h) - Prepare the IPDS (Incl, ON. RD/SRV data sheet |) Prepare the other documents (Lines, service lis, Divehi calculation ete) ei GUIDELINES FOR BASIC ENGINEERING AND fae EQUIPMENT SELECTION eet (nel. Design Calculations) Kobe - 188-w Basic engineering includes the following activities: Meluad - Cy a) Study the DOB bead ) Esparetiembens ete — 98" 5} Hatin ie folio aera hone nae ) Prepare the Conceptual layout Gru 5 renee enuinment seefiatons based onthe equipment sltion MDC~ Gee Effluent data, RM / Utility AC —8 6c dB eration nd Logic MBE -Ug'e ) Commissioning of the plant 1. STUDY THE Dor. paar OT aisdien 55 Stady the DOB. Witness the experiments carted out in the Lab and/or and discuss * me with R&D / Customer to confism the understanding PO - Bae Check for any mismatch berween the date inthe entre DOD and get it corrected . bykaD ashen eg - A es Bikes Check for any missing information as required for enginesring and get it from R&D ‘While preparing appraisal, fr costing of Plant individual equipment tem, LAN datas sed ee sor PREPARE THE SCHEME Gre nicl List out the key equipment. List out the major operations / steps and sub-steps, Allocate these operations to the key equipment. BATCH TIME CYCLE FINALIZATION / MATERIAL BALANCE, ‘Assure batch time cycle for each key equipment. Find batch size considering Plant capacity and Yield (Overall and per pass) and Batch time cycle. Batch size change from one key eqpt to next should be studied carefully. (Check whether such # size change willbe practical, eg. slurry intermediate splitting from 3 batches to 4 batches.) If necessary correct / increase the batch size accordingly. CCaleulate the equipment size for the batch size from the DOB data and select. appropriate size from the standard equipment sizes available (Refer equipment specification section for standard sizes), Select the required size in case standard is not available /suitabe. prot: Gower & Al‘ ve Px ger FS —— ee Pryor (hor D ve BSCalculate the actual time required for Batch taking into account 10 % margin. (for ‘human factor, batch to batch performance variation, lead time ete.) Check whether the assumed and calculated time eycle is matching, If not, repeat the above steps til this match. In case the equipment size is too high, more equipment in parallel can be considered. ‘These calculations should preferably be done in EXCEL to facilitate check of any other alternative. : CONTINUOUS PROCESS. In case of a continuous plant a detailed flowsheet with stream nos edded is to be used and material balance (Component wise) is to be prepared PREPARE THE PFD Prepare the PFD as per the guideline and following information: ‘After the key equipment and their sizes are decided, prepare the PFD. Show all ‘equipment around these key equipment taking into account the following: ‘Raw material supply packaging Product physical specs Collection, storage, handling and recycle/ disposal ofall streams (Try to use eravity than pumping/ pressure or vacuum transfer) Solid handling (Keep slurry / solid handling tothe minimum by re-surring, dissolving in situ after isolation, extraction ete)” ‘Vent scrubbers, condensers, high level venting / dilution Required catch pots / seals to avoid mixing / contact with eqptywith different MOC. Intermediate cuts Storages for countercurrent washes “Traps for the effluent ‘Weighing / accounting requirements ‘Dump reactor / tanks CONCEPTUAL LAYOUT Prepare the conceptual layout as per the guideline. PREPARE THE EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS Process Data Sheets of various equipment to be prepared taking following into account Flexibility as required for any probable change in the DOB Uniformity in various equipment e.g. Pump model, std reactors /tanks to facilitate ‘common inventory for easy replacement ata later date. System balancing for maximum possible batch size in key equipment Corrosion data as available fom the DOB and following literature Corrosion Resistance Tables, Third’ Edition, Part A and B, Philip A. ‘Schweitzer. Corrosion guide by Erich Rabald Physical properties data as given in DOB and following literature : Lange's Handbook of Chemistry, Eleventh Edition, John A. Dean. Perry's Chemical Engineers" Handbook, Perry & Green. Vapor Liquid Equilibrium Data at Normal Pressures, First Edition,E Hala, |. Wichturl, J. Polak & T. Boublin. ‘Azeouopic Databotk, Lee Horsely. ‘The Properties of Gases & Liquids, Fourth Edition, Robert C. Reid, John M. Prausnit, Bruce E. Poling. ‘Computer Aided Databook of Vapor Liquid Equilibrium , Hirata Mitsuho, ‘Ohe Shuzo & Naga Hama, In case data isnot available then study use the experimental daa from Lab Design of various equipment should be done as per the reference / guideline ‘mentioned below: TYPE OF EQPT REFERENCE / GUIDELINE Reactors Annexure 1 Columns Annexure IT Centrifuges 8 Anmexere I Filter Annexure IV Vacuum pump / Ejector Annexure V. Exchangers and Process Heat transfer Other Heat transfer calculatiohé! — by DQ KERN Pumps y., Annexure VI Tanks + Use 80.90% filling max. Other eqpt ‘As per literature data Refer explanatory notes forthe fff also. P&ID PREPARATION PAID should be prepared as per the guideline and afte taking into account the following : ‘Legends document should be prepared for each project showing the symbols used in the Pée1Ds. A legend drawing prepared to be generally followed. MOC of piping ete should be judiciously decided to keep the cost to the minimum ‘and taking into account the corrosion data as available from the DOB and Corrosion Resistance Tables, Third Edition, Part A and B, Philip A. ‘Schweitzer Corrosion guide by Erich Rabald One system should preferably be provided with single MOC, however vapor / vent ‘equalisation lines can have a different spec. ‘Take into account effect of moisture ingress by any means on MOC selected. Piping specs should be selected from the available std specs and used. In case of ‘non-availability of suitable spec, FLUID service list should be issued to PIP for their recommendation on suitable spec to be used. Refer MSDS and properties data to decide the Conductivity strip (for Static electricity problem) and Flange guard ( For hazardous / hot fluids) requirement Provide various safety gadgets like Flame arrestor, RD, SRV, TRV, Gas detectors ‘ete (Smoke and heat detectors, Fire alarm system are to be provided but rot to be mentioned in the PS&1D) Provide adequate piping connections to take care of any probable abnormal operation and recycle / reprocessing ofthe off spec materials. \Provide adequate local / panel instruments, sight glasses, and proper type of ‘manual valves at proper location so as to facilitate smooth operations from field / panel. Local instruments should be provided to crosscheck the Panel instruments and 10 ‘control of operations from the field in exceptional cases. Pressure gauge to be provided on steam in jecket, pressure and return temp of cooling/heating media to assess the performance of heating / cooling ‘operation “Adequate isolation valves to be provided for each equipment or a group of ‘equipment to isolate them in case of emergency. ‘Slurry piping should be considered critically for routing specified, valves and instrument or any other itera specified in the piping. Provisions for cleaning should also be considered. ‘Adequate drains and vents should be provided to facilitate proper cleaning / raining of the system, Jacketing / tracing requirements should be carefully studied / provided. Action ‘plan in case of jacketing / tracing is not used ( by mistake) should also be thought of and incorporated. U seals Ine}. inverted) should be specified wherever required to avoid mix-ups / backflow, Slopes and non-hold up lines requirement should be critically studied and specified, ‘Check valves /eatch pots to be provided to avoid reverse flow. Strainer requirement to be studied to avoid foreign material ingress from MS eqpt to S$/MSGL assemblies OR to tap solids. ‘Venting locations should be properly specified for safety. Blinds should be provided on various nozzles / valves to avoid any leakage to atmosphere of Toxic material. ‘Nitrogen blanketing / Vacuum connections to be provided as required. Line sizing in a batch plant is not so critical due to cushion available inthe rime cycle from other activities. However, it should be done as per ANNEXURE VIII and the comments given below All ines (except steam) should preferably be 25 NB size minimum. “Transfer lines to be sized as per the timing available in time eycle and 2-3 Misee (liquid) velocity. Gravity transfer and slurry transfer to be at ~0.6 Misec velocity. Transfer time should generally be kept below I hr. ‘Steam lines to be sized at 10-15 Misee velocity. Vent equalisation / vent lines can be of 25/ 40 NB size. Steam lines to limpets for temp maintenance to be of 15 NB/25 NB. Sizing of all other vapor /vacuum lines should be recorded.ey PREPARE IPDS / RD/SRV DATA SHEET RD/SRV data sheet to be prepared as per the procedure given in. Annexure V1 IPDS to be filled in the prescribed formats as per the explanatory notes. PREPARE THE OTHER DOCUMENTS ( Linelist, service list, Drive list, Effluent data, Energy balance, RM / Utility calculation etc) Prepare these documents in preseribed formats as applicable as per explanatory notes RM calculations should have reference to DOB data, (Preferably to be done in EXCEL to check the variations in DOB easily) . Following norms to be used for solvent losses ealeulations: TYPICALSOLVENT® | Methanol | Toluene 7 Operation involved Xylene. ‘General handling T i Vac distillation s 3 ‘Atm distillation 3 3 Filteration, Z ace Extraction 2 2 PREPARE OPERATION MANUAL AND LOGIC : To be prepared as per the guideline Logic requirement should be in line with the Operation manual COMMISSIONING OF THE PLANT : To be done as per the guideline LIST OF ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT REFERENCES, (Available in Library) 8) Applied Process Design for Chemical & Petrochemical Plants Vol. 1/2/3, Second Edition, Eriest E. Ludwig, b) Mass Transfer Operations, Second Edition, Robert Treybal ©) Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering Vol. 6 Design ), Second Edition, R. K. Sinnott. 4) Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Fourth Edition, Kirk Othmer. ©) Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,ANNEXURE I (Prepared by KSS) REACTOR MS & SS reactors For calculation click —® Capacity chart Based on the batch size & reaction mass volume the capacity ofthe reactor is decided. The R.M volume i available from R & D in the DOB. The # size is decided based on the capacity of the plant, For a given size the volume of R.M, lit, Max RM volume (livkm) x # size (kin. From this volume of the reaction mass the suitable reactor is selected from the DRL standard Standard reactor in DRL. 100 lit. 250 lit. 00 lit. ‘Nominal capacity 1000 lt. 2000 lit: 3000 lit +4000 lit 5000 lit 10000 lit After selecting a particular reactor the % filling is checked. Vol. RM *100 ”% ling = Nominal cap. of reactor The % filling chosen is between 25% to 80% to start with bu it can be as high a§.0.%based on the standard reactor and process ease. For reaction involving gas sparging the % filling should be more 75-80 ‘% for gas space. However, certain hydrogenation reactions may require % filling of 50-65% max f6F the better catalyst distribution, For washing / extraction it can be as high as 95 % even iit Some cases. Whils deciding the % filling during any reaction or extraction & washing, Tetors like foaming / frothing should be considered to ensure clear space gas space to contain the foaming / frothing, Typically, processes generating foaming /oching should have reacor ling max up 035-5035 b) MOC selection MOC is selected based on the information given in the DOB. If the information is ambiguous the actual ‘corrosion study should be done by corrosion lab (Activities to be co-ordinated by R & D) & actual corrosion data to be furnished. The reaction mixture contains so many components in it that the reference ‘cannot be taken from books also in most of the eases. So corrosion study is must. Ifthe process isto be fitted in the existing plant, which is having some equipment then the corrosion study, should be done for the MOC of the said equipment to certify its suitability.©) Agitator design ‘The design ofthe agitation system involves Calculation of uid power ‘of motor HP / Motor selection ‘Sizing / Selection of gear bo) Selection of pulleys & belt Selection of type of agitator ‘The type of agitator is decided based om the type of application, Various types of agitator & their ‘combinations are used. Paddle: 2 bladed paddles are used mainly for blending operations. The sweep is normally 60-80 %. Paddle ‘may be used with or without baffles. If baffles are provided it will give good intense agitation & vortex formation will be minimized. Ether 2 or 4 baffles are used, Paddles may be straight or pitched (45° pitched). Pitched paddles are used for solid suspension Gate anchor: ‘tinay be single or double gate anchor. When the height of the vessel is less single gate anchor is used. If height is more staggered double gate anchor is used. Gate anchors are used mainly for crystallization / Distillation operation. Sweep of these agitators is 80-90 %, These agitators Provide very good scraping action on the wall thereby preventing the deposition of solid on the wall (Preventing caking). This results in good heat transfer which isthe main criteria for crystallization / Distillation. Baffles are not used because baffle will help in solid deposition on the wall of the vessel. This type of agitator operate at low RPM of the order of 20-40 depending upon the size of the vessel. 3 bladed curved paddle: ‘These are used in chemical reaction, distillation ete. This type of agitator is available on glasslined vessels operating at very high speed of the order of 96 RPM. It provides very intense agitation, The sweep is $5-60 %, Turbine: There are 2 types of turbine agitator: Open turbine and Dise turbine. Im open turbines 6 /4 bladed the blades are connected to the hub directly. In disc turbine the blades are connected to disc which in tum is connected to the hub. As per the mounting of the blades the turbines can be flat blade or pitched blade. In pitched turbine the blades are at an angle of 45°, Due to this angle the flow pater becomes axial in pitched turbine whereas itis radial in flat bladeturbines. The sweep is 33-43%, These operate at very high speed. Agitation i very vigorous Normally baffles are used with turbines ( 2 or 4 baffles). Pitched turbines are used for solid Suspension. Dise turbines are used fr 2-phase reaction, gas-liquid reaction. ‘Multiple agitator: In this various kind of agitation is possible depending upon the method of installation. In the reactors used in following combination can be achieved by proper fixing of impellers, 60% & 70 % paddle, no baffle. ’ 60% & 70 % paddle, 2 bales or 4 bales. 80 % staggered double gate anchor, no baflles 40 % dise turbine, 4 baffles. 70 % paddle + single gate anchor, 2 baffles, [Examples of Some of the Typical Agitators used are: 6 bladed fat blade dise turbine is used gas-liquid reactions alongwith 4 baifles. 80 % staggered double gate anchor is used typical crystallization processes Combination of fat blade dise & pitched turbine is used in hydrogenation of vegetable oil. Thi: reaction is done using raney nickel catalyst. Hydrogen gas is sparged into the vegetable oi! The flat blade dise turbine is used for effective dispersion of hydrogen in oil. The pitched turbine is used for suspending the raney nickel catalyst solid. The bottom pitched turbine i: upward flow type & top one is of downward flow type. The reaction is 3 phase reaction involving gas-liquid-solid. : Combination of pitched blade turbine with bottom anchor is used whem the process involves reaction followed by solvent distillation sminology’s used in agita Sweep: It's te ratio of outside diameter of impeller tothe inside diameter of the vessel expressed as th percentage. Ifthe vessel dia is 1500 mun and impeller dia is 600 mm the sweep is 40 %. REM: tis the revolution per minute the shaft makes. Power per unit volume: Its the power input tothe liquid per unit volume of the liquid. Power numb Ikis a constant & characteristic of a given type of impeller. The power number chart is given in calculation program. PXex75 = Se 9 @Xx 1000 x @ieoy xDPower number Input Quid power, HP ‘Acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/sec? Density of liquid, emvec RPM = Sweep of the impeller, m ee Having known the power number for particular agitator the power required can be calculated LD satio: Its the ratio of the liquid height to the dia of the vessel. Deciding sweep ‘The sweep is decided by the agitator type. Deciding RPM Itis decided using various seate up scale down criteria, ype of application. Some ofthe scale up criteria are: > Constancy of power per unit volume. This i the eriteria very useful & used in more than 90 % of the cases. If we know the type of agitator in one vessel & its RPM the RPM of other geometrically similar vessel ean be determined. ce From power number formula ou ere B40 « €= PX X75 ie 1600 X (N/60)’ x D* PND! > Constancy of ip speed. This is used mainly for reaction. To start with some value of tip speed is taken such as 800- 200 fin, for reaction involving gas sparging in liquid. Based on this the RPM is calculated From this RPM scale down is done to lab scale. Experiments are conducted in lab varying some parameters. The best results obtained in lab are again scaled up to plant scaleVo = rQwhere V_ = Tip speed in fimin, Sweep/2 ‘Angular speed 20 9 v D = Sweep N= RPM Wav OD,N, = DNs = Ne XN, > Constancy of Reynolds number ‘This criteria is used mainly for heat transfer purpose such as in applications lik crystallization, distillation ete, The overall heat transfer coefficient consists of inside & Oulside h.t.c. The outside h.te is constant depending on the flow rate of utility fluid in the jacket / limpet of the vessel. The inside h.te is directly proportional to some power of Reynolds number, A By Renolés mnt Bz Seon on N = RPS (revolutions per second ) = Deny, pes > Vise pe D025, Calculation of Fluid Power, For calculation click-—-> Agitator calculation Having calculated the required RPM based on the appropriate scale up criteria power can be calculated, PX 75 VX 1000 X (N60) D*” < rQwhere Tip speed in fUmin. Sweep Angular speed 20 200 2r0N = ODN, D = Sweep N= RPM YieVs ODN = ODN Dd, SNe N Ds % Constancy of Reynolds number ‘This criteria is used mainly for heat transfer purpose such asin applications like erystallization, distillation ete. The overall heat iransfer coefficient consists of inside & outside b.t.c. The outside htc is constant depending on the flow rate of utility uid in the Jacket / limpet of the vessel. The inside htc is directly proportional to some power of Reynolds number. DINO Ree where 0 Re Reynolds number D = Sweep, em : 1N = RPS (revolutions per second ) Qe Density, emec O= Viscosity, poise .0¢ DEN,O,O2 RPM D#0,0, Calculation of fower, For calculation click--> Agitator ealculation, Having calculated the required RPM based on the appropriate scale up criteria power can be calculated, Pg.X 75 oe DX 1000 X (N/60) DFFX + X 1000.X (N/460)'X D* HP , where 78X98) P = Fluid power, HP = Power number Ge Density, gmcc N= RPM D = Sweep of impeller, m Calculation of motor HP / motor selection ‘To the Muid power calculated various losses added such as frictional oss in bottom guide, shaft transmission losses, goar box loss, belt friction loss etc, The calculation is shown in the calculation rogram. ‘After calculating the motor HP suitable motor is selected for the required duty. The HPs of the standard motor's ae: 0.5, 10, 1.5,2,3,5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40,50, 60 ete. ‘The nearest higher size motor should be selected. For example if the motor HP comes to 13.5 by calculation select 15 HP motor. The RPM of the motors used for agitators is normally 1440. 1f 2900 RPM motor is used lot of reduction will be required to attain the required RPM. Some times ‘where there is a chance of agitator jamming deliberately higher size motor is selected than. calculated to overcome the initial torque. izing (selection of gear box Having selected the motor, gearbox is selected by referring to the gear catalogue. The gear selected should satisfy two criteria, 1. The actual ousput torque is lesser than the allowable input torque to gear. 2. The actual input HP is lesser than the allowable input HP to gear ‘ HP x 63000 KWX 9550 Torque or Torque = ann (bsinch) RPM (Nm) RPM For turbine agitators power is more but RPM is also more so the output torque may not be that high. For anchor agitators where RPM is very low, the output torque becomes very high. The gear in such eases may be suitable from HP point of view but may not be ok from torque carrying capacity point of view. So such gears should not be selected. ‘The reduction ratio of gear should be selected such thatthe ratio of pulleys sizes tequired is <~ 1.7. The standard reduetion ratios of gears are: S:L, 10:1, 15:1, 20:1, 25:1, 30:1, 40:1, 50:1 ete ‘Output RPM of gear Reduction ratio of gear =~ Input RPM to gear In DRL most of the gears used are of Radicon, Elecon, Briveni, bonfglioli make, Planetary gears hhave also been used of Breveni make. The are high speed gears which give very high efficiency ‘compared to worm gearjection of pulleys & belt From pulleys chart the power carrying capacity of pulley is given. Number of grooves is decided based on the power carrying capacity per belt after applying various correction factors such as slippage ete. Based on power carrying capacity various sections of pulleys come. Upto 10 HP : *A’ section pulley 10-20 HP. “B" section pulley 20 HP & above °C” section pulley Fenner make pulleys are very common & have got lot of flexibility. It has got two parts pulleys & ‘bush. By changing the bushes same pulley can be used for various applications. In °C’ section Pulley minimum 4 grooves come. Pulleys are normally designated as: 200B3, 236C4, 280CS ete. Here 200,236, 280 ete-=--> PCD of pulleys > Sections Ifthe ratio of pulley on gear & motor is> 1.7 lot of slippage will occur Depending upon the HP of motor, its shaft dia is fixed & for that shaft dia some minimum size of palley wi'l fix and not les than that. So this should be borne in mind while selecting. the pulleys. ‘The calculation program shows power calculation, motor, gear, pulleys design / selection, MSIGL renctors For calculation & chart click—--) Glass lined vessels For corrosive applications glass lined reactors are used, The design is totally by supplier. For various. ‘capacities the details of GMM glass lined reactors are shown in the chart. The reaction mass volume for the siven # size is calculated as per the procedure mentioned for MS-SS reactors, In conventional GMM glass fined vessels three bladed curved paddle is typical impeller used but no's various other types of agitators are also available such as turbine, anchor ete. Some of the typical uses of MSIGL reactors in DRI are: Chlorination, Bromination, Acidification to low pH of the order of <=2 etc. MS/LB, MS/LB/TL, MS/ERVE/TL, MS/CTL reactors For corrosive applications these MOC reactors are also used. On the parent material which in MS bonding / lining is done of lead, FRVE ete Tiles are acid resistant, carbon etc. Care should be taken while deciding the capacity ofthese lined vessels. Because of lining the actual ID becomes lower than the parent material which is MS & hence there is reduction isthe volume. ‘The lined vessels should not be used for some materials where contamination of foreign particles is not acceptable at all. For example in polymer no impurity is allowed so tile lined vessels are out of question for final polymer at least. In tile lined vessels teflon lined agitators are also possible to install. The biggest disedvantage of these tile lined vessels is te heat transfer. In MS/LB the heat transfer is possible lead being good conductor of heat. In AR tile lined vessels its not possible. In carbon tle lined vessels itis possible carbon being good conductor of heat. In some ofthe tile reflux condenser removes lined vessels where heat transfer is real problem heat.ANNEXURE II Design of Fractionation Systems Fractionation systems represent a major component of chemical process plants Since large volumes of published data are available design of distillation systems seldom requires pilot plant studies. Design of fractionation columns involves the following, * Calculation of number ofsages + Caleulation of height of column + Hydrodynamics D Calculation of number of stages: Determination of number of stages required to perform the required separations is first step in design Accuracy of design to a large extent is dependent on vapourliquid equilibrium data on which calculations are based, A) Sourees of vapour-liguid equilibrium (VLE) data 1) Reported VLE data are ay below: le in books & Joumals . A few selected referances are given 4) Vapour Liquid equilibrium data by Hala b) DECHEMA chemistry data series ) Journal of chemical & Engineering data 4) Fluid Phase Equilibria 2) Ifreported VLE data is not available, ether determine VLE by experimental methods or design based on relative volatility (x) calculated from vapour pressure deta. Vapour pressure data ean be obtained from books'literature or can be determined experimentally ‘The following points are to be kept in mind while designing columns based on « from vapour pressure data. * Confirm that azeotrope is not formed. Aspen ; Azeotropic data book by Lee Horsley Peny, Lange gives extensive data ‘on azeotropes. ‘+ For highly polar compounds calculation of « from vapour pressure data gives large errors & isnot to be used. ‘Vapour pressure in absence of reported data , can be be experimentally determined . Vapour pressure apparatis is available in pilot plant which is suitable for measurement of vapour pressure < 760 mm Hg For measurement of vapour pressure first determine the range in which vapour pressure - temperature data are to be made . Ensure that, Data is be collected at several points (minimum five points) For measurement of vacuum ,correct for barometric pressure. If we are measuring vapour pressure of two compounds with c 04 ep Where o is surface tension of liquid in dyneslem For 6 >27 use @ =27 0 Liguid viscosity in CP ‘Values of A” and *B’ depends on size of packing and are as under Values of A’ and ‘B' are in mm. [Packing size a B aS 272 236 5 351 383 #40 412 452, ‘Norton's standard designs use operating HETP ~ 13 % above system base HETP Rule of thumbs : For ceramic intalox saddles HETP =24*Diameter of packing4 Appendix 2 Calculation of capacity & pressure drop in column . (Carn [e307 [Fonction [Foluene-TCB FAnisole [Gut [Toluene [Toluene Packing [RAP 1S [TP 15 HWapour ate" Keir Ta00.000} 750.000 IRefiucraiiorR 7300 1300) Liquid rate C= URED Rohr W506i} 350.000 OMT 301 Ta95 Ciquid densi: pl Ken ¥70.000| ——¥70.000 [Motectlar weight NT 32000] 93.00) [Surface tension S ‘Dynes/em 21.00} 21 Presses P MMe Ts0.000| 700.000 HremperatreT Desc 3000) 50.000} [Vapour density pe= Ken 371 a9id laviep+273)/(760*(t+273)*22.4) Liquid. viscosing op 759 7459 [Colunn Diameter: Tach TEGoo] 14000 area: A Mz 159 7099 [Supercar velooiy= 0 Wie 7739 796 |Capacity factor Cs MiSec 0071 0.074] Parameter Tan Tory inematie veeoni: v=wWel S o3i] 0317] [Capacity Co: From graph given in Notn caalouge | ~MiSee oHI5 720) Taviaaa capacity Cse=Co*($/20)0.16%(w/0.2)- MiSec 0.105] 0.110 Capa Rate ——— TO TOV % oars] a ‘Oednate value (Fom graph) ¥ 7a20)] 2825] Pressredroptfom gra given in Norton catalouge | MM 20M 35000) 35.000} inch 20 T6564 i) MMHig® Ta THLi ‘RIBUTORS: ‘The design is based on article by F MOORE & F RUKOVENA presented in 36 th Canadian conferance of chemical engineers ‘This article describes design of liquid & gas distributors based on concept of distribution quality ‘DQ. DQis a ‘measure of uniformity of liquid flow atthe top of the bed. Each distribution point is representated by a point circle, whose centre is located where liquid strikes the top of bed. Sum of area of point eicles is equal to Cross Sectional area of column, DQ = 0.4 (100-A) + 0.6B - [0.33 * (C-7.5)] Where A= Cross sectional tower area not covered by point ciseles in. % 3 = Least pont cscle aes in 1/12 of tower asea x 100 tower area / 12, OR tower stea /12 x 100 ‘most point cirele area in /12th tower area Whichever is less C = ares of overlap of point circles x 100 tower area ‘An optimum distributor evaluated by this method will have all tower area oa top covered by point circles. Its geometric fact this is not possible & there will be overlap between point circles andlor point circle overlap Cutsde the tower area. It is also geometric fact, with this method of evaluation, tower area not covered by point circle (A) is equal to point circle area which overlaps tower wall plus overlapping area of adjacent point cieles. Both ‘A’ and ‘C’ values are a measure of uniformity of liquid distributed over the cross sectional tower area at the top of bed .Factor°B' is a measure of deviation of liquid flow from average flow in any relative small area ‘of tower, A 1/12 tower area seems to be an appropriately small area to determine maximum deviation whether ‘low in that area is high or low. This is most difficult value to determine and requires examination at several locations in tower cross section Poins to be kept in mind while selecting 1/12 th of area are 4) 1/12 thofarea should be a continous section. ') Section can be rectangular or formed fiom are of circle at any location across cross-section of distributor. tis generally found that if liquid hydraulic design will ensure that random flow variation across tower cross section does not exceed 10 % each point circle can be assumed to be equal area to simplify distribution quality ‘evaluation procedure. ‘Norton defines three categories of liquid distributors High performance distributors : DQ > 90%, Intermediate performance distributors : DQ = 75.90% Standard DQ =30-65%2 Procedure 1) Assunie no. of orifices such that there are minimum 65 points per m? of column X° Each orifice corresponds toa point circle, ‘Area ofeach pont circle» Cros sectional area of column ‘no. of points 2) Assume pitch and fix liquid orifices on @ triangular pitch. It has been seen that DQ for orifices on circular pitch is always less than DQ for orifices on triangular pitch .AS a frst trial pitch can taken = diameter of point circle. Draw point circles with orifice as center . Enture that distance orifice from column wall = min 25 mam for column of diameter > 16 3) Draw point circles starting with either distribution point at centre of column or non central distribution point. 4) Calculate A,B & C . Calculate ‘Bat several locations across Xn of tower. Calculate DQ. Repeat with various values of pitch and focation of distribution point and find out alternative which gives highest value of DQ. Locate gas risers such that 1) Xnal area of gas riser is not less than 15 % of tower X nal area ») Gas riser area inside 5 0°% of tower cross sectional area is 40 10 60 % of tower area ©). Distance between gas rser & orifice is minimum 20 mm, Table gives value of DQ of some of columns. ‘Other points to be noted are: 8) Distributor or redistributor must be close to the bed. If there is considerable spacing between Aistibutor & top of bed, the flow stream position on top of packed bed becomes uncontrolled and reduces distribution quay. ») Bed limiter must not ater low pattern from distributor. Distribution quality VS tower performance Sensitivity of tower performance to liquid distribution quality depends only on number of stages each bed of packing could achieve at its system base HETP . Beds of packing designed for many stages will be more sensitive to distribution quality This is indicated intig 1 Ithas been found that in 1 meter diameter debutanizer number of stages increased fiom 8 to 1$ when distributor ‘with DQ of 36 % was changed to distributor with DQ of 93 %. In 380mm dia, iso actaneltoluene system no. of stages increased from 7 to 8.5 when distributor with DQ of 55% was changed to distributor with DQ of 85%, Conclusion : The importance of lig distributor increases as number of stages per section of column increases Liquid & gas flow , packing size and type does not afect the performance of distributer.TABLE-1 DETAILS OF LIQUID DISTRIBUTORS No.of Diam Ratio of | PCD of | No.of |] Riser area in eter | orifice Xnal | gasriser | Dist. | side: areaof |(MM) — | Point _ | Outside of riser to per MP | 50% Col. ‘column area, is [see [76 [100 [60 [6 20.0 | 34z 1250 _| 68:32 1s [3346-12 | 72 [130 [ 800 16 18.6 [303 35 | 62:38 227 [ireri2=17 [87_[126 | 90.0 [196 180 | 0;396 80.0 [61:39 2a" | Ieeri2eI2 79 [140 [90.0 [146-6 | 200 | 0:380,376 | 78.0 | ss:as =iANNEXURE IIT (Prepared by KSS) CENTRIFUGE A centrifuge is an equipment utilizing centrifugal force for separation of liquid from solids, It is Sssentially a development of Gravity Filter wherein the force acting on the liquid, insead of being restricted to gravity, is enormously increased by utilizing centrifugal force. Due to good performance ant high cost, centrifuges are often referred to as the Rolls - Royees of solid liquid separation © level - Centrifugal acceleration (G) is measured in multiples of earth gravity: ft (inal usteen N% arte ‘Centrifugal acceleration , m/s? 9G00m) Angular velocity re Basket radius, m g Acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 mis? a Revolutions per second, s* G- forces. Throughput :- As stated above Centrifugal acceleration is, o oy omap low Tne throughput capacity (Q) of » machine, depending on the proces need , i roeghly proportional tothe power of basket eds 22 = GG ” gatent Ge Where n is normally between 2 to 3 , depending on the characteristics of slurry to be ‘centrifuged and specifications of centrifuged cake, viz. purity, LOD, absorbent value. [It follows that large centrifuges can deliver high flow rates but separation is @ lower G- force; vice versa, smaller centrifuges can deliver lower flow rate but separation is @ higher G — force. Centrifuges are classified according to the mechanism used for solids separation: ‘Sedimentation Centrifuges and Filtration Centrifuges 1. Sedimentation Centrifuges :- In these centrifuges the separation is dependent on a difference in density between the solid and liquid phases (solid heavier). Decanter Centrifuge:- They are generally applicable to particle size range 1 — 5,0003m, “#4! A decanter centrifuge is basically a setting tank of cireular form mounted on an axis (horizontal) and spun at high speed to produce separation of solids in decanter bow. A screw ‘ype conveyor carried internally and rotated relative 10 the bowl provides continuous discharge. The speed with the cake transports is controlled by differential speed (henveen bowl and conveyor). High differential speed facilitates high solid throughput where the cake thickness is kept minimum so as not to impair filtrate quality due to entrainment of solids. Also cake de - watering is improved due to reduction in drainage path with smaller cake height; however, this is offset by fact thatthe higher differential speed also reduces cake residence time. Therefore, an optimum differential speed is required to balance filtrate clarity and cake dryness. awl2. Eiltration Centrifuges: ~ They separate the phases (solid — liquid) by filtration. Such filters ‘essentially consist of a rotating perforated basket equipped with a filter medium. Similar to other filters, filtration centrifuges do not require a density difference between the solids and the suspending liquid. If such density difference exists sedimentation takes place in the liquid hhead above the cake, This may lead to particle size stratification in the cake, with coarser particles being closure to the filter medium and acting as precoat for the fines to follow. The capacity of filtration centrifuges is very much dependent on the solids concentration in the feed As a general rule, sedimentation cenurifuges are used when it is required to produce a ‘clarified filtrate whereas filtration centrifuges are used to produce a pure dry solid Itis convenient to classify the /ltration centrifuges into two broxd classes, depending ‘on how solids are removed : fired bed and moving bed In the fixed ~ bed pppe, the cake of solids remains on the walls ofthe perforated basket equipped with filter medium until removed manually, or automatically by means of a knife arrangement. They are essentially cyclic in operation. Top Discharge & Bottom Discharge Basket Centrifuges and Peeler Centrifuges are fixed ~ bed centrifuges. In the moving ~ bed ype, the mass of solids is moved along the basket by a ram. Washing and drying zones can be incorporated in the moving - bed type. It is essentially ‘continuous in operation. Pusher Centrifuge is moving ~ bed centrifuge. Basket Centrifuges ( Top & Bottom Discharge) ‘They are applicable to particle size range 10 ~ 8,000 Dm. The basket housing is supported by a three — point suspension called the three — column centrifuge. Suspension of machine on three columns provides extensive compensation of any imbalances of the system, thus dispensing with concrete or damper foundations, Tho simplest of the fixed ~ bed centrifuges isthe perforated basket centrifuge which has a vertical axis. They are equipped to handle feeding, washing and discharge requirements in a discontinuous filtration process with minimum attrition ofthe solids. The suspension to be separated enters the machine via a stationary feed pipe. When the basket is filled, the feed valve is closed by automatic control. The subsequent teatment consists of drainage of mother liquor, washing of solids, drainage ofthe wash liquid, and discharge of the cake. In the ease of bottom discharge, a knife removes the cake towards the open centre, leaving a thin residual layer of cake in the basket. In the top discharge machine, the solids are removed manually ( can be removed pneumatically, mechanically, or by withdrawal of the entire filter bag). After removal of the cake, the centrifuge is ready for another charge. Programming the sequence of events can be accomplished by a fully automatic control unit. ese entry 1 tn Ih Peeler Centrifuges :- They are applicable to particle size range 10 — 8,000 Cm,a Peau cay ai ofthe base cerrfuge may cate some non-aniformiy due othe eet of ‘grein, with the accompanying problems when cake washing i ated. Ps con be onc, ‘by making the axis horizontal. This ls known as Peeler Contiface A Peeler centifge is designed to deal with «wide range of suspensions Gironinaously in low. Each lot is subdivided ino the necessary operations ~ Feeding: pinning to dain off mothe uot, Washing, pining to drain of wash guid, Spi the cake, This adjustable lot cycle is mostly controlled automatically. The varcus specter Within alot canbe performed at constant or varying speed ofthe centrifuge deus ‘The principal application is for high output duties with non-fagile crystalline ‘materials giving reasonable drainage rates which requires good washing and dewatering The suspension to be separated is fed to the centrifuge through a feed pipe, In the Filtration process the liquid filters through a filter cloth under the effect of centrifgal force Filtrate is drained through the perforated basket into the filtrate tank. The solid material 1s {fisined in the basket by filter cloth and forms a uniform layer. The wash liquid is sprayed on {he gold layer through a wash pipe to wash i. The resulting wash liquor leaves the centrifuge in the same manner as the main filtrate and is stored in wash liquor tank. The solids sce centrifuged until the desired residual moisture / organic liquid content is reached, and scraped out by a hydraulically operated seraper knife down to a residual layer ~ which remaine on, {iter cloth. The solid material is discharged by means of a chute or screw. The scraper knife can not be allowed to contact filter medium, a residual layer of solids / products remains in the basket after each unloading. This serves as a precoat to prevent loss of fines to the filtrate through the filter medium during next cycle. The disadvantage is that it also adds resistance to filsation similar to filter medium. The residual layer may become glazed and impervious fom the rubbing action of the knife and a rinse may be frequently required to restore the permeability dvantuges & Advantages Centrifuge used: 1250 MM dia (Make: ANUP) Not in use in DRL Filtering area: 2.46 M? Peeler centrifuge has parts rotating at high speeds and require high engineering standards of manufacture, high maintenance cost, and special foundations or suspensions to absorb vibrations. {tis a very sophisticated and ertical equipment (Overflow of basket due to malfunctioning of feed-controller can cause loss ef solids to the filtrate as well problems associated with processing of filtrate. 1 can be operated even @ 200°C of process temperature using suitable lubricating oi {itis already established in case of salt filtration from PES Polymer solution @ 200°C) Cake gets washed thoroughly even with 0.5 Cake Volume wash liquid). Here the cake ‘mentioned is na! produet. ‘Throughput obtained is 5-7 TPD wet cake with $-7 % wiw LOD (with 45 ~ 30 minutes lot eyele & approx. 150 kg lot and 24 hrs operation basis, Filter cloth fixing / replacement is easier as well as less time consuming, Fier cloth can be replaced in two hours. Following are the ppical details of the Peeler Centrifuges being used in industries Make ANUP ENGG. LTD., AHMEDABAD Model : HZ-125 Moc S$ —304 NO. OFF 'S8'NOS. [5 NOS. at Panoli , 2NOS. at Lote & LINO. at Dombivi] Basket LD. 1250 MM Basket Height : 625 MM Basket rpm (max.) 1200G— level (max.) 1000 g Filtering’ Area 2.46 ME Nominal volume 320 litres Direction of rotation Clockwise (locking from front side) Motor : 100 H.P. (1440 rpm; flameproof) Cost } Rs, 40.0 Ines (including motor & inverter) (1202/96) Pusher Centrifuges i They are applicable to particle size range 100 10,000 Om. Pusher centrifuges utilize continous filtration for separation of suspended, fast ~ draining crystalline and granular solids from liquids. A pusher ring plate intermittently moves the cake over the sereen or filter area in axial direction up to the edge, over which it is discharged. No cloth can withstand the abrasion due to the cake forced on the cloth and pushed over its surface. So the particle size range they are applicable to is generally coarser (larger than 109Cm). The material is handled more gently. The pusher plate is usually powered hydraulically. The pusher fequencies are around 60 ~ 100 per minute, Pusher centrifuges require high feed concentrations to enable formation ofa sufficiently rigid cake to transmit the thrust of piston. The capacities of biggest centrifuges are 60 - 80 TPH. They are used mainly in the Potash and salt industries and for other fertilizers.2 ANNEXURE IV FILTER Types of fitters pen nutche Agitated closed nutche (Rosenmund) Spiral Candle Sparkler Plate & frame ‘Cartridge (For polishing filtration) Rotary vacuum drum Pressure leaf Bag Horizontal belt Open nutehe In this filter the filtration is by vacuum. The slurry is dumped in the nutche. Vacuum is applied & filtration done. Cake is washed by putting the wash liquid above the cake. For effective washing of the cake the wash Fiquid is distributed over the entire surface of the cake. For removal ofthe cake person has to go inside the filter & remove the cake by showel. The design is very simple. This type of filter comes in MS, SS, PP ete. Moc. The washing of cake is problematic as well as discharge ‘ofthe cake. Also being open this filter can not be used for foul smelling chemicals. Agitated closed nutche As the name suggests this is also nutche filter but agitation is possible. This filter has got lot many other advantages over conventional nutche filters. Because of its closed design it can be used for nasty smelling chemicals, The contamination with foreign particles is avoided. Pressure can be applied in addition vacuum & hence higher pressure differential is possible for filtration. Because of agitation the cake can be reslurried in wash liquid & hence the washing is very effective compared to conventional open nutche. The discharge of the filtered eake is possible by rotating the agitator in reverse direction. In one direction the agitator is pressing the cake & in another direction it is discharging the cake. The final cake can be fed directly to dryer for drying or it ean be reslutried & transferred to another vessel for further processing. The very popular MOC is SS. Spiral ‘This is presoure filter. There is a shaft around which the rod is wound in the form of spiral, Over this spiral filter cloth is wound. The slurry is fed from the side entry of the filter. The filtrate comes out from the bottom outlet & cake is deposited inside the filter around the spiral. After the pressure drop across filter increases the filter is to be opened, the cake discharged & fitted back again for next filtration Spiral filters are used where cake volume is small. It comes in MS, SS, Hast C MOC. Candle‘Candle filter is small in nature, This is used after spiral filter & before cartridge filter. The slurry is fed by pressure. Major filtration is done by spiral filter & only small load comes to this filter. As the pressure drop across it increases it indicates that the filter cloth has clogged, filter is opened & cake discharged. Popular MOCS are MS, SS, Hast C ete Sparkler In this filter there are filter plates mounted one above another. The slurry is fed under pressure by pump. ‘The filtrate comes out from bottom hollow shaft & cake is deposited on various filter plates. As the pressure drop across filter increases it indicates thatthe plate has been loaded with cake. Filter is opened & cake discharged. ‘The combination of sparkler, spiral,candle & cartridge is used for fine filtration such as charcoal filtration where the carbon particles are not allowed in the filtrate. In the conventional nutche filter these fine charcoal is very difficult to trap, ‘The method of operation is thatthe slury is culated through the spiral by pump & filtrate pumped back to the reactor. As the clear fitrate starts coming out the filtrate is passed through spiral. When the clear filtrate comes out from the spiral it is passed through candle, When the clear filtrate comes out from the ‘candle the filtrate is passed finally through cartridge filter for finalpolishing filtration. The MOCs are SS, Nickel, Hast C ete Plate & frame ‘As the name suggests this filter consists of plate & frame mounted over a horizontal shaft. The slury is fed by pump & clear filtrate is collected. Being open in nature it can not be used for foul smelling chemicals. ‘The cake deposits on individual plate. After filtration is over the plates are dismantled & cake removed. ‘The plates & frames can be washed individually & refitted for next filtration. The MOCs available are SS, PP,Hast C etc. In DRL this type of filter has been used only for one or two applications. Advantages: + Because of its basic simplicity it is versatile & may be used for wide range of materials under varying, ‘operating condition of cake thickness & pressure ‘Maintenance cost is low. It provides a large filtering area on a small floor space and few additional associated units are needed. ‘Most of the joins are external & leakage is easily detected. High pressure operation is usually possible. Its equally suitable whether the cake or the filtrate isthe main product. Disadvantage: + Itis intermittent in operation & continual dismantling is apt to cause high wear on the cloths. ‘+ Despite the improvements mentioned above itis fairly heavy on labour. Cartridge ‘Cartridge filters are for very fine filtration at micron Jevel. The cartridge is disposable after it has clogged. For fine charcoal filtration cartridge filter is used at the last stage to tap any earbon which has passed the ‘candle. The MOCs available are SS, Nickel, Hast C, PP etc. In pharmaceutical industries this type of filters are very commen. In DRL the cartridge filters are used for final product (clean room) purification with fine charcoal.Rotary vacuum deum ‘The arrangement consists of a trough in which slury is fed, There is rotating drum on which filter cloth is fixed, Vacuum is applied within the drum. The drum rotates at very very slow speed. By vacuum the slurry is sucked to the top of drum, itis filtered & cake is deposited on the filter cloth. The deposited cake is cut by knife blade & discharged. This filter is very useful for pasty sticky cake. The disadvantage being that it is not very much air tight so there is smell if some foul smelling chet handled. For intermediate filtration this filter is used where other types of filters failed to give satisfactory performance. Other types of filter Some other types of filters are pressure leaf filter, bag filter, horizontal belt filter ets. For details refer books. Filter cloth & filter aid ‘The filter cloths used in DRL are PP, Cotton, Nylon, Polyster ete. These cloths are available in various mesh sizes. For fine filtration higher size mesh cloth is used, For fine filtration, say filtration of fine powered charcoal from slurry Hyflo is used. The procedure is to prepare bed of hyflo over filter eloth by circulating slucry of hyflo prepared separately. Once the filter cloth is embedded with hyfto the slury is fed to the filter. The hyflo bed is easy to prepare. In spiral filter almost always hyflo bed is prepared first & then filtration done, Calculation of filtration time By the very nature of the cake two types of cakes are there, Compressible & Non compressible. Infiltration ‘two resistances are encountered: Cake resistance (0) Filter medium resistance ( Ry) ‘The pressure drop across filter consists of: OP across cake OP across filter medium Total pressure drop is the addition of these two pressure drops. Ifthe cake resistance is independent of the pressure drop itis called non-compressible cake. Ifthe cake resistance is dependent on pressure drop itis called compressible cake, The method is different for compressible & non-compressible cake. By sanure almost all the cakes are compressible to some extent or other. It is their degree of compressibility that decides whether the cake is compressible or non-compressible, Non compressible cake For calculation click-~- Filtration time From lab study time (0) vs filtrate volume (v) data is given. Two methods are available for analyzing these datas. Method-1 ‘The Uv on y-axis is plotted against v on x-axis. From the slope & intercept the cake resistance & filter medium resistance are calculated respectively. The values are fed along with some other values in the INPUT DATA in program & OUTPUT RESULT is obtained. Method-2 ‘This ts quicker method but it does work for non-compressible cake to the satisfactory level. Here v fon y-axis is plotted against t on x-axis. Inthe lab data the cake thickness is mentioned at the end of filtration, For half ofthe filtration cake thickness will be half of the total thickness. Time for halffiltration is found from the plot, Respective values are put in the INPUT DATA & OUTPUT RESULT is obtained. The filtration factor ‘n’is calculated which is very close to 2 for most of the ‘non-compressible cakes. Hence filtration is said to follow the square law. Compressible cake ‘The filtration data time vs Mltate volume should be collected at various ditferential pressures in lab. For individual OP the plots of Uv vs v are made. From these plots the cake resistance Cand filter medium resistance Re re calculated. Table is made of 0, Ra OP. From these datas two graphs are drawn: Log (6) vs Log (OP) Ra vs OP ‘The slope of first graph is‘s’. The equation showing the relationship between cake resistance, © & pressure drop OP is: = 0,¢0P%* & When's’ = 0° the cake is non-compressible. As the value of 's" goes away & away from *0" the cake tends to become compressible. The slope of first plot is ‘s. From the graph by putting the value of (8 OP into above equation J can be calculated. From Ra vs OP graph the value of Ry is taken in the equation for nearest value of OP. The cake resistance (0 & OP can be plotted on LogsLog seal als instead of taking Log & then plotting.3V ANNEXURE V VACUUM EQUIPMENTS Introduction In chemical process industries vacuum is very oftenly used for various purposes eg. ‘Vacuum distillation of high boiling organic compounds. At atmospheric distillation, the products may deteriorate due to higher temperature, but in vacuum distillation temperature is lower. For transferring ¢ material from on place to another, pressure differential can be created by applying vacuum, ‘+ In chemical reactions where gases are generated negative pressure that is vacuum is applied for scrubbing gases so that leakage to atmosphere is minimised. + _In filtration and drying operations also vacuum is used very frequently. For creating vacuum common devices used are: Ejectors ‘Venturi scrubbers Vacuum pumps Ejectors ‘These are the most common equipments used for creating vacuum because of their simple design, No ‘moving pars. Basic principle Points to be considered while purchasi 1 ejector Performance factors ‘Sicam flow through ejector nozzle ation required for ej ton ‘Cost factors Basic principles of steam jet ejector Steam ejectors are pumps without moving parts. Construction and operation are extremely simple in as ‘much as only three main processes are involved, ‘The main parts are head, the driving nozzle andthe diffuser. The main processes are expansion of driving steam in the driving nozzle, mixing of the steam jet thus produced withthe medium to be drawn off (air, ‘Basses or vapors) and the conversion of velocity ofthis mixture into pressure in the diffusers. ‘Steam jet ejectors operate at very high velocities. The velocity of the driving steam jet is nearly always ‘many times that ofthe speed of sound. The large volumes under vacuum can therefore he easily handled. This isthe reason why stem ejectors ars eminently suitable as vacuum pumps. ‘These are simple is construction, constructed from wide range of material of construction, simpie in operation, robust in design, long working life, extremely safe operation, Type of ejector + Single stage ‘Yo compress from about 80 torr to atmospheric pressure. Iti 10, tis suitable as pre-evacuator. used generally for compression ration < + Two-stage ‘Without intercondensation, to compress from about 30 torr to atmospheric pressure. It is used for small suction quantities and as two-stage pre-evacuator.+ Three-stage With intercondensation to compress ftom about 10 tor to atmospheric pressure. Iti mainly used to ‘evacuate large condensers. These ejectors have a smaller steam and water consumption than the two stage steam jt ejectors with intercondensation i the working conditions are same for both the nits. + Four-stage = With surface condenser for vacuum from about 3 torr to about 30 torr when the drawn off medium ‘must not come into contact with the cooling water or if the condensate isto be recovered. ‘These ejectors are used extensively in the mineral oil industries. + Fivestage ‘With mixing condensers for vacuum from about 0.1 torr to about 3 torr. For suction quantities from about 0.5 ke/hr upto about 1000 kg/hr condensable and in condensable vapor and gases. ‘These ejectors are used for freeze drying where large quantities of water vapor are drawn off from a vacuum of about torr. Also used in steel de-gassing where large quantities of incondensable gases must be drawn off + Six-stage With intercondenser and an after condenser, for vacuum from about 0.05 torr to about tor. ‘These are used inthe manufacture of synthetic fibres where vacuum between about 0.1 torr and 0.3 torr is required. An after condenser is always used, ifthe exhaust from the fina stage can not flow direct into the atmosphere, + 2Steam stage + water ring vacuum pump For vacuum from about 0.5 to 5 torr. This combined pump is particularly suitable if barometric erection isnot possible. + Stem stage + water jet This combination is used for vacuum upto 10 tor. 2 Steam stage + 1 water jet This combination is very famous in the chemical process industries. This gives vacuum inthe range of 210 Storr, Points to be considered while purchasing steam jet ejector: Suction capacity Vacuum Pre-evacuator Moc ‘Type of condenser ‘Method of installation ‘Suetion capacity The steam consumption of a stem jet vacuum pump does not depend upon whether the whole or only part ‘of the suction is ejected. No steam is saved when a large capacity pump is operating below full load. Hence itis important to make the plant to be held under vacuum as airtight as possible, to determine the suction ‘capacity as accurately as possible and to design the pump for this capacity. However the capacity should ‘always be chosen witha safety margin so as not to endanger safe working. ‘The suction capacity is best calculated by weight that is Kg/hr. The suction capacity be weight is made up of, + Airleakage For calculating the air leakage rate cick here> Air leakage rate ‘This leakage is that which enters through gaps in sealing. (A hole of I mn? lets in approximately 1.8 Ibs). + Gases, vapor & air released from the materia! handled in the plant The -ondensable part must be disingushed from the noncondensables (Inet gas ). The molecular weight & temperature must be taken into consideration. For discontinuous operation, i is important to ‘now at what vacuum the gas or vapor quantities ar released. < air from the cooling water The air tightness ofthe vacuum plans can vary greatly depending upon whether the plant is mainly welded or whether it has many lange connections, valves, cocks, inspection glasses, stuffing boxesa2 Haig OP Of sealing materia, te condition of the sealing surfaces and the degree ofthe use ofthe Eilings are important. However itis posible to give a ough ene ee Practical evaluation ofthe ‘Seven expaciy (Not including of course vapors or gases released inthe chemical eon) Vacuurn Re. xactum should not be chosen higher than the absolutely necessary. Too high @ vacuum leads to and ensearie te suction pipelines, unnecessarily large steam jet ejector, excessine seer ‘consumption and excessive cooling water consumption, Pre-evacuator Uf vacuum plat is in constant operation, evacuating time on start-up is ‘generally not an important factor toe sabak necessary to provide special pre-evacuator (Start-up cector) Ithonerer arene ee lant has. A poe eal fequently, a shor evacuating time is desirable, To achieve this 2 preceeese een ee A pre-evacuator is normaly a single stage stam jet elector with a lage suetng ‘capacity, which is put to time to the required working vacuum. aries eyseuator has a high steam consumption. However this snot of great importance since it operates can 10-15 minutes during the start-up ofthe plan. The steam consumption of pnresncy ees ‘Sonsiderably wit increasing stem pressure. The steam consumption at 10 atm i nly 40. af ater ae, Moc Aaagii Jet vacuum pump should be constructed ofa material atleast resistant to corosion a the plant 10 ich wil be atached. The various MOCs avaiable are: MS, SS-304, 5-316, Greohie Alsen lines, PP etc, ‘The jet comes in various MOCs such as: $8.304, $.316, Titanium, PTFE ete. Type of condenser Manu condenses are simple, reliable and inexpensive. Mixing condenser ike steam et jctos can be aectred from many different materials and also make the best use of cooling wate, uisurfoce condenser, the cooling water doesnot enter the vacuum. The cooling wate is separate from the condensate. Surface condensers must be used when THe Cooling water must not be contaminated by the condensate of the vapors drawn off ‘The condensate is to serve a cooling water for units suchas steam turbine condenses ‘The condensate is to be reclaimed. ‘Armonia vapors are contained inthe drawn off vapors because insoluble condensate are quickly formed Eanixing the condensates which would cause breakdowns, that is, blocking of the water outlet ete Even small amount of ammonia are dangerous, Barometric erection {fpossible steam jet ejectors should be erected barometically because then the water flows from the Condensers without pamping. A column of 760 mm Hg ( 2992" ) high balances the pressure ofthe mosphere, Since water is 13% times lighter than mercury, the corresponding height of water is 10.33Since the water may be mixed with same air and hence will no longer have @sp.gravity of 1, itis safer to assume a fll barometric height of 11 meters + Non barometric erection In many cases it snot possible to installa steam jet ejector 11 m (36 ft) above the water drain, There {are various altematives depending on the height available. Performance factors: Driving steam Suction pressure Discharge pressure Cooling water Dry and saturated ai Gas and vapor densities Driving steam ‘Steam jet ejectors can be designed for driving steam from about 15 psia to 600 psig. A steam jet ejector ‘operates atthe driving steam pressure for which itis designed. It is necessary to ensure thatthe designed pressure is maintained otherwise a breakdown is possible. On the other hand operating above the design pressure results in steam wastage. In this case itis necessary to install a pressure regulator. Its essential to check what working steam pressure is available atthe site of steam jet ejector. The ejector should be designed for that pressure. ( This pressure is often much lower thaa the boiler pressure . Steam jet ejectors operate most offiiently with dry saturated steam or superheated steam, Low superheat can be Uisregarded. Wet steam is not desirable at all. ‘The motive steam design pressure must be selected as the lowest expected pressure atthe ejector steam nozzle. The unit will not operate stably on steam pressures below the design pressure. Recommended steam design pressure = Minimum expected design pressure a the ejector nozzle ~ 10 psi This design basis allows for stable operation under minor pressure fluctuations. An increase in steam pressure over design pressure will not increase vapor holding capacity for the usual “ Fixed capacity ejector *. The increased pressure usually decreases eapacity due to the extra steam in the diffuser. The best ejector steam economy is attained when the steam nozzle and diffuser are proportionated for a specified performance. Fora given ejector an increase in steam pressure over the design value will increase the steam flow through the nozzle in direct proportion to the increase in the absolute steam pressure. The higher the actual design pressure of an ejector the lower the lower the steam consumption. This is more pronounced on one or two Stage ejectors. When this pressure is above 350 psig, the decrease in steam requirement will be negligible. As the absolute suction pressure decreeses advantage of high pressure steam becomes less pronounced. [n very small units the physical size of steam nozzle may place lower eeiling on the pressure. For the ejectors discharging to the atmosphere, steam pressure below 60 psig at the ejector are generally ‘uneconomical. If discharge pressure is lower in multistage unis, the steam pressure at inlet can be lower, Singie stage ejectors designed for pressure below 200 mm He (abs) cannot operate efficiently on steam pressures below 25 psig. The first stage for two of a multistage system can be designed although perhaps ‘ot economically to use stem pressure below one psig. To ensure stable operations the steam pressure must be above a minimum value. This minimum is called ‘motive steam pick-up pressure, when the pressure is being increased from unstable region. Effect of wet steam ‘Wet steam erodes the ejector nozzle and interferes with performance by clogging the nozzle with water Groplets. The effect on performance is significant and is usually reflected in fluctuating vacuum, Effect of superheated steam ‘A few degree of superheat (5-15°C) is recommended, but if superheated steam is to be used its effect must be considered in the ejector design. A high degree of superheat is of no advantage because the increase in available energy is offset by the decrease in the steam densitySuction pressure Re ction pressure ofan ejector is expressed in absolute units. The suction pressure follows the ejector capacity curve, varying with the non-condensable and vapor load to the unt. Discharge pressure All types of ejectors are sensitive to discharge pressure just as they are tothe steam supply pressure Normally designed ejectors are suitable for operating against a pressure only slighty in excess of ‘atmospheric. In most eases ejectors can be designed to discharge at a pressure ofS psi provided a Gonsiderable increase in steam consumption can be permitted, It must be appreciated, however, thatthe lischarge of an ejector is contaminated with incondensable gases and is therefore in many cases unsuitable for further use ‘The pressure drop through discharge piping and aftercooler must he taken into consideration. Discharge Piping should not have pockets for condensation Cooling water ‘The cooling water temperature is of great importance. Well water Ow 1° River water 510 25°C Re-circulated water 10 t0 28°C Seawater 15 t0 30°C. Steam jet ejectors must be designed for the maximum cooling water temperature available. Steam and ‘water consumption are greatly dependent on the design temperature as can be seen from the followin, example A unit to eject at 5 torr using steam at 45 psig, ‘The steam consumption at a cooling water temperature of 25°C is double that of 15°C. Ifthe cooling water {temperature varies to large extent throughout the year, it is advisable to adjust the steam consumption in relation to the water temperature by suing different nozzles, or by altering the steam pressure (‘The lower in only possible at high pressure ). The pressure ofthe cooling water should not oscillate as this may affect the vacuum, ‘With missing condensers it is not necessary to have any particular water pressure. With water jet condensers a ininimum pressure of 30 psig is required. With surface condensers the pressure loss in the tubes must be overcome, In general the cooling water outlet temperature must not exceed 45°C to 50°C, otherwise chalk deposits will cause breakdown, Amount of gases released from cooling water, W = Git, where W = Air liberated Ibs/ar Ty = Inlet temperature °C G = Cooling water, aVmin GPM of cooling water required W, = Lbs of steam to condense L = Latent heat of vaporisation, usually taken as 1000 BTUMIb for process application and 950 BTUilb for turbine exhaust steam, ty = Cooling water temperature rise "F Dry and saturated air‘When an ejector is maintaining a condenser vacuum, the air extracted by the ejector is saturated with water vapor. The amount of water vapor entrained by the dry air which leaks into the condenser depends upon the temperature of the mixture and the vacuum atthe ejector suction, Gas and vapor densities When an ejector or thermo-compressor is required to handle chemical gases or vapors, itis necessary that the gas density (For failing this the temperature & molecular weight be known. The compression of 8 sven weight of heavy gas requires less operating steam than the same weight of light gas. AS a simple ‘example on pound of air is more easily handled by an ejector than one pound of water vapor. The correct proportioning of the ejector & thermo-compressor therefore necessitates detailed knowledge of the properties ofthe gas or vapor to be compressed. Steam flow through ejector nozzle ‘The quantity of steam passing through any ejector nozzle varies directly asthe steam pressure, but decreases with an increase of steam temperature. Its therefore essential that the maximum steam. {temperatures be stated to enable the ejector to be correctly designed. ‘The weight of steam flowing through an ejector nozzle may be obained from the following simple formula 'S = KPD’, where 'S = Steam flow in bs/hr P = Steam pressure atthe upstream of nozzle in psi (abs) D = Diameter of nozzle bore in inches. K = A constant which depends on the steam pressure and temperature, Information required for ejector selection Zo enable the manufacturer to design most suitable type of vacuum system, iti essential that correct data be available upon which to base proposals & designs. Whenever possible the following information should be supplied with any enquiry Brief description of purpose for which equipment is required, ‘Weight of air or vapor tobe handled in Ibs. Ifa mixture of air, vapor and/or other non-condensable {8ses. Their approximate proportions shouldbe stated LLosihr of condensable vaporous & Ibsthr of non-condensable gases, either dissolved, injected or caried in process formed by reaction, air leakage et. ‘The absolute pressure required at the ejector suction in inches mercury, or millimeters mercury. 1f ejector is required to discharge t other than atmospheric pressure, the maximum discharge pressure must be sated * 1fnormal steam pressure and also the mnimum steam pressure at which the plant is required to ‘operate, If steam i superheated give maximum temperature ‘+ Maximum temperature of cooling water Cost factors fall the classes of Chemical Engineering Equipments, ejectors are unique in thatthe actual operating cost {s usually much greater than the installed equipment cost. Ejectors have low first east because they are simple in design, have no moving parts and occupy a small space, {In general operating cost increases asthe ejector steain pressure increases. fan ejector is supplied with steam above the design pressure, steam consumption will be increased in direct proportion tothe ratio of ‘setual operating pressure to the design pressure. It is good practice to installa stem pressure regulating valve to maintain @ uniform steam pressure atthe ejector. ‘The other things which affect the performance of on ejector are. Discharge pressure Wet and superheated steama> Load variation Back pressure Capacity and suetion pressure Number of stages Condenser requirements Material of construction Water jet ejectors As the name suggests it waterjet ejector the motive fluid is water instead of steam. Ejectors using water as the motive fluid are designed for reasonable non-condensable load together with large condensable flows. ‘Water pressures as low as 10-20 psig are usable, while pressures of 40 psig and higher will maintain a vacuum of 1~4 inches of Fig (abs) in a single stage unit. Combination of water & steam ejectors are used to effectively handle a wide varity of vacuum situations. The water ejector serves to condense steam from the steam ejector. Water ejectors and water jet eductors are also used for mixing liquids, lifting liquids end pumping + ‘mixing suspended solids & slurries ranging from '4" to 24. The ejectors are usually in pumping air or gases while the eductors are used in pumping liquids. Unlike steam jet ejector there is pump in waterjet ejector which is the moving part, Venturi scrubbers ‘These are used for scrubbing gases coming out from chemical reactions. For example gases evolved such as, 0;, HCI are serubbed in caustic soda solution. For venturi scrubbers slight vacuum is required to ensure that the gases do not leak to atmosphere The venturi scrubbers used typically are of model: 25D, 40D, 60D of H. K. Industries make, ‘Vacuum pumps ‘Vacuum pumps are mainly used for handling large quantities of operations such as filtration, drying ete ‘The vacuum pump may be liquid ring type or dry pump. Amongst liquid ring more common are water ring and oil ring vacuum pumps. leakage at relatively low vacuum in Water ring vacuum pump Water ring machines are used principally as vacuum pumps, but can also serve as compressors for special applications. Theit main advantage lies in their simple and trouble free operations. They may be used for handling moist air as well as agaressive gases and vapors, provided that the material of construction is properly selected. Dust-aden gases can also be handled without difficulty. ‘Water ring machines are absolutely oil-free and do not contaminate the medium passing through. Compression takes place with a small temperature rise since most of the heat is absorbed by the ring fluid which also acts as a seal. For special applications, an atemative sealing fluid instead of water may be used. Principle of operation ‘The casing of the machine is eylindrical with control dises on either side. Within this is an eccentrically located impeller with curved blading. The liquid introduced, preferably water is set into rotary motion by the blading, thus forming a water ring concentric withthe easing. Cells are formed berween the ring ard the blades of the impetler, which vary in volume from a maximum to a minimum with each revolution. The conveying medium enters the working chamber through the openings in the lateral control discs and is ‘compressed by the decrease in volume of the cells, I then flows together with the cooling water through lischarge openings the contra dise to the delivery port. The impeller runs in bearings arranged in brackets ‘outside the casing covers. At the bottom of the casing an automatic drain valve is provided, through which the ring fluid can flow off when the pump is ata standstill. The pump should be brought into operation without the ring fluid whereby easy starting is ensured.