Implementation of Solar Water Pumping

System Using FLC controller with LUO converter

ABSTRACT:

This paper introduces the Increment conduction Algorithm with LUO converter as
a novel approach to the new technology; maximized power point tracking method
(MPPT) using P & O and Increment conduction Algorithm produces higher voltage
transfer gain than other converters. Increment conduction Algorithm gives better
performance, reduced voltage ripples, higher efficiency, and even higher transfer gain
than voltage lift technique and super-lift technique. The maximized power point tracking
method (MPPT) using P & O and Increment conduction Algorithm obtains high output
transfer gain with geometrical progression. Here, this design consists of PIC
microcontroller, Solar panel, Battery and BLDC motor.
 CHAPTER-1

1.1 NEED OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

A developing country requires more energy. Nowadays, most of the energy

supplied by fossil fuels such as diesel, coal, petrol, and gas is 80% of our current energy.
On top of this energy demand is expected to grow by almost half over the next two
decades. Plausibly this is causing some fear that our energy resources are starting to run
out, with disturbing consequences for the global economy and global quality of life.
Increasing demand of energy results in two main problem climate change and energy
crisis. The global energy demand increases, the energy related greenhouse gas production
increases. It is a global challenge to reduce the CO2 emission and offer clean, sustainable
and affordable energy.
The worldwide increasing energy demand Energy saving is one cost effective
solution, but does not tackle. Renewable energy is a good option because it gives a clean
and green energy, with no CO2 emission. Renewable energy is defined as energy that
comes from resources which are naturally refilled on a human timescale such as sunlight,
wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.[10]

1.2 DIFFERENT SOURCES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

1.2.1 Wind Energy

The wind turbine can be used to harness the energy from the airflow. Now a
day’s wind energy can be used from 800 kW to 6 MW of rated power. Science power
output is the function of the wind speed; it rapidly increases with increase in wind speed.
In recent time have led to airfoil wind turbines, which is more efficient due to better
aerodynamic structure.

1.2.2 Solar Energy

 Solar energy is profusely available that has made it possible to harvest it and
utilize it properly. Solar energy can be a standalone producing system or can be a grid
connected generating unit depending on the availability of a grid nearby. Thus it can be
used to produce power in rural areas where the availability of grids is very low. Solar
energy is form of energy that directly available from sun and convert in to electrical
energy, which is best form of energy without any climatic change and energy crisis. This
conversion can be achieved with the help of PV cell or with solar power plants.[1]
 1.2.3 Small Hydro Power

Hydropower energy generates power by using a dam or diversion structure to

alter the natural flow of a river or other body of water. This energy can be used by
conversion the water stored in dam into electrical energy using water turbines.
Hydropower, as an energy supply, also provides unique benefits to an electrical system.
First, when stored in large quantities in the reservoir behind a dam, it is immediately
available for use when required. Second, the energy source can be rapidly adjusted to
meet demand instantaneously.

1.2.4 Geothermal

Geothermal energy is available in form of thermal energy from heat stored inside
the earth. In this steam produced from reservoirs of hot water found a couple of miles or
more below the Earth's surface. This energy comes from the decay of radioactive nuclei
with long half-lives that are embedded within the Earth, some energy is from residual
heat left over from Earths formation and rest of the energy comes from meteorite impacts.

1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

Solar power is one of the renewable energy resource that will hopefully lead us
away from coal dependent and petroleum dependent energy resource. The major problem
with photovoltaic charging system is that the energy conversion efficiency of solar panel
is poor and high cost. Solar panels themselves are quite not efficient in their ability to
convert sunlight to energy. The study shows that solar panel convert 35-45% of energy
incident on into electrical energy. So our aim is how to decrease the overall cost and
energy conversion efficiency of solar panel. To store solar energy charging system is also
required to efficiently charge battery with lesser charging time. A Maximum Power Point
Tracking algorithm is required to increase the efficiency of the solar panel.
The most commonly known are [1] hill-climbing, [2] fractional open circuit voltage
control,
[3] perturb and observe(P&O), [4] incremental conductance(INC), [5] Neural network
control, [6] fuzzy control based etc. These algorithms are varying due to simplicity,
effectiveness, merging speed, sensor required and cost. The most commonly algorithm
based on current and voltage sensing incremental conductance (INC) and perturb and
observe (P&O) is used to track maximum power point (MPP) due to its simplicity,
effectiveness & merging speed.
Under abruptly change in irradiation level as MPP, changes continuously, P & O receipts
it as a change in MPP due to perturbation rather than that of irradiation and sometimes
ends up in calculating incorrect MPP. However, this problem gets avoided by an
incremental conductance method in case of the incremental conductance method
algorithm takes two sample of voltage and current to calculate MPP. However, due to
higher efficiency, complexity of incremental conductance algorithm. This MPPT
algorithm combines with battery charging loop to charge lead acid battery with different
charging stage like constant current, constant voltage, float charge. So optimal is charging
pattern design to charge Lead acid battery with three different charging stages that are
constant current, constant voltage and float charging. This charging pattern of battery
efficiently charge battery with lesser charging time.[10]
Implementation cost of this pattern very high because both are used voltage and
current sensing device. Voltage sensing directly obtain by connecting voltage divider
circuit across the panel and directly apply to the microcontroller, but current sensing
require current sensor connected between panel and DC-DC converter. Generally, current
sensor used for MPP high efficient LEM current sensor. Due to high cost current sensor
and other device make up so PV charging system cost effective. Our aim is to design
charging pattern so that abstract maximum power from solar module and efficiently
charge battery with lesser charging time with low implementation cost.[2]

1.4 MOTIVATION

Solar energy is one source of power generation that independent away from
petroleum and coal dependent energy resource. The major problem with solar energy is
conversion efficiency poorer and high installation cost. Research going into this area to
develop the efficient control mechanism and provide better control. So the overall
installation cost of photovoltaic charging system reduces. The challenging research work
going on in this area is the motivation behind the project.

1.5 OBJECTIVE
 Our objective is to hardware implement the MPPT technique to obtain maximum

output power from solar module. Also to first simulate the same in MATLAB and obtain

the desired results.

2.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
A photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell is a semiconductor device that converts
light to electrical energy by photovoltaic effect. If the energy of photon of light is greater
than the band gap then the electron is emitted and the flow of electrons creates current.
However a photovoltaic cell is different from a photodiode. In a photodiode light
falls on n-channel of the semiconductor junction and gets converted into current or
voltage signal but a photovoltaic cell is always forward biased.

2.2 PV MODULE

Usually a number of PV modules are arranged in series and parallel to meet the
energy requirements. PV modules of different sizes are commercially available. For
example, a typical small scale desalination plant requires a few thousand watts of
power.

2.3 PV ARRAY

A PV array consists of several photovoltaic cells in series and parallel connections.

Series connections are responsible for increasing the voltage of the module whereas the
parallel connection is responsible for increasing the current in the array.

Solar Solar Panel Solar Panel

 Cells
(4 cells ) (Module) (Multiple
Module)

Figure 2.1 Different solar modules

Here in these project Monocrystalline PV Module is used and its electrical
specification and characteristic table is as shown below
 Table 2.1 Electrical Characteristic of PV Module

Maximum Power – Pmax 40 W

Voltage at Pmax – Vmax 16.4 V
Current at Pmax – Imax 0.61 A
Short - circuit current – Isc 0.71 A
Open – voltage circuit – voc 17.2 V
Total number of cells in series (Ns) 36
Total number of array in parallel (Np) 4

Mono crystalline cell:

Advantages-
1. It has highest efficiency (15%-20%)
2. Space efficient
3. Its life is long
4. perform better than poly crystalline cell at low light
condition.[4] Disadvantages-
1. These cells are expensive
2. If it is partially covered with shade, snow & dirt, the entire circuit may break down.

2.4 MATLAB SIMULINK MODEL

2.4.1 MATLAB Simulink Model of Photovoltaic Cell

Figure 2.2 Matlab Simulink Model of Photovoltaic Cell
2.4.2 MATLAB Simulink Model of MPPT Control of PWM Generation

Figure 2.3 Matlab Simulink Model of MPPT control and PWM generation

2.4.3 MATLAB Simulink Model of Buck Converter and PWM Pulse

Figure 2.4 Matlab Simulink Model of Buck converter and PWM pulse.
 2.4.4 Complete MATLAB Simulink Model

Figure. 2.5 Complete Matlab Simulink Model

2.5 MATLAB Simulink Result

Figure 2.6 I_PV CURVE
Figure 2.7 V_PV AND OUTPUT VOLTAGE CURVE
Figure 2.8(a) VOLTAGE – CURRENT CURVE

Figure 2.8(b) POWER – VOLTAGE CURVE

3.1 AN OVERVIEW OF MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

A typical solar panel converts only 30 to 40 percent of the incident solar

irradiation into electrical energy. Maximum power point tracking technique is used to
improve the efficiency of the solar panel. According to Maximum Power Transfer
theorem, the power output of a circuit is maximum when the Thevenin impedance of the
circuit (source impedance) matches with the load impedance. Hence our problem of
tracking the maximum power point reduces to an impedance matching problem. In the
source side we are using a buck convertor connected to a solar panel in order to enhance
the output voltage so that it can be used for different applications like motor load. By
changing the duty cycle of the buck converter appropriately we can match the source
impedance with that of the load impedance.[5]

3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MPPT TECHNIQUE

There are different ways of classifying MPPT techniques, some based on the
number of variables used to track MPP like one variable or two variable methods, and
some based on the type of techniques used to track MPP. The different MPPT control
techniques are classified into broadly three groups: Offline (indirect), Online (direct) and
other techniques, mainly on the basis of parameters required to track MPP. Offline
control techniques usually use technical data of PV panels to estimate the MPP. These
data includes prior information like, I–V and P–V curves of the panels for different
climatic conditions, different mathematical models etc. of PV panels. Online (direct)
methods on the other hand use real time, PV voltages and/or current measurements for
tracking MPP. These methods do not require the measurement of temperature and solar
irradiance and also the PV array model. The offline methods are cost effective but
performance wise less effective than online and other methods. Other methods include
either modification or combination of these methods or methods based on indirect
calculations.[10]
Figure.3.1 Different types MPPT techniques.
3.2 DIFFERENT MPPT TECHNIQUE
There are different techniques used to track the maximum power point. Few of the
most popular techniques are:

1. Perturb and observe (hill climbing method)

2. Incremental Conductance method

3. Fractional short circuit current

4. Fractional open circuit voltage

5. Neural networks

6. Fuzzy logic

3.3.1 Perturb & Observe

Perturb & Observe (P&O) is the simplest method. In this we use only one
sensor, that is the voltage sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of
implementation is less and hence easy to implement. The time complexity of this
algorithm is very less but on reaching very close to the MPP it doesn’t stop at the MPP
and keeps on perturbing on both the directions. When this happens the algorithm has
reached very close to the MPP and we can set an appropriate error limit or can use a wait
function which ends up increasing the time complexity of the algorithm. However the
method does not take account of the rapid change of irradiation level (due to which
MPPT changes) and considers it as a change in MPP due to perturbation and ends up
calculating the wrong MPP. Perturb and observe (P&O) is one of the famous algorithm
due to its simplicity used for maximum power point tracking. This algorithm based on
voltage and current sensing based used to track MPP. In this controller require calculation
for power and voltage to track MPP. In this voltage is perturbed in one direction and if
power is continuous to increase then algorithm keep on perturb in same direction. If new
power is less than previous power then perturbed in opposite direction. When module
power reach at MPP there is oscillation around MPP point.[3]
 Figure 3.2 Flow chart of Perturb and observe algorithm

3.3.2 Incremental Conductance

Incremental conductance method uses two voltage and current sensors to sense the
output voltage and current of the PV array. The left hand side is the instantaneous
conductance of the solar panel. When this instantaneous conductance equals the
conductance of the solar then MPP is reached. Here we are sensing both the voltage and
current simultaneously. Hence the error due to change in irradiance is eliminated.
However the complexity and the cost of implementation increases. As we go down the
list of algorithms the complexity and the cost of implementation goes on increasing
which may be suitable for a highly complicated system. This is the reason that Perturb
and Observe and Incremental Conductance method are the most widely used algorithms.
[3]
 In this technique, the controller measures incremental change in module voltage
and current to observe the effect of a power change [1] . This method requires more
calculation but can track fast than perturb and observe algorithm (P&O). Under
abruptly change in irradiation level as maximum power point changes continuously,
P&O receipts it as a change in MPP due to perturb rather than that of isolation and
sometimes ends up in calculating incorrect MPP. However this problem get avoided by
incremental conductance (INC).In this method algorithm takes two sample of voltage
and current to maximize power from solar module. However due to effectiveness and
complexity of incremental conductance algorithm very high compare to perturb and
observe. Like the P&O algorithm, it can produce oscillations in power output. This
study on realizing MPPT by improved incremental conductance method with variable
step-size [6]. So these are two advantage of incremental conductance method. So in
our implementation to achieve high efficiency this method utilize incremental
conductance (dI/dV) of the photovoltaic array to calculate the sign of the change in
power with respect to voltage (dP/dV). The controller maintains this voltage till the
isolation changes and the process is repeated.
Figure 3.3 Flow chart of incremental conductance algorithm
3.3.3 Fractional short circuit current MPPT

Fractional ISC results from the fact that, under varying atmospheric conditions, I MPP
is approximately linearly related to the ISC of the PV array.

IMPP =k2 Isc Where k2 is a proportionality constant.

Just like in the fractional VOC technique, k2 has to be determined according to the
PV array in use. The constant K 2 is generally found to be between 0.78 and 0.92.
Measuring ISC during operation is problematic. An additional switch usually has to be
added to the power converter to periodically short the PV array so that I SC can be
measured using a current sensor.

3.3.4 Fractional open circuit voltage MPPT

The near linear relationship between VMPP and VOC of the PV array, under
varying irradiance and temperature levels, has given rise to the fractional VOC method.

VMPP = k1 Voc where k1 is a constant of proportionality. Since k1 is dependent on

the characteristics of the PV array being used, it usually has to be computed beforehand
by empirically determining VMPP and VOC for the specific PV array at different
irradiance and temperature levels. The factor k1 has been reported to be between 0.71 and
0.78. Once k1 is known, VMPP can be computed with VOC measured periodically by
momentarily shutting down the power converter.However; this incurs some
disadvantages, including temporary loss of power.Fractional open circuit (FOCV) fast
and simple way of MPPT tracking. This algorithm not able to track exact maximum
power point. Reason is that when irradiation level and temperature of module changes
correspondingly MPP point change but this algorithm work on fixed value of voltage at
MPP. This algorithm work on principle that voltage at MPP is nearly equal to open
circuit voltage of module by factor N. Value of N basically braying from .68 to .80 that
depend on type of module used.[4]
3.3.5 Fuzzy Logic Control
Microcontrollers have made using fuzzy logic control popular for MPPT over last
decade. Fuzzy logic controllers have the advantages of working with imprecise inputs,
not needing an accurate mathematical model, and handling nonlinearity.

3.3.6 Neural Network

Another technique of implementing MPPT which are also well adapted for
microcontrollers is neural networks. Neural networks commonly have three layers: input,
hidden, and output layers. The number nodes in each layer vary and are user dependent.
The input variables can be PV array parameters like VOC and ISC, atmospheric data like
irradiance and temperature, or any combination of these. The output is usually one or
several reference signals like a duty cycle signal used to drive the power converter to
operate at or close to the MPPT [4].

TABLE 3.1 COMPARISONS OF DIFFERENT MPPT TECHNIQUES

 3.3 DETAIL OF P &O TECNIQUE

The Perturb & Observe algorithm states that when the operating voltage
of the PV panel is perturbed by a small increment, if the resulting change in
power P is positive, then we are going in the direction of MPP and we keep on
perturbing in the same direction. If P is negative, we are going away from the

direction of MPP and the sign of perturbation supplied has to be changed [5].

Figure 3.4 Solar panel Characteristic showing MPP and

Operating point A & B
 CHAPTER-II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Tool for Automated Simulation of Solar Arrays Using General-Purpose

Simulators

The paper describes a tool developed to automate the study of solar array
configurations using a general-purpose simulator such as Spice. The main advantage of
the proposed method is that studies can be done for any solar array configuration formed
from elementary models of solar cell units. Hierarchical structure of solar cell elements
with semiconductor detail allows simulations of electrical properties as well as evaluation
of environmental conditions impact. Application examples such as the effect of unequal
illumination on various array interconnections and the mismatch of solar cells are
presented to demonstrate the usefulness of the tool. The automated process eases
investigation of large system and worst-case study for given environmental scenarios.

2.2. Comparative Study of Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms Using an

Experimental, Programmable, Maximum Power Point Tracking Test Bed

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is important in solar power systems

because it reduces the solar array cost by decreasing the number of solar panels needed to
obtain the desired output power. Several different MPPT methods have been proposed,
but there has been no comprehensive experimental comparison between all the different
algorithms and their overall maximum power point (MPP) tracking efficiencies under
varying conditions (i.e. Illumination, temperature, and load). This paper such a
comparison. Results are using a microprocessor controlled MPPT powered by a 250 W
photovoltaic (PV) array and also a PV array simulator.

2.3. Comparison of Photovoltaic Array Maximum Power Point Tracking

Techniquesࣔ

The many different techniques for maximum power point tracking of photovoltaic
(PV) arrays are discussed. The techniques are taken from the literature dating back to the
earliest methods. It is shown that at least 19 distinct methods have been introduced in the
literature, with many variations on implementation. This paper should serve as a
convenient reference for future work in PV power generation.

2.4. Control design guidelines for single-phase grid-connected photovoltaicinverters

with damped resonant harmonic compensators.

The injection of low-harmonic current to the electrical grid is nowadays regulated

by international standards. In order to accomplish these standards, selective harmonic
compensation is carried out in grid-connected photovoltaic inverters by means of
resonant harmonic compensators. This paper gives a systematic design procedure for
selecting the gains and parameters of these harmonic compensators. Other factors
considered in the design process include frequency deviation, grid synchronization, and
transient response. Both a design example meeting the requirements of grid
interconnection and selected experimental results from a digital-signal-processor-based
laboratory prototype are also reported.

2.5. An Efficient Particle Swarm Optimization Technique for 4-Leg Shunt Active
Power Filter,
 This paper describes the mitigation of harmonics in source and neutral current in
three phase four wire system based on 4-leg shunt active power filter under balanced and
unbalanced load conditions. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and conventional
Proportional Integral (PI) controller are used as control techniques to analyze the control
performance of 4-leg shunt active power filter. The synchronous reference frame (SRF)
method is used to extract reference current in 4-leg shunt active filter. The Hysteresis
Current Controller (HCC) is used to generate gate pulses for Voltage Source Inverter
(VSI) based 4-leg shunt active power filter. The proposed PSO technique gives less
percentage of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) value in source and neutral current and
settling time of the DC capacitor voltage compared to conventional PI controller
technique. The model of the proposed system performance was validated using
MATLAB/Simulink environment.

2.6. Comparison Study of Maximum Power Point Tracker Techniques for PV

Systems

These techniques vary in many aspects as simplicity, digital or analogical

implementation, sensor required, convergence speed, range of effectiveness,
implementation hardware, popularity, cost and in other aspects. This paper presents in
details comparative study between two most popular algorithms technique which is
incremental conductance algorithm and perturb and observe algorithm. Three different
converter buck, boost and cuk converter use for comparative in this study. Few
comparison such as efficiency, voltage, current and power out put for each different
combination has been recorded. Multi changes in irradiance, temperature by keeping
voltage and current as main sensed parameter been done in the simulation. Matlab
simulink tools have been used for performance evaluation on energy point. Simulation
will consider different solar irradiance and temperature variations.
2.7. FOUR-LEG SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER FOR POWER QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT USING PI AND FUZZY CONTROLLERS

This paper presents reduction of line current Harmonics using Four-leg shunt
active power filter with Balanced and unbalanced load condition for three phase Four
wire shunt active power filter. The synchronous Reference frame (SRF) method is used to
extracting Reference current for four-leg shunt active filter. The Hysteresis current
controller (HCC) is used to generate gate Pulses and applied VSI based four –leg shunt
active power Filter. Two control methods were used for four-leg shunt Active power
filter one is PI and other one is Fuzzy logic Controller. The PI and Fuzzy logic controller
to control, Four leg shunt active power filter to compensate line current Harmonics and
neutral current compensation to improve Power quality for three-phase four wire system.
The main Aim of this paper is to reduce the total harmonic distortion (THD) in the line
current and neutral current Compensation. The MATLAB/Simulink environment is Used
to model for above four leg topology of shunt active Power filter.
 CHAPTER-III

EXISTING SYSTEM

It consists of Solar PV Module, Boost Converter, MPPT Algorithm, single phase

inverter, sinusoidal PWM technique and submersible pump. The PV module gives the
12V DC voltage signal as output. The MOSFET based boost converter converts the 12V
DC voltage to 48V DC signal. The triggering pulse of boost converter using MPPT
algorithms P& O and increment conduction algorithms to tune the Kp and KI value of PI
Controller. The FL controller was used to optimize the gain value of the PI controller.
The single phase H bridge inverter converts the 48V DC into 220V AC signal. The gate
pulse generation using sinusoidal PWM technique. The inverter output was applied to
submersible pump.
c

Disadvantages:
High voltage ripples,
Low efficiency, and
Low transfer gain than voltage lift technique

CHAPTER-IV
 PROPOSED SYSTEM:
This project uses a maximized power point tracking method (MPPT) using P & O
and Increment conduction Algorithm. The proposed methods were designed using PIC
microcontroller, Luo converter, PV module, Battery, Driver circuit and BLDC motor.
Here, the Solar panel is used to generate the power, PIC microcontroller is controlling the
power and battery is used to store the power and also here BLDC motor run via this
power.

MOSFET DRIVER CIRCUIT

PIC
PV MODULE LUO converter MICROCONT
ROLLER

BLDC MOTOR

BATTERY

ADVANTAGES:

Reduced voltage ripples,

Higher efficiency, and
Even higher transfer gain
 CHAPTER-V
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
5.1 Hardware requirements

 PIC MICROCONTROLLER
 Solar panel
 Driver circuit
 BLDC motor
 Battery
5.2. Software requirements
 MPLAB

PIC MICROCONTROLLER
INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER

Microcontrollers are destined to play an increasingly important role in

revolutionizing various industries and influencing our day to day life more strongly than
one can imagine. Since its emergence in the early 1980's the microcontroller has been
recognized as a general purpose building block for intelligent digital systems. It is finding
using diverse area, starting from simple children's toys to highly complex spacecraft.
Because of its versatility and many advantages, the application domain has spread in all
conceivable directions, making it ubiquitous. As a consequence, it has generate a great
deal of interest and enthusiasm among students, teachers and practicing engineers,
creating an acute education need for imparting the knowledge of microcontroller based
system design and development. It identifies the vital features responsible for their
tremendous impact, the acute educational need created by them and provides a glimpse of
the major application area.

MICROCONTROLLER
 A microcontroller is a complete microprocessor system built on a single IC.
Microcontrollers were developed to meet a need for microprocessors to be put into low
cost products. Building a complete microprocessor system on a single chip substantially
reduces the cost of building simple products, which use the microprocessor's power to
implement their function, because the microprocessor is a natural way to implement
many products. This means the idea of using a microprocessor for low cost products
comes up often. But the typical 8-bit microprocessor based system, such as one using a
Z80 and 8085 is expensive. Both 8085 and Z80 system need some additional circuits to
make a microprocessor system. Each part carries costs of money. Even though a product
design may requires only very simple system, the parts needed to make this system as a
low cost product.

To solve this problem microprocessor system is implemented with a single chip

microcontroller. This could be called microcomputer, as all the major parts are in the IC.
Most frequently they are called microcontroller because they are used they are used to
perform control functions.

The microcontroller contains full implementation of a standard

MICROPROCESSOR, ROM, RAM, I/0, CLOCK, TIMERS, and also SERIAL PORTS.
Microcontroller also called "system on a chip" or "single chip microprocessor system" or
"computer on a chip".

A microcontroller is a Computer-On-A-Chip, or, if you prefer, a single-chip

computer. Micro suggests that the device is small, and controller tells you that the device'
might be used to control objects, processes, or events. Another term to describe a
microcontroller is embedded controller, because the microcontroller and its support
circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control.

Today microcontrollers are very commonly used in wide variety of intelligent

products. For example most personal computers keyboards and implemented with a
microcontroller. It replaces Scanning, Debounce, Matrix Decoding, and Serial
transmission circuits. Many low cost products, such as Toys, Electric Drills, Microwave
Ovens, VCR and a host of other consumer and industrial products are based on
microcontrollers.

EVOLUTION OF MICROCONTROROLLER

Markets for microcontrollers can run into millions of units per application. At
these volumes of the microcontrollers is a commodity items and must be optimized so
that cost is at a minimum. .Semiconductor manufacturers have produced a mind-numbing
array of designs that would seem to meet almost any need. Some of the chips listed in this
section are no longer regular production, most are current, and a few are best termed as
"smoke ware": the dreams of an aggressive marketing department.

Sl.No
Manufacturer Chip Year No. No RAM ROM Other
Designation of of Features
Pins I/O

4 Bit MC

1 Texas TMS 1000 Mid 28 23 64 1K LED

. Instruments 1970 Display

2 Hitachi HMCS 40 - 28 10 32 512 10 bit

. ROM

3 Toshiba TLCS 47 - 42 35 128 2K Serial bit

. I/O

8 bit MC
1 Intel 8048 1976 40 27 64 1K External
. Memory
8K

2 Intel 8051 1980 40 32 128 4K External

Memory
128 K

3 Motorola 6081 1977 - 31 128 2K

.

4 Motorola 68HC11 1985 52 40 256 8K Serial

. Port,
ADC,

5 Zilog Z8 - 40 32 128 2K External

. Memory
128K,

16 Bit MC

1 Intel 80C196 - 68 40 232 8K External

. Memory
64K,
Serial
Port,
ADC,
WDT,
PWM
 2 Hitachi H8/532 - 84 65 1K 32K External
. Memory
1M,
Serial
Port,
ADC,
PWM

3 National HPC16164 - 68 52 512 16K External

. Memory
64K,
ADC,
WDT,
PWM

32 Bit MC

1 Intel 80960 - 132 20 MHz clock, 32 bit bus, 512

. byte instruction cache

APPLICATION

Microcontrollers did you use today?

A microcontroller is a kind of miniature computer that you can find in all kinds of
Gizmos. Some examples of common, every-day products that have microcontrollers are
built-in. If it has buttons and a digital display, chances are it also has a programmable
microcontroller brain.
 Every-Day the devices used by ourselves that contain Microcontrollers. Try to
make a list and counting how many devices and the events with microcontrollers you use
in a typical day. Here are some examples: if your clock radio goes off, and you hit the
snooze button a few times in the morning, the first thing you do in your day is interact
with a microcontroller. Heating up some food in the microwave oven and making a call
on a cell phone also involve operating microcontrollers. That's just the beginning. Here
are a few more examples: Turning on the Television with a handheld remote, playing a
hand held game, Using a calculator, and Checking your digital wrist watch. All those
devices have microcontrollers inside them, that interact with you. Consumer appliances
aren't the only things that contain microcontrollers. Robots, machinery, aerospace designs
and other high-tech devices are also built with microcontrollers.

CONCEPTS OF MICROCONTROLLER :

Microcontroller is a general purpose device, which integrates a number of the

components of a microprocessor system on to single chip. It has inbuilt CPU, memory
and peripherals to make it as a mini computer. A microcontroller combines on to the
same microchip:

 The CPU core

 Memory(both ROM and RAM)
 Some parallel digital i/o

Microcontrollers will combine other devices such as:

 A timer module to allow the microcontroller to perform tasks for certain time
periods.
  A serial i/o port to allow data to flow between the controller and other devices
such as a PIC or another microcontroller.
 An ADC to allow the microcontroller to accept analogue input data for
processing.

Microcontrollers are :

 Smaller in size
 Consumes less power
 Inexpensive

Micro controller is a stand alone unit ,which can perform functions on its
own without any requirement for additional hardware like i/o ports and external memory.

The heart of the microcontroller is the CPU core. In the past, this has traditionally been
based on a 8-bit microprocessor unit. For example Motorola uses a basic 6800
microprocessor core in their 6805/6808 microcontroller devices.

In the recent years, microcontrollers have been

developed around specifically designed CPU cores, for example the microchip PIC range
of microcontrollers.

INTRODUCTION TO PIC :

The microcontroller that has been used for this project is

from PIC series. PIC microcontroller is the first RISC based microcontroller fabricated in
CMOS (complimentary metal oxide semiconductor) that uses separate bus for instruction
and data allowing simultaneous access of program and data memory.
 The main advantage of CMOS and RISC
combination is low power consumption resulting in a very small chip size with a small
pin count. The main advantage of CMOS is that it has immunity to noise than other
fabrication techniques.

PIC (16F877) :

Various microcontrollers offer different kinds of memories. EEPROM, EPROM,

FLASH etc. are some of the memories of which FLASH is the most recently developed.
Technology that is used in pic16F877 is flash technology, so that data is retained even
when the power is switched off. Easy Programming and Erasing are other features of
PIC 16F877.

PIC START PLUS PROGRAMMER:

The PIC start plus development system from microchip technology provides the
product development engineer with a highly flexible low cost microcontroller design tool
set for all microchip PIC micro devices. The picstart plus development system includes
PIC start plus development programmer and mplab ide.

The PIC start plus programmer gives the product developer ability to program user
software in to any of the supported microcontrollers. The PIC start plus software running
under mplab provides for full interactive control over the programmer.

Mosfet driver section:

The mosfet driver section is consists of

 Optocoupler section
 Current boosting section
  Power section

Opto coupler section:

In electronics, an opto-isolator (or optical isolator, optocoupler,

photocoupler, or photoMOS) is a device that uses a short optical transmission path to
transfer a signal between elements of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver,
while keeping them electrically isolated — since the signal goes from an electrical signal
to an optical signal back to an electrical signal, electrical contact along the path is broken.

Configurations

Schematic diagram with an LED and phototransistor

A common implementation involves an LED and a phototransistor, separated so that light

may travel across a barrier but electrical current may not. When an electrical signal is
applied to the input of the opto-isolator, its LED lights, its light sensor then activates, and
a corresponding electrical signal is generated at the output. Unlike a transformer, the
opto-isolator allows for DC coupling and generally provides significant protection from
serious overvoltage conditions in one circuit affecting the other.

With a photodiode as the detector, the output current is proportional to the amount of
incident light supplied by the emitter. The diode can be used in a photovoltaic mode or a
photoconductive mode.
In photovoltaic mode, the diode acts like a current source in parallel with a forward-
biased diode. The output current and voltage are dependent on the load impedance and
light intensity.

In photoconductive mode, the diode is connected to a supply voltage, and the magnitude
of the current conducted is directly proportional to the intensity of light.

An opto-isolator can also be constructed using a small incandescent lamp in place of the
LED; such a device, because the lamp has a much slower response time than an LED,
will filter out noise or half-wave power in the input signal. In so doing, it will also filter
out any audio- or higher-frequency signals in the input. It has the further disadvantage, of
course, (an overwhelming disadvantage in most applications) that incandescent lamps
have finite life spans. Thus, such an unconventional device is of extremely limited
usefulness, suitable only for applications such as science projects.

The optical path may be air or a dielectric waveguide. The transmitting and receiving
elements of an optical isolator may be contained within a single compact module, for
mounting, for example, on a circuit board; in this case, the module is often called an
optoisolator or opto-isolator. The photosensor may be a photocell, phototransistor, or an
optically triggered SCR or Triac. Occasionally, this device will in turn operate a power
relay or contactor.

Application:
Several types of opto-couplers. The top left and far right detect the presence of an object
in between them. They are interruptible. The middle one detects reflections from objects
in front of it. The two on the bottom left are both opto-isolators.

A simple circuit with an opto-isolator. When switch S1 is closed, LED D1 lights, which
triggers phototransistor Q1, which pulls the output pin low. This circuit, thus, acts as a
NOT gate.

Among other applications, opto-isolators can help cut down on ground loops and block
voltage spikes.

 One of the requirements of the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)

standard is that input connections be opto-isolated.
 They are used to isolate low-current control or signal circuitry from transients
generated or transmitted by power supply and high-current control circuits. The
latter are used within motor and machine control function blocks.
 The classical ball computer mouse is a common application, using infrared emitter
LEDs and phototransistors to form optocouplers. The ball of the mouse turns a
pair of optical encoder wheels. These wheels periodically block the optocouplers
and thereby translate the motion of the mouse into a sequence of pulses. These
pulses are then used to record the motion. The principle of operation does not
require infrared light, but the infrared sensor is less sensitive to interference from
 common flickering visible light sources such as fluorescent lamps and CRT
displays.

Current boosting section:

A current source is an electrical or electronic device that delivers or

absorbs electric current. A current source is the dual of a voltage source. The term
constant-current sink is sometimes used for sources fed from a negative voltage supply

In circuit theory, an ideal current source is a circuit element where the current through it
is independent of the voltage across it. It is a mathematical model, which real devices can
only approach in performance. If the current through an ideal current source can be
specified independently of any other variable in a circuit, it is called
an independent current source. Conversely, if the current through an ideal current source
is determined by some other voltage or current in a circuit, it is called
a dependent orcontrolled current source.

An independent current source with zero current is identical to an ideal open circuit. For
this reason, the internal resistance of an ideal current source is infinite. The voltage across
an ideal current source is completely determined by the circuit it is connected to. When
connected to a short circuit, there is zero voltage and thus zero powerdelivered. When
connected to a load resistance, the voltage across the source approaches infinity as the
load resistance approaches infinity (an open circuit). Thus, an ideal current source could
supply unlimited power forever and so would represent an unlimited source of energy.
Connecting an ideal open circuit to an ideal non-zero current source is not valid in circuit
analysis as the circuit equation would be paradoxical, e.g., 5 = 0.

No real current source is ideal (no unlimited energy sources exist) and all have a finite
internal resistance (none can supply unlimited voltage). However, the internal resistance
of a physical current source is effectively modeled in circuit analysis by combining a
non-zero resistance in parallel with an ideal current source (the Norton
equivalent circuit).

Physical current sources

Resistor current source:

The simplest current source consists of a voltage source in series with a resistor. The
current available from such a source is given by the ratio of the voltage across the voltage
source to the resistance of the resistor. For a nearly ideal current source, the value of this
resistor should be very large but this implies that, for a specified current, the voltage
source must be very large. Thus, efficiency is low (due to power loss in the resistor) and
it is usually impractical to construct a 'good' current source this way. Nonetheless, it is
often the case that such a circuit will provide adequate performance when the specified
current and load resistance are small. For example, a 5V voltage source in series with a
4.7k ohms resistor will provide an approximately constant current of 1mA (±5%) to a
load resistance in the range of 50 to 450 ohms.

Active current sources:

Active current sources have many important applications in electronic circuits. Current
sources (current-stable resistors) are often used in place of ohmic resistors in
analog integrated circuits to generate a current without causing attenuation at a point in
the signal path to which the current source is attached. The collector of a bipolar
transistor, the drain of a field effect transistor, or the plate of a vacuum tubenaturally
behave as current sources (or sinks) when properly connected to an external source of
energy (such as a power supply) because the output impedance of these devices is
naturally high when used in the current source configuration.

JFET and N-FET current source:

A JFET can be made to act as a current source by tying its gate to its source. The current
then flowing is the IDSS of the FET. These can be purchased with this connection already
made and in this case the devices are called current regulator diodes or constant current
diodes or current limiting diodes (CLD). An enhancement mode N channel MOSFET can
be used in the circuits listed below.

Simple transistor current source:

DZ1 is a zener diodewhich, when reverse biased (as shown in the circuit) has a
constant voltage dropacross it irrespective of the current flowing through it. Thus, as long
as the zener current (IZ) is above a certain level (called holding current), the voltage
across the zener diode (VZ) will be constant. Resistor R1 supplies the zener current and
the base current (IB) of NPN transistor (Q1). The constant zener voltage is applied across
the base of Q1 and emitter resistor R2. The operation of the circuit is as follows:

Voltage across R2 (VR2) is given by VZ - VBE, where VBE is the base-emitter drop of Q1.
The emitter current of Q1 which is also the current through R2 is given by
Since VZ is constant and VBE is also (approximately) constant for a given temperature, it
follows that VR2 is constant and hence IE is also constant. Due totransistor action, emitter
current IE is very nearly equal to the collector current IC of the transistor (which in turn, is
the current through the load). Thus, the load current is constant (neglecting the output
resistance of the transistor due to the Early effect) and the circuit operates as a constant
current source. As long as the temperature remains constant (or doesn't vary much), the
load current will be independent of the supply voltage, R1 and the transistor's gain. R2
allows the load current to be set at any desirable value and is calculated by

 or  , since VBE is typically 0.65 V for a silicon

device.[1]

(IR2 is also the emitter current and is assumed to be the same as the collector or required
load current, provided hFE is sufficiently large). Resistance R1 at resistor R1 is calculated
as

 where, K = 1.2 to 2 (so that R1 is low enough to ensure

adequate IB),   and hFE(min) is the lowest acceptable current gain

for the particular transistor type being used.

A more common current source in integrated circuits is the current mirror.

Simple transistor current source with diode compensation

Temperature changes will change the output current delivered by the circuit of Figure 3
because VBE is sensitive to temperature. Temperature dependence can be compensated
using the circuit of Figure 4 that includes a standard diode D (of the same semiconductor
material as the transistor) in series with the Zener diode as shown in the image on the left.
The diode drop (VD) tracks the VBE changes due to temperature and thus significantly
counteracts temperature dependence of the CCS.

Resistance R2 is now calculated as

Since VD = VBE = 0.65 V,[2]

Therefore, 

(In practice VD is never exactly equal to VBE and hence it only suppresses the change
in VBE rather than nulling it out.)

and R1 is calculated as
  (the compensating diode's forward voltage drop VD appears in
the equation and is typically 0.65 V for silicon devices.

This method is most effective for Zener diodes rated at 5.6 V or more. For breakdown
diodes of less than 5.6 V, the compensating diode is usually not required because
the breakdown mechanism is not as temperature dependent as it is in breakdown diodes
above this voltage.

Power section:

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating

current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the
use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits.

Static inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from
small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct
current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC
power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.

The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because

early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were
"inverted", to convert DC to AC.

The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier.

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels,

or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular
it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at
any desired voltage.

Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the distribution network because they
produce alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the
distribution system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout.

Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating
current for the electric grid.

induction heating

Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher frequency for use
in induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The
inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency AC power.

HVDC power transmission

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is

transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter
plant converts the power back to AC.

Variable-frequency drives

A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling

the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the
controlled power. In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that
DC power for the inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the
key component, variable-frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just
inverters.

Electric vehicle drives

Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction
motors in some electricand diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as some battery electric
vehicles and hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius. Various
improvements in inverter technology are being developed specifically for electric vehicle
applications.[2] In vehicles with regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from
the motor (now acting as a generator) and stores it in the batteries.

Air Conditioning

air conditioner bearing the inverter tag uses a variable-frequency drive to control the
speed of the motor and thus the compressor.

The general case

A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the same

frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage,
AC or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output
power can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small
proportion of the power dissipated as waste heat.
Advanced designs

here are many different power circuit topologies and strategies used in inverter designs.

Different design approaches address various issues that may be more or less important
depending on the way that the inverter is intended to be used.

The issue of waveform quality can be addressed in many

ways.Capacitors and inductors can be used to filter the waveform. If the design includes a
transformer, filtering can be applied to the primary or the secondary side of the
transformer or to both sides. Low-pass filters are applied to allow the fundamental
component of the waveform to pass to the output while limiting the passage of the
harmonic components. If the inverter is designed to provide power at a fixed frequency,
a resonant filter can be used. For an adjustable frequency inverter, the filter must be tuned
to a frequency that is above the maximum fundamental frequency.

Since most loads contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or antiparallel diodes are often

connected across each semiconductor switch to provide a path for the peak inductive load
current when the switch is turned off. The anti parallel diodes are somewhat similar to
the freewheeling diodes used in AC/DC converter circuits.

Fourier analysis reveals that a waveform, like a square wave, that is anti symmetrical
about the 180 degree point contains only odd harmonics, the 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. Waveforms
that have steps of certain widths and heights eliminate or “cancel” additional harmonics.
For example, by inserting a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections
of the square-wave, all of the harmonics that are divisible by three can be eliminated.
That leaves only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. The required width of the steps is one third
of the period for each of the positive and negative steps and one sixth of the period for
each of the zero-voltage steps.

Changing the square wave as described above is an example of pulse-width

modulation (PWM). Modulating, or regulating the width of a square-wave pulse is often
used as a method of regulating or adjusting an inverter's output voltage. When voltage
control is not required, a fixed pulse width can be selected to reduce or eliminate selected
harmonics. Harmonic elimination techniques are generally applied to the lowest
harmonics because filtering is more effective at high frequencies than at low
frequencies. Multiple pulse-width or carrier based PWM control schemes produce
waveforms that are composed of many narrow pulses. The frequency represented by the
number of narrow pulses per second is called the switching frequency or carrier
frequency. These control schemes are often used in variable-frequency motor control
inverters because they allow a wide range of output voltage and frequency adjustment
while also improving the quality of the waveform.

Multilevel inverters provide another approach to harmonic cancellation. Multilevel

inverters provide an output waveform that exhibits multiple steps at several voltage
levels. For example, it is possible to produce a more sinusoidal wave by having split-
rail direct current inputs at two voltages, or positive and negative inputs with a
central ground. By connecting the inverter output terminals in sequence between the
positive rail and ground, the positive rail and the negative rail, the ground rail and the
negative rail, then both to the ground rail, a stepped waveform is generated at the inverter
output. This is an example of a three level inverter: the two voltages and ground. 
Three phase inverters

Three-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications and for high

power applications such as HVDC power transmission. A basic three-phase inverter
consists of three single-phase inverter switches each connected to one of the three load
terminals. For the most basic control scheme, the operation of the three switches is
coordinated so that one switch operates at each 60 degree point of the fundamental output
waveform. This creates a line-to-line output waveform that has six steps. The six-step
waveform has a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the
square-wave such that the harmonics that are multiples of three are eliminated as
described above. When carrier-based PWM techniques are applied to six-step waveforms,
the basic overall shape, or envelope, of the waveform is retained so that the 3rd harmonic
and its multiples are cancelled.

3-phase inverter switching circuit showing 6-step switching sequence and waveform of
voltage between terminals A and C
To construct inverters with higher power ratings, two six-step three-phase inverters can
be connected in parallel for a higher current rating or in series for a higher voltage rating.
In either case, the output waveforms are phase shifted to obtain a 12-step waveform. If
additional inverters are combined, an 18-step inverter is obtained with three inverters etc.
Although inverters are usually combined for the purpose of achieving increased voltage
or current ratings, the quality of the waveform is improved as well.

MOSFET DRIVER CIRCUIT

Unlike the bipolar transistor, which is current driven, Power MOSFETs, with
their insulated gates, are voltage driven. A basic knowledge of the principles of driving
the gates of these devices will allow the designer to speed up or slow down the switching
speeds according to the requirements of the application. It is often helpful to consider the
gate as a simple capacitor when discussing drive circuits.

Driving a gate consists of applying different voltages: 12V to turn on the device through
the transistor turn On and turn OFF.
SOLAR ENERGY PROTECTION

A photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel is a packaged interconnected

assembly of photovoltaic cells, also known as solar cells. The photovoltaic module,
known more commonly as the solar panel, is then used as a component in a larger
photovoltaic system to offer electricity for commercial and residential applications.

Because a single photovoltaic module can only produce a limited amount of

power, many installations contain several modules or panels and this is known as a
photovoltaic array. A photovoltaic installation typically includes an array of photovoltaic
modules or panels, an inverter, batteries and interconnection wiring.

Photovoltaic systems are used for either on- or off-grid applications, and for solar
panels on spacecraft.

A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. This crystalline-silicon

module has an aluminium frame and glass on the front.
THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through
the photovoltaic effect (this is the photo-electric effect). The majority of modules use
wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or a thin-film cell based on cadmium telluride or
silicon. Crystalline silicon, which is commonly used in the wafer form in photovoltaic
(PV) modules, is derived from silicon, a commonly used semi-conductor.

In order to use the cells in practical applications, they must be:

 connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system

 Protected from mechanical damage during manufacture, transport, installation and
use (in particular against hail impact, wind and snow loads). This is especially
important for wafer-based silicon cells which are brittle.
 protected from moisture, which corrodes metal contacts and interconnects, (and
for thin-film cells the transparent conductive oxide layer) thus decreasing
performance and lifetime.

Most modules are usually rigid, but there are some flexible modules available,
based on thin-film cells.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage

and/or in parallel to provide a desired amount of current source capability.

Diodes are included to avoid overheating of cells in case of partial shading. Since
cell heating reduces the operating efficiency it is desirable to minimize the heating. Very
few modules incorporate any design features to decrease temperature; however installers
try to provide good ventilation behind the module.
 New designs of module include concentrator modules in which the light is
concentrated by an array of lenses or mirrors onto an array of small cells. This allows the
use of cells with a very high-cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-
competitive way.

Depending on construction, the photovoltaic can cover a range of frequencies of

light and can produce electricity from them, but sometimes cannot cover the entire solar
spectrum (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of
incident sunlight energy is wasted when used for solar panels, although they can give far
higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Another design concept is to
split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells
tuned to the appropriate wavelength ranges. This is projected to raise efficiency by 50%.
Also, the use of infrared photovoltaic cells can increase the efficiencies, producing power
at night.

Sunlight conversion rates (module efficiencies) can vary from 5-18% in

commercial production (solar panels), that can be lower than cell conversion.

A group of researchers at MIT has recently developed a process to improve the

efficiency of luminescent solar concentrator (LSC) technology, which redirects light
along a translucent material to PV-modules located along its edge. The researchers have
suggested that efficiency may be improved by a factor of 10 over the old design in as
little as three years (it has been estimated that this will provide a conversion rate of 30%).
Three of the researchers involved have now started their own company, called Covalent
Solar, to manufacture and sell their innovation in PV-modules.

The current market leader in efficient solar energy modules is Sun Power, whose
solar panels have a conversion ratio of 19.3%. However, a whole range of other
companies (HoloSun, Gamma Solar, NanoHorizons) are emerging which are also
offering new innovations in photovoltaic modules, with a conversion ratio of around
18%. These new innovations include power generation on the front and back sides and
increased outputs; however, most of these companies have not yet produced working
systems from their design plans, and are mostly still actively improving the technology.
As of August 26, 2009 a world record efficiency level of 41.6% has been reached.

BATTERY

An electrical battery is a combination of one or more electrochemical cells, used to

convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first
Voltaic pile in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, the battery has become a common power
source for many household and industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the
worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year, with 6% annual
growth.

Batteries may be used once and discarded, or recharged for years as in standby power
applications. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and
wristwatches; larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or
computer data centers.

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It

consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected
in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the
anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to
which cations (positively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the cathode or positive electrode. In
the redox reaction that powers the battery, reduction (addition of electrons) occurs to
cations at the cathode, while oxidation (removal of electrons) occurs to anions at the
anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the
electrolyte. Many cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. In that case each
half-cell is enclosed in a container, and a separator that is porous to ions but not the bulk
of the electrolytes prevents mixing.

Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive
electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the
difference between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if
the electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the
difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither
charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance], the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller
in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is
charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance,
so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero.
If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one Coulomb then on complete
discharge it would perform 1.5Joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance
increases under discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If
the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a
curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement
employed.
As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy
release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-
zinc cells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts;
likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same
emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the
reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

BLDC MOTOR

A DC motor is an AC synchronous electric motor that from a modeling

perspective looks very similar to a DC motor. Sometimes the difference is explained as
an electronically-controlled commutation system, instead of a mechanical commutation
system, although this is misleading, as physically the two motors are completely
different. (The rest of this article assumes the reader is familiar with the principles of
electrical motors.)

Three subtypes exist:

 The three-phase AC synchronous motor type has three electrical connections

 The stepper motor type may have more poles on the stator.
 The reluctance motor has all its poles on the stator, and a magnetic core on the
rotor.
In a conventional (brushed) DC-motor, the brushes make mechanical contact with a
set of electrical contacts on the rotor (called the commutator), forming an electrical
circuit between the DC electrical source and the armature coil-windings. As the armature
rotates on axis, the stationary brushes come into contact with different sections of the
rotating commutator. The commutator and brush-system form a set of electrical switches,
each firing in sequence, such that electrical-power always flows through the armature-
coil closest to the stationary stator (permanent magnet).
 In a BLDC motor, the electromagnets do not move; instead, the permanent magnets
rotate and the armature remains static. This gets around the problem of how to transfer
current to a moving armature. In order to do this, the brush-system/commutator assembly
is replaced by an intelligent electronic controller. The controller performs the same
power-distribution found in a brushed DC-motor, but using a solid-state circuit rather
than a commutator/brush system.

Comparison with brushed-DC motors:

Because of induction of the windings, power requirements, and temperature

management some glue circuitry is necessary between digital controller and motor.BLDC
motors offer several advantages over brushed DC-motors, including higher efficiency and
reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime (no brush erosion), elimination of ionizing
sparks from the commutator, and overall reduction of electromagnetic interference
(EMI.) The maximum power that can be applied to a BLDC motor is exceptionally high,
limited almost exclusively by heat, which can damage the magnets. BLDC's main
disadvantage is higher cost, which arises from two issues. First, BLDC motors require
complex electronic speed control to run. Brushed DC-motors can be regulated by a
comparatively trivial variable-resistor (potentiometer or rheostat), which is inefficient but
also satisfactory for cost-sensitive applications. Second, many practical uses have not
been well developed in the commercial sector. For example, in the RC hobby scene, even
commercial brushless motors are often hand-wound while brushed motors use armature
coils which can be inexpensively machine-wound.

BLDC motors are considered more efficient than brushed DC-motors. This means for
the same input power, a BLDC motor will convert more electrical power into mechanical
power than a brushed motor, mostly due to absence of friction of brushes. The enhanced
efficiency is greatest in the no-load and low-load region of the motor's performance
curve. Under high mechanical loads, BLDC motors and high-quality brushed motors are
comparable in efficiency.
Controller Implementations:

Because the controller must direct the rotor rotation, the controller needs some
means of determining the rotor's orientation/position (relative to the stator coils.) Some
designs use Hall effect sensors or a rotary encoder to directly measure the rotor's position.
Others measure the back EMF in the undriven coils to infer the rotor position, eliminating
the need for separate Hall effect sensors, and therefore are often called "sensorless"
controllers. Like an AC motor, the voltage on the undriven coils is sinusoidal, but over an
entire commutation the output appears trapezoidal because of the DC output of the
controller.

The controller contains 3 bi-directional drivers to drive high-current DC power, which

are controlled by a logic circuit. Simple controllers employ comparators to determine
when the output phase should be advanced, while more advanced controllers employ a
microcontroller to manage acceleration, control speed and fine-tune efficiency.
Controllers that sense rotor position based on back-EMF have extra challenges in
initiating motion because no back-EMF is produced when the rotor is stationary. This is
usually accomplished by beginning rotation from an arbitrary phase, and then skipping to
the correct phase if it is found to be wrong. This can cause the motor to run briefly
backwards, adding even more complexity to the startup sequence.

Variations on Construction:

The poles on the stator of a two-phase BLDC motor. This is part of a computer
cooling fan; the rotor has been removed. Schematic for
delta and wye winding styles. (This image does not illustrate a BLDC motor's inductive
and generator-like properties)

BLDC motors can be constructed in several different physical configurations: In the

'conventional' (also known as 'inrunner') configuration, the permanent magnets are
mounted on the spinning armature (rotor.) Three stator windings surround the rotor. In
the 'outrunner' configuration, the radial-relationship between the coils and magnets are
reversed; the stator coils form the center (core) of the motor, while the permanent
magnets spin on an overhanging rotor which surrounds the core. The flat type, used
where there are space or shape limitations, uses stator and rotor plates, mounted face to
face. Outrunners typically have more poles, set up in triplets to maintain the 3 groups of
windings, and have a higher torque at low RPMs. In all BLDC motors, the stator-coils are
stationary.

There are also two electrical configurations having to do with how the wires from the
windings are connected to each other (not their physical shape or location). The delta
winding connects the 3 groups of windings to each other in a triangle-like circuit, and
power is applied at each of the connections. This pattern is typical to low-speed, low-
torque motors. The wye ("Y"-shaped) winding, sometimes called a star winding, connects
all of the windings to a central point and power is applied to the remaining end of each
winding.

Although efficiency is greatly affected by the motor's construction, the wye winding
is normally more efficient. At any given time, two-thirds of the windings in a delta
configuration are running at half the voltage of the other, which is an impact on
efficiency. The wye winding always powers only two windings in series, so higher
voltages (or lower-resistance windings) can be used.

From a controller standpoint, the two styles of windings are treated exactly the same,
although some less expensive controllers need to read voltage from the common center of
the wye winding.

Applications:

BLDC motors can potentially be deployed in any field-application currently

fulfilled by brushed DC motors. Cost and control complexity prevents BLDC motors
from replacing brushed motors in most common areas of use. Nevertheless, BLDC
motors have come to dominate many applications: Consumer devices such as computer
hard drives, CD/DVD players, and PC cooling fans use BLDC motors almost
exclusively. Low speed, low power brushless DC motors are used in direct-drive
turntables. High power BLDC motors are found in electric vehicles and some industrial
machinery. These motors are essentially AC synchronous motors with permanent magnet
rotors.

SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION:

MPLAB

MPLAB IDE is an integrated development environment that provides development

engineers with the flexibility to develop and debug firmware for various Microchip
devices. MPLAB IDE is a Windows-based Integrated Development Environment for the
Microchip Technology Incorporated PICmicrocontroller (MCU) and dsPIC digital signal
controller (DSC) families. In the MPLAB IDE, you can:

 Create source code using the built-in editor.

  Assemble, compile and link source code using various language tools. An
assembler, linker and librarian come with MPLAB IDE. C compilers are available
from Microchip and other third party vendors.
 Debug the executable logic by watching program flow with a simulator, such as
MPLAB SIM, or in real time with an emulator, such as MPLAB ICE. Third party
emulators that work with MPLAB IDE are also available.
 Make timing measurements.
 View variables in Watch windows.
 Program firmware into devices with programmers such as PICSTART Plus or
PRO MATE II.
 Find quick answers to questions from the MPLAB IDE on-line Help.

MPLAB SIMULATOR

MPLAB SIM is a discrete-event simulator for the PIC microcontroller (MCU)

families. It is integrated into MPLAB IDE integrated development environment. The
MPLAB SIM debugging tool is designed to model operation of Microchip Technology's
PIC microcontrollers to assist users in debugging software for these devices

IC PROG

The PRO MATE II is a Microchip microcontroller device programmer. Through

interchangeable programming socket modules, PRO MATE II enables you to quickly and
easily program the entire line of Microchip PICmicro microcontroller devices and many
of the Microchip memory parts.

PRO MATE II may be used with MPLAB IDE running under supported Windows OS's
(see Read me for PRO MATE II.txt for support list), with the command-line controller
PROCMD or as a stand-alone programmer.

COMPILER-HIGH TECH C
 A program written in the high level language called C; which will be converted
into PICmicro MCU machine code by a compiler. Machine code is suitable for use by a
PICmicro MCU or Microchip development system product like MPLAB IDE.

PIC START PLUS PROGRAMMER:

The PIC start plus development system from microchip technology provides the
product development engineer with a highly flexible low cost microcontroller design tool
set for all microchip PIC micro devices. The pic start plus development system includes
PIC start plus development programmer and MPLAB IDE.

The PIC start plus programmer gives the product developer ability to program user
software in to any of the supported microcontrollers. The PIC start plus software running
under MPLAB provides for full interactive control over the programmer.

CHAPER-VI
RESULTS & CODE

CHAPTER-VII
CONCLUSION
This research presents a novel strategy for the Solar water siphoning framework. It
displays every segment and reproduces the framework utilizing MATLAB. The outcome
shows that the PV model utilizing the identical circuit in moderate intricacy furnishes
great coordination with the genuine PV module. The steady conduction calculation gives
better execution as far as productivity contrasted with the P&O calculation under the
shady climate condition. The exhibition of the proposed frameworks was completed
using PIC microcontroller. It performs reenactments of the entire framework and
confirms the usefulness and advantages of MPPT. Recreations likewise make
examinations with the framework with PI and FLC controller utilizing MPPT with LUO
converter as far as different parameters of the sun based board.

REFERENCES
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