. The inspector should check that the doors are kept closed.
Laboratories in which hazardous chemicals and flammable liquids and gases are
used also deserve special attention. TI1eir location and the amounts of materials stored
in them should be noted, and this information should be passed on to the local fire
department. Inspectors should make certain that flammable materials are stored in
reasonable quantities in appropriate containers and cabinets . They should examine la-
bels on containers of chemicals to determine whether any have exceeded their shelflife
and whether any are unstable . In either case, the material should be removed from the
laboratory. Inspectors should watch for indications of chemicals that should be kept
segregated from others to prevent hazardous situations in the event of fire or acciden-
tal spills and should check that chemicals are discarded properly. Inspectors should
also check that laboratories are equipped with suitable fire extinguishers and fire blan -
kets . Laboratories must comply with the requirements of NFPA 45, Standard 011 Fire
Protectio1J for LaboratoriesUsingChemicn/s. Documentation should be available for
415
 SECTION3: Occupancies

th e inspe ctor to examin e to determine that testing and calibratio n of the fum e hood
are being perfo rmed as requi red. 11, e inspector shou ld also ensure that the hood is not
loca ted adjacent to the only means of egress from the room.
Ed ucation al and building maintenance wo rkshops are also potential haza rdo us ar-
eas , so the inspector must pay particular allent ion to housek eepin g in these areas. Oily
waste should be kept in self-closing containers until it is removed from the buildin g for
disposa l. ·n,e inspector should check sawdu st remova l eq uipmen t. Sawd ust suspen d ed
in the air is an explosion hazard. Scrap materia l shou ld be cleane d up after each class
and safely stored until ii is removed for disposa l. l11e inspec tor shou ld not e whether
equipment and mach inery appear to be well maintained and in goo d condition.
II' the occupancy has kitchen facilities, inspecto rs should exami ne them as the}'
would a commerc ial or restaurant kitchen . Tuer shou ld check for grease accumula-
tions on and around fryers, ranges, hoods, and filters, and they shou ld note whet her
the locations of cooking equipment and th e construction of the hood and ducts meet
code requirements . The fire protection equipment shou ld be exam ined to determ ine
th at it is in good condition, charged, and with in acceptable limits. The extinguishing
agents in the portable fire extinguisher near the hoo d and in the fire suppre ssio n sys-
tem mu st be compat ible. The inspector shou ld check that any deficiencies fou nd in the
fire protection system in previous inspection s have since been correct ed.

Interior Finish
In terio r finish should be Class A in exits such as enclo sed sta irways; it can be eithe r
Class A or B elsewhe re in the build ing. l11e inspec tor should ascer tain that drape r-
ies, cur tains, and simil ar furni shin gs and decora tions have been treated with a flame
reta rdant.
Teaching mater ials and stude nts' artwor k shou ld not cover mo re than 20 pe rcent of
the wall area (SOperce nt in sprinklered buildings). The inspector shou ld be especially
conce rned with seaso na l decorations - such as those for Halloween or Thanksgiv ing-
and the props used for theat rical presentations. Items such as car dboard, paper, or
cloth houses are often used for Halloween parti es, and combu stible materials such as
co rn stalks, straw, or paper are somet imes used for decoration. Special effects to be
used in theatrical produc tion s must meet the requ iremen ts of all applicable codes and
ord ina nces. Intum escent paints and surface coat ings can be used to reduce the surface
flame sprea d on interio r finish. However, some of th ese coa tings have a short life and
mu st be reappli ed frequently.

FIRE PROTECTION
In educa tion al o ccupancies, fire alarm systems arc often disabled. llms, the inspec tor
should locate the fire alarm control box and should check wh eth er:
• The system is opera tiona l.
• Any troubl e lights are on .
• TI1esupervisory signa l is silenced.
• Backup batt eries are in place and fully charge d.
4l6
 CHAPTER 29: Educational Occupancies

The inspector should check the condition of each manual fire alarm box for signs of
damage . The inspector should examine fire drill records to ensure that the building can
be evacuated in a reasonable time period. He or she should note whether there are any
recurring problem s when the building is being evac uated that might need to be cor -
rected, whether the fire alarm signal is distinct from the signal to change classes, and
when the system was last tested.

NONTRADITIONAL BUILDINGS
Flexible and pen-Plan Buildings
In addition to the features and conditions to be inspected in traditional school build-
ings, the inspector must also check additional items in flexible or open-p lan buildings.
Flexible and open -plan bu ildings are designed to have multipl e teach ing station s and
may have movable corri dor walls and partitions of foll height .
The interior furnishings in open-plan schools may be arranged to designate the exits
and paths of egress travel. 1l1e paths should be direct, not circuitous, and of sufficient
width to accommodate the occupan t load that will use the egress path. 1l1e inspector
should determine that the layout has not been altered since the last inspection without
the approval of the authority having jurisdiction.

Temporary Buildings
The use of modular or portable structures used to house classrooms is a trend that
presents a unique problem. These structures are on schoo l grounds, but they are de-
tached and are sometimes located great distances from the main school buildings and
on surfaces that would not support fire department vehicles.
1l1eschool fire alarm system should be audible, visib le, and capable of being activated
from the modu lar structures. If the temporary buildings have two-way communication
with the main school buildings and if they have a constantly attended receiving station
from where an alarm can be sounded, they do not need manual fire alarm boxes unless
required to have them by the authority having jurisdiction.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
foUowing document s.
NFPA 45, Standard 011 FireProtectionfor Labomtories UsingChemicals
NFPA 72, National FireAlarm and SignalingCode
NFPA 101®,Life Safety Code®

417
 CHAPTER

30

DAYCAREFACILITIES
Joseph Versteeg

Daycare facilities are divided into three classes: daycare occupancies, group daycare
homes, and family daycare homes. In all subclasses of daycare, the clients receive care,
maintenance, and supervision by persons other than relatives or legal guardians for less
than 24 hours per day.
Daycare facilities are not subject to the requirement s governing educational occu-
pancies, .in that the primary purpose of a daycare facility is other than education. In
add ition, daycare facilities withi.n places of religious worship are not required to com-
ply with the daycare occupancy requirements if they provide daycare only during the
religious se rvice . The concept behind this exemption is that the parents of the clients
will be in the same building attending the religious service and can assist with client
evacuation in case of emergencr,
Daycare occupancies are those facilities having more than 12 clients. l3ecause of the
greater number of occupants, daycare occup anc ies are subject to requirements that
limit their location within buildings based on construction type and the presence of
automatic sprinklers. They are also subject to requirements governing means of egress,
protection from hazards, and fire alarm systems. 'i-\1hen daycare occupancies are lo-
cated within buildings containing other occupancies, NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®,
require s that they be separated from the other occupancy by a minimum of a 1-hour
fire ba rrier.
Da)'care homes are div ided into two subclassifications. Group daycare homes pro-
vide care for 7 to 12 clients, and family daycare homes provide care for 4 to 6 clients.
Because of their smaller size, the location of daycare homes is not restricted based on
construction. In addition, means of escape and smoke alarms are used in lieu of means
of egress and smoke detection systems.
An important term used in the criter ia for classification of daycare occupancies
and homes is the word "client." Earlier editions of NFPA 101® classified daycare
 CHAPTER30: Daycare Facilities

occupancies based on the presence of children; however, the term "client" in

the current edition of NFPA 101® is used with respect to child or adult daycare
environments.

DAYCAR OCCUPANCIES
TI1e occupant load .in a daycare occupancy is t )'pically based on one person for each
35 ft2 (3.3 1112)of n et floor area used for daycare purposes. However, the occupant
load is permitted to be increased to a density greater than that calculated when
such an in crease is approved by the nuthority havin g jurisdi lion based on a dia -
gram demonstrating that all aisle, seating, and egress requirements continue to be
satisfied.
Each clien t-occuµied floor must have two remotely located exits . AH egress doors
are requ ired to swing in the dir ec tion of egress travel when serv ing a room or area
having an occupant load of 50 or more persons . When the daycare occuµanC)' serves
an occupant load of 100 or more persons, the method of releasing door latches and/or
locks must be accomplished by panic or fire exit hardware. Special attention should be
focused on the t)1pe of hardware installed on closet and bathroom doors to ensure that
closet doors may be opened from inside the closet and bathroom doors may be opened
by staff in the event of an emergency .
The inspector should careful]}' examine rear and side egress door s for the pres-
ence of delayed egress locks in buildings not having the required protection system(s),
multiple locks, or locks requiring special knowledge, all of which have been installed
to prevent unauthorized client egress. Tn buildings not protected by an approved su-
pervised automati c sprinkler system, each room or space that is normally subject to
occupancr by clients (other than bathrooms) 1nust have a door or window opening
directly to the outside. In new occupancies, the size of the window opening must be at
least 20 in. (510 mm) wide and 24 in. (610 mm) high, and it must provide an opening
of at least 5.7 ft2 (0.53 m2). Although a window of the same size is required in existing
facilities, NFPA 101® permits smaller-sized, existing awning-type windows, as well as
alternative escape route options.
TI1e inspector should determine the t)'p e of building construction and check
that it meets the minimum construction requirements based on the height of the
occupancy. vVhen determining compliance, the inspector should remember that
NFPA 101® does not govern the co nstru ction type of the overall building; rather
it establishes the permitted loc ation of the occupancy within a building based on a
part icu lar type of cons truction. For example, in a nonsprinklered, two-story build-
ing of I -hour or less construction, the first floor can be used for daycare; however,
daycar e use would not be permitted on any levels above or below the level of exit
discharge.
111erequired fire alarm system is to be initiated b}' manual means and by any detec -
tion and sprinkler srstems required by other code provisions. In new facilities and in

419
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

existing facilities caring for mor e than 100 clients, the lire alarm system should notify
the lire department b)' the most practical method allowed. Smoke detectors, if present,
must be connected to the building fire alarm system unless the facility is a single -room
center. Existing facilities are subject to an additional exemption ifaU clients are capable
of self-preservation and there are no sleeping facilities .

ARE AN AMILY
MS
Because of their smaller number of clients, group daycare and family daycare homes
typically occur in living units of apartment buildings or in private homes; they are,
however, not restricted to residential buildings and can be found in all types of occu-
pancies . In instances in whi ch care is provided on a temporary basis, with the parent
or guardian in lose proxim ity, the ro om o r area used for such a purp ose is exempt
from the daycare home requirements and is governed by the predominant occupancy
classification.
Each floor of a daycare home should have two remote means of escape , and the
travel distance to the nearest exit must not exceed 150 ft (46 m) . In addition, every
room used for living, sleeping, or dining purposes is required to have a second means
of escape that provide s an unobstructed route to th e outside, such as a door or qualify-
ing window. 1he use of loft areas that are accessibl e onl)' by ladders or folding stairs
is prohibited. Often overlooked are the requirements governing the interior finish of
walls and ceilings when the daycare home is located within a private resid ence. Interior
finish in occupied spaces should be at least Class C.
Single -station smoke alarms are required on all levels of the home and in all rooms
used for client sleeping, in accordance with the household fire-warning requirements
of NFPA 72®, Natio11a/Fire Alarm a11dSig11a/i11g Code. Smoke alarms should be pow-
ered b)' the building's electrical S)'Stem. Existing battery -powered alarms are permitted
where proper testing, maintenance, and battery replacement can be documented to the
authority having jurisdiction.

OPERATING PROCEDURES
Jn all instances, the daycare facility is required to have in effect a written fire emergency
response plan. 1he plan should be available to ernplo)'ees for review; and all employees,
including temporar)' staff: should be instructed as to their duties and responsibilities in
accordance with the plan. Month!) ' egress drills are also required.
At least once a month, a fire prevention inspection should be conducted b)' a trained
member of the facility, and a copy of the latest inspection report should be posted in
a conspicuous location. In addition, staff members should inspect all egress facilities
daily to ensure they are free of obstructions or impediments and available for use in an
emergenc)', TI1ere are also restrictions on the amount of artwork and teaching materi-
als att ached to walls and the presence of clothing in corridors.

420
 CHAPTER30: DaycareFacilities

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of cmrent editions of the
following document s.
NFPA 72®, Nntio11nlFire Alarm n11dSignaling Code
NFPA JOI®, LifeSafety Code®

421
 CHAPTER

31

HEALTHCAREFACILITIES
Joseph NI. Jardin,PE

NFPA 101®, L((e Safely Code®, defines a healthcare occupancy as a building, or any
portion thereo( used on a 24-hour basis to house or treat lour or more inpatients who
are considered incapable of self-preservation . 'foe reasons these people may not be
able to self-evac uate includ e physical or mental illness, age, or securit)' measures that
the patients cannot direct ly con trol. 1he building s or portions of buildings in question
include hospitals or other medical institutions, nurseries, nursing homes, and limited-
care facilities.
A limited-care facility is a building or part of a building that is used on a 24-hour
basis to house four or more persons who are incapable of self-preservation because of
age or physical limitation as a result of accident, illness, or mental limitations, such as
mental retardation or developmental disability, mental illness, or chemical dependency.
NFPA 101® also addresses the ambulatory healthcare occupancy, which is a building
or part of a buildi.ng that houses four or more patients who are receiving services or
treatment that may tempo rari ly render them incapable of self-preservation. During an
emergency, these outpatients require assistance from others. These facilities include
hemodial> 1sis units, free -standing emergency medical units, and outpatient surgical ar-
eas in which general anesthesia is used. Ambulatory healthcare facilities do not provide
overnight sleep ing accommodations, but the other categories of healthcare facilities
do provide such accommodations (see Chapter 32 for a discussion of ambulatory
healthca re occupancies) .

DEFEND-IN -PLACE THEORY

Healthcare facilities pose exceptional challenges when ii comes to relocating and/or
evacuating patients, especially along great distances and down stairways from the
upper floors of multistol'} ' building s to safe areas outdoors. The basic philo sop hy of
healthcare fire protection and life safety focuses on eliminating or minimizing the need
for patient movement.
 CHAPTER 31: Healthcare Facilities

Currently, TI1eJoint Commission and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services
(CMS) mandate compliance with the 2000 edition ofNFPA JOJ® for accreditation and
funding, respectively.TI1erehave been a number of revisions to NFPA 101® since 2000,
which arguably have increased patient and staff safety and enhanced patient care and
comfort while simplifying the application of the code to healthcare facilities. Corri -
dor use, suite design and use, occupancy separation, along with long-term care facility
"culture change" issues have all been revised and updated since the 2000 edition of
NFPA 101®. Inspectors should be aware that although compliance with the 2000 edi-
tion of NFPA 101® may be mandated, compliance with a more recent edition of the
code may be considered equivalent. \i\'hen inspecting facilities that rely on arrange-
ments permitted by a more recent edition of NFPA JOI®, the inspector should ensure
that the facility complies with the more recent edition as a whole.
The patients within a healthcare facility can remain safe even when in close
proximity to a fire, provided the corrido r walls have been constru cted properly ,
the appropriate smok e and fire barriers have been installed, if hazardous areas
that are likely to sustain a well-developed fire are protected or enclosed, and if
approved fire detection and suppression systems have been installed (FIGURE 31·1).
In many cases, this defend -in -place theory is not only desirable but also necessary,
especially in hospital intensive care units, cardiac care units , and operating room

Exam Aclivities

Patio
t t t
Doors-
34' wide AS
Mechanics/
room L,-- +- Nurses'
storage
slalion
@
++---+-+ --+-- ToileVshower
- ~-1----< 1--- -1-- Smoke
barrier barrier-
1-hour
rated;
complete
Administrative to deck
offices above

~+--- - Palient Corridor

Doors - sleeping walls -
rooms 1-hour
44 • wide '-- ----'Ti,..__ _ _,
rated
or AS

@ Exit marking ® Hazardous area; requires

1-llour enclosure, AS, or both

@ Automatic sprinkler -+ Denotes required exits

connection

31-1Typical designof a healthcare facility.

FIGURE

423
 SECTION3: Occupan cies

suites, where movin g a patient could result in major health complications or even
death.
A11tomaticsprinkler protection is requir ed througho ut all new healthcare facili-
ties to provide enhanced protection for patients and staff. Sprinkler system design
includes use of listed quick response and residential spri nklers installed throughout
smoke compartm ents containing patient sleeping rooms. The rapid activation of these
specially designed spr inklers is intended to restrict the spread of fire and the associ-
ated products of combustion, thus reducing the need for extensive patient relocation
or evacuation.
Prior to conducting the physical inspection of the facility, you should review floor
plans to determine the location of smoke barriers, areas designated as a suite, and
occupancy separations (FIGURE 31·2).Also, ongoing and recently completed renovations
should be reviewed for compliance with the NFPA 101® sprinkler provisions for reha-
bilitated healthcare facilities. Each smoke compartme nt involved in what is deemed a
major rehabilitation requires prinkl ers thro 11gh ul lhat smoke compa rtment. Quick
response or residential sprink lers are required within those smoke compartments that
cont.iin p.itient sleeping rooms. It is also dur ing this preinspection prep.iration that )'OU
must denote sprin klered versus unsprinkl ered areas of the building so that proper code
compliance can be evaluated.

Area A

~ Smoke barr ier 2

Area B
Area C

Exit stair 2

31-2Floor plan highlighting the location of smoke barriers and three smoke
FIGURE
compartments.
424
 CHAPTER31 : Healthcare Facilities

A IENT PRO ECTION

NFPA 101® emphas izes I.he protection and ultimate evacuation of patients from the
immediate fire area to a safe area of refuge until the lire has been ext inguished. The
initial level of pat ient protection actually begins within the patient's sleeping room.
Within nonsprinklered buildings, newly procured patient furn ishings and mattresses
must meet both cigarette ignition resistance and heat release rate test limitations . Drap -
eries, cur tains, and cubicle curtains must be flame retardant or proved to comp!}' with
either NFPA 70 l, Strmdnrd 1\tie thods of Fire Testsfor Flmne Propngntionof Textiles nnd
Films, or NFPA 289, Stn11dardivlethodof Fire Test for J11diJ1idunl FuelPackages,fire tests.
Decorations, such as family-produced paintings or photographs, are permitted, provided
there is no hazard of fire development or spread. There are no restrictions applicable to
the clothing or bedding materials a patient may use.

Corridor S p ration
rf the fire is not contai ned within its im-
1nediate area of ignition , containment is
attempted within the room . In spr inklered
smoke compartments, corr idors mu st be
separa ted from all other areas by walls
======;::I
t
JLJ[[J[ Non-fire-rated ·

==i'110□[
tha t form a barrier to limit the transfer
of smoke. rn nonsprinklered smoke com-
partments, these corridor walls must have
a fire-resistance rating of at least 30 min -
utes and must extend vertical!}' through Plan View
any concealed spaces, from the floor slab
to the underside of the floor or roof slab
above. Verifying the continuity of corri-
dor walls to the floor deck above within
the nonsprinklered smoke compa rtment
will be very difficult and time consum - Wall and ceiling combined
ing. Vision pan els in these fire-rated walls
are permitted only if they are made of
approved, fixed fire window assemblies
or of previously accepted wired glass
construc tion , installed in steel or ot her
resist passage of smoke

~ -Non-fire-rated

approved metal frames, and .limited in Cross Section View

size to 1296 in2 (84 rn2) (FIGURE 31·3and
FIGURE 31-4). FIGURE 31-3 In sprinklered smoke
Door opening s in the mandatory compartments,corridors must be separated
30-minute fire-rated corridor walls must from all other areas by walls that form a
be protected by l ¾ in. (44 nun) solid, barrierto limit the transferof smoke.
bonded wood-core doors or labeled Source: hornthelifeSafety
bhibit 18.25 (odeHandbook.
20-minute do ors. Although self-closing devices are not required, these corridor doors
must be equipped with approved positive latch ing hardware. Vision panels for these
425
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

7nnn1
doors can only be approved fi.."l'.edfire
window assemblies or previously ac-
cepted ¼-in .-thick (0.64cm) wired glass
mounted in approved frames no larger
than 1296 in.2 (84 m2). As with corridor
walls, corridor doors in fully sprinklered
t l~-hr fire-resistance rating

buildings need not be fire -resistance

rated, but they must be constructed so
as to limit the transfer of smoke and be
equipped with positive latches.
_JOltJL Plan View

Spaces Open to the

Corridor
Despite the general requirement that
all spaces must be separated from the
t
Suspended
ce iling %-hr fire-resistance
healthcare corridor, if properly arranged rating
and protected, certain spaces are permit -
ted to open into a corridor. Nurses' stations,
waiting rooms, lounges, day rooms, and
patient locker areas are some examples.
\•Vhereas nurses' stations are always per- Cross-section View
mitted to open to a corridor, these other
FIGURE 31-4In non-sprinklered smoke
spaces need to be properl)' configured
compartments, corridors must be separated
and protected (FIGURE 31-5).Tlme spaces
from all other areas by walls that have a
cannot be used for patient sleeping or treat-
1/2 hour fire-resistance rating. Source:
Exhibit
18.25
ment nor can these spaces be occupied as fromthelifeSafety (odeHand
boo
k.
hazardous areas. Features including auto -
matic sprinkler protection with.in the
open space and corridor, automatic
smoke detection within the open space
and corridor, and direct staff supervi-
sion of the open space need to be prop-
erly combined to permit the open space
(FIGURE 31-6). You must also ensure
that the furnishings associated with the
open space do not encroach upon the
required corridor width .
Dev.ices that permit the passage of
smoke, such as transfer grills or under-
cuts, may be installed only in certain
doors to rooms that are unlikely to FIGURE 31. 5 Spaces open to a corridor.
contain flammable or combustible
materials. Small miscellaneous openings, including mail slots and pass-through win-
dows, are also permitted in corridor vision panels or doors in smoke compartments
426
 CHAP ER 31: Healt hcare Facilities

e
CJ 0 0 0 0 X 0
L]
CJ
• xo 0 X 0

X
• • 0 0

o - Quick -response sprink ler

o - Standard-response sprinkler
X - Smoke detector

FIGURE 31-6 Automatic sprinkler protection and smoke detection wit hin the open spaceand
corridor and direct staff supervision of the spaceneed to be properly combined to permit the
open space.Sou rce:b:hibit 18/19.lJ
fromthrlife5ofety(ode
Ho111Jbook.

that do not contain sleeping rooms, provided their size is limited and they are located
in the lower portions of the wall.
During the fire safety inspection, you should check the integrity of all the required
fire-rated and srnoke-resistant corridor wall and door assemblies and verify that all
spaces open to the egress corridors are adequately arranged and protected.

Smoke Barrier Compartm ntation

Because history has shown that smoke is the cause of most fire deaths, proper protection
against smoke migration must be installed and properly maintained in a healthcare
facility. Smoke barriers are used to subdivide certain healthcare floors into separate
smoke compartments into which patients can be safely relocated without having to
change floors or leave the building.
In new facilities, smoke barriers should be found on each floor used for inpatient
sleeping or treatment and on each floor with an occupant load of 50 or more (regard-
less of use). Existing facilities are required to subdivide every floor housing more than
30 sleeping patients.
In new buildings, smoke barriers should have at least a 1-hour fire-resistancerating; in
existing buildings, they should have at least a 30-rninute fire-resistance rating. All smoke
barriers must be horizontallycontinuous and verticallycontinuous from floorslab to floor
or roof slab above,passing through all concealedspaces. A major challenge in many health-
care facilityinspections is verifyingthat no unsealed penetrations exist within the smoke
ba1-riers.Thisrequiresan exhaustiveinspectionofthesmokebat:rierwall,includingareasabove
the ceiling.Each smoke compartment must be no larger than 22,500ft2 (2090m2),and the
traveldistance from anypoillt in the building to a smoke barrier door must be no fartherthan
200 ft (61. m).
427
 SECTION3: 0ccup,mcies

Openings in smoke barriers must be protected by substantial doors that are 1-¾-in.
(4.45-cm) solid, bonded wood-core doors or doors constructed to resist fire for at
least 20 minutes (i.e., 20-minute labeled doors). In new buildings, these doors must
be equipped with vision panels of approved fixed fire windows. Although these doors
must be self-closing, they need not be a part of a rated fire door assembly; hence, they
are not required to latch positively. However, in new construction, rabbets, bevels, or
astragals are required along the edges where the doors meet to prevent smoke from
crossing the barrier. In most cases, these doors are held open by electromagnetic
devices, which must be arranged to release upon door release detector activation, upon
sprinkler water flow, and upon fire alarm initiation. Check the constrn ction, ana11ge-
111e11l,and operation of all smoke barrier doors and their associated release devices and
automatic closers as part of each routine inspection .
Smoke dampers are required in non -fully-ducted smoke barrier penetrations in
both new and existing facilities, as well as in those ducted smoke barrier penetrations
where spr inkler protection is not provided in each adjacent smoke compartment. You
should visually examine the smoke damper installations and, if possible, check their
operation. Specific requirement s for these smoke barriers may be modified when an
engineering smoke-control system is installed in accordance wi.thNFPA 92, Sta11dard
for Smoke ControlSys/ems.Details about new and existing smoke barriers are provided
in FIGURE 31-7and FIGURE31·8.
No smoke damper required

Vision
panel:
I required
I
-► I
I
-Latching:
Smoke not
led I
detector (if required
I
automalic-
closing)

rni:
.~4~~~~-
·~
or "20•mi n" door / 7

411'2in. (1055 mm) clear-hosp ital or nursing home;

32 in. (810 mm) clear-psych iatric hospital or
limited care; sliding doors permitted

f lGURE 31-7Smokebarrier specifications with no smoke damper required. Source

: Exhibit 18.30hornthe
lifr 5ofe
tyCodeHandbook
.

428
 CHAPTER 31: Healthcare Facilitie s

Smoke damper (not required if bolh

compartments sprinklered and quick-response
sprinklers used in patient sleeping comparlmenls)

jr;;f
Automati c
I
Smoke detector

ice

Vision panel:
, permilted

+-Latching:
not
required

in. -- ~~
1.¾ (4: ~h~;
~1~)
or "20-mln " door; / Y
single door permitted 32 in. (810 mm) clear width or
34 in. (865 mm) door leaf width;
sliding door permitted

FIGURE 31-8Smoke barrier specilications with no smoke damper required. Sou

rce:Exhibi
t 1831 fromthe
UfeSafelyCodeHandb
ook.

The use of approved, labeled fire door assemblies is particularly impor tant for verti-
cal openings, such as stairways and service shafts; in some cases, they also are used
to compleme nt hazardous area separat ion. You must ensure that doors a re equipped
w ith self-closers and pos itive latching hardwar e and that doors are ind eed closed, not
wedged or propp ed open.
Th e actual construction type of a building - that is, the combustibility and the fire
end urance of th e struc tur e- plays a critical role in ensuring building int egrity during
a fire and in allowing tim e to relocate or evac uate patients . Because ac tual constru c-
tion specificat ion s are developed when a building is designed, your resp onsibil ity is
to ensure tha t the desig n features are ad hered to, the specified constructio n types are
ma inta ined, and alterations or modification s have no t compromis ed any of the fire
protectio n features, incl udin g construction type, fire-rated and smoke -resistant bar -
riers, and door assemblies . A common maintenance issue has been the integ rity of
the structural fire protect ion. Often, th e con crete steel encasing or the sprayed fire re-
sist ive material (SFR!'v1)ha s been remov ed during renovation. You should check for
missing ce iling tiles, because these are integ ral to the floor-ce ilin g and roof - ceil ing
assembly ratings. Spr inkler protection is also comp romis ed when ceiling panels are
not .in place .

429
 SECTION3: Occupan cies

Building Us Issues
In each inspection, you should check
for the proper certification of all new
interior finish materials, such as wall
coverings and carpet, to ensure that
they comply with the appropriate
Jlame spread index n1tings and
smoke developed index values based
on the area of installation and other
fire prote ction feature s.
Alcohol-based hand -rub (ABBR)
dispensers are commonplace in
healthcare facilities (FIGURE31-9).
TI1eir use and location are regu lated
by NFPA 101®. Individual dispenser
capac ity is limited to 0.32 gal (1.2 L)
for dispensers in rooms, co rridors,
and spaces open to corridors and to
FIGURE31-9ABHRdispenser.
0.53 gal (2 L) when located in suites
of rooms. Aerosol dispenser capacity is limited to 18 oz (510 g) of a Level 1 aerosol as
defined by NFPA 30B, Codefor the Mnn11fnct11re n11dStorageof AerosolProducts.ABBR
dispense rs can on ly be installed in corridors havin g minimum widths of 6 ft (1.8 m).
Not more than 10 gal (37.9 L) of fluid or 1135 oz (32.2 kg) of aerosol are permitted to
be in use (outside of a storage cabinet) within a single smoke cmnpartment. Dispens-
ers must be spaced at least 48 in. (122 cm) from one another and strategically located
relative to ignition sources, such as light switches and outlets (FIGURE 31-10). ABBR
disp ense rs may only be installed over carpeted floors within sprinklered smoke com -
partments. TI1esolution used sho uld not exceed 95 percent alcohol by volume.
Th e size of indiv idual soiled linen and trash receptacles and the cumul ative quantity
of collected soi led linen an d trash within a limit ed-s ize are a should be evaluated. If
located in a room prote cted as a hazardous area, th ere is no limit on container size or
total quantity of soiled linen or trash. However, outside of hazardous areas, receptacle
size is limited to 32 gal ( 121 L), and capacity is limit ed to 32 gal (121 L) of rubbish or
soiled lin en within a 64 ft2 area (6 m2) The density of containers should not be more
than 0.5 galfft2 (20.4 L/m2) (FIGURE 31-11).
Tile use and occupancy of what are considered sleeping or nonsleeping su ites need
to be verified. Emerge ncy depar tments and operating rooms are examp les of non-
sleep ing suites. Inten sive care units and car d iac care units are typically designated
as sleeping suites . Wh en these areas comply with th e NFPA 101® suite provisions,
the facility has more flexibility in terms of how the space is used and occupied. Spe-
cifica lly, the circulation space (hallway) within th e suite is exempt from the strict
corridor width, separation, and use limitation s. TI1e following is a cursory sum mary
of suit e provi sions .

430
 CHAPTER 31: HealthcareFacilities

>

X = 1 in. (25 mm)

I~,- Ignition source

□ - Dispen ser prohibited

from this area

FIGURE 31-10Dispensersmust be spacedat least48 in. ( 122 cm) from one another and
strategically located relative to ignition sources,such as light switches and out lets.
Source: 18.22horntheLifeSafety
Exhibit CodeHandbook.

431
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

Sleeping suites:
• Maximum size
• 5000 ft2 (464.5 m2).
• 7500 ft2 (696.8 m 2) if fully sprinklered or outfitted with smoke detectors.
• 10,000 ft2 (929 m2) if sprinklered and outfitted with smoke detectors and
provided with direct staff supervision.
• Suites greater than 1000 ft2 (92.9 m2) require two exit access doors .
• Travel distance from any point in the suite to a corridor must not exceed 100 ft
(30.5 m) .
• Separated from the remainder of the building by barriers meeting the corridor
separati on requ irements.
Nonsleeping suites:
• Maximum size: 10,000 ft2 (929 1112) .
• Suites greater than 2500 ft2 (232.3 m2) require two exit access doors.
• Travel distance from any point in the suite lo a corridor musl not exceed I00 fl
(30.5 rn) .
Egress provisions for non -pat ient-care suites are based on the occupancy and use of
the space.

Soiled linen room

(no limit size/density )

:) V
?
'v

v - Soiled linen container (32 gal [121 Ll) Storage room

0 - Trash container (32 gal [121 L]) (no limit size/density)

FIGURE 31-11The size of individual linen and trash receptacles and the cumu lative quantity of
soiled linen and trash within a limited-size area should be evaluated. Source
: Exh fromthelife
ibit 18/19.34
Safety
CodeHandbook.

MEANS OF EGRESS
Although the objective ofNFPA 101® requirements for healthcare facilities is basically
to protect patients in place, the importan ce of required exits cannot be ignored, Each
floor or fire section of the building must have at least two exits serving that floor. Travel
distances and egress capacities are contained in Section 18/19.2.6 of the code; increases
are allowed for travel distance and capacities in fully sprinklered buildings.
Exits throughout the building should be accessible so that patients requiring staff
assistance can be moved in the event of a fire. Corridors should be clear and wide
enough to relocate patients. New ho spitals and nursing homes are required to provide
432
 CHAPTER
31: Healthcare Facilities

corridors with 8 ft (2.4 m) of clear

width; new psychiatr.ic hos pitals
and limited-care facilities need to
provide corridors only 6 ft (l.8 m)
wide . Existing healthcare facilities
are requir ed to provid e corridor s
with 4 ft ( 1.2 m) of clear width.
Corridor use should be restricted
to pedestrian circulation. A pervasive
problem is storage in the corridor. The
salient question becomes whether the
article located in the corridor is "in
use" or "stored?" Generali}', patients'
charting stations, mobile medical
carts, and wheeled waste and linen
carts are acceptable within the corri-
do r because they are "in use:' Howeve1~
FIGURE31-12Stored items in a corridor.
be wary of what appear to be perma-
nently "stored" items, such as spare beds and broken biomedical equipment. Changes in the
2012 edition of the LifeSafetyCode® offer additional clarifications as to certain types of
wheeled equipment that are now permitted to be in the corr idor. An examp le of stored
items is provided in FIGURE 31-12.
111e exit discharge must remain unobstrncted. The use of exterior stair ways and
ramps and the operation of exterior door s must not be compromised by accumulations
of snow, ice, or any type of exterior storag e or parking .
In addition to permitting the use of delayed egress locking and access controlled
locking , locking arrangements necessary to protect the clinical well-being of patients
are permitted . In recent )'ears. these rules have also been revised to explicitly allow
locking arrangements for security needs as well as clinical needs. Psychiatric unit s,
wards housing Alzheimer patients (wanderers), and nurseries are areas of healthcare
facilities in which inspectors should expect to find a variety of these security systems
(FIGURE 31·13). Locks installed on exit doors must be of an approved type, and the staff
must be able to open them qu ickly and easily for the rapid removal of occupants, either
with the keys they carry at all times or by remote control. Thus. )'OU must make sure
that keys or other means of unlocking sec ured egress doors are availabl e to an appro-
priate number of on-duty staff to permit unimpeded relocation.

FIRE PROTECTION
Besides building construction features that serve to protect occupants from fire, all
health care facilities must have a combination of systems to warn occupants. detect
fires. and aid in fire control and extinguishment. Appropriat e exit illumination , emer-
gency lighting, and exit markings musl be provided along all means of egress, and
an approved manual fire alarm system must be installed. A special exception to the
fire alarm requirements for healthcare facilities permits the installation of manual fire
433
 SECTION 3: Occupan cies

FIGURE 31-13A neonatal care unit is one type of facility in which inspectors should expect to find
a locking airangement as part of the security system.

alarm boxes at nu rses' control stat ions or other contin uous ly attende d staff locatio ns
when located within an area such as a psychiatries ward, as long as such fire alarm
boxes are visible, are continuously accessible, and meet all travel distan ce requirements
(FIGURE 31-14).Although zoned and coded systems can be used, the operation of any
fire ala rm device mu st automatically provide a genera l alarm, perform all the con-
trol functions the device requ ires, and tran sm it an alarm automatically to the fire

FITR[
r.t)°ALARM1
-· . . "'.,
'
.•.
PUSH : ·-:

,. :,-_._··
' ··. .i~
: ' - ' ~
'

-
I • ' .l
' • • ' 1

'
.
" - .
'I' I

·•
......_,_...... -· ....
_

(a) {b)

31-14Manual fire alarm boxes.

FIGURE

434
 CHAPTER 31: Healthcare Facilities

departme nt by the most d irec t and reliable method approved by local regulations.
You shou ld make an operat ional check of th ese sys tems or, at the very least, review
their maintenance and lest reco rds.
Com plete automa tic spri nkler prot ec tion is required for all new facilities. All existing
nursing homes requ ire automat ic sprinkler protection as do exist ing high-rise ho spitals.
Listed quick respon se or re idential spri nkler s must be insta lled throughout the smoke
compa rtm ents conta ini ng pa tient sleeping rooms. Sprinkler protection is a l o required in
smoke compa r tments in all existing fa ililies that have undergone major rehabilitation.
Partial systems rnn be installed in place of th e fire-rated enclosures of hazardous areas
in exis tin g facilities. How ever, areas housing high -haza rd conte nts in new and ex.isling
bui ldings must be separated by L-hour cons tru ction and must be sprinklered. In existing
unsprinklered facilit ies that are being rehabili tated, complete spri n kler protection need
on ly extend to the smoke compartments in which the work is being done.
Because so much dep end s on sprinkler operation, it is vital to install and maintain
these S)'Stem s co rrectly . Essentially, th y must be installed in a co rdance with NFPA
13, Standardfor the Installatio11of Sprinkler Systems, for ligh t hazar d occupancy fire
challe nges. Specia l install atio n specifications are permitted for sys tem s with si..xspr in -
kle rs or less protecting isolated haza rdous are as in existin g facilities. All compone nt s,
includi ng the superv ision of the main sprinkler contro l valves , must be interconnected
elec trica lly to the proper components of th e fire alarm sys tem.
To ens ur e an adequa te means of first -aid firefighting, port able fire exting uisher s of
an appro pr iate s ize and type shou ld be provided a t locat ion s that a re accessible to staff at
all times. All build ing fire protection equ ipm ent, includ ing fixed fire ex tingu ish ing sys -
tems for particular hazard s such as kitchen hoods, cooking equipme nt, and specialized
co mpu ter equipment, must be mark ed to indicat e tha t it has been in spec ted, tested,
and maintained in accordance with lire code requirements and accepted enginee rin g
practices .
Hea lthca re fire safety depends on proper maintenance of all exits and fire
protection equipment and on proper staff pr epara tion . All utility, heatin g, ventilation,
air-conditioning, and other serv ice equipment should be insta lled an d maintained in
accorda nce with th e appli cable standards of th e National FireCodes®. Smoking regula-
tions and evac uation plans must be adopted, impl e ment ed, a nd promin e nt ly posted
th ro ugho ut th e facility. Fire exit drill s must be co nd uc ted quarterly on eac h shift to
familiar ize facility personnel with the sig nals and the emerge 11C)' actions requ ired
under var ied cond itions.
You shoul d review logbooks or databases that document fire protection systems
inspection testin g and maintenance and shou ld ensur e that the facili ty is keeping
records concerning the requ ired staff tra ining and drill requirements. Also, ensure th e
existence a nd proper locat ion of the facility's written fire safety plan; you shou ld also
review this plan.
Hea lthc are facilities may con tain several other occupancies. For examp le, auditoriums,
chapels, ,tnd cafeterias are co nsidered assembly occupancies; laundries, boiler rooms, and
maintenance shops are categor ized as industrial occupancies . Other occupancies tha t are
a sectio n of, or are contigu ous to, healthcare facilities may be classified as other occu-
pancy types provided they a re not m eant to house, treat, or provide cu stomary access
435
 SECTION 3: Occupan cies

to healthcare patients and are adequately separated from the healthcare occupancies
b)' construction with a fire-resistance rating of at least 2 hours. Consult the appropriate
chapters in this text for help in inspecting these and the business occupancies- officeand
administration areas-of any healthcare facility.Becauseof the number and nature of the
occupants, healthcare fire protection features must be maintained stringently to protect
those who are unable to protect themselves.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommendations

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NPPA 13, Str111dnrdfor the lnstnllation of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 25, Standard for tlie Inspection, Testing,and Mnintennnce of \i\fnter-BnsedFire
ProtectionSystems
NFPA 72®, National FireAlarm muf Sig11n/i11g Code
NFPA 90A, Standardfor tire lnstnllntio11of Air-Conditioningand VentilatingSystems
NFPA 92, Str111dard
for S1110ke -Co11trolSyste111s
NFPA 96, Standardfor \fe11tilatio11 Control a11dFireProteclio11of Co111111ercialCooki11g
Operations
NFPA 99, Codefor Health Care Facilities
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®
NFPA 289, Standard Method of Fire Testfor T11dividual FuelPackages
NFPA 701, Standard 1\lfethodsof Fire Testsfor Fla111e Propagationof Textiles and Fi/111s

436
 CHAPTER

32
AMBULATORY
HEALTHCAREFACILITIES
JosephM. Jardin,PE

Chapters 20 and 21 of the 2012 edition of NFPA 101®,Life Snfely Code®, contain the
requirements for new and existing ambulatory healthcare occupancies, respectively.
Older editions of NFPA 101® had included the ambulatory healthcare facility require -
ments within the chapters dealing with healthcare occupancies.
Ambulatory healthcare facilities are defined as buildings or portions thereof
used to provide services or treatment simultaneously to four or more patients on an
outpatient basis that renders them incapable of self-preservation, or, because of the
natme of the injury or illness, who are incapable of self-preservation. These outpatients
require staff assistance as a result of the treatments provided and/or the anesthesia
administered . Day surgical centers, outpatient surgical practices, group oral surgery
centers, free-standing emergency medical centers, and hemodialysis centers are exam -
ples of ambulatory healthcare occupancies. Unlike l1ealthcare occupancies, there is no
intent on the part of the ambulatory healthcare center to provide the outpatients with
overnight accommodations.
When the intent or effect is not that ofrendering four or more patients incapable of
self-preservation simultaneously, as in typical dental practices and physicians' offices,
an ambulatory healthcare occupancy classification is not appropriate. Conventional
medical and dental practices are classified as business occupancies. Medical office
buildings, which might consist of a collection of separate dental and medical offices,
are treated as business occupancies rather than ambulatory healthcare occupancies.
Even if the total number of "incapable" patients exceeds three among the collection of
separate practices, as long as none of the individual practices exceeds three incapable
patients, the entire building is classified as a business occupancy.
Similar to the challenge for healthcare occupancies, patient relocation and evacuation
create problems for ambulatory healthcare facilities. lhe procedures involved, surgical
and nonsurgical, combined with the administration of anesthesia, place most of the
responsibility for patient safety on the facility staff. Ambulatory healthcare occupancies
are required to be compartmented using smoke barriers similar to those in health -
care occupancies . Also, similar to the healthcare occupancy approach, ambulatory
 SECTION3: Occupancies

healthcare facility staff members are required to understand the evacuation and
relocation plan as well as participate in frequent fire drills.
To inspect ambulatory healthca re occupancies properly, you must be familiar
with the business occupancy provisions . NFPA 101® requires ambulatory healthcare
facilities to comply with its chapters dealing with business occupancies as supplemen t-
ed and modified by the ambulatory healthcare chapter provisions.

MEAN 0 EGRESS
In general, the facility's means of egress should be arranged in accordance with the
NFPA JOJ® provisions found in its business occupancy chapters . The inspe ctor
should ensure that all doors are operable in the egress direction and that furnish-
ings or stored items are not blocking access to the means of egress doors. Required
egress doors are not permitted to be locked from the egress direction. Special locking
arrange ment s (e.g., delayed egress and access -con tro lled egress doors), if provided,
are permitted as long as the conditions in Chapter 22 of this text, 1'vleansof Egress,
are followed. If delayed egress devices are present, the building should be either fully
sprinklered or outfitted with smoke detectors. Automatic doors (normallr held
open) installed in exit passageways, horizontal exits, or hazardous area enclosures
are required to release upon manual fire alarm initiation, in addition to the related
smoke detector initiation.
Doors serving diagnostic and treatment areas shou ld provide at least 32 in. (81.3 cm)
of clear width; however; existing 34 in. (86.4 cm) doors (door leaf width) are permitted
to remain in place, even if they provide less than 32 in. (81.3 cm) of clear width. Evaluate
corridor and passageway width to ensure there exists a minimum of 44 in. (111.8 cm)
of clear width. For corridors that are 6 ft (183 cm) or greater, alcohol-based hand-rub
(ABHR) dispensers are permitted to project up to 6 in. (15.2 cm) above handrail height.
Each floor should be provided with at least two remotely located exits. Rooms or suites
exceeding 2500 ft2 (232 m2) are required to have at least two means of egress.
You should evaluate the travel distance. In nonsprinklered facilities, the travel dis-
tance should not exceed 150 ft (45.7 m). The travel distance within a sprinklered facility
is permitted to be 200 ft (61 m) (FIGURE 32-1).

X
''
''
1=:;;;;,1~=1·,
'- - - Exit access corridor - - --- ---- - --- ~ E

,.__Smoke barrier

Maximum distance:
X- E ~ ~ 150 ft (~46 m) [~200 fl (~61 m) if building is sprinklered}

FIGURE
32·1Travel distance in an ambula tory healt hcare facility.
438
 CHAPTER 32: Ambulatory Healthcare Facilities

A visual survey should be performed to ensure that all stairs, corridors , passageways,
walkways, and ramps are properly illuminated and provided with eme rgency lighting.
Perform a functional check of the emergenq• lighting system to verify operability and
confir m that exit signs a re provided at the exits. Where there might be a degree of con -
fusion, exit signs should also be placed within the means of egress in addition to tho se
at the exits. Confirm that each sign is properly ill.uminated and that all the internally
illuminat ed sign s have operable bulbs.

PROTEC NF ATUR
Construction
In general, ambulato1·}1 hea lthca re centers are requi red to possess a minimum degree
of fire-resistance rated constrn ction. TI1e perm itted types of construction are based
on the height of the building (number of stories) and whether the building is sprin -
kler-protected. To determine the number of stories, inspectors should start counting
at the level of dischar ge and end with the highes t floor that may be occupied that con-
tains an ambulatory healthcare facilil)'· Based on the number of stories, using NFPA
101® (Section 20.1.6 for new building s and 21. l.6 for existing buildings), inspectors
shou ld determine the permitted type (s) of cons truction. During the walk-through of
the building, inspectors shou ld verify that the structural elements (colunrns, beams ,
bearing walls, floors, and roof) are protected lo the degree necessary to fall within a
permitted building constructio n type.

Hazardous Areas
Hazardous areas, including but not limited to general storage, woodworking shops,
paint shops, and boiler and furnace rooms, need to be addressed. These areas should
be either separated by 1-hour fire-resistance rated construction (with 45-minute fire-
protection rated door(s)] or sprinkler -protected. Even if the entire building is not
sprinklered, the hazardous area is permitt ed to be protected by a limited area sprinkler
system.

Laboratories
Laboratories considered lo possess a severe hazard are required lo be protected in
accor dance with NFPA 99, Codefor Hen/th Care Facilitiesand NFPA 45, Stn11dnrdon
Fire Protectionfor Lnbomtories Using Chemicals. According to previous editions of
NFPA 99, a severe ha zard exists if the typ e and quantities of comb ust ible materials
are sufficient to breach a I -hour fire-resistance rated fire barrier. 1l1is determination
requires a somewhat subjective judgment. You should evaluate th e types of chemi-
ca ls used within the facility and the method s in which the chemicals are used,
considering the flammability traits. Also check that any flammable or combustible
liquids are stored and used in accordance with NFPA 30, Fln11111rnble n11dCo111b11stible
Liquids Code.
439
 SECTION3: Occupancies

You should determine whether a sufficient number of the appropriate type of por-
table fire extinguishers is located within the laboratory and ensure that the fume hoods
comply with the requirements ofNFPA 99 and NFPA 45.

ABHR Dispensers
Commonplace for infection control purposes, ABHR dispensers are found throughout
ambulatory healthcare center s. TI1eir use and location are regulated by NFPA 10/ ®.
Individual dispenser capacity is limited to 0.32 gal ( 1.2 L) for dispensers in rooms,
corridors, and spaces open to corridors and to 0.53 gal (2 L) when located in suites
of rooms . Aerosol dispenser capacity is limited to 18 oz (0.5 L) of a Level l aerosol as
defined by NFPA 30B, Codefor the lvfmmfacture a11dStorage of Aerosol Products. Not
more than 10 gal (37.9 L) of fluid or 1135 oz (33.6 L) of aerosol are permitted to be in
use (outside of a storage cabinet) within a single smoke compartment. Dispensers must
be spaced at least 48 in . (1.2 m) from one anot her and strategically located relative to
ignition sources, such as light switches and outlets (FIGURE 32·2}. ABHRs may only be
installed over carpeted floors within sprinklered smoke compartment s. TI1esolution
used should not exceed 95 percent alcohol by volume.

Cooking Appliances
Cooking facilities judged to be of a commercial nature are required to be protected
in accordance with NFPA 96, Standard for Ve11tilatio11Control a11dFire Protectio11of
Commercial CookingOperations.However, domestic cooking equipment used for food
warming or limited cooking is permitted without special separation or protection
features (FIGURE32·3).

Fire Alarm System

Any building housing an ambulatory healthcare center is required to be equipped with
a fire alarm system. Inspectors should check to see if manual fire alarm boxes (pull-sta-
tions) are properly located and are accessible, and they should verify the operation of the
audible notification appliances. TI1efire alarm systems in newer facilities are required
also to provide for visible notification (for those occupants with hearing impairments)
and to have in place an automatic mechanism to notify the fire department (either
directly or through a central station).

Portable Fire Extinguishers

Inspectors should verify that portable fire extinguishers are properly distributed
throughout the facility in accordance with NFPA 10, Standard on Portable Fire
Extinguishers. Extinguisher locations should be readily identifiable. Inspectors should
ensure that the proper extinguishing agent is being used, based on the predominant
hazard, and they should verify that a monthly extinguisher inspection program is
being conducted.

440
 CHAPTER 32 : A,nbulatory HealthcareFacilities

X = 1 in. (25 mm)

I~I- Ignition source

□- Dispenser prohibited
from this area

FIGURE32-2Spacing of ABHRdispensersrelative to ignition sources in ambulatory healthcare

centers. Source:
Exhibit
18.22from
theUfeSafety
Code
Handbook.

Smoke Barriers
Based on the potential need to protect ambulatory healthcare patients in place, smoke
compartme ntation is required. Ambulatory healthcare centers located in multi-tenant
buildings are required to be separated from the other tenants by 1-hour fire-resistance

441
 SECTION3: Occupanci es

FIGURE 32-3Domestic cooking equipm ent used for food warming or limited cooki ng is
permitted w it hout special separation or protect ion features.

rated smoke barri ers. The facilities themselves are required to be divided into at least
two separate smoke compartments. Smoke detector-protected facilities of less than
5000 ft2 (465 1112)and sprinklered facilities of less than 10,000 ft2 (929 m2) are exempt
from smoke compartmentation. Required, smoke compartments are limited to 22,500
ft2 (2090 1112) in area .
vVhen inspecting smoke barriers, inspectors should ensure that the barriers are
continuous from the floor to the underside of the floor or roof above. Ambulatory
healthcare facility smoke barriers must also serve as I -hour fire barriers. Smoke barrier
doors must be self-closing and of at least I ¾- in.-thi ck (44.5-mm -thick) solid, bonded
wood-core construction. These doors are not required to latch. Labeled 20-minute fire
door s are also acceptable. These doors may normally be held open only if they are ar-
ranged to close automatically in respon se to a related smoke detector or the operation
of a building det ection or sprinkler system. The doors must close with no more than a
½-in. (3.2 -mm) clearance between the door and the frame. New doors require meeting
edge prot ection (rabbets, bevels, or astragals) (FIGURE 32·4).

EMERGENCY RESPONSE
ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING
AND FACILITYMAINTENANCE
Written Fire Safety Plan
Each ambulatory care facility is required to develop and maintain a written fire safety
plan . A copy of the plan is required to be available at all times at either the telephone
operator's po sition or the security office. Therefore, during the inspection, inspectors

442
 CHAPTER32: Ambulatory Healthcare Facilities

Minimum door widlh 32 i7. (8 13 mm) clear width

Public corridor
Offi ce minimum widlh
44 In. (1118 mm)

Office
Minimum of
spaces
two exit access
doors wh ere Ambulatory
area 2,500 sq II healthcare
(232 m 2 ) center 1-hr parlilions complete
from lloor- to-lloor or roof
deck above door open ings
protecled by 1¾-in.
1-hr smoke (44 .5 mm) self -closing,
barrier wood solid core doors
or equlvale nl

Dental
clinic

32·4Separation and subdivision in ambulatory healthcare centers.

FIGURE

should verify that a copy of the plan is in place. They should review the plan to ensure
that the plan provides for the following:
l. Use of alarms
2. Transmission of alarms to fire department
3. Response to alarms
4. Isolation of fire
5. Evacua tion of immediate area
6. Evacuation of smoke compartment
7. Preparation of floors and building for evacuation
8. Extinguishment of fire
Facility staff members must be instructed as to their responsibilities during a fire emer-
gency, as outlined in the fire safety plan . Inspectors should review documentation of
these staff instructions.

Fire Drills
NFPA JOI® req uires that the facility conduct quarterly fire evacuation drills, one per
shift. You should review a record of these drills. Infirm or bedridden patien ts are not
required to be moved during these d rills. The purpose of the required drill is to culti-
vate appropriate staff react ion and respon se.

443
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

Smoking Regulations and Space Heaters

Inspectors should verify that the facility has a smoking policy in place and should
ensure that smoking is prohibited in all areas where flammable liquids, combustible
gases, or oxygen are used or stored. Signs should be posted in each such area. Only
noncombustible ashtrays are permitted . Inspectors should ensure that 110 portable
space heaters are being used in patient care areas.

NFPACodes,Standards,and RecommendedPractices
See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 10, St{lfld{lrdforPort{lb/eFireExtinguishers
NFPA 30, Flammable and Colllbustib/eLiquids Code
NFPA 30B, Codefor the i'vlanr4"actureand Storageof AerosolProducts
NFPA 45, Standard on FireProtectionfor LaboratoriesUsingChemicals
NFPA 96, Standardfor \fe11tilntionControl and Fire Protectionof Co111111ercial
Cooking
Operations
NFPA 99, Code.forHealth Care Facilities
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®

444
 CHAPTER

33
DETENTION AND
CORRECTIONAL
OCCUPANCIES
Joseph M. Jardin, PE

Detention and correc tional occu pan cies are facilities in whi ch occ upant s are confined
or housed under some degree of restrai nt or securi ty. These occupancies provide
sleepi ng facilities for one or more residents who are prevented from taking act ion for
self-preservation-that is, leaving the building -becau se of security measures tha t are
not under their con trol. TI1erefore, detention and co rrectional facilities are requir ed to
be provided with 24-hour staffing. TI1eseoccupancies include jails, detention cent ers,
cor rect iona l insti h1tions, reformatories, houses of correc tion, prerelease centers, work
camps, train ing schoo ls, and other res iden tial-r estrai ned care facilities. Lockups such
as sec urity offices in shopping ma lls and prisoner holding facilities are also regulat ed
in pa rt as detention and correctional occupancies .
.Inspec tors sho uld recognize that detention and cor rect iona l occupancies present
unique fire safety concer ns by the ir very nature. Supervisory an d opera ting person-
nel are subst anti ally respo nsible for maintaining secur ity within the facility _in ord er
to prntect both the occupants and the general public. As a resu lt, the personnel may
be relucta nt to initiate evacua tion procedures or to take any othe r action that could
compro mise sec urity, even in the case of a fire. It is, therefor e, crit ical that detention
and correc tion al facilities be designed, cons tru cted, o pera ted, and maintai ned so as to
minimize the possibility of a fire.
De tent ion and corr ect ional facilities may be a complex of buildings that serve a
variety of p urp oses . TI1e facility may include assembly occupancies, such as gymnasi -
ums and auditoriums, as well as bu siness office areas, industrial shop areas, and storage
occupancies. TI1ere also may be an infirmary or simila r patient care areas classified
as healthcare occ upancies. Chapters 22 and 23 of NFPA JOI®, L!fe Safety Code®,
primarily addr ess the residential housing areas of th e facility; other areas sho uld meet
the applicable NFPA JOI® requirements for the appropr iate occupancy classification.
Where secur ity measures requi re that the egress doo rs in those ot her occupancies be
locked, however, a remote system for releasing the locks should be pro vided, or a suf -
ficient numb er of attendants with keys must be available promptly to unlo ck the egress
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

doors. If key-operated hardware is used, it should be institutional grade. Supervision in

the se areas must be continuous when the spaces are occupied.
Areas of facilities in which the egress doors are not locked are not classified as
detention and correctional occupancies. An example of such an area is a halfway house
or a prerelease area located in a larger detention complex. Facilities in which sleeping
occupants are supervised but are not locked in are classified as residential occupancies
and must comply with the appropria te residential occupancy requirements.
Keys requir ed for unlocking egress doors within the facility must be individually
identifiable by both touch and sight.

OCCUPANCY CLASSIFICATION
When conducting an inspection, you should first determine the proper resident
user category (use condition) of the occupancy. TI1e requirements for protecting the
occupants increase as th e degree of restra int increases. Because the primary differenc e
between a detention and correctional occupancy and a residential occupancy is the
presence of locks on the required means of egress that are not under the occupants '
control, you must understand the arrangement and management of the locking system.
Five use conditions have been established that correspond to five degrees of restraint
(FIGURE 33·1).
• UseCondition I- FreeEgress:TI1eoccupants of such areas are permitted to move
freely to the exterior. In other words, there are no locks that the occupants cannot
control. Such an area is not considered a detention and correctional occupancy
and is subject to the requirements of an appropriate residential occupancy chap-
ter in NFPA 101®.
• Use Condition II-Zoned Egress:Free movement is allowed fron1 sleeping areas
in any occupied smoke compartment to other smoke compartments.
• Use Condition III-Zo11ed Impeded Egress:TI1e occupants are allowed to move
freely within any smoke compartment. Access to other smoke compartments is
remotely unlocked .
• UseCondition IV-Impeded Egress:Occupants are locked in their rooms or cells,
but the room doors can be remotely unlocked. TI1e doors providing access to
other smoke compartments also are remotely unlocked.
• Use Co11dilio11 V- Co11tni11ed: Occupants are locked in their rooms or cells by
manually operated locks , and the staff must go physically to the room door to
release them. The doors providing access to other smoke compartments are also
manuaHy locked.

REMOTE-CONTROLLED RELEASE
Remote-controlled release means that the locking mechanism can be released mechan-
ically, electrically, or by some other means that is not located in the immediate area
where the residents are housed. It does not mean that the door has to be opened, but
only that the lock can be released. TI1eremote location shou ld provide sight and sound
supervision of the resident living areas . Sight and sound supervision can be achieved
446
 CHAPTER33: Detemion and Correctional Occupancies

J-l-l-l
-l--l
l -l-l-l--l
l -l
Use Cond ition I
~
J-ll}X
-l--l -l l-ll}l ~
I J@ I
Use Condil lon II

J-l-l
I
-l-l-l
-l-Z
-l-l
-l
- l-l@
®J @ ~ l
Use Conditi on Ill

©
I
Use Condition IV

Use Cond ition V

(D Locked
@ Locked~ remote release or equivalent
@ Smoke barrier or horizontal exit

FIGURE 33-1Detention and correctio nal use conditions.Sou,ce:

IIFPAIOI®, lifeSafety
Code®, tiFPA,
2000
,
Figuret...73.1.4.l.

by means of camera/video and co1nrnunication s systems. You should be reasonably

sure that the remote locking system will funclion as intended and that the staff can
promptly gain access to the controls in an emergency .
An exception to the remote-controlled release requirement does permit the use of
some manual locks in Use Condition IV facilitie s. No more than 10 manual unlo cking
operations using no more than two separate keys are permitted to move the occupants
promptly to some other smoke compartment. This except ion allows small areas within
a facility to have manual locks but still permits the entire facility to be classified as hav -
ing remote-controlled locks. You should establ ish that keys are immediately available
to staff and that the locks rnn be released promptly in an emergency.
NFPA 101® requires that remote-controlled release operated doors be provided with
redundant means of operation, either electronically or mechanically. Power -operated
447
 SECTION 3: Occupan cies

doors shall be arran ged such that, in the event of a loss of power, a remote-controlled
mechanical release means will be available or emergency power wiU be available to
power the remo te-controlled release. \Vhen the emergency power option is used, the
emergency power sho uld be available in the event of a public utilil)' failure, circui t
breaker or fuse failure, or the accidental opening of a switch. Verify that the emergency
powe r S)'Stem is connected to all necessary devices. and assess the system's reliabi lity
by reviewing maintenance and testing documentation. Mechanically operated slid ing
doors or mec hanically operated locks should have a manual mechanical means at each
door to release and open the door.
To dete rmine a facilit)"s appropr iate use condi tion, you must first understand its
operation. For example, if the residents are free to move about the facility during the
day when the inspection is being conducted but are locked down for 8 hours at night,
you must app ly the use condition that reflects the more restric ted movement. Each
occupied area shou ld be under continuous supervision, and the supervising personnel
mu st be able promptly to release the occupants.
Recog nize that staffing levels may be much h igher during the da)' when an inspec ·
lion typically is made. Large numbers of adm inistra tive, sup ervisory, educational, and
maintenance personnel may not be present at night; and security staffing may also
be reduced at night. TI1e administration should be req uired to demonstrate that there
are enough operating personn el prese nt on each shift to supervise all occup ied areas
properly and to be able to perform effectively d uring a fire.

OCCUPANCY CHARACTERISTICS
Const ruct ion Type
Compare the constr uction t)'pe of the facility with that required by NFPA 101®, based
on the number of stories (see NFPA 101®, Section 3.3.267, for story count direct ion).
TI1e constructio n- type parame ters are provided in NFPA 101® Table 22.l.6.l for new
buildings and Table 23.l.6.l for exis ting buildings . ln existing buildi ngs, the extent of
sprinkler protection, as well as use condition, will influence the determination . Build-
ing construc tion type is classified in accordance with NFPA 220, Stn11dnrd 011Typesof
Building Constrnctio11.

Capac ity
Generali) ', occupant load versus exit capacity is not a major consideration in deten ·
lion and correctional occupancies. As noted in NFPA 101®, the occupant load factor
is 120 ft2 (11.l 1112)per person, reflecting a sparse population density. (TI1is occupa nt
load factor is not related to the minimum square footage requ irem ents per resident
in a room or cell specified by correct ional standards .) The most appropriate way to
determine the occupant load is to cou nt the number of beds in a given housing area.
Occupant load for the nonresident areas should be determined based on the use of the
space (i.e., assembly use occupant load factors sho uld be applied to gymnasiums and
cafeter ias) . Once the occupant load is determined, ample capacity shou ld be verified by
448
 CHAPTER33: Deten tion and Correctional Occupan cies

the application of the appropriate capacity factor to the system of egress components
(0.2 in. (5 mm) per person for level componen ts and ramps and 0.3 in. (7.6 mm) per
person for stairways].

Means of Egress
Detention and corr ectional occupan cies allow various exceptions to standard egres s
requirements.

Horizontal Exits. Far greater attention is paid to hor izonta l exits in detention and
correctional occupancies tha n in the oth er occupan cy classification s. In fact, NFPA
101® allows up to 100 percent of the required exits from a fire or smoke compart -
.ment to be horizontal exits. This provi sion reflects the philosophy that management
general1)1 will choo se to move the residents within the facility rather than take them
outside and possi bly co mpro m ise security. W hen horizo nt al exits com pose 100perce nt
of the required exits of a fire compartment, an exit other than a horizontal exit mu st
be access ible in some other, although not necessarily adjacent, compartment, without
requiring that the occ upan ts return through the compartment where the fire origi -
nated. 1he intent of the code is clarified in FIGURE33·2.Egress through code-compliant
horizontal exits to other occupa ncies is permitted, provided the other occupancy does
not contain high-hazard con tents.

Sliding Doors. Sliding doors are permitted in detention and cor rectiona l facilities.
The force required to slide the door to its fully open position must not exceed SOlb
(222 N) with a perpendicular force of SOlb (222 N) against the door.

Exit Discharge. TI1eexit may discharge into a fenced yard or comt that is either out-
side or inside the facility. TI1eoutside area of refuge must provide at least 15 ft2 ( l.4 m2)
of space per pe rson at least 50 ft (15 m) from the building (FIGURE 33·3and FIGURE 33-4).

Day Rooms. Occupants may exit sleeping rooms through a day room or group activity
space. In other words, one intervening room, such as a day room or activity space, is
permitted between the sleep ing room and the exit access corridor .

Exit Exit
A E

Horizontal exit
(typical)

33-2A horizontal exit system. One hundred percent of the required exits of fire
flGURE
compartments 8, C,and Dare horizontal exits. The arrangement is in compliance as long as
compartments A and Eeach has an approved exit other than a horizontal exit.
449
 SECTION3: Occupancies

--- -- ---..,,
I I
I I
Area or re fuge
I I
15ft 2 (1.4m 2)
per person I
~50 rt I
( ~ 15 m) I

Yard
.;:: E
0
U')
Al
1-
v~
U')
~
Al
I
I
I

Building from which egress is being made

FIGURE 33·3 Outside area of refuge must provide at least 15ft2 (1.4m2) of spaceper person.
Source:Elihibi
l 22.8fiomLifeSole
ly CodeI/and
book.

For security purposes, sally ports are often used in means of egress from detention
areas. lhe two doors usually are interlocked so that only one of them can be opened at
a time. TI1isarrangement can obstruct the flow of persons out of the area and prevent
a hos e line from being stre tched into the detention area. NFPA JOI® requires that an
emerge ncy override feature be provided so that both doors of a sally port can be opened
at the same time to permit cont inuous and unob structed passage in an emergency. TI1e
override feature should be tested to ensure that it operates properly (FIGURE33-S).
As willfrequently be the case for security purpo ses, all exits may discharge through
the level of exit discharge . Where this occurs, the level of exit discharge must be

Separate building

Area of refuge
1S ft2 (1.4 m2)
per person

~"
\.-z."1 Yard
.;::
0
U')
Al
E
U')

Ei
t
2-hr fire barrier
creating separate
Building from which egress is being made buildings

FIGURE 33·4Outside area of refuge must provide at least 50 ft (15 m) of space from the building
to the areaof refuge. Source
: Exhib
it22.9from
Life5ofel)'(ocf
eHond
boo.t
450
 CHAPTER 33: Detention and Correctional Occupancies

subdivided so that no more than 50 per-

cent of the exits discharge into a single
7
fire compartment. In existing buildings,
a smoke barrier may be used to subdi -
~
J
vide the level of exit discharge if the lev- A Exit access corridor
el of discharge has approved automatic L Sally port
7
sprinkler protection.
Dead -end corridors are permilled up
to a limit of 50 ft (IS m) . In Use Con -
dition V facilities {manual locks on all
doors) , however, this limit is reduced to 33·5 Sdlly poi l. Sou
FIGURE rce:[;,;h
ibit22.6fromUfeSofay
Code
Handb
ook.
20 ft {6.1 m). No limits are specified for
existing buildings, although dead-end corridors should be corrected whenever possible.
'foe use of exit signs in detention and correclional facilities is a contradiction,
becau se residents generally cannot use the exits until they are relea sed . 111erefore, exil
signs may be omitted from resid ent sleeping areas. However, emergency lighting is
required throughout the means of egress.

Hazardous Areas
Hazardous areas such as boiler rooms, kitchens, laundries, commissaries, storage
rooms, trash rooms, laundry areas greater than 100 ft2 {9.3 m2), and similar spaces
require I -hour-rated enclosures with self-closing ¾-hou r- labeled fire door assemblies
or automatic sprinkler protection, or both. Hazardous areas that are not considered
incidental to the resident housing area must be separated by a 2-hour fire barrier and
be provided with automatic sprinkler protection .

Protection of Openings
Vertical openings, such as stairways, ramps, elevators, chutes, and heating, ventilation,
and air -conditioning (HVAC) shafts, must be enclosed with fire barriers, including
fire-rated door assemblies . The required fire -resistance rating of the enclosure depends
on a number of factors. For example, how high is the building? Is it a new or existing
construction? Does the vertical opening serve as a requ ired exit?
Various exceptions are permitted, some of which are unique to detention and
correctional occupancies. Multilevel housing areas need not be enclosed if the
distance between the lowest and highest floor level does not exceed 13 ft {3.96 m).
With complete automatic sprinkler protection, unprotected openings are permitted in
residential housing areas if the distance between the lowest and highe st floor levels is
no more than 23 ft (7.01 m). In neither instance is the actual number oflevels restrict-
ed. TI1ecode is even more flexible for existing buildings, parlicularly where automatic
sprinkler protection or an approved smoke control system is provided.

Interior Finish
In an effort to create a more habitable environment, facility designers may inadvertently
introduce finish materials that permit fires to develop rapidly. TI1is is particularly true
451
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

in correctional facilities that encourage self-help programs where the residents install
paneling or other finish materials. Such areas require regula r and thorough inspections
to make sure that they comply with applicab le code requirements for interior finish.

Contents
Because conten ts are the major fuel problem in detention and correctional facilities, the
quant ity and combu stibility of furni shing s and decoration s mu st be strictly limited, par -
ticularl}1in the residential hou sing areas. The rates of fire developm en t, smoke generation,
and heat release are dire ctly related to the quantity and nature of the interior furnishings.
Because lhe time needed lo release and mov e residents du ring a fire can be a major prob -
lem, it is essential to effectively control the fuel loading in order to slow fire development.
Management policies must be reviewed to ensure that supervisory personnel understand
the importance of this limitation and are practicing effective fuel control.
Requi rem en ts for th e contro l of combustibl e or flammab le cont ents can be found
in the operating features section of Chapters 22 and 23 of NFPA 101®. Combustible
personal property allowed in sleeping rooms must be stored in closable metal lockers
or fire-resistant containers. Furnishings such as mattresses and upholstered furniture
must have their fire performance characteristics regulated . Rate of heat release is regu-
lated when upholstered furnishings and mattresses are introduced into spaces that are
not protected by automatic sprinklers. The resistance of furnishings and mattresses to
cigarette ignition is also regulated. Curtains and draperie s must be flame resistant, and
wastebaskets must be of noncombustible or other approved materials. Combustible
decoration s are prohibited unless they are flame retardant. TI1e facility administration
also must control the use of heat-producing appliances, such as bot plates.

FIRE PROTECTION
Fire Alarm
Detention and correctional facilities must be equipped with approved fire alarm
systems. Manual fire alarm boxes are required in the normal path of travel near each
exit. However, in lieu of placement near exits, NFPA 101® does allow fire alarm boxes
to be placed within staff locations and locked for staff activation. In each instance, you
need to verify that staff locations are occupied continuously and/or that keys are readily
available to operating personnel, so that the fire alarm system can be activated promptly
if a fire is discovered. Evaluating the staffing levels and key distribution policies on a!J
shifts is important.
Activation of the building fire alarm system must automatically, without delay,
activate an audible alarm signal to alert the building occupants. With the exception of
smoke detection initiat ion, presignal systems are not permitted. Typically, activation
of the building fire alarm S)'Stem must automatically transmit an alarm to notify the
fire department by an approved means. However, the automatic fire department noti-
fication requirement is not mandated where a staff member is present at a constantly
attended location who can promptly notify the fire department.
452
 CHAPTER 33: Detention and Correctional Occupancies

The residential housing areas of detention and correctional facilities must be

equipped with approved smoke dete ction systems . However, the required extent of
smoke detector coverage varies, dep end ing on the facility's use condition and the
presence or absence of automatic sprinkler protection. Automatic smoke detector s
can be arranged to sound at a constantly attended location, and they need not sound
the building fire alarm or transmit an alarm to the fire department. Smoke detectors
also may be located i11exhaust du cts from cells or behind grills to prevent them from
being damaged or tampered with, as long as the design achieves the speed of detection
prescrib ed by the code.

prinkler and tandpipe rotection

Automat ic sprinkler protection is required in most detention and correctional facili-
ties, depending on the building's construction type and height. Automatic sprinkler
protection also may be pr vided lo allow greater design flexibility, including the use
of multilevel housing areas and atria, and to reduce the required fire-resistance ratings
of room and corridor separations. In addition, automatic sprinkler protection may be
installed in existing nonconforming facilities to give them an acceptable level of safety.
New Use Conditions 11,III, IV, and V facilities must be fully sprinklered.
Class I standpipe systems are required in all detention and correctional facilities
more than two stories high. Class IIl standpipe systems, which are combined Class I
and Class If systems, are required in facilities more than two stories high that are not
protected with automatic sprinklers . Portable fire extinguishers also are required. They
may be located in staff areas or in locked cabinets if there is reasonable evidence that
operating personnel will have prompt access to them when needed.
Verifying that fire protection equipment is operational and will function as designed
when needed is essential. Documentation should be reviewed to verify that the equip-
ment is being serviced, inspected, and tested by qualified personnel. You should also
witness operational tests of fire protection equipment during the course of the inspec-
tion and should check the fii·e alarm control panels and sprinkler control valves to
verify that the systems have not been shut off.

Building Subdivision
One of the major prote ctio n features ofNFPA 101® is the requirement to subdivide the
building into smoke compartments using approved smoke barriers. TI1esmoke barri -
ers provide areas of refuge into which the residents will be moved.
Determine the location of the smoke barriers to ensure that they do, in fact, subdi-
vide the building as required. You can do this by reviewing a floor plan . Then, make a
field check to ensure that the smoke barriers are of adequate construction and are con-
tinuous from slab to slab, that the doors are of adequate construction and are equipped
with closers and the necessary hardware, and that HVAC ducts that penetrate the
smoke barrier have dampers that will resist the passage of smoke. You should also
make sure that cross -corridor doors in smoke barriers have the required vision panels.
NFPA 101® requires further subdivisions of the residential housing areas. These
requirements, which can be found in Chapters 22 and 23 of NFPA 101®, relate to the
453
 SECTION 3: Occupancie,

separation walls of the cell or room and the day space (these requirements .-.re.-.lso
provided in TABLE 33-1).If the facility has to be sprinklered bemuse of its construction
type, the sprinkler option can be used. If the code does not require a sprinkler system,
management may choose whether to use sprinklers. This should be t.-.ken seriously
because it can have a m.-.jorimpact on the construction and operation of the detention
and correctional facility.
E.-.chof the enclosing wal Is of the room or cell should be inspected for completeness
.-.ndfor the required fire or smoke resistance. Note that minimum 45-minute fire-rated
glazing is now permitt ed in vision panels where the code previously mandated use of
¼-in. (0.64-cm) wired glass.

Building Services
You should review the building services, including the HVAC systems. NFPA 101®
pro hibits space heaters, and conducting inspections duri ng cold weather will provide
an opportunity to check for their use. In addition , management policies should be
reviewed for any discussion of port.-.bleheaters.
All elevators, dumbwaiters, vertical conveyors, rubbish chutes, incinerators, and
laundry chutes should be inspected for compliance with NFPA 82, Standard 011
Incineratorsand Wasteand Linen HandlingSystemsand Equipment, which requires all
chutes to be sprinkler protected. All chute doors (access panel doors) should be self-
closing and positive latching . None of the access panel doors should be chocked open
or have their closers disabled.

EMERGENCYPLANNING
Each detention and correctional occupancy must have a written fire emergency plan
that is given to supervisory personnel and reviewed periodically with all operating
personnel. TI1isplan should establish specific procedures for discovering and isolating
a fire, using alarm systems, responding to fire alarms, extinguishing fires, evacuating
residents in immediate danger, notifying the fire department, and conducting zone
evacuations. The plan should clearly establish authority and designate responsibili -
ties, giving special consideration to procedures for night shifts, weekends, and holi-
days. NFPA 101® requires that the facility review and coordinate the emergency plan
with the fire department that is legally committed to serve the facility.
Realistic fire drills should be conducted periodically on each shjft, These drills
should include training on the use and location of the alarm systems, portable fire
extinguishers, and related fire protection equipment. Fire emergency procedures
should be reviewed with all new employees, and refresher training should be pro-
vided for all employees at least annually. Fire drills and employee training should be
documented and available for review.
Doors and door hardware are required to be inspected annuall)' by facility staf{
Verify documentation of this effort.

454
 Requirements for Subd ivisions of Residential Hou sing Areas

Use Condition
II Ill IV V
Feature NS AS NS AS NS AS NS AS
Room to room NR NR NR NR SR SR SRa
separation NR
Room face NR NR SRb NR SRb FRb SRa
to corridor NR
separation
Room face to NR NR NR SRb NR SRb SRb NR SRa SRb SR"
common $SOft >50 ft $SOft >50 ft $50ft >50ft
space ($15 (>15 m)c (:,15 m)c (>15 m)C ($15 m)C (>15 m)C
separation m)C
Common space SR NR SR NR SR NR FR SR2
to corridor
separation

Total openings 0.85 ft2 0.85ft2 (0.08m2) 0.85 ft2 (0.08m2) 0.85ft2 (0.08m2)
In solid room (0.08m2) where meeting
face where one of the
room face is following:
required to be (1) Kept in closed
smoke position, except
resistantor when in use by
foe ratedd staff

(continues)

,.,.
U'1
U'1
 VI
m
n
-1
Continu ed 0
:z
l,J

Use Conditi on 0
,...,
,...,
C
II Ill IV V "'O
"'
::,
r,
Feature NS AS NS AS NS AS NS AS ~-
(2) Closable
from the inside
(3) Provided
with smoke
control
NS:Not protected by automatic sprinklers. AS: Protectedby automatic sprinklers. NR: No requirement. SR:Smoke resistant.FR: Minimum 1-hour fire-resistance
rating.
Notes:
(1) Doors in openings in partitions required to be fire rated (FR)in accordancewith Table23.3.8, in other than required enclosuresof exits or hazardousareas,
are requiredto be substantial doors of construction that resistsfire for a minimum of 20 minutes.Vision panels with wired glassor glass with not lessthan
45-minute fire-rated glazing are permitted. Latches and door closersare not required on cell doors.
(2) Doorsin openings in partitions required to be smoke resistant (SR) in accordance with Table 23.3.8are required to be substantial doors of construction
that resists the passage of smoke.Latchesand door closers are not requiredon cell doors.
(3) Under UseCondition II.UseCondition Ill. or UseCondition IV, a spacesubdivided by open construction ;any combination of grating doors and grating
walls or solid walls) is permitted to be considered one room if housing not more than 16 persons.The perimeter walls of such space are required to be of
smoke-resistant construction. Smokedetection is required to be provided in such space.Under UseCondition IV, common walls between sleeping areas
within the spaceare required to be smoke resistant,and grating doors and fronts are permitted to be used. Under UseCondition II and UseCondition Ill,
open dorm·1tories are permitted to house more than 16 persons,as permitted by other sectionsof this chapter.
(4)Where barriersare requiredto be smoke resistant (SR),the provisions of Sections 8.4 and 8.5 do not apply.
aMight be no requirement (NR)where one of the following is provided:
(1)Approved automatic smoke detection systeminstalled in all corridors and common spaces.
(2) Multitiered cell blocks meeting the requirementsof 23.3.1.3.
bMight be no requirement (NR)in multitiered,open cell blocks meeting the requirements of 23.3.1.3.
CTrave l distance through the common spaceto the exit accesscorridor.
d"Totalopenings in solid room face'i nclude all openings (e.g.,undercuts,food passes,grilles).the total of which is notto exceed 0.85ft 2 (0.08 m2). All
openings are required to be 36 in. (915 mm) or lessabove the floor.
 CHAPTER 33: Detention and Correctional Occupan cies

Lockups
Lockups are considered by NFPA 101® to include spaces in nondetention and cor-
rectional occupancies used for the periodic detention of persons. Customs facilities
at airports and police precinct holding areas are examples. Lockups in occupancies
other than detentio n and correctional occupa ncies that house more tha n 50 people or
provide for 24-hour detention must comply with the general requirements of detention
and correctional occupancy provisions of NFPA 101®. However, those detaining 50
or fewer people for less than 24 hours are exempt from the general occupancy chapter
provisions of NFPA JOJ®. vVhen lockups are .located in these other occupancies, the
requirements of the pr dominant occupancy of the building mu t be met along with
the specific lockup rules found in NFPA 101. Additionally, the fire department must be
notified of the presence of the lockup. To ensure the safety of the detainees, the follow-
ing additional safeguards should be in place:
• Ensure lliat stalTcan affect the release of those in lockup within 2 minutes.
or
• If the goal of 2-minute release is not met, ensure the lockup is equipped with a
smoke detection system and the lockup is protected by a fire alarm system. Also,
door hardware within the lockup's means of egress must comply with Ameri-
can Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 1577, Stnndnrd Testlvfethodsfor
Detention Locksfor SwingingDoors.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ASTM 1577, S/a,1dnrd Test Methods for Detention Locks for Swinging Doors, 2005,
ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, \•Vest Conshohocken,
PA 19428-2959 . www.nst111.01g

NFPACodes,Standards,and RecommendedPractices
See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following docum ents.
NFPA 82, Stn11dnrd011l11ci11emtors nnd Wnste n11dLinen Hn11tili11g Systems nnd
Equipment
N FPA90A, Stnndnrdfor tire Jnstallntio11
of Air-Co11ditio11i11g
n11d\le11tilnti11
g Systems
NFPA 101®, Life Snfety Code®
NFPA 220, Standard 011TypesofB11ildi11g Co11structio11

457
 CHAPTER

34

HOTELS
JosephNI. Jardin, PE

The term liote/ is not specifically reserved for the modern fire-re sistant high-rise
building. Indeed , it may apply to any motel, inn, or club that provides sleepi ng accom-
modations for more than 16 people . As a result, hotels generally present a wide range
oflife-safety and fire protection problems.
Inspecting hotels poses a special challenge because, in addition to providing
sleeping accommodations for transient guests, hotels may house facilities such as
meeting rooms, ballrooms, theatrical stages, kitchens, restaurants , storage rooms ,
maintenance shops, garages, offices, and re tail shops, each of which may be clas-
sified as a different type of occupancy. For example, guest rooms are classified as
residential occupancies, whereas ballrooms, theaters, and restaurants are assembly
occupancies . Offices are business occupancies, parking garages and storage areas are
storage occupancies, maintenance shops are industrial occupanci es, and retail shops
are mercantile occupancies.
If these different occupancies are separated from one another and each has its own
means of egress, they can be considered separate occupancies according to NFPA 101®,
L(/e Safety Code®.If they share th e same means of egress, the building is considered a
mixed, multiple occupancy, and egress and fire protection requirements should comply
with the most restrictive requirements of the occupancies involved.

INSPECTION OBSERVATIONS
Before inspecting a hotel, you should become familiar with NFPA 101®, which contains
requirements for means of egress and fire protection for new and existing hotels. NFPA
101® also provides requirements for operating features, such as fire drills and employee
training.

Means of Egress
Occupants should be able to evacuate quick!)' and safely from a hotel to reduce the
potential for loss of life. TI1eguest room corridors should have a minimum clear width
 CHAPTER34: Hotels

of 44 in. (111.8 cm) and be free of obstructions. Exit signs should be readily visible and
should clearly identify the path of travel to each exit. NFPA 101® requires emergency
lighting in atl)' hotel with more than 25 rooms.
Occupants on each floor shoul d have access to at least two separate ex.its. In newer
buildings, the se two exits are required to serve each floor. In general, you sho uld verify
that at least two of the exits are considered remote in accordance with Chapte r 7 of
NFPA 101® (i.e., a single fire will not block access to both exits). For recently con-
structed buildings, you shou ld verify that the exits are remote using the ½ diagonal
d istance convention (½diagonal if sprinklered) and shou ld ensure that corridor com -
mon paths of travel and dead ends are less than 35 ft ( 10.7 m) long (50 ft ( I 5 m) in
sprinkle red buildings]. lf guest rooms or suites exceed 2000 ft2 (185.8 m 2), they are
required to h ave two remotely situated exit access doors.
You shou ld co nfirm the integrity of the exit enclosur es serving each floor. The
construction of the enclos ing walls should be intact and possess the appropriate
fire-resistance rating (a I -hour rating for all sprinklered non -high -rise buildings and
nonsprinkle red buildings where exit stairs connect three or fewer stor ies, and a 2-hour
rating for all non spri nklered building s wh ere exit enclosures connect three or more
stories). The door s should function properly; they should swing open without the
app lication of extreme force and should fully close and latch. You should verify the
presence of a fire door lab el indicating the required fire protection rating (e.g., 1 hour
for I-hou r enclosures and I½ hour s for 2-hour enclosures). Stair landing s as well as
the area beneath the lowest flight should be free of storage or any other use other than
egress.
An inspector needs to consider if the hotel has a sole evacuation route passing
through another occupancy. TI1is arrangement is permitted only und er the following
conditions:
• The building is fully sprinklered, and the sole means of egress does not pass
through a high-hazard contents area .
or
• The sole evacuation route is separated from the other occupancy by fire barriers
with at least 1-hour fire-resistance ratings, and the sole means of egress does not
pass through a high -hazard contents area.
TI1e exit discharge area should be examined to ensure that the egress is free of
impediments. Look for parked vehicles, trash containers, shrubbeq 1, or fencing that
might obstruct access to the public way.
All fire escape stairs (permitted on certain exist ing hotels only) or ou tside stairs,
if provided, should be inspected from top to bottom. The fire escape stair must be
attached securely to the outside of the building, and all handrails and guardrails should
be secure. Counterweights on fire escapes should be free to swing when necessary to
lower the stairs. TI1egeneral condition of th e structure and the quality of maintenance
shou ld be noted . There should be no accumu lated trash beneath tbe outside stairways
and fire escape stairs.

459
 SECTION3: Occupancies

Means of Escap
The area within th e guest room or suite is required to comply with the means of escape
provisions of NFPA 101®, Chapter 24, One- and 1\vo-Family Dwellings. Means of
egress provision s apply to area s outside the guest room or suite. You should revie w the
means of escape provisions found in Chapter 38 of this book.

Interior
Top Floors. Int e rior inspection ca n start at the top or bottom of the hotel, but begin-
ning at the roof will provide a bird's -eye view of the building. Restaurants and meeting
rooms may be located on the top floors of hotel s, particularly in high -rise hotels. These
are assem bly occupa ncies and should comply with the requir ements ofNFPA JOI® for
new or existing assembly occupancies. The occupant load of the se occupancies sho uld
not exceed the available egre ss capacity. Keep in mind that the occupant load may have
changed as the result of renovations.

Guest Room Floors. Generally, the guest room floors cons ist of guest rooms
opening into a corri dor. Protecting these corridors from smoke and fire is critical.
Corr idor s should be properly fire-resistance rated and complemented by doors with
appropriate fire protect ion ratings. 1'vlost new hotels will be sp rinklered; th erefore the
walls should po ssess a ½ -hour rating. Nonsprinklered new hotels require 1-hour fire-
resistance rated walls. Corridors in nonsp rink lered existing buildings are required to
have ½-hour fire-res istan ce rated walls. If the existing bui lding is sprinklered, then
the walls must si mply be smoke resisting. Corridor doors must be self-closing and
latching. Generally, the doors should have a 20-minute fire protection rating; corri -
dor doors in sprinklered existing bui ldin gs, however, must simply resist the passage
of smo ke.
If a fire occurs in a guest room and the guest evac uates the room, the guest room
door must close and latch to protect the corridor from heat and smoke at least for the
tim e it takes the guests to evacuat e. Tirns, it is cri tical that the doors' self-closers work
properly.
Transoms over the doors in co rridor walls shou ld be permanently fixed in the clo sed
position. Transfer grilles and louvers in corridor walls are permitt ed on ly if automatic
sprinklers are installed or if smoke detectors in the corridors are arranged to shut down
the fans that draw air into the co rridor from the guest rooms. Transfer grilles must be
locat ed in the lower third of the corr idor wal l (a summary of corridor wall features is
provided in FIGURE 34·1and FIGURE 34-2).
You should exam ine a few guest rooms to ensure that their door s are self-closing and
that the doors close completely and latch . Each room should be equipped with a work -
ing smoke alarm, and fire safet)' information should be posted in each room.
The guest room smoke alarm is intended to set off an alarm in the room to alert
th e occupant. It is not intended to sou nd the alarm throughout the building. Because
of the h igh incidence of nu isance alarms, these smoke alarms are not requir ed to be
connected to the building fire alarm system .

460
 CHAPTER 34: Hotels

.- - -+1-hour
(½-hour if
Self-closing sprinklered)
device

No trans fer grilles ,.___

__ No unprotected
or louvers open ings
0

34·1Corridorwall features.Source
FIGURE : Exhibit 28.
9fromLifeSof
etyCodeHoodboo
k.

-;==-=--- - Transom fixed

,,.._- --- , closed

r---1---- ½-hour
(nonraled if
sprinklered)

Special provisions
for transfer <(-- - -- No unprolecled
grille
openings
\ 0

20-minute or
1% in. (44 mm) solid
(nonrated if spri nklered)

34·2Corridor wall features.Sourc

FIGURE e: Exhibit 28.10fromlifeSo
fety(od
eHandb
ook.

Rooms that contain trash chutes, laundry chutes, or trash collection areas should
be enclose d in 1-hour fire-rate d walJs or be protected with automatic sprinklers. If
ther e are sprinkle rs, the enclo sing walls need not have a fire-resistance rating, but they
shou ld be smoke resistant. Doors should be self-closing, Unless the building is sprin-
klered, spaces used to house vending or ice machines are required to be separated from
the corridor. NFPA 82, Sfnll(inrd011Jnci11 emtors and Wnste mui U11e11 Ho11dli11g
Systems
and Eq11ip111e11t,require s all linen and rubbish chutes to be sprinkler protected.
461
 SECTION 3: Occu pancies

The corridor interior finish should be Class A or B. Floor coverings should be Class
I or II. New curtains, draperies, and similar furnishings should be flame retardant.
TI1esematerials should be tested in accordance with NFPA 701, Stn11dnrdlv[ethodsof
FireTestsfor Fln111ePropngntio11 of Textilesa11dFilms.

Front Desk and Assembly Rooms. The front desk and its associated offices,
restaurants, meeting rooms, and possibly ballrooms are usually located on the
ground floor. The occupant load of each of these assembly rooms should be posted
conspicuously.
Meeting rooms and ballrooms generally have back-of-house service corridors,
which the hotel staff uses to gain access to the rooms. They also may be used to store
extra chairs, tables, and food carts. Some of these corridors are designed to be extra
wide to accommodate these items, but the minimum required corridor width of 44
in. (111.8 cm) must still be maintained, even if they are not used in that Wa)'·Because
this information on the required corridor width need not be posted, you may have to
determine the occupant load and available egress capacity.
TI1egeneral housekeeping and maintenance of the building should be checked.
Chances are the areas used by the public will be in fairly good condition, but the back-
of-house service areas might not be.
Renovations or additions to the hotel may block exits, increase travel distance,
decrease exit width, or disable exit signs or fire alarm equipment. Note an)' changes
that have been made to the structure or its arrangements since the last inspection.
Fire rated noor- ceilingassembliesare an important part of the building'sfire-resistance
features. An unprotected opening in the ceiling may compromise the floor- ceiling
assembl)"sintegrity. All the panels or tiles of the suspended ceilings that are part of a
floor- ceiling or roof- ceiling assembl)' must be in place. If the details of construction are
not noted on the previous inspection report, check the building plans; the floor and roof
design can usually be found on the architectural plans. TI1econdition of electrical fix-
tures and wiring throughout the building should be checked to ensure that any flexible
cords are used properly.

Service Areas. Storage rooms, building service equipment rooms, laundry rooms,
maintenance shops, shipping and receiving areas, the employees' locker room, the
emplo)1ees'cafeteria, and a garage 1night be located in the basement. Some common
hazards you can expect to find in these occupancies include ordinary combustibles,
such as paper and wood, which may be found in large quantities in storage rooms and
in shipping and receiving areas. as well as paints and .flammablesolvents. which may be
found in .maintenance shops. Heat-producing equipment also presents hazards.
Good housekeeping practices are essential in service areas. Combustible trash
should not be allowed to accumulate, and hazardous materials should be stored prop-
erly. Hand trucks and service carts should not be left in corridors and hallways, because
they can impede emergency evacuation.
Building service equipment rooms should not be used as storage areas. In building
service equipment rooms and maintenance shops. check machinery and appliances
for frayed wiring, evidence of leaks, and signs of general deterioration . TI1eclearances
462
 CHAPTER 34: Hotels

between heat-producing equipment and combustible materials should be checked to

rnake sure they are adequate.
You should inspect all the kitchens, including employee cafeteria kitchens. The
inspection includes checking the hood exhaust filters and exlrnust ducts for grease
accumulations and examining the nozzles and valves on the range hood extinguish-
ing system to make sure they are not blocked and that the nozzles are properly aligned
over the cooking surfaces and are not clogged with grease. 111cnozzles for the kitchen
hood systems should be covered, as required by most manufacturers. Note the date the
system was last inspected and serviced.
Stairwell doors are often locked from the inside for security reasons. NFPA 101®
permits this, as long as the doors unlock automatically upon tire alarm initiation, upon
power loss, or when selective floors are arranged to permit reentry. 1l1e hardware
arrangement of all stair doors shou ld be examined.

FIRE PROTECTION
Fire Alarm
NFPA 101® requires that existing hotels more than three stories high with guest rooms
that open .intocorridors have a fire alarm system. All new hotels must be equipped with
fire al.armsystems. New hotels greater than three stories in height or with more than
50 guest rooms require alarm annunciation . Manual fire alarm boxes should be located
adjacent to each exit, and a manual fire alarm box should be located at the hotel desk or
some other convenient location. Responsible hotel staff should continuously supervise
this device. 1l1efire alarm system must activate automatically,without delay,and sound
the building's internal audible alarms. Visible notification appliances are required in
public areas, as well as in guest rooms intended to be occupied by the hearing impaired
in new hotels. Presignal systems are perm itted onl)' with express permission of the
authority having jurisdiction. Make sure there is a mechanism to provide fire depart-
ment notification. A telephone accessible t.o the front desk clerk or building operator
will suffice.
111efire alarm systern should be tested to ensure that it operates properly and that it
can be heard in the guest rooms when the guest room doors are closed. If conducting
a test during the inspection is impractical, the system's maintenance and test records
should be reviewed.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) Alarms and Systems

Beginning with the 2012 edition ofNFPA 101,newlyconstructed hotels and dormitories
are required to provide CO alarms and CO detection systems under certain circum-
stances. Buildings in which the guest room spaces communicate with a parking garage
or those in which a fuel-burning appliance is provided in the guest rooms are among
the considerations that need to be reviewed in order to determine if CO protection
ls required. 1l1e inspection should verify the presence and location of any required
devices and verify that the devices have been properly tested.
463
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

SuppressionSystems
Most new hotels are required to be sprinklered throughout b)' supervised automatic
sprinkler systems. If the building is sprinklered, the general condition of the sprinklers
should be checked. This includes, but is not limited to, ensuring that floor-control
valves are open and that sprinklers are neither painted nor obstructed. Painted sprin-
klers should be replaced. There should be a clear space of 18 in. (45.72 cm) below each
sprinkl er.
Portable fire extinguisher s should be provided in hazardous areas of nonsprinklered
buildings. During the inspection, the inspection tags on the extinguishers should be
checked for the most recent inspection date. Ensur e that they are prop erly mounted,
fully charged, and undamaged. You should a.lso look for dents in the containers or
cylinders and cracks in hoses and nozzles.
Each hose station in any building equipped with a standpipe system should be
checked. If the station consists of a valve and an outlet, the hose con nection threads
should be examined for damage and for signs ofl eakage. If the station is equipp ed with
a hose for occupant use, the hose should be properly hung in the rack, and the nozzle
should be attached.

PLANNING AND TRAINING

You should review the fire plan for the hotel, which should detail the duties of the
staff in the event of a fire and spell out the procedures for immediate()' calling the
fire department and for notiC)'ingand keeping the guests informed . Also review the fire
drill records and ask emplO}'ees randomly if they have actually been trained and have
practiced the fire plan . See Sections 28.7 and 29.7 ofNFPA 101® for guidance on fire
drills and plans.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents .
NFPA 82, Standard 011 lllci11emtorsa11d Waste a11dLi11e11 Ha11dli11g Systems mid
Eq11ip111c11t
NFPA 90A, Sta11dard for !he llrstn/lntio11
of Air-Co11ditio11i11g
n11dVe11tilnti11gSysle111s
NFPA 96, SJ<111dnrdfor Ventilation Control and Fire Protectio11of Co111111
ercinl Cooking
Opemtio11s
NFPA .101®, L(f'eSafetyCode®
NI-1PA701, Stn11dardMe/hods of Fire Testsfor Ffa111 e Propngntio11
of Textiles n11dFi/111s

464
 CHAPTER

35

APARTMENT BUILDINGS
Joseph M. Jardin, PE

Apartment buildi ngs are among the most difficul t occupancies to inspec t for many
d ifferen t reasons. TI1e nature and character of the occ upancy may vary considerably
from building to building because of design, geograp hic location, and occupan t age
and soc ial status. Anothe r factor that must be considere d is th e ed ition ofNFPA 101®,
LifeSafetyCode®, that was in force when the buildin g was cons tructed. TI1esefactors,
among many others, including limit ations on being able to enter the premises of a
private dwelling unit, requir e the inspector to identify the particular issues and fea-
tur es of the fire protection system in a given buildin g and cond uct the inspection with
knowl edge of the various code requirements.

CODE REQUIREMENTS
Chapters 30 and 31 of NFPA 101® address the code requirements for new and exist-
ing apartment buildi ngs. You should become familiar with these requi rements before
conduc ting an ins pection so that you can identify specific issues, such as adequacy of
means of egress and amount and type of fire protection.
Most fire codes are maintenance codes and are in force on ly after a build ing has
been completed; howeve r, N.FPA 101® is written for bot h new and existing properties.
Previous edi tions of NFPA 101® listed four op tions for basic fire protec tion that could
be applied to all new and existing apartment buildings as follows:
• Option I: Buildings without fire suppression or detection systems.
• Option 2: Buildings with complet e autom atic fire detection and notification
systems.
• Option 3: Buildings with automatic sprinkler prot ectio n in selected areas.
• Option 4: Buildings protected throughout by an approved automatic sprinkler
system.
In addition to these opt ion s, the 198 1 edi tion of NFPA 101 ® had req uire ments for
apa rtm en t buildings used as housing for the elderly. TI1ese requirements were adopted
 SECTION 3: Oc upancies

b)' the Departm ent of Hou sing and Urban Development and used as a code for the
constrnc tion of most of the federally sub sid ized hous ing for the elde rly.
Edi tio ns of NFPA 101 ® since l99 1 no longer recog n ize tho se options iu new
const ruction. All new apartm en t building s are required to be sprinklered.

New Apartment Buildings

An apa rtm ent.build ing is defined as any buil ling contain ing three or more living unit s
wit h .i ndepe n lent cooki ng facilit ies. These same rules apply to a condominium, be-
cause that is sim ply a form of ownership rather than a par ticular type of occupancy.
111cbuilding can be anythin g from a garden-type apa rtment to a high -rise building.
A sprinkl er S)'Stem meetin g the requirements of NFPA 13R, Sta11dard for the Instal-
lation of Sprinkler Systems i11Residential Occupn11cies Up to and I11c/11di11g Four Stories
in Height, is permi tted in buildings up to four stor ies in height. The inspector shou ld
be aware of the exceptions for closets and bathroo ms and of the differences between a
system complying with the requiremen ts ofNFPA 13, Str111dcmlfor the lnstnllatio11of
Sprinkler Systems, and a system comp lying with the requi rements of NFPA 13R. The
inspect or shou ld do the following:
l. Determine if the insta llation of the sp rin kler system complies with code re-
quirem ents .
2. Witn ess a test of the operation of the spri nkler syste m or have the owner pro -
vide acceptab le docum entat ion of tests.
3. Det erm ine that all apar tm ents have smoke alarms powere d by the build ing
electrical S)'Slem.
4. Be aware that in Section 30.2.l ofNFPA 101®, a d istin ction is mad e between
a mean s of egress and a means of escap e (see Section 24.2 of NFPA 101® to
become familiar with thi s provision) .
5. Surv ey the integrity of the residential corridor wall (FIGURE 35-1).
6. Dete rmine that hazardous areas are enclose d by a smok e-resis tant enclosure
even if they are sprinklered [laundri es not greater than 100 ft2 (9.3 m2) located
outsid e ofliving units are the only exception].
7. Determ ine that all new high- rise apartment buildin gs comply with Section
11.8 ofNFPA 101®, which requires automatic sprinklers, a voice alarm S)'Stem,
a standby powe r and light system, and an emergen cy comma nd center.
Although there are no special cons truct.ion requirements for apartment buildings,
kno wledge of the building 's construction can be of great value to the fire departm ent.
For exa mple , fire fighters should be notified if lightw eight const ru ction and/ or trus ses
are in plac e.

ExistingApartment Buildings
Existing high-ri se apartm ent buildin gs, with the exception of tho se buildings in which each
dwelling unit is provided with exterior exit access, must be sprinklered or protected with an
''engineered life-safety system" approved by the authority having jurisdiction (FIGURE 35-2).
To make a thorough inspection, the inspector sho uld review building docum entat ion,
including rec ords of previous inspections. Official records should indicate the option
466
 CHAPTER 35: Apartment Buildings

No transoms
r "---==----- or transfer grilles

~ - ---,- 1-hour (or

½-hour if
Self-closing - -''"'- "" sprinklered)
device

..---No unprotected
openings
0

35-1Corridor wal l construction in new apartme nts. Sou

FIGURE rce:Exhibit30.10fromLifeSafeiyCode
1/andboo
k.

that was selected for protecting the

occupants of the building when it
was built or renovated, As subsequent
inspe ctions are made, a file of the
reports wiH be provided for the new
inspector. \•\Tith this information, the
insp ector will be in a better position
to understand the level of protec-
tion that was originally prov ided and
evaluate any changes that may have
been made.
If there are no official records that
identify a specific option or if the
building was built before the code was
adopted, the inspector should record
sufficient informa tion during the
inspection to evaluate which option,
as it relates to the level of automatic
sprinkler protection, the building cur-
rently represents.
The requirements for existing
FIGURE35-2Fire in a high-rise apartmen t building .
apartments based on the protection
that is provided are summarized in
TABLE 35-1.The following are some general guidelines that may be helpful in inspecting
apartment buildings , with particular attention paid to what NFPA JOI® classifies as
existing apartment buildings.
467
 Ill
'"
n
-4
Alternate Requirement s for Existing Apartment Buildings According to Protection Provided 0
z
~
0
Feature No Suppression Complete Automatic Automa t ic Sprink ler Aut omatic Sprink ler R
C:
or Detection Fire Detection Protectio n in Protect ion Throug hout -g
,..,
::,
System Option 1 Option 2 Selected Areas per NFPA 13 (w it h ~-
Opti on 3 excepti ons) Option 4
Exit Access
Travel distance fro m apart me nt 100 ft (30 m) 150 ft (46 ml 150 ft (46 m) 200 ft (61 ml
door to exit
Travel distance within 75 ft (23 m) 125 ft (38 m) 75 ft (23 m) 125 ft (38 m)
apartm ent
Smoke barrier requi red (See R R R NR
31.3.7. )
Maximum sing le pat h corridor 35 ft (10.7 m) 35 ft (10.7 m) 35 ft (10.7 m) 35 ft (10.7 m)
dista nce
Maximum dead end 50ft (15 m) 50ft(15m) 50 ft (15 m) 50ft (15 m)
Corridor fire resistance
Walls ½h r ½ hr ½ hr ½hr
Doo rs (fire prot ect ion rating) 20 min. or 1¾ in. 20 min. or 1¾ in. (44 mm) Smoke resistin g Smok e resisting
(44 m m) t hick t hick
Interior Finish
Lobb ies and corrido rs Aor B Aor B Aor B A,B,orC
Other spaces A,B,orC A,B,orC A,B,orC A, 8, orC
Floors in co rridor s l o rll I or II NR NR
Exits
Wall fire resistance
1- 3 storiest 1 hr 1 hr 1 hr 1 hr
>3 storiest 2 hr 2 hr 2 hr 1 hr
Smokeproof enclosures
Not high-r ise NR NR NR NR
High -rise R R R R
Door fire resistance
1- 3 storiest 1 hr 1 hr 1 hr 1 hr
>3 sto riest 1½ hr 1½hr l½ hr 1 hr
Interior finish
Walls and ceilings Aor 8 Aor B A orB A. B, or C
Floors l or ll lorll lor II NR
Within Living Unit
(Apartment)
Escapewindows, per Secti on R R R NR
24.2 (See37.2.1.)
Alarm System
> 3 stories or> 11 unitst Manual initiation Manual and auto in'1tiation Manual and auto init iation Manual and auto initiation
>2 storie s or >50 units t Annunciator panel Annunc iator panel Annunciato r panel Annunciator panel
R: Required(seeCodefor derailsand exemprions).NR:No requirements.
+Number of stories in height. Source:NfPA 2012,Tab
IOI®.LifeSafery(ode®, le A.31.1.

c:o
C
25:
s·
~
 SECTION3: Occupanc
ies

INSPECTION OBSERVATIONS
General Observations
The new inspection actually starts as the inspector approaches the building:
1. Is the distance to the nearest fire hydrant acceptable?
2. ls the hydrant on a public main or is it a private water system?
3. If it is a private hydrant, has it been tested to ensure the proper flow and pres-
sure?
4. Was it installed according lo NPPA 24, Sta11dardfor the !11 stallatio11of Private
Fire Sen•ice Mains a11rlTheir Appurtc1u111ccs?
5. V{hat is the water supply? (iviany garden- type apartments have private water
supplies.)
6. Are there obstructions to fire hydrants such as trees, shrubs, trash collectors, or
new co11slruclion?
7. Is access to the building blocked by signs, marquees, or overhangs that could
inhibit rescues?
Older bu ildings could have old fire escape stairs in need of replacement or repair.
They shou ld be closely examined to ensure they are strncturall y stable, properly in-
stalled, and sufficiently maintained . Furt her ensure that the fire escape stairs are not
obstructed by plants, cloth eslines, air-conditi oners, or any othe r objects that might
block use by fleeing occupant s or respond ing fire fighters. Old fire escape stairs
should not be confused with the safer, more subs tantial outs.ide exit stairs that could
have been added to remedy exit deficiencies where installing new interior sta irs was
nol practical. NFPA 101® gives requirement s for acceptable construction of outside
stairs. You should make sure that materials posing a fire hazard arc not stored on or
under the outs ide sta irs.
At the beginning of the inspection, check that the use of the building has not
changed or that anoth er occupancy use has nol been added. If the building shares the
premises with another \ }'PC of occupancy, such as stores or offices, NFPA 101® consid-
ers the building as a multiple occupancy building. If it is a mixed-multiple occupancy
building, the most restrictive life-safety requirements of the occupancies involved must
be applied throughou t the bui.lding, because separate safeguards are impractical. An
apartme nt building may be located above another occupancy only if it is either separat-
ed from that other occupanq' or the nonresid ential occupancy is properly protected.
For example, if there is a dru gstore (mercant ile occupancy) on the premises that was
not the re at the last inspection, either separation between the store and the apartments
rnust be provided by means of construc tion having a fire-resistance rating of at least
I hour or automatic sprinkler protection must be provided for the store area.
An inspector needs to consider if the apartment occupancy has a sole evacuation
route passing through another occupancy. TI1is arrangement is permitted only under
the following cond itions:
• The building is fully sprinklered, and the sole means of egress does not pass
through a high-hazard contents area.

470
 CHAPTER35: Apartmen t Buildings

or
• The sole evacuation route is separated from the other occupancy by fire barriers
with at least 1-hour fire-resistance ratings, and the sole means of egress does not
pass through a high-hazard contents area.

Occupant Load
Although the occupant load is not required to be posted in a conspicuous place in apart-
ment buildings, it is neverthelessan important consideration in the number of exits. The
occupancy load for apartment buildings is one person for every 200 ft2 (18.6 rn2)
or gross floor area. Some apartments coulJ have dorrnitory-lypt: slt:eping arrange-
ments, such as several or many bunk beds in apartmen ts occupied b)' students, which
would appear to increase the occupant load well beyond the 200 ft2 (18.6 m2) per per-
son criterion. If the occupancy is found to exceed this limit, adequacy of the egress
apacity hould be assessed.

Exits
You should check to make sure that all exit doors operate properly and that the means
of egress are not blocked in any manner and are not hazardous in any other way.One of
the greatest problems in existing apartment buiJdingsis that through age or lack of main-
tenance, those life-safety features originally constructed into the building have deterio-
rated to the point where they no longer function. In many apartment buildings, it is quite
common for tenants to put wedges under the doors that lead into stairwells to keep the
doors open. Unapproved devices must not be allowed to hold the doors open. Examine
the latching devices on all fire-rated doors, and check that self-closing devicesand latches
function properly and completely close the door. Ensure each fire door is intact with listed
hardware and either wired glass or rated glazing if vision panels are discovered. Very
often, doors are damaged by misuse or abuse and then are "fi..x:ed" using subpar materials.
TI1e accumulation of household goods and trash in corridors and stairwells is a
common problem. Trash should be removed immediately so that egress out of the build-
ing can be safe and quick if a fire should occur. Many apartment buildings provide the
tenants with storage areas, but even when such areas are not provided, some areas seem
to evolve into storage spaces. TI1eseareas should be closelyinspected. Almost anything,
including outboard motors, flammableand combustible liquids, old tires, mattresses,and
all kinds of furniture, will be found. TI1ese materials ma)' have accumulated over many
years and might cause the fuel load to exceed that which the building was designed to
handle, Many times, these spaces communicate with the means of egress or with vertical
plumbing stacks, and there is almost always a lack of proper separation from the floor
above. TI1ecode requires that these spaces be protected by 1-hour construction or by an
automatic sprinkler S)'Stem. In extreme cases, both may be necessary.

Dwelling Units
Most of the time, you will not be able to enter the iJ1dividualdwelling units. But you
should inspect public areas, such as corridors, stairs, storage areas, utility areas, the

471
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

building exterior, and exit doors. If central air-conditioning is a part of the building,
check carefully for th e accumulation of stored materials in the fan rooms. If renova-
tions have been made, check to ensure that the distance to exits has not been violated.
NFPA 101® requires that each unit in an apartment building be equipped with single -
station or multiple- station smoke alarms that are continuously powered by the house
electrical service; they may not be battery operated , except for Option 2 and Option 4
buildings, which are permitted to possess battery -powered smoke alarm s. TI1is require-
ment is in addition to any sprinkler system or other det ection system install ed in the
building . Installation of single- station and multiple -station smoke alarms must comply
with N FPA 72®, National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code. NFPA 72® requires that , in
addition to a smo ke alarm located outside of each sleeping area , a smoke alarm mus t
be installed on each story. If possible, arrange with the building manager to look at the
smoke alarms in a vacant apartment or randomly sample apartments, which should be
representative of smoke alarm installations throughout the building. Also ask to witness
a test of the rep resentative smoke alarm( s). TI1is will at least show whether the manager
know s how to condu ct a test following the manufacturer's instructions . If the manager is
not able to do this, the information is probably not being passed on to the tenants.
You should also check individual apartments to be sure the entrance doors are
self-closing . NFPA 101® require s that doors between living units and corridors be self-
closing . A fire occurring in an apartment could easily generate sufficient smoke, heat,
and toxi c gases to create untenable condition s in th e corridor if air transfer grills were
permitted. NFPA 101®, therefore, does not permit transfer grills in the doors or walls
that make up the corridor wall assembly (see the summary of corridor wall features in
FIGURE 35·3.

Self-closing _ _,,., ~ .,_

device ---- ½-hour

Transfer grilles
prohibited
I
- - - - No unprolected
\ ,?
0
openings

Option 1 or Op lion 2: 20-minute or 1~4in. ( 44 mm) solid

Option 3 or Option 4: nonrated, resists passage of smoke

FIGURE35·3Corridor wall protection in existing apartment building. Source t 31.12fromLife

: E:<hibi Safety
(odeHandbook.
472
 CHAPTER 35 : Apartment Buildings

Protect ion of Openings

Jn most instances, vertica l openi ngs in apartment bu ildi ngs are required to be en-
clo sed or protected, but the re are exceptions to th is requ irement. Where enclosure is
requi red, it nrnsl be complete and con tin uous . Vert ical openi ngs are not just stairways;
they includ e openi ngs for rubbis h chutes and build ing services , as well as passages for
pipes, conduits, du ctwork, and elevator shafts, to nam e a few. Take som e time to search
for th ese openi ngs. Doors to sta irw ays and oth er ve rt ica l op enin gs must be fire rated ,
self-clos ing, and posi tive latching .
Th e mo st common unprotected verti cal op enin gs are plum bing stacks and chases
found in ba thro oms and kit chens . Many tim es these shafts comnn111icate from the
boiler room s, laundry rooms, and storage rooms up to the attic or roof. Chap ter 8 of
NFPA JOI® gives guidance on prot ec tion of all t)1pe s of floor op enin gs via fire-resistive
shafts or fire stopp ing.
El vator doors shou ld be checke d carefu lly to see if they would permit the spread of
fire. Any openings fou nd in eleva tor shafts should be repaired at once. Where hor izon -
tal ex its or smok e barr iers are requ ired, the cross -co rr ido r doo rs shou ld be checked for
operation . The wa ll above the ceiling should be exam i11edfor unp rotec ted pene trat ions. If
there are suspended ceilings, note whet her all th e ceiling tiles are in place. The ceiling
cou ld be pa rt of a fire ra ted floor- ceiling assemb ly, and missing tiles ca n badly compro -
m ise the effect iveness of th e fire barr ier.
If th e buildi ng is of Type Ill, JV, or V constru ction, th e existence of concealed com-
bu stible spaces is likely. Such spaces must be fire-stopped in accorda nce with Chapter
8 of NFPA 101®. In addition, in existing buildings, if Option 4 was used, these spaces
will most likely require sprin kler protection. Check th ese spaces for fire stopping and
spri nkl er protection and make sure they are not connected with unprote cted vertical
com muni cations, such as pipe chases, stacks, and wire runs.

Waste Chutes
In older apa rtm ent build ings, refuse chutes may be pre sent and may ha ve access
openings in the corrid ors . The fire hazard is ser iously in creased, and the fire integrity
of the bu ildi ng is reduc ed with the cont inued use of these chu tes. The refuse chute can
become an ave nu e to transm it fire fro m floor to floor and from chu te to floo r. Nev-
er th eless, these chut e openi ngs into corridors can be mad e rela tively safe if th e chute
is properly enclosed and th e service openings are proper!} ' mainta i11ed. All op en ings
should be equipped with labeled, fire-rated hopper -type doors th at are self-closing and
positive latc hing. Gravity -type met al chu tes are required to have automatic sprinkler
prote ction in th e term inal room, at the top, and at alternate floo r levels. NFPA 82,
Standard 011 lncinerntorsand Waste, and Li11 e11HandlingSystemsn11dEq11ipme11t, gives
requ irement s for th e construction and maint enan ce of wast e chutes.
1he code requ ires service openings in wa ste chutes in newer buildings to be located
in a room or compa rtm en t that is separated from oth er parts of the building by 1-hour
fire-ra ted en clos ure s with a 45-minute fire do or with clos er and latch and that is sprin-
klered. You shou ld be sure you unders tand th e method of handling ho use hol d waste in
th e building and shou ld inquire wheth er chu te clogg ing ha s been a recu rri ng pro blem.
473
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

It could be that the chute, as originally designed, is too small to hand le the type of
trash that it must now accept, which could include compressed packages from kitchen
comµactors.

Interior Finish
Interior finish, or the exposed surface of walls and ceilings in exit enclosures, must
be Class A in exits and Class A or B in corr idors and lobbies. Class A, B, or C interior
finish is allowed in living uni ts and in lobbies and corridors that do not provide access
to exits. Review Section 10.2 of NFPA JOI® before making decisions on interior fin-
ish. You especially should note multiple la)'ers of vinyl wall covering and wallpaper
and should require verification of the pro duct if carpet-like or other textile material is
found on wall or ceiling surfaces.

Hazardous Areas
Particular attent ion should be paid to hazardous areas of the building, such as boiler
and heater rooms, laundries, repair shops, refuse storage rooms, and general stor-
age areas set aside for occupants' persona l belongings, which are usually found in
basements. If the hazardous area is not sprinklered, it must be separated from other
parts of the building by walls and floor- ceiling constru ction with at least a I -hour
fire-resistance rating and with openings protected by 45-minute rated fire doors with
closers and latches. If the building is sprinklered, enclosures around the hazardous area
can be of any reasonably smoke- resistant construction with or without a fire rating.
TI1egeneral level of housekeeping in the service areas should be noted. Determine
whether flammable liquids in the amounts allmved by the local fire prevention code are
stored in approved contain ers in approved cab.inets. If the bu ii.ding is equipped with a
sprink ler system, make sure that access to the main control valves is not blocked.

FIRE PROTECTION
Automatic Sprinkler Systemsand Portable Fire
Extinguishers
'Tiie best-pro tected apartments have complete automat ic sprinkler systems. NFPA
13, N FPA 13R, and NFPA 25, Stn11dard for the Inspection, Testing,and Mai11te11n11ce
of H't1ter-Bnsed Fire ProtectionSystems, should be used for guidance when sprinkler
systems are inspected. In those areas to which you have access, examine the sprinklers
lo make sure they have not been painted over or tampered with in ways that make their
opera tion questionable. Painted sprinklers must be replaced. In storage areas, there
should be at least 18 in. (45.72 cm) of clearance between stored materials and sµrin-
klers and no other obstruct ion to sprinklers. Sometimes, part itions are put up without
consideration of the effects on the sprin klers; partitions can create areas that are no
longer reached b)' spri nkler discharge, thus seriously affecting the fire protection for
the whole building.
474
 CHAPTER3S: ApaHment Buildings

NFPA JOJ® requires portable fire ext inguishe rs for hazardou s areas in apartment
buildings. Access to the extinguishers should not be block ed, and the extinguish -
ers should be clea rly visible and properly huu g. Note the date (usually written on an
attached tag) when each ex tin gu isher was last given a maintenan ce inspection. NFPA 10,
Standard for Portable Fire Exti11 g11ishers, provides details on maintenance and place-
men t of ext in gu ishers.

Alarm System s
In most case s, N FPA l01® req uires that ap<1rtment building s four o r mor e stori es in
height or wi th 11 or more apartment units have a manua l alarm system. Buildings that
are more than three stor ies high and bu ildin gs th at contain more th an 50 dwellin g
u nits are additionally required to have annuncia ting panels. The requirements for the
pa rt icula r type of alarm system are establis hed b)' the fire protection op tio n selecte d
for a particular apa rt menl building. For exa mpl e, Option 2 bui ldin gs r quir e au toma tic
de tec tion throug hout the building. What is imp ort ant to you is that the alarm system
be compatible with the curr ent use of th e building; therefore, become familiar with th e
requirements ofNFPA JOJ® for alarm systems in new and existing apartments.
Once you have determine d whether the system is adequate for th e building, you
should inquire about the testing and maintenance schedul e that is followed for the
system . (See the applicable NFPA standards for deta ils.) If you have concerns about the
readiness of the system, arrange to witness the next sc hedu led test.
Visual examination of detect ion appl iances from the floor could in dicate some
po int s of maintenance. Paint on the unit might .indicate obstructed ports in the unit
housing. Clo se examination also could rev ea l accumulations of du st or insects that
might impede operation.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) Alarms and Systems

Begi nn ing with the 20 12 ed itio n ofNFPA 101, newly co nstruc ted apartments are n ow
requ ired to provide CO alarms and CO detect ion syste m s under certai n circumstances.
Buildings in which th e guest room spaces commu nicate with a parking garage or those
in which a fuel-burning appliance is provided in the guest room s are among the con-
siderati ons that need to be reviewed in order to determine if CO protection is required.
The inspec tion shou ld verify the pr esence and locat ion of any requi red devices and
verify that the devices have been properly teste d.

Lighting
NFPA 101® requir es th at sufficient illuminat ion be provided within the corridors and
exits. Emergenc)' lighting is required within th e corridors and exits of apartment build -
i11gswith more than 12 living units or more than three storie s in height, unless each
apartment has dire ct access to the outs ide at grade. Exit signs are to be provided i.n all
apartmen t buil dings requiring two or more exits . Become familiar with Chapte r 7 of the
code for details of all these requ irement s, and be aware of Sections 30.7 and 31.7 ofNFPA
101® regard ing requirements for emergency ins tru ctions for apartment buildings.
475
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

NFPA Codes, Standards , and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 10, Standard.for Por/a/,/eFireExti11gr1ishers
NFPA 13, Standardfor the I11stallalio11 of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA l3R, Standardfor the l11stallntio11 of Spri11klerSystems in aeside11tialOcwpm1cies
Up to and fllc/11dingFour Stories in Height
NFPA 24, Standard for the l11stallntio11of Private Fire Sen ice Mains a11d T1ieir
1

Appurte11n11ces
NFPA 25, Standard j ar tl,e inspection, Te,li11g,mu/ lvfoi11/e11m1c
e of Wnfer-13asecl Fire
Prntectio11Systems
NFPA 72®, Natio1wl FireAlnr111 n11dSignnli11gCode
NFPA 82, Stm1dnrdon l11cil1 emtors and Waste n11dUne11Hm1dlingSystems n11dEquip-
ment
NFPA 90A, Standardfor the I11stallalio11 ofAir -Co11ditio11i11g
and Ve11tilnti11gSystems
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®

476
 CHAPTER

36
LODGING OR ROOMING
HOUSES
JosephNI. Jardin,PE

Lodging or rooming hou ses, as defined in NFPA 101®, L((e Srifety Code®,include
buildings with sleeping rooms that provide sleepi ng accommodations for a total of
16 or fewer persons on either a tran sient or permanent basi s. Meals might or might
not be available, but separate cooking facilities for individual occupants are not par t
of the arrangement. Examp.les of occupancie s classified as lodging or rooming houses
might include guest houses, bed and breakfasts, as well as small inns or motels. Lodg -
ing or rooming house provisions may appl)' to other occupancies such as fire stations,
hospital "on -call" st,1ff Jeep ing areas, and Coast Guard stations. One - and tivo-family
dwellings can accommodate up to thr ee "outsiders" in rented rooms, which effectively
narrows the scope of code requirement s for lodging or rooming houses to only those
facilities accommod ating from 4 to 16 persons. 1he requirements for lodging or room-
ing houses apply to both new buildings and to xisting or modified buildings because
the requirements arc essen tially the same.

USEAND CODE REQUIREMENTS

Lodging or rooming houses are generally distinct occupancies, often located in a
converted one - or two -family dwelling. Unfortunate!) ', past experience has shown that
these conversions may occur without proper review and approval, resulting in facili-
ties that do not meet applicab le code requirements. All too often, remode ling creates
combustible voids and concealed spaces or may alter the egress from an upper level.
The hazard is increased in older buildings if the remodeling process covers walls and
ceilings that lack the proper firestopping features.
If a lodging or rooming house shares a building with another type of occupancy,
and the facilities are so intermingled that sepa rate safegua rds are impractical, the
occupancies are considered mixed occupancies , and the most restrictive requ irement s
of each of the occupanc ies involved are applicable throughout the entire facility. If the
occupancies can be adequa tely separated, however, the requirem ents of each occupancy
type are to be separately applied.
 SECTION3: Occupanc ies

It is necessar)' to consider whether the lodging or rooming house has a sole evacu-
ation route passing through another occupancy. This arrangement is permitted only
under the following conditions:
• The building is fully sprinklered.
or
• The sole evacuation route is separated from the other occupancy by fire barriers
with at least l-honr fire-resistance ratings.
A lodging or rooming house may be located above a nonresidential occupancy only if
nny one of the following cond itions exist:
• There is a 1-hour separatio n between the residential and nonresidential
occupancies.
• The nonresidential occupancy is spr inkler protected.
• TI1enonresidential occupancy is protected by an automatic detection system.
Several common problems are associated with lodging or rooming houses. One is
the tendency to increase accommod ations by altering the building's interior layout to
create additional guest quarters. If you suspect that this is the case, make sure that
required exits have not been eliminated and that there are sleeping accommodations
for no more than 16 persons. Another problem is a tendency to accept as residents
individuals who may not be able to care adequately for themselves or to evacuate the
building on their own in the event of a fire. Thus, the occupancy will have to be evalu-
ated periodically to assess whether the occupants are capable of self-preservation and
as such require either personal care services, supervisory care, or nursing care. In
either case, if the facility no longer meets the definition of a lodging or rooming house,
.it should be reclassified immediate!)' to its applicable use. Refer to Chapters J and 6 of
NFPA 101® for additional information concerning occupancy classification.

INTERIOR FINISH
Interior finish has proved to be a significant factor in fires involving lodging or rooming
houses. TI1isis particularly true in older buildings that were renovated or remodeled
with extensive use of unrated paneling and combustible ceiling tile.
Interior finish in lodging and rooming houses is limited to Class A, B, or C in all areas.
NFPA 101® permits the use of fire retardant paints to achieve required name spread rat-
ings; however,you should study the code thorough I}' to understand the limitations of this
process and may also want to require proof of application and assurances that the man-
ufacturer's guidelines have been followed strictly. Hems that do not meet the required
name spread and smoke-developed limitations pose an extremely serious problem.
If you see a combust ible interior finish, ask to see all the information necessary to
verify that the flame spread index and smoke-developed index ratings of the materials
used meet the requirements for acceptable interior finish. The classification- if there
is one- of wall paneling will be stamped on the back of each sheet. In most instances,
the paneling classification is valid only if the paneling is attached to a noncombustible
substrate, such as gypsum board or plaster.

478
 CHAPTER 36: Lodging or Rooming Houses

Suspended ceiling tiles will not have such a stamp, but the y may have a sticker
indicating the ir classificat ion. If they do not, you will need to see the or iginal pack -
in g paper for inform ation pertaining to flame spread and smoke-developed ind ex
values. Verifying that the ceiling tiles are acceptable might not be a problem in new
construction, but identi fying various interior finish mat erials in existing buildings may
be nearly impossible. If this is the case, insist that the material in question be tested
by an approved testing laboratory, be protected with a fire retardant coat ing or simp l)'
replaced to clear up any que stions .

PRO ECTI N XI S
Before cond ucting an inspection, you must under sta nd that exit requirements for
lodging or rooming houses an d single -family dwellings are different fro m those of
other occupancies. Most notably, exit requirements are referred to as am ans of escape
rather than a means of egress (see the discussion on one - and two -family dwellings
in this text). Each sleeping room and living area is requ ired to have access to both a
primar)' and secondary means of escape. l h e primary means of escape for sleeping
rooms above or below the primary exit discharge level are required to be protected
interior stairs, exterior stair s, horizont al exits, or fire escape stairs for existing facilities.
Secondary means of escape are exempted for those rooms with doors .lead ing directly
to the outside at grade level or to an exterior stair. Two means of escape are required
from every sto,-y of every new lodging or rooming house that exceeds 2000 ft2 (185 m2) in
area or where the travel distance to the primary means of escape is more than 75 ft (23 m},
unles s the facility is protected throughout by an approv ed supervised automa tic sprin-
l<lerS)'Stem.
Vertical openings oftodging or rooming houses must be protected, because occupants
may be sleep ing, thu s unaware of a rapidly deve loping fire, ,ind they ma)' not be famil-
iar with their means of escape because of their potentially transient natur e. Generally,
this requirement is met by the provi sion of a ½-hour smoke and fire-resistance rated
separation of vertical openings from th e primary means of escape routes. An exception
is permitted in buildings of three or fewer stor ies if they are equipped with an approved
autom atic sprinkler system. In th is latter case, however, there still must be one primary
means of escape from each sleeping area that do es not pass through lower levels, unless
that portion of the prim,iry means of escape is separated from other areas of the build -
ing with a '/2-hour rated const ruction.
The means of escap e requ irement s for lodging and rooming houses are intended
to provide for a high er level of safety than that found .in one- and Iwo-fam ii)' dwell-
ings. Thus, the inspection of the lodging or rooming house exiting scheme should
con firm th at each sleeping room has access to a primary means of escape th al pro -
vides a safe path of travel to the outside without trav ersi ng an)' corr idor or space
exposed to an unprotected vertical opening. Every sleeping room in a nonsprin -
klered facility shoul d also have a secondary means of escape. The code exempts th e
requirem en t of a secondary escape if the building is equipped with an approved
sprinkler system .

479
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

Sleeping rooms mu st be separated 0

from the escape rou te corridors by
Bath
smoke partitions (see Section 8.4 of Bedroom
NFPA J0 /®).1hedoorsmust latch,and
n o louvers are permitted. The doors
also must have self-closers or close au-
tomatically upon detect ion of smoke,
unless the build ing ha s an automat ic Bedroom

sprinkl er system. See FIGURES36-1,

36-2, 36-3, and 36-4 for examples of
NFPA 101® compli ant lodging and
rooming house means of escape
Bedroom
arra ngement s.
Bedroom
Duri ng the inspection , make sure
tha l all doors and exterio r exit~ are
not locked or blocked. Delayed release Second Floor
locks may be used in facilities with a
comp lete automatic sprinkl er system
or a complete fire detection S)'Stem,
provided not more than one device is Kitchen
found in any single egress path. Living/dining room
Ensure that the safe path of travel
does not pass through an area or room
that might be locked or blocked and
that the ent ire path of travel, including
exterior stairs and walks, is adequately
illumina ted. All door s and path s of
travel through the means of escape TV
UP room
should be at least 28 in. (71 cm) wide.
Bathroom doors are permi tted to be
24 in. (61 cm) wide.
Finally, determine whether closet
door latches can be opened easily from First Floor
the inside and whether bathroom doors
can be opened from the outside with an FIGURE 36·1 Means of escape- existin g
unlocking device. nonsp rinklered lodg ing or roomin g house.
ibit26.3r,om
Source: Exh lifeSafety
CodeHandbook.

BUILDING SERVICES
\,1/hen inspecting a facility,check four basic items relating to building services: house-
keeping, electr ical installations, heating appliances, and cooking operations.

Housekeeping
Housekeeping is a genera l baro meter from which a great deal can be learned . Poor
housekeeping generally reflects a lack of concern on the part of the owner or tenant.
480
 CHAPTER 36: Lodging or Rooming Houses

CJ
00
Bedroom
0

DOWN

Bedroom I Corridor
Bedroom

Bedroom

Bedroom

Second Floo r

36-2Meansof escape-o utside stair use. Sou,ce:

FIGURE f,omlife5ofetyCodeHondbook.
b.hibil26.S

Storage areas , in particular , inevitably contain a large amo un t of combustibl e materials.

Inspect these areas thorough !}' for combustib les and for any unusual hazards, such as
oil-based paints, thinn ers, and flamm able liquids, which must be remov ed.

Electrical Installations
Improper or damaged electr ical installations always present a fire hazard in buildings
of any occupancy classification. Deficiencies to be looked for includ e overloaded cir-
cuits, open junction boxes, frayed wir ing, overloa ded extension cords and outlets, and
improperly maintained appliances, fixtures, and heating appliances.
In many cases, the problems and corrective actions are clear. When in doubt about a
condition involving an electrical installation , you sho uld request that it be inspected and
approved by a local electrical inspector, a licensed electrician , or a reputable electrical
inspect ion agency.

Heating Appliances
There is a wide rang e of heating applia nces. '" ' it h fixed perman en t heater
installations and portabl e heate rs, you sho uld be concerned prima rily with prop -
er maint enance and clearance to combust ibles. En sure that any exte nsion cords
used for electr ical heat ers are of the proper size, that only tested and listed heating
481
 SECTION3: Occupancies

devices are used, and that gas unit heat - 0 CJ

ers are installed prop erly. In addition, Bath Bedroom
verify that kerosene heater s are operated Bedroom Cl
safely, taking into account th eir location
with respect to means of egres s, venting DOWN
for combustion air, fuel stor age, refueling,
Bedroom
and use of the correct fuel. In general, un - Cor,idor
vent ed fuel -fired heat ers are prohibited;
gas spa ce heaters compl) •ing with NFPA
54, National Fuel Gas Corie, however, arc
Bedroom
pe rm itted.
Bedroom

Cooking Operations Thi rd Floo r

Cooking operati ons in lodging and room - 0 CJ

ing houses generally are limited in nature. Bath Bedroom
However, control of individual hot plates or Bedroom I\ Cl
similar appliances is very important, consid - \
ering the frequency of fires caused by these ( DOWN .J
I~===
devices. Bedroom
Larger cooking operation s often use Corridor
appliances that are not typicalJy found in a Bedroom

person's home and that produce grease-laden j

vapors . In such cases, the installation of these I~===
L, UP
Bedroom
appliances must comply with the require - Bedroom
ments of NFPA 96, Stm1riarrion \/e11tilntion
Control and Fire Protection of Commercial Second Floor
CookingOpemtio11s.
The ke)' items to inspect are the fixed
extingui shing system prote cting the cook- Kitchen
ing surfaces, exhaust hood , the plenum, liv ing/dining room
and th e duct. Proof that the extinguish -
ing system is inspected and serviced
semiannually should be requested. The
hood and duct should meet the mini -
mum construction requir ements, with
liquid -tight cont inuous external weld TV
UP room
seams and joints. A clearance of at least
18 in. (45 .7 cm) must be maintained be -
(
tween all hoods and duct s and any com-
bustibles. Deep-fat fryers should have
First Floor
secondary high-limit controls, hoods, and
ducts. Grease-removal devices should be FIGURE 36·3 Means of escape-t hree-story
clea ned frequently to prev ent grease from sprinklered lodg ing or room ing house.
accumu lating. Source: Exhibit 26.6fromLifeSafe tyCodeHandbook.

482
 CHAPTER 36: Lodging or !looming Houses

FIRE ROTEC IO N SYS EM

Det ct ion and Alarm Systems
Detection and alarm S)'Slems in resi-
0
dential occupancies play an extreme!)'
important role in warning residents of Bedroom Bedroom
a fire in time to evacuate the building
safely. A fire alarm system complying
with NPPA 72®,Nntio1111I FireAl11r1111111d
Sig1111/i11g ode, is required in lodging
or rooming houses. However; for older Bedroom
lodging and rooming houses identified
as existing, alarm systems consisting of a
smoke detection system including at least
one manual fire alarm box 011 each floor
Bedroom Bedroom
will suffice. Smoke alarms are required in
all sleeping rooms. In new lodging and
rooming houses, smoke alarms must be
powered by the building electricalS)'Stem
and interconnected. Existing battery-
powered smoke alarms are permitted to
remain in use, provided the authority Kitchen Dining room
having jurisdiction evaluates the use of
existing battery-powered smoke alarms,
considering testing, maintenance, and
battery replacement programs. NFPA
studies and analysis of reported fires in-
dicates that about one-third of all smoke
alarms installed in homes are inoperative, Sitting room Living room
UP
usually because the batteries are dead or
missing. rt is exiremely important that
facility operators maintain a written log
of periodic battery replacement and con-
scientiouslyconduct a testiHgprogram.
During the inspection, locate and FIGURE 36·4Means of escape- two-story
test the manual fire alarm boxes, which sprinklered bed-and-breakfastfacility.
should be installed at the main exit or at Sou1Ce:
Exhibi
t fromUte5afe
16.7 ly (odeHandbook.
the entrance to enclosed stairs on each floor.ff the building is fullysprinklered, fire alarm
boxes are not required lo be distributed throughout the building. In this case, you should
locate at least one manual means to initiate the fire alarm S)'Slem. Make sure that the alarms
are audible in all areas that may be occupied. TI1en, confirm the presence of approved
smoke alarms in each sleeping room. Make sure that they are mounted properly and are
located in accordance with manufacturers' guidelines. Finally, perform a functional test of
the alarm/detection system and document that such tests are conducted periodicallr

483
 SECTION 3: Occupan cies

New lodging or rooming houses containing fuel-burning appliances or allached

garages are required to have carbon monoxide detectors installed in the immediate vicin-
ity of each sleepLngarea and on each level that may be occupied (including basements).

Sprinkler Systems
Sprinkler systems are requi.red in all new lodging and rooming houses i.llwhich a door
from each sleeping room does not open directly to the outside at street or ground levelor to
an exterior stairway thal leads to the ground. Existinglodgi11gor rooming houses often do
not have automatic sprinkler systems, even though current code alternativesand residential
sprinkler systems make sprinklers a worthwhile and affordableinvestment.
If an automatic sprinkler system is to be used in the facility to compensate for other-
wise deficient construclion features, the proper NFPA 13, Sta11dardforthe 111stallatio11
ofSpri11klerSystems, classification of the sprinkler design is "light hazard;' even though
the NFPA !OJ® classificaliun of the occupancy is "ordinary hazard." 'foi s classification
makes the design and installation of automatic sprinkJers an affordable consideration
for many facilities and should be encouraged whenever possible.
lf a sprinkler system is present, confirm that it is in service and that all control valves
are open. Sprinkler systems that are required or that are used as an alternative tnethod
of protection, either for total or partial building coverage, must actuate the fire alarm
system upon activation. TI1isincludes systems complying with the requirements of
NFPA I 3R, Standardfor the Installntio11of SprinklerSyste111s i11ResidentialOccupa11cies
Up to and J11cludi11g FourStories i11Height,and NFPA 13D,Standardfor the Installatio11
of Spri11kler Systems in 011e- a11dTwo-Fami~•Dwellingsmid ,'vlamifacturedHomes.Verify
that all areas to be protected have adequate coverage, that there is adequate clearance
between the sprinklers and any obstructions, aud that the piping is properly protected
against freezing.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 13, Standardfor the J,rstallationof SprinklerSystems
NFPA 13D, Standardfor the !11sta/Jalio11 of Sprinkler Systems i11011e- and Two-Fa111ily
Dwe/Ji11gsand .Mmn1fact11red Homes
NFPA 13R,Standard/or the Installationof SprinklerSystems in Residential Occupancies
Up to nnd Incl11di11g
Four Stories i11Height
NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code
NFPA 72®, National FireAlar111 and Signali11g Corie
NFPA 96, Stn11dnrdon \lentilatio11Control and FireProleclio11 of Co111111ercial
Cooki11g
Operations
NFPA 101®, L!fe Safety Code®

484
 CHAPTER

37
RESIDENTIALBOARDAND
CARE OCCUPANCIES
Josephivl. Jardin,PE

Residentia l board and care occ upa ncies provide lodging, boa rding, and persona l care
ser vices for four or more residen ts who are unre lated by bloo d or marriage to the
owner or op erator of the facility. Resid ential boa rd and care occupan cies may also be
referr ed to as res iden tial care or person al care hom es, assisted living facilit ies, or group
hom es. TI1ese occupancies are distinguished from lodg ing hous es because persona l
care services are prov ided to the residents . If nursing care were provid ed, the facility
would be more appropri ately conside red a healthcare occupancy.

PERSONAL CARE VERSUSHEALTHCARE

The concept of pe rsona l ca re is cri tical in dist inguishing a residential board and care
occupancy from other occupancies . Persona l care is inte nded to indicate that the own er
or op era tor has respon sibility for the safety and welfare of the resident s. Persona l care
might include a daily awar eness of th e residents' wher eabouts, the arrangemen t of ap -
pointmen ts for residents, supe rvision of the reside nts' nutrition and med ication, and
the arr angeme nt of trans ient medical care. For example, a residential boa rd and care
occupancy will often empl oy staff who ensu re that the residents eat properly and take
their med ications . The staff might mak e doctor appointm ents for reside nt s and notify
a phy sician if a resid en t experiences some medical difficulty. 1l1ese action s are often
times referre d to as ADLs-Ac tivities of Da ily Living . However, unl ike a healthcare
occ upancy, the staff will not actually adminis ter or prescribe med ication or provid e
med ical treatme nt.
Exampl es of faciliti es that might be residen tial bo ard and care occupanc ies includ e
group hom es for the physi cally or cognitiv ely disabled; rest ho mes for the aged; shelters
for batter ed persons , unw ed mothers, or runaways; and halfway hou ses for rehabilitat ed
alcoholics, drug abusers, o r pri son parolees. Jn determ in ing the appropria te occupancy
classification, focus on the level of care provided rather than the na me und er which the
faciHty operates. Add itional guidance can be obta ined from the license und er whi ch the
facility operates . TI1elicense might ind icate whether the staff is permitt ed o r expect ed
 SECTION3: Occup
ancies

to provide medical care, personal care, or no care. In NFPA JOJ®, Life Snfety Corle®,
board and care occupancies are covered in Chapter 32 for new construction (including
renovations and changes ofoccupancy) and in Chapter 33 for existing facilities.

ACILITY CLASSIFICA ION

Residential board and care occupancies e:dsl in a variety of configurations and sizes.
Some facilities house a Umited number of residents in a home-like arrangement. i\1lany
of these facilities are located in buildings that originally were single-family dwellings
or small apartment buildings. Other facilities are located in larger facilities or multiple-
building complexes, which appear and operate in a manner similar lo an apartment
building, hotel, or nursing home. Because certa in protection features, such as smoke
barriers, are not as functional in small buildings and because larger buildings usually
are more difficult to evacuate, Chapters 32 and 33 ofNFPA JOI® distinguish between
small and large facilities. Small fa ilities are defin d a board and care oc upancies that
provide sleeping accommodations for not more than I 6 residents. This limit does not
include staff members. Large facilities are defined as those providing sleeping accom-
modations for more than 16 res.idents.

EVACUATION CAPABILITY
In existing facilities, in addition to determining facility size, )'OU must also evaluate the
abilities of residents to evacuate the building. For most occupanc ies, occupants are as-
sumed lo have similar ambulatory capabilities from one building to another. However,
as the list of typical residential board and care occupancies indicates, the abilities of
residents to evacuate a building can vary significantly. Prison parolees in a halfwa)'
house might have the ability to evacuate the building with no staff assistance as quickly
as the general population; however, residents in a group home .for the cognitively dis-
abled might require assistance from staff or other residents.
NFPA 101® defines three levels of evacuation capabilities for existing residential
board and care occupancies as follows:
• Prompt evacuation capability is considered to be equivalent to the evacuation
capability of the general population. If realistic fire drills are used to determine
evacuation capability, the residents should be able to evacuate to a point of safety
within 3 minutes.
• Slow evacuation capabilit)' indicates that the residents can move to a point of
safety in a timely manner with some residents requiring assistance from the staff
If re.-11istic
fire drills are used, the residents should be able to evacuate to a point
of safety with in l3 minutes.
• l mpractical evacuation capability indicates that the residents cannot move
reliably to a point of safety in a timely manner, even with assistance. As with
the other levels, if fire drills are used, impractical evacuation capability would
indicate that the resi.dents cannot evacuate to a point of safety within 13 minutes.
If drills are used to determine evacuation capability, it is recommended that the fa-
cility conducl six drills per year on a bimonthly basis. At least two of these drills should
486
 CHAPTER 37: Residential Board and Care Occupancies

be conducted during times when residents are sleeping. These drills should be carried
out in conjunction with the authority having ju risdiclio n, and detail ed drill records
should be maintained.
Un less an acceptable methodology has been used to evaluate the evacuation capabil-
ity of the residen ts, you may assume they have a slow evac uation capability, provided
they are all capable of traveling to a centra lized din ing room without staff assistance
and the facility is staffed continuously. If 1he above two conditions are not met, you
should assume that lhe facility houses residents who have an impractical ability to
evacuate unless the staff can demonslrat c olherwise. One method thal can be used to
evaluate the residents is con tained in Chapter 6 of NFPA IOlA, Guide 011 Altemati11e
Approachesto LifeSafety, 20 IOedition.
This discuss ion on evacuation capability refers lo the abilities of residen ts to move to
a point of sa fety and not necessar ily to evacuate to the exlerior of the building. A poinl
of safety is a location that meets one of the following cri teria:
• A poin t of safety can be exterior to and away from the building. As such, if the
means of egress system complies with the crileria for exit discharge to a public
way, the exit discharge can be cons idere d as the point of safety.
• Tfthe building is protected with an approved automatic sprinkler system, a point
of safety can be a code -compl)'ing exit enclosure or the other side of a smoke
barrier that ha s a fire-resistance rating of at leas! 30 minutes . The area also must
have access to a means of escape or an exit, as permitted by the code, that does
not require the residents lo travel back through the smoke barrier to the area
from which they were evacuated.
• If the building is of a construction type that has at leas I a 1-honr fire-resistance
rating [Type I, Type II (222), Type II (111), Type 1lI (211), Type IV, or Type V
(111) ], a point of safety can be a code-compl)'ing exit enclos ure or the other side
of a smoke barrier that has a fire-resistance rating of al least 30 minutes. The area
also must have access to a means of escape or exit, as permitted by the code, that
does not require the residents to travel back through the smoke barr ier to the
area from which they were evacuated.
Making this determination requires careful review because the other considera tion is
the ability of the residents to listen to and adhere to the staff instructions even once they
are outside of the building. 'foe resident capabilities can also degrade in a short period
of time or other new residents may be brought into the facility, making this a Vet'}'
dynamic survey of the popu lation at any given time.

OCCUPANCY CHARACTERISTICS
Residential board and care occupancies are similar in nature to other residential
occ upancies. 'D1e fire load within indi vidual sleeping rooms is similar to that in sleep -
ing rooms with in other dwellings. Many facilities provid e some furnishings but permit
residents to bring personal furnishings such as chairs and tables into the rooms. The
facilities also may include common living areas and lounges as well as a common din -
ing area. Cooking usually is done at one cen lral location, although residents might
487
 SECTION3: Occupancies

have access to a stove for personal use. Some residents might be respons ible for their
own laund ry, although items such as bed linen might be laundered at a central location.
Facilities are usually staffed with personnel who superv ise the residents and who
might make appointm ents or plan activities for the residents . ln some facilities, the
staff live in a sep arate area or apa rtm ent within the facility. As such, the staff might not
always be awake, alert, o r direct!)' superv ising the reside nt s. However, staff must be on
duty and in th e facility whenever residents requiring evacuation assistance are prese nt.
Build ings that hous e occupancies other tha n residentia l board and care occupan-
cies (mixed occupancies) mu st comply with th e more restri ctive provisions of the oc-
cupan cies involved. As an alternative, the other occupancies can be seµarnted from
the residenti al board and care facility and its egress system by construction having a
fire-resistance rating of at least 2 hours. Also, Sectio ns 32.4 and 33.4 of N.FPA 101®
conta in require men ts that app ly specificaUy to residential board and ca re facilities that
a re located within apartme nt buildings.
Residential board and care facilities can be of any type of construction. 1l1e vast
majority of facilities , especially sma ll ones, are located in single- family dwell ings. Co n-
struction types permitt ed by NFPA 101® for large facilities depend on the size of the
facility, the evacuation caµabi lity of the residents within existing faciliti es, the height of
th e facility, and the presence of automatic sprinkler protection .

MEANS OF EGRESS
Small Facilities
In smal l facilities, the mean s of egress is more appropriate ly referred to as the means
of escape because th ere are num erous devia tions from the standard means of egress
arrangemen ts. Both the in eans of escape from sleeping rooms and from th e facility in
general must be evalua ted. Primary and secondary means of escape must be acco un ted
for, and within existing facilities, the means of escape req uireme nts vary depending on
the evacua tion capability of the residents.
Each sleepin g room and living area mu st have a primary means of escape that
should lead to the point of safety without exposure to any unprotected ver tical open-
ings. Infacilities wher e residents are considered to have slow or impracti cal evacuat ion
capa bilities, the primary means of escape cannot be expose d to common living spaces,
such as living rooms or kitchens. By "exposed to;• the code is referri ng to unprotec ted
openings into such spaces. If the existing build ing is protecte d throug h out with qu ick
response o r reside nt ial sprinklers, there is no restriction on the pr imary means of
escape being exposed to common living spaces (see the Prot ection of Vertical Open-
ings sect ion later in thi s chapter) .
When interior stairs are cre dited with serving as a primary means of escape,
they should be µrotected o r arranged to protect escap ing occupants. A ½-hour stair
separation is normal!) ' required; however, excep tions involving sprinkler pro tection ,
evacuation capability, and facility design may come into µlay.
Each sleeping room must also have access to a seco ndary means of escape. The most
commo n arrangements involve either a window to the outside or a path of travel that
488
 CHAPTER 37: Residential Board and CareOccupancies

is rernote from the primal.')' means of escape. The window must be operable from the
inside without the use of tools and must provide a clear opening not less than 20 in.
(SI cm.) in width, 24 in. (61 cm) in height, nnd 5.7 ft2 (0.53 m 2) in area. TI1ebottom of
the opening cannot be more than 44 in. {I 11.8 cm) above the floor. Other alternatives
include passage through an adjacent space to which the residents have free access or
the enclosure of the room with construc tion h,wing a fire-resistance rating of at least
½ hour. econdary means of escape are not required in rooms that have a door lead-
ing directly to the outside or in facilities that are protected with an automatic sprinkler
system.
In addition to two mea11 s of escape from each room, existing facilities also should
have two means of escape from each normally occupied story. \!Vindowscan serve as
only one means of escape from the facility and only if the residents are considered to
have prompt evacuation capabilities. In buildings that nre protected with an automatic
sprinkler system, a second means of escape is not required from each story, as long
as the entire facilit)' still has two means of escape. Thi. i::. eplion cannot be used in
conjunction with the sprinkler exception for two means of escape from each sleeping
room. Exit signs and emergency lighting are not required .in small facilities.

Large Facilities
TI1emeans of egress from lnrge facilities should be similar to the traditional residentia l
occupancy egress arrangement involving exit access doors to corridor s that lead lo
standard exits. Within the residents' dwelling units, the means of escape provisions of
one- and two-family dwellings appl)'-Within existing, unsprin klered facilities, dead-
end corr idors are limited to 50 ft ( 15.24 111),and common path s of travel are limited
to 110 ft (33.53 m). Jf the existing building is sprinklered, the common path can be
increased to 160 ft (48.77 m). In new facilities, dead ends are limited to 30 ft (9.14 m),
and common path s of travel are limited to 75 ft (22.86 m).
For existing facilities, travel within a room, suite, or living area to a corrido r must
be limited to 75 ft (22.86 m) unless the building is protected with an automat ic sprin-
kler system, in which case the limit is 125 ft (38.1 111).TI1etravel distance from the exit
access door to an exit is limited to 100 ft (30.48 111) . This travel distance can be in-
creased to 200 ft (60.96 m) for exterior ways of exit access, such as exterior balconies.
Also, NFPA 101® permits an increase in the travel distance to 200 ft (60.96 m) between
room doors and exits if automatic sprinkler protection is provided. Travel distance in
new facilities is limited to 250 ft (76.2 111)from any point within the room to an exit.
Exit signs must be provided. Emergency lighting is required in all new facilities and
existing facilities with more than 25 sleeping rooms. However, if each sleeping room
has a direct exit to the outside of the building at ground level, no emergency lighting
is required.

Egress Capacity
The occupant load factor for residential board and care occupancies is 200 ft2 ( 18.58 111
2)
per person. However, depending on the amount of common living and dining areas,
the actual occupant load might be well in excess of that figure. In facilities in which
489
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

the occupant load factor does not truly represent the anticipated occupancy, the maxi-
mum probable population of the room, space, or fac.ility shou ld be cons idered, and
the maximum probabl e population must include residents, staff and visitors. Hence,
egress capaci ty should be evaluated accordingly. Corridors in existing prompt or slow
evacuation capabi lity facilities serv ing occupant loads of 50 or more and in all imprac-
tica/ evacuation capability facilities are required to be at least 44 in. ( 111.8cm) wide.
Corrido rs serv ing fewer than SO prompt or slow evacuat ion capability occupants are
required to be only 36 in. (91.44 cm) wide. New facilities require corridors of a mini-
mum width of 60 in. ( 152.4 cm).

R ECTION O VER ICAL OPENINGS

Small Facilities
l n gene ral, vertical op enin gs mu st be enclo sed with smoke partition s that have a lire-
resistance rating of at least ½-hour . Doors servi11gver tical openings should be capable
of resisting lire for not less than 20 minutes. Howeve r, depending on the means of
escape configuration, open stair s may be permitted. Hence, evaluate th e means of
egress arrangement to determine if stair enclosure may be exem pted .

Large Facilities
In genera l, vertical openings are required to be enclosed with construction that has a
fire-resistance rating of I or 2 hours, depending on the number of stor ies connec ted
by the vertical shaft. In existing buildings ½-hour rated enclosure walls are still per-
mitted. In addition to the permitted use of atria, other unprotected openings can be
permitted depending on the number of stories connected, the openness of the area,
and the provision of au tom atic spr inkler protection.
If exterior stairs serve the facility, you must ensure that a fire that would block the
interior sta irs will not simultaneous ly block the exterior stai rs. This might be accom-
plished by the protection of the oµenings that expose the exterior stairs or by the physi-
cal separation of the stairs from the bui lding.

COMPARTMENTATION
Small Facilities
In general, corr idor walls must have a lire -res istance rating of at least ½-hour with
corridor doors of at least I ¾- in . (4.45-cm) solid, bonded wood-core construct ion.
In facilities where residents can evacuate promp!I}' or in facilities that are protected
by automatic sprinkler systems, the corridor must be separated by smoke partitions.
Corridor doors must be self-latching, with latches that will keep th e door closed.
Corridor doors must be self-closing or automatic closing unle ss the building is pro-
tected with an automati c sprink ler system. Whereas properly placed heating and
utility insta llations are permitted, louvers, operating transoms, and transfer grilles
are prohibited.
490
 CHAPTER 37: Residential Board and CareOccupancies

Larg Faciliti s
Sleeping rooms are required to be separated from corridor s, kitchens, and living
areas by smoke partition s. In general, these walls are required to have a ½-hour fire-
resistance rating protected by 20-minute rated fire doors, which also must resist the
passage of smoke. Existing l ¾-in. (4.45-cm) solid, bonded wood-core doors are per-
mitted in existing facilities. Also, if an existing facility is sprink lered or protected with
smoke detectors, non rated doors are acceptable. lf the facility i a conversion, these
walls and doors must simply resist the passrtgeof smoke. These same doors serving new
facilities are sirnply required to be smoke resisting.
Corridor doors to sleeping rooms must be automatic losing upon a tivalion of the
smoke detection system. because the operation of the facility could be such that the
doors usually are open. In existi11g buildings if the doors have occupant-controlled
locks, such that the doo rs usually are closed for security or privacy purposes, the door
can be self-closing. TI1e closer is not required in new facilities. Corr idor doors lo oth r
room s must be self-closing or automatic closing. In existing buildings protected with
an automat ic sprinkler system, the corridor doors need not be self-closing or automatic
closing unless required for another pur pose, such as for an exit enclosure door or a
door to a hazardous area.
Smoke barriers are requ ired in new facilities (with exemptions) and iu existing, non-
sprinklered large facilities with an aggregatecorridor length of more than 150 ft (45.72m)
on the floor. Smoke barriers are also not required in prompt-to -evacuate or slow-to-
evacuate facilities, where each sleeping room is provided with exterior ways of exit
access. Smoke partitions ma)' be used in lieu of smoke barriers within impract ical-to-
evacuate facilities on stories used for sleeping by not more than 30 residents.

HAZARDOUSAREAS
Small Facilities
In small facilities, a hazardous area is considered to be one in which the fire threat is
greater than that which is commonly found in one- and two-family dwellings and pos-
sesses the potential for a fully involved fire. Therefore, a typical kitchen arra ngement
would not necessarily constitute a hazardous area. However, rooms used for centra l
storage of residents' belongings would most likely be considered hazardous areas.
TI1ese areas must either be enclosed or protected by automatic sprinklers. If the haz-
ardous area is on the same floor as and abuts or is in the primary means of escape, the
enclosure must have a .fire-resistance rating ofa t least l hour, or if automatic spr inklers
are provided in the enclosure, the enclosure must be smoke resistant. All other hazard-
ous areas, such as basement storage areas, must be enclosed with constru ction having a
fire-resistance rating of 30 minutes unless automatic sprinklers are provided.

Large Facilities
Large facilities typically will contain more hazardous areas because of the increased
centralization of services such as cooking, laundry, and storage. Boiler or heater rooms
491
 SECTION 3 : Occupa ncies

and repair areas also might pose a greater fire threat than that of those commonly
found in one- and two-family dwellings. In existing facilities, such hazardous areas
must be separated from all other parts of the building by constru ction having a fire-
resistance rating of at least I hour or the area must be protected by automatic sprin klers.
Additionallr, hazardous areas containing equipmen t or machinery subject to explosion
must not be located directl)' under or adjacent to exits. Hazardous areas within new
facilities require 1-hour rated separation in addition to the mandated sprinkler protec-
tion througho ut the building.

T Tl NAN A ARM y M
Small Facilities
New facilities should be equipped with a manual fire alarm system, which in turn
provides for occupant notification. 111existing facilities, a means should be provided
by which the staff and residents can be alerted to a fire emergency. Although a stan-
dard fire alarm system can serve this function , NFPA JOJ® permits other alternatives
because of the size and arrangement of man)' small facilities. For example, if smoke
alarms are interconne cted, a manual fire alarm box can be provided on each floor,
which can be activated 10 sound the smoke alarms continuously. Although not speci-
fied in NFPA 101®, the manual fire alarm boxes should be located in a conveniently
accessible location that is in the norma l path of escaµe.
\Vilhin existing facilities, a "system" consisting of alarms and .manual switches
that can serve to notify the occupants and staff might also be accepted. The size and
arrangement of the facility should dictate what constitutes an acceptable alternate sys-
tem. In accepting a system, consider issues such as audibility, activation, power, sec-
ondary power, supervision, maintenance, and testing.
1b minimize the impact of a fire on the means of escape, approved smoke alarms must
be provided in all living rooms, da)' rooms, dens, and so on, and one alarm must be pro-
vided per f100 1~ excluding crawl spaces and attics. The smoke alarms should be powered
b)' the house electrical service. It must be verified that the source of power is not subject
to control b)' a wall switch. Additionalguidance on smoke alarm installation can be found
in NFPA 72®, NntionnlFireAlnr111 n11dSig11nli11g
Code,which contains minimum require-
ments for the selection, installnlion, operation, and maintenance of the smoke alarms. The
interconnection and/or building-supplied power of the smoke alarms can be omitted in
existingbuildings protected by an automatic quick response or residentialsprinkler system.

Large Facilities
In general, a fire alarm system must be installed in all new and most existing large
facilities to permit the quick notification of staft~ residents, and visitors of a fire emer-
gency. NPPA 101® contains some exceptions and variations that can be permitted in
certain existing facilities. In new high -rise buildings, a means also mi1st be provided
by which the occupan ts can be notified of the fire emergency by voice comm unication.
The S)'Stem should be arranged so that the prop er evacuation or emergency instruc-
tions can be given to the occupants of a building.
492
 CHAPTER 37: Residential Boardand Care Occupancies

Corridors and common spaces must be provided with automatic smoke detectors
that are con nected to the fire alarm S)'Stem. Smoke detectors are not requ ired in exist-
ing common spaces of prompt-to-evacuate or slow-to -evacuate facilities if the entire
facility is protected with an automatic sprinkler syste m. ln addition, single-station
smoke alarms must be provided within sleeping rooms. 1hese room smoke alarms
must be powered by the building 's electrical service, unless the devices were installed
previously within existing facilities, in which case battery-powered smoke alarms are
permitle I. However, battery-powered moke alarms should be permit ted only if the
facility's testing, maintenance, and batt ery-rep lacem en t programs will ensure the reli -
abil ity of the devices. Jn exis ting buildings that have an exis ting corridor smoke dete c-
tion system, sleeping rooms are not required to have smoke alarms .
You should ensure that a reliable means exists to provide fire department notifi -
cation, TI1i.s eme rgenq 1 notification must be performed automatically in new facili -
ties. However, there must be a mean s in existing facilities by which both staff and
residents can notify the fire departm nt. Public telephones are the mosl commo nly
used device to satisfy thi s criterion. Access to out sid e Iines and the awareness of the
correct telephone numb er shou ld all be evaluated. You sho uld also eval uate the loca-
tion of the fire alarm annunciator panel to ensure that its location is co nvenient and
that it is accessible to fire department personnel when they arrive at the scene of a
fire emergency.

FIRE SUPPRESSION QUIPMENT

Using Chapters 32 and 33 ofNFPA 101 @, you need to ascertain carefully whether auto -
matic sprinklers are required for partial or complete building prolection . For example,
protection of hazardous areas can be accomplished with spr inklers serving the hazard -
ous area only. Other code sectio ns might apply to facilities protected throughout with
an automatic sprinkler system. Finally, requirements, such as allowable co nstruction
types, depend on whether the entire building, which may contain other occupancies,
is prote cte d with an automatic sprinkler system . For both large and small facilities,
review documentation to ensme that relevant sprinkler system inspection , testing, and
maintenan ce procedures are being followed.

Small Facilities
In new construction, which includes converted building s, automatic sprinkler protec -
tion using quick respon se or residential spr inklers is required throughout new board
and care facilities, with the exception of conversions servi ng eight persons or less with
the ability to evacuate to a point of safety within 3 minutes. Tn existing facilities, with
the exception of facilities where the residents' evacuation capabilities are considered
impracti cal, automatic sprinkler protection is not requir ed unless one or more of the
exceptions related to sprinkler protection is found within the facility. TI1ecode permits
the use of NFPA 13D, Standard for tire IJrs/n/lntio11 of Spri11klerSysle111si11One- n11d
T1vo-Fn111ily Dwellingsa11dMam!fnctured Homes, NFPA 13, Standard for fhe Installa-
tion of Sprinkler Systems, or NFPA 13R, Standardfor fhe l11stallatio11 of Sprinkler Sys-
tems i11Residential Occupancies Up to and I11c/11di11g Fo11rStories in Heiglil, in such
493
 SECTION3: Occupancies

facilities. Consu lt NFPA 101® regarding sprinkler system installation restrictio ns and
exemptions (i.e., small closet and bathroom spri nkler omissions). Activation of the
spri nkler system must activate the building fire alarm system. Alt hough por table fire
extinguishers are not required, you might recommend that extinguishers be provide d
in certa in areas if trained personnel are available to operate them .

Large Facilities
Automat ic sprinkler protection us ing quick response or resid en tial sprinklers is
required throughout new boa rd and care facilities, includin g conve rted bui ldings . In
existin g facilities, au tom ati sprink ler prot ection is not requ ired unle ss the bui lding is
a high-rise or one or more of the exceptions related to sprinkler protection is found
within the facility. You might recommend that conside rat ion be given to sprinkler pro-
tect ion if code req uirements, such as door closers, present a pro blem or are of con cern
to the facilit)' owner or operator. If installed, the sprinkler system must co mply with
the requirements ofNFPA 13 or NFPA l3R, except that sprinklers can be omitted from
small closets [24 ft2 (2.23 m2)J and small bathroom s [55 ft2 (5. 11 111 2)). Portable fire
extinguishers must be provided near hazardous areas.

OPERATING FEATURES
Smoking should be restricted to areas where it is safe. The smo king policy, at a mini -
mum, shou ld d iscourage smoking in bed. 1n n1an}' facilities, a smoking lounge or a
point outside of the building is designated in order to minimize the potential for fires
originating in sleeping rooms . Wherever smoking is permitted, proper noncombus ~
tible ashtrays or recep tacles must be provided . Care mnst be exercised in the location
of smoke detectors in such spaces.
Eveq• facility should have a fire emergency plan that iden tifies the proper proce -
dures to be followed by staft: residen ts, and visitors upon discoveq ' or not ification of a
fire emergency. 1he plan should be evaluated at least six times a year by co ndu ct ing fire
exit drills. The drills mu st incl ud e the use of aU designated means of escape or egress.
If the means of escape involves windows, the resident s need not actually climb out the
windows . However, they should be required to go to the windows and open them. Staff
person nel shou ld participate in all fire exit drills. Exper ience with fires in board and
care facilities has demonstrated that the lack of staff and reside nt training , as well as the
failure to familiarize the res ide nts with egress routes other than the primary path, have
resulted in additiona l fatalitie s.

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Ca talog for availability of curre nt ed itions of the
following doc um en ts.
NFPA 13, Stn11dnrd
for tireJ11stn/lntion
of SprinklerSystems
NFPA l3D, Standnrdfor tile Installntio11of Sprinkler Systems in One- n11dTwo-Family
Dwellingsand Ma111tfn
cl11redHomes

494
 CHAPTER 37 : Residential Board and CareOccupancies

NFPA l 3R, Stm,dnrdfor tlie I11stnllntio11

ofSpri11klerSystems i11Reside11tinlOccupm1cies
Up to nnd Inc/11di11gFourStories in Heiglit
NFPA 72®, Nntio11nlFireAlarm n11dSignalingCode
NFPA 90A, Stn11dardforthe I11stallatio11ofAir -Co11ditio11i11g
n11d\!e11tilati11g
Systems
NFPA I OJ®, Lije Safety Code®
NFPA 101A, Guide on Altemntive Appronclies to Li}e Snfety

495
 CHAPTER

38
ONE- AND TWO-FAMILY
DWELLINGS
JosephM. Jardin,PE

NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®, defines one- and two -family dwellings as buildings
containing not more than two dwelling units, in which each living unit is occupied by
members of a single family, with no more than three outsiders, if any, accommodated
in rented rooms. NFPA JOI®does not define the term singlefn111ily.1he definition of
family is subject to federal, state, and local regulations . TI1ese regulations may not limit
the definition of family to the traditional nuclear family model of a couple and their
children .
TI1e manner in which living units are separated from one another can determine
their occupancy classification. For example, a row of six townhouses with complete
vertical fire barrier separations between each unit, including the attic spaces, each
independently satisfying its means of escape requirement, can be considered as six
individual one - or two-family dwellings.
Typically, new one- and two -family dwellings are inspected by an official of the
authority having jurisdiction before they are occupied, but routine inspections are not
performed after occupancy, because existing one- and two -family dwelling inspections
are often exempted by statute. However, homeowners may ask fire inspectors to con-
duct voluntary fire prevention inspections. Some jurisdictions mandate inspections,
especially of smoke alarms, at the time a home is sold, and banks may require an in -
spection when a homeowner is refinancing.

OCCUPANCY CHARACTERISTICS
Often, one- or two -family dwellings (one or two apartments) share building space
with other occupancies; for instance, an apartment or two above a store. \Vhen
surveying these buildings, an inspector should confirm conformance with the
multiple occupancy requirements of Chapter 6 of NFPA 101®. In addition, con -
sider whether the dwelling unit(s) has a single evacuation route passing through
 CHAPTER 38: One-and Two-Family Dwellings

the other occupancy. This arrangement is permitted only under th e following

cond it ion s:
• TI1ebuilding is fully spr inkl ered .
or
• ·n1e so le evacua tion route is separated from the other occupancy by fire barri ers
with at least 1-hour fire-resistance ratings.
A two -fam ily occupa ncy (i.e., h,•o apa rtm ents) may be located above a nonres identia l
ocrnpancy only if any one of the following condit ions exists:
• There is a 1-ho u r separation betwee n the residentia l and nonresidential
occupancies.
• The nonres idential occupanq 1 is sprinkler protected.
• TI1e nonresidential occupanC)' is protected by an automa tic detection system.

MEANSOF ESCAPE
A means of escape is an evacuation route from a building that does not conform to
the strict definition of means of egress but does provide a way out of residential dwell -
ing units. Any dwelling unit with two rooms or more must have at least two means of
escap e (primary and secondary) from every bedroom and living area. However, sec-
ondar}' means of escapes are not required if bedrooms and living areas have doors
lead ing directly to the outside or the dwelling unit is sprinkler protected.
1l1e primary means of escape must be a door, ramp, or stairway with an unob -
structed path of travel to the outside. Bedroom and living areas should be accessible by
means other than ladder s, folding stairs, or trapdoors .
A seconda ry means of escape must provide a route of travel independent of the
primary means of escape . Often, doors or stairs serve as the secondarr means of
escape. Very often, so-c aUed "resc ue and ventilation" windows will serve as the second-
ary means of escape. To suffice, the window, which can not requir e the use of a key or
tool from the inside, must provide a clear opening at least 20 in . (51 cm) wide, 24 in.
(6 l cm) high, and 5.7 ft2 (0.53 1112)in area. The bottom of the opening cannot be more
than 44 in. (111.8 cm) above the floor (FIGURE38-1).
A means of escape from any room must not pass through another room or apart -
ment that is not under the immediate control of the occ upant or family of the first
room, nor through a bathroom or other space subject to locking . For example, the
second means of escape from a windowless living area could be through a bedroom
and out th e bedroom window as long as the bedroom door cannot be locked and the
use of the bedroom is under the control of the occupant. Chi ldr en must be able to open
closet door latch es from inside the closet, and locks on bathroom doors must be oper •
able from the outside.
Doors in the path of travel of a means of escape must be at least 28 in. (71 cm) wide,
but bathroom doors or doors serving rooms less than 70 ft2 (6.5 m 2 ) in area can be
24 in. (61 cm) wide. Exterior exit doors must swing or slide open; they are not required

497
 SECTION3: Occupancies

to swing in the direction of exit travel. When

the building is occupied, doors in any means

□
of egress cannot be locked wilh double cylin-
der or dead-bolt locks that can be unlocked
only with a key from the inside.
Stairs and hallways within the means of
?:5.7112
escape must be at least 36 in. (91 crn) wide. (i! 0.53 n,2)
Winders and spiral stairs are permitted with-
in dwelling units. ->.
- ~ ======~
E
j. I ?:34.2 In.
(?:870mm) •

INTERIO FINISH .S
~ ~
VI
E

(inside looking ou l)
Interior finish on walls and ceilings of ~

occupied spaces must be Class A, B, or C.

Floor
The flame spread and mok d veloped in-
dex characteristics of a material usually can-
not be determined by visual inspection, so
docume ntation certifying the characteristics - -
).
~~
2'510mm

1,
of the interior finish must be provided by the
installer or owner. Sometimes, this informa- .S
E
E
"~'L, '~
tion is printed on the backside of materials or "!
;;
.,,
0
0
r--<'>
uill?/
on their packages. Contents and furnishings N
E. N~
/
are not regulated. _J__ /

FIRE PROTECTION .S
E
E
0

In new constrnction, approved, single-station, ~ ~ (inside looking ou l)

VI
~
building-powered smoke alarms must be
installed in every sleeping room, outside of Floor

each separate sleeping area in the vicinity of

the sleeping rooms, and on each level of the 2'34.2 111,
(2'870mm)
dwelling. Where hvo or more smoke alarms

□
are required, they must be arranged such that
,£ E ?:5.7112
the operation of an)' smoke alarm will cause all ~ ~AIE (2'0.53 m2)
other smoke alarms in the dwelling to sound
an alarm. Approved, building-powered smoke ~~
detection systems that provide for occupant E
notification are also acceptable in new con- .£ E
0 (inside looking oul)
~ ~
struction. Reter to Chapter 15 in this book, as VI
~
well as NFPA 72®, Nntionnl Fire Alnrm n11d
Sig11nli11gCode,for additional information. Floo r

Battery-powered smoke alarms are per-

mitted in existing one- and two-family dwell- FIGURE 38·1Escape window minimum
ings and must be installed in ever)' sleeping op ening dim ensions.

498
 CHAPTER 38: One-and Two-FamilyDwellings

38-2Combination COand smokealarm.

FIGURE

room , outside of each separate sleeping area in the vicinilr of the sleeping rooms, and
on each level of th e dwelling.
New one- and two -family dwelling s that co ntain fuel-burn ing appliances or
attached garages are req uired to have carbon monoxide dete c tors installed in the
imm ed iate vici nity of eac h sleeping area and on each level that may be occupied
(including basements) (FIGURE 38-2). One - and two-family dwellings are required
to be protected throughout by a sprinkler system in accordance with NFPA 13D,
Standard for the J11stallatio11
of Sprinkler Syste111sin One- and Two-Fn111ily Dwell-
ings a11dMm111fnct11redHomes, or NFPA l 3R, Standard for the I11stnllatio11
of Sprin-
kler Systems i11Residential Occupancies Up to and I11c/11di11g
Four Stories in Height
(FIGURE
38-3).

38·3Viking Model M-1 horizontal sidewallresidential sprinkler.

FIGURE

499
 SECTION3: Occupancies

VOLUNTARY INS ECTIONS

Fire inspections condu cted in one - and two -fomily dwellings most frequ ently are vol-
untary fire prevention inspections don e at the request of a homeowner to help eva lu-
ate fire safety. In addition to referring the hom eowne r to the "Safety Information" tab
at www.nfpa .org, consider offeri ng the following recommen dat ions to help the ho m-
eowner maint ain a fire-safe home.

Utilities
All gas, elec tric, and oil-fired utiliti es and applian ces should be kept in goo d repa ir and
serviced as n eeded . The homeowner sho uld be instru cted on th e prop er installation
and use of electric al extension co rds, portab le heaters, fireplaces, and wood -burning
stoves. Damaged light and appliance cords sho uld be replaced. Empha size to the home-
ow ner tha t all major electrica l work sho uld be done by a licensed electricia n.

Coal- and Wood-Burning Stoves

Coal - and wood -burning stoves warrant special attentio n because of their reco rd as a
cause of fires. Stoves sho uld be inspec ted very care fully for the adequacy of the insta l-
lation and the clearance of the stove and its chimn ey co nnector from combustibles.
1he au thorit)' havi ng juri sd ictio n mig ht have specific requirements for the instal lation
of stoves . If there are no specific local requ ireme nts, ask the homeowner whet her the
stove was installed acco rding to the manufacturer's instructions .
TI1ere shou ld be a minimum clearance of 36 in . (9 1.44 cm) between th e stove and
combustible walls and ceilings. The stove should be po sitio ned on a base of noncom -
bustibl e material, such as metal or brick, extend ing at least 18 in. (45.7 cm) beyond the
stove in all directions . TI1e stovepipe, or conne ctor, between the stove and chimney
sho uld be as sh ort and straight as pos sible, and th ere shou ld be at least 18 in. (45.7 cm)
of clearance bet ween the pipe and combustib le surfaces.
Occu p ants sho uld be reminded that creosote accum ulations both in the connector
and the chimney, which form very qu ickly in airtight chi mn eys tha t are not used prop -
erly, are a dangerous fire hazard. TI1e)'should be advised to have the chimney inspec ted
frequently and cleaned when necess ary to prevent chimn ey fires.
See NFPA 211, Stmuinrd for Clri11111 eys, Fireplaces, \le11ts
, n11dSolid F11el-B11mi11 g
Applin11ces,for requirements for proper clearances, and modifications that might be
pe rmitt ed, for heating ap pliances. TI1e NFPA FireProtection Hn11db ook also has in for-
mation on haza rds and protec tion of coal- and wood -bu rn ing stoves.

Storage
TI1estorage of flammabl e and comb ustible mat erials with in the home shou ld be con -
trolled. You should check the way in which paint , so lvents, gaso line, and oth er materi -
als are store d in th e work shop areas. TI1ese materia ls must be stored away from ignition
sources and preferably outside the home. Man)' homeowners do not und erstand that
flam mable liqu ids produ ce vapors th at can be ignited by the furn ace, hot water heater,
or other devices.
500
 CHAPTER 38: One- andTwo-Family Dwellings

There is no substitute for good housekeeping. Storage areas should be checked for
accumulations of trash and large amounts of combustibles, and these housekeeping
problems should be brought to the attention of the occupant.

Detection Equipment
Smoke alarms should be installed in all one- and two-family dwellings. You can recom -
mend which type to install and where they should be placed. Ionizat ion and photoele ctric
smoke alarms are comparable, and either type can be used in residential occupancies.
The smoke alarms should be located near the sleeping areas of the house, with at least
one smok e al.in n located on each floor, and they should be audible throu ghout the house.
Because single -station battery -operated smo ke alarms are so easy to install and are
allowed in existing one - and two-family dwellings, they are the most common . Explain
to the hom eowner that the smoke alarms should be tested on a regular basis lo ensure
the batteri s are workin g. l11e batteries should be repla ed on a regular schedule, as well.

Fire Extinguishers
Hom eowners will most likely have questions about type. size, location, and number
of fire extinguishers. For this information, refer lo NFPA 10, Standard for Portable
Fire Extinguishers, but assist the occupants by summarizing the different types, such
as carbon dioxide, dry chemical, and multipurpose dry powder. TI1e weight of the
extinguisher should be a consideration in the decision of which size to buy. You should
advise the occupants to become familiar with the operation of the extinguishers and
to practice using them. Occupants should also be referred to NFPA 10 and the manu -
facturer's recommendations for inspection, testing, and servicing of the extinguishers.

Residential Sprinklers
The use of residential sprinklers in one - and two -family dwellings is an increasing
trend in some jurisdictions, either by nrnndate or voluntary installation. All sprinklers
should be inspected visually to ensure they are not painted over and that their dis-
charge patt ern is unobstructed. All water flow devices , alarms, pumps, water tanks ,
and other component s of the S)'Stem shou ld be in prop er operating condition. Valves
should be inspected to ensure that they are open. Point out that, according to NFPA
13D, proper maintenance of a sprinkler system is the responsibility of the owner, who
should understand how the system operates.

Fire Escape Plan

Help the homeowner establish a fire escape plan from each room of the house and
emphasiz e that once the plan is made, ii should be practiced. ll1e NFPA pamphlet
E.D.l. T.H.- Exit Drills i11the Home is a good reference. TI1e following principles of
E.D.l. T.H. are simple and sound:
1. Have smoke alarms on each level of the house and make sure they work.
2. Know two routes to the outside from all rooms, especially bedrooms.
501
 SECTION 3: Occu pancies

3. Have everyone in the house memorize the fire department telephone number,
and put the number on the telephones in the house.
4. Choose a place outdoors for everyone to meet for roll call.
5. Locate the closest telephone or emergency call box from which to report a fire
in the home.
6. Never go back into a burning building.
7. Practice escape routines-testing closed doors for fire on the other side, crawl-
ing low under smoke, and getting out of bedroom windows.
8. Know what to do if occupants become trapped.
You can help the family make an escape plan by reviewing potential escape routes from
sleeping areas, pointing out alternatives that might be available, and demonstrating
the proper techniques for testing doors for fire and for exiting through windows. Your
interest might help to convince a family that E.D.1.TH. is serious business.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of curren t editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 10, Standardfor Po/'fa/JleFireExtinguishers
NFPA 13D, Sta11dardfor the J11stnllationof Sprinkler Systems i11011e- and Two-Family
Dwellingsand Ma1111fnctured Homes
NFPA I 3R, Standardfor the J11sta/lation
of SprinklerSystems in Residential Ocwpa11cies
Up to and Incl11di11g
Fo11rStories in Height
NFPA 72®,National FireAlarm and SignalingCode
NFPA 101®,Life Safety Code®
NFPA 211, Standardfor Chi111neys, Fireplaces,Vents,and Solid Fuel-BurningAppliances

502
 CHAPTER

39
MERCANTILE
OCCUPANCIES
Joseph Versteeg

Mercantile occupancies often requi re more thorough inspections than those for other
occupancies. Mercantile occupanc ies include shopp ing cen ters, department stores,
drugstor es, supermarkets, auction rooms, big box and other hypermarkets, and any
occupancy (or portion thereof) that is used for the display and sale of merchandis e.
Commonly, the cause of fire within mercantile occupancies is attributed to cooking,
smoking, or elect ricity.

OCCUPANCY CHARACTERISTICS
The term mercantile encompasses many differe nt type s of materials and operations.
Insp ectors are jus t as apt to inspect a store dealing in glassware as one that sells a large
number of paper products or consumer fireworks. Large department stores have a wide
variety of products that react difterently in a fire situation. In the past, the great majority of
combustible material found within any mercantile occupancy has been Class A mate -
rial, which includes products made of wood, paper, or cloth. Tilese days, however, th ere
are more plastic items or plastic materials that are designed and manufactured to look
like something else, such as plastic baby cribs that look, and even smell, like wood.
Plasti cs in their various forms are introducing higher than normal fuel loads into sales
and storage areas, and th.is fact should be considered when determining the overall
fuel load, because when plastics burn, a more rapid fire growt h can occur, resulting in
production of heavy, thick. black, toxic smoke. Currently, there is no restriction on the
use of plastics in fu rn itu re or other consumer products, nor is there a restriction on the
overall amount of the material permitted in a mercantile occupancy .
1lle separation and treatment of other occupancies found within or attached to a mer-
cantile occupancy are other factors inspectors will have to be concerned with, Class A
stores (defined below) often contain nonseparated cafes and daycare facilities, where
the children of shopper s are attended to temporari ly while the parents shop . In large
shopping malls, a variety of diflerent mercantile occupancies will often, in one way or
another, connect to several assembly occupancies. In this case, inspectors must consider
 SECTION 3: Occup ancies

the different occupant load factors, for example, behveen a restaura nt that may be found
in the mall and a departm ent store. When inspecting the premises, inspectors should use
the same walk-through process to familiarize themselves thoroughly with the building;
after all, the)' may have to visit the building under fire condition s someday. VVith this
approach, they will be able to make educated decisions as to the probable occupant load
when a fire alarm does sound .
NFPA 101®, Life Snfety Code®, separates mercantile occupancies into three subclas-
sifications. A Class A mercantile occupancy is any store having an agg regate gross sales
area larger tha n 30,000 ft2 (278 7 rn2) or a store using more than three floor levels for
sa les purposes . For examp le, a single-s tory store with 32,650 ft2 (3033 1112)of gross sales
area is a Class A mercantile occuµanc)'; a four-stu1 )' spor ting goods store::with 20,000
ft2 (1858 m2) of gross sales area is also a Class A mercantile occupancy. Inspectors
should also remembe r to measure the total sq uare footage (gross) instead of only the
floor area not covered with stock of some sort (net).
A la · B mercantil e occup ancy is any stor e with less than 30,000 ft2 (2787 m 2) but
greater than 3000 ft2 (279 m2) of aggregate gross sales area or one that uses any balco -
nies, mezzanines, or floors above or below the street floor for sales purposes . The ex-
cept ion to this is one of the examp les used above for Class A mercantiles: a four-story,
20,000-ft2 (1858-m2) space that is Class A regardl ess of the size. A Class B mercantile
th en is the h,'o-story, 25,000 -ft2 (2322 -1112)department store or the 4000 -ft2 (372 -111 2)
drugstore.
Class C mercant ile occupancies are all stores with 3000-ft2 (279-1112)or less of gross
sales area on only one story. In addition to the traditional store categories, NFPA 101®
also contains provisions for covered mall buildings and b11lk merchandising retail
buildings where the disp lay of mercha ndi se is 011 pallets, in piles, or on racks in excess
of 12 ft (3.7 rn) in height.

INSPECTING HE PREMISES
\,Vhen beginning the i.nspection of any mercantile occuµa nc y to determine compli-
ance with NFPA 101® and other pertinent Nntionnf Fire Codes®,as well as with the
building codes and ordinances of the jurisdiction, you should get an immediate and
general idea of what level of maintenance is carried out by the store statt: If the area is
somewhat cluttered, with questionable aisles and unswept floors, the chances are good
that the entire store will look that way or worse . Poor housekeeping is an indication of
the general level of conscious fire safe ty behav ior practiced in that particular store and
of how much of a task you face. Attent ion shou ld be paid to seasona l displays that often
block exits and /or reduce required aisle w idth.

Occupant Load
TI1e occupant load for 1nercantilc occupancies as estab lished in NFPA 101® is 30 ft2
(2.8 m2) of gross floor area of sales sp ace pe r person on the stree t floor or sales floors
below the street floor; 60 ft2 (5.6 1112)of gross floor area of sales space per person on
upper floors used for sales; 100 ft2 (9.3 m 2) per person on floors or portions of floors

504
 CHAPTER 39: MercantileOccupancies

used onl)' for offices;and 300 ft2 (28 1112)of gross floor area per person for those floors
or portions thereof not open to the general public but used for storage, shipping, or
receiving. NFPA 101® has special provisions for malls based on the gross leasable area.
Although the occupant load is not specifically required to be posted in a conspicuous
place within the store, it is a good idea to suggest doing so to the manager. That same
occupant load should be recorded on the inspection sheet when prefire planning is
conducted in the building, so that you will know what occupant load to expect in the
event of a fire.

Means of E r s
Various types of means of egress are allowed from any mercantile occupancy, such
as stairways, smoke-proof towers, doors, ramps, and, in some cases, escalators. Still
others require the approval of the authority having jurisdiction for ver)' special appli-
cations, such as revolving doors or fire escape stairs. Fur the exact application of each
type of egress component, refer to Sections 36.2.2 and 37.2.2 ofNFPA 101®.
Generally speaking, al least two exits must be provided and be accessible from every
part of every floor and especially from floors below the street-level floor; however,
NFPA JOI® does permit a single means of egress in Class C stores under limited con-
ditions. Ex.itsshould be located as far apart as practical, but generally not closer to one
another than one-half the longest diagonal distance of the space served in new stores
or new arrangements . ln a grocery, discount, or variety store where checkout stands
and turnstiles are provided to restrict exiting, at least one-half of the required exits in
both number and c.1pacitymust be provided in such a manner that they can be reached
without having to go through the turnstiles and checkout stands. You will find that
this requirement is commonl>•violated, although its purpose is clear. In a fire or other
emergenC)',persons within the space must be .-.bleto exit quickly and easily, without
any obstructions to that exit travel.
Generally speaking, all egress doors are required to swing in the direction of exit
travel, particularly (1) when used in an exit enclosure (e.g., stairway), (2) when serv-
ing a high-hazard area, or (3) when serving an occupant load of 50 or more persons.
A common misconception is that all exterior exit door s are required to swing in the
direction of egress travel regardless of the occupant load served. Although special
locking features are allowed in some configurations, the fundamental rule is that all
locking devices on egress doors must be operable without the use of a key or special
knowledge, and the method of operation must be obvious even in darkness, with a
single operation needed.
Often found during inspections are rear exterior doors barricaded against crimi -
nal break-in attempts that also impede egress. No occupants of any mercantile oc-
cupancy should have to travel more than 150 ft (46 m) (150 ft (45.7 m) in an existing
unsprinklered mercantile occupancy! to find the exit nearest them . 'TI1isdistance can
be increased to 250 ft (76 m) in those buildings protected throughout by an approved
automatic sprinkler system. In some instances, exit access can p.1ssthrough the store-
rooms of mercantile occupancies, but only if (1) at le.1st one other me.-.nsof egress
is provided, (2) the storeroom is not subject to locking, (3) the main aisle through

sos
 SEC ION 3: Occup ancies

the storeroom is not less than 44 in. (l.l 111)wide and in the clear, and (4) the main
path of travel throu gh the storeroom is obvious, has fixed barriers, and is completely
unob structed. These hidd en areas are prone to being blocked by deliveries and trash
awaiting pickup.
Emergency lighting is requ ired in all Class A and Class B mercantile occupa ncies.
Class C stores, because of their small size and occupant load, are not required to
have such installations .'Em'ergency light ing installed on walls prior to tenant fit-up is
of1en rendered useless when blocked or located behind items on shelves. To facilitate
law enforcemen t arrest and detention activities, mercantile occupancies permit the
use of lockup facilities as discussed within Chapter 33, Detention and Correc tions
Occupancy, of this text.

Protection of Openings
Ver tical openings in all mercantile occupancies arc required to be enclosed or pro-
tected in some manner , but the exceptions to this are numerous. Refer lo NFPA 101®
for ench specific application. The special mies that allow mall buildin gs, for example,
to have multiple levels open to a common atmosphere requires compliance with addi-
tional features such as smoke control systems, arrangement of the pedestrian way,and
other elements that must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.

Protection of Hazards
Any area of the space that creates a greater hazard than other areas of the occupancy
is required to be separated from those other areas by construction having 110 less than
a 1-hour fire-resistance rating, or it must be protected by automatic sprinklers. Areas
requiring this special protection include maintenanc e closets, fuel storage areas, main-
tenance shops, general storage areas, boiler or furnace rooms, and kitchens.
Any areas with contents cons idered to be highl)• hazardous, that is, liable to burn
with extreme rapidity or result in an explosion, are required to be both separated
by construc tion with at least a ! -hour fire-res.istance rating and must have complete
automatic sprinkler pro tection. It is up to the authority having jurisdiction to deter-
mine what degree of hazard the contents represent and then to make a case for that
decision .

Interior Finish
Interior finish for walls and ceilings .is required to be eithe r Class A or Class B, except
that existing Class C interior finishes are allowed on walls only (not ceilings) and
in existing Class C stores (see Chapte r 23 for further discussion and tlame-spread
ratings). Inspectors should use reasonable discretion when determining what the
existing finish is and, ifit is noncompliant according to code, what reasonabk meth-
ods should be required to correct the violation. TI1ereare no specific prohibitions
concern ing floor finishes. However, if you find a floor finish that presents an unusual
hazard, Section 10.2.2.2 ofNFPA /OJ® gives the authority having jurisdiction power
to regulate it.
506
 CHAPTER39: Mercantile Occupancies

FIRE PROT CTION

You will need to det ermine which type of por table extinguishers are available, if they
are fully serviced and operational, and if th e number pro vided is sufficien t for th e
space. 1he general rule is that at least one hand exting uisher of at least a 2A: lOBC rat-
ing be available within a trave l d istance not exceeding 75 ft (23 m) and tha t at least one
should be provi ded for every 3000 ft2 (279 111 2) of floor space. Refer to the pertine nt
sect ions of NFPA I 0, Strmdnrdfor Portable FireExti11 g 11i
shers, for furt her information.

Alarm Systems
All Class A stores, covered malls, and bulk merchandising retail buildings are requir ed
to have a man ual fire alarm system throughou t the building; however, build ings pro -
tected thro ughout by an approved automatic fire de tection and alarm initiation sys-
tem or protected throug hout by an approved au tom atic sprinkler system that prov ides
alarm initiation are requ ired to h ave only one manual fire alarm box.
An alarm system , if present, should have manual fire alarm boxes al each exit and
should also activate th e fire alarm system in the event one of th e manual fire alarm
boxes is activated. Whether requir ed or not , the system should be maintained in an
operational condit ion. Jf peo ple see a manual fire alarm box, they naturally assume that
it will work when needed.

Sprinkler Systems
Approved automatic sprinkler protection is requi red (1) in all mercantile buildings
having a story greater than 15,000 ft2 (1400 m2) in area, (2) in all mercantile build-
ings exceeding 30,000 ft2 (2800 rn2) in gross area, and (3) throughout all stories of the
occ upancy below the level of exit d ischarge each having an area exceed ing 2500 ft2
(230 m2) and tha t are used for sales, storage, or handl ing of combus tible goods or mer-
cha ndise. Rely on NFPA 101® to ensure that those merca ntile occupancies required to
be spri n klered are provided with full spr inkler protection. TI1e requirements for new
cons truction are more strin gent. In addition, NFPA 101® also requires covere d mall
buildings and bul k merchandising retail buildings to be protected by au tom atic sprin-
kler systems, regardl ess of size.
If an area is required by code to h ave spr inkl er protection and th ere is none,
request tha t it be in stalled. If spri nkl er protection is in place, check that no spri nklers are
obst ru cted , that they are not painted, and that there are no sales stock decoratio ns or
signs hanging from the piping. The sprinld er discha rge should not be obst ru cted by
sales stoc k. All areas of the sto re should be protected b}' sprinkler protection, and the
contro l valves and inspector 's test pipes sh ould be easily accessible by engi ne crews and
test pe rso nn el.
Also check the design densities under which the sprinkler system was installed. If
the densities are not n ow sufficient for th e produc ts being protected , the system should
be upgraded to ens ure th at the system wiJI do wha t it is being cou nted on to do -
na mely, to control a fire. If the spr inkler system was designed as an ordi na ry hazard
grou p 1 system but is now prote ct ing large amou nts of plastic material, or a much
507
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

greater load of Class A material or perhap s a storage area with flammable or combus-
' tible liquids, that system will not perform as expected, and it should be upgraded to
meet the new demands. If you arc not sure whether the sprinkler S)'Stem will perform
as it was designed to, consult the fire department plans reviewer, fire marshal, fire chief,
or building official to ensure that the protection is still adequate.
If some other form of automatic extinguishing system is present in the facility (such
as a dry chemical system inside a cooking hood), that system should be fully opera-
tional and should have been serviced within the last 6 months. All nozzles must be
unobstructed, and cooking should be done only under the hood (see Chapter 61, Pro-
tection of Commercial Cooking Equipment).

Covered Malls
Covered malls require special considerations when it comes to inspections and code
compliance. Most shopping malls are arranged so as to be classifie I as a mall building
with anchor stores. Caution should be exercised when classifyingolder shopping malls,
because they may not meet the cr iteria for a mall buUding and therefore may be simply
a large Class A store.
For the most part, a covered mall and all the shops that open into it are required to
be folly sprinklered. NFPA 101® provides numerous requirements for egress arrange-
ment, egress widths, and travel distances to exits. A common feature in mall building
.is an exit passageway. Exit passageways function in a manner similar to an exit stair,
in that the exterior atmosphere is brought closer to the occupant by a highly protected
path of travel. A fire alarm system that is activated by the mall smoke detectors or
automatic spr.inkler system is required within a covered mall; however, manual fire
alarm boxes are not required. A smoke-control system typically must also be provided
in covered malls.
TI1estore area must be neat, with aisles organized as required by NFPA 101®. TI1e
storage or display of hazardous commodities, such as flammable liquids or gases, com-
bustible liquids, pesticides, or oxidizers, should be in compliance with the appropriate
NFPA code or standard.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 10, Standardfor Portable FireExli11g11ishers
N FPA 13, Standardfor tirelllsta//ation of Spri11klerSystems
NFPA 30, Flammable and Co111b11stible
Liquids Code
NFPA 72®,Natio11alFireAlarm and Sig11ali11g
Code
NFPA 101®,Life Safety Code®

508
 CHAPTER

40

BUSINESSOCCUPANCIES
Jos ph V,,rsteeg

NF PA IOI®, Life Safety Code®, defines business occupanc ies as those used for the
transaction of business, the keeping of acco nn ts and reco rds, and similar purposes .
They includ e general offices, doctor s' offices, government o ffices, city halls, municipal
office buildings, courth ouses, outpati ent medical clini cs where patients are ambulatory,
college and university classroo m bu ildings with less than 50 occupants, and instru c-
t iona l laboratories. Business occupan cies typically have large numb ers of occupan ts
during normal business hours and very few occupant s du ring nonw orking hour s.

OCCUPANCY CHARACTERISTICS
Bus iness occ upanc ies can be in buil d ings of any constr uction type perm illed by local
buil d ing codes; NFPA 101® does not specify construction requirement s for bus iness
occupancies. With the exceptio n of parking struc tu res regulated b)' NFPA 88A, Stn11 -
dcmlfor ParkingStructures, NFPA 10J® does not spe cifically require business occupan-
cies to be separated from ot her occupancie s when arranged as m ixed occupancies in a
multiple -occupancy building. Howe ver, where busin ess occupancies are not arran ged
with othe r occupa ncies as mi.xed, NFPA .101® will requi re compliance with th e criteria
for separated occupan cies. Note that local buildi ng codes might req uire occ upan C)'
separation, usually with at least 1-hour fire-resistive co nstru ction.
In mix ed occ upa ncies, NFPA 101® requirements for bot h occupancies must be
satisfied. In othe r words, NFPA 101® requireme nts for both occupancies are applied
sim ultaneous ly. ' "'here there are d iffering req uiremen ts, the requirem ents afford ing
the high est level of safety must be applied.
Busine ss occupancies traditionally have been subdivided into many small office
spaces . Although don e for other reasons, these subdivi sions compartmentalized an
otherwi se large floor area. '0 1e advent of open -plan office space, however, has, for the
mos t part, take n away these natura l fire barr iers. In an open- plan design, lar ge floor
areas are subdivid ed int o cubicles using office furniture and pa rtiti ons that do not
extend from the floor to ceiling. Fire can spread mor e qu ickly from one wor kstation
 SECTION3: Occupancies

to another because of th e exposed combustibles. One advantage of th e open -pl.in ar-

rangement, however, is that occupants are usuall)' able to detect a fire quickly because
they have an open view of th e floor area.
Business occupan cies are generally thought to have a light -hazard fuel load.
Although the fuel load in office Sp.ices from wood furniture and trim has declined since
the 1940s, .it has incre ased because of the use of more paper in office operations and
the use of more plastics and other synthetic materials in furnishings and equipmen t.
Because of the increase in the use of synthetic material, mostly plastics, the concept of
fuel load shou ld be used carefully as a predictor of fire severi ty. Synthetic products of-
ten have high heat release rates, which causes fires of th ese materials to be more severe
than those of an eq ual volume of wood.
In addit ion, business occupancies often have significant fuel loads that are not fixed
or constant. 1l1ey include delivered materials, as well as furniture, recyclables, and trash
that is awaiting removal from the buildings. More extensive use of recycling programs for
items like pap er, cardbo ard and plastic bott les now provide concentrated fuel load s tJ1at
were praclfrally nonexistent 10 or 15 years ago.1l1ese fuels are usually found in aisles and
corridors, which increase s the threat to life safety. A fire load analysis cannot be consid-
ered complete without an estimate of the transient fuel loads expected in th e building.
Although building occupancies typically have light fuel loads, large life loss fires can
occur in them during norma l working hours, because the occupant load can be up to
one person for each 100 ft2 (9.3 m2) of gross floor area. The sign ificant transient fuel
loads also con tr ibu te to this potentia l problem.
Business occupancy floor plans change often, and these renovations can cause a
properly designed means of egress to become non com pliant, partially obstructed, or
blocked. Renovations can also be a source ofignilion, increasing the chance of fire. One
of the first tasks during an inspection is to determine if there will be or have been any
recent cha nges or renov ations lo the building or changes to floor plans.

INSPECTING THE PREMISES

Means of Egress
The basic requirements of means of egress for other occupancies also apply to busi-
ness occupancies . There should be two remote exits from every floor, with some lim ~
ited exceptions, and egress trav el paths should be illumin ated and iden tified by proper
signage. 1l1e exits must be located in a way that will reasonably redu ce the possibility
of both exits being blocked by a single fire incident. In some instances, there can be
only one exit but with specific limitations associated with it. 1l10se circumstances are
described in Chapters 38 and 39 ofNFPA 101®.
When two exits are required, they must be remotely located, and they must have
separate paths of travel. 1l1e access to the exits, as well as their discharges, mu st also be
located so that a single fire would not block both exits. 1\vo ex.its discharging through
a common lobby do not meet this requirement . One of the most prevalent problems
in business occupancies is excessive common paths of travel. Chapter 22, Means of
Egress, covers this topic.
510
 CHAPTER 40: BusinessOccupancies

Tf occupan ts must walk through corridors to reach exits, the walls separa ting the
corridors from the adjacent spaces must be I -hour fire barriers in new occupancies.
Excep tions to this requirement are permitted for some existing occupancies (depend -
ing on which code edition is in use), single -tena nt spaces, and in spaces pro tected by
automatic spr inkl ers. NFPA 101® gives requirements for permissible corridor wall
penetrations and required protection of openings.
'TI,c exit discharge is probabl) ' the most overlooked porlion of the means of egress. All
the requirements pertaining to an unobstructed path of travel and illumination apply to
the t:Xit discharge even though the exit discharge is genera lly outside the building lead-
ing to a public way. When emergency lighting is required, the exit discharge must also
have some degree of emergency lighting. TI1eexit discharge must be kept free of obstruc -
tions, and there must be a reliable method for preventing ice and snow from accumulat-
ing in areas subject to such weather conditions. Dumpsters are one examp le of an item
that is often tim es located near the exit door. Check the areas around the exit doors to
dctcrm ine if there is an)1 thing unusual that could cause problems in an emergency.
Heigh tened security measures, includin g exterior fences, are often installed, many
times without the approva l of the authority having jurisdiction (A HJ). Be aware of
an)' such changes and ensure tha t exterior exit discharge remains readily available and
clear, all gates through occupant egress satisfy the doors cr.iteria of NFPA 101®, and
that fire department access to the building remains available.
To be useful, exit doors must be accessible. Many tim es, in attempting to lay out an
office for best space utilization, litt le cons ideration is given to maintaining clear access
to exits. In open -plan office spaces, make sure you are aware of forniture arrangements
that obstruct direct access to exit doors. 11lis rearrangement is commonly done with-
out approvals.
Exit doors must be capable of being opened from the occupied side at all times .
In multiple tenant offices, doors are sometimes locked for secur ity reasons, with little
thought given to life safety. Only locking devices capable of being opened by the person
seeking egress are pe rmitted. Special locking arrangements, including delayed egress
and access -controlled doors, are permitted and usually can be arranged to solve secu-
rity concerns .
'n1e exit itself must be accessible and unobstructed. Locking of stair doors is a com-
mon problem that you must look for. You should walk the stairs from top to bottom
to ensure the path of travel is unobstructed. Doors at the termination of exits must
be obvious and op enable. Stair doors should not be locked from the sta ir side so that
people using them will not get trapped if there is a fire in the stairway. If stair doors
are locked from the stair side, ther e must be some method of unlocking them, or some
floors shou ld be designated to remain unlo cked.
NFPA 101® permits two methods for reentry in business occupancies. TI1e first
is electric locking devices that automatically unlock (but not unlatch) doors, allow-
ing reentry upon the activation of the building fire alarm system. TI1esecond method
requires that at least two doors for reentr)' be provided in each stair, one of which must
be al the top or the next -to-top floor. In stai rs serving five stories or more, reentry
doors must be provided, so that there are no more than four intervening floors between
unlocked doors .
5ll
 SECTION 3: Ocwpan cies

Travel distance is also an importan t life-safety requirement, but care must be taken
to ensure that the travel distance requirement is met in a reasonable way. Some open
floor plans can be arranged in such a way that the furniture creates a maze, which
greatly hinder s occupants who are trying to lenve the area.
Exits must be marked in business occupancies, and exit signs should be placed to
properly mark exits and access to exits that are otherwise not readily apparent. NFPA
JOJ® requires exit signs to be placed in corridors so that a person i not more than JOOft
(30 m) from an exit sign at any point in the corridor. fn buildings with open floor plans,
the exit signs must properl}' mark the path to the ex.it. In occupancies with floor plans
using low height partitions, the signs might be visible from a greater distance, but the
floor plan might prohibit direct travel to the xil. Tirns, it might be necessary lo place
some signs on the partitions.
Although internally illuminated exit signs are not required, all exit signs must be
illuminated in some way. If emergency lighting is required, the exit signs must also be
illuminated by the emergency lighting source. lien, a pla ard-type sign lit by emer-
gency lights will meet this requirement.

Protection of Floor Openings

Unenclosed floor openings between stories have become an extremely popular design
feature in both large and small officebuildings. Floor openings, such as atria, mini-atria,
light wells, and convenience stairs can be both a problem and a benefit, dependi11gon
their size and location in the building. Such openings present a fire safety problem, be-
cause heat and smoke have the ability lo spread readily from floor to floor. For this rea-
son, review the requirements in NFPA 101® for the protection and permitted location
of unenclosed !loor openings.
vVhere the floor openil1gs are enclosed by shaft construction, all openings in such
fire-rated walls should be protected with doors or other approved opening protective
devices. Check the doors to ensure that they close and latch properly. Closing devices
are required on fire doors, and they should function properly. A labeled door leaf, door
frame, closer, and latch are required. Any wedges used to hold doors open should be
removed immediately. Automatic hold-open -and-re lease devices should be used on
fire doors that, for functional purpo ses, need to remain open daily.
\'\'indows in fire barriers and doors must be of fire-rated glazing (usually wired) or
an approved material in steel frames. 1here are also transparent glazing materials that
can be used as a .fire-resistive barrier. Review any information available on such mate-
rial carefully. [11 rated walls, windows of plain glass or wooden or aluminum frames
should be replaced with properly tested and rated assemblies.
'll1e integrity of shafts and chases is as important in business occupancies as it is in
an)' other occupancy. When new buildings are constructed, utility risers are usually
enclosed in fire-rated shafts, and floor penetrations are sealed with appropriate fire-
resistive materials. As buildings arc used, new cable, conduit, or piping is often run
between floors, and the new penetrations may not be properly sealed.
You should check telephone and electrical closets and mechanical shafts and ris-
ers to determine if there are unprot ected floor openings or penetrations through fire

512
 CHAPTER 40: Business Occupancies

barrier walls. Such open ings can be sealed with lightweight concrete or other suitable
materials, such as silicon foam.

Hazardous Areas
General storage rooms, boiler rooms, fuel storage rooms, janitor closets, and mainte-
nan ce shop s are conside red hazardous areas and should be separa ted from the rest of
the building by I-hour fire-resistance rated cons tru ction; opening s should be protected
by ¾-hour fire door assemblies. If hazardou s areas in new and exi ting construct ion are
protected by sprinklers, they need only to be enclosed by smoke partitions, and the open-
ings should be prote ct d by self-closing or automatic closing, smoke -re istant doors .
Common now within office buildings are kitchenettes containing a residential type
stove, refrigerator, and several vending machines. Although these typically do not re-
quire any added protection, inspectors should be aware that the use of the stove is
limited to food warming.

Computer Rooms
Electronic data processing equipment has become both vital and commonp lace in
many businesses. This equipment can be highly soph isticated and extremely valuabl e;
in fact, both the equipment and especially the data can be unique and may not be
able to be repla ced . NFPA 75, Stn11dnrd
for the Protectio11
of ElectronicComp11 ter/Dntn
Processi11gEquipment,contains more detail ed requirements for fire protection for elec-
tronic computer/data process ing equipment and computer areas.

Protection of Records
Evaluating the worth of records, no matter what kind they are, is a management re-
sponsibilit}' in which your only responsibility is to provide information on possible
exposure to loss; therefore, be prepared to tel.I management what different levels of
protection are available for records of different value and vo lume.
More specific information and requirements for the protection of records is available
in the FireProtectionHandbookand in NFPA 232, Standardfor the Protectionof Records.

INSPECTING BUILDING SERVICES

Waste Disposal
Business occupancies can generate large amounts of waste paper . Usually, this waste is
removed from the general office areas at the end of the day. TI1is collected waste can
create a significant fuel load in corridors, freight elevator lobbies, or where it is held
for disposal.
Recycled materials may be collec ted at a central point, but containers might be emp -
tied only ever)' 2 to 3 days or even at less frequent intervals. TI1eprincipal concern is how
waste material is hand led after it is collected from the various offices and workstations.
Smoking materials improperly discarded into trash collec tion containers have ignited

513
 SECTION3: Occupancies

other tr,\sh in the contai ner s, and these fires have spread to other areas. Thus, specia l pre-
cautions to prevent this situation should be taken. Precautions .include use of specially
des igned con tainer tops and discarding of smoking materials into noncombustible cans
and allowi ng them to cool before they are disposed of. Smoking bans inside most types
of ofllce buildings have all but eliminated this ignition scenario, but the concentrated
quantity of material is still present.
All waste should be removed from th e building quickly. If it is stored within the
buildi ng for short periods oft im , the waste should be in proper containers or stored
in specially desig ned rooms. TI1e practice of piling up waste in plastic bags in eleva tor
lobb ies or corridors while awaiting its removal can have disastrous results. Once waste
is removed from the building, it is usually held in outside storage bins (dumpsters) for
frequent rem oval from the premises. If that is the case, observe the general condition
of the outside storage area. 11shou ld be far enough away from the building so that it
does not present a fire exposure to the building. Sturdy enclosures around trash storage
areas can discourage vandalism and unauthoriz ed dumping, both of which can lead to
dumpster fires. With paper recycling and sh redd ing becomi_ng more common in oft1ce
buildings, centralized collection areas can deve lop a greater concentratio n of paper and
hence more fuel than what typ ically may be found in such areas.

Cafeterias
Many large bu siness occupancy buildings have their own cafeteria facilities and kitch-
ens. If the area has an occupant load of 50 or more persons, the area is classified as an
assemb ly occupan cy. If the occupant load is less than 50 persons, the area is considered
an incidental assembly use area and subject to the requirements of a business occu-
pancy. If classified as an assembly occupancy, determine wheth er to evaluate the com-
bination as either a mixed or separated, multiple occupanc}'- In addition, examine the
kitchen equipment for evidence of g rease accumula tions in hoods and exhaust ducts;
good duct installations will have cleaning and inspection openings.
Hoods, exhaust ducts, and grease remova l devices must be protected by approved
extinguishing S)'Stems,which usually consist of fixed-pipe carbon dioxide, dry chemical, or
foam sprinkler or spray systems. If there are no special extinguishing systems, the cooki ng
equipment might be served by a listed or labeled grease extractor, which may provide suf-
ficient protection . TI1ecooking surfaces of fat fryers, ranges, griddles, and broi lers, which
can be a source of ignition, also need to be protected by appropriate extingu ishing systems.
You should make su re that instructions for manually operating the fire extinguishing
systems are posted conspicuously. Asking kitchen employees how the systems operate
shou ld give you on .indication of how familiar they are with the systems . Check the log
to determine when the spec ial systems were last serviced and inspected; they should be
inspec ted and serv iced every 6 months.
In addition, make sure there are eno ugh portable fire extinguishers suitable for Class
B and Class C fires near the cooking equipment. If the fixed exting uisher uses a dry
chemica l extinguishing agent, make sure that the portable fire exting uishers in the area
are compat ible with it. For example, if tl1e fixed system uses a llC dry chemical, the
portable extinguisher should also be BC, not ABC. Be sure to note when the portable
exting uishers were last inspected and serviced.
514
 CHAPTER 4 0 : BusinessOccupancies

See the discussion on protection of comme rcial cooking equ ipment elsewhere in
this text and NFPA 96, Stn11dmdfor \1e11/i/ntio11 Co11tro
l mid Fire Protectio11of Co111 -
111
ercinlCookingOperntio11s, for more comp lete information about and spec ific require-
ments for kitchen cooki ng equ ipmen t installations .

IR PR T TIO N
Automatic prinklers
Automatic spr inklers are genera l!>' req uired in high-rise business occupanc ies (those
that are h igher tha n 75 fr (23 m) when measured from the lowest. level of lire depart-
ment access to the highest floor tha t may be occupied) . TI1espri nkler system must be
elec trically sup ervised. In lieu of sprink lers, cxjsting buildings can be eq uipped with an
alternative equivalent system app roved by the AHJ.
TI1eadeqnaC}' of sprinkJers, or an equivalent system, depends on several basic condi -
tions. TI1e hazard severity must be analyzed to ensure that the protect ive system is suf-
ficient to control a fire. TI1eimpact of the expec ted fire must be judged to determine its
effect on the occupants .ind the rest of the building. TI1e occupants' response, both first
aid firefighting and ability to escape, must be determined as part of the incident imp::ict.
You can use this information to determine whe ther adequ::ite protection is prov ided.
Spri nkler systems, altho ugh high ly reliable, requi re regu lar inspection. testing, and
maintena nce. Ensure that alJ spr inkler valves, including water supp l)', are open and
locked or superv ised in th.it position . Closed w::iter suppl y valves .ire the most com -
mon cause of sprink ler system failures. Find out whether there is a procedure for en -
suri ng that sprinkler valves are closed only when properly authorized and tu rned on
again after an)' rnainterrnnce or modificati on. Records of spri nkler system testi ng and
mai nt ena nce shou ld be checked. See th e discussion on automati c spr inkl er and other
water-based fire protection systems earlier in thi s text for details about inspection of
automat ic sprinkler systems.
Because oflegal liabili ty issues, the ju risd iction should have a po licy regarding test -
ing of systems; in general , the building owner or representative shou ld do all the test-
ing. You should witne ss any tests required to be pe rformed as part of an inspec tion.

Alarm Systems
A manual fire ala rm system and an emergency lighting system are required when a
bus iness occup.11JC)'is two or more stories above the level of exit discharge, when the
occupan t load abov e or below the level of exit d ischarge is 50 persons or more (300 or
more in existing buildings), or when the occup::int load of the bu ilding is 100 persons
o r more (1000 or more in existing build ings). ln ad dition, at least one manual fire
alarm box is still required 011 premi ses tha t can activate the buildin g fire alarm system.
'"'hen the buildin g is full)' spri nklered or totally prot ected by an auto m::itic fire alarm
S)'Stem, manual fire alarm boxes .ire not requir ed if the sp rink lers or automati c system
cause the evacuation ala rm to sound. As with au toma tic spr inkler systems and because
of poor maint enance in many bus iness occupa ncies, yo u should on ly witness the tests,
with the buildi n g owner or represent::itive doing the actual testing.
515
 SECTION3: Occupancie

Portable Fire Extinguishers

Portable fire extinguishers are required in business occupancies. The)' should be
used, placed, and maintained in accordance with NFPA 10, Standard 011Portable Fire
Extinguishers,and state and local laws. You must examine testing and maintenance
records to ensure that the extinguishers are being prop erl)' tested and maintain ed.

Special Provisions
In addit ion to determining the degree of compliance with the requirements of Chapters
38 and 39 ofNFPA 10/ ®, be aw,1reof the often-overlooked additional provisions per-
taining to windowless and underground structures in Chapter 11 of the code. Because
of the added concerns unique to these types of structures, requirements in addition to
those found within the business occupanc)' chapters ofNFPA 101® may be mandated
for these structures with respect to automatic sprinklers, emergency lighting, egress
arra nge111
e11Ls,and, i11certain instances, smoke venting.

OPERA ING FEATURES

Each occupancy chapter of NFPA 101® contains requirements on operating features.
Specific requirements for business occupanc ies include having written emergency
procedures and training all occupants in procedures. In addition, emergency egress
and relocation drills m ust be held on a schedule acceptable to the local authorities.
Employees of the building, usually the operating staft: must be trained in the proper
use of po rtable fire extinguishers in the bu ilding.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., ed., FireProtection Ha11rlbook,
20th ed., NFPA, Qu incy, MA, 2008.

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following document s.
NFPA 10, Standard 011PortableFire Exting11i sliers
NFPA 75, Stm1dardfor the Protectio11ofE/ectro11icComputer/DataProcessi11g Eq11ip111e11t
NFPA82, Standard011 I11ci11erators
and Waste(111d Li11enH(ll1dli11gS
yste111
s (IIU[ Eq11ip111
e11t
NFPA 86, Standard.for Ovens a11dFurnaces
NFPA 96, Standardfor Ventilatio11 Co11trol a11dFire Protectio11of Co111111ercial
Cooking
Opemtions
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®
NFPA 232, Stm1dardfor the Protection of Records

516
 CHAPTER

41
INDUSTRIAL
OCCUPANCIES
JosephVersteeg

NFPA 101®, life Safety Code®, defines an ind ustr ial occupanq' as a buildin g, a portion
of a building, or a group of buildings used for the manufacture, assemb ly, servi ce,
mixing, packaging, .finishing, repair, treatm en t, or other processing of goods or com-
modities by a variety of operat ions or processe s. Industrial ocrnpancies include , but are
no t limited to, the following:
l. Chemica l plants
2. Factories of all kinds
3. Food proc essing plants
4. Furnitur e manufacturers
5. Han gars (for servic ing/ma intenance)
6. Laboratori es involving hazardous chemicals
7. Lau ndr y and dry -cleaning plan ts
8. Meta lworking plan ts
9. Plastics manufacture and molding plants
10. Power pla nts
11. Refinerie s
12. Semiconductor manufacturing plants
13. Telephone excha nges
14. Woodworking plants
Each building or separated portion of an indust rial building should be inspected
in accordance with the requ irements of its principal use; for example, warehou ses
as storage occupanci es, offices as bu siness occupancies, and auditoriums , cafeterias,
and .lunchroom s as assembly occupancies. Because of the complexity of industrial
occupancies, th e inspect ions can be tim e consumin g.

OCCUPANCY CLASSIFICATIO N
Ind ustr ial occupancies are subclass ified in NFPA 101® into three types of usage:
gen era l, special purpose, and h igh hazard .
 SECTION 3: Occupan cies

• Ge11eml i11dust ri11

/ ocwpa11 cy: TI1is subclassification involves ordinary and low-
hazard manufacturing operations conducted in buildings of conventiona l design
suitable for various types of manufacture, Also included are multistory buildings
where floors are occupied by different tenants and, therefore, subject to possible
use for types of manufacturing with a high density of employees.
• Specialpurpose i11d11strinl ocwpn11cy:TI1is subclassification includes ordinary
and .low-hazard manufacturi ng opera tions in buildings that were designed for
and suitable on l) for particular types of operations. Such buildings are charac-
terized by a relatively low density of employees, with much or the area occupied
by machinery or equipmenl.
• High-lwzanl i11d t1strialoccupancy:Buildings in this subclassification include
those having high -hazard materials, processes, or contents. Incidenta l high-
hazard operation s in ordinary or low-hazard occupancies that are protected
with automatic extinguishing S)'Stemsor othe r protection (such as explosion
suppression or venting) appropriate to a particular hazard arc not considered
high-hazard occupancies overall.
Some of the common problems encounter ed in industrial occupancies include
overcrowding, poor housekeeping, poor maintenance of electrical equipment and
wiring, inadequa te exit facilities, locked or blocked exits, misuse of flammable liq-
uids and heat-produ cing appliances, and poor maintenance of fire protection systems
and appliances. Code enforcement must be rigid and inspection thorough, with some
emphasis on fire safety education and prefire planning .

INSPECTING THE PREMISES

Occupant Load
The occupant load in industrial occupancies is one person for each l 00 ft2 (9.3 m 2)
of gross floor area, and exits that can accommodate this min imum capacity must be
provided in these occupancies. In most plants, the space occupied by workbenches,
machinery, and equipm ent generally tends to keep the occupancy well within the
ratio. So-called "sweat shops;• however, tend to be the exception with their dense
concentrations of workers.
An increased occupant load is permitted if a floor plan showing that proper aisles
and adequate exits are available sarely to accommodate the increased occupant load is
submitted to the authority having jurisdiction. ln most instances, overcrowding will be
fairly obvious to you during the inspection. In a special purpose industrial occupancy,
the occupant load is the maximum number of persons that may occupy the area under
any probable conditions.

Means of Egress
Requirements for exits in industrial occupancies are found in Chapter 40 ofNFPA IOI ®.
Inspectors should be aware of the requirements because they are responsible for seeing
that all portions of a means of egress are maintained in a safe and usable cond ition.
518
 CHAPTER 41: Industrial Occupancies

All exits must discharge to a clear and unobstructed path of travel to a public way.
Where there is evide nce of parked vehicles or other obstructions, signs or barriers
should be erected to prohibit the pra ctice. Barriers or fences cannot obstruct the flow
of persons exiting the building.
Exits must be clearly illuminated, identified, and accessible. NFPA JOI® requires the
placement of exit signs at all exits, which in large buildings may not be readily visible
to the occupants possibly because of building configuration and most like!>' because of
machinery and equipm ent. '" 'here such signs are not readily visible to the occupants,
additional signs along the egress path may be required to guide occ upant s to the exit
locations. Note that these additional signs are required only where the way to reach the
exit is not readily apparen t to the occupants. Frequent evacuation drills are one way to
document that occupants know the location of exits. Open every exit door to be sure that
it is .labeled when required, swings in the direction of egress travel when so requ ired, and
that selfclos ing or automatic -closing devices and mechanisms function properly.
v\lhere pilferage might be a problem, means other than locking are availab le to pre-
vent unauthorized use of exits . NFPA JOJ® permits the use of approved, listed, special
locking arrangem en ts on doors in industrial occupancies. All conditions set forth for
their use must be followed. Delayed -egress locks and access-controlled egress devices
do not prevent the door from opening; rat her, they merely delay opening and ma>'
require the sounding of an alarm. Special locking arrangements ca nnot be used in
high -hazard areas.
Where exit stairs are requ ired to be enclosed, the enclosure and its protected open-
ings must be of the proper fire-resistance ratings. Handrails must be secure, and stair
treads and landings should be slip resistant. Stairways cannot be used for storage or an>'
other purpose, and they must be illuminated.
Every worker must have access to not less than rwo remote ly located exits. 1he
path of travel must be clear, illuminated, unobstructed, and as direct as possible with -
out exceed ing maximum travel distances. NFPA 101® has been adj usted to reflect the
fact that spills or items falling off forklifts do occur within the egress route. 1he code
addresses these short -term blockages by requi ring management to have a plan and pro -
cedu res in place to manage and remedy the occurrence so that the blockage is not viewed
as a per se violation of the code. Where the exit and path of travel are not clearly visible,
signs must be provided to indicate the direction. A short common path of travel to two
otherwise remote exits is permitted, except from an area of high hazard . Exit access must
not pass through areas of high hazard. '" ' hen evacuation must be delayed because of the
need to shut down an operat ion safely or for any other reaso n, the additional provisions
governing ancillary facilities contained in NFPA 101® must be met.
Remember to ensure that all elements composing the means of egress remain in
compliance with the requirements during periods of renovation and construction. TI1is
is especially important when partitions are erected to separate construction areas from
work or production areas. Large loss fires have occurred in all types of occupancies
during periods of construction, and indu str ial occupancies are particularl) ' vulnerable
because of their comp lexity and the work processes performed in them.
Emergency lighting is required in all facilities except those occupied only during
daylight hours in which skylights or windows are arranged to provide, during those
519
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

hours, the required level of illumination for all portions of the means of egress. Check
the type of lighting used and review records of servicing and testing. If battery packs
are used for an emergency power supply, there shou ld be an indicator light to show full-
charge condition and a test button to check its operability. Youmust also be aware that
the industrial occupancy chapter of NFPA JOI® (Chapter 40) contains requirements
for equipment walkways, platforms, ramps, and stairs that differ from the baseline
dime nsional criter ia of Chapter 7 ofNFPA 101®.

Protection of Openings
When inspecting industrial o cupancies, d1eck !he integrily of fire barrier walls
and fire-rated floor-ceiling and roof-ceiling assemblies. With changing technology,
changing operations and processes, and new tenants, industrial plants undergo
revisions that create openings and holes through fire-rated assemblles. Pipes, electri-
al cond uits, cable trays, and other penetrati 11
g items must b' properly ealcd and
protected. Penetration seals must be made of approved or listed materials and be
installed in such a way that they maintain the fire rating of the wall or floor assembly
in which they are installed.
Ductwork going through fire-rated asse1nblies must be equipped with fire damp-
ers unless specifically exempted by code. \i\lhere dampers are prohibited, such as for
exhaust systems for cooking appliances, such ductwork must not pass through rated
assemblies or must be properly enclosed.
Inspectors shou ld check to see that fire doors are of the proper rating for the
enclosure in which they are installed and that they are self-closing and positive catch-
ing. They should also check that automatic closme devices and mechanisms operate
properly. Any obstructions that could interfere with the fire door closing completely
must be removed (e.g., wooden wedges or the door being tied open). Examine the
tracks of vertical sliding and roll-up doors for mechanical damage, especially when
the openings are used by industrial trucks . Consideration should be given to install-
ing guards to prevent stock from being piled up against the door or vehicles from
striking it. Make sure that all doors get closed at the end of the business day, and
inspect each door for evidence of excessive wear and tear, modifications to the door,
or other defects that make its continued use suspect. Maintenance and testing of
these doors should be done in accordance with NFPA 80, Standardfor FireDoors and
Other Ope11i11g Protecti11es.
You should check all vertical openings, such as convqors, elevators, stairs, dumb-
waiters, and refuse chutes, for proper enclosure and to be sure that all openings are
properly protected and of the prop er fire rating. Also check that pipe chases and other
vertical recesses are firestopped.
Ensure that fire shutters have proper automatic closing devices and that such
mechanisms are operable. On building exteriors facing fire exposure hazards, doors
and windows should be checked for the proper rating and glazing. The glazing of all
fire doors that are permitted to have glass should also be examined to ensure that the
glazing is of the proper size and thickness and instaUed properly in acceptable frames.

520
 CHAPTER41: IndustrialOccupancies

Haza rdous Materials

You must determine the properties of all of the materials used in industrial plants and
see that they are store d and handled safely. To do this, especial !}' with chemicals, you
must have good reference sources. Because inspe ction is not an emergency activity,
you can reco rd what is found , how it is stored and handled, and then do additional
research . lf the research indicates that special precautions are required, you will need
to perform a follow-up inspe ction to ensure that such pre autions arc bei11gtaken. Use
ca ution, because the handling of the materia l- for exc1111ple,the handling offlammab le
liqu ids that release vapors-can pose a sign ifica nt potential for a hazard and sho uld be
corrected immediately.
Once a material has been identified, classified, and categorized by the degree of
its ph)'Sical and chemica l properties, half the work has been done. You must then
determine whether there are excessive amount s of materials for the fire area and for
the provided level of protection . You must also determine the requirements for and the
adequacy of the venting, if provided; whether electrical equ ipment has been classified
properly; whether electrica l wir ing is in good condition and properly maintained; and
whether the re are ignition sources.
Production and process areas should contain only those amounts of hazardous
materials that are necessary to the immediate process or operation. 1he maximum
amount should be limited to the 11eeds of one day or one shift, and then only when
relatively small amounts are used. Inspectors must be sure to inspect the methods used
to I ransfer hazardous materials from the shipping con tainer or bulk storage area into
the pro cess or operation area. 1l1ey should also look for possible ignition sources .
l\ifany hazardous industrial processes have been fully evaluated, and standards have
been established for their safe operation. 1l1e Nntio,wl Fire Codes® conta in all of the
codes and standards for safe operation of the most common industria l processes and
many that are not common . In addition, the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) Fire ProtectionHn11dbookcovers a broad range of fire hazards that are found
in major industrial occupancies. NFPA 400, Hnznrdo11sMnterinls Code consolidates
aU the fire and life-safely requireme nts applicab le to handling, storage, and use of haz-
ardous materials into one single comprehensive resource and offers detailed criteria
to help with your eva luation. Inspectors should use this material when evaluating
hazardous industria l processes and also when conducting inspect ions.
In situations in which there is no established standard to follow, inspectors mu st
use their judgment in identifying the process or operational hazards and determ ining
whether they are being controlled properly. The protect ion afforded must be appropri-
ate to the hazard or hazards, and ignition sources must be controlled. A relatively small
hazardous process incidenta l to the main operations, such as a small paint spray booth,
should not change the classification of the entire area to one of high hazard. lnspec-
tors should look for the insta llation of a special exti nguishi ng system, such as ca rbon
dioxide or dr) ' chemical, because very often it is required by a standard to provide
protection of the process. They ma)' also find that the installation of draft curtains or
special venting arrangements are required.

521
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

In the chemica l and allied industries, there are hundred s of different pro cesses and
thousands of var iations that may be be)'Ond you r ability to evaluate. This is not to say
that inspectors shou ld skip inspect ing these premises or give them only a superficial
inspect ion . Inspectors should identify all of the chem icals used and their hazardous
properties, and they should then place them in broad classifications, such as corro-
sive, flammable, combustible, unstable, or react ive, based on the degree of hazard.
You shou ld ask to see a copy of the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). An MSDS is
provided by the ma nufa cturer, compo und er, or blende r of the chemica l and conta ins
information about the chemica l compos ition, physical and chemical properties, health
and safety hazards, eme rgenq 1 response , and waste disposa l of the mater ial. Evaluating
storage, transfer m ethod, compatibility, and so on can give you a good indication of
whether safe practices are being followed.
Some general ques tions concern ing the various processes can be asked:
• Is th ere an operato r's manua l?
• Is the operator traine d?
, Does the manua l cover the hazards of the mater ials, the safe and critica l tem -
pera tu res and pressures, the proper sequence for add ing materials, and the
consequences for failure to follow a formula exactly?
• Does the pro cess have fail-safe au tom atic con trols?
Asking many additional questions ca n help yon make a limited evaluation.
To obtain meanin gfu l information, inspe ctors must gain th e co nfidenc e of manage-
men t and show that the y can be trusted with trade sec rets and confide nt ial inform at ion.
Because there are trade secrets in every pha se of indus try, inspectors sho uld not be
ins ulted if they are asked to sign a pledge of confi dentiality.

Storage
Outdoor Storage. The storage of materials outdoors usually is limited to those used
in large quantiti es and tho se that are not susceptible to damag e by weather. Storage
pra ctices should follow recommended safe practices.
All outdoor stora ge should be arrange d so that it will not interfere with firefight ing
access to and around buildings and to the storage itself. If the stored materials are com -
bus tible, ignitable, or both, they should be far enough away from other buildin gs so
that if on fire, one will not be an exposur e hazard to another. 'l11ere should be sufficient
fire hydrants and hose houses with fire lane s to make outdoor combustib le storage
access ible on all sides . Areas must be free of vegetation and other loose combu stibles.

Indoor Genera l Storage . Preferably, storage areas shou ld be in separate buildings or

in cut -off sec tion s of buildings used for no other purpose.
If storage is incide ntal to the main use o f the building , inspectors should st ill
follow the general ru les for storage occupancies as much as possible, but they must
also .make additional judgmen ts as to safe p rac tices. Haza rdou s materials in relatively
small amou nts shou ld be stored with due regard for their hazardous properties: flam-
mable liquid s shoul d be stored inside cut-off storage rooms or cabinets; loo se, high ly

522
 CHAPTER 41: Industria l Occupancies

combus tible fibers should be stored in metal or metal -lined bins with automatic closing
covers; and pyrox1'lin plastics should be stored in vaults and tote boxes. Many of these
mater ials have speci fic standards that address the proper storage applications .
You must be certain that piles are stable and separate d by adequate aisles, that clear-
ance to sprinklers is maintained , and that materials being stored are compatible. Stock
piled over 12 ft (3.7 m) in height and rack storage of material require special consid-
erations. See NFPA 13, Standardjt1rthe Jnstnllntivnof Sprinkler Systems, for proper
methods of storage and protection .
Idle pallets awaiting reuse, repair, or disposal can be a constant problem. 'fl1ey
should never be stored in unspr inklered areas. When they are stored in sprinklered
areas, the piles should cover a small area and be less than 8 ft (2.4 m) high . They should
preferably be stored outdoors, well away from buildings and other storage areas.

Housekeeping and Maintenance. Poor housekeeping and maintenance practices

can be the most frustrating problem you will encounter and are probably the principal
reasons for follow-up inspections. Improper housekeeping is not onl>' a fire hazard,
but it also indicates a lack of management commitment. Improper storage of materials
and poor maintenance of pumps, piping, and exhaust systems can make floors slippery
and atmospheres dusty and can interfere with the proper operation of fire protection
equipment.
Industrial occupancies with good housekeeping and maintenance practices are rela-
tively easy to inspect. As a general rule, where housekeeping and maintenance are a
priority, most items of fire safety and protection will also be good, and less time will
probably be needed to make a thorough inspection.
You should see that waste is removed properly and disposed of safely. Where waste
has value as salvage, a safe collection area should be set apart and maintained in an
orderly way. Chemical wastes must be disposed of in a manner that is safe for the envi -
ronment and in accordance with state and federal regulations.
Control and mitigation of dust explosion hazards are also of concern in many types
of industrial occupancies. Cutting, milling and processing operations can generate fine
particulate materials that are prone to settle on equipment surfaces as well as on the
buildings, structural and architectural components . Chapter 44 of this text covers the
various environment and protection measures necessary to manage a range of opera-
tions that may cause a dust explosion hazard.

FIREPROTECTION
vVhen inspecting industrial plants, you must be certain that existing fire protection
systems and equipment are properly maintained and that portable fire extinguishers
are properly located and are accessibl e. The locking pin should be in place and sealed,
free from damage . TI1ere should be no foreign materials in hoses and nozzles that
would interfere with their operation. Pressure gauges on extinguishers should indicate
they are ready for use. Examine the tag for the last inspection and hydrostatic test dates.
Extinguishers should be in cabinets or have covers when they are located in dusty or
corrosive atmospheres. Their location should be clearly marked. TI1e discussion on

523
 SECTION 3: Occup~ncies

automatic sprinkler and other water-based fire protection systems elsewhere in this
text addresses the requirements for the inspection, testing, and maintenance of water-
based fire protection systems snch as automatic sprinklers.

Water Supplies and Fire Pumps

Inspectors will have to rely on records and reports when inspecting water supplies,
because much of the piping and valves is buri ed. Industrial occupancies often have
more than one source of water supply (e.g., tanks, ponds , and city connections), and
each one will need lo be examined . Inspectors should check aboveground portions
for proper maintenance. They shou ld make sure that all Sllpply valves are open, grav-
it)' tanks work, fire hydrants are maintained, and so on. They should review records
of water-flow tests, pump tests, valve-operating records for underground valves, and
hydrant inspectio n reports. Signs of neglected maintenance will usually be obvious.
You should check pump rooms to determin whether fire pumps and fire booster
pumps are read)' for operation if they are needed. TI1epower should be on al the con-
troller ofelectricallydriven pumps, no trouble lights should be on, and the jockey pump
should not run excessively or kick on too often. The fuel tanks of interna l combust ion
drivers should be foll or nearly so, and batteries should be fully charged with a trickle
charger to keep them charged. Review records of pump testing and maintenanc e.

Sprinkler Systems
If sprink ler systems are to pel'form as they were intended to, periodic inspection and
maintenance are essential. Inspect them visually and witness periodic tests. In general,
hands-on testing should be the responsibility of the building owner or an authorized
maintenance company.

Special ExtinguishingSystems
Special extinguishing systems can consist of Halon 1301 (mostly on older systems),
dean agent, carbon dioxide, dry chemical, and foam systems. Inspectors must have
a· good idea of how the various systems operate. The inspection must be visual; the
valves should not be tested or manipulated. Inspectors shou ld check that the extin-
guishing agent used is suitable for the hazard(s) being protected and that a reserve
supply is available, if required. TI1eyshould check that actuating devices and alarms
are operational, see that nozzles are dear and free of foreign matter, and determine
that nozzle caps, where used, are free. Nozzles should be properly aimed and protected
from damage.
\,Vben systems are of the total flooding t-ype, all openings required to be closed on
system actuation should be checked for proper operation. It is important that the haz-
ard enclosure be properly scaled before system discharge. Piping, cable assemblies,
valves, and manifolds should be checked for damage. Records of inspection, testing,
and recharging should be examined to determine whether maintenance has been
proper. Specificinformation on these systems can be found in the appropriate standard
or code in the Nntional Fire Codes®.
524
 CHAPTER 41: Industrial Occupancies

Standpipe Hos Systems

Jn industrial occupancies, standpipes and hose stations are more often supplied from
the sprinkler system than from a separate system. Therefore, inspectors shou ld inspect
these systems as the)' would sprinkler systems. They should check that all valves on the
waler supply are open and that the fire department connection is accessible. Threads
should not be damaged and should be properly capped . Swivelsshould work freely, and
threads should be compat ible with those of the local fire department.
Inspectors shou ld check hose cabinets or reels for proper installation, location, and
accessibilit)'-They should check the hose for signs of deterioration or need for rerack -
ing, and they should be sure that the attached nozzle works frcdy. Hoses and outlets
should have the same threads as those of the local fire department, or there should be
an adapter in the cabine t or at the reel.

Fire Alarm Systems

TI1einspection of an alarm system should be visual. Testing should be the responsib il-
ity of thorough!)' train ed employees or an outside alarm service company; however,
)'Oil should review these test records as part of )'Our inspection and should observe
alarm -initiating devices for proper location , mechanical or electrical damage, painting,
loading, or damage caused by a corrosive atmosphere. Wiring should be in good condi-
tion and secure ly fastened. Control panels should be in a safe location and readily ac-
cessible. The "power on" light should be Iii, and all trouble lighls and signals should be
off. Service and test records should be in the panel enclosure. When emergency power
is required, batteries should be fully charged. Equipment should be free from dirt or
grit that can find its way into delicate part s and contacts.
Manual fire alarm stations should also be inspected for signs of any problems.
Wiring should be secure and in good conditio n, and there should be no tape, wire,
stri ng, or other enc umbrance to the effective use of the system. TI1estations should be
located near the exits along natural egress palhs.
You should check audible devices to see whether they have been tampered with,
painted, or dam aged ,ind whether they can be heard above the ambienl noise. Also
check all records to determine that required servicing and testing h,ive been done, and
review records of all supervisory signal systems and alarm signal S)1Stems. Detection
systems for actuating special extinguishing systems are usually serviced by an outside
service company under con tract.

BlBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., NFPA FireProtectio11Hn11d/Jook
, 20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.

NFPACodes,Standards, and RecommendedPractices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 13, Standardfor tile lllstnllatio11of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 30, Flm111nnble
mid Co111/J11s tible Liquids Corle
525
 SECTION3: Occupancies

Nf-PA 30B, Codefor the i'vlm11ifnct11re

n11dStomge o_{AerosolProducts
N FPA 32, Stm1dardfor D1yclen11i11g Plants
NFPA 35, Standardfor the Mam,Jact11re of Orgn11icContings
NFPA 36, Sta11dard for Solvent Extmction Plants
NFPA 61, Standardfor the Preve11tio11 of Fires and D11stE.\plosionsi11Agricultuml and
FoodProcessi11g Facilities
NFPA 80, Standardfor FireDoorsa11dOther Openi11g Protectives
NFPA 88B, Sta11dnrdforRepair Gamges
NFPA JOJ®, L(fe Safety Code®
NFPA 120, Sta11dardforCoal Prepamtio11 Plants
NFPA 400, Haz1mlo11s MMerialsCode
NFPA 484, Standard for Combustible Ivietals
NFPA 505, Fire Safety Standardfor PoweredI11dustria/Tntcks Jnc/11di11g Type Desig11a-
tio11s,Areas of Use,Mai11te11a11ce,
a11dOpemtions
NFPA 654, Sfall(fardfor Ifie Prel'ention of Fire a11d011stExplosions i11the Chemical,
Dye, Plwrmace11tical,and PlnsticsIndustries
NFPA 664, Standardfor the Prevention of Firesn11dExplosionsi11WoodProcessi11gand
Wood111orki11g Facilities
NFPA 1124, Codefor the 1vfnmifac/11re, Tm11sportatio11,and Stomge of Fireworks

526
 CHAPTER

42

STORAGEOCCUPANCIES
Ioseph Versteeg

NFPA 101®, L!fe Safely Code, defines storage occupancies as building s or structures
used to store or shelter goods, merchandise, products, vehicles, or animals. Examples
are warehouses, freight terminals, parking garages, aircraft storage hangars, grain el-
evators, barns, and stables. These facilities may be separate and distinct facilities or part
of a multiple-use occupancy. \A/hen storage is inciden tal to the main use of the struc -
ture, it should be classified as part of the main occupancy when determining life-safety
requirements.
Considerable judgment must be exercised when determining whether storage is
incidental to the main use of the building . One consideration is the hazard classifica-
tion of the contents stored in the area. If they are classified as high ha zard, the room or
space must be separated from the rest of the occupa ncy by fire-resistive construction
tha t meets the requirements ofNFPA 101@, the local building code, or fire prevention
code. In cases where the hazard is severe, both fire-resistive construction and au tomatic
fire supp ressio n might be required.
You should be aware that storage occupancies or areas of storage occupancies that
are used for packaging, labeling, sorting, specia l handling, or other operations that
require an occupant load greater than that normally contemplated for storage must be
classified as indu st rial occupancies when determining life-safety requirements.
Parking garages, whether dosed or open, abovegro und or below, must also be classi-
fied as indust rial occupancies if they contain an area in which repair operatio ns are con-
ducted. If the parking and repair sections are separa ted by 2-hour fire-rated construct ion,
they can be treated separately. Make sure you know the special requirements for under -
ground and windowless structures, which are covered in Chapter 11 ofNFPA JOI®.

OCCUPANCY CHARACT RIS ICS

Storage occupancies ca n be classified as low, ordinary, or high hazard or a combination
of these where mLxed commod ities are stor ed together . Where different degrees of
hazard exist in the same stru cture and cannot be separated effectively, the requirements
 SEC ION 3: Occupancies

for t!1e most hazardous classificat ion govern. The authority having jurisdiction must
use sou nd judgm ent when apµlying this prin ciple of haz ard classification. NFPA 101@
uses the ordinary hazard classification as the basis for general requirem ents. Most
storage occ 11pancies fall into this classification, although an incr easi ng percentage are
being classified as high hazard because of the rapid fire and smoke development that
can be expected in some situa tions.
\'\'h en look ing at the overall fire hazard, inspec tors shou ld also consider building
construction. Combustible building materia l.s can affect the pread and development
of fire, esµecia lly if there are combustible concea led spaces . Co mb11stible insulation is
a particular problem in certain storage facilities and represent s a ser ious fire problem.
Inspectors must determine specifically the type of any insulation present.
i\fodern developments in materials hand ling have brought rapid changes to storage
occ upancie s, including high -rack storage areas that can reach heights of 50 to I 00 ft (15
to 30 rn). Computer-con trolled slacker cranes and robot-controlled material handlers
are now being used to move materials . Regio nal distribution cen ters that cover severa l
acres, which might contain two - or three-level mezzanines, are now being developed.
Ministorage complexes that consist of rental spaces ranging from 40 to 400 ft2{3.71 to
37.2 m2) in size are also be ing developed. TI1ese complexes, which consist or as many
as 50 to many hundreds of rental spaces in one building, often contain var) 1ing types
and amounts of hazardous storage in one or more of the renta l areas and can be located
in mu ltiple story bu ildin gs.
Storage occupancies can house raw materials, finished products, or goods in an
intermediate stage of produc tion, and these materials can be in bu lk form, solid piles,
palletized piles, or storage racks. TI1erefore, inspectors should remember that the
storage arrangement can great I)' affect fire behavior.

IN SPEC IN G TH PR MISES
Contents
In de term ining life-safety feature s and requirements in a storage occupancy, you must
first determin e the hazard classification of the contents. Fire behavior will depend on
the ease of ignition, rate of fire spread, and rate of heat release of the product itself.
Products, however, are often complex items whose fuel content , arrangemen t, shape,
and form affect their performance in a fire. A packaged product must be considered
as a whole, because that is the way it burns, so in classifying the contents, examine the
product, product con tainer, and packaging materia l used.
Increasing amounts of pla st ics are now being used as part of the product and as
part of the packagi ng. Bicycles have traditionally been all metal except for the tires,
but now th e frame and wheels of a bicycle may conta in 50% or mor e synthetic mate -
rial. Electrical and plumbing supp lies have traditiona lly been meta l, but now many
of these supplies, including pip e, conduit, fittings, and junction boxes, are made of
plastic. Was hing machines typically have a limited amount of combus tible pa rts in
the machine assemb ly; however , today's typical packagi ng arrangement, the machine

528
 CHAPTER 42: Storage Occupancies

packed in a cardboard box surrounded with plastic foam, has made this commodity
more hazardous even though the base commodity has not changed.
You should become familiar with National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
standards detaiJing requirements for the proper storage arrangement and level of
protection for storage of specific items including flammable and combustible liquids,
hanging garments, rolled paper, tires, and aerosol containers .

Occupant Load
A small number of people in relation to the total floor area will usually be present in a
storage occupancy at any one time. Work patterns usually require employees to move
throughout the structure using industrial trucks to position the commodity. In totally
computerized warehouses, even fewer occupants are present, which reduces the likeli-
hood of early fire detection and the personnel available to begin first aid firefighting
operation s. Becaus e of this, NFPA IOI ® has no occupant load requirement s for stora ge
facilities. When establishing the occupant load for new and existing storage structures,
the authority having jurisdiction will have to obtain in writing (from the building
owner or occupant) the actual number of occupants expected in each occupied space,
floor, or building. TI1eauthority having jurisdiction must then designate the number
of occupants to be accommodated on every floor and in each room or space. Be aware
of areas within the building having more concentrated occupant loads such as areas
used for packaging, labeling, and sorting. Such areas, because of their small size and
functions that support the primary storage function of the building, are considered an
incidental industrial use area and now have a calculated occupant load based on 100 ft2
(9.3 1112)per person.
Special attention needs to be given to parking garages, which, at given times, could
be occupied by many people, such as at the end of a workday or when an entertainment
event is over. It should be noted that because of the typical low density of a storage
occupancy, egress capacity is rarely a problem if the minimum number and size of exits
along with maximum travel distance limitations are met.

MEANS OF EGRESS
At least two separate means of egress, as remote from each other as possible, must be
available from every floor in a storage structure. In smaller buildings, a single exit is
permitted, as long as the common path of travel limitations is not exceeded. Inspect
the exit access from within the building, the exit locations, and the arrangement of
the exit discharge from the exit to a public way or street (see Chapter 22, Means of
Egress).
Periodically, the storage arrangements in storage occupancies are modified to keep
up with new technology and operations, and these modifications can significantly
affect the components of the building's means of egress. Without proper planning, exits
can become blocked by storage or rack systems, travel distances significantly increased,
dead -end corridors or aisles created, and even exit discharge adversely affected by
building additions, altered security measures, or changes to property lines.

529
 SECTION3: Occupancies

Exit Access and Travel Di tances

All paths of travel from any part of the building must allow the occupants to travel
safely, without obstru ctions, to the exits. TI1e travel dista nces to the exit locations are
shown in TABLE 42·1.
When repair operations are conducted within a parking garage, travel distances
must meet the requir ements for the industrial section (Chapter 40) of NFPA 101®. If
the repair operat ion area is separated by 2-hou r fire-resistive constru ct ion, the indus-
trial requirements will apply to on ly the part that is used for repair operatio ns.
Any rearrangem ent of the storage aisles or add itions or changes to the rack systems
made since the occupancy's la t inspection can greally aflect travel distances Lo exit .
'" ' hen new mezzanin e levels are added for add itional storage space, check that travel
distances to exits are correc t and that the appropriate number and arrangem ent of
spri nklers have been added to the new area.
When determining exit access, look for ar as where de.:id end or ommon path
of travel are created by the storage arrangement. There is no limit to either in occu -
pancies with a low-hazard classification. In new or existing storage occupan cies with

Maximum Travel Distance to Exits

Ordinary High Hazard

Low Haz ard Hazard Storage Storage
Occupancy Occupanc y
Storage
Level of Protection Occupancy ft m ft m
Pmtected throughout by NL 400 122 100 30
an approved, supervised
automat ic sprinkler system in
accordance with 9.7.l. I (I)
Not protected througho ut NL 200 61 75 23
by an approved , supervised
automa tic sprinkler system in
accorda nce with 9.7.1.1(1)
Flammable and combustible NA NA NA 150 46
liqu id produc ts stored and
protected in accordan ce
with NFPA30, Flommobleand
CombustibleLiquidsCode
NL: Not limit d. NA:Not applicable.
Source:NFPA 10/® , 2012,Table42.2.6.

530
 CHAPTER 42: Storage Occupancies

an ordinary-hazard classification, a dead end or common path of travel of up to 50 ft

(15 m) is allowed and up to 100 ft (30 m) is allowed if the building is protected by an
automatic sprinkler system. No dead-end conditions are allowed in areas that are clas-
sified as high hazard except for very small spaces that:

• Are not over 200 ft2 ( I 8.6 m2),

• Occupant load does not exceed 3 persons .
• The travel distance to the room door does not exceed 25 feet (7620 111111)
.

In parking garages , a dead end or common path of travel of up to 50 ft (15 m) is allowed.

Exits and Locations

At least two means of egress are required from all floors and areas of the building in
storage occupancies classified as ordinary and high hazard, and they must be located so
that a per son can reach an exit location within the allowable travel distan ces.
There are several exit requirements for any enclosed parking garage in which gaso-
line pumps are present. Travel away from the pumps in any direction should lead
to an exit, and there must be no dead ends where people could be trapped by a fire
originating at the pumps. TI1e exits must lead to the outside of the building at the
same level as the pumps or they must lead to stairs . Any story below the one housing
the pumps must have exits directly to the outside b)' means of outside stairs or doors
at ground level.
In aircraft storage and servicing areas, there must be exits at intervals of every
150 ft (45 m) on exterior walls of the hangar and every 100 ft (30 m) along interior
fire walls when these walls serve as horizontal exits. TI1e travel distance to reach the
nearest exit from any point from a mezzanine t1oor located in an aircraft storage
or servicing area must not exceed 75 ft (23 m), Such exits must lead directly to an
enclosed stairwell discharging directly to the exterior, to a suitable cut-off area, or to
outside stairs .
In grain or other bulk storage elevators, there should be two means of egress
from all working levels of the head house. One must be stairs to the ground that
are enclosed by a dust -resistant I -hour fire -resistive enclosure. TI1e second means
of egress can be exterior stairs or a basket ladder -type fire escape that is accessible
from all working levels of the head house and provides access either to ground level
or to the top of an adjoining structure that provides a continuous path to another
exterior stairway or basket ladder -type fire escape leading to the ground level. TI1e
underground spaces of an elevator must have at least two means of egress, one of
which can be a ladder.
You should check all doors that serve as a required means of egress and are identi -
fied as exits for free and unobstructed operation to ensure that these doors are kept
unlocked when the building is occupied. If locks requiring use of a key for operation
from the inside of the building are used, make sure that a readily visible sign is posted

531
 SECTION3: Occupancies

next to the door on the egress side of the door stating, "This door to remain unlocked
when the building is occupied:' 'Tl,elocking device should be readily distinguishable
iflocked.
J\'1akesure that exit doors located in a high -hazard area swing in the direction of exit
travel. In areas where flammable vapors or gases are present, or the possibility of an
expl.osion exists, make sure that exit doors are equipped with panic hardware.
In ordinary and low-hazard areas that are protected throughout by an approved,
supervised, automatic fire alarm or automatic sprinkler S}1Stem, ex.it doors can be
equipped with approved, listed, special locking devices that meet the requirements of
Chapter 7 ofNFPA 101®.
NFPA 101® perm ii horizontal J iding doors to be part of a means of egress. fl also
permits the use of a horizontal exit or smoke barrier. There are, however, special require-
ments in Chapter 7 ofNFPA 101®. It is quite common to find horizontcllexits in storage
occupancies due to the use of fire walls or barriers for compartme ntation purposes.
When the horizontal exit doorway is prate ted by a fire loor on each side of the wall,
one door must be swinging, and the other can be an automatic-sliding fire door comply-
ing with specific requirements involving fusible.links(as detailed in Chapter 42 ofNFPA
101®) that must be kept open when the building is occupied.
In parking garages, the opening for the passage of automobiles can serve as an exit
from the street floor, provided that no door or shutter is instcllledin the opening.
In storage areas that contain ordinary- or low-hazard contents and have an occu-
pant load of not more than 10 people, exit doors that are not side-hinged swinging are
permitted.

Exit Discharge
You must determine that there is a continuous path of travel from the building exit to a
public way and that there is nothing in front of the exit door tlrnt would prevent it from
working. Also make sure the path of travel from exits opening into an alley leads lo the
public way, is well marked, and is illuminated.

Identificat ion of Exit s

All required exits and paths of travel to an exit must be identified properly by signs that
are readily vlsible from any direction of exit access. Where the exit or the way to reach
it is not visible to the occupants, the path of trnvel should be mclrked so that no point
in the route is more than 100 ft (30 m) from the nearest visible sign.
In large warehouses with high storage, exit identification can be a problem; there-
fore, you might want to suggest that exit signs be of sufficie nt size for visibility or that
the travel paths to exits be painted on the floor.
Ensure that exit access routes are illuminated to allow the occupants to exit the
building safely. If natural light is not available during the fire when the building is occu-
pied, the il.lumination must be continuous when the buil.ding is occupied. Emergency
lighting is required in storage occupancies that are occupied at night or that do not
have exterior openings that would provide the required illumination during daylight
hours. Check that emergency lighting operates when the norma l lighting circuits for
532
 CHAPTER 42: Stor,1geOccupancies

the affected area are turned off When a generator is used to power emergency Iighting,
the generator should transfer power and should operate emergenC)' lighting within
IO seconds. Check the records and, if possible, be present for a generator lest to be sure
it runs properly. When checking battery-µowered lighting units, look for acid corro-
sion and check the water level of wet-cell batteries and that the unit is fully charged
and operational.

Protection of Openings
You should check that fire doors operate properly, that they close liglitly, and that
the self-closing devices work. Assess the general condition of the doors for obvious
damage. Nothing that would prevent counterbala nce closing hardware from operating
freely should be stored around the fire doors, and nothing should block the doors open.
You should check lhal all door hardware and closillg devices are lubricated and move
freely, and examine all fusible links associated with the closing hardware to see that
they are positioned proper!)' and have not been painted or wired together.
Jt is important to carefully check materials-handling conveyor systems that pass
through fire walls. ls there any air-handling ductwork µassing through fire walls?
NFPA 90A, Standardfor tire Tnstnl/ntionof Air-Co11ditiolli11g and \lentilntingSystems,
requires any ductwork passing through a 2-hour fire wall to be protected by fire damp-
ers. Check that all openings through the walls made for electrical cables or conduits
are tightly sealed with a material that affords the same fire-resistance rating as the fire
barrier. vVhere storage buildings are susceptible to exterior exposure problems, you
shou ld check that fire shutters are operational and that wired-glass windows are prop-
erly placed. All wired glass that is missing or cracked should be replaced. Verify that
installed roof vents are operating properly and that snow is not allowed to accumulate
on the vent hatches during the winter.

GENERALSTORAGE PRACTICES
Indoor
NFPA l, Fire Code, defines commodit)' storage as both pile and rack storage and
describes four classes of ordinary commodities and three classes of plastics accord-
ing to how easily automatic sprinklers will control a fire in them. Reier to this code to
determi ne the proper storage arrangement in bu ildings protected by automatic sprin-
kler systems.
You should make sure that materials that could be hazardous in combination are
stored so they cannot come in contact with each other, and verify that safe loads for
floors and rack storage units are not exceeded. Floor loads for water-absorbent materials
should be reduced to account for the added weight of water absorption during a fire.
Check the clearance of stored material from sprinklers, heat ducts, unit heaters, duct
furnaces, flues, radiant space heaters, and lighting fixtures. TI1ewall aisle space should
be at least 24 in. (61 cm) in storage areas where materials that will expand with absorp-
tion of water are stored. Verify that aisles are maintained to keep fire from spreading
533
 SECTION3: Occupancies

from one pile to another and to permit access for firefighting, salvag e, and removal
or storage . Also verify tha t all automa tic sprinkler co nt rol valves, hose stations, and
por table fire ex tinguishers are access ible and th at there is free access to all fire protec-
tion equipment. All unused wood or plastic pallets should be kept outside and stored
in stacks no higher than 15 ft (4.6 m). Idle pallets are permitted to be stored inside the
building when it is protected with an automat ic sprin kler system. During th e i.nspec-
tion, you shou ld check to see whether exterior access door s and windows are being
blo cked with storage that would affect firefig hting operations and prevent access into
the bu ildin g.

utdoor
Con firm tha t storage pile s are no t stacked too high and are in stable condi tio n and that
a isles are sufficient ly maintained between individual piles, between piles and buildings,
and between pil es and bou ndary lin es of th e stora ge site. Also note whether th e enti re
properly is enclos ed with a fence or some other means of keeping unauthorized per-
sons from entering . There sho uld be a gate to allow fire department apparatus to enter
the area in the event of a fire. TI1e storage yard should be free of tmnecessar) ' combus-
tible material s, weeds, and grass, and any tarpaulins used to cover materials should be
made of fire -retardant fabric.

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Ma ny different materials with different hazards can be stored in a storage occupancy, or
the entire occupanC}' can be used to store a spec ific hazardou s material. Special require-
ments for the storage of hazardous materials are found in several documents within the
National Fire Codes®. You should be able to reco gn ize out -of-the -ord inary storage and
refer to th e appropriate code or standard to det er mine special storage arrangements and
protection requi rements . Examples of hazardous material s in clude rubber tires, plastic
products, combustible fibers, pap er and paper products, h anging garments, carpet ing,
pesticides, flammable liquids and gases, reactive chemicals, and flammable aernso .1con-
tainers. Storage of aerosol containers should me et the requirements of NFPA 30B, Code
for the Mamfac/11re and Storage cf Aernsol Products. All stora ge occupancies should be
proper ly iden tified on the outside of the building using NFPA 704, Standard Syste111 for
the lde11t(ficntio11
of the Hazards of lv!nterialsfor EmergencyResponse.

Industrial Trucks
Deter mine that the indu stria l trucks being used a rc approved for use within the
building for th e ha zard of the materials being stored. NFPA 505, Fire Safety Standard
for Powered Jnd11strialTrucks b1cludingType Designations, Arens of Use, Conversions,
1\1ai11te
11a11
ce, and Opernlio11s,
designates the types oftrncks that ca n be used in hazard-
ous areas. A fire extinguisher that can be used on flammable liquid and electrical fires
should be mount ed on each trn ck. Confirm that the trucks are be ing maintained, that
all refue ling operation s are conducted outside the bui lding , and that fuel for th e trncks

534
 CHAPTER 42 : Storage Occupancies

is properly stored . Examine the area where batteries are recharged for electrical trucks.
Areas used for the repair of trncks should be separated from the storage area.

Hazardous Processes
You should assess the precautions management takes when a welding or cutting opera-
tion occurs in the storage area. In some cases, these operations should not be allowed at
all until the hazardous materials are removed from the area. Dur ing welding operations,
all combustible materials located below the operation should be removed or covered
with a fire retardant cover. Portable fire extinguishers and small hose lines should be
hiid oul ready for operat ion. A fire watch should be presen t at all times during the
operation and for at least 30 minutes after the welding or cutting is completed.
If fuel pumps arc located in a parking garage, you should check that the dispens-
ing unit and nozzle are approved and that no ignilion somces are located within 20 ft
(6 m) of the di pensing area. When the dispensing units are located below grade inside
the building, the entire dispens ing area must be protected with approved automatic
sprink ler systems. Make sure there is mechanical ventilation for the dispensing area
to remove flammable vapors and that the mechanical ventilation system is electrically
interlocked with the dispensing unit so that no dispensing can be conducted without
the ventilation S)'Slem being in operation.

HOUSEKEEP!NG
Look for debris and trash accumulated in out-of-the-way places and neglected corners.
The level of fire safety is greatly improved when areas are kept clean and neat. All waste
generated daily should be removed from the building and disposed of in a safe man-
ner outside the building. Check for the accumulation of dusl and lint on sprin klers,
on fire door self-closing hardware, and around electrical motors and compressors. All
containers used for the disposal of waste material must be made of noncombustible
materi als and have lids.
In grain storage buildings, the single most important fire prevention practice is
effective daily removal of dust, which will collect everywhere. Housekeeping in this
type of occupancy should be done consistently and carefully. See Chapter 44 of this
text for specific criteria concerning opera tions in dust-prod ucing environments .

FIREPROTEC ION
Sprinkler Systems
A major factor in large fire losses in storage buildings has been the overtaxing of the
automat ic sprinkier system or associated water supply,which were improperly designed
or became inappropriate for the type of material stored and the storage arrangement.
Fire losses have also occurred because the sprinkler system water supply has been shut
off. Sprinkler plans should be checked to determine the hazard that the system was
designed to protect. During the inspection, check whether the mater ial being stored or

535
 SECTION3! Occupancies

the stora ge arrangement has cha nged in a wa}' that would req uire redes ign of the sp rin -
kler system. Detailed inspectio n records shou ld be kep t indica tin g the type of material
store d, pi le ar ran geme nt , aisle width, stora ge method s, and height of storage ma terials.
Pay specia l attent ion to buildings protected by older sprinkle r systems des igned for
Class II I or lower commo dit ies that now store more hazardous mat erials or have more
haz ard ous storag e arrangements.
Verify that the spri nkler con trol valves arc accessible, not blocked by storage, and
in th e open µosi tion . Also, confirm that lhe S)1Stem ha s been maintained proper!)' , is in
working order , and th at all alarms operate wh en tested , properly iden tifying the alarm/
superv isor}' condi tion. ·n, e out side fire depa rt me nt sp rinkl er conne ction must no t be
blocked by storage. Look for any areas unprot ected by spri nklers, such as sma ll office
euclosures with ceilings, mezzanines, or blind co mbustibl e spaces .

Standpipe H se Sy t ms
Hose stations and standp ipe co nnect ions must not be blocked by storage mater ials.
TI1ere shoul d be an adequate number of ho se stations, so that all areas of the storage
building s can be reached by the hose stream. All hose stat ions sho uld be identified
prope r!)'· Assess the condition of the hose and nozzle s and find out wh ether employees
are expected to use this equ ipme nt and, if so, whet her they are trained properly for
using the stan dp ipe hose system.

Fire Extinguishers
You should determine that fire extin guishers are acces ible, that they are the correc t
type for the hazard, and tha t their loca tion s are identifi ed . All extinguishers should be
full)' charged and inspected at least annu ally. Employees shou ld be trained to use the
ex tinguisher correctly.

Fire Pumps
Th e fire pump shou ld be exam ined to determ ine wheth er it is being proper ly inspected ,
teste d and maintained and whether it is being run weekly and tested by a qu alified
contractor at least annually. Verify th at all alarms operate when tested, an d properly
identify the alarm /supervisor}' condit ion. Determine whether the pump is set for
automatic or manua l operation and check that all controls are working. Also deter -
mine that proper documentation of testin g and maintenance is being maint ained .
Chapter 17, Automatic Sprinkler and Oth er Water-Based Fire Protection Systems,
ad dr esses the requirements for the inspect ion, test ing, and maintenance of water -based
fire pro tec tion systems such as au toma tic sprinkl ers.

Alarm System
Because storage buildings are usually large open -floor areas that are occupied by
on ly a few employee s who are working in mall)' differen t pa rts of the building, these
buildin gs sho uld have a fire alarm system that , when op erate d, will so und an alarm at a

536
 CHAPTER 42: Storage Occupancies

continuously attended location so that some type of emergency action can be initiated.
Tf the occupancy has a trained industrial fire br igade or an emergency prefire plan,
there should be a means of notifying people in all areas of the building so that the fire
brigade or action plan can be initiated.
NFPA JOJ® requires a fire alarm system in storage buildings when they contain
either ordina ry or high -hazard contents and have an aggregate floor area of more than
J00,000 ft2 (9300 m2). This requirement would not apply if the occupancy is protected
by an automatic extinguishing system.
A fire alarm system is also required in public parking garages, except when the
parking structure is classified as an open -air structure. When inspecting this type
of alarm system, make sure that the entire S)'Slem ao<l all functions are in operating
order and that all initiating devices, such as man ual fire alarm boxes, are identified and
not blocked by storage. You should also ensure that the notification alarm or signal is
adequate to notify all employees that are part of an industria l fire brigade or to activate
the establi hed, emergency prefire plan .

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of curre nt editions of the
following documents.
NFPA J, Fire Code
NFPA 13, Stn11dn rrlfor the Installation of Sprinkler Syste111s
NFPA 30, Fln111111nble and Co111b11stible Liquids Code
N FPA 3013,Code.forthe Nln11r!(a ct11ren11dStomge of Aerosol Prorlr1cts
NFPA 61, Stn11rl arrlfor the Preve11tio11 of Fires and Dust Explosions ilr Agricultuml and
FoodProcessingFacilities
NFPA SSA, Standardfor ParkingStructures
NFPA 90A, Standardfor the Jnstnllatio11of Air-Co11ditioni11gand Ve11tilnti11 g Systems
NFPA JOI®, Life Safety Code®
NFPA 220, Standard 011 Typesof B11ildi11g Co11s tr11ction
NFPA 400, Hazardous fvfateria/sCode
NFPA 484, Stn11dnrrl for Co111bustible Jvfetals
NFPA 505, Fire Safety Standard for Poweredl11d11 strial Trucks!llcl11di11g
Type Desig11n
-
lio11s,Areas of Use, Conversio11s,Mai11te11a11c e, and Operations
NFPA 704, Standard Systemfor the lde11tificntio11 of tireHaznrds of Materialsfor E111er-
gency Response
NFPA 1124, Code for the Mamifactrl1'e,Tmnsportation, and Storage of Fireworksand
PyrotechnicArticles

537
 CHAP ER

43
SPECIALSTRUCTURES
AND HIGH-RISE
BUILDINGS
Joseph Versteeg

NFPA 101®, Life Srfety Code®, governs open structures, piers, towers, limited access
buildings, undergrou!ld structures, vehicles, vessels, water-surrounded structures,
membrane structur es, tents, and high-rise buildings.
l. Open struct11res:Open strnctures are those in which operations, accompanied
by their necessary equipment, are conducted in open air and not enclosed
within building walls, such as those used for oil refining and chem ical process-
ing plants. Roofs or canopies that provide shelter without enclosing walls can
be provided and would not be considered an enclosure.
2. Piers:Piers are structures projecting from the shore into a body of water.
3. Jowers:Towers are ind epende nt structures or portions of buildings occupied
for observation, signaling, or similar limited use and not open to general use.
4. Limited access b11ildings(formerly referred to as windowlessbuildings):Limited
access buildings lack any means for direct access to the outside from within the
enclos ing walls or lack outside openings for ventilation or rescue through win-
dows. (Exceptions for windowless buildings are discussed later in this chapter.)
5. Undergro1111d strnct11res:Underground structures are structures or portions of
a structure in which the stOI')' is below the level of exit discharge. (Exceptions
for underground structures are discuss ed later in this chapter.)
6. Ve/tic/es:Vehicles are an)' trailer, railroad car, streetcar, bus, or simila r convey -
ance that is not mobile or is attached to a building or is permanently fixed to a
foundation.
7. Vessels:Vessels are an>• ship, barge, or other vessel permanently fL,ed to a
foundation or mooring or unable to get under way under its own power and
occupied for purposes other than navigation .
8. Water-s11rro1111derl structures: Water -surrounded structures are structures
completely surrounded b)• water .
9. Me111brn11e structures: Membrane structures are buildings or portions of a
building incorporating an air -inflated, air-supported tensioned-membrane,
 CHAPTER43: Special Structures and High-RiseBuildings

membrane roof, or membrane-covered rigid frame to protect a habitable or

usable space.
10. Tents: Tents are typically erected on a temporary basis and consist of a pliable
covering supported by beams, columns. poles. arches. orb}' ropes and/or cables.
l l. High-riseb11ildi11gs: High-rise buildings are buildings where the floor of an occu-
piable stor)' is greater than 75 ft (23 111)above the lowest level of fire department
vehicle access.
The requirements unique to each of the different t)'pes of special structures identified
in Chapter 11 ofNFPA /OJ® are to be applied in addition to the requirements mandat-
ed b)' the applicable occupancy chapter. One ex.imple is a bank reccmis-keeping facility
located partly in the sub-basement of a new office building and partly on the fourth
floor of the same building. The Chapter 38 requirements of N FPA 101® applicable to
new business occupancies must be met for both par ts of the facility. Additionall)', the
portion in the sub-basement must meet the provisions of Section 11.7 of NFPA JOI®
applicable to underground and windowless structure s.

S UCTU E CHARACTE IS ICS

A typical occupancy in a special struchire will still fall under one of the main occupancy
classifications previously discussed. Thus, the means of egress and nre protection
requirements for that occupancy apply,as do the additional requirements for the special
structure. Examples of typical occupancies in special structures include the following:
• A restaurant located in a permanent!)' fixed boat or ship. T11isis clear!)' an
assembly occupancy (the occupancy classification). which is located in a ship
(the special structure).
• A souvenir shop in an earthen bunker or cave. This is a mercantile facility (the
occupancy classification) in an earthen enclosure (the special structme).
• A hotel supported on pilings along a waterfront that is connected to the main-
land by access ramps. T11isis a hotel (the occupancy classification) that is housed
on pilings (the special structure).
·when inspecting a special structure, which can be difficult, first determine which
general occupancy classification it falls under. TI1enit will be easier to determ ine the
structure's special feahires and the requisite applicable portions of Chapter I 1 of NFPA
lOJ®. If the special structu re has protection needs not fully addressed by the applicable
occupanc}' chapter. use the fundamental provisions given in Chapter 4 of NFPA JOJ®
to evaluate the constrai nts the structure's special features place 011 proper!)' protecting
the occupants.

SPECIALSTRUCTURES
This section explains the unusual conditions inspectors will see and the specific obser-
vations that they will have to make when inspecting special structures. T11eyshould use
this information in conjunct ion with the information contained in specific occupancy
chapler(s) ofNFPA 101® to evaluate the special structure .

539
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

Open Structures
Open stru ctures are common i11industrial operations; therefore, most of the tim e the
structure will come u11der the guideli nes of those for industrial occupancies. The pri-
. mary problem will be determining whether the occupa nC)' is a general, spec ial purpose,
or high-hazard industrial occupancy. Typically, the high-haza rd industrial occupancy
classification will be determined based on the hazard classification of the building's
content s and processes.
Open -air struc tur es a re classified more commonly a special pmpose industrial
occupancies, which are defined in Chap ter 40 of NFPA 101®. Special purpose induslrial
occupan cies have a rclalively low density of emp loyees, and much of an oµen-air stru cture
is occupied by machinery or equiµment. Typically, the open structure facilitates access to
the equipment with plalfonns, grat ings, st.iirs, and ladder s. The structure might even have
a roof to provide some proteclion from the elements.
It is difficult to delcrmine when a stru ctur e is op en and when it is enclo sed. Many
open structures will have some walls that are intended to shie ld the operations from
environmenta l conditions or to segrega te operations. 1he authority having jurisdiction
must determine if lhe structur e truly meets the definition for open struclures or if the
structure is, in fact, a building.
To determine whether th e structure reall}' is an open struc tur e, yo u must decide
whether it would react as an enclosed building in th e event of a fire. Walls acting in
conjunction with a roof enclose lhe combustion proce ss and products of combus-
tion, th ereby allowing th e fire to spread both horizontally and vertically to unaf-
fected areas within the bui ldin g. However, an open structure allows the products
of combustion to vent to th e atmosphere instead of spreading lo unaffected areas of
the structure. Obvious!)', this is dependent on wind and climatic co nditions, but the
overall concep t is valid. Cou ld the walls cause the products of combus tion during a
fire to be directed or channeled to other unaffected portions of th e structure, thus
preventing Ihem from ven ting to the atmosphere? If the answer to this question is
"yes" or "pro bably; · then you mi ght have to consider that portion of the structure as
a build ing .
Once inspectors have classified the struch1re, they sho uld conduct the inspec -
tion based on the occupancy classification(s) and the special provisions provided in
Chapter 11, Special Structures and High -Rise Buildings, of NFPA JOI®. TI1ere are no
special provisions for open -air struc tures, but Chap ter 11 contains several exceptions
for th is form of spec ial struc tu re. One of them permits open structures to have a sing le
means of egress when they are occupied by no more than three persons and have a
travel distance of not more than 200 ft (61 m).
A fire that occurs in an open struc h1re usually does not pose as serious a threat to
life as does a fire in a building, unless the structure contains high-hazard operations.
\,Vhen you are inspecting an open st ruch1re that houses a high -hazard operation, refer
to Chapter 40 of NFPA 101® and carefully evaluate the life-safety featur es of the open
st ruc tu re.
When high -hazard operations are involved, the egress system usually becomes the
biggest problem, especially on levels that are above grade. No simple generaliwtions

540
 CHAPTER 43: Special Structu res and High -Rise Build ings

can be made about this probl em; therefore, each ind ividua l structure must be evaluated
on its own merits and the level of protection being provided.

Piers
A pier, as defined by NFPA 307, Stn11dnrd for the Construction n11dFire Protectionof
Marine Temrinnls, Piers, nnd Wlinrves,is a structure , usuall y lon ger th an it is wide, that
projects from land into a body of water. It can have an open deck or have a super struc-
ture. Contrary to its exact definition, piers can be constructed over land. Occasionally , a
designer will construct a pier of earth that pushes its way out from the main body ofland
into an area that , for elevation reasons , might not be usable o therwise . A building tha t
can be classified under one of the other categories covered in NFPA 101® will be erected
on this earthen pier. Althou gh th e pier is no t mad e of tradi!'ional structural elements, it
is still a pier. The evaluation process require s you to determine the occupancy require -
ments for the building and then assess the affects the unusu al stru cture, the pier, will have
on them . Ma ny times a struct ur e is located within what first appears to be an unu sual
circumstance , but it willstill have the typical fire prot ection issues and circumstances ofa
building that doesn't have the added feature assoc iated with a special structure .
Chapter 3 of NF PA 307 contains
requirements for property conserva -
tion features of piers and wharv es,
and Chapter 11 of NF PA 101® also
describes piers . An exception to
the number of exits required by
NFPA JOI® is noted in Section 11.5.2
of Chapter 11: "Piers used exclusively
to moor cargo vessels and to store
mater ials shall be exempt from mnn -
ber of means of egress requ irements
where prov ided with proper means of
egre ss from structures th ereon to the
pier and a single mean s of access to
the mainland, as appropriate with the
pier 's arrangement."
Aside from this exception, th e ap -
propriate occupancy chap ter and any
other applicable provision s of Chap -
ter 11 would apply to piers.

Towers
A tower, as defined in Chapter 3 of
NFPA 101®, is "an enclosed indep en-
den t structure or portion of a buildin g FIGURE 43·1 A tower.
with elevated levels for suppor t of equipment or occupied for observation, control, opera -
tion, signaling , or similar limited use .... " (FIGURE43·1).A common misapplication is to

541
 SECTION3: Occupancies

apply the requirements for towers to a high-rise building simply because the word tower
appears in the building name.
Chapter l l of NFPA JO/® contains requirements for towers that are typically used
for purposes such as forest fire observation, railroad signaling, industrial purposes, and
air traffic control. Typically,they are not occupied or are occupied by a limited number
of persons, generally with no or very limited general public access, who are capable of
elf-preservation. Usually,there are no provisions for living or sleeping in such towers.
\o\1hen inspecting towers that meet the requirements of Chapter 11 ofNFPA ,OJ ® , keep
in mind the limited access and use and the nature and character of the specific occupancy
involved.If the tower is used as an assembly occupancy or contains more than just a few
occupants, il probably does not fall under the requirements of Chapter 11 and should be
reviewed wholly under the requirements of the appropriate occupancy chapter.
NFPA 101® does not require towers to have any special features for means of egress,
but it does provide several exceptions to general requirements for means of egress in
Chapter 11, some of which are described brieflr here.
'Ole code permits ladders to be used as a means of egress when the tower is occupied
by three or fewer people.
TI1ecapacity and width of the means of egress have to provide only for the expected
number of persons occupying the tower. (See Chapter 11 of NFPA JO/® for all of the
exceptions.) Towers are permitted to have a single exit if the following conditions
are met:
l. 'TI1etower is occupied by fewer than 25 persons.
2. 1he tower is not used for living or sleeping purpos es.
3. The tower is of Type I, II, or TVconstruction.
4. The tower interior finish is Class A or B.
5. 1he tower has no combustible materials in, under, or in the immediate vicinity,
except necessary furniture .
6. There are no high-hazard occupancies in the tower or immediate vicinity.
When the tower sits atop a building, additional criteria must be met to satisfy the pro-
visions that permit a single exit from the tower portion of the building.
1l1e average tower will meet these conditions, but some unusual towers, such as the
Washington Monument and the Statue of Liberty, might not do so. When deciding
whether the single exit provision applies, keep in mind the actual configuration of the
tower, the fuel load, the exposure of the tower, and the protection it has. Usually, the
use of the single exit provision can still be justified when an overall evaluation is com-
pleted. Changes to NFPA JOI® in the l 990s have incorporated egress and protection
features unique to air traffic control towers. Among these changes is the allowance to
use an elevator, with conditions, as the second means of egress from the tower.
During the inspection, )'OU must determine whether the tower is exposed to any
combustible materials that might be under or in the immediate vicinity of the struc-
ture. The inspector or the authority having jurisdiction should not establish arbitrary
requirements that would severely restrict the use of the tower; however, you should
ensure that the tower could not be exposed to an exterior fire severe enough to affect
the means of egress system before the occupants could evacuate.
542
 CHAPTER 43: Special Structuresand High-Rise Buildings

You shouJd also ensure that any high -hazard occupancy located close to a tower
will n ol threaten the integrity of the physical structure of the tower and the egress
system. Included are not only hazards such as liquefied petroleum gas storage and
explosive -prone occupancies, but also possible exposures to vehicles, such as flam-
mabl e liquid tran sport carrie rs.

Limited Access Buildings

TI1e hazards of a limited access building are very similar lo those of underground
structures. TI1ercfore, the same concerns about underground structures would also
relate to limit ed access structures . 1l1e signifi ant <lifter nee from a code standpoint
is that limited access structures are not required to have smoke -venting facilities;
however, if the occupancy will have a high occupant load , you might suggest that a
smok e-contro l and smoke-venting system be installed, if feasible, because it will
improv e the 1 vel ofLife safety.
ypically, it is not diflicult to have a good exit system in a limited access building.
This type of slrnc tur e lends itself to the use of exterior access panels for fire department
and emergency use; however, access panels not meeting the req uire.ments of the means
of egress ca nnot be considered as exits.
TI1e most common problem with limited access buildings is determining whether
the building is ac tually considered a limited access building.
TI1e process to determine if you are dealing with a limited access building require
you to address several considerations. The first part is that a limited access building
is a structure or a portion of a structure that docs 1101 have openings for direct ac -
cess to the outside from within the enclosing walls. This part of the criteria involves
determining the occupants' ability to exit the building . This is not t)1pically a problem
unless the designer intentionally deleted exits along the exterior of the building, which
is commonly done for access control and securi ty pmpo ses. As important as security
and access control are, they cannot be allowed to interfere with a minimum level of life
safety in the building.
'fl1e seco nd part of the criteria addresses outside openings for ventilation or rescue.
Doors at ground level, emergency access openings, or both can be used to ach.ieve
the intend ed level of egress/access. When the right level of such openings is provided,
the rule s for limited access buildings are no longer app licable. Tirns, the problem
becomes determining how many such openings a building need to have before it is no
longer cons idered a limited access structure.
Use judgment when determining whether the building is truly limited access. Your
decision shou ld also take into consideration the nature and charac ter of the occupancy
and the actual occupancy classification. It is not as critical for the life-safety require-
ments to be enforced in a limited access building used as a storage occupancy as it is in
a limited access building in an assembly occupancy.

Underground Structures
NFPA JOJ® defines an underground structure as any strncture or portion s of a structure
in which the story is below the level of exit discharge. At face value, any struch1re that
543
 SECTION3: Occupancies

has a floor level below the levelat which the occupants exit is an underground structure.
S.ince 1985, there are virtually no difle rences between an underground structure and a
basement where, in both cases, the exit system requires the occupant to travel up from
the occupied floor to exit. Although most inspectors will never encounter a building that
is completely underground, most will inspect buildings having a portion underground or
what is commonly called a basement. Note that underground buildings differ from sub-
terranean spaces, which are governed by NFPA 520, Stnndnrdfor S11bterm11e1111 Spnces.
NFPA JOJ® provides additional guidance by stating that a structure is not consid-
ered an underground structure if escape openings of given minimum size are provided
at given spacings along a required portion of the building's perimeter. See Section 11.7
of NFPA 101® and the associated requirements for "cmergen )' access openings."
In summary, if there are sufficient openings around the outside that are clearly iden-
tifiable and usable as rescue and ventilation openings, that floor level is not required
to meet the requirements of an underground structure. During the inspection, keep in
mind the following problems that arise in an un lerground structure: (1) safe gress,
(2) accessibility for fire department and rescue operations, (3) ventilation and smoke
contro l, and (4) control and suppression of fire. These issues will guide you in identify-
ing problems and deciding where the appropriate code issues apply.
When inspecting an underground structure, first look for compliance with all the
requirements that would apply to the same occupancy if it were housed in a structure
erected on or above grade. 11,e occupancy classifications, hazard levels of contents,
occupant loads, exit systems, vertical openings, nnd other fentures of fire protection
should be consistent with the appropriate occupancy chapter in NFPA 101®.
Next, turn to Section 11.7 of NFPA JOJ®, which gives additional special provisions
for underground structures. Each exit from an underground structure with an occu-
pant load of more than 100 persons and with a floor level of more than 30 ft (9 m)
below the level of exit discharge must have outside smoke-venting facilities or some
other means of preventing the exits from becoming filled with smoke from any fire in
the area served by the exits. Underground structures with an occupant load of 1nore
than 100 persons must have automatic smoke-venting facilities if areas in them have
combustible contents, interior finish, or construction; however, there is an exception to
this requirement for existing structures.
An underground structure with an occupant load of more than 50 persons
(100 persons for existing) must be protected by an automatic sprinkler system installed
in accordance with N FPA 13, Stm,dardfor tire Imtallntion of Spri11klerSystems.
Because there is virtually no natural light in an underground structure, this type
of structure must have an emergency lighting S)'Stem that meets the requirements of
appropriate sections of NFPA 101®. Verify that the emergency lighting system operates
and provides a level of illumination consistent with the minimum specified by the code.
Confirm that the emergency power supply is functional to ensure that all air-handling
and other electrically operated emergency mechanical support equipment will oper-
ate if there is a power failure in the event of a fire. You should witness or ask to see
results from tests of all smoke-venting systems in the means of egress to ensure they
are working properly. You should also ensure that all fire protection systems are being
supervised.
544
 CHAPTER43: SpecialStructures ancJHigh-RiseBuildings

In addition to meeting the specialized provisions of Section .11.7 detailed for under -
grou nd stru ctur es, the und erground struc tur e must also comply with the provision s
appl icable to limited access stru ctur es.

Vehicles and Vessels

Occas iona ll)', Lnspectors will need to inspect an occupa ncy thal is locat ed in a vehi -
cle or vessel. Th e occupanq 1 classifications 1110s1co mmonly encountered will be an
educational occupancy or a business occ upancy, bu t it could be another occ upan C)',
depending 011 the type of veh icle or vessel involved . An aircraft, boat, or ship co uld
have been taken out of serv ice, p laced 011 a foundation, and turn ed into a restau
rant. Restaurant s often occ ur in railroad ca rs on fixed rail.road tracks lh al are pla ced
on founda tion s. The ca rs are then arranged and altered to accommodate a dining
establishme nt.
Following are some sp ecific points to cover when an occupan cy hous ed in a vehicle
or vessel is in spected .

Permanent Foundation or Mooring. 1l1e vehicle or vessel that is no longer mobil e

and is permanent ly fixed to a foundation or mooring will determine how th e actual
occupancy is regulated under the codes. In the United States, in the case of a floating
restaura nt that is aboard a traditionally functional ship, the occupancy typica lly would
not be under the regulatio n of a fire depa rt ment or buildi ng departme nt inspection
agency but would most likely be regulated by the U.S. Coas t Guard.

Unusual Nature and Character . Although th e vehicle or vessel might house a

trad itional assembly occupancy such as a resta urant, the unusual configu ration of the
struc tur e often will cause the occupants lo have to respond differe nt ly in the event of
an emerge ncy. To accorn111odate the occupancy in this vehicle or vessel and create a
pleasant, attrac tive atmosphere, so111erenova tions in direc t co nt radict ion to a more
tradit iona l design for the occupa ncy might be made. 1l1e changes, which make t he
struc tur e ma rke table and attract customers, m ight compromi se safety. Althou gh you
should try to accommodate the un iqu e features of the occupnncy, these features must
n ot compromise life safe ty.
Chapte r 4 of NFPA 101®, which contains the fundamental requirements of the code ,
will often be the only resource that the inspector has to jud ge a certa in configura-
tion or condition. Chapter 4 of NFPA 101® will help you to interpret the intent of the
occupa ncy ru les and det erm ine that the required level of life safety is provided for
the occupants .

Means of Egress. Because the vehicle or vesse l ofte n was not o riginally designed for
the occupancy that it now conta ins, it is unlikely th at it will comp ly with the NFPA
101® requirement s for the means of egress. There are also additional exception s for
strnc tur es fully surrou nded by water, wh ich are expla ined later in this chapter .

Typical and/or Special Hazard Areas. Because of the charac ter of special structures,
Sectio n 4.6 ofNFPA IOJ® allows the aut hority having jurisdiction to require whatever
545
 SECTION 3: 0( upancies

is necessary to ensure that egress systems work properly. 111is cou ld include requiring
automa tic tire suppression systems, fire alarm systems, modified sprinkler systems, or
compa rtm entation or some combination thereof. 1his methodology often will offset
the design problems generated by a special strncture's unique charac ter and provide a
reasonable level of life safety.
You should look for any unu sual approaches to or applications of a protection sys-
tem inte nded to prov ide an equivalent level of life satet)'. \,Vhatever method is used
must be clearly documented a11dproperly installed and maintained to ensure it will be
effective throughou t the existen ce of the occupancy.
Jn addition to th ose items specifie d in Chapter 11 of NF PA IO[ ®, determine wheth -
er the hazards that existed in th veh icle or vessel before its pr esent occupancy use have
been mitigated or adeq uatel y protected. Items such as fuel ta11ks,h>7draulicmachinery,
and elec trica l equipment not relevant to the structure's current use must be removed
or ade quat e!}' protected. Any materials, hazardou s or not, stored in preexisting com -
part rnent s must h , identified and th ir pot ential contribution tu the fuel load assessed.
Check every area of the strncture, looking carefullr for any cosmetic feature that could
conceal hazardous compartments or processes.
Because of the originally intended use of a vehicle or vessel, the designer of the cur -
rent occupancy might not have considered how sta ble the structure would be in the
event of a fire. 'llltls, the strncture's supporting system might not perform as intended
u11der fire conditions. Although a structur e originally intended to be an assembly
occupancy might be supported on a noncombustible foundation and fire-resistive sup -
ports, it would be unlike l>7lo find a ship or vessel suppo rted on a non combust ible
foundation and structura l suppor ts.
Also, the stru cture's original foundations and supports may create concealed com -
bustible spaces, and these spaces could contain eme rgency equipment and S}'Slems,
which would adverse!>' aflect their .integrity in a fire. When conducting the inspection,
de termi ne tha t the struc ture's founda tion meets code requirements; also the inspector
must assess the performance of the foundation during a fire and how this will affect the
life safet), of the occupants.

Water-Surrounded Structures
Water-surrounded structures are completely surrounded b)' water, unlike piers where
one side of the stru ctu re is attached to land. Typicallr, a water -surrounded structure
ca n be reached only by a vehicle, but occasionally it might have a ramp that cannot
qualify as a pier. Although Chapter 11 ofNFPA 101® contains several specific require-
men ts for water-surrounded structures, it also h:is severa l exceptions that refer to U.S.
Coast Guard regulatio ns for water -surrounded structures.
Before inspe ct ing a water -su rrounded structure, first determine whether the U.S.
Coas t Guard has jurisdiction over it; if so, try to conduct a joint inspection with
U.S.Coast Guard authorities. If this is not possible, try to obtain previous inspec tion
reports from the U.S. Coast Guard.
The traditional occupancy requiremen ts and featu res of fire protection remain
the same for water-surrounded structures. Inspect the occupancy as if it were not

546
 CHAP ER 43: Special Structures and High-Rise Buildings

surrou nded by water and then apply the special circumstances that are unique to the
struc ture.

Membran e Structures
A membrane structure is defined in Chapter 3 of NFPA JOI® as "a building or por-
tion of a bu ilding incorpora ting an air-in(la1ed,air-supported, tensioned-membrane
structure; a membrane roof; or a membrane -covered rigid frame to protect a habit-
able or usable space:• Although the use of membrane strnctures on a temporary basis
(less than 180 days) has been a common occurrence, it is becoming increasingly more
common for these types of structur es to be erected on a perman ent basis (more than
180 days). TI1ey are often used for year-round sporting activities such as tennis or golf
driving ranges, for music pavilions, or for rooftop dining.
As with any type of special structure, the use occurring within the strncture must be
properly classified and comply with th appropriate occupancy chapter of NFPA 1OJ®.
Once the occupancy has been determined to be compliant, the additional requirements
regarding the stru cture need to be satisfied. 'TI1erequirements governing permanent
and temporar)' membrane strnctures are found within Sections l l.9 and l l. HJ, respec-
tively,ofNFPA .IOI®.
In general, NFPA l0J ® governs the flame resistance of the membrane material by
requiri11gall exposed membrane materials to have a (lame spread index of Class A. In
addit ion, membranes that compose the roof must have a roof-cover.ing classification
as required by the local building code, when tested in accordance with ASTM E 108,
Stn11dardTest lvlethodsfor Fire Testsof Roof Coverings, or ANSI/UL 790, Stn11dnrdTest
1Hethodsfor Fire Testsof Roof Coverings.
TI1emembrane structure fabric must show compliance with NFPA 70 I, Stnndnrd
Methods of Fire Tests for Flame Propngatio11of Textiles and Fi/111s . NFPA JOI® also
requires the design of tensioned-membrane stru ctures to be prepared by a licensed
architect or engineer knowledgeable in tensioned-membrane construction, with con-
sideration given to the various loads the structu re will encounter.
Air-supported or air-inflated structures are subject to the same requirements that
govern flame resistance as are tensioned-membrane structures. TI1eformer are also
subject to requir ements governing the reliability of the pressurh'.ation or inflation
system. In all such structures, NFPA 101® establishes limitations on the use of fuel-
fired and electric heaters.

Tents
A tent is defined in Chapter 3 ofNFPA 101® as ''a temporary structure, the covering of
which is made of a pliable material that achieves its support by mechanical means such
as beams, columns, poles, or arches, or by rope or cables, or both:' Just as with any oth-
er structure, the occupancy occurring within the tent must be properly classified and
determined to be compliant with the appropr iate occupancy chapter of NFPA JOI®.
ln addition to placing requirements on the flame resistance of the tent fabric and on
the use of fuel-fired or electric heaters, NFPA JOI® also places prohibitions on the pres-
ence of dried vegetation and other combustibles within or near the tent. in the event that
547
 SECTION 3: Occupancies

multiple tents are erected on a site or a tent is erected on a site containing a permanent
structure, NFPA JOJ® establishes minimum separation distances.
In addition to the requirements within NFPA JOJ®, you must be aware of the
hazards associated with the particu lar use of a temporary tent. Large tents are often
used for weekend craft fairs, where it is not uncommon to find artisans using open -
flame torches or individuals providing cooking demonstrations using propane-fueled
appliances. Circuses also use large tents and may feature acts incorporat ing open
flames and pyrotechnics.

HI H- IN
The additional pro tection features for a high-rise building, that is, a building having
an stor y that may be occupied 75 ft (23 111)or more above the level of tire department
vehicle access, are based on the fact that the height of the building poses unique chal-
lenges for bolh th ti re departm nt a well as the occupants (FIGURE 43-2). The height
of the building typically exceeds the reach of most tire departm ent aerial apparatu ac-
cess, which causes a delay in the initial manual suppression activities. Also, occupants
are often relocated within the building during an emergency because it may often be
impractical for all occupants to egress in a timely manner.
Typically, high-rise buildings are provided with automatic sprinkler systems,
standpipe systems, fire pumps, emergency generators, emergency voice/alarm com-
munication systems, and two-way telephone commun ication service for use by the
fire departme nt. The inspection protocols for these S)1Stems and equipment are aU

FIGURE
43-2High -rise buildings.

548
 CHAPTER43: Special Structuresand High-RiseBuildings

governed by the other applicable chapters of this text . High-rise buildin gs do have two
unique features that are not usually required in most other occupancies .
First, an eme rgen cy command center must be provided. lhe inspe ction program
must verify the functionality of need ed status annunciators and indicators and the
communication equipment. Second, the inspection must verify that the required emer -
gency plan for the buildin g is current and that it has accounted for any cha nges in the
design or operatio n of the building .
lhe protection feature s for h igh-rise buildings outl ined in Section l 1.8 of NFPA
101® are in addition to tho se required by the occupancy chapter of the code. Most
new occupancies mandate comp lian ce with all the added features for a high -rise build -
ing; however, because of the impra cticality of retrofitting all the features into an exist -
ing building, most existing occupancy chapters of the code merely require compliance
with the spr inkl er provisions within Section l 1.8.

NFPACodes,Standards,and RecommendedPractices
See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current edit ions of the
following documents.
NFPA 13, Standardfor tireTnstallntionof SprinklerSystems
NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®
NFPA 307, Stnndnrdfor the Co11s
trnctio11nnd FireProtectionof Marine Ter111i11als,
Piers,
and Wharves
NFPA 520, Standardfor S11bterm11er111Spaces
NFPA 70 1, Standard Methods of Pirc Tests_forFln111e
Propagationof Textilesa11dFilms

549
SECTION PROC SS
AND STORAGE
4 HAZARDS

CHAPTER
44 Waste-Handlin g and Processin g Systems
Sharon S. Gilyeat,PE
CHAPTER45 Radioactive Materials
H1ay11eD. Holmes, PE, MSFPE, FSFPE
CHAPTER
46 Mate rials -Handling Systems
L. J~Oi-ey
Mattern
CHAPTER
47 General Storage
Kristin Collette Bigda, PE, MSFPE
CHAPTER48 Storage and Handling of Flammable
and Combustible Liquids
Anthony M. Ordile, PE
CHAPTER49 Gas Hazards
Denise Beach
CHAPTER
SO Combustible Dusts
Guy Colo1111a,
PE
CHAPTER
51 Combustible Metals
Kevin Kreit111an
and Martha H. C11rtis
52
CHAPTER Hazardous Materials
Phillip A. Friday,PE
53
CHAPTER Plastics and Rubber
Steve E. Younis, PE
CHAPTER
54 Explosives and Blasting Agents
Lon D. Santis
55
CHAPTER Fireworks and Pyrotechnics
MD and Thomas Handel
John R. Slei11be1g,
CHAPTER
56 Heat-Utilization Equipment
Richard A. Gallagher
CHAPTER
57 Spray Painting and Powder Coating
Steven /. G1111sel,
PE
CHAPTER
58 Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work
z nnd Denise Bench
s/ F.iVlr111
A11g 11
CHAPTER
59 Hazards of Manufacturing Processes
Peter J.Gore Wi/lse, PE, FSFPE
CHAPTER
60 Aeroso l Manufacturing and Storage
Mic/we/J.Mndde11,PE, FSFPE
CHAPTER
61 Protection of Comm ercial Cooking Equipment
R. T Leicht
 CHAPTER

44
WASTE- HANDLING AND
PROCESSINGSYSTEMS
SharonS. Gilyeat,PE

Waste, and proc esses associated with was te, present a unique fire hazard in buildings.
Although th e waste generated is rarely th e sonrce of ignition, it usuall)' provides a sig-
nificant fuel load and incr eases the severity of any fire. TI1ecollecting, storing, treating,
an d disposing of waste are often what is termed "a back-of -hou se" operation. Because
the operation is not in the public eye, maintenance and hou sekeepi ng ca n be a chal-
lenge . Add to thi s the fact that waste-handling areas usually are not occup ied, and th e
result is often a delay in the .identifi cation of potential fire haz ards and th e detection
of fire. Fire safety inspections in waste-handling areas should be a major part of any
ongoing fire safety inspection program in a building. Understanding the processes and
their associated hazard s, as well as the applicable codes and standards regulating these
processes, will ensure an effective fire and life-safety inspection program is developed
and implemented.

UNDERSTANDINGWASTE- HANDLING
AND PROCESSINGSYSTEMS
It is important th at th e fire and life-safety inspec tor understand waste handling and
processing and that th e in spec tor targ ets key components during any fire and life-safety
inspection. Often, fire haza rds asso ciated with waste may be overlooked because you
may not know th ey exist in the buildi ng. Methods of handling and disposing of wast e
range from th e sim ple to the sophi sticated; from collec ting it manually in wastebaskets
and disposing of it in landfills, to gathering it mechanically with pneumatic systems
that service entire buildings and destroying it in huge, multistag e incinerators. T11e
process in a typical office building may be extrem ely simple, but it most likely still
involves intermediate collec tion and storage areas, as well as a compactor. At the other
extreme , a printing plant ma)' have very soph ist icated S)'Stems involving pneumatic
systems of collection, bali ng operations, du st collect ion systems, co mpa ctor opera -
tion s, and in cinerat ion. TI1e waste m ay involve both solid and liqu id waste, ranging
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage I lazards

from combustible to highly flammable materials. v\Tastehandling and processing are

parts of an overall integrated waste managem ent system. 'll1e hazards associated with
waste, and the risk of fire resulting from waste, can be significant!)' reduced by prompt
and efficient handling and disposal. Retention of recyclable materials-paper, cans,
. bottles, cardboard - in places such as office buildings, assembly occupancies, health-
care facilities, and educational occupancies, results in concentrat ed storage of such ma-
terial that was uncommon 10 years ago.
'll1e fire and life-safety inspe tor must understand the terminology as well as the
types of equiµment and systems associated with waste handling. This chapter covers
waste-handling w d processing systems, but it does not directly cover waste torage
or treatment. Wasle handl ing is generally considered the por lion of the systen that is
associated with the collection and movement of generated waste. II does not include
the storage, processing, and final disposal of the waste. Waste-handling equipment
includes conveyors, chutes, carts, elevators, lifts, and other transportation vehicles.
,,\Taste processing includes functions that alter the shape, size, uniformity, or consis-
tcnq1 of the waste to facilitate hand ling, storage, and/or disposal. \'Vaste-processing
S)'Stems and equipment include compactors, incinerators, shredders, crushers, pulpcrs,
pu lverizers, baggers, encapsulators, extrude rs, and dewatering devices.

APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS

The fire and life-safety inspector has many tools to assist them with the.ir work. The
Nat ional Fire Protection Association (NFPA) codes and standards, as well as the NFPA
FireProtection Hmrdbook, are valuable resources to the in spector and ultimately will be
used to identify and cite any deficiencies associated with waste-handling and µrocess-
ing systems.
NFPA 82, Stnndnrd 011 I11 ci11
emtors mid Waste n11dLi11 e11Hmrdling Systems and
Eq11ip111e11t,is the NFPA standard that contains design criteria for new incinerators
and waste- and linen-handling S)1Stems. Existing incinerators and waste- and linen-
hand ling systems are not required to be altered unless required by the provisions of
another adopted code or standard. 1l1e owner must provide administrative, mainte-
nance, and training programs that offer an equivalent level of fire protection and life
safety if the existing systems do not meet NFPA 82 requirements. As always, any alter-
native is subject to approval by the authority having jurisdiction. NFPA 1, Fire Code,
Chapter 11 entitl.ed Building Services, has a section specifically related to NFPA 82
requ irements and serves as another reference to the requirem ents in NFPA 82.

GRAVITYWASTE CHUTE SYSTEMS

Genera l
A waste chute is installed in a building to facilitate the movement of waste products
from their generation po ints to a storage or processing area prior to disposal. Because
these systems can use both long vertical and hor izontal run s within a building, they
prmride an easy path for smoke and fire to spread to adjacent floors and/o r fire areas.
554
 CHAPTER44: Waste-Handling and Processing Systems

TI1ereare five basic types of waste chute systems. TI1etypes of systems and a general
description of each follow:
• General accessgrm ily: 'Ihe general access gravity chute is an enclosed vertical
1

passageway that leads to a building's storage or compacting room and is acces-

sible to all building occupants.
• Limited accessgravity: 1l1is is similar to a general access gravity chute, except that
access to use the chute is locked and ent ry is limited to those who have a key .
• P11e11111atic, gmvity-p11 ermwtic: Pneumatic waste-handling systems depend on
airflow to move waste to a central collection point. Such systems have chutes
that may nm horizontally, vertically, or on an incline depending upon the
design . TI1egravit)'-pneumatic waste system uses a conventional gravity system
(vertical chute) to feed a collecting chamber, which in turn feeds a pneumatic
waste-handling system.
• lvlulti/oadi11 g p11eu111alic: 1l1e multiloadi11gpneuma tic system is similar to the
pneumatic type, except that entry into the S}'Slem is through automatic or self-
closi..ng,positive-latching inlet doors that are interlocked, so only one can be open
at any given time, and they cannot be open when the material damper is open.

Protection of Gravity Chutes

NFPA 82 includes very specific design and construction requirements for waste
chu tes. The construction of the chutes and the protection features incorporated, such
as sprinklers, fire-rated construction, and venting, are intended to mitigate the fire
hazard associated with these systems. One of the challenges in any facility is to keep up
with the production of waste and keep it moving in the system. Waste chutes that are
"backed-up" with waste because collection bins have been removed and termination
doors have been closed lo prevent discharge of the waste present a major fire hazard.
Inspectors should look closely to ensure that chutes are dischargin g freel}'and there is
not an unusual amount of waste coUected prior to disposal.
Available on line is an inspection checklist that can be used to inspect and evaluate
waste chutes for compliance with NFPA 82. TI1isform provides details on most of the
design, construction, and maintenance requirements for chutes found in NFPA 82
(http://www.jbpub.com/inspectionmanual). 111cform is subdivided into parts to cover
the various types of chutes, with maintenance requirements for all chutes included in
Part 4 of the form.
The fire and life-safety inspector is often challenged by what a thorough inspection
encompasses. If conducting an inspection and approval for a new chute installation,
all of the requirements from NFPA 82 should be verified. Routin e inspection after the
system has been installed and approved usually will not encompass some of the fabri-
cation and construction details that cannot be easily seen or verified. New installation
inspections may require reviewing shop drawings or other fabrication details for the
chute itself. Only from these details can it be determin ed that the correct gauge of steel
was used in the fabrication process, there is an absence of rivets, screws, or other pro -
jections in the chu te, and that the chute is adequate ly supported by the strnctme or the
foundation, as required. A review of the design drawings can also assist in verifying the
555
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

presence of any offsets and will allow you to measure and confirm they are permitted
by NFPA 82. Inco rrect chute constructio n or offsets beyond what are permitted can
lead to jammin g ,md other operational problems that result in an increased fire hazard.
Chute fire safe ty enco mpa sses a combination of passive and active protection features
that must be verified during any inspection. A chute is similar to any utility system
that penetrates floor - ce iling assemblies, requiring passive protection in the form of a
shaft enclosure to prevent the sp read of fire and smoke to multiple floors in a building.
·n1e construct ion and integrity of this shaft are crit ical, and it hould be inspected for
co mpletene ss and for an adequate fire-resi stan ce rating . Similar to other shafts, eit her
a 2-hour or a 1-honr fire-r esistance rating is required based on the number of floors
the chute serves. hute venting must be verified during insp ections to ensure that the
chute extends at leas t 3 ft (0.92 m) above the roof of unpro tected construction and that
it is open to the exterior. TI1e vent provides a natural path for smoke and heat to vent if
there is a fire in the chute or in the discharge room, reduc ing th e amount of smoke and
fire spread to adjacent floor s.
Unlined metal chutes also require active protection in the form of automatic sprin-
klers within the chut e. Insp ections should ensure sprinklers are locate d at the top and
botlom inlet of the chu te and at alternate floors. Check that the sprinkJers are not
locate d in the path of falling objects. For operational and fire safety reasons, chutes
must be kept clear so waste can fall freely and not block the chute.

Chute Service Loading Rooms

For many years, it was acceptable to have chute service openings that opened direct ly
to the exit access corri dor. This arrangement still exists and is generally accepted under
existing conditions, as long as the openings are kept secu red. New const ruction requires
separate chute service loading rooms that are adequately protected. Protection is pro-
vided by fire-resistance rated constrnct ion or a combinatio n of fire-resistance rated con-
stru ction and sprinkler protection. During inspections, these rooms need to be inspected
for the integrity of the fire-rated enclosure and for adequate opening protectiv es. Doors
to the rooms must be listed fire doors with a minimum ¾-hour fire protection rating and
must self-close and posi tive latch. Because of the daily use of these doors by either staff
o r occupants, they are a constant mai ntenan ce issue. TI1edoors are often propped open,
and latches are taped in the retracted position to provide easy access to the room. Self-
closers are often removed completely . Inspector s must look at the rooms on every floor
to ensure th eir integrity TI1eserooms are not intended to be used for trash storage; they
are intended to provide an extra passive fire prot ection feature to prevent smoke and heat
from entering the exit access corridor system in the building. Adequate inspections will
ensure that the integrity of thes e rooms is not compromised and that they provide the
added passive protection required during a fire.

Protect ion of Chute Discharge Rooms

ff there is a single part of a waste chu te system that requires thorough inspection and
maintenance, it is the chute discha rge room. ll1e protection or lack thereof of this room
ca n affect every floor in the building. ·waste chutes in particular are not equipped with
556
 CHAPTER44: Waste-Ho11cl
liny and ProcessingSystems

listed or labeled fire doors at the base of the actual chute, and the doors that are pro -
vided often do not provide an effective seal at the opening to the chute. rllle chute itself
generally extends through the rated floor- ceiling assembly without any shaft enclosure
protection extending into the room. In essence, the room becom es part of the chute
enclosure. For this reason, the room must have the same fire-resistance rating as the
shaft protecting the entire chute.
The movement of collection bins in and out of the discharge room results in wear
and tear on walls and doors to the room. Often portions of the wall are damaged to the
extent they can affect the fire rating , and door s are damaged such that they no longer
self-close and positive latch. TI1e fire inspe ctor must check the int egr ity of the room
enclosure and the protection of openings into the room.
Even though the door to the bottom of a waste chute is not fire rated , it is still con-
structed similarly to a fire-rated door. Because waste chutes generally discharge without
any offset, these doors are usually horizontal spring-loaded doors that do not positive
latch. TI1eyact more like a fire damp er or shutt er and, in some instance s, fire dampers
have been used in lieu of the door when permitted by the authority having jurisdiction.
Chute discharge doors are perm itted to be held open by a fusible link. It is important
to confirm that this link is operational and that the door can close in the event of a fire.
It is important that bins are replaced so that material is not backed up in the system,
resulting in discharge doors not operating as intended.
Other codes and stan dards may prohibit the use of the chute discharge room for any
other pu rpose; however , NFPA 82 does not limit the discharge room's use. TI1e con-
centration of combustibles in such an area require s that it be equipped with automatic
sprinklers. In no case should a waste chute discharge directly into an incinerator. TI1e
risk of fire and smoke spread from the incinerator via the chute is too high.

FULL PNEUMATIC OR GRAVITY-

PNEUMATIC WASTE SYSTEMS
Parts 2 and 3 of the inspection checklist form cover full pneumatic or gravity -pneumatic
waste systems . Requirements for the riser piping are similar to the requirements for a
gravity chute . TI1eriser must be protected in a shaft as it vertically penetrates the floor-
ceiling assemb lies in a building. The most significant difference between the pneumatic
and gravity system is that the pneumatic system enables materials to be transported
horizontally throughout the building. Where these S}'Stems penetrate fire-rated wall
assemblies, fire dampers are required to be installed to protect the openings. TI1e fire
inspector should verify the protection of rated wall assemblies with fae dampers or
ensure other alternative methods of protection, as permitted by the authority having
jurisdiction.
,,vhen a combination of a gravity chute and pneumatic system is used, there
is another design arrangement that can affect fire safety; some of these systems are
designed to store waste at the bottom of the chute, above the riser discharge damper.
Additional fire dampers arc required to protect this arrangement, and it is critical that
557
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

sprinkler protection is provided below the las! service door on the chute. 1he design of
service loading rooms, discharge rooms, and the chute itself is similar to the require-
ment found for a gravity waste chute system .

WAST PROCESSING
Compactors
General. A com pactor is an important part of any waste management system. TI1e
compactor processes and stores the waste prior to removal from the site. TI1ere are four
basic types of commercial - indu str ial compactor systems:
• B11/khearlcompactor: In this l)'pe of compac tor, waste is squeezed in a chamber
against a bulkhead. When a block of waste is ready for removal, a bag is installed
and rilled with the compa cted material.
• Exfrnder: An extrnder compacts waste by forcing it through a cylinder that has a
restricled area and extrudi.ng it into a "slug:' which is then broken off and bagged
or placed in a container.
• Carousel bag packer: In tJ1is compactor, waste is compacted sequentially into
bag -lined contain ers mounted on a carouse l-typ e mechanism. As each bag is
filled, the carousel rotates to place anoth er bag in position to accept the waste.
• Co11tni11erpackers: Container compactors compact waste directly into a bin,
cart, or container . When it is full, the container can be manually or mechanically
removed from the compactor and taken out of the compact ion area.
From a fire inspection standpoint, the hazards associated with the se types of com-
pactors are similar. Another form available online is an inspection checklist you can
use to inspect and evaluate compac tors for compliance wilh NFPA 82. TI1is form
provides details 011 most of the design, construction, and maintenance requirements
for compactors and the rooms protecting them if they are located inside of the
building .

Protection of Compactors. A fire safety inspection of a compactor should include

the protection of the compactor, as well as the room enclosing the compactor if it is
internal to the building. lf a compactor is fed directly from a chute, there is a require -
ment for spr inkler protection in the compaction chamber. Jt is important to verify
that compaction chambers have a hose connection or an access door that will permit
fire fighters to get waler to the inside of the chamber to extinguish a fire within the
chamber.
Because compaction ratios typically range between 3 to l and 5 lo 1, compactors
contain very dense materials and can produce large volumes of smoke. A fire can be
difficult to extinguish and may require extensive soaking of the den se!)' compacted
material before it can be extinguish ed. For this reaso n, compactors are usually located
on the exterior of the building; however, if they are located in an inside slorage room,
that room must be adequately protected, including a fire-_rated enclosure and sprinkler
protection.
558
 CHAPTER 44: Waste·Hancllingand Processing Systems

Shredders
Shredders, similar to gran ulators, grinders, pulpers, and chippers, are used to reduc e
waste volume and storage requ irement s. Any roo m con taining this type ofoperation in
a buil d ing shou ld be protected simila rly to any waste storage room, including fire-rated
enclosu res and spri nkler protectio n. High -speed shred ders or other sim ilar operations
tha t produce du st-laden air mLxtures prese nt an inherent fire hazard. Ignition sources
must be tigh tly controlled, and in some cases an explosion suppression system and
explosion vent ing shou ld be provided to pro tect the h azard.

In inerator
General . Incineration is a process using high temperature comb ustio n for the
treat ment and d isposa l of waste. Incineration significantly reduces the volum e of waste
and , more import ant ly, the fire hazard associ ated with the accu mul ation of waste.
Incinerator s can reduc e the amo unt of so lid waste by 95 percent, saving off-site haulin g
and disposal costs. Inci nera tors are often used to dispose of biomed ical and pathologi -
cal waste generated by healthcare facilities and laboratorie s. They also can be used to
destroy hazardous and toxic wastes. \,\/hen properly designed and constructed, incin -
era tors of tod ay provide a fife-safe and effective mea ns to pro cess and remove waste .
Th e very nature of the incineration process presents p otential fire hazards. When-
ever any process .in a bu ildi ng brings combustible waste produ cts into connecti on with
an ignit ion source, app ropr iate safeguards are necessary. Fire hazards resu lt from the
presence of volatile and combust ible wastes, fuel-handling and comb ustion systems,
high temperature flaming combustion, exhau st and ducting of high temperature gases,
and handling of hot ash. The design, con stru ction , and maintenan ce of incinerators
must ensure that fire safety is maintained .
TI1ere are three bas ic types of sol id waste incinerators:

• Multiple-clwmber i11ci
11emtors: Th is type of incin era tor consi sts of a primary
combu stion cha mber and one or more seconda ry chambers. Any waste not
burned in the pr imary cha mb er is ent rained and sent throu gh the secondary
chamber for comp lete combustion. These types of chambers are used for patho -
logical waste.
• Co11troll ed-air i11ci11emtors: This type of incinerator is designed on a two-stage
combustion process. TI1e first stage of burning occur s with limited m..')'gen,and
the fire is actu ally 0>,
·ygen -starved. 'Il1e second stage of burning occurs und er an
o;,,·ygen-rich environme nt. TI1emajority of solid waste incinerators are of th is type.
• Rotary ki/11inci11 emtors: Th is type of inci11erator uses a cylin dr ical comb ustion
cha mb er or kiln that is oriented on an incline and rotates slowly on its axis,
thoroughly mixin g th e waste to allow for incin eration. Combustibles in the flue
gases are burne d in a seco ndary chamber. TI1ese types of compactors are used in
industrial applica tions for burnin g hazardo us waste and sludge- like waste.

Protection of Incinerators. From a fire inspection standpoint, the haza rds associ-
ated with any type of incinera tor are similar . A third form found on line is specific to
559
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

incinerators. 'll1is form is an inspection checklist that can be used to inspect and evaluate
incinerators and chimneys associ.ated with incinerators for compliance with NFPA 82.
It provides details on most of the design, construction, and maintenance requirements
for incinerators, chimneys, and the rooms protecting them if they are located inside the
building.
Fire safety inspections should include all parts of the incineration process. A sum-
mar}' of some of the key elements is provided in the following.

Inciner ator and Waste-Hand ling Room. Verify that incinerators and related waste
collection and handling equipment are enclosed in 2-hour fire-resistance rated enclo-
sures and that the area is not used for any oth 'r purpo se.

Equipment Design and Construction. Verify that incinerators, breechings, chim-

neys, and accessories that are subjected to high temperature combustion reactions
:rnd gases are construc ted to resist cracking, erosion, warping, and distortion . Outside
surface temperatures to which an opera tor may be exposed should be limited. 1he
incinerator also should have some form of explosion relief, and in smoke instances the
chimney may provide this relief.

Layout and Arrangement. Verify that the facility design ensures that waste and resi-
due containers and the like do not block charging and clean-out operations or access
to work areas and that waste material can be charged in a smoot h, efficient manner.
All parts of the incinerator should be accessible for cleaning, repai r, and service, and
clearances above the charging door and between the top and sides of the incinerator
and combustible materials should meet the requirements of applicable building codes
and the specific requirements in NFPA 82. Ensure that the incinerator is placed on
a masonr y or concrete foundation of noncombustible material with a fire rating of
3 hours or .more.

Charging Systems. The feeding or loading of waste materials into the incinerator is
known as "charging:• An improperly designed or operated charging system could per-
mit flames and combustion products to escape from the incinerator and ignite waste
materials nearby or in the loading process. There are basically two types of incineration
charging systems- manual and mechanical. Inspection of manual charging systems
should verify:
• Charging doors are sized to accommodate largest load size.
• Charging doors and frames are smooth and free of obstructions to prevent hang-up
of waste materials.
• Charging doors operate easily and have positive latching.
• Charging door handles remain relatively cool.
• Interlo cks are provided between the charging door and the primary chamber
burners to shut off burners when the door is opened.
Mechanical devices generally are used to load larger incinerators with small batches
of waste at regular intervals. 'TI1isprotects the units against overcharging and provides
for a continual and efficient combustion pro cess. One common mechanical charging
560
 CHAPTER44: Waste-HandHngand ProcessingSystems

system is th e "hopper - ram assembl/' Waste is loaded into a hopper, the hopper cover
closes, a gu illotine-type door opens, and a ram pushes th e wast e into the incinerator.
fnspec tion of mechani cal charging systems shou ld verif) 1 :
• The cha rging ram is coo led either by an internal water circu lation system or a
waler spray syste m that que n ches the ram face after every charging cycle.
• The fire door on the mechani ca l charg ing system is interlo cked with the hop-
per cover, or oute r door~ to keep it from being opened whil e the incinerator is
o perating.

BlBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., ed., FireProtectionHandbook, 20th ed., NFPA, Quin cy, MA, 2008.

NFPA Codes, Standards , and Recommended Pract ices

See the latest version of the NF PA Cata log for availability of curren t ed ition s of the
following: do cum ent s.
NFPA 1. Fire Code
NFPA 13, Standardfor tile I11stallatio11
of Spri11k
/er Systems
NFPA 68, Guidefor VentingofDejlagmtio11 s
NFPA 80, Standardfor FireDoors and Otlier Ope11i11g Protectives
NFPA82, Standardon l11ci11emtors and Waste and Linen HandlingSystems and Equipment

56 1
 CHAPTER

45

RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
·wayne D. Holmes, PE, 1vISFPS,FSFPE

Radioactive materials are substances that spontaneously derny, emitting energetic rays
or particles in the process. Radioactive materials themselves present no unusual fire
hazards, because their fire characteristics are no different from the fire characteristics
of the nonradioa ctive form of the same element.
Various types of emitted radiation are capable of causing damage to living tissue. In
particula r, fire cond itions involving such materials can cause the formation of vapors
and smoke that contamina te the building of origin or contaminate neighboring build-
ings and outdoor areas with radioactive elements.
There are three types of ionizing radiation that can be emitted by radioactive materials:
alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. Alpha particles, which are identical to a
helium nucleus, travel relativelyslow.ly and are easilystopped by thin membrane materi-
als including textiles or even paper. Alpha particles create little to no external hazard to
personnel but can be harmful if ingested. Beta particles are high-energy electrons and are
more penetrating than alpha particles. Exposure to beta radiation can cause burns and
other effects. Thin layers of metal or plastic will stop beta penetration. Gamma rays are
high-energy electromagnetic radiation emitted during radioactive decay of a material
They are highly penetrating and require material of high densil)' or thickness, such as
lead or concrete, to stop them.
TI1etypical fire-fighter turnout gear will provide appreciable protection against a
significant amount of alpha and beta radiation . TI1econsistent use of self-contained
breathing apparatus is the principal protection against internal contamination. TI1e
threat from high-level gamma or neutron radiation is readily measurable with the
proper instrumentation. Where such hazards exist, you should review the radiation
monitoring equipment available for both normal and emergency needs and determine
whether trained people will be available to assist the fire department during emergen-
cies at any hom (FIGURE45·1). You must also ascertain the methods of containment
available within the facility and the probable e/lectiveness of the containment duri ng
a ti re.
 CHAPTER 45: Radioactive Materials

(a) (b)

FIGURE
45·1Portable instruments for measuring radioactive emissions.

'Il1e presence of radioactive materials can

often be noted b)' the presence of warning
signs. 'Jl1e standard symbol for radiation,
in use since the l 940s, is a magenta or black
trefoilon a yellowbackground (FIGURE 45-2).
The symbol may be accompanied by signagc
providing additional information about
the type or amount of material or special
precaut.ions that should be taken. In 2007,
the ln ternational Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) and the International Organiza-
tion for Standardization (ISO) introduced
a new, supplemental radiation warning
symbol (FIGURE 45·3).1l1e new symbol does
not replace the trefoil but is used inside of FIGURE 45-2The standard symbol for radiation,
devices containing sealed radiation sources. in use since the 1940s,is a magenta or black
Properly used, sealed sources do not pres- trefoil on a yellow background.
ent a threat to public health or safety. Dur-
ing normal use, the new symbol wiU not be visible.11,e new symbol is intended to warn
people of potential danger in the event that the device enclosure is breached.
TI1enature of radioactive materials is such that their iJwolvementin fires or explosions
can impede the efficiency or firefighting personnel, thus causing increased potential for
damage by radioactive contamination. ll1e presence of radioactive materials can compli-
cate a firefightingsituation by presenting hazards unlrnown to the fire fighterand causing
real or wrongl)' anticipated hazards to fire fighters that can inhibit firefightingoperations.
11,e dispersal of radioactive materials by fumes, smoke, water, or by the movement of
personnel can cause a radiation contamination incident that can contribute significantly
to the extent of damage, complicateclean-up and salvageoperations, delay the restoration
of norrn:il operations, and affect perso1melsafety.ll1e primal")' fire concern is to prevent
the release or loss of control of these materials by fire or during fire extinguishment. ll1is
is especiall)' important because radioactivit)' is not detectable by any of the human senses.

563
 SECTION4: l'rocess and Storage Hazards

A IOAC IVE MATE IALS

Most types of radioactive materials that
are handled or stored in quantities suffi-
cient to pose a hazard during an accident
are restricted to U.S.Department of Energy
contractor-operated facilities or private fa-
cilities licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission ( TRC). Radioactive materials
used in consumer produc ts such as i.oniza-
tion smoke detectors and tritium -activated
emergency lights pose such a small risk
that the end user needs 110 special permits
to use them. Ionization smoke detectors
contai n a sma ll radioactive sour e that
FIGURE45·3 The new supplemental radiation
is safe in general use. Howeve1; ionization warningsymbolintroduced in 2007 by the
smoke detectors are considered hazardous IAEAand the ISO."This symbol is included in
waste, and unwanted detectors must be ISO2 1482:2007. ISO International Standards
returned to the manufacture r for disposal are protected by copyright and may be
rather than be discarded as normal waste. purchased from ISOor its members (please
They may be damaged in a fire, but the visit www.iso.org for more information). ISO
normal products of combustion of most has not reviewed the accuracy or veracity of
fires will far exceed the hazard added by this information."
the dispersal of radioactivity from these limited -use consumer products.

HAZARDS ANALYSISREPORTS
Nat ional Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards recommend a safety analy-
sis report , somethin g major users and produ cers of radioactive materials, such as
Departm ent of Energy plants, power and research reactors licensed by the NRC, and
fuel or waste hand lers and processors, are required to have. TI1is is a formal docume nt
that includes fire hazards analyses, failure analysis reviews, and descriptions of the
most credible accidents, including fires, and the effects to be expected from each. These
are openly available; review them as part of an initial or prefire plannin g inspection.
Facilities that use radioact ive materials typically are required to demonstrate that the
most probable accident scenarios will not adversely affect the public. This means that
most facilities have automatic fire suppression systems, generally ordinary wet-pipe
spr inkler systems.
Although nuclear facility managers sometime s express concern about water damage,
the on ly real concern with water is that water is a neutron moderator. This means that
a "criticality'' accident may occur when some fissionable materials, such as enri ched
uranium or plutonium, are exposed to an unlimited supply of water.
A nuclear crit icality incident should not be confused with a nuclear detonation.
Radioact ive materials in general use will not detonate. A nuclear criticality is generally
a self-limiting occurrence generatin g large, short duration pulses of gamma radiation
564
 CHAPTER 45: Radioactive Materials

and neutrons. Cr iticality concerns are limited to highly regulated special nuclear ma -
terials, such as enric hed uranium and plutonium, that will not be encountered b)'
firefighting personnel in general residential, commercial, and industrial occupancies.
However, the hazard can be calculated in advance and protection, such as automatic
sprinklers, provided.
Today, the overwhelming majority of all nuclear facilities are protected by automatic
sprinkler systems, many precisely because the dispersion of possibly contaminated
water is desired to be controlled. It is far easier to collect and store water from a few
sprinkl ers that open directly over a fire than ii is to deal with a much greater volume
of waler from one or more hose streams directed by fire lighters through smoke and
obstructions from some distance away.

R E PLANS
Your review will form the primary input to the facility's prefire plan. To ensure safe and
adequate emergency operations, ascertain and discuss with knowledgeable people the
types and quantities of materials present at the facility.
Containmen t systems for radioactive materials include the usual fire doors and
walls, ventilation enclosures and dampers, and sometimes special ventilation systems.
In facilities from which contaminated air may be exhausted, the air commonly passes
through a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter system. 1l1e HEPA system may
not have dampers in the ductwork in order to ensure that contamination will not back
up into the plant. If this is the case, the filter system must be protected to ensure that
fire will not damage the filters and allow contaminated air to escape. Filter systems
typically consist of multiple banks of prefilters and mesh screens, some of which may
be equipped with various combinations of automatic and manual water spray systems.
Make sure that these systems adequately cover the filters and are in service. 1l1esuper -
vision, inspection, and maintenance of these systems should be at least as thorough as
they are for any other fire protection system in the plant.
Also review the disposition of water that has come in contact with a possibly con-
tamina ted filter. Contam inated water should be drained to a holdi ng tank, or the room
should be diked or curbed so that the low-volume water discharge from a protection
system will not spread throughout the prem ises.
Because radioactive mater ials in bulk storage generally are qu ite valuable, as well
as hazardous, they usually are stored in vaults or safes for security and safety. 1lrns,
you must ascertain the integrity of all fire walls, door s, dampers, vaults, and ducts.
1l1e spread of contamin ation is not determined by the nature of the radiation but by
the nature of the chemical form of the radioactive material and the way in which that
chemical is affected by fire. Any opening through which smoke or hot gases can spread
is an opening through which radioactive contamination can spread. Although hand-
held meters make radiation detectable and the hazard mor e readily calculated, decon-
taminating a structure may require quite a bit of work; it may take much longer to
remove radioactive contaminants than to remove smoke and soot.
1l1e great importance of compartmentation and containment in nuclear facilities
should not be underestimated . The 1969 Rocky Flats Plant fire resulted in a $26 million
565
 SECTION 4: Proces and Storage Hazards

loss ($177 m illion in 2011 U.S. dollars), of which $ 10 m illion ($58 m illion in 20 11
U.S. dollars) a lone was the cost of decontami natio n. TI1iswas the most costly contam i-
nation incide nt in the Atomic Energy Commission's (now part of the Department of
Energy) history.

RADIOACTIVEMACHINES
Mac h ines, as well as rad ioactive material s, can pose radiation hazards. 'TI1esemachines
.may range from the small hospi tal X-ray mac hin e to the multi -mile-long particle
accelerators used in nuclear research. All of the m pose radiation haza rds from the gen -
erated beam, bul thC)' all share a c.:o111mon characteristic - the radiation ceases when
the beam is shu t down.
These machines emit radiation on ly while in operation, and attempts to exting uish
a fire in the immediat e vicinity of the machine should be delayed until the machine
power ca n be dis conn ec ted. Onc e shut oft-~ rndi ation machines no longer create radia -
tion. However, certain target materia ls become radioactiv e when exposed to atomic
particles produced by the se machi nes, and the target materials may cont inue to em it
low-level radiation even after the machin e is turned off. Ascertain that adequate inter-
locks and manual shu tdowns are provided to shut the machine off in an emerge ncy and
that the shieldi ng is adequate to pro tect emergency forces engaged in act ivities in any
supporting structures.
In particle accelerators, the beam is dir ected at a target, which may produce other
beams that are directed at o ther targets and even tually at a "beam stop" of high -density
materials. TI1ese mater ials may have residual levels of radioactivity resu lting from the
creation of new radioactive elemen ts. Determine the nature and extent of the tar-
get's radiation, as well as the protec tion afforded th e target. In addition, check out the
experim ental area surrounding a target. TI1isarea is the most frequently changing area
of the facility and often the most cluttered. 1lu1s, it may be the most difficult area in
which to fight a fire. It may also conta in one -of-a -kind elect rica l, exper imental, or
monitoring equipment that presents additional ignition poten tial.

SHIPPING AND STORAGE

Material Containers
Conta iners used to ship rad ioact ive material must be strong and cons tru cted well
enough to withstand credi ble acc idents . To thi s end, cont aine rs for high-level materials
must be tested to determine that they can withstand impact , fire, and water submersion,
in sequence, without leaki11g.Strange ly enough, the history of shipp ing and shippi ng
acc ident s makes the transportc1tion accident of little concern to the fire service. Rather,
the potential problem lies in the facility in which sh ipping con tain ers are stored or
through which they pass. \ll'hy? Because a con tainer designed to surv ive the maximum
fuel spill fire may be inadequa te when breeched and expo sed to the maximum fire in a
genera l shipping depot or warehouse.

566
 CHAPTER 45: Radioactive Materials

Transportation Facilities
When inspecting transportation facilities, always determin e whet her they are likely to
be used to store high-level radioactive shippi ng con tainers, such as those holding cobalt
gamma ray mach ines. TI1is type of equ ipment includes a metallic cobalt 60 source
tightly encapsula ted in steel, sources sealed in "beta gauge" thickness containers, and
measuring devices. There have been several instan ces where beta gauge stain less steel
containers with an encapsulated source surv ived appreciable fire exposures without the
release of the radioactive isotop e contained in them. Certain devices, such as cobalt
60 gamma emitters used for food irradiation and medical treatments, use a radioac-
tive rnaterial as a power s urce; therefore, the unil is always highly radioactive and
must be shielded. Because lead is a cheap materia l and is expensive to ship by virtue
of its weight, it is often used to shield radioactjve materials in storage. TI1epresence of
molten lead in the residue of a warehouse fire shou ld be an immediate indicator of a
possibly dangerous situation, and all overall open1tions hould be suspended pending
the comp letion of a thorough radiation surve}'-"l11is also applies to any facility in which
high-level. radia tion sources, protected by shielding, are used.

Hospitals
Hospita ls are another occupan cy in which the storage of radioactive materials, in this
case radioisotopes, may present a hazard. Because radioisotopes are administered to
patients in individual doses, the threat to a healthy fire fighter of expo sure to radio-
activity during a fire in a treatment area is minimal. Of greater concern are the areas
in which these materials are stored and prepa red. TI1ey may contain a considerable
numb er of different isotopes, and the quantit)' of isotopes as well as the combination
of those with the highest activity and most volatility may be very hazardous . Because
patients cannot readily evacuate a hospital, separation and protection of storage areas
is often more importa nt for fire safety than it would be in an industrial or educational
facility.
All other fire protection progra ms, procedures, and equipment applicable to
a nonr adiation facility are also applicable to the radiat ion faci.lity. You should have
no illusions that some fire protection practices may not apply because of the special
"radioactive" nature of the faci.lity.In fact, the provision of standard fire protec tion
pract ices, particular!)' automatic protection, is a necessity in facilities in which radia-
tion is a significant additional hazard.

RADIATION PROTECTION
Considering the factors of time, distance, and shielding, it is generally unlikely that any
reasonable firefighting time can result in an exposure level of concern to a fire fighter.
Again, this can be readily calculated, and such considerations should be included
in any prefire plan. [n most facilities, individual laborato ries or pro cess rooms will
also be marked to indicate the type and level of hazard within. Fire fighters and other
personnel can take precautions to minimize exposure to radiation .

567
 SECTION 4: Process and Storaye Hazards

Protection from External Radiation

In the case of external nuclear radiation, the dose and resulting injury to humans can
be minimized in several ways:
• Only the smallest possible portion of the body should be exposed (e.g., the
hands, rather than the entire body). Normal turnout gear can be very effective in
stopping low-energy radiation.
• TI1etime. pent in the hazardous area, therefore the time of exposure, should be
minimized.
• The intensity of the radiation received by a person can be minimized by mai11-
tai11ingthe greatest possible distance from the radiation source or by placing
suitable (dense) materials between the radiation source and the person. Increas-
ing the separatio n distance is very effective in reducing the exposure.

Protection from Internal Radiation

The possibility of radioactive materials entering the body can be reduced by wearing
properly fitted protective face masks and clothing while in a hazardous area.

BIBLIOG APHY
Brannigan, F., Li11ingwith Rnriinlio11:
The Problemsof the Nuclenr Agefor the Lny111n11,
Energy Research & Development Administration, Division of Safety,Standards, &
Compliance, Springfield, VA, 1976.
Purington, R. G., and Patterson, H. W, HandlingRndintio11E111erge11cies,
NFPA, Quinq 1,
MA, 1977.

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 801, Stn11rinrdfor FireProtectionfor FacilitiesHm1rili11g RadioactiveMnterinls
NFPA 804, Stn11darrifor FireProtectio11for 1-\rivnnceriLight WnterRenctor ElectricGe11
-
emli11gPlants
NFPA 805, Pe1jor111a11ce-Bnsed Stmirinrdfor FireProtectio11.for
Light WaterRene/orElec-
tric Genemti11gPlants
NFPA 806, Pe1formrmce-Bas ed Sta11riard
for FireProtectionfor Adva11cedNuclear Uenc-
tor Electric Ge11emli11g
Pln11/sClin11geProcess

568
 CHAPTER

46
MATERIALS-HANDLING
SYSTEMS
L. JeJji-ey
Mattern

Materials handling can be a complex process and can introduce hazards into a facilit }'·
It is important for the inspector to be aware of the type of materials being brought
into a facility and how they will be handled once in the facility. Additionally, it is im-
portant for the inspector to understand the materials flow from the receiving point
to both the storage area/area of use and to the shipping point. 'Tl1etype of material,
its destination, and the transportation method can have an impact on the fire and life
safety of a faci Iity.
Although much of the content of this chapter addresses indoor hazards and con-
cerns, other fire inspection issues and challenges can arise for equipment that may be
used outdoors that may have a high value. Inspection of this type of equipment is also
covered in this chapter.

COMMODITY CLASSIFICATION
The material (commonly referred to as the "commodity") used in a facility dictates the
level of fire protection required to properly protect the building or area and its contents
from major damage. When a new facility is constructed, the fire protection design is
determined based on the commodit}' to be used or stored. Over the life of a facility,
the commodity classification (see NFPA 13, Stnndnrdfor the f115/n/lntio11o_fSprinkler
Systems) may change many times. 'll1is is particularly true for a warehouse. Any change
in use requires a reevaluation of the fire protection scheme. It is likely, however, that
the evolution of commodity changes will increase, rather than decrease, the level of
fire protection required. It is important for the inspector to properly examine what is
currently being used or stored in the facility and then to determine the fire protection
required based on the current requirements of the applicable codes and standards.
The most common situation encountered with commodities is a warehouse or stag-
ing area within a building. The commodity is typically a combustible or flammable
material. Materials can vary considerably. TI1e material and its packaging require a
very close examination to ensure that the hazard is fully understood . Once the nature
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

of the commoditie s is determined, it is important for lhe inspeclor to remember that

the fire protection approach should be designed based on the most hazardous com -
modit) ' within the facilit)'. One cannot "average" the types of commodities to come up
with a classification. In a storage arrangement, even ri smalJ amount of a higher class
commodity will cause a fire to behave as if the whole area contains that materi:il. Com-
modit) ' classification for a storage arrangement is t)'l)ically described as Class I, II, TJJ,
TV,or plastic. Plastic materials also have subclassificat ions representing various degrees
of combustibility dep end ing on the t}'Pe of pla tic. Of course, ther e may also be pres-
ent very spe cialized commodi ties, such as rubber tires, coal, flammabl e liquid s, and so
forth, whi ch the insp eclor would have to identify and evaluate.
1he ommodil}' is .not the onl}' factor. 'lhe inspector must consider other key fac-
tors such as the storage configuration, storage heigh t, aisle width, and the ceiling/roof
height of the facility itself. 11,e storage configuration is the arrangement of the material
stored.1l1e typical storage configurations includ e on-floor storage, palletized storage, or
rack storage. For m aterials of the same commodit)' classification, rack storage presents
a grea ter fire protection challenge than either on -floor or palletized storage because of
the flue spaces surrounding the pallet loads of storage within a rack. Flue spaces pro-
vide for natural upwa rd fire spread .

STORAGEARRANGEMENTS
In both manufacturing and storage areas, an important condition for the insp ector
to evaluate .is the storage height. As a warehouse facility matures, ll often becomes
overstocked. 1his co ndition can quickly develop into potential fire protection prob-
lems. Frequ ently, th e remedy for lack of space applied by the warehouse operator is
to increa se the storage height in lhe facility. 'fois is often accomplished, for example,
by doubl e stacking , or placing a second pallet load of stock on the very top lier,
or top level, of a rack. Double stacking may make the ill situ fire protection design
inadequate . The inspector will need to measure the storage height and evaluate this
co ndition.
Aisle width is another very important consideration. Aisle width classifications
in fire protection standards typically reference 4-ft-wicle ( I .2-m -wide) aisles or 8 ft
(2.4 m) or wider aisles. A 4-ft-wide (l.2-m-wide) aisle will usually increase the fire
protection requirement s because of the greater possibility of radiant heat igniting the
materials across the aisle.
Another potential problem associated with aisles is storage in the aisle itself. All
large-scale fire tests to determine the level of fire protection required for a given com-
modil)' in a given storage configuration have been conducted with aisles free and clear
of storage. The presence of storage in aisles presents an unbroken path for the fire to
travel from rack to rack, making it more difficult for automatic sprinklers to control the
fire. The inspector should look for aisle storage and det erm ine whether it is a routine
method for handling an overstocked condition or a random, short -te rm occurrence.
Neither reason is acceptable, but the latter ma)' be more manageable.
TI1e building height is also an important consideration. Of parti cular interest is the
space behveen the top of the storage and the building roof. Some spr inkler system
570
 CHAPTER46: Materials-Handling Systems

designs are far less tolerant of "excessive" space, and, most certa inly, storage too close
to sprinklers is a serious problem. NFPA 13, Standardfor the lnstallntion of Sprinkler
Systemsmanages this by specifying the minimum clearance allowed between the sprin-
kler and the top of the storage configuration. In other cases, NFPA 13 also specifies a
maximum permitted clearance between the ceiling and the top of storage. 'The inspec-
tor must gather all the information involving storage height, storage configuration,
rack type, aisle width, and building ceiling height and combine that information with
the commodity classification to determine the level of fire protection required, and
then compare the result with the currently required design criteria.

MATERIALSAND STAGING EQUIPMENT

As materials are received, the)' are typically staged on the receiving dock, awaiting
movement into the storage area or to the manufacturing area . Often, hazardous materi -
als, which may include aeroso ls, flammable and combustible liquids, or even oxidizers,
receive the same treatment. Seldom is a receiving dock designed for such hazardous
materials. Hazardous materials, upon receipt, should be promptly identified and then
expeditiously transported to the designated properly designed and protected storage
area. 1he inspector should examine materials staged on the dock, and he or she should
inquire about handling procedures for incoming hazardous materials.
Similar conditions can exist on the shipping end of the process . Hazardous materials
are often brought to the shipping dock to await loading on outbound trucks or rail cars.
Hazardous materials should not be brought to the shipping dock until they can be im-
mediately loaded. As with the examination of the receiving dock, the inspector should
examine materials staged on the shipping dock and should inquire about handling
procedures for outgoing hazardous materials .
Automated storage and retrieval systems (ASRSs), although not as common as con-
ventional rack storage, are in use in warehouses where racks may have a vertical height
of SOft (15 m) or more. TI1e typical ASRS consists of a rail-bound lifting device, either
of the automatic or the semiautomatic type, where pallet loads of products are moved
into computer -generated designated positions in the rack structure. This allows a spe-
cific pallet load of product to be placed in a unique location and later, when needed,
be readily found and retrieved. TI1e automated type is controlled from an operator
panel at floor level as opposed to the semiautomatic type, which is operator controlled
(onboard type) from the platform of the lifting device. Carousel type devices also fit
into this overall category of automated storage systems. TI1e inspector should review
maintenance programs for the ASRS and, as for all sprinklered buildings, ensure that
the sprinkler systems for the ASRS building are all in service.

MOBILE EQUIPMENT FOR MATERIALS

HANDLING
TI1e inspector should be knowledgeable about the methods used to move materials
from one place to another in manufacturing plants, warehouses, and other occupancies.
571
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

E46-1Industrial vehicle forklift.

FIGUR

Efficient handling of materials requires specialized equipmen t that can in itself intro-
duce ser ious fire an d explos ion hazar ds unl ess the equip m ent is properly selected, in-
stalled, protected, operated, and maintained. The most common indu st rial vehicles
are lift tru cks of the fork or squeeze-clamp t}'pe (FIGURE 46-1). They are powered by
com pr essed natu ral gas (CNG ), liquefied petro leum gas (LP gas), diesel fuel, gasoline,
or electric sto rage batte ries. Each of these introduces an addit ional source of fuel into
the facility and also provi des an ignition source. This is especi ally true if easily ignited
fibers, du sts, vapors, or gases are present in the area in which the vehicle is to be used.
Unless thes e veh icles are properly mainta ined, they ca n be hazardous even if they are
the appropriate type for the haza rd.
A system of easil}' recognized markers has be en developed to help identify the
different types of industrial veh id es and the areas in which they can be used safely
(FIGURE 46-2). 1l1e markers have black bord ers and lettering on a yellow backgro und.
The appropriate markers are affixed to both sides of a vehicle so that its type can be
readily ident ified.
Marke rs of correspond ing shap e shou ld be posted al the en trances lo hazardous
areas. \.\' hen an industri al vehicle approaches a hazardou s area , both th e occupants of
the facilil}' and the driver will be ab le to see whether the veh icle can safely en ter the
area b)' comparing the markings affix ed to the veh icle and those pos ted in the area.

572
 CHAPTER 46: Materials-Handling Systems

lGS/1
~
FIGURE t,
46-2Markers used to identify 1pe of industrial vehicle.Source:
NFPA505, 2011,Figur
e9.4.1.2
.1.

NFPA SOS,FireSafety Str111dard

for Poweredl11d11strin/
Trnckslllc/11di11g Type Desig-
11afio11s
, Arensof Use,Co1wersio11s,
Mai11fe11n11ce
, n11dOpemtio11s,lists the different types
of trucks (also referred to as indu strial vehicle s) and identifies the hazardous areas in
which they may be used (TABLE 46·1).Inspe ctors shou ld be acquainted with the terms of
NFPA 505 so that they can provide guidance as to when the different types of vehicles
can and cannot be used. Many of the fires caused by industrial vehicles have been the
result of using the wrong vehicles in the wrong locations .

Types of Vehicles
Electric -powered vehicles consist of four type s, depending on the fire hazards present:
Type E, Type EE, Type ES, and Type EX. Type E vehicles have the minimum necessary
safegua rds for use in ordinary hazard areas. Type EE veh ides are designed with the elec-
tric motor and all other electrical equipment comp .letely enclosed. TI1esevehicles may
be used in hazardous locations other than tho se that require Type EX vehicles. Type
ES vehicles hav e additiona l safeguards that prevent the ignit ion of fibers by control-
ling sparks emitted by the electrical system and by limiting surface temperatures. Type
EX veh icles are exp losion-proof (Class l, Division I, Group D) or du st-t ight (Class 11,
Division 2, Group F) and are for use in area s in which explosive mixtur es of flammable
vapors or combustible dusts are likely to be present during normal operations.
Gasoline-powered vehicles are ofType G and include Type G/CN, Type G/LP, Type
GS, Type GS, Type GS/CNS and Type GS/LPS. Type G is the foundation or basis of
these categories . 'I)rpe G vehicles have the minimum necessary safeguards for use in
areas of ordinary fire hazard, and Type GS vehicle s have additional safeguards in the

573
 V,
m
I"\
-t
Use of Powered Industria l Veh icles 0
z
~
-u
(a) Division Summary Tab le on Use of Powered In dustria l Trucks i3
"~
CGH CNG Gasoline - LP-Gas-
QJ
:::,
Powered Powered Diese l-Powered Electrica lly Powe red Powere d Powere d Du al Fuel- 0.
V,
Trucks Trucks Trucks Trucks Trucks Trucks Powe red Trucks 0
al
<.O
GI GS/ GI GS/ Text ro
Locations * CGH CN CNS DS DY DX E ES EE EX G GS LP LPS CN CNS LP LPS Ref. I
D
"'
i,j
Classt, ~
DivisionI
GroupA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA A NA NA NA 4.3. l.l
GroupB NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA A NA NA NA 4.3.1.l
Groupe NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 4.3. 1.1
GroupD NA NA NA NA NA NA A NA NA NA A NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 4.3.1.2
ClassI,
Division2
GroupA NA NA NA NA NA K K NA NA K K NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 4.3.2.1
GroupB NA NA K NA K K K NA K K K NA K NA K A K NA K 4.3.2.2
GroupC NA NA K NA K K K NA K K K NA K NA K NA K NA K 4.3.2.2
GroupD NA NA J NA J A A NA J A A NA J NA J NA J NA J 4.3.2.3
ClassII,
Division7
GroupE NA NA NA NA NA NA J NA NA NA J NA NA NA NA \IA NA NA NA 4.4 .1.1
GroupF NA NA NA NA NA NA A NA NA NA A NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 4.4.1.2
GroupG NA NA NA NA NA NA A NA NA NA A NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 4.4.1 .2
 ClossII,
Division2
GroupE NA NA NA NA NA NA NA J NA NA NA J NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 4.4.2.1
GroupF NA NA J NA J A A NA J A A NA J NA J NA J NA J 4.4.2.2
GroupG NA NA J NA J A A NA J A A NA J NA J NA J NA J 4.4.2.2
Closs11/
, NA NA J NA J A A NA J A A NA J NA J NA J NA J 4.5.1
Division1
Closs111, J NA A NA A A A J A A A NA A NA A ~A A NA A 4.5.2
Division2
Unclassified A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 4.1.1
(Ordinary)
(b) Zone Summary Table on Use of Powered Indust ria l Trucks
ClossI,
Zone 1
GroupIIC NA NA NA NA NA NA NA A NA NA NA NA NA NA NA A NA NA NA 4.6.1.1
Group 11B NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 4.6.1.1
GroupIIA NA NA NA NA NA NA A NA NA NA A NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 4.6.1.2
ClossI,
Zone2
Group IIC NA NA NA NA NA K K NA NA K K NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 4.6.2.1
Group11B NA NA K NA K K K NA K K K NA K NA K A K NA K 4.6.2.1
Gro up IIA NA NA J NA J A A NA J A A NA J NA J NA J NA J 4.6.2.2
Unclassifie
d A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 4.1.1
Nores:
(I) A= Type 1ruck authorized for location described.
(2) J ,. Type truck authorized for location described with approval of the authority having jurisdiction.
(3) K = Type rruck au horlzed to be determined by the authority having jurisdiction.
(4) NA= Type rruck not au1horlzed In locarlon described unlessl,sred or approved as being suitable for use in 1hehazardous (classified)locatior.
V,
'The referencesto zone. and group in rhe headingsin 4.3.1.1through 4.5.2correspond 10 classificarlonsrhat are in accordancewith NFPA70 and are provided for the conven,ence
'-J of the user.
V,
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Haz,irds

electrical, fuel, and exhaust systems for occupancies in which there are readily ignited
combustible materials present. TI1evariants of the Type G and Type GS include:
• G/CN - Operates on gasoline or compressed natural gas-min imu m acceptable
safeguards.
• G/LP - Operates 011 gasoline or liquefied petro leum gas-minimum acceptable
safeguards.
• GS/CNS - Operates on gasoline or compressed natural gas -additional safeguards .
• GS/LPS - Operates on gasoline or liqu efied petroleum gas-addiitonal safeguards.
Diesel -powered vehicles are curr en tly availab le in four types . TI1esevehicles are Type
D, which are c mparable in hazar I to Type G gasoline -powered vehicles; Type DS,
which are comparable in hazard to Type GS gasoline -powered vehicles; Type DY,
which are equipped with additional safeguards to make them less hazardous than
Type GS gasoline -powered vehicles; and Type DX, which are diesel-powered units that
can operate in speci fic atmospher es tha t ontain flamm able vapors, du sts, and, in some
cases, fibers. Note that th e surface and exhaust gas temperatures of Type DY vehicles
are limited, they have no electrical system, and they are equipped with other safeguards
to minimize the ftre ha zard normally associated with internal combustion engines.
LP gas-powered vehicles are either Type LP or Type LPS. They are considered com -
parabl e in fire hazard to Type G and Type GS gasoline-powered vehicles, respectively .
Compressed natural gas powered units are designated as CN or CNS. As with the other
conventions discussed, Type CN offers the minimum safeguards for the unit while the
CNS unit has added safegu;1rds for the exhaust, fuel, and electric systems, making them
more versatile to operate in certain hazardou s environments.

Fire Hazards of Industrial Vehicles

The major potential fire hazard associated with gasoline -powered, diesel -powered, LP
gas-powered, or CNG -powered vehic les is fuel leaks ignited by the hot engine, the
hot mufl1er, the ignition system, other electrical eqnipment ; or other external ignition
sources. This ha zard is lower for diesel vehicles because diesel fuel has a flash point that
is higher than those of the other fuels. Particular care must be exercised when storing
and dispensing fuels, as with any flammabl e liquid or gas.
Comparatively few fires have occurred in battery -powered vehicles. Nevertheless,
electrical short circuits, hot resistors, and exploding batteries have been known to
ignite nearby materials. Frayed wiring and loose battery terminals can also lead to fires.
Careless and uninformed operation of industrial vehicles contributes to property loss.
The inspector shou ld determine if there is an operator training program in place and
that written op era tor rules are strictly enforced .
Also co ntributing to more serious fires are excessive material storage heights
in the faci lity; care less hand ling of loads, especially containers of flammable liq -
uids; and coJlisions of the vehicles with sp rinkler piping, fire doors, and other fire
protection equipment. TI1e provision of adequate, clear passageways for vehicle
travel and clear warning of overhead obstructions and exposed piping will help to
reduc e accidents. TI1einspector should mak e particularly sure that sprinkler piping

576
 CHAPTER 46: Materials H.indli11
9 Systems

is well marked if there is any possibility that elevated loads will damage sprinklers
or sprinkl er piping.

Industrial Vehicle Maintenance

Proper maintenance of vehicles is essential to good fire prevention. ·n1e inspector
should check vehicles carefully for signs of excessive wear and accumulations of lint,
oil, and grease. A ystem of regularly schedu led maintenance based on engine-hour
or motor-hour use can greatly reduce the danger of hazardous malfunctions. It is in-
cumbent upon th' inspector to ask for and to review maintenance recorcls as part of
an inspection.
Industrial vehicles, particularly their fuel and ignition systems, should be maintained
and repaired only in specially designated areas. Repairs should never be attempted
within a hazardous area. Some basic points of good maintenance include filling water
mufllers daily or as frequently as necessary tu k ep the water supply at 75 p 1-cent of the
fill capacity; keeping mufiler filters clean; and making sure that LP gas and CNG fuel
containers are mounted securely to prevent them from jarring loose, slipping, or rotat-
ing. Any vehicles seen giving off sparks or fhimes from the exhaust system or found to
be operating at excessive temperatures should be removed from service immediately.
TI1einspector should not permit them to return to service until the faults have been
correcled. Each vehicle should be equipped with a portable fire extinguisher suitable
for the fuel the vehicle uses.
Almost half of the fires involving liquid-fueled trucks are caused by spillage during re-
fueling. Industrial vehiclesshould be refueled outdoors where there is minimal exposure
to p.lant structures. The inspector should make sure the area is posted for "no smoking;'
that fuel-dispensing pumps are suitable for that use, and that scales for weighing the LP
gas containers are accuralel>'calibrated. LP gas containers should be stored outdoors,
away from common fire exposures. The inspector shoulclobserve refueling operations.
Batteq • recharging operalions also require special precautions. TI1ecorrosive chem-
ical solutions (eleclrolytes) in the batteries present a chem ical hazard to personnel.
'"'he n charging, they give off hydrogen, which can accumulate 10 explosive concen-
trations at roof level if ventilation is inadequate. 'TI1e inspector should make sure that
the roof level or hooded ventilation system is adequate to GllT)' hydrogen away from
gassing batteries. During the charging operation, vent caps should be kept in place to
avoid electrolyte spray. The inspector should note whether the recharging area includes
some means for flushing and neutralizing spilled electro lytes an I whether it has a bar-
rier for protecting the chargi11gapparatus. TI1cinspector should also check to be sure
thal lhe vent caps are fi.mctioningand that batter)' covers remain open during charging
to dissipate heat.

HEAVYDUTY MOBILE EQUIPMENT

Heavy duty mobile equipment (HDME) includes a wide array of very large pieces of
.mechanical equipment but is most commonly associated with drnglines (FIGURE 46·3)
and cranes (FIGURE46·4). A dragline is a large, bucket-type excavator used in surface

577
SECTION 4: Processand Sto,age Hazards

46·3 Dragli ne excavator.

FIGURE

46·4 Gantry crane.

FIGURE

578
 CHAPTER46: Materials-Handling Systems

mining operations. The bucket can be as large as 50 yd3 (38.2 m3) or even larger. Drag-
lines are either track-type or "walking"-type vehicles.
Draglines have a very large cab area housing all the control systems, diesel fuel sup-
ply, hydraulic oil systems, mechanical systems, electrical system, and the operator's
compartment. Often, a maintenance shop is also housed onboard. Additionally, the
area beneath the cab has the ring gear and other operating equipment that controls the
bucket and rotates the cab . The area around the ring gear typically has accumulations
of grea se and oils.
The inspector should determine if there is a comprehensive fire prevention program
for the cab area including a hot-work program , housekeeping guidelines, an electrical
inspection program, and containment of flammable and combustible liquid s associat-
ed with the hydraulic oil system, diesel fuel tanks, and possibly oil -filled transformers.
Hydraulic oil systems should preferably use nonflammable oils or have a loss of pres -
sure interlock S)'Stem to shut down the hydraulic oil pumps. Additionally, the inspector
should check the rin g gear area and ensure that there are no excessive accumulation s
of oil and grease.
Because of the high value of a typical dragline, as well as the extensive repair and
replacement times needed after a fire, a fixed fire protection system, typically a total
flooding dry chemical system or possibly an onboard water -supplied sprinkler system,
is often provided in the ring gear area. TI1e inspector should determine if the system is
in service and that it is properly maintained.
Tipping is one of the other hazards associated with a dragline. Before moving the
dragline, it is important to ensure~using a checklist of all necessary steps~that the
ground is properly prepared and compacted. TI1einspector should review the checklist
to ensure that personnel are in fact using the established procedures.
Draglines are also exposed to windstorm incidents. Procedures should be in place
that list the steps that should be taken to minimize the exposure to such events. One
important step is to fill the bucket with material and rest it on the ground.
Cranes are another example of highly vulnerable HDME . Large track-type cranes
and rail -bound gantry cranes will be the focus of attention. These cranes can have
similar fire exposures as those in the cab area of a dragline, as discussed earlier, in-
cluding hydraulic oil systems and diesel fuel. A release of the pressurized oil or fuel
can produce a severe fire within the power compartment. The crane operator's cab
should be constructed of noncombustible materials and cut off from the remainder of
the compartment. FLxed fire protection, including total flooding gaseous suppression
and dry chemical systems , is often required in the power compartment portion that is
separated from the operator's cab, particularly in the case of gantry cranes where the
compartment may be 100 ft (30.5 m) or more above grade level. The inspector should
review emergency evacuation procedures for the operator .
The inspector should check to make sure that the power compartment and the oper-
ator's cab are free of oily waste, rubbish, and other combustibles. Some large cranes, as
well as other high-valued mobile equipment, have hydraulic oil systems and onboard
fuel systems. The inspector should determine the need for fixed fire protection in the
power compartment, but at a minimum, a portable fire extinguisher of the proper class
for the hazard should be provided.
579
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

Rail-bound gantry cranes are also particularly vulnerable to windstorm exposnres.

\.Vind can move an unsecured crane along the rails. As such, large cranes generally
have automatic or manual rail clamps or some means of anchorage, such as crane traps,
wedges, and cables. 1he inspector should review the procedure for setting the braking
system and installing rail clamps to secure the crane to the rails in advance of severe
windstorms.

Conveyors
Mechanical convqors and elevators are among the most commonly used equipment in
materials handlin g. There are many types of m clrnni al onveyors, including the com-
mon belt conveyor. The belt conve)'Orpresents two principal fire hazards: the material
being carried, ifit is combustible, and the combustible belt itself TI1ebelt conveyor also
may communicate fire from one building or area to another.
Conveyors may be totally open, semi-enclosed, or totally enclosed (FIGURE 46-5).
Loss exper ience shows that. fixed fire protection, typically automatic sprinkler or water
spray protection, may be warranted for important belt conveyors. Totally open con-
veyors are often found at mining opera tions and operate across considerable distances,
maybe miles. TI1istype of conveyor typically does not required fixed fire protection. An
open conveyor, although not requiring fixed fire protection, does require the same level
of maintenance as other types of conveyors. TI1ereshould also be access points along
the conveyor so that access is readily available for purposes of inspection as well as to
be able to address any operational problems.

46·5Coal-handlingconveyor.
FIGURE

580
 CHAPTER 46: Mater ials-Handl ing Systems

Semi -enclosed conveyors typically have a solid panel, about the width of the con-
veyor, beneath the conveyor and a "half -moon" weather cover over the conveyor. This
cover is placed some distance above the conveyor in such a manner that one can see
through the co nveyor assembly. The cover can be combustible, but most found in an
industr ial setting are noncombustible. Some of these conveyors may carry materials,
such as coal at electric utility plants, on steep incli nes to several hundred feet above
grade level. 1l1is crea tes a probl em for inspection and the potential for rapid fire spread,
as well as limited access for first responders should a fire occur. Additionally, hand -held
hose lines may not be able to reach a fire on some elevated conveyms. The inspector
should carefully evaluate and identify the ability to access the conveyor with Ii rst aid
firefighting equipment that is available on site or from nearby communities. Based on
this evaluation, fixed fire protection (sprinkler protection) may be required .
Totally enclosed conveyors (with either combustible belts or combustible materials
on a noncombustible belt) or a combustible enclosure itself require sprinkler protection.
All conveyor systems require a comprehensive preventive maintenance program, in -
terlocks to shut down the conveyor when sprinklers operate (if sprinklers are provided
for the conveyors), belt alignment interlo cks, and slow-down interlocks. 1l1e inspector
should review the preventiv e maintenance program and the program for testing of
interlocks to ensure that they are effective.

Common Fire Causes in Conveyors: Friction,

Hot Work, and Static Electricity
TI1e most common cause of fire in conveyors is friction between the moving conveyor
belt and a stuck roller or other object . Conveyors should be inspected regularly to de-
tect belt slippage or defective rollers, and their moving parts should be lubri cated on
a regular basis . Although use of fire retardant belt material sign ificantly reduces the
belt's ignition potential and, depending on local conditions, may slow the fire spread,
this does not in itself eliminate the need for sprinkler protection. TI1einspector should
determine if the belt is equipped with a 20 percent slow-down interlock to shu t down
the conveyor if overloading or mechanical deficiency occurs.
Careless welding, cutting, or other hot-work operations on or in the vicinity of a con-
veyor or its housing are other leading causes of fire. Hot slag can ignite combustibles on
the belt, debris around it, or the belt itself TI1e inspector should determine if ther e is a
hot-work permit system and that it is used (see the discussion on welding, cutting, and
other hot work elsewhere in this text) . The permit system should be in accordance with
NFPA 51B, Standardfor FirePreventionDuring Welding,Cutting,and Other Hot Work.
Static electricity is another hazard common to conveyors. Check to make sure all
parts of the machines and conveyors are thoroughly bonded and grounded to mini-
mize static discharges. Static electricity also can be controlled by the use of belts made
of conductive material, the use of static collectors, or the application of conductive
dressings to the belt smface (see NFPA 77, Reco1mne11ded Pmctice on Static Electricity).
Other causes of fires in conveyors include the discharge of excessively hot materials
from kilns, ovens, or furnaces onto a conveyor belt, electrical short circuits, smoking,
and incendiarism.
581
 SECTION4: Process and Storage Hazards

A lead ing factor that increases the probability of fire involving mechanical convey-
ors is the accumulation of dust. Dust is produced when material is introduced onto
the conveyor and when it is being conveyed. If dust generation is a by-product of the
process arrangement, some mitigation effort, including dust collection systems may be
needed .
Chain conveyo rs equipped with hooks and roller conveyors are commonly used in
assembly lines, whereas screw conveyors, pan conveyors, and bucket conveyors are
used for handling loose, bot, or molten ma teria ls. Ilucke t elevators, which are found
mosl oflen in bulk pro cessing plant s, convey loads vertically and are susceptible to
the same fire ha zards as those for other mechanical conveyors. These conveyors might
need pec ialized fire pro lec liun if tl1ey handle combustible dust or materials.
Prote cting the openings in fire walls and floors through which conveyors pass is
imp ortan t in preventing the spread of fire. lvfany methods have been designed to pro-
tect openings for conveyors of different types, including water spray protectio n and
fire door with interlo ck or cou nter weights to stop the flow of mat erial. Examples of
opening protection for conveyors are shown in FIGURE 46·6and FIGURE 46·7.It should be
noted that the use of passive protection might be pr eferable to the use of suppression
alone based on the type of materi al present in the area. (See the Bibliography for ad -
ditional sources of information on the protection of floor and wall openings.)
Pneumatic conveyor S)'Stems consis t of enclosed tubing in which a material normal-
ly is transported by a stream of air with enough velo city to keep the convqed material
in motion . There are two principal types of pneumatic systems. The pressure type uses
air at greater than atmos pheric pressure, and the suction type transports materials us-
ing air at less than atmo sp heric pr essure.
In an air -conveyi ng system, any dry collector containing a dust - air mixture of co m-
bust ible material s in the exp losive range must be considered a potential explosion
hazard (see th e discuss ion on combust ible dusts elsewhere in this text) . The inspector

Fire door ~ ~
- Stock f--::i
-~7

Cat whisker-type switch

or photoelectric switch
Electromagnetic fire door release interlock with switch
that stops conveyor with proper spacing of stock
to prevent obstruclion to door closer.

FIGURE46·6Protection of an opening where a belt conveyor can be interrupted. Source:

NFPA80,
Figu1e
2010, B.4(a)
.

582
 CHAPTER 46: Materials-Handling Systems

Design of conveyor and housing

struc tural elements are
self-releasing such that no Parapet
~
/

I;
U Inclined
"',. panels hinged
...........__
at bo ttom,
1 ; 1 ; 1 ; 1 ~ res_
eccen tric loading is imposed on trained by
the fire wall or ils parapet, which fusib le link
could adverse ly affect the wall . A-A and cable.

Note : Roof should

Noncombustible be gravel covered
co_nveyor housing---..... wilhin 1O ft (3 m) of
conveyor l1ousing.

parts

46·7Conveyor carried over a fire wall. Source

FIGURE :IJFPA figure
80,2010, B.2.

should look al the collector carefully to make sure it is in a safe location-preferably

outdoors - to protect personnel. 'fl1e collector should be constructed of conductive non-
combu stible materia ls and be completely bond ed and grounded. Construct ion should
be of nonferrous, nonsparking metal or nonmagnetic, nonsparking stainless steel.
Where conve>1 ing duels are exposed to weather or moisture, the inspector should
examine them carefully to make sure they are moisture -tight. Moisture entering the
system can react with dust, which generates heat and serves as a potential source of
ignition. 1f the conveying gas- air mixture is relatively wm·m and the dust and collec-
tors are relatively cold, the gas temperature could drop below the dew point, causing
moisture to condense. If this is the case, it might be necessary to insul ate the ducts and
collec tors or to provide a heating system.
Explosion relief for ducts and collectors should always extend to the outside. TI1ey
can be provided with anti-flashback swing valves or rupture diaphragms. Fans and
housings for fans that are used to move combustibl e solids or vapors should be con-
structed of cond uctive, nonferrous materials. It is important to note whether dust is
drawn through the fan before it enters the final collector . TI1e inspector should also
not e whether the fan bearings are equipped with suitable temp era ture-indicating
devices wired with an alarm to alert occupants to overheating.
TI1e inspector shou ld determine by physical exami nation whether dust or other
combustible materials are accumulating in the ducts. If so, this may be the result of
inadequate carrying velocity within the du cts.

HANDLING OF SCRAPMETAL
Scrap metal may be from both foreign and domestic sources. TI1e material may arrive
at the plant site b}' rail, truck, or possibly sh ip or barge. Scrap arriving from some coun-
tries may not receive the same level of scrutiny as that from other countrie s. One of the
583
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazard,

concerns with this material is radioactive contamination. Radioactive contamination

can occur when instrum entation devices and similar equipmenl containing radioactive
isotopes are improperly discarded, ending up in scrap yards. The scrap, if contami-
nated, can further contam inate the melt furnace, which can shut down plant operatio ns
and incur considerable business interruption expense and decontamination expense.
vVhen material arrives by truck or rail, it is desirable to use a four-sided fixed scan-
ning system at the entry to the plant to analyze the load for potential radioactive con-
taminat ion. TI1isis o~en done at the scale house. When material arrives by ship or
barge, !he material should be oflloaded in an isolated and secured area where !he mate-
rial can be scanned as ii is offloaded.
Regardl ss of the met hod for receiving the scrap, a se ond scanning is nee<ledat the
point just prior to furnace loading. TI1isis often done by use of a radioactive scanner
on the grapple arm of the crane that loads the dolly or cart that will deliver the scrap
to the fornace-loading platform . 'foe inspector should ensure that proper scanning is
conducted and that scanning devices are fun tional and properly mainta ined and cali-
brated, as evidenced by plant documents.
Another concern with scrap metal is the potential for moisture and even water
collected in the scrap. Scrap metal containin g water or moisture introduced into the
furnace can cause a steam explosion. TI1e inspector should determine if the scrap is
stored in an area where water can collect. If that condition exists, the scrap should be
preheated lo a temperature below its melting po int to drive off moisture prior to intro-
ducing it into the furnace.

TEXTILE PLANT OPE ATIONS

One of the commonly overlooked hazards in a textile plant is the handling of acrylic
)'a1-n.Yarn wrapped on spindles is placed on "pin trucks" and transported throughout
the plant. These seemingly in nocuo us carts couple a storage array conducive to rapid
fire spread and a highly flammable material that has been shown to create a severe
fire. The inspector shou ld identify if these earls are used within the plant. If so used, a
special fire protection arrangement should be provided al the areas where these carts
are staged. The carts should be placed beneath a horizontal barrier and separated by
vertical barriers . Then, sprinkler protection should be provided beneath the barrier.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., ed., Fire ProtectionHandbook, 20th ed., NFPA, Quinc)', MA, 2008.
Cote, A. E., and Linville, J,L., eds., Industrial Fire Hazards Ha11dbook,3rd ed., NFPA,
Quincy, MA, 1990.
lvfitchell,D. W., et al., FireHnznrd of ConveyorBelts,Report offnvestigations 7053, U.S.
Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1967.

584
 CHAPTER46: Materials-Handling Systems

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 13, Standardfor the J11stallatio11 of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 15, Standardfor WaterSprayFixed Systemsfor Fire Proteclio11
NFPA 5 lB, Sta11dard for FirePre11entio11D11ri11
g Weldi11g,C1111i11g, n11dOther Hot Work
NFPA 77, Reco111m e11d ed Practiceon Static Electricity
NFPA 80, St1111dard for FireDoors and Fire Wi11do,v s
NFPA 505, Fire Safety Stn11dnrd for Powered I11du strial Trucks Including TypeDesig11n-
s, Areas cfUse, Conversions, 1Wai11t
tio11 e11m1 ce, and Operations
NFPA 654, Sta11dard for the Preve11tio11of Fire a11dDust Explosio11s ji-om the Mn11ufac-
t11ri11g
, Processing, and Handling of Co111b11stibl e Parti,;11/nt
e Solids

585
 CHAPTER

47

GENERAL
STORAGE
Kristin Collette Bigda, PP,,MSFPR

Fire hazards found in storage occupancies are as varied as the products that are used in
everyday life. The com mod ities being stored, the storage arra ngements used, and the
height of the storage all have an influe nce on the po ten tial type of fire, on its intensity,
and on the protection needed for the stora ge area. Collectively, these items, combined
with the building construction, determi ne the type and level of prot ection nece ssary to
protect the stored commodity. TI1ischapte r provides an overview of information about
the protection of general storage.

CO MMODITY CLASSIFICATION
ll1e most crucial and often most d ifficult task is to correctly assess the fire potential
of the commodity being stored. Many products are composed of a variety of materi-
als, each having different burning characteristics. In addition, the performance of the
commodity during a fire can be influenced signific antly by the materials in which it
is packed and the type of packaging being used. For example, a highly combustible
product sealed inside a metal container might represent only a minimal fire hazard.
Conve rsely, a metal product enclosed in a thi ck foamed polystyrene cocoon could pose
a ser iou s fire cha llenge. [n most cases, the packaging material presents just as much of
a threat to the st ructure as that of the actual stored product.
To help the warehouse manager and the fire inspector assess the fire hazards of stored
materials, NFPA 13, Standardfor the J11stnllatio11 of SprinklerSystems,contains classifi-
ca tion categories with attendant definitions and examples (see Annex A ofNFPA 13).
TI1ese commodity classification systems must be studied carefully because the lower
numerical or alphabetical designations indi cate lesser hazards in some i11stances but
greater ha zards in others.
Most produc ts found in a general -purpose warehouse can be categorized un der
the conunodity classification system found in NFPA 13 and also included in NFPA l,
Fire Code. This basic S)'Slem establishes four categories-Class I, II, IIT, and IV-with
Class I representing a minimal hazard and Class IV representing the greates t ha zard.
 CHAPTER 47: General Storage

A special category for plastic commodities is necessary given the unique characteristics
of such materials.
A commodity defined as Class I is noncombustible but presents a challenge to the
fire protection system because of the packing container in which it is stored and/or
the pallet on which it is stored . Class I commodities can be placed directly on wooden
pallets; placed in single-layer corrugated cartons, with or without single -thickness
cardboard dividers, with or without pallets; or shrink-wrapped or paper -wrapped as
a unit load, with or without pallets. A Class II commodity is noncombustible and is
placed in slatted wooden crates, solid wooden boxes, multiple -layered corrugated car-
tons, or equivalent combustible packaging material, with or without pallets. A Class
III commodity is a product fashioned from wood, paper, natural fibers, or Group C
plastics that is with or without cartons, boxes, or crates and with or without pallets
and is permitted to contain a limited amount (5 percent by weight or volume or less)
of Group A or Group B plastics. Finally, a Class IV commodity is a product that is with
or without pallets and is con struct ed either partially or totally of Group B plastics, con -
sists of free-flowing Group A plastic materials, or contains within itself or its packaging
an appreciable amount (5 percent to 15 percent by weight or 5 percent to 25 percent by
volume) of Group A plastics.
For a Class I commodity, because the product in the container or on the pallet is a
noncombustible material, the installed fire protection measures are based on the fire
hazard associated with the storage container or the pallet or both. A Class Ill com -
modit)', in contrast, involves the storage of a combustible product in a combustible
container and packaging system.
The commodity classification, therefore, is governed by the types and amounts of
materials (metal, wood, plastic, paper, etc.) that are part of the product and its packag-
ing. However, in a storage facility, the classification is also influenced by the makeup
of the outer packaging or shipping container, the air space in the shipping container,
the type of packing material used in the shipping container to prevent damage (e.g.,
newspaper and plastic "peanuts"), and the location of more hazardous materials in
the container. For instance, in an example given in NFPA 13, a commodity that is an
all-metal product encased in expanded plastic packing that occupies 25 percent of the
container behaves as an expanded plastic commodity in a fire.
For those products that are mostly or totally composed of plastics, a fifth description
places plastics in three groups. Group A plastics represent the greatest level of lire haz-
ard and Group C the lowest level. Further, Group B plastics are generally equated with
the general Class IV category, whereas Group C plastics are generally equated with the
Class III category. Because the protection measures for Group A plastics are so differ-
ent, the use of a term such as "Class V commodities" has been avoided.
Because several National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards have been
merged into NFPA 13 in recent years, it is desirable to mention commodities such as
rolled paper, baled cotton, rubber tires, and forest products.

• Rolled paper classifications are provided as heavyweight, mediumweight, light -

weight, and tissue paper. Heavyweight represents the minimum hazard and tissue
paper the greatest hazard. Heavyweight paper includes paperboard and paper
587
 SECTION4: i>rocess and Storage Haz~rds

stock, h aving a basis weight [weight per 1000 ft2 (92.9 m2)J or 20 lb (9. I kg).
lvfedinm-weig ht class includes all the broad ran ge of papers having a basis weight
[weight per I 000 Ji2 (92.9 m2)] of 10 to 20 lb ( 4.5 to 9. 1 kg), and lightweight class
includ es all papers having a basis weight [weight per 1000 ft2 (92.9 1112)]of 10 lb
(4.5 kg). Tissue paper includes materials such as crepe wadding and the sanita ry
class includin g facia l tissue, paper n apkins, bathroom tissu e, and toweling.
• Here, too, the wrapping o r packaging (if an}') can inOuence protection, because, for
instance, tissue paper can be protected as mediumweight pap er when wrapped
with one or two layers of heavyweigh t paper or with stee l bands at the end s of
the roll.
• Baled cotton <loes not have a classificaliou breakdowll.
• Forest products and scrap t ires do not have class ifications and are generally
stored ou tdoor s.
• Road -worthy rubb er tires are stored in large warehouses or distribution centers
but still do not have clas ilication s, per -e. Larger and heavier tires-for instance,
off-road and eart h-moving equipment tires-are harder to ignite. O therwise, the
severity of a fire is influe nced by the storage arrangement.

vVhen determining any of th ese classificatio ns, and hence the fire protection for
the warehouse, the inspec tor must cons ider not only what is present on a g iven day
b ut also the potential for future changes in com modi ties or in the overa ll storage
occ upan cy. 'foe classic example in recent years has been the large-scale substituti on of
plastics for comp onen ts that previously were made of metal, resulting in the need for
majo r rev isions or reinforcement in many warehouse spri n kJer systems. TI1is problem
is further exacer bated by the tendency of some developers to build warehouses on
specula tion . No specific tena nt o r storag e arr angement is consider ed at the tim e of
cons tru ct ion; once the warehouse is com pleted, the owner hopes to find a tenant for
the storage space.

STOR
AGEARRANG
EMENTS
For the purpose of fire protection, storage can be divided into four main categories:
bulk , so lid piling, palletized, an d rack. ·n1e chief difference between the four major
categorie s as far as their effect on fire behavior and fire con trol is concerned is the
nature of the horizonta l and vertica l air spa ces, or "flues;' that the storage configura-
tions crea te.

Bulk Storage
Powders, granu les, pel lets, ch ips, and flakes, all unpa ckaged, are the principal form s of
materials that are sto red in bu lk. Silos, bins, tanks, and large piles on the floor are the
usual stora ge method s.
A fire that sta rts on the surface of a large pile tends to bu rrow into the pile, particu -
larly in the case of coarse particles, such as chips or pellets, making fire control with
spr inkler s very difficult . Having small hand -hose station s installed aro und the perim-
t::ter of the pi le for early fire control is, therefore, advant ageo us.
588
 CHAPTER 47: General Storage

Certain materials, such as wood chips or pulverized coal, can spontaneous]}'combust

in the interiors of large piles or when trapped for long periods of time in the corners or
under the interior bafflesof tanks or si.los.Fires of this nature can be extremely difficult
to extinguish; removing the burning material from the pile or storage vessel might be the
only way to put out the fire. Prefire planning should encompass this possibi.lityand pro-
vide for the needed handling and transport ing of equipment, hose streams, and disposal
area. Supplemental agents added to the water, such as low- and high-expansion foam
concentrates, can sometimes help control and extinguish fires in these environments.
Low-expansion foams can enhance the penetrability of the water into the material, and
high-expansion foams can be used to control dust while Lile product is being unloaded.
unvt: )10r equipment, such as belt conveyors, air fluidizing through ducts, and bucket
conveyors, agitates materials as they move to and from bulk storage. If this agitation
produces combust ible dust clouds, particularly in grain storage facilities, an explo-
sion hazard may result. Automatic sprinklers frequently are needed in the housings
around conveyor equipment . Select NFPA standards, such as NFPA 61, Stn11dnrdfor
tile Prevention of Firesnnd Dust Explosio11si11Agriculf11mln11dFoodProcessingFacili-
ties, NFPA 664, Stn11dnrd for the Prevention of Firesn11dExplosions in Wood Processing
and WoodworkingFacilities,and NFPA 484, Stn11dardfor Co111b11stible lvfetnls,provide
special requiremen ts for minimizing dust production.

Solid Piling Storage

Cartons, boxes, bales, and bags that are in direct contact with each other to the full
dimension of each pile create solid piles. These may be piled directly on the floor or the
bottom layer may be placed on a pallet to prevent water damage. Air spaces or flues ex-
ist onl}'where contact is imperfect or where a pile is close to, but not touching, another
pile. Compared with palletized and rack storage, solid piling typically results in the
slowest fire growth. Generally, the outer surfaces burn, and it takes a long time before
the interior of the pile becomes involved. However, if the outer surfaces possess rapid
flame spread propert ies- as do bales of fibers such as cotton, for example- high solid
piles can still be a severe hazard.
'n1e he.ighr of the pile is governed by the weight of the commodity and by whether
the commodity can be lifted without the need for forklifts, clamp trucks, or any other
materials-handling equipment, which would create horizontal channels (air spaces)
or vertical flues in the piles. As the pile increases in height, the weight of the upper-
most port ion of the pile cannot be allowed to crush the items at the bottom of the pile
(FIGURE 47-1).The creation of horizontal chann els or spaces and vertical flues changes
the burning characteris tics from those of a solid pile to those of palletized storage.

Palletized Storage
Palletized storage consists of unit loads mounted on pallets that can be stacked on top
of each other. Each pallet is about 4 in. (10.16 cm) high and is usualI}'made of wood, al-
though some are made of metal, plastic, expanded plastic, and cardboard (FIGURE 47-2).
The height of palletized storage is limited by the materials-handling equipment and
the resistance to crushing at the lowest part of the pile. Pile heights are usually 30 ft
589
 SEC ION 4: Processand StorageHazards

47·1Solidpiled storage.
FIGURE

(9.14 m) at the most. TI1eincreased hazard of

palletized storage results from the horizontal air
spaces formed by the p::tlletsthemselves within
each layer of storage and from the vertical flues
that exist between individual rows of palletized
stacks.
Conventional pallet
Rack Sto rage
Rack storage consists of a structura l framework
suppor ting unit loads, generally on pallets
(FIGURE47·3). TI1e height of storage racks is
limited, potentially, only by the vertical reach
of the materials-handling equipment , which,
Solid flat bottom like the racks themselves, can be designed for
wood pallet
great heights. In fully automa ted warehouses,
FIGURE47·2Conventional wood pallet. racks are sometimes as high as 100 ft (30.48 m);
Source:
NFPA13,2010,Figure A.3.9.1.
11. some have even exceeded that height. In some
installations, the steel storage racks are part of
the building framing. TI1eseare referred to as rack-supported struc tures (FIGURE 47·4).
Even more than they do in palletized storage, the vertical and horizontal flue
spaces that surround each unit load in rack storage promote rapid fire development
and efficient combustion. As a result, rack storage normally requires greater sprinkler
590
 CHAPT ER 47: General Storage

Reserve stock Back-to-back

Aisle racks

Support
beam
2in . -- -
recomme nded
overllang

Picking
lace

FIGURE
47·3Common arrangement of doub le row racks w ith palletized storage on top .

FIGURE
47-4High steel storage racks as structu ral suppor t for roo fs and wall s of a storage facility.

591
 SEC ION4: Processand Storage Hazards

(a) (b)

FIGURE
47·5Configurations of rack storage.

protection than that for equal heights of equivalent material stored in palletized or
solid pile arrays. Tu ~ome, but not all, cases, this protection may include the installation
of in -rack sprinkler s. NFPA 13 uses decision tables to specify when in-rack sprinklers
are necessarr and what type of in-rack sprinklers, installed either i11the longitudinal
flue or at the rack face, are needed.
When rack storage is higher than 25 ft (7.62 111),special attention must be given
to the problems that will exist in achieving fire salvage and overhaul (FIGURE 47-5).
Although in-rack sprinkler protection can successfully control a fire that originates in,
or spreads to, the upper reaches of high racks, full extinguishment cannot be expected.

Carousel Storage and Retrieval Systems

Carousel storage and retrieval systems are factory-built, motorized storage systems that
revolve around a fixed base. Generally, the path of revolution has two long, parallel sides
connected by a round, short radius on both ends of the unit. They use fixed tracks with
the motor mounted either on the top or the bottom track. Although most carousels
travel horizontally, they may also travel vertically or both horizontally and vertically.
Products stored in the carousel are brought to a stationary picking station, either
manually or by computer command. Often, the commodities are small parts used in
assembly operations. There are no national standards available for the protection of
th is equipment.

FIRECAUSES
Fires in storage areas are more likely to start with people than with any kind of equip-
ment problems, although natural causes and exposure fires are important in this
property class, too.

Leading Causes
Storage occupancies are vulnerable to i11eendiaqr acts because they often present an
inviting target for those who wish to cause a great deal of damage and disruption.

592
 CHAPTER47: General Storage

Often, an arsonist can enter and start a fire without being detected. Even where security
personnel are present but access is not tightly controlled, arsonists may ignite a fire in a
location beyond the sight of security personnel. Such fires can grow to disastrous pro-
portions before detection, particularly if multiple fires are set. Warehouses with high
values, desirable contents, and large concentrations ofreadily ignitable goods are natu-
ral targets, not only for arsonists but also for thieves, some of whom may try to cover
up their activities by setting fires when they leave. Among equipment-related causes,
wiring, storage in close proximity to space heaters, and vehicles are worthy of attention.
ln NFPA codes and standards, approximately 90 percent of the protection criteria is
centered on the installation of automatic sprinkler systems. Other prev en tive measures
should also be in place. Smoking should be limit ed to well-defined, supervised, and
safe locations and prohibited entirely in the storage areas. Cutting and welding op-
erations must be handled only by means of a rigorous permit S)'Stem that includes an
authorized preinspection of the contemplated work area, removal of all combustibles
to a safe distance, the use of flameproof tarpaulins, and the presence of an eq uipp ed
firewatch during the work period and for at least 30 minutes after work ends (see the
discussion on welding, cutting, and other hot work elsewhere in this text or NFPA 5 lB,
Strmdnrdfor Fire PreventionDuring Welding,Cutting, nnd Other Hot HTork,for more
information on hot -work operations). Forklift vehic les must be well maintained, and
any combustion engine units must be refueled outside the storage areas.

Encapsulation
During encapsulation, a plastic sheet completely encloses the sides and top of a pal -
let load that contains a combustible commodity, a combustible package, or a group
of combustible commodities or packages. Because encapsulation decreases the pos-
sibility of prewetting, encapsulated commodities may allow greater fire spread. The
plastic sheet protects the commodity from damage due to instability and exposure to
the elements, but it also prevents cooling and prewetting of the commodity during a
fire. TI1esprinkler water simply runs off the top and sides of the load while at the same
time possibl}' allowing the fire to spread under that same protective plastic .

FIRE PROTECTION FOR GOODS

IN STORAGE
Automatic Sprinklers
The installation of automatic sprinkler systems is the primary means for protecting the
various commodities found in a warehouse. The type of storage will govern the specific
parameters for design of the system. Because of the variety of challenges posed by the
different types of commodities and storage arrangements, warehouse sprinkler systems
must always be designed hydraulically to ensure the proper level of protection.
Relatively recent advances in sprinkler technology provide three basic approaches
for sprinkler protection of storage operations. These include the use of ( 1) control-mode

593
 SECTION4: Processand Storage Hazards

density-area spr inklers, (2) con trol-mode spec ific-ap plicat ion (CMSA) sprinkler s, and
(3) su ppression-mode (early supp ression fast respo nse, or ESFR) spr ink lers. Each of
the three approaches is associated with varying sprink ler types, sizes, and insta llation
arr angemen ts, thus providing a num ber of po ssible altern at ives for sprinkl er system
design for mosl storage situations . There is no single "best " method for protecting a
given storag e arrange m ent, because each design must take into cons iderat ion the over-
all eflec tivenes , flexibil ity, opera tional aspects of the facility, and cost in relation to
the desig n goa ls. Any of the pro tec tion alternatives spec ified in NF PA 13 for storage
facilities will meel th e basic goa ls of fire control. However, certain alte rn atives more ef-
fective ly minimi ze property damage, maximize flexibility in relation to futur e changes
i 11 storag e arrangement, or minimize cos t.

Types of Automatic Sprinklers

For conven tional spr in kler systems us ing spr inklers with an or ifice of Vi- in. or
1½r in. (12.7 -mm or 13.5-mm) , the design con sists of supp lying a specific control-

ling density (gallon s per minute per squa re feet or liters per m inute per squar e meters)
over a prescr ibed area of appli cat ion, referred to as the "rem ote area:' TI1is method is
the "area-d ens.ity" met hod. Methods for det ermin ing the appropria te density and area
of applica tion can be found in th e applicable sectio n ofNFPA 13. TI1e inspe ctor should
stud)' these sections carefully to understand all the physical featur es that have an eflect
on fire development and the effectiveness of sprink ler prote ction. These featur es would
include items such as the height of the storag e, encap sulation of the stored product,
clea rance to sprinklers, the size of flue spaces, and the presence of obs tru ction s.

K Factor. K factor is a constant fou nd in the formula Q = K ✓p for flew through a spe-
cific orifice, wh ere Q = flow in gallons per minute (liters per minute) , and p = pressure
in pou nd s per squa re inch (bars). For reference, the ½ -in . (l 2.7-mm) spr inkler has
a nomi nal K facto r of 5.6 (7.6- 8.4 SI), and the 1½2 -in . (13.5 -mm) sprjnkl er has a
nomin al K factor of 8 (l0 .7- 11.8 SI). TI1isdifference is important because the K factor
rather than th e orifice size is becom ing the method for identifyin g spr inkler s. The 5.6 K
fac tor, or ½ -in. (12.7-mm ) orifice, sprinkl er is considered the stand ard orifice spr in-
kler and generally serves as a benchma rk against which to compa re the discharge of
othe r sprin klers.

Large-Drop Sprinkler. A major change in fire sp rinkler des ign occurred when the
large-d rop sprin kler was develop ed. The large-drop sprinkler, which generate s a high er
percentage of large dro plet s (because of the specia lly designed deflector and greater
discharge) , will pene trat e a h igh velocity fire plum e and ha s mad e ceiling sprinkler
protection mor e eftect ive. TI1is sprinkl er has an 0.64- in. (15.9 -mm) orifice and a nomi -
n al K factor of 11 (15.9 - 16.6 SI). A sam ple of a representat ive large-drop sprinkler is
sho wn in FIGURE 47·6.

Extr a Large Orifice (ELO) Sprinkler. Sprinklers with K factors larger than 5.6 tradi -
tionally h ave been referred to as large, extra large, and very extra large orifice (VELO)

594
 CHAP TER 47: General Storage

sprinklers. 1h e ELO sprin kler is another K factor 11

(K-11) sprinkler, bu t it is not the large-dro p type. 'foe
ELO sprin kler is available as a pend ent or up right
sprinkler and is used when the fire sprinkler system
design calls for the area-de nsity method of protect ion .
For the mos t pa rt, the term ELO is no longer used.
Rather, the sprin kler is referred to by its K factor.

Early Suppr ession Fast Response Sprinkl er.

Another major developme nt in fire sprinkl er design is
the ES R sprink ler. It is a K-14 (19.5-20 .9 SI) sprin - FIGURE47 ·6 Large-dropsprinkler.
kier that delivers a high volume of water [100 GPM Source:2008FPII, Figure
16.2.17.
(378.5 liters/min) at 50 psi (344.74 kPa) opera t-
ing pressure ] ear ly in the development of the fire through its use of a fast response
operat ing element. lVIostof these sprinklers are pendent t)•pe, but there is at least
one upright version. Another ESFR sprin kler is the K-25 (34.9-38.7 SI). It uses a
12-sprin kier design, and the pressure selection is based on the commodi ty class, stor -
age arrange ment, and building height. The advan tage to using the K-25 sprinkle r is
that because of its large orifice, it can achieve wate r flows equal to that of the K-14
ESFR but al lower operat ing pressures.
Neither the K- 14 nor the K-25 sprinkl er can be used in occupanc ies in which fires
cannot be supp ressed by water. At th is time, the K-25 sprinkler has only a small range
of applications proved by large-scale testing.
A common misconception about ESFR sprinklers is that they activate at a lower
temperature than standard sprinklers, thus causing them to activate quicker. ESFR
sprinklers activate earlier because they reach the activation temperature at a faster rate.
TI1ey are designed to operate at relatively high pressures and discharge up to 175 GPM
(662 L/min ) each during the initial stages of a fire. TI1eESFR spri nkler is the only sprin -
kler designed to extinguish a fire. Most building codes require automatic sprinkler
systems in high -hazard storage occupancies. Some codes require sprinkler protection
when materia ls are stored in racks or piles more than 12 ft (3.7 m) high. J\fost building
codes per mit low-hazard and ordinary hazard storage buildings of unlim ited floor area
when they are protected by sprin kler systems.

Very Extr a Large Orifice Sprinkler. Another K-14 spri nkler, but not an ESFR type,
is the VELO spri nkler. This standard spray sprinkle r is a pe ndent sprinkler and is used
in fire sprinkle r systems that are designed for the area-density method.
Large-scale fire tests have demon strated that this combina tion of heavy discharge
and early response can protect up to 35 ft (10.69 mm) of racked or palletized storage
of plastics, often with as few as 12 sprinklers opera ting. Recent testing has shown that
VELO devices can protect greater combin ations of stored product when used at higher
operating pressures.
TI1e advan tage to using the K-11 large-drop sprinkler or the K-14 or K-25 sprinkl er
in their specific applications for rack storage is that in-rack sprinkler protection is not

595
 SECTION4: Process and Storage Hazards

needed. The K-25 also may reduce the need for fire pump s. Both the K-14 and K-25
spri nklers are supp ression mode rathe r than control mode spr inkl ers .
Anot her sprinkler that wi ll prov ide adeq uate hydrau lic design at lower press ur es is
the K- 17 (23 .1- 25.4 SI) sprinkler . When this spri nkler is used, th e des ign approach is
th e area -dens ity method .

Hydrant , Hos Streams, Extinguish rs,

and Standpipes
Hydrants. Smal l sto rage facilities close to pub lic hydr ants present no specia l prob lems
for manua l fire suppress ion. In larger bui ld ings, where the hydrnnls are not within
250 ft (76.2 m) of the building, h owever, hose lays from publi c hydra nts to th e far
side of the buildi ng often can be impra ctical and ineffective. In these insta nces, private
hydrant s are n eeded . 1l1ese hydnmts should be located near po ints of entrance to the
bu ilding to redu ce the amou nt of ho se need ed . Sec NFP1\ 24, Slrllldardfor tlie l11
stalla-
lio11of Priw1te Fire ServiceMains and 11,eir App11r lc11a
1c1es, for addit ional inform ation
on priv ate hydrant installati o n an d spaci ng.

Sma ll Hose . Stations for l ½-in . (38.l -mm) hose shou ld be loca ted throughout the
p remises so th at all areas can be reached. 1l1e ho se can be sup plied by adjacent wet-
pipe sprinkler systems orb) ' a separate piping system. 1l1ese ho se stat ions can be used
for first aid fircfight ing or for overha ul op eration s by the fire departmen t. Ho se streams
must be managed carefu lly so that they do not rob the sp rinklers of water, which might
lesse n the abi.lity of the sprinklers to control the fire. This is done by requir ing the de-
signer to reserve a given quanti ty of water in the hydraulic rnk ulations for use by the
fire departm ent for hose lin e application . lnd oor hose conne ction s are recomm ended
in high-piled or rack storage buildings for use on incipien t fires. If the occupants of
the storage facility are expected to use this type of first aid firefighting eq uipm ent, the
inspec tor sho uld verify tha t a traini ng plan has been imple ment ed.

Portable Fire Extinguish e rs. Ext inguis hers are need ed to fight Class A (wood,
pap er, fabrics), Class B (flammabl e liquid ), Class C (electri cal), and Class D (combus-
tible met als) fires and to p rotect in -plan t vehicl es. Po rtabl e extingu ishers are of limited
val.ue on storage fires because of their short durat ion and limit ed reac h. Often, piles
have to be pull ed apart manually to extinguish a fire with in them, and hose lines are
needed to control the fire du ring these mop-up opera tions,

Sta ndpip e Systems . Multistory, large area , and high-ha zard warehouses should be
equipped with a stand pipe system.A Class lII stand pipe system provi des 1½-in. (38-mm)
hose lines for use by bu ilding occupa nts tra ined in their use and a 2½ -in. (64-mm)
con nect ion for use by the fire departmen t or a fire brig ade. Co nn ections should be
locat ed so that all portions of the area can be reached. Providing hose conn ect ions
for hig h-rack systems, part icularly automated storage and retrie val systems, req uires
specia l considerat ion. For additio nal information, see NFPA J4, Stm,dardfor the [11
stal-
Jntio11ofS!m1dpipesand Hose Systems.

596
 CHAPTER47: General Storage

S ORAG 0 SPECIFICMAT RIALS

Some commodities deserve special mention because of the nature of the fire hazards
involved.

Idle Pallets
Piles of wood or plastic pallets are a severe fire hazard . After they have been used for
a short tim e, pall ets can dry out, and their edges can fray and splinter. A fire in stacks
of idle plastic or wooden pallets is one of the greatest challenges to sprinklers. The un -
dersides of the pallets create a dry area on which a fire can grow and expand to other
dry or partially wet areas. This process ofjumping to other dry, closely located, parallel,
combustible surfaces continues until the fire bursts through the top of the stack. Once
this happens, very little water is able to reach the base of the fire. 1he only practical
method of stopping a fire in a large concentration of pallets by use of ceiling sprinklers
is by mean s of prcw etting. In high stacks, this cannot be don e without abnormally
robust water supplies. 1he storage of empty wooden pallets should not be permitted in
an unsprinklered warehouse containing other storage. Pallets used as storage aids are
considered part of the commodity classification. 1he commodity classification does
not include idle pallet s because of their unique combustion characteristic and behavior
during a fire when stored and stacked. Generali}', idle wooden or plastic pallets should
be stored outdoors or in a detached structure. When stored outdoor s, pallets should
be located at a recommended distance from buildings based on the outside wall con-
struction and all)' openings in that wall. See NFPA 13 for additional information on
the recommended distance. When indoor storage of idle wooden pallets is needed, the
pallets must be protected by control mode density/area sprinkler protection, CMSA
sprinkler prote ction, or ESFR sprinkler protection. These protection methods need not
be applied if the idle pallets meet the following conditions:
• Control mode density/area method in accordance with the Ordinary Hazard,
Group 2 curve.
• Hose stream demand of at least 250 GPM (946 L/min) for a duration of at least
60 minute s.
• Pallets stacked no higher than 6 ft ( 1.83 m).
• No more than four stacks per pile.
• Separation from other piles by at least 8 ft (2.44 111)of clear space or 25 ft (7.62 m)
of commodity.
Information on each special protection method can be found in NFPA 13.
Rack storage of idle wooden and plastic pallets is not allowed by NFPA 13 unless the
appropriate prote ction requirements of control mode density/area sprinkler protection
or ESFR prote ction is applied. Vlhen ESFR protection is provid ed, then storage of idle
pallets 25 ft (7.62 rn) in height in a 30-ft-high (9.14-m-high) building can be protected
using K-14 sprinklers operating at 50 psi (344.74 kPa); storage of pallets 35 ft (10.67 m)
in height in a 40-ft-high (12.19-m-high) building can be protect ed using K- 14 sprin -
klers operating at 75 psi (SJ 7. ll kPa).

597
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

Plastic pallets other than nonexpanded polyethylene solid-deck pallet s present an

eve n greater fire hazard. Additional p recaut ion s must be taken. Refer to NFPA 13 for
deta ils.

Rubber Tires
N FPA 13 pro vides guidan ce for tire storage arrangement and the various methods of
protecti on. Tires can be stored on-s ide or on -tread o r in a pyramid or laced -tire co n-
figuration d irect l)' on the floor or in fixed or po rtabl e racks. Tire s in storage present a
very challenging fire hazard. Although relatively hard to ignite, once started , a tir e fire
genera tes a tremendou s amount of heat and smoke and is extrernd) ' difficult lo extin -
guish. Exampl es of typical rubber tire storag e arra ngements are shown in FIGURES 47·7
thro ugh 47-10.
Protectio n criter ia for rubber tire storage has been developed from fire test data.
Chap ter 18 ofNFPA 13 is devoted to the prot ection of rubber tire storage. NPPA 231D,
Stmrdnrdfor Stomge of Ru/J/J er Tires, was withdrawn after th e 1998 edition and is no
lon ger publish ed. It has been incorpora ted into NFPA 13.
In the early 1990s, the tire indu str )' propo sed two major changes to NFPA 231D. 1l1e
industry wanted to incr ease the storag e height in severa l areas and to introdu ce laced
tires as a piling or storage method.

47-7On-side tire storage on portable racks.Source

FIGURE : 2010NFPA
13Hand
book,Exhibi
t 18.1.
598
 CHAPTER 47: General Storage

47·8On-tread tire storage on racks.

FIGURE

47·9Pyramid tire storage.

FIGURE

599
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

47-10Laced ti re storage on portable racks.

FIGURE

Tests were conducted at the Factory Mutual Research Center to determine if exist -
ing, accepted protection options were applicable to this higher and unique storage. TI1e
testing led to the following changes to NFPA 231D :
I. Testing showed that some on -floor storage, such as pyramid plies and arrange -
ments that had no horizontal channels, could extend to 18 ft (5.5 m) when
protected by a density of 0.60 GPM/ft2 (24.5 111111/rnin).
2. Testing showed that palletized portable rack storage could extend to 25 ft
(7.6 m) and be protected with a density of0.60 GPM/ft2 (24.5 nun/min) when
the ceiling was provided with I-hour fireproofing. In the 1998 edition ofNFPA
231D, the density was changed to 0.75 GPM/ft2 (30.6 mm/min) to become
more conservative.
3. Laced tire storage was not a warehouse concern in the United States until the
early 1990s. Lacing of tires was often used while shipping tires in a tractor
trailer, but no manufacturer had warehoused tires in this fashion. About this
time, a mant1facturer introduced this storage method to its warehouses, storing
tires up to 25 ft (7.6 m) high. A test was conducted to determine if a density of
0.60 GPM/ft2 (24.5 nun/min) would provide adequate protection. In the test,
77 sprinklers operated, and the steel temperatures exceeded 1500°F (816°C),
forcing NFPA 231D to indicate that storage of this type did not have "sufficient
test data developed to establish recommended criteria:'
600
 CHAPTER47: General Storage

In 1996, another test ser ies was conducted to introduce new technology to NFPA
231D. TI1ese tests resulted in the addition of large-drop sprinklers (now CMSA) and
ESFR spri nklers to the protection criteria . Again, these changes have since been relo-
cated to NFPA 13.
Protection criteria for rubber tire storage are based on the use of standard spray
sprinklers. CMSA or ESFR sprinklers and protection criteria are provid ed for a range
of piling methods and storage appli.cation . 1l1e insp ector must be aware of where to
find the protection crite ria for the spec ific l)'pe of spr inkl ers being used.
Ceiling sprinklers are necessary when protecting storage with high -expansion
foam. The sprinklers are primarily needed to maintain the structural integrity of the
column s, beams, trus ses and girders used to support the roof for lht: lim e ii takes to
cover th e storage commodity with foam. Sprinkler discharge also breaks down the
foam, and the designer must take this into account when determining the amount of
foam required. 111erequirement for ceiling sprinklers is not intended to apply when
prote cti n criteria of sprinkler s plus high -expansion foam have been selected as the
discharg e criteria.
Jn existing building s used for tire storage, high -expansion foam can be used to
augment an existing sprin kier system where the calcu lated density is below that re-
quired for the proposed storage height. Combined with sprinklers, high-expansion
foam is very effective on rubber tires and causes minimal water damage or contami -
nation .

Roll Paper
Roll paper can be stored on its side, on end, on pallets, or in racks. Rolls stored on end
as separate columns are the most hazardous configuration and present the greatest
challenge to sprinkler prot ection. NFPA 13 provides guidance based on the storage
arrangement and the various methods of protection for roll paper. NFPA 13 classifies
the haz ard of roll pap er primarily according to the weight of the paper. 'fl1e categories
are heavyweight, mediumweight, and lightweight, with heavyweight pap er represent-
ing the .least hazard and lightweight , particularly tissue paper, the greatest hazard. If
mediumweight or lightweight papers are enclosed in a heavyweight paper wrapper on
the sides and ends, however, the storage can be reduced one class-that is, medium-
weight paper can be protected as heavyweight, and lightweight and tissue paper can be
protected as mediumweight. TI1estorage can also be reduced one class if the sides of the
rolls are wrapped with steel bands.
The storage array - closed, open, or standard - also makes a difference in the protec -
tion provided. A closed array is a vertical arrangement in which the distance between
the columns is no more than 2 in. (50.8 mm) in one direction and l in. (25.4 mm)
in the other. The open array is a vertical arrangement in which the distan ce between
the columns is greater than the distances in either the closed or standard array. TI1e
standard array is a vertical arrangement in which the distance betwe en the columns
is 1 in . (25.4 mm) or less in one direction but more than 2 in. (50.8 mm) .in the other
direction . Banding the ends of the rolls can also make a difference in the protection
requirement.
601
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage I lazards

Tl1carray is important to the protection provided, because the closed array is the
lesser hazard, requiring low densities and small r mote areas. TI1e open array is the
greatest hazard and requires high densities and large areas.
Fire protection for roll paper is best provided by automatic wet-pipe spr inkler sys-
tems, although df) 1-pipe systems may be used for all weights of paper except tissue.
Horizonta l storage of hecivyweight and mediumweight paper is protected as closed
array vertical storage (the least hazardous). Otherwise, all protection requirements
provided by NFPA 13 are for vertical storage.
Exl reme caution is necessary when fighting a fire in the vertical storage of roll tis-
sue paper, something that should be noted in prefire planning procedures. As rolls of
tissue sitting on the floor absorb water, the vertica l stacks become unstable and are
prone to collapse, scatter ing the heavy rolls in all directions. Recent editions ofNFPA
13 now include a chapter dedicated to the protection of roll paper. See NFPA 13 for
add itiona l details.

Aerosols/Flammable Liquids
Flammable aerosols or liquids present special hazards, and their introduction into gen-
eral purpose warehou ses can spell disaster. A sprink ler protection scheme designed
just for genera l storage will likely be inadequat e for the hazard, and, as a result, any
fire involving such storage wiU escalate so rapidly that it will be out of contro l before
the fire brigade or fire department can mount an effective attack. The best protection
measure is to store all flammable aerosols and liquids in separa te cutoff areas and pro -
vide specia lized protection to these areas.
A clnssification system for aeroso ls consists of three groups: Levels I, IT, and III,
with Level I representing the lowest hazard. NFPA 30B, Codefor tireMn1111fnct11re n11d
Storageof AerosolProducts, governs the manufa ctur ing, handling, and storage of aero-
sol products including sprinkl er system design criteria.
Flammable and combustible liquids are classified in NFPA 30, Fln111111nb/e n11dCo111-
lmsti/JlcLiquids Code, with Class IA representing the h ighest hazard and Class IIIB
the lowest. TI1e safe storage of flnrnmable and combust ible liquids requires properly
designed liquid-tight con tainers and tanks from which vapor release, if needed, is care-
ful]>, controlled. Tanks can be installed aboveground, und erground, or, under certain
conditions, inside building s. Containers such as bottles and drums can be stored inside
flammable liquid storage cabinets, inside liquid storage rooms and warehouses, and
outside in yard areas or hazardous material storage lockers. NFPA 30 has been sig-
n ificantly revised and reorgan ized over its past two editions . For the 2008 and 2012
ed ition, fire protecti on design cr iteria for inside storage areas were expanded to include
requireme nts for small plastic containers of Class IB, IC, II, and Ill liquid s in cor-
rugated cartons and for Class HIB liquids in corrugated cardboard intermediate bulk
containers with plastic inn er liners.

Refrigerated Storage
Temperatures in cold storage warehouses range from 40°F to 65°F (4°C to l8°C) for
products, such as fruits, eggs, or nuts, that would be damaged by the lower temperatures
602
 CHAPTER 47: General Storage

of 0°F to -35°F (-18° to -37°C) needed for frozen foods. [n other facilities, the tem -
perature may be kept as low as -60 °[ (-51 °C) .
Whethe r the building construction is combustible or not, its insulating materials,
such as the wide ly used expanded plastic foamed polystyrene and polyurethane, gener-
ally are combustible. Exposed foamed plastics on the walls and ceilings of warehouses
are an unacceptable fire hazard because of the potential they present for rapid fire spread
over the surface and for heavy smoke generation. In general, thes e insulations should
be covered with a cementitious plaster or one of several proprietary coatings listed
specifically for this purpose. Some low-flame-sp read foamed isocyanate, isocyanurat e,
and phenolic plastics have been tested and listed for ceiling and wall applications when
pro tec ted only by an adhered foil or sheet metal covering.
Combustible materials found in cold storage warehouses include wooden dun-
nage, wooden pallets, wooden boxe s, fiberboard containers, wooden baskets, waxed
paper, heavy paper wrappings, and cloth wrappings. There generally are enough of
th ese combu stible s in warehouse s to produce a fire that requires sprinkler protection.
Sprinkler systems for these occupancies can be either preaction systems or dry-pipe
systems. In ome facilities, double interlock preaction systems are used . Because these
systems require a number of events to occu r before they discharg e water, th ey furth er
reduce the likelihood of inadvertent system operation. [n chill rooms and coolers,
sprin kier systems of the electrically operated preaction type are preferable to dry -pipe
systems. In freezers or holding rooms, systems are often a combina tion preaction/
dry-pipe system.
All sprinklers in refrigerated warehouses should be designed and installed in accor -
dance with NFPA 13. They should be designed so that they can be easily inspected and
disassembled to remove i.ce plugs that commonly form due to moisture condensation
in the piping.

Hanging Garments
There are no national standards available for the protection of hanging garments, and
this storage arrangement is generally not found in large warehouses or distribution
centers. Most!)', this configuration will be incidental to a retail occupancy, cleaners, and
so on. Fire damage is often extreme even when the property is fullysprinkler protected.
Garments on hangers hung on pip e racks ofrer many surface areas available to burn
and, therefore, the opportunity for a fast-developing, inteuse fire that could severely
challenge sprinkler protection, particularly if the garments are stored more than two
tiers high or if they are more than 10 ft (3.04 m) from the overhead sprinklers. Gar-
ments can be hung with or without plastic dust covers, although these covers are not
particularly effective in reducing Joss from soot, water, or odor damage .

Carpets
As with hanging garments, there are no nat ional standards available for this particular
commodity storage. TI1e inspector, therefore, may need to acquire information from
insurance companies or national associations that have developed internal standards
for the protection of carpeting based on their own experience.
603
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Ha,'.ar
ds

Rolls of carp eting, commonlr 12 to 15 ft (3.65 to 4.57 m) long, are store d in deep
shelving or racks, which are sometimes arranged back to back, so that the distances
between aisles might total 30 ft (9.14 m). TI1e rolls are stored individually in strong
card board tubes on solid or slatted shelves or in racks arranged in cubicles . Each tier
(shelf to shelf) is on ly abou t 2 to 3 ft (0.6 to 0.9 m) high , and there are as many as
10 tiers in a rack . Racks are frequently 100 ft (30.48 m) long or even longer .
TI1istype of storage does not permit much water from ceiling spri11klers to penetrate
the rack s o that in-rack spr inklers often are necessaq 1• However, in-rack sp rinkler
protection at ever}' tier usually is not economically feasible. As a result, fire may pread
down the length of a rack in the unprotected tiers. TI1islongitudinal fire spread is best
curtailed by the use of vt:rtical barriers at 24- lo 30-ft (7.3- to 9.14-m) intervals. Another
solution is to maintain well defined, transverse flue spaces at the vertical rack supports .
Because it is difficult for sprinkler discharge to reach fire in all tiers, manual firefighting
must be relied upon for final control and exting uishment. Small -hose stations should
be available at int erva ls sufficient to reach all purlions of the storag arrays, and provi -
sions should be made to vent smoke to aid in over hau l efforts.

Distilled Spirits
TI1edistilling industry has different types of storage facilities.

Finished Goods, or Case Goods, Storage. In finished goods, or case goods, stor -
age, which is protected in accordance with NFPA 30, spirits are stor ed in either glass or
plastic bottles in cartons in either palletized or rack storage arra ngements. Generally,
these products are 100 proof and lower (with some rare exceptio n s up to I 50 proof).

Barrel Warehouses. In barrel warehouses, sp irits of I SOproof and greater are store d
or .matured in oak barrels for various periods of time to obtain the proper qualit) 1• TI1is
warehousing varies from distill er to distiller and may include barrel s stored 011 their
side s in single-, doub le-, or multi -row racks or on pallet s, with four or six barrels per
pal let. Barrel warehouses generally have few aisles and are usually filled to capacit)' and
then locked for length)' periods of time.
Fires in barrel warehouses are infrequent, as operations are restricted to storage and
loading and unloadin g operations. TI1esewarehouses must be kept clean and free from
conditions tha t contribute to a fire. Areas of concern for fire include the following:
l. Lightning.
2. Defective wiring.
3. Burst barrel s and the resu lting flamma ble liqu ids spi ll.
4. Class A fires resulting from poor housekeep ing.
5. Failure of lift trucks.
6. Violation of smo king regulations.
7. Improper cutting and welding.
8. Exposure fires resulting from uncontrolled weed growth, tra sh accumulation,
and so on.

604
 CHAPTER47: General Storage

TI1ere are no national standards available for the barrel warehouse occupancy. 'foe
Distilled Spirits Council of the Uni.ted States, however, publishes a guide entitled Safe
Pmctices Guidefor the DistilledSpirits J11d11stry (see the Bibliography).

Baled Cotton
Guidance is provided for the construction, storage arrnngement, and protection of
baled cotton warehou es in NFPA 13. 1l1e 1999 edition marked the first time that
NFPA 13 covered the protection of baled cotton as a requirement and not just as a
recommended practice. Baled cotton storage consists of natural seed fiber wrapped
in burlap, woven pol)'prop)'lene, or pol)1ethylene and se ured with steel, synthetic, or
wire bands. "Naked" bales are bales that are unwrapp ed and secured only by wire or
steel straps.
Protection criteria are largely based on empirical data gathered and observations
made over the course of many years. Up until 1999, NFPA developed a specialized
documen t on this ubjcct entitled NFPA 231E, Reco111111e11ded Pmcticefor the Stomge of
Baled Cotto11 . The design criteria in NFPA 13 is based on the content of the now with-
drawn NFPA 23 1E. With baled cotton fires, sprinkler protec tion should provide unde -
layed response over large design areas, because of the possibility of rapid!)' spreading
flameover-type fires, and should provide sustained quantities of water to fight deep-
seated fires.
The cotton fiber itself contains enough entrained oxygen to sustain a fire deep within
a compressed bale. Such a fire will slowly develop until it "breaks out'' and exposes
nearby bales. Flameover fires, or flashover, as it is known to the baled cotton industry,
can result from any number of sources, with burn ing across the surface of bales involv-
ing areas such as exposed sample holes or fan-head bale ends, where cotton ties have
come loose.
Sustained application of water over large design areas is necessary because of both
the possibility of rapid fire spread and the large fuel load (BTU content) present in
baled cotton storage. Recent developments in quick-response and larger orifice sprin-
kler heads should aid in control of the rapidly spreading nature of some baled cotton
fires and in control of more deeply seated fires.
1l1e basic design is based on nominal 15-ft-high (4.57-m-high) storage for both
tiered and rack storage. Storage that is restricted to 10-ft (3.04-m) nominal height by
the ceiling or roof height is allowed to have reduced densities.

Special Occupancy Hazards

Nf PA 13 includes the sprinkler requirements from some 40 other NFPA documents.
Niany of these occupancies do not fit into the general storage category, but where
significant storage is encountered, guidance will have to be obtained from NFPA 13
and the following: NFPA 40, Standard for the Storage and Handling of Cellulose
Nitmte Motion Picture Fi/111; NFPA 55, Standard for the Storage, Use, and H111 1dli11g
of Co11Jpressed and Liq11~fied Gases in Portable C)1li11ders; and NFPA 400, Hazardous
Materinls Code.

605
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

OUTDOO STORAGE
Outdoor storage requires special protec tion. Howev er, there are so many difkrent ele-
ments to consider that no single set of rules can specify exact!)' what constitutes that
prot ec tion. The best that can be done is to outline general principles .ind rely on the
experience and judgment of those who apply them.
In general, o utdoor storage sites should be level and firm underfoot with adequate
cleanmces so that fire cannot spre.id to the site from other sources. Areas in which
flooding and windstorms are problems should be avo ided .
Some general principles also apply to site layout. Access to the yard and the piles in it
mu st be mad e e·1 y. Driv eways should be of adequat width to permit fire apparatus to
reach all portions of the yard. Aisles should be at least 10 ft (3.04 m) wide or as speci -
fied for the haz ard, and main aisles or firebreaks can be used to su bdivide the storage in
unusually large storage areas or in moderate-sized yards with valuable commodities.
111c act ual widt h of th e aisles can be a matter of jud gme nt , dep endin g on l he combus-
tibility of the commodity, how it is stored, the height of piles, the dista nce from build-
ings, the wind co ndition s, the availability of firefighting forces, and so on. Particular
emphasis should be placed on the con trol of potential ignition sources, such as refuse
burners, overhead power lines, and acts of vandalism, as well as on the e.limination of
adverse factors, such as trash accumulations, weeds, and brush. Piles of materials that
are stable und er normal conditions can collapse during a fire and cause severe fire
spread, particu .larly from 0ying brands. 111e fence surrounding the storage site should
have an adequate number of gates. If public water flows are inadequate, private water
storage facilities, pumps, or both might be needed.
All fire protection equipment, including hydrants, fire pumps, fire extinguishers,
and any suppression, detection, or alarm systems on the storage site, must be prop-
erly inspected, tested, and maintained. All materials -handling equipment at the site
should be equipped with a multipn rpose portable fire extinguisher suitable for any
type of fire.
Adequate public fire and police protection or the equivalent private fire brigade
protection is a prime requirement for outside storage facilities. If there are enough
employees to organize a fire brigade, the availability and ability of a public fire depart-
ment normally govern the level of organization, training, and equipment provided to
the brigade. 111elarger the storage yard and the more valuable its contents , the greater
the need for a private fire brigade for imm edia te response to an incident. l\fore recent ly,
those agencies that enforce environmental regulation for the states have become in-
volved in controlling some types of outdoor stora ge.
Monitor nozzles mounted on towers might be practical for certain storage facilities,
such as those in which lumber or wood chips are stored, and for facilities for which
strong water supplies are available. Appropri ate portable fire extinguishers placed at
well-marked, strategic points throughout the storage area also are practi cal. If people
are usually pre se nt, fully equipped hose houses can be provided, as long as personnel
are trained to use hose lin es.

606
 CHAPTER 47: General Storage

ST RAG 0 R OR S
TI1e exp losi on in information tech n ology has increased the total vol um e o f records
tha t are generated and stored. In turn, the problems of record storage are int ens ified .
Trad itio nal storage methods such as insulat ed file cabi net s, safes, and vaults are st ill
viabl e, but the volume of records to be stored is often so large as to make traditional
storage methods and the space needed for them imprac tical for th e business owner.
New methods of storage have been devised to so lve the space pro blem resulting in off-
pr emises storage that may often place not only the records al risk but the structures in
wh ich they are sto red and other occupancies in that struc tur e as well. Guidance can be
found in NFPA 232, Sta11dardforthe Protectio11of Records.

Records Storage Options

Open-Shelf Storage . Open -she lf storage is ofte n th e records storage option cho sen
to make use of wha tever space is ava ilable in the building. 'Jhe record s th emse lves arc
in file fold ers or car tons. This arrangeme nt often results in a congested area with nar-
row aisles of24 to 30 in . (610 to 762 mm) in width .

Plastic-Media Storage. Plast ic media storage of records may const itute a greater
haz ard. Generally, ace tate - and polyester -based tapes are considered at the same ha zard
level as paper . Pol}'styrene cases and reels, however, constitute a more severe hazard,
are more diflkult to protec t, and may hav e to be limited in height and area or have
specia l prote ctio n S)'Stems .

Mobile Compact Shelving. Mobile compact shelvin g is a storage method in which

only one aisle at a tim e is exposed and can be accessed; all the rest of the she lves are
pushed together. A fire in the exposed aisle would be con trolled or extinguished by ceiling
sprin klers . A fire elsewhere in this style of she lving would be a burrowing fire, she ltered
from spri nkl er discharge, but slow grow ing. However, with out external interference by
the fire department, the burrowing fire could co nsum e all records availab le to it.

Bulk Storage. Bu lk storage us ual!)' incl ude s ver y sizable records storage not con tained
in insulat ed cab inet s, safes , or vault s. These facilities may range from small file rooms
to large records cent ers occupying entire buildings. Virtually any storage me thod and
co ntainer is used, and virtually anyth ing (sheets of paper, film , tape, drawings, e tc.) can
be stored.

Risk Factors
SLxrisk fac tor s n eed to be eva luat ed :
1. TI1eexpos ur e from th e building hou sing the reco rds, from nea rby buildings, or
from ne ighb or in g operations (e.g., th e poss ibility of involving the records in a
fire originat ing outside of the records facility).

607
 SECTION 4: Process and Storilge Hazards

2. TI1e potentia l of fire initiation within the records facility, including the suscep-
tibility of the records or containers to ignition.
3. The potent ial of fire development posed br the store d records themselves,
parti cular!)' as that potential relates to the available or proposed fire con trol
capabilities or mechani sms.
4. TI1epotent ial impact of fire development in the stored records on th e housing
stru cture and adjacen t opera tions.
5. TI1e fire con trol srs tems with the resultant extent and type of damage from fire,
fire effects (e.g., heat, smoke), and fire-ext ingu ishing efforts (principally water
and ph)'sical disruption of record s necessary to effect manual firefighting).
6. TI1epotential threat to life of occupants and fire serv ice personn el.
TI1efirst line of defense for vir tually aU records storage is sprin kler pro tection for the
build ing. TI1e sprinkler S)'Stemcombined with the storage method resnlts in prot ect ion
for the vital and importa nt files. TI1estorage methods, which include insulated records
containers, fir -resistive safes, insulated file drawers, and insulated filing device , vary
in the degree of protect ion afforded from fire, heat, and ph)'sical impact. The hou rly
rating for this equipment range from 30 minutes to 4 hours.

Vaults
The term "vault" refers to a completely fire-resistive enclosur e up lo 5000 ft3 ( 142 m3)
in volume that is used exclusively to store vital reco rds. Vaults usually contain a sub-
stant ial fuel load. In many instances, in fact, the contents of a vault are more ofa hazard
than an)' extern al fire exposure. A fire in an unprotected vault can be disastrou s unless
it is d iscovered immediately and extinguish ed.
In the past , tl.1.
e only pene tra tions permitt ed in vaults were the door openings. This
prohi bited spr in klers, fire and smoke detectio n unit s wired to a master panel, and even
fixed lighting systems. Vault sta ndards were revised in 1986 to permi t penetration s for
sprinkler pipin g and conduits so vault contents can be better protected. \<Vorkstations
and mechan ical equ ipmen t, such as air-hand ling and cooling equipm ent, are not per-
mitted in vaults, nor are ventilation penetrations . Tradi tional pract ice has been to pro -
hibit wall pene tration s in vaults and file room s for the pmposes of ventilation . 'The
ambient cond it ions within the vault must be control led by means of indirect cooling
and heal ing of the environmen t outside of the vault. In any event, water-t)'p e fire
extinguishers or small hose, or both, should be available in an accessible location near
the door of a vault. J\IIiu inrnl ventilation was provided by leaving the door open during
the opera tional ho urs. Although this indir ect ventilation can be adeq uate for records
on high-quality bond paper, many nonte xtua l medi a requir e far mor e extensive heat-
ing, ventilation , and air-conditioning controls to preven t p remature deterioratio n.
Vaults and file rooms containing audiov isual materia ls or magnetic med ia on acetate
or polyester bases requir e not only cool storage at low humidity but also frequent air
exchanges to remove the harmfu l gases genera ted by the media themselves.
Sprinkler protec tion is requi red in overs.ized vaults up to 25,000 ft3 (708 m3) in
volume.

608
 CHAPTER 4 7: GeneralStorage

File Rooms
File rooms are bu ilt as nearly like vaul ts as poss ible, but they are used for situat ion s
in which people work regularly with the records in the roo m. Thu s, th ey usually
have electric lights and steam or ho t water heat. Any wall ope ning s needed for air-
conditioning or ventilation must be equipped with fire dampers . Standar d file rooms
ha ve a m aximu m ceilin g he ight of 12 ft (3.65 m) and a ma ximum volume of 50,000 ft3
(1416 1113).They can be des igned to a fire- resistance classification of l, 2, 4, or 6 hours .
File room doors can have vault door ratings or lesser ratings of 30 minutes o r l hour.
Noncombus tible furnit ur e and cabinet s are allowed in the file room. Automatic sp rin -
klers are desirable.

Archives and Records Centers

Bulk storage ofp ape r records in separate buildi ngs, in a major por tion of a buil d ing, or
in a room ex ceding 50,000 ftJ (1416 mJ) in volume requires special attention because
of the large fire load it rep resen ts. TI1efour basic fac tors that must be considered are ex-
posure from nearby op era tion s or buildings , the p otential for ignition, the potential for
fire sprea d, and th e ability of the ava ilable fire control system to exting ui sh or control a
fire with min im um da mage to re cor ds.
Fire-res ist ive construction is essential to pro tect aga inst exposu re fires. Cleanliness,
orderliness, and an absolute ban on smok ing are the fundamen tals of controlling th e
chances of ignilion. The type of storage, whether steel cabinets or open -shelf system,
governs th e potential for fire spread. Open sh elves present a wall of paper at th e face of
the shelves, up wh ich fire can spr ead rapidly to involve other rows of shelves.
Automat ic sprinkler s, backed up by an early-warning detection syste m, provide
good protection in view of th e rapidity with which fire can spread in the large open
areas customarily found for archival storage. Catwalks in aisles inhibit overhead sprin-
kler protection and m ight necessitate special provis ions.

Subterranean Storage Facilities

Utilization of unde rground spaces for storage of all manner of products and mat erials is an
option th at can be considered for some circum stances. Abandoned underground mines
or purpose-built facilities can offer several advantage s including a natural climate control,
imp ervious to certain hazards like tornados, windstorms, wildfires and flooding, security
(limited access in to and out of the space), and no concern over fires in adjacent strnctu res.
NF PA 520, Standard 011 S11btem111em1 Spacesprovide s the necessary suppl ement al
detail s and requirements for prote ct ion oflife an d property in such developed spaces. It
specifies the circ um sta nces and need for required system s such as fire alarm, spr inkler,
and emergency powe r supplies. Inspectors main ly need to be aware of lhe presence of
any such sp aces in their jurisdiction and then insp ect th e vari ous systems and features
as they wou ld in any other buildi ng . NFPA 520 does contain special rules for egress
that depart from other NFPA cod es; thus it is import ant to become familiar with those
except ions before arriving at the facility.

609
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

IDENTIFICATION OF MATERIALS:
THE NFPA 704 SYSTEM
It is fairly easy to identify the fire hazards of materials commonl y found in storage, such
as wood, paper, fabrics, and liquefied petroleum gas (LP gas) cylinders. You know what
to expect when one of these materials burns. However, there are literally thousands of
combustible solids, flammable and combustible liquids, and liquefied and compressed
gases for which the hazards are not so readily apparent. A system for identifying these
hazards is needed so that the occupants can respond correctly in emergencies. One
major approach is the NFPA 704 system.
NFPA 704, Stn11dnrdSysle111 for the lde11lificnlio11of the Hnznrds of Mnterinlsfor
E111erg e11cy Response, provides usable and readily identifiable means of presenting in-
formation on the fire hazards of materials ( FIGURE 47-11). The system covers only fixed
installations, such as storage tanks, storage rooms, and warehouses, as applied to in-
dustrial, commercial, and institutional facilities that manufacture, process, use, or store
hazardous materials. It does not cover materials that are being transported. However,
it can be used (and olten is used) to mark individual containers once they reach their
destination.
The system identifies the fire hazards of a material in three areas- health, flamma-
bility, and instability- and indicates the relative severit)' of each hazard category with a
numerical rating that ranges from 4, ind icating severe hazard, to 0, indicating minima l
hazard. It is impor tant to understand, however, that the ratings are based on emergency
situations, such as a fire or a spill. 1l1ey do not provide information on ever yday haz-
ards, which result from normal occupational exposure. This is especially true for the
health hazard rating. Although many manufacturers include the NFPA 704 ratings on
their Material Safety Data Sheets, the ratings are not meant to be used to evaluate the
hazards presented by chronic exposure. The ratings are based on the inherent hazards
of the materials, but they also take into account changes in behavior during a fire that
could significantly exaggerate those hazards.

Adhes;ve-backedplasOc Flammab:l,ty White painted background , or

background pieces, one
needed for each numeral,
three needed for each
comp!etehazard rating Health
red l
hazard rating -

lnstab'';ty
\',hite paper or card stock

hazard rating - /4] hazard rating -

blue ~J' yellow

"'-2 3/
0~
Figure 1 For use where specified Figure 2 For use where while
co!orbackgroundis used with backgroundis necessary.
numeralsof conlrasting colors.
Figure 3 Foruse \',herewhite
backgroundIs used \',ilhpainted
numerals, or for use \11henhazard
rating is in lhe formof s1gn or p'acard.

47-11Alternatearrangements fordisplayof NFPA

FIGURE 704 hazard identificationsystem.
Source:
tlfPA
704,2012,
Figure
9.l(d).
610
 CHAPTER 47: General Storage

r. inlrnun1 d )rrttn sion s of ,·,h!tc

backg round tor 11. l rd r.1ting'Si
(whllo backgto und Is opll onal)
~-~
Si1a ol
-- - -~ - -~
hazard
,..:ngs
H \'/ A II
25 (1) 10 (O.l) 4 , J ~ t2:11 32 ! m)
51 (2) 36 (1.4) 8 W~) 127 (~) 04 (2',ll
76 (3) 53 (2.1) 12 ( ·~lo) 19 1 (71',) 9 5 (31,)
1('1 (4) 1 1 (28) 16 (¥•) ? ( rr,) 12 1 (5)
1S2 (6) 107 (• 2, ?4 (' ~t,) _ 1_1_, s_, ~ 19_1 _(1_:
38 ~~
J

\ '.'hyi·t1p In• IU ,1 SillT1•J E.H:o?p ~on· For coo• ·rx;rs\',·h e c , ~. y ~

lfm-ensii'1'l1tNc'-TIN -. t. ~~1r· i'~cu~ 3 7d l(1 y J ur l · . $)ml<"'sca n ~ rc.:JJCE .d
plarar-1, 1rn.arora1,n-rao in ~lzo, p!O'Jid-00 the foCOwlng.
noc~r , !or e.x h CGl'Til)
'e!a ( 1) Tho r«lu,:t.x, I; prop,:,,
tiona~.
h l li Hd f,1' n-.
J) (2) TI,a CO'Ofood r>Jl,r e• "oed.
{3) I \1::rtGal and ho !iz onl.JI d.lTii::rti.lcAi
5 or
i , 01 ra'.s 1, 2, 3. 4
Co'"1 <=i the CUOr~ aro neat~ th.:n 25 1nm (1 h )
le &>li°•J)}a'..EJ
st-.Qu\:J (4) Tt,a mMjua l berS oro no
1 r than 3.2 rrm (V•Jo·
i) 'I

fi,
y
➔ ,?
- ..:!. ~ .,._
T

q ~- 1..:~►1 ~~1 ~~►l N~!- : fyl~ of nu,,ar ;;1!5

SOO,•,n Ii op-'ic-f - I

47-12Dimensions of NFPA704 placardsand numberals.Source

FIGURE : 2012NFPA
704,Figure
9.l(b).

The 704 diamond .is illustrated in FIGURES 47-12and 47-13.TI1ehealth rating is al-
ways at the nine o'clock position, the flammability rating is always at the twelve o'clock
position, and the instability rating is always at the three o'clock position. Furthermore,
each quadra nt is identified by a colored Arrangem ent and orde r o f hazard mllngs
backgroun d: blue for health hazard, opti onal form or appllcallo n

red for flarnmabilit)' hazard, a11dyel- Distance al which hazard Min'mum size al hazard
ratings are leg,b!e raling requi red
low for instability haw rd. Alternative!)',
15.24 m (50 fl) 25 mm (1 In.)
the quadrant could be any convenient 22.86 m (75 II) 5 1 m111 (2 In.)
contrasting color, and the numer- 30.48 m (t 00 II) 76mm (3 In.)
60.96 m (200 II) 102mm (4 In.)
als themselves could be printed in the 9 1.44 m (300 II) 152mm (6 in.)
appropria te color described above for Nole : Tl1I shows Iha correct palial arr ngemen l
each hazard. and order or hazard ratings used lor klenlificalion al
m~tertals by hazard.
Special hazard identifiers go in the
lower-most, or six o'clock, quadrant.
No special color is assigned to this
quadrant. TI1e two -recognized ident i-
fiers are \ to indicate water reactivity,
1\ ~

and OX, to indicate oxidizing abilit)'·

Recomme nded ratings for specific
materials can be found in the Fire Pro-
teclio11Guide to Hazardous Materials
(see the Bibliography). Be advised that
the ratings given for a chemical are ac- FIGURE 47-13Minimum sizeof numerals for
curate for only the "commercially pure" legibility at distance. Source:2012NFPA 704,Figure 9.1(cl.
611
0\
,.....
N Identifi cation of the Fire Hazard s of Mat erials
Identifi cation of Hazard
BLUE: Health Hazard
Degree of Type of PossibleInjury
Hazard
4 Materialsthat, under emergency
con di ions, can be lethal.
3 Materials that. under emergency
condit ions, can cause serious or
permanent inj ury.
Materialsthat, under emergency
conditions, can causetempo rary
incapacitation or residual injury.
Materialsthat, under emergency
conditions, can cause signilicam
irritation
0 Materials that, under emergency
conditio ns, wou ld offer no
hazard beyond that of ordinary
combustib le materials.
"'
"'
...
n
0
z
~
cl
0
,..,
RED: Flammabi lity YELLOW: Instability
"'
::s
Susceptibility of Materialsto Burning Susceptibility c ' Releaseof Energy "'
:,
a.
V,
Materials that rapidly or complete ly vaporize at atmospheric Materialsthat in themselves are readily capable of 0
pressureand normal ambient temperature or that are readily detonation or explosive decomposition or explosive "'
<O
"'
I
dispersedin air and burn readily. reaction at normal temperatures and pressures.
"'
"""
Liquids and solids (including finely divided suspended solids)that Materialsthat ir themselves are c<1pableof
can be ignited under almost all temperature conditions. Materials detonation or explosive decomposition or explosive ~
in this degree produce hazardous atmosphereswit h air under reaction but that require a strong initiating source
almost all ambient tem peratures or, though unaffected by ambient or must be heated under confinement before
tempe ratures,are readily ignited under almost all conditions. initiation .
Materials that must be moderately heated or exposed to relatively Materials that readily undergo violent chemical
high ambient tem peratures before igni ion can occur. Under normal change at elevated tempe ratures and pressures.
conditions, these materials would not form hazardousatmospheres
with air, but under higher ambient temperatures or under moderate
heating they could releasevapor in sufficient quantit ies o produce
hazardousa mospheres with air.Materialsin this degree also include
finely divided suspended solids that do nor require heating before
ignition can occur.
Materialsthat must be preheated before ignition can occur. Materialsthat ·7 themselvesare normally stable but
Materials in this degree require considerable preheating, under all that can beco"'le unstable at elevated temperatures
ambient temperature conditions, before ignition and combustion and pressures.
can occur. Materials in this degree also include linely divided sus-
pended solids that do not require heating before ignition can occur
Materialsthat will not burn under typical fire conditions, including Materialsthat in themselves are normally stable,
intrinsically noncombustib le materials such as concrete, stone, and even under fire condit ions.
sand.
 CHAPTER47: GeneralStorage

mate ria l, as shipped. TI1e ratings might not be accurate for diluted mLxtures. Further -
more, a mLxture of two or more chemica ls may have to be evaluated separate ly if it is to
receive the proper NFPA 704 rating.
ln abbreviated form , th e five degre es of risk for each of th e fire hazards are shown
in TABLE 47-1.

18 IOGRAPHY
Colonna, G . R., ed., Fire ProtectionG11ideto Hnzardous i'vfnlerinls,NFPA, Quincy, MA,
20 10.
Co te, A. E., ed., FireProtectionHandbook, 20th ed., NFPA, Quincy , MA, 2008 .
E111e1ge11cy Operntionsi11High-Rack Stomge, Fire Protection Public ations Department,
Oklahoma State Unive rsity, Stillwater, OK .
NFPA 13 Hnndbook, 2010 edit ion.
Safe PracticesGt1idefor the Distilled Spirits .ltufitslly,2nd ed., D istilled Spirits Cou ncil
of th e United States, '"'ashington , DC.
Schumann, T., "A New Protection Challenge in the Warehouse;' NFPA Update, Issue
840, Vol. l, No. 3 (December/January), 200 1, p. 7.

NFPA Codes , Standards , and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Cata log for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA J, Fire Code
NFPA 10, Stmulardfor PortnbleFireExti11g11isl,ers
NFPA 13, Standardfor the Installation of Spri11klerSystems
NFPA 14 , Standardfor the l11s/a/lationo_fStn11dpipe
s a11dHose Systems
NFPA 30, Flnmmable mid CombustibleLiquids Codes
NFPA 30B, Codefor tl,e 1'tla11uf<1ct11re
and Stomge of AerosolProducts
NFPA SIB, Standardfor FirePrel'e11tio11 During Weldi11g,C11/ti11g,
and Other Hot Work
NFPA 61, Stmidnrdfor the Preve11tio11 of Firesn11dDust Explosio11si11Agricult11rnland
Food Processi11g
Facilities
NFPA 232, Stnndardfor the Protectionof Records
NFPA 484, Stn11dardfor Combustible1Wetn/s
NFPA 520, Sta11dnrd011 S11bterrn11ea11
Spaces
NFPA 664, Standardfor the Prevention of Piresand Explosions i11Wood Processingmid
WoodworkingFacilities
NFPA 704, Stnndnrd System for the Ide11tificatio11of the Haznrds of i\!Iaterinlsfor
EmergencyRespo11se

613
 CHAPTER

48
STORAGEAND HANDLING
OF FLAMMABLEAND
COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS
Anthony 1'tf.Ordile, PE

The insp ector must be familiar with the physical and fire hazard properties and risks
associated with commonly used flammable and combus tible liquids in order to deter-
min e if these liquids are being stored, handled, and used sa fely.
The distinction between a flammable and a com bu stible liq uid is somewhat
arbitra ry, and the terms have basica lly acquired the meanings ascribed to them
by common usa ge. Strictly speaking, a liquid either ca n flash and/or ignite (in
layman's term s "burn") , in which case it is combustible, or can no t flash, in which
case it is non co mbu st ible. The word "flammable " connotes a greater fire risk than
normal and serves to define a particular class of volatile com bu stibl e liquids,
as discuss ed later in this chapter. In both cases, the N FPA 30 definitions use a
d emarca tion point of l 00°F (37.8°C) to help define the distinction betw een the two
categories based upon the flashpoint oft he liqu id. In thi s chapter, the word "liquid"
means a flammable or combusti ble liquid th at will flash and/or ignite, unless oth-
erwise identifi ed.
'fl1ere are three important facts that apply lo the safe storage, handling, and use of
flammable and combustible liquids . First, it is the vapor g iven off b}' the liquid that
flashes and/or ignites, not the liquid itself 'Thus. it is important to visualize where
vapors will travel once they are released. Second, the g reater the tendency of a liquid to
give off vapors, the more vo latile the liquid, and the greater the potential for ignition
of those vapors resulting in a fire. A Ithough inspectors must pH)' particular attention
to these liqu ids, they mu t also be alert for operations in which less volatile liquids are
heated , thus increasing their propensity to generate vapors. Finally, the physical and
fire hazard properties of liquids must be und ers tood to be able to ana lyze and assess
the risk of an individual operation.
 CHAPTER 48: Storage and Handling of Flammable and Combustible Liquids

PROPERTIESOF FLAMMABLEAND
COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS
Physical Properties
Vapor Pressure. Vapor pressure is a measure of the pressure that a liquid exerts
against the atmosphere above it. Just as the atmosphere exerts pressure on the surface
of the liquid, the liquid pushes back. Vapor pressure normally is less than atmospheric
pressure and is a measure of the liquid 's tendency to evaporate or move from the liquid
to the gaseous state. TI1is tenden cy is also referred to as volatility, which explains th e
use of the term "volatile" to describe liquids that evaporate very easily. TI1ehigher the
vapor pressure, the greater the rate of evaporation and the lower the boiling point.
Simply put, this means more vapors and increased fire risk. TI1einspector must ensure
that reasonable measures , such as local exhaust ventilation, have been taken to control
vapors and that sources of ignition are either remo ved from the area or contro lled.

Boiling Point. TI1eboiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a
liquid equals atmospheric pressure. At this temperature, atmospheric pressure can no
longer hold the liquid in the liquid state, and the liquid boils. A low boiling point is an
indication of high vapor pressure and a high rate of evaporation.

Vapor Density. Vapor density, sometimes referred to as vapor-air density, is the ra -

tio of the weight of a volume of pure vapor to the weight of an equal volume of dry
air, both at the same temperature and pressure. Vapor density determines whether the
vapors will rise or sink to the ground when released . A vapor density less than I means
that the vapor will rise and dissipate very quickly. TI1is reduces the risk of ignition
somewhat, but the inspector should check for potential ignition sources that are in the
likely path of the vapors. Such sources include ceiling-mounted or roof -level electrical
equipment, light fixtures, and unit heaters.
A vapor density of I means the vapor is just as dense as air, and the same precaution
applies.
A vapor density greater than 1 indicates that the pure vapor is denser than air and
will sink from its point of release, tending to flow downward and to settle in low areas.
Inside buildings, the inspector should pay close attention to below-grade areas, such
as floor drains, sumps, trenches, and similar inadequately ventilated areas, including
basements and crawl spaces. Outside, the inspector should note the grading of the sur-
rounding terrain and try to determine where vapors will likely flow.
In the pure state, vapors from most flammable and combustible liquids are denser than
air. Howeve1; pure vapor will be given off only at or above the boiling point of the liquid.
For all other conditions, the vapor is mb::ed with some air, and the density is thereby
proportionately changed, approaching that of air itself Regardless, the inspector should
understand that a mLxture of vapor and air can be expected to travel at grade level, often
for some distance, until it naturally disperses. Such mixtures can and have been known
to ignite at some distance from their source, with flames spreading back to the source.

615
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of one material to another,
usually water. The density is expressed as weight per unit volume, for example, pounds
per gallon or grams per liter. Most liquids, such as gasoline, oils, ,md alcohols, are not
as dense as water and, if not m iscible with water, like certain alcohols, will Ooat on top
of water. 'Nater will float on the surface of liquids that are denser than water, such as
adipic acid, carbon disulfide, and dichloroethane.

Water Solubility. Water so.lubilit)'is a measure of the tendency of a liquid to dissolve

in or mLxwith water. ILusually is expressed in terms of grams of liquid per 100 mL of
water. Some liquids, such as acetone, certain alcohols, and amines, will mix complete!)'
with water, in all proportions. Other liquids, such as hydrocarbon fuels, will not mix
with water at all.
Some flammable and combustible liquids are water soluble, which is an important
characteristic in determining firefighting tactics. Water-soluble liquids will destroy a
blanket of ordinary fi rcfighling fo, m; they requin::the us<::of special alcohol-resistant
firefighting foams. If a burning water-soluble liquid can be contained, it is even
possible to dilute it witJ1 water to a noncombustible mixlure using available hose
streams.

Viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its resistance to flow,or its "thick-
ness:• It is usually expressed in terms of centipoises at room temperature. A viscous
liquid will flow slowIr and will be easier to contain. T11eviscosity of a liquid depends on
its temperature, because some viscous liquids will gel, lhicken, or solidify when heated,
whereas others will "thin out" and flow more easily when heated.

Temperature and Pressure Effects . Liquids are only slightly compressible, and
thq cannot expand indefinite!)'. Liquids will vaporize more rapidly as the temperature
increases or as the pressure decreases.
TI1eNational Fire Protection Association (NFPA) FireProtectio11Guide to Hazard-
ous 1\t!n
terinls conta ins information on most of the preceding properties for many flam-
mable and combustible liquids.

Fire Hazard Properties

Flash and Fire Points. TI1eflash point of a liquid is the minimum temperature at
which it gives off vapor in sufficient concentration to form an ignitable mixture wilh
air near the surface of the liquid. It is a direct measure of a liquid's volatility or its ten-
dency to vaporize. The lower the flash point, the greater the volatility, and the greater
the risk of fire. Flash point is determined using one of several different test procedures
and apparatus that are specified in Section 4.4 ofNFPA 30, Fln111111nble n11dCombustible
Liquids Code.
Liquids with flash points at or below ambient temperatur es are easy to ignite and
burn quickly. Once the liquid is ignited, the spread of flame over the surface of the
liquid will be rapid because the fire does not need to expend energy heating lhe liquid
to generate more vapors. Gasoline is a typical example of such liquids.

6 16
 CHAPTE
R 4B: Storage and Handlingof Flarnrnableand Combustible Liquids

Liquids wit h flash points above ambi ent tempera tu re present less risk bec ause they
mus t be heated to generat e enough vapor to becom e ignitabl e; they are more difficull
to ignit e and present less po tent ial for the generation and sprea d of vapor. A common
exampl e of this type of liquid is hom e heati ng oil (No. 2 fuel oil), which must be atom -
ized to a fine rnist befor e ii is easily ignit ed.
In discuss ing flash point, reference is sometim es made to the "fae po int" of a liqui d.
Fire poin t is the lowest temperat ure at whi ch ign ition of vapors will result in continu ed
and sustained burnin g. As the term "Jlash point" sugge l , the vapor gen era ted at that
temperat ure wiJI nash , but they will no t necessarily cont inue to burn . Although th e d if-
ference be t ween flash poi nl and fire point has some significance in flash po int tests, it is
igno red in pra ctice, and the flash point is used to classify the liquid and to charac teriz e
its hazard. Suffice it to say that the maxim "low flash, h igh hazard" appl ies.

Auto ignition Temperature. Som etim es referred to as "spontaneous ignition temp er-
atur e;· "self-ignitio n temp era tur e;• or "autogenous ignition temperatur e;' the autoigni-
tion temµerature is th e minimum temperature at wh ich a liquid will self-ignite without
an external so urce of ignition, such as a spa rk or pilot flame, under sp ecified cond itions
and usuaU}'in air. ln pra ctice, autoig nition results when an ignitable vapor - air mixtur e
comes in cont ac t with a hot surface or is introd uced into a hot environment.
It is im po rt ant to take autoignition temperature int o account wh en selec ting elec -
trica l equi pme nt for areas in which ign itable vapor - air mixtures might be present.
This is especially true of elect ri cal equ ipmen t that heats with use, such as motor s,
transformers, and light fixtures. However, the inspecto r should be aware of any other
equ ipm ent that migh t provide a hot surface, such as drying ovens, hot air ducts, a nd
hot proces s piping.

Flamm ab le limits. The lower flammab le limit is that concen tration of com bustible
vapor in air below which propagation of a name will not occur. The upp er nammabl e
limit is that concentrat ion of combustible vapor in air abo ve which propagation of
flame will no t occur. Between th ese limits, ign ition is p ossible, and the concen tration s
between these limit s are thu s known as the "flammabl e range: ' Mixtures within the
flammable range are said to be ignitable. A mLxture whose conce ntra tion is below the
lower flammab le limi t is sa i.d to be loo lean to be ignit ed. Conversely, a mixture that
is above the upper flamm able limit is said to be too rich to be ignited. Bear in mind,
howeve r, that a too -rich mixture is not necessa rily sate . Introduction of air could dilut e
the mixtur e into the flammable range.
The flammab le lim its are importan t in calc ulat ing th e volum e of clean air for venti -
lating spray booths, dry ing ovens, and ot her such piec es of equipment to prevent inter -
nal exp losions. NFPA 86, Stc111dard for 011e11sand Furnaces, includ es information for
thes e calculations . Flammabl e limits also are important .in determining the explosion
hazards of confin ed spa ces wh ere vapors are present. NFPA 69, Sta11dard011Explosio11
Pre11e11tion Systems, shou ld be consult ed for addit iona l i11formation . The NFPA Fire
Prolectio11 Guide to Hazardous 1Waterinls contai ns information on most of the above
propertie s fur many flammable and combu stible liqu ids.

617
 SECTION4: Processand StorageHazards

CLASSIFYING AN I NTIFYING
F AMMA L AND COMBUSTIB E
LIQU IDS
Classifi cat ion
TI1e bas .ic S)'Stem for classifying liqu ids can be found in Sectio n 4.3 of NFPA 30. For
classi fication purp oses, d istinc tion s mu st be made between a gas, a liqu id, and a solid .
A gas is defined as a substance that has a vapor pressure of gre ater than 40 p ound s per
squa re inch, absolu te (p sia; 276 kPa) at l00 °F (37.8 °C). Any substance whose vapo r
pressu re is below th is is cons idered a liqu id.
Liqu ids a lso have a speci fied fluidity, and su bsta nces with le ss fluidity are tre ated
as soli ds. TI1e specified fluidil) ' is any liquid that has a fluidity grea ter than that of
300 penetr ation a phalt when tes ted in accor dance with A rner i an S ciel)' for Test -
ing and Materia ls (ASTM) D S, Stn11dnrdTest Methorlfor Pe11 etratio11for Bit11111in o11s
lvfaterin/s.
A visco us mat erial ca n also be co nsidered a liquid if a spec ific m eltin g point canno t
be determined but it is de termined to be a liquid in accordance with ASTM D4359,
Standard Test for Determi11i11
g \,\f/Jether a Mnterin/ Is a Liquid or n Solid.
The bro ad ca tegories of flammab le and combus tib le liquids are defin ed as follows:
flamm able liquids have flash po ints below 100°F (37.8°C), an d combu stible liquids
have flash poin ts of 100°F (37.8°C) or more. To apply the fire protection requir em en ts
of NFPA 30 and other NFPA codes and standard s, th ese two group s are furth er subdi -
vided, as shown in TAB LE48·1.
TI1eNFPA definitions of flammable liquid and combustible liquid are no longer the
same as those of th e U.S. Department of Tra nspor tation (DOT) . DOT has adopted a
classification system that d efines a flammab le liquid as any liqu id with a flash poin t that
does not exceed 141°F (60.5°C) . Under certa in circu m sta nces, mo st contai ners holding
Class Il liquid s mu st be placarded to indic ate they are storing flammabl e liquids (see
Tit le 49 of the Code of Fedeml Regulntiom, Part 173).

Class ification of Flammable and Combust ible Liquids

Classification Flash Point 0 f (°C) Boiling Point (0 f )

A Below 73' F (22.8'C) Below 1000F(37.8"C)
B Below 73' F (22.8"() (37.8"() and above
lOOOF
C 73' to 100' F (22.8°to 37.8-C) 100°F (37.8"C) and above
D 1oo· to 140'F (37.a· to 60'C) F (37.8'C) and above
I 0OO
E 140" to 200°F(60' to 93"() 100°F(37.8' C) and above
F 200'F (93'C) and above I00°F (37.8°C) and above

6l8
 CHAPTER 48: Storage and Handling of Flammable and Combustible Liquids

The DOT definitions have very little effect on the proper application of fire protec -
tion codes and standards. Aside from its title and its definitions , NFPA 30 governs the
storage and handling of liquids by their class designation. From a practical standpoint,
the 1°F (5/9°C) difference between the two systems at the boundary between Class II
and Class IIIA is of little consequence.
DOT does not regulate Class lllB liquids that do not meet any other definition for
a hazardous material. Likewise, the Occupational Safety and Health Admini stration
(OSHA; see Title 29 of the Code of Fedeml ReRulntions,Part 1910) do es not regulate
Class IIIB liquids whose only hazard is combustibility. However, NFPA 30 does regu-
late Cla ss TIIB liquid s.

Identification
Identifying the class of a liquid can be difficult. The sense of smell is not reliable, and
nrnll )' liquid s are sold und er name s that give no indication of their poten tial fire hazard.
The label on the container or th e placard on th e transportation vehicle will be help-
ful, as will the United Nations (UN) or North America (NA) identification numb er as-
signed under DOT's hazardous materials transportation rnles. In many cases, however ,
the inspector will have to rely on the Material Safety Data Sheet (IvISDS) and any other
information that must be available by federal and state right -to -know laws about all the
hazardous materials on the premises . These sources include information about fire haz -
ards, including flash point data, which can be used to determine the class of the liquid.
For consumer commodities, the container label that is required by the Federal Haz-
ardous Substances Act (see Title 16, Code of Federal Reg11lntio11s, Part 1500.43a) will
provide useful information. The words "Danger. Extremely Flammable" mean that the
liquid's flash point is 20°F (-6. 7°C) or less. "Warning Flammable" means the flash point
is in the 20°F to l00°F (-6.7°C to 37.8°C) rnnge. "Caution. Combustible" means the
flash point is in the l00°F to l 50°F (37.8°C to 65.5°C) range. Absence of a label should
not be considered as proof that the liquid will not ignite.

STORING AND HANDLING FLAMMABLE

AND COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS
The primary hazard involved in storing and handling flammable and combustible
liquids is accidental release, followed by ignition of the spilled liquid. Accidental
release from liquids being stored in tanks usually results from overfilling the tank. For
container storage, usually accidental releases are the result of container failure caused
by mishandling, corrosion, or puncture. Once a spill occurs, the likelihood of ignition
increases significantly, and the resulting fire will present a greater challenge. If the spill
takes place as a consequence of an existing exposure fire to the tank or container, the
severity of the incident will be significant!}' magnified.

Underground Tanks
Underground tanks are usually arranged with connections through the top of the tank
shell and offer the most fire-safe means of storing liquid . The tank is isolated from external
619
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage I la7ards

fires; thus, it has only an extreme[>, remote chance of internal ignition or physical dam-
age. (Cases of i11ternalexplosions of underground storage tanks are almost unheard of
and mostly occur dur ing maintenance operations i11sidethe tank.) However, underground
storage tank S)'Sternsare subject to leaks that can go undetected for long periods of time.
Released liquid can flow into the basements of adjacent buildings or into other subter-
ranean structures, resulting in very serious fire hazard conditions that must be dealt with
immediately.The inspector should check NFPA 329, Reco111111 ended Pmcficefor Handling
Releases<?fFla111111abl e and Co111lmsti/Jle
Liquids muJGnses, for information on this subject.
Special care must be taken when installing underground stornge tanks to prevent
damage to the tank and its piping that might cause future leaks. Excavation during
installaliun must not undermine adjacent lruclures, and the lank must be situated so
that it is not subject to any static loads from these structures. In areas subject to flood-
ing or high groundwater levels, tanks must be secured to prevent them from being
dislodged. Details of µroper installation procedures can be found in Chapters 21 and
23 of NFPA 30 and in the Petroleum Equipment In titute' RP 100, Reco111111e11ded Prac-
ticesfor l11stallntio11of U11de1gro1111dLiquid StorageSystems,and manufacturers' recom-
mendations for specific tank types and designs contain guidance on underground tank
installation.
Also, mies for und ergrou nd tanks and piping systems are promulgated by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in Title 40 of the Cade of Federal Reg11latio11s,
Part 280. Under these rules, tanks and piping systems must be either suitably protected
to resist corrosion or constructed of corrosion-resistant materials. 1l1ere also are very
specific rules for leak monitoring systems and for periodic testing of the entire storage
sys tem for tightness. As a result of these rules, a modern underground storage tank
installation is likely to include double-walled tank s and double-walled piping, a moni-
toring S}'Stem to detect leaks from the primary containment, groundwater monitoring
wells around the instalJation, and an impervious liner in the excavation.

Outside Aboveground Tanks

Outside aboveground storage tanks are suitable for storing almost any quantity of liq-
uid, from several hundred gallons (liters) to close to a million barrels ( 1 barrel = 42 gal).
Some of the various types of tanks used are shown in FIGURE 48·1.TI1esmaller sizes,
which will hold up to 50,000 gal (190 1113), are typically factory built, whereas the larger
tanks are constructed on site. Chapters 21 and 22 of N FPA 30 cover the requirements
for atmosphe ric and low-pressure storage tanks. Essential features covered by NFPA 30
include proper design and constru ction; a well-engineered foundation; proper siting
of the tank with respect to property lines, public roads, and nearby buildings; spill
control, in the form of remolt: impounding, diking, ur use of secondary containment
tanks; normal venting; emergency relief venting from fire exµosme; overfill preven-
tion; and substantial pipe connections with an adequate numb er of properly placed
valves to control flow in the event of fire or of breakage in the piping.
All oft he above features should have been addressed at the design and construction
stage, especially for the larger, site-built tanks. Consequently, close attention to the
operating features and maintenance are a must for fire safety of the facility.Where spills

620
 CHAPTER 48: Storage and Handling of Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Ord inary cone roof tank Floating roof tank

Roof deck rests upon liquid
and moves upwa rd and
downward with level changes

Lifter roof tank Vapordome roof tank

Liquid·sealed roof moves Flexible diaphragm in
upward and downwa rd with hemispherical roof moves in
vapo r volume changes acco rdance with vapor volume changes

Atmospheric storage tanks

Horizontal tank Spheroid

Sphere Noded spheroid

Low pressure storage tanks or pressure vessels

FIGURE
48-1Storag e tanks for namm able and co mb ustible liqu ids.

are controlled by diking, the inspector should confirm that the dike can contain at least
100 percent of the contents of the largest tank within it, that the dikes are properly
maintained, and that provisions have been made to drain accumulated rainwater from
the dike . The inspector should reconfirm this any time another tan k is installed within
the dik e. ff the diked area has been roofed over, special considerations will be needed
for fire safety (see the next section in this chapter, Tank s Inside Build ings). Finally, fire
protection systems on th e site should be checked to determine proper operation.
The inspector probably will be more involved with smaller aboveground tanks
(FIGURE 48-2). The EPA's underground storage tank rules have been the impetus for
abandoning small underground tanks in favor of aboveground tank systems that offer a

621
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

FIGUR
E48·2Outside aboveground storage tank.

numb er of desirable features, most directed at environmental protection. Some of these

"new technology" aboveground tanks includ e one or more of the following: integral
spill pans, double-walled const ructio n, and thermal insulation. TI1ese tanks typ icall)'
are factory -bui.lt and seldom exceed 20,000 gal (75.7 1113)capacity.
'n1ese tanks requir e installation in accordance with Chapters 2 1 and 22 of NFPA
30, like the larger built-on -site tanks. TI1e inspector might also wish to refer to the
Petroleum Equipment Institute's RP200, Reco111111e11ded Practicesfor tireInslnllntionof
AbovegrnwidStomge Systemsfor Motor \fe/ric/eRef11 eling.This recommend ed practi ce
incl ud es detailed installation procedures specifically for these aboveground tanks .
NFPA 30A, Code for Motor FrielDisprnsingFacilities nnd Repair Garages,permits
the use of such tanks at retail service stat ions. However, special requirements, in addi -
tion to those found in Chapter 22 of NFPA 30, apply. TI1ese special requirements dis-
tingui sh between aboveground tanks in dikes, aboveground tanks insta lled in vaults,
fire-resistant aboveg round tanks, and protected aboveground tan ks. The complete set
of requirements can be found in Chapter 4 of NFPA 30A.
NFPA 30 also permits some of the "new technology" tanks to be installed without
diking or remote impounding, which are the two accepted means of providing spill
622
 CHAPTER48: Storage and Handling of Flammable and Combustible Liquids

control , provided the tanks do not exceed a 12,000-gal (45 m 3) capacity for Class I liq-
uids and 20,000-gal (75.7 1113) capacity for Class IT and IHA liquids , plus meet certain
other specific requirements. Refer to the requirements for these tanks in Chapter 22 of
NFPA30 .

Tanks Inside Buildings

Although not normally recommend ed , tanks often have to be installed inside build -
ings for pro cess reasons or because the mat erial stor ed mu st be kept under stri ct
environmental control. Fmthermor e, many op erators of small storage tank systems are
choosi ng to build a roof over their tank stora ge areas or to enclo se them entir ely with
a light -framed building. This is because many jurisdictions require that the rainwater
that collects in the diked area be treated as a hazardous waste. Chapter 24 of NFPA 30
includes a detailed set of requirements for tanks storing Class I, II, or ITTAliquids lo-
caled in build ings. The requ iremen ts are ver >7deta iled and should be dealt with dur -
ing the planning and design stages. ·n1e requirements include siting and constru ction
of the building, ventilation, drainage, venting tanks, connections to tanks , electrical
equipment, and fire prevention and control.
·n1e inspector should ensure that there is enough access and egress to provide unob-
structed movement of personnel and fire protection equipment and should verify that
th e necessary ventilation is full)' operational an d adequate. NFPA 30 requires that there
be enough ventilation to keep the concentration of vapors below 25 percent of the
lower flammable limit. Refer to Section 24.10 of NFPA 30 for informat ion on how this
level of ventilation can be achieved. The inspector should also confirm that the drain -
age systems are adequate and operable. Tank s with weak roof-to-shell seams are not
allowed inside buildings and neither are floating roof tanks. Normal and emerg ency
vents must terminate outside the building in all cases.
Storing fuel oil in inside tanks that hold not more than 660 gal (2500 L) with fill and
vent connections outside is an accepted practice under the requirem ents ofN FPA 31,
Sta11dnrdfor the I11stal/atio11
of Oil-Burning Equipment.

Portable Tanks and Intermediate Bulk Containers

NFPA 30 defines a portable tank as a closed vessel of 60 gal (227 L) to 660 gal (2500 L)
that is not intended for fixed installation and defines an intermediate bul k containe r
(IBC) as a clos ed vessel having a liquid capa city not exceeding 793 gal (3000 L). Both
are regulated by DOT.
If suitably constructed , portable tank s and lBCs are considered more desirab le than
smaller containers because they are equipped with pres sure relief device s that will re -
lieve internal pressure if the portable tank or IBC is exposed to an external fire, thus
reducing the potentia l for catastrophic failure and complete release of the contents.
Because these vessels are designed to be reused, they tend to be constructed more
robustly than some smaller containers. T11eyare widely used in the automotiv e, chemi-
cal, coatings, and pharmaceutical industries. Not on 1)1 are they a cost-effective way to
transport, handle , and store liquids, but also they can be directly connected to process
equipment.
623
 SECTION 4: Processand S101ageHazards

Whereas portable tanks, as defin ed in NFPA 30 and as regu lated by D01~ are only
constructed of metal, IBCs are constructed of metal and composite materials consist-
ing of rigid molded, self-supporting plastic, and blow-mo lded plastic that is enclosed
in various types of metal overpacks for structura l support.
NFPA 30 permits metal. lBCs to be used for the storage of all classes of liquids. How-
ever, NF PA 30 does not permit the use of any rigid nonmetallic (composite) l13C for
the storage of Class I liquids. In addition, while NFPA 30 doe s permit the use of rigid
nonmetallic (composite) mes for storag e of Class H and Class m liquids, the IBCs
mu st be listed and labeled in accorda nce with Und erwri ters Laboratories (UL) 2368,
S/ml(fordfor Fire fapomr e Testingof /11t em 1edinle B11/kCo11tni11ers
for Pln111111nb/e
n11d
CombustibleLiqllids, for the class of liquid to be stored.
Portable tanks and IBCs that exceed 660 gal (2500 L) and 793 gal (3000 L), respec-
tively, are considered by NFPA 30 to be fixed tanks and are governed b}' Chapters 21
and 22 of that code. Portab le tanks are occasionatl)' dire ctl}' conne cted to process
equ ipment. In such cases, the installation also must meet the applicable requirements
of Chapters 17 and 18 ofNFPA 30.

Drums and Other Portable Conta iners

NFPA 30 recognizes th e use of a number of different types of containers and specifies
the maximum allowable sizes for the different liquid classes (TABLE 48-2).
Drums and other portab le containers are best stored outdoors away from buildings
or in small deta ched storag e buildings used only for such storage. Where drums and
portable conta iners are stored inside buildi ngs, they shou ld be stored in a dedicated
storage room that is protected by an automatic sprinkler or foam -water fire protection
system that is a wet-pipe, deluge, or preaction type S}'Stern. ff a preaction S}'Stemis used,
it shall be designed so that water or foam solution will immediately discharge from the
spr inkler upon sprin kler actuation. Containment or drainage from drum sto rage facili-
ties for spil ls and liquid spread contro l should be provided as required and described
by Figur e 16.8.1 in NFPA 30 and arranged in a way that facilitates fire conlrol.
Chapters 9 through 16 of NFPA 30 contain specifi c requirements for maximum
quantities and maximum storage heigh ts for container storage for a variet}' of occu -
panci.es and storage methods. Table 12.6.2.2 of NFPA 30 governs the maximum stor -
age height, maximum storage quantit) ' pe r pile or rack section, and maximum total
quantity for unprotect ed liquid warehouses and facilities that have substandard fire
protection or in which fire prote ct ion is not in accordance with the requirements of
Chapter 16 of NFPA 30. Cha pter 16 of NFPA 30 contains specific design criteria for
automatic sprink ler and foam-water fire protectiOJ] systems for the numerous combi -
nation s of liquid classes based 011 conta iner types, storage arrangements and heights,
and maximum building ceiling heights. These criteria are based on the evaluation of
approximately 150 full-s cale fire tests as listed in the Direc/01yof Fire Tests Im•o/11i11g
Stomge of Ffa111111ab/e n11dCo111busti/JleLiqriids ilr Co11tai11ers(3rd edition), which is
distributed by the Society of Fire Protection Engineers.
NFPA 30 recognizes the use of movable prefabricated hazardous materials stor-
age struc tures, known as hazardous materials storage lockers, as an option for storing

624
 Maximum Allowab le Size-Co ntainers, Intermediate Bulk Cont ainers (IBCs), and ortab le Tanks

Flammable Liquid s Combu stib le Liquid s

Contain er Type Class IA Class 1B Class IC Class II Class IIIA
Glass 1 pt (0.5L) 1 qt (1 L) 1.3gal (5 L) 1.3gal (5 L) 5.3 gal (20 L)
Metal (other than drums) or approved 1.3 gal (5 L) 5.3 gal (20 L) 5.3 gal (20 L) 5.3 gal (20 L) 5.3 gal (20 L)
plastic
Safetycans 2.6 gal (10 L) 5.3 gal (20 L) 5.3 gal (20 L) 5.3 gal (20 L) 5.3 gal (20 L)
Metal drum (e.g., UN 1A1/ 1A2) 119 gal (450 L) 119 gal (450 L) 119 gal (450 L) 119 gal (450 L) 119 gal (450 L)
Approved metal portable tanks and IBCs 793 gal (3000 L) 793 gal (3000 L) 793 gal (3000 L) 793 gal (3000 L) 793 gal (3000 L)
Rigid plastic IBCs(UN 31H1 or 31H2) NP NP NP 793 gal (3000 L) 793 gal (3000 L)
and composite IBCs with rigid inner
receptacle (UN 31HZ1)
Composite IBCswith flexible inner NP NP NP NP NP
receptacle (UN 31HZ2) and DOT/UN-
approved flexible IBCs
Non-bulk Bag-in-Box NP NP NP NP NP
Polyethylene UN 1Hl and UN 1H2, or as 1.3 gal (5 L) 5.3 gal (20 L) 5.3 gal (20 L)" 119 gal (450 L) 119 gal (450 L)
authorized by DOTexempt'1on
Fiber drum NP NP NP 119 gal (450 L) 119 gal (450 L)
NMFCor UFCType 2A;Types3A, 3B-H.or
38-L; or Type 4A
NP:Not permitted for the container categories so classifiedunlessa fire protection system is provided that is developed in accordance with 16.3.6 and isapproved
for the specific container and protecti on against static electricity is provided.
·see 9.4.3.1.
°'
N
V,
 SECTION 4: Process and StorageHazards

LJ

FIGURE 48·3Typicalsafety cans with pouring outlets with tight-fitting caps or valves normally
closed by springs.

contain ers of flammable and combustible liquids. If these storage structures me et the
requirements for inside storage rooms, th ey can even be locat ed within a building and
shifted about on the factory floor as needs dictate. Use of these structures in outdoor
environments is governed by a sepa rate set of requirements contained in Chapter 14
ofNFPA 30.

Safety Cans
Safety cans have a maximum capacity of 5.3 gal (20 L) and come equipped with a
spring closing lid and spout cover so that the can will safely relieve internal pressure
when subject ed to fire exposure. The spring also ensur es that the cove r will snap closed
if the container is dropped while being used. TI,e types of safety cans that can be used
for storing and d ispensing small quantities of flammable liquid s inside buildings are
shown in FIGURE 48·3.1h e safety can is not in ten ded for use in set tings where the peri-
odic release of flammable vapors could creat e a hazardous atmo phere.

TRANSFERRING AND DISPENSING

FLAMMABLEAND COMBUSTIBLE
LIQUIDS
Flammable and combustib le liquid s can be transferred by gravity flow, by container-
mount ed pumps, or by a dosed -pipe fixed pumping system. 11,e latte r is mo st often
used for transferring larg e amount s of liquid s and is the sates! method of transferring
large quantities of liquids.

626
 CHAPTER48: Storage and Handling of Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Pumping Systems
Positive displacement pumps offer a tight shutoff and prevent the liquid from being
siphoned when not in use. Cent rifugal pumps do not provide a tight shutoff when
taking suction under head, and siphoning of the liquid is possible, Valves should be
provided to isolate pumps during maintenance or emergencies .

Gravity Systems
Gravity transfer is most oft en used to dispense liquids from containers. Dispensing
valves should be of the self-closing typ e. Fire safety measures should includ e self-
closing valves, and such valves should not be blocked open. To avoid vapor lock in the
pumping systems , gravity flow is sometimes used where very volatile liquids are trans -
ferred from tanks. The inspector should make sure that isolation valves are provided in
the dispens ing lines from such tanks.

Compressed Gas Displacement Systems

Transfer ofliquids by compressed gas displacement is allowed only under certain con-
ditions. The vessels and con tainers between which transfer occurs and the transfer
lines must be designed to withstand the anticipated operating pressure. Safety controls
and pressure relief devices must be provided to prevent any part of the system from
overpressuring . Compressed air can be used to transfer Class JI and Class III liquids,
but only if the liquid temperatures are not at or above their flash points. Inert gas must
be used for Class I liquids and for Class II or III liquids heated to their flash points.
Compressed air cannot be used, because it increases the possibilil) ' of a vapor - air
explosion inside the container being pressuri zed.
Because compressed gas displacement keeps the system under constant pressure,
a pipe failure or careless valve operation can cause a considerable amount of product
to spill. Adequacy of the safety and operating procedures is important and should be
verified .

Dispensing Systems
Dispensing systems generally involve the transfer of liquid from fixed piping sys-
tems, portable tanks, intermediate bulk containers, or drums into 5.3 -gal (20-L)
pails or smaller end-use containers. Because the release of some vapor is practi -
cally unavoidable , dispensing must take place in designated areas. 1his includes
dispensing operations through closed piping systems , hand pumps, or similar
devices, which transfer liquids by drawing the liquid through an opening in the top
of the tank or container or by means of gravity through a self-closing valve or faucet.
Dispensing could also exist through a hose equipped with self-closing valves or by
means of approved dispensing units, such as those used at service stations. Desig-
nated areas should be adequately protected and ventilated and should be segregated
from adjacent hazards.

627
 SECTION 4 : Processand Storage Hazards

LO S CO N ROL GUI LINES

The following basic loss control guidelines appl}'in principle to all operations in which
flammable and comb ustible liquid s are stored, hand led, and used.

Confi nem nt of Liquids

TI1e major objective of an effective loss cont rol progra m is to keep liquids and vapors
confined in their con tainers . A second objective is lo minimize the effects of an acci-
dental release. TI1efollowing steps will help to achieve these goals:
l. Use equipment that is designed for flammable and com bustible liquid storage.
Such equ ipmen t shou ld be vapor-tight, should have the minimum number of
openings necessar)', and shou ld be designed to relieve excess internal pressure
to a sate location.
2. Equip open vessels and vessels with loose-fitting covers with overnow dniins
and emergencr bottom clump drain s that are piped to a safe location.
3. Handl e sma ll amounts of liquids in approved conta iners.
4. Provide adequate containment or drainage systems to prevent the flow of
spilled liquids into adjacent work areas.

Vent ilat ion

Ventilation is a loss prevention measure that can prevent the build -up of released
vapors under normal operating condit ions. However, ventilation may 1101 prevent igni -
tions where excessive abnorma l vapor releases occur.
1l1e ventilation required for health and satel)' of perso nnel greatly exceeds that
required for fire safel)r. Other regulatory documents such as those from OSHA or US
EPA prov ide the criteria for maintaining a safe environ ment from the health or expo ure
perspective. Since some or all part s of a process involving flammable or combustible liq-
uids may not involve human intervention, it is beyond the scope ofNFPA 30 to address
that aspect. NFPA 30 requires that the ventilation necessary for fire safety be sufficient
to ensure that the vapor concentration will not exceed 25 percent of the lower flammable
limit. In additio n to the traditional acceptable ventilation rate of I cfm/ft2 (0.3 m3/min/
m2) of floor area, Section 17. 11.2 ofN FPA 30 also allows design of the ventilation system
based on calculation of the anticipated fugitive emissions and on monitoring of the ac-
tual vapor concentration of the space under normal operati ng cond itions.
'Il,e inspector should confirm that the ventilation S)'Slemprovides a sweeping action
across the entire floor area and that the system exhausts to a safe location. TI1e system should
be interlocked so that the operation using flammable liquids will shut down if the ventilation
is i11adequate. The provision oflocal or spot ventilation at a dispensing location or worksta-
tion is also acceptable and can account for up to 75 percent of the required ventilation.

Contro l of Ignition Sources

All ignition sou rces should be controlled or eliminated in areas where flammable va-
po rs could be present. Sources of ignition include open flames, hot surfaces, smoking,
628
 CHAPTER 48: Storage and Handlingof rlammable and Combustible Liquids

cutting and welding, frict ional heat or sparks, static electricity, stray currents, and ra-
diant heat. Smoking, open flames, cutting and welding, and hot work should be con-
trolled whether or not Jlammable vapors are present.
Specially classified electrical equipment may be needed in some areas (see the discus -
sion on electr ical systems elsewhere in this text). Genernll)', electrical equipment clas-
sified for hazardou s areas, such as the explosion-proof type, is used, but nonclassified
(ordinary) equipment can be housed in a purged enclosure. Refer to NFPA 496, Sta11-
dard for P111ged a11dPressurizedE11closr1res for ElectricalEq11ip111e11t,
for fi.1rtherinfor-
mation. NFPA 497, Reco111111e11ded Practicefor the Classificationof Fln//1111/l/Jle
Liquids,
Cases, or Vapors1111d of Hazardous (Classified) l.orntionsfor Electrical T11 stnl/a/io11si11
C/JemirnlProcessAreas,is a valuable resource for determining the extent of the classified
zone around vapor sou rces and the proper type of electrical equipment to be provided.

Fir Prot ti n
A wet-pipe automatic spri nkler or foam-waler fire protection system is the preferred
basic fire control system in areas used to store and handle flammable and comb ustible
liquids. Containerized storage may require specially designed sprinkler installations,
including in-rack sprinklers along with ceiling-level sprinkle rs. Storage tanks, vessels,
and process equipment in chemical plants might require deluge water spray systems
for cooling or fire control. Automatic or manually actuated foam exting uishing systems
are also used in certain process and tank storage areas in which Oammable and com-
bustible liquids are stored and processed.
Where tanks are supported above their foundations, tank supports sho uld be of con-
crete, masonry. or protected steel constrnction. It is also generally acceptab le to protect
steel supports with water spray protection in accordance with NFPA JS, Stmufmdfor
WaterSprayFixed Systemsfor FireProteclio11, or NPPA 13, S/a11dard for Ifie lmtallntio11
of Spri11klerSystems. In small confined areas or inside special equipment or vessels, it
might be desirable to provide special extinguishing systems to suppleme nt the auto-
matic sprinkler systems.
Appropr iate portable fire extinguishers are also necessal')' in the event of small liq-
uid fires or fires involving other combustibles.
Hydrants and sma ll fire hoses with adjustable spray nozzles should be provided in
areas where flammable and combustible liquids are stored, handled, or used. Hose
streams can be used to cool adjacen t tanks and structures, to extinguish fires, and to
clean up spills.

CODES AND STANDARDSFORS CIFIC

OCCUPANCIES
l'naddition to N FPA30, inspectors may want to consult the following NFPA codes and
standards for requir ement s for specific occupancies.
I. NFPA 30A, Codefor 1Wotor FrielDispe11si11g Facilities1111dRepair Garages,cov-
ers both retail automotive service statio ns and private fleet fuel-dispensing
systems. It also covers fuel dispe nsing at marine facilities. Although primarily
629
 SECTION 4: ProCE"S
Sand Stor~ge Hazards

directed at the fuel-d ispensing system itself and fire safety within the service
station building, it also addresses fire safety requirements for "quick lube"
facilities and the use of aboveground storage tanks. TI1erequirements for siting
of aboveground storage t,rnks differ somewhat from those of NF PA 30.
2. NFPA 30B, Code for tire 1'vfa11 1fncture n11dStomge of Aerosol Products. ll1e
scope of this dornment is provided in its title. It also allows one to classify the
degree of hazard of the aerosol produ ct. Its requirements for storing of aerosols
are quite extensive, and it even provides fire protection requirements for mixed
flammable liquid/flammable aerosol storage.
3. NFPA 31, Standardfor tlie l11stalfalio11 ofOil -B11mi11g E<]1iip111c11t.
171is standa rd
covers the installation of liquid fuel-burning equipmen t, such as oil burners
and oil-Iired water heaters. Chapter 7 of this standard covers the installation
of the fuel oil tanks and allows some latitude compared with NFPA 30. It
addresses the typical home heating oil tank and the use of special enclosures
for fuel oil storage tanks.
4. NFPA 32, Standard for Dryclen11i11g P/1111ts.TI1isstandard covers drycleaning
operations, both at drycleaning plants and at self-serve establishments open to
the public.
5. Nf PA 33, Sta11dnrdfor Spmy Applic11tio11 Using Fla11111111b
lc or Co111b11stible
Materials. This standard covers spray application of paints, coatings, and so
on by means of compressed air, airless atomization, fluidized bed, and elec-
trostati c method s. It provides requirements for the equipment, the spray area,
spray booth construction, ventilation, liquid storage and handling , and spe-
cial applications. It also provides specific requirements for limited finishing
workstations, vehicle undercoating and body lining, powder coating, and glass
fiber-rein forced µlastics.
6. NFPA 34, Standard for Dipping 1111d Canting ProcessesUsing Flammable or
Com/mstiblc Uq11id s. This standard covers the location of dipping and coating
processes, the construction of the equipment, ventilation requirements, liquid
storage and handling, and operations and maintenance.
7. NFPA 35, St1111dnrd for tfie h1nnrifnct11re
of Orgn11icCoatings.This standard is
specific to the coatings manufacturing industry and also covers the hazards
associated with the use of nitrocellu lose and monomers.
8. NFPA 36, Standardfor Solvent Extmction Plants. Il1is document is specific to
the extraction of animal and vegetable oils and fats using Class r flammable
hydrocarbon liquids. It is comprehensive and includes a description of the
extraction process and the equipment used.
9. NFPA 37, Standard for Ifie l11stallntio11 a11d Use of StationM)' Co111b11slio11
E11gines1111d Gas Turbines. TI1is document covers the iJ1Stallationof engines
and turbin es and their fuel supplies for driving stationary equipment such as
emergency generators and fire pumps . Its requirements for fuel storage differ
from those ofNFPA 30.
10. NFPA 45, St1111dard 011Fire Protectionfor Lnbomtorics Usi11gChe111icnfs. This
document covers the storage and handling ofliquids in industrial and instruc -
tional laboratories.
630
 CHAPTER48: Storageand Handling of Flammable and Combustible Liquids

11. NFPA 77, Reco111111e11ded Practice 011Static Electricity. This recommended

practice provides guidance on proper bonding and grounding techniques to
minimize ignition by static electric discharge .
12. NFPA 385, Standard.for Tank Vehiclesfor Fla111nwble and Co111bustibleLiquids.
This standard provides requir ements for the construction of tank vehicles to
be used in flammable and combustible liquids service. It also provides require-
m ents for safe operation during loading and unloading.

HY
Benedetti , R. P., ed., Flm11111nble and Co111b11stibleLiquids Code Hn11dbook,8th ed.,
NFPA, Quinq•, MA, 2012.
Cote, A. E., ed. , PireProtectionHandbook, 20th ed ., NFPA , Quincy, MA, 2008 .
C ote, A . E., and Linville, J. L., eds ., J11d11strial
Fire Hazards Handbook, 3rd ed. , NFPA,
Quincy, MA, 1990.
Nugent, D. P. (Aon Risk Consultants), Directory of Fire Testsl11volvi11g Storage of Pla111
-
111able nnd Combustible Liquids in Containers, 3rd ed., Society of Fire Protection
Engineers, Washington, DC, 2006 .
PEI/RP 100, Recommended Practicesfor Instnllatio11of U11de1gro1llld Liquid Stomge Sys-
tems, Petroleum Equipment Institute, Tulsa, OK, 1990.
PEI/RP200, Reco111me11ded Pmcticesfor Installation ofAbol'egro1111dStomge Systemsfor
J\;fotorVehicleR~f11eli11g,Petroleum Equipment Institute, Tulsa, OK, 1994.

Federal Regulations
These references are available from the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC or at www.gpo.gov.
Title 16, Code of Fedeml Regulatiom, Part l 500.43(a).
Title 29, Code of Fedeml Reg11/alio11s,
Part 1910.
Title 40, Code of Fedeml Regulations, Part 280.
Title 49, Code of Fedeml Reg11/atio11
s, Part 173.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availabilit} ' of current editions of the
following documents .
NFPA 30, Flammable a11dCombustible Liquids Code
NFPA 30A, Codefor Motor FrielDispensingFacilitiesand Repair Garages
NFPA 31, Standardfor the Instnllntionof Oil-Burning Equipme11t
NFPA 32, Stall(fordfor D1yclenning Plants
NFPA 33, Sta11dard for Spray Application UsingFlammable or CombustibleMaterials
NFPA 34, Stn11dnrd jt1rDipping and CantingProcessesU,ing Fln11111wble
or Co111bustible
Liquids
NFPA 35, Standardfor the Mm111facture
ofO1ganic Coatings

631
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

NFPA 36, Sta11dardforSolvent Extractio11Plants

NFPA 37, Sta11dard
for the Installation a11dUseof Statio11myComb11stio11
Engines and
Gas Turbines
NFPA 45, Stm1dard011FireProteclio11f
or laboratories Usi11g
Che111icnls
NFPA 69, Sta11dard011faplosion Preve11tio11
Systems
NFPA 77, Recommended Practice 011Static Electricity
NFPA 86, Standardfor O11e11sa11dFrmwces
NFPA 326, Standard for the Safeguardingof Tanks and Containersfor E11t1y,Clen11i11g,
or Repair
NFPA 329, Reco111111
e11dedPracticefor Hn11dli11g
Releasesof Flmn111able
n11dCombustible
Liq11idsand Gases
NFPA 385, Stmrdardfor Tank Vehiclesfor Flm11111able
and CombustibleLiquids
NFPA 496, Sta11dnrd
fo r Purged and PressurizedE11dosures
for ElectricalEquipme11t
NFPA 497, Recomme11dedPracticefor the Classificatio11
of Fla111111nbl
e Liq11id, Gases, or
\lapors and of Hazardous (Classified) Locations.fur ElectricalI11s1a/latio11
s in Chemi-
cal ProcessAreas

632
 CHAPTER

49

GAS HAZARDS
Denise Beach

Of all three states of matter-gas, liquid, and solid-gas is the only one with no shape
or volume of its own, and it is the only one that expands to fill the container it is
in. A gas always exerts pressure on its container . Gases are frequently compressed to
facilitate shipment. Some gases, such as propane, butane, and ammonia, liquefy under
moderate pressure and are stored in pressurized containers in both the liquid and gas
states. Others will liquefy only at higher pressure. With both types of gases, any leak
in the container will allow the material to escape until the pressure inside the con -
tainer is reduced to the pressure of the atmosphere outside the container. Although the
escaped gas can be treated, con trolling the hazard by keeping the gas confined is easier
than dealing with it if it is released. TI1ischapter describes the properties of gases, gas
container safeguards and storage locations, and nonflammable medical gas systems.

PROPERTIESAND STORAGE OF GASES

Properties of Gases
The most dramatic evidence of the hazard that released flammable gases present is a fire
or explosion resulting from the ignition of a gas-air mixture in a confined space. An
accumulat ion of any gas, except ox.,1gen and air, can cause asph}'xfation by displacing
the oxygen in the air in a room. Ox.')'genlevels lower than 19.5 percent are considered
hazardous by the U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-
tration (OSHA) . \t\Thenthe concentration is reduced to 4 percent, death can occur in less
than a minute. Enriched concentrations ofoxygen in air also present health hazards; an}'
concentration greater than 23.5 percent is considered hazardous by OSI-IA.The hazards
include increased flammability of materials and physiologic eftects. Because the human
senses cannot detect most gases, people will inhale a gas normal!) ', as if it were air.
Gases can be hazardous in other ways as well. Some gases are chemically reactive
either by themselves or on contact with other materials. Others are physiologically
reactive and are toxic or can cause other health hazards.
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

Storag . of Gases
Gases are distributed in pipelines and in containers. For economy of storage and trans -
portation, gases are compressed or refrigerated to reduce thei r volume. 'l11ereare three
phys ical forms of gas storage: compressed gases, liquefied gases, and cryogen ic liquids.
I. A comp ressed gas (non liquefied), stored as gas under pressure, is categor ized
by both the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) and NFPA 55, Com-
pre ·sed Gnses nnd Cryogenic Fluids Code, :is "a gas, other than in solution, that
in a packaging und er the charged pressure is entirely gaseous at a temperature
of 68°F (20°C)."
2. A liqu efied ga,;, stored as both liquid and gas under pressure (if the gas lique-
fies under moderate pressure), is defined as "a gas, other than in solution, that
in a packaging und er the cha rged pressure is partially liquid at a temperature
of 68°F (20°C)."
A cq rogeni - lluid i lique fied using a combination of pre ssure and low tem-
perature and stored at low temperatures in insulated, pressurized containers;
it is defined as "a fluid ha ving a boiling point lower than -130°F (-90°C) at
14.7 pounds per square inch abso lute (psia; an absolute pressure of 101 kPa)."
All gases are hazardous materials because of the ir pressure (compressed and liquefied
gases) or temperat ur e (cryogenic liquids ). The volume of gas evo lved from the leakage
of a compressed, liquefied, or cryogenic gas is 200 to 850 times the stored volum e.
Ali compre ssed and liquefied gases are stored at pressures of I00 psi (689 kPa) and high-
er. Cr}'ogenic liquids are stored at their normal atmospheric boiling point in insula ted con -
tainers that are also pressure vessels. Because heat leakage into the vessel is inevitable, these
containers are designed to hold some pressure (25 to 100 psi (l 72 to 689kPaJ, typically).
Despite the ability of these pressure vessels to contain pressure, the occasional operation
of the pressure relief valve with som e release of gas is normal. The most effective way to
redu ce gas hazards is to prevent containers from leaking by taking measures to maintain
the integrity of the containers and by designing the conta iners to prevent failure.

GAS CONTAINER SAFEGUARDS

Gas con tain ers are constru cted to the same stand ards as those applied to pressure
vessels. Portable pressure vessels include cylinders and tanks that are part of cargo
vehicles or railroad tank cars (FIGURE 49·1).They are constru cted to DOT or Transport
Canada (TC) requi rements ill the United States and Canada, respective !}',and to simi-
lar standar ds in other countr i.es. Fixed pressure vessels are const ru cted to the Boiler
nil(/ Presmre VesselCode of the American Society of lvlechanical Eng ineers (ASlvlE)
(FIGURE 49·2). Providing all the de tails of construct ion and inspection of these press ure
vesse ls is beyond th e scope of this text.

Pressure Relief Valv es and Pressure Regulators

Regardless of the code used, pressme vessels must be cons truc ted to contain the
an ticipated pressure of the gas stored. Because different gases are stored under different
634
 CHAPTER49: Gas HMards

FIGURE49·1 DOT/TCcylinders.Top:Typicalindustrial truck motor (engine) fuel cylinders.

Bottom:Typicalstationaryand portable cylinders for residential and commercial uses.

49·2Small ASMEcontainer commonly used in residential and commercial applications.

FIGURE

635
 SECTION4: Process and Storage Hazards

amo unts of pressure, ensuring that the proper cylinders and tanks are being used is
impor tant. Some substitutions of gases and crJinders are acceptable; but if in doubt, a
gas supplier can be con tacted for more informal ion.

Compressed Gases . 1he pressure in a gas container varies with both the tempera-
ture and the amount of gas co ntain ed. Compressed gases are filled lo a predetermined
pressure, depending on the con struction of the con tainer . As the gas is used, the pres-
sure decreas es proportionately. The gas also expm1ds and contra cts as the temp erature
increases and decreases. Safety devices are used lo protect the container from overpres -
sm e failure. Compresse d gas cylinder s are usually equipped with a burst disk, which
releases the co11le n1s of the contain er if the pressure exceeds a preset level. These q •l-
inders are also equipped with fusible devices that release the en tire contents of the
cy.linder if the temperature exceeds a prese t value, as would be the case if the container
were exposed to lire.

Liquefied Gases . Liquefied gas contain ers are not filled full with liquid , but have a
vapor space to allow for expansion of the liquid. Liquefied gas containers are equipped
with pressure relief valves, which open to reduce the pressure in a contain er if the pre-
se t pressure is exceeded. These valves close when the internal pressure return s to below
the preset pressme. If the liquid expands to fill the container comple tely, the pressure
will rise above the design pressure of the container, and the pressure relief valve will
open to prevent cont ainer failure. 'll1is situation is not desirable because some of the
gas wiU have been released. Depending on where the container is located and what
the properties of the gas are, this gas release may present problems. 1l1e pressure in a
liqu efied gas conta iner is a function of the temperature of th e liquid and vapor in the
container. Information on the temperature-pressure properties of liquefied gases ca n
be found in the Co mpressed Gas Association's Hn11dbookof CompressedGnses.

Cryogenic Liquids. Cryogenic liquids are stored in insulated containers that are a lso
designed to hold pressure. Tuey are subject to the same potential expansio n as liquefied
gas cylinders, but because they are well insulated , fire exposure do es not dominat e the
sizing of the pressure relief valve. Cryogenic liquids are stored at very low tempera-
tures [below -130°F (-90°C)]. As a result, heat leakage into the cylinder is inevitable,
because all insu lation will allow some heat transfer.
As the liquid warms, some vaporization occ urs, and the pressure in the cylinder
increases. 1l1e pressure relief valve will open periodically to protect the cylinder. Because
most of the cryogenic liquids are nonflammable (e.g., nitrogen and argon), thi s release is
not a problem. Special care must be taken, however, with cryogenic m,...ygencylinders to
keep them separate from any flammable gases and to ensure that they are stored outdoors
or in well-ventilated areas. Occasionally, liquid hydrogen cylinders will be stored. Such
cylinders must be stored outdoor s or indoor s in accordance with NFPA 55, Compressed
Gnsesa11dCryogenicFluids Code , in buildings or rooms used onl)' for hydrog en storage.
The inspector should refer to NFPA 55 for storage requirement details.

Piping Systems, TI1ere is a possibility for acc ide nt al relea se of gases from the stor -
age and piping S)'Stem. 1l1ese releases must be stop ped if the released gas presents
636
 CHAPTER 49: Gas Hazards

a controllable hazard. Release of unburned flammable gas in a building can lead to

an explosion if the gas is ignited. Once ignited, the burning gas should not be extin-
guished unless the flow of flammable gas can be stopped. Outdoors, a vapor cloud
ignition can cause extensive damage.
All compressed piped gas systems use one or more pressure regulators to maintain
system pressure to accommodate gas users. TI1ese regulators often have pressure relief
devices incorporated in them or the pressure relief can be accomplished with a sepa-
rate device. Both for flammable and nonflammable gases, the regulator pressure relief
opening or pressure relief device should be piped to the outdoors if the system is not
already located outdoors. All gas containers have a manually operated valve at the gas
outlet. An automatically operated valve may also be used. Where used, the inspector
should check it for proper operation because it is often part of the safety system.

Boiling iquid/ Expanding Vapor Explosion

Fire exposure can lead to container failure despite the proper operation of the pressure
relief valve . TI1e pressure relief valve is designed to open to release pressure above a
safe level. In a fire, the container metal (usually steel) can be heated, especially if the
flame is above the liquid level. As the metal is heated, its strength properties change.
As a rule of thumb, a metal loses its ability to hold pressure at about half its melting
point in degrees Fahrenheit. Steel has a melting point of 2600°F {1427°C) or higher.
Beginning at 1300°F (704°C), therefore , steel weakens to the point at which it can
no longer hold the pressure it was designed to hold. 111is temperature can easily be
reached with direct flame impingement. Aluminum alloys melt at between 980°F
(527°C) and 1200°F (649°C).
Cooling of containers exposed to fire can prevent this failure mode, which is called
a boiling liquid/expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE). Although no definitive studies
have been done to confirm the fact, the BLEVE of a steel container within 10 minutes
of flame impingement has not been observed to occur. Fire is not the only cause of
BLEVE. BLEVE can occur if the container is no longer able to contain the pressure it
was designed to contain. This can be caused by corrosion and mechanical reduction in
container wall thickness. Inspectors should look for corrosion and gouging of contain-
er walls. If these are found, a pressure vessel engineer can be contacted to determine if
a hazard exists.

Certification of Cylinders
Cylinders subject to DOT or TC standards are manufactured with a date stamped into
the cylinder or its collar. Cylinders can be filled for 12 years from the date of manufac -
ture . Cylinders can be filled and shipped up to that date. After the date is passed, the
cylinder must be inspected and recertified in accordance with procedures stated in the
DOT or TC standards. 1hey can then be stamped with a date 5, 7, or 12 years from
the date of recertification. 1he date is deterrn .ined by the recertification method used.
Note that the contents of cylinders with expired dates can be used with no limitation.
The date applies only to the filling and shipping of cylinders. Inspectors should verify
that out-of-date q>lil1ders are not refilled .
637
 SECTION4: Processanc.JStorage Hazards

Uses of Comp ressed Gases

The most common uses of compressed gases are as follows :
, As fuel in gas-burni ng app liances, indu strial heati n g equipment, and motor
vehicles, with air.
• For cu tting and welding, with 0A1,gen .
, For med ical purposes, especial!)' oxygen and nitrous oxide.
• For shielding from OA1'genin weldi ng processes, using argo n or othe r gases.
, For entertainm ent purpo se , in the form of flame effects in theme park s and
conce rts.
All of these uses involve the release of gas from its conta iner under controll ed cond i-
tions. Sµecific equ ipment is used to con trol the flow a nd µressure of the gas to maintain
safe conditi ons . Many sma ller heating appliances have a temperature -sens ing device in
th e flame to se nse flame failur and to shut off the flow of gas if the flame is 1101 pres-
ent when ii should be. Larger heating appliances use optical flame detectors that sense
flame absence faster and can stop the gas flow more qu icld)'·

Gas-Burn ing Appliances and Industrial Heating

Equipment
Nearly all of the commercial gas -burning appliances and much industrial heat ing
eq uipmen t are listed to the American National Standards Ins titut e (ANSI) or Under-
writers Laboratories (UL) standards . Special pu rpose and custom-made indu strial gas
app liances are often not listed and must be evaluat ed for safe design. Such an eva lua-
tion can be done by an independent testing laboratory, a gas engineer, or the gas utility
company .

Oxygen - Fuel Gas Cutting and Welding

Oxrgen - fuel gas cutting and welding systems have spec ially designed devices to con -
trol the gas flow and pressure and to prevent the ad dit ion of 0A1'gen to a fuel C)'linder
or piping system and to prevent the additi on of fuel to an oxygen cylinde r or piping
srs tem. For more in formation on these devices, the inspecto r should refer to NFPA 51,
Standardfor tireDesign n11db1stnllntio11
of Oxygen-FuelGns Systems for Welding,Cut-
ting, nnd Allied Processes.

Entertainment
1l1e use of fire as an enterta inm ent effect h as grown considerably in the last 15 )'Cars.
NFPA forme d a commi ttee on the subjec t, and a new standard, NFPA 160, Stn11dnrd
for the UseofFlmne Effects Before n11Audience, was issued in 1998. This standard pro -
vides m inimum requir eme nts and applies to use of the flame effect before an audi ence ;
des ign, installa tion, oµerations and othe r aspects of the systems that produce the flame
effect; pro cedure s to be used when a televisio n or movie produc tion involves flame ef-
fects befor e an audi ence; rehear sal of a production incor p ora ting flame effects that is

638
 CHAP ER 49: Gas Hazards

intended to be shown before an audie ncej and storage and holdin g of mater ials that are
used to create flame effects. The inspe ctor should consult thi s doc um ent when evaluat-
ing and inspe cti ng any entertainment flame effect.

GAS CO NTAIN ER STORAGE OCATION

Larger gas storage co ntainers, ,d1ich are usually const ructe d to the ASME Boilera11rl
PressureVessel Code, are norma llr located outdoo rs. Por table cylinders can be stor ed
in many locations. NFPA 55 provides req uir eme nts for cylind er storage. Storage of
qua ntities of gas cylind ers used in specific ap plications or for specific gases is covered
in other NFPA documents, as shown in TABLE 49·1.
In ad dit ion, in the United States, stora ge of gases in industrial applications is cov-
ered by OSH A regulations . OSHA has adopted the NF PA codes and standa rds, or their
predecessor editions refere nced in Table 49-1. Comp liance with these codes and stan-
dards, therefore, provides OSHA complia nce as well.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas Bulk Plants

Lique fied petroleum gas (LP gas) is transported by ships, barges, pipelines , trucks , and
tank cars to bulk plan ts, which store and distribute LP gas to users . llulk plants, of
which there are a l.arge number in the United States, are mosl likely to be located in
su bur ban and rural areas (FIGURE49-3). 1l1ese pla nts must comply with NFPA 58, Liq-
Gns Code.
uefied Petrole11111

Key Features of Bulk Plants

Tank Car Unloading. Tank cars on a rail spur, where rails have been installed , must be
at leas t 50 ft (7.6 111)from the main line and must be enclo sed with an indus trial fence.
1l1e railroad tank car and the liquid load ing or unloadi ng piping must be eq uipp ed
with valves to stop the flow of LP gas in the event of pipi ng or hose failure.

NFPACodes and Standards Related to Gas Storage

Gas Code
Propane NFPA58, LiquefiedPetroleumGosCode
Hydrogen NFPA55,Compressed
Gasesand Cryogenic Fluids
Code
Oxygen and fuel gasesused NFPA5 l , Standard for the Designand Installation of
for cutt ing and welding Oxygen-Fuel Gas ystems for Welding , Cutting, and
AlliedProcesses
Oxygen,other L1ses NFPA55, Compressed
Gasesand CryogenicFluids
Code

639
 Sl:CTION4: Process dnd Storage Hazards

Bulk truck
loading slal ion
Vapor
lines

49·3LPgas bulk plant.

FIGURE

TruckUnloading. The unloading point for transport trucks delivering LP gas should
have a mechanical or physical guard to prevent damage to the piping and hose. Wheel
chock blocks must be used. 1l1e truck and bulk plant piping system must be equipped
to stop the flow of LP gas in the event of hose or piping failure. In addition, piping
anchorage and an e.mergency shutoff valve are required to provide safety in the event a
truck drives off with the delivery hose connected. TI1esesafety features are required in
all bulk plants, irrespective of their installation date. Where needed, a shed to protect
the driver or delivery attendant should be provided because the delivery must be moni-
tored by a qualified person.

Bulk Plant Storage Tanks. Storage tanks must be installed on insulated steel or con-
crete foundations. A gauging device and pressure relief valves are required. Tank inlets
and outlets must be equipped with internally mounted valves automatically to stop
the flow of LP gas in the event of piping failure. NFPA 58 requires all storage tanks
installed after Jul)' I, 2003, to have remotely operated internal valves connected to the
liquid space of the tank (FIGURE 49·4).This requirement became applicable to existing
tanks in the year 2011.

Truck Loading. 1l1e loading area should be level and either paved or free of vegeta-
tion. Wheel chock blocks must be used.

Cylinder Filling, Cylinder filling can be done indoors or outdoors. When done in-
doors, the building or separate room used for filling must meet the requirements of
640
 CHAPTER 49: Gas Hazards

FIGURE49·4 lntemal valvesin storage rank. Source:

Modified
fromLP
-GasCod
e Handbook,
IJFPA, Exhibit
2011, 6.30.

NFPA 58 for buildin gs or structures housing LP gas distribution facilities. Included

are limitation of sources of ign ition, indirect heating, and minimum ventilation
requireme nts.

Fire Safety Analys is. Many bulk plants have a fire safety analysis that was developed
as part of the permitt ing process, as required by NFPA 58. NFPA 58 requires all bulk
pla nts to have a fire safety analysis completed within 2 years of the adoption of the new-
est edition of NFPA 58.

Fire Protection. Wher e a fire protection system is installed at a bulk plant, it should
be tested regularly for reliability. Fire extinguishers should be tested every 12 years.
Water spray systems should be tested by Oowing water at intervals required by NFPA 25,
Stm1dardfor the lllspeclio11,Testing,a11dMni11te11n11ce of Water-BasedFire Protectio11
Systems.Tests should be witnessed.

Inspecting Bulk Plants

Inspectors who conduct inspections of bulk plants should be on the lookout for the
following safety items:
I. Are there roads or is other access (e.g., shoreline access) provided for emer-
gency vehicle access?
2. Is the gas stored at the plant odorized? 1l1e inspector should conduct a sniff test.
3. Are precautions taken against vehicle damage to tanks and piping?
641
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

4. If the plant is operated at night, is there adequate lighting for night operation?
5. Do storage con tainers have namepl ates? Are the)' designed for 250 psi
(1700 kPa), at minimum?
6. Is the ground within 10 ft (3 m) of storage conta .iners free of loose or piled
combustible mater ial ;md weeds and long dry grass? Note that live vegetation
is permi.tted.
7. Doe s each storage container have a pr essure relief valve? Is there a 7-ft (2-m)
tailpipe for each pre ssure relief valve?
8. Are stora ge co ntain er suppo rts concrete o r insulated steel?
9. Are con tainers free or sign ificant rust all(i !Jilting?
IO. Does bulk truck and ta nk car loading and unloadin g piping have emergency
shutoff valves with provision for local and remote operation, and does it have
a fusible link? Does th is piping have secure anchorage?
11. Do all sto rage container connections (except instruments, pressure relief
valves, and plugged connections) have shutoff valves?
12. Does the plant have at least one fire exti nguisher with at least 18 lb (8.2 kg) of
agent and a B:C rating?

CLEANING AND PURGING OF

FLAMMABLEGAS PIPING SYSTEMS
C lean ing and purging of gas piping at industrial sites such as electric -generating pow -
er plants has often been done usiug the gas fuel to achieve the desired result. Th is
practice was banned following an exp losion that occurred in 2010 at a power plant
under construction aud that was attributable to this practice. The event resulted in
multiple fatalities and caused federal regulators to review the procedures that had
been utilized.
NFPA 56 (PS), Stnndnrd for Fire 1111d Explosion Pre11e11tio11 During Cle1111i11g and
Purging of F/1111111111ble
Gns Pipi11gSyste111s was developed to address the procedures to
be used when cleaning and purging of such piping systems are necessary . NFPA 56
(PS) require s an extensive written procedure for pipe cleaning and purging, taking
into account the contro l of ignition sources, site -specific processes, and environmen-
tal conditions. The in specto r needs to be aware of the procedures that are to be em -
ployed for the cleaning or purging process and compare them to the outline provided
in NFPA 56 (PS).

NONFLAMMABLE MEDICAL GAS

SYSTEMS
Medical Gases
Nonflammable piped medical gas systems in a healthcare facility may include oxygen,
nitrou s oxide, nitrogen, helium , and carbon d ioxide gases. Medical air and vacuum
systems generated by special compressor systems, and waste anesthesia gas disposal

642
 CHAPTER49: GasHazards

commonly use piped gas systems. Gas systems for specific occupancies are designated
by "categories" relative to the nature of definitive patient care and life-sustaining de -
pendency as defined within the "Fundamenta ls" chapter ofNFPA 99, Health Care Fa-
cilities Code.
Because m,')'gen and nitrous oxide are nonflammable, their hazard as oxidizing agents
is not always recognized . In large leaks, both gases will lower the ignition temperature
and accelerate the combustion offlammab le and combustible liquids , gases, and solids.
Although containers storing Cl'}'Ogenic liquids have protective features, acciden -
tal spills and leakage can occur. Because liquid 0X}'gen has a boiling point of - 297°F
(-183°C) and an 860:l expansion ratio , pot ential hazards exist, including the following:
, 1he contact of skin tissue with the low temperature liquid.
• The large volume of oxygen -enriched air that can be formed.
• TI1e ease of ignition of flammable and combustible materials in an ox')'gen-
enr iched atmosphere.
• The explosive nature of spilled liquid oxygen when it is in contact with organic
materials (including asphalt, wood, and carpet) and is subjected to shock, such
as from a tool being dropped or someone walking on the liquid . TI1issensitivity
exists until the spilled liquid has evaporated.

Medical Gases Safeguards

Valve s and Alarm Systems. Valves and alarm systems are used with the piped
systems to isolate areas during renovation and emergencies. Alarm systems are incor-
porated to identify operational problems, including valves that may have been acciden-
tally closed and gas outages.

Ventilation and Construction. Compressed gas cylinder supplies are connected to

the piping network through manifold systems. Storage areas are constructed to prevent
a fire occurring outside the room from affecting the cylinders. Ventilation of the room
is intended, in the event ofleakage, to prevent oxidizing or inert gases from accumulat-
ing within the room or from being distributed to occupied spaces . Except for shipping
crates or cylinder storage cartons and wooden rack construction for cylinder storage,
combustible materials cannot be stored within the room. Piping system materials and
installation methods are intended to provide system integrity against fire and the sub-
sequen t release of oxidizing gases into the fire environment.

Bulk Liquefied Oxygen Systems. Liquefied oxygen (LOX) systems convert the LOX
to gaseous oxygen for supplying healthcare facilities that use large quantities of o;.,·ygen
for their piped systems. TI1estorage part of LOX systems must meet the requirements
ofNFPA 55, CompressedGnsesand Oyog enic Fluids Code.
Small portable units containing LOX can be found in many hea lthcare facilities and
private dwellings. TI1ese unit s enhance patient mobility by eliminating the need for
people on respiratory therapy to carry a small compressed gas cylinder with them.
TI1e sma ll LOX units are refilled daily, or more frequently, from a cryogenic reservoir
provided by a medical gas supplier.

643
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

Hyperbar ic Chambers. Hyp crba ric cha mber s, which are pres surized vessels
designed to contain 100 percent oxygen within the cham ber, are used to treat decom-
pression sickness (the bends), carbon monoxide poisoning, wounds, burns and other
disorders . TI1e increased availability of hyp erba ric chambers can be attributed to the
continued discovery of health benefits associated with concentrated levels of oxygen.
Special requir ements for construction and enclosures, electri cal systems, fire protec-
tion, and furnishings are found in NFPA 99B, Strmdardfor Hypo/1aricFacilities.

Bl APHY
Boilermid Pressure VesselCode, Section Vfll , Amer .ican Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers, New York, NY, 2010 .
Codefor Press11re
Piping,2008 ASJ'vlE1331,American Society of Mechanical Engin eers,
NcwYork , Y.
Cote, A. E., ed., Fire Proleclio11Handbook,20th ed ., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008 .
Co te, A. E., and Linville, J. L., eds., !11d11slrinl
Fire Hnwrds Hn11dliook,3rd ed ., NFPA,
Quincy, MA, 1990.
Handbook of CompressedGases,Compressed Gas Association, Chantilly, VA, 1999.
Lemoft: T. C., ed., LP-Gns Code Handbook, 9th ed., NFPA, Quincy , MA, 2011.

NFPACodes,Standards, and RecommendedPractices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 25, Sta11dnrd
for the Inspectio11,Tesli11g,
and Mni11te11a11ce
of H'ater-Bnsed fire
ProlectionSystems
NFPA 51, Standardfor the Designn11dInstalfalio11
of Oxygen-FuelGasSystemsfor Weld-
ing, C11t1i11g
, mid Allied Processes
NFPA 55, CompressedGnsesand C,yoge11ic Fluids Code
NFPA 56 (PS), Stn11dardfor Firemrd ExplosionPre11e11tio11
D11ri11g
Clea11i11g
and Pwging
of Flm11111able
Gas PipingSystems
NFPA 58, Liqu~fiedPetroleum Gas Code
NFPA 99, Health Care FacilitiesCode
NFPA 99B, Standardfor HypobnricFacilities
NFPA 160, Standardfor the Useof Flame E_O'ectsBeforen11 Audience

644
 CHAPTER

COMBUSTIBLE DUSTS
Guy Colonna, PE

Finely divided combustible materials, including metals, undergo rapid combust ion
when dispersed in air, which can result in an explosion in a confined environment,
such as in a piece of equipment or in a building. 1he ease with which dust-air mLxtures
ign ite and propagate a flame front that can generate damaging pressures depends on
a number of factors associated with various properties that characterize each com-
bustible dust. 1hese properties include particle size and shape, concentration, ignition
energy, ignition temperature, and moisture content. ln addition to the disrnssion of
these properties in this chapter, inspectors can find additional information on specific
com bustib le dusts in the Fire Protection Handbook (see the Bibliography) .
'D1e first step to und erstand the behavior of combustible dusts that produces the
significant fire and explosion hazard is to gain knowledge of"just what is a combustible
dust:• For the purposes of this text, combustible dusts will be defined as "a combustible
particulate solid that presents a fire or deflagration hazard when suspended in air or
some other oxidizing medium over a range of concentrations, regardless of particle
size or shape:' Traditionally, dusts have been defined as materials having a part icle size
of 420 pm or smaller (which means they are fine enough to pass through a U.S. No. 40
standard sieve). However , nonspherically shaped materials (flakes, flat platelet-shaped
particulates, or particles or fibers whose lengths are longer compared with their di-
ameter) usually do not pass through the 420-~tm sieve but still pose a dust fire or dust
explosion hazard. During handling or transport, particulate solids undergo attrition
as larger solids becom e abraded and form smaller and finer particles that fit the com-
bustible dust characteristics. For example, raw sugar includes particulates of various
sizes when first processed; however, after pneumatic conveying, some very finely di -
vided particles are generated. lf those particles are then suspended, concentrated, and
exposed to an ignition source of sufficient strength, combustion can occur, and with
confinement inside an enclosure, that combustion can result in an explosion .
1he concept of a dust explosion is sometimes not well understood because an
explosion can result from a number of dirterent physical, mechanical, and chemical
proc esses. 1he explosion in this case results from one of two combustion events that
produce sufficient internal pressure to burst or rupture a container. The two combustion
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

processes are distin guis hed by the speed of the combu stion flame front through the
unburned or unreacted fuel medium - a deflagra tion involves a combustion reaction
that travel s slower than the speed of sound , whereas a deto nation involves a comb us-
tion reaction tha t travels at or above the speed of sou nd . For the purposes of this
tex t, the focus will be on deflagrations, as a deto nation involving combus tible du sts is
h ighly unu sual and because typi cal explosion preventive and prot ec tive measur es are
not desig ned to be app lied to detona tion s.
ln a typical dust explosion, the flame front will I ravel 3.3 to 33 ft ( I to 10 m ) per
seco nd . Although this is much faster than the flame speed in a typical fire, it is much
slower than the pressme wave genera ted by the production and ther mal expan sion of
the flammable gases. 1l1e pressme wave is respo nsible for most of the damage in a dust
explosio n and has two im po rtan t cha racteris tics: maximum pressure and maximum
rate of pressure ri se, which will be discussed more thoroughly later in this chapt er.

DUS EXPLOSIONS
TI1ree incidents involv ing fires and explosions in three separate industries in 2003 sig-
naled the beginning of what has become a concerted focus by the indu strial community
to recogn ize, evaluate, and cont rol the fire and explosion hazards presented by combus-
tible dusts. Not since the massive explos ions experience d by the grain- hand ling induslr>'
in the 1970s and 1980s has there bee n such active interest in com bustible dust process
safety. The attention to the hazards of combu stible dusts was further magnified when in
February 2008 a massive fire and explosion at the Imperial Sugar refinery in Port Went -
worth, Georgia, took the lives of 14 worke rs and inj me d many others. Common to each
of thes e cases was the damag ing secon dar>' explos ions casca ding throu gh each facility
add ing to the damage suffered with the initiatin g event. In so me cases, the primary ex-
plosion might not have bee n fueled by comb ustible dust dispersion but by some other
fue l source instead. This first explosion (prima ry explosion) is generally intense enough
to dislodge any accumulated du st on the walls, ledges, machinery, and other surfaces
in the immediate vicinity . Because the pressur e wave moves much faster than the flame
front, it knocks the dust loose and mixes it with air, creati ng a much larger dust cloud
just in tim e to be igni ted by the advanci ng flame fro nt. Although the pr imary explosion
is capab le of creating significant damage, the secondaq, explosion is frequently much
larger than the first and is usually very destructive. It can damag e process equipment,
easily destroy masonry walls, and trigger even larger subsequent exp losions .

RECOGNIZING COMBUSTIBLE
DUST HAZARDS
As previously noted, combustible dust - fueled explosions represent a comp lex sequence
of steps, often modeled as a five-sided interac tion, "the combustible dust pentagon:' TI1e
five elements include the typical "fire triangle" componen ts assoc iated with any combus -
tion process - fuel, oxygen (or oxidizing medium ), and ignition source. Two add itional
elem ents form the penta gon for a com bustible du st explosion - disper sion of a combu s-
tible dust in the relevant concen trati on range and con finement. vVithout con finement,
646
 CHAPTER 50: Combustible Dusts

the combustion yields a deflagration that produces an overpressure and associated fire-
ball but no structural damage to an enclosure . A number of factors impact the potential
for the combustible dust pentagon elements to come together in a way that produces a
deflagration capable of the type of damage documented in the recent incidents .

Particle Size
The smaller the particle size of the dust, the easier it is to ignite, because the ratio of sur-
face area to volume increases tremendously as particle size decreases. Because of th eir
smaller mass , smaller particles are less able to absorb energy from an external source.
Once the du st has been ign ited, it radi ates energy to nearby particles more quickly and
efficiently, propagating the flame front . It is also true that a decrease in particle size
will increase the rate of pressure rise during an explosion and decrease the minimum
explosible concentration (MEC) and the minimum ignition energy (NHE). As a practi -
cal matter , however, a range of particle sizes will be present, and th e behavior ofa given
dust sample will depe nd on particl e size distri but ion.

Concentration
A minimum concentration of dust in air below which propagating ignition will not oc-
cur is called the MEC and is analogous to the lower explosive limit for gases and vapors.
The j'vIECdecreases with decreasing particle size. Plotting explosion pressures and rates
of pressure rise against dust cloud concentration shows that both parameters are at a
minimum value at the MEC, and then both rise to a peak value at a concentration near
the so-called "optimum concentration: ' However, it should be noted that the optimum
concentration is generally consid ered to be the point at which the rate of rise is at a
maximum. TI1e maximum pressure does not always occur at the same point, varying
very slight ly. Once the optimum point is exceeded, both rate of pressure rise and explo -
sion pressure decrease. Maximum explosible concentrations , described as analogous to
the upper explosive limit for gases and vapors, are very rarely determined and have no
practical value. TI1ereis a maximum concentration where the dust -a ir mixture becomes
saturated with too much dust; however, it is not a property that is determined normally.
The MTE, the turbulence of the dust cloud, and the uniformity of dispersion all have
some effect on the MEC, at least in laboratory tests. In the field, these influences are of
secondary importance .

Moisture
One property that can impact the particle size is moisture content of the specific com-
bustible particulate solid, because moisture cau ses the particulates to agglomerate into
larger particles. As already noted, the degree of hazard decreases in most cases as parti-
cle size increases. TI1ehumid it}' of the air surrounding the dust particles has no effect on
the course of a dust explosion . However, the moisture content of the dust particles can
affect the potential for a dust explosion . High moisture content tends to increase igni-
tion temperature, ign ition energy, and the MEC and tends to decrea se the severity of
the explosion. Again , these variations are of more interest in laboratoq 1 test work; they
are of secondary importance in the field.
647
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

VA UATIN MBU 1B u
HAZA OS
When inspectors are confronted with a dust explosion hazard, they should find out as
much as they can about the material itself and the process conditions, including the size
distribution of the dust particles.Next, they should compare the relative hazard of the dust.
TI1eFire Proteclio11Hmufbook (FPH) contains the explosion characteristics for com-
mon dusts. This information may also be availablein some of the reports published by the
U.S.Bureau of Mines, which are listed in the FPH and in the Bibliographyof this chapter,
as well as in the annexes of several of the National Fire Protection Association (N f PA)
combustible dust standards. One source that often lacks sufficient relevant technical in-
formation on the properties and dust explosion characteristics is the J\l.later
ial SafetyData
Sheet (MSDS). 'lne Chemical Safety Board cited the deficienciescommonly associated
with the l'vlSDSsfor combustible solids in its 2006 Co111b11stibl e Dust Hnrnrd St11dyfinal
report and encouraged the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to
revise its Hazard Commun ication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200) to require more com-
prehensive information regarding the properlies and characteristics of combustible dusts.
If inspectors are confronted with a dust that has not been tested or are asked to
evaluate one of the dusts described in the Fire ProtectionHa11dbook,they should have
a sample tested, preferably in the spher ical test vessels noted here. TI1eywill want to
know the maximum explosion pressure, the maximum rate of pressure rise, the i'vIEC,
and the concentration yielding the highest value of maximum pressure. TI1eymight
also want to determine the lvllE and the layer ignition temperature. Keep in mind that
for many common combustible dusts, the properties have been well characterized, and
the behavior is generally quite well understood. For those materials, it might be accept-
able in most cases to use data from prior tests when evaluating the hazard potential for
that dust and when designing specific protection and prevention methods. However, it
should be noted that often the test results can yield differing results for the same dust
(e.g., the same material within the same company, but at different locations) because
the lest results are highly dependent on how the sample is collected and conditioned
and on the specific apparatus. So, in some cases, even with the availability of prior pub-
lished property data, it might be necessary to perform tests for the specific dust at that
time. Also, because of the nature of the test apparatus, there are some false-positive or
false-negative results associated with dusts that exhibit marginally explosible proper-
ties when tested with a particular type of apparatus. In those cases, it is recommended
that the tests for those dusts be performed in the larger test apparatus, the l -m3 sphere.
111esimple message is, if there is any doubt regarding the ability to character ize the
hazard potentia l for a specific dust, reques t that the dust be tested.
Combustible dusts are also a fire hazard because accumulated layers of dust provide
an easy means for a fire to spread rapidly from its initial location . A flash fire of this
nature could propagate so quick.I)'that it might cause sprinklers to operate outside the
sprinkle r design area, limiting the system's ability to control the fire.
Another characteristic of dust is its ability to act as thermal insulation. TI1ickdepos-
its of dust on heat-produ cing equipment such as motors, shaft bearings, and similar

648
 CHAPTERSO:Combustible Dusts

co mponents retard the flow of heat. TI1enatural coo ling feature s included in the design
of the equipment are therefore less efficient. Because the dust is organic, it will begin to
degrade or carbonize, which tends to lower the ignition temperatur e of the dust. Even-
tua lly, the dust could ignite or the equipment could fail because of high tem perature ,
and a fire could result.
As par t of evaluating combust ible dust hazards and assessing potential risk from a
dust -fueled fire or explos ion, it is important to understand the influence of the follow -
ing factors on the overall destructiveness of dust explosions.

Rate of Pr ssure Rise

The rate of pressure rise is defined as the ratio of the increase in explosion press ur e
to the time interv al during which the increase occurs . It is one of th e most essential
factors used in determining the severity of a dust explosion. TI1e volume -normalized
maximum rate of pressure rise provid es th e chara cter ist ic dcflagration index , K51, tha t
can be used lo describe the potential severity for a given dust exp losion, and so it
forms the basis for a classifica tion system for the various dust s. Explosion protection
and prevention measur es are determined using this rate of pressure rise in the form
of the Ksi· NFPA 68, Standard on ExplosionProtectionby Deflagration\1e11ti11g, serves
as th e design standard for deflagration venting and relies on the rate of pressure rise
data for establishing the required vent a rea su itable for a predicted deflagration. For
very rapid rates of pressure rise, explosion vents might not be practical, and other
protection measures might be neces sary . NFPA 69, Standard 011 ExplosionPreve11tio11
Systems, outlines the various methods and their applicability and establishes design,
installation, and testing an d maintenance requirements for the various exp losion pre -
vention systems.

Maximum Explosion Pressure

·nie peak pressures most dust explosions reach unde r test conditions (generally
expressed as P011 ) exceed 50 psi (345 kPa) , although these peaks vary according to the
particle size distribution, concentration, and other variables. When you cons ider that
typical construction will withstand 1 psi (7 kPa) or less, it becom es evident that even the
most inefficient dust explosion is capable of producing considerable damage. Unlike gases
and vapors where mLxiug is quite complete, the cond itions leading to a comb ustible dust
explosion are typically far from optimal. With dusts, there is rarely a uniform dispersion
or particle-size distribution within the dust cloud, which means the damage that typically
results is produced at well below the explosion pressures that could have developed.

Duration
Another factor in explosion severity is the duration of the explosion pressure or length
of time the explosion pressures are exerted on the surrounding surfaces of an enclosure
or the walls of a building. Consider the wall of the dust collector in which an explosion
occurs . The wall "sees" a stea dy increa se of pressure to some pe ak value over a finite time
span , assuming it does not fail. Then, the pressure begins to subside. If the pressure is

649
 SECTION 4: Proce sa nd Storage Hazards

plotted against time, the area under the curve is lhe total impuls e imparted lo the wall by
the explosion. It is the tolal impulse rather than the peak pressure that ultimately deter-
mines the damage. This partly explains why dust explosions tend to be more damaging
than gas explosions (gas explosion s achieve higher peak pressures but over a shorter
duration), even though they build pressure more slow!)' and do not usuall)' peak as high.

Confinement
The gaseous combustion products of a dust exp losion expand at a rate as high as sonic
velocity and, in so doing, exert significan t pressures on the snrroundin g enclosure.
Unless th e en losure is strong enough to withstand the peak pre ssure developed, it will
fail for this reason, process equipment and the buildings in which it is located musl be
protected by explosion vents or some type of exp losion -prevention system (see NFPA
68 and NFPA 69) .

lnerting
Laboratory tests have shown that the reduction of the 0).'}'gen concentrat ion or the
introdu ction of an inert powder (such as rock dust or Fuller's earth) can reduce the
maximum explosion pot ent ial. For most agri cultural, plastic, and carbonaceous dusts,
reducin g the oxygen content below 10 percent by volume can prevent a dust explosion
from occurring . Frequently, th is is ach ieved by increasi ng the volume percentage of ni-
trogen or carbon dioxid e in the enclosures or equipment handling the combustible dust.
Owners/operators are to be cautioned regarding use of an inert gas, as it will always
require reducing the O,\'}'genconcentration below levels suitable for bu .mans (OSHA
identifies levels below 19.5 percent by volume to be imm ed iately dangerous to life and
health). Therefore, it will likely be practical only for closed systen1s and equipment.
For combus tible metal dusts, such as alumin um or magnesium, however, this is
not a satisfactory solution, because these combustible metal dusts can react with these
gases. In those cases, it would be necessary to use one of the inert noble gases, such as
argrn1 (see NFPA 484, Stn11dard for CombustibleMetnls, and NFPA 69).
Introducing an inert powder to mitigate the effects of a dust explosion might not be
practical because it takes relatively large amounts of the inert dust to be effective. This
technique, t"eferred to as "rock dusting;' is limited mostly to coa l mines, which gener -
ally require 65 percent of the total dust for a coa l mine entry to be rock dusl.

Other Factors
The presence of a flammable gas in the du st-air mixture creates what is referred to
as a hybrid mixtme and can great ly increase the hazard. Because the hybr id mLxtures
typically have a lower MIE than that for the "pure" dust mLxture, lhese hybrid mLx-
tures are easier to ignite, and they produce explosions that are much mor e violent than
would normally be expected. Another key factor is that the concentration of the flam -
mable gas does not have to be at or above the lower flammable limit - co nsidering
the concenlrntion of the flammable gas-a ir mLxture alone, without the presence of the
combu stib le dust - in order to achieve these etlects. The same relation ship hold s for
650
 CHAPTER50: Combustible Dusts

the combustible dust component in the mLxture- its concentrat ion considered sepa-
rately does not have lo be at the MEC level in order for the h)'brid mixtu re lo produce
an explosible cond ition. Hybrid mLxtures can be found in fluid bed driers where a
flammable solvent is being evaporated from a powder, for example. The unique na-
ture of the hazard potent ial posed by h)'brid mixtures requires operations involving
hybrid mixtures to be provided with specia l safeguards, such as an inert gas atmo-
sphere, which could reduce or even exclude the oxygen completely, or with other ex-
plosion prev ntion or protection systems.

lgn it i n ur
Dust clouds and dust layers can be ignited by all the usual ignition sources, includ -
ing open flames, electrical arcs, frictional and mechanica l sparks, and hot surfaces.
Although ignition by static electrical charge is not com mon, there are some materials,
such as grou nd sulfur, that have report ed iVIJEvalues al or below 3 mJ.Dust clouds
typical I}' require l to 40 mJ of energ)' for ignition to occur compa red with the 0.20
to J mJ needed by O.immable gases or vapors. ln addition, sulfor accumulates charge
that might be generated through handling. NFPA 655, Stm1dnrdfor Pre1,entio11of Sul-
Jiir Firesand l:.'xplosions, and NFPA 654, Standardfor tirePre1•e11tio11of Fire a11dDust
Explosions from tlie Ma111ifncturi11g, Processing,a11dHn11dli11g of Combustible Partirn-
lnte Solids, have comprehensive requirements applicable to safe handling practices for
comb ustible dusts when transported or stored in intermed iate bulk conta iners. The
NFPA documents that deal with specific dust explosion hazards also add ress the con -
trol of ignition sou rces.

CO N ROLLING CO MBUSTIBLE
DUST HAZARDS
Elimina ting, or at least greatl}'reducing, the amount of airborne and accunmlat ed dust
is the sing le most importa nt means of preventing dust explosions. The basis for safety
found in each of the NFPA combustible dust standards includes three prim ary ele-
ments for establishing control of the combustible dus t hazards. First, control the fuel
by managing processes where solids are stored, handled, or used so that closed systems
are utilized or otherwise implement capture and collection measures to prevent the re-
.lease of dusts lo the workplace. A second measure involves managi ng ignition sources
in all forms as previously outlined . However, ii is not the intent of the NFPA standards
to accept ignitio n sou rce control alone as a single layer of protection . Although not
explicitly staled in the standa rds, case stud ies and lessons learned continue to demo n -
strate that ignition sources are everywhere , and elimination is essentia l but not always
achievable. As already noted, when introducing the hazards of combustible dust explo-
sions, the standard s require measures in place lo prevent the propagation of a fire or
explosion beyond the area of origin. That requires construc tion measures or explosion
isolation safeguards to be implemented to prevent the propagation of the flame or pres-
sure up tream or downst ream from the ignition source in equ ipment or throughou t a
building or enclosure. Dusts and solid materials that generate dus t should be handled
651
 SECTION4: Process and Storage Hazards

to the greatest extent possible in closed systems, either pneumatic or mechanical. To

be effective, these systems must be dust-tight. Inspectors shou ld look for evidence of
dust around the seams and joints of ducts or pipes and around access pane ls. If dust is
evident, it may indicate a faulty gasket or mechanical damage to the conduit itself. They
shou ld make sure hatches on bins and tanks are closed securely.
Inspectors shou ld keep in mind that these systems, whether they handl e process ma-
terial in bulk or collect fugitive dust, contain a dust-air mixture in the explosive range.
In addition, precautions sho uld be in place to detect tramp meta l and remove it from
the conveying stream, such as by use of a magnetic separator.
Good housek eeping is imperative, and that starts with implement ing periodi c in -
spectio ns of the work an:a, specifically including any surfaces, whether horizonta l or
vertical, on which dust can accumu late. J h e NFPA combust ible dust sta ndards cur-
rently establish varying layer th icknesses for accumu lated dust that serve as an ind ica-
tion that a dust flash fire or dust explosion hazard exists. TI1e specific layer thickness
within a h tandard var.ie because the parti cular dust type covered possesses a differ-
ent bulk density. TI1ebulk density varies from approximately 2 lb/ft3 (0.9 kg/0.03111 3)
for fine paper dust like tissue paper, to 20 lb/ft3 {9 kg/0.031113 ) for many wood products

and agricultural products, and to as nrnch as 75 lb/ft 3 {34 kg/0.03m3) for plastics and
chem icals. In each case, there is an equation in NFPA 654 that permits prorating the
layer thickness depend ing on the respect ive bulk density for the dust of interest. In the
case of wood products with a bulk dens ity of 20 lb/ft3 {9 kg/0.03m3), the layer thick-
ness when applying the prorating equation becomes not ,½' 2 in. (0.8 mm) but ½ in.
(3.2 mm). It should be noted that the bulk density is normally just expressed using the
inch-pound units and the metric value shown is an approximation. In each case, the
mass per unit area is equivalent, so the dust fire or explosion hazard has been estab-
lished on the same basis in terms of the amount of fuel per unit area available to be
introduced into the combustion event, whether a fire or explosion. As described in
detail in Annex D ofNFPA 654, the ½r in. {0.8-111111) layer of accumulated dust repre -
sents an amount that, iflofted and suspended into a dust cloud, could form a cloud of
i'vfECwithin a room or building . Using the ½i- in. (0.8-mm) guideline for how much
dust is too much, there are hvo subjective rnles of thumb for judging whether a dust
hazardous condition exists-if the inspector canno t tell what color a surface is or if the
dus t deposits are th icker than a paper clip. Each of these example methods indicates
that dust has accumulated to a level demonstrated to be a potential for a dust fire or ex-
plosion hazard. TI1is level of dust accumulation also illustrates a need for housekeeping.
The frequency of cleaning will depend on cond itions in the plant, such as the adequacy
of dust collection systems and the tightness of the process equipmen t. Cleaning should
be done by cent ml vacuum systems. ff portable systems are used, they should be suitable
for Class II areas Isee NFPA 654 and NFPA 499, Reco111111c,rded Practicefor the Class(fica-
fion of Co111lmstible Dusts n11dof Hawrdo11s(Classified)Lorntio11s for Electricalil1stalln-
tio11si11Chemirnl ProcessArens, for specific guidance]. Hybrid mixtures require vacuum
equipment to be suitable for both Class I and Class II hazardous (classified) locations.
Alternatively,soft brushes and dustpans made of conductive plastic or metal may be used.
Compressed air blow-down should be the last cleaning method of choice and
should be reserved for only the mosl hard to reach or inaccessible places and only ahcr
652
 CHAPTER 50: Combustible Dusts

using vacuum or broo ms or water washdown methods . If compressed air blow-d own
is to be perform ed , proced ur es should require the shutdown of operat ing equ ipm en t
in the area that cou ld serve as an ignition source. Equip m ent that handles or pro duce s
dnsts shou ld be as tight as possible. Where equipment is loaded or unloaded by dum p-
ing, local dust collection pick ups should be arranged . Dust contrnl pickups should be
in itiated at drumming and bagging lines. Inspectors should carefully rev iew process
schematics and the equ .ipment itse lf to find thos e points at which dust asp irators might
be needed. Such locations include hatch covers on bins, tanks, or vessels and on any
frequently opened access panels .

Process Equipment
If a dus t exp los ion is going to occur, chances are that it will beg in in a piece of equip-
men t, such as an air-mater ial separator (dust collecto r or cyclone, for example) . In
such equipment , MEC levels are commonly attain ed, and partic le sizes are l}'pically Iese
than 75 µm. It is impossible to preve nt dust clou ds from forming in or arou nd equ ip-
ment unle ss the material is hand led as a slu1'1'}'or as a damp, cakey so lid. Equipm ent
maintenance is veq , important as illustrated by numerou s incidents involving han -
d ling and conveying equi pm en t tha t has been inadequately maintained. The inspec tor
shou ld look for similar signs of abuse o n drag or en masse conveyers. Co nveyer belts
should not show Hll)' sign of excessive wear, and idler rolle rs should be free spinning to
avo id frictional heating and possi ble failure of the co nveyer belt.
Certa in pieces of equipment are especia lly suscept ible to dus t explosions . TI1ese
include mills, pulv erizers , dust collector s, cyclo ne separators, and the various type s of
dr)•ers (spray, fluid bed, or drum dryer s, for instance) .
NFPA 69 describes three concepts or approac hes to explo sion prevention: first, con -
tro l th e environment within the protec ted enclosure in such a way that deflagration
canno t occur (iner ting or combusti ble concentrat ion contr o l below MEC); seco nd ,
prevent pro pagatio n of a deflagration or transport of an ign ition source (passive and
active isolation measures); and th ird, mitigate the effects so that the protected enclo-
sure is not uncontrollably breached (suppression, conta inm ent, foam, or deflagration
venting). Using the generic provisions of NFPA 69, there are several ways in which
thi s equipment can be protected. It may be des igned to contain the expecte d explosion
press ure. It also may be fitted with explosion vents, equ ipp ed with an exp losion sup-
press ion system, o r the equ ipment enclosure may be blanket ed with ine rt gas. This is
where the process hazard ana lysis conta ined in eac h of the combust ible dus t stand ards
can be usefu l in ide ntifying specific hazards for the var io us dusts and the respect ive
processes and aid in choosi ng th e most suitable preve ntion or protection option.
1l1e inspect or might need the help of qualified indi viduals to determi ne whether th e
equipment can withstand the expected overpressure. Explosion vents shou ld never ter-
minate insid e th e building. Th ey should be loca ted close to an outside wall and vented
through a short, straig ht duc t directly to the outside. Better yet, th e vented equipment
shou ld be moved ou tside or to the roof of the bu ildin g. Breather vents can term inate
inside the bu ildi ng if they are fitted with filters. TI1e inspector shou ld check to make
sure the filters are functioning properly.
653
 SECTION 4: Process and Sto,agE>
Hazards

PROT C ION
Other chapters in this text describe what inspectors should look for when inspecting
fire protection equipment-automatic sprinkler systems, hose connections, and por-
table fire extinguishers. In areas containing dust expl.osion hazards, the inspector must
also check to be sure that all hose connec tions are equ ipped with fine spray nozzles and
that special fog nozzles will be used where high-voltage electrical equipment is located.
TI1eplant fire brigade should understand that a coar e or solid water stream cou ld
throw dust into suspension, thus cau ing a primary or secondary explosion .
Where metal dusts are involved, quantities of sand, talc, foundry nux, or other spe-
cifically approved, inert extingu ishing agents should be available to smother small ltres.
Because most of the combustible metals are water reactive, the inspector should make
certain that only the approved extinguishing agents are used (see annex material in
NFPA 484).

BlBLIOGRAPHY
AST!vlEl 226-10, Standard Test Methodfor Pressurecl~Rate of PressureRisefor Co111-
buslibleDusts, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 2010.
Cashdollar, K. L., and Hertzberg, M., Industrial D11stExplosions,American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1987.
Cote, A. E., ed., FireProtection Handbook,20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
Cross, J., and Farrer, D., Dust Explosio11s,
Plenum Publishing Co., New York, NY, 1982.
Eckhoff, R. K., Dusi Explosionsin the Processindustries, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd,
Oxford, England, 199 J.
U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board, Co111b11slibl
e D11stHnznrd Study,
Report No. 2006-H- l , Washington, DC, 2006.

NFPACodes,Standards, and RecommendedPractices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of cur rent editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 6 1, Stm1rlnrrl
for the Pre11e11lio11
of Firesnnd Dust Explosions in Agric11/t11ml
and
FoodProcessingFacilities
NFPA 68, Standard 011ExplosionProtectio11by Deflagmtion Venting
NFPA 69, Standard 011Expfosio11Pre11e11tio11
Systems
NFPA 484, Standardfor Co111b11
stibfe Metals
NFPA 499, Reco1111n
enrledPmclicefor the C/assificntio11vf Comb11slible
D11s/snnrlof Haz-
arrio11
s (Classified) Locatio11s
for Eleclricnllllstn/lationsi11Che111icnl
Process Arens
s .fim11!he Mm111fac
NFPA 654, Standardfor the Prem1/ion of Fireand Dust Explosio11 -
turing,Processing,n11dHn11dli11g
of Co111b11stible
Pnrtiwlnle So/iris
NFPA 655, Standardfor PreventionofS11/f11rFiresand Explosions
NFPA 664, Stm1darrlfor the Preve11tio11
of Pires1111d
Explosions in WoodProcessingn11rl
Wooriworki11g
Facilities

654
 CHAPTER

51

COMBUSTIBLEMETALS
Kevin Kreitman and N[arthaH. Curtis

Metals can burn and present deflagration and explosion hazards. Some oxidize rapidly and
reach flaming combu stion; others oxidize so slowly that heat generated during oxidation
dissipates before ignition occur s. Metals that can reach flamfog combustion are consid-
ered combus tible metals . 'll1e form of the metal is critical in determi11ing its combustion
character istics. Metals in thin sections, as fine par ticles, or when mo lten can ignite easily
and sustain combustion; in massive solid form, however, th ey are difficult to ignite. Dust
· and powders of meta ls other than alkali metals can be subject to explosions. Metals are
classified in four elemen t gro ups: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, tran sitiona l metals,
and other metals. Those of greatest concern that are most likely to be encou ntered by in-
spectors include the following and are of partic ular concern because of their combustion
charac teristics: (i) alkali meta ls: sodium, po tassium, and lithium; (ii) alkaline eart h metals:
calcium and magnesium; (iii) trans itional metals: hafnfom, iron , niobium, tan talum, tita-
nium, zinc, zirconium, and, although normally handled only at government and research
facilities, thorium, uranium, and plutonium; and finally (iv) other metals: alumin um .
Aluminum, iron (a transitional meta l), and steel normally are not combustible, and
although they can ignite and burn when finely divided, it should be noted that alumi -
num powders and du sts represe nt some of th e highes t explosive values of all combus -
tible metals. Clea n, fine steel wool, for examp le, can be ign ited. Dus t clouds of m ost
metals (with the except ion of alkali metals) in air are explosive; and most metals are
combus tible in high oxygen concentrat ions. Parl icle size, shape, quan tity, and alloy
percentage and am bien t cond itions are important factors in assessing the combus ti-
bilil)' of met als. TI1is chapter surveys the vario us combus tible metals, their burning
characteristic s, their hazards, their storage, and their control.

GENERALCHARACTERISTICS
Tempera tures produced by bu rning metals are much h igher than temp eratures of flam-
mable liqui d fires (TABLE 51-1).Mos t combustible metals continue to burn in nit rogen,
carbon d ioxid e, or steam atmos phe res, whereas fires of other materials wou ld be extin -
guished in tho se atm osp heres .
 SECTION4: Processand Storage Hazards

/ 'I
t ~M:to:,o.~"'I Metal Properties- KeyTemperatures
"'Ill
Max.
Solid Adiabatic
Melting Boilin g Metal Flame
Point Point Ignition Temperatur e;.:•
Met al (OC) (OC) (OC) (OC)
Alum inum 660 2452 555 3790
Barium 725 1140 175 -
Boron 2300 2550 3030
Calcium 824 1440 704 -
Chrom ium 1857 2672 2900
Coppe r 1085 2567 1250
Hafnium 2223 5399 4580
Iron 1535 3000 930 2220
Lith ium 186 1336 180 -
M agn esium 650 1110 623 3340
Manganese 1246 1962 -
Molyb denu m 2617 4612 2390
Nickel 1453 2732 2130
Niobi um 2468 4927 3270
Plutonium 640 3315 600 -
Potassium 62 760 69 -
Silicon 14 10 2355 2970
Sodi um 98 880 115 -
Stro nt ium 774 1150 720 1980
Tantalum 2996 5425 - 3490
Thori um 1845 4500 500 -
Titanium 1727 3260 1593 3720
Tungsten 3422 5660 2830
Uranium 1132 3815 3815 -
Zinc 419 907 900 1800
Zirconium 1830 3577 1400 -
'M aximum adiabatic name temperaturecalculation~from Cashdollar and Llochower,
J. loss Prevention,v 20, 2007.
\.._

656
 CHAPTER S1: Combuslible Metals

Different metals produce different burnin g character istics. Titanium produces little
smoke; smoke from lithium is dense and profuse. Some water-moistened metal pow-
ders, such as zirconium, burn with near-explosive violence; yet the same powders, wet
with oil, burn slowly. Sodium melts mid flows; calcium does not. Some metals burn
more readily after prolonged exposure to moist air, and exposure to dry air can make
them more difficult to ignite. TI1esmoke from the majority or metal fires in which the
metal is the primary component of the fire will be a white to grayi h colored smoke that
will be released vigorously at a high velocity because of the high burning temperatures.
Combustible metals are used in an increasingly wide range of industries and applica-
tions, often as a substitute for steel because they are stronger and lighter. Titanium, for
example, is seeing increased use in medical appliances, sports equipmen t, and in the
aviation industry. Aluminum, which is also lighter than steel, is another substitute. In
addition, aluminum powders are used as pigments in paint manufacturing. TI1ereis an
increasing demand in the electronics industry for a material that is light and strong.
Metals such as magnesium and tantalum are metal that are seei11gan increase in use to
fabricate parts for electronic equipment, cellular phones, and other perso11alelectronic
devices, where reduced weight is critical.
Magnesium is also seeing increased use in automobile manufacturing for items such
as bulkheads, seat frames, steering columns, brackets, and engine blocks, to name a
few. Aerospace, electronic component production , and pigment production are farther
examples of indus tries that are using combustible metals. The manufacture of compo-
nents for these indust ries, however, may be contracted to small machine shops that
may not have extensive experience hand Iing combustible metals. \i\Tiththe increased
use of combustible metals, inspectors must be informed of their special hazards and
the industries that may use these metals.
If the facility the inspector is about to inspect has processes involving metals other
than iron and steel, he or she should, before the inspection, determine the:
• TI1evarious metals and the fonn(s) that may be present.
• Burning characteristics of the metals involved.
• Quantities stored and handled.
• Types of processes involved.
• A rrn11ge111e11ts
made for the storage and handling of scrap.
• Extinguishing agents used on combustible metal fires.

MITIGATION OF COMBUSTIBLE
METAL I S
Combustible metals present complex issues and hazards that are not normally encoun-
tered, and it is highly recommen ded that personnel conducting reviews and/or inspec-
tions of facilities with combustible metals become familiar with NFPA 484, Standard
for Co111/mstible Metals; this standard oflers in-depth information that is invaluable
to code enforcement personnel regarding operations that involve combustible metals.
TI1estandard provides information on how to determine the combustibilit}' or explo-
sivit)' of a metal, metal powder, or metal dust. 111estandard also includes important
657
 SECTION 4: Proce s and Storage Hazards

information on specific metals that are most com monly seen in manufacturing and
a chapt er on combus tible metals not specificall)' cove red b)' an individual chapter. In
addition, information is provided on fire prevention, fire protection, and emergenC)'
response, along with a section on combustible metal recycling facilities.

Housekeeping
One of the most importan t th ings an inspector should ensure, outside of proper de -
sign features and equ ipm ent operation, is that effective housek eepi ng and dust control
S}'Stems are in place and are being prop er!)' maintained (FIGURE 51-1). This is one of
the most essential comp on ent s to minimize and prevent incidents involving co mbus-
tible metal du st that can result in tragic outcomes when not proper!)' managed. In the
Bibliography, the reports on combus tible metal and metal dust incidents high ligh t the
haz ards combustible metals and dusts can pres ent when not proper!)' mana ged. A ma-
jority of th e hazards and incidents associated with comb us tible metals ca n be greatly
reduced with proper houseke ep ing and with minimizing the amount of produ ct that
can become involved in an in cident.
Comb ustible metal fires are classified as Class D fires for the pu rpose of det ermin-
ing the proper fire ex tingui sh ing agent to use. Co mbustible metal fires are difficult to
extinguish. Common extinguishing agents do not work well on them; in many cases,
th ese agents, includ ing water, violently in crease com bustion. Many different agents
ca n be used to ext inguish Class D fires, but no si ngle agent will work on all metals.
Some agents work with several meta ls, others with only one. Commercially available
agents are known as dry powders. 1l1ey should not be confused with dry chemical
agents that ar e suitable for flammable liquid and live electrical equipment fires. Some
powders, such as G-1 powder, Na -X powder, Lith-X powder, and Met -L-X powder,
go by their trade names, and others, such as ta lcum powder, sand, graphite, sodium
chloride, copper powde r, and soda ash, are known by their common name s. Inspec-
tor s must underst and the use s and limitations of the agent used. The referenc es in the
Bibliography will acquaint inspectors with the characteristics of different extinguish -
ing agents (TABLE 51-2).
Effectively controlling or putting out metal fires depends to a great degre e on the
method of application of the ex tinguishing agents and the training and experience of
personnel who use them. In lo cations where comb ustible metal s are present, inspec-
tors should ask to see the supply of dry powder agents on hand, their location, and
th e tools available to spread Lhem on burning co.mbustible metal. 1l1ey should inquire
about the trainin g emp lo}1ees rece ive in extinguishing combustible metal fires because
these fires invo lve techniques not commonly encou ntered in conventional firefighting .
Inspectors should em pha size that training is need ed to get experience in techn iques
for spec ialized extinguishing agent application. Personnel responsible for controlling
combustible metal fires should practice extingui sh ing fires of th e metals used in their
facility at an isolated outdoor location.
It is important to note that Class D portable fire extingu isher s operate much differently
than other portabl e fire extinguishers that operator s ma}' be familiar with. A ha zard with
combustible meta l fires is spreading of the material and/or suspending of the product
658
 CHAPTER51: Combustible Metals

Mist-eliminator
packs
Mist-eliminator
access door
Dust-
produc ing Liquid-level
equipment control wilh
interlock
Power to dust-
producing
mach ine motor
interrupted Water level
by low airflow or
Sludge level
low liquid level
in tank
at the liqu id
precipitator ......-- Overflow and
"-"--'-'-'--"'"-""--= - drain piping
(a)

(½ in.)
13111111
expanded met
aluminum me

(b)

FIGURE 51-1(a) Typical liqu id precipitation col lector for fixed dust-producing equip ment
(b) Typical liquid precip itation co llector for por table dust-producing equipme nt.

in the air, which can result in an explosion. 1he application of an extinguishing agent
using a Class D portable fire extinguisher is accomplished in a slow flowing applica-
tion of the product out the nozzle; operators not familiar with the operation of Class D
extinguishers often mistake this as the extinguisher not working due to the expecta -
tions of a discharge one would normally experience with an ABC multipurpose type fire
extinguisher. Burning metals, other than the alkali metals, can be extinguished only in
an inert atmosphere. The application of a Class D extinguishing agent on other burning
659
O'\
O'\
0
Comb ust ible M etal Fire- Extingu ishing Agent s Quick Refe re nce Chart

Alkali M etal s Met als

Extingui shing Calcium,
Agent s Sodium, NaK Lithium Aluminum Magne sium Niobi um Tantalum Tit anium Zirconium
Coke(carbon
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
microspheroids)
Met-L-X Yes* No Yes Yes Yes• Yes* Yes Yes·•
Lith-X Yes Yes No No No No No No
Copperpowder Yes* Yes-< Yes* No No No No No
Dryflux Yes Yes Yes" Yes No No No No
Drysand Yes Yes Yes Yes* Yes·• Yes·• Yes' Yes'
Drylithiumchloride Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes
Drysodaash Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes
Drysodiumchloride Yes Yes Yes* Yes·• Yes· Yes* Yes•· Yes*
Water No No No No No No No No
Foam No No Not No No No No No
Argon Yes•· Yes Yes•· Yes·•· Yes•· Yes·•· Yes* Yes·'·
co~ No No No No No No No No
Nitrogen Yes·• No No No No No No No
Halon No No No No No No No No
Halonreplacements No No No No No No No No
Note: When combusti ble metals are blended with other materials,the extinguishing agent should be compatible wich the combustible metal.
Preferredextinguishing agent
tAqueous film-forming foam has been shown co be effeaive on aluminum pastefires in the incipient stagewhere a classB solvent is the primary fuel.
 CHAPTERS1: Combustib le Metals

metals controls the fire and assists in the formation of oxide crust to limit combustion.
TI1is is accomplished by first ringing the burning combustible metal with the Class D
extinguishing agent material and then covering the fire in a smothering action, which
will limit open burning. It is important to note that combustible metal fires involving
large quantities of combustible metal beyond the incipient stage are virtually impossible
to control with a Class D agent or material. In most cases, the metal will continue to
burn in a controlled fashion until it is completely oxidized (FIGURE51-2and FIGURE 51·3).
Stirring or dishirbing the oxide crust before complete extinguishment has occurred, sec-
ondary to ox idation of the metal and/or exclusion of oxygen, can result in flare-up of the
metal. Fires involving alkaline ear th metals and transitional metals will begin to form
an oxide crust that will limit open burning even without application of an extinguishing
agent. Application of water or othe r inappropriate extinguishing agents will result in an
adverse reaction including the potential for an explosion. Application of water in copi-
ous amounts in an attempt to extinguish large fires should not be attempted under any
circumstance; th is practi e is extremely dangerous and will result in extreme burning
conditions with the strong possibiJity of explosive reactions occurring.
Burning metals may also draw moisture from concrete and asphalt. Depending
on the size of the fire, the combustible metal material can remain hot for some time
and flare back up if disturbed prior to complete extinguishment of the material, even
though the fire may appear to be out.

ALKALIMETALS:SODIUM, POTASSIUM,
SODIUM-POTASSIUM (NaK), AND
LITHIUM
Properties
Sodium. At room temperahtre, sodium oxidizes rapidly in moist air, but spontane -
ous ignitions have not been reported , except when the sodium is in a finely divided
form. When heated in dry air, sodium ignites in the vicinity of its boiling point [1616°F
(880°C) ]. Sodium in normal room air and at a temperature only slight!)' above its melting
point [208°F (98°C)j has been ignited by placing sodium oxide particles on its surface.
This indicates the possibility of ignition at temperatures below the boiling point. Once
ignited, hot sodium burns vigorously and forms dense white clouds of caustic sodium
oxide fumes. During combustion, sodium generates about the same amount of heat as
an equivalent weight of wood.
The principal fire hazard associated with sodium is its rapid reaction with water. It
floats on water (density 0.97), reacting vigorously and melting. The hydrogen liberated
by this reaction may be ignited by the heat of the reaction. Sodium (like other burning,
reactive metals) reacts violently with halogenated hydrocarbons, with halogens (e.g.,
iodine), and with acids.

Potassium. The fire hazard properties of potassium are very similar to those of
sodium, with the difference being that potassium is usually more reactive. For example,
661
SECTION 4 : Process and Storage Hazards

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 51-2(a and bl Drums of titanium powder that were involved in a structure fire that
was allowed to burn out without any water applied.The metal in the drums was complete!>'
oxidized.The drum material broke like parchment paper after the fire due to the extreme
temperaturesrelated to the burning titanium.

662
 CHAPTER51: Combu stib le Meta ls

FIGURE S1-3Fire involving combustib le metal in ch ip form that was allowed to burn out; note
oxid ized prote ctive crust that is fo rming on the material, th us limit ing ope n burning.

the reactio n between po tassium and the halo gens is mor e violent and, with bromine,
a detonation can occur. TI1ere is also an exp losive reaction with sulfur ic acid. Unlike
sod ium, p otassium forms some peroxides during combu stion. These peroxides nHl)'
react viole ntly with organic contaminants. Unreacted potassium may form an oxide
k11own as pota ssi um sup eroxide, K0 2. TI1is oxide is bright yellow in color and can be
shock se nsitive in the pr esence of organics.

Sodium - Potassium (NaK) Alloys, "NaK" is the term used when referring to any
of severa l sodi um - pota ssium alloys. The various NaK alloys diffe r from each other in
melting point, but all are liquids or melt near room temperature. NaK al!O)'Spossess
the sam e fire ha zard prop erties as thos e of th eir com ponent metal s, except that the
reactions are more vigorous. Under pre ssure, NaK leaks have ignit ed spontaneouslr

Lith ium, Lith ium unde rgoes man)' of the same reaction s as sodium. For example,
both rea ct with water to form hyd rogen, but wh ereas the sod ium - water reaction can
generate sufficient heat to ignite the hydrogen, the for less violent lithium - water reac -
tion does not. How ever, the lack of ign ition may cause a build -up of hydrogen gas in the
area, which cou ld .lead to an explosive cloud of hydro gen. TI1erefore, adequate ventila-
tion mu st be ensmed .
Lithium ign ites and burns vigorously at a temperatur e of 356°F (180°C), which is
near its melting point. Unlike sodium and potassium, it can burn in nitrogen. Noble
gases, such as helium and argon, are used for inert ing in eq uipm en t and storage con-
tainer s involvin g lithiu m. TI1ecaustic (oxide and nit ride) fum es accompanying lithium
co mbu stion are more profuse and dense than tho se of other a lkali metals burning
663
 SECTION4: Process ,;1
nd Storage Hazards

under similar conditions. Lithium is the lightest of all metals. During combustion, it
tends to melt and flow.

Storage and Handling

Because of their reactivity with water, alkali metals require special precautions to pre-
vent contact with moisture. Drums and cases should be stored in a dry, fire-resistant
room or building used exclusively for alkali metal storage. Because sprinkler protec-
tion would be undesirable, no combustible materials should be stored in the same area.
However, if exposu re fires could jeopardize equipment containing alb Ii metals, sprin-
kler protection should be onsidere I and is permitted by NFPA 484 for lithium storage.
ft is good practice to store bot h empty and filled alkali metal containers in the same
area, and all containers should be on metal skids. 1l1ere should be no water or steam
pipes, but sufficient heat should be maintained to prevent moisture condensation due
to atmospheric hanges. Ventilation at a high pot in the room is desirable to vent any
hydrogen that may be released by accidental contact of alkali metal with moisture.
Large quantities of alkali metal are often stored outdoors in aboveground tanks. In
such installations, weatherproof enclosures should cover tank manholes, and the free
space within the tank should contain a nitrogen atmosphere. Argon or helium atmo -
spheres should be substituted for nitrogen in the case ofli thium .
Lithium is rout inel)' stored and shipped with a light coating of mineral oil over the
ingot. In some cases, the lithium is submerged in dry minera l oil for long-term storage
or transpor tation.
Dry alkali metal is customarily shipped in watertight steel barrels or drums. ll is
also shipped as a solid in tank -car quantities. 1l1e U.S. Department of Transportation
(DOT) specifies the type of barrels, drums, and tank cars that are to be used in inter-
state transportation.
Transfer of an alkali metal to and from tank cars and storage tanks requires heating
the metal to its melting point. 1l1is is accomplished by circulating hot oil through pipes
within the tank. The alkali metal is transferred by evacuating a receiver with a vacuum
pump, and, as the metal is removed from the tank, it is replaced by nitrogen. An alkali
metal- level indicator should be provided, and a low pressme warning device should be
part of the nitrogen system.
An alkali metal covered with an organic solvent may be shipped in I qt (946 mL)
metal cans, each can placed in another can and cushioned with soda ash. The cans are
shipped in wooden boxes of 100 lb (45.4 kg) maximum gross weight. Liquid alkali
metal alloys may be shipped in pressure-tested metal vessels that are purged with an
inert cover gas.
For small-scale transfer of solid alkali metal from a storage area to its area of use, a
metal container with a tight cover is recommended. Alkali metal should be removed
from storage in as small quantities as practicable. Vihen stored on workbenches, it
should be kept under kerosene or oil in a closed container. Alkali metal, with its great
affinity for moisture, ma)' react at the lime it is sealed in a container with any atmo -
spheric moistme. Because of the possible presence of hydrogen, containers should not
be opened by hammeri ng on the lid.

664
 CHAPTER 51: Combustible Metals

Process Hazards
Liquid alkali metals are valuable as high temperature heat -transfer media. For example,
they are used in hollow exhaust valve sterns in some internal combustion engines and in
th e transfer of heat from one type of nuclear reactor to a steam generator. In the latter
process or in other large-scale uses of molten alkali metal, any equipment leak may result
in a fire. Where molten alkali metal is used in process equipment, steel pans are located
underneath to prevent contact and violent reaction of burning sodium with concrete floors.
Processing of alkali metal involv es essentially melting it to form sticks or bricks or to
add it as a liquid to closed transfer systems. During this hand Iing, contact with moist
air, water, halogens, halogenated hydro carbons, and sulfu ric acid must be avoided.

Fire Protection
The com mon extinguishing agents , such a water , foam, and vaporizing liqu ids, shou ld
never be used because of the violent reactions of alkali metals with the se agents. Spe-
cial dry powders (essentially graphite) developed for metal fires, dry sand, dry sodium
chloride, dry lithium chloride, and dry soda ash can be effective. These finely divided
materials blanket the fire while the metal cools to below its ignition temperature. Alkali
metal burning in an apparatus can usually be extinguished by closing all openings.
For sodium, potassium, and NaK, blanketing with nitrogen is also effective. In the
case of lithium, argon or helium atmospheres should be used instead of nitrogen. Cop-
per powder is a very effective extinguishing agent for lithium fires. When alkali metals
are handled in solidified form in tanks or drums and hot oil heating is required, the
extinguishing agents to be used for any hot oil spill fire must be compatible with the
alkali metal. Usually; large dry powder systems are used. Fire residue can contain un-
burned alkali metal and must be cleaned up and disposed of promptly.

ALUMINUM
Properties
The usual forms of aluminum have a sufficiently high ignition temperature so that its
burning is not a factor in most fires. However, aluminum can burn vigorously in the
presence of other burning materials . In particular, aluminum in contact with magne -
sium burns readily, perhaps because of the formation of an alloy at the interface . Very
fine chips and shavings are occasionally subject to somewhat the same type of combus-
tion as described for magnesium.
Aluminum pastes are subject to fires, especially where the paste is solvent -wet and
the solvent vapors have a low ignition temperature. Dry aluminum powder or flake is
capable of exploding under some conditions if the surfaces of the particles have not
oxidized sufficiently . T11edegree of explosivity increases as the particle size decreases.
NFPA 484 provides requirements for the storage and handling of aluminum powders,
flakes, and pastes. Aluminum processing and finishing operations, such as machining,
sawing, grinding, or buffing, produce fines and dust that are highly explosive. T11edust
collection systems for such operations are also subject to fires or explosions. Wet or

665
 SECTION 4: Process and Storoge Hazards

dry collectors can be used. Requirements for collector insta!Jation are provided in
NFPA 484. Collectors for aluminum must be dedicated to the collection of aluminum ,
because the collection of iron or steel can lead to a therm ite-t)'pe reaction in the sys-
tem. Dust collection systems are required to be located outdoors to help in the mitiga-
tion of damage should an explosion occur.

1r Protection
Extinguishing agents for aluminum fires depend on the form of the aluminum. For
example, a fire in other combustible materials usually ignites large castings. TI1esefires
can be extinguished with large quant ities of waler or other typical fire- xtinguishing
agents. Fires involving aluminum fines or powder, however, must be treated carefully
to prevent the dispersal of the material into the air where it often explodes. Such fires
are best handl ed by hand application of dr)' sand or a Clnss D extinguishing agent.
\Vater, dr y powder, carbon dioxide, or halogen-containin g agents must not be us d. It
is important to review the NFPA 484 chapter on aluminum wilh specific attention to
the section on Fire Prevention, Protection, and Procedures for the correct fire suppres-
sion informat ion based on the form of the material.

MAGNESIUM
Properties
TI1eignition temperature of massive magnesium is very close to its melting point of
1202°F (650°C) (TableS-51 [which is Table A.l.l.3(a) from NFPA 484-2012]). How-
ever, ignition of magnesium in certain forms may occur at temperatures well below
l202°F (650°C); magnesium ribbon s and shavings can be ignited under certain condi-
tions at about 950°F (510°C), and finely divided magnesium powder can ignite below
900°F (482°C).
Metal marketed under different trade names and commonly referred to as "magne-
sium" may be one of a large number of different alloys containing principally magne-
sium but also significant percentages of aluminum, manganese, and zinc. Some of these
alloys have ignition temperatures considerably lower than that of pme magnesium, and
certain magnesium alloys will ignite at temperatures as low as 800°F (427°C). Flame
temperatures can reach 2500°F (1371°C), although flame height above burning metal
is usual!)' less than 12 in. (30.5 cm).
~01in, small pieces of magnesium, such as ribbons, chips, and shavings, may be ig-
nited by a match flame, whereas castings and other large pieces are difficult to ignite
even with a torch because of the high thermal conductivity of the metal. To ignite a
large piece of magnesium, it is usually necessary to raise the entire piece to the ignition
temperature. Magnesium melts as it burns and may form puddles of molten magne-
sium, which present explosion hazards in the presence of water.
Scrap magnesium chips or other fines may burn as the result of ignition of waste
rags or other conta minant s. Chips wet with water, water-soluble oils, and oils contain -
ing more than 0.2 percent folly acid ma)' generate hydrogen gas. Chips wet with animal
or vegetable oils ma)' burn if the oils ignite spontaneously.
666
 CHAPTER 51: Combustible Metals

Fines from grinding operations generate flammab le hydrogen when submerged in

water, but the metal particles themselves cannot be ignited if kept immersed . If fines
from grind ing operat ions are stored in drums, adequate ventilation must be provided
to preven t a build-up of hydrogen gas, which could explode when the drum is opened.
Holes can be made in the lid or a nonsealiJ1g lid can be used. Gri nding fines that are
sl.ightly wetted with water may generate sufficient heat to ign ite sponta neou sly in air,
burning violen tly as oxygen is extra cte d Crom the water with the release of hydrogen,
which can also ignite .

Storag and Handling

The more ma ssive a piece of magnesium, the more difficult it is to ignite. Once ignited,
how ever, magnesium burns intensely and is diffirnlt to exti ngu ish. ·n1e storage rec-
ommendations in NFPA 484 take these properties into considera tion . Recommended
max i mu m qu antiti e of va rio us sizes an d forms to be store d i n speci fic loc ation s are
covered in NFPA 484. The building that handles or stores the magnesium product
should be of noncombustible construction, a nd the magnesium should be segregated
from combustible material.
With easily ignited lightweig ht castings, segregation from combus tible materials is
especially important. In the case of dry fines and fine magnesium scrap, storage in non-
combust ible covered con tainers in separate fire- resistive storage buildings or rooms
provided with exp losio n venting is preferable. For combus tibl e buildings or buildings
con ta ining combustible contents, NFPA 484 recommends automatic sprinkler protec-
tion to ensure prompt control of a fire before the ma gnes ium becomes involved.
Because of the possibility of hydrogen generation and of spontaneous heating of
fines wet with coola nts (other than neutral mineral oil), it is preferable to store wet
scrap fines outdoors. Covered noncombustible containers shou ld be vented. Magne -
sium in powder, pellet, or ribbon form is shipped as a flammable so lid and must be
appropriate!) ' labeled according to DOT requirements. Massive pieces or castings do
not require special shipping safeguards.

Process Hazards
In machining operations involving magnesium alloys, sufficient frictional heat to ig-
nite the chips or shaving s may be created if the tool s are dull or deformed. If cutting
fluids are used (machining of magnesium is normally performed dry), the)' should be
mineral o il types that have high flash points. Water or water - oil emulsions are haz-
ardous, because wet magnesium shavings and dust liberate hydrogen gas and burn
mor e violently than dry material when ignited . Machines and th e work area should be
frequently cleaned and the waste magnesium kept in covered, clean, dry steel or other
noncombustible drums, which should be removed from the building at regular inter-
vals. Magnesium dust clouds are explosive if an ignition so ur ce is present . Grinding
equipment sho uld be equipped with a liquid precipitation separa tor (see figures in An -
nex A.8 ofNFPA 484) and should be interlo cked with the liqu id precipitation system so
that the grinding equipment can operate only if the exhaust blow er and water spray are
functioning properly . The equipment should be restri cted to magnesium processing
667
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage I lazards

only. Because the disposal of wet sludge presents a problem, NFPA 484 permits the
use of dq r cyclone collectors that are located and protected in accordance with the
standard. Dry cyclone collectors are required to be located outside the building and
protected in such a manner that an explosion or fire in the collector will not injure
personnel in the area. The use of dry media-type collectors is prohibited .
Molten magnesium presents a serious fire problem if not properly handled. Sulfur
dioxide or melting fluxes are commonly used to prevent oxidation or ignition of mag-
nesium during foundry operations. 'D1eaction of sulfur dioxide is to exclude air from
the surface of the molten magnesium; it is not an extinguishing agent.
Pots, crucibles, and ladles that llHl}' contact molten magnesium must be kept dry
to prevent steam formation or a violent metal-water reaction. Containers should be
checked regularly for any possibility of leakage or weak points. Steel-lined runoff pits
or pits with lightly fitting steel pans should be provided, and the pans must be kept free
of iron scale. Leaking metal contac ting hot iron scale results in a violent thermite reac-
tion. Use ofs tainl ss steel pans or linings will elim im1le this possibilit)'· Heat-treating
ovens or furnaces, where magnesium allo)' parts are subjected to high temperatures
to modify their properties, present another special problem. Temperatures needed to
secure the desired ph)'sical properties are often close to the ignition temperatmes of
the alloys themselves, and careful control of temperatures in all parts of the oven is
essential. Hot spots leading to local overheating are a potential cause of these fires.
Large castings do not ignite readily, but fine "casting fins"and sprues, as well as chips or
dust, more read ii}' ignite. for this reason, castings should be thoroughly cleaned before
heat-treating. Magnesium castings in contact with aluminum in a heat-treating oven
will ignite at a lower tempera ture than when placed 011 a steel car or tray.
Magnesium should not be heat-treated in nitrate salt baths. Certain commonl)' used
molten mixtures of nitrates and nitrites can react explosively with magnesium and
magnesium alloys, particu larly at temperatures greater than l000°F (538°C).

Fire Protection
Magnesium and its alloys present special problems in fire protection. Magnesium com-
bines so readil}'with oxygen that, under some conditions, water applied to extinguish
magnesium fires is decomposed into its constituent elements (i.e., o:x.,'genand hydro-
gen). The oxygen combines with the magnesium, and the released hydrogen burns and
adds to the intensity of the fire. '"'ith the exc<::ptionof the noble gases, such as helium
and argon, none of the commonly available inert gases is suitable for extinguishing
magnesium fires. The affinity of magnesium for oxygen is so great that it will burn in an
atmosphere of carbon dioxide. i'.fagnesium may also burn in an atmosphere of nitro-
1

gen to form magnesium ni.tride. For these reasons, any of the common extinguishing
methods that depend on water, water solutions, or inert gases (other than the noble
gases) are not effectiveon magnesium chip fires.
Halogen-containing extinguishing agents (halons and many halon replacement
agents) react violently with bnrning magnesium-the chlorine or other halogen com-
bining with the magnesium. However, inerting with noble gases (e.g., helium or argon)
will extinguish burning metal.

668
 CHAPTER51: Combu stible Metals

'Die method of ext inguishing magnesium fires depends largely on the form of the
material. Burning chips, shavings , and sma ll parts must be smothered and cooled with
a suitable dry extinguishing agent (e.g., graphite and dry sodium ch loride). Where
magnesium dust is present, care must be taken to prevent a dust cloud from forming
in the air during application of the agent because this may result in a dust explos ion.
Fires in solid magnesium can be fought without difficul ty if attacked in their earl)'
stages. Often, it may be possible to remove surround ing material , leaving the small
quantity of magnesium to burn itself out harm lessly.
Automatic sprinkler protection is generally not permitted in area s where combus -
tible metals are produc ed or handled . Chapter 15 in NPPA 484 does allow automatic
sprinklers in some situations, including the protection of light casting storage areas,
because they provide automatic notification and often control the fire prior to involve -
ment of the light castings.
Magnesium fires in heat -treating ove ns can best be controlled with powders and gases
developed for use on such fires. By using melting fluxes to exclud e air from the burning
metal, fires in heat -t reating furnaces can be successfu lly extinguished. 13oron trifluoride
gas is an effective extinguis hing agent for small fires in heat-treating furnaces.

TITANIUM
Properties
Titanium, like magnesium, is classified as a combustible metal, but here agai n the size
and shape of the metal determine to a great extent the ease of ignition. Castings and oth -
er massive pieces of titanium are not combustible under ordinary condition s; however,
they can burn in the presence of other burning fuels or in high -oxygen atmosp here s.
Small chips, fine turnings, and dust ignite readily and, once ignited, burn with the
release of large quantities of heat. Tests have shown that very thin chips and fine turn -
ings can be ignited by a match, and heavier chips and tu rn ings can be ignited by a Bun-
sen burner. Coarse chips and turnings }'. i2 in. by ½s i11.(0.79 mm by 2.7 mm) or larger
may be considered as difficult to ignite, but, unless it is known that smaller part icles are
not mixed with the coarser material, it is wise to assume that easy ignit ion is possible.
Dry titanium fines collected in cyclone separators can ignite sponta neously when
allowed to drop freely through the air. Ignition temperatures of titanium dust clouds
in air range from 630°F to 1090°F (332°C to 588°C) and of titanium dust layers from
720°F to 950°F (382°C to 510°C). Titanium dust can be ignited in atmospheres of car-
bon dioxide or nitrogen. Titanium surfaces that have been treated with nit ric add,
particularly with red fumi ng nit ric acid containing 10 percent to 20 percent nitrogen
tetroxide, become pyrophoric an d may be explosive.
Fine titanium chips coated with water-soluble oil have spontaneously ignited. The
unusual conditions und er which massive titanium shapes will ignite spon taneously
include contact with liquid ox·ygen, in which case th e)' can detonate on impact. It has
been found that under stat ic conditions, spontaneous ignition will take place in pure
oxygen at pressures of at least 350 psi (2413 kPa). If the 0X}'geu was diluted, the re-
quired pressure increc1sed , but in no instance did spontaneous heating occur in oxygen

669
 SECTION4: Process 3nd StorageHazards

concentrations less than 35 percent. Another requirement for spontaneous heating is a

fresh surface that oxidizes rapidly and exothermically in an oxygen atmosphere.

Storage and Handling

Titanium castings and ingo ts are so difficult to ignite and burn that spec ial storage
recomme nd at ions for large pieces are not included in NFPA 484. Titanium sponge and
scrap fines, in contrast, do require special precautions, such as storage in covered metal
containe rs and segregation of the containers from combustible materials . Because of
the possibility of hydrogen generation in moist scrap and spontaneous heating of scrap
wet with anima l or veg ' table o ils, a yard storng ' area remot e from building s is recom -
mended for scrap that is to be salvaged. Alternat e recommended storage locations are
detached scrap storage buildings and fire-resistant storage rooms. Building s and rooms
for storage of scrap fines should have explosion vents.

Pro ess Hazards

Contact of molten metal with water is the principal hazard during titanium casting. To
minimize this hazard, molds are usually thoroughly predried, and vacuum or inert gas
prot ection is provided to retain accidental spills.
The heat generated during machining, grinding, sawing, and drilling of titanium
may be sufficient to ignite the small pieces formed by these operations or to ignite
min eral oil-based cutting lubri cants. Consequ en tly, water-based coolants should be
used in ample quantity to remove heat, and cutting tools should be kept sharp . Fines
should be removed regularly from work areas and stored in covered metal containers.
To prevent titanium dust explosions, any operation that produces fugitive dust should
be equipped with a dust-collecting system discharging into a liquid pre cipitation sepa-
rator (see the figures in Annex A.8 ofNFPA 484). Descaling baths of mineral acids and
molten alkali salts may cause violent reactions with titanium at abnonnall}' high tem -
peratures. Titanium sheets can ignite upon removal from descaling baths. 1l1is hazard
ca 11 be con trolled by careful regulation of bath temperatures.
Tita nium melting furnaces use an electric arc to melt a consumable electrode inside
a water -cooled crucible maintained under a high vacuum. Stray arcing between the
consumable electrode and crucible, resulting in penetration of the crucible, permits
wat.er to enter and react explosively with the molten titanium. Indications are that such
explosions can approach extreme velocities (FIGURE 51·4).1l1e design and operation of
these furnaces requir e special attention to prevent explosions and to minimize damage
when exp losions do occur. NFPA 484 includes specific information rega rding safe-
guards and design requirements, which are required to minimize the potential intro -
duction of water during melting operations.

Fire Protection
Water and water-based products (including foam), carbo n dioxide, halon, and dry chemi -
cal extinguishers are not effective on titanium fires and shou ld not be used. Use of these
products can result in extremely hazardous reactions and/or have no effect on the fire.
670
 CHAPTER51: Comb ustible Meta ls

51-4Aftermath of a vacuurn arc reduction furnaceexplosion.

FIGURE

Good results can be obtained with extinguishing agents developed for use on mag -
nesium fires. TI1e safest procedure to follow with a fire involving small quantities of
titanium powder is to ring the fire with a Class D fire extinguishing agent or materials
that have been found to be effective in the control of combustible metal fires and allow
the fire to burn itself out . Care should be taken to prevent the inadvertent formation
of a titaniun1 dust cloud caused by application of high velocity extinguishing agents.

ZIRCONIUM AND HAFNIUM

Properties
Zirconium. TI1e combustibility of zirconium appears to increase as the average par-
ticle size decreases, but other variables, such as moisture content, also affect its ease
of ignition. In massive form, zirconium can withstand extremely high temperatures
without igniting, whereas both clouds and layers of dust in which the average particle
size is about 3 µm can spontaneously ignite at room temperature. Spontaneous heat-
ing and ignition are also possibilities with scrap chips, borings, and turnings if fine
dust is present.
Dust clouds oflarger particle size can be readily ignited if an ignition source is pres-
ent, and such explosions can occur in atmospheres of carbon dioxide or nitrogen just
as well as in air. Zirconium dust will ignite in carbon dioxide at approximately l 150°F
(621 °C) and in nitrogen at approximately 1450°F (788°C). A cloud of zirconium dust
in air presents a serious flash-fire hazard, in addition to its potential explosion hazard.
Combustion of zirconium dust in air is stimulated by the presence of limited amounts
(5 percent to 10 percent) of water. When very finely divided zirconium powder is
completely immersed in water, it is difficult to ignite, but once ignited, it burns more
671
 SECTION4: Processand StorageHa2arcls

viole ntly than in air. \i\lith respec t to layers of the dust, the depth of the layer and its
mois tur e content are important varia bles for ignitio n . Layers of 6-pm-diameter dust
can ign ite when heated to 374°F (190°C).
Massive pieces of zirconium do not ig nite spontaneous !)' und er ordi na ry cond i-
tions, but ign ition will occu r when an oxide -free sur face is expose d to sufficiently high
oxygen conce ntrat ions and pr essure. The exp lanation for this reactio n is the sa me as
that cited for a sim ilar titanium reaction. Zirconium fires (like fires involving titanium
and hafnium) attain very high temperatures but generate very little smoke. Explosio ns
can occur while zirconium is being dissolved in a mLxture of sulfuri c acid and potas -
sium acid sulfate. Zirconium ca n explo de during and after pickling in nitri c acid and
also d uring treatment with carbon tetrachloride or o ther halogen -co ntaining ma teri-
als. Spontaneou s explosions can occ ur duri ng han d ling of moist, very fine ly divided,
conta min ated zircon ium scrap.

Hafnium. Hafn ium has combust ion prop ertie s simi lar to those of zirconium. Haf-
nium burns with very little flame, but it releases large qua ntities of heat. Unless inact i-
vated, hafni um in sponge form may ign ite spon taneous ly.
Hafn ium is generally con sidered to be somewhat mor e reactive th an titanium or
zirconium of simil ar form . Damp ha fnium powder reacts with water to form hydrogen
gas, but at ordinaq ' temperatures this react ion is not sufficiently vigorous to cause the
hydrogen to ignite. Under so me con diti o ns, however, ignit ion of the h)rdrogen may be
expected t.o proceed exp losively.

Storage and Handling

Spe cial storage pr ecautions are not required for zirconium casting s because of th e very
high temp era tu res massive pieces of the metal ca n withstand with out igniting. Zirco -
n ium powder, in co ntrast, is highly combu stib le; consequen tly, it is customa rily stored
and ship ped in 1 gal (3.8 L) con tainers with at leas t 25 percent water by volume. For
specific details, refer to NFPA 484.
Zirconium powder storerooms should be of fire-resistant cons tru ction equipped with
explosion vents. Cans should be separa ted from one ano ther to minimize the possibility
of a fire in on e can sp read ing to ot hers and to permit checking of the cans p er io di-
cally for corrosion. Some manufacturers of zirconium have establish ed the pra ctice of
disposing of cans cont ain ing powde r that have been on the shelf for 6 mo nth s.

Process Hazards
In general, processing recommendations for zirconium and hafnium are the same.
W henever po ssible, hand ling of zircon ium powde r shou ld be under an inert liquid
or in an iner t atmosph ere. An in ert atmosph ere of argon or helium in equipme nt and
storage conta iners is a method used to pr even t flash fires and explo sio ns. If zirconium
o r hafnium powder is handled in air, ext reme care must be used because the small
sta tic charges generated may cause ign ition.
To pr even t da ngerous heating during machining operations, a large flow of min-
eral oil or water -based coola nt is requ ired. In some ma chi nin g operations, the cuttin g
672
 CHAPTER 51: Combustible Metals

surface is completely immersed. Turning s should be collected frequent!}' and stored

under water in cans. Where zirconium dust is a by -product , du st-co llecting equipment
that discharge s into a liquid precipitation separator is a necessity (see the figure s in
Annex A.8 ofNFPA 484) .

Fire Prot ect ion

Zirconium and ha fn ium fires can be fought in the same way. ·where small quantities
of zirconium powder or fines are burning, the fire can be rin ged with a Class D extin -
gu ish ing agent or other agents that have been shown to be effective with zirconium to
p reve nt its spread. After the fire h,1s been co ntai ned, the fire ca n be allow ed to burn out.
Special extinguishing powders can be effective in extinguishing smal l zirconium fires.
When zirconium dust is present, the extinguishing agent should be applied gently so
that a dust cloud is not formed. If the fire is in an enclosed space, it can be smothered
by intro d ucing argon or helium.

CALCIUM AND ZINC

Properties
Calcium. 111e flammability of calcium depends considerably on the amount of mois-
tu re in the air. If ignited in moist air, it burns without flowing and at a somewhat lower
rate than that of sodium. It decomposes in water to yield calcium hydroxide and hydro-
gen, which may burn if ignited by the heat of the reaction. Finely divided calcium will
ignit e spontaneously in air. It should be noted that barium and strontium are similar to
calcium in their fire properties .

Zinc. Zinc does not introduce a serious fire hazard in sheets, castings, or other massive
forms be cause of its difficulty of ignition . Once ignited, however, large pieces burn vig-
orously . J\foist zinc dust reacts slowly with th e water to form hydrogen, and, if sufficient
heat is released , ignition of the dust can occur. Zinc dust clouds ignite in air at 1110°F
(599°C). Burning zinc generates appreciable smoke.

Storing, Processing, and Fire Protection for

Ca lcium and Zinc Fires
The requirements ofNFPA 484 for magnesium can be applied to calcium and zinc.

RADIOACTIVE METALS
Radioactivity does not influence nor is it influenced by the fire properties of a metal.
Radioactive metals includ e those few that occur naturally (e.g., uranium and thorium)
and those produced artificially (e.g., plutonium and cobalt-60). Because radioactivil) '
cannot be altered by fire, radiation will continue whereve r the metal is located during
a fire. Smoke from fires involving radioactiv e materials can cause more property dam-
age than the fire. TI1e damage, however, is not physical, but results from radioactive
673
 SECTION 4: Processand StorageI lazards

con tamination that must be cleaned up to avoid exposure. Naturally occurring radio-
active metals consist of a mLx.tureof atom s having slight ly different mass. TI1ese are
called isotopes. For example, the radioactivity of each uranium isotop e is different, and
it follows that the radiation hazards from an>' given piece of uranium will chang e with
its isotopic composition, which can be varied by special proc essing. Change of isoto pic
content of a piece of uranium alters the nature and magnitude of its radiation hazard
but does not alter its chem ical or fire properti es. ·n,e same is equally tru e of thorium
and plutonium.
Uranium, thorium, and plutonium are easily ignited in the form of chips, turnin gs,
and fines. TI1ey will react slowly with water to form hydrogen. In addition, collection of
fines under water in containers larger th,111J gal (3.8 L) can resu lt in a fire, because the
water is not able to cool the fines at the center of the containers. TI1efines at the cen ter
of the mass produce heat and hydrogen. 1l1e heat is sufficient to boil off the water and
ignite the remaining fines in the container. Limiting collec tion of fines to quantities less
than l gal (3.8 L) in volume has been shown to be effective in preventing spontaneo us
ignition.

Uranium
Nor mal uranium is a radioactive metal that is also combustible . Its radioa ct ivity does
not affect its combustibility but can have a bearing on the significance of the fire loss.
Most metallic uranium is handl ed in massiv e forms that do not present significant fire
risk unless exposed to a severe and prolonged external fire. Once ignited, the massive
metal burns very slowly. A 1-in.-d iamet er (2.54 -cm -diameter) rod requires about l day
to burn out after ignition. In the absence of strong drafts, uranium oxide smoke, due to
its density, tend s to deposit in the immediate area of the burning metal. Unless covered
with oil, massive uranium burn s with virtually no visible flame. Burning uran ium will
react violently with carbon tetrachloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, the halons, and many
halon replacements. For nuclear power reactor s, uranium fuel eleme nts are always
encased in a metal ja cket (usually zirconium or stainless steel).
Uranium in finely divided form is readily ignited, and uranium scrap from machin-
ing operations is subject to spontaneous ignition. 1l1is reaction can usually be avoided
by storage under a coolan t (oil - or water-based) . Moist dus t, turnings, and chips react
slowly with water to form hydrogen. Containers used to store uranium with water -
based coolants, water, or stored underwater must be vented to prevent the build-up
ofh}'drogen. Grinding dust can ignite even und erwater, and fires ca n occur spontane-
ously in drums of coarser scrap after prolonged exposure to moist air. Dispo sal of chips
and fines in a time ly manner is esse nt ial to managing the fire risk. Larger pieces gener-
ally have to be heated en masse to the ir ignition temperature before ignitin g. Uran ium
surfaces treated with concentrated nitric acid are subject to exp losion or spontaneous
ignition in air.

Thorium
TI10rium, like uranium, is a naturally occurring element. Both are known as "sou rce
materials;' the basic material s from which nuclear reactor fuels are produced . 1l1e
674
 CHAPTER51: Com busti ble Met als

powdered form of thorium requires special lrnndling techniques because of its low ig-
nition temp eratur e. In the dr) ' state, it must be handled under a helium or argon at-
mosphere . T11edry metal powder should not be in air because even the friction of the
part icles falling through the air or against the edge of a glass container may produce
electrostatic ignition of the powder.
Powdered thorium is usually compacted into solid pellets weighing about 1 oz.
(28 g) each . In thi s form it can be safely stor ed or convert ed into alloys with other
metals. Improp erly compact ed thorium pellets have be en known slowly to generate
sufficient heat through absorption of oxygen and nitrogen from the air to raise a steel
container to re d heat. T110rium is handl ed by remote control becau se of th e toxico-
logic effects of the metal.

Plutonium
Pluto niu m is somew hat mo re suscept ible to ignition than uran ium and is no rma lly
handled by remote control in an inert gas. In finely divided form, such as dust or chips,
plutonium is subject to spontan eou s ignition in air.
Plutonium metal is generally not expo sed to water, in part because of fire consid-
erations. Tl1e massive metal ignites at about l l 12°F (600°C) and burns in a manner
quite similar to uranium, except that plutonium oxide smoke damage (i.e ., airborne
rad ioactive contamination) is more difficult to control and also more hazardous .
The steam generated by the use of water on a plutonium fire significantly increases
the spread of con tamination. Because of certain nonfire hazard considerations, it is
necessary to limit the quantity of plutonium kept at one location, thus limiting the
maximum size of a fire in this metal. Plutonium, which ignites spontaneously, is
normally allowed to burn under conditions limiting both fire and radiologic con -
tamination spread.

Fire Protection
Prefire planning is particularly important where radioacl'ive materials are involved .
Automatic sprinkler protection is generally provided for facilities containing radioactive
materials . However , in genera l, the use of water to control a radioactive metal fire is not
recommended because of the generation of steam that is likely to spread contam ina-
tion throughout the area of the fire and beyond. Fires involving uranium, thorium, and
plutonium burn relatively quickly through fines and turnings. Limiting the amount of
turning s throughout the machining area is important so that a small, localized fire does
not propagate to other turnings or combustible materials that may be located in the
machining area . Fire tests have shown that provid ing an air gap of approximately 4 in .
(10.16 cm) between containers used to collect chips and turn ings can prevent propaga-
tion of a fire from one container to another.
Because of the radioactive contamination that is produced during a fire, manual
intervention is not recommended unless a self-conta ined breathing apparatus is worn.
T11e worst type of exposur e to the radioa ctive metals is inhalation and ingestion .
Chap ter 45 of this book provides additional information on the fire hazards associated
with radioactive materials.
675
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

M ALS NOT NORMALLY COMBUS IBLE

Iron and Steel
Iron and steel are no t 11sua ll)1 cons ide red combusti ble; in ma ssive form, as in stru c-
tural stee l and cast iron part s, they do not burn in ordi nar y fires. In the form of fine
wool or dust , however, they can be ign ited by the flame of a torch or the spa rks from
a grindi ng operation. Fires can occ ur in piles of steel turnin gs and fines that con tain
some oil and other mat erials that m ight facilitate comb ustion. Spontaneous ign ition
of wat er-we t borings and turnings in closed areas, such as in the cargo hold of a ship,
can also occur.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cot e, A. E., d., Fire Protection llr111duook
, 20th ed ., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
Pu ri ng ton, R. G., and Patterson , H. W, linndl i11 g Rndintio11Emergencies, NFPA,
Quincy, MA, 1977.

Reports on Meta l Incidents

Chem ical Safety Board, Investigation of Hayes Lemm erz Int erna tional, A/11111in11111 Dust
Explosion. Available at http:/ /www.csb.gov/assets/document/Hayes~Report.pdf
Chem ical Safety Iloard, Investigation of Ho eganaes Corporation Fatal Flash Fires, Poiv-
dem l Iron Flnsli Firesnnd faplosion. Available at htt p://www.csb.gov/investigat ions/
det ail.aspx?SID=l00&Type=2&pg=l&F _ All=y
Kreitrmn , K. L., "Are You Sure You Wn11tto 1iy to Extinguish 1lwt Fire with Hydrogen
a11dOxyge11?'': Proper Handli ng of Com bustible i\11etal Fires; • March 16, 2007. Avail-
able at h ttp://www .nfpajournal.org
Kreitman, K. L., Proper Hnndli11gof Comb11stiblelv[etnlFires, Albany Fire Dept., OR.
Fire Engineeri ng, Vol. 161, No. 2, 115-116, 118, Februaqr 2008.
N IOSH Firefigh ter Fata lity Investigation Report, Dumpster Explosio11at Fo'1111d ry i11
Wisco11si11, Report No. F2009-31. Available at http://www.cd c.gov/ nio sh/fire/rep orts/
face20093l.html
NIOSH Nea r Miss In cident, Firesl11110/11i11gTitn11iu111i11Califomin,Report No. F2010-30.
Available at h ttp ://www.cdc.gov/niosh/fire/reports/face201030.html

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the lates t version of the NFPA Ca talog for availability of th e curre nt edition of th e
following docum ent.
NF PA 484, Stm1dnrdfor Co111uustiule
Metals

676
 CHAPTER

52

HAZARDOUSMATERIALS
Phillip A . Friday , PE

Chemicals are everywhe re in our daily lives. Hand san ilizers, hou sehold and industrial
cleaners, lawn ca re products, pool chem icals, adhesives, and insect repe llents all have
hazardous properties, but in small quantitie s they a re not generally considered harm-
ful. In fact, .it is the hazardous properti es of m any chemicals that make them useful and
enhance our standar d of living. For example, some oxidizers make excellent cleaners.
However, in larger quantities, many chemicals can create considerable lrnzards when
not properly stored, handl ed, or used. This chapter will revie w how the storage, use,
and handling of hazardous materials are regulated in buildings, how to identify and
classify different hazardous materials, and what protection measures may be required
to ensure that adequate safegua rds are provided.

APPLICABLECODE REQUIREMENTS
Toda)', model building and fire codes contain numerous requ irements that address
hazardous chemica ls. Codes such as NFPA 5000, Building Co11s/ruc lio11mul Safety
Code, NFPA 1, FireCode, the lntematio11n/B11ildingCode, the !lltenwtio11afFireCode,
or some combination of these , are adopted and enforced. Also, there are a number
of material-specific codes and standards that may be applicable. For example, NFPA
30, F/11111m11bfe1111dCo111bustibfe Liquids Code, and NFPA 430, Code for the Stomge
of Liq11idand Solid Oxidizers, are generally considered the regulatory standard for
the specific types of materials each addresses. Many of the materials-specific codes
aud standa rds (i.e., NFPA 55, NFPA 430, NFPA 432, NFPA 434, and NFPA 490) were
recently conso lidated into a single code, NFPA 400, Hazardous MaterialsCode, the first
edition of which was released in 2010.
TI1eabove-referenced documents contain numerous requirements related to hazard-
ous materials. ·n 1e basic regulatory concept in both the NFPA and ICC codes is to estab-
lish quantity limitations and implement additional controls or mitigation measures when
quantity thresholds need to be exceeded. TI1econtro ls or protection measures that may be
required include building or tenant space height and area limitations, cornpartmenta tion ,
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

strict egressrequirements, fire separation, fire sprinkler protection or other specialized fire
suppression systems, fire alarm and detection coverage, spill control and secondary
containment, ventilation, and additional administrative procedures. Often times, it is a
combination of two or more of these features. Exactly what will be required in a given
situation depends on the applicable code, the occupancy or building use, the types and
quantity of materials on site, whether the materials are being stored, handled, or used, and
whether or 1101 the materials are in open or closed containers or systems. The require-
ments vary great!}'· So, it is important for the inspector to lrnow what the applicablecodes
are and to determine the basis for the origiJ1alpermit application and approval.

HAZARDOUSMA E IA S
IDENTI ICA ION AND CLASSIFICATION
Hazardous materials are classified according to their physical properties and the poten-
tial health risks they pose. The different hazardous materials classifications as defined
in NFPA I and NFPA 5000 are summarized in TABLE 52·1.It is noted that very similar, if
not the same, classifications and definitions are found in other codes that may be used
by a state or local jurisdiction.
Perhaps one of the most useful resources for deter mining the classification of a
material is from its i'vlater.ial Safety Data Sheet (i\1ISDS). The Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) Haz;ird Communication Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200)
requires businesses that store, use, or manufacture chemical products to have on file
and make available to employees MSDS document s that describe the safety precau-
tions, including fire hazards, of each material. TI1esedocuments should be made avail-
able to fire inspectors upon request.
It is worth noting that the hazard information contained on an MSDS can be mis-
leading and should be interpreted carefully. MSDS preparers may reference the haz-
ard properties of a relatively small chemical constituent, or ingredient, of a material
because the hazard propert ies of these ingredients can be easily obtained from the lit-
erature without the need to perform additiona l testing on the material. For example,
a flavoring used in the food industry contains 10 percent ethyl alcohol. However, the
MSDS sheet for the flavoring reports its flash point as 14°C {57°F), which is a com-
monly reported flash point in the literature for pure ethanol. If the data from the lvISDS
were used, the flavoring would be improperly classified as a Class I Flammable Liquid.
Where there are questions, the manufacturer should be consulted.
While a specific material's classification must be determin ed based on the defini-
tions stated in the applicable code and the information provided by the manufacturer
or supplier, one clue to classification of a material is the chemical family of the mate-
rial or its constituents. A chemical family is a group of chemicals that have a similar
molecular structure. In genera l, chemicals with a similar molecular structure have sim-
ilar physical properties, and information about typical physical properties associated
with a particular chemical familycan be of great benefit when classifying materials. A
correlation between many of the common chemical families and the various hazardous
materials classifications found in the codes is provided in Annex B ofNFPA 400.
678
 CHAP ER S2: I lazardousMaterials

Hazardou s Mat erials Classifications and Definitions

Classification Definition
Flammable A liquid having a closed cup flash point below l00°F (380()_Flammable
liquid liquids are further categorized into a group known as ClassI liquids.The
ClassI category is further subdivided as follows:
ClassIA. Liquids having, flash point below 73°F (23o( ) and a boiling
point below 100°F (38°C).
Class1B. Liquids having a flash point below 73°F (23 C) and a boiling
point at or above I 00°F (38°C).
ClassIC. Liquidshavinga flashpoint at or above73°Fand below 1ooaF (3SoC)
.
Combustible A liquid having a closed cup flash point at or above I 00°F (38oC).
liquid Co111bustible liquids shall be subdivided as follows:
Class II. Liquids having a closed cup flash point at or above lOOOF (38°C)
and below 140°F (6CJ<>C).
ClassIIIA. Liquids having a closed cup flash point at or above 1400F
(600() and below 20CJ<>F (93°C).
Class111B. Liquidshavinga closedcup flashpoint at or above20CY'F (93oC).
Consumer 1.4G. (Formerlyknown asClassC,Common Fireworks.) Any smallfireworks
fireworks devicedesigned primarilyto producevisible effectsby combustion that
complieswith the construction, chemical composition,and labeling
regulationsof the U.S.ConsumerProductSafetyCommission,asset forth in
Title 16,CFR,Parts1500and 1507.Some small devicesdesignedto produce
audible effectsare included,such aswhistling devices,ground devices
containing 0.8g (SOmg) or lessof explosive composition (salutepowder).
and aerial devicescontaining "Jg (130mg) or lessof explosivecomposition
(salutepowder) per explosiveunit.
1.3G. (Formerly known as Class B, Special Fireworks.)Large
fireworks articles designed to produce visible or audible effects for
entertainment purposes by combustio n, deflagration, or detonat ion.
This term includes, but is not limited to, salutes containi ng more than
2 g (130 mg) of explosive compositio n (salute powde r), aerial shells
contai ning more th an 60 g (2.1 oz) of total pyro technic and explosive
composition, and other display pieces that exceed the limits for
classification as consumer fireworks, 1.4G.
Cryogenic A fluid with a boiling point lower than - I 30°F(-90°C) at an absolute
liquids pressureof 14.7 psia ( 101.325kPa}.
Explosives A chemical compound, mixture,or device, the primary or common
purpose of which is to function by explosion.
High Explosive(Material).Explosive material,such asdynamite, that can be
causedto detonate by meansof a No. 8 test blasting capwhen unconfined.
Low Explosive(Material). Explosivematerialthat will burn or deflagrate
when ignited.
(conrinues)
'-
679
 SECTION4: l)rocess and StorageHazards

Continued

Classification Defin ition

Flammable gas A materialthat is a gasat 68°F (20°C) or lessat an absolute pressure of l '1.7
psia (101.3kPa),that is ignitable at an absolute pressureof 14.7 psia( I 01.3
kPa)when in a mixture of 13 percent or lessby volume with air,or that has
a flammable rangeat an absolute pressureof 14.7 psia(101.3 kPa)with air
of at least 12percent,regardlessof the lower limit.
Flammable A ~olirl ~ll bst;inrf', other than one defined ;i~ a I lastingagent or
solid explosive,that is liable to causefire through friction or asa result of
retained heat from manufacture, that has an ignition temperature below
2 I 2°F(I 00°C),or that burns so vigorously or persistently when ignited
that it createsa serious hazard.
Organic Any organic compound having a double oxygen or peroxy (-0 -0-) group
peroxide in its chemical structure.
Class I Organic Perox ide . Organic peroxide formulations that are
capable of deflagration but not detonation.
Class II Organic Perox ide. Organic peroxide formulations that burn
very rapidly and that presenta severe reactivity hazard.
Class Ill Organic Perox ide. Organic peroxide formulations that burn
rapidly and that present a moderate reactivity hazard.
Class IV Organic Peroxide. Organic peroxide formulations that burn
in the same manner as ordinary combustibles and that present a minimal
reactivity hazard.
Class V Organic Peroxide. Organic peroxide formulations that
burn with lessintensity than ordinary combustibles or do not sustain
combustion and that present no reactivity hazard.
Oxidizer A material, other than a blasting agent or explosive, that readilyyields
oxygen or other oxidizing gas,or that readilyreacts to promote or initiate
combustion of combustible materials.
Class 1 Oxidizer. An oxidizer that does not moderatelyincreasethe
burning rateof combustiblematerialswith which it comesinto contact.
Class 2 Oxidizer. An oxidizerthat causesa moderateincrease in the
burning rateof combustiblematerialswith which it comesinto contact.
Class 3 Oxidizer. An oxidizerthat causesa severe increasein the burning
rate of combustible materials with which it comesinto contact.
Class 4 Oxidizer. An oxidizer that can undergo an explosive reaction
due to contamination or exposureto thermal or physicalshockand that
causesa severeincreasein the burning rate of combustible materials
with which it comes into contact.
Oxidizing gas A gas that can support and acceleratecombustion of other materials.
Pyrophoric A chemical with an autoignition temperature in air at or below 130°F
(54.4°C).

680
 CHAPTER52: HazardousMaterials

Continued

Unstable A materia l that, in the pure state or as commercially produced, wi ll

(reactive) vigorously poly merize, decompose or condense, become self-reactive, or
othe rwi se unde rgo a violent chemical change under condit ions of shock,
pressure, or temp erature.
Water-reactive A material t hat explodes; viole ntl y reacts; produces flammable, toxic,
or other hazardo us gases; or evolves eno ugh heat to cause self-
ignit ion or ignit ion of nearby combustib les upon exposure to water or
moistu re,
Corrosive A chemical that causes visible destruc tion of. or irreversible alteration s in,
living tissue by chemical action at the site of con tact.
Toxic A mate rial tha t produces a leth al dose or a lethal co ncentrat ion w ithin
any of the fo llow ing categor ies: ( l) a chemical or substc1ncethat has a
med ian lethal dose (LDS0)of more than 50 mg/kg but no t more than 500
mg/kg of body weig ht w hen admin istered orally to albino rats we igh ing
between 200 g and 300 g each; (2) a chem ical or substance that has a
median lethal dose (LD50) of more than 200 mg/kg bu t no t more tha n
l 000 mg/kg of body weig ht when administered by cont inuou s co ntact
for 24 hours, or less if death occu rs wit hin 24 hou rs, with the bare skin
of albino rabbits weigh ing bet ween 2 kg and 3 kg each, or albino rats
weigh ing 200 g to 300 g each; (3) a chemica l or substance that has a
median lethal concentrat ion (LCS0) in air of more than 200 parts per
million but not more than 2000 parts per mi llion by vo lume of gas or
vapor, or more than 2 rng/L but no t more than 20 mg/L, of mist, fume,
or d ust when administered by cont inuous inhalat ion for l hour, or less if
death occu rs w ith in 1 hou r, to albino rats weig hing betwee n 200 g and
300 g each.
High ly toxic A materia l that p roduces a letha l dose or letha l concentrat ion tha t
falls w ith in any of the following categories: (1) a chemical that has a
median leth al do se (LDS0) of 50 mg/kg or less of body weig ht w hen
administered orally to alb ino rats we ighing between 200 g and 300 g
each; (2) a chem ical that has a med ian lethal dose (LOSO)of 200 mg/kg
or less of bod y we ight when adm inistered by contin uous contac t for
24 ho urs, or less if deat h occurs with in 24 hours, w ith the bare skin
of albino rabb its weighing between 2 kg and 3 kg each or alb ino
rats weighing 200 g to 300 g each; (3) a chemica l that has a median
letha l concentrat ion (LCSO)in air of 200 parts per m illion by vo lume
or less of gas or vapor, or 2 mg/Lor less of mist, fu me, or dust, when
ad m inistered by continuous in halation for 1 hour, or less if death
occ urs withi n 1 ho ur, to albino rats weig hing between 200 g and
300 g each,

681
 SECTION4: Process and Storage Hazards

IESAND

As mentioned previously, a fundamenta l concept that mod ern building and fire codes
use to regulate hazardo us mat erials is th e maximum allowable quantity (lvlAQ) and
the control area . Despite the fundamental nature of these requirements, they still seem
to genera te a high degree of confusion among design profess ionals, end users, and
enforcement officials. TI1e following explanation is intended to make these concepts
eas ier to un derstand .
Th e co d es establish an .MAQ of each ha za rdous mat er ial typ e that ca n be sto red
or used in a con tro l area within a building or por tion thereof. A contro l area
is not hin g more th a n a n area of a buil din g that is phys ically separa ted by fire -
res istan ce rated const ru c tion from othe r contro l areas. \Vher e only one co ntrol
area exi sts, ther e are ge nerall y 110 special separat ion requirements. For examp le,
an entire bu ild ing, floor of a build ing, or ten,mt spa ce within a building may be
cons idered a cont ro l area. It is also possible to have a con trol area inside another
contro l area . However, thes e co ntrol area s would be required to be separat ed from
one anoth er.
Each floor of a building is limited to a cer tain number of control areas dependi ng
0 11 how man) ' stories above grade a floor is. Similarly, each con trol area on each floo r is
limited to a percentage of the state d MAQ that may be stored or used with in it. These
requir ements for control areas are illustrated in TABLE S2·2and TABLE 52-3.These tables
are taken from NFPA 5000.
It sho uld be not ed that the stated MAQs in Table 52-3 are subject to the conditions
ou tlined in the footn otes below the table. Perhaps the most sign ificant of these condi-
tions are footno tes "g" and "h;' which allow the ?viAQ to be doubled if automatic sprin-
kler protccti .on is p rovided and doubled again if the mater ials are stored in approved
cab ine ts or other app roved containers, respective ly. 1hus, the statement th at th e notes
apply "accumulatively :•
So, what happens when an occupant need s to store or use more haza rdou s materi -
als than the allowable nu mber of co ntro l areas per floor will permit? Does this mean
th e occupant must find a taller building to acco mmodat e its need s? Not at all. TI1ere
is a way to store an "unlimi ted " quantity of materials within the confine s of allowable
stora ge arrangemen ts and fire protec tion schemes. Wh en this occurs, a different use
gro up or "protection level" is ass.igned, and numero us additional contro ls must be
provided . For instan ce, NF PA 5000 and NFPA 1 assign Protection Level 1 through
Protection Level 5, which are rough ly equivalent to the Group H - l through Gro up
H -5 use gro ups, or occupancy classifications, in the ICC codes . Protection Level 1
throug h Prot ec tion Level 3 are genera lly associa ted with the physical hazard materi-
als (e.g., flammable and combustible liquids, oxid izers, organic peroxid es, flammable
solids, etc.) , Protection Level 4 is ass igned to the health ha zard mat er ials (e.g., corro-
sives, toxics, and h igh ly toxics), and Protection Level 5 is assigned to semicond uc tor
manufa ct uring operations .

682
 Ma ximum Allowable Quantity (MAQ) of Hazardou s Materia ls per Contr ol Areaa

Storag e Use-Closed systems Use-Open Systems

High
Hazard Liquid Liquid Gasbft3 Solid Liquid
Prot ection Solid Gallon s Gasbft3 Solid Gallon s (l b ) Pound s Gallon s
Mat erial Class Level Pound s (lb) (lb) {gal] Pounds (lb) [gal) (ft 3) (lb)
Combustib le liquictc.d,e
,f II 2or 3 NA 1209,h NA NA 12Qh NA NA 3Qh
Ill-A 2 or 3 NA 3309,h NA NA 33Qh NA NA 80h
111-8 NA NA 13,2009,i NA NA 13,20Qi NA NA 3,300i
Consumer fireworks 1.4G 3 1259,h.k NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Cryogenic fluid flammab le 2 NA 45ht.u NA NA 45h1,u NA NA 451.u
oxidizing 3 NA 459.h NA NA 459,h NA NA NL
inert NA NA NL NA NA NL NA NA NL
Explosives NA 1 19,1.m,n (1)9.1.n NA ¼I (¼)1 NA ¼I (¼)1
Flammable, gas Gaseous 2 NA NA 10009,h NA NA 10009,h NA NA
Liquefied 2 NA NA (150)9,h NA NA (150)9,h NA NA
Liquefied 2 NA NA NA(300)o,P NA NA (300) NA NA
Petroleum (LP)
Flammable liquidc,d.f.q I-A 2 or 3 NA 309,h NA NA 3Qh NA NA lQh
1-Band IC NA 1209,h NA NA 1209,h NA NA 309,h
Combination NA 1209,h,r NA NA 1209,h,r NA NA 3Qh,r
I-A, 1-8, 1-C
Flammable solid NA 3 1259,h NA NA 25h NA NA 259,h NA
Inert gas Gaseous NA NA NA NL NA NA NL NA NA
Liquefied NA NA NA NL NA NA NL NA NA
(continues)
 /' \

r\
• .t....t..i..
"11•1l;tl jL'if!!PJ Continued
'I T,"l'"
"'Ill
Storage Use-Closed systems Use-Open Syst ems
High
Hazard Liquid Liquid Gasbft3 Solid Liquid
Protection Solid Gallons Gash ft3 Solid Gallons (lb) Pound s Gallons
M ater ial Class Level Pounds (l b) (l b) [ga l) Poun ds (lb) [ga l] (ft 3) (lb)
Organic peroxide UD 1 19,1 (1)9.I NA w (1/4)1 NA X1 (1/4)1

I 1 59,h (5)9,h NA 1h (l)h NA lh (l)h

II 2 509,h (50)9,h NA SQh (SQ)h NA l0h (10)h
Ill 3 1259,h 1259,h NA 125h (l 2S)h NA 2Sh (2S)h
IV NA NL NL NA NL NL NA NL NL
V NA NL NL NA NL NL NA NL NL
Oxidizer 4 1 19.i (l) g.l NA ¼] (1/4)1 NA ¼1 (l/4)1

3i 2 or 3 109,h (10)9,h NA 2h (2)h NA 2h (2)h

2 3 2509,h (250)9,h NA 25Qh (250)h NA soh (SO)h
1 NA 4,0009.i (4,000)9,1 NA 4,0009 (4,000)9 NA 1,0009 (1,000)9
Oxidizing gas Gaseous 3 NA NA 1,5009,h NA NA 1,5009,h NA NA
Liquefied 3 NA (150)9,h NA (150)9,h NA NA
Pyrophoric 2 49,I (4)9,1 NA 11 (1)1 NA 0 0
PyrophoricGas Gaseous 2 NA NA 509.I NA NA 509.I NA NA
Liquefied 2 NA NA (4)9,1 NA NA (4)9,1 NA NA
Unstable (reactive) 4 1 19,1 (1)9,1 NA ¼I (¼)1 NA ¼1 (¼/
3 1 or 2 59,h (5)9,h NA lh (l)h NA lh (l)h
2 2 509,h (50)9,h NA S0h (S0)h NA 7Qh (l0)h
1 NA NL NL NA NL NL NA NL NL
 Unstable (reactive) Gas Gaseous4 or 3 1 NA NA 109,1 NA NA 109.I NA NA
detonable
3 non-detonable 2 NA NA 509,h NA NA 509,h NA NA
2 3 NA NA 7509,h NA NA 7509,h NA NA
1 NA NA NA NL NA NA NL NA NA
Unstable (reactive) Gas Liquefied 4 or 3 1 NA NA (1)9,1 NA NA (1)9.I NA NA
detonable
3 non-detonable 2 NA NA (2)9,h NA NA (2)9,h NA NA
2 3 NA NA [30]9,h NA NA [30]9,h NA NA
1 NA NA NA NL NA NA NL NA NA
Water (reactive) 3 2 59,h (S)g,h NA Sh (S)h NA lh (l)h
2 3 509,h (50)9,h NA S0h (S0)h NA ]Qh (l0)h
1 NA NL NL NA NL NL NA NL NL
Corrosive NA 4 5,QQQ
g,h SQQ
g.h NA s.000 11 500 NA 1,000h l0Qh
Corrosivegas Gaseous 4 NA NA 8109,h NA NA 8109,h NA NA
Liquefied NA NA (150)9,h NA NA (150)9.h NA NA
Highly toxic NA 4 1Qg,h (10)9,h NA ] Qh (1Q)h NA 3h (3)h
Highly toxic gas Gaseous 4 NA NA 2Qh.a NA NA 2Qh,a NA NA
Liquefied NA NA (4)h,a NA NA (4)h,a NA NA
Toxic NA 4 5009,h (500)9,h NA soo ri (S00)h NA 125h (12S)h
Toxic gas Gaseous 4 NA NA 8109,h NA NA 8109,h NA NA
Liquefied NA NA (150)9,h NA NA (150)9,h NA NA
0 See 34.1.3.2 of NFPA5000for exceptions to tabular amounts.For use of control areas,see34.2.4 of NFPA5000.Table values in parenthesescorrespond to the unit
name in parenthesesa the top of the column. The aggregate quantity in use and storage is not permitted to exceed the quami y listed for storage.In addition,
quantities in specific occupancies are not permitted to exceedthe limits in 34.1.3.2of NFPA5000.
bMeasuredat 70 °F (21°C) and 14.7 psi (30 kPa).
C\ Clnside a building, the maximum capacityof a combustible liquid storagesystemthat is connected to a fuel-oil p1p1ng systemis permitred to be 660 gal (2.S00L),
er.,
U'l provided that such system conforms to NFPA31, Standard for the lnstallarionof Oil-BurningEquipment.
(continues)
0\ u,
co m
0\ n
::!
Continued 0
z
~
-0
dfia mmable and combustible liquids and flammable gases in the fuel tanks of mobile equipment or vehicles are permitted to exceed the MAQ where the an
equipment is stored and operated in accordancewith the NFPAI. ~c:.;
0 In storage, low, and ordinary hazardoccupancies,the storage of ClassII combustible liquids is required t o be limited to a maximum quantity of 1.375gal (5204Ll;
:::J
ClassIIIAcombustible liquids are required to be limited to a maximum quantity of 13.750gal (52,044L) where stored in accordance wi th all the requirements in a.
V,

NFPA30 for general-purposewarehouses. 0

ii)
fThe quantity of fuel in aircraft in hangars is required to be in accordance with NFPA409, Standardon Aircraft Hangars. lO

9Quantit ies are permitted to be increased 100 percent where stored or used in approved cabinets,gas cabinets. exhausted enclosures,gas rooms, explosives "'
:c
magazines, or safetycans.as appropriate for the material stored, in accordancewith NFPA1. Where Footnote h also applies, the ncreasefor both footnotes is "'
N
~
permitted to be applied accumulatively. ~
hMaximum quantities are permitted to be increased 100 percent in buildings equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system in accordancewith NFPA13,
Srondordfor rhe lnsrallotionof SprinklerSystems. Where Footnote g also applies,t he Increasefor both footnotes is permitted to be applied accumulatively.
1The permitted quantit ies are not limited in a building equipped t hroughout with an automatic sprinkler system n accordancewith NFPA13.
JAmaximum quantity of 200 lb (91 kg) of solid or 20 gal (76 L) of liquid Class3 oxidizersis permitted where such materialsare necessaryfor maintenance purposes,
operation, or sani ation of equipment. Storage containers and the manner of storage are required to be approved.
kUnlessthe actual weight of the pyrotechnic composition of the consumer fireworks, 1AG, is known, 25 percent of the grossweight of the fireworks,including
packaging,is permitted to be used to determine the weight of the fireworks for the purpose oft his table.
1Permitted only in buildings equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system in accordancewith NFPA13.

mMaximum quantitiesof blackpowder, smokeless propellant, and small arms primersstoredor displayed in mercantile occupanciesor stored in one- or two-family
dwellingsarepermitted to exceedthe amount specifiedby this table where such storagecomplieswith the requirementsof NFPA495, ExplosiveMorerio/sCode, Chapter 13.
nIn lieu of the maximum allowable quantity limit per cont rol area, the maximum aggregate quant"1typer building of special explosive devices in industrial,
mercantile, and storage occupancies shall be limited to 50 lb.
oAdditional storage location s are required to be separated by a minimu m of 300 ft (92 m).
Pin mercantile occupancies,storage of LP-Gasis limited to a maximum of 200 lb (91 kg) in nominal 1 lb (0.45 kg) LP-GasContainers.
Qin storage, low, and ordinary hazard occupancies, the storage of ClassIA flammable liquids is not permitt ed, and the combinauon storage of ClassIBand ClassIC
flammable liquids is required to be limited to a maximum quantity of 660 gal (2,500 L) where stored in accordance with all the requirements in NFPA30 for general-
purpose warehouses.
1Containing not more than the maximum allowable quantity per control area of Classl·A, ClassI-B.or ClassI-C flammable liquids.

5Allowed only where stored or used in gas rooms or in approved, gas cabinets or enclosures, as specified in NFPA1.
1None allowed in unsprinklered buildings unlessstored or used in gas rooms or in approved gas cabinets or exhausted enclosures,as specified in NFPA1.

uwich pressure-relief devices for stationary or portable containers vented directly outdoors or to an exhaust hooa.
 CHAPTER52: HazardousMaterials

Design and Number of Control Areas

Maximum Fire
Allowable Number of Resistance
Quant ity per Contro l Rating for
Contro l Area Areas per Fire Barriers*
Floor Level (o/o)t Floor (hr)
Above grade pl ne
>9 5.0 I 2
7-9 5.0 2 2
4- 6 12.5 2 2
3 50.0 2 1
2 75.0 3 I
1 100.0 4 I
Below grade plane
I 75 3 I
2 50 2 I
Lower than 2 NA NA NA
NA: Not applicable.
tper entagesrepresentthe maximumallowable quantities per control areashown in Table34.1.3.1 of
NFPA5000,with all of the increasespermitted in the footnotes of that table.
tf ire barriers are required to include floorsar1dwalls.as necessary, to provide a comrilete separation
from other control areas.

PROTECTION MEASURESWHEN MAQs

ARE EXCEEDED
Height and Area Limitations
Building code h eight and area limit ations for buildings and tenant spaces are based 011
two factors : the degree of fire-resistance rating of the structural components including
walls, floors, and roofs and the occupancy type . Higher hazard occupan cies such as
storage, industrial, and thos e specifically designated as "hazardous" have more restric-
tive height and area limitation s than other occupancies that are deemed less hazardous.
Hazardous uses may be permitted to occupy larger areas through the provi sion of au -
tomatic fire spr inkl er protection, increased frontage to adjacent buildings, or increa sed
levels of fire-resi stance rated construction. In severe cases, hazardou s uses are required
to be in a detached building that is used for no other purpose. This may occur when
an occupant is storing or using exp losives or large quantities (measured in tons) of the
more severe ph) 1sical. hazards such as Class 2 and 3 oxidizers; unstable (rea ctive) mate -
r ials; water -reactive mate rials; and Class II and Ill organic peroxid es.
687
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

Egress Requirements
To allow occupants in a hazardou s area to get out quickly, there are special means of
egress requirements for hazardous uses. Doors in hazardous occupancies are generally
required to have panic hardware or fire exit hardware. The allowable travel distance
to exit doors is usually less than 200 ft (61 111)dep ending on the degree of hazard , and
additional exit doors may be required to ensure that travel distance limitations are not
exceeded. Oth er components of the means of egress system may be limited to ensure
that occupants can escape in a reasonable amount of time .
Certainly, one of the easiest and most important things an inspector shou ld check
is that all exits are unob stru cted by storage or equ ipm ent both inside and outside the
building and that the exit door s are operational.

Fire Separation
High- hazard conten t occupancies are required to be separat ed from other occupancies,
including oth er high -hazard content occupancies, by fire-resistance rated constructio n.
ln general, sep aration from storage or industrial occupancies must be rated I-hour or
2-hour, and separation from other occupancies must be rated 3-hour or 4-hour. Open -
ings, such as windows or door s, mu st also be "protected" or fire-resistance rated. Doors
th at are held open must close automatically via detection of heat or smoke (e.g., fusible
link s or smoke detectors).

Fire Suppress ion

There are many different approved automatic fire suppression schemes for ha zardous
materials storag e and use. A complet e hazard assessment is need ed to determine what
typ e of automatic fire suppression is appropriate. In general, most high -hazard content
occupancie s must be provided with automat ic fire sprinkler protection .
Appropriate and required fire suppress ion schemes for hazardous materi als can be
found in the material -specific chapters of the applicable codes and standards. In addi -
tion, for some materia ls, NFPA 13, Stmuiardfor the l1rstnllationof Sprinkler Systems,
ha s extracted from the materia l-specific standards th e fire sprinkler design criteria and
inst allation requirements.
Where more than one type of material is being stored or used, multiple protection
schemes may be necessary. Some sprinkle r protection schemes for hazardous materials
require in-ra ck sprinklers and solid and horizont al barriers . The inspector should con -
firm that the prot ection scheme is appropriate for the types of materials being stored
or used and in the storage configurations observ ed. Information can be obtained from
the hazard assessment submitted for permit approval, on the sprinkler riser information
placard, and in the applicable codes and standards. It should also be confirmed that all
valves controlling the water supply to the fire sprinkler system(s) are in the open po sition.

Fire Alarm and Detect ion Co verage

Fi1'e alarin and detection requirements vary greatly. High-hazard content occupancies will
typically be required to have a sprinkler monitoring system, and occupant notification
688
 CHAPTERS2: Hazardous Materials

ma)' be accompli shed by having an audible and visible signal activate at a constantly
attended location. Tirns, an insp ector may or may not observe horn/strobes or other
not ification devices throughout the building or tenant space.
TI1ere may be a requirement to provide an "emergency alarm system;' which is simi -
lar to a manual fire ala rm system with manual pu ll-stat ions and notification devices
locate d at the exit doors to alert occupants of an emergency situation invo lving hazard-
ous materials.

Spill Co ntrol and Secondary Co ntainm ent

Spill control is int ended to provid e a con tainm ent area that will hand le a spill from
the larg est conta iner withi n it. Spill control may be requir ed when individu al storage
cont aine rs or closed system vesse ls contain ing liquids exceed a certain size [e.g., 55 gal
{208 L)J, when d ispens ing liquids into containers exceedi ng a certa in size, or when
op en use of solid or liquid mater ials takrs place in vessels or ystcms exceeding a cer-
tain size. Spill control may be accomplished through the use of liquid-tight floors that
are sloped or recessed or provi ded with raised or recessed d ikes, curb s, or sills. Sumps
and collection syste ms may also be provided.
Secondary contain ment is intend ed to co ntain a spill from the largest container
plus a 20-minut e discharge from the d esign sprinkler. Secondar>' con tainment may
be required where storage of liqu ids or solids is in individ ual containers that exceed a
cert ain size [e.g., 55 gal (208 L) for liquids, and 550 lb (250 kg) for solids] or where the
sum of multiple contai ners exceeds a certa in size [e.g., 1000 gal (3785 L) for liquids,
and 10,000 lb (4536 kg) for solids]. Tn addition, where ther e are ope n use liqu ids in
co nta iners exceeding a specific threshold [e.g., 1.1 gal (4.2 L)] or where the capacity of
multiple containers exceeds a higher thr eshold [e.g., 5.3 gal (20.l L)J,seco ndary con -
tainment may be required. In general , seconda ry containm ent may be implemented
with the same methodo logy used to provide spill control. However, it is not ed that the
requi red secondary cont ainm ent volume in a spr inkle red bu ildi ng is t)1pically far in
excess of what is requ ired for spill control, as most sprinkler systems are designed to
flow hund reds if not thousa nd s of gallons of water p er minu te. To co ntain the req uired
volume of water, it may be necessary to engineer and construct spec ial liqu id draina ge
and retention systems.
A quest ion that is com monly raised is whether or not d ifferent hazardou s materials
types are req uir ed to J1ave separa te secondary containment areas or systems. This is
on l>7a concern where there are incompatible materials i.n the same secondary conta in-
ment area, and separate secondary con tai nm ent ystems may be requi red only where
the incom p atible materials are store d in open containers or systems . One strategy often
used for storing incompa tible materia ls in the same containm en t area is to stor e on e or
more of the mat eria ls on con tainment pallets.

Ventilation
Ventila tion req uirem ents vary greatly, which ca n create a good dea l of confusio n as to
wha t is requ ired. TI1e u nd erlying int ent of the ven tilation requirements in the codes
is to prevent ign itable vapor - air mixtures or otherwise ha rmfu l atmospheres . ·whe re
689
 SECTION 4: Process and StorageHazards

materials are stored in closed containers, especially where the containers are small,
this is usually not a concern, and additional ventilation should not be required; how-
ever, where open use and hand ling of hazardou s materials occurs, ventilation may be
needed.
Two methods of ventilation are permitted . Natural ventilation may be used if dem -
onstrated to be appropriate for the materials being stored, used, or handl ed. Natu-
ral ventilation is provided through the operation of doors, window , louvers, or other
open ings to the outside. Mechanical ventilation, where requir ed and provid ed spe -
cifically to address hazardous atmospheres, must be arrang ed lo comp ly with specific
provisions of the applicable code and may be required to run continuously and be
provided with standby or emergency power.

Hazard Ident ification Sign

Each storage area should be marked with the name of the material and an easily
understood means of identification of the material stored there. 1l1e hazard identifica-
tion system described in NFPA 704, Standard Systemfor the Tde11tificatio11 of the Haz-
ards of Materialsfor E111e1ge11cy
Respo11se,should be used.

Administrative Procedures
Written administrative procedures shou ld be in place dealing with prohibited releases
and unauthorized discharges of hazardous materials, proper handling, relocation, and
transportat ion of mater ials, person nel train ing, fire department liaison, and ignition
source control. In addition, a written emergency response plan should be developed
identifying appropriate contacts and procedures when an emergency takes place.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., ed., FireProteclio11 Handbook,20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
Cote, A. E., and Linville, J. L., eds., J11dustrial
Fire Hazards Handbook, 3rd ed., NFPA,
Quincy, .1v1A, 1990.
Spencer, A. B., and Colonna, G. R., eds., FireProtectionGuide to HazardousMaterials,
13th ed., NFPA, Quincy, lvlA, 2002.

NFPACodes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of curren t editions of the
foll.owing documents.
NFPA 1, Fire Code
NFPA 13, Standardfor the I11stallatio11
o_fSprinklerSyste111s
NFPA 30, Fla111111able
and Co111bustible Liquids Code
NFPA 45, Standard on Fire Protectionfor LaboratoriesUsingChemicals
NFPA 55, Compressed Gasesand CryogenicFluids Code
NFPA 400, Hazardous Chemicals Code

690
 CHAPTER 52: Hazardous Materials

NFPA 430, Codefor the Storageof Liquid n11dSolid Oxidizers

NFPA 432, Codefor the Storageof 01ganic Pemxide Formulations
NFPA 434, Codefor the Storage of Pesticides
NFPA 490, Codefor the StorageofA111111011i11111
Nitrate
NFPA 495, Explosil'elviaterials Code
NFPA 655, Standardfor Preve11tionof S11lji1rFiresa11dfaplosio11s
NFPA 704, Sta11dardSysternfor the lde11tifirntio11
of the Hazards of Materialsfor R111er-
ge11cyResponse
NFPA 801, Standard for Fire Protectio11for FacilitiesHandling Radioactile Materials
1

NFPA 804, Standard for Fire Protectio11for Advanced Light Water Reactor ElectricGe11-
croting P/011ts
NFPA 5000, 1Jrlildi11g
Construction and Safety Code

691
 CHAPTER

53

PLASTICSAND RUBBER
Steven E. Younis, PE

Plasti sand rubber are all part of the family of materials called polymers, which are
found through out societ}' in innumerable variations. Almost all are combustible to
some extent, and some burn with extreme rapidity, producing large amounts of dense
smoke. In most instances, it is impossible to determine the burning characteris tics of
a material simply by looking at it. Because plastic- and rubber -ba ed products appear
in so many variations and their uses are so diverse, this chapter cannot present more
than general guidelines that will.tell the inspector what to look for and how to take the
proper fire safety precautions. The inspector will face a multitude of situations with a
wide array of factors and condition s and will not be able to assess all of these merely
th rough visual inspection. The inspector ma)' have to refor to the handbooks, codes,
and standards that are listed in the Bibliography to obtain speci fie information on pro-
tection for a part icular application.

GENERALUSES
Small amounts of plastics and rubber are seldom of concern. One foam cup hardly
presents a significant fire threat. However, stacks of polystyrene foam stored in a ware-
house could overpower a spr inkler S)1Stem that has not been designed for the hazard .
ln general terms, plastics being stored and used requir e the same protection as that for
similar quantities and arrangements of wood, cardboard, paper, fiberboard, natu ral
fabrics, and other common cellulosic materials. Their burning rates are often similar,
but some materials and situa tions warrant extraordinary protective measures. Foam
plastic and foam rubber tend to burn faster and more intensely, generating more
smoke and toxic gases, than other forms of the same polymer. Inhibitors or flame
retardants can slow ignition or flaming, but these additives or other treatments are
general ly ineffectual in a full)' developed fire. Ordinary sprinkler protection might be
inadequate to protect occupants or the building. Over the past decade, many changes
have occurred as to how we protect against fire hazards involving plastic, rubber and
composites involv.ing one or both materials. 111is is directly related to the always
 CHAPTER 53 : Plasticsand Rubber

changing formulations and product types and always increasing quantity of these
products in society. 'D1is presents, at best, a complicated task for the inspector to
rema in constantly up-to-date on what is safe and what is not; what is protected prop -
erly and what is lacking; and, most of all, what needs to be done to rectify the situation.
Engineers, testing bureaus, and codes and standards development organizations have
all worked diligently to keep up with the changes and keep stride with protection
modifications.

LIFE- A Y R- QU IR M N
\Vhen used as wall and ceiling insulation .in buildings, typical foam plastics, such as
rigid polrurethane, polyisoq 1anate, and polystyrene, must be completely covered on
the inside of the building by a fire-resistant barr ier, such as grpsum walJboard ½ in.
( 128 mm) or thicker. This is true even if the material has a low flame sµread rating
under standard test pwcedures. 1lie inspector should consult NFPA 10/ ®, Life Safety
Code®, and the local building code for details.
In accordance with the requirements of Chapter IO of NFPA JOJ®, materials used
for wall or ceiling finish should be tested and classified as being Class A, Class B, or
Class C in accordance with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTlvl)E84,
Standard Test Method for S111faceB11mi11gCharacteristics of B11ildi11g 1\llaterinls, or
Arnerican National Standards Institute/Und erwrite rs Laboratories (ANSI/UL) 723,
Stm1dardfor Test for Swfnce B11mi11g Characteristicsof Building lvlnterials,as follows:
1.Class A: interior 'Nall and Ceiling finish. Flame spread index of0 to 25; smoke
developed index of 0 to 450. Any element thereof, when so tested, should not
continue to propagate fire.
2. Class B: Inter ior Wall and Ceiling Fini.sh. Flame spread index of 26 to 75;
smoke developed index of0 to 450.
3. Class C: Interior '..Valland Ceiling Finish. Flame spread index of 76 to 200;
smoke develoµed index of 0 to 450.
For certain condit ions or ocwpancies, the material may be required to meet the test
protocol specified in NFPA 286, Sta11dnrdMethods ofFire Testsfor Evn/11nling Co11trib11-
tio11of Wall and Ceiling J11terior
Finish to Room Fire Growth:
Acceptable perforniance for a given material includes:
• During the 40 kvVexposure, flames shall not spread to the ceiling.
• 1l1eflameshall not spread to the outer extremity of the sample on ,lll )' wallorceiJing.
• Flashover, as described in NFPA 286, shall not occur.
• 1l1e peak heat release rate throughout the test shalJ not exceed 800 kW.
• For new installations, the total smoke released through out the test shall not
exceed 35,315 ft3 (1000 1112).
Note that in accordance with NFPA JOI ®, cellular or foamed plastic should not be
used as wall or ceiling finish unless it meets the specific requirements designated under
the provision for these materials in Chapter JO of NFPA JOI®. 1l1e occupancr of the
building or structure willdictate the wall and ceiling finish requirements. 1l1e inspector
693
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Haza,ds

should consult the occupanC) ' chapters within NFPA 101® for the requirements of the
applicable occupanq •.
Foam rubber and foam plastics in mattresses and furnitur cushions can be of
concern where people sleep, particularly in institutional occupancies . 'fl1e cigaret te
ignition resistance of mattr esses and mattr ess pads is controlled b)' Part 1632, Code
of Federal Reg11/atio11s, Title 16. Tit le 16 also conta ins standards for the Oammability
of clothing text iles, viny l plastic film, children's sleepwear, and carpets and rugs. The
requi rements state that mattresse s, unless located in rooms or spa ces prote cted by an
approved automatic spr inkl er system, should hav e a char length not exceeding 2 in.
(5.1 cm) when tested in accordance with Part 1632.
Also, in accordance with NFPA 101®, where specifically required by th e occupancy
c hapt er, unless th e mattress is located in a room or space protec ted by an approved
au tom a tic sprinkler system, it should have limit ed rates of heat release when tested in
accordance with ASH, ·f El 590, Stn11dardTest Method for Fire Testingof Mnttresses,as
follows :
• The peak rate of heat release for the mattress should nol exceed I 00 kV{
• 1he tot al ene rgy released by the mattress during the first JO minutes of the lest
shou ld not exceed 25 MJ.
\,\/here requ ired by the applicable provisions of NFPA 101Q!),upholstered furniture
and m attres ses shall be resistant to a cigarett e ignition (i.e., smoldering) in accordance
with the following:
• The components of the upholstered furniture, unless located in rooms or spaces
protected by an approved automatic sprinkle r system, sha ll meet the require-
ments for Class I when tes ted in accordance with NFPA 260, St1111dardMet/rods
of Testsn11dClassificntio11
Systemfor Cigarettelg11itionResisfn11
ce of Co111po11
e11ts
of UpholsteredFurniture, or ASTi\il El 353, Sta11dnrd'J'es/Met/rodfor Cignrelte
Ig11itio11
Resistanceof Co111po11e11/s
of UpholsteredFumit11re.
• Mocked-up compos ites of the upholstered rurniture, unless loca ted in rooms or
spaces protected by an approved automatic sprinkler system, should have a char
length not excee ding 1.5 in. (3.8 cm) wh en tested in accordance with NFPA 26 1,
Sta11dardMethod of Testfor DeterminingResistanceof Mock-Up Up/roisteredF11r-
nil11relvlaterinfAssembliesto Ig11itionby S1110/dering
Cignrettes,or ASTM El 352,
Standnrd Test Method for CigaretteIg11itio11 Resistance of lvlockup Upholstered
Frm1it11re Asse111blies.
Also, in accordance with NFPA .101® where specifica lly required by the occupancr
chap ter, upholstered fu rniture , unless the furniture is located in a room or space pro-
tected by an approved automatic sp rinkler system, should have limited rates of heat
release when teste d in accordance with ASTrv[ E I 537, Standard Tes/ .Method for Fire
Jesting of Up/roisteredF11mit11re, as follows:
• 1l1e peak rate of heat release for the sing le upholstered furniture item sho uld not
exceed 80 kW.
• 1l1e total energy re leased by the single upholstered furniture item during the first
10 minut es of the tes t should not exceed 25 lvfJ.
694
 CHAPTER 53: Plasticsand Rubber

As an addit ional requirement for specific individnal occupancies within NFPA

./OJ®, furnishings and contents made with foamed plastic materials that are unpro-
tected from ignition should have a heal release rate not exceeding 100 kW when tested
in accordance with UL 1975, Stamiardfor Fire TestsJo,· Foamed PlasticsUsedfor Deco-
rative P111poses.
When inspectors have questions about the hazard of a material or product, they
rnn rely on the standa rd fire test methods that are valid for the application. A number
of tests are commonly used, either singly or in combination. However, ASTM E84
or ANSI/UL 723, both of which are used to evaluate the surface burning character-
istics of interior finish materials, may not give a true indication of the actual hazard
presented by many plastics in varying applications. See the National Fire Protection
Associalion (NFPA) Fire Protection Handbook for more detailed information. The
results of small-scale "Bunsen burner" tests are often suspect when large quantities
of plastic are being dealt with, because the small flame does not simulate the much
greater intensity of the fire exposure under real-life conditions. rnspectors should ask
for proof that lhe materials have been tested and have passed the applicable fire test
requirements.
1l1in plastic laminates, such as Formica® and vinyl wall covering, can be considered
to take on the burning characteristics of tJw substrate to which they are applied. For
example, they would be low on g)'psum wallboard or metal, moderate on wood particle
board, and high on foam plastic. If in doubt, the .inspector should ask for documenta-
tion of the flame spread rating that has been developed under such test methods as
ASTME84.
In air plenmns and some other applications, the flammability of the plastic insula-
tion on wiring that is not in a conduit is now often limited by code. Common indus-
try materials used in wire and cable manufacture present a significant hazard in this
application. This is especially significant where large quantities of cables are grouped
or bundled together, as they are in cable trays and cable chases. 'These types of cable
arrangements may extend both horizontally as well as vertically through a building.
Self-propagating fires can occur under such conditions, with serious consequences
in a significant percentage of occupancies ranging from power plants and telephone
exchanges to everyday businesses and schools. With the ever-increasing demand for
computer-based and informational technology, the installation of wire and cable has
increased at an exponential rate. Special protection, such as fire stops at floor and fire-
wall openings, special coatings on the wiring, special flame-resistant insulation, and so
on, might be necessary in these situations. Concerns have arisen over how the aban-
donm ent of such cable will affect fire spread and smoke development in these spaces.
\·Vhether requirements will dictate the removal of all accessible abandoned material
from plenum spaces is currently being evaluated for incorporation into NFPA 90A,
Standardfor the I11stal/ationof Air-Co11ditio11i11g and \le11tilati11g
Systems, and NFPA
90Il, Sta11 dnrrlfor the Installation of Warm Air Henli11gand Air-ConditioningSystems.
For specific details on plenum wire and cable material requirements, the inspector
should refer to the provisions ofNFPA 90A and NFPA 90B.
Some general guidelines can be given for situations often encountered. Plastic glaz-
ing materials, such as Plexiglas®,Lucite®, and polycarbonates, should not be used in
695
 SECTION 4: Process and Stor<1
ge Hazards

applications .in which their combust ibility is objectionable or for which a fire rating
is required. 111isprecludes the use of plastic glazing in firewalls, fire doors, fire rated
corr idor partitions, a11dsmoke barriers. To determine the requirements for fire rated
door and window assemblies that incorporate glazing materials, the inspector shou ld
consult N:FPA80, Standardfor FireDoors and Other Ope11i11g Protecli1es1

Because fire involving plastics and rubber behaves like a Class A lire (fires in ordi-
nary combustible materials), water-type portable fire extinguishers and hose lines are
appropriate for firefighting. Gaseous agent and multipurpose dry chemical portable
fire extinguishers are suitable when used in accordance with their labeling. 1he inspec-
tor should onsult NFPA 10, Stn11rlnrd for Portri/1/eFire Exti11g11i
shers, for portable fire
extinguisher installation requirements.

CLASS! !CATION OF PLAS ICS

AN UB R
NFPA 13,Stn11rfn rdfor the Instnllntio11
of Sprinkler Systems,is especially useful for evaluat-
ing the potential hazards and fire protection methods of different types of combustible
materials stored in warehouses. Plastics and rubber are divided into four commodity
classes and three groups according to their potential for creating difficult-to-extinguish
fires in stored product. The four commodity classificationsare established as follows:
• Class I: Noncombustible product meeting one of the following:
1. Placed directly on wooden pallets.
2. Placed in single-layer corrugated cartons, with or without single-layer card-
board dividers, with or without pallets.
3. Shrink -wrapped or paper-wrapped as a unit load with or without pallets.
• Class II: Noncombustible produc t that is in slatted wooden crates, solid wood
boxes, multilayered corrugated containers, or equivalent combustible packaging
material, with or without pallets.
• Class III: Fashioned from wood, paper, or natural cloth fibers or Group C plas-
tics, with or without cartons, boxes, or crates and with or without pallets. A
limited amount (5 percent by weight or volume or less) of Group A or B plastics
may also be included.
• Class IV: Product with or without pallets that meets one of the following:
• Construc ted partially or totally of Group B plasti.cs.
• Consists of free-flowing Group A plastic materials.
• Consists within itself or its packaging an appreciable amount (5 percent to
15 percent by weight or 5 percent to 25 percent by volume) of Group A plas-
tics.
The designation of a material as Group A, B, or C plastic in NFPA 13 requires knowl-
edge about the makeup and composition of the product. Examples of plastics are shown
in FIGURE53-1.1he inspector should refer to Chapter 5 of NFPA 13 for this list and to
a comprehensive listing of products designated as Commodity Classes I through JV.

696
 CHAPTER53 : Plaslils and Rubber

(a)

(b)

53·1(a) Plastic bins. (b) Plastic caster storage.

FIGURE

697
 SECTION'I: Processand Storage Hazards

S ORAGE PRO EC ION

In warehouses, often the intense fires that can develop rapidly in concentrations of
plastics and rubber require the installation of specially engineered, automatic sprinkler
systems that are designed to control or suppress the fire with large water flow dis charge
rates . Other measures, such as smoke and heat vents are sometimes provided but their
use can have a detrimental impact on the automatic sprinkler system . TI1e inspector
should verify that the fire protection plan takes into account storage oflarge quantities
of items such as plastic or rubber-based products, rubber tires, plastic packing materi-
als, and plastic insu lating materials.
To aid in the complicated task of providing protection for storage of plastic and rub -
ber products, NFPA 13 provides several chapters to help distinguish between the many
storage types and arrays that may be encountered by an inspector. TI1e inspector will
need to evaluate the type of storage encountered and assess it against the appropriate
chaptcr(s ) of NFPA 13. Tl1e chapt ers are provided below with a su mmary:
• Chapter 12: General Requirements for Storage. Applies to all storage arrange-
ments and commodities other than miscellaneous storage (Chapter 13) and as
modified by specific sec tions of Chapters 14 through 20 .
• Chapter 13: Miscellaneous Storage. Covers storage up to I 2 ft. (3.66 111)and is
incidental to another occupancy group; storage cannot exceed more than 10 per-
cent of the building area or 4000 ft2 (372 m2) of the sprinklered area; storage
piles cannot exceed 1000 ft2 (93 111 2) in one pile area, and each such pile area
mu st be separated from other storage areas by at least 25 ft. (7.62 m).
• Chapter 14: Protection of Class I to 1V Commodities Tirnt Are Stored PaUetized,
Solid Piled, Bin Boxes, Shelf Storage or Back-to -Back Shelf Storage. Applies to a
broad range of combustibles that are stored palletized, solid piled, in bin boxes,
as shelf storage, or as back-to-ba ck shelf storage.
• Chapter 15: Protection of Plastic and Rubber Commodities TI1atAre Stored Pal -
letized, Solid Piled, Bin Boxes, Shelf Storage, or Back -to -Back Storage . Applies to
a broad range of plastic and rubber commodities that are stored palletized, solid
piled, in bin boxes, as shelf storage, or as back-to-back storage.
• Chapter 16: Protection of Class I to IV Commodities TI1at Are Stored in Racks.
Applies to a broad range of combustibles that are stored in racks.
• Chapter 17: Protection of Plastic and Rubber Commodities TI1at Are Stored in
Racks. Applies to a broad range of plastic and rubber commodities that are stored
in racks (an example of plastics utilizing rack storage is shown in FIGURE 53·2).
• Chapter 18: Protection of Rubber Tire Storage. Requirements for the protection
of rubber tire storage.
• Chapter 20 : Special Designs of Storage Protection. Covers special sprinkler sys-
tem designs for special protection for storage configurations that do not fit those
of the above chapters.
Designs for plastic and rubber storage may require significantly higher sprinkler
densities. Subsequently, the design and installation of the sprinkler S}'Stem may neces-
sitate the use of additional protection components such as fire pumps. TI1e densities

698
 CHAPTERS3: Plastics and Hubber

53·2Plastics- rack storage array.

FIGURE

must be properly provided in accordance with the hazards and requirements of the
NFPA 13 chapters previously listed. From this, a determination is made as to whether
a fire pump is needed to support the water suppl)' for the fire protection system. Fire
pumps are sized, installed, tested, and maintained in accordance with Nf PA 20, Stn11 -
dnrd for the l11stn/lntio11
of Stntio11nryP11111ps
for Fire Protectio11(an example of 2000
GP.1v!fire pump protection used to protect a plastic storage warehouse is shown .in
flGURE53-3).
Of particular challenge in current times are the issues associated with big box
warehouse and retail stores. Each trpe of store presents unique and often complicated
types of storage situations. A typical big box warehouse store will utilize a rack system
array and will be protected by ceiling sprinklers or a combination of ceiling and in-rack
sprinklers. Product loading, rack height, and rack configuration dictate the method of
protection.
In the latest edition of NFPA 13, the means of sprinkler fire protection has been
modified for certain retail situations. Retail stores may now store materials, includ-
ing plastic and rubber products, with a new back-to-back shelf storage configuration.
Back-to-back shelf storage is now defined as "Two solid or perforated shelves up to
30 in. (0.76 m) in depth each, not exceeding a total depth of 60 in. ( l.52 m), separated
by ;i longitudinal vertical barrier such as plrwood, particleboard, sheet metal, or equiv-
alent, with a maximum 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) diameter perforations and no longitudinal
flue space and a maximum storage height of 15 ft. (4.57 m):' TI1estore must meet spe-
cific sprinkler design densities to utilize this array. This is becoming a popular design
configuration for many retail stores such as home improvement stores and toy stores.

699
 SECTION 4: Proce ss and Storage Hazard s

FIGURE
53-3Fire p um p protec t ion (2000 GPM) in a plastic storag e warehouse.

Chapter 18 ofNFPA 13 specifies the condition for storage of rubber tires for indoor
facilities. The requirement applies to new facilities but ma)' be of value in assisting
inspectors in evaluating existing storage facilities. Most of the typical storage prac -
tices acceptable for tire storage are depicted in FIGURES 53·4 through 53·8. Other storage
practices may be deemed accept-
able through evaluation of the fire
safety provid ed.
Inspectors should be aware
76 in.
.-,: (1.9 m) of building configurations when
I typical evaluating rubber tire storage.
33 in. ·when evaluating steel construc-
(0.8m)
tion in warehous es, note that for
_J storage exceeding 15 through 20 ft
I (4.6 through 6 m) in height, col-
umns should hav e 1-hour fire pro-
68 I •
(1.7m) in. -------- 1 tection; for storage exceeding 20 ft
typical~ ) _,-- (1.2 m) (6 111)in height, colu111nsshould
~ typical
have 2-hour fire protection for
FIGURE 53·4Open portable rack tire storage.Source: NF PA the entire length of the column,
230,1999, Figure6-2(c). including structural connections.
700
 CHAPTER 53: Plastics and Rubber

Legend
A - Load depth G- Pallet
B - Load width H- Rack depth
E - Storage height L - longitudinal flue space
F - Commodity T - Transvers e flue space

53-5Double-row fixed rack tire storage. Sour

FIGURE PA13,2010,figureA.3.9.4.9
ce:NF (d).

FIGURE : NFPA
53-6Palletized portable rack on-side tire storage.Source 13,20IO,
Figu
reAJ.9A.9(e).

Fire-proofing is not required when a sprinkler system complying with NFPA 13 is in-
stalled that meets the requirements of Chapter 18. Inspectors should be aware that a
4-hour firewall is required between tire warehouse and manufacturing areas (refer to
NFPA 221, Stn11dnrd for High Clwl/e11ge
Fire Wnl/s,Fire Walls,mid FireBarrier Walls,for
design requirements).
701
 SECTION4: Processand Storage Hazards

Cellulose nitrate, also known

as nitrocellulose or pyroxylin,
is recognized as one of the most
hnardou s plastics.It begins to de-
compose dangerouslyat relative!}'
low temperatures. Special rules
have been written for its storage,
fire protection, and handling. The
inspect.or should consult NFPA
FIGURE 53-7On-tread, on-floor tire storage. Sou
rce:tffPA13,
40, Standardjt11·the Storage n11ri
7010,FigureA.1.9.4.9 (f)
I1m111/i11gof Cellulose NitrateFilm,
for film storage conditions.

GANIC
OXIDES
Inspectors should also be aware
of the requirements of NFPA 432,
Codefor the Storageof Organic Per-
oxide Form11lntio11s.These peroxides
are often used as additives in plastics
manufacturing and present special
storage hazards. TI1ecurrent plastics
manufacturing process involves the
use of substances known as organic
peroxides, which are additives used
to enhance special properti.es within
plastics. TI1ese peroxides also cre- FIGURE 53-8Laced tire storage. Source:
NFPA13,20!0,Figure
ate a need for storage prior to the AJ.9.4.9
(g).
manufacturing process. 111e in-
spector should be cognizant of the many variable requiremen ts related to the storage of
these products. A review of NFPA 432, which addresses the requirem ents for storing
these chemicals, should be correlated against the conditions of the facility. Specific fire
protection requirements are mandated depending on the conditions. There are also dif-
ferent parameters and requirements for segregated storage buildings. Additional guid-
ance for the hazard presented by individual elastomeric materials is available in the
Chemical Satet)1 Data Sheets issued by the manufactur ers of plastics, in Factory lvlutual
data sheets, and in the discussion on general storage elsewhere in this text.

OPERATION CATEGORIES
In factories that produ ce plastics or plastic product s, the operations are divided into
three general categories: synthesizing, converting, and fabricating. Each of these has
special fire problems the inspector must take into consideration.
702
 CHAPTER 53: Plastics and Rubber

1. Synthesizing: Synthesizing, or manufacturing, is the mixing of the basic plas-

tic materials, or feedstock; sometimes coloring agents or other substances are
adde.d .
2. Convertlng: Converting is the process of molding, extruding, or casting the
plastic so that it will flow into a shape it will retain after cooling; considerable
heat is required for both of these processes.
3. Fabricating: Fabricating includes the process of bending, machining, cement -
ing, decorating, and polishing plastic, sometimes using other materials that
might be flammable or reactive. For example, the thermoplastic ABS is a
combination of acrylonitri le, butadiene, and styrene. Two of these materials
are low-flash-point flammable liquids, and the third is a gas with an ignition
temperature of 8048°F (4298°C). A molding process might be used to com-
bine a flammable resin with nonflammable glass fibers or with heat-resistant
silicones.

OPERATION HAZARDS
Among the hazards to be considered for each of these operations are combustible
dusts, flammable solvents, electrical faults, hydraulic fluids, and the storage and han-
dling oflarge quantities of combustible raw materials and finished products. To aid in
the evaluation of a situation, the inspector can consult the referenced standards and
other documents published by NFPA, UL, Factory Nlutual Research Corporation, and
other reliable sources of technical information.
Suspensions of plastics and rubber dusts in air can form explosive mixtures, as is the
case for organic materials in general. Special explosion prevention measures must be
taken to prevent ignition or to minimize the dust concentrations in manufacturing and
fabricating operations (see the discussion on combustible dusts elsewhere in this text).
In the plastics manufacturing process, thermoplastic compounds are usually melted
by heat and then forced into a mold or die for shaping. In their original state, these
compounds can be in the form of pellets, granules, flakes, or powder, and each of
these forms can produce dust. 'Hlermosetti ng resins may be in the form of a liquid
or a partially polymerized molding compound. Considerable heat is needed to mold
either form.
The inspector should consider transfer operations of particle or powdered raw
materials. TI1esetransfer operations involve the mechanical transfer of potentia lly com-
bustible materials from hoppers to a mixing vessel and may present a significant risk.
Other manufacturing processes include blow molding, which produces hollow
products, such as bottles, gas tanks, and carboys; calendering, the process of convert-
ing thermoplastics into film or sheeting or applying a plastic coating to textiles or other
materials. In casting, thermoplastics or thermosets are used to make products; the hot
liquid is poured into a mold and then allowed to cool until it is solid. In coating, ther-
moplastic or thermosetting materials are applied to metal, wood, paper, glass, fabric,
or ceramics.
In compounding, additives are mLxed with resins by kneading mixers or screw
extruders. Compression molding uses heat and pressure to squeeze or press material
703
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

into a certain shape; in extrusion, a screw thread or some other form of propuls ion is
used lo shape a thermopfa stic material into a cont inuous sheet, film, rod, cable, cord,
or othe r product.
fo.1111plastics molding uses foam plastics in casting, calendering, coating, or ro-
tation al molding. High-pressure lam inating uses heat and pressure to join materials.
Injection molding involves the rnLxingof two or more h igh-pressure reactive streams
in a mixing chambe r and then the injecting of the mixture into a mold. A reciprocating
screw injectio n molding mach ine, in which plastic pellets are compacted, melted, and
injected into a d ie where the molten plastic is allowed lo cool and harden, is illustrated
in FIGURE 53-9.
Reinforced plastics processing combines resins with reinforcing materials. Rota-
tional molding involves the movement of powdered plastic or molding granules in a
moving, heated conta iner. Transfer molding is the curing of thcn no setting plastics in a
mold unde r heat and pressure.
Mold ing and extrusion operat ion requir temperatu re · ofb tween 3008°F ( 1498°C)
and 6508°F (3438°C), depending 01 1 the plastic being processed. A basic single-screw
extrud er, in which plastic pellets are fed from a hopp er, driven forward, and melted, is
illustrated in FIGUR ES3-10.'TI1e molten plastic is fed through the adapter into the die.
Because the upper temperatures are beyond the practical use of heat-transte r fluids,
electr ical-resistance heatin g is most commonly used. Sometimes, however, controllers
do no t operate correctly, and the tempcratmes become excessive. If plastic feedstock
is allowed to remain in equipmen t, ii might decompo se under excessive or prolon ged
temperatures and release combustible gases. To reduce this hazard, the molding and
extrnd ing areas should be cleaned frequently.

Extruder
barrel

lnjeclion
chamber
Nonreturn
How valve

FIGURE53-9Reciprocat ing screw injection molding machine.

70,J
 CHAPTER 53: Plastics and Rubber

Gear Breaker
Hopper
reducer plate
Mell

Die

FIGURE53-10Basic single-screw extrude r.

In all of these operations, the potential fire danger is influenced by the tempera-
tures reached in thes e processes, the fire characteristics of the solids and liquids used,
the type of portable and automatic fire extinguishing equipment, and the condition of
manual and automatic fire alarms. Sources of heat include the equipment's operating
temperatures, the electrical equipment and w.iring, static sparks, friction, matches, and
smoking materials.
Static sparks are common in pla stic manufacturing because plastics are good electri-
cal insulators. 1l1e movement of film across rolls or guides can generate sparks, as can
transmission belts . The hazard is reduced if the equipment is correctly grounded, and
tinsel conductors are used on moving films or filaments .
Another potential ignition source is the temperature reached in hydraulic systems
used for clamping molds or providing pressure to the rams or screw s that force plastic
by compression, transfer, or injection molding. ·n1ese temperatures might exceed the
ignition temperature of some petroleum fluids.
1l1e burning of plaslic is influenced considerably by its physical form. Molding
pellets in bulk storage will burn differently from certain finished products, such as
containers, polyvinyl envelopes, or insulated cables. Dust and some granules can flare
rapidly on the surface of equipment, but a solid compound in a mold might be easy to
extinguish.
Another potential danger may exist with the creation and emission of dust particles .
!vlechanical fabrication processes such as cutting, abrading, and sanding may produce
significant concentrations of dust within the air. The emission of particulates or dust
such as plastic creates a significant risk for a fast-growth fire or for a potential deflagra -
tion within that area or facility. The inspector should be aware that plastic particulate
emissions significantly increas e the potential for fire spread and subsequently increase
the pot enti al for a major fire incident.
In most situations, water is the most appropriate extinguishing agent for fires involv-
ing plasti cs, and it should be available in large quantities. A plastics manufacturing
plant should be equipped with automatic sprinklers, standpipe and hose systems,
705
 SECTION 4 : Process and Storage Hazards

water-type port ,1ble extinguishers, and perhaps special automatic extinguishing sys-
tems for flammable liquids and electr ical fires. Because of the many variables involved
in plastics and their fire behavior, the arrangement of fixed extinguishing and explo-
sion suppression systems and of portab le extinguishing equipment should be designed
specifically for each plant.
If large quantities of stored plastics are exposed to fire, fire fighters should direct
hose streams onto them to cool them and prevent them from melting into the more
flammable liquid state. At the same time, they must be careful not to agitate an)' dust
that may be in the area, be it plastic dust, wood dust, or some other type of dust.
When a fire involves plastics, the potentia l for dense, noxious smoke must be con-
sidered, and the fire area should be evacuated. The tire officer in charge of responding
fire fighters must be told immediate ly of the respirator)' hazards and the need for pro-
tective breathing apparatus.

BIBLIOGRA HY
ANSI/UL 723, Stmidnrd for Test for Swfnce Brm1i11gChamcterislics of 811ildi11g
Materials
ASTM E84, Sta11dard,Test Method for S111faceB11mi11g Characteristics of B11ildi11g
Materinls
ASTM El352, Stm,dard ?est Met/1od for Cigarette Jg11itio11 Resistn11ceof Mock11p
UpholsteredF11mit11reAsse111blies
ASTM EJ353, Stmrdnrd Test Met/10dfor CigaretteIg11itionResist1111ce ofC0111po11e11tsof
Up/roisteredF11mit11r e
ASTM El 537, Stn11dardMethodfor Fire Testingof UpholsteredFurniture
ASTM El 590, Standard Met/rodfor FireTesting of Mattresses
Cote, A. E., ed., Fire Protectio11Handbook, 20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008
UL 1975, Standardfor Fire Testsfor Foamed Plastics Usedfor Decorative Purposes

NFPA Codes, Standa rds, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA I 0, Stn11dardfor PortableFire Extinguishers
NFPA 13, Sta11dardforthe Jnstnllatio11 ofSpri11klerSystems
NFPA 20, Standnrdfor the I11stollatio11 ofStationmy P11111psfor FireProtectio11
NFPA 40, Sta11dnrd for the Stomge a11d Ha11dli11g of CelluloseNitm tc Film
NFPA 69, Stn11dard011 faplosio11Prue11tio11 Systems
NFPA 70~, Nntio11alElectricnlCode®
NFPA 80, Sta11dardforFireDoors a11dOther Ope11i11g Protectil'es
N FPA 90A, Sta11dard for tire lnstnllatio11ofAir -Co11ditio11ing
a11d\lentilating Syste111s
NFPA 90B, Standard for the J11stnllatio11 of Warm Air Henti11gand Air-Co11ditio11i11g
Systems
NFPA I 0/ ®, L(feS<ife
ty Code®

706
 CHAPTER 53: Plasticsand Rubber

NFPA 221, Stm1dardfor High ChallengeFire Walls, Fire Wallsand FireBarrier Walls
Nf PA 260, Standard Methods of Tes/s a11dClassificntio11Sysle111
for Cigaretle Ignition
Resistanceof Co111po11e11
/s of UpholsteredT-11mit11re
NFPA 261, Stn11dardMet/rodof Testfor Detem1i11i11g
Resistanceof1Hock-UpUp/roistered
by S111
Furniture Material Assemblies to lg11itio11 olderi11gCigarettes
NFPA 266, Stm1dnrd Method of Testfor rire Charncteristicsof UpholsteredFurniture
Exposed to Fla111i11g
lg11itio11
S011rce
NFPA 267, Str111dard
Method of Testfor Fire Charncteristicsof Mattressesand Bedding
Assemblies£.\posed to Flaminglg11itio11
S011rce
NFPA 286, Stm1d(lrdMet/rodsof FireTestsj(JrEva/1wti11g
Co11trib11/
io11of v\lallmid Ceil-
ing Interior Fi11islr
JoR.00111
Fire Gro1vlh
NFPA 432, Codefor tl1eStorngeof 01gm1ic PeroxideFommlatio11s
NFPA 654, Standard/or the Preve11tio11
of Fireand D11stExplosio11s
fro111the iVIa1111fac
-
t11ri11g,
Processing, n11dHa11dli11g
of Co111lmstible
PartirnlateSolids

707
 CHAPTER

54
EXPLOSIVESAND
BLASTINGAGENTS
Lon D. Santis

To maintain an eftect ive level of fire protection al a sile !hat manufactures or transports
explosive materials, inspectors must examine the en tir e plant, know the cha racteristics
of the materia ls in it, and have hazardous situat ions corrected . When inspecting plants
or motor termina ls where explosives are present, inspectors should be most conce rned
with general fire-safety pra ctices. Explosives facilities may contain many differe nt
chemicals and liquids that have a wide range of sensitiv ity, flam inability, and explosive
damage potentia l. Inspectors should be knowledgeable on the extent and efficiency of
exis ting fire protection systems and the plans for controlling and respondin g to fires or
explosions. Depending on sensitivity, explosive materials may be initiated accidentally
by spar ks, flames, impact, or decomposition. Inspectors should stress to plant person-
nel the importance of good safety, good hous ekeep ing, and good fire protection prac-
tices. Inspectors should also be famil iar with the federal, state, and local codes and
industry slandards on explosive materials.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
To provide oversight effectively, inspectors shou ld be familiar with the terms and defi-
nitions that apply to explosive materials. TI1e following are brief definition s of some
important terms:
l. Blasting agent: A material or mixture intended for blasting that meets the re-
quirements of the U.S. Depa rtment of Transpor tatio n (DO T) Hazardous Ma-
teri als Regulations, as set forth in Titl e 49, Corleof FederalReg11/atio11s,
Parts
173.56, 173.57, and 173.58, Explosive Division l .SD. Blas ting agents are the
leas t sensitive explosive materials.
2. Explosiw: Any chemica l compound, mLxture, or device, the primar>• or com-
mon purpose of which is to function by explosion (i.e., an extremely rapid
release of gas and heat) . TI1e term includ es, but is not limit ed to, dynamite,
black powder, emulsions, blasting agents, pellet powder, initiati ng explosives,
detonators, safety fuses, squibs, detonating cords, igniter cords, and igniters.
 CHAPTER54: Explosives and lllasting Agents

3. Compositepropellnnts:A mixlure consisting of an elastomeric-type fuel and an

oxidizer. Composite propellants are used in gas generators and rocket motors.
4. Deto11nti11g cord:A flexiblecord containing a center core of high explosive used
to initiate other explosives.
5. Detonator: Any device containing an initiating or primary explosive that is
used for initialing detonation . A detonator is permitted to contain not more
than lO g (0.35 oz.) total explosive material per unit, excluding ignition or de-
la)' charges. The term includes, but is not limited to, electric cl tonators of the
instantaneous and delay types, electronic detonators, detonators for use with
safety fuses, detonating cord dela)' connectors, and noneleclri detonators of
th ' instantaneou . and delay tyµl!s that consist of a detonating curd, a shock
tube, or any other replacement for electric leg wires.
6. High explosi11e111nt erial: Explosive material that is character ized by a very
high rate of reaction, high pressure development, and the presence of a deto •
nation wave.
7. Lo111 explosive 111aterials:Explosive material that is characterized by deflagra-
tion or a low rate of reaction and the development of low pressure.
8. Oxidizing material: Any solid or liquid that may, by readily yielding oxygen,
cause or enhance the combustion of other materials. These materials are also
known as "precursor chemicals" and are often mixed and sensitized with other
materials to form blasting agents.
9. Propellm1t: An explos ive that norm ally functions by deflagralion and is
used for propul sion purposes. It is classified by the DOT Hazardous l\fate-
ria ls Regulations as Division I. I or 1.3, depending on its susceptibility to
detonat ion.
10. Primer: A unit, package, or cartridge of explosive material used to initiate other
explosives or blasting agents; it contains a detonator or a detonating cord, to
which is attached a detonator designed to initiate the cord.
11. Se11sifi1 1ity: A characteristic of an explosive material, classifying its ability to

detonate upon receiving an external impulse such as impact shock. flame, or

other influence that can cause an explosive reaction.
12. Special industrial explosive materials:Shaµed materials, sheet forms, and various
other extrusions, pellets, and packages of high explosives used for high-energy-
rate forming, expanding, and shaping in met:il fabrication and for dismembe r-
ment and reduction of scrap metal.

In addition to these terms, the inspector should understand the classification or

explosives as defined in the Hawrdou s lvlaterials Regulations of the DOT. Explosives
compose Class l, which is further broken down into divisions:

1. Division 1.1: Explosives that have a mass explosion hazard . A mass explo-
sion is one that affects almost the entire load instantaneously. It includes,
but is not limited to, detonat ing materials, because some substa nces, such
as black powder, deflagrate violently. Examples include dynamit e and other
detonator sens itive explosives, desensit ized nitroglyceri11, lead azide, mer·
Clll')' fulminate, black powder, some detonators, and boosters (FIGUR E54-1).
709
 SECTION 4: Processand StorageHazards

54·l Controlled construction blast.

FIGURE

2. Division 1.2: Explosives that have a projection hazard but not a mass explosion
hazard. Example s include certain types of ammunition and explosive compo -
nents and devices.
3. Division 1.3: Explosives that have a fire ha zard and either a minor blast haz-
ard or a minor projection hazard or both, but not a mass explosion hazard.
Examples include propellants such as smokeless powder.
4. Division 1.4: Explosives that present a minor explosion hazard. TI1e explo-
sive effects are largely confined to the package, and no projection of frag -
ments of appreciable size or range is to be expected. An external fire does
not ca use virtually in stan taneous explosion of almost the entire conten ts of
th e package. It include s articles containing Ii mited quantities of materials in
Division 1.1 or 1.3 or bo th , such as detonators, shaped charges, and small
arms ammunition.
5. Division 1.5: Very insensitive explosives. 1l1is division comprises substances
that have a mass explosion hazard but are so insensitive that there is ve11 little
probability of initiation or of transition from burning to detonation under nor-
mal conditions of tran spor t. TI1is divi sion i composed of blasting agents.
6. Division 1.6: Extremely insensitive articles that do not have a mass exp losive
hazard. TI1is division comprises article s that con tain only extremel}' insensi-
tive detonating substances and that demon strate a negligible probability of
accidental initiation or propagation. It .includes certain specialized ordnance
items.
7. Forbidden explosives: Explosives too sensitive for transportation by common,
contract, or private carriers (rail freight or rail express, highway, air, or water)
in accordance with the regulations of DOT.
TI1ese materials may be present in manufach1ring operations.
710
 CHAPTER54 : Cxplosivesand Blasting Agents

AF YIN MIXIN AN S
Basic rincipl s of Fire afety
Fire safet)' should be of primary concern to every area of manufactur e, transportation,
and storage of explosive materials. Each area and its equipment should be clean and
free of deposits of explosive materials or precursors. Smoking, matches, other smoking
materials, open flames, spark-producing devices, and firearms should not be permitted
in storage buildings or within 50 ft (IS m) of the building.
Buildings must be made of noncombu stible materials or of sheet metal on wood
studs. Floors of plants must be made of concrete or sorne other nonabsorbent material.
TI1ereshould be no drains or piping in the floor where molten materials can flow and
be confined dming a fire. Portab le fire extinguishers and other appropriate equipment
should be fully charged, regularly inspected, and readily available. Initiators and deto-
nators should be kept separated from the explosive material .
In all facilities, the inspector should ensure that the opera tor of the facility maintains
an active training program in emergency procedures for all employees stationed at the
facility. Written emergency instructions must be posted and readily accessible to all
employees. Portable fire extinguishers should be placed in appropriate locations, and
hoses can be connected to hydrants and standp ipes.

Housekeeping
In addition to these prin ciples, inspectors will have to consider the less obvious weak-
nesses or violations of fire sc1fe
ty, such as the relative cleanliness and order of the build-
ing interior and the workstations. The entire building should be cleaned thoroughly
on a regular basis. Inspectors should check to see that aisles and other passagewa)'Sare
clear of obstructions. TI1eyshould note whether there are accumulations of cloth, pa-
per, or other combustibles and whether there are residues of flammable liquid or grease
on equipment or on the floor. Inspectors should especially watch for accumulations of
dust on walls, ledges, and equipment, because this dust may be combustible. TI1earea
around the plant must also be inspected. It should be cleared of brush, dried grass,
leaves, and litter within at least 25 ft (7.6 m) of the building.
Inspectors should observe how unopened and emptied containers are stored and
used, and they should look into emptied containers to check for residues of hazard-
ous product s. They should also check how containers are arranged and handled in the
storage and shipping areas and should watch particul arly for containers of oil or other
flammable liquids and spills of these conta iners. Spilled materials and discarded con-
tainers must be removed and disposed of promptly. Empty ammonium nitrate (AN)
bags must be disposed of daily in a safe manner.

Electrical Installations
Electrical installations must meet the requirements of NFPA 70®, National Electri-
cal Code®, for ordinary locations and must be designed to minimize corrosive dam -
age. Inspectors should examine all electrical outlets and operating machinery for
711
 SECTION 4: Processand StorageHazards

possible misuse or overloading and should insµect the main board for condit ion of
fuses and circuit breakers. They should also check the oµeration of vehicles and lifting
equiµment.
Interna l combustion engines used for generating electric µower may emit sµarks
that can cause a fire and mu t be located outside the mixing building or must be shielded
b)' a firewall. In addition, the inspector shou ld check the heating equipment to verify
that it does not produce flame or sparks inside the building.

Fir Protection
Inspectors should verily that portable fire extinguish ·rs have been inspected within
the past year, are charged, and are at their designated locations. Inspectors should also
inspect the automatic extinguishing systems or explosion suppression equipment to
ensure that the equipment is in good condition and is ready to operate.

MANU A U ING, AN RTA I N,

AND STORAG OF EXP OSIVES
Inspectors should check condi tions in areas used for manufacturing, transporting,
and storing the explosive materials. Explosives within the confines or an explosive
manufacturing plant should be separated according to the distances specified in the
Appendix to the Institute of Makers of Explosives(lME) SafetyLibrary Publication No. 3.
Explosives not in the process or being manufactur ed, transported, or used should be
stored in apµropriate magazines or in storage buildings that meet the requirements of
NFPA 495, faplosil'c Materials Code.

Blasting Agents
Blasting agents are manufacrured so that the final product is relative!)' insensitive,
and the materials from which they are made have their own hazards. A blasting agent
consists of an oxidizer mLxed with a fuel. Oxidizers readily yield m..,,gento promote
the combustion of organic matter or other fuel, so they must be proces ed and stored
accordingly. Most oxidizers, including AN, are capable of detonating with less than half
the bla t eflect of explosivesper unit mass if they are heated under confinement that per-
mits pressure build-up or if they are subjected to a strong shock, such as from an explosion.
Fuel oil storage must be outside the mixing plant and located so that oil will drain
away from the plant if the tank ruptures; the mLxingbuilding must be well ventilated.
lhe inspector should check that emergency venting systems are operating correctly.
MLxingand packaging materials must be compatible with the composition of the
blasting agent. The flash point of No. 2 fuel oil, which is I 25°F (Sl.7°C), is the mini-
mum flash point permissible for hydrocarbon liquid fuel for the agent mix.
Metal powders, such as aluminum, are sensitive to moisture and should be secured in
covered containers. Solid fuels of small size, including metal powders, c.rn create dust.
Such dust should never be allowed lo accumulate and can be removed either by vacuum-
ing with appropriate spark-resistant equipment or by washing with an appropriate solvent.
712
 CHAPTER54: Explosivesand Blasting Agents

Ammonium Nitrate Sto rage

Facilities used for mixing, handling, and storing AN should have the same fire pre-
cautions as those used for other oxidizers. Because this compound can be affected by
contamination and heat, the inspector should watch for these two influences.
Buildings in which this compound is stored must not be taller than one story and
should not have a basement, unless the basement is open on one side. TI1ereshould be
adequate ventilation or automatic emergency venting.
All flooring in storage and handl ing areas must be noncombustible or protected
from impregnation by AN. There must be no open drains, traps, tunnels, pits, or pock-
ets where the molten compmmd c::111a cumu late in a nre.
AN in storage should not exceed 130°F(54.4°C).Bags of AN should be stored at least
30 in. (76 cm) away from building walls and partitions. Storagepiles should be no higher
or wider than 20 ft (6.1 m) and should not exceed 50 ft (I 5 m) in length, unless the build-
ing is of noncombustible construction or protected by automatic sprinklers. Storage piles
must be at least 3 ft (0.9 111)below the roofor beams overhead. Aisles musl be al least 3 ft
(0.9 m) wide, with at least one service or main aisle that is at least 4 ft (l.2 m) wide.
TI1ismaterial rnust not be stored in piles higher than necessary. The pressure setting
of the mass is aftected by humidity and pellet quality as well as by temperature. Tem-
perature variations between the daily low temperature and 90°F (32°C) will result in
degradation of the structural integrity of AN prills. High atmospheric humidity can be
hazardous to this hydroscopic material and may result in caking.
AN can be aflected by a wide range of contaminants, including flammable liquids,
organic chemicals, and acids. These contaminants must be kept out of, or some dis-
tance from, the storage building. AN should also be shielded from these contam inants.
Areas where AN is stored, handled, and processed should be protected by automatic
sprinkler systems supplemented b)' portab le fire extinguishers, standpipe systems, and
fire h)•drants.
Contamination of AN can result in increased sensitivity and self-reaction. In par -
ticular, contamination with higher hydrocarbons may significantly increase sensitivity.
All storage areas for storing AN in bulk should be kept free of contaminating materials.
Aluminum, wooden bins, or stainless steel should be used, because AN is corrosive
and reactive .in combination with iron, copper, lead, and zinc. TI1estorage should be
clearly identified by signs reading "AMMONfUM NITRATE" in letters that are at least
2 in. (5 cm) high.

MOTOR VEHICLE T RMINALSAND

SAFEHAVENS
Explosives motor vehicle terminals include explosives interchange lots, explosives
less-than-trnckJoads lots, maintenance shops, driver rest JaciJities, or a combina-
tion of these facilities. Safe havens are secured areas specifically designated and ap-
proved in writing by local, state, or federal governmental authorities for the parking of
vehicles conlaini11gDivision l.l, Division 1.2,or Division 1.3 materials (explosives).At
each of these places, large quantities of sensitive explosive materials are brought near
713
 SECTION 4: l'rocess and Storage Hazards

each other and can be vandali zed or accidentally set on fire. Tirns, each of these places
require s certai n fire prevention measures . A thorough description of these facilities
can be found in NFPA 498, Stnndnrdfor Snfe Havens nnd Jnterc/wnge Lotsfor Vehicles
Tmnsporti11gExplosives.

Motor Veh icle Term inals

Interchange lots should be separated by at least 50 ft (15 m) from other facilities or from
any fire hazard. A temporary hold ing facility conformin g to the constrnction requi re-
ments for Type l or Type 2 magazines as described in NFPA 495 must be provided in
th e interchan ge lot. If detonators or oth er initiators are to be temporarily held at th e
same time as other explosives, then two temporary holding facilities must be required;
one for detonators (initiators) and the second for the other explos ives. TI1ese tempo-
rary facilities must be appropriately marked so that the interchange lot employees are
aware of th e location and that explosives are not commin gled with common freight.

Safe Havens
Safe havens shou ld not be located within 300 ft (91.5 m) of a bridge, tunn el, dwelling,
building, or place where people work, congregate, or assemble. 'Need s, underbrush,
vegetation, or other combustible materials sho uld be cleared for a distance of 25 ft
(7.6 m) from the safe haven . The safe haven sho uld be protected from unauthorized
persons or trespassers through the use of warning signs, gates, and patrols. Spacing of
not less than 5 ft (1.5 m) should be maintained between trail ers parked side by side or
back to back. Self-propelled explosives vehicles (i.e., anything with a motor, as opposed
to a pushcart) should be at least 25 ft (7.6 m) from other explosives vehicles. Parking
should be maintained so as not to require the moving of one vehicle in order to move
another vehicle.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote, A. E., ed., FireProtectio11
Hn11dbook,20th ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2008.
Safety Library Publicatio n No. 3, Suggested Code of Regulationsfor the 1vtn11ufncture,
Trm1sportnlion,Stomge, Sale, Possessio11and Use of Explosive i\lfnterials, Instih1te of
J\fakers of Explosives, Washington, DC, 2009.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 70®, Nntionnl Electricnl Code®
NFPA 490, Codefor the Stomge of Am111oni11111
Nitmte
NFPA 495, Explosive Materials Code
NFPA 498, Stm1dnrdfor Snfe Hnve11 s n11dlnterclwnge Lots for VehiclesTm11
sporti11
g
Explosives

714
 CHAPTER

5
FIREWORKSAND
PYROTECHNICS
John R. Steinberg,J\IIDand ThomasHandel

TI1efocus of this chapter will be limited to concerns and issues related to the mannfac-
tnre and storage of pyrotechnic devices and materials, fireworks, and related products.
Special safety considerations for inspectors will be identified. Other aspects of manu -
facturing operations involving various chemicals are addressed elsewhere in this text.
Chemic;il safely topics are similarly addressed elsewhere in this text.
1l1ereis no typical fireworks operation . 1he wide variety of manufacturing processes
used, the wide range of components and devices, and the broad range of chemicals and
chemical mLxtures used present a similarly complex rnnge of potential hazards and
safety concerns.
Pyrotechnic facilities should never be entered or inspected casually. Inspectors must,
at all times, have a heightened awareness for potential safety hazards to themselves and
to others. 'D1e necessar)' safety precautions will vary significantlr from one facility to
another and even from one area of a given faciJit)•to another area. !v1ostinspectors
cannot be expected to have complete familiarity with the specific safety considerations
necessitated b)' each of these situations. 1l1erefore, expert assistance from plant and
facility safety managers and from other persons knowledgeable in these various facili-
ties and operations should always be sought and welcomed when offored.
Consumer fireworks, as defined by the United Nations Recomrnendations on the
Shipment of Dangerous Goods identification system, UN 0336, generally burn without
explosion and are classified for transportation as U.S. Department of Transportation
(DOT) classification 1.4 explosives, a minor explosionhazard. However, the compo-
nents used to manufacture consumer fireworks may behave more like display fireworks
in a fire. Displa)' fireworks, UN 0335, lend lo burn via deflagration and are classified as
a mnssfire hazard.
During a ffre, the behavior of nny fireworks is unpredictable. At the extremes, some
materials will merely burn, whereas others, such as salutes containing flash powder, will
explode with a forceequivalent to that deliveredbr commerciallyavailablehigh explosives.
P)1rotechnic compositions, components, and devices var)' considerably in their ease
of ignition and in their sensitivity to friction, impact, static discharge, thermal, and/or
 SECTION4: Process and Storage I lazards

induced current hazards. Some materials are relatively insensitive and actually quite
difficult to ignite. Other materials are so exquisitely sensitive, particuJarl)' at certain
stages of manufacture and assembly, that extraordinar}' caution must be exercised at all
times when such materials are involved.
The range of civilian pyrotechnic devices manufact11redfor other t/Jn11 fireworksuse is
immense and includes conunon matches, signaling devices, flares, safety airbags, and so
forth. TI1esensitivity and hazards as ociated with these products vary widelyas weU.They
are not specificall)'addressed in this chapter;although the general precautions addressed in
the followingdocuments are usualJyapplicablefor such devices in manufacturing facilities:
, NFPA 1125, Codefor tile Ma111dnct11re (!l Model Rocket n11dHigh Power l~ocket
1\!Jotors,
addresses principles related to a wide variety of manufacturing tech-
niques involving various propellant compositions.
• NFPA 1124, Codefor the Mm111fnc/11re, 'frn11sporlnlio11,
Storage,and Retnil Sn/es
of Fireworksmid Pyrotecll11icArticles, addresses fireworks manufacture and the
manufacture of pyrotechnic articles.
'D1ecode provisions for retaiJ sales facilities and storage facilities for consumer fire-
works are now provided in NFPA 1124. Because these rn.les are relatively new, inspec-
tors not familiar with this document's .most recent edition are encouraged to consult it
in detail prior to inspecting such operations and facilities.

CIVILIAN PYROTECHNIC PRODUCTS

OTHER THAN FIREWORKS
The nonmilita ry/no n-law enforcement use of pyrotechnics-exothermic chemical reac-
tions that produce heat, flame, smoke, noise, and gases- is not limited to fireworks
items whose primary purpose is for display or consu mer use. Noise production by
flash powder in pest and predator control devices-for example, to scare birds away
from airport runways and from crops- is one examp le of such use.
1t is often the case that multiple compositions, which have vaq,ing sensitivi-
ties and hazards, are found in a single pyrotechnic device. Highway flares or fuses
and marine parachute and signaling flares are commonly encounte red civilian
pyrotechnic devices (FIGURE 55·1).TI1elight-producing composition in fuses represents
a relatively insensitive, low-hazard pyrotechnic material. However, the igniter compo-
sition provided to initiate the device is for more sensitive.
Signaling devices that produc e smoke in a broad range of co.lorsare found in civil-
ian use as well as in military use. The smoke-producing compositions, although of low
sensitivity, may contain oxidizers and dyes that have specific fire and toxicit)• hazards
in and of themselves (FIGURE 55·2).
Theatrical specialeffectsand automobile airbags represent the most preciselyperform-
ing pyrotechnic devices commonly encountered. 'TI1ereare very few manufacturers of
theatrical and special eftect devices in the United States. TI1esedevices produce virtually
any and all eftects achieved by display fireworks, but on a smaller scale and with far great-
er consistency,reliability,and precision. Airbag devices use a varlet)•of chemical systems

716
 CHAPTER 55 : Firewor~s
and Pyrotechnics

FIGUR
E55-1Highwa y flares.

rapi.dly to produce a very large volume of gas. Some older airbags may contain sodium
azide, a primary explosive with significant toxicity hazards should the pyrotechnic com-
position be exposed (FIGURE 55-3).

CO NSUM IREWO K
Consumer fireworks of one type or anoth er are perm itted iH 45 states. TI1e use of con-
sumer fireworks by the public is exempted from the scope of NFPA 1123, Code for
Fireworks Display, as well as all other NFPA codes and standards, and such devices
are similarly exempted from regulation by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms
and Explosives (ATF). For tran sportation in approved packaging, the DOT classifies
consumer fireworks as a DOT 1.4G regulated explosive (UN 0336) . Under the power
granted by Congress lo enforce the Federal Hazardous Substances Act and the Con-
sumer Product s Safety Act, the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) regu-
lates consumer fireworks. The CPSC specifies and tests the construction, performance,
and consistency of consumer fireworks and also specifies their labeling requirements.
TI1eCPSC limits the amounts of pyrotechnic composition that may be used in consum-
er fireworks and the particular chemicals that may be used in their manufacture. As
examples, multitube devices (called "cakes") may not contain more than a total of I.I
lb (500 g) pyrotechnic composition. Firecrackers may not contain more than 0.018 oz.
(SO mg) of flash powder, and the aerial salute effects in consumer fireworks may not
conta in more than 0.046 oz. (130 mg) of flash powder (FIGURE 55·4).

7 17
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hn1~1ds

{a)

(b)

55-2Smokedevices.
FIGURE

The variety of available consumer fireworks devices and effects is immense and
includes, for example, cones, fountains, single-shol and multishot aerial devices, re-
loadable aerial devices, roman candles, bottle and sk)' rockets, firecrackers, repeater
devices, sparklers, and various noise and ground effects.
Although there are lew ma11ufach1rersof consumer fireworks devices in the United
States, there are numerous wholesale,repackaging, distribution, and retail sales facilities.

DISPLAY I REWORKS
There are few manufacturing sites for display fireworks in the United States. Given cur-
rent concerns regarding currcnq 1 valuations and shipping difficulties with respect to
overseas suppliers, however, the number and capacity of U.S. display fireworks manu-
facturing facilities may increase in the future. The very largest of shells [ 10 in. (254 mm)
and greater in diameter] have been reclassified as DOT l.lG (UN 0333) explosives,
718
 CHAPT ER 55: Fireworks and Pyrotechnics

FIGURE
55·3Precision pyrotechnic devices.

FIGURE
55-4Firecrackers.

719
 SECTION4: Process and StoragE'Hazards

and these shells will be seen rarely,

if ever, in future commercial dis-
plays. Nevertheless, aerial shells of
8 in. (203 mm) in diame ter, weigh-
ing belween 7 and 12 lb (3.2 and
5.4 kg), will still be in common use
(FIGURE 55-5). Some J0-in. (254-
mm) shells ma}' still be properly
shipped, packaged as DOT 1.3G,
UN 0335 explosives, display fire-
works.
Display fireworks include lance
(a) work, or "pictures in fire;' which
represent a relatively low hazard,
as well as roman candle , mines,
comets, fountains, waterfalls, mul -
titube "cakes;' and other devices.
Display fireworkscontain signifi-
cantly greater amounts of explosive
composition than do cousumer fire-
works. 1hey may also be present in
vastly greater quantities posing cor-
respondingly greater hazards when
in transit or stored at importation
and distribution facilities.
TI1ese materials are regulated
explosives. TI1e)' are classified by
DOT as 1.3G (UN 0335) explo-
sives and may be purchased or
possessed only by those individu-
als or organizations holdiug 1he
appropriate ATF licenses or per-
mits. ATF regulates their storage,
sale, manufacture, and possession.
TI1euse of display fireworks is usu-
ally regulated by the individual
states, which in some cases also
(b) regulate storage and sal.e of these
materials. Although training and
FIGURE 55-5:(a) Shells und er construct ion, drying;
(bl assorted displ ay shells.
licensure requirements vary from
state to state, in general, display
fireworks should be used 0111)1 by properly trained and licensed individuals in accor-
dance with properly obtained permits. TI1eir use in displays is addressed by NFPA
J 123.

720
 CHAPTER55: Fireworksand Pyrotechnics

MAGAZIN
All regulated explosives, including dis -
play firewo rks, req uire storage in mag -
azines that meet ATF spec ification s
as found in ATF publication 5400 .7,
Fedeml Explosil'es lm1• n11dReg11/ntio11 s
(Figure S-6). At manu facturing and
displa}' co mpany facilities, magazine s
are often loca led at some distance from
proc es. bu ildings and manufacturing/ (a)
dist ribu tion/packag ing facilities. 1hey
are frequent ly separa te bu ilding s or
specially modifi ed shippi ng contain -
ers, il ]tho ugh th ey may also be small
and portab le. Indoo r magazines are
also perm itted in some ins tances, al-
though the qua ntity of explos ives ap -
proved for storage in indoor magazines
is constrained lo a maximum of SOlb
(22.7 kg).

MO EL ROCKET (b)

MOTORS FIGURE55-6(a) Inside a fireworks magazine.

(b) Shipping containers repurposed as
Model rocket motor s are solid propel-
fireworks magazines.
lant devic es, typical ly using a black
powd er py rotechnic compos ition and a clay nozzle or choke. Such motors must con -
form to the stan da rds p rom ulgated in NFPA 1122, Code.forAfodelRocketry. Although
DOT has classified model rocket mot ors as a l.4G exp losive (referred to as a "Toy
Propellant Dev ice"), by DOT exemp tion , these mode l rocke t motors are sh ipped by
most ma nu facture rs u nd er the DO T hazard classification Class 4.1, flammable sol id.
Burn tests have shown that in fires, even bu lk stored model rocket motors do not
propa gate fire as do either consumer or disp lay firewor ks. TI1ey are a relatively low -
hazard pyrotechn ic devi ce.

NOV ELTIESAND TRICK NOISEMAKERS

Novelti es and trick noi sema kers, includin g such devi ces as "snake s," party poppers,
"sna ps ;' and so forth, cont;1i11very small quantities of pyrote ch nic ma terial s and are
not reg ula ted as firework s b}' CPSC, DOT, or ATF. Based on the tes t data, DOT may
class ify suc h devices as 1.4S explosives or, in many instances , may no t even class ify
them as ha zardous materials.

721
 SECTION4: Process and SlorageHazards

PROC SS UIL ING

1l1ese are the buildings where pyrotechnic compositions are prepared and where
pyrotechnic devices are manufactured and assembled. Process buildings are addressed
from a regulatoq perspective in ATF publication 5400.7 previously referenced. NFPA
1124 also addresses process buildings.
1l1eseare among the highest hazard environments encountered by inspectors. It i in this
environment that exposed compositions, partially assembled devices,components and so
forlh, are present. It is in process buildings that dust, static, and other ignition hazards
and fire propagation risks are greatest. Due caution should ,1lways be exercised and careful
attention paid to stati · control devices, building egress pathways, and other salel}' features.

PYROTECHNIC ARTIC
A "pyrotechnic art icle" generally refers to a pyrotechnic special effect used in theatri-
al performances. 'D1ese devices are specially designed and manufactu red to be used
in (rclalivel},) close proximity lo performers, stage property, and the audience, and
specialized train ing is required to use them safely. Both licenses for use and perm its
for events are typically required. Although these devices perform with near flawless
consistenC}', produc ing the effects specified with respect to both duration and distance,
their use in inappropri ate venues and/o r by unlicensed operators can have devastating
consequences (FIGURE 55·7).

FIGURE55-7Aftermath of the fireat The Station nightclub in West Warwick,Rhode Island,

February 20, 200 3. The fire, which resulted in l 00 fatalitiesand more than 200 injuries, was
caused by pyrotechnic articles used in an inappropriate venue.
722
 CHAPTER55 : f-ire
worksand Pyrotechnics

These devices are addr essed by

NFPA I. 126, Stn11dnrdfor the Use of
Before a Proxi111nte
Pyrotec/r11ics A11di-
e11ce. Inspectors of such venues should
pay par ticular attention to the require-
ments of Chapter 6 in NFPA J 126 .
Although capable ofrepl icaling virtu-
ally any and all display fireworks effect ,
as with consumer fireworks, these devic-
es contain very limited amounts of pyro-
technic ompo ilion. 1l1eyare classified
by DOT as 1.4G (UN 0336) explosives.
1l1ey must comply with the construc-
tion, performance, labeliJ1g,and chemi-
cal composition requirem nl. specified
by both DOT and by Nf PA 1126 unless FIGURE 55-8Pyrotechnic articles- gerbs.
specifically exempted. Most special ef-
fects and pyrotechnic articles are exempted from ATF regulation. However, binary com-
positions (typically flash-type powders) used in concussion mortars for noise eflects are
a noteworthy exception. Oncemixed, binary compositions are regulated explosives, and
regulations pertainfog to them are enforced by the ATF (FIGURE 55·8).

PY CH NIC M 0 IO N
A pyrotechni c composition simply refers lo a mLxture of fuel(s) and oxidizer(s) and
various other chemicals (binders, colorants, dyes, etc.) in the proper proportions so that
when ignited, combustion is sustained, and the desired effect is produced. Because py-
rotechnic compositions supply all or part of the o:-..·ygennecessary for combustion, they
may burn by either combustion or by deflngration and may be difficult or impossible to
extinguish once ignited. Indeed, flash powder functions by true detonation once ignited
(FIGURE
55·9).

SALU E POWDER
Salute powder, as defined in Section 3.3.31.2 ofNFPA 1123, is a pyrotechnic composi-
tion that makes an explosive sound when ignited and constitutes the sole pyrotech.nic
effoct of a salute. 11is the only pyrotechnic compos ition in a salute device. Although
black powder and other compositions may be used as salute powders, !lash powder is
by far the mos t common salute powder used.

GENERAL CO NS! RATIO N

Inspectors customarily examine facilities to evaluate and ensu re safety. Safety is generi-
cally defined as risk reduction . In classic risk manageme nt, there are two component s
to risk reduction:
723
 SECTION 4: Process and Stora()eHazards

• Reducing the chances that an acci -

dent will occur: decret1singthe prob-
t1bilily of an accident.
j\fo1imizing the adverse eflects re -
sulting when an accident does occur:
red11cingthe conseq11e11cesof an ac-
cident.
As in other facilities, inspectors
should look to factors that reduce both
the probability and consequences of
accidents in facilities involved in pyro-
technic manufacture, storage, and use
and should enforce such constraints as
(a) imposed by regulations, standards, or
code s.
iVIost pyrotechnic accidents result
from unintended ignition of pyrotech -
nics. Probability of an accident is best
reduced by minimizing, to the extent
possible, the likelihood of accidental
ignition of pyrotechnic materials or de -
vices. The consequences of pyrotechnic
accidents are often in direct proportion
to the amount of pyrotechnic material
involved and the number of persons
exposed to the hazard. Consequences
can best be reduced by limiting the
(b) amounts of materials in any one place
FIGURE 55·9 (a) Granulated black powder. at any one time and by ensudng that
(b) Flash powder. only 11ecess,1rypersonnel are present
during operations at such facilities.
The greatest hazards related to pyrotechnic facilities are found in manufacturing
operations that involve mixing , processing, pressing, loading, and assembling pyro -
technic compositions and elements , such as stars that are composed of small masses of
pyrotechnic compounds that are projected from aerial shells, mines, or roman candles.
It is in these types of operations that both the probability of accidental ignition and
the quantities of exposed pyrotechnic compositions are greatest. Also, it is in these
operations that conditions are generally most conducive to propagation of fire in the
event of accidental ignition. Therefore, the greatest attention paid by i_nspectors should
be focused on these areas and to these types of operations .
Once the pyrotechnic composition has been loaded into individual, completely
assembled devices, the hazard of accidental ignition and the rapidit}' of fire propagation
in the event of accid ental ignition are both reduced. 1his is especially true for devices

724
 CHAPTER55: Fireworks and Pyrotechnics

containing sma ll amounts of pyrot echnic composition, such as consumer firework s,

mode l rocke t motors, and pyrotechni c articles. Even mass qua nt ities of consumer fire-
works do not always explode but will bu rn vigorously when ign ited. 11ms, operations
where p) 1rotechnic composition is no longer exposed (e.g., packaging, labeling, and
storage), and the sites where these operations are performed, still present a hazard to
buildin g occupants and first responders but not to th e same extent as the hazard in the
ma nufacturing plant.
However, for larger devices suc h as display firework s, although the probability of
ignition of complete])' assemb led device s is similarly red uced in areas where labeling,
packaging , and stornge are co nduct ed, on ce ignition occurs, the vast I)' grea ter explo sive
conte1ll and eftect of i;:achdevice virtually ensures ultrarapid propagation, deflagration,
and explos ion involving all materials in the vicinity.

INSP Tl N GUI E INES F R

MANUFACTU ING SITES
11le ATF regu lates commerc ial production of explosives - includin g pyrotechnic com -
po sition s- and their use in manufacturing and storage of regu lated devices, such as
display fireworks. Listed in the Bibliography of this chapter is an instrnctional video
that the ATF produced for its inspectors in 1992 that remains a very useful training
tool. Fire inspectors not already familiar with fireworks manufac turing facility insp ec -
tion requi reme nts should obt ain and review this video before conducting inspections
of such facilities.
Insp ectors must, at all times, adhere scrupulously to all safety requirements estab -
lished by the facilities to be inspected. Cotton clothing to avoid static hazards is generally
required . Prohibition of lighters, matches, and other ignition sour ces in operational areas
is common. Restrictions may be placed on spa rk-producing metal (e.g., belt buckles) and
on the use of battery -po wered devices such as cameras.

CLEANLINESS
1l1e absolutely critical importance of cleanliness and of good hou sekeeping in pyro -
technic facilities cannot be overemphasized. This is espec ially true for process buildings
and maga:lines . Pyrot ech nic dusts significantly increase the chances of accidental igni -
tion and make proµagation of fires mu ch more likely in the event of an accidental igni -
tion. P)'rot echnic dust s and residues may not be readily apparent. Therefore , any and all
dusts (not all dust and debris in pyrotechnic facilities will be actua l pyrotechnic com -
positions), dirt, residues, and so forth, sho uld be removed regularl)' and not allowed to
accumulate. Dusts found in such facilities can also po se inhalation and toxicity hazards
even if not capab le of producing ignition hazards. Any spills of pyrote ch nic materi -
als must be cleaned up imm ed iately. Clothing that becomes contaminated should be
laundered freq uently and should not be worn outside the facility. NFPA 1124 provides
detailed recommendations on clean liness and hou sekeeping in fireworks facilities.

725
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

IGNI IO N SOU C S
Fire inspectors must carefully evaluate and consider all potential sources of acciden-
tal ignition, paying special attention to process buildings and magazines. NFPA 70®,
Nntio11nlElectricnl Code®, Article 502, specifies the requirement s for electrical equip-
ment suitable for use in process buildings. Lighting and switches must be spark-proof
and shielded in accordance with the code. Heating of process buildings must typically
be by piping of heated water through the floor or walls, and there must be no open hot
surfaces or flame-produ cing elements in equ ipment in any process buildin g.
Of equal concern is the presence or spark-producing tools and surfaces. Exposed
concrete flooring and steel tools are such hazards. Althoug h the presence of some
potent ially spark-produ cing equ ipment such as cutting implemen ts may be unavoid-
able, it shou ld be 111inimized.Floors and tables should be covered with electroconduc -
tive paints or coverings. Ground ing devices shou ld be used at building entrances and
ror workers engaged i11 manu facture of pyrotechnic compos itions and compo nen ts.
Trash and debris should never be allowed to accumulate. Brush and dry grass must be
removed from the i111mediatevicinity of process buildings and magazines. Areas used
for waste burnin g and for sample device and compon ent testing must be separated by
distance or by barr iers, so that burnin g and testing may proceed without risk of causing
unintended ignition in any other areas.

S PARATION DISTANCES
Reduction of mass is one way to reduce hazards related to accident al ignition. Another
method of reducing the risks of fire propagation is by specifying min imum separation
distances between work and storage areas (TABLE 55-1). Adequate separation distances

Separation Distance for Consumer Fireworks Storage

or Work Buildings

Exterior
Separat ion Distances Exterior Wall
Wall Fire Opening
Resistance Protect ion
ft m Rating (hr} Rating (hr}
<5 < 1.5 3 3
2 5 to < 10 2 1.5 to < 3 2 1½
2 10 to <60 2 3 to < 18.3 1 ¾
2 60 21 8.3 0 0
Source: NFPA1124, 2006:Table 6.7.1

726
 CHAPTER5S: FirPworksand Pyrotechnics

also reduce the risk of harm to surroundi ng buildings, roads, and persons. !30th ATF
publication 5400 .7 and NFPA codes and standards such as NFPA 1124 (fireworks man-
ufacturing) and Nf PA 1125 (rocket motor manufacturing) provide tables for required
separat ion distances. NFPA 1124 separation distance tables are generally applicable to
the manufacture of civilian pyrotechnics as well. ATf tables provide different required
separation distances for high explosives, low explosives,and for fireworks. Fire inspec-
tors should consult the appropr iate sources to properly enforce r quired separal ion
distances.

UAN YAN CCU ANCY IMITS

The severity and consequences of a pyrotechnic accident are in direct proportion to
the mass of explosive material ignited, its energy production potential, and the number
and proximity of people in the vicinity of the accident site. ln abbreviated form, "mass
is yeur enemy and distance is }'Ourfriend."
ATF publication 5400.7 prohibits more than 500 lb (226 .8 kg) of an)' pyrotechnic
composition from being present at any one time in any given process building. For nash
powder, the restriction is even more severe. No more than IO lb (4.5 kg) of flash powder
are allowed. ·n1e total amounts of P}'rotechniccomposition, components, and assembled
devices in any process building should always be kept to a practical minimum. Larger
than necessary quantities of raw materials and finished products should not be allowed
to accumulate in process buildings. Such materials should be removed promptly and
placed in drying buildings for further processing or in magazines for proper storage.
No more than the absolute minimum number of persons necessary to ensure the
safe cond uct of any given operation(s) should be present in process buildings or maga-
zines at any time. Distributing a greater number of smaller process buildings over a
large site, each of which has only one or two persons working in it, is preferable to
aggregating opera tions in a smaller number of larger buildings, each requiring the
presence of greater numbers of persons.

S ORAGE REQUIREMENTS
ATF mandates proper storage of fireworks and explosives. Except for specific pro-
cesses that require continuance overnight, all regulated explosive materials must
be placed in magazines at the end of each work day. This regulation applies to di -
play fireworks, high-power rocket motors not using currently exempted ammonium
perch lorate-based propellant compositions, pyrotechnic composit ions, and com-
ponents. Magazines must comply with the specifications found in ATF publication
5400 .7. Although finished, assembled, and labeled consumer fireworks and model
rocket motors may be stored in a variety of struc tures other than magazines, consumer
fireworks components and model rocket propellant compositions must be stored in
appropriate magazines. Unmixed, individual chemicals and inert components such as
paper goods may be stored outside of magazines. NFPA 1124 and NPPA 1125 provide
regulatOf)' guidance on these matters.

727
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

PROC SS UIL ING G ss

REQUIREMENTS
When accidental ignition involves display faeworks and components or bulk pyro-
technic compositions, spr.inklers will provide a minimal amount of protectjon to oc-
cupan ts or structures once the pyrotechnic materials are involved in the fire. Therefore,
regulatory and code requirements focus on facilitating rapid egress b)' the occupants as
the primarr means of protection.
Process buildings must be constructed in a manner that affords easy, rapid, unob-
structed egress b)' the occupants in a direction that allows them to reach an area of
safel)1• Process buildings must be of one storr only and have no basement. Process
buildings or rooms larger than 100 ft2 (9.3 m2) must have two egress pathways localed
so that no point in the building or room is further than 25 ft (7.6 m) from an exit.

MERGEN Y PLAN
The fire inspector should ensure that the facility has an emergency plan and estab-
lished procedures to follow in case of emergency involving a fire or other pyrotechnic
incident. A key feature of such plans is being able to identify, l)'pically by means of a
sign-in log, every person on the facilil)' premises and what personnel were in any given
area. TI1eplan should also include a predetermined gathering place for all personnel
and procedures for noti fying emergency responders. TI1einspector should also verify
that all applicable "right-to -know" requirements have been met. ATF requires notifica-
tion of and permission from the local authority having jurisdiction as a condition of
licensure, and there may as well be requirements to disclose information regarding
storage of explosive materials and the placement of magazines. Currently, there are
also U.S. Department of Homeland Securil)1 requirements for storage of many chemi-
cals involved in pyrotechnic manufacture when certain threshold quantities of those
chemicals are exceeded.

INSPECTION GUIDELINES FOR

CONSUMER FIREWORKSRETAILSALES
AND STORAGEFACILITIES
Chapter 7 ofNFPA 1124 now specifies requirements for consumer fireworks retail sales
(CFRS). Chapter 6 of this code provides requirements for storage facilities for con-
sumer fireworks. Both Chapters 6 and 7 are very detailed. The fire inspector should
become familiar with these relatively new code provisions and should have this docu-
ment in hand when conducting inspections of such facilities. Among the requirements
of NFPA 1J24 that the inspector needs to know about are:

728
 l'IAP ER 55: Flrev:orksand Pyrotechnics

• Building separation distances from each other and from foel dispensing areas
(100 ft; 30.5 m);
• CFRS exempt quantity thresh Ids (125 lb; 57 kg);
• CFRSsprinkler threshold requirements [6000 ft2 (557 m2)J for 11ewconstruction
7500 ft2 (697 1112)for existing buildings.
There are many additional key inspection items that are detailed in th is code and the
referenced co<lessuch as NFPA 101®, Life Safety Code®. Egress requirements, includ-
ing maximum distances to be traveled to an exil and the trpes of permissible means of
egress compone nts are specified. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to detail all the
pecifics, but the inspector will have a ready guide for such inspections in Chapters 6
and 7 ofNFPA 1124.
II should be noted that certain provisions in NFPA 1124 have been the topic of
much study and research in recent years. Changes und er consideration include low-
ered thresholds for requiring sprinklers and determin ing packaging and display area
configurations a111ongother revisions are the topic of this work.

Bl HY
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, Federal Explosil'es Law a11dReg11lntio11s,
ATF Publication 5400.7, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, W.ishinglon,
DC, November 2007.
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, Fireworks Mm111fact11ri11g 6 Safety (video],
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, \l\'ashington, DC, 1992.
Conk ling, J.A., "American rireworks Manufactur ing: An Industry in Transition;' Pire
foumal, September 1986, pp. 41-47, 66-70.
Consumer Product Safety Comm ission, "Commerce and Tracie;' Title 16, Code of Fed-
eral Reg11lntio11s,Parts 1500 and 1507.
Department of Transportation, "Transportation;' Title 49, Code ofFedeml Reg11/atio11s,
Parts 100- 177 .
DisplayFireworksOperator Certificatio11 St11dyG11ide,Pyrotechni cs Guild lnternaliun -
al, Incorporated, 2007.
Poul.ton, T. J., and Kosanke, K. L., "Fireworks and 1l1eir Hazards;' Fire E11gi11eeri11g,
June 1995, pp. 49 - 64.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the N FPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents .
NFPA 70®, Nati01wlE/ectricnlCode®
NFPA JOI®, Life Safety Code®
NFPA '100, Hazardous lvfaJerinlsCode

729
 SECTION 4: Processand Stor;ige Hazards

NFPA 495, ExplosiveivfaterinlsCode

NFPA 499, Reco111111e11ded
Practice for the Classificntio11
of Co111b11stible
Drists nnd of
Hnznrdo11s(Classified)Lorntio11sforElectrirnll11stnllntio11s
i11Chcmirnl ProcessAreas
NFPA 1122, Codefor Model Rocket1y
NFPA 1123, Codefor Fire11'0rksDisplay
NFPA 1124, Codefor the Mnm!fnctrire, Tm11sportatio11,Storage,and Retail Sales of Fire-
works n11dPyrotcc/111ic
Articles
NFPA 1125, Codejc)r the Ma1111fncture of Model Rocket nnd High Power Rocket Motors
NFPA 1126, St/l/1dardjiJr the Useof Pyrotec/111
ics Beforen Proxin111/e
Audience

730
 CHAPTER

56
HEAT-UTILIZATION
EQUIPMENT
RichardA. Gallagher

.ivlanyindustrial processes use heat-utilization equipment to provide energy to op-

erate a process or to provide heat to alter the physical characteristics of materials
being processed. (A discussion on heating systems is provided elsewhere in this text.)
TI1e fire and explosion hazards presented by heat-utilization equipme nt are related to
their operation at elevated temperature in conjunction with their use of flammable and
combustible fuels, flammable and combustible materials in process, and flammable
special processing atmospheres. 1his chapter offers the inspector an understanding of
the hazards associated with heat-utilization equipment and the features and controls
that should be reviewed during the course ofan inspection.

GENERA
For the purpose of this inspection guide, heat-utilization equipment can be divided
into two broad categories. Boilers are used for the general ion of hot water or steam for
process use. Ovens and furnaces are used for the commercial and industrial processing
of materials above normal ambient temperature. TI1eNational Fire Protection Associa-
tion (N FPA) uses the terms 01 e11s and _fimrncesinterchangeablt
1

Boilers for Process Use

Many industria l facilities depend on boilers lo generate hot water or steam to support
.manufacturing operations (FIGURE S6-1).For example, hot water may be used to heat
a mixing vessel, or steam can be used to drive a turbine that in turn drives an elec-
tric generator. ·n1e NFPA code on boilers addresses boilers fired at rates at or above
12,500,000 BTU/hr. For smaller boilers, the inspector will need to seek guidance from
other codes or standards adopted by their jurisdiction.
NFPA85, Boilernnd CombustionSystemsHnznrds Code,establishesminimum require-
ments for the design, installation,operation, and maintenance of boilers,their fi.1el-burning
systems,and related systems to contribute to safe operation and the prevention offurnace
explosions aud implosions. Inspectors shonld consult this code for detailed guidance.
 SE TION 4 : Process and Storage HaLards

FIGURE
56·1 Installation of comb ination oil and gas firing in a large electric utilil>' boil er.

Ovens and Furnac s

Ovens and furnaces are used in a wide variety of industria l applications. Several ex-
amples are given in TABLE 56·1.
In a batch oven, work is loaded, processed through a heating cycle, and then un -
loaded (FIGURE56·2). In a continuous furnace, work enters one end of the furnace, is
processed as it moves through the furnace, and then exits the furnace at the other end
(FIGURE56·3).
A.IIovens and furnaces share the hazards associated with their heating systems. Be-
yond this, however, ovens and furnaces are classified based on additional process haz-
ards.
• Class A: Class A ovens or furnaces possess a fire or explosion hazard due to ei-
ther the pro duct they handle (e.g., cloth dryer) or the solvent vapors they gener-
ate during a drying or curing process (e.g., automobile paint bake oven).

Examplesof Industrial Applications

Curing lumber (lumbe r kiln) Annealing glass bottles

Baking painted metal parts
Curing rubber conv eyor belts
Drying water washed metal parts
Melt ing metals
Sourte: NFPA.
Heating aluminum ingots
Integral quench rurnace
Annea ling steel, hydrogen atmosph ere
Treating meta l parts in molten salts
Heating materials under vacuum

732
 CHAPTER 56: Heat-Utilization Equipm ent

...--,Exhaustfan

Fresh air for

56·2Direct-fired batch oven with external, nonrecirculation heater.Source:

flGURE tlfP1\86,1999,
Figu,e
A-2-l(a).

Cross Section Longi tudina l Section

FIGURE 56·3 Direct-fired cont inuous furnace with multiple internal burners.Source: NFPA86,
1985,
Fiyu,e
1-4.19.

• Class B: Class 13ovens or furnaces process noncombustibl e produ cts (e.g., glass
bottle s) in air.
• Class C: Class Covens or furna ces use a specia l atm osphere (e.g., nitrogen , hy-
drogen , and dissoc iated ammonia). The specia l atmo sphere will exclude air to
prote ct the work from oxidation . Also, the spec ial atmosp here ca n alter or treat
the surfa ce of the wo rk in proc ess to change its physi cal characteristics (e.g.,
hardenin g of stee l part s).
• Class D: Class D ove n s or fu r naces, referred to as vacuum furn aces, operate
below atmosp h eric press ur e at so me po int in their process cycle. Suc h fur -
naces rnay process any produ ct or mat erial. These furnaces can use special
atmospheres introdu ce d when th e furn ace is above or below atmospheri c
press ure.
NFPA 86, Standard for Ovens and Furnaces, establishes minimum requir ements for
the location, arran gement , des ign, installation , operat ion , and m aintenan ce of ovens
and furnaces . Withi n the scope of these standards, an oven is any heat ed encl osure
used for commercia l and indu strial pro cessing of materials. This definition is extre me-
ly broad and ca n cover many processes . For detail ed gu ida nce, inspec tors should con -
sult the individual standard s.
733
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

EQUIPMENT LOCATION
Boilers for Process Use
Boilers will typically be found in isolated or cutoff boiler rooms or detached powerhouses.
TI1ey are not directly involved in the manufacturing process, making their separation
from the rest of the plant possible. Because only the generated steam or hot water is used
in the process , the steam or hot water can readily be delivered by pipe to the point of use.

Ovens and Furnaces

Ovens and furnace s, in contras t, are direct!}' associated with the processing of materials
in production. Ovens and furnaces are typically located within a production area, sepa-
rated only by some physical distance from other process equipment. When deciding
on the location of an oven or furnace, planners consider factors such as the following:
• vVhere possible , locating th e oven or furnace in a separate cu toff area.
• \!\!here a separate cutoff area is not feasible, providing adequate separation from
paint spray booths, dipping or coating operations, external quench tanks, and
combustible storage.
• \Vhere molten materials are involved (molten metal, molten glass, etc.), consid-
ering the effects of a release or spill of the molten material; providing contain-
ment systems to limit the spread of spills; and protecting combustible building
construction, exposed steel building columns, or exposed steel furnace supports
from thermal damage.
• Where furnaces have integral quench tanks using combustible oils, providing
spill containment and providing supplemental fixed fire protection (e.g., a car -
bon dioxide extinguishing system covering pits, filter stations, the space imme-
diately outside of furnace vestibule doors , and within any hood and associated
exhaust ductwork over the furnace vestibule doors),

COMBUSTION CONTROLS
Burner Management Systems
Although burner management systems for heat -utilization equipment will vary with
regard to needed safety controls, they all share the common objective of initiating and
maintaining a user -friendly fire. Safety controls are provided to manage the three sides
of the fire triangle , A fire triangle and the typical controls associated with each side of
the triangle are shown in FIGURE 56·4.TI1e flame detector (boiler term) or flame sale-
guard (oven and furnace term), which is the central safety control of the entire system,
is shown in the center of the triangle.

Preignition Purge
In general, the interior volume of any fuel-fired heat-utilization equipment is purged
with air before the ignition of burners is allowed. TI1eobjective is to remove accumulated

734
 CHAPTER 56: I !eat-Utilization Equipmen t

Oxygen Safely Conlro!s Heat Safe ty Controls

Airflow (oven/furnace) Excess temperature
• Combustion Spark ignition system
· Exhaust Excess s1ea111 pressure (boil ers)
- Recirculation Low waler cutoff (boilers)
Airflow (boilers)
• Forced draft (FD)
· Induced drall (ID)

or
Flame safeguard

FUEL

Fuel Safety Conlrols

Pre-ignition purge
Safely shut-off valves
Low fuel pres sure
High fuel pressure
Low fuel temperature (healed fuel oils)

56·4Heal, fuel, and oxygen safety controls applied to heat-utilization equipment.

FIGURE

fuel vapors or other flammable vapors that may have leaked into the equipment during
the preceding idle period.

Single Burner Boilers. 'TI1epreignition purge interval for a single burner boUer is
based on the time needed to accomplish several air volume changes within the boiler.
The number of air changes will depend on the type of boiler. For llre tube boilers (boil-
ers in which the flame and product s of combustion are contained within tubes sur-
rounded by water being healed), four air changes must be provided. For water tube
boilers (boilers in which the water is contained within tubes surrounded by the fire
and produ cts of combustion from the burner), eight air changes must be provided. 'TI1 e
larger volume purge requirement for th~ water tube boiler is caused by its internal con-
figuration. The water tube boiler is essentially a large box that encloses the water-filled
tubes. The larger volume purging is needed to flu h out accumulated fuel that may have
spread into the corners of the enclosure.

Multiple Burner Boilers. For multiple burner boilers, the required preignition purge
interval is 5 minutes or five volume changes, whichever is longer.

Ovens and Furnaces. For ovens and furnaces, four volume changes arc needed to
accomplish the preignition purge.
735
 SECTION4: Process and Storage Hazards

Complete preignition purge intervals must occur before any attempt is made to ig-
nite burn ers on heat-utilization equipment (boilers, ovens, or furnaces). Even when
heat-utilization equipment experiences nuisance safety shutdowns, each restart must
include another purge interval. The purge interval, especially repeated purge intervals,
will encroac h on valuable product ion time. If the encroachme nt becomes significant,
operators or maintenance personnel may be tempted to reduce or eliminate the purge
interval. Because tampering with the purge interva l is a dangerous practice that can
lead to explosions, inspe tors should he on the lookout for signs of such tampering.
for heat-u tilization equ ipment with a single burner, the purge interval may be regu-
late I by the flame safeguard. With this arrangement, the purge interval is fixed and can
0111>• b altered by modifying the flame safeguard (e.g., replacing a plug-in purge time
module) . 'TI1is arrangement greatly reduces the potentia l for purge interval tampering.
With more complex heat-utilization equipment (e.g., multiple burn er systems), a
purge timer is typically provided that is physically external to the flame safeguard. List-
ed pu rge timers are adjustable d vices (e.g., 0 to 30 minutes), and the adjustable feature
introduces the opportunity for tampering. Finding purge timers adjusted to zero is not
uncommon. Such a situation is very serious and should be addressed promptly.

Fans
Fire tube boilers and some water tube boilers may have a single forced draft fan to pro -
vide combustion air. Larger water tube boilers, ovens, and furnaces often have multiple
fans. Boilers' fans are typically referred to as forced draft fans and induced draft fans.
Oven and furnace fans are referred to as combustion air, exhaust air, and recircula-
tion air fans. All fans needed for safe operation must be proved during the preignition
purge interval and during operation. Tl1emanufacturer of the heat-utilization equip-
ment should establish which fans are needed for preignitio n purge and operation.

Proving Airflow-Dev ices. Proving the operation of fans will be accomplished with
devices such as the following:
• Pressureswitch: A pressure switch will sense air pressure after the fan and will be
actuated when the airflow from the fan is adequa te.
• S11r.:tion
switch: A suction switch will sense negative pressure before the fan, and
it will be activated when airflow into the fan is adequate.
• D(tlere11tinlpressureswitch: A differential pressure switch will sense the pressure
on each side of a fan or other feature, such as an orifice plate. The diflerential
pressure switch will be activated when the airflow through the fan or other fea-
ture is adequate.
• Airflow switch: An airflow switch has a paddle or sail that is inserted into the
airstream. 'n1e switch is activated when the airflow past the paddle or sail is ad-
equate.

Proving Airflow- Device Setting. lvlanypressure switches, suction switches, and dif-
ferential pressure switches are adjustable devices. Equipment records should cle,1rlyin-
u:
dicate the appropriate setting of each of these devices. during an inspection, they are

736
 CHAPTER 56: Heat-Utilization Equipment

found to have been adjusted to an extreme upscale or downscale setting, a question should
be raised. 1l1eswitch may never have been adjusted at the time of installation or the switch
may simply have been adjusted to the extreme to resolve a nuisance trip problem.

Equipm nt Fu l Piping
The pipe, fittings, and devices that make up the fuel piping at a piece of heat-utilization
equipment are referred to as the foe! train. Typical arrangements for a single burner
fuel gas train and a single burner fuel oil train ;ire illustrated, respectively, in FIGURE56-5
and FIGURE 56-6.
For rnnin and pilot hrel gas train ·, double safety shut-off valves are always needed. For
boilers covered in NFPA 85, the main burner and pilot fuel gas trains must also include
a vent between the double safety shut-off valves. The vent line must be equipped with
a normally open valve wired in series with the safety shut-off valves. l'\lhen the salel)'
shut off vnlves arc de-energized and closed, th vent valve will open. 1l1is will allow any
fuel gas that lea! s past the first salely shut-off valve to follow the vent line to atmosphere
rather than attempt to force its way past the second safoty shut-off valve into the idle unit.
The authority having jurisdiction may not perm it the use of normally open vents.
In such a case, listed valve proving systems are permitted by NFPA 85. A valve proving
system performs a pressur e test on the safety shut-off valves during start -up to verify
that the valves do not leak beyond permitted limits.

Vent to safe oulside location~

Main gas line Burner

Supply

;------ P,ovide vent for

I boilers

Leakage test valve with cap typical --

i9<J
Manual valve ~ssov i9<J=J
Leak lest
1_ High gas
L

~ Pressure regulator ~ Vent valve ~ Rate valve 1_ Low gas

S6·STypical fuel gas train.
FIGURE
737
 SECYION 4 : Processand S10,age I laz.:irds

Ven I lo safe outside localion /7 0 Provide venl for boilers

Pilot gas

Main oil

Atomizing == = = = = ==== == = = ===== = ==== = =::/

media
air or stearn

LOT
co
iSl<J
Manual valve [)l(] Vent valve !51<]
Rate valve 1_ Low oil temperature
LOP HOT

_1Low oil pressure _f_Higll oll lemperalure

LAMP

_1Low atomizing media pressure

56-6Typical fuel oil train.
FIGURE

1n some instances, the inspector may encounter heat-ut ilization equipnu::nt fired
on pulverized coal. One possible arrangement of a co,11-fired system is illustrated in
FIGURE
56-7.
During an inspection, it is not desirable to find evidence of fuel le,1kagefrom the
equipment foe! piping. Fuel gas leaks wilJ often be evident by detecting the odor of the
fuel gas arou nd the fuel piping. Fuel oil leaks will be evident by the presence of oily
residues and accumulations on or below the fuel piping. Coal-fired system leaks will be
evident by the presence of coal dust in the space outside of the fuel system. Fuel leaks
need to be addressed throu gh approp riate maintenance actions, and fuel residues and
accumulation s need to be add ressed through appropriate housekeeping actions.

Fuel Gas Pressur gulators and Fuel Gas

Pressure Switches
Fuel gas pressure regulators and fuel gas pressure switches contain rubber diaphragms.
Fuel gas pressure act·s on the bottom side of the diaphragm. A spring or rnicroswitch,
along with atmospheric pressure, acts on the top side. To maintain atmospheric pressure
on the top side, a vent is provided in the device housing. 'l11is vent needs to be piped to
a sale outdoor location so that fuel gas will not be released into a building should the
diaphragm fail. For ovens and furnaces, piping fuel gas regulator vents to a safe outside
location is not required where a listed regulator- vent limiter combination has been used.
738
 CHAP ER 56: Heat-Utilization Equipment

Ignition
fuel source Coal burner

L gniter
Coal burner

Burner line,
purge and
cooling

Burne r shulof f
Feeder valve (B)
raw fuel
Feeder flot,
air valve '-.. Primary air
regulating
damper

Motor

utoff gate Temperi

air damp

,.,----- Primary air shutoff gate

Q --- Common primary air fan(s)
Motor

Air healer

FIGURE56·7Direct-firing system for pulv rized coal. Sou

rce:FirePro
teaionflondbooI,N
FPA,Figure
I0.6.9from
2008.

Flame Safeguards
Heat-utilization equipme nt that is equipped with just a single burner needs simple
burner management. In particular, it needs only a single flame safeguard. It is not un-
usual, however, for equipment to have numerous burners. Numerous burn ers require
numerous flame safeguards and increased safel)' control complexity.
Curren tly, four types of flame-sensing devices are listed for proving the presence of
flame at a burner, as shown in TABLE S6·2.
Althoug h ultraviolet (UV) canners are pop ular and very common flame-sensing
devices, they can fail. In some failure modes, the UV scanner may report the presence
of flame whether flame is or is not present. This concern is addressed in hvo manners.
First, self-checking flame afeguards are available. These devices include a shutter
assembly that will test the scanner by periodically closing the shutter while the scanner
is in normal use. If the flame signal does nol disappear when the shutter is closed, a
safety shutdown occurs.
739
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

Flame -Sensing Device

Type Scanner Limitations Problems

Ultraviolet (UV) Scanner
FlameRod
Infrared (IR)Scanner
Photoelectric Cell
Source: NFPA.
Fuel gas or oil Can read spark as flame
Fuel gasonly Oil will cause carbon build-up
Fuel gas or oil Can read refractory glow as flame
Oil only Fuel gas is invisible

Second, most flame safeguards offer a "safe start check" diagnostic. During each burn -
er start sequence, the sate start check diagnostic verifies that the UV scanner does not see
flame. If the UV scanner is reporting flame, the start sequence is not allowed to proceed.
For boilers covered by NFPA 85, the use of a self-checking UV scanner is required
unless the boiler operates for periods less than 24 hours and a safe start check feature
is provided.
For ovens and furnaces , it is a good practice to use a self-checking UV scanner where
burners operate for more than 24 hours at a time; however, this feature is not required.
In all cases, a safe start check feature is required .

Automatic versus Supervised Manual

iviany ovens, furnaces, and boilers (mostly smaller units with single burners) are ar-
ranged to cycle on and off automatically. The sequence is standardized. Off-the-shelf
flame safeguards are available that will automatica lly provide the logic to step the unit
through this standard start-up, operation, and shutdown sequence. During the operat -
ing phase, the flame safeguards can also allow the unit to modulate the burner firing
rate as heat demands fluctuate and then shut down when the call for heat is satisfied.
Often, larger boilers and most ovens and furnaces are arranged so that a trained
operator will cycle the unit through a mandatory sequence of manual steps (supervised
manual). This sequence is frequently too complex for off-the-shelf flame safeguards for
the following reasons:
• 1here may be multiple burners requiring multiple flame safeguards.
• TI1eremay be more than one combustion air fan to start. One of the mandatory
start -up steps completed by the trained operator may be the manual start of all
fans needed for safe operation .
• 1here may be safety steps in the start -up sequence that are customized to a
particular oven or furnace. These nm)' include proving the position of furnace
doors, proving the movement of furnace conveyor systems, and so on.
Although each step in the start -up sequence may be manually initi ated, the su-
pervised manual system logic requires each step to be performed in the mandated
740
 CHAP ER S6: Heat-Utilization Equipment

sequence. TI1eoperator will not be able to deviate from this required sequence. The
NFPA boiler code and the NFPA oven and furnace standards do not permit the use
of manual operating systems where the required operating sequence is not enforced.

LIS ING OF SAFETY DEVIC S

TI1eNFPA codes and standa rds for heat-utilization equipmen t require that safety de-
vices be listed. 1l1e official NFPA definition of listed is as follows:
Equipment or materials included in a list published by an organization
acceptable to the authority havi11
g jurisdiction and concerned with product
evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection of production of listed
equipment or materials and whose listing states either that the equipment or
material meets appropriate standard s or has been tested and found suitable
for use in a specified manner.
Where a concern arises regarding the suitability of a safety device, an evaluation pro-
cess is needed to resolve that concern. The following steps can be applied:
• Step 1: Is the device listed by a testing laboratory acceptable to the authority hav-
ing jurisdiction?
• Step 2: Is the listed device being used for its intended purpose? Listed devices are
specifically listed for an intended purpose. 'Thelisting organization will describe
the intended purpose and in some cases limitations on its intended use in its
l.isting book. TI1isinformation should also be available from the device manu-
facturer. For example, if a safety shut-off valve is listed for use with only fuel oil,
using that valve on a fuel gas line would be a violation of the listing requirement.
• Step 3: Tsthe device being used in accordance with the rnanufactmer's guidelines?
Often, the listing requirements will stipulate that the manufacturer's guidelines
be followed.1l1eseguidelines may describe how to install the device (e.g., a pres-
sure switch must sit upright), limits on the conditions where the device is in-
stalled (e.g., maximum ambient temperature), and limits on the use of the device
(e.g., maximum working pressure). TI1eseguidelines rnust be followed.
At times, a listed device will not be commercially available for the intended service.
In these cases, the NFPA heat-utilization equipment documents allow the use of a non-
listed device. Its use, however, requires approval by the authority having jurisdiction.
For example, there are no listed fuel gas safety shut-off valves over the size of 8 in.
(203 mm) . For valves 10 in. {254 mm) and larger, a nonlisted valve must be selected.
The authority having jurisdiction may accept the nonlisted valve as long as it is from
a manufacturer who produces smaller valves that are listed and as long as the selected
nonlisted valve is built to the same standards as the smaller listed valves.

TRAINED OPERATORS
\,\/here heat-utilization equipment is in use, a qualified operator is an impor tant ele-
ment in the overall safety system. Both NFPA 85 and NFPA 86 require operators to
be rnore than just equipment attendants. They must be trained and competent. \'°1 1hen

741
 SECTION4: Processand Storage I lazards

control systems fail, the trai ned opera tor must step in and take appropriate action to
avo id an up set or exp losion.

Writt en Operating Instruct ion s

Operators m ust have access to written operat ing instruct ions at all limes. In st ruction
mus t indude normal start -up, norma l shutdown, and emergency shutdo wn. Where
nece ssary, cold start -up and warm sta rt -up inst ructio ns are to be provided. A warm
start -up may occ ur after a weekend where a furnace is no t in use. Rath er than shu t-
tin g down and allowin g the furn ace to cool oft~ the furnace may be brou ght back to an
idling tempera tu re.

Operator Training
Ope rator error has been identified as a significant cause or contr ibuti ng factor to upsets
and explos ions involving heat- 11tilizatiou equipment. 'these unwanted vent . usually
re ult from operators taki ng actions that deviate from written operating inslrn clion s.
Operators must be thoroughly instruct ed and train ed on the written operating instruc-
tion s. When off-normal co ndit ions are dete cted, written emergency shutdown pro ce-
dures sh ould be implem ented. Deviation from normal or emer gen cy written opera ting
instructions should not be permitted at the operator level.
As pa rt of the ir tra ining, operators must demon stra te the ir knowledge of equ ipment
and its opera tion. Operators must receive ongoing train ing and testing to verify the ir
maintenance of a high level of proficiency and effective ness.

Operator Intervention
When heat-u tilization equipm ent expe rien ces an automa tic safety shutdown or a man-
ual eme rgency shu tdown by the ope rator, restart of the equ ipm en t is not permitted
withou t qual ified person nel first ident ifying and correc ting the cause of the off-norma l
sh utd ow n.

INSPECTION, TESTING,
AND MAINTENANCE
Heat -utilizatio n equipment is eq uipp ed with nu merous co ntrol and safety devices in-
tend ed to maintain the eq uipm ent within safe operating bou ndar ies or to cause safe ty
shu tdown. If these con trols and safety devices are to be reliable, they mus t be period i-
call)' inspecte d and tested . J'vlaintenance mu st the n be prov ided as needed.

Establishing a Program
1l1e NFPA codes and stan da rds for heat-utilization equipmen t place the responsibility
for establish ing an inspection, testing, and maintenance prog ram with the boiler owner
or oven user. 1l1e program should identify the features to be inspec ted, tested, a nd

742
 CHAPTER 56: I lear-U1iliza
1ionEquipment

maintained. Frequencies for each action are to be based on specific installation needs.
Sample guidelines are presented in the a1rnexesofNF PA 85 and NFPA 86.

Fuel Gas Safety Shut-off Valve Leak

Testing Program
Leak testing of fuel gas safet}' shut-off valves is an essential program that is often over-
looked by the user. A leak test program offer a contro l over one of the primary causes
of explosions in heat-utilization equipment; that is, fuel leakage into idle equipmenl.
NFPA 86 requires an annual leak test of each fuel gas safety shut-off valve. NFPA 85
recon11ne11ds a 111011thlyleak test.
Written leak test procedures describing how the test is to be conducted should be
provided. T11etypical leak lest is the bubble test. In this test, one end of a flexible hose
is connected to an outlet located between the safety shut -off valve lo be tested and a
downstream blo king valve. T11eother end of the flexible ho e is ubmcrgcd into a wa-
ter bath for several minutes. TI1enumber of fuel gas bubbles per minute is measured.
The written procedure will define a pass/fail leak standard in terms of bubbles per
minute . No valve is perfect; therefore, a mininrnm acceptable leakage rate is established
(e.g., 10 bubbles per m inute). Because the head of water above the end of the hose
could create sufficient pressure to hold back all)' leaking gas, the test operator should
avoid submerg ing the hose too deeply into the water bath during the test.

Safety Control Testing

A test procedure must be established for verifying the performan ce of each safety con-
trol. Off-normal condil ions should be cor rected promptly. Where the control has a
design set point, the actions outlined in TABLE 56-3should occur.
T11einspection of safety devices should include an evaluation of their physical con-
dition. Missing cover plates shou ld be promptly replaced. Corroded devices or devices
with obvious physical damage should be repaired or replaced. Tampering wilh devices
must not be allowed. Evidence of tampering could include wire jumpers inserted across
contacts, foreign material inserted between contacts, and devices adjusted to improper
settings . When adjustable safet}' devices are found adjusted to extremely high or low
settings, it is likely to be an indication that the device is not at its proper setting.

Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of a Safety Control

Inspection Verifythat the device is at the correct setting.

Testing Verifythat the device operates at the correctset point.
Maintenance Recalibrateor replace the device if the displayed setting deviates
from the actual setting beyond an acceptable limit.
Source: NFPA.

743
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

SP CIFIC CO NSID RA IONS

BY EQUIPMENT TYPE
All Heat - Utilization Equipment
Combustibl e M ater ials. Combustibles materials should not be allowed close to
heat -utilization equipment. Suitable clearance shou ld be maintained at all times. NFPA
86 offers a minimum required separa tion di stance of 2½ ft (0.76 m) from combustibles
such as sto ck and othe r storage .

All vens and Furnaces

Explosion Relief Vents, vVhere ovens are equipped with explosion relief features, it
is essential that these features be free and unobstructed so that they are operable should
an explo sion occur. Work loads must not be placed in front of doors that arc designed
to open in the event of an explos ion. Beams, columns, piping, du ctwork, stoc k, or other
obstructions must not impair the functioning of exp losion relief panels in oven walls
or roof.

Class A Ovens
Solvent Issues, For Class A ovens that possess a solvent hazard (e.g., ovens that drive
off a flammable solvent from painted metal parts), there must be a safety design form
that describes the solvent hazard the oven was designed to handle (FIGURE S6-8).The
form should state the design solvents and the design solvent introduction rates. In-
spections should verify that no unauthorized solvents are being used and that design
solvent input rates are not being violated . Deviations should receive prompt attention.

Fire Protection. Class A ovens and their associated ductwork are required to be
equipped with fixed fire protection systems such as automatic sprinklers or carbon di -
oxide in many cases. Where installed, fire protection systems must be inspected, tested,
and maintained in accordance with the appropriate NFPA standard for the type of
system involved . When a wet pipe sprinkler system is selected, the temperature rating
of the selected spr inkl ers must be in accordance with the requi reme nts of NFPA 13,
Standard for tlie lllstallatio11of Sprinkler Systems. The selection will be based on the
maximum operating temperature of the oven. Closed sprinklers are available for ovens
with operating temperatures up to 625°F (329°C).
If the oven operating tempera hire is above the boiling point of water (2 l 2°F; 100°C),
a dry -pipe system will be needed. If a wet -pipe system were used, the water would be
tr ying to boil within the pipes. This attempt to boil would be countered by the confin -
ing strength of the sprin kler system pipe and fittings. Excessive pressures would even-
tually lead to a failure at some point in the system.
Rubber-gasketed sprinkler fittings may not be appropriate. Such fittings must not
be used at temperatu res beyond th eir list ing. Their maximum operating temp era ture is
typically l 50°F (66°C) unless specifically listed otherwise.

744
 CHAPTER 56: Heat-Utilization Equipm ent

(a) WARNING - Do not deviate from these nameplate conditions.

SOLVENTS USED____ ___ _ _ _____ _

For example, alcohol, naphtha, benzene, turpentine

SOLVENTS AND VOLATILES ENTERING OVEN _____ _

Gal per batch or per hr

PURGING INTERVAL --- - --------- -

Mi n ut e s

OVEN TEMPERATURE, °F (0 C) ----- ---- -

EXHAUST BLOWER RATED FO, ~ --- --- GALLONS

(CUBIC METERS) OF SOLVENT PER HOUR OR BATCH AT
MAXIMUM OPERATING T MP RATURES OF __ __ °F (°C)

MANUFACTURER'S SERIAL NUMBER _______ _ _

MANUFACTURER'S NAME AND ADDRESS

(b} SAF ETY DESIGN FORM

FOR SOLVENT ATMOSPH ERE OVENS

THIS OV EN IS DESIGN ED FOR TH E CONDITIONS AS

INDICAT ED BELOW, AND IS APPROVED
FOR SUCH US E ONLY
WARNING - Do Not Deviate From These Conditions

SOLVENTS USED - ------ - - ------

For example, alcohol, naphlha, benzene, turpentine

SOLVENTS AND VOLATILES ENTERING OVEN -- ----

Gal per balch or per hr

PURGING INTERVAL --- - - - - - -- - --

Minutes

OVEN TEMPERATURE, °F (°C) ----------

EXHAUST BLOWER RATED FOR _____ _ GALLONS

(CUBIC METERS) OF SOLVENT PER HOUR OR BATCH AT
MAXIMUM OPERATING TEMPERATURES Of ____ °F (0 C)
MANUFACTURER'S SERIAL NUMBER _ __ _ _ ___ _

MANUFACTURER'S NAME AND ADDRESS

Above informat ion is for checking safe performance and is not a

guarante e of this equipment in any form, implied or otherw ise, bet ween
buy er and seller re lative to its perlorman ce.

FIGURE
56·8Recomm ended safety design data form. Source
: NFPA
86, 2011,FigureA- 11.4
.1(a)andA.l1.4.1(b).

745
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hal~rcls

Some authorities having jurisdiction require dry-pipe systems to be made up of gal-

vanized pipe; however, the use of galvan ized pipe should be avoided in ovens. Experi -
ence has shown that the galvanizing may flake off when exposed to oven temp erat ures.
1l1is flaking within the pipes could lead to obstru ctio ns or plugging.

Ductwork, Ov en ductwork exposed to combustible dusts or condensed flammable/

combustible liquids requires periodic interna l inspections and periodic cleaning. Suit -
able access to ductwork is required. The inspector should consult NFPA 91, Str111dard
for Exluwst Syste111sfor Air Co11l'eyi11g
of Vapors, Gases,Mists, mrd Nonco111b11stiblePar-
tirnlate Solids,for additio nal requirements. Frequenc ies for duel inspection and clean -
ing must be dete rm ined on a case -by -case basi s.
When an oven hand les a combust ible product, a fi.xed fire extinguishing system is
needed within the oven to protect the unit. Chapter 9 ofNFPA 86 add resses fire protec-
tion in general.

Special Atmospher Furnac s

Special Atmosphere Gases. Class C furnaces and some Class D furnaces use a special
processing atmosphere to prot ect the work in process from oxidation and to cause des .ired
metallurgical changes to the surface of the work in process. Because products of combus-
tion are usual!)' detrimental to such furnaces, these furnaces arc usually indir ect fired;
that is, the products of combustion do not come into contact with the work in process.
Protective atmospheres include those listed in TABLE 56·4. 1l1ese protective al mo -
spheres ma)' be used alone or in differen t co mbi11ations. Concern develops where
flammable atmospheres are used. Sources of special atmo sphere gases include the
following:
• Stored at111osplieres.
H)'drogen, nitrogen, and argon are atmosphere gases that
will normally be supplied to the furnace from storage tanks. Hydrogen and ni-
trogen generators are also availab le for use at industria l facilities with large at -
mosphere gas demands. For requirements ou the storage of hydrogen, inspectors
should consu lt NFPA 55, Co111pressed Gasesn11dCryogenicFluids Code (see also
th e discussion on gas hazard s elsew here in this teirt).

Protective Atmospheres

Stored Generated Liquids for

Atmospheres Atmospheres Atmospheres
Hydrogen Dissociated ammonia Methano l
Nitrogen• Exothermic gas Anhydrous ammonia
Argon* Endothermic gas -
•Nonflommoblegases.
Source: NFPA.

746
 CHAPTER 56: I /eat-UtilizationEquipment

• Genernterl almospheres. Dissociated ammonia, exothermi c gas, and endoth er-

m ic gas are atmosphere gases that are produced in heated generators. An am-
monia dissoc.iator heats ammonia (NH 3) to crack or dissociate its molecules
into its constituent parts (25 percent nitrogen and 75 percent hydrogen) . An
exothermi c gas generator will part ially burn natura l gas with air in a controlled
ratio to form the desired atmosphere . An endot herm ic gas generator requires
heat to complete the reaction of the ga and air generating the desired atmo -
sphere. Requirement s on the protection of these atmosphere generators can be
found in NFPA 86.
• Uquirlsfor atmospheres. !vlethanol and anhydro us ammonia are liquids that will
vaporize and dissociate to form the desired atmo phere when they are injected
into a hot furnace.
• At111osplrere gas i11
/rod11ctio11 n11rlremoval. Flammable special atmosphere gases
are introd uced to and removed from furnaces in either the burn-in/burn -out
method or the pur g -in/purge -out method.
• B11m-in/b 11rn-011tmet/rod. Flammable special atmosphere gases are introdu ced
to and removed from furnaces in either the burn -in/bum -out method or the
purge-in/pu rge-out method. With the bur n-in/b urn-out method, the furna ce
must be above 1400°F {760°C) so that all flammables will be reliably ignited and
consumed as they are introdu ced. A burnin g flame front will gradually move
from the atmosphere inlet to the open furnace ends (in a continuous furnace)
or to the eflluent vent stack (in a batch furnace). Proven pilots or other suitable
sources of ignition (e.g., glow plugs) will provide reliable means for maintaining
combus tion of the flammable atmosphere gas as it ex.itsthe furnace. A positive
flow of atmosphere gas is needed continua lly lo rep lenish the gas consumed at
the exits or stacks.
• P111ge-i 11
/ p11rge-011/
111
ethorl. ,,vith the purge-in/purge -out method, nitrogen is
used to purge the furnace before the flammable atmosphere is introduced . \<\7ith
the purge-in method, the nit rogen purge must p rovide five oven volume chang-
es. Once this is accomplished, atmosphere sampling is conducted. When two
consecutive manual samples confirm that there is less than 1 percent oxygen in
the furnace atmosph ere, the flammable atmosphere gas can be introduced. Dur -
ing furnace commissioning, the time needed to reach less than l percent oxygen
can be measured. 1l1ereafter, a purge timer can be used in conjunction with a
nitrogen pressure switch to confirm the purge-in without manual sampling of
the atmosphere.
Regardless of which introduction and removal method is used, the operator must
follow written instructions for norm al atmosphere introduction, normal atmosph ere
removal, and emergency action. 1l1e emergenc)' action typically involves the initiation
of a nitro gen pur ge of the furnace.

Air Infiltration . When a special atmosphere furnace is operat ing under a flammable
atmosphe re, the addition of air could lead to an explosion. Therefore, air infiltration
is controlled by keeping the furnace under positive pressure. The following are some
conditions that can lead to air infiltration.
747
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

• Furnaces4ety shritdo1V11. When a safety shutdown occurs, the sudden interrup-

tion of heat will cause the furnace temperature to drop. This temperature drop
wiJI cause the furnace atmo sphere to contract or shrink. Because the special at -
mosphere flow may not be able to maintain positive furnace pressure under this
condit.ion, it may be appropriate to initiate an emergency nitrogen purge when
safe ty shutdown of the furna ce heat source occurs.
• Cold \Vorkload. 1l1e introduction of a cold work load into a furnace will cause
the atmo pher e to cool and shrink. This is norm a!Jy accommodated by furnace
design.
• Liquids injectio11.Where liquids are injected into a furna ce to produ ce the desired
atmo sph ere , any co nd ition that causes th e furnac e temperature to fall below that
needed to vaporize the liquid quickly causes a loss of internal furnace pressure.
Ivlinimurn operating temperatures for liquid-injected special atmospheres must
be maintained at all times.

Visual Indicators. TI1ere are trends by furnace manufacturers (especially overseas

nrnnufacturers) to automate the introdu ction and removal of special furnace atmo -
sphe res. With automat ion, the maintenance of visual feedback ind icator s, such as flow
meters, pressure gauges, and safety shut-off valve position indicator s, is essential. Dur-
ing furnace upsets, the operator may need this visual information to verify that emer-
gency actions are approp riate and effective .

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 13, Stm1dardfor the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 55, CompressedGasesnnd CryogenicFluids Code
NFPA 85, Boiler nnd Co111bustio11
Systems Hnzards Code
NFPA 86, Stn11dardforOvens and Furnaces
NFPA 91, Sta11dnrdfor Exhn11stSystemsfor Air Conveyingof \lnpors,Gases,Mists, and
Noncombusti/JlePnrtirnlate Solids

748
 CHAPTER

57
SPRAYPAINTING AND
POWDER COATING
Steven J Gunsel,PE

Spray application of coatings is a common process in most manufacturing facilities.

Processes involving spray application of materials that are flammable or combustible,
whether in the form of liquid or powder, involve the risk of fire. Because two sides of
the fire triangle, air and fuel, are routinely present and already mixed, only a source of
ignition is needed to start a fire.
Although spray painting is the most familiar of these processes, similar equipment is
used in industry for applying other mater ials including adhesives, lubricants, sealants,
waxes, colorants, flavors, pharmaceuticals, and structural layers of products. Among
these materials, the fire hazard and means for controlling them are generally similar in
principle and differ on ly in detail. NFPA 33, Stnndnrdfor Spray Applicntion UsingFlnm-
mnble or Co111b11stible Mnterinls, provides basic information and minimum standards
for protecting these processes.

COATING MA ERIALS
Liquid coaling materials are commonly available as solventborne and waterborne for-
mulations. \•Vaterborne coating materials also contain solvents, but some port ion of
the solvents has been replaced with water. Substituting water for some of the solvent
reduces both the quantity of fuel available for a fire and the amount of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) released to the atmosphere when the coating is applied.

Solventbo rne Coat ings

When solventborne coatings are used, flammable vapors are present al all stages of the
spray painting process. Vapors are emitted from coating materials in storage, during
preparatio n for the application process, from the spray process itself, during flashoff
and curing, and from overspray residue.
Spray painting residues arc readil)1 ignitable. Residue fires develop quickly, have a
high rate of heat release, and produce large quanti ties of dense, toxic smoke. Spray
 SECTION 4: Processond Sto1c19e
Hazards

booth and exhaust ducts may be heated to incandescence in a residue fire and must be
cons tru cted to withstand severe fire conditions. Residue s of some process materials,
particularly air-dry enamels and varnishes, can spontaneous ]>,ignite.
Containers for process liquids can leak or spill. Exposure to process fires can res ult
in explosive rupture of conta iners if not provided with adequate pre ssme relief
Mixing some coating components with other components may cause a chemica l
reaction, which could lead to uncon troll ed heating. Other components, such as organic
p eroxides, are inherently un table and may decom pos e violently if con taminated or
suddenly heated.
Ch lorin ated solvents have been added to liquid coatings in response to env ironm en-
tal rest riclions on the use of VO Cs. Chlorinated solve nts may reac t explosively with
alum inum. TI1e use of protec tive additives has not been demonstrated to prevent this
hazardous reactiv ity in spray equipment. Aluminum is commonly used to manufac -
ture spray painting equipment including guns, pumps, heaters, fluid regulators, valves,
and oth r related devices. Chlori nated solvents should be avoided in coating materials
unle ss all eq uipm ent and piping are explicitly designed for use with chlorinated sol-
vents. Chlorinated solvents shou ld not be used to clean spray equipme nt.
Clean -up solvents used to remove residu es from spray apparatus and th e spray
booth are often flammab le, and exposure to these materials may present health risks
to perso nn el. Do not confuse high volatility with h igh solvency. Select clean-up sol-
vents based on solvency and the h ighes t available flashpoint. TI1is will reduce the fire
hazard and will usually clean more eflective l)'· Overspray residues and leftover mater i-
als from clean-up llHl)' be classified as hazardou waste by the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency (EPA).

Waterborne Coatings
Most waterborne coatings contain some solvents that are capable of releasing flam-
mable vapors. TI1ese materials common ly exhibit a flash point but generally will not
contin ue to bur n after an initial flash. Spray patterns and the liquid supplies used in
the process are generally not ignitable but may become ignitable as the water con tent
evaporates.
Residues from waterborne coat ings, when dried, have burning characteristics com -
parable to tho se from solventborne coatings. Residue accunmlalions from some water-
borne coatings may spontaneous ly heat and ignit e. Materials used for cleaning residues
from equipment and spray booths may be flammable and should be haudled with care.
Sprn)' areas where waterborne coat ings are used require fire protection.

Powder Coating
Flammable vapors are not produced at any stage of the powder coating process. This
includ es powder storage, spray app lication, curing, and handling of oversprny resid ue;
however, fire protection is required because powder coatings are combustible.
Airborne powder coating material will burn vigorously within the spray pattern,
but residues deposited 011 surfaces are not readily ignitable. If the spray is interrupted
immediately after ignition, the fire in the spray pattern will exting uish itself: If powder
750
 CHAPTER 57: Spray Painting and PowderCoating

feed to the sp ray gu ns is susta ined , the tlame will con tinu e to heat surrounding materi-
nls, causing ign ition of the collector filters and powder residin g in the collector hopper.
Airborne dust in any confined enclosure, such as a cyclone o r bag -hou se type dust
co llecto r, can explode if ignited. Powder spray booths with integral filters are available
that elimi nate this hazard.
Excess or oversprayed powde r is normally recycled to be reused in th e process. After
exhaust air passes through pro cess filters, it is typically d ischarged back into the work-
p lace. 1his is advantageou because a dedicated makeup air system is not requ ired to
be insta lled and tempered air is not con tinuou sly exhausted from the building during
operation, resu lting in subst antial energy savings.
Powder spray booths are commonly cons truct e I of plastic mater ials to µrevent over -
spray from adhering. This is especially helpful when color cha nging is requi red.

SPRAY 8 THS
Produc tion spra)' painting of objects up to the size of automobiles is routinely don e in
a power-ventilated enclosure referr ed to as a spray booth. ·n1e objects may be brou ght
to the booth manualJ>, or by a conve)'Or, and the booth can be all)' on e of a wide va-
riety of designs. Although the booth will typically enclose the objec t during painting,
in some designs it will be adjacent to the object and will surrou nd the object and the
spray process with a controll ed stream of air that will capture vapors and overspray .ind
dir ec t them into a co llector. No vapo rs or overspray should escape into the workplace.
Spray bo oths range in size from larger than a railroad boxcar lo smaller th an a bread
box. They must be constructed of materials tha t will withstand a nominal process fire
witho ut collap sing . Booth s and exhaust ducts mo st commonly are constructed of steel
of at least 18 Manufac tur ers' Standard Gauge (1.3 rnm) thick , but they may also be con -
strncted of masonry or other materia ls. Aluminum or struc tural plastics are permitted
for use in construction of powder booths, because the powder residues are not readily
ignit able, and a fire is expe cted to last no longe r than a second. Aluminum and µlastics,
how ever, are not acceptable for use in co nstruction of liquid spray booth s, becau se
these materials do not have sufficien t stru ctural integri ty for th e expected type and
dura tion of fire that can occur.
1l1e principal components of a spray booth are the enclosure, t.he overspray collec-
tor, and the exhaust system. 'The interio rs of all of these components are classified as
Division I hazardous locat ions for applying NFPA 70®, Nntionnl Electricnl Code®.
1l1e concentration of vapors and mists in the exhau st stream of a liquid spra y booth
ventilation system is not to exceed 25 percent of the lower flammable limit (LFL). The
concentration of powder in the exha ust stre am of a powder spray booth ventilation
system is not to exceed 50 pe rcent of the minimum explo sible concen tration (MEC),
All spray booths where flammable or combustible materials are used require the in-
stallation of automatic fire protection, TI1is includes sµray booths wher e waterborne
coatings are app lied. To diminish the chance of fire spread, spray boo ths shou ld be sepa -
rated from other processes, from stor ed combu st ible materials, and from comb ustible
structures by at least 3 ft (0.9 m). If a side of the spray booth does not need to be accessed
for maintenance pmposes, it may be located closer to a masonry or fire-resistant waU.
75 1
 SECTION 4: Process and 51oragc I lazard s

Fire wa ll Fire wall

35 ft ( 11 m)
Process
o pipe
Rack storage
,..-
work Heavy
storage
Car t of Palletized
canned s torage
pain t

m
70 ft {21 m) - - - -~

• Re move or shie ld from sparks a ll potentia l
fue ls within 35 fl (11 m) of the work area.
(In this case, the paint ca rt and pa lletized
storage have been moved.)
• Empty racks on wh ich the work
is to be done of all stora ge.
• Close fire doors and sea l floor open ings
such as the area surround ing process
piping with noncomb ustible cau lking,
• Cove r t1eavy comb ustibl e storage that is
imp ract ica l to move with the fire-resis tive
tarpaulin .

FIGUR E57-1Class I or Class 11, Division 2 locations adjacent to a losed top , ope n-faced or op en-
fro nt spray boo th. The ventilation system is interlocked w ith the spray eq uipm ent.
Source
: f/FP
A33, 2011, Figure6.5.2.

Open-Face Spray Booths

Spray enclosures most commonly are configured as boxes with one open side. The
object to be painted is situated either within the box or at its open side during spray -
ing . If the boot h operates properly , all overspray will be captured by the airflow and
con tained within the enclosure, provide d the operator does his pa rt and does not, for
examp le, spray d irectly toward any boot h opening. A delinea tion of the Division 2 haz -
ardous (classified) area outs ide the openings of the spray boo th is shown in FIGURE 57·1.

Enclosed Spray Booth

Enclosures ca n also be de signed as a tunne l, with openings at eithe r end for en try and
exit of a conveyor carrying objects, such as au tomob ile bod ies, thro ugh the process
zone . Air flow in this type of booth is usuallr introduced through filters in the cei ling or
side walls and exhaus ted through floor gratings into an exhaust plenum.
Larger boot hs will accommoda te painters and spnl)' equipmen t; in sma ller boo ths,
the paint ers and spray gun mounts will be outside sprayi ng inward throu gh openings
oflimited size (FIGURE 57·2).A delineat ion of th e Divis ion 2 hazardous (class ified) area
outsid e ofopenings is shown in FIGURE 57·3.
Processes that do not use a conveyo r, such as au tomob ile or furniture refinishing,
can have boo ths that are to tally enclosed during operatio n, with air intake th rough
752
 Polypropylene booth structure

Collector with module

Control console
for manual spray guns

r module
I
Loading door

I
eed hopper
ith sieve I"\
:i::
J:,
~
-4
m
::i:i
"-,._~Feed Ill
~ hopper ....

~ Bulk feed system

Feed hopper with
rotary sieve

Vertical oscillators (shown) or fixed gun

support stands for automatic guns Gauge panel Level control

FIGURE
57-2 Integrated powde r spray booth/recovery system.
~
U1
t.,,)
 SECTION 4: Process and StorageHazards

Ex1entof Class I, Division 2;

915 mm \Class I, Zone 2; Class 11,Division 2; or
(3 ft) radius \ Zone 22 area

915 mm \---- - - --
(3 ft) radius / \

~---
'
I
- '
'I
Enclosed spray booth or room
,'
I
,
'I
I

'I (Class I, Division 1: Class I, Zone 1:

I Class 11 , Division 1; or
, ,'
I
'' Zone 21 within) ,I
''

,, 915mm
I

(3 ft) radius
PLAN VIEW AT CEILING LEVEL 915 mm (3 ft) radius

915 mm 915mm
(3 ft) radius (3 ft} radius

915 mm (3 fl) radius--,'

'

ELEVATION

FIGURE57-3ClassI or ClassII, Division 2 locations adjacent to open ings in an enclosed spray

booth or room. Source
: NFPA33,
2011,Figure6.5.4.

installed duch,,ork or through a filter bank in a wall or a door. TI1eDivision 2 area ex-
tends outside the booth up to 3 ft (0.9 m) from a door or other opening.
A type of spray enclosure referred to as a "limited finishing workstation" is gaining
acceptance for use in environments such as automotive repair shops. The total amount
of material to be sprayed in any 8-hour period is limited by NFPA 33 to a maximum of
l gal ( 4 L). A delineation of the Division 2 hazardous (classified) area surrounding one
of these units is shown in FIGURE 57·4.

Spray Rooms
Some objects to be painted , such as large, heavy machinery or structural steel fabricated
components , are beyond the size that can be brought practicall)' into a spray booth.
They may be painted either in a spray room or in an open -floor area.
A spray room <lifters in operation from a spray booth in that no attempt is made to
provide exhaust air velocity that will carry overspray into a collector; powered exhaust
is provided only to carry away vapors. Spraying may take place anywhere in the room,
and overspray is permitted to fall to the floor, from which it must be mechan ically
removed to prevent excess accumulation.
754
 CHAPTER S7: Sp1<1y
Painting and Powder Coating

Dedicated mechanical
exhaust system

Dedicated
, makeup air supply system

-~~~~~~~--, ~i~;~/;fly
~- Curta ins
I "' ,' .._: , '

'I ', '

',' ''I

,
, '
.
,,
I
I

'''
,' 'I
- - - ~ 915mm ,:
; ----, (3 fl) ,/
_,,
Extent of Class I, Division 2; - -, ,, ,
Class I, Zone 2; Class II, '
Division 2 area ; or Zone 22

FIGURE57-4ClassI (or ClassII), Division 2 locations adjacent to a limited finishing workstation

with exhaust ventilation interlocked wit h spray equipment. Source: NFPA33,2011,
figureM.3.S.I.

Spray rooms should be separated from other occupancies b)' structures with at least
a I-hour fire-resistance rat.ing. 1l1e ent ire inter ior of the spray room, including the
exhaust plenum and ducts, is classified as a Division I hazardous (classified) location,
with Division 2 extending 3 ft (0.9 m) outside of doors.
Exhaust systems associated with spray roorns are treated with the same fire prot ec-
tion measures and considerat ions as those associated wilh spray booths. Spray rooms
should be separated from other occupancies of the building by construction with at
least a I -hour fire-resistance rating.

Open-Floor Spraying
Another approach used for infrequent spraying of large objects involvesspray painting
on the open factory floor without an enclosure or dedicated ventilation system. 1l1is
approach is referred to as open-floor spraying, and it requires the establishment of
rather extensive surroundi 11gareas classified as hazardous during operation. 1l1eDivi-
sion l area is designated to include the visible spray and the wet paint surfaces remain-
ing on the object, and the Division 2 area extends 20 ft (6 m) further horizontally and
10 ft (3 rn) vertically beyond the Division l area (FIGURE 57·5).

OVERSPRAYCOLLECTION
This compon ent of the spray booth is intended lo capture and remove particulate
matter from the exhaust airstream, allowing vapors lo pass through and be dis-
charged to the atmosphere or to a vapor collection/treatment S)'Stem. The overspray
755
 SECTION 4: Processand StorageIlazards

collectors may use a maze (baffle),

dr y filter, or a waler wash to accom-
/ Spray area plish this. Any parti culate passing

~
through the overspray collecto r will

~ u --- - 6100mm
(2011)
be deposited inside the exhaust ducts,
on fans, and on building sur faces,
and some portion will be di charged
/. ~ lo the atmosphere. Over time, these
deposits build up and become a seri-
ous fire hazard.
TOP (PLAN )

Roof Ma ze (Baffle)
Collectors
ln it simple t form, thi type of collec-
tor looks Iike a maze of steel panels or
chains or one of folded paper through
which the airstream is drawn, with the
intention that particles will impact
with the obstructions and be collect-
ed on them. TI1is collector is not veq 1
,---i Class I, Division I ; Class I, Zone 1;
L____J Class II, Division 1: or Zone 21 efficient;it allows considerable amounts
r-----i Class I, Division 2; Class I, Zone 2; of contaminants to pass through the
~ Class 11,Division 2; or Zone 22 maze subsequently to be deposited in
the exhaust duct, on the fan, and on
FIGURE 57·5ClassI or Class II,Division 2 locations
the building roof around the stack dis-
adjacent to an unenclosed spray operation.
Source 33,2011,Figure65.1.
: 1/FPA
charge point.

Dry-Filter Collectors
Dry filters made of shredded paper or of fiberglass mats are more efficient at trapping
overspray. If cloth second -stage filters are used, virtually no solid contaminants are
allowed to pass through to foul the exhaust stack. Dry-filler collectors are the most
common in small- to medium -volume spray painting operations . TI1eresistance to
flow through a dry filter increases as residue accumulates, resulting in diminished
exhaust flow.
Monitoring pressure drop or flow through the filter collector can identify changes
in ventilation efficiency and can be used to determine when filters need lo be changed.
A common practice is to use a double thickness of filters. When filters are changed,
the filters nearest the inside of the booth will have the greatest residue accumulation
and are discarded. TI1efilters 011 the exhaust side of the collector are replaced with new
filters and are then placed on the side nearest the spray area. TI1isincreases residue col-
lection efficiency without consuming additional filters.
In liquid coating systems, the residues that accumulate on dry collectors are usually
readil)' ignitable and, especially on vertical filters, will burn violent!)'-Fouled filters that
756
 CHAPTER 57: SprayPainting and Powder Coating

have been removed from the spray booth, but are then stored in drums or boxes, can
spontaneously heat and ignite . Unless they are removed immediately from the bu ild-
ing to a safe outside location, these filters must be immersed and stored in water until
they are removed from the premises . vVater immersion may comp licate filter disposal,
depending on the characteristics of the residue present.
In powder coating processes , the d ry filters are engineered to stop all of the particu-
late material and not allow any to pass into the exha ust stream , which is usually dis-
charged back into the workplace. TI1iscan produce significant energy savings in colder
climates . It may also avoid the necessity of obtain ing air emiss ion permits .
Residues in a powder collector will not spontaneously ignite, and they are not read -
ily ignitable . Their haz ardous charact eris tics are comp arable to tho se of wheat flour or
powdered sugar.

Wate r Wash Co llector s

'TI1e water wash collector separates contaminants by passing the exhaust airstream
through a series of sprays or waterfalls that scrub out particles of overspray and keep
them submerged in a water tank. Water wash collectors are most commonly encoun-
tered in medium- to high-volume painting operations .
Special chemica ls must be added to the water and maintained at the proper concentra-
tion to render the paint particles nonadhesive and thus prevent them from formiJ1glarge,
sticky curds that can plug spray nozzles or adhere to overflow weirs and produce gaps in
the waterfalls or scrubbers. Such gaps, if permitted to form, will permit overspray to pass
through the collector and into the exhaust duct where it can acwmulate as dry residue.
Changes to paint formulation may necessitate revising the water treatment chemistry . As
long as it is properly maintained, the water wash collector contributes substantially to fire
safety by keeping residues submerged in water and unavailable as fuel for fire.

EXHAUSTSYSTEMS
For liquid coating processes, this component of the spray booth comprises a plenum
downstream of the collector, a fan, and ductwork leading to a discharge point outside
the building. For powder coatings, the discharge is recirculated back to the work space
within the building through a secondary set of high efficiency filters .
Mechanical ventilation is to rema in in operation at all times that spray operations
are being conducted and for a sufficient time thereafter to allow the vapors from drying
objects and residue to be exhausted . Automated spray systems should be interlocked
with the exhaust ventilat ion system to ensure that spray equipment cannot operate
unless the exhaust fans are operating . The ventila tion system shou ld also be operated
during maintenance and clean -up whenever flammable solvents are being used.
The fan is preferably located at the discharge end of the duct and should be of non-
sparking structure (Air Movement and Control Association Class C). Its rotating shaft
shou ld have heavy-duty bearings, and the motor should not be exposed to the exhaust
airstream unless listed for that service . Exhaust fan selection criteria should include
no ise levels, which should be maintained at reasonably low levels.
757
 SECTION 4 : Proce55~nd Storage I lazard ~

The exhaust system should have access doors or easily opened joints to facilitate
inspect ion of the ductwork interior and clean-out of residues . The duct must be
constructed of suitable materials and be supported lo prevent collapse under fire con-
ditions. ·n1e duct can be heated to cherry red during a thermally drafted residue fire,
substantially weakening its initial strength. TI1e weight of water from the internal ex-
lrnust stack and duct sprinkler s must be considered if horizontal duct runs are present.
It is import ant to ensure that the exJiausted air is not reintroduced into the building.
'ib is is accomplished by separating the exhaust stack discharg as for as practicable
from building ventilation intal'es, making sure that the exhnu t stnck is of sufficient
height to prevent downwash, .1nd providing an unobstruct ed vertical discharge. A
low loss vertical discharge cap should be selected for protection against weath r. TI1e
American Conference of Governmental Ind ustr ial Hygienists publication Inrl11slrial
Ve11fi latio11Ha11rlbookis an excellent source or exhaust system design information.

Makeup Air
No exhaust system will function prop erly without an adequate supply of makeup air.
Inadequate makeup air reduces exhaust system efficiency and causes drafts that can
seriously interfere with the sprn)' process and cause worker discomfort elsewhere in
the facility. lvlakeup air systems should be engineered to provide a suitable quantity of
tempered air during the most extreme weather conditions anticipated during opera-
tions. TI1emakeup airstream should be distributed un iformly over the cross-section of
the spray booth. Filtering the incoming air ensures cleanliness and helps distribution.

Exhaust Air Recirculation

Recirculation of exhaust from liquid spraying operatio ns introduces both health and
fire hazards and should not be attempted except for unmann ed operations, where
adequate precautions are taken. Al a minimum, this requires complete removal of
particulate mailer from the recirculated air; maintaining vapor concentrat ions at all
downstream locations below 25 percent of the LFL;continuou monitorin g with listed
equipment of downstream vapor concentration s in all exhaust streams; and sounding
an alarm and automat ically shutting down the spray operation if vapor concentration
exceeds 25 percent of the LFL. All equipment used to process and remove contami-
nants from the exhau sted air must be approved. LFL monitorin g equipment must be
calibrated, operated, and maintained as specified by the manufacturer.

SPRAY AP ARA US
TI1e devices that actually produce the paint spray are known as spray guns and exist in
both hand-held and automatic types (FIGURE 57·6 and FIGURE 57-7). Manual spray guns
are designed to be hand-held and have a triggering mechanism that is manipulated by
the operator. Automat ic guns are designed to be mounted on suppo rts that can be fixed
or movable and are triggered b>7electrical or pneum.1tic signals.
Spray guns atomize the liquid coating by the use of compressed air, including con-
ventional air spray and high volume, low pressure; hydraulic pre sure (airless); rotating
758
 CHAPTER 57: SproyPainting and Powder Coating

FIGURE57-6Hand-held air spraygun with nuid supplied from pressure pot.

devices, such as disks and bells; or various combinations of these tech niqu es. Each type
is also available in elec tros tatic versions that use high voltage at 35,000 V to more th an
100,000 V to increase transfe r efficiency and enhan ce atomization. Powder spray guns
use either electronic or frictional (triboel ectric) electros tat ic cha rging mech anisms for
application of th e coating material to the object being coated.

Manual versus Automatic Spray

Both liquid and powder spray application coating processes ma )' be don e with manu al
or auto matic spra )' gu ns or with a combina tion of the two. Manu al and automat ic spray
devices operate in mu ch th e same way Automatic operatio ns, however , may involve
num erous spray guns used with in the same booth and may be unattended during op -
eration.
Hand spray operators will notic e a fire im media te!)' and release the gun trigger wh en
they drop the gun, interrupt ing the supply of sprayed fuel to th e fire. 'Thjs leaves residue
fire as the major remaining concern . It is important that the gun trigger functions as in -
tend ed and not be taped or o therwise tied open . Unless there is specia l flame detection
apparatus, automat ic sp ray guns m ay con tinue to operate after a fire has ignited , quick -
ly spreadi ng the fire to oth er areas.
In automatic operations a l their simplest, the atomizers (spray guns) arc mounted
on "fixed gun stan ds" and are tri ggered on and off by a cont roUer as th e objec ts to be
759
 SECTION4: Processand StorageHazards

FIGURE
57·7Automat ic powder gun.

painted pass b)' on a conveyor. In increasing order of complexity, the guns are mounted
in an array on a machine called a "reciprocator" to stroke back and forth, or up and
down , like strokes of a paint brush as the work passes. The guns might be on constantly
or might be triggered to spray only the workpieces. Some reciprocators function as
two-axis or even three -axis machines. In the most complex arrangements, the guns are
manipulated by a robot that can move the gun to any position within the area swept by
its arm and point in any direction, just as if it were hand-held. Triggering is controlled
by the computer that also controls the movements of the robot.
Liquid paint is supplied to the spray device through a hose originating in a reservoir
that may be a pressurized tank, or "pressure pot;' an unpressurized tank associated
with a pump, or, for powder coating, an air-fluidized feed hopper with a pneumatic
ejector-type pump. Depending on the scale of the painting op era tion, this reservoir
can be as small as 2 qt {2 L) or as large as 100 gal ( 400 L) . Several reservoirs supplying
different colors or types of paint might be associated with a single spray booth or room.

760
 CHAPTER 57: ~pray Painting and Powder Coating

High volume pain ting operat ion s often supply the spn.1)'equ ipment from remote "pa int
kitchens;' where pa int is prepare d for use and pumped to the spray apparatus.
To lessen th e effects of expos ure during spray booth fire condition s, th e paint su p-
ply rese rvo irs should be separa ted from the spray booth by severa l feet. Because hose s
can be expected to bur n off in a fire, pr essurized paint supplies should be int erlock ed
with a fire alarm to prevent the paint from being delivere d into th e spray booth dur -
ing a fire.

El ctrostatics
ln a produc tion sett ing, the coating process ma)' be augmented witll electros tatic
cha rging equipment. Electros tatic spray equ ipment incorporates higb voltage (be-
tween 35,000 and 120,000 V) to enhan ce depo sition of the sp rayed coat ing onto the
workpi ece. In this high voltage environment, any electrically conductive object that is
not gro unded may discha rge elect ri al spa rk th at could ignit e a fire. Stringe nt ground -
ing discipline is req uir ed.
All co nd uc tive object s in the spray area should be gro un ded, including p ersonnel.
A resistance to ground of up to l M.0 ( I x 106 .0) is recom mend ed lo prevent the
accumul ation of electrostatic cha rge tha t cou ld result in au incen dive (ign ition-capabl e)
spark. All operations involving spraying, pumping, mixing , and pouring are capab le of
producin g electrostati c cha rge, and grounding of conductive objects where ver the se
operations occur is req uired.
The preferred instrum ent for me asuri ng gro undin g circ uit resistanc e in a produc-
tion spray painting environm ent is a 500 -V megohm meter. Commonly, availab le
volt-ohm meters (multim eters) operat e at a much lower voltage and may not provide
an accura te assessme nt of grounding resistance under typically encountered operat-
ing conditions in the prod uct ion environment. Higher voltage insulation testers that
operate at up to 10,000 V are available but shou ld be avoided for this app lication. All
instrum ent s shou ld be listed for the classified area where they will be used .
Most elec trostatic spray equipment op erates at high voltage [35,000 V (35 kV) to
more th an 100,000 V ( 100 kV) I and low current, typically in the microamp eres range.
High voltage measur ements can signifi cantly affect th e available voltage if excessive
curren t is d rawn durin g the mea sur eme nt. A special high -imped ance voltmeter is
requ ired accurate ly to measure the output voltage of electrostatic spray equipment.
Kilovolt m eters suitable for use in the produ ction environm ent are available from spray
equipment manufacturer s. It is recommend ed that the kilovolt meter be obtained from
the manufa ctur er of the elec tro static spray equipment to ensu re compatibility.

Optical Flam Detection

Early flame detectors relied on either ultraviolet or infrar ed emissions to determine if
a flame was presen t. Although very sensitive and effective, many of these devices did
not reliably disc rimin ate between a flame in the spray area and a spark or heat source
elsewhe re in the facility. TI1is occasionally resulted in an una cceptabl e number of false

761
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

alarms, leading to disabling of the devices. Currently, available flame detectors are
much more sophisticated and are virtually foolproof. TI1ey have a proven track record
of preventing damage when properly installed and maintained.
Automatic flame dete ctors should be installed in all automatic electrostatic systems
for fluid or powder spray. Flames in spray patterns of both liquid and powder guns have
very high heat releas e rates, which, if continu ed, will quickly heat residues and boost
the rate of flame spread . Fast- acting flame detectors connected to the interlock almost
instantly shut down the spray gu n fises in the even t of ignition , thus prev entin g resi-
dues from being heated to ignition and enhancing chanc es of prompt extinguishment .
Optical flame dete ct ion at a powder spray booth should react to th e presence of
flame within 0.5 secon d and slop any conveyo rs in to and out of th e spray area; shut
off vent ilation; shut off powder application, transfer, and collection equipment; close
segregation dampers in associated ductwork between the powder booth and remote
powder collectors; and remove power from high voltage elements in th e spray area.
lf the powd er appl icatio n equ ipm ent is unlist ed, the optical flame de tec tion system
should activate the automatic fire prot ection system.
Optical flame detection at an automatic liquid spray booth should rea ct to the pres -
ence of flame within 0.5 second and au lomatically activate a local alarm in the vicinity
of the spraying operation; transmit an alarm signal to the facility's fire alarm system;
shut down the coating material deliver) ' system; shut down all spraying op erations;
stop all gun movers; shut down all conveyors into and out of the spray area; and discon-
nect power to th e high voltage elements in the spray area and de-energize the system.

High ResistivityMaterials
Engineered polymers are now available that can have specific volume resistivities, up to
1012 0-cm, or lQS to 1011 ohms per square surface resistivit) ', depending on the appli-
cation. This allows parts to be manufactured of plastic that will closely match adjacent
metal parts when painted with an electro static spray apparatus. Slightly lower resistiv -
ity permits electrodeposition of primer to adhere uniformly to the plastic parts, ensur-
ing color match of the final product. Initial uses include painting of automotive bodies
that include polymer parts such as fuel doors, mirror bodies, and bumpers.
Resistivity is the intr insic property of all materials that opposes the flow of electric
current. Resislivity is the opposile of conductivity . A low resistivity (high conductiv-
ity) indicates a material that readily allows the movement of electrical charge. Metals
are good conductors and have low resistivity. Resistance is a function of geometry and
volume resis tivity. For a given resistivity, the resi stance of an object will in crease as it is
lengthened and will decrease as the cross-sectiona l area is increased. TI1eresistivity ofa
good electrical conductor, such as copper, is 1.7 x I0 -6 0 -cm, whereas the conductivity
of an insulator, such as rubber, is lQ IS 0- cm. Surface resistivity of an object can vary
widely because of surface cont amination, chemical reactivity, and relative humidity.
Highly resistive materials can accumulate electrostatic charge if not properly ground -
ed. TI1e)'are capabl e of producing spa rks that ignite flammable vapors . Because of the
high resist ivity, the usual requirement of maintaining a resistance to ground of I MO or

762
 CHAPTER57: Spray Painting and PowderCoating

less is problematic, as is making meaningful resistance measurements . An electrorneter

could provide reasonably acc urate resistance measurements at very high resistance lev-
els, but is not practical for use in a production environment. The resistance to ground
may be several orders of magnitude greater than the recommended 1 MO.
An alternative is to measure the voltage that develops on the workpiece while charge
is applied . The voltage developed on a workpiece can be measured with a suitable high
impedance kilovolt meter. rf the maximum voltage on the workpi ece is maintained
below 1500 V, incendiv spa rki ng can be prevented . It is essent ial that the voltage -
measur ing electrode of the kilovolt meter be shielded from any and all coro nal charg-
ing streams that may be present . 11,is can be accomplished by taking mea surements
from the side of th e workpiece that is oppos ite the side receiving the charge . TI1ese
mea surement s should be taken with the maximum cha rging current available. that is,
with all nearby spray heads energized , but not necessarily while applying paint.

MANAGING E RISK
Control of Ignition Sources
All recogn ized sources of ignition must be excluded from the area designated as hazard -
ous, including open flames such as process heaters, pilot lights, torch welding and cut-
ting operations, cigarette smoking, and space heaters; hot surfaces that might result from
prior op erations, heat treatment, welding and flame dry -off operations, shearing, drilling ,
and grinding operations; friction from binding conveyor comp onent s, from overheated
bear ings, or from hot surfaces of lamps; and sparks resultin g from grinding or welding
operations, flame cutting, or embers from poorly adjusted overhead fuel-burning heaters.
Sparking from open electrical contacts or from fault s must be avoided by ensuring
that all electrica l wiring and devices within the hazardous area are appropriately listed
and approved for the classified area in which they are installed. Spray areas, including
the int eriors of spray booths and rooms as well as exhaust systems, are classified as
Class r.Division l areas for liquid coatings and Class II, Division l for powder coat-
ings. Areas outside the Division l boundar>' but within 3 ft (0.9 m) of any opening
are Class I or Class II, Division 2 areas. It is usually advantageous to install electrical
equipment outside of the classified area whenever po ssible. All electrical equ ipment
and wiring sho uld be installed in accordance with NFPA 70 and the manufacturer's
instru ctions. Field modifications to listed equ ipment may void the listing.
Reactive finishing materials that could overheat if mixed inappropriately must be
rigidly controll ed in accordance with the process. For exam ple, coating materials that
heat after mixing as a result of a chemical reac tion can remain at perfectly acceptable
temper atures when spread as a thin film onto a product. TI1e same materials could ,
however, heat sufficiently to burst into flames if rnLxed in a pail or buck et that has insuf-
ficient surface area to dissipate the heat.
Coating residues that can spontaneously heat, such as air-drying enamels and var-
nishes, must not be allowed to accumulate excessively in collector filters or in wiping
rags. Fouled rags and filters that have been removed from spray booth collectors must

763
 SEC ION 4: Processand ~torage Ha1a1d
~

be removed from the building immediately or immersed in water and kept immersed
until removal to prevent spontaneous ignition.
Unstable materials such as organic peroxides and nitrocellulose materials must be
meticulously managed to prevent contamination or excess temperatures that could
cause spontaneous decompositio n and ignition.
Sparking from static electricity discharges can be prevented by effectively ground ing
all electr ically cond uctive objects in the process area. 1l1is includes operational, main-
tenance, and supervisoq 1 personnel. All spray equipment, flammable liquids handling
equipment, spray booth components and associated apparatus, and the conveyors must
be connected to an effective ground . All conductive objects must be electrically bond -
ed logclher and to ground, such as equipment grounding conductors that have been
established for the electrical power system, building structural steel, metal waler lines,
or separately installed groundi ng systems. Never use a grounded power conductor (neu-
tral) because of the potential for electrical shock hazard. Resistance to ground or LMO
or less is generally sufficient to prevent hazardous clcdrostatic charge accumulation.
Contacts on conveyor racks and rack-to-workpiece connections must be kept clean
and have a resistance to ground of less than I i'vl O at all times. Sharp points and edges
at points of contact help to maintain low resistance to ground by penetrating light to
moderate accumulations of overspra}' and other residue.
Whether or not electrostatic apparatus is installed, static electricity is a commo n
source of ignition of flammable vapors in situations where overspra}' falls to the floor
to form a slid .')' residue. In walking only three or four steps across the sticky residue,
an individual can accumulate a high enough electrostatic voltage on his or her body
to discharge an incendive spark when approaching a grounded object. It is critically
important that a reliable means of grounding the human bod}' be provided at all times
to prevent static charge accumulation.
The floor within the process area should be electrically conductive, and shoes worn
by all personnel entering the hazardous area should be of the static-dissipative type.
Wearing leather-soled shoes on a bare concrete floor is usually adequate, but this
should be verified with the megohm meter or a similar device. If the floor is covered
by insulating residues, there must be alternative means for grounding personnel, such
as a lanyard with a wrist strap. Personnel grounding devices like the wrist strap must
have a sufficientlyhigh resistance to prevent electrical shock in the event of inadvertent
contact with the facility's electrical power distribution system. 1l1e resistance should
be high enough to limit the maximum current to less than 5 mA at the highest voltage
available. A resistance of l MO is typical.
Limiting vapors and ovcrsprny to the smallest practicable area is accomplished
through a combination of process enclosures and power ventilation system . Ventila~
tion S)'Stemsshould be checked frequently to ensure they are operating properly and
that specified flow rates are being maintained.

Don't Feed the Fire

1l1e total quantity of fuel available for a fire permitted in the process area mu t be re-
str icted to the amount needed for one shift or one day ofopernt ion. Operating supplies

764
 CHAPTER 5 7: Sµray Painting and Powder Coating

should be kept in an area separate from the spray area tu prev ent their involvement in
a spray boo th fire.
All storage, handing, and mixin g of flammable and combustible liquid s should
be in confor man ce with NFPA 30, Fla111mable a11dCo111bustibl e Liquids Code, and
NFPA 33. Dispen sing or transfer of fhimmable or combust ible liquid s from or into
co ntainers, inclu di ng po rtab le mixing tanks and "pressure pots;' is to be do ne in a
sp ray ar ea o r in a mix ing room adjacent to the sp rar area with the venti lation system
in op era tion.
Pressur ized supp lies or coa ting materials sho uld have emergency shut -offs, both
manual and au tomat ic, interloc ked with the fire alarm to prevent additional fuel fro m
being poured into a spray booth fire when hoses bu rn off. Hos e materia ls shou ld have
nom inal resistance to fire. For example, po lyethylene tubing will melt off imme diately
when exposed to fire, whereas rubb er hose s will be mor e resistant, and Teflon® ho ses
are even more resistant.
Ovecprny re idue within the spray booths, the collector, and the exhaust duct -
work mu st not be allowed to accumul ate to a quantity that will µroduc e a fire too big
and too vigorous for the ins talled extinguishing system to suppress. Overspray residue
accu mul at ion be)•ond app roxim ately ¼ in. (3 mm) th ickness shou ld be prevented .
Spray booth surface cleanin g can be enhanced with the use of strippable coatin gs,
which are available as spray -on or shee t products. The use of flammabl e solvents for
spray eq uipment and booth clea ning should be prohi bited wherever feasib le.
Use of a water wash overspray collector that keeps collected residues subm erged in
water is sl rongly favored over the dry -filter alternative, which usually retains the resi -
dues in a config uratio n that will produ ce a seve re fire when ignited .

Process Isolation
TI1e spray µaintin g process should be separa ted from ot her manufacturin g µrocesses
and occupancies, both to preven t ign ition and to reta rd fire spread. Spray booth s in
which flammable materials are used and in which read ily ign itable resid ues accumul ate
shou ld be of fire-resistant construction. Spray rooms should hav e al least a 1-hour fire-
resistan ce rating separa ting them from other occupancies .
Spray booths should be of the appropr iate type, size, and material for the process in
which they are being used. Air velocity and volume mu st be sufficient to caµture vapors
and oversµray and prevent them from entering th e workpla ce.
Exhau st systems that m igh t accum ulate readi ly ign itable residues must be struc -
tured and support ed to prevent th em from collapsin g in a fire. They must have ad -
equate clearance from combustible construction, such as at roof penetrations, and they
shou ld d i cha rge free of th e build ing to preven t vapors from ree ntering .

Explosion Prevention and Pressure Relief Venting

Because ign itable conce ntrati o ns or vapors or com bustib le dust rou tinely exist in sev-
era l part s of the µro cess in flammabl e liqui d containers, in the spray process zone, and
within dust collec tors, conditions that will produce an explos ion must be prevented.

765
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

All flammable liquid reservoirs and closed containers of supply materials must have
pressure release vents to prevent exp losive rupture from occurring when exposed to a
process fire. Approved pre ssure relief vent device s should be installed on all flammable
liquid shipping containers greater than 5-gal (20-L) capacity.
Although ignitable concentrations are expected within the spray pattern, there must
be sufficient exhaust airflow to prevent ignitabl e concentrations from occurring in the
exhaust system. Flammable vapors shou ld be diluted to less than 25 perc ent of the LFL
in exJ1aust ducts, and ignit able dus ts should be diluted to less than 50 percent of the
i\lIEC in ducts leading to powder collectors that are connected by ductwork to a sepa-
rate collector, such as a cyclo ne or bag hou se. An int erlock should prevent triggering of
automatic spray guns unle ss the exhau st system is operating .
For powd er coat ing systems, dust collectors that are integrated into the spray booths
and are designed to eliminate the confinement necessary for formation of an explosion
are preferable to conventional dust collectors. Separate cyclones or bag hou ses con-
nected to d uctwork are capabl e of exp lod ing.
Cyclones, bag house s, and long ductwork runs associated with powder coating facil-
ities must have appropriate pressure release venting and ductwork to discharge relieved
pressure and products of combustion to the exteri or of th e building in a safe location.
The maximum acceptable length of pressure relief ductwork is approximately 10 ft (3 m) .
All process and pressure relief ductwork associated with this type of equipment must
be constructed to withstand the maximum pressure expected in an explosion. Duct-
work must have welded longi tudinal seams and bolted flange-type joint s. Explosion
vents must discharge to a safe area where neither personnel nor prop erty will be dam -
aged by the blast.
All automatic powder coating installations must have fast-acting flame detectors
that will respond with in a half-second to shut down the process, sound an alarm, and
close dampers in any associated ductwork between the booth and collector. Prompt
shut -off of a supply of airborne combustible dust will extinguish a process fire before
enough time has elapsed for embe rs to form that cou ld be carried through the duct -
work to ignite the collector. Quick closin g damp ers in the ductwork interrupt the air -
flow necessary to transport embers from the booth to the collector .
All automatic liquid coating installations must have fast-acting flame detectors
that will respond within a half -second to shut down the process, sound an alarm, and
promptly shut off the supply of coating material to extinguish the fire before the fire
spread s from the spray pattern to other areas . Fire in the spray pattern produces intense
radiant heat that will ignite nearby combustible objects or residue if not terminated
immediately.

Fire Protection
All spray areas, which include asso ciated exhaust plenums and exhaust ductwork, par-
ticulate filters, solvent concentrator units, recirculation air supply units, and m ixing
rooms, are required to have approved automatic fire extinguishing systems installed.
Although automatic sprinklers, both inside the proces s enclosure and at ceiling level,

766
 CHAPTER 57: SprayPainringand PowderCoating

are recommend ed, other systems might be appropr iate, with consideration given to th e
process, materials used, and surrounding circumstances.
For continuous liquid spray operation s, ac tivation of th e automatic fire prote c-
tion syste m shall au tom atica lly ac tivate a loca l alarm in the vicinity of th e spraying
operat ion ; transmit an alarm sig nal to the facili t)"s fire alarm syste m, if such a system
is p rovid ed; shu t down the coating material del ivery system; shu t dow n all sprayin g
operations; stop all gun movers; and sh ut down all convqors into and out of th e
spra y area. A manual emergency sys tem shu tdown station sho uld be install ed at each
sp ray area.
Automatic water spr inklers are generally pre/erred because they have a reliable tra ck
record of con trollin g fires and can be placed back into operation qui ckly after a fire.
Auto matic foam -water spri nkler systems are acceptable and may be appropria te in
some situa tions. If a suitable water supply is not available, howeve r, i.t may be more
cos t-effective to use a dry chemica l, carbon dioxide, or gaseo us agent fire protection
system. Sprinklers in exhaust stacks or other unhea ted areas requ ire spec ial cons ider-
ation to prevent damage from freezing or ino perability during cold weather.
Sprinklers in the spray area must be protected from overspray residu e and may be
covered with a thin cellophane or pap er bag. 'foese coverings must be replaced fre-
quently to preven t heavy deposits of residu e that can interfere with spr inkler operation.
Replace spr inklers that are painted or covered with overspray resid ue.
Interloc ks should shu t down the proce ss i11 the event of fire, paint hose ruptu re,
co nveyor wreck, ventilation failure, or simi lar even t. 1hey should be int egrat ed with
the fire alarm and the emergenc y stop control to shut down the spray process and to
interrupt all fuel suppli es and all energy input s including electrical, compressed air,
and hydraulic. 1h e conveyor and all gun movers should be brought to a stop.
In liquid spray systems, residues from both solventborne and waterborne coatings
are expected to be readily ignitable and produce a persistent fire with large volumes of
dense smoke. The air makeup and exhaust ventilation system should be kept in opera-
tion during fire condi tions.
In powder coatin g operations, where residues are not readily ignitable and no per-
sisten t fire is expected, the exhaus t system should be shut down to prevent fanning of
any flames that might then heat residues to ignition temperatur e.
In spray operation s using flammab le liquid s and readily ignitable residues, smoke
produced by a fire can completely fill the building or the room containin g the spray
operation in less than a m inute, thereby th reatening egress and making attack of the
fire by fire fighters almost i.mpossible. TI1e installat ion of fire cur tains, smoke vents,
and heat vents over such operations is recom mended to limit the open ing of sprinkl ers
to the area imm ed iately above the fire and to aid in clear ing smoke so that firefighting
operations may be con ducted.
A supply of appropriate hand extinguish ers should be readily available to operating
personnel in all spray finishing operation s. Portable fire extinguishers of the correct
type are effective when used quickly and with good technique . Operation of portable
fire extinguisher s is relatively straightforward but is best learn ed prior to an ac tual fire.
Fire extinguisher s must be properly maintained and mu st be recharged or replac ed

767
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hilz~rd

immediate]}' after use. The Occupational Safet}'and Health Administration (OSHA)

requires that only trained and authorized perso1rnd operate fire extinguishers.

A ION
Training
An ongoing training program should be in place for supervision and production
emplo}'ees. Topics to be addressed should include the finishing process, the mate-
rial used, manufactur ers' operating instructions for the spra}' apparatus, identifica-
tion of hazards and means r,,r ontrolling them, and emergency procedures. Records
should be on hand with reforence materials for the course content and memoranda oC
attendance records for each date that training has been conducted. Refresher training
should be provided periodically.
Manufacturers' instruction manuals for all pro es apparntus should be 0 11hand and
readily accessible to operating and maintenance personnel.

Inspect ion of Apparatus and Procedures

!vlanagement-appointed inspectors should examine apparatus and should review pro-
cedures on a routine basis and afier incidents. Use of a checklist is recommended to
ensure tha t all critical items are inspected. Critical opera ting parameters should be
monitored routinely with appropriate instrumentation .
.ivleasurements made dur .ing inspection s, such as airflows, pressures, resistance,
voltage, and current, should be compared with acceptable baseline values during
nominal operation to aid in detecting maladjustments or deterioration of apparatus.
Inspection reports should be reviewed by management and retained in files for future
comparison.

Maint enance
All)' equipment damage or wear should be repaired promptly to the original manu-
facturer's specification. All repairs to equipment listed for hazardous area operation
should be made using onl)' replacement parts specified or supplied b}' the original
manufacturer and .in strict accordance with the manufacturer's instructi.ons in order
to maintain the validity of the safety listing and to ensu re continued operation in ac-
cordance with original specilications.
A perm it system must be in place to control all hot work in spray areas and for all hot
work performed 011 the spray booth, overspray collector, and exhaust system. Hot work
includes welding, grinding, soldering, torch cutting, drilling, and sawing operations. All
residue and supplies of flammable or combustible materials should be removed before
hot work begins on booth enclosure, collector,or ductwork. NFPA 51B, Standardfor Fire
Preve11Jio11 During Weldi11g,C11lti11g, a11dOther Hot Work,describes how to develop and
implement a hot-work permi.t program, including establishment of a fire watch.

768
 CHAP ER57: Spray Painting and Pov1der Coating

Written instructions shoul.d be available describing in detail the procedure for re-
moving ignitable residues from process equipment and floors. TI1isprocedure should
clearly specify any chemical substances and equipment to be used, require wetting of
residues before scraping, and describe in detail the procedure for storing and disposing
of residues. Include precautions to ensure personnel safety and health, preparedn ess
for responding to any fire that might occur, and proper disposal of residue and other
associated wastes in accordance with environm ental regulations.
A lire watch equipped with appropriate extinguishing equipment should be posted
during all hot -work and residue removal operation s and for a reasonable time after
tho se operations have been completed.

Storage and Handling of Materials and Residues

Written instruct ions shou ld be on hand describing procedures for storing and han-
dling as well as disposing of all hazardous pro ·ess materiab and residues. ivfaterials in
excess of what is needed for the current day's production shou ld be removed from the
process area and kept in a designated storage area.
Residues should be placed in covered metal containers and removed immediately
from the factory. Filters fouled with overspray residues should be immersed in water in
metal containers and removed promptly from the factory to a designated storage area
away from important structures.

Protection of Personnel
All persons entering the hazardous process area should be equipped with appropriate
protective clothing. To protect from flash fire during process operations, maintenance,
and clean-up, exposed personnel should be dressed in clothing providing maximum
skin coverage ..indadequate resistance to Dame.Textiles such as Nomcx® IIIA or equiv-
alent are most suitable for these tasks.
Ventilation shou l.d remain in operation during clean-up and other maintenance
operations to minimize personnel exposure to injurious vapors. Suitable gloves and
respirators should be provided where appropriate. OSHA requires a formal respiratory
program whenever respirators are used.
Periodically review the most current Material Safety Data Sheets (J'v!SDSs)for all
coating materials, solvents, and cleaning mater.ials to verify that proper safety and health
precautions are being observed, including preparedness for emergency response. TI1e
MSDS should be carefuUyreviewed prior to use of any new or reformulated substances.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Catalog for availability of current editions of the
following documents .
NFPA 13, Stcwdnrdfor the l11stnllntio11of SprinklerSystems
NFPA 30, Fln111111a/Jle
a11dCo111lmsti/Jle liquids Code

769
 SECTION 4: Processand StorageHazards

NFPA 33, Standardfor SprayApplicafio11UsingFla111111able or Co111b11s

tible 1vlateria/s
NFPA 51B, Standardfor Fire Preve11tio11 D11ri11g We/di11g, Cutting, a11dOther Hot Work
NFPA 68, Guide for Ve11ti11g of Dejlagmtio11s
NFPA 69, Standard 011Explosion Preve11tio11 Systems
NFPA 70'El,National Electrical Code®
NFPA 77, Reco111111e11ded Practice011 Static Electricity
NFPA 9 l , Standardfor Ex/wrist Systemsfor Air Co11veyil1g of Vapors,Gases, Mists, and
No11co111b11stibl
e Partiwlnte Solids
NFPA 21 12, Standard 011Fla111 e-Resistm1tGnn11e11ts for Protection of Tnd11strinlPerso11-
11elAgainst Flns/1Fire
1 FPA 2 113, Standard 011 Seleclio11,
Care, Use,and Mai11te11m1ee ofF/ame-Resista11tGar-
mentsfor Protectionof Ind11 strinl PersonnelAgni11stFlash Fire

770
 CHAPTER

58
WELDING, CUTTING,
AND OTHER HOT WORK
August F Manz and Denise Beach

From 2003 to 2006, there were an estimated 5580 reported U.S. structure fires per year
that involved torches, burn ers, or soldering equipment and caused 22 civilian deaths
per year, 223 civilinn injuries per year, and $208 million in direct proper t}' damage per
year (Specinl Data Infornrntion Packnge: Torch Fires.NFPA, April 2009). 'TI1esedata
should not surprise the experienced fire inspector, who has seen the hazard po tential
and the consequences of unsafe practices of these commo n operations . Compared with
other types of hot work, cutting and welding were identified as the most dnngerous
types of hot work, causing on average 38 percent and 43 percent, respectively, of all
nonresidential hot -work fires.
Even though cutting and welding are the most hazardous types of hot work, an
inspector would be rerniss in not renlizing that other types of hot work have the same
hazards as cutting and welding and are controlled by the same precautions and regu-
latory requirements. Other types of hot work include heat treating, grinding, thaw-
ing pipe, using powder-driven fasteners, hot riveting, and allied processes (open flame
soldering, brazing, thermal spraying, oxygen cutting, plasma cutting, and arc cutting).
Other similar applications, such as grinding, chipping, or abrasive blasting, that pro-
duce ignition sources, such as a spark, a flame, or heat, should also be considered dur -
ing an inspection.
Hot -work operations are hazardou s for a number or reasons. First, they can use
flames burn ing at temperatures of about 4000°F to 5000°F (2200°C to 2760°C) or elec-
tric arcs that are estimated by some to be hott er than the surface of the sun. They
frequent I}' take place in areas where combustible materials are present, in cramped or
elevated areas, or iu areas cluttered with tools and equipment that rnay hinder move-
ment during an emergency. Molten metal and sparks are created that can cause burns
and other injuries. Many types of hot work emit radiation that can harm improperly
protected eyes and skin.
Inspectors should understand how hot -work operations can be performed to mini-
mize the hazards and improve workplace safety. 'TI1eyshould also be aware of the regu-
lations and standards that apply to these processes.
 SECTION 4: PrO(P$Sand Storage H~7~rds

The Nation al Fire Prot ection Association (N FPA) and the American Weldin g Soci-
ety (AWS) publish a number of safety and health document s that are recognized by the
indu stry as the major sources of informat ion and that serve as the basis of many of the
federa l and state regulations. Two of th e mos t important are America n National Stan-
da rds Institu te (ANSI) Z49. l, Safety in Welding,Cri/Iing, and Allied Processes,pub lished
by AWS, and NFPA 5 lB, Stmidnrdfor Fire Pre\lentio11During Welding,C11tti11 g, and
Other Hot Work, published by NFPA. Earlier ed ition s of these two do cum ents are the
source of regu latio ns in Occupa tional Safety and Hea lth Admini stration (OSHA) 29
Code of Federa l Regulation s (CFR) 1910Subpart Q, "Weldi ng, Cutting, and Brazing;'
and OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart J, "Welding and Cutting ."

P ECAU IONS DURING HO WORK

Ins pectors should be pa rt icu larly alert for circumstances that cou ld lead to fires, exp lo-
sions, or inj111y lnspectors hou ld be parti cularly vigi lant in ob serv ing the fi.illowing
items because thq are recognized to be major factors i.n hot -work fires and injur y.

Clothing and Other Personal Protective

Equipm ent
Eliminating or reduc ing a hazard by substitu ting a less ha zardou s procedure or chem -
ical or by providing ventilation is always pr eferab le. The situati o n is inherent ly safe
when the haza rd is not present. At times, however, a hazard cannot be compl etely elim-
inate d or sati sfactor ily reduced.rn such cases, personal protective equipment (PPE)
must be used .
Operators n eed PPE to prot ect against many hazards, induding but not limited to
heat, ultravio let radiation, infr ared radiation, sparks, spatter, smoke, fumes, vapors, gases,
d ust, a nd electric sho cks. Clothing should provide enough coverage to protect the opera -
tor from radiation and spatte r. Dur ing work, operators mu st wear PPE, such as gloves,
long- sleeved shirts, aprons, covera lls, and, at ti.mes, leggings of leat her or sorne other
durable flame-resistant material. Th e outer garments should be free of oil and grease,
which could be easily ignited . High -top safety shoes are recomm ended; sneaker-type or
open -toe d sho es are prohibi ted . Tro users shou.ld not be turned up or have out side cuffs;
front pockets and rolled-up sleeves shou ld be elim inate d becau se they could trap sparks
and ignite. Torn or frayed clothing can be ignited easily and shoul d not be worn. Dur ing
overhead hot work, operators need to wear fire-resistant head and shou lder covers and
ear pro tection, such as earplu gs, so the spark s or slag will not enter the ear canal.
Goggles or o ther eye prot ectio n mus t be worn during exposure to mo lten metal,
sparks, spa tter, and othe r fl}'ing mater ials. Face shields are considere d a secondary
form of e)'e protection and mu st be worn with either safety glasses or goggles . Filter
lenses shou ld be selected in acco rd ance with ANSI/AWS F2.2, Lens Shade Selector;
ANSI Z49 . l also provides a Guide fo r Shade N11111/.Jers. Cont ac t lenses are acceptable
when worn with qe pro tection; the re has never been an actua l case of lenses fusing to
the eyes du e to arc radiation, as is a com mon myth. All PPE sho uld be kept dea n and
in good cond ition at all times and replaced as necessary.
772
 CHAPTER 58: Welding, Culling, and Other Hot Work

At an industri al work site, hazards other than hot work, such as radiation or noise,
are often present. Any additional PPE donn ed for protection against these other haz-
ards should also be appropr iate (i.e., flame-resistant) for hot work. In 1997, it was re-
ported that a nuclear facility hot -work operator donned PPE to protect not only against
the hazards introduced by using a cutt ing torch but also against the hazards of radia-
tion. He was wearing so much inappropriate PPE that it prevented him from knowing
he was on fire as the hot work ignited his PPE, resulting in his death (FinniReport: 1)'pe
A Accident bw estigntion Report of tireFebruary 13, 1997 Weldi11g/C11tti11g Fatality at the
K-33 Building, K-25 Site, Onk Ridge, Tennessee ( 1997) . Office of Oversight: Environ-
ment, Safety and Health, U.S.Depart ment of Energy, April 1997).

Vent ilation
The inspector should ensure that adequate ventilation is provided . The quantity and
toxicity of hazardous fumes and gases cannot be easily lassified because the}' depend
on the process, the intensity of the heat source, the materials used, the base metal, and
on any coatings present on the base metal and other factors. The inspector should
also check to be sure that the type of ventilation used does not pull the contaminants
through the worker's breathing zone before removal. For example, local exhaust sys-
tems located overhead or behind the worker would, in many cases, pull the contam i-
nants through the worker's breathing zone before removal. Operators shou ld position
themselves such that their breathing zone does not intersect with the fumes. When
hazardous concentrations or unknown concentrations cannot be adequately removed,
use of respirators is necessar>'· With any type of ventilation, inspectors should check
where the contam inants are being transported . 1hey should ask themselves, "Is it safe
to discharge the contamin ated air in that location?"

Designated Area Location of Hot Work

When possible, hot work should be confined to a specific area designed or approved for
hot work, such as a maintenance shop or a detached outside location that is essentially
free of flammables and combustibles and is suitably separated from adjacent areas. The
intent of the designated area is to have a safe area for hot work to reduce significantly
the hazards and to reduce the number of work site inspectio ns. However, work in some
designated areas can be hazardous as well; dt:signated areas are one of the most com-
mon areas for hot-work fires, probably as a result of changing condition s, such as the
temporary storage of combus tibles. TI1e inspector shou ld careful I)' examin e the desig-
nated area for combustibles or other hazards.

35-Foot {11- Meter) Rule {Nondesignated Area

Location of Hot Work)
\\ 'he n hot work cannot be perform ed in a designated area, the nearby hazards, usu-
ally combustible materials in the immediate vicinity, shou ld be tran sferr ed elsewhere.
A good rule that has stood the test of time is that combustible materials should be
moved at least 35 ft (1 1 m) in all direct ions from the work (FIGURE 58-1). Vertical fall
773
 SECTION 4 : Process and StorageHazards

2. ff possible,
position ope rator
1.Close doo rs, seal floor to redirect spatter
openings, post copy of permit , during work, or
shut down conveyers, and add an additional
prevent genera l access. 3. Relocate combuslib!e storage
fire cu rtain or
or separ ate with approved
11 m (3 5 fl) equivalenl.
barriers (seal area below
dividers) or cover with approved
welding pads, blankets, cu rtains,
or fire -resistive larpaulins .

4. Posilion lire watch with suitable fire ex11nguishers to protect potenlial hazard a rea and equip
fire walch with means for emergency communications.

58-1Hot-work 35-ft ( 11-m) rule. Source: tJFPA518,2009

FIGURE , FigureA.5.5.
1.(l)(J).

distances m ust be much greater, because sparks, spatter, and slag have been known to
fall hundred s of feet.
Jnspectors should not be looking for only large combustible objects. Ensurin g that
paper, wood shavings, or textile fibers on the floor are swept up in the JS- ft (11-m)
radius of the hot work is equally import ant. Accumulated dust or lint on pipes and
ledges, for example, can also act as a fuse for fire, carrying it to other locations with
combustibles. Combust ible floors should be wet down, covered with damp sand, or
be protected by noncombustible or fire-retardant shi.elds. Where floors have been
wet down, care should be taken lo protect personn el operating arc welding or cutting
equipm ent from possible electric shock and to protect all personnel from slipping haz-
ards. Only when the combustible materials cannot be removed should the materials be
prot ected with fire-resistant tarps or shields.

Subtl e Passages to Combustibl es

Passages to combustibles are sometimes subtle. Any openings or cracks in the walls,
floors, or ducts within 35 ti ( 11 m) of the site are potential travel passages for sparks,
spatter, heat, and flames. Conveyor systems should be shut down or shielded during
hot work. Because of heat transfer, hot work should be avoided on pipes or other metal
struchtres that are in contact with combustible walls, partitions, ceilings, roofs, or other
combustible materials if the work is close enough to cause ignition by conduction. In ad-
dition to the areas beside the work, the areas above and below should be considered. For
instance, heat from the hot work can travel up and down a pipe, igniting combustibles

774
 CHAPTER 58: Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work

1.
Is there an Complete job with
acceptable alterna live ~► cold work. No hot work
to hot work? permit is needed .

to
2. Can hot work be Examine designated
performed in a area, then complete
desig nated area (e.g., ~► hot work there , No hot
main tenance shop)? work permit is needed .

to
3. Is the proposed \'/ork
lo be performed in
Obtain a written hot
a nondesignaled area ~ work permit.
(e.g., NOT in a
maintenance shop)?

to
4.
Is lhe proposed work
Hot work and permit are
to be performed in a
nonperm issible area?
~ not au thorized.

to
5.
Obtain a wrilten hot
work perm it.

58·2 I-lot-work permit decision tree. Sou

FIGURE rce:NFPA Figure
518,2009, A.5.4.

on another floor. Sparks, spatter, and slag can foll through floor cracks and start fires in
debris below.

CONTROLS DUR IN G HO T WORK

Hot - Work Permit System
TI1ehot-work permit is the single most important item the inspector can use to deter-
mine if hot-work safety procedures are being followed. TI1ehot-work permit is a docu-
ment issued to authorize a specific job in which hot work will be performed. Use of a
hot-work perm.it decision tree will help determine if a permit is necessar>'(FIGURE 58·2).
The pur pose of a hot-work perm it is to evaluate whether all necessary safety precau-
tions have been taken and whether controls for the hazards have been implemented.
Th e permit is often set up in a site-specific checklist format as a reminder of site-specific
hazards. Because the type of hot work being performed and the hot-work environment
vary, all permits will not look the same, have the same items, or contain the same infor-
mation. Jn addition, a facility's hot-work permit system will continue to evolve through
use. A sample perm it is shown in FIGURE 58·3.

775
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

w
Seek an allernalive/safer method If po sslb !el
M
BE-fo
r e i.nitfa.ting hat work, enstlit' pn><'
.:rnti.Qfl.3are in plarc i\$ n.>qvir('<.1 hy 0rPA Slil and ANSI 2-19.1.
,-.lake su re-an n ppr prfatc fin~ r :d ing ui_:h er j,- n>a di ly avai l.ab!e.

Ti d.,;Jfot Wo1k PHmit Li r.;quirffi for any opE-ration inn ,ITlDgope n fl:tme! or produc ing hea t and/ or 1eµar:.:S. TI1.i3\\Ork in clude-.::,
but Li not Li.m.itedto, \'>e?ding. bra.ring. (1J!tin i:-.grindi.ng. solderin g. th3 •,1;ingpipe, lorcll-3.ppl..ied roofing, or d u,mica1 ~ !:'!ding.

D;,t e Hot work by O ('m JJlO)t"e O conlr.!ctor

Lo,:,ation!Buildi.ng and floor __ __ _ _ _____ _ Nam e (print) and sign.:1ture of perSD

n doing hot "or k

\ \ 'or ~ t o OC1fonc- ___ __ ____ ____ _ _ 1 Yerify th.at tbe aOOTI'loc.Jtion ha.sbco.nrxam in£d, the Jmt;'i ut ion.:;
m:uh J l•D tb~ th ,.ddi :it 1,.,;Jo.,f,_.h. l'°rn Likln , i.1.J p;;.rn,i"'_<,.:,-
n i.,;
grn nt<'d for thi"S\\Ork
Name (printl and ri,g-nature of pennit•,'\u lh orizing in.-fiYir!u,1(PAil
Tun e starttd _ __ _ _ Time rornplNcd ___ _ _

THIS PERMIT IS GOOD FOR ONE DAYONLY

hose ~trea.m.3
0 A\' ailable -"pri.n.kle-rs, , and extingullh er:; M'C in H ro-itt and opE.r..i.Lle.

f.J Hot worri r 1uipmcnt is in good ,, vrl-.ing rondilion in 2ocnrd.an,:-

0 e with manu!act unr's ~pe.:i.fica
tiOL.£.

S1-« i:l.11.er lll.i.i:,joriob tilied to run du ct hut wor k on metal ,-e~e ls or pi pin g lin l'd with rub lx-r Or pl:h tic..

Requir ements wi thin 35 ft (11 m) of h ot work

U Fln mm n b!c-liqu id, ilu.:t , lint , an d r,ily dcp os.ils remo, fd.
0 E.xp!u.iiYe atm osp hrn? in anaa €.lim.inated .

0 Cf!mbw ti L-!efloors w-e-tJ mm or oo\ued ci th dam p .sand or fue-reillf iyi?/noncomb,1~tihlc ma lE-riah or eo:1ui\ 3lc-nt.
a l'el"S(i;nn
el protect(-d from ek ctrira l ~bock \,;-hen noo?'$ilr e v,et.
U Oth er N mbu..;; lih!e s tor.:1ge mr..h•rial rEIDG\"ed or cvnre d Tlith li...c::te
d or appr o, ed mJ teriah (w("Jding pod<:.,bb nk eL~.or c-url.Ur13;
firL~1c::ii ti re tar r,a ulin.3), mectal .ru.i.-1.fil
, or noncombu.stib!t:'m:1teriili.
Q All mill and floor ope-nings r-1...-red.
U Dvc-1~ a n.-1('Qn. ·e)O~ lh3t might ta.J'ty sp.1J·ks to distan t rnmbu.:a; tib!t! matit"rial ('Q"i"('
red, proteded, or shut down.

R~q uircmcnts for h o t work on wall s, C<'iJing~, Or n><.> f.s

U Con.stru c-ti on i~ nonw mLu:,ti ble an d without e-0mbustib1e cov,:,ring3or iruu.lati on,
0 Comblli tib?e m.Jterial on othe r s:id(' of rralli, c-.?
ilings, or roofa.j5 mvn .>drrnr.tj'.

RN1uir cm<.-nl .s fo r h ot wo rk o n en close d equi pme nt

0 En cka.~.HI equ.ipment i3 deanf<l c,f all com.btl.!i;ibl~ .
U Ccmh1inl'r.:-an ' p u rged of O:,mm ab !E'liquid.\ --apot.
-3.el.3,piping, and equ.ipm~nt rmno.-edffi'm sc-ni c(', i.:eo
0 Pt f:3suriz€-d~e:. lott>d,und ,·ent~ I.

lfoqu ir c mcnl.s for hot wor k fir e watc h and fire mo nil or ing
0 Ftte w1teb ii prm·idi<ddu.ring and for a minimum of 3O min. after bot work, including any break acti 1ity.
0 fire w.:1 1.:-hj3 pro,id ed with .wit.able ts l lngu i~hers ai:d. where prn clicaJ, a:charged small hose.
D Fi re ;\;;! ch i3.trained in U£eof equ.ipme.nt and in sounding ala.rm.
0 Fire wakh can~ requirt'd in adjoi.ning ;ire~ , above an d below.
Y • 0 N CJ P~r th e PAJ/llr e \\ 3l ch, ni toring of h ot >'or k ar ea has bee n extend ed beyo nd th e 30 min

@ 2003 Na:..-OnaJ
Flra Protection As!".OOa
tloo NFPA 518

58-3Hot-work permit sample. Source:

FIGURE 518,2009,
NFPA FigureA
.5.5.1.

Although the issuer of the permit determines for how long the hot-work permit is
valid, in most cases the permit period will vary anywhere from at least one-half hour
to one full work shift, or 8 hours. NFPA SlB recommends that the maximum period
for a permit be 24 hours. Issuing the permit for longer periods of time can result in
increasing the site fire hazards becaus e in a busy work site, the conditions can change
quickly. A new permit should be issued for each 24-hour period of hot-work activity.
The permit is valid for only the conditions under which it was issued, and it should
776
 CHAPTER 58 : Welding, Cull ing, and Other Hot Work

be clearly posted. A permit should indicate if a fire watch is necessary. TI1einspector

should review some of the previously issued permits to ensure ii is fully filled out and
contains the necessary information to ensure safety.

Fire Watc h
Tod term ine whether a fire watch is needed, an inspector can use the fire watch deci-
sion tree (FIGURE58-4).Although this decision tree allows hot work to be performed
without a fire watch, man)' in the industry require a fire watch to be present du ring all

l
I
No lire watch
required
A
I ItYes
Fire walch
required

A A A A
I
, 1. Did the PAI or AHJ lell you to have a fire watch?
I

I
I 2 . Is ho l work to be don e In a designa ted area that has been
exam ined and still qu alifies as a desig nated area? ,- -
Yes
~

! No

3. Is hot work lo be done where olher than a minor fire might

deve lop?
I
/1------+-----
Yes
~
1

! No

4. Is hol work lo be done whe re flammables or combu stibles

are more than 11 m (35 ft) away but are ea sily ignited
I1--- - - --1- - -- - -
Yes
~
1 1
by sparks?

1
5. Is hot work to be done where wall or floor openings within
11 m (35 ft) would expo se combust ibles in adjace nt areas?
I
Jr--- - --+------
Yes
- ~

! No

6. Is hot work to be done where combust ibles are adja cent to Ilr--- -- - -t- - -- - - - - ~
Yes
1 partitions, ceilings , or roofs being worked on?

! No

I7.1s the ope rator required to don specia lly PPE that doe s nat l
comp ly with Sec tion 5.1 of NF PA 51 B? 1-- -
1
- -- -t-- - -- -- -
Yes
--'

l No

8. Are you unsure of any or the "No- answers in question s I No

Yes
1 1- 7?
I
RE58·4 Fire watch decisiontree. Sowce:tlFPA
FIGU 5IB
,2009
, Figurei\.5.5.1.
777
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage HaLards

ho t work in nond esig1rnted areas. TI1isapproa ch is a conserv ative on e, howeve r, and is

no t required by the regulat ions.
TI1ejo b of the fire watch is to monitor the area and watch for fires from the hot -work
operation and to make sure others do not come into the area or mov e combustible
materials into the work zone durin g the hot work. A fire watch is a tr ained person, not
j ust .someone stand ing aro und. TI1e fire watch should have ext ingu ishing eq uipment
read ily available in the area and be trained in its use. A good question for the inspec -
tor to ask the fire watch is whether the fire watch knows and under stands that he or
she is authorized to stop ho t work if un safe conditi o ns develop. If the fire watch is not
aware of this important respo nsibility, the fire watch has not been properly trained or
the management doe s nol have an und erstandi ng of the role of a fire watch. TI1e fire
watch should maintain a continuou s watch durin g the course of the hot work and for at
least 30 m i.nutes after comple tion of the ho t work. Any other assign ed jobs sho uld not
interfere with the primary job of fire watch, which may include sweeping the imme di-
ate area or oth er minor job s in the imm ediate vicinil y. More th an one fire watch or an
exten sion of the fire watch period may be needed if the area to be watched is so grea t or
the potential for fire within the area is so high that one individual alone or a 30-minute
observation period cannot prov ide the desired pro tection. More than one fire watch is
co mmon when the work involves areas near elevators, mezzanines , atria, oddly shaped
workspaces, or where eq uipm en t is attached to walls or floors when the h idden area
on the other side of the wall. or floor may have combust ibles nearby. Remember, me tal
walls and partition s will conduc t heat to the other s.ide. Tnspe ctors shou ld be alert for
pa rtitio ns made with combustible insu.lation.

Sprinklers
ff the heat of the hot ~work operation is likely to cause the automatic sprinkler system to
operate, the sprinklers in the immediate vicinity can be temporarily covered with non ~
combu stible m ateria l or damp cloths. 111etemporary protection must be removed when
the opera tion is com plete . Note, however, that hot work is pro hib ited in any area where
the spri nkler system is imp aired. Any place that was designed to require tJ1eprote ction of
sprinklers is particularly vulnerable during hot work -a common sourc e of fires. A few
individual sprinklers covered on a temporary basis are not considered to be "impaired: '

Hot Work on Containers and Piping

1h e term co11/ainerrefers to ja cketed vessels, pipes, tanks , covered parts, and other
equ ivalent items, each of wh ich shou ld be considered to con tain flamm able, toxic, ex-
plo sive, o r reactive material that the hot work cou ld release or ignite . No container
should be presumed to be clean and safe. Even a water stora ge tank can conta in haz-
ardous gases. Hot work hould not be permitted on co ntainers unles s the)' have been
inspected and certified as safe for the job . TI1eassumption should not be made that the
container will remain safe during the job; the heat of the work may release hazardous
subs tances h idden in the crevices aJJd corners of the container. Con sider the need for
additional monitoring du ring hot work. For further informatio n, the inspector should

778
 CHAPTERS8: Welding, Cutti ng, and Other Hot Work

refer 10 ANSI/AWS F4.l, Reco111111e11ded

Safe Pmcticesfor the Preparationfor Welding
a11dC11tti11g
of Co11tni11ers
n11dPiping.

UI M N
Gas Regulators
Regulators are not interchangeable among the designated gas serv ices. They should be
used only for the gas and pressure for which they are labeled. 1l1is will prevent them
from failing and releasing potentially hazardous gases.
Oxygen gauges shou ld be mark ed "Use No Oil." Ox1'gen-enr iched fires ign ite readily
and burn with greal violence, so it is imperative that damaged nuts and connections are
repla ced to avoid leaks and that all connections are checked with leak detection fluid
before the welding or culting system is used. Olli) ' qualified technicians should be al-
lowed to repair regu l;itors.

orches and Other Hot-Work Tools

1he only torches that should be used are tho se that h;ive been approved by a natio nally
recognized testing labo ratory, meet nationally recogn ized stand ards, and have been
tested and found to be safe. 1l1ey are to be ignited only by friction lighters, stationary
pilot flames, or some other suitable means of ignition. Matches are unsuitable because
the torch gases can blow out their flames and crea te an explosion or health hazard by
allowing too much gas to escape into the work area.
All tools must be shut off when they are not going lo be used for a substantial period
of time, such as during lunch or overnight. Remove the tools from the area when the
work stops for the night or, with a torch, open the torch valves to make sure that the gas
supply system has been turned off. Doing so will prevent gas, which can cause fires and
explosions, from leaking from the torch and accumulating in the work area.

Hose
In the United States, fuel-gas hoses are generally red, and oxygen hoses are generally green.
Black is used for inert gas and air hoses . 1hese colors should not be mixed. Sometimes,
hoses are taped together for convenience and to prevent them from tangling . \i\7hen this
is the case, 1101 more than 4 in. (10 cm) in each fool (30 cm) of hose should be covered by
the tape. This will allow gases lo escape when cracks and defects appear in lhe hose. 1he
inspector should check the hoses for any damage that could cause leaks and should make
sure that burned and damaged sections have been replaced or repaired by a qualified
techni cian. The inspector should make sure that all connections are tight and leak-free.
Gas con nections should not be compatible with the breathing air connections.

Flashback Arrestors and Protective Devices

Most flashback arre stors and protective devices are optional. When an approved
device, such as a reverse flow check valve or flashback arrestor, is used, it should be

779
 SECTION 4: Pro ess and Stor;igeHazards

used and maintained in accordance with the manufacturer's instruct ions. TI1esede-
vices are not a subst itute for proper system maintenance.

ylinders
Cylinder contents must be labeled indelibly on the shoulder of the cylinder. Cylinders
greater than 30 lb ( 13.6 1 kg) should have valve caps to prevent shearing the valves
during a fail or impact, resulting in the release of a gas. TI1evalve protection cap is
designed to take the blow in case the cylinder falls. Cylinders must be stored away from
sou rces of heat, comb ustibles, and exits and at least 20 ft (6 111)from highly combustible
mater ials. There are specifie OSHA requiremen ts for capacitie · of various gases stored
inside buildings, how specific gases should be stored, and which gases cannot be stored
together. This chapter can not. cover all of the specifics, but it is importan t to know that
the requirements exist. NFPA 55, Compressed Gnses1111d Cryogenics Fluids Code, pro-
vides detai led informat ion . Note that almosl all the cylinder requirements arc exempt
for OX}'genand fuel gas cylinders "in use" that arc connected to gauges and hoses for
hot work. Cylinders shou ld be chained or somehow restrained to keep them from fall-
ing. Gas cylinde rs are prohibited in confined spaces.

FIRE INCi ENT TRENDS: SCENARIOS

FOR INSPEC OR VIGILANCE
ff.inspec tors are aware of the trends for when and where hot-work fires are most likely
to occur, they can focus their efforts on these pHrlicular situation s by queryin g the
employees or by viewing the permits during inspections. Unless noted otherwise, the
following data are taken from the April 2009 NFPA report Home <111d No11-Ho111e Fires
10/i1i1
J111 1gTorches, Burners 1111d Soldering Equipment.
• Pe1for111 i11spectio11s
of c11tti11g1111d welrfi11gopemtio11s.Compared with other
types of hot work, the types of hot work identified as most hazardous were cut-
ting and welding. Cutting torches and welding torches caused 38 percent and
43 percent of all nonresidentia l hot-work fires, respective!}', and 41 percent and
38 percent of nonreside ntial direct proper!>' damage, respectively.
• Review the 111ai11/e11<111ceshop or other desig11ntednrens. Surpri singly, the main-
tenance shop was the second -most common nrea for cuttin g and welding fires,
after the exterior roof surface. Concealed spaces, such as an attic or wall assem-
bly, were the other most com mon areas.
• Pe1for111 i11
spectio11swhe11hot work is to be completed 11earstrnc/11m/111e111bers/
fm111i11g and tliermnl/aco11sticnli11s1.tlntio11.The materials most frequent!}' first
ignited made up more than half of the data and includ ed structural members/
framing (28 percen t) and thermal/acoustical insulation (22 percent).
• 111eNFPA stntistics i11di cnte tlwt 11onreside11tial/wt-work fires arege11emllyevenly
distributed between 10:00 A.M. nrrd4:00 PM., with slightpeaks between 2:00P1vf.
1111d4:00 P.M. As expected, the least likely time period for a fire caused b)' hot
work is between 2:00 A.M. and 7:00 A.M.

780
 CHAPTER 58: Welding, Cul ling, and Other Hot Work

• Pay special attention to completed hot work of outside contractors. FM Global

statistics show that from 1994 to 1999, the percentage of hot -work fires in which
outside contrac tors were involved was 66.5 percent, a 9 perce nt increase over the
previous 5 years.

A DITIONAL IN ORMATIONAL
RESOU CES
In addition to th e standards and regulations noted earl ier, various Int ern et sites pro-
vide related information . The OSHA regulations can be access d through the OSHA
\Veb site, www,osha.gov, which is easy to use; the hom e page has a "Regula tions" tab
linkin g directly to regulations. Information is also provided on the frequency and
severity of code violations for a given section of an OSHA regulation.
AWS has a Web site at www.aws.org . which provide a free downloadable version
of ANSr Z49.l in ad dition to num erous fact sheets on topics such as specific proces s
safety, electrical hazards, atmospheric hazard s such as fumes, burn prote ct ion, ergo-
nomic s, confined spaces, and lockout/tagout (click on the "Servi ces" tab at the site) ,

1B IOGRAPHY
Accirie11tPre1e11/io11
1 Mnnrwl for l11ri11
strinl 0pemtio11s:E11gi11eeri11g
a11riTec/1110/ogJ\
8th ed ition, 1980 National Safety Council, Itasca, IL.
ANSI/ AV\ISF2.2, Lens Shade Selector,American Welding Society, Miami, FL, 2001 .
ANSJ/ A\IVSF-4.1, Reco111111e11ded Safe Pmct icesfor the Prepnmtio11for We/di11g1111d
Crit-
ti11gof Co11 tai11
ers m,ri Pipi11g.American Welding Society, Miami, FL, 1994.
ANSI Z49.l, Safety in Welrii11g . Cutling, n11riAllied Processes.American Welding Soci -
ety, Miami, FL, 2005.
Co te, A, E., ed., FireProtectionHm1ribook, 20t h ed., NFPA, QuinC)', MA, 2008.
Cote, A. E.• and Linville, J.L.. eds., JmiuslrialFire Hazards Hn11dbook,3rd ed., NFPA,
Quin cy, MA, 1990.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Ca talog for availabilit) 1 of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 51, Sta11riardfor
the Designand Jnstnlfntio11
of Oxygen-FrielGas Systemsfor Weld-
ing, Critling.1111ri
Allied Processes
NFPA 51B, Standardfor FirePreventio11 D11ri11g
Weldi11g.
C11tti11g,
n11dOther Hot Work
NFPA 55, CompressedGnsesand Oyoge11icFluids Code
NF PA 306, Stn11riard
for the Co11trolof Gas Hazards 011Vessels
NFPA 326, Standarrijor the Safeg1wrrii11g
of Tm1ksa11riCo11tai11ersfor
Entry. Clea11ing,
or Repair

78 1
 CHAPTER

59
HAZARDS OF
MANUFACTU RING
PROCESSES
PeterJ.Gore ~\Tillse,
PE, FSFPE

Manufacturing processes are many and varied. Some manufactured goods, such as
automobiles, involve many processes, whereas others, such as goods manufactured from
wood, may involve relatively few processes. Yet the manufacture of these goods involves
similar processes of use and spraying of flammable and combustible liquids, and these
processes are used in a variety of industries. Although similar processes rnay be used to
accomplish different manufacturing objectives, they often operate in a similar manner,
and their hazards are most often the same from industq ' to industry . In this chapter,
we describe a number of different processes that can be found in common industries.
However, these processes may also be found in industries not referenced. In general, the
information provided here is applicable to a specific process regardless of the industry
in which it is found. Processes involving flammable and combustible liquids, gases, and
dusts present the most significant exposure to a fire or explosion incident.

HEATTRANSFERFLUID SYSTEMS
Process Description
Heat transfer fluid (HTF) systems, sometimes referred to as hot oil systems, are used
in a wide variety of manufactming processes, such as those for textiles, carpets, roof-
ing materials, and in woodworking and metalworking. TI1esesystems are used in lieu
of steam heat systems because of the high pressure requirements for a steam system
and because these systems have the ability to maintain a constant temperature transfer
medium. TI1eoil is usually heated to near its flash point and in some cases to above its
flash point. A release of the oil can result in prompt ignition.

Process Hazard
TI1esystem consists of a boiler, which is used to maintain the oil at a constant tempera-
ture, synthetic or organic fluids, a system of insulated pipes between the boiler and the
point of use, return lines to the boiler, expansion tanks, and point-of-use couplings.
 CHAPTER59 : Haz~rdsof Manufacturing Processes

The boiler is t}'pically a gas- or oil-fired unit with an internal heat exchanger through
which the oil circulates and is heated on its route to the point of use. TI1einsulated pip-
ing between the boiler and the point of use is usually equipped with welded fittings.
At the point of use, there is often a coupling that allows connection to rotating rolls or
other equipment. Other times, there is a stationary heat exchanger that gives off heat
to the environment surroundin g the process. To contain the heat, this environment is
usually enclosed or partiall}'enclosed, such as in the case of an oven. A bypass linear -
ranged with automated valves is located ahead of the point-of-use area.
The hazard involving this type of equipment is multi fold. It includes fires in the
boiler as a result of an oil leak in the heat exchanger, leaks in oil piping between the
boiler and the point of use, nnd leaks at the point of use.

Fire Prot ect ion

Protection ror the boiler part of the process often includes the use of either an in -
erting gas such as carbon dioxide (CO) or nitrogen or steam for discharge into the
boiler firebox. This srstem is usualJy a manuall}' operated S}'Stemthat is activated once
the heating unit is shut off. Inspectors should review NFPA 12, Stnnrlard 011 Carbon
Dioxide Exli11 g 11i
slri11
g Systems, to familiarize themselves with the installation details
for C0 1 systems. If steam is used as an int:rting system, it must be from an independ ent
source and must provide steam at a rate of 4 to S lb/min/ 100 ft3 (0.6<1to 1.3 kg/min/m 3 )
of enclosure volume depending on the tightness of the enclosure.
A leaking heat exchanger with in the boiler is detected by means of an alarm that
senses an abnormal oil temperature rise at the exit point of the heat exchanger. Prompt
deactivation of the heating system and introduction of the suppression agent wilJ usu-
ally minimize the damage to the internal components of the boiler and, specifically,
to the heat exchanger. Locating the boiler in a cutoff: fire-rated room or a detached
building provides for the best means to limit uncontroll ed fire spread into the manu-
facturing area.
TI1esecond area of concern is the point -of-use area. This is the area where the vast
majorit}' of the oil leaks and subsequent fires occur. For this reason, heat detectors are
provided at the point -of-use area. TI1e pu rpose of the detectors is to sound an alarm at
the time ofa fire, shut the unit of[ and activate the bypass line ahead of the point -of-use
area so that oil is diverted from the area of the leak.
TI1ereare only a few instances of welded pipe failures and release of oil with a sub-
sequent fire. There are, however, many occurrences in which oil has been released at
point-of-use couplings, followed by prompt ignition and extensive damage to manu -
facturing equipment.
Automatic sprinkler protection is a particularl}' impor tant feature for the boiler
room and for the area surrounding the point of use. To reduce the frequency of oil
leaks, a comprehensive equipment inspection and maintenance program is of critical
importan ce. TI1einspection results should be submitted in writing to supervisory per-
sonnel for review and the correct ion or deficiencies.
'TI1einspector should give special attention to the fire protection provided, such as
CO 2 protection in the heat exchanger, but more importantly to automatic sprinkler
783
 SECTION4: Processand Storage Hazilrds

protection in all location s where oil is present. Additionally, it is important to note

whether the boiler is localed in a cutoff: fire-rated room or a detached building. There
should be various manual and automatic safety devices on these installation s. A remote
manual emerge nC)' shut -off switch to shut the unit down should be installed. A low
HTF flow sw itch shou ld be interlocked to shut the heater down. High temperature and
h igh pressure switches shou ld also be interlocked to shut the heater down.

M A ANIN AN ATING
OP RATIONS
Process Description
Metal cleaning and plating operations are performed in a wide variety of industries .
1l1e process usual]), invo lves nonflammable and noncombustible liqu ids- such as
acids, caustics, and detergent -lad en water-and ordinary water for final rin sing; how -
ever, some processes contain flammable or combustible liquids. In some processes, the
liquid s are most commonly heated either by stea m or elec tric imm ersion heate rs.

Process Hazard
1l1e metal cleaning process uses flammable or combustible liqu ids either at room tem -
perature or heated and sprayed or vaporized . When the liquids are used al room tem -
perature, they can be treated per the class of liquid . Jf they are heated, sprayed, or
vaporized, they can become an explos ion hazard .
TI1e processes using nonflammable and non combu stible liquid s are typically not
fire hazards in themselv es. TI1efire hazard with use of these liquids is normally in the
equipment used and not normally in the liquid s used within the equ ipm ent. Because
of the reac tive nature of the acids and caustics, the liquids are co ntain ed within various
t)'pes of plastic tanks . Many of the tanks are combustib le. A few special plastics that do
not spread a fire beyond the point of initial origin are now available and should prefer-
ably be used for such tanks.
Because of the fume s emitt ed during normal operations, exten sive indu st rial exhaust
systems are provided. These systems consist of hood s over the tanks or "lip" ventilation
at the tank edge connected to a S)'Stem of ducts . TI1eexhaust ducts from each tank are
usuall)' connecte d to a main duct that is, in turn, connected to a scrub ber (FIGURE 59-1).
The ducts and the scrubbe r can be cons tru cted of a variety of plastic materials but are
more commonly made of plastics such as polyvinyl chloride or fiber-reinfor ced plastic.
TI1einspector shou ld consult NFPA 91, Stm1dnrdfor Ex'1n11st Systemsfor Air Co111 1eyi11
g
of Vapors,Gases,lvlisls, n11dNo11co111b11stible Partiwlnte Solids, for requir emen ts assoc i-
ated with this type of duct .

Fire Protection
Heated, sprayed, or vaporized flammable or combustible liquid s are an explos ion haz-
ard. For processes th at heat the liquids, a mechanical venti lation system should be

784
 CHAPTERS9: Hazards of Manufacturing Processes

FIGURE 59-1 Exhaust system for a one-story building occupied by various types of fume hoods
with vertical-type fume scrubber and service trench. Sou
rce:lndustrio/RreHozordsHondbook,
lffPA,1990,
Figure
51.7.

provided to keep the vapors to below 25 percent of the lower explosive limits (LELs). A
h igh temperature shut-off switch should be provided to shut the heating unit oft; the set
point for the shut-off depends upon the liquid . Sprinklers should be provided throughout
the area.
For processes that spray the .liquids, a mechanical ventilation system should be pro-
vided to keep the vapors to below 25 percent of the LELs. An interlock with the spray
pump should be provided to shut the pump down if the ventilation fans are not oper -
ating. Sprinkler protection should be provided throughout the spray booth and drip
area. For proc esses that vaporize the .liquid, the process should be located in either a
detached or fire cutoff room. Sprinklers should be provided throughout the area . A
high temperature shut-off switch should be provided to shut the heating unit off; the
set point for th e shut -off depends upon the liquid.
For all these pro cesses, explosion protection should be provided per NFPA 69, Stn11 -
rfnrd011Explosion PreventionSystems.Combustible plastic tan ks are often ignited when
electric immersion heaters malfunction or when the liquid level within the tank drops
below the level of the heating element, resulting in the overheating and subsequent
ignition of the tanks . Op erators should make sure that electric immersion heaters are
not left operating when th e area is unattended. Providing low-liquid-level alarms and
shut -off devices can greatly reduce the possibility of overheating.

785
 SECTIO N 4: Process and Storage Hazards

Automatic sprinkler protection within th ese ducts, unless listed as not requiring
sprinkler protection, is an important consideration in protecting this proce ss. Fire
occurring in the tank or the ducts usua lly travels the full length of the exha ust system,
consuming the tanks, ducts, and scrubber .
Certainly, anoth er considerat ion is the contro l of spills of materials associated
with this typ e of process. Under certain conditions , these materials can have an
impa ct on the environm ent if they escape from th e building. Contai nm ent arra nge-
ments surroundin g tanks holding the se mat erial s or at points where the materials
can exit the buildin g should be investigated . Along the se same lin es, the di scharge
point offloor drain s shou ld be determined to limit th e possibility of liquids esca ping
by th is mean s.

O IL au NC H ING
Process D s ription
Oil quenching is conducted in conjunction with heat tr eating of metal parts. TI1epur-
po se is to develop certa in m etallurgical qualitie s. Quenching can be conducted in tanks
of a variety of sizes up to 1000 ft 2 (93 m 2) or even larger. TI1e operation ca n consist
of either a batch or a continuous operation. TI1e oils typically have a flash point in
excess of 300°F (149°C). TI1e oil is normally maintained at a temperature in a range
from ambient temp erature to about 200°F (94°C). Some quenching op erations include
a heating system th at may elevate oil temperature s to 400°F (204°C). v\lhen heated oil
is present, the oil used typically ha s a flash point of some 500°F (260°C). Some systems
also have temperature controlled by a cooling system .

Process Hazard
TI1e type of oil, the size of th e quenc h tan k, the de sign of the tank, and the location of
the tank in relation to the furnace det ermin e th e degree of hazard of the quenching
operation. Another important considera tion is the continual recirculation of the oil
to prevent its overheating. TI1ehazards associated with this opera tion focus on several
possible areas:
• TI1ehot metal part being lowered into the oil becomes hung up-partially sub-
merged in the oil and partially above the oil su rface- and is exposed to the
atmo sp here. The oil su rround ing the hot metal part h eats up to its flash point
very rapidly and ignites.
• 111ehot metal part is subm erged fully into the oil, which overheats because of
the failur e of the oil cooling system . 111e overheat ed oil reaches its flash point
and ignites .
• Oil overflows th e tank or splashes and comes in contact with the hot surface of
the adjacent furnace and ignite s.
• Water accumulate s in the quench oil tank, an d when the hot metal part is loaded
into the tank , the water is heated to its boiling temperature (212°F; l00 °C) an d

786
 CHAPTER 59: I lazards of Manufacturing Processes

converted to steam. The rapid expansion of water to steam at a potential expan-

sion rate ofl:1 760 causes the oil to be ejected from the tank. 1l1eoil is then often
ignited on the hot surface of an adjacent furnace.

Fire Protection
11,e hazards ofoil quenchi ng can be mitigated by the following:
1. Provision of an emergency drain to a collection tank so that when a part be-
comes hung up, the oil can be quickly drained from the quench lank.
2. Provision of an overllow drain to remove oil when it froths.
3. Local ion of the quench oil tank a sufficient distance from hot surfaces to miti-
gate the possibility of oil ignition when oil splashes from the quench tank.
4. Provision of a water detection device in the quench oil tank.
5. Installation of automatic spr.inkler protectio n over the tank and surroundin g
areas, which will provide a high level of protection .
6. Installation of a CO 2 extinguishing system, which would provide additional
protection.
The inspector should consult NFPA 86, Stn11dnrd for 011e11sn11dF11r11nces, regarding
specific requirements. Also, see the discussion on heat-utilization equipment else-
where in this text for more information on furnace operations.
Certainly one of the more important aspects of reducing the hazard is operator
training. Such training should include a good understanding of both normal operating
procedures and emergency procedures. Additional important safety considerations in-
clude the exi tence of a prefire plan and the presence of either an incipient or structural
fire brigade.
1hc inspector should investigate the type and flash point of the oil, the operating
temperatur e of the oil if heated, the provision of emergency drains, provisions for con-
tainment of oil in the event of a spill or boilover, and provision of water detection
devices within the quench tank. Of particular importance is the presence of a properly
designed sprinkler system.

HYDRAULICALLYOPERATED
EQUIPM NT
Process Description
Hydraulic oil- operated equipment is used in virtually all types of manufacturing
operations and is even present in many warehouses and distribution centers. Tnmanu-
fa.cturing operations, it can be found in conjunction with extrud ers used for plastic
blow molding and forming and for operating presses, lathes, and other equipment. In
warehouses and distribution centers, hydraulic-operated equipment can be found in
conjunction with conveyor system elevators and with balers used for compressing and
wrapping scrap cardboard and related materials.

787
 SECTION 4: Processand StorageHazards

Hydraulic oil systems can be internal to the piece of equipment being powered or
they can be external and mounted on the floor adjacent to the equipment. Hydraulic
oil systems can serve a single piece of equipment or they can serve numerous pieces of
equipment.
'TI1esesystems typically use oils with flash points that range from 200°F (93°C) to
260 °F (126°C) (higher is some cases). 1l1e oil is contained in tanks ranging from 15
gal (0.06 m3) to several hundred gallons {1.141113and greater) and in some cases thou -
sands of gallons (7.6 m3 and greater). The oil is pressurized from as low as several hun-
dred (21 bar and greater) to several thou sand (200 bar and greater) pounds per square
inch.1l1e oil can be transferred from the tank to the process equipment by hard piping ,
by ru bber hose with an interna l wire braidin g, by rubb er hose with a heavy externa l
wire braid, or, as is often the case, by ordinary pressure-rated industrial rubber hose.
Often, use of hard piping is not compatible with the flexibility needed to accommodate
the movement of the process equipment. 1l1e priori ty of transfer is by hard piping,
exter ior wire-bra ided hose, or, last, int ernal wire -braided hose.

Process Hazard
TI1e rupture of a hose, the cracking of a fitting, or the separation of a coupling causes
a release of fluid under high pressure. 1l1e release of the hydraulic oil fluid under high
pressure can cause a large atomized oil cloud that can be readily ignited by many com -
mon ignition sources. Common ignition sources often present are hot surfaces of the
process equipment, ceiling-mounted heating appliances, or other transient ignition
sources. Once ignited, the pressurized fluid being discharged from the system will con-
tinue to burn, much like a blowtorch, until the hydraulic oil system is shut down or the
oil is consumed.

Fire Protection
Low-level sensors in the oil tank can accomplish a relatively prompt shutdown of
the hydraulic oil system resulting from a discharge of fluid. However, with large oil
systems and equally large oil tanks, it may take a considerable period of time until
the oil reaches the level at which the sensor shuts off the system. Because more of-
ten than not, the atomized cloud will ignite , it is extremely important to shut down
the oil supply to extinguish the flaming discharge. 1l1e shutdown can be best ac-
complished by the installation of heat detectors around the h)rdraulic oil - operated
equipment or by the addition of a cable located above the equipment between a
microswitch at the oil pump motor controller and a fusible link mounted at a point
above the equipment.
Another method ofreducing the fire exposure of hydraulic oil systems is by the use
of less hazardous hydraulic fluids. 1l1is type of fluid is difficult to ignite, and once the
ignition source is removed, the flaming is interrupted.
A comprehensive equipment inspection and maintenance program is critically im -
portant to reducing the frequency of leaks and equipment malfunctions. 1l1e inspec-
tion results should be submitted in writing to supervisory personnel for review and the
correction of deficiencies.
788
 CHAPTER 59: Hazards of Manufacturing Processes

The most important considerat ion for the inspector is the provision of automat -
ic shut -off devices for the hydraulic oil pumps. The provision of such a device will
prompt!) ' stop the flow of oil. Add itionall) ', automatic spri nkler protection shou ld be
provided in all areas where flammable or com bu stible oils are present.

WOODWO KING OPERATIONS

Process Description
vVoodworking operations can be found in many occupancies. Th e opera tion s can
range from pallet manufacturing and repair as pa rt of a warehouse opera I ion to furni -
ture manufacturing .

Process Hazard
Woodworking occupancies con tain many manufacturing proc ess haz;irds . These haz-
ard s are associated with the generat ion of wood du st from cutting and sandin g opera -
tions, the use of flammable and combus tible liquid s in the finish ing process, the use
of industria l heating equ ipment and HTF systems in the finish curing process, and
sawdus t-fired and waste wood-fired heating systems.
Wood dust is gen erated at virtually every step prior to the finish ing process, with the
du st becom ing finer near the end of the prefinis hin g process. The dust must be recov -
ered at each step . If dust is not adequ ately collec ted, fugitive dust fines will collect on
high building member s and on the top of equ ipm ent. 1hese areas become difficult to
access for cleaning pur poses, and thus accum ulation s con tinue to develop. Even with
good exhaust ventilation systems provid ed at points wh ere dust is liberat ed, inspection
of high -level bui ldin g memb ers, the tops of utility piping, ductwork, and conduit s, and
the top of equipme nt is essent ial to detec t acc umu lations of dust.
Such accumula tions of dust can be shaken free -s ome times as the result of a pr im ar)'
explosion in equ ip men t- and can be suspende d in the air like an exp losive cloud. This
explosive dust cloud can look for an ignition source or can be ignited by the primary
explosion in equipment that initially shook it free. Dust accumulati ons of considerably
less than ½ in. ( 1.27 cm ) can resu lt in the potential for a flash fire or an exp losion .

Fire Protection
The design of the dust recover y system s must be such that they have adeq uate capture
velocity to lift and move the dus t into the airs trea m and adequa te carrying velocity to
prevent th e dust from falling out pr ior to reac h ing the cyclone . Ductwork shou ld be
inspected pe riod ically to ens ure that dus t is not accum ulati ng in th e duct. From the
C}'clone, the dust is dropped into a waste recovery bin. "foe dus t is th en either haul ed
away or fed into a wood waste burner.
Housekeeping on a regular basis is important to help redu ce the poss ibility of flash
fire and explosio ns. The frequency of such cleaning is d ifficult to indicate specifically
because of the grea t var iability between the types of eq uipme nt used and the adequacy
of the du st collection systems . Regular manual cleanup of dust residu e on and around

789
 SECTION 4 : Process and Storage Hazards

production equipment is important. This can be accomplished by using "soft" brooms

to move the dust to floor level and then sweeping it into collection devices. Blowing
down dust from upper levels is very undesirable, because this action can create a dust
cloud that can be ignited and result in a flash fire or an explosion. Dust accumulations
on upper levels should be vacuum removed to eliminate the possibility of the forma-
tion of a dust cloud.
NrPA 664, Stmufnrdfor tile Pre1e11tio111 of Fires a11dExplosio11si11Wood Processing
a11dWoodworki11gFacilities, and 1FPA 654, Standard for the Pre11e11tio11 of Fire a11d
Dust Explosio11s jim11 the Ma1111fact11ri11g,
Processing, a11rlHm1dli11g of Combustible Pnr-
tic11/ateSolids, provide requirements for the protection of ductwork and other aspects
of the occupancy. D tails regarding spray finishing and thermal oil systems can be
found elsewhere .in this text.
The most impor tant consideration for the inspector is to identify if there are dnst
accumulations at high levels of the building. ll wse accumulations cannot be observed
from floor level. Ladders or other specialized quipment must be used to in peel
beams, girders, and equipment near roof level.

ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING

Process Description
Electric discharge machini ng (EDM), which is conduc ted on a stationary machine,
is a common process in which the very precise cutt ing of metal parts is required. 1l1e
machine has an open-top coolant oil reservoir. l11e reservoir typically contains 30 gal
(0.11 1113)to a maximum of about 180 gal (0.68 m3) of oil, with a flash point of approxi-
mately 280°F (138°C).
TI1emetal part to be cut is mounted on a matrix at the base of the oil reservoir. TI1e
coolant oil is then introduced into the reservoir. Once the reservoir is full and the oil
begins circulating from a clean oil tank tluough the reservoir and out to a dirty oil
tank and filter, the electrode-cutting tool moves vert icall)' from above the oil surface
thro ugh the oil to the top of the part. 1l1e cutting is typical!}' computer controlled. The
electrode is activated and cuts through the metal part as programmed.

Process Hazard
As noted, this machining method uses an oil component that is combustible that is
used to facilitate the culling process. The ED?vlequipment can operate in multiple
planes thus if the fluid is ever heated to or above its flash point temperature or if the
reservoir gets too low, the fluid can be ignited. This can affect the EDM itself as well as
the reservoir that contains a readily available suppl}' of the combustible liquid.

Fire Protection
The circulating oil is critical to cooling the part and the tool. Additionally, there are typ-
ically large volumes of oil used in the process because multiple machines are serviced

790
 CHAPTER 59: Hazardsof ManufacturingProcesses

by a sing le oil tank and filter system. It is extreme ly important th at interlo cks be pro -
vided for low as well as high oi l levels.
TI1e tran sfer of the oil from th e tank and oil S)'Stem lo the machine reservoir is
accom plished eith er by grav ity flow or by pumping. In either case, the transfe r should
be through eithe r steel pip e or exter ior wir e-braided hose. The oil tank and filter should
be loca ted in a con tained or diked area . Fusible link safety shu t-off valves are often
provided on the feed line to the ma chin e reservoir so th at, in the event of a fire, the
oil suppl y is shut off Automa tic sprinkle r protection is an importnnt cons idera tion for
areas having th is t)'pe of equipmen t.
TI1e inspector shou ld identif)' that containment is provi ded for a potentinl spill, that
low-oil shut -off devices are provid ed on res rvoirs, th at proper ho se or pipe transfer is
provided, and that automat ic sprinkl er pro tect ion is provide d.

AMM NI SYS MS
Proc ss Description
Ammoni a refr igeration systems are used in a variety of manufactur ing processes in the
food, chem ical, and pharmaceutical industries. Addit ionally, they are used in refriger-
ated and freezer warehouses. Freon ®-typ e systems are also used for th ese same ap-
plications, but because large amm onia systems ar e more econo mical, th e Freon®- type
S)'Slems are typical ly used for smaller refr igerated instalJations.

Process Haza rd
Ammonia is a flammable and explosive refrigeran t, with an explo sive rang e of 16 per -
ce nt lo 22 percent. Although th is explosive ra nge is narrow and high, a catastroph ic
release can and has allowed ammo n ia to acc umulat e and enter this range, resu ltin g in
ver y large explosion s. A favorable facto r is th at amm onia is lighter than air and can be
vented to the atmo phere quite readily .

Fir Protection
Ammonia is l)rpically circul ated from a compressor room, often called th e "engine
roo m :' to the po int of pro duc tion or warehouse refrigeration use. The comp ressors are
usually internally oil lubricated with oil at low pressures (10 to 20 psi [69 to 138 kPa]
woul d be typical). The re is also an oil separator that removes oil from th e ammonia
st ream. Comp ressor rooms are t}'pically located in a de tached buil d ing or in a cutoff
room 0 11 the exteri or wall or a facility. Such a remove d location is an impo r tant con-
sidera tion because of the concern for the effects of an explosion within the compressor
room. If th e co mpr essor room is not loca ted in a detached buildin g or cutoff room , an
explosion can be all the mor e devastating beca use it can in crease th e amount of dam -
age within the facility itself.
Because am moni a is explo sive, consideration should be given to hazardou s location
elec tr ical equipment. TI1iseq uip ment shou ld be compat ible with NFPA 70'IY, Nnlionn/

791
 SEC ION 4: Processand StorageI lazards

F.lectricnlCode®. An alternative to hazardous location electrical equipment, as covered

in American National Standards Institute/ American Society of Heating, Refrigerat-
ing and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ANSI/ASHRAE) 15, Safety Codefor Mecha11ical
Reji'igeratio11Systems, allows for a roof-level emergency exhaust ventilation system,
activated by an ammonia detection system provided throughout the compressor room .
This option is general])' followed in ind11stq 1• 'TI1e rationale is that, as the result of the
characteristics of ammon ia (it is lighter tha n air and has a high and narrow explosion
range), a rapid-activating, high-volume exhaust system will keep the ammon ia concen-
trat ion below its LEL.
The two most important considerations for the inspector are the presence of emer-
gency exhaust ventilation and the location of the "engine room" in a cntoff room on an
exterior wall or in a detached building.

AIN ING
Paint finishing, which is one of the most common of manufacturi ng processes, can be
found in a variety of industries, including those using woodworking and metalwork-
ing. The hazards associated with paint finishing systems focus on the type of finishing
mater ial and how it is stored, prepared for use, transported, applied, and cured.

Finishing Materials
Process Desc ription. Finishing materials are usually in liquid form, although pow-
der application finishing systems are found in increasing numbers in metal finishing
industries . Both of these types of materials create unique hazards.

Process Hazard. Liquid finishing materials come in the form of flammable liquids,
combustible liquids, and noncombustible liquids. Certainly, flammable liquids create
the highest level of concern because these types of materials, once they are discharged
from their container or transporting vessel and come into contact with air, create a
flammable mLxture that can be ignited immediate]), or shor tly after the time of their
release. A ll they need is an ignition source. 1h e creation of static electric charges at the
discharge po int of the liquid can ignite some low-flash-point liquids.
Combustible liquids are liquids that must be preheated in order to release vapors
that can be ignited. 1)1pically, these liquids are not ignited immediately upon their re-
lease unless they are in the presence of a very strong ignition source, such as an expo-
sure fire. More often than not, a combustible liquid fire results from the release of the
liquid and the subsequent development of a pool of the liquid, with a delayed ignition
occurring during the cleanup activil)'·
Noncombustible liquids are liquids that may have a flash point but lack a fire point.
TI1is is most often the case with water-based finishing liquids. To evaluate the liquid
accurately, it is extremely important to know both the flash point and the fire point.
The liquid's lack of a fire point does not by itself prevent the liquid from being a fire
hazard. Processes using noncombus tible liquids can have hazards associated with the

792
 CHAP ER 59: I lazardsof Manufacturing Processes

liquid. Often, the dried -out residue of the liquid in the vicinity of the finishing activity
can be combustible.
Finishing systems typically require large amounts of the liquid. \o\fhen flammable
and combustible liquids are used, these materials can be found in drums of less than
60-gal (0.23-m3) caracity, in rortable intermediate bulk container s (IBCs) up to
900-gal (3.4-m3) capacity, and in stationary tanks often in the 10,000- to 25,000-gal
(37.5- to 95-m3) capacity. The more material present al the finishing process area, the
greater is the hazard.
Tn sm;iller finishing processes, having drum storage right in the area where the fin-
ishing process is located is not uncommon . 1l1e old adage that it is accertable to have
a "shi1tsu1ply" of drum s on hand at the finishing area may not be arplicable in many
processes where six to eight differentmaterials are required. 1l1econcern here is not only
the presence of the flammable liquids in the finishing area but also the need frequently
to transport drums to and from the finishing area. This transportation process increases
the hazard because spills can occur anywhere on ll1t: way from the flammable liquid stor-
age area to the finishing area. Sections of the facility between the drum storage area and
the finishing area may not have automatic sprinkler protection designed for a flammable
liquid- l)'pe fire a11dma)' thus CA-pose the entire facilit)' lo a catastrophic fire.

Fire Protection. Although IBCs greatly reduce the number of exposures resulting
from transportation through a facility, they expose the facilit)' to the dangers of large
volume spills. Depend ing on the type of lllC (stainless steel, solid high-density plas-
tic, thin plastic liner in wire basket containment, etc.), the propensity for a spill as a
result of mechanical damage or an exposure fire changes dramaticall}'· Additionally,
mechanical damage to bouom drain piping or hoses supplying the liquid to the fin-
ishing process can result in a large uncontrolled spill. For this reason, a pump that is
rated for the type ofliquid involved and that is inserted in the top port of the IBC is a
preferred means to transfer the liquid to the finishing process.
Regardless of whether drums or IBCs are used, potential spills must be contained .
It is frequently arg11edthat curbs are an obstruction to normal operations. To counter
this argument, a contained area with metal grating above a finished floor can be pro-
vided on which to place drums and IBCs so that any spill is contained. 'Die contain -
ment size should be adequate to hold the largest possibJe spill plus the disclrnrge of
sprinkler water.
The preferred means of transfer is lo store the liquids in remote tanks and to pump
the liquids to the finishing area. 1l1ismethod allows liquids to be received by trnck or
rail and transferred to the tanks for storage. FLxedpiping between the tanks and the fin-
ishing area then provides a vastly safer means to move the liquid. The design of the pip-
ing, its route through the rlant, and the presence of fusible link safety shut-off valves at
points between the tank storage and the finishing area are all important considerations.
Whether the bulk supplies of liquids are in drums, IBCs, or tanks, they should be
held in a cutoff or detached area untiJ called upon to be transferred to the finishing
area. A cutoff area shou l.d be of fire-resistant design suitable for the size and type of

793
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

liquids to be stored within. Additionally, the area should have adequate containment,
ventilation, ignition source control, and limitation of access to only those who are
trained in the handling of flammable liquids.
The two most common methods of applying liquid finishing materials is by spray
appl}1i11gand by dipping and coating. Both of the methods introduce special hazards
and require proper design in order to provide for safe operation. Spray applications are
found in both woodworking and metalworking facilities, whereas dipping and coating
is most often found in, though not limited to, metalworking facilities.
1t is most important for the inspector to first determine the type of liquid that is
being used. Once the inspector determines this, then he or she can assess the need for
automatic fire protection and containm ent for potential spills. TI1einspector should
also be looking at the amount of liquid at the process area, whether it can be reduced,
and whether it is properly contained. If large quantities of flammable and combustible
liquids are needed at the plant, the inspector should ensure that storage areas are prop-
erly isolated from plant pro cess areas.

Spray Application Finishing Systems

Process Descript ion. Spra>'finishing operations involve a variety of booths, includ-
ing dry, water wash, electrostatic, moving, downdraft, manually loaded, and conveyor
fed. Each type has it own unique operating features. The hazards associated with each
type of booth may vary somewhat, but the guidance provided focuses on the common
hazards associated with spray finishing operations in general.

Process Hazard. Spray finishing places the liquid in the most ideal form for igni-
tion; that is, as small droplets suspended in the air. All the ingredients for ignition are
present, just waiting for an ignition source. j'vfaintaininga very high degree of ignition
source control is, therefore, extremely important.

Fire Protection. Finishing equipment, the part being finished (if the latter is a con-
ductive material), and any conveyors should be grounded in accordance with the
requirements of NFPA 33, Stn11dnrdfor Spray Applicntio11UsingFln111111able n11dCo111-
b11stibleMnterinls. All electrical equipment in the finishing area should be designed,
listed, and installed in accordance with NFPA 70®.
Ventilation within the finishing area, whether it be a room or a single-spray booth,
should be provided (with adequate ventilation to contain vapors as well as overspray)
to a defined area and to remove the accumulation oflow level vapors. Vapors should be
maintained below 25 percent of the LEL, as defined in NFPA 33.
The best protection for spray finishing operations is automatic sprinkler protection.
In accordance with NFPA 33, protection should be provided throughout all spray fin~
ishing areas as well as in the booths.
TI1einspector should identify the presence of the proper type of electrical equipment
in the areas where explosion vapors may be present. Additionally, adequate exhaust
ventilation of vapors and automatic sprinkler protection are important considerations.

794
 CHAPTER59: Hazards of Manufacturing Processes

Dipping and Coating FinishingSystems

Process Description, As described in NFPA 34, Stmidnrdfor Dippi11g,Conli11g, a11d
Pri11ti11g
ProcessesUsi11gFlm11111nble
or Co111b11sti/J
le Liquids, these systems include
dipping, roll coating, flow coating, curta in coating, printing, cleaning, and similar
processes. In this process, the articles or materials are passed through tanks, vats, or
contai11ers, or passed over rolle rs, drums, or other process equipment that contains
nammable or combu tible liquids. In all cases, a flammable or combu stible liquid is
present that is an integral part of the pro cess.

Process Hazard, Dipping and coating of materials can also provide significant ex-
posure because of the presence of a l)'pically large volume of the finishing liquid. Dip -
ping and coating operations, which most often involve metal parts, increasingly use
water -based liqui.ds. Freque ntly, these liqu .ids do not display a fire point . ff, however,
the liquid is flammabl e or combustib le, an appropriate degree of caution is required to
red uce the po ssibility of ignition .

Fire Protection. If the finishing liquid is a flammable liquid, evolving vapors must be
removed from the nrea through a means ofexlrnust ventilation. Removal is frequently
nccomplished by "lip" ventilation, located on the edge of the tank.
Con tninmen t is also an important consideration so that any tank overflow. whether
caused by overfilling or by spr inkler wnter discharge at the time of a fire, does not spread
throughout the manufacturing area. NFPA 34 should be consulted for specific detnils.
Because of the lnrge volume of liquid used in this process, the liquid is typically
pumped to the tank through a piping system rather than being transported in drums or
IBCs . As discussed earlier, transporting drums and IBCs through the mnnufacturing
area increases the possibility of a spill and a subsequen t fire in an area where spr inkler
protection is not designed for controlling a flammable liquid fire.
Sprinkler protection over the tank , over the surrounding aren, and in any pits be-
nenth the tanks, supp lement ed with n fixed protection system for the tank proper,
should be consid ered.
The inspector should be looking at the same basic flammable liquid con trols as
detailed earlier; namely, proper identification of the charac teristics of the liquid, con-
tainment of potential spi lls, and automatic sprink ler protection.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANSI/ ASHRAE 15, Safety Codefor Mec/1m1ical Reji·igemtionSystems.
Cote, A. E., and Linville, J.L., eds., Industrial Fire Hnznrds Handbook, 3rd ed., NFPA,
Quincy. MA, 1990.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Ca talog for availabi lit)' of current editions of the
following documents.

795
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

NFPA 12, Standard 011Carbon Dioxide Exting11ishi11g

Systems
NPPA 33, Standardfor Spray Application Usi11g
Fla111111able
a11dCo111busti/Jle
lvfaterials
NFPA 34, Sta11dardfor Dipping, Coa/i11g,a11dPri11tingProcessesUsing Flammable or
Co111b11stible
Liquids
NFPA 69, Standard 011Explosion Pre1'entio11 Systems
NFPA 70®, National ElectricalCode®
NFPA 86, Standardfor Ovens a11dFurnaces
NFPA 91, Standardfor Exhn11stSystems.forAir Co111 1 eying o_{Vapors,Gases,Mists, and
No11co111bustibleParticulateSolids
NFPA 96, Sta11dardforVentilation Control and Fire Protection o_{Co111111ercial
Cooking
Operations
NFPA 654, Standnrdfor the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosionsjimn the Manufac-
turing, Processing,a11dHa11dli11go_(Co111bustible
ParticulateSolids
NFPA 664, Standard for the Prel'e11tio11
of Firesand Explosions in Wood Processingand
Woodworking Facilities

796
 CHAPTER

AEROSOL
MANUFACTURING
AND STORAGE
MichaelJ.Madden, PE, FSFPE

During the regular course of fire prevention inspections, a fire inspector will undoubt -
ed I)' have to address fire protection issues regarding the packaging of aerosol produ cts
at aerosol manufactur ing facilities and the storage of aerosol pro ducts in warehouses,
retail stores, and business and industrial occupancies. 1l1e manufacturing and storage
of aerosol product s present some unique fire safety challenges, which require the ap-
plication of various fire protection concepts and approaches.

AEROSOL EFIN
An aerosol is a produ ct that is dispensed from an aerosol container by a propellant.
A large variety of consumer and ind ustrial products are µackaged as aerosol prod-
ucts. These produ cts include personal care produ cts, such as hair sprays and shav-
ing creams; food produ cts, such as whiµped cream, snack spreads, and cooking oils;
household and industrial cleaning µroducts, such as disinfectants and deodorizers;
automotive care prod uct , such as lubricants and carburetor cleane rs; paints and
coatings; and pesticides.
The actual prod uct dispensed from the aerosol container is called the base product.
The base product itself can be a flammable or combustible liquid, which presents its
own set of hazards in the manufacturing process. Aerosol propellants, which dispense
the base produ ct from the aerosol container, are liquefied or compressed gases, with
the most widely used proµ ellants being hydrocarbon propellants, which are liquefied
flammable gases.
1l1e aerosol container is typically a high strength metal container, with capacities
ranging from a few ounces to 33.8 fl oz. ( I 000 mL). Some small aerosol containers, up
to approximate!}'4 fl oz. (120 mL), are made of glass or plastic. There is a push under
wa)' toward the use or larger plastic aerosol containers, and it is expected that more and
more aerosol produc ts will be in plastic containers in the future. More discussion on
plastic aerosol containers is µrovided later in this chapter.
 SECTION4: l)rocess and Storage Hazards

TI1e top and base of the aerosol container are typically

3 domed or spheric al, similar to the desi.gn of pressure vessels.
Container working pressure s range between 240 psi (1655 kPa)
and 400 psi (2758 kPa). A typical aerosol container is shown in
FIGURE 60·1. Note that when the plunger (1) is pressed, a hole
in the valve (2) allows a pressurized mixture of product and
propellant (3) to flow through the plunger's exit orifice.
Todar , aerosol products are packaged by both large and small
consum er product manufacturers, as well as by contract fillers.
Contract fillers take the base product formulations supplied
by the base produ ct manufa ctu rer and pa ckage th e produ ct in
an aerosol container at the contract filler's facility. Aerosol fill-
ing operations are not limit ed to large manufacturing facilities
in heavy industrial areas. Small contract filling facilities can be
fo und in many communiti es.

AEROSOL PRODUCT FIRE

FIGURE 60·1Cutaway PROTECTION STANDARDS
view of aerosol Requirements for the protection of aerosol manufacturing and
container. Source: Fire storage facilities are found in NFPA 30B, Code.forthe 1vfn111fnc-
ProtectionHandbook,NFPA, ture and Storngeof AerosolProducts.The first edition of NFPA
2008,Figure6.16.l.
30B was published in 1990. Prior to the publication of NFPA
30B, aerosol products were regulated under NFPA 30, Flnn1-
mnble and Combustible Liquids Code, as Class I-A flammable liquids. Protecting aero -
sol products as Class I-A flammable liquids resulted in what some considered excessive
fire protection requirements. A series of fire test programs conducted in the 1980s by a
group of aerosol manufacturers, in cooperation with sprinkler manufacturers, identified
that aerosol products present fire protection challenges different from those of flamma -
ble liquids and that the protection of aerosol products was dependent on the flammabil-
ity of both the base product and the flammability of the aerosol propellant. 1his aerosol
test program led to the development of an aerosol fire hazard classification system and
the development of sprinkler design criteria to address the fire hazards presented by
aerosol products. 1he results of this test program became the basis for development of
NFPA 30B.
Beginning with the 2010 edition of NFPA 30B, the definition of an aerosol container
was revised to "a metal can or plastic container, up to a maximum size of 1000 mL
(33.8 fl oz), or a glass or plastic bottle, up to a maximum size of l 18 mL (4 tl oz), that is
designed and intended to dispense an aerosol." TI1isdefinition was revised from previ -
ous editions to include the larger plastic aeroso l containers that are beginning to be
used for various products. As will be seen later in th is chapte r, however, there are sig-
nificant differences in the protection requirements for large plastic aerosol containers .
It is also important to note the max imum container size indicated in the aerosol
conta iner definition . A metal container larger than 33.8 fl oz. ( 1000 111L) that contains a

798
 CHAPTER60: AerosolManufacturing and Sto rage

product that is dispensed by a propellant is not considered to be an aerosol product and

is specifically excluded from coverage under NFPA JOB.We are start ing to see portable
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)-type cylinders being filled with a base product, such as
paint or other coatings, along with a hydrocarbon propellant to dispense the produc t
from a sprn}' nozzle attached to the container, essentially providing a large volume
spray device typically used for commercial paint and coating applications. 'D1esepor-
tabl cylinders may be found iJ1 aerosol filling facilitie , because ·ome aerosol fillers are
also filling these cylinders with their equipment. In addition, these cylinders may also
be found in a variety of warehousing and storage facilities. 'foese larger cylinders are
not covered under NFPA 3013,because the protection requ irements for both aerosol
manufa luring la iiities and aerosol storage facililies do not adequately address the
hazards associated with these products.

N FA R s
NFPJ\ 30B classifies aerosol produc ts into one of three categories, based on the com-
bustibility of the product formulation. Sprinkler protection requirements and aerosol
produc t storage quantities and arrangement are based on this aerosol product classifi-
cation system. Aerosol products are classified based on a calculation of their chemical
or theoretical heats of combustion, taking into account the base prodnct and the aero-
sol propellant. The aerosol classification levels are as follows:
• Level 1: Those aerosol product s with a total chemical heat of combustion equal
to or less than 8600 BTU/lb (20 kJ/g).
• Level 2: 1l10se aerosol products with total chemical heat of combustion greater
than 8600 BTU/lb (20 kJ/g) and less than or equal to 13,000 13TU/lb(30 kJ/g).
• Level 3: Those aerosol products with total chemical heat of combustion greater
than 13,000 BTU/lb (30 kJ/g).
Examµl.es of the calculations used to determine the appropriat e aerosol level classifica-
tion are provided in TABLES60·1, 60·2, and 60·3. l he Apµendix to NFPA 30B contains
a listing of common aerosol propellants and some of the more common base µroduct
constituents along with their chemical heats of combustion.
Although fire inspectors should have knowledge of the aerosol product classification
system, the}'should not have to perform any classifications for the purpose of perform -
ing inspections of facilities. Informat ion on aerosol product classification should be
readily available from facility personnel.
NFPA 3013requires that the aerosol level classification be marked on the aerosol
product cartons so that the classification labeling is readil)' visible when the aerosol
produ cts are stored in cartons in a warehonse environment. In addition, cartons con-
taining plastic aerosol containers greater than 4 fl oz. (118 ml ) are required to be la-
beled "Plastic Aerosol Container." If aerosol product cartons are not marked with the
appropriate aerosol classification in accordance with NFPA 3013,the inspector should
treat the enclosed aerosol products as Level 3 aerosols.

799
 SECTION 4 : Process and Sto rage Hazilrd ·

Typi cal Level 1 A rosol Product (Source: NFPA 30B, 20 11.

Table F.1.1)

Hcof Weight
Weight Ingredient % X fl.He
Ingr edient (%) (kJ) (kJ)
lsobut;ine 30 42.7 12.8
Water 69 0
Fragrarice, etc. 1 43.7" 0.4
Total= 13.2kJ
For U.S. customa ry units, 1 kJ = 0.95 Btu.
'Because lh e fragrance con litutes a small proportion or the total, 43.7kJ/g was used instead
of actua lly determ ini ng or calculating th e heat of combustion . In thi~ Px;irnple, th e re ulling
classificati on o r the aerosol product was not arre led . However. with other produ cts, this, nighc not
be th e case and actual calculation of or testing ror the heat of combustion might have to be done.

Typi cal Level 2 Aerosol Product (Source: NFPA 30B, 2011.

Tab le F.1.2 )

/l.Hcof Weight
Weight Ingredient 0/ox/l.Hc
Ingredient (%) (kJ) (kJ)
lsobutane 20 42.7 8.5
Ethanol 60 25.5 15.3
Water 19 0
Fragrance, I 43.7' 0.4
Surfactant.
Corrosion
Inhibitors,or
other minor
ingredients
Total = 24.2 k.J
I or U.S. customar>• units, I kJ = 0.95 Btu.
'Since th ese minor ingredients constitut e a small proportion of the tota l, 43.7 kJ/9 was used instead of
actually determining or calculating th e heat of combustion . In this example, the resulting classification
or the aerosol produ ct was not affect d. Howe ver, wit h o th er pro duc ts, this might not be the case and
actual calculation of or leslin9 for th e heat of combusti on might have to be done.

800
 CHAPTER60: Aerosol Manufacturing and Storage

Typical Level 3 Aerosol Product (Source: NFPA 30B, 2011.

Table F.1.3)

llH< of Weight
Weight Ingredient % X llH<
Ingredient (%) (kJ) (kJ)
lsobutane 25 4 2.7 10.7
Propane 10 43.7 4.4
Toluene 25 27.8 7.0
Acetone 15 27.9 4.2
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 15 30.7 4.6
Pigments (Titanium Dioxide), etc. 10 0 0
Total = 30.9 kJ
For U.S.customary units, 1 kJ= 0.95 Btu.

The aeroso l level class ification system established in NFPA 30B is intended only
for the application of fire protection requirements. The aeroso l level classification is
separate from any consumer product labeling requirements, which are intended as
warnings for the end -use consumer . The terms "Flammab le;• "Highly Flammable;' or
"Extremely Flammable " labeled on th e aerosol container itself are a warning for the
consumer; they are not intended to classify the product for application ofNFPA 30B
requirements .

AEROSO MANUFACTURING FACILITIES

Aerosol product manufacturing facilities present several fire protection challenges. The
challe nges inclu de the bulk storage of aerosol propellants, which typically include liq-
uefied flammable gases; the blending and dispensing of base product formulations,
which may be classified as flammable and combusti ble liquids themselves; and the
filling and pressurizing of the aerosol container with the aerosol propellants . Aerosol
manufacturing lines may be found in large and sma ll consumer product manufactur-
ing facilities or they may be found in small contract filling operations throughout the
community. In spections of these facilities require a knowledge of flammable and com -
bust ible liquid storage and handling requirements (NFPA 30) and a know ledge of stor -
age and use requirements for compressed gases (NFPA 54, Nntionnl FuelGns Code,and
NFPA 55, CompressedGasesn11dCiyoge11ic F/11idsCode) and liquefied flammable gases
(NFPA 58, LiquefiedPetrole11111 Gas Code).

Aerosol Propellant Tank Farms

Aerosol propellants are typically stored in bulk at aeroso l product manufacturing facili-
ties. The propellants are typically delivered to the facility by tank trucks or br railroad
801
 SECTION4: Processanrl Storage Hazards

tank cars. Several different aerosol propellants may be stored at a manufacturing facil-
ity because of the different propellant requirements for diflerent products. Aerosol pro-
pellants are selected based on the characteristics they provide for discharge of the base
product. J\'lost propellants used in the United States are hydrocarbon gases. Some special
aerosol formulations may use noncombustible propellants, such as carbon dioxide.
The h}rdro carbon propellants are typically blends of propane, butane, and pentane.
Many of these prop ellant blends are identified by their vapor pressure at 70°F (2l C).
0

For example, aerosol prop ellant A-31 refer lo aerosol-grade isobutene, which has a
vapor pressure of 3 1 psig (213.7 kPa). Hydrocarbon propellants nre gnseous at ambient
temperat ures and pressures, and they condens e to form liquids under mod erate pres-
sure or low temperatures. TI1ese propellants ar typically stored as liquids in pr ssure
vessels within a tank farm. Fire hazard properties of typical hydrocarbon propellants
are indicated in TABLE60-4.
'l he inspector should refer to the requirements of NFPA 58, which governs fire
prnte ction requirements for flammable propellant tank form.. NFPA 58 addr esses
the location of propellant tanks in relation to buildings, proper ly lines, flammable
and combustible liquids, and other hazards. NFPA 58 also addresses requireme nts
for containers and associated equipment and piping, pressure relief valves, isolation
valving, and requirements for trans ferr ing propellan ts from tank vehicles into the
bulk storage tanks.
The inspector should review the layout of the tank farm with nppropriate facil-
ity personn el to verify compliance with contai ner location, spacing, and protectio n
requirements and with requirements of tank vehicle unloading facilities contained in
NFPA 58. TI1einspector should also examine the placement and operation of gas detec-
tion equipment and automatic shut-off valves provided at the tank farm.
One of the unique hazards presented by an aerosol propellant tank farm is that the
prop ellants are not odor ized, as is t)•pically required for LPGs. 'TI1epropellants are uno-
dorized so that the propellant does not impart a disagreeable odor to the product.
NFPA 58 allows LPGs to be unodorized when the odor ization would be detrimental
to the further processing or use of the gas. In the absence of an odorizing agent, com-
bustible gas detection systems are often provided at propellant tank farms to aid in the
detection of gas leakage.
TI1eindividual propellant storage tanks should be labeled with their actual contents,
and tanks stori ng uno dorized flammable gases should be labeled "UNODORJZED."
While inspect ing tank farms, inspectors should take note that all proper labeling re-
quirements are followed.
TI1epropellants are typically transferred from the tank farm to the aerosol filling
area by fixed piping systems aud propellant transfer pumps. Remote!)' actuated shut-
off valves are provided at one or more locations between the tank farm and the aerosol
charging or pump rooms to be able antomatically to shut down propellant flow into the
charging or pump rooms under emergenq 1 conditions. TI1einspector should alwnys
double check to make sure that the remote shut-off valves are provided nnd are in
working cond ition.

802
 CHAPT ER 60: AerosolManufacturing and Storage

Chemica l Heat of Combustion for Representative Materia ls

(Source: NFPA 30B, 2011. Table F.1 [al)

Chem ical Heat of

CAS Combust ionb
Chemical Na e Numb era llH, I kJ/g
Acetone 67-64-1 27.7
Acrylic Resin - c,d
Alkyd Resin - c,d
Aluminum 7429-90-5 c,d
Asphalt 8052-42-•1 22.7
Barium Sulfate 7727-43-7 0.0
13enzidine (Yellow) 92-87-'i c, d
Butane 106-97-8 42.3
2-Butoxyethanol 111-76-2 29.6
Butyl BenzylPhthalate 85-68-7 21.5
Calcium Carbonate 13 17-65-3 0.0
Carbon Black 1333-86-4 c,d
Carbon Dioxide 124-38-9 0.0
1-Chloro- l , 1-Dinuoroethane (HCFC142b) 75-68-3 3.3
Chrom ium Hydroxide 1308-14-1 0.0
Corn Oil 8001-30-7 35.3
Diacetone Alcohol 123-42-2 35.l
l , I-Dichloro-l-Fluoroethane 17 17-00-6 2.9
Diethylene Glycol Methyl Ether 112-34-5 33.0
l, 1-DiOuoroethane (HFC I52a) 75-37-6 6.3
1,2-Dimethoxyethane 110-7 1-4 25.9
Dimethyl Ether 115- 10-6 26.5
Dipropylene Glycol Methyl Ether 34590-94-8 32.2
Ethanol 61-17-15 24.7
Ethanol (95.6%J\zeotrope) 64- 17-15 23.6
2-Ethoxyethanol 110-80-5 25.9
2-Ethoxyethyl Acetate 111-15-9 30.9
Ethyl 3-Ethoxypropionate 763-69-9 32.0
Ethylbenzene l 00-41-4 29.0
Ethylene Glycol 107-21- 1 16.4
Fthylene Glycol Diacetate 111-55-7 32.0
Graphite 7782-42-5 c,d
H xylene Glycol 107-4 1-5 28.5
Iron Oxide 1309-37-1 0.0
lsobutane, See2-Methylpropane -
(continues)

803
 SECTION 4 : Process and StorageHazards

Continued

Chem ical Heat of

CAS Combustionb
Chem ical Name Numbera llH <, kJ/g
lsobutyl Alcohol 78-83- 1 29.8
lsopropyl Acetate 108-21-4 25.5
lsopropyl Alcohol 67-63-0 27.4
lsopropyl Myri tat 110-27-0 36.2
lsopropyl Palmitate 142-91-6 37.2
Kaolin Clay(Aluminum SilicateHydroxide) 1332-58-7 0.0
Kerosene 8008-20-6 41.4
d-Limonenc 5989-27-5 39.8
Liquids, Noncombustible/Nonnammable - 0.0
Liquids,Noncontributory - C, ci
Magnesium Silicate (Talc) 14807-96-6 0.0
Methanol 67-56-1 19.0
I-Methoxy-2-Propanol Acetate 108-65-6 30.9
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 78-93-3 30.6
Methyl lsopropyl Ketone 563-80-4 31.1
Methyl n-Amyl Ketone 110-43-0 25.0
Methylene Chloride 75-09-2 2.1
2-Methylpropane (lsobutane) 75-28-5 42.8
Mica (Mica Silicate) 12001-26-2 0.0
Mineral Oil 8012-95-1 31.5
Mineral Spirits (Petroleum Distillate) 64742-47-8 41.2
Mineral Spirits (Petroleum Distillate) 64742-88-7 41.2
N,N-Diethyl-m-Toluamide (Deet) 134-62-3 28.2
n-Butyl Acetate 123-86-4 27.6
n-Heptane 142-82-5 41.0
n-Hexane 110-54-3 41.1
n-Octyl Bicycloheptane Dicarboximide 113-48-4 30.0
Naphtha (High Flash) 8052-41-3 41.2
Naphtha (Petroleum Distil/ate) 8030-30-6 41.2
Naphtha,VM&-P(Petroleum Distillate) 64742-95-6 41.2
Naphtha,VM&P(Petroleum Distillate) 64742-48-9 41.2
Naphtha,VM&P (Petroleum Distillate) 64742-94-5 41.2
Nitrogen 7727-37-9 0.0
Paraffin(Wax) 8002-74-2 c,d
Pentane 109-66 0 41.9

804
 CHAPTER 60: AerosolManufacturing and Storage

Perchloroethylene (Tetrachloroethylene) 127· 18A c,d

Petroleum Distillate 64741·65·7 41.2
Phthalocyanine Blue 147· l 4·8 c,d
PhthalocyanineGreen 1328-53-6 c,cl
Piperonyl Butoxide 51-03-6 32.0
PolyoxyethyleneSorbitan O/eate 9005-65-6 C, cJ
Polyoxyethylene (20) Sorbitiln Monolaurate 9005-64-5 c, d
Propane 74·98-6 44.0
Propylene Glycol 57-55-6 20.5
sec-Butyl Alcohol 78-92-2 39.9
Silica(Crystalline) - 0.0
Silica,Amorphous Hydrated 7631-86-9 0.0
Silicone Oil 631 48-58·3 c,d
Silicone Oil 631 48-629 C, cl
Solids, Noncombu stible/Nonflammable - 0.0
Solids, Noncontributory - C, cl
Sorbitan Monolaurate 1338-39-2 379
Sorbitan Monopalm itale 26266-57-9 37.9
Styrene Butadiene Rubber 25038-32-8 c,cl
Tin Oxide (Stannic Oxide) 18252-10-5 0.0
TTtanium Dioxide 13463-67-7 0.0
Toluene 108-88-3 28.4
Triacetin 102-76-1 35.4
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 71-55-6 c,cl
Trichloroethylene 79-01-6 c,d
I,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (Pseuclocumene) 95-63-6 27.5
Water 7732·l 8-5 0.0
Xylene 1330-20-7 27.4
Zinc Oxide 13 14-13-2 0.0
J(hem ical Abstr<1c ts Service Registration Number.
bThe theoreticalheab of combustion and combustionefficiencies usedto determinethe chemical
heats of combustion listed in this table arecontained in the supporting documentationon file at NFPA.
cMaterials that have either (I) a closed-cup (lashpoint greater than 260'C (500-F), or (2) no lire point
when testeelin accordancewith ASTMD 92, TestMethodfor Flashand FirePoints by Clevela nd Open
Cup,or (3)are combustible solids. Such materials contribute vet>'little to the overallfire hatard of
aerosolproduces in an actual fire,due to incornp!etecombustion or inconsistent burning behavior
(i.e.,the majo1ityof the releasedmaterial does not burn). Suchma1erial areconsideredto be
·noncontributory· to the overall determinationof the product's levelof classification.Theycan be
igno1ed,or they can be assigneda chemical heat of combustion (11H ) of OkJ/g.
Note: Footnote will be in effect through 17/3 1/2011.
dMaterialsthat either haveno fire point when tested in accordance with ASTM D 92,TesrMe1hodfor Flash
and FirePointsby Cleveland Open Cup,or arecombustiblesolids.Suchmaterialscontribute verylittle to
the overall fire hazard of aerosolproductsin an a tual fire, due to Incomplete combustion0 1 inconsistent
burning behavior (i.e., the majority of the released materialdoesnot burn).Suchmaterialsare considered
to be 'noncontributory"to the overall determinationof the product'· levelof classifi
cation.They can be
ignoredor theycan be assigned a chemicalheat of combustion(Af/) of OJ.-J /g.
Note: Footnoted will be in effect as of 1/ 1/20 12.
Source:NFPA308,201I edition, Table F.l (a).

805
 SECTION4: Process and Storaye Hazards

Aerosol Filling Line

A typical aerosol packaging line is an automated line, incorpo rating conveyor systems
and automated filling and charging S)'Stems.TypicaUy,various personnel are involved
in the filling line operation to verify proper operation of the equipment, lo remove
damaged conta.iners or product , and to shut down the line in case of a problem. The
major areas of fire protection concern involve the base product filling operations when
th base produc t is a flammable or combustible liquid; the gassing of the container,
when the container is filled ,rnd pressurized by the propellant; and the hot water bath,
which causes an increase in the pressure of the container to test the container's ability
to resist ruphir e as a result of its internal pres.~me.
By its very nature, aerosol filling lines using flammable and combustible liquid base
products and/or flammable propellants present significant fire atel)1 challenges. Dur-
ing filling operations, some area of the facilil)1, such as the propellant charging room
(also called the gas house), may be offlimil.s to outside personnel. 1l1eaerosol line may
need to be shut down in order lo provide the inspector with access to such areas.
'lhe dispensing of flammable and combustible liquid base products into aerosol
containers is regulated by the requirements of NFPA 30. Tl1einspector should review
flammable and combustible liquid storage and handling operations to confirm that
such operations are being conducted in accordance with the requirements ofNFPA 30.
Flammable product filling operations are 1)1pically located within the propellant charg-
ing room, where the filled container is charged with the propellant.

Propellant Charging and Pump Rooms

Propellant charging rooms present a significant fire and life-safety risk because within
the room, aerosol containers are pressurized with a flammable gas at high pressures.
The release of gas in the room under an upset condition ma>' result in a flammable
vapor-ai r mLxturebeing formed. If the vapors are not dispersed by the ventilation sys-
tem, ignition of the gas-air mixture can result in a deflagration.
Propellant pump rooms, which house the propellant charging pumps, present haz-
ards similar to those of the charging room. Propellant charging pumps boost the liquid
propellant to the pressures required b)' the propellant filler, usually between 300 psi
(2068 kPa) and 1200 psi (8274 kPa).
Propellant charging rooms and pump rooms, therefore, are required to be separated
from adjacent buildings and manufacturing areas b)' a minimum distance of at least
5 ft ( 1.5 111)or by "noncomrnunicating walls:' Noncommunicating means that the sepa-
rntion wall between the propellant charging or pump room and the adjacent building
is not provided with doors or other openings between these areas. Conve)'or openings
are not permitted to be located in these noncommunicating walls. For a typical propel-
lant charging room, the conveyor from the filling line passes through the building wall
to the outside of the building and then enters the propellant charging room at a 90-
degree angle to the noncommun icating wall. T11isarrangement prevents the propaga-
tion of propellant releases or a del1agration into the adjacent building areas.

806
 CHAPTER60: AerosolManufacturing and Storage

Propellant charging and pump rooms must also be provided with damage -limiting
construction and deflagration relief venting. NFPA 30B requires that flammable pro-
pellant charging and pump rooms be provided with either a wet-pipe or deluge auto-
matic sprinkler system. NFPA 30B also requires that the charging room be provided
with a deflagration suppre ssion system, in accordance with NFPA 69, Standard on
Explosion Prevention Systems.
A propellant charging room would typically be provided with multiple extinguish-
ing units that are act ivated sirnultaneously when a deflagration flame front is detected.
J\iiany propellant charging room s are still protected with Halon 1301 deflagration sup -
pre ssion systems.
\-Vhen inspecting older aero~ol manufacturing facilities, the inspector may encoun-
ter a propellant charging room that is not separated from other bu ilding areas by physi-
cal separation s or noncornmunicating walls. In older facilities that were built prior to
the development of the first edition of NFPA 30B, propellant charging rooms may be
found in the interi ors of ma nu facturing areas. Such foci.lili es are n ot capable of meet-
ing the separation requirements and deflagration venting requirements of NFPA 30B
for new facilities. For these existing conditions, NFPA 30B requires that the room be
provided with a deflagration suppression system designed to control the deflagration
to that room.
All electrical equipment and wiring in flammable propellant charging and pump
rooms is require d to be suitable for Class I, Division l hazardous locations , in ac-
cordanc e with NFPA 70''.fiJ , National Electricnl Code®. Gas detection systems are also
required to be provided in the flammable propellant charging and pump rooms.
Flammable propellant charging and pump rooms are 1:equired to be provided with
nonrecirculating ventilation systems to keep the level of gas in the room below the
lower explosive limit (LEL) of the propellant. Wh en gas is detected within the room at
a level of 20 percent of the LEL, the gas detection system is required to sound an au-
dible alarm, and the ventilation system switches to a higher "emergency" exhaust rate.
If gas concentrations in the room reach 40 percent of the LEL, the system shuts down
the propellant supply to the room (through the use of automatic shut -off valves), shuts
down the aerosol filling line, sounds audible alarms, and maintains the emergency
ventilation rates. TI1e required ventilation rates are determined based on a calculation
method provided in NFPA 30B. TI1e normal ventilation rate is dependent upon the
propellants used, specifically the LEL of the propellant, the volume of vapor produced
per unit volume of liquid , and the estimated volume of propellant lost during nor -
mal filling operations . TI1eemergency exhaust ventilation rate is required to provide a
minimum of 150 percent of the normal ventilation rate, or two air changes per minute,
whichever is greater.
Operation of the fire suppression systems also initiates propellant supply and aero-
sol filling line shutdowns.
NFPA 30B contains detailed requirement s for construction, fire protection, electri -
cal safety equipment interlocks, emergency propellant line venting, ventilation system
operation and controls, and gas detection system requirements. TI1e inspector should

807
 SECTION 4: Processand Storage Hazards

request that the facility personnel review the operation and controls for the emergency
ventilation systems and line shutdown and venting.

Aerosol Test Bath

Once the aerosol conta iner is charged with propellant, and the container head and
valve assembly is secured to the container, the aerosol product leaves the charging
house and goes to the water test bath. The test bath water is heated with an automated
heating system, which is provided with appropriate controls to prevent overheating
of the bath. The aerosol containers are submerged in the test bath, and the container
contents arc allowed to increa e in temperature, incrca ing the container's internal
pressure. The test bath evaluates the container's ability to withstand pressure build-
up. The test bath area is usually monitored by personnel who can locate, remove, and
proper!)' dispose of leaking containers.
From the test baths, the filled aerosol containers proceed to the packaging area where
they arc placed in cartons and assembled on pallets. The inspector must make sure full
pallet loads of aerosol product are removed from the packaging area and transferred to
the finished product warehouse, because the sprinkler systems in the filling line area
are usually not suitable for protection oflarge quantities of palletized aerosol products .

Aerosol Product Laboratories

Another area within aerosol product manufacturing facilities that presents a fire haz-
ard is the aerosol prodnct laboratory. 1l1e laboratory may be used for product formu-
lation, and it may also be used for quality control testing of filled containers. NFPA
30B contains requirements applicable to the product testing and pilot filling operations
found in these aerosol laboratories.

AEROSOLS ORAGE
Fire History
The referenced documents in this chapter contain discussion on some significant fire
losses involving the storage of aerosol products. When aerosol products are not ad-
equately protected within a warehouse, a high challenge fire can develop within the
aerosol product storage arra)'S. In some cases, containers rupturing because of expo-
sure to fire have rocketed beyond the aerosol storage array, leading to ignition of other
aerosol product storage or other combustible commoditi es. 1l1e fire history also indi-
cates that aerosol product s stored with, or adjacent to, flammable liquids also present
a severe and challenging fire.
ln the early 1980s, ill response to several significant fire losses in which aerosols
appear to have contributed to the fire loss, representatives from the aerosol industry,
the insurance industq', and sprinkler manufactmers ran an extensive series of full-
scale fire tests to develop appropr iate sprinkler protection criteria for aerosol products.
1l1e sprinkler protection criteria contained in NFPA 30B are based on these full-scale

808
 CHAPTER 60: Aerosol Man ufact uring and Storage

aerosol product fire tests. Additional protection scenar ios for aerosols have been added
to NFPA 30B as additional full-scale fire tests have been run, and the test results have
warranted changes to NFPA 30B.

Aerosol Product Cartons

An important consideration in protecting aerosol products in storage is whether the
aerosols are contained within a cardboard carton. full -scale fire tests have shown that
the cardboard carton is instrumental in controlling fires in aerosol product storage ar-
rays because of the pre wetting of the carton by sprinkler water discharge . Although the
carton itself is co mbu st ible, its ab ility lo absor b waler and lo provid e some shielding
to the containers insid e is important in controlling a fire in an aerosol storage array.
Although most aerosol products are still packaged in full cardboard cartons, some
aerosol products are now being stored "uncartoned:' TI1e uncartoned aerosol contain-
ers are typically arrange d on shallow, or display cu l, cardboa rd trays with the cans
secured to the tray with plastic sheet wrap . 'Die latest edition of NFPA 30B contains
separate sprinkler protection criteria for uncarton ed or shrink-wrapped aerosol
products based on full-scale fire tests that have been conducted to develop appropri-
ate sprinkler protection criteria for thes e uncartoned and shrink-wrapped packaging
methods. TI1e new sprinkler protection tables provided in NFPA 30B address the rack
storage of Level 2 and Level 3 aerosol products and the palletized and solid pile stor -
age of Level 2 aerosol products. Protection criteria for the palletized or solid pile stor -
age of uncartoned Level 3 aerosol products have not yet been established. Uncartoned
and shrink -wrapped aerosols do pr esent a more severe fire challenge than product in
cartons, but adequately designed sprinkler protection and storage arrangement limita-
tions can be used to control a fire in uncartoned aerosol product storage.
As indicated previously, we are starting to see larger plastic containers being used for
aerosol products. TI1ehazards assoc iated with the storage of large quantities of aerosol
products in plastic containers .in the warehouse environment are still not fully under-
stood. Plastic containers that are used for the storage of flammable and combustible
liquids have been found to be a greater risk than metal containers, and the assumption
is that the same will hold true for aerosols in plastic containers .
A limited number of large -scale tests of storage arrays of aerosol products in plastic
containers have been performed. However, additional testing will need to be performed
in order to develop appropriate prote ction criteria for aerosols in plastic containers.
Because appropriate protection criteria have not yet been established, the protection of
such products is beyond the scope ofNFPA 30B.

Storage Configurations
Aerosol products can be store d in general purpose warehouses, in aerosol warehouses,
and in flammable liquid storage areas and liquid warehou ses, as defined in NFPA 30.
Aerosol produ ct storage quantity limitations are based on the net weight of con-
tain er contents, which includ es the weight of the base product and the weight of the
prop ellant. TI1e net weight of the contents is required by other consumer product

809
 SECTION4: Processand Storage Hazards

labeling requirements to be indi ca ted on the container label. As a rule of thumb, a pal -
let load of aerosols is often approximated at a net weight of I 000 lb ( 4536 kg).
Requirements for the protection and arrangement of aerosol product storage ar-
rays are based on the aerosol level classification. As indicat ed previously, the aerosol
cartons are required to be marked with the aerosol level classification. The inspector
should first determine the classifications of the aerosol products in storage to deter-
mine which prot ec tion requirements from NFPA 30B are applicable. If the cartons are
no t marked with the aerosol classi.fication, th e product shou ld be trea ted as a Level 3
aerosol.
Level I aerosol products are considered equivalent to a Class III storage commod -
ity, as defined in NFPA 13, S1m1rlarrl for Ifie l11S/(ll/alio11
of Sprinkler Syste111s
. Therefo re,
Level .I aerosol s ca n be stored without limitation in warehouses, as long as the
warehouse is protected in accordance with the appropr iate protecl ion requirements for
Class ITTcommodity storage .

General Purpose Warehouses

In general purpose warehouses, Level 2 and Level 3 aeroso l produ cts can be stored in
.limited quantities, with the qu:rntity allowed by NFPA 308 being dependent 011 the
level of sprinkler protection provided and the level of segregation provided between
the aerosol products and the remainder of the storage area. Very small quantities are
allowed in unprotected warehou ses. Tl1e allowable quantilie s increase as additional
protection is provid ed.
The storage of Level 2 and Level 3 aerosol products within a segregated storage area
in a general purpose warehouse provides a defined aerosol product storage area and
an additional level of protection against aerosols rocketing beyo nd their storage array
under fire conditions. Segregation can be provided by chain link fencing or by fire-
resistive rated partitions.
TI1e total floor area permitt ed by NFPA 30B for aerosol storage in a segregated
storage area in a general purpose warehouse depends on the level of segregation pro -
vided. A 2-hour fire-resistive segregation allows a larger aerosol storage area than a
1-hour partition, and a 1-hour partition allows a larger storage area than a chain link
segregation.
Automatic -closing fire-rated door assemblie s are required to be provided for pro -
tection of openin gs in fire-resistiv e rated partition s; and automatic-closing chain link
fence closures or chain link fence offsets need to be provided for chain link fence
enclosures to provide a complete segregation from other areas of the warehouse. rnany
case, sprinkler prot ect ion for the segregated storage area is required to be provided in
accordance with the sprinkler protection criteria of NFPA 30B.
T11estorage of aerosol products in a general purpose warehouse also requires that
provisions be taken to limit the potential exposure of aerosol slorage arrays to flam -
mable liquid pool fires. Tl1is is accomplished by separating aerosols and flammable
liquids by means of segregating partitions or by a 25-ft (7.62-m) separation dislan ce.
 CHAPTER 60: AerosolManufac1wing and Storage

Aerosol Warehouses
When the total quanti ty of aerosols exceeds the qunntities allowed within general plll'-
pose warehouses, the aerosol produ cts are requ ired to be stored within an aeroso l ware-
house. Aerosol warehouses are not limited as to the total quantity or total area devoted
to the storage of aerosol products. fnspec tors should be aware that aerosol ware houses
are required to be in separa te, detached buildings or separa ted from other occ upancies
through the use of free-standi ng, 4-hour fire walls with p rotected openings. Aerosol
warehouses are requ ired to be provided with sprin kler protection in accordance with
the requirem ents ofNFPA 308.

Flammable Liquid Storage Rooms and Liquid

Warehouses
Limited quantiti es of aerosols are permitt ed by NFPA 30B to be stored in inside liquid
storage areas, liquid storage rooms, liquid storage con trol areas, and liquid warehouses
as defined in NFPA 30. For .limited quant ities of aerosols in these flammable liquid
storage areas, sprinkler protection in accordance with NFPA 30 criteria is considered
adequate. For larger qua ntities, sprinkler protection is requ ired to be based on the
more restrictive of the aerosol sprinkler p rotection criteria or the applicable flammabl e
and combu stible liquids sprinkler protectio n criteria contained in NFPA 30.

Aerosol Sprinkler Protection Criteria

Sprinkler prot ection criteria for aeroso l produc ts recognize the high challenge fire
potential posed b}' aerosol products in a storage occupancy. Level l aerosol produ cts
are cons idered equivalent to Class III storage commoditie s. As such, sprinkl er protec -
tion for Class III conunod it}',as provided in NFPA 13, is suitable for the prot ection of
Level l aerosols. Sprinkler pro tection for Level 2 and Level 3 aerosol prod ucts is based
on the aerosol storage configura tion, the classification of the aerosols being protected,
whether the aeroso ls are stored in cartons or uncartoned, and the t)•pe of sprinkler s
used. Specific sprin kler protection criteria for Level 2 and 3 aeroso ls are provided in
NFPA 30Il.
The inspector should refer to the sprinkler prote ction tables in NFPA 308, which
address both palletized and rack storage arrays . Separate protection criteria are pro -
vided for Level 2 and Level 3 aerosol products under various storage heigh t and roof
height conditions, as well as various sprin kler types, such as standard spra}',large drop,
or early supression fast response (ESFR) sprinklers . Th e aerosol sµrin kJer protection
tables includ e criteria for spray sprinkler protection, ESFR sprinkl er protection, and
large-drop spr inklers. For storage areas used for the storage of both Level 2 and Level 3
aerosols, the protection criteria for Level 3 aerosols must be used.
The protection tables for rack storage of aerosol products include criteria for in -
rack spri nklers. Depen ding upon the storage height and aerosol classification, in -rack

811
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

sprinklers at the face of the rack may be required in add ition to in-rack sprinklers in
the longitudin al flue. In addition, the use of in-rack sprinklers in conjunction with
ESFR sprinkler protection at the ceilin g is allowed by NFPA 30B when certain con-
ditions are met. As additiona l full -scale lire tests are run on aerosol product stora ge
configurat ions and new sprinkler technologies, the number of available options for the
protection of aeroso l produ cts in storage will increase.

Retail Display and Storage

NFPA 30B also provides requ irement s for protection of aerosol produc t storage and
display in retail occupancies. Insp ector s should be aware that in a typica l retail setti ng,
the total quan tity of Level 2 and Level 3 aerosol products and the den sity of the aerosols
in a d isplay area are limit ed based on wh eth er the store is sprinklered . 1hey should also
be cognizant of the fact that NFPA 30B requires that the aerosols on store shelving be
removed from their combustib le cartons in order to limit the exposure of the aerosols
to large amo unt s o[ combus tible materials. In lh e case of aeroso ls on retai l display
shelves, the carton provides 110 significa nt contribution to fire control.
The storage and display of aerosol products in bulk retail facilities also pos e some
interesting fire p rotection challenge s. TI1ese stores usuall y incorporate some product
displays on lower levels and pallet ized storage on racks above . NFPA 30B provides
approp ri ate limits for such display and storage. Storage arrangement and protection
for large quantities of aerosol products in these bulk ret ail facilities are required to
comply with the same spr inkler system protection requirements as applied to ware -
house facilities . Carefu l attention n eeds to be paid when aerosols are stored or dis -
played in the vicinity of flammable and combustible liquid s, as might be found in
the paint section of a home improvement bu lk retail facili ty. Aerosols are required
to be phy sically separated from flammable and combust ibl e liquids by a physical
se paration of25ft( 7.6111), by a segregating wall , or by a noncombust ible, liquid-tight
barrier.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cote , A. E., ed., Fire Protectio11Hr111d/Jook,20th ed., NFPA, Quin cy, J\IIA,2008.
Cote, A. E., and Linville , J. L., eds., I11dr1strir1/
Fire Hr1znrdsHn11dbook, 3rd ed., NFPA ,
Quincy, lv!A, 1990.

NFPA Codes, Standa rds, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the N FPA Catalo g for availability of current editions of the
following documents.
NFPA 13, Stm1dr1rdfor the lirsta/lr1ti011
(~{SprinklerSystems
NFPA 30, Flm11111nble
n11dCo111b11 stible Liquids Code
NPPA 30B, Codefor the Mn11ujnct11r e n11dStomge o_/Aerosol Products

812
 CHAPTER 60: Aerosol Manufacturing and Storage

NFPA 54, Nntionnl Fuel Gns Code

NFPA 55, Co111presscd Gnsesn11dCryoge11icFluids Code
NFPA 58, Liquefied Petrole11111
Gns Code
NFPA 69, S1n11dnrd 011 ExplosionPre1
1e11tio11
Syste111s
NFPA 70®, Nnlio1111I
Electricnl Code®

813
 CHAPTER

61
PROTECT IO N OF
COMMERCIAL COOK ING
EQUIPMENT
R. T. Leicht

Prior to 1950 and the broad adoption or extensive use of any fire safety standard, there
existed a noticeably disproportionate number of fires involving commercial cooking
equipment. The record also depicted that a high percentage of all restaurants suffered a
devastating fire. Although good fire protection practices since then have reduced this per-
centage, there are so many more cooking establishments today that the lower percentage
stiU represents a very large number of fires. According to National Fire Protection Associa -
tion (NFPA) statistics, each year from 2000 to 2004, an estimated 8520 fires in restaurants
were reported to public fire departments nationwide. Besides an annual average of 113
civilian fu-einjuries, these fires resulted in direct property damag e of $190 million annually.
Furthermore, as with any loss analysis, "severity" has to be evaluated , not just "frequency:'
Compared with 40 or 50 years ago, a fire in an average cooking establishment today will
place a more demanding burden on firefighting forces and have a greater impact on a com-
munity's tax base, the number of employees without jobs, and a higher cost to replace the
building , furnishings , and equipment . It should be obvious that the inspector's job is pretty
much cut out for them. The overall goal is to prevent these unwanted incidents.
To be effective, inspectors cannot simply place their confidence in the initial instal -
lation of the cooking equipment and the requisite protection measures that may be
required . T11eyhave to ensure that all built-in systems are maintained. T11isincludes
equipment integrity, extinguishing system service, routine cleaning, and imp lementa-
tion of management controls. However, in order for an operator to be competitive,
there will be an endless number of nonfire safety issues that will command the at-
tention of the inspector . It is the inspector's duty and vocation to impress upon these
operators the dangers of the fire hazards and the benefits of appropriate protection.

FIRE HAZARDS
Cooking grease is used in a liquid state, and it produces vapors while at cooking tem-
peratu res. It is a dangerous fuel when ignited, producing heavy, acrid smoke, with
potential temperatures of 2000°F ( I 093°C). Autoignition is possible. The intense heat
 CHAPTER61: Protection of Comme rcial Cooki ng Eq uip me nt

generated from flames extend ing through the hood and filters and into the exhaust
duct presents a serious threat to ignition of surrounding combustible materials and
has the potentia l to spread fire and smoke throughout the establishment as welJ as the
entire building if the restaurant is co-located with other businesses.

PRO EC ION OF COOK ING

QUIPMEN
Fire protection is much more than mer ely having fire fighters "squirting wet stuff at
hot stuff"! Fire prote ction professional s will ackn01vledge lhal fire prot ection , in its
ent irety, is a system. In commercia l cooking operations, fire protection consists of four
primary components: prevention, confinement, detection, and ext inguishment.

Pr v nti n
Prevention is summarized into two subparts : control of ignition sour ces and control of
combustible materials. The human element plays a major role in the contro l of ignition
sources. Restaurant management has to Jfrst comm it to training employees in the prop -
er operation of the coo king equipment - to see that it is not being operated at too high
of a temperatur e. AdditionalJy, management ha s to commit to rou tine maintenance -
needed to ensure that defective equipm ent/motors do not become the culprit of an
unwanted ignition source. Because accumulations of renegade grease deposits are
a common fuel so ur ce for kitchen fires, the best means of controlling combustible
materials is a conscientious hood and duct cleaning program by compe tent individu-
als. 'foe cleaning should extend to all areas where dangerous grease accumulations may
be found, not just to the hood and duct areas.

Confinement
Confinement of the unprevented fire in exhaust ducts is a topic that has been und er
a great dea l of study. TI1e original purpose of exliaus t ducts was to vent excess heat
and gases to the outside. This original intention did not take into acco unt that there
might be a fire in the duct. As restaurants in buildings of combustible construction
burnt down at too high of a rate in the 1940s and early 1950s, it became apparent
that combustible concealed spaces needed to be protected from the duct. TI1iscan be
accomplished by separation at modest distanc es, enclosing the duct in a fire-rated
chase, or with some other new method or technology that can achieve the same goal.

Detection
Detection in its most efficient and reliable means is by a human being. Seeing, hearing,
and smelling a fire are still the most effective ways that a fire condition can be sensed.
However, many times a means of detect ion is desired even when a human being is not
present. A greater benefit of au tom atic detectio n is all the other associated automatic
actions that can be initia led. \<\fith automatic detection, employees and patrons can be
alerted, fuel can be shut off, fire departments can be summoned, and extinguishing
815
 SECTION4: Process and Stor;igeHazards

systems can be activated. ft is obvious why one does not want to have this equipm ent
impa ired: so many other fire protec tion fu nctions depe nd upon it.

Extinguishment
Extinguishment comes in h,•o varieties, manu al and automati c. It can be as si mple as
placing a cover over a pan of flaming oil or turning off the heat. As a fire prog resses,
the use of the prope r por table ext ing uisher by a properl y trained indiv id ual provides
an excellen t first -aid option. Over the years, automat ic extin guishin g systems, whether
carbon dioxid e, dry chemical, or wet chemi cal, have been proved to be successful in
f,r c con trol wh n l rop er!}' 111.iintaine d. In the event th at an au toma tic exting uishing
system is not successti.,l, th e reco rd indicat es th at ;:iutomatic spri nkle r system s provide
the best fire protec tio n to a build ing and its conten ts. Additional!)', their water supp ly
is consider ed to be relatively inexhaustible. However, not all buildings are sprinkler
prot ected.

HE INSP CTOR'S JOB

To eva luate fully a com mercial cooki ng in stallation, an inspector can not just wait until
after the equipm ent is alread) ' installed and operating, because many of the areas of
conce rn are established long before the installation takes place. That is, the insp ector's
duty is not merely to verify tha t th e operations are running smoo thly in a safe manner.
1he inspector's obligations star t with a review of a propos ed in stallation. If th e review
is "satisfactor y;' th e inspector is the n charge d with the re spons ibility of assessin g the
inst allation for acceptance. On ce the "acceptan ce inspection" is success ful, the perso n-
nel are properly trained, and the operation is maintained, the inspector is in a po sition
to conduct routine reinspe ct ions at some pr ede termined frequen cy.
Based on th e above commeJJtary, it would seem rational to address the topic of
inspec ting com mercial cookin g operations in thr ee specific stages: review, accept ance,
and reinsp ect ion . Additionally, during each of the se three stages, the inspector will be
examining the major components of a commer cial cooking operation. Specific ally, the
operation can be summarized in the following outline:

A. Equipment/arrangement

8. Ventilation

I . Hood
2. Duel
3. Fan

C. Protection

l. Automatic
2 . ivfanual

D. Operations and maintenan ce

816
 CHAPTER61: Protection of Commercial Cooking Equipment

Of course, some of the components are less important at one phase of the installation
and yet more im por tant at another phase. For instance, operations and maintenance
are oflittle conseque nce during the review stage. Additionally, the layout of the duct-
work will rarely be a concern during annual and semiannual inspections.

H REVIEWSTAGE
Typically, when plans are submi tted for review, they include blueprint drawings to
scale, showing dimensions, some cut-sheets of equipment, layout of the equipment ,
and , occasionc1lly,airflow calculation s.
TI1e initial task of the review is to ascertain if the equipment is such that it requires
grease capture, ventilation, and protection. It has been widely accepted that grease
capture, ventila tion, and protection features did not have to be extended to hot dog
"ro llers;• tea kettles, toas ters, and microwave oven s. However, NFPA 96, Standard for
\le11ti/atio11,Co11trol, a11dProtectio11 of Co111111ercial
CookingEq11ip111e11/,
does not speci-
fy what equipment does and what equipment does not require attention. TI1e intent of
the scope of the standard was to be concerned with the potential fire hazard of cooking
operations, irrespective of the type of cooking equipment being used. Because the stan-
dard cannot address every specific installation, ultimately the decision as to what level
of protect ion is needed depends on the judgment of the au thority having jurisdiction
(AHJ), whether it is the fire official, owner, insurance company or some comb in ation
of all three.
After it has been determined that the equipment is of the type tha t protection will
need to be provided, a review of the plans should take place verifying at least the
following:
• Except where an enclosure is required, are the hood, grease removal devices,
exhaust fan, and ductwork provided with a clearance of at least I 8 in. (457 mm)
to combustible material or at least 3 in. (76 mm) to limited-combustible mate-
rial? If this distance is not provided, check to see if an option for reduced clear -
ance is being used .
, Is the hood a minimum No. 18 MSG (Manufacturers' Standard Gauge) steel or
minimum No. 20 MSG stainless steel (FIGURE 61·1shows various stylesof hoods).
, ls a fire-actuated dampe1~ listed for such use, installed in the supply air plenum
at each point where a supply air duct inlet or a supply air outlet penetrates the
con tinuou sly welded shell of the hood assembly?
• Are proposed filters listed grease filters? There are filters available that are listed,
but not as grease filters. TI1ey are typicall)' used for heating, ventilation, and air-
conditioning or o ther applications, and they could be of the mesh type. To be
acceptable for commercia l cooking usi;:,they must be specifically listed for use
as grease filters.
• Is ductwork a minimum of either No. 16 .MSG steel or No. 18 MSG stainless steel?
• Do ducts pass through fire walls or fire partitions? Generali}', such an arrange-
ment is not permitted. TI1ey are to lead, as direct!)' as practicable, to the exterior
of the building.
817
-
co
co

Single-island canopy

_,:,::,-
....

Doub le-island canopy Pass-over style

61-1 Different stylesof commercial cooking hoods. Source:

FIGURE NFPA96, 2011,
FigureA.3.3
.34.
 CHAPTER 61: Protection of Con1niercial Cook ing Equi pme nt

• On horizontal ducts, is there at least one opening that is 20 in. b)' 20 in. (SJ cm by
51 cm) or greater? To better facilitate cle,ming, are openings shown at the sides
or top of the duct at the following locations: at all changes of direction; at 12-ft
(3.7-m) intervals on horizontal ducts; and within 3 ft (0.9 m) of each side of the
fan where the ductwork is connected to both sides of the fon?
• ls the edge of openings at least I½ i.n. (38 mm) from the outside edges of the
duct or seam?
• In multistory buildings, are interior duct instnllations enclosed in a 1-hour rated
enclosure or a 2-hour rated enclosure if the buildingis four or mort:stories in height?
• If the duct terminates at the roo( is the outlet a minimum of IO ft (3 m) from
adjacent Luildings, propcrt}'lines, and air intakes? If this is not physically possible,
is the outlet at least 3 ft (0.9 rn) above any air intake located within 10 ft (3 m)
horizontally (FIGURE 61-2)?
• Is the exhaust flow directed up and awa)' from the surface of the roof and a mini-
mum of 40 in. ( l rn) above the roof sm face?
• If the duct terminates through a wall, .is the outlet a minimum of 10 ft (3 m)
to adjacent buildings, prop erty lines, grade level, combustible construction, or
electrical equipment or lines, and is the closest point of any air intake or operable
door or window at or below the plane of the exhaust termination?
• If any air intake or operable door or window is above the plane of the exhaust
outlet, is it a m inimum distance of 10 ft (3 m) plus¼ ft (7.6 cm) for each degree
from horizontal (FIGUR E61-3)?
• ls the air velocity through any duct not le s than 500 fpm (TABLE 61-1)?
• Is automat ic fire extinguishing equipment provided for the grease removal
devices, hood exhaust plenums, exhaust duct systems, and all cooking equip-
ment that produ ces grease-laden vapors?
• Where a listed fixed baftle hood assembly is involved, is the domestic water sup-
ply for the assembl}'monitored ?

FIGURE61·2Exhaust termination above rooflevel.

819
 SECTION4: Process ond StorogeHazards

FAI
(3)

9.9m
(32.5 ft)

FAI
(4)

6.5111
(21.25 ft)

go•

_____Horizontal
FAI
(5)

3111
(10 fl)
FA I
(1) Grade

Notes:
1. Fresh air in lake (FAI) applies to any air intake, including an operable
door or window .
2. Examples :
(a) FAls 1 and 5 are on lhe same plane or exhaus l fan or lower:
3 m (10 It) min. between closest edges.
(b) FAls 2, 3, and 4 are above the plane of exhaust fan:
3 m + 76 mm (10 fl + 0.25 II) per degree between closest edges .

FIGURE 61-3Exhaust termination distance rrom fresh air intake or operable door or window.
Source
: NF
P,\96, 2011,figure7.83.

• Does the activation of the automa tic fire extinguishing system shut off all sources
of fuel or electric µower that µrovide heat to the cooking equipment that requires
protecti .on by the system?
• Does the activation of the automatic fire extinguishing system shut off all sources
of fuel to gas appliances not requiring protection but located under the same
ventilating equipment?
• Are required fuel/power sh ut-off devices provided with a manual reset feature?
• Is a readily accessible means for manual activation of the automatic fire extin-
guishing system located between 42 and 48 in. ( I 07 and 122 cm) above the floor?
rs it located in an egress path at least 10 ft (3 m) from the protected kitchen
appliances but not more than 20 ft (6 m) away (FIGURE 61-4)?
820
 CHAPTER61: Protection of Com,nercial Cooking Eq uipm ent

Air Velocit y

To determ ine the max imum duct area that will support
a 500 fpm velocity:
Step 1:Divide the ventilation rate (CFM) by the required velocity (500 fpm).

To determine the minimum fan size needed to achieve min imum

velocity wh en th e duct dimens ions are given:
Step I: Multiply Lhetwo dimensions of the cross-section of the largestduct.
Step 2: Divide the result by 144in.2/ fr to convert to square feet.
Step 3; Multip ly the square foot area found in step 2 by 500 fpm.

o determine the velocity to which the duct system will be exposed

wh en the size of th e fan is known:
Step I: Multiply the two dimensionsof the cross-section of the largestduct.
Step 2: Divide the result by 144in.2/ft2to convert to square feet.
Step 3: Divide the fan size (CFM} by the square foot areafound in step 2.
Step 4: If the quotient is lessthan 500 fpm, the requirement is not being attained.

FIGURE
61·4Three standard manual activation devices.

821
 SECTION4: Process and Storage Hazards

• When there is more than one system provided with a means of manual activa-
tion, is it clearly indicated what hazard a system is protecting?
• If the facility is (or will be) protected by a fire alarm system, is the activation of
the automatic fire extinguishing system arranged to cause an alarm signal?
• Are all deep fat fryers installed at least 16 in. (41 cm) from surface flames of
other cooking equipment? If not, is a noncombustible baflle, a minimum of
8 in. (20 cm) in height, installed between the fryer and the surface flames of an
adja cent appliance?

A PTANC E T STING
Acceptance testing is a very important step in evaluating the protection that was either
found during the review phase on the proposed plans or was required by the reviewing
authority when found to be omitted from the proposed plans. After the equipment is
in operation, th ere will be little opportunit y to verify the pre sence of damp ers, to ob -
serve the workmanship of the hood assembly or the layout of the ductwork, or witness
a sequencing of the fire protection systems, including all of the auxiliary functions. To
serve as a guideline during the acceptance inspection and in an effort to provide a level
of consistency during all future inspections, the use of a printed "protocol" should be
considered . It will also serve as documentation for the file (TABLE 61-2).
Once the plans have been reviewed and the equipment is installed and ready to
operate, full operational acceptance testing should be witnessed to confirm that at least
the following protective features operate as anticipated:
• Are all interior surfaces of the exhaust system accessible for cleaning and
inspection?
• Does the clearance for the hood, grease removal devices, exhaust fans, and duct-
work agree with the approved plans?
• Are welds on seams and joints of the hood liquid-tight, continuous, and on the
exterior of the hood?
• Is an access panel provided for any fire-actuated damper installed in the supply
air plenum that would not otherwise be accessible?
• Are only listed grease filters installed? Are they located at least the prescribed
distance from the cooking surfaces? Are they installed at a 45-degree angle? Are
they tight-fitting and firmly held in place? Are they removable for cleaning?
• Is the filter bank equipped with a drip tray beneath its lower edge pitched to
drain into a metal container limited to a maximum l gal (3.8 L) in size?
• Are welds on the duct -to-hood collar and the seams and joints of the ducts liq-
uid -tight, continuous, and external to the duct?
• Are duct systems not interconnected with any other building ventilation or
exhaust system?
• Are ducts installed without forming dips or traps that might collect residues?
• Is the exhaust flow from the outlet of a rooftop duct termination directed away
from the roof surface and a minimum of 40 in. (102 cm) above the roof surface?
• Is the separation distance from the exhaust outlet to adjacent buildings, property
lines, grade level, combustible construction, or electrical equipment or lines and
822
 CHAPTER 61: Prorec1ionof Commercial Cooking Equipment

I'
Sample Acceptance Testing Protocol

Commercia l Cooking Acceptance Testing Protocol (NFPA 96)

Are listed,baffle-type nitersin place?(Note:Mesh-type filters are not permitted.)
Do niters snugly fit into the hood with baffles running vertically?
Doesthe filter trough terminatein a metalgreasecontainerof not more than 1gal (3.8L)?
I the duct for supply (replacement) air equipped with a nre damper?(Note: Only
requiredwhen the air is supplied to the interior of the hood or on the bottom edge of
the hood.)
If the supply air duct hasa clamper,is an accesspanel provided for reset purposes?
Is the placement of extinguishing systemnozzles and fusible linkscorrect?

With the test cartridge in place,when the test link is·cut,"do the following occur:
The balloons on all the nozzlesnil to p,ove ·no obstructions"and pipe continuity?
Fuelor power to the cooking appliancesunder the hood is shut off?
The alarm systemsounds/transmits?
Fanfor supply (replacement)air shuts down? (Note:Only required when the air is
supplied to the interior of the hood or on the bottom edge of the hood.)
Exhaustfan continues to run uninterrupted?

With the trigger mechanismof the extinguishing system reset,does actuation of the
manual actuator cause the trigger to re-trip?
Did the manual actuator require lessthan a 14-in. (36-cm) pull and a pull force of less
than 40 lb ( 18 kg)?
Is the manual actuator:
I Located in a path of egress?
I Between 42 and 60 in. (107and l 52 cm) above the finished noor?
Is the nre extinguishing systemrestoredto service?
Do deep fat fryershavea 16-in. (41-cm) clearancefrom surface flamesof adjacent
appliances or an 8-in. (20-cm)noncombustible baffle between the fryer and the
surface flames of an adjacent appliance?
Do deep fat fryershaveexcesshigh limit control in addition to operating control?

In the kitchen area, are portable fire extinguishers:

I Properly mounted in an easilyseen,readilyaccessible manner?
I ClassifiedasClassK?
\ ____________________________ __ ~

823
 SECTION4: Processand StorageHazards

the closest point of any air intake or operable door or window actually provided
and in agreem ent with the approved plans?
• Does the hood exhaust frm continue to operate after the extingui shin g S)'Stem
has been activated - unl ess fan shutdown is req uir ed-by a listed component of
the ventilation system or by the design of the exting uishi ng system?
• Is no wiring system of any type installed with in th e ducts?
• Are no mo to rs, lights, or other electrical devices-except where specifically
approved for such use - installed in ducts or hoods?
• Doe s the automatic fire extin gui shing prot ection cover all grease remo val
devices, hood exhaust plen um s, exhaust du ct systems, and all cooking equip-
ment th at produces grea se-laden vapors?
• Does water -wash fire protectio n provided in any fixed baffle hood act ivate when
the coo king equ ipment extinguishing system is activated ?
• If a single haz ard area is protected by multiple automatic fire extingu ishing sys-
tems, are the systems arranged for simultaneous operation upon actuation of any
one of them?
• Do all sources of fuel and/ or electric power to the following areas shut off upon
actuation of the automa tic fire extinguishing S)'Stem ?
l. Cooking equipment requ iring protection.
2. Gas -fueled cook ing eq uipment located und er the same ventilating equ ip-
men t as tha t requi ring pro tection.
• Do the fuel and/or power shu t-off devices require manual reset?
• Is a means for m anu al activation of the au tom at ic fire extin gu ishin g system
located as appro ved?
• Where applicabl e, did the activation of th e automatic fire extin gu ishin g system
cause an alarm signal?
• Are portable fire extinguishers of the appropriate type and prop er size installed in
the kitchen areas? TI1einspec tor should note that multipurpose dry chemica l- type
exting uishers do not have any "sapon ifying" effect, where as bicarbonate -based
compou nds do. Saponi.fication is desirable because when bicarbonates mix with
"fatty" subst ances, a soapy materia l is formed that is noncom bustible. However,
with the recent advent of using vegetable oils for some dietary benefits in place
of animal fat, sap onification is less likely to occur, especially in fryers. Vegetable
oils do not contain the amount of fatty acids needed to cause this trans forma tion.
Nevertheless, cooking appliances other than deep fat fryers can usuall)' encoun-
ter substant ial amoun ts of fatty acids because, in many cases, the products being
cooked on these surfaces are "mea ts:' Regardless whether the extinguishing agent
is a dry or wet chemica l, it will be of some value as long as it is bicarbo nate based.
• Is a 16-in. (4 1-cm) space or an 8-in. (20-cm) baffle in place between deep fat fry-
ers and the flames of adja cent cook ing equipm en t?
• Are all deep fat fq 1ers equipped with a separate high-limit control in addition
to the adjustable operating control? Ts it set to shut off fuel or energy when the
temperature reaches 475°F (246°C) at 1 in. {2.5 cm) below the fat su rface? In
ma ny cases, one will find that this separate h igh-lim it control on some fryers
has a manua l reset. However, a manual reset feature is no t requ ired by NFPA 96.
824
 CHAPTER61: Protection of Comme rcial Cooking Equipm ent

R UTINE INSPEC IO NS
Most ti res in commerc ial cooking equ ipment invo lve an i11stallation that was or iginal ly
accep table but over the years has become a less compliant facility. 111ere are various
reasons for th is deviation, but it can usually be associated with on e or a combination
of the following factors :
I. Per onnel become ind ifferent to new emp loyee orientation and the impor -
tance of good fire safety pro cedur es.
2. Fire protection eq uipment gets taken out of serv ice accidentally or inadver -
ten tly.
3. Equ ipment and mater ials wear out or deteriorate.
4. Maintenance and ser vice become lax.
It usually falls on the fire inspector to keep on top of this through routine scheduled fire
inspect ions . 111e following items are not intended lo be all inclusive . · ach inspe ction
agency mus t evalua te the impo rtan ce of th e items th at need to be evaluated and the risk
they represent. At that point, the agency has lo compare that with the reso urces avail -
able and the potential for improvement.
• Cooking equipment should not be operating unl ess exha ust vent ilatio n is being
provided. ls th e exha ust system "ON" while cooki ng eq uipm ent is opera ting?
• In filter -equipp ed exfornst hood s, filters shou ld be in place when cooking equip -
ment is operating. ls cooking equipme nt operating with filters missing from
filter-equipped exhaus t hoods?
• Cooking equ ipm ent shou ld n ot be opera tin g unle ss the fire extin guish ing sys-
tem is operative. Ts cooki ng equipm ent operatin g while th e fire exti nguishin g
system is impaired?
• Is any physical damage no ted to any materia l or prod uct used for the purpose of
reducing cleara nces? If the re is, an evalua tion has to be made to see if this afiects
the requ ired prote ct ion. If ii adversely affects the pro tection, further remed ial
act ion ma)' be needed.
• Are on ly listed grease filters being used? Are they in place, tight -fitting, and
clean? Mesh filters are not pe rmi tted !
• Are all grease remova l devices, hood exhaust plenums, exhaust duct systems,
and cooking equipmen t that produces grease- laden vapors covered by the auto -
matic fire extinguishing system? (Note : Grease remova l devices, hood exhaust
plenums, and exhaust du cts are permitted to be protec ted by a listed fixed battle
hood con tainin g a cons tant or fire-actua ted water -wash system .)
• Is a readily accessible means for manua l act ivation of the au tomatic fire extin-
guishi 11g system located at least 42 in. (I 07 cm) above the floor, but not so high
that ii might not be reached? Is it loca ted in a normal and clear egress path?
• Are portable fire extin gu ishers of the appropri ate type and proper size installed
in th e kitc hen areas?
• Have the por table fire extinguishers been inspected by an approved person or
compa ny within the past 12 month s, and is ther e a form of documentation to
this eftect provi ded Oil the extingui sher unit?
825
 SECTION 4: Process and Storage Hazards

, Has an approved person or company inspected the fire extinguishing system

within the past 6 months, and is there a form of documentation to this eftect
provided in a conspicuous location?
• Are hoods, grease removal devices, fans, ducts, and other appurtenances dean?
• Is an approved person or company doing the cleaning, and is there a form of
documentation to this eftect provided in a conspicuous location? Although other
information can be provided, the documentation should at least include the
name of the servicing contractor and the date of the last cleaning.
Again, as is the case with the acceptance testing protocol, a reinspection form can be
a guideline for the inspector, provide a level of consistency, and serve as documenta-
tion for the file (TABLE61-3).

A WORD ABOUT RECIRCULATING

SYS EMS
Recirculating systems are also known as ductless systems, ductless hoods, or vent -
less hoods. These units consist of cooking equipment and a hood with self-contained
grease and odor control devices that are ·designed to clean the air sufficiently to allow
the air to return to the surrounding interior environment. Naturall) ', these units do not
have external exhaust. They must be listed for their particular design and use.
All recirculating systems must be listed and labeled to indicate the specific equipment
allowed within its hood. In many cases, the hood is directly attached to the cooking equip -
ment, and this minimizes the chance of change within the equipment. The label should
also indicate the ventilation rate, the type of filters used, and other system specifications.
1n some units, interlocks prevent operation if filtration devices are not in place. All
panels that access the interior grease-laden surfaces of the unit also have interlocks that
prevent operati .on if the panels are not in place. There are also special interlocks that
monitor minimum airflow and minimum electrostatic particulate filter performance
that will shut off the unit if the threshold limits are exceeded. "The inspector can test the
filter and panel sensor operation by removing one or more components to see if the
unit wi!J indeed shut down. The airflow interlock can be tested by restricting the hood
filters with paper or cardboard to see that the unit shuts off
Recirculating systems have installation limitations based on surrounding combusti -
ble materials, return and supply air grills, lower ceilings, and other conditions that may
be fire or health concerns. Most of these have been determined by the local authorities
and will be found only in the final condition of approval for the system. These should
be a part of the inspector's file and should be carefully reviewed at each inspection.
Some of these conditions could be violated , intentionally or unintentionally, by the
operator with potentially serious consequences.
Every recirculating system should have a detailed operation and maintenance man-
ual, which not only covers all the standard material but also addresses special features
and concerns. It is advisable that the inspector be able to review these at each inspec-
tion. These units all have built-in fire extinguishing systems. Some have special nozzles

826
 CHAPTER61: Protectionof Commer ial Cooking Equipment

Fire Code Compliance - Field Worksheet

Anytown Fire Marshal's Office, Anytown, USA

Fire Code Violation Worksheet (Restaurants and Commercia l Cooking)

OCCUPANT I MANAGER/OWNER
ADDRESS
PHONE INSPECTOR DATE DAY TIME
□ MERCANTILE □ ASSEM BLY □ BUS!NESS □ H EALTHC Ar,E □ EDUCATIONA L □ I NDUSTRIAL
□ OTI-IER

Is only approved cooking equipment in use?

Are approved greasefilters used and in place?
Are all cooking areasand adjacent surfacesrree or residual yrea~eand dirt?
Is exhaust hood cleaned routinely and is most recent service documented?
Is automatic extinguishing system se1viced semiannuallyand is most recent
service documented?
Is bicarbonate-based dry chemical or Class K extinguisher provided?
Are all portable fire extinguishersserviced annually and is most recent service
documented?
Is exit accessmaintained in an unobstructed manner?
Are doors in the meansof egressunlocked?
Are exit signs provided?
Are exit signs illuminated?
Is the meansof egressilluminated7
Isemergency lighting provided and maintained?
Isclearanceprovided between combustibles and heating equipment?
Is access maintained to the electrical distribution panel?
If sprinklered, is the system serviced annually and is most recent service
documented?
Comments (use reverseside if necessary):

that are not part of standard pre-engineered systems, and some use water sprinkler
detector/nozzles with wet chemical. 1hese nozzles are specially listed for the applica-
tion, and any differences that exist in the extinguishing system for recirrnlatingcook-
ing equipment are detailed in the manufacturer'ssystem manual.TI1ecomponents and
operations of the onboard fire extinguishing system are the same as those of conven-
tional systems and should be reviewedin a like manner.
A log should be kept by the operatorto recordall maintenance, and this log should
also be available fur AHJ review.

827
 SECTION 4: Process and StorageHazards

A WO ABOU SOLi U L COOKING

UIPMEN
Cooking equipment that uses solid fuel presents some unique challenges to adequate
protection that is not otherwise enconntered in conventional coo king equipment. First
and foremost, not onl)' is the equipment probabl)' creating grease-laden vapors that
need to be vented, but also it often generates smoke, carbon monoxide, creosote, and
other by-products that typically result when wood is burned . Because the burning of
wood or other solid fuels (charcoal, coal, etc.) can create an additional hazard, a more
stringent level of safeguards needs to be provided. For instance, where solid fuel-type
cooking is conducted, spark/ember arresters need to be provided. Additionall)', termi-
nating the exhaust duct through a wall is prohibited .
Unlike conventional appliances, exhaust ventilation over solid fuel- fired equipment
can be natural draft or power-ass.isted. Additionally, in many cases, exhaust is not per-
mitt ed to be mLxedwith oth r exhaust systems.
Unlike conventional equipment, some solid fuel- burning equipment is permitted
to have the automatic fire ext.inguishing protection omitted, if acceptable to the AHJ.
However, if automatic Ji.reprotection is required, it has to be in accordance with the
appropriate standard.
All solid fuel appliances, as well as solid fuel storage, require a "hand( source of
water. For appliances with smaller fire boxes and small piles of solid fuel, water-based
fire extinguishers are required. For appliances with larger fire boxes (greater than 5 ft\
0.14 1113)and large piles of solid fuel, a waler supply arrangement is needed to be able
to produce 5 GPJ\11for an indefinite period of time. Such a stream is necessary so a
continuous flow of water, with its heat-absorbing effects, can be played on what could
be a large flaming or smoldering wood mass. The actual requirement in NFPA 96 states
that "a fixed water pipe system with a hose is to be provided in the immediate vicinity
of the appliance:' TI1ishas traditionally been achieved by placing a garden hose perma-
nently onto a domestic water line and controlled by a normally closed globe valve. In
lieu of a hose arrangement, larger stored quantities of solid fuel can be protected by an
automatic sprinkler system.
TI1emaintenance for this special equipment focuses on the potential of residue
build-up, which can reduce the efficiency of the venting nnd the potential of corrosion
or physical wear that could limit the flue's ability to contain combustion by-products.
In addition, there is a special menu of requirements that outlines a minimum that is
needed to operate this equipment safetr TI1eseminimal safety requirements are sum-
marized as follows:
I. Installing solid fuel appliances on noncombustible flooring, with 3 ft (0.9 m)
clearance from combustibles to each side and 6 fl (l.8 m) clearance from com-
bustibles above the appliance.
2. Limiting the amount of solid fuel stored, with the solid fuel appliance and sol-
id fuel storage placed away from other materials, away from heat-producing
equipment, and away from the path used to remove ashes.

828
 CHAPTER 61: Protection of Comme rcial Cooking Equipment

3. How to ignite the fuel and how to "stoke" the fire safely.
4. The frequ enc}' for removal of ashes, how to treat the ashes, and how to disrnrd
ashes.
Two final notes: first, no device of any l)'pe is permitted in the flue pipe or chimney of a
natural draft-type solid fuel applian ce; and seco nd, solid fuel cooking is not permitted
for deep fat fr)'ing involving more than a quart of shortening nor is a deep fat frying
unit permitted within 3 ft (0.9 m) of a solid fuel app lian ce.

RAPHY
Fl)'nn, J., US. Structure Fires i11Eating and Drinking Establisl,111e11ts,
NFPA , Quit1C)',
MA, 2007 .
Leicht, R., Commercinl Cooking Protectio11 - U11derstn11di11g
n11dApplying the NFPA
Standard, Confe rence P resentation at the MidAtlantic ife Safety Conference, Lau -
rel, MV, 2000.

NFPA Codes, Standards, and Recommended Practices

See the latest version of the NFPA Ca talog for availability of curre nt editions of the
following documents.
NFPA l, Fire Code
NFPA 96, Standardfor \fe11ti/ntio11
Control nnd FireProtectionof Commercinl Cooking
Operntio11s

829
 PHOTO CREDITS
Chapter 3
3 -2 © Glen E. Ellma n; 3-6 © Glen E. Ellman;
3-7 © Glen E. Ellman; 3-8 © Glen E. Ellman.
Chapter6
6- 1 © U.S. Green Buil ding C oun cil; 6-2 Co ur tesy
of U. S. Department o f Agric ulture ; 6-6 Court esy
of U.S. Depart m ent of Energy; 6-7 © Orhan Cam/
ShutterSto ck , In c.; 6 -9 © Orhan Cam/ShutterStock ,
Inc.; 6-10 Courtesy o f U.S. Department of Energy.
Chapter 7
7-4 © Lisa C. McDonald/ShutterStock, In c.
Chapter 9
9-1 © Glen E. Ellman.
Chapter 10
10-4 © Robert Elia s/ShutterStock, Inc.;
I0-5 © Glen E. Ellman.
Chapter I l
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m ission of IAEI; 11-8 Used by permis sion of IAEI;
11-9 Used by p ermission of IAEI; 11-IO Used by
permission of IAEI.
Chapter 13
13-2 © HSNphotography/ShutterStock, Inc.
Chapter 19
19-2 Adapted from The Ansul Company.
Chapter 20
20- 1 Courte sy otTike Cor poration; 20-3A Courtesy
of Chemetron Fire Systems; 20-3B Courtesy of Che-
metron Fire Systems .
Chapter27
27- 1 © n adirco/ShutterSto ck, Inc.
Chapter28
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Unle ss otherwise indicated, all photographs and il-
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Learning, b,we been p roYided by the author( s), or
have been provided by the N,llional Fire Prote ction
Associat ion.
 INDEX

Al3HR (alcohol-b,,se<lhand-ru b) dispensers, 430, automalic shutdown, 166

43 1, 440,44 1 cooling equipment, 167
Academie.. Sc,, Educational occupancies dampers, 169-170
Acceptance Jesting duel ·, 168- 169
of conun ercial cooking equipment, 822-824, fans, 167
827 ho1nkl'cping oC 167
in const ruction phase of commissioning rated cnclo ure , I 66
process, 361- 362 smoke-control srstems, 170
of water mist systems, 275- 276 maintenance, 171
Accessibility requircmenls oven ·icwo f, 164- 165
accessibilit)' routes, 367-3 73 Air-intake S)'Stems, 165- 166
comm unication fealures, 373- 374 Air- ·ampling ·moke detectors, 202
fire ,rnd life safetr inspections an<l, 366 - 367 Aisle width . See nlso Slorngc occup,11
1cies
genernl items on, 367 in materials-handling srstems, 570
Accredilation, educational progr,1111, 47-49 Alarm signals, of fire ,1larms, 195
Acrr lic ra rn , handling of, 5S4 Alar m S}'Slems.Sec nlso Fire alarm systems;
Aerosols Smoke alarms
classilicalion of products, 799-801 inspection of, 15
definilion ot: 797- 798 for piped medical gas srste ms, 643
fire protection st,rndards for, 798-799 Alcohol-based hand -rub (ARHR) dispensers, 430 ,
in general storage occupancies, 602 43 I, 440, 44 1
manu facturing facilities for Algae, water mist syslems ,rnd, 295
filling lines, 806 Alkali metals, 661-665. 'ec nlso Comb ustible
product laboratories, 808 metals
propellant charging and pump rooms, Alpha particles, 562-56 3
806-808 Alkratio ns lo buildings. S,•e Building rehabilitation
propellant tank forms, SO1- 805 Alumin um, 665- 666. See nlso Combustible metals
lesl baths, 808 Arnbulatoq• healthcare focilities or occupancies
storage of definition of~ 422, 437
aerosol w,,rehou cs for, 81 1 fire drills for, 443
configuration for, 809- 810 means of egress for, 438 - 439
fire history and, 808 - 809 protection features
flammable liqui<lstorage rooms and liquid ARHR dispensers, 440 ,44 1
warehouses for, 81 1 construction, 439
geneml purpose warehouses for, 810 cooking appliances, 440, 442
prod uct car tons, 809 fire ah1rn1srs tem, 440
retail displap nd, 8 12 hazardous areas, 439
sprinkler protection criteria for, 8 I 1-8 12 labornlories, 439- 440
AHJ. See Authority h,wing juri diction por table fire extinguishers, 440
Air duct safoty )' lem, .157 smoke barriers, 44 1- 442, 443
Air inJ:iJtrntion, spech1latmosphere furnaces smoking regulations, 444
and, 747- 748 space healers for, 444
Air recirculation. See 11/so Recirculating systc111
s written fire safety plan, '142-44 3
from spr.l)' painting exhaust S)'Siems, 758 Ammonia refrigeration systems, 791-792
Airbags, automobile, 716-717 Ammonium nitrate (AN) storage, 713
/\ir -deaning equipm ent and filters, 167- 168 Amusement buildings, special, 409
Air-conditioning and ventilating srs tems Annun ciation, [or fire al,mn systems, 197- I 98
in apar lment buildings, 472 Apartment buildings
compone nls code requirements for, 464- 469
air-cbrnin g equipment and filters, existing buildings, 465-4 69
167- 168 new buildings, 465, 466
air-in take S)' tems, 165- 166 tire protection }'Stem for, 474- 475
 Index
Apartment buildings (Contd.)
inspection observations for
dwelling units, 471-472
exits, 471
general observat ions, 470- 471
hazardous areas, 474
inter ior nnishes, 474
occupa nt load, 471
protection of openings, 473
waste chutes, 473- 474
Arc-fault circuit interrup ters (AFC!s), 137-138
Archives, of records, 609
Arson, general.stor,1geand, 592- 593
Assembly occupa ncies
characteri stics of, 402 - 403
fire protection system for, 4 I0- 4 11
inspection ot; 40 3-408
special safoguards
for exhibits and trade shows, 408 - 409
for special amusement buildings, 409
for stages and projection rooms, 408
temponH)' cooking and open flames in, 410
Atrium smoke-management sr stems, 176
control panel for, J80
equipment for, I 79 -1 80
performance testing for, 181-1 82
periodic testing 01; 188, 189
Audible fire alarm noti fication appliances, 212-213
Authority, of fire inspectors, 3- 4
Author ity having jurisdiction (AH))
commissioning process and, 355-356
fire alarm systems approval and, 196
fire commissioning agent and, 353
fire depart ment notification and, 194
on fire flow and hr dranl locations, 238
on potent ial fire condition s in road tunnels, 390
Autogenous Jgnition temperature, 6 17
Autoignition temperature, 617, 680
Automated storage and retrieval systems
(ASRSs), 571
Automatic powder guns, 758- 761
Automatic shutdown, for air-conditioning and
ventilating si1stems, 166
Automatic sprink ler S)'Stems.Sec Sprink ler S)'Stems,
automatic
Automobi.leairbags, 7 16-717
Baclctlowpreventers, inspecting , 234-235
Baffle overspray collectors, 756
Barrel warehouses, of distilled spirits, 604-605
Basic single-screw extruder, 705
Basis of design (BOD), commissioning process and,
358- 359
Battery recharging, for ind ustrial vehicles, 576
Beams, 72, 73
smoke detector spacing along, 203 -204
Bearing walls, 71, 72, 78
exterior, 79
Beta particles, 562- 563
Biomimetic CO detectors, 225
832
Black powder, grnnulated, 724
lllasting agents
definition of terms for, 708- 710
fire safety in rnL,ing plants for, 711-712
manufacturing , tran sportation, and storage
of, 7 12
motor vehicle terminals and safe havens for,
713- 714
overview of, 708
Board and care facilities. See Residential board and
care occupancies
lloilcrs, 155. S,·c a/,o Heat-utilization equipment
for process use
location of, 734
overview of, 731- 732
safety contro ls for, 158- 159
single or multiple burne r, preignition purge
of, 735-736
Boiling liquid explosions, 637
Boiling point, of flammable and combustible
liquids, 6 15, 6 18 - 619
Bonding, grounding and, 133-1 35
Braces, for purl ins or joists, 76, 78
BreJk tanks, for pump -driven waler mist srs tems,
291-292
Brush fire hnar ds. See also Wildfires
inspecting buildings for, 38 1-3 83
inspection etiquette and use of inspection
findings on , 383 -384
overview of, 376
Building construction elements. Seealso Building
rehabilitation; Construction hazards;
Constru ction materials; Demolition
opera lions
for dayc,ire occupancies, 419
definitions, 71-72
fabric and membrane structures, 86
lire-protective coverings, 75-76
floor/ceiling assemblies, 81-82
framing members, 72-75
roofs, 82- 86
walls, 76, 78-8 1
Building facilities, inspections of, 12
Building procedures. SeeHousekeeping and
building procedu res
Building rehabilitation , 58-59. See also
Construct ion hnar ds; Demo lition
operations; specifictypes of occupancies
fire~protective coverings and, 76
hazards during, 107-108
in indu strial occupancies, means of egress
and, 5 19
Building services
for assembly occupancies, 406-40 7
for detention and correctional facilities, 454
knowledge of, 4-5
Building sr stems. See nlso specific systems
classification of construction types, 89-99
constructio n, alteration, and demolition
operations, 101- 111

constru c tion eleme nts, 7 1- 86
protection of open i11gs in tire subdivisions,
112- 128
Bulk tornge, 588-589
of records, 607
llulkh ead compac tors, 558
Burner manage ment srstems, of heat -utilizillion
equip ment, 734
Bum-i n/b urn -out met hod , for protect ive
at mo pheres, 747
Business communic ation s, 38- 39
Business occupancies
a111bula1orr hea llhcar e facilities prov isions
and , 43 7- 438
cafeterias, 514 - 515
characteristics of, 509 - 510
computer rooms, 5 13
definit ion of, 509
fire protec tion for, 5 15- S16
harnrdous areas, 513
me.ins of egress for, 5 10- 5 12
opera ting features of, 516
protection offl oor openings in, 512-513
records protection in, 5 13
special fire pro tect ion prol'isions for, 5 16
waste dispo sal, 513-514
Cables, electrica l faults in, 130
Cafe teria . See also Cooking equipm ent,
commercial
in bu iness occupancies, 5 14- 515
Calci um, 67.1.See also Combus tible me tals
Carbo n dioxide extinguishing srs tems, 303-305
Carbon dlox.ide portable exli nguis hers, 330, 331,
332,333
Carbon mo noxide (CO )
alarms and S)'Stcms for apa rt ment buildings,
475
alar ms and system s for hotels, 463
,1lar111sfor one- and two-fomily dwellings, 499
detect ion and warning equ ipme nt, 225-227
hnards, visible building condition s risklng.
162
systems, 191
Carouse l bag packer, for waste processing, 558
Caro usel storage ,ind retrieval systems, 592
Ca rpets, 603-604
Cartridge fuses, 137
Case goods, of distilled spirit s, 604
Ceill ng da mpers, l 69-170
Ce iHng height
heat detector spaci ng based on, 207-2 10
in ma terials-handling systems, 570-57 1
Ceiling-mounted visible no tification applian ces,
2 13-214,215 , 216
Cei ling·•, inter ior finishes for
flame spread and smoke developed indices for,
344- 346
suspended tiles for, 480
trp es and testin g of, 343-344
Inde x
Cellulose nitrate, 702
Cen trifugal water pum ps, 245
Ce rt ification , educational program, 47- 49
Cha.rgingsys tems, for incinera tors, 560-561
Check v,1lves,water suppl)', 234
Check lists
for assembly occ upancy inspections, 404
in inspec tion repo rts, 36
Chjmn cys, for heating system ·, 159- 161
Chlorofl uorocarbons (CFC) hai,.1rds, 52
Churn condit ions, testing fire pumps under ,
246
Chut es, fire protec tion for, 126 - 127
Circuit l.>reakcrs, 137
C ircuit conductors, electrical faults in, l30
Class l (limiled combustib le) roof a ·semblies, 84
Class 2 (combustib le) roo f assemblies, 84
Class A fire
de linilion of, 323
portab le fire extinguishers for
distrib utin g, 325-328
reco mm ende d markin g system for, 335
Class A roof CO\'Crings,84
Class A wall or ceiling co,·erings, 693-696
Class B fires
definition 01: 323
port able lire exti nguishers for
d istributing, 328-329
recommended marking system for, 335
Class ll roof coverings, 84
Class B wall or ceiling covering , 693 - 696
Class C fires
definition of, 324
portable fire extin guishers for
dist ributing, 330
recomme nded marki ng S)'Stem for, 335
Class C roof co\'erings, 84
Class C wall or ceiling covering , 693 - 696
Class D fires
definition of, 324
por table fire exting uishers for
distrib utin g, 330
recom mende d marklng system for, 335
Class I comm odities, 258, 586 - 588
Class T, Dhi sion I hazardou s areas, 14 I
Class I, Division 2 hnMdo us areas, 141
Class Texplosi1·cs, 709-7 10
Class I, Zones 0, I, ,ind 2, 142
Class II comm odities, 258, 586-588
Class II, Divi.s ion I hazardous areas, 141
Class II, D ivision 2 hazardous area , 141-142
Class Ill commod ities, 258 , 586-588
Class Ill, Divi ion I hazardou s area ' , 142
Class 111,Division 2 hazardous area·, 142
Class IV co mm od ilies, 258, 586 - 588
Class K fires
definition of, 324
portable fire extingu ishers for
distributi ng, 329
recommended marking ystcm for, 335
833
 Index

C lean agen t ex ting uishin g systems identificaiion of, 6 19

alier fire, 3 15-3 16 loss control guidelines for
ann ual inspec tion of, 32 1 co nfinement of, 628
in case of fire, 3 15 co ntrol of ignition so ur ces, 628 - 629
classe s of, 3 12-3J.l fire protection system s, 629
five-rear tests of, 321 1•entilati on, 628
informal and forma l in spec tion ot: 3 16-319 phi •sica l proper ties ot: 6 15-6 16
personal safe!}' d ur ing in pections 01: 3 19-320 spill ri k for, 24-25
requ ired for mal inspection and mainte nance sto rage and handling at: 625
0019 definitio n s and m ·erYiew of, 614
s,ilet)' cons iderations for, 3 14- 3 I 5 drums an d oth er portable co nt ai ners
semiannual inspect ion of, 32() for, 624-626
st>rvking , 315 ,3 16 intermediate bu lk conta iners for, 623 - 624
typical applic.i linns for, 312,313 in o ut sid e abovegrou nd 1,i11ks, 620 623
use co nsidera tio ns for, 3 13-3 14 portab le lanks for, 623-624
Clea nin g pr im arr hazard with , 6 19
comb ustible du t exp losions and, 652 - 653 safetr ca ns for, 626
nummable so h·ents for, 27 - 28 tan ks insid e buildings for, 623
Cleanline s. See also Housekeepin g in underground tanks, 619 - 620
good housekeeping and, 23 transferri ng and dispensing , 626 627
ins pect ing pyrotech ni c manufoc tu ring siles und ergrou nd operat ions and, 110
for. 725 wa ste di spo sa l, 25
in spection of, 23-24 Comb ustib le material s. Secnlso Combustible dus ts;
C lose d circuit televi ion (CCTV), in road Co mbu stible liquid s; Comb ustibl e
tunn els, 39 1 metals
Close d -loop geo therm al system s, 64 Cla s 2 roo f assemblie s, 84
Closi ng in terview, in inspec tions, 16- 17 defin ition of, 90
Clot hin g. for ho t-work opera tion , 772-773 drr chemical ex ting uishing sys tem s for, 306
C 111SA(con trol mode-specific app licatio n) heat -ut ilization equ ipm ent and, 744
sprinklers, 251, 252 hot -wor k operatio ns and
CO. Sc,: Car bon mon oxide sub tle pass ages to, 774-775
Coal, fur firing h eal- utiliz ation equi pm en t, 738 , 739 35-foot (II-me ter) rule and, 773 - 774
Coa l- and wood- burn ing stoves, 500 storngc proced ures, 2 1-22
Coa tings. Sn, also Spray pai nt ing and powd er Comb ust ible me tals
coati ng alka li meta ls
fire -protective, 77 fire protec tion for, 665
tlame retardant, 347 process hazar ds, 665
po tentia l housekeeping proble m with, 25 prope rti es of, 66 1-664
Code viofations, means of egress , rank -order ing storage and hand ling of, 66 •1
of, 342 alumin um , 665-666
Cohen, Jack, 379, 380 calci um , 673
Co ld smoke test ing, of smoke -co ntrol )'Siems, ge neral cha rac teristic s ot: 655 - 657
186- 187 hafnium, 672 - 673
Co lumn s, in foundation sys tem s, 72 iro n, 676
Com bin ation hea t dete ctor s, 205, 206, 207 m ag nes ium, 666- 669
Combu stible du sts. Secalso Combu tible materials mitiga tio n o f. 657-66 1
dctinilion of, 645 overview of, 655
exp los io ns ol~ 646 radioact iw
process eq uipmen t for, 653 fire protection for, 675
fire pro tection for, 654 Ol'Crl'i ew of, 673-674
ha1ards of plutoniu m, 675
controlli ng, 65 1-653 thorium, 674-675
eva lu,lli on ol~647-65 1 urnni um, 674
recognit ion of, 646 - 647 steel, 676
Com bu stible liq uids. See also Co mbu stibl e tit anium, 663, 669 - 671
ma teria ls; Flam mable liq uids zinc , 673
clas ification oC 6 18-619, 679 zirconium , 67 1- 673
codes and standards for specific occupa ncies Co m bu tion , of aeroso ls, chemica l he at for
for, 629 - 63 1 rcprc se ntatiw m aterials in, 803-805
fire hazard propert ies of, 616-6 17 Co m bu stion air, for hea ling system , 158

834
 Index

Co mmissioning authority (CxA), 352 Compressed gas displ aceme nt

Commissioning process
constru c tion phase
accepta nce testing, 36 1-36 2
construction inspect ions, 359- 360
do cume ntat ion, 360- 361, 362
int egr,1ted system testing, 363
design phase
basis of design, 358- 359
design methodolo g)', 359
occupanC) ' pha se, 363- 364
retrocommi ssion ing an d recommissioning,
364-365
overv iew of, 351
planning phase
commissioning plan, 357-3 58
d evelop th e OPR, 356- 357
team for
aut horit }' having jur isdic tion, 355-356
co mmi ssioning authori ty, 352
co nstruction manager or general contractor,
354-3 55
facility manager or op era tions pe rsonn el, 355
fire comm issioning agent, 353
in stallation contrnctor(s), 353
insura nce rcpresentati\•e, 355
integra ted testing agent, 356
ma nufa ct urer's represen tative, 353 - 354
overview of, 351 - 352
own e r, 352
registere d des ign profess iona ls, 354
Commodil)' class ification
for m aterials h,rndling, 569-570
for storage occupancies, 586-588
Common gas vents, 161
Common walls, 78
Comm unicat ions, 394
accessibility requirement s for, 373-374
busin ess, report writing and, 38- 39
emergency, for road tunnel s, 388
fire insp ectors skills in, 3
for off-site fire alarm no tification, 218-220
voice, audible fire alarm no tification app liances
and, 212-213
Compactors, for waste, 558
Compa rt men tation
in nucle ar facilities , 565-566
in resid en tial bo ard and care facilities, 490-491
(or underground operations, 110
Compensating srstems
smok e-control srstems and , 183- 184
for stair p ressur ization systems, 186
Com pos ite propellants, 709
Composite wood st ructural ,1ssemblies, 57
Compressed gas C)'linders
for medical uses , 643
pre ssure relief valve and pressure regulator s
for, 636
size and pressure options for, 278, 284-285
storage proc edures, 28 - 29
of flammab le and co mbu stible liquids, 627
Compressed gases
stomgc of, 634
uses of, 637
Co mp u tationa l Ouid dy m1111ks(Cl'D) analysis too ls
for smoke-control systems , 176, 182-183
Computer rooms
in business occupancies, 513
Concentration of dust , explosions and , 647
Concrete construction , 73- 74
Co nd uits, elect rical faults in, 130
Confinement
of combu stible dust s, 650
of commercial cooking equipment fires, 815
of flammable or combustible liqu ids, 628
Construction
of ambulatory hea lthcar e facilities, 439
of hea lthcare facilities , 429
Construction d assilications , 11- 12
background of
basic t i1pes, 90-92
termino !og)', 89-90
mixe d l)'])eS of, 99
T)'Pe I construction, 92- 93
Type II construction, 93-94
T)'Pe III construction, 95
Type IV construction, 95 - 97, 98
Type V construction, 97-99
Constru ction hazard s. See nlso Demolit ion
operations
lire prot ection and, 106 - 107
hou sekee ping and, 103
other types of, 104-106
planning and sche du ling and , IOI
process haza rds and , 103
site preparation and, l02
temporarr st ruct ures an d, I02~ 103
theft and van dalism as, 103- 104
Con struction managers , 354-355
Construction materials. See al.soBuilding
construction elements
reuse of, 57- 58
susta inable design and, 56
Consume r products, rad ioactive mater i,11s in,
564
Container compactors, for waste processing, 558
Containers, hot-wor k operations on, 778-779
Contents and furni sh.ings
in detention and corr ectional facilities, 452
flame spread an d, 343, 348
hazardous materials among, classification of,
12- 15
sustainable design and, 57
Con trol are as, for hazardous materials, 682 - 687
Co nt rol mod e- specific application (C\-lSA)
sprinklers, 25 1,252
Co ntro l panel s
for fire alarm systems, 197-198
for smoke-control systems, 179- 180

835
 Index
Conl rol valves, water supply
automa tic sprin kler systems and , 269
inspecting, 233-23 4
buried , 268- 269
sectiona l, for water mist syslems, 297- 298
Co ntrolled-air incineralors, 559
Control -m ode density-area sprinklers, 593- 594
Con lrol-m odc specific-appli cation (Ci'vlSA)
sprinklers, 594
Conventiona l wood framing, 99
Co nveyors
commo n fire cau es in, 581- 583
for mat erials handling, 580-58 1
Cooking, tcmpon1 ry
and ope n names in assembly occupancies, 41O
Cooki ng appliances
in ambulaloq· healthca re facililies, 440,442
Cook ing equip ment, comm ercial
fire h.11,ards of, 814- 8 15
installa tion inspcc lio n for
acceplancc tesl ing, 822- 824, 827
outline of, 816 - 817
review st,1geof, SJ 7- 822
overview of; 814
protect ion of, 815- 8 16
recirculating systems for, 826
routine reinspec tion s of, 825- 826
using solid fuel, 828-829
Coo ling equipment, 167. Se~r,lso Air-conditi oning
and ventilating S)'Slems
Co rrid or supply/exhaust, for smoke -conlrol ,
174- 175, 177
Corrido rs
in ap,irtment building s, 471-472
in educational occupancies, 4 14
in hea lthcare facilities, 423- 424
in hotels on guest roo m floors, 460-461
in residential boa rd and care facilities,
490-49 1
Corros ive materials, 681
Co lton, baled, 587-588 , 605
CO\'ered ma lls, lire protection for, 508
Cranes , for materials handling, 577-580
C redentialing, educational prog ram, 47- 49
Cross- passageways, for tunnels, 397-39 8
Cross-reference d filing system, 41- 42
Cq·ogenic fluids or liquids, 634, 636, 679
Cutt ing and welding systems. See also Hot-work
operat ions
in spection of, 780-78 1
oxygen- fuel gas, 638
Cycling water mist systems, 296- 297
Cylinder filling, for LP gas bulk pla nts, 640- 641
Cylinde rs, for hot-work operatio ns, 780
Daili· inspection s, 18- 19
Dampers
for air-conditioning and ventilating systems,
169- 170
for smoke-con trol system s, 178- 179
836
Day rooms, in detention and correctio nal facilities,
•149
Daycare facilities or occ upancies
classes ot 4 18-4 19
gro up daycare and famili• daycare homes, 420
inspection of, 419 - 420
opera ting procedure s, 420
Dead loads, 71
Decaying pressure discharge, for high-p ressure,
compressed gas- driven systems, 278
Dclcnd-in-p lace lheo ry, for hea lthcare facilities,
422~ 124
Deluge sprink ler systems, 25 1, 253- 254
Demolit ion opernt ion ha~ards, 108- 109
De111onstration te ling. of smoke-co ntrol systems,
186-187
Dental practices. See Bu iness occupa ncies
Detection and warn ing equipm ent
for carb on mo noxide, 225-227
for water mist sr stems, 299
Detent ion and correct iona l occupancies
charac teristics of
rnpacit)' of, 448-449
construction type for, 448
con tenl s of, 452
hazardous areas for, 45 1
inlerio r finishes of, 451- 452
means of egress for, 449- 45 1
protection of openin gs in, •ISi
definition and charac lerislics uf, 445-446
emergency planni ng for, 454
fire protection sy lem requ irements for
building serv ices and, 454
building subd ivision and, 453- 454, 455- 456
fire alarm )'Siems and , 452-453
sprinkler and standpipe protec tion and, 453
lockups in, 457
occupancy classiJication for, 446,447
remo te -controlled release in, 446-448
Delonating cords, 709
Delona tors, 709
Digital alarm communicato r trnnsmilters (DACTs),
219,220
Disclrnrgc tesl, of water mist systems, 275
Di pensing S)'Stems, for Oanunable and
combust ible liquids , 627
Displn)'fi reworks, 718,720
magazine s for, 72 1
Distilled spi rits, 604- 605
Doors. See also i\k ans of egress
accessibili ty requirements for, 368- 371
to dwelling units of aparl ment buildings, 472
ope ning force for, measurem ent of, 186
operable, for smoke-co nt rol systems, 179
slidi ng, in delenlion and correctiona l facilities,
449
sr mbols of accessib ility for, 374
Doorwai,s, accessibility requirements for, 368- 371
Dou ble check valve assembly (DCVA) backnow
preventer, 235

Do uble lire walls, 1.16
Doub le skin fi11"ades,59
Drag lines (drn glin e cxcal'ators), 577-58 0
Drum s, for flamm able and rn mbu stible liquid
stora ge, 624 -626
Dry chemica l exting uishing S)' terns, 301,303
inspec tion and rn.iinlen,mcc of, 306,308
lesl ing and inspection guid elines for, 309
Dr y che mical portab le ex tinguis hers, 330,33 1,333
Dry powder portabl e cxli.nguishers, 330, 332, 333
Drr -filter overs pray co llectors, 756-7 57
Dry-pipe sprinkl er S)'Slem , 251, 252- 253
Du cts
for ,1ir-condit ionin g ;111dl'Cntilat ing srstems,
168- 169
for commercial cooking equi pment , 817 - 822
for indus tri al Ol'ens, 746
Dus t t'xplos ions. See also Com bustib l.e d u Is
conce pt o f, 645 -6• 16
D usi remol'al, 28
Earli· suppre ssio n fast response (ESFR) sp rinkl ers,
25 1,25 2, 59-1,595
Ediso n base fuses, 136
Edu cation
associa te's degree program s, 45- 46
bachelor degree programs, 46 - 47
Fire an d EmergenC)' Services Higher Educ ation
(FESH E) consorl ium, 45
pos tsecondarr, 44
p rima rr and secondary, 43 - 44
Edu cational occu pa ncies
characteri stics of, 412 - 4 13
definition ol~ 4 12
fire prote ction for, 41 6- 417
flexible and o pen -plan building s for, 417
hazardous areas in, 4 15- 416
ins pection o f, 413- 416
interio r finishes for, 4 16
means o f egress in, 413 - 415
occupant load for, 413
window s for, 41 5
Egress. Sec i\•lea ns of egress
Errs (exterior insu lat ion finish system), 81
Elastomers. Sec also Rubb ers
nre hazard ratin gs for,258 - 259
Elect ric di scharge m achining (EDM) , 790-791
Elec.tr ic vehicles (EVs), 64- 65, 147- 148
for materials handling, 573-57 5
Electrica l components of wa ter mis l S)'Slems
first time inspec tion and acce ptan ce testing of,
274-27 5
Elect rica l equi pment
dr y che mic al extingui shing S)'Stems for, 306
for und ergro und opera tions, I 10
wet che mi cal exti ng uishi ng S)'Stem s and , 308
Elec trical systems o r installa tion s
tiresa fet)' in explosi,·e mixing plan ts and,
711-7 12
haza rdo us areas and, 139, 141- 142
Index
indus tr ial equip me nt, 138- 139
light ening protection for, 143- 14•1
in lodg ing or roomin g ho uses, •181
overl' iew of; 129
re newable en ergy, 145 - 148
static electricity and, 142- 143
wiring and ap para tu hawrds for, 129- 138
co mmon faults in and , 130- 133
groun din g .ind bonding and, 133-135
overcurrent pro tection d evices, 136-138
Electricit)', for h eati ng, 153
1:le.:l ric- powercd vehicles, 64- 65, 147- 148
for mat eria ls ha n<lling, 573- 575
Elect roc hemica l CO dete -tor s, 225
Elec tronic air cleaner s, for air -co nditioni ng and
ventihlling srs tems, 168
Elec tro n ic record keep ing, 42
Eleclroslal ic spra)' eq uipm ent, 76 1
Elevator pressur ization S)'Slems, 186
per iodic testing of, I88- 189
for smoke -control, 174- 175
Elel'a tor s, for materia ls ha nd ling, 580-5 81
I J -meter (35-foot) rul e, for ho t-work operation s,
773-774
Ember detectors , 210
Embers, fro m wildfire s, 380
Emergency contro l fun ctions, of tire a larm srs lem s,
2 17- 218
Eme rgenc)' exits . See Means of egre ss
Emerge ncr forces not ification , fire alarm
notifi cation standa rds for, 193- 195
Emerge ncr light ing
In business occupan cies, 515
in educational occupancie s, •·I 14
in industrial occupan c ies, 5 19- 520
in m ercantil e occupancie s, 506
tr itium -ac tiYatcd, radioacth·e m ateria ls in,
564
Eme rgencr power, remote -con troll ed release in
detent ion faciliti es ,111d,447 -4 48
Encaps ulatio n, of pallets, 593
Enclose d co nverors, 580, 58 I
Enclo sed spray bo ot hs, 752- 754
Enclosures, rnted, for air -condit ion ing and
ventil ating sr stem s, 166
Enter tainm ent, lire as specl.11effect for, 638 - 639
Environmenlal loads , 71
EPS (extruded po I,•slyrene) insu lation , 8 I
Equipment. s~c also spedfic types of
arr.rnge ment and layo ut of; 21
Escalato rs, fire protection for, 127- 128
Escape . See Means of esca pe
ESf-R (earl)' su ppre ssion fast resp onse) sprinklers,
251,252,594 , 595
Evacuat ion capability. See also Mea ns of egress;
i\'leans of esca pe
from residenti al hoard and care occ upanci es,
486 - 487
Exhaust ducts. See also Ducts
kitchen, cleaning and in pection of~28
837
 Index
Exl1austsystems
for smoke-control, 174- 175, 177
for sprny painting and powder coating, 757- 758
Exhibits, special safeguards for, 408- 409
Exit discharge. Seen/so Means of egress
in business occupancies, 51I
in detentio n and COrJ"cctional facilities, •149,
450-451
in industrial occupa ncies, 519
in storage occupanc ies, 533
Exit ,igns
in bu ine s occupancies, 512
in storage occupancies, 532 - 533
Expanded polystyrene (X PS) insulatinn, RI
Explosions
boiling liquid or expand ing vapor, 637
dust
concept of, 645-6'16
dura tion of. 649-650
maximum pressure and, 649
moisture and, 647
particle size and , 647
pressure rise rate and, 649
spray painting and powder coating and,
765- 766
Explosives
clas ification of, 679
definition of terms for, 708-710
fire safet)' in mixing plants for, 7l l- 7 12
manufacturing, transportation , and storage
ol~712-713
motor vehicle termin als and safe hm·cns for,
713- 714
overview of, 708
Exterior inspection, 11
Exterior insulation finish system (E l I'S), 81
Exterior walls, 79 - 80
Extinguishing systems. See Clean agent
extinguishing systems; Special agent
extinguishing system
ExtiJ1guishment, of cooking equipment fires, 816
Extra haZilrdclassification
portable fire extinguishers for, 324- 325
Class A, size and placemen! for, 326-328
Class B, size and placement for, 328- 329
for sprink ler S)'Stem , 258
Extra large orifice (ELO) sprink lers, 594- 595
Extruded polystyrene (EPS) insulation, 8 1
Extruder s
for plastics processing, 705
for waste processing, 558
Fabric and membrane structur es, 86
Facililr manager, commissioning process .ind, 355
Factory-built chimneys, for heating systems, 161
Family daycare homes, 41S-4 19, 420
Familr dwellings. See One - and two-famil)'
dwellings
Fans, 167, 17S
Paults, common electrical, 130-133
838
FCxA (fire commissioning agent), 353
FIJCs (lire depar tment connections) . See also
Standpipe systems
exterior, water supplies and, 229
inspection of, 236
requirements for, 266-267
File rooms, 609
FilingS)'Slems, cross~referenced, 41- 42
Filters, 167- 168, 292. See nlso Or)'-lilter overspray
collectors
Final notice, of inspection violations, 38
Finished goods, of distilled spirits, 604
Finishes. Sf,1also Interior finishes
potent ial housekeeping problem with, 25, 26
Fire alarm systems. See also Fir~ detection systems;
Smoke alarms
accessibilit)' requirements for, 373- 374
for ambulatorr healthcare focililies, 440
for apartme nt buildings, 475
approval and document,llion of. 196-197
for assembly occupanc ies, 410- 41 l
for busine s occupancies, 5 15
co1111m mications methods for off-site
notirication by, 218-220
for di1)'C,1refacilities, 418
for cla)'Careoccupancies, 419 - 420
design rec1uirements for, 195- 196
for detention and correctional facilities,
452-453
for educational occupancies, 416 - 4 17
emergency contro l functions for, 217-218
general S)'Stcm requirements for
control units (p,rnels) and ,mnunciation ,
197- 198
equipmen t listing, I 97
power sources, I 99
protect ion for, I 98
for haZilrdous materials, 688-689
for healthcare facilities, 433- 435
for hotels, 463
for industrial occupancies, 525
initialing devices for
alarms from suppression system operation,
2 10-2 11
concealed smoke detectors, 205
cross zoning, 201
detection coverage and cross zoning
coverage, 200 - 201
heat detectors, 205- 210
manual, 199-200
radiant -energy detectors, 2 10
moke detectors, 201- 205
inspection of, 227- 228
for lodging and rnoming houses, •183- 484
maintenance ot; 227-228
for merrn ntilc occup,rnd es, 507
notification appliances for
audible, 212-2 13
overview of, 2 I I
vi ii>le, 213- 217

overview of, I 9 1- 195
compo nen ts, 192
tire depart ment notification standard s for,
193- 195
occupant notifica tio n standards for,
192- 193
types of, 192
per sonn el q ua lification for, 196
for reside ntial board an d ca re occupancies
in large facilities, 492-493
in sm all facilitie s, 492
for road tunnel s, 388
for storngc occ up,mcies, 536- 537
suppres sion S)'Stem act uation of, 218
testing. 227- 228
wiring requireme nts for, 220-222
Fire and Em ergen cy Services Higher Education
(FESHE) conso rtium
associ ate's degr ee prog rams, 45 - 46
bachelor degree pr og rnms, ,16- •17
Fire barrie rs, in healthcare facilili e , 423- 424
f'i re classificat ions, of roof assemblies, 82- 85
Fire com missioning agent (FCxA), 353
Fire comp ar tmen ts, 112. See also Op ening
protective s; Smo ke barriers
Fire d ampers, 169- 170
Fire d epart ment conne ctions (FDCs). See also
Standp ipe systems
exter ior, water supplies and , 229
inspect ion o[ 236
requiremen ts for, 266-267
Fire dep art ment notificatio n
by CO detec tor s, 225
b)' fire alarm system s, 193- 195
b)' residential board a nd car e occupancie s,
493
Fire dete ction systems. See also Fire alarm systems
automat ic, for commerc ial cooking equipment,
815-8 16
for hazardo us ma ter ials, 688 -68 9
ins pect ion of, J5
in road tu n ne ls, 39 1, 394
Fire door asse mb lies
closing, 117-1 19
constru ction of, 117
in hea lthca re facilities, 429
maint e nance and inspection, 119- 122
ratin gs, 113-117
Fire drill s
for a mb ulatory h ealthc are facilities, 443
for edu cationa l occupancies, 415, 41.7
c\'acu alion capabilit)' from resident ial board
an d care occupancies and,
486-487
for healt h care faci lities, 435
for hotel . 464
for reside n tial bo ard and care o ccupancie s,
494
l'ire escape plan, 50 1-5 02
f'ire esc.ipe sta irs, of hotels, 470
Index
f'ire extin guis hers . Sec C lean agent extinguis hin g
S)' tems; Port able fire exting11ishcrs;
Special agent ext inguishing system s
with age nts for comb ustible metals, 660
Fire fighter's contro l panel (FFCP), 180
func tion al testi ng ot: 182
periodi c testing using. 188
f'ire ins pectors
aut hor it )' of, 3-4
cer titic.Hion levels for, 48-49
comm uni cation skills of, 3
edu cation of, 43-47
eq uip ment for, 7-8
knowledge of, 4- 5
physical conditi on of, 2-3
skill sets, 2
Fire point, ofliq uid s, 6 17
Fire protection. See also r:ire safct)'
for alumin um fires, 666
for ammoni a refrigera tio n system , 791-792
for apar tme nt buildings, 464- 465
for assembl) ' occupancie s, 410 - 41 1
for calcium , 673
for combu tible dust s, 654
M cons tructio n sites, 106-107
for di pp ing and coa ling finish ing S)'Stem s, 795
for electri c ti ischargc machining, 790- 791
equip ment for, knowl edge about , 5
for explo sives mixing plan ts, 712
for lbmmab le and co mbustib le liquids, 629
for hafnium , 673
for health car e facilities, 433-4 36
for heat tran sfer fluid S)'Stem s, 783- 784
for hydrauli c oil-opera ted equipmen t,
788-789
for indu strial vehicle s, 576- 577
for LP gas bulk storage pla nts, 641
for met al clea nin g and plating operations ,
784-786
NFPA 25 on water supp lies for,230 - 23 1
for oil qu enching, 787
for one - an d 11,·o-fornil)' dwellings, 498- 499
for pain! finishing materials, 793- 794
for solve nt hazard s with C lass A oven s, 744-746
for spray pa intin g and pow der coa ting,
766- 768,794
for storage occ upanci es, 535 -537 , 593 -596
for undergro un d operation s, 109- 110
for wast e co mpac tor s, 558
for woodworking opera tions, 789 - 790
for zinc, 673
for zirconi um , 673
Fire pumps
asscmbl) ', 246
con troller s for, on water mist S)'Stems, 29 1
for indu str ial occupancies, 524
inspec ting, 246- 248
for plastic storage warehouses , 700
for storag e occupancie s, 536
l)•pes ot: 245-246
839
 Index
Fi re safety. See nlso Fire pro tection
ana lysis, for LP gas bulk storage plants, 641
in e.xplosivcs m ixing pb nls, 7 I l- 712
func tions, of fire alarm systems, 2 .17- 218
Fire separation. See also Fire walls
maxim um ,1llowab le qu an tity of hazar dous
m aterials an d, 688
Fire shutters, 122-123
Fire sup pressio n
for hazardous m aterials, 688
Fire sup press ion equipm ent. Se.;nlso Sprinklers
inspec tion of, 15
Pirc tri,111 g le
comb ustible d ust pen tago n an d, 646- 647
wild fires and , 378
Fire walls, 78-79 . See nlso Fire separa tion
opening pro tective s for, I 12- 113
Fire watch, for hot -work opera tion s, 777- 778
Fire windows and vision pan els, 123- 124
Fire-;1larm con tro l pa nel (FACP)
for smoke-co nt rol srs tcms, 17\1-180
seque nce of opera tions testing, 182
Firebrand s, from wildfires, 380
Pirecrackers, 7 l 9
Firelig htin g operation s, radi oac tive materials
,llld , 563
Fireligh tin g syste m s, for roa d tun ne ls, 396- 397
Fire-protective cover ings, 75-7 6, 77
Fire- resist i\'C penetrat ion seals, building
reha bilitat ion and, I 07, I 08
Firewise Comm unit ies/US,\ Recogn ition
Progra m, 384
Firewo rks. SL'eri/so Prrot echni cs and fireworks
co nsum e r, 679
clwrnc teristics of, 7 17-7 18, 719
definil ion and over view of, 7 15-7 16
inspection guid elines for re tail sales an d
storage of, 728-729
sepa rntion distances for, 726 - 727
disp la)', 718,720
FLxed-tem pernture heat detectors, 205- 206
Flame detectors, 2 10
Flame effec ts, for entertainm ent, 638- 639
Ham c retard an t treatment s, 57, 347
Fla me safegua rd s, for heat-utilization equipment ,
739-7 40
r-J.unc spread in dex, 344-345
fla mes, open, in a semb l)' occupa ncies, 4 10
Flam mabiJHy ratin gs, of ma terla ls, 6 10- 6 I 3
Fla mm able cleanin g solven ts, 27-28
Flamma ble gases, 679
Flamm able limit s, 617
Flamn rnblc liquid s. Sec nlso Comb ustible liquid s
ae rosol produ ct storage as, 811
classilicali on of, 618 - 619, 679
codes and standards for specific occu p,in cies,
629-63 1
d rr che m ical ext ing uishin g S)'Stems for, 306
lire haza rd p rope rties of, 616- 617
in general stornge occu pan cies, 602
840
iclenti lication of, 619
loss con trol guid elines for
con finement of, 628
con trol of igniti on sources, 628- 629
fire protection syst ems, 629
\'Cnt ilation, 628
ph)'sical prope rties of, 6 15- 616
spill risk for, 24- 25
storage and h,u1dling of
defin itions and m·erview ol~ 614
drums and oth er porta ble co ntai ners for,
624- 626
interm edi ate bulk con tainer s for, 623- 624
in oulside abovegro und tan ks, 620 - 623
portab le tanks for, 623- 624
primary hazard with, 6 19
safet)' cans for, 625, 626
tanks inside buildin gs for, 623
in unde rgroun d tanks, 619-620
tr~n ferring and dispeasi ng, 626 - 627
und ergro und opera tions and, 110
waste disposa l, 25
wel chemical extin guishin g systems for, 308
Flammab le so lids, 680
Flash po int, of liquids, 6 16- 617, 6 18- 6 19
Flash po wder, 723,724
Flashback arres tors, 779- 780
Flexible buildin gs, for educational occu pancies,
417
Flexible cords, elect rical faults in, 131
Floor supp ly/exhau t, for smoke-con trol, 174- 175,
177
Floo r/ceiling assemblies , 81- 82
l'!oor/ cciling penetrations, 124-126
rlo ors
clean ing and treatme nt, 27
inter ior finishes for, 347- 348
Flue ven t co nn ectors for B or L vents, 161
Flue , rack storage an d, 260
Flushin g, of water m ist sr stcms, 272- 273
Foam extinguishers, port able, 330, 332, 333
Foam -water S)'Stems, 255-256. See nlso Water
supp lies
Follow-up ins pection letter, 37
Forced -air systems. See Air-conditi onin g and
ventilatin g S)'Sterns
Forest lire haza rds. Secnlso Wildfir es
inspec tin g build ings for, 38 1-383
ins pectfon etique tte and use of inspec tion
find ings on, 383-384
m·er\·iew of, 376
Forest pro ducts, 587-5 88
Forkliti s, 572
Found ation system s, 7 1, 72
Framin g m embe rs, 72-75
FSI (sur foce flame spread inde x), 93
Fuel gas pressure regulator s, 738
Fue l gas press ure switc hes, 738
Fuel gas salct)' shut-o ff vah·es, leak tesli ng of, 743
Fuel load, of business occupancies, 5 ID

Fuel spills, as fire hazards, 576
Fuel-dumps and fuel-handling at const ruct ion
sites, 104
Fuel-free zones, wildlire s aud, 379, 384
Full di sch,irge test, of water mist S)'Stcms, 296
Fume hoods . See nlso Ducts
for laboratories, 416
for m eta l cleaning and plating operatio ns,
784,785
Furnaces. See nlso Heat-utilizat ion equ ipment
indu stria l, 732-733
exp losion relief val\'cs for, 744
loca tion of, 734
prcignition pm gc of, 735- 736
special atmosphere , 746-748
as war111,,ir system , 155
Furnishing s and co ntents
in de tention and correc tion al facilities, 452
flamespread and , 343,348
hazardous material s among. classification
of, 12- 15
sustainable design aud , 57
Ga mm a rays. 562- 563
Gantry cranes, 579-580
Gar m ents, banging, 603
Gas(cs). See also Liqui fied gas; Liquified petroleum
gas
t1ammable, classification of, 679
haw rds
clea nin g and purging t1ammable gas piping
systems, 6•12
container safegu ,uds, 634, 636 - 637
container storage location and , 639- 642
of nonfla mm ab le medic al gas system s,
642-644
overview of, 633
for be,1ti11g, 152- 153
oxidizing, classificat ion of, 680
properties of, 633
regulators of, for ho l-work operations, 779
sto rage of, 634
\·ehicles powe red b)', for materi als handling,
573- 576
Gas absorption srs tem s, 168
Gas con tainers
cer tification of, 637
nonll amrna ble m edical, 642-644
sa feguards for, 634, 636-637
storag e loca tions for, 639-642
types of, 634, 635
Gas-burning ap pliance , 638
Gates, accessibility require ments for, 368-37 1
Ga uges, to meas ure lire-protect ion coating
th ickness, 75
General access gra\'it}' chutes, 555
General contn1ctors, 354- 355
Genera l industrial occupanC)', 518
Genera l storage. See Storage occupancies
Generated atmosphe res, for furn aces, 746- 748
Index
Geot hermal systems, 63- 64
for he ating. 154
Gerbs, 723
Girde rs, 72, 73
Gr.1ss ha zards. See also Wildfires
combustible materia ls near, 31
inspecting bui ldings for, 381-383
inspect ion etique tte and use of findings on,
383- 384
0\'Cr\'iCWof, 376
Grnl'i t)' tanks , for water storage, 241
Grav ity tra nsfer, of rlammable and co mbus tible
liquid , 627
Grnvit)' wa ·te chu te }' te111s
charac teristics and types of, 554-5 55
chu te service loading rooms, 556
protect ion of, 555- 556
protection of ch ute di charge rooms, 556-557
Grnvily-pneu 111 at ic waste-handl ing S)'Stc111s, 555,
557-55 8
Gree n roofs, 58
Gree n technolo gies. Sec Sustainable des ign and
green technologie s
Ground suc tion tanks, for water storage , 241- 242
Gro un d -fault circ uit interrupters (GFCls) , 137
Gro unding
a nd bond ing, 133- 135
equipment and method s for, 135- 136
Group darcare homes, 418- 4 19, 420
Hafni um , 672- 673. See al~oCo mbu stible metal s
Hail resistance, of roof assemblies, 85
Halocarbon agents
for clean agent extinguishing systems, 313-3 14
safety con iderations, 314-3 15
tfo logcnated agent portable ex tinguishers, 330, 331,
332,333
J-falogenated exti nguishi ng agents (halons), 304,
306,307
Hanginggarmen ts, 603
Hazardous areas
in a ,nbut.,tory healthcare facilities, 439
in apa rt ment bu ildings, 474
in business occupa ncies, 513
in detention and correctional facilities, 451
In educa tiona l occupancie s. 415- 4 16
electrical srstems and, classes and divisions of,
139, 141-142
in healthcare facilit ies, 423- 424
mar ker s for industr ial vehicle typ e an d,
572- 573
in mercantile occupancie s, 506
radioactive materia ls in, 568
in residential board and care facilities,
491 - 492
in \'chicles and vessels, 545-546
Hazardous mat eri als. See also Sustain,1ble design
an d gree n techno logies
,1llow,1blequantiti es and co ntr ol are.1s for,
682-687
841
 Index
I·fowrdo us materiills (l.01,rd.)
among building contents, classifirntion of,
12- 15
applicable codes requirements for, 677-678
identification ilnd classification of, 678- 681
in industrial occupancies, 521-522
knowledge ilbOul, 5
N FPA 704 ident ification system for, 610- 613
oil}'waste and rag · as, 25-26
OYerviewof, 677
protection from
admini strntiw procedures and, 690
egress requirements and, 688
fire alarm ,111ddetection covernge for,
688-689
fire separation for, 688
fire suppression and, 688
hazard identification signs and , 690
height ,rnd ,1rea limit,llions illld, 687
spill control and secondary containment
for, 689
ventilation and, 689-690
reccil'ing and storing of, 57 1
in storage occupancies, 534
classification of, 258-26 0
industrial trucks for, 534-53 5
Hazardous processes, in storage ocrnpanci es, 535
Hawrds, of solar panel S)'Slerns, 62
Health hazard ratings, of materials, 610- 613
HealthcMe facilities
defend-in-place theoq ', 422-4 2-1
definition of, 422
lire protect ion for, 433-436
means of egress for, 432-433
patient protection in, 425- 432
building u e issue and, 430- 432
corridor separation and, 425-426
smoke barr ier compa rtmentalion and,
427- •129
spaces open Io the corridor and, 426- 427
Heat detectors
coverage requirements, 200-201
local ion of, 207, 208
performance of, 206-207
spacing of, 207-2 IO
temperature classification and color code for,
208
t)'pes of, 205- 206
He,11pumps, 157
Heat transfer lluid (IITF) si1ste111s,782- 7!14
Heating appliances, in lodging or rooming houses,
481-482
Heating si•sterns
building size and, 150
chimney and vent connectors for, J 59- 161
clearances for, 157
combustion .iir for, 158
distribution of, 156- 157
equipmeul for, 155- 156
fuel types for, I 5 1- J54
842
overview of, I,19
safrty controls for, 158- 159
visible building conditions risking CO hna rds
and, 162
Hcat-ulilization equipment. S,i.:a lw Boilers;
Furnaces; O,·ens, industrial
combustible materials and, 744
combustion controls for
automatic versu · supervised manual,
740- 74 1
burn er management S}'Slem·, 734
t>quipment fuel piping, 737-7 38
fons, 736-737
llame safegu,1rds, 739- 740
prcignition pu,gc, 734- 736
fuel gas pressure regulators and fuel ga
pressure switches fo,; 738
in pection, te ting, ,md maintenance of,
742-7 43
listing of safe!)'devices fur, 7•1l
location oJ; 7311
overview oC 731- 732
trained operators for, 741- 742
1leavr duty mobile equipment. See also ~hlterials-
handling systems
corwerors, 580-58 1
common fire mu ·es in, 58 1- 583
dr,1glines,111dcrnnes, 577-5 80
Hea,,· timber constructio n, 95-9 7
High explosive rna1cri;1I, 709
High hazard
of building contents, 13- 15
definition of, 90
High lrn2;1rd occupandcs, porlilble lire
extinguishers for, 324- 325
High resistivity 111
ateri,1I, spray apparatus and,
762- 763
High-hazard industrial occupancr, 518
Highlr- toxic materials, 68 1
High-pressure, compressed gas-drive n systems
with stored waler
compressed gas cylinders for, 278, 284- 285
waler cylinders for, 285
lligh -prcssure, pump-<lriven waler mist S)' lems,
288,289
IIigh-rise buildings
delinilion of, 539
in ·pection of, 548- 549
Highw,1)'Ilares or fuses, 7 J6, 7 17
Hoarding, as hazard, 32
Home ignition zone, wildfires and, 378-380
Horizontal exits, in detention and correctional
fodlitics, 449
Horizontal struclurnl members, 72- 75
Hoe
for hot-work operations, 779
~m,111 , for general stornge occupancie , 596
Hose reels
for special agent extinguishing systems, 301,
304
 Index

Hose S)'Slems.See nlsa Standpipe systems material storage and handling, 2 1- 22

automatic sprinkler S)'Stems and, 267, 268 operational neatness, cleanliness, and
for hotels, 464 orderliness, 23
for industria l occupancies, 525 outdoor, 30-32
Hose threads, of automatic sprinkler systems, problems, 23- 25
267-268 at conslruction sites, 103
Hospital storage, of radioactiw materials, 567 controlling combustible dust explosions and,
Hot smoke testing, of smoke-control systems, 186, 652
187 for educational occupancies, •I 15
Hot waler boiler , I55 fire safe!)' in explosives mixing plants and, 71 1
Hot water hc.11ing S)'Slems, 157 for industrial occupancies, 523
Hot work ha7ards for mercantile occupancies, 504
during alterations, 107- 108 mitigating combustible metal fires and,
at con truction sites, 104 658- 66 1
Hotels in storageoccupancies, 535
definition of, 458 HTF (heat transfer lluid) systems, 782-7 84
fire dri.11sin, 464 Humjdification, static electricity and, I.J2
fire protection system requirements for Hybrid mixtures, combustible du t explosions and,
carbon monoxjde alarms and S)'Stems,463 650- 65 1
fire alarm srstem, 463 Hydrants
suppres ion systems, 464 distance from apartmen t buildings of, 470
inspection observations for !low te ting of water mains using, 236-238
front desk and assembl)' rooms, 462 for general storage occupancies, 596
goe t room floors, 460 - 162 inspection , 238- 240, 268- 269
interior, 460-463 screw requirements, 238
me,lllsof egress, 458- 459 Hrdraulic oil- opernted equipment, 787-789
means of escape, 460 Hrd ronic heating S)'Stems, 157
service areas, 462-463 H)'droslalic pre sure testing, of water mist systems,
top floor, 460 273
HoH vork operntions Hydrostatic testing, of portable lire extinguishers,
add itional resources on, 78 1 336
controls during Hrµerba ric chambers, 644
on containers and piping, 778-779
fire watch for, 777-778 m e s (intermediate bulk containers), 623-6 24,
permit system for, 775-777 625,793
sprin klers for, 778 Ice rcmm•al,32
equipment for Ignition sources
cylinders for, 780 combustible dusts and, 651
flashback arrestors and protecti\•edevices, flammable or combustible liquids .rnd, 628-629
779- 780 pyrotechnics and fireworks and, 726
gas regulators, 779 spra)' painting and powder coaling and,
hose for, 779 763-764
torches and other tool for, 779 Incident detection S)'Slems,in road tunnels, 391,
fire incident trends for, 780- 78 1 394
overview of, 77 1-772 Incinerators, 559- 561
precautions dur ing Indoor storage, b)' industrial occupancies,
clothing and personal protective equipment, 522- 523
772-773 Industrial equipment, 138- 139
designated ,1rea for, 773 Industrial heating equipmen t, 638
subtle passages to combustibles with, Indust rial occupancies. See nlso Storage facilities or
774 - 775 occupancies
35-foot (I I- meter) rule for, 773-774 classification of, 5.17- 518
ventilation for, 773 definition of, 5 17
Housekeeping fire protection for, 523-525
for air-conditioni.11
g and ventilating S)'Stcms, fire alar m systems, 525
167 special extinguishing S)'Stems,524
and building proced ures sprink ler ystems, 524
care and maintenance, 27- 29 standpipe hose systems, 525
equipment arrangement and larou t, 2 1 water supplies and fire pumps , 524
good, principles of, 20- 23 hnardo us materials in, 52 1- 522
843
 Index

Ind ustria l occupancies (Co11rd .) !lame spr~ad and, 343

inspec tion of ofnoor s, 347-3 48
m eans of egress for, 5 18- 520 of h otels, on gues t room floors, 462
occ up an t load for, 518 oflo dging ur rooming hou ses, 478- 479
pro tection of opening , 520 of mer cantile occupanc ies, 506
ston1ge in of one- and two-family dwellings , 498
hou ·ekee ping and m aint enance, 523 of walls an d ceilin gs
indoor, 522- 523 flame retarda nt coating s for, 347
outdoor, 522 flame spread and smoke developed indices
Indu strial process haw r<ls, S. Seealso Proct'SS for, 344- 346
hazard kxti les, expa nded vin)'I, nnd cellular or
Ind ustrial vehicles, 572- 57.l foamed plastics for, 346 - 347
Inert gas age nts trim or incide ntal finish for, 347
for clean agent extin guishin g ~)'Stems, 3 J3- 314 l)'pcs an d testing o!; 3•13- J <J,J
safety consi dernl ions , 315 Int erlock , for water mist S)'Stems, 29~
lner ling com bus tible du sts, 650 Intermediate bulk containers (IBCs), 623-62 4,
Init ialing devic~s 625,7 93
for smoke-co ntro l systems, 177-178 Inter media te-pressure, pump -dr iyen waler mist
Injec tion molding machine s system s, 288-290
for plastics or rubber proc e, sing, 704 lntcrmcdiate-pre s,ur e, singlc-lluid, ompressed
Inspect ion, test ing, and maintena nce (JT/'-,1) g"s- dri Ye11S)'Stem · with stored water,
in basis of design, 358 287-288
facilities manager and, 355 Int erna l valves, for LP ga s bul k storngc plan ts, 640,
of heat-uliliw tion eq uipm ent , 742- 743 641
rcspons ibilit)' for, 359 Internet Protoco l (IP) tra nsmitt ing, for off-site fire
In spec tion letters, 39- 41 ala rm notificatio n, 219
follow-up, 37 Ioniza tion, lalic electric ity and, 142- 143
In peel ions. Seealso specificsystems or i11 s/r1/latious Iron, 676. See 11/so Combustible meta l
of build ing facilities, 12 !TIii. S,·c Inspec tion, tesli ng, and m aintenance
closing in terview for, 16- 17
const ruction classi ficatio ns ,md, 11-12 Joists, 73, 74
dail)', or ot her inter va ls for, 18- 19 bracing. 76, 78
exterior, 11 smoke de tector spaci ng along, 203-2 04
of fire dctccUon and alarm S)'Slems, 15, fun ction boxe s, electrical faults in, 131
227- 228
of fire suppre ssion equ ipment, 15 K facto r, for sprinklers, 252, 594-5 96
follow-up letter document ing, 37 Ke)'-opcratcd manual fire alarm boxes, 199-200
in trodu ctions in, 9- IO Kinderga rtens. See Educational occupa ncies
nole lak ing durin g, 39 Kitche n facilities
obse n •ations for, l0 - 15 coo king hoo ds, exha ust due ls, and eq uipment
pre p,1ration for, 8- 9 in bu siness occ upan cies, 514-515
rcporl s on, 17-18 cleaning a11dinspection of. 28
seque nce for, l0 - 11 in educational occu pa nc ies, 416
summ ar)' oC 16-1 8 in hotels, 463
sur VC)'ing an d m,ippin g for, 16
tools for, 7- 8 Laborntor ies
ln stabilit)' r,11in gs, of ma terials, 6 10- 613, 681 in ambu lato ry healthcare facilities, 439- 440
Installa tion conlractor(s), 353 as haza rdou s areas, 4 15- 416
Insulat ion l aced-tire sto rage, 598,600
o( roofs, 82, 83 Ladde r effect, wildfires and, 382
of walls, Si Lamps, elec tric,11faults in, 132
Insurance represe nta tives, 355 Large building s, heati ng S)'Stcm s for, l 50
Integra ted S)'Sk m test ing. 363 Luge -dro p sp rinkl ers, 594, 595
Integra ted testing agents, 356 LEED Rating S)'ste m, U.S.Green Building Co uncil,
Int eriur finishes 54- 56
of apa rt ment buil dings, 47•1 l cgi,md fn bacteria, 295
of asse mbl )' occu pancies, 405- 406 Letter s, inspecti on, 39- 4 1
.iu1om,1tic spr ink ler systems and, 3·18 follow-up, 37
of de tention and correctional facilities, 45 1-452 Light ha7A1 r<lclassification, for sprinkler systems,
of educa tional occu pa ncies, 416 257

844

Light hazard occupa ncies
port, 1ble fire extinguis hers for, 324
Class A, size and placemen t for, 326-32 8
Class B, size ,md placement for, 328- 329
Lighting, for apartm ent buildings, 475
Lightning protect ion, 143- 144
Limited access building s. 538, 543. See also Specia l
t ructure s and high-ri e building s
Limited access grnvit)' chutes, 555
Limited combus tible nrnter ial
Cla~s l roof assemblies, 84
defini tion of, 90
for 'l')'PCII construction , 93
Limited finishin g work slation, 754
Limited-care facilities, 422
Linen, so iled, receptacl es for, in hea lthcare facilil"ics,
430,432
Line- tn1e heat de teclors, 205,206
Lint rem ova I, 28
Liquid sprn)' operati ons, 7_9- 761
Liquid warehouses, for ae rosols, 8 11
Liquid s. See Comb ust ible liquid s; Flarnmabl e
liquids
for at mo phe res, for furnace s, 746-7 48
Liquificd gas. See also 1.iquified petrole um gas
containers, pressure relief valve ,md pressure
regulators for, 636
stor age of, 634
Liqu ified OX)'gcn {LOX) systems, 643
Liquified pe troleum (L P) gas
bu]k plants for storage of, 639
inspec tion of, 64 1-6 42
ke)' features of, 639-640
for floor -dea nin g machines, 27
for heating, 152- 153
Lithium , 663-664. See also Alkali metals
Live loads, 72
Load-bea ring. See Bearing walls
Local app lication extingui shing S)'Slerns, 301, 302,
303
Lockups, in deten tion an d correc tional facilities,
•l57
Lodging or rooming hou es
build ing serv ices ror, 480- 482
deli nition of, 4 7 7
deteclion and alarm systems for, 483-484
lire protection srs tems for, 483- 484
interior finish, 478 - 479
prot ection of exits from, 479-480 , 481,
482
sprinkler S)'Stems for, 484
use and code require ments for, 477- 478
Longitudina l ven tilating S)'Slems , for tunnels,
394- 395
I.ow explosive material, 709
Low hazard
ofbui ldin g contents, 12- 13
definiti on of; 90
Low hazard occ upanci es, 324. See also Light hazard
occu pancies
Index
Low-pressure, pump -driven water mist srstem s,
288-2 90
Low-pressure , twin- nuid , comp ressed gas-dr iven
si•stems with store d water, 286-28 7
LP gas. See Liquified petroleum gas
Lubr icants, potenti.11hou sekeeping prob lem
with, 25
Luminairc s, electrical faults in, 132
l\fagazine , 72 1
t.lagnesium. Sfe also Combustib le rnctals
fire prote ction for, 668- 669
process hazards, 667- 668
propertie s of, 666-6 1\7
storage and handlin g of, 667
Maintenan ce
of air-cond itioning and vent ilating systems,
17 1
of bui ldings, hou sekeep ing and , 27-29
of lire alarm systems, 227 228
of fire door assemb lies, 119-1 22
indus trhll occ upancies a nd, 523
of portable tire extingui shers, 333- 336
of spray painting and powde r coaling appa ratus
and procedures, 768- 769
Main tenan ce shop, for hot-work operations, 780
Makeup air, for spray paint ing exhaust systems,
758
l\h11ls, covered, fire protec tion for, 508
Manage d facility-based voice ne tworks (MPVNs),
219,22 0
l\lanual charging systems, for incinerators, 560
.l'l'famrnlextinguishing S)1Stems, 301
l\lanual fire alarm boxes, 199-200 , 434
Manua l spra)' guns, 758- 760
Manufacturer' s represe ntati1'es, 353-354
Manufacturing process hazards
with amm onia refrigera tion S)'Stems, 791- 792
with dipping and coating finishin g si•stems, 795
with electric discharge machining, 790-791
with heal trnn sfer fluid systems, 782- 784
with hydraulic oil-operated equipm ent,
787- 789
with meta l dea nin g and plating opera tions,
784- 786
with oil quenching, 786- 787
overview o~ 782
with pa int finish ing S)'Stems,792- 794
with woodworki ng operations, 789- 790
Mapping, in in pect ions, 16
Marine parachute and signaling flares, 716
Marine water mist systems. See ti/so Water mist
systems
break tank ,rnd unloader valve recirc ulation
lines for, 291-292
freshwater or seawater transfer for,293
land -based industria l applications of, 270
system opera tiona l tests of, 275-276
Masonry chimn e)'S, for heating systems . 160-161
Ma te ria l Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), 522
845
 Index
Materia ls. See also Combustible mate rial ; Storage
occupa ncies
storage and han dling of, 2 1-2 2
for spray pa in ling and powder coating, 769
l\faterials -handling sys tems
commodil) ' classification for, 569- 570
heavy d uty mobile eq uipment for
common fire causes in co nverors, 58 1-583
COlll'C)'OrS , 580 - 581
dra glin cs and cra nes, 577- 580
materia ls and stagin g eq uipme nt for, 57J
mobile e,1uipment for
lire lrnlards of, 576-577
main tenance of, 577
overv iew of, 571 - 573
t)•pes of, 573-576
overvi ew of, 569
for scrap metal, 583 - 584
stora ge arrn ngem en ts for, 570-5 71
for textile plant operation , 58 1I
Max imum a llowable quantity (11 ,fAQ), of hazardous
m aterials , 682 - 687
Maximum explos ion pre ssur e, of du sts, 649
Male o verspnl)' collector s, 756
Me,u1s of egress. See also Mea ns of escape
accessibi lity ro ut es and, 367-373
all -inclusive inspect ions of, 338
for amb ulatorr healthcare facilities , 438-439
for ,ipart me nt buildin gs, 470 - 471
for asse.mb lr occupancies, 405 -40 6
for bu siness occupancies, S 10-5 12
for darc a rc facilili es, 418
for d ayca re occ up ancies, 419
definin g, 339-34 0
for clelention and co rre ctional facilities,
445-446,449-451
occupa ncr cla ssification a nd, 446
for educat ional occupancies, 413-415
emergencr, for ro,1d tunn ds, 388, 397- 398
familiarity in ins pe ctions ot~ 338-339
for famil)' daycare homes , 420
for group darcare homes, 420
for hea lthca re facilitie s, 432-433
for indu strial occup an cies, 5 18- 520
inspection m ethod s and aspects of
quantit atiw versus qua litative, 341
ro le playing of, 341
timing o f, 34 1-342
visual ob servatio n s of, 340
inspection types for, 337- 338
life safety and , 337
m,1ximum allowable qua ntily o f hazardous
materials a nd , 688
for mercan tile occupancies, 505-506
for P}'rotechnic process build ings, 728
rank -ordering code violation s of, 342
rc inspec tio ns o f, 338
for res iden tial board and ca re"occ upancies
large facilities, 489
small facilitie s, •188- 489
846
for storage occupancies, 529- 533
for vehicles and ,·essels. 545
i\fra n s of escape
fro m hote ls, •160
fro m lodging or rooming houses, 479 - 480,
481,482
from one- and two -fami l)' dwellings, 497- 498
Mec ha nica l charging sys lems, for incinerator , 560
Mechanical w,iter mist system co mpon ents, firs!
time inspect ion and acceptance testing
of, 274
.I>ledica I gasc
safeguards for, 643-644
tn1es of, 642-643
i\kdi cal practkes . See Busine s occupancies
M edium-volt age eq uipme nt, 139
l\ lembrnne stru ctu res
definition of, 538-539
in spec tio n of, 547
i\lerrnntile occupancie
character istics o f, 503-5 04
d efinition o f, 503
fire prot cclion tor, 507-508
inspeclion of, 504- 506
interior fini sh, 506
mean s of egress, 505- 506
occupa nl load, 504-505
prote ction of hazards, 506
protection of openings , 506
Me.tat chi mn e)'S, for heatin t::S)'Stcms, 161
Metal cleaning and plati ng operat ions
fire prote c tion for, 784 - 786
process de sc ription and hazards of, 784
Metals . See also Com bus tible metals
key tempera tures of, 656
MFVNs (manage d facility-based \'oicc networks)
for o ff-site fire alarm not ification, 219,220
.i\fo,ed trpes of cons truction, 99
Mob ile compa ct records storage, 607
i\fodel rocket motors, 721
Moderate haz,1rd occ upancies, por table fire
extinguishers for, 324
Mo di fied di scharge test, of water mi st systems, 296
Moisture, d ust explosions and , 647
Molding, on walls and ceilings, 347
J\lonitor nozzles, inspection s of, 241
i\lonthl)' inspect ions, 18-19
i\·lotor vehi cle termina ls, for exp los ives transfe rs,
713 - 714
Motors, 138-139, 140
MSDS (Maler ial Safety Data Sheet ), 522
i\lultiloading pn eu matic waste-ha ndling S)1Stems,
555
Multiple gas ve nts into a single flue, 161
Multiple -cham ber incinerators, 559
Munici pal fire alarm sys tem s, notilica tion
sta nd ards for, I 93 - 195
Na K (sodium - potass ium) allors, 663. See also
Alka li m etals

Natural gas. Se<'alsoLiquified pe troleum gas
for heat ing, 153
Nitrocellulose, 702
Noisemakers, trick, 721
Nonbeari ng walls, 72
Noncombust ible materials
alternate definitions in Type I cons tructi o n
for, 92- 93
definition of, 90
for Type II co nstru ctio n, 93
Nowltics , pyrotechnic, 721
No zzles
monitor, in pect ion of, 24 l
for water mist systems, 274, 298
Nud~ar criticaJily incid ents, 564-5 65
Occupancies. Sec r1/sospecijicocrnpm,cy types
da silication of, 10
permitted interio r finish class ifica tions and ,
345- 346
Occupant load
for apa rt ment bu ildings, 471
for asse mb lr occupancies, 404- 405
for daycare occupancies, 419
for detention and correc tion al facilities, 446,
448- 449
for ed ucat iona.loccupancies, 413
for hotel front desk and assembl)' rooms, 462
for industrial occupancie s, 518
for merc antil e occupancies, 504- 505
for p)•rotechnics manufacturing sites, 727
for resident ial board and care occupa ncies,
489 - 490
for storage occupancies, 529
Occupant notif ica tion
b)' CO detectors, 225
b)' fire alarm , 192- 193
audibl e app liances for, 212-213
visib le appliance s for, 213- 2 l 7
Oil , for heat ing, 151-152
Oil qu enchin g, 786-78 7
Oil-fired hea ting eq uipm ent, safety contro ls for,
158- 159
Oily waste and rngs, 2.S-26
One - and tll'o -fomil)' dll'elJings
characleri tics of, 496 - 497
dciinil ion of, 496
lire proteclion for, 498- 499
in ter ior finish of, 498
means of escape from, 497- 498
volunt ar )' inspections of
coa l- and wood- bu rning stow s, 500
detection equip m ent, 501
fire escape p lan, 501- 502
fire extinguishers, 501
residential sprink lers, 501
storage , 500- 501
ut ilities, 500
On-s ide tire storage, 598, 701
On-tread tirestorngc, 598,5 99,702
Index
Open struc tur es
definitio n of, 538
inspection of, 540-54 1
Open web steel joists, 73-7 4
Ope n web wood tru sses, 73
O pen -face prny booths, 752
Open-floor spray ing, 755
Opening protective s, in fire subdivisions
i11apartmen t building s, 473
in busin ess occupancie s, 5l2-513
in det en tion ;ind correct ional facili ties, 45 I
horizontal
defi nition of, I 13
lire door assemblies for, I 13- 122
fire shutters for, 122- 123
fire windows and vision panels in, 123- 124
sills for, 124
in ind ustria l occupancies, 520
in me rcantile occ upa nc ies, 506
overview of, 1 12- 1 13
in stornge occupancies, 533
vertica l
escala lor s and, 127-128
floor /ceilin g penetrations and, 124-126
in residential board and care facilities, 490
stair enclosures, shafts, and chu tes and,
126- 127
Open -loop geot hermal S}'Stems,64
Open-plan build ings, for educa tional occupancie s,
417
Open-shelf records storage, 607
Opcral ing instructions, wri tten , for heat- utiliz ation
eq uip ment, 742
Operational neatne ss, 23-24 . Sec r1lso
Housekeeping
Operations personnel, 355
Operators, for heat -utilization eq uipm ent, 741-742
OPR (Owner's Project Requirements), 352,
356- 357
Optical flame detection, for spra)' painting and
powder coa ting operations, 76 1-762
Orderline ss, 23- 24. Seealso Housekeeping
Ordinar)' hazard classification
of bui lding contents, 13
porlable fire ext ingu isher s for, 324
Class A, size and placement for, 326-328
C lass B, size and placeme nt for, 328-329
for sprinkler syslems, 257
0 rganic peroxides, 680, 702
Outdoor housek eep ing, 30- 32
Outdoor storage , 522, 606
Ou tlet boxes. eleclrical fauils in, 13 I
O ut -of sigh t feature s, defi nin g means of egress and,
339- 340
Ovens, ind ustr ial. See also Heat-utilization
equip ment
Class/\, so h•ent issues and lire protection for,
744-746
explosion relief \·al1·es for, 744
location of, 734
847
 Index

Ovens, indus trial (Contd.) fire h azard ratings for, 258- 259
overview o f, 732-73 3 ge neral uses of, 69 2-693
preig 11ition purge oJ; 734- 736 life-sa fel)' requirement s for, 693- 696
Ow ner's Project Require me nts (OPR) , 352, in m erca nt ile occup ancie s, 503
356- 357 opern tion ca tegories for, 702- 703
Oxjdizer s, 680 opern tio n hawrds for, 703 - 706
Oxidiz ing ga ses, 680 organic peroxides and , 702
OxidiziJ 1g ma teria l, 709 ow rview ot; 692
Ox)'gen- fuel gas cutting and welding srs tem s, 638 sto rage pro tectio n for, 698- 702
Plat form con,lruct ion, 99
P&JD. SeePipi ng and instrum en tation diagram Platform lifts, access ibi lity require men ts for,
Packing materials, hou sekee ping a nd, 26 37 1-372
P,1i11t , housekee pin g and, 25 Plu g fuses, J36
Pallets Plutoniu111, 675. Sl'c also Com lrn stib lc m eta ls
cnc,1psulat ion of, 593 P11c u111,\l k pu111p,, Jur wale, mi, t ,y lcms, 289,293
fire hazard rating s for, 259 Pn eu m atic waste-handling srs tems, 555, 557-55 8
general storage of, 589-590, 591 Poinl ex tra ct \'c ntilating srste rns, for tunn els, 394,
idle, storage ot~ 597-598 395
indoor storage oJ; 22, 523 Point of safe l)', in residcnlhi l bo ard and ca re
outdoor storage of, 30 facil ilie,, 487
for rub brr tires, 700- 701 Pol)'l•inr l chloride ( PVC) -coated fobr ic, 86
Pan elb o,1rds, elec trical foult s in, 131- 132 Portabl e co nt ainers
Pap er, ro lled, 587 - 588 , 60 1- 60 2 for lhi111111 ab le a nd combu stible liquid storage ,
P,1rticle size , co m bustib le d ust exp losio ns and , 647 624 - 626
Par t)' wa ifs, 78 Po rtab le lire extinguis he rs
PD pu mp s. SeePosit ive di sphKcme nt pump s for mnbulatoq 1 heallh care faci lities, 440
Peak flow condi tion s, testing lire pumps un der, 2•16 in apartme nt buil dings, 474-475
Pe ndent sprin kle rs, 251, 252 for t1 c mb ly occu pancies, 4 10- 411
Per mi ts, for hot -work operations, 775-777 in bu incss occupa ncies, 516
Perox ides, orga nic, 680, 702 dist ribut ing, 325
Perso na l care , b)' res idential board and ca re for Class A hazards, 325-328
occu pan cies, 485 - 486 for C lass B h azards, 328 - 329
Pe rsonal eq uipme nt, 7 for C lass C hazard s, 330
Per so na l protcct i\•e eq uip ment s (PPE), 772 - 773 for .lass D hazards, 330
Perso nnel pr ote ction, for sprnr p,1inli11g and m oun tin g, 325
powder coa ling. 769 - 770 for genera l storage occup ancies, 596
Ph)'s ical co ndi tion , of lire ins pectors , 2- 3 for hea lth car e focilit ics, 435
Piers , 538 , 54 1 for ho tels, 464
Pill. Test, for carp e ts, 348 inspec tio n, 111 ,1intena ncc, and hrdrost ,ll ic
Pip ing a nd io lrumen tatio n diagra m (P&ID) te sting, 333 - 336
of low -pressure, twi n- fluid, com presse d gas- for mercant ile occupancies, 507
drive n S)'Stcms with stored water, 286 for one - a nd two-fa mil)' dwcUing s, 50 1
of pr e-engineered systems, 28•1, 285 owrv iew of, 323
of pump -d riven wat er mi st syste m s, 289, 290 reco mm ended m arking system for, 335
of water mist srste ms, 274 for ro.1d tunnel s, 388, 396
Pipin g sys tem s selectin g, 323-324
for co m pr es ·ed gas, 636 - 637 for slornge occu pancies, 536
for flamm ab le gas, cleaning and purgi ng ot~ type s of, 330-332, 333
6'!2 Por table hea ting units, 156
for hea t-u tilizatfon eq uipm en t, 737 -7 38 Portable tank s, 623-624, 625
hot -1,·o rk operations on , 778 - 779 Po sit ive d isplace m ent (PD) pump s
Pito t tub e, 8, 237-238 for llamma ble and combu st ible liquid s,
Plank -,m d -bram framing, 99 627
Pia tic pall ets , indoor storage of, 22 for water 1111 -1 system s, 27 1, 289,290
Pla stic-media sto rag e, 607 br ea k t,rnk s an d un loader valw
Pia tics rec irc ulation lin es for, 29 1- 292
cellular or foame d, for wall a nd ce iling fini sh es, co nt ro ller s on, 29 1
346 - 34 7 Pota ssi um, 661 - 662. See also Alkali m etals
class ifica tion of, 696 Powder coating, 750-75 1. s~e also Spra)' paintiog
co mm odi ty cbssilicat ions for, 587- 588 and powd er coal ing

848
 Index

Power-generating equipment PV {photm·ohaic) panel systems, 60-62

sustainab le design and, 60- 63 for heating, 154
PPE (personal protective equipments), 772-773 as potential ignition source and obstruction lo
Preaction sprinkler systems, 251 fire fighters, 85- 86
types of, 253-254 for renewable energy, I 4S-146
Pre-engineered water mi I .ystems P)•ramid lire storage, 598, 599
testing, 288 Prrophoric mater ials, 680
Preignition purge, of heat-utilization equipmen t, P)·rotechnic articles, 722-723
734- 736 Pyrotechnics and fireworks
Pre,s urc and temperature relief valw, l 59 civilian, other than fireworks, 716- 7 17
Pressure reducing \'aIves, for water S)'Slems, co1npo ition of, 723
235 - 236 consumer fireworks, 7 17-7 18, 7 19
Pressure regulators inspection guidelines for retail sales and
for gas conta iners, 634 , 636 storage ot: 728 - 729
Pre, 111t' relid valves d isplar fireworks, 718, 720
boiling liquid or expanding v,1porexplosions magazines for, 721
ancl, 637 emergc11C)'plan for, 728
for gas containers, 634, 636 ignition sources for, 726
sprn)' painting and powder coaling explosions inspection of
and ,7 65-7 66 cit'anliness and, 725
for water mist systems, 294 guidelines for manufacturing sites, 725
Pressure rise rate, dust explosions and, 649 model rocket motors, 721.
Pressure tanks, for water storage, 242-243 novelties and trick noisemakers, 721
Pressurization systems overview of, 7 I 5- 7 16
performance testing, 183 process buildi11g s, 722
for smoke containme nt, 174-175, 176 egress requirements for, 728
Primers, for explosives or bl,isting agents, 709 pyrotechnic articles, 722 - 723
Private water supplies, 23 1-233 quant ity and occupancy limits for, 727
llow testing. 236 salute poll'der, 723
Process buildings, for p)'rotcchnics and fireworks, separation distances for, 726-727
722 storage requirements, 727
Process hazards, I03. Sec also Manufacturing P)'fO),,,'lin, 702
process hazards; specifitprocesshazards
of combustible metals, 665, 667 - 668, 670, Quarterlr inspections, 18- 19
672 - 673 Quick re ponsc {QR)spr inklers, 251-2S2
Projected beam smoke detectors, 20 1- 202
Projection rooms Raceways
special safeguards for, 408 electrical foults in, 130
Propellant charging and pump rooms, for aerosols, Rack storage
806 - 808 tire hnard ratings for, 259 - 260
Propellant tank farms, for aerosols, 80 1-805 for general storage, 590-S92
PropeUants, 709 for rubber ti res, 700- 70 I
Protected 'l)•pe III construction, 9S Radiant-energy detectors, 2 10
Protection of openings. SeeOpening protectives Rildioactivc materials
Protective atmospheres, for furnaces, 746 - 748 characteristics of, 562-563
Protec live devices hazards analysis reports, 564- 565
for hot-work operat ions, 779-780 monitoring equipment, 562, 563
Public switched telephone network (PSTN) prefirc plans for, 565-566
for olf-site fire alarm notification, 219 protection from, 567- 568
Public water supplies, 231 radiation machines, 566
t1ow testing of mains, 236-241 shipping and storage
Pull-stations, manual. for lire alarm S)1Stems, containers for, 566
199 - 200 in hospitals, 567
Pump-discharge cun,e , 246- 248 transportat ion facilities for, 567
Pump-driven water mist S)'Slems, 288-290 warning symbol for
Pumping srste m new, 564
for flammable and combustible Uqnids, 627 st;lJldard, 563
Purge-in/p urge-out method, for proteclil'e Radioactive metals. Sec also Combustible metals
atmospheres, 747 fire protection for, 675
Purlins, bracing, 76, 78 overview of, 673-674
849
 Index

Radioactive metal s (Co11td.) info rmation inclu d ed in , 35-37

plutonium, 675 o f insp ections, 17-1 8
thorium, 674- 675 writi ng, 34
ur anium, 674 gu ideli nes for, 38- 39
Rafters, 72, 73 Reside nt ial bo ard ,111dca re occu pancies
Rail-bound Gantry cranes, 580 characteris tics of, 487-488
Ramps co mpart rncntation ot; 490- 491
accessib ility requ ire ments for, 37 1 definition of, 485
Rate-compen sated fixed-temperatur e heat detec tion and alarm S)'Stems for, 492
dete c tor s, 205, 206 evacuation capabil it)', 486- 487
R,ued enclosures facilit)' cla,si fication , 486
for air-co ndit ioning and ventil ating ,ys tem s, fire suppression eq u ipment, 493-•194
166 hazardous a reas
Rated flow condi t ions , testing fire pump s under, in large facilities, 491- 492
246 in small facilities, 49 I
Rate-of -r ise heat detec tor s, 205, 206 means of egress from
Rating s in large facilit ies, 489
for ope nin g protectiv es occupant load, 489-490
horizontal, 113-1 I 7 in small facilitie s, 488- 489
for t)·pcs of cons tru ctio n , 90-91 operating features, 4~4
Recipro ca tin g screw injectio n mo lding machine, person al care ,·er,us health ca re by, 485- 486
704 pro tection of ,·er tica l openings, 490
Recircu latin g srstems. Set•also Air rccirrnlation Residential occupanci es
for commercia l cooking equipm en t, 826 smoke alar m requirement s for, 223
Recommissioning process, 364-365. See also wildfire hazards to, inspe ction etiquette and use
Co mmi ssioning proce ss of in spection findin gs for, 383- 384
Record keeping Residues, of spray painting and powder coat ing,
cross-refe renced filing S)'Stem , 41- 42 769
electronic, 42 Retail disp la)', aerosol prod uct storage for, 8 I 2
Record of Comp leti on Retrocom mi ssioning p rocess, 364- 365. See also
for fire al,mn syste m doc um en tatio n, 196- 197 Com mi ssionin g process
Reco rd s protection Reu se of building material s, 57-58
in b usiness occupancies, 513 Road tunn els
Records storage categor ies of, 387
o p tions for, 607 docume nt ation , inspec tor's review of, 388- 389
risk factors, 607-608 e mergenC) ' egress for, 397- 398
vaults for, 608 e mer gency venti lat ion sr stems for, 394-395
Recycling di sp osal env ironmental cond ition s with in, 390
in bu siness occupa ncies, 5 13-5 14 fire protection and life safet)' S)'Stems in,
Reduced p ress ur e zone (RPZ) backllow 386- 387,39 1- 398
p reven ter, 235 fire p rotection srs tem requirements for,
Refrigerant s, h azards of, I67 392-393
Refrigerated stora ge, 602-603 firefighting S)'Stem s for, 396-3 97
Refuse di spo sal. See Waste d isp osal gene ral overview of facilities and systems in ,
Regi stered design pro fessiona ls (RD Ps) 387- 388
commi ssioning proce ss ,111d,354 mo nitorin g and co n11nun ica tion s in, 391,394
Rehabili tat io n . See Buildin g rehabilitation poten tial lire conditions within, 389- 390
Remote supervising station s Roll pape r, 587-588 , 601-602
lire a larm notifi cation sta nd a rds for, 194- 195 Roofing m ater ials, h azar dou s, I05- I 06
Remote-controlled release Roof s, 82- 86
in deten tio n and corre ctional o ccupancies, noncomb ustib le, wildfire s a nd, 380, 38 I
446-44 8 Rooming hou ses . See Lodg ing o r roomin g hou ses
Renewable energy elec trical S)'Stems, 145- 148 Rotary kil n incinerat ors, 559
Rcno , ·,llions to bui ldings. See Building Rubber
rehabilitation classification of, 696-6 97
Reports ge n era l uses of, 692- 693
draft of, 39 lifc-sa fet)' requ iremen ts for, 693-696
final no tice, 38 operation categor ies for, 702-70 3
follow- up inspection letlcr, 37 operation hazar d s for, 703-7 06
format for, 34- 35 overview of, 692

850
 Index

storage protection for, 698 - 702
ti res, 587-5 88, 598- 601
Rubbers
fire lrnzard rat ings for, 258-259
Rubbish dis posal. Sec Waste dispo sal
Safe haven s
for explosives tran sfers, 7 13- 7 H
Safety cans
for flammable anJ combu stible liqu id stornge ,
625 - 626
S:1foty contro l testing
of heat -utilizat ion eq uipme nt , 743
Safety de sign Jata form
fur solve nt "tmosphe re oven s, 745
Safety de, ·ices
for heat -utilization equipment, listing oC 741
Safety point
in residential board and care facilities, 487
S,11fy ports
in deten tion and corr ectional facilities,
450 - 451
Salute powder, fur pr rotechnics , 723
in pc ction of
general con siderations , 723-725
Scho ols. SeeEducational occup,lllcie s
Scrap met al, han dling of, 583- 584
Security
for und ergro un d operations, 110
Security gates
in edu cation al occup anci es, 414
Selected spacing, for smoke detector s, 202
Self-ignition tempera tur e
offl amma ble and co mbu stible liquids , 6 17
Semiconductor CO detecto rs, 225
Sem i-enclosed conv eyors, 580,581
Sens itivity, of explosives or blastin g agen ts, 709
Shafts, fire prot ection for, 126- 127
Shear walls, 78
Ship ping materials
poten tial housekeeping problem with, 26
Sho pping ma lls, fire protection for, 508
Sh rcdde rs, of waste, 559
Shutdowns , of hea l-utilization equipment, operator
intervention ,rnd, 742
Shutters
ope rable, for s111 oke-con tro l sr stem s, 179
Sidewa ll sprinkl ers, 25 1
Signa ling devices, prod ucing s111 oke , 7 16, 718
Sign s
accessibility require ments for, 373- 374
for hazard ident ification, 690
Sills, for op ening prote ctives, 124
Site plan , 16
Sliding do ors
in de tent ion and corr ectional facilities, 449
Small build ings, heat ing ystcms for, 150
Smoke alar111s
in apart men t building , 472
installa tion of, 223-225
in lodging and roomin g ho uses, 483- 484
for one- an d two -fomily dwellings, •198-499
for res iden tial board and care occupanci es,
492,493
reside ntial requir ement s for, 223
smoke detectors 1·ersus, 222
Smoke barri ers, 177
in am buh1tory hea lth care facilities, 441-442,
443
in de tention and corre ct ion al facilities
com partme ntalion of, 453-454 , 455- 456
in ed ucat ional occupa ncies, 414- 4 15
in health care facilities, 423- 424
co mp artmen tatio n of, 427-42 9
corridor sep arMion and , 425- 426
in residential boa rd and care facilities, 491
Smoke da 111 pers, 169- 170
in health care facilities, 428 - 429
Smoke detec tors
concea led, 205
covernge requirements , 200- 201
for daycare occupancie , 420
lire alarm system prote ction and , 198
ionin tion
rndioact i,•e materials in, 564
location ot: 202- 205
smo ke alar m s ver sus, 222
types of, 201- 202
Smoke develope d ind ex
of interior finishes, 344- 345
Smoke layer height, 176, 182-1 83
Smoke signaling device, , 716, 7 18
Smoke-co ntainm ent systems, 174-1 75
Smoke -control system s
for air-conditionin g and ventilating system s,
170
autonrnti c test ing, 189- I 90
commission testing
com pone nt inspection , 1.81
fun ctional testing, 181-1 82
overview of, 181
perfo rma nce test ing, 182- 187
sequence of ope rations testing, 182
design obj ecti\ •es, 174- 176, 177
doc um en tat ion , 187
equ ipment , 176- 180
co ntr ol pan els, 179- 180
damper s, 178-179
fans, 178
initia ting devices, 177-1 78
op erabl e do or s and win dows, 179
smo ke barriers, 177
manu al testi ng, 187- 189
for on e- and two-fam ily dwe llings, 501
overvi ew of, 173- 174
perio dic tes ting
au tomatic, 189-190
doc u rnentation, 190
manu al, 187- 189
Smo ke-ma nagement system s, l 75-1 76

851
 Index
Smoking
in ambulatoq • healthcare facilities, 444
in asse mblr occ up ancies, 407- 408
control of
inspection of, 29- 30
in residentia l boar d and care facilities, 494
waste disposa l, 5 13- 5 14
Snow removal, 32
Socie tr of Fire Pro tection Engineers (SFPE), 79
Sodium , 66 1. See also Alkali metals
Sod ium - potas sium (NaK) allors, 663. Seealso
Alkali metals
Soiled linen contain ers, in hea lthcare facilities,
•130, 432
Solar panel S)'Stems, 60- 62
Solar voltaic si•stems, 145- 146, I54
Solid fuel sto,·cs, 156
Solid fuels
for cooking, 828- 829
for heating, 154
Solid piling storage, 589, 590
Solid web woo d trusses, 73
Solids, flammab le, 680
Solventborn e coatings, 749-750
Solven ts
for cleaning, flammable , 27-28
hazard s, Class A ovens and , 744-746
Space heaters, 444
Spark dete ctors, 2 10
Specia l agent extinguishing si•stems
design t r pcs for, 30 I
in indu strial occupa ncies, 524
inspection and mainte nance
of carb on dioxide S)'Stcms, 303- 304, 305
dr)' chemi cal, 306, 308, 309
of halogenated S)'Stems, 304, 306, 307
m·erview of, 303- 304
of wet chemical S)'Stems, 308, 3 10
overvi ew of, 300
Special amusement build ings, safeguards for, 409
Specia l ind ustrial explosive materi als, 709
Special purp ose industr ial occup anc)', 518
Special stru ctures and high -r ise buildings
characte ristics of, 539
defin itions of, 538- 539
inspectio n or
high-rise bu ildings, 548- 549
limited access bu ildings, 5•13
membn me stru ctures, 547
ope n structure s, 540- 54 1
pier s, 54 1
ten ts, 547- 548
towers, 541- 543
und erground stru ctu res, 543-545
w hicles and ,·essels, 545- 546
water-su rroun ded, 546- 547
Specific grav il)', flammable and combustible liquid s
and , 6 15
Spontaneous ignition tem perature, 617
Spot· t)'pe smoke detectors, 20 1- 202
852
Spra)' painting and powde r coating
characteristics at; 749
exhau st srstcms for, 757- 758
fire protection for, 766- 768
ma naging fire risk with
explosion prevention and pressure relief
venting for, 765- 766
ignitio n sou rces and, 763- 764
prewnt ing lrecling the fire, 764-7 65
process isolation for, 765
materials for
solvenlbornt\ 749-750
waterbo rne, 750
open -Ooor sprnring. 755
opera tions
inspec tion of apparat us and procedu res,
768
maintenan ce and, 768-769
personnel protec tion, 769-7 70
stora ge and hand ling of ,nat er ials and
residues, 769
I mining for, 768
m·erspra)' collection
chara cterist ics of, 755- 756
clrr-filter co llectors for, 756- 757
maze (banle) collectors for, 756
water wash collectors for, 757
pote ntial hou sekeeping problem with, 25, 26
process lrnzards with, 794
sprar appara tus for
electrostatics in, 76 1
high resistivit)' materi als and, 762- 763
manua l ,·ersus automatic, 758- 761
optical flame detec tion for, 761- 762
spra)' booths for, 75 1- 752
en closed, 752- 754
op en-face, 752
spra)' rooms for, 754- 755
Sprinkler S)'Stems, automatic. See also Sprinkl ers;
Standpipe srste ms
for aeroso l produ ct storage, 8 11-8 12
alarms from suppr ession of, 2 10-2 11
in apar tment buildin gs, 465, 470- 47 1, 474- 475
in assembl)' occupanci es, 410 - 41 1
in business occupancies, 515
control ,·,,Ives and , 269
in darca rc occupancie s, 4 19-42 0
deluge, 253-254
in deten tion and cor rectiona l facilities, 453
dr )'•pipe, 252-253
in edu cational occupancie s, mean s of egress
and ,4 13
foam, 255- 256
in general storage occup ancies, 592-593
haza rd categor ies and, 257- 258
in healthcare facilities, 424, 435
in spaces ope n to the corri dor, 426- 427
in hotels, 464
hot-work operat ions and , 778
for industr ial occupa ncies, 524
 Index

inspection of Steel joists, 74

adequate level of protection and, 263-266 Steiner Tunnel Test, 3•14-345
antifreeze S)'Stems for, 262- 263 Slorage
overview ot 260-261 of alkali metals, 664
spare sprinklers for, 262, 263 in one• and lwo-famil)' dwellings, 500-501
spot checking of, 26 2 outdoor, 522,606
interior finishes and, 348 of P)'rolechnics and fireworks, 727
in lodging and rooming houses, 484 Stor,1ge,1m111gements
in materials-handling srstcms, 570-57 I for aerosol products, 809- 810
for mercantile occupancies, 507- 508 bulk, 588- 589
in one• and tll'o-fomil)'d\\'ellings. 499,501 carousel storage and retrieval systems, 592
oven,iew of, 250 diflerences among, 588
preaction, 253 - 25•1 fire h.izard ratings and, 259- 260
pressure tanks fur, 242 - 243 in materials-handling S)'Slems, 570-57 1
radio,Klive materials and, 564-565 p.illetized, 589- 590, 59 1
in residential board and care facilities, for plastics and rubber, 698-702
493- 494 rack, 590-592
responding tire departm ents to solid piling, 589, 590
exterior del'ices for, 268- 269 Slorage facilities or occupancies. See nlso Storage
fire depart men! connections for, 266 - 267 arrangements; Storage tanks
standpipes, 267 alarm ystems for, 536- 537
for storage occupancies, 535-536 chan1cteristic of, 527- 528
in storage occupancies, 593-596 commodity classification for, 586-588
types of, 251, 594- 596 contents of, 528 - 529
waler spray, 255 definition of, 527
wet-pipe, 252 lire Ci\USCS in, 592-593
Sprinklers. See nlso Sprinkler S)'Stems,automatic lire extinguishers for, 536
identification numbers for, 262, 263 fireprotection for,535 - 537
installation ot; firc-proteclil'e coatings and, 77 hrdra nts, hose streams, extinguishers, and
materials storage and, 21-22 standpipes, 596
type of, 25 1-252 sprinkler systems, 593
Squeeze-clamp trucks, 572 lire pumps for, 536
St,1ges,special safeguards for, •108 general practices for
Stair enclosure, 126-127 indoor, 533- 534
Stair pressuriz.ttion srstems outdoor, 53•1
control panel for, 180 hazardous materials in, 534
performance testing of, 183 cla sificalion of, 258-260
periodic testing of, 188- 189 industrial trucks fur, 534-5 35
for smo~e-control, 174-17 5, 178 hazardous processes in, 535
Stairways, accessibility requirements for, 3 housekeeping in, 535
72- 373 inspection of, 528-529
Standoff fa~ades,59 means of egress for
Standpipe hose S}'Stems exjt access for, 530 - 53 1
for storage occupancies, 536 exH discharge, 532
Standpipe srstcms. See also Hose si•stc1ns; Water exit identification, 532-533
supplies locations of, 531-532
for assembly occupancies, 4 l0-411 overview of, 529 - 530
automatic sprinkler S)'Stem and , 267, 268 protection of openings, 533
for general storage occupancies, 596 travel distances for, 530-531
for hotels, 464 N f'PA 704 materials identification system,
for industrial occupancies, 525 610-613
owrvicw of, 250 occupant load, 529
for road tunnels, 388, 396 outdoor, 606
types of, 256-257 for records
111cStation nightclub lire, Rhode Island, 722 archi,•es and storage centers, 609
Steam boilers, 155 file rooms, 609
Steam heat S)'Stems,157 options for, 607
Steel, 676. Sec also Combustible metals m·ervicw of, 607
Steel framing, 73-74 subterranean, 609
Steel girls, for exterior walls, 81 vaults for, 608
853
 Index
Storage facilities or occupancies (Conttl.)
speci fie materia ls in
aerosols or flammab le liquids, 602
baled cotlon, 605
carpel s, 603-60 4
d istilled spirits, 604- 605
hanging garments, 603
idle pallets, 597-598
refrigerated item s, 602-603
roll paper, 601 -602
rubber tires, 598-6 01
specia l hazard s of; 605
sprinkler S)'slem s for, 535-536
changed conl en ls or use and, 264- 266
stan dpipe hose sy, tems for, 536
Storage ta nks
for flammable and combu stible liquid s
inside bui lding s, 623
out side abo,'<'ground, 620-623
portabl e, 623-6N
und ergrou nd , 619-620
for LP gas bulk plants, 640
for waler mist systems, 293-295
for waler supplie s, 241, 243-2 45
Stored atmospheres, for furn aces, 746- 748
Stored- pressure port able water extingu ishers,
330 -3 31,333
Straine rs, for pump -driven waler mist systems,
292
Stru cture ignition zone, wildfires and, 378 -38 0, 383
Suhlerranean reco rds storage , 609
Supervising signals, of lire alarms, 195
Supen•is ing statio ns, fire alarm not ification
s1.111dards for, I 94- 195
Suppression systems. See Spr inkler systems,
auto matic
Surface flame spread index (FSl), 93
Survering and mapping, in inspections, 16
Susta inable design and green techno logies
bac kground ot; 52-53
bu ildin g rehabilila lion and , 58-59
definition s for, 50-52
geot her mal systems for, 63-64
green materia ls and cons tru ctio n for, 56-58
popularity of, 53-54
power-generating eq uipment for, 60-63
reso urces on, 65-66
unu sual building layouts wilh, 59
vehicles and, 64-65
Switch boxes, electrical faults in, 13 1
Switchboards, electrical faults in, 13 1- 132
Symbols of accessibi lil)', 374
Tamper seals, for clean agen t extinguishing
S)'Slems,3 18
Tank car unl oading, for LP gas bulk plants, 639
Tan k sigh I glass, 294. Seealso Storage tanks
Teflon-coa led fiberglass (TCF), 86
Television Cultural Center (TVCC) fire, Beijing,
2009,52
854
Temporary buildings, for educational occupancies,
417
Temporary cons tru ction structure s, 102-103
Temporary cooking and open flames, in assemb l)'
occupancies, 410
Tenabilil)' S)'Slems, smo ke-control S)'Slemsand,
176, 183
Tent s, 539, 547- 548
'frxlil es
plant oper,11ions and handling of, 584
for wall and ceiling finishes, .l46- 347
Th<·,1 1rical special elfrcls, 7 16-7 17
TI1eft,from conslruc lion sites, 103- 104
TI1ennal overload devices, l .l7
35-fo ol ( I I -meter) rule, for hot-work uperaliom,
773-774
'fl1orium, 674-675. Seer,/so Combu stible meta ls
Time period, for hot-work operation fires, 780
Tires, rubber, 587-588, 598-601
Til,111ium.See11/soCombu,lible metal,
fire protection for, 670- 67 1
powder, burned, 663
process hazard s with, 670
prope rties of, 669-670
storage and handling of, 670
Tools, for hot -wor k operations, 779
Torch-app lied roof srstems, 84
Torche s, for hot-wor k operations, 779
Total flood ing extinguishing system~, 301
'lota llr open cunvcrors, 580
Towers, 538, 541-543
Toxic material s, 68 I
Trade sho ws, specia l safeguards for, 408-409
Trainin g
for heal- utilization equipment opera tors,
742
for sprn)' painti ng and powder coa ling,
768
Transformer s, 138
Trans\'erse ventilating S)'Slems, for tunnel s,
394 - 395
Trash receptacle s, in healthcare focililies, 430,
•132
Travel distance lo mea ns of egress, 5 12, 533
Trick noisemaker s, 721
Trim, of walls and ceilings, 347
Trouhle signals, of fire alar ms, 195
Truck loading or un loading, for LP gas bulk pla nts,
640
Tru sses, 72- 73
Tunn els. See Road tunnels
'l)'Pe I cons tru ction
option s of lire-resistance rating s for, 90-9 1
ratings and subcategories of, 92- 93
roof assemblies for, 84
T)'pe II constru ction
noncombus tible or limited co mbustible
malcri;1ls for, 93-9 4
options of lire-resistance rating s for, 90-91
roof assemb lies for, 84
 Index

T)•pe III con stru ction Ventilatin g systems. Seealso Air-conditionin g and
options o f lire -res istance rat ings for, 90- 9 1 ventila ting &)'Siems
roof asse111bliesfor,84 for ,1ir-con ditionin g and venti lating si·stcrns,
subc;1tegories o f, 95 170-171
T)•pc IV cons tru ction combu stible dusts and , 653
descr iption of, 95-97 for haz;1rdou s materi als, 689- 690
options of lire -res istance rat ings for, 90- 9 1 for hot -work operations, 773
roof assem blies for, 84 forloss control of ffanun able or combus tible
va rial ion of, 98 liquids, 628 ·
Trpe S fuses, t 36 for medical gas containers, 643
T)rpe V con sl , uclion for metal d ea ning and plating operat ion s,
options of fire-resistance rati ngs for, 90 784-785
roof assemblie s for, 84 rndio,JCtive nrnterials and, 565
for road tunnel< , 388, 39,1- 395
Und ergro un d operations, !09 - 110 Verlic al turbine water pumps, 245- 246
Under gro un d stru cture s, 538, 543-545, 619-620 \Terr ex tra large ori fice (VELO) sprin klers, 595-596
Unloader valve recir cu lation lines, for pump -driv en Vessels, 538, 545- 546. See fliSV Special stru cture s
water mi t syste 111
s, 29 1-292 an d high -r ise bu ild ings
Unprot ec ted T)'pe III con lm clion, 95 Vinyl, expanded , for wall and ceili ng finishes,
Unsta ble materi als, 6I0 - 613, 68 1 346 - 347
Upright pri nkkr s, 25 1 Viscosi ty, of flammable and co mb ustible liquid s,
Urnnium , 674. Seenlso Co mbus tible m etals 616
U.S. Gr een Building Counci l, LEED Rat ing S)•stem, Vi iblc fire alarm notifica tion appli ances, 2 13-2 17
54 - 56 Vision panels, in op ening protec tives, 123 - 124
Utilities, in one- and two- family dwellings, Visual indicators, for special atmo sphere furnaces,
500 748
UU KL-listed sm oke cont rol pan el, 180 Vocational trai nin g, 44- 45
aut omatic weekl)'Self -test of, 182, 189- 190 Voice comnn111ication s, audibl e fire alarm
notification appliance s and, 2 12-213
Valve pits
insp ecting, 268- 269 Walking surfac es, access ibilit)' requi rements on ,
Vah·es 368
for piped medica l gas si•stem s, 643 Walk-through s, lo ins pect mean s of cgre · , 339
Vandal.ism, at cons tru ct ion sites , I 03- !04 Wall-mounted vi ible fire alarm notific ation
Vapo r d cnsiti•, of namma bk and co mbustible ap pliances, 213-214
liquid s, 615 Walls
Vapor explosio ns, expansion and, 637 const ruction of, 76, 78- 81
Vapor pre ssure, offlmnmable and combustible exterior, inspe cting for wildfire hazards, 382
liquids, 615 in terior finishes for
Vaults flam e spread and smok e de\ ·clopcd indi ces
inspec .ting, 268-269 for, 344 - 346
for reco rd s . tora ge, 608 of paneling , 479
Vegetative mat eri als, t.ill, co mbu stible mater ials types and testing of, 343-344
n ear, 31 \Vann -air di stributi on systems, 156- 157
Vegetative roof s, 58 Waste chutes, in apa rtm en t bu ilding -, 473- 474
Vehicles Waste di spo sal
a lte rn at ive power sour ces for, 64-65 in busine s occupan cies, 513-5 14
defin ition of, 538 of combu stible liquids, 25
inspe ction o f, 545- 546 pro cedure s for, 3 1- 32
mater ials-hand ling Waste -han d ling and processing syste ms
lire hazards of, 576 - 577 applic able codes and stan dard s for, 554
he avy duty, 577- 580 compactor s, 558
m ainten ance of, 577 defin ition of, 553
oven ·iew of, 57 1- 57 3 full pneumati c or grnv itr -pn eum alic, 557-55 8
types of, 573-576 grnvit)' waste ch ute S)'Slems
ter m inals for, explo sives tran sfers and , charncteris tics and typ es of, 554-555
713 - 714 chute service loading rooms, 556
Veneered walls, 79 prot~ction of, 555 - 556
Vent conn ector s, for heating systems, 16 1 protection of chut e di scha rge room s,
Ventilated fa<;ades, 59 556-557

855
 Index
Waste -hand ling and proces sing S)'Slems (Co11d.)
incin era tors, 559-56 1
shre dde rs, 559
und ers tandin g, 553-5 54
Water, radiation -contam inated, 565
Water mist systems
anc illarr equipment for, 299
C)'cling S)'Stems for, 296-297
detectio n equipm en t, 299
discha rge time for, 297
fire pump contro llers on, 29 1
/irs l lim e inspection and acceptance testi ng of
flushin g ;rnd cleaning, 272-273
hrdroslalic pr e»ure 1,·sting , 273
pre lim inar)' functiona l lest, 275
review of electrical components, 274-275
review of m echanical compone nts, 274
srstem do cum entation and tes t record, 276
system operationa l tests, 275-276
ha rdw;1rc for, 270-271
hi stoq• of, 270
in spection of, 277
recomme nded frequencies for, 279-280
interlo cks in, 299
nozzles for, 298
overl'ic w of, 271-272
periodic inspec tion and mai ntenan ce of,
276-2 78
pre-e ngineered
end of discha rge for, 288
high -pre ssure, com pressed gas- dr iven
system s with stored water, 278, 284- 285
intermed iate-pr essur e, single- fluid,
compress ed gas- dri ven syste ms with
stored water, 287- 288
low-pressure, Iwin-fluid, compressed
gas-driven S)'Stem s with stored water,
286-287
testing, 288
pump -d ri\•en
br eak tank s and unload er valve
reci rcul ation lines for, 29 1-2 92
contro llers on, 291
filters and strain ers for, 292
freshwater or seawater t ransfer for, 293
m·en •iew of, 288-29 0
sec tio,rnl control valves for, 297-298
testin g
full discharge, 296
modified discharge, 296
m·erview of, 277-27 8
reco mm ended frequen cies for, 279-283
types of, and energ)' and water sour ces for,
27 1
wate r storage tanks of
com po nents, 293- 295
lan k sig ht glass, 294
water qualit)' , 294-295
Water solubilil)', of Oanunab le .111dcolllbus tible
liquids, 616
856
Waler spra)' S)'SlelllS, 255
Water storage crl ind ers, 278, 285
Water storage lank componen ts, 293- 295
Water sup plies
adequate, for aut omatic sprinkler s system s,
263- 264
for fire depart me n I connec tions, 236
fire llow requi rement s ot; 230
fire pumps on
inspecting, 246-2 48
l)'pcs of, 245-2 46
flow testin g of nrnins from, 236-241
hrdrant s and, 238- 2•10
monitor non les and , 241
in rard system, 240- 241
for indu str ial occ upa ncies, 524
inspecting valves and compone nts of, 233-236
back flow preven ters, 234- 235
check valves, 234
con trol valves, 2"H -23 4
NFPA 25 on, 230-231
overview of, 229-230
pre ssure red ucing valves for, 235- 236
priv ate, 23 1-233
publi c, 23 1
storage tanks for
inspect ing, 243-245
Irpes of, 241
Water wash spray collec tors, 757
Waler-based firefighting S)'Stem s, for road tunn els,
396-397
Waterborne coa tings, 750
Water-reac li,·e materials, 681
Water-surrounded struc tures, 538, 546-5 47. S,•c
also Special str uctures an d high-rise
buildin gs
Weeds, tall, combu stible materials near, 31
Welding blanke ts, l04
Welding cur tains, I04
Welding pads, 105
Weldin g srstems, See also Hot-work opera tions
inspec tion of, 780- 781
oxrnen -fucl gas, 638
Weste rn construc tion , 99
Wet chemica l extingui shing systems, 301,3 02
inspect ion and m ainten ance of, 308
testing and inspection guid elines for, 3 10
Wet chemica l portable extinguish ers, 330,332, 333
Wet-p ipe sprinkl er S)'Slem s, 251,252
rad ioactive material s and, 56'1
Wide- flange beams, 74-75
Wild fires
histo rr of building s lost to, 376- 377
inspec tion etique tte and use of in spect ion
findings, 383-384
stru cture igni tion zone and , 378-380
undm ,tanding st ructure loss and, 377- 378
Wilclland ,1reas, bui ldings and facilities near,
30- 31
Wind turbine s, 62- 63, 146- 147

Windowless buildings, 538,543 . See also Limited
access buildings; Special struc tures and
high-rise buildings
Windows
in education al occupancies, 4 15
operable, for smoke-control syste ms, 179
Wind-uplift resistance , of roofs, 83
Wiring
fire alarm S)'Slems,220-22 2
hazards, 129-138
common faults, 130-133
grounding and bonding. 133- 135
owrcurren l protect ion devices,
I 6 138
Woo d framing, conw nt ional, 99
Index
Wood pallels, indoo r storage of, 22
Woodworking operalions, 789-790
XPS (expanded po lystyrene) insulation, 81
Yard system, of hydratlls, flow testing of, 240- 241
Zinc , 673. See alsoComb ustible me tals
Zirconium . See also Combustible metals
fire protectio n for, 673
proc ess hazards, 672-673
proper ties of, 67 1- 672
storage and handling of, 672
Zoned smoke- contro l systems, 174- 175, I 77, 183,
188
857
' ..
 Ninth
Edition Fire and Life Safety
I s cti n Ninth
Edition
......
-·
-::1

anual CD

Robert E. Solomon, PE, Editor

.....
Combining content from scores of codes and standards, the Fire and Life Safety Inspection Manual,
Ninth Edition is the most up-to-date inspection reference manual for those involved in fire protection,
fire safety, and life safety inspections. It provides step-by-step guidance through the complete fire
inspection process, with special emphasis on life safety considerations.
-a
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CD
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This text identifies dangerous and hazardous conditions that could be encountered in a structure and CD
details the chief areas the inspector should be focused on during an inspection. Inspectors should
rely on the Fire and Life Safety Inspection Manual, Ninth Edition for guidance on how to identify
.=c
existing deficiencies, imminently dangerous conditions, or a fault in a procedure or protocol that may
result in a fire . Six new chapters have been added to ensure that fire inspectors have the knowledge
and resources available to effectively conduct all types of fire inspections. These new chapters =
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include:
• Education, Training, Certification, and the Fire Inspector .CD
• Sustainable Design and Green Technologies c-,

=
• Commissioning Process for Fire Protection Systems
• Accessibility Requirements
•
•
Grass, Brush, and Forest Fire Hazards
Road Tunnels
Early chapters provide important background information, while later chapters present inspection
guidelines for specific fire protection systems and occupancies that are based on the Life Safety Code®.
=
This text is packaged with an access code that provides free access to checklists to help you
remember and record every important detail.
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Whether you're just starting your career as a fire inspector or ready to brush up on the basics, the
Fire and Life Safety Inspection Manual, Ninth Edition has the reliable inspection advice you need.
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